Using the Language Experience Approach With English Language Learners: Strategies for Engaging Students and Developing Literacy

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Copyright © 2008 by Corwin Press All rights reserved. When forms and sample documents are included, their use is authorized only by educators, local school sites, and/or noncommercial or nonprofit entities that have purchased the book. Except for that usage, no part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information: Corwin Press A SAGE Company 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 www.corwinpress.com

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Printed in the United States of America. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Nessel, Denise D., 1943– Using the language experience approach with English language learners: strategies for engaging students and developing literacy / Denise D. Nessel, Carol N. Dixon. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4129-5504-1 (cloth: acid-free paper) ISBN 978-1-4129-5505-8 (pbk.: acid-free paper) 1. English language—Study and teaching—Foreign speakers. 2. Language experience approach in education. I. Dixon, Carol N. II. Title. PE1128.A2N374 2008 428.0071—dc22

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Contents Preface Acknowledgments About the Authors

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Introduction to the Language Experience Approach

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1. The Value of LEA for English Language Learners: An Overview

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2. Reading From Experience for Beginners

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3. Reading From Experience for Intermediate Students

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4. Reading From Experience for Advanced Students

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5. Vocabulary and Word Recognition in an LEA Program

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6. Writing in an LEA Program

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7. Putting It All Together

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Appendix A: LEA and Selected State Standards

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References

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Index

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Preface

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e have had considerable success through the years teaching students to read and write with the Language Experience Approach (LEA), and we have helped many teachers use it in their own classrooms. We have found the approach to be particularly effective with English language learners (ELLs) because it is so responsive to the needs of these students, including their varying levels of English proficiency and their unique experiences and perspectives. This book presents both a rationale for using LEA with ELLs and detailed practical suggestions that will help classroom teachers successfully implement the approach. Our introduction gives an overview of LEA, including a brief history of the approach, an enumeration of its major features, and a summary of its advantages for ELLs. We also briefly discuss here the primary theoretical and practical considerations that point to LEA as a particularly effective instructional methodology. In Chapter 1, we give a more detailed discussion of the value of LEA for ELLs, with attention to the specific needs and characteristics of these students. In addition, we explain the key features of LEA, focusing on the creation and use of student-dictated accounts that are based on the students’ experiences and that reflect the students’ level of English usage. In the process, we explain how using LEA leads to teaching reading as a communication process and to integrating the teaching of reading with the building of oral language skills and the development of students’ writing abilities. In Chapters 2, 3, and 4, we discuss specific LEA strategies for, respectively, ELLs who are just learning English (beginners), those who have achieved intermediate levels of fluency and confidence with English, and those who are advanced in fluency and have high levels of confidence but still need support to refine and extend their reading and writing abilities. These three chapters include detailed, practical suggestions for implementing LEA along with examples of student work and teacher–student dialogues to show LEA in action. In Chapter 5, we discuss the ways in which students’ vocabulary and word-recognition skills are developed in an LEA program, putting this vii

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information in a separate chapter to give it the special attention it deserves. We present general principles of word study that are the same for beginning, intermediate, and advanced students, and we also give specific suggestions for developing skills in these areas for students at all three levels of English proficiency. In Chapter 6, we focus on overarching principles of developing writing abilities, discuss how reading and writing are closely connected, and explain how they are most effectively taught in conjunction with one another. We also present a framework for oral and written expression, discuss how students’ writing abilities can best be developed in tandem with their speaking abilities, and present general guidelines for teaching writing. In addition, we give specific suggestions for writing instruction and writing activities for students at all three levels of English proficiency. Chapter 7 contains three sample plans that show how listening, reading, speaking, and writing activities are coordinated in LEA programs for students at all three levels of English proficiency. In addition, the chapter includes examples of several different applications of LEA in a variety of classrooms. Taken together, the examples show how LEA can be tailored to meet the needs of a wide range of ELLs across grade levels. Some of the descriptions and examples included here appeared in our earlier book, The Language Experience Approach to Reading (and Writing), which was published by Alemany Press in 1983. We are pleased to have this opportunity to share our enthusiasm about LEA with a new generation of ELL teachers while providing an updated perspective to those teachers who are already familiar with it and who may even have read our earlier book.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Through the years, we have collaborated with many teachers who have been interested in using the LEA with their students, including ELLs. We have been gratified to see the positive difference they have made in the lives of so many students and thank them for inviting us into their classrooms, for sharing their successes with us, and for giving us many opportunities to learn from them as well as share our knowledge with them. Corwin Press gratefully acknowledges the contributions of the following reviewers: Rhoda Coleman Director, Urban Learning Resource and Literacy Center California State University, Dominguez Hills

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Thomas S. C. Farrell Professor of Applied Linguistics and Department Chair Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada Marta Gardner Literacy Expert Los Angeles Unified School District, California Mileidis Gort Assistant Professor of Teaching and Learning University of Miami, Florida Janet Hammer Clinical Assistant Professor of Teaching, Learning, and Culture Texas A&M University, College Station Elena Izquierdo Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics and Bilingual Education University of Texas at El Paso Kimberly Kyff Fifth Grade Teacher Jamieson Elementary School, Detroit, Michigan Eugenia Mora-Flores Assistant Professor of Education University of Southern California, Los Angeles Reynaldo Reyes Assistant Professor of Bilingual Education University of Texas at El Paso

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About the Authors Denise D. Nessel, PhD, has worked as a secondary English teacher, elementary reading specialist, reading clinician, university professor, district-level curriculum supervisor, co-director of a statewide staff development project, curriculum manager at educational software companies, and consultant to schools around the country and abroad. She has conducted numerous workshops and demonstration lessons for teachers and administrators and has served as a consultant and writer for educational publishers and multimedia firms. She has written and co-authored several books and classroom resources for teachers and a number of articles for professional journals. As an associate of the National Urban Alliance for Effective Education, she focuses on teaching reading and writing as thinking processes in grades K–12. Carol N. Dixon, PhD, has worked as a reading clinician, university professor and administrator, and consultant to schools and universities around the country and abroad. In her role as a university faculty member, she directed a reading clinic and an MA in Reading/Reading Specialist Credential Program for 20 years. She has frequently conducted workshops and demonstration lessons for classroom teachers and has made numerous presentations at scholarly conferences in the United States and internationally. She has written and co-authored books and journal articles as resources for teachers as well as over 50 research-based articles for professional publications. In her current work, she focuses on classroom research that investigates the teaching of reading and writing as thinking processes, particularly to English language learners.

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Introduction to the Language Experience Approach

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he Language Experience Approach (LEA) to reading instruction is based on principles of learning that have been documented and discussed for many years (Huey, 1908; Smith, 1967). The experience-based chart stories described by Lillian Lamoreaux and Doris Lee (1943) and Sylvia Ashton-Warner’s (1963) work with Maori children in New Zealand are examples of how LEA helped students learn to read. Teacher education textbooks have recommended its use and variations have been explored and described by many (Nessel & Jones, 1981; Tompkins, 2003; Vacca, Vacca, Gove, Burkey, Lenhart, & McKeon, 2002). Educators have also advocated the value of LEA for English language learners (ELL), including elementary, secondary, and adult ELLs (Dixon & Nessel, 1983; Dorr, 2006; Nelson & Linek, 1999; Wurr, 2002). In all forms of LEA, the central principle is to use the student’s own vocabulary, language patterns, and background of experiences to create reading texts, making reading an especially meaningful and enjoyable process. Traditionally, LEA techniques involve these steps (Nessel & Jones, 1981; Stauffer, 1980): Step 1: The teacher and the students discuss an experience in which all have recently participated, such as a school field trip or the examination of an unusual object. As the teacher and the students discuss their observations and reactions, the students’ understanding of the experience is deepened while oral vocabulary and language skills are developed and reinforced. Step 2: As students formulate and express their ideas, the teacher guides them in creating a dictated account. Students offer statements that they 1

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want included in the account, or the teacher selects statements from the ongoing conversation and suggests that these be used. The teacher records the students’ statements on chart paper, constructing the text while the students watch. Seeing their words written down, students connect what they just said to what appears on the paper. Step 3: The teacher reads the account to the students, modeling the sound of fluent, expressive reading. Students then read it several times, with teacher help as needed, until they become familiar with it. Step 4: With the teacher’s guidance, students learn to recognize specific words from the account and develop the decoding skills of context, phonics, and structural analysis, using the account as a resource. Students may also write their own thoughts to supplement and extend the dictation. Students create and work with a new dictated account each week while continuing to work with past dictated accounts to strengthen their reading and writing skills and to build confidence. As students become comfortable with composing (oral and written) and reading, they begin reading other-author texts. Eventually, the use of dictated accounts is reduced and eliminated as students use other-author texts to refine and extend their reading skills and increase their expressive skills with more complex and challenging writing and speaking activities. An important advantage to this approach is that, from the start, students learn to recognize words in print that are orally very familiar to them. For many students, learning to read their own words, in the meaningful context of their own dictated accounts, is easier than grappling with the unfamiliar language and contexts of a published reading program. Although dictated accounts and the selections in a published reader may be similar in some ways, learners will invariably perceive the dictated accounts to be more relevant, significant, and engaging because they are so closely connected to the learners’ own experiences and because they are created while the students watch. Because students compose the account, comprehension is inherent to their interaction with the text, leading them to expect written language to make sense. As a result, they expect other-author texts to contain meaningful ideas and comprehensible language. Dictation also develops and strengthens students’ skill at composing their thoughts in writing. Reading skills and composing skills develop in tandem in an LEA program. The flexible nature of LEA allows each teacher to tailor instruction to the specific interests and needs of individual students. For example, students’ personal and cultural backgrounds are readily reflected in their dictated accounts and in their writing, especially when they are encouraged to base their accounts on their experiences outside of school. This individualization occurs within a structure that is the same for everyone: discuss, dictate, read, write, and develop skills. Two students can dictate

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Introduction

different accounts and yet work together on the same skill-building activities. Also, LEA lends itself to such cooperative learning activities as reading dictated accounts to classmates, working collaboratively on word-recognition activities, or responding to peers’ writings. Despite its many advantages, LEA is not currently in widespread use. Most schools use published programs for literacy instruction. With their many useful features, these programs are considered well-organized and well-controlled systems for teaching literacy. They are designed by experts to provide systematic instruction. The teachers’ guides provide detailed plans, and components such as workbooks provide ready-made practice exercises. For many busy teachers, these programs are preferable to an approach such as LEA that involves more planning and decision making. However, theoretical and practical considerations generate perennial interest in LEA. Linguists have argued for meaningful input as a prerequisite for language acquisition (Krashen, 1981; Krashen & Terrell, 1983; Lightbown & Spada, 2006). Psycholinguists have focused on the relationship between language acquisition, reading, and writing (Goodman & Fleming, 1968; Peregoy & Boyle, 2005; Samway, 2006). Researchers have noted that reading is easier when the text closely matches the learner’s own oral language patterns and is aligned with the learner’s experiences (Tierney, Readence, & Dishner, 1980) and have pointed out that reading, writing, listening, and speaking develop in tandem (D. J. Cooper, 2000). These perspectives provide theoretical justification for choosing LEA as the foundation for literacy instruction for all students and suggest its particular strength for students who do not make good progress when paced through a standard published program. In addition, many teachers are faced with students from other cultures whose languages and experiences have little, if anything, in common with the characters and situations portrayed in American literacy programs. Stories or writing topics about American families, American historical events, and American culture have little relevance for many students from countries in which English is not spoken as the primary language and where knowledge of America is limited. Educators with particular interest in ELLs have specifically recommended some form of LEA for use with these students (Crandall & Peyton, 1993; M. Taylor, 1992; Thomas, 1999; Tompkins, 2003). In addition, LEA has been recognized as a useful approach for ELLs by centers for education research and practice (e.g., Birdas, Boyson, Morrison, Peyton, & Runfola, 2003; J. D. Hill & Flynn, 2004; and Reed & Railsback, 2003). Furthermore, the skills that students learn in an LEA program are closely aligned with the skills described in the instructional standards for ELLs that have been set by state education authorities. Appendix A provides examples of state standards that can be met within the context of the LEA framework. This text will introduce, or reacquaint, teachers with LEA, a natural way of helping learners of any age acquire language, reading, and writing

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skills and one that is particularly well suited to the needs of ELLs. Although LEA can be used to teach students to read and write in any language, we focus here on its value for helping students read and write English. In explaining the most effective strategies, we concentrate first on the creation and use of dictated stories to teach reading, then on instruction in word-recognition strategies, then on engaging students in writing. We address these components separately to achieve greater clarity in presenting basic principles, but we also show how they are effectively combined in an LEA program and, in the last chapter, we focus on how all of the components work together.

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1 The Value of LEA for English Language Learners An Overview

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e have long advocated the use of the Language Experience Approach (LEA) with students whose native language is not English. This instructional approach for English language learners (ELLs) makes sense as a method and works in the classroom. It is based on what is known about how oral language is acquired and about how the skills of reading are most easily learned. As a flexible approach, it meets the unique and varied needs of students who are learning English. In this chapter, we present the rationale for LEA and the key elements of the methodology. Succeeding chapters elaborate on and extend this overview.

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND READING The process of language acquisition cuts across language and cultural barriers (D. E. Freeman & Freeman, 2004; Krashen, 2003a; Lightbown & Spada, 2006; Pinker, 2000; Ritchie, 1978). A first language is acquired in informal, 5

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nonacademic settings through nonthreatening daily interactions with family and friends. Early acquisition can be hindered in settings where the language user is frequently corrected or reprimanded for incorrect speech (Gary, 1978); it is enhanced by adults’ eager attention to and acceptance of the child’s language use. Acquisition occurs most effectively when there is a need to know, the chance to try, and the freedom to err without penalty. Several principles are as true for acquiring a second language as they are for acquiring a first language (D. E. Freeman & Freeman, 2004; Krashen, 2003a; Lightbown & Spada, 2006). Initially, second language acquisition takes place most effectively in informal, real-life settings where the learner freely interacts with fluent speakers of the target language. The more meaningful and purposeful the situations are to the learner, the better. For example, conversation about making needed purchases in a store is likely to further acquisition more effectively than a textbook exercise with little relevance to the learner’s life. Beginners need to use the new language in supportive, nonthreatening environments in which mistakes are accepted. For example, the novice benefits by talking with friends who ignore errors, focus on the intent of the communication, and encourage further speech. The novice must also have many opportunities to listen without being forced to respond, a situation that affords the chance to become familiar with the sound of the language; grasp as much as possible; and benefit from seeing gestures, intonation, and facial expressions as well as hearing words. Free to concentrate on listening rather than formulating a response, the language learner has a better chance of comprehending. Those who have learned to read and write in their native language are likely to have an easier time learning to read and write in English because they already understand the purposes of these forms of communication and are adept at using them (Education for All, 2006, p. 203). Those who have not yet learned to read and write their native language have simultaneous challenges: learning English, understanding the processes of reading and writing, and developing skill in these processes. Some have additional challenges because the oral and written forms of their languages serve different purposes: Oral skills are not fully useful for comprehending written communications and vice versa. Learners who have become literate in such a language need to acquire new skills and perspectives when gaining literacy in English, a language in which the oral and written forms have similar features and serve similar purposes. If the native language of a learner does not have a written form, the learner has the additional challenge of getting used to the concept of written language while learning to read and write English. In general, the reading process is mastered most easily when beginners read texts that are relevant to their lives, when the words of the texts are in their listening and speaking vocabularies, when the grammatical structures of the texts are similar to those they use orally, when they are learning in a supportive environment, and when they have many opportunities

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to practice with reading materials of their own choosing. These principles hold true when individuals are learning to read a new language.

LANGUAGE LEARNERS’ CHARACTERISTICS AND NEEDS Learners of a new language share some characteristics despite their cultural and linguistic diversity. Their native language is no longer adequate for their daily needs or for the more complex language requirements of school or workplace. They must learn a new system of sounds and symbols that is somewhat, perhaps even radically, different from the system they have previously known. Younger learners, who usually acquire second languages with ease, may adapt readily to the new sound and symbol system (Ritchie, 1978). Older learners, however, may have never heard certain sounds in the new language, may have difficulty discriminating these unfamiliar sounds from other sounds, and may consequently have more difficulty reproducing those sounds. They may also be hesitant to attempt to use the new language if they feel self-conscious about their efforts. Several English sounds are difficult for certain ELLs. For examples of cross-language comparisons, see Refugee Educators’ Network (1997) and Trager (1982). Aspects of students’ cultures can also influence their progress in learning English. For example, consider two students from the same country who speak the same native language but whose backgrounds differ. Although they share some cultural similarities, one has grown up in an isolated rural area where the people have little access to newspapers, books, or broadcast media, and the other has lived in an urban area, surrounded by books, magazines, television, and the Internet. The parents of the first have had little need to read and write and are not comfortable learning English, whereas the parents of the second are highly literate in their native language and are determined to learn English. Both sets of parents want their children to become fluent in English and achieve well in school, but they cannot provide equivalent language-learning support at home. When learners have minimal responsibilities and can concentrate only on learning a new language, as is true for many young children and for older students who do not have family responsibilities, the learning can be enjoyable and satisfying even when the process is difficult. However, learners’ basic survival may depend on their use of the new language, as is true for many older students who are supporting families or who are the designated members of their families to master the new language. With such added pressures, learners’ lives are challenging and may even be frightening. Not only are they faced with mastering another sound and symbol system, but they must also understand new vocabulary and idioms as quickly as possible while adapting to American culture. Even if they have relocated with high hopes for a better life, they will experience at least some difficulties as they

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adjust. The older the student, the more unnerving the situation may be and the more unwilling the student may be to interact with native speakers, the very behavior that will increase the learner’s fluency. On the other hand, older individuals who are learning a new language may have more extensive life experience, greater motivation to learn, and more resourcefulness as learners, all of which can mitigate the challenges they face. In addition, their learning may be easier to the extent that they can make meaningful connections between their native language and the language they are learning. In sum, although learners of a new language may share some characteristics, they also vary considerably, depending on their age, their past experiences, their motivations, their current life situation, and key features of their native language. As Crawford (2007) points out, it would be best not to think of ELLs as a subgroup of learners at all, given that they vary on so many dimensions. Figure 1.1 contains a summary of key characteristics of ELLs that are salient in an instructional setting. Figure 1.1

Characteristics of English Language Learners

Familiarity with English

Motivation to use English

Willingness to use English

Need to use English

Functional use of English

Opportunities to use English

Familiarity with the processes of reading and writing

As indicated by the graphic, each characteristic interacts with all the others. The result is a unique pattern for each individual. To illustrate how different patterns of these characteristics lead to diversity within a population of ELLs, here are some examples of recently arrived immigrants: An eight-year-old boy is the youngest in a family of six. The parents have conversational fluency in English, having taken classes in the

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language before they immigrated to the United States. He has learned some English because his family members speak English as much as possible at home. They also socialize with the Englishspeaking families in the neighborhood, two of whom have eightyear-old sons who are in the boy’s class and who interact with him frequently in school and at home. The boy likes these friends, eagerly converses with them, and must use English when interacting with them. An eight-year-old girl is the oldest of three children whose father speaks some English but has two jobs and is away from home much of the time. The girl’s mother speaks no English, is preoccupied with caring for the two other children, and relies on the eightyear-old to make telephone calls and handle other necessary communications, including exchanges with an English-speaking doctor who is treating one of the younger children. The eight-yearold girl has few English skills, but she knows her mother counts on her and willingly enters into conversations in English when she is needed. However, because many of the inhabitants of her neighborhood speak her native language, she does not have to speak English often. An eight-year-old boy is one of five children whose mother and father speak a little English and who are eager for their children to learn the language and teach it to them. The boy is the most outgoing of the children, has made many friends at school, and uses English with them and with his teachers as often as he can. He is learning the language rapidly and prides himself on being able to teach his parents and siblings what he knows. He gives informal English lessons from time to time at home. When parents and siblings watch American television, they expect the boy to explain what is being said. A sixteen-year-old girl is an only child. Her parents moved to the United States when the father was invited to be a guest professor at a university. He speaks English fairly well; the mother and girl are learning English with the help of a private tutor. The father’s colleagues invite the family to social events regularly, and through these activities, the girl has made one friend her age whom she sees in school. She is somewhat shy, and although she attempts to respond in English when addressed directly, she does not initiate interactions with native English speakers. Outside of school, she hears English primarily during her tutoring sessions. A sixteen-year-old boy is the only child of a family that left their homeland as refugees with only a few possessions. They are being

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helped financially by a local church group, but neither parent has found work and both are having a difficult time adjusting to their new life. The mother and father stay together in their home most of the time and rely on their son to obtain food and other necessities for them. He is having an easier time adjusting to their new life but is often frustrated by not knowing the words he needs when shopping. He is an excellent soccer player and is in demand by the boys’ team at his school. Although playing on the team boosts his spirits considerably, the matches afford him few opportunities to hear or practice English. A sixteen-year-old girl is one of three children in a family that has moved from an isolated, rural area in their home country to a densely populated neighborhood in a large U.S. city. The other children, both several years younger, are excited about their new life, but the shy sixteen-year-old avoids interacting with anyone outside the family. She seldom speaks in school and spends most of her leisure time at home, helping her mother with household chores. A young man has just moved with his mother, father, and two younger sisters from a metropolitan area in his home country to a comparable city in the United States. As a high school graduate, he hopes to attend a university in the United States. For now, he works to help support the family. He has also enrolled in English classes at a nearby community college, which he attends two nights a week after work. He studied English for three years in high school and is now eager to refine his oral and written expression in preparation for enrolling in an American university. A young woman has moved with her husband from a small town in her conflict-ridden native country to a small town in the American Midwest. They left behind almost everything and have begun a new life with the help of the members of the church that sponsored their immigration. She and her husband watched American television in their native country and learned some English from those viewing experiences, but neither understands English well and both are hesitant to speak English. They are together attending English classes offered by a local university with which their church has connections. The school may not adequately acknowledge the high degree of diversity that exists in the ELL classroom because the primary goal is the same for all: to comprehend and use English fluently as efficiently as possible. The school’s focus is likely to be on teaching rather than on learning—that

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is, on presenting the established curriculum rather than tailoring instruction to the characteristics and needs of the learners. Instruction can best accommodate to diverse learners when the classroom approximates a natural, real-world setting, filled with language. Such a context will give learners numerous opportunities to interact with fluent English speakers in meaningful situations. This is most easily accomplished when ELLs are given daily opportunities to interact directly with English-speaking classmates in pairs or small groups, both to socialize and to talk about what they are all learning. If most ELL instruction is provided in special language-learning classrooms, the students will need regular opportunities to talk and engage in academic work with Englishspeaking peers. A particular value of such interactions is that ELLs will hear words and phrases repeated many times. Such repetition ensures retention, and although it can be approximated with textbook drills or classroom exercises, it is much more meaningful and effective if it occurs in purposeful conversation with classmates. Interaction with small numbers of native speakers of English also gives ELLs the chance to practice English. They will make errors in vocabulary and usage, and these can lead to embarrassment or frustration if an individual student is speaking in front of the whole class, but if students interact in pairs or small groups, the feeling of performing is reduced. Classroom practice stations or activity centers, designed for use by an individual or a few students at a time, can serve a similar purpose. Such centers can contain videos, audio tapes, computer programs, and popular songs, as well as books, pictures, and objects to stimulate observing, browsing, listening, talking, reading, and writing. Such centers will be especially effective when ELLs and native speakers work with the materials together. Such interactions are aligned with two key recommendations put forth for ELLs by the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE, 2006): that teachers recognize English language learning as a gradual process that builds on students’ native-language skills and that students in the classroom use English in realistic situations that are nonthreatening. Besides needing many opportunities to hear and practice English, ELLs also need explicit instruction in reading and writing. Ideally, the instructional approach is an integral part of the natural communication setting that has been established in the classroom and is perceived as highly relevant, meaningful, and purposeful, with real communication as its focus. For example, many students will learn the English words to a favorite popular song much more readily than they will learn words presented in a textbook lesson, and they will more enthusiastically write if they are participating in a chat room or updating the class Web site or a personal blog than they will if they are completing a written exercise in a textbook. See Chapelle (2001) and Warschauer (1995, 1997) for examples of digital communication activities and their value for ELLs.

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These principles are aligned with the following selected recommendations made in NCTE’s (2006) position paper on English language learning: • Introduce reading materials that are culturally relevant. • Connect readings with students’ background knowledge and experiences. • Replace discrete skill exercises and drills with many opportunities to read. • Provide opportunities for silent reading (in students’ first language or English). • Read aloud frequently to students so that they become familiar with the sounds and structures of written language. • Read aloud while students have access to the text to facilitate connecting oral and written modalities. • Recognize that first and second language growth increases with abundant reading and writing.

TEACHING READING AS A COMMUNICATION PROCESS LEA meets the needs of diverse ELLs while meeting the expectations of established literacy curricula. Three important features of LEA are central to its success as an instructional approach. First, students use their strengths as speakers and listeners in learning to read and write. Second, balanced attention is given to comprehension, word recognition, sight vocabulary, and composing so that students develop as well-rounded readers and writers. Third, the specific instructional strategies at the heart of LEA are grounded in established principles of learning. Here is a summary of how these features come into play in the creation and use of a dictated account in English, from the shared experience that is the basis of the account to the post-dictation work with the account as the primary reading material:

Before Creating the Account • Speaking. Engaging in an interesting common experience, learners offer observations and thoughts, thereby practicing English in a comfortable, natural setting. They focus on expressing ideas, not on producing error-free statements. This reduces anxiety students may feel about using English. At the same time, because their English is incorporated in the dictated account, their efforts are acknowledged and honored. The process is the same whether the students are in the elementary grades, in secondary schools, or in adult classes. The experience and conversation may vary with the students’ age, as will the teacher’s interactions with the students, but the process of formulating and expressing thoughts about a common experience is the same.

