Virgil's Aeneid: Cosmos and Imperium

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1 I > t

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And one day in the future there will come upon us a common struggle, when late-born Titans shall raise up against the Greeks barbarian sword and Celtic war, and from the furthest west they shall rush on like snowflakes. 10 T h e visual evidence for such a m y t h o l o g i z a t i o n o f the G a l a t i a n s is m o r e plentiful for the A t t a l i d victories o f the later third c e n t u r y B C , most m a g n i f i c e n t l y in the remains of the G r e a t A l t a r at Pergarnum, like the Palatine temple of A p o l l o a g r a n diose celebration o f the v i c t o r y o f a d y n a s t y o v e r its enemies. M o r e explicit in its t h e m e was the d e d i c a t i o n of A t t a l u s I on 9 S e e I). L . D r e w , ' V i r g i l ' s m a r b l e t e m p l e : Georgia I I I . 1 0 - 3 9 ' , ^'Q, ' ^ ( 1 9 2 4 ) > ' 9 5 _ 202; L . P. W i l k i n s o n , The Georgia of Virgil ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 6 9 ) , p p . 169 £ 10

S e e also P f e i f f e r on C a l l i m . fr. 592. Possible s c u l p t u r a l g r o u p s c e l e b r a t i n g the

e v e n t : S. R e i n a c h , RA 13 ( 1 8 8 9 ) , 3 1 7 ff. A r e l a t e d i m a g e is f o u n d o n a d e d i c a t o r y relief f r o m C y z i c u s , d a t e d to 277/6 BC w h i c h d e p i c t s H e r a c l e s s t a n d i n g v i c t o r i o u s o v e r a figure

i d e n t i f i e d by its o v a l shield as a G a l a t i a n ; in v i e w o f f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t s it is

r e l e v a n t t h a t w e h a v e e v i d e n c e f r o m precisely this t i m e for P e r g a m e n e a i d to the C y z i c e n e s in their d e f e n c e a g a i n s t the G a l a t i a n s : C . P i c a r d , BCH

56 ( 1 9 3 2 ) , 5 1 3 ff.

V I R G I L ' S A ENE ID-. COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

the A t h e n i a n A c r o p o l i s . 1 1 This took u p a n d e x p a n d e d earlier A t h e n i a n political symbolism, with its representations of the l e g e n d a r y battles of the gods against the G i a n t s a n d the A t h e nians against the A m a z o n s a n d of the historical victories o f the A t h e n i a n s over the Persians and the P e r g a m e n e s over the Galatians. G i v e n the close links o f R o m e w i t h P e r g a m u m , first as allies a n d then as rulers, it is likely that this c o n g l o m e r a t i o n of symbolism was well k n o w n to the R o m a n s from an early date; it would be a n easy step to see the miraculous preservation o f the C a p i t o l from the G a u l s as an a n a l o g u e to the miraculous o v e r t h r o w o f the G a l a t i a n s w h o tried to scale Parnassus. T h e c o m p a r i s o n m i g h t be e n c o u r a g e d b y , if it was not originally responsible for, the identity of the n a m e , Brennus, traditionally borne by the G a l l i c chieftain in c o m m a n d on each occasion. 1 2 T h e association of the G a l l i c assault on the C a p i t o l with G i g a n t o m a c h y comes n a t u r a l l y to L a t i n poets o f the Silver Age.13 S u c h a n interpretation o f the scene o f the G a u l s on the C a p i t o l also helps to explain V i r g i l ' s criteria for the selection o f episodes in his v e r y partial survey of R o m a n history on the Shield of A e n e a s . T h e G a l l i c invasion is chosen to r o u n d o f f the scenes from early R o m a n history because of its f u n c t i o n as a s y m b o l of the d i v i n e g u a r a n t e e o f the c o n t i n u e d existence of R o m e , w h i c h is implied in the G i g a n t o m a c h i c association a n d w h i c h c a n be paralleled in other accounts. 1 4 It is also in k e e p i n g with the V i r g i l i a n schematization o f h i s t o r y that the m i r a c u l o u s preservation of the C a p i t o l , the seat of the gods, from the monstrous b a r b a r i a n s of the north should be a f o r e s h a d o w i n g of the preservation o f R o m e t h r o u g h the alliance o f A u g u s t u s a n d the g o d s from the b a r b a r i a n s of the east. T h e m i r a c u l o u s intervention of A p o l l o in the battle o f A c t i u m falls into a large n

Paus. 1.25.2.

12

See O g i l v i e o n L i v y 5.38.3.

13

e.g. S t a t . Sib.

5 . 3 . 1 9 5 ff. ' s u b i t a m civilis E r i n y s / T a r p e i o d e i n o n t e f a c e m P h l e -

g r a e a q u e m o v i t / p r o e l i a . sacrilegis l u c e n t C a p i t o l i a taedis, / et S e n o n u m f u r i a s L a t i a c s u m p s e r e c o h o r t e s ' ; Sil. Pun. 5 . 1 0 7 ff. 14

M o s t n o t a b l y in t h e s p e e c h in L i v y in w h i c h C a m i l l u s dissuades t h e R o m a n s f r o m

m i g r a t i n g to V e i i ( 5 . 5 1 . 9 f.): ' d e o r u m c u l t u m d e s e r t i a h dis h o m i n i b u s q u e t a m e n 11011 i n t e r m i s i m u s . r e d d i d e r e i g i t u r p a t r i a m et v i c t o r i a m et a n t i q u u m belli d e c us a m i s s u m et in hostes q u i c a e c i a v a r i t i a in p o n d e r e a u r i f o e d u s ac f i d e m f e f e l l e r u n t , v e r t e r u n t t e r r o r e m f u g a m q u e et c a e d e m ' . O n d i v i n e f a v o u r o f R o m e see G e r n e n t z , p p . 81 ff.

G I G A N T O M A C H Y IN T H E

AENEID'.

11

125

class of victory-miracles of historical times, in w h i c h an overp o w e r i n g force o f b a r b a r i a n invaders is p u t to flight t h r o u g h divine intervention or o t h e r m i r a c u l o u s n o n - h u m a n a g e n c y . S u c h stories multiplied especially a r o u n d the Celtic invasions of A s i a M i n o r a n d G r e e c e in the third a n d second centuries BC; 15 the story of the m i r a c u l o u s preservation o f the R o m a n C a p i t o l from the G a l l i c attackers is itself a representative o f this tradition. T h e parallelism between the t w o scenes of the G a u l s on the C a p i t o l and the Battle of A c t i u m is reinforced b y their shared a d h e r e n c e to this miracle-type, a point w h i c h is well b r o u g h t out by J e a n G a g e : The celebration of the triumph of Apollo over the Gauls at Delphi spoke more directly to the Romans . . . it was the key to a comparison which the Roman imagination was then ready to make (Virgil's lines on the Shield of Aeneas are the proof] between these two miracles in Roman history, the rescue of the Capitol from the assault of the Gauls, and the salvation of Rome herself from the invasion of the eastern barbarians in the waters of Actium. 1 6 T h e t w o scenes that follow that of the G a u l s on the C a p i t o l , the religious ceremonies in lines 6 6 3 - 6 a n d the description o f the U n d e r w o r l d in lines 666 70, h a v e often caused difficulty. I take t h e m as closely c o h e r i n g with the p r e c e d i n g scene; the divinely sanctioned salvation of R o m e is a p t l y followed b y scenes d i s p l a y i n g m a n ' s c o n f i r m a t i o n , in religious ritual, of the d i v i n e dispensation, a n d the just r e w a r d s and punishments in the afterlife of R o m e ' s friends and enemies. T h e sequence of d a n g e r t r i u m p h a n t l y a v e r t e d , followed b y ceremonial celebration, is shared w i t h the final, A u g u s t a n , scenes of the Shield, a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w h i c h reinforces the parallelism b e t w e e n the G a l l i c assault on the C a p i t o l a n d the Battle of A c t i u m . 1 7

II . P E R G A M E N E

AND

AUGUSTAN

POLITICAL

IDEOLOGY

AND

IMAGERY

In this section I m o v e f r o m the specific m y t h of G i g a n t o m a c h y to the m o r e general question o f the relationship b e t w e e n V i r g i l ' s e l a b o r a t i o n o f a n a t i o n a l m y t h a n d the Hellenistic 15

See P R o u s s e l , ' L e M i r a c l e d e Z e u s P a n a m e r o s ' , BCH

18

Apollon romain (Paris, 1 9 5 5 ) , p p . 5 3 7 f.

5 5 ( 1 9 3 1 ) , 99 n. 3.

17

T h i s p a r a l l e l i s m is n o t e d by R , I). W i l l i a m s , Vergilius 27 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 8,

io

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - . COSMOS

4

AND

IMPERII]M

traditions; in turn, I shall set this literary and artistic inquiry in the yet w i d e r context of a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n the ideologies of O c t a v i a n / A u g u s t u s and the Hellenistic kings, in p a r t i c u l a r the A t t a l i d s o f P e r g a m u m . I distinguish between ' V i r g i l ' s elaboration of a national m y t h ' a n d 'the ideology of O c t a v i a n / A u g u s t u s ' ; to assume that the former is simply a poetic translation of the latter is to efface some interesting distinctions in the w a y s that Greeks and R o m a n s presented images o f the State, T h e central point at issue m a y be illustrated by a consideration of p u b l i c works o f sculpture in R o m e in the first d e c a d e s after A c t i u m . In the t w o scenes of the G a l a t i a n s and the N i o b i d s on the doors of the Palatine temple of A p o l l o are displayed images of the v iolence necessary for the preservation of the State a n d for the defeat o f impiety. S u c h scenes are not in fact typical of the bulk of public A u g u s t a n visual i c o n o g r a p h y , so far as it is k n o w n to us: images of peace a n d prosperity, or o f the celebration o f v i c t o r y after the struggle, d o m i n a t e ; stylistically, this corresponds to a prevalent classicizing t e n d e n c y , w h i c h in the w i d e r historical context m a y be seen as a rejection o f the often violent contortions of the Hellenistic ' b a r o q u e ' style in sculpture (and p r e s u m a b l y also in the lost p a i n t i n g ) . It is often assumed that there is a direct correlation b e t w e e n the nationalistic productions o f A u g u s t a n poetry a n d the public m o n u m e n t s . G a l i n s k y , for e x a m p l e , claims that the A r a P a d s 'is the artistic c o u n t e r p a r t of w h a t H o r a c e and V e r g i l did in poetry . 1 8 But if w e look a little closer, the picture of a m o n o lithic literary a n d artistic expression o f a single ideological drive dissolves. W h e r e , in the central A u g u s t a n m o n u m e n t s , is the equivalent o f the violent a n d pathetic battle-scenes of the last four books of the Aeneid, or of the h y p e r b o l i c a l l y elevated fight between H e r c u l e s a n d C a c u s in book eight? A n indication of the stylistic proclivities of the Aeneid is p r o v i d e d b y the continuing d e b a t e o v e r the relative priority of V i r g i l ' s a c c o u n t of the d e a t h o f L a o c o o n in book t w o o f the Aeneid a n d of the f a m o u s sculpture of the same subject unearthed in R o m e in 1506; 1 9 it is largely the perceived stylistic similarity between 18

Aeneas, Sicily, and Rome, ( P r i n c e t o n , 1 9 6 9 ) ^ . 192.

19

C f . c l a s s i c a l l y G . E .Lessing, Laokoon ( 1 7 6 6 ) , R e c e n t l y P. H . v o n B l a n c k e n h a g e n ,

' L a o k o o n , S p e r l o n g a u n d V e r g i l ' , AA ( 1 9 6 9 ) , 2 5 6 2 7 5 , has a r g u e d for the i n f l u e n c e o f

G I G A N T O M A C H Y I N T H E AENEID'.

11

127

the literary and sculptural representations that a p p e a r s to keep the question alive. T h e relatives of the L a o c o o n g r o u p are not to be f o u n d in the s u r v i v i n g public works o f sculpture in R o m e , but in the b a r o q u e productions of the sculptors of secondc e n t u r y - B O P e r g a m u r n a n d Rhodes. 2 0 It is a b o v e all with P e r g a m e n e sculpture that the theme of G i g a n torn a c h y and the c o r r e s p o n d i n g ' b a r o q u e ' style are associated, a n d this fact leads to the second m a i n p r o b l e m that concerns me in this section, a p r o b l e m o f literary history rather than of art history. It is generally a c c e p t e d that the culture of late R e p u b l i c a n and A u g u s t a n R o m e is, to a greater or lesser extent, a continuation of Hellenistic culture. But detailed analysis in the field o f literary history tends to confine itself to A l e x a n d r i a n sources, or to sources h a v i n g a close c o n n e c t i o n with A l e x a n d r i a . T h i s m a y be exemplified in two recent works on the Aeneid itself: E. V . G e o r g e makes an attempt, p e r h a p s m o r e d e t e r m i n e d than successful, to discern a t h o r o u g h g o i n g use of the themes a n d techniques of C a l l i m a c h u s in one b o o k of the Aeneid*1 while R . R . Schlunk seeks to trace the influence of A l e x a n d r i a n scholarship on V i r g i l . 2 2 But A l e x a n d r i a , t h o u g h pre-eminent, w a s not the only cultural centre of Hellenistic times, nor did it necessarily exercise a t y r a n n y of taste o v e r other cities. P e r g a m u r n w a s the second most i m p o r t a n t Hellenistic cultural centre, a n d one that f r o m a fairly early d a t e e n j o y e d very close relations with R o m e ; it w o u l d be surprising if its cultural a n d artistic influence w a s not felt in R o m e . 2 3 It is the almost total loss o f its literature, w h i c h Aeneid 2 o n the V a t i c a n g r o u p , B l a n c k e n h a g e n also suggests V i r g i l i a n i n f l u e n c e o n t h e S p e r l o n g a s t a t u a r y (closely r e l a t e d to t h e L a o c o o n g r o u p ) ; see also R . H a m p e , Sperlonga und Vergil

( S c h r i f t e n z. a n t . M y t h o l .

i, Mainz,

1 9 7 2 ) : contra B. C o n t i c e l i o a n d

B.

A n d r e a e , Die Skulpturen von Sperlonga ( A n t i k e Plastik 14, B e r l i n , 1 9 7 4 ) . 20

"v

F o r s o m e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o n t h e origins o f H e l l e n i s t i c ' b a r o q u e ' s c u l p t u r e see A ,

F. S t e w a r t , Attika: studies in Athenian sculpture of the Hellenistic age ( S u p p l e m e n t a r y p a p e r no, 14, S o c i e t y for the P r o m o t i o n o f H e l l e n i c S t u d i e s , L o n d o n , 1 9 7 9 ) , ch. 1; in g e n e r a l see M . R i c h e r , The sculpture of the Hellenistic age, rev. ed. ( N e w Y o r k , 1 9 6 1 ) , 21

A e n e i d VIII and the A i t i a of Callimachus

(Mnemosyne s u p p l . 27, L e i d e n , 1 9 7 4 ) . M o r e

C a l l i m a c h e a n e c h o e s p r o b a b l y a w a i t d i s c o v e r y in the Aeneid'. see a b o v e , p. 103 n. 48 o n the p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n C a l l i m a c h u s ' D e l i a n H y m n a n d the V i r g i l i a n S h i e l d o f A e n e a s ; for a possible e c h o o f the s a m e w o r k in the f a m o u s a p o s i o p e s i s o f Aen.

1.135

see

L l o y d - J o n e s , Hermes 1 1 0 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 1 1 9 f. 22

The Homeric scholia and the A e n e i d ( A n n A r b o r , 1974).

23

F o r a g e n e r a l s u r v e y o f P e r g a m e n e s c h o l a r s h i p a n d l i t e r a t u r e see E. V . H a n s e n ,

The Attalids of Pergamon2 ( I t h a c a a n d L o n d o n , 1 9 7 1 ) , p p . 390 ff.

128

V I R G I L S A EVE ID: COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

indeed scarcely ever rivalled that o f A l e x a n d r i a , that is chiefly responsible for the L a t i n literary historian's neglect of Pergamurn; its scholarship, w h i c h is preserved in an almost e q u a l l y ruinous condition, was in its o w n w a y as i m p o r t a n t as that of A l e x a n d r i a , and I h a v e a r g u e d in c h a p t e r i that P e r g a m e n e H o m e r i c scholarship m a y h e l p us to understand the V i r g i l i a n conception o f his H o m e r i c models. If one is p r e p a r e d to a d m i t that poets are influenced b y precedents other than the strictly literary, then w e d o indeed h a v e a large b o d y of evidence in the form o f P e r g a m e n e sculpture, a n d , indirectly, p a i n t i n g , w h i c h permits q u i t e far-reaching conclusions as to the nature o f the systems o f ideas w h i c h l a y behind them and w o u l d h a v e been a v a i l a b l e to the R o m a n poet as part o f h i s general cultural background. T h e opposition b e t w e e n A l e x a n d r i a a n d o t h e r Hellenistic centres, a b o v e all P e r g a m u r n , is crucial to K o n r a t Ziegler's widely a c c e p t e d a r g u m e n t for the i m p o r t a n c e a n d q u a l i t y of the lost Hellenistic epic, 2 4 the e v a l u a t i o n o f w h i c h , he suggests, has been unfairly p r e j u d i c e d b y the almost exclusive survival of Hellenistic p o e t r y written in the m a n n e r of C a l l i m a c h u s and his followers, a n d b y the tendentious criticisms of the latter directed against the traditional epic. Z i e g l e r also argues that the Aeneid represents a return to the tradition o f grandiose Hellenistic epic after a period o f A l e x a n d r i a n i s m in L a t i n poetry. 2 5 O n the basis o f such m o n u m e n t a l pieces o f public sculpture as the P e r g a m e n e G r e a t A l t a r of Z e u s he postulates the existence o f a c o r r e s p o n d i n g P e r g a m e n e epic, w h i c h used G i g a n t o m a c h i c allegory to m a g n i f y the exploits o f the ruler 2 6 a n d was shot t h r o u g h with a 'cosmic fantasy' whose echoes reverberate in the m u c h later epic of N o n n u s . Z i e g l e r does not, h o w e v e r , discuss the G i g a n t o m a c h i c and cosmological aspects 24

K . Z i e g l e r , Das

hellenistische

Epos1

(Leipzig,

1966); p. 51 for the

Alexandria/

P e r g a m u r n antithesis. Z i e g l e r relies h e a v i l y o n t h e a n a l o g y b e t w e e n l i t e r a r y a n d v i s u a l p r o d u c t s ; for a n o t h e r a t t e m p t to d i s c e r n a l i t e r a r y ( r h e t o r i c a l ) p a r a l l e l to the m a n n e r o f t h e G r e a t A l t a r see M . F a l k n e r , 'Aotowas

os u n d d e r P e r g a m o n - F r i e s ' , J C E A I 36

(1946), 1-45. I b i d . . p. 3 1 . 26

I b i d . , p. 48: ' W i r w ü r d e n sicherlich eine s c h w u n g v o l l e , h o c h p a t h e t i s c h e D i c h t u n g

von virtuoser T e c h n i k der Form, üppig wuchernder, phantastischer Erfindung und k u n s t v o l l e r K o m p o s i t i o n in H ä n d e n h a l t e n , in d e r d i e K ä m p f e d e r p e r g a m e n i s c h e r K ö n i g e m i t i h r e n i r d i s c h e n G e g n e r n im B i l d e d e r K ä m p f e d e r G ö t t e r m i t i h r e n ü b e r menschlichen Widersachern, den G i g a n t e n , geschildert w ä r e n . '

G I G A N T O M A C H Y I N T H E AENEID:

II

o f the Aeneid, w h i c h present v e r y close analogies to the dom i n a t i n g features o f his h y p o t h e t i c a l P e r g a m e n e epic. T w o m a j o r aspects o f the P e r g a m e n e r o y a l ideology m a y be distinguished, w h i c h seek to define the essence of the State respectively by negation, the definition o f w h a t is not Perg a m e n e , the via negativa, and by a f f i r m a t i o n , the definition o f w h a t is P e r g a m e n e , the via affirmativa. N a t i o n a l cohesion is notoriously m a i n t a i n e d as m u c h by shared hostilities as b y c o m m o n ideals o f a more positive c h a r a c t e r . T h e P e r g a m e n e k i n g d o m was the result of the a r m e d assertion o f i n d e p e n d e n c e against G r e e k masters b y the general Philetaerus. F o r t u n a t e l y for the sake o f nationalist i d e o l o g y , there w a s another, n o n - G r e e k , e n e m y in the area, the fearsome G a l a t i a n s . A t first these Celts were b o u g h t o f f with tributem o n e y , a n d it was not until the time o f A t talus I that decisive military action was t a k e n against t h e m , some time before 230 BC, l e a d i n g to the defeat o f the G a l a t i a n tribe of the Tolistoagii at the sources o f the river C a i c u s . T h i s v i c t o r y marks a n e p o c h in A t t a l i d self-consciousness. O n l y n o w did A t t a l u s I a c t u a l l y take the title of king; he w a s a c c l a i m e d as Soter, and the victoryw a s celebrated by the first of the f a m o u s series of A t t a l i d sculptural m o n u m e n t s , a g r o u p of t a b l e a u x of defeated G a u l s (inc l u d i n g the D y i n g G a u l , a n d the L u d o v i s i g r o u p of a G a u l killing himself and his wife, Plate 2). 2 7 T h e defeat o f the G a latians assumes some of the functions of a f o u n d a t i o n - m y t h for the Pergamenes: the victories o f A t t a l u s I and E u m e n e s I I affirm a n d j u s t i f y the existence of the city, t h r o u g h its conquest of the b a r b a r i a n enemies of the gods. 2 8 C o n t r a s t the situation at A l e x a n d r i a . T h e r e too a G r e e k settlement was established in the m i d d l e of non-Greeks, b u t coexistence rather than forcible military s u b j u g a t i o n w a s the path followed. It was impossible for the Ptolemies to assert their 27

See r e c e n t l y

R.

Wenning,

Die

Galateranatkeme

Attalos

I (Pergamenische

For-

s c h u n g e n 4, B e r l i n , 1 9 7 8 ) , w h o c o n c l u d e s t h a t o n l y the d e f e a t e d G a u t s w e r e s h o w n o n the m o n u m e n t , a n d p p . 57 if. f o r a n a c c o u n t o f the i n f l u e n c e o f this w o r k in R o m e . A c l e a r s u m m a r y o f the state o f the discussion o f the s e v e r a l v i c t o r y m o n u m e n t s is in E . K i i n z l , Die Kelten des Epigonos von Pergamon (Beitr. z. A r c h a o l o g i e 4, W u r z b u r g ,

1971)

( w h o thinks t h a t the ' l o n g b a s e ' c a r r i e d g r o u p s o f d e f e a t e d e n e m i e s other t h a n the Galatians), 28

C f . t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f the G a l a t i a n s in a c o n t e m p o r a r y inscription: F. H i l l e r v o n

G a r t r i n g e n , Inschriften von Prime (Berlin, 1906), no. 17, lines 1 7 f. i t s TO Sfiov xat IT'S TOv$ "EXXrjvas

Trapavopovvras.

doeftovvras

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identity as a c o m p l e t e contrast to that of indigenous 'barbarians'; the E g y p t i a n s had long stood for a w i s d o m older than the Greeks, a w i s d o m w h i c h had indeed fed the springs of G r e e k civilization. Assimilation a p p e a r s to h a v e been the policy in A n t i o c h also. The typical m y t h for this kind of Hellenistic fusion with the native race is the T r i u m p h of Dionysus, s y m b o l i z i n g the H e l l e n i z a t i o n of the b a r b a r i a n . 2 9 R o m e was less hospitable to the ancient wisdom of the east, and A u g u s t a n i d e o l o g y shows a striking similarity to the Perg a m e n e . T h e Battle o f A c t i u m , like the defeat of the G a l a t i a n s , marks an era o f the regime a n d is presented as a victory over the b a r b a r i a n forces o f E g y p t and the east. Both A u g u s t u s a n d the A t t a l i d s effect a b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e definition o f their regime b y the e m p h a t i c identification of the e n e m y outsider; the justification of the regime is achieved in the successful o v e r c o m i n g of this outsider, w h o takes on the features o f m o r a l and theological evil. T h e v i c t o r y at arms is a n ordeal successfully undergone. In the second p l a c e the A t t a l i d s sought to establish a national identity in a positive m o d e , t h r o u g h the assertion o f traditional Hellenic; values. E v i d e n c e for this is seen in the b u i l d i n g and sculptural p r o g r a m m e s , n o r m a l vehicles o f ideology, in w h i c h the d o m i n a n t models are A t h e n i a n . A n early b u i l d i n g , the T e m p l e of A t h e n a at P e r g a m u m , is designed as a D o r i c edifice like its c o u n t e r p a r t in Athens. 3 0 T h e sculptures of the A t h e n i a n P a r t h e n o n were also i m p o r t a n t models; a free c o p y o f the Pheid i a n A t h e n a Parthenos w a s set u p in the library at P e r g a m u m ; a n d very deliberate compositional echoes of the central g r o u p s of the P a r t h e n o n pediments are found in the G i g a n t o m a c h y frieze of the G r e a t A l t a r . 3 1 T h e t h e m e of G i g a n t o m a c h y occurs on the metopes of the P a r t h e n o n ; that is to say, a subject w h i c h stresses national identity t h r o u g h the negative m e t h o d of defining the e n e m y outside (my first h e a d i n g ) here receives a m o r e positive c o n t e n t t h r o u g h a l i g n m e n t with earlier A t h e n i a n forms of expression. A g a i n there is a contrast with A l e x a n d r i a , w h e r e the m i x t u r e o f G r e e k a n d foreigner inhibited the p r o p a 28

O n these d i f f e r e n c e s o f o u t l o o k see the s t r i k i n g p a g e s in U . v o n

YVilamowitz-

M o e l l e n d o r f , Anttgonos von fCarystos ( P h i l o l o g . U n t e r s u c h . 4, Berlin, 1 8 8 1 ) , p p . 158 ff. 90 31

J . G n i a n s , Art and thought in the Hellenistic age ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 80 f. E c h o e s o f the P a r t h e n o n : M , R o b e r t s o n , A history of Greek art ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 7 5 ) ,

PP- 5 3 9 ff-

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131

gation of a gospel of unsullied Hellenism; the typical deity is not the e p o n y m o u s goddess of A t h e n s , b u t the h y b r i d Serapis. T h e parallels to P e r g a m u m are to be f o u n d rather in the R o m e of A u g u s t u s , in ideals o f national p u r i t y a n d in the revival o f the values and customs o f the R o m a n and I t a l i a n past. T h e a n a l o g y between A u g u s t u s a n d the A t t a l i d s m a y be pressed further, a n d it is no surprise to find that the p r o p h e t o f Italian nationalism displays m a n y o f the characteristics o f a Hellenistic king. E u m e n e s I I , himself an ally of R o m e , continued and m a g n i f i e d the ideological drive of his predecessor. T h e early years of his reign were m a r k e d b y a n u m b e r o f victories (over G r e e k opponents); the conclusion of a series o f c a m p a i g n s with the p e a c e o f A p a m e a in 188 BC m a r k e d the b e g i n n i n g o f a large-scale b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m m e in P e r g a m u m , i n c l u d i n g the r e b u i l d i n g o f the m a i n precinct o f A t h e n a with o r n a m e n t a l sculpture such as the relief trophies a r o u n d the balustrade to celebrate A t t a l i d victories; the restoration o f various other sanctuaries and temples; the b u i l d i n g of the library within the precinct of A t h e n a ; a n d the erection of various works of c o m m e m o r a t i v e sculpture, of w h i c h the most famous, the G r e a t A l t a r of Zeus, is possibly to be d a t e d to a time after a subsequent victory o v e r the G a l a t i a n s in 166 BC.32 T h e r e are clear parallels with the series of buildings erected by A u g u s t u s in R o m e , of w h i c h he himself, in the Res Gestae, is the most e l o q u e n t chronicler. N o t e in p a r t i c u l a r the concern to restore temples, and the erection o f a library within the precincts o f A p o l l o , the god closest to the interests o f A u g u s t u s , as A t h e n a was closest to the concerns o f the Attalids. 3 3 It w a s u n d e r A u g u s t u s that a nationalistic R o m a n c o m m e m o r a t i v e sculpture w a s first developed to a h i g h degree. E u m e n e s II w a s also interested in less p e r m a n e n t forms of self-advertisement; after the v i c t o r y of 184 he instituted, or r e o r g a n i z e d , the festival o f the N i c e p h o r i a , g a m e s in h o n o u r of A t h e n a N i c e p h o r u s , w h i c h deliberately invited c o m p a r i s o n with the P y t h i a n and O l y m p i c festivals. A u g u s t a n parallels are a g a i n obvious. In the selection of images representative of personal a n d 32

T h i s d o w n - d a t i n g o f most p r e v i o u s s u g g e s t i o n s is b a s e d o n p o t t e r y e v i d e n c e : see

P. J . C a l l a g h a n , ' O n the d a t e o f t h e G r e a t A l t a r o f Z e u s at P e r g a m u m ' , BICS

28

(1981), 115-21. 33

F o r the i/omaj-tempie c o m p l e x as t y p i c a l o f the p a l a c e c o m p l e x e s o f H e l l e n i s t i c

kings see P. Z a n k e r , Analecta Romana Imtituti Damct, S u p p l . 10 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p. 24.

145 V I R G I L S A EVE ID: COSMOS

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national a c h i e v e m e n t , the ruler o f a state is faced with t w o basic alternatives: he m a y either select topics w h i c h exalt, the present state o f affairs, the prosperity, peace, a n d o r d e r e n j o y e d b y his subjects, w h a t one m i g h t call the "cornucopia 1 a p p r o a c h ; or he m a y choose to recount the events in the past w h i c h led u p to the present g o l d e n age. In this second c a t e g o r y a further division is possible, corresponding to m y original bipartition. In the first p l a c e the panegyrist o f the regime m a y deal w i t h events w h i c h m a r k significant points in the positive construction of the present state o f affairs, such as the g e n e a l o g y of the ruling family and the aetiology o f institutions that survive d o w n to the present d a y . S e c o n d l y , the p a n e g y r i s t m a y emphasize the struggles w h i c h led u p to the establishment of the regime, that is, he m a y stress the defeat o f forces striving against the success of the ruler or his ancestors. T h e t y p i c a l e n d - p r o d u c t of this last a p p r o a c h is in the visual arts the v i c t o r y m o n u m e n t , a n d in literature the historical epic, the central t h e m e o f epic b e i n g the struggle to a c h i e v e some end. T h e m e s o f p e a c e a n d w a r d e m a n d different, styles, the still a n d g r a n d , and the tense a n d d y n a m i c respectively. In the public m o n u m e n t s o f P e r g a m u m the emphasis is on the aspect o f struggle, of a r m e d victory. 3 4 T h e early m o n u m e n t o f A t t a l u s I, c e l e b r a t i n g his v i c t o r y over the G a l a t i a n s , takes this to an extreme, if it is correct that it displayed only the defeated Celts. In fact this is a rather odd sort o f m o n u m e n t : interest in the defeated e n e m y has gone so far that the p r i m a r y m o t i v a t i o n , that o f c e l e b r a t i n g the victors, is almost forgotten. 3 5 T h e m a n n e r of these figures is one of pathos; spatial and i c o n o g r a p h i c effects of contrast are at a p r e m i u m , as in the L u d o v i s i g r o u p , with its contrast b e t w e e n the tense b o d y o f the m a l e G a u l and the s l u m p e d corpse of his a l r e a d y dead wife (Plate 2); b u t the extreme effects o f the late b a r o q u e m a n n e r o f P e r g a m e n e sculpture, seen at its most d e v e l o p e d in the G r e a t A l t a r , are as yet absent. T h e G a l a t i a n s are presented realistically; there is both an e t h n o g r a p h i c a l interest in the details of the p h y s i q u e a n d o r n a m e n t s of the race and a psychological 34

O n this a s p e c t see A . S c h o b e r , Die Kunst von Pergamon ( V i e n n a , I n n s b r u c k , a n d

W i e s b a d e n , 1 9 5 1 ) , c h . 5. 35

O n the c o n c e p t i o n b e h i n d the m o n u m e n t see R . W e n n i n g , o p . cit. ( a b o v e , n.

27)> P- 5°-

G I G A N T O M A C H Y IN T H E A EN E ID.

II

¡33

interest in the experience o f d e a t h a n d defeat; the phrase ' n o b l e s a v a g e ' suggests itself. L a t e r P e r g a m e n e works put m o r e e m phasis on the aspect of victory itself, for e x a m p l e the G r e a t A l t a r , w h e r e the contrast b e t w e e n the frenzied giants and their invincible O l y m p i a n o p p o n e n t s is central. O n the small A t t a l i d dedication on the A t h e n i a n Acropolis 3 6 the theme o f defeated b a r b a r i a n is e x p a n d e d into a fourfold i c o n o g r a p h y w h i c h b o l d l y links the r e m o t e m y t h i c a l past with recent historical events, and intertwines A t h e n i a n and P e r g a m e n e nationalist themes, with its g r o u p s of defeated a n d d y i n g G i a n t s , A m a z o n s , Persians, and G a l a t i a n s ; it is uncertain w h e t h e r the victorious forces in e a c h battle w e r e also represented in this m o n u m e n t . O t h e r types of s u b j e c t - m a t t e r are not entirely absent in Perg a m e n e public sculpture, b u t themes o f struggle and defeat of the foreign enemy p r e d o m i n a t e . W h e n w e turn to A u g u s t a n official art a different picture emerges. I h a v e m a d e a b r o a d c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n the p u b l i c works o f E u m e n e s I I a n d those of A u g u s t u s , b u t the detailed e x e c u t i o n of the enterprises is very different. A u g u s t a n official art, for the most part, stresses the p e a c e f u l side of the A u g u s t a n a c h i e v e m e n t , the e q u i l i b r i u m as reached after the p r e l i m i n a r y struggles (struggles w h i c h it w a s less politic for A u g u s t u s to d w e l l on than were the G a l a t i a n victories for the A t t a l i d s ) . T h e events o f the past are represented in so far as they display the c o n t i n u i t y of the regime with earlier institutions; a n d , a significant d e p a r t u r e , the peaceful events o f the present c o m e to o c c u p y a d o m i n a n t place. 3 7 W h e r e the defeated are s h o w n , as o n the P r i m a Porta statue or the G e m m a A u g u s t e a , it is in the depressed c a l m of the c a p t i v e after the battle. W i t h the enforced tranquillity of s u b j e c t - m a t t e r goes a deliberate choice in style. T h e old v i e w that R o m a n art of the first centuries B C a n d A D w a s pred o m i n a n t l y classicizing has in recent years been significantly modified, 3 8 a n d it is clear that in fact a w i d e variety of styles was 36

T h e d a t e is d i s p u t e d ; b o t h A t talus I a n d A t talus II h a v e b e e n s u g g e s t e d as the

d o n o r . S e e A . F. S t e w a r t , Attika ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 19 ff. 37

F o r a g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f A u g u s t a n a r t see G . R o d e n w a l d t , Kunst um

Augustus 38

B e r l i n , 1943), esp. p. 59.

S e e G . M . A . R i c h t e r , ' W a s R o m a n art o f the first c e n t u r i e s B C a n d A D classiciz-

i n g ? ' , JRS

48 ( 1 9 5 8 ) , 1 0 - 1 5 . T h e p r o b l e m o f the c o e x i s t e n c e o f styles a n d o f e c l e c t i c i s m

is o n e that has n o t yet r e c e i v e d d e f i n i t i v e t r e a t m e n t for e i t h e r H e l l e n i s t i c or R o m a n art; cf. A . F . S t e w a r t , o p . cit., esp. p. 1 7.

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a v a i l a b l e , f r o m the a r c h a i z i n g t o the fully d e v e l o p e d Hellenistic ' b a r o q u e ' or ' r o c o c o ' . It is thus all the m o r e significant that in the large-scale w o r k s of p u b l i c s c u l p t u r e this b r e a d t h o f c h o i c e is l a r g e l y restricted to a n e o - A t t i c i z i n g , classicizing, r a n g e o f options. 3 9 C o m p a r e the A r a Pacis w i t h the G r e a t A l t a r o f Zeus: the closed, discrete, aspect o f the A r a Pacis contrasts strikingly w i t h the e x u b e r a n c e o f the G r e a t A l t a r . 4 0 O n e f e a t u r e o f the A r a Pacis is p a r t i c u l a r l y interesting since it brings o u t clearly b o t h the points o f c o n t a c t w i t h P e r g a m e n e p u b l i c s c u l p t u r e a n d the d i v e r g e n c e s . It has l o n g been r e c o g n i z e d t h a t the t w o friezes on the o u t e r sides of the A r a Pacis, r e p r e s e n t i n g the procession of 13 RC, are a n a l o g o u s to the P a n a t h e n a i c procession on the P a r t h e n o n frieze. 4 1 N o w the use o f A t h e n i a n models is also p r o m i n e n t in P e r g a m e n e s c u l p t u r e , a n d in this respect A t t a l i d a n d A u g u s t a n e x p l o i t a t i o n of the forms of expression of a n earlier n a t i o n a l i s m are c o m p a r a b l e . B u t the G i g a n t o m a c h y o f the G r e a t A l t a r derives not f r o m the c a l m procession o f the P a n a t h e n a i c frieze b u t f r o m the w i l d scenes o f battle o n the P a r t h e n o n metopes, a n d , for m o r e specific q u o t a t i o n s , f r o m the a g i t a t e d g r o u p s of g o d s t h a t o n c e filled the c e n t r a l portions of the t w o p e d i m e n t s . I n a sense the G r e a t A l t a r is j u s t as classicizing a w o r k as the A r a Pacis, b u t the result is q u i t e different. 4 2 38

T h e r a n g e o f artistic c h o i c e s a v a i l a b l e is s i m i l a r to t h a t e a r l i e r in P e r g a m u m (see

A . F, S t e w a r t , loc. d u ; A . v o n Salis, Der Altar von Pergamon (Berlin, 1 9 1 2 ) , p. 149); all m a n n e r of s t y l e is a v a i l a b l e , b u t c o n s c i o u s c h o i c e s ( c h i e f l y o f a n o n - A u g u s t a n sort) a r e m a d e w h e n it c o m e s t o p u b l i c s c u l p t u r e . io F o r this a n d o t h e r c o m p a r i s o n s see O . D e u b n e r , ' P e r g a m u m u n d R o m , k u l t u r h i s t o r i s c h e B e t r a c h t u n g ' , Marburger Jb. für Kunstwiss.

15 ( 1 9 4 9 / 5 0 ) , 9 5 -

1

>4

eine B u t

n o t e that the A r a P a c i s f o r m e d p a r t o f a m o n u m e n t a l c o m p l e x o f f a r m o r e g r a n d i o s e p r e t e n s i o n s (see b e l o w , p. 3 6 8 ) . . D i r e c t P e r g a m e n e i n f l u e n c e on the A r a P a c i s has b e e n c l a i m e d f o r the s c r o l l w o r k o n the o u t s i d e walls: T . K r a u s , Die Ranken der Ara (Berlin, 1 9 5 3 ) ; b u t C . B ö r k e r , ' N e u a t t i s c h e s u n d P e r g a m e n i s c h e s an d e n R a n k e n ' , JDAI

Pacts

Ara-Pacts

88 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , 283 3 1 7 , a r g u e s t h a t the m o d e l s a r e n e o - A t t i c of the first

c e n t u r y BC. 41 £ P e t e r s e n , Ara Pacts Augustae

(Vienna,

1902.1, p p .

165 fr. H o m e r

s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e A r a Pacis w a s h e a v i l y i n d e b t e d to a n o t h e r p r o m i n e n t m o n u m e n t o f the fifth c e n t u r y BC, the A l t a r o f Pity [Htspma

I hompson Athenian

21 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , 79 ff.). F o r

o b j e c t i o n s see B. S. R i d g w a y , Fifth century styles in Greek sculpture ( P r i n c e t o n , 1 9 8 1 ) , p p . 206 *

ff. . O n the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f ' c l a s s i c i z i n g ' (or ' a c a d e m i c i z i n g ' ) b a r o q u e see A . v o n

Salis. o p . cit., p p . 6 f. F o r a l a t e r e x a m p l e o f the i m p o r t a n c e o f c l a s s i c a l m o d e l s to b o t h b a r o q u e a n d classical artists see R . W i t t k o w e r , ' T h e role o f classical m o d e l s in B e r n i n i ' s a n d Poussin's p r e p a r a t o r y w o r k ' , in Studies in the Italian baroque ( B o u l d e r , C o l o . , 1975}:, p p . 103

14. C a n V i r g i l b e seen as a c a d e m i c i z i n g in a s i m i l a r w a y ?

G I G A N T O M A C H Y I N T H E A EN E ID. II

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It is at this point that I detect a f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e between the national i m a g e as projected b y A u g u s t a n public art a n d the V i r g i l i a n presentation of nationalist themes. V i r g i l is not p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d with the present, b u t with events in the past that lead u p to the present. E m p h a t i c images of the present o c c u r only in the central prophetic books, in the a p p e a r a n c e of A u g u s t u s in the Heldensch.au o f book six a n d on the Shield o f A e n e a s in book eight. Both categories of historical p r o p a g a n d a a p p e a r , g e n e a l o g y and institutional aetiology o n the one h a n d , and struggle on the other. A e t i o l o g y is found in the introduction of l e g e n d a r y ancestors o f historical R o m a n gentes, the institution o f g a m e s , sacrifices, rituals, and the like, and w i t h this m a y be c o m p a r e d generally the A e n e a s and R o m u l u s a n d R e m u s scenes on the A r a P a d s ; but the central theme o f the p o e m is not this rather static p a r a d e of precedents for present-day institutions, but the struggle necessary before R o m e could be f o u n d e d (Aen. 1.33): t a n t a e molis e r a t R o m a n a m c o n d e r e g e n t e m .

T h e Aeneid is d o m i n a t e d b y scenes w h i c h depict conflict, the a t t e m p t by the forces of R o m e , of order, of civilization, to defeat the forces o f b a r b a r i s m a n d chaos: the S t o r m in book one, the battles against C a c u s a n d the E g y p t i a n s in b o o k eight, the w a r with the Italians in the last four books. Less overt themes of struggle p e r v a d e o t h e r parts o f the p o e m : the p s y c h o l o g i c a l struggles w i t h furor, a n d the ever-present need to o v e r c o m e the less obvious, b u t no less insidious, forces o f inertia a n d idleness. A e n e a s is a m a n living in a state of siege. T h e stylistic consequences are also plain: to depict struggle, a m a n n e r is a p p r o p r i a t e w h i c h includes pathos, h y p e r b o l e , s a v a g e realism, in short a style w h i c h tends to the b a r o q u e . T w o general c o m m e n t s m a y be m a d e , the first c o n c e r n i n g the m e d i u m a n d the second the date of the Aeneid. In a sense the form of epic itself d e m a n d s a d y n a m i c presentation of ideological themes, rather than a static celebration of present prosperity (the Carmen Saeculare is an e x a m p l e o f h o w this m a y be d o n e in a n o t h e r literary genre); the central themes o f epic are those of struggle and the j o u r n e y . In fact there is here a b r o a d e r distinction b e t w e e n the literary and the visual arts, and one that lies at the h e a r t of Lessing's discussion of the ut pictura

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poiesis issue in his Laokoon,43 n a m e l y the distinction b e t w e e n the single f r a m e of the w o r k of sculpture or paint ing and the sequential structure of the p o e m ; w h i c h means that, for a largescale literary w o r k at a n y rate, the description of a process is almost inevitable; and, if our attention is to be held, a proccss w h i c h evolves through opposition and conflict. It is part o f V i r g i l ' s success in w r i t i n g an epic that he fully recognized and exploited this fact. T h e second, c h r o n o l o g i c a l , point leads me back to the lost ivory reliefs on the doors of the Palatine temple of A p o l l o , whose violent s u b j e c t - m a t t e r raises the question of w h e t h e r w h a t w e perceive as A u g u s t a n classicism, in the sculptural m o n u m e n t s at least, m a y be the result of stylistic choices m a d e only g r a d u a l l y . In the thirties a n d early twenties BC; there m a y as yet h a v e been no firm bias in f a v o u r of the calm simplicity of works like the A r a Paris. 4 4 In this connection it is as well to r e m e m b e r that the Aeneid is a p r o d u c t o f the first A u g u s t a n d e c a d e , a n o t h e r reason for c a u t i o n in m a k i n g comparisons between it a n d such a work as the A r a Paris. 4 5 I turn now to consider the most f a m o u s P e r g a m e n e m o n u ment, the G r e a t A l t a r of Zeus. T h e G r e a t A l t a r is a victory m o n u m e n t designed to celebrate the central successes of the Attalids; it does not, h o w e v e r , allude directly to the personages of the d y n a s t y , nor p o r t r a y their feats o f arms. In this it conformed to traditional G r e e k practice in religious m o n u m e n t s ; the successes o f the A t h e n i a n s in the Persian W a r s arc alluded to in the several m y t h o l o g i c a l scenes of struggle in the sculptures of the P a r t h e n o n , the G i g a n t o m a c h y , A m a z o n o m a c h y , a n d so on. But the symbolism of the G r e a t A l t a r is not confined to an e l e m e n t a r y lesson of the victory of order over disorder, of G r e e k 43

C h s . 3 f.

44

But architectural d i s p l a y o n the g r a n d scale c o n t i n u e d , w i t h the F o r u m o f A u g u s t u s

a n d the H o r o l o g i u m in the C a m p u s M a r t i u s , A s t a t u e - b a s e w i t h scenes o f A m a z o n o m a c h y from Nicopolis m a y be another e x a m p l e of an allegorical i m a g e of violent c o n q u e s t in the y e a r s i m m e d i a t e l y after A c t i u m ( A m a z o n s = b a r b a r i a n s o f E g y p t a n d the east?), b u t t h e d a t e is u n c l e a r : see E . T h o m a s , Mythos 1 9 7 6 ) , p. 4 5 (illustr. MDAliA] 46

und Geschichte

(Cologne,

78 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p l a t e s 80 2).

T h e q u e s t i o n o f the a u d i e n c e for different, a r t - f o r m s m a y also b e r e l e v a n t ; t h e

u n p r e t e n t i o u s , p o i n t e d l y R o m a n , c h a r a c t e r o f l a r g e - s c a l e A u g u s t a n s c u l p t u r e is in contrast to the e x t r a v a g a n t , H e l l e n i s t i c , t y p e o f i m p e r i a l i m a g e r y f o u n d o n c a m e o s a n d g e m s , w o r k s for a select circle close to the c o u r t . W h i c h a u d i e n c e d i d V i r g i l w r i t e for? O n the c o e x i s t e n c e of R o m a n a r i s t o c r a t i c - r e p u b l i c a n a n d H e l l e n i s t i c m o n a r c h i c a l i m a g e r y see P. G . H a m b e r g , Studies in Roman imperial art ( C o p e n h a g e n , 1 9 4 5 ) , p p . 46 ff.

G I G A N T O M A C H Y IN T H E AENEID-.

II

I

2

[

over b a r b a r i a n . Its i c o n o g r a p h y consists o f a series of c o m p l e m e n t a r y layers; the w h o l e composed of these parts overlaps to a large extent with the g r o u p i n g of themes in the Aeneid. T h e e q u i v a l e n c e between the sculptural a n d poetic works m a y be explained at the general level b y the fact that they are both manifestations of the genre o f Hellenistic p a n e g y r i c of the ruler or State. T h e r e w e r e two extensive friezes on the G r e a t A l t a r , a n d I start w i t h the less w e l l - k n o w n a n d less well-preserved, that representing the story of T e l e p h u s , r u n n i n g round the inside o f the w a l l of the altar-court on the u p p e r p l a t f o r m . It was p r o b a b l y a m o n g the last elements of the c o m p l e x to be started, for it remains unfinished; but there is no reason to d o u b t that it w a s designed to form an integral p a r t of the composition a n d p r o g r a m m e of the whole.' 1 6 T h e story of T e l c p h u s is taken not from the most primitive layer of divine m y t h o l o g y , as is the G i g a n t o m a c h y of the G r e a t Frieze, b u t from the more h u m a n world of historical legend; it is s y n c h r o n i z e d with the T r o j a n W a r . It is a f o u n d a t i o n legend: T e l e p h u s , better k n o w n for his a p p e a r a n c e in Euripides, is a hero o f A r c a d i a n origin, the son of Hercules and A u g e , w h o after various vicissitudes founds the city of P e r g a m u m and establishes there the cults of D i o n y s u s and A t h e n a (the P c r g a m e n e s are occasionally referred to as T e l e p h i d s 4 7 ) . T h e a c c o u n t of T e l e p h u s is rather reminiscent of the story of R o m u l u s a n d R e m u s : his g r a n d f a t h e r , the A r c a d i a n k i n g A l e o s , is w a r n e d by the D e l p h i c oracle that a child o f his d a u g h t e r will kill his sons. His d a u g h t e r A u g e is seduced b y Hercules and gives birth to T e l e p h u s , w h o is duly exposed; he is suckled by a doe (or lioness in the G r e a t A l t a r frieze) until found b y Hercules. 4 8 T h e story so far has the simple outlines of 46

F o r a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e T e l e p h u s - f r i e z e see G . B a u c h h e n s s - T h u r i e d l , Der

Mythos von Telephos in der antiken Bildkunsl

(Beitr, z. A r c h a o l o g i e 3, W u r z b u r g , 1971 ),

p p . 40 ff. 47

T e l e p h i d s : R o s c h e r , Lex. v. 295.

48

O n t h e m o t i f o f t h e - e x p o s u r e o f t h e r o y a l c h i l d see G . B i n d e r , Die Ausselzung

Konigskindes

Kyros und Romulus

(Beitr. z. klass. P h i l o l o g i e

10, M e i s e n h e i m a m

des

Glan4

1964). O n t h e q u e s t i o n o f P e r g a m e n e i n f l u e n c e on o r i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h R o m a n f o u n d a t i o n l e g e n d s it w a s p r e v i o u s l y b e l i e v e d , o n the g r o u n d s o f g e n e r a l p r o b a b i l i t i e s r a t h e r t h a n s p e c i f i c p r o o f , t h a t P e r g a m e n e s c h o l a r s h a d a d e c i s i v e role in the e l a b o r a t i o n o f the T r o j a n l e g e n d s p e r t a i n i n g to R o m e (e.g. W i l a m o w i t z , Antigonos von Karystos,

pp.

1 6 1 , 1 7 6 f. ) ; f o r a m o r e s o b e r v i e w see J , P e r r e t , Les Origines de la légende troyenne de Rome (281 jr)

(Paris, 1942), p p . 5 1 7 ff. (Perret l e a v e s o n l y C r a t e s as a possible P e r g a m e n e

c o n t r i b u t o r , p p . 508 ff). A n interest in t h i n g s R o m a n w o u l d be attested b y Anth.

Pal.

io

V I R G I L ' S AENEID-.

4

COSMOS

AND

IMPERII]M

ktistic legend, an aition of the sort so b e l o v e d of Hellenistic antiquaries; no d o u b t this type o f invention w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y consoling to the m a n y n e w foundations of the a g e of the D i a dochi, with the parvenu s need for a respectable ancestry. B u t the treatment o f the T e l e p h u s legend on the frieze goes b e y o n d this in its relationship to m o r e recent history; the aetiological is c o m b i n e d with the e x e m p l a r y , or even the t y p o l o g i c a l . If the fairy-tale elements of the birth-legend remind us o f R o m u l u s a n d R e m u s , this further aspect is m o r e reminiscent of the V i r gilian A e n e a s , w h o did not, it is true, a c t u a l l y found R o m e , b u t w h o did b r i n g the gods of R o m e to I t a l y , as T e l e p h u s , after m u c h w a n d e r i n g a n d suffering, f o u n d e d the P e r g a m e n e cults. T h e Heroicus of Philostratus presents a version o f the T e l e p h u s m y t h w h i c h is repeated in details o n the frieze o f the A l t a r . Its peculiarities, it has been a r g u e d , indicate an origin at a very specific d a t e in P e r g a m e n e history: 4 9 the choice of allies for T e l e p h u s , kings of T h r a c e a n d of the D a n u b e lands, a n d the treatment, f a v o u r a b l e or u n f a v o u r a b l e , of other peoples is held to point to a political situation soon after 168 BC; that is, v e r y close to the time at w h i c h it is g e n e r a l l y held that the T e l e p h u s frieze w a s created. T h i s r e w o r k i n g o f received m y t h or legend to support c o n t e m p o r a r y nationalist policies is, of course, nothing new; a g a i n A t h e n i a n models are the most familiar. It has also b e e n a r g u e d that a less specific political point is m a d e in the a c c o u n t in Philostratus o f the d e a t h of H i e r a , the wife of T e l e phus. 5 0 H e r d e a d b o d y is of such striking b e a u t y t h a t the att a c k i n g forces of the Greeks d o not t o u c h it, a n d this is a source 3 . 1 9 , the R o m u l u s a n d R e m u s scene f r o m the e p i g r a m s w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e d p i c t u r e s in the t e m p l e o f A p o l l o n i s at C y z i c u s , w h o s e a u t h e n t i c i t y h a s b e e n c h a l l e n g e d o n w h a t a p p e a r to b e i n s u f f i c i e n t g r o u n d s (see P. W a l t z , Anthologie palatine i (Paris, 1928), p p . 83 ff. for a s u r v e y o f t h e a r g u m e n t s ) ; this w h o l e c y c l e o f e p i g r a m s is o f interest (i) as p r o v i d i n g a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f the s y s t e m a t i c P e r g a m e n e use o f m y t h i c a l p a r a l l e l s to p o i n t u p a c o n t e m p o r a r y p i e c e o f p r o p a g a n d a , here t h e d e v o t i o n o f E u m e n e s I I a n d A t t a l u s II to their m o t h e r A p o l l o n i s , a n d (ii) as p r o v i d i n g a m o r e specific a n a l o g y w i t h t h e R o m a n ( a n d V i r g i l i a n ) interest in the pietas o f A e n e a s . F o r l a t e r

Roman

j u x t a p o s i t i o n s o f scenes o f the s u c k l i n g o f the infants R o m u l u s a n d R e m u s a n d o f T e l e p h u s , see J . W . S a l o m o n s o n , ' T e l e p h u s u n d d i e r ö m i s c h e n Z w i l l i n g e ' , OMRL (1957). 49

38

!5-44-

Philostr. Heroicus 23. F o r a t t e m p t s t o c o n n e c t the Heroicus w i t h a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

o f t h e P e r g a m u m f r i e z e ( d e r i v i n g b o t h f r o m o f f i c i a l P e r g a m e n e h y m n s o r e n c o m i a ) see C . R o b e r t , ' B e i t r ä g e z u r E r k l ä r u n g des p e r g a m e n i s c h e n T e l e p h o s - F r i e s e s ' , JDAI ( 1 8 8 7 ) , 2 4 4 - 5 9 ; A . B r ü c k n e r , AA ( 1 9 0 4 ) , 2 x 8 - 2 5 . 50

B r ü c k n e r , art. cit., 223.

2

G I G A N T O M A C H Y I N T H E AENEID:

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'39

of reconciliation b e t w e e n the Greeks a n d the native M y s i a n s . T h e point at issue is the h a r m o n i z a t i o n of the G r e e k and the indigenous. P e r g a m u m , like R o m e , w a s s o m e w h a t m a r g i n a l to the m a i n s t r e a m of H e l l e n i s m (possibly a n o t h e r reason w h y its rulers w e r e so obsessed w i t h the search for a Hellenic identity), since it w a s a G r e e k city in a n o n - G r e e k l a n d . Both the M y s i a n s a n d the T r o j a n s , ancestors respectively o f the P e r g a m e n e s a n d the R o m a n s , had originally been i n v o l v e d in conflict w i t h the Greeks. T h u s the c o n v e n i e n t cessation o f the w a r b e t w e e n T e lephus' M y s i a n s a n d the i n v a d i n g A c h a e a n s on their w a y to T r o y is a w a y of b r i d g i n g this racial division; one m a y c o m p a r e the w a y in w h i c h V i r g i l is at pains to effect a reconciliation b e t w e e n G r e e k a n d T r o j a n in the later books of the Aeneid. A e n e a s finds friendly G r e e k s a l r e a d y on the site of R o m e ; note finally t h a t T e l e p h u s , like E v a n d e r , is himself of A r c a d i a n origin. T h e T e l e p h u s frieze anchors the existence of P e r g a m u m in a l e g e n d a r y context; it provides the city w i t h a pedigree a n d a f o u n d e r of suitably heroic stature, a n d it also serves to v a l i d a t e certain c o n t e m p o r a r y features of the P e r g a m e n e political setup. T h e frieze of G i g a n t o m a c h y c o m p l e m e n t s these themes by raising the justification of P e r g a m u m to m o r e remote a n d lofty levels. T h e most o b v i o u s level is that of the v i c t o r y of the divine, the O l y m p i a n , over the d e m o n i c , the chthonic: the designer of the frieze makes this especially clear in the representation of m a n y o f the G i a n t s as snake-legged. T h i s is the basic content o f the m y t h o f G i g a n t o m a c h y ; it is one of the m y t h s associated with the early part of m y t h i c a l time, signifying an a t t e m p t on the part of the forces o f chaos to reassert themselves against the n e w l y - c r e a t e d cosmos. T h e P e r g a m e n e frieze emphasizes this universal q u a l i t y of the story: in the first place the n u m b e r of gods i n v o l v e d is m u c h g r e a t e r than in earlier versions; as well as the c h i e f O l y m p i a n s there is a w h o l e host o f others, some o f w h o m r e m a i n d u b i o u s l y identified, together w i t h a correspondingly large n u m b e r of Giants. T h i s stresses the fact that the w h o l e universe, w i t h its presiding deities, is threatened. S e c o n d l y , there is the possibility that a Stoicizing allegory underlies the p r o g r a m m e o f the frieze. T h e period d u r i n g w h i c h the G r e a t A l t a r w a s erected w a s also that in w h i c h C r a t e s of M a l l o s w a s active in P e r g a m u m ; Crates w a s one of the chief

i4o

V I R G I L ' S AENEID-.

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practitioners o f a Stoicizing type of allegorization, w h i c h sought to identify the localized h u m a n and divine events of the H o meric epics as veiled descriptions o f the large-scale physical processes of the universe. 5 1 T h e m y t h s of G i g a n t o m a c h y and the closely related T i t a n o m a c h y presented o b v i o u s opportunities for such exegesis: the B y z a n t i n e scholia on Hesiod preserve the remains of a ( p r o b a b l y ancient) elemental and meteorological allegorization of the Hesiodic battles o f Z e u s against the T i t a n s and other monsters; 5 2 C r a t e s himself is k n o w n to h a v e contributed to Hesiod ic scholarship. - C o n s i d e r a b l e difficulties stand in the w a y of a sure interpretation of the G i a n t frieze: it is rather like trying to decipher the allegories of Botticelli if we h a d lost most of the fifteenth-ccntury N e o p l a t o n i z i n g texts. Nevertheless, a n u m b e r of c o m m e n t a t o r s on the G r e a t A l t a r h a v e a r g u e d for the informing presence of a Stoic cosmic allegory in the p r o g r a m m e of the G i g a n t o m a c h y frieze; recently, for e x a m p l e , Erika S i m o n has e l a b o r a t e d a theory that the choice a n d a r r a n g e m e n t o f figures reflects a specifically Hesiod ic p r o g r a m m e with philosophical overtones. 5 3 S i m o n makes one fairly general point a b o u t the role of Zeus: p r e s u m e d dedicatee o f the A l t a r , he figures p r o m i n e n t l y in his o w n a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c right; b u t his presence elsewhere is implied b y the repeated m o t i f of the eagle, attribute of Zeus, 5 4 T h e a r c h a i c i m a g e o f the g o d in h u m a n form is thus c o m b i n e d with a m o r e abstract notion of an allp e r v a d i n g o m n i p o t e n t force, and it is easy to point to parallels in the Stoic identification of the O l y m p i a n Z e u s w i t h the principle of aether, or of p r o v i d e n c e , the sort of philosophical rationalization of m y t h most vividly expressed in C l e a n t h e s ' Hymn

to %eus, T h e theological and the cosmological are not the only aspects of the G i g a n t o m a c h y frieze; there are levels w h i c h provide a more specific link with the city o f P e r g a m u m . Firstly, the choice and treatment of the gods reflect P e r g a m e n e priorities: Z e u s shares equal place of h o n o u r w i t h A t h e n a (Plate 3); the pair 51

See above, pp. 2 7 - 9 .

52

See a b o v e , p p . 9 5 f.

53

E. S i m o n , Pergamon und Hesiod ( S c h r i f t e n z. a n t . M y t h o l . 3, M a i n z ,

¡975)* esp.

p p . 56 IT. N o t e the s o m e w h a t s c e p t i c a l r e v i e w b y R . W e n n i n g , Gnomon 51 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , 3 5 5 61. 54

Hi S i m o n , o p . cit., p. 5 7 .

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141

are placed not on the central axis of the A l t a r , b u t so as to confront directly the visitor entering the A l t a r precinct by the m a i n gate. A t h e n a receives an h o n o u r a b l e mention in earlier accounts of the battle of the gods against the G i a n t s , b u t her position here reflects the especial h o n o u r in w h i c h she w a s held by the A t t a l i d s . H e r temple w a s one of the chief religious centres in the city, a n d her cult w a s one of those traditionally f o u n d e d by T e l c p h u s himself. O t h e r gods p r o m i n e n t l y placed and with very close P e r g a m e n c connections are Dionysus, on the righth a n d w i n g o f the staircase front, and R h e a seated on a lion, a type found on other P e r g a m e n c cult-images of the goddess. Heracles, as father of T e l e p h u s , is of central i m p o r t a n c e for the Attalids, and indeed he is to be found in the v e r y centre of the G i g a n t o m a c h y , by the side of his father Zeus. A g a i n this detail has earlier and later parallels in n o n - P e r g a m e n e tradition, b u t it c a n n o t h a v e been r e p r o d u c e d here w i t h o u t inspiring a particular p r i d e in P c r g a m c n e hearts. Finally, it has been a r g u e d that certain details o f the battle b e t w e e n the gods and G i a n t s refer to specific episodes in the historical struggles of the Attalids. E. S i m o n points to the possible significance o f the close j u x t a p o s i t i o n of A t h e n a , on the northern side of the cast frieze, and A p h r o d i t e , at the eastern end o f the north frieze. 5 5 A t h e n a has the attributes of a snake and is a c c o m p a n i e d b y a figure of N i k e , w h o crowns the goddess with a w r e a t h of v i c t o r y . T h i s m a y well be a n allusion to the type of A t h e n a N i c e p h o r u s , a derivative of A t h e n a Parthenos, w h o is usually shown holding a V i c t o r y (obviously impossible in the heat of battle). T h i s title m a y h a v e been given to A t h e n a by A t t a l u s I after a victory over A n t i o c h u s H i e r a x a n d the G a l a t i a n s outside the city gates, at a spot close to the site o f the later N i c e p h o r i o n , a s a n c t u a r y of A t h e n a N i c e p h o r u s and future centre of the g a m e s called N i c e p h o r i a . N o w the site of this battle was also close to a s a n c t u a r y of A p h r o d i t e , the A p h r o d i s i o n . Simon suggests that a figure several places to the left of A p h r o d i t e , w h o is struggling w i t h a G i a n t w h o has got h i m round the waist and is biting h i m , is h o l d i n g a key, a n d is thus to be identified as a temple-keeper, a n d specifically the temple-keeper P h a e t h o n , a servant o f A p h r o d i t e mentioned in Hesiod. If S i m o n ' s theory is correct, the a t t a c k by the G i a n t s 55

I b i d . , p. 48.

V I R G I L ' S A ENE ID-. COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

on the s a n c t u a r y of A p h r o d i t e provides a m y t h i c a l parallel to the historical a t t a c k on the P e r g a m e n e A p h r o d i s i o n , T h e two reliefs o f the T e l e p h u s legend and G i g a n t o m a c h y , taken together, place the A t t a l i d a c h i e v e m e n t in a very b r o a d s e t t i n g — t h e o l o g i c a l , cosmological, l e g e n d a r y , and historical. T h e r e are indeed precedents, particularly in A t h e n s , b u t the total synthesis is possibly a specifically P e r g a m e n e creation. It is very like the a g g l o m e r a t i o n of levels in the Aeneid. H e r e w e h a v e the legendary-historical, primarily in the form of the A e n e a s legend, w h i c h functions both as a f o u n d a t i o n - l e g e n d a n d as a prefigu ration in other respects o f events and situations o f more recent times; I h a v e noted the p a r t i c u l a r topic of reconciliation of G r e e k and T r o j a n . A further shared feature is the p r o m i n e n c e g i v e n to Hercules both on the A l t a r a n d in the Aeneid. T h e Aeneid in fact introduces a level not present in the G r e a t A l t a r , n a m e l y that of recent or c o n t e m p o r a r y history. A u g u s t u s a p p e a r s in action himself, most n o t a b l y on the Shield of A e n e a s . T h i s use of direct c o n t e m p o r a r y reference in official narrative art (as opposed to portraits and statues of the living ruler) is p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m m o n in R o m a n art (see the great series of c o m m e m o r a t i v e n a r r a t i v e reliefs, c u l m i n a t i n g in T r a j a n ' s C o l u m n ) . A n o t a b l e e x a m p l e is to be f o u n d in a n o t h e r Perg a m e n e m o n u m e n t , the small A t t a l i d d e d i c a t i o n on the A c r o polis, with its g r o u p s of battles against the Giants, the A m a z o n s , the Persians, 5 6 a n d finally the G a u l s ; this m o n u m e n t is itself a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of the w a y in w h i c h P e r g a m e n e p r o p a g a n d a d r a w s together inherited elements in a new synthesis, w h i c h reaches from the early struggles for the cohesion of the universe to the latest historical e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n of the c o n t i n u i n g struggle to maintain the s u p r e m a c y of order and civilization. The levels of allusion c o n t a i n e d in the P e r g a m e n e G i g a n t o m a c h y are also found in the Aeneid. D i v i n e m a c h i n e r y is imported in the first place from the H o m e r i c tradition, but is 56

F o r the e x p l o i t a t i o n in a R o m a n c o n t e x t o f A t h e n i a n v i c t o r y o v e r P e r s i a n s as a n

i m a g e o f the d e f e a t o f the S e l e u c i d s see F l o r u s 1.24 'ne sibi p l a c e a n t A t h e n a e ;

in

A n t i o c h o v i c i m u s X e r x e n , in A e m i l i o A l c i b i a d e n a e q u a v i m u s , E p h e s o S a l a m i n a p e n savimus'. Augustus'

S a l a m i s n a u m a c h y o f 2 BC ( O v . Ars Am.

1 . 1 7 1 f.)

advertised

R o m e ' s a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e A t h e n i a n role o f c h a m p i o n o f H e l l a s a g a i n s t the O r i e n t a l s : see G . B o w e r s o c k in F . M i l l a r a n d E. S e g a l (eds.), Caesar Augustus: seven aspects ( O x f o r d , 1984), p p . 1 7 4 f. It h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t c o p i e s o f the A t t a l i d d e d i c a t i o n in A t h e n s w e r e set u p in the B a t h s o f A g r i p p a in the C a m p u s M a r t i u s , w i t h a l l u s i o n to C a e s a r ' s defeat of the Gauls.

G I G A N T O M A C H Y IN T H E A EN El D : 11

1

43

used to other ends. The d r a w i n g - u p of p a r t y lines in O l y m p u s corresponds in obvious w a y s to the realities of R o m a n religion: the role o f V e n u s and A p o l l o in A u g u s t a n religion, J u n o as p a t r o n deity of C a r t h a g e , and so on. J u p i t e r is an a m b i g u o u s figure in V i r g i l , b u t there are occasions w h e n he stands for a more or less abstract P r o v i d e n c e , rather t h a n simply a c t i n g as an a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c g o d , primus inter pares. The action of the gods a n d t h e j n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n gods a n d m e n frequently has a function that goes b e y o n d the local, and looks f o r w a r d to m u c h later institutions; for e x a m p l e , the various préfigurations of the f o u n d a t i o n of the temple of A p o l l o on the Palatine. Finally the cosmological: here V i r g i l also goes to the Stoics for a lesson in h o w to c o n v e r t the e p h e m e r a l events of history or legend into the eternal truths of c o s m o l o g y ; exemplification is to be found passim in this book.

Ill .

G I G A N T O M A C H Y

IN

T H E

T H E

L A S T

F O U R

B O O K S

OF

A E N E I D

(a) Pandarus and Bitias (Aencid 9.672-755) O n e of the most overt allusions to G i g a n t o m a c h y in the Aeneid comes t o w a r d s the end o f book nine, at the height of the R u tulian assault on the T r o j a n c a m p , at a time w h e n A e n e a s is absent from the c a m p and T u r n u s can e n j o y his aristeia w i t h o u t serious opposition. It is also the first time that T u r n u s is really seen in action; the significance of this will b e c o m e clear later. A t line 590 the aristeia o f T u r n u s is interrupted by the episode of A s c a n i u s and N u m an us, w h i c h gives a foretaste of the eventual victory of the T r o j a n s (and R o m a n s ) with the direct cooperation of the gods; but the words of A p o l l o (653 IT.) m a k e it clear that this is merely an interlude, and w e return to the general scene of battle . d o m i n a t e d by T u r n u s . T w o T r o j a n s , P a n d a r u s and Bitias, d e c i d e to c h a l l e n g e the e n e m y by o p e n i n g the gate at w h i c h they are posted (9.672 ff.): Pandarus et Bitias, Idaeo Alcanore creti, quos Iovis eduxit luco silvestris Iaera abietibus iuvenes patriis et montibus aequos, porta m, quae ducis imperio commissa, recludunt freti armis, ultroque invitant moenibus hostem.

I44

V I R G I L ' S AE.N El D: COSMOS

AND

IMPERII'M

ipsi iritus dextra ac laeva pro turribus astant armati ferro et cristis capita alta corusci: quales aeriae liquentia flumina circum sive Padi ripis Athesim seu propter amoenum consurgunt geminae quercus intonsaque caelo attollunt capita et sublimi vertice nutant. T h e s e t w o are o f prodigious stature: like their H o m e r i c models, the L a p i t h s Polypoetes and L e o n t e u s in Iliad 1 2 . 1 2 7 ff., they are c o m p a r e d to trees. T h e y are also c o m p a r e d to mountains; H e c t o r is c o m p a r e d to a s n o w y m o u n t a i n in Iliad 13.754; l n the Odyssey the m o u n t a i n c o m p a r i s o n is used o f the monstrous L a e s t r y g o n i a n q u e e n ( 1 0 . 1 1 3 ) , and also o f P o l y p h e m u s ; 9 . 1 9 1 f.). In Virgil the tree c o m p a r i s o n is used n o t a b l y of the C y c l o p e s in a passage c o n t a i n i n g detailed v e r b a l parallels with the description of P a n d a rus a n d Bitias [Aen. 3.677 ff.): cernimus astantis nequiquam lumine torvo Aetnaeos fratres caelo capita alta ferentis, concilium horrendum: quales cum vertice celso

aeriae quercus aut coniferae cyparissi

constiterunt, silva alta Iovis lucusque Dianae. T h e g i g a n t i c scale of these new o p p o n e n t s introduces the clim a c t i c episode o f the ansteia of T u r n u s ; a general comparison m a y be m a d e with the a c c u m u l a t i o n o f h y p e r b o l e in the final confrontation b e t w e e n A e n e a s a n d T u r n u s in book twelve. G i g a n t o m a c h y becomes explicit, h o w e v e r , only in the acc o u n t of the d e a t h of Bitias at the h a n d s of T u r n u s (9.703 ff.): turn Bitian ardentem oculis animisque frementem, non iaculo (neque enim iaculo vitam ille dedisset), sed magnum stndens con tor ta phalarica venit fulminis acta modo, quam nec duo taurea terga nec duplici squama lorica fidelis et auro sustinuit; conlapsa ruunt immania membra, dat tellus gemitum et clipeum super intonat ingens. talis in Euboico Baiarum litore quondam saxea pila cadit, magnis quam molibus ante constructam ponto iaciunt, sic ilia ruinam prona trahit penitusque vadis inlisa recumbit; miscent se maria et nigrae attolluntur harenae, turn sonitu Prochyta alta t rem it durumque cubilc Inarime iovis imperiis imposta Typhoeo.

G I G A N T O M A C H Y IN T H E A EN El D:II11

I begin with the final simile of the crashing b o d y o f Bitias; the h y p e r b o l i c a l comparison to a pile crashing into the sea is taken far b e y o n d realism with the shaking of the islands P r o c h y t a and I n a r i m e , the last resting on top o f the g i a n t T y p h o e u s . T h e death of Bitias is thus associated with J u p i t e r ' s defeat o f T y p h o e u s . 5 7 Bitias is not identified with T y p h o e u s in the logical sequence of the simile, b u t an irrational association is irresistibly suggested by the content o f the p r e c e d i n g lines; this sort o f 'knight's m o v e ' connection b e t w e e n simile and n a r r a t i v e is c o m m o n e n o u g h in V i r g i l . 5 8 C o n s i d e r the description o f T u r n us' missile, 'fulminis a c t a rnodo': the c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the t h u n d e r b o l t is more t h a n simple h y p e r b o l e , and a f a m o u s passage f r o m the end o f the Georgics shows h o w a figurative use o f the c o g n a t e v e r b is associated with a notion of apotheosis {Geo. 4.560 if.): Caesar dum magnus ad ahum fulminat Euphraten bello victorque volentis per populos dat iura viamquc adfectat Olympo. 5 9 T h e simile is given a d d e d significance by the emphasis on the unusual nature of the w e a p o n required to fell Bitias (a iaculum w o u l d be sufficient to dispatch any o r d i n a r y mortal 6 0 ). T h e i m a g e of the t h u n d e r b o l t is c o n t i n u e d in the use o f intonat in line 709, w h i c h c o m b i n e s with the first h a l f of the line, ' d a t tellus g e m i t u m ' , to give a coherent m y t h o l o g i c a l allusion. T h e last phrase has its models in H o m e r a n d Hesiod. It is used in H o m e r o f the effect of vast gatherings of men on the m o v e , w h i c h in itself suggests that V i r g i l ' s a p p l i c a t i o n of it to one m a n indicates something s u p e r h u m a n 6 1 (II. 2.780 fif.): 01

S'

y a i a

ap' o

ioav

57

CT r e

UTreoTera^i^e

X0J0jjL€V0J, eh'

ws

o r e

oifiots,

odi

r

Trvpi ¿m

¿¡j.aai

%6UJV a>s

Twfroui'i Tvficoeos

I>€/XCKTO-

j r d a a

TepTTiKcpavvoj yaiav

Ifxaaarj

efifievai

tvvas-

G i g a n t o m a c h i c g e o g r a p h y m a y also be s u g g e s t e d in t h e m e n t i o n o f B a i a e a n d

allusion to C u m a e (Euboico),.

t o w n s in the i m m e d i a t e v i c i n i t y o f the campi

Phlegraet

( S t r a b o 5 . 4 . 6 ) ; cf. P r o p . r , 2 o , g 'sive G i g a n t e a s p a t i a b e r e litoris o r a ' . 58

O n ' i r r a t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s ' in V i r g i l i a n similes see D , W e s t , JRS

59 ( 3 9 6 9 ) ,

42 f. 59

S e e a b o v e , p. 5 1 .

60

H e y n e w a s o f f e n d e d : ' n e c p l a c e t TO ^TAT&APLOJ&ES,•

61

C f . also II. 2.95. See b e l o w , p p . 2 8 5 - 9 1 , o n ' m a s s to i n d i v i d u a l ' h y p e r b o l e .

io

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - . COSMOS

4

AND

IMPERII]M

As they went it was as if the whole earth were consumed by fire: the earth groaned beneath them as at the anger of Zeus who delights in the thunderbolt, when he smites the earth about Typhoeus in Arima, where they say that Typhoeus has his bed. T h e H o m e r i c passage explicitly associates the g r o a n i n g earth with the defeat o f T y p h o e u s , described in lines w h i c h are the i m m e d i a t e m o d e l for V i r g i l ' s I n a r i m e simile. In Hesiod the g r o a n i n g earth is also a n effect o f the w a r b e t w e e n the O l y m pians and T y p h o e u s . 6 2 T h e r e is an u n d e r t o n e o f personification in the V i r g i l i a n line: read Tellus with a capital T , a n d w e h a v e the i m a g e o f M o t h e r E a r t h l a m e n t i n g the d o w n f a l l o f her sons the G i a n t s , the ' c a r t h b o r n ' , a traditional feature of the m y t h (well illustrated on the P e r g a m u m frieze, Plate 3). T h e t w o halves of the line thus hint at the p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f both h e a v e n , as the c o n q u e r o r , a n d earth, as the c o n q u e r e d , in the battle of gods a n d Giants. 6 3 T h e subsequent death of Bitias' brother, P a n d a r u s , does not reach the same level of h y p e r b o l e , but the u n d e r l y i n g strand of m y t h o l o g i c a l allusion is m a i n t a i n e d in the description o f the raging T u r n u s (731 if.): continuo nova lux oculis efi'u1 sit et arm a horrendum sonuere, tremunt in vertice cristae sanguineae clipeoque micantia fulmina mittit.

Fulmina continues the J o v i a n i m a g e , and the f o l l o w i n g lines suggest the recognition (agnoscunt, 734) of a divine revelation; b u t the picture is c o m p l i c a t e d b y o u r recollection o f the nonO l y m p i a n a n d c h t h o n i c n a t u r e of the d e c o r a t i o n of T u r n u s ' helmet (7.785 if.). 6 4 62 63

Theog, 843. F o r the c o n t r a s t o f s k y - g o d a n d s e m i - p e r s o n i f i e d e a r t h in a t h u n d e r c o n t e x t see

Geo. 1.328 ff.: (329 f.) ' m a x i m a . . , t e r r a t r e m i t ' . I t m a y b e r e l e v a n t t h a t E n n i u s , in a r a t h e r o d d m e t a p h o r , uses clipeus o f the sky [seen. 2 1 6 ) ; cf. TLL 84

See a b o v e , p p . 1 1 8 - 1 9 . I

n

iii.1352.64.

the f i n a l a c t i o n o f b o o k nine the e p i t h e t fulmineus

is

a p p l i e d to t h e T r o j a n M n e s t h e u s i n v o l v e d in the repulse o f T u r n u s ( 8 1 2 ) ; is this to b e t a k e n p u r e l y f i g u r a t i v e l y , or as a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f the m y t h o l o g i c a l allusion (i.e. in f a c t it is the T r o j a n s w h o a r e p r o p e r l y a l i g n e d w i t h the p o w e r of J u p i t e r ) ?

GIGANTOMACHY

IN T H E AEMEID:

'47

II

(b) The final duel between Aeneas and Turnus cunctanti telum Aeneas fatale coruscat, sortitus fortunam oculis, et corpore toto eminus intorquet. murali coneiia numquam tormento sic saxa fremunt nec fulmine tanti dissultant crepitus, volat atri turbinis instar exitium dirum hasta ferens orasque recludit loricae et clipei extremes septemplicis orbis; per medium stridens transit femur, incidit ictus ingens ad terram du plica to popiite Turnus. consurgunt gemiiu Rutuli tot usque rem u git mons circum et vocem late nemora alta remittunt. (Aen.

12.919

ff.)

T h e only other e x a m p l e in the Aeneid o f the julmen c o m p a r i s o n applied to a missile projected b y h u m a n h a n d is the last spearthrow of all, that with w h i c h A e n e a s brings d o w n T u r n u s ; indeed this t h r o w even exceeds the force o f the t h u n d e r b o l t . 6 5 T h e parallelism b e t w e e n the deaths o f Bitias a n d o f T u r n u s extends to the overall structure of the t w o episodes, w h i c h maybe laid out in the f o l l o w i n g schematic form: 1.

The missile is i n t r o d u c e d a n d then c o m p a r e d to a thunderbolt (9.704 ff., 1 2 . 9 1 9 ff.). In e a c h case the w e a p o n is described as stridens (9.705, 12.926). A e n e a s ' spear, h o w ever, exceeds the f u l m i n e o u s force of T u r n u s ' phalarica.™ 2. T h e w e a p o n pierces a p a r t i c u l a r l y massive piece of arm o u r ; b u t a g a i n the t w o - l a y e r e d shield a n d d o u b l e cuirass of Bitias are o u t b i d b y the sevenfold shield of T u r n u s . 3. The vast hero falls to the g r o u n d (immania, 9.708; ingens, 12.927). 4. N a t u r e responds s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y ; with 9.709 c o m p a r e 12.929 'mons c i r c u m et v o c e m late n e m o r a alta remittunt*. 67 T h e latter passage of course describes the effect of 85

O n the L u c r e t i a n e c h o e s in t he d e s c r i p t i o n o f A e n e a s ' s p e a r - t h r o w see b e l o w , p p .

176-8. 88

T h e a d j e c t i v e fuimineus

is used o f a s w o r d at Aen.

4.580 w i t h a p p a r e n t l y

no

t h e o l o g i c a l o v e r t o n e s . C f . the H o m e r i c use o f a-repo-nr/ a n d the p o s t - H o m e r i c f i g u r a t i v e use of (iaTpaiTTW, 67

C o m p a r e 8.305 ' c o n s o n a t o m n e n e m u s s t r e p i t u c o l l e s q u e r e s u l t a n t ' ; here

the

literal r e f e r e n c e to h u m a n v o i c e s also c o n t a i n s a hint at a s y m p a t h e t i c r e a c t i o n o n the part o f n a t u r e herself, w h o s e c o h e s i o n h a d b e e n t h r e a t e n e d b y the s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n

I48

V I R G I L ' S AENEID-.

COSMOS

AND

IMPERII]M

h u m a n voices, but the choice o f l a n g u a g e imports a hint of the pastoral m o t i f of the s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y e c h o i n g woods. V i r g i l ' s t e n d e n c y to h y p e r b o l e in his battle scenes reaches its c l i m a x in the final c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n A e n e a s a n d T u r n u s . T h i s m a y be a c c o u n t e d for on aesthetic grounds: the c l i m a x of the epic requires a suitably climactic style. But the stylistic device of h y p e r b o l e also corresponds to a thematic cons u m m a t i o n of the narrative; in simple terms, the final duel recapitulates the decisive v i c t o r y o f f u pi ter over the Giants. T h e R u t u l i a n Saces u n w i t t i n g l y preludes the theme in his a p p e a l to T u r n u s to return to the centre of the battle a n d face A e n e a s (12.654 f.): fulminât Aeneas armis summasque minatur deiecturum arces Italum excidioque daturum F o r the implications of fulminât, c o m p a r e the passage at the end o f the fourth Géorgie q u o t e d a b o v e ; J u p i t e r ' s lightning is peculiarly p r o n e to strike arces.68 A e n e a s reappears on the stage some forty lines later to confront T u r n u s (697 if.) : at pater Aeneas audi to nomine Turni deserit et muros et summas deserit arces praecipitatque moras omnis, opera omnia rumpit laetitia exsultans horrendumque intonat armis. 69 It is no a c c i d e n t t h a t the v e r b intonate, w h i c h w e saw in the Bitias passage, is used to i n t r o d u c e A e n e a s . A n d j u s t before the end T u r n u s himself recognizes the real nature o f the e n e m y (12.895): di me terrent et Iuppiter hostis.70 T h i s is in stark contrast to T u r n u s ' boastful reaction to the metamorphosis o f the T r o j a n ships at the b e g i n n i n g o f book nine (128 f ) : Troianos haec monstra petunt, his Iuppiter ipse auxilium solitum eripuit H e r c u l e s a n d C a c u s ; ' c o l l e s q u e r e s u l t a n t ' is the h a r m o n i o u s c o u n t e r p a r t o f ' d i s s u l t a n t r i p a e ' etc. (8.240). 68

See b e l o w , p. 1 7 8 n. 59.

70

C o n f i r m i n g A e n e a s ' c l a i m a t 5 6 5 ' I u p p i t e r h a c stat'.

C o m p a r e 9 . 7 3 1 f. ( o f T u r n u s ) ' a r m a / h o r r e n d u m s o n u e r e ' .

G I G A N T O M A C H Y IN T H E A ENEII)

: II

!

49

T h e point of the G i g a n t o m a c h i c reference in book nine is n o w clear. G i g a n t o m a c h v opens and closes the w a r in L a t i u m ; at the b e g i n n i n g of the w a r it is the e n e m y of R o m e w h o takes on the O l y m p i a n role, striking d o w n g i g a n t i c T r o j a n opponents. In his d e f i a n t speech in reply to D r a n c e s in the council of book eleven T u r n us vaunts his d e f e a t of Bitias a n d P a n d a r u s as the touchstone o f his invincibility ( 11.396): liaud ita me experti Bitias et Pandarus ingens But the r e a d e r is a l r e a d y in a position to anticipate the correct identification of the roles o f g o d a n d G i a n t in this h u m a n struggle, after the episode in w h i c h the a r c h e r - g o d 7 1 A p o l l o blesses the successful shot with w h i c h A s c a n i u s silences N u m a n u s , an action w h i c h A p o l l o takes as a sign o f the eventual cessation of w a r after the final R o m a n victory (642 f.); at the end o f the previous book w e h a v e a l r e a d y seen the realization of this p r o p h e c y in the s u p e r h u m a n arrow-shot o f A p o l l o himself at Actiurn in a struggle with G i g a n t o m a c h i c overtones. T h e significance of the A p o l l i n e intervention in b o o k nine is underlined by the augurium maximum vouchsafed by J u piter at lines 630 f : audiit et caeli genitor de parte serena intonuit laevum, sonat una fatifer arcus. H u m a n arrow-shot and d i v i n e t h u n d e r b o l t are synchronized in a distant p r é f i g u r a t i o n o f the rightful o m n i p o t e n c e o f R o m a n arms at Actiurn. The true state o f affairs is also suggested in w o r d s o f D r a n c e s that c o n t a i n a greater irony than he himself k n o w s ( 1 1 . 3 5 0 f. ) : dum Troia temp tat castra fugae fid ens et caelum terri tat armis. T h e last three w o r d s are m e a n t to deride the futility o f T u r n us' e m p t y threats; 7 2 but the p a r t i c u l a r form of the expression suggests the impious assault on h e a v e n b y T i t a n or G i a n t . 7 3 T h i s 71

S e e 9.660. T h e c l a t t e r o f A p o l l o ' s q u i v e r as h e g o e s is based o n the H o m e r i c

d e s c r i p t i o n o f A p o l l o ' s d e s c e n t to d e a l o u t d e a t h in the G r e e k c a m p ill.

1 . 4 5 f.); in

P r o p . 4 . 6 . 3 3 f. t h e A p o l l o o f A c t i u m is p r e s e n t e d in t h e s a m e a s p e c t . 78

C o m m e n t a t o r s c o m p a r e 5 . 3 7 7 , 1 2 . 1 0 5 f.; Geo. 3 . 2 3 3 f.

73

S e r v i u s notes (ad Aen. 1 1 . 3 5 1 • ' d i x i m u s D r a n c e n l i b r a r e se a d o r a t i o n e m L a t i n i :

u n d e n u n c d i c i t " e t c a e l u m territat a r m i s " , q u i a a u d i e r a t " h e l i u m i m p o r t u n u m , cives, c u m g e n t e d e o r u m " [ 1 1 . 3 0 5 ] ' ; but this c a n h a r d l y be t h e conscious m e a n i n g o f D r a n c e s .

jgo

V I R G I L ' S AENEID-.

COSMOS

AND

IMPERIL!M

is a g o o d e x a m p l e of the c o i n c i d e n c e of psychological realism (the words fit the 'turn id a oratio' of D r a n c e s , as Servius says) and of allegory; the rhetorical h y p e r b o l e turns out to be truer t h a n its speaker intended. 7 4 As a structural device this m a n i p u l a t i o n o f the G i g a n t o m a c h i c allegory is closely related to other m o v e m e n t s of inversion in the last h a l f of the Aeneid, p a r t i c u l a r l y to the exploitation of the Sibyl's a m b i g u o u s p r o p h e c y o f a second Achilles (6.89). T h i s is a role at first assumed for himself by T u r n u s , explicitly in the taunt w h i c h he addresses to the g i g a n tic Bitias' gigantic brother P a n d a r u s after killing Bitias (9.742): hie etiam in vent um Priamo narrabis Achillem. But ultimately it is A e n e a s w h o re-enacts the killing of H e c t o r b y Achilles. 7 6 T h e use of G i g a n t o m a c h y itself need not point to A t t a l i d models; it is a n o b v i o u s a n d w i d e s p r e a d i m a g e for the successful defeat o f a nation's enemies. But other features of the V i r g i l i a n T u r n u s bring us closer to P e r g a m u m . In P e r g a m e n e terms there is a close e q u i v a l e n c e b e t w e e n G i a n t and C e l t , and this symbolic association w a s furthered b y the fact, k n o w n to all ancient e t h n o g r a p h e r s , that the Celts w e r e a race of a b n o r m a l l y large stature. 7 6 T h i s fact is used to d r a m a t i c effect b y L i v y in his accounts o f the G a u l s w h o at various times threatened R o m e ; the artistic effect is not dissimilar to the V i r g i l i a n exploitation of h y p e r b o l e in the last books of the Aeneid, but L i v y ' s t r e a t m e n t o f the G a u l s also provides some striking t h e m a t i c parallels w i t h V i r g i l ' s presentation of T u r n u s . In o t h e r words, V i r g i l , like the P e r g a m e n e sculptors, c o m b i n e s the themes of G i g a n t o m a c h y and G a l l o m a e h y . S o m e of the G a l l i c traits of T u r n u s are of a general nature, for e x a m p l e the greed for gold w h i c h is a n implied m o t i v e in the despoliation of the halteus of Pallas {aura 10.499); c o m p a r e the episode in w h i c h Brennus had to be b o u g h t off w i t h gold ( L i v y 5.48), a n d also the a c c o u n t D r a n c e s ' l a n g u a g e is close to that o f a literal G i g a n t o m a c h y at H o r . Carm. 3.4.49 f. ' m a g n u m ilia t e r r o r e m i n t u l e r a t I o v i / fidens i u v e n t u s h o r r i d a b r a c c h i i s ' . 74

F o r f u r t h e r e x a m p l e s o f this d e v i c e see b e l o w , p p . 284, 299.

75

W . S. A n d e r s o n , ' V e r g i l ' s second Iliad \ TAPhA

7S

D i o d . Sic. 5 . 2 8 . 1 ; P a u s . 10.20.7; S t r a b o 4.4.2. A c c o r d i n g to T i m a e u s , G a l a t o s ,

88 ( 1 9 5 7 ) , 17 30, esp. 23 ff.

the e p o n y m o u s a n c e s t o r o f the G a l a t i a n s , w a s the son o f G a l a t e i a a n d FGrH

5 6 6 F 69).

Polyphemus

G I G A N T O M A C H Y IN T H E AENEID:

II

of G a l l i c greed at L i v y 21.20. 7 7 A very specific allusion to a p a r t i c u l a r episode i n v o l v i n g a G a u l is the F u r y sent d o w n as an o m e n by Jupiter at Aeneid 1 2.853 t u r n i n g into an o w l , she flits in front of T u r n u s ' face and inspires him with panic (12.861 ff.): postquam acies videt. Iliacas atque agmina Turni, alitis in parvae subitam collecta liguram, quae quondam in bustis aut culminibus desertis noete sedens serum canit import una per umbras— hanc versa in faciem Turni se pestis ob ora fertque refertque sonans clipeumque everberat aiis. I Hi membra novus solvit formidine torpor, arrectaeque horrore comae et vox faucibus haesit. A s C o n i n g l o n notes, this is modelled on the duel b e t w e e n V a lerius C o r v i n u s and the G a u l at L i v y 7.26, w h e n a c r o w flew d o w n a n d helped V a l e r i u s b y repeatedly flying in the face of the G a u l : 7 8 narnque conserenti iam rnanum Romano corvus repente in galea conscdit in hostem versus, quod primo ut augurium caelo missum laetus accepit tribunus . . . dictu mirabile, tenuit non solum ales captam semel sedem sed, quotiescumque certamen initum est, levans se alis os oculosque hostis rostra et unguibus appetiit, donee territum prodigii talis visu oculisque simul ac mente turbatum Valerius obtruncat. corvus e conspectu elatus orientem petit. T h e epic theme of the duel b e t w e e n the t w o greatest heroes on each side is H o m e r i c , but in R o m a n history the closest parallels are the f a m o u s duels b e t w e e n R o m a n c o m m a n d e r s and G a l l i c chieftains. L i v y ' s description o f the light between M a n l i u s T o r q u a t u s a n d the G a u l (7.10) provides some parallels with the last scene of the Aeneid: et duo in medio armati spectaculi magis more quam lege belli de77

O n Gallic: ^iiXoKoap.ov a n d XP V/J0 4 >0 P € ^

78

L i v y ' s a c c o u n t is based o n t h e Annales o f C l a u d i u s Q u a d r i g a r i u s , fr. 12 P e t e r

sec

S t r a h o 4-4-5-

' c o n s e r e h a n t u r i a m m a n u s . a t q u e ibi vis q u a e d a i n d i v i n a fit: c o r v u s r e p e n t e i m p r o v i s u s a d v o l a t et s u p e r g a l e a m t r i b u n i insist it a t q u e i n d e in a d v e r s a r i i os a t q u e o c u l o s p u g n a r e i n c i p i t ; i n s i l i a b a t , o b t u r b a b a t et u n g u i b u s m a n u m l a n i a b a t et p r o s p e c t u m alis a r c e b a t a t q u e , u b i satis s a e v i e r a t , i r v o l a b . i t in g a l e a m t r i b u n i . ' Q u i n t i l i a n ,

presenting

the

s u b j e c t o f V a l e r i u s a n d the c r o w as a r h e t o r i c a l exercise (Inst. 2 . 4 . 1 8 ) , seems to c o m b i n e v e r b a l e c h o e s o f b o t h the V i r g i l i a n a n d the L i v i a n passages: ' c o r v u m , qui os o c u l o s q u e hostis G a l l i rostro a t q u e alis e v e r b e r a r e t ' ; cf. Aen. 12.866 ' e v e r b e r a t alls'.

l6'2

V I R G I L ' S A EN EID:

COSMOS

ANÜ

IMPERIUM

stituuntur, nequaquam visu ac specie aestimantibus pares . . . ubi constitere inter duas acies, tot circa mortalium animis spe metuque pendentibus, Gallus, velut moles superne imminens, proiecto laeva scuto in advenientis arma hostis vanum caesim cum ingenti sonitu ensem deiecit. Romanus mucrone subrecto quum scuto scutum imum perculisset totoque corpore interior periculo vulneris fact us insinuasset se inter corpus armaque, uno alteroque subinde ictu ventrem atque inguina hausit et in spa ti urn ingerís ru en tern porrexit hostem. i ace nt is inde corpus ab omni alia vexatione in tac turn uno torque spoliavit, quem respe rsurn cruore collo circumdedit suo. de fixera t pavor cum admiratione Gallos. Romani . . . gratulantes laudantesque ad dictatorem perducunt alacres ab statione obviam militi suo progressi. 79 N o t e the repeated emphasis on the vast size o f the G a u l , a n a l o gous to the V i r g i l ian b u i l d - u p of h y p e r b o l e (with the i m p o r t a n t difference that for L i v y the contrast b e t w e e n the g i g a n t i c G a u l

and the módica Matura of Torquatus is intended to excite our s y m p a t h y ) ; m o r e specifically, note the d e v i c e by w h i c h L i v y develops the e x c i t e m e n t t h r o u g h the description o f a u d i e n c e reaction; a n d c o m p a r e the V i r g i l i a n description of the R u t u l i a n reaction to the fall of Turn us, 12.928 f. L i v y gives a sort o f stage direction to the c o n t e m p o r a r y R o m a n r e a d e r on h o w to a p p r o a c h the duel: the t w o m e n c o m e out to fight ' m o r e in the fashion of a g l a d i a t o r i a l show, than a c c o r d i n g to the rules of w a r . 8 0 F o r a R o m a n of the time o f A u g u s t u s it w a s c e r t a i n l y the w o u n d e d g l a d i a t o r w h o p r o v i d e d the most accessible spectacle of d e a t h in arms, a n d there is a strong feeling o f the gladiatorial a b o u t the death of T u r n u s : the sense t h a t these t w o a w e s o m e warriors are f i g h t i n g for their lives in total isolation, despite and because of the h u g e a u d i e n c e of spectators; the sequence of disabling b l o w followed by the coup de grâce after T u r n u s ' unsuccessful request for missio,81 a sequence w i t h epic 79

T h i s is also b a s e d o n Q u a d r i g a r i u s , fr. 10 P e t e r .

80

T h e g l a d i a t o r i a l i m a g e is f r e q u e n t l y a p p l i e d to the c h i e f o p p o n e n t s in a bellum

civile b y w r i t e r s o f the first c e n t u r y AD: see P. J a l , La Guerre civile à Rome: étude littéraire et morale (Paris, 1 9 6 3 ) , p p . 341 if.; F, M . A h l , Lut an: an introduction ( I t h a c a a n d L o n d o n , 1 9 7 6 ) , i n d e x s.vv. gladiatorial imagery; N i s b e t / H u b b a r d i, p. 330. F u r t h e r possible g l a d i a torial a l l u s i o n i n t h e b a t t l e - s c e n e s o f the Aenetdv (i) t h e use o f the p h r a s e ' h o c h a b e t ' at 12.296; p | the use o f harena in b o o k t w e l v e to refer to the d u s t o f the b a t t l e f i e l d , at lines 276, 340, 382, 7 4 1 ; a c c o r d i n g to TLL

vi, 2 5 3 1 . 1 4 ff. this use does n o t o c c u r b e f o r e

V i r g i l (at 9 . 5 8 9 harena m a y b e t a k e n l i t e r a l l y o f the s a n d o f the s e a - s h o r e ) . O n H o m e r ' s use o f the a n a l o g y b e t w e e n r e a l bat tle a n d a g o n i s t i c c o m b a t see J . M . R e d f i e l d t Nature and culture m the I l i a d ( C h i c a g o a n d L o n d o n , 1 9 7 5 ) , p p . 204 ff. 8!

J u v e n a l s l i g h t i n g l y presents A e n e a s a n d T u r n u s as a g l a d i a t o r i a l pair, 1 . 1 6 2 f.

G I G A N T O M A C H Y I N T H E AE.NEID-.

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153

precedents, b u t w h i c h is not found in the H o m e r i c a c c o u n t of the d e a t h of H e c t o r , for w h o m the iirst spear-throw is e v e n t u ally fatal; a n d even, perhaps, the regrettable inability of A e n e a s to control his temper, c o m p a r a b l e to the gladiatoria iracundia of w h i c h C i c e r o speaks ( Tusc. 4.21.48 f. j: an vero vir fortis nisi stomachari coepit non potest fort is esse? gladiatorium id quidem . . . {49) at sine hac gladiatoria iracundia videmus progredientem apud Homerum Aiacem multa cum hilaritate, cum depugnaturus est cum Hectore . . . ego ne Torquatum quidem ilium, qui hoc cognomen invenit, ira turn existimo Gallo torquem detraxisse. D y i n g G a u l , d y i n g g l a d i a t o r : we m i g h t r e m e m b e r that the P e r g a m e n e D y i n g G a u l w a s in m o d e r n times long k n o w n as the D y i n g G l a d i a t o r . Critics h a v e differed s h a r p l y over the significance of the V i r gilian episode of the D e a t h o f T u r n u s , but all are agreed that, w h a t e v e r its implications, it is as quintessentially V i r g i l i a n as the M a r c e l l u s episode at the end o f b o o k six. I w o u l d not dissent, b u t point out only that, as often, the n e w is the result of a r e w o r k i n g of the old. Is not this o v e r r i d i n g interest in the c h a r a c t e r a n d fate o f the defeated e n e m y , to the extent of p u t t i n g the victor himself in the shade, the attitude expressed in the P e r g a m e n e sculptures of the G a u l s that they h a d destroyed? T h e c o m p l e x effect of the D e a t h of T u r n u s is p a r t l y the result o f th'è several layers o f allusion that I h a v e pointed to; an a n a l o g y to the g e n e r a l m e t h o d o f glossing a victory b y allusions to a r c h e t y p a l victories in the past is found in the A t t a l i d d e d i c a t i o n on the Acropolis, in w h i c h o u r response to the event c o m m e m o r a t e d , the defeat of the G a l a t i a n s , is g u i d e d b y the s i m u l t a n e o u s display o f scenes of defeated G i a n t s , A m a zons, a n d Persians. In the V i r g i l i a n n a r r a t i v e , in a d d i t i o n to the i m m e d i a t e fight b e t w e e n T r o j a n and Italian, four types of allusion m a y be detected: to G i g a n t o m a c h y , to the H o m e r i c duel b e t w e e n A c h i l l e s a n d H e c t o r , to the fight of R o m a n against G a u l , a n d Icommittas):

see C o u r t n e y ad loc. O n the rules o f the g l a d i a t o r i a l f i g h t a n d t h e r e q u e s t

for missio see G . V i l l e , La Gladiature en occident des origines à la mort de Domitien (Bibl. des É c o l e s f r a n ç . d ' A t h è n e s et d e R o m e , R o m e , 1 9 8 1 } , p p . 386 AT.; note esp. p. 4 2 3 , o n t h e psychological

centre

o f interest in the a m p h i t h e a t r e :

'la question n'était

pas

de

s a v o i r . . . q u e l c o m b a t t a n t serait blessé et serait p a r c o n s é q u e n t r é p u t é v a i n c u ; elle était d e s a v o i r si l ' o n é g o r g e r a i t o u n o n le blessé en q u e s t i o n , '

jgo

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - . COSMOS

AND

IMPERIL!M

to the g l a d i a t o r i a l s p e c t a c l e . I n c e r t a i n i m p o r t a n t respects these f o u r w o r k in o p p o s i t e directions, a n d this tension is, I believe, l a r g e l y responsible for the feelings o f p e r p l e x i t y t h a t the scene often evokes. T h e f o u r m a y be d i v i d e d into t w o g r o u p s . O n the o n e h a n d G i g a n t o m a c h y a n d the f i g h t a g a i n s t the C a u l b o t h tend to e l e v a t e the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f A e n e a s ' v i c t o r y : G i g a n t o m a c h y p l a c e s h i m on the side o f the gods, r e - e n a c t i n g the p r i m i t i v e v i c t o r y o f o r d e r o v e r disorder. T h e s l a y i n g o f the G a u l is also a positive a f f i r m a t i o n o f the Tightness o f R o m a n m i g h t , a n d A e n e a s ' s t r u g g l e is t h e r e b y e n d o w e d w i t h the historical p e r m a n e n c e o f a n y type, in the b i b l i c a l sense. O n the o t h e r h a n d the H o m e r i c d u e l a n d the g l a d i a t o r i a l c o m b a t b o t h red u c e the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the v i c t o r y . H o m e r i c v i c t o r y is a b r i g h t a n d g l o r i o u s t h i n g , b u t it is essentially t r a n s i t o r y , h a v i n g o n l y the afterlife o f i m m a t e r i a l kleos. T h e H o m e r i c h e r o ' s q u e s t for g l o r y ceases o n l y w h e n he is e n f e e b l e d o r d e a d ; its s i g n i f i c a n c e is l a r g e l y restricted to the m o m e n t ; this is in stark c o n t r a s t to the V i r g i l i a n a n d A u g u s t a n (and P e r g a m e n e ) c o n c e p t o f v i c t o r y as h a v i n g l a s t i n g effects, m a r k i n g a decisive s t a g e in a historical process. F i n a l l y , the g l a d i a t o r i a l a r e n a sees the final r e d u c t i o n o f the f i g h t e r to a n o n - p e r s o n , w h o s e m o m e n t o f v i o l e n t a c t i o n exists o n l y to s u p p l y a p a s s i n g s p e c t a c l e for others. T h a t these c o n t r a d i c t o r y t h e m e s should coexist is p e r h a p s p e c u l i a r l y V i r g i l i a n . Is the b a t t l e o f the bees in the fourth Georgic a m o d e l o f epic heroics, or is it n o m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l t h a n the h a n d f u l o f dust w i t h w h i c h it is suppressed?

(c) A e n e a s a n d A e g a e o n (Acneid

10.565-70)

A e g a e o n qualis, c e n t u m cui b r a c c h i a d i c u n t centenasque manus, quinquaginta oribus ignem p e c t o r i b u s q u e arsisse, I o v i s c u m f u l m i n a c o n t r a tot p a r i b u s s t r e p e r e t c l i p e i s , tot s t r i n g e r e t ensis: sic t o t o A e n e a s d e s a e v i t i n a e q u o r e v i c t o r ut semel i n t e p u i t m u c r o .

A n y i d e a t h a t the G i g a n t o m a c h i c allusions in b o o k s nine a n d t w e l v e m a r k the limits o f a s m o o t h c u r v e d e f i n i n g the necessary r e a d j u s t m e n t o f o u r p e r c e p t i o n o f the p r o p e r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the roles o f g o d s a n d g i a n t s m u s t c o m e to terms w i t h the striking

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D\ II

155

comparison of Aeneas to the H u n d r e d - h a n d e r A e g a e o n Briareus, as he rages across the battlefield after the d e a t h o f Pallas. In Hesiod the H u n d r e d - h a n d e r s assist Zeus in his fight against the Titans, 8 2 but V i r g i l here follows the version of the Titanomachia, a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h A e g a e o n fought with the T i tans against the gods [lovis fulmina contra, 567). 8 3 A e g a e o n Briareus is found in the A eneid again at the entrance to H a d e s (Aen. 6.287), together with the C h i m a e r a w h o is represented on the helmet of T u r n u s ; his lire-breathing aligns him with C h i m a e r a and with C a c u s ; his fires are a direct challenge to the flames o f j u p i t e r ' s f u l m i n a . It is difficult to fit this simile into a wider thematic context. O n the one hand it assorts with the extreme savagery shown shortly before by A e n e a s in taking prisoners for h u m a n sacrifice (10.517 ff.); 84 on the other h a n d this violence gives pleasure to J u p i t e r (606 ff.), whose long-term plans it of course furthers. M o r e o v e r , h o w is this episode, in w h i c h A e n e a s figuratively fights on the side of the Giants or T i t a n s , to be reconciled with the final episode of the book, in w h i c h A e n e a s acts as a Giant-killer in his defeat of the monstrous Mezentius? O n e answer to questions of this sort has been to maintain the essential similarity of the violence used on both sides in the w a r in L a t i u m ; this view is most usually found expressed in general moral terms, yielding the comforting conclusion that Virgil did not really uphold the values of imperialist militarism. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , an a p p r o a c h is m a d e through the idea that the w a r in L a t i u m is an image of civil w a r , in w h i c h guilt adheres to both sides. But we m a y also see the a m b i v a l e n c e as in a sense already present in the basic m y t h of G i g a n t o m a c h y , w h e r e the distinction between the two types of opponent, gods and Giants, is often, weak (as opposed to the D a v i d - a n d - G o l i a t h type of confrontation, as seen, for example, in the stories of plucky R o m a n c o m m a n d e r s pitted against vast G a l l i c chieftains); both sides are c o m p a r a b l e in size and use similar tactics, and this similarity between hero and villain m a y extend to the in82

Theog. 6 1 7 ff.

83

S c h o l . ad A p . R h o d . 1 , 1 1 6 5 . T h e a n c i e n t c o m m e n t a t o r s felt u n c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h

a n A e g a e o n a t t a c k i n g J u p i t e r : cf. Serv. Dan. ad Aen. 10.567. 84

T h i s u n d e r m i n e s G . W i l l i a m s ' a t t e m p t to see in t h e s i m i l e s i m p l y the a p p a l l e d

r e a c t i o n o f the Latins to t h e d e s t r u c t i v e p r o w e s s o f A e n e a s (Technique and ideas in the A e n e i d ( N e w H a v e n a n d L o n d o n , 1983), p. i8o>.

if><>

V I R G I L ' S AEM Ell):

COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

terchangeability of attributes or roles ( A e g a e o n is a good exa m p l e , fighting n o w on the side o f the gods, n o w of the T i t a n s ) , as J o s e p h F o n ten rose points o u t in the ' C o n c l u s i o n ' of his

Python: it becomes apparent that both creative and destructive forces are mingled on both sides of the divine combat. So myth is nearer to reality in this respect than that sort of partisanship in life or that sort of melodrama in literature which pits pure good on one side against pure evil on the other. 85 65

p.Vthm

( i 9 5 9 ) . P- 473-

5- Lucretius and the Aeneid T H E pervasive influence of Lucretius on the early works of V i r g i l , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r o n the Georgics, has been intensively analysed; it is difficult to i m a g i n e that this influence could h a v e been a n y t h i n g b u t decisive on one w h o w r o t e all his m a j o r works in hexameters, w h o in his y o u t h had been an E p i c u r e a n , a n d w h o , w h a t e v e r process of deconversion he m a y h a v e undergone, a l w a y s preserved a certain s y m p a t h y for the m o r a l teachings of the G a r d e n , if not for its physical a n d theological doctrines. 1 T h e world of G r e e k pastoral has strong affinities w i t h m a n y aspects of E p i c u r e a n i s m , 2 and in the Eclogues, t h o u g h w e m a y reject the idea that V i r g i l still shows himself to be an adherent of that sect, the influence of Lucretius is u n m i s t a k a b l e , even at points w h e r e V i r g i l strains against those conventions of the bucolic genre that b r i n g it p a r t i c u l a r l y close to E p i c u r e a n i s m In this c h a p t e r I analyse the interaction in the Aeneid o f traditional epic themes with the themes of n a t u r a l philosophy, t h r o u g h an e x a m i n a t i o n of V i r g i l ' s b o r r o w i n g s from and rew o r k i n g s of the De Rerum Natura. M y (perhaps disconcerting) conclusion is that in the construction o f a R o m a n and A u g u s t a n m y t h in the Aeneid the De Rerum Natura, a work w h i c h constructs an E p i c u r e a n universe, is a central m o d e l ; V i r g i l thus achieves that union o f the political a n d the cosmological to w h i c h he could only uncertainly r e a c h in the Georgics. T h e detailed imitation of Lucretius in the Aeneid, h o w e v e r , continues practices e v o l v e d in the earlier p o e m ; a p r e l i m i n a r y a c c o u n t of V i r g i l i a n imitatio m a y usefully be deri ved from a consideration o f certain features of the Georgics, a p o e m in the same genre as the De 1

G e n e r a l b i b l i o g r a p h y o n the i n f l u e n c e o f L u c r e t i u s o n V i r g i l : W . S u e r b a u m in

ANRWn.

3 1 . i ( 1 9 8 0 ) , 2 7 9 ff.; W i g o d s k y , p p . 132 ff. A basic tool f o r a n y s u c h s t u d y as

the p r e s e n t is W . A . M e r r i l l , ' P a r a l l e l s a n d c o i n c i d e n c e s in L u c r e t i u s a n d V i r g i l ' ,

UCP

3 ( 1 9 1 8 ) , 1 3 5 - 2 4 7 , w h i c h is, h o w e v e r , m a r r e d b y m i s p r i n t s , a n d is n o t c o m p l e t e e v e n as a list o f p a r a l l e l s . A p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o r o u g h a t t e m p t to t r a c e E p i c u r e a n a n d L u c r e t i a n i n f l u e n c e in the Eclogues, w i t h h e l p f u l s u r v e y s o f e a r l i e r w o r k , is p r o v i d e d b y G . C a s t e l l i , ' E c h i l u c r e z i a n i nelle Edogke virgiliane', 2

RSC 14 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 3 1 3 - 4 2 ; 15 ( 1 9 6 7 ) , 1 4 - 3 9 .

See T . G . R o s e n m e y e r , The green cabinet ( B e r k e l e y , L o s A n g e l e s , L o n d o n ,

p p . 42 ff. a n d passim.

1969),

l6'2

V I R G I L ' S A EN EID:

COSMOS

ANÜ

IMPERIUM

Rerum Natura and in w h i c h L u c r e t i a n influence is indisputable a n d massive. 3

I.

I M IT A TI O N

OF

L U C R E T I U S

IN

T H E

GE0RG1CS

V i r g i l ' s indebtedness to the De Rerum Matura in the Georgics is formally signalled by the L u c r e t i a n 'quotations' w h i c h are placed at the b e g i n n i n g of the resounding i n v o c a t i o n that follows on the h a n d b o o k - s t y l e introduction of four and a h a l f lines, and also at the b e g i n n i n g of the first section of the m a i n b o d y of the first book. 4 But, more g e n e r a l l y , there are a n u m b e r of i m p o r t a n t respects in w h i c h the t w o didactic poems are related, despite their disparate subjects o f n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y and agriculture. Both present technical s u b j e c t - m a t t e r a n d direct it to the moral and protreptic end o f s h o w i n g m a n k i n d the right w a y to live; both are, in their o w n w a y s , poems a b o u t salvation. T h i s c o n v e r g e n c e is m a r k e d by a L u c r e t i a n echo at the end of the invocation to the gods at the b e g i n n i n g of book one of the Georgics, in the final a p p e a l to O c t a v i a n (41) : ignarosque viae mecum miseratus agrestis. T h e anguished pity for the R o m a n f a r m e r in this line makes sense only in the light of Lucretius' passionate c o n c e r n to set w r e t c h e d and benighted m a n k i n d on the right path. 5 If the Georgics are ostensibly a b o u t the limited range of interests of the practical farmer, it soon becomes clear that their subject, like that o f the De Rerum Matura, is in fact the n a t u r a l universe as a w h o l e and m a n ' s place within it; 6 only by establishing the S r a f , h V o n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f L u c r e t i u s o n the Georgics in W . S u e r b a u m in ANRWH. 3 1 . i ( 1 9 8 0 ) , 489 ff. T h e f o l l o w i n g are p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t : W . Y . S e l l a r , The Roman poets of the Augustan age: Virgil* ( O x f o r d , 1883), c h . 6; E . P a r a t o r e , ' S p u n t i l u c r e z i a n i nolle " G e o r g i c h e " 5 , A&R ( 1 9 3 9 ) , 1 7 7 - 2 0 2 ; F. K l i n g n e r , Virgil ( Z u r i c h a n d S t u t t g a r t , 1 9 6 7 ) , i n d e x s.v. Lucrez; W . L i e b e s c h u e t z , ' T h e c y c l e o f g r o w t h a n d decayin L u c r e t i u s a n d V i r g i l ' , PI'S 7 ( 1 9 6 7 - 8 ) , 30 40; B u c h h e i t , Ansprud^ W . R . N e t h e r c u t , ' V e r g i l ' s De rerum natura', Ramus 2 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , 41 - 5 2 . * Geo. 1.5 f. 'vos, o c l a r i s s i m a m u n d i / l u m i n a , l a b e n t e m c a e l o q u a e d u c i t i s a n n u m ' : cf. L u c r . 1.2 ' a l m a V e n u s , caeli s u b t e r l a b e n t i a s i g n a ' ( H e y n e also cites L u c r . 5 . 1 4 3 6 ff.). Geo. 1.43 6: cf. L u c r . 5 . 1 9 5 ff. ( w i t h K l i n g n e r , o p . cit., p. 1 9 3 ) . C o m p a r e also V i r g i l ' s p r a y e r to O c t a v i a n , e n v i s a g e d as p o t e n t i a l ruler o f a n y o f the divisions o f the u n i v e r s e , w i t h the L u c r e t i a n V e n u s ' c o n t r o l o f all the w o r l d - d i v i s i o n s . 6 e.g. L u c r . 2.9 ff. 3

Biblio

fl T h u s W . L i e b e s c h u e t z , art. cit., p. 35, ' t h e Georgics, in spite o f the n a r r o w s c o p e o f their ostensible s u b j e c t , h a v e a u n i v e r s a l t h e m e ' ? ' V i r g i l has w r i t t e n his o w n m a n c e n t r e d De Rerum datura'.

