Tourists with Typewriters: Critical Reflections on Contemporary Travel Writing

Tourists with. Typewriters Tourists with Typewriters Critical Reflections on Contemporary Travel Writing PATRICK HOL...

Author: Patrick Holland | Graham Huggan

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Tourists with. Typewriters

Tourists with Typewriters Critical Reflections on Contemporary Travel Writing

PATRICK HOLLAND AND GRAHAM HUGGAN

ANN ARBOR

The University of Michigan Press

F i r s t p a p e r b a c k e d i t i o n 2000 C o p y r i g h t © b y t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n 1998 A l l rights

reserved

Published in the U n i t e d States o fA m e r i c a b y T h e University o fM i c h i g a n Press M a n u f a c t u r e d in the U n i t e d States o f A m e r i c a © Printed o nacid-free p a p e r

2003

2002

2001

2000

5 4 3 2

N o part o fthis publication m a y b e r e p r o d u c e d , stored in a retrieval system, o rtransmitted in a n y

form

or b ya n y m e a n s , electronic, mechanical, o r otherwise, without the written permission o fthe

A CIP catalog record for

publisher.

this book is available from the British Library.

Library o fCongress Cataloging-in-Publication

Data

H o l l a n d , P a t r i c k , 1943T o u r i s t s w i t h typewriters : critical reflections o n c o n t e m p o r a r y travel writing / Patrick H o l l a n d a n d G r a h a m H u g g a n . p. c m . Includes bibliographical

references a n d index.

I S B N 0-472-10973-T ( a c i d - f r e e p a p e r ) 1. T r a v e l e r s ' w r i t i n g s , E n g l i s h — H i s t o r y a n d c r i t i c i s m . 2. E n g l i s h p r o s e l i t e r a t u r e - — 2 0 t h c e n t u r y — H i s t o r y a n d c r i t i c i s m . 3. A m e r i c a n p r o s e l i t e r a t u r e — 2 0 t h c e n t u r y — H i s t o r y a n d c r i t i c i s m . 4. T r a v e l e r s ' w r i t i n g s , A m e r i c a n — H i s t o r y a n d c r i t i c i s m . 5. V o y a g e s a n d t r a v e l s — H i s t o r y — 2 0 t h c e n t u r y — H i s t o r i o g r a p h y . 6. T r a v e l i n l i t e r a t u r e . I . H u g g a n , G r a h a m , 1958-

PR808.T72

H65

II. Title.

1999

820.9'355—ddc2i

98-25512 C I P

I S B N 0-472-08706-1 ( p b k . : alk. paper)

Contents

Preface

vii

Introduction. Travel Writing Today Chapter one. After Empire Chapter two. Zones

i

27

67

Chapter three. Gender and Other Troubles Chapter four. Postmodern Itineraries

157

Postscript. Travel Writing at the Millennium Notes

219

Works Cited Index

255

241

in

197

Preface

T H E R E ISA M O M E N T

Gulliver's Travels (1726),

I N SWIFT'S

O N TRAVEL WRITING, W H E N

ALREADY A

SATIRE

THE E X A S P E R A T E D GULLIVER SAYS H E CAN N O

S T A N D T OL O O K A T A N O T H E R T R A V E L B O O K .

"I THOUGHT,"

LONGER

H E DECLARES

ACIDLY,

THAT WE

WERE ALREADY OVERSTOCKED WITH

COULD NOW

PASS

WHICH

WAS

BOOKS

O F TRAVELS; THAT

NOT EXTRAORDINARY;

WHEREIN

S O M E A U T H O R S LESS C O N S U L T E D TRUTH T H A N THEIR O W N

NOTHING

I

VANITY,

DOUBTED

O R INTEREST,

O R T H E D I V E R S I O N O F I G N O R A N T R E A D E R S . (161-62) T W O

CENTURIES

S O M E — T O O F INTERWAR B E C O M E CLASSIC

LATER, THE

SITUATION

H A V E I M P R O V E D .

PAUL

BRITISH TRAVEL WRITING,

A H A V E N

LEVI-STRAUSS

WORDS

AMAZONIA,

HARDLY

Abroad,

FOR "SECOND-RATE

Tristes Tropiques,

CAN

B ES A I D — A C C O R D I N G

FUSSELL, FOR E X A M P L E , I NHIS COMPLAINS

[LITERARY]

ITR A T H E R M O R E

THAT THE G E N R E

TALENTS"

T H E F R E N C H STRUCTURAL

T O

STUDY

1980

(212).

1955

I N HIS

ANTHROPOLOGIST

HAS

C L A U D E

STRONGLY:

T I B E T , A N D A F R I C A FILL T H E B O O K S H O P S I N T H E F O R M O F T R A V E L

O G U E S , A C C O U N T S O F E X P E D I T I O N S A N D C O L L E C T I O N S O F P H O T O G R A P H S , I N ALL O F W H I C H THE DESIRE TO IMPRESS ISSO D O M I N A N T

AS TO M A K E IT I M P O S S I B L E

FOR T H E R E A D E R T O ASSESS THE V A L U E O F T H E E V I D E N C E P U T

BEFORE

HIM.

I N S T E A D O F H A V I N G HIS CRITICAL F A C U L T I E S S T I M U L A T E D , H E A S K S F O R M O R E SUCH P A B U L U M

A N D S W A L L O W S P R O D I G I O U S Q U A N T I T I E S O F IT.

OF

(17)

T H E S E CRITICISMS, WHILE IRONIC (SWIFT) OR O P E N TO QUESTION (FUSSELL, STRAUSS), ALWAYS

ARE B YN O M E A N S

H A D

A M I X E D

RECEPTION, BEING SEEN B YS O M E

LOUS OR E V E N MORALLY DANGEROUS. B U T I M M U N E ULAR

ALWAYS

WIDELY

HAD

SENSATION

READ

A KNACK,

M O N G E R I N G

G R A L L O( H E I R

FORMS

O F LITERATURE TODAY.

I NA N Y CASE, O F CAPITALIZING MIGHT

A SESSENTIALLY

THE GENRE HAS P R O V E N

TO E V E N THE HARSHEST CRITICISMS, B E C O M I N G

A N D

L E V I -

EXCEPTIONAL. T R A V E L WRITING, A SA GENRE,

B EA N A T H E M A

HAS

FRIVO

REMARKABLY

O N E O F THE M O S T

P O P

TRAVEL

H A V E

WRITERS

O N NEGATIVE

PUBLICITY;

L OT H E I R CRITICS, B U T I T I S I N T E

GENRE.

NONCLHELESS,

SUSPICIONS

PERSIST U ST OI H E WORTHINESS

O F TRAVEL

WRIT-

I N G AS A SERIOUS SUBJECT. A C A D E M I C S CASES

T OM O V E

M A N Y M O S T

B E Y O N D

DISCOURSES O F T H E M

O F DISPLACEMENT

popular

D O E S NOT A I M

T H E

MERCIAL

SUCCESS.

Y E T

M A D E

SPREAD

THE

ALWAYS

TOURISTS

LIKELY

(IRONICALLY?) IN

THIS

SUCCESSFUL

ITS

TRAVEL

ARE

TRAVEL

CONSCIOUS

FOR WHILE

WRIT

O NBEING

TRUE THAT

B E T W E E N

INDIVIDUALISTS,

RECENT

STUDIES

PREJUDICES, A N D

THAT

ADOPT

N I S PORTER'S

SPURR'S

A N D

T H E R O U X , N A I P A U L ,

MORRIS,

HERD.

B E

MIS

ARE

CRITICAL

BEING

ANALYSIS:

WHITE,

M A L E ,

O N E

MIDDLE-

AT THEIR R E A D E R S AS

A P P R O A C H

L O U I S E PRATT'S

A GREATER EXTENT O N C O N T E M P O R A R Y

STILL

VALUES.

" O T H E R E D " — G O O D S . THIS

A CRITICAL

Imperial Eyes, D E N The Rhetoric of Empire,

WERE

TO S O M E EXTENT A REFUGE FOR

A SR E T A I L E R S O F M O S T L Y

A N D

TRAV

WRITERS,

THE VULGAR

TRAVEL NARRATIVES

T R A V E L W R I T I N G CALLS O U T , T H E N , F O R A S U S T A I N E D

O F EXOTIC—CULTURALLY

AGAINST

TRAVEL

COMPLACENT, E V E N NOSTALGICALLY RETROGRADE, MIDDLE-CLASS

CONSUMERS

react

O F TRAVEL WRITING M A Y

READ B Y M O R E P E O P L E THAN EVER, THEY R E M A I N

CLASS, H E T E R O S E X U A L M Y T H S

THE

S O M E O F THE BEST-KNOWN

O F SEPARATING THEMSELVES F R O M

T H A T L O O K S A TTRAVEL WRITERS

M I D

W I T H

B E E N

IF C O N T E M P O R A R Y

O F THE POPULARITY

IT IS CERTAINLY

ARGUABLY

ITSELF—HAS

O F THE OTHERS) OFTEN S E E M TO

THEMSELVES

C O M

THAT IDENTIFY A

PROCESS. T H E M U C H - T O U T E D DISTINCTION

T OPRIDE

DISCUS

SPECTACULAR

B O O K S

THIS

CONTINUING

S K I L L F U L L Y T O ITS W H I M S .

AUDIENCE; BUT

IS S Y M P T O M A T I C — A S

SENSE, TO S P E A K

LEADING;

S O M E T I M E S

TRAVEL WRITING—LIKE

TO A WIDER

THIS D E M O C R A T I Z I N G

TO B E U N D E R T A K E N ;

A ST O S H O W

OR E V E N CHATWIN'S,

THEN P A N D E R

ERS ( A N D , AS WILL B E S E E N , M A N Y

ELERS A N D

INDICATE

M O S T

OR BRYSON'S

O F TOURISM,

AVAILABLE

SO M U C H

WRITERS,

STUDY O F C O N T E M P O R A R Y

O F TRAVEL WRITING ISITSELF A SUBJECT FOR

DLE-CLASS READERSHIP A N D GLOBAL

G A P

SALES FIGURES CERTAINLY

THOSE, LIKE M A Y L E ' S

N IN-DEPTH

P H E N O M E N O N REMAINS

T O FILL T H A T

PRESENCE. T H E POPULARITY SION.

" D I S C O V E R E D " IT, O N L Y I N M O S T

OR TO FOCUS O N T H E C A N O N I Z E D

F R O M EARLIER PERIODS. A

TRAVEL WRITING AS A B O O K

H A V E

IT, PREFERRING EITHER T OINTELLECTUALIZE IT A S S O

EAGER

B O O K

JOINS

T O TRAVEL WRITING

Haunted Journeys,

SEVERAL OTHERS), WHILE

"SPECIALISTS"

( M A R Y D A V I D

FOCUSING

I NTHE GENRE

TO

( C H A T W I N ,

B O W L E S , ETC.). ITS THESIS, U N S U R P R I S I N G L Y

PER

H A P S , ISTHAT TRAVEL WRITING F R E Q U E N T L Y P R O V I D E S A N EFFECTIVE ALIBI F O R T H E PERPETUATION OR REINSTALLMENT O F ETHNOCENTRICALLY SUPERIOR ATTITUDES " O T H E R "

CULTURES,

THOUGH,

B YT H E D E F A M I L I A R I Z I N G

ATTEMPTS,

PEOPLES,

A N D

PLACES. CAPACITIES

THIS

THESIS

O F " O T H E R "

CULTURES

A N D

READER'S

PERCEIVING

CULTURE. TRAVEL

BELONGS

T OA W I D E R

STRUCTURE

AFFILIATIONS A N D

LINKS

WRITING,

A N D

TO N E W

B Y ITS PERCEP

O F THE WRITER'S

A SIS N O W

O F REPRESENTATION WITHIN

C U L T U R E ITSELF

VIM

PLACES

A N D

A C K N O W L E D G E D , W H I C H

CULTURAL

CAN B E A N A L Y Z E D , QUESTIONED,

i' i: i i \ ( !•

TO

COMPLICATED,

O F TRAVEL WRITING, A N D

K E E P I N G P A C E W I T H C H A N G E , T O A D J U S T ITS S I G H T S

T I O N S — B O T H

IS

A N D

REASSESSED.