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• Listening. As students take turns talking about the experience, they listen to one another. Because all have shared the experience, listeners have a good chance of comprehending what the speaker is saying. Because their comprehension is not tested, they can concentrate on gleaning as much as possible from the speech of others without worrying about understanding everything or having to demonstrate their understanding for the teacher.

Creating the Account • Composing (oral). The dictated account comprises the learners’ own statements; what they say is recorded by the teacher and becomes the text that all read. The statements included in the account are not ordinarily the first remarks students make about the experience. Rather, they are composed orally with the support of the teacher and with the full recognition that they will be captured and preserved in print. Thus, the account reflects not statements spoken casually but statements that have been intentionally formulated or composed. As such, the process of dictation develops skills that students can use when they write themselves. The expectation is not for error-free statements, only statements that reflect the students’ best efforts. The content of the statements, as well as the style of expression, will vary according to the students’ age, background, and interests. For example, eight-year-olds and sixteen-year-olds may both respond well to a classroom experience in preparing food and dictate an interesting account, but they are likely to notice different aspects of the experience and dictate different observations and comments. • Listening and reading. As the teacher leads students through the first readings of the account, the learners hear and read their own words several times. The text is highly meaningful, having been created on the spot by the contributors. At this point, students are relying primarily on their auditory memory of what they dictated, coupled with repetition, to say the words correctly. Although listening to an account and then reading it in unison is, for many people, associated with the primary grades, this step is as important for older students as it is for young children and is based on the same principle of learning: Repetitions of highly meaningful statements help students fix the statements in memory, and that is the first step in learning to read the account on their own.

After Creating the Account • Reading. On successive days, learners reread the account with the teacher’s help and on their own. Because these readings are scheduled over the course of several days, the practice is what is known

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as spaced or distributed practice, which has been shown to be superior to practice that is concentrated into one short period of time (Cepda, Pashler, Vul, Wixted, & Rohrer, 2006). Distributed practice with highly meaningful material proceeds with relative ease. Students’ repeated exposure to the words in their account leads them to recognize and retain many of the words. • Developing word-recognition strategies. As students read the account over successive days, they also engage in a variety of accountrelated activities that help them learn to use context clues, structural analysis, phonetic analysis, and reference materials such as dictionaries to identify unfamiliar words. Learning these word-recognition strategies is an integral part of an LEA program and helps students make the transition from reading their own dictated accounts to reading a variety of other-author material. Older students who have learned to read in their native languages may have already acquired a good foundation in these strategies and thus are likely to transfer this learning to reading English. • Writing. Learners are encouraged to use the dictated account and related activities as a springboard for their own writing. When writing original compositions, students again have a chance to use English for natural and meaningful communication purposes. The dictated account has immediate relevance as a reading text since it directly reflects the learners’ own experiences, vocabulary, and language patterns. Attention and motivation remain high, and learners’ self-worth is reinforced when they see their own language in print. Students develop an understanding of phonetic analysis and other word-recognition strategies in the context of these highly familiar texts. From the start, LEA provides ELLs with a meaningful, personally rewarding experience in learning to read English and in supporting their efforts to write English. In using LEA, students are not expected to conform to the sequence and content of a predesigned program. Rather, the teacher plans experiences and activities to meet the students’ identified needs and interests. The teacher chooses dictation topics that are likely to be meaningful and frequently consults the students for ideas. The teacher may also suggest to students which of their statements to include in the account or may help students shape their contributions so that the account reflects their best efforts with English, thereby giving them opportunities to develop skill and confidence as users of English. At the same time, errors in oral usage or in reading an account are accepted as a natural part of the process. Expectations are determined by what the student can do at each stage, not by external standards of performance. The same is true for the skills and strategies that learners develop in conjunction with their dictations. Each student’s acquisition of a sight vocabulary, word-recognition strategies, and writing skills proceeds at a pace that is suitable for the student.

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USING THE LEA FRAMEWORK AND LEA STRATEGIES FOR INSTRUCTION It is as much a mistake to give all ELLs the same literacy instruction as it is to give any heterogeneous group of learners exactly the same tasks to do and requirements to meet. ELLs come to school with different degrees of the characteristics, as shown in Figure 1.1, and therefore have different needs. Their pace of learning also varies, as does the extent to which they retain what they learn. In addition, their age, background of experience, and cultural heritage all influence their learning in general and their growth toward English literacy in particular. For these reasons, it is important to see LEA as comprising both a framework for instruction and a highly flexible set of instructional strategies that can be combined and modified in various ways to suit the needs of the diverse students in any given class from the primary grades through and beyond high school. The LEA framework includes these components: • Shared experiences that afford opportunities for observation and conversation • Accounts about the experiences (dictated by the students to the teacher) that serve as the primary texts for reading instruction • Reading texts (dictated accounts) that reflect the students’ individual and cultural perspectives • Additional texts for reading practice (e.g., books, magazines, and digital texts) • Daily opportunities to practice reading dictated accounts and additional self-selected texts • Regular opportunities to write in English and to build, refine, and extend writing skills • Regular opportunities to build vocabularies for listening, speaking, reading, and writing in English • Instruction in specific word-recognition strategies (phonetic analysis, structural analysis, the use of context clues, and the use of dictionaries) • Instruction that builds students’ skill at comprehending written English, from the comprehension of their original dictated accounts to the comprehension of the additional texts they choose to read and of textbooks and other required readings Specific LEA strategies include: • Planning engaging experiences for students that encourage them to speak English • Facilitating talk among students during and after planned experiences • Taking dictation from students based on a shared experience and reading the account to and with students • Using dictated accounts to build students’ sight vocabulary and reading fluency

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• Using dictated accounts to teach specific reading skills (e.g., the use of context clues and phonetic analysis) • Using the process of oral composing and students’ dictated accounts as the basis for students’ own writing This book provides detailed suggestions for planning and managing LEA instruction for ELLs, with a focus first on developing oral language and creating dictated accounts, then on teaching word-recognition strategies and building writing skills. The LEA procedures are suitable for students of any age; it is the specifics that vary depending on students’ ages and interests. A topic that interests a seven-year-old will not necessarily engage an adult learner although the students’ skill with English may call for the same instructional procedures. The ways directions are given and students are addressed also vary with students’ ages, as do the types of additional reading materials provided in the classroom. Students’ ages also affect the extent to which they can work independently on various activities.

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS In advocating an instructional approach that simulates natural language learning and that is tailored to meet student needs, we recognize that our suggestions may not suit the policies and structures of some schools. For example, it is a common practice to form newcomer classes for ELLs taught by specially trained teachers who focus on helping students become fluent with English. Many students in such classes appreciate having a specially trained teacher and classmates who share their excitement, anxiety, hopes, and concerns as new arrivals to the United States. Students in such classes can develop a camaraderie that eases their transition to the new culture and gives them needed encouragement in learning English. At the same time, these classes tend to isolate ELLs from native English speakers, and the greater the isolation, the less chance ELLs have for the natural interactions that most effectively and enjoyably increase their comfort and fluency with English. Some ELLs keep to themselves even though they would like to socialize with other students because their daily schedule affords them so few opportunities to interact with others. The alternative to having separate newcomer classes is to distribute ELLs across regular classrooms, with the expectation that regular classroom teachers, who may have minimal knowledge and experience with ELL needs, will help them develop fluency with English while attending to the needs of the other students. Such an arrangement may be frustrating to both the students and the teachers. Teachers feel overwhelmed; students withdraw, unable to follow what the teacher and the other students are saying and unable to articulate what they do not understand.

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Ideally, ELLs of all ages need teachers who can help them develop their language skills, meet the demands of the regular curriculum, and use language naturally through interactions with native speakers. To organize such a program while giving equal attention to the academic needs of native speakers is a significant challenge for a school, and solutions are not obvious. We do not claim to have all the answers but will suggest practical solutions when we describe the kind of ELL instruction we believe is ideal.

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2 Reading From Experience for Beginners

W

e define a beginner in an LEA program as an individual of any age who cannot yet read or write English and who has few, if any, oral English skills. A beginner can be a five-year-old, an adolescent, or an adult. Typically, beginners are recent immigrants who attended little or no school in their home countries and who have had minimal contact with English speakers. Many beginners are unable to communicate their most basic needs and concerns because no one understands their language and they cannot express themselves in English. Besides facing a language barrier, they are also adjusting to new living arrangements, a new culture, and perhaps the need to obtain employment and support a family. Students whose oral language does not have a written counterpart need to acquire the concept of words in print. Although beginners face these challenges, most are enthused and confident about their new lives, and all have strengths they bring to the American classroom. Some beginners have watched American television, listened to American popular music, and had other exposures to English that can help them learn English. Others have ready access to English speakers outside of school, either in the neighborhoods where they live or at places of employment, a situation that gives them opportunities to use English outside the classroom and thus to develop fluency in meaningful 19

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contexts. Others have had experiences with their own written language that can help them learn to read and write English. For example, they may have been read to or may have learned to recognize some signs and labels in their native language. Many have considerable drive and persistence as learners that help them rise to the challenges they face. All these students must learn to master the English language if they are to participate fully in American society. They need the care and concern of understanding and well-prepared teachers, and they need an instructional program that makes use of the strengths they bring to the classroom while helping them develop the English skills they need. In this chapter, we focus first on the critical relationship between oral language and reading and then discuss how LEA can help beginners learn to read English as they develop their overall English fluency.

ORAL LANGUAGE AND READING Typical English-speaking kindergartners have had several years of immersion in oral English before receiving formal reading instruction. This background helps them recognize in print many of the words they know orally and use what they know about English syntax to predict upcoming words in written texts with considerable accuracy. In contrast, beginning ELL students (whether six-year-olds, teenagers, or adults) have had limited exposure to oral English and know, at best, only a few words and syntactical structures. Placing them too quickly in a typical reading program can result in frustration for both students and the teacher. The issue is not that students cannot learn to speak and read a new language at the same time; most can easily do so. The issue lies in the definition of reading that underlies their instruction. The typical reading program is based on the assumption that the learners are fluent in English; are familiar with the themes, topics, and vocabulary in the books; and can concentrate on learning to decode the written language. This is not a reasonable assumption for beginning ELLs. These students are likely to have a more difficult time learning to read if they are expected to proceed as if they were simply English-speaking nonreaders. For example, students who cannot yet hear some of the sounds of English are not likely to profit initially from extensive instruction in phonetic analysis of English words. Similarly, the words considered most basic in a structured reading program (high-frequency words such as and, the, what), may not be familiar and meaningful to ELLs orally and thus are likely to be difficult to master. Those who have little or no experience with written language will have the additional challenges described previously. LEA is based on the assumption that students can learn to read the English that they can speak. It allows for the kind of flexibility that enables students to develop their oral English skills fully and to learn to read English in tandem with learning to understand and speak the language.

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PROCEDURES FOR BEGINNERS Because of the relationship between oral language and reading, LEA for beginners involves an initial emphasis on oral language and introduces reading activities as students gain confidence with oral English. The instruction is tailored to individual needs and interests so that learning is relevant, meaningful, and purposeful.

Oral Language Development: Personalized Language Activities The beginner’s program focuses on learning those English words and sentences orally that will be immediately useful for conducting conversations, making requests, responding to directions, asking and answering questions, and for functioning in daily life in other ways. Individual and small group activities introduce vocabulary and common language structures with an emphasis on expressions that are directly related to the people, objects, and events the students encounter in school and at home and that are most interesting and engaging to them. Thus, what can be considered basic vocabulary varies from one beginner to another, depending on the learner’s age, particular surroundings, and unique concerns and interests. The specific words and expressions that are learned are not as important as the conditions associated with the learning. Regardless of the words the students are learning, the emphasis is on rich oral and written English language experiences and the freedom to make mistakes without penalty. In a regular classroom setting, English-speaking classmates are usually willing to help beginners acquire oral English skills. Fellow students are often the best teachers because of their eagerness to be helpful and make new friends. Classmates also can devote more time than the teacher to conversation with ELLs. Informal chats will often be as helpful to ELLs as teacherdirected activities. If students are assigned to an ELL-only class, it might take some extra planning to arrange activities with English-speaking peers, but the time will be worth taking. ELLs could be scheduled into regular classrooms for films or other special events, or English-speaking students could be invited regularly to visit the ELL classroom for informal conversations.

A Sample Instructional Unit: Naming Objects Orally This sample unit illustrates how a combination of teacher direction and classmate help can be used to teach beginners to name common objects found in the classroom. This plan can serve as a model for instructional units to meet any number of oral language objectives. The instruction also prepares students for more formal reading instruction. Not all beginners necessarily need to start with this activity or need to spend the amount of time on it suggested here. If they are very fluent in their native language and very motivated, a different type of activity or a different pacing may

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be more appropriate. The purpose here is simply to illustrate the place of oral language in reading instruction for beginners in an LEA program.

Instructional Unit: Common Classroom Objects Objectives • Students will be able to name and describe at least fifteen objects in the classroom. (This number may be reduced or increased, as seems appropriate for specific students. Since these words have high utility, this number will not be unreasonable for most students.) • Students will see the written names of the objects in association with pictures of those objects. Length of unit One week Target students One student who is willing to try pronouncing English words or a small group of such students. Day 1: Activity 1 Prepare fifteen cards with pictures of objects that are present in the classroom (book, desk, chair, etc.). Involve students in preparing the cards by drawing or cutting pictures out of magazines. Label each card clearly with the most common English word for the object and indicate to students that this is the way the word is written in English. See Figure 2.1

Figure 2.1

Word-and-Picture Card

book

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for an example. The intent is not to teach recognition of the written words but rather to familiarize students with the look of English. Seeing the labels, students can acquire the concept of a written language in a natural manner, just as native English speakers often acquire the concept of reading through noting signs and labels around them. If the cards are used often, some students will also learn to recognize words in other contexts. Show five cards to students, one at a time, saying the name of each object when presenting the card. Show and name each card at least twice. Then invite students to say the names, giving help as needed. Go through the cards several times until students say the names readily. Then introduce this exchange: Teacher: What is this? Student: This is a(n) ___. Show each of the cards again a few times, each time asking the question and having the student give the expected reply. Use natural intonation, stress, and facial expressions to simulate a real conversation. Give whatever help is needed by saying the object names and/or the full reply with the student. After introducing the first five cards in this manner, go through the next set of five and then the last set. If students seem eager and confident, you may wish to turn the activity into a game. For example, give students 1 point for each word they correctly identify after the initial learning rounds. If working with one student, set a target number of points that will indicate a win (e.g., 5 points or 10 points). If working with a small group, give everyone an equal number of tries at identifying words and award a point for each one correctly identified. The one with the most points at the end of the round wins that round. If students remain confident, you may wish to turn the activity into a visual matching exercise. Write the words on separate cards and present them one at a time, saying the word and inviting students to choose the matching word-and-picture card. Provide help as needed. When they choose the correct card, acknowledge their accuracy and say the word again. Day 1: Activity 2 To reinforce learning of object names and expose students to additional oral English, read or tell an anecdote that includes several of the object names. Use pictures or other visual aids (puppets, models, objects, etc.) to help the student understand. Tell the anecdote two or three times to give students a chance to increase their comprehension with each telling. Here is an example of an account that was used with a group that was learning these words: book, desk, computer, paper, pencil. The teacher used the students’ names and enhanced the anecdote by pointing to a picture or a person when pronouncing the words in italics and by using gestures to illustrate some meanings.

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When class started today, everyone sat down at a desk, and everyone had a book. Sonya brought a lot of paper and gave some of it to Desmond. Desmond gave Sonya a pencil because she had forgotten to bring hers. Ravi wanted to work on the computer, and so did Ignatio. They decided to take turns. First Ravi worked on the computer, and Ignatio read his book, then Ignatio worked on the computer, and Ravi read his book. Day 2: Activity 1 Review learning by presenting the original fifteen cards, one at a time. For each card ask, “What is this?” and have students answer, “This is a(n) ___.” Day 2: Activity 2 Walk around the room with students, asking “What is this?” when coming to each of the objects represented in the pictures on the original cards. Help them answer when necessary. English-speaking classmates can also pair up with beginners for this activity. Day 3: Activity 1 Form a group of several learners, including the beginners. Hand out bingo cards on which have been placed drawings or pictures of the fifteen objects in the original card set, labeled with their English names. Call out the names of the objects and have students place markers on the correct illustrations on their cards. Go slowly enough to allow the beginners to make correct decisions. If needed, review the original card set before playing this game. Day 3: Activity 2 Pair beginners with English-speaking classmates and repeat the walk around the room to name objects (Day 2, Activity 2). The classmates may also introduce the names of a few more objects in this manner if their beginner partners seem ready to learn more object names at this time. Day 4: Activity 1 Using the original picture cards, introduce the words for the color and/or size of each object. For example, hold up a card and say, “This is a book. This is a blue book.” Use other aids as necessary to clarify the meaning of these descriptive words. For instance, use gestures to indicate size, or other colored objects to illustrate colors. Have students respond with the expanded statements. Day 4: Activity 2 Read aloud or tell another anecdote that includes several of the object names that have been introduced. Use visual aids to help students

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understand. Tell the anecdote two or three times to give students a chance to increase their comprehension with each telling. Day 5: Activity 1 Review the fifteen objects with students. Go through the picture cards one at a time, having students name each object by saying “This is a(n) ___.” Then have students point out and name the real objects in the room the same way. Encourage students to use the elaborated statements learned the day before. (“This is a door. This is a brown door.”) Interaction with another person is the most effective form of this review, so try to pair English-speaking classmates with beginners for this activity. Day 5: Activity 2 Read aloud or tell another anecdote that includes some of the words learned during the week, using visual aids to illustrate. English-speaking classmates may be invited to read aloud or compose an anecdote for this purpose. The advantage of this sequence is that repetition from day to day is accomplished in a meaningful and pleasant context, helping to cement learning of the words and phrases. The anecdotes reinforce the new vocabulary while introducing additional words and language structures, thus enabling the beginners to become more accustomed to the sounds and cadence of English. Learning is further reinforced when learners hear and use the same words and patterns in other situations during the day.

Other Oral Language Activities The instructional unit above is only one example of how students can begin to acquire an oral English vocabulary while gaining familiarity with English words in print. Other instructional activities can be planned using the same principles of meaningful repetition, real-world content, and communications of immediate value. Suggestions are given below. In these activities, as in the object-naming unit, students can simply listen to the models of English without being forced to respond or participate. Communication in Informal Conversations Have English-speaking classmates enact simple conversations for beginners to observe and then join. Use pictures or objects when possible to illustrate concepts. Gestures and facial expressions will also help to convey some meanings. For example, use conversations to introduce the following: • Greetings (Good morning. Hello.) • Common inquiries (How are you? What time is it?)

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• Common topics of conversation (lunch table exchanges about food, comments on the weather, discussions of sporting events) Communication in Common Social Situations Have English-speaking classmates enact social activities for beginners to observe and then join. For example, plan skits that involve the following: • Ordering a meal in a restaurant (How much is this? I would like to have a hamburger, please. This is to go.) • Talking to a bus driver (I want to go to ___. How much is the fare? Please take me to ___.) • Talking to a medical professional (Can you help me? I do not feel well. I feel ___.) • Attending a recreational event (How much is a ticket? Can you help me find my seat?) • Making a purchase in a store (I would like to buy this. How much is this?) Communication in School Have English-speaking classmates enact school communications, using signs and props to convey meanings, for beginners to observe and then join. For example, introduce situations that involve the following: • Requests to teachers (May I get a drink of water? May I go to the bathroom?) • Communication in different school areas (programs in the auditorium, the lunch line in the cafeteria, announced or posted rules and regulations, rules and customs in the gymnasium and playground) • Requests for help from different school personnel (communication in the nurse’s office, having a conference with a counselor, meeting with an administrator, interacting with the librarian) • Following teacher directions (Sit down. Turn in your paper. Close your books. Come over here.) Communication in the Larger Community Have English-speaking classmates enact situations that involve signs and symbols commonly seen outside school. For example, introduce situations that involve the following: • Walk/don’t walk signals • Stop signs • Warning signs (Danger! Wrong way! Poison!)

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• • • • •

Out of order notices Fire alarms Men/women signs Police station signs Hospital emergency room signs

Besides using specially planned activities, set up centers in the room to allow for independent language practice. Beginners may use these individually, or they may pair with other ELLs or with English-speaking classmates. Activity centers may include such resources as the following: • Puppets for extemporaneous puppet shows or to enhance informal conversations with classmates • Prop telephones for practice conversations involving greetings and other common statements • Taped stories with accompanying read-along books • Animations or video clips for viewing on a computer • Collections of objects and pictures for learning and practicing object names As beginners make progress learning English, lessons and activities are extended to increase fluency with oral English. Whenever possible, students should be encouraged to select topics for lessons. A student who is worried about an upcoming trip to the doctor will be interested in learning words such as doctor, nurse, medicine, and shot, whereas one who is helping a family member shop for food on weekends will be interested in learning words for foods on the shopping list (e.g., milk, flour, rice, or chicken). Language Learning With Wordless Picture Books As students’ vocabularies expand, wordless picture books are valuable for extending language learning. These materials have easily recognizable stories or themes that appeal to students of all ages. Students can read and discuss them with the teacher and each other. The following list contains books that were published fairly recently and thus are most likely to be available through a local library. However, many other classic wordless picture books by authors such as Eric Carle, Tana Hoban, and Mercer Mayer are worth obtaining through libraries or the Internet. Books That Tell a Story Aliki. (1995). Tabby. New York: HarperCollins. Anno, Mitumasa. (1997). Anno’s journey. New York: Putnam. Bang, Molly. (1986). Grey lady and the strawberry snatcher. New York: Simon & Schuster.

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Blake, Quentin. (1996). Clown. New York: Holt. Briggs, Raymond. (2003). The snowman. New York; Random House. Day, Alexandra. (1985). Good dog, Carl. New York: Simon & Schuster. Day, Alexandra. (1995). Carl’s birthday. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. Day, Alexandra. (1998). Follow Carl. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. Lehman, Barbara. (2004). The red book. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Tafuri, Nancy. (1983). Early morning in the barn. New York: Greenwillow Books. Tafuri, Nancy. (1984). Have you seen my duckling? New York: Greenwillow Books. Tafuri, Nancy. (1987). Do not disturb. New York: Greenwillow Books. Tafuri, Nancy. (1990). Follow me! New York: Greenwillow Books. Wiesner, David. (1988). Free fall. New York: Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Books. Wiesner, David. (1991). Tuesday. New York: Clarion Books. Wiesner, David. (1999). Sector 7. New York: Clarion Books. Young, Ed. (1991). Up a tree. New York: Harper & Row. Books That Develop a Theme or Event Baker, Jeannie. (2004). Home. New York: Greenwillow Books. Crews, Donald. (1980). Truck. New York: Greenwillow Books. McCully, Emily. (1985). First snow. New York: Harper & Row. Popov, Nikolai. (1996). Why? New York: North-South Books. Sis, Peter. (1990). Beach ball. New York: Greenwillow Books. Sis, Peter. (2000). Dinosaur! New York: Greenwillow Books. Books That Present an Abstract Concept Banyai, Istvan. (1995). Re-zoom. New York: Viking Books. Banyai, Istvan. (1998). Zoom. New York: Puffin Books. Banyai, Istvan. (2005). The other side. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. Hutchins, Pat. (1987). Changes, changes. New York: Alladin Books. Maizlish, Lisa. (1996). The ring. New York: Greenwillow Books. Rohmann, Eric. (1994). Time flies. New York: Crown. Spier, Peter. (1982). Rain. New York: Doubleday Books. All beginners can learn to read English to some extent while they are learning to communicate orally in English. However, the benefit they derive from systematic reading instruction depends on their age, overall language skills, background of experience with written language, and psychological readiness. Beginners may take a few weeks, several months, or most of a school year to become comfortable enough with English to benefit from formal reading instruction although they may readily learn to recognize some words, learn some decoding skills, and enjoy engaging with books written in English. Others will be eager to acquire reading skills and will profit greatly from instruction when their oral skills are still minimal. The student who seems particularly anxious in school or has had

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little experience with written language will probably not be as attentive to learning specific decoding principles or mastering a specific reading vocabulary as the student who appears comfortable in the classroom and is clearly confident about reading in English. Because individual differences among ELLs are considerable, the important consideration in planning reading instruction is what will be most meaningful and helpful to the learner and what will lead to the individual’s greatest comfort and satisfaction in learning to read English. As a rule, beginners are ready for systematic reading instruction when they are clearly attentive to print, for example, when they readily recognize the written English words on the word-and-picture cards described previously or when they try to identify words in books or on signs in their environment. At this point, students will usually have already learned several highly meaningful words, such as their names, the names of favorite foods and beverages, words and phrases from the pop culture of their age group, and high-utility words such as stop, walk, or exit. As they continue to expand their oral skills, they will simultaneously be able to learn more words, process simple texts, and learn basic principles of decoding. If they make progress, specific reading instruction may be continued; if they seem frustrated or overwhelmed, the emphasis can be kept on oral language activities until they are better able to profit from systematic reading instruction.

Reading Instruction: The Personalized Vocabulary Beginners benefit from acquiring an initial reading vocabulary that is personally meaningful and immediately useful. Because students vary in their interests, levels of maturity, and backgrounds of experience, their reading vocabularies vary as well, so what is basic for one student is not necessarily basic for another. LEA procedures capitalize on these individual differences, allowing the student to begin to read materials that match their unique, personal interests. The first step is to help the beginner accumulate a personalized vocabulary that includes words selected by the student because they are familiar, interesting, or useful. The principles of the personalized vocabulary have been enumerated by several early proponents of instruction tailored to students’ individual and cultural differences, notably Ashton-Warner (1963) and Veatch, Sawicki, Elliot, Flake, and Blakey (1979), and have been reiterated by more recent writers (Nelson & Linek, 1999). Ordinarily, students are given free choice in selecting words to learn, but guided choice can be desirable for some beginners. The teacher guides the student to choose words from current oral language activities, so the student learns words that are personally meaningful and that also relate to a classroom activity. When the student has had a voice in selecting the topic for the oral language activity, the words available for choice will be particularly significant.