L U C R I/IT U S A N D T H E A ENE ID

'59

correct relationship to n a t u r e will m a n o v e r c o m e his discontent, w h i c h for both poets is the result of the vain pursuits o f w a r , w e a l t h , and political success. T h e characteristic procedures of imitatio a n d aemulatio that link V i r g i l to Lucretius m a y be grasped most easily in the several 'set pieces' o f the Georgics; to d r a w out some more general points I take as an e x a m p l e the description of the p o w e r of love at Georgics 3.242-83; a n u m b e r of other passages w o u l d h a v e served as well. F o r a pessimistic t r e a t m e n t of sexual desire in d i d a c t i c verse V i r g i l had a striking model in the last 250 lines of book four of the De Rerurn Natura; elsewhere, h o w e v e r , Lucretius uses the c o n v e n t i o n a l figure of V e n u s as a s y m b o l of a f a v o u r a b l y creative p o w e r . It is well recognized that the passage in the third Georgic is a savagely pessimistic c o u n t e r p a r t to the genial picture of the effects of V e n u s at the b e g i n n i n g of the first book o f the De Rerum Natura? T h e L u c r e t i a n passage is most directly echoed in the idea that the p o w e r of sexual love makes light o f the obstacles o f river and m o u n t a i n (Georgics 3.269 f.): illas ducit amor trans Gargara transque sonantem Ascanium; superant montis et flumina tranant. C o m p a r e Lucretius 1 . 1 4 if.: inde ferae pecudes persultant pabula laeta et rapides tranant amnis: ita capta lepore te sequitur cupide quo quamque mducere pergis. denique per maria ac montisßuviosque rapaces. 8 T h e V i r g i l i a n transposition or inversion of L u c r e t i a n themes, typical of both the Georgics a n d the Aeneid, is here clear; for Lucretius the m o t i f of o v e r c o m i n g n a t u r a l obstacles illustrates love as the effect of lepos, while in V i r g i l it exemplifies the identification of amor as a furor (266). T h e m o t i f has a l r e a d y been anticipated in the V i r g i l i a n passage in terms w h i c h m a k e its destructive as7

K l i n g n e r , o p . cit. T p . 290, ' e i n G e g e n s t ü c k z u L u c r e z e n s V e r s e n an V e n u s ' ; L . P,

W i l k i n s o n , The G e o r g i c s of Virgil ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 6 9 ) , p. 9 7 , 'a d i s c o r d a n t t r a n s p o s i t i o n of Lucretius' exultant opening', 8

V i r g i l i n c o r p o r a t e s the m o u n t a i n s f r o m line 17, w h i c h d o e s n o t in sense o r g r a m m a r

c o h e r e w i t h the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the w a n d e r i n g s o f the beasts. T h i s t y p e o f c o m p r e s s i o n in b o r r o w i n g is t h o r o u g h l y V i r g i l i a n . I n the c o n j u n c t i o n o f r i v e r a n d m o u n t a i n V i r g . ; also e c h o e s V a r i u s R u f u s fr. 4.5 M o r e l ' n o n a m n e s i l l a m m e d i i , n o n a r d u a t a r d a n t 1 , a passage w h i c h V i r g i l h a d a l r e a d y a d a p t e d to a c o n t e x t o f amor at Eel. 8 . 8 5 - 9 .

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V I R G I L ' S A EN EID:

pects u n a m b i g u o u s : firstly, love-struck horses at 253 f :

COSMOS

ANÜ

IMPERIUM

in the earlier description of the

non scopuli rupesque cavae atque obiecta retardant flumina correptosque unda torquentia montis. 9 S e c o n d l y , in the m y t h o l o g i c a l e x a m p l e of L e a n d e r ' s lovecrazed a n d fatal crossing of the stormy sea (cf. L u c r . 1.17 'per m a r i a ' ) . 1 0 T h e theme is in fact p r e p a r e d for even earlier, at the b e g i n n i n g of the previous section on the sexual life o f cattle (212 f ) : atque ideo tauros procul atque in sola relegant pascua post monlem oppositum et trans flumina lata, T h e transgression o f these b o u n d a r i e s is destructive to the practical concerns o f the stock-breeder, a n d this destructiveness is merely generalized in the f o l l o w i n g section. W h a t in L u c r e t i u s is a j o y f u l celebration o f the miraculous powers of V e n u s is transposed into an appalled a c c o u n t of the i m m o d e r a t e violence of desire. But the r e w o r k i n g o f the L u c r e t i a n passage goes m u c h further than this. V i r g i l begins the section with the most general and universal statement of his theme (242 ff.): omne adeo genus in terris hominunique ferarumque et genus aequoreum, pecudes pietaeque volucres, in furias igneinque ruunt: amor omnibus idem. T h i s is V i r g i l ' s version o f the universal powers of V e n u s in the L u c r e t i a n p r o e m . Universality is first expressed t h r o u g h the

enclosing omne . . . omnibus, with which may be compared Lucretius 1.19:

omnibus incutiens blandum per pectora amorem. T h i s c o m p r e h e n s i v e s u m m a r y is e x p a n d e d in the listing of the i n h a b i t a n t s of the three world-divisions of earth, sea, and sky, a tripartition w h i c h also provides the structural f r a m e w o r k for 9

T h i s also o w e s s o m e t h i n g to the f r a g m e n t o f V a r i u s , in the use o f the r e p e a t e d

n e g a t i v e neque [line 2 5 2 ] . . . non a n d in the i d e a that this f r e n z y is c a u s e d b y a n a i r b o r n e scent: c o m p a r e l i n e 251 'si t a n t u m n o t a s o d o r a t t u l i t a u r a s ' w i t h V a r i u s fr. 4.4 ' a e t h e r a p e r n i t i d u m tenues s e c t a t u r o d o r e s ' . 10

T h e V a r i u s f r a g m e n t is also r e l e v a n t here: L e a n d e r is an e x a m p l e o f o n e w h o ' n e c

s e r a e m e m i n i t d e c e d e r e n o c t i ' , V a r i u s fr. 4.6 — Ed. c a e c a serus f r e t a ' .

8.88: cf. Geo. 3.260, ' n o c t e n a t a t

LUCRETIUS AND THE

.67

AEJtEID

Lucretius' description of the powers o f V e n u s . M y analysis of L u c r e t i a n influence on the Aeneid will r e p e a t e d l y d e m o n s t r a t e the i m p o r t a n c e of such universalizing; c h a p t e r 7 will e x a m i n e in detail the various uses to w h i c h V i r g i l in the Aeneid puts the tripartite universe, p a r t i c u l a r l y as a reflection of L u c r e t i a n usage. T h e transition from the local to the universal is also central to m y w h o l e thesis in this book; here this transition takes the form of the strictly sequential passage from the specific description o f the effects of love on cattle to the general description o f the p o w e r of love; b u t in the Aeneid V i r g i l often contrives to hold the local a n d the universal together simultaneously. F i n a l l y on this o p e n i n g passage we m a y ask whether in hominumque jer arum que (242) V i r g i l does not intend w h a t can only

be described as a parody of the Lucretian hominum divumque voluptas: L u c r e t i u s shows us a V e n u s w h o links m a n with the gods; V i r g i l describes a passion w h i c h reduces m a n to the level o f the animals. Lucretius' V e n u s brings fair w e a t h e r , r a d i a n t light, a n d the mildness of spring; V i r g i l ian amor is associated w i t h the violence of the storm, with darkness, and with the extremes of heat a n d cold. T h e j o y f u l thrill ( perculsae, L u c r . 1.13) perceived by the L u c r e t i a n f a u n a at the a p p r o a c h of V e n u s is transformed into a m o r b i d s h u d d e r i n g , w h i c h echoes v e r b a l l y a L u c r e t i a n description of the effects of the t h u n d e r b o l t (Geo. 3.250 f ) : nonne vides ut tota tremor pertemptat equorum corpora. C o m p a r e L u c r e t i u s 6.287 inde tremor terras graviter pertemptat et ahum murmura percurrunt caelum; nam tota fere turn tern pes tas concussa t remit. 11 T o this internal violence corresponds the external violence of nature w h i c h the horses are impelled to o v e r c o m e (Geo. 3.254): 11

T h u n d e r b o l t a n d s e x u a l d e s i r e : n o t e the l i g h t n i n g s i m i l e a p p l i e d to t h e e f f e c t s of

V e n u s 011 V u l c a n at Am. Natura

8 . 3 9 1 f. T h e e f f e c t s o f V e n u s in t h e p r o e m to t h e De

a r e d e s c r i b e d in s u r p r i s i n g l y v i o l e n t t e r m s [perculsae,

1.13,

incutiens,

Rerum

19); the

a n a l o g o u s d r i v i n g f o r c e in C l e a n t h e s ' H y m n to Z e u s , a w o r k w h i c h in o t h e r w a y s is close t o t h e L u c r e t i a n V e n u s - p r o e m , vaeaJS navr'

epya

< reAetrai > .

is t h e t h u n d e r b o l t

(r i ) : rou y a p v v o nXiqyfjs

(see E . N e u s t a d t , ' D e r Z e u s h y m n o s des

Kleanthes',

Hermes 66 ( 1 9 3 1 ) , 3 8 7 - 4 0 1 , esp. 3 9 3 ff,; E. A s m i s , ' L u c r e t i u s ' V e n u s a n d S t o i c Z e u s ' , Hermes 1 1 0 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 4 5 8 70. S e e a l s o I b y c u s fr. 2 8 6 . 6 ff.; Anth. Pal. 1 2 . 1 6 1

(Asclepiades).

l6'2

VIRGIL'S

A EN EID:

COSMOS

ANÜ

IMPERIUM

correptosque arid a torquentia montis. T h i s e x a g g e r a t i o n of the L u c r e t i a n rapidos amnis (i .15) owes s o m e t h i n g to a passage in w h i c h L u c r e t i u s uses the visible violence o f the flood as an illustration of the invisible destructiveness o f storm-winds (1.288 f.1: [amnis] dat sonitu magno stragem volvitque sub undis grandia saxa. 12 Internal a n d external violence coincide in the r e m a r k a b l e vignette of L e a n d e r s swim, in w h i c h the violence a n d darkness o f the storm seem to function almost as a projection of the youth's inner t u r m o i l . 1 3 T h e wind-fertilized horses in lines 271 ff. run a w a y from the rising sun 1 4 and t o w a r d s the north w i n d or the cold and w e t south w i n d , w h o s e g l o o m (contristat, 279) is the opposite of the cheerfulness of the L u c r e t i a n landscape irident, 1.8). E v e n L u c r e t i u s ' ' b i r t h - f a v o u r i n g ' Z e p h y r

(genitabilis aura J'avoni, 1.11) is perverted into an unnatural p o t e n c y w h i c h obviates the need for the conciliatory effects of V e n u s , w h o s e function is n o r m a l l y to b r i n g together a n d h a r m o n i z e (cf. sine ullis j coniugiis, Geo. 3.274 f.). 1 6 T h i s sustained emphasis on a m a t o r y b a d w e a t h e r is the m o r e striking given the allusion at line 272 to the c o n v e n t i o n a l recrudescence o f sexual desire in spring, an allusion w h i c h itself m a y be taken as a g l a n c e at the v e r n a l aspect of the L u c r e t i a n V e n u s . 1 6 M e t e o r o l o g i c a l i m a g e r y is very p r o m i n e n t both in the V e n u s - p r o e m a n d elsewhere in Lucretius; it is implicit in the central E p i c u r e a n slogan ofgalene, 'calmness' (as of the sea). 1 7 12

N o t e d b y C o n i n g t o n . T h e V i r g i l i a n p a s s a g e also picks u p a d e t a i l o f the simile o f

the t r o u b l e d sea a p p l i e d to the bull in the p r e c e d i n g section (yet a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f the c a r e w i t h w h i c h these t w o sections a r e i n t e g r a t e d ) , 238 IT. ' u t q u e v o l u t u s [fluctus] / ad terras i m m a n e s o n a t p e r s a x a n e q u e ipso / monte m i n o r p r o c u m b i t ' . 13

L u c r e t i a n i n f l u e n c e is a g a i n possibly o p e r a t i v e at the v e r b a l level: w i t h

259

' a b r u p t i s t u r b a t a p r o c e l l i s ' c o m p a r e L u c r . 5 . 5 0 4 'incertis t u r b a r e procellis'. ' T h i s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f c o s m i c a n d p s y c h i c e l e m e n t s is p e c u l i a r l y V i r g i l i a n ' ( O t i s ) , but t h e r e are H e l l e n i s t i c p r e c e d e n t s : D . H . G a r r i s o n , Mild frenzy:

a reading of the Hellenistic

love

epigram (Hermes E i n z e l s c h r i f t 4 1 , W i e s b a d e n , 1 9 7 8 ) , p. 25; for a S t a t i a n p a r a l l e l see D . V e s s e y , Statins and the Thebaid ( C a m b r i d g e , ¡ 9 7 3 ) , p. 93. 14

C o n t r a s t L u c r . 1.4 f. ' p e r te q u o n i a m g e n u s o m n e a n i m a n t u m / c o n c i p i t u r v i s i t q u e

exortum l u m i n a so Its'. 14

F o r the m o r e n o r m a l g e n e r a t i v e p o w e r s o f Z e p h y r u s see C a t u l l , 64.282; Geo.

2.330; P l i n y HN

16.39.93.

16

L u c r . 1 . 1 0 ' n a m simul ac specics p a t e f a c t a s t verna diei".

17

See H . U s e n e r , Glossarium

1 9 7 7 ) , S . w . yaXr)VTI, e t c .

Epicureum,

eds. M . G i g a n t e a n d W . S c h m i d

(Rome,

L U C R E T I U S AND THE

.67

AEJtEID

In the Aerie id V i r g i l also makes striking use o f L u c r e t i a n models in his exploitation of epic m e t e o r o l o g y , d e v e l o p i n g a sustained parallelism b e t w e e n the natural world o f the elements and the world of h u m a n t h o u g h t and action. L u c r e t i u s ' V e n u s is a bringer o f h a r m o n y and peace; her p o w e r o v e r the a n i m a l w o r l d encourages the poet to i n v o k e h e r as the chief h o p e for p e a c e in the h u m a n w o r l d . V i r g i l ' s amor is a p r i m e cause of strife a n d w a r . T h i s t h e m e , too, is g i v e n a l e n g t h y airing in the p r e c e d i n g section on the bulls w h o w a r over their c o w ' s favours. W i t h i n lines 242 83 the t h e m e of a n i m a l w a r f a r e reaches its p a r a d o x i c a l c l i m a x at line 265: quid quae imbelles dant proelia cervi? T h i s violence is not, h o w e v e r , restricted to the a n i m a l w o r l d ; o u r suspicions as to the victims of the s a v a g e lions, bears, boars, and tigers of lines 245 ff. are c o n f i r m e d in the reference to the A f r i c a n traveller at line 249. T h e m u r d e r o u s effects of a n i m a l lust are seen in a p a r t i c u l a r l y g r u e s o m e form in the legend o f G l a u c u s at lines 267 f.; the choice of a m y t h o l o g i c a l e x a m p l e here allows V i r g i l to i n t r o d u c e the direct a g e n c y of V e n u s herself as the instigator o f u n n a t u r a l slaughter. 1 8 O n c e a g a i n V i r g i l has radically inverted the L u c r e t i a n model. M y analysis so far o f V i r g i l i a n inversion o f L u c r e t i a n themes in the passage on the p o w e r o f love is partial, in that I h a v e held b a c k consideration o f the passage at the end of book four of the De Rerum Natura in w h i c h Lucretius m o u n t s a sustained onslaught on the evil effects o f blind sexual passion, with particular reference to the h u m a n family and society (and so w i t h out the universalizing scope of the V e n u s - p r o e m ) . By i n t r o d u c i n g elements from that passage into a section of the Georgics w h i c h takes the V e n u s - p r o e m as its p r i m a r y m o d e l , V i r g i l m a y be said to be using L u c r e t i u s against himself. G e n e ral parallels between the V i r g i l i a n passage and the passage at the end of Lucretius' fourth book are to be found in the association of love with w a r f a r e 1 9 a n d w i t h darkness; 2 0 in the 18

T h e t h e m e of a n i m a l s l a u g h t e r of h u m a n s is also p r o m i n e n t in L u c r e t i u s , in the

a c c o u n t of p r i m i t i v e m a n as p r e y to w i l d a n i m a l s at 5.988 ff., a n d a b o v e all in the b i z a r r e d e s c r i p t i o n of the use o f a n i m a l s in w a r at 5 . 1 3 0 8 if. 16

C f . the g r o t e s q u e p e r v e r s i o n o f the topos of militia amons at L u c r . 4 . 1 0 4 8 ff.

20

Cf.

caeci,

unenlightened.

Lucr.

4.1153.

The

Lucretian

lover

lives

in

the

tenebrae of

the

jgo

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - . COSMOS

AND

IMPERIL!M

identification o f love as a b u r n i n g furor ; 2 1 and in the undiscriminating treatment o f a n i m a l and h u m a n love 2 2 ( h u m a n sexuality is n o t a b l y absent from L u c r e t i u s ' V e n u s - p r o e m after the very general allusion of the first line). Specific b o r r o w i n g is seen in Georgics 3.280-3 (the section thus ends with a detailed four-line allusion to the attack on love at the end of book four o f Lucretius, as it b e g a n with a four-line passage heavily indebted to the V e n u s - p r o e m in book one): hie d e m u m , h i p p o m a n e s v e r o q u o d n o m i n e clicunt pastores, l e n t u m destillat a b inguine virus, hippomanes, quod saepe m a l a e legere novercae m i s c u e r u n t q u e h e r b a s et n o n i n n o x i a v e r b a .

Despite all the differences, this is u n m i s t a k a b l y modelled on L u c r e t i u s 4.1058- 60: haec V e n u s est n o b i s ; h i n c a u t e m s t nomen a m o r i s , hinc illaec p r i m u m V e n e r i s d u l c e d i n i s in c o r s til lav it g u t t a e t successit f r i g i d a c u r a .

N o t e the demonstratives hie and haec, each i n t r o d u c i n g a passage c o n c l u d i n g a subsection. In destillat V i r g i l has c o m b i n e d the figurative d r o p of Lucretius' stillavit with the literal drops o f semen w h i c h L u c r e t i u s has j u s t been discussing, to p r o d u c e a description of a n o t h e r species o f genital secretion. 2 3 T h e association o f the figurative and the literal is p r o b a b l y a l r e a d y there in Lucretius, for the d e r i v a t i o n of 'the n a m e o f love' a p p e a r s to be based on the w o r d - p l a y of umor/'amor;2i love is j u s t a d r o p o f liquid. Lucretius uses an e t y m o l o g y to sum u p the p r e c e d i n g reduction of the passion of love to gross physicality; j u s t so V i r g i l sums u p his p r e c e d i n g depiction o f the violent passion of the mares w i t h an e t y m o l o g y , for hippomanes is simply the G r e e k for furor equarum (266). V i r g i l also exploits the general function o f the L u c r e t i a n passage as a bleak summ a r y of the reality of love; the final result of amor is this odious secretion, whose only use is destructive. E v e n the reference to the proverbial novercae points to a context o f perverted relations 41

Furor, L u c r . 4 . 1 0 6 g ; flammam, 1087.

C f . L u c r . 4 . 1 1 9 2 ff. Virus, the w o r d V i r g i l a p p l i e s to hippomanes, t n a y also be used o f s e m e n . 24 Amorjumor: see P. F r i e d l a n d e r , AJPh 62 ( 1 9 4 1 ) , 18. F o r a s i m i l a r r e d u c t i o n o f s e x u a l passion to a trivial p h y s i c a l i t y see M . A n t . 6 . 1 3 . 22

2S

LUCRETIUS AND THE

AEJtEID

.67

within the family, and thus again there is a transition from the a n i m a l to the h u m a n world. I h a v e still kept back o n e aspect of V i r g i l i a n imitation of L u c r e t i u s in this passage, for if V i r g i l here implicitly criticizes L u c r e t i u s by j u x t a p o s i n g t w o passages w i d e l y separated in the De Rerum Nalura, w e must not overlook the fact that this passage in Georgia 3 invites c o m p a r i s o n a n d contrast with the set piece in praise o f S p r i n g at Georgics 2 . 3 2 3 - 4 5 , itself h e a v i l y indebted to the V e n u s - p r o e m as well as to other L u c r e t i a n passages. H e r e V i r g i l views sexuality in the positive light of the V e n u s p r o e m . N o t e especially the m o d e r a t e a n d creative picture o f line 329: et Venerem certis repetunt armenta diebus. W i t h o u t a t t e m p t i n g to offer a resolution o f the contradictions b e t w e e n the passages in books two a n d three of the Georgics, I m a k e only the general point that this t e c h n i q u e of w r i t i n g deliberately contrasted and a p p a r e n t l y irreconcilable passages is itself h e a v i l y indebted to L u c r c t i u s (in w h o m it w a s one of the factors inviting the construction of an ' a n t i - L u c r è c e c h e z L u c r è c e ' ) . M y discussion of Lucretius' influence on the Aeneid will give further e v i d e n c e of the need to push the analysis b e y o n d the areas of subject-matter and attitudes into the region o f the abstract poetic a n d c o n c e p t u a l techniques e m p l o y e d b y the t w o poets. It will a p p e a r that the very forms of imitatio applied by V i r g i l to his models in the De Rerum Natura are based on practices in Lucretius. O n e of these is L u c r e t i u s ' practice of linking together various areas o f discourse t h r o u g h a deliberate and sustained construction of correspondences, so that we are i n t r o d u c e d into a poetic w o r l d of i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e levels. T h i s c a n be seen very clearly in the p r o e m to book one, in w h i c h V e n u s is established as presiding over not only the n a t u r a l w o r l d but also, in anticipation, o v e r the w o r l d of the poet (21 if.) a n d the political a n d military w o r l d o f R o m e (29 if.}. T h e parallelism b e t w e e n the worlds o f nature a n d o f the poet are further d e v e l o p e d in later passages: the i l l u m i n a t i n g and sweetly seductive effects o f V e n u s are precisely those that L u c r e t i u s claims for his o w n expository a n d poetic powers, w h i c h themselves derive from the love and illumination that the poet d r a w s from his philo-

jgo

V I R G I L ' S AENEID-.

COSMOS

AND

IMPERIL!M

s o p h i c a l ( E p i c u r u s ) a n d p o e t i c (the M u s e s ) deities. P a r t i c u l a r l y striking is the similarity, e x t e n d i n g to v e r b a l echoes, b e t w e e n the p o w e r o f V e n u s to d r a w the a n i m a l s a f t e r h e r in despite o f p h y s i c a l obstacles, a n d the v i g o u r d e r i v e d f r o m his love o f the M u s e s t h a t e n a b l e s L u c r e t i u s to pass o v e r H e l i c o n a t i .921 if, 2 5 This e q u a t i o n o f a n i m a l a n d p o e t i c desire is e c h o e d , t h o u g h in a r a t h e r p u z z l i n g w a y , in the p a s s a g e o f p o e t i c self-reference t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y follows the p a s s a g e on the effects o f l o v e in the third b o o k o f the Georgia, at lines 284 - 94; the w h o l e p a s s a g e is soaked in L u c r e t i a n r e m i n i s c e n c e . V i r g i l pulls himself u p w i t h a r e m i n d e r that time is f l y i n g past (285): singula dum capti circumvectamur amore. Amor is love for his s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , love for his p o e t r y (as e m erges m o r e c l e a r l y s h o r t l y ) , b u t also literally sexual love, the subject o f the p r e c e d i n g s e v e n t y - o d d lines. 2 6 A t line 292 amor w o u l d a p p e a r to be u n a m b i g u o u s l y L u c r e t i u s ' amor Musarum ( L u c r . 1.924 f.), b u t its effects on V i r g i l are ( f i g u r a t i v e l y ) precisely those o f the passion w h i c h sends the l o v e - c r a z e d m a r e s r u n n i n g o v e r m o u n t a i n tops (Geo. 3.291 f.): sed me Parnasi deserta per ardua 2 7 dulcis rap tat amor. T h e a n a l o g y w i t h the m o u n t a i n - r a n g i n g horses is all the m o r e forceful w h e n w e realize that the m o u n t a i n - c l i m b i n g aspect o f the j o u r n e y to H e l i c o n is not stressed b y L u c r e t i u s (1.926 ff.). V i r g i l ' s poetic l o v e is a dulcis amor, unlike the durus amor that impels L e a n d e r , b u t e v e n w i t h this d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n it is h a r d to see t h a t this r e w o r k i n g o f the L u c r e t i a n p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n ( a n i m a l ) sexual a n d poetic l o v e r e a l l y succeeds. In c o n c l u s i o n I t a b u l a t e the m a i n features that c h a r a c t e r i z e V i r g i l ' s i m i t a t i o n o f L u c r e t i u s in the Georgics, as they e m e r g e from the p a s s a g e on sexual desire in the third Georgia. 1. P a r t i c u l a r themes are set in a universal a n d g e n e r a l i z i n g c o n t e x t , as in L u c r e t i u s ; w i t h i n the s e q u e n c e o f the w o r k w e 25

1 . 1 9 ' o m n i b u s i n c u t i e n s b l a n d u m p e r p e c t o r a a m o r e m ' : 9 2 4 'incussit s u a v e m mi

in p e c t u s a m o r e m ' ; 1 . 1 5 ' c a p t a l e p o r e ' : 9 3 4 ' l e p o r e ' , 941 ' d e c e p t a q u e n o n c a p i a t u r ' . 2S

T h e r e is a s i m i l a r a m b i g u i t y in the use o f the p h r a s e ' c a p u t s a m o r e ' at Eel. 6.10.

27

V a r i u s fr. 4.5 M o r e l ' n o n a m n e s i l l a m m e d i i , n o n ardua t a r d a n t ' seems to be

present a g a i n .

L U C R E T I U S AND THE

AEJtEID

.67

m a y be suddenly transported from a detailed consideration of a specific subject to a vision of the universal principle of w h i c h the former is a local manifestation. 2. In both Virgil a n d Lucretius a deliberate a n d sustained parallelism is established b e t w e e n different levels or spheres of reality, for e x a m p l e between the i n a n i m a t e natural world and the a n i m a l world, or b e t w e e n the natural w o r l d (taken as a w h o l e ) and the h u m a n w o r l d . 3. W i t h i n the st ructure o f the works of both poets an internal abstract system o f correspondences a n d contrasts is set up, so that indiv idual passages only emerge in full relief w h e n related to o t h e r passages, often separated by a considerable g a p . 4. R a d i c a l inversion is a powerful type of imitation, w h i c h directs o u r attention to the relationship between the earlier and the later works even more forcibly t h a n do simpler forms o f imitation. 5. T h e extent o f the imitation and r e w o r k i n g extends d o w n to the minutest v e r b a l level, w h e r e it frequently operates in an associative and c o m b i n a t o r y m a n n e r that ignores the syntactic a n d semantic coherence of the original.

II.

L U C R E T I U S

A N D

A P P L I E D

C O S M O L O G Y

In the previous section w e saw that the connection b e t w e e n the a g r i c u l t u r a l didactic of the Georgics and L u c r e t i a n naturalphilosophical d i d a c t i c w a s effected t h r o u g h V i r g i l ' s choice of a viewpoint w h i c h set small-scale, t e m p o r a l l y restricted, subjects within a universalizing f r a m e w o r k ; the farmer's concerns w e r e tied in to the most general laws of the cosmos. V i r g i l ' s p r o c e d u r e in the Aeneid is very similar; this time it is the localized events of l e g e n d a r y epic that are subjected to this universalizing treatment. It is at this point, w h e r e temporally limited l e g e n d a r y or historical events and the timeless laws of the universe coincide, that we m a y also locate the possibility of an extensive a d a p t a t i o n of Lucret ian themes. T h i s is not the result merely of a p a t c h i n g of L u c r e t i a n philosophical themes on to n a r r o w e r political and moral concerns, but the reflection of connections a l r e a d y present in the De Return Natura, w h e r e cosmology is not presented in an objective, value-free, fashion, but as strongly directed to external ends.

jgo

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - . COSMOS

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T w o interrelated aspects o f L u c r e t i a n practice, in particular, are directly relevant to the present study; they m a y be labelled (a) T h e cosmic outlook, and (b) T h e assimilation of m a n to nature.

(a) The cosmic outlook in Lucretius H e r e again detailed analysis of a p a r t i c u l a r passage will serve as a key to the more general points. A t De Rerum Natura 3.830 if. Lucretius urges that w h a t h a p p e n s after our d e a t h is of as little concern to us as w h a t h a p p e n e d before w e w e r e born. H e takes as an e x a m p l e the w o r l d - s h a t t e r i n g event of the w a r with C a r t h a g e (832 ff.}: et velut anteacto nil tempore sens i mus aegri, ad confligendum venientibus undique Poenis, omnia cum belli trepido concussa tumultu hórrida contremuere sub altis aetheris oris, in dubioque fuere utrorum ad regna cadendum omnibus humanis esset terraque marique, sic, ubi non erimus . . . scilicet haud nobis quicquam, qui non erimus tum, accidere omnino poterit sensumque movere, non si terra man miscebitur et mare caelo.

840

T h i s is a g o o d e x a m p l e of the w a y in w h i c h L u c r e t i u s surprises by refreshing or d e l a m i l i a r i z i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l diction. In line 842 he uses a traditional adynaton,2* the confusion of earth with sea, and sea with sky, but it stands in a closer relation than is usual to the apodosis; more than a mere cliché for impossibility, it is the concrete exemplification of the phrases accidere, sensum movere. G o i n g further, w e realize that this is not after all an adynaton; for L u c r e t i u s the collapse o f the world is a very real 28

See M u n r o o n 3.842 a n d O t t o s.v. caelum 1 for s i m i l a r expressions, t h o u g h not in

the « - c l a u s e f o r m o f the adynaton. See also a b o v e , p. 94 n. 26. K e n n e y points to the p r o v e r b i a l s a y i n g ¿¡¿ov 0avóvros yata fiixOrjTw rrvpi. w h i c h w a s p r o b a b l y in L u c r e t i u s ' m i n d , b u t the specific f o r m o f d e s t r u c t i o n b y fire is not r e p e a t e d in L u c r e t i u s . L u c r e t i u s ' frisson o f s h o c k is g a i n e d b y using the t r a d i t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n a l - c l a u s e f o r m o f the adynaton. F o r a m o r e c o n v e n t i o n a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f this t y p e of adynaton in V i r g i l see Am.

12.203 ff.

( L a t i n u s ' o a t h ) ' n e e m e vis ulla v o l e n t e m / a v e r t e t , n o n , si t e l l u r e m e f f u n d a t in u n d a s / d i l u v i o miscens c a e i u m q u e in T a r t a r a s o l v a t ' (see b e l o w , p. 329). F o r L u c r e t i u s ' attit u d e to t h e last e x a m p l e o f c o n f u s i o n , the m i n g l i n g o f h e a v e n a n d hell, see note 67 below.

L U C R E T I U S A N D T H E AEJtEID .67

possibility, a n d , as K e n n e y points out, 2 9 this implication is strengthened by the use of the indicative miscebitur, W e are shocked out of the usual c o m p l a c e n c y with w h i c h w e throw o f f such expressions. F i n a l l y , the l a n g u a g e o f line 842 is selected to parallel the description of the Punic W a r in 833 7, w h i c h is h y p e r b o l i c a l l y raised to the level of a universal conflict. N o t e undique (833), a n d omnia (834). E a r t h , sea, a n d sky are all m e n t i o n e d ; the struggle is one for s u p r e m a c y over all m a n k i n d , terraque. mariquef0 in lines 8 3 4 - 5 suggestion is of a more than h u m a n event, a w a r in w h i c h the w h o l e fabric of the world is shaken. 3 1 K e n n e y is doubtless correct in suggesting that L u c retius here imitates epic l a n g u a g e , 3 2 b u t I suggest that the neat d o v e t a i l i n g of history into cosmology is Lucretius' o w n , w i t h the careful inclusion in both historical a n d natural event of the three m a j o r divisions o f the universe, earth, sea, and sky. 3 3 N o t e also that here, w h e r e he does exceptionally d r a w on R o m a n history, Lucretius a d a p t s it to his natural-scientific outlook. T h i s habit of looking at p h e n o m e n a within the context of the total sum o f things is d e e p l y ingrained in Lucretius, a n d is obviously to be connected with the fact that his subject-matter is, precisely, the universe, the summa rerum. But the m a n n e r in 29

K e n n e y o n L u c r . 3.842.

30

P u n i c W a r s as t h e p o i n t o f R o m e ' s rise to w o r l d - e m p i r e : L i v y 2 9 . 1 7 . 6 'in dis-

c r i m i n e est n u n c h u m a n u m o m n e g e n u s , u t r u m v o s a n C a r t h a g i n i e n s e s p r i n c i p e s o r b i s t e r r a r u m v i d e a t ' , S c h r i j v e r s , p. 292, c h a r a c t e r i z e s L u c r e t i u s ' t r e a t m e n t of the P u n i c W a r s as ' u n p h é n o m è n e c o s m i q u e ' . T h i s v i e w o f the s t r u g g l e w i t h H a n n i b a l is c e n t r a l to the Punira o f Silius Italicus, O n the f o r m u l a terra marique see b e l o w , p p . 308 f. 31

T h e c o m m e n t a r i e s c o m p a r e E n n i u s Ann. 3 1 0 'Africa, terribili t r e m i t h o r r i d a terra

t u m u l t u ' , but Lucretius goes well b e y o n d Ennius, and w e should be w a r y of supposing t h a t this ' u n i v e r s a l i s t ' m a n n e r o f e x p r e s s i o n w a s n a t u r a l to E n n i u s . T h e closer p a r a l l e l s in l a n g u a g e at C a t u l l . 64.205 ff. refer to the u n i v e r s a l effects o f J u p i t e r ' s nod. t h a t is, a strictly s u p e r h u m a n e v e n t , Catal. 3.3 ' t e r r a r u m hie bello m a g n u m c o n c u s s e r a t o r b e m ' (cited b y M u n r o ) o c c u r s in an o v e r t l y ' u n i v e r s a l i z i n g ' c o n t e x t . T h e l a n g u a g e is also r e m i n i s c e n t o f L u c r e t i a n d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the effects o f t h e t h u n d e r b o l t : 6 . 1 2 2 ' o m n i a s a e p e . . . t r e m e r e ' ; 5 . 1 2 2 0 f. ' f u l m i n i s h o r r i b i l i c u m p l a g a t o r r i d a tellus / c o n t r e m i t ' ; 6.288 f. ' t o t a • • •

I tempestas concussa tremit fremitusque m o v e n t u r ' .

Might

the

t r a d i t i o n a l i m a g e at 3 . 1 0 3 4 , ' S c i p i a d a s , belli f u l m e n ' , b e r e l e v a n t ? 32

K e n n e y o n L u c r . 3.832 - 4 2 . P a r o d y is too s t r o n g a w o r d ; L u c r e t i u s d o e s not w i s h

to d e f l a t e t h e e p i c scale o f the P u n i c W a r s in t h e m s e l v e s , but o n l y t o s h o w t h a t e v e n the most v i o l e n t f o r m s o f d e s t r u c t i o n in n o w a y a f f e c t the d e a d . 33

T h e p h r a s e sub altis aethens oris, 835, is i n t e n d e d not so m u c h to p o i n t o u t t h a t the

P u n i c W a r s took p l a c e only o n e a r t h

a n d sea, w h i l e the f i n a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f the w o r l d

will i n v o l v e the h e a v e n s as well (so K e n n e y ad 842), b u t r a t h e r to g i v e a g e n e r a l ' c o s m i c ' feel to t h e h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t ; d e l i b e r a t e r e s t r i c t i o n o f the e x t e n t of the P u n i c W a r s w o u l d g o a g a i n s t the logic o f L u c r e t i u s ' a r g u m e n t .

i yo

V I R G I L ' S A ENE ID: COSMOS

A N D IMPERIU

M

w h i c h he s u m m o n s u p images of the totality of things is not a l w a y s strictly d e r i v a b l e from E p i c u r e a n physics. T h e p r i m a r y E p i c u r e a n distribution of the sum of things is into the atoms a n d the void, but other forms of analysis are e q u a l l y c o m m o n in the p o e m . Firstly , the division of the universe into the four elements'.:34 these e m e r g e at the b e g i n n i n g of the f o r m a t i o n of a w o r l d out of the chaos of the 'storm' o f atoms ( L u c r . 5.432 if.), b u t the qualities o f the elements arc not p r i m a r y and indestructible ( 1 . 7 3 4 IT.). Nevertheless, Lucretius frequently adopts ' e l e m e n t a r l a n g u a g e , using, in a m a n n e r more E m p e d o c l e a n than E p i c u r e a n , the four elements as the basis for the analysis of m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d structures a n d events (for e x a m p l e the 'battle of elements' at 5.380 ff.). S e c o n d l y , the purely spatial division of the universe into earth, sea, and sky ( w h i c h o f course partially overlaps with a fourfold elemental division), with the further subpairs of E a r t h and S k y , E a r t h and Sea, or S e a a n d Sky: 3 5 this is found in its grandest form in the p r o e m to book one, w h e r e , after hominum divumque voluptas in the first line, a division of the universe in terms of its inhabitants, the three divisions of sky, sea, and earth are concisely i n t r o d u c e d in lines 2 - 3 , a n d then used recurrently to structure the description o f the effects of V e n u s . 3 6 T h e sources of the V e n u s - p r o e m indicate clearly the status of this division b y parts o f the visible w o r l d ; it is religious, a n d , a b o v e all, poetic. In c h a p t e r 7 I analyse the w a y s in w h i c h V i r g i l e m p l o y s these, a n d other, w a y s of s c h e m a t i c a l l y referring to the sum of things. Lucretius uses this universal l a n g u a g e in places w h e r e w e m i g h t not e x p e c t it, for e x a m p l e in the account of sense-illusions at 4.379 ff.; for e x a m p l e 410 ff.: inter eos [sc. montes] solemque iacent immania ponti aequora substrata aetheriis ingentibus oris, interiectaque sunt terrarum milia multa. 37 34

D. Furley, 'Variations on themes from Empedocles in Lucretius' proem',

BIOS

17 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , 5 5 - 6 4 , stresses L u c r e t i u s ' d e b t to E m p e d o c l e s in his c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n the four elements. 35

See M u n r o o n L u c r . 1.2, 3 a n d 6 - 9 ; E. G . S c h m i d t , ' P h i l o s o p h i s c h e u n d p o e t i s c h e

E l e m e n t e b e i L u k r e z ' , in U r u s a z e a n d G o r d e s i a n i

(eds.), Problems

in ancient culture

(Tbilisi, 1 9 7 5 ) , p p . 1 7 5 - 9 9 , w i t h lists o f p r e c e d e n t s . 36

A f o u r - e l e m e n t s c h e m e is also o p e r a t i v e in the V e n u s - p r o e m : see D . F u r l e y , art.

cit. 37

C f . also 4 . 4 1 4 ff., 458!".

L U C R E T I U S A N D T H E AEJtEID

.67

It is o b v i o u s that this cosmic outlook a p p e a l e d very d e e p l y to Lucretius, as it did also to V i r g i l . In Lucretius, as in Virgil, it is m o r e than the p r o d u c t o f a simply poetic vision. In the first place it corresponds to a d e e p l y e m b e d d e d feature of ancient n a t u r a l philosophy, the delight in, and fascination with, the 'cosmic show', 3 8 b y w h i c h the n a t u r a l w o r l d , from b e i n g simply the object of scientific study, becomes an o b j e c t of w o n d e r , and even veneration. L u c r e t i u s seeks to direct this emotion to his o w n ends, to invest his E p i c u r e a n vision with just this element of sublimity. T h e r e is also a more practical polemical intention; it w a s precisely this s o m e w h a t emotional response to n a t u r e that u n d e r p i n n e d a w h o l e r a n g e of theological and teleological models of the universe, perhaps most n o t a b l y in Aristotle's early work De Philosophia, w h i c h B i g n o n e has s h o w n to h a v e been closely criticized b y Epicurus. 3 9 L u c retius (and possibly Epicurus) uses the traditional l a n g u a g e o f this cosmic w o n d e r , b u t empties it of its religious content and refills it with E p i c u r e a n truth. But Lucretius' universal vision is still more closely tied to his o v e r r i d i n g didactic intention of releasing men's minds from superstitious fear. T h e final goal of the p o e m is the construction o f an ethic valid for all m a n k i n d ; 4 0 this goal c a n only be reached b y the construction o f a system of physics w h i c h radically removes a n y o p p o r t u n i t y for the cultivation of false standards o f b e h a v i o u r . It is the vision o f a universe totally p e r m e a t e d by E p i c u r e a n principles that achieves this aim; the physics is the indispensable precondition of the ethics. It is here that I detect some of the most far-reaching parallels with the Aeneid, evidence of a t h o r o u g h transformation of L u c r e t i a n themes by V i r g i l into his o w n v i e w o f the w o r l d ; for the Aeneid m a y be read as the history of the construction of a universal order w h i c h will in future allow m a n to live the good life, a l t h o u g h the detailed description o f this good life does not c o m e within the scope of the p o e m , just as a detailed description of the h a p p y life of 38

See S c h r i j v e r s , p. 273 n. 4.9. In g e n e r a l see A , J . F e s t u g i è r e , La Révélation

Tnsmégiste 39

d'Hermès

ii ( ' L e d i e u c o s m i q u e ' ) , (Paris, 1949),

E. B i g n o n e , L'Arutotele

perduto e la formaztone filosofica di Epicuw2

(Florence,

1973),

esp. chs. 8 a n d 9. 40

T h e missionary a s p e c t is w e l l b r o u g h t out in 5.20 f. ' e x q u o n u n c e t i a m p e r m a g n a s

d i d i t a gentis / d u l c i a p e r m u l c e n t a n i m o s solacia v i t a e ' . C f . S c h r i j v e r s , pp. 81 f.

I 72

VIRGIL'S

A EM EID : COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

E p i c u r e a n m a n is n o t f o u n d in the De Renan .Natural The p r e c o n d i t i o n for this universal o r d e r in V i r g i l is the p e r m e a t i o n o f the universe b y the b e n e v o l e n t forces o f a g o o d p r o v i d e n c e , m i r r o r e d on the h u m a n level b y the p h y s i c a l e x p a n s i o n o f R o m a n p o w e r to fill l a n d a n d sea. T h e t h e m e o f b o t h L u c r e t i u s a n d o f V i r g i l is the description o f a universe a n d o f the w a y in w h i c h m a n should live in that universe.

(b) Assimilation of man to nature in Lucretius U n d e r this h e a d i n g I i n c l u d e the several m a n o e u v r e s b y w h i c h m a n is e n a b l e d so to align h i m s e l f w i t h the w o r k i n g s o f the universe t h a t a l l c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n h u m a n i m p u l s e a n d e x t e r n a l necessity is a b o l i s h e d ; at its strongest this c a n a m o u n t to a c l a i m to c o n t r o l o f the outside w o r l d . F o r the rationalist, such assimilation is essentially intellectual; for the b e l i e v e r in a s u p c r n a t u r a l l y - c o n t r o l l e d universe, assimilation to n a t u r e tends to c o i n c i d e w i t h a religious assimilation to d i v i n i t y . L u c r e t i u s a d o p t s an austerely intellectualist a p p r o a c h to the p r o b l e m o f m a n ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h his e n v i r o n m e n t , b u t at the s a m e time d r a w s e x t e n s i v e l y on non-rationalist i m a g e s o f this relationship. T h e De Rerum Natura is l a r g e l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h the c o r r e c t description o f the posture t h a t m a n should a d o p t vis-à-vis (i) n a t u r e , a n d (ii) the gods. 4 2 In b o t h cases there is a d u a l , a p p a r e n t l y p a r a d o x i c a l , process at w o r k . Firstly, there is a need to detach oneself f r o m both n a t u r e a n d the gods. T h e v i o l e n t forces o f n a t u r e are the c a u s e o f m u c h a n x i e t y for the u n e n l i g h t e n e d ; fear o f i m m e d i a t e d e s t r u c t i o n a n d the belief that invisible d i v i n e p o w e r s are the m o v i n g cause lead a w a y f r o m ataraxia; the bene munita templa o f w i s d o m are c o n t r a s t e d w i t h s h i p w r e c k at sea (2.1 ft.) ; it is o u t o f such fears, c o m p o u n d e d w i t h a sense o f guilt ( 5 . 1 1 9 4 ff.), that a w r o n g idea o f the g o d s arises. It follows that m a n should d e t a c h h i m s e l f f r o m an obsession with n a t u r a l forces, in so far as this obsession is based on an e r r o n e o u s notion o f n a t u r e a n d d i v i n i t y . O n the o t h e r h a n d this d e t a c h m e n t , is w o n t h r o u g h a n i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n q u e s t 41

N o r does a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f the blessed life o f the g o d s , a m o d e l f o r the

g o o d life on earth (in the p o e m as w e h a v e it). 42

T h e t w o f o l d n a t u r e o f E p i c u r u s ' mission is seen c l e a r l y a t L u c r . 5 . 5 2 ff. ' c u m b e n e

p r a e s e r t i m m u l t a ac d i v i n i t u s ipsis / i m m o r t a l i b u ' d e divu d a r e d i c t a suerit / a t q u e o m n e m rerum naluram p a n d e r e dictis'.

L U C R E T I U S A N D T H E AEJVEID

199

of the physical world; from the constriction of terror E p i c u r u s reaches o u t in a j o u r n e y that extends t h r o u g h o u t the universe; as booty he brings b a c k a total u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f nature (1.75

ff.):

u n d e refert n o b i s v i c t o r q u i d possit oriri [ e t c . ] . 4 3

E p i c u r u s ' a c h i e v e m e n t s are imitated b y Lucretius, whose poetic journey ( 1 . 9 2 5 ff.) recapitulates the themes of E p i c u r u s ' philosophical journey; 4 4 thus the poet also understands, a n d hence masters, nature; his p o e m is indeed itself a m o d e l of the universe, even at the most f u n d a m e n t a l level of the atoms (this a p p e a r s clearly f r o m the repeated use o f the elementa i m a g e o f the a t o m i c 'letters'). 4 5 A n d , g o i n g one step further, the reader w h o obeys L u c r e t i u s ' constant injunction to follow the p a t h o f truth, will himself e v e n t u a l l y claim the prize o f intellectual control oinatura rerum. T h e chain also leads the other w a y , f r o m Epicurus to the gods, a n d it is here that is located that 'assimilation to g o d ' 4 6 w h i c h is superficially in conflict with the injunction to cast o f f retigio. A n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f nature produces a mental state akin to that enjoyed by the a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c g o d s of Epicurus; but, b e y o n d this, L u c r e t i u s also uses m o r e traditional notions of divinity to elevate the E p i c u r e a n a c h i e v e m e n t , notions of the divinity of the culture-hero (5.7 ff.) a n d even of the traditional divine control of nature, w h i c h , strictly, is denied to the Epic u r e a n gods. T h i s is seen most strikingly in the description of the m a g i c a l effects of the w o r d s of Epicurus in 3 . 1 4 ff.; these w o r d s reveal (i) the true n a t u r e of the universe, in general terms f t o t u m video per inane geri res', 17); (ii) the true n a t u r e 43

T h e p u n in refert (see M u n r o ad l o c . ) brings o u t t h e sense in w h i c h a p u r e l y

i n t e l l e c t u a l (linguistic) a c h i e v e m e n t b e c o m e s a m a t e r i a l possession. C f . also t h e p l a y o n factajdicta

at the b e g i n n i n g o f b o o k five; it e m e r g e s that t h e arma o f H e r c u l e s , the

t r a d i t i o n a l e x a m p l e o f a w o r l d - c o n q u e r o r , are s a d l y i n a d e q u a t e ; v i c t o r y g o e s p r o p e r l y to the dicta o f E p i c u r u s . T h e a b i l i t y to possess the u n i v e r s e i n t e l l e c t u a l l y is d e s c r i b e d m o r e s c i e n t i f i c a l l y in t e r m s o f E p i c u r e a n p s y c h o l o g y at 4 . 7 8 2 f. 'et s i m u l a c v o l u m u s nobis o c c u r r i t i m a g o , / si m a r e , si t e r r a m cordist, si d e n i q u e c a e l u m ' . 44

S c h r i j v e r s , p. 19.

45

F o r t h e i d e n t i t y o f the o b j e c t i v e natura rerum a n d the s u b j e c t i v e E p i c u r e a n ratio

see S c h r i j v e r s , p. 64. O n t h e elementa i m a g e a n d ' a t o m o l o g y ' : P. F r i e d l a n d e r , ' P a t t e r n o f s o u n d a n d a t o m i s t i c t h e o r y in L u c r e t i u s ' , AJPh

62 ( 1 9 4 1 ) , 1 6 - 3 4 ; the c o n c e i t is

related to the n o t i o n t h a t the poet c r e a t e s the w o r l d he d e s c r i b e s : see G . L i e b e r g , Poeta creator: Studien z,u einer Ftgur der antiken Dichtung ( A m s t e r d a m , 1982), esp. p p . 92 f , 1 1 2 ff. 46

O n ojtioicuffii did) in E p i c u r u s see E . B i g n o n e , o p . c i t . ( a b o v e , n. 39), ii, p. 3 1 .

VIRGIL'S

•¿öS

A EN EID:

COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

o f the gods; arid (iii) the true absence o f the t r a d i t i o n a l gods. A s at 1.72 if., there is a d e l i b e r a t e a m b i v a l e n c e b e t w e e n the intellectual (or v e r b a l ) a n d the p h y s i c a l . T h e sedes quietae are d e s c r i b e d in entirely m e t e o r o l o g i c a l terms; the effect is to m a k e it seem as if E p i c u r u s is in s o m e w a y responsible for this heav e n l y fair w e a t h e r . T h e w h o l e p a s s a g e stands in a close relation to the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the effects o f V e n u s at 1.1 ff. (the most t r a d i t i o n a l aretalogy in the p o e m ) : 1 7 T h e flight o f the moenia mundi a n d the tenures animi before the ratio o f E p i c u r u s is p a r a l l e l e d by the flight o f the w i n d s a n d c l o u d s at the a p p r o a c h o f V e n u s ; V e n u s turns foul w e a t h e r to fair. 4 8 T h e effects o f b o t h E p i c u r u s a n d V e n u s alike are seen in terms o f r e v e l a t i o n . 4 9 T h e s e effects are the result o f the vis o f V e n u s , 1 . 1 3 , and o f E p i c u r u s , 3.29. L u c r e t i u s follows in E p i c u r u s ' footsteps as the a n i m a l w o r l d follows V e n u s . P o w e r o v e r the e l e m e n t s o f w a t e r a n d air on the p a r t o f E p i c u r u s is also suggested in 5 . 1 1 f : f l u c t i b u s e tantis vi tarn t a n t i s q u e t e n e b r i s in tarn t r a n q u i l l o et tarn c l a r a l u c e l o c a v i t .

P o w e r o v e r the w e a t h e r is o n e o f the oldest a t t r i b u t e s o f d i v i nity, 5 0 and w e shall find it to be a n i m p o r t a n t m o t i f in the

Aeneid. A s s i m i l a t i o n to n a t u r e a n d to the gods in L u c r e t i u s is a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h the p o w e r o f the intellect, b u t this a c h i e v e m e n t is l a r g e l y presented t h r o u g h i m a g e s o f p h y s i c a l m i l i t a r y force a n d o f the (for E p i c u r u s a n d L u c r e t i u s ) i r r a t i o n a l c o n c e p t i o n s o f t r a d i t i o n a l religion. In V i r g i l this is reversed: L u c retian n a t u r a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l i m a g e r y a n d l a n g u a g e are used to 47

O n the p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n the p r o l o g u e s to L u c r .

i a n d 3 see J . P.

Elder,

' L u c r e t i u s 1 , 1 - 4 9 ' , TAPhA

85 ( 1 9 5 4 ) , 8 8 - 1 2 0 ; J . M . D u b a n , ' V e n u s , E p i c u r u s a n d

naturae, species ratioque\ AJPh

103 ( 1 9 8 2 } , 1 6 5 - 7 7 .

48

C o m p a r e L u c r . 3.22 ' l a r g e d i f f u s o lurnine r i d c t ' w i t h

1.9 ' n i t e t d i f f u s o l u m i n e

caelum'. 49

C o m p a r e L u c r . 3 . 2 9 f. ' n a t u r a . . . / t a i n m a n i f e s t a p a t e n s ex o m n i p a r t e r e t e c t a

est' w i t h 1 . I Q 'species p a t e f a c t a s t v e r n a diei'. Simul ac i n t r o d u c e s b o t h s e q u e n c e s o f revelation, 1.10 and 3.14. 50

L u c r e t i u s m a y also h a v e t h o u g h t o f the p o w e r to w o r k w e a t h e r m i r a c l e s c l a i m e d

b y E m p e d o c l e s . B i n , M e t e o r o l o g i c a l effects also f i g u r e in the f o r m u l a i c lines f a . 146 ff. e t c . ) ' h u n c i g i t u r t e r r o r e m a n i m i t e n e b r a s q u e necessest / n o n radii solis n e q u e l u c i d a tela diei / d i s c u t i a n t , sed n a t u r a e species r a t i o q u e ' . O 1 the topos o f the wise m a n as w e a t h e r - m a g i c i a n see E. P f e i f f e r , Studien zum antiken Sternglauben ( S t o i k h e i a 2, L e i p z i g a n d Berlin, i g ¡ 6 ) , p p . 93fr. {'der P h i l o s o p h als W e t t e r m a c h e r ) ; W . F i e d l e r , Wetterzauber ( W ü r z b u r g e r S t u d . z. A l t e r t u m s w i s s . 1, S t u t t g a r t , 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 17 ff

Antiker

L U C R E T I U S AND T H E

199

AEJVEID

describe an a c h i e v e m e n t gained t h r o u g h physical prowess, in a w o r l d w h e r e the H o m e r i c gods are fully real. V i r g i l ' s use of the theme of assimilation to nature and to the gods is strongly dependent

on

Lucretius,

and

is a

heightening

and

sys-

t e m a t i z a t i o n of the p u r e l y literary p a r a l l e l i n g of the h u m a n a n d n a t u r a l worlds as seen, for e x a m p l e , in the epic simile.

T h e analysis of V i r g i l ' s a d a p t a t i o n , in his l e g e n d a r y epic, o f L u c r e t i a n natural-philosophical themes is c o m p l i c a t e d by the fact, that Lucretius himself uses traditional epic and m y t h o logical themes as part o f the strategy o f his E p i c u r e a n protreptic (and some natural-philosophical topics, such as the storm, w e r e a l r e a d y at h o m e in the epic). V i r g i l ' s indebtedness to the De

Rerum Natura a p p e a r s most obviously in the infusion into his epic s u b j e c t - m a t t e r of material originally at h o m e in discussions of natural philosophy; b u t I shall a r g u e that even in the treatm e n t of the c o n v e n t i o n a l themes of epic the influence on the Aeneid of the g r a n d subverter Lucretius is inescapable. V i r g i l often reflects the distorted images of Lucretius in s o m e t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g their original p r e - L u c r e t i a n a p p e a r a n c e , but in such a w a y that the history of their passage t h r o u g h the L u c retian hall o f mirrors is indelibly recorded. 5 1 T h e discussion of V i r g i l ' s a d a p t a t i o n o f L u c r e t i a n themes is correspondingly a r r a n g e d u n d e r the t w o headings of ' C o s m o l o g i c a l themes in the Aeneid \ and ' E p i c themes in the De Rerum Natura; in the second section

I e x a m i n e L u c r e t i a n transmutation

o f epic

themes and its subsequent reflexes in the Aeneid. It will be clear that it is not a l w a y s possible to hold a p a r t these t w o aspects of V i r g i l i a n imitatio; other principles of a r r a n g e m e n t might h a v e been chosen, but the present one has the a d v a n t a g e of constantly h o l d i n g u p to v i e w the central d i c h o t o m y of traditional epic and natural philosophy.

51

L u c r e t i a n p a r a l l e l s m a y be used to a r g u e for a c o m m o n s o u r c e , u s u a l l y in E n n i u s ,

( N o r d e n , p. 3 7 1 ) , b u t the m e c h a n i c a l t r a w l i n g o f Quell enfor sckung is i n a d e q u a t e to the task o f l i t e r a r y criticism; w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h areas o f t r a d i t i o n a l belief c r i t i c i z e d b y L u c r e t i u s V i r g i l will not h a v e r e a d his E n n i u s w i t h i n n o c e n t , p r e - L u c r e t i a n eyes.

176

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A EN EID:

III. C O S M O L O G I C A L

COS Ai OS

AND

IMPERIUM

T H E M E S IN T H E

AENEID

(a) The forces of the storm In contrast to the universal themes discussed earlier, the storm m i g h t seem to be of purely localized significance, meteorological in the m o d e r n sense; b u t b o t h V i r g i l a n d L u c r e t i u s use the theme of storm to allude to physical processes on the largest scale a n d to the most general aspects of the relation b e t w e e n m a n and nature. T h e action of the Aeneid begins and ends w i t h the theme of storm: the storm that threatens to destroy A e n e a s in book one (50 156), itself a n a t t e m p t on the p a r t o fJ u n o to re-enact, with the w e a p o n s of J u p i t e r , the v e n g e a n c e exacted on the A r g i v e s a n d O i l e a n A j a x by A t h e n a ( 1 . 3 9 - 4 5 ) ;

a n d

the

'storm-force' of

A e n e a s at the end o f book twelve that strikes d o w n T u r n u s ( 1 2 . 9 2 2 - 3 ) , in an episode c o n t a i n i n g allusions to the punishm e n t by J u p i t e r o f a recalcitrant e n e m y o f the gods (see a b o v e , p p . 1 4 7 - 5 4 ) . 5 2 T h e structural intent is clear: b y a process of inversion, w h o s e stages are m a r k e d in the repeated use of s t o r m - i m a g e r y t h r o u g h o u t the p o e m , the hero, at first a t the total m e r c y o f the elements and even cast in the role of a n e n e m y o f the gods (or at least o f one goddess, J u n o ) ends u p in control o f the elemental forces, a n d is therefore aligned w i t h the divinities t h a t (properly) control those forces. T h e hero undergoes a d o u b l e process o f assimilation: firstly, his strength is e q u a t e d w i t h the forces o f nature; secondly, he is raised to the level of the gods. 5 3 B o t h forms o f assimilation h a v e precedents in the De Rerum Natura\ at the v e r b a l level the t w o passages, in books one a n d t w e l v e of the Aeneid, are largely constructed out o f L u c r e t i a n echoes.

O n the s t r u c t u r e o f s t o r m - i m a g e r y in the Aeneid see R . H o r n s b y , Patterns of action in the A e n e i d ( I o w a , 1970), ch. 1; W . W . B r i g g s J n r . , Narrative and simile from the G e o r g i c s in the A e n e i d (Mnemosyne S u p p l . 58, L e i d e n , 1980), p p . 81 - 9 1 . 52

5 3 In c h a p t e r 7 I a n a l y s e this d o m i n a t i n g s t r u c t u r e in t e r m s o f a ' s t o r y ' told b y V i r g i l ' s use o f ' u n i v e r s a l expressions'.

L U C R E T I U S AND T H E

199

AEJVEID

(b) The thunderbolt as instrument of divine vengeance: Aeneid i and 12 murali concita numquam tormento sic saxa fremunt nec fulmine tanti dissultant 54 crepitus, volat atri turbinis instar 55 exitium dirum hasta ferens. (.Aeneid

12.921

ff.)

T h e n e g a t i v e form of the c o m p a r i s o n in itself indicates that this is a h y p e r b o l e of m o r e t h a n n o r m a l force. 5 6 Its significance is increased by the fact that this is the last cluster o f similes in the w h o l e p o e m . I m a g e s o f n a t u r a l force are here raised to their highest level: rock, t h u n d e r b o l t , w h i r l w i n d (storm). T h e similes of the tormentum a n d fulmen are modelled o n a L u c r e t i a n description o f the speed of the t h u n d e r b o l t conseq u e n t on a b u i l d - u p a n d s u d d e n release of force w i t h i n clouds ( L u c r . 6.328 f.): exprimitur vis atque ideo volat impete miro, ut validis quae de tormentis missa feruntur. Lucretius gives a traditional a n a l o g y from the field o f h u m a n t e c h n o l o g y for the n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n o n of the thunderbolt, 5 7 b u t uses this a n a l o g y to his o w n p o l e m i c a l ends. The fulmen is the e x a m p l e par excellence o f the n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n o n that frightens m e n into a false belief in the gods; 5 8 it is for this reason 51

Dissultare

o c c u r s i n V i r g i l e l s e w h e r e o n l y at Aen. 8.240, a n o t h e r p a s s a g e w i t h

i m p l i c a t i o n s o f c o s m i c disaster, a n d in close a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h a n a l l u s i o n to the fulmen: 239 f. ' i m p u l s u q u o m a x i m u s i n t o n a t a e t h e r , / d i s s u l t a n t r i p a e ' . 55

C f . H o r n . II. 1 1 . 7 4 7 XaiXairi toos, a n d 1 2 . 3 7 5 .

66

O n the n e g a t i v e simile see A u s t i n o n Aen. 2.496; f o r a r a t h e r s i m i l a r use o f a

n e g a t i v e s p e c i f i c a t i o n , also in a ' G i g a n t o m a c h i c ' c o n t e x t , w i t h r e f e r e n c e to t h e fulmen, cf. Aen. 9 . 7 0 4 ff. (on w h i c h see a b o v e , p p . 144 f.). 57

T h e tormentum-image

o f t h e t h u n d e r b o l t w a s t r a d i t i o n a l : see E r n o u t / R o b i n o n

L u c r . 6 . 2 1 9 - 4 2 2 ; S e n . QNat. 2 . 1 6 . T h e L u c r e t i a n p a s s a g e c o n t i n u e s w i t h a n a c c o u n t o f the s m a l l , l i g h t , a t o m s o u t o f w h i c h the fulmen is m a d e , w h i c h a l l o w it to pass t h r o u g h most t h i n g s w i t h ease; c o m p a r e t h e ease w i t h w h i c h A e n e a s ' s p e a r passes t h r o u g h t h e a r m o u r o f T u r n u s . J . V a h l e n , SPAW p a r i s o n o f t h e fulmen

( 1 8 9 6 ) , 727 f. t h i n k s t h a t t h e L u c r e t i a n c o m -

to a siege-missile m a y b e a n e c h o o f E n n i u s Ann. 544, w h i c h

V a h l e n r e c o n s t r u c t s as a c o m p a r i s o n o f t h t fulmen to t h e falarica

(cf. V e r g . Aen. 9 . 7 0 5 f.

for the r e v e r s e c o m p a r i s o n ) . 48

See L u c r . 5 , 1 2 1 8 ff.: the t h u n d e r b o l t is i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w e d b y the sea-storm as

a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f n a t u r a l v i o l e n c e i n c i t i n g to s u p e r s t i t i o n .

i 78

VIRGIL'S

A EM EID : COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

that L u c r e t i u s devotes so m u c h space at the b e g i n n i n g o f book six to a rationalist, scientific, a c c o u n t of it. T o c o m p a r e it to a siege-missile has t w o effects: firstly, it firmly reduces the p h e n o m e n o n to a n o n - s u p e r n a t u r a l , materialist, causality; sec o n d l y , the reference to a w e a p o n of w a r reminds us of the traditional identification of the fulmen as the u l t i m a t e w e a p o n of J u p i t e r . T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l w a y of thinking, w h i c h starts from the observation that the f u l m e n is like a w e a p o n , 6 9 a n d proceeds to the conclusion that it has a n a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c divine wielder, is here short-circuited by the p r e c e d i n g e x p l a n a t i o n o f the true, scientific, w a y in w h i c h the fulmen is like a tormentum. T h i s is a n e x a m p l e o f a c o m m o n p r o c e d u r e , w h e r e b y Lucretius presents familiar images, only to show an u n e x p e c t e d point o f comparison, a n d one w h i c h robs the c o n v e n t i o n a l view of all its force. O n e m a y speak here of demythologization. V i r g i l reverses the process: the technological e x a m p l e is not n o w used to rob the fulmen of its divinity, b u t is the first m e m b e r o f a climax, w h i c h goes from the hero's spear to a siege-engine, representing the limit o f h u m a n fire p o w e r , a n d then to the divinely-sent t h u n d e r b o l t , a n d finally to the w h i r l w i n d , the forces o f the storm in their most destructive form. Previous associations ensure that w e interpret the victory o f A e n e a s as parallel to, or e v e n identical w i t h , a v i c t o r y o f a god over his enemy; 6 0 the h u m a n is thus raised to the s u p e r n a t u r a l and divine, the opposite o f the L u c r e t i a n tactic. 6 1 O n e m a y call this

remythologization. J u p i t e r m a y also be t h o u g h t o f as using siege-weapons: in t r a d i t i o n a l t h o u g h t h i g h buildings are often the o b j e c t of J u p i t e r ' s fulmen; see L u c r . 6 . 4 1 7 f. (with M u n r o ad loc.J; N i s b e t / H u b b a r d o n H o r . Carm. 1.2.3. Torquere, the v e r b c o g n a t e w i t h tormentum, is used w i t h fulmina ( o f j u p i t e r ) at Aen. 4.208 (cf. 9 . 6 7 1 ) ; note intorquet at Aen. 12.921, in the line before tormento. L u c r e t i u s ' use o f dominari to refer to the t h u n d e r b o l t (6.89, 224, 385; cf. dominantior 6.238) m a y also be e x a m p l e s of allusion to a t r a d i t i o n a l religious v i e w o f the p h e n o m e n o n , o f course s u b v e r t e d b y the scientific c o n t e x t . 59

60

See above, pp. 147-54.

C o m p a r e Geo. 4 . 5 6 1 ,fulminat used o f O c t a v i a n . T h e association o f the fulmen w i t h the tormentum is f o u n d a g a i n at Aen. 1 1 . 6 1 5 ^ 'excussus A c o n t e u s / fulminis in m o r e m a u t t o r m e n t o ponderis acti / p r a e c i p i t a t ' . H e r e A c o n t e u s himself is like the missile, a n d there m a y be a l a t e n t s t o r m - c o m p a r i s o n r u n n i n g t h r o u g h the episode: 6 1 0 f. ' f u n d u n t simul u n d i q u e tela / c r e b r a nivis ritu, c a e l u m q u e o b t e x i t u r u m b r a ' ; 6 1 3 ' r u i n a m ' (cf. 1 . 1 2 9 ) ; 6 1 7 ' p r a e c i p i t a t ' (cf. 10.804, 2-9> 4 - 2 5 1 ) ; 6 1 4 ' d a n t sonitu ingenti' (cf. L u c r . 6.108 ' d a n t . . . s o n i t u m ' ) . W i t h excussus cf. L u c r , 6.160 f. 'fulgit i t e m , n u b e s ignis c u m s e m i n a m u l t a / excussere suo c o n c u r s u ' . T h e clash ofpectorapectoribus is like the clash o f clouds that p r o d u c e s the t h u n d e r b o l t , frontibus adversis, L u c r . 6 . 1 1 7 . I s A c o n t e u s a significant n a m e ? T h e p r i m a r y s i g n i f i c a n c e of the root, 'spear', w a s c e r t a i n l y p u n n e d 61

L U C R E T I U S AND THE

AEJVEID

99

1

T h e ' t h u n d e r b o l t ' a n d ' w h i r l w i n d ' of A e n e a s ' final speart h r o w point u p a ring structure, t a k i n g us right b a c k to the b e g i n n i n g o f the epic (Aen. 1.42 ff.): ipsa [Pallas] Iovis rapidum iaculata e nubibus ignem disiecitque rates evertitque aequora vends, ilium exspirantem transfixo pectore flammas turbine corripuit scopuloque infixit acuto. A n u m b e r o f L u c r e t i a n parallels are here discernible: 1. 6.390 ff.: cur quibus incautum scelus aversabile cumquest non faciunt ictiflammasut fulguris halent

pectore perfixo. turbine caelesti subito correptus et igni. (ibid. 395) A g a i n w e find a deliberate revision o f the L u c r e t i a n point of view; V i r g i l opens his epic w i t h a gruesomely vivid picture of a sinner w h o has b e e n j u s t l y punished b y the gods in the traditional w a y . 2. T h e description of the flames p o u r i n g f r o m the stricken O i l e a n A j a x is paralleled b y a L u c r e t i a n description o f E t n a (6.639 f.): per fauces montis ut Aetnae

exspirent ignes interdum turbine tanto. E t n a is often described in a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c terms (note here fauces a n d exspirent); the v o l c a n o c a n also be seen as the m e t a morphosis o f the giant struck d o w n b y the t h u n d e r b o l t (as at Aen. 3.571 ff.; see b e l o w , p p . 263 f.). A j a x , like the giant u n d e r E t n a , is blasted as an e n e m y of the gods. 3. T h e futility of prayers in a storm (5.1231 f.): nequiquam, quoniam violento turbine saepe correptus nilo fertur minus ad vada leti. For L u c r e t i u s piety is o f no use against the u n h e e d i n g forces of o n (TLL

1.420.36 ff.); I n o t e t h a t a K o v T i & p a i is used o f a ' f l a s h ' at A r i s t . Mund.

3, aicoi'TiaSes o f ' m e t e o r s ' a t P l i n . HN 102, a n d ¿KovTior-qpiov Sil. Pun.

2.89,

¿.KOVTLOIIOL

o f ' s h o o t i n g stars' at P t o l .

392" Tetr.

o f a ' s i e g e - e n g i n e ' at A g a t h i a s 3.5 ( a d m i t t e d l y v e r y l a t e ) . C f .

1 6 . 5 6 2 f. 'et, c u i u s n u m q u a m fugisse hastilia c e r v i / p r a e r a p i d a p o t u e r e f u g a ,

v e n a t o r Aconteus '.

•¿öS

V I R G I L ' S A EN EID:

COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

the storm; for V i r g i l the storm is divinely directed against impiety. T h e w o r k i n g s of n a t u r e m a y not a l w a y s be c o m p r e h e n s i b l e in V i r g i l , b u t there is never a n y d o u b t that they are the visible manifestation of a divine will. T h e fact that the T r o j a n s end u p as, figuratively, controlling the forces of n a t u r e is int e r c h a n g e a b l e w i t h the fact that the aims of A e n e a s and o f the gods are, finally, one and the same. A t the end o f the Aeneid religio remains i m p e n d e n t in the sky.

(c) The storm in Aeneid i 62 T h e theme o f the h u m a n actor at the m e r c y o f elemental forces directed by d i v i n e h a n d s , a d u m b r a t e d in J u n o ' s allusion to A t h e n a ' s p u n i s h m e n t of O i l e a n A j a x , recurs on the grandest scale in the storm that J u n o herself raises against A e n e a s . T h i s m y t h o l o g i c a l storm is p r o f o u n d l y influenced b y the, scientific m e t e o r o l o g i c a l descriptions of L u c r e t i u s , whose a c c o u n t s o f the forces of the storm are partly directed to the a b o l i t i o n o f superstitious fear. 6 3 V i r g i l obviously works w i t h the epic c o n v e n t i o n o f a divinely-controlled storm, b u t the density o f L u c r e t i a n echoes in this first set piece o f the Aeneid points to a conscious revision of L u c r e t i a n theology, rather than an i n n o c e n t continuation of the traditional epic p i c t u r e of the storm. I set o u t the L u c r e t i a n parallels in detail in a n a p p e n d i x to this chapter, a n d confine myself here to a discussion of the most i m p o r t a n t points. T h e d e p e n d e n c e of the V i r g i l i a n description of the C a v e o f A e o l u s on the passage in w h i c h L u c r e t i u s describes the winds t r a p p e d in p i l e d - u p clouds (6.189-203) is well k n o w n . 6 4 V i r g i l ' s remythologized p i c t u r e o f ' c l o u d - m o u n t a i n s ' also owes s o m e t h i n g to the L u c r e t i a n description o f literally s u b t e r r a n e a n winds w h i c h cause e a r t h q u a k e s , confined in ventosae speluncae

(6.537 64

O n p p . 9 1 - 3 a b o v e I c o n s i d e r L u c r e t i a n e c h o e s in the s t o r m in so f a r as t h e y

are e x p l o i t e d in the s e r v i c e o f the G i g a n t o m a c h i c a l l e g o r y . 83

See L u c r . 5 . 1 2 2 6 ff. f o r a n a t t a c k o n a b e l i e f o f this sort; see also M u n r o ' s in-

t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the v e x e d p a s s a g e at L u c r . 6.48 f. 64

C f . S c h r i j v e r s , p. 248, t h o u g h t h e r e is n o r e a l basis for the i d e a , p u t f o r w a r d also

by J . S h e a , ' L u c r e t i u s , l i g h t n i n g , a n d L i p a r i ' , CPh

72 ( 1 9 7 7 ) , 136 8, t h a t L u c r e t i u s

h i m s e l f a l l u d e s to A e o l u s . W h a t is the i m p l i c a t i o n o f reserata a t L u c r . 1 . 1 1 ?

L U C R E T I U S A N D T H E AEJVEID

199

A t 6.557 ff- Lucretius discusses the possibility that such subt e r r a n e a n winds could b r i n g a b o u t the destruction o f the w o r l d (568 f.): quod nisi respirent venti, vis nulla refrenet res neque ab exitio possit reprehendere euntis. C o m p a r e Aeneid 1.58 f: ni faciat, maria ac terras caelumque profundum quippe ferant rapidi secum verrantque per auras. N o t e the parallelism o f the conditional clauses, a n d the contrast b e t w e e n a n impersonal n a t u r a l agent, in Lucretius, a n d personal d e m o n i c agents in V i r g i l . N o t e also the covert i m a g e in refrenet, w h i c h becomes a d o m i n a t i n g i m a g e in V i r g i l ' s description of A e o l u s ifrenat, Aen. 1.54). T h e p i c t u r e o f w o r l d destruction at Aeneid 1.58 f. is a c o n f l a t i o n o f De Rerum Natura 1.278 f. a n d 6.568 f.; the triple structure o f the world in this context owes s o m e t h i n g also to De Rerum Natura 5.92 ff. T h e fremitus o f the winds recurs at De Rerum Natura 6.581 (in an e a r t h q u a k e context): speluncas inter magnas fremit ante tumultu. T h e r e follows a description o f the eruption of the s u b t e r r a n e a n winds (582 f.): incita cum vis exagitata foras erumpitur. T h e notion of sallying forth 6 5 is picked u p in the sortie o f the winds in V i r g i l , qua data porta (Aen. 1.83). L u c r e t i u s uses the s a m e m e c h a n i s m o f w i n d to explain volcanic eruption, taking E t n a as his e x a m p l e , at De Rerum Natura 6.639 the intention to d e m y t h o l o g i z e , to r e m o v e superstition, is a p p a r e n t : hot air replaces the g i a n t in torment. 6 6 I n Lucretius there is a clear t e n d e n c y to m e r g e all aerial a n d s u b t e r r a n e a n p h e n o m e n a into a simple pattern, d e t e r m i n e d b o t h b y a scientific urge to see a few simple processes at w o r k in all the v a r i e t y of n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a , a n d also b y the poet's ®5 Erumpere is f r e q u e n t l y used o f a m i l i t a r y sortie; e . g . C a e s . BCiv

2 . 1 4 . i ' p o r t i s se

foras e r u m p u n t ' . 6*

V i r g i l t r a n s f o r m s t u r b u l e n t air b a c k i n t o G i g a n t i c s h a p e : see a b o v e , p p . 90 ff.

•¿öS

VIRGIL'S

A EN EID:

COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

instinct of i m a g i n a t i v e synthesis. 6 7 It is no surprise to find the eruption of E t n a described as a 'fiery storm' ([flammea tempest as, L u c r . 6.642). 6 8 V i r g i l exploits this i n t e r c h a n g e a b i l i t y of aerial a n d s u b t e r r a n e a n processes in his ' v o l c a n i c ' a c c o u n t of the winds, w h e r e a remythologization of L u c r e t i a n material is also a p p a r e n t in the G i g a n t o m a c h i c allusion. The storm of Aeneid 1 is also d e e p l y indebted to the passage in w h i c h L u c r e t i u s demonstrates the corporeality of the winds t h r o u g h an e x t e n d e d comparison o f the forces o f the winds with the i n d u b i t a b l y corporeal p o w e r of a river in flood ( L u c r . 1 . 2 7 1 - 9 7 ) . 6 0 T h e w h o l e passage w a s deeply e m b e d d e d in V i r g i l ' s m i n d , as a g l a n c e at Merrill's table o f parallels indicates; p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t are the echoes in the stormimager)' o£ Aeneid 2.304-8 and 4 9 6 - 9 , and 12.523 4. It is also a key passage in book one of De Rerum Natura, as the first introduction o f the theme of violent destruction by the elements, a theme o f great i m p o r t a n c e for Lucretius, both as an illustration of the m a g n i f i c e n c e of the forces o f the a torn is t universe a n d , n e g a t i v e l y , as a potential stimulus to superstition. T h e illustrations to the previous a r g u m e n t (159 264) had emp l o y e d motifs o f g r a d u a l and regulated g r o w t h , c u l m i n a t i n g in a brief history of the evolution from the original hieros gamos to the g r o w t h of flourishing cities (in fact, a prev iew in miniature of the themes of book five). T h e extended description of the T h e t w o studies o f e a r t h q u a k e a n d o f t h u n d e r a n d l i g h t n i n g are b o t h i n c l u d e d in t h e s c i e n c e o f sublimia b y S e n e c a QN'at 2 . 1 , o n the g r o u n d t h a t their c o m m o n c a u s e is air in m o t i o n . A e r i a l a n d s u b t e r r a n e a n are c o n f u s e d at L u c r . 6 . 2 5 1 ff. ( = 4 . 1 7 0 ff.) 111 the i m a g e o f the s h a d o w s o f A c h e r o n filling t h e sky; this c o n f u s i o n is r e j e c t e d o n l y in so far as it i m p l i e s a theological d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n the t w o r e a l m s ; if w e g e t rid o f t h e o l o g i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s w e c a n u n d e r s t a n d the t r u e c o m p a r a b i l i t y o f the t w o r e a l m s (cf. also 3.25 ff,}. F o r V i r g i l , o f course, t h e m i n g l i n g o f w h a t is b e l o w a n d w h a t is a b o v e the e a r t h is a l w a y s f r a u g h t w i t h t h e o l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s (thus A l l e c t o i n f r i n g e s the l a w f u l b o u n d a r i e s ; cf. also Aen. 12.205). A t L u c r . 4 . 1 7 1 ( = 6 . 2 5 2 ) L u c r e t i u s uses t h e E n n i a n cavernae caeli; p o e t i c l a n g u a g e is used to his o w n ends, this t i m e w i t h a t w o f o l d s h o c k : (i) in the s u p e r s t i t i o u s m i n d , L u c r e t i u s hints, the cavernae o f the s k y are c o n f u s e d w i t h A c h e r u s i a n fantasies; p | |

in E p i c u r e a n f a c t t h e cavernae caeli a r e a n a l o g o u s to

u n d e r g r o u n d processes. ( S e e M u n r o o n 4 . 1 7 1 ) , 68

C f . S t a t . Silv. 3 . 5 . 7 2 f. ' f l a m m e a diri / m o n t i s h i e m s ' ; V . I'l, Argon. 4.508 f. ' i g n e a

m o n t e m / torsit h i e m s ' . S e e also M . P. O . M o r f o r d , The poet Lucan ( O x f o r d , 1 9 6 7 ) , p. 28. 69

T o the p a r a l l e l s to this p a s s a g e in Aen. 1 . 5 2 - 6 3 , 81

3 (set o u t in the a p p e n d i x to

this c h a p t e r ) a d d : c o m p a r e 1.288 ' v o l v i t q u e s u b u n d i s ' w i t h Aen. 1 . 1 0 0 f. ' s u b u n d i s . . , v o l v i t ' ; 1 . 2 9 3 f- ' v e r t i c e t o r t o } c o r r i p i u n t r a p i d e q u e r o t a n t i t u r b i n e p o r t a n t ' w i t h Aen. 1 . 1 1 7 ' t o r q u e t a g e n s c i r c u m et r a p i d u s v o r a t a e q u o r e v e r t e x ' .

5- A u g u s t u s b e t w e e n V e n u s a n d M a r s : C u p f r o m B o s c o r e a l e

6. R e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f S u n d i a l o f A u g u s t u s

L U C R E T I U S A N D T H E AEJVEID 199 storm-forces o f w i n d a n d w a v e d e l i b e r a t e l y j u x t a p o s e s this p i c ture o f h a r m o n i o u s g r o w t h w i t h a p i c t u r e o f the d e s t r u c t i v e p o w e r s a t w o r k in n a t u r e . W i t h i n the e c o n o m y o f L u c r e t i u s ' p o e m this p a s s a g e thus has a p r o g r a m m a t i c f u n c t i o n , fores h a d o w i n g l a t e r t r e a t m e n t s o f n a t u r a l c a t a s t r o p h e o n b o t h the l a r g e a n d the small scale; c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the p r o g r a m m a t i c f u n c t i o n o f V i r g i l ' s storm in b o o k o n e o f the Aeneid is inevitable.70

(d) Fulmen in Lucretius and Virgil L u c r e t i u s associates the t h u n d e r b o l t closely w i t h 'the faces o f b l a c k h o r r o r ' (6.254) t h a t h a n g o v e r superstitious m a n f r o m the h e a v e n s ; for V i r g i l the t h u n d e r b o l t is the t r a d i t i o n a l s y m b o l o f d i v i n e o m n i p o t e n c e , b u t a g a i n the s i m p l e assertion o f c o n v e n t i o n a l b e l i e f is c o m p l i c a t e d b y traces o f L u c r e t i u s ' rat i o n a l i z i n g a c c o u n t o f the p h e n o m e n o n . i. Salmoneus ( A e n e i d 6.585 94) vidi et crudelis dantem Salmonea poenas, dum flammas Iovis et sonitus imi.tatur Olympi. quattuor hie invectus equis et lampada quassans per Graium populos mediaeque per Elidis urbem ibat ovans, divumque sibi poscebat honorem, demens, qui nimbos et non imitabile fulmen aere et cornipedum pulsu simularet equorum. at pater omnipotens densa inter nubila telum contorsit, non ille faces nec fumea taedis lumina, praecipitemque immani turbine adegit. S a l m o n e u s is the c h i e f h u m a n e x a m p l e in the V i r g i l i a n U n d e r w o r l d o f the p u n i s h m e n t a c c o r d e d to i m p i o u s hubris; he follows after the T i t a n s 7 1 a n d the A l o a d a e , w h o also suffer for their 70

T h e q u e s t i o n o f structural e c h o e s o f the De Rerum JVatura in the Aeneid is not o n e

t h a t I p r o p o s e to e x a m i n e in d e t a i l , b u t the f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s m i g h t b e n o t e d : (i) the ' d e s c e n t ' i n t o H a d e s o c c u r s at the e n d o f the first h a l v e s o f b o t h p o e m s ; (ii) b o t h p o e m s e n d o n a note o f d e a t h a n d t r a g e d y . 71

Aen. 6 . 5 8 1 ' f u l m i n e d e i e c t i ' : cf. L u c r . 5 . 1 1 2 5 'et t a m e n e s u m m o , q u a s i f u l m e n ,

deicit ictos j i n v i d i a i n t e r d u m c o n t e m p t i m in T a r t a r a

taetra; / invidia

quoniam,

c e u f u l m i n e , s u m m a v a p o r a n t ' . V i r g i l restores full m y t h i c a l b e i n g to a

Lucretian

r a t i o n a l i z i n g a l l e g o r y (of p r e c i s e l y t h e s a m e sort as at t h e e n d o f b o o k t h r e e o f De Rerum

Natura).

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V I R G I L ' S A EN EID:

COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

attempts to displace J u p i t e r . A s a signal e x a m p l e of this punishment it subverts the L u c r e t i a n attack on the inefficacy of the purely naturalistic t h u n d e r b o l t : a disproof per exemplum.72 T h e case of S a l m o n e u s takes us b e y o n d the n a r r o w theme o f the fulmen to the b r o a d e r question of m a n ' s relations to the gods; S a l m o n e u s is an e x a m p l e of the false theios aner, w h o goes w r o n g because he constructs a m o d e l of divinity w h i c h he mistakenly takes for the real thing; 7 3 his attempts to control the w e a t h e r are false a n d impious. His fate m a y be understood as a political a l l e g o r y , a w a r n i n g to o v e r - p r e s u m p t i o n in public life, 7 4 b u t m i g h t also be seen as a hostile interpretation of the L u c r e t i a n p i c t u r e o f E p i c u r u s (or e v e n of L u c r e t i u s ' i m a g e o f himself). 7 5 E p i c u r u s m a y be said to 'imitate' the fulmen in that he reduces it to n a t u r a l causes a n d presents it t h r o u g h images o f n a t u r a l or t e c h n o l o g i c a l objects a n d processes. Lines 593 f., 'non ille faces nec f u m e a taedis / l u m i n a ' , are thus a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of V i r g i l ' s remythologization\ the experience o f Salm o n e u s shows that a purely naturalistic e x p l a n a t i o n of the fulmen is i n a d e q u a t e . W i t h the c l a i m to divum honorem (Aen. 6.589) c o m p a r e Lucretius' claims for the divinity of E p i c u r u s at De Rerum Natura 5.8 and elsewhere; ovans m a y be paralleled 72

T h e m y t h o f S a l m o n e u s is n o t v e r y c o m m o n (see N o r d e n , p . 2 8 3 ) ; o n e t h e r e f o r e

looks for a p a r t i c u l a r reason b e h i n d V i r g i l ' s selection. L u c r e t i a n v e r b a l parallels: 'at p a t e r o m n i p o t e n s ' , Aen.

6 . 5 9 2 ; a t L u c r . 5 . 3 9 9 t h e s a m e p h r a s e ( p o s s i b l y , as N o r d e n

suggests, d e r i v i n g f r o m a shared E n n i a n model) introduces the legend o f P h a e t h o n , w h i c h is

firmly

r e j e c t e d as a f a b r i c a t i o n o f veteres Graium poetae.

P h a e t h o n , like Sal-

m o n e u s , u s u r p s t h e p l a c e o f a g o d a n d is- s t r u c k d o w n b y a t h u n d e r b o l t . Equi

and

lampas o c c u r in b o t h t h e L u c r e t i a n a n d t h e V i r g i l i a n p a s s a g e s . L u c r e t i u s r e p l a c e s t h e traditional picture of a universe governed by a m o r a l and theological hierarchy with a p i c t u r e o f u n c e a s i n g strife b e t w e e n t h e membra mundi, i r o n i c a l l y c a t e g o r i z e d as a c i v i l w a r ( 3 8 0 f.); t e m p o r a r y d o m i n a n c e o f f i r e o r w a t e r is d u e t o p u r e l y m a t e r i a l c a u s e s . V i r g i l o b v i o u s l y a d h e r e s t o a t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o l o g y . O f t h e e i g h t o c c u r r e n c e s in V i r g i l o f t h e p h r a s e pater

omnipotens,

six a r e in c o n t e x t s d e s c r i b i n g J u p i t e r ' s

m e t e o r o l o g i c a l p h e n o m e n a , most usually w i t h specific reference to the ' D e n s a i n t e r n u b i l a ' , Aen.

6.592: 'densis . . . n u b i b u s ' , L u c r .

power

over

thunderbolt.

6.185,

in

both

p l a c e s t h e e p i t h e t h a s t h e p a r t i c u l a r f u n c t i o n o f d e s c r i b i n g t h e sort o f c l o u d t h a t is (scientifically s p e a k i n g ) essential for the f o r m a t i o n o f the t h u n d e r b o l t . 73

C f . M a n i l i u s 5 . 9 1 ( o f S a l m o n e u s ) ' q u i c a e l u m i m i t a t u s in o r b e ' .

74

C f . P l u t . Mor.

780 F f. f o r a c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e r u l e r w h o is t r u l y a s s i m i l a t e d t o

a g o d t h r o u g h virtue, a n d the ruler w h o invites divine v e n g e a n c e b y assuming

the

e x t e r n a l a t t r i b u t e s , t h u n d e r b o l t s , e t c . , o f d i v i n i t y . F o r a s i m i l a r i d e a in a s o u r c e h o s t i l e t o R o m e s e e Orac. Sib. 7 . 1 0 8 f. 'PwfXT) Kaprepodvfie, eg "OXvfnrov 75

MaKeBovitjv

^.era X6yxVv

I

¿oTpatfieis

Oeos Si at Trdfnrav aTrvarov / 7Tonjoei.

Crudelis poenas (Aen. 6 . 5 8 5 ) i n d i c a t e s a m e a s u r e o f s y m p a t h y f o r S a l m o n e u s , u n d e r -

s t a n d a b l e if V i r g i l sees in h i m t h e m o d e l o f a n o b l e m i n d t r a g i c a l l y m i s g u i d e d ; t h e w o r d s a r e a l s o a p p l i e d t o t h e s y m p a t h e t i c D e i p h o b u s , Aen. 6 . 5 0 1 .

L U C R E T I U S AND THE

AEJVEID

199

by the t r i u m p h a l i m a g e r y of De Rerum Natura 1.75; a n d the idea o f a progress t h r o u g h the peoples o f G r e e c e corresponds to the missionary a c t i v i t y of E p i c u r u s [per magnas didita gentis, 5.20). T h e m o t i f of the chariot, w h i l e apposite for a t r i u m p h (if not, strictly, an o v a t i o n ) , also reminds us o f the poetic chariot o f L u c r e t i u s (6.47), w h i c h he mounts i m m e d i a t e l y prior to his revelation of the truth a b o u t the fulmen. S a l m o n e u s receives the same p u n i s h m e n t for his u s u r p a t i o n of the attributes of J u p i t e r as d o the T i t a n s a n d G i a n t s w h o l a u n c h e d direct attacks on the seat o f the gods, a n d b y w h o s e side S a l m o n e u s n o w lies; in section IVrf b e l o w I show h o w L u c r e t i u s uses G i g a n t o m a c h y as a positive i m a g e for the Epic u r e a n assault on c o n v e n t i o n a l religion. 7 6

ii. The making of the fulmen A t De Rerum Natura 6.246 ff. Lucretius describes the physical c o m p o n e n t s a n d construction o f f u l m i n a . T h e passage is executed in strictly scientific terms, b u t there are occasional references to religious or m y t h i c a l w a y s o f thinking. 7 7 T h e action of the w i n d in h e l p i n g to form the t h u n d e r b o l t is expressed thus (277 f.): insinuatus ibi vertex versatur in arto et calidis acuit fulmen fornacibus intus. Schrijvers points o u t the m y t h o l o g i c a l origin of thefornaces; 7 8 b u t I think that the intention goes b e y o n d that o f ' e m p h a s i z i n g the m a r v e l l o u s n a t u r e o f these m e t e o r o l o g i c a l p h e n o m e n a ' ; o n c e a g a i n the intention is to shock. A traditional locution or m y t h is placed before us, a n d w e are suddenly led to realize that it has a quite d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g f r o m w h a t w e saw before. 76

O t h e r e x a m p l e s of

a n d O s s a ) ; Aen.

rightful

p u n i s h m e n t by fulmen

in V i r g i l : Geo. 1.283

(Pelion

1.230 ' f u l m i n e terres' ( p o w e r o f J u p i t e r ) ; 2.648 f. ( A n c h i s e s ) ; 3 . 5 7 8

( E n c e l a d u s ) ; 4 . 2 5 ( D i d o ' s w i s h ) ; 4. 208 (cf. 1.230); 5 . 6 9 1 ( A e n e a s ' p r a y e r to Iuppiter omnipotens)\ 7 . 7 7 3 ( A s c l e p i u s ) ; 1 0 . 5 6 7 ( A e g a e o n ) . "

251 ' A c h e r u n t a ' ; 287 ' i n d e t r e m o r terras g r a v i t e r p e r t e m p t a t ' , w h e r e tremor h a s

o v e r t o n e s o f the d r e a d o f the i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e e a r t h ; cf. the e c h o o f this line in the e x p l i c i t l y t h e o l o g i c a l a c c o u n t o f t h e s t o r m at Geo. 1 . 3 2 9 ff. 7S

S c h r i j v e r s , p. 247; the i m a g e is u s e d , w i t h a r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t a p p l i c a t i o n at L u c r .

6 . 1 4 8 . S c h r i j v e r s also p o i n t s to 6.681 'vastis A e t n a e f o r n a c i b u s ' . T h e use o f f o r n a x to a l l u d e to t h e m y t h o l o g i c a l f o r g e o f the t h u n d e r b o l t is n o t a t t e s t e d b e f o r e L u c r e t i u s (TLL

vi.i 119.58

ff).

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AND

IMPERIUM

In fact this is very close to a certain type of allegory: w e are to discard the o u t e r husk of the traditional form o f w o r d s and to retain only thephysica ratio c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n it (the locus classicus for this p r o c e d u r e in Lucretius is at 2.600-60). V i r g i l r e m y t h o l o g i z e s in the a c c o u n t of the m a k i n g of the Shield o f A e n e a s in Aeneid 8: the place of m a n u f a c t u r e o f the fulmen becomes o n c e m o r e the forge o f the C y c l o p e s u n d e r A e t n a (or L i p a r e ) w i t h its literal furnaces: with Aeneid 8.421, fornacibus a n d 446, vasta fornace c o m p a r e L u c r e t i u s 6.681, vastis

Aetnae fornacibus .79 A t 6.148 9 L u c r e t i u s uses a n o t h e r i m a g e f r o m m e t a l - w o r k i n g to describe the effect o f a t h u n d e r b o l t falling on a moistureladen cloud: ut calidis candens ferrum e fornacibus olim stridit, ubi in gelidum propere demersimus imbrem. T h i s a n a l o g y is found in other n a t u r a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l treatises, 80 a n d m a y be a scientific c o m m o n p l a c e . V i r g i l also applies the m e t a l - w o r k i n g i m a g e to the fulmen, b u t restores it to the m y t h o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t o f the forge o f the C y c l o p e s (Geo. 4 . 1 7 2 f. = Aen. 8.450 f.): alii stridentia tingunt aera lacu. But w h i l e the scene o f o p e r a t i o n becomes fully m y t h o l o g i c a l a g a i n in V i r g i l , there is a t e n d e n c y in the opposite direction in his a c c o u n t o f the composition of the fulmen (Aen. 8.429 f.): tris imbris torti radios, tris nubis aquosae addiderant, rutuli tris ignis et alitis Austri. T h i s does not correspond to the L u c r e t i a n recipe, in w h i c h f l a m e is the sole constituent o f the fulmen\ yet it is h a r d l y a c o n v e n t i o n a l poetic recipe. C o n i n g t o n comments: ' V i r g i l app a r e n t l y means to represent the t h u n d e r b o l t as m a d e out o f the c o m p o n e n t parts o f the storm'; certainly it is a h i g h l y elemental t h u n d e r b o l t , a n d in this there is a m o v e t o w a r d s a m o r e scien7 9 Cf. Geo, 1 . 4 7 1 f. ' q u o t i e n s C y c l o p u m e f f e r v e r e in a g r o s / v i d i m u s u n d a n t e m r u p t i s f o r n a c i b u s A e t n a m ' , w h e r e the p r e s e n c e o f Cyclopum m a k e s it c l e a r t h a t t h e i m a g e is a t least h a l f - w a y to b e i n g f u l l y m y t h i c a l ( a n d t h e c o n t e x t a n y w a y posits s u p e r n a t u r a l causation). 80

S e n . QNat. 2 . 1 7 ; P l i n . HN 2 . 4 3 . 1 1 2 ; see R r n o u t / R o b i n on L u c r . 6 . 1 4 5 .

L U C R E T I U S A N D T H E AEJVEID

199

tific v i e w o f things, a n d a w a y from the technological i m a g e r y usually applied to the w e a p o n s of the gods. A possible m o d e l is the passage at De Rerum JVatura 6.357 ff- w h i c h L u c r e t i u s explains that fulmina are more f r e q u e n t in the a u t u m n and spring, o w i n g to the h e i g h t e n e d e l e m e n t a l discordia at those times. N o t e lines 364 if.: nam fretus ipse anni permiscet frigus < e t > aestum, quorum utrumque opus est fabricanda ad fulmina nubi ut discordia < s i t > rerum magnoque tumultu ignibus et vends furibundus fluctuet aer. (note the technological i m a g e in fabricanda); a n d especially lines

375 ffnec mirumst, in eo si tempore plurima hunt fulmina tempestasque cietur turbida caelo, ancipiti quoniam bello turbatur utrimque, hinc flammis illinc ventis umoreque mixto. 81 C o m p a r e the hint of a m e t e o r o l o g i c a l i m a g e in the description of the Shield of A e n e a s , an artefact forged in the smithy of the fulmen, at Aeneid 10.271 ff.: the collocation aureus ignis occurs (with a different construction) at the end o f a L u c r e t i a n line describing the fulmen (6.205). R e a c t i n g against Lucretius, V i r gil moves b a c k f r o m the n a t u r a l to the s u p e r n a t u r a l , b u t retains a pseudo-scientific tone in his description o f the divine. 8 2

(e) The end of the world F o r b o t h L u c r e t i u s a n d V i r g i l there is a c o n t i n u o u s progression from localized m e t e o r o l o g i c a l events (including e a r t h q u a k e 81

S e n . QNat.

2.21 takes as c o m m o n g r o u n d the t h e o r y t h a t the fulmen is c o m p o s e d

o f fire; b u t L u c r . 6.222 m a y i n d i c a t e t h e p r e s e n c e o f a l t e r n a t i v e theories: 'ignis e n i m sunt haec n o n venti signa n e q u e imbris'. 82

O t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t L u c r e t i a n e c h o e s in Aen. 8 . 4 1 6 53: (i) L u c r . 6.387 f. ' q u o d si

I u p p i t e r a t q u e alii f u l g e n t i a d i v i / t e r r i f i c o q u a t i u n t s o n i t u c a e l e s t i a t e m p l a ' : Aen. 8.431 ' f u l g o r e s n u n c terrificos s o n i t u m q u e m e t u m q u e ' ; (ii) L u c r . 5 . 1 2 5 6 ' a r g e n t i rivus et a u r i , / aeris i t e m et p l u m b i ' : Aen. 8 . 4 4 5 'fluit aes rivis a u r i q u e m e t a l l u m ' . c e l l a n e o u s notes on fulmen'.

(cf. 2 4 7 ) ; b u t it d o e s at Aen. f u l m i n a ' . C f . Geo.

Mis-

(i) L u c r . 6.99 ' n e c fit e n i m sonitus c a e l i de p a r t e s e r e n a ' 8.528, 9.630; (ii) L u c r . 6 . 2 5 5 ' c o m m o l i r i

tempestas

1.328 f. 'ipse p a t e r . . . / f u l m i n a m o l i t u r d e x t r a ' . Is L u c r e t i u s

d e l i b e r a t e l y h i n t i n g at ( a n d o p p o s i n g ) a d i v i n e l y m a n i p u l a t e d t h u n d e r b o l t ? (iii) L u c r , 6 . 4 1 8 'infesto . . . f u l m i n e ' ; at Aen. 5 . 6 9 1 f. 'infesto f u l m i n e m o r t i /. . . d e m i t t e ' w e h a v e a s t r a i g h t a c c e p t a n c e o f w h a t L u c r e t i u s denies.

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V I R G I L ' S A EN EID:

COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

a n d volcano) to more w i d e s p r e a d forms of devastation, culm i n a t i n g in the destruction of the w o r l d itself. N o w h e r e is Lucretius' delight in c a t a s t r o p h e clearer than in his repeated treatment of the final disaster, the end o f the w o r l d . T h i s is not a sign of lunatic T i t a n i s m on the p a r t of the poet; in the first place it is presented as the logical conclusion f r o m observed n a t u r a l violence (5.235 4 1 5 ; 6 . 1 2 1 - 3 ; 6.565 ff.), a n d as a part of the n a t u r a l process it is not to be feared; secondly, it is not a m a t t e r for c o n c e r n , in that the absence of an afterlife makes it a m a t t e r of total indifference to us (3.838 ff.); a n d thirdly, the idea is associated with the destruction of the traditional theologies. F i n a l l y , w h i l e he delights in the intellectual anticipation o f the event, L u c r e t i u s makes it clear that he does not h o p e that it will c o m e a b o u t in the i m m e d i a t e future (5.107 ff. 'ratio potius q u a m res'). A t 5 . i i o f f . the threat to the order of the w o r l d is associated with the idea of G i g a n t o m a c h y , 8 3 b u t w i t h a reversal o f values, so that the assault on h e a v e n , traditionally the u l t i m a t e i m p i e t y , b e c o m e s a laudable enterprise. T h e destruction of the w o r l d is thus associated w i t h the E p i c u r e a n revision of n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y (see section l V d b e l o w ) ; G i g a n t o m a c h y m a y be presented as a n attack on the citadel o f the universe, a n d it is the moenia mundi that fall both at the end of the w o r l d , a n d , f i g u r a t i v e l y , before the o n s l a u g h t of E p i c u r e a n ratio. E p i c u r u s breaks o u t o f the confine-

ment of the moenia mundi at 1.72 f.: ergo vivida vis animi pervicit, et extra processit longe flammantia moenia mundi. A c t u a l destruction is envisaged in the c o m p a r i s o n o f E p i c u r e a n s to G i a n t s at 5 . 1 1 7 ff.: proptereaque putes ritu par esse Gigantum pendere eos poenas immani pro scelere omnis qui ratione sua disturbent moenia mundi. 84 It is the superstitious m a n w h o worries for the safety of the walls of the w o r l d , 5 . 1 2 1 1 ff.: temptat enim dubiam mentem rationis egestas 83

See H.

R e i c h e , ' M y t h a n d m a g i c in c o s m o l o g i c a l p o l e m i c s : P l a t o ,

L u c r e t i u s ' , RhM 84

Aristotle,

1 1 4 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 2 9 6 - 3 2 9 , esp. p p . 307 ff.

C o m p a r e the l a n g u a g e o f 5 . 1 6 3 ' a b i m o e v e r t e r e s u m m a ' (the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the

u n i v e r s e ) w i t h Aen. 2.625

ex

'

m o

verti N e p t u n i a T r o i a ' (the fall o f a c i t y ) .

LUCRETIUS AND THE

AEJVEID

. , . quoad moenia mundi solliciti motus hune possint ferre laborem

199 1213

T h e end of the world is d e s c r i b e d in detail at I.I 102 ff.: ne volucri ritu flammarum moenia mundi diffugiant subito magnum per inane soluta et ne cetera consimili ratione sequantur neve ruant caeli tonitralia templa superne terraque se pedibus raptim subducat et omnis inter permixtas rerum caelique ruinas corpora solventis abeat per inane profundum. T h e l a n g u a g e here bears a close resemblance to the effects of E p i c u r u s ' ratio at the b e g i n n i n g o f b o o k three (16 f.): diffugiunt animi terrores, moenia mundi discedunt, totum video per inane geri res; (ibid. 26 f.): nec tellus obstat quin omnia dispiciantur, sub pedibus quaecumque infra per inane geruntur. T h e r e is a sense in w h i c h the moenia mundi are for Lucretius the walls of a prison-house o f the m i n d ; note the i m p l i c a t i o n of escape in 1 . 7 0 - 1 : irritât animi virtutem, effringere ut arta naturae primus portarum claustra cupiret. F i n a l l y , w e should recognize t h a t for L u c r e t i u s the destruction o f this w o r l d is not the end o f the universe; it is only one of m a n y worlds, a n d , in a n y case, such a c a t a s t r o p h e leaves quite u n i m p a i r e d the eternal existence of the atoms a n d the void, whose perception is the true c u l m i n a t i o n o f the L u c r e t i a n vision. V i r g i l ' s attitude is d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed to that o f Lucretius. In the first place, n a t u r a l v i o l e n c e alone c a n n o t lead to the destruction of the w o r l d , for such an event w o u l d necessarily h a v e theological causation also. T h e winds in Aeneid one are assimilated to G i a n t s a n d in the present dispensation their o p e r a t i o n is a l w a y s d e p e n d e n t on explicitly divine a n d m o r a l (or i m m o r a l ) rulers. T h e clearest d e m o n s t r a t i o n of the difference b e t w e e n V i r g i l a n d L u c r e t i u s is f o u n d at Aeneid 1.58-9:

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A EN EID:

COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

ni facial, maria ac terras caelumque profundum quippe ferant rapidi secum verrantque per auras. T h e s e lines h a v e been analysed a l r e a d y , both in this c h a p t e r a n d in c h a p t e r 3: using L u c r e t i a n l a n g u a g e V i r g i l presents a threat to the w o r l d w h i c h must be averted b y the strenuous efforts of the s u p r e m e divine ruler. S e c o n d l y , for V i r g i l the i n d i v i d u a l does survive after d e a t h , and so m i g h t be affected by the destruction of the w o r l d ; b u t in a n y case there are interests, p a r t i c u l a r l y those o f the city or state, w h i c h are of m u c h longer d u r a t i o n t h a n a single lifetime. T h i r d l y , V i r g i l returns to a traditionalist v i e w of G i g a n t o m a c h y (explicitly at Aen. 6.580 ff.); the only w a y to r e a c h u p to the gods is t h r o u g h a heroic assimilation. T h e moenia mundi are the g u a r a n t e e of the existing theological order. A consideration of the motif of the city in V i r g i l makes it clear that he c a n n o t a c c e p t the destruction o f the moenia mundi: the L u c r e t i a n i m a g e of the world as city is inverted in V i r g i l a n d presented in the f o r m of the city (Rome) as the world (urbsjorbis) (see especially c h a p t e r 8); other instances of G i g a n t o m a c h i c allusion in the Aeneid m a k e it plain that an attack o n R o m e or its g r e a t m e n is t a n t a m o u n t to an a t t a c k on the universe or O l y m p u s . 8 5 V i r g i l c a n n o t encompass the final c a t a s t r o p h e ; he is, after all, w r i t i n g a ktisis.

(f) Chaos M e t e o r o l o g i c a l violence is a foretaste of the final dissolution of the ordered w o r l d . B u t the destruction of the w o r l d can also be v i e w e d as an essentially retrogressive event; it returns things to their primitive state of chaos . H e r e a g a i n L u c r e t i u s reaches for the m e t e o r o l o g i c a l a n a l o g y (5.432 ff.): hie neque turn solis rota cerni lumine largo altivolans poterat nec magni sidera mundi nec mare nec caelum nec denique terra neque aer nec similis nostris rebus res ulla videri, sed nova tempestas quaedam molesque coorta 85

U n i v e r s e a n d c i t y : cf. L u c r . 5.94 ff. ' t r i a t a l i a t e x t a , / u n a d i e s d a b i t

exitio,

m u l t o s q u e p e r a n n o s / s u s t e n t a t a r u e t m o l e s et m a c h i n a m u n d i ' , w h e r e the w o r l d is seen in the i m a g e o f a n a r t e f a c t ; this p a s s a g e m a y h a v e b e e n in V i r g i l ' s m i n d w h e n h e w r o t e o f t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f a c i t y ( T r o y ) , Aen. 2.363, ' u r b s a n t i q u a ruit m u l t o s d o m i n a t a p e r a n n o s ' , the w o r k o f o n e n i g h t (illius noctis 3 6 1 ) .

L U C R E T I U S AND T H E

AEJVEID

199

omne genus de principiis, discordia quorum intervalla vias conexus pondera plagas concursus 86 motus turbabat proelia miscens. A m a c r o c o s m i c storm (also v i e w e d under the anthrop o r m o r p h i z i n g i m a g e of battle) represents the total absence of n a t u r a l order. T h e storm in Aeneid one (which also uses battle i m a g e r y ) threatens universal dissolution, a n d a return to chaos seems i m m i n e n t (see a b o v e , pp. 1 0 7 - 1 0 ) ; the clouds r e m o v e the sight of the sky (88 f.), the w a v e s reach the stars (103), earth p a r a d o x i c a l l y appears b e t w e e n the w a v e s (107). N e p t u n e regards the storm as a large-scale a p p r o a c h to chaos (133 f.; I underline v e r b a l parallels w i t h Lucretius): iam caelum terramque meo sine numine, venti, miscere et tantas audetis tollere moles? W i t h i n the b r o a d e r c o n t e x t this storm is merely a passing assault on the established order of the w o r l d , b u t within the n a r r o w e r f r a m e of the history of A e n e a s its function is to m a r k the e x t r e m e state of helplessness from w h i c h A e n e a s must adv a n c e ; the chaos f r o m w h i c h e v e n t u a l l y emerges the cosmos o f R o m a n Imperium.

(g) Cataclysm and ecpyrosis L u c r e t i u s frequently thinks o f the end o f the w o r l d in terms either o f the f r a g m e n t a t i o n of the solid fabric of the earth (or of the e q u a l l y solid moenia mundi), or of the all-destructive forces o f the winds. G r e e k m y t h o l o g y h a d no Götterdämmerung, b u t it could p r o v i d e images o f a universal disaster of a sort not actually fatal to the w o r l d b u t w h i c h c o u l d be interpreted as a f o r e s h a d o w i n g of h o w the last d a y s m i g h t be; such m y t h o l o g i c a l disasters o p e r a t e t h r o u g h the elements not o f earth a n d air, b u t of fire a n d water. T h e s e m y t h s could also be aligned w i t h scientific theories of the final d o m i n a n c e of fire or water. L u c r e t i u s deals with these possibilities at 5.380 4 1 5 : strife is integral to the w o r l d , a n d it is inevitable that sooner or later the struggle will be resolved in 86

F o r the a c c u m u l a t i o n o f u n c o - o r d i n a t e d s u b s t a n t i v e s as a d e v i c e to express c h a o s

cf. L u c r . 2 . 5 5 3 f- (sea-storm as a n i m a g e for a t o m s tossing a b o u t in the v o i d ) ' d i s i e c t a r e solet m a g n u m m a r e t r a n s t r a c a v e r n a s / a n t e m n a s p r o r a m m a l o s t o n s a s q u e n a t a n t i s ' .

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V I R G I L ' S A EN EID:

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f a v o u r of fire or w a t e r . T h e m y t h s of P h a e t h o n and of D e u c a l i o n a n d P y r r h a are poetic fantasies based on a c t u a l t e m p o r a r y d o m i n a n c e b y , respectively, fire a n d water. 8 7 F o r V i r g i l the diluvium is once a g a i n a c a t a s t r o p h e that offends against the h u m a n a n d d i v i n e orders; it is alluded to in the adynaton with w h i c h L a t i n u s seals his o a t h at Aeneid 12.203 ff.: nec me vis ulla volentem avertet, non, si tellurem effundat in undas diluvio miscens caelumque in Tartara solvat. T h e theological o v e r t o n e is strengthened b y the opposition of

caelum and Tartara in the following adynaton. Diluvium occurs once more, at Aeneid 7.228 ff.: diluvio ex illo tot vasta per aequora vecti dis sedem exiguam patriis litusque rogamus innocuum et cunctis undamque auramque patentem. T h e c o n t e x t is h e a v i l y universalizing, and this e n c o u r a g e s us to see in diluvium an allusion to the m y t h o l o g i c a l F l o o d . T h e i m a g e arises i m m e d i a t e l y from the storm m e t a p h o r of lines 222 f.: quanta per Idaeos saevis effusa Mycenis tempestas ierit campos. T h i s picks u p the storm i m a g e r y of book two, itself h e a v i l y d e p e n d e n t on L u c r e t i a n models, w h i c h , as w e h a v e seen, slide easily b e t w e e n the local a n d the universal levels. T h e idea of escaping f r o m a flood over the sea (or even after a flood, if ex is taken t e m p o r a l l y ) is s o m e w h a t illogical, b u t it m a i n t a i n s the idea of w e a r y travellers looking for the smallest landfall (like D e u c a l i o n a n d Pyrrha?). 8 8 A t Aeneid 2.304 ff. A e n e a s is first m a d e a w a r e o f the c o m i n g destruction of T r o y in a d o u b l e simile w h i c h c o m b i n e s fire and flood; these t w o forms of destruction (natural rather t h a n hum a n ) c o n t i n u e e c h o i n g t h r o u g h the book. H e i n z e notes, significantly, that the b u r n i n g o f T r o y d u r i n g the assault is not 87

Cataclysm

a n d c o n f l a g r a t i o n e l s e w h e r e in L u c r e t i u s : 5 . 3 3 9 ff.; for

cataclysm

6.291 f. ' o m n i s u d v i d e a t u r in i m b r e m v e r t i e r a e t h e r / a t q u e ita p r a e c i p i t a n s

ad

d i l u v i e m r e v o c a r e ' ; 5 . 2 5 5 (on a s m a l l e r s c a l e ) . 88

V a r r o De Gente Populi Romani i n c l u d e d the c a t a c l y s m o f O g y g e s as a t u r n i n g p o i n t

in a s c h e m e o f u n i v e r s a l history d e s i g n e d to g i v e a w i d e r c o n t e x t to t h e m e s s p e c i f i c a l l y R o m a n ( C e n s o r i n u s D.N.

21).

L U C R E T I U S AND T H E

199

AEJVEID

traditional. 8 9 Fire g r a d u a l l y gets total control: 3 1 1 ' V o l c a n o superante' (cf. 759 'exsuperant flammae', a n d cf. L u c r . 5.394 ff. 'superantior i g n i s . . . ignis enim superat'; Aen. 2.624 f. ' o m n e . . . considere in ignis / I l i u m ' ) . 9 0 Destruction b y w a t e r is obviously confined to i m a g e r y ; see especially Aeneid 2.496 ff. F i n a l l y it m a y be noted that in describing the S a c k o f T r o y V i r g i l transfers b a c k to its proper sphere the l a n g u a g e of destroying cities w h i c h Lucretius h a d a p p l i e d to the destruction of the w o r l d : with Aeneid 2.625 'ex i m o verti' c o m p a r e L u c r . 5 . 1 6 3 ' a b i m o evertere s u m m a ' ; with Aeneid 2.611 f. ' t o t a m q u e a sedibus u r b e m / eruit' c o m p a r e L u c r . 5.162 'sollicitare suis . . . ex sedibus'.

I V . E P I C T H E M E S IN T H E

DE

RERUM

NATURA

9 1

T h e De Rerum Natura is a d i d a c t i c p o e m o n physics a n d at the same time an ethical protreptic; there are t w o c o r r e s p o n d i n g principles of structure, the one based on the o r d e r of the science of the atoms and the v o i d , the other based on the intellectual a n d m o r a l progress r e q u i r e d o f the r e a d e r if he is to benefit in the p r o p e r w a y f r o m the substance o f the teaching. L u c r e t i u s goes to several sources for t e c h n i q u e s to further this progress: E m p e d o c l e a n d i d a c t i c techniques; E p i c u r e a n p s y c h a g o g y ; 9 2 the literary form of the diatribe. In o r d e r to represent this progress within the p o e m , Lucretius d r a w s on epic themes. It is clear that on the linguistic level L u c r e t i u s is h e a v i l y i n d e b t e d to earlier epic (particularly Ennius); a n d also that e x t e n d e d imitation or p a r o d y o f epic themes is used to specific d o c t r i n a l or p o l e m i c ends. T h e traditional legends of epic are in m a n y respects quite alien to a n E p i c u r e a n outlook; b u t the m o r e abstract themes of the genre were very suitable, g i v e n the proper h a n d l i n g . In w h a t follows I shall m a k e clear the n a t u r e o f Lucretius' affinities w i t h the epic, a n d then suggest that V i r g i l ' s 89

H e i n z e , p p . 27 f.