TRAVEL

H A S RECENTLY E M E R G E D A S A CRUCIAL

CATEGORY FOR T H E DISPLACEMENT ESSENTIALIST

VIEWS

(SAID,

O FN O R M A T I V E

CLIFFORD, C . K A P L A N ) .

" T R A V E L I N G T H E O R Y " IS A S I G N N O D O U B T PHYSICAL

M O V E M E N T ,

MIGRATING

ITSELF B U T O F A RISKS O N C E M O R E

INTELLECTUAL

ELITE. F U R T H E R ,

E L I D I N G T R A V E L writing,

L E C T U A L I Z E D M E T A P H O R S O FM O V E M E N T NONETHELESS POWERFUL M Y T H S T H E HYPERTHEORIZATION

BACK

CONCEPTUALLY F O R

T H A T IS A R G U A B L Y T H EP R O D U C T ,

"WORLDLY"

E M P H A S I Z I N G

INDI

N O TO FTHE TRAVELING

WORLD THEORY

OFTEN HIGHLY

INLEL-

AT THE E X P E N S E O FM O R E PROSAIC B U T

O F PLACE. T H I S B O O K SEEKS TOTURN THE TABLES O F TRAVEL-AS-DISPLACEMENT

WITHOUT

FALLING

O N ITS O P P O S I T E , T H EN A I V E L Y U N T H E O R I Z E D C E L E B R A T I O N O F T R A V E L - A S -

F R E E D O M . A M O R E

IT OCCUPIES

A MIDDLE

G R O U N D , THEN, B E T W E E N TRAVEL WRITING AS

O R LESS E L A B O R A T E T E X T U A L P E R F O R M A N C E ( B U T O R )

NOMICALLY (PRATT).

SANCTIONED

E M P H A S I Z E D

ACTIVITY,

A

CIRCUMSCRIBED

A N D AS A N

MATERIAL

N O M I C

ADVANTAGE,

RHETORICAL T H E

B U T ALSO I N PART TO M O R E

SOPHISTICATED

(WESTERN) CRUDE

ECO

TECHNIQUES O F

CONTROL.

TRAVELER-WRITERS

SCRUTINIZED

HERE

D O N O T ALL SHARE

D E G R E E O FP R I V I L E G E ; N O R D O T H E Y A L LS H A R E T H E S A M E C U L T U R A L SIMILAR

(NEO)IMPERIALIST

VIEWS.

T R A V E L W R I T I N G T H A T IT IS U N I F O R M L Y TRAVEL WRITERS

AS BEING HARMLESS

E V E R D E F I N E D , IS N O T A N A N T I D O T E TIALLY

POSITIVE,

B O O K

SEEKS TO E X A M I N E

CAPACITY

ECO

PRACTICE

H E R E ARE T H E PRIVILEGES THAT ACCRUE T O THE

TRAVELER-WRITER: PRIVILEGES D U E I N PART O F COURSE TO S O M E T I M E S

OR

O F

A S IT O P E N S U P T O

TO ACCOUNT

P E O P L E S , G O O D S , A N D I D E A S . Y E TTHIS WILL T O T H E O R I Z E A L S O

CATES A UTOPIAN I M P U L S E

O N

T H E UBIQUITOUSNESS

T H A T T H EW O R L D ,

R E Q U I R E S ITS C I T I Z E N S

EPISTEMOLOGICAL

VALUES A N D H O M O G E N I Z I N G ,

BOTH

AS WELL

TO FUEL

IT W O U L D

T H E

B A C K G R O U N D

B E AS FOOLISH T O CLAIM

I M P E R I A L I S T I C A S IT W O U L D

ENTERTAINERS. Y E TTRAVEL WRITING,

H O W

O F — P O T E N

NEGATIVE—interference.

AS CONSPICUOUSLY T H E"INTERFERING"

ASPECTS

AMBITIONS

O F

B E TO D E F E N D

T O TRAVEL; IT, T O O , IS A F O R M

T H EEXPANSIONIST

S A M E

T H I S

O F TRAVEL W R I T I N G : ITS O F M O D E R N

TOURISM

A N D , A T ITS B E S T , T O I N T E R V E N E I N A N DC H A L L E N G E R E C E I V E D I D E A S O N C U L T U R A L D I F F E R E N C E . T H E R E A R EO B V I O U S

L A C U N A E H E R E . F O R O N E , W H A T IS T H E A U D I

E N C E , O RC O N S T I T U E N C Y , O FTRAVEL W R I T I N G ? A ING'S B Y N O M E A N S CUE

PERHAPS

F R O M

UNIFORM JANICE

READERSHIP

R A D W A Y ' S

D E T A I L E D S T U D Y O FT R A V E L

N E E D S TO B E WRITTEN,

WORK

C O M P R E H E N S I V E INDUSTRY ANALYSIS O FTHE TRAVEL-WRITING

NESS W O U L D

ALSO B E USEFUL, ASSESSING

POSSIBLE

TO A GREATER EXTENT THAN

here T H EROLE O FTHE " N O N L I C L I O N A L "

G U I D E B O O K

LITIS B O O K ' S

A N D O FTHE

ITINERARY,

BUSI

H A S B E E N

V E H I C L E S THAT S E R V E T H EG L O B A L TOURIST

T H E S E A N D OTHER PROJECTS LIEOUTSIDE

ITS

O N T H ERECEPTION O F LITERARY

ROMANCE. A

OUS NUILLIMCDIA ADVERTISING

WRIT

TAKING

VARI TRADE.

ALTHOUGH T H E

G R O U N D IT C O V E R S W I L L H O P E F U L L Y O P E N U P F U R L h e r A V E N U E S O F E X P L O R A T I O N .

en i i \i i

i
T H I S

B O O K

OFFERS INSTEAD

R E A D E R — B O T H

SPECIALIST

A N

INTRODUCTORY

A N D

N O T — T O

CRITICAL

SURVEY,

C O N T E M P O R A R Y

ALERTING

M O D E S

WRITING, AS WELL AS TO STAPLE E L E M E N T S THAT A R E C O N T I N U O U S FORMS

O F TEXTUAL PRACTICE.

IMPOSSIBLY

FIELD

LARGE O N E — W H I C H

SCIOUSLY

ECLECTIC M E T H O D S .

TENDING

TOWARD

B E I N G

T H E

MIGHT

ACCOUNT

N O N E T H E L E S S , ITS

ENCYCLOPEDISM,

WORRYINGLY

O F T R A V E L W R I T I N G IS,

R A N D O M .

ARE

P E R H A P S

FOR THE

O F

WITH

EARLIER

O F COURSE,

BOOK'S

TO

STRIKE

THE B O O K ,

IN

S O M E

THIS

WHILE

READERS

O N — I T S

SUBJECT. Y E T W H A T SURVEYS SUCH THEY GAIN IN COVERING

THAT,

S O M E

BROAD

IN

CAN

THEMSELVES, ARE INTERLINKED.

TRAVEL WRITING INFLECTED B Y TURAL HISTORY

A N D

SOCIAL

GENRE? H O W

INVENTORY

A D J U S T E D — O R

CLASS?

O F SPATIALIZED

N O T — T O

W H A T

DISCOURSES

IS

TION, OR MIGHT CRITIQUE?

HAS

INSERTING

A I D S ?

H A S

M O D E S

O F CUL

C O N T E M P O

TRAVEL

A N D

P O S T M O D

S E E M

AT

F R O M

A GENRE M U C H

A S IT IS, IT M A K E S TIMES

TO

B E

GIVEN

THAT

IS

THOUGHT?

CULTURAL

D O M I N A

INSTRUMENT

O F SELF-

TO REPETITION, TO C O M E

EROSEXUAL, MIDDLE

OCCUPATIONAL

AS

THE

U P

H A Z A R D

A

FIELD

IN

O F ALL

M A J O R

WHITE,

MALE,

FOCUSES O N RECENT PROSE NARRATIVES

WRITERS

THE GENRE. T H E

K

I'll

I I

A

IT

RELATIVELY

O F THE

OR POETRY) WRITTEN AFTER THE S E C O N D

AFTER THE S I X T I E S — B Y

PART AS SPECIALISTS

MIGHT

C O N S T I T U T E D F O R ITS P U R P O S E S

A N G L O P H O N E ; A N D STILL P R I M A R I L Y

CLASS. T H E B O O K

STUDY.

IT

IMPRESSIONISM

H O W E V E R , IS T O D R A W I N M O S T FIELD:

HAS N O PLACE, ALAS, FOR D R A M A

MOST

TO B E C O M P R E H E N S I V E .

IMPRESSIONISTIC

AN

B O O K S . ITS A I M ,

B E I N G PREDOMINANTLY

N O CLAIM

AS

C O N T E M P O R A R Y WRITERS IN T H E

W A R — M A I N L Y

M A N

E M P I R E ,

NEW?

D E N O U N C E S — M A Y B E UNHISTORICIZED

CRISES

THE GENRE

A L L O F T H E S E Q U E S T I O N S A R E E S S A Y E D , IF H A R D L Y A N S W E R E D , IN THIS

E V E N

THE

T R A V E L W R I T I N G G O F R O M H E R E ; W H A T IS I N S T O R E F O R ITS

F U T U R E ? I S IT P O S S I B L E , I N

INTRODUCTORY

WRIT

WRITING

ITSELF INTO

O F VISION A N D

AGENT O F (WESTERN)

IT R A T H E R B E S E E N A S T R A N S G R E S S I V E , A N

W H E R E CAN

WITH ANYTHING

AN

O F

ITS P R A C T I T I O N E R S

A LEGACY O F IMPERIAL

TRAVEL WRITING BEST S E E N AS

H O W

POSTCOLONIALISM

A G E D IN T H E P R O C E S S TO LIBERATE ITSELF A N D O R IS IT STILL P R I M A R I L Y

PARTICULARS

TECHNOLOGIES A N D THE GLOBAL

O V E R P O P U L A T I O N , SCARCITY,

A N D A N D

IT T A L L Y W I T H T R A V E L

REALITIES,

O F

OVERLAPPING

O F TRAVEL

T A X O N O M Y

CULTURAL M Y T H S ?