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Here are the steps in the process, given with an individual student in mind. Suggestions for adapting the activity for a small group follow. 1. Conduct an informal conversation with the student on a topic likely to generate interest (e.g., a favorite activity, a recent family pursuit, or a special event in which the student was involved). The point of the conversation is to elicit as many English words as possible. Open-ended questions and comments encourage talk and elaboration of comments (What happened next? Tell me more! How did you feel about that?). 2. After conversing for several minutes, tell the student to choose up to five words from the conversation. Explain that they should be words the student wants to learn to read. The student is likely to choose nouns and should be encouraged to do so because they convey significant meaning. 3. Prepare a word card for each word. (Either print the word on a 3 × 5 card or prepare a computerized list that can be printed out and cut into cards.) Read the words several times with the student. 4. Have the student copy the words into a personal picture dictionary and illustrate each. Sturdy composition books make effective picture dictionaries. The pages can be lettered in advance (A, B, C, etc.), with several pages set aside for each letter. It is best for each word to be placed consistently on one side of the page and a drawing or cut-out picture in the same position on the other side so that for review, the student can cover the illustrations and read the words without the picture cues. If the student has access to a computer, the picture dictionary pages can be constructed electronically, with clip art for illustrations, or the student can type and print out the words, paste them in a composition book, and illustrate them by hand. When creating a picture dictionary, the student retains the original word cards in a deck. 5. Have the student search for the words in disposable newspapers and magazines, or prepare anecdotes that include the chosen words in meaningful contexts. Have the student underline, circle, or cut out the chosen words from these texts and read them aloud. The student can use cut-out words to begin a word poster and add more words as time goes on. This sequence can also be done with a small group of students. First, have each learner tell the group about a meaningful activity or special event. Use open-ended questions to prompt elaborations, and encourage others in the group to ask questions if they wish. Then have each student select up to five words. Although students may choose some of the same words, each will probably have a different set of words. Prepare word

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cards for each student and have them put their words in their picture dictionaries and illustrate them. Then give each student disposable texts and have them search for the words they chose, underline them, or cut them out to make a word poster. Encourage students to share their work.

A Sample Instructional Unit: A Personalized Reading Vocabulary This sample instructional unit illustrates how personalized vocabularies can be incorporated into a week-long instructional unit.

Instructional Unit: A Trip to the Grocery Store Objectives • Students will be able to use orally many words related to the activity. • Students will be able to read up to five self-selected words related to the activity. Length of unit One week Target students One student who is ready to acquire a personalized reading vocabulary or a small group of such students Day 1: Activity 1 Discuss the topic with the students, ideally after a trip they have made with you to the grocery store so that they are talking about a memorable common experience. If such a trip is not possible, use magazine illustrations, photographs, or video clips during the discussion to provide visual representations. Tell students about typical grocery stores. Invite them to tell about their own experiences shopping and to name things they associate with a grocery store. While facilitating the discussion, list significant words on a large sheet of newsprint or the chalkboard. For example, you might list rice, beans, corn, basket, cash register. Day 1: Activity 2 Have students each select up to five words from the list to learn to read. Make word cards for each of that student’s chosen words and read each card several times with each student. The learners may choose some of the same words, or they may all choose different words. If some students want to choose a word that does not appear on the chart-paper list, add it to the list when preparing a word card for the student.

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Day 1: Activity 3 Have students copy each of their words into their picture dictionaries and illustrate them with drawings or cut out illustrations. Encourage students to talk about the words and about grocery stores while they are completing this task. Day 2: Activity 1 Briefly review the previous day’s discussion. Then have students take turns reading aloud their word cards to the group, referring to their picture dictionaries as needed to remember the words. Day 2: Activity 2 Have students enact one or more skits about what might happen at a grocery store. Provide help with words and phrases as needed. If students seem to need extra help, join in the skit as a customer, a clerk, or the store owner. Day 3: Activity 1 Have students review all their word cards by taking turns reading them aloud. Have them discard any words that they do not instantly recognize to ensure that their card deck contains words they have learned and are likely to retain. One or two new words may be put on cards and added to decks if any student wishes, following the procedure used on Day 1. Day 3: Activity 2 Prepare a simple narrative about a grocery store that contains many of the chosen words, using the students’ names and several of the words they have been learning. Below is an example of a teacher-composed account that reflected words students had chosen: potatoes, eggs, cart, clerk, and money. The teacher enhanced the relating of the account by pointing to a relevant picture when pronouncing each of the italicized words and by using gestures to illustrate some meanings. Last Saturday, I went to the grocery store to get some potatoes and eggs. Potatoes were on sale, so I bought two bags of potatoes. Altogether, I bought ten pounds of potatoes! I also bought two dozen eggs. That’s 24 eggs in all. I put the eggs and potatoes in a cart because they were heavy. Then I took the cart to the counter, and the clerk rang up the sale. I gave her some money. She said to me, “You sure have a lot of potatoes and eggs! You must really like them!” “I do,” I said. “I just LOVE potatoes and eggs!”

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Day 3: Activity 3 Hand to students their own copies of the narrative and have them underline the target words individually. Then have them take turns pointing to and reading one word aloud. Day 4: Activity 1 Have students review all their word cards, including any new words added the previous day, by taking turns reading aloud their cards to the rest of the group. Day 4: Activity 2 From a collection of magazine and newspaper pictures, have students select the ones that correctly depict their chosen words and put together any matches. After individuals have made as many matches as they can, have them take turns reading each word to the rest of the group while showing the related picture. Day 5: Activity 1 Have students review all their word cards, including any new words added the third day, by taking turns reading aloud their cards to the rest of the group. They should discard any that are not remembered to ensure that their card deck contains words they have learned well and are likely to retain. Day 5: Activity 2 Lead a discussion of the students’ recent grocery store experiences. Encourage them to compare the grocery stores they know in the United States with the food stores or markets in their home countries. Invite students to share thoughts about how a trip to a grocery store is similar to and different from a trip to a gas station, a clothing store, a park, or other familiar places. Day 5: Activity 3 Have students pair up and use their word cards to play a game of “Concentration.” (To play Concentration, students create a deck from pairs of cards. They take turns turning over two cards at a time. If the cards match, the player must say the word to keep the pair. If they do not match, the player replaces them in their original locations. The one with the most pairs at the end wins.) Make sure there are exactly two word cards for each word in the game. If you wish, add an even number of blank wild cards.

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This five-day sequence should be repeated weekly so that students are regularly learning new words while reviewing previously learned words. Some students will readily learn and retain five words a week and ask for more; others may find five to be too many to master. Then, too, the same student may be able to learn more in one week than in another. For each student, increase or decrease the number of new words as needed to maintain a balance between ease and challenge. In succeeding weeks, make note of any words students cannot identify immediately. If a student fails to identify a word correctly two days in a row, remove that word from the deck. By culling the deck of forgotten words, you will help the student by focusing on the positive and will help your own monitoring of the student’s progress by maintaining an accurate picture of the student’s learning. Any words that are removed will probably be reused by the students at some later date and can be chosen again for inclusion in the card deck. Meanwhile, the students’ individual picture dictionaries reflect all their chosen words. Each student’s dictionary becomes both a record of learning and a useful aid for later reading activities.

Other Personalized Vocabulary Activities As students add more words to their personalized reading vocabularies, a greater variety of reinforcement activities is used to insure retention of learning. The picture dictionary and word card deck are used for reinforcement. Here are some activities for this purpose: Word Card Activities • Two or more students select a category, such as food, colors, or sports, and search their card decks for words that fit the category. After making their selections individually, they compare their choices. • Students take turns selecting a target word from their word card decks. The group then brainstorms words associated with it. For example, if they select hungry, they might think of favorite food items (pizza, salad, ice cream), words relating to different meals (breakfast muffins, lunch sandwiches), or words associated with eating (knife, fork, plate, bowl). • English-speaking students ask the beginners simple questions (Do you have a pet? What is your favorite color?) Beginners take turns selecting an appropriate card from the deck as an answer. • Two students work together, taking turns selecting a word and challenging the other to find a synonym, an antonym, or an associated word. • Students play a version of the card game Old Maid by matching cards with the same first letter.

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Picture Dictionary Activities • Students cover up the illustrations in their picture dictionaries and take turns reading the words aloud. Students may earn points for each word read correctly. • Students cover the illustrations in their picture dictionaries, draw or select pictures that match the words, then uncover the illustrations to check their responses. Where pictures differ (e.g., two different breeds to illustrate dog), they discuss the differences. • Students cover the words in their picture dictionaries so that only the pictures are visible, then select cards from their word decks to match the pictures. When they have selected a word card for each picture, they uncover the words to check their work. • Two or more students trade dictionaries and cover the words so that only the illustrations are visible. They then select words from their own word card decks to match the pictures. When the chosen word differs from the dictionary owner’s word, students decide why their choices are or are not appropriate. These nine activities can be used repeatedly from week to week. Other effective practice activities may be adapted from other sources. For additional ideas, see Y. S. Freeman and Freeman (2006), Peregoy and Boyle (2005), Tompkins (2003), and Vacca, Vacca, Gove, Burkey, Lenhart, and McKeon (2002).

Extending the Beginner’s Program The activities described in this chapter are the backbone of the beginner’s instructional program in reading. They can be used for many weeks to help students learn English words orally and learn to recognize many of the same words in print. Their experiences with composing orally in English will also support their efforts to write English. The suggested instructional units can be used as templates with a variety of topics that align with students’ interests and daily experiences. Below are a few suggestions that are suitable for learners of any age and that can be used repeatedly as the basis of discussions and reading activities. Ideally, students will have had first-hand experiences with a topic before discussing it in class and choosing words to learn. Class experiences can also be arranged during school hours. If first-hand experiences are not possible, then class discussions of the topics may be enhanced with pictures, animations, and videos. • In the cafeteria (noon in the school lunchroom) • In the halls (before school, when classes change, after school) • To and from school (what students see and hear when walking or riding the bus)

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• Public transportation (students’ experiences with streetcars, trains, subways, etc.) • Eating out (time spent in local eateries or food stalls at open-air markets) • Attending a sporting event (going to sport contests at school, in the community) • Shopping for ___ (food, clothing, books, toys, gifts, etc.) • At the hospital (a visit to a hospitalized patient or to the emergency room) • At the park (visits to local parks, zoos, monuments, etc.) • At the museum (visits to local museums, historical sites, etc.) In addition, beginners can profit from learning various wordrecognition strategies (e.g., phonetic analysis) and from writing their own ideas. These aspects of the program are discussed in Chapters 5 and 6, respectively.

TRANSITION TO THE INTERMEDIATE LEVEL: FROM WORDS TO LANGUAGE PATTERNS Once the student has acquired a reading vocabulary of two or three dozen English words, the student is moving toward the intermediate level. Work at this next level involves the reading of student-generated phrases, sentences, and paragraphs, as well as student-selected individual words. The transition to connected discourse can be effected with the use of stories and accounts in which specific language structures are repeated throughout. Students first become familiar with the pattern, then use it as a model for their own composing. This form of imitation writing is a well-established composition strategy for native English speakers (Butler, 2002; Hillebrand, 2004) and has been recognized as an appropriate strategy for ELLs as well (Peregoy & Boyle, 2005). This use of pattern stories builds additional aural and oral skills and makes the process of generating English sentences relatively easy for the learner. Here are the six steps in the process, given with an individual student in mind. Suggestions for adapting the activity to a small group follow. 1. Read the pattern story to the student several times to develop familiarity with the content and the language pattern. Explain any words that are critical to the overall meaning. Encourage the student to say the patterned language with you, and invite response to the story by making comments and asking questions. 2. Have the student dictate several sentences to you, adhering to the introduced pattern. As needed, model with an example or two. Write the students’ sentences down, either printing them clearly on

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notebook-sized paper or creating an electronic document that can be printed. You may wish to record each dictated statement on a separate page so that you can bind the pattern story simply into a small book for later reading, illustrating, and sharing with others. 3. With the student looking at the dictated statements, read each one aloud once or twice, pointing to the words as you read. Invite the student to read along with you several times. Repeated readings at this point help to fix the pattern and the dictated sentences in the student’s mind. 4. Have the student create an illustration to accompany the account as a whole or each statement in the account. This task further reinforces comprehension of the written statements. 5. Store the completed dictation in a folder or notebook for future rereading. 6. Invite the student to select a few words from the dictated account to add to the current word card deck. When working with a small group of students, read the pattern story to the group several times so that students become familiar with the language. Invite them to chime in on the patterned language and encourage them to comment on the story. Next, have each student dictate a sentence that follows the pattern. Model as needed. Print each student’s contribution on a separate page. Read each statement to and with the writer while the rest of the group listens. Have students illustrate their statements, and put the pages together to create a group book. You may also want to give each group member a copy of their book. Figure 2.2 illustrates a page of a pattern story composed and dictated by a seven-year-old Laotian girl. The stimulus was When It Rains, It Rains by Bill Martin, Jr. (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1971). After listening to and discussing the story, Kazoua followed the pattern, composing and illustrating her own statements in imitation of the original. Her teacher (Millie Farnum, reading specialist, Ellwood School, Goleta, CA) bound the book so that Kazoua could read it silently to herself and orally to her classmates. Listening to a pattern story and dictating an imitative composition is an effective way of integrating oral language and reading. These activities do not have to be limited to the patterns in published books. Patterned language texts may be developed easily by having the student imitate any desired sentence form. For example, Dogs like to bark may be used as the basis of a text that includes many variations: Dogs like to bark. Dogs like to play.

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Using the Language Experience Approach With English Language Learners Figure 2.2

An Original Story That Follows a Pattern

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Dogs like to chew bones. Dogs like to sleep. Dogs like to chase birds. Dogs like to play catch. Dogs like to go for walks. As confidence grows, students may use a series of patterns to produce a longer dictated account. Carline’s story illustrates the result of combining several patterns for dictation. Carline’s familiarity with the patterns enabled her to dictate an account that reflected some of her favorite names, animals, and activities.

Carline’s story Once upon a time there was a woman. Her name was Leila. She wanted a little rabbit. When Christmas came, Leila got her rabbit. He was a white rabbit with a bushy tail. She needs food for the rabbit. The rabbit’s name was Bushy Tail. She loved to play with Bushy Tail. One day Bushy Tail had a baby. The baby’s name was Little Bushy Tail. Her mom named her Little Bushy Tail because she looked just like her.

A large number of different kinds of pattern books (also called predictable books) are available commercially. Texts especially useful for ELL students include such patterns as sequence, repetition, rhyme, or question and answer. Although these books can be used successfully with a range of ages, some books are more appropriate for younger or older students because of their subject matter. Books that were written specifically for instructional use are the classic Tiger Cub series by Robert and Marlene McCracken and the Instant Readers by Bill Martin.

McCracken, Robert A., & McCracken, Marlene J. (1973). Tiger cub readers. San Rafael, CA: Leswing. Selected titles: One Pig, Two Pigs The End . . . The Farmer and the Skunk The Farmer Had a Pig What Can You Do? What Can You Hear?

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What Can You See? What Do You Do? What Is This? Where Do You Live?

Martin, Bill, Jr. (1971). Instant readers. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Selected titles: Level I Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See? When It Rains, It Rains The Haunted House Silly Goose and the Holidays I Went to the Market The Wizard Monday, Monday, I Like Monday Up and Down the Escalator Level II King of the Mountain The Longest Journey in the World Whistle, Mary, Whistle A Spooky Story City Song Level III My Days Are Made of Butterflies The Turning of the Year I Paint the Joy of a Flower Ten Little Squirrels Besides these long-time favorites, many other pattern books are also available. The following list includes books that were published fairly recently and thus are most likely to be available at a local library. However, many other classic pattern books by authors such as Eric Carle, Tana Hoban,

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and Margaret Wise Brown are worth searching for and may be found through the Internet. Aliki. (1989). My five senses. New York: Thomas Crowell. Astley, Judy. (1990). When one cat woke up. New York: Dial. Aylesworth, Jim. (1991). Old black fly. New York: Holt. Baer, Gene. (1989). Thump, thump, rat-a-tat-tat. New York: Harper & Row. Baker, Alan. (1990). Two tiny mice. New York: Dial. Baker, Keith. (1990). Who is the beast? Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Barton, Byron. (1987). Machines at work. New York: HarperCollins. Brandenberg, Franz. (1989). Aunt Nina, good night. New York: Greenwillow Books. Christelow, Eileen. (1989). Five little monkeys jumping on the bed. New York: Clarion. Christelow, Eileen. (1991). Five little monkeys sitting in a tree. New York: Clarion. Florian, Douglas. (1989). Nature walk. New York: Greenwillow Books. Florian, Douglas. (1992). At the zoo. New York: Greenwillow Books. Hayes, Sarah. (1988). This is the bear and the picnic lunch. Boston: Little, Brown. Hayes, Sarah. (1990). Nine ducks nine. New York: Lothrop Lee & Shepard Books. Jonas, Ann. (1989). Color dance. New York: Greenwillow Books. Numeroff, Laura. (1985). If you give a mouse a cookie. New York: Harper & Row. Peek, Merle. (1985). Mary wore her red dress. New York: Clarion. Pomerantz, Charlotte. (1989). Flap your wings and try. New York: Greenwillow Books. Roffey, Maureen. (1988). I spy at the zoo. New York: MacMillan. Ross, Tony. (1988). Super doper Jezebel. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. Sanfield, Steve. (1995). Bit by bit. New York: Philomel. Tabeck, Simms. (1997). There was an old lady who swallowed a fly. New York: Viking. Thornhill, Jan. (1989). The wildlife 123. New York: Simon & Schuster for Young Readers. Thornhill, Jan. (1990). The wildlife A-B-C. New York: Simon & Schuster for Young Readers. Williams, Linda. (1986). The little old lady who was not afraid of anything. New York: Thomas Crowell. Williams, Sue. (1992). I went walking. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Young, Ed. (1992). Seven blind mice. New York: Philomel. Zieffert, Harriet. (1999). First night. New York: GP Putnam’s Sons. Pattern stories are much like a beginning swimmer’s water wings. They are useful for moving learning forward but are not an end in themselves,

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just as staying afloat with water wings is not equivalent to swimming across the pool unaided. As soon as students are able to dictate sentences in English without imitating specific language patterns, procedures appropriate for intermediate learners can be used.

SUMMARY Beginners’ oral language skills are developed through meaningful activities related to the student’s daily life. As the student is ready, reading instruction begins with the development of a personalized reading vocabulary that includes self-selected words. Soon, the student begins dictating statements, using language patterns as models. Reinforcement activities strengthen students’ oral expression, help them comprehend written English, and prepare them for more challenging activities at the intermediate level. The transition to the intermediate level is effected by the use of texts with patterned language that are used as models for students’ own dictations. Lessons in word recognition and writing are also part of beginning students’ programs. These aspects of instruction are addressed in Chapters 5 and 6.

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3 Reading From Experience for Intermediate Students

I

n an LEA context, ELLs are considered intermediate students when they are making good progress toward understanding spoken English, are able to conduct simple conversations in English, and have had some exposure to reading instruction in English, perhaps as beginners with the reading activities described in the previous chapter. Intermediate students still need considerable practice with English as an oral language, but they already understand that written words are a code for language used orally. They are ready for more advanced reading instruction in English and will be maximally successful when their lessons are meaningful to them personally and are conducted in a nonthreatening environment. As is true for beginners, intermediate students may be of any age.

PROCEDURES FOR INTERMEDIATE STUDENTS Intermediate students benefit from a step-by-step plan for developing reading skills that is an extension of the beginning-level LEA activities described in the previous chapter. Students formulate statements that the teacher writes down so that the teacher and students together construct the basic reading material. Comprehension of written English is accomplished 43

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with ease since students read language that is highly meaningful and relevant to their personal lives. They develop their reading vocabularies through many contacts with the familiar words of their dictated accounts. The reading activities are made gradually more challenging as the lessons proceed, but the pace of learning is determined by what each student is able to handle comfortably. The teacher is consistently supportive, accepting the students’ oral English and adjusting reading activities and pacing to promote success. Learners are given increasing opportunities to read materials other than their dictated accounts to widen their reading horizons while building their basic reading skills, and they also engage in writing concurrently with their reading activities. While focusing on students’ literacy skills, the teacher also helps them gain a greater command of English orally. In addition, the instruction includes attention to wordrecognition strategies (e.g., phonetic analysis) and writing. These elements are discussed in Chapters 5 and 6, respectively.

Basic Instructional Plan This plan is organized into daily instructional units for a small group of students or for an individual student. It can be adapted for use in a regular classroom, a special ELL classroom, or a tutorial setting. We have designed the lessons to be completed in five days. Some learners may need more time; others less. On some days, only these recommended tasks can be completed; on other days, other activities can be added, such as reading to students, talking with them, having them play language games to increase their fluency with English, or having them read other-author materials that contain many of the words that appear in their dictated accounts. We focus in this section only on the creation and use of dictated accounts to make clear the sequence that results in effective learning. After the discussion of dictated accounts, we suggest a variety of other activities that are useful additions to the intermediate student’s instructional program. Day 1: Building a Context and Creating the Dictated Account The first day involves two instructional purposes: building a context for reading that stimulates students’ use of oral English and creating a dictated account that reflects students’ English usage. Both purposes are accomplished in a supportive context that builds students’ confidence as learners. Building a Context for Reading. To develop a meaningful context for dictating and reading, students first talk in English about an experience of significant, personal interest. The more immediate and personally relevant the topic, the more readily students share their thoughts in English. Here are

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some ideas for experiences that usually stimulate good discussion. These can be modified to suit the ages and interests of particular students. • Take students on a walk around the school or neighborhood. Have them observe and talk about the people, animals, plants, buildings, cars, weather conditions, and other notable aspects of the place. • Engage students in preparing a simple dish. Invite them to note and talk about the ingredients, utensils, processes, and enjoyment of eating the finished product. • Create a classroom herb or flower garden. Give each student a pot to tend, or have the group work together on one large planter. Encourage students to talk about the steps in the process and how to care for the plants. • Have students bring in photographs of family, friends, or places, focusing either on their current home or on their homeland. Have the group discuss the pictures, comparing and contrasting what they see. • Engage students in a craft such as weaving, origami, or puppet making, noting and discussing the materials and processes they use and each other’s completed items. • Put a mystery object in a paper bag. Have students guess what the object is by feeling it and asking questions. Encourage them to speculate about all the things that could be in the bag, given what they feel. • Engage students in a discussion of a topic they have been learning in another subject area. A concept from science, a historical event, the rules of a sport, or the creation of an art project can provoke lively discussion as well as reinforce content area learning. • As holidays and other significant events occur, engage students in activities and conversations about these. You may wish to focus on American holidays and customs, typical seasonal activities in the local area, or anniversaries of important historical or legislative events. • Engage students in experiences with significant flora and fauna of the area. Trips to a local zoo, bird-watching near the school, or observations of noteworthy local geographical features can all stimulate good discussion. The key to choosing an effective experience is to understand and make use of the learners’ particular tastes and interests. As students become familiar with the LEA process, they usually begin suggesting topics and experiences. With any topic, the goal is to give students opportunities to hear and use English in natural settings. A variety of topics encourages students to hear and use many new words, phrases, and idioms. The purposes of the discussion are to draw out the students’ ideas, build their speaking vocabularies, and bolster their confidence. Use openended questions to encourage them to describe, explain, or react to the

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experience. Accept their statements without correcting their usage and supply words as needed. Students’ practice with oral English is valuable in its own right at this point. The conversation also encourages them to formulate thoughts in English that they can articulate when it is time to craft the dictated account. When they are working in a small group, the discussion also helps to build camaraderie. The collaborative effort helps reduce students’ anxieties and increases their enjoyment for learning. The length of the discussions depends on the age, attention, and willingness of the learners to talk. Five or six minutes may be plenty of time on some occasions. At other times, students will sustain the conversation for much longer. The length of the discussion is not as important as the chance for everyone to have a say about the experience and to enjoy the conversation. Creating the Dictated Account. Have a large piece of lined chart paper and a marker for recording the students’ statements. It is best to have students clustered in a group around the chart so that they can easily watch as their words are written down. Alternatively, use a computer connected to a projector. The first few times students create a dictated account with you, briefly explain the procedure by saying something like this: We have had an interesting discussion about ____. Now it’s time to write down some of your ideas on this chart so that we can read them. How shall we begin? If students are uncertain, provide a model statement as a starter, as this teacher did with a group of four students in a fifth-grade class. The group had gone outside the building with the teacher for a brief walk to observe what was going on in the neighborhood. This was their first experience with creating a dictated account, and they did not know how to start: Teacher:

When we went outside just now, Hung saw a fire engine in the street. I’ll write that down as our first sentence: Hung saw a fire engine in the street. What else do you have to say?

Student A: Fire engine made a loud noise! Teacher:

Yes, it did! We’ll put that down next. What else did we see outside?

Student B:

A police car was after the fire engine.

Teacher:

Yes, a police car was right behind the fire engine, wasn’t it? That’s a good idea to include. We’ll write that next.

At this point, the dictated account looked like this: Hung saw a fire engine in the street. Fire engine made a loud noise. A police car was after the fire engine.

