Understanding Movies, 9th Edition

In

Memoriam

Lynn R . J o n e s 1939-1970

Take him and cut him out in little stars, And he will make the face ofheav'n so fine That all the world will be in love with Night And pay no worship to the garish Sun. —WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

C o tttc w i s

P r e f a c e

,xi

Acknowledgments

Overview

xii

2 2

Realism a n d Formalism The Shots

II 13

The Angles

18

Light a n d Dark Color

22

Lenses, Filters, Stocks, Opticals, a n d Gauges 36

The Cinematographer 42

Further Reading 2

yVlist* o n S c e n e Overview

43

44

The Frame

44

Composition a n d Design Territorial Space

77

Proxemic Patterns

Open a n d Closed Forms Further Reading

56

66

92

83

28

C o n t e n t s

3

JW o v e »n e n t 9 3 Overview

94

Kinetics

95

The Moving Camera

112

Mechanical Distortions of Movement Further Reading

123

132

4

133

editing Overview

134

Continuity

134

D. W. Griffith a n d Classical Cutting

138

Soviet Montage and the Formalist Tradition Andre Bazin a n d the Tradition of Realism

155 168

Hitchcock's North by Northwest: Storyboard Version Further Reading

206

5 S o u n d

207

Overview

208

Historical Background Sound Effects Music

208

215

219

Musicals a n d Opera Spoken Language Further Reading

226 230 244

6 .Acting Overview

245 246

Stage a n d Screen Acting The American Star System Styles of Acting Casting

276

287

Further Reading

293

247 259

I8l

C o n t e n t s

7 B c a m a Overview

2 ° 5 296

Time, Space, a n d Language The Director

296

305

Settings a n d Decor

311

Costumes and Makeup Further Reading

324

332

8

Story Overview

333 334

Narratology

336

The Spectator

339

T h e Classical P a r a d i g m

343

Realistic Narratives

348

Formalistic Narratives

352

Nonfictional Narratives Genre a n d Myth

356

362

Further Reading

372

9

Writing Overview

373 374

The Screenwriter

374

The Screenplay

383

North by Northwest: R e a d i n g V e r s i o n Figurative C o m p a r i s o n s Point of View

393

401

Literary Adaptations Further Reading

405 409

10 CTdeoIogy Overview

411

412

The Left-Center-Right Model

417

387

ix

C o n t e n t s

Culture, Religion, a n d Ethnicity Feminism Gay Liberation Tone

427

437 444

450

Further Reading

453

TKeoi*v

455

Overview

456

Theories of Realism

457

Formalist Film T h e o r i e s The Auteur Theory

464 470

Eclectic a n d S y n t h e t i c T h e o r i e s Structuralism and Semiology Historiography

487

Further Reading

492

477 480

12 SyntHesis:

Citizen Kane

Photography

495

Mise e n S c e n e Movement Editing

505

Sound

507

Acting

509

Drama

511

Story Writing

516 518

Ideology Theory

499 501

522 524

Further Reading

529

531

G l o s s a r y

CJndet*:

545

4 9 3

The real voyage of discovery consists not in seeking new landscapes, but in having new eyes. — M A R C E L PROUST, NOVELIST AND ART CRITIC

Cineliteracy i s l o n g o v e r d u e i n A m e r i c a n e d u c a t i o n , a n d n o t j u s t a t t h e college level. A c c o r d i n g to The Television and Video Almanac, t h e average A m e r i c a n family w a t c h e s a b o u t seven h o u r s of television p e r day. T h a t ' s a lot of t i m e w a t c h i n g m o v i n g images. Yet, for t h e m o s t p a r t , we watch t h e m uncritically, passively, allowing t h e m to wash over us, rarely analyzing h o w they w o r k on us, h o w they can s h a p e o u r values. T h e following c h a p t e r s may b e o f use i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w television a n d movies c o m m u n i c a t e , a n d t h e c o m p l e x n e t w o r k o f lang u a g e systems they use. My p u r p o s e is n o t to t e a c h viewers h o w to r e s p o n d to m o v i n g images, b u t t o suggest s o m e o f t h e r e a s o n s p e o p l e r e s p o n d a s they d o . In this n i n t h e d i t i o n , I have r e t a i n e d t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e of o r g a n i z a t i o n as the earlier editions, structuring the chapters a r o u n d the realism-formalism d i c h o t o m y . E a c h c h a p t e r isolates t h e various l a n g u a g e systems a n d s p e c t r u m o f t e c h n i q u e s u s e d by filmmakers in conveying m e a n i n g . Naturally, t h e c h a p t e r s d o n ' t p r e t e n d t o b e exhaustive: T h e y ' r e essentially s t a r t i n g p o i n t s . T h e y p r o g r e s s from t h e m o s t n a r r o w a n d specific aspects o f c i n e m a ( p h o t o g r a p h y a n d m o v e m e n t ) t o t h e m o s t abstract a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e (ideology a n d theo r y ) . T h e c h a p t e r s a r e n o t tightly i n t e r d e p e n d e n t : T h e y can b e r e a d o u t o f s e q u e n c e . Inevitably, s u c h a looseness of o r g a n i z a t i o n involves a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of o v e r l a p p i n g , b u t I have t r i e d to k e e p this to a m i n i m u m . T e c h n i c a l t e r m s a r e b o l d f a c e d t h e f i r s t t i m e they a p p e a r i n e a c h c h a p t e r , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t they a r e d e f i n e d in t h e Glossary. E a c h c h a p t e r has b e e n u p d a t e d t o reflect r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s i n the field. I have also i n c l u d e d m a n y n e w p h o t o s a n d c a p t i o n s , m o s t of t h e m from r e c e n t l y released movies. xi

T h e final c h a p t e r , "Synthesis: Citizen Kane," is a r e c a p i t u l a t i o n of t h e m a i n ideas of t h e previous c h a p t e r s , a p p l i e d to a single movie. T h e c h a p t e r can also serve as a r o u g h m o d e l for a t e r m paper. VCR a n d DVD have allowed film analysis to be m u c h m o r e systematic, b e c a u s e a movie in cassette or disk form can be r e p e a t e d m a n y times. In my own courses, I r e q u i r e my s t u d e n t s to select a s c e n e — p r e f e r a b l y u n d e r t h r e e m i n u t e s — a n d analyze all its c o m p o n e n t s a c c o r d i n g to t h e c h a p t e r s of this b o o k . Of c o u r s e , a t e r m p a p e r is n o t likely to be as d e t a i l e d as the Citizen Kane analysis, b u t t h e s a m e m e t h o d o l o g y c a n be applied. If t h e c h a p t e r s a r e r e a d in a different s e q u e n c e , t h e t e r m p a p e r c a n be o r g a n i z e d i n a c o r r e s p o n d i n g m a n n e r . For e x a m p l e , m a n y p e o p l e w o u l d p r e f e r to b e g i n an analysis with story or t h e m e , a n d t h e n p r o c e e d to m a t t e r s of style a n d t e c h n i q u e . Citizen Kane is an ideal c h o i c e b e c a u s e it i n c l u d e s virtually every t e c h n i q u e t h e m e d i u m is c a p a b l e of, in a d d i t i o n to b e i n g o n e of t h e m o s t critically a d m i r e d films in history a n d a p o p u l a r favorite a m o n g s t u d e n t s . A w o r d a b o u t t h e p h o t o s in this b o o k . Most of t h e illustrations a r e publicity p h o t o s , t a k e n with a 3 5 - m m still c a m e r a . T h e y a r e n o t f r a m e e n l a r g e m e n t s from t h e movie itself, f o r s u c h e n l a r g e m e n t s r e p r o d u c e poorly. T h e y a r e g e n e r a l l y t o o h a r s h l y c o n t r a s t i n g a n d lacking i n detail c o m p a r e d t o t h e m o v i n g i m a g e on a l a r g e s c r e e n . W h e n e x a c t i t u d e was necessary, as in t h e series from The Seven Samurai ( 9 - 1 4 ) or t h e e d i t e d s e q u e n c e f r o m Potemkin ( 4 - 1 8 ) , I i n c l u d e d actual b l o w u p s from t h e movies themselves. Most of t h e t i m e , however, I p r e f e r r e d to use publicity p h o t o s b e c a u s e of t h e i r s u p e r i o r technical resolution.

I w o u l d like to t h a n k t h e following friends a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n s for t h e i r h e l p , advice, a n d criticism: M a r y A r a n e o , Scott E y m a n , Jon F o r m a n , Dave Wittkowsky, t h e staff of The Observer, t h e Case W e s t e r n R e s e r v e University Film Society, a n d m y s t u d e n t s a t C.W.R.U. I ' m grateful t o I n g m a r B e r g m a n , w h o was k i n d e n o u g h to allow me to use t h e f r a m e e n l a r g e m e n t s from Persona; a n d Akira Kurosawa, w h o graciously c o n s e n t e d to my u s i n g e n l a r g e m e n t s f r o m The Seven Samurai. I would also like to a c k n o w l e d g e a n d t h a n k t h e following individuals a n d institutions for t h e i r assistance in allowing me to use materials u n d e r t h e i r copyright: A n d r e w Sarris, for p e r m i s s i o n to q u o t e from " T h e Fall a n d Rise of t h e Film Director," in Interviews with Film Directors (New York: Avon Books, 1967); Kurosawa P r o d u c t i o n s , T o h o I n t e r n a t i o n a l Co., Ltd., a n d A u d i o B r a n d o n Films for p e r m i s s i o n to use t h e frame e n l a r g e m e n t s from The Seven Samurai; from North by Northwest, T h e M G M Library of Film Scripts, written by E a r n e s t L e h m a n (Copyright © 1959 by Loews I n c o r p o r a t e d . R e p r i n t e d by p e r m i s s i o n of t h e Viking Press, I n c . ) ; Albert. J. La Valley, Focus on Hitchcock (© 1972. R e p r i n t e d by p e r m i s s i o n of Prentice-Hall, Inc., E n g l e w o o d Cliffs, New Jersey); Albert Maysles, in Documentary Explorations, e d i t e d by G. Roy Levin ( G a r d e n City, N.Y.: D o u b l e -

X

iii

day & C o m p a n y , Inc., 1971); Vladimir Nilsen, The Cinema as a Graphic Art (New York: Hill a n d W a n g , a Division of Farrar, Straus a n d G i r o u x ) ; Maya D e r e n , "Cine m a t o g r a p h y : T h e Creative Use of Reality," in The Visual Arts Today, e d i t e d by Gyorgy Kepes ( M i d d l e t o w n , C o n n : Wesleyan University Press, 1960); Marcel C a r n e , from The French Cinema, by Roy A r m e s (San Diego, Cal.: A. S. B a r n e s & Co., 1966); R i c h a r d Dyer M a c C a n n , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " Film: A Montage of Theories (New York: E. P. D u t t o n & Co., I n c . ) , copyright © 1966 by R i c h a r d Dyer MacC a n n , r e p r i n t e d with permission; V. I. Pudovkin, Film Technique ( L o n d o n : Vision, 1954); A n d r e Bazin, What Is Cinema? (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967); M i c h e l a n g e l o A n t o n i o n i , "Two S t a t e m e n t s , " in Film Makers on Film Making, e d i t e d by H a r r y M. G e d u l d ( B l o o m i n g t o n : University o f l n d i a n a Press, 1969); A l e x a n d r e Astruc, from The New Wave, e d i t e d by P e t e r G r a h a m ( L o n d o n : Seeker & W a r b u r g , 1968, a n d New York: D o u b l e d a y & C o . ) ; Akira Kurosawa, from T h e Movies As M e d i u m , e d i t e d by Lewis Jacobs (New York: Farrar, Straus a n d G i r o u x , 1970); P a u l i n e Kael, 1 Lost It al the Movies (New York: B a n t a m Books, 1966). L o u i s GIANNETTI

Cleveland,

Ohio

2

Overview T h e t h r e e styles of film: r e a l i s m , classicism, a n d f o r m a l i s m . T h r e e b r o a d t y p e s of cine m a : d o c u m e n t a r i e s , fiction films, a n d a v a n t - g a r d e movies. T h e signified a n d t h e signifier: h o w form s h a p e s c o n t e n t i n m o v i e s . Subject m a t t e r p l u s t r e a t m e n t e q u a l c o n t e n t . T h e s h o t s : a p p a r e n t d i s t a n c e o f t h e c a m e r a from t h e subject. T h e a n g l e s : l o o k i n g u p , d o w n , or at e y e level. Lighting styles: h i g h key, low key, high c o n t r a s t . T h e s y m b o l i s m of light a n d d a r k n e s s . Color s y m b o l i s m . H o w l e n s e s distort t h e subject m a t t e r : t e l e p h o t o s , wide-angle, a n d s t a n d a r d l e n s e s . Filtered reality: m o r e d i s t o r t i o n s . Special effects a n d t h e optical printer. T h e c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r : t h e film director's m a i n visual collaborator.

Even b e f o r e t h e t u r n of t h e last century, movies b e g a n to d e v e l o p in two major directions: t h e realistic a n d t h e formalistic. In t h e mid-1890s in F r a n c e , t h e L u m i e r e b r o t h e r s d e l i g h t e d a u d i e n c e s with t h e i r s h o r t movies dealing with everyday o c c u r r e n c e s . S u c h films as The Arrival of a Train ( 4 - 3 ) fascin a t e d viewers precisely b e c a u s e they s e e m e d t o c a p t u r e t h e flux a n d s p o n t a n e ity of events as they w e r e viewed in real life. At a b o u t t h e s a m e t i m e , G e o r g e s Melies was c r e a t i n g a n u m b e r of fantasy films t h a t e m p h a s i z e d purely i m a g i n e d events. Such movies as A Trip to the Moon (4-4) w e r e typical m i x t u r e s of whimsical narrative a n d trick p h o t o g r a p h y . In m a n y respects, t h e L u m i e r e s can be r e g a r d e d as t h e f o u n d e r s of t h e realist t r a d i t i o n of c i n e m a , a n d Melies of t h e formalist t r a d i t i o n . Realism a n d formalism are g e n e r a l r a t h e r t h a n absolute t e r m s . W h e n used to suggest a t e n d e n c y toward e i t h e r polarity, such labels can be helpful, b u t in t h e e n d t h e y ' r e j u s t labels. Few films are exclusively formalist in style, a n d fewer yet a r e completely realist. T h e r e is also an i m p o r t a n t difference between realism a n d reality, a l t h o u g h this distinction is often forgotten. Realism is a particular style, w h e r e a s physical reality is t h e s o u r c e of all t h e raw materials of film, b o t h realistic a n d formalistic. Virtually all movie directors go to t h e p h o t o g r a p h able world for t h e i r subject matter, b u t w h a t they do with this m a t e r i a l — h o w they s h a p e a n d m a n i p u l a t e it—is what d e t e r m i n e s t h e i r stylistic e m p h a s i s . Generally s p e a k i n g , realistic films a t t e m p t to r e p r o d u c e t h e surface of reality with a m i n i m u m of d i s t o r t i o n . In p h o t o g r a p h i n g objects a n d events, t h e filmmaker tries to suggest t h e c o p i o u s n e s s of life itself. Both realist a n d formalist film d i r e c t o r s m u s t select ( a n d h e n c e , e m p h a s i z e ) c e r t a i n details from t h e c h a o t i c sprawl of reality. But t h e e l e m e n t of selectivity in realistic films is less obvious. Realists, in s h o r t , try to p r e s e r v e t h e illusion t h a t t h e i r film world is u n m a n i p u l a t e d , a n objective m i r r o r o f t h e actual world. Formalists, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , m a k e n o such p r e t e n s e . T h e y deliberately stylize a n d distort t h e i r raw m a t e r i a l s so t h a t only t h e very naive w o u l d mistake a m a n i p u l a t e d i m a g e of an object or e v e n t for t h e real t h i n g . Style is p a r t of t h e show.

1 - la. The Perfect Storm (U.S.A., 2000), with George Clooney, directed by Wolfgang Petersen. (Warner Bros.) Realism a n d F o r m a l i s m . Critics and theorists have c h a m p i o n e d film as the most realistic of all the arts in capturing how an experience actually looks and sounds, like this thrilling recreation of a ferocious storm at sea. A stage director would have to suggest the storm symbolically, with stylized lighting and off-stage sound effects. A novelist would have to recreate the event with words, a painter with pigments brushstroked onto a flat canvas. But a film director can create the event with much greater credibility by plunging the c a m e r a (a proxy for us) in the middle of the most terrifying ordeals without actually putting us in h a r m ' s way. In short, film realism is m o r e like "being there" than any other artistic m e d i u m or any other style of presentation. Audiences can experience the thrills without facing any of the dangers. Dames presents us with another type of experience entirely. The choreographies of Busby Berkeley are triumphs of artifice, far removed from the real world. Depression-weary audie n c e s flocked to movies like this precisely to get away from everyday reality. They wanted magic and e n c h a n t m e n t , not reminders of their real-life problems. Berkeley's style was the most formalized of all choreographers. He liberated the c a m e r a from the narrow confines of the proscenium arch, soaring overhead, even swirling amongst the dancers, and juxtaposing shots from a variety of vantage points throughout the musical numbers. He often photographed his dancers from unusual angles, like this bird's-eye s h o t . S o m e t i m e s he didn't even bother using dancers at all, preferring a uniform contingent of good-looking young w o m e n who are used primarily as semi-abstract visual units, like bits of glass in a shifting kaleidoscope of formal patterns. Audiences were e n c h a n t e d . l-lb. Dames (U.S.A., 1934), choreographed by Busby Berkeley, directed by Ray Enright. (Warner Bros.)

1-2. Classification c h a r t of styles a n d t y p e s of film. Critics and scholars categorize movies according to a variety of criteria. Two of the most c o m m o n m e t h o d s of classification are by style and by type. The three principal styles—realism, classicism, and formalism—might be regarded as a continuous spectrum of possibilities, rather than airtight categories. Similarly, the three types of movies—documentaries, fiction, and a v a n t - g a r d e films—are also t e r m s of convenience, for they often overlap. Realistic films like Distant Thunder (1-4) can s h a d e into the documentary. Formalist movies like The Seventh Seal ( 1 - 6 ) have a personal quality suggesting the traditional domain of the avant-garde. Most fiction films, especially those produced in America, tend to conform to the classical p a r a d i g m . Classical cinema-can be viewed as an intermediate style that avoids the e x t r e m e s of realism and formalism—though most movies in the classical form lean toward o n e of~~:he other style.

We rarely n o t i c e t h e style in a realistic movie; t h e artist t e n d s to be selfeffacing, invisible. S u c h filmmakers a r e m o r e c o n c e r n e d with what's b e i n g shown r a t h e r t h a n h o w it's m a n i p u l a t e d . T h e c a m e r a is used conservatively. It's essentially a r e c o r d i n g m e c h a n i s m t h a t r e p r o d u c e s t h e surface of tangible objects with as little c o m m e n t a r y as possible. S o m e realists aim for a r o u g h look in t h e i r images, o n e t h a t d o e s n ' t prettify t h e materials with a self-conscious beauty of form. "If it's t o o pretty, it's false," is an implicit a s s u m p t i o n . A h i g h p r e m i u m is p l a c e d on simplicity, spontaneity, a n d d i r e c t n e s s . T h i s is n o t to suggest t h a t t h e s e movies lack artistry, however, for at its best, t h e realistic c i n e m a specializes in art t h a t c o n c e a l s art. Formalist movies a r e stylistically flamboyant. T h e i r d i r e c t o r s a r e conc e r n e d with e x p r e s s i n g t h e i r u n a b a s h e d l y subjective e x p e r i e n c e of reality, n o t h o w o t h e r p e o p l e m i g h t see it. Formalists are often r e f e r r e d to as expressionists, b e c a u s e t h e i r self-expression is at least as i m p o r t a n t as t h e subject m a t t e r itself. Expressionists a r c often c o n c e r n e d with spiritual a n d psychological t r u t h s , which they feel can be conveyed best by distorting t h e surface of t h e material world. T h e c a m e r a is u s e d as a m e t h o d of c o m m e n t i n g on t h e subject matter, a way of e m p h a s i z i n g its essential r a t h e r t h a n its objective n a t u r e . Formalist movies have a h i g h d e g r e e of m a n i p u l a t i o n , a stylization of reality.

4

5

M o s t realists w o u l d claim t h a t t h e i r m a j o r c o n c e r n is with content r a t h e r t h a n form o r t e c h n i q u e . T h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r i s always s u p r e m e , a n d a n y t h i n g t h a t d i s t r a c t s f r o m t h e c o n t e n t i s viewed with s u s p i c i o n . I n its m o s t e x t r e m e f o r m , t h e realistic c i n e m a t e n d s t o w a r d d o c u m e n t a r y , with its e m p h a s i s o n p h o t o g r a p h i n g actual events a n d p e o p l e ( 1 - 3 ) . T h e formalist cinema, on the o t h e r h a n d , tends t o emphasize t e c h n i q u e a n d expressiveness. T h e most e x t r e m e e x a m p l e o f this style o f f i l m m a k i n g i s f o u n d i n t h e a v a n t - g a r d e c i n e m a ( 1 - 7 ) .

1-3. Hearts and Minds (U.S.A., 1 9 7 5 ) , directed by Peter Davis. The emotional impact of a d o c u m e n t a r y image usually derives from its truth rather than its beauty. Davis's indictment of America's devastation of Vietnam consists primarily of TV newsreel footage. This photo shows s o m e Vietnamese children running from an accidental b o m b ing raid on their community, their clothes literally burned off their bodies by napalm. "First they b o m b as much as they please," a Vietnamese observes, "then they film it." It was images such as these that eventually turned the majority of Americans against the war. Fernando Solanas and Octavio Gettino, Third World filmmakers, have pointed out, "Every image that d o c u m e n t s , bears witness to, refutes or d e e p e n s the truth of a situation is something more than a film image or purely artistic fact; it b e c o m e s something which the System finds indigestible." Paradoxically, in no country except the United States would such self-damning footage be allowed on the public airwaves—which are controlled, or at least regulated, by gove r n m e n t s . No other country has a First A m e n d m e n t , guaranteeing freedom of expression. (Warner

Bros.)

6

P h o t o g f c i p h y

S o m e o f t h e s e movies a r e totally abstract; p u r e f o r m s ( t h a t is, n o n r e p r e s e n t a tional colors, lines, a n d s h a p e s ) c o n s t i t u t e t h e o n l y c o n t e n t . M o s t f i c t i o n f i l m s fall s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n t h e s e two e x t r e m e s , in a m o d e critics refer to as classical cinema ( 1 - 5 ) . Even t h e t e r m s form a n d content a r e n ' t as clear-cut as t h e y m a y s o m e times s e e m . A s t h e f i l m m a k e r a n d a u t h o r V l a d i m i r Nilsen p o i n t e d o u t : " A p h o t o g r a p h i s b y n o m e a n s a c o m p l e t e a n d w h o l e reflection o f reality: t h e p h o t o graphic picture represents only o n e or a n o t h e r selection from t h e sum of physical a t t r i b u t e s of t h e o b j e c t p h o t o g r a p h e d . " T h e f o r m of a s h o t — t h e way in which a s u b j e c t is p h o t o g r a p h e d — i s its t r u e c o n t e n t , n o t necessarily w h a t t h e subject is p e r c e i v e d to be in reality. T h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t h e o r i s t Marshall

1 -4. Distant Thunder (India, 1973), directed by Satyajit Ray. In most realistic films, there is a close correspondence of the images to everyday reality. This criterion of value necessarily involves a comparison between the internal world of the movie with the external milieu that the filmmaker has chosen to explore. The realistic c i n e m a tends to deal with people from the lower social echelons and often explores moral issues. The artist rarely intrudes on the materials, however, preferring to let t h e m speak for themselves. Rather than focusing on extraordinary events, realism tends to emphasize the basic experiences of life. It is a style that excels in making us feel the humanity of others. Beauty of form is often sacrificed to capture the texture of reality as it's ordinarily perceived. Realistic images often s e e m unmanipulated, haphazard in their design. They frequently convey an intimate snapshot quality—people caught unawares. Generally, the story materials are loosely organized and include m a n y details that don't necessarily forward the plot but are offered for their own sake, to heighten the sense of authenticity. (Cinema 5)

7

M c L u h a n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e c o n t e n t o f o n e m e d i u m i s actually a n o t h e r m e d i u m . F o r e x a m p l e , a p h o t o g r a p h (visual i m a g e ) d e p i c t i n g a m a n e a t i n g an a p p l e (taste) involves two different m e d i u m s : Each c o m m u n i c a t e s i n f o r m a t i o n — c o n t e n t — i n a d i f f e r e n t way. A verbal d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e p h o t o g r a p h of t h e m a n e a t i n g t h e a p p l e w o u l d involve yet a n o t h e r m e d i u m ( l a n g u a g e ) , w h i c h c o m m u n i c a t e s i n f o r m a t i o n i n yet a n o t h e r m a n n e r . I n e a c h case, t h e p r e cise i n f o r m a t i o n is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e m e d i u m , a l t h o u g h superficially all t h r e e have t h e s a m e c o n t e n t . In l i t e r a t u r e , t h e naive s e p a r a t i o n of f o r m a n d c o n t e n t is called " t h e h e r e s y of p a r a p h r a s e . " F o r e x a m p l e , t h e c o n t e n t of Hamlet can be f o u n d in a college o u t l i n e , yet n o o n e w o u l d seriously suggest t h a t t h e play a n d o u t l i n e a r e t h e s a m e " e x c e p t in f o r m . " To p a r a p h r a s e artistic i n f o r m a t i o n is inevitably to c h a n g e its c o n t e n t as well as its f o r m . Artistry can n e v e r be g a u g e d by subject

1-5. Mr. Deeds Goes to Town (U.S.A., 1 9 3 6 ) , with Gary Cooper (with tuba), directed by Frank Copra. Classical c i n e m a avoids the e x t r e m e s of realism and formalism in favor of a slightly stylized presentation that has at least a surface plausibility. Movies in this form are often h a n d s o m e l y m o u n t e d , but the style rarely calls attention to itself. The images are d e t e r m i n e d by their relevance to the story and characters, rather than a desire for authenticity or formal beauty alone. The implicit ideal is a functional, invisible style: The pictorial e l e m e n t s are subordinated to the presentation of characters in action. Classical c i n e m a is story oriented. The narrative line is seldom allowed to wander, nor is it broken up by authorial intrusions. A high p r e m i u m is placed on the e n t e r t a i n m e n t value of the story, which is often s h a p e d to conform to the conventions of a popular genre. Often the characters are played by stars rather than u n k n o w n players, a n d their roles are s o m e t i m e s tailored to showcase their personal charms. The h u m a n materials are p a r a m o u n t in the classical cinema. The characters are generally appealing a n d slightly romanticized. The audience is encouraged to identify with their values a n d goals.

(Columbia Pictures)

8

P h o t o g

f a p K y

m a t t e r a l o n e . T h e m a n n e r o f its p r e s e n t a t i o n — i t s forms—is t h e t r u e c o n t e n t o f p a i n t i n g s , l i t e r a t u r e , a n d plays. T h e s a m e a p p l i e s t o movies. T h e great F r e n c h critic A n d r e Bazin n o t e d , " O n e way o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e t t e r what a film is t r y i n g to say is to k n o w h o w it is saying it." T h e A m e r i c a n critic H e r m a n G. W e i n b e r g e x p r e s s e d t h e m a t t e r succinctly: " T h e way a story is told is p a r t of t h a t story. You c a n tell t h e s a m e story badly or well; you c a n also tell it well e n o u g h or magnificently. It d e p e n d s on w h o is telling t h e story." Realism a n d realistic a r e m u c h o v e r t a x e d t e r m s , b o t h in life a n d in movies. We use t h e s e t e r m s to e x p r e s s so m a n y different ideas. F o r e x a m p l e , p e o p l e often praise t h e "realism" of t h e b o x i n g m a t c h e s in Raging Bull. W h a t they really m e a n i s t h a t t h e s e scenes a r e powerful, i n t e n s e , a n d vivid. T h e s e traits owe very little to realism as a style. In fact, t h e b o x i n g m a t c h e s a r e e x t r e m e l y stylized. T h e i m a g e s a r e often p h o t o g r a p h e d i n d r e a m y slow m o t i o n ,

1 -6. The Seventh Seal ( S w e d e n , 1 9 5 7 ) , with Bengt Ekerot and Max von Sydow, cinematography by Cunnar Fischer, directed by Ingmar Bergman. The formalist cinema is largely a director's cinema: We're often aware of the personality of the filmmaker. There is a high degree of manipulation in the narrative materials, a n d the visual presentation is stylized. The story is exploited as a vehicle for the filmmaker's personal obsessions. Formalists are not much concerned with how realistic their images are, but with their beauty or p o w e r . The most artificial genres—musicals, sci-fi, fantasy films—are generally classified as formalist. Most movies of this sort deal with extraordinary characters a n d events—such as this mortal g a m e of chess b e t w e e n a medieval knight a n d the figure of Death. This style of c i n e m a excels in dealing with ideas—political, religious, philosophical— a n d is often the chosen m e d i u m of propagandistic artists. Its texture is densely symbolic: Feelings are expressed through forms, like the dramatic high-contrast lighting of this shot. Most of the great stylists of the cinema are formalists, ijanus Films)

1 - 7 . Allures (U.S.A., 1 9 6 1 ) , directed by Jordan Belson. In the avant-garde cinema, subject matter is often suppressed in favor of abstraction and an emphasis on formal beauty for its own sake. Like m a n y artists in this idiom, Belson began as a painter and was attracted to film because of its temporal and kinetic dimensions. He was strongly influenced by such European avant-garde artists as Hans Richter, who championed the "absolute film"—a graphic cinema of pure forms divorced from a recognizable subject matter. Belson's works are inspired by philosophical concepts derived primarily from Oriental religions, but these are essentially private sources and are rarely presented explicitly in films themselves. Form is the true content of Belson's movies. His animated images are mostly geometrical shapes, dissolving and contracting circles of light, and kinetic swirls. His patterns expand, congeal, flicker, and split off into other shapes, only to re-form and explode again. It is a cinema of uncompromising self-expression—personal, often inaccessible, a n d iconoclastic. (Pyramid Films)

with lyrical c r a n e shots, w e i r d a c c o m p a n y i n g s o u n d effects (like hissing s o u n d s a n d j u n g l e s c r e a m s ) , staccato e d i t i n g i n b o t h t h e i m a g e s a n d t h e s o u n d . T r u e , t h e subject m a t t e r i s b a s e d o n actual life—the brief b o x i n g c a r e e r o f t h e A m e r ican m i d d l e w e i g h t c h a m p i o n of t h e 1940s, Jake La Motta. B u t t h e stylistic treatm e n t o f t h e s e b i o g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l s i s extravagantly subjective ( l - 8 a ) . At t h e o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e , t h e special effects in lotal Recall a r e so u n c a n nily realistic t h a t we w o u l d swear they w e r e real if we d i d n ' t k n o w b e t t e r . In t h e s c e n e p i c t u r e d ( l - 8 b ) , for e x a m p l e , w e sec a p l u m p b a l d c h a r a c t e r magically t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o A r n o l d S c h w a r z e n e g g e r after h e r e m o v e s his lifelike h e a d p i e c e . S u c h fantasy m a t e r i a l s can b e p r e s e n t e d with a s t o n i s h i n g "realism" t h a n k s t o t h e b r i l l i a n c e o f D r e a m Q u e s t , o n e o f t h e m o s t p r e s t i g i o u s special effects o r g a n i z a t i o n s in A m e r i c a . 9

1 -8a. (United

Raging Bull (U.S.A., 1980), with Robert De Niro, directed by Martin Scorsese. Artists)

l-8b. Total Recall (U.S.A., 1990), with Arnold Schwarzenegger, directed by Paul Verhoeven. cm-Star Pictures)

Realism and formalism are best used as stylistic terms rather than terms to describe the nature of the subject matter. For example, although the story of Raging Bull is based on actual events, the boxing m a t c h e s in the film are stylized. In this photo, the badly bruised Jake La Motta resembles an agonized warrior, crucified against the ropes of the ring. The camera floats toward him in lyrical slow motion while the soft focus obliterates his consciousness of the arena. In Total Recall on the other hand, the special effects are so realistic they almost convince us that the impossible is possible. If special effects look fake, our pleasure is diminished. In short, it's quite possible to present fantasy materials in a realistic style. It's equally possible to present realitybased materials in an expressionistic style.

10

P K o t o g i - a p k y

F o r m a n d c o n t e n t a r e best u s e d a s relative t e r m s . T h e y a r e useful concepts for t e m p o r a r i l y isolating specific aspects of a movie for t h e p u r p o s e s of closer e x a m i n a t i o n . S u c h a s e p a r a t i o n is artificial, of c o u r s e , yet this t e c h n i q u e can yield m o r e d e t a i l e d insights i n t o t h e w o r k of art as a w h o l e . By b e g i n n i n g with an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e basic c o m p o n e n t s of t h e film m e d i u m — i t s various l a n g u a g e systems, as it w e r e — w e will see h o w f o r m a n d c o n t e n t in t h e cine m a , as in t h e o t h e r arts, a r e ultimately t h e s a m e .

The

Skots

T h e shots a r e d e f i n e d b y t h e a m o u n t o f subject m a t t e r t h a t ' s i n c l u d e d within t h e frame of t h e s c r e e n . In actual practice, however, s h o t d e s i g n a t i o n s vary considerably. A m e d i u m shot for o n e d i r e c t o r m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d a closeu p b y a n o t h e r . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e l o n g e r t h e shot, t h e less precise a r e t h e design a t i o n s . I n g e n e r a l , shots a r e d e t e r m i n e d o n t h e basis o f h o w m u c h o f t h e h u m a n figure is in view. T h e s h o t is n o t necessarily d e f i n e d by t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e object p h o t o g r a p h e d , for i n s o m e instances certain lenses d i s t o r t distances. F o r e x a m p l e , a telephoto lens can p r o d u c e a closeup on t h e s c r e e n , yet t h e c a m e r a in s u c h shots is generally q u i t e d i s t a n t from t h e subject matter. A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e m a n y different k i n d s o f s h o t s i n t h e c i n e m a , m o s t of t h e m a r e s u b s u m e d u n d e r t h e six basic categories: (1) t h e e x t r e m e long shot, (2) t h e long shot, (3) t h e full shot, (4) t h e m e d i u m shot, (5) t h e close-up, a n d (6) t h e e x t r e m e close-up. T h e deep-focus shot is usually a variation of t h e l o n g or extreme long shot (1-9). T h e extreme long shot is t a k e n f r o m a g r e a t d i s t a n c e , s o m e t i m e s as far as a q u a r t e r of a m i l e away. It's a l m o s t always an e x t e r i o r s h o t a n d shows m u c h o f t h e l o c a l e . E x t r e m e l o n g s h o t s also s e r v e a s spatial f r a m e s o f refere n c e for t h e c l o s e r s h o t s a n d for this r e a s o n a r e s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d establish-

1-9. Okaeri (Japan, 1995), directed by Makoto Shinozaki. The setting d o m i n a t e s most e x t r e m e long shots. H u m a n s are dwarfed into visual insignificance, making t h e m appear unimportant and vulnerable. Shinozaki's desperate lovers seem oppressed even by Nature—vast, stark, merciless. (Dimension

Films)

1-10. Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (U.S.A., 1 9 9 4 ) , with Robert De Niro (under wraps) and Kenneth Branagh, directed by Branagh. At its most distant range, the long shot e n c o m p a s s e s roughly the s a m e a m o u n t of space as the staging area of a large theater. Setting can d o m i n a t e characters unless they're located near the foreground. Lighting a long shot is usually costly, time consuming, and labor intensive, especially if it's in d e e p focus, like this shot. The laboratory had to be m o o d y and scary, yet still sufficiently clear to enable us to see back into the "depth" of the set. Note how the lighting is layered, punctuated with patches of gloom and accusatory shafts of light from above. To complicate matters, whenever a director cuts to closer shots, the lighting has to be adjusted accordingly so that the transitions between cuts appear smooth and unobtrusive. Anyone w h o has ever visited a movie set knows that people are waiting most of the time— usually for the director of photography (D.P.) to a n n o u n c e that the lighting is finally ready and the scene can now be photographed, rmstarPictures)

ing s h o t s . I f p e o p l e a r e i n c l u d e d i n e x t r e m e l o n g s h o t s , they usually a p p e a r a s m e r e s p e c k s o n t h e s c r e e n ( 1 - 9 ) . T h e m o s t effective u s e o f t h e s e s h o t s i s o f t e n f o u n d i n e p i c films, w h e r e l o c a l e plays a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e : w e s t e r n s , w a r films, s a m u r a i films, a n d h i s t o r i c a l m o v i e s . T h e long .shot. (1-10) is p e r h a p s t h e m o s t c o m p l e x in t h e c i n e m a , a n d t h e t e r m itself o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p r e c i s e . Usually, long-shot r a n g e s c o r r e s p o n d a p p r o x i m a t e l y t o t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e a u d i e n c e a n d t h e stage i n t h e live theater. T h e closest r a n g e within this c a t e g o r y is t h e full shot, w h i c h j u s t barely i n c l u d e s t h e h u m a n b o d y i n full, with t h e h e a d n e a r t h e t o p o f t h e frame a n d t h e feet n e a r t h e b o t t o m . T h e medium shot c o n t a i n s a figure from t h e k n e e s or waist u p . A functional shot, it's useful for s h o o t i n g exposition scenes, for c a r r y i n g m o v e m e n t , a n d for d i a l o g u e . T h e r e a r c several variations of t h e m e d i u m shot. T h e two-shot c o n t a i n s two figures from t h e waist up ( 1 - 1 1 ) . T h e three-shot c o n t a i n s t h r e e figures; b e y o n d t h r e e , t h e s h o t t e n d s to b e c o m e dffull shot, Unless t h e o t h e r figures are in t h e b a c k g r o u n d . T h e over-the-shoulder shot usually c o n t a i n s two figures, o n e with p a r t o f his o r h e r back t o t h e c a m e r a , t h e o t h e r facing t h e c a m e r a . 12

1-11. As Good As It Gets (U.S.A., 1997), with Jack Nicholson and Helen Hunt, directed by James L. Brooks. Above all, the m e d i u m shot is the shot of the couple, romantic or otherwise. Generally, twoshots have a split focus rather than a single dominant: The bifurcated composition usually emphasizes equality, two people sharing the s a m e intimate space. The m e d i u m two-shot reigns s u p r e m e in such genres as romantic comedies, love stories, and buddy films, (wstar Pictures)

T h e close-up shows very little if any locale a n d c o n c e n t r a t e s on a relatively small o b j e c t — t h e h u m a n face, for e x a m p l e . Because the close-up magnifies t h e size of an object, it t e n d s to elevate t h e i m p o r t a n c e of things, often suggesting a symbolic significance. T h e extreme close-up is a variation of this shot. T h u s , instead of a face, t h e e x t r e m e close-up m i g h t show only a p e r s o n ' s eyes or m o u t h . T h e deep-focus shot is usually a l o n g s h o t consisting of a n u m b e r of focal distances a n d p h o t o g r a p h e d in d e p t h ( 1 - 1 0 ) . S o m e t i m e s called a wide-angle shot b e c a u s e it r e q u i r e s a wide-angle lens to p h o t o g r a p h , this type of s h o t capt u r e s objects at close, m e d i u m , a n d l o n g r a n g e s simultaneously, all of t h e m in s h a r p focus. T h e objects in a deep-focus s h o t a r e carefully a r r a n g e d in a succession of p l a n e s . By u s i n g this layering t e c h n i q u e , t h e d i r e c t o r c a n g u i d e t h e _ v i e w e r ' s e y e from o n e d i s t a n c e to a n o t h e r . Generally, t h e eye travels from a close range to a m e d i u m to a l o n g .

T h e angle from which an object is p h o t o g r a p h e d can often serve as an a u t h o r i a l c o m m e n t a r y on t h e subject matter. If t h e a n g l e is slight, it c a n serve as a subtle f o r m of e m o t i o n a l c o l o r a t i o n . If t h e a n g l e is e x t r e m e , it can r e p r e s e n t t h e major m e a n i n g o f a n i m a g e . T h e a n g l e i s d e t e r m i n e d b y w h e r e t h e camera is p l a c e d , n o t t h e subject p h o t o g r a p h e d . A p i c t u r e of a p e r s o n p h o 1 3

" P h o t o g r a p h y

t o g r a p h e d from a h i g h a n g l e actually suggests an o p p o s i t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n from an i m a g e of t h e s a m e p e r s o n p h o t o g r a p h e d from a low a n g l e . T h e subject matt e r c a n be identical in t h e two i m a g e s , yet t h e i n f o r m a t i o n we derive from b o t h clearly shows t h a t t h e f o r m is t h e c o n t e n t , t h e c o n t e n t t h e form. F i l m m a k e r s i n t h e realistic t r a d i t i o n t e n d t o avoid e x t r e m e a n g l e s . M o s t of t h e i r s c e n e s a r e p h o t o g r a p h e d f r o m eye level, r o u g h l y five to six feet off t h e g r o u n d — a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e way an actual o b s e r v e r m i g h t view a s c e n e . Usually t h e s e d i r e c t o r s a t t e m p t to c a p t u r e t h e c l e a r e s t view of an object. Eyelevel shots a r e s e l d o m intrinsically d r a m a t i c , b e c a u s e t h e y t e n d t o b e t h e n o r m . Virtually all d i r e c t o r s u s e s o m e eye-level shots, especially in r o u t i n e exposition scenes. F o r m a l i s t d i r e c t o r s a r e n o t always c o n c e r n e d with t h e clearest i m a g e o f a n object, b u t with t h e i m a g e t h a t best c a p t u r e s a n object's expressive e s s e n c e . E x t r e m e a n g l e s involve d i s t o r t i o n s . Yet m a n y filmmakers feel t h a t by d i s t o r t i n g t h e surface realism of an object, a g r e a t e r t r u t h is a c h i e v e d — a symbolic t r u t h . B o t h realist a n d formalist d i r e c t o r s k n o w t h a t t h e viewer t e n d s t o identify with t h e c a m e r a ' s lens. T h e realist wishes t o m a k e t h e a u d i e n c e forget t h a t t h e r e ' s a c a m e r a at all. T h e formalist is constantly calling a t t e n t i o n to it. 1-12. Bonnie and Clyde (U.S.A., 1 9 6 7 ) , with Faye Dunaway and Warren Beatty directed by Arthur Penn. High angles tend to m a k e people look powerless, trapped. The higher the angle, the m o r e it tends to imply fatality. The c a m e r a ' s angle can be inferred by the background of a shot: High angles usually show the ground or floor; low angles the sky or ceiling. Because we tend to associate light with safety, high-key lighting is generally n o n t h r e a t e n i n g a n d reassuring. But not always. We have been socially conditioned to believe that danger lurks in darkness, so w h e n a traumatic assault takes place in broad daylight, as in this scene, the effect is doubly scary b e c a u s e it's so u n e x p e c t e d . (Warner Bros.)

1-13. Halloween: The Curse of Michael Myers (U.S.A., 1 9 9 5 ) , with George Wilbur, directed by Joe Chappelle. Extreme low angles can m a k e characters s e e m threatening and powerful, for they loom above the c a m e r a — a n d us—like towering giants. We are collapsed in a position of m a x i m u m vulnerability—pinned to the ground, d o m i n a t e d . (Dimension Films)

T h e r e a r e five basic angles in t h e c i n e m a : (1) t h e bird's-eye view, (2) t h e high a n g l e , (3) t h e eye-level shot, (4) t h e low a n g l e , a n d (5) t h e o b l i q u e angle. As in t h e case of s h o t d e s i g n a t i o n s , t h e r e are m a n y i n t e r m e d i a t e kinds of angles. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e can be a c o n s i d e r a b l e difference b e t w e e n a low a n d e x t r e m e low a n g l e — a l t h o u g h usually, of c o u r s e , such differences t e n d to be m a t t e r s of d e g r e e . Generally s p e a k i n g , t h e m o r e e x t r e m e t h e a n g l e , t h e m o r e distracting a n d c o n s p i c u o u s it is in t e r m s of t h e subject m a t t e r b e i n g p h o t o g r a p h e d . T h e bird's-eye view is p e r h a p s t h e m o s t d i s o r i e n t i n g a n g l e of all, for it involves p h o t o g r a p h i n g a s c e n e from directly o v e r h e a d ( 1 - l b ) . Because we seld o m view events from this perspective, t h e subject m a t t e r of such shots m i g h t initially s e e m u n r e c o g n i z a b l e a n d abstract. For this reason, filmmakers t e n d to avoid this type of c a m e r a setup. In certain contexts, however, this a n g l e can be highly expressive. In effect, bird's-eye shots p e r m i t us to h o v e r above a s c e n e like all-powerful g o d s . T h e p e o p l e p h o t o g r a p h e d s e e m antlike a n d insignificant. O r d i n a r y high-angle shots a r e n o t so e x t r e m e , a n d t h e r e f o r e n o t so diso r i e n t i n g . T h e c a m e r a i s p l a c e d o n a crane, o r s o m e n a t u r a l h i g h p r o m o n tory, b u t t h e s e n s e o f a u d i e n c e o m n i p o t e n c e i s n o t o v e r w h e l m i n g . H i g h a n g l e s give a viewer a s e n s e of a g e n e r a l overview, b u t n o t necessarily o n e i m p l y i n g d e s t i n y o r fate. H i g h a n g l e s r e d u c e t h e h e i g h t o f t h e objects p h o t o g r a p h e d a n d usually i n c l u d e t h e g r o u n d o r floor a s b a c k g r o u n d . M o v e m e n t is slowed d o w n : T h i s a n g l e t e n d s to be ineffective for c o n v e y i n g a sense of l 5

16

P h o t o g r a p h y

s p e e d , useful for s u g g e s t i n g t e d i o u s n e s s . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s e t t i n g o r envir o n m e n t i s i n c r e a s e d : T h e locale often s e e m s t o swallow p e o p l e . H i g h a n g l e s r e d u c e t h e i m p o r t a n c e of a subject. A p e r s o n s e e m s h a r m l e s s a n d insignificant p h o t o g r a p h e d from a b o v e . T h i s a n g l e is also effective for c o n v e y i n g a c h a r a c ter's self-contempt. S o m e f i l m m a k e r s avoid a n g l e s b e c a u s e t h e y ' r e t o o m a n i p u l a t i v e a n d j u d g m e n t a l . In t h e movies of t h e J a p a n e s e m a s t e r Yasttjiro O z u , t h e c a m e r a is usually p l a c e d f o u r feet f r o m t h e floor—as if an o b s e r v e r w e r e viewing t h e events s e a t e d J a p a n e s e style. O z u t r e a t e d his c h a r a c t e r s as e q u a l s ; his a p p r o a c h d i s c o u r a g e s u s from viewing t h e m e i t h e r c o n d e s c e n d i n g l y o r sentimentally. F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , they a r e o r d i n a r y p e o p l e , d e c e n t a n d c o n s c i e n t i o u s . B u t O z u lets t h e m reveal themselves. H e believed t h a t value j u d g m e n t s a r e i m p l i e d t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f angles, a n d h e k e p t his c a m e r a n e u t r a l a n d d i s p a s s i o n a t e . Eye-level

1-14. How Green Was My Valley ( U . S . A . , 1 9 4 1 ) , cinematography by Arthur Miller, directed by John Ford. Lyricism is a vague but indispensable critical term suggesting subjective e m o t i o n s and a sensuous richness of expression. Derived from the word lyre, a harplike stringed instrument, lyricism is m o s t often associated with music and poetry. Lyricism in movies also suggests a rhapsodic exuberance. Though lyrical qualities can be independent of subject matter, at its best, lyricism is a stylistic externalization of a film's basic concept. John Ford was o n e of the s u p r e m e m a s t e r s of the big studio era, a visual lyricist of the first rank. He disliked overt e m o t i o n s in his movies. He preferred conveying feelings through forms. Stylized lighting effects and formal compositions such as this invariably e m b o d y intense emotions. "Pictures, not words, should tell the story," Ford insisted. (Twentieth Century-Fox)

shots p e r m i t u s t o m a k e u p o u r own m i n d s a b o u t what k i n d o f p e o p l e a r e b e i n g presented. Low angles have t h e o p p o s i t e effect of h i g h . T h e y i n c r e a s e h e i g h t a n d t h u s a r e useful for s u g g e s t i n g verticality. M o r e practically, they i n c r e a s e a s h o r t a c t o r ' s h e i g h t . M o t i o n i s s p e e d e d u p , a n d i n s c e n e s o f v i o l e n c e especially, low a n g l e s c a p t u r e a sense of c o n f u s i o n . E n v i r o n m e n t is usually m i n i m i z e d in low a n g l e s , a n d often t h e sky or a c e i l i n g is t h e only b a c k g r o u n d . Psychologically, low a n g l e s h e i g h t e n t h e i m p o r t a n c e of a subject. T h e figure l o o m s t h r e a t e n i n g l y over t h e spectator, w h o i s m a d e t o feel i n s e c u r e a n d d o m i n a t e d . A p e r s o n p h o t o g r a p h e d from b e l o w inspires fear a n d awe ( 1 - 1 3 ) . F o r this r e a s o n , low a n g l e s a r e often u s e d i n p r o p a g a n d a f i l m s o r i n s c e n e s d e p i c t ing heroism. An oblique angle involves a lateral tilt of t h e c a m e r a . W h e n t h e i m a g e is p r o j e c t e d , t h e h o r i z o n i s skewed ( 1 - 1 5 ) . P e o p l e p h o t o g r a p h e d a t a n o b l i q u e a n g l e will look as t h o u g h t h e y ' r e a b o u t to fall to o n e side. T h i s a n g l e is s o m e times u s e d for point-of-view shots—to suggest t h e i m b a l a n c e of a d r u n k , for e x a m p l e . Psychologically, o b l i q u e angles suggest t e n s i o n , transition, a n d i m p e n d i n g m o v e m e n t . T h e n a t u r a l h o r i z o n t a l a n d vertical lines o f a s c e n e a r e c o n v e r t e d i n t o u n s t a b l e d i a g o n a l s . O b l i q u e angles are n o t used often, for they can d i s o r i e n t a viewer. In scenes d e p i c t i n g violence, however, they can be effective in c a p t u r i n g precisely this sense of visual anxiety. 1-15. Shallow Grave (Great Britain, 1994), with Kerry Fox, Ewan McGregor, and Christopher Eccleston; directed by Danny Boyle. Oblique angles, s o m e t i m e s known as "Dutch tilt" shots, produce a sense of irresolution, of visual anxiety. The scene's normal horizontal and vertical lines are tilted into tense, unresolved diagonals. Such shots are generally employed in thrillers, especially in scenes such as this that are m e a n t to throw the spectator off balance with a shocking revelation. (Gmmercy Pictures)

18

Generally s p e a k i n g , t h e cinematographer (who is also k n o w n as t h e d i r e c t o r of p h o t o g r a p h y , or D.P.) is r e s p o n s i b l e for a r r a n g i n g a n d c o n t r o l l i n g t h e lighting of a film a n d t h e quality of t h e p h o t o g r a p h y . Usually t h e cinem a t o g r a p h e r e x e c u t e s t h e specific o r g e n e r a l i n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e director. T h e i l l u m i n a t i o n of m o s t movies is s e l d o m a casual matter, for lights can be u s e d with p i n p o i n t accuracy. T h r o u g h t h e use of spotlights, which a r e highly selective in t h e i r focus a n d intensity, a d i r e c t o r c a n g u i d e t h e viewer's eyes to any a r e a of t h e p h o t o g r a p h e d i m a g e . M o t i o n p i c t u r e lighting is s e l d o m static, for even t h e slightest m o v e m e n t o f t h e c a m e r a o r t h e subject c a n cause t h e lighting to shift. Movies take so l o n g to c o m p l e t e , primarily b e c a u s e of t h e e n o r m o u s c o m p l e x i t i e s involved i n l i g h t i n g e a c h new shot. T h e c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r m u s t m a k e allowances for every m o v e m e n t within a c o n t i n u o u s take. E a c h different color, s h a p e , a n d t e x t u r e reflects or a b s o r b s differing a m o u n t s of light. If an i m a g e is p h o t o g r a p h e d in d e p t h , an even g r e a t e r c o m p l i c a t i o n is involved, for t h e lighting m u s t also b e i n d e p t h . F u r t h e r m o r e , c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r s d o n ' t have at t h e i r disposal m o s t of t h e d a r k r o o m t e c h n i q u e s of a still p h o t o g r a p h e r : variable p a p e r , d o d g i n g , a i r b r u s h i n g , c h o i c e o f d e v e l o p m e n t , e n l a r g e r f i l t e r s , etc. In a c o l o r film, t h e subtle effects of lights a n d d a r k s a r e often o b s c u r e d , for c o l o r t e n d s to o b l i t e r a t e s h a d i n g s a n d flatten images: D e p t h is n e g a t e d . T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r of different styles of lighting. Usually d e s i g n a t e d as a l i g h t i n g key, t h e style is g e a r e d to t h e t h e m e a n d m o o d of a film, as well as its genre. C o m e d i e s a n d musicals, for e x a m p l e , t e n d to be lit in high key, with b r i g h t , even i l l u m i n a t i o n a n d few c o n s p i c u o u s shadows. T r a g e d i e s a n d m e l o d r a m a s a r e usually lit in high contrast, with h a r s h shafts of lights a n d d r a m a t i c streaks of blackness. Mysteries, thrillers, a n d g a n g s t e r films a r e generally in low key, with diffused shadows a n d a t m o s p h e r i c pools of light ( 1 - 1 6 ) . Each lighting key is only an a p p r o x i m a t i o n , a n d s o m e images consist of a c o m b i n a t i o n of l i g h t i n g styles—a low-key b a c k g r o u n d with a few h i g h - c o n t r a s t e l e m e n t s in t h e f o r e g r o u n d , for e x a m p l e . Movies s h o t in studios a r e generally m o r e stylized a n d theatrical, w h e r e a s l o c a t i o n p h o t o g r a p h y t e n d s t o use available illumination, with a m o r e n a t u r a l style of lighting. Lights a n d d a r k s have h a d symbolic c o n n o t a t i o n s since t h e d a w n o f h u m a n i t y . T h e Bible is filled with l i g h t - d a r k symbolism. R e m b r a n d t a n d Caravaggio u s e d l i g h t - d a r k contrasts for psychological p u r p o s e s as well. In g e n e r a l , artists have u s e d d a r k n e s s to suggest fear, evil, t h e u n k n o w n . L i g h t usually suggests security, virtue, t r u t h , joy. Because of these c o n v e n t i o n a l symbolic associations, s o m e filmmakers deliberately reverse l i g h t - d a r k e x p e c t a t i o n s ( 1 - 1 2 ) . H i t c h c o c k ' s movies a t t e m p t to j o l t viewers by e x p o s i n g t h e i r shallow sense of security. He staged m a n y of his most violent scenes in t h e g l a r i n g light. L i g h t i n g can also be used to subvert subject matter. Paul Brickman's Risky Business is a coming-of-age comedy, a n d like m o s t e x a m p l e s of its g e n r e , t h e a d o l e s c e n t h e r o ( T o m Cruise) t r i u m p h s over t h e System a n d its hypocritical morality. But in this movie, t h e naive h e r o l e a r n s to play t h e g a m e a n d b e c o m e s a w i n n e r by b e i n g even m o r e hypocritical t h a n t h e u p h o l d e r s of the System.

• Color Plate 1. Edward Scissorhands (U.S.A., 1990), with Johnny Depp, directed by Tim Burton. Color, like virtually every other film technique, can be used realistically or formalistically. Burton is one of the foremost expressionists of the c o n t e m p o r a r y cinema, a conjuror of magical worlds of color and light and myth and imagination. His worlds are created in the sealed-off confines of the studio, far removed from the contaminations of prosaic reality. (Twentieth

Century-Fox)

» Color Plate 2. Aliens (U.S.A., 1986), with Sigourney Weaver and Carrie Henn, directed by James Cameron. Although the futuristic setting of this sci-fi film contains some supernatural elements, it uses color in a rigorously realistic manner. Aliens is a testosterone world of cold, hard surfaces, heavy-metal technology, and blue-gray fluorescence. This is not a place for children a n d other gentle creatures. The colors are radically m u t e d , mostly military tans a n d drab earth colors. Only the red filter adds a note of alarm and urgency. (Twentieth

Century-Fox)

> Color Plate 3. American Beauty ( U . S . A . , 1 9 9 9 ) , with Kevin Spacey and Mena Suvari, directed by Sam Mendes. Red is a color that's often linked with sex, but the dramatic context d e t e r m i n e s w h e t h e r the red (and the sex) is seductive or repellent. In this film, the unhappily married protagonist (Spacey) escapes the banality of his suburban hell by fantasizing about a flirtatious teenager (Suvari), a friend of his daughter. He often imagines her nude, covered with red rose petals— a symbol of his fiercely aroused sexuality, his reawakening m a n h o o d . (DreamWorks Pictures)

I Color Plate 4. Savage Nights (France, 1 9 9 3 ) , with Cyril Collard directed by Collard. But red is also the color of danger. Of violence. Of blood. Blood is a HIV, a precursor of AIDS. This movie explores the sadomasochistic positive bisexual (Collard) w h o has unprotected sex with two lovers, Maybe She's Color blind. (Cramercy Pictures)

and Romane Bohringer, major transmitter of behavior of an HIVincluding Bohringer.

I Color Plate 5. The Age of Innocence (U.S.A., 1993), with Michelle Pfeiffer and Daniel Day-Lewis, directed by Martin Scorsese. Bright colors tend to be cheerful, so directors often desaturate t h e m , especially if the subject m a t t e r is sober or grim. Based on the great American novel by Edith Wharton, this movie explores a forbidden love a m o n g New York's u p p e r crust in the 1870s. The film's images s e e m almost w a s h e d in sepia, like faded photos. The colors are tastefully subdued, correct, almost repressed, reflecting the conservative values of the society itself. (Columbia Pictures)

I Color Plate 6. Life Is Beautiful (Italy, 1998), with Roberto Benigni, directed by Benigni. This movie begins as a slapstick comedy, a n d the colors are w a r m a n d sunny, typical of Mediterranean settings. But as the Nazi Holocaust spreads southward, our hero, an Italian Jew (Benigni), is arrested a n d shipped to a German concentration c a m p by rail (pictured). The colors begin to pale. O n c e inside the death c a m p , virtually all the color is drained from the images. Only a few faded flickers of skin tones occasionally p u n c t u a t e the a s h e n pallor of the Camp a n d its prisoners. (Miramax Films)

I Color Plate 7. Married to the Mob (U.S.A., 1988), with Michelle Pfeiffer and Matthew Modine, directed by Jonathan Demme. Gangster variations. Both of these movies (CP.7 and CP.8) explore the world of organized crime. The tone of each is radically different, d e t e r m i n e d in part by the color palette of each. D e m m e ' s likable Mafia c o m e d y is a cartoon version. Like most cartoons, the colors are gaudy and deliciously trashy. W h o would ever guess that Modine (an F.B.I, agent) is an outsider? (Orion Pictures)

• Color Plate 8. The Godfather (U.S.A., 1972), with Marlon Brando (red rose), directed by Francis Ford Coppola. The Godfather is a far more realistic treatment, photographed by the great Gordon Willis, who is famous for his low-key lighting magic. The colors are not only subdued, they're suffocating in airless dark rooms. In this shadowy world, only an occasional wisp of color is allowed to escape—a vibrant red rose, pale yellow light filtering discreetly through the blinds, a few splotches of mottled flesh tones. The rest is darkness. (Paramount

I Color Plate 9. Johns (U.S.A., 1996), with David Arquette and Lukas Haas, directed by Scott Silver. Color cliches. In order to avoid being predictable, imaginative filmmakers often torpedo popular stereotypes by using color antiromantically. Movies set in Hollywood usually emphasize its lush glamour, but Johns explores the world of two street prostitutes (pictured) as they crisscross the dusty side streets of an unfamiliar Hollywood, bleached under the scorching sun. This is not the Tinseltown of tourist brochures but the real-life boulevard of broken d r e a m s . In this photo, the p r e d o m i n a n t color is white—hot, glaring, pitiless. Note the almost total a b s e n c e of green vegetation. (First Look Pictures) » Color Plate 10. Four Weddings and a Funeral (Great Britain, 1994), with Andie MacDowell and Hugh Grant, directed by Mike Newell. This romantic c o m e d y goes to e x t r e m e lengths to avoid being sappy and sentimental. Hence this weird concluding s c e n e of love t r i u m p h a n t at last, which takes place in a cold London downpour, blue with shivers and shudders a n d chill. (Gramercy

Pictures)

> Color Plate 11. The Little Mermaid (U.S.A., 1989), directed by John Musker and Ron Clements. We live in a golden age of animation, e n c o m p a s s i n g m a n y styles and an extraordinarily broad range of colors. From the very beginning in the 1930s, the Disney organization was in the forefront in developing color as an expressive emotional language in animation. Disney is still in the vanguard. Note the subtle violets in this photo, the sinister yet slightly c a m p y blacks, and the playful squiggle of pink to the left—a pure abstract expressionist whimsy. (Walt

Disney

Pictures)

I Color Plate 12. Chicken Run (Great Britain, 2000), directed by Peter Lord and Nick Park. There's hardly a primary color in all of Chicken Run, a clay-animation fable of infinite subtlety, not only in its color spectrum, but its sophisticated script a n d witty dialogue as well. Note the elongated shadows and sculptural side-lighting: The image looks as though it was photographed in the "magic hour." Of course, in a studio, any time can be the magic hour. (DreamWorks Pictures)

> Color Plate 13. Saving Private Ryan (U.S.A., 1998), with Tom Hanks, directed by Steven Spielberg. Different wars, different colors. Location has much to do with what colors are permissible in a movie. These two war films (CP. 13 and CP. 14) have totally different looks, each determined by its setting. Saving Private Ryan deals with the World War II era and is set in battletorn Europe. The documentarylike images are d o m i n a t e d by grays and have a dusty, worn look, as though even nature has exhausted itself after too m a n y years of death and destruction.

(DreamWorks

Pictures)

I Color Plate 14. Platoon (U.S.A., 1986), with Tom Berenger directed by Oliver Stone. The war in Vietnam was fought in part in the jungles of that bomb-pocked tropical land. The lush, colorful foliage often conceals unspeakable horrors, and the atrocities are c o m m i t t e d by both sides. During battle, nature is violently defiled, exploding into a blazing inferno of heat and flames, radiating red, yellow, a n d scorching white. (Orion

Pictures)

> Color Plate 15. Shakespeare in Love (Great Britain, 1998), with Cwyneth Paltrow and Joseph Fiennes, directed by John Madden. The richly textured c o s t u m e s of this period picture are rendered in all their luxurious opulence by the movie's Renaissance-style colors and lighting effects. The British are u n s u r p a s s e d masters of period films, thanks to their magnificent heritage in live theater, most notably producing the plays of Shakespeare. (Miramax Films)

> Color Plate 16. The Road Warrior (Australia, 1982), with Vernon Welles, directed by George Miller. S o m e c o s t u m e s are pastiches of various styles, as in this sci-fi picture, which is set in a desolate, post-apocalyptic desert landscape. This bleak setting is strewn with debris and the discarded artifacts of a former civilization. Black is often the color of villainy, but in this movie, the villainy is wittily undercut by such campy touches as the off-the-shoulder feathers and a red-tinged Mohawk m a n e . Scary. And weirdly funny.

(Warner Bros.)

» Color Plate 17. Titanic (U.S.A., 1997), with Kate Winslet and Leonardo Di Caprio, written and directed by James Cameron. As the "unsinkable" ocean liner slowly surrenders to the frigid waters of the Atlantic, the scenes get darker, colder, and m o r e desperate. The colors, so richly luxurious in the earlier scenes, begin to fade with the light as they're swallowed by the enveloping waters. But the young lovers, radiating h u m a n i t y with their w a r m fleshtones and halo lighting, cling to each other like a b e a c o n of h o p e in the final stages of the w o u n d e d ship's watery descent. They're like d o o m e d tragic lovers of a nineteenth-century romantic novel. (Twentieth

Century-Fox/Paramount

Pictures)

» Color Plate 18. Dark Victory (U.S.A., 1939), with Bette Davis and George Brent, directed by Edmund Goulding, "colorized" by Turner Entertainment. "Tell me the truth now. Do you think this suit is too blue?" (Warner Bros./Turner Entertainment)

1-16. Red (France/Poland/Switzerland, 1994), with Irene Jacob and Jean-Louis Trintignant, cinematography by Piotr Sobocinski, directed by Krzysztof Kieslowski. During the Hollywood big studio era, cinematographers developed the technique of t h r e e p o i n t lighting, which is still widely practiced throughout the world. With three-point lighting, the key light is the primary source of illumination. This light creates the d o m i n a n t of an image—that area that first attracts our eye because it contains the most compelling contrast, usually of light and shadow. Generally, the d o m i n a n t is also the area of greatest dramatic interest, the shot's focal point of action, either physical or psychological. Fill lights, which are less intense than the key, soften the harshness of the main light source, revealing subsidiary details that would otherwise be hidden by shadow. The backlights separate the foreground figures from their setting, heightening the illusion of three-dimensional depth in the image. Three-point m e t h o d s tend to be most expressive with low-key lighting such as this. When a shot is bathed with high-key illumination, the three sources of light are more equally distributed over the surface of the image, and hence are more bland photographically. (MiramaxFilms) 19

1-19. Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III (U.S.A., 1990), with R. A. Mihailoff, directed by Jeff Burr. Many people would argue that the backlit low-key lighting of (a) is m o r e frightening than frontal lighting of (b). Horrific as Leatherface's features are, at least we know w h a t we have to deal with, w h e r e a s the faceless killer (a) conjures unspeakable u n s e e n terrors. (New Line cinema)

light over t h e e n t i r e surface of t h e picture. Overexposure has b e e n most effectively used in n i g h t m a r e a n d fantasy s e q u e n c e s . S o m e t i m e s this t e c h n i q u e can suggest a kind of h o r r i b l e glaring publicity, a sense of e m o t i o n a l e x a g g e r a t i o n .

Colot* C o l o r i n f i l m d i d n ' t b e c o m e c o m m e r c i a l l y w i d e s p r e a d u n t i l t h e 1940s. T h e r e w e r e m a n y e x p e r i m e n t s i n c o l o r b e f o r e this p e r i o d , however. S o m e o f Melies's movies, for e x a m p l e , w e r e p a i n t e d by h a n d in assembly line fashion, with e a c h p a i n t e r r e s p o n s i b l e for c o l o r i n g a m i n u t e a r e a of t h e filmstrip. T h e original version of The Birth of a Nation (1915) was p r i n t e d on various t i n t e d stocks t o suggest different m o o d s : T h e b u r n i n g o f A t l a n t a was t i n t e d r e d , t h e n i g h t scenes b l u e , t h e e x t e r i o r love scenes pale yellow. Many silent filmmakers used this t i n t i n g t e c h n i q u e to suggest different m o o d s . Sophisticated film c o l o r was d e v e l o p e d in t h e 1930s, b u t for m a n y years a major p r o b l e m was its t e n d e n c y to prettify e v e r y t h i n g . If c o l o r e n h a n c e d a sense of b e a u t y — i n a musical or a historical e x t r a v a g a n z a — t h e effects w e r e often a p p r o p r i a t e . T h u s , t h e best feature films of t h e early years of c o l o r w e r e usually those with artificial or exotic settings. Realistic d r a m a s w e r e t h o u g h t to be u n s u i t a b l e vehicles for color. T h e earliest color processes t e n d e d also to e m p h a s i z e garishness, a n d often special c o n s u l t a n t s h a d to be called in to harm o n i z e t h e c o l o r s c h e m e s o f c o s t u m e s , m a k e u p , a n d decor. 22

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l-20a. Braveheart (U.S.A., Gibson, directed by Gibson.

1995), with Sophie Marceau and Mel (Paramount

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Art historians often distinguish between a "painterly" and a "linear" style, a distinction that's also useful in the photographic arts. A p a i n t e r l y style is soft-edged, sensuous, and romantic, best typified by the Impressionist landscapes of Claude Monet a n d the voluptuous figure paintings of Pierre Auguste Renoir. Line is deemphasized: Colors and textures s h i m m e r in a hazily defined, radiantly illuminated environment. On the other hand, a linear style emphasizes drawing, sharply defined edges, and the supremacy of line over color and texture. In the field of painting, a linear style typifies such artists as Leonardo Da Vinci and the French classicist Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres.

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Movies can also be photographed in a painterly or linear style, depending on the lighting, the lenses, and filters. The shot from Braveheart might almost have been painted by Renoir. Cinematographer John Toll used soft focus lenses and w a r m "natural" backlighting (creating a halo effect around the characters' heads) to produce an intensely romantic lyricism. Wyler's post-World War II masterpiece, The Best Years of Our Lives, was photographed by the great Gregg Toland. Its linear style is austere, deglamourized, shot in razorsharp deep-focus. It was a style suited to the times. The postwar era was a period of disillusionment, sober reevaluations, and very few sentimental illusions. The high-key cinematography is polished, to be sure, but it's also simple, matter-of-fact, the invisible servant of a serious subject matter. l-20b. The Best Years of Our Lives (U.S.A., 1946), with Harold Russell, Teresa Wright, Dana Andrews, Myrna Loy, Hoagy Carmichael (standing), and Fredric March; directed by William Wyler. (RKO).

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r a p h y

F u r t h e r m o r e , e a c h c o l o r process t e n d e d to specialize in a c e r t a i n base h u e — r e d , b l u e , o r yellow, usually—whereas o t h e r colors o f t h e s p e c t r u m were s o m e w h a t d i s t o r t e d . It was well i n t o t h e 1950s b e f o r e t h e s e p r o b l e m s w e r e resolved. C o m p a r e d with t h e subtle c o l o r p e r c e p t i o n s of t h e h u m a n eye, however, a n d d e s p i t e t h e a p p a r e n t precision o f m o s t present-day c o l o r processing, c i n e m a t i c c o l o r is still a relatively c r u d e a p p r o x i m a t i o n . T h e m o s t f a m o u s c o l o r films t e n d t o b e expressionistic. M i c h e l a n g e l o A n t o n i o n i ' s a t t i t u d e was fairly typical: "It is n e c e s s a r y to i n t e r v e n e in a c o l o r film, to take away t h e usual reality a n d r e p l a c e it with t h e reality of t h e m o m e n t . " In Red Desert ( p h o t o g r a p h e d by Carlo Di P a l m a ) , A n t o n i o n i sprayp a i n t e d n a t u r a l locales t o e m p h a s i z e i n t e r n a l psychological states. I n d u s t r i a l wastes, river p o l l u t i o n , m a r s h e s , a n d l a r g e s t r e t c h e s o f t e r r a i n w e r e p a i n t e d gray t o suggest t h e ugliness o f c o n t e m p o r a r y i n d u s t r i a l society a n d t h e h e r o i n e ' s d r a b , wasted e x i s t e n c e . W h e n e v e r r e d a p p e a r s i n t h e m o v i e , i t suggests sexual passion. Yet t h e r e d — l i k e t h e loveless sexuality—is an ineffective c o v e r u p of t h e pervasive gray.

1 -21. This Is Elvis (U.S.A., 1981), with Elvis Presley, directed by Malcolm Leo and others. Documentaries are often photographed on the run. Cinematographers don't usually have a c h a n c e to a u g m e n t the lighting, but have to capture the images as best they can under conditions that are almost totally uncontrolled. Many documentaries are photographed with handheld c a m e r a s for m a x i m u m portability and with fast film stocks, which can register images using only a m b i e n t light. The images are valued not for their formal beauty, which is usually negligible (or nonexistent), but for their authenticity and spontaneity. Such images offer us privileged m o m e n t s of intimacy that are all the more powerful because they're not simulated. They're the real thing. (WarnerBros.)

1-22. From Here to Eternity (U.S.A., 1 9 5 3 ) , with Montgomery Clift and Burt Lancaster, directed by Fred Zinnemann. The expert cinematographers of the big-studio era were adept in revealing a surprising a m o u n t of detail even in scenes that take place at night, as in this photo. The preponderance of shadow in this shot clearly establishes the nighttime milieu, but note how an offscreen street lamp conveniently manages to illuminate the characters' facial expressions and body language. (They're both very drunk, sitting in the middle of a dirt road.) Sometimes studio-era D.P.s preferred to use the day-for-night filter, which gives the illusion of an evening setting even though the scene was originally photographed in daylight. To many present-day audiences, however, day-fornight shots look artificial, too bright and crisp to be convincing. (Columbia Pictures)

C o l o r t e n d s to be a s u b c o n s c i o u s e l e m e n t in film. It's strongly e m o tional in its a p p e a l , expressive a n d a t m o s p h e r i c r a t h e r t h a n intellectual. Psychologists have discovered t h a t m o s t p e o p l e actively a t t e m p t t o i n t e r p r e t t h e lines of a c o m p o s i t i o n , b u t they t e n d to a c c e p t color passively, p e r m i t t i n g it to suggest m o o d s r a t h e r t h a n objects. Lines a r e associated with n o u n s ; c o l o r with adjectives. L i n e is s o m e t i m e s t h o u g h t to be m a s c u l i n e ; c o l o r f e m i n i n e . Both lines a n d colors suggest m e a n i n g s , t h e n , b u t i n s o m e w h a t different ways. Since earliest times, visual artists have used color for symbolic p u r poses. C o l o r symbolism is p r o b a b l y culturally a c q u i r e d , t h o u g h its i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e surprisingly similar in o t h e r w i s e differing societies. In g e n e r a l , cool colors ( b l u e , g r e e n , violet) t e n d to suggest tranquility, aloofness, a n d serenity. Cool colors also have a t e n d e n c y to r e c e d e in an i m a g e . W a r m colors (red, yellow, o r a n g e ) suggest aggressiveness, violence, a n d s t i m u l a t i o n . T h e y t e n d t o c o m e forward in most images. 25

1 -23. Crime and Punishment (U.S.A., 1935), with Peter Lorre (center), cinematography by Lucien Ballard, directed by Josef von Sternberg. Sternberg was a m a s t e r of atmospheric lighting effects and closely supervised the photography of his films. His stories are unfolded primarily in terms of light and shade, rather than conventional dramatic m e a n s . "Every light has a point where it is brightest, and a point toward which it wanders to lose itself completely," he explained. "The journey of rays from that central core to the outposts of blackness is the adventure and d r a m a of light." Note how the closed form of the mise en scene a n d the light encircling the protagonist (Lorre) produce an accusatory effect, a sense of e n t r a p m e n t . (Paramount Pictures)

S o m e filmmakers deliberately exploit color's n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y to garishness. Fellini's Juliet of the Spirits features m a n y bizarre c o s t u m e s a n d settings to suggest t h e tawdry b u t fascinating g l a m o u r of t h e world of show business. B o b Fosse's Cabaret is set in G e r m a n y a n d shows t h e early rise of t h e Nazi party. T h e colors are s o m e w h a t n e u r o t i c , with e m p h a s i s on such 1930s favorites as p l u m , acid g r e e n , p u r p l e , a n d florid c o m b i n a t i o n s , like gold, black, a n d pink. Black-and-white p h o t o g r a p h y in a color film is s o m e t i m e s u s e d for symbolic p u r p o s e s . S o m e f i l m m a k e r s a l t e r n a t e w h o l e e p i s o d e s i n black a n d white with e n t i r e s e q u e n c e s in color. T h e p r o b l e m with this t e c h n i q u e is its facile symbolism. T h e j o l t i n g black-and-white s e q u e n c e s a r e t o o obviously "significant" in t h e m o s t arty sense. A m o r e effective variation is simply n o t to use t o o m u c h color, to let black a n d white p r e d o m i n a t e . In De Sica's The Garden of the Finzi-Continis, w h i c h is set in Fascist Italy, t h e early p o r t i o n s of t h e movie are

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1-24. Starman (U.S.A., 1984), with Karen Allen and Jeff Bridges, directed by John Carpenter. Not every shot in a movie is photographed in the s a m e style. Many of the earlier portions of this sci-fi film are photographed in a plain, functional style. After the earthling protagonist (Allen) falls in love with an appealing and hunky alien (Bridges), the photographic style b e c o m e s more romantic. The city's lights are etherealized by the shimmering soft-focus photography. The halo effect around the lovers' h e a d s reinforces the air of e n c h a n t m e n t . The gently falling snowflakes conspire to e n h a n c e the magical m o m e n t . These aren't just lovers, these are soul mates. (Columbia Pictures)

r i c h l y r e s p l e n d e n t i n s h i m m e r i n g golds, reds, a n d a l m o s t every s h a d e o f g r e e n . As political r e p r e s s i o n b e c o m e s m o r e b r u t a l , t h e s e colors a l m o s t i m p e r c e p t i b l y b e g i n t o wash o u t , u n t i l n e a r t h e e n d o f t h e film t h e i m a g e s a r e d o m i n a t e d b y whites, blacks, a n d blue-grays (see also Color Plate 6 ) . In t h e 1980s, a new c o m p u t e r t e c h n o l o g y was d e v e l o p e d , allowing black-and-white movies to be " c o l o r i z e d " — a p r o c e s s t h a t p r o v o k e d a howl of p r o t e s t from m o s t film artists a n d critics. T h e colorized versions of s o m e genres, like p e r i o d films, musicals, a n d o t h e r forms of light e n t e r t a i n m e n t , a r e n o t d a m a g e d t o o seriously by this process, b u t t h e t e c h n i q u e is a disaster in carefully p h o t o g r a p h e d black-and-white films, like Citizen Kane, with its film noir l i g h t i n g style a n d brilliant deep-focus p h o t o g r a p h y (see C h a p t e r 12, "Synthesis: Citizen Kane "). C o l o r i z a t i o n also throws off t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l b a l a n c e of s o m e shots, c r e a t i n g n e w dominants. In t h e s h o t from Dark Victory ( C P . 18), for e x a m p l e , t h e d o m i n a n t is B r e n t ' s b l u e suit, w h i c h is i r r e l e v a n t to t h e d r a m a t i c c o n t e x t . In t h e original black-and-white version, Davis is t h e d o m i n a n t , h e r d a r k outfit contrasting with t h e white fireplace t h a t frames h e r figure. Distracting visual d o m i n a n t s u n d e r c u t t h e d r a m a t i c i m p a c t o f s u c h scenes. W e k e e p t h i n k i n g B r e n t ' s suit must be i m p o r t a n t . It is, b u t only to t h e c o m p u t e r .

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P K o t o g f a p K y

Because t h e c a m e r a ' s lens is a c r u d e m e c h a n i s m c o m p a r e d to t h e h u m a n eye, s o m e of t h e m o s t striking effects in a movie i m a g e c a n be a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h e d i s t o r t i o n s of t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c process itself. Particularly with r e g a r d t o size a n d d i s t a n c e , t h e c a m e r a lens d o e s n ' t m a k e m e n t a l a d j u s t m e n t s b u t r e c o r d s things literally. F o r e x a m p l e , w h a t e v e r is p l a c e d closest to t h e camera's lens will a p p e a r l a r g e r t h a n an object at a g r e a t e r distance. H e n c e , a coffee c u p c a n totally o b l i t e r a t e a h u m a n b e i n g if the c u p is in front of t h e lens a n d t h e h u m a n is s t a n d i n g at long-shot r a n g e . Realist filmmakers t e n d to use n o r m a l , or s t a n d a r d , lenses to p r o d u c e a m i n i m u m of d i s t o r t i o n . T h e s e lenses p h o t o g r a p h subjects m o r e or less as they a r e p e r c e i v e d b y t h e h u m a n eye. F o r m a l i s t filmmakers often p r e f e r lenses a n d filters that intensify given qualities a n d s u p p r e s s o t h e r s . C l o u d f o r m a t i o n s , for e x a m p l e , c a n b e e x a g g e r a t e d t h r e a t e n i n g l y o r softly diffused, d e p e n d i n g o n what k i n d of lens or filter is used. Different s h a p e s , colors, a n d lighting intensities can be radically a l t e r e d t h r o u g h t h e use of specific optical modifiers. T h e r e a r e literally d o z e n s o f different lenses, b u t m o s t o f t h e m a r e s u b s u m e d u n d e r t h r e e major categories: those i n t h e s t a n d a r d ( n o n d i s t o r t e d ) r a n g e , t h e telep h o t o lenses, a n d t h e wide angles. T h e telephoto lens is often used to get close-ups of objects from e x t r e m e distances. For e x a m p l e , no c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r is likely to want to get close e n o u g h to a lion to p h o t o g r a p h a close-up with a s t a n d a r d lens. In cases such as t h e s e , t h e t e l e p h o t o is used, t h u s g u a r a n t e e i n g t h e safety of t h e c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r while still p r o d u c i n g t h e necessary close-up. T e l e p h o t o s also allow cinem a t o g r a p h e r s to work discreetly. In c r o w d e d city locations, for e x a m p l e , passersby a r c likely to stare at a movie c a m e r a . T h e t e l e p h o t o p e r m i t s t h e cinem a t o g r a p h e r to r e m a i n h i d d e n — i n a truck, for e x a m p l e — w h i l e he or she s h o o t s close shots t h r o u g h a windshield or window. In effect, t h e lens works like a t e l e s c o p e , a n d b e c a u s e of its l o n g focal l e n g t h , it is s o m e t i m e s called a long lens. T e l e p h o t o lenses p r o d u c e a n u m b e r of side effects t h a t a r e s o m e t i m e s e x p l o i t e d by d i r e c t o r s for symbolic use. Most l o n g lenses a r e in s h a r p focus on o n e d i s t a n c e p l a n e only. Objects p l a c e d b e f o r e o r b e y o n d t h a t d i s t a n c e blur, g o o u t of f o c u s — a n expressive t e c h n i q u e , especially to t h e formalist filmmaker ( 1 - 2 5 ) . T h e l o n g e r t h e lens, t h e m o r e sensitive it is to distances; in t h e case of e x t r e m e l y l o n g lenses, objects p l a c e d a m e r e few i n c h e s away from t h e selected focal p l a n e can be o u t of focus. T h i s d e l i b e r a t e b l u r r i n g of p l a n e s in t h e backg r o u n d , f o r e g r o u n d , o r b o t h c a n p r o d u c e s o m e striking p h o t o g r a p h i c a n d a t m o s p h e r i c effects. T h e focal d i s t a n c e of l o n g lenses can usually be adjusted while shooting, a n d thus, t h e d i r e c t o r is a b l e to n e u t r a l i z e p l a n e s a n d g u i d e t h e viewer's eye to various distances in a s e q u e n c e — a t e c h n i q u e called rack focusing, or selective focusing. In The Graduate, d i r e c t o r Mike Nichols used a slight focus shift i n s t e a d of a c u t w h e n he w a n t e d t h e viewer to look first at t h e y o u n g h e r o i n e , w h o t h e n b l u r s o u t of focus, t h e n at h e r m o t h e r , w h o is s t a n d i n g a few feet

1 - 2 5 . Dog Star Man (U.S.A., 1 9 5 9 - 1 9 6 4 ) , directed by Stan Brakhage. Avant-garde filmmakers are often antiillusionist—they a t t e m p t to break down the realism of an image by calling attention to its artificiality and its material properties. A movie image is printed on a strip of celluloid, which can be manipulated, even violated. In this sequence, a baby e m e r g e s from the m o u t h of a n o t h e r baby. Brakhage is playing with the idea of what's "behind" a film image. (Anthology Film Archives) 29

1-26. Six Degrees of Exaggeration. The lens of each of these six shots provides a c o m m e n tary on the relationship of the characters to their surroundings.

l - 2 6 a . Scream (U.S.A., 1996), with Courteney Cox, directed by Wes Craven. Some telephoto lenses are so precise they can focus on a thin slice of action that's only a few inches deep. Note how the gun and Cox's hands are radically blurred. So is the background behind her. Our eyes are forced to concentrate on the face of the character during a decisive m o m e n t of her life. (Dimension Films)

l-26b. Too Beautiful for You (France, 1989), with Carole Bouquet and Gerard Depardieu, directed by Bertrand Blier. Moderate telephoto lenses are often used to e n h a n c e the lyrical potential of an image. Although not so e x t r e m e a telephoto as (a), Blier's lens converts the reflections on the autos' rooftops into rhapsodic brushstrokes of light, heightening the erotic ecstasy of the characters. (Orion Pictures)

l-26c. King of the Hill (U.S.A., 1993), with Jesse Bradford deft) and Jeroen Krabbe, directed by Steven Soderbergh. A ne'er-do-well father (Krabbe) has just told his young son that he'll have to stay h o m e alone for several weeks while the father tries to hustle a living on the road. The boy's anxiety and fear are intensified by his sharp focus, the father's r e m o t e n e s s by his somewhat blurred presentation. If Soderbergh wanted to emphasize the father's feelings, the boy would be in soft focus and the father in sharp. If the director wanted to stress the equality of their emotions, he would have used a wide-angle lens, which would render both characters in sharp focus. (Cramercy

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l-26d. Schindler'S List (U.S.A., 1993), with Liam Neeson (outstretched arms), directed by Steven Spielberg. Wide-angle lenses are used whenever deep-focus photography is called for. Objects a few feet from the lens as well as those in the "depth" of the background are in equal focus, reinforcing the interconnectedness of the visual planes. This movie deals with a German industrialist (Neeson) who saved the lives of h u n d r e d s of Jews during the Nazi Holocaust. Because d e e p focus allows for the repetition of visual motifs into infinity, Spielberg is able to suggest that Jews all over Europe were being herded in a similar manner, but their fate was not so lucky as Schindler'S jews.

(Universal Pictures)

l - 2 6 e . Publicity p h o t o of Rumble in the Bronx (U.S.A., 1996), with Jackie Chan, directed by Stanley Tong. Extreme wide-angle lenses exaggerate distances between depth planes, a useful symbolic technique. As distorted by the wide-angle lens, Chan's fist is nearly as large as his head and his feet seem to be standing in another county. (New I .me Cinema)

1-26F. Runaway Bride (U.S.A., 1999), with Julia Roberts and Richard Gere, directed by Garry Marshall. Check out the lights in the background. A shrewdly chosen filter m a k e s t h e m look blurry, floating dreamily like woozy fireflies. Do we need to hear the dialogue to know that these two are falling for each other? Do we need to be told that the movie is a romantic c o m e d y ? The filtered photography says it all. (Paramount

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and

Touchstone

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PHofogj*cipKy

off in a doorway. T h e focus-shifting t e c h n i q u e suggests a c a u s e - e f f e c t relations h i p a n d parallels t h e h e r o i n e ' s s u d d e n realization t h a t h e r boyfriend's secret mistress is h e r own m o t h e r . In The French Connection, William Friedkin u s e d selective focus in a s e q u e n c e s h o w i n g a criminal u n d e r surveillance. He r e m a i n s in s h a r p focus while t h e city crowds of his e n v i r o n m e n t a r e an undiff e r e n t i a t e d blur. At strategic m o m e n t s in t h e s e q u e n c e , Friedkin shifted t h e focus p l a n e from t h e c r i m i n a l to t h e d o g g e d detective w h o is tailing h i m in t h e crowd. L o n g lenses also flatten images, d e c r e a s i n g t h e sense of d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n d e p t h p l a n e s . Two p e o p l e s t a n d i n g yards a p a r t m i g h t look i n c h e s away w h e n p h o t o g r a p h e d with a t e l e p h o t o lens. W i t h very l o n g lenses, distance p l a n e s are so c o m p r e s s e d t h a t t h e i m a g e c a n r e s e m b l e a flat surface of abstract p a t t e r n s . W h e n a n y t h i n g moves toward or away from t h e c a m e r a in such shots, t h e m o b i l e object d o e s n ' t s e e m to be m o v i n g at all. In Marathon Man, t h e h e r o (Dustin H o f f m a n ) r u n s d e s p e r a t e l y toward t h e c a m e r a , b u t b e c a u s e o f t h e f l a t t e n i n g o f t h e l o n g lens, h e s e e m s a l m o s t t o b e r u n n i n g i n p l a c e r a t h e r t h a n m o v i n g toward his d e s t i n a t i o n . T h e wide-angle lenses, also called " s h o r t lenses," have s h o r t focal l e n g t h s a n d wide angles of view. T h e s e a r e t h e lenses used in deep-focus shots, for they p r e s e r v e a s h a r p n e s s of focus on virtually all distance p l a n e s . T h e d i s t o r t i o n s involved i n s h o r t lenses a r e b o t h l i n e a r a n d spatial. T h e wider t h e a n g l e , t h e m o r e lines a n d s h a p e s t e n d to w a r p , especially at t h e e d g e s of t h e i m a g e . Dist a n c e s b e t w e e n various d e p t h p l a n e s a r e also e x a g g e r a t e d with t h e s e lenses: Two p e o p l e s t a n d i n g a foot away from e a c h o t h e r can a p p e a r yards a p a r t in a wide-angle i m a g e .

1 -27. Filmstrips of t h e four principal g a u g e s u s e d in movies, e x p r e s s e d in m i l l i m e t e r s wide. Photographic quality d e p e n d s in part on the gauge of the film used to photograph and project the images. (1) Suitable for projecting in an average-sized room, 8 mm and Super 8 mm are primarily for h o m e use. (2) The gauge ordinarily used in schools and m u s e u m s is 16 m m ; if projected in extremely large halls, 16-mm images tend to grow fuzzy and the color tends to fade. (3) The standard gauge for the vast majority of movie theaters is 35 m m . (4) For epic subjects requiring a huge screen, 70 mm is generally used: the images retain their linear sharpness and color saturation even in e n o r m o u s theaters. (1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

P K o t o g f a p h y

M o v e m e n t toward or away from t h e c a m e r a is e x a g g e r a t e d w h e n p h o t o g r a p h e d with a s h o r t lens. Two or t h r e e o r d i n a r y steps can s e e m like u n h u manly l e n g t h y s t r i d e s — a n effective t e c h n i q u e w h e n a d i r e c t o r wants to e m p h a size a c h a r a c t e r ' s s t r e n g t h , d o m i n a n c e , or ruthlessness. T h e fish-eye lens is t h e most e x t r e m e wide-angle modifier; it creates s u c h severe d i s t o r t i o n s t h a t t h e lateral p o r t i o n s of t h e s c r e e n s e e m reflected in a s p h e r e , as t h o u g h we w e r e l o o k i n g t h r o u g h a crystal ball. L e n s e s a n d filters c a n b e u s e d for purely cosmetic p u r p o s e s — t o m a k e an a c t o r or actress taller, slimmer, y o u n g e r , or older. Josef von S t e r n b e r g s o m e times c o v e r e d his lens with a t r a n s l u c e n t silk stocking to give his i m a g e s a gauzy, r o m a n t i c a u r a . A few g l a m o u r actresses b e y o n d a certain a g e even h a d clauses in t h e i r c o n t r a c t s s t i p u l a t i n g t h a t only beautifying soft-focus lenses c o u l d be used for t h e i r close-ups. T h e s e optical modifiers e l i m i n a t e small facial wrinkles a n d skin b l e m i s h e s . T h e r e a r e even m o r e f i l t e r s t h a n t h e r e are lenses. S o m e t r a p light a n d refract it in s u c h a way as to p r o d u c e a d i a m o n d l i k e sparkle in t h e i m a g e . Many f i l t e r s a r e used t o s u p p r e s s o r h e i g h t e n certain colors. C o l o r f i l t e r s can b e espe-

1-28. Kids (U.S.A., 1995), with Yakira Peguero and Leo Fitzpatrick, directed by Larry Clark. Fast film stocks are highly sensitive to light and can record images with no additional illumination except w h a t ' s available on a set or location—even at night. These stocks tend to produce harsh light-dark contrasts, an a b s e n c e of details, and images so grainy that they can a p p e a r m o r e painterly than linear. Fast stocks are especially effective in fiction films that purport to be realistic and documentarylike, such as this controversial depiction of s o m e urban teenagers a n d their high-risk sexual practices.

(Excalibur Films)

1-29. Pas De Deux (Canada, 1968), directed by Norman McLaren. The optical printer is an invaluable piece of e q u i p m e n t , particularly to the formalist filmmaker, because, a m o n g other things, it allows the superimposition of two or more realities within a unified space. This film uses a technique called chronophotography, in which the m o v e m e n t s of two dancers are staggered and overlayed by the optical printer to produce a stroboscopic effect: As the dancers move, they leave a ghostly imprint on the screen. (National Film Board

of

Canada)

cially striking in e x t e r i o r scenes. R o b e r t A l t a i a n ' s McCabe and Mrs. Miller ( p h o t o g r a p h e d by Vilmos Z s i g m o n d ) uses g r e e n a n d b l u e filters for m a n y of t h e e x t e r i o r scenes, yellow a n d o r a n g e for interiors. T h e s e f i l t e r s e m p h a s i z e t h e bitter cold o f t h e w i n t e r setting a n d t h e c o m m u n a l w a r m t h o f t h e r o o m s inside t h e primitive b u i l d i n g s . T h o u g h t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r of different kinds of film stocks, m o s t of t h e m fall within t h e two basic categories: fast a n d slow. Fast stock is highly sensitive to light a n d in s o m e cases can register images with no i l l u m i n a t i o n e x c e p t what's available on location, even in n i g h t t i m e s e q u e n c e s ( 1 - 2 8 ) . Slow stock is relatively insensitive to light a n d r e q u i r e s as m u c h as ten times m o r e illumination t h a n fast stocks. Traditionally, slow stocks a r e c a p a b l e of c a p t u r i n g colors precisely, w i t h o u t w a s h i n g t h e m out. Fast stocks a r e c o m m o n l y associated with d o c u m e n t a r y movies, for with t h e i r g r e a t sensitivity to light, t h e s e stocks can r e p r o d u c e images of events while t h e y ' r e actually o c c u r r i n g . T h e d o c u m e n t a r i s t i s able t o p h o t o g r a p h p e o p l e a n d places w i t h o u t having to set up c u m b e r s o m e lights. Because of this light sensitivity, fast stocks p r o d u c e a grainy i m a g e in which lines t e n d to be fuzzy a n d colors t e n d to wash o u t . In a black-and-white film, lights a n d d a r k s c o n t r a s t sharply a n d m a n y variations of gray can be lost. Ordinarily, t e c h n i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s such as t h e s e w o u l d have no place in a b o o k of this sort, b u t t h e c h o i c e of stock can p r o d u c e c o n s i d e r a b l e psychological a n d aesthetic differences in a movie. Since t h e early 1960s, m a n y fiction filmmakers have switched to fast stocks to give t h e i r i m a g e s a d o c u m e n t a r y sense of urgency. T h e optical printer is an e l a b o r a t e m a c h i n e t h a t p r o d u c e s m a n y special effects in t h e c i n e m a . It i n c l u d e s a c a m e r a a n d p r o j e c t o r precisely a l i g n e d , a n d 34

P K o t o g i* ci p K y

35

1-30. Multiplicity (U.S.A., 1996), with (from left to right) Michael Keaton, Michael Keaton, Michael Keaton, and Michael Keaton; directed by Harold Ramis. The American c i n e m a has always been on the cutting edge of film technology, especially in the area of special effects. Computer-generated images have allowed filmmakers to create fantasy worlds of the utmost realism. In this movie, for example, Keaton plays a m a n w h o has lost his wife and his job, and must clone himself in order to function effectively. C o m p u t e r artist Dan Madsen created a film reality that obviously has no counterpart in the outside physical world. Critic Stephen Prince has observed that such technological a d v a n c e m e n t s as c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d images have radically u n d e r m i n e d the traditional distinctions b e t w e e n realism a n d formalism in film theory. See Stephen Prince, "True Lies: Perceptual Realism, Digital Images, and Film Theory," in Film Quarterly (Spring,

1996).

(Columbia Pictures)

it p e r m i t s t h e o p e r a t o r to r e p h o t o g r a p h all or a p o r t i o n of an existing frame of a film. D o u b l e e x p o s u r e , or t h e s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n of two i m a g e s , is o n e of t h e most i m p o r t a n t of t h e s e effects, lor it p e r m i t s t h e d i r e c t o r to p o r t r a y two levels of reality s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . F o r this r e a s o n , t h e t e c h n i q u e is often u s e d in fantasy a n d d r e a m s e q u e n c e s , a s well a s i n s c e n e s d e a l i n g with t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l . T h e o p t i c a l p r i n t e r c a n also p r o d u c e multiple e x p o s u r e s , o r t h e s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n o f m a n y i m a g e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . M u l t i p l e e x p o s u r e s a r c useful for s u g g e s t i n g m o o d , t i m e lapses, a n d a n y s e n s e o f m i x t u r e — o f t i m e , places, objects, events. T h e o p t i c a l p r i n t e r c a n c o m b i n e o n e a c t o r with m o v i n g i m a g e s o f o t h e r s i n a different time a n d place.

1-31. Twentieth C e n t u r y - F o x publicity p h o t o of Marilyn M o n r o e ( 1 9 5 3 ) . Cinematographers often c o m m e n t that the camera "likes" certain individuals and "doesn't like" others, even though these others might be good-looking people in real life. Highly photogenic performers like Marilyn Monroe are rarely uncomfortable in front of the camera. Indeed, they often play to it, ensnaring our attention. Photographer Richard Avedon said of Marilyn, "She understood photography, and she also understood what m a k e s a great photograph—not the technique, but the content. She was more comfortable in front of the c a m e r a than away from it." Philippe Halsman went even further, pointing out that her open mouth and frequently open decolletage were frankly invitational: "She would try to seduce the camera as if it were a h u m a n being. . . . She knew that the camera lens was not just a glass eye but a symbol of the eyes of millions of m e n , so the camera stimulated her Strongly."

(Twentieth

Century-Fox)

T h e c i n e m a is a collaborative e n t e r p r i s e , t h e result of t h e c o m b i n e d efforts of m a n y artists, t e c h n i c i a n s , a n d b u s i n e s s p e o p l e . Because t h e c o n t r i b u tions of t h e s e individuals vary from film to film, it's h a r d to d e t e r m i n e w h o ' s r e s p o n s i b l e for w h a t in a movie. Most sophisticated viewers a g r e e t h a t t h e director is generally t h e d o m i n a n t artist in t h e best movies. T h e p r i n c i p a l collaborators—actors, writers, c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r s — p e r f o r m a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d i r e c t o r ' s unifying sensibility. But directorial d o m i n a n c e is an act of faith. Many films a r e s t a m p e d by t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s of o t h e r s — a prestigious star, for e x a m p l e , or a skillful e d i t o r w h o m a n a g e s to m a k e sense o u t of a d i r e c t o r ' s b o t c h e d footage. C i n e m a t o g r a p h e r s s o m e t i m e s c h u c k l e sardonically w h e n a d i r e c t o r ' s visual style is p r a i s e d by critics. S o m e d i r e c t o r s d o n ' t even b o t h e r l o o k i n g t h r o u g h t h e viewfinder a n d leave s u c h m a t t e r s a s c o m p o s i t i o n , angles, a n d lenses u p t o t h e c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r . W h e n d i r e c t o r s i g n o r e t h e s e i m p o r t a n t formal e l e m e n t s , they t h r o w away s o m e of t h e i r m o s t expressive pictorial o p p o r t u nities a n d function m o r e like stage d i r e c t o r s , w h o a r e c o n c e r n e d with d r a m a t i c

1-32. The Emigrants (Sweden, 1972), with Liv Ullmann and Max von Sydow, photographed and directed by Jan Troell. If we were to view a scene similar to this in real life, we would probably concentrate most of our attention on the people in the wagon. But there are considerable differences between reality a n d cinematic realism. Realism is an artistic style. In selecting materials from the chaotic sprawl of reality, the realist filmmaker necessarily eliminates s o m e details and e m p h a s i z e s others into a structured hierarchy of visual significance. For example, the stone wall in the foreground of this shot occupies more space than the h u m a n s . Visually, this dominance suggests that the rocks are m o r e important than the people. The unyielding stone wall symbolizes divisiveness and exclusion—ideas that are appropriate to the dramatic context. If the wall were irrelevant to the theme, Troell would have eliminated it and selected other details from the copiousness of reality—details that would be more pertinent to the dramatic Context.

(Warner Bros.)

r a t h e r t h a n visual v a l u e s — t h a t is, with t h e script a n d t h e a c t i n g r a t h e r t h a n t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c quality of t h e i m a g e itself. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , a few c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r s have b e e n p r a i s e d for t h e i r artistry w h e n in fact t h e effectiveness of a film's images is largely d u e to t h e d i r e c t o r ' s pictorial skills. H i t c h c o c k p r o v i d e d individual f r a m e drawings for m o s t of t h e shots in his films, a t e c h n i q u e called storyboarding. His c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r s f r a m e d u p a c c o r d i n g t o H i t c h c o c k ' s precise sketches. H e n c e , w h e n H i t c h c o c k c l a i m e d t h a t h e n e v e r l o o k e d t h r o u g h t h e viewfinder, h e m e a n t t h a t h e a s s u m e d his c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r h a d followed i n s t r u c t i o n s . S w e e p i n g s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e role o f t h e c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r a r e impossible to m a k e , for it varies widely from film to film a n d from d i r e c t o r to direc37

38

P h o l o g K a p K y

tor. In actual practice, virtually all c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r s a g r e e t h a t t h e style of t h e p h o t o g r a p h y s h o u l d b e g e a r e d t o t h e story, t h e m e , a n d m o o d o f t h e f i l m . William Daniels h a d a prestigious r e p u t a t i o n as a g l a m o u r p h o t o g r a p h e r at MGM a n d for m a n y years was k n o w n as "Greta G a r b o ' s c a m e r a m a n . " Yet Daniels also s h o t Erich von S t r o h e i m ' s harshly realistic Greed, a n d t h e cinem a t o g r a p h e r won an A c a d e m y Award for his work in Jules Dassin's Naked City, which is virtually a s e m i d o c u m e n t a r y . D u r i n g t h e big-studio era, m o s t c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r s believed t h a t t h e aesthetic e l e m e n t s of a film s h o u l d be m a x i m i z e d — b e a u t i f u l p i c t u r e s with b e a u t i ful p e o p l e was t h e goal. Today s u c h views a r e c o n s i d e r e d rigid a n d d o c t r i n a i r e . S o m e t i m e s i m a g e s a r e even c o a r s e n e d if s u c h a t e c h n i q u e is c o n s i d e r e d a p p r o priate t o t h e d r a m a t i c materials. F o r e x a m p l e , Vilmos Z s i g m o n d , w h o p h o t o g r a p h e d Deliverance, d i d n ' t w a n t t h e r u g g e d forest setting to a p p e a r too pretty

1-33. Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown (Spain, 1 9 8 8 ) , with Carmen Maura, directed by Pedro Almodovar. What's wrong with this photo? For one thing, the character is not centered in the composition. The image is asymmetrical, apparently off balance because the "empty" space on the right takes up over half the viewing area. Visual artists often use "negative space" such as this to create a vacuum in the image, a sense of something missing, something left unsaid. In this case, the pregnant protagonist (Maura) has just been d u m p e d by her lover. He is an unworthy swine, but inexplicably, perversely, she still loves him. His a b a n d o n m e n t has left a painful e m p t y place in her life. (Orion Pictures)

P h o f o g i - o p h y

39

b e c a u s e beautiful visuals w o u l d c o n t r a d i c t t h e D a r w i n i a n t h e m e o f t h e film. H e w a n t e d to c a p t u r e w h a t T e n n y s o n d e s c r i b e d as " n a t u r e r e d in t o o t h a n d claw." Accordingly, Z s i g m o n d s h o t on overcast days as m u c h as possible to e l i m i n a t e t h e b r i g h t b l u e skies. H e also a v o i d e d reflections i n t h e water b e c a u s e they t e n d t o m a k e n a t u r e l o o k c h e e r f u l a n d inviting. 'You d o n ' t m a k e beautiful c o m p o s i tions j u s t for t h e sake of m a k i n g c o m p o s i t i o n s , " c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r Laszlo Kovacs has insisted. C o n t e n t always d e t e r m i n e s f o r m ; f o r m s h o u l d b e t h e embodiment of content. "Many times, w h a t you d o n ' t see is m u c h m o r e effective t h a n w h a t you do see," G o r d o n Willis has n o t e d . Willis is arguably t h e m o s t r e s p e c t e d of all A m e r i c a n c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r s , a specialist in low-key l i g h t i n g styles. He p h o t o g r a p h e d all t h r e e of Francis F o r d C o p p o l a ' s Godfather films—which m a n y traditionalists c o n s i d e r t o o d a r k . B u t Willis was a i m i n g for poetry, n o t realism. Most of t h e i n t e r i o r scenes w e r e very d a r k to suggest an a t m o s p h e r e of evil a n d secrecy (C.P.8). Willis's p r e f e r e n c e for low levels of light has b e e n e n o r m o u s l y influential i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y c i n e m a . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , m a n y f i l m m a k e r s today r e g a r d low-key l i g h t i n g as intrinsically m o r e "serious" a n d "artistic," w h a t e v e r t h e subject m a t t e r . T h e s e needlessly d a r k movies a r e often i m p e n e t r a b l y o b s c u r e w h e n s h o w n o n t h e television s c r e e n i n VCR o r DVD f o r m a t s . Conscie n t i o u s f i l m m a k e r s often s u p e r v i s e t h e transfer from film to v i d e o b e c a u s e e a c h m e d i u m r e q u i r e s different l i g h t i n g intensities. Generally, low-key i m a g e s m u s t b e l i g h t e n e d for v i d e o a n d DVD. S o m e film d i r e c t o r s a r e totally i g n o r a n t of t h e t e c h n o l o g y of t h e came r a a n d leave s u c h m a t t e r s entirely t o t h e c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r . O t h e r f i l m m a k e r s a r e very s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n t h e art o f t h e c a m e r a . F o r e x a m p l e , Sidney L u m e t , w h o is b e s t k n o w n for d i r e c t i n g s u c h realistic New York City d r a m a s as The Pawnbroker, Dog Day Afternoon, a n d Serpico, always m a k e s w h a t he calls a "lens c h a r t " or a "lens plot." In L u m e t ' s Prince of the City, for i n s t a n c e , t h e story centers on a Serpicolike u n d e r c o v e r c o p w h o is g a t h e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on police c o r r u p t i o n . L u m e t u s e d n o " n o r m a l " lenses i n t h e movie, only e x t r e m e telep h o t o s a n d wide-angle lenses, b e c a u s e h e w a n t e d t o c r e a t e a n a t m o s p h e r e o f distrust a n d p a r a n o i a . H e w a n t e d t h e space t o b e d i s t o r t e d , u n t r u s t w o r t h y . " T h e lens tells t h e story," L u m e t e x p l a i n e d , even t h o u g h superficially t h e film's style is gritty a n d realistic. T h e r e a r e s o m e g r e a t movies t h a t a r e p h o t o g r a p h e d c o m p e t e n t l y , b u t w i t h o u t distinction. Realist d i r e c t o r s a r e especially likely to p r e f e r an u n o b t r u sive style. Many of t h e works of Luis B u n u e l , for e x a m p l e , can only be d e s c r i b e d as "professional" in t h e i r c i n e m a t o g r a p h y . B u n u e l was rarely i n t e r e s t e d in form a l b e a u t y — e x c e p t occasionally to m o c k it. Rollie T o t h e r o h , w h o p h o t o g r a p h e d m o s t o f C h a p l i n ' s works, m e r e l y set u p his c a m e r a a n d let C h a p l i n t h e a c t o r take over. P h o t o g r a p h i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e r e a r e few m e m o r a b l e shots in his films. W h a t m a k e s t h e i m a g e s c o m p e l l i n g is t h e g e n i u s of C h a p l i n ' s acting. T h i s p h o t o g r a p h i c a u s t e r i t y — s o m e w o u l d c o n s i d e r it poverty—is especially a p p a r e n t in t h o s e r a r e scenes w h e n C h a p l i n is off c a m e r a .

l-34a. Muriel's Wedding (Australia, 1995), with Toni Collette (with flowers), directed by P. J. Hogan. (Miramax Films)

l-34b. Kafka (U.S.A., 1991), with Jeremy Irons (left), directed by Steven Soderbergh. (Miramax

Films)

Cinematography is very important, but it usually can't m a k e or break a movie—only m a k e it better or worse. For example, the low-budget Muriel's Wedding was shot mostly on location using available lighting. The photography is adequate, but nothing more. In this shot, for instance, the protagonist (Collette) has the key light on her, but the background is too busy and the depth layers of the image are compressed into an undifferentiated messy blur. Nonetheless, the movie was an international hit and was widely praised by critics, thanks mostly to Collette's endearing performance, a funny script, and Hogan's exuberant direction. No o n e complained about the lackluster photography. On the other hand, the cinematography of Kafka is ravishing—bold, theatrical, richly textured. This shot alone must have taken m a n y hours to set up. But the movie was a failure, both with the public and with most critics. In short, not all beautifully photographed movies continued 40

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l-34c. Days of Heaven (U.S.A., 1978), written and directed by Terrence Malick. (A

Paramount

Picture)

are great. And not all great movies are beautifully photographed. Many of them—especially realistic films—are plain and straightforward. Realists often don't want you to notice the photography. They want you to concentrate on what's being photographed, not on how it's being photographed. Perhaps an ideal synthesis is found in a movie like Days of Heaven. Malick's powerful allegory of h u m a n frailty and corruption is written in a spare, poetic idiom. The actors are also first-rate, needy, and touching in their d o o m e d vulnerability. The film was photographed by Nestor Almendros, who won a well-deserved Oscar for his cinematography. The story is set in the early twentieth century in a lonely wheat-growing region of the American midwest. Malick w a n t e d the setting to suggest a lush Garden of Eden, a lost paradise. Almendros suggested that virtually the entire movie could be shot during the "magic hour." This is a term used by photographers to d e n o t e dusk, roughly the last hour of the day before the sun yields to night. During this fleeting interlude, shadows are soft and elongated, figures are lit from the side rather than from above, r i m m e d with a golden halo, and the entire landscape is bathed in a luminous glow. Naturally, shooting one hour a day was expensive and time-consuming. But they got what they wanted: Whether focusing on a close-up of a locust munching on a stalk of wheat, or an e x t r e m e long shot of a rural sunset, the images are rapturous in their lyricism. We feel a sense of poignant loss when the characters must leave this land of milk a n d honey.

But t h e r e a r e far m o r e f i l m s i n w h i c h t h e only i n t e r e s t i n g o r artistic quality is t h e c i n e m a t o g r a p h y . F o r e v e r y g r e a t w o r k like Fritz L a n g ' s You Only Live Once, L e o n S h a m r o y h a d to p h o t o g r a p h f o u r or five b o m b s of t h e ilk of Snow White and the Three Stooges. L e e G a r m e s p h o t o g r a p h e d several of v o n S t e r n b e r g ' s visually o p u l e n t films, b u t he also was r e q u i r e d to s h o o t My Friend Irma Goes West, a p i e c e of g a r b a g e .

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I n this c h a p t e r , w e ' v e b e e n c o n c e r n e d with visual i m a g e s largely a s t h e y relate to the art a n d technology of cinematography. But the c a m e r a must have m a t e r i a l s t o p h o t o g r a p h — o b j e c t s , p e o p l e , settings. T h r o u g h t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e s e m a t e r i a l s , t h e d i r e c t o r i s a b l e t o convey a m u l t i t u d e o f i d e a s a n d e m o t i o n s spatially. T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t of objects in s p a c e is r e f e r r e d to as a d i r e c t o r ' s mise en scene—the s u b j e c t of t h e following c h a p t e r .

FURTHER READING ALTON, JOHN, Painting with Light (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1 9 9 5 ) . Reprint of a classic work. COE, BRIAN, The History ofMovie Photography ( L o n d o n : Ash & Grant, 1 9 8 1 ) . COPJEC, JOAN, cd. Shades of Noir ( L o n d o n a n d New York: Routledge, 1 9 9 4 ) . Essays on t h e origins a n d persistence of film noir. EYMAN, SCOTT, Five American Cinematographers ( M e t u c h e n , N.J., a n d L o n d o n : Scarecrow Press, 1987). Interviews with Karl Struss, J o s e p h R u t t e n b e r g , J a m e s W o n g Howe, Linwood D u n n , a n d William Clothier. FIELDING, RAYMOND, The Techniques of Special Effects Cinematography (New York: Hastings H o u s e , 1 9 6 5 ) . Somewhat dated, b u t still valuable. FINCH, CHRISTOPHER, Special Effects: Creating Movie Magic (New York: Abbeville, 1 9 8 4 ) . Lavishly illustrated. MASCELI.I, JOSEPH, The Five C's of Cinematography (Hollywood: C i n e / G r a p h i c s , 1 9 6 5 ) . A practical m a n u a l . SGHAEFER, DENNIS, a n d LARRY SALVATO, eds., Masters of Light (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984). Excellent collection of interviews with c o n t e m p o r a r y cinematographers. SCHECHTER, HAROLD, AND DAVID EvERlTT, Film Tricks: Special Effects in Movies (New York: Dial, 1980). YOUNG, FREDDIE, The Work of the Motion Picture Cameraman (New York: Hastings H o u s e , 1972). Technical emphasis.

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OvefV i ew Mise e n s c e n e : H o w t h e visual m a t e r i a l s a r e staged, f r a m e d , a n d p h o t o g r a p h e d . T h e f r a m e ' s a s p e c t ratio: d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e s c r e e n ' s h e i g h t a n d w i d t h . Film, TV, v i d e o . F u n c t i o n s o f t h e f r a m e : e x c l u d i n g t h e irrelevant, p i n p o i n t i n g t h e particular, s y m b o l i z ing o t h e r e n c l o s u r e s . T h e s y m b o l i c i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f t h e f r a m e : t o p , b o t t o m , center, a n d e d g e s . W h a t ' s off-frame a n d why. H o w i m a g e s a r e s t r u c t u r e d : c o m p o s i t i o n a n d d e s i g n . W h e r e w e l o o k first: t h e d o m i n a n t . T h e territorial i m p e r a t i v e : H o w s p a c e c a n b e u s e d t o c o m m u n i c a t e i d e a s a b o u t power. Staging p o s i t i o n s vis-a-vis t h e c a m e r a a n d w h a t t h e y suggest. H o w m u c h r o o m for m o v e m e n t : tight a n d l o o s e framing. Proxemic p a t t e r n s a n d h o w they define the relationships b e t w e e n people. Camera proxemics a n d the shots. O p e n a n d closed forms: w i n d o w s or p r o s c e n i u m f r a m e d i m a g e s ? T h e fifteen e l e m e n t s o f a m i s e e n s c e n e analysis.

Mise e n s c e n e ( p r o n o u n c e d m e e z o n sen, with t h e s e c o n d syllable nasalized) was originally a F r e n c h theatrical t e r m m e a n i n g "placing on stage." T h e p h r a s e refers to t h e a r r a n g e m e n t of all t h e visual e l e m e n t s of a theatrical p r o d u c t i o n within a given playing a r e a — t h e stage. T h i s a r e a c a n be d e f i n e d by t h e proscen i u m a r c h , w h i c h encloses t h e stage in a k i n d of p i c t u r e frame; or t h e acting a r e a can b e m o r e fluid, e x t e n d i n g even i n t o t h e a u d i t o r i u m . N o m a t t e r w h a t t h e confines of t h e stage may b e , its mise en s c e n e is always in t h r e e d i m e n sions. Objects a n d p e o p l e a r e a r r a n g e d in actual space, which has d e p t h as well as h e i g h t a n d w i d t h . T h i s space is also a c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e s a m e space t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e o c c u p i e s , no m a t t e r h o w m u c h a t h e a t e r d i r e c t o r tries to suggest a s e p a r a t e "world" o n t h e stage. In movies, m i s e en s c e n e is s o m e w h a t m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d , a b l e n d of t h e visual c o n v e n t i o n s of t h e live t h e a t e r with t h o s e of p a i n t i n g . Like t h e stage d i r e c t o r , t h e filmmaker a r r a n g e s objects a n d p e o p l e within a given t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e . B u t o n c e this a r r a n g e m e n t i s p h o t o g r a p h e d , it's c o n v e r t e d i n t o a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l imageoithe real t h i n g . T h e s p a c e in t h e "world" of the movie is n o t the same as that occupied by the audience. Only the image exists in t h e s a m e physical a r e a , like a p i c t u r e in an a r t gallery. Mise en s c e n e i n t h e m o v i e s r e s e m b l e s t h e a r t o f p a i n t i n g i n t h a t a n i m a g e o f f o r m a l patt e r n s a n d s h a p e s is p r e s e n t e d on a flat surface a n d is e n c l o s e d within a f r a m e . B u t c i n e m a t i c mise en s c e n e is also a fluid c h o r e o g r a p h i n g of visual e l e m e n t s that are constantly in flux.

Each movie image is e n c l o s e d by the frame of the screen, which defines t h e world of t h e film, s e p a r a t i n g it from the actual world of the d a r k e n e d auditor i u m . Unlike t h e p a i n t e r or still p h o t o g r a p h e r , the filmmaker d o e s n ' t conceive of t h e framed compositions as self-sufficient statements. Like d r a m a , film is a tem-

2-1. Manhattan (U.S.A., 1979), with Woody Allen and Diane Keaton, directed by Allen. Mise en s c e n e is a c o m p l e x analytical t e r m , e n c o m p a s s i n g four distinct formal e l e m e n t s : (1) the staging of the action, (2) the physical setting and decor, (3) the m a n n e r in which t h e s e materials are framed, a n d (4) the m a n n e r in which they are photographed. The art of mise en s c e n e is indissolubly linked with the art of cinematography. In this shot, for e x a m ple, the story c o n t e n t is simple: The characters are conversing, getting to know each other, b e c o m i n g attracted. Gordon Willis's tender, low-key lighting, c o m b i n e d with the beauty of the setting—the sculpture garden of New York's Museum of Modern Art—provides the scene with an intensely romantic a t m o s p h e r e . (UnitedArtists)

p o r a l as well as spatial art, a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e visuals a r e constantly in flux. T h e c o m p o s i t i o n s a r e b r o k e n d o w n , r e d e f i n e d , a n d r e a s s e m b l e d before o u r eyes. A single-frame i m a g e from a movie, t h e n , is necessarily an artificially frozen m o m e n t t h a t was n e v e r i n t e n d e d to be yanked from its c o n t e x t in time a n d m o t i o n . For critical p u r p o s e s , it's s o m e t i m e s necessary to analyze a still frame in isolation, b u t t h e viewer o u g h t t o m a k e d u e allowances for t h e d r a m a t i c c o n t e x t . flic frame functions as the basis of c o m p o s i t i o n in a movie image. Unlike t h e p a i n t e r or still p h o t o g r a p h e r , however, t h e filmmaker d o e s n ' t fit t h e frame to t h e c o m p o s i t i o n , b u t t h e c o m p o s i t i o n s to a single-sized frame. T h e ratio of t h e frame's h o r i z o n t a l a n d vertical d i m e n s i o n s — k n o w n as t h e aspect ratio— r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e movie. Screens c o m e in a variety of aspect ratios, especially since t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of widescreen in t h e early 1950s. Prior to that time, m o s t movies w e r e s h o t in a 1.33:1 aspect ratio, t h o u g h even in t h e silent e r a filmmakers were constantly e x p e r i m e n t i n g with different-sized screens (2-6). 45

2-2. Notorious (U.S.A., 1946), with Leopoldine Konstantine, Ingrid Bergman, and Claude Rains; directed by Alfred Hitchcock. Hitchcock always regarded himself as a formalist, calculating his effects with an extraordinary degree of precision. He believed that an unmanipulated reality is filled with irrelevancies: "I do not follow the geography of a set, I follow the geography of the screen," he said. The space around actors must be orchestrated from shot to shot. "I think only of that white screen that has to be filled up the way you fill up a canvas. That's why 1 draw rough setups for the cameram a n . " Here, the mise en scene is a perfect analogue of the heroine's sense of entrapment, without violating the civilized veneer d e m a n d e d by the dramatic context. The dialogue in such instances can be perfectly neutral, for the psychological tensions are conveyed by the placem e n t of the c a m e r a and the way the characters are arranged in space. (RKO>

Today, m o s t movies a r e p r o j e c t e d in o n e of two a s p e c t ratios: t h e 1.85:1 ( s t a n d a r d ) a n d t h e 2.35:1 ( w i d e s c r e e n ) . S o m e films originally p h o t o g r a p h e d i n w i d e s c r e e n a r e c r o p p e d d o w n to a c o n v e n t i o n a l a s p e c t r a t i o after t h e i r initial c o m m e r c i a l r e l e a s e . T h i s a p p a l l i n g p r a c t i c e is c o m m o n p l a c e in movies t h a t a r e r e d u c e d from 3 5 m m t o 1 6 m m , t h e s t a n d a r d g a u g e u s e d i n m o s t n o n c o m m e r cial e x h i b i t i o n s like t h o s e a t colleges a n d m u s e u m s . T h e m o r e imaginatively t h e w i d e s c r e e n is u s e d , t h e m o r e a movie is likely to suffer w h e n its a s p e c t ratio is violated in this m a n n e r . Generally, at least a t h i r d of t h e i m a g e is h a c k e d away by l o p p i n g off t h e e d g e s of t h e frame. T h i s k i n d of c r o p p i n g c a n result in m a n y visual absurdities: A s p e a k e r at t h e e d g e of t h e f r a m e m i g h t be totally a b s e n t in t h e "revised" c o m p o s i t i o n , o r a n a c t o r m i g h t r e a c t i n h o r r o r a t s o m e t h i n g t h a t n e v e r even c o m e s i n t o view. W h e n s h o w n o n television—which has a n a s p e c t ratio of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1.33:1—some of t h e greatest w i d e s c r e e n films c a n actually s e e m clumsy a n d p o o r l y c o m p o s e d . In t h e traditional visual arts, frame d i m e n s i o n s a r e g o v e r n e d by t h e n a t u r e of t h e subject matter. T h u s , a p a i n t i n g of a skyscraper is likely to be vertical in s h a p e a n d w o u l d be f r a m e d accordingly. A vast p a n o r a m i c s c e n e w o u l d probably be m o r e h o r i z o n t a l in its d i m e n s i o n s . But in movies, t h e frame ratio is s t a n d a r d i z e d a n d isn't necessarily g o v e r n e d by t h e n a t u r e of t h e materials b e i n g 46

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p h o t o g r a p h e d . This is n o t to say that all film images are t h e r e f o r e inorganic, however, for in this r e g a r d t h e filmmaker can be likened to a s o n n e t e e r , w h o chooses a rigid form precisely b e c a u s e of t h e technical c h a l l e n g e s it presents. Much of t h e e n j o y m e n t we derive in r e a d i n g a s o n n e t results from t h e tension between t h e subject m a t t e r a n d t h e form, which consists of f o u r t e e n intricately r h y m e d lines. W h e n t e c h n i q u e a n d subject m a t t e r a r e fused in this way, aesthetic pleasure is h e i g h t e n e d . T h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e can be a p p l i e d to framing in film. T h e c o n s t a n t size of t h e movie f r a m e is especially h a r d to o v e r c o m e in vertical c o m p o s i t i o n s . A sense of h e i g h t m u s t be conveyed in spite of t h e d o m i nantly h o r i z o n t a l s h a p e o f t h e s c r e e n . O n e m e t h o d o f o v e r c o m i n g t h e p r o b l e m is t h r o u g h masking. In his 1916 d r a m a , Intolerance, D. W. Griffith b l o c k e d o u t p o r t i o n s of his i m a g e s t h r o u g h t h e use of black masks. T h e s e in effect conn e c t e d t h e d a r k e n e d p o r t i o n s o f t h e s c r e e n with t h e d a r k n e s s o f t h e a u d i t o r i u m . To e m p h a s i z e t h e s t e e p fall of a soldier from a wall, t h e sides of t h e i m a g e were m a s k e d o u t . To stress t h e vast h o r i z o n of a location, Griffith m a s k e d o u t t h e lower t h i r d of t h e i m a g e — t h u s c r e a t i n g a w i d e s c r e e n effect. Many k i n d s of masks a r e u s e d in this movie, i n c l u d i n g d i a g o n a l , circular, a n d oval s h a p e s . S o m e years later, t h e Soviet d i r e c t o r Eisenstein u r g e d t h e a d o p t i o n of a s q u a r e s c r e e n , o n w h i c h m a s k e d i m a g e s c o u l d b e p r o j e c t e d i n w h a t e v e r s h a p e was a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e subject matter. N o o n e p i c k e d u p o n t h e idea.

2-3. Air Force One (U.S.A., 1997), with Gary Oldman and Harrison Ford, directed by Wolfgang Petersen. The movie frame temporarily defines the acting area for the duration of the shot. Whoever controls the space within the frame's limits controls the action. Notice how the villain (Oldman, always in top form when he's bad) dominates the President of the United States (Ford, of course), forcing him into the lower right corner of the mise en scene, seemingly on the brink of being pushed totally off screen. In instances such as these, the darkness off frame symbolizes the Oblivion Of death. (Columbia Pictures)

2-4. Lawrence of Arabia (Great Britain, 1962), with Omar Sharif and Peter O'Toole, directed by David Lean. The widescreen aspect ratio provides s o m e big problems when transferred to a video format. There are several solutions, but all of t h e m have drawbacks. The crudest solution is simply to slice off the edges of the film image and concentrate on the middle, the assumption being that the center is where the d o m i n a n t focus is likely to be. This shot would just barely contain the faces of the two characters and nothing past the center of their heads—an uncomfortably tight squeeze. A second solution is called "pan and scan" in which a TV c a m e r a scans the scene, panning to one or the other character as each speaks—like watching a tennis match on rough seas. A similar approach is to reedit the scene by cutting to each character, thus isolating t h e m into their own separate space cubicles. But the essence of the shot d e m a n d s that we see both characters at the s a m e time. The d r a m a lies in the subtle interactions of the characters, and this interaction would be lost by editing. A fourth solution is called "letterboxing"—simply to include the entire movie image and block out the top and bottom of the TV screen. Many people object to this method, complaining that nearly half the screen is thus left empty, making an already small screen smaller. (Columbia Pictures)

In t h e silent movie era, t h e iris (a circular or oval mask that can o p e n up or close in on a subject) was r a t h e r overused. In t h e h a n d s of a master, however, t h e iris can be a powerful d r a m a t i c s t a t e m e n t . In The Wild Child, Francois Truffaut u s e d an iris to suggest t h e i n t e n s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of a y o u n g boy: T h e surr o u n d i n g blackness is a m e t a p h o r of how t h e y o u n g s t e r "blocks o u t " his social e n v i r o n m e n t while focusing on an object immediately in front of h i m . As an aesthetic device, t h e frame p e r f o r m s in several ways. T h e sensitive d i r e c t o r is j u s t as c o n c e r n e d with what's left o u t of t h e frame as with what's i n c l u d e d . T h e frame selects a n d delimits the subject, e d i t i n g o u t all irrelcvancies a n d p r e s e n t i n g us with only a "piece" of reality. T h e materials i n c l u d e d within a s h o t a r e unified by t h e frame, which in effect imposes an o r d e r on t h e m . T h e frame is thus essentially an isolating device, a t e c h n i q u e t h a t p e r m i t s t h e direct o r to confer special a t t e n t i o n on what m i g h t be o v e r l o o k e d in a wider c o n t e x t . T h e movie frame can function as a m e t a p h o r for o t h e r types of enclosures. S o m e d i r e c t o r s use t h e frame voyeuristically. In m a n y of t h e films of H i t c h c o c k , for e x a m p l e , t h e f r a m e is l i k e n e d to a window t h r o u g h which t h e a u d i e n c e may satisfy its i m p u l s e to pry i n t o t h e i n t i m a t e details of t h e charact e r s ' lives. In fact, Psycho a n d Rear Window use this p e e p i n g t e c h n i q u e literally. C e r t a i n a r e a s within t h e f r a m e c a n suggest symbolic ideas. By p l a c i n g 48

2-5. The Honeymooners ( 1 9 5 5 ) , with Jackie Gleason and Art Carney, produced by CBS television. Video and television are actually different m e d i u m s . Video is a m e t h o d of transmission from a n o t h e r m e d i u m , usually a movie or a live theater production. In other words, video is a s e c o n d h a n d recording that inevitably diminishes the original artistic form. However, seeing a movie or play on video is better than not seeing it at all. Broadcast television, on the other hand, is an art that has evolved its own set of rules, including an aspect ratio that resembles the pre-1950 movie screen. Note how tightly framed this comic sketch is: The TV camera stays pretty much in the medium-shot range, and the performers confine their m o v e m e n t s to just a few square feet of space. Blown up to fit a big movie screen, these images would probably look c r a m p e d and visually crude, notwithstanding the brilliance of the actors, ICBS)

an object or a c t o r within a p a r t i c u l a r section of t h e f r a m e , t h e f i l m m a k e r can radically alter his o r h e r c o m m e n t o n t h a t object o r character. P l a c e m e n t within t h e f r a m e is a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e of h o w f o r m is actually c o n t e n t . E a c h of t h e m a j o r sections o f t h e f r a m e — c e n t e r , t o p , b o t t o m , a n d s i d e s — c a n b e e x p l o i t e d for such symbolic p u r p o s e s . T h e central p o r t i o n s of the screen are generally reserved for the m o s t i m p o r t a n t visual e l e m e n t s . T h i s a r e a is instinctively r e g a r d e d by most p e o p l e as t h e intrinsic c e n t e r of interest. W h e n we take a s n a p s h o t of a friend, we generally c e n t e r his or h e r figure within t h e confines of t h e viewfinder. Since c h i l d h o o d , we have b e e n t a u g h t t h a t a d r a w i n g m u s t be b a l a n c e d , with t h e m i d d l e serving as t h e focal p o i n t . T h e center, t h e n , is a k i n d of n o r m : We expect d o m i n a n t visual e l e m e n t s to be p l a c e d t h e r e . Precisely b e c a u s e of this e x p e c t a t i o n , objects in t h e c e n t e r t e n d to be visually u n d r a m a t i c . Central d o m i n a n c e is generally favored w h e n t h e subject m a t t e r is intrinsically c o m p e l l i n g . Realist filmmakers prefer c e n t r a l d o m i n a n c e b e c a u s e formally it's t h e most u n o b t r u s i v e k i n d of framing.

2-6. Napoleon (France, 1927), directed by Abel Gance. Napoleon is the most famous widescreen experiment of the silent era. Its triptych s e q u e n c e s such as the French army's march into Italy (pictured)—were shot in what Gance called "Polyvision." The process involved the coordination of three cameras so as to photograph a 160' p a n o r a m a — t h r e e times wider than the conventional aspect ratio. (Universal Pictures)

a

2-7. 2001: A Space Odyssey (U.S.A./ Great Britain, 1968), directed by Stanley Kubrick. The widescreen is particularly suited to capturing the vastness of a locale. If this image were cropped to a conventional aspect ratio (b) m u c h of the feel of the infinity of space would be sacrificed. We tend to scan an image from left to right, and therefore, in Kubrick's composition (a), the astronaut s e e m s to be in danger of slipping off into the endlessness of space. If the composition is turned upside down, however (c), the astronaut s e e m s to be c o m i n g h o m e into the safety of the spacecraft, IMCM)

c

b

2-8. The Indian in the Cupboard (U.S.A., 1995), with Litefoot, directed by Frank Oz. The mise en scene of the live theater is usually scaled in proportion to the h u m a n figure. Cinematic mise en scene can be microscopic or cosmic ( 2 - 7 ) with equal ease, thanks to the magic of special effects. In this photo, for example, the mise en scene represents only a few inches of space. Its scale is defined not by the h u m a n figure but by the tennis shoe that the three-inch-tall character is standing on. (Paramount Pictures/Columbia

Pictures)

T h e viewer is allowed to c o n c e n t r a t e on the subject m a t t e r without b e i n g distracted by visual e l e m e n t s t h a t s e e m off center. However, even formalists use the m i d d l e of t h e screen for d o m i n a n c e in r o u t i n e expository shots. T h e a r e a n e a r t h e t o p of t h e frame can suggest ideas d e a l i n g with power, authority, a n d aspiration. A p e r s o n placed h e r e s e e m s to control all the visual e l e m e n t s below, a n d for this r e a s o n , authority figures a r e often p h o t o g r a p h e d in this m a n n e r . T h i s d o m i n a n c e can also apply to objects—a palace, the t o p of a m o u n t a i n . If an unattractive c h a r a c t e r is placed n e a r t h e top of the screen, he or she can s e e m t h r e a t e n i n g a n d d a n g e r o u s , s u p e r i o r t o t h e o t h e r figures within t h e frame ( 2 - 3 ) . However, these generalizations a r e t r u e only w h e n t h e o t h e r figures are a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e size or smaller t h a n the d o m i n a t i n g figure. T h e t o p of t h e f r a m e is n o t always u s e d in this symbolic m a n n e r . In s o m e i n s t a n c e s , this is simply t h e m o s t sensible a r e a to p l a c e an object. In a m e d i u m s h o t of a figure, for e x a m p l e , t h e p e r s o n ' s h e a d is logically g o i n g to b e n e a r t h e t o p o f t h e s c r e e n , b u t obviously this k i n d o f f r a m i n g i s n ' t m e a n t t o b e symbolic. It's m e r e l y r e a s o n a b l e , since t h a t ' s w h e r e w e ' d expect t h e h e a d t o a p p e a r i n m e d i u m s h o t s . Mise e n s c e n e i s essentially a n a r t o f t h e l o n g a n d e x t r e m e l o n g s h o t , for w h e n t h e subject m a t t e r is d e t a i l e d in a c l o s e r s h o t , t h e d i r e c t o r has fewer c h o i c e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f visual e l e m e n t s . T h e a r e a s n e a r t h e b o t t o m o f the frame t e n d t o suggest m e a n i n g s o p p o s i t e from t h e t o p : s u b s e r v i e n c e , vulnerability, a n d powerlessness. Objects a n d figures p l a c e d in t h e s e positions s e e m to be in d a n g e r of slipping o u t of 52

2-9. Tokyo Story (Japan, 1953), directed by Yasujiro Ozu. Ozu's mise en scene is usually formal, its compositional weights balanced with exquisite delicacy Note how the diagonal thrust of the tree branches (in an image otherwise c o m p o s e d of stately verticals and horizontals) counteracts the weight of the three figures on the right. The s c e n e is staged within a prosceniumlike enclosure—a frame within a frame—reinforcing its ceremonial dignity. Ozu exploits these formal compositions as ironic foils to the h u m a n materials: The intense emotions of the characters are often at odds with the decorum prescribed by such social rituals. "The Ozu scene is balanced, asymmetrical, pleasing to the eye; it is at the s a m e time rigid a n d uncompromising, as all e m p t y compositions are," Donald Richie has pointed out. "When the actor enters and behaves in a way contrary to the expectations created by such a formal decor, the result is an often touching spontaneity. This composition, then, exists but to be broken." (New Yorker rums)

t h e f r a m e entirely. For this r e a s o n , t h e s e a r e a s a r e often e x p l o i t e d symbolically to suggest d a n g e r . W h e n t h e r e are two or m o r e figures in t h e frame a n d they a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e size, t h e f i g u r e n e a r e r t h e b o t t o m o f t h e s c r e e n t e n d s t o b e d o m i n a t e d b y t h o s e above. T h e left a n d r i g h t e d g e s o f t h e f r a m e t e n d t o suggest insignificance, b e c a u s e t h e s e a r e t h e a r e a s farthest r e m o v e d from t h e c e n t e r o f t h e s c r e e n . Objects a n d figures p l a c e d n e a r t h e e d g e s a r e literally close to t h e d a r k n e s s outside t h e f r a m e . Many d i r e c t o r s use this d a r k n e s s to suggest t h o s e symbolic ideas traditionally associated with t h e lack o f l i g h t — t h e u n k n o w n , t h e u n s e e n , a n d t h e fearful. In s o m e instances, t h e blackness o u t s i d e t h e frame can symbolize oblivion o r even d e a t h . I n movies a b o u t p e o p l e w h o w a n t t o r e m a i n anonym o u s a n d u n n o t i c e d , t h e d i r e c t o r s o m e t i m e s deliberately places t h e m off center, n e a r t h e "insignificant" e d g e s of t h e s c r e e n . 5 3

2-10. Greed (U.S.A., 1924), with Gibson Gowland and Jean Hersholt, directed by Erich von Stroheim. Highly symmetrical designs are generally used when a director wishes to stress stability and h a r m o n y In this photo, for example, the carefully balanced weights of the design reinforce these (temporary) qualities. The visual elements are neatly juxtaposed in units of twos, with the two beer-filled glasses forming the focal point. The main figures balance each other, as do the two converging brick walls, the two pairs of curtains, the two windows, the two people in each window, the s h a p e of the picture above the m e n , and the s h a p e of the resting dog below them, (MGM)

Finally, t h e r e a r e s o m e instances w h e n a d i r e c t o r places t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t visual e l e m e n t s c o m p l e t e l y off frame. Especially w h e n a c h a r a c t e r is associated with d a r k n e s s , mystery, or d e a t h , this t e c h n i q u e can be highly effective, for t h e a u d i e n c e is m o s t fearful of what it c a n ' t see. In t h e early p o r t i o n s of Fritz L a n g ' s M, for e x a m p l e , t h e psychotic child-killer is n e v e r seen directly. We can only sense his p r e s e n c e , for he lurks in t h e d a r k n e s s o u t s i d e t h e light of t h e frame. Occasionally, we catch a glimpse of his s h a d o w s t r e a k i n g across t h e set, a n d w e ' r e aware o f his p r e s e n c e b y t h e e e r i e t u n e h e whistles w h e n h e ' s e m o tionally excited or upset. T h e r e a r e two o t h e r off-frame areas t h a t can b e e x p l o i t e d for symbolic p u r p o s e s : t h e space b e h i n d t h e set a n d t h e space in front of t h e c a m e r a . By n o t s h o w i n g us w h a t is h a p p e n i n g b e h i n d a closed door, t h e filmmaker c a n p r o voke t h e viewer's curiosity, c r e a t i n g an u n s e t t l i n g effect, for we t e n d to fill in 5 4

2-11. Midnight Express (U.S.A., 1978), with Brad Davis (hands raised), directed by Alan Parker. All the compositional e l e m e n t s of this shot contribute to a sense of e n t r a p m e n t . The protagonist is totally surrounded, not only by the ring of soldiers who have their guns poised for a kill, but also by an outer ring of compositional weights—the airplane above, the stairs and railing to the left, the bench and huddled bystanders at the lower portions of the frame, and the three g u n m e n sealing off the right. The high angle and the gridlike lines of the concrete runway reinforce the sense of e n t r a p m e n t . The image might almost be entitled NO EXIT. (Columbia

Pictures)

s u c h v a c u u m s with vivid i m a g i n i n g s . T h e final shot from H i t c h c o c k ' s Notorious is a g o o d e x a m p l e . T h e h e r o h e l p s t h e d r u g g e d h e r o i n e past a g r o u p of Nazi a g e n t s to a waiting a u t o . T h e r a t h e r s y m p a t h e t i c villain ( C l a u d e Rains) escorts t h e two, h o p i n g his c o l l e a g u e s w o n ' t b e c o m e suspicious. In a deep-focus long shot, we see t h e t h r e e p r i n c i p a l s in t h e f o r e g r o u n d while t h e Nazi a g e n t s remain near the o p e n d o o r of the house in the u p p e r background—watching, w o n d e r i n g . T h e h e r o maliciously locks t h e villain o u t o f t h e car, t h e n drives o u t of f r a m e , leaving t h e villain s t r a n d e d w i t h o u t an e x p l a n a t i o n . His colleagues call o u t his n a m e , a n d h e i s forced t o r e t u r n t o t h e h o u s e , d r e a d i n g t h e worst. H e climbs t h e stairs a n d r e e n t e r s t h e h o u s e with t h e suspicious a g e n t s , w h o t h e n close t h e d o o r b e h i n d t h e m . H i t c h c o c k n e v e r d o e s show u s what h a p p e n s b e h i n d the door. T h e a r e a in front of t h e c a m e r a can also c r e a t e u n s e t t l i n g effects of this sort. In J o h n H u s t o n ' s The Maltese Falcon, for e x a m p l e , we witness a m u r d e r 55

2-12. Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (U.S.A., 1989), with Alison Doody, Harrison Ford, and Sean Connery; directed by Steven Spielberg. Why is this shot funny? For o n e thing, the mise en scene is absurdly symmetrical. The Jones boys, father and son, have been reduced to the ignominy of parallel placement. Even their ropes are fastidiously parallel. They are imprisoned by the closed form: sealed off on the left by the fireplace and the standing w o m a n , on the right by the table and chair. Their hats a n d ties are miraculously intact, even though they have been taken prisoners. The prissy n e a t n e s s and balance of the mise en scene are symbolic of their total subjugation. But of course, you can't hold a good m a n down for long—not to speak of two good m e n . (Paramount Pictures)

w i t h o u t ever s e e i n g t h e killer. T h e victim is p h o t o g r a p h e d in a m e d i u m s h o t as a g u n e n t e r s t h e frame j u s t in front of t h e c a m e r a . N o t until t h e e n d of t h e movie do we discover t h e identity of t h e off-frame killer.

A l t h o u g h t h e p h o t o g r a p h a b l e materials of movies exist in t h r e e d i m e n sions, o n e of t h e p r i m a r y p r o b l e m s facing the filmmaker is m u c h like t h a t conf r o n t i n g t h e p a i n t e r : t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f shapes, colors, lines, a n d t e x t u r e s o n a flat r e c t a n g u l a r surface. In t h e classical c i n e m a , this a r r a n g e m e n t is generally h e l d i n s o m e k i n d o f b a l a n c e o r h a r m o n i o u s e q u i l i b r i u m . T h e desire for bala n c e i s a n a l o g o u s t o p e o p l e b a l a n c i n g o n t h e i r feet, a n d i n d e e d t o m o s t m a n u f a c t u r e d s t r u c t u r e s , which a r e b a l a n c e d o n t h e surface o f t h e e a r t h . Instinctively, we a s s u m e t h a t b a l a n c e is t h e n o r m in m o s t h u m a n e n t e r p r i s e s . In movies, however, t h e r e a r e s o m e i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n s to this rule. W h e n a visual artist wishes to stress a lack of e q u i l i b r i u m , m a n y of t h e s t a n d a r d c o n v e n t i o n s of classical c o m p o s i t i o n are deliberately violated. In movies, t h e 56

2-13a. Once Were Warriors Owen, directed by Lee Tamahori.

(New

Zealand,

1994), with

Temuera Morrison and Rena

(Fine Line Features)

The movie frame is not an ornamental mounting for a self-contained image, as it is with a painting or a drawing. The cinematic frame s e g m e n t s and isolates the photographic fragm e n t from its larger context, providing a subtle c o m m e n t a r y on the subject matter. Once Were Warriors is a harrowing account of a wife batterer, and the frame in this shot suggests a symbolic prison, with the wife trapped in the s a m e confined space with her volatile husband. Note how he d o m i n a t e s most of the playing space, while she is crowded to the right, literally up against the wall in fear. Similarly, the shot from The End of August at the Hotel Ozone is taken from behind an adult character as he nearly obliterates our view of a scared youngster. Compositions such as this would not be found in the fields of painting or live theater because the frame in those m e d i u m s is essentially a neutral surround of the subject matter. In movies, the frame (temporarily) presents us with a frozen m o m e n t of truth which will soon dissolve into another composition. 2-13b.

The End of August at the Hotel Ozone (Czechoslovakia,

Schmidt.

(New Line Cinema)

1969), directed by Jan

58

j \ \ i s c t' i\ S c e n e

dramatic c o n t e x t is usually t h e d e t e r m i n i n g (actor in c o m p o s i t i o n . W h a t is superficially a b a d c o m p o s i t i o n m i g h t actually be highly effective, d e p e n d i n g on its psychological c o n t e x t . Many films a r e c o n c e r n e d with n e u r o t i c c h a r a c ters or events t h a t a r e o u t of joint. In such cases, t h e d i r e c t o r m i g h t well i g n o r e t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of classical c o m p o s i t i o n . I n s t e a d of c e n t e r i n g a c h a r a c t e r in the image, his or h e r spiritual m a l a d j u s t m e n t can be conveyed symbolically by p h o t o g r a p h i n g t h e subject a t t h e e d g e o f t h e frame. I n this m a n n e r , t h e f i l m m a k e r throws off t h e visual b a l a n c e a n d p r e s e n t s us with an i m a g e that's psychologically m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e d r a m a t i c c o n t e x t ( 1 - 3 3 ) . T h e r e a r e no set r u l e s a b o u t these m a t t e r s . A classical filmmaker like Buster K e a t o n u s e d mostly b a l a n c e d c o m p o s i t i o n s . F i l m m a k e r s o u t s i d e t h e classical t r a d i t i o n t e n d to favor c o m p o s i t i o n s t h a t a r e asymmetrical or off center. In movies a variety of t e c h n i q u e s can be u s e d to convey t h e s a m e ideas a n d e m o t i o n s . S o m e filmmakers favor visual m e t h o d s , o t h e r s favor d i a l o g u e , still o t h e r s e d i t i n g or acting. Ultimately, whatever works is right ( 2 - 1 4 ) . T h e h u m a n eye automatically a t t e m p t s t o h a r m o n i z e t h e f o r m a l elem e n t s of a c o m p o s i t i o n i n t o a unified w h o l e . T h e eye can d e t e c t as m a n y as seven or e i g h t major e l e m e n t s of a c o m p o s i t i o n simultaneously. In m o s t cases, however, t h e eye d o e s n ' t w a n d e r p r o m i s c u o u s l y over t h e surface o f a n i m a g e b u t is g u i d e d to specific areas in s e q u e n c e . T h e d i r e c t o r a c c o m p l i s h e s this t h r o u g h t h e use of a dominant contrast, also k n o w n as t h e dominant. T h e d o m i n a n t is t h a t a r e a of an i m a g e t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y attracts o u r a t t e n t i o n b e c a u s e of a c o n s p i c u o u s a n d c o m p e l l i n g contrast. It stands o u t in s o m e k i n d of isolation from t h e o t h e r e l e m e n t s within t h e i m a g e . I n black-and-white movies, t h e d o m i n a n t c o n t r a s t is generally achieved t h r o u g h a juxtaposition of lights a n d d a r k s . F o r e x a m p l e , if t h e d i r e c t o r wishes t h e viewer to look first at an a c t o r ' s h a n d r a t h e r t h a n his face, t h e l i g h t i n g o f t h e h a n d w o u l d b e h a r s h e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e face, w h i c h w o u l d be lit in a m o r e s u b d u e d m a n n e r . In c o l o r films, t h e d o m i n a n t is often a c h i e v e d by having o n e c o l o r stand o u t from t h e o t h e r s . After we take in t h e d o m i n a n t , o u r eye t h e n scans t h e subsidiary contrasts t h a t t h e artist has a r r a n g e d to act as c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g devices. O u r eyes a r e s e l d o m at rest with visual c o m p o s i t i o n s , t h e n , even with p a i n t i n g s or still p h o t o g r a p h s . We l o o k s o m e w h e r e first, t h e n we look at t h o s e areas of d i m i n i s h i n g interest. N o n e of this is a c c i d e n t a l , for visual artists deliberately s t r u c t u r e t h e i r i m a g e s so a specific s e q u e n c e is followed. In short, m o v e m e n t in film isn't c o n f i n e d only to objects a n d p e o p l e t h a t a r e literally in m o t i o n . In m o s t cases, t h e visual i n t e r e s t of t h e d o m i n a n t c o r r e s p o n d s with t h e d r a m a t i c i n t e r e s t o f t h e i m a g e . Because f i l m s have t e m p o r a l a n d d r a m a t i c contexts, however, t h e d o m i n a n t is often m o v e m e n t itself, a n d what s o m e aestheticians call intrinsic interest. Intrinsic interest simply m e a n s t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e , t h r o u g h t h e c o n t e x t of a story, knows t h a t an object is m o r e i m p o r t a n t d r a m a t ically t h a n it a p p e a r s to be visually. T h u s , even t h o u g h a g u n m i g h t o c c u p y only a small p o r t i o n of t h e surface of an i m a g e , if we k n o w t h a t t h e g u n is dramatically i m p o r t a n t , it will a s s u m e d o m i n a n c e in t h e p i c t u r e d e s p i t e its visual insignificance.

2-14a. Macbeth (U.S.A./Great Britain, 1971), with Francesca Annis and Jon Finch, directed by Roman Polanski. Movie images are generally scanned in a structured sequence of eye-stops. The eye is first attracted to a dominant contrast that compels our most immediate attention by virtue of its conspicuousness, and then travels to the subsidiary areas of interest within the frame. In this photo, for example, the eye is initially attracted to the face of Lady Macbeth, which is lit in high contrast and is surrounded by darkness. We then scan the brightly lit "empty" space between her and her husband. The third area of interest is Macbeth's thoughtful face, which is lit in a more subdued manner. The visual interest of this photo corresponds to the dramatic context of the film, for Lady Macbeth is slowly descending into m a d n e s s and feels spiritually alienated and isolated from her husband. (Columbia Pictures)

2-14b. Macbeth (U.S.A., 1948), with Peggy Webber, directed by Orson Welles. Realists and formalists solve problems in different ways, with different visual techniques. Polanski's presentation of Lady Macbeth's m a d n e s s is conveyed in a relatively realistic manner, with e m p h a s i s on acting and subtle lighting effects. Welles took a more formalistic approach, using physical correlatives to convey interior states, such as the iron fence's knifelike blades, which almost s e e m to pierce Webber's body. The fence is not particularly realistic or even functional: Welles exploited it primarily as a symbolic analogue of her inner torment. Neither approach is better or worse. It all depends on how well it's done. (Republic Pictures)

59

2-15. The Decline of the American Empire (Canada, 1986), with (clockwise from upper left) Louise Portal, Dominique Michel, Dorothee Berryman, Genevieve Rioux; directed by Denys Arcand. A group of w o m e n work out, talk, and laugh in a health club while the m e n in their lives prepare a g o u r m e t meal in an a p a r t m e n t . The circular design in this shot reinforces the air of c a m a r a d e r i e a m o n g the w o m e n . The shot's design e m b o d i e s their shared experiences and interconnectedness: literally, a relaxed circle of friends. (Cinepiex odeon Films)

M o v e m e n t is a l m o s t always an a u t o m a t i c d o m i n a n t contrast, p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e o t h e r e l e m e n t s in t h e i m a g e a r e stationary. Even a third-rate d i r e c t o r can g u i d e t h e viewer's eyes t h r o u g h t h e use of m o t i o n . For this r e a s o n , lazy filmmakers i g n o r e t h e p o t e n t i a l r i c h n e s s of t h e i r images a n d rely solely on m o v e m e n t a s a m e a n s o f c a p t u r i n g t h e viewer's a t t e n t i o n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , m o s t d i r e c t o r s will vary t h e i r d o m i n a n t s , s o m e t i m e s e m p h a s i z i n g m o t i o n , o t h e r times using m o v e m e n t as a subsidiary c o n t r a s t only. T h e i m p o r t a n c e of m o t i o n varies with t h e k i n d of s h o t u s e d . M o v e m e n t t e n d s to be less distracting in t h e l o n g e r shots b u t highly c o n s p i c u o u s in t h e closer r a n g e s . Unless t h e viewer has t i m e to e x p l o r e t h e surface of an i m a g e at leisure, visual confusion can result w h e n t h e r e a r e m o r e t h a n e i g h t o r n i n e m a j o r c o m positional e l e m e n t s . If visual confusion is t h e d e l i b e r a t e i n t e n t i o n of an i m a g e — a s in a battle s c e n e , for e x a m p l e — t h e d i r e c t o r will s o m e t i m e s o v e r l o a d t h e c o m p o s i t i o n to p r o d u c e this effect ( 2 - 2 2 ) . In g e n e r a l , t h e eye struggles to

2-16a. She's the One (U.S.A., 1996), with Mike McClone and Jennifer Aniston, directed by Edward Burns. (Twentieth Century-Fox) Parallelism is a c o m m o n principle of design, implying similarity, unity, and mutual reinforcement. The composition of the shot from She's the One links the characters romantically. They're placed in parallel positions with similar gestures. Both are seated at a bar, with their chins resting against their left hands, both with slightly e m b a r r a s s e d , b e m u s e d expressions. The shot might almost be titled: Made for Each Other. Symmetrical parallelism is rarely found in nature: Usually the parallel e l e m e n t s betray a h u m a n hand, s o m e t i m e s with deliberate comical effect, as in m a n y of the shots of Men in Black. 2-16b.

Men in Black (U.S.A.,

Barry Sonnenfeld.

(Columbia Pictures)

1996), with Tommy Lee Jones and Will Smith, directed by

2-17. Superman (U.S.A./Great Britain, 1978), with Glenn Ford, directed by Richard Donner. Because the top half of the frame tends to be intrinsically heavier than the bottom, directors usually keep their horizon well above the middle of the composition. They also place most of the visual weights in the lower portions of the screen. When a filmmaker wishes to emphasize the vulnerability of the characters, however, the horizon is often lowered, and s o m e t i m e s the heaviest visual e l e m e n t s are placed above the characters. In this witty shot, for example, the parents of little Clark Kent are astonished—and visually imperiled—by the s u p e r h u m a n strength of their adopted son. (Warner Bros.)

unify various e l e m e n t s i n t o an o r d e r e d p a t t e r n . F o r e x a m p l e , even in a comp l e x d e s i g n , t h e eye will c o n n e c t similar s h a p e s , colors, t e x t u r e s , etc. T h e very r e p e t i t i o n of a formal e l e m e n t can suggest t h e r e p e t i t i o n of an e x p e r i e n c e . T h e s e c o n n e c t i o n s f o r m a visual r h y t h m , forcing t h e eye to l e a p over t h e surface of t h e d e s i g n to perceive t h e overall b a l a n c e . Visual artists often refer to c o m p o s i t i o n a l e l e m e n t s as lueights. In m o s t cases, especially in classical c i n e m a , t h e artist distributes t h e s e weights h a r m o n i o u s l y over t h e surface of t h e i m a g e . In a totally symmetrical d e s i g n — a l m o s t n e v e r f o u n d in fiction m o v i e s — t h e visual weights a r e d i s t r i b u t e d evenly, with t h e c e n t e r of t h e c o m p o s i t i o n as t h e axis p o i n t . Because m o s t c o m p o s i t i o n s a r e asymmetrical, however, t h e weight of o n e e l e m e n t is c o u n t e r p o i s e d with a n o t h e r . A s h a p e , for e x a m p l e , c o u n t e r a c t s t h e w e i g h t of a color. Psychologists a n d art theorists have discovered t h a t certain p o r t i o n s of a c o m p o s i t i o n a r e intrinsically w e i g h t e d . T h e G e r m a n a r t hist o r i a n H e i n r i c h Wolfflin, for i n s t a n c e , p o i n t e d o u t t h a t we t e n d to scan pict u r e s from left to right, all o t h e r c o m p o s i t i o n a l e l e m e n t s b e i n g e q u a l . Especially in classical c o m p o s i t i o n s , t h e i m a g e is often m o r e heavily w e i g h t e d on t h e left to c o u n t e r a c t t h e intrinsic heaviness of t h e right. T h e u p p e r p a r t of t h e c o m p o s i t i o n is heavier t h a n t h e lower. For this r e a s o n , skyscrapers, c o l u m n s , a n d obelisks t a p e r u p w a r d o r they w o u l d a p p e a r top-heavy. I m a g e s s e e m m o r e b a l a n c e d w h e n t h e c e n t e r of gravity is k e p t low, with most of t h e weights in t h e lower p o r t i o n s of t h e s c r e e n . A l a n d s c a p e is seld o m divided horizontally at t h e m i d p o i n t of a c o m p o s i t i o n , or t h e sky w o u l d 62

2-18. Jules and Jim (France, 1961), with Henri Serre, Jeanne Moreau, and Oskar Werner; directed by Francois Truffaut. Compositions grouped into units of three, five, a n d seven tend to suggest dynamic, unstable relationships. Those organized in units of two, four, or six, on the other hand, tend to imply fixed, h a r m o n i o u s relationships. This triangular composition is organically related to the t h e m e of the movie, which deals with the shifting love relationships between the three characters. The w o m a n is almost invariably at the apex of the triangle: She likes it that way. (/anus Films)

a p p e a r t o o p p r e s s t h e e a r t h . Epic f i l m m a k e r s like Eisenstein a n d F o r d c r e a t e d s o m e of t h e i r m o s t d i s q u i e t i n g effects with precisely this t e c h n i q u e : T h e y let t h e sky d o m i n a t e t h r o u g h its intrinsic heaviness. T h e t e r r a i n a n d its i n h a b i t a n t s s e e m o v e r w h e l m e d from above (see 1-9). Isolated figures a n d objects t e n d to be heavier t h a n t h o s e in a cluster. S o m e t i m e s o n e o b j e c t — m e r e l y by virtue of its i s o l a t i o n — c a n b a l a n c e a w h o l e g r o u p of o t h e r w i s e e q u a l objects. In m a n y movies, t h e p r o t a g o n i s t is shown a p a r t from a hostile g r o u p , yet t h e two s e e m evenly m a t c h e d d e s p i t e t h e arithmetical differences. T h i s effect is conveyed t h r o u g h t h e visual w e i g h t of t h e h e r o i n isolation ( 3 - 1 3 ) . Psychological e x p e r i m e n t s have revealed t h a t certain lines suggest directional m o v e m e n t s . A l t h o u g h vertical a n d horizontal lines s e e m to be visually at rest, if m o v e m e n t is perceived, h o r i z o n t a l lines t e n d to m o v e from left to right, 63

2-19. The Graduate (U.S.A., 1967), with Anne Bancroft and Dustin Hoffman, directed by Mike Nichols. Viewers can be m a d e to feel insecure or isolated when a hostile foreground element (Bancroft) c o m e s between us and a figure we identify with. In this scene, our hero, Benjamin Braddock, college graduate, feels threatened. An older w o m a n , a friend of his parents, tries to seduce him—he thinks. He's not sure. His feelings of e n t r a p m e n t and i m m i n e n t violation are conveyed not by his words, which are s t a m m e r i n g and e m b a r r a s s e d , but by the mise en scene. Blocked off in front by her s e m i n u d e body, he is also virtually confined at his rear by the window frame—an enclosure within an enclosure (the room) within the enclosure of the movie frame.

(Avco Embassy Pictures)

vertical lines, from b o t t o m to t o p . Diagonal or o b l i q u e lines a r e m o r e d y n a m i c — t h a t is, in transition. T h e y t e n d to sweep u p w a r d . T h e s e psychological p h e n o m e n a a r e i m p o r t a n t to t h e visual artist, especially t h e filmmaker, for t h e d r a m a t i c c o n t e x t is n o t always c o n d u c i v e to an overt expression of e m o t i o n . For e x a m p l e , if a d i r e c t o r wishes to show a c h a r a c t e r ' s inward agitation within a calm context, this quality can be conveyed t h r o u g h the d y n a m i c use of line: An i m a g e c o m p o s e d of tense d i a g o n a l s can suggest t h e c h a r a c t e r ' s i n n e r t u r m o i l , despite t h e a p p a r e n t lack of d r a m a in t h e action. S o m e of t h e m o s t expressive c i n e m a t i c effects can be achieved precisely t h r o u g h this tension b e t w e e n t h e compositional e l e m e n t s of an i m a g e a n d its d r a m a t i c c o n t e x t ( 2 - 2 1 ) . A skeletal s t r u c t u r e u n d e r l i e s m o s t visual c o m p o s i t i o n s . T h r o u g h o u t t h e ages, artists have especially favored S a n d X s h a p e s , t r i a n g u l a r designs, a n d circles. T h e s e designs are often used simply b e c a u s e they a r e t h o u g h t to be i n h e r e n t l y beautiful. Visual artists also use certain c o m p o s i t i o n a l f o r m s to 64

2-20. The Grifters (U.S.A., 1990), with John Cusack and Anjelica Huston, directed by Stephen Frears. Every shot can be looked at as an ideological cell, its mise en s c e n e a graphic illustration of the power relationships b e t w e e n the characters. W h e r e the characters are placed within the frame is m o r e than an aesthetic choice—it's profoundly territorial. In this film, the protagonist (Cusack) has an unresolved Oedipal conflict with his m o t h e r (Huston). They are in an almost constant struggle for d o m i n a n c e . The mise en s c e n e reveals w h o ' s the stronger. In a p r e d o m i n a n t l y light field, the darker figure d o m i n a t e s . The right side of the frame is h e a v i e r — m o r e d o m i n a n t — t h a n the left. The standing figure towers over the s e a t e d figure. The top of the frame (Huston's realm) d o m i n a t e s the center and b o t t o m . She's a killer. (Miramax

Films)

e m p h a s i z e symbolic c o n c e p t s . For e x a m p l e , b i n a r y s t r u c t u r e s e m p h a s i z e parallelism—virtually any two-shot will suggest t h e c o u p l e , d o u b l e s , s h a r e d space ( 2 - 3 1 ) . Triadic c o m p o s i t i o n s stress t h e d y n a m i c interplay a m o n g t h r e e m a i n e l e m e n t s . C i r c u l a r c o m p o s i t i o n s can suggest security, e n c l o s u r e , t h e female principle (2-15). Design is generally fused with a t h e m a t i c idea, at least in t h e best movies. In Jules and Jim, for e x a m p l e , Truffaut consistently u s e d t r i a n g u l a r designs, for t h e film deals with a trio of c h a r a c t e r s w h o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e constantly shifting yet always i n t e r r e l a t e d . T h e f o r m of t h e i m a g e s in this case is a symbolic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e r o m a n t i c triangle o f t h e d r a m a t i c c o n t e n t . T h e s e t r i a n g u l a r designs d y n a m i z e t h e visuals, k e e p i n g t h e m off b a l a n c e , subject to c h a n g e ( 2 - 1 8 ) . Generally, designs consisting of units of t h r e e , five, a n d seven t e n d to p r o d u c e t h e s e effects. Designs c o m p o s e d of two, four, or six units s e e m m o r e stable a n d b a l a n c e d ( 2 - 1 0 ) . 65

2 - 2 1 a. The 400 Blows (France, 1959), with Jean-Pierre Leaud, directed by Franqois Truffaut. The space between the main characters and the camera is usually kept clear so we can view the characters without impediment. But s o m e t i m e s filmmakers deliberately obscure our view to make a dramatic or psychological point. The reckless young protagonist of The 400 Blows tries to act tough most of the time, and that usually m e a n s : Stay cool, and don't let them see you cry. When the dramatic context or the character's nature d o e s n ' t permit the film artist to express emotions openly, they can s o m e t i m e s be conveyed through purely visual m e a n s . Here, the youth's anxiety and tenseness are expressed through a variety of formal techniques. His inward agitation is conveyed by the diagonal lines of the fence. His s e n s e of e n t r a p m e n t is suggested by the tight framing (sides, top, bottom), the shallow focus (rear), and the obstruction of the fence itself (foreground), qanus Films) 2 - 2 1 b. Gattaca (U.S.A., 1997), with Uma Thurman and Ethan Hawke, directed by Andrew Niccol. Similar techniques can be used even in less obviously dramatic scenes. For example, why do these two look scared and trapped? There are at least three reasons: I) the dramatic context of the story, which leads us to believe they have good reason to feel paranoid: 2) the acting, which de-emphasizes the beauty of the performers in favor of expressing a d e e p e n i n g anxiety and increasing terror; and 3) the mise en scene, which confines t h e m in a tight frame, pins them down in a high angle shot, and corners t h e m in a dark alcove, with the shadow of an imprisoning cage superimposed over their pale features. (Columbia Pictures)

So far we've b e e n c o n c e r n e d with it relates to t h e s t r u c t u r i n g of p a t t e r n s on m o s t movie i m a g e s deal with t h e illusion tor must k e e p t h e s e spatial c o n s i d e r a t i o n s 66

t h e art of mise en s c e n e primarily as a two-dimensional surface. But since o f v o l u m e a n d d e p t h , t h e f i l m direcin m i n d while c o m p o s i n g t h e visuals.