A N D A D D R E S S I N G ITSELF TO N E W

O F THE M O M E N T :

A

MIGHT

AS

ISSUES

TRAVEL WRITING,

ARE DEFINITIONS

MIGHT

C O N T E M P O R A R Y

LATE-TWENTIETH-CENTURY ERNISM,

is

G E N D E R A N D INFLUENCED B Y

RARY TRAVEL NARRATIVES L O O K LIKE, A N D H O W ING'S

O F THESE

B E BRIEFLY S K E T C H E D AS FOLLOWS: W H A T

IT B E S E E N A S A D I S T I N C T I V E

B E

G U I D E D

THIS O N E LACK IN A CLEARLY F O C U S E D A R G U M E N T ,

ISSUES M I G H T

AS

SENSE, MIGHT

C O N S I D E R E D G U I L T Y O F A N I M I T A T I V E F A L L A C Y , I N S O F A R A S IT P R O V I D E S A TOUR O F — A M E T A C O M M E N T A R Y

AN

SELF-CON

SELECTION PRINCIPLES,

LIKELY

THE

TRAVEL

I

W H O GENRE

I

IS

(IT

W O R L D

SEE THEMSELVES FOR ITSELF, W H I C H

AS

HET

THE

NOLORI-

OUSLY REFRACTORY TO DEFINITION,

IS N O T

W I D E N E D

(WITH A COUPLE O F DEFENSIBLE EXCEPTIONS) GUIDEBOOK.

literary A N D

T H E

NARRATIVES

ARTIFACTS,

MEDIATING

ETHNOGRAPHY,

SCIOUSNESS N U M B E R

A N D

A N D

AN

B E T W E E N

O F

DISCIPLINES,

HERE INTO

FACT

A N D

THE

FICTION,

WITH

A

A N D

TEMPTATIONS

A N D

SOCIAL

ARE PLACED A N D

P O W E R

CODES.

"REPRESENTATIVE

N E S S " AS FOR THEIR R E L E V A N C E TO CENTRAL A R G U M E N T S , T H E Y RAISE:

SELF-CON

FRAUDULENCE-—A

DISCUSSIONS

ISSUES

AS

AUTOBIOGRAPHY

O F

LITERARY CATEGORIES,

NOVEL

LARGE,

WHIMSICAL

O F TEXTS SELECTED, N O T SO M U C H FOR THEIR

O F THE WIDER

THE

NONFICTIONAL

HERE ARE DESIGNED, B Y

C O M B I N I N G — O F T E N

AWARENESS

O F ACADEMIC

CLOSE READINGS

STUDIED

OUT

OR THE PUTATIVELY

ALONGSIDE

SELF-PERCEPTION,

CULTURAL R E P R E S E N T A T I O N A N D I M A G I N A T I O N , AS WELL AS T H E C H A N G I N G ROLE O F TRAVEL A N D TRAVEL WRITING IN T H E LATE TWENTIETH

CENTURY. TRAVEL WRITING,

O U R V I E W , D E S E R V E S T O D E V E L O P A S A G E N R E ; A F T E R A L L , IT IS A S I G N I F I C A N T A T ITS B E S T , E F F E C T I V E M E D I U M INFORMATION.

T H I S B O O K

THE

DECADES,

LAST

FEW

D E V E L O P M E N T S IN THE T H E

FORM.

OUS,

SPECULATES

FRAMES

D E V E L O P E D

POSSIBILITY

THESE D E V E L O P M E N T S

THE STATUS

DISSEMBLING,

B Y

O F TRAVEL W R I T I N G AS

UNCLEAR.

T E N D TO C O N C E A L AS M U C H

SURES ARE SCREENS FOR CANNILY

O F

HERE

IS

THE

PARTICIPATE

IN

AWARENESS

AWARENESS

T H E TOURIST

TO THEIR PRECURSORS,

T H E

LAUNCHING A

ANXIETIES

INDUSTRY

SEVERAL

REINSTALLING

DISCLO C O N

FEARS. O N E SOURCE O F

FOR TRAVEL

WRITERS

ANXI

OBVIOUSLY

A N O T H E R

EQUALLY OBVIOUSLY,

OFTEN LINKED

THESE C O M P E T I N G

G E N T L E M A N " :

IMPERIAL

IS

THE

H E A R K E N

TO A SENSE O F

NOS

O F IMPERIAL 2. F U R T H E R S

THREAT

FOR N E W

EXPERI

PULLS ARE SEEN THROUGH

A RHETORICAL DEVICE USED, MOSTLY BRITISH

TRAVEL

PAST. T H E

TO THIS M O D E L ,

O F "POSTCOLONIALITY,"

C H A P T E R

THEIR

S E E K I N G SOLACE FOR A TROUBLED PRESENT IN

C O N T E M P O R A R Y

A MYTHICIZED

INSTRUMENT

LIKE

A N D THEIR PERSONAL

VIE WITH THE PLEASURES O F CURIOSITY

ACLS AS A C O U N T E R W E I G H T A G E

A N D

C O N

DISINGENU

NARRATIVES,

THEY C L A I M TO SCORN.

O F TRAVELER-WRITERS,

EYES O F THE "ENGLISH

THE

DOUBTS

PRE

LITERARY/CULTURAL

AS T H E Y REVEAL: THEIR " F A C T U A L "

O F COMPLICITY;

E N C E S O F P L A C E . I N C H A P T E R I,

BY

A

MYTHS.

E N E D CULTURAL ORIGINS,

ICALLY,

TRAVEL

O F BELATEDNESS; FOR TRAVEL WRITERS,

TALGIC CULTURAL

IN

FURTHER

ART O F D I S S I M U L A T I O N ,

STRUCTURED FICTIONS,

FESSIONS M A S K S FOR MOTIVATIONAL

IN

THE

FUTURE.

INTO

DELIBERATELY

BACK

TO

A N D ,

(TRANS)CULTURAL

O F ITSELF AS AT O N C E G E N E R I C A L L Y E L U S I V E A N D E M P I R I C A L L Y

WRITERS,

ETY

AS

T R A V E L WRITING E M E R G E S AS A PRACTICED

SCIOUS

O F

A S S E S S E S T H E E X T E N T T O W H I C H I T has A N D

INTRODUCTION

LIMINARY INQUIRY

FOR THE GLOBAL CIRCULATION

IN

A N D

WRITERS

AS

A

O F

CHAPTER

L O O K I N G AT TRAVEL WRITING'S ITS

IRON

M E A N S

S E C O N D PART O F THE

ASSESSING

THE

STATUS

EFFECTIVENESS AS

AN

CRITIQUE. THIS A R G U M E N T

i-it

lit IK A1

1

THROUGH

\ 1

A DETAILED

STUDY

O F

THE

M Y T H S O W N ,

O F PLACE A N D

" T H E

THROUGH

TROPICS";

LENT M O D E S ORIGINARY

CULTURAL H A V E

EMIGRATION,

O N

O N

BUT

A N D

THE

AUDIENCE

3 IS A N I N Q U I R Y CAPACITY

T H E O U T L E T IT P R O V I D E S

ASSESSING

H O W

O F ITS

A N D

TRANSFORM

(MALE)

A N D

QUEER

4,

FINALLY,

ETH CENTURY HAS

BOTH

THE

STUDY

SHOWS H O W

PERFORMATIVITY.

HALF O F THE CHAPTER

CURRENT

PRIV

WRITING O F

PERCEPTIONS THESE INTO

RIGHT

O F

LINE

U P

TO

THE

PRESENT.

CORNERSTONES O F

REACTED AGAINST

T H E S E

CHAPTERS

TRAVEL

C O N T E M P O TWENTI

ITS O W N

CONDI

WITH

POSTSCRIPT

BOTH

THE

A N D

SO

O N — T H A T

O F AN INFORMATION-SATURATED AT N E W

FORMS

PRINCIPLES

O N

W H I C H

H A V E

SOCIETY.

O F TRAVEL

CERTAIN

T H E

WRITING:

A G E

M O V E

STRANDS

O F THE

FUTURE.

ARE

WRITING

IT A N D

RESPONSIBLE T O U R I S M ARE CURRENTLY S E E K I N G TO R E M O D E L T H E M S E L V E S IN

ANCING

THE WITH

O F POSTCOLONIALISM

TRAVEL WRITING IN THE LATE

HYPERREAL,

ALSO LOOKS

THE ECOLOGICAL

INTERESTS O F A " G R E E N E R "

GAY

CULTURE.

THOSE THAT H A V E AFFILIATED T H E M S E L V E S WITH THE SO-CALLED N E W WITH

CRI

O N TRAVEL WRITING, A N D WITH THE DIFFERENT

WRITING—VIRTUAL,

E V O L V E D TO M E E T THE D E M A N D S

A N D

TRAVEL

THE ROLE O F TRAVEL

FIRST H A L F O F T H E C H A P T E R D E A L S I N P A R T

I M P A C T O F THE ELECTRONIC M E D I A

MENT,

PERCEPTION

TOOL O F FEMINIST

BRINGING

HETEROSEXUAL

R E S P O N D E D TO A N D

O F BELATEDNESS. T H E

TRAVEL

REVISING

THE CONCEPTUAL

RARY W E S T E R N C U L T U R E — A N D

SECOND

POTENTIAL,

G E N D E R

QUEER

A

INTO THE DISCOURSES

P O S T M O D E R N I S M — A R G U A B L Y ,

O F

POLITICS

AGE.

THAT POTENTIALLY REINFORCE M A L E

LICENSE A N D

BRINGS

UNDERTAKES A FURTHER INQUIRY

M O D E S

ADDRESS

SPECIFICALLY W I T H W O M E N ' S

USEFULNESS AS

PERFORMANCE,

THE " Q U E E R I N G " O F (POST)MODERN

TION

N E W

REALITIES—

T H E G E N D E R E D SUBJECT. IT A N A L Y Z E S T H E DISCOURSES

TRAVELER'S TRANSGRESSIVE

C H A P T E R

ABOUT

H O W

T H E M E T A P H O R O F T R A V E L I T S E L F IS D E E P L Y G E N D E R E D ,

SHOT THROUGH WITH PRESUPPOSITIONS

LIBERATION

TOPOI PREVA

TO (TRANS)NATIONAL

O F THE INFORMATION

ILEGE. T H E S E C O N D HALF O F THE CHAPTER E X A M I N E S IN RECONSTITUTING

AT

A I D S — A N D

FOR SEXUAL PLAY A N D

THE LIMITS

TIQUE, A N D SHOWING

LOOKS

THEMSELVES TO M O D E R N

T H E FIRST H A L F O F T H E C H A P T E R D E A L S M O R E WRITING,

ALSO

WELL ATTUNED

ANALYZE

A N D

THESE ARE THE

INTO TRAVEL WRITING'S TRANSGRESSIVE

TO

THEIR

O R I E N T "

T O P O S L E N D S ITSELF TO

CHAPTER

GLOBAL CIRCUITRY

ARTICULATE

" T H E

TO ATAVISTIC STEREOTYPES

IMPERIALISM, TRANSCULTURATION,

TO A N

ITS

WRITERS

" T H E ARCTIC":

EVOLVED, ADJUSTING

TO THE C O M P L E X C H A P T E R

A N D

A N D

IN THIS C H A P T E R . E A C H

STATES;

M E D I A

THEMSELVES

FOCUSING

S E A S "

TRAVEL

(MIS)ENCOUNTERS.

O F IMPERIALIST NOSTALGIA

MYTHOLOGIES

A N D

CURRENT

STAGED

" T H E S O U T H

PLACED U N D E R SCRUTINY

ING

W H I C H

REEXPRESS OTHER,

FOLLOWED

O N

LOOKS BACK

THE

B Y

A

BRIEF

KNIFE-EDGE

REFLECTIVE POSTSCRIPT.