90

Cf. the

figurative

destruction of C a r t h a g e by

fire,

Aen,

4 . 6 7 0 f.

'flammaeque

furentes / culmina perque h o m i n u m v o l v a n t u r perque d e o r u m ' . 91

C . M u r l e y , ' L u c r e t i u s , De Rerum Natura, v i e w e d as e p i c ' , TAPhA

78 ( 1 9 4 7 ) , 3 3 6

46, is a s t i m u l a t i n g t r e a t m e n t , b u t d o e s n o t g o n e a r l y f a r e n o u g h . D . W e s t , The imagery and poetry of Lucretius ( E d i n b u r g h , 1969), ch. 3, ' L u c r e t i u s a n d e p i c ' , is c h i e f l y c o n c e r n e d with points of language. In the ancient classification of genres didactic w a s often i n c l u d e d u n d e r epic; see a b o v e , p. 22. 92

S c h r i j v e r s , p p . 128 ff.

i94

VIRGIL'S

A E NE ID: COSMOS

AND

IMPERII]

M

h a n d l i n g of the same or similar themes indicates a t h o r o u g h a c q u a i n t a n c e with the L u c r e t i a n p o e m .

(a) Epic themes: intellectual quest and conquest T h e m a i n epic themes of the p o e m are laid out in De Rerum Natura 1 . 6 2 - 7 9 . W e are presented with a j o u r n e y from earth (terris,93 63) to h e a v e n (caelo, 79, the last w o r d of the section); it is also a j o u r n e y f r o m a b j e c t helplessness (vita iaceret, 62), a state of subjection (oppressa, 63), to a state of s u p r e m a c y . T h i s is presented u n d e r the i m a g e o f a military c a m p a i g n e n d i n g in victory (79). It is a process w h i c h turns the tables, a process o f inversion (vicissim, 78), in w h i c h the distance c o v e r e d is that b e t w e e n oppressa (63) and subiecta (78); the v a n q u i s h e d ends u p as victor. T w o e x t r a - h u m a n factors are in play: firstly religio, the i m a g i n e d despotism o f the gods (fama deum, 68); a n d sec o n d l y , one of the chief sources o f religio, n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a (fulmina etc. e n c o u r a g e the idea of a caput a caeli regionibus, 64). Religio is destroyed, b u t an alternative form o f divinity is established, n a m e l y that o f the enlightened m a n , w h o becomes a sort of g o d . N a t u r e remains, b u t m a n , from b e i n g previously a victim of n a t u r e (through his o w n lack of u n d e r s t a n d i n g ) , comes to h a v e control of nature; the purely intellectual c o m prehension of natura rerum becomes a possession, a c o m m a n d , o f nature. T h i s is effected chiefly t h r o u g h the p l a y on refert, 75 (see note 43 a b o v e ) ; other passages in the p o e m m a k e it a m p l y clear that for L u c r e t i u s k n o w l e d g e is the o n l y genuine, nonillusory, sort o f p o w e r . T h e a c h i e v e m e n t s of E p i c u r u s are described in terms w h i c h m i g h t be a p p l i e d to the g r e a t l e g e n d a r y warriors o f the epic past. 9 4 B u t beside the theme o f conquest there is also the t h e m e o f w a n d e r i n g or travelling (74): 93

T h i s a s c e n t f r o m a n e a r t h b o u n d life (vita in terris) is also i m p l i e d in a f r a g m e n t o f

M e t r o d o r u s , a p . P l u t . Mor. ws ¿At]0(Â)ç 6(6avra 94

1 1 1 7 B ¿TRAAAAYIWEÇ ¿K rov xap.ai jSt'oti eis r à

'Eirtxovpov

ôpyia.

G . - B . C o n t e , "TI/IOÇ e d i a t r i b a n e l l o stile d i L u c r e z i o (De rer. nat. I I . 1 - 6 1 ) ' ,

18 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 3 3 8 - 6 8 ; 3 5 6 n. 43 f o r H o m e r i c e c h o e s i n 1.66 f. H . S y k e s D a v i e s , it

Maia

Criterion

( 1 9 3 1 ) , 40 f., s u g g e s t e d t h a t E p i c u r u s ' e x t r a v a g a n t v i c t o r y m i g h t e c h o m o t i f s o f

A l e x a n d e r p a n e g y r i c ; t h e e v i d e n c e is set o u t i n c o n v i n c i n g d e t a i l b y V .

Buchheit,

' E p i k u r s T r i u m p h des G e i s t e s ( L u c r . 1 . 6 2 - 7 9 ) ' , Vermes 99 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 3 0 3 - 2 3 . S c h r i j v e r s , p . 2 5 6 , ' E p i c u r e d o i t ê t r e c o n s i d é r é c o m m e le h é r o s p r i n c i p a l d e s o n é p o p é e s u r l a N a t u r e des C h o s e s ' ;

p. 1 2 7 n, 36 f o r m a t e r i a l o n t h e e a r l i e r use o f m i l i t a r y i m a g e r y in

p h i l o s o p h i c a l w r i t i n g (esp. the d i a l o g u e ) .

L U C R E T I U S AND THE

199

AEJVEID

atque omne immensum peragravit mente animoque. 93 E p i c u r u s ' feat represents a n intellectual journey9* as m u c h as a v i c t o r y , a n d this aspect m a y be connected with other motifs o f the j o u r n e y or quest as they a p p l y to b o t h Lucretius a n d his reader. T o sum up, E p i c u r u s is the hero o f the De Rerum JVatura, c o m b i n i n g the Iliadic persona o f military leader with the O d y s -

sean persona of wanderer. T h e story-line of the Aeneid m a y also be read as a j o u r n e y to the h e a v e n s or the stars. T h e final g o a l is stated early on in the conversation b e t w e e n V e n u s and J u p i t e r (1.250): nos, tua progenies, caeli quibus adnuis arcem. A t lines 259 f. J u p i t e r reassures V e n u s : sublimemque feres ad sidera caeli magnanimum Aenean. 97 In contrast to Lucretius, this j o u r n e y to the stars is not the p r o d u c t of m a n ' s u n a i d e d powers, b u t must be achieved with the help o f the gods. L u c r e t i u s has one hero, Epicurus, V i r g i l several; the ultimate i n c a r n a t i o n of the heroic explorer is A u gustus, the theios aner w h o will take R o m e to the furthest limits of her expansion, w h i c h , like those o f the godlike E p i c u r u s ' expedition, lie b e y o n d the previously k n o w n boundaries o f the w o r l d (Aen. 6.795 iacet extra sidera tellus, extra anni solisque vias. 98 T h e V i r g i l i a n j o u r n e y , within the n a r r o w e r c h r o n o l o g i c a l limits 95

Cf. C i c . Fin. 2 . 3 1 . 1 0 2 ' q u i i n n u m e r a b i l e s m u n d o s i n f i n i t a s q u e r e g i o n e s . , . m e n t e

p e r a g r a v i s s e t ' . T h e i m m e d i a t e s o u r c e o f the m o t i f is t h e i d e a o f the p h i l o s o p h i c a l ' f l i g h t o f the m i n d ' ; cf. R . M . J o n e s , ' P o s i d o n i u s a n d the flight o f the m i n d ' , CPh 21

(1926),

9 7 - 1 1 3 , esp. 1 1 1 fF. o n E p i c u r e a n e x a m p l e s o f the topos. F o r a n o t h e r p o e t i c t r e a t m e n t o f it, H o r . Carm. 1.28.5 f.

< a e i "ias

temptasse domos a n i m o q u e r o t u n d u m / percurrisse

p o l u m ' (see N i s b e t / H u b b a r d a d l o c . ) , o f p a r t i c u l a r interest in t h a t it too c o m b i n e s the t h e m e s o f assault (temptasse) a n d j o u r n e y 96

[percurrisse).

T h e i m a g e o f t h e j o u r n e y is also f o u n d in earlier p h i l o s o p h e r s , n o t a b l y in P a r -

m e n i d e s ; see O . B e c k e r , Das Bild des IVeges und verwandte Vorstetiungen im jrilhgriechischen Denken (Hermes E i n z e l s c h r i f t 4, B e r l i n , 1 9 3 7 ) , esp. p p . 139 fF, 97

C f . also Aen. 7.98 ff. ' e x t e r n i v e n i e n t g e n e r i , q u i s a n g u i n e n o s t r u m / n o m e n in

astra f e r a n t , q u o r u m q u e a stirpe n e p o t e s / o m n i a s u b p e d i b u s . . . / . . . regique videbunt' (compare Lucr.

vertique

1 . 7 8 ' p e d i b u s s u b i e c t a ' ; 3.26 f. 'nec tellus o b s t a t

q u i n o m n i a d i s p i c i a n t u r , / s u b p e d i b u s ' ) ; Aen. 9.641 'sic i t u r a d a s t r a ' . 98

T h i s reflects A l e x a n d e r p a n e g y r i c ( N o r d e n , Kleine Schriften ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 4 2 4 f. =

N . F . 5 4 ( 1 8 9 9 ) , 4 6 9 ) ; see n o t e 94 a b o v e for L u c r e t i u s ' use o f the s a m e t r a d i t i o n .

RhM

•¿öS

V I R G I L ' S A EN EID:

COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

o f the m a i n action of the Aeneid, takes the hero f r o m utter prostration to c o m p l e t e victory; that is, the initial situation of the hero at the b e g i n n i n g is inverted at the end. A e n e a s is first seen at the m e r c y of the louring elements, r .92 ff. 9 9 I f we go further f o r w a r d in the p o e m , b u t further back in time, this j o u r n e y takes on a different aspect; the Aeneid is the measure o f the g a p b e t w e e n total military defeat (at T r o y ) a n d total military v i c t o r y , in t w o stages; firstly in the victory of A e n e a s over T u r n u s , a n d secondly in the final a n d universal v i c t o r y o f R o m e over the orbis terrarum, anticipated in the prophetic passages in books six a n d eight. L o o k e d at in yet a n o t h e r w a y the Aeneid is a progression from the destruction of a city to the construction of a city. 1 0 0 Inversion is a d e v i c e that runs t h r o u g h the Aeneid: partly the external inversion caused b y the rise and fall of the wheel of fortune, articulated b y a v a r i e t y of devices, i n c l u d i n g the switching of specific epic models from one side to the other ( w h o plays Achilles?), and p a r t l y , as the use of this H o m e r i c theme itself shows, an inversion in self-knowledge. T h i n g s turn out to be other than they a p p e a r (especially so for T u r n u s ) , perhaps in p a r t a reflection o f a R o m a n feeling of surprise at h o w their small city could h a v e ended u p as caput rerum. In Lucretius one m a y also distinguish internal a n d external aspects o f inversion; the external inversion b y w h i c h E p i c u r u s brings m a n f r o m oppression to s u p r e m a c y is m a t c h e d b y the continuous upsetting of received ideas a n d hierarchies in the p o e m , a didactic device intended to lead the reader g r a d u a l l y f r o m illusion to clear vision. I r o n y and allegory are the v e r b a l equivalents of the n a r r a t i v e device of inversion.

JVos exaequat victoria caelo ( L u c r . 1.79): the V i r g i l i a n v e r b a l echoes o f this L u c r e t i a n phrase illustrate the b r o a d e r b o r r o w i n g o f themes. V i r g i l intervenes editorially w h e n the T r o j a n s first reach the site of R o m e (Aen. 8.98 ff.): 99

C o m p a r e Aen. 1 . 1 2 9 (the T r o j a n s at their lowest point) ' f l u c t i b u s oppressos T r o a s

c a e i i q u e r u i n a ' w i t h L u c r . 1.63 ( m a n k i n d at its lowest) 'in terris o p p r e s s a g r a v i s u b religione / q u a e c a p u t a caeli r e g i o n i b u s o s t e n d e b a t ' . 100

Compare

the e p i g r a m

of Bassus, Anth.

Pal

€otf>pdytoav opxoi / rait
lraAov

Tpuiios-

9.236 apprjKrot

Moiptov

aAAa \aol,\

Ovotrjv t 1 >

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irv^aT-qv

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c

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noXts.

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the

t h e m e s o f the c r e a t i o n o f R o m e as c o n s e q u e n t on the d e s t r u c t i o n o f T r o y , the u n i v e r s a l rule of R o m e , a n d A e n e a s ' h e a v e n l y destiny.

L U C R E T I U S AND T H E

199

AEJVEID

rara domorum tecta vident, quae nunc Romana potentia caelo aequavit, turn res inopes Euandrus habebat. T h e r e is a stark contrast b e t w e e n primitive humbleness a n d present pride. Caelo aequavit obviously has the physical sense o f 'skyscraper', but there is also the theological implication that R o m e is n o w on a level w i t h the gods a n d their p o w e r ; a n d even that the terrestrial city has b e c o m e a celestial one. 1 0 1 F o r a m o r e n u a n c e d a c c o u n t of the 'rise' of R o m e , see Aeneid 6.781 f: imperium

terris, 102

ilia incluta Roma animos aequabit Olympo.

T h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n in the literal p r o p h e c y (it is only R o m e ' s 'spirit' that is m a d e e q u a l with O l y m p u s ) is, h o w e v e r , a b a n d o n e d in the f o l l o w i n g simile c o m p a r i n g R o m e w i t h C y b e l e , the m o t h e r of the gods; the city is e q u a t e d with a divinity. T h i s stress on the vertical axis as a w a y o f s y m b o l i z i n g the self-evident rightness of a set of values 1 0 3 is manifested in o t h e r passages in the Aeneid, w h i c h present a n i m a g e of a static a n d simple h i e r a r c h y : the picture of A e o l u s sitting enthroned a b o v e the imprisoned winds; the picture of M a n l i u s on the s u m m i t of the C a p i t o l (and also, in the scheme o f the physical Shield, in summo (8.652)), w i t h the G a u l s c l a m b e r i n g u p in the darkness below; the picture o f A u g u s t u s sitting on the threshold of the temple of A p o l l o , 8.720 (on the solar implications of the line see b e l o w (pp. 3 5 5 - 8 ) , a n i m a g e w h i c h owes m u c h to the picture o f the risen D a p h n i s in Eclogue 5, a p o e m whose w h o l e 101

See Claud.

VI. Cons. Hon. 4 6 f. for ' s k y s c r a p e r s ' w i t h t h e o l o g i c a l

Skyscrapers and world-empire

are associated

in S t a t i u s ' i m i t a t i o n

implications.

of V i r g i l ,

Silv.

3.4.47 ff. ' i a m L a t i i m o n t e s v e t e r i s q u e p e n a t e s / E v a n d r i , q u o s m o l e n o v a p a t e r i n c l i t u s o r b i s I e x c o l i t et s u m m i s a e q u a t G e r m a n i c u s astris'; f u r t h e r e x a m p l e s in G e r n e n t z , p p . 5 3 f. T h e n o t i o n o f b u i l d i n g a c i t y to t h e s k y is f o u n d a p p l i e d to C a r t h a g e at Aen. 4 . 8 9 ' a e q u a t a q u e m a c h i n a c a e l o ' (the w o r k is, h o w e v e r , i n t e r r u p t e d , a n d J u n o ' s w i s h t h a t C a r t h a g e r a t h e r t h a n R o m e s h o u l d b e c o m e regnum gentibus,

1 . 1 7 , is d e s t i n e d to b e

t h w a r t e d : see c h a p t e r 6 ) . C o n t r a s t Aen. 1 2 . 5 6 9 (the d e s t r u c t i o n o f a c i t y ) ' a e q u a solo f u m a n t i a c u l m i n a p o n a m ' , ( e a r t h as t h e o t h e r e x t r e m e f o r a n u n s u c e s s f u l c i t y ) . 102

E p i c u r u s ' a c h i e v e m e n t c a n also b e seen as a n e a r t h l y ' c o n q u e s t ' , t h r o u g h mis-

s i o n a r i z i n g : L u c r . 5 . 2 0 ' p e r m a g n a s d i d i t a g e n t i s ' . C f . S c h r i j v e r s , p p . 81 f. o n

the

E p i c u r e a n a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e e x t e n t o f C y b e l e ' s s w a y , L u c r . 2.608, per magnas terras. O n t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f t h e E p i c u r e a n mission: P. B o y a n c é , Lucrèce et Cépicurisme 1 9 6 3 ) , p p . 9 ff; n o t e esp. C i c . Fin.

(Paris,

2 . 1 5 . 4 9 ' p h i l o s o p h u s nobilis [ E p i c u r u s ] , a q u o n o n

s o l u m G r a e c i a et I t a l i a , sed e t i a m o m n i s b a r b a r i a c o m m o t a est'. 103

See also L u c r . 5 . 1 6 3 ' a b i m o evertere s u m m a ' , w h e r e the piety or impiety of the

radical eversion depends on y o u r point of view.

VIRGIL'S

•¿öS

A EN EID:

COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

structure is o r g a n i z e d a r o u n d contrasts of life a n d d e a t h , a b o v e a n d below. 1 0 4 T h i s kind of simple hierarchical composition fitted in well with the ideals of A u g u s t u s , and c a n be paralleled in the visual arts, for e x a m p l e the G e m m a A u g u s t e a (Plate 4), with its clearly divided registers of divinized R o m a n rulers and subjected prisoners, of w h i c h G . R o d c n w a l d t remarks that it strives for a composition like that o f the Last J u d g e m e n t . 1 0 5 T h e r e are other respects in w h i c h the L u c r e t i a n a n d V i r g i l i a n treatments o f the theme of quest coincide: 1. T h e Odyssey is a nostos; the quest is directed to origins, not towards some external goal. T h e case is manifestly otherwise in Lucretius and V i r g i l . Lucretius seeks to g o b e y o n d the k n o w n , and his u n t r o d d e n poetic path coincides with the n e w paths struck out b y Epicurus; A e n e a s is forced to leave his h o m e a n d e m i g r a t e into strange lands. But there are w a y s in w h i c h this o u t w a r d j o u r n e y coincides with a return to the centre for both L u c r e t i u s a n d V i r g i l ; obviously so for V i r g i l , in that I t a l y , as it turns out, is the antiqua mater of the oracles; R o m e is even figuratively identified with the M a g n a M a t e r herself. Furthermore A e n e a s is no A r g o n a u t , but an u n w i l l i n g w a n d e r e r ; he is l o o k i n g for a 'home 5 , for a p l a c e to settle, a g o a l expressed forcibly after the d e v a s t a t i o n of the storm at Aeneid 1.205 f.: tendimus in Latiurn, sedes ubi fata quietas 106 ostendunt; illic fas regna resurgere Troiae. Epicurus goes outside the moenia mundi, but w h a t he brings back is in a sense not new at all; it is n o t h i n g less than the eternal n a t u r a l laws, the things that h a v e a l w a y s been the case; his exploration reveals the true beliefs to be held a b o u t Venus gene-

trix (1.1 If.) and Cybele genetrix (2.598 if.). In truth it is man in his p r e - E p i c u r e a n state w h o lives in a state of alienation; he 101 Q

n

echoes

o f L u c r e t i u s i n Eel

5 see S. M .

M i z e r a , ' L u c r e t i a n e l e m e n t s in

M e n a l c a s ' s o n g , Eclogue 5 ' , Hermes 1 t o ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 3 6 7 - 7 1 . 105

G . R o d e n w a l d t , Kumt um Augustus ( B e r l i n , 1 9 4 3 ) , p. 53. J . K r o l l , Gott und Holle:

der Mytkos vom Descensuskamftfe ( S t u d i e n d e r B i b l i o t h e k W a r b u r g 20, L e i p z i g a n d Berlin, 1 9 3 2 ) , a r g u e s t h a t a r a d i c a l d u a l i s m b e t w e e n t h e g o o d w o r l d a b o v e a n d the b a d w o r l d o f the d e a d b e l o w ( s o m e t h i n g close to the f a m i l i a r C h r i s t i a n s c h e m e o f h e a v e n a n d h e l l ) , is l a r g e l y f o r e i g n to classical G r e e c e , a n d is the p r o d u c t o f H e l l e n i s t i c

and,

e s p e c i a l l y . R o m a n o u t l o o k s (see p p . 5 2 3 IT. ' Z u s a m m e n f a s s u n g ' ) . 108

Sedes quietas is a n e c h o o f L u c r . 3 . 1 8 (there also seen as a p l a c e f r o m w h i c h the

s t o r m is a b s e n t ) , a l t h o u g h t h e r e is the i r o n y t h a t in V i r g i l it is the u n - E p i c u r e a n fata w h i c h r e v e a l t h e m . See b e l o w , p p . 3 2 6 f.

L U C R E T I U S AND T H E

AEJVEID

199

can n e v e r stay in o n e place (3.1053 ff.); his life is a p e r p e t u a l quest, quaerere semper (1058). 2. T h e De Rerum Natura is an intellectual Odyssey, and h e n c e the emphasis is on the process o l d i s c o v e r y , of ordered r e v e l a t i o n progressing g r a d u a l l y towards the full truth; the themes of quest a n d revelation coincide. T h e Aeneid also tends t o w a r d s this t y p e of structure and a w a y from the simple o n e - g o a l structure o f the Odyssey. A l t h o u g h Aeneas 1 w a n d e r i n g s a n d the d e v e l o p m e n t o f his c h a r a c t e r in no w a y follow a simple linear path, there is a n overall p l a n of a series o f steps towards the true goal, e a c h one of which requires an act of insight or revelation, w h e t h e r t h r o u g h oracle, o m e n , or d r e a m . A e n e a s proceeds via a series of mistakes (or heresies) that b r i n g him closer and closer to his u n c h a n g i n g goal. 1 0 7 The progress of A e n e a s can also be understood as one t o w a r d s the control or conquest of nature; b u t the emphases are not those of Lucretius. T h e success o f A e n e a s (and of R o m e ) is v e r y m u c h a physical mastering of the universe; the process of e x p a n s i o n is a c h i e v e d not through the flight o f the soul, but t h r o u g h the physical extension of R o m e ' s p o w e r until it fills the universe. T h e r e are further significant contrasts: E p i c u r u s escapes f r o m

the strait boundaries of error, symbolized by the moenia mundi, into the limitless (immensum, 1.74) void; p a r a d o x i c a l l y this esc a p e into the infinite leads to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the a b s t r a c t limits w i t h i n w h i c h n a t u r e operates (1.75 ff.): unde refert nobis victor quid possit oriri, quid nequeat,/iVnta potestas denique cuique quanam sit ratione atque alte terminus haerens. V i r g i l ' s infinity is o n e of plenitude, not o f emptiness 1.278 f ):

(Aen.

his ego nec metas rerum nee tempora pono: imperium sine fine dedi. T h e r e is no terminus to the potestas of R o m a n empire. O n the other hand this infinitude is achieved essentially t h r o u g h enclosure, t h r o u g h the figurative extension of the walls of R o m e ialtae moenia Romae, Aen. 1.7) to e m b r a c e the w h o l e universe. 107

C f . H e i n z e , p. 83, ' d i e a l l m ä h l i c h e , s t u f e n w e i s f o r t s c h r e i t e n d e A u f h e l l u n g d e s

Fahrtzieles'.

•¿öS

VIRGIL'S

A EN E I D : COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

T h i s is in contrast to the escape from, or even destruction of, the moema mundi in Lucretius; for all its cosmic spaciousness the Aeneid can also i n d u c e a feeling of c l a u s t r o p h o b i a . Strictly intellectual c o m p r e h e n s i o n of the universe in the Aeneid is intimately b o u n d u p with V i r g i l i a n pessimism; it is desirable but it is achieved with p a i n and difficulty, if at all, a n d it brings further pain with it. T h e S p e e c h o f Anchises is the chief exposition of a purely philosophical natura rerum, in largely L u c r e t i a n l a n g u a g e , but it is only indirectly tied into the physical c o m p r e h e n s i o n of the universe by R o m a n power, a n d is less than w h o l l y optimistic (see a b o v e , pp. 69 83); in this respect contrast the Shield of A e n e a s , w h e r e the themes of cosmology and R o m a n p o w e r are inextricably intertwined. If in L u c r e t i u s a right u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f nature eliminates re ligio, it is v e r y clear that for V i r g i l the control over nature acquired by R o m a n heroes confirms the traditional place of the gods, whose assistance in the process is indispensable. A s we h a v e seen, R o m e is equated with C y b e l e , the m o t h e r of all the gods. Finally, if Lucretius c o m b i n e s themes of journey and of w a r in his a c c o u n t o f Epicurus' a c h i e v e m e n t , it is a truism that A e n e a s ' g o a l is a c h i e v e d after both an Odyssey and a n Iliad. From these general considerations I pass to an e x a m i n a t i o n of specific themes from heroic m y t h . I take t w o motifs pertaining to the relationship between the hero a n d nature; and then consider t w o particular myths.

(b) Storm and haven T h e theme o f the storm is o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e in L u c r e t i u s ' treatment of n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a ; a true u n d e r s t a n d i n g and a c c e p t a n c e of the storm's violent forces are necessary for the expulsion of superstition, a n d there is a sense in w h i c h Lucretius delights in the dcstructiveness of the storm as a s y m b o l of the s w e e p i n g a w a y of the old idols; the ultimate vision even sees the basic state of the c o m p o n e n t s of the universe as one of perpetual storm. But all this is viewed from a certain distance: Lucretius does not really wish to call d o w n the forces of the storm on himself, a n y more than he desires M e m m i u s to h a v e first-hand experience of the end o f the world (5.107 f.}. L u c -

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retius also uses images of meteorological stillness to describe the E p i c u r e a n vision; this is of course the galene of E p i c u r e a n ataraxia. I n k e e p i n g with this Lucretius f r e q u e n t l y uses storm as an i m a g e of the troubles of the unenlightened life from w h i c h the E p i c u r e a n must free himself. 1 0 8 T h e storm is also an essential feature of the w a n d e r i n g s of the O d y s s e a n hero; the philosophical a n d the poetical coincide. A famous e x a m p l e o f s t o r m - i m a g e r y occurs at the b e g i n n i n g

of book two of the De Re rum Natura (2.1-13): suave, mari magno turbantibus aequora ventis, e terra magnum alterius spectare laborem; non quia vexari quemquamst iucunda voluptas, sed quibus ipse malis care as quia cernere suave est. suave etiam belli certamina magna tueri per campos instructa tua sine parte pericli. sed nil dulcius est, bene quam munita tenere edita doctrina sapientum templa serena, despicere unde queas alios passimque videre errare atque viam palantis quaerere vitae, cert a re ingenio, contendere nohilitate, noctes atque dies niti praestante labore ad summas emergere opes rerumque potiri. T h e i m a g e of storm is e v e n t u a l l y linked to the motifs of error a n d via that w e h a v e j u s t e x a m i n e d . 1 0 9 Serena in line 8 continues the m e t e o r o l o g i c a l i m a g e , referring to the calm that follows the storm. 1 1 0 T h i s passage is in the form of a priamel with three images presented in the following sequence: sea-storm landb a t t l e — s e c u r i t y within w a l l s . 1 1 1 T h i s in b r o a d terms is also the 108

Cf. S c h r i j v e r s , p p . 271 ff.

109

I n L u c r . 2 , 1 0 13 I t a k e line 10 ' e r r a r e a t q u e v i a m p a l a n t i s q u a e r e r e v i t a e ' to

e c h o the s t o r m o f lines 1 - 4 ; line 11 ' c e r t a r e i n g e n i o , c o n t e n d e r e n o b i l i t a t e ' to e c h o the b a t t l e o f lines 5 - 6 ; a n d lines 1 2 - 1 3 ' n o c t e s a t q u e dies niti p r a e s t a n t e l a b o r e / a d s u m m a s e m e r g e r e o p e s r e r u m q u e p o t i r i ' to c o m b i n e e l e m e n t s f r o m b o t h ; line 12 is a m b i g u o u s , w h i l e the a i m s o f the s h i p w r e c k e d sailor a n d o f the soldier a r e c l e a r l y s e p a r a t e d in line 13 (emergerejpotiri). 110

L a n d a n d sea r e a p p e a r (in reverse o r d e r ) at lines 40 43a.

Serenas in L u c r e t i u s : 2 . 1 0 9 3 ^ ' n a m p r o s a n c t a d c u m t r a n q u i l l a p e c t o r a p a c e /

q u a e p l a c i d u m d e g u n t a e v u m v i t a m q u e s e r e n a m ' , w h e r e all t h r e e epithets, tranquilla., placidum, serenam, c a n b e t a k e n in a m e t e o r o l o g i c a l sense; 3.292 f,; 2 . 1 1 0 0 , 6.99, 6 . 2 4 7 (these last t h r e e all o f literal c a l m w e a t h e r ) . 111

C o m p a r e the s e q u e n c e at L u c r . 4.96717.: w a r

sailor's w a r w i t h the w i n d s

L u c r e t i u s ' q u e s t for the t r u t h . T h e s e q u e n c e is also i m p l i e d at 2.40 53: a n a r m y o n land f o l l o w e d by a fleet at sea a r e b o t h r e j e c t e d as t h i n g s helpless to p r o c u r e p e a c e o f m i n d , in f a v o u r o f ratio, line 53 ( a n a b s t r a c t e q u i v a l e n t o f the templa serena o f line 8),

VIRGIL'S

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structure o f the Aeneid: w a n d e r i n g at sea, l e a d i n g to w a r on l a n d , with the final goal of the f o u n d a t i o n o f a c i t y . 1 1 2 L u c r e t i u s elsewhere makes it plain that E p i c u r u s himself rescues from the storm, w h i c h in 2.1 ff. is only contrasted indirectly with the

templa serena: see 5.10 ff.: quique per artem fluctibus e tantis vitam tantisque tenebris in tam tranquillo et tam clara luce locavit. A e n e a s , after escaping from the storm at the b e g i n n i n g of the Aeneid, describes his goal, L a t i u m , in a phrase used b y L u c r e tius to describe the a b o d e of the gods, as sedes quietae (Aen. 1.205). 1 1 3

(c) Control of the storm E s c a p e from the storm is a n entirely naturalistic motif; I n o w turn to the s u p e r n a t u r a l m o t i f of control of the storm. In L u c r e t i u s it is the o r d i n a r y m a n , rescued b y Epicurus, w h o takes on the role of O d y s s e u s rescued from the storm b y the intervention of friendly divinities, 1 1 4 while E p i c u r u s himself a d o p t s a more than h u m a n role, that of a g o d w h o rescues f r o m the storm, or at the least of an E m p e d o c l e a n shaman-like figure w h o , t h r o u g h his p o w e r o f m i n d , has direct control over the w e a t h e r . T h u s he a p p r o x i m a t e s more to w h a t has been called a ' m y t h i c a l hero' than to a H o m e r i c h e r o , 1 1 5 still h u m a n b u t e n j o y i n g powers w h i c h are denied the o r d i n a r y mortal, a H e r c u l e a n slayer o f monsters rather than an Achilles. T h e distinction between these t w o categories o f hero is put clearly b y N o r t h r o p F r y e , in types t w o a n d three of his classification o f modes of fiction with reference to the hero's p o w e r of action: 2. If superior in degree to other men and to his environment, the 113

L u c r e t i u s , like V i r g i l , d e m o l i s h e s w a l l s to m a k e w a y f o r n e w ones; the ' b e n e

m u n i t a e d i t a d o c t r i n a s a p i e n t u m t e m p l a s e r e n a ' o f 2.7 8 r e p l a c e the o l d moenia mundi. O t h e r b u i l d i n g i m a g e s in L u c r e t i u s : 4 . 5 0 5 ff.; cf. t h e m u r a l c r o w n o f C y b e l e a n d its s i g n i f i c a n c e , 2.606 f. a n d see S c h r i j v e r s , pp. 200 f., w h e r e h e a r g u e s t h a t the mira o f the g o d d e s s are i n f a c t s y m b o l s o f the a c h i e v e m e n t s o f E p i c u r u s . 113

See n o t e 106 a b o v e . C o m p a r e the w o r d s o f A e n e a s to the f a m i l y o f H e l e n u s at

Aen. 3.495 ' v o b i s p a r t a quies: n u l l u m m a r i s a e q u o r a r a n d u m ' . 114

Od. 5.333 ff

116

S e e E . A c k e r m a n n , Lukrez undder Mjytfios ( P a l i n g e n e s i a 13, W i e s b a d e n , 1 9 7 9 ) , p.

149 n. 3 1 .

LUCRETIUS AND THE

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199

hero is the typical hero of romance, whose actions are marvellous but who is himself identified as a human being. The hero of romance moves in a world in which the ordinary laws of nature are slightly suspended . . . 3. If superior in degree to other men but not to his natural environment, the hero is a leader . . . what he does is subject both to social criticism and to the order of nature. This is the hero of the high mimetic mode, of most epic and tragedy. 116 V i r g i l ' s heroes, for the most part, are to be classed strictly u n d e r F rye's third m o d e , w h i c h is also the usual m o d e of H o m e r i c epic. But V i r g i l ' s subject is not merely the actions and sufferings o f l e g e n d a r y heroes; in that he also presents a n a c c o u n t of R o m e ' s assimilation to b o t h the n a t u r a l and divine orders, he tilts his narrative in the direction of w h a t F r y e calls r o m a n c e ; so far from b e i n g subject to the order of nature, the R o m a n hero achieves a measure of control o v e r it. T h i s theme, the control of nature, is not presented as o v e r t l y as in Lucretius; in order to m a i n t a i n the H o m e r i c naturalism, its manifestations are reserved for various forms of allusion, simile, p r o p h e c y , etc. T h e chief examples o f the theme w o r k i n g t h r o u g h i m a g e r y are f o u n d in the storm a n d t h u n d e r b o l t similes applied increasingly to A e n e a s t o w a r d s the end of the epic, w h i c h I h a v e discussed a b o v e ; in this section I wish to e x a m i n e t w o further themes, the c a l m i n g of the waters a n d the technological control o f the forces o f nature.

i. Calming of the waters T h e adverse forces o f w a t e r are s u p e r n a t u r a l l y controlled to the a d v a n t a g e o f the T r o j a n s on three occasions: firstly, a n d in the most circumstantial detail, at Aeneid 1 . 1 2 4 - 5 6 , w h e r e N e p t u n e calms the storm raised b y J u n o ; secondly at 5 . 8 1 6 - 2 6 , w h e n N e p t u n e a g a i n ensures a c a l m passage for A e n e a s , in response to the prayers of V e n u s ; 1 1 7 and thirdly at 8.86-9, w h e n the river-god T i b e r checks his o w n flow to facilitate the j o u r n e y of the T r o j a n s u p s t r e a m to the site of R o m e . T o these three m a y be a d d e d a fourth passage, in w h i c h divine intervention is 114

N . F r y e , Anatomy of criticism ( p a p e r b a c k e d n . , P r i n c e t o n , 1 9 7 1 ) , p p . 33 f.

117

T h i s e p i s o d e f o l l o w s s o o n a f t e r a n o t h e r in w h i c h the v i o l e n t forces o f the s t o r m

are d i v i n e l y d i r e c t e d to the a d v a n t a g e o f A e n e a s , 5 . 6 9 3 ff.

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not explicitly posited but w h e r e the w h o l e c o n t e x t suggests a m a g i c a l event, n a m e l y at 7 . 2 7 - 8 , w h e n the winds d r o p as the T r o j a n s a p p r o a c h the locus amoenus at the m o u t h of the T i b e r . T h e r e are a n u m b e r of L u c r e t i a n echoes here; V i r g i l describes the promised land of the T i b e r , revealed as the winds d r o p , as a spring l a n d s c a p e very m u c h in the m a n n e r o f L u c r e t i u s . 1 1 8 T h e s e four passages o c c u r at i m p o r t a n t points in the narrative; the first is the conclusion to the o p e n i n g episode of the w h o l e poem; the second marks the end of the T r o j a n s ' w a n d e r i n g s over the sea to I t a l y (with the d e a t h o f Palinurus as a typically V i r g i l i a n m i n o r - k e y c o d a to a m a j o r - k e y conclusion); the last t w o passages m a r k the arrival o f A e n e a s at, respectively, L a tium and R o m e . A sequence of divine interferences w i t h the w e a t h e r to aid the hero on his w a y is f o u n d at the end of b o o k five of the Odyssey, w h e r e the effects of the storm raised against O d y s s e u s b y Poseidon are ameliorated, first b y L e u c o t h e a ' s gift of her m a g i c veil, then b y A t h e n a ' s c a l m i n g of the hostile winds, and finally b y the river-god's c h e c k i n g of his stream. But this is an isolated sequence, not linked to the b r o a d e r theme of nostos in the w a y that the topos of galerie p u n c t u a t e s the key stages in the w a n d e r i n g s o f A e n e a s . In V i r g i l the epic theme o f a divinelyoriginated c a l m i n g of the waters is to be linked w i t h the idea that the d i v i n e l y - a p p r o v e d k i n g or general is f a v o u r e d b y the w e a t h e r , a n d e v e n that he has direct p o w e r over the w e a t h e r himself. T h e s u p e r n a t u r a l ^ « / ^ is a constant i m a g e of salvation in Lucretius; V i r g i l also ties the c a l m i n g of the storm closely to his central i d e o l o g y . T h e divine c a l m i n g o f the storm in Aeneid 1 is linked w i t h political themes t h r o u g h the n o t a b l e simile o f the statesman ( 1 4 8 - 5 3 ) . Part of the effect of this is to suggest that the intervention of N e p t u n e channels n a t u r a l p o w e r to the ends of the state, that the w e a t h e r works for R o m e . A more specific link with c o n t e m p o r a r y ideology is p r o v i d e d by the figure of N e p t u n e himself as friendly w e a t h e r - c o n t r o l l e r (in stark contrast to his role in the Odyssey): in the visual arts A u g u s t u s w a s sometimes s h o w n in the role of N e p t u n e d r i v i n g his chariot over the waves, in allusion to the v i c t o r y at A c t i u m ; the s u p e r n a t u r a l theme of control of the sea replaces the naturalistic theme of u s W i t h Aen. 7.32 ff. c o m p a r e L u c r . 2 . 1 4 5 f., 344 ff.

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v i c t o r y in a sea b a t t l e . 1 1 9 A u g u s t u s victorious and the deities of the sea are associated in Propertius 4.6.61 f., w h e r e a procession of sea-gods celebrates the defeat of A n t o n y . S u p r e m e divine p o w e r in the Aeneid is often described in meteorological terms. W e first see J u p i t e r seated in the u p p e r air (1.223), a n c ^ V e n u s addresses h i m as the lord o f the thund e r b o l t (230); he smiles the smile that c a l m s the storm (254 f.): olli subridens hominum sator atque deorum vultu, quo caelum tempestatesque serenat. 120 T h e c o m b i n a t i o n of political control a n d control of the w e a t h e r recurs at 10.96-103, w h e r e the discontent of the gods in council, c o m p a r e d , in traditional m a n n e r , 1 2 1 to a rising storm, is silenced b y J u p i t e r , w h o s e powers of control o v e r universal nature are described in parenthesis. 1 2 2 T h e c a l m i n g o f the mass of the gods is very like the c a l m i n g of the m o b in the statesman simile in book one; 1 2 3 the chief difference is that the positions of n a r r a t i v e and simile are inverted. J u p i t e r in Aeneid 10 is a m o d e l for the ideal R o m a n statesman. W e a t h e r a n d politics are also v i v i d l y associated in L u c r e t i u s ' o p e n i n g address to V e n u s ; the goddess, b r i n g e r o f clear skies, is called o n to c a l m the storms of w a r on land a n d sea (1.29 ff.): effice ut interea fera moenera militiai per maria ac terras omnis sopita quiescant. 119

S e e A u s t i n o n Aen.

1 . 1 5 6 . I n t h e list o f the O l y m p i a n s w h o fight o n A u g u s t u s '

side at A c t i u m o n the S h i e l d o f A e n e a s N e p t u n e h o l d s a p l a c e o f h o n o u r as t h e first mentioned. 120

B a s e d o n E n n i u s Ann. 457 f. See W i g o d s k y , p. 5 1 . C f . S e r v . a d Aen.

1.254 'P°"

e t a r u m e n i m est e l e m e n t o r u m h a b i t u m d a r e n u m i n i b u s ' . M o r e g e n e r a l l y c o m p a r e the w e a t h e r - e f f e c t s o f V e n u s in L u c r e t i u s ' p r o e m . 121

S e e II. 2 . 1 4 7 ff., a l t h o u g h the p o i n t o f c o m p a r i s o n t h e r e is t h e p h y s i c a l c o m -

m o t i o n o f t h e ayopr/. 122

T h e d e s c r i p t i o n of c a l m i n g h e r e h a s a v e r b a l r e s e m b l a n c e to t h e c a l m i n g o f the

w i n d s at 7.27 f.; c o m p a r e 7.27 ' c u m v e n t i p o s u e r e ' w i t h 1 0 . 1 0 3 ' 123

t u m

Zephyri posuere'.

N o t e t h e e m p h a s i s o n the spoken word as t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f c o n t r o l : Aen.

1.142

' d i c t o citius'; 153 'ille r e g i t dictis'; 10.101 'eo d i c e n t e ' . T h e e f f e c t o f the w o r d is a c o n v e n t i o n a l f e a t u r e o f s t o r m - m i r a c l e s , e.g. L a c t a n t . Div.

Inst. 4 . 1 5 . 2 2 '[Jesus] silere

v e n t u m p r o t i n u s iussit . . . s t a t i m q u e sub v e r b o eius t r a n q u i l l i t a s i n s e c u t a est'; 4-37

¿irtTlfXTjotv

TOJ

ave^.a> xa.1 ehrev TT} OaXdacrr], Ziiima,

a v c f i o s , Kal eyevero yaXijvr/ fieydXr/. E p i c u r u s '

figurative

Tre(f>ip.ioao. xai

Mark

¿KOTIAATV

w e a t h e r - m i r a c l e s are also the

result o f dicta or ratio. T h e p a r a l l e l i s m w i t h b o o k o n e m a y b e t a k e n f u r t h e r : J u n o ' s s p e e c h in the c o u n c i l o f the g o d s t h r e a t e n s ( f i g u r a t i v e l y ) to raise a n o t h e r s t o r m a g a i n s t the T r o j a n s , . b u t it is a v e r t e d b y the g r e a t e s t o f all w e a t h e r - c o n t r o l l e r s , J u p i t e r . C o m p a r e fremunt,

10.98 ( w i n d s s t r u g g l i n g to e s c a p e ) w i t h circum claustra fremunt,

1.56.

O

2o6

VIRGIL'S

A EME ID\ COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

nam tu sola potes tranquilla pace iuvare mortalis.

Tranquillus is c o m m o n l y used of the stillness of sea or w e a t h e r . T h e theme of r o y a l control of the forces of n a t u r e is an old one; it e n j o y e d a revival in the Hellenistic period f r o m A l e x a n d e r o n w a r d s , a n d thence b e c a m e p o p u l a r in late R e p u b l i c a n p a n e g y r i c o f g r e a t m e n , and w a s incorporated into the R o m a n imperial m y t h o l o g y . 1 2 4 T h e r e are different degrees of such mastery, r a n g i n g f r o m the direct v e r b a l c o m m a n d o b e y e d b y the winds to the m o r e general observation of M e n a n d e r R h e t o r that n a t u r e d u l y observes its seasons because of the justice of the king. 1 2 5 P a r t i c u l a r l y n o t e w o r t h y is the l a n g u a g e in w h i c h C i c e r o praises P o m p e y {Leg. Man. 16.48): non sum praedicaturus quantas ille res . . . quantaque felicitate gesserit, ut eius semper voluntatibus non modo . . . hostes oboedierint, sed etiam venti tempestatesque obsecundarint. C o n t r o l of the elements is also suggested in a n item o f C a e s a r i a n p r o p a g a n d a , the story of the j o u r n e y o f C a e s a r w i t h his F o r t u n a in a fishing b o a t on a stormy sea, 1 2 6 a theme w h i c h w a s taken up and developed by Augustus.127 In the Aeneid V i r g i l could not present A e n e a s himself as directly controlling the w e a t h e r ; such mastery is still reserved for divine powers, b u t there is a clear d e v e l o p m e n t b y w h i c h the w e a t h e r ends u p as consistently f a v o u r i n g the hero, w h i c h he m a y thus be said to control b y p r o x y . O n c e he obeys the 124

S o m e e v i d e n c e is c o l l e c t e d b y S. W e i n s t o c k , Divus Julius

(Oxford, 1971), pp.

¡ 2 1 ff., f r o m w h i c h m u c h o f w h a t f o l l o w s is d r a w n . See also W . D e o n n a , RHR

83

( 1 9 2 1 ) , 48; H . F r a n k f o r t , Kingship and the gods: a study of ancient Near Eastern religion as the integration of society and nature ( C h i c a g o , 1948). E . P f e i f f e r , Studien zum antiken Sternglauben ( 1 9 1 6 ) , p p . 100 ff; W . F i e d l e r , Antiker

Wetterzauber

( S t u t t g a r t , 1 9 3 1 ) , esp. p p . 10 ff.,

' D e r K ö n i g als W e t t e r z a u b e r e r ' . E x a m p l e s : C i c . Rose. Am. 4 5 . 1 3 1 , S u l l a a n d J u p i t e r c o m p a r e d in a m e t e o r o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t ; S u e t . Claud.

17.3 ' n a v a l e m c o r o n a m fastigio

P a l a t i n a e d o m u s . . . fixit, traiecti et q u a s i d o m i t i O c e a n i i n s i g n e ' ; the m i r a c u l o u s s t o r m w h i c h a i d e d M a r c u s A u r e l i u s a g a i n s t the Q u a d i ; Paneg. Lat. 1 1 . 9 . 2 , f a i r w e a t h e r for M a x i m i a n . T h e i d e a s u r v i v e s i n t o m o d e r n times in a t t e n u a t e d f o r m : cf. E . L o n g f o r d o n Q u e e n V i c t o r i a ' s J u b i l e e (Victoria R.I.,

L o n d o n , 1964, p. 499): ' S h e h a d a w a k e n e d

at W i n d s o r to a b r i l l i a n t m o r n i n g , e x u l t a n t l y h a i l e d b y her s u b j e c t s as

"Queen's

weather"'. 125

M e n . R h . 3 7 7 . 2 2 ff.

128

A p p . BCiv.

2 . 2 1 . 1 4 9 f. H e l l e n i s t i c k i n g a n d R o m a n g e n e r a l are e x p l i c i t l y c o m -

p a r e d : j u s t as A l e x a n d e r c a l m e d the w a v e s w h i l e crossing the g u l f o f P a m p h i l i a , so C a e s a r c a l m e d the A d r i a t i c . 121

S. W e i n s t o c k , o p . cit., p p . 125 ff.

L U C R E T I U S AND T H E A ENE ID

207

will of the gods, the winds and waves o b e y him. It is instructive to look a g a i n at the figure of S a l m o n e u s in this connection, for his imitation of the t h u n d e r b o l t m a y also be described as an a t t e m p t to control the w e a t h e r , 1 2 8 b u t one w h i c h totally rejects the aid of the gods; only c o n v e n t i o n a l piety enables a m a n to enjoy a regulated climate.

ii. Technological control of Nature T h e destruction of the works of m a n by the forces of n a t u r e is a standard c o m p o n e n t of epic i m a g e r y ; I here c o n c e n t r a t e on the topic o f the destruction b y rivers of h u m a n engineering works, bridges a n d e m b a n k m e n t s . T h i s is f o u n d first in H o m e r , (II. 5.87 ff•): Qvvc

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He rushed over the plain like a river swollen by winter rain, whose stream quickly breaks up bridges: neither strong-built bridges hold it back nor do the fences of flourishing gardens. A t the b e g i n n i n g of Iliad 13 H o m e r tells us that after the sack of T r o y Poseidon a n d A p o l l o unleashed the flood-force of all the rivers that fall f r o m I d a to w a s h a w a y the wall that the A c h a e a n s had built in front of their ships. T h e topic recurs in the i m p o r t a n t passage in w h i c h L u c r e t i u s c o m p a r e s the force o f the w i n d to the force of w a t e r (1.285 ff.): nec validi possunt pontes venientis aquai vim subitam tolerare: ita magno turbidus imbri molibus incurrit validis cum viribus amnis. 129 T h i s is echoed by V i r g i l in a simile applied to the destruction of T r o y (Aen. 2.496 f.): non sic, aggeribus ruptis cum spumeus amnis exiit oppositasque evicit gurgite moles. V i r g i l uses the same w o r d , moles, as Lucretius, a l t h o u g h it 128

O n this aspect o f S a l m o n e u s in g e n e r a l see W . F i e d l e r , o p . cit., p p . 7 f.

129

A t L u c r . 5 . 3 4 1 ff. the p o w e r o f rivers is i m a g i n e d as c a p a b l e o f d e s t r o y i n g w h o l e

l a n d s a n d cities.

VIRGIL'S

•¿öS

A EN EID:

AND

COSMOS

IMPERIUM

p r o b a b l y refers here not to bridge-piers, but to e m b a n k m e n t s ( a m p l i f y i n g aggeribus) , 1 3 0 T h e final vision on the Shield o f A e n e a s of the order b r o u g h t b y A u g u s t u s ends w i t h a riveri m a g e (8.726 ff.): Euphrates ibat iam mollior undis, extremique hominum Morini, Rhenusque bicornis, indomitique Dahae, et pontem indignatus Araxes. T h e significance o f these lines is that the victories o f A u g u s t u s b r i n g control o v e r both m a n k i n d (extremique hominum, indomitique Dahae) a n d N a t u r e . T h a t the E u p h r a t e s should n o w flow m o r e gently hints at a m a g i c a l control of N a t u r e (though this is not pressed, since the words c a n also be understood in more figurative w a y s ) , 1 3 1 b u t in ' p o n t e m indignatus A r a x e s ' w e h a v e an i m a g e of technological control o f N a t u r e ; h u m a n works are no longer at the m e r c y of the elements that they seek to master. 1 3 2 It is typical of V i r g i l ' s p r o c e d u r e in describing the historical imperium on the Shield that the universalizing themes, earlier expressed in abstract cosmological terms, are n o w precipitated in concrete details; plausibility is a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h a greater realism (or pseudo-realism) in the relation o f c o n t e m p o r a r y events. But this does not w e a k e n the structural link b y w h i c h the b r i d g i n g of the A r a x e s provides the final answer to the threat o f n a t u r a l violence first represented in the storm of book one. T h e personification of the river A r a x e s 1 3 3 corresponds to the personification o f the winds imprisoned b y A e o l u s , a n d there is even a v e r b a l echo (1.55 f.): illi indignantes magno cum murmure montis T h e L u c r e t i a n p a s s a g e also

finds

v e r b a l e c h o e s in the e a r l i e r simile o f flood a p p l i e d to the d e s t r u c t i o n o f T r o y ,

Aen.

130

C f . C i c . Off. 2 . 4 . 1 4 ' m o l e s o p p o s i t a s

fluctibus'.

2.305 ff. 131

F o r s i m i l a r e x p r e s s i o n s a p p l i e d to

rivers

in a t r i u m p h a l c o n t e x t see N i s b e t /

H u b b a r d ii, p. 150. F o r the ' p a c i f i c a t i o n ' o f n a t u r e i m p l i e d h e r e see the m a t e r i a l c o l l e c t e d in H . F u c h s , ' Z u r V e r h e r r l i c h u n g R o m s u n d d e r R ö m e r in d e m G e d i c h t e des R u t i l i u s N a m a t i a n u s ' ,

42 ( 1 9 4 3 ) , 51 ff". S e n e c a QJVat. 6 . 1 7 . 1 , uses the p h r a s e

' p o n t e m i n d i g n a t u s A r a x e s ' as a n i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e v i o l e n t f o r c e o f w a t e r in a scientific c o n t e x t , a l t h o u g h he m i s i n t e r p r e t s V i r g i l ' s p o i n t , w h i c h is t h a t this f o r c e is n o w successfully r e s t r a i n e d . 132

T h e n a m e A r a x e s is p e r h a p s c h o s e n f o r , a m o n g o t h e r things, its v i o l e n t c o n -

n o t a t i o n s ; cf. schol. M ad A e s c h . PV KVy.(n(L 133

7 1 7 TOV Äpagi]v,

napa TO apaaaetv

KAL T)xetv'

avTov.

T h e p h r a s e ' p o n t e m i n d i g n a t u s A r a x e s ' is n o t e d as a n e x a m p l e o f bold p e r -

s o n i f i c a t i o n b y Q u i n t . Inst. 8 . 6 . 1 1 .

L U C R E T I U S A N D T H E AEJVEID

199

circum claustra fremunt. Finally it m a y be noted that indignari h a d been used earlier b y V i r g i l in a passage describing w h a t w a s p e r h a p s the most f a mous c o n t e m p o r a r y e x a m p l e of m a n ' s t e c h n o l o g i c a l m a s t e r y o f nature, at Georgics 2.161 f.: an memorem portus Lucrinoque addita claustra atque indignatum magnis stridoribus aequor. 134

(d) Gigantomachy G i g a n t o m a c h y is a m a j o r t h e m e in both the De Rerum Natura a n d the Aeneid, b u t the t w o poems a d o p t opposite positions. F o r L u c r e t i u s the assault of the G i a n t s on the heavens b e c o m e s an i m a g e o f the p a t h to be followed b y the E p i c u r e a n : a j o u r n e y of m a n to his rightful place, and also a l a w f u l (epic) b a t t l e , e n d i n g in total victory. F o r V i r g i l the G i a n t s are an e x a m p l e of h o w not to a t t e m p t the j o u r n e y to h e a v e n (an enterprise w h i c h m a n is invited to u n d e r t a k e , b u t in other w a y s ) ; 1 3 5 G i g a n t o m a c h y is the great e x a m p l e o f i m p i e t y from m y t h i c a l history. L u c r e t i u s develops the t h e m e most explicitly at 5 . 1 1 0 if. T h e 134

R . F . T h o m a s , Lands and peoples in Roman poetry: the ethnographical tradition

(Cam-

b r i d g e P h i l o l . S o c . , S u p p l . V o l . 7, C a m b r i d g e , 1982), takes t h e use of indignari a t Geo. 2 . 1 6 2 a n d Aen. 8.728 to i m p l y a n e g a t i v e j u d g m e n t o f m e n ' s f o r c i b l e c o n t r o l o f n a t u r e (pp. 42 ff.). H e does n o t t a k e Aen. 1 . 5 5 i n t o a c c o u n t ; f u r t h e r m o r e , in his r e f e r e n c e t o the a n c i e n t m o r a l i z i n g a t t a c k s o n excesses in c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k he fails to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n p r i v a t e l u x u r y a n d p u b l i c utility a n d p i e t y , w h i c h is p r e c i s e l y the c e n t r a l d i s t i n c t i o n o f H o r . Carm. 2 . 1 5 , w h i c h T h o m a s a d d u c e s in s u p p o r t o f his a r g u m e n t

(p.

63 n. 34); it is n o t t h e L u c r i n e l a k e , b u t t h e p r i v a t e f i s h p o n d s , w h i c h w i l l e x c e e d t h e f o r m e r in e x t e n t , that are t h e o b j e c t o f a t t a c k . C f . C i e . Mur.

36.76 'odit

R o m a n u s p r i v a t a m luxuriam, p u b l i c a m magnificentiam diligit'. O t h e r

populus

panegyrical

uses o f indignari a p p l i e d to rivers or seas crossed: S e n . Suas. 1 . 1 1 ; Sil. Pun. 3 . 6 1 6 ; V a l . Fl. Argon.

1.9; c o n t r o l o f sea b y b u i l d i n g o u t c i t y i n t o it: G e r n e n t z , p. 48. I d o n o t

a g r e e w i t h W . H ü b n e r t h a t Aen. 8 . 7 2 8 is a w a r n i n g a g a i n s t f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n ( ' P o n t e m indignatus Araxes

( V e r g . Aen.

8 . 7 2 8 ) ' , in Lemmata,

donum natalicium

Guilelmo

sexagenario a sodalibus Thesauri Linguae Latini oblatum ( M u n i c h , 1968), p p . 103 135

Ehlers

10).

F o r a c o l l e c t i o n o f m a t e r i a l o n r i g h t a n d w r o n g w a y s o f j o u r n e y i n g to the h e a v e n s

see P. S a t t l e r , ' D i e R ö m e r u n d d i e H i m m e l s t ü r m e r : z u e i n e m E p i g r a m m des A l p h e i o s v o n M y t i l e n e in d e r Anthologia

Palatina

(Anth. Gr. 9 . 5 2 6 ) ' , in Studien aus dem Gebiet

der

alten Geschichte ( W i e s b a d e n , 1 9 6 2 ) , p p . 5 1 - 6 4 . F o r the o p p o s i t i o n o f the t w o w a y s as a n a s p e c t o f a p o l a r i t y at the h e a r t o f the R o m a n s ' c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e m s e l v e s see Y . D a u g e , Le Barbare: recherches sur la conception romaine de la barbarie et de la civilisation Latomus

176, Brussels,

1 9 8 1 ) ; p. 33 o n the c o n s t a n t n e e d to c h o o s e b e t w e e n

' H e r a c l e a n ' a n d the ' T i t a n i c ' p a t h s .

A.

(coll. the

2 I2

V I R G I L ' S AENEID-.

COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

w a y is p r e p a r e d b y a deliberate inversion of traditional religious values; the notions contained in the words fata a n d sanctius are a p p r o p r i a t e d to the L u c r e t i a n cause, a n d the certitude of the P y t h i a is rejected; this leads to the i m p l i c a t i o n that the traditional v i e w of the i m m o r t a l i t y of the w o r l d is mistaken ( 1 1 7 ff.), an idea w h i c h can only seem the height o f impiety to the c o n v e n t i o n a l l y pious: proptereaque putes ritu par esse Gigantum pendere eos poenas immani pro scelere omnis qui ratione sua disturbent moenia mundi praeclarumque velint caeli restinguere solem immortalia mortali sermone notantes. T h e scientific a t t e m p t to u n d e r s t a n d the universe is assimilated to the physical conquest of the heavens; 1 3 6 true to L u c r e t i u s ' strategy of r e w o r k i n g themes of physical conquest or control into their intellectual counterparts, ratio n o w becomes the stormer of the heavens. 1 3 7 Schrijvers notes that this i m a g e picks u p a theme g i v e n prog r a m m a t i c t r e a t m e n t in the a c c o u n t o f E p i c u r u s ' c o n q u e s t o f the skies at De Rerum Natura 1 . 6 2 - 7 9 . T h e points in c o m m o n with the m y t h i c a l G i g a n t o m a c h y are as follows: 1. T h e p l a n of a s c e n d i n g from earth (terris, 63; E a r t h is also the m o t h e r o f the giants) to h e a v e n (caeli, 64). 2. T h e intention of storming h e a v e n b y force (the ascent as bellum); here deliberately associated w i t h the idea o f destroying fortifications, 'effringere p o r t a r u m claustra', 70 f., a l t h o u g h the gates are b r o k e n o u t o f rather than assaulted from outside. 3. T h e need to face the w e a p o n s o f the gods: 68 f. ' q u e m n e q u e f a m a d e u m nec f u l m i n a nec minitanti / m u r m u r e c o m pressit c a e l u m ' . T h e t h u n d e r b o l t is traditionally the m e a n s b y w h i c h the giants are cast d o w n . T h e divergences f r o m traditional G i g a n t o m a c h y in this passage are also obvious: here the v e n t u r e a c t u a l l y succeeds a n d its success leads to a true u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the cosmos (76 f.); it w a s the previous d o m i n a n c e o f the gods that w a s closer to a state of chaos. In fact it turns out that the true monsters are the old 136

A c o m m o n i m a g e later: S c h r i j v e r s , p. 2 5 5 n. 23; L . D e l a t t e , ' C a e l u m

p e t i m u s stultitia . . .', AC 4 ( 1 9 3 5 ) , 309 36. 137

See n. 4 3 a b o v e .

ipsum

L U C R E T I U S A N D T H E AEJVEID

199

gods, w h o must be r e c o g n i z e d for w h a t they are (66 f. 'tollere c o n t r a / est oculos ausus') prior to their rightful destruction. G i g a n t o m a c h y is also implicit in L u c r e t i u s ' praise of E m pedocles, in w h i c h the description o f the wonders of Sicily functions as an i n t r o d u c t i o n to the climactic w o n d e r of E m pedocles himself. O n e o f the chief m a r v e l s of Sicily is E t n a (1.722 ff.): hie Aetnaea minantur murmura flammarum rursum se colligere iras, faucibus eruptos iterum vis ut vomat ignis ad caelumque ferat flammai fulgura rursum. D a v i d W e s t argues that the use of fulgura here refers to the observed flashes o f l i g h t n i n g that a c c o m p a n y a v o l c a n i c eruption. 1 3 8 T h i s m a y be so, b u t the idea of h u r l i n g l i g h t n i n g at the sky reverses the usual direction in w h i c h this w e a p o n of the gods travels, a n d the theological i m p l i c a t i o n must surely be taken into a c c o u n t : this is an attack on h e a v e n w i t h its o w n w e a p o n s . T h i s interpretation is reinforced b y the a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c , or at least z o o m o r p h i c , p i c t u r e o f E t n a (minantur murmura,139 iras, faucibus, vomat). T h e beast b e n e a t h E t n a is of course the g i a n t E n c e l a d u s or T y p h o e u s , a n d there is often a close association b e t w e e n the monster a n d his prison. V i r g i l exploits b o t h aspects of the L u c r e t i a n presentation of E t n a , the 'impious' assault on the heavens a n d the a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c allusiveness (see b e l o w , p p . 263 f.). B u t the E p i c u r e a n will not associate with the a c t i v i t y of E t n a such superstitious fears as are described at De Rerum JVatura 6.644 fumida curn caeli scintillare omnia templa cernentes pavida complebant pectora cura, quid moliretur rerum natura novarum. . . . (669 f.) ignis abundare Aetnaeus, flammescere caelum, id quoque enim fit et ardescunt caelestia templa. 140 138 £) W'est, The imagery and poetry of Lucretius ( 1 9 6 9 ) , p p . 7 ff.; see S e n . QNat.

2.30

on lightning a c c o m p a n y i n g an eruption of Etna. 139

C f . t h e ' a n i m a l ' w i n d s at L u c r . 6 . 1 9 7 f- ' m a g n o • • • m u r m u r e . . . m i n a n t u r ' .

140

M u n r o o n 6 . 6 6 9 d e s c r i b e s these as ' s o m e w h a t frigid h y p e r b o l e s . . . as n o o n e

could take the

flaming

h e a v e n to be a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n a m e r e o c u l a r d e c e p t i o n ' ,

b u t t h e n presents at least a p a r t o f the reason for L u c r e t i u s ' d i v e r g e n c e f r o m a m o d e r a t e

2I2

VIRGIL'S

AENEID-.

COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

T h a t is, superstitious m a n fears that the v o l c a n o will upset the b a l a n c e of nature, a n d w i t h it the d i v i n e h i e r a r c h y . In book one, h o w e v e r , E t n a is no more o m i n o u s than a mirandum, or visendum: w e look on it with e q u a n i m i t y . W e also associate it with E m p e d o c l e s (whose ' d i v i n i t y ' is i n d e p e n d e n t l y connected w i t h the v o l c a n o ) . 1 4 1 T h e suggestion is that E m pedocles, like Epicurus, launches an attack on the sky, understood as the traditional location of the m y t h i c a l gods. E m p e d o c l e s is credited with s o m e t h i n g like the same divinity as E p i c u r u s ( c o m p a r e 1.733 W 1 t h 5.7 ff.); a n d there follows, applied to E m p e d o c l e s and other early physicists, the same passage i n v e r t i n g the traditional e v a l u a t i o n o f the P y t h i a that occurs in c o n n e c t i o n with explicit G i g a n t o m a c h y in b o o k five (1.738 f. = 5 . i 11 f.); b u t the ascent of these early philosophers is not as successful as that of Epicurus, a n d they end u p falling b a c k to the g r o u n d (ruinas, casu, 1.740 f.). P a r a d o x i c a l l y , they fail because they d o not go far e n o u g h in their scientific 'impiety'. W h a t L u c r e t i u s thinks a b o u t the traditional m y t h o f G i g a n t o m a c h y m a y also be inferred from 4 . 1 3 6 ff.: ut nubis facile interdum concrescere in alto cernimus et mundi speciem violare serenam aera mulcentis motu. nam saepe Gigantum ora volare videntur et umbram ducere late, interdum magni montes avulsaque saxa montibus anteire et solem succedere praeter.

Violare is a violent w o r d , suggesting that the storm clouds that disturb the serenity of the sky are in some w a y evil or impious, 1 4 2 a n d the a p p e a r a n c e of G i a n t s in the sky w o u l d be j u s t such a violation of the order o f things. T h e flying m o u n t a i n s a n d rocks are not u n c o n n e c t e d ; these are the traditional w e a p o n s of G i g a n t o m a c h y , a n d in 'solem succedere praeter' w e find the same idea as at 5 . 1 2 0 ' p r a e c l a r u m q u e velint caeli restinguere r e a l i s m in the f o l l o w i n g w o r d s : ' T h e " c a e l u m a r d e r e v i s u m " w a s c o m m o n a m o n g the a n c i e n t p r o d i g i e s a n d m a y h a v e inspired a t r a d i t i o n a l t e r r o r . ' C f . also M a n i l i u s 1.854 ' [ i g n e s ] A e t n a m q u e m i n a n t u r O l y m p o ' ( v e r y l i k e l y b a s e d o n L u c r . 1 . 7 2 2 ff.). 141

H o r . Ars P. 4 6 4 ff. ' d e u s i m m o r t a l i s h a b e r i / d u m c u p i t E m p e d o c l e s , a r d e n t e m

frigid us A e t n a m / insiluit'; see B r i n k a d loc. 142

C f . L u c r . 3.20 f. ' n e q u e n i x acri c o n c r e t a p r u i n a / c a n a c a d e n s v i o l a t ' , also in a

t h e o l o g i c a l l y c h a r g e d p a s s a g e ; cf. also 2 . 6 1 4 , 6 . 7 1 . Mulcentis, is u n e x p e c t e d , a l t h o u g h t h e r e are p r e c e d e n t s in C i c e r o ' s verse (see M u n r o a d l o c . ) .

I

)

L U C R E T I U S AND T H E

AENEID

213

solem', the intention o f the Giants. T h e status of these p h e n o m e n a is, h o w e v e r , unreal; they are merely freak formations o f simulacra, c o r r e s p o n d i n g to no real objects or events, similar to the unreal monster-simulacra of 4.732 f. T h a t is, traditional ideas a b o u t the facta of G i g a n t o m a c h y are based on illusion; the m y t h only has v a l u e w h e n used in inversion as an i m a g e o f the effects o f the dicta of E p i c u r u s and of his disciples. O n p a g e 101 a b o v e I discuss the v e r b a l echoes of these lines in V i r g i l ' s description of the ' G i g a n t o m a c h i c ' Battle o f A c t i u m . 1 4 3

(e) Hercules and the Site of Rome So far w e h a v e dealt w i t h passages in w h i c h E p i c u r u s is associated generally with the class of epic warriors or w a n d e r e r s . A t the b e g i n n i n g of b o o k five L u c r e t i u s introduces, as the cli-

max of a hymn to the theios aner Epicurus, a direct synkrisis with the achievements o f the greatest o f l e g e n d a r y heroes, Hercules. T h e upshot of it is that E p i c u r u s beats H e r c u l e s on his o w n g r o u n d of heroic battle a n d epic excursion; the truly g r e a t victories are over the passions, not fabulous monsters, a n d the true civilizer o f all parts o f the earth is E p i c u r u s {per magnas . . . gentis, 20), not Hercules. T h e difference b e t w e e n the t w o lies not in the degree of their c o n f o r m i t y to a pattern o f epic heroism, b u t in their choice of w e a p o n s , arma in the case o f Hercules, dicta in the case of Epicurus; this picks u p the theme o f the intellectual or verbal p o w e r o f E p i c u r u s that runs t h r o u g h the p o e m . 1 4 4 W h i l e L u c r e t i u s stresses the dissimilarity b e t w e e n E p i c u r u s a n d Hercules, the extended synkrisis i n e v i t a b l y a p p r o x i m a t e s to that t y p e o f allegorization in w h i c h a n a p p a r e n t l y u n p a l a t a b l e m y t h is shown to c o n t a i n v a l u a b l e truths; in this f o r m of allegorization the disjunction b e t w e e n text a n d allegory, w h i c h to some degree is present in all forms of allegorical writing, is p a r t i c u l a r l y e m p h a s i z e d , a l t h o u g h L u c retius steps outside the usual form of such allegory in that, for 14S

A n o t h e r e c h o at Aen. 2.608 f. ' u b i disiectas m o l e s a v u l s a q u e saxis / s a x a v i d e s ' :

V e n u s r e m o v e s the cloud (nubem, 606) f r o m A e n e a s ' eyes so t h a t h e sees b e h i n d this to the reality o f t h e d e s t r o y i n g g o d s . 144

N o t e esp. L u c r . 3 . 1 4 if., t h e n a t u r a l ' m i r a c l e s ' c o n s e q u e n t o n t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f

E p i c u r u s ' ratio; the ' v e r b a l ' d e s t r u c t i o n o f the w o r l d , 5 . 1 0 8 f., 1 1 9 , 163: it is p r o b a b l y i n t e n t i o n a l t h a t this s u s t a i n e d i n t e l l e c t u a l G i g a n t o m a c h y f o l l o w s closely o n the int e l l e c t u a l H e r c u l e a n feats o f E p i c u r u s .

214

V I R G I L ' S A E\EID:

CO$A4 OS A N D

IMPERIUM

the purposes of the a r g u m e n t , he maintains the historicity of Hercules a n d his physical labours. T h e insistence on the unequal w o r t h of physical and intellectual a c h i e v e m e n t picks u p a theme w h i c h w a s decisive in the d e v e l o p m e n t o f an allegorical Hercules whose labours were interpreted as in truth achievements of reason, 1 4 5 and it m a y be that Lucretius, in asserting the literal sense o f the labours, is v e r y deliberately reappraising this a p p r o a c h . But in other respects the figure of E p i c u r u s in this p r o e m is best described as an allegorical Hercules, whose labours are those of the struggle against i g n o r a n c e and passion. The general parallelism b e t w e e n m y t h i c a l monster and h u m a n passion is clear e n o u g h ; note in p a r t i c u l a r 5.45 f.: quantae turn scindunt hominem cuppedinis acres sollicitum curae quantiquc perinde timores? C o m p a r e 3.993 f.: [Tityosj quem volucres lacerant atque exest anxius angor aut alia quavis scindunt cuppedine curae. Scindunt continues the i m a g e o f the vultures of the p r e c e d i n g line. A l l e g o r i c a l monsters similarly lurk behind the curae and

timores of 5.45 f. V i r g i l uses a s o m e w h a t similar form of n e g a t i v e c o m p a r i s o n w h e n he presents A u g u s t u s as o u t d o i n g Hercules in the extent

of his conquests at Aeneid 6.801 ff.: nec vero Alcides tantum telluris obivit, fixerit aeripedem cervam licet, aut Erymanthi pacarit nemora et Lernam tremefecerit arcu. But here the p r i m a r y m y t h i c a l n a r r a t i v e of the L a b o u r s is 145

See G . K . G a l i n s k y , The Herakles theme ( O x f o r d , 1 9 7 2 ) , esp. c h . 5 on the de-

v e l o p m e n t f r o m a p h y s i c a l to a n i n t e l l e c t u a l H e r c u l e s . A s u c c i n c t f o r m u l a t i o n in S e r v i u s ad Aen. 6 . 3 9 5 ' H e r c u l e s a p r u d e n t i o r i b u s m e n t e m a g i s q u a m c o r p o r e fortis i n d u c i t u r ' . I n g e n e r a l o n the a l l e g o r i z a t i o n s o f H e r c u l e s see G a l i n s k y , o p . cit. a n d B u f f i e r e , p. 3 7 7 n. 4 1 . A m o r a l a l l e g o r i z a t i o n o f H e r a k l e s is in H e r a c l i t . AIL 3 3 f. ( t h e m o n s t e r s as passions); 33.1 c o u l d a l m o s t b e a p p l i e d to the L u c r e t i a n E p i c u r u s : 8e voynareov Xpovoii,

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l a b o u r s as v i c t o r i e s o v e r i n d i v i d u a l passions o r vices), B. F r i s c h e r , Tke sculpted word: Epicureanism London,

and philosophical

enlightenment

in ancient

Greece ( B e r k e l e y ,

Los

Angeles,

1982), p p . 209 ff. discusses the a l l e g o r i c a l H e r c u l e s a n d a r g u e s that

the

H e l l e n i s t i c statue o f E p i c u r u s c o n t a i n s v i s u a l allusions to the L y s i p p a n w e a r y - H e r c u l e s type.

8. S t a t u e o f A u g u s t u s : P r i m a P o r t a (detail)

LUCRETIUS

AND

THE

A

E.SEID

g i v e n a positive v a l u a t i o n ; there is only a q u a n t i t a t i v e , not a q u a l i t a t i v e , difference between the a c h i e v e m e n t s of H e r c u l e s and Augustus. In the most extended a p p e a r a n c e of Hercules in the Aeneid, in the C a c u s episode o f book eight, a n u m b e r of features suggest that V i r g i l deliberately revises the L u c r e t i a n picture of H e r cules; 1 4 6 this is part o f a more c o m p r e h e n s i v e revision o f L u c retian attitudes in the scenes set at the site o f R o m e . It is precisely the l e g e n d a r y feats of arms of Hercules, his facta ( w h a t e v e r allegories m a y be discerned u n d e r them) that form the p r i m a r y object of celebration (Aen. 8.287 hie iuvenum chorus, ille senum, qui carmine laudes Herculeas et facta ferunt. T h e formal h y m n to H e r c u l e s (8.287-302) refers to several of the monsters m e n t i o n e d b y Lucretius, but the most telling contrasts with Lucretius o c c u r in the i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g C a c u s narrative. T h i s is closely connected with the h y m n itself, and there is a sense in w h i c h the w h o l e section from lines 185 to 305 c a n be read as a sort of d r a m a t i z e d h y m n spread over a n u m b e r o f performers or speakers; E v a n d e r ' s o p e n i n g words (185 If.) place the C a c u s story within a liturgical setting. H e r c u l e s comes to the site o f R o m e after his victory over G e r y o n , a n o t h e r of the monsters dismissed by Lucretius (Aen, 8.202 'tergemini nece G e r y o n a e spoliisque superbus': L u c r . 5.28 ' q u i d v e tripectora tergemini vis G e r y o n a i ' ) . The continuation in Italy of this monster-slaying overturns one of L u c retius 1 chief objections, that Hercules only operates in remote parts of the world (5.36): quo neque noster adit quisquam nec barbarus audet. It w o u l d be difficult to get closer to h o m e than the site o f R o m e . 1 4 7 T h e arrival of Hercules is seen by E v a n d e r as j u s t that iooked-for mission o f salvation by a divine m a n that Lucretius transfers from Hercules to Epicurus (Aen. 8.200-1): 146

S e e B. F a r r i n g t o n , ' P o l e m i c a l allusions to the De rerum natura o f L u c r e t i u s in the

w o r k s o f V e r g i l ' , in fepas, 147

studies presented to G. Thomson ( P r a g u e , 1963), p p . 87 94.

C o n t r a s t Geo. 2 , i 4 o f . ' h a e c l o c a n o n tauri s p i r a n t e s n a r i b u s i g n e m / i n v e r t e r e '

w i t h Aen. 8.303 f. ' C a c i / s p e l u n c a m a d i c i u n t s p i r a n t e r n q u e i g n i b u s i p s u n r

(modelled

o n L u c r . 5.30 'et D i o m e d i s e q u i s p i r a n t e s n a r i b u s i g n e m ' ) . T h e p o i n t o f the C a c u s story is to s h o w t h a t the pest-free state o f I t a l y as p o r t r a y e d in the laudes Itahae is o n l y the result o f s t r e n u o u s heroic a c t i v i t y in the past.

V I R G I L ' S A ENE ID: COS M OS A N D IMP ER I UM

2I6

attulit et nobis aliquando optantibus aetas auxiJium adventumque dei. 148 It is the Hercutis facta (Liter. 5.22) that Lucretius disparages, in

favour of a carmen (5.1) on the laudes (5.3) of Epicurus. T h e values for w h i c h Hercules stands are w h o l l y unL u c r e t i a n ; his v i c t o r y reinforces traditional religion rather than r e m o v i n g it, as E v a n d e r ' s first w o r d s m a k e clear (Am. 8.185 non haec solleinnia nobis, has ex more dapes, hanc tanti numinis aram van a superstitio veterumque ignara deorum imposuit. T h e curious n e g a t i v e form of this strikes an apologetic note, directed against the L u c r e t i a n classification o f all religious practices as superstitio;149 with veterumque ignara deorum c o m p a r e L u c retius 5.86: rursus in antiquas referuntur reiigiones. 150 For V i r g i l it is precisely the ancient religion that is to be u p h e l d . T h e a c c o u n t o f Hercules' victories ends with a n o t h e r set of negative statements (Aen. 8.298 ff.): nee te ullae facies, non terruit ipse Typhoeus arduus arma tenens; non te rationis egentem Lernaeus turba capitum circumstetit anguis.

Rationis egentem is a L u c r e t i a n phrase ( L u c r . 4.502); absence of ratio is fatal to progress on the E p i c u r e a n p a t h . Cf. L u c r . 5 . 1 2 1 1 f.: temptat enim dubtam men tern rationis egestas, ecquaenarn fuerit mundi genitalis origo.

Ratio is the chief w e a p o n of E p i c u r u s (3.14 f.): 148

T h e r e is a m o r e g e n e r a l p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n the L u c r e t i a n E p i c u r u s a n d the

V i r g i l i a n H e r c u l e s : b o t h a r e cast in the role o f d r a g o n - s l a y e r s , r e s c u i n g a n o p p r e s s e d p o p u l a t i o n f r o m a d r e a d f u l m o n s t e r . H e r c u l e s ' b r e a k i n g o p e n o f the c a v e o f C a c u s is c o m p a r e d to the b r e a k i n g o p e n o f the k i n g d o m o f Dis; E p i c u r u s also tears o p e n t h e mysteries o f the U n d e r w o r l d , L u c r . 3.25 ff. J . K r o l l , Gott und Hölle ( 1 9 3 2 ) , p p . 506 ff., a r g u e s that E p i c u r u s ' assault o n the m o n s t e r o f r e l i g i o n a n d his s p r i n g i n g o f the d o o r s o f N a t u r e in L u c r . 1.62 ff. d r a w s o n motifs f r o m a

descensus-type.

S e e C o n i n g t o n o n Aen. 8.188, ' W e m a y a l m o s t f a n c y that V i r g i l is d e f e n d i n g religion against Lucretius'. ,4S

T h i s w a s the c h a r g e that E p i c u r u s b r o u g h t a g a i n s t the v i e w s o f Aristotle; E. B i g n o n e , UAnstoteleperduto2 ii ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 69. 150

L U C R E T I U S AND T H E

AEfiiElD

217

nam simul ac ratio tua coepit vociferari naturam rerum. T h e curious nun te rationis egentem thus looks like a deliberate assertion of the force o f Hercules' reason against the L u c r e t i a n v i e w of his purely physical p o w e r . 1 5 1 T h e site of R o m e is d o m i n a t e d by u n - L u c r e t i a n values. F a r r i n g t o n 1 5 2 points to the a p p a r e n t l y i n n o c u o u s m e t o n y m s at

Aeneid 8.180 f : onerantque canistris dona laboratae Cereris, Bacchumque ministrant. B u t L u c r e t i u s attacks the v a l u e o f these 'gifts' to m a n k i n d in the v e r y same passage in w h i c h he belittles Hercules (5.14 if.): namque Ceres fertur fruges Liberque liquoris vitigeni laticem mortalibus instituisse; cum tamen his posset sine rebus vita manere. It is in the passage f o l l o w i n g the h y m n to Hercules, the w a l k round the site of R o m e (Aen. 8.306 69), that the most striking echoes o f L u c r e t i a n discussions o f rehgio are f o u n d . M u c h o f this passage is concerned with b r i n g i n g o u t the n u m i n o u s q u a l i t y of the v e r y soil of R o m e , 1 5 3 to confirm the R o m a n r e a d e r in his belief in the privileged status of his city in religious matters. It is n a t u r a l that this should reach a c l i m a x in the description of the primitive C a p i t o l (347 ff.): hinc ad Tarpeiam sedem et Capitolia ducit 151

W i t h p e r h a p s a g l a n c e at the a l l e g o r i z a t i o n o f H e r c u l e s as t h e wise m a n par

excellence (see G . K . G a l i n s k y , ' H e r c u l e s a n d t h e H y d r a ( V e r g i l Aen. 8.299- 300)',

CPh

67 ( 1 9 7 2 ) , 197, s u g g e s t i n g a n a l l u s i o n to a n a l l e g o r i z a t i o n o f t h e H y d r a as a sophist, w h i c h g o e s b a c k to P l a t o ) . W i t h the n e g a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s o f Aen. 8 . 2 g 8 ff. cf. L u c r . 1.68 f. ' q u e r n n e q u e f a m a d e u m

nec f u l m i n a nee rninitanti / m u r m u r e

compressit

c a e l u m ' , B. F a r r i n g t o n , art. cit., sees in ' n o n te r a t i o n i s e g e n t e m ' a r e f e r e n c e to the C h o i c e o f H e r c u l e s , his p r e f e r e n c e f o r virtus o v e r voluptas, w i t h an implicit, a t t a c k o n the E p i c u r e a n L u c r e t i u s , b u t this is o v e r - s p e c i f i c . C f . also C i c e r o ' s d e n i a l that H e r c u l e s ' p l a c e in h e a v e n w a s w o n t h r o u g h t h e e x e r c i s e o f a n g e r , Tusc. 4.22.50; the p a s s a g e e n d s ' n e q u e e n i m est ulla f o r t i t u d o , q u a e rationis est e x p e r s ' . 152

art. cit,

153

It is s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t the T r o j a n s ' first g l i m p s e o f the i n h a b i t a n t s o f L a t i u m is in

the e x e r c i s e o f m a r t i a l g a m e s (Aen. 7 . 1 6 2 ff.), b u t o f the i n h a b i t a n t s o f the site o f R o m e in the r e l i g i o u s a c t o f s a c r i f i c e (8.102 If... B u t the n u m i n o u s is also associated w i d e l y w i t h I t a l i a n places; n o t e esp. 7 . 1 7 2 ( t h e p a l a c e o f L a t i n u s contain a specifically R o m a n symbolism) (close v e r b a l l y to 8.348 50).

more

b u t e v e n this m a y

' h o r r e n d u m silvis et r e l i g i o n e

parentum'

¿•22

V I R G I L ' S A EXE ID: COSMOS

A N DI M P E R I L !M

aurea n u n c , olim silvestribus horrida dumis. i a m turn r e l i g i o p a v i d o s terrebat. a g r e s t i s d i r a l o c i , i a m turn s i l v a m s a x u m q u e t r e m e b a n t . 'hoc nemus, hunc

inquit 'irondoso vertice collem

( q u i s d e u s i n c e r t u m est) h a b i t a t d e u s ; A r c a d e s i p s u m c r e d u n t se v i d i s s e I o v e m , c u m s a e p e n i g r a n t e m a e g i d a concuteret d e x t r a n i m b o s q u e cieret.

Religio arises a m o n g the primitive people (agrestis) as a result of an u n c o m p r e h e n d i n g d r e a d o f N a t u r e , a n d is p a r t i c u l a r l y associated with the violence o f the storm. L u c r e t i u s w o u l d not dissent. W i t h pavidos, 3 4 9 , c o m p a r e L u c r e t i u s 5 . 1 2 3 0 , w h e r e the general c a u g h t in a storm ispavidus; pavidus is used elsewhere (5-974; 645) to denote the fear of nature w h i c h leads to a belief in s u p e r n a t u r a l c a u s a t i o n . 1 5 4 T h e L u c r e t i a n parallels create a feeling of uneasiness; this r a t h e r d u b i o u s religious emotion is s h o w n to lie at the heart of the v e r y b e i n g of R o m e , and so must surely be b e y o n d r e p r o a c h , a n d yet we find it h a r d to a c c e p t a n a t i o n a l religion f o u n d e d on fear. 1 5 5 E v a n d e r ' s outline history of the inhabitants o f L a t i u m owes m u c h , in general and in detail, to L u c r e t i u s ' a c c o u n t o f primitive m a n , b u t his o p e n i n g w o r d s refer us to a n o t h e r L u c r e t i a n criticism of religion (Aen. 8 . 3 1 4 ) : haec nemora156 indigenae Fauni N y m p h a e q u e tenebant.

C o m p a r e De Rerurn Natura

4.580

f.:

haec loca capripedes satyros n y m p h a s q u e tenere finitirni

f i n g u n t et f a u n o s esse l o q u u n t u r .

L u c r e t i u s is discussing the role o f echoes in e n c o u r a g i n g the fantasy that the n a t u r a l world is i n h a b i t e d by d i v i n e beings; of course fauns a n d n y m p h s d o not exist in reality. In V i r g i l ' s pastoral vision o f the primitive site of R o m e there is no d o u b t 154 W i t h Aen, 8 . 3 5 0 ' s a x u m q u e t r e m e b a n t ' , c o m p a r e the a l l e g o r i c a l r o c k o f religious f e a r at L u c r . 3.980 ff. ' n e c miser i m p e n d e n s m a g n u m timet a e r e s a x u m / T a n t a l u s , ut f a m a s t , cassa f o r m i d i n e t o r p e n s ; / sed m a g i s in v i t a d i v u m m e t u s u r g e t i n a n i s / m o r t a l » ' . 156

R a t i o n a l i z i n g a c c o u n t s o f R o m a n r e l i g i o n d i d , h o w e v e r , e l e v a t e the p r i n c i p l e o f

religious f e a r i n t o a p o s i t i v e f o r c e f o r n a t i o n a l c o h e s i o n : see P o l y b . 6 . 5 6 . 6 ff.; J . H . W . G . L i e b e s c h u e t z , Continuity and change in Roman Religion ( O x f o r d , 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 4 ff. 156 Haec nemora is p i c k e d u p in the o p e n i n g w o r d s o f E v a n d e r ' s s e c o n d s p e e c h ( w h i c h c o n c e n t r a t e s o n R o m e , w h i l s t the first deals w i t h L a t i u m in g e n e r a l ) , 351 f ' h o c n e m u s . . . h a b i t a t d e u s ' ; in b o t h cases E v a n d e r ' s c o n c e r n is to establish the p r e s e n c e o f d i v i n e , or g o d l i k e , beings.

L U C R E T I U S A N D T H E A EN KID

atg

that such beings do exist. 1 5 7 P a n is also dismissed by L u c r e t i u s (4.586 ff.) b u t a d m i t t e d by V i r g i l to the site of R o m e (Aen. 8.344).

V.

LEVELS

AND

IMAGERY

H i t h e r t o I h a v e e x a m i n e d cases of parallelism of content in Lucretius and V i r g i l , w h e t h e r traceable to didactic influence on epic or to epic influence on didactic. I n o w turn to the techniques used b y the t w o poets to present their material, and in p a r t i c u l a r to the philosophical or poetic devices w h e r e b y the various strands of discourse are tied together. T h e subject m a y be defined as a study of relationships, but these h a v e a more than p u r e l y formal function, for the w a y in w h i c h the various elements in either a philosophical system or a large-scale work of poetry are interconnected constitutes a central part o f the m e a n i n g of the philosopher or poet. W e customarily speak, in a loose fashion, of the 'world" of a poet, m e a n i n g by that something like "the w a y a poet constructs, a n d expresses in his writing, an i m a g e of his m e n t a l and physical surroundings'; I wish to a r g u e that the structural network that, informs V i r g i l ' s ' w o r l d ' is an unusually detailed and e l a b o r a t e system, and that it consciously sets out to include the s u m of p h e n o m e n a ; in both these respects V i r g i l is indebted to Lucretius' a t t e m p t to construct a rigorous system that will a c c o u n t for the totality o f objects and events. H e r e a g a i n there is a coincidence o f the philosophical and the poetical, with a c c o m m o d a t i o n on b o t h sides; if V i r g i l is able to use m a n y L u c r e t i a n devices, this is p a r t l y because L u c r e t i u s h a d a l r e a d y i n c o r p o r a t e d m a n y traditional literary devices into his d i d a c t i c a r m o u r y of persuasion.

(a) The basic structures It will help to start with an analysis of the levels of structure in Lucretius' p o e m , since the confessed e x p o n e n t of a philosophical system n a t u r a l l y makes the base of his i m a g e r y more 157

Aeneas, furthermore, a d m i r a b l y exemplifies Lucretius' description o f ' h u m a n u m

g e n u s . . . a v i d u m nimis a u r i c u l a r u m ' ( L u c r . 4.5941 as he l a p s u p E v a n d c r ' s g u i d e d tour: Aen. 8 . 3 1 0 ff. ' m i r a t u r ' (cf. miracula, L u c r . 4 . 5 9 2 ) , '. . . c a p i t u r q u e l o c k et s i n g u l a laetus / e x q u i r i t q u e ' .

220

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explicit than structures his philosophical this structure

AND

IMPERIUM

does the epic poet. T h e w a y in w h i c h Lucretius poetic ' w o r l d ' is based directly on a scientific or construction o f reality. T h e main principles o f are as follows:

i. The primacy of the senses (and in p a r t i c u l a r o f sight) (see 4.478 ff., 5.100 fL) leads to a stress on sensual images. T h e v a l u e of the senses is further heightened by the fact that in the E p i c u r e a n system sensual a n d mental processes are closely a n a l o g o u s (for e x a m p l e 4.808 ff.), and indeed m a t e r i a l l y very similar. T r a d i t i o n a l poetic i m a g e r y , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r the simile, with its sensual (and a b o v e all visual) emphasis is thus easily taken over.into L u c r e t i u s ' scientific discourse. 1 5 8 2 - T h e u s e o i ' i m a g e r y is also e n c o u r a g e d b y the invisibility of ( the structure of things at their most fundamental level. T h e principle of inmsibilia per visibiha is shared by a wide r a n g e o f philosophies, both materialist a n d idealist, and is stated by Lucretius as a principle o f his didactic p o e m at 1 . 1 4 4 f.: clara tuae possim praepandere lumina menti, res quibus occultas penitus convisere possis. L u c r e t i u s ' l a n g u a g e here makes it plain that the clara luminal as well as h a v i n g a philosophical rationale, are to be consonant with his place in a poetic tradition. T h e s e two factors h a v e to do w i t h the w a y in w h i c h the h u m a n mind can c o m e to terms w i t h the nature of things. B u t the use o f i m a g e r y , d e m a n d e d b y h u m a n capabilities, is also based on the f u n d a m e n t a l structure o f n a t u r e itself: 3. T h e use o f i m a g e r y is licensed b y the fact that the structure of things is homogeneous at all levels, being based on the atoms and the void, and on the simple interaction of the atoms. T h e simile, or other i m a g e , so far f r o m h a v i n g a merely p e d a g o g i c or poetic function, expresses an u n d e r l y i n g a n a l o g y or even identity in the nature of things. T h r e e consequences follow for our apprehension of a n y p a r t i c u l a r i m a g e . Firstly , the k n o w l e d g e that N o t e that L u c r e t i u s uses the w o r d simulacrum, w h i c h has a specific t e c h n i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n w i t h i n his system, to d e n o t e a c o m p a r i s o n or simile: 2 . 1 1 2 f. 'cuius, uti m e m o r o , rei s i m u l a c r u m et i m a g o / a n t e o c u l o s s e m p e r nobis v e r s a t u r et i n s t a t ' . 1 6 9 C i c e r o uses lumen to m e a n ' r h e t o r i c a l h i g h l i g h t , figure o f l a n g u a g e or t h o u g h t ' e.g. Brut. 7 9 . 2 7 5 .

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the t w o things c o m p a r e d are a n a l o g o u s in an extra-literary sense encourages a more t h o r o u g h e x p l o r a t i o n of the points o f resemblance b e t w e e n the two; the detail of the i m a g e is tied in closely to the detail o f the object to w h i c h it is c o m p a r e d . S e c o n d l y , the awareness o f the real a n a l o g y b e t w e e n the t w o things c o m p a r e d sets u p a t w o - w a y m o v e m e n t within the simile. In the traditional simile the emphasis lies on the ill u m i n a t i o n of the p r i m a r y subject b y the o b j e c t to w h i c h it is c o m p a r e d ; in the L u c r e t i a n simile the access o f fresh vision or u n d e r s t a n d i n g works in both directions; as well as illustrating the less clear by the more clear, the simile also adjusts o u r p e r c e p t i o n of its o w n content. W e realize that the subjectm a t t e r o f the simile is itself reducible to E p i c u r e a n principles. T h i r d l y , the L u c r e t i a n simile utilizes w h a t m i g h t be called a 'poetics of shock'. W e are presented with a c o n v e n t i o n a l i m a g e , or an i m a g e that w e are prepared to understand in a conventional, literary, w a y , a n d then shocked into a realization that the c o n v e n t i o n a l j u x t a p o s i t i o n of objects in fact conceals a comparison that is truer (and more detailed) than we could h a v e e x p e c t e d . 1 6 0 T h e o r n a m e n t a l c o m p a r i s o n becomes a vehicle o f intellectual revelation. T h e structure of the universe as revealed t h r o u g h the i m a g e r y

may be viewed as a hierarchy of subordinated and co-ordinated levels; this yields two further principles for the literary presentation of the system: 4. T h e r e is a subordination of levels as ranged in order of scale. L a r g e - s c a l e events h a v e strict analogues in small-scale events and vice versa. T h i s fact too has a p r a c t i c a l p e d a g o g i c function: the e x a m p l e taken from a scale easily assimilated by the h u m a n senses enables us to c o m p r e h e n d the microscopic (invisible) (see (2) a b o v e ) and the cosmic (which m a y c x c e e d the c o m f o r t a b l e b o u n d s of h u m a n i m a g i n a t i o n ) . A n e x a m p l e w h i c h works in both directions is the i m a g e of motes of dust in a s u n b e a m used to illustrate the b e h a v i o u r o f atoms in the void at De Rerurn JVatura 2 . 1 1 2 - 2 4 ; the particles of dust p r o v i d e a large-scale, and 160

S c h r i j v c r s , p. 244, d e s c r i b e s the s h o c k o f L u c r e t i u s ' s u g g e s t i o n t h a t the sun is

r e a l l y 110 d i f f e r e n t f r o m a m a n u f a c t u r e d l a m p , b u t o v e r l o o k s the f a c t that this s h o c k is p a r t l y to b e t r a c e d to t h e t h o r o u g h r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f a c o n v e n t i o n a l h e a v e n l y l u m i n a r i e s as ' l a m p s ' (e.g. L u c r . 5.402).

metaphor

of

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VIRGIL'S

A EXE ID: COSMOS

AN D

IMPERIL!

M

thus visible, a n a l o g y to the invisible atoms, w h i l e the sunlight and dust-particles contained within the space o f a r o o m p r o v i d e a small-scale m o d e l of the i n n u m e r a b l e atoms in the infinity of the void (123 f.): dumtaxat reruni magnarum parva potest res exemplare dare et vestigia notitiai. 161 T h e scientific use of a n a l o g y b e t w e e n g r e a t a n d small is closely allied to less rationalistic microcosmic images, and w e shall see that Lucretius does in fact allude to such things. In so far as the idea o f the microcosm is at least as congenial to the poetic as to the philosophical m i n d , w e confront a n o t h e r case of the c o i n c i d e n c e of the poetic a n d the philosophical. 1 6 2 5. A n a l o g i e s m a y also be d r a w n b e t w e e n co-ordinate levels of Nature; here the g a p to be bridged is not one o f size, b u t of q u a l i t y (or w h a t a p p e a r s to be a q u a l i t a t i v e g a p ) . T h e r e m a y also be d i s c r e p a n c y of scale, but this is not o f p r i m a r y importance. H e r e a g a i n it should be stressed that images based on such c o - o r d i n a t e levels m a y w o r k in t w o directions, thus complicating the c o n v e n t i o n a l unilinearity of the poetic i m a g e . Several pairs of co-ordinated areas m a y be picked out: the physical and psychological, w h i c h for Lucretius are in fact both manifestations of the same type of materialist event. A g o o d e x a m p l e , with a hint o f the m a c r o c o s m i c , is the detailed application of s t o r m - i m a g e r y to the effects o f disease on the vis animi atque animai at De Rerum Natura 3.4.93 ff. A g a i n there is a p e d a g o g i c function, for it is only through a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the physical world that w e are b r o u g h t into a correct mental state. T h i s last e x a m p l e also uses the a n a l o g y of the natural and the human] a n o t h e r e x a m p l e , w h i c h takes the c o m p a r i s o n the other w a y r o u n d , illustrating the n a t u r a l from the h u m a n , is the a n a l o g y d r a w n b e t w e e n v o l c a n i c activity and h u m a n disease at 6.655 ff- A very p r o m i n e n t e x a m p l e of the N a t u r e - m a n kind comparison is in the use ofJoedus a n d other political terminology to describe a t o m i c laws. Finally, mention m a y be m a d e of the 163

T h e m a n n e r o f e x p r e s s i o n is c o n v e n t i o n a l ; cf. G t t o , . s . v . magnus i ; Eel. 1,23; Geo.

4.176. C f . N . F r y e , Anatomy of criticism, p. 161 o n t h e use o f c o s m o l o g y in p o e t r y : ' T h e f o r m o f c o s m o l o g y is c l e a r l y m u c h closer to t h a t o f p o e t r y [ t h a n are scientific or d e s c r i p t i v e theories], a n d the t h o u g h t suggests itself t h a t s y m m e t r i c a l c o s m o l o g y m a y be a b r a n c h o f m y t h . '

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use of the a n a l o g y b e t w e e n animals and men, a g a i n based on a real similarity (see for e x a m p l e 3.296 IT.). T u r n i n g n o w to the Aeneid I indicate briefly the m a i n areas in w h i c h the structures of the L u c r e t i a n and V i r g i l i a n poetic worlds o v e r l a p . 1 6 3 Firstly, there is a constant interlinking o f events on the small and the large scales in the Aeneid . In this respect the storm in book one has a p r o g r a m m a t i c function, a n d there are m a n y cases in w h i c h it is clear that the localized events of the epic are reflections of, or h a v e repercussions on, events on a far g r a n d e r scale. F u r t h e r m o r e , the adventures of the T r o j a n s in m a n y w a y s reflect aspects of more recent historical events o f m u c h greater i m m e d i a t e consequence; the history o f A e n e a s is not j u s t an aitiori for R o m e , but also a p r é f i g u r a t i o n of later things (an aspect of the p o e m to w h i c h the label of ' t y p o l o g y ' has b e e n a t t a c h e d ) . T h i s use of analogies in the temporal dimension is a striking extension of L u c r e t i a n practice. S e c o n d l y , there is a n interlinking o f e v e n t s in separate spheres o f reality. T h e most i m p o r t a n t parallels are those that link firstly the h u m a n or historical, secondly the n a t u r a l or physical, and thirdly the divine or m y t h o l o g i c a l , spheres. T h e extent o f such linking in the Aeneid finds its only p r e c e d e n t in Lucretius. T h i r d l y , there is w h a t m i g h t be called an equipollence of levels in the Aeneid. It is not possible, as it is with H o m e r , to identify an exclusive centre of interest in the history o f l e g e n d a r y heroes. T h e action is carried on simultaneously on a n u m b e r of levels w h i c h c a n largely be translated into each other's terms. O n e sign o f this is the reversibility of il lus trans a n d illustrandum, seen strikingly for e x a m p l e in the statesman simile in book one, w h e r e the c o n v e n t i o n a l c o m p a r i s o n o f a h u m a n assembly to the forces o f the storm is inverted. T o take a n o t h e r e x a m p l e , in book one the winds are c o m p a r e d to h u m a n warriors, in book t w o the h u m a n warriors arc c o m p a r e d to winds. V i r g i l i a n use of i m a g e r y and allegory is largely modelled on a L u c r e t i a n poeticized use o f scientific a n a l o g y ; Lucretius a n d V i r g i l b o t h , in their different w a y s , abolish the disjunction 163

C f . the p r e l i m i n a r y s k e t c h o f the m a i n f e a t u r e s o f V i r g i l i a n i m i t a t i o n o f L u c r e t i u s

in section I a b o v e .

22

4

V I R G I L ' S A E N E 1 D - . COSMOS AND

IMPERIUM

between scientific a n d poetic w a y s of r e c o r d i n g p h e n o m e n a . 1 6 4 In origin, indeed, there was no disjunction; I w o u l d refer the reader to the interesting section in G . E. R. L l o y d ' s Polarity and analogy in w h i c h he indicates the f o r e s h a d o w i n g o f scientific use of a n a l o g y in the use of i m a g e r y in early G r e e k p o e t r y . 1 6 5 T h e theoretical base for V i r g i l ' s m e t h o d of p r o c e e d i n g is obviously not the E p i c u r e a n physics of Lucretius, and it m a y be foolish to look for a specific base, but suggestions m i g h t be m a d e . V i r g i l ' s w a y o f thinking is really closer to non-scientific models of reality, to pre-philosophical uses of such concepts as microcosm; but it m i g h t be w o r t h e n q u i r i n g w h e t h e r alternative philosophical views of the w o r l d w e r e not, at least vestigially, operative. W h a t o f the possibilities of a Stoic sympatheia? F r o m these general considerations I turn to an analysis of individual L u c r e t i a n passages, with a v i e w to illustrating parallel p h e n o m e n a in the work of V i r g i l .

(b) Small-scale and large-scale; microcosmic procedures W e h a v e seen h o w in L u c r e t i u s small-scale meteorological events easily m e r g e into events on the cosmic scale. T h e r e is no question o f formal microcosm here, since w e are not presented with t w o (or more) discrete but a n a l o g o u s structures of differing scale b u t with a c o n t i n u o u s line from the small to the enormous. T h e end of the w o r l d is simply a larger-scale e x a m p l e o f storm or e a r t h q u a k e . S o m e t i m e s small-scale meteorological events are described with allusion to a real or a p p a r e n t cosmic catastrophe. T h e effect is of h y p e r b o l e , but I think that there is a l w a y s a n implication that the forces o f w i n d a n d w a t e r are the very forces that o p e r a t e at all levels, right u p to the cosmic. F o r e x a m p l e , De Rerum Natura 5 . 1 2 3 6 f. (of an e a r t h q u a k e ) : denique sub pedibus tell us cum tot a vacillat w . Y . Sellar, vivacity, grace, and he suggests b e t w e e n in the p h i l o s o p h i c a l 164

Virgil2 ( 1 8 8 3 ) , p. 232 (on the Georgia1), ' [ V i r g i l ] i m p a r t s a p e c u l i a r tenderness to his t r e a t m e n t o f m a n y t o p i c s by the a n a l o g y w h i c h the life o f N a t u r e a n d o f m a n . T h e p e r c e p t i o n o f a n a l o g y o r i g i n a t e s a n d i m a g i n a t i v e thought of Lucretius.'

1 8 5 G . E. R . L l o y d , Polarity and analogy: two types of argumentation in early Greek thought ( C a m b r i d g e , i g 6 6 | , pp. 180 IF.

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concussaeque cadunt urbes dubiaeque minantur. H e r e the l a n g u a g e is close to that used to describe the end of the w o r l d at. 1 , 1 1 0 5 f.; the h y p e r b o l e also has the effect of illustrating the terror of the superstitious m a n w h o takes such events to h a v e a divine origin. 1 6 6 O r take 6.121 if.: hoc etiam pacto tonitru concussa videntur

omnia saepe gravi tremere et divulsa repente maxima dissiluisse capacis moenia mundi. O r 6.285 A- (again the effects of the t h u n d e r b o l t ) : displosa repente opprimere ut caeli videantur templa superne . . . quo de concussu sequitur gravis imber et uber, omnis uti videatur in imbrem vertier aether atque ita praecipitans ad diluviem revocare.

290

L i n e 291 contains a c o n v e n t i o n a l h y p e r b o l e , 1 6 7 and line 292 a c o n v e n t i o n a l piece of m y t h o l o g y ; b u t ever-present is the a w a r e ness that such a catastrophe, the object o f irrational a n x i e t y for the m a n w h o sees the t h u n d e r b o l t as the instrument of d i v i n e v e n g e a n c e , is in fact q u i t e possible w i t h i n the terms of Epic u r e a n physics (cf. 5.380 if.). S i m i l a r h y p e r b o l i c descriptions of local storms are c o m m o n in V i r g i l , for e x a m p l e A en. 8.524 f.: narnque improviso vibratus ab aethere fulgor cum sonitu venit et ruere omnia visa repente; and 3.90 (a divinely originated e a r t h q u a k e ) : tremere omnia visa repente. S u c h things in V i r g i l sometimes a p p e a r to h a v e b e c o m e merely a stylistic m a n n e r i s m , relevant to the content of the p o e m only so far as they p r o v i d e an atmosphere of g r a n d e u r a n d sublimity in k e e p i n g with the grandiose (and cosmic) theme. But often there is a m o r e specific point, as in the h y p e r b o l i c description 188

L u c r e t i u s r e p e a t e d l y uses the p h e n o m e n o n o f the e a r t h q u a k e as an i l l u s t r a t i o n

o f a n a r g u m e n t for the d e s t r u c t i b i l i t y o f the w o r l d , 6 . 5 6 5 ff., 596 AT. A s i m i l a r m o t i v e m a y u n d e r l i e the h y p e r b o l i c (and also m y t h o l o g i c a l ) l a n g u a g e o f 4 . 1 7 0 - 3 ( =

6.251-

4) ' u n d i q u e uti t e n e b r a s o m n i s A c h e r u n t a rearis / liquisse . . . . f u s q u e a d e o . . . J i m p e n d e n t a t r a c f o r m i d i n i s o r a s u p e r n e ' ; the superstitious m a n interprets l o c a l c l o u d i n g as a c o s m i c e v e n t , here the t o t a l c o n f u s i o n o f h e a v e n a n d hell. 167

See L u c i l

1308 M a r x ' t e r r a a b i t in n i m b o s i m b r e m q u e ' .

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of the storm in Aeneid i, w h e r e the p u r e l y local d i s t u r b a n c e acts as a symbol o f the conflict o f the forces of chaos a n d cosmos on the grandest level. In the next c h a p t e r I analyse at length the w a y s in w h i c h V i r g i l adapts h y p e r b o l e to w i d e r thematic ends. T h e storm m a y also be used by Lucretius as an i m a g e of events on a smaller scale; thus it is applied to the chaos of atoms ( 5 4 3 2 IT.), a n d , in the v a r i a n t of the i m a g e o f s h i p w r e c k , to the state of a t o m s in the v o i d (2.551 ff.). In his critique o f E m p e d o c l e s , L u c r e t i u s uses the i m a g e of the storm to suggest the inevitable o u t c o m e of E m p e d o c l e s ' physical theory (1.760 if.): quare aut congressa peribunt aut i ta diffugient at tempestate coacta fulmina diffugerc atque imbris ventosque videmus. C o n v e r s e l y , the discord of the ultimate constituents of the universe m a y be used as an i m a g e , or rather e x p l a n a t i o n , of the observable forces o f the storm. T h u s Lucretius explains the greater storminess o f the seasons of spring a n d a u t u m n t h r o u g h an elemental analysis, 6.364 ff.; cf. esp. 376 ff.: tempestasque cietur túrbida cáelo, and pi ti quoniam bello turba tur utrimque, hinc flammis illinc ventis umoreque mixto. T h i s resolution o f the storm into its c o m p o n e n t parts allows us to see the local m e t e o r o l o g i c a l p h e n o m e n o n as the p r o d u c t of events on the cosmic scale. V i r g i l takes over this h a b i t o f describing meteorological events t h r o u g h pseudo-scientific elem e n t a l i m a g e r y , for e x a m p l e in the storm simile at Aeneid 10.356 ff., on w h i c h Nettleship remarks ' V i r g i l has m a g n i f i e d this [sc. his H o m e r i c m o d e l at II. 16.765 ff.] into a general contention of the elements.' L u c r e t i u s also uses more strictly microcosmic analogies, for e x a m p l e in the o r g a n i c l a n g u a g e applied to the universe, w h i c h implies the notion of the h u m a n b o d y as a microcosm of the w o r l d . 1 6 8 T h i s type of a n a l o g y is not p r o m i n e n t in V i r g i l . M o r e i m p o r t a n t for the relationship between L u c r e t i u s a n d V i r g i l is another v e r y c o m m o n form of the microcosm, the a n a l o g y 5.380 f. ' i n t e r se c u m m a x i m a m u n d i / p u g n e n t m e m b r a ' ; 5 . 5 5 6 ff. (air in w o r l d a n a l o g o u s to soul in b o d y ) ; 5 . 5 4 0 ff. (membra mundi).

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AENEID

b e t w e e n the city or state a n d the universe. In Lucretius this takes t w o forms: firstly, the physical i m a g e of the universe as a h u m a n construction, a city (we h e a r frequently of the moenia mundi);1Q9 a n d secondly, the idea of the universe as a structure a n a l o g o u s to the political structure of the city, expressed t h r o u g h the use of w o r d s like foedus, concilium, etc. 1 7 0 In the Aeneid the identification o f the city and the universe is a c h i e v e d in a m o r e radical w a y b y the literal expansion of R o m e to fill the m a c r o c o s m ; this imperialist vision finds definitive expression in the Shield of A e n e a s . 1 7 1

(c) Co-ordinated levels T h e p r e c e d i n g discussion touched on cases in w h i c h an a n a l o g y b e t w e e n t w o orders of m a g n i t u d e is a c c o m p a n i e d by an a n a logy b e t w e e n t w o q u a l i t a t i v e l y differing areas; thus the citymicrocosm includes an a n a l o g y b e t w e e n the h u m a n a n d the n a t u r a l orders. L u c r e t i u s is p a r t i c u l a r l y fond of the a n a l o g y b e t w e e n internal m e n t a l states and external meteorological events; his didactic intention in using this a n a l o g y is to demonstrate that m e n t a l events are entirely g o v e r n e d b y m a terialist a t o m i c laws, w h i l e his poetic e l a b o r a t i o n of the a n a l o g y w a s m a d e easier b y the fact that c o n v e n t i o n a l i m a g e r y for m e n t a l processes makes m u c h use of the motions of w i n d , w a t e r , and fire (for e x a m p l e , the 'storm' of passion). A n e x t e n d e d e x a m p l e of a purely physical e x p l a n a t i o n of m e n t a l states, M o s t o f t e n in the c o n t e x t o f t h e i r destruction; so at i . r r o 2 ; 2 . 1 1 4 4 ; 3 . 1 6 ; 5 . 1 1 9 , 3 7 1 , 1 2 1 3 (as e n d u r i n g l a b o u r ) ; 6 . 1 2 3 ;

n o t

a

c o n t e x t o f d e s t r u c t i o n at 1 . 7 3 ( b u t they

a r e o v e r s t e p p e d ) ; 2 . 1 0 4 5 f a g a i n flight o f m i n d ) ; 5 . 4 5 4 ( c o s m o g o n y ) . C f . also note 85 a b o v e . T h e p o i i o r c e t i c i m a g e o f the e n d o f the w o r l d is p a r t i c u l a r l y insistent in the G i g a n t o m a c h i c i m a g e r y o f 5 . 1 1 7 IT.; L u c r e t i u s is h e r e i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e a s s o c i a t i o n , in A r i s t o t l e , o f t h e (false) a n a l o g y b e t w e e n the x i i P ° K l j L r l r o v h o u s e a n d the u n i v e r s e w i t h the i d e a o f the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the u n i v e r s e in A r i s t o t . fr. 18 R o s e (see H . RhM

Reiche,

1 1 4 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 307 if.), T h i s a s s o c i a t i o n m a y also r e i n f o r c e L u c r e t i u s ' l i k i n g o f t h e

e a r t h q u a k e i m a g e of t h e e n d o f the w o r l d , for the most d i s a s t r o u s effect o f the l o c a l i z e d e a r t h q u a k e is the d e s t r u c t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s a n d e v e n w h o l e citics (cf. L u c r . 6.585 170

H.

Sykes

Davies,

Criterion

11

(1931),

37,

'They

[if.

the

Romans)

ff). felt

p r o f o u n d l y . . . t h a t the R o m a n s y s t e m o f g o v e r n m e n t h a d the s a m e v a l i d i t y , the s a m e u n q u e s t i o n a b l e s a n c t i o n that t h e y f o u n d in the r e a l m o f n a t u r e ' . 171

T h e a n a l o g y o f city a n d w o r l d m a y p e r h a p s b e e x t e n d e d

to o t h e r cities in

the Aeneid; T r o y is the ' w o r l d ' o f A e n e a s b e f o r e its d e s t r u c t i o n ; C a r t h a g e is c h o s e n ( m i s g u i d e d l y ) b y J u n o as the f u t u r e regnum gentibus \Aen. 1 . 1 7 ) . B u t , u n l i k e L u c r e t i u s , V i r g i l c a n n o t e n v i s a g e the possibility o f a p l u r a l i t y o f w o r l d s ; t h e r e is r o o m o n l y for R o m e in the u n i v e r s e , a n d o t h e r c i t y - w o r l d s must, be d e s t r o y e d to m a k e w a y for her.

VIRGIL'S

228

A ENE ID : COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

w h i c h cleverly uses c o n v e n t i o n a l i m a g e r y and revives it in surprising w a y s is found at De Rerum Natura 3.288 ff.: est etiarn calor iîle animo, quem sumit, in ira c u m fervescit

et ex oculis mical acnus

ardor.1,72

est et frigida multa comes formidinis aura quae ciel honorent membris et concitat. artus. est etiam quoque pacati status aeris ille,

290

pectore tranquiilo qui fit v u l t u q u e sereno.

sed calidi plus est illis quibus acna corda iracundaque mens facile effervescit în ira. quo genere in primis vis est violenta leonum, pectora qui fremitu rumpunt plerumque gementes nec capere irarum fluctus in pectore possunt. at. ventosa magis cervorum frigida mens est et gelidas citius per viscera concitat auras quae tremulum faciunt membris exsistere motum. at natura bourn placido magis aere vivit, nec nimis irai fax umquam subdita percit fumida, suffundens caecae caliginis umbra, nec gelidis torpet telis perfixa pavoris.