2-22. Big (U.S.A., 1988), with Jared Rushton and Tom Hanks, directed by Penny Marshall In shots emphasizing disorder or confusion, the film director s o m e t i m e s deliberately overloads the composition to produce a sense of visual chaos. In this photo, for example, the lines, shapes, and compositional weights form no discernible design. (Twentieth Century-Fox)

It's o n e t h i n g to c o n s t r u c t a p l e a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t of s h a p e s , lines, colors, a n d t e x t u r e s ; b u t movie i m a g e s must also tell a story in t i m e , a story t h a t generally involves h u m a n b e i n g s a n d t h e i r p r o b l e m s . Unlike n o t e s o f music, t h e n , forms in film a r e n o t usually p u r e — t h e y refer specifically to objects in reality. D i r e c t o r s generally e m p h a s i z e v o l u m e in t h e i r i m a g e s precisely b e c a u s e they wish to avoid an abstract, flat look in t h e i r c o m p o s i t i o n s . In m o s t cases, f i l m m a k e r s c o m p o s e o n t h r e e visual p l a n e s : t h e f o r e g r o u n d , t h e m i d g r o u n d , a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d . N o t only d o e s this t e c h n i q u e suggest a sense of d e p t h , it can also radically a l t e r t h e d o m i n a n t c o n t r a s t of an i m a g e , s e r v i n g as a k i n d of qualifying characteristic, e i t h e r subtle or c o n s p i c u o u s . F o r e x a m p l e , a figure is often p l a c e d in t h e m i d g r o u n d of a c o m p o s i t i o n . W h a t e v e r is p l a c e d in t h e f o r e g r o u n d will c o m m e n t on t h e figure in s o m e way ( 2 - 2 1 ) . S o m e foliage, for i n s t a n c e , is likely to suggest a n a t u r a l n e s s a n d b l e n d i n g with n a t u r e . A gauzy c u r t a i n i n t h e f o r e g r o u n d c a n suggest mystery, eroticism, a n d femininity. T h e c r o s s h a t c h i n g of a w i n d o w f r a m e can suggest self-division. A n d so o n , with as m a n y f o r e g r o u n d qualifiers as t h e d i r e c t o r a n d c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r can t h i n k of. T h e s e s a m e p r i n c i p l e s apply t o b a c k g r o u n d s , a l t h o u g h objects p l a c e d i n t h e s e a r e a s t e n d t o yield i n d o m i n a n c e t o mid- a n d f o r e g r o u n d r a n g e s . O n e o f t h e m o s t e l e m e n t a r y , yet crucial, decisions t h e f i l m d i r e c t o r m a k e s is w h a t s h o t to use vis-a-vis t h e materials p h o t o g r a p h e d . T h a t is, how m u c h detail s h o u l d b e i n c l u d e d within t h e frame? H o w close s h o u l d t h e came r a get to t h e s u b j e c t — w h i c h is a n o t h e r way of saying h o w close s h o u l d we get to t h e subject, since t h e viewer's eye t e n d s to identify with t h e c a m e r a ' s lens. T h e s e a r e n o t m i n o r p r o b l e m s , for t h e a m o u n t o f space i n c l u d e d within t h e frame c a n radically affect o u r r e s p o n s e t o t h e p h o t o g r a p h e d materials. With

68

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S c e n e

any given subject, t h e filmmaker can use a variety of shots, e a c h of which i n c l u d e s or e x c l u d e s a given a m o u n t of s u r r o u n d i n g space. But h o w m u c h space is j u s t r i g h t in a shot? W h a t ' s t o o m u c h or t o o little? Space is a m e d i u m of c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d t h e way we r e s p o n d to objects a n d p e o p l e within a given a r e a is a c o n s t a n t s o u r c e of i n f o r m a t i o n in life as well as in t h e movies. In virtually any social situation, we receive a n d give off signals relating to o u r use of space a n d those p e o p l e w h o s h a r e it. Most of us a r e n ' t particularly conscious of this m e d i u m , b u t we instinctively b e c o m e a l e r t e d w h e n e v e r we feel t h a t certain social c o n v e n t i o n s a b o u t space a r e b e i n g violated. F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n p e o p l e e n t e r a movie theater, they t e n d to seat themselves at a p p r o p r i a t e intervals from e a c h other. But what's a p p r o p r i a t e ? A n d w h o o r what defines it? Why do we feel t h r e a t e n e d w h e n s o m e o n e takes a seat n e x t to us in a nearly e m p t y t h e a t e r ? After all, t h e seat isn't ours, a n d t h e o t h e r p e r s o n has p a i d for t h e privilege of sitting wherever he or s h e wishes. Is it p a r a n o i d to feel anxiety in such a situation, or is it a n o r m a l instinctive response?

2-23. The Godfather Part II (U.S.A., 1974), with Troy Donahue, Al Pacino, and Talia Shire; directed by Francis Ford Coppola. Backgrounds are rarely neutral territory, especially in shots that are in deep focus and in movies that are photographed on location. In this scene, a ne'er-do-well spoiled sister defies her authoritarian brother (Pacino) by insisting on marrying a sleazy lounge lizard, w h o m the brother scarcely deigns to acknowledge. The image is split in half, with the brother dominating his sister from the top right, even though he's in the background. The sleazoid is isolated on the left by the imprisoning curved fireplace from above and a correspondingly curved chair that keeps him distanced from his precious prey. Their touching h a n d s is a brave gesture of solidarity, though far too feeble to withstand the brother's wrath. He will prevail, as Usual.

(Paramount Pictures)

2-24a. The Blue Angel (Germany, by Josef von Sternberg, (jams Films)

1930), with Marlene Dietrich (left foreground), directed

Density of texture refers to the a m o u n t of visual detail in a picture. How much information does the filmmaker pack into the image and why? Most movies are moderately textured, d e p e n d i n g on the a m o u n t of light thrown on the subject m a t t e r Some images are stark, w h e r e a s others are densely textured. The degree of density is often a symbolic analogue of the quality of life in the world of the film. The cheap cabaret setting of The Blue Angel is chaotic and packed, swirling in s m o k e and cluttered with tawdry o r n a m e n t s . The atmosphere s e e m s almost suffocating. The stark futuristic world of THX 1138 is sterile, empty. 2-24b.

THX 1138 (U.S.A.,

George Lucas.

(Warner Bros.)

1971), with Robert Duvall and Donald Pleasence, directed by

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en

S c e n e

A n u m b e r of psychologists a n d a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s — i n c l u d i n g K o n r a d L o r e n z , R o b e r t S o m m e r s , a n d E d w a r d T . Hall—have e x p l o r e d t h e s e a n d related q u e s t i o n s . T h e i r findings are especially revealing in t e r m s of h o w space is u s e d in c i n e m a . In his study On Aggression, for e x a m p l e , L o r e n z discusses h o w m o s t a n i m a l s — i n c l u d i n g h u m a n s — a r e territorial. T h a t is, they lay claim to a given a r e a a n d d e f e n d it from o u t s i d e r s . This t e r r i t o r y is a k i n d of p e r s o n a l haven of safety a n d is r e g a r d e d by t h e o r g a n i s m as an e x t e n s i o n of itself. W h e n living c r e a t u r e s a r e t o o tightly p a c k e d i n t o a given space, t h e result can be stress, t e n s i o n , a n d anxiety. In m a n y cases, w h e n this territorial i m p e r a t i v e is violated, t h e i n t r u s i o n c a n p r o v o k e aggressive a n d violent behavior, a n d s o m e times a battle for d o m i n a n c e e n s u e s over c o n t r o l of t h e territory. Territories have a spatial hierarchy of power. T h a t is, t h e m o s t d o m i n a n t organism of a c o m m u n i t y is literally given m o r e space, whereas t h e less d o m i n a n t are c r o w d e d together. T h e a m o u n t of space an organism occupies is generally p r o p o r t i o n e d to t h e d e g r e e of c o n t r o l it enjoys within a given territory. T h e s e spatial principles can be seen in m a n y h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s as well. A classroom, for e x a m p l e , is usually divided into a t e a c h i n g area a n d a s t u d e n t seating area, b u t t h e p r o p o r t i o n of space allotted to t h e authority figure is g r e a t e r t h a n that allotted to each of those b e i n g instructed. T h e spatial s t r u c t u r e of virtually any k i n d of territory u s e d by h u m a n s betrays a discernible c o n c e p t of authority. No m a t t e r h o w egalitarian we like to think ourselves, most of us c o n f o r m to these spatial c o n v e n t i o n s . W h e n a distinguished p e r s o n e n t e r s a c r o w d e d r o o m , for e x a m p l e , most p e o p l e instinctively m a k e r o o m for h i m or her. In fact, they're giving that p e r s o n far m o r e r o o m t h a n they themselves occupy. But w h a t has all this g o t to do with movies? A g r e a t d e a l , for space is o n e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l m e d i u m s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n f i l m . T h e way t h a t p e o p l e are a r r a n g e d in space can tell us a lot a b o u t t h e i r social a n d psychological relationships. In film, d o m i n a n t c h a r a c t e r s a r e a l m o s t always given m o r e space to o c c u p y t h a n o t h e r s — u n l e s s t h e film deals with t h e loss of p o w e r or t h e social insignificance of a character. T h e a m o u n t of space t a k e n up by a c h a r a c t e r in a movie d o e s n ' t necessarily relate t o t h a t p e r s o n ' s actual social d o m i n a n c e , b u t t o his o r h e r d r a m a t i c i m p o r t a n c e . A u t h o r i t a r i a n f i g u r e s like kings generally o c c u p y a l a r g e r a m o u n t of space t h a n peasants; b u t if a film is primarily a b o u t p e a s a n t s , they will d o m i n a t e spatially. In s h o r t , d o m i n a n c e is d e f i n e d c o n t e x t u ally in film—not necessarily t h e way it's perceived in real life. T h e movie f r a m e is also a k i n d of territory, t h o u g h a t e m p o r a r y o n e , existing only for t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e shot. T h e way space is s h a r e d within t h e frame is o n e of t h e m a j o r tools of t h e metteur en scene, w h o can d e f i n e , adjust, a n d r e d e f i n e h u m a n r e l a t i o n s h i p s b y e x p l o i t i n g spatial c o n v e n t i o n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , o n c e a r e l a t i o n s h i p has b e e n established, t h e d i r e c t o r c a n g o o n t o o t h e r m a t t e r s simply by c h a n g i n g t h e c a m e r a setup. T h e film director, in o t h e r words, is n o t c o n f i n e d to a spatial a r e a that's p e r m a n e n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e s c e n e . A m a s t e r of mise en s c e n e can e x p r e s s shifting psychological a n d social n u a n c e s with a single s h o t — b y e x p l o i t i n g t h e space b e t w e e n c h a r a c t e r s , t h e

2-25a. Grand Illusion (France, 1937), with (center to right) Erich von Stroheim, Pierre Fresnay, and Jean Gabin; directed by Jean Renoir. Tight and loose framing derive their symbolic significance from the dramatic context: They're not intrinsically meaningful. In Renoir's World War 1 masterpiece, for example, the tight frame, in effect, b e c o m e s a symbolic prison, a useful technique in films dealing with e n t r a p m e n t , confinement, or literal imprisonment. (Janus Films)

2-25b. What's Love Got to Do With It (U.S.A., 1993), with Laurence Fishburne and Angela Bassett. directed by Brian Gibson. In this scene, the Fishburne character has just suffered a traumatic shock, and Bassett tries to comfort him by holding him close. The tightly framed shot provides nurturing intimacy: Moving the c a m e r a so close to the characters suggests a protective buffer against the hostile outside world. The tight framing doesn't confine, it cocoons the characters. (©Touchstone Pictures. All Rights Reserved.)

2 - 2 6 a , b, c. The full front position is the most intimate type of staging; the most accessible, direct, and clear; and often the most aggressive, especially if the actors are moving toward the camera. 2-26a. Sons of the Desert (U.S.A., 1933), with Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy, directed by William Setter Actors almost never look at the camera, but there have been a few exceptions, especially a m o n g comic performers. Like Eddie Murphy in our own time, Oliver Hardy was a supreme master of this technique. Whenever Stan does something really d u m b (which usually results in a loss of dignity for his partner), Ollie turns to the camera—to us—trying to restrain his exasperation, appealing to our sympathy as fellow superior beings. Only we can truly appreciate the profound depths of his patience. The dimwitted Stanley, totally puzzled as usual, is standing in a quarter-turn position, absorbed by other matters entirely, wondering how he'll defend himself against Ollie's inevitable another-fine-mess accusation. (MCM> 2-26b. Leaving Las Vegas (U.S.A., 1996), with Nicolas Cage and Elizabeth Shue, directed by Mike Figgis. The full front position offers us an intimate view of the characters, especially in close-up: we can explore their faces as spiritual landscapes. In complex shots such as this, we are privy to m o r e information than the characters themselves. The Cage character is too a s h a m e d to look directly at his companion, and he recounts his sad story with his back turned to her. We are allowed an intimate view of his melancholy face as well as her compassionate expression as she listens.

(United Artists)

2-26c. Armageddon (U.S.A., 1999), with Bruce Willis front and center), directed by Michael Bay. The full front position can also be confrontational, for the characters appear to face us straight on, without flinching. What could be more appropriate for a group of space warriors w h o are preparing to save the planet as we know it? (Touchstone Pictures and Jerry Bruckheimer. Inc.)

2-27. U-Turn ( U . S . A . , 1 9 9 7 ) , with Sean Penn and Jennifer Lopez, directed by Oliver Stone. The profile position catches characters unaware as they face each other or look off frame left or right. We're allowed u n i m p e d e d freedom to stare, to analyze. Less intimate than the full-front or quarter-turn position, the profile view is also less emotionally involving. We view the characters from a detached, neutral perspective, cmstarpictures)

d e p t h planes within the images, the intrinsically weighted areas of t h e frame, a n d t h e d i r e c t i o n t h e c h a r a c t e r s a r e facing vis-a-vis t h e c a m e r a . An actor can be p h o t o g r a p h e d in any of five basic positions, e a c h conveying different psychological u n d e r t o n e s : (1) ///// front—lacing the camera; (2) the quarter turn; (3) profile—looking off frame left or right; (4) t h e three-quarter turn; a n d (5) hack to camera. Because the viewer identifies with t h e c a m e r a ' s lens, t h e p o s i t i o n i n g of t h e actor vis-a-vis t h e c a m e r a will d e t e r m i n e m a n y of o u r reactions. T h e m o r e we see of t h e actor's face, the g r e a t e r o u r sense of privileged intimacy; t h e less we see, t h e m o r e mysterious a n d inaccessible t h e actor will seem. T h e full-front p o s i t i o n is t h e m o s t i n t i m a t e — t h e c h a r a c t e r is l o o k i n g in o u r d i r e c t i o n , inviting o u r complicity. I n m o s t cases, o f c o u r s e , a c t o r s i g n o r e t h e c a m e r a — i g n o r e us—yet o u r privileged position allows u s t o o b s e r v e t h e m with t h e i r defenses d o w n , t h e i r vulnerabilities e x p o s e d . O n t h o s e r a r e occasions w h e n a c h a r a c t e r a c k n o w l e d g e s o u r p r e s e n c e by a d d r e s s i n g t h e c a m e r a , t h e sense of intimacy is vastly i n c r e a s e d , for in effect we a g r e e to b e c o m e his or h e r c h o s e n c o n f i d a n t s . O n e o f t h e greatest m a s t e r s o f this t e c h n i q u e was Oliver Hardy, w h o s e f a m o u s slow b u r n was a d i r e c t p l e a for sympathy a n d u n d e r s t a n d ing (2-26a). T h e q u a r t e r t u r n is t h e favored position of m o s t f i l m m a k e r s , for it p r o vides a h i g h d e g r e e of intimacy b u t with less e m o t i o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t t h a n t h e full-front position. T h e profile position i s m o r e r e m o t e . T h e c h a r a c t e r seems

73

74

]W i s e

en

S c e n e

u n a w a r e o f b e i n g o b s e r v e d , losl i n his o r h e r own t h o u g h t s ( 2 - 2 7 ) . T h e t h r e e q u a r t e r t u r n is m o r e a n o n y m o u s . This position is useful for conveying a c h a r a c ter's unfriendly or antisocial feelings, for in effect, t h e c h a r a c t e r is partially t u r n i n g his o r h e r b a c k o n us, rejecting o u r i n t e r e s t ( 2 - 2 8 ) . W h e n a c h a r a c t e r has his or h e r back to t h e c a m e r a , we c a n only guess w h a t ' s t a k i n g p l a c e internally. T h i s p o s i t i o n is often u s e d to suggest a c h a r a c t e r ' s a l i e n a t i o n from t h e world. It is useful in conveying a sense of c o n c e a l m e n t , mystery. We w a n t to see more (2-29). T h e a m o u n t o f o p e n space within t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e frame c a n b e e x p l o i t e d for symbolic p u r p o s e s . Generally s p e a k i n g , t h e closer the shot, the m o r e c o n f i n e d t h e p h o t o g r a p h e d figures a p p e a r t o b e . S u c h shots a r e usually r e f e r r e d to as tightly f r a m e d . Conversely, t h e longer, loosely f r a m e d shots t e n d

2-28. Night Moves (U.S.A., 1975), with Gene Hackman (extreme right, in three-quarterturn position), directed by Arthur Penn. The three-quarter-turn position is a virtual rejection of the camera, a refusal to cooperate with our desire to see more. This type of staging tends to m a k e us feel like voyeurs prying into the private affairs of the character, w h o s e e m s to wish we'd go away. In this shot, Penn's mise en scene e m b o d i e s a sense of alienation: Each character is imprisoned in his or her own space cubicle. They look buried alive. (Warner Bros.)

2-29. Red Desert (Italy, 1964), with Carlo Chionetti, Monica Vitti, and Richard Harris (back to camera); directed by Michelangelo Antonioni. When characters turn their backs to the camera, they s e e m to reject us outright or to be totally unaware of our existence. We long to see and analyze their facial expressions, but we're not permitted this privilege. The character remains an enigma. Antonioni is one of the s u p r e m e masters of mise en scene, expressing complex interrelationships with a m i n i m u m of dialogue. The protagonist in this film (Vitti) is just recovering from an emotional breakdown. She is still anxious and fearful, even of her h u s b a n d (Chionetti). In this shot, she s e e m s trapped, like a w o u n d e d and exhausted animal, between her h u s b a n d and his business associate. Note how the violent splashes of red paint on the walls suggest a hemorrhaging effect. (Rizzoli Film)

to suggest f r e e d o m . Prison films often use tightly f r a m e d close-ups a n d m e d i u m shots b e c a u s e t h e f r a m e functions as a k i n d of symbolic p r i s o n . In A Condemned Man Escapes, for e x a m p l e , R o b e r t Bresson b e g i n s t h e m o v i e with a close-up of t h e h e r o ' s h a n d s , w h i c h a r e b o u n d by a p a i r of h a n d c u f f s . T h r o u g h o u t t h e f i l m , t h e p r i s o n e r m a k e s e l a b o r a t e p r e p a r a t i o n s t o e s c a p e , a n d Bresson preserves t h e tight f r a m i n g t o e m p h a s i z e t h e sense o f c l a u s t r o p h o b i a t h a t t h e h e r o f i n d s u n e n d u r a b l e . T h i s spatial t e n s i o n i s n o t released until t h e e n d o f t h e movie w h e n t h e p r o t a g o n i s t d i s a p p e a r s i n t o t h e f r e e d o m o f t h e d a r k n e s s outside t h e p r i s o n walls. His t r i u m p h a n t e s c a p e is p h o t o g r a p h e d in a loosely f r a m e d l o n g s h o t — t h e only o n e in t h e film—which also symbolizes his sense of spiritual release. F r a m i n g a n d spatial m e t a p h o r s o f this k i n d a r e c o m m o n i n films d e a l i n g with t h e t h e m e of c o n f i n e m e n t — e i t h e r literal, as in R e n o i r ' s Grand Illusion ( 2 - 2 5 a ) , or psychological, as in The Graduate ( 2 - 1 9 ) . 75

2-30. Keaton, Branagh, Publicity

Publicity photo for Much Ado About Nothing (Great Britain, 1993), with Michael Keanu Reeves, Robert Sean Leonard, Kate Beckinsale, Emma Thompson, Kenneth and Denzel Washington; directed by Branagh. photos often f e a t u r e p e r f o r m e r s w h o look d i r e c t l y into the c a m e r a , i n v i t i n g us to

join t h e i r w o r l d , s e d u c i n g us with their f r i e n d l y s m i l e s . Of c o u r s e , during the m o v i e itself,

actors almost never look into the c a m e r a . We a r e m e r e l y a l l o w e d to be v o y e u r s w h i l e t h e y S t u d i o u s l y i g n o r e Our e x i s t e n c e .

(The Samuel Goldwyn Company)

Often a d i r e c t o r can suggest ideas of e n t r a p m e n t by e x p l o i t i n g perfectly n e u t r a l objects a n d lines on t h e set. In s u c h cases, t h e formal characteristics of these literal objects t e n d to close in on a figure, at least w h e n viewed on t h e flat s c r e e n ( 2 - 2 8 ) . M i c h e l a n g e l o A n t o n i o n i is a m a s t e r of this t e c h n i q u e . In Red Desert, for e x a m p l e , t h e h e r o i n e ( M o n i c a Vitti) describes a m e n t a l breakd o w n suffered by a friend s h e o n c e knew. T h e a u d i e n c e suspects s h e ' s s p e a k i n g of h e r own b r e a k d o w n , however, for t h e surface of t h e i m a g e implies constriction: While s h e talks, s h e ' s riveted to o n e position, h e r figure f r a m e d by t h e lines of a d o o r w a y b e h i n d her, suggesting a coffinlike e n c l o s u r e . W h e n figures a r e f r a m e d within a frame in this m a n n e r , a sense of c o n f i n e m e n t is usually e m p h a s i z e d (see also 2 - 2 9 ) .

j \ \ ise

c n

S c e n e

77

Territorial space within a frame can be m a n i p u l a t e d with c o n s i d e r a b l e psychological complexity. W h e n a figure leaves t h e f r a m e , for e x a m p l e , t h e c a m e r a can adjust to this s u d d e n v a c u u m in t h e c o m p o s i t i o n by p a n n i n g slightly to m a k e allowances for a n e w b a l a n c e of weights. Or t h e c a m e r a can r e m a i n stationary, t h u s s u g g e s t i n g a sense of loss symbolized by t h e e m p t y space t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r formerly o c c u p i e d . Hostility a n d suspicion b e t w e e n two c h a r a c t e r s c a n be conveyed by k e e p i n g t h e m at t h e e d g e s of t h e c o m p o s i tion, with a m a x i m u m of space b e t w e e n t h e m ( 2 - 3 1 d ) or by h a v i n g an intrusive c h a r a c t e r force his o r h e r physical p r e s e n c e i n t o t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r ' s territory, which is t e m p o r a r i l y d e f i n e d by t h e confines of t h e frame.

Spatial c o n v e n t i o n s vary from c u l t u r e to c u l t u r e , as a n t h r o p o l o g i s t Edward T. Hall d e m o n s t r a t e d in such studies as The Hidden Dimension a n d The Silent Language. Hall discovered that p r o x e m i c p a t t e r n s — t h e relationships of o r g a n i s m s within a given s p a c e — c a n be influenced by e x t e r n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . Climate, noise level, a n d t h e d e g r e e of light all t e n d to alter t h e space b e t w e e n individuals. P e o p l e i n Anglo-Saxon a n d N o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n cultures t e n d t o use m o r e space t h a n those in w a r m e r climates. Noise, danger, a n d lack of light t e n d t o m a k e p e o p l e move closer together. Taking these cultural a n d c o n t e x t u a l considerations i n t o a c c o u n t , Hall subdivided t h e way p e o p l e use space into four major p r o x e m i c p a t t e r n s : (1) the intimate, (2) t h e personal, (3) t h e social, (4) t h e public distances. I n t i m a t e distances r a n g e from skin c o n t a c t t o a b o u t e i g h t e e n i n c h e s away. T h i s is t h e d i s t a n c e of physical i n v o l v e m e n t — o f love, c o m f o r t , a n d tend e r n e s s b e t w e e n individuals. W i t h s t r a n g e r s , such distances w o u l d b e r e g a r d e d as intrusive. Most p e o p l e w o u l d r e a c t with suspicion a n d hostility if t h e i r space w e r e i n v a d e d b y s o m e o n e they d i d n ' t k n o w very well. I n m a n y c u l t u r e s , m a i n t a i n i n g an i n t i m a t e d i s t a n c e in public is c o n s i d e r e d b a d taste. T h e p e r s o n a l d i s t a n c e r a n g e s r o u g h l y from e i g h t e e n i n c h e s away t o a b o u t f o u r feet away. Individuals can t o u c h if necessary, since they a r e literally a n a r m ' s - l e n g t h a p a r t . T h e s e distances t e n d t o b e r e s e r v e d for friends a n d a c q u a i n t a n c e s r a t h e r t h a n lovers or m e m b e r s of a family. P e r s o n a l distances p r e s e r v e t h e privacy b e t w e e n individuals, yet t h e s e r a n g e s d o n ' t necessarily suggest e x c l u s i o n , as i n t i m a t e distances a l m o s t always d o . Social distances r a n g e from four feet to a b o u t twelve feet. T h e s e are the distances usually r e s e r v e d for i m p e r s o n a l business a n d casual social g a t h e r i n g s . It's a friendly r a n g e in m o s t cases, yet s o m e w h a t m o r e formal t h a n t h e p e r s o n a l d i s t a n c e . Ordinarily, social distances a r e necessary w h e n t h e r e a r e m o r e t h a n t h r e e m e m b e r s of a g r o u p . In s o m e cases, it w o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d r u d e for two individuals to p r e s e r v e an i n t i m a t e or p e r s o n a l d i s t a n c e within a social situation. S u c h b e h a v i o r m i g h t b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s standoffish.

2 - 3 1 a. Like Water for Chocolate (Mexico, directed by Alfonso Arau. (Miramax Films)

1992), with Lumi Cavazos and Marco Leonardi,

2 - 3 1 a, b, c, d. Although each of these photos portrays a conversation between a m a n and a w o m a n , each is staged at a different proxemic range, suggesting totally different undertones. The intimate proxemics of Like Water for Chocolate are charged with erotic energy: The characters are literally flesh to flesh. In Return to Paradise, the characters are strongly attracted to each other, 2-31b.

Return to Paradise (U.S.A.,

Joseph Ruben.

1998), with Vince Vaughn and Anne Heche, directed by

(Polygram Films)

continued 78

•

2-31c. Your Friends & Neighbors (U.S.A., directed by Neil LaBute. (Gramercy Pictures) 2-31

1998), with Ben Stiller and Catherine Keener,

continued

but they remain at a more discreet personal proxemic range, with each respecting the other's space. The characters in Your Friends & Neighbors are m o r e wary, especially the w o m a n , who s e e m s to find her blowhard date extremely resistible. The characters in Zabriskie Point are barely on speaking terms. The social proxemic range between t h e m implies a lot of suspicion and reserve. Psychologically, they're miles apart. Each of these shots contains similar subject matter, but the real content of each is defined by its form—in this case, the proxemic ranges between the actors. 2-31d. Zabriskie Point (U.S.A., Michelangelo Antonioni. (MGM)

1970), with Rod Taylor and Daria Halprin, directed by

c

d

2-32. Persona (Sweden, 1966), with Liv Ullmann, directed by Ingmar Bergman. Throughout this scene, which contains no dialogue, Bergman uses space to c o m m u n i c a t e his ideas—space within the frame and the space implied between the c a m e r a (us) and the subject. The character is in a hospital room watching the news on television (a). Suddenly, she sees a horrifying scene of a Buddhist m o n k setting himself on fire to protest the war in Vietn a m . She retreats to the corner of the room, to the very edge of the frame (b). Bergman then cuts to a closer shot (c), intensifying our emotional involvement. The full horror of her reaction is conveyed by the e x t r e m e close-up (d), bringing us into an intimate proximity with her. (United

Artists)

Public distances e x t e n d from twelve feet to twenty-five feet a n d m o r e . T h i s r a n g e t e n d s t o b e formal a n d r a t h e r d e t a c h e d . Displays o f e m o t i o n a r e c o n s i d e r e d b a d form a t t h e s e distances. I m p o r t a n t public f i g u r e s a r e generally seen in t h e p u b l i c r a n g e , a n d b e c a u s e a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t of space is involved, p e o p l e generally m u s t e x a g g e r a t e t h e i r g e s t u r e s a n d raise t h e i r voices to be u n d e r s t o o d clearly. Most p e o p l e adjust to p r o x e m i c p a t t e r n s instinctively. We d o n ' t usually say to ourselves, "This p e r s o n is i n v a d i n g my i n t i m a t e space" w h e n a s t r a n g e r h a p p e n s to stand e i g h t e e n i n c h e s away from us. However, unless w e ' r e in a combative m o o d , we involuntarily t e n d to step away in s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s . Obviously, social c o n t e x t is also a d e t e r m i n i n g factor in p r o x e m i c p a t t e r n s . In a c r o w d e d subway car, for e x a m p l e , virtually e v e r y o n e is in an i n t i m a t e r a n g e , yet we generally p r e s e r v e a p u b l i c a t t i t u d e by n o t s p e a k i n g to t h e p e r s o n w h o s e b o d y is literally p r e s s e d against o u r own. 80

; \ \ i s e <" n S c e n e

P r o x e m i c p a t t e r n s a r e perfectly obvious t o a n y o n e w h o has b o t h e r e d t o observe t h e way p e o p l e o b e y certain spatial c o n v e n t i o n s in actual life. But in movies, t h e s e p a t t e r n s a r e also r e l a t e d t o t h e shots a n d t h e i r d i s t a n c e r a n g e s . A l t h o u g h shots a r e n o t always d e f i n e d by t h e literal space b e t w e e n t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e object p h o t o g r a p h e d , in t e r m s of psychological effect, shots t e n d to suggest physical distances. Usually, filmmakers have a n u m b e r of o p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g w h a t k i n d of s h o t to u s e to convey t h e a c t i o n of a s c e n e . W h a t d e t e r m i n e s t h e i r c h o i c e — t h o u g h usually instinctively r a t h e r t h a n consciously—is t h e e m o t i o n a l impact o f t h e different p r o x e m i c r a n g e s . E a c h p r o x e m i c p a t t e r n has a n a p p r o x i m a t e c a m e r a e q u i v a l e n t . T h e i n t i m a t e distances, for e x a m p l e , can b e l i k e n e d t o t h e close a n d extreme close shot r a n g e s . T h e p e r s o n a l d i s t a n c e is a p p r o x i m a t e l y a m e d i u m close r a n g e . T h e social distances c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e m e d i u m a n d full shot r a n g e s . A n d t h e p u b l i c distances a r e r o u g h l y within t h e l o n g a n d extreme long shot r a n g e s . Because o u r eyes identify with t h e c a m e r a ' s lens, in effect we are p l a c e d within t h e s e r a n g e s vis-a-vis t h e subject matter. W h e n we a r e offered a close-up of a character, for e x a m p l e , in a sense we feel t h a t w e ' r e in an intim a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p with t h a t character. I n s o m e instances, this t e c h n i q u e can b i n d u s t o t h e character, forcing u s t o c a r e a b o u t h i m o r h e r a n d t o identify with his or h e r p r o b l e m s . If t h e c h a r a c t e r is a villain, t h e close-up c a n p r o d u c e an e m o t i o n a l revulsion in us; in effect, a t h r e a t e n i n g c h a r a c t e r s e e m s to be i n v a d i n g o u r space. I n g e n e r a l , t h e g r e a t e r t h e distance b e t w e e n t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e subject, t h e m o r e e m o t i o n a l l y n e u t r a l w e r e m a i n . Public p r o x e m i c r a n g e s t e n d t o e n c o u r a g e a c e r t a i n d e t a c h m e n t . Conversely, t h e closer we are to a character, t h e m o r e w e feel t h a t w e ' r e i n proximity with h i m o r h e r a n d h e n c e t h e g r e a t e r o u r e m o t i o n a l involvement. " L o n g s h o t for comedy, close-up for tragedy" was o n e o f C h a p l i n ' s most famous p r o n o u n c e m e n t s . T h e p r o x e m i c principles are s o u n d , for w h e n we a r e close to an a c t i o n — a p e r s o n slipping on a b a n a n a peel, for e x a m p l e — i t ' s s e l d o m funny, b e c a u s e we are c o n c e r n e d for t h e p e r s o n ' s safety. If we see t h e s a m e event from a g r e a t e r distance, however, it often strikes us as comical. C h a p l i n u s e d close-ups sparingly for this very r e a s o n . As l o n g as Charlie r e m a i n s in l o n g shots, we t e n d to be a m u s e d by his antics a n d a b s u r d p r e d i c a m e n t s . In scenes of g r e a t e r e m o t i o n a l impact, however, C h a p l i n r e s o r t e d to closer shots, a n d t h e i r effect is often devastating on t h e a u d i e n c e . We suddenly realize t h a t t h e situation we've b e e n l a u g h i n g at is no l o n g e r funny. P e r h a p s t h e m o s t f a m o u s i n s t a n c e of t h e p o w e r of C h a p l i n ' s close-ups is f o u n d at t h e c o n c l u s i o n of City Lights. C h a r l i e has fallen in love with an i m p o v e r i s h e d flower v e n d o r w h o is b l i n d . S h e believes h i m to be an e c c e n t r i c millionaire, a n d o u t of vanity he allows h e r to c o n t i n u e in this d e l u s i o n . By e n g a g i n g in a series of m o n u m e n t a l labors—love has r e d u c e d h i m to w o r k — h e m a n a g e s t o s c r a p e t o g e t h e r e n o u g h m o n e y for h e r t o receive a n o p e r a t i o n t h a t will restore h e r sight. B u t he is d r a g g e d off to jail b e f o r e she c a n scarcely t h a n k h i m for t h e m o n e y . T h e final s c e n e takes place several m o n t h s later. T h e y o u n g w o m a n can n o w see a n d owns h e r own m o d e s t flower s h o p . C h a r l i e is released

2-33a. The Gold Rush (U.S.A., 1925), with Charles Chaplin and Georgia Hale, directed by Chaplin.

Both these scenes involve a fear of rejection by a w o m a n Charlie holds in awe. The scene from The Gold Rush is predominantly comical. The t r a m p has belted his baggy pants with a piece of rope, but he doesn't realize it is also a dog's leash, and while dancing with the saloon girl, Charlie is yanked to the floor by the jittery dog at the other end of the rope. Because the c a m e r a remains relatively distant from the action, we tend to be more objective and detached and we laugh at his futile a t t e m p t s 'to preserve his dignity. On the other hand, the famous final shot from City Lights isn't funny at all and produces a powerful emotional effect. Because the camera is in close, we get close to the situation. The proxemic distance between the camera and the subject forces us to identify more with his feelings, which we can't ignore at this range. (rbc Films)

2-33b. City Lights (U.S.A., 1931), with Charles Chaplin, directed by Chaplin.

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Scene

8 3

from p r i s o n , a n d disheveled a n d dispirited, h e m e a n d e r s past h e r s h o p window. S h e sees h i m g a z i n g at h e r wistfully a n d jokes to an assistant t h a t s h e ' s a p p a r e n t l y m a d e a n e w c o n q u e s t . O u t o f pity s h e goes o u t t o t h e street a n d offers h i m a flower a n d a small c o i n . Instantly, s h e r e c o g n i z e s his t o u c h . H a r d l y able to believe h e r eyes, s h e can only s t a m m e r , "You?" In a series of a l t e r n a t i n g close-ups, t h e i r e m b a r r a s s m e n t is u n b e a r a b l y p r o l o n g e d ( 2 - 3 3 b ) . Clearly, he is n o t t h e idol of h e r r o m a n t i c fantasies, a n d he is painfully aware of h e r disapp o i n t m e n t . Finally, h e stares a t h e r with a n e x p r e s s i o n o f s h o c k i n g e m o t i o n a l n a k e d n e s s . T h e film e n d s on this i m a g e of s u b l i m e vulnerability. T h e c h o i c e of a shot is generally d e t e r m i n e d by practical considerations. Usually, t h e d i r e c t o r selects t h e s h o t t h a t m o s t clearly conveys t h e dramatic action of a s c e n e . If t h e r e is a conflict b e t w e e n t h e effect of certain proxe m i c r a n g e s a n d t h e clarity n e e d e d t o convey what's g o i n g o n , m o s t filmmakers will o p t for clarity a n d gain t h e i r e m o t i o n a l i m p a c t t h r o u g h s o m e o t h e r m e a n s . But t h e r e a r e m a n y t i m e s w h e n s h o t c h o i c e isn't necessarily d e t e r m i n e d b y functional c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .

T h e c o n c e p t s o f o p e n a n d c l o s e d f o r m s a r e generally u s e d b y art historians a n d critics, b u t t h e s e t e r m s c a n also be useful in film analysis. Like m o s t theoretical c o n s t r u c t s , they a r e best u s e d in a relative r a t h e r t h a n a b s o l u t e sense. T h e r e a r e n o movies t h a t a r e c o m p l e t e l y o p e n o r closed i n f o r m , only those t h a t t e n d t o w a r d t h e s e polarities. Like o t h e r critical t e r m s , t h e s e s h o u l d b e a p p l i e d only w h e n they a r e relevant a n d helpful i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h a t actually exists in a movie. O p e n a n d closed f o r m s a r e two distinct a t t i t u d e s a b o u t reality. E a c h has its own stylistic a n d t e c h n i c a l characteristics. T h e two t e r m s a r e loosely r e l a t e d to t h e c o n c e p t s of realism a n d formalism as they have b e e n d e f i n e d in t h e s e c h a p t e r s . In g e n e r a l , realist filmmakers t e n d to use o p e n forms, w h e r e a s formalists l e a n t o w a r d closed. O p e n f o r m s t e n d t o b e stylistically recessive, w h e r e a s closed forms a r e generally self-conscious a n d c o n s p i c u o u s . In t e r m s of visual d e s i g n , o p e n form e m p h a s i z e s informal, u n o b t r u s i v e c o m p o s i t i o n s . O f t e n , s u c h i m a g e s s e e m t o have n o d i s c e r n i b l e s t r u c t u r e a n d suggest a r a n d o m f o r m of o r g a n i z a t i o n . Objects a n d figures s e e m to have b e e n f o u n d r a t h e r t h a n deliberately a r r a n g e d ( 2 - 3 5 ) . Closed f o r m e m p h a s i z e s a m o r e stylized d e s i g n . A l t h o u g h s u c h i m a g e s can suggest a superficial realism, s e l d o m d o they have t h a t a c c i d e n t a l , discovered look t h a t typifies o p e n forms. Objects a n d figures a r e m o r e precisely p l a c e d within t h e frame, a n d t h e bala n c e of weights is elaborately w o r k e d o u t . O p e n forms stress a p p a r e n t l y s i m p l e t e c h n i q u e s , b e c a u s e with these unself-conscious m e t h o d s t h e f i l m m a k e r i s able t o e m p h a s i z e t h e i m m e d i a t e , t h e familiar, t h e i n t i m a t e aspects of reality. S o m e t i m e s such images a r e p h o t o g r a p h e d i n only partially c o n t r o l l e d situations, a n d t h e s e a l e a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s

2-34. Mrs. Soffel (U.S.A., 1984), with Diane Keaton (center), directed by Gillian Armstrong. Period films have a tendency to look stagey and researched, especially w h e n the historical details are too neatly presented and the characters are posed in a tightly controlled setting. Armstrong avoided this pitfall by staging m a n y of her scenes in open form, almost like a docu m e n t a r y caught on the run. Note how the main character (Keaton) and her children are almost obscured by the unimportant extra at the left. A m o r e formal image would have eliminated such "distractions" as well as the cluttered right side of the frame and brought the principal characters toward the foreground. Armstrong achieves a m o r e realistic and spontaneous effect by deliberately avoiding an "arranged" look in her mise en scene. (MCM/umted Artists)

can p r o d u c e a sense of s p o n t a n e i t y a n d d i r e c t n e s s t h a t would be difficult to c a p t u r e in a rigidly c o n t r o l l e d c o n t e x t ( 2 - 3 6 ) . Closed f o r m s a r e m o r e likely t o e m p h a s i z e t h e unfamiliar. T h e images are rich in textural contrasts a n d c o m p e l l i n g visual effects. Because t h e mise en s c e n e is m o r e precisely c o n t r o l l e d a n d stylized, t h e r e is often a d e l i b e r a t e artificiality in t h e s e i m a g e s — a sense of visual improbability, of b e i n g o n e r e m o v e from reality. Closed f o r m s also t e n d to be m o r e densely s a t u r a t e d with visual i n f o r m a t i o n ; r i c h n e s s of form lakes p r e c e d e n c e over c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of surface realism. If a conflict s h o u l d arise, formal beauty is sacrificed for t r u t h in o p e n forms; in closed forms, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , literal t r u t h is sacrificed for beauty. C o m p o s i t i o n s i n o p e n a n d closed forms e x p l o i t t h e frame differently. In o p e n - f o r m images, t h e f r a m e t e n d s to be d e e m p h a s i z e d . It suggests a window, a t e m p o r a r y m a s k i n g , a n d implies t h a t m o r e i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n lies o u t s i d e t h e e d g e s of t h e c o m p o s i t i o n . Space is c o n t i n u o u s in t h e s e shots, a n d to e m p h a s i z e its c o n t i n u i t y o u t s i d e t h e f r a m e , d i r e c t o r s often favor p a n n i n g t h e i r c a m e r a across t h e locale. T h e s h o t s e e m s i n a d e q u a t e , t o o n a r r o w i n its confines to c o n t a i n t h e c o p i o u s n e s s of t h e subject matter. Like m a n y of t h e p a i n t i n g s of E d g a r Degas (who usually favored o p e n f o r m s ) , objects a n d even 84

2-35. The Garden of the Finzi-Continis (Italy, 1970), with Dominique Sanda (center), directed by Vittorio De Sica. Realist directors are m o r e likely to prefer open forms, which tend to suggest fragments of a larger external reality. Design and composition are generally informal. Influenced by the aesthetic of the documentary, open-form images s e e m to have been discovered rather than arranged. Excessive balance and calculated s y m m e t r y are avoided in favor of an intimate and s p o n t a n e o u s effect. Still photos in open form are seldom picturesque or obviously artful. Instead, they suggest a frozen instant of truth—a snapshot wrested from the fluctuations of time. This s c e n e deals with the exportation of Italian Jews to Nazi Germany. Their lives are suddenly thrown into chaos.. (Cinema 5)

figures a r e arbitrarily c u t off by t h e f r a m e to r e i n f o r c e t h e c o n t i n u i t y of t h e subject matter beyond the formal edges of the composition. In closed forms, t h e s h o t r e p r e s e n t s a m i n i a t u r e p r o s c e n i u m a r c h , with all t h e necessary i n f o r m a t i o n carefully s t r u c t u r e d within t h e confines of the frame. Space s e e m s e n c l o s e d a n d self-contained r a t h e r t h a n c o n t i n u o u s . Elem e n t s o u t s i d e t h e frame a r e irrelevant, at least in t e r m s of t h e formal p r o p e r t i e s of t h e individual shot, which is isolated from its context in space a n d t i m e (2-37). F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s , still p h o t o s t a k e n from movies t h a t a r e p r e d o m i nantly in o p e n f o r m a r e n o t usually very pretty. T h e r e is n o t h i n g intrinsically striking o r eye-catching a b o u t t h e m . Books a b o u t movies t e n d t o favor p h o t o s in closed form b e c a u s e they a r e usually m o r e obviously beautiful, m o r e "comp o s e d . " T h e b e a u t y o f a n o p e n - f o r m i m a g e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i s m o r e elusive. It can be l i k e n e d to a s n a p s h o t t h a t miraculously p r e s e r v e s s o m e c a n d i d r a r e e x p r e s s i o n , a k i n d of h a p h a z a r d i n s t a n t of t r u t h , a certain visual ambiguity. I n o p e n - f o r m movies, t h e d r a m a t i c action generally leads t h e c a m e r a . In s u c h movies as Faces a n d Husbands, for e x a m p l e , John Cassavetes e m p h a s i z e d t h e fluidity of t h e c a m e r a as it dutifully follows t h e actors w h e r e v e r they wish to 85

2-36. Space Cowboys (U.S.A., 2000), with Clint Eastwood and Tommy Lee Jones; directed by Eastwood. This photo is in open form, but it's also tightly framed, allowing the characters very little room for m o v e m e n t . Open form always suggests an incomplete visual idea, with important information missing or cut off by the u n a c c o m m o d a t i n g frame. Of course, all images have to be cut off s o m e w h e r e , but in open-form images, the outer edges of the picture often s e e m inappropriately arbitrary, producing an unbalanced composition, as though the tumultuous sprawl of the subject m a t t e r was too uncontrolled to be packaged tidily. Often, such scenes are p h o t o g r a p h e d with a h a n d - h e l d c a m e r a to suggest a haphazard, i m p r o m p t u recording.

(Warner Bros.)

go, s e e m i n g l y p l a c e d at t h e i r disposal. S u c h films suggest t h a t c h a n c e plays an i m p o r t a n t role in d e t e r m i n i n g visual effects. Needless to say, it's n o t w h a t actually h a p p e n s on a set that's i m p o r t a n t , b u t w h a t seems to be h a p p e n i n g on t h e s c r e e n . In fact, m a n y of t h e simplest effects in an o p e n - f o r m movie a r e a c h i e v e d after m u c h p a i n s t a k i n g l a b o r a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n . In closed-form films, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e c a m e r a often anticipates t h e d r a m a t i c action. Objects a n d actors are visually b l o c k e d o u t within t h e confines of a p r e d e t e r m i n e d c a m e r a s e t u p . Anticipatory s e t u p s t e n d to imply fatality or d e t e r m i n i s m , for in effect, t h e c a m e r a seems to k n o w what will h a p p e n even b e f o r e it occurs. In t h e films of Fritz L a n g , for e x a m p l e , t h e c a m e r a often s e e m s t o b e waiting i n a n e m p t y r o o m : T h e d o o r o p e n s , t h e c h a r a c t e r s enter, a n d t h e action t h e n begins. In s o m e of H i t c h c o c k ' s movies, a c h a r a c t e r is seen at t h e e d g e of t h e c o m p o s i t i o n , a n d t h e c a m e r a seems to be placed in a disadvant a g e o u s position, too far r e m o v e d from w h e r e t h e action is a p p a r e n t l y g o i n g to occur. B u t t h e n t h e c h a r a c t e r decicies t o r e t u r n t o t h a t a r e a w h e r e t h e c a m e r a has b e e n waiting. W h e n such setups are used, t h e a u d i e n c e also t e n d s t o anticip a t e actions. Instinctively, we e x p e c t s o m e t h i n g or s o m e o n e to fill in t h e visual v a c u u m of t h e shot. Philosophically, o p e n forms t e n d to suggest f r e e d o m of c h o i c e , a multiplicity of o p t i o n s o p e n to t h e c h a r a c t e r s . Closed forms, con-

2-37. Another Country (Great Britain, 1984), with Rupert Everett (center doorway), directed by Marek Kanievska. In closed form, the frame is a self-sufficient miniature universe with all the formal e l e m e n t s held in careful balance. Though there may be m o r e information outside the frame, for the duration of any given shot this information is visually irrelevant. Closed forms are often used in scenes dealing with e n t r a p m e n t or confinement, such as this shot in which the protagonist is about to be disciplined by his boarding school superiors, (Orion classics)

versely, t e n d to imply destiny a n d t h e futility of t h e will: T h e c h a r a c t e r s d o n ' t s e e m t o m a k e t h e i m p o r t a n t decisions; t h e c a m e r a d o e s — a n d i n a d v a n c e . O p e n a n d closed f o r m s a r e m o s t effective i n movies w h e r e t h e s e techn i q u e s a r e a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e subject matter. A prison film u s i n g mostly o p e n forms is n o t likely to be e m o t i o n a l l y c o n v i n c i n g . Most movies use b o t h o p e n a n d closed f o r m s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e specific d r a m a t i c c o n t e x t . R e n o i r ' s Grand Illusion, for e x a m p l e , uses closed f o r m s for t h e p r i s o n c a m p scenes a n d o p e n forms after two of t h e p r i s o n e r s e s c a p e . Like m o s t c i n e m a t i c t e c h n i q u e s , o p e n a n d closed forms have certain limitations as well as a d v a n t a g e s . W h e n u s e d to excess, o p e n f o r m s c a n s e e m sloppy a n d naive, like a n artless h o m e movie. T o o often, o p e n f o r m s c a n s e e m u n c o n t r o l l e d , u n f o c u s e d , a n d even visually ugly. Occasionally, t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s are s o blandly u n o b t r u s i v e t h a t t h e visuals a r e b o r i n g . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , closed f o r m s c a n s e e m arty a n d p r e t e n t i o u s . T h e i m a g e s a r e s o u n s p o n t a n e o u s t h a t t h e i r visual e l e m e n t s look c o m p u t e r - p r o g r a m m e d . Many viewers a r e t u r n e d off by t h e stiff formality of s o m e closed-form films. At t h e i r worst, t h e s e movies c a n s e e m d e c a d e n t l y o v e r w r o u g h t — a l l icing a n d n o cake. A systematic mise en s c e n e analysis of any given s h o t i n c l u d e s t h e following f i f t e e n e l e m e n t s : 87

a 2-38. Full Metal Jacket (Great Britain/U.S.A., 1987), directed by Stanley Kubrick. Even within a single scene, filmmakers will switch from open to closed forms, d e p e n d i n g on the feelings or ideas that are being stressed in each individual shot. For example, both of these shots take place during a battle scene in the Vietnamese city of Hue. In (a), the characters are under fire, and the w o u n d e d soldier's head is not even in the frame. The form is appropriately open. The frame functions as a temporary masking device that's too narrow in its scope to include all the relevant information. Often, the frame s e e m s to cut figures off in an arbitrary m a n n e r in open form, suggesting that the action is continued off screen, like newsreel footage that was fortuitously photographed by a camera operator who was unable to s u p e r i m p o s e an artistic form on the runaway materials. In (b), the form is closed, as four soldiers rush to their w o u n d e d comrade, providing a protective buffer from the outside world. O p e n and closed forms aren't intrinsically meaningful, then, but derive their significance from the dramatic context. In s o m e cases, closed forms can suggest e n t r a p m e n t ( 2 - 3 7 ) ; in other cases, such as (b), closed form implies security, camaraderie, (wamer Bros.) b

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1. Dominant. W h e r e is o u r eye a t t r a c t e d first? Why? 2. Lighting key. H i g h key? Low key? H i g h contrast? S o m e c o m b i n a t i o n of these? 3. Shot and camera proxemics. W h a t type of shot? H o w far away is t h e c a m e r a from t h e action? 4 . Angle. A r e w e ( a n d t h e c a m e r a ) l o o k i n g u p o r d o w n o n t h e subject? O r is t h e c a m e r a n e u t r a l (eye level)? 5. Color values. W h a t is t h e d o m i n a n t color? Are t h e r e c o n t r a s t i n g foils? Is t h e r e c o l o r symbolism? 6 . Lens/filter/stock. H o w d o t o g r a p h e d materials?

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7. Subsidiary contrasts. W h a t a r e t h e m a i n eye-stops after t a k i n g in t h e dominant? 8. Density. H o w m u c h visual i n f o r m a t i o n is p a c k e d i n t o t h e image? Is t h e t e x t u r e stark, m o d e r a t e , o r highly detailed? 9. Composition. H o w is t h e two-dimensional space s e g m e n t e d a n d o r g a n ized? W h a t is t h e u n d e r l y i n g design? 10. Form. O p e n or closed? D o e s t h e i m a g e suggest a w i n d o w t h a t arbitrarily isolates a f r a g m e n t of t h e scene? Or a p r o s c e n i u m a r c h , in which t h e visual e l e m e n t s a r e carefully a r r a n g e d a n d h e l d i n b a l a n c e ? 1 1 . Framing. T i g h t or loose? Do t h e c h a r a c t e r s have no r o o m to m o v e a r o u n d , o r can they move freely w i t h o u t i m p e d i m e n t s ? 12. Depth. On h o w m a n y p l a n e s is t h e i m a g e c o m p o s e d ? Does t h e backg r o u n d o r f o r e g r o u n d c o m m e n t i n any way o n t h e m i d g r o u n d ? 13. Character placement. W h a t p a r t of t h e f r a m e d space do t h e c h a r a c t e r s occupy? C e n t e r ? Top? B o t t o m ? Edges? Why? 14. Staging positions. camera?

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15. Character proxemics. H o w m u c h space is t h e r e b e t w e e n t h e c h a r a c t e r s ? T h e s e visual p r i n c i p l e s , with a p p r o p r i a t e modifications, can b e a p p l i e d to any i m a g e analysis. Of c o u r s e , while w e ' r e actually w a t c h i n g a movie, m o s t of us d o n ' t have t h e t i m e or i n c l i n a t i o n to e x p l o r e all fifteen e l e m e n t s of mise en s c e n e in e a c h shot. N o n e t h e l e s s , by a p p l y i n g t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s to a still p h o t o , we c a n train o u r eyes to " r e a d " a movie i m a g e with m o r e critical sophistication. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e i m a g e from M (2-40) is a g o o d instance of h o w form (mise en scene) is actually c o n t e n t . T h e s h o t takes place n e a r t h e e n d of t h e movie. A psychotic child-killer (Lorre) has b e e n h u n t e d d o w n by t h e m e m b e r s of t h e u n d e r w o r l d . T h e s e " n o r m a l " criminals have taken h i m t o a n a b a n d o n e d w a r e h o u s e w h e r e they i n t e n d to p r o s e c u t e a n d e x e c u t e t h e p s y c h o p a t h for his h e i n o u s crimes a n d in d o i n g so take t h e police h e a t off themselves. In this scene, the killer is c o n f r o n t e d by a witness (center) w h o holds an i n c r i m i n a t i n g piece of e v i d e n c e — a balloon. T h e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e s h o t i n c l u d e the following:

2-39. Production photo from Booty Call (U.S.A., 1997), with (front to rear) director Jeff Pollack and actor Jamie Foxx, co-producers John M. Eckert and John Morrissey, and (standing) actor Tommy Davidson. Many filmmakers insist on using a video assist monitor on their sets as a quick-check device before actually shooting a s c e n e on film stock. Stock is m o r e expensive and not nearly so i m m e d i a t e in t e r m s of feedback. By photographing a scene with a video camera, the director can correct any problems in the staging and mise en scene. The actors can check to see if their performances are too subdued or too broad or too whatever. The cinematographer can preview the lighting and camerawork. And the producers can see if their m o n e y is going down the drain. When everyone is satisfied, they can then proceed to shoot the scene on movie stock. The video run-through is like a preliminary sketch for a finished painting or a dress rehearsal for a stage play. (Columbia Pictures)

1. Dominant. T h e b a l l o o n , t h e b r i g h t e s t object in t h e f r a m e . W h e n t h e p h o t o is t u r n e d u p s i d e d o w n a n d c o n v e r t e d to a p a t t e r n of abstract s h a p e s , its d o m i n a n c e is m o r e readily d i s c e r n i b l e . 2. Lighting key. Murky low key, with high-contrast spotlights on t h e b a l l o o n a n d t h e four m a i n figures. 3. Shot and camera proxemics. T h e s h o t is slightly m o r e d i s t a n t t h a n a full shot. T h e c a m e r a p r o x e m i c r a n g e i s social, p e r h a p s a b o u t ten feet from the dominant. 4. Angle. Slightly h i g h , suggesting an air of fatality. 5. Color values. T h e movie is in black a n d white. 6. Lens/filter/slock. A s t a n d a r d lens is used, with no a p p a r e n t filter. Stand a r d slow stock. 7. Subsidiary contrasts. T h e figures of t h e killer, t h e witness, a n d t h e two criminals in t h e u p p e r left. 8. Density. T h e s h o t h a s a h i g h d e g r e e of density, especially c o n s i d e r i n g t h e shadowy lighting. S u c h details as t h e t e x t u r e of t h e brick walls, t h e creases in t h e c l o t h i n g , a n d t h e expressive faces of t h e actors a r e highlighted. 9. Composition. T h e i m a g e is divided i n t o t h r e e g e n e r a l areas—left, center, a n d r i g h t — s u g g e s t i n g instability a n d t e n s i o n . 10. Form. Definitely closed: T h e f r a m e suggests a c o n s t r i c t i n g cell, with no exit for t h e prisoner.

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11. Framing. Tight: T h e killer is t r a p p e d in t h e s a m e t e r r i t o r y with his t h r e a t e n i n g accusors. 12. Depth. T h e i m a g e is c o m p o s e d on t h r e e d e p t h p l a n e s : t h e two figures in t h e f o r e g r o u n d , t h e two figures o n t h e stairs i n t h e m i d g r o u n d , a n d t h e brick wall of t h e b a c k g r o u n d . 13. Character placement. T h e accusers a n d b a l l o o n tower above t h e killer, sealing off any a v e n u e of e s c a p e , while he cowers below at t h e e x t r e m e r i g h t e d g e , a l m o s t falling i n t o t h e symbolic blackness o u t s i d e t h e frame. 14. Staging positions. T h e accusers s t a n d in a q u a r t e r - t u r n position, implying a g r e a t e r intimacy with us t h a n t h e m a i n character, w h o is in t h e profile position, totally u n a w a r e of a n y t h i n g b u t his own terror. 15. Character proxemics. P r o x e m i c s a r e p e r s o n a l b e t w e e n t h e f o r e g r o u n d c h a r a c t e r s , t h e killer's i m m e d i a t e p r o b l e m , a n d i n t i m a t e b e t w e e n t h e m e n o n t h e stairs, w h o function a s a d o u b l e t h r e a t . T h e r a n g e b e t w e e n t h e two pairs is social. Actually, a c o m p l e t e mise en s c e n e analysis of a given s h o t is even m o r e c o m p l e x . Ordinarily, any i c o n o g r a p h i c a l e l e m e n t s , in a d d i t i o n to a c o s t u m e a n d set analysis, a r e c o n s i d e r e d p a r t of t h e mise en s c e n e . But since t h e s e elem e n t s a r e discussed in C h a p t e r s 6 a n d 7, respectively, we c o n f i n e ourselves only to t h e s e fifteen f o r m a l characteristics. In t h e s e first two c h a p t e r s , we've b e e n c o n c e r n e d t a n t s o u r c e of m e a n i n g in t h e m o v i e s — t h e visual i m a g e . exist in t i m e a n d have m a n y o t h e r ways of c o m m u n i c a t i n g raphy a n d mise en s c e n e a r e merely two l a n g u a g e systems

with t h e m o s t i m p o r But of c o u r s e movies information. Photogof many. For this rea-

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son, a film i m a g e m u s t s o m e t i m e s be r e s t r a i n e d or less s a t u r a t e d with m e a n i n g s t h a n a p a i n t i n g or still p h o t o , in which all t h e necessary i n f o r m a t i o n is contained within a single i m a g e . T h e principles of variation a n d restraint exist in all t e m p o r a l arts. In movies, t h e s e principles can be seen in those images t h a t s e e m r a t h e r u n i n t e r e s t i n g , usually b e c a u s e t h e d o m i n a n t is f o u n d e l s e w h e r e — i n t h e music, for e x a m p l e , or t h e editing. In a sense, these images a r e visual rest areas. A filmmaker has literally h u n d r e d s of different ways to convey m e a n ings. Like t h e p a i n t e r o r still p h o t o g r a p h e r , t h e movie d i r e c t o r can e m p h a s i z e visual d o m i n a n t s . In a s c e n e p o r t r a y i n g violence, for e x a m p l e , he or s h e c a n use d i a g o n a l a n d zigzagging lines, aggressive colors, close-ups, e x t r e m e angles, h a r s h l i g h t i n g c o n t r a s t s , u n b a l a n c e d c o m p o s i t i o n s , large s h a p e s , a n d s o o n . U n l i k e m o s t o t h e r visual artists, t h e filmmaker can also suggest violence t h r o u g h m o v e m e n t , e i t h e r o f t h e subject itself, t h e c a m e r a , o r b o t h . T h e f i l m artist c a n suggest violence t h r o u g h editing, by having o n e s h o t collide with a n o t h e r in a kaleidoscopic e x p l o s i o n of different perspectives. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h r o u g h t h e use o f t h e s o u n d t r a c k , violence c a n b e conveyed b y l o u d o r r a p i d d i a l o g u e , h a r s h s o u n d effects, o r s t r i d e n t music. Precisely b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e s o m a n y ways to convey a given effect, t h e filmmaker will vary t h e e m p h a s i s , s o m e times stressing i m a g e , s o m e t i m e s m o v e m e n t , o t h e r times s o u n d . Occasionally, especially in climactic scenes, all t h r e e a r e u s e d at t h e s a m e t i m e .

FURTHER READING ARM IF.IM, RUDOLF, Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of the Creative Eye (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1954). Primarily a b o u t paintings a n d drawings. BORDWF.LL, DAVID, JANET STAIGER, a n d KRISTIN THOMPSON, The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985). A fine scholarly study. BRAUDY, LEO, The World in a Frame ( G a r d e n City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1976). Filled with intellig e n t insights. DoNDIS, DONIS A., A Primer of Visual Literacy (Cambridge, Mass., a n d L o n d o n , England: T h e M.I.T. Press, 1974). Primarily on design a n d composition. DYER, RICHARD. The Matter of Images ( L o n d o n a n d New York: Routledge, 1993). T h e ideological implications of images. FREEBURG, VICTOR O., Pictorial Beauty on the Screen (New York: Macmillan, 1923). A discussion of the conventions of classical composition. HALL, EDWARD T., The Hidden Dimension ( G a r d e n City, N.Y: Doubleday, 1969). How h u m a n s a n d o t h e r animals use space. NILSEN, VIADIMIR, The Cinema As a Graphic Art (New York: Hill a n d Wang, 1959). How reality is s h a p e d by form, with major emphasis on classical composition. RUESCH, JURGEN, a n d WELDON KEES, Nonverbal Communication (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966). SOMMERS, ROBERT, Personal Space (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969). How individuals use a n d abuse space.

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Overview H o w m o v e m e n t can "mean." Different t y p e s of m o v e m e n t : realistic, p a n t o m i m e , m i m e . D a n c e and choreography: the art of m o t i o n . The p s y c h o l o g y of m o v e m e n t : lateral m o t i o n s , left or right, up or d o w n , toward or away from the camera? M o v e m e n t in relation to the s h o t s and angles. M o v e m e n t and film genres: slapstick c o m e d i e s , action films, d a n c e movies, animation, and musicals. M o v e m e n t as metaphor: kinetic s y m bolism. The m o v i n g camera: kineticizing space. Dolly s h o t s versus editing: the implications of each. Stasis versus d y n a m i s m : tripods or tracks? The mercurial instability of the hand-held camera. Lyricism: cranes and other flying forms. Faux m o v e m e n t : z o o m shots. Mechanical distortions of motion: animation, fast m o t i o n , slow m o t i o n , reverse m o t i o n , and freeze frames.

"Movies," " m o t i o n p i c t u r e s , " " m o v i n g p i c t u r e s " — a l l t h e s e p h r a s e s suggest t h e c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e o f m o t i o n i n t h e a r t o f f i l m . C i n e m a d e r i v e s from t h e G r e e k w o r d for " m o v e m e n t , " as do t h e w o r d s kinetic, kinesthesia, a n d choreography— t e r m s usually a s s o c i a t e d with t h e a r t o f d a n c e . Yet o d d l y e n o u g h , f i l m g o e r s a n d critics give s u r p r i s i n g l y little c o n s i d e r a t i o n to m o v e m e n t p e r se as a m e d i u m of c o m m u n i c a t i o n , as a l a n g u a g e system. Like t h e i m a g e itself, m o t i o n is usually

3-1. Publicity photo of cinematographer Billy Bitzer, perched in front of a moving railroad engine with his famous "Biograph camera," circa 1908. Almost from the inception of movies, innovative film artists like D. W. Griffith a t t e m p t e d to kineticize their images by moving the c a m e r a into the action or alongside it by mounting these bulky recording m a c h i n e s on various moving vehicles. Billy Bitzer, Griffith's gifted D.P., is regarded as t h e c i n e m a ' s first great cinematographer. (Kino on video)

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t h o u g h t of in t e r m s of gross subject matter. We t e n d to r e m e m b e r "what h a p p e n s " only in a g e n e r a l sense. If we w e r e to d e s c r i b e a s e q u e n c e from a ballet in such vague t e r m s , o u r discussion w o u l d certainly strike t h e sophisticated d a n c e e n t h u s i a s t as naive. Yet c i n e m a t i c s e q u e n c e s — w h i c h can be c h o r e o g r a p h e d with just as m u c h or even g r e a t e r c o m p l e x i t y — a r e s e l d o m a p p r e c i a t e d for t h e i r kinetic r i c h n e s s a n d beauty.

Like images, m o t i o n c a n b e literal a n d c o n c r e t e o r highly stylized a n d lyrical. In t h e kinetic a r t s — p a n t o m i m e , ballet, m o d e r n d a n c e — w e find a wide variety of m o v e m e n t s , r a n g i n g from t h e realistic to t h e formally abstract. T h i s stylistic s p e c t r u m c a n also be seen in movies. F o r e x a m p l e , a naturalistic a c t o r like S p e n c e r Tracy u s e d only realistic m o v e m e n t s , t h e s a m e sort t h a t c o u l d b e o b s e r v e d in actual life. Tracy moves so simply in his films t h a t he h a r d l y s e e m s to be a c t i n g . P a n t o m i m i s t s a r e m o r e stylized in t h e i r m o v e m e n t s . C h a p l i n , for e x a m p l e , t e n d e d to use m o t i o n m o r e balletically, m o r e symbolically. A swaggeri n g gait a n d a twirling c a n e symbolized C h a r l i e ' s (usually fleeting) a r r o g a n c e a n d conceit. Even m o r e stylized a r e t h e m o v e m e n t s of p e r f o r m e r s in a musical. In this g e n r e , c h a r a c t e r s e x p r e s s t h e i r m o s t i n t e n s e e m o t i o n s t h r o u g h s o n g a n d d a n c e . A d a n c e n u m b e r is s e l d o m m e a n t to be t a k e n literally: It's a stylized conv e n t i o n t h a t we a c c e p t as a symbolic e x p r e s s i o n of c e r t a i n feelings a n d ideas. In Singin' in the Rain, for e x a m p l e , G e n e Kelly d o e s an e l a b o r a t e d a n c e r o u t i n e in a d o w n p o u r . He twirls a r o u n d l a m p p o s t s , splashes t h r o u g h p u d d l e s like a h a p p y idiot, a n d leaps ecstatically t h r o u g h a p e l t i n g rain—literally n o t h i n g can d a m p e n t h e e x h i l a r a t i o n of his love. A wide g a m u t of e m o t i o n s is e x p r e s s e d in this s e q u e n c e , with e a c h kinetic variation symbolizing t h e c h a r a c t e r ' s feelings a b o u t his girl. S h e c a n m a k e h i m feel dreamy, childlike, erotically s t i m u l a t e d , brave a n d f o r t h r i g h t , d o p e y a n d m o o n s t r u c k , a n d finally wild with joy. In s o m e k i n d s of a c t i o n g e n r e s , physical contests a r e stylized in a similar m a n n e r . S a m u rai a n d kung-fu films, for e x a m p l e , often f e a t u r e elaborately c h o r e o g r a p h e d sequences ( 3 ^ ) . Ballet a n d m i m e a r e even m o r e abstract a n d stylized. A g r e a t m i m e like Marcel M a r c e a u was n o t s o m u c h c o n c e r n e d with e x p r e s s i n g literal ideas (which is m o r e p r o p e r l y t h e p r o v i n c e of p a n t o m i m e ) as t h e essence of an idea, s t r i p p e d of superfluities. A twisted torso can suggest an a n c i e n t t r e e , b e n t elbows its c r o o k e d b r a n c h e s , fluttering fingers t h e r i p p l i n g of its leaves. In ballet, m o v e m e n t s c a n be so stylized t h a t we c a n ' t always assign a d i s c e r n i b l e cont e n t to t h e m , t h o u g h t h e narrative c o n t e x t generally provides us with at least a vague sense of w h a t t h e m o v e m e n t s a r e s u p p o s e d to r e p r e s e n t . On this level of a b s t r a c t i o n , however, m o v e m e n t s a c q u i r e self-justifying characteristics. T h e y a r e lyrical: T h a t is, w e r e s p o n d t o t h e m m o r e for t h e i r own b e a u t y t h a n for t h e i r f u n c t i o n as symbolic e x p r e s s i o n s of ideas.

3-2a. Temptress Moon (China/Hong Kong, Chen Kaige (Miramax Films)

1997), with Cong Li (white dress), directed by

Stasis and motion—two different worldviews. The image from Temptress Moon portrays a static world of frozen possibilities, where w o m e n are expected to be subservient, silent, and still. The world of professional football portrayed in Any Given Sunday is a breathless blur of motion, where the whirling camera is hardly able to keep the (mostly male) characters in focus. 3-2b. Any Given Sunday (U.S.A., 1999), with Al Pacino, directed by Oliver Stone. (Warner Bros.)

The function of the choreographer is to translate feelings and ideas into m o v e m e n t , s o m e t i m e s dreamlike and surreal, s o m e t i m e s exquisitely lyrical, other times vibrantly energetic. 3-3a. Oklahoma! (U.S.A., 1955), choreography by Agnes de Mille, directed by Fred Zinnemann. T h o u g h primarily a stage choreographer, Agnes de Mille revolutionized the American musical by introducing lengthy ballet sequences. Often these ballets developed t h e story a n d d e e p e n e d the characterization. This famous "dream ballet," a faithful translation of her c h o r e o g r a p h y for t h e l a n d m a r k 1943 stage musical by Rodgers a n d H a m m e r s t e i n , is a projection of the heroine's anxieties. Like m a n y d r e a m s , it c o m b i n e s c o n c r e t e realistic details with symbolic stylizations into a surrealistic s p a c e that's both familiar a n d strange. Agnes de Mille exerted an e n o r m o u s influence on film choreography, especially t h e work of Gene Kelly. (Miramax Films) 3-3b. An American in Paris (U.S.A., 1951), with Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron, choreography by Kelly, score by George Gershwin, directed by Vincente Minnelli. Kelly worked in a broad range of dancing styles—tap, ballroom, m o d e r n , and ballet. He was usually at his best in muscular, gymnastic styles, with an e m p h a s i s on virile trajectories and bravura leaps. But he was also charming in nonchalant styles, to which he usually a d d e d a characteristic swagger. He often incorporated lengthy ballet s e q u e n c e s in his movies, generally a d r e a m s e q u e n c e or a fantasy. Kelly's dancing is sexy, with an e m p h a s i s on pelvic m o v e m e n t s , tensed loins, twisting torsos, and close-to-the-floor gyrations. He usually wore close-fitting clothes to emphasize his well-muscled body. He also allowed his personality to shine through, breaking the formality of the choreography with a cocky grin or an ecstatic smile that's as h a m m y as it is irresistible, (MCM) 3-3c. Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (U.S.A., 1954), with Jacques DAmboise (flying aloft), choreography by Michael Kidd, directed by Stanley Donen. Unlike such important film choreographers as Busby Berkeley, Gene Kelly, and Bob Fosse, the versatile Michael Kidd had no signature style. He could work his magic in a variety of idioms. For example, his choreography in this classic musical is athletic and p u m p e d up with testosterone. Kidd also choreoy graphed the romantically ethereal "Dancing in the Dark" n u m b e r from The Band Wagon, with Fred Astaire and Cyd Charisse gliding ly through New York's Central Park like enraptured apparitions. It is o n e of the all-time dance n u m b e r s in the history of movies. In 1997, Michael Kidd was given an honorary e m y Award for lifetime achievement in film choreography. <MGM)

c 3-4. Enter the Dragon (Hong Kong, Robert Clouse. Physical contests such as brawls, sword choreographed with considerable kinetic endary Bruce Lee are particularly stylized,

d 1973), with Bruce Lee (dark trousers), directed by fights, and Oriental self-defense m e t h o d s can be grace. The kung-fu s e q u e n c e s staged by the legalmost like an acrobatic dance. (Warner Bros.)

T h i s c o n c e r n with kinetic b e a u t y for its own sake can be seen in c e r t a i n schools o f m o d e r n d a n c e . M a n y o f t h e c h o r e o g r a p h i e s o f M e r c e C u n n i n g h a m a n d Erick Hawkins, for e x a m p l e , a r e n ' t m e a n t to symbolize a n y t h i n g of a narrative n a t u r e . Abstract m o t i o n is p r e s e n t e d for its own sake, s o m e w h a t in t h e s a m e m a n n e r that p u r e colors, s h a p e s , a n d lines a r e offered for t h e i r own sakes in abstract p a i n t i n g . In movies, n o n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t s a r e m o s t often f o u n d in avant-garde films, w h i c h s e l d o m tell stories. In d a n c e , m o v e m e n t s a r e defined by t h e space that encloses t h e c h o r e o g raphy—a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l stage. In film, t h e f r a m e p e r f o r m s a similar function. However, with e a c h s e t u p c h a n g e , the cinematic "stage" is redefined. T h e intrinsic m e a n i n g s associated with various p o r t i o n s of t h e frame a r e closely related to t h e significance of certain kinds of m o v e m e n t s . For e x a m p l e , with vertical m o v e m e n t s , an u p w a r d m o t i o n seems soaring a n d free because it c o n f o r m s to the eye's n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y to move u p w a r d over a c o m p o s i t i o n . M o v e m e n t s in this d i r e c t i o n often suggest aspiration, joy, power, a n d a u t h o r i t y — t h o s e ideas associated with t h e s u p e r i o r p o r t i o n s of t h e frame. Downward m o v e m e n t s suggest opposite ideas: grief, d e a t h , insignificance, depression, weakness, a n d so o n .

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Because t h e eye t e n d s to r e a d a p i c t u r e from left to right, physical m o v e m e n t i n this d i r e c t i o n s e e m s psychologically n a t u r a l , w h e r e a s m o v e m e n t from t h e r i g h t t o left often s e e m s inexplicably t e n s e a n d u n c o m f o r t a b l e . T h e sensitive f i l m m a k e r exploits t h e s e psychological p h e n o m e n a t o r e i n f o r c e t h e d r a m a t i c ideas. F r e q u e n t l y t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s of a movie travel t o w a r d t h e r i g h t of t h e s c r e e n , w h e r e a s t h e villains m o v e toward t h e left. In J o h n H u s t o n ' s The Red Badge of Courage, t h e h e r o moves from right to left w h e n he r u n s away from a battle in fear. Later, w h e n he c o u r a g e o u s l y j o i n s an i n f a n t r y c h a r g e , his movem e n t s a r e from left to right. M o v e m e n t can b e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d o r away from t h e c a m e r a . Because we identify with t h e c a m e r a ' s lens, t h e effect of s u c h m o v e m e n t s is s o m e w h a t like a c h a r a c t e r m o v i n g t o w a r d or away from us. If t h e c h a r a c t e r is a villain, walking t o w a r d t h e c a m e r a can s e e m aggressive, hostile, a n d t h r e a t e n i n g , for i n effect, he or s h e is i n v a d i n g o u r space. If t h e c h a r a c t e r is attractive, m o v e m e n t toward t h e c a m e r a s e e m s friendly, inviting, s o m e t i m e s seductive. In e i t h e r case, m o v e m e n t t o w a r d t h e a u d i e n c e i s generally s t r o n g a n d assertive, s u g g e s t i n g confidence on the part of the moving character (3-31). M o v e m e n t away from t h e c a m e r a t e n d s t o imply o p p o s i t e m e a n i n g s . Intensity i s d e c r e a s e d a n d t h e c h a r a c t e r s e e m s t o g r o w r e m o t e a s h e o r s h e withdraws f r o m us. A u d i e n c e s feel safer w h e n villains m o v e away in this m a n -

3-5. Shall We Dance? ( J a p a n , 1997), with Koji Yakusyo directed by Dance as metaphor. This charming social c o m e d y centers on a 42-year-old "sarariman" (salaryman) who secretly takes up ballroom dancing—a totally foreign concept in Japan where such a hobby would be considered weird. In a society that m a k e s a fetish of social conformity, any act of individualism is likely to be viewed as ridiculous and laughable. "The nail that sticks out gets h a m m e r e d down" is a proverb that virtually all Japanese schoolchildren learn when they're very young. Even as adults, they are intensely afraid of appearing different. Nonetheless, our accountant hero decides to take dancing lessons. He's so a s h a m e d that he doesn't even tell his wife. Besides, they hardly speak anymore, though they're unfailingly polite. He feels that there's something pretentious about imitating "Western" oddities, something unmanly about wanting to be graceful. Most Japanese would agree that it's eccentric and showoffy to perform strange steps in front of other people. Yet his daily grind lacks excitement and romance. He is virtually a stranger to his family. And maybe—just once—he would like to stand out in a crowd. This shot e m b o d i e s his double life: Above the desk, he's a conscientious accountant, but down below, he's practicing his d a n c e steps. (Miramax Films)

Masayuki Suo.

3-6. Godzilla (U.S. A./Japan, 1998), directed by Roland Emmerich. Movement in film is closely related to mise en scene. The top of the image is often associated with power and control, the bottom with vulnerability. In this special effects shot, a newsreel c a m e r a m a n and city traffic are about to be flattened as Godzilla puts his foot down. People are totally impotent before the monster's overwhelming force. (TohoCo. udjmstar Pictures)

ner, for they t h e r e b y i n c r e a s e t h e protective d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n u s a n d t h e m . I n s o m e c o n t e x t s , s u c h m o v e m e n t s can s e e m weak, fearful, a n d suspicious. Most movies e n d with a withdrawal of s o m e sort, e i t h e r of t h e c a m e r a from t h e locale o r o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s from t h e c a m e r a . T h e r e a r e c o n s i d e r a b l e psychological differences b e t w e e n lateral m o v e m e n t s o n t h e s c r e e n a n d d e p t h m o v e m e n t s — t h a t is, m o v e m e n t s t o w a r d o r away from t h e c a m e r a . A script m i g h t simply call for a c h a r a c t e r to m o v e from o n e p l a c e t o a n o t h e r , b u t how t h e d i r e c t o r c h o o s e s t o p h o t o g r a p h this movem e n t will d e t e r m i n e m u c h of its psychological implications. Generally speaking, if t h e c h a r a c t e r moves from right to left (or vice versa), he or she will s e e m d e t e r m i n e d a n d efficient, a p e r s o n of action. Unless t h e c a m e r a is at e x t r e m e l o n g shot r a n g e , t h e s e m o v e m e n t s a r e necessarily p h o t o g r a p h e d i n brief takes—shots lasting only a few s e c o n d s . Lateral m o v e m e n t s t e n d to e m p h a s i z e s p e e d a n d efficiency, so they a r e often u s e d in action movies. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , w h e n a c h a r a c t e r moves in or o u t of t h e d e p t h of a s c e n e , t h e effect is often o n e of slowness. Unless t h e c a m e r a is at close r a n g e or an e x t r e m e wide-angle lens is used, m o v e m e n t s toward or away from t h e came r a take l o n g e r to p h o t o g r a p h t h a n lateral m o v e m e n t s . W i t h a telephoto lens, such m o v e m e n t s can s e e m hopelessly d r a g g e d o u t . F u r t h e r m o r e , w h e n d e p t h m o v e m e n t i s p h o t o g r a p h e d i n a n u n i n t e r r u p t e d l e n g t h y take, t h e a u d i e n c e 1 00

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t e n d s t o a n t i c i p a t e t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e m o v e m e n t , t h u s intensifying t h e sense of t e d i u m while we wait for t h e c h a r a c t e r to arrive at his or h e r d e s t i n a t i o n . Especially w h e n a c h a r a c t e r ' s physical goal is a p p a r e n t — t h e l e n g t h of a l o n g c o r r i d o r , for e x a m p l e — a u d i e n c e s generally grow restless if they a r e forced to view t h e e n t i r e m o v e m e n t ( 3 - 7 ) . Most classical filmmakers w o u l d p h o t o g r a p h t h e action in several diff e r e n t setups, t h u s c o m p r e s s i n g t h e t i m e a n d space from t h e i n c e p t i o n o f t h e m o v e m e n t to its c o n c l u s i o n . Classical filmmakers also t e n d to stage m o v e m e n t diagonally, to c r e a t e a m o r e d y n a m i c trajectory of m o t i o n . T h e d i s t a n c e a n d angle from w h i c h m o v e m e n t i s p h o t o g r a p h e d d e t e r m i n e m u c h o f its m e a n i n g . I n g e n e r a l , t h e l o n g e r a n d h i g h e r t h e shot, t h e slower t h e m o v e m e n t t e n d s to a p p e a r . If m o v e m e n t is r e c o r d e d from close a n d low angles, it s e e m s m o r e i n t e n s e , s p e e d e d u p . A d i r e c t o r can p h o t o g r a p h t h e s a m e subject—a r u n n i n g m a n , for e x a m p l e — i n two different setups a n d p r o d u c e opposite meanings. If the m a n is p h o t o g r a p h e d in an extreme long shot from a h i g h a n g l e , he will s e e m ineffectual a n d i m p o t e n t . If h e ' s p h o t o g r a p h e d from a low a n g l e in a m e d i u m s h o t , he will s e e m a d y n a m o of energy. A l t h o u g h t h e subject m a t t e r in e a c h s e t u p is absolutely identical, t h e t r u e c o n t e n t of e a c h s h o t is its f o r m . Even film critics (who s h o u l d k n o w b e t t e r ) a r e often i g n o r a n t of t h e s e p e r c e p t u a l differences, t h i n k i n g of m o v e m e n t only in t e r m s of story a n d gross physical a c t i o n . T h e result has b e e n a g o o d d e a l of naive t h e o r i z i n g on w h a t is "intrinsically c i n e m a t i c . " T h e m o r e m o v e m e n t is p e r c e i v e d as e x t r a v a g a n t in real life, they a r g u e , t h e m o r e "filmic" it b e c o m e s . E p i c events a n d e x t e r i o r locations a r e p r e s u m e d t o b e f u n d a m e n t a l l y m o r e suited t o t h e m e d i u m t h a n i n t i m a t e , restricted, or i n t e r i o r subjects. S u c h views a r e b a s e d on a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of m o v e m e n t in film. T r u e , o n e can use t h e t e r m s epic a n d psychological in d e s c r i b i n g t h e g e n e r a l e m p h a s i s of a movie. Even on this g e n e r a l level, however, a r g u m e n t s a b o u t intrinsically c i n e m a t i c subjects a r e usually c r u d e . N o sensible p e r s o n w o u l d claim t h a t Tolstoy's War and Peace is intrinsically m o r e novelistic t h a n Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment, a l t h o u g h we may refer to o n e as an e p i c a n d t h e o t h e r as a psychological novel. In a similar vein, only a naive viewer w o u l d claim t h a t M i c h e l a n g e l o ' s Sistine Ceiling is intrinsically m o r e visual t h a n a V e r m e e r p a i n t i n g of a d o m e s t i c s c e n e . It is different, yes, b u t n o t necessarily b e t t e r o r worse, a n d certainly n o t t h r o u g h any intrinsic quality. I n s h o r t , t h e r e a r e s o m e g o o d a n d b a d e p i c works o f art, a n d s o m e g o o d a n d b a d psychological works. It's t h e t r e a t m e n t t h a t c o u n t s , n o t t h e m a t e r i a l p e r se. M o v e m e n t in film is a subtle issue, for it's necessarily d e p e n d e n t on t h e k i n d o f s h o t used. T h e c i n e m a t i c close-up can convey a s m u c h m o v e m e n t a s t h e m o s t s w e e p i n g vistas in an e x t r e m e l o n g shot. In fact, in t e r m s of t h e a r e a c o v e r e d on t h e s c r e e n ' s surface, t h e r e is actually m o r e m o v e m e n t in a close-up s h o w i n g tears r u n n i n g d o w n a p e r s o n ' s face t h a n t h e r e is in an e x t r e m e l o n g shot of a p a r a c h u t i s t drifting fifty feet ( 3 - 8 ) . Epic a n d psychological movies use m o v e m e n t in different ways, with e m p h a s i s o n different shots. Epic movies usually d e p e n d o n t h e l o n g e r shots

3 - 7 a & b. L'Avventura (Italy, 1960), with Monica Vitti, directed by Michelangelo Antonioni. Psychological films often use m o v e m e n t s in and out of the depth of an image, especially to create a sense of tediousness and exhaustion. Shots of this sort require a n t i c i p a t o r y s e t u p s that reinforce these qualities, for we see the destination of a character's m o v e m e n t long before it's completed. Here, the heroine's search for her lover in the corridors of a hotel suggests the futility of her love affair. The endless succession of doors, fixtures, and hallways implies, a m o n g other things, the repetition of the frustration she is now experiencing. Much of the m e a n i n g of shots such as these lies in their duration: Space is used to suggest time. Needless to say, Antonioni's movies are a m o n g the slowest paced of the c o n t e m p o r a r y cinema: Long after the viewer has had time to absorb the visual information of a shot, it continues on the screen. When this film was originally shown at the Cannes Film Festival, an audience of hostile critics kept shouting "Cut! Cut!" at the screen. The shots were so lengthy and the pace so slow that viewers a s s u m e d the director was inept at editing. But like m a n y of Antonioni's works, LAvventura is about spiritual erosion, and the movie's slow rhythm is organically related to this theme, yanus Films) 1 02

3-8a. 1980),

The Stunt Man (U.S.A., directed by Richard Rush.

(Twentieth Century-Fox)

3-8b. The Wild Child (France, 1969), with Jean-Pierre Cargol, directed by Frangois Truffaut. (United Artists)

Unlike m o v e m e n t in d a n c e or the live theater, cinematic m o v e m e n t is always relative. Only gross movem e n t s are likely to be perceived in an e x t r e m e long shot, whereas the flicker of an eye can rivet our attention in a close-up. In these photos, for example, the path of the boy's tear covers m o r e screen space than the pilot's fall from the sky.

for t h e i r effects, w h e r e a s psychological films t e n d to use t h e closer shots. Epics a r e c o n c e r n e d with a sense of sweep a n d b r e a d t h , psychological movies with d e p t h a n d detail. Epics often e m p h a s i z e events, psychological films t h e implications o f events. O n e stresses action, t h e o t h e r r e a c t i o n . Two filmmakers c a n a p p r o a c h t h e s a m e story a n d p r o d u c e totally diff e r e n t results. Hamlet is a g o o d e x a m p l e . L a u r e n c e Olivier's film version of this play is essentially an epic, with e m p h a s i s on t h e l o n g e r shots. F r a n c o Zeffirelli's version is primarily a psychological study, d o m i n a t e d by close a n d m e d i u m shots. Olivier's movie e m p h a s i z e s setting. T h e r e are m a n y l o n g s h o t s , especially 103

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of t h e b r o o d i n g castle of Elsinore. M u c h is m a d e of H a m l e t ' s i n t e r a c t i o n with this m o o d y locale. W e a r e i n f o r m e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e f i l m t h a t t h e story i s a b o u t " a m a n w h o c o u l d n o t m a k e u p his m i n d . " T h e l o n g shots a r e u s e d t o e m p h a s i z e this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n visually. Most of t h e m a r e loosely f r a m e d , suggesting t h a t H a m l e t (played by Olivier) has c o n s i d e r a b l e f r e e d o m of movem e n t , f r e e d o m to act. But he refuses to use this f r e e d o m , p r e f e r r i n g to sulk in d a r k c o r n e r s , paralyzed with i n d e c i s i o n . W h e n h e d o e s m o v e , t h e m o t i o n i s generally r e c o r d e d from l o n g distances, t h u s r e i n f o r c i n g t h e i m p o t e n c e o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t in r e l a t i o n s h i p to his e n v i r o n m e n t . Zeffirelli's Hamlet (with Mel Gibson) is usually p h o t o g r a p h e d in tightly f r a m e d close a n d m e d i u m shots. U n l i k e Olivier's indecisive H a m l e t , G i b s o n ' s is impulsive a n d rash, a m a n w h o often acts b e f o r e he thinks. I m p r i s o n e d by t h e c o n f i n i n g close shots, t h e t o r t u r e d h e r o virtually spills off t h e e d g e s of t h e f r a m e i n t o oblivion. T h e u n s t a b l e h a n d - h e l d c a m e r a c a n barely k e e p u p with h i m as he l u n g e s hyperkinetically from place to place. If t h e s a m e m o v e m e n t s w e r e p h o t o g r a p h e d from a long-shot r a n g e , of c o u r s e , t h e c h a r a c t e r w o u l d s e e m t o m o v e m o r e normally. In t h e live theater, t h e s e two i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w o u l d have to be a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h o t h e r m e a n s . A l t h o u g h t h e d r a m a is in p a r t a visual m e d i u m , t h e "frame" size ( t h e confines of t h e set or t h e p r o s c e n i u m a r c h ) r e m a i n s t h e s a m e for t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e play. T h e live theater, in short, is restricted to " l o n g shots," w h e r e s u c h d i s t o r t i o n s of m o v e m e n t a r e virtually impossible. If t h e r e is a g r e a t deal of m o v e m e n t in t h e closer shots, its effect on t h e s c r e e n will be e x a g g e r a t e d . F o r this r e a s o n , filmmakers t e n d to use t h e s e r a n g e s for relatively static scenes. T h e a n i m a t i o n of two p e o p l e talking a n d g e s t u r i n g , for e x a m p l e , has e n o u g h m o v e m e n t t o p r e v e n t m o s t m e d i u m shots from a p p e a r i n g static. Close-ups a r e even m o r e subtle i n t h e i r r e c o r d i n g o f m o v e m e n t . R o b e r t Bresson a n d Carl Dreyer often h i g h l i g h t e d subtle m o v e m e n t s b y p h o t o g r a p h i n g an expressive face in close-up. In fact, t h e s e two filmmakers r e f e r r e d to t h e h u m a n face as a spiritual " l a n d s c a p e . " In Dreyer's Passion of Joan of Arc, for i n s t a n c e , o n e of t h e m o s t powerful scenes is a close s h o t of J o a n as a t e a r slowly trickles d o w n h e r face. E x p a n d e d t h o u s a n d s o f times b y t h e close-up, t h e p a t h of t h e t e a r r e p r e s e n t s a cataclysmic m o v e m e n t on t h e s c r e e n , far m o r e powerful t h a n t h e i n a n e cavalry c h a r g e s a n d clashing a r m i e s of r o u t i n e epic films. H a c k n e y e d t e c h n i q u e s a r e a l m o s t invariably t h e sign of a s e c o n d - r a t e f i l m m a k e r . C e r t a i n e m o t i o n s a n d ideas—like joy, love, h a t r e d — a r e s o p r e v a l e n t in t h e c i n e m a t h a t serious artists a r e constantly s e a r c h i n g for n e w m e t h o d s of p r e s e n t a t i o n , m e t h o d s t h a t t r a n s f o r m t h e familiar i n t o s o m e t h i n g fresh a n d u n e x p e c t e d . F o r e x a m p l e , d e a t h scenes are c o m m o n i n movies. B u t b e c a u s e o f t h e i r frequency, they a r e often p r e s e n t e d tritely. Of c o u r s e , d e a t h r e m a i n s a universal c o n c e r n , o n e t h a t c a n still m o v e a u d i e n c e s i f h a n d l e d with any d e g r e e of originality a n d i m a g i n a t i o n .

3-9. Hamlet (U.S.A./Great Britain/Italy, 1990), with Glenn Close and Met Gibson, directed by Franco Zeffirelli. W h e n the c a m e r a is close to the action, as in this photo, even small gestures s e e m magnified and highly kinetic. Gibson's portrayal of Shakespeare's tragic hero is volatile, exploding with energy—a far cry from the contemplative and indecisive Hamlet m a d e famous in Laurence Olivier's 1 9 4 8 film version of the play, (icon Distribution, inc.)

O n e m e t h o d o f a v o i d i n g staleness i s t o convey e m o t i o n s t h r o u g h kinetic symbolism, k i k e t h e c h o r e o g r a p h e r , t h e f i l m m a k e r can e x p l o i t t h e m e a n i n g s i n h e r e n t in c e r t a i n types of m o v e m e n t s . Even so-called abstract m o t i o n s t e n d to suggest ideas a n d feelings. S o m e m o v e m e n t s strike us as soft a n d yielding, for e x a m p l e , w h e r e a s o t h e r s s e e m h a r s h a n d aggressive. C u r v e d a n d swaying m o t i o n s a r e generally graceful a n d f e m i n i n e . T h o s e t h a t a r e straight a n d d i r e c t strike u s a s i n t e n s e , stimulating, a n d powerful. F u r t h e r m o r e , u n l i k e t h e c h o r e o g r a p h e r , t h e f i l m m a k e r can e x p l o i t t h e s e symbolic m o v e m e n t s even w i t h o u t h a v i n g p e o p l e p e r f o r m t h e m . If a d a n c e r w e r e to convey a sense of grief at t h e loss of a loved o n e , his o r h e r m o v e m e n t s w o u l d p r o b a b l y b e implosive, w i t h d r a w n , with a n e m p h a s i s on slow, s o l e m n , d o w n w a r d m o v e m e n t s . A film d i r e c t o r m i g h t use this s a m e kinetic p r i n c i p l e b u t in a totally different physical c o n t e x t . F o r i n s t a n c e , in Walt e r L a n g ' s The King and I, we realize t h a t t h e seriously ailing k i n g (Yul B r y n n e r ) has d i e d w h e n we see a close-up of his h a n d slowly s l i p p i n g toward t h e b o t t o m of t h e f r a m e , d i s a p p e a r i n g finally off t h e lower e d g e i n t o d a r k n e s s . In E i s e n s t e i n ' s Old and New (also k n o w n as The General Line), a valuable s t u d bull dies, a n d its d e a t h h a s disastrous c o n s e q u e n c e s for t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m u n e that has purchased the animal. These consequences are expressed t h r o u g h two parallel s h o t s e m p h a s i z i n g t h e s a m e k i n e t i c symbolism. First, Eisenstein shows us an e x t r e m e close-up of t h e d y i n g bull's eye as it slowly

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3-10. Top Hat (U.S.A., 1935), with Ginger Rogers and Fred Astaire, choreography by Astaire and Hermes Pan, directed by Mark Sandrich. Astaire's dancing style is the epitome of cool—elegant, debonair, effortless. He influenced such classical choreographers as Jerome Robbins and George Balanchine, and such dancers as Rudolf Nureyev, who described Astaire as "the greatest dancer in American history." His range was extraordinarily broad, encompassing the wit and speed of tap, the airy romanticism of ballroom styles, and later in his career, the ethereal lyricism of modern dance. He insisted on artistic control over his dance numbers. A perfectionist, he also insisted on a six-week rehearsal period before production began. In his nine RKO musicals, he and Hermes Pan worked out the choreography, then taught the steps to Ginger Rogers, who usually c a m e in shortly before production. The camera is essentially functional: It records the m o v e m e n t s of the dancers in lengthy takes, at full-shot range, panning and tilting after them as unobtrusively as possible. Their dance n u m b e r s are actually love scenes: He woos his lady kinetically. In fact, they rarely even kiss on screen. She is usually reluctant, cool to his verbal advances, but once the music begins, their bodies undulate and sway in rhythmic syncopation, and soon she's a lost creature, yielding completely to her kinesthetic destiny. 106

3-11. Two Tars (U.S.A., 1928), with Oliver Hardy and Stan Laurel (in sailor suits), directed by James Parrott. The c o m e d y of Laurel and Hardy—like that of most slapstick comedians—is q u i n t e s s e n t i a l ^ kinetic. They were unrivaled in their ability to swell a tiny gesture into an apocalyptic orgy of destruction. Their c o m e d i e s are filled with rituals of revenge and slow escalations of hostility, snowballing finally into total m a s s demolition—a story formula they used m a n y times with brilliant results. (MCM>

closes. T h e m o u r n f u l l o w e r i n g of t h e eyelid is m a g n i f i e d m a n y t i m e s by t h e closeness of t h e s h o t . Eisenstein t h e n cuts to a s h o t of t h e s u n l o w e r i n g on t h e h o r i z o n , its s t r e a m i n g shafts of light slowly r e t r a c t i n g as t h e s u n sinks b e l o w t h e e a r t h ' s rim. Trivial as a bull's d e a t h m i g h t s e e m , to t h e h a r d w o r k i n g m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m m u n e i t suggests a n a l m o s t c o s m i c significance. T h e i r h o p e s for a b e t t e r f u t u r e d i e with t h e a n i m a l . Of c o u r s e , c o n t e x t is e v e r y t h i n g in movies. T h e k i n d of symbolism in Old and MOT w o u l d p r o b a b l y s e e m p r e t e n t i o u s a n d arty in a m o r e realistic movie. However, t h e s a m e kinetic principle can be used in almost any k i n d of c o n t e x t . In Mel G i b s o n ' s Braveheart, for e x a m p l e , t h e b e h e a d i n g of t h e rebel h e r o (played by G i b s o n ) exploits d o w n w a r d m o v e m e n t s in several ways. As t h e e x e c u t i o n e r ' s ax sweeps d o w n toward t h e h e r o ' s neck, we see a close-up of Princess Isabelle, a t e a r slowly rolling d o w n h e r face. Just as t h e ax strikes t h e h e r o ' s neck, we see a h a n d k e r c h i e f (a m e m e n t o of his d e a d wife's love) fall from his h a n d to t h e g r o u n d in slow m o t i o n — a poetic symbol of his release from life. In C h a r l e s V i d o r ' s Ladies in Retirement, t h e s e s a m e kinetic p r i n c i p l e s a r e u s e d in a totally different c o n t e x t . An i m p o v e r i s h e d h o u s e k e e p e r (Ida L u p i n o ) has asked h e r a g i n g e m p l o y e r for financial assistance t o p r e v e n t t h e h o u s e k e e p e r ' s two r e t a r d e d sisters from b e i n g p u t away in an asylum. T h e employer, a vain, selfish w o m a n w h o a c q u i r e d h e r wealth as t h e mistress of a rich m a n , refuses to h e l p h e r e m p l o y e e . As a last resort, t h e d e s p e r a t e h o u s e k e e p e r d e c i d e s to kill t h e old w o m a n a n d use h e r isolated c o t t a g e as a refuge for t h e g o o d - n a t u r e d l y dotty sisters. T h e m u r d e r s c e n e itself is conveyed t h r o u g h 1

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3-12. Frantic (U.S.A., 1988), with Harrison Ford, directed by Roman Polanski. Filmmakers often exploit "negative space" to anticipate action that has not yet occurred. In this photo, for example, the anticipatory c a m e r a s e e m s to be waiting for something to fill in the e m p t y space on the right. The unsuspecting protagonist does not know that he will soon be threatened by a careening auto that will almost run him down. But we have already b e e n forewarned of the impending action by Polanski's framing. Anticipatory setups like these are especially c o m m o n in thrillers. They are a kind of warning to the viewer to be prepared: Art as well as nature abhors a vacuum. (WarnerBros.)

kinetic symbolism. We see t h e o v e r d r e s s e d d o w a g e r playing a ditty at h e r p i a n o . T h e h o u s e k e e p e r , w h o p l a n s t o strangle t h e w o m a n from b e h i n d , slowly c r e e p s up while s h e is singing. But i n s t e a d of s h o w i n g us t h e actual s t r a n g u l a t i o n , V i d o r cuts to a m e d i u m close s h o t of t h e floor, w h e r e , o n e by o n e , t h e dowag e r ' s pearls d r o p to t h e floor. Suddenly, a whole c l u m p of pearls splatters n e a r t h e old lady's n o w m o t i o n l e s s feet. T h e symbolism of t h e d r o p p i n g p e a r l s is a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e c o n t e x t , for they e m b o d y n o t only t h e w o m a n ' s s u p e r f l u o u s wealth, b u t h e r vanity a n d selfishness as well. Each falling pearl suggests an elegantly e n c r u s t e d d r o p of b l o o d : D r o p by d r o p , h e r life e b b s away, until t h e r e m a i n i n g s t r a n d s of p e a r l s crash to t h e floor a n d t h e w r e t c h e d c r e a t u r e is d e a d . By conveying t h e m u r d e r t h r o u g h this kinetic symbolism, V i d o r p r e v e n t s us from witnessing t h e b r u t a l event, which p r o b a b l y w o u l d have lost t h e audie n c e ' s s y m p a t h y for t h e h o u s e k e e p e r . In e a c h of t h e s e instances, t h e filmmakers—Lang, Eisenstein, Gibson, a n d V i d o r — w e r e faced with a similar p r o b l e m : h o w to p r e s e n t a d e a t h s c e n e with freshness a n d originality. E a c h d i r e c t o r solved t h e p r o b l e m by e x p l o i t i n g similar m o v e m e n t s : a slow, c o n t r a c t i n g , d o w n w a r d m o t i o n — t h e s a m e k i n d of m o v e m e n t t h a t a d a n c e r w o u l d use literally on a stage. Kinetic symbolism c a n b e u s e d t o suggest o t h e r ideas a n d e m o t i o n s a s well. F o r e x a m p l e , ecstasy a n d j o y a r e often e x p r e s s e d by expansive m o t i o n s , 108

3-13. Yojimbo (Japan, 1961), directed by Akira Kurosawa. Kurosawa's movies are rich in symbolic kinetic techniques. He often creates dramatic tensions by juxtaposing static visual e l e m e n t s with a small but d y n a m i c whirlpool of motion. In this scene, for example, the greatly o u t n u m b e r e d protagonist (Toshiro Mifune) prepares to do battle with a group of vicious hoodlums. In static visual terms, the samurai hero s e e m s trapped by the enclosing walls and the h u m a n wall of thugs that blocks off his space. But surrounding the protagonist is a furiously whipping wind (the d o m i n a n t contrast of the shot), which symbolizes his rage and physical power, (janus Films)

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3-14. The French Connection ( U . S . A . , 1971), directed by William Friedkin. Expansive outward m o v e m e n t s and sunburst effects are generally associated with explosive emotions, like joy or terror. In this shot, however, the symbolism is m o r e complex. The scene occurs at the climax of a furious chase sequence in which the protagonist (Gene Hackman, with gun) finally triumphs over a vicious killer by shooting him—just as he s e e m s on the verge of eluding the dogged police officer once again. This kinetic outburst on the screen symbolizes not only the bullet exploding in the victim's body, but a joyous climax for the protagonist after his humiliating and dangerous pursuit. The kinetic "ecstasy of d e a t h " also releases the dramatic tension that has built up in the audience during the chase s e q u e n c e : In effect, we are seduced into sharing the protagonist's joy in the kill. (Twentieth Century-Fox)

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fear by a variety of t e n t a t i v e or t r e m b l i n g m o v e m e n t s . Eroticism c a n be c o n veyed t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f u n d u l a t i n g m o t i o n s . I n Kurosawa's liashomon, for e x a m p l e , t h e p r o v o c a t i v e sexuality of a w o m a n is s u g g e s t e d by t h e s i n u o u s m o t i o n s o f h e r silk veil—a m o v e m e n t s o graceful a n d t a n t a l i z i n g t h a t t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ( T o s h i r o M i f u n e ) i s u n a b l e t o resist h e r e r o t i c a l l u r e . S i n c e m o s t J a p a n e s e viewers r e g a r d o v e r t sexuality i n t h e c i n e m a a s tasteless—even kissing i s r a r e i n t h e i r m o v i e s — s e x u a l i d e a s a r e often e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h t h e s e symbolic m e t h o d s . Every a r t f o r m h a s its r e b e l s , a n d c i n e m a i s n o e x c e p t i o n . B e c a u s e m o v e m e n t is a l m o s t universally r e g a r d e d as basic to film a r t , a n u m b e r of d i r e c tors have e x p e r i m e n t e d with t h e i d e a o f stasis. I n effect, t h e s e f i l m m a k e r s a r e

3 - 1 5 a 5L b. Highlander HI: The Sourcerer (U.S.A., 1995), with Mario Van Peebles and Christopher Lambert, directed by Andy Morahan. The closer and tighter the shot, the more motion dominates, in longer, more loosely framed shots, m o v e m e n t tends to recede in importance, usually in direct proportion to the distance of the kinetic action from the camera. Even a the slightest alterations in framing can affect our reactions. The two shots portrayed here imply subtle differences. In the m o r e loosely framed long shot (a), the protagonist (Lambert) is dominated by his enemy, w h o controls the left, top, and right sides of the mise en scene. The protagonist, w h o can barely move, is squeezed into the lower right corner of the screen—the most vulnerable position. The villain's control over his adversary is reinforced by the a m o u n t of space allowed for his m o v e m e n t s . By allowing more space and distance, the director is able to present the fight with a greater degree of stylization and objectivity. The control of the visual elements within the frame b e c o m e s a spatial metaphor for the villain's (temporary) control over the hero. In the more desperate, tightly framed m e d i u m shot (b), the protagonist is regaining control. He d o m i n a t e s nearly two-thirds of the space within the frame, and the villain has his back against the wall. We know who's winning in each of these shots by seeing how much m o v e m e n t the characters can c o m m a n d within the confines of the frame.

(Dimension Films)

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deliberately w o r k i n g against t h e n a t u r e of t h e i r m e d i u m , s t r i p p i n g it of all b u t t h e m o s t essential m o t i o n s . S u c h filmmakers as Bresson, O z u , a n d Dreyer have b e e n d e s c r i b e d as minimalists b e c a u s e t h e i r kinetic t e c h n i q u e s a r e so a u s t e r e a n d r e s t r a i n e d . W h e n virtually n o t h i n g seems t o b e m o v i n g i n a n i m a g e , e v e n t h e slightest m o t i o n can take on e n o r m o u s significance. In m a n y cases, this stasis is e x p l o i t e d for symbolic p u r p o s e s : Lack of m o t i o n c a n suggest spiritual or psychological paralysis, as in t h e movies of A n t o n i o n i , for e x a m p l e .

Before t h e 1920s, filmmakers t e n d e d to c o n f i n e m o v e m e n t s to t h e subj e c t p h o t o g r a p h e d . T h e r e w e r e relatively few w h o m o v e d t h e i r c a m e r a s d u r i n g a shot, a n d t h e n usually to k e e p a m o v i n g figure within t h e f r a m e . In t h e 1920s, such G e r m a n f i l m m a k e r s as F. W. M u r n a u a n d E. A. D u p o n t m o v e d t h e c a m e r a within t h e s h o t n o t only for physical r e a s o n s b u t for psychological a n d t h e m a t i c r e a s o n s a s well. T h e G e r m a n e x p e r i m e n t s p e r m i t t e d s u b s e q u e n t filmmakers t o use t h e m o b i l e c a m e r a t o c o m m u n i c a t e subtleties previously c o n s i d e r e d impossible. T r u e , editing—that is, m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a between shots—is faster, c h e a p e r , a n d less distracting. But c u t t i n g is also a b r u p t , d i s c o n n e c t e d , a n d u n p r e d i c t a b l e c o m p a r e d to t h e fluid lyricism of a m o v i n g c a m e r a . A m a j o r p r o b l e m of t h e m o v i n g c a m e r a involves t i m e . Films t h a t use this t e c h n i q u e extensively t e n d to s e e m slow-moving, since m o v i n g in or o u t of

3-16. Circle of Friends (Ireland, 1994), with Minnie Driver and Chris O'Donnell, directed by Pat O'Connor. Movement is not always an automatic d o m i n a n t . In this scene, for example, unimportant characters d a n c e in and out of the frame, occasionally obscuring our view of the two central characters, w h o are not moving m u c h as they d a n c e and talk. Note how O'Connor shoots the scene with a telephoto lens, with the romantic couple in focus a n d the other dancers blurred into an undulating sea of irrelevance. What matters for these two is here and now in each other's arms. The rest of the world s e e m s very far away. (Savoy Pictures)

3-17. Forrest Gump (U.S.A., 1994), with Tom Hanks, directed by Robert Zemeckis. Reverse dolly shots such as this are m o r e unsettling than conventional traveling shots. When we dolly into a scene, we can usually see w h e r e w e ' r e h e a d e d , to a geographical goal of s o m e sort. But when the c a m e r a moves in reverse, sweeping backwards as it keeps the running protagonist in frame, we have no sense of a final destination, just the urgent, desperate need to flee. (Paramount Pictures)

a s c e n e is m o r e t i m e - c o n s u m i n g t h a n a straight cut. A d i r e c t o r m u s t d e c i d e w h e t h e r m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a i s w o r t h t h e f i l m t i m e involved a n d w h e t h e r t h e m o v e m e n t w a r r a n t s t h e a d d i t i o n a l t e c h n i c a l a n d b u d g e t a r y c o m p l i c a t i o n s . If a f i l m m a k e r d e c i d e s t o m o v e t h e c a m e r a , h e o r she m u s t t h e n d e c i d e how. S h o u l d it be m o u n t e d on a vehicle or simply m o v e d a r o u n d t h e axis of a stat i o n a r y t r i p o d ? E a c h m a j o r type o f c a m e r a m o v e m e n t implies different m e a n ings, s o m e obvious, o t h e r s subtle. T h e r e a r e seven basic m o v i n g c a m e r a shots: (1) pans, (2) tilts, (3) crane shots, (4) dolly shots, (5) z o o m shots, (6) hand-held shots, a n d (7) aerial shots. Panning .shots—those m o v e m e n t s of t h e c a m e r a t h a t scan a s c e n e horizontally—are t a k e n from a s t a t i o n a r y axis p o i n t , with t h e c a m e r a m o u n t e d on a tripod. Such shots are time-consuming because the camera's m o v e m e n t must o r d i n a r i l y b e s m o o t h a n d slow t o p e r m i t t h e images t o b e r e c o r d e d clearly. P a n s a r e also u n n a t u r a l in a sense, for w h e n t h e h u m a n eye p a n s a s c e n e , it j u m p s from o n e p o i n t t o a n o t h e r , s k i p p i n g over t h e intervals b e t w e e n p o i n t s . T h e most c o m m o n use of a p a n is to k e e p t h e subject within f r a m e . If a p e r s o n moves from o n e position t o a n o t h e r , t h e c a m e r a moves horizontally t o k e e p t h e p e r s o n i n t h e c e n t e r o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n . P a n s i n e x t r e m e l o n g shots a r e especially effective in epic films w h e r e an a u d i e n c e c a n e x p e r i e n c e t h e vastness of a locale. But p a n s can be just as effective at m e d i u m a n d close r a n g e s . T h e socalled reaction shot, for i n s t a n c e , is a m o v e m e n t of t h e c a m e r a away from t h e c e n t r a l a t t r a c t i o n — u s u a l l y a s p e a k e r — t o c a p t u r e t h e r e a c t i o n of an o n l o o k e r 113

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or listener. In s u c h cases, t h e p a n is an effective way of p r e s e r v i n g t h e c a u s e - e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e two subjects a n d o f e m p h a s i z i n g t h e solidarity a n d c o n n e c t e d n e s s o f p e o p l e . T h e swish p a n (also k n o w n as a flash p a n a n d a zip p a n ) is a v a r i a t i o n of this t e c h n i q u e a n d is often u s e d for transitions b e t w e e n s h o t s — a s a s u b s t i t u t e cut. T h e swish p a n involves a w h i r l i n g of t h e c a m e r a at a s p e e d so r a p i d t h a t only b l u r r e d i m a g e s a r e r e c o r d e d ( 3 - 2 b ) . A l t h o u g h they actually take m o r e t i m e t h a n cuts, swish p a n s c o n n e c t o n e s c e n e to a n o t h e r with a g r e a t e r sense of s i m u l t a n e i t y t h a n cuts c a n suggest. For this r e a s o n , flash p a n s a r e often u s e d to c o n n e c t events a t different locales t h a t m i g h t o t h e r w i s e a p p e a r r e m o t e f r o m each other. P a n s h o t s t e n d t o e m p h a s i z e t h e unity o f space a n d t h e c o n n e c t e d n e s s of p e o p l e a n d objects within t h a t space. Precisely b e c a u s e we e x p e c t a p a n n i n g s h o t t o e m p h a s i z e t h e literal contiguity o f p e o p l e s h a r i n g t h e s a m e s p a c e , t h e s e s h o t s c a n s u r p r i s e us w h e n t h e i r realistic integrity is violated. In R o b e r t Bent o n ' s Places in the Heart, for e x a m p l e , t h e final s h o t of t h e m o v i e c o n n e c t s t h e 3-18. Cabaret ( U . S . A . , 1 9 7 2 ) , with Joel Grey, choreographed and directed by Bob Fosse. A former dancer, Fosse was the foremost stage choreographer-director of his generation, winning m a n y Tony Awards for his Broadway musicals. He also directed a half dozen or so movies, including this classic musical, his greatest work on film. Fosse's dancers are rarely elegant or lyrical. Rather, they are m o r e likely to scrunch their shoulders, hunch up their back, or thrust out their pelvis. Fosse also loved glitzy/tacky costumes—usually accompanied by hats, which were integrated into his dance numbers. He is also the most witty of choreographers, with his dancers snapping their fingers in unison, mincing to a percussive beat like cartoon characters, or locking their k n e e s and pointing their toes inwardly. Above all, Fosse's d a n c e n u m b e r s are sexy—not the w h o l e s o m e athletic sex appeal of a Gene Kelly choreography, but something funkier, m o r e raffish, and down-and-dirty. His mature style is uniquely cinematic, not merely an objective recording of a stage choreography. In Cabaret, for example, he intercuts shots from the musical n u m b e r s with shots of the dramatic action and vice versa. In s o m e numbers, he cuts to an avalanche of colliding shots to create a choreography that could not exist in the literal space of a theatrical stage. (Allied Artists)

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world of t h e living with t h e d e a d . T h e film is a c e l e b r a t i o n of t h e simple Christian values t h a t b i n d a small Texas c o m m u n i t y t o g e t h e r d u r i n g t h e t r o u b l e d times o f t h e 1930s d e p r e s s i o n . T h e f i n a l s h o t takes place i n c h u r c h . T h e c a m e r a b e g i n s to p a n t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n in a l o n g sweeping m o t i o n d o w n e a c h row of pews. I n t e r s p e r s e d a m o n g t h e surviving c h a r a c t e r s a r e several t h a t w e k n o w t o be d e a d , i n c l u d i n g a m u r d e r e r a n d his victim, w o r s h i p p i n g side by side. T h o u g h t h e rest of t h e movie is realistically p r e s e n t e d , this final s h o t leaps to a symbolic level, s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e unified spirit of t h e c o m m u n i t y i n c l u d e s all its m e m b e r s , d e c e a s e d as well as living. Tilt shots a r e vertical m o v e m e n t s of t h e c a m e r a a r o u n d a stationary h o r i z o n t a l axis. M a n y of t h e s a m e principles t h a t apply to p a n s apply to tilts: T h e y can be u s e d to k e e p subjects within frame, to e m p h a s i z e spatial a n d psychological i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , to suggest simultaneity, a n d to e m p h a s i z e cause-effect r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Tilts, like p a n s , c a n also be u s e d subjectively in pointof-view shots: T h e c a m e r a can simulate a c h a r a c t e r ' s l o o k i n g up or d o w n a s c e n e , for i n s t a n c e . Since a tilt is a c h a n g e in a n g l e , it is often u s e d to suggest a psychological shift within a character. W h e n an eye-level c a m e r a tilts d o w n w a r d , for e x a m p l e , t h e p e r s o n p h o t o g r a p h e d s u d d e n l y a p p e a r s m o r e v u l n e r a b l e . Dolly shots, s o m e t i m e s called t r u c k i n g or t r a c k i n g shots, a r e t a k e n from a m o v i n g vehicle (dolly). T h e vehicle literally moves in, out, or a l o n g s i d e a m o v i n g figure or object while t h e a c t i o n is b e i n g p h o t o g r a p h e d . Tracks are

3-19. P r o d u c t i o n p h o t o from t h e set of Broken Arrow (U.S.A., 1996), with Christian Slater, director John Woo (in white shirt), and John Travolta. Action and adventure films are a m o n g the most kinetic of genres, stressing physical movem e n t above all other qualities. Action films also tend to be violent, fast-paced, and steeped in m a c h i s m o values. The genre is dominated by Americans, though it has attracted such international talent as Hong Kong's John Woo. Asian films in general tend to be slow-paced, but action films m a d e in the East (and especially Hong Kong) are often frenzied, with one brawl spilling over into the next, driving toward an orgiastic explosion of violence at the climax. Woo's American movies have been somewhat less frantic, though still energetically and stylishly directed. (Twentieth Century-Fox)

3-20. Singin' in the Rain (U.S.A., 1952), with Gene Kelly and Cyd Charisse, choreographed by Kelly, directed by Kelly and Stanley Donen. Cyd Charisse, tall, elegant, and gorgeous, was the foremost female dancer during MGM's golden age of musicals, the 1950s. Trained in ballet rather than tap, she was usually at her best in classy n u m b e r s such as this balletic dream sequence. However, she could also convey a sizzling eroticism in such torrid dance n u m b e r s as those from It's Always Fair Weather and The Band Wagon. Stage choreography is always viewed from a stationary position. Film choreography can be more complex. In movies, the camera can be choreographed as well as the dancers. Kelly's choreographies often feature lyrical crane shots in which the camera's swirling motions are dreamily counterpointed by the motions of the dancers, a virtual pas de trois. (MCM)

s o m e t i m e s laid o n t h e set t o p e r m i t t h e vehicle t o m o v e s m o o t h l y — h e n c e t h e t e r m tracking shot. If t h e s e shots involve l o n g distances, t h e tracks have to be laid or w i t h d r a w n while t h e c a m e r a is m o v i n g in or o u t . Today, any v e h i c u l a r m o v e m e n t of t h e c a m e r a c a n be r e f e r r e d to as a dolly shot. T h e c a m e r a can be m o u n t e d on a car, a train, even a bicycle. T r a c k i n g is a useful t e c h n i q u e in point-of-view shots to c a p t u r e a sense of m o v e m e n t in or o u t of a s c e n e . If a f i l m m a k e r wants to e m p h a s i z e t h e destination of a c h a r a c t e r ' s m o v e m e n t , t h e d i r e c t o r is m o r e likely to use a straight cut b e t w e e n t h e initiation of t h e m o v e m e n t a n d its c o n c l u s i o n . If t h e experie n c e of t h e m o v e m e n t itself is i m p o r t a n t , t h e d i r e c t o r is m o r e likely to dolly. T h u s , if a c h a r a c t e r is s e a r c h i n g for s o m e t h i n g , t h e t i m e - c o n s u m i n g point-ofview dolly h e l p s to e l o n g a t e t h e s u s p e n s e of t h e s e a r c h . Similarly, t h e reverse dolly a n d t h e pull-back dolly are effective t e c h n i q u e s for s u r p r i s i n g t h e audie n c e with a revelation ( 3 - 1 7 , 3 - 2 1 ) . By m o v i n g back, t h e c a m e r a reveals s o m e t h i n g startling, s o m e t h i n g previously off frame. A c o m m o n function of traveling shots is to p r o v i d e an ironic c o n t r a s t with d i a l o g u e . In J a c k Clayton's The Pumpkin Eater, a d i s t r a u g h t wife ( A n n e Bancroft) r e t u r n s t o a n e x - h u s b a n d ' s h o u s e , w h e r e she has a n a d u l t e r o u s liaison 1 l6

3-21. Gone With the Wind (U.S.A., 1939), with Vivien Leigh deft, in front of boiling cauldron), directed by Victor Fleming. The pull-back dolly or crane shot begins with a close view of a subject, then withdraws to reveal the larger context. The contrast between the close and distant views can be funny, shocking, or sadly ironic. In this famous scene, the c a m e r a begins with a close shot of the heroine (Leigh), then slowly pulls back, revealing the w o u n d e d bodies of h u n d r e d s of soldiers, and stopping finally at a distant long-shot range, in front of a high flagpole, the tattered Confederate flag blowing in the wind like a shredded remnant. (MGM)

with h i m . As t h e two lie in b e d , she asks h i m if he h a d b e e n u p s e t over t h e i r divorce a n d w h e t h e r o r n o t h e missed her. H e assures h e r t h a t h e wasn't upset, b u t while t h e i r voices c o n t i n u e o n t h e s o u n d t r a c k , t h e c a m e r a belies his words by slowly dollying t h r o u g h his living r o o m , revealing p i c t u r e s a n d m e m e n t o s of t h e ex-wife. T h e s h o t is a k i n d of d i r e c t c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e d i r e c t o r a n d a u d i e n c e , bypassing t h e c h a r a c t e r s . T h e s e t e c h n i q u e s a r e d e l i b e r a t e a u t h o rial i n t r u s i o n s . T h e y a r e favored by filmmakers w h o view t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s with skepticism o r i r o n y — L u b i t s c h a n d H i t c h c o c k , for e x a m p l e . O n e of t h e m o s t c o m m o n uses of dolly shots is to e m p h a s i z e psychological r a t h e r t h a n literal revelations. By slowly t r a c k i n g in on a character, t h e filmm a k e r is g e t t i n g close to s o m e t h i n g crucial. T h e m o v e m e n t acts as a signal to t h e a u d i e n c e , suggesting, in effect, t h a t we a r e a b o u t to witness s o m e t h i n g i m p o r t a n t . A c u t to a close-up w o u l d t e n d to e m p h a s i z e t h e rapidity of t h e discovery, b u t slow dolly shots suggest a m o r e g r a d u a l revelation. F o r e x a m p l e , in Clive D o r m e r ' s The Caretaker (also k n o w n as The Guest), this t e c h n i q u e is u s e d several times. Based on H a r o l d P i n t e r ' s play, t h e movie c o n c e r n s two b r o t h e r s a n d a n old t r a m p w h o tries t o set o n e b r o t h e r against t h e o t h e r . T h e d i a l o g u e , as is often t h e case in a P i n t e r script, is evasive a n d n o t very helpful in providing 117

3-22a. Strictly Ballroom (Australia, 1992), with Tara Morice and Paul Mercurio, directed by Baz Lurhmann. (Miramax Films)

3-22b. Dance with Me (U.S.A., 1998), with Chayanne and Jane Krakowski, directed by Randa Haines. (Mandalay Entertainment) "Dance is the activity where the sexual connection is most explicit," Michael Malone has pointed out, "which is why movies use it to symbolize sex and why skillful dancing is an invariable movie clue to erotic sophistication, a prerequisite for the lover." Eroticism underlies virtually all dances centered on the couple, whether the style is a sizzling flamenco with bodies literally pressed together as in Strictly Ballroom: or an edgy, pulsating Latin-American n u m b e r as in Dance with Me: or even a stately, formalized eighteenth century English gavotte as in the Jane Austen adaptation, Mansfield Park. In each, the male courts his partner with sinuously seductive urgency. See Michael Malone, Heroes of Eros: Male Sexuality in the Movies (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1979).

3-22c. Mansfield Park (Great Britain, 1999), with Frances O'Connor and Alessandro Nivola, directed by Patricia Rozema. (Miramax Films)

an understanding of the characters. T h e brothers are different in most respects. Mick (Alan Bates) is materialistic a n d aggressive. A s t o n ( R o b e r t Shaw) is g e n t l e a n d w i t h d r a w n . E a c h b r o t h e r h a s a crucial s p e e c h in w h i c h t h e c a m e r a slowly tracks from a l o n g r a n g e to a close-up. N e i t h e r of t h e s p e e c h e s is really very informative, at least n o t on a literal level. However, t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n

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of t h e d i a l o g u e with t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e dolly s h o t h e l p s t h e a u d i e n c e to feel t h a t it has finally "arrived" at an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of e a c h character. A stationary c a m e r a t e n d s to convey a sense of stability a n d order, unless t h e r e is a g r e a t deal of m o v e m e n t within t h e frame. T h e m o v i n g c a m e r a — b y its very instability—can c r e a t e ideas of vitality, flux, a n d s o m e t i m e s disorder. O r s o n Welles e x p l o i t e d t h e m o b i l e c a m e r a to suggest t h e title c h a r a c t e r ' s d y n a m i c e n e r g y in Othello. Early in t h e movie, t h e c o n f i d e n t M o o r is often p h o t o g r a p h e d in traveling shots. In t h e r a m p a r t s scene, he a n d Iago walk with military briskness as t h e c a m e r a moves with t h e m at an equally e n e r g e t i c p a c e . W h e n Iago tells h i m of his suspicions, t h e c a m e r a slows d o w n , t h e n c o m e s to a halt. O n c e O t h e l l o ' s m i n d has b e e n p o i s o n e d , he is p h o t o g r a p h e d mostly from stationary setups. N o t only has his c o n f i d e n t e n e r g y d r a i n e d away, b u t a spiritual paralysis invades his soul. In t h e final shots of t h e movie, he barely moves, even within t h e still frame. This paralysis motif is c o m p l e t e d w h e n O t h e l l o kills himself. W h e n t h e c a m e r a literally follows a character, t h e a u d i e n c e assumes t h a t it will discover s o m e t h i n g a l o n g t h e way. A j o u r n e y , after all, usually has a d e s t i n a t i o n . B u t traveling shots a r e often symbolic r a t h e r t h a n literal. In Federico Fellini's 8'/2, for e x a m p l e , t h e m o v i n g c a m e r a is u s e d to suggest a variety of t h e m a t i c ideas. T h e p r o t a g o n i s t , G u i d o (Marcello M a s t r o i a n n i ) , is a film d i r e c t o r w h o ' s t r y i n g to p u t t o g e t h e r a movie n e a r a b i z a r r e h e a l t h spa. Everyw h e r e h e t u r n s , h e ' s c o n f r o n t e d b y m e m o r i e s , fantasies, a n d realities m o r e fantastic t h a n a n y t h i n g he c a n i m a g i n e . B u t he is paralyzed by i n d e c i s i o n . W h a t , if a n y t h i n g , from all this c o p i o u s flux will he select for his movie? He c a n ' t use it all, for i t w o n ' t f i t t o g e t h e r — t h e materials are t o o sprawling. T h r o u g h o u t t h e f i l m , t h e c a m e r a w a n d e r s restlessly, p r o w l i n g over t h e fantastic locale, c o m p u l sively h o a r d i n g i m a g e s of faces, t e x t u r e s , a n d s h a p e s . All a r e a b s o r b e d by G u i d o , b u t h e i s u n a b l e t o d e t a c h t h e m from t h e i r c o n t e x t s t o f o r m a m e a n i n g ful artistic s t r u c t u r e . A n u m b e r of film theorists have discussed t h e u n i q u e capacity of cine m a t o c o n v e r t space i n t o t i m e a n d t i m e i n t o space. T h e a m o u n t o f t i m e i t takes to p h o t o g r a p h a c o n c r e t e object c a n be t h e m a i n p u r p o s e of a shot, especially a traveling shot. T h e a c k n o w l e d g e d m a s t e r of t h e s e types of dolly shots was M a x O p h u l s . In movies such as Letter From an Unknown Woman a n d The Earrings of Madame De . . . , t h e h e r o i n e s t h r o w themselves i n t o i m p r u d e n t b u t glorious love affairs. T h e c a m e r a tracks relentlessly a s t h e w o m e n b e c o m e m o r e irrevocably involved with t h e i r lovers. As critic A n d r e w Sarris p o i n t e d out, O p h u l s uses his dolly shots as m e t a p h o r s of t i m e ' s c r u e l prodigality. His world is o n e of tragic flux a n d instability in w h i c h love is d e s t i n e d to r u n its eventually b i t t e r c o u r s e . T h e s e l e n g t h y t r a c k i n g shots p r e s e r v e t h e c o n t i n u i t y of t i m e by p r e s e r v i n g t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f space. T h e r e i s n o t i m e for p a u s e a n d reflection " b e t w e e n shots" in t h e s e films. This symbolic t e c h n i q u e can be o v e r l o o k e d by t h e casual viewer b e c a u s e t h e dolly shots are t o s o m e d e g r e e functional: T h e y follow c h a r a c t e r s in t h e i r daily r o u n d of activities. B u t a s t a t i o n a r y c a m e r a w o u l d be j u s t as f u n c t i o n a l ( n o t to m e n t i o n less e x p e n s i v e ) , for t h e c h a r a c t e r s c o u l d m o v e t o w a r d or away from a fixed s e t u p . Hand-held shots a r e generally less lyrical, m o r e n o t i c e a b l e t h a n v e h i c u l a r shots. H a n d - h e l d c a m e r a s , w h i c h a r e usually m o u n t e d with a h a r n e s s o n t h e

3 - 2 3 . Born on the Fourth of July (U.S.A., 1989), with Tom Cruise, directed by Oliver Stone. In film as in the other arts, subject matter usually d e t e r m i n e s technique. This s c e n e portrays an antiwar protest rally during the Vietnam War era. The scene is deliberately shot in a ragged manner, with shaky hand-held shots, fragmentary editing, and open-form a s y m m e t r i cal compositions that look like newsreel footage captured in the midst of the chaos. A stable, aesthetically balanced shot would be m o r e beautiful, but such a composition would be completely at odds with the e s s e n c e of the subject matter. (Universal city studios)

c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r ' s s h o u l d e r , w e r e p e r f e c t e d i n t h e 1950s t o allow c a m e r a o p e r ators to m o v e in or o u t of scenes with g r e a t e r flexibility a n d s p e e d . Originally u s e d by d o c u m e n t a r i s t s to p e r m i t t h e m to s h o o t in nearly every k i n d of location, t h e s e c a m e r a s w e r e quickly a d o p t e d by m a n y fiction film d i r e c t o r s as well. H a n d - h e l d shots a r e often j u m p y a n d r a g g e d . T h e c a m e r a ' s r o c k i n g i s h a r d t o i g n o r e , for t h e s c r e e n e x a g g e r a t e s t h e s e m o v e m e n t s , especially if t h e shots a r e t a k e n from close r a n g e s . F o r this r e a s o n , filmmakers often use t h e h a n d - h e l d c a m e r a for point-of-view shots. In Mike Nichols's The Graduate, for e x a m p l e , a h a n d - h e l d s h o t is u s e d to s i m u l a t e t h e h e r o ' s a t t e m p t s to m a n e u v e r t h r o u g h a crowded room of people. Crane shots a r e essentially a i r b o r n e dolly shots. A c r a n e is a k i n d of m e c h a n i c a l a r m , often m o r e t h a n twenty feet i n l e n g t h . I n m a n y respects, i t r e s e m b l e s t h e c r a n e s used by t h e t e l e p h o n e c o m p a n y to r e p a i r lines. It can lilt a c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r a n d c a m e r a in or o u t of a s c e n e . It can m o v e in virtually any d i r e c t i o n : u p , d o w n , diagonally, in, o u t , o r any c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e s e . I n H i t c h cock's Notorious, t h e c a m e r a sweeps from an e x t r e m e h i g h - a n g l e l o n g s h o t of a b a l l r o o m t o a n e x t r e m e close-up o f t h e h a n d o f t h e h e r o i n e ( I n g r i d B e r g m a n ) clasping a small key. T h e S t e a d i c a m is a c a m e r a stabilizing device t h a t was p e r f e c t e d in t h e 1970s. It allows c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r s to m o v e s m o o t h l y t h r o u g h a set or l o c a t i o n without s h a k i n g o r b o b b i n g . T h e S t e a d i c a m e n a b l e s f i l m m a k e r s t o e l i m i n a t e t h e n e e d for s u c h e x p e n s i v e devices a s c r a n e s a n d dollies, w h i c h c a n restrict 1 20

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c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s considerably. T h e S t e d i c a m also r e d u c e d t h e n e e d for e x t r a crew m e m b e r s to activate t h e c u m b e r s o m e old t e c h n o l o g y of tracks, h a n d - o p e r a t e d dollies, a n d m a n y types o f c r a n e s . P e r h a p s t h e m o s t impressive use of t h e S t e a d i c a m d u r i n g t h e 1970s was in Kubrick's h o r r o r classic, The Shining, w h e r e t h e c a m e r a was able to follow a y o u n g boy's tricycle as he eerily p e d dled down empty hotel corridors. Zoom lenses d o n ' t usually involve t h e actual m o v e m e n t of t h e c a m e r a , b u t on t h e s c r e e n t h e i r effect is very m u c h like an e x t r e m e l y fast t r a c k i n g or c r a n e shot. T h e z o o m is a c o m b i n a t i o n of lenses, which a r e c o n t i n u o u s l y variable, p e r m i t t i n g t h e c a m e r a t o c h a n g e from close wide-angle distances t o e x t r e m e t e l e p h o t o positions ( a n d vice versa) a l m o s t simultaneously. T h e effect of t h e z o o m is a b r e a t h t a k i n g sense of b e i n g p l u n g e d i n t o a s c e n e , or an equally j o l t i n g sense of b e i n g p l u c k e d o u t of it. Z o o m shots a r e u s e d i n s t e a d of dolly or c r a n e shots for a n u m b e r of r e a s o n s . T h e y can zip in or o u t of a s c e n e m u c h faster t h a n any vehicle. F r o m t h e p o i n t of view of e c o n o m y , they a r e c h e a p e r t h a n dolly or c r a n e shots since no vehicle is necessary. In c r o w d e d locations, z o o m lenses c a n be useful for p h o t o g r a p h i n g from l o n g distances, away from t h e c u r i o u s eyes of passersby.

3-24. The Crucible (U.S.A., 1996), with Winona Ryder (behind smoking cauldron), directed by Nicholas Hytner. When adapting a play---especially a famous stage drama like Arthur Miller's The Crucible—the film director must decide whether or not to "open it up." That is, whether the confined interiors of most stage sets ought to be transferred to the wide open spaces afforded by natural locations. To do so risks dissipating the spatial tension of the original, which is usually conceived by the playwright as a kind of No Exit situation. Nicholas 1 lytner, who is one of Britain's most famous stage directors, decided to open up Miller's tale of witch-hunt hysteria in seventeenth-century Puritan Salem. Hytner also decided to use m o v e m e n t as metaphor: "I had a feeling that the whole hysteria should work like an infection, like a virus, which immediately suggested that the thing should be moving around. You should not only see the hysterics, but you should actually feel the hysterics traveling from one place to another, which m e a n s traveling people and traveling cameras." This technique resulted in a brilliant movie, which heightened rather than lessened the impact of Miller's stagebound drama. (Miller wrote the screenplay of the movie and was very pleased with Hytner's concept.) (Twentieth century-Fox)

3-25. The Blair Witch Project (U.S.A., 1999), with Heather Donahue, directed by Dan Myrick and Eduardo Sanchez. A rocking, turbulently roiling c a m e r a can produce a sense of nausea in s o m e people, almost like sea-sickness aboard a violently swaying boat on rough waters. This low-budget thriller had its audiences literally hurling in the aisles—sometimes even before they reached the aisles. Virtually the entire movie was shot with an unstable hand-held camera, to suggest an on-the-spot d o c u m e n t a r y recording of events while they're actually taking place. The film is a good e x a m p l e of how budgetary liabilities can be converted into aesthetic virtues. The story centers on three college students who go to an isolated forest to explore a local myth about witchcraft. They plan to videotape the entire project. There was no set to build, no lights to set up, no c o s t u m e s to sew, and no costly special effects to drain the budget. The cast consisted of only three nonprofessional actors. The movie cost a piddling $35,000 and grossed an astonishing $ 1 50 million.

(Artisan Entertainment)

T h e r e a r e c e r t a i n psychological differences b e t w e e n z o o m shots a n d t h o s e involving an actual m o v i n g c a m e r a . Dolly a n d c r a n e shots t e n d to give t h e viewer a sense of e n t e r i n g i n t o or w i t h d r a w i n g from a set: F u r n i t u r e a n d p e o p l e s e e m to s t r e a m by t h e sides of t h e s c r e e n as t h e c a m e r a p e n e t r a t e s a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l space. Z o o m lenses f o r e s h o r t e n p e o p l e a n d flatten space. T h e e d g e s of t h e i m a g e simply d i s a p p e a r at all sides. T h e effect is o n e of sudd e n m a g n i f i c a t i o n . I n s t e a d of feeling as t h o u g h we are e n t e r i n g a s c e n e , we feel as t h o u g h a small p o r t i o n of it has b e e n t h r u s t toward us. In shots of brief d u r a tion, t h e s e differences a r e n o t significant, b u t in m o r e lengthy shots, t h e psychological differences c a n b e p r o n o u n c e d . Aerial shots, usually t a k e n from a helicopter, are really variations of t h e c r a n e shot. Like a c r a n e , t h e h e l i c o p t e r can m o v e in virtually any d i r e c t i o n . W h e n a c r a n e is impractical—usually on e x t e r i o r l o c a t i o n s — a n aerial s h o t c a n d u p l i c a t e t h e effect. T h e h e l i c o p t e r s h o t can b e m u c h m o r e extravagant, o f c o u r s e , a n d for this r e a s o n is occasionally u s e d to suggest a s w o o p i n g sense of f r e e d o m . In Apocalypse Now, Francis C o p p o l a u s e d aerial shots to p r o d u c e a godlike sense of inexorability, as swirling A m e r i c a n h e l i c o p t e r s a n n i h i l a t e a V i e t n a m e s e village. T h e s e q u e n c e is a kinetic t o u r de force, suffusing t h e action 122

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with a sense of e x h i l a r a t i o n — a n d h o r r o r . Virtually every s h o t in this brilliantly e d i t e d s e q u e n c e c o n t a i n s a f o r w a r d r u s h , a sense of b e i n g swept up by events that are out of control.

M o v e m e n t in film is n o t a literal p h e n o m e n o n b u t an optical illusion. Present-day c a m e r a s r e c o r d m o v e m e n t a t twenty-four frames p e r s e c o n d (fps).

3-26. Ballet Mecanique (France, 1924), directed by Fernand Leger. Best known for his cubist paintings, Leger was also an avant-garde filmmaker. O n e of the first to explore abstraction in the cinema, he created m a n y striking kinetic effects by animating and choreographing ordinary objects like crockery, dishes, and m a c h i n e gears. (Museum of Modem Art)

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T h a t is, in e a c h s e c o n d , twenty-four s e p a r a t e still p i c t u r e s are p h o t o g r a p h e d . W h e n t h e film is s h o w n in a p r o j e c t o r at t h e s a m e s p e e d , t h e s e still p h o t o g r a p h s a r e m i x e d i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y by t h e h u m a n eye, giving t h e illusion of m o v e m e n t . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n is called t h e persistence of vision. By simply m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e t i m i n g m e c h a n i s m o f t h e c a m e r a a n d / o r projector, a f i l m m a k e r can distort m o v e m e n t o n t h e s c r e e n . T h e r e a r e f i v e basic d i s t o r t i o n s o f this kind: (1) animation, (2) fast m o t i o n , (3) slow motion, (4) reverse m o t i o n , a n d (5) freeze frames. T h e r e are two f u n d a m e n t a l differences b e t w e e n a n i m a t i o n a n d livea c t i o n movies. In a n i m a t i o n s e q u e n c e s , e a c h frame is p h o t o g r a p h e d separately, r a t h e r t h a n c o n t i n u o u s l y a t t h e rate o f twenty-four frames p e r s e c o n d . A n o t h e r difference is t h a t a n i m a t i o n , as t h e w o r d implies, d o e s n ' t ordinarily involve t h e p h o t o g r a p h i n g o f subjects t h a t m o v e b y themselves. T h e subjects p h o t o g r a p h e d a r e g e n e r a l l y drawings o r static objects. T h u s , i n a n a n i m a t e d movie, t h o u s a n d s of frames a r e separately p h o t o g r a p h e d . E a c h f r a m e differs from its n e i g h b o r only to an infinitesimal d e g r e e . W h e n a s e q u e n c e of t h e s e frames is p r o j e c t e d at twenty-four fps, t h e illusion is t h a t t h e drawings or objects a r e moving a n d , h e n c e , a r e " a n i m a t e d . " A p o p u l a r m i s c o n c e p t i o n a b o u t a n i m a t e d movies is t h a t they a r e i n t e n d e d p r i m a r i l y for t h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t o f c h i l d r e n — p e r h a p s b e c a u s e t h e field was d o m i n a t e d for so m a n y years by Walt Disney. In actuality, t h e g a m u t of sophistication in t h e g e n r e is as b r o a d as in live-action fiction films. T h e works o f Disney a n d t h e p u p p e t f i l m s o f t h e C z e c h Jiri T r n k a a p p e a l t o b o t h c h i l d r e n a n d adults. A few of t h e s e films are as sophisticated as t h e drawings of Paul Klee. T h e r e a r e even s o m e X-rated a n i m a t e d f i l m s , m o s t n o t a b l y Ralph Bakshi's Fritz the Cat a n d Heavy Traffic. A n o t h e r p o p u l a r m i s c o n c e p t i o n a b o u t a n i m a t e d movies i s t h a t they a r e s i m p l e r t h a n live-action f i l m s . T h e c o n t r a r y i s m o r e often t h e case. F o r every s e c o n d o f s c r e e n t i m e , twenty-four s e p a r a t e drawings usually have t o b e p h o t o g r a p h e d . T h u s , in an average n i n e t y - m i n u t e f e a t u r e , over 129,600 drawings are necessary. F u r t h e r m o r e , s o m e a n i m a t o r s use t r a n s p a r e n t plastic sheets (called eels), which they layer over e a c h o t h e r to give t h e illusion of d e p t h to t h e i r drawings. S o m e single frames consist of as m a n y as t h r e e or four layers of eels. Most a n i m a t e d films a r e s h o r t precisely b e c a u s e of t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g difficulty of p r o d u c i n g all t h e n e c e s s a r y drawings for a l o n g e r movie. F e a t u r e l e n g t h a n i m a t e d movies a r e usually p r o d u c e d in assembly line fashion, with d o z e n s of artists d r a w i n g t h o u s a n d s of s e p a r a t e frames. Technically, a n i m a t e d films c a n be as c o m p l e x as live-action movies. T h e s a m e t e c h n i q u e s can b e u s e d i n b o t h forms: traveling shots, z o o m s , angles, various lenses, e d i t i n g , dissolves, etc. T h e only difference is t h a t a n i m a t o r s draw t h e s e e l e m e n t s i n t o t h e i r i m a g e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , a n i m a t o r s also c a n use m o s t of t h e t e c h n i q u e s of t h e p a i n t e r : different k i n d s of p a i n t s , p e n s , pencils, pastels, washes, acrylics, a n d so o n . S o m e filmmakers have even c o m b i n e d t h e t e c h n i q u e s of live action with a n i m a t i o n . In Neighbors, for e x a m p l e , N o r m a n M c L a r e n u s e d a t e c h n i q u e

jW o v c* in

3-27a. Beauty and the Beast (U.S.A., 1991), directed by Gary Trousdale and Kirk Wise. (©Walt Disney Productions)

Beginning with the "Silly S y m p h o n i e s " of the early 1930s, the field of animation was d o m i n a t e d for m a n y years by Walt Disney. The Disney organization is still in the forefront, with bold innovations in subject matter, style, and technology. Like m a n y of their movies, Beauty and the Beast is a d a p t e d from a well-known fairy tale, though the Disney version has a p r o n o u n c e d feminist twist with its feisty, courageous heroine, w h o is also an avid reader. Toy Story is the first a n i m a t e d feature film that was entirely created using computer technology. The movie was a huge commercial and critical success, as was its sequel. Dinosaur is startlingly realistic, considering its prehistoric cast of characters. The movie c o m b i n e s c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d characters with live-action b a c k g r o u n d s and a wide array of special effects.

3-27b. Toy Story (U.S.A., 1995), directed by John Lasseter. <© The wait Disney Company)

3-27c. directed Leighton.

Dinosaur by Ralph

(U.S.A., 2000), Zondag and Eric

(© Disney Enterprises, Inc.)

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3-28a. Photocopy Cha Cha (U.S.A., 1991), by Chel White, included in The 23rd International Tournee of Animation,

3-28b. Can Film (Bulgaria, 1992), by Zlaten Radev, included in The Fourth Animation Celebration.

(© Expanded Entertainment)

(Expanded Entertainment)

A n u m b e r of c o m m e n t a t o r s have referred to the contemporary animation scene as a golden age, e n c o m p a s s i n g a broad spectrum of styles and techniques from all over the world. Photocopy Cha Cha is the first anim a t e d movie created on a copy machine, by one of the most innovative of all animation artists. Unconventional artists love to create hybrid works, like Can Film, which c o m b i n e s stewed tomato cans with clay animation. Words, Words, Words, on the other hand, is rather traditional, using deliberately crude line drawings, but emphasizing a sophisticated literary text. 3-28c. Words, Words, Words (Czech Republic, 1993), by Michaela Ravlatova, included in The 24th International Tournee of Animation. (The Samuel Goldwyn Company)

called pixillation, w h i c h involves p h o t o g r a p h i n g live a c t o r s f r a m e by f r a m e , a m e t h o d s o m e t i m e s called slop-motion photography. W h e n t h e s e q u e n c e is p r o j e c t e d o n t h e s c r e e n , t h e a c t o r s m o v e i n a b r u p t , jerky m o t i o n s , s u g g e s t i n g a primitive c a r t o o n f i g u r e . O t h e r f i l m m a k e r s have c o m b i n e d a n i m a t i o n a n d t h e atrical f i l m t e c h n i q u e s w i t h i n t h e s a m e f r a m e , e i t h e r t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f t h e o p t i c a l p r i n t e r o r t h r o u g h c o m p u t e r g r a p h i c special effects ( 3 - 2 9 ) . O n e o f t h e m o s t successful i n s t a n c e s o f c o m b i n i n g live a c t i o n with anim a t i o n is Who Framed Roger Rabbit, d i r e c t e d by R o b e r t Z e m e c k i s . R i c h a r d l 26

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Williams was t h e d i r e c t o r of a n i m a t i o n for t h e project, which involved over 320 a n i m a t o r s . Nearly two million drawings w e r e m a d e for t h e movie. S o m e single frames w e r e s o c o m p l e x t h a t they r e q u i r e d two d o z e n drawings. T h e integration of real details with c a r t o o n c h a r a c t e r s is startling. A c a r t o o n rabbit d r i n k s from a real coffee c u p , which rattles. C a r t o o n c h a r a c t e r s t h r o w real shadows on t h e set. T h e y b u m p i n t o live p e o p l e , k n o c k i n g t h e m d o w n . Fast motion is a c h i e v e d by h a v i n g events p h o t o g r a p h e d at a slower rate t h a n twenty-four fps. Ordinarily, t h e subject p h o t o g r a p h e d moves at a n o r m a l p a c e . But w h e n t h e s e q u e n c e is p r o j e c t e d at twenty-four fps, t h e effect is o n e of a c c e l e r a t i o n . T h i s t e c h n i q u e is s o m e t i m e s u s e d to intensify t h e n a t u r a l s p e e d of a s c e n e — o n e s h o w i n g g a l l o p i n g horses, for e x a m p l e , or cars s p e e d i n g past t h e c a m e r a . Early silent c o m e d i e s w e r e p h o t o g r a p h e d b e f o r e t h e s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n of c a m e r a s a n d p r o j e c t o r s at twenty-four fps, a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e i r sense of s p e e d is e x a g g e r a t e d at present-day p r o j e c t o r s p e e d s . Even at sixteen or twenty fps, however, s o m e of t h e s e early d i r e c t o r s u s e d fast m o t i o n for c o m i c effects. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e F r e n c h aesthetician H e n r i Bergson, w h e n p e o p l e act mechanically r a t h e r than flexibly, c o m e d y is the result. People, unlike m a c h i n e s , can think, feel, a n d act reasonably. A p e r s o n ' s intelligence is m e a s u r e d by his or h e r ability t o b e flexible. W h e n b e h a v i o r b e c o m e s m a c h i n e l i k e a n d inflexible, we find it l a u g h a b l e . O n e aspect of m a c h i n e l i k e b e h a v i o r is s p e e d : W h e n a per-

3-29. The Mask (U.S.A., 1994), with Jim Carrey, special effects by Industrial Light & Magic, directed by Chuck Russell There have b e e n several e x p e r i m e n t s in the past combining live action and animation within the s a m e frame, most notably Disney's Song of the South and Mary Poppins. Since the invention of c o m p u t e r graphics special effects, however, these two styles can be c o m b i n e d within a single character, as this shot illustrates. Our love-smitten hero is so overcome with passion that he can't restrain his t h u m p i n g heart from throbbing out of his chest—a cartoon heart for a human(ish) character. (New Line Cinema)

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son's m o v e m e n t s are s p e e d e d tip o n f i l m , h e o r she seems u n h u m a n , ridiculous. Dignity is difficult in fast m o t i o n , for acceleration robs us of o u r h u m a n i t y . T h e U p t o n I n n m i x u p in R i c h a r d s o n ' s Tom Jones is funny precisely b e c a u s e t h e fast m o t i o n c a p t u r e s t h e m a c h i n e l i k e predictability of all t h e c h a r a c t e r s : T o m flies from Mrs. Waters's b e d , Mr. Fitzpatrick flies off t h e h a n d l e , Squire W e s t e r n screams for his d a u g h t e r , a n d t h e servants scream for t h e i r lives ( 3 - 3 0 ) . Slow-motion s e q u e n c e s a r e a c h i e v e d by p h o t o g r a p h i n g events at a faster rate t h a n twenty-four fps a n d p r o j e c t i n g t h e lilmstrip at t h e s t a n d a r d s p e e d . Slow m o t i o n t e n d s t o ritualize a n d s o l e m n i z e m o v e m e n t . Even t h e m o s t c o m m o n p l a c e actions take on a c h o r e o g r a p h i c gracefulness in slow m o t i o n . W h e r e s p e e d t e n d s to be t h e n a t u r a l r h y t h m of comedy, slow, dignified m o v e m e n t s t e n d to be associated with tragedy. In The Pawnbroker, Sidney L u m e t u s e d slow m o t i o n in a flashback s e q u e n c e , s h o w i n g t h e p r o t a g o n i s t as a y o u n g m a n on an idyllic c o u n t r y o u t i n g with his family. T h e scenes are lyrical a n d o t h e r w o r l d l y — too p e r f e c t to last. W hen violent scenes a r e p h o t o g r a p h e d in slow m o t i o n , t h e effect is paradoxically beautiful. In The Wild Bunch, Sam P e c k i n p a h used slow m o t i o n to p h o t o g r a p h t h e grisliest scenes o f h o r r o r — f l e s h t e a r i n g , b l o o d s p a t t e r i n g , T

3-30. Tom Jones (Great Britain, 1963), with George Cooper, Albert Finney, and Joyce Redman; directed by Tony Richardson. Richardson uses fast motion in this movie w h e n he wishes to emphasize the machinelike behavior of the characters—especially of the randy hero (Finney) whose sex drive often overpowers his j u d g m e n t . In the famous Upton Inn mixup (pictured), Tom is rudely interrupted in his nocturnal a m o u r s by the hot-tempered Mr. Fitzpatrick. The s e q u e n c e is shot in fast motion to heighten the comedy: The drunken Fitzpatrick flails at our besieged hero as his terrified p a r a m o u r s c r e a m s for her life, thus waking all the inhabitants of the inn, including Sophie Western, the only w o m a n Tom truly loves. (The Samuel Gotdwyn company)

3-3 la. Without Limits (U.S.A., 1998), with Billy Crudup, directed by Robert Towne. Slow motion is often used in movies about athletic events. The technique can prolong the balletic grace of an athlete's m o v e m e n t s . In other cases, such as this, the slow motion heightens the agonized strain in every muscle of an athlete's body as he hurtles himself against the finish wire. (Warner Bros.) 3-31b. The Last of the Mohicans (U.S.A., 1992), with Daniel Day-Lewis, directed by Michael Mann. Slow motion, of course, prolongs t i m e s o m e t i m e s unbearably, as in this shot. The hero is racing to the rescue of the w o m a n he loves, who is u n d e r attack during a sudden Indian a m b u s h . A weapon in each h a n d , photographed at the aggressive full-front position, with the foreground and background an irrelevant blur, Hawkeye (Day-Lewis) is totally focused on his enemy, but the slow-motion photography s e e m s to hold him back—as an agonizing eternity transpires. (Twentieth Century-Fox)

3-31c. Glory (U.S.A., 1989), with Matthew Broderick (left), directed by Edward Zwick. The great J a p a n e s e master, Akira Kurosawa, s o m e t i m e s used slow motion to convey violence, especially in scenes of battle. Zwick also uses this technique, paradoxically converting a scene of brutality and bloodshed during a famous Civil War battle into a mesmerizing ballet of blasted limbs and flying trajectories of debris. (Tri-Star Pictures)

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h o r s e s t o p p l i n g , an a l m o s t e n d l e s s variety. By aestheticizing t h e s e scenes of ugliness, P e c k i n p a h d e m o n s t r a t e s why t h e m e n a r e so a d d i c t e d to a life of violence w h e n it s e e m s so profitless. V i o l e n c e b e c o m e s a l m o s t an aesthetic c r e d o , s o m e w h a t as it's p o r t r a y e d in t h e fiction of Hemingway. Slow-motion violence b e c a m e virtually a t r a d e m a r k in t h e works of P e c k i n p a h . Reverse motion simply involves p h o t o g r a p h i n g an action with t h e film r u n n i n g reversed. W h e n p r o j e c t e d o n t h e s c r e e n , t h e events r u n b a c k w a r d . Since Melies's t i m e , reverse m o t i o n has n o t p r o g r e s s e d m u c h b e y o n d t h e g a g stage. In The Knack, R i c h a r d f e s t e r u s e d reverse m o t i o n as a c o m i c c h o r e o g r a p h i c r e t a k e for a q u i c k l a u g h w h e n an e g g " r e t u r n s " to its shell. O n e of t h e m o s t expressive uses of reverse m o t i o n — c o m b i n e d with slow m o t i o n — i s in J e a n C o c t e a u ' s Orpheus. T h e p r o t a g o n i s t has t a k e n a j o u r n e y i n t o Hell to r e g a i n his lost wife. He m a k e s a serious b l u n d e r while t h e r e a n d expresses a wish to r e t u r n to his original p o i n t of decision to c o r r e c t his mistake. Magically, he is whisked i n t o t h e past b e f o r e o u r eyes, as t h e previous s e q u e n c e unfurls backwards in slow m o t i o n — t o t h e physical setting w h e r e t h e fateful decision was m a d e . T h e reverse m o t i o n in this s e q u e n c e is a g o o d i n s t a n c e of h o w space c a n b e t e m p o r a l i z e d a n d t i m e spatialized i n t h e c i n e m a . A freeze frame s u s p e n d s all m o v e m e n t on t h e s c r e e n . A single i m a g e is selected a n d r e p r i n t e d for as m a n y frames as is necessary to suggest t h e h a l t i n g of m o t i o n . By i n t e r r u p t i n g a s e q u e n c e with a freeze shot, t h e d i r e c t o r calls

3-32. Hair (U.S.A., 1979), choreography by Twyla Tharp, directed by Milos Forman. Slow motion etherealizes m o v e m e n t , lending it a dreamy, otherworldly grace. Throughout this musical, slow motion is used in the d a n c e n u m b e r s to emphasize the individuality rather than the uniformity of the dancers. Twyla Tharp's choreography is organic to the story, which deals with the freewheeling lifestyle of s o m e 1960s hippies. The dance n u m b e r s are loose a n d spontaneous, with each dancer doing his or her own thing—like jiggling links in a chain. (United

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a t t e n t i o n to an i m a g e — o f f e r i n g it, as it w e r e , for o u r d e l e c t a t i o n . S o m e t i m e s , t h e i m a g e is a fleeting m o m e n t of p o i g n a n c e t h a t is over in a fraction of a seco n d , as in t h e final s h o t of Truffaut's The 400 Blows. D i r e c t o r s also use freeze frames for c o m i c p u r p o s e s . In Tom Jones, R i c h a r d s o n freezes t h e s h o t of T o m d a n g l i n g on a n o o s e while t h e off-screen n a r r a t o r u r b a n e l y e x p l a i n s to t h e a u d i e n c e why T o m s h o u l d n o t h a n g until his tale is finished. In o t h e r instances, t h e freeze frame can be u s e d for t h e m a t i c p u r p o s e s . T h e final i m a g e of R i c h a r d s o n ' s The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner is frozen t o e m p h a s i z e t h e p e r m a n e n c e o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s status a t t h e e n d o f t h e p i c t u r e . F r e e z e frames a r e ideal m e t a p h o r s for d e a l i n g with time, for in effect, t h e frozen i m a g e p e r m i t s no c h a n g e . N e a r t h e e n d of True Grit, for e x a m ple, H e n r y H a t h a w a y froze a s h o t of t h e p r o t a g o n i s t (John Wayne) a n d his h o r s e l e a p i n g over a fence. By h a l t i n g t h e s h o t at t h e crest of t h e l e a p , H a t h a w a y creates a m e t a p h o r of timeless g r a n d e u r : T h e i m a g e suggests a h e r o i c e q u e s t r i a n statue, i m m u n e f r o m t h e ravages o f t i m e a n d decay. O f c o u r s e , t h e total a b s e n c e of m o v e m e n t is often associated with d e a t h , a n d H a t h a w a y ' s freeze frame also implies this idea. P e r h a p s a m o r e explicit m e t a p h o r of d e a t h c a n be seen in t h e c o n c l u s i o n of t h e w e s t e r n Butch Gassidy and the Sundance Kid, w h e r e t h e two h e r o e s (Paul N e w m a n a n d R o b e r t R e d f o r d ) a r e "frozen" j u s t b e f o r e they a r e , s h o t t o d e a t h . T h e freeze frame suggests a n u l t i m a t e t r i u m p h over d e a t h . Most of t h e s e m e c h a n i c a l d i s t o r t i o n s were d i s c o v e r e d by Melies. F o r m a n y years after, they w e r e largely i g n o r e d by t h e majority of c o m m e r c i a l film-

3-33. Viridiana (Mexico/Spain, 1961), directed by Luis Buhuel. This notorious freeze-frame parody of Leonardo's Last Supper is only o n e e x a m p l e of Bunuel's savage assault on the Church, sentimental liberalism, and middle-class morality. His sardonic wit is often shocking, b l a s p h e m o u s . For example, the context of this freeze frame is a drunken orgy of beggars who pose for a group photo to the a c c o m p a n i m e n t of Handel's Messiah. A w o m a n reeling in boozy stupor " s n a p s " the picture not with a c a m e r a but her genitals. This raucous gesture throws the "disciples" into paroxysms of laughter Though a nonbeliever, Bunuel was able to infuse a s e n s e of scandal in these sacrilegious jokes. "Thank God I am still an atheist," he once sighed. (Audio-Brandon Films)

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m a k e r s until t h e late 1950s, w h e n t h e F r e n c h New Wave d i r e c t o r s revived t h e m . Since t h e n , m a n y o f t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s have b e e n u s e d promiscuously. Z o o m s , freeze frames, a n d slow-motion s e q u e n c e s have b e c o m e a l m o s t d e rigueur. I n m a n y cases, they have d e g e n e r a t e d i n t o c l i c h e s — m o d i s h flourishes t h a t are t a c k e d o n t o t h e materials, regardless o f w h e t h e r t h e t e c h n i q u e s a r e o r g a n i c t o t h e spirit of t h e subject. In w a t c h i n g a movie, we o u g h t to ask ourselves why a d i r e c t o r is m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a d u r i n g a s c e n e . Or why t h e c a m e r a doesn't m o v e . D o e s t h e d i r e c t o r k e e p t h e c a m e r a close i n t o t h e action, t h u s e m p h a s i z i n g m o t i o n ? O r d o e s h e o r she d e e m p h a s i z e m o v e m e n t t h r o u g h t h e use o f l o n g e r shots, h i g h angles, a n d slow-paced action? Are t h e m o v e m e n t s in a s c e n e naturalistic or stylized? Literal o r symbolic? A r e t h e c a m e r a ' s m o v e m e n t s s m o o t h o r c h o p p y ? Lyrical o r d i s o r i e n t i n g ? W h a t a r e t h e symbolic i m p l i c a t i o n s o f s u c h m e c h a n i c a l distortions as fast a n d slow m o t i o n , freeze frames, a n d a n i m a t i o n ? M o v e m e n t in film is n o t simply a m a t t e r of "what h a p p e n s . " T h e director has d o z e n s of ways to convey m o t i o n , a n d what differentiates a g r e a t director from a m e r e l y c o m p e t e n t o n e is n o t so m u c h a m a t t e r of w h a t h a p p e n s , b u t how things h a p p e n — h o w suggestive a n d r e s o n a n t are t h e m o v e m e n t s in a given d r a m a t i c c o n t e x t ? Or, h o w effectively d o e s t h e f o r m o f t h e m o v e m e n t e m b o d y its c o n t e n t ?