O F THE

AT T H E R E C E N T H I S T O R Y

XII

I'll

I I'M

1

N E W

MILLENNIUM,

O F TRAVEL WRITING,

BAL THIS G A U G -

ing its dominant patterns, and l o o k s forward to the directions that the genre might take in the future. Tourists with Typewriters offers a series o f reflections on its subject that, while largely unpolemical, are in the spirit o f critique. It deviates, for example, from the c o m m o n l y held view that travel writing upholds freedom, arguing instead that it can be seen—though not exclusively— as an imperialist discourse through which dominant cultures (white, male, E u r o - A m e r i c a n , middle-class) seek to ingratiate themselves, often at others' expense. T r a v e l writing, though, has another side, and this too will be studied. F o r travel writers, as unreliable documenters o f other people and cultures, have always had a say in the critical reassessment o f their o w n . Travel writing, after all, is a valuable medium o f estrangement, even if it operates all too frequently through familiar stereotypes and myths. This b o o k examines the strategies by which contemporary travel writers attempt to persuade us that the worlds—often mythical ones—they describe are real. But it also explores the w a y s in which these writers address our o w n world, giving us access to cultural regions that, though "discovered," remain myste rious to us, or m a k i n g strange those very territories, and the values and attitudes w e ascribe to them, that w e might imagine to be most famil iar, the closest to our o w n experience. (It should be clear from this that (he b o o k is addressed primarily to a Western readership, although from a perspective that is often critical o f the pretensions o f "the West.") T r a v e l writing, in this last sense, can be seen as a useful vehicle o I'cultural self-perception; as a barometer for changing views on other ("foreign," "non-Western") cultures; and as a trigger for the infor mational circuits that tap us in to the wider world. T r a v e l writing, traditionally seen as affording a license for escapism, m a y yet show its readers the limits o f their ambition and remind them o f their responsi bilities. This b o o k , then, m a k e s a pitch for the ethical value o f travel writ ing, even as it demonstrates that travel narratives are unreliable in the extreme. T h e b o o k ' s title—deliberately glib—sets out to capture the contradictions that are inherent in this most hybrid and unassimilable of literary genres. A s will be seen, m a n y current travel writers like to sec themselves as anachronistic, taking rhetorical advantage o f their own imagined obsolescence. (Few, o f course, are prepared to view themselves as being tourists, even though the advantages they reap here are all too palpable, all loo real.) But "tourists with typewriters,"

WHILE

A NA P P E A L I N G ( S E L F - ) D E S I G N A T I O N , I S P O T E N T I A L L Y M I S L E A D I N G .

WRITERS,

A SC U L T U R A L C O M M E N T A T O R S ,

RHETORICAL A N D

SLEIGHT O F H A N D ,

U P T OD A T E . T H I S

CONTRADICTIONS, I A L — A N D

ITS

THEY M A Y

B O O K

G A U G I N G

A I M S

THE

T H A N K THE M A N Y ALSO

B O O K .

A M O N G

L A R R Y

BUELL,

M I C H A E L

H O L C O M B E ,

C O U L I N G , T O N Y

EPRAIL, D E R E K

D O R O T H Y

K A P U R ,

H O L L A N D ,

A L J A KOOISTRA, PATRICIA

Y O U N G S ,

G W E N

A N D

W H O

THE

V I V I E N N E

G O R R A ,

M A C D O N A L D ,

BOLD,

D E N T O N ,

L E A N N

TIMES

A P P A R E N T MATER

O F M I C H I G A N PRESS, W H O

A TTHE UNIVERSITY

IDEAS A N D ENTHUSIASM

H O L L A N D ,

L A K E ,

CAMILLE

P E N N E E ,

(POST)COLONIALISM,

WAS

SUBMITTED

PANIC,

COLLABORATIVE

D I A N A

R O B E R T

B R Y D O N ,

D O U V A L D Z I , FLEET, I A N

HARRISON,

MELISSA

M A L C O L M

IMRIE,

LIZARRIBAR,

SHELLEY

M A R T I N

ROBERTS,

T I M

TO O U R READERS A T THE

A N D

TO D O R O T H Y

HADFIELD

W H O

F I N A L L Y TO ALL O U R S T U D E N T S , O F Y E A R S P A S T O F G U E L P H A N D

W E R E CRUCIAL

A N D

H A R V A R D

THE PRODUCTION

and the Production

H U G G A N ' S O F E X O T I C

of Space,

TO REPRINT MATERIAL

I'll I I M

WRITING

" T R A V E L

WRIT

S P A C E , "

W H I C H

Colonialism,

Post-

I

TO THE EDITORS A N D

HERE.

A N D

W H O S E

EDITED B Y D A N I E L C L A Y T O N

D E R E K G R E G O R Y FOR BLACKWELL (OXFORD). T H A N K S

X I V

UNIVERSITY,

THROUGHOUT THE READING A N D

I N A DIFFERENT F O R M TO THE COLLECTION

LISHER FOR THEIR PERMISSION

LIKE T O

SUGGESTED C H A N G E S THAT W E R E ESSEN

O F THE B O O K ,

PROCESS. PART O F CHAPTER I APPEARS A S G R A H A M ING,

P R O V E N

EW O U L D

CHARITINI

FIELDS,

M I C H A E L

D O N N A

W

P L E A S U R E , O F THIS

G R E G O R Y , J A M E S

S U Z Y

MERIVALE,

ITS I N D E X . T H A N K S

colonialism

THE

H A V E ENTERED INTO THE

W H E E L E R . O U R SPECIAL THANKS

TIAL T O T H E C U R R E N T F O R M A T

PRESENT,

B E H I N D O F THESE

SUBJECT, HAS

O F A V E X E D ITINERARY.

THESE ARE THE FOLLOWING: CHRISTINE SCOTT

EASTCOTT,

C O M P I L E D

TRAVEL

PLACES; B YA

ATTENTION-GRABBING

I N K E E P I N G W I T H ITS

H E L P E D T OH E I G H T E N

G O L D R I N G ,

UNIVERSITY

O F ITS

P E O P L E A L O N G THE W A Y

J O N A T H O N

A K A S H

A P P E A R A SB O T H

TO NEGOTIATE S O M E

IRONIES

Tourists with Typewriters,

H A V E

O F TRADING

TITLE.

OVER THE YEARS TO B E S O M E T H I N G

BUT

ARE CAPABLE

A N D P U B

Introduction Travel Writing Today

"I d o not expect to see m a n y travel b o o k s in the near future," wrote Bvelyn W a u g h at the end o f the Second W o r l d W a r : " N e v e r again . . . shall w e land on foreign soil with letter o f credit and p a s s p o r t . . . and feel the world wide open to u s " (When the Going Was Good 11). B u t W a u g h , as it turned out, was seriously underestimating the resilience o f travelers, and o f the w o r l d w i d e network—the business—that contin ues to support their enterprise. T r a v e l and its literary by-product, the I ravel b o o k , have a habit of justifying their continuation by anticipat ing their own decline; and if the postwar traveler lives, as M a r k C o c k e r believes, "in fear o f modernity's encroachment" (259), then that fear might well result in the publication o f another b o o k . Travel writing today is, like its subject, very m u c h a g o i n g concern. Sales figures are i>ood, with one or t w o best-sellers. Recent examples here include Peter Mayle's nostalgic memoir A Year in Provence (1989), which has sold over a million copies, been translated into seventeen languages, and been converted into a popular British T V serial; Paul T h e r o u x ' s sar donic travel narratives, several o f which have featured on the New York Times best-sellers' lists, m a k i n g their author one o f the bestk n o w n contemporary literary figures in A m e r i c a ; and the highly suc cessful R a n d o m H o u s e Vintage Departures series, which boasts a b o u t sixty current titles, and which has enjoyed a steady expansion since its inception in the mid-1980s. T h e shelves in the travel section o f the big bookstores are well stocked; top newspapers in the United K i n g d o m , I Inilcd States, and elsewhere feature thriving travel supplements; spe cialist magazines such as Granta (in Britain) and Conde Nast Traveler (in the United Slates) are reporting increased sales, while National Geo graphic, in 11 flurry o f publicity, has celebrated its hundredth year;

TRAVEL VEHICLES ( T V

P R O G R A M S A N D COMMERCIALS,

LIFERATE I N T H E VISUAL

M E D I A ;

INTERNET A N D W H A T M A R T I N (WORLD

LITERATURE,

INTEREST, STUDIES

TOO, SUCH

CINEMA,

IS GROWING,

WITH

WORLD

THE

MUSIC,

M A R Y

A G E

L O U I S E

O F GLOBALIZATION

THE CURRENT B O O M

A N D

A C A D E M I C CRITICAL

IMPLICATIONS

O F INTELLECTUAL A N D ( E D W A R D

[1983]; J A M E S C L I F F O R D , " T R A V E L I N G S O N E T A L . , E D S . , Travellers' Tales [1994]).

SAID,

" T R A V E L I N G

[1992];

CULTURES"

BILITY TO PREVIOUSLY A N D

THE

WORKS.

R O B E R T

I NTRAVEL WRITING? O N E O F T H E R E A S O N S IS O B V I

R E M O T E PARTS

O F THE WORLD

UNPRECEDENTED E X P A N S I O N

O W I N G

ACCESSI

TO C H E A P E R

TRAVEL

O F WORLDWIDE

TRANSPORTATION

NET

O P P O S E D TO THIS

O N E :

GLOBALIZING PROCESSES THAT H A V E

ACCESSIBLE

T H E

B E F O R E —

O F IDEAS, GOODS, PEOPLES; A N D AN INCREASING

A N O T H E R REASON, H O W E V E R , ISDIAMETRICALLY

FOR THOSE S A M E M O R E

O F

CULTURAL

O U S : T H E R E I SA G R E A T E R D E G R E E O F M O B I L I T Y I N T H E W O R L D T H A N E V E R A GREATER M O V E M E N T

THE

INDUSTRIES"

(1991), E R I C L E E D ' S P R A T T ' S Imperial Eyes

THE METAPHORICAL

T H E O R Y "

W H Y

1

PRO

THROUGH

O F INFLUENTIAL

Journeys

TRAVEL A SA NA N A L O G U E FOR DIFFERENT F O R M S I N THE

ETC.);

PUBLICATION

Haunted

PORTER'S

The Mind of the Traveler (1991), A N D (1992), A N D T H E A T T E M P T T O A N A L Y Z E DISPLACEMENT

VIDEOS, ETC.)

R O B E R T S CALLS T H E " G L O B A L C U L T U R E

WORLD

AS D E N N I S

FILMS,

SURROGATE TRAVEL IS AVAILABLE

TRAVEL

H A V E

ALSO ARGUABLY

LITERATURE

I N D U S T R Y — A N D

LITERARY-MINDED ELOGUES

A N D

GROWING

TRAVEL NARRATIVES

G U I D E B O O K S — H A S

M A D E

I N THIS

A N D

B E E N

FEARS O F H O M O G E N I Z A T I O N ,

M O R E QUICK

H E L P E D M A K E

IT LESS EXCITING, SHOULD

WORLD

DIVERSE.