295

300

305

I italicize w o r d s or phrases w h i c h are c o n v e n t i o n a l l y used to describe emotions (or their bodily expression), b u t w h i c h are used b y L u c r e t i u s w i t h specific application to his physical r:atio,173 N o t e in p a r t i c u l a r the u n d e r l y i n g m e t e o r o l o g i c a l images in lines 290-3, a n d 299-302. Capere irarumfluctusat line 298 refers to the action of boiling w a t e r rather than to the w a v e s of the sea; elsewhere fluctus is used as an i m a g e of the mind 'storm-tossed' b y its emotions, as at De Rerum Natura 6.33 f : [Epicurus] genus humanum frustra plerumque probavit volvere curarum tristis in pectore fluctus. 178

T h i s h y p e r b o l i c expression, p i c k e d u p in Aen. J2.102 £ ' t o t o q u e a r d e n t i s a b ore /

s c i n t i l l a c a b s i s t u n t , o c u l i s rnicat a c r i b u s ignis', is d e r i v e d f r o m a p o e t i c t r a d i t i o n : II. 1 9 . 1 6 f. goo( 173

EV

§£

M

oaaf / ÀFTVOV

VIRO

j \aj.nT€o8rjV ôiï t" Te trvpàs

PM4>G.PO.>I>

WÇ

cl aéXas èÇtéâuvOz-I',

19.365 f.

TOJ

8É

ot

oéXas.

A n u m b e r o f these a r e not attested in a transferred sense o f e m o t i o n

before

L u c r e t i u s , but I s u s p e c t t h a t in m a n y cases this is m e r e l y an a c c i d e n t o f s u r v i v a l . S c h r i j v e r s , p. 20, says o f this sort o f t h i n g : ' l ' o n p e u t r é d u i r e le j e u de ce g e n r e d e " m é t a p h o r e s " à la m a n i f e s t a t i o n d ' u n e m ê m e r é a l i t é p h y s i q u e q u i se p r é s e n t e sous d e u x aspects d i f f é r e n t s [ d a n s les d e u x d o m a i n e s , p h y s i q u e et p s y c h i q u e ] ' . F o r a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f this p l a y o n c o n v e n t i o n a l m e t a p h o r cf. 3 . 5 9 7 ff., w h e r e t h e literal sense o f animam hquisse is l a i d b a r e . L u c r e t i u s ' p o e m m a y b e seen as a n e x t e n d e d a l l e g o r y o f t r a d i t i o n a l l a n g u a g e , w h e t h e r c o l l o q u i a l or p o e t i c

sec a b o v e , p. 186).

LUCRETIUS AND THE

AtuXEfD

229

T h e w a v e image is particularly suitable for the Epicurean, for w h o m the calm sea, galene, is a d o m i n a n t image of the good life; it occurs frequently in Lucretius, It is Epicurus w h o saves m a n k i n d jluctibus e tantis (Lucr. 5 , 1 1 ) , 1 7 4 Both the application of storm images to the emotions and the detailed w o r k i n g out of the analogies between mental and physical processes are typical of Virgil. T h e former in itself is obviously no proof of direct Lucretian influence, but certain features may point in that direction. Firstly and very generally, the E p i c u r e a n / L u c r e tian theme of salvation from the storm also lies behind the overall plan of the Aeneid, in so far as the storm in book one marks the extreme limit of disorder and prostration from w h i c h A e n e a s (and R o m e ) eventually escape. Secondly, the vivid reality given b y Lucretius to conventional imagery is reflected, in different ways, in Virgil. T h u s there is a sense in w h i c h the real storm of book one of the Aeneid is a product or expression of the inner mental 'storm' of the goddess J u n o . 1 7 5 In her rage she contemplates the fiammae of the thunderbolt that struck d o w n the O i l e a n A j a x (Aen, 1.44), and she stalks off fiammato corde (50) to see if the fire of her anger can be realized in a thunderbolt to strike d o w n Aeneas. T h e last time we hear of J u n o ' s anger is at Aeneid 12.831 (Jupiter addresses her): irarurn tantos volvis sub pectore fluctus. T h i s forms a ring with the first mention of Juno's anger at 1 . 1 1 : tantaene animis caelestibus irae? T h e immediate consequence of this is to unleash the literal rolling of the waves of the storm (1.86): vastos volvunt ad litora

fluctus.176

In book one the fury of J u n o'[furorem, 12.832) works through the fury of the winds ifurentibus Austris, 1.51). 174

I m a g e s o f s t o r m - t o s s e d sea: L u c r . 2 . 1 3 ; 3 . 1 0 5 2 ; 4 . 1 0 7 7 ; 5 , 1 2 8 9 ^ , 1435; 6.34. See

S c h r i j v e r s , p p . 271 f. W a v e i m a g e r y is also s u i t a b l e for L u c r e t i u s for a n o t h e r r e a s o n : he tends to r e d u c e a w i d e v a r i e t y o f processes to the m o d e l o f the m o t i o n o f w a t e r ; his vision o f the w o r l d is to a l a r g e e x t e n t b a s e d o n a m o d e l oi flux (e.g. 4 . 6 7 4 fT.). S e e n o t e 181 b e l o w . 175

T h e c o n n e c t i o n is r e i n f o r c e d if it is c o r r e c t to see in V i r g i l ' s J u n o a p a r t i a l

r e f l e c t i o n o f the old a l l e g o r y o f H e r a as arfp, t h a t is the l o w e r air, t h e p l a c e o f storms. 176

Volvere is also used f i g u r a t i v e l y o f t h e effects o f J u n o at Aen. 1.9 IT. ' q u i d v e d o l e n s

r e g i n a d e u m tot v o l v e r e casus / i n s i g n e m p i e t a t e v i r u m . . .,/ i m p u l e r i t ' .

230

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - , COSMOS AND I M P E R I I : M

T h e extent of V i r g i l ' s detailed w o r k i n g out of analogies between processes of the mind and o f external N a t u r e can be most easily observed in his use of simile. A p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m p l e x e x a m p l e of V i r g i l i a n i m a g e r y is found in the description of the infatuation of T u r n u s by A l l e c t o at Aeneid 7.456 if.: sic e f f a t a f a c e m i u v e n i c o n i e c i t et a t r o l u m i n e f u m a n t i s fixit s u b p e c t o r e t a e d a s . olli s o m n u n i i n g e n s r u m p i t p a v o r , o s s a q u e et a r t u s p e r f u n d it t o t o p r o m p t us c o r p o r e s u d o r . a r m a a m ens fremit, artna toro tectisque requirit;

460

s a e v i t a m o r ferri et s c e l e r a t a i n s a n i a b e l l i , ira s u p e r : m a g n o v e l u t i c u m f l a m m a s o n o r e v i r g e a s u g g e r i t u r costis u n d a n t i s a e n i e x s u l t a n t q u e aestu latices, furit intus a q u a i f u m i d u s a t q u e alte s p u m i s ex u her at amnis,

465

n e c i a m se c a p i t u n d a , v o l a t v a p o r a t e r a d a u r a s .

T h i s passage (like the parallel infatuation of A m a t a , 7.341 if.) extends the t w o levels of L u c r e t i a n description, the mental and the physical, b y the addition o f a third, the mythological, but in other respects follows L u c r e t i a n procedures closely, both in the almost m e d i c a l precision of the e n u m e r a t i o n of s y m p t o m s and in the closely detailed e l a b o r a t i o n of the points of c o n t a c t between the physical and mental (and m y t h o l o g i c a l ) levels. T h e m y t h o l o g i c a l torch of A l l e c t o placed under the breast of T u r n u s becomes the p h y s i c a l fire p l a c e d u n d e r the c a u l d r o n of boiling w a t e r , w h i c h in turn corresponds to the streams of sweat that p o u r o f f T u r n u s ' b o d y , the b o d i l y expression of the m e n t a l passion of a n g e r , with w h i c h w e m a y associate the m y t h o l o g i c a l and physical flames. W h i l e a H o m e r i c model for the simile m a y be f o u n d , 1 7 7 the physical expression of mental events is heavily indebted to L u c r e t i u s , in p a r t i c u l a r to the passage at De Return JVatura 3.288 ff. q u o t e d a b o v e ; V i r g i l combines the t w o L u c retian images o f anger as boiling water and the hot smoke o f a torch. O t h e r details o f the V i r g i l i a n simile are taken from descriptions o f physical processes elsewhere in Lucretius: the

description of the effect of the magnet at De Rerurn Natura 6.1044 ff.: exsultare e l i a m S a m o t h r a c i a f e r r e a v i d i 177

II. 2 1 . 3 6 2 ff., the simile a p p l i e d to the b o i l i n g o f X a n t h u s .

L U C R E T I U S A N D T H E A EM EI D

23t

et ramenta sirnul ferri furere intus aenis in scaphiis, lapis hie M a g n e s cum .v«/?ditus esset.178 a n d t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e f a c t t h a t w e l l - w a t e r is cooler in s u m m e r , 6.841 f.: rarescit quia terra c a l o r e et semina siquae forte vaporis habet proprii, dimittit in auras.179 V i r g i l a l s o uses the L u c r e t i a n d e v i c e o f p l a y i n g on the conv e n t i o n a l f i g u r a t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n to the emotions of terms for p h y s i c a l processes; thus exsultant, aestus, fur it. T h e c l o s e c o - o r d i n a t i o n o f n a r r a t i v e and simile, well exe m p l i f i e d in the c a u l d r o n s i m i l e a p p l i e d to T u r n u s ' infatuation, is t y p i c a l l y V i r g i l i a n , a n d h a s b e e n extensively discussed; D a v i d W e s t h a s g i v e n the p h e n o m e n o n the label of 'multiplec o r r e s p o n d e n c e simile'. W e s t o b s e r v e s 1 8 0 that the only real prec e d e n t f o r V i r g i l i a n p r a c t i c e is f o u n d in Lucretius, and he i l l u s t r a t e s this with a n a n a l y s i s o f De Rerum Natura 1.280 ff., the simile o f w a v e action used to i l l u s t r a t e w i n d action. W h a t needs to be b r o u g h t out m o r e is t h e relation o f L u c r e t i a n literary usage h e r e to his scientific t h e o r y , i n the first, place, this simile serves t h e didactic f u n c t i o n o f i l l u s t r a t i n g the invisible from the visible ( 2 9 5 7); s e c o n d l y , a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , the c o m p a r i s o n is based on a n a n a l o g y f o u n d e d on scientific truth; the force o f t h e w i n d is the s e n s i b l e result o f exactly the same kind of a t o m i c o p e r a t i o n as u n d e r l i e s the force of water, a n d the simile o f the w a v e s is d i r e c t e d precisely towards a p r o o f that the w i n d consists of invisible a t o m s . 1 8 1 It has not hitherto been s u f f i c i e n t l y stressed that V i r g i l i a n use of i m a g e r y is largely d e p e n d e n t on a scientific u s e o f a n a l o g y . 1 8 2 178

L u c r e t i u s ' m o d e l f o r t h e w o r k i n g o f t h e m a g n e t is b a s e d c h i e f l y o n t h e a n a l o g y

o f t h e f l u x o f water, it is p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e i m a g e o f f i r e b e n e a t h a c a u l d r o n o f w a t e r lies b e h i n d t h e l a n g u a g e o f 6 . 1 0 4 4 f f . 179

' I r r a t i o n a l ' v e r b a l a s s o c i a t i o n s f r o m L u c r e t i u s a l s o find t h e i r w a y i n t o t h e V i r -

g i l i a n p a s s a g e : Aen.

7 . 4 5 7 f. ' f u m a n t i s

fixit

s u b p e c t o r e t a e d a s . / olli s o m n u m

ingens

r u m p i t p a v o r ' ; 460 ' a r m a a m e n s f r e m i t ' : c f . L u c r , 3.297 ' p e c t o r a qui f r e m i t u r u m p u n t plerumque

gcmcntcs".

180 ' V i r g i l i a n m u l t i p l e - c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s i m i l e s a n d t h e i r a n t e c e d e n t s ' , Pkilologus

114

(1970), 2 6 2 - 7 5 . 181

T h e a c t i o n o f a i r is f r e q u e n t l y d e s c r i b e d o n t h e m o d e l o f t h e flux o f w a t e r ; e . g .

t h e ' c l o u d - w a v e s ' at 6 . 1 4 2 ff. E p i c u r u s u s e s a f l u x - m o d e l o f v a r i o u s a t o m i c processes: cf. H . U s e n e r Glossarium

Epicureum

1977

, s . v v . onToppor/, ¿ndpSevciLs,

peiv,

pevftu,

182 T h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f d e t a i l e d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s b e t w e e n s i m i l e a n d n a r r a t i v e m a y also h a v e

been encouraged

by Hellenistic

l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m o f H o m e r : see N . J .

Ri-

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - , COSMOS

232

A N D IMPERII: M

(d) Figure to reality A n o t h e r V i r g i l i a n d e v i c e w h i c h owes m u c h to L u c r e t i u s is the r e a l i z a t i o n in the n a r r a t i v e o f events initially figurative. T h e best e x a m p l e s o c c u r in the self-contained n a r r a t i v e o f Aeneid 4, w h e r e c o n v e n t i o n a l a m a t o r y i m a g e s o f the w o u n d a n d the flame find their g h a s t l y c o n s u m m a t i o n in the literal w o u n d that finally takes D i d o ' s life a n d the literal flame o f h e r p y r e ( a n d , e v e n t u a l l y , the literal flames that will destroy the city o f C a r t h a g e ) . 1 8 3 T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f the erotic i m a g e o f flame into the real flames o f the f u n e r a l p y r e and o f the sack o f the city is p a r a l l e l e d at De Rerum Natura 1.473 ff.: numquam Tyndaridis forma conflatus amoris ignis, Alexandri Phrygio sub pectore gliscens. clara accendisset saevi certamina belli, nec clam durateus Troianis Pergama partu infiammasset equus nocturno Graiugenarum. T h e figurative fire o f Paris' love kindles the flames o f w a r , 1 8 4 w h i c h e v e n t u a l l y lead to the flames that destroy T r o y . The p r i m a r y e f f e c t o f the l a n g u a g e here is d e c o r a t i v e ; L u c r e t i u s d e l i b e r a t e l y h e a p s u p the t r a d i t i o n a l poeticisms, to p r o v i d e a contrast w i t h the d r y exposition o f his t h e o r y o f eventa. P a r o d y is too s t r o n g a w o r d ; L u c r e t i u s r a t h e r wishes to e m p h a s i z e the fact t h a t the c o l o u r f u l a n d v a r i e d events of epic m a y all be r e d u c e d to a h a n d f u l o f simple principles. B u t the p h y s i c a l r e a l i z a t i o n o f the figurative m e n t a l flame is m o r e t h a n s i m p l y o r n a m e n t a l ; a g a i n the a n a l o g y rests o n E p i c u r e a n m a t e r i a l i s m , in w h i c h the h e a t o f m e n t a l passion is the result o f processes i d e n t i c a l to those w h i c h p r o d u c e flame in the e x t e r n a l w o r l d . In the a t t a c k o n the passion o f love at the end o f De Rerum Natura 4 the r e p e a t e d e x a m i n a t i o n o f the Tire' o f l o v e c o n s t a n t l y c h a r d s o n , ' L i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m in the e x e g e t i c a l s c h o l i a to the Iliad\

CQNS

30 (1980),

2 7 9 ff. 183

B. F e n i k , ' P a r a l l e l i s m o f t h e m e a n d i m a g e r y in Aeneid I I a n d I V ' , AjPh

{ 1 9 5 9 ) , 1 24; J . F e r g u s o n , ' F i r e a n d w o u n d : the i m a g e r y o f Aeneid IV 7 .1 ff.', PVS (1970

i ) j 5 7 63; F. L . N e w t o n , ' R e c u r r e n t i m a g e r y in Aeneid I V ' , TAPhA

80 10

88 ( 1 9 5 7 %

31 43. T h e i m a g e o f f l a m e is s u g g e s t e d in t h e v e r y first line o f Aen. 4, if cura t h e r e c o n t a i n s an a l l u s i o n to the c o n v e n t i o n a l e t y m o l o g y ' q u o d c o r u r a t ' ( V a r r o Ling. 6.46): cf. O . S. D u e , ' Z u r E t y m o l o g i s i e r u n g in d e r Aeneis',

in Classica et mediaevalia

Francisco

Blatt sepluagenario dedicata ( G y l d e n d a l , 1 9 7 3 } , p p . 2 7 6 ff. 184

Accendere bellum: cf. Aen. 12.804; the p h r a s e also o c c u r s in Sallust a n d L i v y , a n d

is v e r y likely a t r a d i t i o n a l e p i c phrase: cf. W i g o d s k y , p. 132 n. 668.

L U C R E T I U S A N D T H E AENEID 252

verges on the brink of b e c o m i n g a fully physiological

ex-

p l a n a t i o n of mental processes. 1 8 5 T h e literal realization of D i d o ' s ' w o u n d ' of love also finds a parallel in Lucretius, at 4.1045 ff., w h e r e the c o n v e n t i o n a l image of love as a w o u n d (here c o m b i n e d with the topos o f militia amons) is suddenly g i v e n a shocking literalness by its a p p l i c a t i o n to the c r u d e physical reality of ejaculation, a very good e x a m p l e of L u c r e t i u s ' tactic of using c o n v e n t i o n a l l a n g u a g e to take the reader b y surprise.

Vi.

VIRGIL'S

IMITATION

o r

LUCRETIUS

I c o n c l u d e this c h a p t e r with an a t t e m p t to define more precisely the n a t u r e of the relationship b e t w e e n V i r g i l and his L u c r e t i a n models. T h e a b o v e discussions h a v e led to the general impression of a very close and detailed d e p e n d e n c e on the De Kerum Natura c o m b i n e d frequently w i t h a total transformation of the content of Lucretius. T h i s p h e n o m e n o n is manifest in all of V i r g i l ' s three m a j o r works, a n d has been described b y scholars in a n u m b e r of ways. J a c k s o n K n i g h t speaks o f inversion^™ F a r r i n g t o n o f polemical allusion;187 H e i n z e , B ü c h n e r , and G u i l l e m i n all see in V i r g i l the e m b o d i m e n t of an a n t i - L u c r e t i u s originally defined as an internal aspect of Lucretius himself; 1 8 8 B u c h h e i t uses the c o n c e p t oï Kontrastimitation.189 T o some extent the t w o m o m e n t s of similarity and d i f f e r e n c e are f u n d a m e n t a l to a n y instance of ancient imitatio, and correspond, r o u g h l y , to the t w o stages of imitatio itself, in w h i c h 185

On

L u c r e t i u s ' use o f ardor a n d ignis in the c o n t e x t o f l o v e see E.

Fantham,

Comparative studies in Republican Latin imagery ( T o r o n t o a n d B u f f a l o , 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 87. A p l a y on t h e

figurative

a n d literal senses o f fire in a n erotic c o n t e x t ( p u r e l y as a l i t e r a r y

c o n c e i t ) is f o u n d in P o r c i u s L i c i n u s fr. 6 M o r e l , based o n G r e e k m o d e l s s u c h as Anth. Pal- 9-I5, __ I8S Roman Vergil ( L o n d o n , 1 9 4 4 ) , p p . 91 f., ' T h e r e m a y a l w a y s be a V c r g i l i a n transf e r e n c e or i n v e r s i o n to h e l p ; so t h a t the w o r d s o f L u c r e t i u s r e c u r , m e a n i n g in the context just w h a t Lucretius w o u l d not h a v e h a d them mean." 1S7

répas,

188

H e i n z e , p. 4 7 5 , 'die A e n e i s ist ein p o s i t i v e r A n t i l u k r e z ' . B ü c h n e r , RE 8 A . 1330

studies presented to G. Thomson {Prague,

1 9 6 3 ) , p. 87.

[on the Georgics ], ' A u f S c h r i t t u n d T r i t t a b e r setzt sich V e r g i l schliesslich m i t L u k r e z a u s e i n a n d e r . E r ist, w i e s c h o n d e r A u f b a u z e i g t , in g e w i s s e m S i n n e ein G e g e n i u k r e z . F o r a possible C i c e r o n i a n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f this t a c t i c sec J . F o n t a i n e , ' L e S o n g e de S c i p i o n p r e m i e r A n t i - L u c r è c e ? ' , in Mélanges 171i 189

offerts à André Piganiol

(Paris, 1 9 6 6 ) , p p .

29. Anspruch, i n d e x s . w . Vergil, Kontrastimitatiorv, cf. also ibid., p. 74 n. 304.

234

V I R G I L ' S A EN E ID: COSMOS

A N D IMPERII]

M

the p r i m a r y task is conceived as the successful d u p l i c a t i o n of an original, a n d aemuiaiio, in w h i c h the i n d e p e n d e n t ind i v i d u a l i t y o f the later work is stressed. 1 9 0 But the radical sort of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n that V i r g i l effects on his L u c r e t i a n originals is not typical; the distancing b e t w e e n original and imitation is usually m u c h m o r e qualified. T h e aim of the literary agon is to i m p r o v e on, to g o one better than, the previous h a n d l i n g s of a theme, rather t h a n to stand a tradition on its h e a d ; the wellw o r n e x a m p l e o f the several epic treatments o f the H o m e r i c tree-felling e p i s o d e m a y serve as an e x a m p l e . 1 9 1 Q u i n t i l i a n ' s f o r m u l a t i o n o f the p r o p e r use o f the r e w o r k i n g of models as a rhetorical exercise is relevant (Inst. 10.5.5.): n e q u e e g o p a r a p h r a s i m esse i n t e r p r e t a t i o n e m t a n turn v o l o sed

eosdem sensus cert amen atque aemulationem.

circa

It is the sensus o f L u c r e t i u s that V i r g i l n o t a b l y does not imitate. T h e s c h o l a r l y forms of imitation practised b y the A l e x andrians a n d their R o m a n successors included m o r e polemical exercises in c o r r e c t i o n and réfutai, but their m e t h o d is particularism a n d falls far short of the g l o b a l inversions that V i r g i l engages in. V i r g i l ' s practice is m o r e akin to imitatio-related g a m e s , w h i c h d e l i b e r a t e l y set o u t to reverse the w h o l e direction o f a g i v e n m o d e l : for e x a m p l e , the symposiastic h a b i t of singing c a p p i n g songs, or the m o r e p u r e l y literary Hellenistic practice o f w r i t i n g pairs o f contrasted epigrams, or the deliberately c o n t r a d i c t o r y relationship b e t w e e n some e x a m p l e s o f pastoral a m o e b e a n songs. Perhaps here are to be included such notorious oddities as V i r g i l ' s reuse o f C a t u l l u s ' 'invita, o regina, tuo de vertice cessi'; 1 9 2 this type of thing is taken to extremes in the w r i t i n g of centos. But small-scale a n d unserious exercises of this sort offer n o real parallels to V i r g i l ' s sustained imitation of Lucretius. W e should look to models o t h e r than the strictly literary. Sellar long a g o w e l l described the nature of V i r g i l ' s d e b t to T h o u g h in p r a c t i c e imitatio a n d aemuiaiio a r e a l m o s t a l w a y s c o m p l e m e n t a r y ; see D . A . Russell, ' D e i m i t a t i o n e ' , in D . W e s t a n d A . J . W o o d m a n (eds.) Creative imitation and Latin literature ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 1 1 6 , esp. p. 10 o n the i n s e p a r a b i l i t y o f the two concepts. 190

1 8 1 S e e A . G u i l l e m i n , ' L ' I m i t a t i o n d a n s les l i t t é r a t u r e s a n t i q u e s et en d a n s l a l i t t é r a t u r e l a t i n e ' , RÉL 2 ( 1 9 2 4 ) , 46 ff. 192

particulier

See E . L , H a r r i s o n , ' C l e v e r n e s s in V i r g i l i a n i m i t a t i o n ' , CPh 65 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , 241

3.

LUCRETIUS AND THE

AENEID

235

L u c r e t i u s in the Ge orgies, a n d also suggested a possible m o d e l for his practice of imitatio, though w i t h o u t d e v e l o p i n g the idea: The influence, direct and indirect, exercised by Lucretius on the thought, composition, and even the diction of the Georgics was perhaps stronger than that ever exercised, before or since, by one great poet on the work of another. This influence is of the kind which is oftener seen in the history of philosophy than of literature. It: was partly one of sympathy, partly of antagonism. Virgil's conception of Nature has its immediate origin in the thought of Lucretius; his religious convictions and national sentiment derive new strength by reaction from the attitude of his predecessor. 193 T h e key point here is the reference to the history of philosophy. A new system of t h o u g h t is rarely d e v e l o p e d simply as a n i m p r o v e m e n t and sophistication of w h a t one's predecessors exp o u n d e d , b u t as a closely-argued d i a l o g u e with a previous system or systems, resulting in f u n d a m e n t a l revision. 1 9 4 N o w h e r e in ancient philosophy is this m o r e true than in the case of E p i c u r e a n i s m , w h e r e , in spite of the M a s t e r ' s claim to be an a u t o d i d a c t , it is plain that the w h o l e system was d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h a continuous polemical d i a l o g u e with earlier philosophers, a n d a b o v e all, as Bignone has d e m o n s t r a t e d , with the early Aristotle (in p a r t i c u l a r the De Philosophia) O n e o f the tactics of this polemic was to a d o p t the terms of reference of the o p p o n e n t but to invert them so that the opposite message emerges; thus E p i c u r u s inverts the Aristotelian interest in the marvels of the heavens and Aristotle's use of the l a n g u a g e of the mysteries, in order to buttress his o w n anti-telcological materialism. Lucretius, in his turn, adopts this E p i c u r e a n strategy in his p o e m , but e x p a n d s the area of exploitation to i n c l u d e non-philosophical (but u n - E p i c u r e a n ) w a y s of thinking, w h e t h e r expressed in c o n v e n t i o n a l modes of speaking or the more consciously artificial forms of poetry. In his inversion of such things L u c r e t i u s converges with m o r e traditional literary forms o f satire a n d p a r o d y . It was partly a miscomprehension 163

Virgil, p. 199.

194

S o m e w h a t s i m i l a r is the t a c t i c used by the p o p u l a r m o r a l i s t o f t u r n i n g u p s i d e

d o w n the c o n v e n t i o n a l u s a g e o f t e r m s like kingship, s l a v e r y , v i c t o r y , etc. 195

E. B i g n o n e , L' Anstotele perduto2 ( 1 9 7 3 ) ; in c h a p t e r 9 B i g n o n e discusses L u c r e t i u s '

a d a p t a t i o n o f the E p i c u r e a n t a c t i c s ; see also the c h a p t e r o n L u c r e t i u s in E. B i g n o n e , Storm della letteratura latina ii ( F l o r e n c e , 1945).

2.36

V I R G I L ' S A EN EI D : COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

of this strategy that was responsible for earlier dualist constructions of an 'anti-Lucretius in Lucretius'. 1 9 6 Lucretius' practice often functions as a kind of unmasking, in w h i c h we are first presented with a familiar i m a g e or façon de parler a n d then shocked into an awareness that it conceals a piece of E p i c u r e a n truth. F o r e x a m p l e , this is Lucretius' w a y of d e a l i n g with the conventional adynaton, w h i c h is revealed as c o n t a i n i n g a basic truth a b o u t the laws of an atomist universe (see the discussion o f De Rerum Natura 8.830 ff. in section 11« a b o v e ) ; L u c r e t i u s ' use of m y t h o l o g i c a l allegory serves a similar end. T h i s form o f c o n c e p t u a l criticism of a m o d e l m a y also be grafted on to traditional w a y s of discussing literary models, for e x a m p l e in the p r o g r a m m a t i c passage on E n ni us at the b e g i n n i n g of the first book o f the De Rerum Natura, w h e r e L u c retius shows that the great epic poet was also a poet o f nature, but that his beliefs on the n a t u r e of the soul required radical revision (see a b o v e , pp. 79 f.). Lucretius' revisionist tactics h a v e their most i m m e d i a t e precedents in E p i c u r e a n discussion, b u t there are also interesting parallels from a m u c h earlier stage of G r e e k philosophy, w h e n the m a i n targets w e r e not the teachings of other philosophical schools but the received beliefs of m y t h and religion. A t that period w e f r e q u e n t l y find that the n e w philosophy a n d science do not simply reject the old religion as false, but a r g u e that the values o f c o n v e n t i o n a l piety are better a t t a c h e d to the new beliefs, w h i c h are often dressed u p in the l a n g u a g e of religion. 1 9 7 H e r a c l i t u s is a good e x a m p l e of an early philosopher w h o s a v a g e l y a t t a c k e d traditional forms of religion, b u t w h o used the l a n g u a g e and m a n n e r of the mysteries to present his o w n ideas. W i t h Lucretius' use o f the story o f I p h i g e n e i a to 13B

T h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l m o d e l s for L u c r e t i u s ' p o e t i c p r o c e d u r e s a r e discussed at l e n g t h

b y H . R e i c h e , RhM

1 1 4 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 296 329, esp. p p . 3 1 6 ff.; t h e r e is m u c h m a t e r i a l also

in P. d c L a c y , ' D i s t a n t v i e w s : the i m a g e r y o f L u c r e t i u s 2', CJ

60 (1964/5),, 49 - 5 5 ;

S c h r i j v e r s , p. 2 5 1 . T h e s a m e tactic o f s u b v e r s i v e ' q u o t a t i o n ' m a y be o b s e r v e d in the E p i c u r e a n e x p l o i t a t i o n o f the c o n v e n t i o n s o f the visual arts in the c r e a t i o n o f a s t a t u e t y p e o f E p i c u r u s : B. F rise her, The sculpted word: Epicureanism and philosophical

recruitment

in ancient Greece (1982) , esp. ch. 5. 197

I d r a w o n G . E. R . L l o y d , Magic,

reason and experience: studies m the origin and

development of Greek science ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 7 9 ) , c h . i , ' T h e c r i t i c i s m o f m a g i c a n d t h e i n q u i r y c o n c e r n i n g n a t u r e ' ; cf. esp. p p . 41 ff.

237

L U C R E T I U S A N D T H E A ENE ID

c o n v i c t c o n v e n t i o n a l religion of impiety m a y be c o m p a r e d a passage from the H i p p o c r a t i c treatise On the Sacred Disease (3): A n d y e t I b e l i e v e t h a t all these p r o f e s s i o n s — a s t h e y t h i n k — o f p i e t y a r e r e a l l y m o r e like i m p i e t y a n d a d e n i a l o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e g o d s , a n d all t h e i r p i o u s n e s s a n d t a l k o f t h e d i v i n e is i m p i o u s a n d u n h o l y , as I s h a l l d e m o n s t r a t e .

T h e s e pre-Socratic parallels are not fortuitous, for Lucretius' p o l e m i c has specific pre-Socratic models in the works of E m pedocles, w h o notoriously c o m b i n e d religion and philosophy, and it may be that Lucretius' exploitation o f archaic philosophical postures is even more general than this. V i r g i l , in his imitatio of Lucretius, practises a kind of secondorder imitatio: the p a r t i c u l a r operations w h i c h he performs o n a L u c r e t i a n text are themselves an imitation of L u c r e t i a n m a noeuvres. In the p r e c e d i n g section certain features o f V i r g i l ' s use of i m a g e r y a n d t h e m a t i c levels w e r e seen to be derived from originally philosophical a n d scientific patterns of t h o u g h t a n d a r g u m e n t that h a d a l r e a d y been a d a p t e d to a poetic vehicle by Lucretius; this m a y be seen as a n a l o g o u s to the imposition on the literary tradition o f a w a y o f i m i t a t i n g c o n c e p t u a l patterns that, derives from philosophical and scientific discussions of o p p o s i n g beliefs or prejudices.

APPENDIX:

LUCRETIAN

VIRGIL'S

PARALLELS

C A V E OF THE

(AENEID

1.52

FOR

WINDS

63, 81

83)

Note: T h e n u m e r a l s and letters refer to i n d i v i d u a l w o r d s or p h r a s e s (lettered) w i t h i n the n u m b e r e d L u c r e t i a n p a s s a g e s , 4 D - 5 7A 9

hie v a s t o r e x A e o l u s antro lucíantis ventos tempestatesque sonoras 6B

i m p e r i o p r e m i t a c v i n c l i s et c a r c e r e frenat.

4F

3B

4E

ID 3D

40

4A

111! indignantes magno c u m murmure montis

55

238

V I R G I L ' S A ENE ID: COSMOS IC-3C

A N D IMPERIL!

M

4.H-7B

c i r c u m c l a u s t r a fremunt; c e l s a s e d e t A e o l u s a r c e s c e p t r a t e n e n s m o l l i t q u e á n i m o s e t t e m p e r a t iras. 6A

IE/F/G

2

ni f a c i a l , maria ac terras caelumque p r o f u n d u m IA/J-8B

quippe ferant 10

sed

IH

rapidi s e c u m verrantque

10

4D-5

pater omnipotens speluncis 4C

hoc metuens

per auras;

7A-9

a b d i d i t atris

4A

molemque

et

60

4B

montis insuper a l t o s 11

i m p o s u i t , r e g e m q u e d e d i t q u i foedere c e r t o e t p r e m e r e et l a x a s s c i r e t d a r e iussus h a b e n a s . . . . h a e c u b i d i c t a , c a v u m c o n v e r s a c ú s p i d e m o n tern 3A

impulit in latus; ac venti velut 7c

7C

7c

8A

qua data porta,

r u u n t et

agmine

IB/I

8C

facto, 8c

IB

terras turbine perflant.

L u c r e t i a n models: 1. 1.273 ff. (corporeality o f winds) A

interdum

B

B

B

rápido percurrens turbine campos

a r b o r i b u s m a g n i s sternit m o n t i s q u e s u p r e m o s s i l v i f r a g i s v e x a t flabris: i t a p e r f u r i t a c r i C

cum

D

fremitu

saevitque minaci

murmure

v e n tus.

sunt igitur venti n i m i r u m c o r p o r a caeca E

quae

F

mare,

quae

G

terras,

quae denique nubila

H

verrunt

1

ac subito vexantia

caeli

J

turbine raptant.

2. 5.92 ff. (end o f world) principio

maria ac terras caelumque

tuere;

q u o r u m n a t u r a m triplicem, tria c o r p o r a , M e m m i , tris s p e c i e s t a m dissimilis, t r i a t a l i a t e x t a , u n a dies d a b i t exitio.

3. 6 . i o o f . (thunderclouds) A

v e r u m u b i c u m q u e magis denso sunt B

tam magis hinc

C

agmine

nubes,

D

magno fremitusfitmurmure s a e p e .

4. 6.189 ff- (winds in ' m o u n t a i n o u s ' clouds)

81

LUCRETIUS

AND

THE

A EXE

ID

contemplator enim, cum montibus assimulata nubila portabunt venti transversa per auras,

190

A

aut ubi per magnos moniis cumulata videbis B

esse aliis alia atque urgere superne in statione locata sepultis undique ventis. insuper

CI

turn poteris magnas moles cognoscere eorum D

speluncasque velut saxis pendentibu' structas

195

cernere, quas venti cum tempestate coorta E

T

G

complerunt, magno indignantur murmure clausi nubibus in caveisque ferarum more minantur; H

nunc hinc nunc illinc fremitus per nubila mittunt. 5. 6.536 ff. (earthquakes) et in primis terram fac ut esse rearis subter item ut supera ventosis undique plenam

speluncis. 6 . 6.568 f. ( u n d e r g r o u n d winds) A

B

quod nisi respirent venti, vis nulla refrenet res neque ab exitio possit reprehendere euntis. 7. 6.578 ff. ( u n d e r g r o u n d winds the cause of earthquakes) ventus ubi atque animae subito vis maxima quaedam . . . in loca se cava terrai coniecit ibique A

580

B

speluncas inter magnas fremit ante tumultu versabunda < q u e > portatur, post incita cum vis C

G

exagitata foras erumpitur.

8 . 6.668 A

B

578

C

C

perque mare ac terras rapiduspercurrere turbo. 9. 6.682 ff. (Etna) primum totius subcava montis est natura, fere silicum suffulta cavernis.

240

VIRGIL'S

AENEID:

COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

omnibus est porro in speluncis ventus et aer. IO

-

5-399 etc.

pater omnipotens. Ii.

1.586 etc. foedera naturae.

6. Hyperbole L U C R E T I A N models offer large-scale devices for the coordination o f the local a n d universal, the h u m a n a n d the cosmic; the present c h a p t e r shows h o w one figure of speech or trope, h y p e r b o l e , is f o u n d e d on a structural d u a l i t y w h i c h V i r gil exploits, in w a y s w h i c h m a y p r o p e r l y be termed allegorical, to sustain the same parallelism. H y p e r b o l e is not a trope currently in favour: it offends against m o d e r n ideals of verisimilitude a n d sincerity, for it is taken as the sign of a falseness both o b j e c t i v e and subjective, that is, with regard b o t h to the external w o r l d a n d to the p s y c h o l o g y of the observer. T h e o b j e c t i v e falseness is also central to the s t a n d a r d ancient definition of h y p e r b o l e as 'a f o r m of w o r d s that exceeds the truth', 1 a l t h o u g h w e shall see shortly that the ancients had ways of accommodating this untruthfulness. T h i s distaste, n o w of some long standing, 2 has affected attitudes t o w a r d s the use of h y p e r b o l e in ancient literature. T h e L a t i n epic is p a r t i c u l a r l y notorious for its tendency to e x a g gerate a n d has been d u l y castigated. In Silver L a t i n such things m a y be dismissed as the p r o d u c t of an excessive d e v o t i o n to rhetoric, b u t the vice is regrettably not absent from V i r g i l himself, and the regret has been o p e n l y expressed. N o r d e n , for e x a m p l e , c o n d e m n s the description of the raising to the sky (Aen. 6 . 1 7 8 , caeloque educere) of the funeral p y r e of M i s e n u s as 'grotesquely e x a g g e r a t e d ' . 3 T h e a u t h o r of the only full-length 1

e.g. G r e g . C o r . i i i . 2 2 i

S p e n g e l v-nepßoX^ e<m Aoyos vrrepatpaiv ¿ufidoeats

eve
TO aXrjdes", Rhet. Her. 4 . 3 3 . 4 4 ' s u p e r l a t i o est o r a t i o s u p e r a n s v e r i t a t e m a l i c u i u s a u g e n d i m i n u e n d i v e c a u s a ' . A useful c o l l e c t i o n a n d discussion o f a n c i e n t r h e t o r i c a l t r e a t m e n t s in H u n z i k e r , p p .

1 ff. C f . also R . V o l k m a n n ,

Die Rhetorik

der Griechen und Römer in

systematischer Übersicht2 ( L e i p z i g , 1885), p p . 439 f. 2

It s h o u l d

in fairness b e p o i n t e d

out

that

a n c i e n t criticisms o f h y p e r b o l e

KaKo£i}\ov, ifivxpov, etc., are n o t l a c k i n g ; cf. D e m e t r . Eloc. Theophrastus' (Eloc.

definition of

TO

ipv^pov as

TO

VTT

e p ßäXAov

as

124 ff.; D e m e t r i u s cites TTJV

olxttav

anayythiav

1 1 4 ) ( a l t h o u g h this i n c l u d e s m o r e t h a n h y p e r b o l e a l o n e ) ; [ L o n g i n u s ] Subl. 38.2

(the w r o n g use o f h y p e r b o l e c h i l d i s h ) ; Q u i n t . Inst. 8 . 6 . 7 3 ( x a K o ^ X i a the result o f excessive h y p e r b o l e ) . 3

N o r d e n , p. 187; s i m i l a r criticisms o n p p . 2 8 1 , 284, 332.

242

V I R G I L ' S AENEID:

COSMOS

A N D I MP ERF

I'M

study of V i r g i l i a n h y p e r b o l e , R . H u n z i k e r , concludes his painstaking collection o f material with a severe d i s p a r a g e m e n t of V i r g i l ' s artistic j u d g e m e n t in the matter. 4 A favourite critical subterfuge has been to relegate such blemishes on the g r e a t epic to the c a t e g o r y of the unfinished or the unreviscd. H o u s m a n , after e m e n d i n g a h y p e r b o l e into the text at Aeneid 1.395, remarks sadly: ' T h e h y p e r b o l e to m y taste is frigid, b u t u n h a p p i l y it has m a n y frigid h y p e r b o l e s to keep it c o m p a n y . In the georgics and bucolics such things are not f o u n d ' . 5 T h e blatant u n t r u t h of the last sentence should alert us to H o u s m a n ' s lack of o b j e c t i v i t y . H e then consoles himself with the t h o u g h t that ' V i r g i l never m e a n t them for o u r eyes'. H o u s m a n goes on to q u o t e D o n a t u s 011 Virgil's s t o p g a p lines, the tibicines. It is not d e a r to m e w h y such passages o f ' f a l s e intensity', in H o u s m a n ' s phrase, should be the natural result of hasty composition; perhaps there is a feeling, left over from a R o m a n t i c v i e w o f poetry, that it is the function of revision to tone d o w n and polish u p the first u n t a m e d o u t p o u r i n g of the poetic soul. 6 In w h a t follows I shall a r g u e that i n d i v i d u a l instances of V i r g i l i a n h y p e r b o l e , so far from b e i n g stopgaps, levissimi versus, h a v e specific stylistic and t h e m a t i c functions within the Aeneid; that they are for the most p a r t solidae colwnnae indeed. A s a p r e l i m i n a r y to this detailed interpretation, a m o r e general analysis o f the functions of h y p e r b o l e is in order.

I . T H E

F U N C T I O N S

OF

H Y P E R B O L E

T h e easiest w a y of d e a l i n g with the agreed untruthfulness of h y p e r b o l e is to c o n c e n t r a t e on the psychological origins and effects of the trope, to consider the e x a g g e r a t i o n as expressive o f or p r o d u c t i v e o f a state o f m i n d . H e i n z e , in the last c h a p t e r of his Virgils epische Tecknik,7 on the goals o f the Aeneid (by far the best general treatment of the literary-historical a n d stylistic b a c k g r o u n d to V i r g i l ' s use of h y p e r b o l e ) , considers the w a y s in w h i c h V i r g i l strove to' arouse the emotions of the reader; the key terms, d r a w n from ancient literary theory, are ekplexis, 4

H u n z i k e r , p p . ¡ 4 3 ff.

J . D i g g i e a n d F . R . D . G o o d y e a r (eds.), The classical papers of A. E. Housman, i ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 3 4 9 = TCPhS 3 ( 1 8 9 4 ) , 2 4 1 . 5

6

I o w e this s u g g e s t i o n to J u l i a S w a n n e l l .

7

p p . 466 ff. f D i e Z i e l e " ) .

HYPERBOLE

243

' a m a z e m e n t ' , and pathos, w h i c h H e i n z e sees as serving the m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e ends o f to hypselon, 'the sujolime', w h i c h itself is considered largely from the psychological point of view. 8 S e e n in this light, h y p e r b o l e is justified as expressive of a g e n u i n e e m o t i o n of fear, a m a z e m e n t , etc., felt by the poet, and . c o m m u n i c a t i v e of that emotion to the listener. T h i s v i e w of the trope is frequently f o u n d f r o m early times: Aristotle considers h y p e r b o l e as childish, b e i n g the manifestation of violent e m o tion; it is used especially by those w h o are a n g r y . 9 L o n g i n u s contends that the successful h y p e r b o l e arises o u t of an extrao r d i n a r y e m o t i o n . 1 0 T h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n of such emotion from the a u t h o r to the reader makes the h y p e r b o l e plausible, credible

(piston, pithanon); the^objective untruthfulness of hyperbole is thus swept aside as an irrelevance. T h e close connection between h y p e r b o l e a n d e m o t i o n is m a i n t a i n e d also by Dionysius of H a l i c a r n a s s u s 1 1 a n d M a c r o b i u s . 1 2 A dissertation a t t r i b u t e d to G o t t f r i e d H e r m a n n , o n e o f the few m o d e r n attempts to classify h y p e r b o l e , also works with a psychological scheme, pro diversi täte animi affectionum.12. T h e s e discussions all agree that h y p e r b o l e represents the distortion o f o b j e c t i v e reality b y excessive e m o t i o n . A v a r i a n t of the p s y c h o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h , w h i c h has been a p p l i e d to the criticism o f V i r g i l i a n h y p e r b o l e , sees the distortion as d u e rather to sensory illusion than to e m o t i o n a l excess: small objects or small-scale events are described as large because that is h o w they appear to the observer. 1 4 T h u s Servius on Aeneid i .88 f. ('eripiunt subito nubes c a c l u m q u e d i e m q u e / T e u c r o r u m ex oculis'): ' q u o d autern dixit d i e m eripi, ad vi8

Ibid.,

p. 4 9 1 , ' D a s Gefühl

der Erhabenheit

im H ö r e r zu e r w e c k e n ,

ist

Virgils

Kai

rlXXag

KAI

SEIEA

oberstes Ziel' ( m y italics). s

Rh.

[ 4 : 3 * 30 ff.

10

Suhl.

11

Thuc.

rataVTOLS OIKTÜJV

3 8 . 3 ff. rj rov naßov% v-nepox~rj xai ig

re

aXaiOf«;

Kai

kuta oxacids

<7vpiopa<; TTOXXaxis dpayKaadeis aiia

aiv€oBai iroiti

/.irjTc TTOiTjrais 12

Trokttüv

ra

Trepioraots. ypdai>

Kai TTOTE

rrd9rj, (/"an p.rj8ep.iav

¿vSpavo&iapovs FIEV

OVTWS

ut/id

VTTepßoXijv u i j r «

KaraXintiv.

Sat. 4 . 6 . 1 5 T a c i t h y p e r b o l e , id est n i m i e t a s , p a t h o s , p e r q u a m e x p r i m i t u r v e l i r a

v e l m i s e r i c o r d i a ' ; 16 ' n a s c i t u r p r a e t e r h a e c d e n i m i e t a t e v e l a m a t o r i u m v e l

alterius

generis pathos' (with examples from Virgil). de hyperbole (Leipzig,

13

Dissertatio

m

F o r a n i n t e r e s t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n o f s u c h s u b j e c t i v i s m t o t h e c r i t i c i s m of V i r g i l , set

1829).

in t h e c o n t e x t o f S c e p t i c e p i s t e m o l o g y , see M . M u r f i n , The allegorical rise and decline ( C h i c a g o a n d L o n d o n , 1 9 8 0 ) , c h . 2, esp. p p . 3 5 ff.

Kai

laroptoypdrfcoLS

epic: essays in its

244

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - , COSMOS

AND IMPERII: M

den turn oculos rettulit, nun ad n a t u r a m . ' F r e q u e n t l y , h o w e v e r , w h e n V i r g i l is describing such illusions he uses some q u a l i f y i n g w o r d such as videre, w h i c h , strictly, eliminates the hyperbole. S o m e recent interpreters h a v e placed great stress on the subj e c t i v e q u a l i t y o f V i r g i l ' s n a r r a t i v e , as opposed to the impartial reporting of H o m e r ; this a p p r o a c h is helpful in u n d e r s t a n d i n g certain V i r g i l i a n uses of h y p e r b o l e , but c a u t i o n against excessive subjectivism o f this sort is in place. H o u s m a n speaks dismissively of V i r g i l i a n h y p e r b o l e as 'lang u a g e top g r a n d for the occasion'; 1 5 in this he instinctively appeals to one o f the most c o m m o n ancient critical concepts, that of d e c o r u m , to prepon. T h e essence of h y p e r b o l e lies in a disparity b e t w e e n subject-matter and expression, a disparity w h i c h c a n easily be represented as a lack o f fitness. T h e psychological a p p r o a c h e s discussed a b o v e a t t e m p t to establish a proper fitness b e t w e e n expression a n d state of m i n d . I n o w turn to other aspects o f to prepon, with regard to the w a y s in w h i c h h y p e r b o l e m a y be a c c o m m o d a t e d , a n d shall finally consider w a y s in w h i c h the a p p a r e n t l y u n b r i d g e a b l e g a p b e t w e e n hyperbole a n d reality, considered o b j e c t i v e l y a n d i n d e p e n d e n t l y , m a y be crossed. M y ultimate aim is to show h o w V i r g i l i a n h y p e r b o l e m a y be, in Q u i n t i l i a n ' s phrase, a 'decern veri superiectio'. 1 6 Firstly, the internal d e c o r u m of a literary g e n r e or o f one of the genera dicendi m a y justify h y p e r b o l e . O f the genres, the t w o highest, epic a n d t r a g e d y , are relevant here. M y detailed interpretations o f V i r g i l i a n h y p e r b o l e will indicate the extent to w h i c h H o m e r i c and other epic models are d e t e r m i n a t i v e . A s for t r a g e d y , both H e i n z e and N o r d e n stressed the centrality o f d r a m a t i c models for V i r g i l ' s presentation of events in the Aerie id. H e i n z e considered that t r a g e d y was the most i m p o r t a n t source for the various devices by w h i c h V i r g i l strove to p r o d u c e the effect of ekplexis;17 N o r d e n saw V i r g i l ' s excesses o f hypsos, 'ele v a t i o n ' , as a p r o d u c t of his predilection for tragic diction. 1 8 A g a i n , this will be exemplified in the detailed interpretations that follow. 15

Classical papers, p. 3 5 0 .

18

Inst. 8 . 6 . 6 7 .

18

N o r d e n , p. 2 8 4 ( o n 6 . 5 9 5 Ji'-k

p. 4 6 7 .

HYPERBOLE

245

D e m e t r i u s analyses the use and abuse of h y p e r b o l e in the

genera dicendi: it is obviously at home in the grand (megaloprepes) style, a l t h o u g h D e m e t r i u s devotes himself m a i n l y to the frigidity o f h y p e r b o l e as a vice of that style. 1 9 Interestingly he also considers h y p e r b o l e as at h o m e in the elegant (glaphuros) style of S a p p h o a n d c o m e d y . 2 0 H y p e r b o l e is a l w a y s likely in love poetry, w h e r e it corresponds to the distorted scale of values p r o d u c e d by the e m o t i o n of love; the related distortions caused b y the real or feigned emotions expressed in p a n e g y r i c will be considered in section I la b e l o w . D e m e t r i u s says that c o m e d i a n s derive the ridiculous from the impossible, and thus n a t u r a l l y exploit the impossibilities o f h y p e r b o l e . 2 1 Critics w h o stress V i r gil's subversiveness m i g h t hold that some of his m o r e h y perbolical scenes, such as the b o x i n g m a t c h in book five of the Aeneid, are to be understood as c o m i c rather than sublime; such interpretations are m a d e easier by the fact that various forms o f p a r o d y a n d burlesque d o indeed c a r r y the e x a g g e r a t i o n s o f serious epic and t r a g e d y to a l a u g h a b l e extreme. It is instructive to c o m p a r e the fashion in m o d e r n M i l t o n i e criticism for exp l a i n i n g a w a y the b o m b a s t o f the w a r in h e a v e n in book six of

Paradise Lost as a piece of sheer comedy. 2 2 A n o t h e r form of internal d e c o r u m relates to the structure of the i n d i v i d u a l literary w o r k : certain sections, p a r t i c u l a r l y the b e g i n n i n g a n d the end, are especially suitable for the heighte n i n g effects of h y p e r b o l e . T h u s , for e x a m p l e , the orator Lysias resorts to h y p e r b o l e in his proems as a w a y of m a k i n g the s u b j e c t - m a t t e r seem o u t of the o r d i n a r y . 2 3 S o m e t h i n g similar is found in the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of h y p e r b o l e in t w o o f the int r o d u c t o r y scenes of book one of the Aeneid, the storm a n d the speech o f J u p i t e r to V e n u s . It is the last book o f the epic, h o w e v e r , w h i c h contains b y far the greatest c o n g l o m e r a t i o n of h y p e r b o l e s , a n d one o b v i o u s ( t h o u g h only partial) reason for 19

Eloc. 1 1 4 , 124 ff, C f . 283.

20

I b i d . 1 2 6 ff., 161 f.

21

Ibid.

126. C f . [ L o n g i n u s ] Subl.

38.5 f., w h e r e h o w e v e r it is the

psychological

a s p e c t o f l a u g h t e r as a -rrdOos t h a t is held to m a k e c o m i c h y p e r b o l e a c c e p t a b l e (7n&iva), 22

C f . M . R o s t o n , Milton and the Baroque ( L o n d o n a n d B a s i n g s t o k e , 198©:, ch. 4, f o r

a s u r v e y o f s u c h c r i t i c i s m a n d a n a t t e m p t to r e f u t e it. 23

R . V o l k m a n n , Die Rhelorik der Griechen und Romer2 ( 1 8 8 5 ) , p. 4 4 1 .

2.246

V I R G I L ' S A EN EI D : COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

this is simply the desire to provide a rousing finale to the w h o l e poem. 2 4 F r o m internal I pass to external d e c o r u m . H e i n z e perceived the intimate relationship b e t w e e n form a n d c o n t e n t in V i r g i l ' s use of the sublime, w h i c h he described as 'a t h o r o u g h l y positive aesthetic p o w e r , p e r m e a t i n g b o t h c o n t e n t a n d form'; 2 5 this insight is also seen in his statement that 'the s y m b o l o f inner greatness is o u t e r greatness', 2 6 a n d a b o v e all in his awareness o f the intrinsic connection b e t w e e n the literary manifestation of the sublime a n d the grandiose theme of the g r o w t h o f R o m e to its present colossal size. 27 D e s p i t e this, H e i n z e still expresses the c o n v e n t i o n a l distaste for the m o r e e x t r e m e hyperboles, such as the c o m p a r i s o n o f A e n e a s to mounts A t h o s a n d E r y x at Aeneid 12.701, or the statement at 12.899 f- that the stone w h i c h T u r n u s lifts u p c o u l d not be raised b y twelve m e n o f the present d a y . H e i n z e sees such things as a lapse into the i m m o d e r a t e , in this e c h o i n g the ancient r e q u i r e m e n t that the a c c e p t a b l e h y p e r b o l e should not stray ultra modum.28 O n e m i g h t retort that a lack of stylistic m o d e r a t i o n in the Aeneid corresponds to an absence of m e a s u r e in the s u b j e c t - m a t t e r itself: ' i m p e r i u m sine fine dedi' (Aen. 1.279). But a more detailed analysis o f the relation b e t w e e n l a n g u a g e and content is possible. H y p e r b o l e is usually treated b y the ancients as one o f the tropes; a t y p i c a l general definition of the trope is f o u n d in Q u i n t i l i a n (Inst. 8.6.1): 'tropus est verbi vel sermonis a p r o p r i a significatione in a l i a m c u m virtute m u t a t i o . ' T h i s is m y starting-point for an a c c o m m o d a t i o n of the obj e c t i o n a b l e untruthfulness or falseness of h y p e r b o l e ; for it is true of the other tropes also, that if read literally, they are untrue. A n e x t r e m e u p h o l d e r of the v i e w that poets are liars m i g h t 24

A r o u g h i n d i c a t i o n o f the r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y o f h y p e r b o l e in the Aeneid is p r o v i d e d

by a c o u n t o f r e f e r e n c e s f o r e a c h b o o k in H u n z i k e r ' s i n d e x , w h i c h y i e l d s the f o l l o w i n g figures:

Aen. i : 37; 2 : 23; 3 : 22; 4 : 35; 5 : 32; 6 : 26; 7 : 27; 8 : 2 1 ; 9 : 44; 10 : 40; 11 :

4 1 ; 12 : 66. N o t e the s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e in t h e last f o u r b o o k s t a k e n as a w h o l e ; this c o u l d also b e i n t e r p r e t e d in terms o f a decorum o r i e n t e d to the l i t e r a r y m o d e l , h y p e r b o l e b e i n g m o r e p r o m i n e n t in t h e ' U i a d i c ' b o o k s o f the Aeneid . 25

p. 4 8 1 .

26

p* 4&9p p . 490 f. Cf. a l s o F . J . W o r s t b r o c k , Elemente einer Poetik der A e n e i s

27

(Münster,

1963), p p . 197 f., ' d i e S t i l i s i e r u n g ins M o n u m e n t a l e hat i h r e n G r u n d in d e r rerum maxima Roma ( 7 . 6 0 2 ) ' . 28

Q u i n t . Inst. 8.6.73.

HYPERBOLE

247

object, for e x a m p l e , that m e t a p h o r is an i m p r o p e r a n d false use ,of l a n g u a g e ; the p r o p e r reply, that the a p p l i c a t i o n of scientific criteria o f truthfulness to the poetic (or rhetorical) e m p l o y m e n t of m e t a p h o r is misconceived, m i g h t also be the answer to the o b j e c t i o n to h y p e r b o l e . T h e simple h y p e r b o l e , w h i c h asserts that x is larger, faster, louder, etc., than in fact it is, is closer to the trope of s y n e c d o c h e , the 'figure b y w h i c h a more c o m prehensive term is used for a less c o m p r e h e n s i v e or vice versa ( O E D ) , than it is to the trope of m e t a p h o r . A n i m p o r t a n t subspecies o f s y n e c d o c h e is the pars pro toto; the inverse, the w h o l e for the p a r t , is, if less c o m m o n , also technically syne c d o c h e ; b u t s y n e c d o c h e here converges w i t h h y p e r b o l e , for in the simple h y p e r b o l e the reality only partially matches u p to the expression. T h e affinity o f s y n e c d o c h e a n d h y p e r b o l e m a y be d e m o n s t r a t e d in a n o t h e r w a y : consider o n e of Q u i n t i l i a n ' s ex-

amples of pars pro toto, the sentence (Inst. 8.6.20): 'Romanus proelio victor'. R e a d i n g this as a s y n e c d o c h e , w e understand by the single Romanus a plurality of R o m a n s , the R o m a n a r m y ; if w e w e r e to read it as literally a reference to one m a n , h o w e v e r , then w e get the h y p e r b o l i c a l statement that one R o m a n w a s decisive in w i n n i n g the battle; it is a form of h y p e r b o l e that m a y be exemplified f r o m V i r g i l (Aen. 7.707): agmen agens Clausus magnique ipse agminis instar H e r e the i n d i v i d u a l C l a u s u s is credited w i t h the p o t e n c y of a plurality o f individuals, of w h i c h in reality he is b u t a part. In this simple f o r m of h y p e r b o l e , as in s y n e c d o c h e , the relationship b e t w e e n the v e r b a l expression a n d its reference is one of contiguity; w e merely m o v e T r o m one p a r t of a c o n t i n u u m to a n o t h e r . M o d e r n literary theorists often include this relationship u n d e r the general label of m e t o n y m y , as contrasted w i t h the relationship of similarity b y w h i c h m e t a p h o r refers. 29 M u c h h y p e r b o l e , h o w e v e r , operates in a more c o m p l e x w a y , using b o t h a ' m e t o n y m i c a l ' reference a l o n g the continuous axis of size or q u a n t i t y a n d a ' m e t a p h o r i c a l ' reference, b y means o f an explicit c o m p a r i s o n to a n o t h e r a r e a of reality (for e x a m p l e , 'faster than the w i n d ' ) . T h i s m e t a p h o r i c a l aspect of h y p e r b o l e is found at the centre of the ancient discussions, from Aristotle 29

F o r a c o n v e n i e n t a c c o u n t see D . L o d g e ,

The modes of modern writing:

metonymy, and the typology of modern literature ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 73 fF.

metaphor,

248

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - , COSMOS

AND IMPERII: M

to the schematic formulations o f the later rhetoricians. Demetrius provides a typical classification (Eloc. 124 f.); h y p e r b o l e is divided into three types: 1.

' b y r e s e m b l a n c e ' (e.g. dieiv S5 ofxoLoi 'that run as swiftly as the winds') 2. naß* xmepox^v 'by superiority' (e.g. AtvKorepos ' w h i t e r than snow') 3. Kara T O A S v v a r o v "by impossibility' (e.g. ovpavto Kapiq 'she set her h e a d in the sky') «ad*

o/jLoiorrfTa

avepLQiaw

^toro? earrjpi^e

T h e first t w o types both d r a w on other areas in o r d e r to express the excess o f h y p e r b o l e , w h i l e the third merely states that its object is impossibly large, m o v i n g a l o n g the axis o f height without any metaphorical component. M e t a p h o r , like h y p e r b o l e as traditionally understood, occurs in isolated usages within a text. I n d i v i d u a l m e t a p h o r s m a y contribute to a w i d e r pattern of i m a g e r y , a n d m a y indeed be controlled by an o v e r a r c h i n g g r o u p of images. T h e use of a series of connected m e t a p h o r s a p p r o a c h e s the condition o f alleg o r y , understood, in a c c o r d a n c e with the standard ancient definition, as e x t e n d e d m e t a p h o r . T h e final m o v e in m y analysis of h y p e r b o l e is to suggest that w h e n used in interconnected g r o u p s it m a y a p p r o x i m a t e to the m o d e l of allegory (itself traditionally classified in a n t i q u i t y as a trope), 3 0 a n d that this w a y of l o o k i n g at it is p a r t i c u l a r l y relevant to V i r g i l . It is interesting to observe certain features c o m m o n to ancient and m o d e r n discussions o f both h y p e r b o l e a n d allegory: the untruthfulness w h i c h is central both to definition a n d criticism o f h y p e r b o l e m a y be set beside the surface falsehood o f allegory, w h i c h , h o w e v e r , serves only to set o f f inner truths of high value. It w a s this aspect o f allegory that m a d e it an especially suitable exegetical d e v i c e in a n t i q u i t y for the rehabilitation o f the flagrantly u n t r u e traditional myths. It is also curious to note h o w nineteenth-century discussion o f the relationship b e t w e e n hyperbole and the reality to w h i c h it refers falls into the same pattern as the c o n t e m p o r a r y discussion o f the difference between s y m b o l , regarded as the expression o f an original undifferentiated perception of the f u n d a m e n t a l identity of the symbol and that w h i c h it symbolizes, and a l l e g o r y , regarded 30

C i c . Oral.

2 7 . 9 4 ; Q u i n t . Inst.

8.6.44.

268

HYPERBOLE

as the a r b i t r a r y j u x t a p o s i t i o n of areas of experience with no intrinsic connection, t h r o u g h the self-conscious workings o f reflective a n d discursive t h o u g h t . T h u s H u n z i k e r exploits Schiller's distinction b e t w e e n n a i v e a n d sentimental poetry in o r d e r to distinguish, firstly, a primitive a n d n a i v e use of h y p e r b o l e , in w h i c h the i m a g i n a t i o n believes in the e x a g g e r a t i o n , a n d , secondly, the more sophisticated use in w h i c h the difference b e t w e e n the o b j e c t and its h y p e r b o l i c a l expression is clearly present to reflection. 3 1 A s a l l e g o r y works on t w o (or more) distinct levels, so the internal disparity in h y p e r b o l e m a y be used to articulate an extensive comparison b e t w e e n two c o n c e p t u a l levels; the usual o b j e c t i o n to the misleading disproportion b e t w e e n a h y p e r b o l e a n d w h a t it refers to is thus resolved b y the a c c e p t a n c e o f the fact that there are t w o distinct levels. T h i s will b e c o m e clearer t h r o u g h an e x a m p l e : in b o o k f o u r o f the Georgia V i r g i l uses h e a v y h y p e r b o l e to describe the battle of the bees ( 6 7 - 8 7 ) . H e r e it is obvious that the h y p e r b o l e is pressed into the service of an extended if intermittent c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n the exploits of bees and the exploits of m e n , a c o m p a r i s o n w h i c h m a y p r o p e r l y be called allegorical. T h e d e v i c e w a s not original to V i r g i l ; it is found in the Batrachomyomachia, in w h i c h the skirmishes of the small a n i m a l s are narrated in m o c k - h e r o i c m a n ner a n d quite explicitly c o m p a r e d to far g r a n d e r struggles T h e y a d v a n c e d like an a r m y of C e n t a u r s or G i a n t s . 3 2

T h i s is of especial interest, since G i g a n t o m a c h i c h y p e r b o l e is central to V i r g i l ' s usage in the Aeneid, as chapters 3 and 4 h a v e shown. T h e various sorts o f w h a t m a y be called 'allegorical h y p e r bole' m a y be classified w i t h reference to the several (partiallyo v e r l a p p i n g ) pairs of levels within w h i c h the h y p e r b o l i c a l relationship functions. I n each case there is a m o v e m e n t b e t w e e n a level of greater inherent g r a n d e u r or size a n d a level o f lesser pretensions. T h e relationship b e t w e e n the t w o levels m a y be 31

H u n z i k e r , p p . 24 f.

32

Cf.

282 f.

(adding

the. c o m p a r i s o n

of

the

presumptuous

the p r o g r a m m a t i c f o r m u l a t i o n o f the 1 l a t e r ; p r o l o g u e , 6 f. 7701? apiorevoavTes

ifhjoav,

j yrjyeviojv

avSpwv pafiovufvoL

these lines see R . Pfeiifer, Hermes 63 ( 1 9 2 8 ) , 3 1 9 , )

(pya

Fiyavrajv.

Capaneus), ev

and

fiarpaxoioti'

( O n the d a t e of

250

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - , COSMOS

AND IMPERII: M

either ' m e t a p h o r i c a l ' or ' m e t o n y m i c a F in the m o d e r n theoretical senses o f these r h e t o r i c a l terms. A b r i e f e x a m i n a t i o n o f e a c h o f these pairs of levels will i n d i c a t e the w a y in w h i c h h y p e r b o l e is a v e r y a p t a c c o m p a n i m e n t to the themes that I discuss in o t h e r c h a p t e r s , a n d will also p r e p a r e the g r o u n d for the detailed i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s in the rest o f this c h a p t e r . T h e pairs o f levels are as follows: 1. the natural (cosmological) and the human (anthropomorphic); 2. the s u p e r n a t u r a l and the n a t u r a l ; 3. the d i v i n e a n d the h u m a n ; 4. the m y t h i c a l ( l e g e n d a r y ) a n d the l e g e n d a r y or historical; 5. the mass a n d the i n d i v i d u a l . 1. I n this t y p e h u m a n or a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c actors a n d actions are c o m p a r e d i m p l i c i t l y or e x p l i c i t l y to large-scale n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a . A n o b v i o u s e x a m p l e is the h y p e r b o l i c a l simile w h i c h c o m p a r e s a h e r o to a m o u n t a i n , or a b a t t l e to a storm; H o m e r i c p r e c e d e n t s are clear. R a t h e r d i f f e r e n t is the w a y in w h i c h the b a t t l e b e t w e e n H e r c u l e s a n d C a c u s in b o o k eight o f the Aeneid is seen as a n e l e m e n t a l c o n f l i c t in w h i c h large-scale parts o f the universe are i n t i m a t e l y i n v o l v e d (see c h a p t e r 3); the i n f l u e n c e o f L u c r e t i u s in this a r e a is a p p a r e n t (see c h a p t e r 5). T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of the c o s m o l o g i c a l into the local h u m a n also entails the p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y - c o n d i t i o n e d h y p e r b o l e , for the description o f cosmic scenes a n d o f h u m a n r e a c t i o n to t h e m is t r a d i t i o n a l l y an a r e a for g r a n d e u r a n d s u b l i m e l a n g u a g e . O n e has o n l y to think o f L o n g i n u s ' discussion of the verses f r o m the first c h a p t e r of Genesis, a n d his q u o t a t i o n o f H o m e r i c passages expressing the g r a n d e u r o f the cosmos.™ H y p e r b o l e is also a n a t u r a l f o r m o f expression for the relationship b e t w e e n the m i c r o c o s m a n d the m a c r o c o s m , w h e r e the f o r m e r is v i e w e d as a replica o f the latter, b u t on a lesser scale. H e r e w e r e t u r n to the simple, ' m e t o n y m i c a l ' , f o r m o f h y p e r b o l e w h i c h operates b e t w e e n t w o points o n the s a m e axis, r a t h e r t h a n e x p l o i t i n g g r a n d e u r in a d i f f e r e n t area; the m i c r o c o s m is not q u a l i t a t i v e l y different f r o m the m a c r o c o s m . T h i s last type o f c o s m o l o g i c a l ri Sum. 9; cf. 35 o n the 8avp.a a n d ¿ W A i ^ t ? a r o u s e d b y l a r g e - s c a l e n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a . O n n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y as o n e o f the g r a n d e s t t h e m e s for p o e t r y see D . C . I n n e s , C D N S 29 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , 1 6 5 - 7 1 .

HYPERBOLE

251

allegory is not p r o m i n e n t in the Aeneid, b u t w e m a y think o f the h u g e microcosmic shield o f A e n e a s , w h e r e grandiosity points b e y o n d the artefact itself to the m a c r o c o s m w h i c h it symbolizes (see c h a p t e r 8). 2. N a t u r a l events that o c c u r within n a t u r a l limits m a y be amplified b y reference to s u p e r n a t u r a l features of the universe. T h u s the h y p e r b o l i c a l features of the storm in book one of the Aeneid are a result of the a m p l i f i c a t i o n of a n a t u r a l storm at sea t h r o u g h reference to a far larger, s u p e r n a t u r a l l y inspired, d i s a r r a n g e m e n t o f the cosmos (see chapters 3 a n d 5). In section IIh below I discuss the more specific s u p e r n a t u r a l m o d e l for the storm of C h a r y b d i s , a feature of m y t h i c a l g e o g r a p h y . Similarly the v o l c a n o E t n a , p r e s u m a b l y a familiar sight to m a n y c o n t e m p o r a r y readers, is m a d e more a w e s o m e b y its elevation into a manifestation of s u p e r n a t u r a l forces. 3. H e i n z e remarks that 'the g r a n d e u r o f the gods is reflected in the g r a n d e u r of the hero'; 3 4 one of the easiest w a y s to m a g n i f y a h u m a n b e i n g is by h y p e r b o l i c a l l y c o m p a r i n g him w i t h a g o d , or by describing his activities in terms a p p r o p r i a t e to a g o d . G i g a n t o m a c h i c allusion entails a c o m p a r i s o n o f the hero with his d i v i n e m o d e l (see c h a p t e r 4); the richest area for this form of h y p e r b o l e , h o w e v e r , is in the more e x t r a v a g a n t ancient ideas a b o u t kingship, in w h i c h there is a f a r - r e a c h i n g parallelism b e t w e e n , and even identification of, the h u m a n a n d d i v i n e rulers. In line with his general identification of imperium with cosmos, V i r g i l exploits such theories of kingship to delineate the hero or ruler w h o is c a p a b l e o f presiding o v e r empire so c o n c e i v e d . A f r e q u e n t vehicle for such i d e a s . a b o u t the ruler is p a n e g y r i c , a n d in section I I a below I e x a m i n e V i r g i l i a n use of h y p e r b o l e from the point o f view of the encomiastic content of

the Aeneid. 4. T h e use of legend to f o r e s h a d o w more recent history is central to the very c o n c e p t i o n of the Aeneid; I a r g u e that, in addition, more p r i m e v a l m y t h i c a l events, in p a r t i c u l a r the early w a r s o f the gods against G i g a n t i c opponents, are extensively exploited t h r o u g h various types of allusion (see c h a p ters 3 a n d 4). T h i s h e a d i n g thus tends to coincide with the previous one, with the difference that the temporal aspect o f the division b e t w e e n divine, heroic, and o r d i n a r y h u m a n is 34

P- 4 8 5 .

252

V I R G I L ' S AENEID-,

COSMOS

A N D IMPERII:

M

here stressed. T h e H o m e r i c (and so the V i r g i l i a n ) hero is stronger a n d of g r e a t e r stature than present-day h u m a n beings; the gods and their adversaries are larger a n d stronger still. H y p e r b o l e m a y thus be p r o d u c e d b y the simple d e v i c e of exploiting the progressive d i m i n u t i o n in scale a n d p o w e r as we m o v e from the remotest events o f c o s m o g o n y to the alltoo-limited p o w e r s of present-day men; the m o v e m a y be from m y t h to legend, from legend to history, or from m y t h to history. T h e c o n t e m p o r a r y hero, A u g u s t u s , is given the h y p e r b o l i c a l attributes o f the l e g e n d a r y hero; the heroes of T r o y and of primitive Italy are described in terms proper to the gods a n d G i a n t s whose exploits they re-enact. 3 5 5. A simple w a y of a m p l i f y i n g the actions of an i n d i v i d u a l is to ascribe to him the p o w e r and efficacy of the actions of a w h o l e mass o f people, or o f a n a r m y . I h a v e shown a b o v e h o w this m a y be d o n e by an easy transformation of s y n e c d o c h e ; the general is responsible for the effects of an a r m y . T h i s use o f h y p e r b o l e links u p with the l a n g u a g e o f kingship a n d g o v e r n ment, w h e r e it is a natural form o f expression to ascribe to the a g e n c y o f the ruler the effects of the massed forces under his control, w h a t N o r t h r o p F r y e calls the 'royal m e t a p h o r ' (for e x a m p l e 'Hitler is b u i l d i n g roads across G e r m a n y ' ) . 3 6 A n o t h e r aspect of this usage relates to V i r g i l ' s use o f his sources: h y perbole m a y be achieved t h r o u g h the a p p l i c a t i o n to one ind i v i d u a l of attributes, actions, or comparisons a p p l i e d b y H o m e r to a large g r o u p of individuals. T h e u l t i m a t e source of V i r g i l i a n h y p e r b o l e is seen by m a n y as the g i g a n t i c size o f the R o m a n e m p i r e in the poet's o w n d a y . C o n t e m p o r a r y perception of this colossal extension was closely b o u n d to an awareness of the smallness of R o m e in the not very distant past; the contrast between past and present also finds typical expression in the c o m p a r i s o n of the primitive and present-day sites o f R o m e . S u c h reflection i n e v i t a b l y led to a sense of a w e at the rate o f e x p a n s i o n , the sheer impetus o f 36

F o r h y p e r b o l e as a f e a t u r e c o m m o n to m y t h a n d e n c o m i u m see L u c i a n

corner. 8 i t jai7 «i&fit? r i f xwpiC€lv laropLQ. VTT€PF3O\AS 36

TA

RIJS

erepas

T<*

turopias

Kop.P,ajp,ara — rov

Kai ra

p.vQov Kai

TO

noirjTiKTjs,

Hist,

aAA' fireiuayoL

(yxd>P.tov Kat

RAS

<ev

rfj

TOVTOIS

. , .

N . F r y e , The great code: the bible and literature ( L o n d o n , M e l b o u r n e , a n d

Henley,

1 9 8 2 ) , esp. p p . 87 ff. S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g the d e v i c e is m e t o n y m i c a l r a t h e r t h a n m e t a p h o r i c a l , b u t I a d h e r e to F r y e ' s u s a g e as the p h r a s e m a y h a v e s o m e c u r r e n c y .

HYPERBOLE

253

g r o w t h . 3 7 T h e h y p e r b o l i c a l relation is here articulated in time, a n d at the same time allegory becomes reality. T h e e x t r e m e o f smallness is n o w prior, a n d leads in time to the (literally true) e x t r e m e of greatness. W i t h i n the Aeneid it is the Shield of A e n e a s w h i c h definitively charts this expansion, from t w o helpless babies suckled b y a wild a n i m a l to the w o r l d e m p i r e of A u g u s t u s (see c h a p t e r 8); b u t this peculiarly R o m a n experience o f uns t o p p a b l e g r o w t h is, I think, partly responsible for i m a g e s o f e x p a n s i o n elsewhere in the poem. T h e r e seems to underlie them a sense, almost tinged b y panic, o f h o w swiftly a n d unp r e d i c t a b l y events m a y d e v e l o p ; the experience of R o m a n g r o w t h entails an awareness of h o w easily and q u i c k l y things m i g h t h a v e gone in a different direction. O f such images of expansion, the most n o t a b l e are the figures of F a m a in book four and A l l e c t o in book seven. O n the positive side, the various types o f h y p e r b o l e listed a b o v e are also used to articulate the sense o f the disparity b e t w e e n the origins of R o m e a n d her present size. B r o a d l y speaking, t w o views of history are found in the poem: the first traces the grad ual d i m i n u t i o n of size a n d scale as w e m o v e from the m y t h i c a l actions o f gods a n d monsters, set on a universal stage, t h r o u g h the m i g h t y b u t limited actions of the heroes o f legend, to the paltry actions o f men like ourselves; the second, w h i c h a p p e a r s to be opposed to the first, traces the ability o f such limited creatures as men to extend their p o w e r o v e r the w h o l e universe, and this is o f course to trace the rise of R o m e . H y p e r b o l e is a w a y of m e d i a t i n g b e t w e e n these t w o m o v e m e n t s , by i n d i c a t i n g that d i v i n e and heroic p o w e r s are, in fact, still a v a i l a b l e to o r d i n a r y m e n , or at least to those w h o m p r o v i d e n c e has selected for a special role. M y e x a m i n a t i o n of the ^external' d e c o r u m of h y p e r b o l e , of the c o n g r u e n c e b e t w e e n style a n d content, has led to a survey of the c o n c e p t u a l implications of h y p e r b o l e as they affect specific themes. It w o u l d , h o w e v e r , be w r o n g to c l a i m that e v e r y V i r gilian h y p e r b o l e could be so a c c o m m o d a t e d ; in the end w e are left w i t h a not inconsiderable n u m b e r w h i c h seem to h a v e 110 specific function of this sort, b u t w h i c h simply contribute to the o v e r a l l g r a n d e u r of the p o e m , and thus, indirectly, to the 37

H e i n z e , p. 490, ' d e r G e d a n k e . . . w i e aus kleinsten A n f ä n g e n sich so R i e s e n g r o s s e s

entfalten konnte'.

2.254

VIRGIL'S

A EN EI D : COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

g r a n d e u r of the s u b j e c t - m a t t e r as a whole. 3 8 T h i s is also the function of m a n y of the n u m e r o u s occurrences of adjectives o f size a n d extent, magnus, ingens, alius, summus, etc., 3 9 as well as of the V i r g i l i a n predilection for large numbers. 4 0 W e m a y also ultimately h a v e to a c c e p t that V i r g i l i a n g r a n d e u r is based on a general aesthetic w h i c h is largely alien to m o d e r n tastes; the i n t e r c h a n g e a b i l i t y of q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e greatness, a l r e a d y visible in Aristotle, b e c a m e increasingly i m p o r t a n t in Hellenistic, and then R o m a n , forms of artistic expression, leading to a g i g a n t i s m in w h i c h we should not a l w a y s e x p e c t to find specific t h e m a t i c reference. 4 1

II .

H Y P E R B O L E

IN

T H E

AKNE

ID

(a) Encomium and hyperbole in the Aeneid T h e H o m e r i c epic celebrates the g r e a t deeds of heroes; its subj e c t is indeed the klea, the laude s] o f men, a n d it is a condition o f t h a t subject that it only exists as klea t h r o u g h the poetic form o f the epic itself. T h a t is, as well as r e c o r d i n g great deeds it is the function of the epic to i m m o r t a l i z e those deeds, to convert them into klea.42 T h i s feature of the epic w a s n a t u r a l l y promi38

W h a t , f o r e x a m p l e , is the r e a s o n f o r the o c u r r e n c e s o f julmineus

at den.

4.580,

9 . 8 1 2 ? H y p e r b o l e is f r e q u e n t l y used in c o n t e x t s o f g r i e f a n d b u r i a l , a g a i n w i t h n o o b v i o u s t h e m a t i c f u n c t i o n (cf. 2.488, 6 . 1 7 8 , 9.480, 1 1 . 3 7 , " 1 8 7 ,

1 1 - 1 9 2 ) ; O v i d fre-

q u e n t l y uses h y p e r b o l e in t h e Tristia to refer to his o w n w o e s . I also o m i t a n y d e t a i l e d discussion o f the n o t o r i o u s l y h y p e r b o l i c a l a c c o u n t o f the f u n e r a l g a m e s in b o o k

five,

e s p e c i a l l y the s h i p r a c e a n d the b o x i n g m a t c h . T h i s h y p e r b o l e d o e s n o t seem to c o h e r e w i t h the w i d e r t h e m a t i c s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e p o e m , unless a n a t t e m p t is m a d e to see these s p o r t i n g e p i s o d e s as in s o m e sense ' d u m m y r u n s ' f o r the serious contests l a t e r on: thus the ' G i g a n t i c ' q u a l i t y o f the s h i p r a c e ( n o t e e s p e c i a l l y the m o n s t r o u s n a m e s o f the ships, Pristis, C h i m a e r a , C e n t a u r u s , S c y l l a ; cf. also the ships T i g r i s , C e n t a u r u s , a n d T r i t o n in the c a t a l o g u e o f E t r u s c a n s , to. 1 6 6 f.) m i g h t f o r e s h a d o w t h e G i g a n t o m a c . h i c Battle of A c t i u m

(see c h a p t e r 3); the m o u n t a i n o u s b o x e r s D a r e s a n d E n t e l l u s are

m a t c h e d by the h y p c r b o l i c a l l y p r e s e n t e d figures o f A e n e a s a n d T u r n u s in the last s c e n e o f the p o e m . s s C f . F. J . W o r s t b r o c k , Elemente emer Poetik der A e n e i s ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p p . 193 ff. on Quantitätsepitheta; p. 1 9 7 , ' d i e Q u a n t i t ä t s e p i t h e t a r e p r ä s e n t i e r e n e i n e n p a t h e t i s c h e n , - e r h a b e n e n Stir.

S e e W . K r o l l , Studien Zum Verständnis der römischen Literatur 180 n. 83. 40

( S t u t t g a r t , 1924), p.

S e e the i n t e r e s t i n g r e f l e c t i o n s o f J . O n i a n s , Art and thought in the Hellenistic ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 121 ff., ' L a r g e a n d s m a l l ' . 41

age

Cf. H o r . Carm. 4 . 9 . 2 9 f. ' p a u l u m s e p u h a e distat i n e r t i a e / c e l a t a v i r t u s ' . V i r g i l a p p e a l s to the topos a t Aen. 9 . 4 4 6 f. 'si q u i d m e a c a r m i n a possunt, / n u l l a dies u m q u a m memori vos eximet aevo'. 42

255

HYPERBOLE

nent in later discussions o f H o m e r , w h o , a m o n g other things, was generally r e g a r d e d as the father of all forms of rhetoric, i n c l u d i n g epideictic; the H o m e r i c heroes were interpreted as models o f virtue for imitation (one of the functions o f p a n e g y r i c , b y w h i c h the fulsomeness of praise could be understood as an invitation to perfection rather than as servile flattery).43 A typical f o r m u l a t i o n is found in the p s e u d o - P l u t a r c h e a n On the life and poetry of Homer B 4: 'It is clear that in the Iliad H o m e r presents an i m a g e of physical c o u r a g e , in the Odyssey of m e n t a l nobility.' T h i s e m p l o y s a basic body/soul division o f the types of virtue to be imitated, 4 4 w h i c h m i g h t also be aligned with the d i c h o t o m y of w a r a n d p e a c e , a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h the deeds o f the g r e a t m a n to be praised are divided in the h a n d b o o k s . 4 5 L a t e r epics echo the celebratory function of H o m e r ; in the first line o f his m y t h o l o g i c a l epic A p o l l o n i u s o f R h o d e s defines his subject as 'the f a m o u s deeds of m e n of old'. T h e historical epic b e c a m e the natural poetic vehicle for p a n e g y r i c o f g r e a t men or g r e a t deeds; the m a r t i a l virtues of the Iliad were the f a v o u r e d model for such encomia. 4 H In R o m e the encomiastic epic o n the Hellenistic m o d e l succeeded the archaic ' c a r m i n a de c l a r o r u m v i r o r u m l a u d i b u s ' r e m e m b e r e d b y G a t o in the Origines.47 W h a t such an epic m i g h t h a v e looked like in Latin is indicated by the p r o e m to Georgics 3; the l e g e n d a r y subjectm a t t e r of the work that w a s in fact written should not blind us to the fact that there is a strong encomiastic element in the Aeneid . F o r a small e x a m p l e of the w a y in w h i c h V i r g i l falls n a t u r a l l y into the categories of p a n e g y r i c , consider the w a y in w h i c h Ilioneus describes A e n e a s to D i d o ( a d m i t t e d l y a passage w h i c h m a y contain a certain a m o u n t of irony ) (Aen. 1.544. rex erat Aeneas nobis, quo iustior alter nec pietate fuit, nec hello maior et arm is. 43

C f . B. K . L e w a l s k i , Dome's

A n n i v e r s a r i e s and the poetry of praise: the creation of a

symbolic mode ( P r i n c e t o n , 1 9 7 3 ) , p p .

18 ff. O n O d y s s e u s as a p a r a g o n o f v i r t u e see

BuHiere, p p . 365 ff. 44

I b i d . , c h , 182 o n H o m e r ' s praise o f m o n a r c h y . T h e e p i d e i c t i c g o a l s o f praise a n d

b l a m e a r e seen as f u n d a m e n t a l to p o e t r y in g e n e r a l b y A r i s t o t l e , w h o m a k e s this t h e basic d i v i s i o n o f his c l a s s i f i c a t i o n at Poet, 1 4 4 8 b 24 ff. 46

e.g. M e n .

formalhistorischer

R h . 3 7 2 . 2 5 ff. C f . E . D o b l h o f c r , Die

Augustuspanegynk

Sicht ( H e i d e l b e r g , 1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 22 ff.

48

Men. Rh. 37--3"

47

Yv(1JP^fL

C f . C i c . Brut. 19.75; "Fuse. 4.2.3.

Y^-P fiaoiXta

rrXtov rj

dvSpfia.

des Horaz

in

256

V I R G I L ' S A EN E ID: COSMOS

AND IMPERIL! M

Here w e h a v e precisely the division b e t w e e n deeds in peace a n d w a r a n d the division b e t w e e n virtues o f the mind a n d martial pre-eminence. 4 8 T h e later a n t i q u e c o m m e n t a t o r s on the Aeneid were in no d o u b t as to the p a n e g y r i c intentions of the Aeneid. Servius includes as the second p a r t of the intentio of the w o r k ' A u g u s t u m laudare a parentibus'; 4 9 T i b e r i u s D o n a t u s ' rhetorical comm e n t a r y assigns the w h o l e p o e m to the genus laudativum, and D o n a t u s sees it as one of his tasks to reveal the m a r v e l l o u s art with w h i c h m a t e r i a l a p p a r e n t l y alien to this end does in fact contribute to the praise o f A e n e a s : 'talem enim monstrare A e n e a n d e b u i t , ut dignus C a e s a r i , in cuius h o n o r e m h a e c scrib e b a n t u r , parens et a u c t o r generis p r a e b e r e t u r ' . 5 0 M o r e recently H e i n z e has stressed h o w i m p o r t a n t a m o t i v e this is in the representation of A e n e a s ' deeds, with p a r t i c u l a r reference to the w a y in w h i c h his flight from the b u r n i n g T r o y is p r e p a r e d for in such a m a n n e r as to escape the rebukes of a C a m i l l u s ; 5 1 some m o d e r n interpreters are in d a n g e r of o v e r l o o k i n g such things. 5 2 It needs no a p p e a l to ancient rhetoricians to s h o w that hyperbole is o n e o f the most n a t u r a l devices for p a n e g y r i c . Flattery is b y its n a t u r e h y p e r b o l i c ; and if w e r e m e m b e r the psychological classification o f h y p e r b o l e , then w e m a y claim for e n c o m i u m the real or pretended emot ions of love, g r a t i t u d e , a n d w o n d e r , all o f w h i c h m a g n i f y their object. 5 3 But a c o m 48

Cf. also Aen. 7 . 2 3 4 f. ( I l i o n e u s to L a t i n u s ) , C f . E . D o b l h o f e r , i o c . cit.; note t h a t ,

o f t h e f o u r c a r d i n a l v i r t u e s , iustitia a n d fortitude

are the most i m p o r t a n t in p r a i s i n g a

ruler; to these I l i o n e u s h e r e a d d s the p e c u l i a r v i r t u e o f A e n e a s , pietas. T'hilo a n d H a g e n (eds.), i [ t 8 8 i ) , p. 4. P r a i s e ¿770 rrpoyovtov is a s t a n d a r d c o m p o n e n t o f the p a n e g y r i c . 49

50

G e o r g i i ( e d . ) , i ( 1 9 0 5 ) , p. 2. F u l g e n t i u s also treats t h e Aeneid as d e a l i n g w i t h laudis

materia (Verg. Cant. p. 87 H e l m ) . C f . Basil flpos * m t > * s U/xr)pw aptrrjs eoriv eiratvos,

rovs veovs 5 ndua

p.ev 77 nolrian

rw

6 1 H e i n z e , p. 28. C f . S e r v , a d Aen. 2 . 1 3 fracti bello in h o c l i b r o d u p l e x i n t e n t i o est: ne vel T r o i a e q u o d v i c t a est, v e l A e n e a e t u r p e v i d e a t u r esse q u o d f u g i t . ' 5 2 C f . A n a x i m e n e s Ars Rhet. 3.1 for s u c h ar tifice as a c e n t r a l p a r t o f p a n e g y r i c : eyKcufiuiaTiKov et&os fTpoaipeafcov xai npa£ea>v xal Aoyuiv evbofcuv a i f 17 at J Kai irpo a OVTOUV av vo 1 K e t cu a 1 63

¿OTIV

p. 17

Cf. the a p o l o g y o f a G r e e k verse p a n e g y r i s t o f the i m p e r i a l a g e ( H e i t s c h 30,25 f.)

¿av Se

rai rradii

vi.Kwp.fvos / 7r|oAAat9 ¿naivtuv

¿fimottv

VTrtpjiaXais.

For

the

c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n h y p e r b o l e a n d e n c o m i u m in the post-classical t r a d i t i o n see E. R , C u r t i u s , European literature and the Latin middle ages, trans. W . R . T r a s k ( L o n d o n , 1 9 5 3 ) , p p . 163 f.; A . F o w l e r , Kinds of literature: an introduction to the theory of genres and modes ( O x f o r d , 1982), pp, 7 1 . 137. H y p e r b o l e is also at h o m e in the h y m n , a g e n r e related

257

HYPERBOLE

parison o f the ancient discussions o f the genre of e n c o m i u m and of the trope of h y p e r b o l e reveals a m o r e f a r - r e a c h i n g identity of structure.

T h e basic function of panegyric is auxesis, amplificatio, and of its opposite, invective, the e x a g g e r a t i o n o f b l a m e w o r t h y characteristics. T h i s corresponds closely to the basic dclinition of h y p e r b o l e as 'dictio fid em c x c c d c n s augendi m inuendive causa" .5I T h e rhetoricians place p a r t i c u l a r emphasis on the use o f c o m parison as a m e a n s o f a c h i e v i n g this basic goal of h y p e r b o l e ; in the same w a y , the f u n d a m e n t a l a i m of m a g n i f i c a t i o n in e n c o m i u m is closely linked to the use of comparison, f r e q u e n t l y in the f o r m o f the synkrisis,55 I n both h y p e r b o l e and e n c o m i u m it is self-evident that external c o m p a r i s o n provides the best m e a n s o f elevating the subject-matter a b o v e its a p p a r e n t status; in b o t h the c o m p a r i s o n m a y operate either in the f o r m o f a simple a d e q u a t i o n ('as swift as the w i n d ' ) , or o f an o u t b i d d i n g of the o b j e c t of c o m p a r i s o n ('whiter t h a n snow'). 5 6 T h e s e points are clearly illustrated in the p a n e g y r i c o f A u g u s t u s delivered by Anchises in book six of the Aeneid (791 805), analysed classically b y N o r d e n . 5 7 H e r e w e find both auxesis a n d synkrisis. Firstly, w e h a v e the achievements o f peace, the reestablishment of the Satumia regna: this historical fantasy contains an implicit c o m p a r i s o n of the m a n A u g u s t u s to the g o d S a t u r n , a type o f c o m p a r i s o n w h i c h is o n e of the standard devices for c r e a t i n g h y p e r b o l e . S e c o n d l y , w e h a v e the achievements of w a r , presented in a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d h y p e r b o l i c a l auxesis o f the limits of empire, m o v i n g a l o n g the scale of physical extension from the a c t u a l b o u n d s of R o m a n rule to the limits of the w o r l d a n d b e y o n d . Finally, there is the t w o - p a r t synkrisis, with o u t b i d d i n g , in w h i c h A u g u s t u s outdoes the travels of the divinized hero Hercules a n d the god Dionysus. to e n c o m i u m : see K . K e y s s n e r , Gottesvorstellung (Würzburger

Studien zur Altertumswiss.

und Lebensauffassung

2, S t u t t g a r t ,

im griechischen

Hymnus

1 9 3 2 ) , p p . 28 ff., ' D e r

hy-

perbolische Stil'. M

D o n a t . Ars grammatica

3.6.

S e e V . B u c h h e i t . Untersuchungen Aristoteles 58

zur

Theorie des Genos Epideiktikon

F o r t h e b a s i c m o t i v a t i o n b e h i n d s u c h o u t b i d d i n g cf. I s o c . Panath.

f 7 r i ) ( e i p o w T a s KO.6* ovras a v r o v s , aAA*

fir/ TOVTO a n a a m s r a t ? aperais Kai TCÜV

v-TT€pßoXrjv COG

Tivas

¿rraiveiv

(¿OVOV

bis

TOT«

' E i n P a n e g y r i c u s a u f A u g u s t u s in V e r g i l s Aeneis\

82 = Kleine Schriften zum. klassischen Altertum

1 2 3 Set 8«

TOVS

fTTiSeticvi'vai, j i i j IROVRFPOÜS Kai TIUV vvv SirfvcyKav. O n

the t o p o s see E, R . C u r t i u s , o p . cit., p p . 162 ff. ( ' O u t d o i n g ' , 57

von Gorgtas

( M u n i c h , i 9 6 0 ) , p p . 14 ff; E . D o b l h o f e r , o p . cit. ( a b o v e , n. 4 5 ) , p. 20.

RhM

überbietung). N . F . 54 (1899), 466

(Berlin, 1966), pp. 4 2 2 - 3 6 .

258

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - , COSMOS

AND IMPERII: M

Similar points c a n be m a d e a b o u t the laudes Italiae in book t w o of the Georgics ( 1 3 6 - 7 6 ) , w h i c h begins with an o u t b i d d i n g synkrisis o f Italy with various lands o f the east. S t r a i g h t f o r w a r d h y p e r b o l i c a l auxesis is found in such details as the statement that the land 'flows w i t h g o l d ' (166). In the description of Italy as a land of p e r p e t u a l spring (149) w e h a v e straightforward h y p e r b o l e , b u t also an allusion to a separate f r a m e of reference, the m y t h o f the Isles o f the Blest, w h i c h leads n a t u r a l l y enough into the hint o f the m y t h i c a l G o l d e n A g e in the lines emphasizing the absence of h a r m f u l f a u n a and flora. H y p e r b o l e a n d e n c o m i u m m a y also be c o m p a r e d with respect to their relationship to allegory; like h y p e r b o l e , an encomiastic expression m a y be an isolated o c c u r r e n c e , but m o r e often it is part o f a larger c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k , p a r t i c u l a r l y the ideology o f kingship, in w h i c h the person o f the ruler is m a d e the centre of an extensive network o f ideas w h i c h typically finds expression in the political allegory of the m a s q u e , p a g e a n t , and p a n e g y r i c . I n f o r m a l terms the sustained encomiastic synkrisis stands in the same relationship to the isolated simile as c o n t i n u o u s allegory to the simple m e t a p h o r . 5 8 E x p l i c i t l y p a n e g y r i c a l passages arc frequent in the Aeneid, usually c o n v e y e d in the words of one of the actors, b u t sometimes presented directly by the a u t h o r ; they are n a t u r a l l y associated with h y p e r b o l e . O n e of the most h y p e r b o l i c a l episodes in the p o e m is the fight between H e r c u l e s and C a c u s , analysed in c h a p t e r 3 in terms o f the u n d e r l y i n g G i g a n t o m a c h i c allegory; the h y p e r b o l e here serves a n u m b e r of purposes, i n c l u d i n g that oí" praise. T h e n a r r a t i v e is closely connected to the h y m n to Hercules that follows, 5 9 w h i c h is presented as a p a n e g y r i c o f Hercules (Aen. 8.287 f.): hie iuvenum chorus, ille senum, qui carmine laudes Hercúleas et facta ferunt. T h e slaying of C a c u s is presented as the c o n t i n u a t i o n and clim a x o f the other deeds praised in the h y m n (303 f.). W i t h i n the h y m n itself there is the striking h y p e r b o l e of mi lie labores at line 291, an a m p l i f i c a t i o n of the c a n o n i c a l twelve labours car58

S e e a b o v e , p p . 2 1 3 f., for a synknsis

allegory. 68

See a b o v e , p. 2 1 5 .

o f E p i c u r u s w i t h H e r c u l e s t h a t is close to

HYPERBOLE

259

ried out in the service of Eurystheus; the use o f large numbers, frequently w h e r e the literary model has a m u c h smaller figure, is typically V i r g i l i a n . Encomiastic topoi are concentrated in the prophetic passages o f the Aeneid, n a t u r a l l y e n o u g h , since the central objects of praise are not identical with the central s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f the p o e m b u t m a y be directly alluded to in prophecies that look b e y o n d the temporal limits o f the legend a r y action; the topoi are set out p r o g r a m m a t i c a l l y in the speech o f Jupiter in book one, an encomiastic a n d h y p e r b o l i c a l prop h e c y o f the future a c h i e v e m e n t s of R o m e , first in w a r and then in peace. In c h a p t e r 7 I indicate h o w the m a i n t o p o g r a p h i c a l features of the cosmos are laid out here; reflection on this leads to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the w a y in w h i c h V i r g i l uses the static counters of e n c o m i u m to articulate the epic narrative; the spatial (and temporal) co-ordinates of e n c o m i u m are re-utilized as the points a l o n g w h i c h the t r a j e c t o r y of the continuous history is plotted.

(b) Hyperbole: myth to legend. Mythical monsters in Aeneid 3 A rich source o f h y p e r b o l e is the c o m p a r i s o n of real events in the n a t u r a l or h u m a n worlds w i t h the s u p e r n a t u r a l events of m y t h . A recurrent f o r m o f this in the Aeneid is the use of G i g a n t o m a c h i c allusion, w h e r e the nivths referred to arc not, for the most part, g i v e n explicit expression. T h e process m a y be even m o r e clearly observed in the parallelism between m y t h i c a l events a c t u a l l y n a r r a t e d in the course of the p o e m and historical (or l e g e n d a r y ) events n a r r a t e d elsewhere in the p o e m . T h e m a i n o p p o r t u n i t y for the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f supernatural m y t h i c a l events is of course the r e w o r k i n g of the a d v e n t u r e s of O d y s s e u s in book three. It is d u r i n g the last stages o f his ' O d y s s e a i v w a n d e r i n g s , as narrated to D i d o , that A e n e a s confronts his most d a n g e r o u s and m a r v e l l o u s ordeals: g e o g r a p h i c a l monstrosities by sea a n d land, the m y t h i c a l C h a r y b d i s and the real-life E t n a , and the a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c monster P o l y p h e m u s . T h e s e are all located in or near Sicily, traditionally the h o m e of wonders, 6 0 an island 60

C f . esp. the list o f miranda a t L u c r . 1 . 7 3 7 ff.

279

V I R G I L ' S A EN E ID: COSMOS

AND IMPERIL! M

violently sundered from the m a i n l a n d in ages past, 6 1 and something of a b i g g a m e reserve for primitive monsters. C h a r y b d i s , Etna, and P o l y p h e m u s form a closely-cohering g r o u p o f hyperbolical descriptions, with the extended n a r r a t i v e o f Polyp h e m u s as the c l i m a x ; iri A e n e a s ' relation o f his a d v e n t u r e s in books two a n d three they act as a g r a n d finale, followed only b y an elliptical a c c o u n t of the r e m a i n d e r of A e n e a s ' j o u r n e y to C a r t h a g e . O n e should not overlook the effect o f such a c l i m a x on the listening D i d o . 6 2 T h i s compositional and psychological d e c o r u m has not p r e v e n t e d c o m m e n t a t o r s from expressing serious unease a b o u t the relevance o f this grandiose r e w o r k i n g of the H o m e r i c material to the b r o a d e r themes of the p o e m ; yet a g a i n recourse is had to the consolation that it w o u l d h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d , or at least been m u c h toned d o w n , in the revision. 6 3

final

T h e A c h a e m e n i d e s passage, in p a r t i c u l a r , is spirited

out of the h y p o t h e t i c a l final p l a n of the poet. 6 4 I n w h a t follows I wish to show at least that the h y p e r b o l e at the end of book three is not totally different from w h a t A e n e a s

encounters

elsewhere. 81

Aen. 3 . 4 1 4 ff.

62

O n e m i g h t c o m p a r e the e f f e c t o f O t h e l l o ' s f a i r y - t a l e s o n D e s d e m o n a .

93

T h i s p o i n t o f v i e w is c l e a r l y p u t b y R . D . W i l l i a m s , P.Vergili

Liber 7erlitis

( O x f o r d , 1 9 6 2 ) , p p . 17 f. F a v o r i n u s (ap. A u l . G e l l .

t h a t V i r g i l ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f E t n a w a s m u c h in n e e d o f revision: NA

Maronis

Aeneidos

17.10) considered 17.10.8 'eiusmodi

s e n t e n t i a s et v e r b a m o l i t u s est, ut P i n d a r o q u o q u e ipso, q u i nimis o p i m a p i n g u i q u e esse f a c u n d i a e x i s t i m a t u s est, i n s o l e n t i o r h o c q u i d e m in l o c o t u m i d i o r q u e sit'; i b i d . t 6 ' q u o d ait " s i d e r a l a m b i t " , v a c a n t e r h o c e t i a m . . . a c c u m u l a v i t et i n a n i t e r ' . 84

Of. W i l l i a m s o n Aen. 3.588 f., d e s c r i b i n g the e p i s o d e as 'a stitched-011 piece o f

b r i l l i a n t colours. It is a p a s s a g e o f r h e t o r i c a l a n d g r a n d i o s e w r i t i n g , d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e immediate world of h u m a n experience and c a p a b l e of being handled in sonorous and g r a n d i l o q u e n t h y p e r b o l e . T h i s w a s the k i n d o f w r i t i n g w h i c h the S i l v e r A g e l o v e d . ' According

to W i l l i a m s

'the very

marked

similarities b e t w e e n A c h a e m e n i d e s

and

S i n o n . . . suggest t h a t w h e n V i r g i l w a s w r i t i n g the s e c o n d b o o k he used this p a s s a g e as a q u a r r y , i n t e n d i n g to recast o r r e m o v e it l a t e r o n ' . T h e r e is a n i m p o r t a n t p o i n t o f p r i n c i p l e h e r e : s h o u l d such i n t e r n a l r e p e t i t i o n s b e used as e v i d e n c e in the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the genesis o f the p o e m , or s h o u l d t h e y b e used in the critical a n a l y s i s o f t h e m a t i c s t r u c t u r e ? R e c e n t studies h a v e (I t h i n k c o r r e c t l y ) l a i d i n c r e a s i n g e m p h a s i s o n the synchronic approach.

I n this p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e I g o n o f u r t h e r t h a n n o t i n g the

o b v i o u s f a c t t h a t the p a r a l l e l stories o f the G r e e k s S i n o n a n d A c h a e m e n i d e s f r a m e the w h o l e o f A e n e a s ' n a r r a t i v e to D i d o ,

261

H Y P E R B O L E

i. Charybdis and the storm in A e n e i d /

laevum implacata Charybdis o b s i d e t , a t q u e i m o b a r a t h r i ter g u r g i t e v a s t o s sorbet in a b r u p t urn f l u c t u s r u r s u s q u e s u b a u r a s erigit a l t e r n o s , et sidera v e r b e r a t u n d a .

(Aen. 3420- 3) t o l l i m u r in c a e l u m c u r v a t o g u r g i t e , et i d e m subducta ad M a n i s imos desedimus u n d a . ter s c o p u l i c l a m o r e m i n t e r c a v a s a x a d e d e r e , ter s p u m a m e l i s a m et r o r a n t i a v i d i m u s astra.

(Aen. 3.564-7) Both in the instructions o f H e l e n u s a n d then in the first-hand experience of A e n e a s C h a r y b d i s is presented h y p e r b o l i c a l l y as a monster w h o invades the w h o l e length o f the vertical axis of the universe in her alternate rise a n d fall. T h e description is based on the H o m e r i c C h a r y b d i s (Od. 12.235 ff.), whose extreme territorial limits, h o w e v e r , are the top o f the t w o peaks that t o w e r a b o v e C h a r y b d i s a n d S c y l l a (238 f.) 6 5 and the s a n d y sea-bed (242 f.). In V i r g i l the limits are the U n d e r w o r l d below, 6 6 a n d the stars of h e a v e n a b o v e . Both descriptions end w i t h the w a t e r y lashing or splashing o f the stars, w h i c h should be taken at face v a l u e . Williams 6 7 is right to reject C o n i n g t o n ' s a t t e m p t at a naturalistic rationalization of the m u c h criticized rorantia vidimus astra (567), 6 8 b u t w r o n g to take astra in the w e a k e n e d sense o f ' s k y ' . R e a l i s m should not be e x p e c t e d after the mention of the U n d e r w o r l d t w o lines earlier. T h e p o i n t is the u n n a t u r a l m i n g l i n g o f the w a t e r of the sea with the fiery stars, a confusion of the elements f o u n d in less e x t r e m e form in H o m e r ' s detail o f earth a p p e a r i n g w h e n C h a r y b d i s sucks in the waters of the sea (Od. 12.242). T h e chaos is theological as well as cosmological: C h a r y b d i s falls into the p a t t e r n of the G i g a n t o m a c h i c assault 85

T h o u g h V i r g i i is g i v e n s o m e l i c e n c e by the fact that w e h a v e earlier (Od. 1 2 . 7 3 )

b e e n told t h a t the p e a k o f S c y l l a r e a c h e s to the oupawrk. 46

F o r c i b l y in Mams

( 5 6 5 ) , a n d o b l i q u e l y in barathri ( 4 2 1 ) , w h i c h is o f t e n a p p l i e d to

the U n d e r w o r l d (e.g. Aen. 8 . 2 4 5 ) . 87

O n 567.

88

H e y n e ' s c o m m e n t is t y p i c a l o f m o d e r n r e a c t i o n : ' p r o b a s s e v i d e t u r saeculi A u g u s t e i

genius. N o s t r i s h o m i n i b u s v i x p l a c e a n t ! '

281

V I R G I L ' S A EN E ID: COSMOS

AND IMPERIL! M

on h e a v e n , a n d this suits other details of her m y t h . She is a d a u g h t e r of Terra, a n d w a s struck by J u p i t e r ' s t h u n d e r b o l t and hurled into the sea for stealing the cattle of Hercules. 6 9 T h e e x t r a v a g a n c e of the V i r g i l i a n h y p e r b o l e emerges both w h e n set against the H o m e r i c model a n d against a Hellenistic epic description of the vast rise and fall of a n o t h e r s u p e r n a t u r a l g e o g r a p h i c a l feature, the W a n d e r i n g R o c k s , in A p o l l o n i u s ' Ar-

gonautica (4.943 ff.): afil S e KO/xo A d f i p o p aeipop.€vov at a

o r e fxev

aXAore

nerpats

xprjfivois

¿TriKaxXd^tuKtv,

evaAiyKiai

S e ¿Spti^icu vedroj

vrro

ijept

Kvpov,

rrvdyiivi

TTOVTOV

rjprjpetv.

O n both sides a mighty wave reared itself and crashed on the rocks, which now rose up into the air like cliffs, and now plunged down to rest in the lowest depth of the sea. 70 Here there is no real threat to either the c o s m o l o g i c a l or the theological orders. T h e m o r a l i z e d h y p e r b o l e of the V i r g i l i a n C h a r y b d i s is also found in the storm o f book one, w h i c h is presented as a n a t u r a l event (a violent storm), a n d perceived by the T r o j a n s as such, b u t with s u p e r n a t u r a l causation circumstantially presented to the reader. T h i s scene works on m a n y levels at once, and hyperbole links the surface level of realistic epic narrative w i t h the m y t h i c a l a n d ideological levels to w h i c h it alludes; the G i g a n t o m a c h i c allegory fits easily with the use of features d r a w n from the H o m e r i c and V i r g i l i a n C h a r y b d i s . T h e elem e n t a l confusion caused b y the storm, w h i c h is analysed in greater detail in c h a p t e r 3, also threatens order a l o n g the vertical axis: the violence of the storm raises the waters o f the sea to the fires o f h e a v e n ( 1 . 1 0 3 ) ; 7 1 the ships are alternately tossed u p a n d d o w n , b u t here no l o w e r t h a n the u n n a t u r a l d e p t h o f the H o m e r i c C h a r y b d i s . C o m p a r e Aeneid 1.106 f.: 69

S e r v . ad Aen. 3.420. H e r theft o f H e r c u l e s ' c a t t l e also a l i g n s h e r w i t h a n o t h e r o f

V i r g i l ' s G i g a n t o m a c h i c figures, C a c u s . 70

O n the t e x t a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n see F. V i a n , Apollanios de Rhodos: Argonautiques

IV

(Paris, 1 9 8 1 ) , p p . 45 f., 180. 71

A n o t h e r s k y - r e a c h i n g w a v e is f o u n d in E u r . Hipp.

ovpctvuj aTTjpt^ov, <5<jt' drjpfOti / SKipuivos

1206 ff. Updv

dxras' Ofxfxa rovpiov elaopav,

/ Kvp.' which of course

is a m i r a c u l o u s b r e a c h in the n a t u r a l o r d e r . W i t h the last c l a u s e c o m p a r e Aen. 1.88 f. ' e r i p i u n t s u b i t o n u b e s c a e l u m q u e d i e m q u e / T e u c r o r u m ex o c u i i s ' .

H Y P E R B O L E 282 his u n d a d e h i s c e n s t e r r a m i n t e r fluctus a p e r i t , f u r i t a e s t u s h a r e n i s .

with O d y s s e y 12.242 f.: vtt¿vepde ifiapLjxaj

Se yaia dv€aKe

xvavcrj.

D o w n below appeared earth with dark-blue sand.

T h e full proportions of the threat posed by the storm in bo- 3® one to the universe are b r o u g h t o u t only in the f r a m i n g p a s sages, w h i c h show events on the d i v i n e level; this m a y be se<en as a p a r t i a l concession to realism.

ii. Etna G h a r y b d i s escaped a n d h a r b o u r safely entered, the horro-rs continue with Etna. T h e ecphrasis of E t n a w a s a notorious s e t piece in antiquity; 7 2 I wish to e m p h a s i z e the w a y in w h i c h V i r g i l exploits an e x t r e m e use of h y p e r b o l e in the service o f a n implicit moralization; for this too there w a s precedent, n o t a b ly in P i n d a r ' s use of E t n a as a political and moral s y m b o l . 7 3 H y p e r b o l e here links a n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n o n , E t n a , to a t h e o logical concept, the threat of the destruction of the cosmos, w h i c h in turn is linked to a traditional m y t h o l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f the v o l c a n o in the figure o f Enceladus. E t n a , like G h a r y b d i s , assaults the heavens: atram prorumpit ad aethera n u b e m

IA en. 3.572)

a t t o l l i t q u e g l o b o s f l a m m a r u m et s i d e r a l a m b i t .

(574)74

T h i s assault disturbs the natural o r d e r o f things; the b r i g h t aether is no place for d a r k clouds, p r o p e r l y a t h o m e in the aer.7b T h e r e is s o m e t h i n g of the p a r a d o x i c a l , too, in the words hquefacta saxa (576), since rocks are n o r m a l l y the type of solidity. 72

See W i l l i a m s o n 3 . 5 7 1 f.

73

Pyth. 1 . 1 3 fiT., b u t this falls short o f the V i r g i l i a n h y p e r b o l e . S e e a b o v e , p. 86.

74

C f . L u c r . 5 . 3 9 6 'ignis eriim s u p e r a t et l a m b e n s m u l t a perussit', in the c o n t e x t o f a

myth (Phaethon) of cosmic disruption. T h e c o n f u s i o n o f l i g h t a n d d a r k w a s o n e o f t h e points c r i t i c i z e d b y the e x c e s s i v e l y l o g i c a l F a v o r i n u s ( A u l . G e l l . MA 1 7 . 1 0 . 1 7 f„); cf. Aen. 8 . 2 5 4 f. ( C a c u s ) ' g l o m e r a t q u e s u b ant.ro / f u m i f e r a m n o c t e m c o m m i x t i s igne t e n e b r i s ' . 75

264

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - , COSMOS

AND IMPERII: M

T h e r e is a similar confusion in the chaotic storm o f book one in the words praeruptus aquae mom ( 1 . 1 0 5 ) , w h e r e it is liquid that betrays its n o r m a l c h a r a c t e r . 7 6 A s well as physical disturbance there is theological disturbance. T h e flames are, after all, sent u p by the v a n q u i s h e d e n e m y of the gods, E n c e l a d u s ; the fire lit by the thunderbolt that struck him d o w n (fulmine, 578) licks the stars as a recurrent gesture of defiance. N o t e the use of tvnat in the first line of the ecphrasis: taken with the rest of the passage there is a hint that the w e a p o n o f j u p i t c r is used against him, 7 7 a conceit d e v e l o p e d p o w e r f u l l y by Lucretius in his description o f E t n a , with its G i g a n t o m a c h i c overtones (1.722 ff.). 7 8

Hi. Polyphemus It should by n o w be clear that the c o n c e p t u a l structures behind the h y p e r b o l i c a l description of E t n a recur repeatedly within the p o e m ; this is not an isolated p u r p l e passage. T h e echoes of the moralized v o l c a n o begin almost i m m e d i a t e l y . 7 9 W i t h i n the ecphrasis itself there is a subtle transition to the m y t h o l o g i c a l picture of E n c e l a d u s (578 ff.) by w a y of an a n t h r o p o m o r p h i z e d description of the eruptions (575 ff.): interdum scopulos avulsaque

viscera

montis

true tans, l i q u e f a c t a q u e s a x a s u b a u r a s gemitu g l o m e r a t f u n d o q u e e x a e s t u a t i m o .

erigit cum

F o r the general idea of an a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c m o u n t a i n one m a y c o m p a r e the picture o f A t l a s in book four. In the description of the third, and last, monster of book three, P o l y p h e m u s , the terms of the c o m p a r i s o n o f m o u n t a i n to m a n are reversed, so that the (already monstrous) a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c creature is described in l a n g u a g e j u s t applied to the v o l c a n o . Like Etna (or Enceladus), P o l y p h e m u s lies b a c k and vomits (631 ff.): 76

See a b o v e , p p . ¡08 f.

77

N o t e Aen. 8 . 4 1 g ' a n t r a A e t n a e a tonanf, in the m a k i n g o f the t h u n d e r b o l t .

See a b o v e , p p . 2 1 1 f. C f . Geo. 1 . 4 7 1 ff., E t n a e r u p t i n g as a n a t u r a l d i s t u r b a n c e in s y m p a t h y w i t h d i s t u r b a n c e in the m o r a ! u n i v e r s e . 78

T h e v o l c a n i c aspects o f A l l e c t o , T u r n u s , a n d C a c u s . a r e e x a m i n e d b r i e f l y b y F. A . S u l l i v a n , ' V o l c a n o e s a n d v o l c a n i c c h a r a c t e r s in V i r g i l ' , CPk 67 ( 1 9 7 2 ; . 186 9 r ; he d o e s not discuss the v o l c a n i c c h a r a c t e r o f P o l y p h e m u s . F o r s p e c u l a t i o n o n P o l y p h e m u s as in o r i g i n a v o l c a n i c d e m o n , see R . H e n n i g , ' A l t g r i e c h i s c h e S a g e n g e s t a l t e n als P e r s o n i f i k a t i o n v o n E r d f e u e r n und v u l k a n i s c h e n V o r g ä n g e n ' , JDAI 5 4 { 1 9 3 9 ) , 23046, esp. 240 f. 79

265

HYPERBOLE iacuitque per antrum immensus saniem

eructans

et f r u s t a c r u e n t o

per s o m n u m c o m m i x t a mero.