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Exact Language or Not? An issue when taking dictation is whether to record statements exactly as the students give them without making corrections in English usage or to make corrections so that the account reflects error-free English usage. In considering this issue, it is important to reflect on the purpose of the activity and the intended outcomes. The goal in creating a dictated account is to construct a text that reflects the students’ experience and language so that when the students read it, their memory of what they did and said matches what is on the page they are reading. This situation enables students to proceed from a position of strength because the content and language patterns of the text are highly meaningful and familiar. To elaborate, here is an example of what can go awry. Student B, contributing to “Our Walk” earlier, said, “A police car was after the fire engine.” A teacher might be tempted to rephrase the statement to conform to more common English usage, suggesting either “A police car followed the fire engine.” or “A police car came after the fire engine.” However, Student B will almost certainly remember the original statement and thus can become confused when reading the account. Text:

A police car followed the fire engine.

Student:

A police car was after the fire engine.

That is, when looking at the word “followed” in the text, the student will say “was,” and when looking at the word “the,” the student will say “after.” Making changes in the students’ language when taking dictation is best avoided because changes are likely to confuse the students when they read the account, and their confusion is likely to interfere with their language learning. That is, instead of focusing on learning to read the words in the account, they will shift their focus to speaking accurately. For these reasons, it is best to accept and record the students’ language, including errors and awkward elements. Accepting their statements will enable them to read those statements accurately. Also, because their language has been accepted, they will be encouraged to continue contributing to dictated accounts. Because their dictations will always reflect their oral English usage, they will use fewer awkward and incorrect statements in their dictations as their oral English improves. To explore this issue further, let’s look at another way the exchange described earlier might have gone: Teacher:

What else did we see outside?

Student B:

A police car was after the fire engine.

Teacher:

Yes, a police car was right behind the fire engine, wasn’t it? Say your idea again.

Student B:

A police car was right behind the fire engine.

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Teacher:

How shall I write your idea?

Student B:

A police car was right behind the fire engine.

Teacher:

OK. I’ll write that next.

In this instance, the student spontaneously repeated the teacher’s statement, hearing the difference and readily adopting the new usage. The teacher acknowledged the oral revision, gave the student another chance to state the idea, and accepted the student’s decision to revise. If the student had not noticed and adopted the teacher’s revised phrasing, the teacher would have used the student’s original statement. Although the primary purpose of the pre-dictation discussion is not to improve students’ oral skills, the teacher can provide modeling, encouragement, and informal reminders that can have an impact on students’ usage. Some students may rephrase ideas on their own to reflect a teacher’s reply, as described above, or may revise because of what another student says. Others may be particularly concerned about accuracy and will ask for correction even if the teacher has encouraged them not to worry about their usage. If the revision is clearly the students’ own, then it can be retained in the dictated account because the student is likely to remember the revision. Engaging students in plenty of pre-dictation talk helps to ensure that students’ dictated statements reflect their best current efforts with English. As students share ideas, they have a chance to use English in a comfortable context, and with encouragement will try out different ways of stating their ideas. Another way to proceed in crafting a dictated account is to listen to their conversation and select statements to add to the account, including some, but not all, of the statements students make. If students use only a few words over and over in their dictations, introduce new topics and spend more time in discussion before the dictation to broaden their vocabularies. Length, Title, and First Readings. A dictated account should contain enough statements to provide a variety of words and sentences but not so many as to overwhelm the readers. Generally, three or four statements will be enough, but as many as six or seven can be used with some groups. When working with a small group, a good rule of thumb is to have each student contribute at least one statement. If some are not willing to contribute, however, the account will still be meaningful to them because they have been present at its creation. If students have more ideas, just say that the account has enough for now but that they can write their own extensions later. After ending the dictation, encourage students to think of a title. A title is not strictly necessary, but asking for one gives students a chance to generalize from the details they included to a topic or main idea. If students cannot think of a title, you may wish to supply one to help them understand what a title is.

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Immediately after completing the account, read it aloud to the students while they watch. Read with natural intonation and pacing. Run your hand or a pointer smoothly under the words as you read, making sure students are looking at the words. Then have students read along in unison with you several times, using a pointer to pace them. Finally, invite one or two volunteers to read along with you. These repeated readings serve several purposes. First, students hear the account as a whole and can savor it as a reflection of their experience and a representation of their language. Also, by hearing the account several times and reading it chorally, they begin to learn it by heart. Their memory of the account becomes a strength on which they can rely as they work with it over the next few days. Finally, they begin to associate the words they hear with their written counterparts. Some students will learn and retain a few words although the intent of these first readings is not mastery of words. To summarize, here are the steps in the process of creating a dictated account: 1. Involve students in a discussion, encouraging everyone’s participation, to develop students’ fluency with English, build their speaking vocabularies, allow them time to formulate their thoughts for dictation, and (if students are working as a group) involve them in a collaborative effort. 2. Invite students to offer statements for inclusion in the dictated account, aiming to get a contribution from everyone if students are working in a group. Record the statements on chart paper, writing each student’s exact words. 3. Read the account to the group (or individual) once or twice while students watch and listen. 4. Read the account with the group (or individual) two or three times. Day 2: Rereading the Dictated Account and Learning Words The second day of instruction involves three purposes related to the dictated account: rereading the account silently, rereading it orally, and taking the first steps to mastering the words in the account. To prepare, have the original chart and a copy of the account on 8.5 × 11 paper. The copy should have the learners’ statements exactly as they appear on the chart and should use double or triple spacing for visual ease. See Figure 3.1 for an example of a prepared copy of “Our Walk.” Also, prepare a Sequential List of the words in the account. This is a display in columns of all the words from the account in the same order in which they appeared in the account. See Figure 3.2 for the Sequential List of the words in “Our Walk.” Make a copy of the account and of the Sequential List for each student. Using the prepared materials, students begin learning words through a sequence of activities that involves meaningful repetition to ensure

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Using the Language Experience Approach With English Language Learners Figure 3.1

A Dictated Account Our Walk Hung saw a fire engine in the street. Engine made a loud noise. A police car was after the fire engine. We see birds and squirrel.

Figure 3.2

A Sequential List

our

in

noise

fire

walk

the

a

engine

Hung

street

police

we

saw

engine

car

see

a

made

was

birds

fire

a

after

and

engine

loud

the

squirrel

retention (Nessel & Jones, 1981; Stauffer, 1980). Mastery of all the words is not the goal. In fact, students in the same group, working with the same account, will almost certainly learn different numbers of words, and few will learn them all right away. The three-step sequence is designed to accommodate to different rates and extents of learning. In preparing, you may wish to make note of any vocabulary or language usage issues in the dictated account that need instructional attention when language usage is the focus. For example, “Our Walk” shows difficulties in the use of articles before nouns (the, a, an) and the need for a better way to express the words “was after.” Reading the Account Silently. Gather the group around the chart and read the account aloud to and with them to refresh their memories. Give each student a copy. Have them read it silently once or twice and underline any words they are sure they know. The underlining focuses students on individual words within the context of the complete account and builds their confidence by making them aware of what they know. However, accurate self-assessment can be a challenge. Some students, exercising caution, will underline few words. Others, overconfident, will underline almost every word. Still others may not quite

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understand what to do, so their underlining will not reflect what they know. After doing this in several accounts, most students will become increasingly accurate in their self-appraisals, and this leads to pride in seeing real growth over time. Reading the Account Orally. Have several students take turns reading the account aloud. If a student hesitates on a word, supply it to maintain the flow of the reading. You may wish to use a fresh copy for each student to keep a record of that student’s oral reading by marking unknown words, noting pronunciation problems, and indicating additions or omissions. Do this recording openly if you choose to do it. If students ask about it, matter-of-factly say you are making notes so as to know how best to help them learn. Later, compare your record with the student’s underlining to compare the student’s self-knowledge and confidence with your own assessment. Reading the Sequential List. Invite students to take turns reading the Sequential List aloud. Keep a record of each student’s word identification on your own copy by placing a check mark next to each word the student identifies without hesitation. The altered visual arrangement makes the task of identifying words more challenging and helps students learn to recognize words outside the context of the original account. Figure 3.3 illustrates the tracking of Hung’s reading of the Sequential List from “Our Walk.” Checks indicate words Hung recognized immediately when reading the list. Unchecked words were not identified. You may wish to record all the students’ responses on one copy of the list, using a check-mark column for each student, or you may prefer to use a copy of the Sequential List for each student. The record you keep of the

Figure 3.3

Sequential List: Hung’s Responses

our

√

in

√

noise

walk

√

the

√

a

Hung

√

street

√

police

saw

√

engine

√

car

a

√

made

fire

√

engine

√

√

fire

√

engine

√

√

we

√

√

see

√

was

birds

√

a

after

and

loud

the

squirrel

√

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words each student identifies will help in monitoring students’ word learning over time and in planning later instruction. Also, you will use this information in planning for the next day’s activities. This activity is the last for this second day. If students have difficulty with the Sequential List, the steps may be repeated the following day before beginning the next round of activities. Day 3: Reinforcing Word Learning The third day of instruction involves three purposes related to the dictated account: rereading the account silently, rereading it orally, and seeing known words from the account in a new context. To prepare, have available the original chart and students’ copies of the dictated account. Also, for each student, prepare a Scrambled List I of the words in the account, using the student’s Sequential List as a base. Scrambled List I is a display in mixed-up order of only the words identified the previous day from the Sequential List. Begin and end the list with words that will probably be easy for the student to recognize. Spread the more difficult words as evenly as possible throughout the rest of the list. It is usually not necessary to include duplicate words (words from the Sequential List that appear more than once), but including such duplicates for some students can increase the chance for success when they read Scrambled List I. See Figure 3.4 for Hung’s Scrambled List I.

Figure 3.4

Hung’s Scrambled List I fire

the

birds

police

our

car

Hung

saw

engine

street

in

a

noise

squirrel

we

see

walk

Reading the Account Silently. Return the students’ underlined copies to them and have them read it silently once or twice. Then ask them to underline all the words they know, putting a second line underneath any word they marked the day before and believe they still know at this point. Some students may also recognize a few words this time that they

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did not recognize the day before. This task reinforces previous learning and gives students a chance to demonstrate any new learning. Reading the Account Orally. Have students take turns reading the account aloud. Add to the record you kept yesterday of each student’s reading, again noting any difficulties students have recognizing or pronouncing words. This second record of oral reading provides more information about learning and again suggests where further instruction is needed. Reading Scrambled List I. Distribute to each student the Scrambled List I that you prepared for that student. Have students read their lists silently and then take turns reading them aloud. Focusing on the subset of known words at this point reinforces each student’s previous learning and bolsters confidence. Because the words are not in the same order in which they appeared previously, reading Scrambled List I is a more challenging task than reading the Sequential List. However, because each list contains only words that the student has recognized before, the chances of success in identifying these words are high. Again, keep a record of each student’s performance on your own copy of the list. Day 4: Reinforcing Word Learning The fourth day of instruction involves one purpose related to the dictated account: having students see known words in a new context. To prepare, create for each student a Scrambled List II that includes, in a mixed-up order, only the words the student identified on Scrambled List I. See Figure 3.5 for Hung’s Scrambled List II. This day’s only activity related to this dictated account is to have students read their Scrambled List II silently, then aloud. Keep a record of each student’s performance. Because so much of the original context has now been removed, this task is ordinarily the most challenging. Some

Figure 3.5

Hung’s Scrambled List II police

the

Hung

fire

engine

in

a

we

noise

walk

street

birds

see

car

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students may not recognize some words at this point that they recognized earlier. To keep the emphasis on success, you may want to have the student find any unidentified words in the original account, read the sentences in which they appear, and try to identify them by using the sentence context. The sentence context will usually prompt the student to recognize any forgotten words. Some teachers may be concerned about including on the scrambled lists only words that were unhesitatingly identified by the student in an earlier, easier task. This practice keeps the focus on success and accommodates to each student’s pace of learning. Any words that were not identified in an easier context will almost certainly not be recognized in a more challenging one. Any words not included on scrambled lists are bound to appear in future dictation once they are well established in the students’ speaking vocabularies, and they can be learned then. Day 5: Reinforcing and Extending Word Learning The fifth day of instruction involves one purpose related to the dictated account: supplying students with permanent representations of known words. To prepare, print the known words from Scrambled List II on word cards. Use small, word-sized cards for the Word Bank (see Figure 3.6) so that the student can easily move them around on a desk top and store them. A 3 × 5 index card can be divided into four or six smaller word cards.

Figure 3.6

Hung’s Word Bank Cards

a

car

birds

see

engine

police

street

Hung

fire

the

we

Ask the students to read the cards in their card sets. Each word that is identified immediately goes into the student’s Word Bank. This can be a small container (e.g., a margarine tub) or a large envelope sturdy enough to withstand much use. Any words that are not identified immediately are put aside. Explain to students that their Word Banks are for collecting all the words they know well and will use regularly in class. Assure them that they will learn many more words as time goes on.

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To summarize, the work with dictated accounts includes these student activities: Day 1: Discuss topic and dictate account Day 2: Read account silently Read account orally Read Sequential List Day 3: Read account silently Read account orally Read Scrambled List I Day 4: Read Scrambled List II Day 5: Obtain and read Word Bank cards Put cards in Word Bank Creating dictated accounts, reading the accounts, and learning to recognize words from the accounts are activities that involve students in reading as quickly and easily as possible. These activities give students regular practice with reading highly familiar texts. As they gain confidence, they also need to apply their growing skills to a variety of other reading activities, including the reading of other-author materials. The next section explores how to reinforce and extend the learning students begin with their dictated accounts.

Reinforcement and Extension Activities Practice with previously dictated accounts, Word Bank activities, and experience with a variety of other-author materials round out an LEA program for intermediate students. Effective use each day of these additional activities helps the student build confidence as a reader, acquire a solid reading vocabulary, focus on reading as a meaning-making process, and transfer newly learned skills to a variety of texts. Some computer-based language-learning activities may be a useful addition to intermediate students’ instructional programs. Activities With Dictated Accounts Regular reinforcement and extension work with dictated accounts puts the focus on reading as meaning-making. Simply reading a dictated account during the five-day instructional cycle does not prepare intermediate students adequately for reading other-author materials. Students also need to read their accounts as they will later read other materials. Daily experience with one or more of the following activities will keep the focus on reading for meaning and enjoyment. Some of these activities also

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encourage oral exchanges between students, providing additional opportunities to communicate in English. 1. Two or more students select an account and act it out for the class. To perform well, they must discuss the events and decide how best to portray them. 2. Students select several related accounts and reproduce them in the format of a newspaper. Reading through all of their accounts and deciding which ones are related thematically encourages students to focus on the texts in new ways. 3. Copies of some dictated accounts are put on index cards or half sheets of paper; the titles are placed on other cards or slips of paper. Students shuffle each deck and match the titles with the accounts, discussing their reasons. If students have dictated different accounts, they can trade and match one another’s accounts and titles. 4. Students read their accounts into a tape recorder or computer so that the account and the recording can be used as a read-along activity by other students. 5. After students have dictated accounts about different topics, they organize them into chapters of a book for binding and adding to the classroom library. Individuals may also create their own collections of dictated accounts on topics such as “My Family” or “My Favorite Activities.” Accounts related to content-area studies can be collected and placed in a booklet to accompany work in that class. Accounts about American holidays and customs, local seasonal activities, animals or plants, anniversaries of important historical events, and geographical features can be published as books for the classroom library. 6. An account is copied onto sentence strips, and the strips are mixed up. Students organize the strips in a logical order and then compare this sequence with the original account. This activity is especially effective when students are reordering sentences from one another’s accounts. 7. Two or more students read and compare their accounts on the same topic. They can discuss the similarities and differences or can represent the comparisons and contrasts in a graphic such as a Venn diagram. Word Bank Activities Word Bank activities give intermediate students repeated contact with words from their accounts, and this repetition aids retention as students build their reading vocabularies. Word Bank words are further removed from the context of the account than the structured lists and so are especially useful in developing immediate recognition of words independent

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of familiar associations. Daily experience with the activities as shown below provides effective reinforcement. Some of these activities also encourage oral exchanges between students, providing additional opportunities to communicate in English. 1. Students work in pairs to read aloud their word cards to each other. 2. Students sort their word cards into categories (e.g., things to eat or things that are not eaten, things that are alive or not alive, things that are larger or smaller than a book). 3. Students pair up. Each chooses several word cards to share with the partner. They talk about the meanings of the words and the personal associations they have with them. 4. At the end of the dictation cycle, students work in small groups to show one another their new words and explain their meanings. 5. Students connect words in their Word Banks with illustrations from magazines. For example, if the illustration is of a red boat near a riverbank, a student might select such words as red, water, tree, or fun to go with the picture. After students have found some words, they take turns showing their pictures and words to each other. Activities With Other-Author Materials After the first week of instruction, students benefit from daily browsing through other-author materials. Books, magazines, and newspapers that match student interests allow for a choice of reading materials in the classroom. Some students will find known words in these materials; others may only enjoy the illustrations at first. As they gain experience with these less familiar texts, they will recognize more and more words and will begin reading sentences and paragraphs. Talking about what they are learning from these materials, they continue developing their speaking vocabularies and oral fluency. Here are some suggested activities: 1. Students browse through the classroom library, find known words in the materials, enjoy the illustrations, and talk to each other about the books. 2. Students individually read or browse through other-author texts and discuss what they learned with a partner or small group. 3. Using old newspapers and magazines, students cut out known words and arrange them attractively on a large piece of colorful paper or on a notebook page to create a word poster. They can show their posters to others, reading the words they have included. Some students may wish to create single-topic word posters with a focus on sports, pets, or some other interest.

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4. Students listen to and read along with audio books. English-speaking classmates or other native speakers may be willing to create the taped material if published audio books are not available. 5. Students view and discuss short videos or animations. Visual presentations without accompanying audio encourage students to talk about what they see. 6. Individuals or small groups put copies of their dictated accounts in a special folder to be read by others in the class. Accounts dictated by one group are other-author texts for other groups. 7. Students listen to teacher-read stories and comment on what they liked about the stories. If students have a favorite story, they may wish to take turns acting it out as a simple, improvised dramatization. Computer-Based Language Activities Many computer-based programs are now available as resources for teaching immediately useful English words and language structures and for helping students practice their new skills. These materials may be used for additional lessons or may provide ideas about language elements to emphasize. The list below includes some of the most widely used and readily available programs. Some are intended for use with young students, but all can be used successfully with younger or older students. BBC Learning English www.bbc.co.uk Berlitz Kids Materials www.berlitz.us Random House Living Language www.randomhouse.com Rosetta Stone Learn a Language www.rosettastone.com Tell Me More English www.auralog.com World Language www.worldlanguage.com World of Reading www.wor.com

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SCHEDULING FOR INSTRUCTION When one dictated account has been used for the five-day sequence, work should already be underway on the next account. With each new dictation, some previously used words will be used again, so each account reinforces some previous learning. As students’ oral English fluency increases, they find it easier to read written English. Some rapid learners may be able to dictate a new account every other day or every third day. Others may need six or seven days with one account before dictating a new one. The schedule of dictation can be adjusted to suit individuals’ learning pace. One possible schedule of basic dictation and reinforcement activities is illustrated in Figure 3.7. This example shows how the intermediate students in one small group might spend their time after they have been dictating for several weeks. Figure 3.7

A Sample Weekly Schedule for Dictation and Related Activities

Monday

Thursday

Scrambled List II (Account 8)

Scrambled List II (Account 9)

Discuss musical instruments

Reread previous dictated accounts

Dictate Account 9 (about musical instruments)

Word Bank activities

Reread previous dictated accounts

Dictate Account 10 (about popcorn preparation)

Browse classroom library View/discuss video clip about musical instruments Word Bank activities

Discuss topic

Browse classroom library Friday New Word Bank cards (from Account 9)

Tuesday

Sequential List (Account 10)

Reread Account 9

Create thematic word poster

Sequential List (Account 9)

Word Bank activities

New Word Bank cards (from Account 8)

Browse classroom library

Share previous dictated accounts with classmate Word Bank activities Browse classroom library Wednesday Reread Account 9 Scrambled List I (Account 9) Word Bank activities Browse classroom library View and discuss video about popcorn Class popcorn preparation activity

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GROUP VERSUS INDIVIDUAL DICTATION The plan described here may be used with a small group of intermediate students or an individual who is functioning at this level. There are advantages and challenges to each variation. Group discussion of an experience stimulates greater oral language activity because the energy of the group encourages individual participation. Shy students may feel comfortable using their still imperfect English because they see their peers’ ideas accepted by the teacher. Students may also enjoy a group discussion more because they are communicating with peers as well as with the teacher. On the other hand, when the teacher is working with an individual, the teacher can devote complete attention to the learner’s ideas and may be able to encourage the student to speak more and thus build fluency more rapidly. Also, the discussion can be fully centered on the individual’s observations and perceptions, providing the student with maximum support. Finally, the individual account can be prepared on regular notebook-sized paper instead of on chart paper. Some teachers may prefer to use a computer for composing the account, inviting the student to watch the words appear on the screen during dictation. When accounts are in electronic form, they are easily saved and can be printed out as needed. Taking dictation from a group can be a challenge for a teacher because each member needs to be encouraged to contribute while the more outspoken students need to be kept from dominating the dictation, perhaps by use of a turn-taking routine that involves each student having a say before anyone can make a new contribution. In a group, individual students’ contributions are likely to give the others ideas, and the resulting mix of perspectives and contributions brings richness to the dictated account. In contrast, when only one student is dictating, turn-taking is not an issue, but the individual also does not benefit from hearing others and getting ideas from them about what to say and how to say it. Once a group account is completed, each student needs a chance to read it silently and aloud, and readings also need to be scheduled during the week for added reinforcement. In addition, each student needs to underline known words, work through the structured lists, and obtain Word Bank cards for known words. Completing these steps for individuals within a group is more time consuming and requires more careful organization than completing the steps for just one individual. For example, in a group setting, each student’s copies of the account and structured lists need to be easily distinguished from those of the other students in the group. At the same time, group members usually provide good support and encouragement to each other at each step of the way and are likely to help keep things organized once they understand the steps in the process. Over time, learning and retention may not be as strong for students working in a group because individuals usually retain fewer words from a group account than from accounts they dictated individually. This is because other students’ vocabularies and expressions are usually not as

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easy for the individuals to remember as their own, especially if the group members speak several different native languages. However, if the group members are compatible, the advantages of their working together and communicating with one another may outweigh the challenges. Also, overall dictating time is shortened when a group creates an account together in comparison with several individuals dictating accounts separately. Less time for dictation allows more time for individual work with the accounts and skill-building activities. Because LEA is such a flexible program, teachers may effectively use individual accounts, group accounts, or a combination of the two to meet student needs. They may follow a group discussion with individually dictated accounts, or they may cycle students through a series of individual and group dictating experiences, providing the advantages of each to all students.

TRANSITION TO THE ADVANCED LEVEL Most intermediate students need to continue the intermediate program for several months or longer to build strong skills with oral English, develop comfort with reading, and acquire a substantial reading vocabulary. In addition, they need exposure to a variety of other-author materials before they are ready for more advanced activities. As a rule, intermediate students can be considered ready for advanced work when they can • demonstrate confidence when using English orally and have developed reasonable fluency, • consistently recognize at least 75% of the words on their first readings of dictated accounts, • show high levels of comfort when reading dictated accounts and other materials in English, and • express eagerness to learn more and read more challenging materials.

SUMMARY The reading abilities of intermediate students are developed through student-dictated accounts that are used in a cycle of activities that develop comprehension and fluency while building reading vocabulary. The dictated accounts are based on experiences that are meaningful, relevant, and of interest to the students. Students find the texts highly readable because they reflect the students’ own language. Repeated contacts with the dictated accounts and related activities reinforce and extend learning. The program also enables ongoing assessment of oral language needs. The same basic plan may be used for individual or group instruction. Lessons in word recognition and writing are also part of intermediate students’ programs. These aspects of instruction are addressed in Chapters 5 and 6.

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n an LEA context, ELLs are considered advanced students when they have some ability to communicate in English and are proficient speakers and readers in their native languages. If they have participated in an LEA program, they have also been successful with intermediate LEA activities. These learners understand and are comfortable with the reading process. They do not need to learn to read but rather need to learn to read English. Also, they need to refine their reading abilities with a wide variety of texts while also learning the subtleties of English (e.g., conventions, idioms, colloquialisms). As is true for beginners and intermediate students, advanced students may be of any age. It is tempting to assume that confident, talkative students are advanced students for LEA purposes. However, a student’s actual performance with the activities in this chapter should be the criterion for deciding if the label advanced is appropriate. Some students who speak English with some fluency and who can read their native language will struggle with the activities. Because of the flexibility of LEA, students can easily shift from advanced activities to intermediate and back again as needed, depending on their actual classroom performance.

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PROCEDURES FOR ADVANCED STUDENTS The teaching plan for advanced learners is similar to that for intermediate students; it is based on student-dictated accounts that reflect experiences the students find memorable and meaningful. However, the teacher helps students rephrase ideas as needed so that the dictated account reflects accepted conventions of English usage. Reading skills and oral language facility are developed together, using the accounts as the basic reading materials and as models of English usage. Additional language and reading activities are included in the instructional programs to refine and extend skills. Although dictated accounts form the core of the program, their use diminishes as students can comfortably read other-author materials.