B EI N C L U D E D

BOTH

INFORMATION-ORIENTED

TRAV

T OC A S H

P R O M O T I N G

ITS

I N O N WESTERNERS'

PRODUCTS

ALTERNATIVES TO THE SANITIZED SPECTACLES O F M A S S TOURISM; THE WORLD

THE

LESS

I S STILL H E T E R O G E N E O U S , U N F A T H O M A B L E ,

A S THRILLING

AS E V I D E N C E

BEWILDERING;

THAT

A S P R O O F

THAT T H E SPIRIT O F A D V E N T U R E C A N H O L D O F F T H E THREAT O F E X H A U S T I O N . I N THIS SENSE,

THE

TRIBUTING GLOBAL

TRAVEL TO,

(LITERATURE)

exotic:

A N E W

CULTURAL DIVERSITY

UNIVERSAL MARKET

BUSINESS

A CELEBRATION

THAT

IT ISN O

O F M A S S TOURISM—THAT

TINCTION. UNLIKE

3

SURPRISE TO

FIND,

T H E

DISTINCTION ARE

O N ,

O F THE M O D E R N

I S , O FC O U R S E ,

THEIR

D E A N STRATED

INSATIABLE

M A C C A N N E L L

CURIOSITY AND,

CONVINCINGLY,

2

M O R E

THIS

SPECTACLE

A B O U T

HIGHLY

VISITORS,

HAS

B E E N

TRAVEL

TRAVELER/TOURIST SPECIOUS:

MOTIVATED

OTHER COUNTRIES

RECENTLY, J A M E S

DISTINCTION

O F

SUCH A SPEC

O F C O N T E M P O R A R Y

LAZY DESIRE FOR INSTANT ENTERTAINMENT BUT B Y THE H A R D - W O N ISFY

CON

2

O F THE CONVENTIONAL

"NONEXPLOITATIVE"

WHILE

A G E N C Y — T H E

DOES M O S T TO M A K E

POSSIBLE.

T H E N , I NA N U M B E R

A HEATED DEFENSE

TOURISTS,

CAPITALIZED

FLIES I N T H E F A C E O F T H E V E R Y

T A C L E , A N D ITS L I T E R A R Y R E P R E S E N T A T I O N ,

NARRATIVES,

HAS

A N D

B U Z A R D

DIS

TRAVELERS, NOT

B Y THE

BATTLE TO

SAT

PEOPLES. A S H A V E

D E M O N

M A N I P U L A T E D

B Y THE

TOURISTS W I T H T Y P E W R I T E R S

tourist industry to serve its o w n commercial ends. F o r M a c C a n n e l l , travelers' seemingly plaintive need to dissociate themselves from "mere" tourists functions as a strategy o f self-exemption, whereby they displace their guilt for interfering with, and adversely changing, the cultures through which they travel onto tourists; see themselves as c o n tributing toward the well-being o f those cultures rather than as exploit ing them for their o w n benefit; and view themselves as open-minded inquirers rather than as pleasure-seeking guests. T h e tourist industry profits from this rhetoric o f m o r a l superiority ( M a c C a n n e l l ) , using it to lure the adventure-minded traveler onto an alternative beaten track (Buzard). T o see travel as merely another form o f tourism is to recog nize the increasing commodification o f place; w h a t travel writers offer in this context is not an insight into the "real," but a countercommodified version o f w h a t they take to be reality. T h e critical potential of travel writing—its capacity to expose and attack the invasive prac tices o f mass tourism—is further diminished when it is recognized, not as an out-and-out opponent o f tourism, but as a valuable adjunct to it. The armchair curiosity that Paul Fussell, a m o n g others, has seen as an inducement to read travel narratives should by n o means be thought o f as replacing the urge to travel; rather, travel writing sells while also helping to sell holidays. N o r are travel writers necessarily averse to tak ing their cut. Is it too cynical to suggest that m a n y o f t o d a y ' s travel writers are motivated less by the universal imperative o f cultural inquiry than they are b y the far more urgent need for another c o m m i s sion? Travel writing still remains lucrative only for a handful o f recog nized writers; m a n y others ply a more moderate trade in largely parttime journalism. Nonetheless, contemporary travel writers, whatever their status or their institutional affiliation, are continuing to provide sterling service to tourism—about to become the world's largest indus4

I ry even w h e n they might imagine themselves to be its most strident adversaries. Clearly, not all travel writers are alike (nor, for that matter, are all tourists). T o see contemporary travel writers merely as touristic scribes—as latter-day tourists with typewriters—is to fail to recognize their efforts to reexplore regions o f the w o r l d that, although "discov ered," remain unfamiliar, or to revive interest in familiar places, n o w seen from a fresh, informed perspective. It is also to underestimate the unsettling effects produced by travel writing: its ability to jolt its readers out o f complacent beliefs and altitudes, and its challenge to prevailing stereotypes and cultural myths of place. Finally, it is to miss the crucial ii

i i n i i > i ii • i l o t

3

R O L E P L A Y E D B YT R A V E L

NARRATIVES

CULTURAL S U B J E C T — A

ROLE M A D E

OF POSTMODERNITY,

BUT

O N E

I NINTERROGATING

THE "STABILITY"

M O R E CONSPICUOUS,

THAT

IS EVIDENT

OF

THE

TO B E SURE, I NT H E

A G E

THROUGHOUT

THE

HISTORY

TRAVEL WRITING, W H I C H SHOWS

A T E N D E N C Y TO BLUR THE LINES B E T W E E N

A N D "FALSE," DOCUMENTATION

A N D FABRICATION,

" O T H E R N E S S " — B O T H CONFIRM

BIOLOGICAL

A N D QUESTION THE POSITION

TRAVEL WRITING CAN POTENTIAL: HIS/HER CODES

A N D

I NALLOWING

O W N

SOCIETY,

ARGUABLY THE WRITER

O F B E H A V I O R — T O USEFULNESS

THEMSELVES

O F THE FREEDOMS

CODED--

THAT

O F THE INVESTIGATING

SUBJECT.

TO FLOUT CONVENTIONS

SCRUTINY.

THAT EXIST

O F TRAVEL

O F M A L E

NARRATIVES, M U C H TIME

A

EXPLORATION; A N D

CHARTING

neoimperial

AS

M A R Y

O F

L O U I S E

RECENTLY,

TO POSTCOLONIAL

a POSTIMPERIAL

TRAVEL

PRATT,

INDERPAL

SARA

MILLS,

D A V I D

W H O S E

ANALYZED SPURR,

THAT

THROUGH

WHICH

QUESTION

H U M A N S

O F W H O

" W E "

M A R K

AT

THE

A N D

S A M E

T I M

Y O U N G S ,

A NUNCRITICAL

I M P E

IMPERIALIST

B Y CRITICS

SUCH A S

AND,

VIEW

O F M O B I L I T Y THAT

TRAVEL WRITING, LIKE

C E L E B R A T E THIS

F R E E D O M " SUCH

ALLOWS

ARE

MOST

O F

TRAVEL

THAT HAS

DOMINANCE.

THE WORLD

TO C O N Q U E R .

WAS

RIPE

SUGNET, A M O N G

THIS

BEGS

TO CLAIM

ITS

THE 5

TO WRITE.

I N D E E D ,

F R E E D O M A T OTHERS'

THAN

C O C K E R

SUPRE-

TO SEE ITAS A N SAYS

MARTIN

A P L E T H O R A O F A D V E N T U R E TALES

THEIR

TWENTIETH-CENTURY

NOTIONS

IWCNIIELH-CENLURY

I ' . l'i ' W H I T l!HS

THAT THAT

COUNTERPARTS

LO THEIR PRIVILEGE, BUT

O T H E R S , has A R G U E D , M A N Y

I O U 1(1,SIS W i l l i

O F

M E D I U M

BENEFICIARIES?

THEY REINFORCED PREVAILING

LARGE, M O R E SENSITIVE

I

IS A

BETRAYS A N ATTITUDE O F CULTURAL

WERE A M O N G

O F E M P I R E :

BE, BY A N D

(260).

FREEDOM'S

I NTHE NINETEENTH CENTURY,

ENERGIZED THE M Y T H

JOURNEYS

.. . TRAVEL ISO N E

TO TRAVEL, A N D

L E D CRITICS LESS C H A R I T A B L E

G R E E N , TRAVEL NARRATIVES

"IN

THE

STUDY

I SN O T T H E F R E E D O M O F ALL: I TI S T H E

T H E M

TRAVEL ITSELF, I S A P T

E X P E N S E ; IN SO D O I N G , IT S O M E T I M E S

O F IMPERIAL

REMARKS,

ARE:

C L E A R L Y , T H E F R E E D O M O F TRAVEL WRITERS PRIVILEGE

C O C K E R

F R E E D O M , A N D THE TRAVEL B O O K

W H O

A

TRAVEL

L A N D S C A P E O F W H A T IS AS

THE NEWNESS O F THE WORLD.

THE GREATEST D O O R S TO H U M A N

MIGHT

O W N

F R E E D O M N E E D S TO B E ADJUSTED TO

BRITISH TRAVEL WRITING,

W E D I S C O V E R ALL O V E R A G A I N

AGENT

WRITERS,

T O RESIST. T H E P A T R I A R C H A L

G R E W A L — S U G G E S T

THE AVAIL

R E A L I T I E S O F C L A S S , R A C E , A N D G E N D E R P R I V I L E G E . I NH I S R E C E N T

O F M O D E R N

M A T I S M

W H O

SURROUNDING

AGE, DEMONSTRATE

WRITING—EXPERTLY

W R I T I N G AS A C E L E B R A T I O N O F H U M A N M O D E R N

RIGID

ARE

B E T W E E N TRAVEL WRITING A N D THE V E R Y (CULTURAL)

RIALIST A T T I T U D E S I TO F T E N C L A I M S UNDERTONES

HERE

I N ORDER TO CELEBRATE THEIR

C H A N G E S I NT H E G E O P O L I T I C A L

THE COMPLICITY

WITHIN

OFTEN

WRITERS,

I N D E P E N D E N C E , AS WELL AS TO REASSESS T H E P O W E R F U L M Y T H S HISTORY

TRANSGRESSIVE

E X A M P L E S

O F TRAVEL WRITING TO W O M E N

O F

ALTERNATELY

THOSE CONVENTIONS—THOSE

C L O S E CRITICAL

CONTINUING

A N D TO INVESTIGATE F O R M S

CULTURALLY

B E S E E N , T H E N , AS H A V I N G

IT SUBJECTS

O F

"TRUE"

as C H A R L E S TRAVEL

WRIT-

ers still arrogate the rights o f mobility and representation that once accrued to Empire. In a postcolonial world, they thus fight a rearguard action, concealing beneath their patronizing language and their persis tent cultural nostalgia a thinly disguised desire to resurrect the imper ial past. Sugnet, in his diatribe against the British magazine Granta, pulls n o punches: its travel articles are designed to "restore the lost dream o f empire in a w a y that allows y o u n g - f o g y readers to pretend that they're still living in the nineteenth century. . . . A curious fusion of the 1880s and the 1980s is what keeps all those Granta travel writers up in the air, afloat over various parts o f the globe, their luggage filled with portable shards o f colonialist discourse" (85). Sugnet's argument, in the nature o f polemics, is boisterously hyperbolic; its effect is reduced by his failure to account for c o n t e m p o rary travel writing's ubiquitous self-irony: its awareness o f its o w n belatedness (a point to which w e shall return). Nonetheless, Sugnet's frontal attack reminds us that travel narratives have proved remark ably effective over time in (re)producing the "foreign" world as an object o f Western k n o w l e d g e (Pratt 5). A t best, says Dennis Porter, [.ravel narratives "[have] been an effort to o v e r c o m e cultural distance through a protracted act o f understanding. A t worst, [they have] been a vehicle for the expression of Eurocentric conceit or racist intoler ance" (3). In either case, travel writing tends to reinforce the authority of its predominantly metropolitan readership; its world o f wonders is, in one sense, a w o r l d already k n o w n — o n e made available to readers "back h o m e " through the comforting reiteration o f familiar exotic myths. (Exoticism is precisely the mechanism for this process o f retrieval, a means by which the "otherness" o f the foreign w o r l d can be assimilated, and its threatening difference defused by taking on a lamiliar cast.) It is here that travel writing, for all its transgressive polenlial and vaunted claims to see the world anew, looks suspiciously conformist. " H o m e , " after all, is the frame o f reference for most con temporary travel writers (even when it is precisely the category o f " h o m e " that their writing calls in question). Their experiences o f I ravel are predicated on the possibility o f return; their adventure trips .no round trips. A n d their v o c a b u l a r y frequently reflects the security o f .1 s h a r e d culture; in this sense many travel writers, in spite o f their cullivuleil eccentricities and assertive individualism, operate within a readily identifiable semantic field. Travel writing in the late twentieth century continues to be haunted by the specter o f cliche: its catalogs o f anomalies lire often recorded in remarkably similar terms. T h e same 6

I N T H O D t n

1 1

I1 1

>,

WORDS

A N D PHRASES

CROP

S T E R E O T Y P E S , T H ES A M E TO

RECOGNIZE

ABOUT THAT

FACES.