T h e viscera (622) that he vomits u p are, h o w e v e r , quite literal. W h e n E n c e l a d u s turns on his side, the resulting v o l c a n i c activity disturbs land a n d sky (581 f.): intremere o m n e m m u r m u r e T r i n a c r i a m et c a e l u m s u b t e x e r e f u m o .

T h e g r e a t shout of P o l y p h e m u s also has f a r - r e a c h i n g effects, this time on the divisions of sea and land (672 if.): c l a m o r e m i m m e n s u m tollit, q u o p o n t u s et o m n e s i n t r e m u e r e u n d a e , p e n i t u s q u e e x t e r r i t a tellus Italiae curvisque i m m u g i i t A e t n a cavernis.80

T h e last w o r d s b r i n g us b a c k explicitly to the prison-house of E n c e l a d u s , inviting c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n the monstrous effects of the t w o giants. F i n a l l y , P o l y p h e m u s , like C h a r y b d i s a n d E t n a , is a monster w h o assaults the sky (619 f.): ipse a r d u u s , a l t a q u e p u l s a t s i d e r a (di t a l e m terris a v e r t i t e p e s t e m ! ) .

T h e s k y - r e a c h i n g h y p e r b o l e is picked u p a g a i n in the description o f the massed assembly of C y c l o p e s w h o c o m e in answer to his shout (678): A e t n a e o s f r a t r e s 8 1 c a e l o c a p i t a a l t a ferentis.

A g a i n note the association with E t n a in the h y p e r b o l i c a l context. T h e Sicilian monsters present a purely external threat to A e n e a s ; like Odysseus he is concerned only for physical safety through escape. T h e monsters themselves are presented as threats to a universal cosmological and theological order, b u t at this stage A e n e a s has not realized his role as c h a m p i o n of cosmic order. T h e situation is different w h e n he reaches Italy; resistance, not escape, is d e m a n d e d of h i m , a n d his struggles 80

C f . t h e effects o f A l l e c t o ' s h o r n , 7 . 5 1 4 ff, a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l effects o f the w o r d s o f

J u p i t e r , 10.101 ff. 31

Aetnaeos fratres

m i g h t also m e a n literally ' b r o t h e r s o f E t n a ' , a c c o r d i n g to the

f r e q u e n t p o e t i c use of a p e r s o n a l a d j e c t i v e for a g e n i t i v e (see A u s t i n on Aen. 2 . 5 4 3 ) .

266

V I R G I L ' S A E.NE11) \ COSMOS

A N D IM PERI

EM

are the necessary p r e l i m i n a r y for the f o u n d a t i o n of R o m a n , and hence universal, order. T h e fairy-tale monsters of book three are r e i n c a r n a t e d in beings w h o directly c h a l l e n g e the f o u n d a t i o n of R o m e ; it is only n o w that the cosmological and theological aspects o f E t n a and P o l y p h e m u s reveal their full significance for the workings of R o m a n prehistory and history. T h i s process m a y be seen clearly in the case of two gigantic adversaries, C a c u s a n d M e z c n t i u s . C a c u s is the e n e m y of Hercules, w h o is a s y m b o l o f the heroic qualities needed to establish R o m a n p o w e r . C a c u s has obvious points in c o m m o n with P o l y p h e m u s : his d a r k c a v e , his gory cannibalism. H e is also c o m p a r a b l e to the v o l c a n o E t n a , in his fire-vomiting; the h y p e r b o l e here falls u n d e r the h e a d i n g of the transition f r o m the n a t u r a l to the a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c levels. Finally, his defeat is elevated to the grandest cosmic level in the shock-waves that reach to the sky (quo maximus intonat aether, 8.239), followed b y the h y p e r b o l i c a l simile e q u a t i n g h i m with a presiding spirit o f Hades. 8 2 C a c u s c a n be only o b l i q u e l y understood as a n e n e m y of A e n e a s ; the T r o j a n meets his o w n Italian P o l y p h e m u s in the shape o f the Etruscan M e z c n t i u s . T h e detailed resemblances, w h i c h fall into the general c a t e g o r y o f h y p e r b o l e by passage from the m y t h i c a l to the l e g e n d a r y , h a v e been collected in an article by J . G l e n n . 8 3 T h e i m p i e t y of M e z c n t i u s m a t c h e s that of the H o m e r i c C y c lops; 84 his atrocities recall the words V i r g i l uses to describe the c a n n i b a l i s m of P o l y p h e m u s . 8 5 T h e resemblance is concentrated a b o v e all in the simile c o m p a r i n g M e z e n t i u s to the g i a n t O r i o n , w h o strides t h r o u g h the w a t e r , like P o l y p h e m u s in pursuit o f the T r o j a n ships; like the C y c l o p s , O r i o n comes from the high mountains 8 6 w i t h a tree-trunk for his staff; he too is a son of Poseidon, whose h e a d reaches the sky, and he too is blinded. Both M e z e n t i u s and P o l y p h e m u s wield a pinus;87 both hurl 82

F o r f u r t h e r discussion o f these points see a b o v e , p p . 1 i o ff.

83

' M e z e n t i u s a n d P o l y p h e m u s ' , AJPh

92 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 129 55. S e e also A . L a P e n n a ,

' M e z e n z i o : u n a t r a g e d i a d e l l a t i r a n n i a e del t i t a n i s m o a t i l i c o ' , Maia

32 ('1980),; 3 -30,

esp. 13 ff.; L a P e n n a a c c e p t s the p a r a l l e l s w i t h P o l y p h e m u s , but rejects a n y s y m b o l i c a l interpretation. Hi

P o l y p h e m u s as contemplor divum'. Od, 9 . 2 7 3 ff.

85

C f . A en. 3 . 6 2 3 ff. w i t h 8.485 ff.

86

3-^55 ' s u m m o . . . m o n l e ' : 10.766 ' s u m m i s . . . m o n t i b u s ' .

87

3-659;

HYPERBOLE

267

e n o r m o u s rocks. 88 B o t h are horrendus,89 a n d to both the w o r d moles is applied. 9 0 A r e w e to c o n c l u d e that the P o l y p h e m u s passage is then a ' q u a r r y ' for the description of M e z e n t i u s , an irrelevance w h i c h V i r g i l w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y h a v e e x p u n g e d from the poem? Surely it is m o r e satisfactory to understand the P o l y p h e m u s episode as a kind of baseline for the interpretation o f the e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n A e n e a s and Mezentius: M e z e n t i u s is an Italian monster w h o must be r e m o v e d if the h u m a n world of R o m e is to d e v e l o p freely, a moral perversion whose c o n t i n u e d existence is an intolerable threat to the Lebensraum of the ancestors o f the R o m a n race, even if his destruction is not untinged with regret, a m e l a n c h o l y itself based on the parallelism with P o l y p h e m u s : M e z e n t i u s also loses the 'light' of his life, his son, 9 1 and c a n console himself only with the c o m p a n y of an a n i m a l , his horse, as the H o m e r i c P o l y p h e m u s has only his r a m to talk to. 9 2

(c) 'Theological space': the vertical axis. A hyperbolical reading of Acncid 4 H y p e r b o l e deals in extremes, and not the least i m p o r t a n t are the extremes of space on the vertical and horizontal axes. Housm a n observes that V i r g i l 'soars too near the stars'; 9 3 in this section 1 shall a r g u e that w h e n he does it is not to be taken as a reckless joy-flight, but as part of a sustained exploration of the ultimate limits, both u p a n d d o w n , of the universe; the 98

Od. 9 . 4 8 1 ; Aen. 10.698 f.

88

3-658; 9-5213.656; 1 0 . 7 7 1 .

90 81

M e z e n t i u s c o m e s to w a s h his w o u n d s in w a t e r a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f his son ( b u t

b e f o r e h e is a w a r e of it; does a n a w a r e n e s s o f the P o l y p h e m a n m o d e l m a k e the f a c t o f his loss m o r e p o i g n a n t for us?), 10.833 ft", as P o l y p h e m u s c o m e s to the sea to b a t h e his e y e - s o c k e t a f t e r the loss o f his eye; w h e n he does see L a u s u s ' b o d y , his desire is to a b a n d o n lux, 8 5 5 f. T h e s u m m a r y o f the Odyssey at the h e a d o f the c o d e x P a l a t i n u s preserves a E u h e m e r i z i n g a l l e g o r i z a t i o n o f the P o l y p h e m u s story, in w h i c h the single e y e is to b e u n d e r s t o o d as his d a u g h t e r , his only child, w h o m O d y s s e u s , c o n s u m e d b y the fire o f l o v e , takes a w a y ( G . D i n d o r f , Scholia graeca in Homeri Odysseam i ( O x f o r d , 1 8 5 5 ) , p p . 4 f.), Is this j u s t c o i n c i d e n c e ? H o w o l d is the a l l e g o r i z a t i o n ? N o t e also t h a t the p h r a s e lumen ademptum (Aen.

3.658) used o f the b l i n d e d P o l y p h e m u s is used by

C a t u l l u s in a c o n t e x t o f f a m i l y b e r e a v e m e n t , 68.93 ( s e e J- G l e n n , ' T h e b l i n d e d C y c l o p s : lumen ademptum {Aen. 3 . 6 5 8 ) ' , CPh 69 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , 37 8). 92

C f . Aen. 3.660 f. ' l a n i g e r a e c o m i t a n t u r oves; e a sola v o l u p t a s / s o l a m e n q u e m a l i '

w i t h 10.858 f. ' e q u u m d u c i i u b e t . h o c d e c u s illi, j h o c s o l a m e n e r a t ' . 93

Classical papers, p. 348.

268

V I R G I L ' S A EN E ID: COSMOS

A N D IMPERIL!

M

sky-scraping hyperboles are not incidental I c a r i a n aberrations, but indices of a p e r m a n e n t b a c k d r o p to the h u m a n actions, a cosmic b a c k g r o u n d ; this is the continuity of allegory, not the brief flash of an isolated trope. In v e r y general terms, V i r g i l treats the events o f the epic as o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n the total space of the universe. T h i s space c a n n o t remain as a purely physical set of co-ordinates, b u t must be filled by the powers at work in the story. V i r g i l exploits to the full the i n e s c a p a b l e tendency o f the h u m a n m i n d to ascribe v a l u e to the descriptive terms ' u p ' and 'down'; 9 4 physical space is politicized and m o r a l i z e d , that is to say, peopled b y sentient and intelligent forces whose characteristic it is to e x p a n d to fill the space a v a i l a b l e . O n the h u m a n level this expansion is the historical g r o w t h of R o m e , a n d is presented fairly realistically in terms of the h o r i z o n t a l axis; but it m a y also, more fantastically, be understood as expansion a l o n g the vertical axis. T h i s model of an e x p a n d i n g universe is a p p r o p r i a t e for the presentation of the historical g r o w t h o f empire. T h e alternative m o d e l of the steady state universe is more a p p r o p r i a t e for the presentation of theological powers; the possible limits of the universe are already occupied by gods and d a e m o n s , a n d c h a n g e can o c c u r only as a shift in the relative size of the provinces o c c u p i e d b y the i n d i v i d u a l divine powers. T h e most important type o f p o w e r struggle here is that w h i c h opposes the forces r a n g e d a l o n g the vertical axis, the powers of good and evil, of light and darkness, of h e a v e n and hell. T h e themes o f R o m a n imperialism in fact bind h u m a n and divine p o w e r struggles in an inextricable unity; the g r o w t h of R o m a n p o w e r is also the history of the victory of the gods of the u p p e r heav en over the forces of the U n d e r w o r l d . V i r g i l ' s large-scale h a n d l i n g o f this 'theological space' m a y be illustrated t h r o u g h an e x a m i n a t i o n of book four, a book w h i c h is often regarded as one of the most intimately h u m a n o f the p o e m , an exploration of the personal histories of individuals in their clash with the more impersonal, g r a n d e r , themes of the epic. But even w h i l e w e c o n c e n t r a t e on D i d o ' s 91

C f . E. B e v a n , Symbolism and belief ( L o n d o n , 1938), p p . 28 f. A s i m i l a r m o r a l i z a t i o n

o f s p a c e is f o u n d in M i l t o n ' s Paradise Lost; on the ' s p a t i a l - c u m - m o r a l d i m e n s i o n s ' o f that p o e m see I. G . M a c C a f f r e y , Paradise Lost as 'myth' ( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . , 1 9 5 9 ) , esp. PP- 5 4 ff-

HYPERBOLE

269

self-absorbing passion, we are never far f r o m the w i d e r themes. T h e r e m a y well be strong echoes of the concerns of cont e m p o r a r y love-elegy, b u t tragic models are e q u a l l y p r o m i n e n t , a l w a y s p u s h i n g in the direction of the divine, the universal. 9 5 In her first speech in book four D i d o binds herself b y a h y p e r b o l i c a l oath against the possibility of s u c c u m b i n g to her i n f a t u a t i o n with A e n e a s (24 ff.): sed mihi vel tellus optem prius ima dehiscat vel pater omnipotens adigat me fulmine ad umbras, pallentis umbras Erebo noctemque profundam, ante, pudor, quam te violo aut tua iura resolvo. 96 T h e violence of this oath is surprising in the context; c o m p a r a b l e expressions elsewhere in the Aeneid o c c u r only w h e n despair has b e c o m e a reality, and even then they e m p l o y only one o f the two possibilities, n a m e l y the o p e n i n g of the earth and the bolt from Jupiter, that are piled on top o f each other in the present passage. 9 7 Pease thinks of 'the easy oaths o f lovers'. 9 8 It is certainly true that V i r g i l in book four exploits the c o n v e n t i o n a l h y p e r b o l i c a n d violent images of sertno amatorius, n o t a b l y those of w o u n d i n g and b u r n i n g , w h i c h end u p b y b e i n g cruelly fulfilled in a c t u a l i t y (see a b o v e , p p . 232 f.). J u s t so the e m o t i o n a l l y c h a r g e d oath of D i d o here foreshadows the annihilation that will literally follow on her decision to b e t r a y S y c h a e u s . " But the promise to r e m a i n faithful to a dead husb a n d is inherently a m o r e solemn a f f a i r than a protestation o f 95

N o r d e n ' s c o m m e n t s on t h e D i d o s c e n e in the U n d e r w o r l d in b o o k six a r e r e l e v a n t

to b o o k f o u r as w e l l (p. 253): ' d e r G r u n d t o n d e r D i d o s z e n e ist n i c h t a u f S e n t i m e n t a l i t ä t , s o n d e r n a u f h e r o i s c h e G r ö s s e u n d t r a g i s c h e s E t h o s g e s t i m m t (wie ü b e r h a u p t d a s g a n z e D i d o d r a m a . . .). S o l c h e S t i m m u n g , w i e hier V e r g i l , h a t k e i n a n d e r e r

lateinischer

D i c h t e r z u e r w e c k e n v e r m o c h t , v i e l l e i c h t ausser L u c r e z , v o n d e m er a m m e i s t e n g e l e r n t h a t ' . N o r d e n sees this p r i m a r i l y in t e r m s o f style a n d c h a r a c t e r ;

I am

primarily

c o n c e r n e d w i t h the t h e m a t i c c o u n t e r p a r t s to s u c h things. N o t e also B. O t i s , Virgil: a study in civilized poetry ( O x f o r d , 1 9 6 3 ) , p. 93, ' V i r g i l . . . also s h o w s . . . the b r o a d historical a n d cosmic m e a n i n g o f the h u m a n l o v e story [of D i d o a n d A e n e a s ] ' . m

S e e b e l o w , p. 310.

®7 O p e n i n g o f the e a r t h : 1 0 . 6 7 5 f. ( T u r n u s in a n a g o n y o f s h a m e ; cf. conscia fama, 10.679); 12.883 f. CJuturna d e s p a i r s o f T u r n u s ' life). L i g h t n i n g - s t r i k e : 5.691 f. ( A e n e a s f a c e d w i t h the b u r n i n g o f his s h i p s ) ; 9 . 4 9 6 (the m o t h e r o f E u r y a l u s a f t e r the d e a t h o f her s o n ) . 98

P e a s e o n Aen. 4.24.

99

C f . T i b e r i u s C l a u d i u s D o n a t u s a d Aen. 4.705 ' i m p l e t a est p o e n a p e r i u r i i ' . W e set-

D i d o l a t e r l i t e r a l l y in the U n d e r w o r l d , in b o o k six.

270

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - , COSMOS

AND IMPERII: M

u n d y i n g love to a puelia, as pudor is a more serious m a t t e r than

amor. O n e function of the o a t h is to indicate the tragic q u a l i t y of the story of D i d o at the v e r y b e g i n n i n g of the self-contained ' d r a m a ' of book four; to that extent generic 'labelling' m a y here override the considerations of p s y c h o l o g i c a l verisimilitude. But there is m o r e to it: I h a v e indicated that the c o m b i n a t i o n of the o p e n i n g o f the earth a n d the t h u n d e r b o l t from J u p i t e r , as two alternative routes to H a d e s , is unparalleled in the Aeneid; the opposition b e t w e e n earth and sky is a v a r i a n t o f the universal expression, a n d emphasizes D i d o ' s conviction that, without pudor, there is no place for her a n y w h e r e in the u p p e r world. T h e closest parallels for such a distribution, with a n implied g l a n c e at the basic structure o f the universe, are indeed found in t r a g e d y , for e x a m p l e , the cry o f Heracles in his a g o n y in Sophocles' Trachiniae (1085 f.): cova£ F

a

A

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1

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fx,

T

a,KTi<s,

Traiaov.

O Lord Hades, receive me, o lightning-flash of Zeus, strike me down. Heracles appeals respectively to the gods o f the lower and u p p e r worlds. T h e most e l a b o r a t e version is p r o v i d e d b y the defiant words of P r o m e t h e u s at the end of the Prometheus Bound, in w h i c h the i n v o c a t i o n of the t h u n d e r b o l t leads into a p r a y e r for the general disruption of all parts o f the universe. 1 0 0 T h e tragic flavour o f D i d o ' s w o r d s is indicated n e g a t i v e l y by the absence of this universal dimension f r o m similar expressions in epic. W h e n M e d e a in A p o l l o n i u s ' Argonautica reflects on her c o m i n g loss of aidos, 'self-respect', a n d thinks o f d e a t h as an alternative, her l a n g u a g e has none of the V i r g i l i a n h y p e r bole. 1 0 1 In the Iliad there are a n u m b e r of instances o f the p r a y e r to be s w a l l o w e d u p b y the earth, b u t not in c o m b i n a t i o n with a p r a y e r to be struck b y a t h u n d e r b o l t . 1 0 2 A closer c o m parison w i t h H o m e r i c usage reveals a further significant c h a n g e

in the Virgilian imitation. Aeneid 4.24: 100

C f . also PV

101

Argon. 3 . 7 9 8 ff.

152 IT. f o r a d i f f e r e n t f o r m o f c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n H a d e s a n d

102 T h r e e s u c h i n s t a n c e s (II. 4 . 1 8 2 , 8 . 1 5 0 , s h a m e , as i n Aen. 4 . 2 4 a n d 1 0 . 6 7 5 ^

alOyp.

1 7 . 4 1 6 f.) r e f e r to t h e d e s i r e to a v o i d

271

HYPERBOLE sed m i h i v e l tellus o p tern p r i u s i m a d e h i s c a t

corresponds to Iliad 4.182 ( = 8.150):

Tore

¡AOL

X < I

V O L

ZVPZTOL

X ^ ^

1

' -

T h e n m a y the w i d e e a r t h y a w n o p e n to receive me.

T h e substitution of ima, a h y p e r b o l i c a l superlative, for evpeia, ' b r o a d ' , has the effect of e m p h a s i z i n g the vertical axis; the sense of d e p t h is reinforced b y profundam in line 26, w h i c h is both literal a n d figurative, and set in strong contrast to the topmost limit o f theological space implied in pater omnipotent a n d Jul mine o f the i n t e r v e n i n g line. T h i s o a t h , then, has a generic and stylistic function, p o i n t i n g to the centrality of the tragic models for the D i d o episode; but it also has the specific t h e m a t i c function of p u t t i n g us in mind of the universal b a c k g r o u n d against w h i c h the d r a m a is p l a y e d out. T h e next h y p e r b o l e in book four to be e x a m i n e d brings us to the social and political aspects of V i r g i l i a n h y p e r b o l e . T h e effects o f D i d o ' s helpless infatuation are felt t h r o u g h o u t her new city (86 IT.): n o n c o e p t a e a d s u r g u n t turres, n o n a r m a iuventus exercet portusve aut p r o p u g n a c u l a bello tuta parant: pendent opera interrupta minaeque m u r o r u m ingentes a e q u a t a q u e m a e h i n a caelo.

Before looking at the o b v i o u s h y p e r b o l e o f the last three words, I wish to d r a w out the h y p e r b o l i c a l implications of the passage as a w h o l e . It is an e x a m p l e o f the topos, c o m m o n in a m a t o r y poetry, o f the neglect of accustomed o c c u p a t i o n s because of erotic obsession. 1 0 3 T h e novel feature here is that the actions neglected are those p e r f o r m e d by others than D i d o herself, a fact w h i c h embarrasses those w h o inquire too closely why D i d o ' s e m o t i o n a l state should halt all activity in her city. 1 0 4 T h e r e is, in fact, an implicit identification o f the q u e e n , Dido, with her subjects and her city; it is an e x a m p l e of N o r t h r o p Frye's 'royal 103

e.g. H o r . Carm. 1.8 ( w i t h N i s b e t / H u b b a r d a d l o c . f ; S e n . Phaed. 103 ff. T i . D o n a t u s

has a g o o d c o m m e n t ( G e o r g i i i, p. 366): ' n a m c u m in a m o r e m u l t a sint v i t i a , turn m a g i s q u o d o b l i v i o n e m n e g o t i o r u m o m n i u m parit et n i m i a m in a g e n d i s necessariis neglegentiarn,' 104 § e e p e a S e o n Aen. 4.86.

272

V I R G I L ' S A EN E ID: COSMOS

A N D IMPERIL!

M

m e t a p h o r . W h e n w e first see D i d o in book one she is intimately involved in the w o r k of f o u n d i n g her city (1.503 ff.), but there is no element o f the e x a g g e r a t i o n we find here; that scene provides the realistic basis for the increasingly h y p e r b o l i c a l identification of q u e e n a n d city in book four. O n e suspects also the influence of the e x a g g e r a t i o n s of p a n e g y r i c . 1 0 5 W e shall later e x a m i n e the catastrophic final stage of this identification. T h e identification of the i n d i v i d u a l with the c r o w d is one i m p o r t a n t source o f h y p e r b o l e ; a n o t h e r is the identification of the h u m a n city or state with the n a t u r a l w o r l d . It is such an e q u a t i o n , here presented in the most simple spatial terms, that is implied in the words aequataque machina caelo. T h e c l a i m that a b u i l d i n g or city reaches the heavens is a favourite topos o f p a n e g y r i c ; 1 0 6 note in the Aeneid in p a r t i c u l a r 8.99 f. (the primitive site of R o m e ) : tecta vident, quae nunc Romana potentia caelo

aequavit.107

T h e b u i l d i n g works at C a r t h a g e are incomplete, and for that reason I take machina in the sense 'crane' rather than 'fabric' (of the w a l l ) ; once the city itself reaches the sky it is surely c o m p l e t e in the terms of such h y p e r b o l e . It is the parallel with R o m e that is i m p o r t a n t here; w e h a v e been told at the b e g i n n i n g o f the epic 1 0 8 that C a r t h a g e is a rival to R o m e for the seat of w o r l d - e m p i r e ; there is an irreconcilable struggle for political o c c u p a t i o n o f the a v a i l a b l e space, w h i c h m a y , in the terms o f the Aeneid, be translated into a struggle for control of the vertical axis. It is the p a r t i c u l a r perversity o f A e n e a s , against the w i d e r designs of p r o v i d e n c e , that he should turn his h a n d to the c o m p l e t i o n of this city; the i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y of this enterprise w i t h the fated e m p i r e o f R o m e is v i v i d l y placed 106

Possibly also in t h e m i n d of the r h e t o r i c a l l y i n c l i n e d T i

D o n a t u s ( G e o r g i i , i, p.

3 6 7 ) : 'hie o s t e n d i t u r r e c t o r e m c o m p l e r e o m n i a , c u m insistit et i u b e t , a t q u e eius n e g l e g e n t i a o m n i m o d o f r i g e r e u n i v e r s a q u a e a n t e f e r v e b a n t ' . N o t e also the effects o f the d e a t h o f the b e e - k i n g , Geo. 4 . 2 1 2 ff; cf. J . N . G r a n t , ' D i d o M e l i s s a ' , Phoenix 23 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , 3871 0 S See the p a r a l l e l s a d d u c e d b y P e a s e 011 Aen. 4.89; note esp, S t a t . Theb. 4 . 3 5 9 V a l . Fl. Argon. 2.491 ( r e s p e c t i v e l y the s k y - r e a c h i n g d i v i n e l y built w a l l s o f T h e b e s T r o y ) ; Sil. P u n . 3 . 6 2 4 a n d M a r t . 8 . 3 6 . 1 1 f. (praise o f D o m i t i a n ' s b u i l d i n g s ) . A r a t i v e v e r s i o n in O v . Fast. 1.209 f, ; a t p o s t q u a m f o r t u n a loci c a p u t e x t u l i t huius, tetigit surnmos v e r t i c e R o m a deos'. 107

S e e a b o v e , p p . 196 f.

108

1 . 1 7 ff.

and and figu/ et

HYPERBOLE

273

before us in the scene in w h i c h M e r c u r y appears to A e n e a s as the latter is busily e n g a g e d on the C a r t h a g i n i a n building-site. T h e scene in the c a v e , d e p i c t i n g the union of T r o j a n a n d C a r t h a g i n i a n within a bizarre perversion of the cosmic setting, and with hints o f an e l e m e n t a l hieros gamos,169 sets o f f the most serious disruption o f the moralized n a t u r a l order. O n the level of the h u m a n actors, the ' w e d d i n g ' leads directly to the total d e d i c a t i o n o f A e n e a s to the interests o f the only city that could replace R o m e . But b e t w e e n the ' w e d d i n g ' a n d the scene of perverted ktisis110 there intervenes a barocjuely-written interlude, one o f those, it w o u l d seem, gratuitously grandiose passages w h i c h h a v e p r o m p t e d the label ' u n r e v i s e d ' . 1 1 1 It is an essential feature o f the personification of Fama that she e x p a n d s to fill space. T h i s expansion is presented o n both the h o r i z o n t a l and the vertical axes. Realistically, on the horiz o n t a l axis, Fama moves swiftly to fill the towns o f A f r i c a ; 1 1 2 it is, h o w e v e r , the unrealistic expansion on the vertical axis that determines the m y t h i c a l expression of Fama. T h e picture is a t y p i c a l V i r g i l i a n i n v e n t i o n , constructed o u t of a large n u m b e r of precedents. T h e central i m a g e o f vertical expansion is a close a d a p t a t i o n of the H o m e r i c description of Eris, 'Strife' (II. 4.442 f.): ff

rj r >

1

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-

f

oAiyrj ¡.Lev vpajra

ovpavoj

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She is a little thing when first she rears her head, but then she fixes her head in the heavens and goes with her feet on the earth. U n u s u a l l y , V i r g i l tones d o w n the H o m e r i c h y p e r b o l e , rep l a c i n g ovpavd) with nubila (1 77); this is a good e x a m p l e of the precision with w h i c h he can h a n d l e h y p e r b o l e , for Fama does 108

S e e t h e m a t e r i a l g a t h e r e d b y P e a s e o n Aen. 4 . 1 6 0 , 1 6 6 ; H e n r y ii, p . 6 4 4 ; j .

H a r r i s o n , Themis 110

K t i s i s : cf. t h e w o r d s o f M e r c u r y t o A e n e a s , 4 . 2 6 5 f. ' t u n u n c K a r t h a g i n i s a l t a e /

fundamenta 1,1

E.

( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 2 7 ) , p. 1 8 0 n. 2.

locas'.

e.g. J . W . M a c k a i l ,

The A e n e i d

(Oxford,

1 9 3 0 ) , p. 1 4 2 , o n l i n e s 2 4 5 -8, ' t h i s

p a s s a g e is u n f i n i s h e d , a n d b e a r s e v i d e n t t r a c e s o f b e i n g a d r a f t w h i c h w a s p u t d o w n t o b e w o r k e d o v e r in r e v i s i o n ' ; ' t h e f e e b l e n e s s o f t h e f o u r l i n e s 2 4 8 - 5 1 [ o n A t l a s ] , w h i c h o n l y retard a n d blur the description'. A survey of previous discussion in 0 . W . S c h o l z , ' E i n e V i r g i l - S z e n e IM L i c h t e d e r F o r s c h u n g (Aen. 4.238!?".}', WJA

NF I ( 1 9 7 5 ) ,

125-

36. 312

T h e H o m e r i c p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f r u m o u r is r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s :

2 4 . 4 1 3 * Oaaa

up' a y y e A o ?

Ka

Kara

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Od.

274

V I R G I L ' S A E.NE11) \ COSMOS

A N D IM PERI

EM

not reach h e a v e n itself; it is left to I a r b a s to c o n v e y the message that he has received from Fama to the ears o f J u p i t e r (audiit Omnipotens, 220). T h e r e is also the point, o f course, that Fama is ' a i r y ' (auras, 176) a n d ' c l o u d y ' in her half-truths. 1 1 3 T h e r e is perhaps here an unresolved c o n t r a d i c t i o n with the assimilation o f Fama to the status o f the G i a n t s , the traditional enemies o f the gods, w h o a t t e m p t to scale h e a v e n itself. T h i s assimilation is suggested b y line 177: ingrediturque solo et caput inter nubila condit. T h e line recurs a t 10.767 in a description o f the G i a n t O r i o n , and w e are also r e m i n d e d of the description o f the gigantic C y c l o p e s (3.619 f. and 678): ipse arduus, altaque pulsat sidera . . . Aetnaeos fratres caelo capita alta ferentis. T h e f a m i l y resemblance turns o u t to be real, a c c o r d i n g to the g e n e a l o g y that follows, w h i c h is modelled directly on the Hesiodic g e n e a l o g y o f T y p h o e u s , 1 1 4 a n d Fama is also like the Hesiodic T y p h o e u s in her multiplicity o f eyes and t o n g u e s . 1 1 5 T h e t h e m e of vertical expansion is thus tied to the a r c h e t y p a l m y t h of the struggle b e t w e e n the u p p e r and l o w e r forces, Gigantomachy.116 It is p r o p e r that the description of Fama should be hyperbolical; she m i g h t , indeed, be taken as an e m b l e m of h y perbole, for she represents the p o w e r of the spoken w o r d to exceed the truth w h i l e yet r e m a i n i n g a n c h o r e d to it. H y p e r b o l e is also a m i x t u r e of truth and u n t r u t h . T h e psychological effect of Fama, as f r e q u e n t l y of h y p e r b o l e , is to rouse strong emotion (i97): incenditque animum dictis atque aggerat iras. 117 113

F o r a m o r e e x p l i c i t l o c a l i z a t i o n o f Fama in t h e aer see V a l . F l . Argon. 2 . 1 1 7 ff.

'quam pater omnipotens . . . / . . .

p l a c i d i s r e g i o n i b u s a r c e t / aetheriis: ilia f r e m e n s

h a b i t a t s u b n u b i b u s imis, j n o n e r e b i , n o n d i v a poli, t e r r a s q u e f a t i g a t . ' C f . also O v . Met. 114 116 116

12.39 ff. Theog. 820 ff.; cf. esp. orrXorarov (821) w i t h Aen. 4 . 1 7 9 extremam sororem. Theog. 824 ff. V i r g i l d e s c r i b e s this s t r u g g l e in a d i f f e r e n t f o r m in the a c t i v i t y o f A l l e c t o in Aen.

7; t h e r e are o b v i o u s similarities b e t w e e n the figures o f Fama and A l l e c t o . 117

C f . the i m a g e used b y G e o r g e E l i o t , Middiemarch

c h . 22, ' I h a v e a h y p e r b o l i c a l

t o n g u e : it. c a t c h e s fire as it g o e s ' , w i t h Aen. 4 . 1 7 5 , o f Fama, ' m o b i l i t a t e v i g e t v i r i s q u c

H Y P E R B O L E 294

T h e h y p e r b o l i c a l p i c t u r e o f Fama is not isolated in the Aeneid] she is simply an evil segment o f jama in the w i d e r sense, w h i c h , understood f a v o u r a b l y , is the source a n d vehicle of encomiastic

hyperbole; one might add that fama is the privilege (but also the aspiration) o f the poet h i m s e l f 1 1 8 G o o d jama is repeatedly described in h y p e r b o l i c a l terms in the Aeneid ( ' f a m a m q u i terminet astris', 1.287; ' f a m a super aethera notus', 1 379; ' q u a sola sidera a d i b a m / f a m a prior', 4.322 f.). Is the implication

that good fama (famae melioris, 4.221) can establish a link between earth and h e a v e n , by r e a c h i n g to the stars themselves, w h i l e b a d Fama is kept f r o m p r o f a n i n g the aether, t o w e r i n g no h i g h e r than the clouds? T h e s e passages are closely modelled on H o m e r i c descriptions o f kleosj19 b u t w h e r e in H o m e r such things are isolated expressions, in V i r g i l this vertical e x a g g e r a t i o n is a t t a c h e d to larger t h e m a t i c structures. N o t e that t w o o f the passages just q u o t e d o c c u r in the c o n t e x t of events in C a r t h a g e . G o o d fama is indeed of the greatest i m p o r t a n c e for D i d o ; it is the final a b a n d o n m e n t of it ( ' n e q u e cnim specie f a m a v e m o v e t u r ' , 4 . 1 7 0 ) , that unleashes the full force of evil Fama . In a yet w i d e r context, the figurative r e a c h i n g to the sky o f f a m a is p a r t of the more general theme of the j o u r n e y to the stars that is the destiny of A e n e a s a n d R o m e (see chapters 5 (sect. I V « ) , 7 ). T h i s a g a i n has no p r e c e d e n t in H o m e r , b u t a similar linking of the specific h y p e r b o l e to a w i d e r t h e m e is found in Lucretius, in a passage of e n c o m i u m on E p i c u r u s (6.7 f.): c u i u s et e x t i n c t i p r o p t e r d i v i n a r e p e r t a d i v u l g a t a v e t 11s i a m a d c a e l u m g l o r i a f e r t u r .

T h i s should be seen against the b a c k g r o u n d o f the L u c r e t i a n a d q u i r i t e u n d o ' ( m o d e l l e d o n a L u c r e t i a n d e s c r i p t i o n o f the a c c e l e r a t i n g t h u n d e r b o l t , 6.340-2). 158

I n H o m e r «-Aeof is the j o i n t p r o d u c t o f the h e r o ' s d e e d s a n d the p o e t ' s s o n g a n d

c a n n o t exist w i t h o u t either. T h e V i r g i l i a n Fama m a y be r e a d as a p e r v e r s i o n o f the ideal o f the p o e t : she a c h i e v e s the h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r t i c a l e x t e n s i o n t h a t the p o e t desires for his w o r k s (e.g. H o r , Carm. 2.20); she has the m a n y t o n g u e s t h a t the e p i c

poet

c o n v e n t i o n a l l y w i s h e s for (e.g. Aen. 6 . 6 2 5 ) ; s h e p r a c t i s e s the l a u d e d aypwrvia\ like the p o e t , f r o m a t least the t i m e w h e n H e s i o d m e t the M u s e s (Theog.

27 f.), she utters a

m i x t u r e o f t r u t h a n d u n t r u t h . N o t e the ( u n i n t e n t i o n a l ? ) s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l i t y o f utperhibent (i.e. ut fama

est) at. line 179, w h i c h d r e w S e r v i u s u p short ä a d Aen. 4 . 1 7 9 ' m i r e e r g o

m o d o , c u m d e ipsa f a m a l o q u e r e t u r , ait " u t p e r h i b e n t " '. 119

F a m e a n d success are also c o l l o q u i a l s k y - r e a c h e r s : J . E g l i , Die Hyperbel in den

Komödien des Plautus und in Ciceros Briefen an Atticui ü ( Z u g , 1892/3), p p . 30 ff.

276

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - , COSMOS

AND IMPERII: M

theme o f the contest between E p i c u r u s and the gods for possession of theological space, a t h e m e stated in p r o g r a m m a t i c form in the p r o l o g u e to book one, and w h i c h , significantly, there contains G i g a n t o m a c h i c allusion. 1 2 0 Fama rises to the clouds; the a s c e n d i n g m o v e m e n t is continued with the p r a y e r of l a r b a s , w h i c h takes us to the seat of the highest g o d , J u p i t e r . l a r b a s ' p r a y e r ends w i t h an ironical reference to the fama of J upiter (218). T h e question m a y be stated as follows: is evil Fama the only efficacious v e r b a l p o w e r on the earth, or does the traditional s u p r e m e g o d still h a v e such p o w e r ? A t this point the direction of c o m m u n i c a t i o n is reversed, a n d from the highest point words n o w descend to earth. A s in the first, u p w a r d , c o m m u n i c a t i o n , there is an intermediary: j u s t as Fama tells l a r b a s , w h o tells J u p i t e r , so J u p i t e r tells M e r c u r y , w h o tells A e n e a s . T h i s s y m m e t r y suggests the possibility o f further parallels b e t w e e n the t w o halves o f this digression from the i m m e d i a t e story of I)ido a n d A e n e a s ; such an a p p r o a c h has the a d d i t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e o f p r o v i d i n g a raison dêtre for the curiously e l a b o r a t e and b a r o q u e descriptions o f M e r c u r y and A t l a s , w h i c h h a v e often been treated merely as signs o f lack of revision. Firstly, 1 list a n u m b e r of similarities a n d significant contrasts b e t w e e n the figures o f Fama a n d M e r c u r y . M e r c u r y is the traditional messenger of J u p i t e r ; this function is also ascribed in the Iliad to the personification o f p o p u l a r report, Ossa.121 In V i r g i l Fama has quite the opposite role, being the servant not of j u p i t e r but of Terra in her role o f e n e m y of the g o d s (178 ff. ) ; this is m a d e clear in the e x t e n d e d g e n e a l o g y o f Fama. T h e ancestry of M e r c u r y is likewise m a d e p r o m i n e n t , b o t h on the

paternal (nate, 223; patris magni, 238) and the maternal (258) side. L i k e Fama, M e r c u r y is a c r e a t u r e of the air, 1 2 2 flying with 120

C o m p a r e also L u c r .

c a e l u m q u e ferat

flammai

1 . 7 2 4 t. ' f a u c i b u s e r u p t o s i t e r u m vis ut v o m a t i g n i s / a d fiilgura rursum', w h e r e Etna's heaven-sent bolts function

as a n i m a g e o f t h e s p e c u l a t i v e p o w e r o f E m p e d o c l e s , a n d t h u s p i c k u p t h e e a r l i e r G i g a n t o m a c h i c p r e s e n t a t i o n o f E p i c u r u s (see a b o v e , p p . 209 ff. ). I n t h e l i g h t o f this m a y t h e r e b e a s u b d u e d m e t a p h o r o f v o l c a n i c a c t i v i t y in extincti ¡ 6 . 7 ) , e s p e c i a l l y g i v e n f* ore profudit i n t h e l i n e b e f o r e ? F o r ex tine tus o f d e a d v o l c a n o e s s e e Aetna 4 3 0 , 4 4 4 . S e e a l s o c h . 3 n. 89. 121

II. 2 . 9 4 ALOS c x y y * A o s ' .

122

A e r i a l Fama: auras 1 7 6 , nubtla 1 7 7 ; a e r i a l M e r c u r y : ^ephyros 2 2 3 , auras 226,

2 4 1 , nubila 2 4 6 , e t c .

flamme

HYPERBOLE

277

the aid of feathers. 1 2 3 Fama is described in terms o f a bird (184 ff. ), a n d M e r c u r y is c o m p a r e d to a bird (254 f.) ; both are rioted for their swiftness. 1 2 4 Fama sets o f f from earth t o w a r d s h e a v e n , M e r c u r y starts f r o m h e a v e n for earth, b u t the true k i n g d o m of each is the region that lies b e t w e e n , the area of winds a n d clouds. 1 2 5 Both divinities also h a v e links w i t h the u n d e r w o r l d : Fama operates on b e h a l f of her brothers n o w imprisoned in T a r t a r u s ; she is the only m e m b e r of that brood w h o is still free to r a n g e t h r o u g h the u p p e r w o r l d . M e r c u r y as psychopompos has p o w e r to send souls to or f r o m the u n d e r w o r l d , a n d thus is also free to infringe the n a t u r a l boundaries o f the

cosmos.126 I n o t h e r respects Fama and M e r c u r y are directly opposed. O n e of the dire characteristics of Fama is that she does not close her eyes in sleep (185); M e r c u r y , on the other h a n d , has the p o w e r both to give a n d to r e m o v e sleep, a n d also the p o w e r to seal eyes (or to unseal t h e m , d e p e n d i n g on h o w one understands résignât) eyes (244). Fama's l a n g u a g e is involved and indirect, w h e r e a s M e r c u r y is c h a r g e d with a direct and simple message (^37): naviget! haec summa est, hie nostri nuntius esto. M y t h o l o g y suggests a more i m m e d i a t e confrontation b e t w e e n Fama a n d M e r c u r y . O n e of the monstrous literary ancestors of the V i r g i l i a n Fama is A r g u s the never-sleeping, with his m u l titude of eyes. 1 2 7 T h e traditional v a n q u i s h e r of A r g u s is, o f course, H e r m e s , whose H o m e r i c sobriquet, Apy€LóvTr¡$, w a s often understood to m e a n 'the slayer of A r g u s ' . The connoisseur of V i r g i l ' s H o m e r i c b o r r o w i n g s w o u l d recall that this w a s the 123

Fama1 s plumae, i B i ; ' l a b e r e permis' a d d r e s s e d to M e r c u r y , 223. C p . 180 ' p e d i b u s

c e l e r e m et p e r n i c i b u s alis' w i t h 239 ff. ' p e d i b u s t a l a r í a n e c t i t j a u r e a , q u a e s u b l i m e m alls . . . I p o r t a n t ' . 124

Fama: 174, 180; M e r c u r y : 226, 2 4 1 .

128

C f . 1 8 4 (Fama)

' v o l â t c a e l i m e d i o t e r r a e q u e p e r u m b r a m ' w i t h 256 ( M e r c u r y )

' t e r r a s inter c a e l u m q u e v o l a b a t ' . 125

C f . H o r . Carm.

1 . 1 0 . 1 9 f. ' [ M e r c u r i u s ] superis d e o r u m / g r a t u s et imis'.

The

T a r t a r e a n f u n c t i o n s are the o n l y p a r t o f the p a s s a g e d e s c r i b i n g the e q u i p p i n g

of

M e r c u r y n o t f o u n d in the H o m e r i c m o d e l o n w h i c h it is o t h e r w i s e v e r y closely b a s e d (II. 2 4 . 3 3 9 4 5 = 0d. 5 . 4 3 - 9 ) . Fama a n d M e r c u r y also cross t r a d i t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s in o t h e r respects: Fama

as the p u r v e y o r of b o t h truth a n d u n t r u t h ; M e r c u r y as b o t h

c o n s i g n i n g to d e a t h a n d r e l e a s i n g t h e r e f r o m . 127

C f , P e a s e o n Aen. 4 . 1 8 2 .

278

V I R G I L ' S A EN E ID: COSMOS

A N D IMPERIL!

M

antonomastic description of H e r m e s in the line i m m e d i a t e l y following the f o r m u l a i c e q u i p p i n g scene (Od. 5.49 = //. 24.345): rrjv ¡¿era

xjepvlv

e ^ c u v T r e r e r o Kparv?

ApyetcbovTrjS.

H i s s t a f f in his h a n d s the m i g h t y A r g e i p h o n t e s (lew o f f .

In the Odyssey this line is e m b e d d e d in a sequence w h i c h V i r g i l otherwise r e p r o d u c e s in full: e q u i p p i n g (ApyeKfiovT-qs) descent to m o u n t a i n - p l u n g e into sea simile of sea-bird. Finally, the ancient allegorical tradition m a y help us to a full e v a l u a t i o n o f the contrast b e t w e e n Fama a n d M e r c u r y . Fama is a divinity o f perverted speech; one o f the most consistent allegorical identifications of M e r c u r y is as Logos, Ratio, the unperverted w o r d . M o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , the H o m e r i c scene of the e q u i p p i n g of H e r m e s w a s allegorized w i t h reference to the descent o f the d i v i n e Logos from h e a v e n to earth. 1 2 8 M e r c u r y ' s descent is interrupted b y the striking picture o f the m a n - m o u n t a i n Atlas. T h i s a p p a r e n t digression m a y also be integrated into the w i d e r context. A t l a s is the m e a s u r e of the vertical distance b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d earth that M e r c u r y has to cover; he occupies the space w h i c h Fama threatened to infect. H e , like Fama, is a giant, a n d , like Fama, he has his head in the clouds, 1 2 9 but, unlike Fama, he reaches b e y o n d the clouds to touch a n d s u p p o r t the heavens themselves. A t l a s is a g i a n t w h o has been i m m o b i l i z e d a n d rendered safe; from hubristic skvreacher he has been transformed into a stable p r o p o f the established order, a g u a r a n t e e o f cosmic cohesion (see below, PP ; 3 7 4 f - ) T h e descent o f M e r c u r y thus represents a reversal of the ascent of Fama, the reimposition of O l y m p i a n o r d e r in a space w h i c h has been threatened by a n evil chthonic p o w e r . T h e attributes o f Fama are repeated, in inverted form, but distributed b e t w e e n the t w o figures of M e r c u r y a n d Atlas, w h o m a y be seen as t w o sides of the s a m e affirmation o f O l y m p i a n control. A t l a s is a static e m b l e m o f the cohesion o f h e a v e n a n d earth, while M e r c u r y is a d y n a m i c i m a g e of the ratio w h i c h maintains the links b e t w e e n h e a v e n and earth. M e r c u r y ' s func128

B u f f i e r e , p p . 289 IT.; o f H e i n z e , p p . 307 flf. S c h o l i a a d Od. 5 . 4 5 IT'., //. 24.343,

etc-

G o r n u t u s Theol. Graec. 16. ,2R

Cf.

177 (Fama)

n u b i b u s atris / c a p u t ' .

' c a p u t i n t e r n u b i l a c o n d i t ' w i t h 248 f. ( A t l a s ) ' c i n c t u m . . .

H Y P E R B O L E 298

tion as m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d earth, and hence as g u a r a n t o r o f divine order, is given almost pictorial expression in his o w n words to A e n e a s ( 4 . 2 6 8 - 7 1 ) : ipse d e u m t i b i m e c l a r o d e m i t t i t O l y m p o r e g n a t o r , c a e l u m et t e r r a s q u i n u m i n e t o r q u e t , ipse h a e c f e r r e i u b e t celeris m a n d a t a p e r a u r a s : q u i d struis? a u t q u a s p e L i b y c i s teris o t i a terris?

T h e first and last lines of the passage end respectively with Olympo and terris; the t w o extremes are c o n n e c t e d b y the particular m e d i u m of M e r c u r y , the air, auras, at the end of the third line; the second line encapsulates the cohesion of h e a v e n and earth in the one d i v i n e ruler, the cohesion w h i c h it is M e r c u r y ' s d u t y to restore. T h e section that begins with the b r e a k i n g - o u t of Fama a n d ends w i t h M c r c u r y ' s descent to A e n e a s sets o u t in grandiose terms the full vertical axis and its theological implications. The rest of the d r a m a of D i d o unfolds against this b a c k d r o p . W h e n D i d o understands that her ' m a r r i a g e ' to A e n e a s , the c o n t r a c t w h i c h n o w represents the only possible o r d e r of things for her, is nullified b y A e n e a s ' refusal to recognize it, she realizes the extent to w h i c h she has forfeited the values on w h i c h her existence w a s previously based (321 ff.): te p r o p t e r e u n d e m e x s t i n c t u s p u d o r et, q u a sola s i d e r a a d i b a m , fama prior.130

W e r e m e m b e r the d r e a d f u l oath that she h a d taken at the b e g i n n i n g of the book in s u p p o r t of her pudor . T h e idea o f one's fame r e a c h i n g the stars is a cliché, with H o m e r i c precedents; D i d o ' s words, i n d i c a t i n g that it is she, not her fame, that approaches the stars, g i v e a n e w twist to the cliché b y , in effect, i d e n t i f y i n g D i d o herself w i t h her Jama. S h e c a n n o t separate her o w n existence from that o f her reputation; both rise or fall together. T h e idea of the extinction of the pudor and jama is i m m e d i a t e l y followed by her application to herself of the striking w o r d moribunda (323), w h i c h should be taken literally. 1 3 1 130

r

r h e r e i s h e r e a n e c h o o f L u c r . 6.7 f. (discussed a b o v e ) , ' e x t i n c t i p r o p t e r d i v i n a

r e p e r t a / d i v u l g a t a vetus i a m a d c a e l u m g l o r i a f e r t u r , ' 131

A u s t i n (on 323 f.) w e a k e n s the sense i n t o l e r a b l y : ' B y monbundam D i d o

that life is n o t w o r t h l i v i n g a n y m o r e . '

means

280

V I R G I L ' S A EN E ID: COSMOS

ANDIMPERIL!M

She has not b e e n struck d o w n b y a t h u n d e r b o l t , nor has the earth y a w n e d o p e n to receive her, b u t by her o w n choice she n o w becomes a living resident of the H a d e s that she h a d p r a y e d w o u l d a c c e p t her if she b e t r a y e d her pudor. It is to the powers of the U n d e r w o r l d that she devotes herself, in e l a b o r a t e rites o f m a g i c . She uses herbs i m p o r t e d f r o m the ends o f the earth (480 ff.). T h e e x t r a v a g a n c e o f the ecphrasis works as a grotesque p a r o d y of the t h e m e of control o f the horizontal axis, whose extremes can o n l y serve D i d o n o w as the source of the drugs o f destruction. T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l picture of the universal p o w e r of sleep (here presented in a p a r t i c u l a r l y g r a n d m a n n e r , 522 if.), powerless only o v e r D i d o , further contributes to the sense o f D i d o ' s exclusion f r o m the h e a l t h y order of things. D i d o ' s recognition that her star-reaching Jama is n o w extinguished contrasts w i t h A e n e a s ' claim in b o o k one that he is Jama super aethera notus (1.379). I f D i d o and her p e o p l e are n o w set on a n irreversible course o f decline, of c o n t r a c t i o n ultimately to extinction, the correction o f the perversion o f the fated order of things caused b y the ' m a r r i a g e ' in the c a v e enables A e n e a s to recover the p a t h towards u l t i m a t e control o f the vertical axis, e v e n if the p a t h is a p a i n f u l one. T h e extremes of up a n d d o w n a p p e a r strikingly in the simile w h i c h illustrates A e n e a s ' resistance to the appeals o f A n n a ( 4 4 1 - 4 6 ) : ac velut annoso v a l i d a m c u m robore q u e r c u m Alpini Boreae nunc hinc nunc

flatibus

illinc

e r u e r e i n t e r se c e r t a n t ; it s t r i d o r , et a l t a e c o n s t e r n u n t t e r r a m c o n c u s s o stipite frondes; i p s a h a e r e t s c o p u l i s et q u a n t u m v e r t i c e a d a u r a s aetherias, t a n t u m r a d i c e in T a r t a r a tendit.

T h e full significance of the earlier description of A t l a s only a p p e a r s w h e n it is read in c o n j u n c t i o n with this simile; A e n e a s in his resolution is identified w i t h the universal steadfastness of w h i c h A t l a s w a s a general s y m b o l . 1 3 2 B o t h tree a n d m o u n t a i n are old; 1 3 3 b o t h are battered, b u t u n m o v e d , by the winds. A t l a s T h e p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n the d e s c r i p t i o n o f A t l a s a n d the o a k simile is n o t e d b y P. M c G u s h i n , ' V i r g i l a n d the spirit o f e n d u r a n c e ' , AJPh 85 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , 2 2 5 - 5 3 , e s P - 226 f. T h e e t y m o l o g y o f "ArXas, a l l u d e d to in V i r g i l ' s duri ( 2 4 7 ) , o b v i o u s l y suggests S t o i c ¿TT-afeta; cf. a n a l l e g o r i z a t i o n p r e s e r v e d in C l e m . A l . Strom. 5 . 3 6 . 2 , p. 350 S t a h l i n , o f A t l a s as the pole, o /in) traox<*>v woAos. 133 ( A t l a s ) senis 2 5 1 ; ( o a k ) annoso 4 4 1 . 138

281

HYPERBOLE

is a m o u n t a i n ; the tree stands on a m o u n t a i n (scopulis, 445), b u f f e t e d b y A l p i n e gales. T h e tree, like A t l a s , reaches t o w a r d s the heavens, a n d also t o w a r d s the U n d e r w o r l d (445 f.). I f A t l a s represents the successful control of G i g a n t o m a c h i c forces, the roots o f the tree are firmly based on the u n d e r g r o u n d prison of the G i a n t s a n d T i t a n s ; the passage is m o d e l l e d on the Hesiodic description of T a r t a r u s as the place of the defeated T i t a n s , 1 3 4 in a line w h i c h is v e r y similar to one used in the Iliad b y Z e u s in a n e m p h a t i c statement of his r o y a l p o w e r as ruler of the universe. 1 3 5 T h e p r o b l e m a t i c a l w o r d s lacrimae volvuntur inanes also contribute to the interaction b e t w e e n the descriptions o f A t l a s a n d the oak. T h e falling tears correspond to the leaves that fall from the otherwise u n m o v e d oak; they m a y also be c o m p a r e d to the rivers t h a t p o u r off the ' c h i n ' of A t l a s , w h i l e the m o u n t a i n itself remains quite u n m o v e d ; the identification is helped b y the H o m e r i c c o m p a r i s o n o f tears to w a t e r falling from a rock, 1 3 6 as w e l l as by the w e l l - k n o w n story o f N i o b e . M a n y h a v e seen in the u n m o v e d A e n e a s a figure of Stoic impassivity; 1 3 7 this m a y reflect b a c k o n the significance of Atlas. T h e description o f the storms t h a t assail the m o u n t a i n reads as a pointed reversal of the f a m o u s H o m e r i c description o f m o u n t O l y m p u s , the h o m e of the gods. T h i s c a n easily be seen if the t w o passages are read together: 1 3 8 A t l a n t i s , c i n c t u m a d s i d u e c u i n u b i b u s atris p i n i f e r u m c a p u t et v e n t o p u l s a t u r et i m b r i . nix u m e r o s infusa tegit.

(Aen. 4.248-50) 134

Theog. 7 2 0 ( i m i t a t e d a t Aen. 6 . 5 7 7 ff- i n

a

description of the punishment of T i t a n s

and Giants). 135

II. 8 . 1 6 . Aen. 4 . 4 4 5 f. a r e r e p e a t e d f r o m Geo. 2 . 2 9 1 f., w h e r e t h e h y p e r b o l i c a l o a k

becomes a s y m b o l o f continuity t h r o u g h the succeeding generations o f men; the vertical a x i s is c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e t e m p o r a l a x i s . I n t h e Aeneid p a s s a g e t h e r e is p e r h a p s a h i n t o f t h e t e m p o r a l a x i s (cf. annoso 4 4 1 ) w h o s e f u l l f u t u r e e x t e n t w i l l b e o c c u p i e d b y t h e eternal R o m a n e m p i r e . (E. K r a g g e r u d , Aeneisstudien

(SO S u p p l . 22, O s l o , 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 4 4

n. i o 6 , sees t h e e c h o as a r e f e r e n c e t o ' K r a f t u n d D a u e r d e s r ö m i s c h e n G e s c h l e c h t e s ' . ) 136

II.

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Neither is it shaken by winds nor drenched with rain nor does snow come near, but a cloudless sky is unfolded above it and bright white light is spread over it.(Od. 6.4.3-5) W i n d , rain, snow, a n d clouds are ever present on Atlas, as they are ever absent from O l y m p u s ; A t l a s is obscured in black clouds, a w h i t e brilliance illuminates O l y m p u s . T h e c a l m o f O l y m p u s was a n o b v i o u s s y m b o l of the ataraxia of the E p i c u r e a n gods, and hence of the c a l m to w h i c h E p i c u r e a n m a n should aspire, a n d w a s thus exploited in a translation o f the O d y s s e a n lines b y Lucretius. 1 3 9 T h e m o u n t a i n A t l a s belongs una m b i g u o u s l y to a Stoic, not an E p i c u r e a n , g e o g r a p h y . A e n e a s ' definitive a l i g n m e n t with the cosmic order, as portrayed in the oak simile, m a r k s the final end of h o p e for D i d o . H e r c i t v - b u i l d i n g is at an end, 1 4 0 a n d this is also, p r o p h e t i c a l l y a n d s y m b o l i c a l l y , the end of C a r t h a g e itself. D i d o turns instead to the b u i l d i n g o f a pyre, w h i c h , a l t h o u g h initially concealed w i t h i n the p r i v a c y o f the palace, is itself of g i g a n t i c proportions, r e a c h i n g t o w a r d s the sky, 1 4 1 just as the work on the city itself was earlier described as r e a c h i n g the sky. T h e consequences o f this substitution of p y r e for city are d r a w n out in the climactic passage w h i c h follows the m o m e n t w h e n D i d o falls on the sword of A e n e a s ( 6 6 5 - 7 1 ) : it clamor ad alia atria: concussam bacchatur Eama per urbcm. lamentis gernituque et fcmineo ululatu tecta fremunt, resonat rnagrhs plangoribus aether, non aliter quain si immissis ruat hostibus omnis Karthago aut antiqua Tyros, flamrriaeque furentes culmina perque hominum volvantur perque deorum. The voices of grief spread o u t from the p a l a c e (atria, 666), 139

L u c r . 3 . 1 9 ff.

140

T h i s is b r o u g h t o u t in a d e t a i l o t h e r d r e a m , 467 f, ' s e m p e r l o n g a m i n c o m i t a t a

v i d e t u r / ire v i a m et T y r i o s d e s e r t a q u a e r e r e t e r r a ' : she h a s lost h e r p e o p l e a n d has b e e n cast f r o m the d w e l l i n g s o f m e n . 141

4 9 4 f. ' p y r a m t e c t o i n t e r i o r e s u b a u r a s / e r i g e ' ; 504 f. ' p y r a p e n e t r a l i in sede s u b

auras / erecta ingenti'.

283

HYPERBOLE

p r o p a g a t e d t h r o u g h the city (Jeeta, 668) b y the re-emergent Fama, and then h y p e r b o l i c a l l y fill u p the vertical axis b e t w e e n h e a v e n and earth (resonat aether, 668). T h e rapid expansion is reminiscent of the r e m a r k a b l e rate of g r o w t h of Fama herself at her first a p p e a r a n c e . T h e implications o f the pyre for the city are m a d e clear in the f o l l o w i n g lines: D i d o ' s destruction in her p a l a c e is figuratively e q u a t e d with the sack of the city itself. C a r t h a g e and T y r e h a v e obvious relevance, b u t there is an a d d e d effect in the allusion to two o f the most m e m o r a b l e sackings of cities in a n t i q u i t y b y t w o of the most notorious sackers of cities, Scipio N u m a n t i n u s and A l e x a n d e r the G r e a t respectively. 1 4 2 T h e flames of the pyre, soon to be lit, are suggested b y the ensuing description o f the b u r n i n g of the city, w i t h the distribution of the effects b e t w e e n the houses of men and gods. T h e specific m e n t i o n of destruction both p r o f a n e and sacred is prescribed in the rules for the description of the sack of a city; 1 4 3 but expressions of the sort ' m e n a n d gods' are a type of the polar universal expression, a n d there is a typical vagueness in ' c u l m i n a p e r q u e h o m i n u m . . . p e r q u e d e o r u m ' w h i c h suggests that the flames, like the cries o( l a m e n t a t i o n a few lines before, leap from the dwellings of men on earth to the palaces of the gods a b o v e . O n e thinks of the effects of the i m m o l a t i o n of Brünnhilde. It is here only a hint, w h i c h , if m a d e explicit, w o u l d truly b e c o m e u n a e c e p t a b l y h y p e r b o l i c a l . T h e emphasis is not on the cosmological b u t on the historical, the h u m a n , and in p a r t i c u l a r on the specific event of the destruction of C a r t h a g e in 146 BC, seen as the direct result of the e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n D i d o and A e n e a s . W e recognize the cosmological overtones because of the more explicit allusions earlier to the cosmic level. In this there is a fine small-scale e x a m p l e of a general V i r g i l i a n strategy, n a m e l y that of m o v i n g f r o m the abstract c a r t o g r a p h y of the universe to specific historical events, w h i c h are yet so described that the universalizing s c h e m a t a o f earlier passages determine our r e a d i n g of those events. T h e most i m p o r t a n t e x a m p l e of this is the m o v e from the early prophecies of the future greatness of R o m e , especially ,42

C f . T . R . G l o v e r , Virgil2 ( L o n d o n , 1 9 1 2 ) , p. 130 a n d n. 3.

143

Cf. Q u i n t .

apparebunt

Inst. 8.3.68 f. ' a t si a p e r i a s h a e c , q u a e v e r b o u n o i n c l u s a

e f f u s a e per d o m u s ac t e m p l a flam m a c

crorumque direptio'.

erant,

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sa-

284

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - , COSMOS

AND IMPERII: M

the speech in book one in w h i c h J u p i t e r sketches the simplest and grandest outlines of a universal empire, to the detailed historical scenes on the Shield o f A e n e a s , w h i c h concretely e x e m p l i f y R o m e ' s universal destiny. T h e strategy also has the effect of lending credibility to h y p e r b o l e t h r o u g h o u r a u t o m a t i c assent to the historical events w h i c h it summarizes. T h e figurative effect of the d e a t h of D i d o is also the last a n d grandest e x a m p l e o f the 'royal m e t a p h o r ' as applied to the queen; just as earlier the paralysis caused by her infatuation w a s seen to affect her p e o p l e and city as if they were an inseparable extension o f her o w n person, so her d e a t h a u t o m a t i c a l l y entails the destruction of the w h o l e city. T h e r e is of course a H o m e r i c parallel for- this p a r t i c u l a r instance of the device, in the application o f the simile of the destruction o f T r o y (on w h i c h Virgil's simile o f the destruction of C a r t h a g e a n d T y r e is directly modelled) to the grief at the d e a t h of H e c t o r in Iliad 22.410 f. 1 4 4 T h e 'royal m e t a p h o r ' in the simile o f the sacked city is then reformulated in the w o r d s of A n n a , w h e r e the emotions of grief a n d despair call forth h y p e r b o l e (682 f ) : exstinxti te rneque, soror, populumque patresque Sidonios urbemque tuam. T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l notion that the d e a t h of a loved one involves other m e m b e r s o f the family in his or her u n d o i n g 1 4 5 is here a b n o r m a l l y e x t e n d e d to encompass the extinction o f the w h o l e state. T h i s is a fine e x a m p l e of the coincidence o f psychologically c o n d i t i o n e d h y p e r b o l e with 'allegorical' h y p e r b o l e ; A n n a ' s private grief exactly matches the poet's t h e m a t i c structure. D i d o is r e m o v e d f r o m the u p p e r w o r l d , thus fulfilling the terms o f the i m p r e c a t i o n that she h a d m a d e at the b e g i n n i n g of the book; earth a n d h e a v e n h a v e no place for her, or (ultimately) for her city and people. But she leaves behind a curse w h i c h has full p o w e r in earth a n d h e a v e n , for it will lead to the Punic W a r s , the great historical struggle b e t w e e n R o m e and C a r t h a g e for, precisely, w o r l d - e m p i r e . 1 4 6 H e r curse is preceded by an i n v o c a t i o n to an impressive r a n g e of gods of the 144

See the c o m m e n t s o f J . G r i f f i n , Homer on life and death ( O x f o r d , 1980), p. i,

145

See Pease's parallels.

C f . n o t a b l y the terms in w h i c h this s t r u g g l e is d e s c r i b e d b y L u c r e t i u s at 3.832 ff. (discussed a b o v e , p p . 168 f.). 146

HYPERBOLE

285

u p p e r a n d l o w e r w o r l d s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h the most u n i v e r s a l l y present o f the g o d s o f the u p p e r w o r l d (607): Sol, q u i t e r r a r u m f l a m m i s o p e r a o m n i a lustras.

T h e all-seeing sun is c o n v e n t i o n a l (and H o m e r i c ) , b u t his universal p o w e r to h u n t o u t the a c c u r s e d T r o j a n s gains in sign i f i c a n c e w h e n set a g a i n s t his f u n c t i o n in the h o s p i t a l i t y o f f e r e d to the T r o j a n s in D i d o ' s first speech to t h e m in b o o k o n e , a s p e e c h o f w h i c h the c u r s e - s p e e c h is an i n v e r s i o n 1 4 7 ( 1 . 5 6 7 f.): non obtunsa adeo gestamus pectora Poeni, n e c tarn a v e r s us e q u o s T y r i a sol i u n g i t a b u r b e .

T h e sun, w h o s e o m n i p r e s e n c e w a s at first the g u a r a n t e e o f f r i e n d s h i p b e t w e e n T r o j a n a n d C a r t h a g i n i a n , is n o w r e q u i r e d to b e c o m e a g u a r a n t o r o f v e n g e a n c e a n d o f the total hostility b e t w e e n the t w o peoples. 1 4 8

(d) Hyperbole: mass to individual in battle scenes in the l a s t f o u r b o o k s of t h e Acne id A n easy w a y o f m a g n i f y i n g the a c t i o n s o f a n i n d i v i d u a l is to e q u a t e t h e m w i t h a c t i o n s n o r m a l l y p e r f o r m e d by a g r o u p o f i n d i v i d u a l s . T h i s d e v i c e is a l r e a d y present in the H o m e r i c epics, w h e r e the w a r r i o r s o f the heroic past are s h o w n as g r e a t e r t h a n men o f the present d a y ; h e n c e expressions o f the sort ' h e lifted a stone such as c o u l d not be c a r r i e d b y t w o m e n n o w ' . 1 4 9 V i r g i l takes o v e r this kind o f h y p e r b o l e , b u t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y carries it f u r t h e r ; the stone that T u r n u s lifts at the e n d o f b o o k t w e l v e c o u l d s c a r c e l y be c a r r i e d b y twelve m e n o f the present d a y . H y p e r b o l e o f this sort in V i r g i l m a y h a v e little m o r e t h a n a stylistic f u n c t i o n , to m a i n t a i n the e l e v a t e d tone o f the n a r r a t i v e ; it m a y , h o w e v e r , be d e s i g n e d to w i d e n the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a 147

C o n c e r n for the safety o f t h e s h i p w r e c k e d T r o j a n s is r e p l a c e d w i t h the desire to

d e s t r o y t h e m at sea; the desire to see the T r o j a n s e s t a b l i s h e d in a k i n g d o m o f t h e i r c h o i c e is r e p l a c e d b y the p r a y e r t h a t A e n e a s b e a n exile; the w i s h for the t o t a l u n i o n o f T r o j a n a n d C a r t h a g i n i a n ( 1 . 5 7 4 , nullo discrimine) is r e p l a c e d b y the c u r s e i n v o k i n g total hostility a n d o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n the t w o p e o p l e s . u s p o r a n o t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n o f the m o t i f o f the a l l - s e e i n g s u n in a n i m p e r i a l i s t c o n t e x t see b e l o w , p p . 3 5 5 - 7 . 149

e.g. II. 5.302 ff. ( D i o m e d e s ; t w o m e n ) ; 12.380 IT'. ( A j a x ; o n e m a n in b o t h h a n d s ) ;

12.445 ff- ( H e c t o r ; t w o m e n w i t h l e v e r ) ; 20.285 ff. ( A e n e a s ; t w o m e n ) . C f . also A p . R h o d . Argon. 3 . 1 3 6 5 ff. (Jason; f o u r m e n ) .

¿g'2

V I R G I L ' S AENEID:

COSMOS

AND Í M P E R I U M

heroic action b e y o n d its i m m e d i a t e place in time a n d space. L e t us first look at some isolated e x a m p l e s of the h y p e r b o l i c a l ascription of massed powers to an individual. It is seen in a simple a n d direct form in the c a t a l o g u e of book seven (707) : a g m e n a g e n s C l a u s u s m a g n i q u e ipse a g m i n i s i n s t a r .

T h e e x a g g e r a t i o n is here used to the encomiastic end of a d d i n g dignity to the f o u n d e r of the gens Claudia. A v a r i a t i o n on this is to describe the h y p e r b o l i c a l effects of a w a r r i o r in battle, for e x a m p l e at 10.317 ff.: nec longe Cissea d u r u m i m m a n e m q u e G y a n sternentis a g m i n a c l a v a .

H e r e the h y p e r b o l e , in this case based closely on a H o m e r i c model, 1 5 0 involves an assimilation of the p o w e r of Cisseus and G y a s to that o f Hercules, whose c o m p a n i o n their father M e l a m p u s was. S u c h h y p e r b o l e is used especially o f i m p o r t a n t heroes of great awesomeness. T h u s the e n d u r a n c e o f the m i g h t y b o x e r Entellus in book five is e q u a t e d with that o f a city or fortress (5.439 ff.), that is to say, a large b o d y o f men protected by walls; here the identification of i n d i v i d u a l with city has no further significance, at least within its i m m e d i a t e context. W e h a v e seen that the amplificatio of M e z e n t i u s is largely carried out b y reference to a monstrous m y t h i c a l model, but the alternative w a y o f reference to a mass also has a subsidiary place, in the simile at 10.693 ille ( v e l u t r u p e s v a s t u m q u a e p r o d i t i n a e q u o r , obvia ventorum funis expostaque ponto, v i m c u n c t a m a t q u e m i n a s p e r f e r t c a e l i q u e rna risque ipsa i m m o t a rnanens).151

O n e m a y c o m p a r e the simile applied to the two A i a n t e s in Iliad 1 7.747 ff., o f the ridge that holds b a c k the floods, but the closest model is the simile at Iliad 15.618 ff.: 150

II.

7.141

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fiaAayyas

( A r e i t h o o s , helped to such

f e a t s b y his a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h A r e s ) . i&] ' j ' h e r o c k s i m i l e o f M e z e n t i u s h a s its closest p a r a l l e l in t h e A en ad at 7 . 5 8 6 ff., w h e r e L a t i n u s ' t e m p o r a r y r e s i s t e n c e t o t h e w a r f r e n z y is c o m p a r e d t o a r o c k in t h e s e a ; t h e H o m e r i c m o d e l is t h e s a m e , II. 1 5 . 6 1 8 ff. T h e p o i n t is t h a t L a t i n u s tries to fulfil t h e k i n g ' s f u n c t i o n o f s i n g l e - h a n d e d c o n t r o l o f his p e o p l e , b u t fails.

287

HYPERBOLE M

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M a s s e d i n close o r d e r t h e y r e s i s t e d , like a g r e a t h i g h r o c k n e a r t h e g r e y sea, w h i c h e n d u r e s the swift rush o f the w i n d s a n d the swelling w a v e s t h a t b r e a k a g a i n s t it. S o t h e G r e e k s f i r m l y resisted the T r o j a n s a n d d i d n o t t u r n to flee.

T h e point to note is that a simile applied to an a r m y in H o m e r is in V i r g i l applied to an individual; the h y p e r b o l e is striking e n o u g h even if we d o not recognize the source, b u t it gains considerably w h e n w e do. V i r g i l even outbids the H o m e r i c original in the substitution o f the universalizing 'minas . . . c a e l i q u e marisque' for H o m e r ' s more specific 'swift paths of the shrill winds a n d swelling w a v e s ' (see b e l o w , pp. 300 f.). T h e use of the H o m e r i c c r o w d simile is given a d d e d point by the p l a y 011 omnes a n d unus in the i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g lines (691 ff,): c o n c u r r u n t T y r r h e n a e acies a t q u e o m n i b u s u n i , 1 5 2 uni odiisque viro telisque f r e q u e n t i b u s instant.

M e z e n t i u s is a o n e - m a n a r m y , an a d e q u a t e o p p o n e n t to s h o w o f f the heroic prowess of A e n e a s (a little earlier c o m p a r e d to the one-monster battalion A e g a e o n with his h u n d r e d hands) in this climactic conclusion to book ten. A n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f the transference by V i r g i l to an ind i v i d u a l o f l a n g u a g e a p p l i e d to a c r o w d in H o m e r is seen in the effects of the falling Bitias at 9.708 f : conlapsa ruunt immania membra, d a t tellus g e m i t u m et c l i p e u m s u p e r i n t o n a t i n g e n s .

I a r g u e a b o v e (pp. 145 f.) that this h y p e r b o l i c a l transformation of H o m e r ' s f o r m u l a i c Sovntjocv Se ueawv, apafirjae hk revx* ¿tt* avra>, 'he fell with a crash a n d his a r m o u r rattled on top o f h i m ' contains G i g a n t o m a c h i c allusion; b u t h y p e r b o l e is also created by the simple transference from c r o w d to in-

dividual in the words dat tellus gemitum, modelled on the Ho162

C o m p a r e t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of the S h i e l d of A e n e a s at 8.447

'ingentem clipeum . . .

urium o m n i a c o n t r a / tela L a t i n o r u m ' ; this is fitting for a n o b j e c t w i t h t r u l y u n i v e r s a l s i g n i f i c a n c e (see c h a p t e r 8),

288

VIRGIL'S

A EN E ID: COSMOS

AND I M P E R I L ! M

meric yata S' vrreorevaxt^, 'the earth g r o a n e d b e n e a t h ' (II. 2.781), w h i c h describes the effect o f the whole A c h a e a n a r m y on the m o v e . T h e h y p e r b o l e of mass to individual is most f r e q u e n t in the description of the t w o chief heroes o f the last four books, A e n e a s a n d T u r n u s , a n d is concentrated a b o v e all in the last book, w h i c h indeed contains more h y p e r b o l e than a n y other book. A n e x a m p l e from one of the p r e c e d i n g books is found in the description o f A e n e a s r a g i n g after the d e a t h of Pallas ( 1 0 . 5 1 3 ff): proxima quaeque metit gladio latumque per agmen ardens limitem agit ferro, te, Turne, superbum caede nova quaerens. T h e i m a g e o f m o w i n g is taken from a H o m e r i c simile describing the general action of the T r o j a n a n d A c h a e a n armies (II. 11.67 ff); the transference to an i n d i v i d u a l was repeated somew h a t later by H o r a c e in Odes 4.14.29 ff , in a passage w h e r e the h y p e r b o l e is in k e e p i n g with a deliberately unrealistic passage of p a n e g y r i c . 1 5 3 T h e h y p e r b o l e is continued in the A e g a e o n - s i m i l e o f A e n e a s , i n t r o d u c e d just after a h y p e r b o l i c a l description of two opponents, A n t a e u s and L u c a s , as prima agmina Tumi (561). Servius' c o m m e n t on the simile o f the H u n d r e d - h a n d e r is to t hepoint (ad 10.569): (sic ut non u n a m m a n u m putares: n a m q u e ad hoc pertinet c o m p a r a t i o , ut intellegamus, eurri multitudinis vice dimicasse.' 1 5 4 A l l the features discussed recur in the last book. First w e sec T u r n u s in full spate in the absence of A e n e a s ; single-handed he cuts d o w n w h o l e ranks o f men (agmina, 329), in a scene i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g a simile c o m p a r i n g him to M a r s , that is, an e x a m p l e o f h y p e r b o l e w o r k i n g from the d i v i n e to the h u m a n . S h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s T u r n u s is c o m p a r e d to the irresistible north w i n d (365 ff). For this there are a n u m b e r of H o m e r i c precedents, mostly referring to the effects of massed troops, except for t w o cases in w h i c h H e c t o r is c o m p a r e d to 153

T h e r e a p i n g i m a g e a p p l i e d to a n i n d i v i d u a l , J a s o n , is f o u n d in A p . R h o d . Argon.

3 . 1 3 8 2 , i n a p a s s a g e w h i c h is o t h e r w i s e h y p e r b o l i c a l , but w h e r e the c h o i c e o f i m a g e is o b v i o u s l y d e t e r m i n e d b y its fitness to the ' c r o p ' o f e a r t h b o r n m e n . A t C a t u l l . 6 4 . 3 5 3 ff. it is a p p l i e d to t h e single h e r o A c h i l l e s . 154

C f . H e n r y iv, p. 83, ' B r i a r e u s , a r m e d w i t h fifty shields all m a t c h e s , as if he w e r e

h i m s e l f an entire c o m p a n y or r e g i m e n t o f soldiers all e q u i p p e d a l i k e . '

H Y P E R B O L E 308

the forces of the s t o r m . 1 5 5 A e n e a s then returns to the action, a n d is likewise c o m p a r e d to an a p p r o a c h i n g storm (451 if.). A g a i n the H o m e r i c models are similes applied to massed m o v e ments; 1 5 6 p a r t i c u l a r l y close is the simile (II. 4.275 if.) describing the troops o f the A i a n t e s a d v a n c i n g to battle. T h e h y p e r b o l e o f book twelve reaches a c l i m a x in the final c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n A e n e a s a n d T u r n u s (697 i f ) . A t their c o m i n g together the earth groans (dat gemitum tellus, 7 1 3 ) ; as w e h a v e seen, this is taken from a H o m e r i c phrase describing the m o v e m e n t of a w h o l e a r m y ; similar expressions h a v e earlier b e e n used by V i r g i l himself to describe the effects of w h o l e armies. 1 5 7 T h e clash o f their shields sends shock w a v e s to the heavens (724): c o n c u m m t clipeis, ingens f r a g o r a e t h e r a c o m p l e t .

In H o m e r such heights are n o r m a l l y r e a c h e d only b y the shouting of g r e a t n u m b e r s o f m e n or the noise of massed battle. 1 5 8 T h e sustained use of such h y p e r b o l e serves stylistically to m a r k the c l i m a x of the epic, a n d it supports the G i g a n t o m a c h i c allusions in this passage, (discussed in c h a p t e r 4); b u t it m a y also be seen t h e m a t i c a l l y in terms o f ' r o y a l m e t a p h o r ' . A e n e a s a n d T u r n u s fight a duel on b e h a l f of their respective peoples; but, i m a g i n a t i v e l y , they also e m b o d y the forces of their massed troops, so that their m e e t i n g b c c o m c s a direct c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n T r o y (or, prospectively, R o m e ) a n d Italy. T h i s suprai n d i v i d u a l content is a l l u d e d to in a different w a y in the a c c o u n t o f L a t i n u s ' reaction to the encounter, a reaction w h i c h the reader is m e a n t to share (707 ff.): s t u p e t ipse L a t i n u s ingentis, genitos diversis p a r t i b u s orbis, i n t e r se coiisse v i r o s et c e r n e r e f e r r o . 155

H o m e r i c p r e c e d e n t s : II. 2 . 1 4 4 fT., 5 . 5 2 2 1 ! . , 1 1 . 1 3 5 ff., 1 3 . 7 9 5 ff. O f H e c t o r : II.

1 1 . 3 0 5 ff, 1 5 . 6 2 4 ff. 158

H o m e r i c m o d e l s : II. 4 , 2 7 5 ff., 1 3 , 3 3 4 ff, 7 9 5 ff-> 1 6 . 3 6 4 ff. It is true t h a t t h e

s t o r m simile at Aen.

12.451 ff. also c o n t a i n s e l e m e n t s t h a t refer to the troops

ac-

companying Aeneas. 157

7 . 7 2 2 ' s c u t a s o n a n t p u l s u q u e p e d u m c o n t e r r i t a tellus 1 ; 12.445 ' p u l s u q u e p e d u m

trernit e x c i t a tellus'. N o t e also 1 2 . 3 3 4 f. ( t ^ l c h o o v e s o f the horses o f the g o d

Mars)

'gemit ultima pulsu / T h r a c a p e d u m ' . 1BS

8'

Iliad 2 . 1 5 3 ; 12.338; 14.60; 1 7 . 4 2 4 f. C f . also II. 2 1 . 3 8 7 f. (the g o d s g o to w a r ) ovv

(TTtaov

¡xeyaXai

Trarayat,

ftpd\f

5*

tvpeia

\dcjjv, / a{i<j>l Se aa\?uy£ev

¡¿eyas oupavo?.

309

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - , COSMOS

AND IMPERII: M

T h e reference to 'opposed parts of the world 5 glances at the Idea of a c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n E u r o p e a n d Asia, w h i c h first a p p e a r s in H e r o d o t u s and w a s e v e n t u a l l y taken o v e r by the ideologues o f A c t i u m (see b e l o w , pp. 312 f.). I n t r o d u c i n g the final e n c o u n t e r is one o f the most hyperbolical similes of the w h o l e p o e m c o m p a r i n g A e n e a s to a n u m b e r o f g r e a t m o u n t a i n s (701 ff.); this is p a t e n t l y m e a n t to be c o m p a r e d and contrasted with the p r e c e d i n g simile comp a r i n g T u r n us to a hurtling b o u l d e r (684 ff.), w h i c h , in order to force o u r attention to the juxtaposition with the m o u n t a i n simile o f A e n e a s , is itself h y p e r b o l i c a l l y called a m o u n t a i n (mans, 687). B o t h o f these similes h a v e H o m e r i c models w h i c h refer to H e c t o r . 1 5 9 A b o v e w e saw that H e c t o r w a s the only individual hero c o m p a r e d by H o m e r to storm-forces in the w a y that V i r g i l uses such similes o f the individuals A e n e a s and Turrius. 1 6 0 T h i s is not an accident, for Horner's t r e a t m e n t o f H e c t o r comes closest to w h a t I h a v e been describing as 'royal m e t a p h o r ' in V i r g i l . H e c t o r ' s v e r y n a m e ('prop, stay') signifies the vital link b e t w e e n his o w n existence a n d that of T r o y ; significant e t y m o l o g y is also found in the n a m e o f his son (II. 6.402 f.): r ri wri \ / TOV f} CtiKTLOp KOA€€OK€ AoTvavaKT*

• otos

yap

o / (j ZJ KCLfMaVOpiOV,

epvero

*IXiov

j , \ dUTdp

e \ Ol OAAOi

"ExTajp.

H e c t o r c a l l e d h i m S k a m a n d r i o s , b u t o t h e r p e o p l e A s ty a n a x : f o r H e c tor a l o n e p r o t e c t e d T r o y .

In the previous section w e saw h o w V i r g i l ' s identification of the fates o f D i d o a n d of h e r city, C a r t h a g e , w a s based on the H o m e r i c identification o f the d e a t h o f H e c t o r w i t h the destruction of T r o y (II. 22.410 ff.). D i o m e d e s , in his reply to the R u l u l i a n envoys, a reply based on direct personal experience, associates H e c t o r a n d A e n e a s as (temporary) preservers of T r o y (Aen. 11.288 ff.): q u i d q u i d a p u d d u r a e c e s s a t u m est m o e n i a T r o i a e , Hectoris A e n e a e q u e m a n u victoria G r a i u m h a e s i t et i n d e c i m u m v e s t i g i a r e t t u l i t a n n u m . 1 6 1 159

H u r t l i n g r o c k : II. 1 3 . 1 3 7 ff.; s n o w y m o u n t a i n : 1 3 . 7 5 4 .

160

Apollonius compares Jason

to a s e a - b e a t e n

r o c k as he w i t h s t a n d s the

fire-

b r e a t h i n g bulls, in a n o t h e r w i s e h y p e r b o l i c a l p a s s a g e , Argon. 3 . 1 2 9 4 F. 161

M o d e l l e d o n II. 6 . 7 3 ff. F o r o t h e r e x a m p l e s o f the c o m m o n p l a c e o f T r o y ' s d e -

p e n d e n c e o n H e c t o r see N i s b e t / H u b b a r d ii, p. 72; T a r r a n t on S e n . Ag. 2 1 1 .

HYPERBOLE

291

T h e hyperbole of manu haesit here points in the direction of the m o r e t h o r o u g h g o i n g identification of hero a n d people that shapes the h y p e r b o l i c a l descriptions of A e n e a s and ( urnus in book twelve.

APPENDIX:

SKY-REACHING

IN

HOMER

H y p e r b o l i c e x p r e s s i o n s i n c l u d i n g t h e n o t i o n o f r e a c h i n g the s k y a r e q u i t e f r e q u e n t in H o m e r , a n d r e l a t i v e l y f a r m o r e f r e q u e n t in t h e

Iliad

t h a n i n t h e Odyssey; H o m e r i c u s a g e is o b v i o u s l y n o r m a t i v e f o r l a t e r epic, a n d in p a r t i c u l a r V i r g i l i a n , usage. T h e s h o u t i n g of g r e a t n u m b e r s o f m e n o r the n o i s e o f b a t t l e m a y r e a c h t h e s k y (II. 2 . 1 5 3 , 1 2 . 3 3 8 , 14.60, 1 7 . 4 2 4 f ) ; so t o o m a y t h e g l e a m o f e a r t h l y fires o r t h e f l a s h o f a r m o u r (II. 2 . 4 5 8 , 8 . 5 0 9 , 1 1 . 4 4 f , 1 9 . 3 6 2 ) , as a l s o t h e d u s t r a i s e d b y t h e f e e t o f a w a r r i n g h o s t {II. 5 . 5 0 3 f ) , a n d t h e s m o k e e i t h e r o f a s a c r i f i c e o r o f c o o k i n g f o o d (II. 1 . 3 1 7 , 8 . 5 4 9 ) 21.522). Fame,

o r

°f

a

s a c k e d c i t y (II.

or ill-report, m a y also r e a c h the sky

K A 4 O S ,

Od. 8 . 7 4 , 9 . 2 0 , 1 9 . 1 0 8 ; ( i l l - r e p u t e o f s u i t o r s ) Od.

( I I .

8.192,

15.329=17.565).

S u p e r n a t u r a l p l a c e s o r b e i n g s m a y a l s o r e a c h to t h e s k y (Eris, II. 4 . 4 4 3 ; S c y l l a ' s r o c k , Od. 1 2 . 7 3 ) , b u t so a l s o m a y a q u i t e n a t u r a l p i n e tree (eAar^ ovpavo/x-qK^s,

5 . 2 3 9 ) . I n s o m e o f these e x a m p l e s t h e

Od.

e f f e c t is p r i m a r i l y s t y l i s t i c , t o g i v e a n i m p r e s s i o n o f s c a l e , to i n d u c e ekplexis,

o r to m a r k c l i m a c t i c p l a c e s i n t h e n a r r a t i v e ( t h u s n o t a b l y

1 9 . 3 6 2 , a n d 2 1 . 5 2 2 i n t h e aristeia may

be tailored

II.

o f A c h i l l e s ) ; o r the stylistic i m p a c t

to t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a s u p e r h u m a n

being

(note

e s p e c i a l l y t h e u n i v e r s a l e f f e c t s o f t h e c l a s h o f t h e g o d s , II. 2 1 . 3 8 7 f f . ) . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s u c h a h y p e r b o l e to single

m o r t a l s is f o u n d in t h e

c o n t e x t o f k i n g s h i p : o f A g a m e m n o n a t II. 1 1 . 4 3 ff.: eiXero

8' aXKLfxa \ ov

o f f e r TTjAe XapLTT^ • e7U Ttpicboai.

oe

Sovpe \ *

x°-Akos

8vto, 3» an

tyhovirrjaav

fiaoiXrja

KCKopvdpLtva 3 / r 5 avrcxpiv

Adrjvalrj

TroXvxpvaoLo

XCLAKCU,

>

*

ovpavov r e Kai

eiooj "Hprj,

MvKTjvqs.

H e t o o k his t w o s t u r d y , s h a r p s p e a r s , h e a d e d w i t h b r o n z e ;

the

b r o n z e o f t h e s p e a r s s e n t u p to h e a v e n a f a r - r e a c h i n g g l e a m ; A t h e n e a n d H e r a s h o u t e d in a p p l a u s e , in h o n o u r o f the k i n g o f M y c e n a e , r i c h in g o l d . H e r e t h e h e a v e n w a r d s f l a s h o f t h e a r m s o f t h e k i n g is m e t b y a p p l a u s e o f the g o d d e s s e s

above.

Such

hyperbole

is also used

O d y s s e u s ' p a n e g y r i c a l a d d r e s s to P e n e l o p e a t O d y s s e y 1 9 . 1 0 7 if.:

the in

¿g'2

VIRGIL'S d) yvvai, /

v€iK€oiRF

OI?

AENEID:

OVK

/

av

Tj yap

I

T C rev

*

O

TLS oe

¡SpoTcov

\/

o€i> xAeos \ " 5

RJ paaiArjos

AND

COSMOS

5

err'

ovpavov

V

ÍMPERIUM

aTTtipova

J V C /

evpvv

yaiav

iKavei,

'

AFMVJJLOVOS.

M y l a d y , n o m o r t a l o n the b o u n d l e s s e a r t h w o u l d find f a u l t w i t h y o u ; f o r y o u r f a m e r e a c h e s u p to t h e b r o a d h e a v e n s like that, o f some noble king. H o m e r ' s use o f s u c h t h i n g s t h u s s e e m s t o b e u s u a l l y w e l l j u d g e d , a n d s u i t e d to t h e c o n t e x t . V i r g i l ' s u s a g e is f a r m o r e o b t r u s i v e , b u t I h o p e t h a t I h a v e s h o w n t h a t h e d o e s n o t use s k y - r e a c h i n g h y p e r b o l e in vain. A couple of significant differences between H o m e r i c and V i r gilian usage should be pointed out: 1. T h e s c a l e in H o m e r is s m a l l e r t h a n i n V i r g i l : t h e s k y is a c t u a l l y r a t h e r c l o s e , a n d is m a d e o f s o l i d , e a r t h l y , m a t e r i a l s ( w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e theological

d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n is f a r less m a r k e d ) . T h e s p a c e b e -

t w e e n m a n o n earth a n d the gods, ' w h o dwell in the b r o a d heavens', is, as a m a t t e r o f c o u r s e , b r i d g e d b y m a t e r i a l o f f e r i n g s i n t h e f o r m o f kmse, t h e s t e a m o f b u r n t s a c r i f i c e . 2. T h e H o m e r i c i n s t a n c e s a r e i s o l a t e d ; t h e y r e f e r t o a c l o s e d w o r l d p i c t u r e t h a t exists i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e p o e m , b u t t h e y d o n o t f o r m part of the w i d e r thematic structures

within

the p o e m ; this is in c o n t r a s t

to t h e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a r t i s t r y o f V i r g i l , in w h o s e w o r k t h e p a r t i c u l a r u s u a l l y c o n t r i b u t e s to ( a n d d e r i v e s s i g n i f i c a n c e f r o m ) a p a t t e r n e x t e n d i n g o v e r w i d e r areas of the text.

7. Universal Expressions in the Aeneid

IN the p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r I analysed V i r g i l ' s use of a linguistic figure in the service o f a w i d e r strategy b y w h i c h the localized events o f the legend of A e n e a s arc c o n n e c t e d with n a r r a t i v e and c o n c e p t u a l structures referring to the most general features of the universe. In this c h a p t e r I turn to a n o t h e r small-scale linguistic feature, a g r o u p of v e r b a l devices not necessarily d e p e n d e n t on structures r e a c h i n g over l o n g sections. By the term 'universal expressions' I refer to phrases w h i c h s u m m a r i z e the totality of the w o r l d or universe in schematic form; the phrase ' E a r t h and S k y ' m a y stand as a simple e x a m p l e . I c o n c e n t r a t e on expressions in w h i c h the entirety of the world or universe is distributed over t w o or more terms. T h e r e are traditional w a y s of d o i n g this with two, three, or four terms; rarely d o w e find more, a l t h o u g h longer lists m a y be compiled by i n c l u d i n g i n d i v i d u a l c o m p o n e n t s o f one part of the universe (for e x a m p l e , by e n u m e r a t i n g the various h e a v e n l y bodies that people the heavens). T h e r e is a f u n d a m e n t a l difference b e t w e e n the shorter and longer types of expression: the former universalizes t h r o u g h a synoptic brevity, w h e r e a s the list w h i c h outruns the c o m f o r t a b l e span of a single b r e a t h seeks to m i m i c the p l e n i t u d e of the universe t h r o u g h an e n u m e r a t i v e exhaustiveness. T h i s latter t y p e is more c o m m o n in Lucretius, for e x a m p l e , than in V i r g i l , a n d the d e m a n d s of a classical sense o f form tend to o u t l a w its excessive use in the A u g u s t a n poet. T h e universal expression is itself a simple, even j e j u n e , device, b u t an analysis o f its usage points to a v a r i e t y of discourses, w h i c h V i r g i l skilfully exploits. It is v e r y m u c h at h o m e in the l a n g u a g e of poetry, p a r t i c u l a r l y the m o r e elevated kinds o f poetry. It is also c o m m o n in sacral l a n g u a g e ; this reflects religion's function of p r o v i d i n g a coherent a c c o u n t of the totality of m a n ' s e n v i r o n m e n t and of s u p p l y i n g guidelines for m a n ' s p r o p e r relation to that e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e alternative or supp l e m e n t a r y e x p l a n a t i o n s of philosophy a n d science also p r o v i d e

294

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AND

IMPERIUM

m a n y e x a m p l e s of universal expressions. M o r e specialized areas include the l a n g u a g e of law a n d o f p r o p h e c y , b o t h closely connected to the m o r e central religious usages. A n o t h e r w a y o f c a t e g o r i z i n g universal expressions looks to the m o d e in w h i c h the universe is v i e w e d . T h e most c o m m o n type works t h r o u g h a division of the natural w o r l d , v i e w e d either spatially (Earth, Sea, S k y ) , or q u a l i t a t i v e l y (primarily through the speculative theory o f the four elements). The w o r l d divisions m a y also be r e g a r d e d from the point of view o f the divinities w h o rule them, classically in the H o m e r i c a c c o u n t o f the primitive a p p o r t i o n i n g of the universe by lot b e t w e e n the great gods (II. 15.187 93). T h e inclusion of the U n d e r w o r l d in this passage implies a more m y t h i c a l description o f the universe. T h e theological m o d e is seen at its most c o n c e n t r a t e d in moralized divisions b e t w e e n H e a v e n and Hell. F i n a l l y , the universal expression m a y be specifically limited to the human world or oikumene, as in the d i c h o t o m y o f ' E u r o p e and A s i a ' . V i r g i l uses a w i d e range of the existing formulas, a n d in most cases his p a r t i c u l a r selection is carefully m o t i v a t e d b y the context. M y conclusions will indicate that the intention behind a n y p a r t i c u l a r instance is usually w i d e r than the p u r e l y aesthetic or stylistic; but for some of the e x a m p l e s in the following lists a w i d e r significance c a n be elicited only at the expense of some ingenuity, or not at all, a n d I w o u l d a c c e p t that some are instances of a poetic or a stylistic m a n n e r i s m , rather than c o m p o n e n t s of la rger t h e m a t i c structures (just as we found that not all instances of h y p e r b o l e in the Aeneid could be related to t h e m a t i c structures). But e v e n those universal expressions w h i c h d o not so energetically w o r k for their keep help to maintain the reader's awareness o f the universal b a c k g r o u n d to the action. For c o n v e n i e n c e I h a v e divided the material to be discussed a c c o r d i n g to the n u m b e r of terms (two, three, or four) w h i c h constitute the universal expression in each case, a n d within that division I g r o u p the universal expressions a c c o r d i n g to the p a r t i c u l a r selection o f items ( H e a v e n and Earth, E a r t h and Sea, etc.). I also include expressions w h i c h , t h o u g h structured a r o u n d a multipartite scheme of this sort, are not strictly universal, in that they d o not pretend to express totality; the reasons for their inclusion will emerge. T h e c o m m e n t a r y at-

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2

95

tached to each instance does not p r o v i d e c o m p r e h e n s i v e collections of parallels, b u t illustrates V i r g i l ' s relation to the i m p o r t a n t literary models, a n d also indicates the relevance of non-literary models; it also points u p the relationship o f these small-scale devices to the larger structures discussed in earlier a n d later chapters. T h i s atomistic treatment is c o m p l e m e n t e d by a final section in w h i c h I s u m m a r i z e the wider thematic implications of V i r g i l ' s use of universal expressions; this last section m a y be read i n d e p e n d e n t l y of w h a t precedes, a n d the reader m a y find it is in a n y case a help to h a v e read it before e x a m i n i n g the detailed analyses of the i n d i v i d u a l passages.

I. D I S T R I B U T I O N

OVER

TWO

TERMS

T h e most c o m m o n , as it is the simplest, type of universal expression employs t w o terms w h i c h between them sum u p a totality. T h e use of such t w o - t e r m expressions is widespread in m a n y cultures, and, some m i g h t suggest, corresponds to a general t e n d e n c y of the h u m a n mind to analyse t h r o u g h b i n a r y oppositions the objects presented for its consideration. S u c h expressions are found frequently in G r e e k literature, w h e r e they h a v e been m a d e the o b j e c t of special study by m o d e r n scholars and given the label ' p o l a r expressions'; 1 they are not such a central feature of L a t i n usage, but are certainly not alien to it, a n d are especially likely to o c c u r in contexts w h e r e , as in the Aeneid, G r e e k models are operative. T h e first three g r o u p s of p o l a r expressions considered b e l o w work with divisions of the visible n a t u r a l world. ' H e a v e n a n d E a r t h ' is the most c o m p r e h e n s i v e of these, d i v i d i n g the visible universe into that w h i c h is at m a n ' s feet and that w h i c h is seen a b o v e his head. ' E a r t h a n d Sea' is a division of the world a c t u a l l y accessible to m a n , the world considered as the stage, potential or actual, for h u m a n activities. T h e third pair, ' H e a v e n and S e a ' , is not strictly a universal expression in the 1

I n g e n e r a l see E . K e m m e r , Die polare Ausdrucksweise

in der griechischen Liter atur

( W i i r z b u r g , 1903), esp. p p . 160 f. (on E a r t h a n d S e a , H e a v e n a n d E a r t h ) , 166 f. (on expressions o f t h e t y p e ' b y l a n d a n d s e a ' ) ; G . E. R . L l o y d , Polarity and analogy: two types of argumentation in early Greek thought ( C a m b r i d g e , Greek poetry and philosophy,

1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 90 4; H . F r a n k e l ,

trans. M . H a d a s a n d J . W i l l i s ( O x f o r d ,

1975), p

Early 526.

C o m p a r e the b i p a r t i t e d i v i s i o n o f the universe in a n c i e n t M i d d l e E a s t e r n t r a d i t i o n : O . K e e l , The symbolism of the biblical world, trans. T . j . H a l l e t t ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 8 ) , p p . 26 if.

37°

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - . COSMOS AND

IMPERII!M

same w a y as the o t h e r two, since it omits the division of E a r t h , w h i c h must logically be included in a totality that contains the other two divisions, but in the p a r t i c u l a r context o f seav o y a g i n g it m a y function as a special case o f the universal expression; for the seafarer the world is, effectively, limited to Sea and S k y . O t h e r types of p o l a r expression m a y refer to a totality either g r e a t e r or lesser than the visible w o r l d . A greater totality is indicated b y 'the U p p e r and L o w e r W o r l d s ( H e a v e n and H e l l ) ' ; this includes the i m a g i n e d world of the d e a d , and m a y also (as in V i r g i l , though h a r d l y in H o m e r ) correspond to a theological a n d moral dualism. T h e d i c h o t o m y of ' E u r o p e and Asia', on the other h a n d , selects from the totality o f the earth the oikumene, a n d is m o r e likely to refer to the political than to the physical m a p .

(a) Heaven and Earth ( A T ) I • 1 3 3 f.:

i a m caelum terramque. m e o sine n u m i n e , v e n t i , m i s c e r e et t a n t a s a u d e t i s tollere m o l e s ?

N e p t u n e rebukes the winds. T h e use of the p r o v e r b i a l caelum terramque miscere is to be seen in the context of the G i g a n t o m a c h i c allusions analysed a b o v e (pp. 90 if.). It is natural to understand caelum terramque here as a c o m p r e h e n s i v e universal expression, p a r t i c u l a r l y since the phrase w i t h miscere is c o n v e n t i o n a l , b u t there is an a w k w a r d n e s s in N e p t u n e ' s reference only a f e w lines later to the sea as his o w n p a r t i c u l a r p r o v i n c e (138 f.). T h i s m i g h t incline us to m o d i f y o u r understanding of caelum terramque so as to take it as t w o terms of a tripartite universal expression, especially since the p o w e r o f the winds has initially been described in its potential effect on all three divisions of the universe at i . 5 8 f. (FI). But this could only w o r k if w e took the winds in their island-home to be in some sense under the p a r t i c u l a r c h a r g e of N e p t u n e as god of the sea; meo sine numine (133) w o u l d then indicate their illicit a t t e m p t to extend the violence o f the sea to sky a n d earth, and hence to c o n f o u n d the p o w e r - b o u n d a r i e s of the three divisions of the universe as determined in the primitive d r a w i n g of lots

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S IN T H E

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297

b y the three great gods (sorte, 139; cf. //. 15.187 if.), 2 But, as it appears, the winds are here considered as properly e x c l u d e d from all three divisions of the u p p e r universe, just as the imprisoned G i a n t s h a v e no lawful function in the u p p e r w o r l d ; A e o l u s not N e p t u n e is their gaoler. T h e inconcinnity must therefore remain. 3 (A2) 3.619 f : ipse a r d u u s , a l t a q u e p u l s a t sidera (di t a l e m terris a v e r t i t e p e s t e m ! ) .

A n o b l i q u e form of the universal expression; the i m p l i c a t i o n is that the G i g a n t i c P o l y p h e m u s terrorizes both E a r t h a n d H e a v e n . T h e sequence o f A c h a e m e n i d e s ' t h o u g h t leads f r o m the hyperbolical assault on the stars to the consequent inv o l v e m e n t of the gods, and hence to their readiness to listen to a p r a y e r for the r e m o v a l of the monster from the earth. (A3) 4.269: r e g n a t o r , caelum et terras q u i n u m i n e t o r q u e t .

A straightforward expression of the p o w e r of the supreme g o d J u p i t e r 4 in the l a n g u a g e of religion; ' H e a v e n a n d E a r t h ' is a n u n a m b i g u o u s periphrasis for 'the universe'. O n the function of the line in the i m m e d i a t e context see a b o v e , pp. 278 f. (A4)

6.781

F:

en h u i u s , n a t e , a u s p i c i i s ilia i n c l u t a R o m a i m p e r i u m terris, a n i r n o s a e q u a b i t

Olympo.

A carefully qualified assertion of the universal extension of R o m a n power; the rather v a g u e l y f o r m u l a t e d 'animos a e q u a b i t O l y m p o ' avoids the excessively h y p e r b o l i c a l statement that R o m e will a c t u a l l y control the heavens. T h i s line introduces the most e x t r a v a g a n t section of the S p e e c h o f Anchises, a n d 2

T h e a n c i e n t c o m m e n t a t o r s w e r e m u c h exercised b y the p r o b l e m in meo sine numine:

see S e r v i u s ad Aen.

1 . 1 3 3 ' m u l t i e n i i n q u a e r u n t c u r m o d o N e p t u n u s de alienis c o n -

q u e r a t u r elementis.' 3

S c a r c e l y to be c i r c u m v e n t e d b y C o n i n g t o n ' s a n d H e n r y ' s s u g g e s t i o n that caelum

terramque miscere is to b e t a k e n 4

figuratively,

F o r o t h e r e x a m p l e s o f u n i v e r s a l expressions a p p l i e d to the s u p r e m e p o w e r

of

J u p i t e r see N i s b e t / H u b b a r d i, p. 150. ' R u l e r of h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' m a y be u n d e r s t o o d as a n o t h e r w a y o f s a y i n g ' r u l e r o f g o d s a n d m e n ' , Aen. 1 . 2 2 9

/.'. 2.669.

VIRGIL'S

A EN E ID\ COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

the suggestion that R o m a n p o w e r in some w a y reaches to the traditional seat of the gods is restated indirectly in the comparison of R o m e and her sons to C y b e l c , mother of the gods, 'omnis caelicolas, omnis supera alta tenentis' (787); and a little later in the unusual statement that A u g u s t u s will extend empire to a land 'extra sidera . . . / extra anni solisque vias' (795 f ) .

( 5 ) 7-57i: A

[Erinys] . . . terras caelumque levabat. Referring to the totality of the U p p e r W o r l d w h i c h Allecto leaves for the U n d e r w o r l d , the entrance to which has just been described at length (so that a tripartite division into ' H e a v e n , Earth, and H e l l ' is also implied). W h i l e the polar expression ' H e a v e n and Earth' may refer simply to the observed natural universe, it is also closely associated with the notion of divine power, either in the form of the division b e t w e e n earth as the a b o d e of men and heaven as the abode of the gods, or in the form of the universal power of the O l y m p i a n s over the U p p e r W o r l d . T h e theme of divine p o w e r is central to Virgil's version of imperial expansion, which is envisaged not merely as the filling of the natural world with R o m a n p o w e r but as the increasingly close correspondence between that p o w e r and the divine ( O l y m p i a n ) order of things.

(b) Heaven and Sea

( B I ) 1.129: fluctibus oppressos Troas caelique ruina. T h e storm-tossed T r o j a n s are weighed d o w n b y the forces of both Sea and S k y ; the first expression is naturalistic, the second is hyperbolical and continues the G i g a n t o i n a c h i c allegory (see chapter 3 sect. II). 1.154

ff.:

sic cunctus pelagi cecidit lragor, aequora postquam prospiciens genitor caeloque invectus aperto flectit equos. N e p t u n e calms the storm, and alleviates the plight of the T r o -

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299

jans as described at line 129 (BI). T h e c a l m i n g of the storm necessarily entails control of the S k y as well as of the Sea, a l t h o u g h the former does not, strictly speaking, c o m e w i t h i n the jurisdiction of N e p t u n e (cf. A i ) . His p o w e r over Sea and S k y is expressed more vividly in 5.820 f. (B5). (B3) 4 . 5 2 f.:

dum pelago desaevit hiems et aquosus Orion, quassataeque rates, dum non tractabile caelum. A i r a n d w a t e r conditions, the shipping report; meteorological reality w i t h o u t universalizing. ( B 4 ) 5 . 7 8 9 if.:

ipse mihi nuper Libycis t.u testis in undis quam molem subito excierit: maria omnia caelo miscuit. V e n u s recapitulates the storm of book one in a plea to N e p t u n e , whose w o r d s at 1 . 1 3 3 f. (AI) she echoes iri detail. N e p t u n e there used hyperbolicalIv universalizing l a n g u a g e to express his anger; here the h y p e r b o l e of omnia-' reinforces the u r g e n c y of V e n u s ' a p p e a l . It m a y be questioned w h e t h e r the rhetorical d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the h y p e r b o l e in the two passages does not tend to w e a k e n the case for an allegorical ( G i g a n t o m a c h i c ) interpretation of this universalizing; b u t , if o n e accepts the o t h e r evidence for such an allegory, then this w o u l d seem rather to be evidence of Virgil's skill in c o m b i n i n g realism a n d antirealism (see pp. 150, 284, for other examples of this). ( B 5 ) 5 . 8 2 0 f.:

subsidunt undae tumidumque sub axe tonanti sternitur aequor aquis, fugiunt vasto aethere nimbi. As in book one (B2). N e p t u n e calms the forces of the storm, in a picturesque treatment of divine p o w e r over the elements. T h e b r o a d c a n v a s of Sea and S k y (a division here stated twice, if we take axe to refer to the sky) is not found in the H o m e r i c m o d e l , 6

E p i t h e t s e x p r e s s i n g t o t a l i t y (omms, totus, cunctus) o c c u r in the f o l l o w i n g expressions

discussed here: B 2 , B4, B 6 , B8, C 2 , C 3 , C 4 . O n V i r g i l ' s f o n d n e s s for omms see F . J . W o r s t b r o c k . Elemente einer Poetik der A e n e i s ( M ü n s t e r , ¡ 9 6 3 ) , p. 196; see also a b o v e , p. 1 1 7 .

37°

VIRGIL'S

AENEID-.

COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

Ihad 13.23 30; closer in feel is the description o f the meteorological effects o f V e n u s in the p r o e m to book one of the De Kerum Natura,6 T h e c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the c a l m i n g o f the storm in Aeneid 1 yields the significant difference that there N e p t u n e intervenes not directly to aid A e n e a s b u t in order to p u t d o w n supernatural insubordination; here he calms the w a v e s in direct response to a request b y A e n e a s ' mother. (B6) 6. I 10 ff.:

ilium ego per flamm as et mille sequentia tela eripui his umeris medioque ex hoste recepi; ills nie um comitatus iter maria omnia mecum atque omnis pelagique minas caelique ferebat. A e n e a s summarizes the d a n g e r s that he shared with his father; the Sea/Sky d i c h o t o m y in line 113 sums up the h a z a r d s of storm; there is a m o r e general division b e t w e e n the dangers of W a r and the d a n g e r s of the Sea, a n d perhaps also the suggestion of a contrast between trial b y Fire i flammas, 110) and trial by W a t e r (cf. 02). T h e h y p e r b o l i c a l 'mille sequentia tela' 7 and the universalizing omnia and omnis reveal A e n e a s ' e m o t i o n a l state at this point.

( 7 ) 7-3oi: B

absumptae in Teucros vires caelique marisque. J u n o s u m m a r i z e s her efforts in the first five books to destroy the T r o j a n s at sea; the reference to Sea a n d S k y , universalizing from the m o r e localized themes o f storm a n d sea monster, acts as a prelude to the even more c o m p r e h e n s i v e division b e t w e e n U p p e r and L o w e r W o r l d s ; it is to the latter that she n o w turns for reinforcements in her struggle, 7.312 (03). V e n u s , c o m p l a i n i n g a b o u t J u n o ' s m o b i l i z a t i o n of the U n d e r w o r l d , alludes to the H o m e r i c division o f the universe by lot (sors, 10.40). (B8| 10.695; vim cunctam atque minas perfert caelique marisque. W i t h ' f u g i u n t v a s t o a e t h e r c n i m b i ' c o m p a r e L u c r . 1.6 'te, d e a , te f u g i u n t v e n t i , te n u b i l a caeli'. 6

7 C f . N o r d e n o n ' p e r f l a m m a s et mille s e q u e n t i a t e l a ' ( n o ; : 'eine d u r c h die S t a r k e des A f f e k t s b e d i n g t e Ü b e r t r e i b u n g ' .

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S IN T H E AEN'EID

301

M e z e n t i u s is c o m p a r e d to a rock. H e r e the sea-storm m o t i f of S k y and Sea appears, isolated in the last part of the Aeneid, in a simile. T h e H o m e r i c m o d e l is Iliad 1 5 . 6 1 8 ff., w h e r e Sea a n d S k y are both represented, b u t the universalizing caelique mansque (= Aen. 7.301; B7) is n e w in V i r g i l . See a b o v e , pp. 286 f. T h e following t w o e x a m p l e s are taken o u t o f sequence, since the Sky/Sea d i c h o t o m y serves different ends in them. (BG)

1.287:

im peri urn Oceano, fa mam qui terminet astris. T h i s is f o r m a l l y a Sea/Sky d i c h o t o m y , b u t in substance it is a v a r i a n t of the H e a v e n / E a r t h division; in general form it is close to 6.782 (A 4); both lines sum u p i m p o r t a n t passages of historical prophecy. (BIO) 3 . 1 5 6

ff:

nos te Dardania incensa tuaque arm a secuti nos tumidum sub te permensi classibus aequor, idem ventures tollemus in astro nepotes imperiumque urbi dabimus. T h i s p r o p h e c y b y the Penates encapsulates the w h o l e trajectory of T r o j a n - R o m a n history as presented by V i r g i l , from the destruction o f one city to the w o r l d - e m p i r e of another; within these e x t r e m e terms there is a s e c o n d a r y contrast b e t w e e n the S e a - j o u r n e y passively e n d u r e d by the Penates as c a m p followers of A e n e a s a n d the future j o u r n e y to the S k y w h i c h they actively p r o m o t e . F o r the contrast b e t w e e n F l a m e s of w a r a n d S e a - j o u r n e y see 6 . 1 1 0 ff. (B6); the Penates experience the same h a z a r d s as Anchises, but unlike him they are not m o r t a l , and will survive to see the future g l o r y of R o m e . ' S k y a n d Sea' is not a pure universal expression, for it omits the logically co-ordinated division of E a r t h ; V i r g i l ' s use of the d i c h o t o m y is therefore restricted chiefly to the theme o f the storm at Sea as it affects the T r o j a n s in their search for their promised L a n d . Juno d r a w s out the implied contrast b e t w e e n this g o a l and the obstacles presented by Sea and Sky in the words w h i c h follow her final s u m m a t i o n o f the dangers of the S e a - j o u r n e y i n g of the first h a l f of the p o e m (7.303 f ; cf. B 7 I:

37°

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - . COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

optato conduntur Thybridis alveo securi pelagi atque mei. T h e absence o f l a n d is also m a d e explicit in two of the tripartite universal expressions applied to storms, 3.192 f., 5.8 f. (F6, FIO). A n u m b e r of the instances discussed above also fall short of universality in that they d o not pretend to a p p l y to the totality of the divisions of Sea and Sky (for example, 4.52 f , B3). T h e r e is in fact an inbuilt a m b i v a l e n c e in the polar expression, whose two terms need not c o m p r e h e n d the totality of themselves. 'Sea and Sky were troubled' m a y mean not that the whole divisions of the universe allotted to the Sea and S k y were disturbed, but only those parts in w h i c h a particular action takes place. It is quite natural to talk in such a w a y even w h e r e there is no pretence that the w h o l e universe is involved, and w e shall see that the same a m b i v a l e n c e facilitates the transition from the realistic description of local conditions to the exaggerated claim for true universality; this m a y o c c u r either in hyperbolical statements prompted b y emotion, as at 1.129, 5.790 f., 6 . 1 1 3 , 7.301 (BJ, B4, B6, B7) above; or in the transfer from one scale of m a g n i t u d e to another consequent 011 the application of allegory, notably in the G i g a n t o m a c h i c allusion that runs through the description of the storm in book one of the Aeneid. In some cases (for e x a m p l e , 1.129, BI) the two forms of exaggeration coincide. T h e universal expression thus falls into place as yet another of the manifold devices by w h i c h Virgil is able to shift easily between a localized, historical, narrative and allusion to themes of universal, extra-historical, purport. (c). Earth and Sea ( c i ) 1.3 if.:

multum ilie et terris iactatus et alto vi superum, saevae memorem Tunonis ob iram, muJta quoque et bello passus. T h i s must be discussed with reference to the p r i m a r y H o m e r i c

model, Odyssey 1.3 f : 7TO\X(X)V

S*

dvBpdmwv

noXXa S* o y* tv

TTOVTCO

t8cv

darea

xal voov

eyvoj,

wddev dXyea oV Kara

Bvfxov.

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S I N T H E AEN'EID O f m a n y m e n h e s a w t h e cities a n d k n e w t h e i r m i n d s , a n d

303 many

griefs h e s u f f e r e d in his h e a r t w h i l e o n t h e sea.