Basic Teaching Plan This plan is organized into daily instructional units for a small group of students or for an individual student. It can be adapted for use in a regular classroom, a special ELL classroom, or a tutorial setting. We have organized the lessons to be completed in five days. Some learners may need more time; others less. We focus in this section only on the use of dictated accounts to make clear the sequence that results in effective learning. We then suggest additional activities to refine and extend advanced students’ skills. Day 1: Building a Context and Creating the Dictated Account The first day involves two instructional purposes: building a context for reading that stimulates students’ use of oral English and creating a dictated account that reflects students’ English usage. Both purposes are accomplished in a supportive context that builds students’ confidence as learners. Building a Context for Reading. Advanced learners in an LEA program need context-building to prepare for dictation, but they may require less time for this preparation because of their greater familiarity with reading. Also, advanced students usually respond well to a broad range of experiences for dictation because of their fluency and confidence with English. Although they may be interested in discussing and dictating about familiar, personal experiences, they are also likely to talk about their subject area learning and what they discover from television, radio, and the Internet. Literary works can also serve as effective stimuli for discussion and dictation for advanced students. Stories, novels, and poems broaden their experience, provide useful models of English usage, and extend their English vocabularies. Fables and folklore from English-speaking cultures will interest many, as will tales from their native cultures, translated into

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English. After discussing a story and their reactions to it, students may dictate a brief retelling or summary of the story, a new ending, a character analysis, or a comparison of the events with those of another story. Videos and animations on a variety of subjects can serve as other effective stimuli for discussion and dictation. These resources engage students and supplement their knowledge of English with vivid pictures that aid comprehension. Some examples are film versions of fictional narratives, documentaries, film tours of geographical areas, and dramatized historical events. The emphasis may be on America or the students’ native countries. Students may be given printed copies of a film’s narration or a summary of the content before the viewing. Reading a script or summary with teacher assistance can help students prepare for the viewing; discussion and rereading after the viewing helps students review the content before the dictation. Peregoy and Boyle (2005) present additional ideas for using films with ELLs. Materials from subject-area lessons can also serve as effective stimuli for discussion and dictation, and reviewing the material reinforces students’ learning. Here are four examples: 1. Students discuss and dictate about science class experiments, then illustrate the steps on their copies of the accounts. 2. Students discuss and dictate about key events in history, creating straightforward retellings of events or livelier forms, such as invented dialogues. 3. Students formulate and dictate their own word problems, modeling theirs on those from mathematics lessons. Small groups create different problems and exchange them. 4. Students discuss and dictate about the sports they are learning in physical education class or the projects they are working on in music or art classes. Such dictations are illustrated with drawings and/or audio creations. Creating the Dictated Account. The dictated account is created in the same way for advanced students as it is for intermediate students. In brief, the steps are as follows: 1. Involve students in discussing the topic, encouraging participation by all. Discussion gives students a chance to develop fluency with English, build their English speaking vocabularies, formulate their thoughts, and (if students are working as a group) engage in a collaborative effort. 2. Invite students to offer statements for the dictated account, aiming to get a contribution from everyone. Record the statements on chart

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paper, writing each student’s exact words or record them in an electronic document. 3. Read the account to the group (or individual) once or twice, using natural pace and cadence and pointing smoothly to the words while pronouncing them. 4. Read the account with the group (or individual) two or three times. Then number the account (#1 for the first account the group or individual has dictated, #2 for the second dictation, and so on). Next, make copies of the account for instructional use—one for yourself and one for each student who was included in the dictation. On your copy, make notes of usage and vocabulary issues that you want to address on the following day. The account and teacher notes in Figure 4.1 illustrate the outcome of these first steps for an individual. The learner had gone to the beach with friends and had taken photos. She brought these to show the class and used one as the basis for her dictated account. Day 2: Rereading the Dictated Account and Making Revisions The second day involves two purposes: rereading the account and revising statements with teacher help. You, the teacher, make the initial decisions about what should be revised, doing so with consideration for Figure 4.1

A Dictated Account and the Teacher’s Assessment of Needs The Beach #1

My friends is in the beach. They are looking to the north. And they think that the people that live there is having cold. They are looking for shells. Too they swam one time. They eat very much because they have hungry. The ocean is blue and sometimes it looks green. Assessment of needs: 1. Use of prepositions on and in 2. Use of phrases to be hungry, to be cold, and others with the same construction 3. Use of also and too 4. Review of subject-verb agreement 5. Uses of that and who 6. Vocabulary (“They swam one time” although not incorrect can be said less awkwardly.)

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the impact the revisions may have on the student’s feelings, confidence, and language learning. To prepare, have your copy of the account (with the needs assessment) and a copy for the student. Rereading the Account. Give the student the account, keeping your copy nearby for reference. Read the account aloud exactly as it is written, reading smoothly to provide a model of fluent English and pointing to the words as you read them. Next, have the student read the account silently and then orally once or twice. Supply words as needed when the student reads, and avoid correcting errors in usage that are reflected in the language. The purpose of these first readings is to acknowledge and honor the student’s initial effort. If, after a second reading, a student does not easily recognize at least 75% of the words in the account, it may be wise to shift the student to intermediate level LEA activities for a while. Keep this possibility in mind as you proceed with the next steps. Revising the Account. Have ready a clean sheet of paper (or a new electronic document) for the revision of the account that you will prepare. Use the same number for this account as you used for the original (i.e., #1 for the revision of account #1, #2 for the revision of account #2). First, read the account aloud again while the student follows. Stop at the first point where an issue with usage or vocabulary occurs. Explain how the expression of the idea can be improved and have the student repeat the revised statement several times. To illustrate, here is a dialogue between the teacher and the student who dictated the account in Figure 4.1: Teacher:

My friends is in the beach. That’s a good beginning. Remember that “are” is the word we use when we mean more than one. My friends are . . . Also we say “at the beach,” not “in the beach.” My friends are at the beach. Say it after me: My friends are at the beach.

Student: My friends are at the beach. Teacher:

Again.

Student: My friends are at the beach. Teacher:

That’s right! (writing on the clean sheet of paper) Let’s revise that first statement. My friends are at the beach. Now let’s continue with your account. They are looking to the north. And they think that the people that live there is having cold. Those are also great ideas! Let me explain how to say that second idea: And they think that the people that live there are having cold weather. We say “people are” instead of “people is” and we say they are “having cold weather” instead of just “having cold.” And they think that the people that live there are having cold weather. Say

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it after me: And they think that the people that live there are having cold weather. Student: And they think that the people that live there are having cold weather. Weather is on TV, yes? Teacher:

Yes! We see the weather report every day on TV. Last night, the weather report said it would rain today. And it did. We’re having rainy weather today. Let’s say this sentence again. I’ll say it, then you say it. And they think that the people that live there are having cold weather.

Student: And they think that the people that live there are having cold weather. Teacher:

Excellent! (writing on the paper) We’ll revise that part, too. Here’s what we have so far (indicating that the student should look at the revision): My friends are at the beach. They are looking to the north. And they think that the people that live there are having cold weather. Read it with me.

Student: (reading along with the teacher) My friends are at the beach. They are looking to the north. And they think that the people that live there are having cold weather. Teacher:

Great! Let’s continue. They are looking for shells. Too they swam one time. That’s a good statement about the shells. And here’s how we can revise the next idea: Also they swam one time. “Also” has the same meaning as “too,” but it’s the word we usually use at the beginning of a sentence. Also, they swam one time. Say it after me.

Student: Also, they swam one time. Teacher:

That’s it. Watch how I write these two sentences. The first one is just fine (writing): They are looking for shells. And here’s the one we’re going to revise (writing): Also, they swam one time.

Student: Also, they swam one time. Teacher:

Right! Here’s what we have so far (indicating that the student should look at the revision): My friends are at the beach. They are looking to the north. And they think that the people that live there are having cold weather. They are looking for shells. Also, they swam one time. Read it with me.

Student: My friends are at the beach. They are looking to the north. And they think that the people that live there are having cold weather. They are looking for shells. Also, they swam one time.

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Teacher:

Excellent! Now let’s look at the next sentence. They eat very much because they have hungry. Another great detail! Here’s how we say that: They eat very much because they are hungry. We don’t say “they have hungry” but “they are hungry. Say it after me: They are hungry.

Student: They are hungry. Teacher:

Exactly! We’ll write that next (writing): They eat very much because they are hungry.

Student: They eat very much because they are hungry. Teacher:

Great! And the last sentence is perfect just as it is. So we just need to add that to the revision and we’ll be finished (writing): The ocean is blue and sometimes it looks green. Now follow along while I read the revision (reading and pointing to the words): My friends are at the beach. They are looking to the north. And they think that the people that live there are having cold weather. They are looking for shells. Also, they swam one time. They eat very much because they are hungry. The ocean is blue and sometimes it looks green. Now read it with me.

Student: (reading with the teacher) My friends are at the beach. They are looking to the north. And they think that the people that live there are having cold weather. They are looking for shells. Also, they swam one time. They eat very much because they are hungry. The ocean is blue and sometimes it looks green. Teacher Matilde Sanchez-Villalpando was working at Oxnard Community College (Oxnard, CA) when she devised this strategy for the ELLs in her classes. It’s a good example of how teachers can combine their use of LEA activities with work on specific elements of usage to help students communicate in English more effectively. Several principles underlie this strategy. First, the teacher avoids a rules-based explanation. For example, this teacher did not explain that friends is third person plural and therefore takes a third person plural verb. Rather, the explanation was simple and placed the emphasis on having the student repeat (imitate) the correct usage. Second, it is neither necessary nor desirable to revise everything that needs improvement. This teacher left the second “that” in the third sentence instead of changing it to the more appropriate “who,” deciding that this revision was not a priority. In addition, the teacher left unchanged the student’s shift from the present tense to the past, then back to the present. Furthermore, the teacher did not suggest rewording “they eat very much” to a statement that would have sounded better to the teacher’s ears. The priority was to attend to the most

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important deviations from conventional English without overwhelming the student. Third, repetition is used to build familiarity with new language patterns. In the example, the teacher asked the student to read the revised account from the beginning several times. This reinforced learning and also helped her see that the content and sequencing of her ideas were preserved. If a student becomes confused or seems discouraged with the number of changes, other planned revisions can be left undone. It is more important to make a few revisions that the student understands and remembers than to address every usage issue in the account and risk having the student retain none of them. Regardless of how many changes are made, the student needs to be an active participant, not just a passive recipient of a teacher’s corrections. Occasionally, you may wish to have the student suggest another way of saying an idea so as to make the process more collaborative. Rereading the Revised Account. After making revisions, give the student a copy of the revised account and keep one for yourself. First, have the student read the revision silently once or twice, then aloud. During the oral reading, supply any words the student does not recognize immediately. Also, keep notes on your copy of unknown words, pronunciation difficulties, and other evident needs. Keep the revised copy with your notes for later reference. Figure 4.2 shows the revised account in this example along with the teacher’s notes on the student’s first oral reading of the revision. It is interesting to note that one of the words the student did not recognize immediately was “weather,” a word the teacher added to the account. The teacher could tell from the student’s response that she understood the word and was thus assured that adding it would not result in confusion. Still, the student had not used the word originally, so it is not surprising that it remained unfamiliar. At this point in the process, if a student does not easily recognize at least 75% of the words in the revised account, the student is almost certainly not ready for LEA work as an advanced student and will make better progress by engaging in the intermediate-level activities described in Chapter 3. Day 3: Rereading the Revised Account On the third day, students read the account again for two purposes: to aid retention of previous learning and to identify words not recognized immediately so that they can be learned. For advanced students, the focus is on unknown words rather than known words because, being more familiar with the reading process, they are not likely to be discouraged by attending to what they do not know. Also, because of their

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Reading From Experience for Advanced Students Figure 4.2

A Revised Dictated Account and the Teacher’s Additional Notes The Beach #1

My friends are at the beach. They are looking to the north. And they think that the people that live there are having cold weather. They are looking for shells. Also, they swam one time. They eat very much because they are hungry. The ocean is blue and sometimes it looks green. Oral reading assessment Unknown words:

weather very sometimes

Pronunciation difficulties: 1. The English /r/ in words (friends, north, hungry, green) 2. The difference between /sh/ and /ch/ (uses them interchangeably)

greater fluency with English, they are likely to recognize most of the words in the accounts they dictate and thus have a good base on which to build new vocabulary. Advanced students may overestimate or underestimate what they know, just as intermediate students may do, and their retention of words may be inconsistent. With encouragement and acceptance, they learn to assess their own knowledge realistically, and the consistency of their retention improves. To prepare, have available the student’s copy of the revised account (from yesterday) and your own copy. Reading the Revised Account Silently and Identifying Unknown Words. First, the student reads the account silently and underlines any words that he or she does not immediately recognize. Explain that it’s common for learners not to recognize all the words in a revised account, that you don’t expect 100% recognition, and that you will not be surprised if the student finds some of the words unfamiliar. Not all students need such reassurance, but most appreciate knowing that 100% accuracy is not expected. You may find it useful to compare the words the student underlines at this point with the words the student missed when reading aloud the previous day. Some students recognize more words at this point than they did the previous day; others recognize fewer; still others have difficulty with exactly the same words on Day 2 and Day 3. Over time, you will be able to detect patterns of learning and retention for students that will help you better understand their strengths.

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Reading the Revised Account Orally. Next, have the student read the account aloud. Supply unknown words promptly and without comment. Doing so will keep the student’s attention focused on the meaning and will encourage fluent reading. As the student reads, attend to the overall performance. If the first reading is confident, fluent, and accurate, one reading is probably enough. If the student reads slowly, with hesitation or confusion, have the student read several times until fluency improves. Repeated readings help build students’ confidence and reinforce their word learning. Offer praise for all the readings and make note of any difficulties on your copy of the account. This is another point at which it is wise to make a quick assessment of the student’s performance. If a student does not easily recognize at least 75% of the words in the account after a second reading, it may be that the student should be engaged with LEA activities at the intermediate level. Day 4: Rereading the Revised Account and Revising the Original On the fourth day, students reread the revised account again to reinforce learning further, and they return to the original dictation to revise aspects of the wording on their own. These activities serve to reinforce reading skills and help students become more conscious of the patterns of usage to which they need to attend. To prepare, have available the copy of the revised account on which the student worked on Day 3 (with the first underlined words) and a copy of the original dictated account (before revisions were made). Reading the Revised Account Silently. First, the student silently reads the Day 3 copy of the account and underlines any words that he or she does not immediately recognize. The student can do this second underlining with a different colored pencil so that this day’s word identification can easily be compared with the previous day’s work. Again, explain that it’s common for learners not to recognize all the words in a revised account, that you don’t expect 100% recognition, and that you will not be surprised if the student finds some of the words unfamiliar, even words that the student recognized the day before. Reading the Revised Account Orally. Next, have the student read the account aloud. As before, supply unknown or forgotten words promptly and without comment and make note of the student’s overall performance to determine if one oral reading is enough or if repeated readings are needed. The goal is to have the student read the account easily with little or no help from you. Again, use the 75% rule to judge the appropriateness of the activity. Revising the Original Account. Next, give the student a fresh, unmarked copy of the original account to read silently. Make sure the student

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understands that this is the original, unrevised dictation. Invite the student to spot words or phrases that are not in line with conventional English usage. Having spent several days working on the revised account, the student will usually be able to notice what has been changed. Have the student make revisions orally or in writing, referring to the revised version of the account if needed. This activity helps the student recognize the learning that has occurred since the original dictation and also serves to reinforce the new vocabulary and language structures. Day 5: Learning Words On the fifth day, students devote time to learning the words they have not recognized or have recognized inconsistently for the past four days. The goal is to help them purposefully increase their sight vocabularies and practice a word-learning strategy that they can use on their own. To prepare, have the copy of the revised account on which the student has underlined unfamiliar words, your own notes of the student’s performance, and a stack of 3 × 5 note cards on which to write selected words. Learning a Word Learning Strategy. To learn a word, a student needs to hear and say it while looking at it, then use it in a conversational way so that it becomes familiar. Once students have done this with your guidance, they can do it in pairs or a small group. Here are the steps: 1. Select a word from the current dictated account that the student has not recognized immediately. This may be a word the student has underlined or has not read with ease when reading the account orally. Print the word neatly on a 3 × 5 card, using a wide-tipped pen to create a clear representation of the word. In the corner of the card, put the number of the story, explaining that it can be used it to locate the word in its original context as needed. 2. Have the student look at the word while you say it. Then have the student say it while continuing to look at it. 3. Have the student talk about the word’s meaning and use the word in the context of meaningful statements. Model as needed. 4. Repeat these three steps with four to five other selected words. 5. Have the student go through the cards several times, shuffling them each time and saying the words aloud. 6. Have the student put the word cards on a ring or in a sturdy container for storage. Here is a dialogue to illustrate how a teacher used this strategy with the student who dictated the account about the beach. The teacher has

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created word cards for weather, very, and sometimes. The student had not recognized these words immediately in one or more rereadings of the account during the week. On the back of each, the teacher has also put the number of the dictated account. If the student forgets one of the words in later activities, she can return to her copy of the account and use the context to figure it out. Teacher:

(holding up the word card) Here’s the first word for you to learn today. This is the word I added to the account: weather. Say it after me: weather.

Student: Weather. I see weather last night on TV. He say more rain! Teacher:

Yes, we’re going to have more rainy weather, aren’t we? Do you like rainy weather? Or do you like weather that is warm with sunshine?

Student: Weather with sunshine! Teacher:

I like warm weather, too. Say the word again (directing the student’s attention to the word card).

Student: Weather. Teacher:

Good! Here’s the next word: very. Say it after me: very.

Student: Very. Teacher:

Right. You said that your friends ate very much because they were hungry. When you are very hungry, that means you are really hungry and feel that you can eat a lot of food. When are you very hungry?

Student: I very hungry now! Teacher:

I’m very hungry, too. It’s almost time for lunch! We use the word “very” in many ways. I can say that I’m very cold or that I’m very warm. Or I can say that I’m very happy.

Student: My mother very happy today. Teacher:

Why is your mother very happy?

Student: She has a new job today. Teacher:

That’s wonderful! I can see why she’s very happy! Let’s look at the last word: sometimes. Look at it and say it after me. Sometimes.

Student: Sometimes.

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Teacher:

That’s correct. You said that the ocean is blue and sometimes it’s green. That’s true. Sometimes it does look green. Sometimes means not always but only once in a while. The sky is not always the same color, too. It’s blue, but sometimes it may be another color. What other color can the sky sometimes be?

Student: Sometimes sky is black. At night, it’s black. Teacher:

That’s true. What other colors can the sky sometimes be?

Student: Sometimes gray. Today is gray because of rain. Teacher:

That’s right: Sometimes the sky looks gray because of all the clouds.

As this dialogue illustrates, the teacher may verbalize the meaning of a word but does not give a lengthy explanation, knowing that the student understands the meaning. This student used two of the words correctly in the original dictation and readily understood the teacher’s addition to the account (weather). She just didn’t recognize the words consistently when seeing them again. The teacher’s objective was ready recognition. The conversation also focused the student’s attention on the words and provided additional examples of the words in meaningful contexts. Reinforcing Learned Words. After the teacher-led review, the student read all three words several times by shuffling the cards and reading them one at a time. The teacher then put the cards on a ring, explaining that the student would be adding new words every week and that she should review the words on her own at least once a day. Some students need only a few reviews of a word to retain it in their reading vocabulary. Others may need to see the word many more times to retain it. Retention is enhanced when students see newly learned words in different contexts as well as on word cards. Some words will appear in other dictated accounts and in the other texts students read. Very and sometimes are examples of words that a student is likely to see elsewhere in a variety of contexts. The word weather, though not obscure, may not be seen as frequently and may be harder to retain for that reason. Additional activities, described later in the chapter, provide more opportunities for ensuring retention of learned words.

Examples of Dictated Accounts From Advanced Students Examples of the variety of dictations that may be obtained from advanced students are shown in Figures 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5. Needs assessments and revisions are included for each. In preparation for dictation, the students were shown pictures of people on a beach, in a restaurant, and with baseball equipment, respectively. Students were invited to discuss the pictures and based their dictations on the discussions. The resulting

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accounts illustrate the vocabulary and language patterns these students had at their command and reveal the kinds of usage issues that may arise for students at this level. The dictations are representative of advanced students’ accounts, demonstrating relatively good mastery of oral English and expressive fluency. The accounts also reflect students’ assimilation of various concepts related to American culture.

Figure 4.3

At the Beach (Original Dictated Account and Revision)

At the Beach (Original) My friends went to the beach last summer. This beach is in California. They drink soda. They collected shells. They have camera and take the pictures. They swam in the ocean and saw many sharks. They had afraid. They stayed in the beach four weeks. They are tired. They slept for one day. At the Beach (Revised) My friends went to the beach last summer. This beach is in California. They drank soda. They collected shells. They had a camera and took pictures. They swam in the ocean and saw many sharks. They were afraid. They stayed at the beach four weeks. They were tired. They slept for one day. Assessment of needs 1. Use of articles a and the 2. Use of linking verbs and predicate adjectives (were afraid instead of have afraid) 3. Use of prepositions (on the beach instead of in the beach) 4. Verb tense consistency

The revisions show various ways to revise unconventional or awkward phrases and sentences. The teachers tried to retain the student’s original meaning and as many of the original words as possible. On occasion, the teachers added new words to state the idea effectively. For example, in Figure 4.5 the teacher added things in revising the final sentence. When new words are added in this way, it is best for the teacher to use words already familiar to the student or words that are in common usage so that the student is likely to hear or see them again. In completing needs assessments, it is most useful to indicate the type of error (e.g., use of articles or verb tense) instead of simply listing the specific errors. Focusing on error categories will make it easier to plan instruction in English usage. For instance, if several accounts reveal difficulties with prepositions, instruction can be planned in that element of usage. The accounts shown in Figures 4.3 through 4.5 are representative of the relatively brief accounts that advanced students sometimes dictate.

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To the City (Original Dictated Account and Revision)

To the City (Original) They went to the city. Then they went to the club and they danced very much. They saw in the club a movie star. Silvia danced with him. Then Mati dance with him. In the club drank wine and then drank coca-cola. Then went to the restaurant and they ate in the restaurant soup, chicken, potatoes, and salad. To the City (Revised) They went to the city. Then they went to the club and they danced a lot. In the club they saw a movie star. Silvia danced with him. Then Mati danced with him. In the club they drank wine and then drank coca-cola. Then they went to the restaurant, and there they ate soup, chicken, potatoes, and salad. Assessment of needs 1. Use of subjects in sentences [(they) drank wine . . . (they) went to the restaurant] 2. Verb tense (Mati danced with him) 3. Awkward phrasing (they danced very much may be improved, as may be the positioning of prepositional phrases; e.g., they saw in the club and they ate in the restaurant)

Figure 4.5

My Family (Original Dictated Account and Revision)

My Family (Original Account) This is my family. We are live in San Luis Potosi city. We are Mexican. Sometimes we are play baseball. Ever my father plays with me. We have two teams. Mine are my brother, my sister, and 1. We are the champions. My mother never wants to play with we. She prefer stays in home for make to eat. My Family (Revised Account) This is my family. We are living in the city of San Luis Potosi. We are Mexican. Sometimes we play baseball. My father always plays with us. We have two teams. My brother, my sister, and I are one team. We are the champions. My mother never wants to play with us. She prefers to stay home to make us things to eat. Assessment of needs 1. Verb forms (are live, are play, and she prefer need revision) 2. Use of objective pronouns (us instead of we) 3. Awkward/unconventional constructions (stays in home for make to eat; ever my father; we have two teams . . . mine are)

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Depending on their fluency with English and their interest in the topic, students may compose lengthier dictations. Figure 4.6 shows one of these: an account from a small group of advanced students that stemmed from their study of the atomic explosion at Hiroshima. The main source of information was John Hersey’s book, Hiroshima, which the group read with the teacher. Following the reading, which was accompanied by considerable discussion, the group dictated the account. It illustrates their growing mastery of oral English and reveals how vivid the narrative was to them. Figure 4.6

Hiroshima (A Dictated Account)

A flash! There was a bunch of dust. The wind after the flash. People’s skin starts to burn. Buildings fall. People are killed. There is a big fire in the middle of town when the bomb hit. Nobody knows it’s an atomic bomb. People think they are being bombed but it is only one bomb. Dr. Fuji lay in dreadful pain. Father La Salle he helped a lot of people get out of the ruins. Dr. Fuji helped a lot by putting bandages on their injuries. There is a storm and flood and a lot of people drowned. Father La Salle made a raft to go across the river to try and save people that were drowning. He reached for a lady’s hand and her skin just comes off and he sat there staring at her for a couple of minutes. She drowned. After the storm there is a lot of dead bodies floating around. A strange disease starts to wipe out the people. People go back to their houses to see if they can get their belongings. The center where the bomb hit the clay tiles melted. The melting point is one thousand three hundred degrees (1,300) centigrade. Radiation reading was 1.5 at the highest. It was really hot about 104 degrees. It was night and this little girl told the father she is cold. He took off his jacket and gave it to the little girl and she said she was still cold. She died after that. No one knew about the radiation. Radiation killed a lot of people. We learned if there is a nuclear war, there will be a disaster. 78,150 people were killed at Hiroshima, 13,983 people were missing, and 37,425 people were injured.

A group of ten advanced adolescents learned words and behaviors associated with typical American social events. One day they discussed what they would need to remember if they were invited to an American home for dinner, an experience each student had had or would soon have. After discussing key words (host, hostess, fork, napkin, delicious, etc.), the teacher presented a dinner party issue: being served a food that one does not wish to eat. The students read about the situation with teacher help, using a published scenario (Kettering, 1975), then worked in groups to decide on the best response to this awkward moment. Each group roleplayed the scene to show how they would respond and explained why they would respond in that way. Further discussion included talk about American eating customs and tastes and various aspects of acceptable guest behavior. Finally, students dictated individual accounts about the classroom activity. These dictations reveal their varying reactions to the

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activity and illustrate the immediate use of words and phrases introduced and used during the lesson. An American family invited a guest to their dinner. Though hostess has made a special dinner for him and has used her best dishes and tablecloth, liver was served, which was hard for him to eat. The guest was explaining to her that he didn’t like liver. You had better say yes or no clearly when the host family ask you whether you like it or not. When you have dinner with an American family, you shouldn’t be silent and should talk about a lot of things. I think it is bad manner to keep silent while we’re eating. We should give the hostess some compliments about food which is served. When I went to a dinner, they served too much, so I can’t eat all of the food but I try to. Cake is too sweet. When I had dinner with my host family, I said to them, “I like this very much” even in the case I don’t like it very much. Taste in America is too sweet. For example, ice cream and chocolate cake. And American one dish is much more than Japanese one.