FURTHER READING

BACHER, LUTZ, The Mobile Mise en Scene (New York: A r n o Press, 1978). Primarily on lengthv takes a n d c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s . DEREN, MAYA, "Cinematography: T h e Creative Use of Reality," in The Visual Arts Today, Gyorgy Kepes, ed. (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1960). A discussion of d a n c e a n d d o c u m e n t a r y in film. GEUF.NS, JEAN-PIERRE, "Visuality a n d Power: T h e Work of the Steadicam," Film Quarterly (Winter 1994-1995). GIANNETTI, Louis D., "The Aesthetic of the Mobile Camera," in Godard and Others: Essays in Film Form (Cranbury, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1975). Symbolism a n d the moving camera. HALAS, JOHN, a n d ROGER MANVEI.L, Design in Motion (New York: Focal Press, 1962). M o v e m e n t a n d mise en scene. HOLMAN, BRUCE L . , Puppet Animation in the Cinema (San Diego, Cad.: A. S. Barnes, 1975). Emphasis on Czech a n d Canadian animators. JACOBS, LEWIS, et ah, "Movement" in The Movies as Medium, Lewis Jacobs, ed. (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1970). A collection of essays. KNIGHT, ARTHUR, " T h e Street Films: M u r n a u a n d the Moving Camera," in The Liveliest Art, rev. ed. (New York: Mentor, 1979). T h e G e r m a n school of t h e 1920s. LINDSAY, VAGHEL, The Art of the Moving Picture (New York: Liveright, 1970). R e p r i n t of an early classic study. STEPHENSON, RALPH, The Animated Film (San Diego, Cal.: A. S. Barnes, 1973). Historical survey.

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OvefvieW Real t i m e versus reel time: the p r o b l e m of continuity. Cutting to continuity: c o n d e n s ing unobtrusively. D. W. Griffith and the d e v e l o p m e n t of a universal cutting style. The invisible m a n i p u l a t i o n of classical cutting: editing for e m p h a s i s and nuance. The probl e m of time. Subjective editing: thematic m o n t a g e and the Soviet s c h o o l . Pudovkin and Eisenstein: t w o early masters of t h e m a t i c cutting. The f a m o u s Odessa Steps s e q u e n c e of Potemkin. The countertradition: the realism of Andre Bazin. How editing lies. W h e n not to cut and why. Real t i m e and s p a c e and h o w to preserve t h e m . The realist arsenal: s o u n d , d e e p focus, s e q u e n c e shots, w i d e s c r e e n . Alfred Hitchcock, s u p r e m e master of editing: storyboard s e q u e n c e from North by Northwest.

So far, we've b e e n c o n c e r n e d with c i n e m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n as it relates to t h e single shot, t h e basic u n i t of c o n s t r u c t i o n in movies. E x c e p t for traveling shots a n d lengthy takes, however, shots in film t e n d to a c q u i r e m e a n i n g w h e n they a r c j u x t a p o s e d with o t h e r shots a n d s t r u c t u r e d i n t o a n edited s e q u e n c e . Physically, e d i t i n g is simply j o i n i n g o n e strip of film (shot) with a n o t h e r . Shots a r e j o i n e d into scenes. O n t h e m o s t m e c h a n i c a l level, e d i t i n g eliminates u n n e c e s sary t i m e a n d space. T h r o u g h t h e association o f ideas, e d i t i n g c o n n e c t s o n e s h o t with a n o t h e r , o n e s c e n e with a n o t h e r , a n d so o n . Simple as this m a y n o w s e e m , t h e c o n v e n t i o n of e d i t i n g r e p r e s e n t s w h a t critic T e r r y Ramsaye r e f e r r e d to as t h e "syntax" of c i n e m a , its g r a m m a t i c a l l a n g u a g e . Like linguistic syntax, t h e syntax of e d i t i n g m u s t be l e a r n e d . We d o n ' t possess it innately.

15 In t h e earliest years of c i n e m a , t h e late 1890s, movies w e r e brief, consisting of s h o r t events p h o t o g r a p h e d in long shot in a single take. T h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e s h o t a n d t h e e v e n t w e r e e q u a l . S o o n , filmmakers b e g a n t o tell s t o r i e s — simple o n e s , it's t r u e , b u t r e q u i r i n g m o r e t h a n a single shot. Scholars have t r a c e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of n a r r a t i v e to filmmakers in F r a n c e , G r e a t Britain, a n d t h e U n i t e d States. By t h e early twentieth century, filmmakers h a d already devised a functional style of e d i t i n g we n o w call cutting to continuity. This type of c u t t i n g is a t e c h n i q u e u s e d in m o s t fiction films even today, if only for e x p o s i t i o n scenes. Essentially, this style of e d i t i n g is a k i n d of s h o r t h a n d , consisting of t i m e - h o n o r e d c o n v e n t i o n s . C o n t i n u i t y c u t t i n g tries to p r e s e r v e t h e fluidity of an e v e n t w i t h o u t literally s h o w i n g all of it. F o r e x a m p l e , a c o n t i n u o u s s h o t of a w o m a n leaving w o r k a n d g o i n g h o m e m i g h t take forty-five m i n u t e s . C u t t i n g t o c o n t i n u i t y c o n d e n s e s t h e a c t i o n i n t o five brief shots, e a c h of w h i c h leads by association to t h e n e x t : (1) S h e e n t e r s a c o r r i d o r as she closes t h e d o o r to h e r office. (2) S h e leaves t h e office

4-1. The Makioka Sisters (Japan, 1985), directed by Kon Ichikawa. How a scene is edited can be very subjective, d e p e n d i n g on who's doing the cutting and what the editor wants to emphasize. In this domestic family quarrel, for example, the scene is slanted toward the wronged wife (Keiko Kishi, lower right) and her bullying h u s b a n d (Teinosuke Sachiko, center left). Her sisters and brother-in-law observe from the rear of the room. But a n o t h e r editor could focus on any of the other four characters, giving t h e m more prominence in the s e q u e n c e by cutting to their reactions more often, thus conveying the scene primarily from that character's perspective. In short, six different stories could be told, depending on how the s e q u e n c e is cut together, (RS/SS)

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4-2. Editing styles can be classified a c c o r d i n g to h o w intrusive or interpretive t h e cutting is. T h e least m a n i p u l a t i v e style is found in a s e q u e n c e shot, w h i c h c o n t a i n s no editing at all. Cutting to c o n t i n u i t y m e r e l y c o n d e n s e s t h e t i m e a n d s p a c e of a c o m p l e t e d action. Classical cutting i n t e r p r e t s an action by e m p h a s i z i n g certain details over others. T h e m a t i c m o n t a g e a r g u e s a t h e s i s — t h e s h o t s are c o n n e c t e d in a relatively subjective m a n n e r . Abstract cutting is a purely formalistic style of editing, totally divorced from a n y recognizable subject matter.

b u i l d i n g . (3) S h e e n t e r s a n d starts h e r car. (4) S h e drives h e r car a l o n g a h i g h way. (5) H e r car t u r n s i n t o h e r driveway a t h o m e . T h e e n t i r e forty-five-minute a c t i o n m i g h t take t e n s e c o n d s of s c r e e n t i m e , yet n o t h i n g essential is left o u t . It's a n u n o b t r u s i v e c o n d e n s a t i o n . T o k e e p t h e a c t i o n logical a n d c o n t i n u o u s , t h e r e m u s t b e n o c o n f u s i n g b r e a k s in an e d i t e d s e q u e n c e of this sort. Often, all t h e m o v e m e n t is c a r r i e d o u t in t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n on t h e s c r e e n to avoid confusion. F o r e x a m p l e , if t h e w o m a n m o v e s from r i g h t t o left i n o n e s h o t a n d h e r m o v e m e n t s a r e from left t o r i g h t in t h e o t h e r shots, we m i g h t t h i n k t h a t s h e is r e t u r n i n g to h e r office. C a u s e - e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s m u s t b e clearly set forth. I f t h e w o m a n slams o n h e r b r a k e s , t h e d i r e c t o r is generally obliged to offer us a s h o t of w h a t p r o m p t e d t h e driver to stop so suddenly. T h e c o n t i n u i t y of actual space a n d t i m e is f r a g m e n t e d as s m o o t h l y as possible in this type of e d i t i n g . Unless t h e a u d i e n c e has a clear sense of a cont i n u o u s a c t i o n , a n e d i t i n g transition can b e d i s o r i e n t i n g . H e n c e , t h e t e r m j u m p cut, w h i c h m e a n s a n e d i t i n g transition that's confusing i n t e r m s o f space a n d t i m e . T o m a k e t h e i r transitions s m o o t h , filmmakers generally use e s t a b l i s h i n g s h o t s at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e i r stories or at t h e b e g i n n i n g of any n e w s c e n e within t h e n a r r a t i v e . O n c e t h e l o c a t i o n is established, filmmakers t h e n can cut to closer shots of t h e a c t i o n . If t h e events r e q u i r e a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r of cuts, t h e f i l m m a k e r m i g h t cut b a c k t o a r e e s t a b l i s h i n g s h o t — a r e t u r n t o t h e o p e n i n g l o n g shot. In this way, t h e viewer is r e m i n d e d of t h e spatial c o n t e x t of t h e closer shots. "Between" t h e s e various shots, t i m e a n d space can b e e x p a n d e d o r cont r a c t e d with c o n s i d e r a b l e subtlety.

4-3. The Arrival of a Train (France, 1895), directed by Louis and Auguste Lumiere. The Lumiere brothers might be regarded as the godfathers of the d o c u m e n t a r y m o v e m e n t . Their brief actualites (as they called them) are primitive documentaries shot for the most part in single takes. These early newsreels often contained several different sequences, but rarely is there much cutting within a s e q u e n c e — h e n c e the term sequence shot (that is. a complex action photographed in a continuous take, without cuts). Audiences of this era were so astonished by the novelty of a moving picture that this alone was enough to hold their attention. See also Bill Nichols, Representing Reality: Issues and Concepts in Documentary (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991). (Museum of Modem An)

By 1908, w h e n t h e A m e r i c a n g e n i u s D. W. Griffith e n t e r e d t h e field of f i l m m a k i n g , movies h a d a l r e a d y l e a r n e d h o w t o tell stories t h a n k s t o t h e t e c h n i q u e o f c u t t i n g t o c o n t i n u i t y . But t h e stories w e r e s i m p l e a n d c r u d e c o m p a r e d t o t h o s e i n m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d n a r r a t i v e m e d i u m s like l i t e r a t u r e a n d d r a m a . Nonetheless, movie storytellers already knew that by b r e a k i n g up an action into different shots, the event can be contracted or e x p a n d e d , d e p e n d i n g on the n u m b e r o f s h o t s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e s h o t , n o t t h e s c e n e , was t h e basic u n i t o f film c o n s t r u c t i o n . 137

4-4. A Trip to the Moon (France, 1902), directed by Georges Melies. Around 1900, in America, England, and France, filmmakers began to tell stories. Their narratives were crude, but they required m o r e than just one shot to complete. Melies was one of the first to devise the style of cutting to continuity. The narrative s e g m e n t s are connected by a fade-out. The next scene then fades in, often in a different location and at a different time, though usually with the s a m e characters. Melies advertised these films as stories in "arranged s c e n e s . " (Museum of Modem Art)

Movies b e f o r e Griffith w e r e usually p h o t o g r a p h e d in stationary l o n g s h o t — r o u g h l y t h e position of a close o b s e r v e r in t h e live theater. B e c a u s e film t i m e d o e s n ' t d e p e n d o n t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e literal event, f i l m m a k e r s o f this e r a i n t r o d u c e d a m o r e subjective t i m e , o n e t h a t ' s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e shots ( a n d t h e e l a p s e d t i m e i m p l i e d b e t w e e n t h e m ) , n o t b y t h e actual occurrence.

T h e basic e l e m e n t s of e d i t i n g syntax were already in place w h e n Griff i t h e n t e r e d t h e f i e l d , b u t i t was h e m o r e t h a n any o t h e r individual w h o m o l d e d t h e s e e l e m e n t s i n t o a l a n g u a g e of p o w e r a n d subtlety. Film scholars have called this l a n g u a g e classical cutting. Griffith has b e e n called t h e F a t h e r of Film b e c a u s e h e c o n s o l i d a t e d a n d e x p a n d e d m a n y o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s i n v e n t e d b y his p r e d e c e s s o r s a n d was t h e first to go b e y o n d g i m m i c k r y i n t o t h e r e a l m of art. By 1915, t h e year of his m a s t e r p i e c e The Birth of a Nation, classical c u t t i n g was already an e d i t i n g style of g r e a t sophistication a n d expressiveness. Griffith h a d seized on t h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e association of ideas in t h e c o n c e p t of e d i t i n g a n d e x p a n d e d it in a variety of ways. Classical c u t t i n g involves e d i t i n g for d r a m a t i c intensity a n d e m o t i o n a l e m p h a s i s r a t h e r t h a n for p u r e l y physical r e a s o n s . T h r o u g h t h e use o f t h e 138

4-5. The Birth of a Nation (U.S.A., 1915), directed by D. W. Griffith. Griffith's greatest gift to t h e c i n e m a w a s classical cutting—a style of editing that still characterizes m o s t of the fiction films around the world. Classical cutting allows filmmakers to inflect their narratives, to a d d n u a n c e s and e m p h a s i s . It also subjectivizes time. For example, in this famous last-minute rescue finale, Griffith cross-cuts to four different groups. Despite the s e n s e of s p e e d suggested by the brevity of the shots, the s e q u e n c e actually e x p a n d s time. Griffith used 2 5 5 separate shots for about twenty m i n u t e s of screen time. (Museum of Modern Art)

close-up within t h e s c e n e , Griffith m a n a g e d to achieve a d r a m a t i c i m p a c t t h a t was u n p r e c e d e n t e d . Close-ups h a d b e e n u s e d earlier, b u t Griffith was t h e first t o use t h e m for psychological r a t h e r t h a n physical r e a s o n s a l o n e . A u d i e n c e s were n o w p e r m i t t e d to see t h e smallest details of an a c t o r ' s face. No l o n g e r were p e r f o r m e r s r e q u i r e d t o flail t h e i r a r m s a n d t e a r t h e i r hair. T h e slightest a r c h of an e y e b r o w c o u l d convey a m u l t i t u d e of subtleties. By splitting t h e a c t i o n i n t o a series of f r a g m e n t a r y shots, Griffith achieved n o t only a g r e a t e r sense of detail, b u t a far g r e a t e r d e g r e e of c o n t r o l over his a u d i e n c e ' s r e a c t i o n s . In carefully selecting a n d j u x t a p o s i n g long, m e d i u m , a n d close shots, h e constantly shifted t h e s p e c t a t o r ' s p o i n t o f view within a s c e n e — e x p a n d i n g h e r e , e x c l u d i n g t h e r e , e m p h a s i z i n g , c o n s o l i d a t i n g , c o n n e c t i n g , c o n t r a s t i n g , paralleling, a n d s o o n . T h e possibilities w e r e far ranging. T h e space a n d t i m e c o n t i n u u m of t h e real s c e n e was radically a l t e r e d . It 139

4-6. Thirty-Two Short Films About Glenn Gould (Canada, 1994), with Colm Feore, directed by Franqois Girard. This movie c o m b i n e s e l e m e n t s from d o c u m e n t a r y filmmaking, fiction films, and the avantgarde. Its editing style is radically subjective. The movie features d o c u m e n t a r y footage of the late Glenn Gould, a controversial and eccentric Canadian pianist considered to be one of the great musicians of the twentieth century. There are also many re-created scenes with the brilliant Colm Feore playing the quirky and obsessive artist. The movie's structure is not a straightforward narrative, but a series of fragments, loosely based on the thirty-two-part Goldberg Variations of Johann Sebastian Bach—one of Gould's most celebrated virtuoso performances. The film is structured around ideas rather than a linear story, and for this reason, thematic m o n t a g e is its Style of editing. (The Samuel Goldwyn Company)

was r e p l a c e d by a subjective c o n t i n u i t y — t h e association of ideas implicit in t h e c o n n e c t e d shots. In its m o s t refined f o r m , classical c u t t i n g p r e s e n t s a series of psychologically c o n n e c t e d s h o t s — s h o t s t h a t a r e n ' t necessarily s e p a r a t e d by real t i m e a n d space ( 4 - 1 2 ) . For e x a m p l e , if four c h a r a c t e r s a r e s e a t e d in a r o o m , a d i r e c t o r might cut from o n e s p e a k e r to a s e c o n d with a d i a l o g u e e x c h a n g e , t h e n c u t to a r e a c t i o n s h o t of o n e of t h e listeners, t h e n to a two-shot of t h e original s p e a k e r s , a n d finally to a close-up of t h e f o u r t h p e r s o n . T h e s e q u e n c e of shots r e p r e s e n t s a k i n d of psychological cause-effect p a t t e r n . In o t h e r words, t h e b r e a k u p of shots is justified on t h e basis of d r a m a t i c r a t h e r t h a n literal necessity. T h e s c e n e l 40

4-7. Rhythmus 21 (Germany, 1921), directed by Hans Richter. In the avant-garde cinema, subject matter is often suppressed or exploited primarily as abstract data. The continuity b e t w e e n shots has nothing to do with a story but is determined by purely subjective or formal considerations. Along with m a n y other European abstract artists of his generation, Richter was a champion of the "absolute film," which consists solely of nonrepresentational forms and designs. (Museum of Modern Art)

c o u l d be p h o t o g r a p h e d j u s t as functionally in a single shot, with t h e c a m e r a at long-shot r a n g e . T h i s type of s e t u p is k n o w n as a master shot or a s e q u e n c e shot. Classical c u t t i n g i s m o r e n u a n c e d a n d m o r e intrusive. I t b r e a k s d o w n t h e unity of space, analyzes its c o m p o n e n t s , a n d refocuses o u r a t t e n t i o n to a series o f details. T h e action i s m e n t a l a n d e m o t i o n a l r a t h e r t h a n literal. D u r i n g t h e g o l d e n years o f t h e A m e r i c a n s t u d i o s y s t e m — r o u g h l y t h e 1930s a n d 1 9 4 0 s — d i r e c t o r s w e r e often u r g e d (or forced) t o a d o p t t h e masters h o t t e c h n i q u e o f s h o o t i n g . T h i s m e t h o d involved s h o o t i n g a n e n t i r e s c e n e i n l o n g s h o t w i t h o u t cuts. T h i s take c o n t a i n e d all t h e d r a m a t i c variables a n d h e n c e s e r v e d a s t h e basic o r "master" s h o t for t h e s c e n e . T h e a c t i o n was t h e n r e p e a t e d a n u m b e r o f times, with t h e c a m e r a p h o t o g r a p h i n g m e d i u m shots a n d close-ups of t h e p r i n c i p a l s in t h e s c e n e . W h e n all this footage was g a t h e r e d together, t h e e d i t o r h a d a n u m b e r of c h o i c e s in c o n s t r u c t i n g a story continuity. Often, d i s a g r e e m e n t s a r o s e over t h e p r o p e r s e q u e n c e of shots. Usually, t h e studio d i r e c t o r was p e r m i t t e d a first c u t — t h a t is, t h e s e q u e n c e of shots r e p r e s e n t ing his o r h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e materials. U n d e r this system, t h e studios usually h a d t h e r i g h t to a final cut. Many d i r e c t o r s disliked master-shot techn i q u e s precisely b e c a u s e , with so m u c h footage available, a m e d d l i n g p r o d u c e r c o u l d c o n s t r u c t a radically different continuity. Master shots a r e still u s e d by m a n y d i r e c t o r s . W i t h o u t a master, editors often c o m p l a i n o f i n a d e q u a t e f o o t a g e — t h a t t h e available shots w o n ' t cut l 4 l -

4-8. Fat City (U.S.A., 1972), directed by John Huston. Classical cutting involves editing for dramatic emphasis, to highlight details that might otherwise be overlooked. In Huston's fight scene, for example, the entire boxing match could have been presented in a single setup (a). Such a presentation would probably strike us as underwhelming. Instead, Huston breaks up his shots according to the psychological actions and reactions within the fighter protagonist (Stacy Keach), his m a n a g e r (Nicholas Colosanto), and two friends in the auditorium (Candy Clark and Jeff Bridges). (Columbia Pictures)

smoothly. In c o m p l e x battle scenes, m o s t directors are likely to s h o o t m a n y cover s h o t s — t h a t is, g e n e r a l shots t h a t c a n be u s e d to reestablish a s e q u e n c e if t h e o t h e r shots w o n ' t cut. In The Birth of a Nation, Griffith used m u l t i p l e cameras to p h o t o g r a p h m a n y of t h e b a t t l e scenes, a t e c h n i q u e also u s e d by Akira Kurosawa in s o m e s e q u e n c e s of The Seven Samurai. Griffith a n d o t h e r classical filmmakers d e v e l o p e d a variety of e d i t i n g c o n v e n t i o n s t h a t they t h o u g h t m a d e t h e c u t t i n g "invisible," o r a t least d i d n ' t call a t t e n t i o n to itself. O n e of t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s is t h e eyeline match. We see chara c t e r A look off f r a m e left. C u t to a s h o t — f r o m his p o i n t of view—of c h a r a c t e r B. We a s s u m e B is to A's left. Cause—effect.

t

t| i 1 i n *j

1 43

A n o t h e r c o n v e n t i o n of classical c u t t i n g is matching action. C h a r a c t e r A is seated b u t b e g i n s to rise. C u t to a n o t h e r s h o t of c h a r a c t e r A c o n c l u d i n g t h e rising action a n d t h e n m o v i n g away. T h e i d e a is to k e e p t h e action fluid, to mask t h e c u t with a s m o o t h l i n k a g e that's n o t n o t i c e d b e c a u s e t h e m o t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r takes p r e c e d e n c e . T h e c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e m o v e m e n t c o n c e a l s t h e suture. T h e so-called 180° rule is still o b s e r v e d by filmmakers, t h o u g h even during t h e big-studio e r a t h e r e was n o t h i n g sacred a b o u t it. (For e x a m p l e , J o h n Ford loved violating t h e 180° r u l e . He loved violating a l m o s t any rule.) T h i s c o n v e n t i o n involves mise en s c e n e as well as e d i t i n g . T h e p u r p o s e is to stabilize t h e space of t h e playing a r e a so t h e s p e c t a t o r isn't confused or d i s o r i e n t e d . An i m a g i n a r y "axis of a c t i o n " line is d r a w n t h r o u g h t h e m i d d l e of a s c e n e , viewed from t h e bird's-eye a n g l e (4—9). C h a r a c t e r A is on t h e left; c h a r a c t e r B is on t h e right. If t h e d i r e c t o r w a n t e d a two-shot, he or s h e w o u l d use c a m e r a 1. If we t h e n go to a close-up of A ( c a m e r a 2 ) , t h e c a m e r a m u s t stay on t h e s a m e side of t h e 180° line to k e e p t h e s a m e b a c k g r o u n d — a c o n t i n u i t y aid for t h e spectator. Similarly, a close-up of c h a r a c t e r B ( c a m e r a 3) w o u l d be s h o t on t h e s a m e side of t h e axis of a c t i o n . In s h o t reverse angle e x c h a n g e s — c o m m o n for d i a l o g u e s e q u e n c e s — t h e d i r e c t o r takes c a r e to fix t h e p l a c e m e n t of t h e c h a r a c t e r s from s h o t to shot.

f 44

editing

If c h a r a c t e r A is on t h e left a n d c h a r a c t e r B is on t h e r i g h t in t h e first shot, they must r e m a i n t h a t way in t h e reverse a n g l e t a k e n from over t h e s h o u l d e r of c h a r a c t e r B. Usually t h e reverse a n g l e is n o t literally 180° o p p o s i t e , b u t we agree to a c c e p t it as such. Even today, f i l m m a k e r s rarely take t h e c a m e r a b e h i n d t h e i m a g i n a r y axis line, unless t h e i r d e l i b e r a t e i n t e n t i o n is to confuse t h e spectator. D u r i n g f i g h t scenes a n d o t h e r types o f c h a o t i c clashes, t h e f i l m m a k e r often wants t h e s p e c t a t o r t o feel t h r e a t e n e d , d i s o r i e n t e d , a n x i o u s . T h i s can b e a c c o m p l i s h e d by deliberately violating t h e 180° r u l e . Griffith also p e r f e c t e d t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of t h e chase—still very m u c h with us. Many of his movies e n d e d with a chase a n d last-minute r e s c u e s e q u e n c e . Most of t h e m feature parallel e d i t i n g — t h e a l t e r n a t i o n of shots of

4-10. It's a Wonderful Life (U.S.A., 1946), with James Stewart, directed by Frank Copra. Capra was a master of classical editing. His cutting style was fast, light, seamless. But he never displayed his editing virtuosity for its own sake. Like every other technique, editing is subordinated to the n e e d s of the characters in action—the cardinal c o m m a n d m e n t of classical cutting. In this and other scenes, Capra included a "reactive character" who guides the viewer's response to the action. This character represents a kind of n o r m , the way an average person would respond to a given situation. In this scene, for example, Capra's charming fantasy takes a whimsical turn. The forlorn hero (Stewart) listens to his guardian angel (Henry Travers, left) explain why he isn't a very distinguished angel (he has yet to earn his wings). A casual bystander (Tom Fadden, center) h a p p e n s to overhear and is totally spooked by their conversation. Capra is able to punctuate the comedy of the scene by cutting to this character's response w h e n e v e r the angel says something weird. (RKO>

editing

1 45

o n e s c e n e with a n o t h e r at a different location. By cross-cutting back a n d forth b e t w e e n t h e two (or t h r e e or four) scenes, Griffith conveyed t h e idea of simult a n e o u s t i m e . F o r e x a m p l e , n e a r t h e e n d of The Birth of a Nation, Griffith crosscuts b e t w e e n f o u r g r o u p s . I n j u x t a p o s i n g shots from t h e s e s e p a r a t e scenes, h e m a n a g e s to intensify t h e s u s p e n s e by r e d u c i n g t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e shots as t h e s e q u e n c e r e a c h e s its climax. T h e s e q u e n c e itself lasts twenty m i n u t e s of film time, b u t t h e psychological effect of t h e cross-cutting ( t h e shots average a b o u t five s e c o n d s e a c h ) suggests s p e e d a n d t e n s i o n . Generally s p e a k i n g , t h e g r e a t e r t h e n u m b e r of cuts within a s c e n e , t h e g r e a t e r its sense of s p e e d . To avoid t h e risk of m o n o t o n y d u r i n g this s e q u e n c e , Griffith c h a n g e d his setups m a n y times. T h e r e a r e e x t r e m e long, long, m e d i u m , a n d close shots, varied angles, lighting contrasts, even a m o v i n g c a m e r a (it was m o u n t e d on a t r u c k ) . If t h e c o n t i n u i t y of a s e q u e n c e is reasonably logical, t h e f r a g m e n t a t i o n of space p r e s e n t s no g r e a t difficulties. B u t t h e p r o b l e m of t i m e is m o r e c o m plex. Its t r e a t m e n t in film is m o r e subjective t h a n t h e t r e a t m e n t of space. Movies c a n c o m p r e s s years i n t o two h o u r s of p r o j e c t i o n t i m e . T h e y can also stretch a split s e c o n d i n t o m a n y m i n u t e s . Most f i l m s c o n d e n s e t i m e . T h e r e a r e only a h a n d f u l t h a t a t t e m p t to m a k e s c r e e n time c o n f o r m to real t i m e : A g n e s Varda's Cleo From Five to Seven a n d F r e d Z i n n e m a n n ' s High Noon (4—22) a r e perh a p s t h e best-known e x a m p l e s . B o t h d e a l with a b o u t 9 0 m i n u t e s o f t i m e — a l s o t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l e n g t h of t h e films. Even t h e s e movies c h e a t by c o m p r e s s i n g t i m e i n t h e e x p o s i t o r y o p e n i n g s e q u e n c e s a n d e x p a n d i n g i t i n t h e climactic scenes. In actual p r a c t i c e , t i m e exists in a k i n d of l i m b o : As l o n g as t h e audie n c e is a b s o r b e d by t h e s c r e e n action, t i m e is what t h e film says it is. T h e p r o b l e m , t h e n , is to a b s o r b t h e viewer. On t h e m o s t m e c h a n i c a l level, s c r e e n t i m e is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e physical l e n g t h of t h e filmstrip c o n t a i n i n g t h e shot. This l e n g t h is g o v e r n e d g e n e r ally by t h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e i m a g e subject matter. Usually, l o n g e r shots a r e m o r e d e n s e l y s a t u r a t e d with visual i n f o r m a t i o n t h a n close-ups a n d n e e d t o b e h e l d l o n g e r o n t h e s c r e e n . R a y m o n d Spottiswoode, a n early f i l m theorist, c l a i m e d t h a t a c u t m u s t b e m a d e a t t h e p e a k o f t h e " c o n t e n t c u r v e " — t h a t is, t h e p o i n t in a s h o t at w h i c h t h e a u d i e n c e has b e e n able to assimilate m o s t of its i n f o r m a t i o n . C u t t i n g after t h e p e a k o f t h e c o n t e n t c u r v e p r o d u c e s b o r e d o m a n d a sense of d r a g g i n g t i m e . C u t t i n g b e f o r e t h e p e a k d o e s n ' t give t h e a u d i e n c e e n o u g h t i m e to assimilate t h e visual action. An i m a g e with a c o m p l e x mise e n s c e n e r e q u i r e s m o r e t i m e t o assimilate t h a n a s i m p l e o n e . O n c e a n i m a g e has b e e n established, however, a r e t u r n to it d u r i n g t h e s e q u e n c e can be considerably shorter, b e c a u s e it works as a r e m i n d e r . B u t t h e sensitive t r e a t m e n t of t i m e in e d i t i n g is largely an instinctive m a t t e r t h a t defies m e c h a n i c a l r u l e s . Most g r e a t d i r e c t o r s have e d i t e d t h e i r own films, or at least w o r k e d in close c o l l a b o r a t i o n with t h e i r e d i t o r s , so crucial is this a r t to t h e success of films. T h e best-edited s e q u e n c e s a r e determ i n e d by m o o d as well as subject m a t t e r . Griffith, for e x a m p l e , generally e d i t e d love s c e n e s in l o n g lyrical takes, with relatively few s e t u p s . His chase

4 - l l a & b. Pulp Fiction (U.S.A., 1994), with John Travolta and Uma Thurman, written and directed by Quentin Tarantino. (Miramax Films) Why do s o m e movie directors cut while others avoid cutting by including all the variables in a single shot? Still other filmmakers prefer to move their c a m e r a along with the action rather than cut between separate shots. The differences may s e e m unimportant to the average viewer, but serious film artists realize that each of these three techniques suggests different psychological u n d e r t o n e s — u n d e r t o n e s that even average viewers respond to, though they might not be able to explain their response analytically. The scene from Pulp Fiction takes place in a confined restaurant booth. Logically, Tarantino could have shot the scene with a single set-up, with both characters in profile facing each other. But the dramatic context d e m a n d s a different strategy. Travolta plays a junkie/hit man whose gangster boss has asked him to take his wife to dinner while the boss is out of town. Wary of her flaky, unpredictable behavior, and fully conscious that a careless slip-up could cost him his life, the Travolta character "keeps his distance" from her—an aloofness that intrigues her. By keeping the two in separate space cubicles with a traditional shot/countershot technique, Tarantino stresses their psychological apartness. The editing keeps a distance b e t w e e n them. continued • 146

4-llc.

Gladiator

(U.S.A.,

2000),

with

Russell

Crowe (right),

directed by Ridley Scott.

(DreamWorks Pictures)

4-lld. GoodFellas (U.S.A., 1990), with Lorraine Bracco and Ray Liotta, directed by Martin Scorsese. (Warner Bros.)

The shot from Gladiator is more realistic in its presentation, with the sympathetic hero (Crowe) trapped in the s a m e arena with a hungry tiger and a hostile giant who's d e t e r m i n e d to destroy him. In the movie itself, Ridley Scott cuts to all three of these dramatic variables to stretch out the suspense, but the greatest danger is conveyed in shots like this, where all three must fight to the finish in a relatively confined space. Scorsese, who is a superlative editor, is also a master of the moving c a m e r a , and he often prefers to move with the action rather than break it down into a series of separate shots. Why? Mostly because the moving c a m e r a is more fluid, more lyrical. (It's also more expensive and time consuming.) In this wedding d a n c e scene from GoodFetlas, for example, Scorsese conveys the couple's euphoria by swirling the camera along with the dancers. These spontaneous eruptions destabilize the visual materials, infusing the action with a surge of energy, almost a kinetic high. 147

1 48

editing

a n d b a t d e s c e n e s w e r e c o m p o s e d o f brief shots, j a m m e d t o g e t h e r . P a r a d o x i cally, t h e love s c e n e s actually c o m p r e s s real t i m e , w h e r e a s t h e rapidly c u t s e q u e n c e s e l o n g a t e it. T h e r e are n o fixed rules c o n c e r n i n g r h y t h m i n f i l m s . S o m e editors c u t a c c o r d i n g to musical r h y t h m s (see 5 - 1 2 ) . T h e m a r c h of soldiers, for e x a m p l e , could be e d i t e d to the beat of a military t u n e , as can be seen in several m a r c h i n g s e q u e n c e s in King Vidor's The Big Parade. This t e c h n i q u e is also c o m m o n with A m e r i c a n avant-garde filmmakers, w h o feature rock music s o u n d t r a c k s or cut a c c o r d i n g to a m a t h e m a t i c a l or structural formula. In s o m e cases, a d i r e c t o r will cut b e f o r e t h e p e a k of t h e c o n t e n t curve, especially in highly suspenseful s e q u e n c e s . In a n u m b e r of movies, H i t c h c o c k teases t h e a u d i e n c e by n o t providi n g e n o u g h t i m e to assimilate all t h e m e a n i n g s of a shot. Violent scenes a r e con-

4-12. The Last Picture Show (U.S.A., 1971), with Cybill Shepherd and Ellen Burstyn, directed by Peter Bogdanovich. In its subtlest form, classical cutting can break up even a confined action into smaller units of m e a n i n g . Frangois Truffaut once observed that movies in which people tell lies require more shots than those in which they tell the truth. For example, if a young daughter tells her m o t h e r that she thinks she is in love with a boy, and the mother responds by warning the girl of s o m e of the emotional dangers involved, there is no reason why the scene shouldn't be photographed in a single setup with both females in the s a m e frame. Essentially, this is how Bogdanovich presents a similar scene (a). However, if the mother were a lying hypocrite, and the daughter suspected that the older w o m a n might be in love with the boy herself, a director would be forced to break the scene down into five or six shots (b-g) to give viewers emotional information they wouldn't receive from the characters themselves. (Columbia Pictures)

editing

1 49

4-13. The Deer Hunter (U.S.A., 1978), directed by Michael Cimino. Editing is an art as well as a craft. Like all art, it often defies mechanical formulations, taking on a life of its own. For example, w h e n sneak preview audiences were asked for their reactions to this three-hour movie, most viewers responded enthusiastically but felt that the hourlong wedding s e q u e n c e of the opening could have been cut down. In terms of its plot, nothing much " h a p p e n s " in this sequence. Its purpose is primarily lyrical—a loving celebration of the social rituals that bind the c o m m u n i t y together. The story content of the s e q u e n c e could be c o n d e n s e d to a few minutes of screen time—which is exactly what its makers did. When the shortened version was shown to audiences, reactions were negative. Cimino and his editor, Peter Zinner, restored the cut footage. The long wedding s e q u e n c e is necessary not for its story content so much as for its experiential value. It provides the movie with a sense of balance: The c o m m u n i t y solidarity of the s e q u e n c e is what the characters fight for in the subsequent battle footage Of the film. (Universal Pictures)

ventionally c u t i n a highly f r a g m e n t e d m a n n e r . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , A n t o n i o n i usually cuts l o n g after t h e c o n t e n t c u r v e has p e a k e d . In La Notte, for e x a m p l e , t h e r h y t h m is l a n g u o r o u s a n d even m o n o t o n o u s : T h e d i r e c t o r a t t e m p t s to create a sense of weariness in t h e a u d i e n c e , paralleling t h a t of t h e c h a r a c t e r s . Antonioni's c h a r a c t e r s a r e usually tired p e o p l e — i n every sense of t h e t e r m (see 3 - 7 ) . Tact is a n o t h e r e d i t i n g p r i n c i p l e t h a t ' s difficult to g e n e r a l i z e a b o u t , b e c a u s e i t t o o d e p e n d s o n c o n t e x t . N o o n e likes t o have t h e obvious p o i n t e d o u t to us, w h e t h e r in real life or while w a t c h i n g a m o v i e . Like p e r s o n a l tact, directorial tact is a m a t t e r of restraint, taste, a n d r e s p e c t for t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e of o t h e r s . H a c k d i r e c t o r s often p r e s e n t us with e m o t i o n a l l y g r a t u i t o u s shots, falling over themselves to m a k e s u r e we h a v e n ' t missed t h e p o i n t .

4-14. The 4th Man (Holland, 1984), with Jeroen Krabbe, directed by Paul Verhoeven. Editing can shift the action from reality to fantasy in an instant. Often, such shifts are accompanied by a cue—eerie music, for example, or a rippling image that suggests a different level of consciousness. At other times, the shift is undetectable, a deliberate attempt to disorient the viewer. The novelist hero of this movie often intermingles reality with fantasy. In this scene, he is trying to shave while suffering from a colossal hangover. His r o o m m a t e is practicing his music, making the shaky hero even shakier. In exasperation, he walks over to the roommate and strangles him. A m o m e n t later, we see the hero shaving again and the roommate still practicing his music. The strangulation took place only in the hero's vivid imagination. Because it is presented with no transitional cue, we too confuse reality with fantasy—the t h e m e of the film, (international Spectrafilm

Distribution)

Griffith's m o s t radical e x p e r i m e n t s in e d i t i n g a r e f o u n d in his 1916 m a s t e r p i e c e , Intolerance. T h i s movie was t h e first fiction film to e x p l o r e the idea o f t h e m a t i c m o n t a g e . Both t h e f i l m a n d t h e t e c h n i q u e e x e r t e d a n e n o r m o u s i n f l u e n c e on movie d i r e c t o r s of t h e 1920s, especially in t h e Soviet U n i o n . T h e matic m o n t a g e stresses t h e association of ideas, irrespective of t h e c o n t i n u i t y of time a n d space. Intolerance is unified by t h e t h e m e s of bigotry a n d p e r s e c u t i o n . R a t h e r t h a n tell o n e story, Griffith i n t e r c u t four. O n e takes place in a n c i e n t Babylon. T h e s e c o n d deals with t h e crucifixion o f J e s u s . T h e t h i r d c o n c e r n s t h e massacre of t h e H u g u e n o t s by t h e Catholic royalists in s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y F r a n c e . T h e last story takes p l a c e in A m e r i c a in 1916 a n d deals with a battle b e t w e e n labor a n d m a n a g e m e n t . T h e f o u r stories a r e d e v e l o p e d n o t separately b u t i n parallel fashion. Scenes of o n e t i m e p e r i o d a r e i n t e r c u t with scenes of a n o t h e r . At t h e conclusion of t h e movie, Griffith features suspenseful chase s e q u e n c e s in t h e first a n d last stories, a b r u t a l s c e n e of s l a u g h t e r in t h e F r e n c h story, a n d a slow, tragic clim a x i n t h e killing o f J e s u s . T h e c o n c l u d i n g s e q u e n c e c o n t a i n s literally h u n d r e d s of shots, j u x t a p o s i n g i m a g e s t h a t are s e p a r a t e d by t h o u s a n d s of years a n d by as m a n y miles. All t h e s e different t i m e p e r i o d s a n d locations a r e unified by t h e c e n t r a l t h e m e o f i n t o l e r a n c e . T h e c o n t i n u i t y i s n o l o n g e r physical, o r even psychological, b u t c o n c e p t u a l — t h a t is, t h e m a t i c . 151

4-15. Royal Wedding (U.S.A., 1951), with Fred Astaire, directed by Stanley Donen. Even in the heyday of the Hollywood studio system, when the d o m i n a n c e of classical cutting was virtually unchallenged, there were instances w h e n the realistic continuity of time and space had to be preserved at the e x p e n s e of editing. For example, in this famous d a n c e sequence, Astaire begins to tap dance on the floor of his hotel room and then—without a c u t he taps up the wall, then onto the ceiling, seemingly defying gravity. How was it done? A revolving set and c a m e r a were synchronized so that whenever the hotel room began to turn. Astaire tapped his way onto the new "floor" unobtrusively in one continuous motion. Had director Donen cut to separate shots, the s e q u e n c e would have lost much of its magical, whimsy, (MGM)

Intolerance was n o t a c o m m e r c i a l success, but its i n f l u e n c e was i m m e n s e . T h e f i l m m a k e r s o f t h e Soviet U n i o n w e r e dazzled b y Griffith's m o v i e a n d b a s e d t h e i r own t h e o r i e s of m o n t a g e on his p r a c t i c e s in this film. A g r e a t m a n y d i r e c t o r s have p r o f i t e d from Griffith's e x p e r i m e n t s i n t h e subjective t r e a t m e n t of t i m e . In The Pawnbroker, for e x a m p l e , Sidney L u m e l exploits t h e a r t of e d i t i n g to p r o d u c e a series of parallels t h a t a r e t h e m a t i c a l l y r a t h e r t h a n c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y r e l a t e d . He uses a k i n d of s u b l i m i n a l e d i t i n g , in which s o m e shots a r e h e l d on t h e s c r e e n for only a fraction of a s e c o n d . T h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r is a m i d d l e - a g e d Jew w h o survived a Nazi c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p twenty-live years earlier; all his loved o n e s , however, w e r e killed t h e r e . He tries t o r e p r e s s t h e m e m o r i e s o f t h e s e e a r l i e r e x p e r i e n c e s , b u t they force t h e i r way i n t o his c o n s c i o u s n e s s . L u m e t suggests this psychological p r o c e s s by i n t e r c u t t i n g a few frames of t h e m e m o r y shots d u r i n g a s c e n e that is o c c u r r i n g in t h e present. A present-tense event detonates the protagonist's m e m o r y of somet h i n g similar from his past. As past c o n t e n d s with p r e s e n t , t h e flickering m e m o r y shots e n d u r e longer, until a flashback s e q u e n c e eventually b e c o m e s d o m i n a n t , a n d t h e p r e s e n t is m o m e n t a r i l y s u s p e n d e d . W i t h only a few e x c e p t i o n s , however, it was n o t until t h e 1960s t h a t such u n o r t h o d o x e d i t i n g practices became widespread. 152

4-16. Flashdance (U.S.A., 1983), with Jennifer Beats, directed by Adrian Lyne. Editing is often used to deceive—to conceal rather than reveal. For example, the d a n c e numbers in this film were performed by a double, a professional dancer whose identity is cunningly concealed by the artful lighting and the discreetly distanced camera. The dance shots, were intercut with closer shots of Jennifer Beals, wearing the s a m e c o s t u m e and moving to the s a m e music. With the musical n u m b e r providing the continuity, these intercut shots create the illusion of a continuous m o v e m e n t , with Beals featured throughout. These editing techniques are also c o m m o n l y used in such scenes as sword fights, dangerous stunts, and m a n y other activities requiring specialized skills. (Paramount Pictures)

F i l m m a k e r s can i n t e r r u p t t h e p r e s e n t with shots n o t only o f t h e past b u t of t h e f u t u r e as well. In Sydney Pollack's They Shoot Horses, Don't They? s h o r t flash-forwards o f a c o u r t r o o m s c e n e a r e i n t e r s p e r s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e story. T h e flash-forwards suggest p r e d e s t i n a t i o n : Like t h e d a n c e c o n t e s t of t h e story p r o p e r , t h e future is rigged, a n d p e r s o n a l effort is e q u a t e d with selfd e c e p t i o n . Flash-forwards a r e also u s e d in Alain Resnais's La Guerre Est Einie a n d J o s e p h Losey's The Go-Between. Griffith also r e s t r u c t u r e d t i m e a n d place t h r o u g h t h e use of fantasy inserts. In Intolerance, for e x a m p l e , a y o u n g w o m a n on t h e verge of m u r d e r i n g h e r unfaithful boyfriend i m a g i n e s a s c e n e w h e r e s h e is a p p r e h e n d e d by t h e police. Flashbacks, flash-forwards, a n d cutaways to fantasies allow filmmakers to d e v e l o p ideas thematically r a t h e r t h a n chronologically, freeing t h e m t o e x p l o r e t h e subjective n a t u r e of t i m e . T h e very flexibility of t i m e in movies m a k e s t h e t h e m e o f t e m p o r a l i t y a n ideal subject for t h e m e d i u m . Like Faulkner, Proust, a n d o t h e r novelists, filmmakers have s u c c e e d e d in c r a c k i n g t h e tyranny of m e c h a n i c a l l y m e a s u r e d t i m e . O n e of t h e m o s t c o m plex instances of t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g of t i m e is f o u n d in Stanley D o n e n ' s Two for the Road. T h e story deals with t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d g r a d u a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of a love r e l a t i o n s h i p . It u n f o l d s in a series of m i x e d flashbacks. T h a t is, t h e flash153

1 54

4-17. West Side Story (U.S.A., 1961), directed by Robert Wise and Jerome Robbins. Musicals are often edited in a radically formalist style, without having to observe the cutting conventions of ordinary dramatic movies. The editing of West Side Story is very abstract. The music, by Leonard Bernstein, and the d a n c e numbers, choreographed by J e r o m e Robbins, are edited together for m a x i m u m aesthetic impact, rather than to forward the story. Nor are the shots linked by some principle of thematic association. Rather, the shots are juxtaposed primarily for their lyrical and kinetic beauty, s o m e w h a t like a music video. (United

Artists)

backs a r e n o t i n c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e , n o r a r e they c o m p l e t e d i n any o n e s c e n e . Rather, they a r e j u m b l e d a n d f r a g m e n t e d , s o m e w h a t in t h e m a n n e r of a F a u l k n e r novel. T o c o m p l i c a t e m a t t e r s , m o s t o f t h e flashbacks take p l a c e o n t h e r o a d , d u r i n g various trips t h e c o u p l e has t a k e n in t h e past. If e a c h of t h e t i m e p e r i o d s of t h e film w e r e d e s i g n a t e d with t h e letters A, B, C, D, a n d E, its t e m p o ral s t r u c t u r e m i g h t be c h a r t e d as follows: E ( p r e s e n t ) , A ( m o s t d i s t a n t p a s t ) , B, C, D, B, A, E, C, D, B . . . e n d i n g with E. T h e a u d i e n c e gradually l e a r n s to i d e n tify e a c h t i m e p e r i o d t h r o u g h various c o n t i n u i t y clues: t h e h e r o i n e ' s h a i r styles, t h e m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , t h e p a r t i c u l a r crisis d u r i n g e a c h trip, a n d s o o n . F r o m its c r u d e b e g i n n i n g s , Griffith e x p a n d e d t h e art o f e d i t i n g t o i n c l u d e a wide variety of functions: locale c h a n g e s , t i m e lapses, s h o t variety, e m p h a s i s of psychological a n d physical details, overviews, symbolic inserts, parallels a n d c o n t r a s t s , associations, point-of-view shifts, simultaneity, a n d repetition of m o t i f s . Griffith's m e t h o d of e d i t i n g was also m o r e e c o n o m i c a l . R e l a t e d shots c o u l d b e b u n c h e d t o g e t h e r i n t h e s h o o t i n g s c h e d u l e , regardless o f t h e i r positions (or " t i m e " a n d "place") in t h e finished film. Especially in later years, in t h e e r a of high-salaried stars, d i r e c t o r s c o u l d s h o o t all t h e star s e q u e n c e s in a brief p e r i o d a n d o u t o f c i n e m a t i c continuity. Less expensive details ( e x t r e m e l o n g shots, m i n o r actors, close-ups of objects, etc.) c o u l d be s h o t at a m o r e conv e n i e n t t i m e . Later, t h e shots w o u l d b e a r r a n g e d i n t h e i r p r o p e r s e q u e n c e o n the editor's cutting bench.

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Griffith was a practical artist, c o n c e r n e d with c o m m u n i c a t i n g ideas a n d e m o t i o n s in t h e m o s t effective m a n n e r possible. In t h e 1920s, t h e Soviet filmm a k e r s e x p a n d e d his associational p r i n c i p l e s a n d established t h e theoretical p r e m i s e s for t h e m a t i c e d i t i n g , or montage as they called it (from t h e F r e n c h , monter, to a s s e m b l e ) . V. I. P u d o v k i n w r o t e t h e first i m p o r t a n t t h e o r e t i c a l treatises on w h a t he called c o n s t r u c t i v e e d i t i n g . Most of his s t a t e m e n t s a r e e x p l a n a tions o f Griffith's practices, b u t h e differed with t h e A m e r i c a n ( w h o m h e praises lavishly) on several p o i n t s . Griffith's use of t h e close-up, Pudovkin c l a i m e d , is t o o limited. It's u s e d simply as a clarification of t h e l o n g shot, which carries m o s t of t h e m e a n i n g . T h e close-up, in effect, is m e r e l y an i n t e r r u p t i o n , offering no m e a n i n g s of its own. P u d o v k i n insisted t h a t e a c h s h o t s h o u l d m a k e a new p o i n t . T h r o u g h t h e juxtaposition of shots, n e w m e a n i n g s can be c r e a t e d . T h e m e a n i n g s , t h e n , a r e i n t h e juxtapositions, n o t i n o n e s h o t a l o n e . F i l m m a k e r s in t h e Soviet U n i o n were strongly i n f l u e n c e d by t h e psychological t h e o r i e s of Pavlov, w h o s e e x p e r i m e n t s in t h e association of ideas served as a basis for t h e e d i t i n g e x p e r i m e n t s of Lev Kuleshov, P u d o v k i n ' s m e n t o r . Kuleshov believed that ideas in c i n e m a a r e c r e a t e d by linking t o g e t h e r fragmentary details to p r o d u c e a unified action. T h e s e details c a n be totally u n r e l a t e d in real life. For e x a m p l e , he linked t o g e t h e r a shot of Moscow's R e d S q u a r e with a

4-18. Dead Men Don't Wear Plaid (U.S.A., 1982), with Steve Martin and Carl Reiner (bald pate), directed by Reiner. Reiner's comic parody of Nazi films and other noir genres of the 1940s is a tour de force of editing. A silly spy plot involving Martin is intercut with footage from such vintage 1940s movies as Double Indemnity, Suspicion, The Bribe, Out of the Past, a n d Sorry. Wrong Number. Pudovkin and Kuleshov would have understood perfectly. (University City studios)

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shot of t h e A m e r i c a n W h i t e H o u s e , close-ups of two m e n c l i m b i n g stairs with a n o t h e r close-up of two h a n d s shaking. Projected as a c o n t i n u o u s scene, t h e linked shots suggest t h a t t h e two m e n are in t h e s a m e place at t h e s a m e t i m e . Kuleshov c o n d u c t e d a n o t h e r f a m o u s e x p e r i m e n t t h a t p r o v i d e d a t h e o retical f o u n d a t i o n for t h e use of n o n p r o f e s s i o n a l actors in movies. Kuleshov a n d m a n y of his colleagues believed t h a t traditional a c t i n g skills w e r e q u i t e u n n e c e s s a r y in t h e c i n e m a . First, he s h o t a close-up of an a c t o r with a n e u t r a l e x p r e s s i o n . He j u x t a p o s e d this with a close-up of a bowl of s o u p . T h e n he j o i n e d t h e close-up of t h e a c t o r with a s h o t of a coffin c o n t a i n i n g a female c o r p s e . Finally, he l i n k e d t h e actor's n e u t r a l expression with a s h o t of a little girl playing. W h e n t h e s e c o m b i n a t i o n s w e r e shown t o a u d i e n c e s , they e x c l a i m e d a t t h e a c t o r ' s expressiveness i n p o r t r a y i n g h u n g e r , d e e p sorrow, a n d p a t e r n a l p r i d e . In e a c h case, t h e m e a n i n g was conveyed by j u x t a p o s i n g two shots, n o t by o n e a l o n e . Actors c a n be u s e d as raw m a t e r i a l , as objects j u x t a p o s e d with o t h e r objects. T h e e m o t i o n i s p r o d u c e d n o t b y t h e a c t o r ' s p e r f o r m a n c e , b u t by associations b r o u g h t a b o u t by t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n s . In a sense, t h e viewer c r e a t e s t h e e m o t i o n a l m e a n i n g s , o n c e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e objects have b e e n l i n k e d t o g e t h e r by t h e filmmaker (4—20).

4-19. Lifeboat (U.S.A., 1944), with Tullulah Bankhead (center), directed by Alfred Hitchcock. Hitchcock was o n e of Pudovkin's most articulate champions. "Cinema is form," Hitchcock insisted. "The screen ought to speak its own language, freshly coined, and it can't do that unless it treats an acted scene as a piece of raw material which must be broken up, taken to bits, before it can be woven into an expressive visual pattern." He referred to the piecing together of fragmentary shots as "pure cinema," like individual notes of music that c o m b i n e to produce a melody. In this movie, he confined himself entirely to nine characters adrift at sea in a small boat. In other words, this photo contains the raw material for every shot in the film. Formalists insist that the artistry lies not in the materials per se, but in the way they are taken apart and reconstructed expressively. (Twentieth century-Fox)

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For Kuleshov a n d P u d o v k i n , a s e q u e n c e was n o t filmed; it was cons t r u c t e d . U s i n g far m o r e close-ups t h a n Griffith, P u d o v k i n built a s c e n e from m a n y s e p a r a t e shots, all j u x t a p o s e d for a unified effect. T h e e n v i r o n m e n t of t h e s c e n e is t h e s o u r c e of t h e images. L o n g shots are r a r e . Instead, a b a r r a g e of close-ups (often of objects) provides t h e a u d i e n c e with t h e n e c e s s a r y associations t o link t o g e t h e r t h e m e a n i n g . T h e s e j u x t a p o s i t i o n s can suggest e m o t i o n a l a n d psychological states, even abstract ideas. T h e Soviet theorists of this g e n e r a t i o n w e r e criticized on several c o u n t s . T h i s t e c h n i q u e d e t r a c t s from a s c e n e ' s sense of realism, s o m e critics c o m p l a i n e d , for t h e c o n t i n u i t y of actual t i m e a n d p l a c e is totally r e s t r u c t u r e d . But P u d o v k i n a n d t h e o t h e r Soviet formalists c l a i m e d t h a t realism c a p t u r e d i n l o n g s h o t is too n e a r reality: It's theatrical r a t h e r t h a n c i n e m a t i c . Movies m u s t capt u r e t h e e s s e n c e , n o t m e r e l y t h e surface, of reality, which is filled with irrelevancies. O n l y by j u x t a p o s i n g close-ups of objects, t e x t u r e s , symbols, a n d o t h e r selected details can a filmmaker convey expressively t h e i d e a u n d e r l y i n g t h e u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d j u m b l e of real life. S o m e critics also believe t h a t this m a n i p u l a t i v e style of e d i t i n g g u i d e s t h e s p e c t a t o r t o o m u c h — t h e choices a r e already m a d e . T h e a u d i e n c e m u s t sit back passively a n d a c c e p t t h e inevitable linking of associations p r e s e n t e d on, t h e s c r e e n . Political c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e involved h e r e , for t h e Soviets t e n d e d t o link f i l m with p r o p a g a n d a . P r o p a g a n d a , n o m a t t e r h o w artistic, d o e s n ' t usually involve free a n d b a l a n c e d evaluations. Like m a n y Soviet formalists, Sergei Eisenstein was i n t e r e s t e d in exploring g e n e r a l principles t h a t c o u l d be a p p l i e d to a variety of a p p a r e n t l y different forms of creative activity. He believed t h a t these artistic principles w e r e o r g a n i cally related to t h e basic n a t u r e of all h u m a n activity a n d , ultimately, to t h e n a t u r e of t h e universe itself. Like t h e a n c i e n t G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r Heraclitus, Eisenstein believed t h a t t h e essence of existence is c o n s t a n t c h a n g e . He believed t h a t n a t u r e ' s e t e r n a l fluctuation is dialectical—the result of t h e conflict a n d synthesis of opposites. W h a t a p p e a r s to be stationary or unified in n a t u r e is only t e m p o r a r y , for all p h e n o m e n a a r e in various states of b e c o m i n g . O n l y e n e r g y is p e r m a n e n t , a n d e n e r g y is constantly in a state of transition to o t h e r forms. Every o p p o s i t e c o n t a i n s t h e s e e d of its own d e s t r u c t i o n in time, Eisenstein believed, a n d this conflict of o p p o s i t e s is t h e m o t h e r of m o t i o n a n d c h a n g e . T h e f u n c t i o n of all artists is to c a p t u r e this d y n a m i c collision of o p p o sites, to i n c o r p o r a t e dialectical conflicts n o t only in t h e subject m a t t e r of a r t b u t in its t e c h n i q u e s a n d forms as well. Conflict is universal in all t h e arts, a c c o r d i n g to Eisenstein, a n d t h e r e f o r e all art aspires to m o t i o n . Potentially, at least, t h e c i n e m a is t h e m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e of t h e arts b e c a u s e it can i n c o r p o r a t e t h e visual conflicts of p a i n t i n g a n d p h o t o g r a p h y , t h e kinetic conflicts of d a n c e , t h e t o n a l conflicts o f m u s i c , t h e verbal conflicts o f l a n g u a g e , a n d t h e c h a r a c t e r a n d a c t i o n conflicts o f f i c t i o n a n d d r a m a . Eisenstein p l a c e d special e m p h a s i s on t h e art of e d i t i n g . Like Kuleshov a n d P u d o v k i n , h e believed t h a t m o n t a g e was t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f f i l m art. H e a g r e e d with t h e m t h a t e a c h s h o t o f a s e q u e n c e o u g h t t o b e i n c o m p l e t e , con-

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4~20a, b, c, d. An "edited sequence" from Rear Window (U.S.A., 1954), directed by Alfred Hitchcock. Hitchcock's thriller centers on a photographic journalist (James Stewart) who is confined to his a p a r t m e n t b e c a u s e of a broken leg. Out of b o r e d o m , he begins to observe the lives of his neighbors, w h o live in the a p a r t m e n t building just behind his own. His high-society girlfriend (Grace Kelly, 4 - 2 0 a ) w a n t s to get married and sees no reason why marriage should interfere with his work. But he puts her off, filling in his idle hours by speculating on the various problems of his neighbors. Each neighbor's window symbolizes a fragment of Stewart's divided sentiments: They are projections of his own anxieties and desires, which center on love, career, and marriage. Each window suggests a different option for the hero. One neighbor is a desperately lonely w o m a n . Another a p a r t m e n t is occupied by lusty newlyweds. A friendless bachelor musician occupies a third a p a r t m e n t . A shallow and promiscuous dancer lives in another. In still a n o t h e r is a childless married couple, who fawn pathetically over their dog continued

t r i b u t a r y r a t h e r t h a n self-contained. However, E i s e n s t e i n criticized t h e c o n c e p t o f l i n k e d s h o t s for b e i n g m e c h a n i c a l a n d i n o r g a n i c . H e b e l i e v e d t h a t e d i t i n g o u g h t t o b e dialectical: T h e conflict o f two s h o t s (thesis a n d a n t i t h e s i s ) p r o d u c e s a wholly n e w i d e a (synthesis). T h u s , in film t e r m s , t h e conflict b e t w e e n s h o t A a n d s h o t B is n o t AB ( K u l e s h o v a n d P u d o v k i n ) , b u t a qualitatively n e w factor—C (Eisenstein). Transitions between shots s h o u l d n o t be s m o o t h , as P u d o v k i n s u g g e s t e d , b u t s h a r p , j o l t i n g , even violent. F o r E i s e n s t e i n , e d i t i n g

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to fill in the v a c u u m of their lives. In the most sinister a p a r t m e n t is a t o r m e n t e d middle-aged m a n (Raymond Burr, 4 - 2 0 c ) , who is so harassed by his wife that he eventually murders her. By cutting from shots of the spying hero to shots of the neighbors' windows, Hitchcock dramatizes the thoughts going through Stewart's mind. The audience is moved by the editing style rather than by the material per se or even by the actors' performances. S o m e w h a t like the early e x p e r i m e n t s of Pudovkin a n d Kuleshov, who edited together unrelated bits of film to create a new concept, this phony "edited s e q u e n c e " is c o m p o s e d of totally r a n d o m publicity photos, and might be viewed as a kind of guilt by associational montage. Such editing techniques represent a form of characterization. Actors s o m e t i m e s complained that Hitchcock didn't allow t h e m to act. But he believed that people don't always express what they're thinking or feeling, and hence the director must c o m m u n i c a t e these ideas through the editing. The actor, in short, provides only a part of the characterization. The rest is provided by Hitchcock's montage. (Paramount Pictures)

p r o d u c e s h a r s h collisions, n o t s u b t l e l i n k a g e s . A s m o o t h t r a n s i t i o n , h e c l a i m e d , was a n o p p o r t u n i t y lost. E d i t i n g for E i s e n s t e i n was an a l m o s t mystical p r o c e s s . He l i k e n e d it to t h e g r o w t h of o r g a n i c cells. If e a c h s h o t r e p r e s e n t s a d e v e l o p i n g cell, t h e c i n e m a t i c c u t is like t h e r u p t u r i n g of t h e cell w h e n it splits i n t o two. E d i t i n g is d o n e a t t h e p o i n t t h a t a s h o t " b u r s t s " — t h a t is, w h e n its t e n s i o n s h a v e r e a c h e d t h e i r m a x i m u m e x p a n s i o n . T h e r h y t h m o f e d i t i n g i n a m o v i e s h o u l d b e like t h e

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e x p l o s i o n s of an i n t e r n a l c o m b u s t i o n e n g i n e , Eisenstein c l a i m e d . A m a s t e r of d y n a m i c r h y t h m s , his films a r e a l m o s t m e s m e r i z i n g in this respect: Shots of c o n t r a s t i n g v o l u m e s , d u r a t i o n s , s h a p e s , designs, a n d lighting intensities collide against e a c h o t h e r like objects in a t o r r e n t i a l river p l u n g i n g toward t h e i r inevitable d e s t i n a t i o n . T h e differences b e t w e e n P u d o v k i n a n d Eisenstein may s e e m a c a d e m i c . I n actual p r a c t i c e , however, t h e two a p p r o a c h e s p r o d u c e d sharply c o n t r a s t i n g results. P u d o v k i n ' s movies a r e essentially in t h e classical m o l d . T h e shots t e n d to be additive a n d a r e d i r e c t e d toward an overall e m o t i o n a l effect, which is g u i d e d by t h e story. In Eisenstein's movies, t h e j o l t i n g images r e p r e s e n t a scries of essentially intellectual t h r u s t s a n d parries, d i r e c t e d toward an ideological a r g u m e n t . T h e d i r e c t o r s ' n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s also differed. P u d o v k i n ' s stories d i d n ' t differ m u c h from t h e k i n d Griffith u s e d . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , Eisenstein's stories w e r e m u c h m o r e loosely s t r u c t u r e d , usually a series of d o c u m e n t a r y l i k e e p i s o d e s used as c o n v e n i e n t vehicles for e x p l o r i n g ideas. W h e n Pudovkin w a n t e d to express an e m o t i o n , he conveyed it in t e r m s of physical images—objective correlatives—taken from t h e actual locale. T h u s , t h e sense of a n g u i s h e d d r u d g e r y is conveyed t h r o u g h a series of shots showing details of a cart m i r e d in the m u d : close-ups of t h e wheel, the m u d , h a n d s coaxing t h e wheel, straining faces, t h e muscles of an a r m pulling t h e wheel, a n d so o n . Eisenstein, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , w a n t e d film to be totally free of literal continuity a n d c o n t e x t . P u d o v k i n ' s correlatives, he felt, were too restricted by realism. Eisenstein w a n t e d movies to be as llexible as literature, especially to m a k e figurative c o m p a r i s o n s without respect to time a n d place. Movies s h o u l d

4-21. A portion of the Odessa Steps s e q u e n c e from Potemkin (U.S.S.R., 1925), directed by Sergei Eisenstein. Perhaps the most celebrated instance of editing virtuosity in the silent cinema, the Odessa Steps sequence is an illustration of Eisenstein's theory of collision m o n t a g e in practice. This scene deals with the slaughter of civilians by Cossack troops in Czarist Russia. The director juxtaposed lights with darks, vertical lines with horizontals, lengthy shots with brief ones, close-ups with long shots, static setups with traveling shots, and so on. See also David Mayer, Eisenstein's Potemkin: A Shot-by-Shot Presentation (New York: Grossman, 1972). (Audio-Brandon Films)

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i n c l u d e images t h a t are thematically or metaphorically relevant, Eisenstein claimed, regardless of w h e t h e r they can be f o u n d in t h e locale or not. Even in his first feature, Strike (1925), Eisenstein i n t e r c u t shots of w o r k m e n b e i n g m a c h i n e g u n n e d with images o f o x e n b e i n g slaughtered. T h e o x e n are n o t literally o n location, b u t are i n t e r c u t purely for m e t a p h o r i c a l p u r p o s e s . A famous s e q u e n c e from Potemkin links t h r e e shots of stone lions: o n e asleep, a s e c o n d a r o u s e d a n d on t h e verge of rising, a n d a third on its feet a n d ready to p o u n c e . Eisenstein cons i d e r e d t h e s e q u e n c e an e m b o d i m e n t of a m e t a p h o r : " T h e very stones roar." Ingenious as these metaphorical comparisons can be, the major probl e m with this k i n d of e d i t i n g is its t e n d e n c y to be o b v i o u s — o r i m p e n e t r a b l y o b s c u r e . Eisenstein saw no difficulty in o v e r c o m i n g t h e space a n d t i m e differe n c e s b e t w e e n film a n d l i t e r a t u r e . But t h e two m e d i u m s use m e t a p h o r s in diff e r e n t ways. We have no difficulty in u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h a t ' s m e a n t by t h e c o m p a r i s o n " h e ' s timid as a s h e e p , " or even t h e m o r e abstract m e t a p h o r , "whorish t i m e u n d o e s u s all." B o t h s t a t e m e n t s exist o u t s i d e o f t i m e a n d place. T h e simile isn't set in a p a s t u r e , n o r is t h e m e t a p h o r set in a b r o t h e l . S u c h c o m p a r i s o n s a r e n o t m e a n t t o b e u n d e r s t o o d literally, o f c o u r s e . I n movies, f i g u r a t i v e devices of this k i n d a r e m o r e difficult. E d i t i n g can p r o d u c e a n u m b e r of figurative c o m p a r i s o n s , b u t they d o n ' t work in q u i t e t h e s a m e way t h a t they do in literat u r e . E i s e n s t e i n ' s t h e o r i e s o f collision m o n t a g e have b e e n e x p l o r e d primarily i n t h e avant-garde c i n e m a , music videos, a n d T V c o m m e r c i a l s . Most f i c t i o n f i l m m a k e r s have f o u n d t h e m t o o intrusive a n d h e a v y - h a n d e d .

A n d r e Bazin was n o t a filmmaker, b u t solely a critic a n d theorist. F o r a n u m b e r of years, he was t h e e d i t o r of t h e influential F r e n c h j o u r n a l Cahiers du Cinema, in w h i c h he set forth an aesthetic of film t h a t was in s h a r p o p p o s i t i o n to s u c h formalists as P u d o v k i n a n d Eisenstein. Bazin was u n t a i n t e d by d o g m a tism. A l t h o u g h h e e m p h a s i z e d t h e realistic n a t u r e o f t h e c i n e m a , h e was g e n e r ous in his praise of movies t h a t e x p l o i t e d e d i t i n g effectively. T h r o u g h o u t his writings, however, Bazin m a i n t a i n e d t h a t m o n t a g e was m e r e l y o n e of m a n y t e c h n i q u e s a d i r e c t o r c o u l d use in m a k i n g movies. F u r t h e r m o r e , he believed 168

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t h a t in m a n y cases e d i t i n g c o u l d actually destroy t h e effectiveness of a scene (4-24 and 4-26). Bazin's realist aesthetic was b a s e d on his belief t h a t p h o t o g r a p h y , TV, a n d c i n e m a , u n l i k e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l arts, p r o d u c e i m a g e s o f reality automatically, with a m i n i m u m of h u m a n i n t e r f e r e n c e . T h i s t e c h n o l o g i c a l objectivity connects t h e m o v i n g i m a g e with t h e o b s e r v a b l e physical world. A novelist or a p a i n t e r m u s t r e p r e s e n t reality b y r e - p r e s e n t i n g i t i n a n o t h e r m e d i u m — t h r o u g h language a n d color pigments. T h e filmmaker's image, on the o t h e r hand, is essentially an objective r e c o r d i n g of what actually exists. No o t h e r art, Bazin felt, c a n be as c o m p r e h e n s i v e in t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e physical world. No o t h e r a r t can b e a s realistic, i n t h e m o s t e l e m e n t a r y sense o f t h a t w o r d . Bazin's aesthetic h a d a m o r a l as well as t e c h n o l o g i c a l bias. He was influe n c e d b y t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l m o v e m e n t called P e r s o n a l i s m . T h i s school o f t h o u g h t e m p h a s i z e d t h e individualistic a n d pluralistic n a t u r e o f t r u t h . J u s t a s m o s t Personalists a g r e e d t h a t t h e r e a r e m a n y t r u t h s , Bazin felt t h a t in t h e cine m a t h e r e a r e m a n y ways o f p o r t r a y i n g t h e real. T h e e s s e n c e o f reality, h e believed, lies in its ambiguity. Reality c a n even be i n t e r p r e t e d in o p p o s i n g , a n d equally valid, ways, d e p e n d i n g on t h e sensitivities of t h e artist. To c a p t u r e this ambiguity, t h e f i l m m a k e r m u s t be m o d e s t a n d self-effacing, a p a t i e n t o b s e r v e r , willing to follow w h e r e reality leads. T h e film artists t h a t Bazin a d m i r e d m o s t — Flaherty, Renoir, a n d De Sica, for e x a m p l e — a r e t h o s e w h o s e movies reflect a sense of w o n d e r b e f o r e t h e a m b i g u o u s mysteries of reality.

4-22. High Noon (U.S.A., 1952), with Gary Cooper and Lloyd Bridges, directed by Fred Zinnemann. Almost all movies c o m p r e s s time, condensing m a n y m o n t h s or even years into a running time of roughly two hours, the average length of most films. Z i n n e m a n n ' s movie is a rare example of a literal a d h e r e n c e to the unities of time, place, and action, for the entire story takes place in a breathless 84 minutes—the film's running time. (United Artists)

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Bazin believed t h a t t h e d i s t o r t i o n s involved in u s i n g formalist techniques—especially t h e m a t i c e d i t i n g — o f t e n violate t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s of reality. M o n t a g e s u p e r i m p o s e s a simplistic ideology over t h e infinite variability of actual life. Formalists t e n d to be too e g o c e n t r i c a n d m a n i p u l a t i v e , he felt. T h e y a r e c o n c e r n e d with i m p o s i n g t h e i r n a r r o w view of reality, r a t h e r t h a n allowing reality to exist in its a w e s o m e complexity. He was o n e of t h e first to p o i n t o u t t h a t s u c h g r e a t f i l m m a k e r s a s C h a p l i n , Mizoguchi, a n d M u r n a u p r e s e r v e d t h e a m b i g u i t i e s of reality by m i n i m i z i n g e d i t i n g . Bazin even viewed classical cutting as potentially c o r r u p t i n g . Classical c u t t i n g breaks d o w n a unified scene into a certain n u m b e r of closer shots that c o r r e s p o n d implicitly to a m e n t a l process. But t h e t e c h n i q u e e n c o u r a g e s us to follow t h e s h o t s e q u e n c e without o u r b e i n g conscious of its arbitrariness. " T h e e d i t o r w h o cuts for us m a k e s in o u r stead the choice which we would m a k e in real life," Bazin p o i n t e d o u t . "Without thinking, we accept his analysis because it conforms to t h e laws of a t t e n t i o n , b u t we are deprived of a privilege." He believed t h a t classical c u t t i n g subjectivizes an event because each s h o t r e p r e s e n t s what t h e filmmaker thinks is i m p o r t a n t , n o t necessarily what we would think. O n e of Bazin's favorite d i r e c t o r s , t h e A m e r i c a n William Wyler, r e d u c e d e d i t i n g to a m i n i m u m in m a n y of his films, substituting t h e use of d e e p - f o c u s p h o t o g r a p h y a n d l e n g t h y takes. "His p e r f e c t clarity c o n t r i b u t e s e n o r m o u s l y t o 4-23. Dog Day Afternoon (U.S.A., 1975), with AI Pacino, directed by Sidney Lumet. Not all realists use an unobtrusive style of editing. Most of Lumet's gritty New York City dram a s like The Pawnbroker, Serpico, Prince of the City, and Dog Day Afternoon are based on actual events and were shot mostly in the streets of the city. All are considered masterpieces of realism, yet all of t h e m are edited in a nervous, j u m p y style that connects a wide assortm e n t of characters and explosive events. As early as 1910, the great Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy realized that this fledgling new art form would surpass the magnificent achievements of 19th century literary realism: "This little clinking contraption with the revolving handle will m a k e a revolution in our life-—in the life of writers. It is a direct attack on the old m e t h o d s of literary art. This swift change of scene, this blending of emotion and experience—it is m u c h better than the heavy, long-drawn-out kind of writing to which we are accustomed. It is closer to life."

(WarnerBros.)

4-24. Jurassic Park (U.S.A., 1993), with Joseph Mazzello, Sam Neill, Ariana Richards, and a friendly brachiosaurus; directed by Steven Spielberg. Cheap science-fiction films and low-budget adventure movies often c o m b i n e realistic elem e n t s with the supernatural or the very dangerous, but seldom in the s a m e frame. It's cheaper and easier to keep the terrified people in one shot, then cut to the object of their terror (or fascination) in another shot. Kuleshov would have applauded such a solution. But Bazin claimed that a realistic presentation—that is, not cutting, but keeping t h e m both in the s a m e frame—is far m o r e effective, for audiences instinctively sense w h e n a scene of this type is being faked with manipulative editing techniques. The most magical scenes in this movie are those that feature startlingly realistic dinosaurs—never so realistic as when they are c o m b i n e d in the s a m e frame with h u m a n s . Bazin would have applauded. (Universal Pictures/Amblin

Enicrtainment)

t h e s p e c t a t o r ' s r e a s s u r a n c e a n d leaves t o h i m t h e m e a n s t o o b s e r v e , t o c h o o s e , a n d form an o p i n i o n , " Bazin said of Wyler's a u s t e r e c u t t i n g style. In s u c h movies as The Little Foxes, The Best Years of Our Lives ( l - 2 0 b ) , a n d The Heiress, Wyler a c h i e v e d an u n p a r a l l e l e d neutrality a n d transparency. It w o u l d be naive to confuse this neutrality with an a b s e n c e of art, Bazin insisted, for all of Wyler's effort t e n d s to h i d e itself. U n l i k e s o m e of his followers, Bazin did n o t a d v o c a t e a s i m p l e m i n d e d t h e o r y of realism. He was perfectly aware, for e x a m p l e , t h a t c i n e m a — l i k e all art—involves a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of selectivity, o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . In s h o r t , a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of d i s t o r t i o n . He also r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e values of t h e f i l m m a k e r will inevitably i n f l u e n c e t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h reality is perceived. T h e s e d i s t o r t i o n s a r e n o t only inevitable, b u t in m o s t cases desirable. For Bazin, t h e b e s t films w e r e t h o s e in which t h e artist's p e r s o n a l vision is h e l d in delicate b a l a n c e with t h e objective n a t u r e of t h e m e d i u m . C e r t a i n aspects of reality m u s t be sacrificed for t h e sake of artistic c o h e r e n c e , t h e n , b u t Bazin felt t h a t a b s t r a c t i o n a n d artifice o u g h t t o b e k e p t t o a m i n i m u m . T h e materials 171

4-25a. The Sorrow and the Pity (France/ Switzerland/W. Germany, 1970), directed by Marcel Ophuls. Even in the world of documentary films, editing styles can range from ultrarealistic to ultraformalistic. Like most cinema-verite documentarists, Marcel Ophuls keeps editing to an absolute minimum. Implicit in the art of editing is artifice—that is, the manipulation of formal elements to produce a seductive aesthetic effect. Many documentarists believe that an edited analysis of a scene shapes and aestheticizes it—compromising its authenticity. A selected sequence of shots, however factually based, extrapolates one person's truth from an event and, in so doing, infuses it with an ideology. An unedited presentation, on the other hand, preserves a multiplicity of truths. (Cinema 5) 4-25b. Looking for Richard (U.S.A., 1996), with Al Pacino, directed by Pacino. The editing style of this documentary is subjective and personal. The movie itself is almost like an intimate diary by a famous actor exploring one of his most celebrated stage roles, Shakespeare's fascinating disciple of evil, Richard III. Pacino's voice-over connects many of the shots, which include interviews with other actors, historical artifacts, views of Shakespeare's Old Globe Theatre, and snippets of scenes from the play in rehearsal and performance. The movie is like a dazzling lecture/presentation by s o m e o n e who is both an artist and an educator. (Twentieth Century-Fox)

Most documentaries fall b e t w e e n these two extremes, as Albert Maysles has pointed out: "We can see two kinds of truth here. One is the raw material, which is the footage, the kind of truth that you get in literature in the diary form—it's immediate, no one has t a m p e r e d with it. Then there's the other kind of truth that c o m e s in extracting and juxtaposing the raw material into a m o r e meaningful and coherent storytelling form which finally can be said to be more than just raw data. In a way, the interests of the people in shooting and the people in editing (even if it's the s a m e individual) are in conflict with one another, because the raw material doesn't want to be shaped. It wants to maintain its truthfulness. O n e discipline says that if you begin to put it into another form, you're going to lose s o m e of the veracity. The other discipline says if you don't let me put this into a form, no one is going to see it and the e l e m e n t s of truth in the raw material will never reach the audience with any impact, with any artistry, or whatever. So there are these things which are in conflict with one another and the thing is to put it all together, deriving the best from both. It c o m e s almost to an argument of content and form, and you can't do one without the other."

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s h o u l d be allowed to speak for themselves. Bazinian realism is n o t m e r e newsreel objectivity—even if t h e r e w e r e s u c h a t h i n g . He believed t h a t reality m u s t b e h e i g h t e n e d s o m e w h a t i n t h e c i n e m a , t h a t t h e d i r e c t o r m u s t reveal t h e poetic i m p l i c a t i o n s of o r d i n a r y p e o p l e , events, a n d places. By p o e t i c i z i n g t h e c o m m o n p l a c e , t h e c i n e m a is n e i t h e r a totally objective r e c o r d i n g of t h e physical world n o r a symbolic abstraction of it. Rather, t h e c i n e m a o c c u p i e s a u n i q u e m i d d l e position b e t w e e n t h e sprawl of raw life a n d t h e artificially re-created worlds of t h e traditional arts. Bazin w r o t e m a n y articles overtly or implicitly criticizing t h e art of e d i t i n g , or at least p o i n t i n g o u t its l i m i t a t i o n s . If t h e e s s e n c e of a s c e n e is b a s e d o n t h e i d e a o f division, s e p a r a t i o n , o r isolation, e d i t i n g c a n b e a n effective t e c h n i q u e in c o n v e y i n g t h e s e ideas. But if t h e e s s e n c e of a s c e n e d e m a n d s t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s p r e s e n c e o f two o r m o r e r e l a t e d e l e m e n t s , t h e f i l m m a k e r o u g h t t o p r e s e r v e t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f real t i m e a n d s p a c e ( 4 - 2 6 ) . H e o r s h e c a n d o this b y i n c l u d i n g all t h e d r a m a t i c variables within t h e s a m e mise e n s c e n e — t h a t is, b y e x p l o i t i n g t h e r e s o u r c e s o f t h e l o n g shot, t h e l e n g t h y t a k e , d e e p focus, a n d w i d e s c r e e n . T h e f i l m m a k e r can also p r e s e r v e actual t i m e a n d space by p a n n i n g , c r a n i n g , tilting, or t r a c k i n g r a t h e r t h a n c u t t i n g to individual shots. J o h n H u s t o n ' s The African Queen c o n t a i n s a s h o t illustrating Bazin's p r i n c i p l e . In a t t e m p t i n g to take t h e i r b o a t d o w n river to a large lake, t h e two protagonists ( H u m p h r e y Bogarl and Katharine H e p b u r n ) get sidetracked on a t r i b u t a r y of t h e m a i n river. T h e t r i b u t a r y dwindles d o w n to a s t r e a m a n d finally trickles i n t o a t a n g l e o f r e e d s a n d m u d , w h e r e t h e d i l a p i d a t e d b o a t gets h o p e -

4-26. Safety Last (U.S.A., 1 9 2 3 ) , with Harold Lloyd, directed by Fred Newmeyer and Sam Taylor. In direct opposition to Pudovkin, Bazin believed that w h e n the essence of a scene lies in the simultaneous p r e s e n c e of two or m o r e elements, editing is ruled out. Such scenes gain their emotional impact through the unity of space, not through the juxtaposition of separate shots. In this famous sequence, for example, Lloyd's c o m e d y of thrills is m a d e m o r e comic and m o r e thrilling by the scene's realistic presentation: The dangling hero and the street below are kept in the s a m e frame. Actually, the distance between the two is exaggerated by the cunning placement of the camera, and there was always at least a platform about three stories below him—"but who wants to fall three stories?" Lloyd asked. (Museum of Modern Art)

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lessly m i r e d . T h e e x h a u s t e d travelers resign themselves to a slow d e a t h in t h e suffocating r e e d s , a n d eventually fall asleep on t h e floor of t h e boat. T h e came r a t h e n moves u p w a r d , over t h e r e e d s , where—just a few h u n d r e d yards away—is t h e lake. T h e bitter i r o n y of t h e s c e n e is conveyed by t h e c o n t i n u o u s m o v e m e n t o f t h e c a m e r a , w h i c h p r e s e r v e s t h e physical p r o x i m i t y o f t h e boat, t h e i n t e r v e n i n g r e e d s , a n d t h e lake. I f H u s t o n h a d cut t o t h r e e s e p a r a t e shots, w e w o u l d n ' t u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e spatial i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e irony w o u l d be lost. Bazin p o i n t e d o u t t h a t in t h e evolution of movies, virtually every technical i n n o v a t i o n p u s h e d t h e m e d i u m closer to a realistic ideal: in t h e late 1920s, s o u n d ; in t h e 1930s a n d 1940s, color a n d deep-focus p h o t o g r a p h y ; in t h e 1950s, w i d e s c r e e n . In s h o r t , technology, n o t critics a n d theorists, usually alters t e c h n i q u e . F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n The Jazz Singer u s h e r e d in t h e talkie revolution in 1927, s o u n d eclipsed virtually every a d v a n c e m a d e in t h e a r t of e d i t i n g since Griffith's day. With t h e c o m i n g of s o u n d , films had to be m o r e realistically e d i t e d , w h e t h e r t h e i r d i r e c t o r s wished t h e m s o o r n o t . M i c r o p h o n e s w e r e p l a c e d o n t h e set itself, a n d s o u n d h a d t o b e r e c o r d e d while t h e s c e n e was b e i n g p h o t o g r a p h e d . Usually t h e m i c r o p h o n e s were h i d d e n — i n a vase of flowers, a wall s c o n c e , etc. T h u s , in t h e earliest s o u n d movies, n o t only was t h e came r a restricted, b u t t h e a c t o r s w e r e as well. If they strayed too far from t h e m i c r o p h o n e , t h e d i a l o g u e c o u l d n ' t b e r e c o r d e d properly. T h e effects on e d i t i n g of t h e s e early talkies were disastrous. Synchronized s o u n d a n c h o r e d t h e images, s o w h o l e scenes w e r e played with n o cuts—a r e t u r n to t h e "primitive" s e q u e n c e shot. Most of t h e d r a m a t i c values w e r e a u r a l .

4-27. Utamaro and His Five Women (Japan, 1955), directed by Kenji Mizoguchi. Bazin and his disciples were enthusiastic c h a m p i o n s of the films of Mizoguchi. The J a p a n e s e master favored the use of lengthy takes rather than editing. He generally cut within a continuous take only when there was a sharp psychological shift within the scene. Used sparingly in this way, the cut acquires a greater dramatic impact than can be found in most conventionally edited movies.

(New Yorker Films)

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Even c o m m o n p l a c e s e q u e n c e s h e l d a fascination for a u d i e n c e s . If s o m e o n e e n t e r e d a r o o m , t h e c a m e r a r e c o r d e d t h e fact, w h e t h e r it was dramatically i m p o r t a n t o r n o t , a n d millions o f s p e c t a t o r s thrilled t o t h e s o u n d o f t h e d o o r o p e n i n g a n d s l a m m i n g s h u t . Critics a n d filmmakers d e s p a i r e d : T h e days o f t h e r e c o r d e d stage play h a d a p p a r e n t l y r e t u r n e d . Later t h e s e p r o b l e m s w e r e solved by t h e i n v e n t i o n of t h e b l i m p , a s o u n d p r o o f c a m e r a h o u s i n g t h a t p e r m i t s t h e c a m e r a to m o v e with relative ease, a n d by t h e practice of d u b b i n g s o u n d after t h e s h o o t i n g i s c o m p l e t e d (see C h a p t e r 5 ) . But s o u n d also p r o v i d e d s o m e distinct a d v a n t a g e s . In fact, Bazin believed t h a t it r e p r e s e n t e d a g i a n t l e a p in t h e e v o l u t i o n t o w a r d a totally realistic m e d i u m . S p o k e n d i a l o g u e a n d s o u n d effects h e i g h t e n e d t h e sense o f reality. A c t i n g styles b e c a m e m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d as a result of s o u n d . No l o n g e r d i d p e r f o r m e r s h a v e t o e x a g g e r a t e visually t o c o m p e n s a t e for t h e a b s e n c e o f

4-28. Clerks (U.S.A., 1994), with Jeff Anderson and Brian O'Halloran; written, edited, and directed by Kevin Smith. S o m e t i m e s economics dictates style, as with this witty low-budget feature. Everyone worked for free. Smith shot the movie in the s a m e convenience store he worked at (for $5 an hour) during the day. He also used lengthy takes in a n u m b e r of scenes. The actors were required to m e m o r i z e pages of dialogue (often very funny) so that the entire sequence could be shot without a cut. Why? Because Smith didn't need to worry about such costly decisions as w h e r e to put the c a m e r a with each new cut or how to light each new shot or whether he could afford to rent editing e q u i p m e n t to cut the sequence properly. Lengthy takes require one setup: The lights and c a m e r a usually remain stationary for the duration of the scene. The movie's final cost: a piddling $ 2 7 , 5 7 5 . He charged it. It went on to win awards at the Sund a n c e and Cannes Film Festivals. (Miramax Films)

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voices. Talkies also p e r m i t t e d f i l m m a k e r s t o tell t h e i r stories m o r e e c o n o m i cally, w i t h o u t t h e intrusive titles t h a t i n t e r s p e r s e d t h e visuals of silent movies. T e d i o u s e x p o s i t o r y s c e n e s c o u l d also be d i s p e n s e d with. A few lines of dial o g u e easily c o n v e y e d w h a t a n a u d i e n c e n e e d e d t o k n o w a b o u t t h e p r e m i s e o f t h e story. T h e use of deep-focus p h o t o g r a p h y also e x e r t e d a modifying i n f l u e n c e o n e d i t i n g practices. P r i o r t o t h e 1930s, m o s t c a m e r a s p h o t o g r a p h e d i n t e r i o r s on o n e focal p l a n e at a t i m e . T h e s e c a m e r a s c o u l d c a p t u r e a s h a r p i m a g e of an object from virtually any distance, b u t unless a n e n o r m o u s n u m b e r o f e x t r a lights w e r e set u p , o t h e r e l e m e n t s o f t h e p i c t u r e t h a t w e r e n ' t a t t h e s a m e dist a n c e from t h e c a m e r a r e m a i n e d b l u r r e d , o u t o f focus. O n e justification for e d i t i n g , t h e n , was purely technical: clarity of i m a g e . T h e aesthetic qualities o f deep-focus p h o t o g r a p h y p e r m i t t e d c o m p o s i tion in d e p t h : W h o l e scenes c o u l d be shot in o n e s e t u p , with no sacrifice of detail, for every d i s t a n c e a p p e a r e d with e q u a l clarity on t h e s c r e e n . D e e p focus t e n d s to be most effective w h e n it a d h e r e s to t h e real t i m e - s p a c e c o n t i n u u m . F o r this r e a s o n , t h e t e c h n i q u e i s s o m e t i m e s t h o u g h t t o b e m o r e theatrical t h a n c i n e m a t i c , for t h e effects a r e a c h i e v e d primarily t h r o u g h a spatially unified mise en s c e n e r a t h e r t h a n a f r a g m e n t e d juxtaposition of shots. Bazin liked t h e objectivity a n d tact of d e e p focus. Details within a s h o t can be p r e s e n t e d m o r e democratically, as it w e r e , w i t h o u t t h e special a t t e n t i o n t h a t a close-up inevitably confers. T h u s , realist critics like Bazin felt t h a t audie n c e s w o i d d b e m o r e creative—less passive—in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e relationships b e t w e e n p e o p l e a n d things. Unified space also p r e s e r v e s t h e a m b i g u i t y of life. A u d i e n c e s a r e n ' t led to an inevitable c o n c l u s i o n b u t a r e forced to evaluate, sort o u t , a n d e l i m i n a t e "irrelevancies" o n t h e i r own. In 1945, i m m e d i a t e l y following W o r l d W a r II, a m o v e m e n t called n e o realism s p r a n g up in Italy a n d gradually i n f l u e n c e d d i r e c t o r s all over t h e world. S p e a r h e a d e d by R o b e r t o Rossellini a n d Vittorio De Sica, two of Bazin's favorite f i l m m a k e r s , n e o r e a l i s m d e e m p h a s i z e d e d i t i n g . T h e d i r e c t o r s favored deep-focus p h o t o g r a p h y , l o n g shots, l e n g t h y takes, a n d a n a u s t e r e r e s t r a i n t i n t h e use of close-ups. Rossellini's Paisan features a s e q u e n c e s h o t t h a t was m u c h a d m i r e d by realistic critics. An A m e r i c a n G.I. talks to a Sicilian y o u n g w o m a n a b o u t his family, his life, a n d his d r e a m s . N e i t h e r c h a r a c t e r u n d e r s t a n d s t h e o t h e r ' s l a n g u a g e , b u t they try t o c o m m u n i c a t e i n spite o f this c o n s i d e r a b l e o b s t a c l e . By refusing to c o n d e n s e t i m e t h r o u g h t h e use of s e p a r a t e shots, Rossellini e m p h a s i z e s t h e awkward p a u s e s a n d h e s i t a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e two c h a r a c t e r s . T h r o u g h its p r e s e r v a t i o n of real t i m e , t h e l e n g t h y take forces u s t o e x p e r i e n c e t h e i n c r e a s i n g , t h e n r e l a x i n g , t e n s i o n s t h a t exist b e t w e e n t h e m . An a b r i d g e m e n t of t i m e t h r o u g h t h e use of a c u t w o u l d have dissipated these tensions. W h e n asked why he d e e m p h a s i z e d editing, Rossellini replied: "Things a r e t h e r e , why m a n i p u l a t e t h e m ? " This s t a t e m e n t m i g h t well serve as Bazin's theoretical c r e d o . He deeply a d m i r e d Rossellini's o p e n n e s s to multiple interpreta-

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tions, his refusal to diminish reality by m a k i n g it serve an a priori thesis. "Neorealism by definition rejects analysis, w h e t h e r political, moral, psychological, logical, or social, of t h e characters a n d their actions," Bazin p o i n t e d out. "It looks on reality as a whole, n o t i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e , certainly, b u t inescapably o n e . " S e q u e n c e shots t e n d to p r o d u c e (often unconsciously) a sense of m o u n t i n g anxiety in t h e viewer. We e x p e c t setups to c h a n g e d u r i n g a s c e n e . W h e n they d o n ' t , w e often g r o w restless, hardly c o n s c i o u s o f w h a t ' s p r o d u c i n g o u r u n e a s i n e s s . J i m J a r m u s c h ' s b i z a r r e comedy, Stranger Than Paradise, uses s e q u e n c e shots t h r o u g h o u t ( 4 - 2 9 ) . T h e c a m e r a i n e x o r a b l y waits a t a p r e d e t e r m i n e d l o c a t i o n . T h e y o u n g c h a r a c t e r s e n t e r t h e s c e n e a n d play o u t t h e i r tawdry, c o m i c lives, c o m p l e t e with b o r i n g stretches of silence, glazed e x p r e s sions of t o r p o r , a n d r a n d o m ticks. Finally, they leave. Or they just sit t h e r e . T h e c a m e r a sits with t h e m . F a d e o u t . Very weird. Like m a n y technological innovations, widescrecn p r o v o k e d a wail of protest from m a n y critics a n d directors. T h e new screen s h a p e would destroy the

4-29. Stranger Than Paradise (U.S.A., 1984), directed by Jim Jarmusch. Each scene in this movie is a s e q u e n c e shot—a lengthy take without cuts. Far from being "primitive," the sequence-shot technique produces a sophisticated, wry effect, bizarre and funny. In this scene, the two protagonists (John Lurie and Richard Edson) eat yet another goulash dinner while Lurie berates his stout, outspoken aunt (Cecillia Stark) for still speaking Hungarian after years of living in America. The scene's comic r h y t h m s are accented by the staging: The bickering relatives must b e n d forward to see each other, while the visitor, caught in the crossfire, tries unsuccessfully to stay neutral. (Samuel coidwyn)

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4-30. The Straight Story (U.S.A., 1999), with Richard Farnsworth, directed by David Lynch. American movies are usually edited at a fast pace without any slackness or "dead spots" between the shots. The Straight Story is a conspicuous exception. Based on true life events, the movie is a road picture, but instead of the usual vroom-vrooming vehicles racing down streets and screeching 'round corners, the vehicle of choice is a ' 6 6 John Deere tractor that the elderly hero (Farnsworth) drives from Iowa to Wisconsin where his estranged and ailing brother lives. The movie is cut at a very, very slow pace—to approximate the chugging progress Of his antiquated transport. (The Straight Story. Inc. and Disney Enterprises. Inc.)

close-up, m a n y feared, especially of the h u m a n face. T h e r e simply was too m u c h space to fill, even in l o n g shots, o t h e r s c o m p l a i n e d . Audiences would never be able to assimilate all the action, for they w o u l d n ' t know w h e r e to look. It was suitable only for horizontal compositions, s o m e a r g u e d , useful for epic films, b u t too spacious for interior scenes a n d small subjects. Editing would be f u r t h e r minimized, t h e formalists c o m p l a i n e d , for t h e r e would be no n e e d to cut to somet h i n g if everything was already t h e r e , a r r a n g e d in a long horizontal series. At first, t h e m o s t effective w i d e s c r e e n films were, in fact, w e s t e r n s a n d historical extravaganzas. But b e f o r e l o n g , d i r e c t o r s b e g a n t o use t h e new s c r e e n with m o r e sensitivity. Like deep-focus p h o t o g r a p h y , s c o p e m e a n t t h a t they h a d t o b e m o r e c o n s c i o u s o f t h e i r mise e n s c e n e . M o r e relevant details h a d t o b e i n c l u d e d within t h e frame, even at its e d g e s . Films c o u l d be m o r e densely satur a t e d and—-potentially, at l e a s t — m o r e effective artistically. F i l m m a k e r s discove r e d t h a t t h e m o s t expressive p a r t s of a p e r s o n ' s face w e r e t h e eyes a n d m o u t h , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y close-ups t h a t c h o p p e d off t h e tops a n d b o t t o m s o f actors' faces w e r e n ' t as disastrous as h a d b e e n p r e d i c t e d .

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N o t surprisingly, t h e realist critics w e r e t h e first to r e c o n s i d e r t h e a d v a n t a g e s of w i d e s c r e e n . Bazin liked its a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d objectivity. H e r e was yet a n o t h e r s t e p away from t h e d i s t o r t i n g effects of e d i t i n g , he p o i n t e d o u t . As with d e e p focus, w i d e s c r e e n h e l p e d t o p r e s e r v e spatial a n d t e m p o r a l c o n t i n u ity. Close s h o t s c o n t a i n i n g two o r m o r e p e o p l e c o u l d n o w b e p h o t o g r a p h e d i n o n e s e t u p w i t h o u t s u g g e s t i n g inequality, as d e e p focus often d i d in its variety o f d e p t h p l a n e s . N o r w e r e t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n p e o p l e a n d t h i n g s fragm e n t e d a s they w e r e with e d i t e d s e q u e n c e s . S c o p e was also m o r e realistic b e c a u s e t h e w i d e s c r e e n e n v e l o p e d t h e viewer in a sense of an e x p e r i e n c e , even with its e d g e s — a c i n e m a t i c c o u n t e r p a r t to t h e eye's p e r i p h e r a l vision. All t h e s a m e a d v a n t a g e s t h a t h a d b e e n a p p l i e d t o s o u n d a n d d e e p focus w e r e n o w a p p l i e d to w i d e s c r e e n : its g r e a t e r fidelity to real t i m e a n d s p a c e ; its detail, complexity, a n d density; its m o r e objective p r e s e n t a t i o n ; its m o r e c o h e r e n t c o n t i n u i t y ; its g r e a t e r a m b i g u i t y ; a n d its e n c o u r a g e m e n t of creative a u d i e n c e participation. Interestingly, several of Bazin's p r o t e g e s w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e for a r e t u r n t o m o r e f l a m b o y a n t e d i t i n g t e c h n i q u e s i n t h e following d e c a d e s . T h r o u g h o u t t h e 1950s, G o d a r d , Truffaut, a n d C h a b r o l w r o t e criticism for Cahiers du Cinema. By t h e e n d of t h e d e c a d e , they t u r n e d to m a k i n g t h e i r own movies. T h e nouvelle vague, or N e w Wave as this m o v e m e n t was called in English, was

4-31. The Hidden Fortress (Japan, 1958), directed by Akira Kurosawa. Most filmmakers b e m o a n e d the advent of widescreen in the 1950s almost as much as they b e m o a n e d sound in the late 1920s. Bazin and other realists e m b r a c e d the innovation as yet another step away from the distorting effects of montage. Widescreen tends to d e e m p h a s i z e depth in favor of breadth, but Bazin believed that a horizontal presentation of the visual materials could be more democratic—less distorting even than deep focus, which tends to emphasize visual importance in terms of an object's closeness to the c a m e r a ' s lens. (Toho Films)

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4 - 3 2 . The Innocents (Great Britain, 1961), with Deborah Kerr, directed by Jack Clayton. Throughout m o s t of this psychological thriller (which is based on Henry J a m e s ' s novelette The Turn of the Screw), we are not sure if the ghost is "real" or simply the hysterical projection of a repressed governess (Kerr), b e c a u s e we usually see the apparition through her eyes. That is, the c a m e r a r e p r e s e n t s her point of view, which m a y or m a y not be reliable. But w h e n an objective c a m e r a is used, as in this photo, both the governess a n d the ghost are included in the s a m e space, with no cutting between separate shots. Hence, we conclude that the spirit figure has an i n d e p e n d e n t existence outside of the governess's imagination. (Twentieth Century-Fox)

eclectic i n its t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e . T h e m e m b e r s o f this g r o u p , w h o w e r e n o t very tightly knit, w e r e u n i f i e d by an a l m o s t obsessional e n t h u s i a s m for film cult u r e , especially A m e r i c a n film c u l t u r e . U n l i k e t h a t o f m o s t p r e v i o u s m o v e m e n t s , t h e r a n g e o f e n t h u s i a s m s o f t h e s e c r i t i c / f i l m m a k e r s was e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y b r o a d : H i t c h c o c k , Renoir, Eisenstein, Hawks, B e r g m a n , F o r d , a n d m a n y m o r e . A l t h o u g h r a t h e r d o g m a t i c i n t h e i r p e r s o n a l tastes, t h e N e w Wave critics t e n d e d t o avoid t h e o r e t i c a l d o g m a t i s m . T h e y believed t h a t t e c h n i q u e was m e a n i n g f u l only in t e r m s of subject m a t t e r . In fact, it was t h e New Wave t h a t p o p u l a r i z e d t h e i d e a t h a t what a m o v i e says is inextricably b o u n d up with how it's said. T h e y insisted t h a t e d i t i n g styles o u g h t to be d e t e r m i n e d n o t by fashion, the limitations of technology, or dogmatic p r o n o u n c e m e n t s , b u t by the e s s e n c e of t h e subject m a t t e r itself.

4-33. Annie Hall (U.S.A., 1977), with Diane Keaton and Woody Allen, edited by Ralph Rosenblum, written and directed by Allen. It's very hard to judge a movie's editing. You have to know what was available before the cutting even began—whether the footage was excellent to begin with (which an incompetent editor can still screw up), or whether the editor had a pile of junk to sort through before managing to sculpt at least a moderately respectable movie out of the shards he or she was presented with. "A feature-length film generates anywhere from twenty to forty hours of raw footage," says editor Ralph Rosenblum. "When the shooting stops, that unfinished film b e c o m e s the movie's raw material, just as the script had been the raw material before, it now must be selected, tightened, paced, embellished, and in s o m e scenes given artificial respiration." Annie Hall was originally conceived by Woody Allen as a story about his own character, Alvy Singer, and his various romantic and professional relationships. The character of Annie Hall (Keaton) was merely one of several plot lines. But both Allen and Rosenblum agreed that the original concept didn't work on the cutting bench. The editor suggested cutting away most of the footage and focusing on a central love story, between Alvy and Annie Hall. The resultant romantic c o m e d y went on to win a n u m b e r of Oscars, including Best Picture, Best Director, Best Screenplay, and Best Actress for Keaton. Ironically, no award for its editor. See Ralph Rosenblum (and Robert Karen), When the Shooting Stops . . . The Cutting Begins (New York: Viking, 1979). (UnitedArtists)

Alfred H i t c h c o c k is widely r e g a r d e d as t h e greatest e d i t o r in t h e history o f t h e c i n e m a . His p r e c u t scripts w e r e l e g e n d a r y . N o o t h e r d i r e c t o r w o r k e d from s u c h precisely d e t a i l e d plans. He often p r o v i d e d frame drawings of his shots (a t e c h n i q u e called s t o r y b o a r d i n g ) , especially for t h o s e s e q u e n c e s involvi n g c o m p l e x e d i t i n g . S o m e of his scripts c o n t a i n e d as m a n y as 600 s e t u p sketches. Every s h o t was c a l c u l a t e d for a precise effect. N o t h i n g was superfluo u s , n o t h i n g left to c h a n c e . "I w o u l d p r e f e r to write all this d o w n , h o w e v e r tiny a n d h o w e v e r s h o r t t h e pieces o f film a r e — t h e y s h o u l d b e written d o w n i n j u s t t h e s a m e way a c o m p o s e r writes d o w n t h o s e little black d o t s from which we g e t beautiful s o u n d , " h e e x p l a i n e d . T h e following e x c e r p t is n o t H i t c h c o c k ' s s h o o t i n g script of North by Northwest, b u t p e r h a p s t h e n e x t best t h i n g : a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a s e q u e n c e t a k e n directly from t h e movie by A l b e r t J. LaValley, which a p p e a r s in his volu m e , Focus on Hitchcock. E r n e s t L e h m a n ' s "literary" version of this s c e n e is reprinted in Chapter 9. E a c h n u m b e r r e p r e s e n t s a s e p a r a t e shot; drawings identified with a letter as well r e p r e s e n t a c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e previous shot, t h o u g h with e n o u g h new a c t i o n t o w a r r a n t a n a d d i t i o n a l sketch. T h e n u m b e r s i n p a r e n t h e s e s indicate t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l e n g t h o f t h e shots i n s e c o n d s . T h e following abbrevia181

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tions a r e used: E.L.S., e x t r e m e l o n g shot; L.S., l o n g shot; M.S., m e d i u m shot; C.U., close-up; P.O.V., a s h o t t a k e n from T h o r n h i l l ' s p o i n t of view. T h e p r e m i s e : R o g e r T h o r n h i l l (Gary G r a n t ) is a fugitive from t h e law. To p r o v e his i n n o c e n c e , he m u s t talk with a m a n n a m e d Kaplan. R o g e r is told t o c o m e t o t h e s c e n e ' s location, w h e r e h e e x p e c t s t o m e e t Kaplan. S o m e q u e s t i o n s we o u g h t to ask ourselves a b o u t a movie's e d i t i n g style i n c l u d e : H o w m u c h c u t t i n g i s t h e r e a n d why? Are t h e shots highly f r a g m e n t e d or relatively lengthy? W h a t is t h e p o i n t of t h e c u t t i n g in e a c h scene? To clarify? T o stimulate? T o lyricize? T o c r e a t e suspense? T o e x p l o r e a n i d e a o r e m o t i o n i n d e p t h ? D o e s t h e c u t t i n g s e e m m a n i p u l a t i v e o r a r e w e left t o i n t e r p r e t t h e images o n o u r own? W h a t k i n d o f r h y t h m d o e s t h e e d i t i n g establish with e a c h

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scene? Is t h e p e r s o n a l i t y of t h e filmmaker a p p a r e n t in t h e c u t t i n g or is t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of s h o t s relatively objective a n d functional? Is e d i t i n g a m a j o r lang u a g e system of t h e m o v i e or d o e s t h e film artist r e l e g a t e c u t t i n g to a relatively m i n o r function?

FURTHER READING

BALMUTH, BERNARD, Introduction to Film Editing (Boston: Focal Press, 1989). Technical emphasis. BA/,IN, ANDRE, What Is Cinema? H u g h Gray, ed. a n d trans. (Berkeley: University of California Press, vol. I, 1967, vol. II, 1971). A collection of essays emphasizing t h e realistic n a t u r e of t h e film m e d i u m . CHRISTIE, IAN, AND RICHARD TAYLOR, eds. Eisenstein Rediscovered (New York a n d L o n d o n : Routledge, 1993). A collection of scholarly essays on Eisenstein a n d his legacy. DMYTRYK, EDWARD, On Film Editing (Boston: Focal Press, 1984). A practical h a n d b o o k by a form e r editor t u r n e d director. GRAHAM, PETER, ed., The New Wave ( L o n d o n : Seeker & Warburg, 1968). A collection of essays by a n d a b o u t Bazin, Truffaut, G o d a r d , a n d others. LA VALLEY, ALBERT]., ed., Focus on Hitchcock (Englewood Cliffs: N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972). LOBRUTTO, VINCENT, ed., Selected Takes: Film Editors on Film Editing (New York: Praeger, 1991). OLDHAM, GABRIELIA, ed., First Cut (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). Interviews with twenty-three award-winning film editors. PUDOVKIN, V. I., Film 'Technique and Film Acting. Ivor M o n t a g u e , ed. a n d trans. (New York: Grove Press, 1960). See also Kuleschov on Film, Ronald Levaco, ed. a n d trans. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974). REISZ, KAREL, The Technique of Film Editing (New York: Hastings H o u s e , 1968). T h e s t a n d a r d text on t h e history, practice, a n d t h e o r y of editing.

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Overview T h e talkie revolution. T h e late 1 9 2 0 s : early p r o b l e m s w i t h s o u n d recording. Microp h o n e s v e r s u s c a m e r a s . S y n c h r o n o u s a n d n o n s y n c h r o n o u s s o u n d s . A n e w genre: the musical. W h a t talkies did to editing s t y l e s a n d silent film acting. S o u n d effects: pitch, v o l u m e , t e m p o , a n d texture. Off-screen s o u n d s . S o u n d s y m b o l i s m . The u s e s o f silence. F u n c t i o n s of m u s i c : establish tone, period, ethnicity, a n d locale. The e m o tional appeal of m u s i c . Music as characterization. Background m u s i c . Opera a n d other m u s i c a l genres. S p o k e n language: t o n e of voice, dialects, vocal e m p h a s i s . T h e i d e o l o g y of s p e e c h . Text v e r s u s subtext: What's b e n e a t h the language? M o n o l o g u e s , voice-overs, s p o k e n narration: W h o ' s telling this story? Foreign l a n g u a g e m o v i e s . What to do about translating: d u b b i n g v e r s u s subtitles. R o u g h language: Is it n e c e s sary? Why? W h e n ?

In 1927, w h e n The Jazz Singer u s h e r e d in t h e talkie era, m a n y critics felt t h a t s o u n d w o u l d d e a l a d e a t h b l o w t o t h e a r t o f movies. B u t t h e setbacks w e r e t e m p o r a r y , a n d today s o u n d i s o n e o f t h e r i c h e s t s o u r c e s o f m e a n i n g i n film art. Actually, t h e r e n e v e r was a silent p e r i o d . Virtually all movies p r i o r to 1927 5 - 1 . The Jazz Singer (U.S.A., 1927), with Al Jolson, directed by Alan Crosland. There had b e e n a n u m b e r of experiments in synchronous sound prior to this film, but they failed to create m u c h of a stir with the public. Significantly, Warner Brothers m a n a g e d to break the sound barrier with a n e w genre, the musical. Actually, even this movie was mostly silent. Onlyjolson's musical n u m b e r s a n d a few snatches of dialogue were in synch sound. See John Springer, All Talking, All Singing, All Dancing! (New York: Citadel, 1966). (Warner Bros.)

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were a c c o m p a n i e d by s o m e k i n d of music. In t h e large city t h e a t e r s , full o r c h e s tras p r o v i d e d a t m o s p h e r i c b a c k g r o u n d to t h e visuals. In small towns, a p i a n o was often used for t h e s a m e p u r p o s e . In m a n y t h e a t e r s , t h e "Mighty Wurlitzer" o r g a n , with its b e l l o w i n g p i p e s , was t h e s t a n d a r d musical a c c o m p a n i m e n t . Music was played for practical as well as artistic r e a s o n s , for t h e s e s o u n d s muffled t h e noises of t h e p a t r o n s w h o were occasionally rowdy, particularly w h e n entering the theater. Most of t h e early "100 p e r c e n t talkies" w e r e visually dull. T h e e q u i p m e n t of the time required the simultaneous (synchronous) recording of sound a n d i m a g e : T h e c a m e r a was restricted t o o n e position, t h e a c t o r s c o u l d n ' t m o v e far from t h e m i c r o p h o n e , a n d e d i t i n g was restricted to its m o s t m i n i m a l funct i o n — p r i m a r i l y s c e n e c h a n g e s . T h e m a j o r s o u r c e o f m e a n i n g was t h e d i a l o g u e . T h e i m a g e s t e n d e d m e r e l y t o illustrate t h e s o u n d t r a c k . Before l o n g , a d v e n t u r ous d i r e c t o r s b e g a n e x p e r i m e n t i n g . T h e c a m e r a was h o u s e d i n a s o u n d p r o o f

5-2. Scarface, Shame of a Nation (U.S.A., 1932), with Paul Muni (center), directed by Howard Hawks. After the introduction of talkies, American movies—which had always been a m o n g t h e ' fastest in the world—got even faster. The films of such 1930s masters as Howard Hawks and Frank Capra e m p h a s i z e d speed by having the dialogue delivered 30 to 4 0 % faster than normal. This breathless sense of urgency was especially effective in gangster films, which were immensely popular during the Depression era. In his classic essay, "The Gangster as Tragic Hero," Robert Warshow hit on why the gangster struck such a responsive chord in audiences and why he has held our imagination ever since: "The gangster is the m a n of the city, with the city's language and knowledge, with its queer and dishonest skills and its terrible daring, carrying his life in his h a n d s like a placard, like a club. . . . It is not the real city, but that dangerous and sad city of the imagination which is so much m o r e important, which is the modern world." (United Artists)

5-3. Monte Carlo (U.S.A., 1930), with Claude Allister, directed by Ernst Lubitsch. The sophisticated German emigre Ernst Lubitsch was the first great filmmaker to try his h a n d at the new talkie genre, the musical. Unlike most artists working in this form, Lubitsch tended to avoid elaborate production n u m b e r s in favor of simple character-based songs. In this scene, for example, the appalling Prince Otto von Seibenheim has just been jilted by his would-be bride, w h o , understandably, has fled in terror. As he sings "Give Me a Moment Please," the bridesmaids close in around him, serving as impromptu chorus girls. Lubitsch delighted in these on-camera regroupings, which good-naturedly spoof the artificiality of the genre's conventions. See Scott Eyman, Ernst Lubitsch: Laughter in Paradise (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993).

(Paramount Pictures)

blimp, t h u s p e r m i t t i n g t h e c a m e r a to m o v e in a n d o u t of a s c e n e silently. S o o n , several m i c r o p h o n e s , all on s e p a r a t e c h a n n e l s , w e r e p l a c e d on t h e set. Overh e a d s o u n d b o o m s w e r e devised to follow an a c t o r on a set, so his or h e r voice was always within r a n g e , even w h e n t h e a c t o r m o v e d a r o u n d . D e s p i t e t h e s e t e c h n i c a l a d v a n c e s , formalist d i r e c t o r s r e m a i n e d hostile to t h e use of realistic ( s y n c h r o n o u s ) s o u n d r e c o r d i n g . Eisenstein was especially wary o f d i a l o g u e . H e p r e d i c t e d a n o n s l a u g h t o f "highly c u l t u r e d d r a m a s " t h a t w o u l d force t h e c i n e m a b a c k t o its stagey b e g i n n i n g s . S y n c h r o n o u s s o u n d , h e believed, w o u l d destroy t h e flexibility of e d i t i n g a n d t h u s kill t h e very soul of film art. S y n c h r o n o u s s o u n d did, in fact, r e q u i r e a m o r e literal continuity, especially in d i a l o g u e s e q u e n c e s . Eisenstein's m e t a p h o r i c c u t t i n g , with its leaps in t i m e a n d space, w o u l d n ' t m a k e m u c h sense i f realistic s o u n d h a d t o b e p r o vided with e a c h i m a g e . I n d e e d , H i t c h c o c k p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e m o s t c i n e m a t i c s e q u e n c e s a r e essentially silent. C h a s e scenes, for e x a m p l e , r e q u i r e only s o m e g e n e r a l s o u n d effects to p r e s e r v e t h e i r continuity. Most of t h e t a l e n t e d d i r e c t o r s of t h e early s o u n d e r a favored nonsynchronous sound. T h e F r e n c h m a n R e n e Clair believed t h a t s o u n d s h o u l d b e

5-4. She Done Him Wrong (U.S.A., 1933), with Mae West, directed by Lowell Sherman. Tone of voice can be far more communicative than words in revealing a person's thoughts. This is why most sophisticated moviegoers prefer written subtitles to dubbing in foreign language movies. Mae West was an expert in conveying sexual innuendos through tone of voice—so much so, in fact, that censors insisted on monitoring her scenes during production for fear that the apparently neutral dialogue in her screenplays would be delivered in a "salacious" manner. Audiences responded enthusiastically to Mae's insolence and snappy wisecracks. In this film, she's at her outspoken best: cool, lecherous, cynical. In her opening scene, she saucily proclaims herself to be "one of the finest w o m e n who ever walked the streets." West preferred playing outcasts, like showgirls and kept w o m e n . This afforded her the opportunity of satirizing sexual hypocrisies. Her one-liners are legendary, like the famous "It's not the m e n in my life that counts, it's the life in my men." Or "Whenever I'm caught between two evils, 1 take the one I've never tried." Or "I used to be Snow White, but I drifted." Again: "When I'm good, I'm very good; when I'm bad, I'm even better." When asked how tall he is, a h a n d s o m e young m a n replies, "Ma'am, I'm six feet seven inches." Naughty Mae smiles and says, "Let's forget about the six feet and talk about the seven inches." Mae's "lewd" comic style—almost exclusively verbal—fueled the wrath of the censors, ushering in the puritanical Production Code in 1934. (Paramount Pictures)

u s e d selectively, n o t indiscriminately. T h e ear, he believed, is j u s t as selective as t h e eye, a n d s o u n d can b e e d i t e d i n t h e s a m e way i m a g e s c a n . Even d i a l o g u e s e q u e n c e s n e e d n ' t b e totally s y n c h r o n o u s , Clair believed. C o n v e r s a t i o n can act as a c o n t i n u i t y device, freeing t h e c a m e r a to e x p l o r e c o n t r a s t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n — a t e c h n i q u e especially favored by ironists like H i t c h c o c k a n d E r n s t L u b i t s c h . Clair m a d e several musicals illustrating his t h e o r i e s . In Le Million, for e x a m p l e , music a n d s o n g often r e p l a c e d i a l o g u e . L a n g u a g e i s j u x t a p o s e d ironically with n o n s y n c h r o n o u s images. Many of t h e scenes w e r e p h o t o g r a p h e d w i t h o u t s o u n d a n d later d u b b e d w h e n t h e m o n t a g e s e q u e n c e s w e r e c o m p l e t e d . T h e s e ( h a r m i n g musicals are never i m m o b i l i z e d by the stagey c o n f i n e m e n t t h a t r u i n e d m o s t s o u n d films of this era. T h e d u b b i n g t e c h n i q u e of Clair, t h o u g h a h e a d Of its t i m e , eventually b e c a m e a m a j o r a p p r o a c h in s o u n d film production. Several A m e r i c a n d i r e c t o r s also e x p e r i m e n t e d with s o u n d i n t h e s e early years. Like Clair, L u b i t s c h u s e d s o u n d a n d i m a g e n o n s y n c h r o n o u s l y t o 211

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p r o d u c e a n u m b e r o f witty a n d often cynical j u x t a p o s i t i o n s . T h e c e l e b r a t e d " B e y o n d t h e Blue H o r i z o n " s e q u e n c e from his musical Monte Carlo is a g o o d e x a m p l e o f his m a s t e r y o f t h e n e w m i x e d m e d i u m . W h i l e t h e s p u n k y h e r o i n e ( J e a n e t t e M a c D o n a l d ) sings cheerily o f h e r optimistic e x p e c t a t i o n s , L u b i t s c h p r o v i d e s us with a display of t e c h n i c a l b r a v u r a . Shots of t h e s p e e d i n g train t h a t c a r r i e s t h e h e r o i n e t o h e r destiny a r e i n t e r c u t with close-ups o f t h e w h i r r i n g l o c o m o t i v e wheels i n r h y t h m i c a l s y n c o p a t i o n with t h e huffing a n d t h e c h u g g i n g a n d t h e t o o t i n g of t h e t r a i n . U n a b l e to resist a m a l i c i o u s fillip, Lubitsch e v e n has a c h o r u s of suitably o b s e q u i o u s p e a s a n t s c h i m e in with t h e h e r o i n e in a t r i u m p h a n t r e p r i s e as t h e train p l u n g e s past t h e i r fields in t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . T h e s e q u e n c e i s b o t h e x h i l a r a t i n g a n d o u t r a g e o u s l y funny. Critic G e r a l d Mast o b s e r v e d , "This visual-aural s y m p h o n y o f music, n a t u r a l s o u n d , c o m p o s i t i o n , a n d c u t t i n g is as c o m p l e x a n d p e r f e c t an e x a m p l e of m o n t a g e - i n - s o u n d as E i s e n s t e i n ' s e d i t i n g devices in Potemkinwere of m o n t a g e in silents." T h e i n c r e a s e d realism b r o u g h t o n b y s o u n d inevitably forced a c t i n g styles t o b e c o m e m o r e n a t u r a l . P e r f o r m e r s n o l o n g e r n e e d e d t o c o m p e n s a t e visually for t h e lack of d i a l o g u e . Like stage actors, film players realized t h a t t h e subtlest n u a n c e s o f m e a n i n g c o u l d b e conveyed t h r o u g h t h e voice. Close-ups a r e a n o t h e r a d v a n t a g e for s c r e e n actors. I f they a r e r e q u i r e d t o m u t t e r u n d e r t h e i r b r e a t h , for e x a m p l e , they can d o s o naturally. T h e y n e e d n o t , like t h e stage actor, m u t t e r in stage w h i s p e r — a necessary c o n v e n t i o n in t h e live theater. In t h e silent c i n e m a , d i r e c t o r s h a d to use titles to c o m m u n i c a t e nonvi-

5-5. Wings of Desire (Germany, 1988), with Bruno Ganz, directed by Wim Wenders. Silence can be m o r e powerful than sound in certain cases. In this poetic fantasy about an angel (Ganz) w h o yearns to b e c o m e mortal, the protagonist often sits on a statue high above the city of Berlin. The discordant clash of m o d e r n life is softened and silenced by the soothing distance.

(Orion Classics)

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sual i n f o r m a t i o n : d i a l o g u e , e x p o s i t i o n , abstract ideas, a n d s o o n . I n s o m e f i l m s , t h e s e i n t e r r u p t i o n s nearly r u i n e d t h e delicate r h y t h m o f t h e visuals. O t h e r d i r e c t o r s a v o i d e d titles by d r a m a t i z i n g visually as m u c h as possible. T h i s practice led to m a n y visual cliches. Early in t h e story, for e x a m p l e , t h e villain m i g h t be identified by s h o w i n g h i m kicking a d o g , or a h e r o i n e c o u l d be r e c o g n i z e d b y t h e halo-effect lighting a r o u n d h e r h e a d , a n d s o forth. C o m i n g from t h e world o f r a d i o , O r s o n Welles was a n i m p o r t a n t i n n o vator in t h e field of s o u n d . In The Magnificent Ambersons, he p e r f e c t e d t h e techn i q u e o f s o u n d m o n t a g e , i n which t h e d i a l o g u e o f o n e c h a r a c t e r overlaps with t h a t of a n o t h e r , or several o t h e r s . T h e effect is a l m o s t musical, for t h e l a n g u a g e is e x p l o i t e d n o t necessarily for t h e literal i n f o r m a t i o n it m a y convey, b u t as

5-6. The Merry Widow (U.S.A., 1925), with Mae Murray and John Gilbert, directed by Erich von Stroheim. Talkies wiped out the careers of m a n y silent film stars, including that of John Gilbert, the m o s t popular leading man of the late silent era. Gilbert's voice was said to be too high pitched, though in fact it wasn't. The problem was far more complex. Silent film acting was stylized and visually heightened to c o m p e n s a t e for the lack of sound. Even by silent standards, Gilbert was known for his emotional intensity—his gestures romantically exaggerated, his ardor raised to a fever pitch. The increased realism brought on by the advent of talkies m a d e such acting techniques s e e m comically overwrought. Audiences laughed at their form e r idols. Said critic Scott Eyman, "When a star the stature of Gilbert fell, it was like the fall of an angel, awful and irrevocable." Talkies ushered in a new era, with a new breed of actors. Young leading m e n like Clark Gable were more relaxed and natural in front of the camera, their style of acting more suited to the new realism of talkies. <MGM>

5 - 7 . Babe (Australia, 1995), w/f/i James Cromwell and friend, directed by Chris Noonan. This stylized coming-of-age c o m e d y is narrated by Babe, a young pig (pictured). The fusion of h u m a n voices with porcine visuals is surprisingly convincing: The technique persuades most spectators into suspending their disbelief about talking pigs, wise and articulate dogs, and ridiculously oversensitive ducks. Interestingly, when this film was shown in the United States, most of the Australian voice-overs were replaced by American voices to m a k e the story more palatable to U.S. audiences. To almost everyone's surprise, the movie was a big hit, and not just with children. (universal Pictures)

p u r e s o u n d o r c h e s t r a t e d i n t e r m s o f e m o t i o n a l tonalities. O n e o f t h e m o s t brilliant e p i s o d e s u s i n g this t e c h n i q u e is t h e leave-taking s c e n e at t h e final A m b e r son ball. T h e s c e n e is s h o t in d e e p focus, with expressionistic lighting contrasts throwing most of the characters into silhouette. T h e dialogue of o n e g r o u p of c h a r a c t e r s gently overlaps with t h a t of a n o t h e r , which in t u r n overlaps with a t h i r d g r o u p . T h e effect is h a u n t i n g l y poetic, d e s p i t e t h e relative simplicity of t h e w o r d s themselves. E a c h p e r s o n or c o u p l e is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a p a r t i c u l a r s o u n d t e x t u r e : T h e y o u n g p e o p l e speak rapidly in a n o r m a l to l o u d v o l u m e ; a m i d d l e - a g e d c o u p l e whispers intimately a n d slowly. T h e s h o u t s o f various o t h e r family m e m b e r s p u n c t u a t e these d i a l o g u e s e q u e n c e s i n s u d d e n o u t b u r s t s . T h e e n t i r e s c e n e s e e m s c h o r e o g r a p h e d , b o t h visually a n d aurally: S i l h o u e t t e d f i g u r e s s t r e a m in a n d o u t of t h e f r a m e like graceful p h a n t o m s , t h e i r words floati n g a n d u n d u l a t i n g i n t h e shadows. T h e q u a r r e l s a m o n g t h e A m b e r s o n family a r e often r e c o r d e d in a similar m a n n e r . Welles's actors d o n ' t wait patiently for cues: Accusations a n d r e c r i m i n a t i o n s a r e h u r l e d simultaneously, as they a r e in life. T h e violent words, often i r r a t i o n a l a n d d i s c o n n e c t e d , spew o u t i n s p o n t a n e o u s e r u p t i o n s o f a n g e r a n d frustration. Like m a n y family q u a r r e l s , e v e r y o n e s h o u t s , b u t p e o p l e only half listen. R o b e r t A l t m a n u s e d similar s o u n d m o n t a g e t e c h n i q u e s in M*A*S*H, Nashville, a n d o t h e r movies. Like Welles, A l t m a n often uses l a n g u a g e as p u r e s o u n d , particularly in McCabe and Mrs. Miller, in which as m a n y as twenty differe n t s o u n d t r a c k s w e r e m i x e d . In several scenes, s p e e c h e s are deliberately t h r o w n away a n d w e ' r e a b l e to catch only a fleeting p h r a s e h e r e a n d t h e r e ; however, t h e s e p h r a s e s a r e sufficient to give us a sense of w h a t ' s really g o i n g on in a s c e n e . M o r e i m p o r t a n t , they give us a sense of h o w l a n g u a g e a n d s o u n d s a r e actually h e a r d in reality—in a m b i g u o u s , elliptical wisps t h a t are often i n c o n g r u o u s a n d funny.

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A l t h o u g h t h e function of s o u n d effects is primarily a t m o s p h e r i c , they can also be precise sources of m e a n i n g in film. T h e pitch, v o l u m e , a n d t e m p o of s o u n d effects can strongly affect o u r responses to any given noise. H i g h - p i t c h e d s o u n d s a r e generally s t r i d e n t a n d p r o d u c e a sense of tension in t h e listener. Especially if t h e s e types of noises a r e p r o l o n g e d , t h e shrillness can be totally u n n e r v i n g . F o r this r e a s o n , h i g h - p i t c h e d s o u n d s ( i n c l u d i n g music) are often used in s u s p e n s e s e q u e n c e s , particularly just before a n d d u r i n g t h e climax. Lowfrequency s o u n d s , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , are heavy, full, a n d less tense. Often, they a r e used to e m p h a s i z e t h e dignity or solemnity of a s c e n e , like t h e m a l e h u m m i n g c h o r u s in The Seven Samurai. Low-pitched s o u n d s can also suggest anxiety a n d mystery: F r e q u e n t l y a s u s p e n s e s e q u e n c e begins with such s o u n d s , which t h e n gradually increase in frequency as t h e scene moves toward its climax. S o u n d v o l u m e works i n m u c h t h e s a m e way. L o u d s o u n d s t e n d t o b e forceful, i n t e n s e , a n d t h r e a t e n i n g ( 5 - 8 ) . Q u i e t s o u n d s strike u s a s delicate, hesitant, a n d often weak. T h e s e s a m e p r i n c i p l e s apply t o t e m p o . T h e faster t h e t e m p o o f s o u n d , t h e g r e a t e r t h e t e n s i o n p r o d u c e d i n t h e listener ( 5 - 2 ) . I n t h e chase s e q u e n c e of William F r i e d k i n ' s The French Connection, all of t h e s e principles a r e u s e d masterfully. As t h e chase r e a c h e s its climax, t h e s c r e e c h i n g wheels o f t h e p u r s u i n g a u t o a n d t h e c r a s h i n g s o u n d o f t h e runaway train grow l o u d e r , faster, a n d h i g h e r p i t c h e d . Off-screen s o u n d s b r i n g off-screen space i n t o play: T h e s o u n d e x p a n d s t h e i m a g e b e y o n d t h e c o n f i n e s o f t h e f r a m e . S o u n d effects can evoke t e r r o r i n s u s p e n s e films a n d thrillers. We t e n d to fear w h a t we c a n ' t see, so d i r e c t o r s will s o m e t i m e s u s e off-screen s o u n d effects to strike a n o t e of anxiety. T h e s o u n d of a c r e a k i n g d o o r in a d a r k e n e d r o o m c a n be m o r e fearful t h a n an i m a g e of s o m e o n e stealing t h r o u g h t h e d o o r . In Fritz L a n g ' s M, t h e child m u r d e r e r is identified by a t u n e he whistles off s c r e e n . D u r i n g t h e early p o r t i o n s of t h e movie, we n e v e r see h i m ; we r e c o g n i z e h i m only by his sinister t u n e . In several scenes of H i t c h c o c k ' s Psycho, B e r n a r d H e r r m a n n ' s s c o r e — consisting entirely of strings—suggests shrill b i r d noises. This m o t i f is u s e d as a f o r m of c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . A shy a n d a p p e a l i n g y o u n g m a n ( A n t h o n y Perkins) is associated with b i r d s early in t h e film. He stuffs birds as a hobby, a n d his own

5-8. A Clockwork Orange (Great Britain/U.S.A., 1972), with Malcolm McDowell, directed by Stanley Kubrick. The voice as a weapon. Dialogue that's shouted rather than spoken can be a kind of assault. Throughout this movie, the vicious protagonist (McDowell) barks and snarls at his adversaries like a feral dog on a chain, setting t h e m on edge as they cringe from his aggressive incursions.

(Warner Bros.)

5-9. Ran (Chaos, J a p a n , 1985), with Mieko Haranda, directed by Akira Kurosawa. Kurosawa was a master of sound. In this loose a d a p t a t i o n of Shakespeare's King Lear, the vengeful character of Lady Kaede (pictured) m a k e s Lady Macbeth look like Mary Poppins. She is characterized by the eerie chafing sound of her silk gowns as she glides across the polished floors like a sinister apparition. (Orion classics)

features a r e i n t e n s e a n d r a t h e r hawklike. D u r i n g a b r u t a l m u r d e r s e q u e n c e , t h e s o u n d t r a c k t h r o b s with s c r e e c h i n g b i r d music. T h e a u d i e n c e a s s u m e s t h e m u r d e r e r i s t h e boy's m o t h e r , b u t birds have b e e n associated with h i m , n o t her. O n e of H i t c h c o c k ' s r e c u r r e n t t h e m e s is t h e t r a n s f e r e n c e of guilt. In this film, t h e transfer i s r a t h e r c o m p l e x . T h e y o u t h has d u g u p his l o n g - d e a d m o t h e r ' s b o d y a n d literally stuffed it. Often, h e dresses himself u p i n h e r c l o t h i n g . A l t h o u g h we t h i n k we see t h e m o t h e r killing two victims, we have in fact s e e n t h e s c h i z o p h r e n i c y o u t h a s his o t h e r self—his m o t h e r . T h e b i r d m u s i c offers a n early clue to this psychological t r a n s f e r e n c e . Because i m a g e s t e n d t o d o m i n a t e s o u n d s while w e ' r e actually e x p e r i e n c i n g a movie, m a n y s o u n d effects work on a s u b c o n s c i o u s level. In Psycho, t h e h e r o i n e (Janet L e i g h ) drives h e r car t h r o u g h a r a i n s t o r m . O n t h e s o u n d t r a c k , w e h e a r h e r w i n d s h i e l d w i p e r b l a d e s slashing furiously against t h e d o w n p o u r . Later, w h e n s h e is t a k i n g a s h o w e r in a m o t e l , t h e s e s a m e s o u n d s a r e r e p e a t e d . T h e s o u r c e o f t h e water noise i s a p p a r e n t , b u t t h e slashing s o u n d s s e e m t o c o m e from n o w h e r e — u n t i l a d e m e n t e d killer crashes i n t o t h e b a t h r o o m b r a n d i s h i n g a knife. S o u n d effects can also serve symbolic functions, which are usually d e t e r m i n e d by t h e d r a m a t i c c o n t e x t . In Luis B u n u e l ' s Belle deJour, for e x a m p l e , t h e s o u n d s of j i n g l i n g bells are associated with t h e h e r o i n e ' s sexual fantasies. O t h e r symbolic s o u n d effects a r e m o r e universally u n d e r s t o o d . I n B e r g m a n ' s Wild Strawberries, t h e p r o t a g o n i s t , an elderly professor, has a n i g h t m a r e . T h e 216

5-10. The Exorcist (U.S.A., 1973), directed by William Friedkin. Sound in film is generally geared to space: When a severe discrepancy exists, the effect can be disorienting and even frightening. In this movie, the devil has possessed a young girl (Linda Blair, lying on bed). The sounds e m a n a t i n g from her small body echo loudly, creating a cavernous effect, as if the girl's slight figure had been spiritually e x p a n d e d thousands of times to a c c o m m o d a t e the d e m o n s that inhabit it. (Warner Bros.)

surrealistic s e q u e n c e is virtually silent e x c e p t for t h e insistent s o u n d of a h e a r t b e a t — a memento mori for t h e professor, a r e m i n d e r t h a t his life will s o o n e n d . In reality, t h e r e ' s a c o n s i d e r a b l e difference b e t w e e n h e a r i n g a n d listening. O u r m i n d s automatically filter o u t i r r e l e v a n t s o u n d s . While talking in a noisy city l o c a t i o n , for e x a m p l e , we listen to t h e speaker, b u t we barely h e a r t h e s o u n d s of traffic. T h e m i c r o p h o n e is n o t so selective. Most movie s o u n d t r a c k s a r e c l e a n e d u p o f s u c h e x t r a n e o u s noises. A s e q u e n c e m i g h t i n c l u d e selected city noises to suggest t h e u r b a n locale, b u t o n c e this c o n t e x t is established, outside s o u n d s a r e d i m i n i s h e d a n d s o m e t i m e s even e l i m i n a t e d t o p e r m i t u s t o h e a r t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n clearly. After t h e 1960s, however, a n u m b e r of d i r e c t o r s r e t a i n e d t h e s e noisy s o u n d t r a c k s i n t h e n a m e o f g r e a t e r realism. I n f l u e n c e d b y t h e d o c u m e n t a r y school of c i n e m a v e r i t e — w h i c h t e n d s to avoid s i m u l a t e d or re-created s o u n d s — d i r e c t o r s like Jean-Luc G o d a r d even allowed i m p o r t a n t d i a l o g u e scenes to be partly w a s h e d o u t by on-location s o u n d s . In Masculine-Feminine, G o d a r d ' s use of s o u n d is especially b o l d . His insistence on n a t u r a l noises—all o f t h e m a s they w e r e r e c o r d e d o n t h e s e t — d i s m a y e d m a n y critics, w h o c o m p l a i n e d o f t h e " c a c o p h o n o u s d i n . " T h e movie deals with violence a n d t h e lack of privacy, p e a c e , a n d quiet. Simply by e x p l o i t i n g his s o u n d t r a c k , G o d a r d a v o i d e d t h e n e e d t o c o m m e n t overtly o n t h e s e t h e m e s — t h e y a r e naggingly persistent in virtually every s c e n e . T h e final s c e n e from a movie is often t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t . Because of its privileged position, it can r e p r e s e n t t h e f i l m m a k e r ' s s u m m i n g up of t h e significance of t h e previous scenes. In E r m a n n o O l m i ' s // Posto ( T h e J o b , also k n o w n as The Sound of Trumpets), t h e d i r e c t o r u n d e r c u t s t h e s u p p o s e d l y " h a p p y e n d i n g " with an i r o n i c s o u n d effect. T h e m o v i e deals with a shy work217

5-11. The Rock (U.S.A., 1995), with Sean Connery and Nicolas Cage, directed by Michael Bay. Moisture and water tend to exaggerate sounds, especially in enclosed spaces. In this suspenseful sequence, for example, the water under Alcatraz Prison makes every clang of metal sound like a reverberating gong. Ancient pipes hiss uncontrollably. Human breathing is gulpy and punctuated with sudden gasps for air. Every tiny gesture s e e m s to d e t o n a t e a succession of echos that splash, ripple, and finally fade into the watery distance. (HollywoodPictures)

ing-class y o u t h w h o s t r u g g l e s diligently to l a n d a lower-level c l e r k i n g j o b with a h u g e , i m p e r s o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n in Milan. Finally, he is h i r e d . T h e boy is especially p l e a s e d t h a t he has a s e c u r e j o b "for life." O l m i is m o r e a m b i v a l e n t . T h e final s c e n e of t h e film p r e s e n t s a p i c t u r e of stupifying t e d i u m a n d e n t r a p m e n t : A close-up of t h e y o u t h ' s sensitive face is j u x t a p o s e d with t h e m o n o t o n o u s s o u n d o f a m i m e o g r a p h m a c h i n e , clacking l o u d e r a n d l o u d e r a n d l o u d e r . S o u n d effects c a n also e x p r e s s i n t e r n a l e m o t i o n s . I n R o b e r t R e d f o r d ' s Ordinary People, for e x a m p l e , an u p t i g h t m o t h e r (Mary Tyler M o o r e ) h a s p r e p a r e d F r e n c h toast for h e r e m o t i o n a l l y u n s t a b l e s o n . T h o u g h it is his favorite breakfast food, t h e y o u n g m a n i s t o o t e n s e t o eat: His a m b i v a l e n t a t t i t u d e t o w a r d his m o t h e r is o n e of his m a i n p r o b l e m s . I r r i t a t e d by his "selfish" indiff e r e n c e t o h e r g e s t u r e o f m a t e r n a l c o n c e r n , s h e swoops u p his p l a t e a n d carries it to t h e sink, w h e r e s h e stuffs t h e F r e n c h toast i n t o t h e g a r b a g e disposal, its g r i n d i n g r o a r a symbolic e m b o d i m e n t o f h e r a n g e r a n d a g i t a t i o n . Like a b s o l u t e stasis, a b s o l u t e silence in a s o u n d film t e n d s to call attention to itself. Any significant stretch of silence creates an e e r i e v a c u u m — a sense o f s o m e t h i n g i m p e n d i n g , a b o u t t o burst. A r t h u r P e n n e x p l o i t e d this p h e n o m e n o n in t h e c o n c l u s i o n of Bonnie and Clyde. T h e lovers stop on a c o u n t r y r o a d to h e l p a friend (actually an i n f o r m e r ) with his t r u c k , which has p r e s u m a b l y b r o k e n d o w n . Clumsily, he s c r a m b l e s u n d e r t h e truck. T h e r e is a l o n g m o m e n t of silence. T h e two lovers e x c h a n g e puzzled, t h e n a n x i o u s , glances. Suddenly, t h e 218

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s o u n d t r a c k r o a r s with t h e noise of m a c h i n e g u n s as t h e lovers a r e brutally c u t d o w n by p o l i c e m e n h i d i n g in t h e b u s h e s . Like t h e freeze frame, silence in a s o u n d film can be u s e d to symbolize d e a t h , b e c a u s e w e t e n d t o associate s o u n d with t h e p r e s e n c e o f o n g o i n g life. Kurosawa u s e d this t e c h n i q u e effectively in Ikiru, after t h e elderly p r o t a g o n i s t has b e e n i n f o r m e d by a d o c t o r t h a t he is dying of cancer. Stupefied by t h e s p e c t e r o f d e a t h , t h e old m a n s t u m b l e s o u t o n t h e street, t h e s o u n d t r a c k totally silent. W h e n h e ' s a l m o s t r u n over b y a s p e e d i n g a u t o , t h e s o u n d t r a c k s u d d e n l y roars with t h e noise of city traffic. T h e p r o t a g o n i s t is y a n k e d back i n t o t h e world of t h e living.

Music is a highly abstract art, t e n d i n g toward p u r e f o r m . It's impossible to s p e a k of t h e "subject m a t t e r " of a musical p h r a s e . W h e n m e r g e d with lyrics, music a c q u i r e s a m o r e c o n c r e t e c o n t e n t b e c a u s e words, of c o u r s e , have specific r e f e r e n c e s . B o t h w o r d s a n d music convey m e a n i n g s , b u t e a c h in a different m a n n e r . W i t h o r w i t h o u t lyrics, m u s i c can b e m o r e specific w h e n j u x t a p o s e d with film i m a g e s . In fact, m a n y m u s i c i a n s have c o m p l a i n e d t h a t i m a g e s t e n d to r o b music of its a m b i g u i t y by a n c h o r i n g musical t o n e s to specific ideas a n d

5-12. Saturday Night Fever (U.S.A., 1 9 7 7 ) , with Karen Lynn Gorney and John Travolta, directed by John Badham. A film's rhythm is often created through its musical score. In this famous d a n c e musical, director Badham used the pulsating Bee Gees disco tune, "Staying Alive," as a basis for both the staging and the editing rhythms. "Every time we shot a shot," Badham explained, "that music would be playing, so that all the movie that is on screen is in exact t e m p o to that [song]." The film triggered off a disco d a n c e craze that swept the Western world in the late 1

970s.

(Paramount Pictures)

5-13. Apocalypse Now (U.S.A., 1979), directed by Francis Ford Coppola. The sound mixing in Coppola's surrealistic Vietnam epic is masterful, suffused with grotesque ironies. In this sequence, American helicopters hover and swirl like huge mechanized gods, dropping napalm b o m b s on a jungle village to the a c c o m p a n i m e n t of Wagner's inexorable "Ride of the Valkyries," which thunders on the soundtrack. As terrified peasants scurry for shelter, American soldiers prepare to go surfing in the poisonous fumes of battle. (United

Artists)

e m o t i o n s . S o m e music lovers have l a m e n t e d t h a t P o n c h i e l l i ' s e l e g a n t " D a n c e of t h e H o u r s " c o n j u r e s i m a g e s of r i d i c u l o u s d a n c i n g h i p p o s , o n e of Disney's m o s t brilliant s e q u e n c e s in Fantasia. T h e o r i e s a b o u t film music a r e surprisingly varied. P u d o v k i n a n d Eisenstein insisted t h a t m u s i c m u s t n e v e r serve m e r e l y as a c c o m p a n i m e n t : It o u g h t to r e t a i n its own integrity. T h e film critic Paul R o t h a c l a i m e d t h a t music m u s t even b e allowed t o d o m i n a t e t h e i m a g e o n occasion. S o m e f i l m m a k e r s insist o n purely descriptive m u s i c — a p r a c t i c e r e f e r r e d to as m i c k e y m o u s i n g (so called b e c a u s e of Disney's early e x p e r i m e n t s with music a n d a n i m a t i o n ) . T h i s type of s c o r e uses m u s i c as a literal e q u i v a l e n t to t h e i m a g e . If a c h a r a c t e r stealthily tiptoes from a r o o m , for e x a m p l e , e a c h step has a musical n o t e to e m p h a s i z e t h e s u s p e n s e . O t h e r d i r e c t o r s believe t h a t f i l m music s h o u l d n ' t b e too g o o d o r i t will d e t r a c t from t h e images. Most imaginative d i r e c t o r s reject this n o t i o n . F o r t h e m , t h e m u s i c o f even t h e greatest c o m p o s e r s can b e u s e d i n movies. T h e list of c o m p o s e r s w h o have w o r k e d directly in film is a l o n g a n d impressive o n e , i n c l u d i n g Darius M i l h a u d , A r t h u r H o n e g g e r , Paul H i n d e m i t h , Dmitri Shostakovich, A r n o l d S c h o e n b e r g , Sergei Prokofiev, William Walton, Benjamin Britten, A a r o n C o p l a n d , Q u i n c y J o n e s , D u k e Ellington, T h e M o d e r n

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Jazz Q u a r t e t , Virgil T h o m s o n , K u r t Weill, B o b Dylan, G e o r g e G e r s h w i n , Ralph V a u g h a n Williams, R i c h a r d R o d g e r s , Cole Porter, L e o n a r d B e r n s t e i n , a n d t h e Beatles, to m e n t i o n only a few of t h e best k n o w n . A f i l m m a k e r d o e s n ' t n e e d to have t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e to use music effectively. A s A a r o n C o p l a n d p o i n t e d out, d i r e c t o r s m u s t k n o w w h a t they want from m u s i c dramatically: It's t h e c o m p o s e r ' s business to translate t h e s e d r a m a t i c n e e d s i n t o musical t e r m s . D i r e c t o r s a n d c o m p o s e r s work in a variety of ways. Most c o m p o s e r s b e g i n w o r k i n g after they have s e e n t h e r o u g h cut of a m o v i e — t h a t is, t h e m a j o r footage b e f o r e t h e e d i t o r has t i g h t e n e d u p t h e slackness b e t w e e n shots. S o m e c o m p o s e r s d o n ' t b e g i n until t h e f i l m has b e e n totally c o m p l e t e d e x c e p t for t h e m u s i c . D i r e c t o r s o f musicals, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , usually work with t h e c o m p o s e r b e f o r e s h o o t i n g begins.

5-14. Do the Right Thing (U.S.A., 1989), with Spike Lee and Danny Aiello, written and directed by Lee. Set in a predominantly AfricanAmerican section of Brooklyn, this movie explores the tensions between the black c o m m u n i t y a n d the ItalianAmerican proprietor (Aiello) of a pizza restaurant. The two cultures are characterized by their music as well as their lifestyles. The AfricanAmerican characters listen to soul, gospel, and rap music, w h e r e a s the ballads of Frank Sinatra are more typical of the Italian-American characters. Coming from a musical family, Spike Lee is painstakingly precise about his musical S c o r e s . Pictures)

(Universal

5-15. Audiovisual score from Alexander Nevsky (U.S.S.R., 1938), music by Sergei Prokofiev, directed by Sergei Eisenstein. The composer need not always subordinate his or her talents to those of the film director. Here, two great Soviet artists aligned their contributions into a totally fused production in which the music corresponds to the movement of the images set in a row. Prokofiev avoided purely "representational" elements (mickeymousing). Instead, the two concentrated sometimes on the images first, other times on the music. The result was what Eisenstein called "vertical montage," where the notes on the staff, moving from left to right, parallel the movements or major lines of the images which, set side by side, also "move" from left to right. Thus, if the lines in a series of images move from lower left to upper right, the notes of music would move in a similar direction on the musical staff If the lines of a composition were jagged and uneven, the notes of music would also zigzag in a corresponding manner. See Sergei Eisenstein, "Form and Content: Practice," in Film Sense (New York: Harvest Books, 1947).

B e g i n n i n g with t h e o p e n i n g credits, music c a n serve as a k i n d of overt u r e to suggest t h e m o o d or spirit of t h e film as a w h o l e . J o h n A d d i s o n ' s o p e n i n g music in Tom Jones is a witty, rapidly e x e c u t e d h a r p s i c h o r d p i e c e . T h e h a r p s i c h o r d itself is associated with t h e e i g h t e e n t h century, t h e p e r i o d of t h e film. T h e occasionally jazzy p h r a s e s in t h e t u n e suggest a sly t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y overview—a musical e q u i v a l e n t of t h e b l e n d i n g of c e n t u r i e s f o u n d in t h e movie itself. C e r t a i n k i n d s of m u s i c c a n suggest locales, classes, or e t h n i c g r o u p s . F o r e x a m p l e , J o h n F o r d ' s w e s t e r n s feature simple folk t u n e s like "Red River Valley" or religious h y m n s like "Shall We G a t h e r at t h e River," which a r e associa t e d with t h e A m e r i c a n f r o n t i e r of t h e late n i n e t e e n t h century. Richly nostalgic, t h e s e songs a r e often played o n frontier i n s t r u m e n t s — a plaintive h a r m o n ica or a c o n c e r t i n a . Similarly, m a n y Italian movies feature lyrical, highly e m o t i o n a l m e l o d i e s , reflecting t h e o p e r a t i c h e r i t a g e o f t h a t c o u n t r y . T h e greatest c o m p o s e r of this k i n d of film music was N i n o Rota, w h o s c o r e d virtually all of Fellini's films, as well as s u c h d i s t i n g u i s h e d works as Zeffirelli's Romeo and Juliet ?a\& C o p p o l a ' s Godfather movies. Music can b e u s e d a s f o r e s h a d o w i n g , particularly w h e n t h e d r a m a t i c c o n t e x t d o e s n ' t p e r m i t a d i r e c t o r t o p r e p a r e a n a u d i e n c e for a n event. H i t c h -

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cock, for e x a m p l e , often a c c o m p a n i e d an a p p a r e n t l y casual s e q u e n c e with "anxious" music—a warning to the audience to be prepared. Sometimes these musical w a r n i n g s a r e false a l a r m s ; o t h e r times they e x p l o d e i n t o f r i g h t e n i n g c r e s c e n d o s . Similarly, w h e n actors a r e r e q u i r e d t o a s s u m e r e s t r a i n e d o r n e u t r a l expressions, music can suggest t h e i r i n t e r n a l — h i d d e n — e m o t i o n s . B e r n a r d H e r r m a n n ' s music f u n c t i o n s in b o t h ways in Psycho. M o d e r n a t o n a l a n d d i s s o n a n t music generally evoke a sense of anxiety in listeners. O f t e n , such music seems to have no m e l o d i c line a n d c a n even r e s e m b l e a series of r a n d o m noises. G i o v a n n i Fusco's music for several of A n t o n i o n i ' s films (L'Avventura, Red Desert, Eclipse) p r o d u c e s precisely this sense of n e u r o s i s a n d p a r a n o i a . Fusco's music provides a similar function in t h e movies of Alain Resnais: Hiroshima Mon Amour a n d La Guerre Est Einie. Music can also c o n t r o l e m o t i o n a l shifts within a s c e n e . In J o h n Hust o n ' s The Reel Badge of Courage, for e x a m p l e , the p r o t a g o n i s t (Audie M u r p h y ) , in an i r r a t i o n a l o u t b u r s t of d a r i n g , s n a t c h e s t h e U n i o n Hag from a dying c o m r a d e a n d c h a r g e s o n t o a r a g i n g battlefield. To e m p h a s i z e t h e y o u t h ' s s u r g e of p a t r i o t i s m , the scene is a c c o m p a n i e d by a spirited r e n d e r i n g of Yankee fighting songs. T h e c h a r g i n g y o u n g soldier stumbles by a w o u n d e d C o n f e d e r a t e standardbearer, writhing in p a i n on t h e g r o u n d , his flag in tatters. T h e music shifts to an

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5-16. Star Wars (U.S.A., 1977), with Mark Hamill, Carrie Fisher, and Harrison Ford; directed by George Lucas. The e n o r m o u s popularity of Lucas's Star Wars trilogy revived the tradition of large-scale symphonic a c c o m p a n i m e n t s to heighten the dramatic impact of the scenes. John Williams's score is brassy, powerful, and richly orchestrated, very much in the m a n n e r of the lushly romantic and full-bodied scores of Hollywood's golden age. Critic Frank Spotnitz noted that "the score is like a second screenplay, commenting on and enriching the first." (Twentieth Centwy-Fox)

a g o n i z i n g dirge a n d gradually transforms into a g r o t e s q u e distortion of "Dixie." T h e kinetic e x c i t e m e n t of t h e protagonist's c h a r g e m i g h t easily have overshadowed t h e p o i g n a n c y of t h e w o u n d e d C o n f e d e r a t e , b u t with t h e aid of t h e music, t h e a u d i e n c e as well as t h e p r o t a g o n i s t are suddenly b r o u g h t to a grim halt. Music can also provide ironic contrast. In m a n y cases, t h e p r e d o m i n a n t m o o d of a s c e n e can be n e u t r a l i z e d or even reversed with c o n t r a s t i n g m u s i c . In Bonnie and Clyde, t h e r o b b e r y scenes a r e often a c c o m p a n i e d by spirited b a n j o music, giving t h e s e s e q u e n c e s a jolly sense of fun. In E r m a n n o O l m i ' s The Tree of the Wooden Clogs, t h e o r g a n music o f j o h a n n Sebastian Bach a c c o m p a n i e s m a n y of t h e scenes, w h i c h a r e virtually d o c u m e n t a r y re-creations of Italian p e a s a n t life a r o u n d 1900. T h e music provides t h e s e s i m p l e e p i s o d e s with a sense o f m a j e s t y — c e l e b r a t i n g t h e dignity o f l a b o r a n d t h e g r a n d e u r o f t h e h u m a n spirit. C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n can be suggested t h r o u g h musical motifs. In Fellini's La Strada, t h e p u r e , sad simplicity of t h e h e r o i n e (Giulietta Masina) is c a p t u r e d by a m e l a n c h o l y t u n e s h e plays on a t r u m p e t . T h i s t h e m e is varied a n d elabo-

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5-17. Amadeus (U.S.A., 1984), with Tom Hulce (right), music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, directed by Milos Forman. In addition to being a fairly accurate characterization of the boorish but likable lout who was Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, this film also explores an interesting religious paradox. Why would God t o r m e n t a pious servant (Mozart's rival, Antonio Salieri) with a knowledge of his own inescapable mediocrity as a composer, while the irreverent Mozart is blessed with genius? A m a d e u s m e a n s "loved of God." (New Yorker Films) ,

r a t e d o n i n N i n o R o t a ' s delicate score, suggesting t h a t even after h e r d e a t h , h e r spiritual i n f l u e n c e is still felt. C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n can b e even m o r e precise w h e n lyrics a r e a d d e d t o m u s i c . In The Last Picture Show, for i n s t a n c e , p o p t u n e s of t h e 1950s a r e used in association with specific c h a r a c t e r s . T h e bitchy lacy (Cybill S h e p h e r d ) is l i n k e d to "Cold, C o l d H e a r t . " H e r d e c e i v e d boyfriend D u a n e (Jeff Bridges) is c h a r a c terized by "A Fool S u c h As I." American Graffiti uses p o p t u n e s in a similar m a n ner. T w o y o u n g lovers w h o have just q u a r r e l e d are shown d a n c i n g at a sock h o p to t h e t u n e of " S m o k e Gets in Your Eyes." T h e lyric "yet today my love has flown away" a c q u i r e s p a r t i c u l a r p o i g n a n c y for t h e girl b e c a u s e t h e boy has j u s t told h e r t h a t h e i n t e n d s t o d a t e o t h e r s w h e n h e goes off t o college. T h e lovers a r e r e c o n c i l e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e movie w h e n h e d e c i d e s n o t t o leave after all. O n t h e s o u n d t r a c k , "Only You" is a p p r o p r i a t e l y i n t u n e d , its syrupy lyrics e m p h a s i z i n g t h e destiny of love. Stanley Kubrick was a b o l d — a n d controversial—innovator in the use of film music. In Dr. Strangekwe, he sardonically juxtaposed Vera Lynn's s e n t i m e n t a l World War II t u n e , "We'll Meet Again," with images of a global n u c l e a r holocaust—a grim r e m i n d e r that we probably won't m e e t again after World War III. In 26*07, Kubrick j u x t a p o s e d images of a twenty-first-century rocket ship gliding t h r o u g h t h e i m m e n s e blueness of space with the s o u n d s of Strauss's n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y "Blue D a n u b e Waltz"—an aural foreshadowing of h u m a n i t y ' s obsolete technology in t h e m o r e a d v a n c e d technological universe b e y o n d Jupiter. In /I

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5-18. Sleepless in Seattle (U.S.A., 1993), with Tom Hanks, written and directed by Nora Ephron. Ephron's romantic c o m e d y is a w i n s o m e combination of the contemporary with the traditional. This double perspective is best illustrated by the songs on the soundtrack. Many of t h e m are classic tunes of the 1940s, but sung by today's singers—such as "In the Wee Small Hours of the Morning" sung by Carly Simon, or "When 1 Fall in Love," a sweet duet sung by Celine Dion and Clive Griffin. Other standards: "As Time Goes By" sung by Jimmy Durante, "A Kiss to Build a Dream On" by the incomparable Louis Armstrong, and "Stardust" crooned by the velvet-voiced Nat King Cole. The musical score of the movie b e c a m e a huge best-selling album (produced by Sony Music).

(Tri-Star Pictures)

Clockwork Orange, Kubrick used music as a distancing device, particularly in viol e n t scenes. Musical i n c o n g r u i t y u n d e r c u t s an otherwise vicious g a n g fight that takes place to t h e a c c o m p a n i m e n t of Rossini's u r b a n e a n d witty o v e r t u r e to The Thieving Magpie. A b r u t a l attack a n d r a p e scene is a c c o m p a n i e d by a g r o t e s q u e song-and-dance r o u t i n e set to the t u n e of "Singin' in t h e Rain." A f r e q u e n t f u n c t i o n of film music is to u n d e r l i n e s p e e c h , especially dial o g u e . A c o m m o n a s s u m p t i o n a b o u t this k i n d of music is t h a t it m e r e l y acts to p r o p u p b a d d i a l o g u e o r p o o r acting. T h e h u n d r e d s o f m e d i o c r e love scenes p e r f o r m e d t o q u i v e r i n g violins have p e r h a p s p r e j u d i c e d m a n y viewers against this k i n d of musical a c c o m p a n i m e n t . However, s o m e of t h e m o s t gifted actors have b e n e f i t e d from it. In Olivier's Hamlet, t h e c o m p o s e r William W a l t o n w o r k e d o u t his s c o r e with p a i n s t a k i n g precision. I n t h e "To b e o r n o t t o b e " soliloquy, t h e m u s i c provides a c o u n t e r p o i n t to Olivier's subtly m o d u l a t e d delivery, a d d i n g yet a n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n t o this c o m p l e x s p e e c h .

yWnsifcils

and

O p e r a

O n e o f t h e m o s t e n d u r i n g a n d p o p u l a r f i l m g e n r e s i s t h e musical, whose p r i n c i p a l raison d ' e t r e i s s o n g a n d d a n c e . Like o p e r a a n d ballet, t h e narrative e l e m e n t s of a musical a r c usually p r e t e x t s for t h e p r o d u c t i o n n u m b e r s , b u t s o m e musicals a r e exceptionally sophisticated dramatically. Musicals can b e divided i n t o t h e realistic a n d t h e formalistic. Realistic musicals a r e generally backstage stories, i n which t h e p r o d u c t i o n n u m b e r s are p r e s e n t e d a s d r a m a t i cally plausible. S u c h musicals usually justify a s o n g or d a n c e with a brief bit of d i a l o g u e — " H e y kids, let's r e h e a r s e t h e b a r n n u m b e r " — a n d t h e b a r n n u m b e r 226

5-19. Footlight Parade (U.S.A., 1933), with Ruby Heeler, Joan Blondell, and (standing) James Cagney; directed by Lloyd Bacon. Musicals were all the rage in the early talkie era, and each of the major Hollywood studios specialized in a house style. The musicals at Warner Brothers, for example, were typically proletarian, with e m p h a s i s on "ordinary" people and working-class values. This backstage musical is characteristically fast-paced and down-to-earth, though—weirdly—the film also includes three lavishly-staged Busby Berkeley numbers. (Warner Bros.)

is t h e n p r e s e n t e d to t h e a u d i e n c e ( 5 - 1 9 ) . A few realistic musicals a r e virtually d r a m a s with m u s i c . In G e o r g e C u k o r ' s A Star Is Born, for e x a m p l e , t h e n a r r a t i v e events w o u l d h o l d u p w i t h o u t t h e musical n u m b e r s , a l t h o u g h a u d i e n c e s w o u l d t h e r e b y b e d e p r i v e d o f s o m e o f J u d y G a r l a n d ' s best s c e n e s — a d o c u m e n t a t i o n , as it w e r e , of h e r c h a r a c t e r ' s t a l e n t ( 5 - 2 0 ) . New York, New York a n d Cabaret a r e also d r a m a s i n t e r s p e r s e d with music. F o r m a l i s t musicals m a k e n o p r e t e n s e a t realism. C h a r a c t e r s b u r s t o u t i n s o n g a n d d a n c e in t h e m i d d l e of a s c e n e w i t h o u t e a s i n g i n t o t h e n u m b e r with a plausible p r e t e x t . T h i s c o n v e n t i o n m u s t b e a c c e p t e d a s a n aesthetic p r e m i s e , o t h e r w i s e t h e e n t i r e film will strike t h e viewer as a b s u r d . E v e r y t h i n g is h e i g h t e n e d a n d stylized in s u c h works—sets, c o s t u m e s , acting, etc. Most of V i n c e n t e Minnelli's musicals a r e of this type: Meet Me in St. Louis, The Band Wagon ( 5 - 2 1 ) , An American in Paris, a n d Cigi. A l t h o u g h musicals have b e e n p r o d u c e d in several countries, t h e g e n r e has b e e n d o m i n a t e d by Americans, p e r h a p s because it's so intimately related to t h e A m e r i c a n studio system. In t h e 1930s, several major studios specialized in a particular type of musical. RKO p r o d u c e d the c h a r m i n g Fred A s t a i r e - G i n g e r Rogers vehicles such as Top Hat, Shalt We Dance? a n d Carefree, all d i r e c t e d by M a r k Sandrich. P a r a m o u n t specialized in sophisticated " c o n t i n e n t a l " musicals like Lubitsch's The Love Parade, One Hour With You, a n d Monte Carlo. At W a r n e r Brothers, c h o r e o g r a p h e r - d i r e c t o r Busby Berkeley d e l i g h t e d a u d i e n c e s with his proletarian show-biz stories like GoldDiggers of 1933, Dames, a n d Footlight Parade ( 5 - 1 9 ) . Berkeley's stylistic signature is his fondness for abstract geometrical p a t t e r n s (created with t h e optical p r i n t e r ) a n d p h o t o g r a p h y of d a n c e r s from u n c o n v e n t i o n a l angles to suggest a kaleidoscopic effect (see 1 - l b ) . 227

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S o u n d

5-20. Publicity p h o t o of Judy Garland in A Star Is Born (U.S.A., 1954), directed by George Cukor. To m a n y lovers of musicals, Judy Garland is the singer supreme. Even as a little girl, she had a grown w o m a n ' s voice—deep and powerful, yet capable of surprising poignancy. As a child star at MGM, she was worked like a mule: recording songs, performing on radio, attending publicity events, in addition to acting in two or three films a year and often enduring twelve to fourteen hours of work a day. She was bright, funny, and very high-strung. Soon the workload began to take its toll. While still a teenager, she had five doctors at MGM. O n e gave her pills for her weight problems. Another gave her pills to help her sleep. Still another gave her pills to wake her up. There were shrinks, psychologists, advisors. The pills she b e c a m e addicted to triggered wild m o o d swings. Although she was only four feet nine inches tall, her weight swelled up to 180 pounds. By the age of twenty-eight, she was considered an u n e m ployable drug addict. She had b e c o m e a m o n s t e r — d e m a n d i n g , imperious, irresponsible, and unprofessional. There were a series of comebacks, nervous breakdowns, suicide attempts, five h u s b a n d s , m o r e c o m e b a c k s , and always more drugs. In between these extremes, she m a d e s o m e of the finest musicals in history, immortalizing m a n y of America's greatest popular songs. Garland was also a gifted dramatic actress, as this film attests—her last great movie performance. In addition, Garland was an appealing c o m e d i e n n e and a respectable dancer. Her o n e - w o m a n shows in New York and London were the stuff of legends, inspiring legions of cult fans. In the last d e c a d e of her life, the 1960s, she was broke most of the time and had wasted away to a frail and haggard ninety pounds. She was found dead in her London apartm e n t in 1969, of a drug overdose. She was only forty-seven years old. Throughout her stormy career, she kept her three children close by her, even while on tour. They all speak of their Mama with affection and smiles. See Gerald Clarke, Get Happy: The Life of Judy Garland (New York: Random House, 2000). (Warner Bros.)