T h e repetition of

. . . T T O W O . is picked u p in the V i r g i l i a n multurn . . . multa, b u t there the parallelism stops, for the pol y p t o t o n in the Aeneid sets u p a division b e t w e e n the O d y s s e a n a n d the Iliadic c o m p o n e n t s of the poem. 8 T h e r e is an implicit division b e t w e e n L a n d a n d Sea in the O d y s s e a n p r o e m , since it is on land that O d y s s e u s visits the cities of men, but the division is not e m p h a s i z e d , a n d , if it did suggest the V i r g i l i a n d i c h o t o m y of terns and alto, then it must be allowed that V i r g i l has substituted the theme o f suffering on land for that of experience on land. But it is not clear that Aeneid 1 . 3 - 4 does refer exclusively to the ' O d y s s e a n ' part of the p o e m ; taken on their o w n , before w e read on to line 5, the lines 'multurn illc et terris iactatus et alto / vi s u p e r u m , sac v a c m e m o r e m Iunonis o b i r a m ' function a d e q u a t e l y as a s u m m a r y of the w h o l e Aeneid, with inversion of the sequence of O d y s s e a n troubles in the course o f w a n d e r i n g s at Sea 9 and the Iliadic troubles of w a r on L a n d ; both arc obviously m o t i v a t e d by the a n g e r of J uno. T T O A A C O V

But even if we take 'terris iactatus et alto' to refer exclusively to the first six books of the Aeneid, the point remains that V i r g i l , d e p a r t i n g from his H o m e r i c model, introduces right at the b e g i n n i n g of his epic a polar expression that sets the stage for the action of his hero. 1 0 T h i s is no more accidental than a n y other feature o f these h i g h l y crafted lines. T h e phrase 'terris iactatus et alto / vi s u p e r u m ' also conceals a tripartite division of E a r t h , Sea, and H e a v e n (the last expressed t h r o u g h its inhabitants), w h i c h contains the further bipartition of the W o r l d of M e n ( E a r t h and Sea) and the W o r l d of the G o d s ; for this u n e q u a l division of a tripartite scheme c o m p a r e 8

A c l o s e r ( v e r b a l l y ) O d y s s e a n m o d e l for Aen. 1.3 ff. m a y in f a c t be f o u n d at

Od.

13,90 f., s u m m a r i z i n g the e x p e r i e n c e o f O d y s s e u s both w i t h i n the Odyssey a n d in e a r l i e r times, os nplv •re Kv^ara Virgilian 9

fxiv

fidXa

rroXXd ira9'

rrtipcov (91 =11.

dXyea Sv

Kara

6vp.ov j av&pdjv

24.8; w i t h the z e u g m a in nelpoiv

rt

nroXip.ovs

c o m p a r e that

dAeyeiva in t h e

iactatus).

It is the sea t h a t is stressed as t h e s e t t i n g o f the T r o j a n ' s O d y s s e a n t r o u b l e s at t h e

end o f the p r o e m , aequore 29, maria 32. 10

C o n t r a s t the m a j o r - k e y p r e s e n t a t i o n of the divisions o f the u n i v e r s e , the s t a g e for

his ' e p i c ' , w i t h w h i c h L u c r e t i u s o p e n s the De Rerurn Natura; it is not i m p o s s i b l e t h a t V i r g i l has in f a c t p i c k e d u p a hint f r o m L u c r e t i u s here as to the g e n e r a l s t r a t e g y o f i n t r o d u c i n g a p r o g r a m m a t i c u n i v e r s a l expression.

37°

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - . COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

1.223 f. (F 2). (C2j I.235 hinc fore ductores, revocato a sanguine T e u c r i , q u i mare, q u i terras o m n i s d i c i o n e t e n e r e n t .

T h i s is a n u n a m b i g u o u s s t a t e m e n t o f f u t u r e R o m a n w o r l d e m p i r e , addressed b y V e n u s to the ruler o f the universe ( 1 . 2 2 9 f ) . J u p i t e r , to lend w e i g h t to her c o m p l a i n t t h a t the T r o j a n s are c u r r e n t l y e x c l u d e d f r o m the w h o l e w o r l d [cunctus orbis, 233), a n d h a v e suffered s h i p w r e c k at S e a . I n the res t a t e m e n t o f the c o m p l a i n t , at lines 250 ff., the scope o f R o m a n p o w e r is w i d e n e d to i n c l u d e the third w o r l d - d i v i s i o n , the S k y ('caeli q u i b u s a d n u i s a r c e m ' , 2 5 0 ) ; n for the p a r t i c u l a r contrast o f present w a n d e r i n g s a n d future j o u r n e y to the stars, c o m p a r e 3 . 1 5 6 FF. (BIO). T h e l a n g u a g e is close to a n o t h e r s t a t e m e n t o f universal rule c o n n e c t e d w i t h V e n u s , at L u c r e t i u s 1.3 f.: q u a e m a r e n a v i g e r u m , q u a e terras frugiferentis concelebras.

C o m p a r e also L u c r . 1.278. ( c 3 ) 1.598 f.: reliquias D a n a u m ,

terraeque marisque

omnibus exhaustos iam casibus, o m n i u m egenos.

A e n e a s addresses D i d o for the first time, expressing in e m o t i o n ally h e i g h t e n e d f o r m (omnibus, omnium, 599) the basic t h e m e o f T r o j a n s u f f e r i n g b y L a n d a n d S e a as w e h a v e seen it a l r e a d y p r e s e n t e d , o b j e c t i v e l y , in the p r o e m ( c i ) . (C4)

1.756: o m n i b u s e r r a n t e m terris et jluctibus.

T h i s is, w i t h the a d d i t i o n o f the h y p e r b o l i c a l omnibus, a simple s t a t e m e n t o f the basic O d y s s e a n t h e m e o f wandering b y L a n d a n d S e a , 1 2 a less s t r o n g f o r m o f the t h e m e o f suffering b y L a n d 11

T h e literal sense o f this is a r e f e r e n c e to a p o t h e o s i s , h u t the c h o i c e o f the w o r d

arcem picks u p the i d e a o f the e x t e n s i o n oí political p o w e r o v e r L a n d a n d S e a . Arx caeli m a y also m e a n the ' z e n i t h ' , a n d c o r r e s p o n d s to vertice at line 225, the a c t u a l l o c a t i o n of the s u p r e m e r u l e r o f t h e u n i v e r s e at t h e t i m e t h a t V e n u s addresses h i m . 12

Od. 1.2 TTÁáyx&Tj; 8 . 5 7 3 a.TT(TTÁ.áyxOr¡s, in A J c i n o u s ' r e q u e s t to O d y s s e u s to tell his

story, the direct m o d e l for D i d o ' s request in the A em id ,

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S IN T H E A EN EI D

2

95

a n d Sea, as seen in the p r e c e d i n g e x a m p l e . T h e polar expression is p r o m i n e n t l y placed in the very last line of book one, a n d , with i .3 ( c i ) , forms a ring enclosing the w h o l e book. (C5) 2.69 f : heu, quae nunc tellus . . . quae me aequora possunt accipere? Sinon here exploits the ' q u o v e r t a m ' topos, expressed in terms of exclusion from the m a j o r world-divisions. 1 3 F o r the t h e m e of total exclusion from the world c o m p a r e Ilioneus' c o m p l a i n t at T.540 that, after b a r e l y escaping f r o m the Sea, 'hospitio p r o h i b e m u r h a r e n a e ' , a n d also V e n u s ' c o m p l a i n t to J u p i t e r at 1.233, 'cunctus ob I t a l i a m terrarum c l a u d i t u r orbis'; cf. also 10.44 £ (c6) 4.240 f.: [talaria] . . , quae sublimem alis sive aequora supra seu terram rapido pariter cum flamine portant. T h i s is based directly on a H o m e r i c model, Odyssey 5.45 f. ( = II. 24.341 f.):

I 7T€ÔtAct ]

. . .

TO.

7jS* £77* àvçipova

fJ.IV

yaîav


â/ia

r/flCV

m'oifjç

€(f)f

vyprjv

àvé/xoLo.

[his sandals] which carry him both over the wet sea and over the boundless earth together with the blasts of the wind. T h e presence of the winds adds, secondarily, the dimension of the S k y , t h o u g h here only the l o w e r a t m o s p h e r e ( M e r c u r y ' s p o w e r o v e r the winds is e l a b o r a t e d further at lines 245 1"). (C7) 5.627 if.:

cum fréta, cum terras omnis, tot inhospita saxa sideraque emensae ferimur, dum per mare magnum Italiam sequimur fugientem et vol vim ur und is. 23

C f . S e r v . a d Am.

2.69 'tellus

et aequora b e n e c o n c i l i â t m i s e r a t i o n e m , d e

com-

m u n i b u s d u o b u s exclusus e l e m e n t i s . ' U n i v e r s a l i z i n g f o r m u l a s are n o t in f a c t all t h a t c o m m o n in the topos; the s p e a k e r n o r m a l l y o n l y c o n s i d e r s a n d rejects a set o f specific possibilities o f r e f u g e (as S i n o n goes o n to d o ) . B u t c o m p a r e C i e . Mur. 89 ' a d O r i e n i i s n e partis . . .? an s e i n c o n t r a r i a m p a r t e m t e r r a r u m a b d e t . . .?'; S e n . Med. peti terras iubes? / q u a e m a r i a m o n s t r a s ? ' ; [ Q u i n t . J Deel.

4 5 3 f. ' q u a s

12.28 ' q u o m o d o m e a scelere

rneo d i v e l l e r e m ? in q u a s u l t i m a s terras, q u a e i n h o s p i t a l i a m a r i a c o n d e r e m ? '

37°

V I R G I L ' S AENEID-.

COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

'Beroe' voices the exhaustion of the T r o j a n w o m e n ; the first t w o terms present the theme o f w a n d e r i n g by Sea and L a n d , but the dum-clause contains the different idea of the search for L a n d across Sea (see C 1 3 - 1 5 ) . (c8) 6.83 £; o tandem rnagnis pelagi defuncte periclis (sed terrae graviora manent). A n i m p o r t a n t a n d p r o g r a m m a t i c statement in the m o u t h o f the Sibyl, referring us b a c k to the terms laid o u t in 1.3 f. ( c i ) , a n d i n d i c a t i n g that a part of those sufferings is n o w past. It clearly suggests the distribution of Sea to the O d y s s e a n h a l f of the Aeneid and of L a n d to the Iliadic half. T h e b r o a d a n d unspecific reference to Sea a n d L a n d is here further e v o c a t i v e of the traditional style o f oracles. (eg) 6.692 f.: quas ego te terras et quanta per aequora vectum accipio! quantis iactatum, nate, periclis! Anchises w e l c o m e s his son in the U n d e r w o r l d , c o m b i n i n g

the two themes of suffering and wandering by Land and Sea (cf. C3, c 4 ) . 1 4 ( c i o ) 9.492: hoc sum terraque manque seeuta? T h e m o t h e r of E u r y a l u s laments the futility of her j o u r n e y i n g s w i t h her son, n o w that he is d e a d ; she is an i n d i v i d u a l exemplification of the c o m m o n T r o j a n destiny of w a n d e r i n g b y L a n d a n d Sea. It also looks like a v a r i a n t of a stock e p i t a p h motif; the theme of w a n d e r i n g by L a n d a n d Sea is transferred from the d e a d person to the m o u r n e r . 1 5 ( e n ) 10.55 f.: 14

T h e L a n d / S e a d i v i s i o n possibly also e c h o e s the s p e e c h w i t h w h i c h the spirit o f

O d y s s e u s ' m o t h e r r e c o g n i z e s her son, in w h i c h she s p e c u l a t e s on h o w O d y s s e u s m i g h t h a v e a r r i v e d b y L a n d (Od. 1 1 . 1 5 9 ) 15

o r

^y S e a ,

C f . T i b . 1-3.56 ' M e s s a l l a m terra d u m s e q u i t u r q u e m a r i ' ; Carm, Epigr.

1845.2 ff.

(a nurse) ' o c c i d i t h a e c L i b y c i s c o m i t a n s nos g r a n d i s a b oris / p e r f r e t a p e r terras s e d u l a

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S IN T H E

AEN'EID 326

q u i d p e s t e m e v a d e r e belli i u v i t et A r g o l i c o s m e d i u m f u g i s s e p e r i g n i s totque

maris

vastaeque exhausta pericula

terrae.

V e n u s , in the presence o f J u n o , sums u p the sufferings o f the T r o j a n s in the first six books (Mum L a t i u m q u a e r u n t ' , 58). C o m p a r e 1.598 f. (03), with its h o m o p h o n o u s , but nons y n o n y m o u s use o f exhaustos; for the sense o f exhausta c o m p a r e 7 . 3 0 1 ( B 7 ) . 1 6 F o r the sequence of flames o f w a r (Argolicos ignis, 56), followed by t w o world-divisions, c o m p a r e G . i i o f f . , 3 . 1 5 6 ff. (B6, BIO); there is perhaps a hint of trial by the elements ( c o m p a r e 02). (C12)

10.377

maris m a g n a c l a u d i t n o s d e e s t i a m terra f u g a e : p e l a g u s ecce

obice pontus, T r o i a m n e petamus?

T h i s is a v a r i a t i o n o n the ' q u o vert a m ' topos (cf. C5); there is no r o o m for retreat by L a n d , and flight by Sea is s h a m e f u l . T h e L a n d / S e a d i c h o t o m y is a l r e a d y present in the H o m e r i c model, Iliad 16.67 £ ( c f- also 15.739 01 Sk pTjypLivt BaAaoorjs \ /

K€KAiarai,

t

» \ >

"

)(UJprj
en

"

pioipav

w

e^ovre?.

T h e y a r e u p a g a i n s t t h e b r e a k e r s o f t h e sea, h o l d i n g o n o n l y to a s m a l l bit o f l a n d .

T h e final g r o u p of L a n d / S e a expressions differs in that the two world-divisions are not c o - o r d i n a t e as in the p r e c e d i n g instances. ( C 1 3 ) 2 . 7 8 0 f.: l o n g a tibi e x s i l i a et v a s t u m et

terram

maris

aequor arandum,

Hesperiae venies.

C r e u s a lays out the basic theme of the first h a l f of the Aeneid, the crossing o f Sea in search for the final resting-place on L a n d . N o t e the conceit b y w h i c h in order to reach the rich agricultural d u m s e q u i t u r ' ; i b i d . 1 1 8 5 . 7 ff- f ° r

a

d i f f e r e n t a p p l i c a t i o n o f ' p e r m a r e , p e r terras' in a n

epitaph. 16

C f . L i v y 2 5 . 3 1 . 7 'sibi o m n i u m l a b o r u m p e r i c u l o r u m q u e c i r c a m o e n i a S y r a c u s a n a

t e r r a m a r i q u e t a m d i u e x h a u s t o r u m ' ; 3 3 . 3 9 . 6 ' R o m a n o s p e r rot a n n o s terra m a r i q u e t a n t a p e r i c u l a ac l a b o r e s e x h a u s i s s e ' .

37

2

V I R G I L ' S A EN E ID: COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

L a n d o f I t a l y (781 f ) A e n e a s must first plough the S e a .

(C14) 3-495 ffvobis parta quies: n u l l u m

arva

maris

aequor arandum,

n e q u e Ausoniae semper cedentia retro

quaerenda.

H e l e n u s ' b a n d h a v e a c h i e v e d A e n e a s ' desired g o a l (with quies c o m p a r e 1 . 2 0 5 sedes quietas) in the terms set b y C r e u s a in the preceding example. (C15)

10.650: hac dabitur dextra

tell us q u a e s i t a

per

undas.

T u r n us taunts A e n e a s ; the H o m e r i c m o t i f o f d e a t h as del i v e r a n c e to the e a r t h is c l e v e r l y c o m b i n e d w i t h the t h e m e o f search for L a n d across the S e a , as f o u n d in the last t w o examples.17 O f the t w o - t e r m universal expressions the E a r t h / S e a division is the most c o m m o n in the Aeneid. T h i s reflects the basic H o m e ric s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f the p o e m , the l a b o u r s o f the h e r o in the n a t u r a l a n d h u m a n worlds. It also reflects the p r e s e n c e o f b o t h the Odyssey a n d the Iliad as t w o m o d e l s o f r o u g h l y e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e , b u t w e h a v e seen t h a t the f r a m e w o r k o f E a r t h a n d S e a is also a p p l i e d to the strictly Odyssean w a n d e r i n g s o f A e n e a s ; there is in fact a p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f E a r t h / S e a expressions in the first h a l f o f the p o e m . B u t the H o m e r i c m o d e l s are not a n e x h a u s t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n o f V i r g i l ' s p r e d i l e c t i o n for these s c h e m a t i c expressions; in a n u m b e r o f instances w e h a v e n o t e d that the i m m e d i a t e H o m e ric m o d e l does not m a k e use o f a p o l a r expression. A n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r in V i r g i l i a n u s a g e is the i n f l u e n c e o f the l a n g u a g e o f politics a n d o f p o l i t i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y h i s t o r i o g r a p h y . T h e use o f phrases like Kara yrjv ?
W i t h quaesita (650) cf. quaerenda ( 3 . 4 9 7 ) .

18

F o r a b r i e f history o f the use o f the f o r m u l a see A . M o m i g l i a n o , ' T e r r a m a r i q u e ' ,

JRS

32 ( j 9 4 2 ) 5 53 64; see also F. W . W r a l h a n k , ' A l c a e u s o f M e s s e n e , P h i l i p V , a n d

R o m e ' , £ £ ¿ 3 6 ( 1 9 4 2 ) , 1 3 4 - 4 5 ; B u c h h e i t , Anspruch, p. 136 n. 5 7 9 , f o r a rich c o l l e c t i o n o f l i t e r a r y a n d visual m a t e r i a l w h i c h also d e m o n s t r a t e s the d e p e n d e n c e o f A u g u s t a n u s a g e o n the p r e c e d e n t o f A l e x a n d e r the G r e a t ; see also G e r n e n t z , p p . 107 f.

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S I N T H E A EN EI D

95

2

such expressions are used in a local and restricted sense, to refer to those parts of land a n d sea o v e r w h i c h a p a r t i c u l a r p o w e r held s w a y , 1 9 but from Hellenistic times on they are regularly e m p l o y e d to express a c l a i m to universal empire; p r o p a g a n d a or e n c o m i u m a n d reality are tenuously connected. 2 0 T h e first use of the Earth/Sea d i c h o t o m y in this sense with reference to R o m e a p p e a r s to be in the Alexandra of L y c o p h r o n (that is, possibly as early as the early third c e n t u r y BC); it figures in a n o t h e r G r e e k p a n e g y r i c of R o m e , M e l i n n o ' s Hymn to Rome;21 the f o r m u l a then b e c a m e a standard c o m p o n e n t in the p r o p a g a n d a o f the l a t e - R e p u b l i c a n general, 2 2 a n d then ofthe princeps. In A u g u s t a n usage the stress m a y lie on the p e a c e b r o u g h t by the R o m a n s to L a n d a n d Sea; for an early e x a m p l e see A p p i a n Bella Civilia 5.542, a description of a g o l d e n statue of O c t a v i a n set u p in 36 BC with an inscription stating that he had restored peace b y L a n d and Sea; or, more aggressively, stress m a y lie on the rule exercised over L a n d a n d Sea. T h e f o r m u l a w a s used in the w o r d s that a c c o m p a n i e d the closing of the temple o f J a n u s , 'terra m a r i q u e p a r t a p a x ' ; 2 3 but possibly its most f a m o u s a p p l i c a t i o n in A u g u s t a n i d e o l o g y w a s in the p r o p a g a n d a built u p a r o u n d the victory a t A c t i u m ; 2 4 the w o r d s ' p a c e p a r t a terra m a r i q u e ' were to be read on the v i c t o r y m o n u m e n t erected on the site o f O c t a v i a n ' s c a m p at Nicopolis. 2 5 T h e existence of both poetic and historiographical models for E a r t h / S e a expressions is itself a f a c t o r w h i c h m a y h a v e 1B

F o r a n e a r l y e x a m p l e w i t h u n i v e r s a l i z i n g pretensions see T h u g * 2 . 4 1 . 4 (the F u -

n e r a l S p e e c h of P e r i c l e s ) (men

p,èv

TO

p,èv dâXaaaav

Kai ov&èv TrpooSeo^evot

REbv
avTLKa rtptjiii, ko.1 yrjv ¿a^arov

ttj rjfifTfpa

TTJV

ovre

virôvoiav

'Op.r)pov RJ

¿natvirov

à\"i)0(ia

ovre

oarLS

$X¿¡/(ET, CLAÀÀ -rrâaav

ToXp,r) x a r a r a y * r a o , a i T i s yevéaSai.

This m i g h t

i m p l y t h a t p a n e g y r i c i n e p i c a l r e a d y d e a l t in s u c h e x a g g e r a t e d c l a i m s to

universal

r u l e ; it a l s o a l l u d e s to t h e t o p o s o f t h e u n i v e r s a l r a n g e o f s o n g (e.g. T h e o g . 2 3 7 ff.}", T h u s Ï h e o c . I 7 91 f- OâXaaua Sè vâua

20

Kai ata / xal iroTapol

KeXaBovres

RIVTIGAOVTAI

FlroXep-aiw. 31

S e e C . M . B o w r a , ' M e l i n n o ' s H y m n t o R o m e ' , JRS

47 ( 1 9 5 7 ) , 21-8.

22

e . g . a p p l i e d to P o m p e y : C i c . Bulb. 6 . 1 6 ; SIG * \ S / » \ ~

(Mytilene) I niv

KaTaoxovTas 23

rav

oiKV(j,evai'

L i v y i . 1 9 . 3 ; A u g . Anc.

iraAepiOiç

KCLI

Kara

yav

xai

751 i

Kara

KATAXVAAVRA

TOLS

uaAaaoav.

1 3 . S e e J . G a g é , ' A c t i a c a M E F R 5 3 ( 1 9 3 6 ) , 37

100, esp.

p, 8 1 . 24

J . G a g é , a r t . c i t . , 70 ff. ( w i t h s p e c u l a t i o n o n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f

o r i e n t a l i d e a s o f t h e r u l e r as ' m a s t e r o f t h e e l e m e n t s ' ) . O f t h e R o m a n p o e t i c t r e a t m e n t s o f A c t i u m n o t e esp. P r o p . 4 . 6 . 3 9 ' v i n c e m a r i : i a m t e r r a t u a est'; H o r . Epod. 9 . 2 7 ' t e r r a m a r i q u e victus hostis'. 25

T h e r e s t o r a t i o n of marique s e e m s c e r t a i n : see J . H . O l i v e r , ' O c t a v i a n ' s i n s c r i p t i o n

at Nicopolis',

AJPh

90 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , 178

82.

37

2

V I R G I L ' S A EN E ID: COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

predisposed V i r g i l to their exploitation; the use of H o m e r i c models as vehicles for allusion to the events of R o m a n history is f u n d a m e n t a l to the conception of the poem. F u r t h e r m o r e , the a m b i v a l e n c e , w h i c h is as m u c h at the centre of Earth/Sea expressions as of the H e a v e n / S e a expressions discussed in the previous section, affords an easy transition from the local legendary to the universal historical. 'Victorious b y land and sea' m a y refer either to a set of victories in discrete parts of the two world-divisions, or it m a y imply a claim to the total mastery of L a n d and Sea; the history of the political use of such phrases indicates how easily the distinction can be glossed over. V i r g i l i a n usage shows the same division into the partial or local and the universal; as in the case of H e a v e n / S e a expressions, the partial m a y be hyperbolically elevated into the universal under the stress of emotion or as a rhetorical stratagem (this is, to a greater or lesser extent, true of C2, 03, 04, 05, e g , c í o , c i 1), but, as elsewhere, hyperbole m a y also serve ends which m a y be described as allegorical. T h e next two groups of bipartite divisions use terms other than parts of the visible natural world. (d) U p p e r and L o w e r Worlds (Heaven and Hell) (or) 4 . 2 4 fT.: sed mihi vel tellus optem prius ima dehiscat vel pater omnipotens adigat me fulmine ad umbras, pallentis umbras Erebo noctemque profundam. D i d o appeals to the a v e n g i n g powers of the U p p e r and L o w e r W o r l d s to ensure her fidelity to her dead husband. T h i s might be analysed as a tripartite division between H e a v e n (Jupiter), E a r t h , and Hell, but tellus ima is almost a s y n o n y m for Hades, viewed as the place beneath the earth. The powers of the U p p e r and L o w e r W o r l d s are here envisaged as g u a r d i a n s of the same moral order. O n the function of this passage in the structure of book four see a b o v e , pp. 269 71. (D2)

7.I40:

duplicis cae loque Ereboq ue parentis. In his first p r a y e r on the soil of L a t i u m (see F I 5) A e n e a s invokes

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S I N T H E A EN EI D95 2

the powers of both the U p p e r and L o w e r W o r l d s by including his t w o parents. (03)

7.3T2:

fleet ere si nequeo superos, Acheronta rnovebo. T h i s occurs in the key passage for the motivation of the w h o l e of the second half of the Aeneid through the intervention of A l l e c t o , and is to be taken closely with J u n o ' s statement that she has exhausted the forces of H e a v e n and Sea, 7.301 (137;, T h e r e is a H o m e r i c model for the idea (though not the reality) of Hera/Juno resorting to the U n d e r w o r l d , 2 6 but without the dual is tic concept of an evil Hell set against a good H e a v e n w h i c h is implied here, and w h i c h is vividly illustrated in the following description of the monstrously wicked Allecto. This dualism is an important feature of the Aeneid, and is closely associated with the exploitation of a moralized G i g a n t o m a c h y , most n o t a b l y in the episodes of the storm in book one and the fight between Hercules and C a c u s in book eight. It is also connected with Virgil's predilection for the vertical axis as an i m a g e of a hierarchy of values (cf. a b o v e , p. 198 n. 105).

(e) Europe and Asia; the oik u in en c T h i s form of universal expression is derived from the h u m a n rather than the natural or theological worlds (though it m a y also refer to a purely physical-geographical division). The ancients were uncertain w h e t h e r to divide the oikumene into two or three continents; 2 7 the bipartite division is most important

in the Aeneid. (ei)

1.384

f:

ipse ignotus, egens, Libyae deserta peragro, Europa atque Asia pulsus. H e r e there is a three-continent division, but L i b y a is not treated 26

II. 8 . 4 7 7 ft. ( Z e u s defies H e r a )

v e j a r a neipaff' ' Yntpiovos

"x-qai / yeu'ijs *at

*HtXioio

I

TTPTTOVT*

OIDTV

TTOVTOIO,

OUT*

5' tya>

OVK

aAeyi£o> f ^tuo/xiinj?, ou8*
tV '/an-cros re Kpovos

avepioicn, fiaOvs St r e Tdprapos

re j RJFJ.(vot o u r '

avyrfs

i$. H e y n e q u o t e s

A e s c h . Supp. 1 5 4 - 6 1 , w h e r e a g a i n t h e r e is n o r a d i c a l d u a l i s m . 27

T h e t w o - c o n t i n e n t s c h e m e c o u l d be used as a c o m p r e h e n s i v e d e v i c e , g i v e n t h a t

L i b y a / A f r i c a w a s o f t e n i n c l u d e d as p a r t o f E u r o p e : cf. H o u s m a n o n L u c a n 9 . 4 1 3 .

37°

V I R G I L ' S AENEID-.

COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

on the same level as the other two; it is the deserted continent to A e n e a s (so far he has only met animals a n d gods), a n d is therefore distinguished from the oikumene ( E u r o p e a n d Asia). 2 8 F o r the theme of exclusion see 1.233 ( c 5 ) (E2) 7 . 2 2 2 if.:

quanta per Idaeos saevis effusa Mycenis tempestas ierit carnpos, quibus actus uterque Europae atque Asiae fatis concurrent orbis. Ilioneus elevates the T r o j a n W a r to the status o f a w o r l d w a r , in a c o n t e x t otherwise strongly universalizing, and w h i c h also appeals to a s e m i - m y t h i c a l construction o f world history in the f o l l o w i n g reference to a F l o o d , a h e i g h t e n i n g o f the c o m m o n storm i m a g e o f w a r . Cf. HI, a n d see a b o v e , P. 192. (E3) 1 0 . 9 0

f.: quae causa fuit consurgere in arma Europamque Asiamque et foedera solvere furto?

J u n o subscribes to the v i e w of the T r o j a n w a r expressed in the preceding example. (F.4) 1 2 . 7 0 7 f f . :

stupet ipse Latinus ingentis, genitos diversis partibus orbis, inter se coiisse viros et cernere ferro. T h i s passage is in k e e p i n g w i t h the elevated l a n g u a g e and the h y p e r b o l e of the last p a r t o f the last book o f the Aeneid (see a b o v e , pp. 288 ff.); L a t i n u s ' a w e is p r o m p t e d b o t h b y the sheer size of the t w o c o m b a t a n t s a n d by the t h o u g h t o f the distance that separates their places o f birth, in Asia a n d E u r o p e respectively. T h i s is as far as V i r g i l c a n go, in the context o f w h a t is really a v e r y local skirmish, t o w a r d s suggesting that E u r o p e and A s i a clash in a rerun o f the T r o j a n W a r . T h e universalizing a c c o u n t o f the T r o j a n W a r as the clash o f E u r o p e a n d A s i a is not H o m e r i c , but was d e v e l o p e d by H e r o dotus as the result of reflection on the analogies b e t w e e n the T r o j a n and Persian W a r s . 2 9 T h e r e a f t e r the E u r o p e / A s i a divi28

A u s t i n ad Joe. d e s c r i b e s E u r o p e a n d A s i a as ' t h e c i v i l i z e d w o r l d ' .

29

H d t . 1.4. T h e d i v i s i o n also c o r r e s p o n d s to a B a r b a r i a n / G r e e k ( E u r o p e a n ) d i c h o -

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S I N T H E AEN'EID

313

sion was a fixed part of G r e e k ideology in their relations with Persia; it was central to the thinking of Isocrates, 3 0 and was used to describe the universal conquests of A l e x a n d e r the G r e a t . 3 1 In R o m a n poetry before V i r g i l it is used of the T r o j a n W a r by C a t u l l u s (68.89): Troia (nefas!) commune sepulcrum Asiae Europaeque. 32

II.

D I S T R I B U T I O N

O V E R

T H R E E

T E R M S

(f) Heaven, Earth, and Sea (Fi) 1.58 £: [venti] . . . maria ac terras caelumque profundurn quippe ferant rapidi secum verrantque per auras. T h i s is based closely on Lucretius 1.277 ff. V i r g i l ' s caelum profundurn and ferant radically universalize Lucretius' picture of the three divisions (see a b o v e , pp. 92 f.); his m y t h o l o g i c a l treatment of the winds also shifts the field of discourse from scientific description to the archaic topos of divine (or demonic) p o w e r in the three regions, here purely destructive. T h e passage has the further i m p o r t a n c e of being the first airing in the p o e m of the theme of divine control over the three world-divisions. Practical illustration of the catastrophic p o w e r of the winds follows in the detailed description of the storm in lines 81 ff.; here we have disturbance on L a n d ('terras turbine perflant', 83), at Sea ('incubuerc m a r i ' etc., 84 ff.), and in the Sky t o m y , i m p l i e d in t h e s a m e p a s s a g e o f H e r o d o t u s ; cf. H o r . Epist. 1.2.7 ' G r a e c i a B a r b a r i a e l e n t o collisa d u e l l o ' , a n d see E . K e m m e r , Die polare Ausdrucksweise,

p p . 88 ff. T h i s l a t t e r

d i c h o t o m y w a s o b v i o u s l y n o t a p p l i c a b l e in the V i r g i l i a n a c c o u n t o f the e n c o u n t e r o f T r o j a n a n d I t a l i a n , b u t it u n d e r l i e s t h e t r e a t m e n t o f the B a t t l e o f A c t i u m o n t h e S h i e l d of Aeneas. 30

S e e A , M o m i g l i a n o , ' L ' E u r o p a c o m e c o n c e t t o p o l i t i c o presso I s o c r a t e e gli Iso-

c r a t e i ' , RFIC

61 ( 1 9 3 3 ) , 4 7 7 - 8 7 . C f . I s o c r a t e s ' v i e w o f the T r o j a n W a r , Helen 51 Kal

rat)r' iirolovv ovx virip AXe£dv&pou Kai MeveXdov tfuXoviKovvreg, aXX at pLtv vvtp rrjs 01 8* vrrep rrjs Evpajirrjs, ev8aifj.oveoT£pav 31

vofxi^ovres,

rrjv \djpai'

ev OTroripa TO adjp.a Tovxeivijs

KaTotKrjoeie,

Aulas, ravrrjv

¿oeaOai.

F o r a n e a t v i s u a l s u m m a r y o f this t r a d i t i o n see t h e C h i g i relief (in the series o f

Tabulae Iliacae} d e p i c t i n g f i g u r e s o f E u r o p e a n d A s i a s u p p o r t i n g a shield incised w i t h scenes o f the d e c i s i v e b a t t l e by w h i c h A l e x a n d e r v i n d i c a t e d his c l a i m to u n i v e r s a l e m p i r e ; this I discuss in a n a r t i c l e f o r t h c o m i n g in JHS, a n d i d e o l o g i c a l aspects o f the S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s ' . 32

C f . also P r o p . 2.3.36.

'Imago mundi: cosmological

37

2

V I R G I L ' S A EN E ID: COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

('eripiunt subito nubes c a e l u m q u e d i e m q u e ' etc., 88 IT.}. S u c h features are o f course s t a n d a r d in epic descriptions o f storms; w h a t is peculiarly V i r g i l i a n is the constant pull in the direction o f the universal a n d h y p e r b o l i c . (F2)

1.223

luppiter aeihere summo despiciens mare velivolum terrasc\x\£ iacentis litoraque et latos populos, sic vertice caeli constitit et Libyae deiixit lumina regnis. T h i s is a n u n e q u a l presentation of the three divisions, but is g i v e n unity by the implication that J u p i t e r is (or should be) lord in all three areas. T h i s is o u r first direct view of the supreme g o d , fittingly in the setting of the three divisions o f the w o r l d ; w e also r e m e m b e r that it w a s to safeguard these three divisions that J u p i t e r imprisoned the winds (cf. FI). In the m e a n t i m e the winds h a v e escaped; god is in his h e a v e n , but all is not right with the w o r l d , as V e n u s c o m p l a i n s at length. N o t e also that J u p i t e r ' s reaffirmation o f his promise of future R o m a n w o r l d rule is delivered w i t h the stage o f that future history all laid out b e l o w us. T h i s scene thus functions as a 'cosmic setting' for the historical p r o p h e c y , and is structurally c o m p a r a b l e to the philosophical first part o f the Speech of Anchises (see a b o v e , p p . 69 ff.). T h e universal expression has no parallel in the H o m e r i c m o d e l , Iliad 8.51 f.:

avros 8* ev KopvfjoL KaOc^ero (loopotov Tpdjcuv re ttoXip Ka 1 vijas

K V S E ' I

yaicuv,

aicuv.

He sat on the mountain-tops exulting in his glory as he looked on the city of the Trojans and the ships of the Achaeans. T h e H o m e r i c Z e u s sits on the peaks of m o u n t I d a , not at the zenith of h e a v e n , and his v i e w is restricted to the local action of T r o j a n s and Greeks; V i r g i l ' s J u p i t e r focuses his g a z e on the i m m e d i a t e centre o f interest, A f r i c a , only after s u r v e y i n g the w h o l e w o r l d . 3 3 A closer parallel is found in the H o m e r i c Hymn

to Demeter, 69 f.: 33

C o m p a r e Aen.

10.3 f. ' s i d e r e a m in s e d e m , t e r r a s u n d e a r d u u s o m n i s / c a s t r a q u e

D a r d a n i d u m a s p e c t a t p o p u l o s q u e L a t i n o s ' , w h e r e t h e ( s a m e ) H o m e r i c m o d e l is a g a i n s u p p l e m e n t e d w i t h t h e p r e f a t o r y u n i v e r s a l i z i n g terras omnis.

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S IN T H E AEN'EID aAAa ov yap orj 1raaav em \uova Kai Kara ir\ P c./ i t aiuepog €K oirjs KaraocpKcai aKriveoot.

315

TTOVTOV

But with your rays you look down from the divine upper air on all the earth and the sea. T h i s is addressed to Helios b y D e m e t e r in her search for her d a u g h t e r , a n d the H o m e r i c phrase ' S u n , w h o sees all things' 3 4 is teased out into its c o m p o n e n t s , i n v o l v i n g the three w o r l d divisions. T h e V i r g i i i a n elevation of J u p i t e r to the aether is consonant with the philosophically-tinged piety of Hellenistic times; J u p i t e r is not here a c t u a l l y identified with the aether, for he occupies a delimited p a r t o f the caelum, "vertice caeli / constitit', (Aen. 1.225 f.), a n d he must be fully a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c to address V e n u s , b u t there is perhaps a passing allusion to a Stoicized Z e u s - P n e u m a ; c o m p a r e the m i x t u r e o f personal/ m y t h o l o g i c a l and n a t u r a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l (with the bias h e a v i l y towards the latter) at the b e g i n n i n g of the speech o f U r a n i a in Cicero's De Consulatu Meo (fr. 11 M o r e l ) : principio aetherio flammatus Iuppiter igni vertitur et totum conlustrat lumine mundum menteque divina caelum terrasque petessit.35 (,F3)

1.279

ff.:

quin aspera luno, quae mare nunc terrasque metu caelumque fatigat, con si li a in melius referet. J u p i t e r reassures V e n u s that the present disorder in the n a t u r a l w o r l d , p r o d u c e d b y the divine a g e n c y of J u n o , will not a l w a y s continue to threaten the promised empire of R o m e . T h e d a n g e r to J u p i t e r ' s cosmic dispensation envisaged in 1.58 f. ( f i ) will not materialize. (F4)

1.607

f.:

in freta dum fluvii current, dum rnontibus umbrae 34

II- 3-277-

®5

F o r a possible i n s t a n c e o f a p e r s o n a l i z e d

A e t h e r , also in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h

a

u n i v e r s a l e x p r e s s i o n , see E n n i u s seen. 284 ff. ' I u p p i t e r t u q u e a d e o , s u m m e Sol, q u i res o m n i s spicis, / q u i q u e t u o c u m l u m i n e m a r e t e r r a m c a e l u m contines, / inspice h o c facinus, prius q u a m

fiat,

prohibessis scelus'; H . D . J o c e l y n ,

The tragedies of

Ennius

( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 6 7 ) , p. 3 7 3 , takes line 285 as a n a d d r e s s to A e t h e r , as a d e i t y s e p a r a t e f r o m J u p i t e r a n d Sol,

316

V I R G I L ' S A E NE I ft: COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

iustrabunt convexa, polus dum sidera pascet. A e n e a s confirms his g r a t i t u d e to D i d o b y adynata spread over the three divisions of the w o r l d , Sea, E a r t h , and H e a v e n , arranged in a vivid ascending m o v e m e n t (sea a n d rivers, m o u n tains, stars); it is also possible to discern the presence of the four

elements, if umbrae is understood to refer to clouds (aer). T h e parts of the n a t u r a l w o r l d frequently figure in the adynaton; one of the central strategies o f the figure is precisely the transference of the certainties o f the operations o f the natural w o r l d to the contingencies o f the h u m a n world. 3 6 T h u s L u c r e t i u s is fond o f a p p e a l i n g to the c o n v e n t i o n a l form of the adynaton in order to reinforce his scientific proofs o f the i m m u t a b i l i t y of nature. 3 7 F e w examples; h o w e v e r , h a v e the impressive universality of this passage. 3 8 T h e r e is no need to d o u b t the sincerity o f A e n e a s ' protestations a t this point, b u t it is h a r d l y possible to read this effusion, w h i c h is heavily indebted to models in the Eclogues,39 w i t h o u t t h i n k i n g of the a w f u l consequences; with hindsight, the a p p e a l to cosmic certainties grates. T h e effect is similar to that p r o d u c e d by the solemn oaths of A e n e a s and L a t i n u s at the b e g i n n i n g of book twelve ( f i 8 , F19), i m m e d i a t e l y proved inefficacious b y the renewed o u t b r e a k of hostilities. I f there is a point, it is perhaps that the i n d i v i d u a l h u m a n actors are in fact i n c a p a b l e o f assimilating their most deeply held wishes to the u n e r r i n g course of natural events; in the w i d e r context of the w o r l d - v i e w expressed in the Aeneid this is perhaps p a r a d o x i c a l , since it is the design of P r o v i d e n c e that the h u m a n world on the large scale, in the form of R o m e , should align itself with the order o f the cosmos. In more general terms, the comparison with the oaths in Cf. E. D u t o i t , Le Thème de F adynaton dans la poésie antique (Paris, 1936), p. 163, 'le t h è m e de l ' a d y n a t o n représente q u e l q u e chose d e la vision q u e les A n c i e n s se sont créée de l ' u n i v e r s ' ; O v . Tr. 1.8.5 f. ( s u m m i n g u p a series o f adynata) ' o m n i a n a t u r a e p r a e p o s t e r a legibus ibunt, / p a r s q u e s u u m m u n d i nulla tenebit iter'. 36

37

L u c r e t i u s uses a n E a r t h / S e a / S k y tripartition w i t h adynata a t 1 . 1 6 1 fF., 3.784 if.

B u t the f o l l o w i n g are strongly universalizing: H d t . 5.92a; E u r . fr. 687 N a u c k ; H o r . Epod. 5 . 7 9 ft.; T i b . 1.4.65 f. 38

39 C f . the similar expression o f u n d y i n g g r a t i t u d e b y T i t y r u s in Eel. 1.59-63 'ante leves ergc p a s c e n t u r in a e t h e r e cervi / et fréta destituent nudos in litore piscis, / . . . / q u a m nostro illius l a b a t u r pectore vultus'; the w h o l e c o n t e x t seems to h a v e been in V i r g i l ' s m i n d : cf. Eel. 1.83 ' m o n t i b u s u m b r a e ' with A en. 1.607. L i n e 609 is repeated f r o m Eel. 5.78, a p r o m i s e o f the e v e r l a s t i n g c o m m e m o r a t i o n of D a p h n i s , f o l l o w i n g a similar series o f clauses w i t h dum.

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S I N T H E A EN EI D

2

95

book t w e l v e points to the formal religious l a n g u a g e of the o a t h as a p r i m a r y source of such universal expressions. (F5) 2 . 2 5 0 F:

ruit Oceano nox involvens umbra magna ierramque polumque. T h i s is a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of a n o n - c o o r d i n a t e d tripartite expression; it is a n a t u r a l w a y of describing the cosmic p h e n o m e n o n of night, a n d the b r o a d c a n v a s o f the universe is also present in H o m e r i c nightfalls. But the closest H o m e r i c model describes the preternatural nightfall a c c o m p a n y i n g a storm b r o u g h t 011 b y Poseidon, Odyssey 5.293 f.: avv yaiav

ofiou

KCLI

7TOVTOV

8« v€
opdtpei

naXvipe

ovpavoOev

vv£.

He wrapped earth and sea alike in clouds; night rushed down from heaven. 40 T h e selection o f this m o d e l hints at the 'storm' o f destruction w h i c h is soon to break o v e r the T r o j a n s . 4 1 C o m p a r e the universal ' n i g h t ' of the storm at 1.88 f. (F6) 3 . 1 9 2 F :

nee iam amplius ullae apparent terrae, caelum undique et undique pontus. T h i s is modelled closely on Odyssey 1 2 . 4 0 3 f. ( = 1 4 . 3 0 1 f ) : ovSe (fraivero

yaiaojv,

a A A ' ovpavos

r}8e

Ti?

dXXf] ddXaaaa.

no more land was to be seen, but only sky and sea. It is also related to the m o t i f of the search for L a n d over Sea: c f . Aen. (F7)

2 . 7 8 0 f . , 3 . 4 9 5 f. ( C 1 3 , c i 4 ) .

3.528:

di maris et terrae tempeslatumquv, potentes. 40

C f . also Od. 9.68 f., 1 2 . 3 1 4 f., b o t h in d e s c r i p t i o n s o f storms.

41

T h e h y p o t h e s i s o f a d e l i b e r a t e a l l u s i o n to t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e H o m e r i c m o d e l w o u l d

b e c o m p l i c a t e d if N o r d e n ' s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t ' r u i t O c e a n o n o x ' w a s a n E n n i a n p h r a s e w e r e c o r r e c t ; b u t see W i g o d s k y , p p .

121 f. F o r a d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s t o r m -

m e t a p h o r to the T r o j a n W a r see Aen. 7.222 f.

37°

V I R G I L ' S AENEID-.

COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

T h e gods o f the w e a t h e r (that is, the lower air) are included in this solemn p r a y e r for a fair w i n d , uttered b y Anchises on the first sighting o f I t a l y . T h e universal expression here comes from the religious l a n g u a g e o f R o m e ; c o m p a r e the p r a y e r o f Scipio before sailing to A f r i c a in 204 BC, w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g to L i v y , began

(29.27.1):

divi divaeque qui maria terrasque colitis. ( F 8 ) 4 . 1 6 6 FF.

prima et Tellus et pronuba Iuno dant signum; fulsere ignes et conscius aether conubiis summoque ulularunt vertice JVymphae. ' T h e elements are all witnesses a t this " w e d d i n g " ' (Pease). T h e only p r o b l e m is to decide j u s t h o w they divide u p . If J u n o here represents air, then w e h a v e all four elements (counting the n y m p h s as w a t e r ; cf. also amnes, 164); if not, then a threefold division, E a r t h , F i r e - A e t h e r (Sky), W a t e r . A n elemental classification is m o r e a p t than a spatial one. R o m a n ritual emphasized the elemental (Fire a n d W a t e r ) aspects of the m a r r i a g e ritual. 4 2 J u n o a n d V e n u s a t t e m p t to c o n f i r m the union o f D i d o a n d A e n e a s w i t h the bonds of the n a t u r a l universe, b u t it is a universe f u n c t i o n i n g in the perverted m o d e of the storm. 4 3 (F9) 4 . 5 2 2

ff.:

nox erat et placidum carpebant fessa soporem corpora per terras, silvaeque et saeva quierant

aequora, cum medio volvuntur sidera lapsu, cum tacet omnis ager, pecudes pictaeque volucres, quaeque lacus late liquidos quaeque aspera dumis rura tenent. H e r e the threefold division is implied twice, once in lines 523 f. (the world-divisions themselves), a n d a g a i n in lines 5 2 5 - 7 (the inhabitants of the divisions, a l t h o u g h the place of the sea is 42

C f . P e a s e o n Aen. 4 . 1 6 7 ; OLD

43

W i t h 4.160 'interea m a g n o misceri m u r m u r e caelum' c o m p a r e

s.v. ignis ib. 1.124 'interea

m a g n o misceri m u r m u r e p o n t u m ' . T h e ' c o n f u s i o n ' o f t h e s t o r m in b o o k o n e is i m m e d i a t e l y c o r r e c t e d b y N e p t u n e ; the ' c o n f u s i o n ' c o n s e q u e n t o n t h e s t o r m in b o o k f o u r w i l l t a k e l o n g e r to set in o r d e r .

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S IN T H E A E N ' E I D

319

taken b y lacus).44 T h i s w a y of d e p i c t i n g the universal p o w e r of sleep (related to the use of the universal expression to describe the p o w e r o f more active deities: cf. 05) is not f o u n d in H o m e r , b u t is fully d e v e l o p e d in A l c m a n . 4 5 F o r the function o f this passage within the story of D i d o , see a b o v e , p. 280. (FIO) 5 . 8

f.: nec iam amplius ulla occurrit tellus, maria undique et undique caelum.

A s F6. (FI I ) 5 . 8 0 1

ff.: saepe furores

compressi et rabiem tantam caeliqxxt marisque. nec minor in terris, Xanthum Simoentaque testor, Aeneae mihi cura tui. N e p t u n e addreses V e n u s . T h i s starts o f f as a polar H e a v e n / S e a expression ( c o m p a r e B I - 8 ) , in direct response to V e n u s ' request that J u n o should not be a l l o w e d to r e p e a t her abuse of the powers of Sea and S k y against A e n e a s (cf. 5.790 f. (34) ); it is then w i d e n e d to i n c l u d e the third division of E a r t h . A g o d retails his o w n a r e t a l o g y after a p r a y e r has been addressed to him; for the p a r t i c u l a r question of the universal p o w e r s o f N e p t u n e see A I . N e p t u n e here promises to protect A e n e a s in all the areas w h e r e J u n o w a s earlier a threat: see 1.279 f- ( F 3)( F I 2 ) 5 . 8 7 0 f.:

o nimium caelo et pelago confise sereno, nudus in ignota, Palinure, iacebis harena. T h e r e is a contrast b e t w e e n the great divisions of Sea a n d S k y a n d the negligible p a t c h o f sand (representative o f the division of E a r t h ) ; the triple division is used for e p i g r a m m a t i c point. 4 6 A e n e a s is, u n w i t t i n g l y , unjust to Palinurus, p e r h a p s because 44

C f . the r e p e a t e d m o v e m e n t t h r o u g h the divisions o f the u n i v e r s e in L u c r . 1.1 flf.

45

F o r p a r a l l e l s see P e a s e a d loc.

46

A n o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n L a n d a n d S e a is a c o m m o n f e a t u r e o f e p i g r a m s o n the

d r o w n e d , e.g. Anth. Pal.

7.265, 269, 288, 289, 290, 382, 506, 5 8 7 ; O v . Ars Am.

2.96;

b u t I h a v e f o u n d n o e x a c t p a r a l l e l for V i r g i l ' s c o n c e i t . F o r a m o r e a m b i t i o u s use o f w o r l d - d i v i s i o n s in a n e p i g r a m m a t i c p a s s a g e o n a d r o w n e d m a n see H o r . Carm. 1.28.1 IT., w i t h N i s b e t / H u b b a r d ad loc.

V I R G I L ' S A ENE ID: COSMOS

AND IMPERII! M

his i m a g i n a t i o n is c o n f i n e d in the t r a m m e l s of his o w n mission to e n d u r e , w i t h o u t o v e r - c o n f i d e n c e , the d a n g e r s o f a n a n g r y S k y a n d S e a in o r d e r to r e a c h his promised L a n d (cf. F6, C13, C14). ( F I 3 ) 6 . 7 2 4 f.:

principio caelum ac terras camposque liquentis lucentemque globum lunae Titaniaque astra. 47 T h e u l t i m a t e m o d e l is Iliad 1 8 . 4 8 3 ff., the o p e n i n g lines o f the Shield o f Achilles; for discussion see a b o v e , p. 70. T h e e x p a n s i o n o f the list o f the three divisions to i n c l u d e the h e a v e n l y bodies is also f o u n d in L u c r e t i u s , for e x a m p l e 5.68 f.: fundarit terram caelum mare sidera solem lunaique globum. C o m p a r e also 2.1084 f.; 5 . 1 1 5 , 4 1 7 f. 48 ( F 1 4 ) 6 . 7 2 8 f.:

inde hominum pecudumque genus vitaeque volantum et quae marmoreo fert monstra sub aequore pontus. T h e three world-divisions o f FI 3 are n o w p o p u l a t e d . N o t e a g a i n the similarity to the L u c r e t i a n p r o e m , in w h i c h the divisions of the universe are v i e w e d b o t h in themselves a n d as stages for a n i m a l life; cf. Aen. 4.522 ff. (F9). (F15) 7 . 1 3 6

ff: geniumque loci primamque deorum

Tellurem Nymphasque et adhuc ignota precatur Jlumina, turn Noctem Noctisque orientia signa Idaeumque Iovem Phrygiamque ex ordine matrem invocat, et duplicis caeloque Ereboque parentis. I n this, A e n e a s ' first p r a y e r in L a t i u m , the divisions o f the universe are present ( a l t h o u g h w a t e r is represented not b y the S e a b u t b y the rivers a n d n y m p h s o f I t a l y ; the universal is thus 4'

I n v i e w o f the f r e q u e n t i n c l u s i o n o f the stars as a s e p a r a t e i t e m in lists o f this k i n d

(see b e l o w ) , a n d in v i e w o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f ' T i t a n i a q u e a s t r a ' at Aen. 6 . 7 2 5 , ' T i t a n a q u e et astra' m i g h t b e w o r t h c o n s i d e r i n g as a possibility. 48

F o r a less c o m p a c t e n u m e r a t i o n o f the t h r e e divisions f o l l o w e d b y the h e a v e n l y

b o d i e s see A p . R h o d . Argon,

i .496 ff. F o r a possible m y t h o l o g i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f

S u n a n d M o o n in a list o f this sort see Aen. 1 2 . 1 9 7 f. ( F 1 9 ) .

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S IN T H E A EN EI D

2

95

p a r t l y tied d o w n to the local), b u t m i x e d u p with other things; further, the p r a y e r to Anchises m i g h t be said to add a fourth division, the U n d e r w o r l d (cf. D2). T h e universal p r a y e r m a r k s the solemnity of arrival and a c c e p t a n c e ; c o m p a r e the p r a y e r uttered b y Anchises at the first sighting o f Italy, 3.528 (F7). T h e cosmic details o f the p r a y e r are based not on O d y s s e u s ' c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r a y e r to the N y m p h s at Odyssey 1 3 . 3 5 6 6 0 b u t on the solemn o a t h o f A g a m e m m o n to a b i d e b y the result o f the duel b e t w e e n M e n e l a u s a n d Paris at Iliad 3 . 2 7 6 FF.: Ztv

7Tarep,

rizAios

u

,

"ISrjdev

fxeSéwv,

os TTavT

etpopas

Kai TTorajxol Kai yaia, > a / ' Ü aVUpOJTTOVS TtVVOUOV,

Kai " OTIS

KVSIare Kai

1TCLVT

o f vttevepde 5 5 / K €7TtOpKOV

[xiyiare, enaKoveis, KafAovras ) / O/XOOOT).

Father Zeus who rules from Ida, most glorious and most great, and Sun who sees and hears all things, and rivers and earth, and you powers below who punish dead perjurers. 49 ( F I 6 ) 7 . 2 2 9 f.:

dis sedem exiguam patriis litusque rogamus innocuum et cunctis undamque auramque patentem. T h e three divisions, b u t here v i e w e d p r i m a r i l y in elemental not spatial terms. A plea for admission to the elements; c o m p a r e the implications of Ilioneus' c o m p l a i n t at 1.540. T h e l a n g u a g e has affinities with the legal f o r m u l a o f interdiction ( F 1 7 ) 1 0 . 1 6 1 f.:

[Pallas] . . . iam quaerit sidera, opacae noctis iter, iam quae passus terraque manque. Essentially this is a t w o - t e r m division o f E a r t h a n d S e a , o f type c , f o r m a l l y extended to a three-term scheme b y the inclusion of the stars, t h o u g h not constituting a truly c o - o r d i n a t e d universal expression. F o r m a l l y (but coincidentally?), this also reproduces the sequence of e n t e r t a i n m e n t at D i d o ' s court: Iopas' scientific 49

See also II. 1 4 . 2 7 1 ff. T h e H o m e r i c m o d e l s a r e p r o b a b l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e

' c o s m i c ' q u a l i t y b o t h o f this p r a y e r a n d o f the o a t h s a t 1 2 . 1 7 6 ff { F 1 8 , F 1 9 ) ; C . B a i l e y , Religion in Virgil ( O x f o r d , 1 9 3 5 ) , finds it d i f f i c u l t to e x p l a i n t h e m in t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s terms: p. 187, ' T h e s e c o s m o l o g i c a l deities

. . . h a v e v e r y little religious s i g n i f i c a n c e ' ;

cf. also p p . 201 ff. B u t it s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t o a t h s b y c o s m i c witnesses h a v e a l o n g history in G r e e c e : see M . L . W e s t , The Orphic poems ( O x f o r d , 1983), p p . 34 f. 50

W a g n e r c o m p a r e s the p h r a s e ' a q u a et i g n i i n t e r d i c e r e ' .

37°

V I R G I L ' S AENEID-.

COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

song followed b y A e n e a s ' a c c o u n t of his sufferings on L a n d and Sea; see a b o v e , pp. 63 ff. (FI8)

12.176-82.

T h e oath of Aeneas; like 7.136 ff. (F15) this is a c o m p l e x passage, but in broad outline it is structured a r o u n d the divine powers of the three world-divisions (see F19). T h e powers invoked are: Sol, (haec) T e r r a ; 5 1 Jupiter, J u n o , M a r s ; fontes, fluvii; aetheris religio; n u m i n a ponti. Like F15 it is based on Iliad 3 . 2 7 6 ff. (which is also the structural model for the oath before the duel); cf. also Iliad 1 9 . 2 5 8 ff. 5 2 (FI9)

12.197:

haec eadem, Aenea, terram, mare, sidera, iuro. Latinus' o a t h in response to that of A e n e a s (F 18); the first line purports to be a s u m m a r y of A e n e a s ' oath and picks out its underlying tripartite structure; 5 3 this u n a m b i g u o u s tripartition is followed b y appeals to specific gods (Apollo, Diana: 5 4 Janus; Dis; J u p i t e r ) . Latinus' prayer is followed by a series of adynata ( H I ) w h i c h m a y be c o m p a r e d to the adynata with w h i c h A e n e a s reinforces his oath of u n d y i n g gratitude to D i d o at 1.607 f. ( F 4)i i n both cases the strongest h u m a n protestations are nullified b y external forces.

T h e tripartite universe e v fxkv yaiav

e r e u ^ ' , kv d'ovpavov,

iv

St

daXaoaav.

O n it he fashioned the earth, the sky and the sea. (Iliad 18.483)55 T h i s is the most famous and influential archaic formulation of a tripartite division of the universe very c o m m o n in early Greek 51

' V i r g i l p a r t i c u l a r i z e s A g a m e m n o n ' s a p p e a l to the E a r t h to suit A e n e a s '

cir-

cumstances' (Conington). 52

C o m p a r e also t h e g o d s i n v o k e d b y H a n n i b a l in his t r e a t y w i t h P h i l i p o f M a c e d o n ,

P o l y b . 7.9.2. 53

O n t h e p r o b l e m s o f F 1 8 a n d F i g see J . F o n t e n r o s e , ' T h e g o d s i n v o k e d in epic

o a t h s : Aeneid 1 2 . 1 7 5 - 2 1 5 ' , AJPk 54

89 ( 1 9 6 8 ) , 2 0 - 3 8 .

' T h e S u n a n d M o o n ' ( C o n i n g t o n ) . T h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is t h e m o r e l i k e l y w h e n

o n e c o m p a r e s the s e q u e n c e o f 6 . 7 2 4 f. ( F 1 3 ) , o f H e a v e n , E a r t h , S e a , M o o n , S u n . B u t see J . F o n t e n r o s e , art. cit., 30 ff. 55

T h e f o l l o w i n g a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y close to the H o m e r i c p a s s a g e : A p . R h o d .

1.496 f/etSev 5* w s yata

xal ovpavos

tJSe OaXaaaa; Aen. 6 . 7 2 4 ( F 1 3 ) ; O v . Met.

Argon. 2.5 ff.

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S I N T H E AEN'EID

323

t h o u g h t , a n d w h i c h w a s only partially replaced b y the m o r e scientific division of the sum of things into the four elements (in origin primarily a q u a l i t a t i v e rather than a spatial classification). E. G . S c h m i d t has traced the use of the f o r m u l a in the early period, and stresses its association w i t h expressions of the sphere o f p o w e r of i m p o r t a n t gods. 5 6 In an earlier article 6 7 S c h m i d t examines the history of the f o r m u l a in L a t i n ; three areas m a y be singled out: firstly, the description of d i v i n e

power, as in Ennius scenica 285: quique tuo cum lumine mare terram caelum confines. S e c o n d l y , a n o t h e r religious area, that o f the oath, 5 8 as in Plau-

tus Trinummus 1070: mare, terra, caelum, di vostram fidem! T h i r d l y , as a consciously poetic w a y o f l o o k i n g at the w o r l d , as in C i c e r o De Finibus 5 . 4 . 9 : natura sic . . . investigata est, ut nulla pars caelo mari terra, ut poetice 59 loquar, praetermissa sit. E x a m p l e s f r o m all three spheres m a y be readily f o u n d in the Aeneid. T h e h u m a n action in the p o e m runs parallel to the struggle on the divine level for control of the three divisions o f T-279 the universe: cf. Aeneid 1.58 f., 1.223 3-52&> 5-8oi ff(FI, F2, F3, F7, F 1 1 ) . H u m a n prayers a n d oaths seek to d r a w to h u m a n affairs the strength and certainty of the d i v i n e l y controlled processes of the universe, a n d if the Aeneid looks f o r w a r d to the political and military expansion o f a h u m a n empire, it is an e x p a n s i o n that the R o m a n s regarded as con( d o o r s o f t h e R e g i a Solis, w h o s e d e c o r a t i o n i n o t h e r r e s p e c t s r e s e m b l e s t h a t o n t h e S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s ) ' n a m M u l c i b e r illic / a e q u o r a c a e l a r a t m e d i a s c i n g e n t i a t e r r a s / t e r r a r u m q u e o r b e m c a e l u m q u e q u o d i m m i n e t o r b i ' (cf. B o m e r o n Met. 2.6; a l s o id. o n 1 . 5 - 2 0 a n d Fast, 5 . 1 1 , f o r m a t e r i a l o n t h e t h r e e d i v i s i o n s o f t h e w o r l d ) . 56

' H i m m e l — M e e r — Erde im friihgriechischen Epos und im alten Orient',

lologus

1 2 5 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 1 - 2 4 . F o r a n e x p r e s s i o n o f d i v i n e p o w e r , e . g . H e s . Theog.

( H e c a t e ) TTJV TTepl TTO.VT(UV / Zeus Kpovihrjs tt / \ J f n \t eX€lv

Y
arpvytToio

RLPLTJAE,

aaAaacnj? - / i)

oe

xai

Phi-

4 1 1 ff.

Ttaptv Se ot a y A a a 8utpa, / P,oipav f * * » » » a 11 aorepoevros

air

ovpavov

e^ope

TipLrjs. 57

E . G . S c h m i d t , ' P h i l o s o p h i s c h e u n d p o e t i s c h e E l e m e n t e bei L u k r e z ' , in U r u s a z e

a n d G o r d e s i a n i (eds.), Problems the m a t e r i a l in TLL 58

O n o a t h s b y t h e w o r l d - d i v i s i o n s see B o m e r o n O v . Met.

MDAI(A) 59

in ancient culture ( T b i l i s i , 1 9 7 5 ) , p p . 1 7 5 - 9 9 - S e e also

i i i . 7 9 . 5 4 ff. 3 . 6 3 8 ; S.

77 ( 1 9 6 2 ) , 309.

T h e a s y n d e t i c t r i c o l o n m a r k s t h e e x p r e s s i o n as p a r t i c u l a r l y p o e t i c .

Weinstock,

324

V I R G I L ' S AEMEID:

COSMOS

AND

IMPER1UM

f o r m i n g with right religion; h e n c e the i m p o r t a n c e placed by V i r g i l on the p r o p e r o b s e r v a n c e o f ritual forms in the key stages of the establishment o f T r o j a n settlement in Italy, as the necessary precondition of the later expansion: cf. 3.528, 7 . 1 3 6 ff., 1 2 . 1 7 6 ff. (F7, F15, FI8). But the situation is here c o m p l i c a t e d b y the fact that the h u m a n actors are not a l w a y s successful in calling u p o n the powers that control the universe I 2 - R 9 7 FF- (F4> to g u a r a n t e e their plans a n d wishes: cf. 1.607 F19). T h e general h e a d i n g o f the religious use o f universal expressions also covers expressions w h i c h e c h o legal a n d ceremonial f o r m u l a e , for the b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n religion a n d l a w c a n n o t easily be d r a w n , p a r t i c u l a r l y in R o m e . T h u s w e find a universal expression u n d e r l y i n g the ' w e d d i n g ' of D i d o a n d A e n e a s , 4 . 1 6 6 ff. (F8), t h o u g h in the form o f a travesty; cf. also 7.229 f. (FI6). T h e influence on V i r g i l of the earlier use o f tripartite universal expressions in the poetic tradition scarcely needs e m p h a s i z i n g , b u t it is w o r t h pointing o u t that such expressions are p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m m o n in earlier G r e e k literature, a b o v e all in the h e x a m e t e r p o e t r y o f H o m e r a n d Hesiod. A g a i n it is difficult to d r a w a d i v i d i n g line b e t w e e n the religious a n d the poetic, p a r t i c u l a r l y in the Theogony. In a literary-historical perspective, the p r o m i n e n c e w h i c h V i r g i l gives to the universal expression m a y be r e g a r d e d as a sign of allegiance to the fashions o f older epic poetry. T h e q u o t a t i o n from C i c e r o ' s De Finibus points to a n o t h e r area of usage, the natural-philosophical, w h e r e the f r a m e w o r k o f E a r t h , Sea, a n d S k y functions as a general description of the s u b j e c t - m a t t e r of the i n q u i r y into nature. 6 0 T h e connection b e t w e e n the poetic and the scientific in this respect h a d been m a d e l o n g before V i r g i l ' s time; in some Hellenistic exegesis the first line of the H o m e r i c Shield o f Achilles w a s taken as the o p e n i n g of a l e n g t h y allegory o f c o s m o g o n y a n d c o s m o l o g y . 6 1 But an e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t source for V i r g i l w a s Lucretius, w h o frequently in the De Rerum Natura uses the tripartition of E a r t h , Sea, and H e a v e n ; 6 2 Lucretius' use of the tripartite w o r l d 60

In a p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n t e x t cf. also C i c . Tusc. 5 . 3 6 . 1 0 5 .

61

S e e c h a p t e r 8.

92

S e e the lists in E . G . S c h m i d t , loc. cit. ( 1 9 7 5 ) ; the p r e c e d e n t o f E n n i u s will also

h a v e b e e n i m p o r t a n t , if W . - H . F r i e d r i c h , Philologus 97 ( 1 9 4 8 ) , 285, is r i g h t in s u g g e s t i n g t h a t the S p e e c h o f H o m e r b e g a n w i t h s o m e t h i n g v e r y like the first l i n e o r lines o f the Speech of Anchises.

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S I N T H E AEN'EID

325

picture consorts s o m e w h a t uneasily with the more scientific four-element categorization, which Lucretius also uses and w h i c h in its turn is superimposed on the basic atomistic dic h o t o m y of the atoms and the void. 6 3 In Lucretius the tripartite scheme m a y be presented directly; or it m a y be implicit, as in the V e n u s proem; 6 4 or one (or more) of its components m a y be e x p a n d e d or paraphrased by a list of its constituent parts. O n the purely formal level these features are also observable in the V i r g i l i a n examples. Substantially, the L u c r e t i a n play on the interaction between the poetic, the religious, and the philosophical is also determinative for the Aeneid, as I show in c h a p t e r 5. F o r specific examples of L u c r e t i a n influence see 1.58 f., 4 . 5 2 2 f f . , 6 . 7 2 4 FF. ( F I , F 9 , F 1 3 , F 1 4 ) .

III.

DISTRIBUTION

OVER

FOUR

TERMS

(g) T h e Four E l e m e n t s (GI) 5 . 6 9 4 ff.:

tempestas sine more furit tonitruque tremescunt ardua terrarum et campi; ruit aethere toto turbidus imber aqua densisque nigerrimus Austris. A n elemental storm; unlike the elemental confusion of the storm incited b y J u n o in book one, this disturbance, caused b y Jupiter, works to the profit of the T r o j a n s . T h e four elements (Earth, A i r (the winds), W a t e r , Aether) m a y be discerned, but not in a schematic form, and the universalizing tendency is muted (but note toto in line 6 9 5 ) . C o m p a r e the storm directed by J u p i t e r at Georgics 1 . 3 2 2 ff. (G2) 6 . 7 4 0 ff.:

aliae panduntur inanes suspensae ad ventos, aliis sub gurgite vasto infectum eluitur scelus aut exuritur igni: quisque suos patimur manes, exinde per amplum 63

S e e a b o v e , p p . 169 f. T h i s c o e x i s t e n c e o f the s e v e r a l s c h e m e s in L u c r e t i u s r e n d e r s

s o m e w h a t f u t i l e a t t e m p t s to d i v i d e t h e c o s m o g o n y at Eel. 6.31 ff. i n t o ' L u c r e t i a n ' a n d 'Empedoclean' components. 94

F o r the use o f the t h r e e divisions in a n o t h e r p h i l o s o p h i c a l h y m n see C l e a n t h e s

Hymn to £eus 15 f.

37°

V I R G I L ' S AENEID-.

COSMOS

AND IMPERII!M

mittimur Elysium et pauci laeta arva tenemus. T h e three u p p e r elements cleanse a w a y the stains o f the fourth, E a r t h (terreni artus, 732); after this process the souls proceed to the different kind of E a r t h o f the laeta arva of Elysium. 6 5 T h e r e is a structural s y m m e t r y between this procession t h r o u g h trial b y w i n d , w a v e , a n d fire to a paradisiacal restingplace a n d the b r o a d outline o f the story of A e n e a s , w h o has to endure the fires of T r o y a n d the winds and w a v e s o f the stormy sea in o r d e r to r e a c h the terra fvrma o f I t a l y (see in p a r t i c u l a r 2 . 7 8 0 f., 3 . 4 9 5 f f . , 1 0 . 6 5 0 , 5 . 8 7 0 f., 6 . 1 1 0 ff., 3 . 1 5 6 ff. ( C 1 3 , C 1 4 ,

c i 5 , F12, B6, BIO). A t 6 . n o f f . (B6) w e see that A e n e a s has indeed passed t h r o u g h fire, w a v e , a n d w i n d in o r d e r to reach his father in E l y s i u m . T h i s suggests the possibility o f seeing the trials of A e n e a s as an a n t i q u e Pilgrim's Progress, a c o m m o n w a y o f a l l e g o r i z i n g the Odyssey in later antiquity. 6 6 T h e precise nature of the p u r g a t i o n o f the T r o j a n s c o u l d be sought either on a spiritual level (Aeneas' progress to spiritual m a t u r i t y t h r o u g h suffering), or on a more ritualistic level ('washing out' the sins o f T r o y : cf. Geo. 1.502 ' L a o m e d o n t e a e luimus periuria T r o i a e ' ) . F o r I t a l y as in some sense a holy l a n d , note Aen. 1.205 f.: sedes ubi fata quietas ostendunt. C o m p a r e the sedes quietae of the gods at L u c r e t i u s 3 . 1 8 ff.: apparet divum numen sedesque quietae quas neque concutiunt venti nec nubila nimbis aspergunt neque nix acri concreta pruina cana cadens violat semper<(que> innubilus aether integit, et large diffuso lumine ridet. J u s t as the h o m e of the gods is here envisaged in meteorological terms, the absence o f the storm, so after e s c a p i n g f r o m the storm A e n e a s looks a h e a d to the sedes quietae o f L a t i u m . T h e ring is c o m p l e t e d b y the allusion to the L u c r e t i a n h o m e o f the gods in the V i r g i l i a n description of the Elysian Fields at 6 . 6 3 9 FF65

O n the m o t i f o f e l e m e n t a l p u r g a t i o n see N o r d e n , p. 28, w i t h t h e f u r t h e r b i b -

l i o g r a p h y cited b y A u s t i n o n Aen. 6 . 7 3 9 ff 66

B u f f i e r e , p p . 4 1 4 ff., 4 7 7 ; K n a u e r , p. 2 4 9 n. 2; P. B o y a n c e , REG

76 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 76 f.,

a r g u e s t h a t t h e a l l e g o r i z a t i o n o f t h e Odyssey as the s t o r y o f m a n ' s s e a r c h for his celestial a n d spiritual h o m e m a y g o b a c k to the A c a d e m y o f A n t i o c h u s o f A s c a l o n .

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S IN T H E AEN'EID

327

fortunatorum nemorum sedesque beatas. largior hie campos aether et lumine vestit purpureo. F i n a l l y , note the b a c k g r o u n d to a detail o f the laudes Italiae in

Georgics 2.149 f.: hie ver adsiduum atque alienis mensibus aestas: bis gravidae pecudes, bis pomis utilis arbos. T h i s is based on descriptions of literal paradises in H o m e r , Odyssey 4 . 5 6 6 ff. (the spring breezes of Elysium): i I / ov vi
> \

aAA

aiei

'QKZOLVOS

w ) « o u r ap 17

/ /

* xetfiouv T T O A V S O V T € \

Zitpvpoto

V

Xiyv

avtrjotv

/

* # O opippos,

J /

arjras

7TV€IOVTOS

avaipvx^v

TTOT

avdpdmovs

There there is no excess of snow, stormy weather, or rain, but Ocean ever sends forth the breezes of shrill-blowing Zephyrus to refresh men a n d Hesiod Works and

Days 1 7 2 f.: pLcXirjSea

rpts

€T€os

daXXovra

(faepei

^eiSoupos

KapTTOv apovpa.

Thrice a year the fertile earth bears its sweet luxuriant crop. 67 ( 0 3 ) 8 . 2 3 9 FF-

T h e destruction o f C a c u s is also h e a v i l y elemental, t h o u g h (perhaps deliberately) in a rather confused w a y . T h e H e a v e n / H e l l division is also p r o m i n e n t ; note 243 ff., the o p e n i n g of H a d e s . F o r further details see a b o v e , pp. 1 1 0 ff. (04) 8 . 4 2 3 ff.

T h e Hopiopoeia has m a n y elemental aspects, t h o u g h neat schem a t i z a t i o n is not possible. N o t e expecially 429 f., the meteorological elements of the t h u n d e r b o l t , imber, nubes, ignis, Auster; a n d 445 ff., w i n d , w a t e r , a n d fire in the m a k i n g o f the Shield of A e n e a s . See a b o v e , p p . 106 a n d 186 f. (G5) I O .

I O O

ff.:

turn pater omnipotens, rerum cui prima potestas, 67

T h e r e a r e a l s o p a r a l l e l s i n e t h n o g r a p h i c a l w r i t i n g s , e . g . H e c a t a e u s FGrH

7, d o u b l e h a r v e s t o f H y p e r b o r e a n s ;

D i o n . H a l . Ant.

Rom.

264 F

1.37.2, triple harvest

of

C a m p a n i a ; H i p p o c r . Aer. 12, s p r i n g - l i k e c l i m a t e o f A s i a M i n o r . C f . also G e r n e n t z , p p . 9 f., ' d e s e m p i t e r n o v e r e R o m a n o ' .

¿g'2

V I R G I L ' S AENEID:

COSMOS

AND ÍMPERIUM

infit (eo dicente deum domus alta silescit et tremefacta solo tellus, silet arduus aether, tum Zephyri posuere, premit placida aequora pontus). T h i s is p r i m a r i l y

a four-element scheme (tellus, aether, aer (J^ephyri, pontus), b u t begins as if it w e r e g o i n g to be a t w o - t e r m scheme, H e a v e n (deum domus) a n d E a r t h (the world b e l o w the gods). It is an illustration of the p o w e r of the ' o m n i p o t e n t father' over the universe (rerum, 100), here expressed in the p a r t i c u l a r form of meteorological control; one m a y c o m p a r e the meteorological expression of the p o w e r ofJ u p i t e r at i .254 f. O n the relation o f this passage to the statesman simile of 1.148 if. see a b o v e , p. 205. T h e r e is no close H o m e r i c model; the motif is related to the topos o f the m i r a c u l o u s silence p r o d u c e d b y the a p p r o a c h o f a g o d , as at Euripides Bacchae 1084, 68 or by the lyre o f A p o l l o in Pindar's first Pythian. Also related is the topos of the universal p o w e r of sleep as exemplified at Aeneid 4.522 ff. (F9). T h e only a n o m a l o u s detail here is the a p p l i c a t i o n of tremefacta to tellus in line 102, describing w h a t is elsewhere the reaction o f the earth to the t h u n d e r b o l t of Jupiter, 6 9 or the reaction o f O l y m p u s to the nod of Zeus/Jupiter (as here a few lines later). I follow C o n i n g t o n a n d H e n r y in taking tellus to agree with silescit ;70 the detail of the t e m p o r a r i l y shaken earth contributes to the picture of the o m n i p o t e n c e of J u p i t e r , w h o effects rest in the n a t u r a l l y m o b i l e elements, a n d (if only passing) agitation in the n a t u r a l l y i m m o b i l e e a r t h . 7 1 M a c r o b i u s (Sat. 6.2.26) c o m p a r e s w i t h the V i r g i l i a n passage the f o l l o w i n g lines f r o m the Scipio of Ennius (var. 9 if.): mundus caeli vastus constitit silentio et Neptunus saevus undis asperis pausam dedit, 68

W i t h the p a r a l l e l s cited b y D o d d s a d loc. S e e also U . W . S c h o l z , Hermes

112

( 1 9 8 4 ) , 198 n. 4 1 , 89

e.g. Geo. 1.330.

70

H e n r y cites C l a u d . Rapt. Pros. 1.83 ff. ( P l u t o addresses M e r c u r y ) ' t u n c t a l i a celso /

o r e t o n a t ( t r e m e f a c t a silent d i c e n t e t y r a n n o / a t r i a : l a t r a t u m t r i p l i c e m

compescuit

i n g e n s / i a n i t o r et presso l a c r i m a r u m f o n t e resedit / C o c y t o s t a c i t i s q u e A c h e r o n o b m u t u i t u n d i s / et P h l e g e t h o n t e a e r e q u i e r u n t m u r m u r a r i p a e ) ' . Q u o t a t i o n o f the w h o l e p a s s a g e s h o w s that it is m o d e l l e d d i r e c t l y o n Aen. 10. t o o ff. 71

S e e S e r v . ad Aen.

1 0 . 1 0 2 ' l o q u e n t e l o v e s t u p o r e l e m e n t o r u m omnium o s t e n d i t u r

p e r n a t u r a e m u t a t i o n e m : n a m et q u i c q u i d in a e t e r n o m o t u est, q u i e v i t , et c o n t r a terra m o t a est, s e m p e r i m m o b i l i s , u n d e H o r a t i u s et " b r u t a t e l l u s " '; cf. N i s b e t / H u b b a r d o n H o r . Carm. 1.34.9.

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S IN T H E A EN EI D

2

95

sol equis iter repressit ungulis volantibus, constitere amnes perennes, arbores vento vacant. T h i s has been referred to the miraculous calm that acc o m p a n i e d Scipio's crossing to Africa. 7 2 If this is correct, then it is of interest that the V i r g i l i a n calm is, indirectly, seen as the c a l m i n g of an incipient storm. (h) T h e Four World-Divisions: Heaven, Earth, Sea, Hades T h e basis here is the fourfold division of the universe at Iliad 1 5 . 1 8 9 ff. into Sea, Hades, H e a v e n , and Earth. T h i s more m y t h o l o g i c a l division also finds echoes in the Aeneid.73 (HI)

12.203

ff.:

nec me vis ulla volentem avertet, non, si tellurem effundat in undas diluvio miscens caelumque in Tartara solvat. T h e four w o r l d - d i v i s i o n s are u n a m b i g u o u s l y used in an adynaton supporting an oath, w h i c h , it turns out, is quite futile. See F19 and the notes there. For other expressions in w h i c h the U n d e r w o r l d appears as a world-division see A5, D i - 3 , F19, 03. T h e fourfold division including H a d e s underlies the structure of the Shield of Aeneas: see c h a p t e r 8.

I V .

C O N C L U S I O N S

W h y does V i r g i l return again and a g a i n to this jsy nop tic view of the universe, to the 'universal s h o w ? In one respect it is simply a d e v e l o p m e n t of a m o d e already present in H o m e r and to an even greater extent in Hesiod, whose subject-matter in the Theogony is literally cosmic; but the a b o v e lists show repeatedly h o w V i r g i l goes further than his H o m e r i c models in 72

W a r m i n g t o n refers to L i v y 2 8 . 1 7 , 29.27. B u t n e i t h e r p a s s a g e is close to the E n n i a n

f r a g m e n t , a n d t h e i m m o b i l i z a t i o n o f the s u n a n d rivers is s u r e l y d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e to the r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a c a l m s e a - c r o s s i n g . ™ T h e H o m e r i c i d e a of the a l l o c a t i o n of the p a r t s o f t h e u n i v e r s e b y lot is p i c k e d u p a t Aen.

1 . 1 3 9 'sed m i h i sorte d a t u m ' ; cf. the use o f sors to refer to a d i v i s i o n o f the

u n i v e r s e at 10.40.

37

2

V I R G I L ' S A EN E ID: COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

this respect. A n even more i m p o r t a n t m o d e l is Lucretius, b u t w h e r e a s in L u c r e t i u s this cosmic vision is m a d e the servant of a philosophically d e v e l o p e d v i e w of a materialist universe, in V i r g i l the d i v i n e is restored to the central place; here V i r g i l shows a truly A u g u s t a n conservatism. T h e cosmic show n o w reinforces the lesson that a sentient and intelligent divinity, w h e t h e r v i e w e d in terms of traditional G r e e k m y t h or in the more intellectual terms of Stoic P r o v i d e n c e , is all-pervasive in the physical cosmos. T h e p u r e l y aesthetic effect is also important; it is related to the favourite V i r g i l i a n d e v i c e o f hyperbole. V i r g i l displays a m a r k e d predilection for abstract schematization; space, for h i m , is of an almost g e o m e t r i c a l simplicity. T h i s is p e r h a p s surprising in v i e w o f the ind e t e r m i n a c y a n d lack of clarity that characterizes his presentation of h u m a n motives a n d actions; it is t e m p t i n g to see b o t h extremes as differing responses to a f u n d a m e n t a l inability or unwillingness to find logic a n d continuity in the close w e b of d a y - t o - d a y experience. T h e r e is sometimes a feeling o f hollowness a b o u t V i r g i l ' s use of universal expressions; b u t this is c o m p e n s a t e d for b y the fact that the i n d i v i d u a l universal expressions are o r g a n i z e d to t h e m a t i c ends within a coherent structure. I n p a r t i c u l a r the cosmic outlook is closely related to the w a y in w h i c h w e are to understand the trials o f A e n e a s , a n d this is possible because A e n e a s is the bearer of a destiny g r e a t e r than his o w n . It is the political or ideological level that is ultimately determinative; w e are looking at a universe not merely perv a d e d b y divinity, b u t one filled w i t h the d i v i n e l y - f a v o u r e d g r o w t h o f R o m a n p o w e r . 7 4 I h a v e a l r e a d y suggested that V i r g i l is especially fond o f the terra marique type of expression because of its close association w i t h political l a n g u a g e . I n this context 'ideological' is a better term than 'political', for the religious a n d philosophical uses o f universal expressions d o not function merely as allegorical formulas w h i c h c a n be translated into the slogans o f a R o m a n Realpolitik. R a t h e r , the V i r g i l i a n (and N o t e h o w this c a n also b e v i e w e d as a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f L u c r e t i a n themes. T a k e t h e V e n u s p r o e m : h e r e w e h a v e a g o d , V e n u s , a n d a p i c t u r e o f the u n i v e r s e as it is filled w i t h the p o w e r o f t h a t g o d . B u t V e n u s is also Aeneadum genetrix. O n e has o n l y to stress this a s p e c t o f V e n u s as the p a t r o n o f R o m a n p o w e r to see h o w easily the terms o f t h e h y m n to the d i v i n i t y c o u l d b e r e a p p l i e d to a p a n e g y r i c o f R o m a n rule or the R o m a n ruler. f4

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S IN T H E A EN EI D

2

95

R o m a n ) v i e w of history is p e r v a d e d b y religious a n d , to some extent, philosophical elements, w h i c h are incorporated into a unified set of beliefs, or ideology. T h e m a i n terms are all laid d o w n in the first book of the Aeneid; this confirms the other features of the book w h i c h suggest that it is p r o g r a m m a t i c for the w h o l e p o e m . W e start w i t h 1.3 f. ( c i ) ' m u l t u m ille et terris iactatus et alto / vi s u p e r u m ' . Here, unlike in the Odyssey, the theme o f world-divisions is i n t r o d u c e d in the first lines of the p o e m (in a minor key, it must be a d m i t t e d , b u t there nevertheless) a n d in the most general terms thus c o m p a r a b l e to the m a j o r - k e y i n t r o d u c t i o n of the theme in the V e n u s p r o e m of Lucretius. In its specific application here we are introduced to the m o t i f of the hero at the mercy of the elements, and the elements as controlled by hostile gods. T h e m o t i f is soon g i v e n concrete a n d extreme illustration in the S t o r m ; the winds are for the time b e i n g the lords of the universe, all of whose parts they bring into the attack on A e n e a s (FI). T h i s m o t i f of the hero m e n a c e d b y the elements, or threatened in all divisions of the w o r l d , goes on e c h o i n g t h r o u g h o u t the p o e m (B6, B7, 03, 04, C I I , F3, F17). A specialization of the m o t i f is the selection of one element or p a r t of the w o r l d that threatens the T r o j a n s ; this corresponds w i t h the progression o f the n a r r a t i v e , the m a i n turning-point b e i n g the divide at h a l f - w a y . T h e d a n g e r s of the Sea are n o w past, a n d it is the E a r t h that presents the threat, 6.83 f. (c8) ( a l t h o u g h this distribution o f dangers b y Sea and L a n d to, respectively, the ' O d y s s e a n ' a n d the ' I l i a d i c ' halves of the p o e m is not consistently m a i n t a i n e d . A n o t h e r w a y of i d e n t i f y i n g the threat to the T r o j a n s is in terms o f a division b e t w e e n the powers of H e a v e n a n d Hell; vi superum at 1.4 generalizes f r o m the p a r t i c u l a r g r u d g e o f J u n o to the statement that H e a v e n itself is hostile to A e n e a s . 7 5 T h e spatial i m p l i c a t i o n of vi superum is reinforced b y the fact that after terris a n d alto in the p r e c e d i n g line it is read as a v a r i a t i o n of the third world-division, caelum. A n e w a n d more serious d e v e l o p m e n t occurs at the b e g i n n i n g o f the second h a l f of the p o e m , w h e n J u n o turns to the powers of H e l l for reinforcements in her persecution of the T r o j a n s , 7.312 (D3). T h i s division of 75

(F3).

F o r a d i f f e r e n t e x p r e s s i o n o f the u n i v e r s a l p o w e r o f J u n o at this s t a g e , see 1.280

¿g'2

V I R G I L ' S AENEID:

COSMOS

AND ÍMPERIUM

the two halves o f the p o e m into attacks on A e n e a s from the U p p e r and L o w e r W o r l d s is not in fact entirely u n a m b i g u o u s , for the G i g a n t o m a c h i c allusion u n d e r l y i n g the storm in book one figuratively aligns the winds of A e o l u s with the forces of the U n d e r w o r l d , and there is a p r o n o u n c e d parallelism between J u n o ' s m e d i a t e d e v o c a t i o n o f the winds f r o m their c a v e prison and her s u m m o n i n g of A l l e c t o from the shades of Hell. Closely related to the m o t i f o f the hero at the mercy of the elements

is that of the hero excluded from the elements or divisions of the world, a h e i g h t e n i n g o f the basic O d y s s e a n theme of the hero wandering over land and sea, as expressed at 1.756 (04). Venus introduces this m o t i f in her c o m p l a i n t to J u p i t e r , 1.233: cunctus ob Italiam terrarum clauditur orbis.

It is expressed in terms of the oikumene at 1.384 f. (EI), in a shocking p a r o d y in the m o u t h o f Sinon at 2.69 f. (05),' 76 a n d in a v a r i a t i o n at 10.377 f. ( c i 2 ) . Ilioneus addresses his plea for a c c e p t a n c e to the Latins as a request for possession of the elements, 7.229 f. (F 16). His l a n g u a g e is reminiscent of the legal f o r m u l a o f interdictio; the symbolism o f the elements as a w a y of expressing m e m b e r s h i p of a society or polity w a s m o r e vivid to the ancients than to us. 77 T h e converse o f these two motifs is the pair: the hero in possession

of the elements (or world-divisions); and the hero in control of the elements. T h e first is found in its least pretentious a n d nonuniversalizing f o r m in the theme o f the i m m e d i a t e a t t a i n m e n t of one's g o a l in travelling, thus p u t t i n g behind one the dangers of Sea and S k y , as in 3.495 ff. (014) (Helenus at rest). In so far as this version is concerned only w i t h a search for L a n d , it 7 9 F o r o t h e r e x a m p l e s o f the w a y in w h i c h S i n o n ' s fictions u n w i t t i n g l y parody s u f f e r i n g s a c t u a l l y e n d u r e d by the T r o j a n s , see m y a r t i c l e ' T h e s a c r i f i c e o f I p h i g e n e i a ' C Q . N S 3 4 (1984), 406 12. 77

O v i d i a n e x a m p l e s o f the e x c l u s i o n f r o m the e l e m e n t s motif: Met. 8 . 1 8 5

' "terras

l i c e t " i n q u i t " e t u n d a s / o b s t r u a t , at c a e l u m c e r t e p a t e t : i b i m u s i l i a c " '; lb. 109 ' n e c se V o l c a n u s n e c se tibi p r a e b e a t a e r , / n e c tibi d e t tellus nec tibi p o n t u s iter'. C f . also C i c e r o ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the p u n i s h m e n t f o r p a r r i c i d e , Rose. Am. 71 ' n o n n e v i d e n t u r h u n c h o m i n e m ex r e r u m n a t u r a sustulisse et eripuisse cui r e p e n t e c a e l u m ,

solem,

a q u a m , t e r r a m q u e a d e m e r i n t ' ; i b i d . 72 ' q u i d est t a m c o m m u n e q u a m spiritus vivis| terra m o r t u i s , m a r e

fluctuantibus,

litus eiectis'. F o r a satirical t r e a t m e n t o f the 'ele-

m e n t a l ' aspects o f interdictio a n d o f e x e c u t i o n see L u c i l i u s 786 ff. M a r x ' a p X a k h o m i n e m et stoechiis s i m u l / p r i v a b i t , i g n i c u m et a q u a i n t e r d i x e r i t . / d u o h a b e t s t o e c h i a , a d f u e r i t a n i m a et c o r p o r e / (yrj c o r p u s , a n i m a est rrveCpa): m a l u e r i t , p r i v a b i t t a m e n ' . C f . also O v . Fast. 4 . 7 8 7 ff.

p o s t e r i o r i b u s / stoechiis, si id

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S IN T H E AEN'EID

333

m a y be related to passages in w h i c h E a r t h is excluded b y the omnipresence of Sea a n d S k y , 3.192 f., 5.8 f. (F6, FIO). C o m p a r e also 5.870 f., 6.740 if. (F 12, G2). M o r e a m b i t i o u s claims to possession of the divisions o f the w o r l d , to w h i c h I shall shortly return, are for the most p a r t based on extra-poetic sources, b u t the constant tendency in a n t i q u i t y to m a g n i f y the H o m e r i c heroes, w h e t h e r t h r o u g h allegory or other forms of exegesis, w a s itself suggestive. A p a r t i c u l a r l y striking A u g u s t a n form u l a t i o n of the extent of the a c h i e v e m e n t of Ulysses is f o u n d in M a n i l i u s ' c a t a l o g u e of the souls o f great m e n that i n h a b i t the M i l k y W a y , i n c l u d i n g (1.763 f.): terraeque marisque triumphis naturae victorem Ithacum. T h i s is m o r e reminiscent of the L u c r e t i a n p a n e g r y r i c of Epicurus t h a n o f H o m e r ' s m u c h - e n d u r i n g hero, a n d the form u l a t i o n smacks of the schematizations of Hellenistic commentators. Control over the elements is, strictly speaking, b e y o n d n o r m a l h u m a n powers; the p o w e r of V e n u s in the L u c r e t i u s p r o e m is never attributed directly to a h u m a n in the Aeneid. B u t it is possible to show the hero indirectly in control o f the elements t h r o u g h the i n t e r m e d i a r y of a friendly divinity. T h u s , in b o o k one, the storm, in w h i c h the T r o j a n s are c o m p l e t e l y in the grip of hostile elemental forces, is i m m e d i a t e l y followed b y the intervention of a g o d not u n f a v o u r a b l e to the T r o j a n s , N e p t u n e , w h o then exercises direct control o v e r the elements. T h e statesm a n simile of lines 148 if. also hints a t a n ancient idea of the ruler as a master of the elements 7 8 (for further discussion see a b o v e , p p . 204 if.). C o n t r o l over the waters in the T r o j a n s ' 78

V i r g i l d e l i b e r a t e l y p l a c e s t h e s t r i k i n g s t a t e s m a n simile here, n e a r t h e b e g i n n i n g

o f the p o e m , in o r d e r to a c c u s t o m us to t h i n k i n g in t e r m s o f a n ^ q u a t i o n o f the p o w e r s o f h u m a n a n d d i v i n e rulers. S i m i l a r b o t h in its p o s i t i o n i n g a n d in its ' s h o c k i n g ' q u a l i t y is the c o m p a r i s o n n e a r t h e b e g i n n i n g at O v . Met.

1 . 1 7 5 f. o f the d w e l l i n g o f J u p i t e r to

the P a l a t i u m . T h i s is f r e q u e n t l y t a k e n to b e a d e b u n k i n g o f O l y m p i a n m a j e s t y , b u t the o p p o s i t e m a y b e t h e case; O v i d l e n d s a n a u r a o f d i v i n i t y to the h u m a n d w e l l i n g ( V . B u c h h e i t , Hermes 94 { 1 9 6 6 ) , 80 ff., has a r g u e d f o r s u s t a i n e d A u g u s t a n a l l e g o r y in t h e m y t h o l o g y o f Met.

political

1). A d m i t t e d l y I k n o w o f n o o t h e r e v i d e n c e f o r t h e

v i e w t h a t t h e h o u s e o f the princeps is a n i m a g e o f h e a v e n at this e a r l y d a t e ; it w a s to b e c o m e a c o m m o n topos in t h e praise o f D o m i t i a n ' s p a l a c e (e.g. M a r t . 8 . 3 6 . 1 1 f.), a n d the s y m b o l i s m w a s possibly f u l l y d e v e l o p e d i n the p r o g r a m m e o f N e r o ' s domus aurea. C f . H . C a n c i k , Untersuchungen zur lyriscken Kunst des P. Papinius Statius ( S p u d a s m a t a 13, H i l d e s h e i m , 1 9 6 5 ) , p p . 74 ff.

334

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AND

IMPERIUM

f a v o u r also occurs in the c a l m i n g of the sea b y N e p t u n e at 5.820 f. (B5); N e p t u n e n o w intervenes directly on b e h a l f o f A e n e a s , thus m a r k i n g the latter's ' a c c e p t a n c e ' at sea, whereas in book one A e n e a s ' rescue w a s only the incidental p r o d u c t of N e p t u n e ' s c o n c e r n for divine etiquette. T h e opposite o f A e n e a s ' helplessness in the face o f the elem e n t a l storm in book one is O c t a v i a n ' s assured control in the ^«-battle of A c t i u m , as depicted o n the Shield in book eight (see a b o v e , p p . 9 7 if.). O t h e r episodes in w h i c h control over the elements b y gods a c t i n g on b e h a l f o f the h u m a n actors figures l a r g e l y a r e 8 . 4 2 3 fF., 1 0 . 1 0 0 ff. (G4, G5); t h e H e r c u l e s

Cacus

story (G3) m a y also be interpreted as the v i c t o r y o f the hero over elemental forces; this is closely associated w i t h a G i g a n t o m a c h y allegorized as the rebellion of n a t u r e against d i v i n e o r d e r (see a b o v e , pp. 1 1 0 ff.). T h e m o t i f of the possession of the elements also reaches its full d e v e l o p m e n t in the c o n t e x t o f R o m a n history. A g a i n the keynote is struck in the first book, in the d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n J u p i t e r and V e n u s . T h e scene is i n t r o d u c e d b y the vivid picture of J u p i t e r stationed in H e a v e n , s u r v e y i n g the divisions o f Sea a n d L a n d (F2); V e n u s ' first w o r d s to h i m pick u p the t h e m e of his universal rule (229 f.). T h e c o m p l a i n t o f T r o j a n exclusion f r o m the w o r l d thus comes with p a r t i c u l a r force at 233. V e n u s reminds J u p i t e r of his promise that the T r o j a n s ' descendants w o u l d h a v e p o w e r over Sea a n d L a n d (02), a plain statement of w o r l d - e m p i r e in terms w h i c h could be taken straight from official A u g u s t a n p r o p a g a n d a . T h e opposite of exclusion from the world-divisions or elements is thus not simply the safe arrival in a n e w h o m e l a n d (as with H e l e n u s ) , b u t possession of the entirety of the world-divisions. T h e passage from the local to the universal is facilitated b y the a m b i v a l e n c e at the heart o f the universal expression, w h i c h m a y either refer to the several areas in w h i c h strictly local events o c c u r or e m p h a s i z e the totality o f the w o r l d divisions. T h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n of present T r o j a n persecution b y the elements a n d the future universal rule of the R o m a n s is found for the second time in the reply of J u p i t e r : elemental persecution at 1.280 (F3), universal e m p i r e at 287 (B9). In the latter passage the terms are m o r e h y p e r b o l i c a l , b e i n g v e r y close to Anchises' p r o p h e c y of the future greatness of R o m e at 6.782 (A4); in both these passages V i r g i l stops short o f the ultimate

U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S IN T H E AEN'EID

I . I f ) * I I I I I j |

I j I. I J I

335

expression of royal p o w e r , possession of the H e a v e n s ( w h i c h w o u l d necessitate a fully divinized ruler) b u t the mention in both passages o f a w o r d for the H e a v e n s has the illogical e f f e c t of m a k i n g it seem as if the empire spanned b o t h H e a v e n a n d E a r t h . F u r t h e r m o r e , the l a n g u a g e used of the astral destiny o f R o m e ('caeli q u i b u s adnuis a r c e m ' , 1.250; ' s u b l i m e m q u e feres ad sidera caeli / m a g n a n i m u m A e n e a n ' , 1.259 f.; 'tollemus in astra nepotes', 3.158; cf. also 8.99 f.) is phrased so g e n e r a l l y that these passages m a y b e read as f i g u r a t i v e statements o f t h e extension of R o m a n p o w e r on this side of the g r a v e . 7 9 T o sum up, the e x t r e m e terms of the history of R o m e , as v i e w e d in its relationship to the physical universe, are l a i d d o w n in the speeches o f V e n u s and J u p i t e r in book one. A e n e a s himself travels p a r t o f the w a y from initial helplessness on b o t h Sea (the storm) a n d o n L a n d (the L i b y a n 'desert') to, firstly, the successful e n d u r a n c e o f the dangers o f S e a , 6.83 f. (c8), a n d secondly, control of the sedes quietae o f L a t i u m . B u t the f u l l realization of the terra marique f o r m u l a is reserved for that p a r t of history w h i c h is seen in the Aeneid only t h r o u g h the m e d i u m of p r o p h e c y ; the c u l m i n a t i o n of this d e v e l o p m e n t is the pax Augusta, whose a c h i e v e m e n t is t r i u m p h a n t l y depicted in t h e closing scenes of the Shield of A e n e a s . 79

E x a m p l e s o f all three w o r l d - d i v i s i o n s g i v e n o v e r

d o m i n a t i o n in Greek

p a n e g y r i c : Anth.

a l c / i i j r a ; ' OXV/XTTOV

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'EXXaBos,

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B i b l i o t h . W a r b u r g 3, L e i p z i g a n d B e r l i n , 1 9 2 4 ) , p . 161 n . 3 ) . F o r a C i c e r o n i a n e x a m p l e

Geburt des Kindes

(Stud,

I

o f R o m a n p o w e r r e a c h i n g t o t h e h e a v e n s i n a p a s s a g e p r a i s i n g P o m p e y , Cat.

J

' d u o s c i v i s . . . q u o r u m a l t e r finis v e s t r i i m p e r i n o n t e r r a e sed c a e l i r e g i o n i b u s t e r m i -

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n a r e t ' ; G e r n e n t z , p p . 121 ff. f o r o t h e r e x a m p l e s o f t h i s e x a g g e r a t i o n .

:

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3.11.26

8.The Shield of Aeneas: the Cosmic Icon chapters 3 a n d 4 I e x a m i n e d t w o scenes f r o m the ecphrasis of the Shield o f A e n e a s at the end of book eight of the Aeneid, those describing the G a l l i c assault on the C a p i t o l a n d the defeat o f A n t o n y a n d C l e o p a t r a at A c t i u m , a n d d e m o n s t r a t e d their indebtedness to a tradition o f political i c o n o g r a p h y in w h i c h the victories of the city a n d its rulers are c o m p a r e d to the victories of the O l y m p i a n gods o v e r T i t a n s and Giants. S u c h comparisons invest the historical event w i t h the universality w h i c h p r o p e r l y belongs to thecdivine assertion of cosmos against chaos. T h e last scene on the Shield, the t r i u m p h of A u g u s t u s , uses other traditional models to present a picture o f the triumphator as the universal master o f m a n k i n d . T h e universality of these specific episodes, d e m a n d e d b y the V i r g i l i a n view o f history, is also the key to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the overall conception of the Shield of A e n e a s . IN

I.

C R I T I C I S M

OF

T H E

S H I E L D

S I N C E

L E S S I N G

T h e elaborately d e c o r a t e d shield w h i c h A e n e a s receives from V e n u s obviously challenges c o m p a r i s o n w i t h H o m e r ' s m o n u m e n t a l ecphrasis o f the shield w h i c h H e p h a e s t u s makes for Achilles in book eighteen of the Iliad; the c o m p a r i s o n is signposted in the text b y V e n u s ' a p p e a l to the p r e c e d e n t of T h e t i s in her initial a p p r o a c h to V u l c a n for arms for her son. 1 T h i s c o m p a r i s o n has formed the starting-point for m a n y m o d e r n evaluations of the V i r g i l i a n Shield, chiefly of a d i s p a r a g i n g nature from the time o f Lessing's influential a n d d a m n i n g criticism. 2 Lessing praised the H o m e r i c Shield for its lively presentation of the n u m e r o u s scenes, v i e w e d as they e m e r g e u n d e r the h a n d s o f H e p h a e s t u s , a n d castigated the V i r g i l i a n Shield 1

Aen. 8.383 f. 'te filia N e r e i , / te p o t u i t l a c r i m i s T i t h o n i a

flectere

coniunx.'

The

Aithiopis m a y w e l l h a v e c o n t a i n e d a n ecphrasis o f the d e c o r a t i o n o f the shield (or o t h e r piece of armour) o f M e m n o n . 2

G . E. L e s s i n g , Laokoon ( 1 7 6 6 ) , c h . 18.

T H E S H I E L D OF A E N E A S : T H E C O SM IC I C O N

337

j

as a frigid succession of static scenes, v i e w e d by A e n e a s (and the reader) after the w h o l e has been c o m p l e t e d by V u l c a n . In the Iliad Achilles stands in real need of a n e w set of arms after the d e a t h o f Patroclus, whereas in the Aeneid the gift o f d i v i n e a r m o u r to A e n e a s does not supply a pressing lack. Lessing concludes that 'the shield o f A e n e a s is therefore a real interpolation, singly a n d solely intended to flatter the national pride o f the R o m a n s : a little foreign rivulet w h i c h the poet c o n d u c t s into his stream in order to m a k e it more lively'. 3 S o m e attempts h a v e been m a d e to a n s w e r Lessing in his o w n terms, 4 b u t recent essays in the rehabilitation of the V i r g i l i a n Shield h a v e a b a n d o n e d the invidious c o m p a r i s o n , a n d sought to e x p l a i n the Shield of A e n e a s on the basis of the themes a n d techniques w h i c h V i r g i l , w r i t i n g the epic of R o m e , does not share w i t h H o m e r . 5 T h e m a t i c a l l y , the Shield has been e v a l u a t e d in its position as the last o f the e x t e n d e d prophecies or revelations of the historical g r o w t h o f R o m e , w h i c h m a r k o f f the central books of the Aeneid f r o m the n a r r o w e r H o m e r i c texture of the story o f A e n e a s . Seen thus, the d e c o r a t i o n o f the Shield has the o b v i o u s function o f c o m p l e m e n t i n g the p a r a d e of R o m a n heroes in book six, a n d , with the c a t a l o g u e of book seven, o f c o m p l e t i n g a w i d e review of R o m e a n d I t a l y f r o m the earliest times to the present d a y . If w e ask, as some h a v e done, w h a t it adds to the S p e e c h of Anchises, w e m a y consider the s u m m a r y of its content g i v e n b y V i r g i l (8.626 ff.):

i | !

illic res Italas Romanorumque triumphos haud vatum ignarus venturique inscius aevi fecerat ignipotens, illic genus omne futurae stirpis ab Ascanio pugnataque in ordine bella.

i i • f I J j | I | I f I | I }

I \ | I

i

In contrast to the p r e d o m i n a n t l y p r o s o p o g r a p h i c a l bias of book six, w h e r e Anchises is seen m a r s h a l l i n g the i n d i v i d u a l souls of future R o m a n heroes, the emphasis here is o n R o m a n conquest. T h i s is suited both to the o r n a m e n t of an instrument of w a r and to the n a r r a t i v e c o n t e x t of i m m i n e n t struggle b e t w e e n the 3

Trans. R , Phillimore.

4

N o t a b l y b y H . T . Pltiss, Vergil unddie epische Kunst ( L e i p z i g , 1884), p p . 270 ff.

5

T h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l o f r e c e n t studies has b e e n C . B e c k e r , ' D e r S c h i l d des A e n e a s ' ,

W S 77 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , 1 1 1 - 27; see also W l o s o k , p p . 121 ff, w i t h t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y at p. 122 n. !

73-

¿g'2

V I R G I L ' S AENEID:

COSMOS

AND ÍMPERIUM

T r o j a n s a n d the Italians; this w a r is the implied b e g i n n i n g of the historical series o f wars d e p i c t e d on the Shield. It has also been a r g u e d that the divine a u t h o r s h i p and delivery o f the Shield function as an expression o f the divine protection and sanctioning of R o m a n conquest. In terms of n a r r a t i v e technique, the c h a r g e of static frigidity has been p a r t i a l l y m e t b y the discovery of allusive links, some more c o n v i n c i n g t h a n others, b e t w e e n three areas of R o m a n legend and history, n a m e l y the stories of A e n e a s , o f preA u g u s t a n R o m e , a n d of A u g u s t a n R o m e . 6 I f this is true, then it c a n be a r g u e d that H o m e r i c n a t u r a l i s m a n d liveliness here w o u l d be a distraction. T h e other criticisms also lose some o f their force; that V i r g i l ' s theme is n a r r o w c o m p a r e d with that o f H o m e r is a c c e p t e d as inevitable in the e c o n o m y o f a R o m a n epic ( h o w e v e r m u c h w e m a y distrust V i r g i l ' s initial c o n c e p tion). T h a t the Shield of A e n e a s is less well integrated into its c o n t e x t t h a n is the Shield o f Achilles proves perhaps to be an a d v a n t a g e ; V i r g i l thus makes clear the distance b e t w e e n his ' p r o p h e c y ' o f A u g u s t u s a n d the w o r l d o f A e n e a s ; in the passages that f r a m e the ecphrasis proper this distance is indeed emphasized, spatially in the secluded setting of the delivery o f the arms (in valle reducta, 609), and p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y in A e n e a s ' i g n o r a n c e o f the m e a n i n g of the pictures that delight his eyes (730). T h e surrender of the c o m p a r i s o n w i t h H o m e r in f a v o u r of a n interpretation in w h a t are seen as p u r e l y V i r g i l i a n terms has led to the conclusion that the Shield o f A e n e a s is almost totally i n d e p e n d e n t o f the H o m e r i c Shield, e x c e p t in respect o f the great length a n d variety of the ecphrasis? T h i s , if true, w o u l d be surprising g i v e n the d e p t h a n d extensiveness o f V i r g i l ' s imitation o f his H o m e r i c models elsewhere in the Aeneid; in the f o l l o w i n g sections I shall a r g u e that the Shield o f Achilles is the central m o d e l for the Shield of A e n e a s , b u t that this imitation coexists w i t h , r a t h e r than t e n d i n g to disrupt, the kinds of m o dern interpretation outlined a b o v e . T o a p p r e c i a t e this, it is 6

See the c o m m e n t s o f B i n d e r a n d G r a n s d e n o n the i n d i v i d u a l episodes.

7

e.g. P. T . E d e n , A commentary on Virgil, A e n e i d VIII (Mnemosyne S u p p l . 35, L e i d e n ,

1 9 7 5 ) , p. 163: ' t h e i d e a o f the S h i e l d o f A e n e a s u n q u e s t i o n a b l y d e r i v e s f r o m H o m e r ' s S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s , b u t t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f t h e t w o has no d e t e c t a b l e c o n n e c t i o n ' ; see also P . G . W a l s h , i n t r o d . to C . J . F o r d y c e , P.

Vergili Maronis

Aeneidos libri

VII

VIII

( O x f o r d , 1 9 7 7 ) , p. x x i x , ' T h e c o n t r a s t w i t h the u n i v e r s a l t h e m e s o n A c h i l l e s ' shield in the Iliad e m p h a s i z e s y e t a g a i n t h e d i f f e r i n g p u r p o s e s o f V i r g i l ' s n a t i o n a l e p i c . '

T H E S H I E L D OF A E N E A S : T H E C O SM IC I C O N

339

|

!

necessary to reconstruct ancient w a y s o f interpreting the H o -

j

meric Shield, instead o f a t t e m p t i n g to m a p m o d e r n readings

]

directly on to the V i r g i l i a n ecphrasis.8 T h e central feature of

I

ancient exegesis is its insistence that the g r e a t circle o f the

I

Shield o f Achilles, w i t h its a b u n d a n c e o f scenes, is a n i m a g e of the w h o l e universe, an allegory o f the cosmos. T h e Shield of A e n e a s is also an i m a g e of the creation of a universe, b u t of a strictly R o m a n universe ( t h o u g h n o n e the less c o m p r e h e n s i v e

I

for that). T h e r e is in fact no c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n the uni-

I

versalist themes of H o m e r (as interpreted b y antiquity)

|

the nationalist concerns o f V i r g i l ; the resolution is p r o v i d e d immediately

by

the V i r g i l i a n

and

identification o f cosmos a n d

imperium, o f w h i c h the Shield is the final a n d most vivid realization. T h i s interpretation has the f u r t h e r a d v a n t a g e of exp l a i n i n g the function o f the Shield w i t h i n the overall structure of the p o e m , a p r o b l e m only partially confronted b y m o d e r n reassessment; as cosmic icon the Shield of A e n e a s is the true c l i m a x a n d final e n c a p s u l a t i o n o f the imperialist themes o f the

Aeneid, a n d is thus q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t from the review o f i n d i v i d u a l R o m a n heroes in book six ( a l t h o u g h the encomium o f A u g u s t u s there does indeed f o r e s h a d o w the universalizing o f the Shield). T h e cosmic (or cosmogonic) r e a d i n g of the Shield of A e n e a s also helps to e x p l a i n the principle behind the v e r y partial selection of scenes f r o m R o m a n history ( a l t h o u g h it does j

not entirely elucidate the m u c h discussed g r o u p of scenes f r o m early R o m a n history b e t w e e n the scene o f R o m u l u s a n d R e m u s

1

and

that

of the G a u l s

on

the

Capitol).

Finally,

this

in-

j

terpretation also places d u e emphasis on the physical presence of the Shield as a massive circular o b j e c t p r o u d l y taken u p b y A e n e a s , rather t h a n simply r e g a r d i n g it as a m o r e or less n e u t r a l field for the representation o f scenes e x t r a n e o u s to the central

i

n a r r a t i v e of w a r in L a t i u m . 8

R . R . S c h l u n k , The Homeric scholia and the A e n e i d ( A n n A r b o r , 1 9 7 4 ) , p p . 3 3 - 5 ,

discusses V i r g i l ' s use o f t h e a n c i e n t a l l e g o r i z a t i o n s o f the S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s , b u t stops short of detailed analysis.

37°

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - . COSMOS II.

T H E

A N C I E N T T H E

T R A D I T I O N S H I E L D

OF

AND O F

IMPERII!M

C O M M E N T A R Y

O N

A C H I L L E S

(a) T h e Shield as natural philosophy: imago

mundi

T h a t the H o m e r i c Shield of Achilles is in some sense an image of the universe is a v i e w quite w i d e l y held; modern interpretations tend to present the Shield as a microcosm of society, offering for our inspection a w i d e - r a n g i n g sample of h u m a n activities on earth. 9 T h e s e detailed scenes are framed b y schematic cosmic images: the first line of the ecphrasis (II. 18.483) presents the tripartite universe of earth, h e a v e n , and sea, followed b y six lines detailing the contents of the heavens; the w h o l e is rounded o f f b y the i m a g e of O c e a n - s t r e a m circling the rim of the Shield (607 fOIn antiquity these indications formed the starting-point for one of the most extensive applications of physical allegory to H o m e r , w h e r e b y the whole of the Shield and the a c c o u n t of its m a k i n g were revealed as the expression of a philosophically conceived c o s m o g o n y and cosmology. T h i s allegorization is preserved at length in the Homeric Problems ascribed to Heraclitus 1 0 and in Eustathius. 1 1 I shall s u m m a r i z e the m a i n points. T h e god of fire, Hephaestus, is an allegory of the demiurgic fire w h i c h creates the universe; the a c c o u n t of the m a k i n g of the circular shield is an allegory of c o s m o g o n y , of the creation of the spherical universe. 1 2 T h e forging of the Shield takes place at night, a night w h i c h represents the chaos w h i c h preceded the separation of the elements. T h e four metals of w h i c h the Shield is m a d e represent the four elements; w h a t other reason could H o m e r h a v e h a d for not m a k i n g the Shield entirely of gold? Lines 4 8 3 - 9 of the H o m e r i c ecphrasis need only to be 9

C f . e.g. O . P. T a p l i n , ' T h e S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s w i t h i n the Iliad ', G&R2

27 (1980),

11 f. 10 All. 43 ff. F o r a f u l l e r discussion o f the a n c i e n t a l l e g o r i z a t i o n s o f t h e S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s see m y a r t i c l e 'Imago mundi: c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s ' , f o r t h c o m i n g in JHS. 11

Eust. 1 1 5 4 . 4 1 ff., w h e r e the i m m e d i a t e a u t h o r i t y is g i v e n as D e m o .

Standard

discussions o f the a l l e g o r y : K . R e i n h a r d t , De Graecorum theologia capita duo (diss. Berlin, 1 9 1 0 ) , p p . 61 ff.; H . J . M e t t e , Sphairopoiia:

Untersuchungen zur Kosmologie des Krates von

Pergamon ( M u n i c h , 1 9 3 6 ) , p p . 36 ff. (the t e s t i m o n i a for the a l l e g o r i z a t i o n a r e c o l l e c t e d u n d e r f r a g m e n t 23). 12

H . J . M e t t e , o p . cit., p. 40, e x c l u d e s the c o s m o g o n i c a s p e c t f r o m the o r i g i n a l

a l l e g o r i z a t i o n , for n o g o o d r e a s o n .