These original, unrevised dictations provide further illustrations of the level of English usage and vocabulary that might be seen among advanced students.

Follow-Up Activities Advanced students need repeated contacts with dictated accounts and the words in the accounts to retain what they have learned and to build an ever-stronger base for future learning. The most useful follow-up activities give students meaningful reasons to reread earlier dictations and to see learned words in new contexts. Here are six suggestions for meeting these goals. 1. Make extra copies of dictated accounts from individuals and groups. Put these in a folder in the classroom and encourage students to read them individually and to one another. 2. Have students make their own dictionaries in which they list newly learned words. They may dictate definitions or write their own. To illustrate words, students may cut pictures from magazines or newspapers or draw their own. Encourage students to use several illustrations, if possible, to reinforce the concept represented by the word.

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3. Have students cut out or draw pictures that illustrate words they are learning, put them on cards, and create a matching game in which word cards are matched with picture cards. Have students work individually or in pairs to play. Words from the beach dictation that would be suitable for this activity (with possible illustrations) are as follows: beach (a picture of a sand beach) north (the kind of directional indicator found on a map) people (a picture of a crowd of people) cold (a wintry scene with people dressed for cold weather) shells (a picture of several shells) ocean (a picture of ocean waves) eat (a picture of one or more people eating) blue (a rectangle colored blue) green (a rectangle colored green) 4. Write short accounts for students to read that contain words from their dictated accounts used in different contexts. Have students read these individually or in pairs. Tailor the account accordingly, making it longer and more complex or shorter and simpler, depending on the particular students who will be reading it. Although most of the words in the account should be words assumed to be familiar to the students, new words can be used as needed to enhance meaning and to give students a chance to figure them out. Here is an example of a teacher-written account prepared to reinforce the beach dictation. My friends and I went to the beach to look for shells. The weather was warm, and the ocean was very blue. We looked for shells for a long time, and then we swam in the ocean. After that, we were hungry and so we had lunch. We had a lot of fun that day! 5. Give students copies of dictated accounts from which words have been replaced by blanks and have them write in the omitted words as they read. This thinking-writing activity is based on the original cloze exercises that were introduced by W. Taylor (1953) and have been used by many for assessment and comprehension practice: Bernhardt (1991); Carr, Dewitz, and Patberg (1989); and Nessel and Graham (2007). Every nth word can be omitted, or words can be omitted selectively. Here is an example of a cloze exercise created from the beach dictation with every fifth word replaced by a blank:

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My friends are at ___ beach. They are looking ___ the north. And they ___ that the people living ___ are having cold ___. They are looking for ___. Also, they swam one ___. They eat very much ___ they are hungry. The ___ is blue and sometimes ___ looks green. Here is an example of a cloze exercise with selected words replaced by a blank. In this example, omitted words are those that can most easily be identified from the context of the sentence: My friends are at the ___. They are looking to the north. And they think that the ___ that live there are having ___ weather. They are looking for ___. Also, they swam one time. They eat very much because they are ___. The ocean is blue and sometimes it looks ___ 6. Have students categorize words from a dictated account, using categories you supply or that they decide on themselves. For example, words from the dictation about the beach could be organized into these teacher-defined categories: Places

Colors

Actions

beach

blue

looking

north

green

swam

ocean

eat

The words from the account can be put on slips of paper for students to move into the categories on their desktops, or students can be given a chart like this one and can write the words in the categories. This activity is effective even when the number of categories and the number of words in each category are small, as shown here. The student doing the categorization must still read each word and decide if it can be categorized or not, so the amount of thinking is considerable even if the final display is brief.

Working With a Group The focus so far has been on how an individual advanced student can be engaged in LEA activities to build reading and language skills. The same procedures can be modified for use with a group. One teacher’s work will illustrate. Three advanced learners were in the teacher’s middle school ELL class. The female student had emigrated from Thailand with her family; the male students had come from Vietnam and Pakistan. Because they got along well as classmates, the teacher frequently grouped them together for dictation and subsequent work with the dictated account. The students usually had their own ideas for topics for dictation, and this time they

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decided to pretend to be siblings in Thailand and tell an invented story of their life. The female student provided the names of the siblings, choosing her own favorites: Niran and Sunan for the brothers and Mali for the sister. She also gave the others suggestions for other details based on her life in Thailand, but the males contributed their own ideas as well. The three students talked a great deal about each part of the account. Once they agreed on what to say, they formulated statements for the teacher to write on the chart. Their account, shown in Figure 4.7, reflects only a small part of the rich discussion they had in the process of composing it. On the second day, each student received a copy of the account to read silently. They marked statements that they thought needed revision as individuals, then discussed their ideas as a group with the teacher. All had noted the absence of some articles. The teacher praised them for this and showed them other places where the or an or a would be effective additions. The revised account, prepared by the teacher, is shown in Figure 4.8. On the third day, the teacher gave each student a copy of the revised account. They read this silently and marked the words they did not recognize immediately. They then took turns reading paragraphs aloud while the teacher took notes on each one’s performance. On the fourth day, the students read the revised account silently and again underlined words they did not recognize immediately. The teacher then gave each a copy of the original account, and they worked together to revise it, discussing their thoughts as a group but writing the changes they agreed to on their own copies. Because the changes all involved the additions of articles, the group had little difficulty making these revisions, but they did need to read carefully to spot all the places where articles were missing.

Figure 4.7

A Dictated Account: Two Brothers and a Sister in Thailand

Mali, Niran, and Sunan live in Thailand. They live in country with mother and father. They all work on farm. They grow bananas and coconuts, and they keep chickens. The father catches fish, too. They are very happy on the farm. One day Mali goes out to the garden to see if bananas are ready to pick. She sees two bunches of bananas that are ready to pick. So she calls Niran and Sunan to come and help her get bananas. Niran brings a ladder. He holds ladder while Sunan climbs up and cuts down bananas. Niran and Mali catch bananas before they land on the ground. They get sticky banana juice all over them. And so does Sunan because he is in trees. They carry bananas to the shed, and then they go in water to swim and wash off the sticky banana juice. Later that day, they eat dinner. Mother cooks rice with cucumber and celery and fish. They put soy sauce and lime on the rice and fish. They drink tea. And they have special dessert: banana and rice cakes with coconut. This is the favorite food of Niran and Sunan. They eat so many cakes that they are too full! After dinner, Mali and Niran and Sunan walk by water to watch sun go down. They see monkeys in the trees and chase them away because they don’t want monkeys to eat their bananas! They also see blue kingfishers. That is Mali’s favorite bird. Niran and Sunan feel better after walk. Then everyone goes to sleep.

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Reading From Experience for Advanced Students Figure 4.8

A Revised Dictated Account: Two Brothers and a Sister in Thailand

Mali, Niran, and Sunan live in Thailand. They live in the country with their mother and father. They all work on the farm. They grow bananas and coconuts, and they keep chickens. The father catches fish, too. They are very happy on the farm. One day Mali goes out to the garden to see if the bananas are ready to pick. She sees two bunches of bananas that are ready to pick. So she calls Niran and Sunan to come and help her get the bananas. Niran brings a ladder. He holds the ladder while Sunan climbs up and cuts down the bananas. Niran and Mali catch the bananas before they land on the ground. They get sticky banana juice all over them. And so does Sunan because he is in the trees. They carry the bananas to the shed, and then they go in the water to swim and wash off the sticky banana juice. Later that day, they eat dinner. Mother cooks rice with cucumber and celery and fish. They put soy sauce and lime on the rice and fish. They drink tea. And they have a special dessert: banana and rice cakes with coconut. This is the favorite food of Niran and Sunan. They eat so many cakes that they are too full! After dinner, Mali and Niran and Sunan walk by the water to watch the sun go down. They see monkeys in the trees and chase them away because they don’t want monkeys to eat their bananas! They also see a blue kingfisher. That is Mali’s favorite bird. Niran and Sunan feel better after the walk. Then everyone goes to sleep.

On the fifth day, the students worked together to select words for all to learn, choosing those they had underlined over the past two days. They decided that each would focus on two words that all three had not recognized and an additional four words that were uniquely unknown to them as individuals. The teacher printed word cards for each and had the usual discussions of the word meanings with each. While the teacher discussed selected words with one student, the others listened and occasionally chimed in. When all three had their six word cards, they took turns reading them to each other. Over the next few days, the students engaged in follow-up activities related to the dictation. The first was a cloze exercise, based on the revised account, in which the teacher replaced some words with blanks. The teacher made a point of deleting a number of articles from the account to give students extra practice with this element of usage. This cloze exercise is shown in Figure 4.9. Each student had a copy and wrote in the deleted words, but the group worked together to decide which words were missing. A second follow-up activity was the teacher-designed matching exercise shown in Figure 4.10. The teacher asked one of the students to draw a picture of several things mentioned in the dictated account. The teacher numbered each item and prepared a list of corresponding words. Students worked individually to put the correct numbers next to the pictured item, then compared their answers as a group. A third follow-up activity involved categorization as shown in Figure 4.11. The teacher gave each student three categories and a list of words from the dictated account. Working together, the students read each word, decided how to categorize it, and wrote the word in that category on their own papers.

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Using the Language Experience Approach With English Language Learners Figure 4.9

Cloze Exercise: Two Brothers and a Sister in Thailand

DIRECTIONS: Some words are missing. In each blank, write the word that you think is missing. Mali, Niran, and Sunan live ___ Thailand. They live in ___ country with their mother and father. They all work on the farm. They ___ bananas and coconuts, and they keep chickens. The father catches ___, too. They are very happy on ___ farm. One day Mali goes out to the garden to see if ___ bananas are ready to pick. She sees two bunches of bananas that are ready to ___. So she calls Niran and Sunan to come and help her get the ___. Niran brings a ladder. He holds the ___ while Sunan climbs up and cuts down ___ bananas. Niran and Mali catch ___ bananas before they land on the ground. They get sticky banana juice all over them. And so does Sunan because he is in the trees. They carry the ___ to the shed, and then they go in ___ water to swim and wash off ___ sticky banana juice. Later that day, they eat dinner. Mother cooks ___ with cucumber and celery and fish. They put soy sauce and lime on the rice and fish. They drink tea. And they have a special dessert: ___ and rice cakes with coconut. This is the favorite food of Niran and Sunan. They eat so many ___ that they are too full! After dinner, Mali and Niran and Sunan walk by ___ water to watch ___ sun go down. They see monkeys in the trees and chase them away because they don’t want ___ to eat their bananas! They also see a blue kingfisher. That is Mali’s favorite bird. Niran and Sunan feel better after the walk. Then everyone goes to ___.

Figure 4.10

Matching Exercise: Two Brothers and a Sister in Thailand

DIRECTIONS: Write the number of each object next to the right word.

4

2

3

1

9 10 5

8 7

tea coconuts monkey celery trees

____ ____ ____ ____ ____

6

lime soy sauce bananas chickens rice

____ ____ ____ ____ ____

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Reading From Experience for Advanced Students Figure 4.11

Categorization Exercise: Two Brothers and a Sister in Thailand

DIRECTIONS: Write each word from the list in the correct category. Food

Animals

People

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

mother

Niran

chickens

kingfisher

rice

celery

mother

tea

lime

bananas

father

soy sauce

fish

Mali

Sunan

bird

monkey

coconuts

cucumber

cakes

This example of group work shows how students can be given opportunities to develop as individuals while benefiting from their collaboration. All learned words from the same account, but each worked on a different set of words. All were engaged in the same activities, but they learned somewhat different things and worked at their own pace. The LEA procedures served as a framework within which considerable individualization occurred.

OTHER LANGUAGE ACTIVITIES As advanced students’ reading and oral English skills improve, additional strategies may be used to increase fluency and build students’ listening, reading, speaking, and writing vocabularies. To illustrate the possibilities, we describe structured vocabulary building, storytelling, oral history projects, the use of topical texts, and some specific comprehension-building activities. Most of these are best accomplished by having students work collaboratively although they can be used with individual students if desired.

Structured Vocabulary Building A useful technique at this point is a modification of the personalized vocabulary approach described in Chapter 2. This modification helps

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students extend their vocabularies beyond dictated accounts based on personal experience. Here are the steps: 1. Conduct a lesson to develop a concept or use a recent lesson. Possibilities include a science lesson on cloud formation, a mathematics lesson on proportions, a discussion of character development in a fictional narrative, or a history lesson about a specific concept (e.g., election of officials in a democratic society). Following the lesson, have students work in pairs and then as a whole class to generate a list of words from the lesson. Help students, when necessary, by reminding them of concepts that were addressed. Accept any words the students offer; those that are most prominent in their minds will be the ones easiest for them to learn. They do not need to recall all of the most important words from the lesson. 2. Have students work in groups to categorize the words in ways that are logical to them. A miscellaneous category may be used if desired. Have groups share their efforts with one another. If possible, have the groups agree on a categorization scheme. They may choose one group’s scheme or may devise a new one as a whole group. Post the agreed-upon scheme near the original display of words. 3. Have the groups use the words in different ways. Each group can work with a different category, or all may work with all the categories. Use one or more of these activities to help students learn the words and prepare to retain them: a. Have students make a word card for each of their words, then take turns displaying one card at a time to the rest of the group. The presenting group should pronounce the word, tell about the meaning, and use the word in a sentence. b. Have each group compose a picture dictionary page for each of their words. To do this, the group must discuss each word, agree on a definition, and decide how to illustrate the word. They may draw pictures or search for illustrations in old periodicals, and they may write their definitions or dictate them. Collect the pages from all the groups and make a classroom dictionary. Students can browse through this dictionary when they have time for independent reading. c. Ask students to compose an account using as many words in their collection as possible. The account may be written by the group or dictated. Groups can share their accounts with one another, taking turns reading them silently and aloud. Keep these accounts in folders in the classroom and use them for independent reading. d. Have students make up a matching exercise using the words in their collections. The groups must think of definitions for each

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word and organize them in one column, then list the words in a different order in another column. Groups can share these matching exercises with one another. If the groups prepare an answer key for their exercises, students can check their own work. 4. Once students have done one or more of the preceding activities, the class may create a dictated account that reflects the main points of the lesson. Because the students will have become familiar with the pronunciation and meaning of the key words, their account is likely to include many of them. Duplicate the account for each student for independent reading. Several of these dictations following a unit of study can help students review what they learned about the topic while they reinforce and extend their learning of specific content words.

Storytelling Storytelling has been a feature of all cultures for thousands of years and is a highly engaging activity for both teller and listeners. In the classroom, storytelling engages advanced students with interesting explorations of language. They can increase their facility with English vocabulary and language patterns by learning to tell stories from their own cultures in English and by learning traditional tales from Englishspeaking cultures. Students can perform a story as individuals, pairs, or members of a group. Before engaging in storytelling, however, they should see and hear one or more storytellers to understand what an effective telling involves. You may wish to tell several stories yourself to illustrate for them, or you may use video presentations of professional storytellers as examples; Simmons (1999) and DeSpain (1994) are two examples of such a resource. Tips for storytellers have been in circulation for many years (Bryant, 1905; Nessel, 1985; Sauer, 1977; Sawyer, 1962). The usual procedure is to select a familiar story, read it several times to fix the sequence of events in mind, visualize the events in order, tell the story several times (with the book closed) to learn it, rehearse, and then tell the story as a performance. Each step provides excellent practice with English vocabulary and language patterns, and the repeated readings and tellings of the story develop students’ fluency. Materials from a variety of cultures are widely available in public and university libraries. The Web site for the National Storytelling Network may also be a good place to begin a search for resources: www.storynet.org.

Oral History Projects Oral history projects involve interviewing residents of an area to learn what they have to say about the people, customs, and history of the place. The findings are shaped into written compositions, films, PowerPoint

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presentations, or other forms that are shared with the class and others. These projects were especially popular in the 1970s and 1980s, and the guidelines and examples that were published at that time are still useful today (Hartley & Shumway, 1973; Neuenschwander, 1976; Sitton, Mehaffy, & Davis, 1983; Wigginton, 1972). More recent uses of this approach indicate that it has retained its value for students, including ELLs (M. Hill, 2001; Lanman & Mehaffy, 1989; Olmedo, 1993, 2006; Whitman, 2000; Wood, 2001). Oral history projects are especially well suited for advanced students in an LEA program because they give learners a chance to practice their English in a realistic communication setting. In addition, most advanced students are eager to talk about the culture and history of the places where they grew up and will be interested in comparing and contrasting their original homes with the place in the United States to which they have moved. An oral history project may stem from any of these interview arrangements: 1. Students interview one another, focusing on elements of the cultures from which they came. 2. Students pair up with American-born students to learn about local history by interviewing long-time residents. 3. Students interview teachers at the school, especially those who have lived and taught in the area for some time, to learn about the history of the area and the school. 4. Students interview their parents or other family members to find out what they remember most vividly about their homeland. If students tape their interviews, they can play the tapes and discuss their findings in class. If they cannot record the actual interview, they can pair up soon after they complete their interviews to tell each other as much as they can remember. The information gleaned from the interviews can serve as the basis of dictated accounts that are bound in books for sharing or electronic documents, such as PowerPoint presentations. Photos or videos of the people interviewed can be part of the final products.

Use of Topical Texts Cartoons, comic strips, and current Web sites or blogs can all be excellent sources of materials for other language activities. These topical texts make frequent use of idioms, colloquialisms, and other language structures not found in formal textbooks. They also reveal aspects of American life and humor that can be instructive and entertaining for advanced students. Elkins and Bruggeman (1971) and Fowles (1970) present several ideas for using cartoons and comic strips. In addition, Web sites have useful suggestions for using comics and cartoons in the classroom. One

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example is a teacher’s guide for using cartoons: www.cagle.com/teacher. The second example, sponsored by Newspapers in Education, is a collection of cartoons that are suitable for classroom use: nieonline.com/niecftc/ cftc.cfm. Students may be asked to suggest their favorite Web sites or blogs that the class can view and discuss.

Comprehension-Building Activities Because the dictated accounts are composed by the students, they are readily comprehended when read. They can also provide a means for students to deepen their comprehension when reading other-author texts. Skills such as identifying main ideas, recognizing significant details, and sequencing events can all be taught with the use of dictated accounts. Here are some suggestions: 1. To build students’ skill at identifying main ideas, give students copies of past dictated accounts without the titles. Have them read these and, in groups, think of alternate titles for each. To stretch their thinking, invite them to think of different titles to suit different purposes. For example, they might think of a catchy title to stimulate interest in reading the account, another title that conveys the main idea, and still another that focuses on a memorable detail. Provide examples for students if needed. For example, these alternate titles are all suitable for the dictation about Thailand shown in Figure 4.7: Adventures With Bananas A Day on a Farm in Thailand Too Many Cakes! 2. To strengthen students’ skill with sequential order, select an account with a clear sequence of events and have students put the events in chronological order. 3. To develop students’ skill at distinguishing between fact and opinion, have students read through old dictated accounts, underlining facts and opinions in different colors. In follow-up discussions, they can share their thinking and explain their reasoning. 4. To refine students’ skill at comparing and contrasting, have them work in pairs to compare their dictated accounts on the same topic. They might represent these comparisons and contrasts in a diagram or on a chart. 5. To build skill at organizing information, have students work with different accounts on the same topic. Direct them to cut apart the accounts and compose a new account, combining statements from the originals. To create an effective new account, they will have to

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reorder details, delete repetitious statements, and decide on the best way to organize the ideas. 6. To deepen students’ listening comprehension, have students take turns reading their accounts to one another in small groups and asking the listeners two or three questions about the content of the account.

SUMMARY The reading abilities of advanced students are developed through dictated accounts that are revised, with teacher help, to conform to conventional English usage. Topics for discussion and dictation may stem from personal experiences, content area study, response to literature, interesting projects, and the use of a wide variety of texts, including cartoons, comic strips, and Web sites, but the emphasis is on topics that will help students increase their English vocabularies. The same basic plan for creating and using dictated accounts may be used for individual or group instruction. Students’ vocabulary and fluent use of English language patterns are expanded with a variety of classroom activities that support and extend the development of their reading skills. Lessons in word recognition and writing are also part of advanced students’ programs. These aspects of instruction are addressed in Chapters 5 and 6.

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5 Vocabulary and Word Recognition in an LEA Program

V

ocabulary and word recognition are integral components of an LEA program. Instruction in these areas is most effective when it relates closely to students’ work with dictated stories and other-author texts. To focus on basic principles for students at all levels of English proficiency, we have organized the information in this separate chapter, but we show throughout how the instruction is connected to the work with dictated accounts described in earlier chapters.

VOCABULARY VERSUS WORD RECOGNITION Our vocabulary is the store of words we know. We actually have four kinds of vocabulary: listening, reading, speaking, and writing. These comprise, respectively, the words we understand when we hear them, the words we understand when we see them, the words we use in speaking, and the words we use in writing. Ordinarily, our speaking and writing vocabularies are smaller than our listening and reading vocabularies; that is, we understand more words that we hear or read than we use when we speak and write (Kamil & Hiebert, 2005). In addition, the depth and extent of our knowledge of word meanings varies within and across individuals. 91

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For example, we may be able to define a word but not be sure of how to use it effectively in a sentence, or we may use a word but not feel confident that we fully understand its meaning. Furthermore, we invariably know some words that our friends and associates don’t know, and vice versa. Such variation in vocabulary is equally true within and across ELLs. In general, however, the larger the student’s English vocabulary, the better the student’s expressive skills and capacity to comprehend (Baumann, Kame’enui, & Ash, 2003). Word recognition refers specifically to identifying or decoding words while reading. Our skill in this area is related to but different from our vocabulary. One of three situations occurs when we look at a word: 1. We know the word and identify it immediately. 2. We know the word orally but do not recognize it in print. If we figure it out or hear someone say the word, we think “Oh! I know that word!” or “So that’s what that word looks like!” This situation is common in beginning readers of any age because their reading vocabularies are so much smaller than their listening and speaking vocabularies. Learning the word in this situation means learning to recognize it in print. 3. We don’t know the word at all. If we sound it out or hear someone say it, we still perceive the word to be unfamiliar. Learning the word in this situation means learning the meaning and pronunciation as well as learning to recognize the word in print. Students at all levels of English fluency need to increase their English vocabularies while becoming adept at identifying (decoding) words when they are reading. These two skill areas develop in tandem with one another and reinforce one another, but to examine them in depth, we consider them separately.

BUILDING VOCABULARY The National Reading Panel (2000) reports several research-based principles of vocabulary instruction for native speakers of English that are relevant for ELLs. First, students benefit from explicit instruction in vocabulary, especially when it is closely connected to their reading of texts containing the words. Next, students also learn words incidentally (e.g., by hearing words in conversation). In addition, when students see a word many times in different contexts, they are more likely to comprehend and remember it. Finally, active engagement in vocabulary learning yields the most effective results; activities requiring only minimal involvement and response are much less effective. In related research, Pavlenko and Driagina (2007) have found that the extent of “conceptual equivalency” also affects

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vocabulary learning in a new language. For example, casa in Spanish and house in English are conceptually equivalent. In contrast, Russian does not have a word for frustration, so Russian-speaking ELLs may have more difficulty understanding and using the word. We focus here on key strategies for incidental and intentional learning of vocabulary for ELLs and on how dictionaries can enhance word learning. For more extensive discussions of vocabulary in general and for ELLs in particular, see Au (1993); Hiebert and Kamil (2005); Lehr, Osborn, and Hiebert (2003); Lightbown and Spada (2006); and Marzano (2004).

Incidental Vocabulary Learning ELLs learn many words not because they are taught the words explicitly but because they hear them in a variety of contexts. Reading aloud to students is one effective strategy for promoting incidental learning, especially when the texts include some words and phrases that stretch students’ thinking. Other strategies include talking to students informally about a variety of topics; giving students opportunities to hear and interact with native English speakers (e.g., peers, other teachers, guest speakers); and showing students videos or television programs featuring native English speakers. By engaging in such activities, ELLs will come to understand many words and will become familiar with others that they can master at a later time. Another form of incidental learning occurs when students infer the meanings of what they read by using the context. Understanding how to use context in this way increases students’ independence as readers and enables them to add many words to their vocabularies when they read. Tompkins (2003) identifies six context clues; a Web site devoted to study skills names a different set of six clues (www.how-to-study.com/Building%20Vocabulary .htm). Dale and O’Rourke (1971) and Roe, Stoodt, and Burns (1978), in classic works on vocabulary, list still others. Figure 5.1 contains examples of some types of clues mentioned in these different sources. What aids this form of incidental learning is to model for students how to use context, show them examples of the different kinds of context clues, and help them establish the habit of looking for such clues when they read. Context clues are also useful for identifying words that are orally familiar (but visually unfamiliar) to the student. Their use for this purpose is addressed in the section below on word-recognition strategies.

Intentional Vocabulary Learning ELLs also learn words from explicit, intentional instruction. Marzano (2004) suggests eight research-supported principles of vocabulary instruction that are relevant both for native speakers of English and ELLs. Students benefit from simple, clear explanations of meanings, from experiencing new words repeatedly in different contexts, from talking about new

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Using the Language Experience Approach With English Language Learners Figure 5.1

Some Examples of Contexts That Provide Clues to Word Meaning

Type of Context Clue

Example

Example

Drums and cymbals are two examples of percussion instruments.