In t h e 1940s a n d 1950s, t h e musical was d o m i n a t e d by M G M , which h a d t h e finest musical d i r e c t o r s u n d e r c o n t r a c t : Kelly, D o n e n , a n d Minnelli. I n fact, this p r o s p e r o u s s t u d i o h a d a virtual m o n o p o l y on t h e musical personalities of t h e day, i n c l u d i n g G a r l a n d , Kelly, F r a n k Sinatra, Mickey Rooney, A n n Miller, VeraEllen, Leslie G a r o n , D o n a l d O ' C o n n o r , Cyd Charisse, H o w a r d Keel, M a r i o Lanza, K a t h r y n Grayson, a n d m a n y o t h e r s . M G M also l u r e d away Astaire, P a n , a n d Berkeley, w h o , a l o n g with Michael Kidd, B o b Fosse, G o w e r C h a m p i o n , a n d t h e u b i q u i t o u s Kelly, c r e a t e d m o s t o f t h e c h o r e o g r a p h i e s for t h e s t u d i o . A r t h u r F r e e d was t h e p r o d u c e r o f m o s t o f M G M ' s i m p o r t a n t musicals, i n c l u d i n g t h e majority

5-21. The Band Wagon (U.S.A., 1953), with Fred Astaire, Nanette Fabray, and Jack Buchanan; music by Howard Dietz and Arthur Schwartz; directed by Vincente Minnelli. The best movie musicals are generally created directly for the screen and are seldom stage adaptations. This charming "Triplets" n u m b e r would be difficult to pull off in the live theater, for the three performers were required to strap false legs and feet onto their knees, their real legs bent behind t h e m as they execute their song and dance. (MGM)

of Minnelli's films, as well as t h e stylish works of D o n e n : On the Town, Singin'in the Rain ( b o t h c o d i r e c t e d by Kelly), a n d t h e exquisite Funny Face. T h e c o m b i n i n g of music with d r a m a is a p r a c t i c e e x t e n d i n g back at least t o a n c i e n t G r e e c e , b u t n o o t h e r m e d i u m excels t h e expressive r a n g e o f t h e c i n e m a . T h e stage has n o e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e musical d o c u m e n t a r y , like Woodstock or Gimme Shelter. Movie musicals can take t h e f o r m of a n i m a t e d fantasies, s u c h as t h e Disney features Bambi a n d Dumbo. Musical b i o g r a p h i e s like Amadeus a n d The Buddy Holly Story are c o m m o n p l a c e in film. E x a m p l e s of g r e a t musicals c r e a t e d directly for t h e s c r e e n a r e Singin' in the Rain a n d The Band

5-22. The Yellow Submarine (Great Britain, 1968), directed by George Dunning. Inspired by the Beatles' revolutionary album, Sergeant Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, this a n i m a t e d feature captures the youthful spirit of whimsy and charm that typified British p o p culture during the 1960s. (Apple Films)

/

5-23. New York, New York (U.S.A., 1977), with Liza Minnelti and Robert De Niro, music by John Kander and Fred Ebb, directed by Martin Scorsese. A n u m b e r of c o m m e n t a t o r s have pointed out that the most enduring genres tend to evolve toward a revisionist phase—mocking many of the genre's original values by subjecting them to skeptical scrutiny. For example, most musicals of the big-studio era were essentially love stories and are concluded with the obligatory boy-wins-girl finale. Such revisionist musicals as Cabaret and New York, New York, however, end with the lovers going their separate ways, too absorbed by their own careers to submit to love's rituals of self-sacrifice. (United Artists)

Wagon. O t h e r s a r e loose a d a p t a t i o n s of stage musicals, like My Fair Lady, Hair, a n d Little Shop of Horrors. T h e c i n e m a is also an ideal operatic m e d i u m , as can be seen in B e r g m a n ' s Lhe Magic Mute a n d Joseph Losey's Don Giovanni (Mozart's two greatest o p e r a s ) . T h e s e movies are m o r e flexible spatially t h a n any stage p r o d u c t i o n s c o u l d h o p e to b e , w i t h o u t c o m p r o m i s i n g the music. Only a handful of o p e r a t i c films a p p r o a c h major stature, p e r h a p s because only a handful of first-rate filmm a k e r s have b e e n attracted to t h e s u b g e n r e . O n e i m m e n s e advantage is that movie subtitles are far m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t h a n theatrical librettos for e x p l a i n i n g t h e action. With subtitles, t h e spectator can c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e i m m e d i a c y of t h e musical m o m e n t r a t h e r t h a n having to place it within a larger narrative context. Each o p e r a requires a u n i q u e a p p r o a c h , s o m e "realistic" ( 5 - 2 4 a ) , o t h e r s m o r e stylized ( 5 - 2 4 b ) . O n e t h i n g is certain: Pictures of singing h e a d s may be accurate r e c o r d i n g s of o p e r a p e r f o r m a n c e s , b u t they a r e n ' t real movies. r

A c o m m o n m i s c o n c e p t i o n , h e l d even by o t h e r w i s e sophisticated movieg o e r s , is t h a t l a n g u a g e in film c a n n o t be as c o m p l e x as it is in l i t e r a t u r e . T h e fact t h a t S h a k e s p e a r e has b e e n successfully b r o u g h t to t h e s c r e e n — w i t h no significant i m p o v e r i s h m e n t in e i t h e r l a n g u a g e or visual b e a u t y — s h o u l d s t a n d as 230

5-24a. The Magic Flute (Sweden, 1974), with Josef Kostlinger, music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, directed by Ingmar Bergman. In adapting opera to the screen, the filmmaker must adjust the style of presentation to fit the essence of the materials. For example, Mozart's The Magic Flute was originally created for a, popular, nonsophisticated audience. Its loony story line is based on fairy tales and the esoteric symbolism of eighteenth-century freemasonry. Bergman decided to stage it "realistically"—that is, as a straightforward presentation in the eighteenth-century manner, complete with all the wires and stage fakery in plain sight, thus creating an air of childlike enchantment. From time to time, Bergman cuts to reaction shots of present-day spectators watching t h e production from the opera house auditorium. (Surrogate Release)

5-24b. Don Giovanni (France, 1979), music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, directed by Joseph Losey. The story materials of this opera are more coherent, less supernatural, than those of The Magic Flute, and Losey accordingly staged the action in real locations in Italy. Instead of concentrating exclusively on images of the singers, Losey often juxtaposes them with their dramatic environments, allowing the soundtrack to provide the continuity for the fragmentation Of the e d i t i n g .

(New Yorker Films)

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an obvious c o n t r a d i c t i o n to this n o t i o n . In fact, a n u m b e r of g r e a t films a r e n o t particularly literary. T h i s is n o t to say t h a t movies a r e i n c a p a b l e of literary dist i n c t i o n , b u t only t h a t s o m e filmmakers wish t o e m p h a s i z e o t h e r aspects o f t h e i r art. In s o m e respects, l a n g u a g e in film can be m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n in literat u r e . In t h e first p l a c e , t h e w o r d s of a movie, like those of t h e live theater, are s p o k e n , n o t w r i t t e n , a n d t h e h u m a n voice i s c a p a b l e o f far m o r e n u a n c e s t h a n t h e cold p r i n t e d p a g e . T h e written w o r d is a c r u d e a p p r o x i m a t i o n of t h e connotative r i c h n e s s of s p o k e n l a n g u a g e . T h u s , to take a simple e x a m p l e of no lite r a r y m e r i t , t h e m e a n i n g of t h e w o r d s "I will see h i m t o m o r r o w " s e e m obvious e n o u g h i n written f o r m . B u t a n a c t o r c a n e m p h a s i z e o n e w o r d over t h e o t h e r s a n d t h u s c h a n g e t h e m e a n i n g s of t h e s e n t e n c e completely. H e r e are a few possibilities: I will see h i m tomorrow, I zvillsee h i m tomorrow. I will see h i m tomorrow.

(implying, n o t you or a n y o n e else) (implying, a n d I d o n ' t care if you approve) (implying, b u t that's all I'll do)

I will see him tomorrow. I will see h i m tomorrow.

(implying, b u t n o t a n y o n e else) (implying, n o t today, or any o t h e r time)

/

Of c o u r s e , a novelist or p o e t c o u l d e m p h a s i z e specific w o r d s by italicizi n g t h e m . B u t u n l i k e actors, writers d o n ' t generally u n d e r l i n e w o r d s i n every s e n t e n c e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , actors r o u t i n e l y g o t h r o u g h t h e i r s p e e c h e s t o see w h i c h w o r d s to stress, w h i c h to "throw away," a n d t h e ways to best achieve t h e s e effects—in e a c h a n d every s e n t e n c e . To a gifted actor, t h e written s p e e c h is a m e r e b l u e p r i n t , an o u t l i n e , c o m p a r e d to t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s of s p o k e n s p e e c h . A p e r f o r m e r with an e x c e l l e n t voice—a Meryl S t r e e p or a K e n n e t h B r a n a g h — c o u l d w r e n c h t e n or twelve m e a n i n g s from this simple s e n t e n c e , let a l o n e a S h a k e s p e a r e a n soliloquy. W r i t t e n p u n c t u a t i o n is likewise a simplified a p p r o x i m a t i o n of s p e e c h r h y t h m s . T h e pauses, hesitancies, a n d r a p i d slurs o f s p e e c h can only b e partially s u g g e s t e d by p u n c t u a t i o n : I will. . . see h i m — t o m o r r o w . I will see h i m — t o m o r r o w ! I . . . will. . . see h i m — t o m o r r o w ? A n d so o n . But h o w is o n e to c a p t u r e all t h e m e a n i n g s t h a t have no p u n c t u a t i o n equivalents? Even professional linguists, w h o have a vast array of diacritical m a r k s to r e c o r d s p e e c h , recognize t h a t these symbols are primitive devices at best, capable of c a p t u r i n g only a fraction of t h e subtleties of the h u m a n voice. An actor like L a u r e n c e Olivier built m u c h of his r e p u t a t i o n on his genius in c a p t u r i n g little quirks of s p e e c h — a n irrepressible giggle b e t w e e n words, for e x a m p l e , or a sudd e n vocal p l u m m e t i n g on o n e word, a gulp, or a hysterical u p s u r g e in pitch. By definition, s p e e c h p a t t e r n s deviating radically from t h e official dialect are generally r e g a r d e d as s u b s t a n d a r d — a t least by t h o s e w h o take such

5-25. Xala (Senegal, 1975), directed by Ousmane Sembene. Senegal, a former French colony, has a population of only four million, yet it has produced m a n y of the most important movies of black Africa, most notably those of S e m b e n e , the continent's best-known filmmaker. Xala (which roughly translates "the curse of impotence") is spoken in French and Wolof, the native language of Senegal. The movie is an expose of the nation's servile ruling class, whose m e m b e r s have eagerly e m b r a c e d the culture of their white colonial predecessors. (At this lavish wedding reception, for example, several Frenchified Beautiful People w o n d e r what the English translation is for "le weekend.") The cultural c o m m e n t a t o r Hernandez Arregui has observed, "Culture b e c o m e s bilingual not due to the use of two languages but because of the conjuncture of two cultural patterns of thinking. One is national, that of the people, and the other is estranging, that of the classes subordinated to outside forces. The admiration that the upper classes express for the United States or Europe is the highest expression of their subjection." Like m a n y Third World artists, S e m b e n e advocates the creation of a truly native culture, s o m e w h a t like Emerson's call in the nineteenth century for American artists to stop producing tepid imitations of British models in favor of a truly American idiom.

(New Yorker Films)

pat d i s t i n c t i o n s seriously. Dialects c a n be a rich s o u r c e of m e a n i n g in movies ( a n d i n life, t o o , for t h a t m a t t e r ) . B e c a u s e dialects a r e usually s p o k e n b y p e o p l e o u t s i d e t h e E s t a b l i s h m e n t , t h e y t e n d to convey a subversive ideology. T h e e a r t h iness of c o c k n e y a n d t h e r o b u s t dialects of Britain's m i d l a n d i n d u s t r i a l cities like L i v e r p o o l w e r e p o p u l a r i z e d by such working-class r o c k g r o u p s as t h e Rolling S t o n e s a n d t h e Beatles. A n u m b e r o f c o n t i n e n t a l f i l m m a k e r s have also e x p l o i t e d t h e expressive r i c h n e s s o f dialects, m o s t n o t a b l y L i n a W e r t m u l l e r ( 5 - 2 8 ) . B e c a u s e l a n g u a g e i s s p o k e n i n movies a n d plays, t h e s e two m e d i u m s enjoy a n a d v a n t a g e over p r i n t e d l a n g u a g e i n t h a t t h e w o r d s o f a t e x t c a n b e juxt a p o s e d with t h e i d e a s a n d e m o t i o n s of a subtext. Briefly, a s u b t e x t refers to t h o s e i m p l i c i t m e a n i n g s behind t h e l a n g u a g e of a film or play script. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e following lines of d i a l o g u e m i g h t be c o n t a i n e d in a script: 233

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5-26. Bull Durham ( U . S . A . , 1 9 8 8 ) , with Susan Sarandon and Kevin Costner, written and directed by Ron Shelton. Southern accents are a m o n g the most lyrical dialects of American speech. Perhaps this is why so many of America's finest writers are from the South. This movie, which is narrated by the Sarandon character (a North Carolinian and sometimes English instructor), is punctuated with lyrical flights of fancy that sometimes leave the menfolk speechless with wonderment. (Orion Pictures)

W o m a n : May I have a cigarette, please? M a n : Yes, of c o u r s e , (lights h e r cigarette) W o m a n : T h a n k you. Y o u ' r e very kind. Man: D o n ' t m e n t i o n it. A s written, t h e s e f o u r n o t very exciting lines s e e m s i m p l e e n o u g h a n d r a t h e r n e u t r a l emotionally. But d e p e n d i n g o n t h e d r a m a t i c c o n t e x t , they c a n b e e x p l o i t e d t o suggest o t h e r ideas, totally i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e a p p a r e n t m e a n i n g of t h e words. If t h e w o m a n was flirting with t h e m a n , for e x a m p l e , s h e would deliver t h e lines very differently t h a n an efficient b u s i n e s s w o m a n . If they d e t e s t e d o n e a n o t h e r , t h e lines w o u l d take o n a n o t h e r significance. I f t h e m a n was flirting with a hostile female, t h e lines w o u l d be d e l i v e r e d in yet a n o t h e r way, s u g g e s t i n g o t h e r m e a n i n g s . In short, t h e m e a n i n g of t h e passage is p r o -

5-27. McCabe & Mrs. Miller (U.S.A., 1 9 7 0 ) , with Julie Christie and Warren Beatty. directed by Robert Altman. "What I am after is essentially the subtext," Robert Altman has declared. "I want to get the' quality of what's h a p p e n i n g between people, not just the words. The words often don't matter, it's what they're really saying to each other without the words. Most of the dialogue, well, I don't even listen to it. As I get confident in what the actors are doing, I don't even listen to it. I find that actors know m o r e about the characters they're playing than I do." (WarnerBros.)

vided by t h e actors, n o t t h e l a n g u a g e , which is merely c a m o u f l a g e . (For a m o r e d e t a i l e d discussion of t h e c o n c e p t of a subtext, see C h a p t e r 6.) Any script m e a n t to be s p o k e n has a subtext, even o n e of g r e a t literary distinction. A g o o d e x a m p l e from a classic text can be s e e n in Zeffirelli's Romeo and Juliet, in w h i c h M e r c u t i o (John M c E n e r y ) is played n o t as t h e witty bon vivanl w h o ' s i n t o x i c a t e d with his own talk, b u t as a n e u r o t i c y o u n g m a n with a shaky g r a s p of reality. T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n u p s e t s o m e traditionalists, b u t in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e movie, i t reinforces t h e loving b o n d b e t w e e n R o m e o a n d his best friend a n d h e l p s justify R o m e o ' s impulsive ( a n d self-destructive) act of r e v e n g e later in t h e film w h e n M e r c u t i o is killed by Tybalt. S o m e c o n t e m p o r a r y f i l m m a k e r s deliberately n e u t r a l i z e t h e i r l a n g u a g e , c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e s u b t e x t is w h a t t h e y ' r e really after ( 5 - 2 7 ) . H a r o l d Pinter, t h e d r a m a t i s t a n d screenwriter, is p e r h a p s t h e m o s t famous e x a m p l e of a c o n t e m p o r a r y writer w h o stresses t h e significance of t h e subtext. In The Homecoming, a s c e n e of e x t r a o r d i n a r y eroticism is conveyed t h r o u g h d i a l o g u e involving t h e r e q u e s t for a glass of water! P i n t e r claims t h a t l a n g u a g e is often a k i n d of "crosstalk," a way of c o n c e a l i n g fears a n d anxieties. In s o m e respects, this t e c h n i q u e can be even m o r e effective in film, w h e r e close-ups c a n convey t h e m e a n i n g s b e h i n d w o r d s m o r e subtly t h a n an a c t o r on a stage. P i n t e r ' s movie scripts a r e 235

5-28. All Screwed Up (Italy, 1973), directed by Una Wertmiiller. Wertmuller is acutely sensitive to the ideological implications of dialects. Much of her comedy is mined from the earthy idioms of her working-class southerners in contrast with the standard (Tuscan) dialect spoken in the north of Italy Her characters frequently swear or express themselves in coarse language, which is often very funny. Much of this c o m e d y is lost in translation. The language is s o m e t i m e s drained of its vitality, reduced to bland respectability. For example, "Piss off!" b e c o m e s "Go away," or worse yet, "Please leave me alone." (New Line Cinema)

a m o n g t h e most suggestive subtexts of t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y c i n e m a : The Pumpkin Eater, The Servant, Accident, The Go-Between, The Caretaker, The Homecoming, The French Lieutenant's Woman, a n d Betrayal. But t h e s e a r e merely s o m e of t h e advantages o f l a n g u a g e that film enjoys over l i t e r a t u r e — a d v a n t a g e s shared, in large part, by the live theater. As an art of j u x t a p o s i t i o n s , movies can also e x t e n d t h e m e a n i n g s o f l a n g u a g e by contrasting s p o k e n words with images. T h e s e n t e n c e "I will see h i m t o m o r r o w " acquires still o t h e r m e a n i n g s w h e n t h e i m a g e shows t h e speaker smiling, for e x a m p l e , or frowning, or l o o k i n g d e t e r m i n e d . All sorts of j u x t a p o s i t i o n s are possible. T h e s e n t e n c e c o u l d be delivered with a d e t e r m i n e d emphasis, b u t an i m a g e of a f r i g h t e n e d face (or eye, or a twitching m o u t h ) can modify t h e verbal d e t e r m i n a tion or even cancel it out. T h e j u x t a p o s e d i m a g e could be a reaction s h o t — t h u s

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5-29. Trainspotting ( G r e a t B r i t a i n , 1 9 9 6 ) , with Jonny Lee Miller, Ewan McGregor, Kevin McKidd, and Ewen Bremner; directed by Danny Boyle. Spoken language is steeped in ideology. It's an instant revealer of class, education, and cultural bias. In most countries, regional dialects are considered substandard—at any rate by those speaking the "official" (that is, ruling-class) dialect. In Great Britain in particular, dialects correlate closely with the class system. People in power speak the s a m e "Establishm e n t " dialect that's taught in the exclusive private schools that still educate most ruling-class Britons. On the other hand, the working-class Scottish dialect of the main characters in this movie clearly places t h e m outside the spheres of power and prestige. They're lowly proles, outsiders, declasse. Hence, the booze, the drugs, the b o r e d o m . (MiramaxFilms)

e m p h a s i z i n g t h e effect o f t h e s t a t e m e n t o n the listener. O r t h e c a m e r a c o u l d p h o t o g r a p h an i m p o r t a n t object, implying a c o n n e c t i o n a m o n g the speaker, t h e words, a n d the object. If t h e speaker is p h o t o g r a p h e d in l o n g shot, his or h e r j u x taposition with t h e e n v i r o n m e n t c o u l d also c h a n g e t h e m e a n i n g s of t h e words. T h e s a m e line s p o k e n in close-up would e m p h a s i z e yet different m e a n i n g s . T h i s a d v a n t a g e of simultaneity e x t e n d s to o t h e r s o u n d s . Music a n d s o u n d effects c a n modify t h e m e a n i n g s o f w o r d s considerably. T h e s a m e sent e n c e s p o k e n in an e c h o c h a m b e r will have different c o n n o t a t i o n s from t h e s e n t e n c e w h i s p e r e d intimately. If a clap of t h u n d e r c o i n c i d e d with t h e uttera n c e o f t h e s e n t e n c e , t h e effect w o u l d b e different from t h e c h i r p i n g o f b i r d s or t h e w h i n i n g of t h e wind. Because film is also a m e c h a n i c a l m e d i u m , t h e sent e n c e c o u l d be m o d i f i e d by a d e l i b e r a t e distortion in t h e s o u n d r e c o r d i n g . In short, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e vocal e m p h a s i s , t h e visual e m p h a s i s , a n d t h e a c c o m p a -

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5-30. Sunset Boulevard (U.S.A., 1950), with Gloria Swanson, directed by Billy Wilder. Voice-over monologues are often used to produce ironic contrasts between the past and the present. Almost inevitably, such contrasts suggest a sense of destiny or fate. This film is narrated by a dead character (William Holden). The flashback images show us how he got himself killed: by exploiting the foolishness of a deluded recluse. Norma Desmond (Swanson), who once was a silent film star. Near the end of the movie, she cracks under the strain of his a b a n d o n m e n t and shoots him. She now believes that the police and reporters surrounding her are m e m b e r s of a film crew photographing her comeback performance. Holden's final voice-over speech is poetic, uncharacteristically gentle: "So they were turning after all, those cameras. Life, which can be strangely merciful, had taken pity on Norma Desmond. The dream she had clung to so desperately had enfolded her." (Paramount Pictures)

trying s o u n d t r a c k , this simple s e n t e n c e c o u l d have d o z e n s of different m e a n ings in film, s o m e of t h e m impossible to c a p t u r e in written form. Movies c o n t a i n two types of s p o k e n l a n g u a g e : t h e m o n o l o g u e a n d dial o g u e . M o n o l o g u e s a r e often associated with d o c u m e n t a r i e s , in w h i c h an offs c r e e n n a r r a t o r provides t h e a u d i e n c e with factual i n f o r m a t i o n a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e visuals. Most d o c u m e n t a r y theorists a r e a g r e e d t h a t t h e c a r d i n a l r u l e i n t h e use of this t e c h n i q u e is to avoid d u p l i c a t i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n given in t h e i m a g e itself. T h e c o m m e n t a r y s h o u l d p r o v i d e w h a t ' s n o t a p p a r e n t o n t h e s c r e e n . T h e a u d i e n c e , in s h o r t , is p r o v i d e d with two types of i n f o r m a t i o n , o n e c o n c r e t e (visuals), t h e o t h e r abstract ( n a r r a t i o n ) . C i n e m a verite d o c u m e n t a r i s t s have e x t e n d e d this t e c h n i q u e to i n c l u d e interviews, a practice p i o n e e r e d by t h e French filmmaker J e a n Rouch. Thus, instead of an anonymous narrator, the

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s o u n d t r a c k conveys t h e actual w o r d s of t h e subjects of t h e d o c u m e n t a r y — s l u m dwellers, p e r h a p s , o r s t u d e n t s . T h e c a m e r a can focus o n t h e s p e a k e r o r can r o a m e l s e w h e r e , with t h e s o u n d t r a c k p r o v i d i n g t h e continuity. M o n o l o g u e s h a v e also b e e n used in fiction films. T h i s t e c h n i q u e is especially useful in c o n d e n s i n g events a n d t i m e . Narrative m o n o l o g u e s can be used o m n i s c i e n t l y to p r o v i d e an i r o n i c c o n t r a s t with t h e visuals. In Tom Jones, an a d a p t a t i o n of a f a m o u s e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y English novel by H e n r y Fielding, J o h n O s b o r n e ' s script features an off-screen n a r r a t o r w h o ' s nearly as witty a n d u r b a n e as Fielding's, t h o u g h necessarily less chatty. T h i s n a r r a t o r sets up t h e story, p r o v i d e s us with t h u m b n a i l sketches of t h e c h a r a c t e r s , c o n n e c t s m a n y of t h e e p i s o d e s with necessary transitions, a n d c o m m e n t s philosophically o n t h e escapades of the incorrigible hero. Off-screen n a r r a t i o n t e n d s to give a movie a sense of objectivity a n d often an air of p r e d e s t i n a t i o n . Many of t h e works of Billy W i l d e r a r e s t r u c t u r e d in flashbacks, with ironic m o n o l o g u e s e m p h a s i z i n g fatality: T h e m a i n i n t e r e s t is n o t w h a t h a p p e n e d , b u t h o w a n d why. In Double Indemnity, for e x a m p l e , t h e story is n a r r a t e d by t h e fatally w o u n d e d h e r o , w h o a d m i t s his guilt at t h e o p e n i n g of t h e film. As W i l d e r p o i n t e d out, "By identifying t h e criminals r i g h t off t h e b a t — a n d identifying ourselves with t h e m — w e can c o n c e n t r a t e o n w h a t follows: t h e i r efforts to e s c a p e , t h e n e t closing, closing."

5-31. The Usual Suspects (U.S.A., 1995), with Kevin Pollak, Stephen Baldwin, Benicio Del Tow, Gabriel Byrne, and Kevin Spacey; directed by Bryan Singer. Voice-overs are especially effective in presenting us with a contrast between what's said socially and what's thought privately. Almost always, the private voice-over contains the truth, the character's real feelings about a situation. The Usual Suspects, a quirky psychological crime thriller, is unusual in that the voice-over narrator is a compulsive liar and manipulator. Almost everything he tells us is a crock. And we fall for his story, at least until the final scene w h e n we discover—surprise—we've been duped. (Gramercy Pictures.)

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T h e i n t e r i o r m o n o l o g u e is o n e of t h e m o s t valuable tools of filmmakers, for it c a n convey w h a t a c h a r a c t e r is t h i n k i n g . T h e i n t e r i o r m o n o l o g u e is frequently used in a d a p t a t i o n s of plays a n d novels. Before Olivier, m o s t film soliloquies w e r e d e l i v e r e d as they a r e on stage: T h a t is, t h e c a m e r a a n d m i c r o p h o n e r e c o r d a c h a r a c t e r literally talking to himself. Olivier's Hamlet introd u c e d a m o r e c i n e m a t i c soliloquy. In t h e "To be or not to b e " s p e e c h , several of t h e lines a r e n o t s p o k e n b u t " t h o u g h t " — v i a a v o i c e - o v e r s o u n d t r a c k . Suddenly, at a crucial line, Olivier spews o u t t h e w o r d s in e x a s p e r a t i o n . T h r o u g h t h e use o f t h e s o u n d t r a c k , private r u m i n a t i o n s a n d p u b l i c s p e e c h can b e c o m b i n e d i n i n t e r e s t i n g ways, with n e w a n d often m o r e subtle e m p h a s e s . A m a j o r difference b e t w e e n stage d i a l o g u e a n d s c r e e n d i a l o g u e is d e g r e e of density. O n e of t h e necessary c o n v e n t i o n s of t h e live t h e a t e r is articulation: If s o m e t h i n g is b o t h e r i n g a character, we c a n usually a s s u m e t h a t he or she will talk a b o u t the p r o b l e m . T h e t h e a t e r is a visual as well as aural m e d i u m , b u t in g e n e r a l , t h e s p o k e n w o r d is d o m i n a n t : We t e n d to h e a r b e f o r e we see. If i n f o r m a t i o n is conveyed visually in t h e theater, it m u s t be l a r g e r t h a n life, for m o s t of t h e a u d i e n c e is t o o far from t h e stage to perceive visual n u a n c e s . T h e c o n v e n t i o n of a r t i c u l a t i o n is necessary, t h e r e f o r e , to c o m p e n s a t e for this visual loss. Like m o s t artistic c o n v e n t i o n s , stage d i a l o g u e is n o t usually realistic or natu r a l , even in so-called realistic plays. In real life, p e o p l e d o n ' t articulate t h e i r ideas a n d feelings with such p r e c i s i o n . In movies, t h e c o n v e n t i o n of articulation c a n be r e l a x e d . Because t h e close-up can show t h e m o s t m i n u t e detail, verbal c o m m e n t is often s u p e r f l u o u s . T h i s g r e a t e r spatial flexibility m e a n s t h a t

5-32.

Badlands

(U.S.A.,

1973),

with Sissy Spacek, written and directed by Terrence Malick. Not all voice-over narratives are omniscient. This movie is narrated by a bored and dimwitted teenager (Spacek) who talks in True Romance cliches and hasn't a glimmer of insight into what wrecked her life. (Warner Bros.)

S o u n d

24 1

61m l a n g u a g e d o e s n ' t have to c a r r y t h e heavy b u r d e n of stage d i a l o g u e . In fact, t h e i m a g e conveys m o s t m e a n i n g s , so d i a l o g u e in film can be as s p a r e a n d realistic as it is in everyday life, as in such starkly d i a l o g u e d movies as The Bridges of Madison County ( 5 - 3 3 ) . Movie d i a l o g u e d o e s n ' t have to c o n f o r m to n a t u r a l s p e e c h . If l a n g u a g e is stylized, t h e d i r e c t o r has several o p t i o n s for m a k i n g it believable. Like Olivier, he or s h e can e m p h a s i z e an i n t i m a t e style of d e l i v e r y — s o m e t i m e s even whisp e r i n g t h e lines. Welles's S h a k e s p e a r e a n films a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a visual flamboyance: T h e expressionistic stylization of t h e images in Othello c o m p l e m e n t s t h e artificiality of t h e l a n g u a g e . Generally s p e a k i n g , if d i a l o g u e is n o n r e alistic, t h e i m a g e s m u s t be coexpressive: S h a r p contrasts of style b e t w e e n lang u a g e a n d visuals can p r o d u c e j a r r i n g a n d often c o m i c i n c o n g r u i t i e s . F o r e i g n l a n g u a g e movies a r e s h o w n e i t h e r i n d u b b e d versions o r i n t h e i r original l a n g u a g e , with written subtitles. Both m e t h o d s of translation have obvious drawbacks. D u b b e d movies often have a hollow, tinny s o u n d , a n d in m o s t cases, t h e d u b b i n g is p e r f o r m e d by less gifted actors t h a n t h e originals. S o u n d a n d i m a g e a r e difficult t o m a t c h i n d u b b e d f i l m s , especially i n t h e closer r a n g e s w h e r e t h e m o v e m e n t s o f t h e a c t o r s ' lips a r e n ' t s y n c h r o n i z e d with t h e s o u n d s . Even bilingual a c t o r s w h o d o t h e i r own d u b b i n g a r e less n u a n c e d w h e n t h e y ' r e n o t s p e a k i n g t h e i r native l a n g u a g e . F o r e x a m p l e , S o p h i a L o r e n ' s perf o r m a n c e in t h e English l a n g u a g e version of Two Women is very g o o d , b u t it lacks t h e vocal expressiveness of h e r brilliant line r e a d i n g s in t h e original Italian. In English, L o r e n ' s classy p e a r - s h a p e d t o n e s are s o m e w h a t at o d d s with h e r role as an e a r t h y p e a s a n t . In a similar vein, actors with highly distinctive voices, like M a e West o r J o h n Wayne, s o u n d p r e p o s t e r o u s w h e n d u b b e d i n G e r m a n o r

5-33. The Bridges of Madison County (U.S.A., 1995), with Meryl Streep and Clint Eastwood, directed by Eastwood. Effective dialogue is not always the result of literate scripts and richly expressive language. Talk is usually kept to a stark minimum in Eastwood's films. He's at his best when we must infer what he's thinking: His face is far more expressive than the way he talks, for his words are few, delivered in a matter-of-fact monotone. In Eastwood's case, less is usually more. Even in this untypical genre—a brief love affair between middle-aged characters—Eastwood's dialogue was pared down. The entire movie is a terse, almost austere adaptation of a novel that m a n y critics regarded as floridly overwritten. Eastwood's,version is subtler, tougher, and ultimately more emotionally powerful because the sentiment is held in check by the lean writing and restrained acting. (Wamer isms.)

242

S o u n d

J a p a n e s e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , d u b b e d movies p e r m i t t h e s p e c t a t o r t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e visuals r a t h e r t h a n t h e subtitles, w h i c h are d i s t r a c t i n g a n d can a b s o r b m u c h of a viewer's energy. N o b o d y likes to " r e a d " a movie. Most e x p e r i e n c e d filmgoers still p r e f e r subtitles, however, d e s p i t e t h e i r c u m b e r s o m e n e s s . I n t h e f i r s t place, s o m e spectators a r e sufficiently c o n v e r s a n t in foreign l a n g u a g e s to u n d e r s t a n d m o s t of t h e d i a l o g u e (especially in E u r o p e , w h e r e virtually all e d u c a t e d p e o p l e s p e a k a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e , a n d in s o m e cases, t h r e e or f o u r ) . An a c t o r ' s t o n e of voice is often m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e d i a l o g u e p e r se, a n d subtitled movies allow us to h e a r t h e s e vocal n u a n c e s . In s h o r t , subtitles p e r m i t u s t o h e a r w h a t t h e original artists said, n o t w h a t s o m e d i s i n t e r e s t e d t e c h n i c i a n — h o w e v e r c l e v e r — d e c i d e d we w o u l d settle for. T h e a d v a n t a g e s o f s o u n d , t h e n , m a k e i t i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o t h e f i l m artist. As R e n e Clair foresaw m a n y years a g o , s o u n d p e r m i t s a d i r e c t o r m o r e visual f r e e d o m , n o t less. Because s p e e c h can reveal a p e r s o n ' s class, r e g i o n , o c c u p a tion, p r e j u d i c e s , etc., t h e d i r e c t o r d o e s n ' t n e e d t o waste t i m e establishing t h e s e facts visually. A few lines of d i a l o g u e can convey all that's necessary, t h u s freeing

5-34. Belle Epoque (Spain, 1993), with Jorge Sanz and Penelope Cruz, directed by Fernando Trueba. In most countries except the English-speaking world, foreign movies are usually d u b b e d into the language of the viewing audience. Generally, the sound quality of the dubbing is terrible—a crude approximation, usually by different actors with less talent than the originals. On the other hand, written subtitles can be just as exasperating, forcing us to "read" the movie instead of exploring its mise en scene. (Sony Pictures)

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*

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5-35. Reservoir Dogs (U.S.A., 1992), with Steve Buscemi and Harvey Keitel, written and directed by Quentin Tarantino. This stylized gangster film features an almost steady torrent of foul language, as violent as the lives of the characters. In fact, eventually the swearing b e c o m e s grotesquely comical, adding to the movie's bizarre tone, which blends violence, cruelty, and pathos w i t h black comedy. In cases like this, sanitized dialogue would be a form of aesthetic dishonesty, totally at odds with the movie's nasty edge of realism. (MiramaxFilms)

t h e c a m e r a t o g o o n t o o t h e r m a t t e r s . T h e r e are m a n y instances w h e r e s o u n d i s the m o s t e c o n o m i c a l a n d precise way of conveying i n f o r m a t i o n in film. In analyzing a movie's s o u n d , we s h o u l d ask ourselves h o w s o u n d is o r c h e s t r a t e d in e a c h s c e n e . Is t h e s o u n d distorted? Why? Is t h e s o u n d e d i t e d d o w n a n d simplified or d e n s e a n d c o m p l e x ? Is t h e r e any symbolism in t h e use of s o u n d ? D o e s t h e film e m p l o y r e p e a t e d motifs? H o w is silence used? W h a t type of musical score d o e s t h e film feature? Is t h e score original or derived from o u t s i d e sources? W h a t type of i n s t r u m e n t s a r e used? H o w many? A full o r c h e s t r a ? A small c o m b o ? A solo i n s t r u m e n t ? Is music used to u n d e r l i n e s p e e c h or is it e m p l o y e d only for action scenes? Or n o t at all? H o w is l a n g u a g e used? I s t h e d i a l o g u e s p a r e a n d functional? O r "literary" a n d richly t e x t u r e d ? Does e v e r y o n e s p e a k t h e s t a n d a r d dialect o r a r e t h e r e r e g i o n a l accents? H o w d o e s d i a l o g u e c o r r e l a t e with class? W h a t a b o u t t h e subtext, t h e e m o t i o n a l implications beneath t h e d i a l o g u e ? H o w do we k n o w w h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r s w a n t if they d o n ' t talk a b o u t it? W h a t a b o u t l a n g u a g e choice? Any fancy words? Swears a n d c o a r s e expressions? Is t h e r e a voice-over n a r r a t o r ? Why was he or s h e c h o sen t o n a r r a t e t h e story? W h y n o t a n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r ? 243

244

S o u n d

FURTHER READING ALTMAN, RICK, ed. Sound Theory/Sound Practice ( L o n d o n a n d New York: Routledge, 1 9 9 2 ) . A collection of scholarly essays. BROWN, ROYAL S., Overtones and Undertones: Reading Film Music (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1 9 9 4 ) . Scholarly study of the aesthetics of film music. EYMAN, SCOTT, The Speed of Sound: Hollywood and the Talkie Revolution 1926-1930 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1 9 9 7 ) . A lively a c c o u n t of the c h a n g e o v e r to s o u n d . KALINAK, KATHRYN, Settling the Score (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1 9 9 2 ) . Music a n d the classical Hollywood cinema. LOBRUTTO, VINCENT, ed., Sound-on-Film (New York: Praeger, 1 9 9 4 ) . Interviews with creators of film s o u n d . MORDDEN, ETHAN, The Hollywood Musical (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1 9 8 2 ) . Eccentric, astute, well written. PRENDERGAST, R O Y M . , Film Music (New York: N o r t o n , 1 9 7 7 ) . Excellent analysis. SMITH, JEFF. 'The Sounds of Commerce (New York: Columbia University Press, 1 9 9 9 ) . Marketing p o p u l a r film music. WALKER, ALEXANDER, The Shattered Silents (New York: William Morrow, 1 9 7 9 ) . A well-written history. WEIS, ELISABETH, a n d JOHN BELTON, eds., Film Sound: Theory and Practice (New York: Columbia University Press, 1 9 8 5 ) . A collection of scholarly articles.

246

A c t i n g

Overview Acting classifications: nonprofessionals, extras, pros, stars. Stage and screen: amplification versus inner truth. Film acting as a directorial language s y s t e m . Beauty, charm, and sex appeal. The physical requirements of acting: face, voice, body. Expressiveness in film acting. Performances constructed on the editing b e n c h . The star s y s t e m . The Golden Age of the H o l l y w o o d studios. The m y t h o l o g y of the stars. Stars and American popular culture. The d o w n s i d e of stardom. Personality stars versus actor stars. Iconography: the accretion of m e a n i n g in a star's persona. Styles of acting: realism and e x p r e s s i o n i s m . National styles. Genre and its requirements. Silent film acting. Star acting: H o l l y w o o d r o m a n t i c i s m during the big-studio era. British acting traditions. Post-World War II realism. The American Method s c h o o l of acting. Texts and subtexts. Improvisation. Casting as characterization. Typecasting, casting against type. How casting d e t e r m i n e s thematic and iconographic m e a n i n g .

Film acting is a c o m p l e x a n d variable a r t t h a t can be b r o k e n d o w n i n t o f o u r categories: 1. Extras. T h e s e actors a r e u s e d primarily to provide a sense of a c r o w d — as in "a cast of t h o u s a n d s . " Players of this type a r e u s e d as c a m e r a m a t e rial, like a l a n d s c a p e or a set. 2.

Nonprofessional performers. T h e s e a r e a m a t e u r players w h o a r e c h o s e n n o t b e c a u s e o f t h e i r a c t i n g ability, which can b e negligible, b u t b e c a u s e of t h e i r a u t h e n t i c a p p e a r a n c e — t h e y look r i g h t for a given part.

3.

Trained professionals. T h e s e stage a n d screen p e r f o r m e r s a r e c a p a b l e of playing a variety of roles in a variety of styles. T h e majority of actors fall u n d e r this category.

4.

Stars. T h e s e a r e f a m o u s p e r f o r m e r s w h o a r e widely r e c o g n i z e d by t h e public. T h e i r d r a w i n g p o w e r is o n e of t h e m a i n attractions of a film or stage play. T h e star system was d e v e l o p e d a n d has b e e n d o m i n a t e d by t h e A m e r i c a n c i n e m a , t h o u g h it's hardly u n i q u e to movies. Virtually all t h e p e r f o r m i n g a r t s — o p e r a , d a n c e , live theater, television, c o n c e r t m u s i c — h a v e e x p l o i t e d t h e box-office p o p u l a r i t y of a c h a r i s m a t i c performer.

H o w e v e r a film a c t o r is classified, virtually all p e r f o r m e r s in this m e d i u m c o n c e d e t h a t t h e i r work i s s h a p e d b y t h e p e r s o n w h o literally a n d f i g u rativclv calls t h e shots. Even Charlie ( l h a p l i n , the mosi famous movie star of his era, a d m i t t e d , "Film a c t i n g is u n q u e s t i o n a b l y a d i r e c t o r ' s m e d i u m . " In s h o r t , t h e movie a c t o r is ultimately a tool of t h e d i r e c t o r — a n o t h e r " l a n g u a g e system" t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e f i l m m a k e r c o m m u n i c a t e s ideas a n d e m o t i o n s .

6-1. The End of the Affair (Great Britain, 1999), with Julianne Moore and Ralph Fiennes, adapted and directed by Neil Jordan. Love scenes on stage are usually verbal, and rarely is there much extended love play. Nudity is extremely rare. Love scenes in movies are usually the opposite: The e m p h a s i s is on physical contact, with a m i n i m u m of dialogue. Even this film, a faithful adaptation of a classic Graham Greene novel, presents the love scenes in a graphically physical manner, converting Greene's literary descriptions into steamy sexual liaisons. Most film actors dislike playing nude scenes, which are usually performed while dozens of technicians are observing from the sidelines. Despite this unromantic public arena, the performers must act as though they're behind closed doors, drunk on intimacy and passion. (Columbia sutures)

T h e differences b e t w e e n stage a n d s c r e e n a c t i n g a r e largely d e t e r m i n e d by t h e differences in space a n d t i m e in e a c h m e d i u m (see also C h a p t e r 7, " D r a m a " ) . In g e n e r a l , t h e live t h e a t e r seems to be a m o r e satisfactory m e d i u m for t h e a c t o r b e c a u s e , o n c e t h e c u r t a i n goes u p , h e o r she t e n d s t o d o m i n a t e t h e p r o c e e d i n g s . In movies, this is n o t usually t h e case. Actress Kim Stanley e x p r e s s e d t h e differences well: "No m a t t e r w h a t you do in film, it is, after all, bits a n d pieces for t h e director, a n d that's m a r v e l o u s for t h e d i r e c t o r b u t it d o e s n ' t allow t h e a c t o r to l e a r n to m o l d a part. In films, it's t h e d i r e c t o r w h o i s t h e artist. A n a c t o r has m u c h m o r e c h a n c e t o c r e a t e o n stage." Even t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s are different i n e a c h m e d i u m . T h e essential requisites for t h e stage p e r f o r m e r are t o b e seen a n d h e a r d clearly. T h u s , t h e ideal t h e a t r i c a l a c t o r m u s t have a flexible, t r a i n e d voice. Most obviously, his or h e r voice m u s t b e powerful e n o u g h t o b e h e a r d even i n a t h e a t e r c o n t a i n i n g t h o u s a n d s of seats. Because l a n g u a g e is t h e m a j o r s o u r c e of m e a n i n g in t h e theater, t h e n u a n c e s o f t h e d i a l o g u e m u s t b e conveyed t h r o u g h vocal expressive-

6-2. Boys Don't Cry (U.S.A., 1999), with Peter Sarsgaard, Hilary Swank, and Brendan Sexton III; directed by Kimberly Pierce. Shakespeare and the dramatists of the ancient world often employed the motif of cross dressing, if for nothing else, because w o m e n were not allowed to act on stage. This movie, b a s e d on actual events, explores cross dressing in a more realistic manner. The protagonist (Swank) tries desperately to pass as a male and for a while she succeeds. But her deception is finally discovered a n d she pays a fearful price for her obsession. Swank's performance is subtly nuanced, a triumph of realistically observed details of how young guys walk, talk, and swagger. The c h a r m of Shakespeare's cross-dressing heroines lies precisely in the exquisite femininity of the characters trying to act m a c h o . The fascination of Swank's Oscar-winning performance lies in how she s u b m e r g e s her femininity and creates a totally credible young male.

(Fox Searchlight Pictures)

ness. An a c t o r ' s voice m u s t be c a p a b l e of m u c h variety. It's n e c e s s a r y to k n o w w h a t w o r d s to stress a n d h o w to stress t h e m , h o w to p h r a s e p r o p e r l y for differe n t types of lines, w h e n to p a u s e a n d for h o w l o n g , a n d h o w quickly or slowly a line or s p e e c h o u g h t to be delivered. Above all, t h e stage a c t o r m u s t be believable, even w h e n r e c i t i n g d i a l o g u e that's highly stylized a n d u n n a t u r a l . Most of t h e c r e d i t for an exciting theatrical p r o d u c t i o n is given to t h e p e r f o r m e r s , b u t m u c h of t h e b u r d e n is also theirs, for w h e n w e ' r e b o r e d by a p r o d u c t i o n of a play, we t e n d to b l a m e t h e actors. Physical r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e less e x a c t i n g in t h e t h e a t e r t h a n in movies. Most obviously, t h e stage a c t o r m u s t be s e e n — e v e n from t h e b a c k of t h e audit o r i u m . T h u s , it h e l p s to be tall, for small actors t e n d to get lost on a large stage. I t also h e l p s t o have large a n d r e g u l a r features, a l t h o u g h m a k e u p can cover a m u l t i t u d e of deficiencies. F o r this r e a s o n , casting a forty-year-old a c t o r as R o m e o is n o t necessarily a disaster in t h e theater, for if t h e a c t o r is in reasonably g o o d physical s h a p e , his age w o n ' t show b e y o n d t h e first rows of seats. B e c a u s e of t h e low visual s a t u r a t i o n in t h e theater, actors can play roles twenty years b e y o n d t h e i r actual age, p r o v i d e d t h e i r voices a n d b o d i e s a r e flexible enough.

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T h e stage a c t o r ' s e n t i r e b o d y is always in view, a n d for this r e a s o n , he or she m u s t be able to c o n t r o l it with s o m e d e g r e e of p r e c i s i o n . S u c h obvious activities as sitting, walking, a n d s t a n d i n g a r e p e r f o r m e d differently on t h e stage t h a n they a r e in real life. An a c t o r m u s t usually l e a r n h o w to d a n c e , h o w to fence, a n d h o w to m o v e naturally in p e r i o d c o s t u m e s . An a c t o r must know w h a t t o d o with his o r h e r h a n d s — w h e n t o let t h e m h a n g a n d w h e n t o use t h e m for expressive gestures. F u r t h e r m o r e , stage actors m u s t k n o w h o w to adjust t h e i r b o d i e s to different c h a r a c t e r s : A seventeen-year-old girl moves differently t h a n a w o m a n of thirty; an aristocrat moves differently t h a n a clerk of t h e s a m e a g e . T h e b o d y m u s t c o m m u n i c a t e a wide variety of e m o t i o n s in pant o m i m e : A h a p p y p e r s o n even stands differently t h a n o n e w h o is d e j e c t e d or fearful o r b o r e d . T h e a t r i c a l a c t i n g p r e s e r v e s real t i m e . T h e p e r f o r m e r m u s t b u i l d — s c e n e by s c e n e — t o w a r d t h e climactic s c e n e n e a r t h e e n d of t h e play. Usually, t h e stage a c t o r b e g i n s at a relatively low e n e r g y level, t h e n increases with e a c h progressive s c e n e until, in t h e climax, t h e e n e r g y r e a c h e s its b u r s t i n g p o i n t a n d finally t a p e r s off in t h e r e s o l u t i o n of t h e play. In s h o r t , t h e a c t o r g e n e r a t e s in psychic e n e r g y t h e play's own s t r u c t u r e . W i t h i n this overall s t r u c t u r e , t h e stage p e r f o r m e r "builds" within e a c h s c e n e , a l t h o u g h n o t every s c e n e i s a u t o m a t i cally played at a g r e a t e r intensity t h a n its predecessor, for different plays build in different ways. W h a t ' s essential for t h e stage a c t o r is to sustain an e n e r g y

6-3. Waiting to Exhale (U.S.A., 1995), with Loretta Devine, Whitney Houston, Angela Bassett, and Lela Rochon; directed by Forest Whitaker. An e n s e m b l e cast emphasizes the interactions of a group of equally important characters, rather than a single performer or star Ensemble casts are m o r e c o m m o n on stage, since most of the actors are viewed in the s a m e space at the s a m e time. In movies, especially American movies, the star system isolates the leading player from the secondary and minor characters. Hence, live theater is s o m e t i m e s thought to be a more democratic art, w h e r e a s conventional movies are thought to be more hierarchical and elitist. (Twentieth centwy-Fox)

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level for t h e d u r a t i o n of a s c e n e . O n c e t h e c u r t a i n rises, he or she is a l o n e on t h e stage. Mistakes a r e n ' t easily c o r r e c t e d , n o r c a n a s c e n e be r e p l a y e d or cut out. In g e n e r a l , t h e film player can get a l o n g q u i t e well with a m i n i m u m of stage t e c h n i q u e . T h e essential requisite for a p e r f o r m e r in t h e movies is w h a t A n t o n i o n i called "expressiveness." T h a t is, he or she m u s t look i n t e r e s t i n g ( 6 - 4 ) . No a m o u n t of t e c h n i q u e will c o m p e n s a t e for an u n p h o t o g e n i c face. A n u m b e r of stage p e r f o r m e r s have fared badly in t h e movies b e c a u s e of this deficiency. F o r e x a m p l e , Kim Stanley a n d Tallulah B a n k h e a d were a m o n g t h e m o s t a d m i r e d stage stars in A m e r i c a , b u t t h e i r film work failed to excite m u c h interest. Similarly, Ian R i c h a r d s o n is r e g a r d e d as o n e of t h e m o s t brilliant a c t o r s of t h e British s t a g e — w h e r e brilliant actors a r e c o m m o n p l a c e — b u t his few film p e r f o r m a n c e s a r e lackluster. S o m e of t h e m o s t f a m o u s stage actors in h i s t o r y — including Sarah Bernhardt—look preposterous on film: H e r techniques are m a n n e r e d a n d stagey t o t h e p o i n t o f c a r i c a t u r e . I n movies, t h e n , t o o m u c h t e c h n i q u e c a n actually u n d e r c u t a p e r f o r m a n c e , can m a k e i t s e e m h a m m y a n d insincere. A c t i n g in t h e c i n e m a is almost totally d e p e n d e n t on t h e filmmaker's a p p r o a c h t o t h e story materials. I n g e n e r a l , t h e m o r e realistic t h e d i r e c t o r ' s t e c h n i q u e s , t h e m o r e necessary it is to rely on t h e abilities of t h e players. S u c h d i r e c t o r s t e n d t o favor l o n g s h o t s , which k e e p t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s e n t i r e b o d y within t h e f r a m e . T h i s is t h e c a m e r a d i s t a n c e t h a t c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e p r o s c e -

6-4. The Whisperers (Great Britain, 1966), with Edith Evans, directed by Bryan Forbes. The cinematic close-up allows the film actor to concentrate totally on the truth of the moment—without the need to worry about projecting to the back row. Gestures and facial expressions can be exquisitely nuanced. Stage actors generally must convey such n u a n c e s through words. The Hungarian theorist Bela Balazs believed that the movie close-up can isolate the h u m a n face from its surroundings and penetrate the soul: "What appears on the face and in facial expression is a spiritual experience," Balazs observed. This experience is impossible to achieve in the live theater, because the spectator is too distant from the performer. (UnitedArtists)

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n i u m a r c h o f t h e live t h e a t e r . T h e realist also t e n d s t o favor l e n g t h y t a k e s — t h u s p e r m i t t i n g t h e actors to sustain p e r f o r m a n c e s for relatively l o n g p e r i o d s witho u t i n t e r r u p t i o n . F r o m t h e a u d i e n c e ' s p o i n t of view, it's easier to evaluate acti n g in a realistic movie b e c a u s e we a r e p e r m i t t e d to see s u s t a i n e d scenes witho u t any a p p a r e n t d i r e c t o r i a l i n t e r f e r e n c e . T h e c a m e r a r e m a i n s essentially a r e c o r d i n g device. T h e m o r e f o r m a l i s t i c t h e director, t h e less likely h e o r s h e i s t o value t h e a c t o r ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n . S o m e o f H i t c h c o c k ' s m o s t s t u n n i n g c i n e m a t i c effects w e r e a c h i e v e d b y m i n i m i z i n g t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f actors. D u r i n g t h e p r o d u c tion of Sabotage, H i t c h c o c k ' s l e a d i n g lady, Sylvia Sidney, b u r s t i n t o tears on t h e set b e c a u s e s h e w a s n ' t p e r m i t t e d to act a crucial s c e n e . T h e e p i s o d e involved a m u r d e r i n w h i c h t h e s y m p a t h e t i c h e r o i n e kills h e r b r u t i s h h u s b a n d i n r e v e n g e for his m u r d e r o f h e r y o u n g b r o t h e r . O n stage, o f c o u r s e , t h e h e r o i n e ' s feelings a n d t h o u g h t s w o u l d b e c o m m u n i c a t e d b y w o r d s a n d t h e actress's e x a g g e r a t e d facial e x p r e s s i o n s . B u t in real life, H i t c h c o c k o b s e r v e d , p e o p l e ' s faces d o n ' t necessarily reveal w h a t they t h i n k o r feel. T h e d i r e c t o r p r e f e r r e d t o convey t h e s e ideas a n d e m o t i o n s t h r o u g h e d i t e d j u x t a p o s i t i o n s ( 6 - 5 ) . T h e s e t t i n g for t h e s c e n e i s a d i n n e r table. T h e h e r o i n e l o o k s a t h e r h u s b a n d , w h o is e a t i n g as u s u a l . T h e n a c l o s e - u p shows a dish c o n t a i n i n g m e a t a n d v e g e t a b l e s with a knife a n d fork lying n e x t to it; t h e wife's h a n d s a r e s e e n b e h i n d t h e dish. H i t c h c o c k t h e n cuts t o a m e d i u m s h o t o f t h e wife t h o u g h t fully slicing s o m e m e a t . N e x t , a m e d i u m s h o t o f t h e b r o t h e r ' s e m p t y chair. Close-up of t h e wife's h a n d s with knife a n d fork. Close-up of a b i r d c a g e with c a n a r i e s — a r e m i n d e r t o t h e h e r o i n e o f h e r d e a d b r o t h e r . Close-up o f wife's t h o u g h t f u l face. C l o s e - u p of t h e knife a n d p l a t e . S u d d e n l y a close-up of t h e h u s b a n d ' s s u s p i c i o u s face: H e n o t i c e s t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e knife a n d h e r t h o u g h t f u l e x p r e s s i o n , for t h e c a m e r a p a n s , r a t h e r t h a n cuts, b a c k t o t h e knife. H e gets u p n e x t t o h e r . H i t c h c o c k quickly cuts t o a close-up o f h e r h a n d r e a c h i n g for t h e knife. C u t t o a n e x t r e m e c l o s e - u p o f t h e knife e n t e r i n g his body. C u t to a t w o - s h o t of t h e i r faces, his c o n v u l s e d with p a i n , h e r s in fear. W h e n Sylvia S i d n e y saw t h e finished p r o d u c t , s h e was d e l i g h t e d with t h e results. T h e e n t i r e s c e n e , o f c o u r s e , r e q u i r e d very little a c t i n g i n t h e c o n v e n tional sense of the term. A n t o n i o n i o n c e said t h a t he uses his actors only as p a r t of t h e c o m p o s i tion—"like a tree, a wall, or a cloud." Many of t h e major t h e m e s of his films a r e conveyed t h r o u g h l o n g shots w h e r e t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f p e o p l e a n d t h e i r settings is u s e d to suggest c o m p l e x psychological a n d spiritual states. P e r h a p s m o r e t h a n any o t h e r director, A n t o n i o n i is sensitive to h o w m e a n i n g s c h a n g e , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m i s e e n s c e n e . Similarly, t h e F r e n c h d i r e c t o r R o b e r t Bresson believed t h a t a s c r e e n a c t o r is n o t an interpretive artist b u t m e r e l y o n e of t h e "raw materials" o f t h e mise e n s c e n e a n d t h e editing. H e generally p r e f e r r e d t o use n o n p r o fessional actors in his movies b e c a u s e t r a i n e d actors t e n d to w a n t to convey e m o tions a n d ideas t h r o u g h p e r f o r m a n c e , as in t h e live theater. F o r Bresson, films s h o u l d be m a d e cinematically r a t h e r t h a n theatrically, by "bypassing t h e will of those w h o a p p e a r in t h e m , u s i n g n o t w h a t they d o , b u t w h a t they are."

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6-5. S e q u e n c e from Sabotage (Great Britain, 1936), with Sylvia Sidney and Oscar Homolka, directed by Alfred Hitchcock. Through the art of editing, a director can construct a highly emotional "performance" by juxtaposing shots of actors with shots of objects. In scenes such as these, the actor's contribution tends to be minimal: The effect is achieved through the linking of two or more shots. This associational process is the basis of Pudovkin's theory of constructive editing. (Caumont-

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6-6a. Staying Alive (U.S.A., 1983), with John Travolta, directed by Sylvester Stallone. (Paramount Pictures)

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The Naked and the Nude. A n u m b e r of cultural commentators have noted the distinction between a nude figure and a naked one. A nude or semi-nude body ( 6 - 6 a ) is m e a n t to be looked at, m e a n t to be admired. Sexual allure is a compelling attraction in most of the performing arts, dating back to ancient times. In fact, the beauty of the h u m a n form—both male and female—has been one of the most persistent lures of the c i n e m a almost since its inception. The appeal is both aesthetic and carnal: We're drawn to the sensual beauty of the sculpted bodies, and we want to touch, perhaps to possess. On the other hand, a naked person ( 6 - 6 b ) is usually e m b a r r a s s e d to be seen publicly without clothes on, a source of considerable hilarity as Cleese's would-be adulterer is caught buck naked by unexpected guests.

6-6b. A Fish Called Wanda (Great Britain, 1988), with John Cleese, directed by Charles Crichton. (MGM)

6-7. The Gold Rush (U.S.A., 1925), with Charles Chaplin and Mack Swain, directed by Chaplin. Actors in every medium (except radio) must be conscious of body language and what it reveals about character. Silent actors were deprived of their voices, so they externalized their feelings and thoughts through gesture, movement, facial expression, and body language—all of which had to be heightened to c o m p e n s a t e for their lack of speech. In this shot, for example, Big Jim McKay is puzzled by the scary rumbling and quaking of their cabin. The hungover Charlie explains—through pantomime—that his queasy stomach is the culprit, (rbc Films)

Generalizing a b o u t acting in movies is difficult because directors d o n ' t a p p r o a c h every film with t h e s a m e attitudes. Elia Kazan a n d I n g m a r B e r g m a n , distinguished stage directors as well as filmmakers, varied their t e c h n i q u e s considerably, d e p e n d i n g on t h e d r a m a t i c n e e d s of the film. N o r is t h e r e any "correct" a p p r o a c h to filming a scene. A d i r e c t o r like Chaplin m i g h t convey a specific idea t h r o u g h acting, whereas Bresson m i g h t a p p r o a c h t h e same idea t h r o u g h e d i t i n g or mise en scene. E a c h version c o u l d be effective: W h a t e v e r works is right. But w h e t h e r a d i r e c t o r is a realist or formalist, t h e differences b e t w e e n film a c t i n g a n d stage a c t i n g r e m a i n f u n d a m e n t a l . For e x a m p l e , a player in movies is n o t so restricted by vocal r e q u i r e m e n t s b e c a u s e s o u n d v o l u m e is controlled electronically. Marilyn M o n r o e ' s small b r e a t h y voice w o u l d n ' t have p r o jected b e y o n d t h e first few rows in t h e theater, b u t on film it was p e r f e c t for conveying t h a t childlike vulnerability t h a t gave h e r p e r f o r m a n c e s such p o e t i c delicacy. S o m e f i l m actors a r e p o p u l a r precisely b e c a u s e o f t h e offbeat c h a r m of t h e i r voices. B e c a u s e a c t i n g in movies is n o t so d e p e n d e n t on vocal flexibility, m a n y p e r f o r m e r s have s u c c e e d e d d e s p i t e t h e i r w o o d e n , inexpressive voices: Gary C o o p e r , J o h n Wayne, Clint Eastwood, A r n o l d S c h w a r z e n e g g e r . 255

6-8. La Strada (Italy, 1954), with Richard Basehart and Giulietta Masina, directed by Federico Fellini. Virtually all Italian movies are d u b b e d after the footage has been photographed and sometimes even after it's been edited. Fellini selected his players according to their face, body type, or personality. Like m a n y Italian filmmakers, he often used foreign actors, even in major roles. The American Richard Basehart spoke his lines in English during this film's production. Once shooting was completed, Fellini hired an Italian actor with the s a m e vocal quality to dub in the character's voice. (Audio-Brandon Rims)

Even t h e quality of a movie actor's voice c a n be c o n t r o l l e d m e c h a n i cally. Music a n d s o u n d effects can totally c h a n g e t h e m e a n i n g of a line of dial o g u e . T h r o u g h e l e c t r o n i c devices, a voice can be m a d e to s o u n d g a r b l e d or b o o m i n g or hollow. M u c h of t h e d i a l o g u e in a movie is d u b b e d , so a d i r e c t o r can r e - r e c o r d a line u n t i l it's perfect. S o m e t i m e s t h e d i r e c t o r will select o n e or two w o r d s from o n e r e c o r d e d take a n d b l e n d t h e m with t h e words o f a n o t h e r , or even a t h i r d or f o u r t h . T h i s k i n d of synthesizing can be c a r r i e d even furt h e r — b y c o m b i n i n g o n e a c t o r ' s face with a n o t h e r actor's voice ( 6 - 8 ) . Similarly, t h e physical r e q u i r e m e n t s for a film actor are different from those of a stage p e r f o r m e r . T h e movie player d o e s n ' t have to be tall, even if h e ' s a l e a d i n g m a n type. Alan L a d d , for e x a m p l e , was q u i t e short. His directors simply avoided showing his b o d y in full unless t h e r e was no o n e else in frame to c o n t r a s t with his height. He played love scenes s t a n d i n g on a b o x , his b o d y c u t off at t h e waist. Low-angle s h o t s also t e n d e d to m a k e h i m s e e m taller. A film actor's features d o n ' t have to be large, only expressive—particularly t h e eyes a n d m o u t h . N o r d o e s a f i l m a c t o r have t o b e attractive. For e x a m p l e , H u m p h r e y B o g a r t was n o t a g o o d - l o o k i n g m a n , b u t t h e c a m e r a "liked h i m . " T h a t is, his face

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was u n c a n n i l y p h o t o g e n i c , o p e n i n g up to t h e c a m e r a in a way t h a t often surprised his c i n e m a t o g r a p h c r s . S o m e t i m e s this c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n reality a n d its illusion can be i n t i m i d a t i n g . C o m p l a i n e d J e a n Arthur, "It's a s t r e n u o u s j o b every day of y o u r life to live up to t h e way you look on t h e screen." An a c t o r w h o m o v e s clumsily is n o t necessarily at a d i s a d v a n t a g e in film. T h e d i r e c t o r c a n work a r o u n d t h e p r o b l e m b y not u s i n g m a n y l o n g shots a n d by p h o t o g r a p h i n g t h e a c t o r after he or she has m o v e d . C o m p l i c a t e d m o v e m e n t s can b e faked b y u s i n g s t u n t r n e n o r s t u n t w o m e n o r d o u b l e s . T h e s e shots are i n t e r c u t with closer shots o f t h e l e a d i n g actor, a n d t h e e d i t e d j u x t a p o s i t i o n leads t h e a u d i e n c e to a s s u m e t h a t t h e m a i n p e r f o r m e r is involved in all t h e shots (see 4 - 1 6 ) . Even in close-up, t h e film p e r f o r m e r ' s physical a p p e a r a n c e can b e c h a n g e d t h r o u g h t h e use o f special l e n s e s , filters, a n d lights. Because t h e s h o t is t h e basic b u i l d i n g u n i t in film, t h e a c t o r d o e s n ' t h a v e to sustain a p e r f o r m a n c e for very l o n g — e v e n in realistic movies in which t h e t a k e s can r u n for two or t h r e e m i n u t e s . In a highly f r a g m e n t e d film—in which shots can last for less t h a n a s e c o n d — o n e c a n scarcely refer to t h e perf o r m e r ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n as a c t i n g at all: He or she simply is. T h e s h o o t i n g s c h e d u l e of a movie is d e t e r m i n e d by e c o n o m i c considerations. T h u s , t h e s h o o t i n g o f various s e q u e n c e s can b e o u t o f c h r o n o l o g y . A n a c t o r may b e r e q u i r e d t o p e r f o r m t h e climactic s c e n e f i r s t a n d low-keyed e x p o sition shots later. T h e s c r e e n actor, t h e n , d o e s n ' t "build" e m o t i o n a l l y as t h e stage a c t o r must. T h e film player must be c a p a b l e of an i n t e n s e d e g r e e of con-

6-9. 77ie Night of the Shooting Stars (Italy, 1982), directed by Paolo and Vittorio Taviani. Realism in movies can be far m o r e "real" than stage realism, for a stage actor's skill and discipline are always a p p a r e n t to the audience. Film realism is often m o r e convincing precisely because of the player's lack of technical skill. The nonprofessional players of this movie are artless and sincere, totally devoid of actorish m a n n e r i s m s , and h e n c e totally believable as ordinary peasants trying to survive during the harsh times of World War II. (UnitedArtists)

6-10. The Ice Storm (U.S.A., 1997), with Christina Ricci and Tobey Maguire, directed by Ang Lee. Most actors agree that film is a m o r e intimate m e d i u m than live theater. Screen actors don't have to project their voices: They can talk normally. They don't have to m a k e their movem e n t s larger-than-life, just gesture the way they do in everyday life. They can c o m m u n i c a t e through eye contact alone: The c a m e r a magnifies their intimacy h u n d r e d s of times. Ricci and Maguire both began as child actors, and performing in front of a c a m e r a is almost secondnature to t h e m . Maguire is a film natural, a deft underplayer who s e e m s to be behaving rather than acting. He rarely lets the wires show, concealing his artistry behind a deceptively s i m p l e throwaway style of performance. Ricci's range is broader, extending from stylized satirical c o m e d y (The Opposite of Sex) to unsentimental realism (The Ice Storm) to swoony romantic S t y l e s (Sleepy Hollow). (Fox Searchlight Pictures)

c e n t r a t i o n — t u r n i n g e m o t i o n s on a n d off for very s h o r t p e r i o d s of t i m e . Most of t h e t i m e , t h e player m u s t s e e m totally n a t u r a l , as if he or she w e r e n ' t a c t i n g at all. 'You do it j u s t like in reality," H e n r y F o n d a e x p l a i n e d ( 6 - 1 0 ) . Certainly t h e film player is a l m o s t always at t h e m e r c y of t h e director, w h o later constructs t h e various shots i n t o a c o h e r e n t p e r f o r m a n c e . S o m e d i r e c t o r s have tricked a c t o r s i n t o a p e r f o r m a n c e , asking for o n e quality to get a n o t h e r . Because a c t i n g in t h e c i n e m a is c o n f i n e d to s h o r t s e g m e n t s of t i m e a n d space, t h e film player d o e s n ' t n e e d a l o n g r e h e a r s a l p e r i o d to establish a sense of ease with o t h e r actors, t h e set, or c o s t u m e s . Many d i r e c t o r s k e e p r e h e a r s a l s to a m i n i m u m so as n o t to dissipate t h e s p o n t a n e i t y of t h e players, t h e i r sense o f discovery a n d surprise. U n l i k e t h e stage player, t h e f i l m a c t o r d o e s n ' t have t o c r e a t e a n i n t i m a t e r a p p o r t with o t h e r p e r f o r m e r s : S o m e t i m e s they h a v e n ' t even m e t until they arrive o n t h e set o r o n location. Actors occasionally d o n ' t k n o w t h e i r lines: T h i s is r e m e d i e d by having a p r o m p t e r on t h e set or by writing t h e lines on a c h a l k b o a r d off f r a m e w h e r e t h e a c t o r can r e a d t h e m . 258

cling

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A film a c t o r is e x p e c t e d to play even t h e m o s t i n t i m a t e scenes with d o z e n s o f t e c h n i c i a n s o n t h e set, w o r k i n g o r observing ( 6 - 1 ) . T h e a c t o r m u s t s e e m totally a t ease, even t h o u g h t h e lights are u n b e a r a b l y h o t a n d his o r h e r r u n n i n g m a k e u p m u s t b e c o r r e c t e d b e t w e e n shots. Because t h e c a m e r a distorts, actors are r e q u i r e d t o p e r f o r m s o m e scenes unnaturally. I n a n e m b r a c e , for e x a m p l e , lovers c a n ' t really look at e a c h o t h e r in t h e eyes or they will a p p e a r cross-eyed on t h e screen. In point-of-view s h o t s , actors m u s t direct t h e i r lines at t h e c a m e r a r a t h e r t h a n a t a n o t h e r player. M u c h o f t h e time, t h e p e r f o r m e r has no idea what he or she is d o i n g , or w h e r e a s h o t m i g h t a p p e a r in t h e finished film, if i n d e e d it a p p e a r s at all, for m a n y an actor's p e r f o r m a n c e has b e e n left on t h e c u t t i n g r o o m floor. In short, t h e discontinuity of time a n d space in t h e cine m a places t h e p e r f o r m e r almost totally in t h e h a n d s of t h e director.

T h e star system h a s b e e n t h e b a c k b o n e o f t h e A m e r i c a n f i l m i n d u s t r y since t h e mid-1910s. Stars a r e t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e public, its r e i g n i n g favorites. T h e i r i n f l u e n c e i n t h e f i e l d s o f fashion, values, a n d p u b l i c b e h a v i o r has b e e n e n o r m o u s . " T h e social history of a n a t i o n can be written in t e r m s of its film stars," R a y m o n d D u r g n a t has o b s e r v e d . Stars c o n f e r i n s t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e t o any film they a p p e a r in. T h e i r fees have s t a g g e r e d t h e p u b l i c . In t h e 1920s, M a r y Pickford a n d C h a r l e s C h a p l i n w e r e t h e two h i g h e s t p a i d e m p l o y e e s i n t h e world. C o n t e m p o r a r y stars s u c h a s Julia R o b e r t s a n d T o m C r u i s e c o m m a n d salaries of m a n y millions p e r film, so p o p u l a r a r e t h e s e box-office giants. S o m e stars h a d c a r e e r s t h a t s p a n n e d f i v e d e c a d e s : Bette Davis a n d J o h n Wayne, t o n a m e j u s t two. A l e x a n d e r Walker, a m o n g o t h e r s , has p o i n t e d o u t t h a t stars a r e t h e d i r e c t o r i n d i r e c t reflection o f t h e n e e d s , drives, a n d anxieties o f t h e i r audie n c e : T h e y a r e t h e food of d r e a m s , allowing us to live o u t o u r d e e p e s t fantasies a n d obsessions. Like t h e a n c i e n t g o d s a n d g o d d e s s e s , stars have b e e n a d o r e d , envied, a n d v e n e r a t e d as mythic icons. P r i o r to 1910, a c t o r s ' n a m e s w e r e a l m o s t n e v e r i n c l u d e d in movie credits b e c a u s e p r o d u c e r s f e a r e d t h e players w o u l d t h e n d e m a n d h i g h e r salaries. But t h e p u b l i c n a m e d t h e i r favorites anyway. Mary Pickford, for e x a m p l e , was f i r s t k n o w n b y h e r c h a r a c t e r ' s n a m e , "Little Mary." F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e p u b l i c often fused a star's artistic p e r s o n a with his or h e r private personality. F o r e x a m p l e , I n g r i d B e r g m a n ' s m u c h - p u b l i c i z e d love affair with Italian director R o b e r t o Rossellini c r e a t e d a s c a n d a l o u s u p r o a r in t h e U n i t e d States in t h e late 1940s. It nearly w r e c k e d h e r career, n o t to s p e a k of h e r psyche. S h e was a victim o f h e r own p u b l i c i m a g e , w h i c h h a d b e e n carefully n u r t u r e d b y h e r boss, p r o d u c e r David O. Sclznick. In t h e p u b l i c m i n d , B e r g m a n was a w h o l e s o m e , a l m o s t s a i n t e d w o m a n — m o d e s t a n d simple, a h a p p y wife a n d m o t h e r . This i m a g e was b u t t r e s s e d by h e r m o s t p o p u l a r roles: t h e radiantly e t h e r e a l Ilsa in Casablanca, t h e f e r v e n t political idealist in For Whom the Bell Tolls, t h e w a r m i n d o m i t a b l e m o t h e r s u p e r i o r in The, Bells of St. Mary's, a n d t h e n o b l e warriorsaint of Joan of Arc. In reality, B e r g m a n was an a m b i t i o u s artist, a n x i o u s to play a

6-11. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer publicity photo of Esther Williams, circa 1952. Good looks and sex appeal have always been the conspicuous traits of most film stars, both male and female. Tall, strong, gorgeous Esther Williams was the first American female star to combine fitness with beauty. An MGM star in the 1940s and 1950s, she appeared in twenty-six light entertainment films that showcased her skill as a swimmer and diver. She was—and still is—proud that her films promoted fitness: "My movies m a d e it clear that it's all right to be strong and feminine at the same time," Williams said. "A survey showed 1 received more fan mail from teenage girls than anyone in the business." After raising her family, Williams formed her own business by shrewdly exploiting her fame to establish a successful line of bathing suits.

(MGM/Turner Entertainment)

variety of roles, i n c l u d i n g villainess parts. W h e n she a n d Rossellini m e t , they s o o n fell i n love, a n d t h o u g h still m a r r i e d t o h e r f i r s t h u s b a n d , B e r g m a n b e c a m e p r e g n a n t with Rossellini \ s child. W h e n h e r c o n d i t i o n b e c a m e p u b l i c , t h e press h a d a field day, i n d u l g i n g in an orgy of l u r i d s p e c u l a t i o n s a n d attacking h e r for "betraying" h e r p u b l i c . S h e was reviled by religious g r o u p s a n d even d e n o u n c e d from t h e floor of t h e U.S. S e n a t e , w h e r e she was d e s c r i b e d as "Hollywood's apostle of d e g r a d a t i o n " a n d "a free-love cultist." B e r g m a n a n d Rossellini m a r r i e d in 1950, b u t t h e i r j o i n t movies w e r e b o y c o t t e d in t h e U n i t e d States, a n d s h e r e m a i n e d o u t of t h e c o u n t r y for several years. S h e was a p p a r ently "forgiven" in 1956, w h e n she won h e r s e c o n d A c a d e m y Award (best actress) for h e r p e r f o r m a n c e in Anastasia, a big box-office success. Unless t h e p u b l i c is receptive to a given s c r e e n personality, a u d i e n c e s can be r e m a r k a b l y resistant to s o m e o n e else's n o t i o n of a star. F o r e x a m p l e , p r o d u c e r S a m u e l Goldwyn b a l l y h o o c d his Russian i m p o r t , A n n a Sten, w i t h o u t stinting on costs. But a u d i e n c e s stayed away from h e r movies in droves. " G o d m a k e s t h e stars," t h e c h a s t e n e d Goldwyn f i n a l l y c o n c l u d e d . "It's u p t o t h e p r o ducers to find them." T h r o u g h o u t t h e silent era, stars grew giddy with t h e i r wealth a n d power. I n t o x i c a t e d by t h e o p u l e n c e of Hollywood's royalty, t h e p u b l i c was e a g e r 260

6-12. Taxi Driver (U.S.A., 1976), with Robert De Niro, directed by Martin Scorsese. Acting is a d e m a n d i n g art, requiring dedication, discipline, and Spartan endurance. De Niro is famous for his rigorous preparations prior to production, researching his roles exhaustively. Widely regarded as the greatest American actor of his generation, he prefers to bury himself in a role. He rarely exploits his personal charisma and is noticeably uncomfortable during interviews, which he rarely grants. De Niro has always insisted that life should take precedence over art. But his is an art that conceals art. "Some of the old movie stars were terrific," he explained, "but they romanticized. People chase illusions and these illusions are created by movies. I want to m a k e things concrete and real and to break down the illusion. I don't want people years from now to say, ' R e m e m b e r De Niro, he had real style.'" Many of his finest performances have been under the direction of his old friend, Martin Scorsese. (Columbia Pictures)

to l e a r n m o r e of its favorites. Fan ( s h o r t for fanatic) m a g a z i n e s s p r a n g up by t h e d o z e n s , a n d t h e b u r g e o n i n g studios c h u r n e d o u t a steady s t r e a m o f publicity—most of it i m b e c i l i c — t o feed this insatiable curiosity. P a r a m o u n t ' s rival q u e e n s , Gloria Swanson a n d Pola N e g r i , vied with e a c h o t h e r i n t h e extravag a n c e o f t h e i r lifestyles. B o t h o f t h e m m a r r i e d m a n y times, a n d e a c h m a n a g e d t o s n a r e a t least o n e petty n o b l e m a n a m o n g t h e i r stable o f r a p t a d m i r e r s . " I have g o n e t h r o u g h a l o n g a p p r e n t i c e s h i p , " Swanson said. "I have g o n e t h r o u g h e n o u g h of b e i n g n o b o d y . I have d e c i d e d that w h e n I am a star I will be every i n c h a n d every m o m e n t t h e star. E v e r y o n e from t h e s t u d i o g a t e m a n t o t h e h i g h e s t executive will k n o w it." T h e mythology of s t a r d o m often i n c o r p o r a t e d this rags-to-riches motif. T h e h u m b l e origins o f m a n y stars e n c o u r a g e d t h e p u b l i c t o believe t h a t a n y o n e — e v e n o r d i n a r y p e o p l e — c o u l d b e "discovered" a n d m a k e i t t o Hollywood, w h e r e all t h e i r d r e a m s would c o m e t r u e . T h e so-called g o l d e n age o f t h e star s y s t e m — r o u g h l y t h e 1930s a n d 1 9 4 0 s — c o i n c i d e d with t h e s u p r e m a c y of t h e Hollywood s t u d i o system. Most of 26 1

6-13a. Jerry Maguire (U.S.A., 1996), with Tom Cruise and Cuba Gooding, Jr.; directed by Cameron Crowe, (mstar Pictures)

Most of the great stars, especially personality stars, b e c o m e their own genres. That is, their films are tailored to highlight those qualities that m a d e t h e m stars in the first place. These traits are recycled and repackaged to give the public what it wants, and thereby m a k e lots of money. Most of Tom Cruise's movies follow a similar generic pattern: He begins as a brash, confident youth, a bit cocky and full of himself. A great-looking guy, of course. But he's not as smart as he thinks he is, and is humbled by a conspicuous error in j u d g m e n t . With the help of a supportive young w o m a n who loves him, however, he sees the error of his ways and goes on to even greater success—only now without the swagger. In addition to being a savvy career manager, Cruise is also an ambitious artist, eager to test his limits, unafraid of taking calculated risks by playing against type. He has e x p a n d e d his range considerably in such offbeat parts as those in The Color of Money, Born on the Fourth of July, and Interview With the Vampire. In Magnolia he plays a strutting, woman-hating "self-empowerment" guru, so puffed up with his own irresistibility that w h e n his pomposity is punctured, he collapses like a spent balloon. It's arguably his most brilliant performance—brazen, funny, and, finally, poignantly vulnerable.

6-13b. Magnolia (U.S.A., 1999), with Tom Cruise, directed by Paul Thomas Anderson. (New Line cinema)

A c t i n g

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t h e stars d u r i n g this p e r i o d w e r e u n d e r exclusive c o n t r a c t to t h e five m a j o r p r o duction companies: MGM, W a r n e r Brothers, Paramount, Twentieth C e n t u r y Fox, a n d R K O — k n o w n in t h e t r a d e as t h e Big Five, or t h e m a j o r s . T h r o u g h o u t this p e r i o d , t h e majors p r o d u c e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 90 p e r c e n t of t h e fiction films i n A m e r i c a . T h e y also r u l e d t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t : B e t w e e n t h e two world wars, A m e r i c a n movies d o m i n a t e d 8 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e world's s c r e e n s a n d w e r e m o r e p o p u l a r with foreign a u d i e n c e s t h a n all b u t a few natively p r o d u c e d movies. After t h e talkie revolution, t h e majors t u r n e d to t h e live t h e a t e r for new stars. Such i m p o r t a n t n e w c o m e r s as J a m e s Cagney, Bette Davis, E d w a r d G. R o b i n s o n , C a r y G r a n t , M a e West, a n d K a t h a r i n e H e p b u r n b e c a m e p o p u l a r i n p a r t b e c a u s e of t h e i r distinctive m a n n e r of s p e a k i n g — t h e "personality voices" as they were k n o w n in t h e t r a d e . In t h e i r first years u n d e r studio c o n t r a c t , they were given m a x i m u m e x p o s u r e . For e x a m p l e , Clark G a b l e a p p e a r e d i n f o u r t e e n movies in 1930, his first year at M G M . E a c h of his roles r e p r e s e n t e d a different type, a n d t h e s t u d i o k e p t varying t h e m until o n e clicked with t h e public. After a

6-14. In the Name of the Father (Ireland/Great Britain, 1 9 9 3 ) , with Daniel Day-Lewis and Emma Thompson, directed by Jim Sheridan. Day-Lewis and T h o m p s o n are a m o n g the top British actors of their generation. Both have won American best actor Oscars, Day-Lewis for My Left Foot (1 989), T h o m p s o n for Howards End (1992). Both have been w e a n e d on Shakespeare a n d are equally at h o m e on the stage or on screen, playing c o m e d y or d r a m a , period roles or c o n t e m p o r a r y parts, and in a variety of dialects. Like most British actors, they're extraordinarily versatile. Day-Lewis's range is a w e s o m e , from the Cockney tough in My Beautiful Laundrette to the fruity upper-class twit in A Room With a View to the New Age m a c h o m a n in The Last of the Mohicans ( 3 - 3 1 b ) . T h o m p s o n is equally adaptable, playing double roles in Dead Again, the sexy and irrepressible Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing, and the drab h o u s e k e e p e r in The Remains of the Day. T h o m p s o n also wrote the much acclaimed screenplay for Sense and Sensibility (see 9 - 1 2 ) . In In the Name of the Father, which is based on an actual event, Day-Lewis plays an Irish hippie who is falsely imprisoned for a horrifying crime, and T h o m p s o n plays his attorney. They're both superb, as USUal. (Universal Pictures)

6-15. Blood & Wine (U.S.A., 1997), with Jennifer Lopez, directed by Bob Rafelson. "It's so funny that people use ambition like it's a bad word," Jennifer Lopez has stated. She freely admits to being fiercely ambitious. A Grammy-nominated recording artist (her album On the 6 went double platinum), she is also a dancer as well as an actress of considerable range. "I've always chosen different kinds of roles because I didn't want to be pushed in one category," she has said. "I wanted to show that I could do anything, any type of character, any emotion—weak, strong, vulnerable, kickass, w h a t e v e r " In Selena and My Family/Mi Familia she plays sweet, good-natured Latinas. In Blood & Wine and U Turn she plays dangerous femmes fatales. In the critically acclaimed romantic c o m e d y Out of Sight, she plays a police officer who's funny, sophisticated, and very sexy. Disciplined and hard-working, Lopez d o e s n ' t drink, smoke, or do drugs. "I believe there's a certain responsibility for your actions," She insists.

(Twentieth Century-Fox)

particularly p o p u l a r p e r f o r m a n c e , a star was usually locked i n t o t h e s a m e type of r o l e — o f t e n u n d e r protest. Because t h e d e m a n d for stars was the m o s t p r e dictable e c o n o m i c variable in t h e business of filmmaking, t h e studios u s e d t h e i r stars as a g u a r a n t e e of box-office success. In short, stars p r o v i d e d s o m e m e a s u r e of stability in a traditionally volatile industry. To this day, stars are r e f e r r e d to as " b a n k a b l e " c o m m o d i t i e s — t h a t is, i n s u r a n c e for large profits to investors. T h e majors viewed t h e i r stars a s valuable investments, a n d t h e b u i l d - u p t e c h n i q u e s d e v e l o p e d b y t h e studios involved m u c h time, money, a n d energy. P r o m i s i n g n e o p h y t e s s e r v e d an a p p r e n t i c e s h i p as "starlets," a t e r m r e s e r v e d for females, a l t h o u g h m a l e n e w c o m e r s w e r e subjected t o t h e s a m e t r e a t m e n t . T h e y w e r e often assigned a new n a m e , were t a u g h t h o w to talk, walk, a n d wear cost u m e s . F r e q u e n t l y t h e i r social s c h e d u l e s were a r r a n g e d by t h e studio's publicity d e p a r t m e n t t o e n s u r e m a x i m u m press e x p o s u r e . Suitable " r o m a n c e s " w e r e c o n c o c t e d t o fuel t h e c o l u m n s o f t h e four h u n d r e d o r m o r e r e p o r t e r s a n d c o l u m n i s t s w h o c o v e r e d t h e Hollywood b e a t d u r i n g t h e studio era. A few zealo u s souls even a g r e e d to m a r r y a studio-selected s p o u s e if s u c h an alliance would further their careers. T h o u g h stars w e r e often e x p l o i t e d b y t h e studios, t h e r e w e r e s o m e c o m p e n s a t i o n s . As a player's box-office p o w e r i n c r e a s e d , so d i d his or h e r d e m a n d s . T o p stars h a d t h e i r n a m e s above t h e title o f t h e film, a n d they often h a d script a p p r o v a l s t i p u l a t e d i n t h e i r c o n t r a c t s . S o m e o f t h e m also insisted o n director, p r o d u c e r , a n d costar approval. G l a m o r o u s stars b o a s t e d t h e i r own c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s , w h o k n e w h o w t o c o n c e a l physical defects a n d e n h a n c e virtues. M a n y o f t h e m d e m a n d e d t h e i r own clothes d e s i g n e r s , h a i r stylists, a n d lavish d r e s s i n g r o o m s (see 6 - 2 0 ) . . T h e biggest stars h a d movies especially tail o r e d for t h e m , t h u s g u a r a n t e e i n g m a x i m u m c a m e r a e x p o s u r e . 264

6-16. To Die For (U.S.A., 1995), with Nicole Kidman, directed by Gus Van Sant. There are m a n y talented and even brilliant performers who never achieve film stardom because they lack "a face that opens up to the c a m e r a , " to quote from a frequent observation of cinematographers. Good bone structure helps, but it's not enough. Beautiful features and a c o m m a n d i n g presence are also useful. But mostly, an "open" face implies a lack of self-consciousness, a willingness to let the c a m e r a capture the most intimate n u a n c e s of emotion and thought. A face like this.

(Columbia Pictures)

A n d o f c o u r s e , they w e r e p a i d e n o r m o u s s u m s o f m o n e y . I n 1939, for e x a m p l e , t h e r e w e r e over f i f t y stars w h o e a r n e d m o r e t h a n $100,000 a year. B u t t h e studios g o t m u c h m o r e . M a e West r e s c u e d P a r a m o u n t from b a n k r u p t c y i n t h e early 1930s. L a t e r in t h e d e c a d e , Shirley T e m p l e m a d e over $20 million for T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y - F o x . F u r t h e r m o r e , a l t h o u g h t h e r e w e r e a few i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n s , movies w i t h o u t stars generally failed at t h e b o x office. Serious stars u s e d m o n e y a n d p o w e r to f u r t h e r t h e i r art, n o t just to gratify t h e i r vanity. Bette Davis was c o n s i d e r e d "difficult" d u r i n g h e r stormy t e n u r e a t W a r n e r s b e c a u s e she insisted o n b e t t e r scripts, m o r e varied roles, m o r e sensitive d i r e c t o r s , a n d s t r o n g e r costars. T o p stars a t t r a c t e d t h e loyalty o f b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n , a l t h o u g h a s sociologist L e o H a n d e l p o i n t e d out, 65 p e r c e n t of t h e fans p r e f e r r e d stars of t h e i r own sex. T h e studios received up to 32 million fan letters p e r year, 85 perc e n t o f t h e m from y o u n g females. Major stars received a b o u t t h r e e t h o u s a n d letters p e r week, a n d t h e v o l u m e of t h e i r mail was r e g a r d e d as an a c c u r a t e b a r o m e t e r of t h e i r popularity. T h e studios s p e n t as m u c h as $2 million a year p r o c e s s i n g t h e s e letters, m o s t of which asked for a u t o g r a p h e d p h o t o s . Boxoffice a p p e a l was also g a u g e d by t h e n u m b e r of fan clubs d e v o t e d to a star. T h e stars with t h e greatest n u m b e r o f fan clubs were C a b l e , J e a n Harlow, a n d J o a n Crawford—all o f t h e m u n d e r c o n t r a c t t o MGM, " T h e H o m e o f t h e Stars." Gable a l o n e h a d seventy clubs, which partly a c c o u n t e d for his s u p r e m a c y as t h e t o p m a l e star of t h e 1930s. T h e mythology o f s t a r d o m usually e m p h a s i z e s t h e g l a m o u r o f movie stars, lifting t h e m above t h e m u n d a n e c o n c e r n s o f o r d i n a r y m o r t a l s . Critic P a r k e r Tyler o b s e r v e d t h a t stars fulfill an a n c i e n t n e e d , a l m o s t religious in n a t u r e : " S o m e h o w t h e i r wealth, fame, a n d beauty, t h e i r a p p a r e n t l y u n l i m i t e d f i e l d o f worldly p l e a s u r e — t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s tinge t h e m with t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l , r e n d e r t h e m i m m u n e t o t h e b i t t e r n e s s o f o r d i n a r y frustrations." O f c o u r s e , this m y t h o l o g y also involves t h e tragic victims of s t a r d o m , like Marilyn M o n r o e , w h o 265

6-17. Philadelphia (U.S.A., 1993), with Tom Hanks, directed by Jonathan Demme. Some stars are so beloved by the public that they can play virtually any role and still c o m m a n d the audience's loyalty. In this movie, Hanks plays a gay attorney who is dying of AIDS and is being shafted by his h o m o phobic law firm. The movie was a huge hit, thanks largely to Hanks's brilliant performance, which won him a best actor Academy Award. His popularity has been a u g m e n t e d by his talk show appearances, in which he is invariably witty and charming. crri-star Pictures)

has b e c o m e a symbol of t h e p e r s o n a l tragedy t h a t can befall a star. S h e was b o r n (illegitimate) t o a n e m o t i o n a l l y u n s t a b l e m o t h e r w h o s p e n t m o s t o f h e r life in m e n t a l asylums. As a child, N o r m a J e a n Baker was raised in a series of o r p h a n a g e s a n d foster h o m e s . Even then—especially t h e n — s h e d r e a m e d o f b e c o m i n g a f a m o u s H o l l y w o o d star. S h e was r a p e d at t h e age of eight, m a r r i e d to h e r first h u s b a n d at sixteen. S h e u s e d sex (like m a n y b e f o r e h e r ) as a m e a n s to an e n d — s t a r d o m . In t h e late 1940s, she h a d a few bit roles, mostly as sexy d u m b b l o n d e s . N o t until J o h n H u s t o n ' s The Asphalt Jungle (1950) d i d she c r e a t e m u c h of a stir. In t h a t s a m e year, J o s e p h Mankiewicz cast h e r in All About Eve, as "a g r a d u a t e of t h e C o p a c a b a n a School of D r a m a t i c Art," as G e o r g e S a n d e r s dryly d e a d p a n s i n t h e f i l m . ( S a n d e r s c l a i m e d h e knew Marilyn w o u l d o n e day b e c o m e a star " b e c a u s e s h e desperately n e e d e d to be o n e . " ) After T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y - F o x s i g n e d h e r t o a c o n t r a c t , t h e s t u d i o d i d n ' t k n o w w h a t t o d o with her. S h e a p p e a r e d in a series of third-rate studio projects, b u t d e s p i t e t h e i r mediocrity, t h e public c l a m o r e d for m o r e Marilyn. S h e rightly b l a m e d Fox for m i s m a n a g i n g h e r c a r e e r : "Only t h e p u b l i c c a n m a k e a star. It's t h e studios w h o try to m a k e a system of it," she bitterly c o m p l a i n e d . At t h e p e a k of h e r popularity, she left Hollywood in disgust to study at t h e Actors Studio. W h e n s h e r e t u r n e d , she d e m a n d e d m o r e m o n e y a n d b e t t e r r o l e s — a n d got b o t h . J o s h u a L o g a n , w h o d i r e c t e d h e r in Bus Stop (1956), said she was "as n e a r g e n i u s as any actress I ever knew." S u p r e m e l y p h o t o g e n i c , she gave herself entirely to t h e c a m e r a , allowing it to p r o b e h e r d e e p e s t vulnerabilities. L a u r e n c e Olivier, h e r costar a n d d i r e c t o r in The Prince and the Shoiogirl (1957), m a r v e l e d at h e r c u n n i n g way of fusing guilelessness with c a r n a l i t y — t h e m i n d a n d soul of a little girl w r a p p e d in t h e body of a w h o r e . T h r o u g h o u t h e r 266

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years as a t o p star, h e r private life was a s h a m b l e s . "She was an u n f o r t u n a t e d o p e d - u p w o m a n m o s t o f t h e time," b i o g r a p h e r M a u r i c e Zolotow o b s e r v e d . H e r failed m a r r i a g e s a n d love affairs were constantly in t h e h e a d l i n e s , a n d increasingly she t u r n e d to d r u g s a n d alcohol for solace. She was n o t o r i o u s for h e r irresponsibility, often n o t even b o t h e r i n g to show up on t h e set for days at a time, t h u s i n c u r r i n g e n o r m o u s cost o v e r r u n s . Because o f h e r a d d i c t i o n t o d r u g s a n d alcohol, even w h e n she did show u p , she scarcely knew w h o — m u c h less w h e r e — she was. S h e was f o u n d d e a d in 1962: an overdose of b a r b i t u r a t e s a n d alcohol. T h e realities b e h i n d t h e mythology of t h e stars is n o t very r o m a n t i c . F o r every a c t o r w h o m a n a g e s t o scale t h e peaks o f s t a r d o m , t h e r e a r e h u n d r e d s of t h o u s a n d s w h o fail, t h e i r h a r d work wasted, t h e i r sacrifices scoffed at, t h e i r d r e a m s s h a t t e r e d . M a u r e e n S t a p l e t o n has w o n i m p o r t a n t a c t i n g awards for h e r d i s t i n g u i s h e d work i n f i l m s , television, a n d t h e stage, b u t s h e has s p o k e n eloq u e n t l y of t h e h a r d s h i p s actors m u s t e n d u r e in a world t h a t often r e g a r d s t h e m as f o r t u n a t e s i m p l e t o n s : I believe in t h e t o u g h n e s s of actors. I have a feeling of g e n u i n e p r i d e in actors as my p e o p l e . . . . W e ' r e called e g o m a n i a c s ; w e ' r e t h o u g h t of as c h i l d r e n . Actors a r e s u p p o s e d t o b e irresponsible, stupid, u n a w a r e , a n d a kind of j o k e . T h e y ' r e accused of having big egos. Well, t h e actor's e g o is no different in size b e c a u s e h e ' s an actor. A writer or a p a i n t e r or a musician can go off i n t o a c o r n e r a n d lick his w o u n d s , b u t an actor stands o u t in front of t h e crowd a n d takes it. . . . Actors s p e n d years a n d years b e i n g t r e a t e d like dirt. T h e y ' r e constantly in a state of d e b a s e m e n t , m a k i n g t h e r o u n d s o f casting directors a n d having t o look h a p p y a n d great. I m a d e t h e r o u n d s for years, but I wasn't g o o d at it. But t h e n nobody is. You n e e d a very s t r o n g s t o m a c h . You n e e d a sense of the business as a w h o l e , so t h a t you d o n ' t get lacerated every time s o m e b o d y tells you y o u ' r e lousy. You n e e d s t r e n g t h , a n d n o m a t t e r h o w s t r o n g you get, you always n e e d to get stronger. ( Q u o t e d in The Player: A Profile of an Art) T h e tabloids in s u p e r m a r k e t racks are filled with l u r i d stories of h o w film stars have screwed up t h e i r lives or have m a d e fools of themselves in public or b e h a v e d like selfish brats. T h e s e types of stories sell n e w s p a p e r s , for they a p p e a l t o t h e p u b l i c ' s envy a n d malice. W h a t is far less frequently written a b o u t is h o w stars a r e h o u n d e d o u t of t h e i r privacy b y u n s c r u p u l o u s r e p o r t e r s a n d paparazzi. N o r d o w e often r e a d a b o u t h o w stars like B o b H o p e a n d Elizabeth Taylor d e v o t e d t h o u s a n d s o f h o u r s to p u b l i c service. Or a b o u t t h e patriotic activities of stars like J o h n Wayne or M a r l e n e Dietrich. Or t h e successful political c a r e e r s of stars like Shirley T e m p l e a n d R o n a l d R e a g a n . Or t h e political activism of h u n d r e d s of stars likeM a r l o n B r a n d o a n d J a n e F o n d a . O r t h e fantastic generosity o f stars like Barbra Streisand a n d Paul N e w m a n . N e w m a n a l o n e has d o n a t e d over $85 million t o various charities. Stars m u s t pay a high price for t h e i r wealth a n d fame. T h e y m u s t get

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u s e d to b e i n g t r e a t e d like c o m m o d i t i e s with a price tag. Even at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e star system, they were r e d u c e d to simplified types: virgins, vamps, swashbucklers, flappers, a n d so o n . O v e r t h e years, a vast r e p e r t o r y of types evolved: t h e Latin lover, t h e h e - m a n , t h e heiress, t h e g o o d - b a d girl, t h e cynical r e p o r t e r , t h e c a r e e r girl, a n d m a n y o t h e r s . Of course, all great stars a r e u n i q u e even t h o u g h they m i g h t fall u n d e r a well-known category. For e x a m p l e , t h e c h e a p b l o n d e has l o n g b e e n o n e of A m e r i c a ' s favorite types, b u t such i m p o r t a n t stars as Mae West, J e a n Harlow, a n d Marilyn M o n r o e are highly distinctive as individuals. A successful type was always imitated. In t h e mid-1920s, for e x a m p l e , t h e Swedish i m p o r t G r e t a G a r b o c r e a t e d a sophisticated a n d c o m p l e x type, the femme fatale. G a r b o inspired m a n y imitations, i n c l u d i n g such i m p o r t a n t stars as M a r l e n e Dietrich a n d C a r o l e L o m b a r d , w h o w e r e first t o u t e d as "Garbo types," only with a sense of h u m o r . In the 1950s, Sidney Poitier b e c a m e the first African A m e r i c a n star to attract a wide following o u t s i d e of his own race. In later years, a n u m b e r of o t h e r black p e r f o r m e r s a t t a i n e d s t a r d o m i n p a r t because Poitier h a d established t h e p r e c e d e n t . He was o n e of t h e g r e a t originals a n d h e n c e worthy of imitation. A t a b o u t t h e t u r n o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h century, G e o r g e B e r n a r d Shaw w r o t e a f a m o u s essay c o m p a r i n g t h e two f o r e m o s t stage stars of t h e d a y — E l e o n o r a Duse a n d Sarah B e r n h a r d t . Shaw's c o m p a r i s o n is a useful springb o a r d for a discussion of t h e different k i n d s of film stars. B e r n h a r d t , Shaw w r o t e , was a b r a v u r a personality, a n d s h e m a n a g e d to tailor e a c h different role t o f i t this personality. T h i s i s w h a t h e r fans b o t h e x p e c t e d a n d d e s i r e d . H e r personal c h a r m was l a r g e r t h a n life, yet u n d e n i a b l y captivating. H e r p e r f o r m a n c e s w e r e filled with brilliant effects t h a t h a d c o m e to be associated with h e r p e r s o n ality over t h e years. Duse, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , possessed a m o r e q u i e t talent, less dazzling in its initial i m p a c t . S h e was totally different with e a c h role, a n d h e r own personality n e v e r s e e m e d t o i n t r u d e o n t h e playwright's c h a r a c t e r . H e r s was an invisible art: H e r i m p e r s o n a t i o n s w e r e so totally believable t h a t t h e viewer was likely to forget it was an i m p e r s o n a t i o n . In effect, Shaw was p o i n t i n g o u t t h e m a j o r distinctions b e t w e e n a personality star a n d an actor star. Personality stars c o m m o n l y refuse all parts t h a t go against t h e i r type, especially i f t h e y ' r e l e a d i n g m e n o r l e a d i n g ladies. P e r f o r m e r s like T o m H a n k s w o u l d n e v e r play c r u e l o r p s y c h o p a t h i c roles, for e x a m p l e , b e c a u s e s u c h p a r t s w o u l d conflict with t h e i r s y m p a t h e t i c i m a g e . If a star is l o c k e d i n t o his or h e r type, any significant d e p a r t u r e c a n result in box-office disaster. F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n Pickford tried to a b a n d o n h e r little girl roles in t h e 1920s, h e r publicstayed at h o m e : T h e y w a n t e d to see Little Mary or n o t h i n g . S h e r e t i r e d in disgust at t h e age of forty, j u s t w h e n most players a r e at t h e p e a k of t h e i r p o w e r s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , m a n y stars p r e f e r t o r e m a i n i n t h e s a m e m o l d , playi n g variations o n t h e s a m e c h a r a c t e r type. J o h n Wayne was t h e m o s t p o p u l a r star in film history. F r o m 1949 to 1976, he was a b s e n t from t h e t o p ten only t h r e e times. "I play J o h n Wayne in every p a r t regardless of t h e character, a n d I've b e e n d o i n g okay, h a v e n ' t I?" he o n c e asked. In t h e p u b l i c m i n d , he was a m a n of a c t i o n — a n d v i o l e n c e — r a t h e r t h a n words. His iconography is s t e e p e d

6-18. The Silence of the Lambs (U.S.A., 1991), with Anthony Hopkins, directed by Jonathan Demme. Like most British-trained actors, Anthony Hopkins is extraordinarily versatile, equally at h o m e playing Shakespeare, romantic contemporary roles, offbeat character parts, and in a variety of styles and dialects. He did not attract much popular attention until his electrifying performance as the twisted genius, Dr. Hannibal "The Cannibal" Lecter, in this film. (Orion Pictures)

in a distrust of sophistication a n d intellectuality. His n a m e is virtually synonym o u s with m a s c u l i n i t y — t h o u g h his p e r s o n a suggests m o r e o f t h e w a r r i o r t h a n t h e lover. As he grew older, he also grew m o r e h u m a n , d e v e l o p i n g his considerable talents as a c o m e d i a n by m o c k i n g his own m a c h o i m a g e . W a y n e was fully aware of t h e e n o r m o u s i n f l u e n c e a star can wield in t r a n s m i t t i n g values, a n d in m a n y of his films, he e m b o d i e d a right-wing ideology that m a d e h i m a h e r o to conservative A m e r i c a n s , i n c l u d i n g R o n a l d R e a g a n , Newt G r i n g r i c h , Oliver N o r t h , a n d Pat B u c h a n a n . Ironically, as G a r r y Wills p o i n t s o u t in his c u l t u r a l study, John Wayne's America: The Politics of Celebrity ( S i m o n & Schuster, 1997), Wayne actually disliked horses, t h o u g h i n t h e p o p u l a r i m a g i n a t i o n , h e was t h e archetypal Weste r n e r o n a h o r s e ( 1 0 - 3 ) . H e also consciously e v a d e d t h e military draft d u r i n g W o r l d W a r II, yet his roles in such p o p u l a r films as The Sands of Iwojima ( 7 - 1 5 ) firmly established h i m as a military e x e m p l a r . " F r o m n o w o n , " Wills p o i n t s o u t , " t h e m a n who e v a d e d service in W o r l d War II w o u l d be t h e symbolic m a n w h o won W o r l d W a r II." In s h o r t , a star's i c o n o g r a p h i c a l status can actually contradict historical t r u t h . In a 1995 poll, J o h n Wayne ( w h o h a d b e e n d e a d for over sixteen years) was n a m e d A m e r i c a ' s all-time favorite movie star.

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Film theorist R i c h a r d Dyer has p o i n t e d o u t t h a t stars are signifying entities. Any sensitive analysis of a film with a star in its cast m u s t take i n t o a c c o u n t t h a t star's i c o n o g r a p h i c a l significance. Stars like J a n e F o n d a e m b o d i e d c o m p l e x political associations simply by d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e lifestyle of t h e i r politics a n d displaying those political beliefs as an aspect of t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t y / c h a r a c t e r i z a tion. Like J o h n W a y n e — a n d m o s t o t h e r stars—Fonda's films convey an ideology, implying ideal ways of b e h a v i n g . As such, stars can have t r e m e n d o u s i m p a c t in t r a n s m i t t i n g values. Dyer also d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w a star's i c o n o g r a p h y is always d e v e l o p i n g , i n c o r p o r a t i n g e l e m e n t s from t h e star's actual life as well as previous roles. For e x a m p l e , F o n d a ' s c a r e e r can be divided i n t o six phases: 1.

The father. H e r e n t r y i n t o t h e film industry in 1960 was facilitated by H e n r y F o n d a ' s prestige. Physically, she clearly r e s e m b l e d h i m , a n d h e t o o was a well-known liberal, with an all-American iconography. Jane's roles d u r i n g this p e r i o d e m p h a s i z e d a r a m b u n c t i o u s sexiness, with m o r e of t h e t o m b o y t h a n t h e siren. T h i s p h a s e c u l m i n a t e d in Cat Ballon (1965).

6-19. Seven (U.S.A., 1995), with Morgan Freeman, directed by David Fincher. Character actors are the unsung heroes of the profession. What they lack in glamour they usually make up in versatility and longevity. Since character actors don't trade in on their slick looks, they can continue acting well into old age. Morgan Freeman, a performer that critic Pauline Kael called "the best actor in America," didn't even break through until the age of 50. The average-looking Freeman barely eked out a living as an actor for m a n y years. His first steady job was on television's kid's show, The Electric Company, hardly a great challenge to an artist as gifted as Freeman. In the mid-1980s, he burst on the scene with two radically dissimilar roles: the ferocious street pimp in Street Smart and the gentle, soft-spoken southern chauffeur in Driving Miss Daisy ( 7 - l l b ) , a role he originally created on the New York stage. Both performances gained him Oscar nominations. Since then, Freeman has dignified every movie he's appeared in—some good, others just routine except for his performance. (New Line cinema.)

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2.

Sex. T h i s p e r i o d is d o m i n a t e d by F o n d a ' s F r e n c h film d i r e c t o r h u s b a n d , R o g e r Vadim, w h o e x p l o i t e d h e r g o o d looks a n d s e n s a t i o n a l figure in a series of e r o t i c films, m o s t n o t a b l y Barbarella. A l t h o u g h t h e m a r r i a g e e n d e d i n divorce, F o n d a c l a i m e d t h a t Vadim l i b e r a t e d h e r from h e r sexual h a n g u p s a n d all-American i n n o c e n c e .

3.

Acting. S h e r e t u r n e d to A m e r i c a , w h e r e she s t u d i e d with L e e S t r a s b e r g at t h e Actors S t u d i o in New York. H e r d e p t h a n d r a n g e as an artist e x p a n d e d c o n s i d e r a b l y d u r i n g this p e r i o d , a n d s h e was n o m i n a t e d for an A c a d e m y Award for h e r work in They Shoot Horses, Don't They ? (1969). S h e w o n o n e for h e r p e r f o r m a n c e as a p r o s t i t u t e in Klute ( 1 9 7 1 ) .

4.

Politics. F o n d a was radicalized by V i e t n a m a n d t h e w o m e n ' s m o v e m e n t . S h e s p o k e o u t frequently against t h e war, racism, a n d sexism. S h e also politicized h e r work, s t a r r i n g in movies t h a t w e r e frankly ideological, like Tout va bien ( F r a n c e , 1972), A Doll's House ( G r e a t Britain, 1973), and Julia ( 1 9 7 7 ) . H e r left-wing political activities adversely affected h e r box-office p o p u l a r i t y for a p e r i o d , b u t s h e c o n t i n u e d to s p e a k o u t on i m p o r t a n t p u b l i c issues, refusing to be i n t i m i d a t e d .

5.

Independence. F o n d a ' s own p r o d u c t i o n c o m p a n y p r o d u c e d Coming Home ( 1 9 7 8 ) . S h e enjoyed o u t s t a n d i n g success as a p r o d u c e r . S h e also wrote several b o o k s a n d was a l e a d e r in t h e physical fitness m o v e m e n t .

6.

Middle age and retirement. After s h e m a r r i e d m e d i a m o g u l T e d T u r n e r , F o n d a r e t i r e d from a c t i n g in 1992. T h e y a r e n o w s e p a r a t e d .

T h e t o p box-office a t t r a c t i o n s t e n d t o b e personality stars. T h e y stay o n t o p by b e i n g themselves, by n o t t r y i n g to i m p e r s o n a t e a n y o n e . G a b l e insisted t h a t all he d i d in front of t h e c a m e r a was to "act n a t u r a l . " Similarly, Marilyn M o n r o e was always a t h e r best w h e n s h e played roles t h a t e x p l o i t e d h e r indecisiveness, h e r vulnerability, a n d h e r p a t h e t i c e a g e r n e s s t o please. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e have b e e n m a n y stars w h o refuse t o b e typecast a n d a t t e m p t t h e widest array of roles possible. S u c h a c t o r stars as Davis, Barb a r a Stanwyck, B r a n d o , a n d D e N i r o have s o m e t i m e s u n d e r t a k e n u n p l e a s a n t c h a r a c t e r roles r a t h e r t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l leads to e x p a n d t h e i r r a n g e , for variety a n d b r e a d t h have traditionally b e e n t h e yardsticks by which g r e a t a c t i n g is measured. M a n y stars fall s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n t h e two e x t r e m e s , v e e r i n g toward personality in s o m e films, t o w a r d i m p e r s o n a t i o n in o t h e r s . S u c h gifted perf o r m e r s a s J a m e s Stewart, Cary G r a n t , a n d A u d r e y H e p b u r n played w i d e r variations of c e r t a i n types of roles. N o n e t h e l e s s , we c o u l d n ' t i m a g i n e a star like H e p b u r n playing a w o m a n of weak c h a r a c t e r or a coarse or s t u p i d w o m a n , so firmly e n t r e n c h e d was h e r i m a g e a s a n e l e g a n t a n d r a t h e r aristocratic female. Similarly, m o s t p e o p l e k n o w w h a t ' s m e a n t by "the Clint Eastwood type." T h e distinction b e t w e e n a professional a c t o r a n d a star is n o t b a s e d on t e c h n i c a l skill, b u t on mass popularity. By definition, a star m u s t have e n o r m o u s p e r s o n a l m a g n e t i s m , a riveting quality t h a t c o m m a n d s o u r a t t e n t i o n . Few

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6 - 2 0 a , b, c, d, e, f. Mame (U.S.A., 1974), with Lucille Ball, directed by Gene Saks. O n e of the perks of the star system is a lavish wardrobe. Lucille Ball produced this musical with her own money, and she commissioned c o s t u m e designer Theadora Van Runkel to create a $ 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 wardrobe that carries Mame from 1928 to 1948. Even today, big n a m e Hollycontinued •

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wood stars can c o m m a n d salaries of $20 million per film, plus a wide a s s o r t m e n t of expensive extras like an "entourage fee," which covers anyone from publicists to $ 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 managers to chefs. Other perks can include luxurious trailers on location, limos and drivers, hair stylists and m a k e u p artists, gym e q u i p m e n t , and hotel suites for spouses, children, nannies, and personal trainers.

(Warner Bros.)

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p u b l i c p e r s o n a l i t i e s have i n s p i r e d such d e e p a n d w i d e s p r e a d affection a s t h e g r e a t movie stars. S o m e a r e loved b e c a u s e they e m b o d y such traditional A m e r i c a n values a s plain s p e a k i n g , integrity, a n d idealism: G a r y C o o p e r a n d T o m H a n k s a r e e x a m p l e s of this type. O t h e r s a r e identified with a n t i e s t a b l i s h m e n t i m a g e s a n d i n c l u d e such c e l e b r a t e d l o n e r s a s Bogie, Clint Eastwood, a n d Jack N i c h o l s o n . Players such as Gary G r a n t a n d C a r o l e L o m b a r d a r e so captivating in t h e i r c h a r m t h a t t h e y ' r e fun to watch in a l m o s t a n y t h i n g . A n d of c o u r s e , m a n y of t h e m a r e spectacularly g o o d - l o o k i n g : N a m e s like Michelle Pfeiffer a n d T o m C r u i s e a r e virtually s y n o n y m o u s with godlike beauty. Sophisticated filmmakers e x p l o i t t h e public's affection for its stars by c r e a t i n g a m b i g u o u s t e n s i o n s b e t w e e n a role as written, as acted, a n d as d i r e c t e d . " W h e n e v e r t h e h e r o isn't p o r t r a y e d by a star t h e w h o l e p i c t u r e suffers," H i t c h c o c k o b s e r v e d . " A u d i e n c e s a r e far less c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e p r e d i c a m e n t of a c h a r a c t e r w h o ' s played by s o m e o n e they d o n ' t know." W h e n a star r a t h e r t h a n a c o n v e n t i o n a l a c t o r plays a role, m u c h of t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n is automatically fixed by t h e casting; b u t w h a t t h e d i r e c t o r a n d star t h e n c h o o s e

6-21. Die Hard With a Vengeance (U.S.A., 1995), with Samuel L.Jackson and Bruce Willis, directed by John McTiernan. Actor Jack Lemmon once recounted a visit he paid to Edmund Gwenn, an elderly character actor who was dying of cancer in a hospital. "Is it hard to die?" Lemmon asked respectfully. "Yes," Gwenn replied, "but not as hard as comedy." Comic performers almost never receive as much respect or prestige as straight dramatic actors. (Ever notice how few comic performers receive the big acting awards?) Nonetheless, virtually every actor will admit that comic roles tend to be tougher to perform than most dramatic parts. Bruce Willis's comic style is so understated that he s e e m s to be saying his lines mostly to himself. Easily the most talented artist of the action stars of his generation, Willis is also an accomplished dramatic player, capable of considerable emotional power. But audiences overwhelmingly prefer Willis as the wisecracking smartass. He is one of the few action stars who can hold his own opposite such superb coactors as Samuel L. Jackson. (Twentieth century-Fox)

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to a d d to t h e written role is w h a t constitutes its full d r a m a t i c m e a n i n g . S o m e d i r e c t o r s have capitalized on t h e star system with g r e a t artistic effectiveness, particularly studio-era f i l m m a k e r s ( 6 - 2 2 ) . P e r h a p s t h e u l t i m a t e glory for a star is to b e c o m e an icon in A m e r i c a n p o p u l a r mythology. Like t h e g o d s a n d g o d d e s s e s o f a n c i e n t times, s o m e stars a r e s o universally k n o w n t h a t o n e n a m e a l o n e i s e n o u g h t o evoke a n e n t i r e c o m p l e x of symbolic associations—"Marilyn," for e x a m p l e . U n l i k e t h e c o n v e n tional a c t o r ( h o w e v e r gifted), t h e star automatically suggests ideas a n d e m o tions t h a t a r e d e e p l y e m b e d d e d i n his o r h e r p e r s o n a . T h e s e u n d e r t o n e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d n o t only by t h e star's previous roles, b u t often by his or h e r actual personality as well. Naturally, over t h e c o u r s e of m a n y years, this symbolic inform a t i o n can b e g i n to d r a i n from public consciousness, b u t t h e i c o n o g r a p h y of a g r e a t star like G a r y C o o p e r b e c o m e s p a r t of a s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e . As t h e F r e n c h critic E d g a r M o r i n has p o i n t e d o u t , w h e n C o o p e r played a c h a r a c t e r , h e a u t o matically "gary-cooperized" it, infusing himself i n t o t h e role a n d t h e role i n t o himself. Because a u d i e n c e s felt a d e e p sense of identification with C o o p a n d

6-22. Vertigo (U.S.A., 1958), with James Stewart and Kim Novak, directed by Alfred Hitchcock. Perhaps Hitchcock's greatest genius was how he m a n a g e d to outwit the system while still succeeding brilliantly at the box office. For example, Hitchcock knew that a star in the leading role virtually guaranteed the commercial success of his pictures. But he liked to push his stars to the dark side—to explore neurotic, even psychotic undercurrents that often subverted the star's established iconography. Everyone loved Jimmy Stewart as the stammering, decent, all-American idealist, best typified by It's a Wonderful Life. In this movie, Stewart's character is obsessed with a romantic idealization of a mysterious w o m a n (Novak). He's convinced himself that he's desperately in love—ironically, with a w o m a n who doesn't exist. Within the generic format of a detective thriller, Hitchcock is able to explore the obsessions, self-delusions, and desperate need that m a n y people call love. (Universal Pictures)

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t h e values he symbolized, in a sense they w e r e c e l e b r a t i n g t h e m s e l v e s — o r at least t h e i r spiritual selves. T h e g r e a t originals a r e cultural a r c h e t y p e s , a n d t h e i r box-office p o p u l a r i t y is an i n d e x of t h e i r success in synthesizing t h e a s p i r a t i o n s of an era. As a n u m b e r of cultural studies have s h o w n , t h e i c o n o g r a p h y of a star can involve c o m m u n a l myths a n d symbols o f c o n s i d e r a b l e c o m p l e x i t y a n d e m o tional richness.

Acting styles differ radically, d e p e n d i n g on p e r i o d , g e n r e , t o n e , n a t i o n a l origins, a n d directorial e m p h a s i s . Such c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e t h e principal m e a n s by which a c t i n g styles a r e classified. Even within a given category, however, g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e , at best, a loose set of e x p e c t a t i o n s , n o t Holy Writ. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e realist-formalist dialectic t h a t has b e e n u s e d as a classification aid t h r o u g h o u t this b o o k can also b e a p p l i e d t o t h e a r t o f acting, b u t t h e r e 6-23. Aguirre, the Wrath of God (West Germany, 1972), with Klaus Kinski, directed by Werner Herzog. Expressionistic acting is generally associated with the German cinema— a cinema of directors, rarely actors. Stripped of individualizing details, this style of acting stresses a symbolic concept rather than a believable three-dimensional character. It is presentational rather than representational, a style of e x t r e m e s rather than norms. Psychological complexity is replaced by a stylized thematic essence. For example, Kinski's portrayal of a Spanish conquistador is conceived in terms of a treacherous serpent. His Dantean features a frozen mask of ferocity, Aguirre can suddenly twist and coil like a cobra poised for a Strike.

(New Yorker Films)

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are m a n y variations a n d subdivisions. T h e s e t e r m s are also subject t o different i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s from p e r i o d to p e r i o d . Lillian Gish was r e g a r d e d as a g r e a t realistic actress in t h e silent era, b u t by today's s t a n d a r d s , h e r p e r f o r m a n c e s look r a t h e r e t h e r e a l . In a parallel vein, t h e playing style of Klaus Kinski in s u c h movies as Aguirre, the Wrath of God is stylized, b u t c o m p a r e d to an e x t r e m e f o r m of e x p r e s s i o n i s t i c acting, s u c h as t h a t of C o n r a d Veidt in The. Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, Kinski is relatively realistic ( 6 - 2 3 ) . It's a m a t t e r of d e g r e e . Classifying a c t i n g styles a c c o r d i n g to n a t i o n a l origins is also likely to be m i s l e a d i n g , at least for t h o s e c o u n t r i e s t h a t have evolved a wide s p e c t r u m of styles, s u c h as J a p a n , t h e U n i t e d States, a n d Italy. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e Italians ( a n d o t h e r M e d i t e r r a n e a n p e o p l e s ) are said to be theatrical by n a t i o n a l t e m p e r a m e n t , a c t i n g o u t t h e i r feelings with a n i m a t i o n , a s o p p o s e d t o t h e r e s e r v e d d e p o r t m e n t o f t h e Swedes a n d o t h e r N o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n s . But within t h e Italian c i n e m a a l o n e , t h e s e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e subject t o c o n s i d e r a b l e modification. S o u t h e r n Italian c h a r a c t e r s t e n d to be a c t e d in a m a n n e r t h a t c o n f o r m s to t h e volatile L a t i n s t e r e o t y p e , as can be seen in t h e movies of Lina Wertnhillei ( 6 - 2 4 ) . N o r t h e r n Italians, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a r e usually played with m o r e r e s t r a i n t a n d far less spontaneity, as t h e works of A n t o n i o n i d e m o n s t r a t e . G e n r e a n d directorial e m p h a s i s also i n f l u e n c e a c t i n g styles significantly. F o r e x a m p l e , in s u c h stylized g e n r e s as t h e s a m u r a i film, T o s h i r o Mifune is b o l d , s t r u t t i n g , a n d l a r g e r t h a n life, as in Kurosawa's Yojimbo. In a realistic c o n t e m p o r a r y story like High and Low (also d i r e c t e d by Kurosawa), Mifune's p e r f o r m a n c e is all n u a n c e a n d sobriety.

6-24. The Seduction of Mimi (Italy, 1972), with Giancarlo Giannini and Elena Fiore, directed by Lina Wertmuller. Farcical acting is o n e of the most difficult and misunderstood styles of performance. It requires an intense comic exaggeration and can easily b e c o m e tiresome and mechanical if the farceur is not able to preserve the h u m a n ity of the character. Here, Giannini plays a typical ethnic stereotype—a sleazy, heavy-lidded Lothario who, in an act of sexual revenge, e m b a r k s on a campaign to seduce the unlovely wife of the m a n w h o has cuckolded him. Giannini was Wertmuller's favorite actor, and he appeared in m a n y of her movies. Other fam o u s actor-director t e a m s include Dietrich and Sternberg, Wayne and Ford, Ullmann and Bergman, Bogart and Huston, Mifune and Kurosawa, Leaud and Truffaut, De Niro and Scorsese, and m a n y more. (New Line cinema)

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T h e art of silent a c t i n g e n c o m p a s s e s a p e r i o d of only s o m e fifteen years or so, for t h o u g h movies w e r e b e i n g p r o d u c e d as early as 1895, m o s t historians r e g a r d Griffith's The Birth of a Nation (1915) as t h e first i n d i s p u t a b l e masterp i e c e of t h e silent c i n e m a . T h e c h a n g e o v e r to s o u n d was virtually universal by 1930. W i t h i n this brief s p a n , however, a wide variety of playing styles evolved, r a n g i n g from t h e d e t a i l e d , u n d e r p l a y e d realism of G i b s o n G o w l a n d in Greed, to t h e g r a n d , p o n d e r o u s style of s u c h t r a g e d i a n s as E m i l j a n n i n g s in The Last Command. T h e g r e a t silent clowns like C h a p l i n , K e a t o n , H a r o l d Lloyd, H a r r y L a n g d o n , a n d L a u r e l a n d H a r d y also d e v e l o p e d highly p e r s o n a l styles t h a t b e a r only a superficial r e s e m b l a n c e to e a c h other. A p o p u l a r m i s c o n c e p t i o n a b o u t t h e silent c i n e m a is t h a t all movies w e r e p h o t o g r a p h e d a n d p r o j e c t e d a t "silent s p e e d " — s i x t e e n frames p e r s e c o n d (fps). In fact, silent s p e e d was highly variable, subject to easy m a n i p u l a t i o n b e c a u s e c a m e r a s w e r e h a n d c r a n k e d . Even within a single film, n o t every s c e n e was necessarily p h o t o g r a p h e d at t h e s a m e s p e e d . Generally speaking, c o m i c scenes were u n d e r c r a n k c d t o e m p h a s i z e s p e e d , w h e r e a s d r a m a t i c scenes w e r e o v e r c r a n k e d to slow d o w n t h e action, usually twenty or twenty-two fps. Because m o s t presentday projectors feature only two s p e e d s — s i x t e e n silent a n d twenty-four s o u n d — t h e original r h y t h m s of t h e p e r f o r m a n c e s are violated. This is why actors in silent d r a m a s c a n a p p e a r j e r k y a n d slightly ludicrous. In c o m e d i e s , this distortion can e n h a n c e t h e h u m o r , which is why the p e r f o r m a n c e s of t h e silent clowns have r e t a i n e d m u c h o f t h e i r original c h a r m . O u t s i d e t h e c o m i c repertory, however, d u e allowances m u s t be m a d e for t h e distortions of technology. T h e m o s t p o p u l a r a n d critically a d m i r e d player o f t h e silent c i n e m a was C h a p l i n . T h e wide variety of c o m i c skills he d e v e l o p e d in his early years of vaudeville m a d e h i m t h e m o s t versatile o f t h e clowns. I n t h e a r e a o f p a n t o m i m e , n o o n e a p p r o a c h e d his inventiveness. Critics w a x e d e l o q u e n t l y o n his balletic g r a c e , a n d even t h e brilliant d a n c e r Vaslav Nijinsky p r o c l a i m e d C h a p l i n his e q u a l . His ability to b l e n d c o m e d y with p a t h o s was u n i q u e . G e o r g e B e r n a r d Shaw, t h e g r e a t e s t living playwright of this era, d e s c r i b e d C h a p l i n as " t h e only g e n i u s d e v e l o p e d i n m o t i o n p i c t u r e s . " After viewing C h a p l i n ' s p o w e r f u l — a n d very f u n n y — p e r f o r m a n c e in City Lights, t h e fastidious critic A l e x a n d e r Woolcott, w h o o t h e r w i s e l o a t h e d movies, said, "I w o u l d be p r e p a r e d to d e f e n d t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t this d a r l i n g of t h e m o b is t h e f o r e m o s t living artist." G r e t a G a r b o p e r f e c t e d a r o m a n t i c style of a c t i n g t h a t h a d its r o o t s in t h e silent c i n e m a a n d h e l d sway t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1930s. Critics have s o m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d t o this m o d e o f p e r f o r m a n c e a s star acting. "What, w h e n d r u n k , o n e sees in o t h e r w o m e n , o n e sees in G a r b o sober," said t h e British critic K e n n e t h T y n a n . A l m o s t invariably, MGM cast h e r as a w o m a n with a mysterious past: mistress, c o u r t e s a n , t h e " o t h e r w o m a n " — t h e essence o f t h e E t e r n a l F e m a l e . H e r face, in a d d i t i o n to b e i n g s t u n n i n g l y beautiful, c o u l d u n i t e conflicting e m o tions, w i t h h o l d i n g a n d yielding simultaneously, like a succession of waves ripp l i n g across h e r features. Tall a n d slender, she m o v e d gracefully, h e r collapsed s h o u l d e r s s u g g e s t i n g t h e e x h a u s t i o n of a w o u n d e d butterfly. S h e c o u l d also p r o j e c t a provocative bisexuality, as in Queen Christina, w h e r e h e r r e s o l u t e strides a n d m a s c u l i n e attire p r o v i d e a foil to h e r exquisite femininity.

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T h e love g o d d e s s p a r e x c e l l e n c e , G a r b o was m o s t f a m o u s for h e r love scenes, which e p i t o m i z e d h e r r o m a n t i c style. She is often self-absorbed in these scenes, m u s i n g on a private irony t h a t c a n even e x c l u d e t h e lover. F r e q u e n t l y she looks away from h i m , allowing t h e c a m e r a — a n d u s — t o savor the p o i g n a n c y of h e r conflict. S h e rarely expresses h e r feelings in words, for h e r art thrives o n silence, o n t h e u n s p e a k a b l e . H e r love scenes a r e s o m e t i m e s played in literal s o l i t u d e , with objects serving as e r o t i c fetishes. T h e way she t o u c h e s a b o u q u e t of flowers, a b e d p o s t , a t e l e p h o n e — t h e s e a l l u d e to t h e missing lover, recalling a m u l t i t u d e of painful pleasures. She is often e n r a p t u r e d by h e r surr o u n d i n g s , "like Eve o n t h e m o r n i n g o f c r e a t i o n , " t o use T y n a n ' s m e m o r a b l e p h r a s e . But s h e is also o p p r e s s e d by t h e k n o w l e d g e t h a t s u c h ecstasy c a n n o t last; s h e a r m s herself against h e r fate with irony a n d stoicism. G a r b o ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s a r e striking e x a m p l e s o f h o w g r e a t a c t i n g can salvage b a d scripts, a n d even b a d d i r e c t i o n . "Subtract G a r b o from m o s t o f h e r movies a n d you a r e left with n o t h i n g , " o n e critic n o t e d . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t British f i l m actors are also t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t i n t h e live theater. T h e British r e p e r t o r y system is t h e envy of t h e civilized world.

6-25. The Rocky Horror Picture Show (Great Britain, 1975), with Tim Curry and Richard O'Brien, directed by Jim Sharman. A film's tone dictates its acting style. Tone is determined primarily by genre, dialogue, and the director's attitude toward the dramatic materials. The original audiences of The Rocky Horror Picture Show were put off by its perversely campy wit and its spirit of mockery. The straight world and its values are mercilessly assaulted by the movie's garish theatricality. The film has long been a cult favorite, grossing over $75 million on the midnight movie circuit of college towns and large cities. Most cult movies appeal to our subversive instincts, our desire to see conventional morality trashed. (Twentieth Century-Fox)

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Virtually every m e d i u m - s i z e d city has a r e s i d e n t d r a m a c o m p a n y , w h e r e actors can l e a r n t h e i r craft by playing a variety of roles from t h e classic r e p e r t o r y , especially t h e works of S h a k e s p e a r e . As players i m p r o v e , they rise t h r o u g h t h e ranks, a t t e m p t i n g m o r e c o m p l e x roles. T h e best o f t h e m m i g r a t e t o t h e l a r g e r cities, w h e r e t h e m o s t prestigious t h e a t e r c o m p a n i e s are f o u n d . T h e discipline t h a t most British actors have a c q u i r e d in this r e p e r t o r y system has m a d e t h e m t h e m o s t versatile of players. T h e finest of t h e m a r e regularly e m p l o y e d in t h e t h e a t e r s of L o n d o n , which is also a d j a c e n t to t h e c e n t e r s of film p r o d u c t i o n in G r e a t Britain. T h i s c e n t r a l i z a t i o n allows t h e m to m o v e from t h e live t h e a t e r to film to TV with a m i n i m u m of i n c o n v e n i e n c e . In t h e a c t i n g profession, playing S h a k e s p e a r e is c o n s i d e r e d t h e artistic s u m m i t . If y o u c a n act in S h a k e s p e a r e convincingly, t h e a r g u m e n t goes, you c a n act i n a n y t h i n g , b e c a u s e S h a k e s p e a r e r e q u i r e s t h e b r o a d e s t r a n g e o f a n a c t o r ' s t e c h n i c a l skills a n d artistic insight. S h a k e s p e a r e ' s l a n g u a g e is 400 years old a n d so a r c h a i c t h a t even highly literate p e o p l e a r e likely to miss as m u c h as a f o u r t h of t h e d i a l o g u e . To recite t h e l a n g u a g e clearly (which itself is no easy feat) i s absolutely m a n d a t o r y . But t h a t ' s not e n o u g h : T h e d i a l o g u e m u s t b e s p o k e n with feeling by flesh-and-blood h u m a n b e i n g s . T h a t ' s a lot t o u g h e r . Take H a m l e t ' s final s p e e c h at t h e e n d of Act II, w h e n he gives v e n t to his selfc o n t e m p t for n o t a v e n g i n g his f a t h e r ' s m u r d e r : Why, w h a t an ass am I! T h i s is m o s t brave T h a t I, t h e son of a d e a r m u r t h e r e d , P r o m p t e d to my r e v e n g e by h e a v e n a n d hell, Must like a w h o r e u n p a c k my h e a r t with words, A n d fall a-cursing like a very d r a b , A scullion! Fie u p o n it, foh! B e c a u s e t h e d i a l o g u e is in verse, t h e a c t o r m u s t avoid t h e t e m p t a t i o n of a s i n g s o n g m o n o t o n y o n t h e o n e h a n d , o r a t t h e o t h e r e x t r e m e , t o deliver t h e musical lines with a prosey inflection in an effort to m a k e t h e s p e e c h s o u n d m o r e "realistic." T h e l a n g u a g e m u s t b e p r o n o u n c e d crisply o r t h e a u d i e n c e will n e v e r b e a b l e t o m a k e o u t such o d d w o r d s a s " m u r t h e r e d , " " d r a b , " a n d "scullion." T h e a c t o r m u s t b e skilled e n o u g h t o convey t h e e m o t i o n a l c o n t e n t o f t h e s e w o r d s even t h o u g h m o s t m o d e r n a u d i e n c e s a r e n o t likely t o k n o w t h e i r p r e c i s e m e a n i n g . "Fie" a n d "foh" w e r e c o m m o n i n t e r j e c t i o n s t o e x p r e s s d i s a p p r o v a l i n S h a k e s p e a r e ' s day, b u t o f c o u r s e n o o n e uses t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s today. I n s h o r t , i t takes m o r e t h a n t e c h n i q u e , i n t e l l i g e n c e , a n d c h u t z p a t o successfully play a r o l e as t o u g h as H a m l e t . It takes a k i n d of g e n i u s ( 6 - 2 6 ) . British a c t i n g t r a d i t i o n s t e n d to favor a m a s t e r y of e x t e r n a l s , b a s e d on close o b s e r v a t i o n . Virtually all players a r e t r a i n e d in d i c t i o n , m o v e m e n t , m a k e u p , dialects, fencing, d a n c i n g , b o d y c o n t r o l , a n d e n s e m b l e acting. For e x a m p l e , L a u r e n c e Olivier always built his c h a r a c t e r s from t h e o u t s i d e in. He m o l d e d his features like a s c u l p t o r or painter. "I do n o t s e a r c h t h e c h a r a c t e r for parts t h a t are already i n m e , " h e e x p l a i n e d , "but g o o u t a n d find t h e personality I feel t h e a u t h o r c r e a t e d . " Like m o s t British actors of his g e n e r a t i o n , Olivier h a d a k e e n m e m o r y for details: "I h e a r r e m a r k s in t h e street or in a s h o p a n d I

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retain t h e m . You m u s t constantly o b s e r v e : a walk, a l i m p , a r u n ; h o w a h e a d inclines to o n e side w h e n listening; t h e twitch of an eyebrow; t h e h a n d that picks t h e n o s e w h e n i t t h i n k s n o o n e i s looking; t h e m u s t a c h e puller; t h e eyes t h a t n e v e r look at you; t h e n o s e t h a t sniffs l o n g after t h e cold has g o n e . " M a k e u p for Olivier was magical. He loved h i d i n g his real features b e h i n d b e a r d s , false c o m p l e x i o n s , fake noses, a n d wigs. "If y o u ' r e wise," he w a r n e d , "you always take off t h e p a r t with y o u r m a k e u p . " He also p r i d e d himself on his ability to m i m i c dialects: "I always go to e n d l e s s t r o u b l e to l e a r n A m e r i c a n a c c e n t s , even for small television parts. If it's n o r t h M i c h i g a n , it's b l o o d y well g o t to be n o r t h Michigan." Olivier k e p t his b o d y in p e a k c o n d i t i o n . Even as an o l d m a n , he continu e d r u n n i n g a n d lifting weights. W h e n illness c u r b e d t h e s e forms o f exercises, he t o o k to s w i m m i n g . At t h e age of 78, he was still s w i m m i n g a half a mile almost every m o r n i n g . "To b e fit s h o u l d b e o n e o f t h e a c t o r ' s f i r s t priorities," he insisted. "To exercise daily is of u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e . T h e b o d y is an instrum e n t w h i c h m u s t b e f i n e l y t u n e d a n d played a s often a s possible. T h e a c t o r s h o u l d be a b l e to c o n t r o l it from t h e tip of his h e a d to his little toe" ( q u o t e s a r e from Laurence Olivier on Acting). C o n t e m p o r a r y British a c t i n g has m o v e d b e y o n d this classical style ( 6 - 2 7 ) . T h e p o s t - W o r l d War II era t e n d e d to e m p h a s i z e realistic styles of acting. In t h e early 1950s, a n e w i n t e r i o r style of acting, k n o w n as " t h e M e t h o d , " or "the System," was i n t r o d u c e d to A m e r i c a n movie a u d i e n c e s . It was c o m m o n l y associated with d i r e c t o r Elia Kazan. Kazan's On the Waterfront was a h u g e success a n d a virtual showcase for this style of p e r f o r m a n c e . It has since b e c o m e t h e

6-26. Hamlet (Great Britain, 1996), with Kenneth Branagh. directed by Branagh. Above all, British actors have perfected the art of reciting highly stylized dialogue—the language of Shakespeare. Wilde, and Shaw—without violating the believability of their characters. Because of their great literary heritage, British performers are almost universally considered unsurpassed masters of period styles of acting. Kenneth Branagh is widely regarded as the leading Shakespearean actor of his generation. In the grand tradition of Laurence Olivier and Orson Welles, he is also a gifted stage and film director. This ambitious uncut version of Hamlet, though too long, is filled with bravura flashes of brilliance, such as this scene, near the end of Act 11, when Hamlet is totally disgusted by the decadence of the court and seethes at his own lack of resolution to do something— anything—to avenge his father's murder. (Castle Rock Entertainment/Columbia Pictures)

6-27. Secrets <5 Lies (Great Britain, 1996), with Brenda Blethyn (extreme right), written and directed by Mike Leigh. Mike Leigh prefers to work with many of the same actors from film to film, much like a cinematic repertory company. They rehearse extensively, improvising much of their dialogue and reshaping the script with their insights and discoveries. The result of this artistic collaboration is a performance style of extraordinary intimacy, spontaneity, and humanity. They just don't look or sound like actors—they s e e m to be real people with real hang-ups. In Secrets & Lies, the protagonist (Blethyn) always manages to find the worst possible m o m e n t to embarrass or shock her family. Weepy, self-pitying, grotesquely funny, and desperately needy, she manages to repel us even while enlisting our compassion. It is only one of several great performances in the movie. The acting is also a far cry from the pear-shaped tones and precise diction of traditional British acting techniques. With Leigh's actors, you don't notice the technique: just the raw emotions. (October Films)

d o m i n a n t style of a c t i n g in t h e A m e r i c a n c i n e m a as well as t h e live theater. T h e M e t h o d was an offshoot of a system of t r a i n i n g actors a n d r e h e a r s i n g t h a t h a d b e e n d e v e l o p e d by C o n s t a n t i n Stanislavsky at t h e Moscow Art T h e a t e r . Stanislavsky's ideas w e r e widely a d o p t e d in New York t h e a t e r circles, especially by t h e Actors S t u d i o in New York, which received m u c h publicity d u r i n g t h e 1950s b e c a u s e it h a d d e v e l o p e d such well-known g r a d u a t e s as M a r l o n B r a n d o , J a m e s D e a n , J u l i e H a r r i s , Paul N e w m a n , a n d m a n y o t h e r s . Kazan c o f o u n d e d a n d t a u g h t a t t h e Actors S t u d i o until 1954, w h e n h e asked his f o r m e r m e n t o r , L e e Strasberg, to take over t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . W i t h i n a s h o r t p e r i o d , Strasberg b e c a m e t h e m o s t c e l e b r a t e d a c t i n g t e a c h e r i n A m e r i c a , a n d his f o r m e r s t u d e n t s w e r e — a n d still a r e — a m o n g t h e m o s t f a m o u s p e r f o r m ers in t h e world. T h e c e n t r a l c r e d o of Stanislavsky's system was, 'You m u s t live t h e p a r t every m o m e n t you a r e playing it." H e rejected t h e t r a d i t i o n o f a c t i n g t h a t e m p h a s i z e d e x t e r n a l s . H e believed t h a t t r u t h i n a c t i n g can only b e a c h i e v e d b y e x p l o r i n g a c h a r a c t e r ' s i n n e r spirit, which m u s t be fused with t h e a c t o r ' s own e m o t i o n s . O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t e c h n i q u e s h e d e v e l o p e d i s emotional recall, in w h i c h an a c t o r delves i n t o his or h e r own past to discover feelings t h a t 282

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a r e a n a l o g o u s to t h o s e of t h e c h a r a c t e r . "In every p a r t you d o , " J u l i e H a r r i s e x p l a i n e d , " t h e r e i s s o m e c o n n e c t i o n you can m a k e with y o u r own b a c k g r o u n d o r with s o m e feeling you've h a d a t o n e t i m e o r a n o t h e r . " Stanislavsky's techn i q u e s w e r e strongly psychoanalytical: By e x p l o r i n g t h e i r own s u b c o n s c i o u s , actors c o u l d t r i g g e r real e m o t i o n s , which are recalled in every p e r f o r m a n c e a n d t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e c h a r a c t e r s they a r e playing. H e also devised t e c h n i q u e s for h e l p i n g actors focus t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n on t h e "world" of t h e play—its conc r e t e details a n d t e x t u r e s . I n s o m e f o r m o r a n o t h e r , t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s a r e p r o b ably as old as t h e a c t i n g profession itself, b u t Stanislavsky was t h e first to systematize t h e m with exercises a n d m e t h o d s of analysis ( h e n c e t h e t e r m s the System a n d the Method). H e d i d n ' t t h i n k t h a t i n n e r t r u t h a n d e m o t i o n a l sincerity a r e sufficient. He insisted t h a t actors n e e d to m a s t e r t h e e x t e r n a l s as well, particularly for classic plays, which r e q u i r e a s o m e w h a t stylized m a n n e r of s p e a k i n g , moving, a n d wearing costumes. Stanislavsky was f a m o u s for his l e n g t h y r e h e a r s a l p e r i o d s , in which players w e r e e n c o u r a g e d to improvise with t h e i r roles to discover t h e r e s o n a n c e s of t h e t e x t — t h e s u b t e x t , which i s a n a l o g o u s t o F r e u d ' s c o n c e p t o f t h e s u b c o n -

6-28. The Nun's Story (U.S.A., 1959), with Peter Finch and Audrey Hepburn, directed by Fred Zinnemann. Z i n n e m a n n was a master of subtexts, most subtly in this film, which deals with the life of a missionary nursing nun, Sister Luke (Hepburn). While on assignment in Africa, she m e e t s a dedicated surgeon, Dr. Fortunati (Finch). He's a nonbeliever, but a m a n she respects and admires. Gradually he begins to fall in love with her, growing more frustrated with her religious vows, with her life that he feels is "against nature." But his is a love that's d o o m e d never to be spoken of, for he knows she has committed herself to a life of service to God. We must read between the lines to understand their complex feelings: They're found not in the text, but in the subtext, in the realm of the unspeakable. See also Arthur Nolletti, Jr., "Spirituality and Style in The Nun's Story," The Films of Fred Zinnemann, edited by Nolletti (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999). (WarnerBros.)

6-29a. Yankee Doodle Dandy (U.S.A., 1942), with James Cagney, directed by Michael Curtiz. Acting styles are determined in part by a player's energy level. High-voltage performers like Cagney usually project out to the audience, c o m m a n d i n g our attention with a bravura style. Much of our pleasure in a Cagney performance is watching him "struttin' his stuff." He was a highly kinetic performer, expressing his character's emotions through movement. His dancing is exhilarating—cocky, sexy, and funny. Even in dramatic roles, he is seldom at rest—edgy, punctuating the air with his hand gestures, prancing on the balls of his feet. "Never settle back on your heels," was his credo. "Never relax. If you relax, the audience relaxes." Other highenergy performers include Harold Lloyd, Katharine Hepburn, Bette Davis, Gene Kelly, George C. Scott, Barbra Streisand, J a m e s Woods, Joe Pesci, and Jim Carrey. (WarnerBros.) 6-29b. The Last Metro (France, 1980), with Gerard Depardieu and Catherine Deneuve, directed by Francois Truffaut. Low-keyed performers like Deneuve are sometimes said to work "small" or "close to the lens." Rather than projecting out to the audience, these performers allow the camera to tune in on their behavior, which is seldom exaggerated for dramatic effect. Eyewitness accounts of Deneuve's acting usually stress how little she seems to be working. The subtleties are apparent only at very close range. Other players in this mode include Harry Langdon, Spencer Tracy, Henry Fonda, Marilyn Monroe, Montgomery Clift, Kevin Costner, jack Nicholson, Winona Ryder, and Tobey Maguire. Of course, dramatic context is all important in determining an actor's energy level. (United Artists)

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6-30. On the Waterfront (U.S.A., 1954), with Marlon Brando and Eva Marie Saint, directed by Elia Kazan. Kazan considers Brando as close to a genius as he has ever encountered a m o n g actors—a view that's widely shared by others, especially other actors. Many regard his performance in this movie as his best—emotionally powerful, tender, poetic. It won him his first Academy Award (best actor) as well as the New York Film Critics' Award and the British Oscar as best foreign actor—his third year in a row. Kazan was often surprised by his gifted protege because he c a m e up with ideas so fresh and arrived at in so underground a fashion that they s e e m e d virtually discovered on the spot. (Columbia Pictures)

scions. Kazan a n d o t h e r M e t h o d - o r i e n t e d d i r e c t o r s used this c o n c e p t i n directing movies: " T h e film d i r e c t o r knows that b e n e a t h the surface of his screenplay t h e r e is a subtext, a c a l e n d a r of i n t e n t i o n s a n d feelings a n d i n n e r events. What a p p e a r s to be h a p p e n i n g , he s o o n l e a r n s , is rarely w h a t is h a p p e n i n g . T h e subtext is o n e of t h e film d i r e c t o r ' s m o s t valuable tools. It is w h a t he directs." Spok e n d i a l o g u e is s e c o n d a r y for M e t h o d players. To c a p t u r e a c h a r a c t e r ' s " i n n e r events," actors s o m e t i m e s " t h r o w away" t h e i r lines, c h o k e on t h e m , or even m u m b l e . T h r o u g h o u t t h e 1950s, M e t h o d actors like B r a n d o a n d D e a n w e r e ridiculed by s o m e critics for m u m b l i n g t h e i r lines. Stanislavsky d i s a p p r o v e d of t h e star system a n d individual virtuosity. In his own p r o d u c t i o n s , h e insisted o n e n s e m b l e playing, with g e n u i n e interactions a m o n g t h e a c t o r / c h a r a c t e r s . Players w e r e e n c o u r a g e d to analyze all t h e

6-31. The End of Summer (Japan, 1961), directed by Yasujiro Ozu. A master of psychological nuances, Ozu believed that in the art of acting, less is more. He detested melodramatic excesses a n d d e m a n d e d the utmost realism from his players, who frequently chafed at his criticism that they were "acting" too much. He avoided using stars and often cast against type so audiences would view the characters with no preconceptions. He usually chose his players according to their personality rather than their acting ability. Above all, Ozu explored the conflict between individual wishes and social necessity. His scenes are often staged in public settings, where politeness and social decorum require the stifling of personal disappointment. Ozu often instructed his players not to move, to express their feelings only with their eyes. Note how the two characters on the left are privately miles away, while still conforming superficially to the decorum of the occasion. (New Yorker Films)

specifics of a s c e n e : W h a t d o e s t h e c h a r a c t e r really want? W h a t is his or h e r history, o r "backstory"? W h a t has h a p p e n e d p r i o r t o t h e i m m e d i a t e m o m e n t ? W h a t t i m e of day is it? A n d so o n . W h e n p r e s e n t e d with a role utterly foreign to their experience, actors were u r g e d to research the part so it would be unders t o o d in t h e i r guts as well as t h e i r m i n d s . M e t h o d actors a r e f a m o u s for t h e i r ability to b r i n g o u t t h e e m o t i o n a l intensity of t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s . M e t h o d - o r i e n t e d d i r e c t o r s generally believe t h a t a player m u s t have a c h a r a c t e r ' s e x p e r i e n c e within h i m o r her, a n d they g o t o c o n s i d e r a b l e l e n g t h s t o l e a r n a b o u t t h e p e r s o n a l lives of t h e i r players in o r d e r to use s u c h details for c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . I n t h e 1960s, t h e F r e n c h N e w Wave directors—especially G o d a r d a n d T r u f f a u t — p o p u l a r i z e d t h e t e c h n i q u e of improvisation while t h e i r players w e r e on c a m e r a . T h e r e s u l t a n t i n c r e a s e in realism was highly p r a i s e d by critics. Of c o u r s e , t h e r e was n o t h i n g n e w in t h e t e c h n i q u e itself. Actors often i m p r o v i s e d in t h e silent c i n e m a , a n d it was t h e f o u n d a t i o n of silent comedy. F o r e x a m p l e , C h a p l i n , K e a t o n , a n d L a u r e l a n d H a r d y n e e d e d t o k n o w only t h e p r e m i s e o f a given s c e n e . T h e c o m i c details w e r e improvised a n d later r e f i n e d i n t h e e d i t i n g stage. T h e c u m b e r s o m e t e c h n o l o g y o f s o u n d p u t a n e n d t o m o s t o f t h e s e p r a c tices. M e t h o d - t r a i n e d actors use improvisation primarily as an e x p l o r a t o r y r e h e a r s a l t e c h n i q u e , b u t t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e s are usually set w h e n t h e c a m e r a b e g i n s to roll. 286

6-32. Gigi (U.S.A., 1958), with Maurice Chevalier, Leslie Caron, and Louis Jourdan; directed by Vincente Minnelli. A traditional distinction in acting styles is presentational versus representational. A presentational style openly acknowledges the audience. A character sometimes even addresses us directly, establishing an intimate rapport that excludes the other characters. The Chevalier character in this famous Lerner and Loewe musical is presentational. Note how he s e e m s to act as an intermediary between the world of the movie (Paris, 1900) and the world of the audience. A representational style, on the other hand, is generally more realistic and self-contained. The characters* inhabit their own separate world and never acknowledge the presence of an audience or a camera. We are allowed to act as voyeurs and eavesdrop on their conversations, but actors always perform as though no one is watching or listening. The implicit ideal is an acting style so understated and natural that it s e e m s like real life. (MGM>

G o d a r d a n d Truffaut, to c a p t u r e a g r e a t e r sense of discovery a n d surprise, w o u l d occasionally i n s t r u c t t h e i r players t o m a k e u p t h e i r d i a l o g u e while a s c e n e was actually b e i n g p h o t o g r a p h e d . T h e flexible t e c h n o l o g y i n t r o d u c e d by c i n e m a verite allowed t h e s e d i r e c t o r s to c a p t u r e an u n p r e c e d e n t e d d e g r e e of spontaneity. In Truffaut's The 400 Blows, for e x a m p l e , t h e youthful p r o t a g o nist (Jean-Pierre L e a u d ) is interviewed by a prison psychologist a b o u t his family life a n d sexual habits. D r a w i n g heavily on his own e x p e r i e n c e , L e a u d ( w h o wasn't i n f o r m e d of t h e q u e s t i o n s in a d v a n c e ) answers t h e m with d i s a r m i n g frankness. Truffaut's c a m e r a is able to c a p t u r e t h e boy's hesitations, his e m b a r rassment, a n d his c h a r m i n g m a c h o b r a v a d o . I n o n e f o r m o r a n o t h e r , improvisation has b e c o m e a valuable t e c h n i q u e in t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y c i n e m a . S u c h filmmakers as R o b e r t A l t m a n , Rainei W e r n e r Fassbinder, a n d M a r t i n Scorsese have u s e d it with brilliant results. I

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Casting a m o v i e is a l m o s t an art in itself. It r e q u i r e s an a c u t e sensitivity to a player's type, a c o n v e n t i o n i n h e r i t e d from t h e live theater. Most stage a n d s c r e e n p e r f o r m e r s a r e classified a c c o r d i n g t o role categories: l e a d i n g m e n , 287

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l e a d i n g ladies, c h a r a c t e r actors, j u v e n i l e s , villains, light c o m e d i a n s , t r a g e d i a n s , i n g e n u e s , singing actors, d a n c i n g actors, a n d s o o n . T y p i n g c o n v e n t i o n s a r e rarely violated. F o r e x a m p l e , even t h o u g h h o m e l y p e o p l e obviously fall in love, r o m a n t i c roles a r e a l m o s t always p e r f o r m e d by attractive players. Similarly, a u d i e n c e s a r e n o t likely to be p e r s u a d e d by a player with an all-American i c o n o g r a p h y (like T o m H a n k s ) cast in E u r o p e a n roles. N o r is o n e likely to a c c e p t a p e r f o r m e r like Klaus Kinski as t h e boy n e x t door, unless o n e lives in a very weird n e i g h b o r h o o d . Of c o u r s e , a player's r a n g e is a l l - i m p o r t a n t in determ i n i n g his o r h e r type. S o m e , like G l e n n Close, have e x t r e m e l y b r o a d r a n g e s , w h e r e a s o t h e r s , like A r n o l d Swartzenegger, a r e c o n f i n e d to variations of t h e s a m e type. T y p e c a s t i n g was a l m o s t invariable in t h e silent c i n e m a . In p a r t , this was b e c a u s e c h a r a c t e r s t e n d e d toward allegorical types r a t h e r t h a n u n i q u e individuals a n d often w e r e even identified with a label: " T h e M a n , " " T h e Wife," " T h e Mother," " T h e V a m p , " a n d so o n . B l o n d e players w e r e usually cast in p a r t s e m p h a s i z i n g purity, e a r t h y b r u n e t t e s in erotic roles. Eisenstein insisted t h a t players o u g h t to be cast strictly to type a n d was i n c l i n e d to favor n o n p r o f e s s i o n als b e c a u s e of t h e i r g r e a t e r authenticity. W h y use an a c t o r to i m p e r s o n a t e a fact o r y worker, he asked, w h e n a filmmaker can use a real factory w o r k e r instead? But t r a i n e d actors t e n d t o r e s e n t b e i n g typed a n d often a t t e m p t t o b r o a d e n t h e i r r a n g e . S o m e t i m e s i t works, s o m e t i m e s i t d o e s n ' t . H u m p h r e y B o g a r t is a g o o d e x a m p l e . F o r years, he was s t e r e o t y p e d as a t o u g h , cynical gangster, until h e j o i n e d forces with d i r e c t o r J o h n H u s t o n , w h o cast h i m a s t h e h a r d - b o i l e d detective Sam S p a d e in The Maltese Falcon. H u s t o n w e a n e d h i m even f u r t h e r from his type in The Treasure of the Sierra Maclre, in which B o g a r t played a crafty p a r a n o i d , t h e p r o s p e c t o r F r e d C. D o b b s . T h e a c t o r totally reversed his i m a g e in The African Queen, in which he played C h a r l i e Allnut, a lovable a n d funny d r u n k w h o s e vulnerability e n d e a r e d h i m t o a u d i e n c e s a n d w o n B o g a r t an A c a d e m y Award for best actor. But in Beat the Devil, H u s t o n ' s cele b r a t e d casting instincts d e s e r t e d h i m w h e n h e u s e d B o g a r t i n a role b e y o n d his p o w e r s — a s a s o p h i s t i c a t e d a d v e n t u r e r s t r a n d e d with a s h a b b y a s s o r t m e n t of r o g u e s a n d l o o n s . T h e witty t o n g u e - i n - c h e e k d i a l o g u e fell flat in B o g a r t ' s selfc o n s c i o u s p e r f o r m a n c e . A p o l i s h e d player like Cary G r a n t c o u l d have a c t e d t h e p a r t with m u c h g r e a t e r believability a n d grace. "Casting is c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , " H i t c h c o c k p o i n t e d o u t . O n c e a role has b e e n cast, especially with a personality star, t h e essence of t h e fictional c h a r a c ter is already established. In a sense, stars a r e m o r e "real" t h a n o t h e r c h a r a c ters, which is why m a n y p e o p l e refer to a c h a r a c t e r by t h e a c t o r ' s n a m e , r a t h e r t h a n b y t h e n a m e o f t h e p e r s o n i n t h e story. After w o r k i n g with H i t c h c o c k o n t h e script of Strangers on a Train, t h e novelist R a y m o n d C h a n d l e r r i d i c u l e d t h e d i r e c t o r ' s m e t h o d of c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n : "His i d e a of c h a r a c t e r is r a t h e r primitive," C h a n d l e r c o m p l a i n e d : "Nice Y o u n g M a n , " "Society Girl," " F r i g h t e n e d W o m a n , " a n d s o o n . Like m a n y literary types, C h a n d l e r believed that characterization m u s t be c r e a t e d t h r o u g h l a n g u a g e . Lie was insensitive to t h e o t h e r

6-33. Bicycle Thief (Italy, 1948), with Enzo Staiola and Lamberto Maggiorani, directed by, Vittorio De Sica. One of the most famous casting coups in film history is De Sica's selection of Maggiorani and Staiola as an impoverished laborer and his idolizing son. Both were nonprofessionals. Maggiorani actually was a laborer and had difficulty finding a factory job after this movie. When De Sica was trying to finance the film, one producer agreed to put up the m o n e y provided that the leading role was played by Cary Grant! De Sica couldn't imagine an elegant and graceful actor like Grant in the role, and the director wisely went elsewhere for his financing. (Audio-Brandon

Films)

o p t i o n s available to a filmmaker. F o r e x a m p l e , H i t c h c o c k was a c u n n i n g e x p l o i t e r of t h e star system—a t e c h n i q u e t h a t has n o t h i n g to do with l a n g u a g e . F o r his l e a d i n g ladies, for i n s t a n c e , he favored e l e g a n t b l o n d e s with an u n d e r stated sexuality a n d r a t h e r aristocratic, ladylike m a n n e r s — i n s h o r t , t h e Society Girl type. B u t t h e r e a r e g r e a t individual differences b e t w e e n s u c h h e r o i n e s as J o a n F o n t a i n e , I n g r i d B e r g m a n , a n d G r a c e Kelly, t o m e n t i o n only t h r e e o f Hitchcock's famous blondes. H i t c h c o c k ' s casting is often m e a n t to deceive. His villains w e r e usually actors of e n o r m o u s p e r s o n a l c h a r m — l i k e James Mason in North by Northwest. H i t c h c o c k c o u n t e d o n t h e a u d i e n c e ' s goodwill t o w a r d a n established star, perm i t t i n g his " h e r o e s " to b e h a v e in ways t h a t can only be d e s c r i b e d as morally d u b i o u s . In Rear Window, for e x a m p l e , James Stewart is literally a voyeur, yet we c a n ' t b r i n g ourselves to c o n d e m n such a w h o l e s o m e type as J i m m y Stewart, t h e all-American boy (see 4 - 2 0 ) . A u d i e n c e s also a s s u m e t h a t a star will r e m a i n in t h e m o v i e until t h e f i n a l reel, a t which p o i n t it's p e r m i s s i b l e — t h o u g h s e l d o m

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6-34a. Romeo and Juliet (U.S.A., 1936), with Leslie Howard and Norma Shearer, directed by George Cukor Cukor's version of Shakespeare's play is an example of the disasters that can befall a movie w h e n a director casts against type. The lovers are a far cry from the youngsters called for in the original. Shearer was thirtyseven w h e n she played the thirteenyear-old Juliet; Howard as Romeo was forty-four. At fifty-five, John Barrymore was preposterous as Mercutio, Romeo's firebrand friend. The spectacle of middle-aged adults behaving so childishly m a k e s the whole dramatic action seem ludicrous. (MGM)

6-34b. Romeo and Juliet (Great Britain/ Italy, 1968), with Olivia Hussey and Leonard Whiting, directed by Franco Zeffirelli. Zeffirelli's version of the play is much more successful because he cast to type and awarded the roles to two teenagers. To be sure, Cukor's actors speak the lines better, but Zeffirelli's look truer. The differences between the ages of an actor and character are far more important on screen than on stage, for the cinematic close shot can be merciless in revealing age. (Paramount Pictures)

a d v i s a b l e — t o kill h i m or h e r off. B u t in Psycho, t h e J a n e t t . e i g h c h a r a c t e r is b r u tally m u r d e r e d i n t h e f i r s t t h i r d o f t h e f i l m — a s h o c k i n g violation o f c o n v e n t i o n t h a t jolts a u d i e n c e s o u t o f t h e i r c o m p l a c e n c y . S o m e t i m e s H i t c h c o c k cast awkw a r d , self-conscious a c t o r s in roles r e q u i r i n g a n o t e of evasive anxiety, like Farley G r a n g e r in Rope a n d Strangers on a Train. In cases s u c h as t h e s e , b a d a c t i n g is precisely w h a t is called for—it's p a r t of t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . M a n y filmmakers believe t h a t c a s t i n g is so i n t e g r a l to c h a r a c t e r , t h e y d o n ' t e v e n b e g i n w o r k o n a script u n t i l they k n o w w h o ' s p l a y i n g t h e m a j o r 290

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6-35. The White Balloon (Islamic Republic of Iran, 1995), with Aida Mohammadhhani, directed by Jafar Panahi. Iranian filmmakers have received considerable international acclaim for their sensitive portrayal of children. Their movies about grownups—especially w o m e n — a r e so crippled by censorship that it's virtually impossible for these artists to explore m a t u r e t h e m e s without appearing downright silly. According to Iranian Islamic codes, a w o m a n can be intimate only with the i m m e d i a t e m e m b e r s of her family. Therefore, strict dress codes require w o m e n to cover their hair in public, and wear loose-fitting outer g a r m e n t s to cloak their body curves. Needless to say, realistic portrayals of w o m e n have suffered. Actors playing h u s b a n d and wife cannot have any physical contact on the screen unless they're married in real life. Even in the privacy of their home, female characters' hair must remain covered, since the audience would not be intimate with the actress playing the part. That's why scenes of female characters sleeping with their head scarves on or family dining scenes showing w o m e n with covered hair are c o m m o n p l a c e in the postrevolutionary cinema. Even when the movie's plots are set before the 1979 revolution, female characters' h e a d s still must be covered. The restrictions have m a d e c o n t e m p o r a r y American or European films, with their more permissive t h e m e s and enticing looks, virtually impossible to import, for movie imports are entirely controlled by the government. (October Films)

roles. Yasujiro O z u c o n f e s s e d , " I c o u l d n o m o r e write, n o t k n o w i n g w h o t h e a c t o r was g o i n g t o b e , t h a n a n artist c o u l d p a i n t , n o t k n o w i n g w h a t c o l o r h e was u s i n g . " Billy W i l d e r always t a i l o r e d his d i a l o g u e to fit t h e p e r s o n a l i t y of his players. W h e n M o n t g o m e r y Clift b a c k e d o u t of playing t h e l e a d in Sunset Boulevard, W i l d e r r e w r o t e t h e p a r t t o f i t William H o l d e n , w h o b r o u g h t totally d i f f e r e n t character n u a n c e s to the role. Like p h o t o g r a p h y , m i s e e n s c e n e , m o v e m e n t , e d i t i n g , a n d s o u n d , acti n g is a k i n d of l a n g u a g e system. T h e filmmaker uses a c t o r s as a m e d i u m for

6-36. The Crying Game (Ireland/Great Britain, 1992), with Jaye Davidson and Stephen Rea, written and directed by Neil Jordan. Unfamiliar performers enjoy an obvious superiority over stars—the public has no way of guessing what kind of people they're playing. Nonprofessional players and little-known actors can surprise us with astonishing revelations. In this movie, the character surprises send the story spinning into totally new directions. If the main characters had been played by personality stars, the audience would have guessed in advance what m a k e s the characters tick, for the star system is a form of precharacterization. With actors like Davidson and Rea, we must judge the characters only as their bizarre tale unfolds. (Miramax rums)

c o m m u n i c a t i n g ideas a n d e m o t i o n s . Merely by casting a p e r f o r m e r like L a m b e r t o M a g g i o r a n i r a t h e r t h a n Gary G r a n t , Vittorio D e Sica radically a l t e r e d t h e artistic i m p a c t of Bicycle Thief. N o t that Maggiorani is a b e t t e r a c t o r t h a n G r a n t . Q u i t e t h e reverse is t r u e , b u t t h e i r artistic skills are n o t in q u e s t i o n h e r e . W h a t is involved is t h e u t t e r a u t h e n t i c i t y of M a g g i o r a n i as o p p o s e d to t h e c o m p l e x i c o n o g r a p h y of G r a n t , an i c o n o g r a p h y rich in glamour, wit, a n d sophisticat i o n — a n d h e n c e totally i n a p p r o p r i a t e for t h e role. As we have s e e n , strongly i c o n o g r a p h i c stars such as G a r y C o o p e r a n d Marilyn M o n r o e e m b o d y a c o m p l e x n e t w o r k of e m o t i o n a l a n d ideological values, a n d these values are p a r t of t h e f i l m m a k e r ' s artistic s t a t e m e n t . In analyzing t h e a c t i n g in a movie, we s h o u l d c o n s i d e r w h a t type of actors a r e f e a t u r e d a n d w h y — a m a t e u r s , professionals, o r p o p u l a r stars? H o w a r e t h e actors t r e a t e d by t h e d i r e c t o r — a s c a m e r a material or as artistic collaborators? H o w m a n i p u l a t i v e is t h e editing? Or a r e t h e actors allowed to recite t h e i r d i a l o g u e without a lot of cuts? Does t h e film h i g h l i g h t t h e stars or d o e s t h e d i r e c t o r e n c o u r a g e e n s e m b l e playing? W h a t a b o u t t h e star's i c o n o g r a p h y ? 292

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6-37. Erin Brockovich (U.S.A., 2000), with Julia Roberts, directed by Steven Soderbergh. "Show me an actor with no personality, and I'll show you s o m e o n e who isn't a star," Katharine Hepburn once observed. In the c o n t e m p o r a r y cinema, Julia Roberts radiates personality. She is the only female star who consistently places a m o n g the top ten box office attractions in America. Beloved by the public for her spectacular good looks and captivating smile, she is an accomplished performer in straight dramatic roles. But she really shines in comedies, where her acting style is so s p o n t a n e o u s it hardly looks like she's working. (Universal Studios)

D o e s h e o r s h e e m b o d y c e r t a i n c u l t u r a l values o r d o e s t h e star c h a n g e radically from film to film, t h u s p r e v e n t i n g any i c o n o g r a p h i c b u i l d u p ? If t h e star is h i g h l y i c o n o g r a p h i c , w h a t values d o e s h e o r s h e e m b o d y ? H o w d o e s this cult u r a l i n f o r m a t i o n f u n c t i o n w i t h i n t h e w o r l d o f t h e movie? W h a t style o f a c t i n g p r e d o m i n a t e s ? H o w realistic o r stylized i s t h e a c t i n g style? W h y w e r e t h e s e a c t o r s cast? W h a t d o t h e y b r i n g with t h e m t o e n h a n c e t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s ?