C O N T E M P O R A R Y

BELIES THEIR A P P A R E N T

N O R THE

T H E S A M E

M A N Y

U P AGAIN

IS T H EM U T U A L WRITERS

FLESH"

U N D E R

I N D E E D ,

L E I G H

TRAVEL WRITERS—PARTICULARLY

BACKSLAPPING SCRUTINY

T OI C O N O C L A S M

CONFINED

HERE,

N E W B Y

H O U S E

MORRIS

I N G R E E C E ) ;

TRINIDADIAN

N A I P A U L

E D W A R D I A N

E N G L I S H M A N .

B U M P S

INTO

S E E M S

ANACHRONISTIC

T OW I S H

IDEALS O F(ENGLISH)

O FT H E WRITERS W H O S E W O R K

THAT,

OFTEN PARODIED,

BRITISH

O N E S —

A N D ADVENTURE.

R A B A N

A M O N G " I N T H E

I N

( A N DALSO

T H EC H R O N I C A L L Y

T OREINCARNATE

E V E N

CLUBBABILITY

T OCROSS-QUOTATION:

E V E N

B E H I N D M A N Y T H O U G H

M Y T H S A N D

ENCOUNTERS THESIGER

COLLABORATES WITH T H E R O U X O NPATAGONIA

F E R M O R ' S

T H E

T H E S A M E

THERE IS A GENTEEL

C O M M I T M E N T

I N T H EWILDS O FNURISTAN;

C H A T W I N

A N D AGAIN,

LITERARY ANALOGIES. O N E BEGINS AFTER A WHILE

CAIRO;

BORROWS DISPLACED

HIMSELF

AS A

POST-

GENTLEMANLINESS ARE AT W O R K

IS F E A T U R E D I N THIS B O O K :

IDEALS

A R E STILL L I K E L Y T O A T T E S T T O T H E T R A V E L E R ' S

H O N E S T Y A N DC O U R A G E , H I S S E N S E O F F A I R P L A Y . ( T H I S M I G H T A C C O U N T F O R T H E O U T R A G E S O M E O F THE WRITERS EXPRESS W H E N ERS' DECEPTIONS.)

B U T IT IS T H ECAPACITY

THEY ARE CONFRONTED WITH

OTH

F O RS E L F - D E P R E C A T I O N T H A T

MOST

M A R K S T H E G E N T L E M A N ' S P R O G R E S S : A N I N D I C A T I O N N O TO N L Y T H A T H E D O E S N ' T T A K E H I M S E L F T O O SERIOUSLY, B U TTHAT W E S H O U L D N ' T T A K E H I M T O O EITHER.

T H EI M P U L S E

T OTRIVIALIZE

WRITING, F R O M THE C A M P FOONERY

O F CAHILL

IS B E H I N D

A N D O ' H A N L O N .

T H E FOPPISHNESS

THAT

THEIR

ATTIMES,

OFTEN DUBIOUS

P E O P L E A N D C U L T U R E S A R E O N L Y T H EO P I N I O N S T H E NAIF;

O FS O M E

LIGHT O F THEIR M I S A D V E N T U R E S ,

FUL ALIBI FOR THEIR CULTURAL GAFFES A N D , A REMINDER

TRAVEL

PROVIDES A USE

P R O N O U N C E M E N T S

O FA N E N T H U S I A S T I C

ABOUT

AMATEUR.

TRAVELER-WRITER, I N THIS CONTEXT, CONTRIVES T O M A S Q U E R A D E A SA HIS/HER NARRATIVE

SUPERFICIALITY.

B O N A FIDE

BUF

O F THESE

THEIR ARROGANCE; IT ALSO

IS C O N T E N T T OB A S K I N A N A T M O S P H E R E

FAUX

O FC H E E R F U L

( T H E R E A L I T Y I S , O F C O U R S E , M O R E C O M P L E X ; A N DI T I S N O S U R

PRISE T OFIND THAT SEVERAL O F THESE W R I T E R S — O ' H A N L O N ,

FOR E X A M P L E — A R E

SCIENTISTS.)

OBVIOUSLY, THE

SERIOUSLY

C O N T E M P O R A R Y

A F F E C T A T I O N S O F C H A T W I N A N DB A R T H E S T O T H E

WRITERS, W H OT E N D T O M A K E

AFFORDS

M U C H

N O TALLTRAVEL NARRATIVES

G E N T L E M A N

NONETHELESS, INSTRUCTIVE.

TRAVELER

THIS

FIGURE,

IS

O N EO F M A N Y

A N D T H E IRONY

WITH

F O RT H ECULT O F G E N T L E M A N L I N E S S

P H O N E TRAVEL WRITING IS B O T H RECOGNITION

ONLY

A R EG I V E N

THAT

A THROWBACK

T OSUCH POSSIBLE

WHICH

I N C O N T E M P O R A R Y

THIS E R A , A N D T H EV A L U E S F O R W H I C H

A N AWARENESS

(I

FHNL

PERSONAS.

IT IS TREATED, IS A N G L O

T OA N O T H E R E R A A N D A N I R O N I C IT STANDS,

L O N G G O N E . S E L F - P A R O D Y , I N THIS C O N T E X T , D E M O N S T R A T E S BELNLEDNESS-

INDULGENCE:

inevitably

REMINDS

loniurrs w i i i i TVi'i'wWTWKs

A R E N O W

THE AWARENESS O F e o n t e m p o r a r y

7

travel writers o f their o w n limitations. It is an a x i o m o f recent travel writing that writers offer tribute to their predecessors, h o m a g e often paid in adulatory terms. C o n t e m p o r a r y travel writers thus c o n sciously place themselves in a tradition—a tradition as m u c h literary as historically based. N o r need these predecessors, literary or histori cal, h a v e actually traveled; for travel writers are fascinated, rather, by the imaginative texture o f place—the process by w h i c h places and their inhabitants are shaped and reshaped by (literary) m y t h . In p a y ing their statutory respects to previous writers and travelers, c o n t e m porary travel writers realize that their o w n endeavors have c o m e t o o late; it rests for them to emulate w h a t others before them have achieved. Hence their weakness for self-parody: their tendency to view themselves as pale imitations o f their distinguished forebears. H o w ever, the consideration o f their o w n insufficiencies is less likely to cause them anxiety than it is to cause amusement. Self-irony also affords a useful strategy o f self-protection—as if the writer, in reveal ing

his/her faults, might be relieved o f social responsibilities. S o m e

travel writers, hiding behind the m a s k o f escapist explorer-adventur ers, or lurching from one disaster to the next for the delectation o f (heir readers, are reluctant to be held accountable for their g a u c h e but "inoffensive" actions. Others, q u i c k to moralize a b o u t the ills o f other cultures, exempt themselves from complicity in the cultural processes they describe. O n e strategy o f self-exemption is to claim a cool detach ment—as if travel writers were neutral observers o f the places they visit. A n o t h e r strategy is for the writer to designate himself or herself as an eccentric—as if eccentricity excused mistakes usually based on cultural ignorance. T h e m o s t frequent strategy, h o w e v e r , is to assume a variety o f disguises. In their self-presentation, travel writers arc often extremely elusive, shifting roles with the same facility as they move from place to place. N o w the p e d a g o g u e , now the clown; n o w the traveler, n o w (even) the tourist. T h e y m a n a g e , thus, to benefit from alternative temporary privileges, one m o m e n t taking a d v a n t a g e of an h o n o r a r y insider's k n o w l e d g e , the next taking refuge in a for eigner's convenient incomprehension. This manipulation o f roles is one o f the skills of travel writing; to condemn the travel writer for one form or other o f artful dodgery is to forget that the genre has a long history—a license—of entertaining fraud. T h e ambiguity surrounding travel narratives

the uncertainty,

at given m o m e n t s , o f whether the writer is telling us the truth—is part of their a p p e a l ; t h e stories they tell are no less compelling if they h a p -

P E N

T OB EM E N D A C I O U S .

I T IS WORTH

R E M E M B E R I N G ,

WRITING, H O W E V E R ENTERTAINING, ISHARDLY APPARENT INNOCUOUSNESS

E R N " ) CULTURES. T VEHICLE

HARMLESS,

A N D ITSC H A R M I N G L Y

A SERIES O F P O W E R F U L L Y DISTORTING M Y T H S

THOUGH,

F O RCULTURAL

PREJUDICE

TRAVEL

A N DTHAT B E H I N D ITS

ANECDOTAL OBSERVATIONS

ABOUT

OTHER (OFTEN,

IS T OOVERLOOK

A SM E R E L Y A

T H E GENRE'S

SIGNIFICANT

O F C U L T U R A L C R I T I Q U E . ( T R A V E L is, A F T E R A L L , A T L E A S T

POTENTIALLY A LEARNING EXPERIENCE: A M E A N S

O F T E S T I N G , A N DT H E N

REVISING,

THE TRAVELER'S CULTURAL EXPECTATIONS.) N O N E T H E L E S S , TRAVEL WRITING S O M E

O FT H E P R O B L E M S

TOURISTS,

ALTHOUGH

DESCRIBED

LIES

" N O N - W E S T

OS E E TRAVEL W R I T I N G I N ITS C U R R E N T F O R M A T

I M P A C T AS A N INSTRUMENT

THAT

O FITS P O O R

RELATION,

TOURISM.

SHARES

TRAVELERS

are

O F A N I N D E P E N D E N T B R E E D , A N D T H ETHRILLS A N D SPILLS

I N TRAVEL NARRATIVES,

I FD I F F E R E N T I N K I N D

O R G A N I Z E D P L E A S U R E S O FT H E M U C H - D E R I D E D THEIR READERS WITH THE M A N U F A C T U R E D DALS, O FS U R R O G A T E T O U R I S M .