Synonym/Antonym

(Synonym) He was thoroughly surprised when he heard the news; in fact, he was positively gobsmacked. (Antonym) It was a steamy day, but rain in the evening made it cooler.

Description

It was a palatial dwelling with a grand entrance, eighteen bedrooms, and a dining room with a table large enough to seat forty people.

Definition

A wind tunnel is a machine used to control wind speeds for scientific experiments.

Comparison/Contrast

(Comparison) A sieve, like a filter, can strain liquids. (Contrast) In winter bears hibernate; in summer they are awake and moving about.

Summary

He knew his products well and could talk about them easily. He saw many customers and made many sales. He was a very capable salesman.

words, and from using them in game-like activities. In addition, students profit from studying meaning-bearing roots and affixes and from representing their understanding of words in drawing as well as writing. Finally, students learn best when instruction varies according to the types of words and involves words that are highly relevant to what they are studying. Marzano (2004) translates these principles into a recommended instructional approach. First, the teacher explains the meaning of the new word and has students say the meaning in their own words. Next, students represent the meaning in a drawing, a graphic, or some other nonverbal representation. To ensure retention, the teacher makes sure that students encounter the word frequently, talk about the word with each other, and engage in games that require use of the word. Here is an illustration of how one teacher applied this process with intermediate ELLs to teach the meaning of the word cargo, a key word in an upcoming lesson. Students were organized into pairs, and each had a vocabulary notebook containing work from past lessons. The teacher used illustrations obtained from books, magazines, and the Internet. Teacher:

Cargo is something that’s carried from one point to another. Here’s a picture of cargo being loaded onto a ship. These containers are called cargo containers. Here’s a picture of cargo on a train, and here’s one of people loading goods onto a truck.

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The truck will carry the cargo to another town. Now it’s your turn. Talk to your partner about what cargo is. (Students talk briefly in pairs.) So, what is cargo? Say it in your own words, and use the word cargo. Student 1:

What gets carried.

Teacher:

Please use the word.

Student 1:

Cargo is what gets carried.

Student 2:

They put cargo on boat and trucks.

Student 3:

Cargo is stuff people move.

Student 1:

Yes, people move cargo. That cargo is in boxes (pointing to the picture of people loading a truck).

Student 2:

I have cargo pants!

Teacher:

Why are they called cargo pants?

Student 2:

Because I carry stuff in them! In here (indicating the pockets on the pants).

Student 3:

You carry cargo in your pockets!

Next, the teacher gave students two minutes to write cargo at the top of a new page in their notebooks and represent the meaning of the word pictorially. Students worked individually on their sketches, then showed their partners their drawings. Four volunteers then showed their drawings to the whole group. To reinforce previous learning, the teacher asked each pair to team with another pair to relate the new word to others they had in their notebooks. Groups were given five minutes to use cargo and other words in the same sentence, then volunteers shared their sentences. Next, each pair teamed with a new pair for further discussion. This time, each student chose a notebook word and talked about it to the other three for 30 seconds. This sustained, simultaneous talking provided more exposures to previously learned words as well as practice using the word cargo. Finally, students played a simple, fast-paced game. The teacher displayed three previously taught words on the board and handed fly swatters to two volunteers who were to swat the correct word when hearing a teacher hint (e.g., definition, synonym, picture, incomplete sentence). The player who correctly swatted two of three words remained at the board for the next round of three words, while a new volunteer replaced the other player. A student could continue playing for up to three rounds, after which a new volunteer took that player’s place. With these rules, play proceeded briskly and many students had a chance at the board. Those who watched played mentally, trying to identify the words silently more quickly than the swatters.

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The particular words that are the focus of intentional instruction should vary depending on students’ level of English proficiency and on the words that will be most useful and relevant to them, given their ages, interests, and academic work. For example, most beginners benefit from learning concrete words that are immediately useful in their daily lives, whereas advanced students benefit from learning words that relate to their content-area learning (Verhoeven, 1990).

Using the Dictionary Students can use dictionaries, glossaries, and similar resources to learn word meanings. To use these tools skillfully, students must be familiar with their structures and functions and need practice using them. Also, they must have the resources available to them while they are reading and must acquire the habit of referring to them. For beginners, picture dictionaries are particularly useful in teaching the purpose and organization of a dictionary. As described in Chapter 2, students can create their own to record their personalized vocabularies. They can also use published picture dictionaries for additional word learning and additional experience with dictionaries as references. Intermediate students benefit from using standard dictionaries as well as picture dictionaries. At first, teacher modeling is helpful, especially to those who have had little experience with dictionaries. The teacher can demonstrate how to look up a word familiar to students so that students can focus on the process. They can follow along in their own copies of the dictionary page, or the teacher can use an enlarged page for viewing by a group. After initial modeling, students can practice by looking up other familiar words in pairs or small groups. They will recognize these words quickly on the page and are likely to understand the definitions because they already know the meanings. With teacher guidance, they can read the entries, examine the illustrations, and discuss what they have learned. After practice with familiar words, students can begin to look up unfamiliar words they encounter in their reading. Advanced students can continue using personalized picture dictionaries and standard dictionaries to look up words. In addition, they can create their own pronunciation keys (as described in the section below on phonetic analysis) for figuring out the pronunciation of unfamiliar words and can use them in conjunction with pronunciation keys in published dictionaries. They also benefit from learning to use guide words for homing in on a word quickly. Figure 5.2 shows two examples of activities that provide students with practice in these skills. Students do not need to master all aspects of dictionaries to benefit from using them. They just need to be familiar enough with these tools so that they can consult them when needed and are frequently successful in finding and learning new words in them.

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Vocabulary and Word Recognition in an LEA Program Figure 5.2

Two Dictionary Practice Activities

Practice Activity 1. Pronunciation Practice Duplicate part of a dictionary pronunciation key along with sentences including words to be pronounced. The target words should be unfamiliar to students but should have regular sound–letter patterns. An example is the following: Read the sentences. Look at the words below and find the one that has the same vowel sound as the underlined word. Write your choice in the blank. 1. An old hat hung in the corner of the shed. (map, late, far) 2. After the old tree was cut down, birds never came to the park. (hot, now, rope) Practice Activity 2. Guide Word Race Divide students into teams. Display two guide words from a dictionary page and ten other words, some of which appear on that dictionary page and some that do not. Teams get a point for every word they correctly classify as on or not on the page. Students can check the dictionary themselves to tally their points. The difficulty level of the game can be modified by the ten words that are given. An example of one array of words that could be used is the following: Guide Words: black blame blast blade blacken action blackness blank bladder blab bite

BUILDING SKILL IN WORD RECOGNITION When individuals learn to read, they learn some words as wholes, connecting particular configurations of letters with words they know orally. They learn some words in this way because they encounter the words so often or the words are highly meaningful and memorable (e.g., their own names). Once a word is recognized consistently in all contexts, that word is said to be in the reader’s sight vocabulary or reading vocabulary. Individuals have different words in their sight vocabularies because of their different experiences as readers and because each finds some words easier to learn and remember than others. Chapters 2 through 4 outlined the way ELLs build their sight vocabularies with dictated accounts and

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related activities. These practices help students acquire a store of known words quickly and easily and also build students’ confidence with reading English. However, as students become comfortable reading English, they also need to learn strategies for figuring out unfamiliar words for themselves so that they can become independent as readers. Accomplished readers identify unfamiliar words in various ways. They may use context clues, inferring words by using the surrounding words or illustrations. They may also use phonetic analysis (phonics) to sound out words. If the reader knows a word orally, sounding it out usually leads to recognition of the word. Readers may also use structural analysis, breaking words into recognizable syllables or roots and affixes that offer clues to pronunciation and meaning. If these strategies do not lead to the identification of the word, the reader needs outside help, either from another person or from a dictionary. Thus, the use of word-recognition strategies (to identify a word that is orally familiar) gives way to a focus on vocabulary when the unknown word is not in the reader’s listening or speaking vocabulary. The ultimate goal is to move through a text quickly, recognizing most words immediately, deftly applying combinations of strategies to identify unfamiliar words, and pausing to learn word meanings as needed. Our purpose is not to discuss word-recognition instruction in depth but only to raise issues of particular concern for ELLs and to suggest strategies of particular use to these students. For further reading, these resources provide more extensive discussions and more activities for students:

Teacher Materials Cunningham, P. M. (2000). Phonics they use: Words for reading and writing (3rd ed.). New York: HarperCollins. Dahl, K., Scharer, P., Lawson, L., & Grogan, P. (2001). Rethinking phonics: Making the best teaching decisions. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Durkin, D. (1981). Strategies for identifying words. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Freeman, D. E., & Freeman, Y. S. (2004). Essential linguistics: What you need to know to teach reading, ESL, spelling, phonics, and grammar. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Heilman, A. (2005). Phonics in proper perspective (10th ed.). New York: Pearson Books. Pinnell, G. S., & Fountas, I. C. (1998). Word matters: Teaching phonics and spelling in the reading/writing classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Tompkins, G. (2003). Literacy for the 21st century (3rd ed.). New York: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Student Materials Anderson, N. J. (2003). Active skills for reading 1. Boston: Thomson Heinle. Bassano, S. (1994). First class reader! Integrated skills lessons for beginners. Burlingame, CA: Alta Books.

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Blackwell, A., & Naber, T. (2003). English know how, opener. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Claire, E. (1990). ESL wonder workbooks. Burlingame, CA: Alta Books. Fountas, I. C., & Pinnell, G. (2006). Phonics and word study lessons, K–3. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Hemmert, A., & Kappra, R. (2004). Out and about: An interactive course in beginning English. Burlingame, CA: Alta Books. Walker, M. (1996). Amazing English! An integrated ESL curriculum. New York: Addison-Wesley.

Prerequisites for Learning Word-Recognition Strategies To learn word-recognition strategies, students need certain language skills as prerequisites. These are related to the language capacities learners have developed along with the backgrounds of experience they bring to the reading of any text. To figure out a visually unfamiliar (orally familiar) English word by using context clues, readers must tap two stores of knowledge: (a) their understanding of the surrounding words (semantics), which involves knowledge of specific denotations of words and relevant personal experience with the topic; and (b) their understanding of the structure of English (syntax). Semantic and syntactic knowledge together lead the reader to infer the identity of the unfamiliar word. Goodman (1967) pointed to these two kinds of knowledge as critical elements of the reading process, a process that requires astute inferential thinking. For example, you can probably use context to identify the word that is missing in this sentence: Ned, thirsty after a long walk in the hot sun, took a glass from the kitchen shelf, went to the sink, and filled it with cold ___ from the tap. No doubt, you filled in the blank with water without hesitation. Your almost automatic response was based on your ability to use your semantic knowledge (the meanings of the other words in the sentence and your experience with getting water from taps) to understand what Ned was doing and to infer that water is the missing word. The greater a reader’s English vocabulary and background of text-relevant experience, and the greater the reader’s understanding of English syntax, the more effectively the reader will be able to make use of context when reading English. However, even the youngest beginning readers of their native language will be able to use their semantic and syntactic knowledge to identify a visually unfamiliar word by thinking about what word would make sense at that point in the sentence. ELLs, even if they have limited knowledge of English vocabulary and syntax and perhaps limited relevant experience, have considerable capacity to use their inferential thinking abilities and thus will be able to use context clues when reading English. The more fluent they are with English and the more closely their experiences relate to the topic, the more effectively they will make use of this word-recognition strategy.

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To figure out a visually unfamiliar English word by using phonetic analysis, readers must be able to hear the speech sounds of the language, discriminate the sounds from one another auditorily, match letters with the sounds they represent, and pronounce the sounds with reasonable accuracy. They also need to blend individual sounds to approximate a word’s pronunciation. The greater the learners’ skill at hearing, discriminating, and pronouncing English phonemes, the more effectively they will be able to make use of phonetic analysis. To figure out a visually unfamiliar, multisyllabic English word by using structural analysis, readers must understand the root word and any affixes (prefixes or suffixes) the word may contain. They are more likely to be successful if they also have a good understanding of the rules of English syllabication so that they can readily break the word into its parts for examination. In addition, they need to be able to blend the parts into the whole. The greater the learners’ understanding of syllabication principles and the meanings of common root words and affixes, the more effectively they will use structural analysis. Figure 5.3 summarizes the prerequisites associated with each wordrecognition strategy, both for those whose native language is English and Figure 5.3

Prerequisites for Learning Word-Recognition Strategies

Strategy for Identifying an Unfamiliar English Word

Prerequisites

Use of context clues

• Identify and understand the surrounding words (semantic knowledge) • Understand the structure of the sentence (syntactical knowledge) • Be able to make an inference about the unknown word, given the relevant semantic and syntactical information

Use of phonetic analysis

• Discriminate the sounds of the English language from one another auditorily • Understand sound–letter relationships in written English • Blend the individual sounds in a word into a recognizable whole

Use of structural analysis

• Know basic principles of English syllabication • Know a wide array of English roots and affixes, including their pronunciation and meaning • Blend the identified parts of a word into a recognizable whole

Use of outside sources (e.g., glossary, dictionary, and other such reference materials)

• Understand the structure and function of the relevant reference material • Have experience using the reference material • Take the initiative to use the reference to find and learn about the unfamiliar word

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for those who are learning English. All ELLs will have difficulties with some, if not all, of these prerequisites. Although native English speakers have rich backgrounds of English language experiences and well-developed English language skills to use in acquiring word-recognition skills, most ELLs are still acquiring these experiences and skills. ELLs may have many language strengths, but they may not have some of the specific language skills they need to make the most effective use of the various word-recognition strategies for figuring out English words. Their instruction in word recognition thus needs to be somewhat different from that designed for their English-speaking classmates. It should be geared to their specific strengths and sensitive to whatever limitations they may still have.

Word-Recognition Instruction for ELLs ELLs benefit from regular and balanced instruction in all the wordrecognition strategies. It is as important for them to learn to make good use of context clues as it is for them to master English sound–letter associations and knowledge of the structural elements of words. Instruction in the various strategies is most effective when words and sentences in lessons are taken from familiar texts. Also, practice exercises are most useful when they are related to the reading of familiar texts. Using Context Clues As mentioned above, readers can use the context to determine the meaning of words that they know orally but have not seen in print. Using context, a reader can use the other words in the text to reduce uncertainty about the unfamiliar word and possibly figure it out without having to use other word-recognition strategies. To illustrate, notice how you use the context to figure out the meaning of the word replaced by a blank: a ___ A ___ flies. A ___ flies in the air and carries passengers. The initial context allows you to conclude that the word is a noun and that it could be kite, bird, or plane, among other possibilities. You are almost certain it’s not tree, house, or other things that do not fly, and you know it’s not airplane because the preceding article is “a,” signaling that the word begins with a consonant. The full sentence context allows you to settle on plane, helicopter, or some other airborne passenger carrier. To be certain, you would need to see the actual word in print so as to note the particular letter combination, but without seeing even one letter, you have made good progress in identifying the word.

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Unique considerations arise in teaching ELLs to use context clues in English. First, effective use of context in any language stems from the reader’s experience with that language and culture. For example, references to Thanksgiving turkey, Fourth of July fireworks, and other typically American cultural phenomena may not be part of ELLs’ backgrounds and therefore will not provide useful contexts. For readers to make use of their background knowledge, they not only must have had experiences that are relevant to what they are learning but also must have comprehended those experiences and be able to see their relevance to what they are learning (Marzano, 2004; Saville-Troike, 1976). ELLs strengthen their skill at using context as they become more fluent in English, increase their listening vocabularies, have more meaningful experiences with American culture, and read more widely. In addition, they gain skill in using context when their classroom instruction focuses on reading for meaning. Explicit instruction in the use of context clues is also very helpful for these students. Here are some instructional strategies for the three types of students described in earlier chapters. Instruction in Context Clues for Beginners. Instruction for beginners is most effective when it helps them develop skill at using oral contexts. As they refine their understanding of English, they develop an ever-growing sense of what sounds right orally, and this kind of oral sentence sense is the foundation for using context clues when reading. These activities serve this purpose: 1. Engage students in regular informal conversations on a variety of subjects. ELLs assimilate common syntactical patterns when they hear them repeatedly. 2. Read students a poem or another text with a refrain. Then read the first part and have students say the refrain orally. 3. Teach students a song and sing it with them several times. Then say or sing the first part and have students say or sing the rest. 4. Play missing word games in which you pause in saying a statement and have students supply the next word(s) orally. Use familiar statements, such as statements from dictated accounts or oft-read otherauthor texts, to increase the chance of success. Instruction in Context Clues for Intermediate Students. Intermediate students benefit from the activities suggested for beginners. In addition, these activities provide specific practice in using context clues when reading: 1. Give students a copy of a dictated account in which a few words have been replaced with blanks. Have students read the account silently to

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figure out what the missing words are, either writing them in the blanks or saying them aloud. Provide the answers in scrambled order at the bottom of the page to make the task easier. This modification of the cloze procedure differs from that described in Chapter 4 in that the words are not deleted in a regular pattern (e.g., every fifth word). Figure 5.4 shows an example that is based on a dictation from Chapter 3. Figure 5.4

A Modified Cloze Activity Based on a Dictated Account Hung saw a fire ___ in the street. Engine made a loud noise. A police ___ was after the fire engine. We see birds and squirrel.

2. Create sentences or short passages for students that contain words students have used in dictated accounts. Include one or two words you think students probably will not recognize visually but that are familiar orally. Have students work together to read the passages and figure out the unknown words. Figure 5.5 shows an example with sentences that are based on the dictated accounts shown in Figures 3.1 and 4.1. The unfamiliar words are in boldface so that they will stand out. (Some of the other words that are not in the original accounts were familiar to the students because they appeared in subsequent dictations.) Figure 5.5

Teacher-Created Texts With Familiar and Unfamiliar Words Hung saw birds in a tree. A police car made a loud noise, and the noise scared Hung. My friends swam at the beach. The water was not cold. It was warm. They looked for shells. The ocean was blue.

3. As students reread dictated accounts and come to words that are not yet in their sight vocabularies, show them how to skip the word and read on so that they will see how reading further often enables them to identify unknown words. To model, rewrite a simple text, replacing one or two words with blanks. Have students read along with you and listen as you think aloud, explaining how you can figure out the words that have been deleted. For example, here is the text one teacher used for this purpose and the teacher’s think-aloud: It was Friday night, and my friends and I were on our way to see a movie. When we got to the ___, we saw a line of people in front. The line was

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so long, we thought we would never get seats! We waited for almost an hour, but finally we got to the front of the line and could buy ___. It was a great movie, and we even had good seats! Teacher:

It was Friday night, and my friends and I were on our way to see a movie. When we got to the ___ . . . Hmm. What’s this word? I’m going to skip it for now and keep reading. . . . We saw a line of people in front. Let’s see. They got to where they were going, and they saw a line of people. That missing word is probably theater because that’s where you go to see a movie, and when the movie is popular, people line up at the front door. Now I’ll go on. The line was so long, we thought we would never get seats! We waited for almost an hour, but finally we got to the front of the line and could buy ___. Hmm. What would they be buying after they waited in line? Of course! They would have to buy tickets so they could get in to see the movie. That word has to be tickets. I’m going to read on. It was a great movie, and we even had good seats! Yes, that word must be tickets because at the end it says they got in to see the movie.

Such think-alouds are useful demonstrations, especially because you are demonstrating that readers need to think as they read, paying attention not just to the individual words but also to the overall meaning of the text. Instruction in Context Clues for Advanced Students. Advanced students can benefit from the activities suggested for beginners and intermediate students. Here are some additional suggestions: 1. Give students a copy of a familiar other-author text with blanks replacing several words. Have students work together to figure out which words have been omitted. To make the task easier, provide the answers in scrambled order at the bottom of the page. When they have finished, have them explain the reasoning that led to their decisions. 2. As students read other-author texts, have them note words that they didn’t recognize and tried to figure out using context clues. Have them share the words they focused on and the reasoning they used in trying to figure them out. Using Structural Analysis Structural analysis (dividing words into parts) is another valuable word-recognition strategy. The key aspect of structural analysis—syllable identification—requires the learner to hear the syllables in spoken English,

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and this may pose challenges to ELLs in the same way that discriminating the sounds of English poses challenges to many. A second aspect of structural analysis, dividing words into roots and affixes, may be more useful to ELLs because this strategy can increase the student’s vocabulary considerably. For example, when they learn the meanings of such prefixes as pre, inter, and trans, they can use this information to figure out words containing these parts. Structural analysis can be taught with a guided discovery approach that invites students to think inductively. Teacher questions help the student discover patterns in the known words and generalize the relevant rule. For example, students can look for patterns in groups of words such as these, prompted by teacher questions such as: What are the root words? How are the endings added? What is the pattern? hitting sitting running happier easier funnier This inductive approach is effective because the emphasis is on perceiving patterns and making generalizations, not simply on memorizing rules that may not be meaningful or memorable. The priority is to help ELLs learn enough about syllables, roots, and affixes so that they can use the knowledge to figure out the meanings of unfamiliar multisyllable words. They do not necessarily need to learn extensive lists of syllabication principles or the meanings of a great number of roots and affixes. Beginners need to build oral awareness of syllables and accents. Much of this learning will occur naturally as students become familiar with English and refine their pronunciation. Specific practice may also be given. For example, present orally several multisyllable words that are familiar to students. Tell them how many syllables each word has and illustrate by clapping the separate syllables as you say them. Have students repeat the word, listening for the number of syllables. After practice with several words, say other multisyllable words without clapping and have students tell how many syllables they hear. Intermediate students can learn about syllables by studying the words they use in their dictated accounts. Here are some suggested activities: 1. Give students cards on which have been printed separate parts of familiar compound words. Have them put the cards together to make the words. To make the exercise easier, cut the cards like puzzle pieces.

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2. Find singular and plural forms in students’ dictated account. Have them look for patterns in how the plurals are formed from the singulars. Then show unknown plural forms of words that are familiar to students in their singular forms. Have students match these new words to the singular forms, pronounce the plurals, and discuss the patterns they perceive in plural formation. 3. Show students several words from dictated accounts that follow a particular syllabication pattern. Show them how the words are divided into syllables and have them figure out the rules that govern the divisions. Advanced students can apply syllabication rules to figure out unknown words in each other’s dictated accounts and other-author reading materials. Show them how to divide the words into syllables, then sound out the syllables. These students may also learn to apply knowledge of roots and affixes to figure out unknown words that contain these elements. Here are some suggested activities: 1. Compile a list of words containing a common root or affix, such as tele- (television, telephone). Choose words from dictated accounts or other-author reading materials. Discuss the meaning of the element, showing how it affects the meaning of the words on the list. 2. When students have learned a root or an affix, compile a new list of words that use the element. For example, if students have learned telein television and telephone, introduce telegraph and teleprompter. Put these new words in sentences and have students use context clues and knowledge of the element’s meaning to figure out the new words. Using Phonetic Analysis Learning the sounds of English is as important for ELLs as it is for native English readers. When this instruction is purely oral, involving students’ listening for specific sounds or discriminating one sound from another, the focus is said to be on phonemic awareness. When the instruction involves learning and manipulating letter-sound associations, the focus is said to be on phonetic analysis or phonics. Phonics is of particular value to students for figuring out words they know orally but do not recognize in print. Using phonetic analysis to pronounce such a word can easily lead to recognition. At the same time, this area of instruction is laden with challenges. To learn sound–letter associations, a learner must first be able to discriminate sounds aurally and then associate those sounds with the letters that represent them. Lack of experience with English makes it more challenging for ELLs to recognize, discriminate, and use some English phonemes in speech. This inability, in turn, can make it difficult for

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the student to sound out many English words in print in ways that will lead them to recognize the words. Each ELL has unique challenges in mastering the sounds of English, as indicated in Chapter 1. Not all students from a particular linguistic group will have exactly the same challenges with English because their previous experiences and opportunities to hear and use English will vary. Knowing the sounds that are most difficult for the student to hear, discriminate, and pronounce will come from an understanding of the student’s native language as it compares with English and also from observing the student’s pronunciation of English. Fortunately, as Krashen (2003b) points out, learners’ ability to discriminate and manipulate the sounds of a language with a high degree of accuracy has not been shown to be a prerequisite to learning to read the language with good comprehension. Conversely, readers can process and comprehend written language while not being particularly skillful in discriminating and manipulating all the sounds of the language. Because of the challenges associated with learning new phonemes, instruction in phonetic analysis for ELLs is best carried out with reference to whole, known words as opposed to isolated sounds. Because the goal is to help students associate letters with the sounds they represent, the use of known words enables students to learn the associations in meaningful contexts, and that increases the students’ chances for success. Emphasis is best placed first on words containing sounds that students can discriminate auditorily and use easily in speech. Students can learn the more challenging sound–letter associations after they have gained confidence with those in the first category. When planning phonemic awareness and phonetic analysis activities, it is useful to be aware of the nature of the activities and thus the demands they place on students. These activities fall into four basic categories in terms of the stimulus and response that are involved. In each case, the stimulus (what the teacher presents) may be visual or oral, and the student’s response may involve marking, writing, or speaking. The stimulus and the response are thus either visual or oral. Here are examples of each: 1. Oral-Oral. Both the stimulus and the response are oral. For example, Teacher:

Do cat and city start with the same sound?

Student:

No.

Teacher:

Do cat and kitty start with the same sound?

Student:

Yes.

2. Oral-Visual. The stimulus is oral; the student selects or produces a response in written form. For example, Teacher:

Write a word that starts with the same sound as cat.

Student:

(Writes kite or car.)

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3. Visual-Oral. The stimulus is written; the student response is oral. For example, Teacher:

Look at these words (city, sit, kite). Which ones start with the same sound?

Student:

City and sit.

4. Visual-Visual. Both stimulus and response are in print. For example, Teacher:

Look at this word (cat). Write a word that starts with the same sound.