/ FURTHER READING

BLUM, RICHARD A., American Film Acting: The Stanislavski Heritage (Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Research Press, 1984). History of M e t h o d Acting in America.

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CARDULLO, BERT, et al. eds. Playing to the Camera (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1 9 9 8 ) . A collection of articles a n d interviews. DMYTRYK, EDWARD, a n d JEAN PORTER, On Screen Acting ( L o n d o n : Focal Press, 1 9 8 4 ) . Practical emphasis. DYER, RICHARD, Stars ( L o n d o n : British Film Institute, 1 9 7 9 ) . A systematic analysis, well-written. NAREMORE, JAMES, Acting in the Cinema (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1 9 8 8 ) . Comprehensive. OLIVIER, LAURENCE, Ijiurmce Olivier on Acting (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1 9 8 6 ) . Ross, LILLIAN, a n d HELEN Ross, The Player: A Profile of an Art (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1 9 6 2 ) . A collection of interviews with actors from stage, screen, a n d TY. SCHICKEL, RICHARD, The Stars (New York: Dial Press, 1 9 6 2 ) . See also Richard Griffith, The Movie Stars ( G a r d e n City, N.Y: Doubleday, 1 9 7 0 ) . Studies by two of America's best film critics. SHIPMAN, DAVID, The Great Movie Stars, Vol. I, The Golden Years (New York: B o n a n z a Books, 1 9 7 0 ) ; Vol. II, The International Years (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1 9 7 2 ) . Encyclopedic coverage, with sane, well-written evaluations. ZUCKER, CAROLE, ed., Making Visible the Invisible (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1 9 9 0 ) . A collection of essays on film acting.

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Overview Live theater and m o v i e s : a c o m p a r i s o n . H o w time, space, and language are u s e d in each m e d i u m . S c e n e versus shot. Acting in e a c h m e d i u m . Nudity. Stage adaptations in c i n e m a : p r o b l e m s and challenges. The role of the director in film and live theater. The auteur theory. The role of the spectator in e a c h m e d i u m : active versus passive. The m o v a b l e camera's variable points of v i e w and shifting perspectives. Settings and decor: dressing the story. Actual locations versus the studio. Process shots, miniatures, and special effects. The key influence of German e x p r e s s i o n i s m . Realisms. The glory days of t h e H o l l y w o o d studios: MGM, Warner Brothers, Twentieth Century-Fox, Paramount Pictures. Studio wizardry of Fellini and company. C o s t u m e s and m a k e u p . The ideology of clothing.

Many p e o p l e cling to t h e naive belief t h a t d r a m a a n d film a r e two aspects of t h e s a m e art, only d r a m a is "live," w h e r e a s movies a r e " r e c o r d e d . " Certainly, t h e r e a r e u n d e n i a b l e similarities b e t w e e n t h e two arts. Most obviously, b o t h use action as a p r i n c i p a l m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n : W h a t p e o p l e do is a m a j o r s o u r c e of m e a n i n g . Live t h e a t e r a n d movies a r e also collaborative e n t e r p r i s e s , involving t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n o f writers, d i r e c t o r s , actors, a n d t e c h n i c i a n s . D r a m a a n d film a r e b o t h social arts, e x h i b i t e d b e f o r e g r o u p s o f p e o p l e , a n d experie n c e d publicly as well as individually. But films a r e n o t m e r e r e c o r d i n g s of plays. T h e l a n g u a g e systems of e a c h a r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y different. F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , movies have a far b r o a d e r r a n g e of t e c h n i q u e s at t h e i r disposal.

In t h e live theater, t i m e is less flexible t h a n in movies. T h e basic unit of c o n s t r u c t i o n in t h e t h e a t e r is t h e s c e n e , a n d t h e a m o u n t of d r a m a t i c t i m e t h a t elapses d u r i n g a s c e n e is r o u g h l y e q u a l to t h e l e n g t h of time it takes to perf o r m . T r u e , s o m e plays traverse m a n y years, b u t usually t h e s e years t r a n s p i r e " b e t w e e n c u r t a i n s . " W e ' r e i n f o r m e d t h a t it is "seven years later" e i t h e r by a stage d i r e c t i o n or by t h e d i a l o g u e . T h e basic u n i t of c o n s t r u c t i o n in movies is t h e shot. Because t h e average shot lasts only ten or fifteen s e c o n d s ( a n d can be as brief as a fraction of a s e c o n d ) , t h e c i n e m a t i c s h o t can l e n g t h e n or s h o r t e n t i m e m o r e subtly. D r a m a has t o c h o p o u t h u g e blocks o f t i m e b e t w e e n t h e relatively few s c e n e s a n d acts; films can e x p a n d or c o n t r a c t t i m e b e t w e e n t h e m a n y h u n d r e d s of shots. T h e a t r i c a l t i m e is usually c o n t i n u o u s . It moves forward. T e m p o r a l dislocations like t h e flashback are r a r e in t h e live theater, b u t c o m m o n p l a c e in movies. Space in t h e live t h e a t e r is also d e p e n d e n t on t h e basic u n i t of t h e s c e n e . T h e action takes p l a c e in a unified a r e a t h a t has specific limits, usually d e f i n e d by t h e p r o s c e n i u m a r c h . D r a m a , t h e n , a l m o s t always deals with closed forms: We d o n ' t i m a g i n e t h a t t h e action is b e i n g c o n t i n u e d in t h e wings or t h e

7-la. The Refic (U.S.A., 1996), vWrh Penelope Ann Miller, directed by Peter Hyams. Microspace. On stage, this shot would not be very effective: The audience would be too far away to assimilate a m e r e few inches of visual drama. On film, the shot is powerfully suspenseful because its mise en scene is defined (temporarily) by the frame, which foregrounds the subject matter in an intense close-up. The stage director's space is much m o r e restricted, and uniform from scene to scene. Movie directors can get very close or very far away with equal ease. (Paramount Pictures)

7-lb. Fantastic Voyage (U.S.A., 1966), art direction by Jack Martin Smith and Dale Hennesy, special effects by Art Cruickshank, directed by Richard Fleischer. Screen space can explore even microscopic areas: literally, through microcinematography, or figuratively, through special effects. The principal setting of this film—the interior of a h u m a n body—couldn't possibly be duplicated on stage. To perform a delicate brain operation, several scientists are reduced to the size of bacteria. They travel through the patient's bloodstream in a miniaturized submarine. This photo shows the crew's only survivors floating in the area of the optic nerve as they frantically search for the patient's eye so they can escape from his body before they return to normal size. (Twentieth Century-Fox)

7-2. Richard III (Great Britain, 1995), with Ian McKellen, directed by Richard Loncraine. Epic stories can be treated on the stage, but they are always stylized. Theatrical space is too constricted for a realistic presentation. On stage, when the depraved Richard 111 s c r e a m s in the thick of battle, "A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!" we don't really expect to see one, or even m a n y soldiers. In the movie version, not only do we get horses, we also see t h o u s a n d s of soldiers (updated to the fascist 1930s) clashing to the death. (United Artists)

d r e s s i n g r o o m s of t h e theater. T h e " p r o s c e n i u m a r c h " in film is t h e frame—a m a s k i n g device t h a t isolates objects a n d p e o p l e only temporarily. Movies d e a l with a series of space f r a g m e n t s . B e y o n d t h e frame of a given shot, a n o t h e r a s p e c t of t h e action waits to be p h o t o g r a p h e d . A close-up of an object, for e x a m p l e , is generally a detail of a s u b s e q u e n t long shot, which will give us t h e c o n t e x t of t h e close-up. In t h e theater, it's m o r e difficult to w i t h h o l d i n f o r m a tion in this m a n n e r . In t h e live theater, t h e viewer r e m a i n s in a s t a t i o n a r y p o s i t i o n . T h e dist a n c e b e t w e e n t h e a u d i e n c e a n d t h e stage i s c o n s t a n t . O f c o u r s e , a n a c t o r c a n m o v e closer to an a u d i e n c e , b u t c o m p a r e d to t h e fluid space in t h e c i n e m a , dist a n c e variation in t h e live t h e a t e r is negligible. T h e film viewer, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , identifies with t h e c a m e r a ' s lens, which is n o t i m m o b i l i z e d in a chair. T h i s identification p e r m i t s t h e viewer to " m o v e " in any d i r e c t i o n a n d from any d i s t a n c e . An e x t r e m e close-up allows us to c o u n t t h e lashes of an eyelid; t h e extreme long shot p e r m i t s us to see miles in e a c h d i r e c t i o n . In s h o r t , t h e cine m a allows t h e s p e c t a t o r to feel m o b i l e . T h e s e spatial differences d o n ' t necessarily favor o n e m e d i u m over t h e o t h e r . In t h e live theater, space is t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l , is o c c u p i e d by tangible p e o p l e a n d objects, a n d i s t h e r e f o r e m o r e realistic. T h a t is, o u r p e r c e p t i o n o f s p a c e is essentially t h e s a m e as in real life. T h e living p r e s e n c e of actors, with t h e i r subtle i n t e r a c t i o n s — b o t h with o t h e r actors a n d t h e a u d i e n c e — i s impossible to d u p l i c a t e in film. Movies provide us with a two-dimensional image of s p a c e a n d objects, a n d n o i n t e r a c t i o n exists b e t w e e n t h e s c r e e n actors a n d t h e a u d i e n c e . F o r this r e a s o n , nudity is n o t so controversial an issue on t h e screen 298

7-3. Dona Flor and Her Two Husbands (Brazil, 1977), with Jose Wilker, Sonia Braga, and Mauro Mendonca; directed by Bruno Baretto. Nudity is c o m m o n in movies, rare in the live theater. A naked actor on stage usually triggers off a public outcry, but because movies are "only pictures," nudity seldom provokes much controversy except in puritanical communities. As a result, c i n e m a has been able to exploit n a k e d n e s s as a symbolic c o m m e n t , a way of exploring universal impulses. For example, this "naughty" sex farce deals with a w o m a n w h o loves two men, one a ghost. Her first h u s b a n d (Wilker) was charming, exciting, and totally irresponsible. He died during o n e of his many sexual escapades, but his ghost—visible only to us and his former w i f e returns to enjoy his conjugal prerogatives. Dona Flor's second h u s b a n d is decent and reliable, a good provider, a rock of stability. He's also stupifyingly dull. To be totally happy, Dona Flor must satisfy both needs— for a d y n a m o in the b e d r o o m and a pillar of society in the outside world. She accordingly manages to arrange an amiable, if somewhat ghostly, m e n a g e a trois. (Carnaval/New Yorker Films)

as in t h e live t h e a t e r . On stage t h e n a k e d p e o p l e a r e real, w h e r e a s in movies t h e y ' r e "only p i c t u r e s " ( 7 - 3 ) . T h e stage player i n t e r a c t s with viewers, establishing a d e l i c a t e r a p p o r t with e a c h different a u d i e n c e . T h e s c r e e n player, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i s inexorably fixed o n celluloid: H e o r she c a n ' t readjust t o e a c h a u d i e n c e , for t h e worlds o f t h e s c r e e n a n d t h e viewer a r e n ' t c o n n e c t e d a n d c o n t i n u o u s a s they are in t h e live theater. Movies often s e e m d a t e d b e c a u s e a c t i n g styles c a n ' t be adjusted t o n e w e r a u d i e n c e s . Stage actors, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c a n m a k e even a two-thousand-year-old play s e e m fresh a n d relevant, for while t h e w o r d s r e m a i n t h e s a m e , t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d delivery can always b e c h a n g e d t o c o n f o r m with c o n t e m p o r a r y a c t i n g styles. Because of t h e spatial differences, t h e viewer's participatioti is different i n e a c h m e d i u m . I n t h e theater, t h e a u d i e n c e generally m u s t b e m o r e active. All t h e visual e l e m e n t s a r e p r o v i d e d within a given space, so t h e viewer m u s t sort o u t w h a t ' s essential from w h a t ' s i n c i d e n t a l . D i s r e g a r d i n g for t h e m o m e n t t h e i m p o r t a n c e of l a n g u a g e in t h e theater, d r a m a is a m e d i u m of low visual sat299

7-4. Pickpocket (France, 1959), directed by Robert Bresson. In the live drama, if a small prop (like a wallet) is important, it must be highlighted conspicuously or the audience will fail to notice its existence, much less its importance. In the cinema, small articles can be isolated from their context. In this photo, Bresson captures a pickpocket's swift stroke as he lifts a wallet from a pedestrian on a busy walkway. This snapshot quality is difficult to produce on stage: The conventions of the medium are at odds with the essence of the subject matter.

(New Yorker Films)

u r a t i o n . T h a t is, t h e a u d i e n c e m u s t fill in certain m e a n i n g s in t h e a b s e n c e of visual detail. A m o v i e a u d i e n c e , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , is generally m o r e passive. All t h e n e c e s s a r y details a r e p r o v i d e d by close-ups a n d by e d i t e d juxtapositions. Film, t h e n , is a m e d i u m of h i g h visual s a t u r a t i o n — t h a t is, t h e p i c t u r e s a r e densely d e t a i l e d with i n f o r m a t i o n , r e q u i r i n g little or no filling in. A l t h o u g h b o t h d r a m a a n d film a r e eclectic arts, t h e t h e a t e r is a narr o w e r m e d i u m , o n e specializing i n s p o k e n l a n g u a g e . Most o f t h e m e a n i n g s i n t h e t h e a t e r a r e f o u n d i n words, which a r e densely s a t u r a t e d with i n f o r m a t i o n . F o r this r e a s o n , d r a m a is generally c o n s i d e r e d a writer's m e d i u m . T h e p r i m a c y of t h e text m a k e s it a special b r a n c h of l i t e r a t u r e . In t h e live theater, we t e n d to h e a r b e f o r e we see. T h e film d i r e c t o r R e n e Clair o n c e n o t e d t h a t a b l i n d person c o u l d still g r a s p t h e essentials of m o s t stage plays. Movies, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , a r e generally r e g a r d e d as a visual art a n d a d i r e c t o r ' s m e d i u m , for it is t h e d i r e c t o r w h o creates t h e i m a g e s . Clair o b s e r v e d t h a t a d e a f p e r s o n c o u l d still g r a s p m o s t of t h e essentials of a film. B u t these g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e relative, for s o m e m o v i e s — m a n y of t h e works of Welles, for e x a m p l e — a r e densely satur a t e d , b o t h visually a n d aurally. B e c a u s e plays stress t h e p r i m a c y of l a n g u a g e , o n e of t h e m a j o r p r o b lems in adapting them to the screen is determining how m u c h of the language is n e c e s s a r y in a p r e d o m i n a n t l y visual art like movies. G e o r g e C u k o r ' s version of S h a k e s p e a r e ' s Romeo and Juliet (6-34a) was a conservative film a d a p t a t i o n . Virtually all t h e d i a l o g u e was r e t a i n e d , even t h e e x p o s i t i o n a n d p u r e l y functional s p e e c h e s of no p a r t i c u l a r p o e t i c merit. T h e result is a respectful b u t often t e d i o u s film in which t h e visuals merely illustrate t h e l a n g u a g e . O f t e n , images a n d d i a l o g u e c o n t a i n t h e s a m e i n f o r m a t i o n , p r o d u c i n g a n overblown, static quality t h a t actually c o n t r a d i c t s t h e swift sense of action in t h e stage play. Zeffirelli's film version of this play is m u c h m o r e successful. Verbal e x p o s i t i o n was c u t a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y a n d r e p l a c e d (just as effectively) by visual e x p o s i t i o n . Single lines w e r e p r u n e d meticulously from s o m e o f t h e s p e e c h e s w h e r e t h e s a m e i n f o r m a t i o n c o u l d b e conveyed b y images. Most o f t h e g r e a t

7-5. All About Eve (U.S.A., 1950), with Bette Davis, Marilyn Monroe, and George Sanders; written and directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz. All About Eve is about the New York live theater and its fascinatingly neurotic denizens. It's one of the few movies that could probably be converted into an effective stage play, for its action consists mostly of talk—glorious talk. Mankiewicz,, who was fondly described by one critic as "Old Joe, the Talk Man," is above all a verbal- stylist, a master of sophisticated dialogue and bitchy repartee. (Twentieth Century-Fox)

p o e t r y was p r e s e r v e d b u t often with nonsynchronous visuals to e x p a n d — n o t d u p l i c a t e — t h e l a n g u a g e . T h e e s s e n c e of S h a k e s p e a r e ' s play is f o u n d in t h e impulsive haste of its youthful p r o t a g o n i s t s , t h e d o m i n o l i k e swiftness of t h e c h a i n of events, a n d t h e violence of m u c h of t h e a c t i o n . Zeffirelli h e i g h t e n e d t h e s e characteristics b y kineticizing m a n y o f t h e scenes. T h e f i g h t s e q u e n c e s are often p h o t o g r a p h e d with a h a n d - h e l d c a m e r a that l u r c h e s a n d swirls with t h e c o m b a t a n t s as they spill o n t o t h e streets of V e r o n a . Zeffirelli's movie, t h o u g h technically less faithful to t h e stage script, is actually m o r e Shakes p e a r e a n i n spirit t h a n t h e scrupulously literal version o f Cukor. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s o m e t i m e s an a d a p t a t i o n can be too c i n e m a t i c , like t h e L u h r m a n n version of this play ( 7 - 1 3 ) . B o t h t h e a t e r a n d c i n e m a are audiovisual m e d i u m s , t h e n , b u t they differ in t h e i r stress of certain conventions. T h e two m a j o r s o u r c e s of i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e live t h e a t e r a r e a c t i o n a n d d i a l o g u e . W e o b s e r v e w h a t p e o p l e d o a n d what they say. T h e a t r i c a l action is restricted primarily to objective l o n g shots, to use a c i n e m a t i c m e t a p h o r . O n l y fairly large actions a r e effective: t h e d u e l b e t w e e n H a m l e t a n d L a e r t e s , A m a n d a h e l p i n g L a u r a to dress in The Glass 30

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Menagerie, a n d s o o n . E x t r e m e l o n g - s h o t r a n g e s — t o c o n t i n u e t h e c i n e m a t i c m e t a p h o r — m u s t b e stylized i n t h e live t h e a t e r . T h e e p i c b a t t l e s o f S h a k e s p e a r e ' s plays w o u l d l o o k r i d i c u l o u s if s t a g e d realistically. Likewise, c l o s e - u p a c t i o n s w o u l d b e m i s s e d b y all b u t t h o s e i n t h e f r o n t rows u n l e s s t h e a c t i o n s w e r e e x a g g e r a t e d a n d stylized b y t h e a c t o r s . E x c e p t for t h e m o s t i n t i m a t e t h e a t e r s , c l o s e - u p a c t i o n s i n t h e live d r a m a h a v e t o b e v e r b a l i z e d . T h a t is, t h e m o s t

7-6. Publicity p h o t o for Magnum Force (U.S.A., 1973), with Clint Eastwood and Adele Yoshioka, directed by Ted Post. In the live theater, actors are selected not only on the basis of their looks and talent, but also on how well they match up with the other actors on stage. Theatrical directors must always conceive of their productions in t e r m s of an e n s e m b l e effect. In the cinema, these considerations are secondary. In this movie, Eastwood, who stands 6' 4", is romantically paired with Adele Yoshioka, who is 5' 4". On stage, this height discrepancy would be a sight gag, but on the screen (or more accurately, off screen), the problem was easily resolved through the art of exclusion. (Warner Bros.)

7 - 7 . Twister (U.S.A., 1996), with Bill Paxton, directed by Jan De Bont. The cinema is well suited to dealing with the relationship between people and nature—a rare t h e m e in the live theater, which tends to favor interior settings. Thanks to special effects, movies can even go beyond nature—by creating an approaching tornado that in no way endangers the actor who Seems to be Standing in harm's way. (Warner Bros, and Universal City Studio)

subtle actions a n d r e a c t i o n s of stage c h a r a c t e r s a r e usually c o n v e y e d by lang u a g e r a t h e r t h a n by visual m e a n s . We know of H a m l e t ' s a t t i t u d e toward C l a u d i u s primarily t h r o u g h H a m l e t ' s soliloquies a n d d i a l o g u e . O n t h e close-up level of a c t i o n , t h e n , w h a t we see on stage is often n o t w h a t p e o p l e d o , b u t w h a t they talk a b o u t d o i n g , o r w h a t ' s b e e n d o n e . Because of t h e s e visual p r o b l e m s , m o s t plays avoid actions r e q u i r i n g vast or m i n u t e spaces. T h e a t r i c a l a c t i o n is usually c o n f i n e d to t h e long- a n d full-shot r a n g e . If vast or tiny spaces a r e r e q u i r e d , t h e t h e a t e r t e n d s to r e s o r t to unrealistic c o n v e n t i o n s : to ballets a n d stylized t a b l e a u x for e x t r e m e long-shot actions, a n d to t h e c o n v e n t i o n of verbal a r t i c u l a t i o n for close-up actions. Movies, o n t h e / o t h e r h a n d , can m o v e easily a m o n g all t h e s e r a n g e s . F o r this r e a s o n , t h e c i n e m a often d r a m a t i z e s t h e a c t i o n t h a t takes place o n stage only "between the curtains." T h e h u m a n b e i n g i s c e n t r a l t o t h e aesthetic o f t h e t h e a t e r : W o r d s must b e r e c i t e d b y p e o p l e ; conflicts m u s t b e e m b o d i e d b y actors. T h e c i n e m a i s n o t s o d e p e n d e n t o n h u m a n s . T h e aesthetic o f film i s b a s e d o n p h o t o g r a p h y , a n d a n y t h i n g t h a t can be p h o t o g r a p h e d can be t h e subject m a t t e r of a movie. F o r this r e a s o n , a d a p t i n g a play to t h e s c r e e n , a l t h o u g h difficult, is h a r d l y impossible, for m u c h o f w h a t can b e d o n e o n t h e stage c a n b e d u p l i c a t e d o n t h e s c r e e n . T o a d a p t m o s t movies t o t h e stage, however, w o u l d b e m u c h t o u g h e r . Movies with e x t e r i o r l o c a t i o n s w o u l d be a l m o s t automatically r u l e d o u t , of c o u r s e : H o w w o u l d o n e g o a b o u t a d a p t i n g j o h n F o r d ' s epic w e s t e r n s like Stage303

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coach? But even films with i n t e r i o r locations w o u l d p r o b a b l y be impossible to translate i n t o theatrical t e r m s . T r u e , t h e words w o u l d p r e s e n t n o p r o b l e m , a n d s o m e a c t i o n s w o u l d b e transferable. B u t h o w w o u l d you d e a l with t h e t i m e a n d space dislocations of Richard Lester's Beatles film, A Hard Day's Night? T h e m e a n d c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n in J o s e p h Losey's The Servant are c o m m u n i c a t e d primarily t h r o u g h t h e use o f c a m e r a a n g l e s — i m p o s s i b l e t o d u p l i c a t e i n t h e t h e a t e r ( 1 1 - 9 ) . T h e t h e m e of B e r g m a n ' s The Silence is conveyed primarily t h r o u g h i m a g e s o f e m p t y c o r r i d o r s , d o o r s , a n d windows. H o w c o u l d you transfer this t e c h n i q u e t o t h e stage? We s h o u l d n ' t a s s u m e from this t h a t t h e best m e t h o d of a d a p t i n g a play for t h e s c r e e n is to " o p e n it u p " — t o substitute e x t e r i o r locations for i n t e r i o r s . C i n e m a d o e s n ' t always m e a n e x t r e m e l o n g shots, sweeping p a n s , a n d flashy e d i t i n g . H i t c h c o c k o n c e o b s e r v e d t h a t m a n y filmed versions of plays fail p r e cisely b e c a u s e t h e tight, c o m p a c t s t r u c t u r e of t h e original is lost w h e n t h e film d i r e c t o r "loosens i t u p " with i n a p p r o p r i a t e c i n e m a t i c t e c h n i q u e s ( 7 - 1 1 ) . Particularly w h e n a play e m p h a s i z e s a sense of c o n f i n e m e n t , e i t h e r physical or psyc h o l o g i c a l — a n d a g r e a t m a n y of t h e m d o — t h e best a d a p t o r s r e s p e c t t h e spirit of t h e original by finding filmic equivalents.

7-8. The Dead (U.S.A., 1987), with Donal McCann and Anjelica Huston, directed by John Huston. The c i n e m a can be a m e d i u m of subtle nuances as well as epic events. This faithful adaptation of J a m e s Joyce's famous short story is comprised almost exclusively of "little things"—a touch of the hand, a wistful sidelong glance, a private m o m e n t of bitterness. On stage, such fragile materials would be considered hopelessly undramatic. But because the c a m e r a can move into the intimate ranges, such details can be woven into a poetic fabric of sheerest delicacy. (Vestron Pictures)

7-9. Tootsie (U.S.A., 1982), with Dustin Hoffman, directed by Sydney Pollack. In the live theater, actors can't m a k e elaborate cost u m e changes unless they have enough time—usually between act breaks. In movies, c o s t u m e and m a k e u p changes can take as long as necessary, since lengthy preparations can be edited out. Much of the c o m e d y of Tootsie revolves around a difficult and obsessively perfectionist actor n a m e d Michael Dorsey (Hoffman). Eventually no one wants to hire him because he's "such a pain in the ass to work with." Undaunted, he disguises himself as a middleaged actress n a m e d Dorothy Michaels and lands him/herself a juicy role on a daytime soap opera. Dorothy turns out to be a hugely popular TV personality, much beloved by the public and by her associates at work. Some of the funniest episodes in the movie deal with the quick changes Michael must m a k e whenever s o m e o n e unexpectedly shows up at his door while he's out of character. In actuality, Hoffman was required to sit for hours as m a k e u p specialists and costumers helped him to b e c o m e Dorothy. In addition to being one of the greatest films to explore the world of actors, Tootsie is also a classic of the feminist cinema. In the process of playing Dorothy, Michael discovers his best self, as he grudgingly a d m i t s late in the film: "I was a much better m a n when 1 was a w o m a n than w h e n I was a m a n . " Michael Dorsey/Dorothy Michaels is one of Hoffman's most brilliant creations. Sydney Pollack claims he hated directing the movie because Hoffman "was such a pain in the ass to work with." (Columbia Pictures)

In t h e mid-1950s, t h e F r e n c h p e r i o d i c a l Cahiers du Cinema p o p u l a r i z e d t h e auteur t h e o r y , a view t h a t stressed t h e d o m i n a n c e of t h e d i r e c t o r in film art (see C h a p t e r 1 1 , " T h e o r y " ) . A c c o r d i n g t o this view, w h o e v e r c o n t r o l s t h e m i s e e n s c e n e — t h e m e d i u m o f t h e story—is t h e t r u e " a u t h o r " o f a m o v i e . T h e o t h e r c o l l a b o r a t o r s (writers, c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r , a c t o r s , editor, etc.) a r e m e r e l y t h e d i r e c t o r ' s t e c h n i c a l assistants. N o d o u b t t h e a u t e u r critics e x a g g e r a t e d t h e prim a c y o f t h e d i r e c t o r , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n A m e r i c a , w h e r e m a n y film d i r e c t o r s w e r e a t t h e m e r c y o f t h e H o l l y w o o d s t u d i o system, w h i c h t e n d e d t o e m p h a s i z e g r o u p work r a t h e r t h a n individual expression a n d publicized stars r a t h e r than directors. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e a u t e u r critics w e r e essentially c o r r e c t a b o u t t h e m o s t artistically significant films. Even today, t h e m o s t a d m i r e d movies—from w h a t e v e r c o u n t r y — t e n d t o be d i r e c t o r ' s films. To refer to a movie as " g o o d e x c e p t for its d i r e c t i o n " is as cont r a d i c t o r y as r e f e r r i n g to a play as " g o o d e x c e p t for its script." Of c o u r s e , we c a n 305

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enjoy a poorly directed movie or a badly written play, b u t what we enjoy are usually t h e s e c o n d a r y aspects of t h e a r t — a t o u c h i n g p e r f o r m a n c e , a striking set. G o o d acting a n d stylish c a m e r a w o r k have often r e d e e m e d rubbish material. S u c h enjoyable e l e m e n t s generally r e p r e s e n t t h e individual t r i u m p h of a gifted interpretive artist (actor, set designer, c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r , etc.) over the mediocrity of t h e d o m i n a n t artist—the d i r e c t o r in film, the writer in t h e live theater. On t h e stage, t h e n , t h e d i r e c t o r is essentially an interpretive artist. If we see a r o t t e n p r o d u c t i o n of King Lear, we d o n ' t dismiss S h a k e s p e a r e ' s play, b u t only a specific i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e play. T r u e , t h e stage d i r e c t o r creates certain p a t t e r n s of m o v e m e n t , a p p r o p r i a t e gestures for actors, a n d spatial relationships, b u t all of t h e s e visual e l e m e n t s take s e c o n d place to t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e script, which is c r e a t e d by t h e playwright. T h e theatrical d i r e c t o r ' s relation to t h e text is

7-10. The Little Foxes (U.S.A., 1941), with Dan Duryea and Carl Benton Reid, directed by William Wyler. Andre Bazin believed that in adapting a play a filmmaker's greatest challenge is translating the artificial space of the theater into the realistic space of the cinema without losing the essence of the original. For example, in Lillian Hellman's stage play, this scene between a devious father and his creepy son takes place in the s a m e living room set as most of the other scenes. Wyler's presentation is at once more effective and realistic. The two characters are shaving in the family b a t h r o o m while they haltingly probe the possibility of swindling a relative. Neither wants to reveal himself; neither looks at the other directly. Instead, they address each other by looking in their respective mirrors, their backs turned. "There is a hundred times m o r e cinema, and of a better kind, in a shot in The Little Foxes," Bazin claimed, "than in all the outdoor dolly shots, natural locations, exotic geography, and flipsides of sets with which the screen so far has tried to m a k e up for stagey origins."

307

similar to t h e stage actor's relation to a role: He or she can a d d m u c h to what's written d o w n , b u t what is c o n t r i b u t e d is usually s e c o n d a r y to t h e text itself. T h e stage d i r e c t o r is a k i n d of go-between for t h e a u t h o r a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n staff. T h a t is, t h e d i r e c t o r is r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e g e n e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e script a n d usually defines t h e limits for t h e o t h e r i n t e r p r e t i v e artists: actors, d e s i g n e r s , t e c h n i c i a n s . T h e d i r e c t o r m u s t see to it t h a t all t h e p r o d u c tion e l e m e n t s a r e h a r m o n i z e d a n d s u b o r d i n a t e d t o a n overall i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . His o r h e r i n f l u e n c e i s s t r o n g e r d u r i n g rehearsals t h a n i n t h e actual p e r f o r m a n c e . O n c e t h e c u r t a i n o p e n s b e f o r e a n a u d i e n c e , t h e d i r e c t o r i s powerless t o c o n t r o l w h a t t h e n takes place. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s c r e e n d i r e c t o r s have a g o o d d e a l m o r e c o n t r o l over t h e f i n a l p r o d u c t . T h e y t o o d o m i n a t e t h e p r e p r o d u c t i o n activities, b u t u n l i k e t h e stage director, t h e filmmaker c o n t r o l s virtually every a s p e c t of t h e finished work as well. T h e d e g r e e of precision a film d i r e c t o r can achieve is impossible o n t h e stage, for movie d i r e c t o r s can r e p h o t o g r a p h p e o p l e a n d objects u n t i l they get exactly w h a t they want. As we have s e e n , films c o m m u n i cate primarily t h r o u g h m o v i n g images, a n d it's t h e d i r e c t o r w h o d e t e r m i n e s m o s t of t h e visual e l e m e n t s : t h e c h o i c e of shots, angles, l i g h t i n g effects, filters, optical effects, framing, c o m p o s i t i o n , c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s , a n d e d i t i n g . Furt h e r m o r e , t h e d i r e c t o r usually a u t h o r i z e s t h e c o s t u m e a n d set d e s i g n s a n d t h e c h o i c e of locales. T h e differences i n c o n t r o l a n d precision c a n best b e illustrated p e r h a p s b y e x a m i n i n g t h e i r h a n d l i n g o f t h e mise e n s c e n e . Stage d i r e c t o r s a r e m u c h m o r e restricted: T h e y m u s t work within o n e s t a t i o n a r y set p e r s c e n e . All patt e r n s of m o v e m e n t take p l a c e within this given a r e a . Because this is a t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l space, they have t h e a d v a n t a g e of d e p t h as well as b r e a d t h to w o r k with. T h r o u g h t h e use o f p l a t f o r m s , they can also exploit h e i g h t o n t h e stage. T h e t h e a t r i c a l d i r e c t o r m u s t use c e r t a i n space c o n v e n t i o n s t o assure m a x i m u m clarity. T h u s , with a p r o s c e n i u m stage, t h e a u d i e n c e p r e t e n d s it's p e e p i n g into a r o o m w h e r e o n e wall has b e e n r e m o v e d . Naturally, no f u r n i t u r e is p l a c e d against this "wall," n o r do players t u r n t h e i r backs against it for very l o n g periods or t h e i r d i a l o g u e w o u l d n ' t be a u d i b l e . If a t h r u s t stage is u s e d , t h e a u d i e n c e s u r r o u n d s t h e a c t i n g a r e a o n t h r e e sides, forcing t h e p e r f o r m e r s t o r o t a t e t h e i r m o v e m e n t s a n d s p e e c h e s so t h a t no side is n e g l e c t e d . T h i s c o n v e n t i o n is necessary t o e n s u r e m a x i m u m clarity. In t h e c i n e m a , t h e d i r e c t o r converts t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l space i n t o a two-dimensional i m a g e of space. Even with deep-focus p h o t o g r a p h y , " d e p t h " is n o t literal ( 7 - 1 2 ) . But t h e flat i m a g e has c e r t a i n a d v a n t a g e s . A c a m e r a can be p l a c e d virtually a n y w h e r e , so t h e film d i r e c t o r is n o t c o n f i n e d to a s t a t i o n a r y set with a given n u m b e r of "walls." T h e eye-level l o n g s h o t m o r e or less c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e theatrical p r o s c e n i u m a r c h . But in movies, t h e close-up also constitutes a given s p a c e — i n effect a c i n e m a t i c " r o o m l e t " with its own "walls" ( t h e f r a m e ) . E a c h shot, t h e n , r e p r e s e n t s a n e w given space with different ( a n d temp o r a r y ) confines. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e m o v a b l e c a m e r a p e r m i t s t h e d i r e c t o r t o r e a r r a n g e t h e "walls" m a n y times for m a x i m u m expressiveness with no sacrifice of clarity. T h u s , in film, a c h a r a c t e r can e n t e r t h e f r a m e from below, from

7-11 a. A Streetcar Named Desire (U.S.A., 1951), with Vivien Leigh and Marlon Brando, directed by Elia Kazan. (Twentieth

Century-Fox)

There are no hard and fast rules about "opening up" a stage play w h e n adapting it as a movie. S o m e t i m e s it's better not to e x p a n d the original, as Elia Kazan discovered w h e n he tried to convert this famous Tennessee Williams drama into a screenplay. Originally Kazan intended to dramatize the events leading up to the introduction of the protagonist, the fragile Blanche Dubois (Leigh). On stage, these sordid events are merely discussed, not shown. But Kazan's e x p e r i m e n t didn't work. More was lost than gained, as he admitted: "The force of the play had c o m e precisely from its compression, from the fact that Blanche was trapped in these two small rooms where she couldn't escape if she wanted to." Kazan decided to shoot the story almost exclusively in those two c r a m p e d rooms. The movie was a huge success, winning m a n y awards. On the other h a n d . Driving Miss Daisy was a success in part because the play was o p e n e d up. On stage, Alfred Uhry's period d r a m a was a simple three-character sketch, with virtually no sets, and the actors p a n t o m i m i n g their props. The screenplay (also written by Uhry) o p e n e d up the action, adding new characters and providing realistic sets for the scenes. Critics almost universally preferred the movie to the stage play because the screen version is more richly textured, more rooted in a particular time and place. The movie won a Best Picture Oscar, as well as an Acade m y Award for Uhry's screenplay.

7-lib. Driving Miss Daisy (U.S.A., 1989), with Dan Aykroyd, Jessica Tandy, and Morgan Freeman; directed by Bruce Beresfard. (Warner Bros.) 308

7-12. Ikiru, also k n o w n as To Live (Japan, 1952), directed by Akira Kurosawa. On the stage, the size of objects is constant; in movies, it's relative. In this deep-focus shot, for example, the materials of three depth planes are precisely aligned to produce an ironic contrast. The protagonist (Takashi Shimura, whose picture a d o r n s the Buddhist altar) was a lowly bureaucrat who did s o m e t h i n g really significant with his existence only in the final m o n t h s of his life, w h e n he realized he was dying of cancer. In the flashback portions of the movie, his battered hat is a symbol of his humility and dogged perseverance. His funeral wake (pictured) is a rigid, dismal affair, a t t e n d e d primarily by the d e c e a s e d ' s fellow bureaucrats. The placement of the camera in this photo implicitly contrasts the unpretentious hat with the chagrined faces of the office workers with the formal photograph and altar. Because each viewer in the live theater has a unique perspective on the stage, spatial techniques like this are rare. In movies, they are c o m m o n , for the c a m e r a d e t e r m i n e s one perspective for all. (Brandon Films)

above, from any side, a n d from any a n g l e . By dollying or c r a n i n g , a c a m e r a c a n also take us " i n t o " a set, p e r m i t t i n g objects to pass by us. Because t h e stage d i r e c t o r ' s mise en s c e n e is c o n f i n e d to t h e u n i t of t h e s c e n e , a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of c o m p r o m i s e is inevitable. He or s h e m u s t c o m b i n e a m a x i m u m of expressiveness with a m a x i m u m of clarity—not always an easy task. Film d i r e c t o r s have to m a k e fewer c o m p r o m i s e s of this sort, for they have a g r e a t e r n u m b e r of "scene-lets" at t h e i r disposal: Most movies average well over a t h o u s a n d shots. T h e film d i r e c t o r can give us a half d o z e n shots of t h e s a m e o b j e c t — s o m e e m p h a s i z i n g clarity, o t h e r s e m p h a s i z i n g expressiveness. S o m e shots c a n show a c h a r a c t e r with his or h e r back to t h e c a m e r a : T h e s o u n d t r a c k g u a r a n t e e s t h e clarity of t h e c h a r a c t e r ' s s p e e c h ( 2 - 1 3 b ) . A c h a r a c ter can b e p h o t o g r a p h e d t h r o u g h a n o b s t r u c t i o n o f s o m e k i n d — a p a n e o f glass or t h e d e n s e foliage of a forest. Because t h e c i n e m a t i c s h o t n e e d n o t be lengthy, clarity can be s u s p e n d e d t e m p o r a r i l y in favor of expressiveness. 309

310

I) r 11 m n

T h e s e generalizations are postulated on the a s s u m p t i o n that the stage is essentially realistic in its h a n d l i n g of time a n d space, whereas t h e c i n e m a is basically formalistic. But the differences are relative, of course. In fact, an a r g u m e n t could be m a d e t h a t S t r i n d b e r g ' s expressionistic plays—The Dream Play, for examp l e — a r e m o r e f r a g m e n t e d a n d subjective t h a n a realistic movie like Keaton's Steamboat Bill, Jr., which emphasizes t h e continuity of time a n d space. In a d a p t i n g a stage play, t h e filmmaker is c o n f r o n t e d with t h o u s a n d s of choices, petty a n d m o n u m e n t a l . T h e s e can alter t h e original in ways n e v e r d r e a m e d of by t h e original d r a m a t i s t . Even with classic texts, a f i l m m a k e r can e m p h a s i z e t h e psychological, t h e social, o r t h e epic, b e c a u s e t h e s e a r e determ i n e d in large m e a s u r e by t h e way space is used in movies. A f i l m m a k e r can stage t h e action on s t u d i o sets or in a n a t u r a l setting, b u t t h e c h o i c e will significantly alter t h e m e a n i n g of t h e work.

7-13. William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet (U.S.A., 1996), with Leonardo DiCaprio, directed by Baz Lurhmann. Sometimes a movie can be too cinematic—blasting away in six directions at once. Director Lurhmann wanted to m a k e a truly youthful film—passionate, fast, and impulsive, like the teenage protagonists of Shakespeare's play. Speech after speech was slashed away to m a k e room for violent displays like this. The setting was switched to a contemporary Latin Americ a n e s q u e city. Two of America's most gifted young actors were brought on to play the leads, DiCaprio a n d the elegant Claire Danes. But their speeches are reduced to bare bones, and often the actors are leaping, running, or climbing so strenuously that even w h a t ' s left is an indistinguishable vocal blur. It's like Shakespeare on steroids. Sometimes it's better to just let Shakespeare's language c o m m a n d the spotlight. (Twentieth century-Fox)

D

t*a m a

311

In t h e best movies a n d stage p r o d u c t i o n s , settings a r e n o t m e r e l y backd r o p s for t h e a c t i o n , b u t symbolic e x t e n s i o n s o f t h e t h e m e a n d characterization. Settings can convey an i m m e n s e a m o u n t of i n f o r m a t i o n , especially in t h e c i n e m a . Stage sets are generally less d e t a i l e d t h a n film sets, for t h e a u d i e n c e is too distant from t h e stage to perceive m a n y small details. T h e d i r e c t o r in this m e d i u m m u s t generally work with fewer sets, usually o n e p e r act. Inevitably, t h e stage d i r e c t o r m u s t settle for less precision a n d variety t h a n s c r e e n d i r e c t o r s , w h o have virtually no limits of this kind, especially w h e n s h o o t i n g on location. Spatial c o n s i d e r a t i o n s force stage d i r e c t o r s t o m a k e c o n s t a n t c o m p r o mises with t h e i r sets. If they use too m u c h of t h e u p s t a g e (rear) area, t h e audie n c e w o n ' t be a b l e to see or h e a r well. If they use h i g h p l a t f o r m s to give an a c t o r d o m i n a n c e , they t h e n have t h e p r o b l e m o f g e t t i n g t h e a c t o r b a c k o n t h e m a i n level quickly a n d plausibly. Stage d i r e c t o r s m u s t also use a constant-sized space: Settings a r e usually c o n f i n e d to "long shots." If they w a n t to suggest a vast field, for e x a m p l e , they m u s t r e s o r t to certain c o n v e n t i o n s . T h e y can stage an a c t i o n in s u c h a way as to suggest t h a t t h e playing a r e a is only a small c o r n e r of t h e field. Or they c a n stylize t h e set with t h e aid of a cyclorama, which gives t h e illusion of a vast sky in t h e b a c k g r o u n d . If they want to suggest a c o n f i n e d a r e a , they c a n do so only for s h o r t p e r i o d s , for an a u d i e n c e grows restless w h e n actors a r e restricted to a small playing a r e a for l o n g p e r i o d s . Stage d i r e c t o r s can use vertical, h o r i z o n t a l , a n d o b l i q u e lines in a set to suggest psychological states; b u t t h e s e lines (or colors o r objects) c a n n o t b e c u t o u t from scenes w h e r e they a r e i n a p p r o p r i a t e , as they c o u l d be in a movie. T h e film d i r e c t o r has far m o r e f r e e d o m i n t h e u s e o f settings. Most important, of course, the cinema permits a director to shoot outdoors—an e n o r m o u s a d v a n t a g e . T h e m a j o r works o f a n u m b e r o f g r e a t d i r e c t o r s w o u l d have b e e n i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t this f r e e d o m : Griffith, E i s e n s t e i n , K e a t o n , Kurosawa, A n t o n i o n i , F o r d , De Sica, Renoir. Epic films w o u l d be virtually i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t t h e e x t r e m e l o n g shots o f vast e x p a n s e s o f l a n d . O t h e r g e n r e s , particularly t h o s e r e q u i r i n g a d e g r e e o f stylization o r d e l i b e r a t e u n r e ality, h a v e b e e n associated with t h e s t u d i o : musicals, h o r r o r films, a n d m a n y p e r i o d films. S u c h g e n r e s often stress a k i n d of m a g i c a l , sealed-off u n i v e r s e , a n d i m a g e s t a k e n from real life t e n d to clash with t h e s e essentially claustrop h o b i c qualities. However, t h e s e a r e m e r e l y g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s . T h e r e a r e s o m e w e s t e r n s t h a t have b e e n s h o t mostly i n d o o r s a n d s o m e musicals t h a t have b e e n p h o t o g r a p h e d in actual locations. If a location is extravagantly beautiful, t h e r e ' s no r e a s o n why a r o m a n t i c musical c a n ' t e x p l o i t such a setting. T h e Paris locations of Minnelli's Gigi a r e a g o o d e x a m p l e of h o w actual locations c a n e n h a n c e a stylized g e n r e ( 6 - 3 2 ) . In s h o r t , it all d e p e n d s on h o w it's d o n e . As t h e F r e n c h historian G e o r g e s S a d o u l p o i n t e d o u t , " T h e d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n t h e s t u d i o a n d t h e street, t h e antithesis b e t w e e n L u m i e r e a n d Melies, a r e false o p p o s i t i o n s w h e n o n e a t t e m p t s t o find i n t h e m t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m s o f realism a n d

7 - 1 4 a . Publicity p h o t o of Just Another Girl on the I.R.T. (U.S.A., 1993), directed by Leslie Harris (standing left, with clipboard). The appeal of actual locations, of course, is that they're a lot cheaper than sets that have to be constructed. Location shooting also gives a movie an irrefutable authenticity: It's the real thing. For low-budget neophyte filmmakers like Harris, these twin virtues m a k e actual locations irresistible. (Miramax Films)

7-14b. The Keep (U.S.A., 1983), with Scott Glenn, directed by Michael Mann. The main appeal of studio sets is usually their lack of reality, best illustrated by such fantasy films as The Keep. Studio sets like these allow the filmmaker to create a magical, ethereal world, o n e w h e r e even the drifting fog does what the director tells it to do. In short, the studio is a control freak's paradise, where nothing is left to chance. (Paramount Pictures)

Drama

3

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3

art. Films c o m p l e t e l y o u t s i d e t i m e have b e e n shot o u t of d o o r s ; c o m p l e t e l y realistic films have b e e n shot in t h e studio." In set d e s i g n , as in o t h e r aspects of movies, t h e t e r m s realism a n d formalism a r e simply c o n v e n i e n t critical labels. Most sets tend toward o n e style or t h e other, b u t few a r e p u r e e x a m p l e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , in The Birth of a Nation, Griffith p r o u d l y p r o c l a i m s that a n u m b e r of his scenes a r e historical facsimiles of real places a n d events—like F o r d ' s T h e a t e r w h e r e L i n c o l n was assassinated, o r t h e signing o f t h e E m a n c i p a t i o n P r o c l a m a t i o n . T h e s e scenes w e r e m o d e l e d o n actual p h o t o g r a p h s of t h e p e r i o d . Yet Griffith's facsimiles w e r e c r e a t e d in a stud i o . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , real locations can b e e x p l o i t e d t o c r e a t e a s o m e w h a t artificial—formalistic—effect. F o r e x a m p l e , in s h o o t i n g Ten Days That Shook the World, Eisenstein h a d t h e W i n t e r Palace at his disposal for several m o n t h s . Yet t h e images i n t h e movie a r e b a r o q u e : richly t e x t u r e d a n d formally c o m p l e x . A l t h o u g h Eisenstein c h o s e actual locations for t h e i r authenticity, they a r e n e v e r j u s t p i c t u r e s q u e b a c k g r o u n d s to t h e action. E a c h s h o t is carefully d e s i g n e d . E a c h exploits t h e i n h e r e n t form of t h e setting, c o n t r i b u t i n g significantly to t h e aesthetic i m p a c t of t h e s e q u e n c e . Realistic or formalistic? Realism is n e v e r a s i m p l e t e r m . In movies, it's used to d e s c r i b e a variety of styles. S o m e critics use modifiers like "poetic realism," " d o c u m e n t a r y realism," a n d "studio realism" to m a k e finer distinctions. T h e n a t u r e of b e a u t y in realism is also a c o m p l e x issue. Beauty of form is an i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t of poetic realism. T h e early works of Fellini, such as The Nights ofCabiria, a r e h a n d somely m o u n t e d a n d slightly stylized to a p p e a l to o u r visual sense. Similarly, J o h n F o r d s h o t n i n e of his w e s t e r n s in M o n u m e n t Valley, U t a h , b e c a u s e of its s p e c t a c u l a r beauty. A m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , F o r d was a g r e a t l a n d s c a p e artist. Many realistic films s h o t in t h e s t u d i o a r e also slightly stylized to e x p l o i t this " i n c i d e n t a l " visual beauty. In o t h e r realistic films, b e a u t y — i n this c o n v e n t i o n a l sense—plays a lesser role. A major c r i t e r i o n of aesthetic value in a movie like P o n t e c o r v o ' s Battle of Algiers is its d e l i b e r a t e r o u g h n e s s . T h e story deals with t h e s t r u g g l e for liberation of t h e Algerian p e o p l e from t h e i r F r e n c h colonial m a s t e r s . It was s h o t entirely in t h e streets a n d h o u s e s of Algiers. T h e setting is rarely e x p l o i t e d for its aesthetic beauty. In fact, P o n t e c o r v o ' s lack of f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , his refusal to yield an i n c h in m a t t e r s of "style," is his p r i n c i p a l virtue as an artist. T h e m o r a l p o w e r o f t h e materials takes p r e c e d e n c e over formal c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . T h e setting's b e a u t y is in its t r u t h , fn films such as t h e s e , style ( t h a t is, distortion) is r e g a r d e d as prettification, a form of insincerity, a n d t h e r e f o r e ugly. Even o u t r i g h t ugliness can be a c r i t e r i o n of aesthetic beauty. T h e g a u d y sets a n d d e c o r in Touch of Evil arc o r g a n i c to t h e n a t u r e of t h e materials. T o t h e u n s y m p a t h e t i c , t h e cult o f realism verges o n m a d n e s s . But t h e r e ' s a m e t h o d to it. F o r e x a m p l e , J o h n H u s t o n s h o t The African Queen in t h e tropics b e c a u s e he knew he w o u l d n ' t have to w o r r y a b o u t a t h o u s a n d little details, s u c h as h o w to get t h e a c t o r s to sweat a lot or h o w to get t h e i r c l o t h e s to stick to t h e i r b o d i e s . P e r h a p s t h e m o s t famous, if n o t i n f a m o u s , e x a m p l e of this passion for a u t h e n t i c i t y is Erich von S t r o h e i m , w h o d e t e s t e d s t u d i o sets. In Greed, he insisted t h a t his actors actually live in a seedy b o a r d i n g h o u s e to get

7-15. P r o d u c t i o n p h o t o of The Sands of Iwo Jima (U.S.A., 1949), with John Wayne (front and center), directed by Allan Dwan. Because a studio allows a director more control and precision than an actual location, s o m e filmmakers use the so-called process s h o t in scenes requiring exterior locations. This technique involves the rear projection of a moving image on a translucent screen. Live actors and a portion of a set are placed in front of this screen, and the entire action and background are then photographed by a camera that is synchronized with the rear projector. The finished product (b) looks reasonably authentic, although backgrounds tend to look suspiciously washed out and flat in comparison to foreground elements.

(Republic Pictures)

7-16. The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (Germany, 1919), with Conrad Veidt and Werner Krauss (wearing hat); production design by Hermann Warm, Walter Rohrig, and Walter Reimann; directed by Robert Wiene. The German Expressionist m o v e m e n t of the post-World War 1 era emphasized visual design above all. The m o v e m e n t ' s main contributions were in the live theater, the graphic arts, and the cinema. It is a style steeped in anxiety and terror. The sets are deliberately artificial: flat, obviously painted, with no a t t e m p t to preserve the conventions of perspective and scale. They are m e a n t to represent a state of mind, not a place. The lighting and set designs are carefully coordinated, with one shading off into the other. Horizontal and vertical lines are avoided in favor of diagonals, which produce a sense of instability and visual anguish. The jerky, machinelike acting is m e a n t to convey the essence of depersonalization. (Museum of Modern Art)

the "feel" of the film's low-life selling. I le forced t h e m to wear shabby c l o t h i n g a n d d e p r i v e d t h e m of all t h e a m e n i t i e s t h a t t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s w o u l d lack in actuality. P e r h a p s b e c a u s e of t h e severe h a r d s h i p s his cast a n d crew suffered, t h e movie's a u t h e n t i c i t y is i n c o n t e s t a b l e . Spectacle films usually r e q u i r e t h e m o s t e l a b o r a t e sets. Historical r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f a n c i e n t R o m e o r Egypt a r e e n o r m o u s l y expensive t o build, a n d they c a n m a k e or b r e a k a film in this g e n r e b e c a u s e spectacle is t h e major a t t r a c t i o n . P e r h a p s t h e m o s t f a m o u s sets of this type a r e f o u n d in t h e Babylonian story of Griffith's Intolerance. T h e u n p r e c e d e n t e d m o n u m e n t a l i t y of t h e s e sets is w h a t skyrocketed Griffith's b u d g e t to an all-time high of $1.9 m i l l i o n — a n a s t r o n o m i c a l figure by 1916 s t a n d a r d s , hefty even by today's. T h e b a n q u e t s c e n e for Belsha/./.ar's feast a l o n e cost a r e p u t e d $250,000 a n d e m p l o y e d over 4,000 extras. T h e story r e q u i r e d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a walled city so vast t h a t for years it r e m a i n e d a s t a n d i n g m o n u m e n t — c a l l e d "Griffith's Folly" by cynics in 3 l 5

7-17a.

Siegfried (Germany, 1924), with Paul Richter, directed by Fritz Lang.



The heyday of the German Expressionist m o v e m e n t was the 1920s, but its influence has been e n o r m o u s , especially in the United States, as can be seen in these two photos. The great stage director Max Reinhardt was a seminal influence. In his theory of design, Reinhardt advocated an ideal of "landscapes imbued with soul." The declared aim of most German Expressionists was to eliminate nature for a state of absolute abstraction. Fritz Lang's stylized set was created in a studio, w h e r e a s Burton's is out of doors, but both emphasize twisted tree trunks, tortured branches shorn of greenery, drifting fog, desiccated leaves, and a hallucinatory a t m o s p h e r e of dread and angst.See Lotte Eisner, The Haunted Screen: Expressionism in the German Cinema and the Influence of Max Reinhardt (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), a copiously illustrated analysis. 7-17b. Sleepy Hollow (U.S.A., 1999), with Johnny Depp, Christina Ricci, and Marc Pickering; directed by Tim Burton. (Paramount pictures and Mandalay Pictures)

7-18. Barton Fink (U.S.A., 1991), with John Turturro and Jon Polito, written and directed by Joel and Ethan Coen. A m o n g the m a n y pleasures of this period picture are the stunning Art Deco sets and furnisffings. Art Deco is a style that dominated the Americas and Europe from about 1925 to roughly 1945. Streamlined, spare of adornment, elegantly curved, or playfully zig-zagging, Art Deco was considered the cutting edge of modern design. In fact, in the United States, the style was often referred to as "Moderne" in the 1 930s, the heyday of Art Deco. It was sleek and sophisticated, often m a k i n g use of such modern industrial materials as plastic (sometimes called Bakelite or Lucite in the 1930s), a l u m i n u m , chrome.'and glass-block. Lighting sources were frequently indirect, emanating from wall sconces or streaming dramatically through translucent walls of glass that curved exuberantly in defiance of right-angled sobriety. Stylized statuary, usually slender female nudes or powerfully muscled seminude males, epitomized the glamour of being very avant-garde and incredibly cool. (Twentieth century-Fox)

t h e t r a d e . T h e set e x t e n d e d nearly t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of a mile in l e n g t h . T h e c o u r t was f l a n k e d by e n o r m o u s c o l o n n a d e s s u p p o r t i n g pillars fifty feet h i g h , e a c h o n e s u p p o r t i n g a h u g e statue o f a n e r e c t e l e p h a n t g o d . B e h i n d t h e c o u r t w e r e towers a n d r a m p a r t s , t h e i r tops p l a n t e d with cascading flowers a n d exotic trees r e p r e s e n t i n g Belshazzar's famous h a n g i n g g a r d e n s . T h e o u t e r walls o f t h e city were 200 feet h i g h , yet w e r e wide e n o u g h for two c h a r i o t s to r o a r past e a c h o t h e r o n t h e r o a d t h a t p e r c h e d o n t o p . Astonishingly, this a n d o t h e r sets i n t h e film w e r e built w i t h o u t a r c h i t e c t u r a l p l a n s . As Griffith k e p t m a k i n g a d d i t i o n a l suggestions, his a r t d i r e c t o r , F r a n k " H u c k " W o r t m a n , a n d his crew k e p t e x p a n d i n g t h e set from day to day. Expressionistic sets are usually c r e a t e d in t h e studio, w h e r e t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n s of reality c a n n o t p e n e t r a t e . Magic, n o t realism, is t h e aim. Melies is t h e prototypical e x a m p l e . He was called "the J u l e s V e r n e of films" b e c a u s e his feats of prestidigitation a s t o n i s h e d t h e public. T h e first in a l o n g line of special effects wizards, Mclics usually p a i n t e d his sets, often with trompe-l'oeil perspectives to 317

7-19. Miniature set for Letter From an Unknown Woman (U.S.A., 1948), directed by Max Ophtils, Period films often benefit from the slight sense of unreality of studio sets. If a set is n e e d e d only for establishing purposes, miniatures are often constructed. These scaled-down sets can be as tall as six or eight feet, depending on the a m o u n t of detail and realism n e e d e d . Note the two studio floodlights behind the houses of this miniature and the flat, two-dimensional a p a r t m e n t dwellings on the horizon in the upper right. (Universal Pictures)

suggest d e p t h . He c o m b i n e d live actors with fanciful settings to p r o d u c e a d r e a m l i k e a t m o s p h e r e . He used a n i m a t i o n , m i n i a t u r e s , a n d a wide r a n g e of optical tricks, c h a r m i n g his a u d i e n c e s with vistas of i m a g i n a r y realms (4^1). Expressionistic sets a p p e a l to o u r sense of t h e m a r v e l o u s . T h e work of D a n i l o D o n a t i , Italy's best k n o w n designer, is a g o o d e x a m p l e . T h e e x t r a v a g a n t artificiality of t h e sets a n d c o s t u m e s in such movies as Fellini's Satyricon, Amarcord, a n d Casanova a r e p u r e p r o d u c t s of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n — F e l l i n i ' s as well as D o n a t i ' s . T h e d i r e c t o r often p r o v i d e d t h e d e s i g n e r with p r e l i m i n a r y sketches, a n d t h e two artists w o r k e d closely in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e visual d e s i g n of e a c h film. T h e i r c o n j u r a t i o n s c a n be m o v i n g , as well as witty a n d beautiful. F o r e x a m p l e , Amarcord is a stylized r e m i n i s c e n c e of Fellini's y o u t h in his h o m e t o w n of Rimini. ( T h e title, from t h e R o m a g n a n dialect, m e a n s "I r e m e m b e r . " ) But Fellini s h o t t h e movie i n a s t u d i o , n o t o n location. H e w a n t e d t o c a p t u r e feelings, n o t facts. T h r o u g h o u t t h e film, t h e t o w n s p e o p l e feel stifled by t h e provincial isolation o f t h e i r c o m m u n i t y . T h e y are f i l l e d with loneliness a n d l o n g for s o m e t h i n g e x t r a o r d i n a r y t o t r a n s f o r m t h e i r lives. W h e n they h e a r t h a t a m a m m o t h l u x u r y liner, t h e Rex, will pass t h r o u g h t h e o c e a n waters a few miles b e y o n d t h e town's s h o r e , m a n y of t h e s e wistful souls d e c i d e to row o u t to sea to g r e e t t h e ship. H u n d r e d s o f t h e m c r o w d i n t o every available b o a t a n d s t r e a m away from t h e b e a c h like fervent pilgrims on a quest. T h e n they wait. E v e n i n g settles, b r i n g i n g with it a thick fog. Still they wait. In o n e b o a t , Gradisca, t h e c h a r m i n g town sexpot, confides to s o m e s y m p a t h e t i c friends h e r dissatisfaction with h e r life. At thirty, she is still single, childless, a n d unfulfilled. H e r " h e a r t overflows with love," yet she has n e v e r f o u n d a "truly d e d i c a t e d m a n . " In t h e d a r k silence, s h e weeps softly over t h e p r o s p e c t of a b a r r e n future. M i d n i g h t passes, a n d still t h e t o w n s p e o p l e wait faithfully. T h e n , w h e n m o s t of t h e c h a r a c t e r s a r e s l e e p i n g in t h e i r fragile b o a t s , t h e y ' r e a w a k e n e d by a boy's s h o u t : "It's h e r e ! " Like a grace-

7-20a. Grand Hotel (U.S.A., 1932), with Greta Garbo, art direction by Cedric Gibbons, gowns by Adrian, directed by Edmund Goulding. MGM, "the Tiffany of studios," prided itself on its opulent and glossy production values. It was the most prosperous studio in Hollywood in the 1930s, boasting twenty-three sound stages a n d 11 7 acres of standing backlots, which included a small lake, a harbor, a park, a jungle, and m a n y streets of houses in different periods and styles. The "Metro look" was largely d e t e r m i n e d by Gibbons, w h o was the studio's art director from 1924 to 1956. (MGM)

7-20b. Little Caesar (U.S.A., 1930), with Edward G. Robinson (standing), art direction by Anton Grot, directed by Mervyn LeRoy. Grot was art director at Warner Brothers from 1927 to 1948. Unlike his counterparts Gibbons, Dreier, and Polglase, however, Grot often took an active hand in designing the studio's major films. His earliest work is s o m e w h a t in the German expressionist tradition, but he soon b e c a m e one of the most versatile of artists. He designed films like the gritty and realistic Little Caesar, as well as the Busby Berkeley musical Gold Diggers of 1933, with its surrealistic, dreamlike sets. (Warner Bros.)

7-20c. How Green Was My Valley (U.S.A., 1941), art direction by Nathan Juran and Richard Day, directed by John Ford. The art directors at Twentieth Century-Fox specialized in realistic sets, like this turn-ofthe-century Welsh mining village, which covered eighty-six acres and was built in a California valley. Elaborate sets like these were not dismantled after production, for with suitable alterations they could be converted into other locations. For example, two years after Ford's film, this set was transformed into a Nazioccupied Norwegian village for The Moon Is Down.

(Twentieth Century-Fox)

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ful a p p a r i t i o n , t h e l i g h t - b e d e c k e d Rex glides past in all its regal g r a n d e u r ( 7 - 2 1 ) . N i n o Rota's r a p t u r o u s music swells to a c r e s c e n d o as t h e t o w n s p e o p l e wave a n d s h o u t joyously. Gradisca's eyes s t r e a m with tears of e x h i l a r a t i o n a n d y e a r n i n g while a b l i n d a c c o r d i o n i s t asks excitedly, "Tell me what it looks like!" T h e n , as mysteriously as it a p p e a r e d , t h e p h a n t o m s h i p is swallowed by t h e fog a n d slips silently off i n t o t h e n i g h t . D u r i n g t h e g o l d e n age of t h e Hollywood s t u d i o system, e a c h of t h e m a j o r s h a d a characteristic visual style, d e t e r m i n e d in large p a r t by t h e designers a t e a c h s t u d i o . S o m e w e r e called p r o d u c t i o n d e s i g n e r s , o t h e r s art d i r e c t o r s , a few simply set d e s i g n e r s . T h e i r j o b was to d e t e r m i n e t h e "look" of e a c h film, a n d they w o r k e d closely with p r o d u c e r s a n d d i r e c t o r s t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e sets, d e c o r , c o s t u m e s , a n d p h o t o g r a p h i c style w e r e c o o r d i n a t e d to p r o d u c e a unified effect. F o r e x a m p l e , M G M specialized i n glamour, luxury, a n d o p u l e n t p r o d u c tion values, a n d t h e i r art director, C e d r i c G i b b o n s , virtually s t a m p e d e a c h film with " t h e M e t r o look" ( 7 - 2 0 a ) . Because all t h e studios a t t e m p t e d to diversify t h e i r p r o d u c t s as m u c h as possible, however, t h e i r art d i r e c t o r s h a d to be versatile. F o r i n s t a n c e , RKO's Van Nest Polglase s u p e r v i s e d t h e design of such diverse movies as King Kong, Top Hat, The Informer, a n d Citizen Kane. Param o u n t ' s H a n s D r e i e r b e g a n his c a r e e r a t G e r m a n y ' s famous UFA s t u d i o . H e was usually at his best c r e a t i n g a sense of mystery a n d r o m a n t i c fantasy, as in t h e

7-21. Amarcord (Italy, 1974), arf direction and costumes by Danilo Donati, cinematography by Giuseppe Rotunno. directed by Federico Fetlini. For Fellini, who began his career as a realist, the studio b e c a m e a place to create magic—along with his fellow magicians Donati and Rotunno. "To me and other directors like me," Fellini said, "the cinema is a way of interpreting and remaking reality through fantasy and imagination. The use of the studio is an indispensable part of what we are doing." (New world Pictures)

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films of J o s e f v o n S t e r n b e r g . D r e i e r also d e s i g n e d t h e s u p e r b Art D e c o sets for L u b i t s c h ' s Trouble in Paradise. W a r n e r B r o t h e r s ' a r t director, A n t o n Grot, was a specialist in grubby, realistic locales ( 7 - 2 0 b ) . T h e s t u d i o c l a i m e d t h a t its films w e r e " T o r n from Today's H e a d l i n e s ! " to q u o t e from its publicity b l u r b s . W a r n e r B r o t h e r s favored topical g e n r e s with an e m p h a s i s on working-class life: gangster f i l m s , u r b a n m e l o d r a m a s , a n d p r o l e t a r i a n musicals. Like his c o u n t e r p a r t s at o t h e r studios, however, G r o t c o u l d work in a variety of styles a n d g e n r e s . F o r e x a m p l e , he d e s i g n e d t h e e n c h a n t i n g sets for A Midsummer Night's Dream. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e ' s n o t m u c h else i n this movie that's e n c h a n t i n g . C e r t a i n types of locales w e r e in such c o n s t a n t d e m a n d t h a t t h e studios c o n s t r u c t e d p e r m a n e n t back-lot sets, which w e r e u s e d in film after film: a t u r n of-the-century street, a E u r o p e a n s q u a r e , an u r b a n slum, a n d so o n . Of c o u r s e , t h e s e w e r e suitably a l t e r e d with new f u r n i s h i n g s to m a k e t h e m look different each t i m e they w e r e u s e d . T h e s t u d i o with t h e largest n u m b e r of b a c k lots was MGM, a l t h o u g h W a r n e r , P a r a m o u n t , a n d T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y - F o x also b o a s t e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r of t h e m . N o t all s t a n d i n g sets w e r e l o c a t e d close to t h e studio. It was c h e a p e r to c o n s t r u c t s o m e o u t s i d e t h e e n v i r o n s of Los A n g e l e s w h e r e real estate values w e r e n ' t at a p r e m i u m . If a movie called for a h u g e real-

7-22. 77ie Thirteenth Floor (U.S.A., 1999), special effects coordinator John S. Baker, visual effects supervisor Joe Bauer, directed by Josef Rusnak. Stage sets owe relatively little to the computer, but in the c i n e m a , and especially in sci-fi films, c o m p u t e r g e n e r a t e d sets are b e c o m i n g m o r e and more common. This movie explores the o m i n o u s possibility of c o m p u t e r - s i m u l a t e d universes, w h e r e people only believe they are real. (Columbia

Pictures)

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istic set—like t h e Welsh m i n i n g village for How Green Was My Valley—it was often built miles away from t h e s t u d i o ( 7 - 2 0 c ) . Similarly, m o s t of t h e studios o w n e d w e s t e r n frontier towns, r a n c h e s , a n d m i d w e s t e r n type farms, which w e r e l o c a t e d o u t s i d e t h e Los A n g e l e s a r e a . W h a t m a t t e r s m o s t in a setting is h o w it e m b o d i e s t h e e s s e n c e of t h e story m a t e r i a l . As t h e British d e s i g n e r R o b e r t Mallet-Stevens n o t e d , "A film set, in o r d e r to be a g o o d set, m u s t act. W h e t h e r realistic or expressionistic, m o d e r n o r a n c i e n t , i t m u s t play its p a r t . T h e set m u s t p r e s e n t t h e c h a r a c t e r b e f o r e he has e v e n a p p e a r e d . It m u s t i n d i c a t e his social position, his tastes, his habits, his lifestyle, his personality. T h e sets m u s t be intimately l i n k e d with t h e action." Settings can also be u s e d to suggest a sense of p r o g r e s s i o n in t h e characters. F o r e x a m p l e , in Fellini's La Strada, o n e of his m o s t realistic movies, t h e p r o t a g o n i s t a n d his s i m p l e m i n d e d assistant a r e s h o w n a s reasonably happy, traveling t o g e t h e r from town to town with t h e i r tacky theatrical act. After he a b a n d o n s her, h e h e a d s for t h e m o u n t a i n s . Gradually, t h e l a n d s c a p e c h a n g e s : T r e e s a r e s t r i p p e d o f t h e i r foliage, snow a n d dirty slush cover t h e g r o u n d , t h e sky is a m u r k y gray. T h e c h a n g i n g setting is a g a u g e of t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s spiritual c o n d i t i o n : N a t u r e itself seems to grieve after t h e helpless assistant is left alone to die. On t h e stage, a s e t t i n g is generally a d m i r e d with t h e o p e n i n g of t h e c u r t a i n , a n d t h e n f o r g o t t e n a s t h e actors take over t h e c e n t e r o f interest. I n t h e movies, a d i r e c t o r c a n k e e p c u t t i n g back to t h e setting to r e m i n d t h e a u d i e n c e of its significance. A film c a n f r a g m e n t a set i n t o a series of shots, n o w e m p h a sizing o n e a s p e c t o f a r o o m , later a n o t h e r , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e n e e d s o f t h e d i r e c t o r in finding a p p r o p r i a t e visual a n a l o g u e s for t h e m a t i c a n d psychological ideas. In Losey's The Servant, a stairway is used as a m a j o r t h e m a t i c symbol. T h e film deals with a s e r v a n t ' s g r a d u a l c o n t r o l over his m a s t e r ( 1 1 - 9 ) . Losey uses t h e stairway as a k i n d of psychological battlefield w h e r e t h e relative positions of

7-23. Dodes'ka-den (Japan, 1970), art direction by Yoshiro and Shinobu Muraki, directed by Akira Kurosawa. As critic Donald Richie has noted, American filmmakers are s u p r e m e storytellers; Europeans excel in the treatment of t h e m e and character; and the J a p a n e s e are unsurpassed in the creation of atmosphere. Most of the action of this movie takes place in a junkyard, an appropriate analogue for the h u m a n refuse and outcasts w h o inhabit it. The junkyard is s o m e t i m e s matter-offactly realistic, as in this scene. At other times, depending on what character Kurosawa focuses on, the s a m e setting can be sinister and terrifying, or strikingly beautiful, like an enchanted landscape, ganusnims)

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t h e two m e n on t h e stairs give t h e a u d i e n c e a sense of w h o ' s w i n n i n g t h e battle. Losey also uses t h e rails on t h e stairway to suggest p r i s o n bars: T h e m a s t e r of t h e h o u s e is often p h o t o g r a p h e d from b e h i n d t h e s e bars. Even t h e f u r n i t u r e of a r o o m can be e x p l o i t e d for psychological a n d t h e m a t i c r e a s o n s . In o n e of his classes, Eisenstein o n c e discussed at l e n g t h t h e significance of a table for a set. T h e class exercise c e n t e r e d on an a d a p t a t i o n of Balzac's novel Pere Goriot. T h e s c e n e is set at a d i n n e r table t h a t Balzac d e s c r i b e d as circular. B u t Eisenstein convincingly a r g u e d t h a t a r o u n d table is w r o n g cinematically, for it implies equality, with e a c h p e r s o n l i n k e d in a circle. To convey t h e stratified class s t r u c t u r e of t h e b o a r d i n g h o u s e , Eisenstein suggested t h e use of a l o n g r e c t a n g u l a r table, with t h e h a u g h t y mistress of t h e h o u s e a t t h e h e a d , t h e favored t e n a n t s close t o h e r sides, a n d t h e lowly G o r i o t a l o n e , n e a r t h e b a s e o f t h e table. S u c h a t t e n t i o n to detail often distinguishes a m a s t e r of film from a m e r e t e c h n i c i a n , w h o settles for only a g e n e r a l effect. T h e setting of a m o v i e — far m o r e t h a n any play—can even take over as t h e c e n t r a l i n t e r e s t ( 7 - 2 4 ) . In

7-24. Blade Runner (U.S.A., 1982), with Harrison Ford, directed by Ridley Scott. A hybrid of science fiction, film noir, detective thriller, bounty-hunter western, and love story, Blade Runner is also eclectic in its visual style, a collaborative effort that includes the contributions of art director David Snyder, production designer Lawrence G. Paul, special visual effects designer Douglas Trumbull, and cinematographer Jordan Cronenweth. The story is set in Los Angeles in the year 2019. Nature has gone berserk, deluging the teeming city with an almost constant downpour. Smoke, fog, and steam add to the fumigated congestion. It is a city of dreadful night, punctuated by neon signs in Day-Glo colors, cheap Orientalized billboards, and a profusion of advertising come-ons. Hunks of long-discarded machinery litter the landscape. The soundtrack throbs with eerie sounds, echoes, pounding pistons, and the noises of flying vehicles shuttling through the poisonous atmosphere. It is a city choking On its O w n technology.

(Warner Bros.)

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Kubrick's 2001, t h e d i r e c t o r s p e n d s m o s t of his t i m e lovingly p h o t o g r a p h i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t s of a s p a c e s h i p , various space stations, a n d t h e e n o r m o u s e x p a n s e s of o u t e r space itself. T h e few p e o p l e in t h e movie s e e m a l m o s t incid e n t a l a n d certainly far less i n t e r e s t i n g t h a n t h e real c e n t e r o f c o n c e r n — t h e setting. It w o u l d be impossible to p r o d u c e 2001 on stage: T h e m a t e r i a l s of t h e film a r e n o t theatrically c o n v e r t i b l e . Kubrick's movie is a vivid illustration of Bazin's o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e c i n e m a is "to b r i n g to light c e r t a i n details that t h e stage w o u l d have left u n t r e a t e d . " A systematic analysis of a set involves a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e following characteristics: 1.

Exterior or interior. If t h e set is an exterior, h o w d o e s n a t u r e f u n c t i o n as a symbolic a n a l o g u e t o t h e m o o d , t h e m e , o r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n ?

2.

Style. Is t h e set realistic a n d lifelike or stylized a n d deliberately dist o r t e d ? Is it in a p a r t i c u l a r style, such as colonial A m e r i c a n , Art D e c o , V i c t o r i a n , sleek c o n t e m p o r a r y , etc?

3.

Studio or location. If t h e set is an actual location, why was it c h o s e n ? W h a t d o e s it say a b o u t t h e characters?

4.

Period. W h a t e r a d o e s t h e set r e p r e s e n t ?

5.

(lass. W h a t is t h e a p p a r e n t i n c o m e level of t h e owners?

6.

Size. H o w large is t h e set? Rich p e o p l e t e n d to take up m o r e s p a c e t h a n t h e p o o r , w h o a r e usually c r o w d e d in t h e i r living a r e a .

7.

Decoration. H o w is t h e set f u r n i s h e d ? A r e t h e r e any status symbols, o d d i ties of taste, etc.? Is it c r o w d e d or sparsely f u r n i s h e d ?

8.

Symbolic function. W h a t k i n d of overall i m a g e d o e s t h e set a n d its furnishings project?

I n t h e most sensitive f i l m s a n d plays, c o s t u m e s a n d m a k e u p a r e n ' t merely frills a d d e d t o e n h a n c e a n illusion, b u t aspects o f c h a r a c t e r a n d t h e m e . T h e i r style c a n reveal class, self-image, even psychological states. D e p e n d i n g on t h e i r cut, t e x t u r e , a n d bulk, certain c o s t u m e s can suggest agitation, fastidiousness, delicacy, dignity, a n d so o n . A c o s t u m e , t h e n , is a m e d i u m , especially in t h e c i n e m a , w h e r e a close-up of a fabric can suggest i n f o r m a t i o n that's i n d e p e n d e n t even o f t h e wearer. C o l o r symbolism is used by Zeffirelli in Romeo and Juliet. J u l i e t ' s family, t h e C a p u l e t s , a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s aggressive p a r v e n u e s : T h e i r colors a r e a p p r o priately "hot" reds, yellows, a n d o r a n g e s . R o m e o ' s family, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , is o l d e r a n d p e r h a p s m o r e established, b u t i n obvious d e c l i n e . T h e y a r e cost u m e d i n blues, d e e p g r e e n s , a n d p u r p l e s . T h e s e two c o l o r s c h e m e s a r e e c h o e d in t h e liveries of t h e servants of each h o u s e , which h e l p s t h e a u d i e n c e identify t h e c o m b a t a n t s i n t h e brawling scenes. T h e c o l o r o f t h e c o s t u m e s can also b e

7-25. The Leopard (Italy, 1963), art direction by Mario Garbuglia, costumes by Piero Tosi, directed by Luchino Visconti. Visconti had the unusual distinction of being both a Marxist a n d an aristocrat (he was the Duke of Modrone). A master of the period film, he was exceptionally sensitive to the symbolic significance of c o s t u m e s and decor. They are part of Visconti's political statement. For example, the clutter, texture, and florid patterns of the Victorian furnishings in this movie suggest a stifling hothouse artificiality, sealed off from nature. The costumes, impeccably accurate to period, are elegant, constricting, and totally without utility. They were m e a n t to be. Idle people of i n d e p e n d e n t income—that is, income derived from the labor of others— rarely concern themselves with utility in clothing. (Twentieth Century-Fox)

u s e d to suggest c h a n g e a n d transition. T h e first view of J u l i e t , for e x a m p l e , shows h e r in a v i b r a n t r e d dress. After s h e m a r r i e s R o m e o , h e r colors a r e in t h e cool b l u e s p e c t r u m . L i n e as well as color can be u s e d to suggest psychological qualities. Verticals, for e x a m p l e , t e n d to e m p h a s i z e stateliness a n d dignity (Lady M o n t a g u e ) ; h o r i z o n t a l lines t e n d t o e m p h a s i z e e a r t h i n e s s a n d comicality (Juliet's n u r s e ) . P e r h a p s t h e most f a m o u s c o s t u m e in film history is C h a r l i e C h a p l i n ' s t r a m p outfit. T h e c o s t u m e is an i n d i c a t i o n of b o t h class a n d character, conveying t h e c o m p l e x m i x t u r e o f vanity a n d d a s h t h a t m a k e s C h a r l i e s o a p p e a l i n g . T h e m o u s t a c h e , d e r b y h a t , a n d c a n e all suggest t h e fastidious dandy. T h e c a n e is u s e d to give t h e i m p r e s s i o n of self-importance as C h a r l i e swaggers confidently b e f o r e a hostile world. But t h e baggy t r o u s e r s several sizes t o o large, t h e oversized shoes, t h e too-tight coat—all t h e s e suggest C h a r l i e ' s insignificance 325

7-26. Publicity p h o t o for Batman Forever (U.S.A., 1995), with Val Kilmer and Chris O'Donnell, directed by Joel Schumacher. A costume's silhouette refers to its outline, how much of the body is revealed or obscured by the outer form of the garment. The more formfitting the silhouette, the more erotic the c o s t u m e — a s s u m i n g , of course, that the wearer is in good shape. In these costumes, the male musculature is stylized and e m b o s s e d into the rubberized suits. They weighed over forty p o u n d s each and were intensely uncomfortable and hot under the studio lights. The actual bodies of Kilmer and O'Donnell, though perfectly respectable, are not quite so Michelangeloesque: The suits were designed to add muscles here and there and to flatten a few inconvenient protuberances. But there's no question that the c o s t u m e s m a k e the boys look good—powerful, sexy, p u m p e d up for action.

(DC Comics and Warner Bros.)

a n d poverty. C h a p l i n ' s view of h u m a n i t y is symbolized by t h a t c o s t u m e : vain, absurd, and—finally—poignantly vulnerable. In m o s t cases, especially p e r i o d films, c o s t u m e s a r e d e s i g n e d for t h e p e r f o r m e r s w h o will b e w e a r i n g t h e m . T h e c o s t u m e r m u s t always b e c o n s c i o u s of t h e a c t o r ' s b o d y t y p e — w h e t h e r he or she is thin, o v e r w e i g h t , tall, s h o r t , e t c . — t o c o m p e n s a t e for any deficiency. If a p e r f o r m e r is f a m o u s for a given t r a i t — D i e t r i c h ' s legs, Marilyn's b o s o m , S c h w a r z e n e g g e r ' s c h e s t — t h e c o s t u m e r will often d e s i g n t h e a c t o r ' s clothes to h i g h l i g h t t h e s e a t t r a c t i o n s . Even in p e r i o d films, t h e c o s t u m e r has a wide array of styles to c h o o s e from, a n d his or h e r c h o i c e will often be d e t e r m i n e d by w h a t t h e a c t o r looks best in within t h e p a r a m e t e r s d e f i n e d by t h e milieu of t h e story. D u r i n g t h e Hollywood s t u d i o era, powerful stars often insisted on costumes and m a k e u p that heightened their natural endowments, regardless of p e r i o d accuracy. T h i s was a p r a c t i c e t h a t was e n c o u r a g e d by t h e s t u d i o bosses, w h o w a n t e d t h e i r stars to look as g l a m o u r o u s as possible by s u g g e s t i n g a "cont e m p o r a r y look." T h e results a r e usually j a r r i n g a n d i n c o n g r u o u s . Even prestigious d i r e c t o r s like J o h n F o r d gave in to this tradition of vanity. In F o r d ' s o t h e r wise s u p e r b w e s t e r n , My Darling Clementine ( 1 9 4 6 ) , w h i c h is set in a r o u g h frontier c o m m u n i t y , actress L i n d a D a r n e l l wore g l a m o u r o u s star m a k e u p a n d a 194()s-style h a i r d o , even t h o u g h t h e c h a r a c t e r s h e was playing was a c h e a p Mexican "saloon girl"—a coy p e r i o d e u p h e m i s m for a prostitute. She looks as 326

7-27. II Postino, also k n o w n as 77ie Postman (Italy, 1995), with Massimo Troisi and Philippe Noiret, directed by Michael Radford. Although Troisi is a better looking m a n than Noiret, their body language says the opposite. The Troisi character has loser written all over him. His clothes are filthy, and the way he wears them accentuates his dorky a p p e a r a n c e : His posture is slumped, with drooping shoulders, knees and toes pointed inwardly, and the general air of a m a n who's been beaten down by life. Noiret, who plays a South American writer in exile on an Italian island, is wearing a crisp white suit, loose and baggy but impeccably clean. His body attitude exudes confidence: Tall and straight, with his h a n d s casually in his pockets, he walks with a jaunty air. He's a m a n who knows w h o he is.

(Miramax Films)

t h o u g h she j u s t s t e p p e d o u t of a Max Factor salon after receiving t h e Deluxe Treatment. In realistic c o n t e m p o r a r y stories, c o s t u m e s a r e often b o u g h t off t h e rack r a t h e r t h a n individually d e s i g n e d . T h i s is especially t r u e in stories d e a l i n g with o r d i n a r y p e o p l e , p e o p l e w h o buy t h e i r c l o t h e s i n d e p a r t m e n t stores. W h e n t h e c h a r a c t e r s are lower class o r poor, c o s t u m e r s often p u r c h a s e u s e d c l o t h i n g . For e x a m p l e , in On the Waterfront, which deals with d o c k w o r k e r s a n d o t h e r working-class c h a r a c t e r s , t h e c o s t u m e s a r e frayed a n d t o r n . C o s t u m e r A n n a Hill J o h n s t o n e b o u g h t t h e m i n u s e d c l o t h i n g stores i n t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d adjoining the waterfront area. C o s t u m e s , t h e n , r e p r e s e n t a n o t h e r l a n g u a g e system in movies, a symbolic f o r m o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a t can b e a s c o m p l e x a n d revealing a s t h e o t h e r l a n g u a g e systems filmmakers use. A systematic analysis of a c o s t u m e i n c l u d e s a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e following characteristics: 1. Period. W h a t e r a d o e s t h e c o s t u m e fall into? Is it an a c c u r a t e r e c o n s t r u c tion? If n o t , why? 2. Class. W h a t is t h e a p p a r e n t i n c o m e level of t h e p e r s o n w e a r i n g t h e costume? 327

7-28. The Breakfast Club (U.S.A., 1984), with Judd Nelson, Ally Sheedy, Emilio Estevez, Molly Ringwald, and Anthony Michael Hall; written and directed by John Hughes. "Clothing is a wonderful doorway that most easily leads you to the heart of an individual," author Tom Wolfe has noted."It's how characters reveal themselves." Costumer Ellen Mirojnick concurs, adding that you can read 95 percent of a character entirely from visuals and body language. In many American high schools, the symbolism of clothing is intensely important in preserving one's status and public image. The main characters in this film (pictured) all conform to well-known high school stereotypes: "the criminal," "the basket case" (down below, in hiding), "the jock," "the princess," and "the brain." As the characters gradually strip off layers of psychic protection, they also begin to shed some of their outer garments, which are, after all, jUSt Coverings.

(Universal City Studios)

3. Sex. Does a w o m a n ' s c o s t u m e e m p h a s i z e h e r femininity or is it n e u t r a l or m a s c u l i n e ? D o e s a m a n ' s c o s t u m e e m p h a s i z e his virility or is it fussy o r effeminate? 4. Age. Is t h e c o s t u m e a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e c h a r a c t e r ' s age or is it deliberately t o o youthful, dowdy, or old-fashioned? 5. Silhouette. Is t h e c o s t u m e formfitting or loose a n d baggy? 6. Fabric. Is t h e m a t e r i a l coarse, sturdy, a n d plain or s h e e r a n d delicate? 7. Accessories. D o e s t h e c o s t u m e i n c l u d e jewelry, hats, c a n e s , a n d o t h e r accessories? W h a t k i n d of shoes? 8. Color. W h a t a r e t h e symbolic i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e colors? A r e they "hot" o r "cool"? S u b d u e d o r b r i g h t ? Solids o r p a t t e r n s ? 9. Body exposure. H o w m u c h of t h e b o d y is revealed or c o n c e a l e d ? T h e m o r e b o d y revealed, t h e m o r e erotic t h e c o s t u m e . 10. Function. Is t h e c o s t u m e m e a n t for leisure or for work? Is it m e a n t to i m p r e s s by its b e a u t y a n d s p l e n d o r , or is it m e r e l y utilitarian? 1 1 . Body attitude. W h a t a b o u t t h e w e a r e r ' s p o s t u r e ? P r o u d a n d tall? Or caved i n a n d e m b a r r a s s e d ? 12. Image. W h a t is t h e overall i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e c o s t u m e creates—sexy, c o n s t r i c t i n g , b o r i n g , gaudy, c o n v e n t i o n a l , e c c e n t r i c , p r i m , c h e a p l o o k i n g , elegant?

7-29. Publicity p h o t o of Marilyn Monroe in The Seven Year Itch (U.S.A., 1955), directed by Billy Wilder. Variations of this image have b e c o m e i c o n o g r a p h i c in American culture, replicated millions of times, and recognized by virtually everyone on the planet. Why did this image in particular capture the imagination of so m a n y people? Perhaps it was the costume. (1) The period of the g a r m e n t is 1955, but so classic in its lines that variations of the dress can still be found in stores. (2) The class of the dress is middle to upper-middle: It's an elegant, well-made party dress. (3) The sex is feminine in the extreme, emphasizing such erotic details as a plunging neckline and bare a r m s and back. (4) The age level would be suitable to any m a t u r e young w o m a n (from the late teens to the mid-thirties) in good physical shape. (5) The silhouette is formfitting from the waist up, emphasizing Marilyn's famous breasts. The accordion-pleated flare skirt ordinarily would obscure her shape below the waist, but the updraft from the subway below swooshes the skirt toward her face. Her gesture of holding the skirt down near the crotch suggests a childish innocence and spontaneity. (6) The fabric is lightweight, suitable for a s u m m e r evening, probably a silk/cotton blend. (7) The accessories include only the circular earrings (hard to see in this photo) and the high-heeled strap sandals. The shoes are sexy and delicate, but not very practical. They m a k e her look p a m p e r e d and vulnerable and easy to catch. (8), The dress's color is white—pure, clean, untouched by the city's dirt. (9) There is quite a bit of body exposure—the arms, shoulders, back, cleavage, and—at least h e r e — m u c h of the upper thighs. (10) The function of the dress is recreational, not workrelated. It's m e a n t to attract attention. It's a dress to have fun in. (11) Marilyn's body attitude is childish e x u b e r a n c e — s h e ' s not in the least a s h a m e d or e m b a r r a s s e d by her body and wears the outfit with confidence. (12) The general image suggests innocence, femininity, spontaneity, and a riveting sexual allure. (Twentieth Century-Fox)

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7-30. Greystoke: The Legend of Tarzan, Lord of the Apes (Great Britain, 1984), directed by Hugh Hudson. Viewers are astonished by the extraordinary expressiveness of the apes in this movie, so uncanny in their ability to mimic human emotions that they almost seem h u m a n . Even more astonishing is the fact that the ape characters are human— they were played by actors wearing the brilliant makeup and costumes designed by Rick Baker and Paul Engelsen. (Warner Bros.)

M a k e u p i n t h e c i n e m a i s generally s u b t l e r t h a n o n stage. T h e theatrical a c t o r uses m a k e u p primarily to e n l a r g e his or h e r features so they'll be visible from l o n g distances. O n t h e s c r e e n , m a k e u p t e n d s t o b e m o r e u n d e r s t a t e d , a l t h o u g h C h a p l i n u s e d stage m a k e u p for t h e t r a m p c h a r a c t e r b e c a u s e h e was generally p h o t o g r a p h e d i n l o n g shot. Even t h e m o s t delicate c h a n g e s i n m a k e u p can be p e r c e i v e d in t h e c i n e m a . Mia Farrow's pale g r e e n face in Rosemary's Baby, for e x a m p l e , was u s e d to suggest t h e progressive c o r r u p t i o n of h e r b o d y while s h e is p r e g n a n t with t h e devil's child. Similarly, t h e g h o u l i s h m a k e u p of t h e actors in Fellini's Satyricon suggests t h e d e g e n e r a c y a n d death-inlife aspect of t h e R o m a n p o p u l a t i o n of t h e p e r i o d . In The Graduate, A n n e Bancroft is a l m o s t chalk white in t h e s c e n e w h e r e she is b e t r a y e d by h e r lover. In Tom Jones, R i c h a r d s o n u s e d e l a b o r a t e , artificial m a k e u p on t h e city c h a r a c t e r s like Lady Bellaston to suggest t h e i r deceitfulness a n d d e c a d e n c e . (In t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c o m e d y of m a n n e r s , cosmetics are a favorite s o u r c e of i m a g e r y t o suggest falseness a n d hypocrisy.) T h e c o u n t r y c h a r a c t e r s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , especially S o p h y W e s t e r n , are m a d e u p m o r e naturally, with n o wigs, p o w d e r , a n d p a t c h e s . 330

7-31. Aladdin (U.S.A., 1992), directed by John Musker and Ron Clements. Animation offers unlimited possibilities in t e r m s of costumes, settings, a n d special effects precisely because they are all drawn into the image. It's just as easy (and just as cheap) t o , draw a magic carpet flying over Arabia as it is to draw two people talking in an ordinary room. Animation is able to whisk us off to fantastic worlds with the whirl of a paintbrush and a sprinkling swirl of sparkles. Not to speak of the witty transformations of a fast-talking genie, voiced by Robin Williams in his most manic m o t o r m o u t h mode. (©The watt Disney Company, MI Rights Reserved.)

C i n e m a t i c m a k e u p is closely associated with t h e type of p e r f o r m e r w e a r i n g it. In g e n e r a l , stars p r e f e r m a k e u p t h a t t e n d s to g l a m o r i z e t h e m . M o n r o e , G a r b o , a n d H a r l o w usually h a d a n e t h e r e a l quality. M a r l e n e Dietrich p r o b ably knew m o r e a b o u t m a k e u p t h a n any star o f h e r g e n e r a t i o n — g l a m o u r m a k e u p , t h a t is. Straight actors a n d a c t o r stars a r e less c o n c e r n e d with g l a m o u r unless t h e c h a r a c t e r s t h e y ' r e playing a r e in fact g l a m o r o u s . In an effort to subm e r g e t h e i r own personalities, s u c h p e r f o r m e r s often use m a k e u p t o disfigure t h e familiarity of t h e i r features. B r a n d o a n d Olivier were particularly likely to wear false noses, wigs, a n d d i s t o r t i n g cosmetics. Because O r s o n Welles was k n o w n primarily for playing s t r o n g d o m i n e e r i n g roles, h e r e s o r t e d t o such tricks in m a k e u p to m a x i m i z e t h e differences b e t w e e n his roles. N o n p r o f e s sional players p r o b a b l y wear t h e least a m o u n t o f m a k e u p , since t h e y ' r e c h o s e n precisely b e c a u s e o f t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n g a n d a u t h e n t i c physical a p p e a r a n c e . In e x p l o r i n g t h e d r a m a t i c aspects of a movie, we o u g h t to ask ourselves h o w t i m e , space, a n d l a n g u a g e a r e e x p l o i t e d . If t h e film is a theatrical a d a p t a tion, was t h e play o p e n e d up or did t h e d i r e c t o r c o n f i n e t h e action to a limited playing area? Why? C o u l d t h e movie b e a d a p t e d for t h e stage? H o w p r o m i n e n t is t h e d i r e c t o r ' s h a n d in t h e film? W h a t k i n d of sets a r e u s e d a n d why? W h a t do 33 1

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t h e c o s t u m e s tell us a b o u t t h e i r wearers? Is t h e m a k e u p slight a n d realistic or a r e t h e a c t o r s ' faces totally a l t e r e d cosmetically?

FURTHER READING BARSACQ, LEON, Odigari's Cabinets and Other Grand Illusions: A History of Film Design (New York: New American Library, 1978). Copiously illustrated, written by a distinguished F r e n c h designer. CHIERICHEITI, DAVID, Hollywood Costume Design (New York: H a r m o n y Books, 1976). Lavishly illustrated. GAINES, JANE M., a n d CHARLOTTE HER/.OC;, Fabrications: Costume and the Female Body (NewYork: R o u d e d g e , 1990). Feminist emphasis. GARNETT, TAY. Directing ( L a n h a m , Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1996). A filmmaker queries fellow directors about their art. HEISNER, BEVERLY, Hollywood Art (Jefferson, N . G a n d L o n d o n : McFarland, 1990). Art direction d u r i n g the big-studio era. LOBRUTTO, VINCENT, ed. By Design (NewYork: Praeger, 1992). Interviews with movie p r o d u c tion designers. MCCONATHY, DALE, a n d DIANA VREEIAND, Hollywood Costume (finglewood Cliff's, N.J.: PrenticeHall, 1977). Lavishly illustrated, authoritative. MORDDEN, ETHAN, The Hollywood Studios (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988). A well-written a c c o u n t of t h e " h o u s e style" of the major studios of the g o l d e n a g e — t h e 1930s a n d 1940s. NEUMANN, DIETRICH, ed. Film Architecture: Set Designs from Metropolis to Blade R u n n e r (Munich, L o n d o n , NewYork: Prestel, 1999). Generously illustrated. ROACH, MARY ELLEN, a n d JOANNE BUBOLZ EICHER, Dress, Adornment and the Social Order (New York: J o h n Wiley, 1965). A collection of useful articles.

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Overview Stories: s h o w i n g and telling. Narratology. W h o ' s telling the story? Voice-over narrators: characters as storytellers. Realistic, classical, and formalist narratives. Story versus plot. T h e role of the spectator: co-creator in making m e a n i n g . Meaning from outside: star iconography, genre expectations, the s y m b o l i c implications of titles, credit s e q u e n c e s , the musical score. The seductive lure of w h a t h a p p e n s next? Classical narrative structure: s h a p i n g the conflict, motivating the action. The narrative e l e g a n c e of Buster Keaton's The General. Realistic narratives. Realism as a style: t h e illusion of being "lifelike." Slice-of-life, o p e n - e n d e d stories. The pretense of authorial neutrality. Realism's tradition of "shocking" e x p o s e s . Formalistic narratives: the i m p o r t a n c e of pattern and design as v a l u e s in t h e m s e l v e s . Intrusive narrators: brazen m a n i p u l a t i o n of the storytelling apparatus. Nonfictional narratives: d o c u m e n t a r i e s and avant-garde films. N e w t e c h n o l o g i e s , n e w truths: cinema verite. Neutrality versus propaganda. Genre and m y t h . Screwball c o m e d i e s , coming-of-age films, musicals, s c i e n c e fiction. The n e e d to repeat: genre cycles. Primitive, classical, revisionist, and parodic p h a s e s of a genre's evolution. Jung and Freud. The social n e e d for myths.

Since a n c i e n t times, p e o p l e have b e e n intrigued by the seductive powers of s t o r y t e l l i n g . In The Poetics, Aristotle d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n two types of fict i o n a l n a r r a t i v e s : mimesis ( s h o w i n g ) a n d diegesis ( t e l l i n g ) . Mimesis is t h e p r o v i n c e of t h e live t h e a t e r , w h e r e t h e e v e n t s "tell t h e m s e l v e s . " Diegesis, t h e p r o v i n c e of t h e l i t e r a r y e p i c a n d t h e novel, is a s t o r y t o l d by a n a r r a t o r w h o is s o m e t i m e s r e l i a b l e , s o m e t i m e s n o t . C i n e m a c o m b i n e s b o t h f o r m s o f storyt e l l i n g a n d h e n c e i s a m o r e c o m p l e x m e d i u m , with a w i d e r r a n g e o f n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s a t its d i s p o s a l ( 8 - 1 ) . 8-1. Angela's Ashes (U.S.A., 1999), with Joe Breen (front center), directed by Alan Parker. Though the book and movie versions of Angela's Ashes tell the s a m e story, the emotional effect of each is different, reflecting the strengths and weaknesses of diegesis (telling) versus mimesis (showing). Frank McCourt's literary m e m o i r of his impoverished Irish childhood was considered "relentlessly bleak" by m a n y critics. Nonetheless, it was a huge success, winning a Pulitzer Prize for nonfiction. The book was also translated into 25 languages and sold over 6 million copies in 30 countries. Critical c o m m e n t a t o r s noted how the m e m o i r ' s portrayal of appalling poverty is balanced by McCourt's frequent use of humor. In adapting the book into a screenplay, Alan Parker and Laura Jones tried to preserve this balance, but the movie version s e e m s m u c h harsher and more depressing because the grim visuals totally overpower the voice-over narrator's occasional h u m o r o u s observations. The book's delicate balance b e t w e e n pathos and c o m e d y was lost, and the movie was not a commercial success, even though McCourt expressed strong admiration for Parker's work. (Paramount Pictures and Polygram Holding. Inc.)

8-2a. Speed (U.S.A., 1994), with Keanu Reeves and Sandra Bullock, directed by Jan De Bont. (twentieth Century-Fox)

8-2b. The Home and the World (India, 1984), with Victor Bannerjee and Soumitra Chatterjee, directed by Satyajit Ray.

(European Classic)

Ever since the silent era, c o m m e n t a t o r s have remarked on how "fast" American films move c o m p a r e d to the "slow" Europeans and the "very slow" movies of Asia. Even today, American films feature narratives that jump-start almost immediately and drive relentlessly toward a climactic explosion of action. Speed, for example, is about a psychopath who plants a b o m b on a bus, which must be driven above 50 m p h or it'll explode, killing all its passengers. The task of driving the vehicle through city traffic falls on the Bullock character, who is totally out of her element, though she is guided in her heroic efforts by a resourceful police officer (Reeves). Everything in the story is geared toward a fast-moving narrative: the very premise of the film, the time limit, the speed limit, the volatile urban environment, and the tense cross-cutting between the heroes and the villains. The Home and the World is an adaptation of a novel by the Indian Nobel laureate, Rabindranath Tagore. Set in the early twentieth century, the movie is a subtle psychological study of a triangle involving a rich, liberal, and high-caste Hindu who urges his wife (Chatterjee) to e m e r g e from the traditional purdah (seclusion) to m e e t his best friend, a charismatic revolutionary (Bannerjee). Ironically, she eventually falls in love with the friend. The story moves slowly, emphasizing the heroine's insecure, tentative steps toward intellectual independence. There are very few big dramatic scenes, for she rarely ventures outside her h o m e . The action is mostly interior—psychological and spiritual rather than physical. Realist film artists like the great Satyajit Ray are usually at their best when the action is slowed down to correspond to the rhythms of nature. Such stories require more patience than the lapel-grabbing urgency of a movie like Speed. Each movie provides its own kind of pleasure, each at its own natural pace. 335

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Scholars in m o d e r n times have also s t u d i e d n a r r a t i v e f o r m s , with m o s t of t h e focus d e v o t e d to l i t e r a t u r e , film, a n d d r a m a . Narratology, as this n e w i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y field was called in t h e 1980s, is a study of h o w stories work, h o w we m a k e sense of t h e raw materials of a n a r r a t i v e , h o w we fit t h e m t o g e t h e r to f o r m a c o h e r e n t w h o l e . It is also t h e study of different n a r r a t i v e structures, storytelling strategies, aesthetic conventions, types of stories (genres), a n d their symbolic implications. In traditional terms, narratologists are interested in the "rhetoric" of storytelling; t h a t is, t h e forms t h a t "message s e n d e r s " use to c o m m u n i c a t e with "message receivers." In c i n e m a , a p r o b l e m with this triadic c o m m u n i c a t i o n s m o d e l i s d e t e r m i n i n g w h o t h e s e n d e r is. T h e i m p l i e d a u t h o r i s t h e f i l m m a k e r . However, m a n y stories a r e n o t c r e a t e d by a single storyteller. Multiple a u t h o r s h i p of scripts is c o m m o n , especially in t h e U n i t e d States, w h e r e t h e story is often p i e c e d t o g e t h e r b y p r o d u c e r s , d i r e c t o r s , writers, a n d s t a r s — a truly j o i n t e n t e r p r i s e . Even p r e s t i g i o u s filmmakers like Fellini, Kurosawa, a n d T r u f f a u t p r e f e r r e d c o l l a b o r a t i n g with o t h e r s in c r e a t i n g t h e events of a story. T h e p r o b l e m of t h e elusive film a u t h o r is c o m p l i c a t e d w h e n a movie has a voice-over n a r r a t i o n ( 8 - 5 ) . Usually this off-screen n a r r a t o r is also a c h a r a c t e r 8-3. Boogie Nights (U.S.A., 1997), with Mark Wahlberg and Burt Reynolds, written and directed by Paul Thomas Anderson. S o m e film artists are more concerned with exploring their characters than with creating a strong storyline. Anderson's fascinating portrayal of a young porn star (Wahlberg) and his "family" of work associates in the 1970s and early 1980s captures an era of radically changing sexual values in America. The narrative structure is loose and rambling, a c c o m m o d a t i n g a wide variety of off-beat characters and events. Anderson's e m p h a s i s is on the d a m a g e d — a n d often surprisingly sympathetic—people in the pornography industry of the period. (New Line Cinema)

8-4. Masculine-Feminine (France, 1966), with Chantal Goya and Jean-Pierre Leaud, directed by Jean-Luc Godard, "I consider myself an essayist," Godard said, "producing essays in novel form or novels in essay form: only instead of writing, i film them." Godard's cinematic essays are a frontal attack on the dominance of classical cinema. "The Americans are good at storytelling," he noted, "the French are not. Flaubert and Proust can't tell stories. They do something else. So does the cinema. I prefer to use a kind of tapestry, a background on which I can embroider on my own ideas." Instead of scripts, Godard set up dramatic situations, then asked his actors to improvise their dialogue, as in this interview scene—a technique he derived from the documentary movement called cinema verite. He intersperses these scenes with digressions, opinions, and jokes. Above all, he wanted to capture the spontaneity of the m o m e n t , which he believed was more authentic when he and his actors had to fend for themselves, without the security of a script. "If you know in advance everything you are going to do, it isn't worth doing," Godard insisted. "If a show is all written down, what is the point of filming it? What use is cinema if it trails after literature?" See also Louis D. Giannetti, "Godard's Masculine-Feminine: The Cinematic Essay," in Godard and Others: Essays in Film Form (Cranbury, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1975). (ColumbiaPictures)

i n t h e story a n d h e n c e h a s a vested i n t e r e s t i n " h e l p i n g " u s i n t e r p r e t t h e events. A film's n a r r a t o r is n o t necessarily n e u t r a l . N o r is he or s h e necessarily t h e filmm a k e r ' s m o u t h p i e c e . S o m e t i m e s t h e n a r r a t o r — a s i n t h e f i r s t - p e r s o n novel—is t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r of a m o v i e . (For a fuller discussion of t h e s e ideas, see t h e " S p o k e n L a n g u a g e " s e c t i o n of C h a p t e r 5 a n d " P o i n t of View" in C h a p t e r 9.) N a r r a t i o n also differs a c c o r d i n g to a m o v i e ' s style. In r e a l i s t i c films, t h e i m p l i e d a u t h o r is virtually invisible. T h e e v e n t s "speak for t h e m s e l v e s , " as t h e y d o i n m o s t stage plays. T h e s t o r y s e e m s t o u n f o l d automatically, usually i n chronological sequence. In c l a s s i c a l n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s , we a r e g e n e r a l l y a w a r e of a s h a p i n g h a n d in the storyline. Boring gaps in the narrative are edited o u t by a discreet storyteller, w h o k e e p s a low profile yet still k e e p s t h e a c t i o n on track, m o v i n g t o w a r d a specific d e s t i n a t i o n — t h e r e s o l u t i o n of t h e s t o r y ' s c e n t r a l conflict. I n f o r m a l i s t i c n a r r a t i v e s , t h e a u t h o r i s overtly m a n i p u l a t i v e , s o m e t i m e s s c r a m b l i n g t h e c h r o n o l o g y o f t h e story o r h e i g h t e n i n g o r r e s t r u c t u r i n g e v e n t s 337

8-5. The Shawshank Redemption (U.S.A., 1994), with Morgan Freeman and Tim Robbins, directed by Frank Darabont. Who tells the story and why? These are two questions every spectator should ask of a story. This movie centers primarily on the character of Andy (Robbins), a man who is imprisoned for killing his wife and her lover. Inside prison he meets Red (Freeman), who becomes his closest friend. The story is narrated by Red in a voice-over. But why him? We never get inside Andy's mind the way we do with Red, who is a more ordinary person, more like us. He never fully understands what's going on in his friend's head, so we (like Red) are limited in our knowledge. We are kept in suspense about Andy until the very end—with its surprise twists. If Andy had told his own story in the first person, there would have been no suspense and no surprises because Andy would have told us in advance what he was going to do. And that's why Red tells the story. See also Sarah Kozloff, Invisible Storytellers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), which analyzes voiceover narration in American fiction films. (Castle Rock Entertainment)

to m a x i m i z e a t h e m a t i c idea. T h e story is told from a subjective perspective, as in Oliver S t o n e ' s p o l e m i c JFK ( 8 - 2 0 ) . N a r r a t o l o g y is often a r c a n e , a n d occasionally i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e , b e c a u s e of its abstract l a n g u a g e a n d j a r g o n . Exotic t e r m s a r e often u s e d to d e s c r i b e traditional c o n c e p t s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e differences b e t w e e n a story a n d its plot s t r u c t u r e (that is, b e t w e e n a n a r r a t i v e ' s c o n t e n t a n d its f o r m ) c a n be e x p r e s s e d in a b e w i l d e r i n g a s s o r t m e n t of t e r m s . Story versus discourse a r e favored by m a n y A m e r i c a n scholars. O t h e r s p r e f e r histoire versus discours, mythos versus logos, or fabula versus syuzhel. W h a t a r e t h e differences b e t w e e n story a n d plot? T h e story can b e d e f i n e d as t h e g e n e r a l subject matter, t h e raw materials of a d r a m a t i c action in c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e . T h e plot, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , involves t h e storyteller's m e t h o d of s u p e r i m p o s i n g a structural p a t t e r n over t h e story. T h e implied a u t h o r motivates the characters a n d provides a cause—effect logic to t h e s e q u e n c e of events. Peter Brooks defines plot as "the design a n d i n t e n t i o n of narrative, what shapes a story a n d gives it a certain direction or 338

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i n t e n t i o n of m e a n i n g . " In short, plot involves t h e implied a u t h o r ' s p o i n t of view as well as t h e s t r u c t u r i n g of the scenes into an aesthetic p a t t e r n .

It's impossible to u n d e r s t a n d a movie w i t h o u t b e i n g actively e n g a g e d in a d y n a m i c interplay with its n a r r a t i v e logic. Most of us have b e e n w a t c h i n g movies a n d television for s o l o n g t h a t w e ' r e hardly aware o f o u r i n s t a n t a n e o u s a d j u s t m e n t s to an u n f o l d i n g plot. We a b s o r b a u d i t o r y a n d visual stimuli at an incredibly r a p i d rate. Like a c o m p l e x c o m p u t e r , o u r b r a i n click-clicks away in m a n y l a n g u a g e systems simultaneously: p h o t o g r a p h i c , spatial, kinetic, vocal, histrionic, musical, sartorial, a n d so o n . But in t h e A m e r i c a n c i n e m a especially, t h e story reigns s u p r e m e . All t h e o t h e r l a n g u a g e systems a r e s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e plot, t h e s t r u c t u r a l s p i n e o f virtually all A m e r i c a n fiction films, a n d m o s t foreign movies as well. David Bordwell a n d o t h e r s have e x p l o r e d h o w t h e s p e c t a t o r is constantly i n t e r a c t i n g with a movie's narrative. We a t t e m p t to s u p e r i m p o s e o u r sense of o r d e r a n d c o h e r e n c e on t h e film's world. In m o s t cases, we b r i n g a set of e x p e c t a t i o n s to a m o v i e even b e f o r e we've s e e n it. O u r k n o w l e d g e of a given e r a or g e n r e leads us to e x p e c t a p r e d i c t a b l e set of variables. For e x a m p l e , m o s t westerns take p l a c e i n t h e late n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d a r e set i n t h e A m e r i c a n w e s t e r n frontier. F r o m b o o k s , TV, a n d o t h e r westerns, we have a r o u g h knowle d g e o f h o w f r o n t i e r p e o p l e w e r e s u p p o s e d t o dress a n d b e h a v e . W h e n narratives fail to act a c c o r d i n g U> t r a d i t i o n , c o n v e n t i o n , or o u r sense of history, as in Mel Brooks's Blazing Saddles, we a r e forced to reassess o u r cognitive m e t h o d s a n d o u r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e n a r r a t i v e . E i t h e r w e adjust t o t h e a u t h o r ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n , o r w e reject t h e o f f e n d i n g i n n o v a t i o n a s i n a p p r o p r i ate, c r u d e , o r self-indulgent. N a r r a t i o n a l strategies a r e often d e t e r m i n e d by g e n r e . For e x a m p l e , in those types of movies t h a t thrive on s u s p e n s e (thrillers, police stories, mysteries), t h e n a r r a t i v e will deliberately w i t h h o l d i n f o r m a t i o n , forcing us to guess, to fill in t h e gaps. In r o m a n t i c c o m e d i e s , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , we generally k n o w t h e o u t c o m e in a d v a n c e . T h e e m p h a s i s is on how boy wins girl (or vice versa), n o t if he or s h e wins. O u r p r i o r k n o w l e d g e of a film's star also defines its n a r r a t i v e p a r a m e ters. We w o u l d n ' t e x p e c t to see Clint Eastwood in a S h a k e s p e r e a n a d a p t a t i o n . Eastwood's e x p e r t i s e is in action g e n r e s , especially w e s t e r n s a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y u r b a n c r i m e stories. W i t h personality stars especially, we can guess t h e essential n a t u r e of a film's n a r r a t i v e in a d v a n c e . W i t h a c t o r stars like Jennifer Lopez, however, we a r e less c e r t a i n a b o u t w h a t to expect, for L o p e z ' s r a n g e is extraordinarily b r o a d . A u d i e n c e s also j u d g e a film in a d v a n c e by t h e c o n n o t a t i o n s of its title. A movie with a m o r o n i c title like Attack of the Killer Bimbos is n o t likely to be shown at t h e prestigious N e w Y o r k Film Festival. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , Lady Windermere's

8-6a. Kolya (Czech Republic, Jan Sverak. (Miramax Films)

1997), with Zdenek Sverak and Andrej Chalimon, directed by

Action and character might almost be viewed as natural enemies in a film's narrative. To get to know a character in depth, it's generally necessary to slow down the story's forward thrust. European filmmakers like Jan Sverak are widely regarded as masters of characterization, in part because the narrative is not forced—it's allowed to move at a realistic pace, as in Kolya. American movies are often criticized for piling on too much action, thus shortchanging the audience of any depth or richness or complexity in the characterization. Movies like Ronin are so packed with nonstop action that critic Richard Schickel compared them to pop versions of action paintings, a kind of cinematic abstract expressionism. Watching such films is like entering a two-dimensional world where the main interest is how the director slapped, slathered, or slashed his colors onto the surface of a canvas. Though he described Ronin as a "sly masterpiece," Schickel believes that "the only message this film wants to convey is that in action movies it's not what you say but how smashingly you say it that counts." 8 - 6 b . Ronin (U.S.A., 1998), with Jean Reno, directed by John Frankenheimer.

(United

Artists)

Sto»*y

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Fan w o u l d p r o b a b l y n o t play at t h e local mall t h e a t e r b e c a u s e of its s o m e w h a t effete, a r i s t o c r a t i c - s o u n d i n g title. Of c o u r s e , t h e r e a r e always e x c e p t i o n s . Sammy and Rosie Get Laid s o u n d s like a p o r n o film, b u t it's actually a r e s p e c t e d ( a n d sexy) British social comedy. Its title is deliberately aggressive, a bit c r u d e . It's m e a n t t o b e . O n c e a movie b e g i n s , we b e g i n to define its n a r r a t i v e limits. T h e style o f t h e credits a n d t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g score h e l p u s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t o n e o f t h e p i c t u r e . I n t h e early e x p o s i t i o n scenes, t h e f i l m m a k e r sets u p t h e story variables a n d m o o d , establishing t h e p r e m i s e t h a t will drive t h e narrative forward. T h e b e g i n n i n g s c e n e s imply h o w t h e n a r r a t i v e will b e d e v e l o p e d a n d w h e r e it's likely t o e n d u p . T h e o p e n i n g e x p o s i t o r y s c e n e s also establish t h e i n t e r n a l "world" o f t h e s t o r y — w h a t ' s possible, w h a t ' s p r o b a b l e , w h a t ' s n o t very likely, a n d s o o n . I n r e t r o s p e c t , t h e r e s h o u l d be no loose t h r e a d s in a story if t h e i m p l i e d a u t h o r has d o n e a careful j o b of f o r e s h a d o w i n g . In F.T.: The lixtra-Terrestrial, for e x a m ple, S p i e l b e r g p r e p a r e s u s for t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l events t h a t o c c u r i n t h e m i d d l e a n d later p o r t i o n s o f t h e m o v i e b e c a u s e t h e o p e n i n g s c e n e (showing u s h o w E . T g o t left b e h i n d by his s p a c e s h i p ) establishes s u p e r n a t u r a l i s m as a n a r r a t i v e variable. > W h e n a critic a s k e d t h e radical i n n o v a t o r J e a n - L u c ( i o d a r d if he believed t h a t a movie s h o u l d have a b e g i n n i n g , m i d d l e , a n d e n d , t h e iconoclastic filmmaker r e p l i e d : "Yes—but n o t necessarily in t h a t order." T h e o p e n i n g e x p o s i t i o n scenes of m o s t movies establish t h e t i m e f r a m e of t h e s t o r y — w h e t h e r it will u n f o l d in flashbacks, in t h e p r e s e n t , or in s o m e c o m b i n a t i o n . T h e e x p o s i t i o n also establishes t h e g r o u n d rules a b o u t fantasy scenes, d r e a m s , a n d t h e stylistic variables associated with t h e s e levels of t h e story ( 8 - 8 ) . 8-7. Longtime Companion (U.S.A., 1990), with Bruce Davison and Campbell Scott, directed by Norman Rene. Many movies are structured around the Grand Hotel formula, so called after the 1932 film that features an assortment of characters who are thrown together in a single location or are unified by a c o m m o n concern or a shared lifestyle. This anthology formula is ideal for exploring multiple narratives, with no single storyline predominating. Longtime Companion centers on a group of (mostly gay) friends and how they cope with a strange new disease—AIDS. The story begins in the early 1980s, with the discovery of the fatal illness, and ends ten years later, after many of the characters have died from it.

(The Samuel Goldwyn Company)

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8-8 8V2 (Italy, 1963), with Sandra Milo and Marcello Mastroianni, directed by Federico Fellini. Although it is o n e of the most admired movies in the history of the cinema, Fellini's masterpiece features a plot that's diabolically baroque. Most viewers are unable to c o m p r e h e n d it all on first viewing because it's constantly shifting levels of consciousness without warning. Fantasies spill over onto reality, which splashes over m e m o r i e s , which fuse with d r e a m s , which turn into nightmares, Which . . . (Embassy Pictures)

An e l a b o r a t e g a m e is played o u t b e t w e e n a c i n e m a t i c narrative a n d t h e spectator. While w a t c h i n g a movie, we m u s t sort o u t i r r e l e v a n t details, h y p o t h e size, test o u r h y p o t h e s e s , r e t r e a t if necessary, a d a p t , f o r m u l a t e e x p l a n a t i o n s , a n d so o n . T h e s p e c t a t o r is constantly subjecting t h e n a r r a t i v e to q u e s t i o n s . Why d o e s t h e h e r o i n e d o that? Why d o e s h e r boyfriend r e s p o n d t h a t way? W h a t will t h e m o t h e r d o now? A n d s o o n . T h e m o r e c o m p l e x t h e plot, t h e m o r e c u n n i n g w e m u s t b e — s o r t i n g , sifting, w e i g h i n g new e v i d e n c e , i n f e r r i n g motives a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s , ever suspicious of b e i n g t a k e n off g u a r d . We constantly m o n i t o r t h e n a r r a t i v e for u n e x p e c t e d reversals, especially in d e c e p t i v e g e n r e s , s u c h as thrillers, detective movies, a n d police films. In short, we a r e n e v e r really passive in t h e face of a film's plot. Even w h e n t h e story is b o r i n g , m e c h a n i c a l , a n d utterly derivative, we still can get s u c k e d i n t o its p l o t m a c h i n a t i o n s . We want to k n o w w h e r e t h e action is l e a d i n g : We c a n find o u t only if we go a l o n g .

8-9a. My Life As a Dog (Sweden, 1985), with Anton Glanzelius (center), directed by Lasse Hallstrdm. (Skouras Pictures)

8-9b. The Insider (U.S.A., 1999), with Russell Crowe, directed by Michael Mann. (© Touchstone Pictures. All Rights Reserved.)

Some movies are so unusual that it's virtually impossible to predict where the plot will lead. In My Life As a Dog, for example, the young hero is separated from his parents and moves in with an eccentric uncle and aunt in a r e m o t e village. His escapades in the country are bizarre, funny, and totally unpredictable. On the other hand, creating s u s p e n s e is very difficult w h e n audiences already know the outcome of a story. For example, The Insider focuses on Dr. Jeffrey Wigand (Crowe), whose life was almost ruined when he blew the whistle on the tobacco industry by exposing its lies and hypocrisy on the television news magazine, 60 Minutes. Despite its artistic excellence, the film failed to excite much interest with the public, and it was a box-office disappointment.

The classical paradigm is a t e r m i n v e n t e d by s c h o l a r s to d e s c r i b e a c e r t a i n k i n d o f n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e t h a t h a s d o m i n a t e d fiction film p r o d u c t i o n ever s i n c e t h e 1910s. It's b y far t h e m o s t p o p u l a r type o f story o r g a n i z a t i o n , especially i n t h e U n i t e d States, w h e r e i t r e i g n s virtually u n c h a l l e n g e d . T h e m o d e l i s 343

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called "classical" b e c a u s e it's a n o r m of actual practice, n o t necessarily b e c a u s e of a h i g h d e g r e e of artistic e x c e l l e n c e . In o t h e r words, b a d movies as well as g o o d o n e s use this n a r r a t i v e f o r m u l a . Derived from t h e live theater, t h e classical p a r a d i g m is a set of c o n v e n tions, n o t rules. T h i s n a r r a t i v e m o d e l is b a s e d on a conflict b e t w e e n a p r o t a g o nist, w h o initiates t h e a c t i o n , a n d an a n t a g o n i s t , w h o resists it. Most films in this f o r m b e g i n with a n i m p l i e d d r a m a t i c q u e s t i o n . W e want t o k n o w h o w t h e p r o tagonist will get w h a t he or s h e wants in t h e face of c o n s i d e r a b l e o p p o s i t i o n . T h e following scenes intensify this conflict in a rising p a t t e r n of a c t i o n . T h i s escalation is t r e a t e d in t e r m s of cause-effect, with e a c h s c e n e implying a link to the next. T h e conflict builds to its m a x i m u m tension in t h e climax. H e r e , t h e p r o tagonist a n d a n t a g o n i s t clash overtly. O n e wins, t h e o t h e r loses. After t h e i r confrontation, t h e d r a m a t i c intensity subsides in the resolution. T h e story e n d s with

8-10. The classical p a r a d i g m . Aristotle implicitly suggested the structure of classical d r a m a in The Poetics, but it was not until the nineteenth century that the inverted V structure was d i a g r a m m e d by the German, scholar Gustav Freytag. This type of narrative structure begins with an overt conflict, which is increasingly intensified with the rising action of the following scenes. Details that don't relate to this conflict are eliminated or kept incidental. The battle between the main character and his or her antagonists reaches its highest pitch in the climax. In the resolution, the strands of the story are tied up and life returns to normal with a closing off of the action. CLIMAX

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s o m e k i n d of f o r m a l closure—traditionally a w e d d i n g or a d a n c e in c o m e d i e s , a d e a t h in tragedies, a r e u n i o n or r e t u r n to n o r m a l in d r a m a s . T h e final s h o t — because of its privileged position—is often m e a n t to be a philosophical overview of s o m e kind, a s u m m i n g up of t h e significance of t h e previous material. T h e classical p a r a d i g m e m p h a s i z e s d r a m a t i c unity, plausible motivations, a n d c o h e r e n c e of its c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s . E a c h s h o t is seamlessly e l i d e d to t h e n e x t in an effort to p r o d u c e a s m o o t h flow of action, a n d often a sense of inevitability. To a d d u r g e n c y to t h e conflict, filmmakers s o m e t i m e s i n c l u d e s o m e k i n d o f d e a d l i n e , t h u s intensifying t h e e m o t i o n . D u r i n g t h e Hollywood studio e r a especially, classical s t r u c t u r e s often f e a t u r e d d o u b l e p l o t lines, in which a r o m a n t i c love story was d e v e l o p e d to parallel t h e m a i n line of a c t i o n . In love stories, a c o m i c s e c o n d c o u p l e often p a r a l l e l e d t h e m a i n lovers. Classical p l o t s t r u c t u r e s a r e l i n e a r a n d often take t h e f o r m of a j o u r n e y , a chase, or a s e a r c h . Even t h e c h a r a c t e r s a r e d e f i n e d primarily in t e r m s of w h a t they d o . "Action is c h a r a c t e r " insists Syd Field, t h e a u t h o r of several h a n d b o o k s on s c r e e n w r i t i n g . " W h a t a p e r s o n d o e s is what he is, n o t w h a t he says." Field a n d o t h e r advocates of t h e classical p a r a d i g m a r e n o t very i n t e r e s t e d in passive c h a r a c t e r s — p e o p l e t o w h o m things a r e d o n e . ( T h e s e types o f c h a r a c t e r s are m o r e typical in foreign films.) Classicists favor c h a r a c t e r s w h o a r e goal o r i e n t e d so t h a t we c a n take a r o o t i n g i n t e r e s t in t h e i r p l a n s of a c t i o n . Field's c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l is e x p r e s s e d in traditional theatrical t e r m s ( 8 - 1 1 ) . A s c r e e n p l a y is c o m p o s e d of t h r e e acts. Act I, "Setup," o c c u p i e s t h e first q u a r t e r of t h e script. It establishes t h e d r a m a t i c p r e m i s e : W h a t is t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r ' s goal a n d what obstacles a r e likely to get in t h e way of its a t t a i n m e n t ? Act II, " C o n f r o n t a t i o n , " consists of t h e m i d d l e two q u a r t e r s of t h e story, with a major reversal of f o r t u n e at t h e m i d p o i n t . This p o r t i o n of t h e screenplay c o m plicates t h e conflict with p l o t twists a n d an i n c r e a s i n g sense of urgency, s h o w i n g t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r fighting against obstacles. Act III, "Resolution," c o n s t i t u t e s

8-11. According to Syd Field, the narrative structure of a movie can be broken d o w n into three acts. T h e story s h o u l d contain a b o u t ten to twenty "plot points," major twists or key events in t h e action. At t h e m i d p o i n t of t h e s e c o n d act, there is usually a big reversal of expectations, s e n d i n g t h e action s p i n n i n g in a new direction. Although t h e diagram might not be helpful in analyzing m o s t realistic or formalistic narratives, it is surprisingly apt in movies using a classical structure.

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t h e final q u a r t e r of t h e story. T h i s section d r a m a t i z e s w h a t h a p p e n s as a result of t h e climactic c o n f r o n t a t i o n . O n e of t h e greatest plots in t h e history of c i n e m a is f o u n d in B u s t e r Keaton\s The General, a t e x t b o o k e x a m p l e of t h e classical p a r a d i g m . It fits Freytag's i n v e r t e d V s t r u c t u r e as well as Field's three-act play a p p r o a c h . As Daniel Moews has p o i n t e d o u t , all of K e a t o n ' s feature-length c o m e d i e s use t h e s a m e basic c o m i c f o r m u l a . Buster b e g i n s as a s i n c e r e b u t clumsy g r e e n h o r n w h o b u n gles every a t t e m p t to i n g r a t i a t e himself with a p e r s o n he h o l d s in awe—usually a p r e t t y girl. At t h e c o n c l u s i o n of t h e day, he falls asleep, lonely, d e p r e s s e d , a n d dispirited. W h e n he awakens, h e ' s a n e w m a n . He goes on to s u c c e e d , usually at t h e s a m e or parallel activities of t h e earlier p o r t i o n s of t h e m o v i e . A Civil War c o m e d y loosely b a s e d on an actual event, The General is laid o u t with t h e narrative e l e g a n c e of a play by C o n g r e v e . T h e first act establishes t h e two loves in t h e h e r o ' s life: his train, The General, a n d A n n a b e l l e L e e , his s o m e w h a t flaky girlfriend. His only friends, apparently, are two p r e p u b e s c e n t boys. ( A m o n g o t h e r things, t h e movie is a coming-of-age story.) W h e n war is

8-12. An o u t l i n e of t h e plot s t r u c t u r e of The General. The plot moves forward with such s m o o t h n e s s and poise that we're hardly aware of its dazzling s y m m e t r y until the second chase, w h e n most of the earlier gag clusters are triu m p h a n t l y reprised.

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d e c l a r e d , o u r h e r o , J o h n n i e Gray, trying to i m p r e s s his girl, a t t e m p t s to enlist. But h e ' s rejected by t h e a u t h o r i t i e s : H e ' s m o r e valuable to t h e S o u t h as an engineer. T h r o u g h a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , A n n a b e l l e thinks J o h n n i e is a coward. "I d o n ' t w a n t you to s p e a k to me again until you a r e in u n i f o r m , " s h e h a u g h t i l y informs h i m . E n d of Act I. A full year is e d i t e d o u t of t h e story as we b e g i n Act II. ( T h e rest of t h e movie covers only a b o u t twenty-four h o u r s . ) We see t h e p l a n s of t h e U n i o n officers to hijack a C o n f e d e r a t e train, t h e r e b y c u t t i n g off t h e supply lines of t h e S o u t h e r n army. T h e Y a n k e e l e a d e r ' s m a p shows t h e m a j o r stops a n d rivers a l o n g t h e railroad r o u t e . In fact, this m a p is a g e o g r a p h i c a l o u t l i n e of Act II. On t h e day t h a t t h e hijacking is to take p l a c e , A n n a b e l l e L e e b o a r d s J o h n n i e ' s train t o visit h e r w o u n d e d father. She s n u b s h e r f o r m e r suitor. T h e hijacking of t h e train sets off t h e rising action. T h e s e c o n d q u a r t e r of t h e movie is a chase s e q u e n c e : J o h n n i e p u r s u e s t h e stolen General (with A n n a b e l l e on b o a r d ) as it flees n o r t h w a r d . T h e r e a r e a series of gag clusters, e a c h involving different p r o p s , s u c h as t e l e g r a p h wires, switched tracks, a w a t e r tower, a cann o n ( 8 - 1 3 ) , a n d so o n . J o h n n i e is usually t h e butt of t h e jokes. A t t h e m i d p o i n t o f t h e f i l m , o u r h e r o sneaks i n t o t h e e n e m y ' s c a m p , a l o n e a n d e x h a u s t e d . N o n e t h e l e s s , h e m a n a g e s t o rescue A n n a b e l l e . T h e y fall asleep in t h e w o o d s in a d o w n p o u r , d i s c o u r a g e d , a l m o s t w i p e d o u t .

8-13. 77ie General (U.S.A., 1927), with Buster Keaton, directed by Keaton and Clyde Bruckman. Silent film comedians were masters of improvisation, capable of spinning off a profusion of gags with a single prop. For example, the gag cluster involving this cannon is a miniature drama, complete with exposition, variations on a t h e m e that constitute the rising action, and a thrilling climax that serves as a topper to the sequence. Even more extraordinary, Keaton and his regular crew never used written scripts or shooting schedules. They knew only the premise of the film and its conclusion. The rest was improvised. They shot for about eight weeks, making due allowances for baseball g a m e s between scenes. Later, Keaton viewed all the footage, edited out the dull stuff, and created the narrative structure. (UnitedArtists)

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T h e n e x t day, a s e c o n d chase begins, reversing t h e p a t t e r n of t h e previous day, a n d t a k i n g u p t h e t h i r d q u a r t e r o f t h e plot. N o w t h e j o k e s a r e inflicted o n t h e p u r s u i n g Yankees a s J o h n n i e a n d A n n a b e l l e s p e e d s o u t h w a r d i n t h e r e c a p t u r e d General. T h e g a g clusters a r e also reversed. Most of t h e m a r e parallels to t h o s e of t h e first c h a s e : t e l e g r a p h wires, logs on t h e tracks, a w a t e r tower, a b u r n i n g b r i d g e , a n d s o o n . J u s t i n time, J o h n n i e a n d A n n a b e l l e arrive a t t h e C o n f e d e r a t e c a m p a n d w a r n t h e t r o o p s o f a n i m p e n d i n g U n i o n attack. Act III is a b a t t l e s e q u e n c e b e t w e e n t h e two g r e a t a r m i e s . J o h n n i e shows himself to be a d o g g e d l y p e r s e v e r a n t soldier, t h o u g h n o t always a successful o n e . He is r e w a r d e d for his h e r o i s m with a c o m m i s s i o n in t h e army. He also wins b a c k t h e love of his girl. All e n d s happily. K e a t o n ' s n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e follows a n elaborately c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d p a t t e r n , i n which t h e e a r l i e r h u m i l i a t i o n s a r e t r i u m p h a n t l y c a n c e l e d o u t o n t h e s e c o n d day. D e s c r i b e d t h u s schematically, K e a t o n ' s plots s o u n d r a t h e r m e c h a n i c a l . B u t as his F r e n c h a d m i r e r s have p o i n t e d o u t , his a r c h i t e c t u r a l rigor can be l i k e n e d to t h e works of t h e g r e a t neoclassical artists of t h e eighte e n t h c e n t u r y , with t h e i r intricately w o r k e d o u t parallels a n d neatly b a l a n c e d symmetries. Ordinarily, o n e w o u l d c o n s i d e r such an artificial p l o t s t r u c t u r e as an e x a m p l e of a formalist n a r r a t i v e . However, t h e e x e c u t i o n of e a c h section is rigorously realistic. K e a t o n p e r f o r m e d all his own gags ( m a n y of t h e m d a n g e r o u s ) , usually on t h e first t a k e . He also insisted on a b s o l u t e accuracy in t h e cost u m i n g , t h e sets, a n d even t h e trains, which are historically t r u e t o t h e p e r i o d . T h i s c o m b i n a t i o n of realistic e x e c u t i o n with a formally p a t t e r n e d n a r r a t i v e is typical of classical c i n e m a . Classicism is an i n t e r m e d i a t e style t h a t b l e n d s conv e n t i o n s from b o t h stylistic e x t r e m e s .

Traditionally, critics have l i n k e d realism to "life," formalism with "patt e r n . " Realism is d e f i n e d as an a b s e n c e of style, w h e r e a s style is a p r e e m i n e n t c o n c e r n a m o n g formalists. Realists reject artifice t o p o r t r a y t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d "transparently," w i t h o u t d i s t o r t i o n or even m e d i a t i o n . Conversely, formalists a r e c o n c e r n e d with fantasy materials or throwaway subject m a t t e r to e m p h a s i z e t h e world of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n , of b e a u t y for its own sake. Today, t h e s e views a r e c o n s i d e r e d naive, at least so far as realism is conc e r n e d . C o n t e m p o r a r y critics a n d scholars r e g a r d realism as a style, with an e l a b o r a t e set of c o n v e n t i o n s t h a t are less obvious p e r h a p s , b u t j u s t as artificial as t h o s e used by expressionists. B o t h realistic a n d formalistic narratives a r e p a t t e r n e d a n d m a n i p u lated, b u t t h e realistic storyteller a t t e m p t s t o s u b m e r g e t h e p a t t e r n , t o b u r y i t b e n e a t h t h e surface "clutter" a n d a p p a r e n t r a n d o m n e s s o f t h e d r a m a t i c events. In o t h e r words, t h e p r e t e n s e t h a t a realistic n a r r a t i v e is " u n m a n i p u l a t e d " or "like life" is precisely t h a t — a p r e t e n s e , an aesthetic d e c e p t i o n .

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349

8-14a. Chinatown (U.S.A., 1974), with Faye Dunaway and Jack Nicholson, directed by Roman Polanski. (Paramount

Pictures)

8-14b. A Simple Plan (U.S.A., 1998), with Bill Paxton and Billy Bob Thornton, directed by Sam Raimi. (Paramount

Pictures)'

In genres that d e p e n d on mystery and suspense for their effects, the narrative often withholds information, forcing us to fill in the gaps, teasing and tantalizing us with possible solutions to mysteries that aren't totally resolved until the end of the movie. On the other hand, s o m e thrillers provide the viewer with all the necessary information as it's needed. In A Simple Plan, for example, the e m p h a s i s is as much on character development as it is on action. Scott Smith wrote both the screenplay and the best-selling novel it was based on: "I wanted to portray a group of people who begin digging a deeper and deeper hole for themselves trying to hide something they've done," Smith explained. "They b e c o m e driven, and then panicked, by the fear of getting caught. Desperate people have now turned into dangerous people."

8-15a.

Late Spring (Japan,

directed by Yasujiro Ozu.

1949), with Chishu Ryu (seated) and Setsuko Hara (center),

(New Yorker Films)

Love and Marriage from a realist perspective. One of the most c o m m o n genres in Japan is the h o m e drama. It was the only genre Ozu worked in, and he was one of its most popular practitioners. This type of film deals with the day-to-day routines of domestic life. Although Ozu was a profoundly philosophical artist, his movies consist almost entirely of "little things"—the bitter pills of self-denial that ultimately render life disappointing. Many of Ozu's films have seasonal titles that symbolically evoke appropriate h u m a n analogues. Late Spring, for example, deals with the attempts of a decent widower (Ryu) to marry off his only daughter (Hara) before she wilts into spinsterhood. True Love is a wry exploration of m a l e - f e m a l e tensions in an Italian-American workingclass c o m m u n i t y shortly before the marriage of the two main characters. Like most realistic movies, the plot line is loose. The scenes are arranged in apparently r a n d o m order, and the everyday events are presented matter-of-factly, with no "heightening" for dramatic effect. The dialogue is raw, the language of the streets rather than the genteel living rooms of middle America. The conclusion of the film is ambivalent and ambiguous, with no neat solutions to the complex problems that the movie addresses. 8-15b. True Love (U.S.A., Nancy Savoca. (United Artists)

1989), with Kelly Cinnante and Annabella Sciorra, directed by

S t o r y

35 1

Realists p r e f e r loose, discursive plots, with no clearly d e f i n e d beginn i n g , m i d d l e , o r e n d . W e d i p i n t o t h e story a t a n a r b i t r a r y p o i n t . Usually w e a r e n ' t p r e s e n t e d with a clear-cut conflict, as in classical narratives. Rather, t h e conflict e m e r g e s u n o b t r u s i v e l y from t h e u n f o r c e d events o f t h e e x p o s i t i o n . T h e story itself is p r e s e n t e d as a "slice of life," as a p o e t i c f r a g m e n t , n o t a neatly s t r u c t u r e d tale. Rarely is reality neatly s t r u c t u r e d ; realistic a r t m u s t follow suit. Life goes o n , even after t h e final reel. Realists often b o r r o w t h e i r s t r u c t u r e s from t h e cycles of n a t u r e . For e x a m p l e , m a n y of t h e movies of O z u are given seasonal titles t h a t symbolize an a p p r o p r i a t e h u m a n counterpart—Early Summer, Late Autumn, Early Spring, The End of Summer, Late Spring ( 8 - 1 5 a ) . O t h e r realistic films a r e s t r u c t u r e d a r o u n d a limited p e r i o d of t i m e , like s u m m e r vacation or a school semester. S u c h movies s o m e t i m e s c e n t e r on r i t e s of p a s s a g e , such as b i r t h , puberty, first love, first job, m a r r i a g e , painful s e p a r a t i o n s , d e a t h . Often, we c a n ' t guess t h e p r i n c i p l e of narrative c o h e r e n c e until t h e e n d of t h e movie, especially if it has a circular or cyclical s t r u c t u r e , as m a n y realistic films d o . F o r e x a m p l e , R o b e r t A l t a i a n ' s M*A *S*H o p e n s with t h e fresh arrival of two soldier-surgeons, Hawkeye Pierce a n d D u k e Forrest. T h e movie e n d s w h e n t h e i r t o u r of duty is over. Yet t h e M*A*S*H u n i t will c o n t i n u e saving lives, even after these two e x c e l l e n t s u r g e o n s have left. (This s a m e structural p r i n c i p l e is u s e d in a later military comedy, Barry Levinson's Good Morning, Vietnam.) T h e episodic s t r u c t u r e of M*A*S*H is w h a t a p p e a l e d to t h o s e w h o a d a p t e d it as a television series. Realistic film narratives frequently s e e m episodic, t h e s e q u e n c e o f events a l m o s t i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e . T h e p l o t d o e s n ' t "build" inexorably, b u t s e e m s t o drift i n t o s u r p r i s i n g scenes t h a t d o n ' t necessarily p r o p e l t h e story f o r w a r d . T h e s e are offered for t h e i r own sake, as e x a m p l e s of "real-life" o d d i t i e s . S p e c t a t o r s w h o like fast-moving stories are often i m p a t i e n t with realistic films, w h i c h frequently m o v e slowly. T h i s is especially t r u e in t h e earlier scenes, while we wait for t h e m a i n n a r r a t i v e s t r a n d to e m e r g e . "Digressions" often t u r n o u t t o b e parallels t o t h e c e n t r a l p l o t l i n e . But this parallelism m u s t b e i n f e r r e d ; it's rarely p o i n t e d o u t explicitly. O t h e r traits of realistic narratives i n c l u d e t h e following: 1.

A n o n i n t r u s i v e i m p l i e d a u t h o r w h o " r e p o r t s " objectively a n d avoids making judgments.

2.

A rejection of cliches, stale c o n v e n t i o n s , stock situations a n d c h a r a c t e r s in favor of t h e u n i q u e , t h e c o n c r e t e , t h e specific.

3.

A f o n d n e s s for e x p o s e , with "shocking" or "low" subject m a t t e r t h a t is often criticized for its grittiness a n d "bad taste."

4.

An a n t i s e n t i m e n t a l p o i n t of view t h a t rejects glib h a p p y e n d i n g s , wishful t h i n k i n g , m i r a c u l o u s cures, a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f p h o n y o p t i m i s m .

5.

An a v o i d a n c e of m e l o d r a m a a n d e x a g g e r a t i o n in favor of u n d e r s t a t e ment and dedramatization.

352

S t o r y

8-16. Hate (La Home), (France, 1996), with Vincent Cassel, Said Taghmaoui, and Hubert Kounde; directed by Mathieu Kassovitz. Ever since the late nineteenth century, when it b e c a m e a d o m i n a n t international style in the arts, realism has provoked controversy for its "sordid" or "shocking" subject matter, its preoccupation with details that the conventional majority finds repulsive but fascinating. La Maine caused an uproar in France when it was released. Its uncompromising portrayal of three lower-class thugs (pictured) m a k e s it hard to sympathize with their plight. They are vicious and violent, their language a steady torrent of filth, and their values cynically corrupt. The movie offers very little h o p e for this d o o m e d underclass. Viewers are likely to ask themselves: HOW did the world get this way? (Gramercy Pictures)

6.

A scientific view of causality a n d motivation, with a c o r r e s p o n d i n g rejection of s u c h r o m a n t i c c o n c e p t s as Destiny a n d Fate.

7.

An a v o i d a n c e of t h e lyrical i m p u l s e in favor of a plain, s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d presentation.

Formalistic narratives revel in t h e i r artificiality. T i m e is often s c r a m b l e d a n d r e a r r a n g e d t o h a m m e r h o m e a t h e m a t i c p o i n t m o r e forcefully. T h e design of t h e p l o t is n o t c o n c e a l e d b u t h e i g h t e n e d . It's p a r t of t h e show. Formalistic plots c o m e in a wide a s s o r t m e n t , b u t usually they are s t r u c t u r e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e f i l m m a k e r ' s t h e m e . F o r e x a m p l e , Alfred H i t c h c o c k was obsessed b y t h e m e s d e a l i n g with " d o u b l e s " a n d "the w r o n g m a n " — a technically i n n o c e n t m a n w h o is a c c u s e d of a c r i m e c o m m i t t e d by an u n d e t e c t e d c o u n t e r p a r t .

S t o r y

353

8-17a. The Lion King (U.S.A., 1994), directed by Roger AUers and Rob Minkoff. Movie plots often derive from the weirdest sources. This is a coming-of-age story of a lion cub n a m e d Simba, w h o is next in line to succeed his father, a benevolent and wise leader. But the king's evil brother brings about the m o n a r c h ' s death, and S i m b a ' s destiny is to avenge his father's death and return legitimate rule to the jungle. Sound familiar? The story is a s h a m e l e s s steal from Hamlet, with touches of Oedipus Rex, the story of Moses, Bambi, and The Jungle Book. Pretty C l a s s y Stuff. (© 8-17b. Face/Off (U.S.A., 1997), with Nicolas Cage and John Travolta, directed by John Woo. The narrative structure of this sci-fi thriller is a riff on the symbolic implications of the title. Traditionally, a face-off is a ritualistic dual of s o m e sort (pictured). But in this movie, the two main characters literally e x c h a n g e facial features—a plot device every bit as artificial as S h a k e s p e a r e ' s delight in doubles: twin protagonists, g e n d e r switches, and mistaken identities. By a s s u m ing each other!« identities, the two central characters of Face/Off are able to explore their other selves, their secret selves. Could these m e n be mirror images? (Paramount Pictures)

The Walt Disney Company. All Rights Reserved.)

354

H i t c h c o c k ' s The Wrong Man is his m o s t explicit t r e a t m e n t of t h e s e narrative motifs. T h e e n t i r e p l o t is d o u b l e d , s t r u c t u r e d in twos. T h e r e a r e two i m p r i s o n m e n t s , two h a n d w r i t i n g tests, two c o n v e r s a t i o n s in t h e k i t c h e n , two legal h e a r i n g s , two visits to a clinic, two visits to t h e lawyer. T h e h e r o is a r r e s t e d twice by two p o l i c e m e n . He is identified (wrongly) by two witnesses at two diff e r e n t s h o p s . T h e r e a r e two transfers o f guilt: T h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r ( H e n r y F o n d a ) is a c c u s e d of a c r i m e he d i d n ' t c o m m i t , a n d midway t h r o u g h t h e movie, his e m o t i o n a l l y d i s t u r b e d wife (Vera Miles) takes on t h e guilt, r e q u i r i n g h e r to be c o m m i t t e d to an asylum. " P e o p l e say t h a t H i t c h c o c k lets t h e wires show too often," J e a n - L u c G o d a r d n o t e d . "But b e c a u s e h e shows t h e m , they a r e no l o n g e r wires. T h e y a r e t h e pillars of a m a r v e l o u s a r c h i t e c t u r a l design m a d e t o withstand o u r scrutiny." Many formalistic narratives are i n t r u d e d on by the author, whose personality is p a r t of t h e show. F o r e x a m p l e , it's virtually impossible to i g n o r e the personality of Bunuel in his films. He slyly interjects his sardonic black h u m o r into his narratives. He loves to u n d e r m i n e his characters—their pomposity, their selfd e c e p t i o n , their m e a n little souls (8-18). G o d a r d ' s personality is also highly intrusive, especially in his n o n t r a d i t i o n a l narratives, which he called "cinematic essays."

8-18. The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie (France, 1972), directed by Luis Bunuel. Most of Bunuel's movies feature bizarre scenes that are left unexplained, as though they were the most normal thing in the world. He delighted in satirizing middle-class hypocrisies, treating them with a kind of affectionate b e m u s e m e n t mingled with contempt. In this film, he presents us with a series of loosely connected episodes dealing with the inane rituals of a group of well-heeled semizombies. Interspersing these episodes are shots of the main characters walking on an e m p t y road (pictured). No one questions why they are there. No one s e e m s to know where they are going. Bunuel doesn't say. (Twentieth Century-Fox)

8-19. Mon Oncle d'Amerique (France, 1980), with Gerard Depardieu, directed by Alain Resnais. Depardieu portrays a hardworking idealist w h o s e conservative values and faith in God are severely tested. The significance of the title? It's taken from European pop mythology—the proverbial adventurous uncle w h o left for America, m a d e a fortune, and will s o m e d a y return loaded with m o n e y to solve all their problems. Resnais was also thinking of Samuel Beckett's bitter stage comedy, Waiting for Godot, which revolves around an obscure figure (God?) who's constantly waited for, but never shows up. (New world Pictures)

F o r m a l i s t i c n a r r a t i v e s a r e often i n t e r r u p t e d b y lyrical i n t e r l u d e s , exercises i n p u r e style—like t h e e n c h a n t i n g d a n c e n u m b e r s i n t h e F r e d A s t a i r e - G i n g e r R o g e r s R K O musicals of t h e 1930s. In fact, stylized g e n r e films like musicals, science fiction, a n d fantasies offer t h e richest p o t e n t i a l for displays of stylistic r a p t u r e a n d b r a v u r a effects. T h e s e lyrical i n t e r l u d e s i n t e r r u p t t h e f o r w a r d m o m e n t u m of t h e plot, w h i c h is often a m e r e p r e t e x t anyway. An e x c e l l e n t e x a m p l e of a formalistic narrative is Mon Oncle d'Amerique (My U n c l e in A m e r i c a ) , d i r e c t e d by Alain Resnais, with a script by Resnais a n d J e a n G r u a l t ( 8 - 1 9 ) . T h e f i l m ' s s t r u c t u r e i s i n d e b t e d t o G o d a r d ' s essay f o r m , which c a n c o m b i n e e l e m e n t s f r o m t h e d o c u m e n t a r y a n d avant-garde f i l m with fiction. T h e ideas in t h e m o v i e are t h e stuff of Psychology 1 0 1 . Resnais frames a n d i n t e r s p e r s e s his fictional e p i s o d e s with footage of an actual m e d i c a l d o c t o r a n d b e h a v i o r a l scientist, Dr. H e n r i L a b o r i t , w h o i n d u l g e s i n t h e F r e n c h m a n i a for dissection, analysis, a n d classification. He wittily discusses t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of h u m a n behavior to the m a k e u p of the brain, the conscious a n d subconscious e n v i r o n m e n t , social c o n d i t i o n i n g , t h e n e r v o u s system, zoology, a n d biology. He alludes to t h e behavior-modification t h e o r i e s of B. F. S k i n n e r a n d o t h e r theories of h u m a n development. T h e f i c t i o n a l e p i s o d e s i n t h e movie are c o n c r e t e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f these theories. T h e characters are a u t o n o m o u s , n o t mechanized zombies. N o n e t h e l e s s , they a r e victims of forces they h a r d l y u n d e r s t a n d . Resnais focuses 355

356

S t o r y

on t h r e e a p p e a l i n g c h a r a c t e r s . E a c h is t h e p r o d u c t of a u n i q u e biological m a k e u p a n d cultural e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e i r p a t h s intersect b y c h a n c e . " T h e s e p e o p l e h a v e e v e r y t h i n g t o m a k e t h e m happy," Resnais o b s e r v e d , "yet t h e y ' r e n o t h a p p y at all. Why?" Resnais t h e n shows u s why t h r o u g h his dazzling e d i t i n g a n d m u l t i p l e narratives. In a k a l e i d o s c o p e of shifting perspectives, Resnais j u x t a p o s e s snipp e t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r s ' lives, d r e a m s , a n d m e m o r i e s with Dr. Laborit's abstract f o r m u l a t i o n s , statistics, a n d wry o b s e r v a t i o n s . T h e t h r e e m a i n c h a r a c t e r s a r e m o v i e freaks, a n d at various p o i n t s d u r i n g t h e story, Resnais i n t e r c u t s brief clips from t h e films of t h e i r c h i l d h o o d idols—-Jean Marais, Danielle D a r r i e u x , a n d J e a n G a b i n . S o m e of t h e s e movie clips b e a r a not-so-coincidental r e s e m b l a n c e to t h e d r a m a t i c situations of t h e c h a r a c t e r s . Resnais is also paying h o m a g e to t h r e e g r e a t stars o f t h e F r e n c h c i n e m a .

T h e r e a r e t h r e e b r o a d classifications o f m o t i o n pictures: fiction, d o c u m e n t a r y , a n d a v a n t - g a r d e . D o c u m e n t a r i e s a n d avant-garde films usually d o n ' t tell stories, at least n o t in t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l ( t h a t is, fictional) sense. Of c o u r s e , d o c u m e n t a r i e s a n d avant-garde movies a r e s t r u c t u r e d , b u t n e i t h e r uses a plot. Rather, t h e story—if any—is s t r u c t u r e d a c c o r d i n g to a t h e m e or an a r g u m e n t , especially in d o c u m e n t a r i e s . In t h e avant-garde c i n e m a , t h e s t r u c t u r e is often a m a t t e r of t h e filmmaker's subjective instincts. First, d o c u m e n t a r i e s . Unlike m o s t fiction films, d o c u m e n t a r i e s d e a l with facts—real p e o p l e , places, a n d events r a t h e r t h a n i n v e n t e d o n e s . Docum e n t a r i s l s believe t h a t t h e y ' r e n o t c r e a t i n g a world so m u c h as r e p o r t i n g on t h e o n e t h a t a l r e a d y exists. T h e y a r e n o t j u s t r e c o r d e r s o f e x t e r n a l reality, however, for like fiction f i l m m a k e r s they s h a p e t h e i r raw materials t h r o u g h t h e i r selection of details. T h e s e details are o r g a n i z e d i n t o a c o h e r e n t artistic p a t t e r n . M a n y d o c u m e n t a r i e s deliberately k e e p t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i r f i l m s s i m p l e a n d u n o b t r u s i v e . T h e y w a n t t h e i r version o f t h e facts t o suggest t h e s a m e a p p a r e n t r a n d o m n e s s of life itself. S o u n d familiar? In fact, t h e c o n c e p t s of realism a n d formalism are a l m o s t as useful in discussing d o c u m e n t a r i e s as fiction films. However, t h e overw h e l m i n g majority of d o c u m e n t a r i s t s w o u l d insist t h a t t h e i r m a i n i n t e r e s t is with subject m a t t e r r a t h e r t h a n style. T h e realistic d o c u m e n t a r y i s best illustrated b y t h e c i n e m a v e r i t e o r "direct c i n e m a " m o v e m e n t of t h e 1960s. Because of t h e n e e d to be able to capt u r e news stories quickly, efficiently, a n d with a m i n i m a l crew, television j o u r nalism was r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n e w technology, w h i c h in t u r n eventually led to a n e w p h i l o s o p h y of t r u t h in d o c u m e n t a r y c i n e m a . T h e technology i n c l u d e d t h e following: 1.

A lightweight 16-mm h a n d - h e l d c a m e r a , allowing t h e c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r to r o a m virtually a n y w h e r e with ease.