A N DSPIRIT F R O M T H E

" P A C K A G E

T R I P . " STILL

W O N D E R S , N O T T OM E N T I O N

T R A V E L WRITING, LIKE TOURISM,

PROVIDE THE

SCAN

GENERATES NOS

T A L G I A F O R O T H E R T I M E S A N D P L A C E S , E V E N A S I TR E C O G N I Z E S T H A T T H E Y M A Y B Y N O W

HAVE

TENDS

"LOST"

THEIR

ROMANTIC

AURA.

8

C O N T E M P O R A R Y

T OB ES E L F - C O N S C I O U S — S E L F - I R O N I C — A B O U T

SUCH

TRAVEL

WRITING

LOSSES: IT IS B O T H

N O S T A L G I C A N D , A T ITS B E S T , A W A R E O F T H E D E C E P T I V E N E S S O F N O S T A L G I A . Y E T I F THE

TOURIST

RHETORIC

INDUSTRY

O FL O S T

CYNICALLY

DRESSES

I N N O C E N C E — A S

ITSEXPANSIONIST

" O T H E R "

PLACES

DESIGNS

I N A

A R E DESTROYED,

OTHER

" O T H E R S " D U L Y E M E R G E T O T A K E T H E I R P L A C E — T H E T R A V E L W R I T E R I SM O R E A SHOCKED WITNESS THEIR

READERS, PARTICIPATE

R E C T L Y , T OB O T H

I N GLOBAL

TOURISM:

ITS B E N E F I T S A N D ITS W O R S T

AFTER ALL, I N B E L I E V I N G THAT B O O K

THAN

T O THIS S E L F - P E R P E T U A T I N G PROCESS. T R A V E L WRITERS, A N D THEY

A CERTAIN A P P R O A C H

IS N OLONGER POSSIBLE:

CONTRIBUTE,

E X C E S S E S . S OW A U G H

T H E O N ETHAT

I F INDI IS RIGHT,

T OT R A V E L A N D T H E T R A V E L

CRIES

FOUL

AT TOURISM A N D

E X P E C T S , I NT U R N , T O G O U N P U N I S H E D .

FACTUAL

B U T

WHAT,

EXACTLY,

is

A TRAVEL

FICTIONS

B O O K ?

B YWHICH

CRITERIA

J U D G E D ? W H O QUALIFIES A SA TRAVEL WRITER? A N D M O R E MERITS B E

INCLUSION

SAID, IS HARD

STRADDLES

I N A S T U D Y O FTHIS K I N D ? T R A V E L WRITING, I TN E E D T OD E F I N E , N O TLEAST B E C A U S E

CATEGORIES

A N DDISCIPLINES.

PICARESQUE ADVENTURE TO PHILOSOPHICAL ECOLOGICAL

SHOULD

PARABLE,

A N D SPIRITUAL

QUEST. T H E Y

M M I H I M •, W I T H

BORROW

I YI'UwMITHt

THAT

R U N FROM C O M M E N T A R Y ,

FREELY

SCIENCE, often

HARDLY

GENRE

NARRATIVES

TREATISE, POLITICAL

tory, G E O G R A P H Y , A N T H R O P O L O G Y , A N D social

8

ITIS A HYBRID

TRAVEL

IT B E

SPECIFICALLY, W H O

FROM

his

D E M O N S ! r a t -

ing great erudition, but without seeing fit to respect the rules that g o v ern conventional scholarship. Irredeemably opinionated, travel writers avail themselves o f the several licenses that are granted t o a form that freely mixes fact and fable, anecdote and analysis. N o t least o f these i s the license to exaggerate, or even to invent: as Percy A d a m s says in his entertaining survey, travel writers are under n o obligation to tell their readers the truth; instead, they are often practiced liars "infested with I h e itch to tell wonderful stories" or, in some cases, "inflicted with the desire to tell lies ' o f a darker c o m p l e x i o n ' " (5). N o t all travel writers, o f course, are liars; a m o n g the contemporary figures, Peter Matthiessen a n d Barry L o p e z w o u l d b e upset at the allegation, and even tricksters, such as (the late) Bruce C h a t w i n , w o u l d defend their selective use o f t a c t s . Travel writing i s best seen, then, as a "mediation between fact a n d fiction" (Fussell), referring to actual people, places, and events as I h e writer encounters them, b u t freely interspersing these with stories I h a t are often o f dubious provenance or derive from mythical or ficti t i o u s sources. But what, again, is a travel b o o k ? Perhaps it is better to begin b y defining w h a t it is not. Travel b o o k s , says Paul Fussell, referring t o the fully fashioned literary w o r k s that are the objects o f his study, are to b e distinguished initially from g u i d e b o o k s , which are not autobiographical and are not sustained by a narrative exploit ing the devices of fiction. A guide book is addressed to those who plan to follow the traveler, doing what he has done, but more selec tively. A travel book, at its purest, is addressed to those who do not plan to follow the traveler at all, but who require the exotic anom alies, wonders, and scandals of the literary form romance which their own place or time cannot entirely supply. (203) distinction i s a useful one, although it begs important quesF o r example, cannot certain travel b o o k s b e used, precisely, as nldebooks i s it not possible to combine the aesthetic and ideological unctions o f the "travel b o o k " with the pragmatic function o f the r . o i i l c " ? ( O n a recent visit to Patagonia, one o f the present authors " l i e e d several fellow travelers using C h a t w i n ' s In Patagonia as a a i d e , Clearly, t h e " e x o t i c anomalies" provided in plenty b y C h a t w i n ' s "iii'i'tilivc h a i l n o t prevented i t s r e a d e r s from checking out the terrain 1 0 1 ' themselves.) A s a r g u e d e a r l i e r , t r a v e l b o o k s d o not necessarily act id " U i h s l i t u l e s for a c t u a l t r a v e l ; o n t h e c o n t r a r y , I h e y may often funct l n i i u s i t s catalyzing agents. I iiHselfs

I M H S .

INTRDItlii

1 Ii i M

•)

FUSSELL'S NEXT DISTINCTION PROVES TOB E EQUALLY PROBLEMATIC: B O O K S , H EC L A I M S I NA VALIANT A T T E M P T T O R E A C H A PROVISIONAL are

a sub-species o f m e m o i r in w h i c h t h e autobiographical

narrative

arises f r o m t h e speaker's e n c o u n t e r w i t h distant o r u n f a m i l i a r and

(203)

FUSSELL'S F O R M U L A T I O N ISA D M I R A B L Y N E A T , B U TITSUFFERS A G A I N PLIFICATION.

B O T H

"REFERENCE

T O ACTUALITY"

NOVELS

A N D R O M A N C E S WITHOUT

C L A I M I N G "LITERAL VALIDITY." INFLUENTIAL

THESIS

C A N M A K E

NECESSARILY

ROMANCES,

ACTIVE O R

O NTHE ATTEMPT BOTH T O

9

H E REFERS, V I A F R Y E ,

DISTINGUISHING

HERE

T O TRAVEL

B E T W E E N

O FC O M I C M I S A D V E N T U R E A N DT H E P A S T O R A L M O D E

(206, 209-10).

A N D ELEGIAC REVERIE

(CONTEMPORARY)

THROUGH A REWORKING IRONIC

LESS

T H E RISE O F T H E N O V E L , I N D E E D — I F I A N W A T T ' S

FUSSELL C O M E S CLOSER W H E N

M A N Y

JUXTAPOSITION

O F CONTEMPLATION

T H E S E M O D E S ARE CERTAINLY RELEVANTT O

TRAVEL NARRATIVES, O FT H E " O R I G I N A L "

O F THEIR

NARRATIVES

T H E PICARESQUE

USUAL

A SIS THEIR D I S P L A C E M E N T ,

LITERARY F O R M S THAN

C O M P O N E N T S .

I N A

C O N T E M P O R A R Y

In

T H E R E A D E R IS C O N T I N U A L L Y SHUTTLED B E T W E E N ALTERNATIVE M O D E S

REGISTERS, S O THAT T H E H Y B R I D W O R K

LESS

THROUGH A N

TRAVEL NARRATIVE LIKE, FOR INSTANCE, C H A T W I N ' S A F O R E M E N T I O N E D

gonia,

SIM

I S T O B EA C C E P T E D — D E P E N D E D O N T H E R E A R R A N G E M E N T

(RE)PRESENT A N D T O SATIRIZE " R E C O R D E D FACTS."

DISPLACED

F R O M

FREQUENT, DETAILED

S E E M I N G

A N D EMBELLISHMENT O F "AUTHENTIC" INFORMATION:

M O D E

data,

in which the narrative—unlike that in a novel o r A r o m a n c e —

claims literal validity b y c o n s t a n t reference t o actuality.

AS

TRAVEL

DEFINITION,

THAT ACCUMULATES F R O M THESE

Pata A N D

VARIOUS

STYLISTIC F R A G M E N T S STARTS T O R E S E M B L E , O X Y M O R O N I C A L L Y , A C O N T E M P L A T I V E P I C A R E S Q U E E L E G Y O RA R O L L I C K I N G P A S T O R A L A D V E N T U R E . T H E

FORMAL

A P P R O A C H

T O TRAVEL WRITING RISKS R U N N I N G

A G R O U N D O N

THESE DEFINITIONAL INCONSISTENCIES, A N D O NTHE S E E M I N G DETERMINATION O F T H E G E N R E T O FLY I N T H E F A C E O F T R A D I T I O N A L APPROACH, SPACE

O F DISCURSIVE

E X A M P L E S TION":

PERHAPS,

O FW H A T

IS THAT

WHICH

CONFLICT.

TRAVEL

H A Y D E N W H I T E

THEY CLAIM VALIDITY—OR

BOUNDARIES.

SEES TRAVEL WRITING NARRATIVES,

CALLS "FICTIONS

M A K E

A

M O R E

FRUITFUL

A SO C C U P Y I N G

I N THIS

A

CONTEXT, A R E

O FFACTUAL R E P R E S E N T A

A SI FT O C L A I M I T — B Y

REFERRING T O

A C T U A L E V E N T S A N D P L A C E S , B U TT H E N A S S I M I L A T E T H O S E E V E N T S A N D P L A C E S T O A

HIGHLY

PERSONAL

VISION.