T H E S H I E L D OF A E N E A S : T H E C O SM IC I C O N

(

i i j j j i | |

j

34

1

taken at their face v a l u e to yield the three world-divisions o f earth, sky, a n d sea, 1 3 followed b y the h e a v e n l y bodies. T h e t w o cities, o n e at p e a c e a n d one at w a r , are allegories of E m p e docles' cosmological principles of Philia ( ' L o v e ' ) and JVeikos ('Strife'). T h e five layers of w h i c h the Shield is constructed represent the five zones into w h i c h the e a r t h is d i v i d e d . 1 4 E u stathius further records a n allegorization o f the antux, the rim, of the Shield as the circle o f the z o d i a c ; that it is said to be 'triple' alludes to the b r e a d t h of the z o d i a c ; that it is called ' g l e a m i n g ' refers to the fact that the b r i g h t sun moves w i t h i n it; 1 5 the telamon or shield-strap is allegorized in Eustathius as the axis w h i c h supports the universe. T h e diversity o f the H o m e r i c description has b e e n rigidly reduced to a simple s c h e m a , w h i l e the suggestions o f universality in the original text h a v e b e e n m a d e the f o u n d a t i o n for a n interpretation of the Shield as a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s y m b o l o f the cosmos. 1 6 A scholion on A r a t u s , d r a w i n g on the same allegorization, describes the Shield o f Achilles as a tcoafiov fiifirjfia, ' a n i m a g e o f the cosmos'. 1 7 T h e allegory, transmitted a n o n y m o u s l y , in all p r o b a b i l i t y derives from the P e r g a m e n e scholar C r a t e s o f M a l l o s , a c t i v e in the m i d d l e of the second c e n t u r y BC, or f r o m his school, for E u stathius reports a C r a t e t e a n interpretation of the Shield o f A g a m e m n o n , described in the eleventh b o o k of the Iliad, as a m o d e l o f the universe, a FIIFIRJIXA rov KOO/JLOV, 'an i m a g e o f the cosmos'. 1 8 Koofxos is here to be u n d e r s t o o d of the celestial firmament rather t h a n o f the universe c o m p r i s i n g b o t h sky a n d earth; the ten b r o n z e circles o f A g a m e m n o n ' s shield are I n D e m o ' s version the three world-divisions represent three of the elements, w i t h

13

t h e c r a f t s m a n H e p h a e s t u s as t h e f o u r t h , f i r e . T h i s l o o k s l i k e a l a t e r v a r i a n t , s i n c e it duplicates the four-element allegory o f the four metals. |

14

A g a i n D e m o reports a v a r i a n t , that the five layers stand for the five circles o f

|

h e a v e n ; t h i s is p r o b a b l y t h e r e s u l t o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n f r o m t h e a l l e g o r i z a t i o n o f t h e

j

S h i e l d o f A g a m e m e n o n (see b e l o w ) .

)

15

E u s t . 1 1 5 4 . 5 2 ff. N o t e t h e a s t r o n o m i c a l senses o f avrv£,

16

E u s t . 1 1 5 5 . 2 uses a n o t h e r f o r m u l a t i o n t o m a r k t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f t h e S h i e l d ; it is

L S J s.v. II.3.

a SiaAe£t? nepi Oetwv Kai avdpa>-nivo)v. ' D i v i n e a n d h u m a n ' is o n e o f a series o f p a i r s o f ¡:

' p o l a r opposites' used to d e n o t e 'the s u m o f things' in G r e e k . 17

S c h o l . a d A r a t . 26 ( M a a s s p . 3 4 3 . 1 7 ) .

18

E u s t . 8 2 8 . 4 2 ff. (ot Trepi t o v K p a T r j T a ) . S c h o l . T a d II. 1 1 . 4 0 a t t r i b u t e s it t o C r a t e s

h i m s e l f ; cf. B u f f i e r e , p p . 1 6 3 ff. W h a t is t h e s o u r c e o f P h i l a r g y r i u s ' c o m m e n t o n V i r g i l Eel.

3 . 1 0 5 ' a l i i c l i p e u m A j a c i s d i c u n t t r i u m u l n a r u m , in q u o e x p r e s s a c a e l i

forma

f u e r a t ' ( T h i l o a n d H a g e n , i i i . 2 , p . 6 9 ) ? Is Ajacis a n e r r o r f o r , o r c o r r u p t i o n of,

Achillis

or

Agamemnonts?

V I R G I L ' S A ENE ID: COSMOS

A N D IMPERII!

M

interpreted as the ten circles o f the heavens (the circles o f E u d o x u s , with the addition of the M i l k y W a y a n d the Horizon); 1 9 the w h i t e tin bosses a d o r n i n g the shield represent the stars of the heavens. T h e further d e v e l o p m e n t of this allegory in Eustathius is interesting in that it comes close to suggesting an a p p l i c a t i o n of such allegorical representations to a royal ideology: It is proper that the shield of the king bears an image of the heavens, for Homer had said previously that Agamemnon was 'like in his eyes and head to Olympian Zeus' [II. 2.478). T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g passage in the scholia 2 0 provides a list of places in the Iliad in w h i c h the figures of A g a m e m n o n a n d Z e u s are a p p r o x i m a t e d ; particularly interesting is the observation that b o t h the Shield o f A g a m e m n o n and the aegis o f Z e u s b e a r the d e v i c e o f the G o r g o n . 2 1 T h e implication is that H o m e r has deliberately p r o v i d e d A g a m e m n o n w i t h a shield that imitates the a r m a m e n t o f the s u p r e m e g o d . A t this point it is t e m p t i n g to speculate on the possible r e l e v a n c e o f this allcgorization of H o m e r to Hellenistic r o y a l ideology. C r a t e s w o r k e d for the A t t a l i d kings of P e r g a m u m , w h o d e v e l o p e d a p a r t i c u l a r l y rich a n d e x t r a v a g a n t i m a g e r y p o r t r a y i n g the state a n d its ruler as divine agents o f order, seen most n o t a b l y in the G i g a n t o m a c h y o f the G r e a t A l t a r o f Zeus. C r a t e s ' n a m e has often been suggested in the c o n t e x t of the a u t h o r s h i p of the (lost) iconog r a p h i c a l p r o g r a m m e o f this w o r k , w h i c h manifestly c o m b i n e s themes from earlier m y t h and p o e t r y with c o n t e m p o r a r y political p r o p a g a n d a (see a b o v e , p p . 136 ff.). I shall a r g u e that the V i r g i l i a n Shield displays precisely this blend o f cosmic allegory a n d political ideology; for an explicit e x a m p l e in later epic of h o w the themes of the Shield o f Achilles could be used in this w a y take the simile w h i c h Silius Italieus uses to illustrate H a n n i b a l as he attempts to p r o v o k e F a bins

(Punka 7.120 ff.): ut Thctidis proles Phrygiis Vulcania campis arma tulit, clipeo amplexus terramque polumque maternumque freturn totumque in imagine mundum. 181

H . J . M e t t e , o p . cit., p. 34.

20

Schol. T a d / / .

21

G o r g o n : II. 1 1 . 3 6 f. ( S h i e l d o f A g a m e m n o n ) ; 5 . 7 4 1 f. (aegis).

11.36.

T H E S H I E L D O F A E N E A S : T H E C O SM IC I C O N

343

T h e cosmological content has a w i d e r function in the context: H a n n i b a l , in the c o n f i d e n c e of an i m m i n e n t c a p t u r e of R o m e , allows his i m a g i n e d p o w e r to fill the world, (106 ff.): en, ubi nunc Gracchi atque ubi nunc sunt fulmina gentis Scipiadae? pulsi Ausonia non ante paventem dimisere fugam, quam terror ad ultima mundi Oceanumque tulit. E v e n the fulmina gentis22 (an i m a g e w h i c h endows R o m a n heroes w i t h divine o m n i p o t e n c e ) are powerless against the universal m i g h t of H a n n i b a l . A natural-philosophical v i e w o f the universe is here directed to serve the ends of a political or military universalist ideology; the imago mundi on the shield, to use the phrase w h i c h Silius takes from O v i d ' s s u m m a r y of the images on the Shield of Achilles, 2 3 has b e c o m e an e m b l e m o f the pretensions of a n a t i o n a l leader with claims to w o r l d - w i d e empire.

(b) The Shield as history: Agallis of Gercyra

j | | ; ) I | | i I |

H o m e r is the poet of all the Greeks, b u t this did not p r e v e n t i n d i v i d u a l city-states from seeking to take him for their o w n , as the large n u m b e r o f birthplaces c l a i m e d for hirri is witness. Nationalist ends m i g h t also be served b y selective textual scholarship a n d historical interpretation; the use supposedly m a d e o f the C a t a l o g u e of Ships b y the A t h e n i a n s to support a claim to S a l a m i s is well k n o w n . 2 4 T h e scenes of h u m a n society on the Shield of Achilles o p e r a t e a t a level o f detail that easily tempts the ascription of a specific place a n d time to a n o n y m o u s events, a n d the ancient c o m m e n t a r y tradition does indeed preserve an e x h a u s t i v e interpretation o f the Shield as a m o n u m e n t to the history of A t t i c a . T h i s interpretation is found in the scholia and Eustathius, 2 5 and is ascribed to A g a l l i s o f C e r c y r a , a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f Aristophanes of B y z a n t i u m . 2 6 S h e seems to h a v e m a d e something 22

O n this i m a g e see S k u t s c h , p p . 1 4 5 - 5 0 .

28

Met.

21

A r i s t . Rk. 1375^ 29 f.; P l u t . Sol. 10.

13.1 i o .

84

T h e D a n d T s c h o l i a a n d E u s t a t h i u s are c o n v e n i e n t l y set o u t t o g e t h e r by H .

E r b s e , Scholia graeca in Homeri Modem (Scholia vetera) iv. ( B e r l i n , 1 9 7 5 ) , pp. 5 2 8 ff. 26

W e n t z e l , RE

1.718.

344

V I R G I L ' S A EN EID:

COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

of a speciality of nationalistic exegesis of H o m e r ; in the only other report o f her work she is said to have m a d e N a u s i c a a into the inventor of ball games, 2 7 'as a f a v o u r to her fellow c o u n t r y w o m a n ' . A c c o r d i n g to Agallis, the two cities on the Shield of Achilles arc A t h e n s a n d Eleusis; in the first, A t h e n s , w e see scenes of m a r r i a g e , because the origin of that institution is to be sought in Athens, 2 8 a n d o f a m u r d e r trial, in allusion to the first such trial, of A r e s for the m u r d e r of Halirrothius, on the A r e o p a g u s . T h e w a r that takes place round the second city, Eleusis, represents the w a r b e t w e e n the A t h e n i a n s and the Eleusinians with their ally E u m o l p u s . Ares and A t h e n a are present as allies o f the A t h e n i a n s (II. 18.516), the one in gratitude for his acquittal on the A r e o p a g u s , the other in her role as protector o f the city whose e p o n y m o u s goddess she is. T h e gods represented on the Shield of A e n e a s are also carefully selected for their relevance to R o m e . Agallis goes on to explain h o w the scenes o f agriculture a n d d a n c i n g on the Shield of Achilles also refer to A t t i c inventions and institutions; for exa m p l e , the king w h o presides over the scene of harvesting (556) is T r i p t o l e m u s , w h o first sowed seed. 2 9 Eustathius sums u p the w h o l e interpretation in rhetorical terms, as 'encomiastic themes' in praise o f Athens. 3 0 Particularly interesting in the context o f the V i r g i l i a n Shield is the w a y in w h i c h A g a l l i s links these themes o f l e g e n d a r y history to the explicitly cosmological scenes that open the H o m e r i c Shield. 3 1 This correlation between cosmology and history is expressed s o m e w h a t differently in the reports of the T and D scholia; I give firstly the version of the T scholia: Hephaestus represented the primitive origins [archaiogonia] of Attica on the shield: the earth, because they are autochthonous; the heavens, on whose model they constituted their state; the sea, by which lie two cities, Eleusis and Athens. 27

A t h , 14

D.

28

C f . C l e a r c h u s fr. 73 W e h r l i .

2S

T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w a s also s u p p o r t e d b y a n a d d i t i o n a l line in the text a f t e r 5 5 1 ,

xapvov

'EAevoivtr/i

30

Eust. 1157.2.

31

Compare

ArjfiTjTfpos

ayXaoSciipov.

the l e g e n d that R h o d e s w a s c l a i m e d

by H e l i o s a f t e r he h a d

been

e x c l u d e d f r o m the o r i g i n a l d i v i n e d r a w i n g o f lots for areas o f the u n i v e r s e , P i n d .

01.

7 . 5 4 ff.; M e n . R h . 3 5 7 . 2 1 ff5 ¡ a d d u c e d as a n e x a m p l e o f c i t y - f o u n d a t i o n ) . F o r a l a t e r e x a m p l e o f t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f c o s m o g o n y a n d ktisis see H e i t s c h 24, ' M e r c u r i u s m u n d i et H e r m u p o l i s m a g n a e c o n d i t o r ' , w i t h J . B i d e z , RPH NS 27 ( 1 9 0 3 ) , 81

5.

T H E S H I E L D OF A E N E A S : T H E C O SM IC I C O N

345

T h e tripartite universe is more than j u s t a setting for A t t i c history; earth a n d h e a v e n are each tied to the state by m o r e i n t i m a t e links than those of g e o g r a p h y , earth as the i m m e d i a t e origin of the A t t i c race (Agallis says that the Shield is m a d e b y H e p h a e s t u s in h o n o u r of his son, the a u t o c h t h o n o u s k i n g Erichthonius), h e a v e n as the m o d e l on w h i c h the A t h e n i a n constitution is f r a m e d . T h e reference here a p p e a r s to be to a

tradition, preserved in a fragment of Aristotle's Athenian Republic, a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h the n u m b e r s of the tribes, phratries, and families correspond to the m a i n divisions of the y e a r . 3 2 T h e idea that the city or state is constructed as an i m a g e of the universe or heavens is widespread in m a n y cultures, at root a n expression of a f u n d a m e n t a l c o n v i c t i o n that n a t u r e a n d society mirror each other; 3 3 it is also a basic c o m p o n e n t o f an expansionist v i e w of the state, w h e r e , h o w e v e r , the q u a l i t a t i v e identity of city a n d cosmos is transformed into the q u a n t i t a t i v e e q u i v a l e n c e of e m p i r e a n d universe. The last of the three divisions, the sea, is a c c o r d i n g to the T scholia relevant to A t t i c a only as the setting for the littoral States o f Eleusis and A t h e n s ; b u t Eustathius adds an interpretation w h i c h does b r i n g this p a r t o f the universe into a more intimate connection with the city, as the stage for A t h e n i a n thalassocracy. 3 4 T h e version in the D scholia stresses the temporal i m p l i c a t i o n of the o r d e r of the scenes o n the Shield: The two cities are Athens and Eleusis, Athens first because she was the first city when the universe was created, and after making the elements the god makes the walls of the city. H e r e A t h e n s is privileged in the cosmic perspective as the first city to b e built after the creation of the physical universe; she acquires d i g n i t y from her p r o x i m i t y to the origins of things (in m u c h the same w a y as the type of 'cosmic setting' discussed at p p . 6 6 - 9 a b o v e is used to lend d i g n i t y ) , a n d there is also the implication that the m a k i n g of the elements a n d the b u i l d i n g 32

A r i s t . fr. 385 R o s e ; the f o u r tribes c o r r e s p o n d t o the f o u r seasons, the t w e l v e

p h r a t r i e s to t h e t w e l v e m o n t h s , the t h i r t y f a m i l i e s in e a c h p h r a t r y to t h e t h i r t y d a y s o f e a c h m o n t h ; discussed in P. L e v e q u e a n d P . V i d a l - N a q u e t , Clisthene Path/men

[Paris,

¡ 9 6 4 ) , p. 145. 83

M . E l i a d e , The myth of the eternal return ( L o n d o n , 1 9 5 5 } , p p . 6 if.; L . M u m f o r d ,

The city in history ( L o n d o n , 1 9 6 1 ) , p p . 3 1 , 49, 69. 34

Eust. 1 1 5 7 . 1 .

37°

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - . COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

of the walls of A t h e n s are parts of one and the same creative process. T h e interpretation of the Shield of Achilles ascribed to Agallis shows how an a p p a r e n t l y generalized picture of all m a n n e r of h u m a n life could be tied d o w n to specific places and events in history; it also points towards an integration of this historical reading of the Shield with the kind of cosmological interpretation discussed in the previous section. T h e V i r g i l i a n Shield of A e n e a s presents striking analogies to both parts of Agallis' interpretation. T h a t the Shield of A e n e a s is a R o m a n archaiogonia is obvious. U n l i k e Athens, h o w e v e r , R o m e could not claim to be the first city built in the world, nor could her inhabitants pretend to a u t o c h t h o n y , so that the easy links between c o s m o g o n y and city-foundation exploited by Agallis were not available; the devices w h i c h V i r g i l used to associate city and cosmos in the Shield of A e n e a s are more complex.

III.

(a) Laudes

T H E

V I R G I L I A N

S H I E L D

urbis and the creation of a universe

T h e scenes on the Shield of A e n e a s described in detail in lines 630- 728 of book eight of the Aeneid are to be understood as merely a selection from the multiplicity of images w r o u g h t by V u l c a n on its surfacc, and s u m m a r i z e d in the lines that introduce the ecphrasis (625-9): clipei 11 on enarrabile tcxtum. illic res Italas Romanorumque triumphos haud vatum ignarus venturique inscius aevi fecerat ignipotens, illic genus omne futurae stirpis ab Ascanio pugnataque in ordine bell a. A n u m b e r of themes are here a d u m b r a t e d , w h i c h receive varying degrees of emphasis in the scenes actually described; a general comparison of this s u m m a r y with the ecphrasis proper is a preliminary to an understanding of how the principle of selection behind the latter provides a f r a m e w o r k for the cosmic allegory. C e n t r a l to the s u m m a r y is the theme of w a r (triumphos, 626; bella, 629), which also dominates the ecphrasis proper (with the

T H E S H I E L D O F A E N E A S : T H E C O SM IC I C O N

347

e x c e p t i o n of only a few scenes). W a r is apt both for the Shield as m a r t i a l instrument a n d for the circumstances of its delivery to A e n e a s ; in the w i d e r perspective w a r is o f course the m e a n s by w h i c h R o m e e x p a n d s to b e c o m e the w o r l d - p o w e r . A t this point it is instructive to consider a passage in Heraclitus' interpretation of the H o m e r i c Shield, in w h i c h he argues that H o m e r is w r i t i n g philosophically, since if he h a d intended the Shield simply as a literary fiction (muthikos) he w o u l d h a v e constructed the w h o l e out of m a t t e r a p p r o p r i a t e (harmozousan) to Achilles, n a m e l y themes of w a r . 3 5 V i r g i l ' s c o n c e n t r a t i o n on m a r t i a l s u b j e c t - m a t t e r m a y be understood as a gesture of conformity to the d e m a n d s o f literary d e c o r u m ; b u t V i r g i l i a n military history is simultaneously an a c c o u n t o f ' t h e greatest works of P r o v i d e n c e ' that H e r a c l i t u s professes to discover on the Shield of Achilles. 3 6 i n the s u m m a r y the Shield of A e n e a s is presented as a c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y consistent survey of these struggles (in or dine, 629), 3 7 a n d c h r o n o l o g i c a l order is strictly a d h e r e d to in the f o l l o w i n g scenes. T h e r e is n o t h i n g surprising in this; history is, after all, usually presented a c c o r d i n g to the t e m p o r a l order o f events as they h a p p e n e d . O n the other h a n d an eepkrasis need not follow c h r o n o l o g i c a l order; c o m p a r e the p a r a d e of heroes in book six o f the Aeneid, w h e r e the introduction of the J u l i a n house at line 788 breaks the chronological order of future R o m a n history. But c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r is essential to create a n impression of g r o w t h a n d expansion on both the historical a n d the cosmic levels. 3 8 T h e Shield, a c c o r d i n g to the s u m m a r y , displays the history of b o t h I t a l y and R o m e (626); in the A u g u s t a n scenes at the end of the ecphrasis V i r g i l performs a rather delica te b a l a n c i n g act in order to k e e p both entities in play, first in the description of A u g u s t us g o i n g into battle at A c t i u m (678 f.): hinc Augustus agens Italos in proelia Caesar cum patribus populoque, penatibus et magnis dis. 35 36

T17? 37

Alt. 48.3 f. I b i d . 48.5 IT pov

O LAS

" O f j , r ] p o ? 18ia ( py

a

/¿era

Tivi rr/v

tf>i\oaoin aSitVKpivrjTov

&7]p.iovpyiov xai

TOV

Koapov vArjV

tvOvs

ra

p ; p B i «

¿xaAxfuofv-

C h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r is also i m p l i e d in the p r e c e d i n g p h r a s e ' g e n u s o m n e f u t u r a e /

stirpis a b A s c a n i o ' . 38

C h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r in c o s m o g o n y : H e r a c l i t . All. 48.6, w i t h B u f f i e r e a d loc;

37°

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - . COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

T h e first line presents the princeps as the leader of all I t a l y , w h e r e a s the second focuses on the R o m a n train, h u m a n (senatus populusque Romanus) a n d divine. T h i s same tact is f o u n d in the second mention of A u g u s t u s , o n his t r i u m p h a l return from the east ( 7 1 4 f.): at Caesar, triplici invectus Romana triumpho moenia, dis Italis votum irnmortale sacrabat. But this should not obscure the fact that the ecphrasis (like the w h o l e of book eight) is essentially c o n c e r n e d with R o m a n , not Italian, history, a n d with the g r o w t h of the city o f R o m e to b e c o m e the w o r l d - p o w e r . T h e t h e m e of the city o f R o m e also provides some thread of continuity for the p r o b l e m a t i c a l opening scenes of the Shield, c u l m i n a t i n g in the decisive p r o o f o f the d i v i n e g u a r a n t e e of R o m e ' s existence in the miraculous repulse o f the G a u l s from the C a p i t o l . 3 9 T h u s , after the o p e n i n g scene o f the infants R o m u l u s and R e m u s , founders of the city, w e see the rape o f the S a b i n e w o m e n a n d its consequences, an act vital for the p e r p e t u a t i o n o f the inhabitants of the new city. T h e following scene of the p u n i s h m e n t of M e t t u s contains a n implicit allusion to the c o n s e q u e n t destruction of the city of A l b a L o n g a by R o m e ; it is a recurrent theme of the Aeneid that the greatness o f R o m e is ensured only by the destruction of other potentially p o w e r f u l cities. N e x t , from the story o f the expulsion o f T a r q u i n , are selected those episodes w h i c h concentrate on the successful preservation o f the city itself from attack, a t h e m e w h i c h reaches its c l i m a x in the a c c o u n t of M a n l i u s and the G a u l s . T h e birth, preservation, and e v e n t u a l unlimited expansion o f R o m e , not the history of Italy, form the real subject of the Shield. T h e last c o m p o n e n t o f the s u m m a r y o f the Shield is the race of Ascanius (628 f.). T h i s of course covers the w h o l e R o m a n race, 4 0 but it should be noted that it includes m o r e than is described in the scenes that follow, in p a r t i c u l a r the generations of A l b a L o n g a , f o u n d e d by Ascanius. 4 1 T h e mention of the line of Ascanius further puts us in m i n d o f the role o f V e n u s (to w h o m A s c a n i u s is especially d e a r in the Aeneid)*2 as mother of 38

S e e B i n d e r , p p . 150 ff., for this a s p e c t o f t h e scene.

40

N o t e Aeneadae, 648.

41

Am. 8.48.

42

1.678, 4.163 ( ' D a r d a n i u s q u e nepos Veneris'), 10.132.

T H E S H I E L D OF A E N E A S : T H E C O SM IC I C O N

349

the R o m a n race; the role of M a r s as father of the R o m a n s , as progenitor of R o m u l u s and R e m u s , is alluded to by contrast in the line that follows, 630, the first line of the ecphrasis proper, I shall later a d v e r t to the f u n c t i o n in the overall structure of the Shield of the several references to gods as parents and protectors of R o m e . T h e omission of a n y detailed a c c o u n t o f the history o f the civilized, city-born, T r o j a n settlers in I t a l y , or of the kings of A l b a L o n g a , allows for the greatest possible contrast b e t w e e n the first scene on the Shield, that of R o m u l u s and R e m u s w i t h the she-wolf, and the last scene, that o f the universal t r i u m p h of A u g u s t u s , a n d hence of the universal d o m i n a t i o n of the city of R o m e . T h e s e t w o scenes form the e x t r e m e limits of the R o man cosmogony.43 T h e function of the she-wolf scene as a s y m b o l of the extremely l o w l y origin of the R o m a n e m p i r e is well recognized. 4 4 T h e picture of the infant twins is h u m b l e and pastoral; their foster-mother is not even h u m a n . 4 5 O n e detail points b e y o n d the realistic representation of h u m a n i n f a n c y to a more radical idea of creation (633 f.): illam tereti cervice reflexa mulcere alternos et corporafingerelingua. T h e w o l f is depicted as 'licking into shape' the t w o babes, as the she-bear traditionally did to h e r cubs, 4 6 a curious and 4a

C f . the c o m m e n t of C . B e c k e r o n the last scene, WS 77 {1964), 124, ' S t a n d a m

A n f a n g d e r B e s c h r e i b u n g das A u f w a c h s e n v o n R o m u l u s u n d R e m u s a u f k l e i n e m , b e s c h e i d e n e m R a u m , so wird hier mit a l l e m G l a n z v o r g e f ü h r t , wie die g a n z e E r d e R o m Untertan ist.' T h e t w o e x t r e m e s in a n o t h e r p a n e g y r i c o f R o m e , C l a u d . Cons. Stil. 3 138 ff. C f . G e r n e n t z , p p . 32 ff., ' d e n o v a e et a n t i q u a e urbis c o m p a r a t i o n e ' . «

e.g. B i n d e r , p. 1 5 1 , ' [ d a s ] Bild d e r W ö l f i n in d e r H ö h l e des M a r s , w e l c h e die

N i e d r i g k e i t u n d W i n z i g k e i t der A n f ä n g e R o m s s y m b o l i s i e r t ' . C f . Q v . Fast. 3 . 1 7 9 f. ( M a r s speaks of R o m e in the t i m e o f R o m u l u s ) ' p a r v a fuit, si p r i m a velis e l e m e n t a referre, / R o m a , sed in p a r v a spes tarnen huius e r a t ' . 46

T h e use of matrem in line 632 (despite a f e w parallels for the use o f the w o r d to

m e a n ' w e t - n u r s e ' ) and the v e r b a l echoes o f the o m e n o f the sow a n d the piglets (8.42

ff,

8 i ff.) c o m b i n e to suggest a scene of literal m a t e r n i t y . «

C f . Pliny HN 8 . 5 4 . 1 2 6 ; A e l . ,NA 2 . 1 9 ; lionesses a n d foxes a r e also said to d o the

s a m e , P l i n y HN

10.83.176. T h e r e are a f e w instances of fingere w h e r e some sense like

'caress' or ' w i p e ' seems to be r e q u i r e d (TLL

vi.772.41

ff),

but even if it c o u l d be

a r g u e d that s o m e t h i n g of this sort w a s the p r i m a r y m e a n i n g here, the c o n t e x t w o u l d force o n the r e a d e r a s e c o n d a r y , allusive, sense o f ' s h a p e ' . V i r g i l ' s c o n c e p t i o n m a y be a d e v e l o p m e n t o f F a b i u s P i c t o r ' s description o f the s h e - w o l f l i c k i n g o f f the m u d that c o v e r e d the infants ( D i o n . H a l . Ant. Rom. 1 7 9 ) .

¿g'2

V I R G I L ' S AENEID:

COSMOS

AND ÍMPERIUM

unparalleled transference that the c o m m e n t a t o r s m a k e little of. It is the same bit o f natural history that V i r g i l used to illustrate the creative process b y w h i c h he b r o u g h t his a m o r p h o u s first sketches into articulated order, a c c o r d i n g to the Life of D o n a t u s (22): ' c a r m e n se ursae m o d o parere dicens et l a m b e n d o d e m u m effingere'. 4 7 Into the picture o f the literal birth o f R o m u l u s a n d R e m u s , a n d hence, figuratively, of the 'birth' o f R o m e , is introduced the m o r e abstract notion of the creative g i v i n g of shape to a formless prima materia; the sequence of c o s m o g o n y followed by the f o u n d a t i o n of a city that w e saw in Agallis' interpretation o f the H o m e r i c Shield thus collapses together, so that the notion of the first s h a p i n g o f matter, primarily a concept of n a t u r a l philosophy, is i n t r o d u c e d into a scene imp l y i n g ktisis, a c o n c e p t of historical aetiology. T h i s simultaneous coexistence of the cosmological a n d the historical is the distinguishing feature o f the Shield o f A e n e a s . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f the she-wolf scene is further m a r k e d b y the elision of a n y reference to the a c t u a l f o u n d i n g of R o m e by R o m u l u s ; the licking into shape of the twins is followed i m m e d i a t e l y b y the first mention o f R o m e in the ecphrasis: 'nec p r o c u l hinc R o m a m ' (635). W i t h i n the Shield the existence of the city follows almost as a direct result of the scene o f birth a n d of the bestowal of form. 4 8 T h e description of the Shield falls into two m a j o r sections, w i t h the division c o m i n g after line 670. T h e first p a r t is concerned w i t h the creation and preservation o f the city of R o m e itself within its walls, while the second depicts the extension o f the p o w e r o f the city to fill the oikumene, u n d e r the aegis of A u g u s t u s ; there is no intermediate section tracing the g r a d u a l g r o w t h of empire b e t w e e n 390 a n d 31 BC, a n d almost exactly h a l f of the history o f R o m e u p to the Battle o f A c t i u m is unrepresented (the m e n t i o n of C a t i l i n e a n d C a t o provides only a partial e x c e p t i o n to this, since they are not s h o w n in their historical existence on earth). T h e effect is to c o n c e n t r a t e entirely on the success of A u g u s t u s in a c h i e v i n g w o r l d d o m i nation, at the expense of the v e r y real contributions of earlier T h e story is also r e p o r t e d by G e l l , NA 1 7 . 1 0 . 2 . C f . S h a k e s p . 3 Henry VI 3 . 2 . 1 6 1 , ' L i k e to a c h a o s , o r a n u n l i c k ' d b e a r - w h e l p ' . 48 C f . S e r v . a d Aen. 8 . 6 3 5 >necprocut kmc Romam c o n g r u e , i u x t a p r o p r i o s c o n d i t o r e s ' . 45

T H E S H I E L D OF A E N E A S : T H E C O SM IC I C O N

35'

centuries; 4 9 the omission o f the Punic W a r s is especially striking, b u t u n d e r s t a n d a b l e in v i e w o f the later presentation of those struggles as the crucial stage in R o m e ' s accession to w o r l d power, 5 0 w h i c h m i g h t d e t r a c t u n d u l y from the glory of A u g u s tus. Nevertheless there is a marked correlation b e t w e e n the m i r a c u l o u s preservation o f the R o m a n citadel from the G a u l s in 390 BC and the divinely f a v o u r e d a c h i e v e m e n t of R o m a n w o r l d e m p i r e at the Battle of A c t i u m , a correlation analysed at p p . 124 f. a b o v e in terms of the G i g a n t o m a c h i c allegory u n d e r l y i n g the t w o episodes, w h e r e it w a s also a r g u e d that the sequence of divinely a i d e d victory over the G a u l s followed b y religious celebration, itself a repetition o f the sequence earlier in book eight of G i g a n t o m a c h i c struggle between Hercules a n d C a c u s followed b y religious celebration, is repeated in the seq u e n c e of G i g a n t o m a c h i c Battle of A c t i u m followed by celebrations in R o m e . G i g a n t o m a c h y is in essence a c o s m o g o n i e m y t h , but its emphasis m a y fall on one of t w o aspects, corresponding to t w o senses of the word kosmos: firstly, on the assertion of moral a n d theological o r d e r against the a n a r c h y of evil; a n d , secondly, on the spatial extension of the resulting order to fill the universe. T h e V i r g i l i a n a c c o u n t of A c t i u m and its a f t e r m a t h corresponds to the second of these emphases, the episode o f the G a u l s to the first; it is this d u a l i t y at the heart o f the G i g a n t o m a c h i c m y t h that allows the preservation of the C a p i t o l , the centre o f R o m e , to stand as a préfiguration of the Battle o f A c t i u m , the successful conquest of the p e r i p h e r y . 5 1 T h e scenes w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y follow the a t t a c k of the G a u l s , o f religious celebration in R o m e a n d p u n i s h m e n t a n d r e w a r d in the U n d e r w o r l d , also act as a transition to the picture o f the A u g u s t a n cosmos in its aspect of physical extension. T h i s is best analysed with the aid of the c o n c e p t of 'theological space' 4®

F o r a n o t h e r s i m p l e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n the s m a l l n e s s o f e a r l y R o m e a n d the g r e a t -

ness o f A u g u s t a n R o m e see O v . Fast. 2 . 1 3 3 ff,, w h e r e t h e w a r a g a i n s t T a t i u s a n d C u r e s is c o n t r a s t e d w i t h A u g u s t u s ' s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e : cf. Aen. 8.638. 50

S e e a b o v e , p p . 168 f., for the t r e a t m e n t o f the P u n i c W a r s in L u c r e t i u s .

51

T h e r e p u l s e o f the G a u l s a n d t h e d e f e a t o f A n t o n y a n d C l e o p a t r a are also l i n k e d

in t h a t b o t h are p r e l u d e s to acts o f r e f o u n d a t i o n : C a m i l l u s a n d A u g u s t u s b o t h c l a i m e d to b e s e c o n d ' f o u n d e r s ' o f R o m e , r e p e a t i n g the w o r k o f R o m u l u s . T h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l d i v i s i o n o f the S h i e l d , almost e x a c t l y at t h e h a l f - w a y p o i n t in R o m a n h i s t o r y , m i g h t j u s t p o i n t to a s c h e m e o f ' G r e a t Y e a r s ' : see the ( u n p r o v e n ) s p e c u l a t i o n o f J . ' D u S o n g e d e S c i p i o n à l a vision d ' E n ê e ' , in Hommages à Léon Herrmann (coll. 44, Brussels, i 9 6 0 ) , p p . 4 3 6 - 4 5 .

Hubaux, Latomus

37°

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - . COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

d e v e l o p e d in c h a p t e r 6, a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h localized events (such as the history of D i d o ) m a y be universalized b y reference to the divine forces that control the e x t r a - h u m a n universe. T h u s the preservation of R o m e from the G a u l s is seen to accord with the universal divine o r d e r o f things; the g u a r a n t e e of R o m e ' s existence comes from the heavens (lapsa ancilia caelo, 664}, and is itself met by the proper, observation of religious c e r e m o n y on the p a r t of a grateful city (663 6). T h e full extension o f the vertical axis o f theological space is then imm e d i a t e l y p r o v i d e d b y the scene o f the U n d e r w o r l d , w h i c h has since book six b e c o m e fully R o m a n i z e d ; the place of the m y t h i cal G r e e k sinners and saints is taken b y the R o m a n s C a t i l i n e and C a t o . T h u s the w h o l e vertical axis, from h e a v e n to hell, is o c c u p i e d by a dispensation f a v o u r a b l e to a suitably pious and grateful R o m e . T h e inclusion of H a d e s on the Shield of A e n e a s is also an o u t b i d d i n g of the universal pretensions o f the H o m e r i c Shield o f Achilles, on w h i c h Hephaestus first fashions the three cosmicdivisions of earth, heaven, a n d sea. T h e mention of H a d e s introduces the fourth world-division, not found on the H o m e r i c Shield. It remains to show that the other three world-divisions are also present on the V i r g i l i a n Shield. Earlier 011 I discussed the principle of chronological continuity as a necessary condition for a cosrnogonic allegory; an allegory o f this sort should also display the q u a l i t y of comprehensiveness *2 that feature, in fact, w h i c h modern critics (with the n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n o f H e i n z e , 5 3 whose hints I here develop) often g r a n t to the H o m e r i c Shield w h i l e d e n y i n g to the V i r g i l i a n . T w o divisions o f the q u a d r i p a r t i t e universe are explicitly and s c h e m a t i c a l l y described on the Shield of Aeneas: the U n d e r w o r l d , as w e h a v e seen, w h i c h is i m m e d i a t e l y followed by the picture of the sea (671 4). T h e sea is introduced to set the scene for the Battle o f A c t i u m , b u t the leisurely four-verse sentence in w h i c h it is described gives it a status i n d e p e n d e n t of this i n t r o d u c t o r y function. 5 4 T h u s , b r i d g i n g the central divide o f the ecphrasis, w e h a v e two scenes in w h i c h m a j o r world-divisions 52

C f . H e r a c l i t u s ' i n t r o d u c t i o n t o his a l l e g o r y o f t h e S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s , All.

[ H o m e r ] 7-171> 83

TOJI>

OALOV

H e i n z e , p. 4 4 3 n . 2, ' H o m e r h a t t e e i n a b g e s c h l o s s e n e s W e l t b i l d g e g e b e n , d a s w i l l

V i r g i l in a n d e r e r W e i s e t u n , ' 54

43.1

Trepiyffpoicre yrVtatv.

It c o r r e s p o n d s t o b o t h BaAaaaa

a n d 'Qxtavos

in H o m e r .

T H E S H I E L D OF AENEAS: TH E C O SM IC I CON

\ !

I ;

!

353

are presented in schematic form, w i t h o u t b e i n g totally a b stracted f r o m the R o m a n s u b j e c t - m a t t e r (the sea is still the setting for A c t i u m , a n d the particulars of the U n d e r w o r l d are R o m a n ) ; this relaxation o f the pressing c o n c e n t r a t i o n on R o m a n history acts as an interlude b e t w e e n the scenes from the first, h a l f of R o m a n history a n d those o f the recent past. B u t it is the p e c u l i a r characteristic of the Shield that for the most p a r t it strives for a yet closer synthesis of the cosmological and the historical; the rest of the m a p of the cosmos must be extracted f r o m the scenes before a n d after the pictures o f U n d e r w o r l d a n d Sea. T h e division o f E a r t h is obviously the setting for the scenes o f early R o m a n history, b u t the reader is h a r d l y e n c o u r a g e d to think in this w a y , until the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the Sea at line 671 forces h i m to construct a schematic division of the Shield. W i t h the w o r d s haec inter w e are asked to envisage the i m a g e o f the Sea as placed b e t w e e n the U n d e r w o r l d and the p r e c e d i n g scenes, w h i c h thus define themselves as 'scenes on E a r t h ' . But for the cosmological a l l e g o r y to work p r o p e r l y , the final message of the Shield must b e that the city of R o m e controls the totality of all four world-divisions; only then will the iden-

tification of imperium and cosmos be complete. It is, fittingly, the

i I }

final, A u g u s t a n , scenes that a c h i e v e this end. H e r e V i r g i l found m u c h of his w o r k a l r e a d y done for him b y the p r o p a g a n d a w h i c h elevated the Battle o f A c t i u m into the decisive battle b y w h i c h the princeps a c h i e v e d s u p r e m a c y on both land a n d sea. 5 5 M a s t e r y o f the sea is implied on the Shield b y the d e p i c t i o n o f A u g u s t u s ' n a v a l victory in an i m a g e of the sea w h i c h clearly alludes to the cosmological images o f Sea a n d O c e a n on the H o m e r i c Shield. 5 6 T h e claim to mastery o v e r land as a result o f A c t i u m w a s more f r a u d u l e n t in reality, and V i r g i l avoids a direct expression of it; it is implied, h o w e v e r , that A c t i u m results in the defeat o f the nations of the furthest east w h o follow in A n t o n y ' s train (686 ff.), and this form of e t h n o g r a p h i c a l universalism is picked u p in yet bolder terms in the final scene of A u g u s t u s ' t r i u m p h . W h a t V i r g i l implies, b u t does not state in so m a n y words, in his p l a c i n g of A c t i u m on the Shield m a y 55

S e e c h a p t e r 7.

56

C f . E u s t a t h i u s ' (Agallis'P) s u g g e s t i o n t h a t the sea w a s i n c l u d e d o n t h e H o m e r i c

S h i e l d 111 a l l u s i o n to A t h e n i a n t h a l a s s o c r a c y .

37°

V I R G I L ' S AENEID-.

COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

be g a t h e r e d f r o m the w o r d s o f A p o l l o to A u g u s t u s i m m e d i a t e l y before the victory in Propertius' A c t i u m elegy, a p o e m w h i c h is closely d e p e n d e n t on the description on the V i r g i l i a n Shield (Prop. 4 . 6 . 3 7 - 9 ) : mox ait 'o Longa mundi servator ab Alba, Auguste, Hectoreis cognite maior avis,

vince mari: iam terra tua est.

In c h a p t e r 7 w e saw that the c l a i m to cosmic e m p i r e includes the claim to control the world-division o f the heavens, b u t that, in the interests o f plausibility, this claim h a d n o r m a l l y to be presented either figuratively, or in terms of the close cooperation of the divine powers of the heavens w i t h the h u m a n empire on earth, or else, prospectively, in terms o f apotheosis or catasterism. O n the Shield, w h e r e historical reality is particularly exposed, the p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f the heavens or sky in R o m a n e m p i r e is d e v e l o p e d chiefly t h r o u g h the theme of d i v i n e co-operation w i t h the aims o f the city. T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d earth is established physically in the fall to earth of the ancilia in the scene o f religious celebration f o l l o w i n g the rescue o f the C a p i t o l f r o m the G a u l s (664); the link b e t w e e n earth a n d h e a v e n is also suggested in the picture of A u g u s t u s sailing into battle ( 6 8 0 - 1 ) : stans celsa in puppi, geminas cui tempora flammas laeta vomunt patriumque aperitur vertice sidus. T h e flames that shoot from the h e a d of A u g u s t u s are m e t f a v o u r a b l y b y the a p p e a r a n c e o f the star of the deified Julius. 5 7 But the i m p o r t a n c e o f the heavens in the establishment of R o m a n empire is expressed most e m p h a t i c a l l y in the description o f the battle itself, w h i c h q u i c k l y turns into a t h e o m a c h y . C o m parison w i t h the H o m e r i c t h e o m a c h y in book t w e n t y of the Iliad is revealing: H o m e r ' s gods c o m e to earth to fight (note especially II. 20.47). It is on earth, too, that the gods e n g a g e d on the t e m p o r a l l y r e m o t e destruction of T r o y are seen in book t w o of the Aeneid, b u t the location of the conflict o f the gods, relative to the h u m a n battle, on the Shield is left unspecified. F o r six lines they fight it out a m o n g themselves; the impression C o n t r a s t the T y p h o e a n flames t h a t shoot f r o m the h e l m e t o f T u r n u s ( 7 . 7 8 5 f.), w h i c h w i l l n a t u r a l l y c a l l d o w n not the i n f l u e n c e o f a b e n i g n star, b u t t h e t h u n d e r b o l t of Jupiter. S7

355

T H E S H I E L D OF A E N E A S : T H E C O SM IC I C O N

is that they battle on a p l a n e parallel to, b u t distinct from, that of the m o r t a l c o m b a t a n t s . V i r g i l appears deliberately to separate earth a n d h e a v e n in a w a y that H o m e r does not. 5 8 In the final scene of the Shield ( 7 1 4 - 2 8 ) the themes of the city of R o m e a n d of the w o r l d - e m p i r e that it controls are b r o u g h t together in the celebration of A u g u s t u s ' triple t r i u m p h . In the first six lines ( 7 1 4 - 1 9 ) w e see the city (Romana . . . moenia, 7 1 4 f.; urbem, 716) entirely g i v e n o v e r to j o y o u s religious thanksgiving; in the last nine lines (720-8) w e see the master o f the w o r l d s u r v e y i n g the peoples a n d places that he has c o n q u e r e d . H e r e the R o m a n cosmos is presented u n d e r the more limited aspect o f the oikumene, t h r o u g h the peoples w h o inhabit it, and the rivers w h i c h they drink. 5 9 T h e c o n q u e r e d races correspond to no historical t r i u m p h of A u g u s t u s , b u t are selected to represent all parts of the oikumene, b y a device c o m m o n in the A u g u s t a n poets. 6 0 T h e procession unfolds before the princeps sitting at the threshold of the temple of A p o l l o on the P a l a t i n e (720 f.): ipse sedens niveo candentis limine Phoebi dona recognoscit populorum. C a e s a r appears before the temple o f the g o d w h o g u a r a n t e e d the v i c t o r y at A c t i u m ; the princeps is the representative of A p o l l o on earth. 6 1 A s in the case o f the g o l d - a n d - i v o r y G a u l s in an earlier scene, our u n d e r s t a n d i n g of line 720 is e n h a n c e d if w e visualize the physical a p p e a r a n c e of the P a l a t i n e temple: A u gustus sits b e l o w the p e d i m e n t w h i c h carried the chariot of the 58

F o r a l a t e r p a r a l l e l c o m p a r e V e r o n e s e ' s ' A l l e g o r y o f the B a t t l e o f L e p a n t o ' ; i n

the l o w e r h a l f o f the p a i n t i n g is d e p i c t e d the s e a - b a t t l e , in t h e u p p e r h a l f , a b o v e a l a y e r o f c l o u d , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g e v e n t s in h e a v e n , the i n t e r c e s s i o n o f saints w i t h t h e V i r g i n . T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the t w o p l a n e s is s y m b o l i z e d b y the d r a m a t i c b u r s t o f l i g h t u n d e r the V i r g i n a n d b y t h e a n g e l s t h r o w i n g d o w n f l a m i n g a r r o w s t h r o u g h t h e s t o r m - c l o u d s (illustrated in J . M a r t i n e a u a n d C . H o p e (eds.), The genius of Venice 1500 1600 ( L o n d o n , 1983), p. 239. 59

T h e R h i n e a n d the A r a x e s s i m i l a r l y m a r k the limits o f a R o m a n c o s m o s in a n

e p i g r a m o f C r i n a g o r a s , 28 G o w / P a g e

(Anth. Plan.

6 1 ) , t h e r e , as here (see

below),

c o m b i n e d w i t h the topos o f the c o e x t e n s i o n o f R o m a n e m p i r e w i t h the sun's c o u r s e . Cf. also G e r n e n t z , p p . 108 ff. (furthest p e o p l e s a n d rivers). 80

C h r i s t , p p . 29 ff. F o r the p o i n t s o f the c o m p a s s : B i n d e r , p p . 269 f.; p. 270, ' D i e

Volkerreihen

bei d e n

augusteischen

Dichtern

verherrlichen

den

Kaiser

m o k r a t o r . ' F o r a m o n u m e n t a l e x p r e s s i o n o f the i d e a see Serv. Dan. ' p o r t i c u m e n i m A u g u s t u s f e c e r a t in q u a s i m u l a c r a o m n i u m g e n t i u m q u a e porticus appellabatur " a d nationes" 61

S o W l o s o k , p p . 134 f.

als

a d Aen.

Kos8.721

conlocaverat:

37°

V I R G I L ' S AENEID-.

COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

sun. 6 2 T h e glittering epithets o f the temple and o f its g o d , niveo and candentis, point to the brilliant w h i t e m a r b l e of the new building, 6 3 b u t c o n t a i n a further allusion to the light o f the sun, frequently identified with P h o e b u s b y the A u g u s t a n poets (even if the syncretism of A p o l l o and Sol h a d not yet r e a c h e d the level of cult). 6 4 T h e c o m b i n a t i o n of allusion to s u n - g o d , sitting in review, 6 5 with a c a t a l o g u e o f peoples points to the c o m m o n R o m a n topos o f universal e m p i r e as comprising all the lands that the sun beholds in his d a i l y passage from east to west, a topos at least as old as the Rhetorica ad Herennium (4.33.44). 6 6 O f the m a n y A u g u s t a n examples w e m a y take one from H o r a c e , w h o addresses A u g u s t u s thus (Carm. 4 . 1 4 . 5 f.): o, qua sol habitabilis illustrât oras, maxime principum. 62

P r o p . 2 . 3 1 . 1 1 ' i n q u o S o l i s e r a t s u p r a f a s t i g i a c u r r u s ' ; see J . G a g é , Apollon

romain

( P a r i s , 1 9 5 5 ) , p p . 5 4 0 f. S3

Shining temples

as p a n e g y r i c a l

topos: G e r n e n t z ,

p. 61

( n o t e esp. M e n .

Rh.

4 4 5 . 6 f., a t e m p l e o f A p o l l o ) . 64

S e e W l o s o k , p. 1 3 5 n. 1 3 2 . I n candentis Phoebi

Compare Lucr. 6.1197, lumine

solis

t h e r e is a p u n o n cf>otßos, ' s h i n i n g ' .

ü n e w h o s e e n d i n g m a y b e e c h o e d i n Aen. 8 . 7 2 0 , ' c a n d e n t i

a

[ = Phoebi!]';

other

examples

o f candens

used

of sun/Phoebus,

TLL

i i i . 2 3 4 . 5 3 ff- T h e l i n e m a y a l s o c o n t a i n a h i n t o f t h e a p o t h e o s i s o f A u g u s t u s : c o m p a r e Eel. 5 . 5 6 f. ' C a n d i d u s i n s u e t u m m i r a t u r l i m e n O l y m p i / s u b p e d i b u s q u e v i d e t n u b e s e t s i d e r a D a p h n i s ' , l i n e s w h i c h a l s o i n f l u e n c e t h e l a n g u a g e o f Aen.

7.ioof. 'omnia sub

p e d i b u s , q u a sol u t r u m q u e r e c u r r e n s / a s p i c i t O c e a n u m , v e r t i q u e r e g i q u e v i d e b u n t ' , w h i c h in t u r n l i n k s u p w i t h t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f A u g u s t u s in f r o n t o f t h e P a l a t i n e t e m p l e (see b e l o w ) . T h e r e is a l s o a r e m i n i s c e n c e o f Eel. 5 . 5 6 f. a t Aen. 6 . 2 5 5 f- ' p r i m i s u b limina solis e t o r t u s / sub pedibus

m u g i r e solum'. I n general on the syncretism o f A p o l l o a n d

S o l ( w i d e s p r e a d i n l e a r n e d c i r c l e s b y V i r g i l ' s t i m e ) see P e a s e o n C i e . Nat. P . B o y a n c é , ' L ' A p o l l o n s o l a i r e ' , i n Mélanges

D.

2.27.68;

offerts à J. Carcopino ( P a r i s , 1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 1 4 9

70; see also c h . 7 n. 5 3 . O n t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e e q u a t i o n in t h e L a t i n p o e t s see J . E . F o n t e n r o s e , ' A p o l l o a n d S o l i n t h e L a t i n p o e t s o f t h e first c e n t u r y BC', TAPkA

70

( : 9 3 9 ) > 4 3 9 555 i d . , ' A p o l l o a n d t h e S u n - g o d in O v i d ' , AJPk

At

Aen.

61 ( 1 9 4 0 ) , 4 2 9 - 4 4 .

1 1 . 9 1 2 ff. t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f P h o e b u s / S o l is m o d e l l e d o n t h a t o f P h o e b u s A p o l l o

a t II. 2 1 . 5 4 4 ff-> p o i n t i n g t o t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f A p o l l o a n d S o l : see K n a u e r , p p . 289 f. 65

O n t h e ' p a n e g y r i c a l c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e r u l e r t o t h e s u n s e e C h r i s t , p p . 1 3 5 ff.; E .

D o b l h o f e r , Die Augustuspanegyrik

des Horaz

p p . 17 ff., 8 6 ff; O . W e i n r e i c h , Menekrates

in formalhistorischer

Sicht ( H e i d e l b e r g ,

£eus und Salmoneus

1966),

( T ü b i n g e r B e i t r . z. A l -

t e r t u m s w . 18, S t u t t g a r t , 1 9 3 3 ) , p . 1 5 ; H o u s m a n o n M a n i l i u s 4 . 7 6 4 , 7 6 5 ; S . W e i n s t o c k , Divus Julius

( O x f o r d , 1 9 7 1 ) , p p . 381 ff; F . S a u t e r , Der römische Kaiserkult

bei Martial

und

Statius ( T ü b i n g e r B e i t r . z. A l t e r t u m s w i s s . a i , S t u t t g a r t a n d B e r l i n , 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 1 3 7 ff 86

C f . B ö r n e r o n O v . East. 5 . 5 5 7 ; G e r n e n t z , p p . 1 1 8 ff; w i t h this m a y b e l i n k e d t h e

other notion,

that

Rome,

o r its p r e s i d i n g d e i t y , l o o k s a r o u n d

s u b j e c t e d t o its r u l e , e . g . O v . Fast.

on a world

totally

1 . 8 5 f. ( w i t h B ö r n e r a d l o c . ) . S e e a l s o J . H . O l i v e r ,

' T h e r u l i n g p o w e r : a s t u d y o f t h e R o m a n e m p i r e in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y a f t e r C h r i s t t h r o u g h the R o m a n O r a t i o n of Aelius Aristides', C h r i s t , p p . 5 3 ff

TAPhS

NS 4 3 ( 1 9 5 3 ) , p p . 9 0 9 f.;

T H E S H I E L D OF A E N E A S : T H E C O SM IC I C O N

357

¡

T h e f o r m u l a t i o n is similar to one in the Aeneid itself, in the

I

p r o p h e c y .that L a t i n u s receives c o n c e r n i n g the future o f the

I

R o m a n race (7.100 f.):

I I

omnia sub pedibus, qua sol utrumque recurrens aspicit Oceanum, vertique regique videbunt.

I I I

A u g u s t u s ' c e r e m o n i a l impersonation of the topos m a y link u p with o t h e r ancient versions of the ruler cult; I q u o t e f r o m a n a c c o u n t of E g y p t i a n practice:

I I I I I I

the Egyptian Pharaohs enjoyed elaborate triumphal ceremonies at the pylon gateways of their temple palaces in which they appeared in a golden loggia, or 'Window of Appearances', as a Sun-god, reviewed the presentation of their spoils, enjoyed games of celebration, and recorded their victories by sculptures on the towered pylons of the 'Horizon of Heaven'. 67

j

T h e solar allusion in the last scene of the Shield also forms

j

\

the c l i m a x to an opposition of light and d a r k that reaches o v e r the w h o l e ecphrasis. T h e d a z z l i n g scene in front of the P a l a t i n e temple provides the strongest contrast w i t h the darkness o f the c a v e of M a r s at the b e g i n n i n g (a contrast only heightened b y the physical p r o x i m i t y of the L u p e r c a l to the site o f the temple). D a r k a n d light further e m p h a s i z e the division b e t w e e n the A u g u s t a n scenes a n d the earlier ones. T h e scenes from the first h a l f of R o m a n history c u l m i n a t e in the G a u l s g l i m m e r i n g in the d a r k night; the f o l l o w i n g scenes, s y m b o l i z i n g the divine protection of R o m e , end in the g l o o m of the U n d e r w o r l d . B y contrast b o t h A u g u s t a n scenes are set in the full glare o f d a y :

i

the sea at A c t i u m is a b l a z e w i t h light a n d fire (fervere, effulgere,

!

677;flammas,680; sidus, 681; fulgent, 684); the hectic dazzle of

i

the flames o f w a r gives w a y to the w h i t e brilliance of the t r i u m p h , itself contrasted with the m u r k y h i d i n g - p l a c e of the defeated E g y p t i a n s ( 7 1 3 ) . T h e bright light o f the Palatine temple shines out after the princepses entry into R o m e (invectus, 7 1 4 ) , and is thus also an e x a m p l e of the p a n e g y r i c a l topos o f the fair w e a t h e r a n d brightness that a c c o m p a n i e s the adventus of the

I

67

E . B . S m i t h , Architectural

1 9 5 6 ) , p. 22.

symbolism of imperial Rome and the Middle

Ages

(Princeton,

37°

V I R G I L ' S AENEID-.

COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

great man. 6 8 In both scenes the central figure of O c t a v i a n is particularly associated with fire and light. 6 9

(b) T h e t w o cities A prominent feature of the H o m e r i c Shield of Achilles is the description of two cities, one at peace and one at war; in the ancient allegorizing tradition these two cities are interpreted as the E m p e d o c l e a n principles of L o v e and Strife. T h e Shield of A e n e a s portrays just one city, R o m e , and the main themes, as the o p e n i n g s u m m a r y makes clear (626-9), are those of war. But a closer e x a m i n a t i o n of the Shield of A e n e a s shows that the contrast of w a r and peace, central to A u g u s t a n ideology and also one of the prescribed divisions in the panegyric of a city, 7 0 is pivotal to the structure of the ecphrasis; like the H o m e r i c Shield, the V i r g i l i a n also portrays two cities, R o m e at w a r and R o m e at peace. 7 1 Peace is the inevitable consequence of the achievement of world-empire, b y virtue of the simple fact that there is no one left to fight, and in A u g u s t a n ideology the themes of universal rule and the pax Augusta ('pax terra m a r i q u e parta') g o hand in hand. 7 2 W i t h i n the Aeneid the most explicit association of R o m a n world-empire w i t h universal peace is found at the end 68

See R . G . M . Nisbet, ' S o m e p r o b l e m s of text a n d interpretation in H o r a c e

3 . 1 4 (Herculis ritu)\

Papers of the Liverpool Latin Seminar, Fourth

Volume, igttj

Odes

(Liverpool,

1 9 8 4 ) , p. ¡ 1 5 . 69

F o r the g e n e r a l s c h e m e o f a pair of c a r e f u l l y b a l a n c e d scenes, one of a g i t a t e d

battle and the o t h e r o f c a l m procession, c o m p a r e the D e l p h i c temple of Apollo: the west p e d i m e n t d i s p l a y e d scenes o f G i g a n t o m a c h y

( i n c l u d i n g A p o l l o i n his r o l e

of

a r c h e r ) , w i t h t h e c h a r i o t o f Z e u s a t t h e c e n t r e ; o n t h e east p e d i m e n t a c h a r i o t b e a r i n g A p o l l o , Artemis, a n d L e t o a p p e a r e d b e t w e e n m a l e a n d female figures in procession ( A p o l l o ' s t r i u m p h a l e p i p h a n y i n D e l p h i , o r t o t h e H y p e r b o r e a n s ? ) ; cf. C . P i c a r d a n d P . d e l a C o s t e - M e s s e l i e r e , Fouilles

de Delpkes

i v . 3 ( P a r i s , 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 1 6 ff., w i t h figs. 7

a n d 8; M . R o b e r t s o n , A history of Greek art ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 7 5 ) , p . 1 6 1 . 70

M e n . R h . 3 6 4 . 1 7 f.

71

W a r a n d p e a c e : see a b o v e , p. 70 n. 89. T h e V i r g i l i a n S h i e l d s e e m s t o r e s o l v e

itself l a r g e l y i n t o a series o f d i c h o t o m i e s ; this itself m a y b e u n d e r s t o o d as t h e r e s u l t o f r e f l e c t i o n o n t h e H o m e r i c S h i e l d : cf. W . S c h a d e w a l d t , Aufsätze

und Auslegungen

zur homerischen Frage3

h i n s t e l l t , s i n d d i e Grundformen P r i n z i p des 72

Von Homers

Welt

und

Werk;

( S t u t t g a r t , 1 9 5 9 ) , p . 3 6 3 , ' W a s H o m e r so

d e r W e l t u n d des L e b e n s . Sie sind g e o r d n e t n a c h d e m

Gegensatzes.'

B i n d e r , p p . 2 7 4 ff. F o r a n a b b r e v i a t e d s u m m a r y o f the A u g u s t a n t h e m e s o n t h e

S h i e l d s e e O v . Fast.

1 . 7 1 1 f. ' f r o n d i b u s A c t i a c i s c o m p t o s r e d i m i t a c a p i l l o s , / P a x , a d e s

et t o t o m i t i s i n o r b e m a n e ' ( A c t i u m , P a x , u n i v e r s a l r u l e ) .

T H E S H I E L D OF A E N E A S : T H E C O SM IC I C O N

359

of the S p e e c h of J u p i t e r in book one (286 ff.). 7 3 T h e final scene on the Shield, w h i c h shows representatives of the c o n q u e r e d oikumenë within the walls o f R o m e , is at the same time an i m a g e of the city at peace, even if m o d e r n anti-militaristic feeling finds it h a r d to s y m p a t h i z e with such an i m a g e . F u r t h e r scenes of the m o r e positive aspects o f the pax Augusta are ruled out b y the requirements of d e c o r u m in the o r n a m e n t of a n instrument o f w a r ; this restriction to a view of p e a c e as t r i u m p h also accords with m y remarks at pp. 135 f. a b o v e c o n c e r n i n g V i r g i l ' s selection f r o m the ideological strategies a v a i l a b l e to the ancient world. T h e w a r peace contrast on the Shield is further articulated t h r o u g h the choice a n d treatment of the gods active on R o m e ' s behalf. T h e contrast b e t w e e n the Battle of A c t i u m and the ensuing victory celebrations is s u m m e d u p in the two aspects of the presiding deity A p o l l o : at A c t i u m he is the a v e n g i n g g o d with the lethal b o w (704), while in R o m e he is the g o d of the n e w a g e o f p e a c e that is d a w n i n g (as in the fourth Eclogue). H e r e a g a i n a n awareness of the m o n u m e n t s m a y be of imp o r t a n c e : the Actius Apollo of line 704 is possibly m e a n t to evoke the cult statue o f the a r c h e r - g o d A p o l l o L e u c a d i u s , with w h o m A c t i a n A p o l l o tends to be confused in the poets; 7 4 the cult statue of A p o l l o Palatinus, on the other h a n d , showed the g o d in his p e a c e f u l role as citharode. H e r e a g a i n , as W l o s o k has pointed out, 7 5 Propertius' A c t i u m elegy makes crudely explicit w h a t in V i r g i l is only hinted at; in the first p a r t o f the p o e m A p o l l o a p p e a r s as the a v e n g e r , vindex (Prop. 4 . 6 . 3 1 - 6 ) : non ille attulerat crinis in colla solutos aut testudineae carmen inerme lyrae, sed quali aspexit Pelopeum Agamemnona vultu, egessitque avidis Dorica castra rogis, aut qualis flexos solvit Pythona per orbes serpentem, imbelles quern timuere lyrae. W i t h the battle w o n , a n d the aition of the temple of A p o l l o explained in terms o f the god's miraculous a r c h e r y , the p o e m 73

C f . W l o s o k , p p . 60 ff.

74

C f . J . G a g é , MEFR

5 3 ( 1 9 3 6 ) , 46 ff; o n A p o l l o L e u c a d i u s see P . R .

' A p o l l o L e u c a d i u s u n d O c t a v i a n u s ? ' , Chiron 6 ( 1 9 7 6 ) , 1 5 9 - 6 3 . 75

W î o s o k , p. 1 3 6 n. 1 3 9 .

Franke,

37°

V I R G I L ' S AENEID-.

COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

a b r u p t l y turns to symposiastic celebration of the n e w l y w o n peace, and the g o d too must c h a n g e his costume (69 f.): bella satis cecini: citharam iam poscit Apollo victor et ad placidos exuit arma choros. 76 In the A u g u s t a n scenes of the Shield A p o l l o takes over as the presiding deity f r o m M a r s , w h o hitherto has n a t u r a l l y been the g u i d i n g spirit o f R o m a n bellicosity. M a r s a p p e a r s in the first line of the ecphrasis\ it is in his c a v e that his children, R o m u l u s and R e m u s , are suckled by the she-wolf. H e is also present at A c t i u m , m e t o n y m i c a l l y in line 676, a n d e m p h a t i c a l l y in his o w n person at the height o f the battle at line 700, i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g the decisive intervention o f A p o l l o . 7 7 It is d o u b l y fitting that M a r s should h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t p l a c e at the battle, for as well as b e i n g g o d of w a r he is one o f the divine ancestors of the R o m a n race; the other i m p o r t a n t d i v i n e racial p a r e n t is V e n u s , w h o delivers the Shield to her son A e n e a s , as w e are

reminded at the very end (dona parentis, 729). W e should of course e x p e c t that both M a r s a n d V e n u s w o u l d be intimately associated with a representation of the birth a n d g r o w t h of R o m e . T h e y are also, as divinities respectively o f w a r and love, representative o f opposite principles, and h a d been allegorized as symbols of E m p e d o c l e a n Strife and L o v e b y the ancient exegetes of the disgraceful S o n g of D e m o d o c u s in book eight of the Odyssey.Now E m p e d o c l e a n allegory is also central to the ancient discussions o f the t w o cities on the H o m e r i c Shield, a n d some c o m p l i c a t e d process o f m e d i t a t i o n on all these elements in the tradition seems to h a v e formed the m a t r i x from w h i c h emerged the o p e n i n g scene of R o m u l u s and R e m u s on the V i r g i l i a n Shield (630-4): 76

C o m p a r e T i b . 2.5.79 ' s e d

i u

i

a m

rnitis, A p o l l o '

P a l a t i n e t e m p l e , a n d h a v i n g s t r o n g l i n k s w i t h Aeneid T a r r a n t o n S e n . Ag.

(also a p o e m c e n t r e d o n 8); N i s b e t / H u b b a r d ii, p .

3 2 6 ff. T h i s d u a l c h a r a c t e r o f A p o l l o a p p e a r s i n

the 165;

Callimachus'

allegory o f the attributes of the b o w a n d the G r a c e s of the D e l i a n statue of A p o l l o , Aet. fr. 1 1 4 P f e i f f e r ; M a c r o b . Sat. 1 . 1 7 . 1 6 , A p o l l o (sun) as b o t h h e a l i n g a n d p e s t i l e n t i a l . O t h e r g o d s a r e s i m i l a r l y b i p o l a r (cf. B o m e r o n O v . Fast.

1.554): Dionysus characterized

as a g o d o f b o t h w a r a n d p e a c e : H o r . Carm. 2 . 1 9 . 2 7 f. ( w i t h N i s b e t / H u b b a r d a d l o c . ) ; n o t e in p a r t i c u l a r P l u t . Demetr. 2 . 3 f o r a n a t t e m p t b y a h u m a n r u l e r t o i m i t a t e D i o n y s u s in this d o u b l e a s p e c t (cf. t h e r e l a t i o n o f A u g u s t u s t o A p o l l o ) . M e r c u r y as g o d o f w a r a n d p e a c e : O v . Fast. 5 . 6 6 5 f. 77

M a r s is a l s o p r e s e n t b y a s s o c i a t i o n in t h e m e n t i o n o f t h e S a l i i a n d L u p e r c i a t line

663. 78

H e r a c l i t u s All. 69; B u f f i e r e , p p . 1 6 8 ff.

T H E S H I E L D OF A E N E A S : T H E C O SM IC I C O N

361

fecerat et viridi fetam Mavortis in antro procubuisse lupam, geminos huic ubera circum ludere pendentis pueros et lambere matrem impávidos, illam tereti cervice reflexa mulcere alternos et corpora fingere lingua. T h e s e lines c o n t a i n a n u m b e r of v e r b a l echoes o f the L u c r e t i a n picture o f M a r s in the lap of V e n u s , most strikingly in the use

of the phrase tereti cervice, used by Lucretius of the reclining M a r s (1.35): atque ita suspiciens tereti cervice reposta. 79 In V i r g i l M a r s , g o d of w a r , presides o v e r the infancy o f the twins, b u t the peacefulness o f the scene o f (foster-) m o t h e r h o o d is reinforced b y the use o f l a n g u a g e f o u n d earlier, in the Georgics, in a p r o g r a m m a t i c description of c o u n t r y life as the a l t e r n a t i v e to travel a n d w a r [Geo. 2.523 f., a passage w h i c h itself echoes the L u c r e t i a n t a b l e a u o f M a r s a n d V e n u s ) : interea dulces pendent circum oscula nati, casta pudicitiam servat domus, ubera vaccae lactea demittunt. B o t h w a r a n d p e a c e attend the f o u n d a t i o n o f R o m e , a l t h o u g h as yet b o t h are present o n l y potentially. It is the a c t u a l i z a t i o n of w a r w h i c h d o m i n a t e s the first seven h u n d r e d or so years o f R o m e ' s history, as it is the a c t u a l i z a t i o n o f peace w h i c h will determine her future course. F i n a l l y , the choice of a n t o n o m a s t i c titles for V u l c a n reflects the same division b e t w e e n violence a n d peacefulness. T h e usual title for V u l c a n in b o o k eight, both in the scenes w i t h V e n u s a n d in the description of the Shield, is ignipotens. A t line 724, h o w e v e r , in the m i d d l e o f the p a r a d e of c o n q u e r e d nations, he is called Mulciber ( w h i c h in V i r g i l occurs only here), a title e m p h a s i z i n g the less violent, milder aspect o f V u l c a n , in con79

E a r l i e r t h a n b o t h is C i c . Aratea fr. 9 . 5 S o u b i r a n ' [ D r a c o ] o b s t i p u m c a p u t , a t e r e t i

c e r v i c e r e f l e x u m , / o b t u t u m in c a u d a

Maioris

figere

dicas'. O n

the basis o f these

c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s a n d o f S e r v i u s ' r e m a r k , a d Aen. 8 . 6 3 1 , ' s a n e t o t u s h i e l o c u s E n n i a n u s est', m a n y h a v e d e d u c e d t h a t ' t e r e t i c e r v i c e ' is E n n i a n (cf. W i g o d s k y , p p . 1 2 3 f.); w e s h o u l d at l e a s t ask w h e t h e r teres is a l i k e l y e p i t h e t f o r t h e n e c k o f a w o l f , e x c e p t , as h e r e , w h e n t h a t w o l f is p a r t o f a p o l i s h e d w o r k o f a r t . O t h e r e c h o e s o f t h e L u c r e t i a n p a s s a g e : Aen. 8 . 6 3 1 , procubuisse: pendet.

L u c r . 1.38, recubantem; Aen. 8 . 6 3 2 , pendentis: L u c r . 1 . 3 7 ,

¿g'2

V I R G I L ' S AENEID:

COSMOS

AND ÍMPERIUM

trast to the dangerous connotations of ignipotens (used for the last time in the final scene of the description of A c t i u m , the flight of the d o o m e d Cleopatra). 8 0 (c) T h e Shield as c l i m a x of the

Aeneid

As cosmic e m b l e m the Shield of A e n e a s is fitly placed at the end of the central, prospective a n d prophetic, books of the Aeneid, followed immediately in book nine b y a return to the legendary epic subject-matter of w a r in L a t i u m . Its recapitulatory and climactic nature becomes clear w h e n it is considered in the light of the themes discussed in earlier chapters of this book. M o s t obviously, the Shield provides the final term of that progress from total dispossession to total possession of the world that in chapter 7 was charted through an analysis o f ' u n i v e r s a l expressions'. T h e H o m e r i c Shield of Achilles contains one of the most frequently imitated presentations of the tripartite universe of earth, sky, and sea; Virgil, in his Shield, presents the universe in its most complete, quadripartite, anatomy, but in a form that closely integrates the schematic sketch of the universe with the events and inhabitants that o c c u p y the several divisions of it. E v e n this feature is p r o b a b l y not an entirely n e w gloss on the H o m e r i c Shield, for later G r e e k imitators of that ecphrasis also take the opening lines as a preliminary s u m m a r y of the totality of scenes, divided a c c o r d i n g to their location in the universe. 8 1 T h e V i r g i l i a n universe is one that is p e r v a d e d b y R o m a n p o w e r or by powers f a v o u r a b l e to R o m e ; the nationalist assimilation of the grandest cosmic symbol in ancient literature marks the ne plus ultra of the historical development of R o m e . For the idea of R o m a n p o w e r as filling all four divisions of the universe one m a y c o m p a r e the prayer to O c t a v i a n at the opening of the first Georgic, w h e r e the fantasy of the future apotheosis of the ruler is played out in a leisurely enumeration of the four divisions of the universe, earth, sea, sky, and H a d e s , as potential provinces for his divinity. O n l y 80

F o r t h e s e n s e o f Mulciber

M i e l e n t z , RE

of. CIL

5 . 4 2 9 5 ' V o l k ( a n o ) m i t i sive M u l c i b e r o '

1 6 . 4 9 4 ) , T h e m o s t l i k e l y e t y m o l o g y is t h a t g i v e n in P a u l . Fest.

(and

p.

144

M u e l l e r ' a m o l l i e n d o . , , f e r r o d i c t u s . m u l c e r e e n i m m o l l i r e ' ; cf. mollior o f t h e E u p h r a t e s , 7 2 6 ( w e m a y r e c a l l t h a t in 1 . 6 6 t h e p o w e r o f f i u c t u s mulcere is a s c r i b e d t o A e o l u s ; s e e a b o v e , p p . 208 f., o n t h e r e l a t i o n o f 8 . 7 2 6 t o s t o r m i m a g e r y e l s e w h e r e i n t h e 81

e . g . P h i l o s t r . J u n . Imag. 1 0 . 5 IT.

Aeneid).

T H E S H I E L D OF A E N E A S : T H E C O SM IC I C O N

363

H a d e s is rejected as a suitable k i n g d o m ; on the Shield the U n d e r w o r l d is successfully absorbed into a R o m a n cosmos t h r o u g h the use o f the figures of C a t o a n d Catiline. T h e n a r r a t i v e structure of the H o m e r i c Shield is an outstanding e x a m p l e of the 'cosmic setting', as discussed in c h a p t e r 2. T h e key feature o f this structure, of w h i c h the S o n g of Silenus in the sixth Eclogue a n d the Speech o f Anchises in book six o f the Aeneid p r o v i d e large-scale examples, is the sequential presentation of, firstly, the general outline o f the cosmos a n d its w o r k i n g s (or genesis), a n d , secondly, localized scenes of p a r t i c u l a r historical events. V i e w e d f r o m this angle, the peculiarity o f the Shield of A e n e a s is that the cosmic setting a n d the detailed subject (the history of R o m e ) h a v e m e r g e d into one; f u r t h e r m o r e , the cosmic q u a l i t y of the ecphrasis only becomes a p p a r e n t as w e read t h r o u g h , a n d is not u n a m b i g u o u s l y presented at the outset (though I suspect that the learned reader o f a n t i q u i t y , with his k n o w l e d g e of the H o m e r i c Shield a n d the exegetical tradition a t t a c h e d to it, w o u l d h a v e started w i t h an e x p e c t a t i o n that this too w o u l d p r o v e to be a cosmic Shield). B o t h these features, the simultaneous presentation o f cosmic setting and history a n d the inversion b y w h i c h the cosmic aspect of the w h o l e emerges most clearly at the end rather t h a n at the b e g i n n i n g , are to be traced to the ideological e q u a t i o n of cosmos a n d imperium; the separate presentation o f an a c c o u n t o f the universe, a p a r t f r o m the sketch of R o m a n history, is otiose w h e n the history o f the city itself is v i e w e d as c o s m o g o n y . I n this version history also in a sense precedes c o s m o l o g y , for the full realization of the R o m a n cosmos depends on the a n t e c e d e n t e n d e a v o u r s of generations of men. I n chapters 3 a n d 4 w e e x a m i n e d the m y t h of G i g a n t o m a c h y in its f u n c t i o n as m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n , on the one h a n d , an a b stract or n a t u r a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l a c c o u n t o f the assertion of cosmos against chaos a n d , on the other h a n d , historical images of f o u n d a t i o n a n d the defeat of the b a r b a r i a n outsider. It is thus no surprise that on the cosmic Shield of A e n e a s G i g a n t o m a c h i c allusion should be especially h e a v i l y c o n c e n t r a t e d ; in p a r t i c u lar, the Battle of A c t i u m is v i e w e d as the last repetition of G i g a n t o m a c h y and finally constitutive of a R o m a n cosmos c o m p l e t e in all its m e m b e r s , w h i c h the forces of chaos will henceforth be powerless to assault. T h e presence of this m y t h is

37°

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - . COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

the factor chiefly responsible for the curiously unreal q u a l i t y o f the narrative o f the battle, a q u a l i t y w h i c h points to a tension at the heart of the ecphrasis, especially acute in the later scenes: the Shield is the final w o r k i n g o u t of an abstract i d e o l o g y , w h i c h pulls its texture t o w a r d s the elemental, the h y p e r b o l i c a l , the schematic; at the same time the Shield is the most imm e d i a t e d e p i c t i o n o f a c t u a l R o m a n history, c o n c e r n e d w i t h the concrete detail, the t e m p o r a l a n d spatial p a r t i c u l a r . T h e m e d i u m of the ecphrasis, a description of a w o r k of toreutic, is well suited to express this c o m b i n a t i o n of the real and the unreal, oscillating b e t w e e n the e v o c a t i o n of the vivid b u t frozen scenes o f a static w o r k o f art (occasionally p o i n t i n g b e y o n d the i m a g i n a r y Shield to real visual m o n u m e n t s , the sculptures of the Palatine temple and the t r i u m p h a l images of rivers at the end), a n d the living realism o f the full epic n a r r a t i v e m a n n e r .

(d) Urbs or bis A s the final a n d most detailed p r o p h e t i c revelation of R o m a n history in the Aeneid the Shield of A e n e a s answers a n d e x p a n d s on the far m o r e vatic utterances of the first m a j o r p r o p h e c y of the p o e m , the S p e e c h of J u p i t e r in book one ( 2 5 7 - 9 6 ) , w h i c h also charts the rise of the race of A s c a n i u s a n d the expansion o f R o m a n p o w e r t h r o u g h military conquest to fill the universe, a n d also ends w i t h a vision of a c o m p l e t e l y n e w era of peace. 8 2 A t the centre o f J u p i t e r ' s p r o p h e c y is the f o u n d a t i o n of R o m e , i m m e d i a t e l y followed by the most u n q u a l i f i e d statement o f R o m e ' s universal empire in the w h o l e p o e m (276 ff.): Romulus excipiet gentem et Mavortia condet moenia Romanosque suo de nomine dicet. his ego nec metas rerum nec tempora pono: imperium sine fine dedi. A s Binder has pointed out, 8 3 this association of R o m u l u s ' wallb u i l d i n g w i t h universal R o m a n empire is f o u n d a g a i n in the Speech of Anchises in book six (781 ff.): en huius, nate, auspiciis ilia incluta Roma imperium terris, animos aequabit Olympo, 82

C f . W l o s o k , p p . 137 ff.

83

P- 154-

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365

septemque una sibi muro circumdabit arces, felix prole virum. T h e r e follows i m m e d i a t e l y the simile c o m p a r i n g R o m e to C y bele, the m o t h e r of the gods; she m a y also be a s y m b o l of the terrestrial globe, n o t a b l y so allegorized b y Lucretius in b o o k t w o of the De Rerum Natura (600 ff.). 8 4 T h e R o m a n imperial sense that the city reaches o u t to the limits o f the universe is only partially a d e q u a t e to the real historical g r o w t h of the empire; the e x t r a v a g a n c e of such formulations points to a far m o r e widespread m y t h i c a l or mystical e q u a t i o n of the city with the universe, w h i c h has no essential link w i t h e m p i r i c a l reality. In m a n y societies the h u m a n city is p l a n n e d as an imitation o f the w i d e r cosmos; the limitatio o f the R o m a n gromatici r e p r o d u c e d the co-ordinates of the h e a v e n s in the e a r t h l y locale. 8 5 T h u s the process o f R o m a n military e x p a n s i o n could be understood as a s o m e h o w inevitable spatial identification of the u r b a n m o d e l w i t h its cosmic a r c h e t y p e . T h i s literal universalism w a s reinforced b y philosophical speculation, a b o v e all b y the Stoic notion of the city of the universe, readily a v a i l a b l e to the R o m a n imperialist as a m y s t i f y i n g pretext. 8 6 A s w e h a v e seen, the association of city a n d empire is basic to the w h o l e c o n c e p t i o n of the Shield of A e n e a s ; the t w o c o m e together physically in the last scene, in w h i c h A u g u s t u s returns w i t h i n the walls o f R o m e in t r i u m p h (Aen. 8 . 7 1 4 f.), there to survey the procession o f peoples w h o represent the oikumenë subject to the R o m a n empire. T h u s the walls of R o m e figuratively enclose the R o m a n empire. H i t h e r t o I h a v e o p e r a t e d with the pair of terms cosmos a n d Imperium] w h e n the empire is r e g a r d e d as the extension of the w a l l e d city, the c o m p l e m e n t a r y pair of terms urbs a n d orbis comes n a t u r a l l y to mind. T h e p u n n i n g assonance w a s m a d e the basis of a serious e t y m o l o g y b y the R o m a n philologist; 8 7 the j i n g l e w a s a l r e a d y exploited in a 84

S e e a i s o L . S . M a z z o l a n i , Uidea

didttà

net mondo romano ( M i l a n a n d N a p l e s , 1 9 6 7 ) ,

P- 858 5 S e e W . M ü l l e r , Die heilige Stadt: Roma quadrata, himmlisches vom Weltnabel 86

Jerusalem

und die

Mythe

( S t u t t g a r t , 1 9 6 1 ) ; a l s o a b o v e , n. 33.

S e e J . B i d e z , ' L a C i t é d u m o n d e et l a c i t é d u s o l e i l ' , BAB

(1932), 244-94.

All

t h e s e t h e m e s a r e d i s c u s s e d e x t e n s i v e l y in L . S . M a z z o l a n i , o p . cit. 87

V a r r o Ling. 5 . 1 4 3 . O n urbs-orbis

' O r b i s R o m a n u s ' in Orbis:

see G e r n e n t z , p. 36 n. 1; C h r i s t , p p . 81

ausgewählte

Schriften

zur Geschichte

des Altertums

ff.;J.Vogt, (Freiburg,

¿g'2

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D : COSMOS

AND ÍMPERIUM

political c o n t e x t by Cicero, 8 8 and received m o r e concise formulations in the A u g u s t a n poets. W i t h the passage q u o t e d a b o v e from the S p e e c h o f Anchises m a y be c o m p a r e d the foll o w i n g line f r o m Propertius ( 3 . 1 1 . 5 7 ) : septem urbs alta iugis, toto quae praesidet orbi. T h e interpretation of the Shield of A e n e a s offered a b o v e m i g h t be s u m m e d u p in the a p o p h t h e g m a t i c words of O v i d (Fasti 2.683 f.): gentibus est aliis tellus data limite certo: Romanae spatium est urbis et orbis idem. 89 T o the final scene on the Shield, representing the c o n q u e r e d peoples of the w o r l d in procession in R o m e , m i g h t be applied as a m o t t o w o r d s used in a less serious spirit b y O v i d (Ars Am. 1.174): ingens orbis in urbe fuit. 90

I V .

T H E

S H I E L D

AS

P H Y S I C A L

O B J E C T

C o n c e n t r a t i o n o n the i n d i v i d u a l scenes of the ecphrasis and on the general p r o g r a m m e that m a y lie behind t h e m has tended to distract attention from the o b j e c t of the Shield itself. A n e x c e p t i o n to this has been the a t t e m p t to link the fictional Shield of A e n e a s with the real clupeus virtutis presented to A u gustus in J a n u a r y 27 BC, and in p a r t i c u l a r to correlate the selection of scenes in the ecphrasis w i t h a scheme o f the four imperial virtues in recognition o f w h i c h the clupeus was preB a s l e , V i e n n a , i 9 6 0 ) , p p . 1 5 9 ff.; E . B r é g u e t , ' U r b i et orbi: u n c l i c h é e t u n t h è m e ' , in J . B i b a u w ( é d . ) , Hommages

à Marcel

Renard (coll. Latomus

101, Brussels, 196g), pp.

140-

5288

Cat. 1 . 4 . 9 ' q 1 " d e h u i u s u r b i s a t q u e a d e o d e o r b i s t e r r a r u m e x i t i o c o g i t e n t ' ; i b i d .

4 . 6 . 1 1 ; Fam. 4 . 1 . 2 . 89

See Borner a d loc.

90

T h e p h r a s e orbis in urbe p e r h a p s b e c a m e p r o v e r b i a l : see S i d . A p o l l . Carm. 7 . 5 5 6 f.,

w i t h t h e r e m a r k s o f E . B r é g u e t , a r t . c i t . , p p . 1 5 0 ff. T h i s w a y o f t h i n k i n g is n o t d e a d : c o m p a r e the c o m m e n t morning

that

of G e o r g e V I

the w h o l e

Empire was

in his o w n c o r o n a t i o n in v e r y

truth gathered

b r o a d c a s t , ' I felt this within

the walls

of

W e s t m i n s t e r A b b e y ' ( q u o t e d i n E . H o b s b a w m a n d T . R a n g e r ( e d s . ) , The invention of tradition ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 8 3 ) , .p. 1 4 9 ) . N o t e a l s o O v . Pont. 2 . 1 . 2 1 ff. ( o f T i b e r i u s '

Pan-

n o n i a n t r i u m p h ) ' d i d i c i n u p e r v i s e n d a coisse / i n n u m e r a s g e n t e s a d d u c i s o r a sui: / q u a e q u e capit vastis i m m e n s u m locum'.

m o e n i b u s o r b e m , / hospitiis R o m a m v i x

habuisse

T H E S H I E L D O F A E N E A S : T H E C O SM IC I C O N

367

sented to "the princepsf1 b u t this s c h e m a t i z a t i o n , rightly, has not gained universal consent. M o r e i m m e d i a t e l y relevant are the ancilia, whose original fell f r o m the sky in the reign o f N u m a and b e c a m e one of the traditional pignora imperii.92 T h e s e objects are in fact represented on the Shield of A e n e a s (664), a n d , as in the case of the works of art in the P a l a t i n e temple of A p o l l o to w h i c h the Shield refers and w h i c h in turn help to further the interpretation of the Shield, so we m a y use the ancilia to interpret the Shield w h i c h V e n u s brings to A e n e a s from the sky. 9 3 A e n e a s understands V e n u s ' delivery of the a r m o u r forged b y V u l c a n as a g u a r a n t e e o f his v i c t o r y o v e r T u r n u s (8.537 ff-)> the A u g u s t a n reader, e n j o y i n g V i r g i l ' s hindsight, m i g h t take the Shield as a g u a r a n t e e of the w o r l d - e m p i r e w h i c h it represents. But a g a i n it is the H o m e r i c Shield that is most relevant. W e saw a b o v e that the circular form of that Shield w a s seized u p o n b y the Hellenistic allegorizers as p r o o f that H o m e r k n e w the universe to be spherical, a n d visual representations also e m phasize that the circular f o r m of the H o m e r i c Shield is a n i m a g e o f the cosmos. W e are m a d e a w a r e of the massive circular f o r m of the Shield of A e n e a s in the description o f its forging (8.448 f.): septenosque orbibus orbis impediunt. F o r the A u g u s t a n r e a d e r the v e r y shape of the Shield o f A e n e a s w o u l d suggest the s y m b o l i s m of empire; the orbis of the Shield becomes an e m b l e m o f the orbis ten arum.94 T h e sphere is an a m b i g u o u s s y m b o l , for it can refer either to the spherical earth or to the spherical universe; as a s y m b o l o f p o w e r it c a n thus stand either for control o f the oikumene or for a more ambitious c l a i m to cosmic m i g h t . It is often difficult to j u d g e in a p a r t i c u l a r instance w h i c h sphere is intended, a n d the distinction is p e r h a p s not a l w a y s to be d r a w n too strictly; 91

D . L . D r e w , The allegory of the A e n e i d ( O x f o r d , 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . 26 ff.

92

S e e B i n d e r , p p . 198 ff". T h e a n a l o g y w i t h t h e aneiie w a s d r a w n b y R . H u r d , Q,-

Horatii Flacci Epistolae ad Pisones et Augustumb

ii ( 1 7 7 6 ) , p. 82, ' T h i s i d e a . . . o f t h e s a c r e d

shield, the g u a r d and glory of R o m e , a n d on w h i c h d e p e n d e d the f a m e a n d f o r t u n e of his c o u n t r y , t h e p o e t . . . t r a n s f e r s t o t h e s h i e l d w h i c h g u a r d e d t h e i r g r e a t p r o g e n i t o r , w h i l e h e w a s l a y i n g t h e first f o u n d a t i o n s o f t h e R o m a n e m p i r e . ' 93

8 . 5 3 5 t- ' V o l c a n i a q u e a r m a p e r auras / l a t u r a m a u x i l i o ' .

94

V i r g i l is in f a c t t h e first t o u s e orbis, w h e t h e r w i t h o r w i t h o u t q u a l i f i c a t i o n , t o

d e n o t e a r o u n d s h i e l d ; a b s o l u t e l y , Aen.

10.783.

¿g'2

V I R G I L ' S AENEID:

COSMOS

AND ÍMPERIUM

imperial p a n e g y r i c thrives on c l o u d y gestures. 9 5 In R o m e the sphere had l o n g before been a d o p t e d as an e m b l e m o f R o m a n control o f the orbis terrarum;96 it is first found on coins o f the 70s BG, b u t becomes especially frequent as an expression o f the imperialist a m b i t i o n s first of J u l i u s C a e s a r , a n d then of his a d o p t i v e son and successor. T w o e x a m p l e s from A u g u s t a n visual i m a g e r y m a y be a d d u c e d to show h o w the simple f o r m of the sphere c o u l d be i n c o r p o r a t e d in a more c o m p l e x symbolism; it becomes clear that there is a c o m m o n v o c a b u l a r y on w h i c h both the visual m o n u m e n t s a n d the V i r g i l i a n Shield of A e n e a s d r a w . Firstly, o n e o f the silver cups f r o m Boscoreale (Plate 5), 9 7 w i t h , on one side, reliefs o f a seated A u g u s t u s h o l d i n g a globe in his right h a n d , b e t w e e n s t a n d i n g figures of V e n u s a n d M a r s ; V e n u s a d v a n c e s , h o l d i n g a small figure of V i c t o r i a in her right h a n d , w h i c h she is a b o u t to place o n the globe held b y A u g u stus. Behind V e n u s stand allegorical figures; b e h i n d M a r s app e a r personifications of countries subject to R o m e . T h i s allegorical scene is b a l a n c e d o n the o t h e r side o f the c u p b y a m o r e realistic scene of A u g u s t u s receiving the h o m a g e of a v a r i e d g r o u p o f c o n q u e r e d b a r b a r i a n s , men, w o m e n , a n d , children. M y second e x a m p l e is the sphere w h i c h once c r o w n e d the obelisk w h i c h formed the g n o m o n o f the colossal h o r o l o g i u m o f A u g u s t u s in the C a m p u s M a r t i u s (Plate 6) . 9S T h i s vast c a l e n d a r served as an assertion o f the princeps*s direction o f time itself, as he guides the history o f the w o r l d safely to a n era of peace, s y m b o l i z e d b y the A r a Pacis, w h i c h stood to the east o f the h o r o l o g i u m , a n d to w h i c h the s h a d o w cast b y the obelisk pointed directly o n the e v e n i n g o f the b i r t h d a y of A u g u s t u s . 95

O n t h e p r o b l e m o f d e c i d i n g b e t w e e n e a r t h a n d u n i v e r s e in i n t e r p r e t i n g

Roman

s p h e r e s see T . H ö l s c h e r , Victoria Romana ( M a i n z , 1 9 6 7 ) , p p . 41 ff.; o n t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e v e r b a l a m b i g u i t y o f mundus see C h r i s t , p p . 18 f f ; a m b i g u i t y o f orbis1. J . V o g t , o p . cit. ( a b o v e , n. 8 7 ) , p . 1 5 8 . 96

I n g e n e r a l s e e O . J . B r e n d e l , Symbolism

earlier Greek philosophy

of the sphere: a contribution

to the history of

( L e i d e n , 1977) (trans, o f ' D i e S y m b o l i k der K u g e l ' ,

MDAI{R)

5 1 ( 1 9 3 6 ) , i 9 5 ) ; o n t h e use o f t h e g l o b e as a s y m b o l o f p o w e r see A . S c h l a c h t e r , Globus: seine Entstehung und Verwendung in der Antike P . E . S c h r a m m , Sphaira,

Globus, Reichsapfel

41 ff; S . W e i n s t o c k , Divus Julius 97

A . H . d e V i l l e f o s s e , MMAI5

98

E.

Der

( L e i p z i g a n d B e r l i n , 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . 6 4 ff.;

( S t u t t g a r t , 1958); T . H ö l s c h e r , op. cit., pp.

( O x f o r d , 1 9 7 1 ) , p p . 4 2 ff ( 1 8 9 9 ) , 1 3 4 ff; T . H ö l s c h e r , o p . c i t . , p . 1 8 1 .

B u c h n e r , ' S o l a r i u m A u g u s t i u n d A r a P a c i s ' MDAI(R)

83 ( 1 9 7 6 ) ,

319-65;

3 2 7 f o r t h e p r o b a b l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f this s p h e r e as o n e o f t h o s e in t h e P a l a z z o dei Conservatori.

T H E S H I E L D OF A E N E A S : T H E C O SM IC I C O N

369

T h e sphere, itself topped b y a sharp p y r a m i d , is an e m b l e m o f universal empire; it is supported b y the obelisk, the first one to be set u p in R o m e ; the e x t a n t inscription declares that it w a s b r o u g h t f r o m E g y p t after the defeat of C l e o p a t r a a n d d e d i c a t e d in R o m e to the sun. T h e e m b l e m of e m p i r e is raised u p o n a n o f f e r i n g that c o m m e m o r a t e s the decisive victory b y w h i c h that empire a n d the new era o f p e a c e were e s t a b l i s h e d . "

V .

T H E

S H O U L D E R I N G (AENEID

O F

T H E

S H I E L D

8.729-731)

talia per clipeum Volcani, dona parentis, miratur rerumque ignarus imagine gaudet attollens umero famamque et fata nepotum. In the last line of book eight o f the Aeneid the hero raises the great disk of the Shield, w i t h its scenes o f R o m a n history, o n to his shoulder; the portentous significance o f this action is enh a n c e d b y the choice of l a n g u a g e , w h i c h picks u p a n d reinforces the u n d e r l y i n g cosmic symbolism of the Shield. T h e description of the Shield ends, as it b e g a n , w i t h a brief s u m m a r y o f the detailed scenes in the w o r d s ' f a m a m q u e et fata n e p o t u m ' . B u t w h a t in the i n t r o d u c t o r y lines (626-9) w a s a l r e a d y concrete (wars, the line of Ascanius) is n o w replaced b y abstraction a n d generalization. T h i s c a n be understood as an instance o f variatio, or as the more succinct s u m m a r y n a t u r a l l y p i c k i n g u p the m o r e informative introduction. B u t the phrase m a y be pressed a little further, 1 0 0 for w e h a v e b e e n told elsewhere in the p o e m w h a t its three elements, fama, fata, and nepotes, a m o u n t to in real terms, most fully in the p r o g r a m m a t i c d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n V e n u s a n d J u p i t e r in book one:

fama. 1.287 '[Caesar] imperium Oce?Lno,famam qui terminet astris'. T h a t is to say, R o m e will vicariously, t h r o u g h r e n o w n , extend its e m p i r e to the outmost heavens. 1 0 1 99 100

O n t h e s y m b o l i s m o f t h e h o r o l o g i u m see E . B ü c h n e r , a r t . c i t . , 3 4 7 . T h e p a i r fama

a n d fata

a l s o o c c u r s at 7 . 7 9 . O n t h e w o r d - p l a y o n t h e r o o t fa-

G . J . M . B a r t e l i n k , Etymologisering 101

its

bij Vergilius

see

( A m s t e r d a m , 1 9 6 5 ) , p p . 1 0 5 f.

C f . a l s o 1 . 3 7 9 ' f a m a s u p e r a e t h e r a n o t u s ' ; 1 2 . 2 3 4 f-

q u i d e m ad superos . . . /

s u c c e d e t f a m a ' ; 7 . 9 9 ' n o m e n i n a s t r a f e r a n t ' . I n H o m e r nAeos c o n v e n t i o n a l l y r e a c h e s t o h e a v e n (see a p p e n d i x to c h a p t e r 6 ) .

37°

VIRGIL'S

AENEID-.

COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

fata. 1.235 ff- ( V e n u s speaks) 'hinc fore ductores . . . / qui m a r e , q u i terras omnis dicione tenerent ! . . . j hoc e q u i d e m o c c a s u m T r o i a e tristisque ruinas / solabar fatis contraria fata rependens'. In his speech J u p i t e r confirms that V e n u s ' universalizing interpretation, of fata (of w h a t he, J u p i t e r , pronounces,/afar) is the correct one (261 f.). 1 0 2

nepotes. T h e idea that w o r l d - r u l e will fall to the lot o f A e n e a s ' descendants is c e n t r a l to the speeches of V e n u s a n d J u p i t e r in book one; the w o r d itself occurs p r o m i n e n t l y , for e x a m p l e , in 6.757, m Anchises' i n t r o d u c t i o n to his p r o s o p o g r a p h i c a l sketch o f the rise o f R o m e to w o r l d - e m p i r e . 1 0 3 S u c h is the universal extension o f the future p o w e r and influence o f R o m e as expressed in the words of f a m e and fate. But the w o r d - c r a f t s m a n V i r g i l is i n v e n t i n g a physical object the Shield; it is this e m b o d i m e n t o f R o m e ' s future e m p i r e that A e n e a s lifts on his shoulders. W h a t is the exact significance of this action? 1 0 4 N o t e firstly that it is not strictly speaking the logical o u t c o m e o f the scene, a l t h o u g h it has all the a p p e a r a n c e o f b e i n g the n a t u r a l thing for A e n e a s to do. U p to this point A e n e a s ' reactions to the divine a r m o u r h a v e run quite closely parallel to those o f Achilles in Iliad 19. C o m p a r e Aeneid 8.617 ff.: ille deae donis et tanto laetus 105 honore expleri nequit atque oculos per singula volvit, miraturque interque manus et bracchia versat.

with Iliad 19.15 ff.: avràp

(bs €18', ¿os puv fxâtàov eSv VTTO j3\edpajv

ôeivov T€p7T€TO avrap

cos

ae'Aa?

S ' ¿V ^ e t p e a a i v l ^ o o v deov

eirel

péolv

fjcrt

TeTapirero

^l^iAAeùs-

Sc ot ocrae

èÇecfxiavdw àyXaà SaiSaÀa

Sœpa. Xevaaœv.

1 0 2 A n c h i s e s ' s p e e c h in b o o k six d e t a i l s A e n e a s ' fata (759), w h i c h a r e seen to culm i n a t e in w o r l d - e m p i r e ' b e y o n d t h e s t a r s ' ( 7 9 5 ) . C f . a l s o 1 2 . 7 9 5 ' [ A e n e a s ] f a t i s q u e a d sidera tolli'. 103

H e a v e n l y d e s t i n y o f nepotes-. 3 . 1 5 8 ' v e n t u r e s t o l l e m u s in a s t r a n e p o t e s ' ; 7 . 9 9 ff.

' n o m e n in a s t r a f e r a n t , q u o r u m q u e a s t i r p e n e p o t e s / o m n i a s u b p e d i b u s

. . . / . . .

v i d e b u n t ' ; 6 . 7 8 6 f. ( C y b e l e s i m i l e o f R o m e ) ' c e n t u m c o m p l e x a n e p o t e s , / o m n i s c a e licolas, o m n i s s u p e r a a h a tenentis'. 104

L i n e 7 3 1 p r o v o k e d c r i t i c i s m in a n t i q u i t y : Serv. Dan. a d l o c . ' h u n e v e r s u m n o t a n t

c n t i c i q u a s i s u p e r f l u o e t h u m i l i t e r a d d i t u m n e c c o n v e n i e n t e m g r a v i t a t i eius: n a m q u e est m a g i s n e o t e r i c u s ' . 105

Laetus is p i c k e d u p a t l i n e 730 ' i m a g i n e g a u d e t ' .

T H E S H I E L D OF A E N E A S : TH E C O SM IC I C O N

37'

But when Achilles saw the arms a new surge of anger came over him and his eyes shone out fearfully under the eyelids, like fire; he rejoiced to hold the splendid gifts of the god in his hands. But when he had filled his heart with joy looking at the craftsmanship. 106

| 1

A t this point Achilles turns to other matters, and the arms are for the time being forgotten. V i r g i l c o u l d e q u a l l y h a v e ended his scene at line 730, ' m i r a t u r r e r u m q u e ignarus i m a g i n e gaudet'. K n a u e r 1 0 7 points to line 11 of Iliad 19 as the i m m e d i a t e m o d e l

for the last line of Aeneid 8: KaXa

fiaX',

ot

ov

rrw

TIS

avijp

ATPLOIOI

6pr)oev.

Very fine [weapons], the like of which no man yet wore on his shoulders.

, I

B u t this is in the speech w i t h w h i c h T h e t i s a c c o m p a n i e s h e r delivery o f the a r m o u r , a n d Achilles does not i m m e d i a t e l y take u p his arms; this is postponed until line 364, at w h i c h point a f u l l y - d e v e l o p e d a r m i n g scene begins. 1 0 8 T h i s has no e x a c t c o u n t e r p a r t in the Aeneid; w h e n A e n e a s arrives back in L a t i u m he appears, a fearsome revelation, a l r e a d y fully a r m e d (10.260 ff.); detailed description of the a c t u a l sequence of a r m ing w o u l d only d e t r a c t f r o m this. T h e only formal ' a r m i n g of A e n e a s ' occurs at 12.430 IT., a n d that is a very brief a f f a i r (the m a j o r a r m i n g scene in the Aeneid is reserved for T u r n u s , 12.87 ff.). T h u s w e are left w i t h t w o alternatives for a p u r e l y naturalistic e x p l a n a t i o n of A e n e a s ' shouldering of the Shield at the end of book eight: (a) it represents a vestigial a r m i n g scene. B u t w h y is only the Shield m e n t i o n e d , and w h y should V i r g i l refer to a r m i n g n o w , w h e n A e n e a s is far from the scene o f 10« - p ] ^ i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f A c h i l l e s '

b y t h e s i g h t o f t h e a r m s is a l i e n t o t h e

V i r g i l i a n s c e n e ; the f e a r f u l a s p e c t o f t h e H o m e r i c h e r o is t r a n s l a t e d i n t o t h e f e a r f u l

¡

a s p e c t o f t h e V i r g i l i a n a r m s : cf. II. 1 9 . 1 6 f. ¿v 8« ol oooe cre'Aay e%€dav8ev w i t h Aen.

/ Sttvoi/ wro |SAe<£apaiv (Ls el

8 . 6 2 0 ff. ' t e r r i b i l e m cristis g a l e a m . . . / . . .

loricam ex

a e r e r i g e n t e m , / s a n g u i n e a m , i n g e n t e m , q u a l i s c u m c a e r u l a n u b e s / solis i n a r d e s c i t

^

radiis l o n g e q u e refulget'.

|

107

I

djjiotcrt

K n a u e r , p. 261 n. 2. K n a u e r ( a n d H e i n z e , p . 203) a l s o refers t o II. 1 0 . 1 4 9 ¿ f ^ ' odicos

OfTo.

T h e s i t u a t i o n t h e r e is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t : t h e i n f o r m a l p r e p a r a t i o n o f

|

t h e w a r r i o r a t n i g h t , a v e s t i g i a l a r m i n g w h i c h is q u i t e i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r A e n e a s w i t h

J

his n e w p a n o p l y , a l s o h a s a s p e c i f i c n e s s w h i c h V i r g i l is a n x i o u s to a v o i d .

I fj

108

H e r e it is t h e s w o r d w h i c h h e h a n g s f r o m his s h o u l d e r s ( 3 7 2 ) , not t h e s h i e l d

i'Afro 374..

37 2

V I R G I L ' S A EN E ID: COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

c o m b a t ? 1 0 9 (b) A e n e a s picks u p the Shield because it has to be carried a w a y w i t h h i m on his travels. But this reduces the Shield to the status of a piece of l u m b e r . T h e conclusion must be that the purpose of line 731 is to be sought outside the context o f the i m m e d i a t e n a r r a t i v e , that it hints a t a symbolic lifting of the Shield. Indeed the abstract q u a l i t y o f the words ' f a m a m q u e et fata n e p o t u m ' suggests that this is m o r e than a literal shouldering. Previous scholars h a v e suggested that the w o r d s attollens umero c o n t a i n allusions to t w o other instances o f s h o u l d e r i n g in the Aeneid: to the b u r d e n carried by the giant A t l a s on his shoulder, 1 1 0 a n d to A e n e a s ' pious shouldering o f his father in the escape f r o m the sack o f T r o y . 1 1 1 A t l a s a p p e a r s in several guises in the Aeneid; the i m p o r t a n t passages for the present purpose are those in w h i c h he is depicted as u p h o l d i n g the sky: 1 1 2 Atlas axem umero torquet stellis ardentibus aptum. (4.481 f. =6.796 f.) maximus Atlas . . . aetherios umero qui sustinet orbis. 113 (8.136 f.) Atlas . . . caeli qui sidera tollit. (8.141) N o t e the use of the singular umero in the first two examples, as It m a y b e o b j e c t e d t h a t in Aeneid 12 t h e a r m i n g o f T u r n u s a n d A e n e a s also takes p l a c e u n n e c e s s a r i l y , o n t h e d a y b e f o r e the d u e l ; b u t as a p r e l u d e to the b a t t l e scenes w h i c h fill the b o o k this is p o e t i c a l l y e f f e c t i v e , if n o t realistic. 109

110

R. W . Cruttwell,

Virgil's

mind at work: an analysis of the symbolism of the A e n e i d

( O x f o r d , 1 9 4 6 ) , ch. 6; P. M c G u s h i n , ' V i r g i l a n d t h e spirit o f e n d u r a n c e ' , AJPh ( 1 9 6 4 ) , 240 f.; B i n d e r , p p . 60 ff; K . W . G r a n s d e n , Virgil A e n e i d Book VIII 1976), pp.

17 f., a n d c o m m . o n 1 3 6 - 7

85

(Cambridge,

( G r a n s d e n is a w a r e o f the r o u n d shield as

a n a l o g o u s to the s p h e r e o f the u n i v e r s e b o r n e b y A t l a s ) ; in g e n e r a l o n the e q u a t i o n o f A e n e a s a n d A t l a s by V i r g i l see G . K . G a l i n s k y , The Herakles theme ( O x f o r d , 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 111

G . E . D u c k w o r t h , AJPh

75 ( 1 9 5 4 ) , , 2 ; P. M c G u s h i n , art. cit., 239.

H i s s k y - b e a r i n g is also m e n t i o n e d at 4 . 2 4 7 , b u t t h e r e A t l a s is t h e m o u n t a i n , n o t the g i a n t . 112

113

Cf. t h e orbes o f the S h i e l d o f A e n e a s in this s a m e b o o k , 8.448.

T H E S H I E L D O F A E N E A S : T H E C O SM IC I C O N

373

in 8 . 7 3 1 , 1 1 4 T h i s in itself is not p r o o f o f an association, b u t other connections b e t w e e n A t l a s a n d A e n e a s m a y be m a d e : 1. W e are told earlier in book eight that A t l a s is in fact a n ancestor of A e n e a s ( 1 3 4 ff., the passage w h i c h also contains t w o o f the three references to A t l a s ' celestial b u r d e n ) . 2. A n a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f A e n e a s to the figure o f A t l a s is suggested in book four; the everlasting e n d u r a n c e of the m o u n t a i n A t l a s (246 ff.) m a y be c o m p a r e d to the Stoic resistance of A e n e a s (441 f f . ) . 1 1 5 3. A n indirect link m a y be m a d e t h r o u g h the figure of H e r cules. 1 1 6 I n 8.552 f., as A e n e a s sets o u t to receive the arms, he is g i v e n a horse: quem fulva leonis pellis obit totum praefulgens unguibus aureis. 117 T h i s looks v e r y like a H e r c u l e a n attribute, especially g i v e n the explicit a n d implicit comparisons o f A e n e a s to Hercules earlier in the book. In 2.722 it is a lion skin that A e n e a s puts on his b a c k to p r o v i d e a cushion for his father. T h i s m a y also be H e r c u l e a n . If then in 8.731 the A t l a s allegory is present, it is fitting that A e n e a s also acts out the role of Hercules, w h o h a d literally taken on his shoulders the b u r d e n of Atlas. 4. A n indirect c o n n e c t i o n o f R o m a n e m p i r e with the figure of A t l a s is m a d e in the S p e e c h of Anchises, w h e r e A t l a s marks the g e o g r a p h i c a l limit o f A u g u s t a n p o w e r (6.796 f.), b u t he m a y , b y association, also be taken as a s y m b o l o f that p o w e r . N o t e the echo of line 790 'progenies m a g n u m caeli Ventura sub a x e m ' in lines 796 f. ' u b i caelifer A t l a s / a x e m u m e r o torquet'. M c G u s h i n and B i n d e r both stress the notion of e n d u r a n c e implied in this c o m p a r i s o n of A e n e a s to A t l a s at the end o f book e i g h t . 1 1 8 T h e e n d u r a n c e of A t l a s is certainly p r o v e r b i a l , 114

T h e H o m e r i c p a r a l l e l s all h a v e t h e p l u r a l
a p p e a r s to use umero a n d umeris i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y . 116

See a b o v e , p p . 280 2.

116

S e e B i n d e r , p. 62.

117

T h e r e is a n o t h e r l i o n skin a t 5 . 3 5 1 f., b u t h e r e a p p a r e n t l y w i t h o u t f u r t h e r sig-

n i f i c a n c e , unless o n e wishes to link the r e c i p i e n t o f t h e skin, S a l i u s , w i t h the Salii (cf. Serv. Dan.

a d Aen. 8.285),

' n 8.285 fr. a r e r e p r e s e n t e d as a c t i v e in t h e c u l t o f

Hercules. n s

B i n d e r , p. 62, ' M i t d e m B e t r e t e n r ö m i s c h e n B o d e n s b e g i n n t die

eigentliche

" a t l a n t i s c h e " A u f g a b e des A e n e a s : er e r h ä l t v o n seiner M u t t e r V e n u s d e n g ö t t l i c h e n

¿g'2

V I R G I L ' S AENEID:

COSMOS

AND ÍMPERIUM

b u t it is not easy to see w h y A e n e a s ' labours should only now b e c o m e ' A t l a n t e a n ' in this sense (the m o r e so if the suggested interpretation o f the description o f A t l a s in book four is correct). M c G u s h i n does place some emphasis on the fact that it is the heavens that A t l a s holds u p : 1 1 9 'Just as the b u r d e n A e n e a s assumes is the g l o r y and destiny o f his race, so the r e w a r d that awaits his a c c e p t a n c e of a n d e n d u r a n c e in sustaining that b u r d e n is described as a place a m o n g the stars.' B u t it is a bold l e a p from g r o a n i n g u n d e r the w e i g h t of the stars to inclusion a m o n g t h e m b y catasterism, a n d w h i l e this kind of associative suggestion is not entirely alien to V i r g i l , this p a r t i c u l a r instance accords uneasily w i t h the fact that A t l a s was, after all, notorious for his inability to escape from his earthly ordeal. 1 2 0 Instead of c o n c e n t r a t i n g exclusively on the experience of ' A t l a n t e a n labours', w e should d o well to hold before our eyes the pictorial i m a g e o f A t l a s s u p p o r t i n g the great sphere of the heavens, a n d c o m p a r e it with the figure of A e n e a s as he raises u p the g r e a t disk of the Shield, the e m b l e m of the R o m a n cosmos. T h e full significance of A e n e a s ' action is b r o u g h t into relief by a consideration o f the cosmic function of A t l a s . T h e T i t a n holds u p the h e a v e n s a w a y f r o m earth, and thus g u a r a n tees the c o n t i n u e d stability of the universe against a return to the p r i m e v a l confusion of the divisions o f the universe. T h i s m y t h o l o g i c a l role is transformed into a philosophical allegory of cosmic cohesion in a n interpretation ( p r o b a b l y pre-Socratic in origin) of A t l a s as a figure of the axis w h i c h runs t h r o u g h a n d supports the universe; 1 2 1 this allegorization is exploited b y V i r g i l himself in his descriptions o f A t l a s . 1 2 2 In this version o f A t l a s the emphasis is not on an a l l - t o o - h u m a n suffering, b u t on a cosmic role a n a l o g o u s to that of the s u p r e m e deity, w h o protects the universe a n d makes it revolve. 1 2 3 In lifting the S c h i l d , d a m i t e r d e n I n h a l t d e r f a t a v e r w i r k l i c h e n k ö n n e . I n d e m er d i e s e n

Schild

a u f n i m m t , l ä d t er R o m u n d seine G e s c h i c h t e a u f seine S c h u l t e r n . ' 119

A r t . cit., 2 4 1 .

120

T h e l i n k b e t w e e n s k y - b e a r i n g a n d j o u r n e y to t h e s k y c o u l d o n l y b e p l a u s i b l y

m a d e t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y o f H e r c u l e s : see O v . Her. 9 . 1 7 ; S e n . Her. F. 6 9 f. 121

E . T i è c h e , ' A t l a s als P e r s o n i f i k a t i o n d e r W e l t a c h s e ' , MH

122

S e e m y a r t i c l e ' A t l a s a n d axis', CQ^NS 33 ( ¡ 9 8 3 ) , 2 2 0 - 8 ; a l s o P . B o y a n c é , ' V i r g i l e

et A t l a s ' , i n Mélanges 123

2 (1945), 65-86.

offerts à W. Seston ( P a r i s , 1 9 7 4 ) , p p . 4 9 - 5 8 .

T h e l a n g u a g e u s e d o f A t l a s - a x i s a n d J u p i t e r in t h e s e roles t e n d s to c o i n c i d e : see

H a r d i e , a r t . c i t . , p . 222 n . 1 5 . T h e e s s e n t i a l p o i n t w a s seen b y J . W . M a c k a i l , CR 32 ( 1 9 1 8 ) , 105, ' A e n e a s , t h e a n t i t y p e o f A t l a s , is also t h e t y p e o f A u g u s t u s ; n o t t h e " w e a r y T i t a n " , so m u c h as t h e u n w e a r i e d s t r e n g t h o f a d i v i n e p o w e r i n c a r n a t e . '

T H E S H I E L D OF A E N E A S : T H E C O SM IC I C O N

375

Shield A e n e a s thus becomes the g u a r a n t o r of the future e m e r g ence o f the order of the R o m a n universe. 1 2 4 It is finally w o r t h noting that in a version of the cosmic allegorization of the Shield of Achilles ascribed to D e m o , b u t p r o b a b l y d r a w i n g on earlier exegesis, a figure of the w o r l d - a x i s is discovered in the strap, the telamon, b y w h i c h the shield w a s borne on the shoulder (II. 18.480): The silver strap which is attached to the shield at the edges and by which it is supported is an image of the axis which supports the universe, attached, as it were, to the highest point of the aether and running through the centre of the earth and terminating down in the south, and which allows the heavens, which it holds up, to turn about it. (Eust. 1154.55 ff.) 125 T h e w o r d telamon is e t y m o l o g i c a l l y c o g n a t e w i t h A t l a s ; V i t ruvius says that the L a t i n a r c h i t e c t u r a l term for colossal m a l e figures used as bearing-pillars is telamones, corresponding to the G r e e k Atlantes.126 It w o u l d seem very possible that V i r g i l m i g h t h a v e h a d access to some discussion in w h i c h the t w o axis allegories, o f telamon a n d Atlas, w e r e j u x t a p o s e d . In the Aeneid it is the hero himself w h o takes o n the function of the world-axis.

APPENDIX: THE BURDENS OF THE AND OF

SHIELD

ANCHISES

haec fatus latos umeros subiectaque colla veste super fulvique insternor pelle leonis, succedoque oneri. I I I i

(Aen. 2.721-3) A t the end of book two of the Aeneid the pious Aeneas takes the burden of his aged father on his shoulders; at the end of book eight he figuratively raises his descendants (nepotes, 731) on to his shoulder. I 124

T h e i m a g e o f A t l a s s u p p o r t i n g the u n i v e r s e is s u g g e s t e d e l s e w h e r e in i m p e r i a l

p a n e g y r i c , for e x a m p l e in O v . Fast. 1 . 6 1 5 f. ' a u s p i c i b u s q u e deis t a n t i c o g n o m i n i s heres / o m i n e s u s c i p i a t , q u o p a t e r , o r b i s o n u s ' ; for o t h e r passages see C h r i s t , p p . 134 f. ( O v i d to C l a u d i a n ) . C f . also H o r . Epist.

2.1.1

' c u m tot sustineas et t a n t a n e g o t i a solus';

sustinere in a n A t l a n t e a n c o n t e x t , Aen. 8 . 1 3 7 . ;

See also 8 2 9 . 1 2 .