8-20. JFK (U.S.A., 1 9 9 1 ) , with Kevin Costner (center), written and directed by Oliver Stone. History as narrative. As a n u m b e r of historians have pointed out, "history" is actually a jumble of fragments, unsifted facts, r a n d o m events, and details that no o n e thought were i m p o r t a n t enough to explain. This chaos is sorted out by a historian who s u p e r i m p o s e s a narrative over the sprawling materials. The historian excludes s o m e data, heightens others. Effects are provided with causes; isolated events are c o n n e c t e d with other superficially r e m o t e events. In short, m a n y m o d e r n historians would insist that the past contains various histories, not just one. Each history is the product of a person who a s s e m b l e s , interprets, a n d s h a p e s the facts into a narrative. Oliver Stone's controversial depiction of the assassination of President Kennedy is told from the point of view of New Orleans D.A. Jim Garrison (Costner). The movie does w h a t a historian does: It offers a possible explanation for a traumatic national tragedy that was never adequately resolved in the m i n d s of m u c h of the American public. JFK is a dazzling display of bravura editing, e n c o m p a s s i n g d o z e n s of characters, m a n y years, t h o u s a n d s of miles, and h u n d r e d s of t h o u s a n d s of historical facts. (Warner Bros.)

/

2.

Flexible z o o m l e n s e s , allowing t h e c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r t o g o from 12-mm w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n s t o 120-mm t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n s i n o n e a d j u s t i n g bar.

3.

New fast f i l m s t o c k s , permitting scenes to be p h o t o g r a p h e d without t h e necessity o f s e t t i n g u p lights. S o sensitive w e r e t h e s e stocks t o availa b l e l i g h t i n g t h a t e v e n n i g h t t i m e s c e n e s with m i n i m a l

illumination

c o u l d b e r e c o r d e d with a c c e p t a b l e clarity. 4.

A portable

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recorder,

allowing

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record

sound

directly i n a u t o m a t i c s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n with t h e visuals. T h i s e q u i p m e n t was s o easy t o u s e t h a t o n l y two p e o p l e — o n e a t t h e c a m e r a , t h e o t h e r with t h e s o u n d s y s t e m — w e r e r e q u i r e d t o b r i n g i n a news story. 357

8-21. Law and Order (U.S.A., 1969), directed by Frederick Wiseman. Cinema verite, or direct cinema, prided itself on its objectivity and straightforward presentation. Certainly, these documentarists realized that total neutrality is an impossible goal to achieve. Even Wiseman, a m o n g the most objective of documentarists, insists that his movies are a subjective interpretation of actual events, people, and places. He tries to be as "fair" as possible in presenting his materials. For example, he refuses to use off-frame narrators. The subjects of the film are allowed to speak for themselves, and the burden of interpretation is placed on the spectators, who must analyze the significance of the material on their own. Of course, most participants are aware of being photographed, and this surely influences their behavior. No one wants to look like a fool on camera. (Zipporah Films)

T h e flexibility o f this h a r d w a r e p e r m i t t e d d o c u m e n t a r i s t s t o r e d e f i n e t h e c o n c e p t of authenticity. T h i s n e w aesthetic a m o u n t e d to a rejection of p r e p l a n n i n g a n d carefully d e t a i l e d scripts. A script involves p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a b o u t reality a n d t e n d s t o c a n c e l o u t any sense o f s p o n t a n e i t y o r ambiguity. Direct c i n e m a rejected s u c h p r e c o n c e p t i o n s as fictional: Reality is n o t b e i n g o b s e r v e d b u t is b e i n g a r r a n g e d to c o n f o r m to w h a t t h e script says it is. T h e d o c u m e n tarist is s u p e r i m p o s i n g a plot over t h e materials. Re-creations of any k i n d w e r e no l o n g e r necessary b e c a u s e , if t h e crew m e m b e r s are p r e s e n t while an e v e n t is actually t a k i n g place, they c a n c a p t u r e it while it's h a p p e n i n g . T h e c o n c e p t o f m i n i m a l i n t e r f e r e n c e with reality b e c a m e t h e d o m i n a t ing p r e o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e A m e r i c a n a n d C a n a d i a n schools o f c i n e m a verite. T h e f i l m m a k e r m u s t n o t c o n t r o l events in any way. R e - c r e a t i o n s — e v e n with t h e p e o p l e a n d places actually involved—were u n a c c e p t a b l e . E d i t i n g was k e p t to a m i n i m u m , for o t h e r w i s e it c o u l d l e a d to a false i m p r e s s i o n of t h e s e q u e n c e of 358

8-22. Harlan County, U.S.A. (U.S.A., 1977), directed by Barbara Kopple. Direct cinema is most effective with materials that are intrinsically dramatic, like crisis situations in which a conflict is about to reach its climax. For example, during the production of this documentary, which deals with a bitter coal-miners' strike for decent working conditions, Kopple and her crew were repeatedly plunged in the middle of violence. In one sequence, they are actually fired on by a trigger-happy yahoo. The c a m e r a recorded it all. Implicit in the concept of d o c u m e n t a r y is the verb fo document—to verify, to provide an irrefutable record of an event. In a nonfiction film, these privileged m o m e n t s of truth generally take precedence over considerations of narrative. (Museum of Modern Art). ^

events. Actual t i m e a n d space w e r e p r e s e r v e d w h e n e v e r possible by using lengthy t a k e s . C i n e m a verite also uses s o u n d minimally. T h e s e filmmakers w e r e — a n d still a r e — h o s t i l e to t h e "voice of G o d " c o m m e n t a r i e s t h a t a c c o m p a n i e d traditional d o c u m e n t a r i e s . Off-screen n a r r a t i o n t e n d s t o i n t e r p r e t i m a g e s for t h e spectator, t h u s relieving us of t h e necessity of analyzing for ourselves. S o m e d i r e c t c i n e m a advocates d i s p e n s e with voice-over n a r r a t i o n entirely ( 8 - 2 1 ) . T h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e formalistic o r subjective d o c u m e n t a r y can b e t r a c e d b a c k to t h e Soviet f i l m m a k e r Dziga-Vertov. Like m o s t Soviet artists of t h e 1920s, Vertov was a p r o p a g a n d i s t . He believed t h a t t h e c i n e m a s h o u l d be a tool of t h e R e v o l u t i o n , a way of i n s t r u c t i n g workers a b o u t h o w to view events from an ideological perspective. "Art," he o n c e w r o t e , "is n o t a mirror which reflects t h e historical s t r u g g l e , b u t a weapon of t h a t struggle." D o c u m e n t a r i s t s in this formalistic tradition t e n d to build their movies thematically, a r r a n g i n g a n d s t r u c t u r i n g t h e story materials to d e m o n s t r a t e a thesis, like t h e news stories on television's prestigious 60 Minutes. In m a n y cases, t h e s e q u e n c e of shots a n d even e n t i r e scenes can be switched a r o u n d with relatively 359

8-23. Point of Order! (U.S.A., 1964), directed by Emile De Antonio. Materials that might s e e m politically neutral can acquire ideological significance w h e n the footage is reedited expressively. Many documentaries in the Vertov mold—like this expose of the political sleazebag Senator Joe McCarthy—were originally photographed by relatively impartial newsreel c a m e r a operators. The ideology is conveyed by the way in which this neutral material is restructured on the editing bench, a striking instance of how "plot" (or narrative structure) can radically alter "story." All m o n t a g e films making use of newsreels d e s c e n d from Vertov's theories. See also Jay Leyda, Films Beget Films (New York: Hill & Wang, 1964). (Continental

Distributing)

little loss of sense or logic. T h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e film is n o t based on c h r o n o l o g y o r narrative c o h e r e n c e , b u t o n t h e d o c u m e n t a r i s t ' s a r g u m e n t ( 8 - 2 3 ) . Avant-garde films a r e so variable t h a t it's h a r d to g e n e r a l i z e a b o u t t h e i r n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s . Most of t h e s e movies d o n ' t even try to tell a story. A u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l e l e m e n t s a r e c o m m o n . Many avant-garde artists a r e primarily conc e r n e d with conveying t h e i r " i n n e r impulses," t h e i r p e r s o n a l a n d subjective involvements with p e o p l e , ideas, a n d e x p e r i e n c e s . F o r this r e a s o n , avant-garde movies a r e s o m e t i m e s o b s c u r e a n d even i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . Many o f t h e s e f i l m m a k e r s c r e a t e t h e i r own p e r s o n a l l a n g u a g e a n d symbology. W i t h few e x c e p t i o n s , avant-garde films a r e n o t written o u t in a d v a n c e . In p a r t this is b e c a u s e t h e s a m e artist usually shoots a n d edits t h e footage a n d is t h e r e f o r e able to c o n t r o l t h e m a t e r i a l at t h e s e stages of t h e filmmaking process. Avant-garde f i l m m a k e r s also value c h a n c e a n d s p o n t a n e i t y i n t h e i r movies, a n d to e x p l o i t t h e s e e l e m e n t s , they avoid t h e inflexibility of a script. Maya D e r e n , an A m e r i c a n avant-garde filmmaker of t h e 1940s, differe n t i a t e d h e r k i n d o f movie (which s h e called " p e r s o n a l " o r "poetic") from m a i n s t r e a m c o m m e r c i a l films primarily in t e r m s of s t r u c t u r e . Like a lyric p o e m , p e r s o n a l films a r e "vertical" investigations of a t h e m e or situation. T h e filmmaker is n o t c o n c e r n e d so m u c h with w h a t ' s h a p p e n i n g as with w h a t a situ360

S t o

y

y

36 1

ation feels like or w h a t it m e a n s . T h e film artist is c o n c e r n e d with p r o b i n g t h e d e p t h s a n d layers of m e a n i n g of a given m o m e n t . Fiction movies, on the o t h e r h a n d , are like novels a n d plays, a c c o r d i n g to D e r e n . T h e y ' r e essentially "horizontal" in their d e v e l o p m e n t . Narrative filmmakers use linear structures t h a t m u s t progress from situation to situation, from feeling to feeling. Fiction directors d o n ' t have m u c h time to e x p l o r e the implications of a given idea or e m o t i o n , for they m u s t k e e p the plot "moving along." O t h e r avant-garde filmmakers disdain any kind of recognizable subject matter. H a n s Richter a n d o t h e r early avant-garde artists in E u r o p e totally rejected narrative. Richter was a c h a m p i o n of the "absolute film," which consists solely of abstract shapes a n d designs (see 4 - 7 ) . Insisting that movies s h o u l d have n o t h i n g to do with acting, stories, or literary t h e m e s , Richter believed that film—like music a n d abstract p a i n t i n g — s h o u l d b e c o n c e r n e d with p u r e n o n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l forms. Many c o n t e m p o r a r y avant-garde filmmakers share these biases ( 8 - 2 4 ) .

8-24. Razor Blades (U.S.A., 1968), directed by Paul Sharits. Structuralism was an avant-garde movement that rejected narrative in favor of an abstract structure that owed nothing to subject matter. In the structuralist cinema, the codes of cognition are totally self-defined. They are structured according to the principles of recurrence, dialectical polarities, time and space increments, and so on. The process of deciphering these cognitive codes and their interrelationships is analogous to the film's working itself out, fulfilling its structural destiny. In Sharits's flicker film, two images (requiring separate screens and projectors) are simultaneously juxtaposed. Each filmstrip consists of irregularly recurring images—two or three frames in duration, interspersed by blank or color frames— or purely abstract designs, like colored stripes or circular shapes. The rapid flickering of images creates a mesmerizing stroboscopic effect, testing the audience's psychological and physiological tolerance. The content of the film is its structural form rather than the subject matter of the images as images.

(Anthology Film Archives)

A g e n r e film is a specific type of movie: a war p i c t u r e , a g a n g s t e r film, science fiction, a n d so o n . T h e r e a r e literally h u n d r e d s of t h e m , especially in t h e U n i t e d States a n d J a p a n , w h e r e virtually all fiction movies can be classified a c c o r d i n g to g e n r e . G e n r e s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a characteristic set of c o n v e n tions in style, subject matter, a n d values. G e n r e is also a c o n v e n i e n t way of focusing a n d o r g a n i z i n g t h e story materials. Many g e n r e films a r e d i r e c t e d at a specific a u d i e n c e . C o m i n g - o f a g e films a r e generally a i m e d at t e e n a g e r s . A c t i o n - a d v e n t u r e g e n r e s t e n d to focus o n all-male activities. W o m e n a r e usually r e l e g a t e d t o a n i n c i d e n t a l f u n c t i o n , o r they p r o v i d e " r o m a n t i c interest." T h e A m e r i c a n w o m a n ' s p i c t u r e a n d J a p a n e s e m o t h e r films focus o n d o m e s t i c life. I n t h e s e f e m a l e - o r i e n t e d g e n r e s , m e n a r e c o n v e n t i o n a l i z e d in a similar m a n n e r — u s u a l l y as b r e a d w i n n e r s , sexual objects, or "the other man." A n d r e Bazin o n c e r e f e r r e d to t h e w e s t e r n as "a f o r m in search of a content." T h e s a m e c o u l d be said of all g e n r e films. A g e n r e is a loose set of e x p e c tations, t h e n , n o t a divine i n j u n c t i o n . T h a t is, e a c h e x a m p l e of a given story type is r e l a t e d to its p r e d e c e s s o r s , b u t n o t in i r o n c l a d b o n d a g e . S o m e g e n r e films a r e g o o d ; o t h e r s a r e t e r r i b l e . It's n o t t h e g e n r e t h a t d e t e r m i n e s artistic e x c e l l e n c e , b u t h o w well t h e artist exploits t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of its f o r m . T h e m a j o r s h o r t c o m i n g s of g e n r e p i c t u r e s is t h a t t h e y ' r e easy to imitate a n d have b e e n d e b a s e d b y stale m e c h a n i c a l r e p e t i t i o n . G e n r e c o n v e n t i o n s a r e m e r e cliches unless t h e y ' r e u n i t e d with significant i n n o v a t i o n s in style or subj e c t m a t t e r . B u t this is t r u e of all t h e arts, n o t j u s t movies. As Aristotle n o t e d in The Poetics, g e n r e s a r e qualitatively n e u t r a l : T h e c o n v e n t i o n s of classical t r a g e d y a r e basically t h e s a m e w h e t h e r t h e y ' r e u s e d by a g e n i u s or a f o r g o t t e n h a c k . C e r t a i n g e n r e s enjoy m o r e cultural prestige b e c a u s e they have a t t r a c t e d t h e m o s t gifted artists. G e n r e s t h a t h a v e n ' t a r e widely r e g a r d e d as innately inartistic, b u t in m a n y cases, t h e i r declasse status is d u e to n e g l e c t r a t h e r t h a n intrinsic h o p e l e s s n e s s . For e x a m p l e , t h e earliest film critics c o n s i d e r e d slapstick c o m edy a n infantile g e n r e — u n t i l such i m p o r t a n t c o m i c artists a s C h a p l i n a n d K e a t o n e n t e r e d t h e field. Today, no critic w o u l d m a l i g n t h e g e n r e , for it boasts a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r of m a s t e r p i e c e s . T h e m o s t critically a d m i r e d g e n r e films strike a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e f o r m ' s p r e e s t a b l i s h e d c o n v e n t i o n s a n d t h e artist's u n i q u e c o n t r i b u t i o n s . T h e artists o f a n c i e n t G r e e c e d r e w o n a c o m m o n b o d y o f mythology, a n d n o o n e t h o u g h t i t s t r a n g e w h e n dramatists a n d p o e t s r e t u r n e d t o t h e s e tales a g a i n a n d again. I n c o m p e t e n t artists m e r e l y r e p e a t . Serious artists r e i n t e r p r e t . By exploiti n g t h e b r o a d o u t l i n e s of a well-known tale or story type, t h e storyteller can play off its m a i n features, c r e a t i n g provocative t e n s i o n s b e t w e e n t h e g e n r e ' s c o n v e n tions a n d t h e artist's i n v e n t i o n s , b e t w e e n t h e familiar a n d t h e original, t h e general a n d t h e particular. Myths e m b o d y t h e c o m m o n ideals a n d a s p i r a t i o n s o f a civilization, a n d by r e t u r n i n g to t h e s e c o m m u n a l tales t h e artist b e c o m e s , in a sense, a psychic e x p l o r e r , b r i d g i n g t h e c h a s m b e t w e e n t h e k n o w n a n d t h e u n k n o w n . T h e stylized c o n v e n t i o n s a n d archetypal story p a t t e r n s o f g e n r e s

8-25. It Happened One Night (U.S.A., 1934), with Clark Gable and Claudette Colbert, written by Robert Riskin, directed by Frank Copra. Genres can be classified according to subject matter, style, period, national origin, and a variety of other criteria. In the 1930s, a new American genre was born: screwball comedy. Its heyday was roughly 1 9 3 4 - 1 9 4 5 . Essentially love stories, these films feature zany but glamorous lovers, often from different social classes. More realistic than the slapstick of the silent era, screwball comedy is also more collaborative, requiring the sophisticated blending of talents of writers, actors, and directors. The snappy dialogue crackles with wit and speed. Sappy, sentimental speeches are often meant to deceive. The narrative premises are absurdly improbable, and the plots, which are intricate and filled with preposterous twists and turns, tend to snowball out of control. The movies center on a comic-romantic couple rather than a solitary protagonist. Often, they are initially hostile, with one trying to outwit or outmaneuver the other. Much of the comedy results from the utter seriousness of the characters, who are usually unaware that they're funny, even though they engage in the most loony masquerades and deceptions. Sometimes one of them is engaged to a sexless prude or a humorless bore: This lends an urgency to the attraction between the coprotagonists, who are clearly m a d e for each other. The genre usually includes a menagerie of secondary characters w h o are as wacky as the lovers. (Columbia Pictures)

e n c o u r a g e viewers t o p a r t i c i p a t e ritualistically i n t h e basic beliefs, fears, a n d anxieties of their age. Filmmakers are attracted to genres because they automatically synthesize a vast a m o u n t o f c u l t u r a l i n f o r m a t i o n , f r e e i n g t h e m t o e x p l o r e m o r e p e r s o n a l c o n c e r n s . A n o n g e n e r i c m o v i e m u s t b e m o r e s e l f - c o n t a i n e d . T h e artist i s f o r c e d t o c o m m u n i c a t e virtually all t h e m a j o r i d e a s a n d e m o t i o n s w i t h i n t h e w o r k itself—a task t h a t p r e e m p t s a lot o f s c r e e n t i m e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e g e n r e artist n e v e r starts f r o m s c r a t c h . H e o r s h e c a n b u i l d o n t h e a c c o m p l i s h 363

8-26a. Unforgiven (U.S.A., man and Clint Eastwood,

1992), with Gene Hackdirected by Eastwood.

(Warner Bros.)

8-26b. The People VS. Larry Flynt (U.S.A., 1996), with Woody Harrelson and Courtney Love, directed by MHOS Forman. (Columbia Pictures)

8-26c. Fargo (U.S.A., 1996), with Frances McDormand, written and directed by Joel and Ethan Coen. (Gramercy

Pictures)

Genres in their classical phase tend to portray a world where right and wrong are fairly clear-cut, where the moral values of the movie are widely shared by the audience, and where justice eventually triumphs over evil. Today's most respected film artists are likely to find such values out-of-touch and naive, if not out-and-out false. The contemporary cinema tends to favor genres that are revisionist—less idealistic, more ambiguous morally, and far from reassuring in their presentation of the h u m a n condition. For example, Unforgiven is a revisionist western whose grim protagonist, William Munny (Eastwood), is a hired killer, so lost in violence that he has d o o m e d his soul. When a youthful crony remarks that their victim "had it coming," Munny replies, "We all got it coming, kid." The People VS. Larry Flynt is a biography film—not of an admirable role model or moral exemplar, but of a notorious pornographer and his zonked-out junkie wife. It's a love story. It's also a paradoxical defense of the First A m e n d m e n t by a filmmaker who grew up in the c o m m u n i s t police state of Czechoslovakia—where a Larry Flynt would never have been possible. Fargo is a revisionist detective film that's loosely based on an actual police case. The protagonist is Marge Gunderson (McDormand), the very pregnant police chief of Brainerd, Minnesota. The movie is often funny, interspersed with unsettling scenes of brutality and gore. Though the chief finally solves the case, the film's "happy ending" is considerably undercut by its tone of sadness and pessimism concerning our pathetic species. 364

8-27a. Rocky (U.S.A., 1976), with Sylvester Stallone, directed by John Avildsen. One of the most popular story patterns in America is the Horatio Alger myth—the inspiring tale of a social nobody who, through hard work and perseverance, and against all odds, m a n a g e s to pull himself up by his bootstraps a n d achieve extraordinary success.

(United Artists)

8-27b. Don't Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood (U.S.A., 1996), with Marlon Wayans and Shawn Wayans, directed by Paris Barclay. The very title of this film suggests its parodic intent, its comic ridicule of conventional African American genres such as Boyz N the Hood (10~20a) and coming-ofage films. Don'f Be a Menace features no less than six siblings of the talented, if slightly demented, Wayans family. (Miramax Films)

8-28. Risky Business (U.S.A., 1983), with Tom Cruise and Rebecca De Mornay, written and directed by Paul Brickman. Because 75 percent of the contemporary American film audience is composed of young people, rite-of-passage comedies—also known as coming-of-age films—appeal directly to this adolescent following. The worst of them pander shamelessly to this audience's sentimental and narcissistic view of itself, but a few—like Risky Business—are slyly revisionist. The protagonist's transition from childhood innocence to adult experience is subtly subverted by the film's increasingly low-key lighting style and its bittersweet tone of cynicism. Cruise's character begins as a straight, hardworking high school student, naive but likable. In his impatience for worldly success and status, he betrays his parents' trust by using their h o m e as a bordello while they are away on a short trip. With the help of an enterprising hooker (De Mornay), he pimps for his friends, supplying them with the services of several ladies of the evening, who share his entrepreneurial spirit. They reap a profit of $ 8 0 0 0 in a single night. By the end of the movie, he is a bona fide m e m b e r in good standing of the world of adults, savoring the sweet smell of success. (Warner Bros.)

merits o f p r e d e c e s s o r s , e n r i c h i n g t h e i r ideas o r calling t h e m i n t o q u e s t i o n , d e p e n d i n g o n his o r h e r inclinations. T h e m o s t e n d u r i n g g e n r e s t e n d t o a d a p t t o c h a n g i n g social c o n d i t i o n s . Most of t h e m b e g i n as naive allegories of G o o d versus Evil. O v e r t h e years, they b e c o m e m o r e c o m p l e x i n b o t h f o r m a n d t h e m a t i c r a n g e . Finally, they veer i n t o a n ironic m o d e , m o c k i n g m a n y o f t h e g e n r e ' s original values a n d c o n v e n t i o n s . S o m e critics claim t h a t this evolution is inevitable a n d d o e s n ' t necessarily r e p r e s e n t a n aesthetic i m p r o v e m e n t . Film critics a n d scholars classify g e n r e movies i n t o four m a i n cycles: 1.

Primitive. T h i s p h a s e is usually naive, t h o u g h powerful in its e m o t i o n a l i m p a c t , in p a r t b e c a u s e of t h e novelty of t h e f o r m . Many of t h e c o n v e n tions of t h e g e n r e a r e established in this p h a s e .

2.

Classical. T h i s i n t e r m e d i a t e stage e m b o d i e s s u c h classical ideals as bala n c e , r i c h n e s s , a n d poise. T h e g e n r e ' s values a r e a s s u r e d a n d widely s h a r e d by t h e a u d i e n c e .

8-29. On the Town (U.S.A., 1949), with (clockwise, from one o'clock) Gene Kelly, Vera-Ellen, Ann Miller, Betty Garrett, Frank Sinatra, and Jules Munshin; directed by Kelly and Stanley Donen. Musicals were a m o n g the most popular genres throughout the big-studio era, appealing to men as well as w o m e n , to young audiences as well as adults. Most musicals heighten the artificiality of their narrative structures. For example, in this movie, everything comes in threes—three dashing sailor heroes and three spirited working-girl heroines. (MGM)

3.

Revisionist. T h e g e n r e is generally m o r e symbolic, a m b i g u o u s , less certain in its values. T h i s p h a s e t e n d s to be stylistically c o m p l e x , a p p e a l i n g m o r e t o t h e intellect t h a n t o t h e e m o t i o n s . O f t e n , t h e g e n r e ' s p r e e s t a b lished c o n v e n t i o n s a r e e x p l o i t e d as ironic foils to q u e s t i o n or u n d e r m i n e p o p u l a r beliefs.

4.

Parodic. T h i s p h a s e of a g e n r e ' s d e v e l o p m e n t is an o u t r i g h t m o c k e r y of its c o n v e n t i o n s , r e d u c i n g t h e m t o h o w l i n g cliches a n d p r e s e n t i n g t h e m in a c o m i c m a n n e r .

F o r e x a m p l e , t h e w e s t e r n ' s primitive p h a s e is e x e m p l i f i e d by Edwin S. P o r t e r ' s The Great Train Robbery ( 1 9 0 3 ) , t h e first w e s t e r n ever m a d e , a n d an e n o r m o u s l y p o p u l a r movie with t h e p u b l i c . I t was i m i t a t e d a n d e m b e l l i s h e d o n for d e c a d e s . T h e w e s t e r n ' s classical p h a s e c o u l d be typified by m a n y of t h e works of J o h n F o r d , especially Stagecoach ( 1 9 3 9 ) , o n e of t h e few w e s t e r n s of t h a t era to win wide critical a p p r o v a l as well as box-office success. High Noon (1952) was o n e of t h e first revisionist w e s t e r n s , ironically q u e s t i o n i n g m a n y of t h e p o p u l i s t values of t h e g e n r e ' s classical p h a s e . T h r o u g h o u t t h e following two d e c a d e s , m o s t w e s t e r n s r e m a i n e d i n this skeptical m o d e , i n c l u d i n g such major works as The Wild Bunch (1969) a n d McCabe and Mrs. Miller ( 1 9 7 1 ) . S o m e critics p o i n t e d to Mel Brooks's p a r o d i c Blazing Saddles (1973) as t h e g e n r e ' s d e a t h blow, for many, of its c o n v e n t i o n s a r e mercilessly l a m p o o n e d . However, g e n r e s have a way of s p r i n g i n g back to life after b e i n g allowed to rest for a few years. F o r e x a m p l e , Clint E a s t w o o d ' s p o p u l a r Pale. Rider (1985) is u n a b a s h e d l y classical. Many cultural theorists insist t h a t q u e s t i o n s of individual value in a g e n r e ' s evolution are largely m a t t e r s o f taste a n d fashion, n o t t h e intrinsic m e r i t o f t h e p h a s e p e r se. S o m e of t h e m o s t suggestive critical studies have e x p l o r e d t h e relation367

8-30. Invasion of the Body Snatchers (U.S.A., 1956), directed by Don Siegel. Genre films often appeal to subconscious anxieties in the audience. For example, m a n y J a p a n e s e science-fiction films of the 1950s dealt with hideous mutations that resulted from atomic radiation. A n u m b e r of cultural c o m m e n t a t o r s have remarked on the "paranoid style" of most American sci-fi movies of the 1950s, when the "Red Scare" intensified the Cold War a t m o s p h e r e between the United States and the Soviet Union. Siegel's low-budget classic deals with how s o m e alien pod-people insidiously invade h u m a n bodies, reducing their owners to a n o n y m o u s zombies, incapable of feelings. The movie was produced during an era when m a n y Americans were seriously discussing the possibility of building backyard b o m b shelters to "protect" themselves from an expected nuclear attack by the U.S.S.R. (AlliedArtists)

s h i p of a g e n r e to t h e society t h a t n u r t u r e d it. T h i s sociopsychic a p p r o a c h was p i o n e e r e d by t h e F r e n c h literary critic H i p p o l y t e T a i n e in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tury. T a i n e c l a i m e d t h a t t h e social a n d intellectual anxieties of a given e r a a n d n a t i o n will find e x p r e s s i o n in its art. T h e implicit function of an artist is to harm o n i z e a n d r e c o n c i l e cultural clashes o f value. H e believed t h a t a r t m u s t b e analyzed for b o t h its overt a n d covert m e a n i n g , t h a t b e n e a t h its explicit cont e n t t h e r e exists a vast reservoir of l a t e n t social a n d psychic i n f o r m a t i o n ( 8 - 3 3 ) . T h i s a p p r o a c h t e n d s t o work b e s t with p o p u l a r g e n r e s , w h i c h reflect t h e s h a r e d values a n d fears of a l a r g e a u d i e n c e . S u c h g e n r e s m i g h t be r e g a r d e d a s c o n t e m p o r a r y myths, l e n d i n g p h i l o s o p h i c a l m e a n i n g t o t h e facts of everyday life. As social c o n d i t i o n s c h a n g e , g e n r e s often c h a n g e with t h e m , c h a l l e n g i n g s o m e t r a d i t i o n a l c u s t o m s a n d beliefs, r e a f f i r m i n g o t h e r s . G a n g ster f i l m s , for e x a m p l e , a r e often covert c r i t i q u e s o f A m e r i c a n capitalism. T h e y a r e often vehicles for e x p l o r i n g r e b e l l i o n myths a n d a r e especially p o p u l a r d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f social b r e a k d o w n . T h e p r o t a g o n i s t s — u s u a l l y played b y small m e n — a r e likened to ruthless businessmen, their climb to power a sardonic p a r o d y of t h e H o r a t i o A l g e r myth. D u r i n g t h e Jazz Age, g a n g s t e r films like 368

8-31. E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial (U.S.A., 1982), with Henry Thomas and E.T., directed by Steven Spielberg. All narratives can be interpreted on a symbolic level. There is a principle of universality that can be inferred no matter how unique or strange a given story may be. In this scene from Spielberg's masterpiece, E.T and his friend Eliot must say good-bye. But E.T. will live forever inside Eliot's mind. Symbolically, the boy will soon outgrow his childhood world of imaginary best friends, scary-looking creatures, and the vast Unknown. But he will never forget the beauty and innocence of that world. Nor will we. "A film is a ribbon of d r e a m s , " Orson Welles once stated. "The c a m e r a is much more than a recording apparatus; it is a m e d i u m via which messages reach us from another world that is not ours and that brings us to the heart of a great secret. Here magic begins." (Universalstudios)

Underworld (1927) d e a l t with t h e v i o l e n c e a n d g l a m o u r of t h e P r o h i b i t i o n e r a i n a n essentially apolitical m a n n e r . D u r i n g t h e h a r s h e s t years o f t h e D e p r e s sion in t h e early 1930s, t h e g e n r e b e c a m e subversively i d e o l o g i c a l . Movies like Little Caesar (1930) reflected t h e c o u n t r y ' s s h a k e n c o n f i d e n c e in a u t h o r i t y a n d t r a d i t i o n a l social i n s t i t u t i o n s . In t h e final years of t h e D e p r e s s i o n , g a n g s t e r films like Dead End (1937) w e r e pleas for liberal r e f o r m , a r g u i n g t h a t c r i m e is t h e result of b r o k e n h o m e s , lack of o p p o r t u n i t y , a n d slum living. G a n g s t e r s of all p e r i o d s t e n d t o suffer from a n inability t o relate t o w o m e n , b u t d u r i n g t h e 1940s movies like Wfiite Heat (1949) f e a t u r e d p r o t a g o n i s t s w h o w e r e o u t r i g h t sexual n e u r o t i c s . In t h e 1950s, partly as a result of t h e highly p u b l i c i z e d Kefauver S e n a t e C r i m e Investigations, g a n g s t e r movies like The Phenix City Story (1955) t o o k t h e f o r m of c o n f i d e n t i a l e x p o s e s of syndicate c r i m e . Francis F o r d C o p p o l a ' s The Godfather (1972) a n d The Godfather, Part II (1974) a r e a virtual r e c a p i t u l a t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e g e n r e , s p a n n i n g t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s o f 369

8-32. Sweet Hours (Spain, 1982), with Inaki Aierra and Assumpta Serna, directed by Carlos Saura. Almost all civilizations have myths dealing with the rebellion of son against father, resulting in son and m o t h e r reunited in exclusive love. Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, identified one such variant as the Oedipus complex (named for the Greek mythical hero), which he believed was the paradigm of prepubescent h u m a n sexuality. Its feminine form is known as the Electra complex, a n a m e also derived from Greek myth. In most cases, this narrative motif is submerged beneath the surface details of a story, or sufficiently disguised to appeal primarily to the subconscious. Saura's Sweef Hours plays with this motif in an overt manner. The movie deals with the love affair between a filmmaker (Aierra) and an actress (Serna) who is playing his mother in an a u t o biographical film he is making about his Childhood.

(New Yorker Films)

c h a r a c t e r s a n d reflecting t h e weary cynicism of a n a t i o n still n u m b e d by t h e hearts-ancl-minds h o a x of V i e t n a m a n d t h e W a t e r g a t e conspiracy. As S e r g i o L e o n e ' s fablelike title suggests, Once Upon a Time in America (1984) is frankly mythical, t r e a t i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l rise-and-fall s t r u c t u r e o f t h e g e n r e i n a n a l m o s t ritualistic m a n n e r . Q u e n t i n T a r a n t i n o ' s Pulp Fiction (1994) is a witty s e n d - u p of t h e g e n r e , p a r o d y i n g m a n y of its c o n v e n t i o n s . T h e ideas o f S i g m u n d F r e u d a n d Carl J u n g have also i n f l u e n c e d m a n y g e n r e theorists. Like Taine, b o t h psychiatrists believed that art is a reflection of u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e s of m e a n i n g , t h a t it satisfies certain subconscious n e e d s in b o t h t h e artist a n d a u d i e n c e . F o r F r e u d , art was a form of d a y d r e a m i n g a n d wish fulfillment, vicariously resolving u r g e n t impulses a n d desires t h a t c a n ' t be satisfied in reality. P o r n o g r a p h i c films are p e r h a p s t h e most obvious e x a m p l e of h o w anxieties can be assuaged in this s u r r o g a t e m a n n e r , a n d in fact, F r e u d believed t h a t most n e u r o s e s w e r e sexually based. He t h o u g h t t h a t art was a b y - p r o d u c t of neurosis, a l t h o u g h essentially a socially beneficial o n e . Like neurosis, art is characterized by a r e p e t i t i o n c o m p u l s i o n , t h e n e e d to go over t h e s a m e stories a n d rituals to r e e n a c t a n d t e m p o r a r i l y resolve certain psychic conflicts ( 8 - 3 2 ) . J u n g b e g a n his c a r e e r as a disciple of F r e u d b u t eventually b r o k e away, believing t h a t F r e u d ' s t h e o r i e s lacked a c o m m u n a l d i m e n s i o n . J u n g was fascin a t e d by myths, fairy tales, a n d folklore, which he believed c o n t a i n e d symbols a n d story p a t t e r n s t h a t w e r e universal to all individuals in all c u l t u r e s a n d perio d s . A c c o r d i n g t o J u n g , u n c o n s c i o u s c o m p l e x e s consist o f a r c h e t y p a l symbols that a r e as d e e p l y r o o t e d a n d as i n e x p l i c a b l e as instincts. He called this sub370

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m e r g e d r e s e r v o i r of symbols t h e collective unconscious, w h i c h he t h o u g h t h a d a primordial foundation, traceable to primitive times. Many of these archetypal p a t t e r n s a r e b i p o l a r a n d e m b o d y t h e basic c o n c e p t s o f r e l i g i o n , a r t , a n d society: g o d - d e v i l , active-passive, m a l e - f e m a l e , s t a t i c - d y n a m i c , a n d s o o n . J u n g believed t h a t t h e artist consciously o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y draws o n t h e s e a r c h e t y p e s a s raw m a t e r i a l , w h i c h m u s t t h e n b e r e n d e r e d i n t o t h e g e n e r i c f o r m s favored by a given c u l t u r e . F o r J u n g , every w o r k of a r t ( a n d especially g e n e r i c art) is an infinitesimal e x p l o r a t i o n of a u n i v e r s a l e x p e r i e n c e — a n instinctive g r o p i n g t o w a r d a n a n c i e n t w i s d o m . H e also b e l i e v e d t h a t p o p u l a r c u l t u r e offers t h e m o s t u n o b s t r u c t e d view o f a r c h e t y p e s a n d m y t h s , w h e r e a s elite c u l t u r e t e n d s t o s u b m e r g e t h e m b e n e a t h a c o m p l e x surface d e t a i l . 8-33. Pinocchio (U.S.A., 1940), by Walt Disney. The French cultural anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss noted that myths have no author, no origin, no core axis—they allow "free play" in a variety of artistic forms. Disney's work draws heavily from fairy tales, myths, and folklore, which are profuse in archetypal elements. Pinocchio is a good e x a m p l e of how these elements can be emphasized rather than submerged beneath a surface realism. Early in the film, the boy/puppet Pinocchio is told that to be a "real boy," he must show that he is "brave, truthful, and unselfish." The three principal episodes of the movie represent ritualistic trials, testing the youth's moral fortitude. He dismally fails the first two, but r e d e e m s himself in the concluding whale episode, where he does indeed d e m o n s t r a t e courage, honesty, and unselfishness (pictured). Other archetypal elem e n t s include a m o n s t e r (Monstro, the whale), magical transformations, a father's search for his lost son, supernatural creatures like a talking cricket (jiminy Cricket, Pinocchio's "conscience"), a son's search for his imprisoned father, .afi anthropomorphized portrayal of nature, and a fairy g o d m o t h e r who rescues the improvident young hero when he fails to act responsibly. Like most of Disney's works of this era, the values in Pinocchio are traditional and conservative, an affirmation of the sanctity of the family unit, the importance of a Higher Power in guiding our destinies, and the need to play by society's rules. (Walt Disney Productions)

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A story can be m a n y things. To a p r o d u c e r it's a p r o p e r t y t h a t has a box-office value. To a writer it's a screenplay. To a film star it's a vehicle. To a d i r e c t o r it's an artistic m e d i u m . To a g e n r e critic it's a classifiable narrative f o r m . To a sociologist it's an i n d e x of public s e n t i m e n t . To a psychiatrist it's an instinctive e x p l o r a t i o n of h i d d e n fears or c o m m u n a l ideals. To a m o v i e g o e r it can be all of t h e s e , a n d m o r e . In analyzing a film's n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e , we o u g h t to ask ourselves s o m e basic q u e s t i o n s . W h o ' s telling t h e story? A voice-over n a r r a t o r ? Why h i m or h e r ? Or d o e s t h e story "tell itself," like m o s t stage plays? W h o is t h e i m p l i e d narr a t o r o f s u c h stories, t h e g u i d i n g h a n d i n t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e n a r r a t i v e ' s c o n s t i t u e n t parts? W h a t do we as s p e c t a t o r s supply to t h e story? W h a t i n f o r m a tion do we p r o v i d e in o r d e r to fill in t h e narrative's gaps? H o w is t i m e p r e s e n t e d — c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y o r subjectively r e a r r a n g e d t h r o u g h flashbacks a n d o t h e r n a r r a t i v e disjunctions? Is t h e narrative realistic, classical, or formalistic? W h a t g e n r e , i f any? W h a t p h a s e o f t h e g e n r e ' s evolution? W h a t d o e s t h e movie say a b o u t t h e social c o n t e x t a n d p e r i o d t h a t it was m a d e in? H o w d o e s t h e narrative e m b o d y mythical c o n c e p t s o r universal h u m a n traits?

FURTHER READING

ALTMAN, RICK. Film/Genre (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1 9 9 9 ) . T h e evolution of film genres. BORDWELL, DAVID, Narration in the Fiction Film (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1 9 8 5 ) . T h e fullest discussion of the role of the spectator. BROOKS, PETER, Reading for the Plot: Design and Intention in Narrative (New York: Knopf, 1 9 8 4 ) . Primarily about literature. CHATMAN, SEYMOUR, Story and Discourse (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1 9 7 8 ) . Well written, clear, a n d useful, covering literature as well as film. FIELD, SYD, The Screenwriter's Workbook (NewYork: Dell, 1 9 8 4 ) . A practical h a n d b o o k , e m p h a sizing the classical p a r a d i g m . MARTIN, WALLACE, Recent Theories of Narrative (Ithaca, N . Y : Cornell University Press, 1 9 8 6 ) . l u c i d a n d helpful, primarily about literature. MITCHELL, W. |. T., ed., On Narrative (Chicago a n d L o n d o n : University of Chicago Press, 1 9 8 1 ) . Collection of scholarly articles, mostly on literature. MOEWS, DANIEL, Keaton: 'The Silent Features Close Up (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1 9 7 7 ) . An excellent critical study, especially strong on Keaton's plots. NASH, CHRISTOPHER, ed., Narrative in Culture (London and NewYork: Routledge, 1 9 9 0 ) . Multidisciplinary essays. THOMPSON, KRISTIN. Storytelling in the New Hollywood (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1 9 9 9 ) . Narrative strategies in mainstream American films.

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Ovccview T h e written word. Screenwriters: artists, craftspeople, or hired hands? Multiple authorship and the H o l l y w o o d studios. Evaluating the writer's contribution. Writer-directors: total control. Written script versus m i s e en s c e n e : t w o different language systems. The screenplay. How p e o p l e talk: levels of usage. Ideology and language. Period dialogue: How did p e o p l e talk in o l d e n days? North by Northwest: the reading version by Ernest Lehman. Figurative c o m p a r i s o n s : motifs, s y m b o l s , metaphors, allegories, and allusions. Point of view: W h o ' s telling the story? Why? First-person narrators. The o m n i scient voice. The third person. The objective point of view. Literary adaptations: H o w c l o s e to the original? Loose, faithful, and literal adaptations.

P e r h a p s m o r e t h a n any o f t h e d i r e c t o r ' s o t h e r c o l l a b o r a t o r s , t h e s c r e e n w r i t e r has b e e n b r o u g h t f o r w a r d from time t o t i m e a s t h e m a i n " a u t h o r " of a fdm. After all, writers a r e generally responsible for t h e d i a l o g u e . T h e y outline m o s t of t h e a c t i o n ( s o m e t i m e s in d e t a i l ) . A n d they often set forth t h e m a i n t h e m e of a movie. But g e n e r a l i z i n g a b o u t t h e writer's c o n t r i b u t i o n in t h e m o v i e - m a k i n g p r o c e s s is an exercise in futility b e c a u s e t h e writer's role varies i m m e n s e l y from f i l m t o f i l m a n d from d i r e c t o r t o d i r e c t o r ( 9 - 1 ) . I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , s o m e filmmakers have hardly b o t h e r e d with scripts. Especially in t h e silent era, i m p r o v i s a t i o n was t h e r u l e r a t h e r t h a n t h e e x c e p t i o n . O t h e r s u s e d only t h e b a r e s t o u t l i n e s . Many of t h e greatest d i r e c t o r s have written t h e i r own scripts: C o c t e a u , Eisenstein, B e r g m a n , a n d H e r z o g , to n a m e only a few. In t h e A m e r i c a n c i n e m a , t h e r e a r e also m a n y w r i t e r - d i r e c t o r s : Griffith, C h a p l i n , S t r o h e i m , H u s t o n , Welles, Mankiewicz, Wilder, Sturges, Woody Allen, a n d C o p p o l a a r e a m o n g t h e m o s t f a m o u s . T h e majority of i m p o r t a n t d i r e c t o r s have t a k e n a m a j o r h a n d in writing t h e i r scripts, b u t they b r i n g in o t h e r writers to e x p a n d on t h e i r ideas. Fellini, Truffaut, a n d Kurosawa all w o r k e d in this m a n n e r . Surprisingly few major d i r e c t o r s d e p e n d totally o n o t h e r s for t h e i r scripts. T h e A m e r i c a n s t u d i o system t e n d e d t o e n c o u r a g e m u l t i p l e a u t h o r s h i p of scripts. O f t e n , writers h a d a c e r t a i n specialty such as d i a l o g u e , comedy, cons t r u c t i o n , a t m o s p h e r e , a n d s o o n . S o m e writers w e r e best a t d o c t o r i n g weak scripts. O t h e r s w e r e g o o d i d e a p e o p l e b u t lacked t h e skill t o e x e c u t e t h e i r ideas. In such collaborative e n t e r p r i s e s , t h e screen credits are n o t always an a c c u r a t e reflection of w h o c o n t r i b u t e d what to a movie. F u r t h e r m o r e , a l t h o u g h m a n y d i r e c t o r s s u c h as H i t c h c o c k , C a p r a , a n d Lubitsch c o n t r i b u t e d a g r e a t d e a l to t h e final s h a p e of t h e i r scripts, they rarely i n c l u d e d t h e i r n a m e s in t h e credits, allowing t h e official writer to take it all. F o r m a n y years, A m e r i c a n critics were i n c l i n e d to believe t h a t art m u s t b e s o l e m n — i f n o t actually d u l l — t o b e r e s p e c t a b l e . Even i n t h e heyday o f t h e

9-la. The Thin Red Line (U.S.A., 1998), with Nick Nolte, written and directed by Terrence Malick. Successful novelists rarely m a k e good screenwriters b e c a u s e they tend to want the language to carry m o s t of the m e a n i n g . But movies c o m m u n i c a t e primarily through images, and too m a n y words can clutter the eloquence of the visuals. J a m e s Jones's famous World War II novel, The Thin Red Line, serves almost as an inspiration—rather than a literal source—for Terrence Malick's elliptical, poetic screenplay. The novel e m p h a s i z e s soldiers in battle and a m o n g c o m r a d e s , but the film is m o r e concerned with philosophical ideas, a melancholy meditation on nature's exquisite beauty and how m a n defiles it. Like Malick'* other movies, this film also explores the mythic idea of a lost paradise and m a n ' s corrupt nature, his original S i n .

(Twentieth Century-Fox)

9-lb. What's Eating Gilbert Grape (U.S.A., 1993), with Leonardo DiCaprio and Johnny Depp, directed by Lasse Hallstrdm. On the other h a n d , s o m e novelists slip into the screenwriter's role with ease. Peter Hedges wrote the novel this movie is based on. He also wrote the screenplay, which is a model of intelligent adaptation, allowing its excellent actors considerable creativity in fleshing out their roles. The Swedish-born Hallstrdm has won critical praise for three first-rate adaptations by novelists, all centering on children: My Life as a Dog, Gilbert Grape, and The Cider House Rules. See also John Irving, My Movie Business (New York: Random House, 1999), an account of Irving's adaptation of his novel, The Cider House Rules, into an Academy-Award winning Screenplay.

(Paramount Pictures)

9-2. Howards End (Great Britain, 1992), with Sam West and Helena Bonham-Carter, directed by James Ivory. The team of director James Ivory, producer Ismail Merchant, and writer Ruth Prawer Jhabvala has been making movies together for over thirty years. The best of them are classy adaptations of prestigious literary masterpieces, like E. M. Forster's A Room With a View and Henry James's difficult The Europeans and The Bostonians. Jhabvala is a respected author in her own right, but her literate screenplays are her main claim to fame, and deservedly so. Nowhere is her artistry more apparent than in this sensitive adaptation of Forster's great novel, Howards End. The problem with filming literary masterpieces is that they tend to c o m e off as p o m p o u s and dead from the neck down. Jhabvala's screenplay is beautifully written, in addition to being faithful to the original, funny, and emotionally involving. (Sony Pictures)

Hollywood s t u d i o system, a h a n d f u l of intellectual writers enjoyed t r e m e n d o u s prestige b e c a u s e t h e i r scripts w e r e filled with fine s p e e c h e s d e a l i n g with J u s t i c e , B r o t h e r h o o d , a n d D e m o c r a c y . N o t that these values a r e n ' t i m p o r t a n t . B u t t o b e effective artistically, ideas m u s t be d r a m a t i z e d with tact a n d honesty, n o t p a r c e l e d o u t to t h e c h a r a c t e r s like h i g h - s o u n d i n g s p e e c h e s on a patriotic holiday. F o r e x a m p l e , in t h e novel The Grapes of Wrath, J o h n S t e i n b e c k f r e q u e n t l y praises t h e t o u g h n e s s of t h e J o a d family. T h e y have b e e n t h r o w n off t h e i r f a r m d u r i n g t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n a n d are forced to seek a n e w life in California, w h e r e c o n d i t i o n s a r e even worse for t h e m . I n J o h n F o r d ' s movie version, t h e r e i s n o n a r r a t o r , s o t h e c h a r a c t e r s m u s t s p e a k for themselves. N u n n a l l y J o h n s o n ' s s c r e e n p l a y is n o t d e v o i d of ideas, b u t t h e ideas a r e e x p r e s s e d in t h e words of t h e characters. A g o o d e x a m ple is M a j o a d ' s c o m m e n t s to h e r h u s b a n d in t h e final s c e n e of t h e movie. T h e y

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9-3. Shoeshine (Italy, 1946), with Rinaldo Smordoni and Franco Interlenghi, written by Cesare Zavattini, directed by Vittorio De Sica. Zavattini is the most famous screenwriter of the Italian cinema, and one of its most important theorists. (See the section on n e o r e a l i s m in Chapter II.) His best work was d o n e in collaboration with De Sica, including such important works as The Children Are Watching Us, Shoeshine. Bicycle Thief. Miracle in Milan. Umberto D, Two Women, and The Garden of the Finzi-Continis. Both Zavattini and De Sica were strongly humanistic, Zavattini from a Marxist perspective, De Sica from a Christian orientation. Like Francois Truffaut, De Sica was a great director of children, but his sympathies extended to all people on the fringes: "My films are a struggle against the a b s e n c e of h u m a n solidarity," he explained, "against the indifference of society towards suffering. They are a word in favor of the poor and the unhappy." (Museum of Modern Art)

are in t h e i r s h a b b y t r u c k , driving to a new j o b — t w e n t y days as fruit pickers. Pa J o a d (Russell S i m p s o n ) a d m i t s to his wife (Jane Darwell) t h a t for a while he t h o u g h t t h e family was finished. S h e answers, "I know. T h a t ' s what m a k e s us t o u g h . Rich fellas c o m e u p a n ' they d i e , a n ' t h e i r kids a i n ' t n o g o o d , a n ' they die o u t . But we k e e p a-comin'. W e ' r e t h e p e o p l e t h a t live. T h e y c a n ' t wipe us out. T h e y c a n ' t lick us. We'll go on forever Pa, 'cause w e ' r e t h e p e o p l e . " ( Q u o t e d from J o h n s o n ' s script in Twenty Best Film Plays, Vol. I, e d s . J o h n Gassner a n d Dudley Nichols; N e w Y o r k : G a r l a n d Publishing, 1977.) T h e final i m a g e of t h e film follows: a thrilling e x t r e m e l o n g shot, in which t h e fragile J o a d vehicle m e r g e s i m p e r c e p t i b l y with a procession of o t h e r d i l a p i d a t e d trucks a n d a u t o s , f o r m i n g an u n b r o k e n river of traffic—Ford's visual t r i b u t e to the c o u r a g e a n d resilience o f t h e h u m a n spirit. Generally s p e a k i n g , s t u d e n t s , artists, a n d intellectuals a r e t h e individuals m o s t likely to discuss ideas a n d abstractions w i t h o u t a sense of self-consciousness. T o b e c o n v i n c i n g , e l o q u e n t l a n g u a g e must b e dramatically p r o b a ble. W e m u s t believe t h a t t h e words a r e n ' t just t h e writer's p r e a c h m e n t s d r e s s e d up as dialogue. But t h e r e a r e always e x c e p t i o n s . Casablanca, for e x a m p l e , features a traditional love triangle, in which Ilsa ( I n g r i d B e r g m a n ) is t o r n b e t w e e n two m e n — h e r h u s b a n d , Victor Laszlo (Paul H e n r i e d ) , a Resistance l e a d e r w h o m

9-4a. Barcelona (U.S.A., 1994), with Taylor Nichols, Tushka Bergen, Chris Eigeman, and Mira Sorvino, written and directed by Whit Stillman. (Castle Rock Entertainment)

9-4b. There's Something About Mary (U.S.A., 1998), with Cameron Diaz, written and directed by Peter and Bobby Farrelly. (Twentieth

Century-Fox)

If a c o m e d y m a k e s us laugh, then it has succeeded, at least in its primary aim. But there are different ways to m a k e us laugh, s o m e subtle and sophisticated, like Stillman's wry, understated c o m e d y of m a n n e r s , Barcelona; others are crude and raunchy, like the gross-out comedies of the Farrelly brothers. Stillman's sensibility is rooted in character, and most of the comedy results from the social situations his characters find themselves in and the ways they try to weasel out of them. The Farrelly boys are more joke-oriented, the grosser the better. Examples: racist gags, anti-jock jokes, fart jokes, yelping dog gags, anything involving genitals, especially male genitals that are attacked, whacked, or otherwise abused, cruel gags about deformities, jokes about old or fat people, and anything involving bodily fluids. In short, their style of c o m e d y revels in all subjects that are likely to shock or disgust respectable citizens. Their c o m e d y is also laugh-out-loud funny, usually. Gross and funny. S o m e t i m e s really gross.

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she deeply respects a n d a d m i r e s , a n d Rick Blaine ( H u m p h r e y B o g a r t ) , t h e m a n she loves a n d will always love. T h r o u g h o u t t h e movie, Rick's c o m m e n t s a r e generally terse, s a r d o n i c , a n d h a r d - b o i l e d . H e ' s n o t a m a n given to m a k i n g pretty s p e e c h e s . B u t in t h e a i r p o r t s c e n e at t h e e n d of t h e film ( 9 - 5 b ) , his r e m a r k s t o t h e w o m a n h e loves—and m u s t give u p — a r e overtly ideological: Inside of us we b o t h k n o w you b e l o n g to Victor. Y o u ' r e p a r t of his work, t h e t h i n g t h a t k e e p s h i m g o i n g . I f t h a t p l a n e leaves t h e g r o u n d a n d y o u ' r e n o t with h i m , you'll r e g r e t it. . . . Maybe n o t today, m a y b e n o t t o m o r r o w , b u t s o o n , a n d for t h e rest of y o u r life. . . . Ilsa, I ' m no g o o d a t b e i n g n o b l e , b u t i t d o e s n ' t take m u c h t o see t h a t t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h r e e little p e o p l e d o n ' t a m o u n t to a hill of b e a n s in this crazy world. S o m e d a y you'll u n d e r s t a n d that. H e r e ' s l o o k i n g a t you, kid. ( Q u o t e d from Casablanca Script and Legend, script by Julius a n d Philip Epstein a n d H o w a r d Koch; Woodstock, N.Y: T h e O v e r l o o k Press, 1973) S o m e f i l m m a k e r s a r e at t h e i r best with talky s c r i p t s — p r o v i d e d it's scintillating talk, as in t h e best movies of Wertmuller, B e r g m a n , a n d Woody Allen ( 9 - 6 ) . T h e F r e n c h , Swedish, a n d British c i n e m a s a r e also exceptionally literate; A m o n g t h e i m p o r t a n t writers w h o have written for t h e screen in Cheat Britain are G e o r g e B e r n a r d Shaw, G r a h a m G r e e n e , Alan Sillitoe, J o h n O s b o r n e , H a r o l d Pinter, David Storey, a n d H a n i f Kureishi. Despite t h e e n o r m o u s i m p o r t a n c e t h a t t h e script c a n play in a s o u n d film, s o m e d i r e c t o r s scoff at t h e n o t i o n t h a t a writer c o u l d be t h e d o m i n a n t artist in t h e c i n e m a . A n t o n i o n i o n c e r e m a r k e d t h a t Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment was a r a t h e r o r d i n a r y c r i m e t h r i l l e r — t h e g e n i u s of t h e novel lies in how it's told, n o t in t h e subject m a t t e r p e r se. Certainly, t h e large n u m b e r of excellent movies b a s e d o n r o u t i n e o r even m e d i o c r e b o o k s s e e m s t o b e a r o u t such a view. Movie scripts s e l d o m m a k e for i n t e r e s t i n g r e a d i n g , precisely b e c a u s e they a r e like b l u e p r i n t s of t h e f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t . U n l i k e a play, w h i c h usually can be r e a d with p l e a s u r e , t o o m u c h is missing in a s c r e e n p l a y . Even highly d e t a i l e d scripts s e l d o m offer us a s e n s e of a film's m i s e en s c e n e , o n e of t h e p r i n c i p a l m e t h o d s o f e x p r e s s i o n a t t h e d i r e c t o r ' s disposal. W i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c wit, A n d r e w Sarris h a s p o i n t e d o u t h o w t h e d i r e c t o r ' s c h o i c e o f s h o t — o r t h e way in w h i c h t h e a c t i o n is p h o t o g r a p h e d — i s t h e crucial e l e m e n t in most films: T h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n a close-up a n d a long-shot, for e x a m p l e , may q u i t e often t r a n s c e n d t h e plot. If t h e story of Little Red R i d i n g H o o d is told with t h e Wolf in close-up a n d Little Red R i d i n g H o o d in longshot, t h e d i r e c t o r i s c o n c e r n e d primarily with t h e e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s of a wolf with a c o m p u l s i o n to e a t little girls. If Little Red R i d i n g H o o d is in close-up a n d t h e Wolf in long-shot, t h e e m p h a s i s is shifted to t h e

9-5a. Twentieth Century (U.S.A., 1934), with John Barrymore and Carole Lombard, directed by Howard Hawks.

(Columbia Pictures)

During the big studio era in Hollywood, most film scripts were written by c o m m i t t e e s rather than a single author. For the most part, these collaborative scripts were like patchwork quilts—some r o m a n c e for the ladies, s o m e action for the guys, a touch of comedy for the kids. Nonetheless, in s o m e cases, collaborative writing produced excellent results, like Twentieth Century and Casablanca. The legendary wit and e x - n e w s p a p e r m a n Ben Hecht was perhaps the most admired screenwriter of his era. His specialty was c o m e d y — t h e more outrageous, the better. Twentieth Century was adapted from his stage play (co-written by Charles MacArthur), with additional touches by director Hawks. Hecht delighted in satirizing American hick values and conventional morality, which he thought was as hypocritical as it was boring. Casablanca was written by Philip and Julius Epstein and Howard Koch, three of Warner Brothers' ace writers. They agonized about how to end the movie until the final m o m e n t , when they decided that the Bogart character had to give up the w o m a n he loves. Unwittingly, the writers struck a responsive public nerve: Casablanca was released during the darkest days of World War II, when Americans and their allies were being called on to m a k e personal sacrifices for a higher cause. O n e critic has suggested that the movie is not a portrait of the way we were, but of the way we wanted to be.

9-5b. Casablanca (U.S.A., with Humphrey Bogart and Bergman, directed by Michael (Warner Bros.)

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9-6. Small Time Crooks (U.S.A., 2000), with Tracy Ullman and Hugh Grant, written and directed by Woody Allen. Woody Allen is widely regarded as the most gifted writer-director of his generation, combining wit with romantic whimsy, poignancy with thought. Almost all of his movies are comedies, of virtually every type—satires, parodies, romantic comedies, fantasies, comedies of manners, and farces. He averages about one film per year. Because of his e n o r m o u s cultural prestige, he can cast virtually any actor of his choice in his pictures, and most of them work for very modest pay. Allen has also written a n u m b e r of stage plays and several volumes of humorous essays. Most of his essays originally appeared in the prestigious New Yorker magazine, which has published the writings of the finest authors in America. (Dreamworks Pictures)

e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s of vestigial virginity in a wicked world. T h u s , two different stories a r e b e i n g told with t h e s a m e basic a n e c d o t a l m a t e r i a l . W h a t is at stake in t h e two versions of Little Red R i d i n g H o o d a r e two c o n t r a s t i n g d i r e c t o r i a l a l t i t u d e s t o w a r d life. O n e d i r e c t o r identifies m o r e with t h e Wolf—the m a l e , t h e c o m p u l s i v e , t h e c o r r u p t e d , even evil itself. T h e s e c o n d d i r e c t o r identifies with p i e little g i r l — t h e i n n o c e n c e , t h e illusion, t h e ideal a n d h o p e of t h e race. N e e d l e s s to say, few critics b o t h e r t o m a k e any d i s t i n c t i o n , p r o v i n g p e r h a p s t h a t d i r e c t i o n as c r e a t i o n is still only dimly u n d e r s t o o d . ( Q u o t e d from " T h e Fall a n d Rise of t h e Film Director," in Interviews with Film Directors; N e w York: Avon Books, 1967)

9-7a. Little Women (U.S.A., 1994), with (clockwise from left) Winona Ryder, Trini Alvarado, Susan Sarandon, Claire Danes, and Kirsten Dunst; directed by Gillian Armstrong. (Columbia

Pictures)

9-7b. Chasing Amy (U.S.A., 1997), with Ben Affleck and Joey Lauren Adams, written and directed by Kevin Smith. (Miramax Films) Apples and oranges. Judging the merits of these two excellent screenplays requires a certain literary flexibility. Each is skillful, but in its own way. Robin Swicord's adaptation of Louisa May Alcott's nineteenthcentury classic, Little Women, preserves much of the novel's flowery prose style. To m o d e r n ears, the dialogue sounds rather formal, the word choice a tad elevated in proper Victorian style, yet gently undercut by occasional touches of irony The problem with this kind of dialogue is that it's hard to m a k e it sound like real talk. Stylized period dialogue requires first-rate performers such as these. The screenplay of Chasing Amy is profuse with slang, jive, and four-letter words galore. These people love to talk and talk and talk. The dialogue is funny, sexy, filled with surprises. A revisionist romantic comedy, the story centers on two comic book artists (pictured) and their odd relationship. She's a lesbian. He falls in love with her a n y w a y But surprise: She also falls in love with him. Until he screws up. . . .Critic Stephen Farber noted: "The s c e n e in which Alyssa explains to Holden that she fell in love with him not because she was prog r a m m e d by society but because she chose him as an individual is one of the most stirring testam e n t s to the mystery of love that the movies have ever offered." Both screenplays are strongly "literary" in the sense that there is a genuine sense of pleasure in demonstrating the intellectual precision, wit, and emotional richness of the English language. One is stylistically complex, feminine, and imbued with idealism; the other is raunchy, quicksilver funny, and emotionally powerful. 382

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A film script is rarely an a u t o n o m o u s literary p r o d u c t , o t h e r w i s e they would be p u b l i s h e d with g r e a t e r frequency. T h e screenplays of a few prestigious f i l m m a k e r s , like Woody Allen, I n g m a r B e r g m a n , a n d F e d e r i c o Fellini, have r e a c h e d p r i n t . But even t h e s e are m e r e l y linguistic a p p r o x i m a t i o n s of t h e films themselves. P e r h a p s t h e worst k i n d of literary by-products of movies are " n o v e l i z a t i o n s " — c o m m i s s i o n e d novel versions of p o p u l a r films t h a t a r e usually written by h i r e d hacks to cash in on a movie's box-office popularity. Screenplays a r e often m o d i f i e d by t h e actors w h o play t h e c h a r a c t e r s . This is especially t r u e in scripts written for personality stars. Naturally, t h e i r roles will usually i n c l u d e t h e qualities t h a t m a k e t h e star p o p u l a r . F o r e x a m p l e , screenwriters w h o w r o t e for G a r y C o o p e r k n e w t h a t h e was a t his best w h e n h e said t h e least. In o u r own t i m e , Clint Eastwood is f a m o u s for his terse o n e liners: "Go a h e a d — m a k e my day." Eastwood's c h a r a c t e r s , like C o o p e r ' s , a r e usually suspicious of p e o p l e w h o are smooth-talkers. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , a g o o d talker is a j o y to hear. J o s e p h L. Mankiewicz was o n e of t h e m o s t a d m i r e d w r i t e r - d i r e c t o r s of t h e Hollywood big-studio era. His finest work, All About Eve ( 7 - 5 ) , features several brilliantly written roles. O n e of t h e best is t h e a c i d - t o n g u e d t h e a t e r critic, A d d i s o n Dewitt, played with bitchy sang-froid by G e o r g e S a n d e r s . Late in t h e movie, Eve H a r r i n g t o n ( A n n e B a x t e r ) , a y o u n g actress w h o has lied, c h e a t e d , a n d slept h e r way to t h e t o p , tries t o b r u s h off Dewitt, h e r c u r r e n t c o m p a n i o n , b e c a u s e h e ' s n o l o n g e r useful t o her. Dewitt sees r i g h t t h r o u g h h e r a n d has n o i n t e n t i o n o f playing h e r fool. She huffily walks to t h e d o o r a n d o p e n s it. "You're too s h o r t for t h a t g e s t u r e , " he dryly observes. "Besides, it w e n t o u t with Mrs. Fisk." He t h e n p r o c e e d s to destroy h e r p r e t e n t i o n s by e x p o s i n g all of h e r lies. "Your n a m e is n o t Eve H a r r i n g t o n . It is G e r t r u d e Slecynski," he b e g i n s . "It is t r u e t h a t y o u r p a r e n t s w e r e poor. T h e y still a r e . A n d they w o u l d like to k n o w h o w you a r e — a n d w h e r e . T h e y h a v e n ' t h e a r d from you for t h r e e years." Eve finally collapses as he finishes his w i t h e r i n g d i a t r i b e : " T h a t I s h o u l d want you at all s u d d e n l y strikes me as t h e h e i g h t of improbability. T h a t , in itself, is p r o b a b l y t h e r e a s o n . Y o u ' r e an i m p r o b a b l e p e r s o n , Eve, a n d so am I. We have t h a t in c o m m o n . Also a c o n t e m p t for h u m a n i t y , an inability to love or be loved, insatiable a m b i t i o n — a n d talent. We d e s e r v e e a c h other." ( Q u o t e d from More About All About Eve; N e w York: B a n t a m , 1974; which c o n t a i n s Mankiewicz's script a n d a l e n g t h y interview.) Most of t h e c h a r a c t e r s in All About Eve are well e d u c a t e d a n d literate. T h o s e in On the Waterfront, which was written by B u d d S c h u l b e r g , are workingclass l o n g s h o r e m e n . Such c h a r a c t e r s usually a t t e m p t to c o n c e a l t h e i r e m o t i o n s b e h i n d a m a c h o facade. But in scenes of i n t e n s e e m o t i o n s , t h e words, t h o u g h simple, are powerful. T h e f a m o u s taxi s c e n e b e t w e e n t h e Malloy b r o t h e r s , Charley (Rod Steiger) a n d T e r r y ( M a r l o n B r a n d o ) , is a g o o d e x a m p l e . Charley, t h e o l d e r a n d s h r e w d e r o f t h e two, o n c e c o n v i n c e d his b r o t h e r t o t h r o w a n i m p o r t a n t b o x i n g m a t c h . T e r r y is no l o n g e r a boxer, b u t a s t o o g e for t h e s a m e

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u n i o n r a c k e t e e r t h a t C h a r l e y works for, J o h n n y Friendly. C h a r l e y tries t o b l a m e T e r r y ' s m a n a g e r for w h a t h a p p e n e d . Angry, T e r r y answers: II w a s n ' t h i m ! It was you, Charley. You a n d J o h n n y . Like t h e n i g h t t h e two o f y o u s e c o m e i n t h e d r e s s i n g r o o m a n d says, 'Kid, this a i n ' t y o u r n i g h t — w e ' r e g o i n g for t h e p r i c e on W i l s o n . ' // ain't my night. I ' d of t a k e n Wilson a p a r t t h a t n i g h t ! I was r e a d y — r e m e m b e r t h e early r o u n d s t h r o w i n g t h e m c o m b i n a t i o n s . S o w h a t h a p p e n s — T h i s b u m Wilson h e gets t h e title s h o t — o u t d o o r s i n t h e ball p a r k ! — a n d w h a t d o I g e t — a c o u p l e of b u c k s a n d a one-way ticket to Palookaville. It was you, Charley. You was m y b r o t h e r . You s h o u l d o f l o o k e d o u t for m e . I n s t e a d

9-8. My Beautiful Laundrette (Great Britain, 1985), with Cordon Warnecke and Daniel Day-Lewis, written by Hanif Kureishi, directed by Stephen Frears. One of Britain's most outspoken young writers (plays, fiction, and autobiography as well as screenplays), Hanif Kureishi enjoys shocking the staid literary establishment. His t h e m e s characteristically revolve around conflicts between cultures, races, classes, and sexes. Most of his characters are funny as well as bright. Despite being from different classes and ethnic backgrounds, the two leading characters in this film (pictured) are business partners and lovers. They're totally unapologetic about their sexuality, which is not treated as a big deal. Kureishi, who is half English and half Pakistani, is especially interested in minorities, people outside the English mainstream, which is male, white, and heterosexual. "Gay m e n and black m e n have been excluded from history," Kureishi has said. "They're trying to understand themselves. Like w o m e n , black people and gay people have been marginalized in society, lacking in power, ridiculed." (Orion Pictures)

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o f m a k i n g m e take t h e m dives for t h e s h o r t - e n d m o n e y . . . . I c o u l d ' v e b e e n a c o n t e n d e r . I c o u l d ' v e h a d class a n d b e e n s o m e b o d y . Real class. I n s t e a d of a b u m , let's face it, which is what I a m . It was you, Charley. ( Q u o t e d from On the Waterfront: A Screenplay; C a r b o n d a l e : S o u t h e r n Illinois University Press, 1980) G o o d d i a l o g u e is often t h e result of having a g o o d e a r — f o r c a t c h i n g the c o r r e c t r h y t h m s o f s p e e c h , t h e r i g h t c h o i c e o f words, t h e l e n g t h o f p e o p l e ' s s e n t e n c e s , t h e j a r g o n , slang, o r swears p e o p l e use. T h e f o u l m o u t h e d c h a r a c t e r s in Q u e n t i n T a r a n t i n o ' s Reservoir Dogs (5-35) speak in t o r r e n t s of four-letter words, the linguistic e q u i v a l e n t of t h e violence of t h e i r lives. In c o n t e x t s such as these, polite o r l a u n d e r e d p r o s e w o i d d c o n s t i t u t e b a d writing. O n e of t h e p l e a s u r e s of Nicholas Meyer's screenplay ( a d a p t e d from his own novel) of The Seven Per-Cent Solution is t h e way he c a p t u r e s t h e elegantly literary n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p r o s e style of his p r o t a g o n i s t , S h e r l o c k H o l m e s . H e r e ' s H o l m e s w h e n h e ' s first tricked i n t o m e e t i n g a foreign d o c t o r at t h e physician's h o m e in V i e n n a :

9-9. The Gospel According to St. Matthew (Italy/France, 1964), with Enrique Irazoqui, directed by Pier Paolo Pasolini. This story of the life and teachings of Jesus is based on the New Testament writings of the Apostle Matthew. Pasolini, a Marxist and atheist, told the story sincerely and simply, blending mythology with documentary. His eclectic techniques combined a nonprofessional cast with a musical score that includes Bach, Mozart, Billie Holiday, Prokofiev, a Creole Mass, and Negro spirituals. The movie is widely regarded as a masterpiece of the Christian c i n e m a — mysterious, poetic, and emotionally powerful. (Continental)

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B e y o n d d i e fact t h a t you are a brilliant Jewish physician w h o was b o r n in H u n g a r y a n d s t u d i e d for a t i m e in Paris, a n d t h a t s o m e radical t h e o ries of yours have a l i e n a t e d t h e r e s p e c t a b l e m e d i c a l c o m m u n i t y so t h a t you have severed y o u r c o n n e c t i o n s with various hospitals a n d b r a n c h e s of t h e m e d i c a l f r a t e r n i t y — b e y o n d this, I can d e d u c e little. You are m a r r i e d , with a child of five; you enjoy S h a k e s p e a r e a n d possess a sense of h o n o r . ( Q u o t e d from Film Scenes for Aden's, ed. J o s h u a K a r t o n ; New York: B a n t a m Books, 1983) T h e d o c t o r t u r n s o u t t o b e n o n e o t h e r t h a n S i g m u n d F r e u d . Naturally, h e ' s a s t o n i s h e d t h a t H o l m e s can d e d u c e s o m u c h u p o n merely e n t e r i n g a r o o m . Most screenplays a r e businesslike a n d practical. B e c a u s e they a r e n o t m e a n t for p u b l i c a t i o n , t h e action s e q u e n c e s are usually d e s c r i b e d simply, with no literary flourishes. T h e r e a r e a few e x c e p t i o n s to this r u l e , however. O n e of t h e m is J o h n O s b o r n e ' s p o l i s h e d screenplay of Tom Jones, b a s e d on t h e eighte e n t h - c e n t u r y English novel by H e n r y Fielding. T h e fox h u n t i n g s c e n e in t h e movie is magnificently effective, t h a n k s to Tony R i c h a r d s o n ' s skillful d i r e c t i o n . Bui R i c h a r d s o n obviously g o t his i n s p i r a t i o n from O s b o r n e ' s screenplay: T h e h u n t is no pretty C h r i s t m a s c a l e n d a r affair b u t a t h u m p i n g d a n g e r o u s vicious business, in which e v e r y o n e takes p a r t so w h o l e h e a r t e d l y

9-10. Some Like It Hot (U.S.A., 1959), with Jack Lemmon and Tony Curtis, screenplay by Billy Wilder and 1. A. L. Diamond, directed by Wilder. Billy Wilder was one of the most respected writer-directors of the post-World War II era. He w a s regarded as a master of the well-made scenario: Each detail has a precise interlocking function. "In a good script, everything is necessary or it ain't good," he insisted. "And if you take out one piece, you better replace it with a different piece, or you got trouble." He was able to mine c o m e d y from the unlikeliest sources, like transvestism. Forced to disguise themselves as w o m e n while on the lam from the mob, the musician heroes of this film join an all-girl band to escape detection. Most of the gags revolve around the incongruity of two virile m e n trying to cope with the agony of womanhood. Lemmon, for example, keeps losing one of his chests.

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t h a t it seems to express all in t h e raw, wild vitality t h a t is so n e a r to t h e surface of t h e i r lives. It is passionate a n d violent. S q u i r e W e s t e r n howls d e m e n t e d l y a s h e flogs his h o r s e over t h e m u d d y e a r t h . T h e c u r a t e kicks his beefy h e e l s in t h e air, bellowing with b l o o d a n d p l e a s u r e . Big, ugly, u n l o v a b l e d o g s t e a r a t t h e e a r t h . T o m reels a n d r o a r s o n his h o r s e , his face r u d d y a n d d a m p , a l m o s t insensible with t h e lust a n d t h e cry a n d t h e gallop, with t h e h o t q u a r r y of flesh in t h e crisp air, t h e b l o o d a n d flesh of m e n , t h e b l o o d a n d fur of a n i m a l s . E v e r y o n e is c a u g h t up in t h e b l o o d y fever. ( Q u o t e d from Tom Jones, A Film Script, by J o h n O s b o r n e ; N e w Y o r k : Grove Press, 1964)

E r n e s t L e h m a n ' s s c r e e n p l a y for H i t c h c o c k ' s North by Northwest has c o n s i d e r a b l e fluidity as a p i e c e of writing. Its e x c e l l e n c e consists n o t of its lite r a r y d i s t i n c t i o n so m u c h as its clearly d e f i n e d a c t i o n s , p r o v i d i n g t h e d i r e c t o r with t h e raw m a t e r i a l s for t h e s h o t s of t h e m o v i e . T h e following is a l e n g t h y e x c e r p t f r o m t h e screenplay. H o w H i t c h c o c k t r a n s l a t e d this literary d e s c r i p tion i n t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l s e q u e n c e o f s h o t s i n t h e m o v i e c a n b e s e e n i n C h a p t e r 4, "Editing." Like m a n y of H i t c h c o c k ' s movies, North by Northwest revolves a r o u n d t h e w r o n g - m a n t h e m e . T h e p r o t a g o n i s t i s a n i n n o c e n t m a n a c c u s e d o f a n d pers e c u t e d for a c r i m e he d i d n ' t c o m m i t . In this film, R o g e r T h o r n h i l l (Gary G r a n t ) , a glib b u t c h a r m i n g advertising executive, is accidentally m i s t a k e n for a g o v e r n m e n t a g e n t n a m e d Kaplan. T h o r n h i l l i s a b d u c t e d b y e n e m y agents, almost m u r d e r e d by t h e m , t h e n fatefully i m p l i c a t e d in t h e m u r d e r of a U . N . d i p l o m a t . P u r s u e d b y b o t h t h e police a n d t h e e n e m y a g e n t s , h e flees t o C h i c a g o i n d e s p e r a t i o n , h o p i n g t o discover t h e real Kaplan, w h o p r e s u m a b l y will establish T h o r n h i l l ' s i n n o c e n c e . W h e n he arrives in C h i c a g o , he is told t h a t K a p l a n will m e e t h i m a l o n e at a d e s i g n a t e d location. T h e following e x c e r p t relates w h a t t h e n takes place.

Helicopter Shot—Exterior,

Highway

41—Afternoon

WE START CLOSE o n a G r e y h o u n d b u s , SHOOTING; DOWN o n it a n d TRAVEL-

ING; ALONG; with it as it s p e e d s in an easterly d i r e c t i o n at seventy m . p . h . Gradually, CAMERA DRAWS AWAY from t h e b u s , g o i n g h i g h e r b u t never losi n g sight o f t h e vehicle, w h i c h r e c e d e s i n t o t h e d i s t a n c e below a n d b e c o m e s a toylike object on an endless r i b b o n of d e s e r t e d highway t h a t stretches across miles of flat p r a i r i e . Now t h e b u s is slowing d o w n . It is n e a r i n g a j u n c t i o n w h e r e a small d i r t r o a d c o m i n g from n o w h e r e crosses t h e highway a n d c o n t i n u e s o n t o n o w h e r e . T h e b u s stops. A m a n gets out. It is THORNHILL. But to us he is only a tiny figure. T h e b u s starts away, moves on o u t of sight. A n d now T H O R N H I L L stands a l o n e b e s i d e t h e r o a d — a tiny figure in t h e m i d d l e of n o w h e r e .

3 88

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On the Ground—with

Thornhill—(Master Scene)

He glances a b o u t , studying his s u r r o u n d i n g s . T h e t e r r a i n is flat a n d treeless, even m o r e desolate from this vantage p o i n t t h a n it s e e m e d from t h e air. H e r e a n d t h e r e p a t c h e s oflow-growing farm crops a d d s o m e c o n t o u r to t h e land. A h o t sun beats down. UTTER SILENCE h a n g s heavily in the air, THORNHILL glances at his wristwatch. It is t h r e e twenty-five. In t h e d i s t a n c e , t h e FAINT HUM of a M O T O R VEHICLE is HEARD, T H O R N -

HILL looks off to t h e west. T h e HUM GROWS LOUDER as t h e car draws

n e a r e r , T H O R N H I L L steps closer to t h e e d g e of t h e highway. A black s e d a n l o o m s u p , traveling a t h i g h s p e e d . For a m o m e n t w e a r e n o t s u r e it is n o t h u r t l i n g r i g h t at T H O R N H I L L . A n d t h e n it z o o m s past h i m , r e c e d e s i n t o t h e d i s t a n c e , b e c o m i n g a FAINT H U M , a tiny speck, a n d t h e n SILENCE again.

T H O R N H I L L takes o u t a h a n d k e r c h i e f , m o p s his face. He is b e g i n n i n g to sweat now. It c o u l d be f r o m n e r v o u s n e s s , as well as t h e h e a t . A n o t h e r FAINT H U M , c o m i n g f r o m t h e east, GROWING LOUDER as he g l a n c e s off a n d

sees a n o t h e r d i s t a n t speck b e c o m i n g a s p e e d i n g car, this o n e a closed c o n v e r t i b l e . Again, a n t i c i p a t i o n o n T H O R N H I L L ' s face. A g a i n , t h e v a g u e uneasiness of indefinable danger approaching at high speed. And a g a i n , Z O O M — a c l o u d o f d u s t — a car r e c e d i n g i n t o t h e d i s t a n c e — A FAINT H U M — a n d SILENCE.

His lips t i g h t e n . H e g l a n c e s a t his watch again. H e steps o u t i n t o t h e m i d d l e o f t h e highway, looks f i r s t i n o n e d i r e c t i o n , t h e n t h e o t h e r . N o t h i n g in sight. He l o o s e n s his tie, o p e n s his shirt collar, looks up at t h e s u n . B e h i n d h i m , in t h e d i s t a n c e , a n o t h e r vehicle is HEARD a p p r o a c h i n g . He t u r n s , looks off to t h e west. T h i s o n e is a h u g e t r a n s c o n t i n e n t a l m o v i n g van, ROARING TOWARD HIM at h i g h s p e e d . W i t h q u i c k a p p r e h e n s i o n he m o v e s off t h e highway to t h e dusty side of t h e r o a d as t h e van t h u n d e r s past a n d disappears. Its FADING SOUND is r e p l a c e d with a NEW SOUND, t h e CHUGGING of an OLD FLIVVER.

T H O R N H I L L looks off in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e a p p r o a c h i n g SOUND, sees a flivver n e a r i n g t h e highway f r o m t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g d i r t r o a d . W h e n t h e car r e a c h e s t h e highway, it c o m e s to a s t o p . A m i d d l e - a g e d w o m a n is b e h i n d t h e w h e e l . H e r p a s s e n g e r is a n o n d e s c r i p t MAN of a b o u t fifty. He c o u l d certainly be a farmer. He gets o u t of t h e car. It m a k e s a U - t u r n a n d drives off in t h e d i r e c t i o n f r o m w h i c h it c a m e , T H O R N H I L L w a t c h e s t h e MAN a n d takes up a p o s i t i o n across t h e highway from h i m . T h e MAN g l a n c e s at T H O R N H I L L w i t h o u t visible interest, t h e n looks off up t h e highway toward t h e east as t h o u g h waiting for s o m e t h i n g to c o m e along. T H O R N H I L L stares at t h e MAN, w o n d e r i n g if this is G e o r g e Kaplan. T h e MAN looks idly across t h e highway at T H O R N H I L L , his face e x p r e s sionless. T H O R N H I L L wipes his face with his h a n d k e r c h i e f , n e v e r t a k i n g his eyes off t h e MAN a c r o s s t h e highway. T h e FAINT SOUND of a n APPROACH INC.

W citing

389

PLANE has gradually c o m e up over t h e s c e n e . As t h e SOUND GROWS

LOUDER, T H O R N H I L L looks up to his left a n d sees a low-flying b i p l a n e a p p r o a c h from t h e n o r t h w e s t . He watches it with m o u n t i n g i n t e r e s t as i t h e a d s straight for t h e s p o t w h e r e h e a n d t h e s t r a n g e r face e a c h o t h e r across t h e highway. S u d d e n l y it is u p o n t h e m , only a h u n d r e d feet above t h e g r o u n d , a n d t h e n , like a giant bird, as T H O R N H I L L t u r n s with t h e p l a n e ' s passage, it flies over t h e m , a n d c o n t i n u e s o n . T H O R N H I L L stares after t h e p l a n e , his back t o t h e highway. W h e n t h e p l a n e has g o n e several h u n d r e d yards b e y o n d t h e highway, it loses a l t i t u d e , levels off only a few feet above t h e g r o u n d a n d b e g i n s to fly b a c k a n d forth in straight lines parallel to t h e highway, letting loose a trail of p o w d e r e d d u s t from b e n e a t h t h e fuselage as it goes. Any f a r m e r w o u l d r e c o g n i z e t h e o p e r a t i o n as simple c r o p - d u s t i n g . T H O R N H I L L looks across t h e highway, sees t h a t t h e s t r a n g e r is watchi n g t h e p l a n e with idle interest. T H O R N H I L L ' s lips set with d e t e r m i n a tion. H e crosses over a n d goes u p t o t h e MAN. THORNHILL:

Hot

day.

MAN: Seen worse. T H O R N H I L L : Are you . . . uh . . . by any c h a n c e s u p p o s e d to be m e e t i n g someone here? MAN (still w a t c h i n g t h e p l a n e ) : Waitin' for t h e bus. D u e any m i n u t e . T H O R N H I L L : Oh . . .

MAN (idly): S o m e of t h e m c r o p - d u s t e r pilots get rich, if they live l o n g enough . . . T H O R N H I L L : T h e n y o u r n a m e i s n ' t . . . Kaplan. MAN (glances at h i m ) : C a n ' t say it is, 'cause it ain't. ( H e looks off up t h e highway). W e l l — h e r e she c o m e s , r i g h t o n t i m e . T H O R N H I L L looks off to t h e east, sees a G r e y h o u n d b u s a p p r o a c h i n g . T h e MAN p e e r s off at t h e p l a n e again, a n d frowns. MAN: T h a t ' s funny. T H O R N H I L L : What?

MAN: T h a t p l a n e ' s d u s t i n ' c r o p s w h e r e t h e r e a i n ' t n o c r o p s . T H O R N H I L L looks across at t h e d r o n i n g p l a n e with g r o w i n g suspicion as t h e s t r a n g e r steps o u t o n t o t h e highway a n d f l a g s t h e b u s t o a stop. T H O R N H I L L t u r n s t o w a r d t h e s t r a n g e r as t h o u g h to say s o m e t h i n g to h i m . B u t it is t o o late. T h e m a n has b o a r d e d t h e b u s , its d o o r s a r e closing, a n d it is p u l l i n g away. T H O R N H I L L is a l o n e again. A l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y , h e HEARS T H E P I A N E ENGINE BEING GUNNED T O A

HIGHER SPEED. He glances off sharply, sees t h e p l a n e v e e r i n g off its parallel c o u r s e a n d h e a d i n g t o w a r d h i m . H e s t a n d s t h e r e wide-eyed, r o o t e d to t h e spot. T h e p l a n e r o a r s o n , a few feet off t h e g r o u n d . T h e r e a r e two m e n i n t h e twin cockpits, g o g g l e d , u n r e c o g n i z a b l e , m e n a c i n g . He yells o u t to t h e m , b u t his voice is lost in t h e NOISE OF T H E PLANE. In a m o m e n t it will be u p o n h i m a n d d e c a p i t a t e h i m . D e s p e r -

390

W

f i f i n g

ately h e d r o p s t o t h e g r o u n d a n d presses h i m s e l f flat a s t h e p l a n e z o o m s over h i m with a g r e a t n o i s e , a l m o s t c o m b i n g his h a i r with a landing wheel. T H O R N H I L L s c r a m b l e s t o his feet, sees t h e p l a n e b a n k i n g a n d t u r n i n g . He looks a b o u t wildly, sees a t e l e p h o n e p o l e a n d d a s h e s for it as t h e p l a n e c o m e s a t h i m again. H e d u c k s b e h i n d t h e p o l e . T h e p l a n e h e a d s straight for h i m , veers to t h e r i g h t at t h e last m o m e n t . We HEAR two s h a r p CRACKS of GUNFIRE m i x e d with t h e SOUND of t h e ENGINE, as two bul-

lets slam i n t o t h e p o l e just above THORNHILL'S h e a d . T H O R N H I L L reacts t o this n e w p e r i l , sees t h e p l a n e b a n k i n g for a n o t h e r r u n at h i m . A car is s p e e d i n g a l o n g t h e highway from t h e west, T H O R N H I L L d a s h e s o u t o n t o t h e r o a d , tries t o flag t h e car d o w n b u t t h e d r i v e r i g n o r e s h i m . He dives i n t o a d i t c h a n d rolls away as a n o t h e r series o f S H O T S a r e HEARD a n d bullets rake t h e g r o u n d t h a t h e has j u s t o c c u p i e d . He gets to his feet, looks a b o u t , sees a cornfield a b o u t fifty yards from t h e highway, glances u p a t t h e p l a n e m a k i n g its t u r n , a n d d e c i d e s to m a k e a d a s h for t h e cover of t h e tall-growing c o r n . S H O O T I N G DOWN FROM A HELICOPTER a b o u t o n e h u n d r e d feet above

t h e g r o u n d , WE SEE T H O R N H I L L r u n n i n g toward t h e cornfield a n d t h e plane in pursuit. SHOOTING FROM WITHIN T H E CORNFIELD, WE SEE THORNHILL C O H i e crash-

ing in, scuttling to the right a n d lying flat a n d motionless as WE HEAR THE PIANE ZOOM OVER HIM WITH A BURST O F GUNFIRE a n d b u l l e t s r i p i n t o t h e

c o r n , b u t at a safe distance from THORNHILL. He raises his h e a d cautiously, g a s p i n g for b r e a t h , as h e HEARS T H E PLANE MOVE OFF AND INTO ITS TURN. S H O O T I N G DOWN FROM T H E HELICOPTER, we s e e t h e p l a n e l e v e l i n g off

a n d starting a r u n over t h e cornfield, which betrays no sign of t h e hidd e n T H O R N H I L L . S k i m m i n g over t h e t o p o f t h e cornstalks, t h e p l a n e gives forth no b u r s t of gunfire now. I n s t e a d , it lets loose thick c l o u d s of p o i s o n o u s d u s t which settle d o w n i n t o t h e c o r n . WITHIN T H E CORNFIELD, THORNHILL, still lying flat, b e g i n s to gasp a n d c h o k e as t h e p o i s o n o u s d u s t envelops h i m . Tears s t r e a m from his eyes b u t h e d o e s n o t d a r e m o v e a s h e HEARS T H E P I A N E COMING OVER T H E

FIELD AGAIN. W h e n t h e p l a n e z o o m s by a n d a n o t h e r c l o u d of dust hits h i m , h e j u m p s t o his feet a n d crashes o u t i n t o t h e o p e n , half b l i n d e d a n d g a s p i n g for b r e a t h . Far off d o w n t h e highway to t h e right, he SEES a h u g e Diesel g a s o l i n e - t a n k e r a p p r o a c h i n g . H e starts r u n n i n g toward t h e highway to i n t e r c e p t it. S H O O T I N G FROM T H E HELICOPTER, WE SEE T H O R N H I L L d a s h i n g for t h e

highway, t h e p l a n e leveling off for a n o t h e r r u n at h i m , a n d t h e Diesel t a n k e r s p e e d i n g closer. S H O O T I N G ACROSS T H E HIGHWAY, WE SEE T H O R N H I L L r u n n i n g a n d s t u m -

b l i n g TOWARD CAMERA, t h e p l a n e closing in b e t w e e n h i m , a n d t h e Diesel

9-11. North by Northwest (U.S.A., 1959), with Cory Grant, screenplay by Ernest Lehman, directed by Alfred Hitchcock. Much of the success of this movie is due to Grant's engaging performance as Roger O. Thornhill (the "O" stands for nothing), who's a little too slick for his own good. Only an actor of Grant's great skill could handle the comedy of his role without sacrificing credibility as a person who is being put through a living hell. (MGM)

t a n k e r a p p r o a c h i n g from t h e left. H e d a s h e s o u t i n t o t h e m i d d l e o f t h e highway a n d waves his a r m s wildly. T h e Diesel t a n k e r THUNDERS d o w n t h e highway toward THORNHILL, KLAXON BLASTING impatiently.

T h e p l a n e s p e e d s relentlessly toward T H O R N H I L L from t h e field bord e r i n g t h e highway. T H O R N H I L L s t a n d s a l o n e a n d helpless in t h e m i d d l e of t h e highway, waving his a r m s . T h e p l a n e draws closer. T h e t a n k e r i s a l m o s t u p o n h i m . It isn't g o i n g to stop. He can HEAR T H E KLAXON BLASTING h i m o u t of

t h e way. T h e r e i s n o t h i n g h e c a n d o . T h e p l a n e h a s c a u g h t u p with h i m . T h e t a n k e r w o n ' t stop. It's G O T t o stop. H e h u r l s himself t o t h e pavem e n t directly in its p a t h . T h e r e is A SCREAM OF BRAKES a n d SKIDDING TIRES, T H E ROAR O F T H E PLANK ENGINE a n d t h e n a t r e m e n d o u s BOOM as

t h e Diesel t r u c k g r i n d s to a stop i n c h e s from T h o r n h i l l ' s b o d y just as t h e p l a n e , hopelessly c o m m i t t e d a n d c a u g h t u n p r e p a r e d b y t h e s u d d e n 39 1

W r

i 1 i it t j

s t o p , slams i n t o t h e traveling gasoline t a n k e r a n d p l a n e a n d gasoline e x p l o d e i n t o a g r e a t s h e e t of n a m e . In t h e n e x t few m o m e n t s , all is confusion, THORNHII.I., u n h u r t , rolls o u t from u n d e r t h e wheels o f t h e Diesel truck. T h e drivers c l a m b e r o u t of t h e front seat a n d d r o p to t h e highway. Black c l o u d s of s m o k e billow u p from t h e funeral pyre o f t h e p l a n e a n d its c r e m a t e d o c c u p a n t s . W e r e c o g n i z e t h e flaming b o d y of o n e of t h e m e n in t h e p l a n e , ft is LIGHT,

o n e o f T H O R N H I L L ' s original a b d u c t o r s . A n elderly o p e n p i c k u p t r u c k with a s e c o n d - h a n d refrigerator s t a n d i n g in it, which has b e e n a p p r o a c h i n g from t h e east, pulls up at t h e side of t h e road, fts driver, a FARMER, j u m p s o u t a n d h u r r i e s toward t h e wreckage. FARMER: W h a t h a p p e n e d ? W h a t h a p p e n e d ?

T h e Diesel t r u c k drivers a r e t o o d a z e d t o answer. Flames a n d s m o k e drive t h e m all back, T H O R N H I L L , u n n o t i c e d , h e a d s toward t h e u n o c c u p i e d p i c k u p truck. A n o t h e r car c o m e s u p from t h e west, stops, a n d its driver r u n s toward t h e o t h e r m e n . T h e y stare, transfixed, a t t h e h o l o caust. S u d d e n l y , from b e h i n d t h e m , they HEAR T H E PICKUP TRUCK'S

m o t o r starting. T h e FARMER w h o owns t h e t r u c k t u r n s , a n d is startled to

see his t r u c k b e i n g driven away by an u t t e r stranger. FARMER:

Hey!

He r u n s after t h e truck. But t h e s t r a n g e r — w h o is T H O R N H I L L — s t e p s h a r d e r o n t h e a c c e l e r a t o r a n d s p e e d s off i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f C h i c a g o .

9-12. Sense and Sensibility (Great Britain, 1995), with Emma Thompson, directed by Ang Lee. In the I 990s, virtually all of Jane Austen's six major novels were m a d e into movies and television series, most of them quite fine. Sense and Sensibility is perhaps the finest, thanks in part to E m m a T h o m p s o n ' s superlative screenplay, which won an Acade m y Award. It was her first screenplay. Thompson wrote several drafts over a period of four years. "The novel is so complex and there are so m a n y stories in it that bashing out a structure w a s the biggest labor," she admitted. As an actress, she knew that s o m e of the dialogue in the novel would not translate well to film, so she turned to Austen's letters (Miss Jane was a prodigious letter writer), which contained simpler language. "Some of the sentences in the book go on forever," T h o m p s o n says, but in the letters, "Austen's personal style was very clear and elegant. And very funny." In addition to writing the screenplay, Thompson also played one of the leading roles, brilliantly. (Columbia Pictures)

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In his essay "La Camera-Stylo," A l e x a n d r e A s t r u c o b s e r v e d t h a t o n e of the traditional p r o b l e m s of film has b e e n its difficulty in e x p r e s s i n g t h o u g h t a n d ideas. T h e i n v e n t i o n o f s o u n d , o f c o u r s e , was a n e n o r m o u s a d v a n t a g e t o filmmakers, for with s p o k e n l a n g u a g e they c o u l d express virtually any k i n d of abstract t h o u g h t . But film d i r e c t o r s also w a n t e d to e x p l o r e t h e possibilities of t h e i m a g e as a conveyor of abstract ideas. Even b e f o r e t h e s o u n d era, filmmakers h a d devised a n u m b e r of n o n v e r b a l figurative t e c h n i q u e s . A figurative t e c h n i q u e can be d e f i n e d as an artistic device t h a t suggests a b s t r a c t ideas t h r o u g h c o m p a r i s o n , e i t h e r i m p l i e d o r overt. T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r of these techniques in both literature a n d cinema. T h e most comm o n a r e m o t i f s , s y m b o i s , a n d m e t a p h o r s . I n a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , t h e r e ' s a conside r a b l e a m o u n t o f o v e r l a p p i n g b e t w e e n t h e s e t e r m s . All o f t h e m a r e "symbolic" i n t h e s e n s e t h a t a n object o r e v e n t m e a n s s o m e t h i n g b e y o n d its literal significance. P e r h a p s t h e m o s t p r a g m a t i c m e t h o d o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e s e

9-13. Day for Night (France, 1973), with Frangois Truffaut (leather jacket), directed by Truffaut. Film titles are chosen with great deliberation because they are m e a n t to e m b o d y the central concept behind a movie. Film titles, in short, are symbolic. The original-language title of this film is La Nuit Americaine, "The American Night." It reflects Truffaut's great love for American culture, especially its cinema, and deals with the making of an "old-fashioned" kind of movie—the kind they m a d e in Hollywood in the 1 940s. (Truffaut even includes a tender homage to Citizen Kane.) "La nuit americaine" is also what the French call the day-for-night filter, which converts sunlit scenes into nighttime scenes. The filter transforms reality— makes it magical. For Truffaut, c i n e m a is magic. (Warner Bros.)

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techniques is their degree of obtrusiveness. Instead of locking each term into a n a i r t i g h t c o m p a r t m e n t , however, w e o u g h t t o view t h e m a s g e n e r a l d e m a r c a t i o n s , with motifs r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e least o b t r u s i v e e x t r e m e , m e t a p h o r s r e p resenting the most conspicuous, and each category overlapping somewhat with its n e i g h b o r . Motifs a r e so totally i n t e g r a t e d within t h e realistic t e x t u r e of a film t h a t we can a l m o s t refer to t h e m as s u b m e r g e d or invisible symbols. A motif can be a t e c h n i q u e , an object, or a n y t h i n g that's systematically r e p e a t e d in a movie yet d o e s n ' t call a t t e n t i o n to itself. Even after r e p e a t e d viewings, a m o t i f is n o t always a p p a r e n t , for its symbolic significance is n e v e r p e r m i t t e d to e m e r g e or d e t a c h itself from its c o n t e x t ( 9 - 1 4 ) . Symbols c a n also be p a l p a b l e things, b u t they imply a d d i t i o n a l m e a n i n g s t h a t a r e relatively a p p a r e n t t o t h e sensitive observer. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e symbolic m e a n i n g s of t h e s e things can shift with t h e d r a m a t i c c o n t e x t . A g o o d e x a m p l e of t h e shifting i m p l i c a t i o n s of a symbol c a n be s e e n in t h e u n c u t version of Kurosawa's The Seven Samurai ( 9 - 1 5 ) . In this movie, a y o u n g s a m u r a i a n d a p e a s a n t girl a r e a t t r a c t e d to e a c h o t h e r , b u t t h e i r class differences p r e s e n t i n s u r m o u n t a b l e b a r r i e r s . In a s c e n e t h a t takes place late at n i g h t , t h e two accidentally m e e t . Kurosawa e m p h a s i z e s t h e i r s e p a r a t i o n by k e e p i n g t h e m in sepa-

9-14. Cries and Whispers (Sweden, 1972), with Liv Ullmann (a) and Kari Sylwan (b), written and directed by Ingmar Bergman. A recurrent motif in this movie is the h u m a n face split in two, suggesting self-division, the hidden self, the public versus the private self. (New world Pictures)

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rate f r a m e s , a r a g i n g o u t d o o r fire a c t i n g as a k i n d of b a r r i e r (a a n d b ) . Bui t h e i r a t t r a c t i o n i s t o o s t r o n g , a n d they t h e n a p p e a r i n t h e s a m e shot, t h e f i r e b e t w e e n t h e m n o w s u g g e s t i n g t h e only obstacle, yet paradoxically also suggesti n g t h e sexual passion they b o t h feel (c). T h e y d r a w toward e a c h o t h e r , a n d t h e fire is now to o n e side, its sexual symbolism d o m i n a t i n g ( d ) . T h e y go inside a h u t , a n d t h e light from t h e f i r e o u t s i d e e m p h a s i z e s t h e eroticism o f t h e s c e n e (e). As they b e g i n to m a k e love in a d a r k c o r n e r of t h e h u t , t h e s h a d o w s cast by t h e f i r e ' s light o n t h e r e e d s o f t h e h u t s e e m t o streak across t h e i r b o d i e s (f). Suddenly, t h e girl's father discovers t h e lovers, a n d t h e billowing flames of t h e fire suggest his m o r a l o u t r a g e (g). He is so i n c e n s e d that he m u s t be r e s t r a i n e d by t h e s a m u r a i chief, b o t h of t h e m a l m o s t w a s h e d o u t visually by t h e intensity of t h e fire's light (h). It b e g i n s to rain, a n d t h e s o r r o w i n g y o u n g s a m u r a i walks away d e s p o n d e n t l y (i). At t h e e n d of t h e s e q u e n c e , Kurosawa offers a close-up of t h e fire as t h e rain e x t i n g u i s h e s its flames (j). A metaphor is usually d e f i n e d as a c o m p a r i s o n of s o m e k i n d t h a t c a n n o t b e literally t r u e . T w o t e r m s n o t o r d i n a r i l y associated a r e y o k e d t o g e t h e r , p r o d u c i n g a sense of literal i n c o n g r u i t y . " P o i s o n o u s t i m e , " " t o r n with grief," " d e v o u r e d by love" a r e all verbal m e t a p h o r s involving symbolic r a t h e r t h a n literal d e s c r i p t i o n s . E d i t i n g is a f r e q u e n t s o u r c e of m e t a p h o r s in film, for two s h o t s can be l i n k e d t o g e t h e r to p r o d u c e a t h i r d , a n d symbolic, idea. In 2001: A Space Odyssey, d i r e c t o r Stanley Kubrick j o i n e d two shots t h a t a r e s e p a r a t e d by millions of years to c r e a t e a startling m e t a p h o r of h u m a n i n t e l l i g e n c e . In o n e s e q u e n c e d e p i c t i n g " t h e dawn of m a n , " we sec a tribe of a p e s a t t a c k i n g a n o t h e r t r i b e . O n e a p e picks up a t h i g h b o n e a n d uses it to kill his e n e m y , ft is, in effect, a primitive w e a p o n , a k i n d of m a c h i n e . T h e victorious a p e triu m p h a n t l y h u r l s t h e b l e a c h e d o u t t h i g h b o n e in t h e air. As it falls back to e a r t h in slow m o t i o n , K u b r i c k cuts to a s h o t of a white s p a c e s h i p , s h a p e d like t h e b o n e , floating effortlessly t h r o u g h s p a c e , i n t h e year 2 0 0 1 . T h e b o n e cudgel and the spaceship are being compared: Both are machines, and both represent giant leaps in h u m a n intelligence. T h e r e is usually a sense of s h o c k in m e t a p h o r i c a l c o m p a r i s o n s . Two traits a r e violently j o i n e d t o g e t h e r , often in violation of c o m m o n s e n s e . F o r e x a m p l e , in Trainspotting ( 5 - 2 9 ) , w h i c h e x p l o r e s t h e d e s p e r a t e lifestyle of several Scottish h e r o i n a d d i c t s , t h e p r o t a g o n i s t (Ewan M c G r e g o r ) is f o r c e d to satisfy his d r u g h a b i t anally, with a h e r o i n suppository. W h i l e sitting on " t h e filthiest toilet in t h e w o r l d , " he accidentally expels t h e suppository. In d e s p e r a t i o n , he literally dives i n t o t h e toilet a n d swims frantically t h r o u g h a q u a g m i r e of u r i n e a n d feces, while h e retrieves his s u p p o s i t o r y . Obviously, t h e s e q u e n c e — which is shocking, disgusting, a n d funny at the same time—is n o t m e a n t to be t a k e n literally. His s w i m m i n g t h r o u g h his own fetid waste is a m e t a p h o r to d r a m a t i z e h o w a l l - c o n s u m i n g his a d d i c t i o n is. T h i s is also a g o o d illustration of t h e power of m e t a p h o r s : We a r e n o t likely to w a n t to try u s i n g h e r o i n after seei n g this s t o m a c h - c h u r n i n g s c e n e , w h i c h i s m o r e effective t h a n ten s e r m o n s o n t h e d a n g e r s of d r u g s . A n o t h e r striking use of m e t a p h o r is f o u n d in American

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9-15. The Seven Samurai (Japan, 1 9 5 4 ) , directed by Akira Kurosawa. Realistic films tend to use symbols less densely than formalist movies, and the symbolism is almost always contextually probable. For example, in addition to being a symbol, the fire in this scene is also a fire. (Toho International) continued

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Beauty, w h e r e t h e h e r o ' s sexual fantasies are associated with r e d rose p e t a l s (see C.P.3). T h e r e are two o t h e r kinds of figurative t e c h n i q u e s in film a n d literature: allegory a n d allusions. T h e first is s e l d o m used in movies b e c a u s e it t e n d s toward s i m p l e m i n d e d n e s s . W h a t ' s usually involved in this t e c h n i q u e is an avoida n c e of realism. A c o r r e s p o n d e n c e exists between a c h a r a c t e r or situation a n d a symbolic i d e a or c o m p l e x of ideas ( 9 - 1 7 ) . O n e of the most f a m o u s e x a m p l e s of

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9-16. Psycho (U.S.A., 1960), directed by Alfred Hitchcock. Cinematic metaphors can be created through the use of special effects, as in this dissolve which yields the final shot of the film—the dredging up of a car from a s w a m p . Three images are dissolved: (1) a shot of a catatonic youth (Anthony Perkins) looking directly at us; (2) a duplicate shot of his mother's skeleton, whose skull flickers briefly beneath her son's features and whose personality he has now assumed; and (3) a heavy chain which s e e m s anchored to his/her heart, hauling up the murder victim's car which contains her corpse. (Paramount Pictures)

allegory is t h e c h a r a c t e r of D e a t h in B e r g m a n ' s The Seventh Seal. T h e r e ' s n o t m u c h ambiguity involved in w h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r is s u p p o s e d to symbolize. Allegorical narratives a r e especially p o p u l a r i n t h e G e r m a n c i n e m a . F o r e x a m p l e , virtually all t h e works of W e r n e r H e r z o g deal with t h e i d e a of life in g e n e r a l , t h e n a t u r e o f t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n i n b r o a d l y symbolic t e r m s . An allusion is a c o m m o n type of literary analogy. It's an i m p l i e d refere n c e , usually to a well-known event, p e r s o n , or work of art. T h e p r o t a g o n i s t of Hawks's Scarface was m o d e l e d on t h e g a n g s t e r Al C a p o n e (who h a d a wellp u b l i c i z e d scar in t h e s h a p e of a cross on his c h e e k ) , an allusion t h a t wasn't lost o n a u d i e n c e s o f t h e t i m e . F i l m m a k e r s often d r a w o n religious m y t h o l o g y for t h e i r allusions. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e Judeo-Christian m y t h of t h e G a r d e n of E d e n is u s e d in s u c h d i s p a r a t e works as The Garden of the Finzi-Continis, Days of Heaven, How Green Was My Valley, The Tree of the Wooden Clogs, a n d The Thin Red Line.

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9-17. Strawberry and Chocolate (Cuba, 1994), with Jorge Perugorria and Vladimir Cruz, directed by Tomds Gutierrez Alea (with Juan Carlos Tabio). Not all allegories are self-consciously symbolic: Some are slyly so. Strawberry and Chocolate s e e m s to be a realistic study of life in contemporary Havana, but the movie is also a thinly veiled political allegory—sadly, an honorable genre in communist and ex-communist countries. The film explores an unlikely friendship between Diego (Perugorria) and David (Cruz). Diego is gay, artistic, and a "freethinker"—all dangerous traits in'Castro's Cuba. David is straight, sober, and a committed communist zealot. Alea, one of Cuba's most respected filmmakers, pointed out that the movie is really about living under the rule of a repressive government: "As a society we are becoming aware of the mistakes we have m a d e over the years, and it's time for a change," Alea has said. "Strawberry and Chocolate points out a basic problem within Cuban society—our inability to accept others who are different from ourselves." (MiramaxFilms)

I n t h e c i n e m a , a n o v e r t r e f e r e n c e o r allusion t o a n o t h e r m o v i e , d i r e c tor, o r m e m o r a b l e s h o t i s s o m e t i m e s called a h o m a g e . T h e c i n e m a t i c h o m a g e i s a k i n d of q u o t e , t h e d i r e c t o r ' s graceful t r i b u t e to a c o l l e a g u e or e s t a b l i s h e d master ( 9 - 1 8 b ) . H o m a g e s were popularized by G o d a r d a n d Truffaut, whose movies a r e p r o f u s e in s u c h t r i b u t e s . In G o d a r d ' s A Woman Is a Woman, for e x a m p l e , two d e c i d e d l y n o n m u s i c a l c h a r a c t e r s b u r s t o u t i n s p o n t a n e o u s s o n g a n d d a n c e while e x p r e s s i n g t h e i r d e s i r e t o a p p e a r i n a n M G M musical b y G e n e Kelly, c h o r e o g r a p h e d by B o b Fosse. Fosse's All That Jazz c o n t a i n s m a n y h o m a g e s to his idol Fellini, a n d especially to 8'/2. Steven S p i e l b e r g often pays t r i b u t e to his two idols, Walt Disney a n d Alfred H i t c h c o c k .

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9-18a. Hot Shots! Part Deux (U.S.A., 1993), with Charlie Sheen and Valeria Golino, directed by Jim Abrahams. An allusion is an indirect reference, sometimes respectful, other times scornful, to an artist or work of art. This movie is filled with comical film allusions, some of which are recognizable only to the cognoscenti, hard-core film fans. For example, this shot is a playful allusion to a scene from the Disney animated romance, The Lady and the Tramp, in which two moonstruck canines share a platter of spaghetti. (Twentieth centuty-Fox) 9-18b. Pennies From Heaven (U.S.A., 1981), directed by Herbert Ross. This movie, a brilliantly innovative musical, includes many popular songs of the Depression era of the 1 930s. It also includes a number of visual homages to the great American painter, Edward Hopper. This shot, a striking recreation of Hopper's famous painting, "Nighthawks," emphasizes the loneliness and alienation of the Era. Pennies From Heaven might well be the darkest musical ever made—both technically and thematically. It was photographed by Hollywood's prince of darkness, Gordon Willis, (MGM)

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Point of view in literary fiction generally c o n c e r n s t h e n a r r a t o r , t h r o u g h w h o s e eyes t h e events of a story a r e viewed. T h e ideas a n d i n c i d e n t s a r e sifted t h r o u g h t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d l a n g u a g e o f t h e storyteller. H e o r she may or may n o t be a p a r t i c i p a n t in t h e action, a n d may or may n o t be a reliable g u i d e for t h e r e a d e r to follow. T h e r e a r e four basic types of point of view in lite r a r y fiction: (1) t h e first p e r s o n , (2) t h e o m n i s c i e n t , (3) t h e t h i r d p e r s o n , a n d (4) t h e objective. In movies, p o i n t of view t e n d s to be less r i g o r o u s t h a n in novels, for a l t h o u g h t h e r e are c i n e m a t i c equivalents of t h e four basic types of narration, fiction films t e n d to fall naturally i n t o t h e o m n i s c i e n t f o r m . T h e first-person n a r r a t o r tells his o r h e r own story. I n s o m e cases, h e o r s h e is an objective o b s e r v e r w h o c a n be relied on to relate t h e events accurately. Nick Carraway in Fitzgerald's The Great Gatshy is a g o o d e x a m p l e of this k i n d of n a r r a t o r . O t h e r first-person n a r r a t o r s are subjectively involved in t h e m a i n action a n d c a n ' t be totally relied o n . In Huckleberry Finn, t h e i m m a t u r e H u c k relates all t h e events as he e x p e r i e n c e d t h e m . H u c k obviously c a n ' t supply his r e a d e r s with all t h e necessary i n f o r m a t i o n w h e n he himself d o e s n o t possess it. In using this type of first-person n a r r a t o r , t h e novelist m u s t s o m e h o w p e r m i t t h e r e a d e r t o see t h e t r u t h w i t h o u t violating t h e plausibility o f t h e n a r r a t o r . Generally, a novelist solves this p r o b l e m by p r o v i d i n g t h e r e a d e r with clues t h a t p e r m i t u s t o see m o r e clearly t h a n t h e n a r r a t o r . F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n H u c k enthusiastically r e c o u n t s t h e g l a m o u r of a circus a n d t h e " a m a z i n g feats" of its

9-19. The Lady from Shanghai (U.S.A., 1948), with Rita Hayworth, Orson Welles, and Everett Sloane; directed by Welles. Voice-over c o m m e n t a r i e s are c o m m o n p l a c e in the genre known as film noir. Movies of this type often feature flashback images of the past accompanied by a present-tense off-screen narrator w h o tells us how he m a n a g e d to get himself in such a desperate crisis. This film is narrated by Orson Welles, who plays an innocent and not-very-bright sailor who lives to tell his tale—just barely.

(Columbia Pictures)

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p e r f o r m e r s , t h e m o r e sophisticated r e a d e r sees b e y o n d H u c k ' s w o r d s a n d infers t h a t t h e p e r f o r m e r s a r e in fact a r a t h e r s h a b b y crew a n d t h e i r theatrical acts m e r e l y c h e a p d e c e p t i o n s . Many films use first-person n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s , b u t only sporadically. T h e c i n e m a t i c e q u i v a l e n t to t h e "voice" of t h e literary n a r r a t o r is t h e "eye" of t h e c a m e r a , a n d this difference i s a n i m p o r t a n t o n e . I n l i t e r a t u r e , t h e distinction b e t w e e n t h e n a r r a t o r a n d t h e r e a d e r is clear: It's as if we w e r e listening to a friend tell a story. In film, however, t h e viewer identifies with t h e lens, a n d t h u s t e n d s to fuse with t h e n a r r a t o r . To p r o d u c e first-person n a r r a t i o n in film, t h e c a m e r a w o u l d have to r e c o r d all t h e action t h r o u g h t h e eyes of t h e character, which, in effect, w o u l d also m a k e t h e viewer t h e p r o t a g o n i s t . In The Lady of the Lake, R o b e r t M o n t g o m e r y a t t e m p t e d to use t h e firstp e r s o n c a m e r a t h r o u g h o u t t h e film. It was an i n t e r e s t i n g e x p e r i m e n t , b u t a failu r e , for several r e a s o n s . In t h e first place, t h e d i r e c t o r was forced i n t o a n u m b e r o f absurdities. H a v i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r s a d d r e s s t h e c a m e r a was n o t t o o m u c h of a p r o b l e m , for point-of-view shots a r e c o m m o n in m o s t movies. However, t h e r e w e r e several actions w h e r e t h e device simply b r o k e d o w n . W h e n a w o m a n walked u p t o t h e h e r o a n d kissed h i m , for e x a m p l e , s h e h a d t o slink t o w a r d t h e c a m e r a a n d b e g i n t o e m b r a c e i t while h e r face c a m e closer t o t h e lens. Similarly, w h e n t h e h e r o was involved in a fistfight, t h e a n t a g o n i s t literally h a d to attack t h e c a m e r a , w h i c h j a r r e d a p p r o p r i a t e l y w h e n e v e r t h e " n a r r a t o r " was d e a l t a blow. T h e p r o b l e m with t h e exclusive use of t h e first-person c a m e r a , t h e n , is its literalness. F u r t h e r m o r e , it t e n d s to c r e a t e a sense of frustration in t h e viewer: we w a n t to see t h e h e r o . In fiction, we get to k n o w p e o p l e t h r o u g h t h e i r w o r d s , t h r o u g h t h e i r j u d g m e n t s a n d values, w h i c h a r e reflected i n t h e i r l a n g u a g e . B u t in movies, we get to k n o w a c h a r a c t e r by s e e i n g h o w he or she reacts t o p e o p l e a n d events. Unless t h e d i r e c t o r b r e a k s t h e f i r s t - p e r s o n c a m e r a c o n v e n t i o n , we can n e v e r see t h e h e r o , we c a n only see w h a t he sees. T h e omniscient point of view is often associated with t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y novel. Generally, such n a r r a t o r s a r e n o t p a r t i c i p a n t s in a story b u t are all-knowing o b s e r v e r s w h o supply t h e r e a d e r with all t h e facts we n e e d to k n o w t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e story. S u c h n a r r a t o r s can span m a n y locations a n d time periods a n d can e n t e r t h e consciousness of a n u m b e r of different c h a r a c t e r s , telling us w h a t they t h i n k a n d feel. O m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t o r s can be relatively d e t a c h e d from t h e story, as in War and Peace. Or they can take on a distinct personality of t h e i r own, as in Tom Jones, w h e r e t h e a m i a b l e storyteller a m u s e s us with his wry o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d j u d g m e n t s . O m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i o n is a l m o s t inevitable in film. E a c h t i m e t h e d i r e c t o r m o v e s t h e c a m e r a — e i t h e r within a s h o t o r b e t w e e n shots—we a r e offered a n e w p o i n t of view f r o m w h i c h to evaluate t h e s c e n e . T h e filmmaker c a n c u t easily f r o m a subjective point-of-view s h o t (first p e r s o n ) to a variety of objective s h o t s . H e o r s h e c a n c o n c e n t r a t e o n a single r e a c t i o n (close-up) o r t h e simult a n e o u s r e a c t i o n s of several c h a r a c t e r s (long shot). W i t h i n a m a t t e r of seco n d s , film d i r e c t o r s c a n show us a cause a n d an effect, an a c t i o n a n d a react i o n . T h e y c a n c o n n e c t various t i m e p e r i o d s a n d l o c a t i o n s a l m o s t

9-20. Nashville (U.S.A., 1975), with Lily Tomlin and Robert Doqui, directed by Robert Altman. Throughout the 1970s, Altman revolutionized filmmaking with his improvisational techniques. Though the screenplay to Nashville is credited to Joan Tewkesbury, in fact she never wrote a conventional script. As she explained, "What you have to do for a director like Bob is to provide an e n v i r o n m e n t in which he can work." For example, Nashville is structured mosaically, tracing the activities of twenty-four eccentric characters over a five-day period in the city of Nashville, the heart of the country music industry. O n e wag referred to the film as "twenty-four characters in search of a movie." Tewkesbury created m a n y of the characters in sketch form, then m a p p e d out what each major character would be doing at any given time. Most of the dialogue and details for the actions were created by the actors. They even composed their own songs. "It's like jazz," Altman explained. "You're not planning any of this that you film. You're capturing."

(Paramount Pictures)

i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y (parallel e d i t i n g ) , o r literally s u p e r i m p o s e different t i m e perio d s (dissolve o r m u l t i p l e e x p o s u r e ) . T h e o m n i s c i e n t c a m e r a c a n b e a dispassionate observer, as it is in m a n y of C h a p l i n ' s films, or it can be a witty c o m m e n t a t o r — a n e v a l u a t e r of e v e n t s — a s it often is in H i t c h c o c k ' s films or t h o s e of Lubitsch. In t h e t h i r d p e r s o n , a n o n p a r t i c i p a t i n g n a r r a t o r tells a story from t h e consciousness of a single c h a r a c t e r . In s o m e novels, this n a r r a t o r c o m p l e t e l y p e n e t r a t e s t h e m i n d of a c h a r a c t e r ; in o t h e r s , t h e r e is virtually no p e n e t r a t i o n . In Jane A u s t e n ' s Pride and Prejudice, for e x a m p l e , we l e a r n what Elizabeth B e n n e t thinks a n d feels a b o u t events, b u t w e ' r e n e v e r p e r m i t t e d t o e n t e r t h e consciousness of t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s . We can only guess what they feel t h r o u g h Elizabeth's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s — w h i c h are often i n a c c u r a t e . H e r i n t e r p r e tations a r e n o t offered directly t o t h e r e a d e r a s i n t h e f i r s t p e r s o n , b u t t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r m e d i a c y of t h e n a r r a t o r , w h o tells us h e r r e s p o n s e s . 403

9-21. They Shoot Horses, Don't They? (U.S.A., 1969), with Bonnie Bedelia, Bruce Dern, Jane Fonda, and Red Buttons; directed by Sydney Pollack. Much is usually eliminated from a novel as complex as Horace McCoy's grim masterpiece about a 1930s m a r a t h o n d a n c e contest. The novelist can focus on only a few details at a time in a linear sequence. Movies can b o m b a r d us with h u n d r e d s of details simultaneously, as Leo Braudy has pointed out: "The muted e m p h a s i s on gesture, m a k e u p , intonation, and bodily m o v e m e n t possible in film can enrich a character with details that would intrude blatantly if they were separately verbalized in a novel." For example, in the novel, McCoy can tell us what was going on in the grueling race pictured, but only selectively, with a few telling details. The movie version, shot partly in slow motion, shows us ail the agonized faces and twisted bodies of the contestants, who are exhausted to stupefaction, as they doggedly trudge forward, supporting and even hauling their collapsed partners, while the cheering spectators urge on their favorites. It is a choreographed vision of Hell. (Paiomar/ABCcinerama)

In movies, t h e r e is a r o u g h e q u i v a l e n t to t h e t h i r d p e r s o n , b u t it's not so r i g o r o u s as in l i t e r a t u r e . Usually, t h i r d - p e r s o n n a r r a t i o n is f o u n d in d o c u m e n t a r i e s w h e r e a n a n o n y m o u s c o m m e n t a t o r tells u s a b o u t t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f a c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r . In Sidney Meyer's The Quiet One, for e x a m p l e , t h e visuals d r a m a t i z e c e r t a i n t r a u m a t i c events in t h e life of an i m p o v e r i s h e d youngster, D o n a l d . O n t h e s o u n d t r a c k , J a m e s A g e e ' s c o m m e n t a r y tells u s s o m e o f t h e reasons why D o n a l d b e h a v e s as he d o e s , h o w he feels a b o u t his p a r e n t s , his p e e r s , a n d his t e a c h e r s . T h e objective point of view is also a variation of t h e o m n i s c i e n t . Objective n a r r a t i o n is t h e m o s t d e t a c h e d of all: It d o e s n ' t e n t e r t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s of any c h a r a c t e r , b u t m e r e l y r e p o r t s events from t h e o u t s i d e . In fact, this voice h a s b e e n l i k e n e d to a c a m e r a in t h a t it r e c o r d s events impartially. It p r e s e n t s facts a n d allows r e a d e r s to i n t e r p r e t for themselves. T h e objective voice is m o r e congenial to film t h a n to literature, for movies literally do use a c a m e r a . T h e cine-

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maiic objective p o i n t of view is generally u s e d by realistic d i r e c t o r s w h o k e e p t h e i r c a m e r a at l o n g s h o t a n d avoid all d i s t o r t i o n s or " c o m m e n t a r y " s u c h as angles, lenses, a n d filters.

A g r e a t m a n y movies a r e a d a p t a t i o n s of literary s o u r c e s . In s o m e respects, a d a p t i n g a novel or play r e q u i r e s m o r e skill a n d originality t h a n worki n g with a n original screenplay. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e b e t t e r t h e literary work, t h e m o r e difficult i h e a d a p t a t i o n . F o r this r e a s o n , m a n y f i l m a d a p t a t i o n s a r e b a s e d on m e d i o c r e s o u r c e s , for few p e o p l e will get u p s e t at t h e modifications r e q u i r e d in film if t h e s o u r c e itself isn't of t h e h i g h e s t caliber. T h e r e a r e m a n y a d a p t a t i o n s t h a t a r e s u p e r i o r to t h e i r originals: The Birth of a Nation, for i n s t a n c e , was b a s e d on T h o m a s D i x o n ' s trashy novel The Klansman, which is m o r e blatantly racist t h a n t h e film. S o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s believe t h a t if a w o r k of a r t has r e a c h e d its fullest artistic e x p r e s s i o n in o n e f o r m , an a d a p t a t i o n will inevitably be inferior. A c c o r d i n g to this a r g u m e n t , no film a d a p t a t i o n of Pride and Prejudice c o u l d e q u a l t h e original, n o r c o u l d any novel h o p e to c a p t u r e t h e richness of Persona, or even Citizen Kane, which is a r a t h e r literary movie.

9-22. The Talented Mr. Ripley (U.S.A., 1999), with Gate Blanchett and Matt Damon, adapted and directed by Anthony Minghella. This movie is a good example of the oversimplification of critical terms. Most people would probably identify the film as a faithful adaptation of Patricia Highsmith's novel, since the film follows the main lines of the book fairly closely. However, Minghella m a d e two major changes. He invented the Blanchett character, a flighty rich American, probably to add s o m e comic relief to this d o w n b e a t tale of deception and murder. Even more of a departure from the novel is the D a m o n character. In the book, Tom Ripley is an envious, calculating opportunist. W h e n he murders the object of his envy, he does so with total premeditation, relishing how he will destroy his enemy. In the movie, Ripley kills him spontaneously, furious that the, object of his admiration (and repressed lust) is rejecting him. As played by the ailAmerican Matt D a m o n , Ripley is more sympathetic in the film, more normal, more like us. The movie probably falls s o m e w h e r e between a loose and a faithful adaptation.

(Paramount Pictures and Miramax Films)

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T h e r e ' s a g o o d d e a l of sense in this view, for we've s e e n h o w l i t e r a t u r e a n d film t e n d to solve p r o b l e m s differently, h o w t h e t r u e c o n t e n t of e a c h m e d i u m is organically g o v e r n e d by its forms. T h e real p r o b l e m of t h e a d a p t e r is n o t h o w to r e p r o d u c e t h e content of a literary work (an impossibility), b u t h o w close he or she s h o u l d r e m a i n to t h e raw d a t a of t h e subject matter. This d e g r e e of fidelity is w h a t d e t e r m i n e s t h e t h r e e types o f a d a p t a t i o n s : t h e l o o s e , t h e faithful, a n d t h e literal. O f c o u r s e , t h e s e classifications a r e for c o n v e n i e n c e only, for in actual p r a c t i c e m o s t movies fall somewhere in between (9-22). T h e loose adaptation is barely that. Generally, only an idea, a situation, or a c h a r a c t e r is t a k e n from a literary source, t h e n d e v e l o p e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y . Loose film a d a p t a t i o n s can be likened to S h a k e s p e a r e ' s t r e a t m e n t of a story from Plutarch or Bandello, or to t h e plays of a n c i e n t G r e e k dramatists, w h o often d r e w on a c o m m o n mythology. A film that falls into this class is Kurosawa's Ran, which t r a n s f o r m s S h a k e s p e a r e ' s King Lear i n t o a q u i t e different tale set in

9-23. Throne of Blood (Japan, 1957), based on Shakespeare's Macbeth, directed by Akira Kurosawa. The loose adaptation takes a few general ideas from an original source, then develops t h e m independently. Many c o m m e n t a t o r s consider Kurosawa's film the greatest of all Shakespearean adaptations precisely because the filmmaker doesn't a t t e m p t to c o m p e t e with Macbeth. Kurosawa's samurai movie is a cinematic masterpiece, these c o m m e n t a t o r s claim, owing relatively little to language for its power. Its similarities to Shakespeare's literary masterpiece are superficial, just as the play's similarities to Holingshed's Chronicles (Shakespeare's primary source) are of no great artistic significance. (Audio-Brandon Films)

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9-24. The Man Who Would Be King (U.S.A., 1975), with (right to left) Sean Connery and Michael Caine, written by John Huston and Gladys Hill, based on a story by Rudyard Kipling, directed by Huston. Virtually all of Huston's works are based on novels, plays, and short stories. Critic J a m e s Agee noted that the better the original material, the better Huston functions as an artist. His adaptations have e n c o m p a s s e d such disparate authors as Dashiell H a m m e t t , B. Traven, Stephen Crane, Herman Melville, Arthur Miller, Tennessee Williams, Carson McCullers, Flannery O'Connor, J a m e s Joyce, and the writers of the Book of Genesis. "1 don't seek to interpret, to put my own s t a m p on the material," Huston pointed out. "I try to be as faithful to the original material as I can."

(AlliedArtists)

medieval J a p a n , t h o u g h t h e f i l m m a k e r r e t a i n s several p l o t e l e m e n t s from Shakes p e a r e ' s original (see also 9 - 2 3 ) . Faithful adaptations, as t h e p h r a s e i m p l i e s , a t t e m p t to r e - c r e a t e t h e litera r y s o u r c e in filmic t e r m s , k e e p i n g as close to t h e spirit of t h e o r i g i n a l as possible ( 9 - 2 4 ) . A n d r e Bazin l i k e n e d t h e faithful a d a p t e r t o a t r a n s l a t o r w h o tries t o f i n d e q u i v a l e n t s t o t h e o r i g i n a l . O f c o u r s e , Bazin r e a l i z e d t h a t f u n d a m e n t a l diff e r e n c e s exist b e t w e e n t h e two m e d i u m s : T h e t r a n s l a t o r ' s p r o b l e m i n c o n v e r t -

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9-25. The Member of the Wedding (U.S.A., 1952), with Julie Harris and Ethel Waters, directed by Fred Zinnemann. Literal film adaptations are pretty much restricted to stage plays. Both the language and the actions transfer easily to the movie screen. One of the problems facing the film director w h o wishes to adapt a play is whether to "open it up." That is, whether to dramatize off-stage actions on the screen. Doing so would run the risk of releasing the spatial tensions of the original. Z i n n e m a n n ' s adaptation of Carson McCullers's play (itself based on her novel) confines most of the action to a single location. The young protagonist's longing to "bust loose" is conveyed primarily by close, tightly framed shots that s e e m to restrict her m o v e m e n t s . (Columbia

Pictures)

i n g t h e w o r d road to strada or strasse is n o t so a c u t e as a f i l m m a k e r ' s p r o b l e m in t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e w o r d i n t o a p i c t u r e . An e x a m p l e of a faithful a d a p t a t i o n is R i c h a r d s o n ' s Tom Jones. J o h n O s b o r n e ' s screenplay p r e s e r v e s m u c h of t h e novel's plot s t r u c t u r e , its major events, a n d m o s t of t h e i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r s . Even t h e witty o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t o r is r e t a i n e d . But the film is not merely an illustration of t h e novel. In the first p l a t e , Fielding's b o o k is too p a c k e d with i n c i d e n t s for a film a d a p t a t i o n . T h e m a n y i n n s c e n e s , for e x a m p l e , a r e r e d u c e d t o a c e n t r a l e p i s o d e : t h e U p t o n I n n sequence.

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Literal adaptations are usually restricted to plays ( 9 - 2 5 ) . As we have s e e n , t h e two basic m o d e s of d r a m a — a c t i o n a n d d i a l o g u e — a r e also f o u n d in films. T h e major p r o b l e m with stage a d a p t a t i o n s is in t h e h a n d l i n g of space a n d t i m e r a t h e r t h a n l a n g u a g e . If t h e film a d a p t e r w e r e to leave t h e c a m e r a at l o n g s h o t a n d restrict t h e e d i t i n g to s c e n e shifts only, t h e result w o u l d be similar to t h e original. But we've s e e n t h a t few filmmakers w o u l d be willing merely to r e c o r d a play, for in d o i n g so they w o u l d lose m u c h of t h e e x c i t e m e n t of t h e original a n d c o n t r i b u t e n o n e o f t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e a d a p t i n g m e d i u m , particularly its g r e a t e r f r e e d o m i n t r e a t i n g space a n d t i m e . Movies can a d d m a n y d i m e n s i o n s to a play, especially t h r o u g h t h e use o f close-ups a n d e d i t e d j u x t a p o s i t i o n s . Because t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s a r e n ' t f o u n d in t h e theater, even "literal" a d a p t a t i o n s are n o t strictly literal; t h e y ' r e simply m o r e subtle in t h e i r modifications. Stage d i a l o g u e is often r e t a i n e d in film a d a p t a t i o n s , b u t its effect is different on t h e a u d i e n c e . In t h e live theater, t h e m e a n i n g of t h e l a n g u a g e is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e fact t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r s are on t h e s a m e stage at t h e s a m e t i m e , r e a c t i n g to t h e s a m e words. In a movie, t i m e a n d space a r e f r a g m e n t e d by t h e individual shots. F u r t h e r m o r e , b e c a u s e even a literary film is p r i m a r i l y visual a n d only secondarily verbal, nearly all t h e dial o g u e is m o d i f i e d by t h e i m a g e s . A systematic analysis of t h e writing in a movie w o u l d e x p l o r e t h e following q u e s t i o n s . H o w "literary" is t h e film? Is t h e r e an e m p h a s i s on l e n g t h y s p e e c h e s , verbal wit or a d r o i t n e s s , talky scenes? H o w a r t i c u l a t e a r e t h e c h a r a c ters? If not very, h o w do we g e t to k n o w what's b o t h e r i n g t h e m ? W h o cont r i b u t e d w h a t to t h e screenplay? (This is n o t easily d e t e r m i n e d i n f o r m a t i o n , e x c e p t for t h e m o s t critically a d m i r e d movies, which have b e e n r e s e a r c h e d m o r e exhaustively t h a n r o u t i n e pictures.) Is t h e d i a l o g u e stylized or d o e s it aim to s o u n d like realistic s p e e c h ? D o e s t h e movie c o n t a i n any figurative t r o p e s : motifs, symbols, m e t a p h o r s ? H o w d o t h e s e d e e p e n a n d e n r i c h t h e movie? W h o s e p o i n t of view is t h e film told from? Is t h e r e a voice-over n a r r a t o r ? W h a t k i n d of r a p p o r t d o e s t h e n a r r a t o r establish with us? If t h e movie is a literary a d a p t a t i o n , is it loose, faithful, or literal? / FURTHER READING

BI.UKSTONE, GEORGE, Novels into Film (Baltimore, Md.: J o h n s Hopkins University Press, 1957). Classic study, with a valuable i n t r o d u c t o r y essay. Bl.UM, R I C H , Television and Screen Writing: From Concept to Contract, 3rd ed. (New York: Focal Press, 1995). Practical m a n u a l . BOYUM, J O Y G O U L D , Double Exposure: Fiction into Film (New York: New American Library, 1985). Analyses of e i g h t e e n literary adaptations by an intelligent critic. BRADY, J O H N , The Craft of the Screenwriter (New York: Touchstone, 1982). Interviews with six American screenwriters, including Chayeisky, G o l d m a n , L e h m a n , a n d others.

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CORLISS, RICHARD, The. Hollywood Screenwriters (NewYork: Avon Books, 1972). Encyclopedic coverage of many of the best screenwriters of the Hollywood studio era. Creative Screenwriting is t h e leading American journal devoted to television a n d movie writing. It features critical articles, script excerpts, a n d interviews with writers. GOLDMAN, WILLIAM, Adventures in the Screen Trade (NewYork: W a r n e r Books, 1 9 8 3 ) . Personal a c c o u n t by a respected Hollywood screenwriter. GRANT, BARRY KEITH, Film Genre Reader (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1 9 8 6 ) . A collection of scholarly essays. H O R T O N , ANDREW, Writing the Character-Centered Screenplay (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1 9 9 4 ) . Practical advice on building characters. SEGER, LINDA, The Art of Adaptation (NewYork: H e n r y Holt, 1 9 9 2 ) . Subtitled TurningFact and Fiction Into Film. Practical emphasis.

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Overview Ideology: a set of v a l u e s and priorities. Pleasure versus instruction. Degree of explicitn e s s : neutral, implicit, and explicit. Hidden values: the star s y s t e m , s y m p a t h e t i c characters, genre. T h e left-center-right m o d e l . Key c o m p a r i s o n s : d e m o c r a t i c - h i e r a r c h i c a l , e n v i r o n m e n t - h e r e d i t y , relative-absolute, s e c u l a r - r e l i g i o u s , future-past, cooperat i o n - c o m p e t i t i o n , outsiders-insiders, international-nationalistic, sexual f r e e d o m m o n o g a m y . Culture, religion, and ethnicity. National film traits. Religious v a l u e s left and right. Ethnic t e n s i o n s . Sexual politics: f e m i n i s m a n d gay liberation. The Third World and Japan: the o p p r e s s i o n of w o m e n . The c a m p sensibility. Tone: What's the m o v i e really saying? Ideological subtexts: the role of acting, genre, narration, and m u s i c in establishing tone.

Ideology is usually d e f i n e d as a b o d y of ideas reflecting t h e social n e e d s a n d a s p i r a t i o n s of an individual, g r o u p , class, or c u l t u r e . T h e t e r m is generally associated with politics a n d party p l a t f o r m s , b u t it c a n also m e a n a given set of values t h a t a r e implicit i n any h u m a n e n t e r p r i s e — i n c l u d i n g f i l m m a k i n g . Virtually every m o v i e p r e s e n t s us with role m o d e l s , ideal ways of b e h a v i n g , negative traits, a n d a n i m p l i e d morality b a s e d o n t h e f i l m m a k e r ' s sense o f r i g h t a n d w r o n g . In s h o r t , every film has a slant, a given ideological perspective t h a t privileges c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r s , institutions, behaviors, a n d motives as attractive, a n d d o w n g r a d e s an o p p o s i n g set as r e p e l l e n t . Since a n c i e n t times, critics have discussed art as h a v i n g a d o u b l e function: t o t e a c h a n d t o p r o v i d e p l e a s u r e . S o m e movies e m p h a s i z e t h e didactic, t h e t e a c h i n g f u n c t i o n . How? T h e m o s t obvious m e t h o d i s simply t o p r e a c h a t t h e a u d i e n c e . S u c h movies try to sell us a bill of g o o d s , like TV c o m m e r c i a l s or p r o p a g a n d a films s u c h as October ( 1 0 - 6 ) or Triumph of the Will ( 1 0 - 1 2 ) . At t h e o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e , t h e abstract wing o f t h e avant-garde c i n e m a , t h e p i c t u r e s s e e m totally d e v o i d of m o r a l values, b e c a u s e in effect they have no subject matter o t h e r t h a n " p u r e " f o r m s . T h e i r p u r p o s e ? T o p r o v i d e p l e a s u r e . T h e t r a d i t i o n of classical cinema avoids t h e e x t r e m e s of didacticism a n d p u r e a b s t r a c t i o n , b u t even light e n t e r t a i n m e n t movies are s t e e p e d i n value j u d g m e n t s . "Classical c i n e m a is t h e ventriloquist of ideology," states critic Daniel Dayari. " W h o is o r d e r i n g t h e s e images a n d to what p u r p o s e ? are q u e s tions classical f i l m m a k e r s wish to avoid, for they w a n t t h e movie 'to speak for itself.'" Viewers can a b s o r b t h e ideological values w i t h o u t b e i n g aware of it, as in Pretty Woman ( 1 0 - 1 ) . In actual practice, movies a r e highly variable in t h e i r d e g r e e of ideological explicitness. F o r p u r p o s e s of c o n v e n i e n c e , we can classify t h e m u n d e r t h r e e b r o a d categories: Neutral. Escapist f i l m s a n d light e n t e r t a i n m e n t movies often b l a n d o u t t h e social e n v i r o n m e n t in favor of a vaguely b e n e v o l e n t setting t h a t allows t h e story to take p l a c e smoothly. T h e e m p h a s i s is on a c t i o n ,

10-1. Pretty Woman (U.S.A., 1990), with Julia Roberts and Richard Gere, directed by Garry Marshall. A film's narrative can be profoundly ideological, even when the movie purports to be light entertainment. Loosely based on the Pygmalion myth. Pretty Woman is about a love affair that develops between a ditsy hooker with the proverbial heart of gold (Roberts) and a rather cold and wealthy businessman (Gere) who hires her as a paid companion. Feminists were appalled by the film because it implicitly reinforces the notion of male supremacy and reduces the heroine to a sex object needing to be "rescued" by a Prince Charming who will make her life meaningful—a narrative pattern that feminists refer to as "the Cinderella syndrome." (Touchstone Pictures)

p l e a s u r e , a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t values for t h e i r own sake. Issues of right a n d w r o n g a r e t r e a t e d superficially, with little or no analysis, as in Bringing Up Baby ( 1 0 - 3 3 ) . T h e m o s t e x t r e m e e x a m p l e s of this c a t e g o r y a r e n o n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l avant-garde films like Allures (1-7) a n d Rhythmus 21 ( 4 - 7 ) , w h i c h a r e virtually devoid of ideology; t h e i r values a r e mainly a e s t h e t i c — a color, a s h a p e , a kinetic swirl. Implicit. T h e p r o t a g o n i s t s a n d a n t a g o n i s t s r e p r e s e n t conflicting value systems, b u t t h e s e a r e n o t dwelled o n . W e m u s t infer w h a t t h e c h a r a c ters s t a n d for as t h e i r tale unfolds. N o b o d y spells o u t " t h e m o r a l of t h e story." Trie m a t e r i a l s a r e s l a n t e d in a p a r t i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n , b u t transparently, w i t h o u t obvious m a n i p u l a t i o n , as in Splash ( l l - 1 0 a ) , LAvventura ( 3 - 7 ) , a n d Pretty Woman ( 1 0 - 1 ) . Explicit. T h e m a t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d movies aim to t e a c h or p e r s u a d e as m u c h as to e n t e r t a i n . Patriotic films, m a n y d o c u m e n t a r i e s , political films like Oliver S t o n e ' s [FK ( 8 - 2 0 ) , a n d movies with a sociological e m p h a s i s s u c h as J o h n S i n g l e t o n ' s Boyz N the Hood (10-20a) fall u n d e r this category. Usually an a d m i r a b l e c h a r a c t e r articulates t h e values t h a t are really i m p o r t a n t , like B o g a r t ' s f a m o u s s p e e c h at t h e e n d of Casablanca ( 9 - 5 b ) . T h e m o s t e x t r e m e e x a m p l e s of this c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e p r o p a g a n d a films, which r e p e a t e d l y advocate a partisan p o i n t of view 413

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with a n overt a p p e a l t o o u r sympathy a n d s u p p o r t . Serious f i l m critics often zap hard-sell movies like t h e s e , b u t a few—like Roger & Me ( 1 0 - 2 ) — a r e a d m i r e d for t h e i r wit or t h e i r stylistic p a n a c h e . T h e o v e r w h e l m i n g majority of fiction films fall i n t o t h e implicit category. I n o t h e r w o r d s , b e c a u s e t h e c h a r a c t e r s d o n ' t talk a t l e n g t h a b o u t w h a t they believe in, we've g o t t o dig b e n e a t h t h e surface a n d c o n s t r u c t t h e i r value systems on t h e basis of w h a t t h e i r goals a r e , w h a t they take for g r a n t e d , h o w they b e h a v e with o t h e r s , h o w they r e a c t to a crisis, a n d so o n . F i l m m a k e r s create s y m p a t h e t i c c h a r a c t e r s by d r a m a t i z i n g such traits as idealism, c o u r a g e , generosity, fair play, k i n d n e s s , a n d loyalty. In t h e A m e r i c a n c i n e m a especially, t h e star system is often a clue to valu e s , especially w h e n t h e p r o t a g o n i s t is played by a p e r s o n a l i t y star like J o h n Wayne ( 1 0 - 3 ) . A c t o r stars a r e less likely to be ideologically w e i g h t e d . F o r e x a m p l e , G l e n n Close has played villainous c h a r a c t e r s as well as a d m i r a b l e h e r o i n e s . G o o d looks a n d sex a p p e a l a r e c o m p e l l i n g traits, p r e d i s p o s i n g us in favor of a given c h a r a c t e r . S o m e t i m e s an actor's a p p e a l is so s t r o n g t h a t he or

1 0 - 2 . Roger <5 Me (U.S.A., 1989), with Michael Moore (center); written, directed, and produced by Moore. The premise of this controversial documentary is that if only Moore could get to talk to Roger S m i t h , the then-president of General Motors, perhaps Smith could explain G.M.'s closing of its Flint, Michigan, plants in favor of cheap foreign labor abroad. The premise is a pretext for showing us the harsh economic consequences of the closedown on the residents of Flint—a sad tale of desperation, resourcefulness, a n d despair. The movie is frankly onesided and manipulative—a hard sell. But it's also compassionate, shrewd, and Very funny.

(WarnerBros.)

10-3. The Searchers (U.S.A., 1956), with John Wayne, directed by John Ford. Personality stars frequently convey a ready-made ideology—a set of values that are associated with a given star because of his or her previous film roles. Their p e r s o n a s often incorporate e l e m e n t s from their actual lives as well. For example, John Wayne was associated in the' public mind with a right-wing ideology. Most of his roles were military c o m m a n d e r s , western heroes, law-and-order advocates, and authoritarian patriarchs. In private life, he was an outspoken conservative, an America-first patriot who c h a m p i o n e d respect for authority, family values, and military supremacy. (Warner Bros.)

she c a n win over an a u d i e n c e even in ideologically o p p o s i t e roles, like T o m Cruise in t h e r i g h t - l e a n i n g Top Gun or t h e left-wing Born on the Fourth of July. Similarly, Julia R o b e r t s ' s p e r f o r m a n c e in Pretty Woman is so s p o n t a n e o u s a n d charismatic t h a t she can a l m o s t m a k e us forget t h a t h e r c h a r a c t e r as written is little m o r e t h a n a c o m p e n d i u m of sexist cliches. T h e r e a r e a variety of o t h e r m e t h o d s to enlist o u r sympathies. U n d e r d o g s a l m o s t automatically win us over to t h e i r side. E m o t i o n a l l y v u l n e r a b l e c h a r a c t e r s a p p e a l t o o u r protective instincts. P e o p l e w h o a r e funny, c h a r m i n g , a n d / o r i n t e l l i g e n t a r e similarly w i n n i n g . I n fact, these traits can d o m u c h t o soften o u r dislike of an o t h e r w i s e negative character. In The Silence of the Lambs, t h e c h a r a c t e r of H a n n i b a l t h e C a n n i b a l ( A n t h o n y H o p k i n s ) is a psychotic killer, b u t b e c a u s e h e ' s also witty a n d imaginative, we a r e oddly a t t r a c t e d to h i m — a t least from a d i s t a n c e ( 6 - 1 8 ) . Negatively d r a w n c h a r a c t e r s i n c o r p o r a t e such traits as selfishness, m e a n s p i r i t e d n e s s , g r e e d , cruelty, tyrannical behavior, disloyalty, a n d so o n . Villains a n d o t h e r r e p e l l e n t c h a r a c t e r s are often played b y actors w h o a r e m a d e t o look unattractive. T h e m o r e explicit t h e ideology, t h e m o r e such traits a r e portrayed w i t h o u t m i t i g a t i o n . However, e x c e p t for m e l o d r a m a s , in which g o o d a n d evil are usually t r e a t e d in black-and-white t e r m s , m o s t film c h a r a c t e r s c o m b i n e 415

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positive a n d n e g a t i v e traits. T h i s is especially so in movies t h a t p u r p o r t to be lifelike a n d realistic, like Story of Women ( 1 0 - 4 ) . A n a l y z i n g a c h a r a c t e r ' s i d e o l o g i c a l values is often a difficult task p r e cisely b e c a u s e m a n y c h a r a c t e r s a r e a fusion of c o n t r a d i c t o r y s e n t i m e n t s . To furt h e r c o m p l i c a t e t h e issue, a c h a r a c t e r ' s i d e o l o g i c a l values a r e n o t necessarily t h o s e o f t h e f i l m m a k e r . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e movies o f t h e F r e n c h d i r e c t o r JeanL u c G o d a r d often f e a t u r e c h a r a c t e r s o f various i d e o l o g i e s , a n d w e c a n n e v e r b e e n t i r e l y c e r t a i n w h e t h e r G o d a r d a g r e e s with t h e m o r t o w h a t e x t e n t . S o m e f i l m m a k e r s a r e so technically skillful t h a t we c a n be swept up by a c h a r a c t e r ' s values e v e n w h e n w e d o n ' t h o l d t h e m i n actuality. F o r e x a m p l e , m a n y of t h e positive values of D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation a r e e m b o d i e d

10-4. Story of Women (France, 1988), with Isabelle Huppert, directed by Claude Chabrol. In realistic films especially, characterization is generally complex and ambiguous, filled with the contradictions of life. Based on an actual series of events that took place in France during the Nazi occupation, Story of Women deals with a working-class housewife (Huppert) who comes to the aid of a desperate girlfriend who feels trapped by an unwanted pregnancy. The Huppert character helps her by performing an illegal abortion. Later she helps another despairing w o m a n who has had six offspring in seven years and is wracked with guilt because she no longer loves her children. Soon the protagonist is running a profitable abortion business, becoming coarser with each transaction. Eventually, she is arrested, tried, and executed for her crimes by an all-male system of justice. Our sympathies are torn both ways. On the one hand, the protagonist is strong and independent, a loyal friend and a shrewd critic of the old-boy network that forces w o m e n to be baby machines for the state. On the other hand, as a result of her greed, she wrecks her marriage and destroys the lives of her own children, not to speak of her sleazy association with a Nazi collaborator who becomes her lover.

(An MK2/New Yorker Films Release)

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in t h e c h a r a c t e r of " t h e little c o l o n e l " — o n e of t h e f o u n d e r s of t h e Ku Klux Klan. Few of us w o u l d a p p l a u d t h e racist values of t h e Klan in real life, b u t while w a t c h i n g t h e movie, it's necessary to s u s p e n d o u r p e r s o n a l beliefs in o r d e r t o e n t e r t h e worldview o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t a n d t h e filmmaker. F o r t h o s e w h o c a n n o t , t h e film m u s t r e m a i n a m o r a l failure, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g its stylistic brilliance. In s h o r t , ideology is a n o t h e r l a n g u a g e system in film, albeit an often disguised l a n g u a g e t h a t usually speaks in c o d e s . We have s e e n h o w dialects can be ideological, as in All Screwed Up (5-28) a n d Trainspotting ( 5 - 2 9 ) . E d i t i n g styles—especially a m a n i p u l a t i v e style like Soviet m o n t a g e — c a n be profoundlyideological, like t h e O d e s s a Steps s e q u e n c e from Potemkin ( 4 - 2 1 ) . C o s t u m e s a n d d e c o r can suggest ideological ideas, as can be s e e n in movies like The Leopard ( 7 - 2 5 ) . Even space is ideologically c h a r g e d in s u c h films as The Grifters ( 2 - 2 0 ) , Henry V, a n d Dances with Wolves ( 1 0 - 1 3 a & b ) . In o t h e r words, political ideas can be f o u n d in f o r m as well as c o n t e n t . A lot of p e o p l e claim t h a t t h e y ' r e n o t i n t e r e s t e d in politics, b u t virtually e v e r y t h i n g is ultimately ideological. O u r a t t i t u d e s toward sex, work, p o w e r sharing, authority, t h e family, religion—all of t h e s e involve ideological a s s u m p t i o n s , w h e t h e r we a r e c o n s c i o u s of t h e fact or n o t . In movies, t o o , c h a r a c t e r s rarely, articulate t h e i r political c r e d o s , b u t in m o s t cases, we can p i e c e t o g e t h e r t h e i r ideological values a n d a s s u m p t i o n s o n t h e basis o f t h e i r casual r e m a r k s a b o u t t h e s e topics. A w o r d of c a u t i o n . Ideological labels a r e j u s t t h a t — l a b e l s . S e l d o m do they a p p r o a c h t h e c o m p l e x i t y of h u m a n beliefs. After all, m o s t of us a r e liberal a b o u t s o m e m a t t e r s , conservative a b o u t o t h e r s . T h e s a m e can b e said a b o u t movies a n d t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e m . T h e following value systems a r e m e r e l y r o a d m a p s t h a t c a n be helpful in d e t e r m i n i n g a movie's ideology, b u t unless t h e y ' r e a p p l i e d with sensitivity a n d c o m m o n sense, t h e s e labels c a n b e c r u d e l y simplistic.

Traditionally, journalists a n d political scientists have u s e d t h e t r i p a r t i t e l e f t - c e n t e r - r i g h t m o d e l in differentiating political ideologies. In actual practice, t h e s e o r i e n t a t i o n s can be b r o k e n down even further, as in F i g u r e 1 0 - 5 . An e x a m p l e o f t h e e x t r e m e leftist position w o u l d b e c o m m u n i s m u n d e r Stalin ( 1 0 - 6 ) ; a t t h e e x t r e m e right, t h e Nazi e m p i r e u n d e r H i t l e r ( 1 0 - 1 2 ) . Both e x t r e m e s a r e totalitarian systems, of c o u r s e . We can differentiate a film's ideology by focusing on s o m e key institutions a n d values a n d analyzing h o w t h e c h a r a c t e r s relate t o t h e m . S o m e o f these key e l e m e n t s a r e p r e s e n t e d n e x t in b i p o l a r categories. N e i t h e r t h e left n o r t h e r i g h t i s necessarily b e t t e r o r worse t h a n t h e o t h e r . T h e r e have b e e n eloq u e n t p r o p o n e n t s for e a c h side. However, t h e totalitarian e x t r e m e s have p r o d u c e d few rational enthusiasts.

10-5.

Ideology s p e c t r u m .

Democratic

Versus

Hierarchical

Leftists t e n d to e m p h a s i z e t h e similarities a m o n g p e o p l e . We all e a t a b o u t t h e s a m e a m o u n t of food, b r e a t h e t h e s a m e a m o u n t of air. Likewise, leftists believe t h a t a society's r e s o u r c e s s h o u l d be d i s t r i b u t e d in r o u g h l y e q u a l p o r tions, as is i m p l i e d in The Human Condition (10-7) a n d Pixote ( 1 0 - 1 4 ) . A u t h o r i t y figures a r e m e r e l y skilled m a n a g e r s a n d n o t intrinsically s u p e r i o r t o t h e p e o p l e they a r e r e s p o n s i b l e to. f m p o r t a n t institutions s h o u l d b e publicly o w n e d . I n s o m e societies, all basic industries such as b a n k i n g , utilities, h e a l t h , a n d e d u c a tion a r e o p e r a t e d for t h e e q u a l benefit of all citizens. T h e e m p h a s i s is on t h e collective, t h e c o m m u n a l . Rightists e m p h a s i z e t h e differences a m o n g p e o p l e , insisting t h a t t h e best a n d t h e b r i g h t e s t are e n t i t l e d to a larger s h a r e of p o w e r a n d t h e e c o n o m i c pie t h a n less p r o d u c t i v e workers, as is i m p l i e d in Henry L ( 1 0 - 1 3 a ) . A u t h o r i t y s h o u l d b e r e s p e c t e d . Social institutions are g u i d e d b y s t r o n g l e a d e r s , n o t t h e rank-and-file or even average citizens. Most institutions s h o u l d be privately o w n e d , with profit as t h e m a i n incentive to productivity. T h e e m p h a s i s is on t h e individual a n d an elite m a n a g e r i a l class.

Environment

Versus

Heredity

Leftists believe t h a t h u m a n b e h a v i o r is l e a r n e d a n d can be c h a n g e d by p r o p e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l incentives. Antisocial b e h a v i o r is largely t h e result of poverty, p r e j u d i c e , lack of e d u c a t i o n , a n d low social status r a t h e r t h a n h u m a n n a t u r e or lack of character, as in The Chant ofjimmie Blacksmith ( 1 0 - 1 9 ) . Rightists believe t h a t c h a r a c t e r is largely i n b o r n a n d genetically inherited. H e n c e t h e e m p h a s i s of m a n y right-wingers on lineage a n d t h e advantage of

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10-6. October (U.S.S.R., 1928), directed by Sergei Eisenstein. Also known as Ten Days That Shook the World, Eisenstein's movie is a celebration of the 1917 Russian Revolution. Frankly propagandistic, the film is filled with hope for the future as well as c o n t e m p t for the Czarist past, which is portrayed as a Dark Age. An e p i c requires an epic hero—in this case. Lenin (pictured), the Father of the Soviet Revolution. He is seen here dramatically highlighted by s m o k e and lightbeams, like a god rising from the ashes of battle. Though the movie is crudely explicit ideologically, it contains images of striking beauty, boldly juxtaposed in Eisenstein's d i a l e c t i c a l style of editing. (Sovkino)

c o m i n g from "a g o o d family," as in Late Spring (8-15) a n d Late Autumn ( 1 0 - 1 6 ) . In s o m e Asian societies especially, a n c e s t o r worship is c o m m o n .

Relative Versus Absolute P e o p l e on t h e left believe t h a t we o u g h t to be flexible in o u r j u d g m e n t s , capable of adjusting to the specifics of e a c h case. C h i l d r e n are characteristically raised in a permissive e n v i r o n m e n t a n d e n c o u r a g e d in self-expression, as in My Life as a Dog (8-9a). Moral values are merely social conventions, n o t e t e r n a l verities. Issues of r i g h t a n d w r o n g must be placed in a social context, i n c l u d i n g any mitigating circumstances, before we can j u d g e t h e m fairly. Rightists a r c m o r e a b s o l u t e i n j u d g i n g h u m a n behavior. C h i l d r e n are e x p e c t e d t o b e disciplined, respectful, a n d o b e d i e n t t o t h e i r e l d e r s . Right a n d

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10-7. The Human Condition—No Greater Love (Japan, 1959), with Tatsuya Nakadai (left), directed by Masaki Kobayashi. Kobayashi's The Human Condition trilogy ( 1 9 5 9 - 1 9 6 1 ) is a scathing indictment of the atrocities committed by the Japanese Imperial A r m y during World War II. The trilogy stirred up a fierce controversy with its depictions of torture, persecution, and kidnapped Chinese civilians forced to become slave laborers in a Japanese prisoner-of-war c a m p . The other two installments are entitled A Soldier's Prayer and The Road to Eternity. Each film of the trilogy is over three hours long and is told from the point of view of its idealistic hero (Nakadai), a socialist who romanticizes the Soviet Union as a Promised Land of human fellowship. Ironically, in the final installment of the trilogy, he is captured by the Soviets, interred in a brutal prisoner-ofwar c a m p , and killed by his Russian captors. As critic Joan Mellen has noted, the hero comes to realize that political tyranny—whether fascist or c o m m u n i s t — h a s the same face: cruel authoritarian rule, hierarchies elevating a privileged few, contempt for foreigners, and a deep hostility toward the individual. (Museum of Modern Art)

w r o n g a r e fairly clear-cut a n d o u g h t t o b e e v a l u a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o a strict c o d e of c o n d u c t , as in Pinocchio ( 8 - 3 3 ) . V i o l a t i o n s of m o r a l p r i n c i p l e s o u g h t to be p u n i s h e d t o m a i n t a i n law a n d o r d e r a n d t o set a n e x a m p l e for o t h e r s .

Secular Versus Religious Leftists believe t h a t r e l i g i o n , like sex, is a private m a t t e r a n d s h o u l d n o t b e t h e c o n c e r n o f g o v e r n m e n t s . S o m e left-wingers a r e atheists o r agnostics, a l t h o u g h s o m e o f t h e m o s t f a m o u s h a v e b e e n m e m b e r s o f t h e clergy, like t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e A m e r i c a n Civil Rights m o v e m e n t i n t h e 1960s. M o s t leftists a r e h u m a n i s t s . Religious skejjtics f r e q u e n t l y invoke t h e a u t h o r i t y o f s c i e n c e t o refute t r a d i t i o n a l religious beliefs. O t h e r s a r e o p e n l y critical o f o r g a n i z e d relig i o n , w h i c h t h e y view as simply a n o t h e r social i n s t i t u t i o n with a set of e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s to p r o t e c t , as in Aguirre, the Wrath of Cod ( 6 - 2 3 ) . Leftists w h o a r e reli420

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gious t e n d to be a t t r a c t e d to "progressive" d e n o m i n a t i o n s , like t h o s e of The Preacher's Wife ( 1 0 - 1 7 a ) . T h e s e d e n o m i n a t i o n s are m o r e d e m o c r a t i c a l l y o r g a n ized t h a n a u t h o r i t a r i a n o r h i e r a r c h i c a l religions. Rightists a c c o r d religion a privileged status, as in The Virgin Spring ( 1 0 - 1 1 ) . S o m e a u t h o r i t a r i a n societies d e c r e e an official faith for all t h e i r citizens, a n d n o n b e l i e v e r s are s o m e t i m e s t r e a t e d as second-class citizens, if they a r c t o l e r a t e d at all. T h e clergy enjoy a prestigious status a n d a r e r e s p e c t e d as m o r a l arbiters. Piety is r e g a r d e d as a sign of s u p e r i o r virtue a n d spirituality.

Future Versus Past In g e n e r a l , leftists view t h e past with disdain b e c a u s e it was d o m i n a t e d by i g n o r a n c e , class conflict, a n d e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e weak. T h e future, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , is filled with h o p e , with infinite p r o m i s e of i m p r o v e m e n t , as can be s e e n in High Hopes ( 1 0 - 8 ) . T h e o p t i m i s m t h a t typifies m a n y left-wingers is b a s e d o n t h e i d e a o f p r o g r e s s a n d e v o l u t i o n toward a m o r e j u s t a n d e q u i t a b l e society.

10-8. High Hopes (Great Britain, 1988), with Ruth Sheen, Edna Dore, and Philip Davis, directed by Mike Leigh. British society has always been class conscious, especially during the 1980s under Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, She dominated this decade in the United Kingdom just as her friend and fellow conservative Ronald Reagan dominated the political climate in America. Like many liberal English artists of his generation, Mike Leigh was sickened by the materialism of British society during this era. His satirical targets range over a wide spectrum and are richly deserving of their skewering. Only an eccentric hippie couple (Sheen and Davis) provide an island of decency in this sea of greed, pretentiousness, and conspicuous consumption. (Skouras Pictures)

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P e o p l e on t h e right have a d e e p v e n e r a t i o n for t h e past, for a n c i e n t rituals, a n d especially for t r a d i t i o n . Virtually all of t h e films of Yasujiro O z u typify t h e s e traits. Rightists t e n d to d i s d a i n t h e p r e s e n t as a c o r r u p t i o n of a lost g o l d e n age, like J o h n F o r d ' s The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance. T h e y view t h e f u t u r e with skepticism, for it h o l d s only m o r e c h a n g e — a n d c h a n g e is w h a t t r a s h e d t h e glories of t h e past. C o n s e q u e n t l y , rightists t e n d to be pessimistic a b o u t t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n , citing t h e laxness o f s t a n d a r d s a n d c r u m b l i n g morality of m o d e r n life. Many of t h e films of I n g m a r B e r g m a n reflect this pessimistic view.

Cooperation Versus Competition P e o p l e on t h e left believe t h a t social p r o g r e s s is best a c h i e v e d by a c o o p e r a t i v e effort on t h e p a r t of all citizens toward a c o m m o n goal, as in October ( 1 0 - 6 ) . T h e role of g o v e r n m e n t is to g u a r a n t e e t h e basic n e e d s of life— work, h e a l t h , e d u c a t i o n , e t c . — a n d this can be m o s t efficiently a c c o m p l i s h e d if e v e r y o n e feels h e o r she i s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e c o m m o n g o o d .