Student:

(Writes kite.)

Activities may also be categorized on a second dimension: whether the response requires the student simply to choose an answer from a provided array or to produce an answer independently. Usually, activities that allow selection from provided choices are easier than activities requiring production of a response. For example, this activity requires choice: Mark the word that starts with the same sound as cat. book door keep man This activity requires the student to produce a response: Write a word that begins with the same sound as cat. __________ Here are examples of choice and production activities that help students learn sound–letter associations. Each activity is designed to develop awareness of the sounds at the beginnings of words and can be adapted for work with sounds that occur at the ends of words or in medial positions. 1. Choice Activities a. Oral-Oral. Compile pairs of words that are orally familiar to students. In some pairs, beginning sounds should be the same (book/bat); in other pairs, these sounds should be different (best/car). Say each pair to students and have them say whether or not the words begin with the same sound. b. Oral-Visual. Compile a list of words that are orally familiar to students. Give students cards with different words that begin

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with the same sounds as the words on the list. These words should be visually familiar to students. Pronounce the list words one at a time and have students select words from their cards that begin with the same sounds. c. Visual-Visual. Display several words that are familiar to students. Have them look through their Word Banks for words that begin with the same sounds. d. Visual-Oral. Display several words that are familiar to students. Have students read aloud the ones that begin with the same sound. 2. Production Activities a. Oral-Oral. Compile a list of words that are orally familiar to students. Say these one at a time and have students think of and say a word that starts with the same sound. Reinforce correct responses by having students say both words again, listening for the same sound at the beginning. b. Oral-Visual. Compile a list of words that are orally familiar to students. Say these one at a time and each time have students think of and write a word that begins with the same sound. c. Visual-Oral. Display several words that are familiar to students. Have them think of and say other words that begin with the same sounds. d. Visual-Visual. Display several words that are familiar to students. Have them think of and write words that begin with the same sounds. Choice and production activities can be used with beginning, intermediate, and advanced students, but at each level, certain emphases will be more important than others. The priorities for beginners are to see highly meaningful words written in English. As students develop fluency and recognize some words in print, they can learn to recognize and discriminate those English sounds that occur in their native language. They fare best if they hear the sounds in the context of whole words instead of as isolated phonemes (/b/ or /k/). Sounds pronounced in words are not distorted as they are when pronounced in isolation (buh, kuh). Students also fare best when familiar words are used for this instruction, such as words that have appeared in the students’ dictated accounts. Intermediate students, like beginners, fare best when they focus on sounds in the contexts of words they recognize in written form. Some sounds that do not occur in their native languages may be introduced while the emphasis is placed on learning sound–letter associations for sounds that are already familiar to the students. Advanced students profit from a greater number and variety of phonetic analysis activities. As they demonstrate mastery of a number of sound–letter associations, they will be able to work with more sounds that do not occur in the student’s native language. They may not be able to pronounce these sounds accurately at first. In fact, it may take

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some students years to master a speech sound that does not occur in their native language. However, they can learn to recognize those sounds when they hear them and can learn the letters that represent those sounds. Students also benefit from learning to use pronunciation keys such as those that appear in dictionaries. The most useful key for most students is one that uses familiar words from their dictated accounts to illustrate sounds. When students encounter unfamiliar words in print and are not sure how to sound them out, they can turn to their pronunciation keys and find familiar words that illustrate the sounds in the unfamiliar words. Because of the great variety of letters that represent English vowels, a pronunciation key is particularly useful as a reference for vowel sounds. Students can develop these keys gradually as they work with different sound–letter associations and use words in their dictated accounts that contain the sounds they are learning. As students become adept at hearing English sounds and at understanding sound–letter relationships, they need opportunities to put the knowledge to use in sounding out unfamiliar words when reading. Just as they need to acquire the habit of using context clues to identify unfamiliar words, they also need to acquire the habit of analyzing words phonetically. In fact, flexible use of these two strategies together makes for particularly effective and efficient identification of unfamiliar words. To encourage students to use both skills together, give them teacher-written passages (or short passages from easy-to-read books) from which some words have been replaced with a few letters of those words. For example, Yesterday I took my d__g for a walk. We walked and walked, and then we came h__m__. We had a good t_________. Have students read the passages silently and, using the letter and context clues, figure out the missing words. Use passages with known words and clear context clues to promote success. Also, remind students regularly to use context and phonics together when they are attempting to identify unfamiliar words.

A BALANCED APPROACH TO VOCABULARY AND WORD RECOGNITION Effective instruction in vocabulary and word recognition provides a balance of activities that help students increase their vocabularies while also learning to decode visually unfamiliar words. Students should be guided to use context, structure, and phonics in conjunction with one another. For example, they should see that dividing a word into syllables makes it easier to analyze phonetically and that the sentence (or paragraph) context may also help them determine the pronunciation and meaning. When they

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learn the meaning of a new word through explicit instruction, they should have opportunities to talk about the word and see it in other contexts so that they will remember it. Isolated exercises in these areas are not particularly useful. Rather, students need to build their vocabularies and learn word-recognition strategies within the meaningful contexts of their own dictated accounts, familiar other-author texts, and more challenging other-author texts. Also, explicit instruction will be more productive if students are given a variety of activities and exercises to help them retain and use what they learn. By trying different activities and noting student response and progress, the program can be modified to provide the best combination of lessons. Ideally, instruction in word meaning and word-recognition strategies will occupy only some of the instructional time, leaving the rest of the time for activities that focus on comprehension of connected discourse and on writing. To illustrate the balance that is inherent in an LEA program, Figure 7.1 (in Chapter 7) shows sample instructional plans for three consecutive days that incorporate vocabulary and word-recognition activities into a complete program that also includes dictated accounts and writing.

SUMMARY Students need to build their vocabularies while they learn a repertoire of word-recognition strategies for use when reading. Effective vocabulary activities focus on both incidental learning and intentional learning and on active engagement in talking about and representing word meanings. In addition, students learn to use dictionaries as a tool for increasing their vocabularies. Word-recognition instruction focuses on the use of context clues, structural analysis, and phonetic analysis. Lessons in vocabulary and word recognition are most effective when they are coordinated with the basic program of discussion and dictation, when they tie in directly with the words and sentences students use in their dictation, and when they make use of a variety of other-author texts. Finally, students need many opportunities to practice what they have learned in new contexts.

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6 Writing in an LEA Program

A

s with vocabulary and word-recognition instruction, we devote a separate chapter to writing because the basic principles are relevant to students at all levels of English fluency. After discussing these principles, we show how writing instruction can proceed effectively for beginning, intermediate, and advanced students.

WRITING AS A LANGUAGE PROCESS Writing is comparable to reading in that it is a process involving written language, as shown in Figure 6.1. Some educators maintain that writing is easier and more appealing to learners than reading and that students should write before they read. Others maintain that because reading is easier, students should learn to read first and take up writing only after they know some words and have command of sound–letter associations. Actual observation of learners suggests that writing is more challenging than reading in some respects and easier in others, both for ELLs and for those working in their native language. For example, when writing involves generating ideas and making decisions about what to say, it can require more concentration than does the act of reading. Encoding the language and holding an implement can also be difficult for some. For these reasons, writing can be more challenging than reading. On the other hand, the active nature of writing and the chance to express one’s thoughts may help a 113

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Using the Language Experience Approach With English Language Learners Figure 6.1

Two Dimensions of the Four Language Processes Expressive Language Process

Receptive Language Process

Oral Language

Speaking

Listening

Written Language

Writing

Reading

student sustain attention to writing more easily than to reading. Writing can also be easier than reading because writers have purposes and use known (usually very familiar) words in forming statements. In contrast, readers are not necessarily aware of a writer’s purpose and may not know all the words the writer has used. Writing can also seem more engaging than reading to some individuals because communicating one’s own thoughts and feelings can be more motivating than learning the thoughts and feelings that someone else has written down. Exceptions occur when the written message is directed to the reader and is of great interest to the reader. For example, love letters are usually read with great motivation and attention. Individuals are likely to have different perceptions about the ease of specific writing and reading tasks, depending on their backgrounds, their interests, and the context within which they are working. For example, students who love stories may find personal narratives much easier to write than reports, whereas students who enjoy informational texts may find reports much easier and more enjoyable to write than personal narratives. Similarly, students with limited knowledge of American history may find it challenging to write about pioneer travels in America from the assumed perspective of a pioneer but may find it easy and enjoyable to assume the perspective of someone from their native culture. Perceptions of ease or difficulty will also change with time and context. Students may perceive the same activity to be easier on some days or in some contexts and more challenging at other times. For all these reasons, writing cannot be considered easier or harder than reading in an absolute sense and thus need not be thought of as either a precursor or a successor to reading. A more useful perspective is to consider writing and reading as different aspects of the same process that develop in tandem, an assertion that Squire (1983) put forth in his seminal article and on which others have elaborated (Au, 1993; Y. S. Freeman & Freeman, 2006; Samway, 2006). The basic principles remain relevant for today’s ELLs: • Both reading and writing involve the use of language and cognition. (Both are thinking processes that use language as a means for thinking. Also, what strengthens reading skills tends to strengthen writing skills, and vice versa.)

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• Expressing the ideas in a text is a critical way of developing comprehension of the text. (Writing, speaking, and drawing are all forms of expression that, when used in conjunction with reading, help the reader focus on meaning.) • Effective application of the skills of reading and writing is dependent on the context in which they are being used. (Readers and writers need to learn specialized skills and strategies for different contexts; e.g., narrative fiction, mathematical texts, historical accounts, or scientific documents.) • Understanding the forms and patterns that language can take enhances learners’ skill at comprehending and composing texts. (Analyzing the structure of a text can inform students’ own attempts at writing the same kind of text; writing a text with a specific structure refines comprehension of other texts with a similar structure.) • The focus of instruction in reading and writing should be on making meaning. (The primary focus of readers should be on using a text to construct meaning; the primary focus of writers should be on presenting their ideas to be meaningful to the intended audience.) • The learner’s existing knowledge has a powerful effect on the extent and quality of the learner’s comprehending and composing. (Readers rely on their experience to interpret and comprehend texts; writers rely on their experience to shape the structure and content of a composition.) For these reasons, writing and reading are best taught in close conjunction with one another. The LEA procedures described in preceding chapters illustrate how the relationship can be used to advantage when helping ELLs learn to read. Other instructional strategies can also be used to make the most of this close relationship. For example, students benefit from using nonlinguistic representations to organize their thoughts before they write and to recode information they read, thus improving their comprehension (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001). Mind Maps (Buzan & Buzan, 1993) and Thinking Maps (Hyerle, 1995) are two specific examples of tools that are particularly useful for students as both composition and comprehension aids. Graphic aids like these are recognized as especially helpful to ELLs (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2005, pp. 23–26). Writing is related to speaking in that it is an expressive language process; together, they contrast with the receptive language processes of listening and reading (see Figure 6.1). As an expressive process, writing is more challenging than speaking in some respects and easier in others, both for ELLs and for those communicating in their native language. For example, what can be spoken requires more effort and time to express in

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writing. Besides deciding what to write and formulating the utterances, a writer must think about spelling and punctuation. Also, whereas a speaker can use gestures and facial expressions as well as words to convey meaning, a writer must rely on word choice, syntax, and punctuation. Furthermore, a speaker gets immediate feedback from listeners and can adjust accordingly, but a writer expresses meanings to unseen and possibly unknown audiences. On the other hand, a writer can revise the communication to make it as effective as possible. For this reason, many find writing easier or more desirable than speaking. In school, for example, many students prefer writing a composition to presenting the same ideas orally in front of the class. These generalizations about the relative difficulty of writing and speaking do not hold true at all times or for all learners. Learners may perceive a specific writing activity to be easier or more challenging than a specific speaking activity, or vice versa, or they may perceive the same activity to be easier on some days or in some contexts and more challenging at other times.

PURPOSE, AUDIENCE, AND FORM Considering writing as an expressive process—closely related to speaking— yields other realizations. In particular, both oral and written expressions have three important dimensions: purpose, audience, and form (Samway, 2006). First, a speaker’s or writer’s purpose may be immediate and practical, such as writing a shopping list or engaging in a conversation with a friend. On the other hand, the speaker or writer may use language to represent experience in an artful way, such as composing a poem about a memorable experience or telling a joke effectively. Second, a speaker or writer has an audience. Writers may write for themselves in private journals, and speakers are their own audience when they rehearse in front of a mirror or try out different approaches before engaging in a potentially difficult conversation. At other times, writers or speakers may have a wide audience, as when they publish a book or give a presentation to a large group. Third, spoken and written communications have specific forms. Persuasive pieces, poems, anecdotes, and business communications are only a few of the forms speakers or writers may use. Figure 6.2 shows these dimensions of the expressive use of language with a vertical continuum of purpose (from immediate, practical purposes to reflective, artful purposes) that is combined with a horizontal continuum of audience (from fully private writing-for-oneself to fully public writing-for-audience). These crossing continua form a framework within which a wide variety of expressive forms can be categorized. For the seminal thinking on which this scheme is based, see Atwell (1998), Blau (1987), Britton (1970), Calkins (1994), Elbow (1973), and Moffett (1968, 1981).

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Writing in an LEA Program Figure 6.2

A Framework for Oral and Written Expression Immediate, practical purposes

Audience: Private

grocery lists conversations instant messages text messages telephone calls diaries rehearsals of a speech

memos class discussions talk shows jokes announcements business meetings online forums

A

B

C

D

freewritings learning logs mental dialogues observational notes rehearsals of a play

stories, novels essays, reports speeches, memoirs saturation reports I-Search reports plays, poetry business letters blogs

Audience: Public

Reflective, artful purposes

Quadrant D includes spoken or written expressions that are intended for sharing with a public and are more reflective and artful than casual communications. That is, the individual usually engages in planning, revising, and editing the communication. In school settings, these are the forms of speech and writing that students typically receive as assignments with the expectation that the finished product will be organized effectively and will reflect conventional language usage. The possible exception here is the blog, which is an interesting hybrid form of public and private expression. Although blogs are created as personal collections of musings, photos, and links to other Web sites, they are available to the world. (Some teen bloggers realize, suddenly and anxiously, that their parents can access what they thought of as their private blogs.) The chance to create a personal Web site open to everyone is attractive to many young people today, including ELLs. The other purposes for using language, and the other dimensions of audience—represented by quadrants A, B, and C—are for the most part overlooked in school and yet are manifested in many forms of expression that can be used as classroom activities. Many of these forms are particularly well suited to ELLs because they encourage more varied uses of language than typical school assignments. Students benefit from regular and frequent opportunities to speak and write in a variety of forms, aimed at

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different audiences, and driven by different purposes. Such variety is interesting and gives students a chance to discover unexpected areas of strength in their use of English. For example, students who are asked to write only reports or personal narratives may not discover their strengths in keeping a journal, telling jokes, writing poetry, or contributing to an online forum.

THE COMPOSING PROCESS For some years, teachers have thought of writing as a process that involves five components: prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing. A summary of these as they relate to ELLs will provide a context for the suggestions that follow. Whereas it is useful to think about each separately, writing is usually a recursive process, not a linear one. In other words, revising may lead to additional rethinking and prewriting that in turn results in a new round of drafting, and writers may revise and edit several times before deciding to share their work in public.

Prewriting Prewriting involves collecting, articulating, and organizing thoughts before putting them on paper. A prewriting activity is comparable to discussion before dictation: Both orient and prepare students for expressing their thoughts in English. Here are four examples: 1. Guided listening. Students listen for certain kinds of language when a selection is read or told (e.g., all the words the author uses to describe a snow storm). They then compare notes on what they heard and discuss the effectiveness of the author’s choices (Rothenberg & Fisher, 2007; Tompkins, 2003). 2. Guided imagining. Students generate mental pictures and associated words in response to prompts. For example, the teacher may say: You are walking along a path. Think about how the path looks. How wide is it? Is it rough or smooth? Where is it going? What can you see in the distance? Students share their imaginings, expressing the thoughts and feelings evoked (see “Guided Fantasy” in Christison & Bassano, 1981). 3. Listing. Students generate lists of words related to a topic to stimulate their thinking and to have words they can use in their writing. They may work individually, but listing is usually more productive (and more fun) when done with a partner or in a small group. Working together, students are likely to generate more words than each individual would be able to think of alone. One useful way of organizing the words is to set up a page with two columns containing

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the letters of the alphabet, listed vertically, and to list the words accordingly. This organizational scheme, referred to as a taxonomy by Rothstein and Lauber (2000), is likely to result in the generation of still more words because students will try to think of at least one word for each letter. 4. Mapping. Students use a Mind Map (Buzan & Buzan, 1993), a Thinking Map (Hyerle, 1995), or some other graphical tool to organize their ideas. Students in pairs or groups arrange words and phrases in the graphical display and then use it as an aid to writing. Figure 6.3 illustrates one kind of mapping done by an ELL and the composition that resulted.

Figure 6.3

A Student’s Prewriting Map and Composition

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Drafting Drafting involves putting first ideas in writing without undue concern for effective organization, spelling, or other conventions. At this point, students need to write as much as they can without feeling self-conscious, and they need to know that their first drafts will not be corrected or evaluated by the teacher. For young writers, especially ELLs, this step is vital to developing confidence and the belief that they have something of value to say.

Revising Revising involves rethinking the content, organization, and wording of a draft. Students revise most effectively when they first meet in pairs or small groups to read their drafts aloud, obtain response, and get encouragement. These sessions help students identify aspects of their writing that are effective and those that need further work. Responding to one another’s writing also establishes camaraderie among young writers and makes them feel they are working as a community of writers. An important feature of revision is that it can (and most often should) be done more than once while shaping a composition. Successive revisions can be very useful for writers at any level of English proficiency because each draft gives the writer a chance to make more improvements, the need for which may not have been seen on the first revision. Also, by using writing as a recursive process, students become used to the successive drafting that is commonly used outside school to shape professional and personal communications. For ELLs, revising more than once helps to reinforce their language learning while giving them a chance to do their best.

Editing Editing involves reading the last draft as a proofreader to find and correct deviations in spelling, usage, and mechanics. Students at all levels of English proficiency can usually edit their writing most effectively when they work together. Writers are almost always able to notice misspelled words and other issues better in others’ compositions than in their own. When students work together, the task is also more enjoyable. The teacher can provide assistance, if needed, as the “executive editor” in the classroom, one who is available to answer questions and who circulates to monitor the work and offer encouragement.

Publishing Publishing involves sharing completed works in a public forum. Writers may read their final versions aloud in class, display them on the wall, post them on a class Web site, or bind them in a book for the classroom library. Students may also publish their writings in a school-sponsored

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periodical, a local literary magazine, or a local paper. Publishing gives students recognition for their work and brings to them a positive sense of accomplishment. These five steps are most appropriate to the writing products listed in Quadrant D of Figure 6.2. Other types of writing need little or no preparation, revision, or editing (e.g., entries in personal diaries). Still other writing involves little or no prewriting, revision, or editing but is published (e.g., instant messages on computers). Some writing involves prewriting, drafting, and revising and is then put aside without editing or publishing; students may, for example, work for a while on a piece, then put it in a folder with other works in progress until a later time when they choose one to publish. The extent to which the full writing process is used also depends on students’ ages; very young children may spend much more time in prewriting and drafting activities than in revising and editing activities. Overall, students benefit from learning the writing process, but they also benefit from engaging in writing activities that do not require attention to all five steps.

GUIDELINES FOR WRITING INSTRUCTION The frameworks and principles just presented can be translated into guidelines for making instructional decisions. These are relevant for all students, but we focus here on their value for ELLs. 1. Have students write about personally meaningful topics. As is true for dictation, writing is most effective when it stems from students’ experiences. Aspiring writers are frequently advised to write about what they know, and that is equally valuable advice for ELLs. 2. Have thinking and talking precede writing. Talking enables students to generate ideas, organize their thoughts, and formulate statements. The prewriting use of nonlinguistic representations such as Mind Maps (Buzan & Buzan, 1993) and Thinking Maps (Hyerle, 1995) in conjunction with talking is of particular help to ELLs. In addition, when students talk about their ideas, they give each other encouraging feedback. 3. Emphasize writing as communication. Other activities, such as practice exercises in usage or spelling, should be a part of the instructional program, but writing to communicate should be the priority. 4. Relate writing assignments to other texts and language activities. Dictated accounts, oral language activities, and other-author texts are ideal stimuli for writing. The more integrated the writing is with

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other language activities, the more likely the students will perceive and make use of the patterns that occur in words, sentences, and connected discourse. Awareness of such patterns helps students express themselves orally and in writing. 5. Have students share their writing. Reading compositions aloud reinforces receptive and expressive skills. Students may read works in progress or completed products and may give each other feedback that can help to improve future writing. 6. Engage students in a wide variety of writing activities. Students benefit from varied contexts, purposes, forms, and audiences for writing. The greater the variety, the more chances they have to find effective ways of expressing themselves. Writing reports and essays can be balanced with writing poetry or plays or writing dialogues with a partner. Revising and editing can be balanced with writing freely in journals and not revising the work. 7. Respond to errors with sensitivity. Recognize errors in usage, awkward phrasing, and difficulties with mechanics as natural outcomes of students’ levels of mastery of English. These characteristics of the writing improve as students’ English improves.

WRITING INSTRUCTION FOR ELLS Because these principles hold true for all students, effective writing instruction for ELLs is in many ways the same as effective instruction for native speakers. The primary difference is that ELLs have different linguistic and experiential backgrounds and are learning how to comprehend and speak the language while also learning to encode it. The key, as with reading, is to find the right activities to interest students, encourage them, enable them to feel satisfaction as writers, and help them learn the forms and conventions that will make their written expression as effective as possible.

Writing for Beginners Beginners benefit from activities that result in minimal frustration and maximum satisfaction. They fare best when they compose with known words and focus on meaning. Useful writing activities include arranging word cards into statements, writing interactively with the teacher (McCarrier, Pinnell, & Fountas, 2000; Pinnell & McCarrier, 1994), and writing on their own. They benefit from having their word cards on hand or having familiar words posted nearby. In addition, writing frames are very

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useful in helping them structure their thoughts (Lewis & Wray, 1996; Marzano et al., 2001). Finally, beginners profit from both oral and written composing activities. Here are some activities that incorporate these various practices: • Give students envelopes containing known words to be arranged in sentences. For example, Figure 6.4 shows cards made from a dictated pattern book described in Chapter 2. Word Cards for Sentence Formation

Figure 6.4

bark

dogs

like

to

to

chew bones

like dogs

play dogs

like to

• Have students pair up, choose several words from their personalized vocabularies, and arrange them into sentences. Give them any additional word cards they may need to complete sentences. • Have students pair up and generate a list of words on a broad topic (e.g., food or sports). Have the pairs share their lists by reading them aloud or posting them. • Conduct interactive writing sessions with one student at a time or with a small group. Teacher and students decide together what to write and work together to encode the ideas. Sometimes they take turns writing words or letters; other times, students take over and do most of the writing while the teacher provides assistance on

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request. Tasks can include adding to a dictated account, creating scripts for plays, summarizing recent learning, composing a letter, or describing a recent experience. • Engage students in a discussion and record the ideas in a visual tool, modeling for them how to use the graphic. For example, have students talk about how life in America is similar to and different from life in their native countries and record their ideas in a graphic for comparing and contrasting, such as a Venn diagram. Next, model for them how to use the graphic as a memory aid, pointing to the relevant points as you restate the ideas. Then have students restate the ideas, using the graphic as you did. • As a writing frame, give students a language pattern from an oral language activity. For example, use the question–answer pattern described in Chapter 2 for helping students learn the names of objects: What is this? This is a(n) ___. Have learners use the pattern in their own writing, illustrate the statements, read them aloud, and show the illustrations. Possible completed statements from an individual might include the following: What is this? This is a book. What is this? This is an umbrella. What is this? This is a dog. • Use dialogues from oral language activities as models for writing. For example, after students have practiced a restaurant dialogue, have them pair up to write and read aloud similar exchanges. Here is an example of a model that might be used: Waiter: Good morning. What would you like to eat? Customer: I would like to have ___. Waiter: Would you like ___ or ___? Customer: I would like ___, please. Waiter: What would you like to drink? Customer: I would like ___, please. Waiter: Thank you! I will bring your order right away. • Have students pair up to talk about a recent experience they have shared and formulate two or three statements about the experience. Have pairs share their statements with the class, then work together to write them down. Encourage students to use word cards and picture dictionaries as references. The priority for beginners is to increase their production of written language so that they begin to feel comfortable as writers in English. Teacher support and encouragement is essential; regular sharing helps

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students focus on writing as communication and provides them with appreciative audiences for their efforts. Mechanically correct writing need not be a goal, but those who choose to correct their work may be helped to do so.

Writing for Intermediate Students As students move from reading individual words and patterned texts into more complex language forms, writing activities can become more challenging. Intermediate students benefit from trying out different syntactical structures and text-structure patterns, exploring uses of words, and writing for a variety of purposes. Below are suggested activities that incorporate these practices. The first three engage students in composing but do not require them to generate words and sentences on their own. Each can be done repeatedly over the course of several days or weeks until students gain confidence. The rest of the activities involve generating words and sentences. • Give students their own dictated accounts, cut into sentence strips, and have them put the strips in order. Alternately, give students each other’s accounts as scrambled sentences and have them check each other’s work. In preparing sentence strips, put the sentences on new, same-size strips of paper instead of simply cutting an account up. Students should have to read the sentences to decide how to order them instead of putting them together as if they were puzzle pieces. • Give students four or five sentence strips from an other-author account they have not seen before but that includes many known words. Have students arrange these sentences in order and justify their decisions. A text with clear transitions (first, second, third; first, next, finally) will make the task easier and will also serve as an effective model for students’ own use of transitions. • A