\

i 2fl V i t r . De Arch. 6 . 7 . 6 .

37°

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - . COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

wish here to consider a parallel from the Augustan visual arts for this kind of correspondence, which is not rare in the Aeneid. In the two exedrae to the north and south of the Forum of Augustus (dedicated in 2 BC) were displayed statues of, respectively, the Julii and of 'summi viri'. 127 In the central niche to the north was a statue of Aeneas carrying Anchises; in the central niche to the south was a statue of Romulus carrying the spolia opima. It has been plausibly suggested that these statues are the models, directly or indirectly, for a pair of paintings from Pompeii showing these two subjects (Plate 7); 128 both Aeneas and Romulus are shown in full armour, and the close similarity between the two figures makes it apparent that the spectator is intended to discern an analogy between the shouldering of Anchises by Aeneas and of the spolia by Romulus. T h e parallelism is expressed verbally by Ovid in his description of the two statues in the Forum of Augustus (Fasti 5.563 ff.): hinc videt Aenean oneratum pondere caro et tot Iuleae nobilitatis avos: hinc videt Iliaden humeris ducis arma ferentem, claraque dispositis acta subesse viris. 127

O n t h e p r o g r a m m e o f the F o r u m o f A u g u s t u s see P. Z a n k e r , Forum

Augustum:

das Bildprogramm ( M o n u m e n t a artis a n t i q u a e 2, T ü b i n g e n , n . d . ) . 128 1923)

V . S p i n a z z o l a , Pompeii alia luce degli scavi nuovi di Via delPAbbondanza > (Rome,

1 9 5 3 ) , p p . 151 f., pis. 183 f.; J . G a g e , MEFR

S c h e f o l d , Die Wände Pompejis (Berlin, 1 9 5 7 ) , p. 289.

(anni

igio

47 ( 1 9 3 0 ) , 140 fr.; K .

Epilogue: R o m a n Retrospective and Prospective pretensions are a recurrent feature of R o m a n i m p e r i a l ideology; in conclusion w e m a y once m o r e let the focus m o v e f r o m V i r g i l to the w i d e r scene, in an a t t e m p t to place the Aeneid in a historical context a n d to raise questions a b o u t its influence on the later tradition. W e are d e a l i n g w i t h political m y t h ; V i r g i l ' s strong m y t h o p o e i c f a c u l t y c a n n o t h a v e been unpersuasive. 1 T h e idea of universal R o m a n e m p i r e o v e r the oikumenë w a s s o w n b y G r e e k writers of the second c e n t u r y BC a n d g r e w steadily in the s u c c e e d i n g century; the increasing use of the globe as a political s y m b o l is visual e v i d e n c e of this. C i c e r o subscribes to this universalism: R o m a n d o m i n a t i o n of the orbis terrarum is a perfectly n a t u r a l idea to him, 2 a n d he takes seriously the pretensions o f P o m p e y to be a w o r l d - c o n q u e r o r on the scale o f A l e x a n d e r , for e x a m p l e in the third Catilinarian (i 1.26): ' u n o q u e t e m p o r e in hac r e p u b l i c a duos civis exstitisse, q u o r u m alter fines vestri i m p e r i non terrae sed caeli regionibus terminaret.' 3 R o m a n p o w e r c a n n o t b e g a u g e d b y p u r e l y terrestrial measures. C i c e r o ' s idea of a p o w e r that extends to the limits of the w o r l d is c o m p l e m e n t e d b y his conviction that there is an inner c o n g r u e n c e b e t w e e n the w o r k i n g s of the cosmos a n d the p r o p e r f u n c t i o n i n g of the R o m a n state, a notion t h a t u n d e r p i n s the discussions in the Republic. L i k e the universe, the p r o p e r l y constituted state m i g h t even be eternal. 4 ' C i c e r o sees C O S M I C

I

j

1

A useful c o l l e c t i o n of r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l in L . S. M a z z o l a n i , Uidea di città nel mondo

romano ( M i l a n / N a p l e s , 1 9 6 7 ) . 2

I

O r b i s t e r r a r u m in C i c e r o : e.g. Phil. 4 . 6 . 1 4 ; M u r . 10,22. I n g e n e r a l see P. A . B r u n t ,

' L a u s i m p e r i i ' , in P. D . A . G a r n s e y a n d C . R . W h i t a k e r (eds.), Imperialism in the ancient world ( C a m b r i d g e ,

!

1978), p p . 1 5 9 - 9 1 , esp. p p . 168 ff. N o t e B r u n t ' s b e l i e f ' t h a t t h e

i m p e r i a l i d e a l s o f t h e A u g u s t a n a g e w e r e m u c h the s a m e as those o f the late R e p u b l i c ' . 3

TTJÇ

C f . P o m p e y ' s o w n c l a i m in the i n s c r i p t i o n r e p o r t e d i n D i o d . Sic. 40.4 Kai rà opta 1jyefj-ovi'aç TOÎS

ôpoiç

TT/S

y-qs

irpooßißaoas

.

C i c e r o ' s precise m e a n i n g is u n c l e a r ; it is

p r o b a b l y related to the i d e a o f c o n q u e s t as w i d e as the p a t h s o f the sun (cf.

Cat.

•

4 . 1 0 . 2 1 ) ; see O . W e i p p e r t , Alexander-imitatio

£eit

I

( A u g s b u r g , 1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 90 f.

I

i

4

C i c . Hep. 3.23.34.

und römische Politik

in republikanischer

¿g'2

V I R G I L ' S AENEID:

COSMOS

AND ÍMPERIUM

the life of the state against the majestic b a c k g r o u n d of a philosophical a n d religious picture of the cosmos.' 5 Philosophical and h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l trends c o m b i n e d to reinforce this v i e w o f the R o m a n state. T h e Stoic vision of an ideal h a r m o n y b e t w e e n m a n a n d n a t u r e a n d the Z e n o n i a n i m a g e o f the cosmos as a universal polis of gods a n d m e n could b o t h be d i v e r t e d into the service of a n expansionist R o m a n nationalism. 6 A m o r e g e n e r a l enthusiasm for the w o n d e r s of the n a t u r a l universe w a s fostered b y Posidonius, it has been claimed; 7 the a w e aroused b y c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f the m a j e s t y o f the d i v i n e l y controlled n a t u r a l universe m e r g e d easily into a d m i r a t i o n for the divinely f a v o u r e d g r o w t h o f the R o m a n state v i e w e d as a n a l o g o u s to a n d e v e n in control of the physical universe. T h e later years o f the R e p u b l i c also s a w a g r o w t h in p o p u l a r i t y of the genre of universal history; the historian's ideal of comprehensiveness w a s furthered b o t h b y philosophical universalism 8 a n d b y the o b s e r v a t i o n that the g r o w t h o f R o m e w a s in reality tending to p r o d u c e unity in the affairs of the

oikumenë.9 P o m p e y ' s aspirations to universal e m p i r e o w e m u c h to the m o d e l of A l e x a n d e r the G r e a t ; Hellenistic parallels m a y also be a d d u c e d for the claims o f J u l i u s C a e s a r to be dominus terrarum or dominus mundi.10 T h i s e x t r a v a g a n t i m a g e r y w a s taken o v e r b y the y o u n g O c t a v i a n a n d n e v e r totally d i s o w n e d b y the m o r e m a t u r e A u g u s t u s , w h o left a p e r m a n e n t a d v e r t i s e m e n t before his m a u s o l e u m o f his res gestae, ' q u i b u s o r b e m t e r r a r u m i m p e r i o p o p u l i R o m a n i subiecit'; it re-emerged periodically t h r o u g h the earlier e m p i r e (especially u n d e r C a l i g u l a , N e r o , a n d D o 5

F. K l i n g n e r , ' R o m als I d e e ' , Die Antike ( 1 9 2 7 ) , 21 ( = Römische Geisteswelt4

r96l)> 6

P-

(Munich,

636)-

A . J . F e s t u g i è r e , Révélation ii (Paris, 1 9 4 9 ) , p p . 438 IF., o n the l i n k b e t w e e n t h e

g r o w t h o f e m p i r e a n d t h e f a s h i o n for a S t o i c i z i n g c o s m i c r e l i g i o n . V a r r o a n d c o s m i c r e l i g i o n : P . B o y a n c é , RE A 57 ( 1 9 5 5 ) , 5 7 - 8 4 . O n t h e u n i v e r s e as c i t y see t h e m a t e r i a l c o l l e c t e d b y P e a s e o n C i c . Nat. D. 2 . 6 2 . 1 5 4 . 7

A . D . N o c k , ' P o s i d o n i u s ' , JRS

49 ( 1 9 5 9 ) , 1 - 1 5 {= Essays 8 5 3 - 7 6 ) ; o n e need n o t

r e t u r n to a P a n - P o s i d o n i a n p o s i t i o n to e n t e r t a i n this v i e w . 8

e.g. D i o d . Sic. 1 . 1 . 3 .

9

See the g e n e r a l discussion o f u n i v e r s a l h i s t o r y in W . L u d w i g , Struktur und Einheit

der M e t a m o r p h o s e n Ovids (Berlin, 1 9 6 5 ) , p p . 74 ff. B u t it s h o u l d n o t b e f o r g o t t e n t h a t most R o m a n historiography remained determinedly R o m a n o c e n t r i c . 10

S. W e i n s t o c k , Divus Julius

( O x f o r d , 1 9 7 1 ), i n d e x s . w . ' D o m i n u s t e r r a r u m ' , ' M a s -

tery o f the w o r l d ' ; D . M i c h e l , Alexander als Vorbildfür Pompeius, Caesar und Marcus (coll. Latomus 94, Brussels, 1 9 6 7 ) , p p . 81 ff., ' C a e s a r als g o t t g l e i c h e r

Antonius

Kosmokrator'.

>

EPILOGUE: ROMAN RETROSPECTIVE/PROSPECTIVE

379

mitian), a n d in later a n t i q u i t y the e m p e r o r ' s claim to be a

cosmocrator is standard. 1 1 I m a g e s of universal e m p i r e are c o m m o n in the A u g u s t a n visual arts; the breastplate of the P r i m a p o r t a statue of A u g u s t u s is the most f a m o u s e x a m p l e , w i t h a scene f r o m R o m a n history f r a m e d b y symbols o f the h u m a n oikumene a n d of the n a t u r a l universe (Plate 8). 1 2 T h e less public art-forms of the g e m a n d c a m e o offer yet m o r e e x t r a v a g a n t cosmic s y m b o l i s m , 1 3 a n d even the A r a Pacis m a y p a r t a k e of this i m a g e r y . 1 4 O u r conception o f the altar, in itself a fairly modest construction, needs to be significantly revised if it is true that it f o r m e d p a r t of the cosmocratic symbolism o f the horologium of A u g u s t u s (Plate 6) . 1 5 R e c e n t scholarship on A u g u s t a n literature has tended to e m p h a s i z e the small-scale A l e x a n d r i a n i s m of poets too sophisticated a n d c y n i c a l to p r o m o t e seriously the airy fantasies o f imperialist p r o p a g a n d a ; the recusatio dismisses cosmological p o e t r y a l o n g w i t h nationalist epic. B u t the cosmic vision o f e m p i r e is not consistently suppressed. It surfaces intermittently in H o r a c e : early on in Odes 1.2 (whose flood i m a g e r y a d o p t s the L u c r e t i a n and V i r g i l i a n trick o f m o v i n g from the local disaster to the universal c a t a c l y s m ) ; then in the Roman Odes, a n d m o r e d o g m a t i c a l l y in the fourth b o o k o f the Odes a n d the Carmen saeculare. T h e richest source, a p a r t f r o m V i r g i l , is O v i d , w h o is in this respect m u c h indebted to V i r g i l ; O v i d ' s g r e a t e r explicitness a n d succinctness often makes it possible to use h i m as a kind of c o m m e n t a r y o n w h a t in V i r g i l is only hinted at. W . L u d w i g sets the Metamorphoses in the context o f the c o n t e m p o r a r y fashion for universal history; he sees the overall 11

O n A u g u s t u s ' a t t i t u d e to w o r l d - e m p i r e see P. A . B r u n t , JRS

53 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 1 7 0 - 7 6 .

T h e imperial myth of Augustus: W . Deonna, ' L a Legende d ' O c t a v e - A u g u s t e ,

Dieu,

S a u v e u r et M a h r e d u M o n d e ' , RHR 83 ( 1 9 2 1 ) , 32 58, 1 6 3 - 9 5 ; 84 ( 1 9 2 1 ) , 7 7 - 1 0 7 (the A n n e c y c u p , f r o m w h i c h D e o n n a takes his s t a r t i n g - p o i n t , is n o w g e n e r a l l y h e l d to b e a f a k e ) . I n c r e a s i n g ' c o s m i c i s m ' in l a t e r a n t i q u i t y : K l i n g n e r o p . cit., p p . 6 3 9 f. O n l a t e i m p e r i a l p r o p a g a n d a see S. G . M a c C o r m a c k , Art and ceremony in late antiquity ( B e r k e l e y , L o s A n g e l e s , L o n d o n , 1 9 8 1 ) . Koop.oKpaTwp used o f e m p e r o r s f r o m C a r a c a l l a : F . C u m o n t CRAI 12

(1919),

322 ff.

H . K a h l e r , Die Augustusstatue

von Primaporta

( M o n u m e n t a artis R o m a n a e 1, C o -

l o g n e , 1 9 5 9 ) , p p . 17 f. 13

G . M . A . R i c h t e r , Engraved gems of the Romans ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 1 ) , e.g. nos. 483, 5 0 1 ,

502. 14

O n the orbisjurbs s y m b o l i s m o f the A r a P a c i s see M . T o r e l l i , Typology and structure

of Roman historical reliefs ( A n n A r b o r , 1982), p p . 42 f. 15

E . B u c h n e r , MDAIiR)

83 ( 1 9 7 6 ) , 322.

¿g'2

V I R G I L ' S AENEID:

COSMOS

AND ÍMPERIUM

structure of the w o r k as 'a g r e a t a r c h b r i d g i n g the distance between C h a o s a n d the C o s m o s o f the A u g u s t a n order, in w h i c h the w o r l d has realised its destiny'. 1 6 V . B u c h h e i t ' s interpretation o f the political allegory u n d e r l y i n g the accounts, in the first b o o k , of creation a n d the primitive struggles b e t w e e n the gods a n d the forces o f evil points in the same direction. 1 7 H o w e v e r w e m a y j u d g e the seriousness o f O v i d ' s purpose, his choice of this structure for his epic represents his imitation, w i t h v a r i a t i o n , o f V i r g i l ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f a universal epic. 1 8 T h i s vision o f R o m e as the e n d - p r o d u c t of the evolution of the cosmos out of chaos is also present at the o p e n i n g of the Fasti, w h e r e the R o m a n g o d J a n u s prefaces the R o m a n c a l e n d a r w i t h an acc o u n t of the creation o f the universe; he himself is a g u a r d i a n o f both the n a t u r a l order a n d o f R o m a n w o r l d - p o w e r . 1 9 M a n i l i u s ' cosmological p o e m is a more explicit 'antiLucretius' t h a n the Aeneid; R o m a n political and military p o w e r co-operates w i t h the laws of the heavens. F o r inspiration in his celestial theme M a n i l i u s turns to A u g u s t u s , lord o f the world a n d future d e n i z e n of the skies. 20 A s astrologer, M a n i l i u s holds that events in the h u m a n w o r l d are g o v e r n e d b y the same laws that rule the cosmos; conversely the social order on earth is reflected in the ' r e p u b l i c ' of the heavens. 2 1 V i r g i l i a n echoes a p p e a r in M a n i l i u s ' description o f a R o m e w h i c h has p o w e r in the heavens that are the s u b j e c t - m a t t e r of his p o e m (4.694 fi): Italia in summa, quam rerum maxima Roma imposuit terris caeloque adiungitur ipsa. F o r M a n i l i u s the universal p o w e r of h u m a n ratio, the d r i v i n g force b e h i n d Lucretius' conquest of the skies, is a n a l o g o u s to the political p o w e r o f R o m e (4.932 if.): ratio omnia vincit. ne dubites homini divinos credere visus, iam facit ipse deos mittitque ad sidera numen, maius et Augusto crescet sub principe caelum. 16

O p . cit. p. 82.

17

Hermes 94 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 80 IT.

18

See p. 83 n. 121 for possible E n n i a n i n f l u e n c e o n the c o s m o l o g i c a l

o f the

Metamorphoses.

19

See p. 88 n. 12.

20

Astron. 1.7 ft.; cf. 1 . 7 9 9

21

5.734

^

4-549

4-7^3 ff-

component

>

EPILOGUE: ROMAN RETROSPECTIVE/PROSPECTIVE

381

A cosmic afflatus inspires m u c h Silver L a t i n literature, in p a r t i c u l a r the epic. L u c a n frequently applies images of cosmic destruction to the catastrophic events o f C i v i l W a r ; the c o m parison of R o m e w i t h the universe is set p r o m i n e n t l y at the b e g i n n i n g o f the p o e m (1.72 if.); the a n a l o g y o f G i g a n t o m a c h y is also i n t r o d u c e d at the outset (1.36), a n d is repeatedly a l l u d e d to in the course o f the p o e m . 2 2 ' T h e destruction of R o m e (urbs) is t a n t a m o u n t to the destruction of the w o r l d (orbis).' 23 T h e climactic battle at Pharsalia is i n t r o d u c e d with a cluster o f images (7.125 if.): storm, the end o f the w o r l d , and G i g a n t o m a c h y , the same g r o u p f r o m w h i c h is constructed the prog r a m m a t i c storm in book one of the Aeneid.2i L u c a n ' s cosmic dimension is frequently understood as the p r o d u c t of his Stoicism, a n d it has b e e n suggested that he owes something in this respect to his t e a c h e r C o r n u t u s , the a u t h o r of a h a n d b o o k o f allegorized myths. 2 5 B u t the V i r g i l i a n m o d e l is p r i m a r y ; the m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e is that w h e r e a s the Aeneid is a p o e m a b o u t the creation o f a universe, the Bellttm civile is a b o u t the destruction of a universe. In this as in o t h e r respects L u c a n is revealed as a n a n t i - V i r g i l . B. M . M a r t i is also concerned w i t h the cosmological aspects o f L u c a n ' s p o e m , w h i c h she describes as 'a true philosophical epic o f m a n ' , in w h i c h L u c a n rivals both L u c r e t i u s a n d V i r g i l ; 2 6 w h a t she does not say is that V i r g i l h a d a l r e a d y fully assimilated the L u c r e t i a n natural-philosophical p o e m into his o w n epic. Silius Italicus is y e t m o r e closely d e p e n d e n t on V i r g i l in his presentation of the S e c o n d P u n i c W a r as a cosmic struggle. M . v o n A l b r e c h t brings out well this aspect o f the Punica\ the historiographical c o m m o n p l a c e that the w a r was a struggle for world-rule is transformed into a picture o f a theological struggle b e t w e e n the forces o f cosmic good a n d evil; J u p i t e r a n d H e r 22

3 . 3 1 6 ; 4 . 5 9 3 ff.; 7 . 1 4 5 ff.

23

M . L a p i d g e , ' L u c a n ' s i m a g e r y o f c o s m i c d i s s o l u t i o n ' , Hermes

107 ( 1 9 7 9 ) ,

359.

L a p i d g e g i v e s a t h o r o u g h a n d p e r s u a s i v e a c c o u n t o f the S t o i c b a c k g r o u n d to L u c a n ' s use o f c o s m o l o g y , b u t V i r g i l is n o t m e n t i o n e d . G o o d r e m a r k s o n L u c a n ' s v i e w o f c i v i l w a r as d i s r u p t i v e o f the n a t u r a l o r d e r b y J . C . B r a m b l e in E . J . K e n n e y a n d W . V . Clausen

(eds.), Cambridge

history of classical

literature,

ii. Latin

literature

(Cambridge,

1982), p p . 5 3 7 ff24

O n L u c a n ' s h y p e r b o l i c a l s t o r m s see M . P. O . M o r f o r d , The poet Lucan

1 9 6 7 ) , chs. 3 a n d 4. 25

L a p i d g e , art. cit., 362.

26

' T h e m e a n i n g o f t h e Pharsalia',

AJPh

66 ( 1 9 4 5 ) , 352

76.

(Oxford,

¿g'2

V I R G I L ' S AENEID:

COSMOS

AND ÍMPERIUM

cules, the c h a m p i o n s of R o m e , oppose the T i t a n s and G i a n t s in the persons of H a n n i b a l a n d his supporters. ' T h e P u n i c a tends to the status of a philosophically coloured G i g a n t o m a c h y in a historical dress.' 2 7 V o n A l b r e c h t notes that Silius' conception of a ' W e l t d i c h t u n g ' is a reflex of the Hellenistic v i e w o f H o m e r as poet o f the universe; 2 8 he also suggests Stoic a n d L u c a n i c sources for Silius' c o n c e p t i o n of his epic, b u t the n a m e o f V i r g i l is almost absent from the discussion. D . V e s s e y has s h o w n h o w the S a g u n t u m episode at the b e g i n n i n g of the Punica is an e m b l e m o f t h a t universal struggle b e t w e e n o r d e r and chaos whose large-scale historical manifestation is the c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n H a n n i b a l and R o m e : 'the last days o f S a g u n t u m a c h ieve a universal m e a n i n g ; w h i l e the siege w a s a historical event . . . it is e l a b o r a t e d b y Silius as a c a m e o or m i n i a t u r e o f a far greater struggle w h i c h is not limited in time or space b u t coexistent with the universe.' 2 9 B o t h in this p r o g r a m m a t i c f u n c tion a n d in its use o f small-scale events to mirror cosmic events the S a g u n t u m episode is closely c o m p a r a b l e w i t h the storm in

book one of the Aeneid. T h e Punica 'is in several respects an anti-Pharsalia\ZQ T h e relationship of inversion that links V i r g i l to L u c r e t i u s assumes the status almost of a l a w of d e v e l o p m e n t in later epic, with

the Pharsalia in its turn an anti-Virgil, as the Aeneid is an anti-Lucretius. A cosmic feel also characterizes the m y t h o l o g i c a l epics o f V a l e r i u s F l a c c u s a n d Statius, b u t w i t h o u t the o v e r t political dimension of the works considered so far. 3 1 T h i s is also true of m u c h of the w r i t i n g of the y o u n g e r S e n e c a , w h o s e e x u b e r a n t cosmic i m a g e r y often assumes a visionary q u a l i t y . M o r a l a n d physical events are closely co-ordinated, even identified, a n d their reverberations e x p a n d to fill the cosmos.32 S e n e c a n h y 27

M . v o n A l b r e c h t , Silius Italicus: Freiheit und Gebundenheit römischer Epik

(Amsterdam,

1 9 6 4 ) , p. 143. 28

I b i d . , p. 19 n. 7; p. 1 5 1 .

29

D . V e s s e y , ' S i l i u s I t a l i c u s o n the fall o f S a g u n t u m ' , CPh 6 9 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , 28 -36. V o n

A l b r e c h t , o p . cit. p. 27, notes t h a t the S a g u n t u m e p i s o d e is e x e m p l a r y f o r the w h o l e war. 30

J . H . W . G . L i e b e s c h u e t z , Continuity and change in Roman religion ( O x f o r d , 1 9 7 9 ) , p.

168. 31

C f . D . V e s s e y , Statius and the T h e b a i d ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 85, 9 1 . S t a t i u s used

the c o n v e n t i o n a l c o s m i c i m a g e r y o f p a n e g y r i c i n the Silvae. 32

F o r a s u b t l e a n a l y s i s o f ' t h e S e n e c a n m o r a l p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e ' see C . J . H e r i n g t o n ,

EPILOGUE: ROMAN RETROSPECTIVE/PROSPECTIVE

>

383

perbole takes an e x t r e m e form in the t w o Hercules tragedies (if the Oetaeus is his): the p o w e r o f the hero extends in reality or fantasy over the several divisions o f the universe; b u t there is also the repeated c o m p l a i n t that the universal hero a n d future g o d must suffer the extremes o f p r i v a t i o n and h u m i l i a t i o n . O n e m a y c o m p a r e the extensive use o f the themes o f universal exclusion and cosmic rule in the Aeneid. It m a y well be that the receptivity of S e n e c a a n d his a u d i e n c e to such m y t h o l o g i c a l universalizing w a s h e i g h t e n e d by an awareness of the universal claims o f R o m a n empire. 3 3 S u c h things are not t y p i c a l of the annalistic tradition of R o m a n historiography, b u t emerge in e x a g g e r a t e d f o r m in the m i n o r historian Florus. I n his Epitome Florus structures R o m a n history on the m o d e l o f the ages of m a n , b u t cosmic analogies are also a constant feature o f the rhetoric. T h e w a r w i t h H a n nibal is seen in terms of n a t u r a l disasters; H a n n i b a l hurtles d o w n into I t a l y like a t h u n d e r b o l t from the heights of the A l p s (2.6.9); the w h o l e universe conspires against R o m e at C a n n a e , 'ibi in e x i t i u m infelicis exercitus d u x , terra, c a e l u m , dies, tota d e n i q u e r e r u m n a t u r a consensit' (2.6.15). E v e n t u a l l y n a t u r e starts to w o r k for the R o m a n s , w h o are thus able to reassert their p o w e r in the U p p e r W o r l d ('quasi a b inferis e m e r g e r e ' , 2.6.23). L u c a n ' s i m a g e r y of cosmic dissolution reappears in Florus' a c c o u n t of civil w a r (4.2.3): 'Caesaris furor a t q u e P o m peii U r b e m , I t a l i a m , gentes nationes, t o t u m d e n i q u e , q u a p a tebat, i m p e r i u m q u o d a m quasi d i l u v i o et i n f l a m m a t i o n e corripuit.' 3 4 O n l y the presiding spirit of A u g u s t u s can restore internal h a r m o n y a n d cohesion to the ' b o d y of the empire': ' q u o d ita h a u d d u b i e n u m q u a m coire et consentire potuisset, nisi unius praesidis n u t u , quasi a n i m a et m e n t e regeretur'

(4-3-5)-

35

' S e n e c a n t r a g e d y ' , Arion 5 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 4 2 2 - 7 1 . T h e e q u a t i o n o f i n t e r n a l m e n t a l or m o r a l states w i t h e x t e r n a l p h y s i c a l p h e n o m e n a is f o u n d also in S t a t i u s (cf. the s t o r m at

Theb.

1.336 ff.) a n d in Silius ( v o n A l b r e c h t , o p . cit. p. 4 5 ) ; w h i l e this m a y be p a r t l y the result o f a u n i f i e d S t o i c w o r l d v i e w , it is a l s o t y p i c a l o f V i r g i l , w h o in this is i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e E p i c u r e a n vision o f a u n i f i e d w o r l d p i c t u r e as p r e s e n t e d b y L u c r e t i u s

(see

c h a p t e r 5). O n e s h o u l d not, h o w e v e r , press the p h i l o s o p h i c a l i n f l u e n c e s too far; all poetic i m a g e r y tends to use p h y s i c a l illustrations for m e n t a l p h e n o m e n a . 33

S e e O . R e g e n b o g e n , Kleine Schriften ( M u n i c h , 1 9 6 1 ) , p p . 4 1 2 f.

34

See P. J a l , La Guerre civile a Rome (Paris, 1963), p p . 2 7 4 ff.

34

C o m p a r e the l a n g u a g e C i c e r o uses o f the S t o i c c o s m i c s y m p a t h y in De

Natura

Deorum, e.g. 2 . 7 . 1 9 , 4 5 . 1 1 5 . C f . also V i t r . De Arch. 1 p r a e f . 1, ' c u m d i v i n a t u a m e n s et n u m e n , i m p e r a t o r C a e s a r , i m p e r i o p o t i r e t u r orbis t e r r a r u m . '

37°

V I R G I L ' S A E N E I D - . COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

G r e e k writers also d r a w on the e q u a t i o n of cosmos a n d imperium. P l u t a r c h develops a detailed a n a l o g y b e t w e e n philosophical (Platonic and D e m o c r i t e a n ) accounts o f the creation of the universe a n d the g r o w t h of the R o m a n empire; the chaotic condition of the nations of the w o r l d is r e g u l a t e d 'as the empire is unfailingly borne round into the o n e circle o f p e a c e a n d order'. 3 6 T h i s is also the message of the V i r g i l i a n Shield of A e n e a s . J . H . O l i v e r argues that the s a m e a n a l o g y is f u n d a m e n t a l to the Roman Oration of Aelius Aristides, w h i c h he characterizes as ' a t the same time a cosmological h y m n and a h y m n of praise for the ideal state'. 3 7 A t h e n a e u s , in an i m a g e used earlier by the rhetor P o l e m o n , describes R o m e as an 'epitome of the i n h a b i t e d w o r l d , in w h i c h y o u m a y truly see all cities settled'; R o m e is an ovpavànoXis, 'a h e a v e n l y city'. 3 8 G i g a n t o m a c h i c i m a g e r y is found in the f r a g m e n t s o f G r e e k verse p a n e g y r i c o f the empire, possibly d r a w i n g on m u c h earlier Hellenistic models: P a n c r a t e s c o m p a r e s the lion slain b y H a d rian to T y p h o e u s a t t a c k i n g Zeus; 3 9 a n a n o n y m o u s p o e m on the Persian W a r o f D i o c l e t i a n a n d G a l e r i u s c o m p a r e s the two emperors to Z e u s a n d A p o l l o g o i n g into battle against the Giants. 4 0 T h e full r a n g e o f G i g a n t o m a c h i c a n d cosmological i m a g e r y is d e p l o y e d b y a n o t h e r G r e e k , C l a u d i a n , in his L a t i n 36

De fort.

Rom.

317c

ei'y Koap.ov ttprjvqs

K<xt êva

KVKXOV

TT/Ç

rjy e p. ovias

¿irraiarov

nepifpop.(vr}s. 37

J . H . O l i v e r , ' T h e ruling power: a study o f the R o m a n e m p i r e in the second

c e n t u r y a f t e r C h r i s t t h r o u g h t h e Roman Oration o f A e l i u s A r i s t i d e s ' , T ^ i ^ S NS 43 ( 1 9 5 3 ) , p. 8 7 4 . T h i s w o r k c o n t a i n s a n e x t e n s i v e c o l l e c t i o n o f i l l u s t r a t i v e m a t e r i a l o n this a n d r e l a t e d n o t i o n s ; cf. a l s o E . R a t t i , ' I m p e r o r o m a n o e a r m o n i a d e l l ' u n i v e r s o n e l l a p r a t i c a r e t o r i c a e n e l l a c o n c e z i o n e r e l i g i o s a d i E l i o A r i s t i d e : u n a r i c e r c a p e r VEls

'PdipLtjv ,

Mem. 1st. Lombardo CI. di Lett. Sc. mor. e stor. 3 1 . 4 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 2 8 3 - 3 6 1 . 38

A t h . 20 B f. P o l e m o n : G a l e n V e d . B a s . p. 5 8 5 . C f . L i b a n i u s Ep. 5 3 4 . 3 , R o m e as

TO K€dXatov Tthv ¿v TJI yfj; n o t e a l s o Ep. Rome)

OVK

fori

435.1

(of t h e i m p r e s s i o n c r e a t e d o n s e e i n g

y-fj avrr), ¿ÀA' ovpavoù p.oîpâ ris ( t h o u g h this is c l o s e r t o t h e r e a c t i o n o f

C o n s t a n t i u s to t h e s i g h t o f R o m e , as s o m e t h i n g q u i t e u n l i k e t h e o t h e r w o r k s o f m a n , A m m . M a r c . 1 6 . 1 0 . 1 3 ff.). R o m e as ' c o m p e n d i u m o r b i s ' : G e r n e n t z , p p . 4 9 f. A m o d e r n v e r s i o n o f t h e c i t y as m i c r o c o s m in V i c t o r H u g o ' s m e d i t a t i o n o n P a r i s in Les

Misérables

H I . 1 . 1 0 ( ' E c c e P a r i s , e c c e h o m o ' ) , c u l m i n a t i n g in ' P a r i s est s y n o n y m e d e C o s m o s . P a r i s est A t h è n e s , R o m e , S y b a r i s , J é r u s a l e m , P a n t i n . T o u t e s les c i v i l i s a t i o n s y s o n t e n a b r é g é , t o u t e s les b a r b a r i e s a u s s i . ' C f . a l s o t h e m a t e r i a l c o l l e c t e d b y R . E i s l e r , Weltenmantel Himmelszelt

( M u n i c h , 1 9 1 0 ) , p. 620. A m o r e p r e c i s e f a n t a s y in C l a u d . Cons. Stil.

' [ R o m a ] q u a e s e p t e m s c o p u l i s z o n a s i m i t a t u r O l y m p i ' ; cf. N o n n u s Dion.

und

3.135,

5 . 6 4 ff. ( t h e

seven gates of T h e b e s a n imitation o f the seven p l a n e t a r y spheres). 39

Heitsch no. 15, 2.25.

40

H e i t s c h no. 22, I V . 10 ff. O n the G i g a n t o m a c h i c i m a g e see F . C u m o n t , REA

U9°2), 39 f.

4

>

EPILOGUE: ROMAN RETROSPECTIVE/PROSPECTIVE

385

poems; C l a u d i a n is i n d e b t e d to the earlier L a t i n epic tradition, b u t by this d a t e such i m a g e r y is entirely typical of p a n e g y r i c in a n y genre: c o m p a r e the L a t i n prose panegyrici or the praise of R o m e in Rutilius N a m a t i a n u s De Reditu Suo, m a n y of w h o s e themes m a y be closely paralleled f r o m the V i r g i l i a n Shield a n d other passages, and w h o s e l a n g u a g e is h e a v i l y V i r g i l i a n . 4 1 A few e x a m p l e s of cosmic imperialism from a m o r e recent age m a y help us to a g r e a t e r s y m p a t h y w i t h the fantasies o f a n t i q u i t y . In her book Astraea42 Frances Y a t e s shows h o w the ancient h o p e of universal empire fascinated the imperial p o w e r s of sixteenth-century E u r o p e . T h e g r e a t g a p b e t w e e n i d e o l o g y a n d reality at this period m i g h t be borne in m i n d b y the ancient historian w h o wishes, for e x a m p l e , to find close correspondences b e t w e e n the foreign policy o f A u g u s t u s a n d the p a n e g y r i c of a V i r g i l or a H o r a c e . V i s u a l a n d v e r b a l arts e x e m p l i f y the 'tendency of V i r g o - A s t r a e a - E l i z a b e t h to e x p a n d until she fills the universe'. 4 3 C o s m o l o g y a n d imperialism j o i n hands: 'into his

Divine Weekes and Workes . . . Sylvester inserted many allusions to Q u e e n E l i z a b e t h a n d h e r m y t h o l o g y , a n d these allusions in a p o e m whose theme is the divine creation o f the w o r l d — h a v e the effect of investing the days of E l i z a b e t h w i t h a kind o f cosmological significance.' 4 4 ' T h e g r e a t , i l l u m i n a t e d , r e v o l v i n g m o d e l o f the heavens w h i c h showed forth the destiny of the F r e n c h m o n a r c h y d u r i n g the festivals o f 1581 w a s a h i g h l y " m o d e r n " expression o f the latest m a t h e m a t i c a l - m e c h a n i c a l techniques, t h o u g h its p u r p o s e w a s talismanic a n d m a g i c a l . ' 4 5 V i r g i l w a s an i m p o r t a n t source for expressions of m e d i e v a l a n d R e n a i s s a n c e i m p e r i a l ideals; he w a s also a p r i m e inspiration for M i l t o n ' s cosmic vision o f the p o w e r of the rulers of h e a v e n . ' T h e subject o f b o t h poems [the Aeneid and Paradise Lost] is a " w o r l d d e s t r o y ' d a n d w o r l d r e s t o r ' d " '; ' w i t h o u t misg i v i n g [ M i l t o n ] accepts the universe as his scene a n d his i m 41

M o t h e r o f m e n a n d g o d s , 1.49; as f a r as s u n , 5 5 ff.; urbsjorbis, 66; p a r e n t s V e n u s

a n d M a r s ( l e a d i n g to m i x t u r e o f p e a c e a n d w a r ) , 67 ff.; c i t y o f all gods, 73 ff.; c o n t r o l o f w e a t h e r a n d rivers, 101 ff; disasters l e a d to fresh s t r e n g t h , 121 ff; e n d s o f e a r t h s u b s e r v i e n t , 141 ff I n g e n e r a l see H . F u c h s , B ^ G 42 ( 1 9 4 3 ) , 37 ff 42

F . A . Y a t e s , Astraea: the imperial theme in the sixteenth century ( L o n d o n a n d B o s t o n ,

1975)43 p. 64. 44

p p . 89 f. D u B a r t a s has b e e n d e s c r i b e d as ' t h e C h r i s t i a n L u c r e t i u s ' .

45

p. 125. O n e m i g h t c o m p a r e t h e w a y in w h i c h C i c e r o i n t r o d u c e s the sphaera o f

A r c h i m e d e s into his Republic.

37°

V I R G I L ' S AENEID-.

COSMOS

AND

IMPERII!M

a g i n a t i o n t r i u m p h a n t l y e x p a n d s to fill it.' 4 6 M i l t o n is a more s y m p a t h e t i c r e a d e r of (and implicit c o m m e n t a t o r on) the Aeneid as a p o e m of c o s m o l o g y , G i g a n t o m a c h y , a n d h y p e r b o l e than are m a n y moderns; a n alertness to the poetic possibilities both 1 o f the m a c r o c o s m a n d of the links b e t w e e n m a c r o c o s m a n d m i c r o c o s m is t y p i c a l of other writers o f his age, most n o t a b l y p e r h a p s D o n n e . A n o t h e r close student of V i r g i l , D r y d e n , takes n a t u r a l l y to cosmological h y p e r b o l e in the description of historical events: in the Annus mirabilis he c o m b i n e s V i r g i l ' s accounts of.the Battle o f A c t i u m a n d o f the fight b e t w e e n H e r c u l e s a n d C a c u s in his o w n sea battle (84.2 f.): T w o g r a p p l i n g A e t n a s on the o c e a n meet, A n d E n g l i s h fires w i t h B e l g i a n flames c o n t e n d .

D r y d e n also equates the fates o f cities with that of the universe (ibid. 2 1 2 ) : Y e t , L o n d o n , empress of the northern clime, By a n high fate thou greatly didst expire; G r e a t as t h e w o r l d ' s , w h i c h a t t h e d e a t h o f t i m e M u s t f a l l , a n d rise a n o b l e r f r a m e b y fire. 46

D . B u s h , English literature in the earlier seventeenth century, i6oo-i66o2

p p . 405, 408.

( O x f o r d , 1962),

Index of Passages Discussed

(1

A e s c h y l u s , Sept. 4911!.: Anth.

Florus:

119

Epil.

Pal.\

2.6: 383

4.2 f.: 383

3: 137 n. 48 9 . 2 3 6 ( B a s s u s ) : 196 n. 100 Anth. Plan. 61 ( C r i n a g o r a s ) : 3 5 5 n. 5 9 Apollonius Rhodius: Argon.

All. 43 ff: 340 ff.

1.494IT.: 62

48.3 ff: 347

3 . 1 3 8 2 : 288 n. 153

7 6 . 1 : 37

4.943 fr.: 262 A r a t u s , Phaen.

Hesiod:

i6fT.: 35 f.

Theog. 621 ff: g 2

A r i s t o t l e , f r a g . 385 R o s e : 3 4 5

729ff: 9if. Homer;

Callimachus:

Iliad 2.780(1".: i 4 5 f .

Aet. f r a g . 2.3 Pf.: 81 n. 1 1 1 Del.

Heraclitus:

6.402 f.: 290

171 ff.: 103 n, 48

8.51 f.: 3 1 4

172(1".: 123

1 1 . 4 3 f f : 291

Cicero: Catil.3.11.26:

r 8 . 4 6 8 f f : 340ff.

377

Cons. f r a g . 11 M o r e l : 3 1 5

18.483: 322 f.

Rep. 1: 71 ff.

19.11: 371

3-23-34: 75 6: 73 ff. Tusc. 4 . 2 i . 4 8 f . : 153 5.3.8: 58 n. 62 C l a u d i a n , Carm. Min. 52.1 i 4 f f : D e m e t r i u s , Eloc.

i 2 4 f : 248

D i o C a s s i u s 50.33.8: 100 D o n a t u s , Vit. Verg. 22: 350 Dryden:

Carm. 1.2: 3 7 9

Annus Mirabilis

8 4 . 2 f . : 386

2 1 2 : 386 Ennius: Ann. 5

ioif.

r 9-15 : 37°fOdyssey 1.3 f.: 302 f. 6.4311.: 282 8: 60 ff. 8.487 ff: 53 1 i . 2 i 6 f f : 81 [ H o m e r ] , Batraehomyomaekia 1 7 1 : 249 Homeric Hymn to Demeter 6 9 f.: 3 1 5 Horace:

1 V . : 82

f f V . : 76ff.

521 f. V . : 82

1 . 2 8 . 5 ^ : 195 n. 95 3.4: 8 7 f . , 9 8 f . 4 . i 4 . 5 f . : 356 4.14.29^".: 288 Semi. 1 . 3 . g f f : 41 2 . r . i 2 f . : 45

544 V . : 1 7 7 n. 57 Epicharmus:

81 f.

seen. 284^". V . : 3 1 5 n. 35 var. g f f . V . : 328f." Eustathius: o n II. 11.32IT.: 341 f.

Livy: 7 . 1 0 : 151 f. 7.26: 151 L u c a n 7 . 1 2 5 fT.: 381 Lucretius:

18.468 ff: 340ff.

1.1 ff: 1 7 4

18.480: 375

1 . 2 g f f : 205f.

18.490ff.: 3 4 3 f f .

i . 6 2 f f : 1 9 4 f . , 21 o f .

o n Od. i - 3 3 7 f- : 55 8-43: 5 4 f-

1 . 6 6 f f : 21 i . 7 o f . : 189

388

INDEX

L u c r e t i u s (cont.):

OF

PASSAGES

DISCUSSED

6.287: 185 n. 77

i . 7 5 f r . : 1 7 3 , 199

6.328^:

i . i o 2 f f : 17 f.

6 . 3 5 7 f r . : 187

177

i . i i 7 f f . : 79f.

6 , 3 7 6 f r . : 226

i . i 4 4 f . : 220

6 . 5 6 8 f.: 181

i . 146fT.: 1 7 4 n. 50

6.582 f.: 181

1 . 2 7 1 ff.: 182

6.639f.: 179

^ 7 7 - 93 1 . 2 8 o f i : 231 i . 4 7 3 f f . : 232

6.66gf.; 211

I

fr

:

6.1044fr.: 230f.

1 . 7 2 2 i f . : 2 1 1 f. 1.760nr.: 226 i . 9 2 2 f f . : 20f.

Manilius: i . i ff: 38 n. 10

1 . 1 1 0 2 ff: 189

1-763*"- 333

2.1 ff: 201 f.

4 . 6 9 4 f . : 380

2 . 4 o f f : 201 n. 1 1 1

4 . 9 3 2 ff: 380

2 . 1 1 2 f f : 221 f. 2-553f-: ' 9 1 n- 8 6 2 , 1 0 9 3 f . : 201 n. 1 1 0 3 . r 4 f f : 173 L

Ovid: 1.65fr.: 88 n. 12

Fast.

3. i 8 f f : 326

1.295fr.: 37 n.

3 . 2 g f . : 38f.

1.571

3 . 2 8 8 f f : 228f. 3 . 5 9 7 f f . : 228 n . 1 7 3 3.832ff:

i68f.

4 . 1 3 6 fT.: 2 1 2 f. 4 . 1 7 0 ff.: 2 2 5 n. 166 4 . 1 7 1 : 182 n. 67

ff:

8

112

5-563ff» 376 Met.

i . 17 5 f- : 3 3 3

n-

78

i i . 5 5 4 f . : 108 n. 61 15:

Pont.

83 n .

121

1 . 1 : 41 f.

4.8.55fr.: r 1 7 f .

4 . 4 1 0 ff: 1 7 0 4.96711.: 201 n. 1 1 1 4 - i 0 4 5 f f : 233

P h i l a r g y r i u s o n V e r g . Eel. 3.105: 341 n. 18

4. i o 5 8 f f : 164

P h i l o s t r a t u s , Her. 23: i 3 8 f . 1.13«".: 86

5 . i o f f : 202

P i n d a r , Pyth.

5.1 if.: 174

P l u t a r c h , De Pyth.

5 . 2 2 ff: 2 1 3 f.

[Plutarch]:

5.45f.: 214

De Vit. et Poes. Horn, B 4: 2 5 5 6: 23

5 . 5 2 f f : 172 n. 42

B

5 . 9 4 f f : 190 n. 8 5

Propertius:

5.1 l o f f : 1 8 f . , 2 o g f .

2 . 1 : 87 n. 8

5 . 1 1 7 f f : 227 n. 1 6 9

2 . 3 1 , i 2 f f : 121

5 . 3 8 o f f : 184 n. 72

3.9: 87 n. 8

5.432ff:

igof.

3 . 1 1 . 5 7 : 366

5 . 1 1 2 5 : 183 n. 71

4.6: 102 n. 47

5 . 1 2 3 6 ^ : 224f.

4 . 6 . 3 1 ff: 3 5 9 f .

6.7 f.: 2 7 5 f.

4-6-37ff-: 354 4 . 6 . 6 g f . : 360

6 . 3 3 f . : 228f.

Or. 402 E: 13

6 . i 4 8 f . : 186 6 . 2 2 2 : 187 n. 81 6 . 2 5 1 ff: 182 n . 67

Quintilian:

6 . 2 5 5 : 187 n, 82

i.io.gf.:

6.277f.:

2 . 4 . 1 8 : 151 n. 78

i85f.

6.285ff.: 225

14f.

8,6.20: 247

389

INDEX

OF

PASSAGES

scholia: on //. 18.490 fi.: 343 ff 20.67: 30 n. 74 S e n e c a , QNat. 6 . 1 7 . 1 : 208 n. 131 Servius: on Aen. 1.88 f.: 243 f. 1.740: 57 1.742: 64 n. 75 Silius Italicus: Pun. 7.io6fl'.: 343 7 . i 2 o f f . : 342f. 1 6 . 5 6 2 ^ : 179 n. 61 S o p h o c l e s , Track. 1085^: 270 S t r a b o 10.3: 14

T h u c y d i d e s 2.41.4: 309 n. 19 T i b u l l u s 2.5.5 ff.: 88

V a r i u s R u f u s f r a g . 4 M o r e l : 159 n. 8, 160 n n . 9, 10 Virgil: Eel. 4: 17 5: 1 9 7 f 6: 17, 67 6.64f.: 48 Georg. 1 . 5 . C : 45, 158 1 . 2 4 i f . : 5 0 f . , 362f. 1.41: 19, 158

DISCUSSED

3-25of.: 161 3.253 f.: 160 3.254: 162 3.265: 163 3.269f.: 159f. 3.280fr.: i 6 4 f . 3.285: 166 4.67 fr.: 249 4.219fr.: 69 n. 87 4-34583f4.219fr.: 69 n. 87 4.345 fr.: 83 f. 4.560 ff: 51 Aen. 1.3fr.: 302fr. 1 . 1 1 : 229 1 . 4 2 fr.: 179 f. 1.50: 229 1.50fr.: 9 0 f f , 103ff. 1.52fr.: 237fr. 1-58f.: 92f-, 181, 190, 3 1 3 i . 8 i f f : 237fr., 313f. 1.83: r81 1.86: 229 1 . 1 0 5 : 108 f. i . i o ö f . : 262f. 1 . 1 2 9 : 9 3 f . , 196 n. 99, 298 1 . 1 3 2 : 94 i . i 3 3 f . : 191, 296f. i - i 3 5 f » 94

i.43fT.: 158 1 . 1 7 2 C : 186 t . 4 7 1 f.: r86 n. 79 2 . 1 3 6 fF.: 258

• 1 3 9 : 3 2 9 n - 73 1.148fr.: 204f. i .150: 104 n. 50 1 . 1 5 4 fr.: 2 98 f.

2 1 • 4 9 f - : 327 2 . 1 6 1 f.: 209

r.205f.: 198, 326 1.223fr.: 3 1 4 1.233: 305, 332

2.291 f.: 281 n. 135 2.323ff.: 165 2.458IT.: 3 3 f f .

1

i-235f-: 3°4 1-235fr.: 37°

2.467: 34

1.242fr.: 107 n, 57

2

-473fr': 35 2.477: 3 7 f .

'•250: I95> 3 ° 4 i . 2 5 4 f . : 205

2.483: 38f. 2.484: 43 2 . 4 9 0 f f : 39f., 43f.

i-Z59f- '95 1.276fr.: 364

61

2.523f-: 3 3. i f f : 33 f., 48ff, 3 . 8 f f : 48ff. 3.25: 89 n. 15

i . 2 7 8 f . : 199 1.279fr.: 315 1.287: 301, 369

3.26f.: r22f.

1.384!".: 311 f. 1 . 4 5 5 fr.: 60 1.540: 305

3 . 2 1 2 f.: 160 3.242: 161

'•544f" 255f1 . 5 9 8 f . : 304

3.242 ff.: 1 5 9 fF-

i .607 f : 3 1 5 f.

409

INDEX il (cont.): •n. (cont.):

1.740fr.: 52fr. 1 . 7 4 1 : 58F 1.747: 61 1.756: 304F

2.69f.: 305

2.227: 99 n . 37 2.250F: 3 1 7 2.304fr.: 192 f. 2.361 f.: 190 n. 85 2.496F: 2 0 7 f . 2.608F: 2 1 3 n . 143 2 . 6 1 1 f.: 193 2.625: 193

2.721 ff.: 375f.

2.780F: 3 0 7 F 3.90: 225 3.156fr.: 301 3.192F: 317 . 3.420fr.: 2 6 1 f r .

3495ff-: 308

3.528:317F 3.564fr.- 261 ff. 3.567:261

3.571fr.: 263f.

3.575fr.: 264f. 3.619F.: 265, 297 3.631fr.: 265 3.672fr.: 265 3.677fr.: 144 3.678: 265 4.1: 232 n. 183 4.24fr.; 269fr., 3 1 0

4.52f.: 299

4 . 8 6 f f : 271 f. 4.89: 197 n. 1 0 1 , 272 4.160: 3 1 8 n. 43 4.166fr.; 3 1 8 4.173fr.: 273fr. 4.177: 274 4.197: 274 4.222 f r . : 276 f r .

4.240f.: 305

4.247fr.: 278fr. 4.268 f r . : 279 4.269: 297 4.321fr.: 279f. 4.441fr.: 280fr. 4.467f.: 282 n. 140 4.480fr.: 280 4.481 f.: 372

OF

PASSAGES

DISCUSSED 4.522 f r . : 280, 3 1 8 F. 4.607: 285 4.665fr.: 282fr.

4.682f.: 284

n. 38 5- - 3 9 5-351 F.: 373 n. 5: 254 8f

:

!

5.439IT.: 286

117

5.627fr.: 3 0 5 F 5.694 f r . : 325 5.789 f r . : 299 5.801 ff: 3 1 9 5.820F: 299F

5.870f.: 3 1 9 F .

6: 42 6.83 F: 306

6.110ff.: 300 6.585 f r . : 183 f r . 6.592: 184 n . 72 6.639fr.: 326F 6 . 6 6 o f f : 75F 6.679fr.: 78 6.692 F : 306 6.724F: 320 6.724fr.: 66ff. 6.725: 320 n . 47 6.728F: 320 6.740 f r . : 325 f r . 6.756: 70 6.781 f . : 197, 297F 6.781fr.: 364F

6-79 ff- 257 6-795 95 1

:

T

6.796 F : 373 6.801 ff.: 2 1 4 F 7.27F: 204 7 . 1 0 0 F : 357 7 . 1 3 6 f f . : 320F 7.140: 3 1 0 F 7.i62ff.: 2 1 7 n. 153 7.222F: 192 7.222fF: 3 1 2

7.228fr.: 192

7.229F: 321 7.301: 300 7.303 F: 3 0 1 F 7 . 3 1 2 : 31 i 7.456fr.: 230F 7.571: 298 7.586fr.: 286 n . 151 7.707: 247, 286 7.783IF: n 8 f .

391

INDEX

OF

PASSAGES

DISCUSSED

7-785^-: 3 5 4 n. 57 8.98 ff.: 197

8.72of.: 355ff. 8 . 7 2 4 : 361 f.

8 . i o 2 f f . : 2 1 7 n. 153 8 . ! 3 6 f . : 372

8.726(1.: 208f". 8 - 7 2 9 f f : 369ff.

8 . 1 4 1 : 372 8.i8of.: 217

9 . 4 9 2 : 306

8.185^".: 2 1 6

9 - 6 i o f . : 21 n. 46

8.200f.: 2 1 5 f .

9.630 f.: 149 9.660: 149 n. 71

8 . 2 3 9 f . : 1 1 3 f8.239ÎT.: 327 8.240: 177 n. 5 4 8.253ÎT.: 1 1 4 f8.266f.: 113 8.287t.: 215 8 . 2 8 7 f f . : 11 i f . , 2 5 8 f . 8.298ff: 216f. 8.303*"-: 2 1 5 n. 147 8.305: 147 n. 67

9 . 1 2 8 f.: 148

9 . 6 7 2 ff: i 4 3 f f . 9 - 7 0 3 f r : 144 ff 9-7°5Î".: ' 7 7 g . 7 o 8 f . : 287 f. 9 . 7 3 1 f f : 146 9 . 7 4 2 : 150

57

9 - 7 7 4 ^ : 59 9 . 7 7 7 : 52 n. 43

8 . 3 i o f f : 2 1 9 n. 157

9 . 8 1 2 : 146 n. 64 10.3!".: 3 1 4 n. 33

8.314: 2l8f.

i o - 5 5 f f : 307

8.347ff.: 2 i 7 f 8.383F.: 336 n. 1

i o . g o f : 312

8 . 4 1 6 f.: 106

10. i o o f f : 3278".

8 . 4 2 3 f f : 327

10.960".: 205

8 . 4 2 9 ^ : 106, i 8 6 f .

i o . i 3 7 f . : 122 1 0 . 1 6 1 f.: 321 f.

8 . 4 4 7 f . : 287 n. 152

l o . i S g f f : 59f.

8.448f.: 367

10.271ÎF.: 187 10.31 7ÎF.: 286

8 . 4 5 o f . : 186 8.524225 8-552f.: 373 8 . 6 i 7 f f : 370F.

10.356(1.: 226

8 . 6 2 5 f f : 346f. 8 . 6 2 6 f f : 337 f.

10.565 ff: 154 ft. 10.650: 308 10.691 f.: 287

8.628f.: 348f. 8 . 6 3 o f f : 360f. 8 632: 349 n. 4 5

i o . 3 7 7 f . : 307 i o . 5 i 3 f f : 288

10.6930".: 286 f. 10.695: 300 f.

8.633f.: 349f.

10.762 ff.: 97, 2 6 6 f .

8 . 6 5 9 ff: 120 ff.

i o . 8 3 3 f f : 267 n. 91

8.663: 360 n. 77 8.663ff: 35iff.

1 1 . 2 8 8 ( F : 290f. n . 3 5 o f . : 149Î".

8.664: 367

1 1.396: 149

8 . 6 7 1 ff: 352 f. 8.6750".: 9 8 f f .

1 2 . 1 0 2 f . : 228 n. ï 72

8 . 6 7 6 f . : 109 n. 63

12.1760".: 322

8.678f.: 347f.

1 2 . 1 9 7 : 322

8.68of.: 354

I2.203ÎF.: 192, 329

8.685 ff:

1

° 3 n. 48

1 1 . 6 i 5 f f . : 178 n. 61

1 2 . 3 2 9 f f : 288

8.691 f.: i o o f f .

i 2 . 3 6 5 f f : 288f.

8.695: 109

1 2 . 4 5 1 ff.: 289

^•704: 3 5 9 8.714!".: 348

12

8 . 7 1 4 1 " " 3551"-

569: 197 n. 101 1 2 . 6 5 4 f.: 148 12.6848".: 290

39

INDEX

2

V i r g i l (cont.): A en. [cont.):

12.697IT.: H**, 289f. 12.701 IT.: 290 12.707fr.: 28gf., 3 1 2 12.724: 289

OF

PASSAGES

DISCUSSED

12.831: 229

12.861 fT.: 151 12.895: 148

12.919fr.:

147fr.

12.921 fT.: 177fi".

General Index A c h i l l e s , see A e n e a s ; S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s ;

a n d lost H e l l e n i s t i c e p i c 128!'. modern

Turnus

criteria

of

incompleteness

q u e s t i o n e d 242, 260, 273 n. 1 11

A c o n t e u s a s s p e a k i n g n a m e 178 n. 61

n a t u r e o f i d e o l o g i c a l p r o g r a m m e 330Î.

A c t i u m , B a t t l e of: b r i n g s p e a c e b y l a n d a n d sea 309, 353 f.

'negative simile' 177

c o n s t i t u t i v e o f u n i v e r s a l o r d e r 97 ff.

'optimistic'

and 'pessimistic'

modern

interpretations 1

a s d e f e a t o f evil b a r b a r i a n s 130, 3 1 2 as G i g a n t o m a c h y 9 8 f f . , 109 n. 63

as p a n e g y r i c 2 5 5 ff.

as s u p e r n a t u r a l v i c t o r y 2 0 4 f . , 3 5 4 ! .

a n d p h i l o s o p h y 24, 5 i f f .

adventus, topos o f fair w e a t h e r 3 5 7 f.

as p o e m o f r e v e l a t i o n

adynaton i 6 8 f . , 192, 236, 3 1 5 ^ , 329

as p o e m o f s t r u g g l e 135

199

A e g a e o n 154fT., 287, 288

t h e m a t i c l i n k i n g o v e r b o o k d i v i s i o n s 64

A e l i u s A r i s t i d e s 384

a n d t r a g e d y 24, 244, 269

Aeneas:

a s t y p i c a l l y e a r l y A u g u s t a n p o e m 136

a s c e n t to h e a v e n s 195, 2 7 5 , 280

as u n i v e r s a l p o e m 23 ff.

a s h e r o in p e r p e t u a l state o f s i e g e 135

v i e w e d as a P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s 326

a s S t o i c h e r o 281, 3 7 3

INTERNAL

associated with Herculcs 373

a r m s of T u r n u s a r m s of A e n e a s

at m e r c y o f e l e m e n t s i 0 3 f . , 176,

191,

PARALLELISMS

C y c l o p e s ~ P a n d a r u s and Bitias 144

265, 331

Dares and Entellus—Aeneas and Tur-

c o m p a r e d w i t h H e c t o r 290f. d e l i b e r a t e l y p u t in f a v o u r a b l e l i g h t b y

n u s 2 5 4 n. 38 E t n a — C a c u s 266

V i r g i l 256 in c o n t r o l o f e l e m e n t s 176, [ 9 9

Etna—Polyphemus

in role o f A c h i l l e s 150

F a m a — A l l e c t o 274 n. 1 1 6

in role o f A e g a e o n 154 if.

F a m a — A t l a s 278

role

of

264^

F a m a — M e r c u r y 2 76ff.

in role o f A t l a s 372 ff. in

ii8f.

A t l a s ~ t r e e - s i m i l e o f A e n e a s 280ff.

Gigantomachic

Jupiter

Gauls

on C a p i t o l ~ B a t t l e

of

Actium

i 2 4 f . , 351

147 ff., 1 7 6 , 178

Hercules and C a c u s — B a t t l e of A c t i u m

Aeneid:

118

a n d a e t i o l o g y 135 a n d A l e x a n d e r - p a n e g y r i c 195 n. 98

J u n o a n d w i n d s — J u n o a n d A l l e c t o 332

a s ' b a r o q u e ' p o e m i 2 6 f , , 1 3 4 m 42, 135

P o l y p h e m u s ~ C a c u s 266

c o m i c e l e m e n t s p o s s i b l y p r e s e n t 245

P o l y p h e m u s — M e z e n t i u s 266f.

c o n c e i v e d as nostos 198

s h i p - r a c e — B a t t l e o f A c t i u m 2 5 4 n. 38

division into 'Iliadic' and

'Odyssean'

o f S h i e l d 372 ff.

c o m p o n e n t s 303, 306, 308, 331

S i n o n ~ A c h a e m e n i d c s 260 n. 64

a n d e l e g y 24, 269

S p e e c h of A n c h i s e s — S h i e l d of A e n e a s

a n d e n d o f w o r l d 92 ff., 187 fT. Gigantomachy

viewed

in

traditional

and gladiatorial imagery that

programme

of Pergamene

compared Altar

of

toir-poem 196, 202

of

Aeneas

364f.

i52ff. to

Zeus

S t o r m — B a t t l e o f A c t i u m 362 n. 80 Storm—Hercules and C a c u s

114F.

S t o r m — C h a r y b d i s 261 ff.

i 4 2 f . , 150 as

70, 171 ff, 337 Speech of Jupiter—Shield

w a y 190, 209 ideological

shouldering of A n c h i s e s ~ s h o u l d e r i n g

25, 68,

135,

142,

190,

Turnus

and

Pandarus

and

— A e n e a s a n d T u r n u s 147 fT.

Bitias

394

GENERAL

Aeneid

(cont.)-.

P a l a t i n e t e m p l e o f 12 1, 126, 136, 3 5 5 f f . ,

359

w i n d s o f A e o l u s ~ A r a x e s 2o8f. a e t i o l o g y 68, 138 as p r o p a g a n d a

INDEX

as p a t r o n o f A u g u s t u s 132

131

a n d p o e t r y 17, 55, 57

see also Aeneid

a s p r o t e c t o r o f R o m e 1 10, i 2 4 f . , 149

A g a l l i s 343 ff., 3 5 3 n. 5 6

a s s u n 322 n. 54, 3 5 6

A g a m e m n o n , c o m p a r e d to Z e u s 342 A j a x , p u n i s h e d like G i a n t

A p o l l o n i u s o f R h o d e s 13, 24

179

less h y p e r b o l i c a l t h a n V i r g i l 262, 270

A l e x a n d e r the G r e a t :

a n d the p a n e g y r i c a l e p i c 255

p a n e g y r i c o f 86 n. 5, 194 n. 94, 195 n. 98

S o n g o f O r p h e u s 63

a n d sack o f T y r e 283

a p o t h e o s i s o f r u l e r 5 1 , 1 4 5 , 3 5 6 n. 64, 362

as u n i v e r s a l c o n q u e r o r 3 1 3 , 377

A r a P a c i s 126, 136, 368

A l e x a n d r i a 127 if.

compared

p h i l o l o g i c a l b i a s o f her s c h o l a r s h i p 27, 29

Pergamene

t, 23, 2 6 f f , 8 5 n. 3, 184,

r e l a t i o n to horologium Augusti 196,

2 1 8 n. 154, 223, 268, 278, 299, 3 1 0 , 3 6 5 , 374f-> 3 8 / ancient definition of m e t a p h o r 248 e s c h a t o l o g i c a l 26, 30 o f H e s i o d 26f., 9 5 f f . h i s t o r i c a l 26

of

Araxes: a s limit o f R o m a n e m p i r e 3 5 5 n. 5 9

as

extended

p o s s i b l e p u n o n n a m e 208 n. 132 A r c h e l a u s of Priene, relief of apotheosis o f H o m e r 23 A r e s , see M a r s A r i s t o t l e 8f., 1 7 1 , 235 on h y p e r b o l e 243

a n d h y p e r b o l e 248 ff. m o d e r n d i s t a s t e for 29

on p o e t i c t h e o l o g i a n s 12, 15 on p r a i s e a n d b l a m e a s f u n d a m e n t a l

m o r a l 26, 31

f u n c t i o n s o f p o e t r y 2 5 5 n. 44

in O v i d 333 n. 78

arms, symbolic

p h y s i c a l 7, 26, 62, 84, 9 5 , 106 n. 55, 1 39f->

229 n. 1 7 5 a n d synkrisis 2 1 3 f. see also A t l a s ; E u h e m e r i s m ; L u c r e t i u s ; Virgil

ii8f.,

146, 155; see also

Shield of A e n e a s ars/ingenium c o n t r a s t 20f. a s s i m i l a t i o n to d i v i n i t y : false i 8 4 f . in L u c r e t i u s 173 f., 194

A m a z o n o m a c h y 99, 133, 136 n. 44, 142

in r o y a l i d e o l o g y 251

A n c h i s e s , S p e e c h of:

in V i r g i l 1 75 if.

e c h o e s C i c e r o ' s Somnium Scipionis 7 5 if. miniature Annals

368, 3 7 9

A r a t u s 8 f . , 35fT., 46, 59

o f H o m e r 261T., 326 n. 66, 3 4 o f f . , 358

as

Altar

i n f l u e n c e o f P a r t h e n o n f r i e z e 134

A l l e c t o , a s i m a g e o f e x p a n s i o n 253 allegory

with

Z e u s 134

summary

of

Ennius

78

Homer A t h e n a , see M i n e r v a

m o d e l l e d on E n n i a n D r e a m o f H o m e r 7 6 f f , 324 n. 62 m o d e l l e d o n P l a t o ' s Republic

a s t r o n o m y a n d p o e t r y 5 f . , 7, 8fT.; see also

A t h e n i a n use o f m y t h in p o l i t i c a l s y m b o l i s m 99, 124, 136

71

m o d e l l e d 011 S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s 70 ancilia 352, 354, 367 A n t i o c h 130 ' a n x i e t y o f i n f l u e n c e ' 47 n. 34 A p h r o d i t e , see V e n u s Apollo:

Athens: as first city 3 4 5 f . history of read into Shield of Achilles

343

Atlas: allegorized

as

astronomer

and

p h i l o s o p h e r 58 n. 62

as d r a g o n - k i l l e r 1 1 1 n. 68

a l l e g o r i z e d as axis mundi 280 n. 132, 3 7 4

as g i a n t - s l a y e r 88, 99

a s figure for A e n e a s 3 7 2 ff.

a s g o d o f b o t h w a r a n d p e a c e 359 f.

a s g u a r a n t o r o f c o s m i c o r d e r 278, 3 7 4 E

a n d l y r e 5 7 , 3 5 9 f.

in i m p e r i a l p a n e g y r i c 3 7 5 n. 124

GENERAL

INDEX I

395

as m o u n t a i n 264, 278, 280I.

B o s c o r c a l e , silver c u p f r o m 368

p u n on n a m e 280 11. 132

B r e n n u s 124, 150

teacher of l o p a s 58!. Attalids,

royal

ideology

of

28,

123f.,

B r i t o n s , as g i g a n t i c b a r b a r i a n s 89 n. 15

1 2 5 i f . , 342 Cacus:

A u g u s t a n art: a n a l o g i e s w i t h A u g u s t a n l i t e r a t u r e 2,

subjects of Augustan

115

analogous with Polypherhus

120IT., 198, 204, 359, 3 6 8 f . , 3 7 6 stylistic c h o i c e s a v a i l a b l e

analogous with Cerberus

115

as e l e m e n t a l m o n s t e r ( 14f.

136

sculpture

126,

as e m b o d i m e n t o f evil 11 1

136

m o d e l l e d o n H c s i o d i c T y p h o e u s 1 1 1 ff.

A u g u s t a n ideology:

volcanic aspects of 1 i6f.

a n d A l e x a n d e r the G r e a t 308 n. 18 a n a l o g y with E g y p t i a n royal ceremony

357

as dominus mundi 378

a n d A t h e n i a n m o d e l s 3, 99, 142 n, 56 compared with Pcrgamenc

125if.

c o m p a r e d w i t h H e r c u l e s 2 1 4 L , 257 c o m p a r e d w i t h J u p i t e r 5 1 , 148 c o n t r o l s n a t u r e 109, 158 n. 4, 334, 362 as l e a d e r o f b o t h R o m e a n d I t a l y 347 f. as l e g e n d a r y h e r o 252

C a p i t o l , as s c a t o f g o d s 124, 21 7 f . Carthage:

c a t a c l y s m 191 ff., 3 1 2 , 379, 383

in role o f N e p t u n e 204

cavc,

as s a v i o u r 49 a s s e c o n d f o u n d e r o f R o m e 351 n. 51 354

as

source

of

elemental

activity

105 nr. C e l t s , as g i g a n t i c b a r b a r i a n s 89 11. 15 C e r b e r u s 1 1 1 n. 68, 1 1 5

a n d s o l a r i m a g e r y 356!".

chaos

t r i p l e t r i u m p h o f 355If., 3 6 5 f . as u n i v e r s a l r u l e r 76, 88, 195, 208, 298,

f., 378f, 383 of

telamon

(strap) of Shield o f Achilles 341, 375;

¡gof.

in H c s i o d 7 in S o n g o f C l y m e n c 83!. n i g h t as c h a o s 340 C h a r y b d i s 259f. as G i g a n t o m a c h i c 261 f. C h i m a e r a 1 i8f., 155

see also A t l a s

C h r y s i p p u s 27

barbarians:

C i c e r o 8, 24, 3 1 , 55

as e n e m i e s o f g o d s 129 11. 28 as e n e m i e s o f G r e e k s or R o m a n s

312

on a n a l o g y between cosmic and political o r d e r s 71 ff, 3 7 7 f -

29 a s t h r e a t to c i v i l i z e d o r d e r 103 n. 48

on p o e t i c i n s p i r a t i o n 21 f. on R o m e as mistress oCorbis terramm 377

Baroque: 'classicizing'

299^

as rival to R o m e for w o r l d - e m p i r e 2 72 f.

r e v i v e s t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s 131

allegorization

2 0 2 f f , 298 f.,

328 f.

f i g u r a t i v e d e s t r u c t i o n o f 282 if.

like H e l l e n i s t i c k i n g 126if.

ff

a n d the recusatio 44, 50 see also V i r g i l c a l m i n g of waters

c o m p a r e d w i t h S a t u r n 257

33^1 35°' 353 -.

c o m p a r e s G a u l s to T i t a n s 123 c r i t i c i s m o f t r a d i t i o n a l e p i c 128

c o m p a r e d w i t h D i o n y s u s 257

a n d sidus Iulium

Callimachus 8 a n d c o s m o l o g y 9, 81 n. 1 1 1

A u g u s t u s ( O c t a v i a n ) 34, 50 f.

auxesis 257 ff. axis mundi, as

see also H e r c u l e s a n d C a c u s C a e s a r , J u l i u s 206, 368

in P c r g a m e n c

sculpture

a n d V i r g i l 134 n. 42

as i m a g e o f u n i v e r s e 188, 190, 1 9 3 , 2 2 7 ,

as s t y l e o f H e l l e n i s t i c s c u l p t u r e

i26f.

as V i r g i l i a n m a n n e r 1 26 f. b e a r , licks c u b s into s h a p e 3 4 9 f . b o a t - r a c e , d e s c r i b e d in l a n g u a g e o f s t o r m and Gigantomachy

city:

108 n. 59

345- 365

as m i c r o c o s m 75, 227 n. 1 7 1 , 38411. 38 r e a c h e s sky in p a n c g y r i c 272 civil 3w8a1r, , 3^3 a s c o s m i c d i s a s t e r 103 n. 48, C l a u d i a n a n d G i g a n t o m a c h y 101 f., 384c.

39

GENERAL

6

INDEX d e m y t h o l o g i z a t i o n 1 78

C l c a n t h e s 9, 47, 140 cliché, revalorization of 93f., i68f.,

182

n. 67, 1 8 5 f . , 2 2 1 , 227I'., 232, 233

D i a n a , as m o o n 322 n. 54 didactic poetry: dispute over poetic worth 8

clupeus virtutis 366 f.

i n c l u d e d in g e n r e o f e p i c 22

C l y m c n c , S o n g of:

Dido:

a n d c o s m i c s e t t i n g 84 as H e s i o d i c c a t a l o g u e p o e m 67, 83f.

a n d erotic topos o f n e g l e c t o f c u s t o m a r y o c c u p a t i o n s 271 f.

c o m m e n t a r i e s , a n c i e n t 27

i d e n t i f i e d w i t h h e r c i t y 2 7 1 , 282ff.

on H o m e r 23

i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m her fama

on V i r g i l 23 f., 29

279

s u i t a b i l i t y o f S o n g o f l o p a s at her c o u r t

C o r n u t u s 381

64

cosmic kingship 9

a n d t r a g i c m o d e l s 269 ff.

a n d O c t a v i a n 50 f. c o s m i c r e l i g i o n 8 f., 10, 15, 38 f., 1 7 1 , 3 1 5 ,

D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s 12 f., 17 n. 35 d i v i n i t y , b i p o l a r n a t u r e o f 360 n. 76

378 n. 6 c o s m i c s e t t i n g 3, 64^"., 345

D o n a t u s , T i b e r i u s 256

in C i c e r o 71 IT.

D r y d e n 386

in E n n i u s 77 ff.

duel

in H c s i o d 66 f.

between

Aeneas

and

Turnus

as

G i g a n t o m a c h i c 147 ff, 289

in H o m e r 67

' D y i n g G a u l ' ( s t a t u e ) 129, 153

in O v i d 83 n. 121 in V i r g i l c h . 2 passim,

1 1 7 , 3 1 4 , 363

r i t u a l f u n c t i o n o f 68 cosmocrator 3 7 9

as m o t h e r o f G i a n t s

146

s h a k i n g o f 1 4 5 E , 289, 328

c o s m o g o n y 7, 17, 62 repetition of 118

e c p y r o s i s 191 ff. elemental symbolism:

C r a t e s o f M a l l o s 137 n. 48 c a l l s self kritikos

Earth:

29

cosmological and allegorical interpret a t i o n o f H o m e r 2 7 f . , 55, 340 ff.

in R o m a n s o c i e t y 332 of R o m a n w e d d i n g 318 elements: f o u r 10, 82, 3 1 6 , 3 1 8 , 3 2 5 f f , 340f.

H e s i o d i c s c h o l a r s h i p 28f., 140

b a t t l e o f 95 n. 30, 1 1 4 E , 170, 226

p o s s i b l e i n v o l v e m e n t in p r o g r a m m e o f

c o n f u s i o n o f i 0 7 f f . , 261 ff, 263

Pergamene Altar of Zeus 1 3 9 ^ 3 4 2 at R o m e 28

c o n t r o l o f 332 ff. e x c l u s i o n f r o m 332

C r e t h e u s 52 n. 43, 59

p o s s e s s i o n o f 332 ff.

C y b e l e 197, 198, 200, 298

p u r g a t i o n by 326

a l l e g o r i z e d as t e r r e s t r i a l g l o b e 365 as s y m b o l o f A p o l l i n c o r d e r 102 uprooted

trial by 307

,

E l i z a b e t h I, a n d c o s m i c i m p e r i a l i s m 385

Cyclades looff.

C y c l o p e s 1 0 1 , i o ^ f . , 144, 186, 274 C y c n u s 59 f.

E m p e d o c l e s 8, 13, 15, 39, 43, 62,

116,

226, 237 a s s o c i a t e d w i t h v o l c a n o as a s s a i l a n t o f h e a v e n 2 1 1 f. as m o d e l for L u c r e t i u s ' p o e t i c persona

Dante 5 d e c o r u m (to prepon): in h y p e r b o l e 244 ff. u s e d as c r i t e r i o n for a l l c g o r i z a t i o n 347 D e m o d o c u s 52ff.

i 8 f , , 21 Philia

a n d Neikos in a l l e g o r y o f S h i e l d

o f A c h i l l e s 3 4 1 , 358 Philia a n d Neikos in a l l e g o r y o f S o n g o f D e m o d o c u s 62, 360

as s e l f - p o r t r a i t o f H o m e r 5 4 f .

s o u r c e for E n n i u s ' Discordia

his s o n g s i m i t a t e d in Aeneid 60ff.

as w e a t h e r - m a g i c i a n

song of Ares and A p h r o d i t e allegorized 61 ff, 84

see also Georgics; E n c e l a d u s 264 f.

82

1 7 4 n. 50, 202

Lucretius

. GENERAL

397

INDEX Araxes;

Ennius:

Atlas;

Evander;

Hector;

Mulciber; Phoebus

a n d E m p e d o c l e s 82 a n d M u s e s 49 n. 39, 82

E u h e m e r i s m 58 n. 62, 59, 267 n. 91

a n d P y t h a g o r e a n i s m 82

E v a n d e r 139 e t y m o l o g y of n a m e 1 1 1

a n d rates 18 n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y in Annals natural

philosophy

10, 76 IT.

in Epicharmus

10,

81 f. n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y in t r a g e d i e s 82 n. I2°>

3 r 5 n - 35 see also A n c h i s e s ;

Georgics\

Lucretius;

Ovid

Fama 2738"., 2 8 2 f . d w e l l s in aer 274 as G i g a n t i c 89 n. 15, 2 7 4 as i m a g e o f e x p a n s i o n 253, 273 m o d e l l e d on A r g u s 277 m o d e l l e d on T y p h o e u s 274 as p e r v e r s i o n o f p o e t ' s d e s i r e for f a m e

epic:

2 7 5 n. 1 18

a n c i e n t d e f i n i t i o n o f 22 and cosmology

c h . 5 passim,

¿f.,

10,

33 fT., 4 7 0 . ,

78,

22 if., 33ff- {see also E n n i u s ) nationalist-historical 128, 132, 255 p a n e g y r i c a l function of 254ff., 309 n. 19 P e r g a m e n c 86 11. 5, i 2 8 f . p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y 57 struggle and j o u r n e y as central themes 135'

'94-ffat s u m m i t o f h i e r a r c h y o f g e n r e s 22 Epicureanism: a n d a s t r o n o m y 37

as s y m b o l o f h y p e r b o l e 2 7 4 f . fame: as f u n c t i o n o f p o e t r y 53, 2 7 5 s k y - r e a c h i n g 2 7 5 , 2 7 9 ^ , 291 f., 369 Fauns 218 figurative

l a n g u a g e b c c o m e s r e a l i t y 232 f.

fire: o f a n g e r 228 ff. o f b a t t l e 109 n. 63, 232, 357 o f l o v e 164, 232 f. o f s a c k e d c i t y 282 f., 307 F l o r u s a n d c o s m i c i m a g e r y 383 F o r u m o f A u g u s t u s 136 n. 44, 3 7 6

a n d p a s t o r a l 157 a n d S t o i c a l l e g o r y 27 Epicurus: a t t a c k o n A r i s t o t l e 37, 1 7 1 , 2 1 6 n. 150, 235

F r y e , N o r t h r o p 202 f. fulmen

5 1 , 1 1 9 , 17 7 fl"., 2 1 1 , 264

e l e m e n t a l r e c i p e 106, 186f., 327 as

figurative

w e a p o n of R o m a n

c o m p a r e d w i t h H e r c u l e s 2 i 3 f . , 2 1 6 n. 148

i m a g e o f l o v e 161 n. 11 i m a g e o f S c i p i o n e s 169 n. 3 1 , 343

as e p i c c o n q u e r o r 194, 197 n. 102, 333

i m a g e for s p e a r I 4 4 f . , 147, 1 77fF.

as e p i c w a n d e r e r

i m a g e o f tormentum 1 7 7 f.

as

figurative

194^

destroyer of universe i88f.

as G i g a n t i c a s s a i l a n t o f h e a v a n s 2 1 0 , 2 7 5 fas i n t e l l e c t u a l m a s t e r o f u n i v e r s e 172 f. a s s a v i o u r - g o d 40, 51 11. 42, 5 9 , 1 7 3 f . , 184, 202, 229 see also L u c r e t i u s epigram, funerary:

m e t a l - w o r k i n g i m a g e o f 186 G a l a t i a n s , see G a u l s galène 162, 2 0 1 , 204, 229 G a l l u s 48 Gauls: a t t a c k C a p i t o l i 2 o f f , 348, 351 a t t a c k D e l p h i 1 2 1 , 123

m o t i f o f w a n d e r i n g b y l a n d a n d sea 306

c o m p a r e d w i t h G i a n t s 123 f., 150

e a r t h / s e a c o n c e i t in e p i g r a m s o n the

d e f e a t e d b y A t t a l i d s 129, 141

d r o w n e d 3 1 9 n. 46 E r a t o s t h e n e s 45 Hermes

hero

5 1 , 145, 148

125

w h i t e skin o f 121 f. G e m m a A u g u s t e a 133, 198

10

o n p o e t r y aspsychagogia 14, 23, 27 n. 63 Etna 2 1 , 9 1 ,

invade Asia Minor

1 16, 1 1 9 , 179, 181 f., 2 1 1 f.,

2 5 1 , 2 5 9 f . , 263 ff. e t y m o l o g i c a l p l a y 164; see also A c o n t e u s ;

Georgics: battle of bees a n d Batraekomyomachia 249 direct

treatment

t h e m e s 45, 47

of

cosmological

398

GENERAL

Georgia

INDEX H a d e s , b r o k e n o p e n 1 1 2 E , 1 1 5 , 327

(conl.):

E p i c u r e a n e l e m e n t s 34

H a n n i b a l , c l a i m s w o r l d - r u l e 342 f.

i d e a l life in c o u n t r y 3 3 f f . , 361

h e a v e n s , a s c e n t to:

i m a g e o f p o e t i c a s c e n t 3 7 E , 47 ff

as b a s i c s t o r y - l i n e o f Aeneid

i m i t a t i o n o f A r a t u s 35 f., 45

o f a s t r o n o m e r 37 n. 8

i m i t a t i o n o f E m p e d o c l e s 39 n. 17, 43

o f h u m a n r u l e r 5 1 , 73 f.

i m i t a t i o n o f E n n i u s 48 ff.

o f lustitia

i m i t a t i o n o f H c s i o d 44

o f p h i l o s o p h e r 5 1 , 194E., 209 f.

imitation

of L u c r c t i u s

34ff,

195

35

o f p o e t 37 fT., 47 ff.

158fT.,

r i g h t a n d w r o n g k i n d s o f 209 n. 135

234fl a n g u a g c o f m y s t e r i e s 38 ff.

H e c t o r , as sole s t a y o f T r o y 290 f.

M u s e s 35 ff, 43, 4 5 f., 49 f.

H e p h a e s t u s , see V u l c a n Hera, j«eJuno

as p o e m o f s a l v a t i o n 34, 158 poetic inspiration as love 165!. poet's

choice

between

*

cosmological

of

poetry

possibly

refers

373 f-

allegorized

d i d a c t i c a n d n a t i o n a l e p i c 33 ff. temple

H e r c u l e s 123 11. 10, 1 3 7 , 213II'., 270, 286,

to

Palatine temple of A p o l l o I22f.

as p h i l o s o p h e r

213 •» 2'7 - ' 5 f

n

58 n. 62,

1

f a t h e r o f T e l e p h u s 137, 141

t h e m e o f l o v e 83 f., 159 fT.

a n d G i g a n t o m a c h y , r i o , 141

t r i u m p h a l i m a g e r y 48 ff

as s a v i o u r - g o d 2 1 5 iE.

V i r g i l a s i n i t i a t e , not p r i e s t 41 ff.

a t site o f R o m e 2 i 3 f f .

Geryon 215

a n d T y p h o e u s 11 r f.

G i g a n t o m a c h y c h s . 3 a n d 4 passim, 3, 24,

a s u n i v e r s a l c o n q u e r o r 173 n. 43, 383

179, 2 0 9 f f , 261 f., 264, 2 7 4 f f , 2 8 1 ,

Hercules and C a c u s episode 1 i o f f

296, 298, 299, 302, 3 3 2 , 334, 3 5 1 ,

e l e m e n t a l a s p e c t s o f 327, 3 3 4

358 n. 69, 363 f.

as encapsulation of labours of H c r c u l c s

a l l e g o r i c a l 28, 5 1 , 86 n. 1, 95 n, 30 ambivalence of basic myth

1 1 1 n. 68

155E

G i g a n t o m a c h i c aspects of 1 i2ff.

g e o g r a p h i c a l a l l u s i o n to 145 n. 5 7

h y p e r b o l e in 2581".

i m a g e for d e f e a t o f G a u l s 121 ff

h y m n to H e r c u l e s 11 i f . , 2 1 5 , 258f.

as p o l i t i c a l i m a g e 8 5 ff. reinterpreted

as

rightful

heroes stronger than men of present day assault

on

g o d s 188, 209ff.

251 f., 285 H e s i o d 7!'., 12, 13, 22

in A t h e n i a n i d e o l o g y 99, 130

a l l e g o r i z a t i o n o f 26, 140

in A u g u s t a n recusaiio 87

Byzantine

in Batrachomyomachia

249

in C a l l i m a c h u s 87 n. 7 in C l a u d i a n 101 f., 3 8 4 f . in i m p e r i a l G r e e k e p i c 384

c o m m e n t a r i e s on

Tkeogony

95 f., 140 Theogony a n d Eoiai r e g a r d e d a s c o n t i n u o u s in a n t i q u i t y 6 6 f . see also Georgics; V i r g i l

in O v i d 88, 1 1 7 f.

hieros gamos 273, 3 1 8

in silver e p i c 89, 124, 381 f.

h i g h / l o w o p p o s i t i o n u s e d to d e f i n e t y p e s

see also L u c r e t i u s ; s t o r m ; T i t a n o m a c h y ; winds

o f p o e t r y 47 ff Homer:

g l a d i a t o r i a l i m a g e r y in R o m a n epic 152fl".

a n c i e n t lives o f 5 4 f .

gold:

a s a s t r o n o m e r 28

a n c i e n t l i k i n g for c o n t r a s t o f g o l d a n d i v o r y 122 n. 7

as c o s m o l o g e r 250"., 37, 80, 382 as d i v i n e p o e t 5 4 f .

G a l l i c g r e e d for i 5 o f .

as m a s t e r o f all a r t s a n d s c i e n c e s 22 f.

g o l d a n d i v o r y reliefs 122

as p h i l o s o p h e r 12, 5 5

as s y m b o l o f d i v i n i t y 57

as r h e t o r i c i a n 2 5 5

G o l d e n A g e 49, 258

as s o u r c e for r o y a l i d e o l o g y 342

G r e a t Y e a r 351 11. 51

a n d M u s e s 5 4 f . , 57 E

GENERAL INDEX

.

p i c t u r e o f the aoidos as r e f l e c t i o n (¡1 the poet 5 2 nr. Horace: Carmen saeculare 135 on E m p e d o c l r s 21 n. 47 a n d G i g a n t o m a c h y 87 f., 98!". m o r a l i z a t i o n o f H o m e r 31 011 L u c i l i u s 44 a n d p a n e g y r i c a l h y p e r b o l e 288 o n the p r i m i t i v e p o e t 12 on u n i v e r s a l R o m a n e m p i r e 3 7 9 a n d t h e wz/ij-concept 16, 19 Horologium Augusti 136 n. 44, 368f., 3 7 9 H u n d r e d - h a n d c r s 92, 96; see also A c g a e o n h y m n , a n d h y p e r b o l e , 256 n. 53, 2 5 8 ^ hymnoi pkysikoi 15 h y p e r b o l e ch. 6passim, 2, 3, 94 n. 25, 11 7, 126, 146, 152, 224ft*., 300 a l l e g o r i c a l f u n c t i o n s o f 2461!'., 3 1 0 'allegorical h y p e r b o l e ' classified 249ff. a n c i e n t d e f i n i t i o n o f 241 a n d genera dicendi 245 a n d g e n r e 244 a n d t h e h y m n 256 n. 53 m o d e r n d i s t a s t e for 241 f. a n d p a n e g y r i c 236!!., 286, 288, 291 f. p s y c h o l o g i c a l roots o f 242 ff., 2 5 6 , 299,

399

Italy: as d e s i r e d h a v e n 202, 204, 301 f., 307!", 326 f. free o f m o n s t e r s 2 1 5 n. 147, 2 5 8 ideal i m a g e o f 33 f., 258, 326 f. o r i g i n a l h o m e o f T r o j a n s 198 Juno: a l l e g o r i z e d a s aer 30, 229 n. 1 7 5 a n d U n d e r w o r l d 93 n. 24, i o ^ f . Jupiter: a l l e g o r i z e d as aether 140, 3 1 5 c o n t r o l s w e a t h e r 205, 328 a n d e a g l e 140 a s f i g u r e o f P r o v i d e n c e 143 g u a r a n t e e s u n i v e r s a l o r d e r 92, 96, 3 7 4 as i m a g e for O c t a v i a n 51 as m o d e l for i d e a l R o m a n

statesman

205, 328 p u n i s h e s i m p i e t y 1 1 9 , 183 fT. as r u l e r o f u n i v e r s e 297, 3 1 4 , 328 ktisis 138, 273 a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o s m o g o n y 344 n. 3 1 , 3 4 5 ' - 350, 363 see also Aeneid

300, 302, 3 1 0 in S e n e c a 382 f.

Laocoon

I26f.

u s e d to e x p r e s s g r i e f 2 5 4 n. 38, 284 see also Aeneid

L i n u s 13, 17

I x s s i n g 1 3 5 L , 336f. L i v y 150 fT. love:

i d e o l o g y , see Aeneid,

Attalids,

Augustan

ideology, P e r g a m u m , royal ideology imitatio, in a n c i e n t l i t e r a r y t h e o r y 233 f.

militia amoris 163 n. 19, 233 p o e t i c 36, 45 n, 32, 1 6 5 f . see also Georgies\ L u c r e t i u s Lucan

initiation, poetic 37fi. i n s p i r a t i o n , p o e t i c 14, 16, 2 o f f .

as ' a n t i V i r g i l ' 382

interdietio 3 2 1 , 332

a n d c o s m i c c a t a s t r o p h e 94 n. 25, 107 n. 56, 381

inversion: as p r i n c i p l e o f V i r g i l i a n i m i t a t i o n L u c r e t i u s c h . 5 passim,

of

167, 2 3 3 f f .

as s t r u c t u r a l d e v i c e in Aeneid 150, 176,

Lucretius: a t t i t u d e to m y t h a n d a l l e g o r y 3 1 , 2 12 ff. b u i l d i n g i m a g e s 202 n. 1 1 2 c o r r e s p o n d i n g levels o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r

as

structural

principle

in

Lucretius

194, ' 9 6 I o p a s 15, 51 IF. as c o s m o l o g i c a l poet 60 ff.

166 f., 2 r 9 ff. ' c o s m i c o u t l o o k ' o f 168if. c r i t i c i z e s E n n i u s ' p h i l o s o p h y 17!'., 7 9 f . , 236

as doctus poeta 58 f.

and defence of poetry

as ideal p r i m i t i v e poet 57 ff.

De rerum natura a s m i c r o c o s m 25, 173

as s e l f - p o r t r a i t o f V i r g i l 56 If.

d e s c r i p t i o n o f a b o d e o f g o d s 282

p l a c c o f his s o n g w i t h i n o v e r a l l p l a n of

and Empcdocles

Aeneid

640.

226, 237

14

i 8 f . , 2 1 , 170, 21 i f . ,

419 G E N E R A L Lucretius

INDEX

a l l e g o r i z e d as Logos 278

(cont.)\

on the e n d o f the w o r l d 93, 168 f.. 181,

A rgeiphontes 2 7 7 f. mediator

187 fF. a n d E p i c u r u s 21, 40, 59, 7 9 f ,

165E

between

heaven

a n d f o u r e l e m e n t s i 70

m e t a p h o r 247f.

o n fulmen

meteorological imagery:

and

1 7 7 if.

Gigantomachy

91,

101,

188,

¿ogif., 276

earth

E p i c u r e a n 162, 174, 200ff., 3 2 6 o f l o v e 161 fT. o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t a t e s 227 fT.

o n H o m e r as p h i l o s o p h e r 79 ff. i m i t a t e s E n n i u s 48, 7 9 f . , 83, 1 7 5 m 5 1 ,

'93

m e t o n y m y , c o n t r a s t e d w i t h m e t a p h o r in m o d e r n l i t e r a r y t h e o r y 247 Mezentius:

o n l o v e 1 5 9 ^ . , 232 f.

as o n e - m a n a r m y 286f.

a n d M a r s a n d V e n u s 62, 361

and P o l y p h e m u s 266f.

o n p o e t i c i n s p i r a t i o n 19 ff., 36, 47 f., 59, 166 poetic

and

2 78 f.

in role o f G i a n t 9 7 , 155 m i c r o c o s m 226 f.; see also c i t y , L u c r e t i u s

techniques

derived

from

p h i l o s o p h i c a l m e t h o d 2 i 9 f f . , 231

m i c r o c o s m i c p r o c e d u r e s 2240". M i l t o n 5 f . , 245, 268 n. 94, 3 8 5 ^ Minerva:

p o l i t i c a l i m a g e r y 227 a n d s a l v a t i o n 37, 43, 158, 171 f,

as a l l e g o r y o f r e a s o n g g

o n s t o r m 180if., 200ff.

a n d G i g a n t o m a c h y g g , 141

o n s u b t e r r a n e a n w i n d s 92 f ,

i8off.

s u b v e r s i v e use o f t r a d i t i o n a l i d e a s 40,

i m p o r t a n c e in P e r g a m u m

r4ofT.

P h e i d i a n shield o f A t h e n a P a r t h e n o s 9 9 o n S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s 344

196, 2 1 0 , 236 t r i u m p h a l i m a g e r y 3 7 , 4 8 f . , 184f., 194

miraculous repulse of barbarians

a n d u n i v e r s a l e x p r e s s i o n s 293, 303 n.

mountains:

I24f.

a n t h r o p o m o r p h i z e d 264, 278, 2 8 o f .

10, 3 2 4 f . o n U n d e r w o r l d 36, 2 1 8 n. 154

in e p i c s i m i l e s 144, 290

use o f adynaton i 6 8 f . , 3 1 6

t h r o w n in G i g a n t o m a c h y

use o f A l e x a n d e r - p a n e g y r i c 194 n. 94

iooff.,

104

n. 50, i o 8 f . , 1 1 3 , 1 1 5 , 2 1 2

use o f e p i c 169, 193 fT.

mousike, as v e h i c l e f o r d i v i n e i n s i g h t 1 4 L

use o f r e l i g i o u s l a n g u a g e 38 ff., 44, 1 7 1 , 174, 185 a n d t h e yatei-concept 1 7 fT.

M u s a e u s 1 2 L , 17, 22, 60

M u l c i b e r , e t y m o l o g y o f 361 f. M u s e s 19, 2 1 , 23, 35fT., 82, 166; see also Georgics;

a n d V e n u s 50 f., 79, 159 fT., 174, 198, 205 f., 300

Mysians

w a v e - i m a g e r y 229, 231 n. 181

mysteries:

see also V i r g i l

Homer

139

o f n a t u r e 39 n. 13

L u d o v i s i g r o u p 129, 132

a n d p o e t s 41 n. 21

L y c o p h r o n 309

m y t h , a n d c o s m o l o g y 5, 7, 11

M a c r o b i u s 24

natural boundaries:

makarismos 39 f., 43 f. Manilius,

on

analogy

i n f r i n g e d b y Fama a n d M e r c u r y 277 between

cosmic

a n d R o m a n o r d e r s 380 Mars: a l l e g o r i z e d as E m p e d o c l e a n Neikos 62, 360 as p a r e n t o f R o m a n s 62, 349, 360 on Shield of Achilles 344 M e l i n n o 309 M e r c u r y 2 76ff.

o v e r c o m e by p o w e r o f l o v e 159 f. natural order: r e f l e c t e d in p o l i t i c a l 1 fT., 69, 71 ff., 102, 222 reversed

114,

i 6 8 f . , 270 (see also ele-

ments) n a t u r a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l q u e s t i o n s 17, 36, 52 natural world, parallel

to h u m a n

223, 227, 2 5 o f . , 3 1 6 , 380

163,

420 G E N E R A L

Attalid

nature: divine

INDEX

control

of

173!",

203 fF,

323333f. h u m a n c o n t r o l o f 19, 49, 68. 109, 1 16. 172 f , 194, 199, 202 fF., 2 0 7 f F , 332 fF. responds

sympathetically

events

to

dedication

on

Athenian

a c r o p o l i s 133, 142, 153

314,

c u l t u r a l links w i t h R o m e 28f., 124, 127 G a l a t i a n w a r s 123, i 2 g G r e a t A l t a r o f Z e u s 28, 123, 128, i 3 o f . , 134, 136 fF., 146, 342

human

imitation of A t h e n i a n art a n d ideologv

147!.

.30F

N e p t u n e , p r o p e r p r o v i n c e o f 2 9 6 ! . , 299

lost e p i c ( Z i e g l e r ' s h y p o t h e s i s )

Nonnus:

128F

a n d c o s m i c s t o r m 94 n. 26

parallels w i t h A u g u s t a n i d e o l o g y 1 s^fL

use o f a l l e g o r i c a l c o m m e n t a r i e s 96 f.

p o s s i b l e i n t e r e s t in R o m a n f o u n d a t i o n l e g e n d s 137 n. 48

N y m p h s 46, 49, 2 1 8

s c h o l a r s h i p o f 2 7 f F , 55, 128 s c u l p t u r a l w o r k s p o s s i b l y in R o m e 121

oaths:

n. 2, 129 n. 27, 142 n. 56

by c o s m i c w i t n e s s e s 321 if. tragic 26gfF O c t a v i a n , see A u g u s t u s O d y s s e u s , a s m a s t e r o f n a t u r e 333 Odyssey:

use o f G i g a n t o m a c h i c i m a g e r y c h , 4 passim victory

monuments with Gauls

129,

132

F, 153 P e r s i a n s 133, 142 n. 56, 153, 3 1 2 f.

a l l e g o r i z e d a s s p i r i t u a l q u e s t 326 theme of suffering 304F t h e m e o f w a n d e r i n g 304, 332 O l y m p u s 5 1 , 281 f.

P h a e a c i a n s 5 3 f . , 60 as t y p e o f d e c a d e n t h e d o n i s t s 61 f. P h a e t h o n 184 n. 72

H o m e r i c description used as i m a g e of E p i c u r e a n c a l m 282 O r i o n 274

a l l e g o r i z e d as e c p y r o s i s 192, 263 n. 74 phalarica

147, 1 7 7 n. 57

P h e m i u s 53 fF. P h o e b u s , p u n o n n a m e 3 5 6 n. 64

as s i m i l e for M e z e n t i u s 97, 266 as s y m b o l o f s t o r m 97 O r p h e u s 1 2 F , 17, 22, 60, 63 Ovid:

P l a t o 2, g f . , 12, 20 on a n a l o g y between laws of nature and o f s o c i e t y 71

c o s m i c q u a l i t y o f 3 7 9 f. E n n i a n D r e a m o f H o m e r m o d e l for S p e e c h o f P y t h a g o r a s in Met. 83 n. 121

P l u t a r c h 1 3 , 384 poet: d o e s w h a t h e d e s c r i b e s 34, 37 as priest 16, 38, 41 f., 46 n. 33 p r i m i t i v e p o e t as s a g e 11 fF., 5 6

p a l a c e , in i m a g e o f the h e a v e n s 333 n. 78

poeta creator 1 7 3 n. 45

P a n 17, 2 1 9

poeta philosophus

P a n d a r u s and Bitias episode as G i g a n -

poeta theologus 6, 12 poetic

t o m a c h i c 14.3 fF.

scientific

forms of

thought

analogous 2igfT.

panegyric:

poetry:

c h o i c e s o f p o l i t i c a l i m a g e r y 131 fF. Shield

and

6, 12 fF.

of

Achilles

interpreted

p a n e g y r i c o f A t h e n s 344

as

c l a i m s to p r i m a c y in 48 d i d a c t i c 7 If.

use o f m y t h in 85 f.

a n d p a n e g y r i c 14 f., 254 fF

see also Aeneid; h y p e r b o l e ; p o e t r y

a n d p h i l o s o p h y c h . 1 passim, 55 11. 5 5

P a r m e n i d e s 8, 15

as s o u r c e o f c u l t u r e 1 2 F

P a r t h e n o n 99, 134

a n d t h e o l o g y 5, 11 fi, 14IF. p o l a r e x p r e s s i o n s 295

path: p h i l o s o p h i c a l 37, 173, 194 p o e t i c 37, 41 f., 4 7 f F , 53, 1 7 3 , 198 Pax Augusta

133, 309, 335, 3 5 9

Pergamum g

a m b i g u o u s as b e t w e e n the local

and

the u n i v e r s a l 302, 3 1 0 P o l y p h e m u s 101, 1 1 5 f . , 144, 2 5 9 F , 2648"., 297

GENERAL

INDKXf ruler:

P o l y p h e m u s (cont.):

controls w e a t h e r 204ff., 3 5 7 ! .

a s s a u l t s sky 265 e u h e m e r i z i n g allegorization of 267 11. 91

m a s t e r o f e l e m e n t s 309 n. 24, 333 r u l e r - c u l t in H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d 9

volcanic aspects o f 264!. P o m p e y , u n i v e r s a l p o w e r o f 309 n. 22,

R u t i l i u s N a m a t i a u n s 385

335 n. 79, 3 7 7 P o s i d o n i u s 75 n. 97

S a l m o n e u s r 8 3 f E , 207

011 e a r l y p o e t r y 14, 38

S c h i l l c r 249

on w o n d e r s of universe 378

Scipio 318, 329

p r i a m e l 201 P r i m a P o r t a s t a t u e o f A u g u s t u s 133, 3 7 9 Punic W a r :

S e n e c a t h e Y o u n g e r , use o f c o s m i c i m a g e r y 382 f. S e r v i u s 29, 256

as c o s m i c a l l y d i s r u p t i v e 82, 168E as s t r u g g l e for w o r l d - e m p i r e 284, 3 5 1 , 381 f / P y t h a g o r a s 14, 39 n. 17, 82, 83 n. 121

shield devices: in A e s c h y l u s Sepiem

119

p o s s i b l y in Aethiopis

336 n. 1

Shield of Achilles: a l l e g o r i z e d 28, 63 n. 72, 3 4 0 f f . as ' c o s m i c s e t t i n g ' 67

Q u i n t i l i a n 5, 14. E, 24

as h i s t o r i c a l a l l e g o r y 343 ff

quo vertam? (topos) 305, 307

a s i m a g e o f u n i v e r s e 25 f., 28, 339 ff i n f l u e n c e o n A p o l l o n i u s a n d V i r g i l 63 "" 1 2

recusatio 1 7, 38, 43 ff., 4 9 f., 52, 3 7 9 remythologization

178

see also A n c h i s e s ; S h i e l d o f A e n e a s

revisionism, as p h i l o s o p h i c a l m e t h o d 236f.

S h i e l d o f A e n e a s c h . 8 passim

r i n g c o m p o s i t i o n 18, 179, 229, 305

a n d ancitia 367

rivers:

Battle of A c t i u m modelled on Iliadic

d e s t r u c t i v e o f h u m a n w o r k s 207 f.

t h e o m a c h y 98, 3 5 4 f.

m a r k l i m i t s of R o m a n e m p i r e 3 5 5

c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r o f s c c n c s 347

R o m a n history part of cosmological process 6 9 ff.

principle compared

to

t h a t o f p a i r e d G r e e k p e d i m e n t s 358

Rome: cultural

compositional n. 69

links

with

Pcrgamum

28f.,

124, 127 divine protection of n o ,

d a r k / l i g h t c o n t r a s t in s c e n c s 3 5 7 f . decorum

123IT.,

217,

298, 3 3 ° ' 338, 348, 351 f., 3 5 4 f . empire coextensive w i t h course of sun 3 5 5 n. 59 e t e r n i t y o f 281 n. 135 free o f n a t u r a l m o n s t e r s 1 1 6 , 2 1 5 g r o w t h o f 246, 253, 268, 3 4 8 f f . m i s t r e s s o f u n i v e r s e 25, 76, 88 n. 12, 104, 1 7 2 , 190, 195, 199, 227, 297 f , 66304^ 3'4< 3 3 4 f . , 3 5 1 •> 3 5 6 362 ff., 3 6 5 f f . , 3 7 8 f f p a n e g y r i c o f c h . 8 passim p r i m i t i v e site o f 196 E, 2 13 fE, 252 r u l e r o f e a r t h a n d sea 309 s k y - r e a c h i n g 197, 2 7 2 , 304, 335, 380 R o m u l u s a n d R e m u s 1 3 7 , 3 4 8 f f , 360!. r o y a l i d e o l o g y 28, 2 0 4 f f , 2 5 1 , 258, 342 ' r o y a l m e t a p h o r 252, 271 f., 284. 289, 290

of

martial

subject-matter

. 3 3 7 ' - . 346T., 3 5 9 displays quadripartite universe 3 5 2 f f , 362 f. earlier

comparison

with

Shield

of

A c h i l l e s 336 ff. evokes sculptures of Palatine temple of A p o l l o 121 ff., 3 5 5 f. s c e n e o f G a u l s on C a p i t o l

120ff.

as p a n e g y r i c o f R o m e 346 ff. p o s s i b l y i n f l u e n c e d by shield o f A t h e n a P a r t h e n o s 99 r e f l e c t s t w o cities on S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s 35« ff as ' R o m a n c o s m o g o n y ' 339 s y m b o l i s m o f c i r c l e o f 3661E a n d w a r a n d p e a c e 35811. S i c i l y , as t r a d i t i o n a l -'59 r-

h o m e of w o n d e r s

GENERAI.

INDEX

4<>3

S i l e n u s , S o n g of, as u n i v e r s a l h i s t o r y 6 7 ,

terra manque,

see u n i v e r s e , b i p a r t i t e d i v i -

84- 363 S i l i u s I t a l i c u s , Punka

theios aner 184, 195, 2 1 3

sion as u n i v e r s a l p o e m

38 i f .

t h e o m a c h y , a l l e g o r i z e d as p s y c h o m a c h y 30 n. 74

simile: as e x p r e s s i o n o f t r u e a n a l o g y o r i d e n tity 221 ' i r r a t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ' in 145 s l e e p , u n i v e r s a l p o w e r o f 280, 3 i 8 f . , 328 sophists:

t h u n d e r b o l t , see fulmen T i t a n o m a c h y c h s . 3 a n d 4 passim,

7, 24,

183 in H e s i o d 9 5 as i m a g e for A c t i u m 88 n. 10 as i m a g e for G a l a t i a n w a r s 123

o n the h i s t o r y o f p o e t r y 12

see also G i g a n t o m a c h y

o n H o m e r 23 s p h e r e , a s s y m b o l o f u n i v e r s e or orbis terrarum 3671F., 378

trees, in e p i c s i m i l e s 144, 280 f. triumph: p h i l o s o p h i c a l 2 1 , 37, 51 n. 42, 1 7 3 , 194

S t o i c s 9, 5 5 , 281 f., 3 1 5 , 330, 381

p o e t i c 34, 48 ff.

a n d allegorization 26if., 3 1 , 95, 103, 140

see also A u g u s t u s ; Georgics\ L u c r c t i u s

apatheia 280 n. 132

T r o j a n W a r as u n i v e r s a l w a r 3 1 2 f .

o n c i t y o f u n i v e r s e 365, 378

T r o j a n s a n d G r e e k s r e c o n c i l e d in Aeneid

'39

sympaiheia 224, 383 n. 35 s t o r m 1768"., i g 2 , 288f., 300f. a n a l y s e d in e l e m e n t a l t e r m s 2 2 6

Turnus: death

of compared

with

Pergamene

interest in d e f e a t e d e n e m y

c o n t r o l o f 202 ff. c o n t r o l l e d b y s p o k e n w o r d 205 n. 123

as e n e m y o f g o d s I 4 7 f f . , 1 5 5

153

in e p i c 1 7 6 ff.

in role o f A c h i l l e s 150

a s G i g a n t o m a c h y 9 0 f f . , 262, 298, 332

in role o f G a u l

as i m a g e of chaos i g o f . , 226

in roie o f J u p i t e r the g i a n t - s l a y e r 143 ff. a n d T y p h o e u s 1 i 8 f . , 3 5 4 n. 57

as i m a g e o f end o f w o r l d 92 ff.

Typhoeus:

as i m a g e o f w a r 9 7 , 3 1 2 , 3 1 7 m i l i t a r y l a n g u a g e u s e d to d e s c r i b e 107, 181,

i5off.

T y p h o n o m a c h y 7, 8 5 ^ 9 5 , 146 a l l e g o r i z e d as w i n d 96

igof.

as p s y c h o l o g i c a l i m a g e 162, 2 0 1 , 222,

f a t h e r o f ill w i n d s 94 used

22 7 ff-

figuratively

in Iliad 8 5 n. 3

as m o d e l for C a c u s 1 1 1 ff.

Strabo:

as m o d e l for Fama 274

d e f e n c e o f p o e t r y 13 E.

and Etna 116, 211

o n H o m e r 23, 25

and T u r n u s 1 i8f.

S u e t o n i u s 15, 28 sun:

underworld:

a l l - s e e i n g 285, 3 1 5 chariot

of

represented

on

Palatine

t e m p l e o f A p o l l o 3 5 5 f. course coextensive with R o m a n empire

355 n- 59, 3 5 - , 377 n. 3, 385 n. 41 6f

i d e n t i f i e d w i t h A p o l l o 322 n. 5 4 , 356 a s i m a g e o f r u l e r 74 n. 96, 3 5 5 fT. s u p e r n a t u r a l s i l e n c e (topos) 328 s y n e c d o c h e 247 synkrisis 2 1 3 , 2 5 7 f .

Telephus and Pergamene foundationl e g e n d s 137fT. t e m p l e , a s i m a g e for p o e t r y 42, 50

as a l l e g o r y 30 a n d m y s t e r i e s 42 n. 25 see also L u c r c t i u s u n i v e r s a l , t r a n s i t i o n to f r o m l o c a l a b a s i c principle of Virgilian

poetics

161,

i66f. u n i v e r s a l e m p i r e in H e l l e n i s t i c p a n e g y r i c

3°9

u n i v e r s a l e x p r e s s i o n s ch. 7 passim u n i v e r s a l h i s t o r y 7, 378 as s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e o f Aeneid 8 1 1 7 1 . in E n n i u s Annals

79

in O v i d 88 n. 12, 3 7 9 ^

423 G E N E R A L universal history

INDEX

a n c i e n t c o m m e n t a r i e s o n 23, 29

(cont.y.

combines

in V a r r o 192 n. 88

psychological

realism

universe: d i v i s i o n o f b y lot a m o n g m a j o r g o d s

c o r r e s p o n d i n g levels o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r 1 6 5 f . , 167, 2 I 9 f f .

294, 300, 3 2 9 n. 73, 3 4 4 n. 31 e x c l u s i o n f r o m 3 0 4 f , 3 1 2 , 332, 362

' c o s m i c s e n s e ' o f 5, 46, 225

in i m a g e o f c i t y 188, 1 9 9 , 2 2 7 , 3 0 4 , 3 6 5

and

BIPARTITE

'multiple-correspondence'

Earth

94,

170,

26gf.,

a s p e s s i m i s t 69 11. 87 predilection

296 fT.

for a b s t r a c t

E a r t h a n d S e a 170, 265, 302if.; as poli-

a n d t h e o l o g i c a l e v i l ( d u a l i s m ) 93 n. 24, g8f., 110, i n ,

t i c a l f o r m u l a 308 f. H e a v e n a n d H e l l 192, 269, 3 i o f . , 331 f.;

and

125, 189

traditional

religion

E u r o p e a n d A s i a 290, 3 1 1 ff.

as u n i v e r s a l p o e t 23 f.

TRIPARTITE

uses

DIVISION

50,

34°)

vertical

oppositions

to

express

m o r a l v a l u e s r97 F.

H e a v e n , E a r t h , a n d S e a 50!'., 6 7 , 70,

344 f-

ff,

a n d t y p o l o g y 3 1 , 223

r a d i c a l d u a l i s m o f 198 n. 105

169, 1 8 1 , 3i3lT.,

34

2 i 6 f f . , 330

c o n f u s i o n ' o f 182 n. 6 7 , 225 n. 166;

i6of.,

schematiza-

t i o n 2, 330

H e a v e n a n d S e a 1 7 0 , 2980".

113f•,

simile

b a s e d on L u c r e t i a n p r e c e d e n t s 231

DIVISION

and

i m a g e o f the p r i m i t i v e p o e t , see

Crethcus; Cycnus; Iopas; O r p h e u s

r e g a r d e d as a h i e r a r c h y o f levels 221 ff. a s t r u e f a t h e r l a n d 73 f. Heaven

and

a l l e g o r y 150, 284, 299

and the

raiii-concept

i 6 f . , 5 6 n. 58

a n d G a l l i m a c h u s 103 n. 48, 127

QUADRIPARTITE

a n d H e s i o d 90 ff.

DIVISION

F o u r E l e m e n t s 3 2 5 f f . (see also e l e m e n t s )

criticism of E p i c u r e a n i s m 34f,

Heaven,

a n d L u c r e t i u s c h . 5 passim,

Earth,

Sea, and

Hades

25,

329, 352 ffurbs-orbis 3 6 4 f f . , 3 7 9 n. 14, 385 n. 4 1 ; see also c i t y ; R o m e

19

use of Lucretian tactic of subversion 40, 2 3 3 f f a n d T i b u l l u s 88 v o l c a n o 264 n. 79 and C h i m a c r a

119

V a r r o 1 5 f . , 20

a n d l i g h t n i n g 2 1 1 , 264

vates i 6 f f . , 29, 38, 5 7 , 5 9

t h r e a t e n s h e a v e n s 21 i f . , 2 6 3 F , 2 7 6 n, 120

and Lucretius I7ff.

volcanic nature of C a c u s

Venus: a l l e g o r i z e d a s E m p e d o c l e a n Pkilia

62,

116

v o l c a n i c n a t u r e o f w i n d s 106, 182 Vulcan:

360 b r i n g s fair w e a t h e r 1 6 1 , 174, 2 0 5 , 3 0 0

a l l e g o r i z e d a s d e m i u r g i c fire 340

as p a r e n t o f R o m a n s 62, 3 4 g f - , 360

master of elements

on P e r g a m e n e A l t a r o f Z e u s 141 f.

shaggy

n a t u r e 1 1 3 n. 7 5

a s u n i v e r s a l d i v i n i t y 50, 158 n. 4, 160,

17°, 3°4, 33° - 74 n

see also L u c r e t i u s V e r o n e s e 3 5 5 n. 58 v e r t i c a l a x i s 40, 2 6 2 f . , 2 6 7 f f , 35r f. s y m b o l i c o f v a l u e s 197 f-, 3 1 1 Virgil: a n d a l l e g o r y passim, 29 IF., 143 use o f H o m e r i c a l i e g o r i z a t i o n 30 ff., 339 n. 8 use o f A l e x a n d r i a n 127, 231 n. 182

s c h o l a r s h i p 31 f.,

io5ff

b r e a s t a n a l l e g o r y o f his h o t

see also M u l c i b e r

war and peace: as

alternative 131

subjects

of

panegyric

125ff• 5 ff. 5 5 ^ ' 358 in R o m e 70, 385 n. 41 o n S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s 70, 3 4 1 , 344 o n S h i e l d o f A e n e a s 358 ff. w e a t h e r , c o n t r o l o f 5 1 , 107, 1 7 4 , 385 n. 41 2

. GENERAL winds: a s s o c i a t e d w i t h G i a n t s g r f f . , 189 as c h i l d r e n o f T i t a n or T y p h o e u s 94 as p o t e n t i a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e o f u n i v e r s e 92 fF., 1 8 1 , 2 9 6 f . , 3 1 3 f .

INDEX s u b t e r r a n e a n 90 if. X e n o p h a n e s 7, 26 Z e u s , see J u p i t e r

424