10-9. Cinema Paradiso (Italy, 1988), with Philippe Noiret (top) and Salvatore Cascio, directed by Giuseppe Tornatore. This movie is told in f l a s h b a c k s , from the point of view of a successful middle-aged film director who recalls his childhood and adolescence in a Sicilian village. The flashback strategy provides an ironic double perspective, contrasting Then with Now. When he is a boy (pictured), his mentor and surrogate father (Noiret) hires him as an assistant movie theater projectionist. The child's life as a result is emotionally rich and communal, for the theater is the social center for the townspeople. But life in this conservative village is class-bound and provincial, and his mentor advises the youth to leave if he wishes to have a better life. The filmmaker's present-day lifestyle in Rome is artistically satisfying and financially secure, but perhaps a bit lonely, notwithstanding the succession of pretty women who have shared his bed. The movie is quintessentially c e n t r i s t . Tornatore is saying that we need to strike a balance between the past and the present, emotion and thought, nurturance and independence. (Miramax rums)

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Rightists e m p h a s i z e o p e n m a r k e t p r i n c i p l e s a n d t h e n e e d for c o m p e t i tion to b r i n g o u t t h e best in e v e r y o n e , as in Safety Last ( 4 - 2 6 ) , a classic film text of t h e A m e r i c a n "go-getter" p h i l o s o p h y of t h e 1920s. Social p r o g r e s s is fueled by a m b i t i o n a n d a s t r o n g desire to win, to d o m i n a t e , as in Mildred Pierce ( l l - 1 3 a ) a n d Without Limits ( 3 - 3 1 a ) . T h e role of g o v e r n m e n t is to p r o t e c t private property, p r o v i d e security t h r o u g h a s t r o n g military, a n d g u a r a n t e e maxim u m f r e e d o m , a t least i n t h e e c o n o m i c r e a l m .

Outsiders Versus Insiders Leftists identify with t h e poor, t h e d i s e n f r a n c h i s e d . T h e y often r o m a n t i cize rebels a n d o u t s i d e r s , like Bonnie and Clyde ( 1 - 1 2 ) a n d Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves. Leftists a r e pluralistic in t h e sense t h a t they r e s p e c t a n d value e t h n i c diversity a n d are sensitive to t h e n e e d s of w o m e n a n d m i n o r i t i e s . Left-leaning

10-10. It's a Wonderful Life (U.S.A., 1946), with James Stewart and Donna Reed (left), directed by Frank Capra. / Capra was the foremost American film s p o k e s m a n for a conservative ethic, stressing such traditions of Americana as good neighborliness, faith in God, c o m m i t t e d leadership, and family values. He c h a m p i o n e d such middle-class ideals as hard work, frugality, and healthy competition, but also generosity and wit. A character's wealth is m e a s u r e d not by income, but in terms of his or her family and friends. Capra's ideal was a romantic past of small towns, Christian values, close-knit families, and supportive neighbors, IRKO)

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movies often feature p r o t a g o n i s t s w h o a r e o r d i n a r y p e o p l e , especially workingclass c h a r a c t e r s , p e a s a n t s , a n d l a b o r e r s , such as those in Bicycle Thief(6-33) a n d Open City ( 1 1 - 2 ) . Rightists t e n d to identify with t h e E s t a b l i s h m e n t — t h e p e o p l e in power, t h e p e o p l e w h o r u n things. T h e y e m p h a s i z e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f l e a d e r s h i p i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e m a i n c o u r s e of history, as in t h e Rambo films a n d Henry V ( 1 0 - 1 3 a ) . Right-leaning movies t e n d t o feature p r o t a g o n i s t s w h o are a u t h o r i t y figures, p a t r i a r c h s , military c o m m a n d e r s , a n d e n t r e p r e n e u r s , as in The Searchers ( 1 0 - 3 ) , Patton, a n d Bugsy.

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Versus Nationalistic

Leftists a r e global in t h e i r perspective, e m p h a s i z i n g t h e universality of h u m a n n e e d s irrespective of c o u n t r y , race, or c u l t u r e , as in Hearts and Minds ( 1 - 3 ) . T h e y often refer to " t h e family of m a n " as a m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e p e r s p e c tive t h a n t h e n a r r o w limits of t h e n u c l e a r family.

10-11. The Virgin Spring (Sweden, 1959), with Max von Sydow (center), directed by Ingmar Bergman. Bergman's movie, set in the medieval period, validates the Christian faith of the characters with a miracle which concludes the story. But faith does not come easily, for Bergman's God is inscrutable, beyond reason, as critic Lloyd Rose pointed out: "Bergman is the son of a severe, distant, often wrathful Lutheran minister, a real Old Testament God of a father, and he absorbed his chill upbringing into his marrow. There's never been a director more Protestant. . . . Carried to its (theo)logical extreme, Protestantism is as absurd as something out of Beckett. It completely jettisons cause and effect. God may save you or He may d a m n you, but your actions have nothing to do with it; you depend on His grace. You're born stained with sin but there's nothing you can do to erase it and if God—by an act of divine j u d g m e n t totally beyond your comprehension—decides to let you burn, tough luck." nanus Films)

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Right-wingers t e n d t o b e strongly patriotic, often r e g a r d i n g p e o p l e from o t h e r c o u n t r i e s as vaguely inferior. "Family, C o u n t r y , a n d G o d " is a p o p u lar slogan in m a n y right-wing societies. It m i g h t well r e p r e s e n t t h e c r e d o of the g r e a t A m e r i c a n d i r e c t o r J o h n F o r d , w h o s e epic w e s t e r n s a r e fervently n a t i o n a l istic—Wagon Master, My Darling Clementine, a n d Fort Apache, to n a m e just t h r e e . Unlike leftists, w h o believe t h a t criticism m a k e s a c o u n t r y s t r o n g e r a n d m o r e flexible, right-wingers believe t h a t criticism w e a k e n s a n a t i o n , m a k i n g it m o r e v u l n e r a b l e to o u t s i d e attack.

Sexual Freedom Versus Marital Monogamy Leftists believe that w h o you have sex with is n o b o d y else's business. T h e y often a c c e p t h o m o s e x u a l i t y as a valid lifestyle, as in Gods and Monsters ( 1 0 - 2 8 ) , a n d they reject a t t e m p t s t o r e g u l a t e sexual b e h a v i o r a m o n g c o n s e n t ing adults, as in Seven Beauties ( 1 0 - 2 1 ) . In t h e a r e a of r e p r o d u c t i o n , t o o , leftists e m p h a s i z e privacy, p e r s o n a l c h o i c e , a n d n o n i n t e r f e r e n c e , b i r t h c o n t r o l — i n c l u d i n g a b o r t i o n as well as c o n t r a c e p t i o n — i s r e g a r d e d as a basic right.

10-12. Triumph of the Will (Germany, 1935), directed by Leni Riefenstahl. Hitler (pictured) himself commissioned Riefenstahl to direct this three-hour-long documentary celebrating the Nazi's first party convention at Nuremberg in 1934. Thirty c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r s were assigned to photograph the event, which was staged especially for the cameras. Not surprisingly, she presents Hitler as a virtual deity, the charismatic master of a master race. Riefenstahl's stylistic virtuosity is dazzling, so aesthetically compelling that the Allies b a n n e d the film from circulation for several years after the Nazi defeat. After the war, Riefenstahl served four years in prison for her participation in the Nazi propaganda machine. (Museum of Modern Art)

10-13a. Henry V (Great Britain, 1989), with Kenneth Branagh (center), directed by Branagh. Form is the e m b o d i m e n t of content. In these two photos, we can see how m i s e en s c e n e e m b o d i e s ideology. Henry V, based on Shakespeare's play, is monarchist in its values, like the original source. The story deals with a rite of passage—how the former hell-raiser, Prince "Harry," proves himself as a great leader in battle and a worthy king. His army, although not a n o n y m o u s , is kept in the background. Henry is in the foreground, centered in the composition at the full front position, charging toward the camera, his sword held high. He is flanked by two lieutenants, the Dukes of Gloucester and Bedford, his brothers. Shakespeare would have approved. (The Samuel Goldwyn Company)

10-13b. Dances With Wolves (U.S.A., 1990), with Kevin Costner (left), directed by Costner. Dances With Wolves is liberal in its values. The story d e a l s with the g r a d u a l assimilation of a U.S. Army officer (Costner) into the Sioux Indian tribe during the Civil War era. In this photo, he is placed at the edge of the composition, an invited guest who is respectful of his hosts, w h o m he c o m e s to a d m i r e more and more as he realizes that the Sioux have a morally superior C u l t u r e to his O w n . (Orion Pictures)

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Rightists r e g a r d t h e family as a sanctified institution, a n d a n y t h i n g t h a t t h r e a t e n s t h e family is viewed with hostility, as in F o r d ' s The Grapes of Wrath ( 1 0 - 1 5 ) . P r e m a r i t a l sex, homosexuality, a n d e x t r a m a r i t a l sex a r e c o n d e m n e d . Similarly, right-wingers t e n d to o p p o s e a b o r t i o n , which they c o n s i d e r a f o r m of infanticide. In s o m e societies, sex is justified only as a m e a n s of p r o c r e a t i o n , a n d c o n t r a c e p t i o n i s f o r b i d d e n . H e t e r o s e x u a l m o n o g a m y within t h e institution of m a r r i a g e is t h e only a c c e p t a b l e e x p r e s s i o n of sexuality, as c a n be illustrated by m o s t A m e r i c a n m a i n s t r e a m movies b e f o r e t h e 1960s. Even ideologically explicit movies d o n ' t hit on all of t h e s e value structures, b u t virtually every fiction film deals with s o m e of t h e m .

A social c u l t u r e e n c o m p a s s e s t h e traditions, institutions, arts, myths, a n d beliefs t h a t a r e characteristic of a given c o m m u n i t y or p o p u l a t i o n . In hete r o g e n e o u s societies s u c h a s Israel a n d t h e U n i t e d States, m a n y cultural g r o u p s coexist within o n e n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r y . I n h o m o g e n e o u s n a t i o n s s u c h a s J a p a n o r Saudi A r a b i a — w h i c h a r e ethnically u n i f o r m — a single cultural h e g e m o n y tends to be the rule. Cultural generalizations—like m o s t g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s — a r e t r u e most of t h e t i m e . But t h e r e a r e m a n y e x c e p t i o n s , especially in t h e arts, which often go against t h e grain in t e r m s of generally a c c e p t e d cultural n o r m s . W i t h o u t a k n o w l e d g e of t h e s e n o r m s , however, it's h a r d to relate to s o m e movies—especially foreign films—because t h e i r c u l t u r e s a r e radically different from o u r own. C u l t u r a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s can easily d e g e n e r a t e i n t o stereotypes unless t h e y ' r e a p p l i e d judiciously, with r e s p e c t for n u a n c e s . F o r e x a m p l e , J a p a n e s e movies, like J a p a n e s e society in g e n e r a l , t e n d to be ideologically conservative, stressing s u c h values as social conformity, t h e s u p r e m a c y of t h e family system, patriarchy, a n d t h e wisdom o f c o n s e n s u s . T h e movies o f t h e J a p a n e s e m a s t e r O z u typify t h e s e values best, m o s t notably Late Spring (8-15a) a n d An Autumn Afternoon ( 1 1 - 2 1 ) . Most J a p a n e s e p e o p l e view n o n c o n f o r m i t y a n d individualism with a b h o r r e n c e , a r i d i c u l o u s f o r m of egotism a n d a r r o g a n c e . Yet t h e works of Kobayashi ( 1 0 - 7 ) a n d N a r u s e ( 1 0 - 2 4 ) side with p r o t a g o n i s t s w h o are o p p r e s s e d by t h e i r c u l t u r e s . F o r p e o p l e w h o h a v e n ' t b e e n e x p o s e d t o alternative c u l t u r e s , t h e i r own n o r m s m i g h t s e e m universal. T h e i r k n o w l e d g e of o t h e r c u l t u r e s is often derived from movies. F o r e x a m p l e , A m e r i c a n films typically sympathize with t h e individual versus society. Most movies r o m a n t i c i z e u n d e r d o g s , rebels, outlaws, a n d mavericks, especially in such g e n r e s as g a n g s t e r films, westerns, a n d action movies, which stress violence a n d e x t r e m e s of individuality. A m e r i c a n films are also strongly sexual a n d fast p a c e d c o m p a r e d with most foreign movies. Typically, m a n y p e o p l e o u t s i d e o u r b o r d e r s s t e r e o t y p e A m e r i c a n s a s lawless, sex-obsessed, a n d "fast." Likewise, A m e r i c a n a u d i e n c e s a r e often puzzled by foreign movies

10-14. Pixote (Brazil, 1981), with Fernando Ramos da Silva and Marilia Pera, directed by Hector Babenco. Third World filmmakers are often left-wing in their orientation, championing the cause of the poor, the forgotten, and the despised. Babenco's film explores the culture of poverty by focusing on the violent life of Pixote (Peewee), a lonely youth who is typical of millions of a b a n d o n e d street urchins. In a country of 168 million, over 95 percent live in desperate poverty, forced to scratch out a meager survival by whatever m e a n s they can. Fernando Ramos da Silva, w h o plays Pixote, was one of ten children who grew up in the dog-eat-dog barrios of Sao Paulo. Seven years after this movie was made, he was shot and killed in an a t t e m p t e d a r m e d robbery. He was seventeen. (A unifUm/EmbrafUmeRelease)

b e c a u s e t h e y ' r e l o o k i n g lor familiar ( t h a t is, A m e r i c a n ) c u l t u r a l signposts. Faili n g to find t h e m , they dismiss t h e movie r a t h e r t h a n t h e i r i r r e l e v a n t cultural a s s u m p t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , c h a r a c t e r s i n J a p a n e s e movies s e l d o m d i s a g r e e p u b licly. T h i s w o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d r u d e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , w e m u s t r e a d b e t w e e n t h e lines to discover what t h e y ' r e really t h i n k i n g . Similarly, J a p a n e s e c h a r a c t e r s rarely look e a c h o t h e r steadily in t h e eyes w h e n conversing, unless they a r e i n t e r a c t i n g with i n t i m a t e s or social equals. In A m e r i c a , m a i n t a i n i n g eye c o n t a c t is c o n s i d e r e d s i n c e r e , f o r t h r i g h t , a n d h o n e s t . In J a p a n , it's c o n s i d e r e d i m p e r t i n e n t a n d disrespectful. Every n a t i o n has a characteristic way of l o o k i n g at life, a set of values t h a t is typical of a given c u l t u r e . T h e s a m e can be said of t h e i r movies. F o r e x a m p l e , b e c a u s e o f E n g l a n d ' s g l o r i o u s literary h e r i t a g e a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r e e m i n e n c e in t h e live theater, British movies t e n d to be strongly literary, with an e m p h a s i s o n p o l i s h e d scripts, literate d i a l o g u e , u r b a n e acting, a n d lavish cost u m e s a n d decor. Many o f t h e best English movies a r e literary a n d theatrical a d a p t a t i o n s — m o s t notably, t h e works of S h a k e s p e a r e ( 1 0 - 1 3 a ) .

10-15. The Grapes of Wrath (U.S.A., 1940), with Jane Darwelt (center) and Henry Fonda, directed by John Ford. Charting a movie's ideological values can be a labyrinthine exercise. Widely regarded as the greatest film dealing with the Depression of the 1930s, The Grapes of Wrath centers on a dispossessed family of "Okies" and their odyssey from the drought-stricken plains of Oklahoma to the Promised Land of California. In adapting John Steinbeck's famous book, Ford transformed the Marxist outrage of the novel into a masterpiece of Christian h u m a n i s m , e m p h a sizing the indomitability of the Joad family, which is held together by the powerful matriarch, Ma Joad (Darwell). Like m a n y conservatives. Ford believed that the role of w o m e n in society is a noble one—to uphold the values of h o m e and hearth, to preserve the institution of the family above all Others. (Twentieth Century-Fox)

But t h e r e is always T h e O t h e r — a c o u n t e r t r a d i t i o n that's dialectically o p p o s e d to w h a t m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d t h e d o m i n a n t strain in a c u l t u r e . In t h e British c i n e m a , this c o u n t e r c u l t u r e is r e p r e s e n t e d by a left-wing s c h o o l of filmm a k i n g t h a t e m p h a s i z e s working-class life, c o n t e m p o r a r y settings, r e g i o n a l dialects, l o o s e scripting, a m o r e e m o t i o n a l M e t h o d - o r i e n t e d style of acting, a n d a s t r o n g a n t i e s t a b l i s h m e n t ideology. Movies like High Hopes ( 1 0 - 8 ) a r e typical of this c o u n t e r t r a d i t i o n . Similarly, t h e c i n e m a of S w e d e n is d o m i n a t e d by t h e a u s t e r e L u t h e r a n i s m t h a t u n d e r l i e s t h e psychology of m a n y Swedish movies, especially those of t h e i r greatest filmmaker, I n g m a r B e r g m a n ( 1 0 - 1 1 ) . T h i r d World films t e n d to be p r e o c c u p i e d with issues such as n e o c o l o n i a l i s m , u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t , the o p p r e s s i o n o f w o m e n , a n d especially poverty ( 1 0 - 1 4 ) . In culturally diverse c o u n t r i e s like t h e U n i t e d States, t h e r e a r e m a n y s u b c u l t u r e s — p o c k e t s of cultural values t h a t coexist within t h e d o m i n a n t ideology. Movies t h a t e x p l o r e s u b c u l t u r e s generally e m p h a s i z e t h e fragile b a l a n c e b e t w e e n conflicting cultural values, like t h e Okies of The Grapes of Wrath 429

10-16. Late Autumn (Japan, 1960), with Yoko Tsukasa and Setsuko Hara, directed by Yasujiro Ozu. S o m e t i m e s religious values are presented so subtly that they don't s e e m apparent to outsiders. In the films of Ozu, the style is spare, understated. The camerawork is spartan in its austerity, the editing clean and functional. "Less Is More" might well serve as his artistic credo. Critic Donald Richie has pointed out that Ozu's style e m b o d i e s the Buddhist ideals of simplicity, restraint, and serenity. His movies have been c o m p a r e d to haiku poems, which consist of only a few lines encapsulating a striking image, or to a sumi-e ink drawing, which evokes its subject through a few strokes of the pen or brush. The fragment symbolizes the whole; the microcosm evokes the macrocosm. See Ozu, by Donald Richie (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974). (New Yorker Films)

( 1 0 - 1 5 ) a n d t h e hostility they e n c o u n t e r w h e n they try to i n t e g r a t e with established c o m m u n i t i e s in California. O t h e r A m e r i c a n movies e m p h a s i z e lifestyle s u b c u l t u r e s , like t h e military p e r s o n n e l of Rambo, t h e h i p p i e s of Easy Rider, t h e junkies of Drugstore Cowboy, a n d t h e gay friends of Longtime Companion ( 8 - 7 ) . An a d d e d c o m p l i c a t i o n of any ideological analysis involves p e r i o d a n d historical c o n t e x t . For e x a m p l e , A m e r i c a n films m a d e d u r i n g t h e D e p r e s s i o n i n t h e 1930s reflect m a n y of t h e left-wing values of Roosevelt's New Deal. D u r i n g t h e t u r b u l e n t V i e t n a m - W a t e r g a t e e r a (roughly from 1965 t o 1975), t h e A m e r i can c i n e m a b e c a m e increasingly violent, c o n f r o n t a t i o n a l , a n t i a u t h o r i t a r i a n . D u r i n g t h e R e a g a n e r a of t h e 1980s, A m e r i c a n movies t u r n e d to t h e right, like A m e r i c a n society i n g e n e r a l . Many movies m a d e d u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d e m p h a s i z e military s u p r e m a c y , c o m p e t i t i o n , power, a n d wealth. Religious values involve m a n y of t h e s a m e c o m p l e x i t i e s . Even religions t h a t p u r p o r t t o b e universal, like R o m a n Catholicism, a r e radically different from c o u n t r y to c o u n t r y . T h e s e differences a r e reflected in t h e i r movies. F o r e x a m p l e , in E u r o p e t h e C h u r c h is r e g a r d e d as a pillar of c o n s e r v a t i s m . F r e n c h C a t h o l i c i s m is strongly i n f l u e n c e d by J a n s e n i s m , an a u s t e r e , quasi-deterministic 430

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10-17a. The Preacher's Wife (U.S.A., 1996), with Courtney B. Vance and Whitney Houston, directed by Penny Marshall. Most religions can be divided into liberal and conservative wings, each with its own agenda of priorities. Fundamentalist sects are right-wing in their values, emphasizing strict conformity to a body of religious and moral beliefs, usually based on a traditional holy book. Protestant fundamentalists can further be differentiated by race. White fundamentalists are deeply conservative on virtually all matters. But African-American religious groups tend to be liberal politically. They were in the forefront of the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s, and its leader of course was a clergym a n , the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. However, black fundamentalists tend to be staunchly conservative in matters of faith and morals, as The Preacher's Wife demonstrates. (TouchstonePictures/Samuel Goldwyn)

10-17b. Dead Man Walking (U.S.A., 1995), with Sean Penn and Susan Sarandon, directed by Tim Robbins. In Europe and the United States, the Roman Catholic Church tends to be a conservative institution in which women play only a minor role in determining church policies. However, this old boy club has been challenged in recent years by such unconventional nuns as Sister Helen Prejean (Sarandon), whose book formed the basis of Dead Man Walking. In offering spiritual comfort to a vicious convicted killer (Penn), she went against the wishes of several of her (male) superiors, who considered her behavior unseemly and inappropriate. She didn't pay much attention to them and followed her conscience instead. (Gramercy Pictures)

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10-18. Ethnic Variations. A cliche of American culture is t h e m e t a p h o r of t h e melting pot—a t e n d e n c y for t h e children of foreign-born American citizens to bland out, to interm a r r y with o t h e r ethnicities, p r o d u c i n g a kind of natural-selection hybrid. In actuality, m a n y e t h n i c subcultures have retained their separate identities, a n d t h e result h a s b e e n a p a t c h w o r k quilt of diversity, a source of considerable cultural richness in t h e United States. 10-18a. He Got Game (U.S.A., 1998), with Denzel Washington and Ray Allen, written and directed by Spike Lee. Spike Lee might almost be viewed as the godfather of the ethnics, a pioneer in bringing African-American stories to the screen. He o p e n e d the door of opportunity to a floodgate of talent, especially a m o n g artists of color. Working out of New York rather than Hollywood, Lee's style has a distinctly hardedged, gritty Brooklyn flavor. He is especially strong in highlighting three traditional strongholds of black American c u l t u r e sports, music, and politics. (©

Touchstone Pictures)

10-18b. Smoke Signals (U.S.A., 1998), with Irene Bedard and Adam Beach, written by Sherman Alexie, directed by Chris Eyre. Although they constitute America's oldest minority, Native Americans have rarely had access to the mainstream media. Consequently, their culture has been represented primarily by outsiders, s o m e of t h e m sympathetic, most of them racist and ignorant. This movie is the first full-length feature film written, directed, and coproduced by American Indians. A Spokane Coeur d'Alene Indian, writer Sherman Alexie is one of the most famous Native American authors in history. He has written two novels, two short story collections, nine books of poetry, and the screenplay to this movie.

(Miramax Films)

10-18c. Mi Vida Loca/My Crazy Life (U.S.A., 1993), with Julian Reyes and Mario Marron, written and directed by Allison Anders. Hispanics are the largest ethnic minority in the United States, but their culture is rarely represented in American movies, and then usually negatively. This powerful study of Latina gangs in Los Angeles is a sympathetic portrayal of the frustrations m a n y Hispanic w o m e n face, especially with the violence and m a c h i s m o of poor, inner-city communities. (Sony Pictures Classics)

10-18d. Fiddler on the Roof (U.S.A., 1971), with Topol, directed by Norman Jewison. Jews are probably the most successful assimilators of all the ethnic groups that c a m e to America. Their contributions to the arts and entertainrrjent fields have been e n o r m o u s . The Broadway stage musical is overwhelmingly a Jewish stronghold. Cole Porter was the only Gentile a m o n g the top ranks of American musical c o m p o s e r s and lyricists, which include such famous n a m e s as Rodgers and Hammerstein, Stephen Sondheim, Leonard Bernstein, Lerner and Loewe, Kurt Weill, Lorenz Hart, and George Gershwin, to mention only a few. This movie, a first-rate adaptation of the s m a s h Broadway hit, is based on the short stories of Sholem Aleichem, the Yiddish chronicler of life in the villages of Tsarist Russia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The musical was the creation of playwright a n d librettist Joseph Stein, lyricist Sheldon Harnick, and c o m p o s e r Jerry Bock. (UnitedArtists)

10-19. The Chant ofjimmie Blacksmith (Australia, 1978), with Angela Punch and Tommy Lewis, directed by Fred Schepisi. This film is based on an actual series of events that took place around 1900. Jimmie Blacksmith (Lewis), half white and half aborigine, is rescued from a life of misery by a Caucasian missionary couple. They raise him to be docile and respectful, to admire all that is white, despise all that is black. The Reverend Mrs. even advises the youth to marry a white farm girl, produce children, who in turn will produce children who would be "scarcely black at all." The roots of racism, Schepisi demonstrates, are both economic and sexual. Whites exploit Jimmie and other aborigines as cheap labor and fear them as sexual threats. (New Yorker Films)

sect t h a t s o m e w h a t r e s e m b l e s Calvinism or Scandinavian L u t h e r a n i s m . Many of t h e films of R o b e r t Bresson reflect t h e s e J a n s e n i s t values. In Italy, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , Catholicism takes on a m o r e theatrical, aesthetic flavor—as in t h e movies of Federico Fellini. Italy's rich heritage in t h e decorative a n d fine arts was largely C h u r c h - s p o n s o r e d d u r i n g the medieval p e r i o d a n d t h e Renaissance. In m u c h of Catholic Latin America, t h e f liberation T h e o l ogy m o v e m e n t is strongly left-wing a n d even revolutionary in its o r i e n t a t i o n . P r o t e s t a n t i s m t o o is a virtual s m o r g a s b o r d of religious diversity. Therea r e vast differences b e t w e e n t h e joyous black f u n d a m e n t a l i s m of The Preacher's Wife ( 1 0 - 1 7 a ) a n d t h e s t e r n , b o r n - a g a i n faith of t h e p r o t a g o n i s t of Tender Mercies ( 1 1 - 2 0 ) , w h o is white, s o u t h e r n , w o r k i n g class, a n d "country." Similarly, to non-Islamic p e o p l e s t h e differences b e t w e e n m o d e r a t e S u n n i a n d f u n d a m e n talist Shiite Muslims m i g h t s e e m minor, b u t they have p r o m p t e d m a n y passionate conflicts in t h e M i d d l e East. S o m e t i m e s o n e religious sect strongly objects to the portrayal of a revered figure in t h e arts. For e x a m p l e , Martin Scorsese's The Last Temptation of Christ, b a s e d on t h e G r e e k novel by Nikos Kazantzakis, portrays J e s u s from a h u m a n i s t perspective. All Christians believe in t h e divinity of Jesus, b u t m o s t

10-20a. Boyz N the Hood (U.S.A., 1991), with Cuba Gooding Jr., Larry Fishburne, and Ice Cube; written and directed by John Singleton. Films with an ethnic slant are generally m o u n t e d in a realistic style to depict the authentic textures of everyday life. Boyz N the Hood is a powerful coming-of-age drama set in the m e a n streets of the black ghettos of Los Angeles. Director John Singleton m a d e this debut film on a small budget when he was only twenty-two years old. He was the youngest director in history to be n o m i n a t e d for an Academy Award in directing. (Columbia Pictures) 10-20b. Breaking Away (U.S.A., 1979), with Dennis Christopher (lower right), directed by Peter Yates. "America is another word for opportunity," Ralph Waldo Emerson observed. No other country has been so hospitable to foreign talent. Since 1927, the first year that the Academy Awards were given, a staggering 41 percent of the Best Picture Oscars have been won by foreign-born directors, including such major figures of the American cinema as Frank Capra, Alfred Hitchcock, William Wyler, Michael Curtiz. Billy Wilder, Elia Kazan, Fred Z i n n e m a n n , and Milos Forman, a m o n g others. Breaking Away, a coming-of-age story set in Bloomington, Indiana, is a slice of pure Americana. Interestingly, it was written by a Yugoslavian immigrant, Steve Tesich, and directed by an Englishman. Charles Chaplin, the most famous immigrant of his era, said of his adoptive country: "1 felt at h o m e in the States—a foreigner a m o n g foreigners."

(Twentieth Century-Fox)

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d e n o m i n a t i o n s e m p h a s i z e the g o d r a t h e r t h a n the m a n . H e n c e t h e f i e r c e outcry from Christian fundamentalists a b o u t Scorsese's movie, which portrays J e s u s as flawed, t o r m e n t e d with d o u b t . Critic Scott Eyman r e s p o n d e d to these attacks: In d a r i n g to give us a Christ of flesh a n d b l o o d , Scorsese h a s violated w h a t p r o t e s t e r s , in t h e i r m a d , delusive certainty, believe to be t h e i r c o p y r i g h t o n J e s u s . But simply b e c a u s e t h e i r m i n d s a r e m o s t c o m f o r t a b l e with, a n d a r e p r o b a b l y only c a p a b l e of e n c o m p a s s i n g a dashb o a r d J e s u s , is no r e a s o n for t h o s e t e r m s to d e f i n e t h e limits of p u b l i c discussion. E t h n i c g r o u p s are distinct social c o m m u n i t i e s within a larger cultural syst e m that claim or are a c c o r d e d special status (usually inferior) on the basis of s u c h c o n s i d e r a t i o n s as religion, l a n g u a g e , ancestry, a n d race—in short, what we call minority g r o u p s . In the U n i t e d States, such g r o u p s i n c l u d e African Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans, a n d of course t h e m a n y waves of i m m i g r a t i o n from a b r o a d , especially those w h o have n o t b e e n fully i n t e g r a t e d into the American m a i n s t r e a m , like the C h i n e s e Americans of The Joy Luck Club. Movies with an e t h n i c slant usually d r a m a t i z e t h e t e n s i o n s b e t w e e n t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e a n d t h e b e l e a g u e r e d values of a minority c o m m u n i t y . For e x a m p l e , in t h e Australian c i n e m a , a n u m b e r of movies have d e a l t with t h e clash b e t w e e n t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y white, Anglo-Saxon p o w e r s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e d a r k - s k i n n e d a b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s , w h o have a l o n g h e r i t a g e of o p p r e s s i o n a n d e x p l o i t a t i o n , as in The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith ( 1 0 - 1 9 ) . Similarly, Come See the Paradise deals with t h e forced evacuation of J a p a n e s e A m e r i c a n s i n t o "relocation c a m p s " d u r i n g World War II. A m e r i c a was also at war with G e r m a n y a n d Italy d u r i n g this era, b u t n o o n e suggested t h a t p e o p l e o f G e r m a n a n d Italian d e s c e n t m i g h t c o n s t i t u t e a security risk. G e r m a n s a n d Italians are Caucasians. African-American film historians have c h r o n i c l e d the sad, shameful treatm e n t of blacks in A m e r i c a n movies—a mean-spirited reflection of t h e i r treatm e n t in A m e r i c a n society as a whole. For the first fifty years of the A m e r i c a n cine m a , black characters were usually relegated to d e m e a n i n g stereotypes. T h e title of D o n a l d Bogle's history of blacks in A m e r i c a n films says it all: Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies & Bucks. T h e most positive images of African A m e r i c a n s during this half c e n t u r y were generally faithful servants, like t h e roles played by Hattie McDaniel, the first black p e r f o r m e r ever to win an Academy Award (for Gone With the Wind in 1939). Singers like L e n a H o m e a n d Ethel Waters, a n d d a n c e r s like t h e brilliant Nicholas Brothers, were also exceptions to the rule. In t h e 1950s, a c t o r Sidney Poitier rose to t h e t o p ten n o t as a singer, d a n c e r , or c o m e d i a n , b u t as a straight l e a d i n g m a n . Poitier's w h o l e s o m e g o o d looks a n d ail-American sense of d e c e n c y were a d m i r e d by white a n d black a u d i e n c e s alike. Poitier's e n o r m o u s p o p u l a r i t y was a n o p e n i n g w e d g e i n t h e treatm e n t of African-American c h a r a c t e r s in movies: I m a g e s of blacks i m p r o v e d steadily ( b u t slowly) after t h e 1950s. However, even today racist stereotypes a r e hardly u n u s u a l i n A m e r i c a n f i l m s a n d television. I n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y c i n e m a , n o African-American f i l m m a k e r has p r o -

J d e o l o g y

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voked m o r e controversy t h a n Spike Lee ( 1 0 - 1 8 a ) . M u c h of this criticism has b e e n d i r e c t e d at p e o p l e of his own race. In Do the Right Thing, L e e e x p l o r e s t h e s m o l d e r i n g t e n s i o n s b e t w e e n black g h e t t o dwellers a n d a n Italian-American family t h a t owns a pizzeria in an inner-city n e i g h b o r h o o d ( 5 - 1 4 ) . In Jungle Fever, Lee d r a m a t i z e s t h e p r o b l e m s o f a n i n t e r r a c i a l c o u p l e . T h e story e n d s with t h e lovers calling it q u i t s — d e f e a t e d by t h e prejudices of t h e i r own c o m m u n i t i e s as well as t h e i r p e r s o n a l failings. E t h n i c filmmakers t e n d to favor realism as a style ( 1 0 - 2 0 a ) . In t h e first place, realism is c h e a p e r . Scenes can be s h o t in t h e streets, without t h e n e e d for expensive studio sets. Such filmmakers often must work with small b u d g e t s , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y they rarely i n c l u d e costly special effects or e l a b o r a t e e q u i p m e n t . Realism also excels in p o r t r a y i n g t h e actual t e x t u r e s a n d sociological details of a u t h e n t i c locations. This p r e f e r e n c e for realism is by no m e a n s universal, however. For e x a m p l e , Spike Lee's movies a r e often stylized—with vibrant Day-Glo colors, a u d a c i o u s e d i t i n g t e c h n i q u e s , a n d virtuosic c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s .

T h e late 1960s was an e r a of i n t e n s e political t u r m o i l , n o t only in A m e r ica b u t also m u c h o f w e s t e r n E u r o p e . F e m i n i s m — a l s o k n o w n a s t h e W o m e n ' s L i b e r a t i o n M o v e m e n t , o r simply t h e W o m e n ' s M o v e m e n t — w a s o n e o f several militant ideologies t h a t e m e r g e d d u r i n g this p e r i o d . In t h e field of c i n e m a , t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h e W o m e n ' s M o v e m e n t has b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l e , t h o u g h m o s t present-day feminists w o u l d insist t h a t t h e r e is still m u c h to be a c c o m p l i s h e d in t h e battle against p a t r i a r c h a l values ( 1 0 - 2 1 ) . D u r i n g t h e heyday o f t h e big Hollywood s t u d i o s — a n d especially t h e 1930s t h r o u g h t h e 1950s—the status of w o m e n within t h e i n d u s t r y was dismal. T h e r e were n o w o m e n i n t h e u p p e r e c h e l o n s o f m a n a g e m e n t . O u t o f t h e t h o u sands of movies p r o d u c e d by t h e studios, only a h a n d f u l w e r e d i r e c t e d by w o m e n , a n d virtually n o n e w e r e p r o d u c e d b y t h e m . T h e u n i o n s also discrimin a t e d against females, allowing very few of t h e m to e n t e r t h e i r r a n k s . T r u e , t h e r e w e r e s o m e w o m e n i n t h e areas o f screenwriling, editing, a n d c o s t u m i n g , b u t only in t h e field of a c t i n g did w o m e n enjoy a d e g r e e of p r o m i n e n c e . After all, it was simply n o t e c o n o m i c a l l y feasible to e x c l u d e w o m e n from in front of t h e c a m e r a . To this day, m o s t of t h e powerful w o m e n in Hollywood have c o m e from t h e a c t i n g ranks. Even female stars w e r e t r e a t e d like second-class citizens d u r i n g t h e bigstudio era. Rarely d i d t h e l e a d i n g lady get t o p billing over t h e m a l e lead. Females usually received smaller salaries t h a n m a l e s — a p a t t e r n t h a t still persists. Females usually h a d s h o r t e r c a r e e r s b e c a u s e they were t h o u g h t to be too old for l e a d i n g roles o n c e they were past forty. Male stars like Gary G r a n t , Gary C o o p e r , a n d J o h n Wayne w e r e still playing leads in t h e i r sixties. T h e y w e r e often p a i r e d with w o m e n twenty or thirty years y o u n g e r t h a n themselves, a pattern rarely p e r m i t t e d for t h o s e few female stars w h o s o m e h o w m a n a g e d to h o l d on past forty. F o r e x a m p l e , actresses like J o a n Crawford a n d Bette Davis spent 7

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t h e final twenty years of t h e i r l o n g c a r e e r s playing mostly g r o t e s q u e caricat u r e s — i t was t h e only w o r k they c o u l d get. W i t h i n t h e movies themselves, w o m e n w e r e usually socially c o n s t r u c t e d as "the o t h e r " or "the o u t s i d e r " in a m a l e - d o m i n a t e d world, as feminist critic A n n e t t e K u h n has p o i n t e d o u t . W o m e n d i d n ' t get t o tell t h e i r own stories b e c a u s e t h e i m a g e s w e r e c o n t r o l l e d by m e n . Generally, w o m e n w e r e t r e a t e d as sex objects—valued primarily for t h e i r g o o d looks a n d sex a p p e a l . T h e i r m a i n f u n c t i o n was to s u p p o r t t h e i r m e n , s e l d o m to lead a fulfilling life of t h e i r own. M a r r i a g e a n d a family w e r e t h e i r m o s t f r e q u e n t goals, rarely a m e a n i n g f u l career. In t h e majority of s t u d i o - p r o d u c e d films, female c h a r a c t e r s w e r e m a r ginalized, s e l d o m a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e action. T h e h e r o i n e ' s f u n c t i o n was t o c h e e r from t h e sidelines, to wait passively until t h e h e r o c l a i m e d h e r for his r e w a r d . C e r t a i n characteristics w e r e r e g a r d e d as intrinsically "masculine": intel10-21. Seven Beauties (Italy, 1976), with Giancarlo Giannini and Elena Fiore, directed by Lina Wertmuller. Arguably the greatest of all w o m e n directors, Lina Wertmuller was criticized by s o m e feminist film critics for featuring vulgar, garrulous female characters who look like Rubens arid Titian nudes—put together. Indeed, one critic headlined her review: "Is Lina Wertmuller Really Just One of the Boys?" Wertmuller delights in irony, in paradoxes. She has been a consistent champion of the cause of w o m e n , but she's not a propagandist. However funny her w o m e n characters are (and the m e n are just as funny), Wertmuller's females are usually strong, with a surer sense of personal identity than the males. In this, perhaps her greatest film, she satirizes the m a c h o "code of honor" by equating a bullying older brother (pictured) with the institutions of patriarchy, the Mafia, and fascism itself. (WarnerBros.)

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l e d , a m b i t i o n , sexual c o n f i d e n c e , i n d e p e n d e n c e , professionalism—all o f t h e s e traits w e r e generally p r e s e n t e d as i n a p p r o p r i a t e a n d u n s e e m l y in w o m e n . C e r t a i n Hollywood g e n r e s w e r e m o r e h o s p i t a b l e t o w o m e n — l o v e stories, d o m e s t i c family d r a m a s , screwball a n d r o m a n t i c c o m e d i e s , musicals, a n d w o m e n ' s p i c t u r e s — u s u a l l y d o m e s t i c m e l o d r a m a s e m p h a s i z i n g a female star a n d focusing on "typical" female c o n c e r n s s u c h as g e t t i n g (or h o l d i n g on to) a m a n , raising c h i l d r e n , or b a l a n c i n g a c a r e e r with m a r r i a g e . M a r r i a g e was a l m o s t invariably p r e s e n t e d as t h e wiser c h o i c e w h e n a w o m a n was c o n f r o n t e d with a conflict b e t w e e n h e r c a r e e r a n d h e r m a n . W o m e n w h o c h o s e o t h e r w i s e usually suffered for t h e i r folly—like t h e h e r o i n e of Mildred Pierce ( l l - 1 3 a ) . It was in such g e n r e s as t h e s e t h a t s o m e of t h e s t u d i o e r a ' s greatest actresses flouri s h e d — B e t t e Davis, K a t h a r i n e H e p b u r n , C l a u d e t t e C o l b e r t , B a r b a r a Stanwyck, C a r o l e L o m b a r d , M a r l e n e Dietrich, a n d G r e t a G a r b o , to n a m e a few. Today t h e r e a r e a b o u t two d o z e n w o m e n d i r e c t o r s w o r k i n g i n t h e m a i n s t r e a m Hollywood film industry, a n d t h e i r p r e s e n c e has m a d e a differe n c e : T h e r a n g e o f female roles has b r o a d e n e d c o n s i d e r a b l y since t h e 1960s.

1 0 - 2 2 . Octopussy (Great Britain, 1983), with Roger Moore, directed by John Glen. Feminists rarely object to portraying w o m e n as sexually attractive; they merely insist that other aspects of their humanity also be dramatized. Perhaps nothing angers them so much as reducing w o m e n to sex objects. In this photo, for example, five young w o m e n are reduced to buxom bimbos who encircle the James Bond character like matching baubles around his neck. The title of the film drips with condescension and sexist innuendo. Feminists argue that popular entertainments such as the James Bond series validate for millions of impressionable young males that it's okay to view w o m e n merely as pleasure machines. (MCM/united Artists Entertainment)

440

d e o I o 0 y

O u t s i d e of N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d E u r o p e , however, sexism is as d o m i n a n t as ever, especially in t h e T h i r d World, w h e r e t h e o p p r e s s i o n of w o m e n is h a r s h e s t , b o t h in films a n d in t h e l a r g e r society. W o m e n in t h e T h i r d W o r l d a r e often d e n i e d e q u a l n u t r i t i o n a n d h e a l t h c a r e b e c a u s e they a r e v a l u e d less t h a n m e n . I n s o u t h e r n Asia a n d s u b - S a h a r a n Africa, females lag b e h i n d m a l e s at all levels of a c h i e v e m e n t , power, a n d status, as can be seen in movies like Tilai (10-32). F e m a l e infanticide is c o m m o n in m a n y p a r t s of C h i n a a n d India, especially in r u r a l areas. T r a d i t i o n a l rituals, i n c l u d i n g female circumcision, a r e p r a c t i c e d t h r o u g h o u t m u c h of Africa a n d parts of t h e Middle East, c o n t r i b u t i n g to p o o r r e p r o d u c t i v e h e a l t h . In Africa a l o n e , 80 million w o m e n u n d e r g o circumcision, which involves r e m o v i n g a female's clitoris, t h u s d e p r i v i n g h e r of o n e of t h e m a i n sources of sexual p l e a s u r e . Many African c u l t u r e s r e g a r d this as a "purifying" practice, d e a d e n i n g a w o m a n ' s i n t e r e s t in sex. Sexual p l e a s u r e is r e g a r d e d as a p p r o p r i a t e only in males. W o m e n a r e t h e i r sexual objects, a view n o t entirely foreign in t h e West ( 1 0 - 2 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e W o r l d w a t c h Institute, r e p r o d u c t i v e p r o b l e m s a r e t h e l e a d i n g killer o f w o m e n o f c h i l d b e a r i n g age t h r o u g h o u t t h e T h i r d W o r l d . A t least 1 million females die e a c h year a n d m o r e t h a n 100 million suffer disa b l i n g illnesses from c i r c u m c i s i o n , unsafe a b o r t i o n s , p r e g n a n c y complications, a n d c h i l d b i r t h . AIDS claims 100,000 w o m e n ' s lives annually, mostly in Africa.

10-23. Raise the Red Lantern (China/Hong Kong, 1991), with Gong Li (center), written and directed by Zhang Yimou. Zhang Y i m o u is China's foremost film artist, and all of his works to date have dealt with the problems of women in Chinese society, both past and present. The beautiful Gong Li has played the leading roles in most of his movies. (Orion classics)

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441

T h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y filmmaker Yilmaz Giiney was a powerful c h a m p i o n of w o m e n ' s rights. In Yol he d r a m a t i z e d h o w w o m e n are s o m e t i m e s t r e a t e d worse t h a n livestock in his native Turkey. Even f u n d a m e n t a l l y d e c e n t m e n , themselves victims of o p p r e s s i o n , victimize t h e w o m e n they love, rarely quest i o n i n g t h e sexist values of t h e i r c u l t u r e . "Can a m a n ' s m i n d be his own e n e m y ? " t h e p r o t a g o n i s t asks, w h e n he is e x p e c t e d to kill his wife in r e t r i b u t i o n for h e r adultery. E v e r y o n e e x p e c t s n o t h i n g less—even t h e m e m b e r s o f h e r own family, w h o have k e p t h e r c h a i n e d in t h e cellar for e i g h t m o n t h s , giving h e r only b r e a d a n d water, n o t even allowing h e r to wash. T h e m a n still loves his wife, yet he is t o r n b e t w e e n pity a n d h a i r e d , b e t w e e n t h e d e m a n d s of social c o n v e n t i o n a n d his private a n g u i s h . He d e c i d e s instead to "let G o d kill her." In an a g o n i z i n g trek across a vast snow-covered pass, he a n d t h e i r son, followed by t h e flimsily a t t i r e d , e x h a u s t e d wife, t r u d g e t h r o u g h t h e freezing t e r r a i n .

10-24. Late Chrysanthemums (Japan, 1954), with Haruko Sugimura and Ken Uehara, directed by Mikio Naruse. The Japanese cinema a b o u n d s in female genres. Two great film artists excelled at w o m e n ' s pictures—Kenji Mizoguchi and Naruse. "The Naruse heroine can be seen as a symbol for everyone who has ever been caught between ideals and reality," critic Audie Bock has noted.' "Women alone: widows, geisha, bar hostesses, young w o m e n from poor families with poor marriage prospects—all those who are not favored by the traditional family system form the essential material of the Naruse film." Feminism has had relatively little impact in Japan, and Naruse's heroines—like Japanese w o m e n in general—rarely organize to protest their lot. As Bock has pointed out, Naruse's protagonists "are outsiders, and they feel their exile keenly. But they do not blame society, or the system, or m e n in general for their deprivations. Naruse's heroines accept exploitation by men as part of what life brings." In this scene, an old lover of a retired geisha returns for a visit. She tries to remain calm, even though he may be her last chance for a respectable life. As it turns out, he has c o m e to borrow money. (East-west classics)

442

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In J a p a n t h e r e has b e e n a l o n g tradition of w o m e n ' s pictures that characteristically c e n t e r on t h e injustices of t h e u b i q u i t o u s family system. F i l m m a k e r s such as Kenji Mizoguchi a n d Mikio N a r u s e ( 1 0 - 2 4 ) , b o t h males, specialized in w o m e n ' s g e n r e s . T h e r e is an old Confucian a d a g e that a female s h o u l d obey h e r father w h e n she is a girl, h e r h u s b a n d w h e n she is m a t u r e , a n d h e r son w h e n she is old. This has b e e n the prevailing view in Japan t h r o u g h o u t most of its history. J a p a n e s e girls a r e b r o u g h t u p t o believe t h a t m a r r i a g e a n d m o t h e r h o o d a r e t h e m o s t r e w a r d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t s in life; a c a r e e r a n d e c o n o m i c i n d e p e n d e n c e a r e p o o r substitutes. W o m e n c o n s t i t u t e only a b o u t 2 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e u n i versity p o p u l a t i o n , a n d they a r e still d i s c r i m i n a t e d against i n t h e j o b m a r k e t , w h e r e they a r e n ' t t a k e n seriously. W o m e n almost n e v e r h o l d u p p e r m a n a g e m e n t positions. T h e divorce rate in J a p a n is still only a b o u t o n e - e i g h t e e n t h of t h a t in A m e r i c a , in p a r t b e c a u s e o l d e r w o m e n find it virtually impossible to m a k e a d e c e n t living wage. In present-day Japan, t h e lot of w o m e n is i m p r o v i n g , b u t they a r e still a n o p p r e s s e d g r o u p c o m p a r e d with t h e i r W e s t e r n c o u n t e r p a r t s .

10-25. Thelma & Louise (U.S.A., 1991), with Susan Sarandon and Geena Davis, directed by Ridley Scott. Feminism was one of m a n y liberation m o v e m e n t s that rose to p r o m i n e n c e in America and Europe during the 1960s. Virtually every powerful w o m a n in the Hollywood film industry today has been influenced by the m o v e m e n t — n o t to speak of m a n y male allies. Thelma & Louise explores the intimate bond between two best friends (pictured) whose weekend getaway unexpectedly takes t h e m on an adventure across America. The movie explores such t h e m e s as marriage, work, independence, female bonding, and male chauvinism, often from a h u m o r o u s perspective. Interestingly, the movie's structure is indebted to two traditionally male genres—the buddy film and the road picture. See also Chick Flicks, by B. Ruby Rich (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999). (MGM)

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T h e sympathy o f filmmakers like Mizoguchi a n d N a r u s e was b a s e d n o t o n sentimentality, b u t on h a r d social realities. Despite a t t e m p t s b y t h e u n s y m p a t h e t i c t o r e d u c e t h e W o m e n ' s Movem e n t t o trivialities like b r a b u r n i n g , c o n t e m p o r a r y feminists have c o n c e n t r a t e d on such f u n d a m e n t a l s as e q u a l pay for e q u a l work, a d e q u a t e p r e n a t a l c a r e for p r e g n a n t w o m e n , d o m e s t i c violence, a b o r t i o n rights, child c a r e , sexual harassm e n t o n t h e j o b , d a t e r a p e , a n d female solidarity ( 1 0 - 2 5 ) . N o t all w o m e n filmmakers a r e feminists ( a n d n o t all feminists are w o m e n ) . Lina W e r t m u l l e r ' s movies usually feature m a l e p r o t a g o n i s t s ( 1 0 - 2 1 ) . T h e films of R a n d a H a i n e s (Children of a Lesser God, The Doctor) a n d t h o s e of P e n n y Marshall, like Big ( 2 - 2 2 ) a n d Awakenings, a r e g e n d e r n e u t r a l . However, m o s t w o m e n d i r e c t o r s t e n d t o favor female p r o t a g o n i s t s . F e m i n i s t f i l m m a k e r s — b o t h m a l e a n d f e m a l e — a r e a t t e m p t i n g t o overc o m e p r e j u d i c e t h r o u g h t h e i r movies by p r o v i d i n g fresh perspectives ( 1 0 - 2 6 ) . "What do w o m e n wantT F r e u d o n c e asked in e x a s p e r a t i o n . Film critic Molly Haskell has a n s w e r e d succinctly: "We w a n t n o t h i n g less, on or off t h e s c r e e n , t h a n t h e wide variety a n d dazzling diversity of m a l e o p t i o n s . "

10-26. Men (West Germany, 1985), with Heiner Lauterbach and Uwe Ochsenknecht, directed by Doris Dorrie. A n u m b e r of f e m i n i s t film critics h a v e written a b o u t "the m a l e gaze." sometimes gaze."

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bidden, the erotic. But b e c a u s e most f i l m m a k e r s are males, so too is the point of v i e w of the c a m e r a : Everyo n e looks a t t h e a c t i o n t h r o u g h m a l e eyes. The g a z e f i x e s w o m e n in pos-

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(New Yorker

444

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T h e Gay L i b e r a t i o n M o v e m e n t d r e w m u c h o f its i n s p i r a t i o n from o t h e r r e v o l u t i o n a r y g r o u p s of t h e 1960s, especially feminism a n d t h e Black Liberation M o v e m e n t . T h e r e was a difference, however. W h e r e a s w o m e n a n d p e o p l e o f color c o u l d n o t p r e t e n d t o b e "the other," m o s t h o m o s e x u a l s c o u l d pass for straight. T h e y often d i d — a n d still d o — b e c a u s e of t h e social p r e j u d i c e against t h e m . H e n c e t h e p h r a s e "in t h e c l o s e t " — w h e n a gay p e r s o n c o n c e a l s his or h e r sexual identity from t h e o u t s i d e world a n d passes for straight. Sexual r e s e a r c h e r s a r e b y n o m e a n s i n a g r e e m e n t o n w h a t causes homosexuality. Following t h e lead of F r e u d , s u c h r e s e a r c h e r s as Kinsey a n d Masters a n d J o h n s o n r e g a r d all sexual b e h a v i o r as l e a r n e d , n o t i n n a t e . F r e u d believed t h a t t h e l i b i d o — s e x u a l energy—is n o n d i s c r i m i n a t o r y , a m o r a l , a n d c h a n n e l e d by social c o n v e n t i o n s . In s h o r t , we have to l e a r n w h a t ' s " n o r m a l " sexually. O t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s believe t h a t h o m o s e x u a l i t y is i n b o r n , like o t h e r g e n e t i c characteristics. R e c e n t m e d i c a l findings o n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e b r a i n t e n d to s u p p o r t a physiological basis for homosexuality. Both g r o u p s a g r e e t h a t g e n d e r identity i s f o r m e d b e f o r e puberty, b e f o r e a p e r s o n has any c o n s c i o u s sense of his or h e r sexuality. H a r d - c o r e hete r o s e x u a l s w h o view lesbians a n d gays as " n o t n a t u r a l " are missing t h e p o i n t , t h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s insist. A p e r s o n ' s s a m e - g e n d e r o r i e n t a t i o n is n o t s o m e t h i n g he or she c h o o s e s . Rather, it c h o o s e s t h e m . T h e i r sexuality is as n a t u r a l to t h e m as t h a t of h e t e r o s e x u a l s . T h e Kinsey Institute for Sex R e s e a r c h has f o u n d t h a t h o m o s e x u a l i t y is m o r e w i d e s p r e a d t h a n is generally believed. In a variety of scientific surveys, r e s e a r c h e r s have e s t i m a t e d t h a t r o u g h l y 10 p e r c e n t of t h e A m e r i c a n p o p u l a tion is h o m o s e x u a l . A m u c h l a r g e r p e r c e n t a g e — a s h i g h as 33 p e r c e n t — h a v e h a d a t least o n e h o m o s e x u a l e x p e r i e n c e . Many c o m m e n t a t o r s believe t h a t sexual labels a r e c o n v e n i e n t fictions, t h a t all of us have o u r m a s c u l i n e a n d femin i n e sides. " T h e big lie a b o u t lesbians a n d gay m e n is t h a t we do n o t exist," n o t e d film historian Vito Russo. Because of t h e i r l o n g history of p e r s e c u t i o n , h o m o sexuals u n t i l t h e 1960s k e p t a low profile. A h u n d r e d years ago, h o m o s e x u a l i t y was p u n i s h a b l e by d e a t h in G r e a t Britain. In m a n y societies, it is still a prisonable offense, even b e t w e e n c o n s e n t i n g adults. T h e Nazis i n c a r c e r a t e d in conc e n t r a t i o n c a m p s h u n d r e d s of t h o u s a n d s of h o m o s e x u a l s a l o n g with Jews, gypsies, Slavs, a n d o t h e r " u n d e s i r a b l e s . " H o m o s e x u a l i t y is c o m m o n p l a c e in t h e arts a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t fields, w h e r e it's n o t r e g a r d e d as relevant to talent. Bisexuality is even m o r e c o m m o n . In t h e l a r g e r society, however, t h e hostility toward gays has b e e n so s t r o n g t h a t m o s t artists—especially a c t o r s — h a v e g o n e t o c o n s i d e r a b l e l e n g t h s t o c o n c e a l t h e i r sexual identity. Bisexual film stars like M a r l e n e Dietrich, Gary G r a n t , E r r o l Flynn, a n d James D e a n w e r e r e g a r d e d as straight in t h e i r own day. Very few p e o p l e o u t s i d e of show business knew t h a t M o n t g o m e r y Clift a n d Rock H u d s o n ( 1 0 - 2 7 b ) w e r e gay. S u c h public k n o w l e d g e w o u l d u n d e r m i n e t h e i r credibility as r o m a n t i c l e a d i n g m e n , they believed.

10-27a. A Foreign Affair (U.S.A., 1948), with Marlene Dietrich, directed by Billy Wilder. Dietrich c a m e of age during the heady 1920s in Berlin, which was considered the sexiest, most tolerant city in Europe. Her open bisexuality created something of a scandal when she first arrived in Hollywood, but filmmakers often exploited her ambiguous sexuality with great success. Her career s p a n n e d an a m a z i n g six decades. She was 48 when she m a d e this movie, and as this photo irrefutably d o c u m e n t s , the famous Dietrich g a m s still looked sensational.

(Paramount Pictures)

10-27b. Pillow Talk (U.S.A., 1959), with Rock Hudson and Doris Day, directed by Michael Gordon. Throughout most of his lengthy career, Rock Hudson was an action/adventure hero, a romantic leading man, and a deft light comedian (pictured). His striking good looks and masculine manner m a d e him a favorite with both w o m e n and men. Within the film industry, it was c o m m o n knowledge that Hudson was gay, but he was well liked in Hollywood, and the public for the most part was unaware of his sexual identity—until he contracted AIDS. When he finally went public with his illness shortly before his death in 1985, he created a new sympathetic climate of opinion in the United States, and Americans finally began to take the AIDS epidemic seriously. (Universal

Pictures)

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10-28. Gods and Monsters (Great Britain, 1998), with Ian McKellen, directed by Bill Condon. In more recent times, a n u m b e r of actors have publicly c o m e out of the closet, most notably the celebrated Shakespearean performer Sir Ian McKellen. He usually plays heterosexuals, usually with great distinction. Gods and Monsters is a touching account of the last days of the British director, J a m e s Whale, who was openly homosexual, and directed such excellent movies as Frankenstein. The Invisible Man. The Bride of Frankenstein, and the great musical, Showboat. (Lions Gate Films)

Of c o u r s e , this secrecy also m a d e t h e m easy prey to b l a c k m a i l — o n e of t h e m a i n r e a s o n s militant gays insist on t h e n e e d to a c k n o w l e d g e t h e i r sexuality publicly. Interestingly, a n d r o g y n o u s traits in such female stars as Dietrich, G a r b o , a n d Mae West s e e m e d t o m a k e t h e m p o p u l a r , b u t s e l d o m w e r e m a l e stars allowed any sexual ambiguity on t h e s c r e e n . H o m o p h o b i a , like racism a n d sexism, was w i d e s p r e a d i n t h e c i n e m a u n t i l recently. Gay m e n w e r e characteristically s t e r e o t y p e d as "sissies" a n d " p a n s i e s . " L e s b i a n s w e r e p o r t r a y e d a s m a n n i s h "bull dykes." T h e r e w e r e s o m e e x c e p t i o n s , however, m o s t n o t a b l y i n t h e a v a n t - g a r d e c i n e m a a n d t h e pre-Nazi G e r m a n c i n e m a of t h e 1920s. In m o r e r e c e n t times, t h e films of F r a n c o i s T r u f f a u t f e a t u r e c h a r a c t e r s w h o h a p p e n t o b e gay b u t d o n ' t m a k e a big d e a l o u t of it.

10-29. Carrington (Great Britain, 1995), wi'fh Jonathan Pryce and Emma Thompson, directed by Christopher Hampton. A recent development in critical theory is the field of Gay Studies, s o m e t i m e s wittily selfdescribed as Queer Theory. Specialists in this field are concerned with how homosexuality impinges on heterosexual society, especially in the arts, where gays have traditionally been prominent. For example, the British cultural m o v e m e n t known as the Bloomsbury Group around the turn of the last century was heavily gay a n d bisexual, including such important figures as Oscar Wilde, Virginia Woolf, E. M. Forster, and the cultural historian, Lytton Strachey. This movie explores the bizarre love affair (platonic) between the homosexual Strachey (Pryce) and his adoring (heterosexual) protegee, Dora Carrington (Thompson). (Cramercy Pictures)

T h e b i s e x u a l w r i t e r G o r e Vidal, w h o has w r i t t e n several H o l l y w o o d s c r e e n p l a y s , h a s s t a t e d , "As for o v e r t h o m o s e x u a l i t y in p r e - 1 9 6 0 films, it was n o t a t t e m p t e d a n d n o t possible . . . b u t s u b t e x t s d i d occasionally insert t h e m selves." Vidaf is r e f e r r i n g to movies t h a t s e e m h e t e r o s e x u a l on t h e s u r f a c e , b u t h o m o s e x u a l u n d e r t o n e s a r e i m p l i e d . N o o n e says o u t r i g h t t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r s p l a y e d by Elisha C o o k , Jr., a n d P e t e r L o r r e in The Maltese Falcon a r e gay, b u t t h e film is strewn with h i n t s to t h a t effect. O t h e r movies with gay s u b t e x t s i n c l u d e Queen Christina, Ben-Hur ( b o t h v e r s i o n s ) , Gilda, The Outlaw, Rope, Rebel Without a Cause, Strangers on a Train, Spartacus, Mean Streets, a n d m o s t b u d d y films. After t h e 1960s, movies d e a l i n g overtly with gay t h e m e s b e c a m e m o r e c o m m o n , especially i n A m e r i c a a n d E u r o p e . I n p a r t this was b e c a u s e t h e old P r o d u c t i o n C o d e , t h e Hollywood f i l m i n d u s t r y ' s c e n s o r s h i p a r m , was s c r a p p e d in favor of t h e present-day r a t i n g system. Many of t h e s e movies p o r t r a y e d gays as d e e p l y n e u r o t i c , sex-obsessed, a n d self-loathing. Often they e n d e d with t h e 4 4 7

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10-30. The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (Australia, 1994), with Guy Pearce and Hugo Weaving, written and directed by Stephan Elliott. This cheerfully outrageous c o m e d y about three lipsynch performers (two drag queens and a transsexual) is a quintessential example of campy humor, demonstrating the eternal adage that yes, "good taste is timeless." See also The Politics and Poetics of Camp, by Morris Meyer (London: Routledge, 1994). (Gramercy Pictures)

gay c h a r a c t e r c o m m i t t i n g suicide. N o n e t h e l e s s , such i m p o r t a n t movies as Dog Day Afternoon, Cabaret, Another Country, Sunday Bloody Sunday, My Beautiful Laundrette, Working Girls, Performance, La Cage aux Folks, Mona Lisa, Longtime Companion, Philadelphia, a n d m a n y of t h e works of G e r m a n y ' s R a i n e r W e r n e r Fassbinder and Spain's Pedro Almodovar are multidimensional in their treatment of gay c h a r a c t e r s . T h e c a m p sensibility is especially associated with t h e c u l t u r e of m a l e h o m o s e x u a l s , t h o u g h it's n o t t h e i r exclusive p r o v i n c e . F e m a l e h e t e r o s e x u a l s like M a e West, Carol B u r n e t t , a n d Belle Midler are strongly c a m p y in t h e i r work. N o r is it necessarily typical of all m a l e gays. For e x a m p l e , Eisenstein, Murn a u , J e a n Vigo, a n d G e o r g e C u k o r w e r e all h o m o s e x u a l s , b u t t h e r e ' s n o t h i n g c a m p y a b o u t t h e i r movies. (Well, p e r h a p s C u k o r ' s The Women.) P e d r o A l m o d o var is t h e s u p r e m e m a s t e r of t h e c a m p sensibility in such c o n t e m p o r a r y social c o m e d i e s as Matador, Women on. the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown, a n d All About My Mother.

10-31a.

Big Night (U.S.A.,

and Campbell Scott.

1996), with Stanley Tucci and Tony Shalhoub, directed by Tucci

(Rysher Entertainment)

Analyzing a film's portrayal of key social institutions like the family is a useful entry into the movie's ideological underpinnings. Big Night is about two Italian-American brothers (pio tured) whose priorities in running their restaurant are radically at odds. The Tucci character is the business m a n a g e r of the partnership. He's bottom-line oriented, insisting that profit should take p r e c e d e n c e over gastronomical pedantry. His brother, the chef, is equally insistent that authentic food properly prepared should be their main concern. Despite their differences, their loyalty is unwavering, and the movie solidly endorses the family as a source of strengh, love, and comfort. The Ref portrays the family as a totalitarian institution—dysfunctional, crippling, and steeped in hostility. The marriage between Davis and Spacey is crumbling, and their son is becoming a juvenile delinquent. The family m e m b e r s are constantly bickering a n d slashing away at one another. Both movies employ a comic tone—gentle and ironic in Big Night, bitterly neurotic a n d satirical in The Ref. Both are very good movies. 10-31b. The .Ref (U.S.A., 1994), with Judy Davis, Denis Leary and Kevin Spacey; directed by Ted Demme. (Buena Vista Pictures Distribution. Inc.)

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C o m i c m o c k e r y is a pervasive trait in c a m p movies, especially w h e n it involves a n y t h i n g b i z a r r e a n d o u t r a g e o u s , like t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e c u l t classic The Rocky Horror Picture Show ( 6 - 2 5 ) . C a m p d e l i g h t s in artistic excess, anyt h i n g artificial, kitschy, a n d florid—like C a r m e n M i r a n d a ' s garish b a n a n a d a n c e in The (icing's All Here, c h o r e o g r a p h e d by a g r a n d m a s t e r of c a m p , Busby Berkeley. C a m p frequently uses theatrical m e t a p h o r s : role-playing, h a m m y perf o r m a n c e s , a n d life-as-theater c o m p a r i s o n s , like Sonia Braga's " t o r m e n t e d h e r o i n e " in Kiss of the Spider Woman. Lavishly gaudy c o s t u m e s a n d sets—anyt h i n g in really b a d t a s t e — a r e also campy ( 1 0 - 3 0 ) . C a m p favors c e r t a i n female stars as cult idols, especially plastic p e r f o r m e r s like J o a n Crawford a n d L a n a T u r n e r , w h o s e glossy w o m e n ' s p i c t u r e s w e r e originally i n t e n d e d t o b e taken seriously. T h e s e martyrs love n o t wisely b u t too well. T h e y suffer. T h e y survive. But mostly they suffer. A n d they do it all in glitzy d e s i g n e r c l o t h e s a n d s u m p t u ously a p p o i n t e d dwellings.

A movie's t o n e refers to its m a n n e r of p r e s e n t a t i o n , t h e g e n e r a l a t m o s p h e r e t h a t a f i l m m a k e r creates t h r o u g h his o r h e r a t t i t u d e toward t h e d r a m a t i c materials. T o n e can strongly affect o u r r e s p o n s e s to a given set of values. T o n e c a n also be elusive in movies, especially in those works in which it deliberately shifts from s c e n e to s c e n e . In movies like David Lynch's Blue Velvet, for e x a m p l e , we c a n n e v e r be s u r e of w h a t to m a k e of t h e events, b e c a u s e L y n c h ' s t o n e is s o m e t i m e s mocking, o t h e r times b i z a r r e , a n d occasionally terrifying. I n o n e s c e n e , a n i n n o c e n t h i g h school girl ( L a u r a D e r n ) r e c o u n t s to h e r boyfriend (Kyle M a c L a c h l a n ) a d r e a m she h a d a b o u t a p e r f e c t world. With h e r b l o n d e h a i r r a d i a t i n g with h a l o lighting, s h e s e e m s almost angelic. In t h e b a c k g r o u n d , we h e a r o r g a n music e m a n a t i n g from a c h u r c h . T h e music a n d lighting subtly m o c k h e r naivete as a f o r m of stupidity. A film's t o n e can be o r c h e s t r a t e d in a n u m b e r of ways. Acting styles strongly affect o u r r e s p o n s e to a given s c e n e . In O u e d r a o g o ' s Tilai ( 1 0 - 3 2 ) , for e x a m p l e , t h e l o n e is objective, matter-of-fact. T h e a c t i n g style by t h e largely n o n p r o f e s s i o n a l cast is scrupulously realistic. T h e y d o n ' t e x a g g e r a t e t h e desp e r a t i o n of t h e i r situation with h e i g h t e n e d e m o t i o n a l fervor. G e n r e also h e l p s d e t e r m i n e a film's t o n e . Epic films are generally p r e s e n t e d with a dignified, larger-than-life i m p o r t a n c e , as in The Searchers ( 1 0 - 3 ) or October ( 1 0 - 6 ) . T h e best thrillers a r e usually t o u g h , m e a n , a n d h a r d - b o i l e d , like Double Indemnity ( 1 - 1 7 ) a n d The drifters ( 2 - 2 0 ) . In c o m e d i e s , t h e t o n e is g e n e r allv Hip, plavful, a n d even silly. A voice-over n a r r a t o r can be useful for setting a t o n e that's different from an objective p r e s e n t a t i o n of a s c e n e , c r e a t i n g a d o u b l e perspective on t h e events. Voice-overs can be ironic, as in Sunset Boulevard ( 5 - 3 0 ) , s y m p a t h e t i c , as

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1

in Dances With Wolves ( 1 0 - 1 3 b ) , p a r a n o i d , as in Taxi Driver, or cynical as in A Clockwork Orange, which is n a r r a t e d by a t h u g . Music is a c o m m o n way to establish a movie's t o n e . A music track consisting primarily of rock ' n ' roll will be very different in t o n e from a p i c t u r e that's a c c o m p a n i e d by M o z a r t or Ray C h a r l e s . In Spike L e e ' s Jungle Fever, t h e Italian-American scenes a r e a c c o m p a n i e d by t h e ballads of F r a n k Sinatra; t h e African-American scenes a r e u n d e r s c o r e d b y gospel a n d soul m u s i c . W i t h o u t t a k i n g a film's t o n e i n t o a c c o u n t , a m e c h a n i s t i c analysis of its ideological values can be m i s l e a d i n g . For e x a m p l e , H o w a r d Hawks's Bringing Up Baby ( 1 0 - 3 3 ) m i g h t be i n t e r p r e t e d as a leftist c r i t i q u e of a d e c a d e n t society. Set in t h e final years of t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n , t h e movie deals with t h e d e s p e r ate s c h e m e s of an idle society w o m a n ( K a t h a r i n e H e p b u r n ) in l u r i n g a d e d i cated scientist (Cary G r a n t ) away from his w o r k — t o join h e r in a m o r o u s frolic. This is hardly a goal t h a t w o u l d be a p p l a u d e d by m o s t leftists, w h o t e n d to disa p p r o v e of frivolous play. But t h e movie's t o n e says o t h e r w i s e . I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e G r a n t character is e n g a g e d to be m a r r i e d to a p r i m , sexless associate w h o is utterly devoid of h u m o r . S h e r e g a r d s t h e i r work as all i m p o r t a n t — e v e n to t h e exclusion of taking a h o n e y m o o n or eventually having c h i l d r e n . S h e is t h e W o r k E t h i c incarn a t e . E n t e r t h e H e p b u r n character—flighty, beautiful, a n d rich. O n c e she discovers t h a t G r a n t i s a b o u t t o b e m a r r i e d , she d e t e r m i n e s t h a t only s h e m u s t

1 0 - 3 2 . Tilai (Burkino Faso, 1990), with Rasmane Ouedraogo (with water jug) and Ina Cisse (collapsed), directed by Idrissa Ouedraogo. Winner of the Special Jury Prize at the Cannes Film Festival, Tilai is the story of a love triangle that tears a family apart in a r e m o t e African village. The tone is dedramatized, simple, and ultimately tragic. The film is c o m p l e m e n t e d by a spare and poignant score by the great jazz musician, Abdullah Ibrahim. (New Yorker Films)

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10-33. Bringing Up Baby (U.S.A., 1938), with Cary Grant and Katharine Hepburn, directed by Howard Hawks. The tone of this movie—like that of most screwball comedies—is zany, silly, and fun. Grant plays an absent-minded professor type whose absorption in his work is so obsessive that he neglects other important facets of his life—especially excitement and romance. These are provided by a high-spirited, flighty heroine (Hepburn) who reduces her swain to a state of thralldom. No one was funnier than Grant in conveying the impotent exasperation of the polite male who does try to be understanding. His scenes are profuse in rituals of masculine humiliation, in which he's virtually (and s o m e t i m e s literally) stripped of his stodgy identity. (RKO>

have h i m a n d s h e c o n t r i v e s a series of r u s e s to l u r e h i m away from his f i a n c e e . H e p b u r n ' s c h a r a c t e r i s e x c i t i n g a n d e x a s p e r a t i n g — b u t fun. G r a n t i s f o r c e d t o s h e d his stodgy d e m e a n o r m e r e l y t o k e e p u p with h e r d e s p e r a t e antics. S h e p r o v e s t o b e his salvation, a n d t h e y a r e u n i t e d a t t h e f i l m ' s c o n c l u s i o n . Clearly, t h e y a r e m a d e for e a c h o t h e r . In s h o r t , t h e c h a r m of Hawks's screwball c o m e d y lies precisely in w h a t critic R o b i n W o o d d e s c r i b e d a s " t h e l u r e o f irresponsibility." T h e middle-class

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work ethic is p o r t r a y e d as joyless—as d r y as t h e fossil b o n e s t h a t G r a n t a n d his fiancee have d e v o t e d t h e i r lives to. Is t h e film d e v o i d of ideology? Certainly n o t . D u r i n g the 1930s, t h e r e were m a n y A m e r i c a n movies t h a t d e a l t with t h e style a n d g l a m o u r o f t h e rich, w h o w e r e often p o r t r a y e d as e c c e n t r i c a n d g o o d - h e a r t e d . Hawks's film is very m u c h i n this t r a d i t i o n . T h e h a r d s h i p s o f t h e D e p r e s s i o n a r e n o t even a l l u d e d t o in t h e movie, a n d t h e film's settings—expensive n i g h t c l u b s , swanky a p a r t m e n t s , gracious c o u n t r y h o m e s — a r e precisely what a u d i e n c e s o f t h a t e r a craved i n o r d e r t o forget a b o u t t h e D e p r e s s i o n . But t h e movie is n o t overtly political. T h e e m p h a s i s is on t h e c h a r i s m a o f t h e l e a d i n g players a n d t h e m a d c a p a d v e n t u r e s they p u r s u e . T h e l u x u r i o u s lifestyle o f t h e h e r o i n e e n h a n c e s h e r a p p e a l , a n d t h e fact t h a t she d o e s n ' t have a j o b ( n o r s e e m to w a n t o n e ) is simply n o t relevant. Bringing Up Baby is a c o m edy a n d a love story, n o t a social c r i t i q u e . T h e i d e o l o g i e s o u t l i n e d i n this c h a p t e r are c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l s t h a t can be helpful in u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h a t a given movie s e e m s to be saying (consciously or unconsciously) in t e r m s of values. But they are m e r e l y f o r m u l a s a n d cliches unless they s e e m r e l e v a n t to o u r e m o t i o n a l experience of a movie. In analyzing a film's ideology, we n e e d to d e t e r m i n e its d e g r e e of explicitness. If t h e values a r e implicit, h o w do we differentiate t h e g o o d guys from t h e b a d ? D o t h e stars e m b o d y ideological values o r w e r e t h e actors cast precisely b e c a u s e they d o n ' t convey a r e a d y - m a d e set of m o r a l assumptions? A r e t h e c i n e m a t i c t e c h n i q u e s ideologically w e i g h t e d — t h e mise e n scene, t h e editing, c o s t u m e s , decor, dialects? Is t h e p r o t a g o n i s t a s p o k e s p e r s o n for t h e filmmaker? H o w do you know? Is t h e p r o t a g o n i s t primarily a leftist, centrist, or rightist? W h a t cultural values a r e e m b o d i e d in t h e film? W h a t role—if a n y — d o e s religion play? Are t h e r e any e t h n i c values p r e s e n t ? W h a t a b o u t sexual politics? H o w a r e w o m e n p o r t r a y e d ? Any gay characters? Does t h e movie a d h e r e to t h e g e n r e ' s usual c o n v e n t i o n s or are they subverted? W h a t is t h e film's t o n e ? Does t h e t o n e r e i n f o r c e o r m o c k t h e values o f t h e characters?

FURTHER READING

Culture Clash: The Making of Gay Sensibility (Boston: South E n d Press, 1984). Covers film, theater, a n d publishing, with historical survey.

BRONSKI, MICHAEL,

Cineaste, edited by Gary Crowdus, is America's leading magazine on the art a n d politics of movies,/featuring well-written articles on a wide variety of ideologies, mostly from a leftist perspective. Alice Doesn't (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984). Feminist essays, with a strong theoretical emphasis.

D E LAURENTIS, TERESA,

H., ed., Film and Politics in the Third World (NewYork: Praeger, 1988). Collection of scholarly essays.

DOWNING,JOHN D .

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From Reverence to Rape, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). T h e t r e a t m e n t of w o m e n in movies—a historical survey. A well-written feminist history.

HASKELL, MOLLY,

Ideology and the Image (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981). Social r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in movies a n d o t h e r media. Perceptive a n d copiously illustrated.

N I C H O L S , BILL,

POLAX, DANA

B., The Political Language of Film and the Avant-Garde (Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI

Research Press, 1985). Volume in the Studies in Cinema series (no. 30). Q l ART, BARBARA K O K N I G ,

Women Directors: 'The Emergence of a New Cinema (NewYork: Praeger,

1988). Covers w o m e n directors in the Americas, E u r o p e , and the Third World. Rl'SSO, V l T O , The Celluloid Closet (NewYork: H a r p e r & Row, 1981). Homosexuality in the movies; a well-written survey. a n d D O U G L A S KF.LLNER, Camera Politico: The Politics and Ideology of Contemporary Hollywood Film (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988).

R Y A N , M I C I IAEL,

456

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y

Overview T h e o r e t i c a l q u e s t i o n : W h a t i s t h e e s s e n t i a l n a t u r e o f c i n e m a ? T h e t h r e e focus p o i n t s : t h e w o r k of art, t h e artist, t h e a u d i e n c e . T h e o r i e s of r e a l i s m : a m i r r o r of t h e real w o r l d . T h e self-effacing artist. T h e v a l u e s o f discovery, intimacy, a n d e m o t i o n a l r i c h n e s s . T h e a v o i d a n c e of artifice. Italian n e o r e a l i s m . Formalist film t h e o r i e s : i m a g i n a r y w o r l d s . A p l a c e o f m a g i c . T h e p l e a s u r e p r i n c i p l e . T h e film artist: t h e a u t e u r t h e o r y . T h e F r e n c h nouvelle vague. Eclectic a n d s y n t h e t i c t h e o r i e s . T h e A m e r i c a n t r a d i t i o n of p r a c t i c a l criticism. Eclecticism: W h a t e v e r w o r k s i s right. S t r u c t u r a l i s m a n d s e m i o t i c t h e o r i e s . T h e c o m p l e x i t y of film: codified d a t a in a d e e p s t r u c t u r e . Q u a n t i f y i n g t h e ineffable. T h e matic polarities and the nonlinear methodology of structuralism. Historiography: the a s s u m p t i o n s a n d b i a s e s o f w r i t i n g histories. Aesthetic a p p r o a c h e s . T e c h n o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h e s . E c o n o m i c histories. Social histories.

Most t h e o r i e s of film a r e c o n c e r n e d with t h e wider c o n t e x t of t h e m e d i u m — i t s social, political, a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l implications. T h e o r i s t s have also e x p l o r e d t h e essential n a t u r e of c i n e m a — w h a t differentiates it from o t h e r art forms,

11-1. The Maltese Falcon (U.S.A., 1941), with Humphrey Bogart, Peter Lorre, Mary Astor, and Sydney Greenstreet; directed by John Huston. Theory is the h a n d m a i d e n of art, not vice versa. Movies can be explored from a variety of theoretical perspectives, each with its own set of values and parameters of inquiry. Your theoretical orientation will d e p e n d in large part on what you're looking for. For example, The Maltese Falcon can be placed in at least seven theoretical contexts: (1) An auteur critic would regard it as a typical Huston film. (2) It could also be analyzed as a Bogart vehicle, exploiting and expanding the star's iconography. (3) An industry historian would place the picture within its commercial c o n t e x t ^ a s a superior example of the Warner Brothers product of this era. (4) A genre theorist would be interested in it as a classic example of the detective thriller, and one of the first of the so-called deadly female pictures that were so popular in the United States during World War II. (5) A theorist interested in the relationship of movies to literature might focus on Huston's script, based on Dashiell Hammet's celebrated novel of the s a m e title. (6) A stylistic critic would analyze the picture within the context of film noir, an important style in the American cinema of the 1940s. (7) A Marxist might interpret the movie as a parable on greed, an implicit cond e m n a t i o n of the vices of capitalism. Each theoretical grid charts a different cinematic topography. (Warner Bros.)

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w h a t its basic p r o p e r t i e s a r e . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , film t h e o r y has b e e n d o m i n a t e d by E u r o p e a n s , especially t h e F r e n c h a n d British. T h e tradition of criticism in t h e U n i t e d States has b e e n less t h e o r e t i c a l a n d m o r e p r a g m a t i c in its t h r u s t . In r e c e n t times, however, A m e r i c a n movie critics have shown a g r e a t e r i n t e r e s t in t h e t h e o r e t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e m e d i u m , t h o u g h t h e bias in favor of practical criticism r e m a i n s s t r o n g . A t h e o r y is an intellectual grid, a set of aesthetic g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , n o t e t e r n a l verities. S o m e t h e o r i e s a r e m o r e useful t h a n o t h e r s in u n d e r s t a n d i n g specific movies. No single t h e o r y can e x p l a i n t h e m all. For this r e a s o n , r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s in t h e field have stressed an eclectic a p p r o a c h , synthesizing a variety of theoretical strategies ( 1 1 - 1 ) . Traditionally, theorists have focused t h e i r a t t e n t i o n o n t h r e e areas o f inquiry: (1) t h e work of art, (2) t h e artist, a n d (3) t h e a u d i e n c e . T h o s e w h o have stressed t h e work of a r t have e x p l o r e d t h e i n n e r d y n a m i c s of m o v i e s — h o w they c o m m u n i c a t e , t h e l a n g u a g e systems they use. Film theorists can be divided i n t o realists a n d f o r m a l i s t s , j u s t as filmmakers t e n d to favor o n e style or t h e o t h e r . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t artist-oriented a p p r o a c h i s t h e a u t e u r t h e o r y , t h e belief t h a t a movie is best u n d e r s t o o d by focusing on its artistic creator, presumably t h e director. S t r u c t u r a l i s m a n d semiology w e r e t h e d o m i n a n t t h e o r i e s after 1970, a n d b o t h t e n d to e m p h a s i z e a synthetic a p p r o a c h , c o m b i n i n g s u c h ' c o n c e r n s as g e n r e , a u t h o r s h i p , style, i c o n o g r a p h y , social c o n t e x t , a n d ideology. In t h e a r e a of h i s t o r i o g r a p h y — t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g film hist o r y — r e c e n t t r e n d s have also e m p h a s i z e d a n i n t e g r a t e d a p p r o a c h .

Most t h e o r i e s of realism e m p h a s i z e t h e d o c u m e n t a r y aspects of film art. Movies a r e e v a l u a t e d primarily in t e r m s of h o w accurately they reflect external reality. T h e c a m e r a is r e g a r d e d as essentially a r e c o r d i n g m e c h a n i s m r a t h e r t h a n an expressive m e d i u m in its own right. T h e subject m a t t e r is p a r a m o u n t in t h e c i n e m a of realism, t e c h n i q u e its discreetly t r a n s p a r e n t h a n d m a i d e n . As we have seen in t h e case of A n d r e Bazin ( C h a p t e r 4 ) , m o s t t h e o r i e s of realism have a m o r a l a n d ethical bias a n d a r e often r o o t e d in t h e values of Islamic, Christian, a n d Marxist h u m a n i s m . Realist theorists like Cesare Zavattini a n d Siegfried K r a c a u e r believe t h a t c i n e m a is essentially an e x t e n s i o n of p h o t o g r a p h y a n d shares with it a p r o n o u n c e d affinity for r e c o r d i n g t h e visible world a r o u n d us. Unlike o t h e r art forms, p h o t o g r a p h y a n d c i n e m a t e n d t o leave t h e raw materials o f reality m o r e or less intact. T h e r e is a m i n i m u m of i n t e r f e r e n c e a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n on t h e artist's part, for/film is n o t an art of i n v e n t i o n so m u c h as an art of " b e i n g there." R o b e r t o Rossellini's Open City ( 1 1 - 2 ) i n a u g u r a t e d t h e Italian n e o r e a l i s t m o v e m e n t , o n e o f t h e t r i u m p h s o f t h e c i n e m a o f realism. T h e movie deals with t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n of Catholics a n d C o m m u n i s t s in fighting t h e Nazi o c c u p a t i o n of R o m e shortly b e f o r e t h e A m e r i c a n a r m y l i b e r a t e d t h e city. Technically, t h e

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film is r a t h e r c r u d e . G o o d quality film stock was impossible to o b t a i n , so Rossellini h a d to use inferior newsreel stock. Nevertheless, t h e t e c h n i c a l flaws a n d t h e r e s u l t a n t grainy i m a g e s convey a sense of j o u r n a l i s t i c i m m e d i a c y a n d authenticity. (Many neorealists b e g a n t h e i r c a r e e r s as j o u r n a l i s t s , a n d Rossellini himself b e g a n as a d o c u m e n t a r i s t . ) Virtually all t h e movie was s h o t at actual locations, a n d t h e r e a r e m a n y e x t e r i o r shots i n which n o a d d i t i o n a l lights w e r e used. W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p a l players, t h e actors w e r e n o n p r o f e s sionals. T h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e movie is e p i s o d i c — a series of vignettes s h o w i n g t h e r e a c t i o n s o f R o m a n citizens t o t h e G e r m a n o c c u p a t i o n .

11-2. Open City (Italy, 1945), with Marcello Pagliero, directed by Roberto Rossellini. The torture scenes of this famous Resistance film were so realistic that they were cut out of s o m e prints. In this episode, a Nazi S.S. officer applies a blowtorch to the body of a Communist partisan in an effort to force him to reveal the n a m e s of his c o m r a d e s in the underground. The crucifixion allusion is deliberate, even though the character is a nonbeliever. It parallels the death of a n o t h e r partisan, a Catholic priest, who is executed by a military firing squad. The French critic Andre Bazin was a champion of Italian neorealism, applauding its moral fervor even more than its technical restraint. "Is not neorealism primarily a kind of h u m a n i s m , and only secondarily a style of filmmaking?" he asked. (Patne contemporary Films)

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Open 67/)' is s a t u r a t e d with a sense of u n r e l e n t i n g honesty. "This is t h e way things a r e , " Rossellini is said to have d e c l a r e d after t h e film p r e m i e r e d . T h e s t a t e m e n t b e c a m e t h e m o t t o o f t h e n e o r e a l i s t m o v e m e n t . T h e fdm p r o v i d e d a rallying p o i n t for an e n t i r e g e n e r a t i o n of Italian filmmakers w h o s e creative talents h a d b e e n stifled by t h e repressive Fascist r e g i m e of t h e p r e w a r era. W i t h i n t h e n e x t few years, t h e r e followed an a s t o n i s h i n g series of movies t h a t catap u l t e d t h e Italians i n t o t h e front r a n k s o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c i n e m a . T h e m a j o r f i l m m a k e r s o f t h e m o v e m e n t w e r e Rossellini, L u c h i n o Visconti, a n d Vittorio De Sica a n d his f r e q u e n t scriptwriter C e s a r e Zavattini. T h e r e are c o n s i d e r a b l e differences b e t w e e n these m e n a n d even b e t w e e n t h e i r early a n d later works. F u r t h e r m o r e , n e o r e a l i s m i m p l i e d a style as well as an ideology'. Rossellini e m p h a s i z e d t h e ethical d i m e n s i o n : "For m e , N e o realism is above all a m o r a l p o s i t i o n from which to look at t h e world. It t h e n b e c a m e an aesthetic position, b u t at t h e b e g i n n i n g it was m o r a l . " De Sica, Zavattini, a n d Visconti also stressed morality as t h e t o u c h s t o n e of n e o r e a l i s m . T h e m a i n ideological characteristics o f t h e m o v e m e n t can b e s u m m a rized as follows: (1) a n e w d e m o c r a t i c spirit, with e m p h a s i s on t h e value of ordin a r y p e o p l e such as l a b o r e r s , p e a s a n t s , a n d factory workers; (2) a c o m p a s s i o n ate p o i n t of view a n d a refusal to m a k e facile m o r a l j u d g m e n t s ; (3) a p r e o c c u p a t i o n with Italy's Fascist past a n d its a f t e r m a t h of w a r t i m e devastation, poverty, u n e m p l o y m e n t , p r o s t i t u t i o n , a n d t h e black m a r k e t ; (4) a b l e n d i n g of Christian a n d Marxist h u m a n i s m ; a n d (5) a n e m p h a s i s o n e m o t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n abstract ideas. T h e stylistic features of n e o r e a l i s m i n c l u d e (1) an a v o i d a n c e of neatly p l o t t e d stories in favor of loose, episodic s t r u c t u r e s t h a t evolve organically from t h e situations of t h e c h a r a c t e r s ; (2) a d o c u m e n t a r y visual style; (3) t h e use of actual locations—usually e x t e r i o r s — r a t h e r t h a n s t u d i o sets; (4) t h e use of n o n professional actors, s o m e t i m e s even for p r i n c i p a l roles; (5) an a v o i d a n c e of lite r a r y d i a l o g u e in favor of conversational s p e e c h , i n c l u d i n g dialects; a n d (6) an a v o i d a n c e of artifice in t h e editing, c a m e r a w o r k , a n d l i g h t i n g in favor of a simple "styleless" style. Realists have s h o w n a p e r s i s t e n t hostility toward plot a n d neatly struct u r e d stories. F o r e x a m p l e , C e s a r e Zavattini d e f i n e d t h e o r d i n a r y a n d t h e everyday as t h e m a i n business of t h e c i n e m a . S p e c t a c u l a r events a n d e x t r a o r d i n a r y c h a r a c t e r s s h o u l d be a v o i d e d at all costs, he believed. He c l a i m e d t h a t his ideal movie w o u l d consist of ninety consecutive m i n u t e s from a p e r s o n ' s actual life. T h e r e s h o u l d b e n o b a r r i e r s b e t w e e n reality a n d t h e spectator, n o directorial virtuosity to " d e f o r m " t h e integrity of life as it is. T h e artistry s h o u l d be invisible, the materials " f o u n d " r a t h e r t h a n s h a p e d o r m a n i p u l a t e d . Suspicious of c o n v e n t i o n a l p l o t s t r u c t u r e s , Zavattini dismissed t h e m as d e a d f o r m u l a s . He insisted on t h e d r a m a t i c s u p e r i o r i t y of life as it is e x p e r i e n c e d b y o r d i n a r y p e o p l e . F i l m m a k e r s s h o u l d b e c o n c e r n e d with t h e "excavat i o n " of reality. I n s t e a d of plots, they s h o u l d e m p h a s i z e facts a n d all t h e i r " e c h o e s a n d r e v e r b e r a t i o n s . " A c c o r d i n g to Zavattini, filmmaking is n o t a mat-

11-3. De Sica, Renoir, and Ray were world-class cinematic realists, and these three movies are a m o n g their m o s t celebrated masterpieces.

ll-3a. Umberto D (Italy, 1952), with Carlo Battisti (right), directed by Vittorio De Sica. Scripted by Cesare Zavattini, Umberto D concentrates on "small subjects," ordinary people, and the details of everyday life. The story explores the drab existence of a retired pensioner who's being forced out of his m o d e s t a p a r t m e n t because he can't afford the rent hike. His only comfort is his adoring pet dog w h o a c c o m p a n i e s him in his desperate a t t e m p t s to c o m e up with the necessary cash, (Museum of Modern Art)

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11 - 3 b . The Rules of the Game (France, 1939), directed by Jean Renoir. "Everyone has his reasons," Jean Renoir once observed of his characters. In this wise and profound c o m e d y of m a n n e r s , Renoir refuses to divide people glibly into good guys and bad, insisting that most people have logical reasons for behaving as they do. S o m e t i m e s good people c o m m i t horrible deeds—like this enraged working-class h u s b a n d who blasts away with a shotgun at the m a n he thinks has seduced his wife. Incongruously, he does so in the middle of a luxurious salon filled with (mostly) innocent bystanders, (janus rams)

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11 - 3 c . Pother Panchali (The Song of the Road, India, 1955), with Kanu Bannerjee, directed by Satyajit Ray. Like his idols De Sica and Renoir, Ray was a humanist, exploring a wide range of emotions. Pather Panchali is a study of grinding poverty in a remote Indian village. It packs a powerful emotional punch. Terrible catastrophes s e e m to strike out of nowhere, almost crushing their victims and plunging t h e m into unspeakable grief. Surviving this squalor and desperation is h u m a n hope, flickering like a candle against the wind, refusing to be extinguished. (AudioBrandon Film)

Why should we watch such depressing stories? Hedonists might well complain that movies like these bring you down, that they're painful to watch, a kind of cinema for masochists. The answer is complex. Such movies often are painful to watch. But they're also insightful, dramatizing what it's like to be up against the wall, to be really desperate. They show us the toughness and resilience of our brothers and sisters. At their best, movies like these can be profoundly spiritual—offering us privileged glimpses into the nobility of the human spirit.

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ter of " i n v e n t i n g fables" t h a t a r e s u p e r i m p o s e d over t h e factual m a t e r i a l s of life, b u t of s e a r c h i n g u n r e l e n t i n g l y to u n c o v e r t h e d r a m a t i c i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e s e facts. T h e p u r p o s e of t h e c i n e m a is to e x p l o r e t h e "dailincss" of events, t o reveal c e r t a i n details t h a t h a d always b e e n t h e r e b u t h a d n e v e r b e e n noticed. In his b o o k Theory of Film: The Redemption of Physical Reality, t h e Germ a n - t r a i n e d t h e o r i s t Siegfried K r a c a u e r also attacks p l o t as a n a t u r a l e n e m y of realism. A c c o r d i n g to Kracauer, t h e c i n e m a is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a n u m b e r of n a t u r a l affinities. First of all, it t e n d s to favor " u n s t a g e d reality"—that is, t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e subject m a t t e r gives t h e illusion o f h a v i n g b e e n f o u n d r a t h e r t h a n a r r a n g e d . S e c o n d , film t e n d s t o stress t h e r a n d o m , t h e f o r t u i t o u s . Krac a u e r is f o n d of t h e p h r a s e " n a t u r e c a u g h t in t h e act," m e a n i n g t h a t film is best s u i t e d t o r e c o r d i n g events a n d objects t h a t m i g h t b e o v e r l o o k e d i n life. T h e realistic c i n e m a is a c i n e m a of " f o u n d m o m e n t s " a n d p o i g n a n t revelations of h u m a n i t y . A t h i r d affinity t h a t K r a c a u e r n o t e s is i n d e t e r m i n a c y . T h e best movies suggest e n d l e s s n e s s . T h e y imply a slice of life, a f r a g m e n t of a l a r g e r reality r a t h e r t h a n a self-contained w h o l e . By refusing to tie up all t h e loose e n d s a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e m o v i e , t h e f i l m m a k e r c a n suggest t h e limitlessness of reality. / K r a c a u e r is hostile t o w a r d movies t h a t d e m o n s t r a t e a "formative t e n d ency." Historical films a n d fantasies he r e g a r d s as t e n d i n g to m o v e away from t h e basic c o n c e r n s o f t h e m e d i u m . H e also dismisses m o s t literary a n d d r a m a t i c a d a p t a t i o n s b e c a u s e he believes that l i t e r a t u r e is ultimately c o n c e r n e d with " i n t e r i o r realities," w h a t p e o p l e are t h i n k i n g a n d feeling, w h e r e a s movies e x p l o r e surfaces, e x t e r i o r reality. He r e g a r d s all stylistic self-consciousness as " u n c i n e m a t i c , " b e c a u s e i n s t e a d of e m p h a s i z i n g t h e subject matter, t h e filmm a k e r calls a t t e n t i o n to how it is p r e s e n t e d . T h e o r i e s of film realism are n o t very helpful in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c o m plexities of formalist m o v i e s — t h e works of a Sergei Eisenstein or a Steven Spielb e r g . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , they d o h e l p t o explain t h e raw e m o t i o n a l p o w e r o f s u c h m a s t e r p i e c e s of realism as Bicycle Thief, w h i c h was d i r e c t e d by Vittorio De Sica a n d s c r i p t e d primarily by Zavattini ( 6 - 3 3 ) . Bicycle Thief was a c t e d entirely by n o n p r o f e s s i o n a l s a n d consists of simple events in t h e life of a l a b o r e r (played by L a m b e r t o M a g g i o r a n i , w h o was an a c t u a l factory w o r k e r ) . In 1948, w h e n t h e film was r e l e a s e d , nearly a q u a r t e r of t h e w o r k force in Italy was u n e m p l o y e d . At t h e o p e n i n g of t h e movie, we a r e i n t r o d u c e d to t h e p r o t a g o n i s t , a family m a n with a wife a n d two c h i l d r e n to s u p p o r t . He h a s b e e n o u t of w o r k for two years. Finally, a b i l l b o a r d - p o s t i n g j o b o p e n s u p , b u t to a c c e p t it, he must have a bicycle. To g e t his b i k e o u t of h o c k , h e a n d his wife p a w n t h e i r s h e e t s a n d b e d d i n g . O n his first day o n t h e j o b , t h e bicycle is s t o l e n . T h e rest of t h e movie deals with his a t t e m p t s to r e c o v e r t h e b i k e . T h e m a n ' s s e a r c h grows increasingly m o r e frantic a s h e crisscrosses t h e city with his idolizing son, B r u n o . After a series of false leads, t h e two finally

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11-4. The Tree of the Wooden Clogs (Italy, 1978), directed by Ermanno Olmi. As a m o v e m e n t , Italian neorealism was pretty much over by the mid-1950s, but as a style and an attitude toward reality, its influence spread to m a n y other countries. A n u m b e r of present-day Italian filmmakers have continued in the tradition of neorealism. For example, Olmi's movies are steeped in the values of Christian h u m a n i s m . In this film, which was shot on authentic locations with nonprofessional players, he celebrates the everyday lives of several peasant families around 1900. For them, God is a living presence—a source of guidance, hope, and solace. Their faith is childlike, trusting, like that of St. Francis of Assisi. In a series of documentarylike vignettes, Olmi unfolds their gentle d r a m a , extolling their patience, their tough stoicism, their dignity. Above all, he exalts the sacredness of the h u m a n spirit. For Olmi, they are the salt of the earth. (New Yorker Films)

track d o w n o n e o f t h e thieves, b u t t h e p r o t a g o n i s t i s o u t w i t t e d b y h i m a n d h u m i l i a t e d in f r o n t of his boy. R e a l i z i n g t h a t he will lose his l i v e l i h o o d w i t h o u t a b i k e , t h e d e s p e r a t e m a n — a f t e r s e n d i n g his son a w a y — s n e a k s off a n d a t t e m p t s to steal o n e himself. But t h e boy o b s e r v e s f r o m a d i s t a n c e as his f a t h e r p e d d l e s frantically t o e s c a p e a p u r s u i n g m o b . H e i s c a u g h t a n d a g a i n h u m i l i a t e d in f r o n t of a c r o w d — w h i c h i n c l u d e s his i n c r e d u l o u s s o n . W i t h t h e b i t t e r n e s s o f b e t r a y e d i n n o c e n c e , t h e y o u n g s t e r s u d d e n l y realizes t h a t his d a d i s n o t t h e h e r o i c figure h e h a d f o r m e r l y t h o u g h t , b u t a n o r d i n a r y m a n w h o i n d e s p e r a t i o n y i e l d e d t o a d e g r a d i n g t e m p t a t i o n . Like m o s t n e o r e a l i s t films,

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11-5. Closely Watched Trains (Czechoslovakia, 1966), with Vaclav Neckar and Jitka Bendovd, directed by Jiri Menzel. O n e of the hallmarks of realism is intimacy—a sense of discovering a small private m o m e n t that might easily have been overlooked because it's not a big deaf These little nothings—a stolen kiss, a quick sidelong glance, an incongruous detail—are what m a k e realism a celebration of the poetry of everyday life, (Museum of Modem Art)

Bicycle Thief d o e s n ' t offer a slick s o l u t i o n . T h e r e are no m i r a c u l o u s i n t e r v e n tions i n t h e final reel. T h e c o n c l u d i n g s c e n e shows t h e boy w a l k i n g a l o n g s i d e his f a t h e r i n a n a n o n y m o u s crowd, b o t h o f t h e m c h o k i n g with s h a m e a n d w e e p i n g silently. A l m o s t i m p e r c e p t i b l y , t h e boy's h a n d g r o p e s for his f a t h e r ' s as they walk h o m e w a r d , t h e i r only c o m f o r t a m u t u a l c o m p a s s i o n . /

F o r m a l i s t fdm theorists believe that t h e art of c i n e m a is possible p r e cisely b e c a u s e a movie is u n l i k e everyday reality. T h e f i l m m a k e r exploits t h e limitations of t h e m e d i u m — i t s two-dimensionality, its c o n f i n i n g f r a m e , its frag-

11-6. Ugetsu (Japan, 1953), with Masayuki Mori and Machiko Kyo, directed by Kenji Mizoguchi. Realistic critics and theorists tend to underestimate the flexibility of an audience's response to nonrealistic movies. Of course, it's easier for a filmmaker to create the illusion of reality if the story deals with everyday events, for the world of the movie and the actual world are essentially the same. On the other hand, a gifted artist can make even fantasy materials "realistic." A movie like Ugetsu, which is set in the remote past and features spirits and d e m o n s , presents us with a self-contained magical universe which we are able to enter by temporarily forgetting the outside world of reality. In short, audiences are highly sophisticated in their responses to nonrealistic films. We can almost totally suspend our disbelief, partially suspend it, or alternate between extremes according to the aesthetic d e m a n d s of the world of the movie, (janus Films)

m e r i t e d t i m e - s p a c e c o n t i n u u m — t o p r o d u c e a w o r l d t h a t r e s e m b l e s t h e real world only in a superficial s e n s e . T h e real w o r l d is m e r e l y a r e p o s i t o r y of raw m a t e r i a l t h a t n e e d s t o b e s h a p e d a n d h e i g h t e n e d t o b e effective a s art. Film a r t d o e s n ' t consist of a r e p r o d u c t i o n of reality, b u t a t r a n s l a t i o n of o b s e r v e d c h a r acteristics i n t o t h e forms of t h e m e d i u m . R u d o l f A r n h e i m , a gestalt psychologist, p u t forth a n i m p o r t a n t t h e o r y of c i n e m a t i c f o r m a l i s m in his b o o k Film As Art, w h i c h was originally p u b l i s h e d i n G e r m a n i n 1933. A r n h e i m ' s b o o k i s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d with t h e p e r c e p tion o f e x p e r i e n c e . His t h e o r y i s b a s e d o n t h e d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f p e r c e p t i o n o f 465

11-7a. Publicity photo for TTie Wizard of Oz (U.S.A., 1939), with Jack Haley, Ray Bolger, Judy Garland, Frank Morgan, and Bert Lahr; directed by Victor Fleming. Formalism luxuriates in the artificial. "I don't think we're in Kansas anymore. Toto," Dorothy observes to her dog when they are whisked into an e n c h a n t e d place where nothing looks real. The wondrous world of the MGM musical was a triumph of artifice: lions that talked (and cried), flying creatures in the sky, scarecrows that danced (beautifully), swaying fields that sparkled like diamonds, and a superb musical score by E. Y. Marburg and the great Harold Arlen. <MGM>

ll-7b. Muppets From Space (U.S.A., 1999), with Pepe. Animal, Gonzo, Rizzo, Miss Piggy. Fozzie Bear, and Kermit the Frog, directed by Tim Hill. Gifted filmmakers can create a believable world even without using h u m a n beings. The Muppet characters from the Jim Henson organization all have unique personalities—familiar to millions of children all over the world. You don't have to be a child to appreciate the oddball denizens of Muppetland, who are more credible than a lot of so-called "live" characters. In this movie, our stalwart astronauts e m b a r k on an extraterrestrial adventure in the hopes of finding Gonzo's long-lost family from a distant planet, tjim Hanson Pictures)

11-8a. Robocop (U.S.A., 1987), with Peter Welter, directed by Paul Verhoeven. If realism tends to favor the didactic, the teaching function of art. then formalism tends to favor the pleasure principle. Implicit in the concept of formalism is the supremacy of pattern over life, of aesthetic richness over literal truth. Even in movies that attempt a superficial realism, the subject matter itself is often fantastic, with an e m p h a s i s on special effects and the visual appeal of the shapes, lines, textures, and colors Of the images.

(Orion Pictures)

11-8b. Being John Malkovich (U.S.A., 1999), with Catherine Keener and John Cusack, directed by Spike Jonze. Independent filmmaker Spike Jonze believes that modern, movies have b e c o m e slaves to boring reality. Even fanciful genres like science fiction contain recognizable character types and situations from other movies. This Pirandellian film dares to reintroduce the inexplicable and the surrealistic into movies. The main character (Cusack), an alienated puppeteer, discovers that he can situate himself in the brain of actor John Malkovich, who's one of the main performers of the film, presumably playing himself. Cusack can accomplish this amazing feat by working in an office with very low ceilings. When his 1 5 minutes of alternate reality are over, he's unceremoniously dropped on the side of the New Jersey Turnpike. But you're allowed to repeat.

(Gramercy Pictures)

11-9. The Servant (Great Britain, 1963), with Dirk Bogarde (foreground), directed by Joseph Losey. A scene can be photographed in literally hundreds of different ways, but the formalist selects the camera s e t u p that best captures its symbolic or psychological implications. In this shot, for example, a young w o m a n (Wendy Craig) suddenly realizes the enormous power a valet (Bogarde) wields over her weak fiance (James Fox). She is isolated on the left, half-plunged in darkness. A curtained doorway separates her from her lover, who is so stupefied with drugs he scarcely knows where he is, much less what's really going on. The servant cooly turns his back on them, the c a m e r a ' s low angle further emphasizing his effortless control over his "master."

(Landau Distributing)

t h e c a m e r a o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d t h e h i t m a n eye o n t h e o t h e r . A n t i c i p a t i n g s o m e o f t h e t h e o r i e s o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s specialist Marshall M c L u h a n , A r n h e i m insists t h a t t h e c a m e r a ' s i m a g e of a bowl of fruit, for i n s t a n c e , is fundam e n t a l l y different from o u r p e r c e p t i o n of the fruit bowl in actual life. Or, in M c L u h a n ' s t e r m s , t h e i n f o r m a t i o n we receive in e a c h i n s t a n c e is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e f o r m of its c o n t e n t . Formalist theorists c e l e b r a t e t h e s e differences, believing t h a t w h a t m a k e s p h o t o g r a p h y fall s h o r t of p e r f e c t r e p r o d u c t i o n is also what m a k e s c i n e m a an art, n o t j u s t a species of x e r o g r a p h y . Formalists have p o i n t e d o u t m a n y instances w h e r e d i v e r g e n c e s exist b e t w e e n t h e c a m e r a ' s i m a g e o f reality a n d what t h e h u m a n eye sees. F o r e x a m ple, film d i r e c t o r s m u s t c h o o s e which viewpoint to p h o t o g r a p h a s c e n e from. T h e y d o n ' t necessarily c h o o s e t h e clearest view, for often this d o e s n o t e m p h a size t h e m a j o r characteristics of t h e s c e n e , its expressive essence. In life, we perceive objects i n d e p t h a n d can p e n e t r a t e t h e space t h a t s u r r o u n d s most things. In movies, space is an illusion, for t h e screen has only two d i m e n s i o n s , p e r m i t ting t h e d i r e c t o r t o m a n i p u l a t e objects a n d perspectives i n t h e m i s e e n s c e n e . For e x a m p l e , i m p o r t a n t objects can b e p l a c e d w h e r e they are m o s t likely t o b e n o t i c e d f i r s t . U n i m p o r t a n t objects can b e r e l e g a t e d t o inferior positions, a t t h e e d g e s or "rear" of t h e i m a g e . In real life, space a n d t i m e are e x p e r i e n c e d as c o n t i n u o u s . T h r o u g h e d i t i n g , f i l m m a k e r s can c h o p u p space a n d t i m e a n d r e a r r a n g e t h e m i n a m o r e m e a n i n g f u l m a n n e r . Like o t h e r artists, t h e f i l m d i r e c t o r selects c e r t a i n e x p r e s sive details from t h e c h a o t i c p l e n i t u d e of physical reality. By j u x t a p o s i n g t h e s e 468

11 — 10a. Splash (U.S.A., 1984), with Daryl Hannah and Tom Hanks, directed by Ron Howard. A c o m m o n misconception about formalistic films is that they are merely light e n t e r t a i n m e n t , , far removed from serious concerns. For example, this movie deals with a young m a n who falls in love with a strange young w o m a n , who turns out to be a m e r m a i d . The film is a symbolic fantasy, and it's certainly entertaining, but it also explores fundamental values—about loyalty, family, work, and c o m m i t m e n t . (Bucna vista Pictures)

ll-10b. The Legend of Bagger Vance (U.S.A., 2000), with Will Smith, J. Michael Moncrief, and Matt Damon, directed by Robert Redford. Will Smith plays a mysterious golf caddy n a m e d Bagger Vance—a character w h o turns out to be supernatural, not "real." Yet the style of the film is an accurate recreation of the 1930s milieu. Is the movie formalistic Or realistic? (DreamWorks Pictures)

4 70

space a n d time fragments, t h e f i l m m a k e r creates a c o n t i n u i t y t h a t d o e s n ' t exist in raw n a t u r e . This, of c o u r s e , was t h e basic position of t h e Soviet m o n t a g e theorists (Chapter 4 ) . Formalists are always c o n c e r n e d with p a t t e r n s , m e t h o d s of r e s t r u c t u r ing reality i n t o aesthetically a p p e a l i n g designs. P a t t e r n s can be e x p r e s s e d visually, t h r o u g h t h e p h o t o g r a p h y a n d mise en s c e n e ; or aurally, in stylized dial o g u e , symbolic s o u n d effects, a n d musical m o t i f s . C a m e r a m o v e m e n t s a r e often kinetic p a t t e r n s s u p e r i m p o s e d o n t h e visual materials, c o m m e n t i n g o n them in some heightened manner. T h e p r o b l e m s with m o s t formalist t h e o r i e s are t h e s a m e as with realists: T h e r e a r e t o o m a n y e x c e p t i o n s . T h e y a r e certainly useful in an a p p r e c i a t i o n of H i t c h c o c k ' s works, for e x a m p l e , or T i m B u r t o n ' s . But h o w helpful is t h e t h e o r y in e x p l a i n i n g t h e films of Spike L e e or De Sica? We r e s p o n d to t h e i r movies b e c a u s e of t h e i r similarities with physical reality, n o t t h e i r d i v e r g e n c e s from it. Ultimately, of c o u r s e , t h e s e a r e m a t t e r s of e m p h a s i s , for films a r e too pluralistic t o b e p i g e o n h o l e d i n t o o n e tidy t h e o r y ( l l - 1 0 b ) .

In t h e mid-1950s, t h e F r e n c h j o u r n a l Cahiers du Cinema r e v o l u t i o n i z e d film criticism with its c o n c e p t of la politique des auteurs. T h i s c o m m i t t e d policy of a u t h o r s was p u t forth by t h e p u g n a c i o u s y o u n g critic Frangois Truffaut. T h e a u t e u r t h e o r y b e c a m e t h e focal p o i n t of a critical controversy t h a t eventually s p r e a d to E n g l a n d a n d A m e r i c a . Before long, t h e t h e o r y b e c a m e a m i l i t a n t rallying cry, particularly a m o n g y o u n g e r critics, d o m i n a t i n g such lively j o u r n a l s as Movie in G r e a t Britain, Film Culture in A m e r i c a , a n d b o t h F r e n c h - a n d Englishl a n g u a g e e d i t i o n s of Cahiers du Cinema. A l t h o u g h a n u m b e r of writers rejected t h e t h e o r y as simplistic, a u t e u r i s m d o m i n a t e d film criticism t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1960s. Actually, t h e m a i n lines of t h e t h e o r y a r e n ' t particularly o u t r a g e o u s , at least n o t in r e t r o s p e c t . Truffaut, G o d a r d , a n d t h e i r critical c o l l e a g u e s p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e greatest movies a r e d o m i n a t e d by t h e p e r s o n a l vision of t h e director. A f i l m m a k e r ' s " s i g n a t u r e " c a n b e p e r c e i v e d t h r o u g h a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f his o r h e r total o u t p u t , which is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a unity of t h e m e a n d style. T h e writer's c o n t r i b u t i o n is less i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e d i r e c t o r ' s b e c a u s e subject m a t t e r is artistically n e u t r a l . It can be t r e a t e d with brilliance or b a r e c o m p e t e n c e . Movies o u g h t to be j u d g e d on t h e basis of how, n o t what. Like o t h e r formalists, t h e a u t e u r critics c l a i m e d that what m a k e s a g o o d film is n o t t h e subject m a t t e r as such, b u t its/stylistic t r e a t m e n t . T h e d i r e c t o r d o m i n a t e s t h e t r e a t m e n t , p r o vided he or she is a s t r o n g director, an auteur. Drawing primarily from t h e cinematic traditions of the U n i t e d States, t h e Cahiers critics also d e v e l o p e d a sophisticated t h e o r y of film g e n r e . In fact, A n d r e Bazin, t h e e d i t o r of t h e j o u r n a l , believed that t h e genius of t h e A m e r i c a n c i n e m a was its repository of ready-made forms: westerns, thrillers, musicals, action films,

11-11. Photo montage of Jean-Pierre Leaud as Antoine Doinel in (left to right) Love on the Run (1979), Stolen Kisses (1968), "Antoine et Colette" (an episode in the anthology film, Love at Twenty, 1962), and the drawing from The 400 Blows (1959). Missing from the Doinel series is Bed and Board (1970). Above all, the auteurists emphasized the personality of the artist as the main criterion of value, Frangois Truffaut, who originally formulated la politique des auteurs, went on to create s o m e of the most distinctively personal movies of the New Wave. His Doinel series is one of the crowning achievements of the nouvelle vague. These semiautobiographical movies trace the adventures (mostly amorous) of its likable but slightly neurotic hero, Antoine Doinel. Truffaut's protege Leaud was the best known actor of the French New Wave. (New world Pictures)

c o m e d i e s , a n d so o n . " T h e tradition of g e n r e s is a base of o p e r a t i o n s for creative freedom," Bazin p o i n t e d out. G e n r e is an e n r i c h i n g , n o t a constricting, tradition. T h e auteurists a r g u e d that t h e best movies are dialectical, in which t h e conventions of a g e n r e a r e h e l d in aesthetic tension with the personality of the artist. T h e A m e r i c a n a u t e u r s t h a t t h e s e critics p r a i s e d h a d w o r k e d within t h e studio system,' w h i c h h a d b r o k e n t h e artistic j j r e t e n t i o n s of m a n y lesser filmm a k e r s . W h a t t h e auteurists especially a d m i r e d was h o w gifted d i r e c t o r s c o u l d c i r c u m v e n t s t u d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e a n d even h a c k n e y e d scripts t h r o u g h t h e i r technical e x p e r t i s e . T h e subject m a t t e r o f H i t c h c o c k ' s thrillers o r F o r d ' s westerns was n o t significantly different from o t h e r s w o r k i n g in t h e s e g e n r e s . Yet b o t h a u t e u r s m a n a g e d to c r e a t e g r e a t films, precisely b e c a u s e t h e real c o n t e n t was conveyed t h r o u g h t h e mise e n s c e n e , t h e e d i t i n g , a n d all t h e o t h e r formal devices at t h e d i r e c t o r ' s disposal. T h e s h e e r b r e a d t h of t h e i r k n o w l e d g e of film history p e r m i t t e d t h e s e critics to reevaluate t h e m a j o r works of a wide variety of d i r e c t o r s . In m a n y instances, they c o m p l e t e l y reversed previous critical j u d g m e n t s . Before l o n g , 47 1

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personality cults d e v e l o p e d a r o u n d t h e m o s t p o p u l a r d i r e c t o r s . O n t h e w h o l e , these were filmmakers who h a d b e e n virtuall) i g n o r e d by the critical establishm e n t o f t h e previous g e n e r a t i o n : H i t c h c o c k , Ford, Hawks, L a n g , a n d m a n y o t h ers. T h e a u t e u r critics w e r e often d o g m a t i c in t h e i r dislikes as well as t h e i r likes. Bazin e x p r e s s e d a l a r m at t h e i r negativism. To praise a b a d movie, he felt, was u n f o r t u n a t e ; b u t to c o n d e m n a g o o d o n e was a serious failing. He especially disliked t h e i r t e n d e n c y to h e r o w o r s h i p , which led to superficial a priori j u d g m e n t s . Movies by cult d i r e c t o r s w e r e indiscriminately praised, w h e r e a s t h o s e by d i r e c t o r s o u t o f fashion w e r e automatically c o n d e m n e d . Auteurists w e r e f o n d o f r a n k i n g d i r e c t o r s , a n d t h e i r listings c o u l d b e b i z a r r e . Perfectly r o u t i n e c o m mercial d i r e c t o r s like Nicholas Ray w e r e elevated above such i m p o r t a n t masters as J o h n H u s t o n a n d Billy Wilder. T h e principal s p o k e s m a n for t h e a u t e u r t h e o r y i n t h e U n i t e d States was A n d r e w Sarris, t h e influential critic of t h e Village Voice. M o r e k n o w l e d g e a b l e a b o u t t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f t h e star a n d s t u d i o system t h a n his F r e n c h c o u n t e r parts, Sarris n o n e t h e l e s s d e f e n d e d t h e i r basic a r g u m e n t , especially t h e princi-

11-12. Fanny and Alexander (Sweden, 1 9 8 3 ) , with Bertit Guve and Pernilla Allwin, written and directed by Ingmar Bergman. A towering giant of the cinema, Ingmar Bergman has written all of his movies by himself. His films are often semiautobiographical, like Fanny and Alexander, one of his m a n y masterpieces. In addition, Bergman worked with the s a m e cast and crew for years, a virtual repertory company. In short, his movies are indisputably those of an auteur. tsvenska FUminstitutet and Embassy Pictures)

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pie of t e n s i o n b e t w e e n an artist's p e r s o n a l vision a n d t h e g e n r e a s s i g n m e n t s t h a t t h e s e d i r e c t o r s w e r e given by t h e i r Hollywood bosses. Q u i t e correctly, these critics insisted that total artistic f r e e d o m isn't always a virtue. After all, Michelangelo, Dickens, a n d Shakespeare, a m o n g o t h e r s , a c c e p t e d c o m m i s s i o n e d subjects. T h o u g h this principle of dialectical tension is a s o u n d o n e — i n t h e o t h e r arts as well as c i n e m a — s o m e auteurists carried it to ridiculous e x t r e m e s . In t h e first place, t h e r e is the p r o b l e m of d e g r e e . It's d o u b t ful t h a t even a genius like B e r g m a n or Kubrick could do m u c h with t h e script a n d stars of Abbott and Costello Meet the Mummy. In o t h e r words, a director's got to have a fighting c h a n c e with the material. W h e n t h e subject m a t t e r sinks b e n e a t h a certain potential, t h e result is n o t tension b u t artistic annihilation. T h e m o s t gifted A m e r i c a n d i r e c t o r s o f t h e s t u d i o era w e r e p r o d u c e r - d i r e c t o r s w h o w o r k e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y within t h e m a j o r studios. T h e s e t e n d e d t o b e t h e s a m e artists t h e a u t e u r critics a d m i r e d m o s t . But t h e lion's s h a r e o f A m e r i c a n fiction movies p r o d u c e d d u r i n g this era w e r e s t u d i o films. T h a t is, t h e d i r e c t o r f u n c t i o n e d as a m e m b e r of a t e a m a n d usually h a d little to say a b o u t t h e s c r i p t i n g , casting, or e d i t i n g . Many of t h e s e d i r e c t o r s w e r e skillful t e c h n i c i a n s , b u t they w e r e essentially craftsmen r a t h e r t h a n artists. M i c h a e l Curtiz is a g o o d e x a m p l e . For most of his career, he was a c o m tract d i r e c t o r at W a r n e r B r o t h e r s . Known for his s p e e d a n d efficiency, Curtiz d i r e c t e d d o z e n s of movies in a variety of styles a n d g e n r e s . He often took on several projects at t h e s a m e t i m e . Curtiz h a d no " p e r s o n a l vision" in t h e sense t h a t t h e a u t e u r t h e o r y defines it: He was j u s t g e t t i n g a j o b d o n e . He often did it very well. Even so, movies like Yankee Doodle Dandy, Casablanca, a n d Mildred Pierce ( l l - 1 3 a ) can be discussed m o r e profitably as W a r n e r B r o t h e r s movies r a t h e r t h a n M i c h a e l Curtiz movies. T h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e applies t o m o s t o f t h e o t h e r H o l l y w o o d studios. In o u r day, it applies to films t h a t a r e d o m i n a t e d by p r o d u c e r s a n d financiers r a t h e r t h a n artists. O t h e r films have b e e n d o m i n a t e d by stars. Few p e o p l e w o u l d t h i n k of r e f e r r i n g to a M a e West movie as a n y t h i n g else, a n d t h e s a m e h o l d s t r u e for t h e W. C. Fields c o m e d i e s a n d t h e works of L a u r e l a n d Hardy. T h e u l t i m a t e in t h e star as a u t e u r is t h e so-called star vehicle, a film specifically t a i l o r e d to showcase t h e talents of a p e r f o r m e r ( 1 1 - 1 4 ) . T h e a u t e u r t h e o r y suffers from a n u m b e r of o t h e r weaknesses. T h e r e are s o m e excellent films that have b e e n m a d e by directors w h o are otherwise m e d i o c r e . For e x a m p l e , J o s e p h H. Lewis's Chin Crazy is a s u p e r b movie, b u t it's atypical of his o u t p u t . Conversely, great directors s o m e t i m e s p r o d u c e b o m b s . T h e works of such major filmmakers as Ford, G o d a r d , Renoir, a n d B u n u e l are radically inconsistent in t e r m s of quality, a n d s o m e of their movies are outright awful. T h e a u t e u r t h e o r y emphasizes history a n d a director's total o u t p u t , which tends to favor o l d e r directors at t h e e x p e n s e of n e w c o m e r s . S o m e artists have e x p l o r e d a variety of t h e m e s in m a n y different styles a n d g e n r e s : Carol Reed, Sidney L u m e t , a n d J o h n F r a n k e n h e i m e r are g o o d examples. T h e r e are also s o m e great f i l m m a k e r s w h o are c r u d e directorial technicians. For e x a m p l e , Chaplin a n d

Mildred Pierce ll-13a. (U.S.A., 1945), with Joan Crawford, directed by Michael Curtiz. Particularly during the golden age of the big-studio era (roughly from 1925 to 1955), most American m a i n s t r e a m movies were d o m i n a t e d by the imprimatur of the studio rather than the director, who was regarded more as an executor of a collaborative enterprise rather than a creative artist in his own right. Mildred Pierce has "Warner Brothers" written all over it. Typically tough a n d proletarian in emphasis, the movie features Joan Crawford as a self-made w o m a n who kills a m a n . It was regarded as her comeback performance after many years as a glamourous star at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. The movie, based on J a m e s M. Cain's hard-boiled novel, was adapted by Ranald MacDougall, a studio scribe. It was directed by Michael Curtiz, Warners' ace director, who was known for his speed, efficiency, and versatility. He was also able to control Warners' feisty stars, who were known to be difficult and rebellious. Even Bette Davis, the gutsiest of t h e m all, was cowed by Curtiz. When she complained that he h a d n ' t allowed her any break for lunch, he replied majesterially, "When you work for me, you don't need lunch. You just take an aspirin." (Warner Bros.)

ll-13b. Primary Colors (U.S.A., 1998), with John Travolta, directed by Mike Nichols. In the contemporary American cinema, most mainstream movies are still collaborative enterprises, with the director—even one as brilliant as Mike Nichols—serving as a coordinator of talent. The film is based on a political novel by "Anonymous"—actually journalist Joe Klein. The book is a thinly disguised account of the first presidential primary of Bill Clinton, his wife Hillary, and their political organization. The smart and wickedly funny screenplay was written by Elaine May. A first-rate cast is headed by Travolta, w h o does an uncanny impersonation of the gregarious and charismatic Clinton, who is at once a genuine democrat, a dedicated public servant, and a womanizing opportunist. The miracle of the movie is that it's so seamless, with its multiple individual contributions blended into a unified artistic whole. That was Mike Nichols's Contribution.

(UniversalStudios)

T h e o r y

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11-14. Terminator 2: Judgment Day (U.S.A., 1991), with Arnold Schwarzenegger and Edward Furlong, directed by James Cameron. Many movies are dominated by stars rather than directors, studios, or genres. Terminator 2 is a star vehicle for Schwarzenegger, one of the top box-office attractions of the contemporary American cinema. The film is specifically tailored to showcase his comic abilities as well as his popularity as an action/adventure star. He is rarely off camera, and the plot is pretty much a pretext to allow him m a x i m u m creative freedom. The movie is skillfully directed, but the d o m i n a n t artistic personality is clearly in front of the camera, not behind it. (m-star Pictures)

H e r z o g in no way a p p r o a c h t h e stylistic fluency of Michael Curtiz, or a d o z e n o t h e r c o n t r a c t directors of his era. Yet t h e r e are very few artists w h o have c r e a t e d such distinctively p e r s o n a l movies as Chaplin a n d H e r z o g . Despite its s h o r t c o m i n g s a n d excesses, t h e a u t e u r t h e o r y h a d a liberati n g effect on film criticism, establishing t h e d i r e c t o r as t h e key figure at least in t h e art of c i n e m a , if n o t always t h e industry. By t h e 1970s, t h e m a j o r battle h a d b e e n won. Virtually all serious discussions of movies w e r e at least partly c o u c h e d in t e r m s of t h e d i r e c t o r ' s p e r s o n a l vision. To this day, t h e c o n c e p t of directorial d o m i n a n c e r e m a i n s firmly established, at least with films of h i g h artistic m e r i t ( 1 1 - 1 5 ) .

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T K e o p y

11-15. Today, the term "auteur" is c o m m o n l y used to designate a film artist, an individual w h o s e personality is indelibly stamped onto his or her work. An auteur controls the major modes of expression—script, performance, execution—whether working within the commercial industry, like a Spielberg, a Scorsese, or a Spike Lee, or working outside the studio system, in what has been called the independent cinema.

ll-15a. Sling Blade (U.S.A., 1996), with Billy Bob Thornton, written and directed by Thornton. Independent filmmakers have much more control over their product than most mainstream directors, in part because independent movies are usually m a d e on low budgets. Most of the people involved are working for free, or very little, c o m p a r e d to Hollywood studio personnel. These alternative artists can also explore unusual or unfashionable subjects. For example, though more than 40 percent of Americans attend religious services weekly, this fact is rarely acknowledged in mainstream movies. But an important element of Sling Blade is its strong Southern Baptist flavor, lending the bizarre tale a spiritual richness. (Miramax Films)

11-15b. The Opposite of Sex (U.S.A., 1997), with Martin Donovan and Lisa Kudrow, written and directed by Don Roos. The protagonists of mainstream movies are almost exclusively heterosexual, and rarely do they suffer from any sexual problems. Independent films can be more real. This film's gay protagonist (Donovan) has just had his lover stolen from him by his manipulative sixteenyear-old half sister (Christina Ricci at her most evil). His best friend (Kudrow) is sexually repressed and hopelessly in love with him. That's just part of their problems. Mainstream movies are rarely as witty and bitchy and shrewd about the subject of sex. Nor do they usually offer such juicy roles for w o m e n , w h o are every bit as neurotic as the men.

(TriStar Pictures)

11-15c. Go (U.S.A., 1999), with Jay Mohr and Scott Wolf, directed by Doug Liman. Mainstream movies tend to reaffirm conventional morality. They also tend to be highly predictable. Within the first ten minutes of watching a typical genre film, we can usually guess how it'll end. The good guys will triumph, decency will be restored, blah blah blah. Independent movies can be more perverse. Like this black comedy, written by John August. The two main characters (pictured) are selfish, nasty, and egregiously narcissistic. They're also fun to watch and surprisingly unpredictable. These movies also tend to attract ambitious young rising actors like Mohr and Wolf, or established stars like Holly Hunter, Harvey Keitel, Cameron Diaz, or Sean Penn, who are more interested in their art than in making a lot of m o n e y playing unchallenging roles. (Columbia Pictures)

Eclecticism i s n ' t really a t h e o r y so m u c h as a m e t h o d of practical criticism. T h i s is t h e favored a p p r o a c h of m a n y film critics in t h e U n i t e d States, s u c h as t h e f o r m e r critic of The New Yorker, P a u l i n e Kael, w h o o n c e w r o t e , "I believe t h a t w e r e s p o n d m o s t a n d b e s t t o work i n any a r t f o r m ( a n d t o o t h e r e x p e r i e n c e as well) if we a r e pluralistic, flexible, relative in o u r j u d g m e n t s , if we a r e eclectic." S u c h critics p l a c e a m o v i e in w h a t e v e r c o n t e x t s e e m s m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e , d r a w i n g from diverse s o u r c e s , systems, a n d styles. Actually, a l m o s t all critics a r e eclectic t o s o m e d e g r e e . F o r e x a m p l e , a l t h o u g h A n d r e w Sarris has b e e n i d e n t i f i e d with t h e a u t e u r t h e o r y , h e i s equally a t h o m e aj)j^roaching a m o v i e in t e r m s of its star, its p e r i o d , its n a t i o n a l o r i g i n , or its ideological context. Eclecticism is s o m e t i m e s called t h e t r a d i t i o n of sensibility b e c a u s e a h i g h value is p l a c e d on t h e aesthetic d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s of a p e r s o n of taste a n d d i s c e r n m e n t . S u c h critics are often u r b a n e , well e d u c a t e d , a n d c o n v e r s a n t in the o t h e r arts. T h e c u l t u r a l cross-references in t h e writings of such critics as R o g e r E b e r t a n d F r a n k Rich r a n g e over a wide s p e c t r u m , i n c l u d i n g literature, d r a m a , politics, a n d t h e visual arts. T h e y frequently a l l u d e to t h e ideas of s u c h seminal t h i n k e r s a s F r e u d , M a r x , D a r w i n , a n d J u n g . S o m e t i m e s critics c o m b i n e an ideological p e r s p e c t i v e — s u c h as f e m i n i s m — w i t h practical criticism, sociology, a n d history, as in t h e criticism of Molly Haskell a n d J u l i a Lesage ( 1 1 - 1 6 ) . T h e best eclectic critics a r e gifted writers, i n c l u d i n g s u c h d i s t i n g u i s h e d p r o s e 477

11-16. Clueless (U.S.A., 1995), with Justin Walker and Alicia Silverstone, written and directed by Amy Heckerling. Eclectic critics often c o m b i n e movie criticism with social m o v e m e n t s such as feminism, exploring not only the sexual values within a film but also the ideological context of its production. Traditionally, w o m e n have b e e n excluded from positions of power within the American film industry. (The situation is even worse in most other countries.) Some, like Amy Heckerling, circumvented this legacy of discrimination by producing their low-budget films independently. Her success as an i n d e p e n d e n t filmmaker eventually o p e n e d doors to the m a i n s t r e a m industry. (Paramound Pictures)

stylists as J a m e s Agee a n d P a u l i n e Kael. Polished writing is valued as writing, in a d d i t i o n to t h e ideas it conveys. Eclectic critics reject t h e n o t i o n t h a t a single t h e o r y can explain all movies. T h e y r e g a r d this as a cookie-cutter a p p r o a c h to criticism. Most of t h e m insist t h a t an individual's r e a c t i o n to a film is deeply p e r s o n a l . For this r e a s o n , t h e best a critic c a n do is e x p l a i n his or h e r p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s e s as forcefully as possible. But it's j u s t an o p i n i o n , however well f o u n d e d or gracefully a r g u e d . T h e best criticism of this type is informative even if we disagree with its conclusions. Because p e r s o n a l taste is t h e m a i n d e t e r m i n a n t of value in eclectic criticism, t h e s e c o m m e n t a t o r s often a d m i t to t h e i r blind s p o t s — a n d all critics have b l i n d spots. E v e r y o n e has h a d t h e e x p e r i e n c e of b e i n g left totally cold by a movie t h a t ' s widely h a i l e d as a m a s t e r p i e c e . We c a n ' t h e l p t h e way we feel, however m u c h o u r feelings go against p o p u l a r s e n t i m e n t . Eclectic critics usually b e g i n with t h e i r feelings a b o u t a movie, t h e n work o u t w a r d , trying to objectify t h e s e instincts with c o n c r e t e a r g u m e n t s . T o g u a r d against p e r s o n a l eccentricity, they implicitly place a film within t h e c o n t e x t of a g r e a t tradition of masterp i e c e s — t h a t is, t h o s e works t h a t have s t o o d t h e test of t i m e a n d are still conside r e d m i l e s t o n e s in t h e evolution of t h e c i n e m a . T h i s g r e a t tradition is constantly u n d e r r e e v a l u a t i o n . It's a loose critical c o n s e n s u s r a t h e r t h a n an i r o n c l a d b o d y of privileged works. 4 78

11-17. Independence Day (U.S.A., 1996), directed by Roland Emmerich. This movie was a huge commercial hit, gobbling up over $ 3 0 0 million domestically and close to $ 4 9 0 million in foreign markets. It also generated $ 5 0 0 million in so-called ancillary revenues, including video and television rights. Twentieth Century-Fox spent $ 3 0 million for advertising alone—an investment that obviously paid off. The film's special effects constituted its main box-office appeal. In this sequence, for example, the U.S. White House is attacked by an alien force of incredible magnitude. Serious film critics either ignored the movie or dismissed it as drivel. So who's right, the public or the "experts"? It d e p e n d s on how you look at it. The m a s s audience t e n d s to seek escapist e n t e r t a i n m e n t : Movies are a way of forgetting their troubles. Film critics must e n d u r e a constant barrage of such pictures in their daily line of work. Hence, they tend to get bored with anything that treads the tried (and tired) and true. What they seek in movies is s o m e t h i n g unusual, challenging, and daring. Independence Day did not m e e t these expectations. (Twentieth Century-Fox)

Eclecticism has b e e n faulted on a n u m b e r of c o u n t s . Because of its e x t r e m e subjectivity, this a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n criticized as m e r e i m p r e s s i o n i s m by m o r e rigorously systematic theorists. T h e y insist that aesthetic evaluations o u g h t to be g o v e r n e d by a b o d y of theoretical principles r a t h e r t h a n a critic's u n i q u e sensibility, however refined. Eclectic critics a r e rarely in a g r e e m e n t b e c a u s e e a c h of t h e m is r e a c t i n g to a movie a c c o r d i n g to his or h e r own tastes r a t h e r t h a n a l a r g e r t h e o r e t i c a l framework, with its built-in system of c h e c k s a n d balances. For all t h e i r v a u n t e d e x p e r t i s e a n d cultural prestige, eclectic critics have track r e c o r d s t h a t d o n ' t always b e a r close scrutiny. For e x a m p l e , w h e n Fellini's H'/i was r e l e a s e d in 1963, m a n y critics in A m e r i c a a n d E u r o p e dismissed t h e movie as self-indulgent, formless, a n d even i n c o h e r e n t . Yet in a 1972 survey of i n t e r n a t i o n a l critics, 8'/2 p l a c e d fourth in t h e i r list of t h e ten greatest films of all t i m e . Conversely, even g o o d critics have p r o n o u n c e d a film an instant m a s t e r p i e c e — o n l y to r e g r e t t h e i r i m p e t u o s i t y in t h e cool d i s t a n c e of time, after t h e movie has b e e n l o n g f o r g o t t e n . Eclectic critics t e n d to be stoical a b o u t t h e s e m a t t e r s , a c c e p t i n g t h e m as perils of t h e t r a d e . P e r h a p s P a u l i n e Kael h a s e x p r e s s e d t h e i r a t t i t u d e best: 479

480

T l\ <* o r y

T h e role of t h e critic is to h e l p p e o p l e see what is in t h e work, what is in it t h a t s h o u l d n ' t b e , w h a t is n o t in it t h a t c o u l d b e . He is a g o o d critic if h e h e l p s p e o p l e u n d e r s t a n d m o r e a b o u t t h e work t h a n they c o u l d see for themselves; he is a g r e a t critic, if by his u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d feeling for t h e work, by his passion, he can excite p e o p l e so that they want to e x p e r i e n c e m o r e of t h e art t h a t is t h e r e , waiting to be seized. He is n o t necessarily a b a d critic if he m a k e s e r r o r s in j u d g m e n t . (Infallible taste is i n c o n c e i v a b l e ; w h a t c o u l d it be m e a s u r e d against?) He is a b a d critic if he d o e s not awaken t h e curiosity, e n l a r g e t h e interests a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of his a u d i e n c e . T h e a r t of the critic is to t r a n s m i t his knowle d g e of a n d e n t h u s i a s m for art to o t h e r s . ( Q u o t e d from / Lost It at the Movies; N e w York: B a n t a m , 1966)

Kael a n d h e r fellow eclectics c e l e b r a t e t h e subjective, individual elem e n t in film criticism. O t h e r s have l a m e n t e d it. In t h e early 1970s, two i n t e r r e lated c i n e m a t i c t h e o r i e s d e v e l o p e d , partly in r e s p o n s e to t h e i n a d e q u a c i e s of t h e criticism of p e r s o n a l sensibility. Structuralism a n d semiology were a t t e m p t s to i n t r o d u c e a new scientific r i g o r to film criticism, to allow for m o r e systematic a n d d e t a i l e d analyses of movies. B o r r o w i n g t h e i r m e t h o d o l o g y from s u c h diverse disciplines as linguistics, a n t h r o p o l o g y , psychology, a n d philosophy, t h e s e two t h e o r i e s first c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a m o r e precise analytical t e r m i n o l o g y . S t r u c t u r a l i s m a n d s e m i o l o g y have also f o c u s e d i n t e n t l y o n t h e A m e r i c a n c i n e m a as t h e p r i n c i p a l a r e a of i n q u i r y , for a n u m b e r of r e a s o n s . In t h e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e s e t h e o r i e s h a v e b e e n d o m i n a t e d b y t h e British a n d F r e n c h , t r a d i t i o n a l l y t h e m o s t e n t h u s i a s t i c foreign a d m i r e r s o f t h e c i n e m a o f t h e U n i t e d States. A m e r i c a n movies also p r o v i d e d t h e s e critics with a stylistic n o r m — t h e classical paradigm. Marxists a m o n g this g r o u p h a v e e x p l o r e d t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e capitalistic m o d e o f p r o d u c t i o n o f A m e r i c a n f i l m s . Cult u r a l c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n characteristically A m e r i c a n m y t h s and genres. Semiology (or semiotics, as it's also called) is a study of how movies signify. T h e m a n n e r in which i n f o r m a t i o n is signified is indissolubly l i n k e d with what's b e i n g signified. T h e F r e n c h theorist Christian Metz was in t h e f o r e f r o n t in d e v e l o p i n g semiotics as a t e c h n i q u e of film analysis. Using m a n y of t h e concepts a n d m u c h o f t h e t e r m i n o l o g y o f structural linguistics, Metz a n d o t h e r s developed a theory of cinematic communication founded on the concept of signs or c o d e s . T h e l a n g u a g e of c i n e m a , like all types of discourse, verbal a n d n o n v e r b a l , is primarily symbolic: It consists of a c o m p l e x n e t w o r k of signs we instinctively d e c i p h e r while e x p e r i e n c i n g a movie ( 1 1 - 1 8 ) . In most discussions of film, t h e shot was generally a c c e p t e d as t h e basic u n i t of c o n s t r u c t i o n . Semiotic theorists rejected this u n i t as too vague a n d inclusive. T h e y insisted on a m o r e precise c o n c e p t . Accordingly, they suggested

11-18. Blonde Venus (U.S.A., 1932), with Marlene Dietrich, directed by Josef von Sternberg. Semiologists believe that the shot—the traditional unit of construction in film—is t o o general and inclusive to be of much use in a systematic analysis of a movie. The symbolic sign, they argue, is a more precise unit of signification. Every cinematic shot consists of dozens of signifying codes that are hierarchically structured. Using what they call the "principle of pertinence," semiologists decode cinematic discourse by first establishing what the d o m i n a n t signs are, then analyzing the subsidiary codes. This methodology is similar to a detailed analysis of mise en scene, only in addition to spatial, textural, and photographic codes, semiologists would also explore other relevant signs—kinetic, linguistic, musical, rhythmic, etc. In this shot, a semiologist would explore the symbolic significance of such major signs as Dietrich's white suit. Why a masculine suit? Why white? What does the papier-mache dragon signify? The distorted perspective lines of the set? The "shady ladies" behind the archways? The symbolism of stage and audience? The tight framing and closed form of the image? The protagonist's worldly song? Within the dramatic context, semiologists would also explore the r h y t h m s of the editing and c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s , the symbolism of the kinetic motions of the performer, and so on. Traditionally, critics likened the cinematic shot to a word, and a series of edited shots to a s e q u e n c e of words in a sentence. A semiologist would dismiss such analogies as patently simpleminded. Perhaps an individual sign might be likened to a word, but the equivalent to a shot—even a lousy one—would require m a n y paragraphs if not pages of words. A complex shot can contain a hundred separate signs, each with its o w n precise Symbolic Significance.

(ParamountPictures)

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t h a t t h e sign be a d o p t e d as t h e m i n i m a l u n i t of signification. A single s h o t from a movie generally c o n t a i n s d o z e n s of signs, f o r m i n g an intricate h i e r a r c h y of c o u n t e r p o i s e d m e a n i n g s . In a sense, this b o o k , a n d especially t h e e a r l i e r c h a p ters, can be viewed as a classification of signs, a l t h o u g h necessarily m o r e limited in s c o p e t h a n t h e type of identification a n d classification e n v i s i o n e d by Metz. a n d o t h e r semiologists. F o r e x a m p l e , e a c h of these c h a p t e r s is c o n c e r n e d with a k i n d of m a s t e r c o d e , which c a n b e b r o k e n d o w n i n t o c o d e subdivisions, which themselves can be r e d u c e d to even m o r e m i n i m a l signs. T h u s , C h a p t e r 1 m i g h t be called a p h o t o g r a p h } ' m a s t e r c o d e . T h i s m a s t e r c o u l d b e b r o k e n d o w n i n t o subdivisions: shots, angles, lighting keys, colors, lenses, filters, optical effects, a n d so o n . E a c h o f t h e s e , i n t u r n , c o u l d b e subdivided again. T h e shots, for e x a m p l e , c o u l d be b r o k e n d o w n to extreme long, long, m e d i u m , close-up, e x t r e m e closeu p , d e e p focus. T h i s s a m e p r i n c i p l e c o u l d b e a p p l i e d t o o t h e r m a s t e r c o d e s : spatial c o d e s (mise e n s c e n e ) , kinetic c o d e s ( m o v e m e n t ) , a n d s o o n . C o d e s o f l a n g u a g e w o u l d be as c o m p l e x as t h e e n t i r e discipline of linguistics; a c t i n g c o d e s w o u l d involve a precise b r e a k d o w n of t h e various t e c h n i q u e s of signification u s e d by players. S e m i o t i c t e c h n i q u e s c a n be valuable in a i d i n g film critics a n d scholars t o analyze movies with m o r e p r e c i s i o n . But t h e t h e o r y suffers s o m e defects. F o r o n e t h i n g , t h e s e a r e descriptive classifications only, n o t n o r m a t i v e . I n o t h e r words, semiotics will p e r m i t a critic to d i s c e r n a sign, but it's still up to t h e critic to evaluate h o w effective artistically any given sign is within an aest h e t i c c o n t e x t . Formalist movies s e e m to l e n d themselves to easier classification t h a n realistic movies. For e x a m p l e , it's m u c h s i m p l e r t o d e s c r i b e t h e c o m p l e x mise en s c e n e of Wliat Dreams May Come t h a n to e x p l i c a t e t h e m e a n i n g s of C h a p l i n ' s e x p r e s s i o n in The Bank ( l l - 1 9 a & b). T h e s e signs a r e n ' t really c o m p a r a b l e . T h e y exist on i n c o m p a t i b l e levels, like different l a n g u a g e systems of a c o m p u t e r . Because formalist signs a r e easier to quantify, s o m e critics t e n d to value films with a g r e a t e r n u m b e r of signs (or at least a g r e a t e r n u m b e r of classifiable signs) as m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n , a n d h e n c e aesthetically s u p e r i o r to, a film with a lower density of signs. A n o t h e r serious p r o b l e m with this t h e o r y is its awful j a r g o n , which s o m e t i m e s verges on self-parody. All specialized d i s c i p l i n e s — i n c l u d i n g cine m a — h a v e a c e r t a i n n u m b e r of necessary technical t e r m s , b u t semiotics often c h o k e s on its own "scientific" wordiness. Even within t h e field, o n e c o m m e n t a t o r p o i n t e d o u t t h a t r e f e r r i n g to a perfectly o r d i n a r y p h e n o m e n o n as "signifier" or "signified," "syntagm" or " p a r a d i g m " d o e s n ' t in itself a d v a n c e social k n o w l e d g e t o any p a r t i c u l a r d e g r e e . As Metz p o i n t e d o u t , semiology is c o n c e r n e d with t h e systematic classification of types of c o d e s u s e d in t h e c i n e m a ; structuralism is t h e study of h o w various c o d e s f u n c t i o n within a single s t r u c t u r e , within o n e movie. Structuralism is strongly eclectic a n d often c o m b i n e s t h e t e c h n i q u e s of semiotics with o t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l perspectives, such as a u t e u r i s m , g e n r e studies, ideology, stylistic analyses, a n d so o n . For e x a m p l e , Colin M a c A r t h u r ' s Underworld USA is a

11 - 1 9 a . What Dreams May Come (U.S.A., 1999), with Robin Sciorra, directed by Vincent Ward. (Polygram Films)

Williams and Annabella

Semiotics can help critics to isolate and identify signs in a movie, but not to show how skillfully they function within the film. Because the theory stresses quantification, it tends to be more effective in analyzing formalist films, which contain more classifiable signs. But different types of signs or codes are not compatible, and hence qualitative j u d g m e n t s are difficult to m a k e on strictly quantitative data. For example, the shot from What Dreams May Come contains m a n y different signs, which are structured into an image of great visual complexity. Special effects give the classicized landscape a magical luminosity. Chaplin's shot, on the other hand, is relatively simple and contains very few signs other than the expression on the tramp's face. Vincent Ward is an artist of considerable skill, but he's not in Chaplin's class. Yet a semiotic analysis of these two works might lead to'the conclusion that Ward is the superior filmmaker, because he used more signs in his movie. 11-19b. Modern Art)

The Bank (U.S.A., 1915), with Charles Chaplin, directed by Chaplin.

(Museum of

11-20. Tender Mercies (U.S.A., 1983), with Robert Duvatl and Allan Hubbard, directed by Bruce Beresford. A crucial shortcoming of semiotic methodology is its failure to deal with nonmaterialist val' ues in cinema. For example, this movie explores how a d r u n k e n country music star (Duvall) finds spiritual r e d e m p t i o n in the born-again Christian faith of the w o m a n he loves. A strictly semiotic analysis of the film would prove inadequate in exploring these spiritual values. (Universal

Pictures)

structuralist analysis of g a n g s t e r a n d c r i m e films a n d t h e style k n o w n as film noir. M a c A r t h t i r uses semiotic classifications in e x p l o r i n g t h e i c o n o g r a p h y of t h e g e n r e films of s u c h artists as Billy W i l d e r ( 1 - 1 7 ) a n d o t h e r s . Structuralists a n d semiologists have b e e n fascinated by t h e c o n c e p t of a deep structure—an u n d e r l y i n g n e t w o r k of symbolic m e a n i n g t h a t is r e l a t e d to a movie's surface s t r u c t u r e b u t is also s o m e w h a t i n d e p e n d e n t of it. T h i s d e e p s t r u c t u r e c a n be analyzed from a n u m b e r of perspectives, i n c l u d i n g F r e u d i a n psychoanalysis, Marxist e c o n o m i c s , J u n g i a n c o n c e p t s o f t h e collective u n c o n scious, a n d t h e t h e o r y o f s t r u c t u r a l a n t h r o p o l o g y p o p u l a r i z e d b y t h e F r e n c h m a n C l a u d e Levi-Strauss. T h e m e t h o d s o f Levi-Strauss a r e based o n a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f r e g i o n a l myths, which he believed e x p r e s s c e r t a i n u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e s of t h o u g h t in codified f o r m . T h e s e myths exist in variant forms a n d usually c o n t a i n t h e s a m e or similar b i n a r y s t r u c t u r e s — p a i r s of opposites. By collapsing t h e surface (narrative) s t r u c t u r e of myths, t h e i r symbolic motifs can be analyzed in a m o r e syst e m a t i c a n d m e a n i n g f u l m a n n e r . T h e s e polarities a r e usually f o u n d i n dialectical conflict: D e p e n d i n g on t h e c u l t u r e analyzed, they can be agricultural (for e x a m p l e , water vs. d r o u g h t ) , sexual ( m a l e vs. f e m a l e ) , c o n c e p t u a l ( c o o k e d vs. raw), g e n e r a t i o n a l (youth vs. a g e ) , a n d so o n . Because t h e s e myths are e x p r e s s e d in symbolic c o d e s , often t h e i r full m e a n i n g s are h i d d e n even from 484

~t 1 \ « • * > r y

485

t h e i r c r e a t o r s . Levi-Strauss believed t h a t o n c e t h e full i m p l i c a t i o n s of a m y t h a r e u n d e r s t o o d , it's d i s c a r d e d as a c l i c h e . T h e s e s t r u c t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s c a n be u s e d to analyze a n a t i o n a l c i n e m a , a g e n r e , o r a specific m o v i e . For e x a m p l e , t h e conflict b e t w e e n " t r a d i t i o n a l " a n d " m o d e r n " values c a n b e s e e n i n virtually all J a p a n e s e m o v i e s , a n d i n J a p a n e s e society i n g e n e r a l ( 1 1 - 2 1 ) . T h e r o o t s o f this conflict e x t e n d b a c k t o t h e l a t e r n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w h e n J a p a n t r a n s f o r m e d itself f r o m a f e u d a l c o u n t r y to a m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g i c a l society p a t t e r n e d after t h e W e s t e r n i n d u s t r i a l states,

11-21. An Autumn Afternoon (Japan, 1962), with Chishu Ryu (right), directed by Yasujiro Ozu. The films of Ozu were not widely seen in the West until the 1970s. Prior to this time, his movies were regarded as "too J a p a n e s e " to be appreciated by foreign a u d i e n c e s b e c a u s e he was a c h a m p i o n of traditional values, particularly that quintessential J a p a n e s e institution, the family. If Kurosawa is the artistic s p o k e s m a n for m o d e r n values and the anguished individual, then Ozu speaks for the conservative majority, especially parents. But his movies are not mindless e n d o r s e m e n t s of family life, for Ozu w a s also an ironi$t, well aware of the gap b e t w e e n reality and the ideal—the principal source of his irony. In this film, for example, the protagonist (Ryu) is a gentle, aging widower w h o lives with his u n m a r r i e d d a u g h t e r in mutual devotion. His loneliness is assuaged by a few drinking buddies w h o s p e n d much of their free time at the local bar. After h e a r i n g of the marriage of a friend's daughter, the widower decides that it's time for his d a u g h t e r to m o v e on as well. He arranges a m a r r i a g e with a d e c e n t young m a n r e c o m m e n d e d by his friends. The movie ends on a bittersweet n o t e of irony as the father m u s e s contentedly on the success of his a r r a n g e m e n t s . He also realizes that he's getting on in years. And that he is alone. (New Yorker

Films)

486

X 1\ f * o i' y

especially G r e a t Britain a n d t h e U n i t e d States. T h e J a p a n e s e a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r e p e l l e d a n d a t t r a c t e d by b o t h sets of polarities:

Traditional

Modern

Japanese Feudal

Western Democratic

Past Society Hierarchy Nature

Future Individual Equality Technology Inclination Self-expression

Duty Self-sacrifice Consensus Age Authority Conservative Fatalism

Diversity Youth Autonomy

Obedience Form

Independence Substance

Security

Anxiety

Liberal Optimism

A n u m b e r of structuralists have e x p l o r e d g e n r e films in a similar m a n ner. F o r e x a m p l e , Jim Kitses, Peter Wollen, a n d o t h e r s have p o i n t e d o u t h o w westerns a r e often vehicles for e x p l o r i n g clashes of value b e t w e e n East a n d West in A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e . By clustering t h e t h e m a t i c motifs a r o u n d a "master antim o n y " (a c o n t r o l l i n g or d o m i n a n t c o d e ) , a western can be analyzed a c c o r d i n g to its d e e p s t r u c t u r e r a t h e r t h a n its plot, which is often c o n v e n t i o n a l i z e d ( a n d less m e a n i n g f u l ) in g e n r e films. Such critics have d e m o n s t r a t e d h o w e a c h cultural polarity symbolizes a c o m p l e x of positive a n d negative traits:

West

East

Wilderness Individualism

Civilization

Self-interest Freedom Anarchy Savagery Private h o n o r Paganism Nature Masculine

Community Social welfare Restriction Law a n d o r d e r Refinement Institutional justice Christianity Culture Feminine

Tkeoi-y

West

East

Pragmatism Agrarian Purity Dynamic Future Experience American

Idealism Industrial Corruption Static Past Knowledge European

487

Semiotics a n d structuralism e x p a n d e d t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f f i l m t h e o r y considerably. T h e i r pluralistic a p p r o a c h allows for m u c h m o r e flexibility, c o m plexity, a n d d e p t h in t h e critical e n t e r p r i s e . But these t h e o r i e s a r e m e r e l y tools of analysis. By themselves, they can tell us n o t h i n g of t h e value of signs a n d codes within a film. Like every o t h e r theory, t h e n , these are only as g o o d as their p r a c t i t i o n e r s . T h e writer's intelligence, taste, passion, k n o w l e d g e , a n d sensitivity a r e w h a t p r o d u c e g o o d criticism, n o t necessarily t h e t h e o r e t i c a l methodology used.

H i s t o r i o g r a p h y deals with t h e t h e o r y of h i s t o r y — t h e a s s u m p t i o n s , principles, a n d m e t h o d o l o g i e s of historical study. Film history is a relatively r e c e n t area of i n q u i r y — a h u n d r e d years is n o t a very l e n g t h y p e r i o d of study comp a r e d to t h a t of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l arts. As in o t h e r areas of film theory, m u c h of the best w o r k in film h i s t o r i o g r a p h y has t a k e n place d u r i n g t h e past two decades. Film historians scoff at t h e naive n o t i o n t h a t t h e r e is a film history. Rather, they insist t h a t t h e r e a r e m a n y film histories, a n d e a c h is d e f i n e d by t h e historian's p a r t i c u l a r interests, biases, a n d prejudices. T h e o r i s t s have c h a r t e d four different types of film history, e a c h with its own set of p h i l o s o p h i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s , m e t h o d s , a n d sources of evidence: (1) aesthetic film histories— film as art; (2) t e c h n o l o g i c a l film h i s t o r i e s — m o t i o n p i c t u r e s as i n v e n t i o n s a n d m a c h i n e s ; (3) e c o n o m i c histories—film as industry; a n d (4) social h i s t o r i e s — movies as a reflection of t h e audience's values, desires, a n d fears. Most f i l m historians r e g a r d c i n e m a a s too sprawling a n d c o m p l e x t o b e covered by any single history. T h e y view t h e field as a vast, infinite mass of d a t a that n e e d s t o b e sifted t h r o u g h a n d o r g a n i z e d t o b e m a d e c o h e r e n t . Each historian c o n c e n t r a t e s on a given type of evidence, h i g h l i g h t i n g its significance while d e e m p h a s i z i n g o r i g n o r i n g "irrelevant" data. Critics s o m e t i m e s refer to this process of selection a n d e m p h a s i s as foregrounding—isolating fragments of evidence for t h e p u r p o s e of closer study. F o r e g r o u n d i n g is always an implicit value j u d g m e n t . Each type of film historian necessarily w r e n c h e s these fragm e n t s from their ecological c o n t e x t , t h u s p r e s e n t i n g us with a s o m e w h a t

488

T h c o f y

skewed view of t h e w h o l e . E a c h type of historian will also c h o o s e to focus on diff e r e n t movies, personalities, a n d events. Aesthetic film historians c o n c e r n themselves with a tradition of m a s t e r pieces a n d g r e a t filmmakers. Constantly subject to reevaluation, this tradition e n c o m p a s s e s a b r o a d c o n s e n s u s of critics, historians, a n d scholars. This is an elite form of history, i g n o r i n g t h e vast majority of m o t i o n p i c t u r e s to c o n c e n trate on a relative h a n d f u l of i m p o r t a n t works of art t h a t have e n d u r e d t h e test of t i m e — t h a t is, movies t h a t a r e still g r e a t d e s p i t e o u r viewing t h e m in a totally different c o n t e x t . Aesthetic historians value a work primarily for its artistic richness, irrespective of w h e t h e r t h e film was c o m m e r c i a l l y successful. T h u s , in m o s t aesthetic histories, a h u g e p o p u l a r success like Independence Day receives m u c h less discussion t h a n Citizen Kane, which failed at t h e b o x office. Most college t e x t b o o k histories—such as G e r a l d Mast's A Short History of the Movies, David A. C o o k ' s A History of Narrative Film, a n d Louis G i a n n e t t i a n d Scott E y m a n ' s Flashback—attempt to i n t e g r a t e as m u c h as possible from

11-22. Short Cuts (U.S.A., 1993), with Lily Tomlin and Tom Waits, directed by Robert Altman. Aesthetic film historians and elitist critics tend to concentrate on such movies as Short Cuts because of their cultural prestige. Robert Altman is regarded as one of the great artists of the c o n t e m p o r a r y cinema, creator of such movies as M*A *S*H, McCabe and Mrs. Miller. Nashville. and The Player. Based on the short stories of Raymond Carver. Short Cuts is faithful to its source, including its tone of cynicism and bitterness. The film features an e m b a r r a s s m e n t of richness in the cast, m a n y of them important stars who would have worked for Altman for nothing b e c a u s e of his e n o r m o u s prestige within the world film community. Though widely praised by critics and n o m i n a t e d for a n u m b e r of awards, the movie failed to arouse much interest with the general public, and its box-office revenues were small. (Fine Line Features)

Theoi-y

489

t e c h n o l o g i c a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d social film histories, b u t t h e i r m a i n e m p h a s i s is on film as art. O p p o n e n t s of this type of history have scoffed at its " G r e a t M a n " a s s u m p t i o n s — t h a t is, film history is largely t h e study of a few gifted individuals, n o t t h e d y n a m i c m a t r i x o f social, industrial, a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l influences t h a t inevitably affect all filmmakers, gifted or n o t . T h e A m e r i c a n scholar R a y m o n d Fielding has p u t forth t h e p h i l o s o p h y of t e c h n o l o g i c a l h i s t o r i a n s succinctly: " T h e history of m o t i o n p i c t u r e s — a s an art f o r m , as a m e d i u m of c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d as an i n d u s t r y — h a s b e e n determ i n e d principally by t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s . " H i s t o r i a n s of this type are also c o n c e r n e d with " G r e a t M e n , " such as W. K. L. Dickson, T h o m a s E d i s o n , G e o r g e E a s t m a n , a n d L e e D e f o r e s t — i n v e n t o r s a n d scientists r a t h e r t h a n artists o r i n d u s t r y m o g u l s . T e c h n o l o g i c a l historians a r e c o n c e r n e d with t h e implications—artistic, c o m m e r c i a l , a n d i d e o l o g i c a l — o f s u c h i n n o v a t i o n s a s p o r t a b l e c a m e r a s , s y n c h r o n o u s s o u n d , color, i m p r o v e d film stocks, 3-D, s t e r e o p h o n i c s o u n d , steadycams, a n d s o o n ( 1 1 - 2 3 ) .

11-23. Medium Cool (U.S.A., 1969), with Robert Forster (at camera) and Peter Bonerz (sound), directed by Haskell Wexler. * Technological film histories stress the importance of mechanical innovations in the evolution of the cinema. New technologies create new aesthetics. For example, in the late 1950s, television journalists needed simple, lightweight equipment to capture news stories quickly, while they were actually happening. The development of the so-called hand-held camera (actually, usually mounted on a shoulder harness or tripod), portable sound equipment, zoom lenses, and more light-sensitive fast film stocks was in response to this need. In the 1 960s, this new technology was appropriated by fiction filmmakers, allowing them to shoot movies more spontaneously and in actual locations, thus creating a more authentic style of realism. (ParamountPictures)

490

~C H e o f y

C i n e m a is t h e m o s t expensive artistic m e d i u m in history, a n d its develo p m e n t has b e e n largely d e t e r m i n e d by its financial s p o n s o r s — t h i s is t h e thesis of m o s t e c o n o m i c film histories, s u c h as B e n j a m i n B. H a m p t o n ' s History of the American Film Industry from Its Beginnings to 1931 a n d T h o m a s H. G u b a c k ' s The International Film Industry: Western Europe and America Since 1945. In m o s t E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s , t h e c i n e m a in its early stages of d e v e l o p m e n t fell i n t o t h e h a n d s of artists w h o s h a r e d m o s t of t h e values a n d tastes of t h e e d u c a t e d elite. I n t h e f o r m e r Soviet U n i o n a n d o t h e r e x - c o m m u n i s t c o u n t r i e s , f i l m p r o d u c tion was carefully r e g u l a t e d by t h e g o v e r n m e n t , a n d t h e movies p r o d u c e d in t h o s e c o u n t r i e s reflected m o s t of t h e values of t h e political elite. In A m e r i c a , t h e film i n d u s t r y d e v e l o p e d within a capitalistic system of p r o d u c t i o n . T h e H o l l y w o o d s t u d i o system was an a t t e m p t on t h e p a r t of a h a n d f u l o f large c o r p o r a t i o n s — M G M , P a r a m o u n t , W a r n e r B r o t h e r s , e t c . — t o m o n o p o l i z e t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f f i c t i o n f i l m s , a n d h e n c e m a x i m i z e t h e i r profits. F o r a b o u t t h r e e d e c a d e s — r o u g h l y from 1925 to 1 9 5 5 — t h e major studios succ e e d e d , p r o d u c i n g a b o u t 9 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e f i c t i o n f i l m s i n A m e r i c a , largely b e c a u s e t h e c o m p a n i e s w e r e vertically integrated. T h a t is, they c o n t r o l l e d all t h r e e p h a s e s of t h e industry: (1) p r o d u c t i o n — t h e Hollywood studios; (2) distrib u t i o n — f i n a n c i a l h e a d q u a r t e r s in N e w York; a n d (3) e x h i b i t i o n — t h e large c h a i n s of big-city first-run t h e a t e r s o w n e d by t h e c o m p a n y . D u r i n g t h e e r a o f s t u d i o d o m i n a n c e , virtually every f i l m m a k e r h a d t o c o m e to grips with this e c o n o m i c reality. T h e s t u d i o system was t h e only ballg a m e i n town, a n d t h e majors w e r e i n business t o m a k e profits, t h e b i g g e r t h e

11-24. City of Hope (U.S.A., 1991), with John Sayles, written, edited, and directed by Sayles. Economic film histories concentrate on who pays the bills, who sponsors the making of a movie, and why. Like many European filmmakers, Sayles finances his movies independently, guaranteeing him total artistic control. His goal is not the amassing of huge profits, but creative freedom. Most of his movies have been m a d e on small budgets, with the same loyal crew of actors and technicians. This communal spirit has allowed them to produce nearly one movie a year. Though Sayles's films have not been huge hits, most of them were sufficiently profitable to maintain a constant cash flow. Sayles usually plays small roles in his own films, generally sleazoids, jerks, or villains. He is an artist of exceptional integrity. (The Samuel Goldwyn Company)

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better. In s h o r t , t h e profit motive has b e e n t h e m a i n driving force in t h e evolution of t h e A m e r i c a n film industry, a n d movies t e n d to reaffirm t h e ideological values of t h e i r s p o n s o r s . However, even e c o n o m i c historians w o u l d c o n c e d e t h a t o t h e r motives have also figured in t h e p r o d u c t i o n of A m e r i c a n m o v i e s — t h e desire for prestige, artistic integrity, a n d so o n . Likewise, movies m a d e in c o m m u n i s t c o u n t r i e s w e r e occasionally critical of t h e social system t h a t p r o d u c e d t h e m . H i s t o r y — o f any k i n d — i s filled with c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . Social histories are mainly c o n c e r n e d with t h e a u d i e n c e . T h e y e m p h a size film as a collective e x p e r i e n c e , as a reflection of mass s e n t i m e n t s d u r i n g any given era. T h e s e s e n t i m e n t s can be overtly a r t i c u l a t e d or subliminally insinu a t e d by a p p e a l i n g to o u r s u b c o n s c i o u s desires. Social historians often t u r n to statistics a n d sociological d a t a for s u p p o r t i n g e v i d e n c e . Books like R o b e r t Sklar's Movie-Made America a n d G a r t h J o w e t t ' s Film: The Democratic Art arc filled with revealing statistics a b o u t a u d i e n c e likes a n d dislikes. Social historians have also d e v o t e d a g r e a t d e a l of a t t e n t i o n to t h e A m e r i c a n star system, a r g u i n g t h a t p o p u l a r stars a r e usually a reflection of audie n c e values a n d anxieties. Unfortunately, these c o n c e r n s d o n o t l e n d t h e m selves to quantitative analysis, a n d social historians a r e s o m e t i m e s criticized for t h e i r intuitive leaps in logic. H i s t o r i a n s of this sort a r e also i n t e r e s t e d in s o c i a l ' s t e r e o t y p e s — h o w a movie portrays blacks, w o m e n , a u t h o r i t y figures, a n d so o n . In Film History: Theory and Practice, R o b e r t C. Allen a n d Douglas G o m e r y set forth t h e p r i n c i p a l a d v a n t a g e s a n d s h o r t c o m i n g s o f t h e various types of film history, a r g u i n g t h a t a m o r e i n t e g r a t e d a p p r o a c h w o u l d m i n i m i z e t h e d a n g e r s of d i s t o r t i o n . As in o t h e r areas of film theory, film history is increasingly b e i n g viewed as a m o n o l i t h i c ecological system t h a t m u s t be studied from various perspectives to be c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y u n d e r s t o o d . Different theorists ask different types of q u e s t i o n s . T h o s e i n t e r e s t e d in the essential n a t u r e of t h e film m e d i u m w o u l d p r o b a b l y focus on such traditional c o n c e r n s a s t h e r e a l i s m - f o r m a l i s m d i c h o t o m y . T h e a u t e u r t h e o r y i s helpful if you w a n t to ask q u e s t i o n s a b o u t h o w a p a r t i c u l a r movie typifies t h e filmmaker's t h e m a t i c a n d stylistic traits. Obviously, this a p p r o a c h is n o t a very fruitful t e c h n i q u e for e x p l o r i n g movies like Mildred Pierce or Independence Day, pictures t h a t w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d by c o m m i t t e e for t h e p u r p o s e of m a x i m i z i n g profits. Eclectic critics ask w h a t e v e r q u e s t i o n s they t h i n k will h e l p p e o p l e u n d e r s t a n d a n d a p p r e c i a t e t h e movie better. Why i s this f i l m g o o d (or b a d , o r m e d i o c r e ) ? H o w c o u l d it be better? W h a t b r i n g s it d o w n ? A n d so o n . Structuralists ask q u e s t i o n s a b o u t a movie's u n d e r l y i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e : W h a t thematic motifs are e x p l o r e d in t h e film's narrative? W h a t a r e its mythic e l e m e n t s ? W h a t k i n d o f c o d e s — b o t h t h e m a t i c a n d stylistic—does t h e movie favor? H o w d o e s t h e film's g e n r e i n f l u e n c e t h e p a r t i c u l a r s of this specific movie? Does it invent, reinforce, subvert, or ridicule t h e g e n r e ' s c o n v e n t i o n s ? D e p e n d i n g on t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n , historians also ask different types of q u e s t i o n s . T h e arty o n e s a r e c o n c e r n e d with a movie's aesthetic w o r t h a n d why a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e paid. T h e techies a r e m o r e likely t o ask q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e

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film's special effects, any o u t s t a n d i n g t e c h n i c a l a c h i e v e m e n t s , s u c h a s t h e h u g e , near-scale p r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e d o o m e d s h i p i n J a m e s C a m e r o n ' s Titanic. I n d u s try h i s t o r i a n s t e n d t o ask q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g a m o v i e ' s p r o d u c t i o n e x p e n d i t u r e s a n d p r a c t i c e s , h o w i t was p r o m o t e d , a n d w h a t k i n d o f tie-in p r o d u c t s i t g e n e r a t e d . Social h i s t o r i a n s mostly ask q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e a u d i e n c e . W h y d i d t h e p u b l i c love o n e m o v i e a n d h a t e a n o t h e r ? H o w d o e s a film a p p e a l t o t h e p u b l i c ' s s u b c o n s c i o u s fears a n d y e a r n i n g s ? W h a t d o e s a given m o v i e say a b o u t its era? A b o u t its icons? I n s h o r t , t h e r e a r e literally t h o u s a n d s o f q u e s t i o n s t h a t c o u l d b e a s k e d c o n c e r n i n g a m o v i e ' s t h e o r e t i c a l c o n t e x t . W h a t you a r e l o o k i n g for will d e t e r m i n e m o s t o f y o u r q u e s t i o n s a n d h o w t o focus t h e m .

FURTHER READING

ALLEN, ROBERT C, ed., Channels of Discourse (Chapel Hill a n d L o n d o n : University of North Carolina Press, 1 9 8 7 ) . An illuminating collection of scholarly essays, primarily a b o u t television. ALLEN, ROBERT C, a n d DOUGLAS GOMERY, Film History: Theory and Practice (New York: Alfred A . Knopf, 1 9 8 5 ) . A provocative study of t h e p r o b l e m s of writing film history. ANDREW, DUDLEY, Concepts in Film Theory (NewYork: Oxford University Press, 1 9 8 4 ) . A lucid exploration of t h e major areas of d e b a t e within the field. , The Major Film Theories (NewYork: Oxford University Press, 1 9 7 6 ) . A helpful a n d clearly written exposition of the theories of such figures as A r n h e i m , Eisenstein, Kracauer, Bazin, Metz, a n d others. CARROLL, N O E L , Mystifying Movies: Fads and Fallacies in Contemporary Film Theory (New York: Columbia University Press, 1 9 8 8 ) . A skeptical critique of m o d e r n film theory. CARSON, DIANE, LINDA DITTMAR, a n d JANICE R. WELSCH, eds., Multiple Voices in Feminist Film

Criticism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1 9 9 4 ) . An assortment of scholarly essays. H O L L O W S , JOANNE, a n d MARK JANCOVICII, eds., Approaches to Popular Film (Manchester and

NewYork: Manchester University Press, 1 9 9 5 ) . An excellent collection of articles by British critics. MAST, GERALD, and MARSHALL C O H E N , eds., Film Theory and Criticism, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1 9 8 5 ) . An excellent collection of articles, from a variety of perspectives. SARRIS, ANDREW, The American Cinema (New York: Dutton, 1 9 6 8 ) . A basic d o c u m e n t of the a u t e u r theory. T U D O R , ANDREW, Theories of Film (NewYork: Viking, 1 9 7 4 ) . fncludes essays on Eisenstein, Grierson, Bazin, Kracauer, auteurism, a n d g e n r e theory. WILLIAMS, CHRISTOPHER, ed., Realism and the Cinema: A Reader ( L o n d o n : Routledge & Kegan Paul, f 9 8 0 ) . A collection of scholarly articles, primarily by British writers.

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As Maya D e r e n ' s o b s e r v a t i o n suggests, analyzing a movie is no easy task. T h e previous c h a p t e r s of this b o o k isolate t h e various l a n g u a g e systems of movies, e x p l o r i n g e a c h system's r a n g e of e x p r e s s i o n . Film is a m o r e c o m p l e x m e d i u m t h a n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l arts b e c a u s e movies synthesize m a n y l a n g u a g e syst e m s simultaneously, b o m b a r d i n g t h e s p e c t a t o r with literally h u n d r e d s of symbolic ideas a n d e m o t i o n s a t t h e s a m e t i m e , s o m e o f t h e m overt, o t h e r s subliminal. Of c o u r s e , f i l m m a k e r s rarely use e a c h l a n g u a g e system at full tilt. In every s c e n e — i n d e e d , in every s h o t — t h e r e is a p r i n c i p l e of h i e r a r c h i c a l s u b o r d i n a tion. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n s a r e constantly in flux, like t h e c o u p l i n g s , divergencies, a n d r e c o u p l i n g s of a g r o u p of d a n c e r s . T h e F r e n c h critic A n d r e Bazin d e s c r i b e d Citizen Kane as "a d i s c o u r s e on m e t h o d " b e c a u s e of its e n c y c l o p e d i c technical r a n g e . T h e film, d i r e c t e d by O r s o n Welles ( 1 9 1 5 - 1 9 8 5 ) , is an ideal c h o i c e to d e m o n s t r a t e h o w t h e s e various l a n g u a g e systems i n t e r a c t dynamically within a single text. T h e following pages can only t o u c h on t h e h i g h p o i n t s of this f a m o u s movie, b u t t h e analysis can serve as a g u i d e for a systematic explication of any film. Citizen Kane is t h e life story of a powerful n e w s p a p e r m a g n a t e , Charles Foster Kane, w h o is as c o n t r a d i c t o r y as he is controversial. T h e film is a fictionalized biography of t h e ruthless p u b l i s h i n g b a r o n William R a n d o l p h H e a r s t ( 1 8 6 3 - 1 9 5 1 ) . Actually, t h e characters in the movie are composites, drawn from the lives of several famous A m e r i c a n tycoons, b u t H e a r s t was the most obvious. H e r m a n Mankiewicz, t h e c o a u t h o r of t h e screenplay, knew H e a r s t personally a n d was a friend of t h e old yellow j o u r n a l i s t ' s mistress, screen star M a r i o n Davies. Davies was a m o n g t h e best-liked personalities in t h e film industry, a n d e x c e p t for h e r f o n d n e s s for alcohol a n d jigsaw puzzles, was quite unlike t h e Susan Alexand e r c h a r a c t e r in Citizen Kane. T h e movie r e c o u n t s the major events of t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s lengthy life. B o r n in c o m p a r a t i v e obscurity, t h e eight-year-old C h a r l e s is s e n t away to b o a r d i n g s c h o o l after his m o t h e r inherits a h u g e f o r t u n e t h r o u g h a fluke. Kane's g u a r d i a n t h r o u g h o u t his y o u t h is t h e b a n k e r Walter P. T h a t c h e r , a p o m p o u s b l o w h a r d a n d political reactionary. After living a life of frivolous self-indulgence, K a n e d e c i d e s in his midtwenties to b e c o m e a n e w s p a p e r publisher. A l o n g with his close associates, t h e doggedly loyal B e r n s t e i n a n d t h e suave J e d L e l a n d , he d e d i c a t e s himself to c h a m p i o n i n g t h e cause of t h e u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d a n d attacki n g c o r r u p t institutions of power. At t h e h e i g h t of his career, K a n e m a r r i e s t h e refined Emily N o r t o n , n i e c e of t h e P r e s i d e n t of t h e U n i t e d States. But t h e marriage eventually t u r n s stale, t h e n rancid. In m i d d l e age, K a n e consoles himself by secretly taking a mistress, Susan Alexander, a pretty b u t r a t h e r e m p t y - h e a d e d s h o p g i r l with vague aspirations of b e c o m i n g a singer. B u o y e d by his f a m e a n d popularity, Kane r u n s for g o v e r n o r of New York. His o p p o n e n t , Boss J i m Gettys, a t t e m p t s to blackmail h i m i n t o withdrawi n g f r o m t h e r a c e by t h r e a t e n i n g to go public with t h e hypocrisy of K a n e ' s marriage a n d to e x p o s e his cozy a r r a n g e m e n t with Susan. O u t r a g e d , K a n e refuses to c a p i t u l a t e , even t h o u g h he knows t h a t t h e scandal will publicly h u m i l i a t e his wife, his son, a n d Susan. K a n e loses t h e election a n d t h e r e s p e c t of his best friend, J e d L e l a n d . Emily divorces K a n e , taking t h e i r y o u n g son with her.

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Kane redirects his energies toward the c a r e e r of a proxy, his new y o u n g wife, Susan A l e x a n d e r Kane. He is d e t e r m i n e d to m a k e h e r into a great o p e r a star, despite the i n c o n v e n i e n t fact that she has no discernible talent. I g n o r i n g h e r objections, indifferent to h e r public mortification, Kane pushes the talentless Susan to the brink of suicide. T h w a r t e d again, he finally agrees to give up on his s c h e m e to m a k e h e r an o p e r a star. Instead, he builds an e n o r m o u s isolated palace, X a n a d u , w h e r e he a n d Susan retire into semiseclusion. After years of b e i n g bullied into submission by Kane, Susan rebels a n d walks o u t on h i m . Finally, a l o n e a n d e m b i t t e r e d , the old m a n dies amidst the empty o p u l e n c e of X a n a d u .

C i n e m a t o g r a p h e r G r e g g T o l a n d c o n s i d e r e d Citizen Kane t h e h i g h p o i n t o f his career. T h e v e t e r a n c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r t h o u g h t h e m i g h t b e able t o l e a r n s o m e t h i n g from t h e "boy g e n i u s , " whose a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s w e r e mostly in r a d i o a n d t h e Broadway theater. Welles, used to setting up his own lights in t h e live theater, t h o u g h t t h a t movie d i r e c t o r s were also r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e lighting. I n t r i g u e d , T o l a n d let h i m g o a h e a d , allowing Welles t o d e t e r m i n e t h e design o f m o s t o f t h e lights b u t quietly i n s t r u c t i n g t h e c a m e r a crew t o m a k e t h e necessary t e c h n i c a l a d j u s t m e n t s .

12-1. Publicity photo of Orson Welles and cinematographer Gregg Toland during the production of Citizen Kane (U.S.A., 1941). Toland, the most admired cinematographer of his generation, asked Welles if he could photograph the young director's first feature film. He was fascinated by Welles's bold theatricality, and he often suggested more effective ways of shooting scenes. They discussed each shot in the movie, which is eclectic in its visual style, integrating a variety of influences. Welles was strongly drawn to the lighting theories of such theatrical designers as Gordon Craig and Adolphe Appia and to m a n y of the techniques of the German expressionist movement. Welles was also influenced by the moody low-key photography of John Ford's Stagecoach. Welles was so grateful for the help of the veteran cinematographer that he gave Toland a conspicuous credit title—unusual in this era. (RKO)

496

S y n t h e s i s

E v e r y o n e saw at o n c e t h a t Citizen Kane d i d n ' t look like m o s t A m e r i c a n movies of its era. T h e r e is n o t an indifferently p h o t o g r a p h e d i m a g e in t h e film. Even t h e e x p o s i t i o n s c e n e s — n o r m a l l y d i s p a t c h e d with efficient m e d i u m twos h o t s — a r e startlingly p h o t o g r a p h e d ( 1 2 - 2 ) . N o t t h a t t h e techniqtxes w e r e new. Deep-focus, low-key lighting, rich t e x t u r e s , a u d a c i o u s c o m p o s i t i o n s , d y n a m i c contrasts b e t w e e n f o r e g r o u n d s a n d b a c k g r o u n d s , backlighting, sets with ceilings, side lighting, s t e e p angles, epic long shots j u x t a p o s e d with extreme closeups, dizzying crane shots, special effects g a l o r e — n o n e of t h e s e was new. B u t no o n e h a d previously u s e d t h e m in s u c h a "seven layer-cake profusion," to q u o t e critic J a m e s N a r e m o r e . Photographically, Kane u s h e r e d in a revolution, implicitly c h a l l e n g i n g t h e classical ideal of a t r a n s p a r e n t style t h a t d o e s n ' t call a t t e n t i o n to itself. In Citizen Kane, t h e stylistic virtuosity is p a r t of t h e show. T h e lighting in t h e movie is generally in m o d e r a t e high key in t h o s e scenes d e p i c t i n g K a n e ' s y o u t h a n d t h o s e d e a l i n g with his years as a c r u s a d i n g y o u n g publisher. As he grows o l d e r a n d m o r e cynical, t h e l i g h t i n g grows darker, m o r e harshly c o n t r a s t i n g . Kane's h o m e , t h e palatial X a n a d u , s e e m s s t e e p e d i n p e r p e t u a l n i g h t . O n l y spotlight p a t c h e s of light p e n e t r a t e t h e oppressive g l o o m , revealing t h e c o n t o u r s of a chair, a sofa, yet a n o t h e r p i e c e of h e r o i c s c u l p t u r e . But t h e pervasive atmosp h e r e i s d a n k , i m p e n e t r a b l e . T h e d a r k n e s s s h r o u d s a n u n s p e a k a b l e evil.

12-2. Citizen Kane. Kane ushered in an era of flamboyant visual effects in the American cinema, and as such represented an assault on the classical ideal of an invisible style. Lights are often from below or other unexpected sources, creating startling clashes and abstract patterns and infusing the photographed materials with a sense of visual exuberance. There's nothing invisible about the lighting of this shot, for example. As written, the scene is merely exposition, setting up the movie's narrative premise. S o m e reporters are talking in a screening room, and while they talk, the light from the projection booth splashes into the darkened auditorium, flooding the silhouetted figures in a sea of undulating luminescence.

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Spotlights a r e also u s e d in closer shots for symbolic effects. T h e mixture of d e c e n c y a n d c o r r u p t i o n in Kane is suggested by t h e c o n t r a s t i n g lights: S o m e t i m e s his face s e e m s split in half, with o n e side brightly i l l u m i n a t e d , t h e o t h e r h i d d e n in d a r k n e s s . W h a t is c o n c e a l e d is often m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n what's revealed. In an early s c e n e b e t w e e n t h e idealistic K a n e a n d his two associates, for e x a m p l e , t h e p r o t a g o n i s t tells B e r n s t e i n a n d L e l a n d of his i n t e n t i o n to publish a "Declaration of Principles" on t h e front p a g e of his newspaper, p r o m i s i n g his r e a d e r s that he will be an h o n e s t a n d tireless c h a m p i o n of t h e i r rights a s citizens a n d h u m a n b e i n g s . W h e n Kane b e n d s down t o sign t h e d o c u m e n t , however, his face is s u d d e n l y p l u n g e d in d a r k n e s s — a n o m i n o u s fores h a d o w i n g of Kane's later character. G r e g g T o l a n d h a d often e x p e r i m e n t e d with deep-focus p h o t o g r a p h y d u r i n g t h e 1930s, mostly while w o r k i n g with d i r e c t o r William Wyler (see l - 1 8 b ) . But t h e d e e p focus in Kane is m o r e flamboyant t h a n W yler's use of this techn i q u e ( 1 2 - 3 ) . Deep-focus p h o t o g r a p h y involves t h e use of wide-angle lenses, which t e n d to e x a g g e r a t e t h e distances b e t w e e n p e o p l e — a n a p p r o p r i a t e symbolic a n a l o g u e for a story d e a l i n g with separation, alienation, a n d loneliness. T

12-3. Citizen Kane, with Orson Welles and (atfar end of the table) Joseph Cotten and Everett Sloane. Welles's deep-focus photography is meant to be admired for its virtuosity as well as its functionalism. Andre Bazin, an enthusiastic champion of deep-focus techniques, believed that it reduces the importance of editing and preserves the cohesiveness of real space and time. Many spatial planes can be captured simultaneously in a single t a k e , maintaining the objectivity of a scene. Bazin felt that audiences were thus encouraged to be more creative—less passive—in understanding the relationships between people and things. In this photo, for example, we are free to look at the faces of over two dozen characters. "The public may choose, with its eyes, what it wants to see of a shot," Welles said. "1 don't like to force it."

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D e e p focus also t e n d s to e n c o u r a g e t h e a u d i e n c e to actively m i n e a s h o t for its i n f o r m a t i o n . In a s c e n e involving Susan A l e x a n d e r ' s suicide a t t e m p t , for e x a m p l e , a cause—effect r e l a t i o n s h i p is suggested in t h e o p e n i n g shot. Susan has t a k e n a lethal d o s e of m e d i c a t i o n a n d lies c o m a t o s e on h e r b e d in a s e m i d a r k e n e d r o o m . At t h e b o t t o m of t h e screen, in close-up r a n g e , stands an e m p t y glass a n d a b o t t l e of m e d i c a t i o n ; in t h e m i d d l e of t h e s c r e e n , in m e d i u m r a n g e , lies Susan, w h e e z i n g softly; in t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n of t h e s c r e e n , i n long-shot r a n g e , Kane b a n g s o u t s i d e t h e door, t h e n forces i t o p e n a n d e n t e r s t h e r o o m . T h e layering of t h e m i s e en s c e n e is a visual accusation: (1) t h e lethal d o s e was t a k e n by (2) Susan A l e x a n d e r Kane b e c a u s e of (3) K a n e ' s i n h u m a n i t y . Special effects a r e used t h r o u g h o u t t h e movie for a variety of reasons, fn s o m e s e t t i n g s — s u c h as t h e e x t e r i o r shots of X a n a d u — t h e special effects l e n d t h e locale a slightly p h a n t a s m a g o r i c a l quality. In o t h e r scenes, such as t h e political rally, special effects p r o v i d e a realistic facsimile of l a r g e crowds a n d a h u g e a u d i t o r i u m (12^4).

12-4. Citizen Kane, with Ray Collins. RKO's highly respected special effects department consisted of thirty-five people, most of w h o m worked on Kane. Vernon L. Walker was in charge. Over 80 percent of the movie required s o m e kind of special effects work, such as miniatures, matte shots, double and multiple exposures. Many scenes required reprinting—that is, combining two or more separate images onto one through the use of the optical printer. For example, this shot combines three separately photographed images—Boss Jim Gettys (Collins) standing on a balcony overlooking Madison Square Garden, with Kane down below delivering a campaign speech to a huge audience. The frame of the balcony masks the dividing line between the two areas. The auditorium area combines live action (stage) with a matte painting (audience); the balcony set consists of two walls. Welles was thus able to give the movie an epic scope, while keeping production costs relatively low. Total cost of the picture: just under $700,000—not lavish by the standards of 1941, (RKO>

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T h e A m e r i c a n c i n e m a of t h e 1940s was to grow progressively darker, b o t h thematically a n d p h o t o g r a p h i c a l l y , t h a n k s i n p a r t t o t h e e n o r m o u s influe n c e of Citizen Kane. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t style of t h e d e c a d e was Fdm noir—literally, "black c i n e m a . " It was a style suited to t h e times. Welles's style c o n t i n u e d in a n o i r vein, especially in s u c h movies as The Lady from Shanghai a n d Touch of Evil. T o l a n d ' s d e a t h in 1948 at t h e age of forty-four was an i r r e p a r a b l e loss to the American cinema.

C o m i n g from t h e world of live theater, Welles was an e x p e r t at staging action dynamically. L o n g shots a r e a m o r e effective—and m o r e t h e a t r i c a l — m e d i u m for t h e a r t o f mise e n s c e n e , a n d h e n c e t h e movie c o n t a i n s relatively few close shots. Most of t h e i m a g e s a r e tightly f r a m e d a n d in c l o s e d f o r m . Most of t h e m a r e also c o m p o s e d in d e p t h , with i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n in t h e foreg r o u n d , m i d g r o u n d , a n d b a c k g r o u n d . T h e p r o x e m i c r a n g e s b e t w e e n t h e characters a r e c h o r e o g r a p h e d balletically, to suggest t h e i r shifting p o w e r relationships. For e x a m p l e , an early s c e n e in t h e movie shows Kane, B e r n s t e i n , and, L e l a n d taking over t h e staid offices of The Inquirer, t h e conservative n e w s p a p e r y o u n g K a n e has just b o u g h t b e c a u s e he thinks it m i g h t be fun to r u n a newspaper. While workers a n d assistants s t r e a m in a n d o u t of t h e frame, c a r r y i n g e q u i p m e n t , f u r n i t u r e , a n d p e r s o n a l b e l o n g i n g s , Kane carries on a whimsical conversation with t h e stuffy, soon-to-be ex-editor, Mr. Carter, a Dickensian study in s p l u t t e r i n g c o m i c e x a s p e r a t i o n . P e r h a p s t h e best way of u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c o m p l e x i t y of Welles's mise en s c e n e is to analyze a single shot. T h e d r a m a t i c c o n t e x t of 1 2 - 5 is offered in the c a p t i o n . 1. Dominant. B e c a u s e of his c e n t r a l position within t h e frame a n d t h e h i g h c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n his d a r k c l o t h e s a n d t h e g l a r i n g snow, C h a r l e s t e n d s to attract o u r eye first. He is also t h e subject of controversy in t h e foreground. 2. Lighting key. T h e i n t e r i o r is p h o t o g r a p h e d in m o d e r a t e h i g h key. T h e e x t e r i o r — c o n s i s t i n g mostly of b l i n d i n g white snow—is in e x t r e m e high key. 3. Shot and camera proxemics. T h i s is a deep-focus shot, e x t e n d i n g from a m e d i u m r a n g e i n t h e f o r e g r o u n d t o a n e x t r e m e long-shot r a n g e i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d . T h e c a m e r a is at a p e r s o n a l d i s t a n c e from T h a t c h e r a n d Mrs. K a n e , a social d i s t a n c e from Kane senior, a n d a p u b l i c distance from Charles. T h e boy is playing happily, s h o u t i n g d i s c o n n e c t e d p h r a s e s like " T h e U n i o n forever!" K a n e s e n i o r is s t u b b o r n l y resisting t h e i r plans, while T h a t c h e r a n d Mrs. Kane, m o r e frigid t h a n t h e outside weather, listen wearily. 4. Angle. T h e c a m e r a is at a slightly h i g h a n g l e , b e c a u s e m o r e of t h e floor can be seen t h a n t h e ceiling. T h e a n g l e suggests a slight air of fatality.

12-5. Citizen Kane, with Harry Shannon, Buddy Swan (in window), George Coulouris, and Agnes Moorehead. Almost all of the compositions in Kane are intricate and richly textured, at times baroquely ornate. But the visual complexity is not mere rhetorical ornamentation. The images are designed to reveal a m a x i m u m of information, often in an ironic manner. In this scene, for example, eight-year-old Charles plays with his sled outside in the snow while his future is being d e t e r m i n e d indoors by his m o t h e r and Thatcher. The boy's father watches impotently, sputtering a few feeble protests. The mise en scene is compartmentalized into twos, with the wall serving as the vertical dividing line. Kane senior and young Charles are grouped to the left in the upper portion of the frame; Thatcher and the severe Mrs. Kane d o m i n a t e the right lower half, their p e n s poised to sign the contract that will soon separate Charles from his parents. Ironically, Mrs. Kane is motivated by love and self-sacrifice. She is sending Charles away to protect him from his father, a swaggering lout whose treatment of his son veers from forced jocularity to unpredictable outbursts of anger (RKO>

5. Color values. N o t a p p l i c a b l e : T h e film is in black a n d w h i t e . 6. Lens/filter/stock. T h o u g h it is difficult to d i s c e r n in this p h o t o , a widea n g l e l e n s i s u s e d t o c a p t u r e its d e p t h o f f i e l d . T h e l e n s e x a g g e r a t e s t h e d i s t a n c e s b e t w e e n t h e c h a r a c t e r s . N o a p p a r e n t f i l t e r s . P r o b a b l y slow stock r e q u i r i n g lots of lights. 7. Subsidiary contrasts. O u r eye travels from C h a r l e s ( t h e d o m i n a n t ) to K a n e s e n i o r t o T h a t c h e r , Mrs. K a n e , a n d t h e s p o t l i g h t e d d o c u m e n t

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they a r e p r e p a r i n g t o sign. O n t h e small T V s c r e e n , C h a r l e s would p r o b a b l y b e lost a n d K a n e s e n i o r w o u l d t h e n c o n s t i t u t e t h e d o m i n a n t . 8. Density. T h e i m a g e is densely p a c k e d with i n f o r m a t i o n , t h a n k s to t h e high-key l i g h t i n g a n d t h e richly t e x t u r e d details of t h e sets a n d costumes. 9. Composition. T h e i m a g e is split vertically in half, a t u g of war, with two f i g u r e s o n t h e left, two o n t h e right. T h e f o r e g r o u n d table b a l a n c e s off t h e b a c k g r o u n d table a n d r e a r wall. T h e c o m p o s i t i o n s e g m e n t s a n d isolates t h e c h a r a c t e r s . 10. Form. T h e i m a g e is in closed f o r m , its carefully c o o r d i n a t e d c o m p o n e n t s s u g g e s t i n g t h e s e l f - c o n t a i n m e n t of a stage setting e n c l o s e d by a proscenium arch. 11. Framing. T h e s h o t is tightly f r a m e d , with little latitude for m o v e m e n t . E a c h c h a r a c t e r s e e m s c o n f i n e d t o his o r h e r own space c u b i c l e . T h e e x c l u d e d C h a r l e s is i m p r i s o n e d within t h e frame of t h e w i n d o w — a n e n c l o s u r e within an e n c l o s u r e . His f r e e d o m is illusionary. 12. Depth. T h e i m a g e is p h o t o g r a p h e d in four d e p t h planes: (a) t h e foreg r o u n d table a n d its o c c u p a n t s ; ( b ) K a n e senior; (c) t h e r e a r p o r t i o n s o f t h e p a r l o r ; a n d ( d ) C h a r l e s playing o u t s i d e i n t h e distance. 13. Character placement. C h a r l e s a n d Kane s e n i o r o c c u p y t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n s o f t h e i m a g e , T h a t c h e r a n d Mrs. Kane t h e l o w e r — a n ironic p l a c e m e n t , b e c a u s e t h o s e in t h e "inferior" positions actually c o n t r o l t h e situation. H u s b a n d a n d wife a r e maximally s e p a r a t e d a t t h e o p p o s i t e e d g e s o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n , forcing C h a r l e s t o b e c o u p l e d i n t h e c e n t e r with T h a t c h e r — a n intimacy b o t h c o m e t o r e g r e t . 14. Staging positions. K a n e s e n i o r is in t h e q u a r t e r - t u r n position, relatively i n t i m a t e vis-a-vis t h e spectator. T h a t c h e r is at full front, b u t his eyes a r e l o w e r e d , a v o i d i n g o u r gaze. Mrs. K a n e is in t h e profile position, p r e o c c u p i e d with h e r s p o u s e . 15. Character proxemics. T h a t c h e r a n d Mrs. Kane a r e in i n t i m a t e proximity. T h e y a r e at an aloof social distance from K a n e senior, a n d a r e m o t e public d i s t a n c e from C h a r l e s .

F r o m t h e very b e g i n n i n g of his film career, Welles was a m a s t e r of t h e m o b i l e c a m e r a . In Citizen Kane, c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s a r e generally e q u a t e d with t h e vitality a n d e n e r g y of y o u t h . A static c a m e r a , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , t e n d s to be associated with illness, old age, a n d d e a t h . T h e s e s a m e kinetic principles apply to Kane's m o v e m e n t s . As a y o u n g m a n , he is a whirlwind of energy, playfully gliding t h r o u g h life with scarcely e n o u g h b r e a t h to finish his s e n t e n c e s b e f o r e his a t t e n t i o n is d i s t r a c t e d a n d he sweeps to a n o t h e r location. As an old m a n , however, he a l m o s t g r o a n s with e a c h calculated step. Often he is p h o t o g r a p h e d

12-6. Citizen Kane, with Dorothy Comingore (at lower left base of fireplace) and Orson Welles. In scenes depicting Kane as an old m a n . the camera is often far away, m a k i n g h i m seem remote, inaccessible. Even w h e n he is closer to the lens, as in this shot, the deep-focus photography keeps the rest of the world at a distance, with vast empty spaces between him and other people. We are often forced to search the mise en scene to locate the characters. In this photo, for example, Susan is dwarfed into insignificance by the enormous fireplace and the heroic sculpture behind her. She is a mere s u b s i d i a r y c o n t r a s t , not even so important as the statuary a n d m u c h less important than the d o m i n a n t , Kane. These static shots are so totally drained of intimacy and spontaneity that they're almost funny, if they weren't so sad. (RKO)

i n s t a t i o n a r y positions o r sitting d o w n . H e seems b o r e d a n d e x h a u s t e d , especially in t h e X a n a d u scenes with Susan (see 1 2 - 6 ) . N o o n e h a s u s e d c r a n e shots s o spectacularly a s Welles. B u t o n c e a g a i n , t h e virtuosity is rarely i n d u l g e d in for its own sake. T h e b r a v u r a c r a n e s h o t s e m b o d y i m p o r t a n t symbolic ideas. F o r e x a m p l e , after l e a r n i n g o f K a n e ' s d e a t h , a r e p o r t e r a t t e m p t s t o interview Susan A l e x a n d e r . T h e s e q u e n c e b e g i n s in a t o r r e n t i a l r a i n s t o r m . We see a p o s t e r a n d p i c t u r e of Susan, a d v e r t i s i n g h e r e n g a g e m e n t as a s i n g e r in a n i g h t c l u b . As t h e s o u n d t r a c k s h u d d e r s with a r u m b l e o f t h u n d e r , t h e c a m e r a c r a n e s u p , u p t h r o u g h t h e rain, u p t o t h e r o o f 502

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of t h e b u i l d i n g , t h e n p l u n g e s t h r o u g h a garish n e o n sign, "El R a n c h o , " d e s c e n d s to t h e skylight w h e r e a b l i n d i n g Hash of l i g h t n i n g masks t h e came r a ' s passage t h r o u g h t h e w i n d o w itself, sweeps d o w n t o t h e d e s e r t e d nightclub, w h e r e Susan is h u n c h e d at a table in a d r u n k e n stupor, p r o s t r a t e with grief. (She is t h e only c h a r a c t e r in t h e film w h o is d e v a s t a t e d by t h e news of K a n e ' s d e a t h . ) B o t h t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e r e p o r t e r e n c o u n t e r n u m e r o u s obstac l e s — t h e rain, t h e sign, t h e very walls o f t h e b u i l d i n g m u s t b e p e n e t r a t e d before w e can even see Susan, m u c h less h e a r h e r speak. T h e c r a n e s h o t e m b o d i e s a b r u t a l invasion of privacy, a d i s r e g a r d for t h e b a r r i e r s Susan has p l a c e d a r o u n d h e r i n h e r misery. In Susan's o p e r a d e b u t , a traveling s h o t is used for c o m i c effect, its payoff a virtual p u n c h line. As s h e b e g i n s h e r first aria, t h e c a m e r a b e g i n s to rise, as if to a s c e n d to t h e h e a v e n s . W h i l e she c o n t i n u e s singing, h e r t h i n , watery voice grows progressively m o r e feeble as t h e c a m e r a c o n t i n u e s its u p w a r d j o u r n e y , past s a n d b a g s , r o p e s , a n d p l a t f o r m s , until it finally c o m e s to rest on two stageh a n d s on t h e catwalk, l o o k i n g d o w n at t h e p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e y listen for a m o m e n t longer, t h e n t u r n t o face e a c h other. O n e s t a g e h a n d waggishly p i n c h e s his n o s e , as if to say, "She really stinks." Like all movies—like every h u m a n enterprise—Citizen Kaneis flawed. A n u m b e r o f scenes i n t h e f i l m a r e m e r e l y a d e q u a t e , n o t h i n g m o r e . O n e s u c h scene, singled o u t by several critics, a p p e a r s late in t h e movie, w h e n Susan f i n a l l y walks o u t o n K a n e forever. E n r a g e d , t h e old m a n tears u p Susan's b e d -

12-7. Citizen Kane. In many respects, Kane is structured like a mystery story, a search to penetrate a great enigma. Welles is able to suggest this idea in the very opening sequence, through a series of dissolves and traveling shots. The movie begins with a sign: NO TRESPASSING. Ignoring it, the c a m e r a cranes up over the sign and over a wire fence. We dissolve from an ornate grillwork to an iron gate showing the letter "K." Xanadu is in the background, suffocating in mist, a solitary window light its only sign of habitation. Here lies the mystery. Here the search begins.

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1 2 - 8 . Citizen Kane, with Everett Sloane, Orson Welles, and Joseph Gotten. As a young m a n , Kane is a d y n a m o of energy, and his youthful high spirits are often conveyed kinetically—with brisk traveling shots that parallel the protagonist's m o v e m e n t s , in this scene, for example, he nervously lurches forward and backwards, then forward again, the camera retreating and lunging back with him. IRKO)

12-9. Citizen Kane, with George Coulouris, Orson Welles, and Everett Sloane. Welles frequently used lengthy takes in his staging, choreographing the m o v e m e n t s of the c a m e r a and the characters rather than cutting to a series of separate shots. Even in relatively static scenes such as this, these lengthy takes provide the mise en scene with a sense of fluidity and d y n a m i c change, while still entrapping the three characters within the s a m e space. The setting is a large office in 1929. The Great Depression has dealt Kane a severe setback, forcing him to relinquish control over his publishing empire. The sequence begins with a close shot of a legal d o c u m e n t , while Bernstein recites its contents. He lowers the d o c u m e n t , thus revealing Thatcher, now an old m a n , presiding over the dissolution. The camera adjusts slightly, and we then see Kane, listening grimly. (RKO)

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r o o m , s c a t t e r i n g its c o n t e n t s a n d d e m o l i s h i n g its furnishings. Welles obviously w a n t e d t o convey K a n e ' s fury t h r o u g h t h e s h e e r kinetic e n e r g y o f t h e o l d m a n destroying t h e r o o m . But t h e shots t e n d t o b e too l e n g t h y a n d t h e c a m e r a too distant from t h e a c t i o n . T h e violence o f K a n e ' s rage w o u l d b e m o r e effectively c o m m u n i c a t e d if Welles h a d k e p t t h e c a m e r a closer in, so t h a t t h e m o v e m e n t s would d o m i n a t e m o r e . H e also s h o u l d have edited m o r e , t o convey t h e idea o f f r a g m e n t a t i o n a n d confusion. As played, t h e s c e n e works well e n o u g h , b u t for m a n y viewers it s e e m s s o m e w h a t anticlimactic. Kinetic e n e r g y m u s t parallel its subject m a t t e r o r t h e m o t i o n c a n s e e m too m u c h — o r t o o little.

T h e e d i t i n g in Citizen Kane is a calculated display of virtuosity, l e a p i n g over days, m o n t h s , even years with casual n o n c h a l a n c e . J o h n S p a l d i n g has p o i n t e d o u t t h a t Welles often u s e d several e d i t i n g styles in t h e s a m e s e q u e n c e . W h e n Susan recalls h e r o p e r a career, for e x a m p l e , t h e singing lesson with h e r e x a s p e r a t e d voice t e a c h e r is p h o t o g r a p h e d in a l e n g t h y take. T h e backstage chaos p r i o r to t h e c u r t a i n g o i n g up is e d i t e d in s h o r t bursts of f r a g m e n t a r y shots t o e m p h a s i z e t h e u t t e r confusion o f h e r o p e r a d e b u t . Welles u s e d parallel e d i t i n g t o c o n t r a s t Susan's t e r r o r o n stage with L e l a n d ' s c o n t e m p t u o u s b o r e d o m i n t h e a u d i t o r i u m . K a n e ' s a r g u m e n t with Susan over h e r disastrous reviews is cut a c c o r d i n g to classical c o n v e n t i o n s . T h e m a t i c m o n t a g e is u s e d to condense her national tour on the road (12-13). T h e final scene of the s e q u e n c e , Susan's suicide a t t e m p t , o p e n s with a deep-focus l e n g t h y take, as Kane crashes i n t o Susan's h o t e l r o o m a n d discovers h e r c o m a t o s e i n b e d .

12-10. Citizen Kane, with Orson Welles and Ruth Warrick. Welles often c o m b i n e d editing with another technique, which he used as a payoff. In the famous breakfast montage sequence portraying the disintegration of Kane's marriage to Emily, for example, he concluded with this final shot. The distance between the two says it all: They have nothing to say to each other. (RKO)

t

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It's difficult to isolate the editing in this film because it often works in c o n c e r t with t h e s o u n d t e c h n i q u e s , n o t to speak of t h e fragmentation of t h e story. Often Welles used editing to c o n d e n s e a g r e a t deal of time, using s o u n d as a continuity device. For e x a m p l e , to d e m o n s t r a t e Kane's gradual e s t r a n g e m e n t from his first wife, Emily, Welles features a series of breakfast scenes, using only a few lines of d i a l o g u e with each brief episode. B e g i n n i n g with s o m e h o n e y m o o n sweet-talk, t h e m o o d quickly shifts to slight irritation, t h e n strained a n n o y a n c e , bitter r e s e n t m e n t , a n d finally silence a n d alienation. T h e s e q u e n c e begins with the lovers s h a r i n g t h e intimacy of the same m e d i u m shot. As the m a r r i a g e deteriorates, Welles cross-cuts to separate shots of each, even t h o u g h they are sitting at t h e same table. T h e o n e - m i n u t e s e q u e n c e e n d s with a l o n g shot of the two at o p p o s i t e e n d s of a lengthy table, e a c h r e a d i n g a different n e w s p a p e r (12-10).

12-11. Citizen Kane, with Orson Welles. Budgetary considerations often d e t e r m i n e d the cunning editing strategies of the film, which was edited by Robert Wise. In the political campaign sequence, for example, Welles cut from long shots of Kane delivering his speech to closer shots of his family and associates listening in the audience. These isolated fragments are intercut with reestablishing shots of the entire auditorium (see 12-4). The huge hall and its thousands of inhabitants weren't real: The cutting m a k e s t h e m seem real—by association. (RKO>

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Welles used a similar t e c h n i q u e in s h o w i n g h o w Susan A l e x a n d e r eventually b e c o m e s K a n e ' s mistress. T h e first t i m e he m e e t s her, he is splashed with m u d o n t h e street. She offers h i m s o m e h o t water, i f h e wants t o c o m e u p t o h e r small a p a r t m e n t for it. W h i l e t h e r e , they b e c o m e friends. S h e a d m i t s t h a t she sings a little a n d he asks h e r to p e r f o r m for h i m . W h i l e she b e g i n s to sing h e r s o n g at an old p i a n o , t h e i m a g e dissolves to a parallel shot, only n o w she is in a large, h a n d s o m e l y d e c o r a t e d a p a r t m e n t , w h e r e she finishes t h e s o n g at a g r a n d e r p i a n o , d r e s s e d i n a n e l e g a n t gown. W e d o n ' t n e e d t o b e shown w h a t h a p p e n e d " b e t w e e n " t h e s e two shots. We can infer w h a t h a p p e n e d by Susan's much improved circumstances.

C o m i n g from t h e world of live r a d i o d r a m a , Welles was often c r e d i t e d with i n v e n t i n g m a n y film s o u n d t e c h n i q u e s w h e n in fact he was primarily a consolidator, synthesizing a n d e x p a n d i n g t h e p i e c e m e a l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s o f his p r e d e c e s s o r s . In r a d i o , s o u n d s have to evoke images. An a c t o r s p e a k i n g t h r o u g h an e c h o c h a m b e r suggests a visual c o n t e x t — a h u g e a u d i t o r i u m , fpr e x a m p l e . A d i s t a n t train whistle suggests a p a n o r a m i c l a n d s c a p e , a n d so o n . Welles a p p l i e d this a u r a l p r i n c i p l e to his movie s o u n d t r a c k . With t h e h e l p of his s o u n d t e c h n i c i a n , J a m e s G. Stewart, Welles discovered t h a t a l m o s t every visual t e c h n i q u e has its s o u n d equivalent. Each of t h e shots, for e x a m p l e , has an a p p r o p r i a t e s o u n d quality involving v o l u m e , d e g r e e of definition, a n d texture. L o n g a n d e x t r e m e long-shot s o u n d s a r e fuzzy a n d r e m o t e ; close-up s o u n d s a r e crisp, clear, a n d generally l o u d . H i g h - a n g l e shots a r e often accomp a n i e d by h i g h - p i t c h e d music a n d s o u n d effects; low-angle shots by b r o o d i n g a n d low-pitched s o u n d s . S o u n d s can be dissolved a n d o v e r l a p p e d like a m o n tage s e q u e n c e . Welles f r e q u e n t l y l e a p e d from o n e t i m e p e r i o d o r l o c a t i o n t o a n o t h e r with a s h o c k i n g s o u n d t r a n s i t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e f i l m ' s o p e n i n g p r o l o g u e c o n c l u d e s with K a n e ' s d e a t h , w h i c h is a c c o m p a n i e d by t h e g r a d u a l snuffing o u t of t h e s o u n d . S u d d e n l y , we a r e a l m o s t assaulted with a Voice-of-God n a r r a tor b o o m i n g o u t "News o n t h e M a r c h ! " — t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e newsreel s e q u e n c e . In a n o t h e r s e q u e n c e , J e d L e l a n d is d e l i v e r i n g a c a m p a i g n s p e e c h , in which he d e s c r i b e s K a n e as "the fighting liberal, t h e f r i e n d of t h e w o r k i n g m a n , t h e n e x t g o v e r n o r of this state, w h o e n t e r e d u p o n this c a m p a i g n . . ." C u t to K a n e in M a d i s o n S q u a r e G a r d e n , c o n t i n u i n g ". . . with o n e p u r p o s e only . . ." Welles frequently o v e r l a p p e d his d i a l o g u e , especially in t h e comical s e q u e n c e s w h e r e several p e o p l e a r e trying to speak at t h e s a m e time. In X a n a d u , t h e r o o m s a r e s o h u g e t h a t K a n e a n d Susan m u s t s h o u t a t e a c h o t h e r t o b e h e a r d , p r o d u c i n g a n i n c o n g r u o u s effect that's b o t h sad a n d funny ( 1 2 - 6 ) . T h e M a d i s o n S q u a r e G a r d e n facsimile is c o n v i n c i n g in p a r t b e c a u s e we hear t h e shouts a n d c h e e r s o f t h e e n o r m o u s crowds a n d h e n c e i m a g i n e t h a t w e see t h e m as well.

12-12.

Publicity photo of Orson Welles

and composer-conductor Bernard Herrmann during a recording session for Citi-

zen Kane. Herrmann was the composer for Welles's Mercury Theatre of the Air, and when Welles went to Hollywood, he took Herrmann with him. Citizen Kane was his first movie score. The two worked closely together, Welles often cutting his film to a c c o m m o d a t e the musical numbers, rather than vice versa, which was usually the case in Hollywood. Herrmann was present throughout the production, taking twelve weeks to compose the score, an unusually lengthy period of time. Difficult, intensely egotistical, an uncompromising perfectionist, Herrmann did most of his best work for Welles and Alfred Hitchcock, including the scores for The Magnificent Ambersons, Vertigo. North by Northwest. Psycho, and many others. (WO)

B e r n a r d H e r r m a n n ' s musical score is similarly sophisticated. Musical motifs a r e assigned to several of t h e major c h a r a c t e r s a n d events. M a n y of t h e s e motifs a r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e newsreel s e q u e n c e , t h e n p i c k e d u p later i n t h e film, often in a m i n o r key, or played at a different t e m p o , d e p e n d i n g on t h e m o o d o f t h e s c e n e . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e p o i g n a n t R o s e b u d motif i s i n t r o d u c e d i n the o p e n i n g sequence, and when Rosebud is brought up during the course of t h e investigation, a variation of t h e musical motif often u n d e r l i n e s t h e dial o g u e . W h e n Welles finally reveals to u s — b u t n o t to t h e c h a r a c t e r s — t h e mystery of R o s e b u d , t h e musical motif swells powerfully i n t o p r o m i n e n c e , p r o d u c i n g o n e of t h e m o s t thrilling revelations in all of c i n e m a . H e r r m a n n ' s score often parallels Welles's visuals. F o r i n s t a n c e , in t h e m o n t a g e of breakfast scenes b e t w e e n K a n e a n d his first wife, t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e m a r r i a g e is p a r a l l e l e d by t h e variations in t h e music. T h e s e q u e n c e o p e n s with a soft r o m a n t i c waltz, t e n d e r l y u n d e r s c o r i n g t h e fascination e a c h feels for t h e o t h e r . T h i s is followed by a slightly comical musical variation. As the relationship becomes m o r e strained, the orchestration becomes harsher, m o r e d i s s o n a n t . I n t h e f i n a l scene, n e i t h e r o n e b o t h e r s t o s p e a k a n y m o r e . T h e i r silence is a c c o m p a n i e d by a b r o o d i n g , n e u r o t i c variation on t h e o p e n i n g musical t h e m e . In m a n y scenes, Welles u s e d s o u n d for symbolic p u r p o s e s . For e x a m ple, he u s e d a dissolve a n d m o n t a g e s e q u e n c e to show Susan on h e r disastrous 508

12-13. Citizen Kane, with Doro thy Comingore. Kane d e m o n s t r a t e s that virtually every kind of visual has its aural counterpart. This m o n t a g e s e q u e n c e is reinforced by an aural m o n t a g e of Susan Alexander's shrieking arias, orchestral music, popping flashbulbs, and the sounds of n e w s p a p e r presses rolling. The pounding sounds are machinelike and inexorable, battering their sacrificial victim until she is stupefied by terror and exhaustion. (RKO>

operatic t o u r ( 1 2 - 1 3 ) . O n t h e s o u n d t r a c k , h e r aria can b e h e a r d , d i s t o r t e d into a s c r e e c h i n g , dismal wail. T h e s e q u e n c e e n d s with t h e g r a d u a l d i m m i n g of t h e light, t o symbolize Susan's i n c r e a s i n g despair.' O n t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g s o u n d track, we h e a r h e r voice w i n d i n g d o w n to a w o u n d e d m o a n , as t h o u g h s o m e o n e p u l l e d t h e p l u g on a r e c o r d player in t h e m i d d l e of a s o n g .

Welles h a d his own stable of writers, assistants, a n d actors, w h o w o r k e d with h i m in b o t h r a d i o a n d t h e N e w York live theater. W h e n he w e n t to Hollywood, he took m a n y of t h e m with h i m , i n c l u d i n g fifteen actors. E x c e p t for Welles, n o n e of t h e s e players was well k n o w n , a n d even Welles was k n o w n primarily as a r a d i o p e r f o r m e r . ( H e c a p t u r e d t h e i m a g i n a t i o n of t h e mass audie n c e w h e n his n o t o r i o u s War of the Worlds b r o a d c a s t of 1938 p a n i c k e d t h o u sands of A m e r i c a n s , w h o believed t h a t we w e r e actually b e i n g i n v a d e d by creatures from Mars. Welles was d e l i g h t e d , of c o u r s e . As a result of this cause celebre, he got his p i c t u r e on t h e cover of Time, w h e n he was only twenty-two years old.) Citizen Kane boasts a first-rate cast. T h e r e are a few so-so p e r f o r m a n c e s , b u t n o n e t h a t is weak, a n d several t h a t a r e o u t s t a n d i n g , m o s t notably those of Welles, D o r o t h y C o m i n g o r e , J o s e p h G o t t e n , Everett Sloane, a n d A g n e s M o o r e h e a d . Like most p e r f o r m e r s w h o are u s e d to a c t i n g repertory-style, m e m b e r s of

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t h e cast w o r k as an e n s e m b l e ; t h e total effect is o n e of d r a m a t i c scenes t h a t m e s h seamlessly. T h e M e r c u r y players look like s e a s o n e d f i l m p e r f o r m e r s , n o t t h e y o u n g n e o p h y t e s they actually were. For m o s t of t h e m , this was t h e i r first movie, yet they a r e always n a t u r a l , sincere, a n d believable. Even s o m e o f t h e c a m e o roles a r e p e r f o r m e d with distinction. Because t h e s e p a r t s a r e l i m i t e d to only a few lines of d i a l o g u e , t h e a c t o r s m u s t be able to convey t h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s — w h o a r e often c o n t r a d i c t o r y — w i t h o u t a p p e a r i n g i n c o n s i s t e n t . For e x a m p l e , Ray Collins p e r f o r m s Boss J i m Gettys as a c u n n i n g survivor. Streetwise a n d cynical, he is a m a n w h o has s e e n it all. Or a t least h e t h o u g h t h e h a d s e e n i t all until h e c a m e u p against Kane. Gettys s e e m s quietly s h o c k e d that Kane, a s u p p o s e d l y high-class o p p o n e n t , w o u l d be so low-class as to publish a d o c t o r e d p h o t o of Gettys "in a convict suit with stripes, so his c h i l d r e n c o u l d see t h e p i c t u r e in t h e p a p e r , or his m o t h e r . " We c a n ' t h e l p b u t sympathize with Gettys's o u t r a g e , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e fact t h a t o t h e r w i s e he is a c r e e p . A l t h o u g h she a p p e a r s i n only o n e s c e n e , A g n e s M o o r e h e a d a s K a n e ' s m o t h e r leaves a n i n d e l i b l e i m p r e s s i o n . ( M o o r e h e a d was t o g o o n t o a n even m o r e brilliant p e r f o r m a n c e in Welles's n e x t movie, The Magnificent Ambersons.)

12-14. Citizen Kane, with Dorothy Comingore. Comingore's brilliant performance as Susan provides considerable w a r m t h to an otherwise cold and intellectual film. The few close-ups in the movie are reserved primarily for her, forcing us to b e c o m e m o r e involved with Susan's feelings. Like most of the major characters, she is a study in contradiction, screechy and pitiful at the s a m e time. She can also be very funny. "A person can go crazy in this d u m p , " she complains in her typical whining monotone. "Nobody to talk to, nobody to have any fun with. Forty-nine thousand acres of nothing but scenery and statues." (RKOI

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M o o r e h e a d ' s M a r y K a n e m i g h t a l m o s t have s t e p p e d o u t of a tale by H a w t h o r n e : s t e r n , p u r i t a n i c a l , joyless. S h e is a w o m a n w h o f o u n d o u t t o o late t h a t she has m a r r i e d a fool. T r a p p e d , she will e n d u r e t h e h u m i l i a t i o n of h e r m a r r i a g e , b u t she will n o t subject h e r son to t h e s a m e fate. In h e r m i n d , he is m e a n t for b e t t e r things, even if t h a t m e a n s she m u s t p a r t with t h e only p e r s o n she loves. Mrs. K a n e is a w o m a n of few words, b u t h e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n is c o m m u n i c a t e d b y h e r steely stoicism, h e r decisive m o v e m e n t s , h e r r a m r o d - s t r a i g h t back. This is n o t a lady to mess with. Everett S l o a n e a n d J o s e p h G o t t e n are flawless a s B e r n s t e i n a n d L e l a n d . B e r n s t e i n ' s u n c r i t i c a l h e r o - w o r s h i p of K a n e establishes h i m as t h e less intelligent of t h e two, a m a n w h o — u n l i k e L e l a n d — p u t s f r i e n d s h i p above p r i n ciple. But t h e e n d e a r i n g B e r n s t e i n is s o m e t h i n g of a c o m i c i n n o c e n t , so b l i n d e d by loyalty t h a t he is i n c a p a b l e of s e e i n g K a n e ' s flaws, m u c h less his vices. As an o l d m a n , B e r n s t e i n is still funny, a successful b u s i n e s s m a n , b u t no shallow materialist. "It's no trick to m a k e a lot of money," he scoffs, "if all you want is to m a k e a lot of m o n e y . " He r e c o g n i z e s t h a t K a n e ' s motives ran d e e p e r t h a n t h e crassly e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l . He is still awed by t h e m y s t e r i o u s d e p t h s of Kane's i n n e r spirit. A n d p e r h a p s a bit s a d d e n e d by t h e c o n t r a s t with his own o r d i n a r y soul. Welles's p e r f o r m a n c e as K a n e was lavishly praised. J o h n O ' H a r a , reviewing t h e movie for Newsweek, said, " T h e r e has n e v e r b e e n a b e t t e r a c t o r t h a n O r s o n Welles." D. W . Griffith d e s c r i b e d it as t h e greatest film perform a n c e he h a d ever seen. Tall a n d i m p o s i n g , with a d e e p , flexible voice c a p a b l e of a wide s p e c t r u m of n u a n c e s , Welles was an a s t o n i s h i n g t e c h n i c i a n , equally c o n v i n c i n g as a b r a s h y o u n g m a n , a rigid a u t o c r a t in m i d d l e years, a n d a b u r n e d - o u t , h u l k i n g s e p t u a g e n a r i a n . At twenty-five, K a n e is c h a r m i n g a n d charismatic, with an i n s o l e n t skepticism toward all f o r m s of authority. In fact, he is so c h a r m i n g t h a t we h a r d l y n o t i c e s o m e of his q u e s t i o n a b l e m e t h o d s , his insistence on having e v e r y t h i n g his way. As a m i d d l e - a g e d m a n , K a n e is m o r e somber. T h e e l e m e n t o f t h r e a t i s m o r e brazenly p a r a d e d . H e n o l o n g e r a r g u e s that the e n d justifies t h e m e a n s — h e automatically assumes it, e x p e c t i n g o t h e r s to acquiesce to his views. As an old m a n , K a n e is a m o n g t h e walking w o u n d e d , a m a n w h o has r e p e a t e d l y f o u g h t a n d lost. r

T h e live t h e a t e r was Welles's first love. As a y o u t h , he a t t e n d e d a p r o gressive p r e p school, w h e r e he d i r e c t e d a n d a c t e d in over thirty plays. Shakes p e a r e was his favorite d r a m a t i s t . In 1930, at t h e age of fifteen, Welles left school p e r m a n e n t l y . W ith m o n e y left from an i n h e r i t a n c e , he traveled to E u r o p e , w h e r e he bluffed his way i n t o t h e G a t e T h e a t r e in D u b l i n , c l a i m i n g to be a well-known Broadway star. T h e m a n a g e r s d i d n ' t believe h i m b u t w e r e i m p r e s s e d n o n e t h e l e s s , a n d they h i r e d h i m . For a b o u t a year, W elles d i r e c t e d a n d a c t e d in m a n y stage classics, mostly of t h e E l i z a b e t h a n p e r i o d . r

T

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W h e n he r e t u r n e d to America in 1933, he finagled an a c t i n g j o b t o u r i n g with K a t h e r i n e Cornell, o n e of t h e major stage stars of that era. T h e y p e r f o r m e d mostly S h a k e s p e a r e a n d Shaw. In 1935 in NewYork, Welles j o i n e d forces with t h e aspiring theatrical p r o d u c e r ( a n d later actor a n d director) J o h n H o u s e m a n . In 1937, Welles a n d H o u s e m a n f o r m e d t h e i r own c o m p a n y , T h e Merc u r y T h e a t r e . Several of t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n s were hailed for t h e i r brilliance, m o s t notably a m o d e r n - d r e s s , antifascist p r o d u c t i o n of Julius Caesar. Welles n o t only s t a r r e d a n d d i r e c t e d b u t also d e s i g n e d t h e sets, c o s t u m e s , a n d lighting. T h e influential t h e a t e r critic J o h n M a s o n Brown p r o n o u n c e d it "a p r o d u c t i o n of g e n i u s . " Critic Elliot N o r t o n d e s c r i b e d it as "the m o s t c o m p e l l i n g S h a k e s p e a r e of this g e n e r a t i o n . " Welles f i n a n c e d his t h e a t e r with his e a r n i n g s as a r a d i o star. D u r i n g his halcyon years in t h e late 1930s, he was e a r n i n g $3000 p e r week in r a d i o , twot h i r d s of which was plowed back i n t o t h e M e r c u r y T h e a t r e . T h e c o m p a n y was a s h o e s t r i n g o p e r a t i o n , constantly on t h e b r i n k of collapsing. In 1939, after its first flop, t h e M e r c u r y T h e a t r e folded. Welles originally w e n t to Hollywood with

12-15. Artist's rendering of the interior set of Xanadu for Citizen Kane. In the area of set design and decor, Welles was fortunate in his choice of studio, for RKO's art director, Van Nest Polglase, was a m o n g the best in the industry. Perry Ferguson, who actually designed the sets u n d e r Polglase's general supervision, shared his boss's preference for monumental sets with unusual sources of lighting and richly textured details. (RKO>

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t h e i n t e n t i o n o f e a r n i n g s o m e q u i c k cash s o h e c o u l d r e t u r n t o New York a n d revive t h e M e r c u r y . Welles's e x p e r i e n c e in t h e live t h e a t e r proved invaluable w h e n he t u r n e d to m a k i n g movies. He r e g a r d e d film as essentially a d r a m a t i c r a t h e r t h a n literary m e d i u m . As we have seen, t h e lighting style of Citizen Kane is m o r e i n d e b t e d to the stage t h a n t h e screen, a n d Welles's use of lengthy takes is similarly derived from t h e n e e d in t h e live t h e a t e r to stage t h e action in a unified space. In t h e a r e a of a r t d i r e c t i o n t o o , Welles was able to save h u n d r e d s of t h o u s a n d s of dollars by s h o w i n g only p a r t s of sets r a t h e r t h a n e n t i r e r o o m s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e office set consists only of a desk a n d two walls, yet we s e e m to be in a h u g e l u x u r i o u s office ( 1 2 - 9 ) . Similarly, in t h e X a n a d u scenes, W elles spotlit an oversized p i e c e of f u r n i t u r e , a s c u l p t u r e , or a fireplace, leaving t h e rest o f t h e r o o m i n d a r k n e s s — a s t h o u g h i t w e r e t o o e n o r m o u s t o b e a d e q u a t e l y i l l u m i n a t e d . ( T h e r o o m s are actually sparsely f u r n i s h e d . ) W h e n t h e s e techn i q u e s w e r e insufficient, Welles was able to c o u n t on t h e R K O special effects d e p a r t m e n t to c r e a t e an epic canvas t h r o u g h such t e c h n i q u e s as animation, m a t t e shots, a n d miniatures. E d w a r d S t e v e n s o n ' s c o s t u m e s a d h e r e closely to t h e actual styles of e a c h p e r i o d . B e c a u s e t h e movie traverses nearly seventy years a n d t h e events a r e n o t chronologically p r e s e n t e d , t h e c o s t u m e s h a d t o b e instantly r e c o g n i z a b l e for 7

12-16. Exterior set of X a n a d u for Citizen Kane. The mist-shrouded tropic setting groans under the weight of the sprawling, towering Xanadu, unfinished and already beginning to decay, like a rotting m a u s o l e u m from the pages of Edgar Allan Poe. Although the palm trees sway as the wisps of fog drift past dreamily, the set was actually a m a t t e painting, only a few feet high. (RKO>

1 2 - 1 7 . Three photos of Orson Welles as Charles Foster Kane at various periods in his life. Welles was required to age about fifty years during the course of the story. Thanks in part to the m a k e u p artistry of Maurice Seiderman, Welles is completely convincing, whether playing Kane at twenty-five (a), forty-five (b), or seventy-five (c). As Kane grows older, his hair grays and recedes, his jowls sag, his cheeks grow puffier, and the bags beneath his eyes grow more pouchy. Seiderman created a synthetic rubber body suit to suggest the increasingly flabby torso of an older m a n . IRKO>

t h e a u d i e n c e to k n o w t h e p e r i o d of e a c h s c e n e . K a n e ' s c h i l d h o o d has a n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y flavor—a cross b e t w e e n C h a r l e s Dickens a n d Mark Twain. T h e f o r m e r can be s e e n in T h a t c h e r ' s stiff collar a n d stovepipe hat; t h e latter in t h e plain f r o n t i e r simplicity of t h e clothes of Mary a n d J i m Kane. C o s t u m e s a r e symbolic as well as functional. As a c r u s a d i n g y o u n g p u b lisher, Kane favors whites. He often r e m o v e s his j a c k e t a n d tie while w o r k i n g . L a t e r in life, he is a l m o s t always in black business suits a n d ties. Emily's c l o t h e s look expensive, b u t with an u n d e r s t a t e d e l e g a n c e . S h e always looks like a wellb r e d y o u n g m a t r o n — f a s h i o n a b l e , m o d e s t , a n d f e m i n i n e . Susan favors simple c l o t h e s b e f o r e m e e t i n g Kane. After m e e t i n g h i m , she is generally d r e s s e d in ritzy p a t t e r n e d dresses, s o m e t i m e s s p r i n k l e d with sequins—like an a g i n g showgirl p a r a d i n g h e r loot. T h e following is an analysis of Susan's o p e r a c o s t u m e ( 1 2 - 1 8 ) , a triu m p h of irony a n d wit: 1. Period. Ostensibly n i n e t e e n t h century, t h o u g h in fact an a m u s i n g past i c h e of various p e r i o d s a n d " O r i e n t a l " influences. 2. Class* Royalty. T h e c o s t u m e is profusely f e s t o o n e d with pearls, p r e c i o u s jewels, a n d o t h e r q u e e n l y niceties. 3. Sex. F e m a l e , with an e m p h a s i s on c u r v e d , swaying lines a n d p e e k a b o o slits in t h e skirt. O n l y t h e t u r b a n provides a m a s c u l i n e t o u c h , t h o u g h it is whimsically inflected with fluffy white feathers. 514

12-18. Publicity photo of Dorothy Comingore in opera costume for Citizen Kane. Bernard Herrmann c o m p o s e d the film's opera, Salommbo. in the style of nineteenth-century French "Oriental" operas. Edward Stevenson's cost u m e s are in this s a m e campy style of mockery. For example, Susan's outlandish regalia is a send-up of what the well-dressed FrenchOriental opera queen might wear while suffering the agonies of unrequited love, torment, and despair. (RKO)

4. Age. T h e c o s t u m e is d e s i g n e d for a w o m a n in h e r twenties, at t h e p e a k of h e r physical attractiveness. 5. Silhouette. Formfitting, u n a b a s h e d l y h i g h l i g h t i n g t h e w e a r e r ' s curvacious c o n t o u r s . 6. Fabric. Silks, b e a d e d o r n a m e n t a t i o n e n c r u s t e d with jewels. 7. Accessories. T u r b a n , ankle-strap s h o e s .

pearl s t r a n d s , i n c o n g r u o u s J o a n

Crawford-style

8. Color. T h e fdm is in black a n d white, b u t m o s t of t h e fabric has a metallic s h e e n , s u g g e s t i n g g o l d a n d ebony. 9. Body exposure. T h e c o s t u m e reveals a n d h i g h l i g h t s s u c h e r o t i c areas as t h e breasts, midriff, a n d legs. 10. Function. T h e c o s t u m e is totally without utility, difficult even to walk in. It is i n t e n d e d for a p e r s o n w h o d o e s n o t work, b u t is displayed. 11. Body attitude. Tall a n d p r o u d , with h e a d a n d breasts h e l d h i g h , like a Vegas showgirl flashing h e r g a u d y p l u n d e r . 12. Image. Every i n c h t h e o p e r a q u e e n . 5 l 5

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T h e differences b e t w e e n story a n d plot can b e best illustrated b y c o m p a r i n g t h e narrative i n c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r with t h e r e s t r u c t u r e d s e q u e n c e o f t h e plot. W h e n H e r m a n Mankiewicz a p p r o a c h e d Welles with t h e idea o f t h e story, Welles was c o n c e r n e d t h a t t h e materials w o u l d be t o o sprawling, t o o u n f o c u s e d . To s h a r p e n t h e story line a n d infuse it with m o r e d r a m a t i c urgency, he suggested s c r a m b l i n g t h e c h r o n o l o g y of events t h r o u g h a series of flashb a c k s , e a c h n a r r a t e d from t h e p o i n t of view of t h e p e r s o n telling t h e story. Welles h a d u s e d this m u l t i p l e flashback t e c h n i q u e in a n u m b e r of his r a d i o dramas. He a n d Mankiewicz also i n t r o d u c e d a n o t e of s u s p e n s e . In his final m o m e n t s of life, K a n e m u m b l e s t h e w o r d Rosebud (12-19). N o o n e seems to k n o w w h a t it m e a n s , a n d its significance p i q u e s t h e curiosity of a n e w s p a p e r r e p o r t e r , T h o m p s o n , w h o s p e n d s t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e movie q u e s t i o n i n g K a n e ' s f o r m e r associates a b o u t this mystery, which he h o p e s c o n t a i n s t h e key to K a n e ' s conflicting c h a r a c t e r . Welles c l a i m e d t h a t t h e R o s e b u d m o t i f was m e r e l y a p l o t gimmick, i n t e n d e d to h o o k t h e a u d i e n c e on a d r a m a t i c q u e s t i o n t h a t ' s really a wild goose c h a s e . But t h e g i m m i c k works. Like t h e hopeful r e p o r t e r , w e t o o t h i n k t h a t R o s e b u d will u n l o c k Kane's a m b i g u o u s personality. W i t h o u t this g i m m i c k , t h e story w o u l d have r e m a i n e d r a m b l i n g a n d u n f o c u s e d . T h e search for t h e m e a n i n g of R o s e b u d s h a p e s t h e narrative, p r o v i d i n g it with a f o r w a r d t h r u s t , with a d r a m a t i c q u e s t i o n we all w a n t a n s w e r e d . This is what foreign critics m e a n by t h e A m e r i c a n g e n i u s for storytelling.

12-19. Citizen Kane. Like a n u m b e r of Welles's other movies, Kane begins with the end— the death of its protagonist w h e n he is about seventy-five. In his final m o m e n t s of life, the old m a n holds a small crystal ball containing a miniature scene that flurries with artificial snow when shaken. With his last dying breath, he utters the word "Rosebud." Then the glass ball crashes to the floor, splintering into a thousand fragments. The plot of the movie is structured like a search—for the m e a n i n g of this final utterance. (RKO)

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T h e flashback s t r u c t u r e of Citizen Kane allows Welles to l e a p t h r o u g h time a n d space, c u t t i n g to various p e r i o d s of K a n e ' s life w i t h o u t having to a d h e r e to a strict c h r o n o l o g y . To provide t h e a u d i e n c e with an overview, Welles i n t r o d u c e d m o s t of t h e m a j o r events a n d p e o p l e of K a n e ' s life in a brief newsreel shown early in t h e film. T h e s e events a n d p e o p l e a r e e x p l o r e d in m o r e d e p t h in t h e individual flashbacks that follow. Many critics have m a r v e l e d at t h e intricate, jigsaw-puzzle s t r u c t u r e of the movie, with its i n t e r l o c k i n g pieces t h a t d o n ' t click t o g e t h e r until t h e final scene. T h e following p l o t o u t l i n e sets forth t h e m a i n s t r u c t u r a l u n i t s of t h e film a n d the p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r s a n d events o f e a c h : 1. Prologue. X a n a d u . K a n e ' s d e a t h . " R o s e b u d . " 2. Newsreel. D e a t h of Kane. E n o r m o u s wealth a n d d e c a d e n t lifestyle. C o n t r a d i c t o r y political i m a g e . M a r r i a g e to Emily N o r t o n . Expose of "love nest." Divorce. M a r r i a g e to Susan A l e x a n d e r , "singer." Political camp a i g n . O p e r a career. T h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n a n d K a n e ' s financial d e c l i n e . Lonely, s e c l u d e d old age in X a n a d u . 3. Premise. T h o m p s o n is i n s t r u c t e d by his e d i t o r ( 1 2 - 2 ) to discover t h e mystery of R o s e b u d by q u e s t i o n i n g K a n e ' s f o r m e r associates. "It will p r o b a b l y be a very simple t h i n g . " False step: Susan refuses to speak to Thompson. 4. Flashback: The Memoirs of Walter P. Thatcher. K a n e ' s c h i l d h o o d . T h a t c h e r b e c o m e s g u a r d i a n . K a n e ' s first n e w s p a p e r : The Inquirer. I n t r o d u c t i o n of

12-20.

A p p r o x i m a t e p r o p o r t i o n o f e a c h p l o t u n i t i n Citizen Kane. 10. Cast and Credits

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B e r n s t e i n a n d L e l a n d . N e w s p a p e r c r u s a d i n g years. K a n e ' s financial d e c l i n e in t h e 1930s. 5. Flashback: Bernstein. Early days at The Inquirer. " D e c l a r a t i o n of Principles." B u i l d i n g a p u b l i s h i n g e m p i r e . E n g a g e m e n t to Emily N o r t o n . 6. Flashback: Jed Leland. D i s i n t e g r a t i o n of m a r r i a g e to Emily. K a n e m e e t s Susan. Political c a m p a i g n in 1918. Expose, divorce, r e m a r r i a g e . Susan's o p e r a career. Final b r e a k b e t w e e n K a n e a n d J e d . 7. Flashback: Susan Alexander Kane. O p e r a d e b u t a n d career. Suicide a t t e m p t . Years of semiseclusion with K a n e at X a n a d u . Susan leaves Kane. 8. Flashback: Raymond, butler at Xanadu. K a n e ' s final days. " R o s e b u d . " 9. Coda. Revelation of R o s e b u d . Reverse of o p e n i n g P r o l o g u e , p r o d u c i n g closure. 10. Cast and credits. T h e t e n sections of t h e film vary in l e n g t h . A d i a g r a m c h a r t i n g t h e a p p r o x i m a t e p r o p o r t i o n of e a c h section is shown in F i g u r e 1 2 - 2 0 .

Citizen Kane is often singled o u t for t h e excellence of its screenplay—its wit, its t a u t c o n s t r u c t i o n , its t h e m a t i c complexity. T h e script's a u t h o r s h i p p r o v o k e d c o n s i d e r a b l e controversy, b o t h a t t h e t i m e o f t h e movie's release a n d again in t h e 1970s, w h e n critic P a u l i n e Kael c o n t e n d e d t h a t Welles m e r e l y a d d e d a few p o l i s h i n g t o u c h e s to H e r m a n Mankiewicz's finished p r o d u c t . Mankiewicz was a Hollywood regular, a n o t o r i o u s d r u n k — c h a r m i n g , witty, a n d a l m o s t totally u n r e l i a b l e . W h e n h e a p p r o a c h e d Welles with t h e original i d e a for American (it was later called John Citizen, U.S.A., a n d finally Citizen Kane), Welles a s k e d his f o r m e r p a r t n e r , J o h n H o u s e m a n , t o h e l p Mankiewicz write t h e screenplay, preferably in an isolated place, far r e m o v e d from t e m p t a t i o n . Welles m a d e extensive revisions on t h e first few drafts of t h e screenplay—so extensive t h a t Mankiewicz d e n o u n c e d t h e movie b e c a u s e i t d e p a r t e d radically from his s c e n a r i o . N o r d i d h e want Welles's n a m e t o a p p e a r o n t h e s c r e e n p l a y credit, a n d he t o o k his case to t h e Writers Guild. At this t i m e , a d i r e c t o r was n o t allowed any writing c r e d i t unless he or she c o n t r i b u t e d 50 perc e n t o r m o r e o f t h e screenplay, i n a c o m p r o m i s e g e s t u r e , t h e guild allowed b o t h of t h e m credit, only with Mankiewicz receiving t o p billing. W h e n t h e controversy r e s u r f a c e d i n t h e 1970s, t h e A m e r i c a n s c h o l a r R o b e r t L . C a r r i n g e r settled t h e case o n c e a n d for all. H e e x a m i n e d t h e seven p r i n c i p a l drafts of t h e screenplay, plus m a n y last-minute revision m e m o r a n d a a n d a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e s . G a r r i n g e r ' s c o n c l u s i o n : T h e early Mankiewicz drafts c o n t a i n " d o z e n s of p a g e s of dull, p l o d d i n g m a t e r i a l t h a t will eventually be dis-

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c a r d e d or r e p l a c e d a l t o g e t h e r . A n d m o s t tellingly, t h e r e is virtually n o t h i n g in t h e m of t h a t stylistic wit a n d fluidity t h a t is t h e m o s t e n g a g i n g trait of t h e film itself." In s h o r t , Mankiewicz p r o v i d e d t h e raw material; Welles p r o v i d e d t h e genius. T h e script sparkles with surprises. T h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r s a r e a far cry from t h e tired stereotypes of m o s t movies of this era. O n l y T h a t c h e r s e e m s conventional, a variation of t h e 1930s tycoon. T h e writing is often tersely funny. D u r i n g K a n e ' s noisy m a r r i a g e to Susan, for e x a m p l e , t h e c o u p l e is s u r r o u n d e d b y p u s h y r e p o r t e r s . W h e n asked w h a t h e ' s g o i n g t o d o now, K a n e replies, "We're g o i n g to be a g r e a t o p e r a star." Susan c h i m e s in: "Charlie said if I d i d n ' t , h e ' d build m e a n o p e r a h o u s e . " T h e gallant K a n e d e m u r s : " T h a t w o n ' t b e n e c essary." C u t to a n e w s p a p e r h e a d l i n e : KANE BUILDS OPERA HOUSE.

T h e r e a r e also m o m e n t s o f p u r e poetry, like B e r n s t e i n ' s s u r p r i s i n g reply to T h o m p s o n after t h e r e p o r t e r scoffs at B e r n s t e i n ' s suggestion t h a t Roseb u d m i g h t be a long-lost love. 'You take m e , " t h e old r e t a i n e r explains. " O n e day, back in 1896, I was crossing over to Jersey on t h e ferry, a n d as we p u l l e d out, t h e r e was a n o t h e r ferry p u l l i n g in, a n d on it t h e r e was a girl waiting to get off. A white dress s h e h a d o n . She was c a r r y i n g a white parasol. I only saw h e r for o n e s e c o n d . S h e d i d n ' t see me at all, b u t I'll b e t a m o n t h h a s n ' t g o n e by since, t h a t I h a v e n ' t t h o u g h t of t h a t girl." Welles always loved t h a t s p e e c h — a n d wished t h a t h e h a d written it. Thematically, Kane is so c o m p l e x t h a t only a brief i t e m i z i n g of s o m e of its t h e m e s is possible within t h e s e few pages. Like m o s t of Welles's o t h e r movies, Citizen Kane m i g h t well be e n t i t l e d The Arrogance of Power. He was a t t r a c t e d to t h e m e s traditionally associated with classical t r a g e d y a n d t h e epic: t h e downfall of a public figure b e c a u s e of a r r o g a n c e a n d p r i d e . P o w e r a n d wealth a r e c o r r u p t i n g , a n d t h e c o r r u p t d e v o u r themselves. T h e i n n o c e n t usually survive, b u t they a r e severely s c a r r e d . "All of t h e c h a r a c t e r s I've played are various f o r m s of Faust," Welles stated. All have b a r t e r e d t h e i r souls a n d lost. Welles's sense of evil is m a t u r e a n d c o m p l e x , s e l d o m c o n v e n t i o n a l i z e d . He was o n e of t h e few A m e r i c a n filmmakers of his g e n e r a t i o n to e x p l o r e t h e d a r k e r side of t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n w i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g to a simplified psychology or to moralistic cliches. T h o u g h his universe is essentially d o o m e d , it's s h o t t h r o u g h with, ambiguities, c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , a n d m o m e n t s o f t r a n s i e n t beauty. Welles c o n s i d e r e d himself a moralist, b u t his movies a r e n e v e r priggish or sanct i m o n i o u s . I n s t e a d of facile c o n d e m n a t i o n s , Kane l a m e n t s t h e loss of i n n o c e n c e : "Almost all serious stories in t h e world are stories of a failure with a d e a t h in it," Welles stated. "But t h e r e is m o r e lost p a r a d i s e in t h e m t h a n defeat. T o m e that's t h e c e n t r a l t h e m e i n W e s t e r n c u l t u r e , t h e lost p a r a d i s e . " W h e n a story isn't told in a straightforward, c h r o n o l o g i c a l m a n n e r , s o m e t h i n g is lost a n d s o m e t h i n g is g a i n e d . WTiaf s lost is t h e s u s p e n s e of any conventionally told tale, which usually asks, W h a t d o e s t h e p r o t a g o n i s t w a n t a n d h o w is he or she g o i n g to get it? In Citizen Kane, t h e p r o t a g o n i s t is d e a d

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a l m o s t from t h e start. We a r e forced to p i e c e t o g e t h e r his life from t h e p o i n t s of view of o t h e r s . T h i s t e c h n i q u e of m u l t i p l e n a r r a t i o n forces us to g a u g e t h e biases a n d p r e j u d i c e s of e a c h n a r r a t o r . Citizen Kane is t h e i r story, t o o . T h e r e a r e five different storytellers, a n d e a c h tells us a different story. Even w h e n t h e events overlap, we view t h e m from a different perspective. F o r e x a m p l e , L e l a n d ' s a c c o u n t of Susan's o p e r a t i c d e b u t is c o l o r e d by his c o n d e s c e n d i n g a t t i t u d e t o w a r d her. H e r p e r f o r m a n c e is viewed primarily from t h e a u d i e n c e , w h e r e L e l a n d i s sitting. W h e n Susan r e c o u n t s t h e s a m e event, t h e c a m e r a is primarily on stage, a n d t h e t o n e of t h e s e q u e n c e is no l o n g e r c o m i c but agonized. Welles's n a r r a t i v e strategy is s o m e t h i n g like a prism: T h e newsreel a n d t h e five interviewees e a c h offer a u n i q u e view of t h e s a m e m a n . T h e newsreel offers us a q u i c k t o u r of t h e highlights of K a n e ' s public life. T h a t c h e r ' s a c c o u n t is t a i n t e d by his a b s o l u t e c o n f i d e n c e in t h e m o r a l superiority of t h e rich a n d powerful. B e r n s t e i n ' s story is s t e e p e d in t h e g r a t i t u d e a n d loyalty he felt for K a n e w h e n they w e r e y o u n g . L e l a n d offers a m o r e r i g o r o u s perspective: H e j u d g e s K a n e by w h a t he actually d o e s , r a t h e r t h a n w h a t he says. Susan is t h e m o s t victimized of t h e storytellers. Yet she is also t h e m o s t c o m p a s s i o n a t e a n d sensitive. R a y m o n d , t h e butler, p r e t e n d s to know a lot m o r e t h a n he d o e s . His brief flashback m e r e l y c o n c l u d e s T h o m p s o n ' s investigation.

1 2 - 2 1 . Production photo of Orson Welles (in middle-aged makeup) and Gregg Toland lining up a shot for the postelection s c e n e b e t w e e n Kane and Jed Leland. Welles used low-angle shots as a motif throughout the picture, especially to emphasize the a w e s o m e power of the protagonist. In this scene, the angle is so low that the floorboards of the set had to be torn away to allow for the c a m e r a ' s placem e n t . Combined with the perspective-distorting wide-angle lens, such low-angle shots portray Kane as a towering colossus, capable of crushing anything that gets in his way. (RKO)

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T h e r e a r e literally d o z e n s of symbolic motifs in t h e movie. S o m e of t h e m a r e t e c h n i c a l , such as t h e film's p r e d o m i n a n t l y low c a m e r a angles ( 1 2 - 2 1 ) . O t h e r s are m o r e c o n t e n t o r i e n t e d , s u c h a s t h e series o f fences t h e c a m e r a m u s t p e n e t r a t e b e f o r e w e are able t o see K a n e . T h e r e a r e also persist e n t motifs of stillness, decay, old age, a n d d e a t h . T h e two m o s t i m p o r t a n t motifs i n t h e movie are R o s e b u d a n d t h e f r a g m e n t a t i o n motif. R o s e b u d t u r n s o u t to be a favorite c h i l d h o o d possession. Scholars a n d critics have a r g u e d a b o u t R o s e b u d for decades. Welles himself described it as "dollarb o o k F r e u d " — t h a t is, a c o n v e n i e n t symbol of c h i l d h o o d i n n o c e n c e . T h e ideas of F r e u d g a i n e d wide currency in the American c i n e m a of the 1940s, especially the centrality of a child's p r e p u b e s c e n t life in d e t e r m i n i n g his or h e r later character. B u t R o s e b u d is also a m o r e g e n e r a l i z e d symbol of loss. C o n s i d e r : K a n e is a m a n w h o lost his p a r e n t s w h e n he was a child. He was b r o u g h t up by a b a n k . He lost his youthful idealism as a publisher. He lost in his b i d to be gove r n o r . He lost his first wife a n d son. He lost in his efforts to m a k e Susan an o p e r a star. He lost Susan. Because it's m u c h m o r e t h a n a m e r e object, m o r e even t h a n a symbol of E d e n i c i n n o c e n c e , t h e revelation of R o s e b u d to t h e audie n c e delivers a powerful e m o t i o n a l i m p a c t .

12-22. Citizen Kane, with William Alland and Paul Stewart. Near the end of the movie, T h o m p s o n (Alland) admits defeat. He never does find out what Rosebud m e a n s , and he describes his investigation as "playing with a jigsaw puzzle," while the camera cranes back and up, revealing thousands of crates of artwork, memorabilia, a n d personal effects—the fragmented artifacts of a person's life. "I don't think any word can explain a m a n ' s life," Thompson continues. "No, 1 guess Rosebud is just a piece in a jigsaw puzzle, a missing piece." (RKOI

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T h e f r a g m e n t a t i o n motif acts as a foil to t h e s i m p l e m i n d e d n o t i o n t h a t any single w o r d c o u l d "explain" a c o m p l e x personality. T h r o u g h o u t t h e movie, we a r e p r e s e n t e d with i m a g e s t h a t suggest multiplicity, r e p e t i t i o n , a n d fragm e n t s of a l a r g e r w h o l e . E x a m p l e s of this motif are t h e jigsaw puzzles, t h e p r o fusion of crates, b o x e s , a n d artwork. T h e very s t r u c t u r e of t h e movie is fragm e n t e d , with e a c h n a r r a t o r p r o v i d i n g us with only a partial p i c t u r e . In R a y m o n d ' s flashback at t h e e n d of t h e film, t h e elderly K a n e m u t t e r s "Roseb u d " w h e n he discovers a glass g l o b e . Dazed, he walks d o w n a c o r r i d o r , t h e g l o b e in his h a n d . As he passes a set of facing m i r r o r s , we see his i m a g e multiplied into infinity. All of t h e m a r e K a n e .

Welles was a lifelong liberal, firmly c o m m i t t e d to t h e values of t h e m o d e r a t e left. T h e N e w Y o r k t h e a t e r s c e n e of t h e 1930s was intensely political a n d left-wing in its l e a n i n g s . Like m o s t intellectuals of t h a t era, Welles was a R o o sevelt enthusiast, strongly pro-New Deal in his sympathies. In fact, he h e l p e d write several of P r e s i d e n t Roosevelt's f a m o u s r a d i o s p e e c h e s . N o t surprisingly, Citizen Kane can be classified as liberal in its ideological slant. However, t h e movie is definitely in t h e implicit r a n g e in t e r m s of its bias. It refuses to be t h e p u r v e y o r of glib certainties a b o u t its values: T h e characters a r e too c o m p l e x , often p a r a d o x i c a l . T h e film is filled with t h e messy cont r a d i c t i o n s of life. T h e p r o t a g o n i s t is a "fighting liberal" as a y o u n g editor. J e d L e l a n d is his c o m r a d e i n a r m s , his c o n s c i e n c e figure ( 1 2 - 2 3 ) . B u t a s h e grows older, K a n e m o v e s f u r t h e r to t h e right, e n d i n g finally as an a u t h o r i t a r i a n bully. K a n e also believes t h a t e n v i r o n m e n t is a s t r o n g e r force t h a n heredity. In o n e s c e n e ,

12-23. Citizen Kane, with Joseph Cotten. Jed Leland (Cotten) represents the moral conscience of the film, Kane's idealistic alter ego. Roles like this are difficult to play well, because they can easily degenerate into sentimental cliches of piety. Cotten toughens up the role by refusing to make Leland too likable. Although sensitive and intelligent, Leland is also a bit of a prig, "a New England schoolmarm," to use his own phrase. Like Bernstein, he loves Kane and is loyal to him when they are all young and committed to social reform. But when he finally recognizes Kane's ego for the destructive force it is, Jed pulls back, disillusioned, (RKOI

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h e says t h a t h e m i g h t have b e c o m e a really g r e a t m a n i f h e h a d n ' t g r o w n u p rich. K a n e is a relativist in t e r m s of his morality. W h e n he no l o n g e r loves his wife Emily, he f o r m s an a d u l t e r o u s liaison with Susan. To h i m , his m a r r i a g e certificate is m e r e l y a d o c u m e n t , s o m e t h i n g t h a t bears no relation to his feelings. N o w h e r e in t h e film d o e s K a n e e x p r e s s an interest in religion. He is a t h o r o u g h secularist. As a y o u n g m a n , Kane displays n o t h i n g b u t c o n t e m p t for t r a d i t i o n , t h e past, a n d a u t h o r i t y figures. W ell i n t o m i d d l e age, he is o r i e n t e d m o r e t o w a r d t h e f u t u r e — b u i l d i n g u p his newspaper, c o u r t i n g Emily, e x p a n d i n g his e m p i r e , r u n n i n g for g o v e r n o r , g u i d i n g Susan's career. Only as an old m a n d o e s he withdraw from t h e a r e n a of life, s h u t t i n g himself off from t h e o u t s i d e world, "lording it over t h e m o n k e y s " in X a n a d u . Similarly, as a y o u n g m a n , Kane e m p h a s i z e s t h e c o m m u n a l . His newsp a p e r is a collaborative effort, with h i m at t h e h e l m , flanked by his two faithful l i e u t e n a n t s , B e r n s t e i n a n d L e l a n d . A s h e grows older, h e n o l o n g e r consults his colleagues. He issues t h e m o r d e r s , b r o o k i n g no d i s a g r e e m e n t s . As a y o u n g editor, h e identifies with c o m m o n w o r k i n g p e o p l e , p r o m i s i n g t o b e c o m e t h e i r s p o k e s m a n . A s a n o l d e r m a n , h e seeks o u t t h e c o m p a n y o f i m p o r t a n t world leaders, shakers, a n d movers. H e s u r r o u n d s himself with yes-men. 7

12-24. Citizen Kane, with Joseph Cotten and Everett Sloane. Kane's r a m p a n t c o n s u m e r i s m is best illustrated by his mania for collecting European art treasures. Not because he enjoys art—indeed, he scarcely ever mentions it—but because of its value as a status symbol. His conspicuous consumption b e c o m e s a habit rather than a passionate interest. After a while, no o n e even bothers to uncrate his purchases—they're simply stored away with all his other possessions. IRKO>

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Citizen Kane is also strongly feminist in its sympathies. T h e t h r e e m a i n female c h a r a c t e r s a r e all victimized. Mary Kane is t r a p p e d in a loveless m a r riage a n d feels she m u s t sacrifice raising h e r son to get h i m away from his bullyi n g father. Emily N o r t o n K a n e is a d e c e n t if s o m e w h a t c o n v e n t i o n a l y o u n g w o m a n . She has b e e n raised b y t h e b o o k a n d obviously takes seriously h e r d u t i e s as a wife a n d m o t h e r . S h e is p r o p r i e t y i n c a r n a t e . K a n e betrays h e r faith a n d love t h r o u g h n o a p p a r e n t fault o f h e r own. H e got b o r e d with her. Susan A l e x a n d e r K a n e i s t h e m o s t s y m p a t h e t i c o f t h e t h r e e a n d t h e m o s t ill-used. She e n d u r e s g r e a t suffering a n d spiritual a n g u i s h , all in the n a m e o f love. S h e d o e s n ' t care m u c h a b o u t m o n e y o r social position, which merely c o m p l i c a t e h e r life. S h e is o n e of t h e few c h a r a c t e r s c a p a b l e of forgiveness. After t h e r e p o r t e r T h o m p s o n listens t o h e r sad tale o f h u m i l i a t i o n a n d loneliness, he says, "All t h e s a m e , I feel k i n d of sorry for Mr. K a n e . " Blinking back h e r tears, Susan replies, " D o n ' t you t h i n k I d o ? "

Citizen Kane is a m a s t e r p i e c e of formalism. T r u e , t h e r e a r e s o m e realistic e l e m e n t s in t h e film—its basis in fact, t h e newsreel s e q u e n c e , t h e deep-focus p h o t o g r a p h y t h a t was so highly p r a i s e d by realist critics like A n d r e Bazin. F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , however, it's t h e b r a v u r a s e q u e n c e s t h a t a r e m o s t m e m o r a b l e i n t h e m o v i e . Welles was o n e of t h e g r e a t lyricists of t h e c i n e m a , a n d his stylistic r a p t u r e is best illustrated by t h e o r n a t e visuals, t h e dazzling traveling shots, t h e richly t e x t u r e d s o u n d t r a c k , t h e kaleidoscopic e d i t i n g style, t h e highly fragm e n t e d narrative, a n d t h e profusion of symbolic motifs. T h e movie is b r a z e n in its t e c h n i c a l audacity. Kane is t h e work of an i n d i s p u t a b l e auteur. Welles n o t only p r o d u c e d t h e film, he also c o a u t h o r e d its script, selected t h e cast a n d crew, s t a r r e d in its l e a d i n g role, a n d d i r e c t e d t h e e n t i r e p r o d u c t i o n w i t h o u t i n t e r f e r e n c e . T h e movie is also typical in t h a t it e x p l o r e s a c o m p l e x of characteristic Wellesian t h e m e s a n d is e x e c u t e d in a showy style that b e c a m e a virtual s i g n a t u r e of its a u t h o r . Welles was always g e n e r o u s in his praise of his c o w o r k e r s , especially actors a n d c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r s , b u t t h e r e is no q u e s t i o n t h a t he was totally in c o m m a n d d u r i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f this f i l m . T h e c o m m e r c i a l a n d critical history of Citizen Kane is a fascinating story in its own right. Shortly after t h e collapse of t h e M e r c u r y T h e a t r e , R K O offered t h e twenty-four-year-old Welles a n u n h e a r d - o f c o n t r a c t : H e was t o b e p a i d $150,000 p e r p i c t u r e , plus 2 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e gross receipts. H e c o u l d p r o d u c e , direct, write, or star in any of his films, or function in all four capacities if he wished. He was g r a n t e d total artistic c o n t r o l , answerable only to G e o r g e Schaefer, t h e e n l i g h t e n e d h e a d of t h e studio. RKO was in financial distress, as it h a d b e e n t h r o u g h o u t m o s t of its brief s p a n . T h e s t u d i o was f o u n d e d in 1928 by t h e financier J o s e p h P. K e n n e d y

12-25. Promotional poster for Citizen Kane. Then as now, a studio's advertising emphasized a picture's commercial appeal. Then as now, sex and violence were the most c o m m o n ploys to lure the m a s s audience. The promotional campaign for Citizen Kane was somewhat classier. It stressed Welles's box-office appeal as the film's star and the controversy surrounding the picture's release. Posters and lobby displays also exaggerated the love angle, presumably to appeal to w o m e n patrons: "1 hate him!" Susan proclaims. "I love him!" Emily counters. (Neither statement is in the movie, of course.) Interestingly, this poster crudely parallels the multiple points of view found in the film itself.
( t h e f a t h e r o f t h e l a t e r p r e s i d e n t ) a n d b y David Sajrhoff, t h e h e a d o f RCA a n d later N B C . S a r n o f f h o p e d t h a t t h e s t u d i o w o u l d b e c o m e a n "NBC with pict u r e s . " K e n n e d y s o o n withdrew, with a profit of s o m e $5 m i l l i o n . After a p r o m i s i n g start, R K O fell o n h a r d times, p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e o f t h e c o n s t a n t reshuffling

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o f m a n a g e m e n t , which gave i t n o continuity. U n l i k e t h e o t h e r majors, R K O h a d no c o n s i s t e n t identity or characteristic style. Sarnoff a n d his n e w p a r t n e r , N e l s o n Rockefeller, w a n t e d RKO t o p r o d u c e sophisticated a n d progressive films, b u t they discovered t h a t artistic w o r t h a n d box-office success w e r e n o t easily u n i t e d . Rockefeller a n d Sarnoff w e r e p l e a s e d with Schaefer's i d e a to h i r e Welles, for they r e a s o n e d t h a t if a n y o n e c o u l d p r o d u c e quality movies t h a t also m a d e profits, surely it was t h e boy g e n i u s , fresh from his Broadway a n d r a d i o t r i u m p h s . W h e n Welles a r r i v e d in Hollywood in 1939, t h e r e s e n t m e n t against h i m was i m m e n s e . Most d i r e c t o r s c o n s i d e r e d themselves lucky if they were p e r m i t t e d to d i r e c t an A-film b e f o r e they w e r e thirty-five, yet h e r e was a m e r e stripling, an o u t s i d e r at that, w h o was given total a u t o n o m y on his first t i m e o u t . "This is t h e biggest electric train a boy ever h a d , " he q u i p p e d w h e n he saw t h e p r o d u c tion facilities at RKO. T h e f l a m b o y a n t Welles was r e g a r d e d as arty, supercilious, a n d arrogant by most industry regulars. He didn't help matters by openly s n e e r i n g at t h e film c o m m u n i t y : "Hollywood is a g o l d e n s u b u r b , p e r f e c t for golfers, g a r d e n e r s , m e d i o c r e m e n , a n d c o m p l a c e n t starlets," h e a n n o u n c e d with obvious a m u s e m e n t . H e was a n i n c o r r i g i b l e smartass. H e p a i d dearly for t h e flippant wit of his y o u t h . Almost from t h e start, t h e p r o d u c t i o n of Citizen Kane was s p a r k e d by controversy. A m a s t e r publicist, Welles h a d t h e film colony b u z z i n g with speculation. T h e movie was s h o t in "absolute secrecy." R u m o r s were rife a b o u t t h e identity o f t h e l e a d i n g character, a n d w h e n t h e syndicated H e a r s t gossip c o l u m nist, L o u e l l a Parsons, h e a r d t h a t t h e p i c t u r e was to d e a l with h e r boss's private life, a c a m p a i g n against t h e movie was l a u n c h e d by La P a r s o n s , with H e a r s t ' s blessings a n d full c o o p e r a t i o n . A s t h e film n e a r e d c o m p l e t i o n , H e a r s t ' s c a m p a i g n g o t ferocious. H e t h r e a t e n e d t h e i n d u s t r y with a series of scandals a n d e x p o s e s unless t h e pict u r e was d e s t r o y e d b e f o r e release. His s t o o g e , M G M ' s Louis B. Mayer, t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l m a n in t h e industry, offered to r e i m b u r s e RKO's costs, plus a tidy profit, if t h e s t u d i o w o u l d destroy t h e negative. H e a r s t p r e s s u r e d t h e o t h e r studios to refuse to b o o k t h e film in t h e i r t h e a t e r s . His n e w s p a p e r s a t t a c k e d Welles as a C o m m u n i s t a n d s u g g e s t e d he was a draft d o d g e r . (Welles was r e j e c t e d for military service for m e d i c a l reasons.) RKO stalled, p a r a l y z e d with i n d e c i s i o n . W elles t h r e a t e n e d to sue unless t h e movie was r e l e a s e d . Finally, t h e s t u d i o d e c i d e d to take t h e risk. W i t h only a few e x c e p t i o n s , Citizen Kane received rave reviews. Bosley C r o w t h e r of The New York Times called it " o n e of t h e greatest (if n o t t h e greatest) films in history." It w o n t h e N e w Y o r k Film Critics Award as best p i c t u r e of 1 9 4 1 , w h i c h was a very g o o d year for A m e r i c a n movies. It received n i n e Acade m y Award n o m i n a t i o n s , b u t a t t h e c e r e m o n i e s , Welles was b o o e d w h e n e v e r his n a m e was m e n t i o n e d . Significantly, t h e only O s c a r t h a t t h e movie w o n was for its screenplay. P a u l i n e Kael suggested t h a t this was i n t e n d e d as a g e s t u r e of supT

12-26. The Magnificent Ambersons (U.S.A., 1942), with Dolores Costello, Agnes Moorehead, Joseph Cotten, and Ray Collins; directed by Orson Welles. Like most of Welles's movies, this, his favorite work, deals with the t h e m e of a lost paradise. Unlike Kane, however, the tone is warm and nostalgic, the images more softly lyrical. Welles does not appear in the film, though he does narrate the story off screen. He concludes with a shot of a m i c r o p h o n e on a swinging b o o m , accompanied by his spoken credit: "1 wrote the picture and directed it. My n a m e is Orson Welles." (RKO>

p o r t for Mankiewicz, t h e Hollywood regular, a n d as a r e b u k e to Welles, t h e upstart, w h o lost o u t o n t h e acting, d i r e c t i n g , a n d best p i c t u r e awards. Incredibly, Citizen Kane failed at t h e b o x office. It was t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e e n d for Welles in Hollywood. W hen it failed to please several sneak-preview a u d i e n c e s , his n e x t m a s t e r p i e c e , The Magnificent Ambersons (1942), was c u t by RKO from its 131-minute l e n g t h to 88 m i n u t e s , a n d a h a p p y e n d i n g was t a c k e d o n . It t o o failed at t h e b o x office. Shortly afterwards, t h e r e was a m a n a g e m e n t shuffle a t R K O a n d b o t h Welles a n d Schaefer were o u s t e d . Welles was always a favorite with critics, especially in F r a n c e . As early as t h e 1950s, e x c e r p t s from his scripts a p p e a r e d in such j o u r n a l s as Image et Son a n d Cinema dAujourd'hui. Welles was an idolized s o u r c e of inspiration for t h e critics at Cahiers du Cinema, w h o s p e a r h e a d e d t h e F r e n c h N e w Wave. "All of us will always owe h i m everything," g u s h e d J e a n - L u c G o d a r d . Truffaut c l a i m e d t h a t Citizen Kane i n s p i r e d t h e largest n u m b e r of F r e n c h filmmakers to b e g i n T

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12-27. Othello (Morocco, 1952), with Orson Welles and Suzanne Cloutier, directed by Welles. In 1948, Welles, discouraged by a string of box-office failures, left for Europe and Africa, w h e r e he hoped to work as an i n d e p e n d e n t producer-director. His first movie was this adaptation of Shakespeare. The project was a nightmare. It was over three years in the shooting, a n d Welles had to interrupt production m a n y times to seek additional funding. He lost several players in the process. There were three Desdemonas, four Iagos. Sequences had to be reshot time and again. But finally the movie was finished. On the Continent, it was enthusiastically praised and swept the Grand Prix at the Cannes Film Festival. But British and American critics complained of its crude soundtrack. This was to be the pattern of virtually all his s u b s e q u e n t work outside America. (United Artists)

t h e i r o w n c a r e e r s , a n d h e i n c l u d e d a t e n d e r t r i b u t e t o this f a m o u s m o v i e i n L a Nuit Americaine (literally, " T h e A m e r i c a n N i g h t , " b u t r e l e a s e d in t h e U n i t e d States as Day for Night). Welles's critical r e p u t a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o rise. I n t h e year o f his d e a t h , 1985, t h r e e b o o k s w e r e p u b l i s h e d a b o u t h i m . I n a poll o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i l m critics, c o n d u c t e d e v e r y t e n years by t h e p r e s t i g i o u s British j o u r n a l Sight and Sound, Citizen Kane h a s c o n s i s t e n t l y t o p p e d t h e list of t h e t e n g r e a t e s t films of all t i m e . T h e f i l m m a k e r w h o consistently receives t h e m o s t votes a s t h e g r e a t e s t d i r e c t o r i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e c i n e m a : O r s o n Welles. 528

S y n t h e s i s

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FURTHER READING

BAZIN, ANDRE, Orson Welles: A Critical View (NewYork: H a r p e r & Row, 1978). Critical study by France's greatest film critic. Orson Welles: The Road to Xanadu (NewYork: P e n g u i n , 1996). First volume of a projected two, covering Welles's life up to his War of the Worlds broadcast, written

C A L L O W , SIMON,

by a distinguished British actor. CARRINGER, ROBERT L . , The Making of Citizen Kane (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985). Definitive. GOTTESMAN, RONALD, ed., Focus on Orson Welles (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1976). A collection of critical essays, filmography, and bibliography. See also Gottesman's Focus on Citizen Kane (Englewood Cliffs, N.|.: Prentice-Hall, 1971). Two excellent anthologies. HlGHAM, CHARLES, The Films of Orson Welles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970). Critical study a n d psychobiography. Very well illustrated. See also H i g h a m ' s Orson Welles: The Rise and Fall of an American Genius (NewYork: St. Martin's Press, 1985). The Citizen. Kane Book (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971). Reading version a n d a cutting continuity of Kane, prefaced by Kael's controversial essay on t h e a u t h o r s h i p of the script.

KAEL, PAULINE,

LEAMINO, BARBARA, Orson Welles: A Biography (NewYork: Viking, 1985). Extensive interviews with Welles; somewhat idolatrous. M C B R I D E , J O S E P H , Orson Welles (NewYork: Viking, 1972). A perceptive critical study. Filmography. Stage, radio, television, acting credits. NAREMORE, JAMES, The Magic World of Orson Welles (NewYork: Oxford University Press, 1978). Critical study. THOMPSON, DAVID, Rosebud (NewYork: Knopf, 1996). A well-written biography, with sixty-nine photos.

/

(C) (I)

predominantly critical terms predominantly industry terms

(T) predominantly technical terms (G) terms in general usage

A

actor star. See star. aerial shot (T). Essentially a variation of the crane shot, though restricted to exterior locations. Usually taken from a helicopter. aesthetic distance (C). Viewers' ability to distinguish between an artistic reality and external reality—their realization that the events of a fiction film are simulated. A-film (I). An American studio era term signifying a major production, usually with important stars and a generous budget. Shown as the main feature on double bills. aleatory techniques (C). Techniques of filmmaking that depend on the element of chance. Images are not planned out in advance but must be composed on the spot by the camera operator. Usually used in documentary situations. allegory (C). A symbolic technique in which stylized characters and situations represent rather obvious ideas, such as Justice, Death, Religion, Society, and so on. allusion (C). A reference to an event, person, or work of art, usually well known. angle (G). The camera's angle of view relative to the subject being photographed. A highangle shot is photographed from above, a low angle from below the subject. animation (G). A form of filmmaking characterized by photographing inanimate objects or individual drawings frame by frame, with each frame differing minutely from its predecessor. When such images are projected at the standard speed of twenty-four frames per second, the result is that the objects or drawings appear to move, and hence seem "animated." anticipatory camera, anticipatory setup (C). The placement of the camera in such a manner as to anticipate the movement of an action before it occurs. Such setups often suggest predestination. archetype (C). An original model or type after which similar things are patterned. Archetypes can be well-known story patterns, universal experiences, or personality types.

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C o H t e n t s

Myths, fairy tales, genres, a n d cultural heroes are generally archetypal, as are t h e basic cycles of life a n d n a t u r e . art director (G). T h e individual responsible for designing a n d overseeing the construction of sets for a movie, a n d sometimes its interior decoration a n d overall visual style. aspect ratio (T). T h e ratio between the horizontal a n d vertical dimensions of the screen. auteur theory (C). A t h e o r y of film popularized by the critics of the F r e n c h j o u r n a l Cahiers du Cinema in the 1950s. T h e theory emphasizes the director as the major creator of film art, s t a m p i n g the material with his or h e r own personal vision, style, a n d thematic obsessions. available lighting (G). T h e use of only that light which actually exists on location, either natural (the sun) or artificial (house lamps). W h e n available lighting is used in interior locations, generally a sensitive fast film stork must also be used. avant-garde (C). From t h e F r e n c h , m e a n i n g "in the front ranks." T h o s e minority artists whose works are characterized by an unconventional daring a n d by obscure, controversial, or highly personal ideas. B

backlighting (G). W h e n the lights for a shot derive from the rear of the set, thus throwing the f o r e g r o u n d figures into semidarkness or silhouette. , back lot (I). During the studio era, standing exterior sets of such c o m m o n locales as a turn-ofthe-century city block, a frontier town, a European village, a n d so on. B-film (G). A low-budget movie usually shown as the second feature during the big-studio era in America. B-films rarely included important stars and took the form of p o p u l a r genres, such as thrillers, westerns, or h o r r o r films. T h e major studios used t h e m as testing grounds for the raw talent u n d e r contract. bird's-eye view (G). A shot in which t h e c a m e r a p h o t o g r a p h s a scene from directly overhead. blimp (T). A s o u n d p r o o f c a m e r a h o u s i n g that muffles the noise of the camera's m o t o r so s o u n d can be clearly r e c o r d e d on the set. blocking (T). T h e m o v e m e n t s of the actors within a given playing area. b o o m , mike b o o m (T). An overhead telescoping pole that carries a m i c r o p h o n e , p e r m i t t i n g the synchronous r e c o r d i n g of s o u n d without restricting the m o v e m e n t of the actors. buddy film (G). A male-oriented action g e n r e , especially p o p u l a r in the 1970s, dealing with t h e adventures of two or m o r e m e n , usually excluding any significant female roles. C

camp, campy (C). An artistic sensibility typified by comic mockerv, especially of t h e straight world a n d conventional morality. Campy movies are often ludicrously theatrical, stylistically gaudy, a n d gleefully subversive. eels, also cells (T). T r a n s p a r e n t plastic sheets that are s u p e r i m p o s e d in layers by animators to give the illusion of d e p t h a n d volume to their drawings. centrist (C). A political t e r m signifying a m o d e r a t e ideology, midway between t h e extremes of the left a n d right wings. cinematographer, also director of photography or D . P . (G). T h e artist or technician responsible for the lighting of a shot a n d t h e quality of the photography.

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cinema verite, also direct cinema (C). A m e t h o d of d o c u m e n t a r y filming using aleatory methods that d o n ' t interfere with the way events take place in reality. Such movies are m a d e with a m i n i m u m of e q u i p m e n t , usually a h a n d - h e l d camera a n d portable s o u n d apparatus. classical cinema, classical paradigm (C). A vague b u t convenient term used to designate the style of mainstream fiction films p r o d u c e d in America, roughly from the m i d t e e n s until the late 1960s. T h e classical p a r a d i g m is a movie strong in story, star, a n d production values, with a high level of technical achievement, a n d edited according to conventions of classical cutting. T h e visual style is functional a n d rarely distracts from t h e characters in action. Movies in this form are structured narratively, with a clearly defined conflict, complications that intensify to a rising climax, a n d a resolution that emphasizes formal closure. classical cutting (C). A style of editing developed by D. W. Griffith, in which a sequence of shots is d e t e r m i n e d by a scene's dramatic and emotional emphasis rather than by physical action alone. T h e sequence of shots represents the breakdown of the event into its psychological as well as logical components. closed forms (C). A visual style that inclines toward self-conscious designs a n d carefully harm o n i z e d compositions. T h e frame is exploited to suggest a self-sufficient universe that encloses all the necessary visual information, usually in an aesthetically appealing m a n n e r . close-up, close shot (G). A detailed view of a p e r s o n or object. A close-up of an actor usually includes only his or h e r h e a d . continuity (T). T h e kind of logic implied between edited shots, their principle of c o h e r e n c e . Cutting to continuity emphasizes s m o o t h transitions between shots, in which time a n d space are unobtrusively c o n d e n s e d . More c o m p l e x classical cutting is the linking of shots according to an event's psychological as well as logical breakdown. In thematic, montage, the continuity is d e t e r m i n e d by the symbolic association of ideas between shots, r a t h e r t h a n any literal connections in time a n d space. convention (C). An implied a g r e e m e n t between the viewer a n d artist to accept certain artificialities as real in a work of art. fn movies, editing (or the juxtaposition of shots) is accepted as "logical" even t h o u g h a viewer's p e r c e p t i o n of reality is c o n t i n u o u s a n d unfragmented. coverage, covering shots, cover shots (T). Extra shots of a scene that can be used to bridge transitions in case the p l a n n e d footage fails to edit as p l a n n e d . Usually long shots that preserve t h e overall continuity of a scene. crane shot (T). A shot taken from a special device called a crane, which resembles a h u g e mechanical a r m . T h e crane carries the camera a n d the cinematographer a n d can move in virtually any direction. creative producer (I). A p r o d u c e r who supervises the making of a movie in such detail that he or she is virtually its artistic director. During the studio era in America, the most famous creative producers were David O. Selznick a n d Walt Disney. cross-cutting (G). T h e alternating of shots from two sequences, often in different locales, suggesting that they are taking place at the same time. cutting to continuity (T). A type of editing in which the shots are a r r a n g e d to preserve the fluidity of an action without showing all of it. An unobtrusive c o n d e n s a t i o n of a continuous action.

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C o n t e n t s

D

day-for-night shooting (T). Scenes that are filmed in daytime with special filters to suggest nighttime settings in the movie image. deep-focus shot (T). A technique of photography that permits all distance planes to remain clearly in focus, from close-up ranges to infinity. dialectical, dialectics (C). An analytical methodology, derived from Hegel and Marx, that juxtaposes pairs of opposites—a thesis and antithesis—to arrive at a synthesis of ideas. dissolve, lap dissolve (T). The slow fading out of one shot and the gradual fading in of its successor, with a superimposition of images, usually at the midpoint. distributor (I). Those individuals who serve as go-betweens in the film industry, who arrange to book the product in theaters. dolly shot, tracking shot, trucking shot (T). A shot taken from a moving vehicle. Originally, tracks were laid on the set to permit a smoother movement of the camera. dominant contrast, dominant (C). That area of the film image that compels the viewer's most immediate attention, usually because of a prominent visual contrast. double exposure (T). The superimposition of two literally unrelated images on film. See also multiple exposure. dubbing (T). The addition of sound after the visuals have been photographed. Dubbing can be either synchronous with an image or nonsynchronous. Foreign language movies are often dubbed in English for release in this country. E

editing (G). The joining of one shot (strip of film) with another. The shots can picture events and objects in different places at different times. In Europe, editing is called montage. epic (C). A film genre characterized by bold and sweeping themes, usually in heroic proportions. The protagonist is an ideal representative of a culture—national, religious, or regional. The tone of most epics is dignified, the treatment larger than life. The western is the most popular epic genre in the United States. establishing shot (T). Usually an extreme long or long shot offered at the beginning of a scene, providing the viewer with the context of the subsequent closer shots. expressionism (C). A style of filmmaking emphasizing extreme distortion, lyricism, and artistic self-expression at the expense of objectivity. extreme close-up (G). A minutely detailed view of an object or person. An extreme close-up of an actor generally includes only his or her eyes or mouth. extreme long shot (G). A panoramic view of an exterior location, photographed from a great distance, often as far as a quarter-mile away. eye-level shot (T). The placement of the camera approximately five to six feet from the ground, corresponding to the height of an observer on the scene. F

fade (T). The fade-out is the snuffing of an image from normal brightness to a black screen. A fade-in is the opposite, faithful adaptation (C). A film based on a literary original which captures the essence of the original, often by using cinematic equivalents for specific literary techniques.

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fast motion (T). Shots of a subject photographed at a rate slower than twenty-four fps, which, when projected at the standard rate, convey motion that is jerky and slightly comical, seemingly out of control. fast stock, fast film (T). Film stock that's highly sensitive to light and generally produces a grainy image. Often used by documentarists who wish to shoot only with available lighting. fill light (T). Secondary lights that are used to augment the key light—the main source of illumination for a shot. Fill lights soften the harshness of the key light, revealing details that would otherwise be obscured in shadow. film noir (C). A French term—literally, black cinema—referring to a kind of urban American genre that sprang up after World War II, emphasizing a fatalistic, despairing universe where there is no escape from mean city streets, loneliness, and death. Stylistically, noir emphasizes low-key and high-contrast lighting, complex compositions, and a strong atmosphere of dread and paranoia. filters (T). Pieces of glass or plastic placed in front of the camera lens that distort the quality of light entering the camera and hence the movie image. final cut, also release print (I). T h e sequence of shots in a movie as it will be released to the public. first cut, also rough cut (I). The initial sequence of shots in a movie, often constructed by the director. first-person point of view. See point-of-view shot. flashback (G). An editing technique that suggests the interruption of the present by a shot or series of shots representing the past. flash-forward (G). An editing technique that suggests the interruption of the present by a shot or series of shots representing the future. focus (T). The degree of acceptable sharpness in a film image. "Out of focus" means the images are blurred and lack acceptable linear definition. footage (T). Exposed film stock. foregrounding (C). When a critic isolates and heightens one aspect of a work of art from its context to analyze that characteristic in greater depth. formalist, formalism (C). A style of filmmaking in which aesthetic forms take precedence over the subject matter as content. Time and space as ordinarily perceived are often distorted. Emphasis is on the essential, symbolic characteristics of objects and people, not necessarily on their superficial appearance. Formalists are often lyrical, self-consciously heightening their style to call attention to it as a value for its own sake. frame (T). The dividing line between the edges of the screen image and the enclosing darkness of the theater. Can also refer to a single photograph from the filmstrip. freeze frame, freeze shot (T). A shot composed of a single frame that is reprinted a number of times on the filmstrip; when projected, it gives the illusion of a still photograph. f-stop (T). The measurement of the size of the lens opening in the camera, indicating the amount of light that's admitted, full shot (T). A type of long shot that includes the human body in full, with the head near the top of the frame and the feet near the bottom.

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C o n t e n t s

G gauge (T). The width of the filmstrip, expressed in millimeters (mm). The wider the gauge, the better the quality of the image. The standard theatrical gauge is 35 mm. genre (C). A recognizable type of movie, characterized by certain preestablished conventions. Some c o m m o n American genres are westerns, thrillers, sci-fi movies, etc. A ready-made narrative form. H hand-held shot (G). A shot taken with a moving camera that is often deliberately shaky to suggest documentary footage in a uncontrolled setting. high-angle shot (T). A shot in which the subject is photographed from above. high contrast (T). A style of lighting emphasizing harsh shafts and dramatic streaks of lights and darks. Often used in thrillers and melodramas. high key (T). A style of lighting emphasizing bright and even illumination, with few conspicuous shadows. Used mostly in comedies, musicals, and light entertainment films. homage (C). A direct or indirect reference within a movie to another movie, filmmaker, or cinematic style. A respectful and affectionate tribute. I iconography (C). The use of a well-known cultural symbol or complex of symbols in an artistic representation. In movies, iconography can involve a star's persona, the preestablished conventions of a genre (like the shootout in a western), the use of archetypal characters and situations, and such stylistic features as lighting, settings, constuming, props, and so on. independent producer (G). A producer not affiliated with a studio or large commercial firm. Many stars and directors have been independent producers to ensure their artistic control, intercut (T). See cross-cutting. intrinsic interest (C). An unobtrusive area of the film image that nonetheless compels our most immediate attention because of its dramatic or contextual importance. iris (T). A masking device that blacks out portions of the screen, permitting only a part of the image to be seen. Usually, the iris is circular or oval in shape and can be expanded or contracted. J

j u m p cut (T). An abrupt transition between shots, sometimes deliberate, which is disorienting in terms of the continuity of space and time. K key light (T). The main source of illumination for a shot. kinetic (C). Pertaining to motion and movement. L leftist, left-wing (G). A set of ideological values, typically liberal in emphasis, stressing such traits as equality, the importance of environment in determining human behavior, relativism in moral matters, emphasis on the secular rather than religion, an optimistic view of the future and human nature, a belief in technology as the main p r o

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pellant of progress, cooperation rather than competition, an identification with the poor and the oppressed, internationalism, and sexual and reproductive freedom, lengthy take, long take (C). A shot of lengthy duration. lens (T). A ground or molded piece of glass, plastic, or other transparent material through which light rays are refracted so they converge or diverge to form the photographic image within the camera. linear (C). A visual style emphasizing sharply defined lines rather than colors or textures. Deep-focus lenses are generally used to produce this hard-edged style, which tends to be objective, matter-of-fact, and antiromantic. literal adaptation (C). A movie based on a stage play, in which the dialogue and actions are preserved more or less intact. long shot (G). A shot that includes an area within the image that roughly corresponds to the audience's view of the area within the proscenium arch in the live theater. loose adaptation (C). A movie based on another medium in which only a superficial resemblance exists between the two versions. loose framing (C). Usually in longer shots. The mise en scene is so spaciously distributed within the confines of the framed image that the people photographed have considerable freedom of movement. low-angle shot (T). A shot in which the subject is photographed from below. low key (T). A style of lighting that emphasizes diffused shadows and atmospheric pools of light. Often used in mysteries and thrillers. lyrical (C). A stylistic exuberance and subjectivity, emphasizing the sensuous beauty of the medium and producing an intense outpouring of emotion. M

majors (I). The principal production studios of a given era. In the golden age of the Hollywood studio system—roughly the 1930s and 1940s—the majors consisted of MGM, Warner Brothers, RKO, Paramount Pictures, and Twentieth Century-Fox. Marxist (G). An ideological term used to describe any person or film that is biased in favor of left-wing values, particularly in their more extreme form. masking (T). A technique whereby a portion of the movie image is blocked out, thus temporarily altering the dimensions of the screen's aspect ratio. master shot (T). An uninterrupted shot, usually taken from a long- or full-shot range, that contains an entire scene. The closer shots are photographed later, and an edited sequence, composed of a variety of shots, is constructed on the editor's bench. matte shot (T). A process of combining two separate shots on one print, resulting in an image that looks as though it had been photographed normally. Used mostly for special effects, such as combining a human figure with giant dinosaurs, etc. medium shot (G). A relatively close shot, revealing the human figure from the knees or waist up. metaphor (C). An implied comparison between two otherwise unlike elements, meaningful in a figurative rather than literal sense. Method acting (C). A style of performance derived from the Russian stage director Stanislavsky, which has been the dominant acting style in America since the 1950s. Method actors emphasize psychological intensity, extensive rehearsals to explore a character, emotional believability rather than technical mastery, and "living" a role internally rather than merely imitating the external behavior of a character.

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C o n t e n t s

metteur en scene (C). The artist or technician who creates the mise en scene—that is, the director. mickeymousing (T). A type of film music that is purely descriptive and attempts to mimic the visual action with musical equivalents. Often used in cartoons. miniatures, also model or miniature shots (T). Small-scale models photographed to give the illusion that they are full-scale objects. For example, ships sinking at sea, giant dinosaurs, airplanes colliding, etc. minimalism (C). A style of filmmaking characterized by austerity and restraint, in which cinematic elements are reduced to the barest minimum of information. mise en scene (C). The arrangement of visual weights and movements within a given space. In the live theater, the space is usually defined by the proscenium arch; in movies, it is defined by the frame that encloses the images. Cinematic mise en scene encompasses both the staging of the action and the way that it's photographed. mix (T). The process of combining separately recorded sounds from individual soundtracks onto a master track. montage (T). Transitional sequences of rapidly edited images, used to suggest the lapse of time or the passing of events. Often uses dissolves and multiple exposures. In Europe, montage means the art of editing. motif (C). Any unobtrusive technique, object, or thematic idea that's systematically repeated throughout a film. multiple exposures (T). A special effect produced by the optical printer, which permits the superimposition of many images simultaneously. N

negative image (T). The reversal of lights and darks of the subject photographed: blacks are white, whites are black. negative space (C). Emply or unfilled space in the mise en scene, often acting as a foil to the more detailed elements in a shot. neorealism (C). An Italian film movement that produced its best works between 1945 and 1955. Strongly realistic in its techniques, neorealism emphasized documentary aspects of film art, stressing loose episodic plots, unextraordinary events and characters, natural lighting, actual location settings, nonprofessional actors, a preoccupation with poverty and social problems, and an emphasis on humanistic and democratic ideals. The term has also been used to describe other films that reflect the technical and stylistic biases of Italian neorealism. NewWave, nouvelle vague (C). A group of young French directors who came to prominence during the late 1950s. The most widely known are Francois Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, and Alain Resnais. nonsynchronous sound (T). Sound and image that are not recorded simultaneously, or sound that is detached from its source in the film image. Music is usually nonsynchronous in a movie, providing background atmosphere. O oblique angle, tilt shot (T). A shot photographed by a tilted camera. When the image is projected on the screen, the subject itself seems to be tilted on a diagonal. oeuvre (C). From the French, "work." The complete works of an artist, viewed as a whole.

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omniscient point of view (C). An all-knowing narrator who provides the spectator with all the necessary information. open forms (C). Used primarily by realist filmmakers, these techniques are likely to be unobtrusive, with an emphasis on informal compositions and apparently haphazard designs. The frame is exploited to suggest a temporary masking, a window that arbitrarily cuts off part of the action. optical printer (T). An elaborate machine used to create special effects in movies. For example, fades, dissolves, multiple exposures, etc. ointakes (I). Shots or pieces of shots that are not used in the final cut of a film. Leftover footage. overexposure (T). Too much light enters the aperture of a camera lens, bleaching out the image. Useful for fantasy and nightmare scenes. P painterly (C). A visual style emphasizing soft edges, lush colors, and a radiantly illuminated environment, all producing a romantic lyricism, pan, panning shot (T). Short for panorama, this is a revolving horizontal movement of the camera from left to right or vice versa. parallel editing. See cross-cutting. persona (C). From the Latin, "mask." An actor's public image, based on his or her previous roles, and often incorporating elements from their actual personalities as well. personality star. See star. pixillation, also stop-motion photography (T). An animation technique involving the photographing of live actors frame by frame. When the sequence is projected at the standard speed of twenty-four fps, the actors move abruptly and jerkily, like cartoon figures. point-of-view shot, also pov shot, first-person camera, subjective camera (T). Any shot that is taken from the vantage point of a character in the film, showing what the character sees. process shot, also rear projection (T). A technique in which a background scene is projected onto a translucent screen behind the actors so it appears that the actors are on location in the final image. producer (G). An ambiguous term referring to the individual or company that controls the financing of a film, and often the way it's made. The producer can concern himself or herself solely with business matters, or with putting together a package deal (such as script, stars, and director), or the producer can function as an expeditor, smoothing over problems during production. producer-director (I). A filmmaker who finances his or her projects independently, to allow maximum creative freedom. production values (I). The box-office appeal of the physical mounting of a film, such as sets, costumes, props, etc. prop (T). Any movable item that is included in a movie: tables, guns, books, etc. property (I). Anything with a profit-making potential in movies, though generally used to describe a story of some kind: a screenplay, novel, short story, etc. proxemic patterns (C). The spatial relationships among characters within the mise. en scene, and the apparent distance of the camera from the subject photographed.

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C o n t e n t s

pull-back dolly (T). Withdrawing the camera from a scene to reveal an object or character that was previously out of frame. R

rack focusing, selective focusing (T). The blurring of local planes in sequence, forcing the viewer's eyes to travel with those areas of an image that remain in sharp focus. reaction shot (T). A cut to a shot of a character's reaction to the contents of the preceding shot. realism (G). A style of filmmaking that attempts to duplicate the look of objective reality as it's commonly perceived, with emphasis on authentic locations and details, long shots, lengthy takes, and a minimum of distorting techniques. reestablishing shot (T). A return to an initial establishing shot within a scene, acting as a reminder of the physical context of the closer shots. reprinting (T). A special effects technique in which two or more separately photographed images are rephotographed onto one strip of film, reverse angle shot (T). A shot taken from an angle 180° opposed to the previous shot. That is, the camera is placed opposite its previous position. reverse motion (T). A series of images are photographed with the film reversed. When projected normally, the effect is to suggest backward movement—an egg "returning" to its shell, for example. rightist, right-wing (G). A set of ideological values, typically conservative in emphasis, stressing such traits as family values, patriarchy, heredity and caste, absolute moral and ethical standards, religion, veneration for tradition and the past, a tendency to be pessimistic about the future and human nature, the need for competition, an identification with leaders and elite classes, nationalism, open market economic principals, and marital monogamy. rite of passage (C). Narratives that focus on key phases of a person's life, when an individual passes from one stage of development to another, such as adolescence to adulthood, innocence to experience, middle age to old age, and so on. rough cut (T). The crudely edited footage of a movie before the editor has tightened up the slackness between shots. A kind of rough draft. rushes, dailies (I). The selected footage of the previous day's shooting, which is usually evaluated by the director and cinematographer before the start of the next day's shooting. S scene (G). An imprecise unit of film, composed of a number of interrelated shots, unified usually by a central concern—a location, an incident, or a minor dramatic climax. screwball comedy (C). A film genre, introduced in the 1930s in America and popular up to the 1950s, characterized by zany lovers, often from different social classes. The plots are often absurdly improbable and have a tendency to veer out of control. These movies usually feature slapstick comedy scenes, aggressive and charming heroines, and an assortment of outlandish secondary characters. script, screenplay, scenario (G). A written description of a movie's dialogue and action, which occasionally includes camera directions, selective focus. See rack focusing.

C o n t e n t s

5 4 1

sequence shot, also plan-sequence (C). A single lengthy shot, usually involving complex staging and camera movements, setup (T). The positioning of the camera and lights for a specific shot. shooting ratio (I). T h e amount of film stock used in photographing a movie in relation to what's finally included in the finished product. A shooting ratio of 20: t means that twenty feet of fifm were shot for every one used in the final cut. shooting script (I). A written breakdown of a movie story into its individual shots, often containing technical instructions. Used by the director and his or her staff during the production. short lens. See wide-angle lens. shot (G). Those images that are recorded continuously from the time the camera starts to the time it stops. That is, an unedited strip of film. slow motion (T). Shots of a subject photographed at a faster rate than twenty-four fps, which when projected at the standard rate produce a dreamy, dancelike slowness of action. slow stock, slow film (T). Film stocks that are relatively insensitive to light and produce crisp images and a sharpness of detail. When used in interior settings, these stocks generally require considerable artificial illumination. soft focus (T). The blurring out of focus of all except one desired distance range. Can also refer to a glamorizing technique that softens the sharpness of definition so facial wrinkles can be smoothed over and even eliminated. star (G). A film actor or actress of great popularity. A personality star tends to play only those roles that fit a preconceived public image, which constitutes his or her persona. An actor star can play roles of greater range and variety. Barbra Streisand is a personality star; Robert De Niro is an actor star. star system (G). The technique of exploiting the charisma of popular performers to enhance the box-office appeal of films. The star system was developed in America and has been the backbone of the American film industry since the mid-l9l0s. star vehicle (G). A movie especially designed to showcase the talents and charms of a specific star. stock (T). Unexposed film. There are many types of movie stocks, including those highly sensitive to light (fast stocks) and those relatively insensitive to light (slow stocks). storyboard, storyboarding (T). A previsualization technique in which shots are sketched in advance and in sequence, like a comic strip, thus allowing the filmmaker to outline the mise en scene and construct the editing continuity before production begins. story values (I). The narrative appeal of a movie, which can reside in the popularity of an adapted property, the high craftsmanship of a script, or both, studio (G). A large corporation specializing in the production of movies, such as Paramount, Warner Brothers, and so on; any physical facility equipped for the production of films. subjective camera. See point-of-viexu shot. subsidiary contrast (C). A subordinated element of the film image, complementing or contrasting with the dominant contrast. subtext (C). A term used in drama and film to signify the dramatic implications beneath the language of a play or movie. Often, the subtext concerns ideas and emotions that are totally independent of the language of a text.

5 4 2

C o n t e n t s

surrealism (C). An avant-garde movement in the arts stressing Freudian and Marxist ideas, unconscious elements, irrationalism, and the symbolic association of ideas. Surrealist movies were produced roughly from 1924 to 1931, primarily in France, though there are surrealistic elements in the works of many directors, and especially in music videos. swish pan, also flash or zip pan (T). A horizontal movement of the camera at such a rapid rate that the subject photographed blurs on the screen. symbol, symbolic (C). A figurative device in which an object, event, or cinematic technique has significance beyond its literal meaning. Symbolism is always determined by the dramatic context. synchronous sound (T). The agreement or correspondence between image and sound, which are recorded simultaneously, or seem so in the finished print. Synchronous sounds appear to derive from an obvious source in the visuals. T take (T). A variation of a specific shot. The final shot is often selected from a number of possible takes. telephoto lens, long lens (T). A lens that acts as a telescope, magnifying the size of objects at a great distance. A side effect is its tendency to flatten perspective. thematic montage (C). A type of editing propounded by the Soviet filmmaker Eisenstein, in which separate shots are linked together not by their literal continuity in reality but by symbolic association. A shot of a preening braggart might be linked to a shot of a toy peacock, for example. Most commonly used in documentaries, in which shots are connected in accordance to the filmmaker's thesis. three-point lighting (T). A c o m m o n technique of lighting a scene from three sources. The key light is the main source of illumination, usually creating the dominant contrast, where we look first in a shot. Fill lights are less intense and are generally placed opposite the key, illuminating areas that would otherwise be obscured by shadow. Backlights are used to separate the foreground elements from the setting, emphasizing a sense of depth in the image. three-shot (T). A medium shot, featuring three actors. tight framing (C). Usually in close shots. The mise en scene is so carefully balanced and harmonized that the people photographed have little or no freedom of movement, tilt, tilt shot (T). See oblique angle. tracking shot, trucking shot. See dolly shot. two-shot (T). A medium shot featuring two actors.

V vertical integration (I). A system in which the production, distribution, and exhibition of movies are all controlled by the same corporation, fn America, the practice was declared illegal in the late 1940s. viewfinder (T). An eyepiece on the camera that defines the playing area and the framing of the action to be photographed. voice-over (T). A nonsynchronous spoken commentary in a movie, often used to convey a character's thoughts or memories.

C o n t e n t s

5 4 3

W

wide-angle lens, short lens (T). A lens that permits the camera to photograph a wider area than a normal lens. A side effect is its tendency to exaggerate perspective. Also used for deep-focus photography. widescreen, also CinemaScope, scope (G). A movie image that has an aspect ratio of approximately 5:3, though some widescreens possess horizontal dimensions that extend as wide as 2.5 times the vertical dimension of the screen. wipe (T). An editing device, usually a line that travels across the screen, "pushing o f f one image and revealing another. women's pictures (G). A film genre that focuses on the problems of women, such as career versus family conflicts. Often, such films feature a popular female star as protagonist. Z

zoom lens, zoom shot (T). A lens of variable focal length that permits the cinematographer to change from wide-angle to telephoto shots (and vice versa) in one continuous movement, often plunging the viewer in or out of a scene rapidly.

/

ZJ n d ^ ?c

A

Acting, 245-295, 509-511 styles of, 276-287 Action film, 115 Adaptation, 300-301, 304, 405-409 Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert, The, 448 African Queen, The, 173-174 Age of Innocence, The, color plate 5 Aguirre, the Wrath of God, 276, 277 Air Force One, 47 Aladdin, 331 Alea, Tomas Gutierrez, 399 Alexander Nevsky, 222 Alexie, Sherman, 432 Aliens, color plate 2 All About Eve, 301, 383 All Screwed Up, 236 Allen, Woody, 45, 181, 381 Allures, 9 Altman, Robert, 214, 403, 488 Amadeus, 225 Amarcord, 320 American Beauty, color plate 3, 395-396 American Graffiti, 225 Ameriran in Paris, An, 97

Anders, Allison, 433 Angela's Ashes, 334 Angles, the, 13—17 Animation, 124-126, 220, 331 Annie Hall, 181 Another Country, 87 Anticipatory setup, 86, 102, 108 Antonioni, Michelangelo, 24, 75, 76, 79, 102, 223, 250 Any Given. Sunday, 96 Apocalypse Now, 122-123, 220 Armageddon, 72 Arnheim, Rudolf, 465-468 Arrival of a Train, The, 2, 137 As Good As It Gets, 13 Astaire, Fred, 106, 152 August, John, 477 Auteur theory, 305-310, 470-475, 524 Autumn Afternoon, An, 485 Avant garde, 4, 5, 9, 148-150, 360-361

B

Babe, 214 545

5 4 6

J u d e x

Babenco, Hector, 428 Back-lot sets, 321-322 Badlands, 240 Ball, Lucille, 272-273 Ballet Mecanique, 123 Band Wagon, The, 229 Bank, The, 483 Barcelona, 378 Barton Fink, 317 Batman Forever, 326 Bazin, Andre, 168-180, 306, 458 Beauty and the Beast, 125 Being John Malkovich, 467 Belle Epoque, 242 Beresford, Bruce, 484 Bergman, Ingmar, 8, 80, 230, 394, 424, 472 Bergman, Ingrid, 259-260 Berkeley, Busby, 3, 97 Best Years of Our Lives, The, 23 Bicycle Thief, The, 289, 462-464 Big, 67 Big Night, 449 Birth of a Nation, The, 22, 138, 139, 142, 145, 313 Blade Runner, 323 Blair Witch Project, The, 122 Blonde Venus, 481 Blood & Wine, 264 Blue Angel, The, 69 Body language, 255, 327 Bogart, Humphrey, 456 Bonnie and Clyde, 14, 218-219, 224 Boogie Nights, 336 Booty Call, 90 Born on the Fourth of July, 120 Boys Don't Cry, 248 Boyz N the Hood, 435 Branagh, Kenneth, 12, 76, 281, 426 Brando, Marlon, 285, 308 Braveheart, 107 Breakfast Club, The, 328 Breaking Aivay, 435 Bridges of Madison County, The, 241 Bringing Up Baby, 451-452

Broken Arroxv, 115 Bull Durham, 234 Bullock, Sandra, 335 Bunuel, Luis, 131,354 Burton, Tim, 316 Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, 131

C

Cabaret, 26, 114 Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, The, 277, 315 Cagney, James, 284 Can Film, 126 Capra, Frank, 7, 144, 363, 423 Caretaker, The, 117-119 Carrington, 447 Casablanca, 377-379, 380 Cassavetes, John, 85-86 Casting, 287-293 Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith, The, 434 Chaplin, Charles, 81-83, 255, 278, 325-326, 483 Charisse, Cyd, 116 Chasing Amy, 382 Chicken Run, color plate 12 Chinatown, 349 Choreography, 95, 97, 98, 106, 114, 116, 130 Cimino, Michael, 150 Cinema Paradiso, 422 Cinema verite, 217, 287, 356-360 Cinematographer, Cinematography, 36-42, 495-499 Circle of Friends, 112 Citizen Kane, 27, 493-531 City Lights, 81, 82 City of Hope, 490 Clair, Rene, 210-212 Classical cinema, 6 Classical composition, 56-58 Classical cutting, 138-154

i7 n d c ^

Classical paradigm, 4, 343-348 Clerks, 175 Clockwork Orange, A, 215 Clooney, George, 3 Closed form, 83-92 Closely Watched Trains, 464 Clueless, 478 Colbert, Claudette, 363 Color, 22-28 Composition, 56-65, 500 Condemned Man Escapes, A, 75 Continuity, 134-138 Coppola, Francis Ford , 39, 68, 220 Costner, Kevin, 357, 426 Costumes, 324-332, 514-515 Crawford, Joan, 474 Cries and Whispers, 394 Crime and Punishment, 26 Crowe, Russell, 343 Crucible, The, 121 Cruise, Tom, 259, 262, 274, 366 Crying Game, The, 292 Curtiz, Michael, 473-475

D Dames, 3 Damon, Matt, 469 Dances With Wolves, 426 Dance with Me, 118 Dark Victory, color plate 18, 27 Day for Night, 393 Day-Lewis, Daniel, 263 Days of Heaven, 41 Dead, The, 304 Dead Man Walking, 431 Dead Men Don't Wear Plaid, 155 Decline of the American Empire, The, 60 Decor, 311-324, 512 Deep focus photography, 12 Deer Hunter, The, 150 Deliverance, 39

54

Deneuve, Catherine, 284 De Niro, Robert, 261,277 Depardieu, Gerard, 355 Deren, Maya, 360-361, 493 De Sica, Vittorio, 85, 289, 377, 460, 462-464 Dialects, 233, 234, 236, 237 DiCaprio, Leonardo, 310 Die Hard With a Vengeance, 274 Dietrich, Marlene, 445 Dinosaur, 125 Director, the, 305-310 Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie, The, 354 Disney, Walt, 125,371 Distant Thunder, 6 Documentary, 137, 140, 172, 356-360, 459 Dodes'ka-den, 322 Dog Day Afternoon, 39, 170 Dog Star Man, 29 Dominant contrast, dominant, 58 Dona Flor and Her Txoo Husbands, 299 Donati, Danilo, 318-320 Don Giovanni, 231 Don't Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood, 365 Do the Right Thing, 221 Double Indemnity, 20 Drama, 295-333, 511-515 Driving Miss Daisy, 308 Dubbing, 211, 241-242, 256 Dunaway, Faye, 349 Duvall, Robert, 484 DVD, 39

Eastwood, Clint, 241, 364 Eclectic theory, 477-480 Editing, 133-207, 505-507

5 4 8

J « d c x

Edward Scissorhands, color plate 1 8'A, 119, 342, 479 Eisenstein, Sergei, 108, 157-168, 210, 222, 313, 323, 419 Emigrants, The, 37 Empire Strikes Back Special Edition, The, 21 End of August at the Hotel Ozone, The, 57 End of Summer, The, 286 End of the Affair, The, 247 Enright, Ray, 3 Ensemble cast, 249 Enter the Dragon, 98 Epic, 298, 419, 450 Erin Brockovich, 293 Ethnicity, ethnic films, 436-437 E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial, 369 Exorcist, The, 217 Expressionism, 4, 8 acting, 276, 277 sets, 315, 317-320

Flashdance, 153 Fonda, Jane, 270-271 Footlight Parade, 227 Ford, John, 16, 222, 376-377, 415, 429 Foreign Affair, A, 445 Formalism, 2-11 Formalist film theories, 464-470 Formalistic narratives, 352-356 Forrest Gump, 113 Fosse, Bob, 97, 114 400 Blows, The, 66, 131, 287 4th Man, The, 151 Four Weddings and a Funeral, color plate 10 Frame, the, 44-56 Frantic, 108 Freeman, Morgan, 270, 338 Freeze frame, 130-131 French Connection, The, 32, 110, 215 Freud, Sigmund, 370 Fritz the Cat, 124 From Here to Eternity, 25 Full Metal Jacket, 88

Face/Off, 353 Fanny and Alexander, 472 Fantastic Voyage, 297 Fargo, 364 Fast film stock, 24, 33 Fast motion, 127-128 Fat City, 142 Fellini, Federico, 119, 256, 318-321, 342, 479 Feminism, 437-443 Fiddler on the Roof, 433 Field, Syd, 345-346 Fiennes, Ralph, 247 Figurative comparisons, 393-399 Film noir, 27 Filters, 34 Fish Called Wanda, A, 254

G

Gable, Clark, 363 Gance, Abel, 50 Garbo, Greta, 268, 278-279 Garden of the Finzi-Continis, The, 27, 85 Garland, Judy, 228 Gattaca, 66 Gauges, 32 Gay Liberation, 444—450 General, The, 346-348 Genre, 362-372, 427-428, 439-440 Gere, Richard, 413 Giannini, Giancarlo, 277 Gigi, 287 Gilbert, John, 213 Gladiatm, 147

J u d e x

Glory, 129 Go, 477 Godard, Jean-Luc, 217, 337 Godfather, The, color plate 8, 39 Godfather Part II, The, 68 Gods and Monsters, 446 Godzilla, 100 Gold Rush, The, 82, 255 Gone With the Wind, 117 GoodFellas, 147 Gospel According to St. Matthew, The, 385 Graduate, The, 32, 64, 75, 120 Grand ffofei 319 Grand Illusion, 71, 75, 87 Grant, Gary, 292, 391, 452 Grapes of Wrath, The, 376-377, 429 Greed, 38, 54 Greysloke: The. Legend of Tarzan, Lord of the Apes, 330 Griffith, D.W., 47, 138-154, 315-317 Grifters, The, 65

5 4 9

Herrmann, Bernard, 215-216, 223-224, 508 Hidden Fortress, The, 179 High Hopes, 421 Highlander III: The Sourcerer, 111 High Noon, 169 Historiography, 487-492 Hitchcock, Alfred, 48, 55, 117, 120, 181-206, 215-217, 275, 288-290, 354, 387-392, 398 Hoffman, Dustin, 305 Home and the World, The, 335 Honeymooners, The, 49 Hopkins, Anthony, 269 Hot Shots! Part Deux, 400 Howard, Ron, 469 Howards End, 376 How Green Was My Valley, 16, 319 Hudson, Rock, 445 Human Condition—No Greater Love, The, 420 Huston.John, 55, 313-315, 407, 456

H I

Hair, 130 Halloween: The Curse of Michael Myers, 15 Hamlet, 7 Branagh version, 281 Olivier version, 103—104 Zeffirelli version, 104, 105 Hanks, Tom, 67, 266, 469 Harlan County, U.S.A., 359 Hate (La Haine), 352 Hearts and Minds, 5 Heavy Traffic, 124 Hecht, Ben, 380 Heckerling, Amy, 478 He Got Game, 432 Henry V, 426 Hepburn, Katharine, 452

Ice Storm, The, 258 Iconography, 268-269, 270, 275-276, 288, 292, 329 Ideology, 233, 237, 325, 411-455 Ikiru, 309 // Postino (The Postman), 327 Independence Day, 479 Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, 56 Indian in the Cupboard, The, 52 Innocents, The, 180 Insider, The, 343 In the Name of the Father, 263 Intolerance, 47, 151-153 Invasion of the Body Snatchers, 368 Iris, 48 It Happened One Night, 363

550

J u d e x

It's a Wonderful Life, 144, 423 Ivory, James, 376

J Jackson, Samuel L., 274 Jazz Singer, The, 174, 208-209 Jerry Maguire, 262 Jewison, Norman, 433 JFK, 357 Jhabvala, Ruth Prawer, 376 Johns, color plate 9 Jonze, Spike, 467 Jules and Jim, 63, 65 Juliet of the Spirits, 26 Jung, Carl, 370-371 Jurassic Park, 171 Just Another Girl cm the I.R. T, 312

K

Kael, Pauline, 455, 477-478 Kafka, 40 Kazan, Elia, 281-287, 308 Keaton, Buster, 346-348 Keep, The, 312 Kelly, Gene, 97, 116,367 Kidd, Michael, 97 Kidman, Nicole, 265 Kids, 33 Kinetics, 95-112 King and I, The, 105 King of the Hill, 30 Kinski, Klaus, 276 Knack, The, 130 Kobayashi, Masaki, 420 Kolya, 340 Kracauer, Sigfried, 462

Kubrick, Stanley, 51, 88, 121, 225-226, 324, 395 Kuleshov, Lev, 155-157 Kureishi, Hanif, 384 Kurosawa, Akira, 109, 111, 129, 179, 219, 309, 322, 394-395, 396-397, 406

L Ladies in Retirement, 107-108 Lady from Shanghai, The, 401 Lang, Fritz, 54, 108, 316 Last Metro, The, 284 Last of the Mohicans, The, 129 Last Picture Show, The, 148, 225 La Strada, 256 Late Autumn, 430 Late Chrysanthemums, 441 Late Spring, 350 L'Awentura, 102 Law and Order, 358 Lawrence of Arabia, 48 Lean, David, 48 Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III, 22 Leaving Las Vegas, 72 Lee, Ang, 392 Lee, Spike, 221, 432 Legend of Bagger Vance, The, 469 Leigh, Mike, 282, 421 Lenses, 28-36, 100-101 leopard, The, 325 Letter From an Unknown Woman, 119, 318 Lifeboat, 156 Life Is Beautiful, color plate 6 Lights, Lighting, 18-22 Like Water for Chocolate, 78 Lion King, The, 353 Little Caesar, 319 Little Foxes, The, 306

J u d e x

Little Mermaid, The, color plate 11 Little Women, 382 Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner, The, 131 Longtime Companion, 341 Looking for Richard, 172 Lopez, Jennifer, 264 Lubitsch, Ernst, 211-212 Lumet, Sidney, 39, 152 Lumiere brothers, 2, 137 Lyricism, 16

M

M, 54, 89, 91 Macbeth Polanski version, 59 Welles version, 59 Magic Flute, The, 231 Magnificent Ambersons, The, 213-214 Magnolia, 262 Magnum Force, 302 Makeup, 330-331 Makioka Sisters, The, 135 Maltese Falcon, The, 55, 456 Mame, 272-273 Manhattan, 45 Mankiewicz, Herman, 518-522 Mankiewicz, Joseph L., 301, 383 Mansfield Park, 118 Man Who Would Be King, The, 407 Marathon Man, 32 Married to the Mob, color plate 7 Marshall, Penny, 431 Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, 12 Masculine-Feminine, 337 Mask, The, 127 McCabe and Mrs. Miller, 34, 235 McKellen, Ian, 446 Medium Cool, 489 Melies, Georges, 2, 22, 131, 138, 317-318

551

Member of the Wedding, The, 408 Men, 443 Men in Black, 61 Menzefjiri, 464 Merchant, Ismail, 376 Merry Widow, The, 213 Metaphors, 395-396 Method acting, 281-287 Meyer, Nicholas, 385 Mickeymousing, 220, 222 Midnight Express, 55 Mildred Pierce, 474 Miniatures, 318 Mise en scene, 43-93, 297, 379-381, 499-501 Mi Vida Loca/My Crazy Life, 433 Mizoguchi, Kenji, 174, 465 Mon Oncle d'Amerique, 355-356 Monroe, Marilyn, 36, 265-267, 329 Monte Carlo, 210, 212 Moore, Julianne, 247 Moore, Michael, 414 Motifs, 394 Movement, 60, 93-133, 501-505 Moving camera, the, 112-123 Mr. Deeds Goes to Town, 7 Mrs. Soffel, 84 Much Ado About Nothing, 76 Multiplicity, 35 Muppets From Space, 466 Muriel's Wedding, 40 Music, 219-226 Musicals, 154, 226-230, 367 My Beautiful Laundrette, 384 My Friend Irma Goes West, 42 My Life As a Dog, 343 Myth, 362-372, 413

N

Naked City, 38 Napoleon, 50

5 5 2

O n d e

?c

Narratives, nonfictional, 356-361 Narratology, 336-339 Naruse, Mikio, 441 Nashville, 403 Neighbors, 124-126 Neorealism, 176, 377 NewWave, nouvelle vague, 179-180 New York, New York, 230 Nichols, Mike, 474 Nicholson, Jack, 349 Night of the Shooting Stars, The, 257 Night Moves, 74 Nolle, Nick, 375 North by Northwest, 181-206, 3 8 7 392 Notorious, 46, 55, 120 Novak, Kim, 275 Nun's Story, The, 283

O October (Ten Days That Shook the World), 313,419 Octopussy, 439 Okaeri, 11 Oklahoma!, 97 Old and New, 105-107 Olivier, Laurence, 280-281 Olmi, Ermanno, 463 Once Were Warriors, 57 On the Town, 367 On the Waterfront, 281-282, 285, 383-385 Open City, 458, 459 Open form, 83-92 Opera, 230 Ophuls, Marcel, 172 Ophuls, Max. 119 Opposite of Sex, The, 476 Optical printer, 35-36 Ordinary People, 218 Orpheus, 130

Osborne, John, 386-387 Othello, 119 Ozu, Yasujiro, 53, 286, 350, 351, 430, 485

P Pacino, Al, 170, 172 Pas De Deux, 34 Pasolini, Pier Paolo, 385 Passion offoan of Arc, 104 Pather Panchali, 461 Pawnbroker, The, 39, 128, 152 Pennies From Heaven, 400 People VS. Larry Flynt, The, 364 Perfect Storm, The, 3 Persona, 80 Petersen, Wolfgang, 3 Philadelphia, 266 Photocopy Cha Cha, 126 Photography, 1-43 Pickford, Mary, 259-260 Pickpocket, 300 Pillow Talk, 445 Pinocchio, 371 Pinter, Harold, 117-119, 2 3 5 237 Pixote, 428 Places in the Heart, 114-115 Platoon, color plate 14 Point of Order!, 360 Point of view, 401-405 Polanski, Roman, 349 Potemkin, 160-168 Preacher's Wife, The, 431 Pretty Woman, 413 Primary Colors, 474 Prince of the City, 39 Prokofiev, Sergei, 222 Proxemic patterns, 77-83 Psycho, 48, 215-216, 398 Pudovkin, V. I., 155-157

.T

Pulp Fiction, 146 Pumpkin Eater, The, 116-117

R

Raging Bull, 8, 10 Raimi, Sam, 349 Raise the Red Lantern, 440 Ran, 216 Rashomon, 111 Ray, Satyajit, 6, 335, 461 Razor Blades, 361 Realism acting, 281-287 editing, 168-180 photography, 2-11, 457-458 sets, 313-315 theories of, 457-464 Realistic narratives, 348-352 Rear Window, 48, 158-159 Red, 19 Red Badge of Courage, The, 99, 223-224 Red Desert, 24, 75, 76 Redford, Robert, 469 Reeves, Keann, 335 Ref, The, 449 Relic, The, 297 Religion, 430-436 Renoir, Jean, 75, 87, 460 Reservoir Dogs, 243 Resnais, Alain, 355-356 Return to Paradise, 78 Reverse motion, 130 Rhythmus 21, 141 Richard III, 298 Richter, Hans, 361 Riefenstahl, Leni, 425 Risky Business, 18, 366 Road Warrior, The, color plate 16 Robbins, Tim, 338, 431 Roberts, Julia, 293, 413 Robocop, 467

n

d

l?

x

5 5 3

Rock, The, 218 Rocky, 365 Rocky Horror Picture Show, The, 279 Roger & Me, 414 Romeo andfuliet Cukor version, 290, 300 Zeffirelli version, 290, 300-301 Ronin, 340 Rossellini, Roberto, 259-260, 457-459 Royal Wedding, 152 Rules of the Game, The, 460 Rumble in the Bronx, 31 Runaway Bride, 31

S

Sabotage, 251, 252-253 Safety Last, 173 Sands oflwo Jima, The, 269-270, 314 Saturday Night Fever, 219 Savage Nights, color plate 4 Saving Private Ryan, color plate 13 Sayles.John, 490 Scarface, Shame of a Nation, 209 Schepisi, Fred, 434 Schindler's List, 31 Schwarzenegger, Arnold, 475 Scorsese, Martin, 230, 261 Scream, 30 Screenplay, 383-387 Screenwriter, 374-381 Screwball comedy, 363, 452-453 Searchers, The, 415 Secrets & Lies, 282 Seduction of Mimi, 'The, 277 Semiology, semiotics, 480-487 Sense and Sensibility, 392 Sequence shot, 140-141 Serpico, 39 Servant, The, 468 Settings, 311-324, 513

5 5 4

J u d e x

Seven, 270 Seven Beauties, 438 Seven Brides for Seven Brothers, 97 Seven Samurai, The, 142, 215, 394-395, 396-397 Seventh Seal, The, 8 Seven Year Itch, The, 329 Sex appeal, 260 Shakespeare, William, 248, 280, 300-301, 310, 353, 406, 426 Shakespeare In Love, color plate 15 Shallow Grave, 17 Shall WeDancel 99 Shawshank Redemption, The, 338 She Done Him Wrong, 211 She's the One, 61 Shining, The, 121 Shoeshine, 377 S/wrt Cuts, 488 Shots, the, 11-13 Siegfried, 316 Silence of the Lambs, The, 269 Singin' in the Rain, 95, 116 Singleton, John, 435 Slapstick comedy, 107 Sleepless in Seattle, 226 SZeepy Hollow, 316 Sling Blade, 476 Slow motion, 128-130 Swja// Tme Crooks, 381 Smith, Will, 469 Smoke Signals, 432 Snow Wnz'te and TAree Stooges, 42 Sown? Life /r //oi, 386 Sons of the Desert, 72 Sorrow and the Pity, The, 172 Sound, 174-176, 207-245, 507-509 Sound effects, 215-219 Sound montage, 213-214 Soviet montage, 155-168 Space Cowboys, 86 Special effects, 9, 35-36, 126-127, 297, 303, 317-318, 321, 398, 498

Spectator, the, 339-342 Speed, 335 Spielberg, Steven, 56, 171, 369 Splash, 469 Spoken language, 230-243 Stallone, Sylvester, 365 Stanislavsky, Constantine, 282-286 Star, star system, 259-276 Star Is Born, A, 228 Starman, 27 Star Wars, 224 Staying Alive, 254 Stewart, James, 275 Stock, film stock, 34 Stone, Oliver, 357 Story (narrative), 333-373, 516-518 Storyboarding, 38, 181-206 Story of Women, 416 Straight Story, The, 178 Stranger Than Paradise, 177 Strawberry and Chocolate, 399 Streetcar Named Desire, A, 308 Strictly Ballroom, 118 Structuralism, 361, 480-487 Studio system, 261-268, 320-322, 471-473, 490-491, 524-526 Stunt Man, The, 103 Subtext, 233-237, 283 Sunset Boulevard, 238 Superman, 62 Sweet Hours, 370 Symbols, 394-395

T

Talented Mr. Ripley, The, 405 Tarantino, Quentin, 243 Taxi Driver, 261 Temptress Moon, 96 Tender Mercies, 484 Terminator 2: Judgment Day, 475 Territorial space, 66-77

555 Thelma & Louise, 442 Theory, film theory, 455-493, 524-528 There's Something About Mary, 378 They Shoot Horses, Don't They?, 271, 404 Thin Red Line, The, 375 Thirteenth Floor, The, 321 Thirty-Two Short Films About Glenn Gould, 140 This Is Elvis, 24 Thompson, Emma, 263, 392, 447 Thornton, Billy Bob, 349, 476 Three-point lighting, 19 Throne of Blood, 406 THX1138, 69 Tilai, 451 Titanic, color plate 17 To Die For, 265 Tokyo Story, 53 Toland, Gregg, 495-499 Tom Jones, 128, 131, 222, 386387 Tone, 279, 450-453 Too Beautiful for You, 30 Tootsie, 305 Top Hat, 106 Total Recall, 9, 10 Toy Story, 125 Trainspotting, 237, 395-396 Travolta, John, 474 Tree of the Wooden Clogs, The, 463 Trip to the Moon, A, 2, 138 Triumph of the Will, 425 True Grit, 131 True Love, 350 Truffaut, Francois, 48, 63, 65, 66, 103, 179-181, 393, 470-475 Twentieth Century, 380 Twister, 303 Two Tars, 107 2001: A Space Odyssey, 51, 324, 395

U

Ugetsu, 465 Umberto D, 460 Unforgiven, 364 Usual Suspects, The, 239 Utamaro and His Five Women, 174 U-Turn, 73

V

Vertigo, 275 Video, 39, 48, 49, 90 Virgin Spring, The, 424 Viridiana, 131 Visconti, Luchino, 325 Voice-over, 238, 239, 240, 336-337, 338,401,450-451 Von Sternberg, Josef, 69

W

Waiting to Exhale, 249 Wayans brothers, 365 Wayne, John, 268-269, 314, 415 Welles, Orson, 119, 213-214, 241, 494-531 Wertmuller, Lina, 233, 236, 277, 438 West, Mae, 241-242 West Side Story, 154 What Dreams May Come, 483 What's Eating Gilbert Grape, 375 What's Love Got to Do With It, 71 Whisperers, The, 250 White Balloon, The, 291 Who Framed Roger Rabbit, 126-127 Widescreen, 45-46, 177-179 Wild Bunch, The, 128-130 Wild Child, The, 48, 103

556

J n d e x

Wilder, Billy, 238, 239, 386, 445 Williams, Esther, 260 Williams, John, 224 William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, 310 Willis, Bruce, 274 Wings of Desire, 212 Wiseman, Frederick, 358 Without Limits, 129 Wizard of Oz, The, 466 Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown, 38 Woo, John, 115 Words, Words, Words, 126 Writing, 373-411, 518-522 Wyler, William, 170-173, 306

X Xala, 233

/

Y Yankee Doodle Dandy, 284 Yates, Peter, 435 Yellow Submarine, The, 229 Yimou, Zhang, 440 Yojimbo, 109, 277-278 You Only Live Once, 42 Your Friends & Neighbors, 79

Z

Zabriskie Point, 79 Zavattini, Cesare, 377, 459-464 Zemeckis, Robert, 113