1 0

TRAVEL

B E T W E E N THE WRITERS' C O M P U L S I O N OFTEN REPRESSED DESIRE T O M A K E T I O N O F IT. ( T A K E INDIA

WRITING

THUS

CHARTS

T H E TENSION

TOREPORT THE WORLD THEY SEE A N D

THEIR

THE WORLD C O N F O R M TO THEIR P R E C O N C E P

T H E O B S E R V A T I O N S , D I S C U S S E D I N T H I S B O O K , O FN A I P A U L I N

O R IYER I N J A P A N ,

OBSERVATIONS

THAT

MIRACULOUSLY

C O N F O R M

T O A

CULTURAL " E S S E N C E " E A C H WRITER B E L I E V E S H E H A SD I S C O V E R E D . I N THIS S E N S E ,

10

roiJRISTS W i I II T Y I ' H W K I T I i l K S

IHERE ISSOMETHING

SOCRATIC

ABOUT

T H EI N Q U I R I E S

WRITERS: T H E Y S E E K AFTER " T R U T H S " T H E Y I M A G I N E

M A D E

B YM A N Y

TRAVEL

THEY ALREADY H A V E I N THEIR

POSSESSION.) T H E

SUBJECTIVITY

O FT R A V E L W R I T I N G M I G H T B E S E E N , I N THIS S E N S E , A S A

F O R M O F WILLFUL I N T E R F E R E N C E : ITI SN O T THAT TRAVEL WRITERS T R Y T O VEIL PERSONAL

INTERPRETATION

B U T , O N T H ECONTRARY,

IHEIR PUTATIVE

REPORTAGE. L I K E

I S M — A N O T H E R

M E M B E R

FORMS

THEY I M P O S E

O FINVESTIGATIVE

STATUS B E T W E E N SUBJECTIVE I N Q U I R Y

I N HIS B O O K

O N NAIPAUL'S

" A SEMI-ETHNOGRAPHIC,

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL, ACTERISTIC WAY

ABOUT

U P THEIR OPINIONS

TRAVEL WRITING,

T H ESLIPPAGE

THE WRITER'S

OUSLY M E N T I O N E D ,

ANALYTIC

EMOTIONALLY TANGLED M O D E " NAIPAUL'S

IT NEGOTIATES

M A X I M I Z E

DISTANCED,

B E T W E E N

DISCURSIVE

R O B

O FTRAVEL WRITERS'

A N D " A N CHAR

T ON I X O N ,

IS T H E

I N ORDER T O

H E N C E THE PARADOX,

A M A T E U R

PREVI

EXPERTISE: THEY M A Y

BACK

B Y A P P E A L I N G I N S O M E M A N N E R O RO T H E R T O T H E R I G O R S O F SCIENCE TO C R A M P

THEIR

STYLE.

N I X O N ' S EDNESS

M O D E "

THESE T W O M O D E S

SCIENCE, B U T T H E Y U S U A L L Y FALL SHORT O FA L L O W I N G PERSONAL

N I X O N

ALTERNATES

( 1 5 ) . W H A T I SM O S T

ACCORDING

AUTHORITY.

WRITING

A N D OBJECTIVE

TRAVEL WRITING,

SIMILARLY IDENTIFIES TRAVEL LITERATURE AS A P O L Y V A L E N T G E N R E THAT BETWEEN

THEIR IT O N

JOURNAL

O FTHE GENRE'S E X T E N D E D F A M I L Y — T R A V E L

ENJOYS A N INTERMEDIARY DOCUMENTATION.

CERTAIN

THAT

O B S E R V A T I O N RAISES T H E M O R E SPECIFIC Q U E S T I O N O F T H E

O FTRAVEL WRITING T O E T H N O G R A P H Y .

O T H E R S , H A SN O T E D , T R A V E L E R S A N D A N T H R O P O L O G I S T S H A V E M O R E I N T H A N I SU S U A L L Y

INDEBT

A SVALERIE W H E E L E R ,

A M O N G C O M M O N

SUPPOSED:

B o t h traveler a n d a n t h r o p o l o g i s t a r estrangers w h o deliver t h e exotic to a n a u d i e n c e unlikely t o f o l l o w t h e m t o t h eplace they h a v e

visited,

but

neither

likely perhaps t o follow

their explorations

o f them. In

c a s e is t h e a c c o u n t w r i t t e n f o r t h e p e o p l e o r p l a c e s e x p e r i e n c e d , b u t

f o r p e r s o n a n d p r o f e s s i o n . (52) IN

THIS

CONTEXT,

EMPHASIS. LIONALLY

TRAVEL

WRITING

11

A N D E T H N O G R A P H Y

DIFFER PRIMARILY I N

TRAVEL WRITING ISSELF-CONSCIOUSLY AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL, ANECDOTAL,

A N D ( I N S O M E

CASES)

DELIBERATELY

INTEN-

ETHNOCENTRIC,

WHEREAS E T H N O G R A P H Y H A ST E N D E D UNTIL RECENTLY T O PLAY D O W N THE SONALITY

O F ITS A U T H O R ,

TION, A N D T O CRITIQUE DESCRIPTION TIME

T O SUBSTITUTE

SCIENTIFIC

ETHNOCENTRIC ASSUMPTIONS

O F"FOREIGN CULTURES" WHILE

O FI T S O W N P R E J U D I C E S A N D B I A S E S ,

WRITING

A N D E T H N O G R A P H Y

ANTHROPOLOGISTS

FOR ANECDOTAL

REMAIN,

H A V E SOMETIMES

T H ES T U D Y A N D

AWARE

AT THE

B U TDISTINCTIONS B E T W E E N

A T BEST,

M A D E

B E H I N D

REMAINING

PROBLEMATIC;

CONCERTED ATTEMPTS

I N 1 H o n o r 1TON

N

PER

INFORMA

A N D

S A M E TRAVEL WHILE

TO DISSOCI-

ATE THEMSELVES F R O M TRAVELERS

TRAVELERS—LEVI-STRAUSS

M A Y B EEQUALLY

ANTHROPOLOGISTS.

1 2

K E E N

T OSEE,

ARS)

U N A S H A M E D

audience

A N D

HERE, H O W E V E R , TIONS

POSITIONS

T H E M

APPEARS

TRAVELER

THE

E T H N O G R A P H Y

N U M

TENDS

LARGELY

TENDS T O D O W N P L A Y CLAIMING

THEY

AUTHORITY

T OA D V E R T I S E

ATTEMPTS

BOTH

DIFFERENCES ALLOW

SUBJECTS.

STATUS"

O F THE

A R EM E R E L Y

I N , " T O" G O

THESE PRIVILEGES

O C C U P Y

OVER THEIR

THAT

ISSUE

DISTINC

VISIT—THAT

T H E''SPECIAL

T O" M O V E

INSTEAD

CENTRAL

N O EASY

B Y T H EE C O N O M I C

OUTSIDER—PRIVILEGES

OUTSIDER

T H E

A G A I N ,

A N DT H E S O C I E T I E S

A N D

C O N

N A T I V E " —

T O OBVIATE

THE

T OR E L Y O N A D I F F E R E N T K I N D O F

C O N F E R R E D B Y THE P R O V E N TRUTHS O F SCIENCE.

T H E S E GENERALIZATIONS CAN O F COURSE B EQ U E S T I O N E D ; FOR TRAVEL I N G , T OR E P E A T , I SG E N E R I C A L L Y E L U S I V E , A S U N W I L L I N G D O C U M E N T A R Y

VERACITY

IT P U R P O R T S T O P R O V I D E A D O C U M E N T WHILE

USING

T H E M

N O T ALL O F T H E M

EXCESS.

INSOFAR AS

O F , O RR E P O R T O N , O T H E R P E O P L E S

A SA BACKDROP

Q U E S T . N O T ALL T R A V E L N A R R A T I V E S ,

WRIT

T OG I V E U P ITSC L A I M S T O

A SI T I S T O W A I V E I T S L I C E N S E T O R H E T O R I C A L

P E R H A P S IT IS BEST T O S E E TRAVEL W R I T I N G AS / W E W J O E T H N O G R A P H I C ,

CULTURES

ARE

SCHOL

A L A Y READERSHIP;

A N DA N T H R O P O L O G I S T S

A N OFTEN UNWARRANTED

O FPERSONALITY,

AUTHORITY,

WRITING

(TRAVEL WRITERS

FOR

T O B E O N E O FP O W E R .

A S A PRIVILEGED W H E N

IS WRITTEN

TRAVEL WRITERS

WRITING

method

SPECIALIZED AUDIENCE).

O F P O W E R — G R A N T E D

TRAVEL

FIRMED

WRITING

THEIR O W NSOCIETIES

T OE S T A B L I S H

W H I L E

OR B E T W E E N TRAVEL

ALTHOUGH THERE ARE A

DIFFERENCES I N

A T A M O R E

C A NB E M A D E :

B E T W E E N

B YFUSSELL

DILETTANTES; ETHNOGRAPHERS ARE RESEARCH

(TRAVEL

E T H N O G R A P H Y A I M S

CULT

E T H N O G R A P H Y ,

O F GENERALLY IDENTIFIABLE

BRICOLEURS,

E X A M P L E —

THEMSELVES A S

FICTION, T H E R E IS N OP R E S C R I P T I V E B A S I S F O R D I F F E R E N T I A T I N G

B E T W E E N TRAVEL WRITING A N D BER

BILL,

A SW I T H T H E T E N U O U S DISTINCTIONS M A D E

B E T W E E N THE TRAVEL B O O K A N D THE G U I D E B O O K , A N D (ROMANCE)

ISA F A M O U S

O R E V E N

OBVIOUSLY,

F O R T H EA U T H O R ' S

PERSONAL

ARE O F THE QUESTING

ASSIMILATE THEIR ENCOUNTERS T OTHE DICTATES

A N D

VARIETY;

O F PERSONAL

E X P E R I E N C E . N O N E T H E L E S S , I NT R A V E L N A R R A T I V E S , A S I N O T H E R F O R M S O F A U T O BIOGRAPHICAL ATTEMPT DESIRE,

O FTHE

DESIRE,

IS S E C O N D A R Y

T OA C H I E V E

ARE USUALLY AWARE O F THE DISCREPANCY A N D THE HAPHAZARDNESS

OBSERVATIONS

QUITE LITERALLY—WITH THEY

RULES A N DPRINCIPLES

T H E

T O T H E

SELF-UNDERSTANDING.

IS P E R H A P S T H E K E Y W O R D H E R E , F O R E V E N T H E M O S T E A R N E S T TRAVEL

CAL O B S E R V A T I O N S THOSE

UNDERLYING

O R THE M O C K E R Y

M O C K E R Y WRITERS

W R I T I N G , T H E S E L F I S W R I T L A R G E I N ITS A L I E N S U R R O U N D I N G S .

T OF I N D

K N O W

ARE DERIVED.

T R A V E L WRITERS,

CHARLATANISM,

THESE T O B E DUBIOUS.

routtr; i i

B E T W E E N THEIR

PHILOSOPHI

O F THE EXPERIENCE F R O M I N THIS RESPECT,

CLAIMING CERTAIN "TRUTHS" E V E N T H E

HISTORY

O FT R A V E L W R I T I N G ,

I TVI-CWRITBR8

WHICH FLIRT— W H E N UNSUR-

prisingly, reveals a propensity for hoaxes: either pseudointellectual "insights" that are embarrassingly believed in, or tall tales that mas querade as miraculous events. M a n y c o n t e m p o r a r y travel narratives follow in this profitable vein, exhibiting picayune " m e n t o r s " w h o s e wisdom is dispensed like so m u c h snake oil ( C h a t w i n , N a i p a u l ) , or declaring " m o m e n t o u s " happenings that taper off into sheepish anti climax ( N e w b y , O ' H a n l o n ) . S o m e hoaxes are revealed; others, left uncertain, b e c o m e the focus o f suspicion. (The M y l o d o n skin in In Patagonia

provides

an

object

lesson.

Allegedly

discovered

by

C h a t w i n ' s cousin in South A m e r i c a , it n o w p r o u d l y ornaments his grandmother's dining r o o m in southern England. T h e subject o f innu merable tall tales, the M y l o d o n skin is o f doubtful authenticity; it seems much m o r e than likely that it is an utter fake. Its value as a c o l lector's item remains, however, undiminished, its dubious origins merely serving as a catalyst for C h a t w i n ' s already vivid imagination 11-3,188-92].) The

value o f the M y l o d o n skin to a storyteller like C h a t w i n

increases e x p o n e n t i a l l y w i t h the n u m b e r o f anecdotes that s u r r o u n d il. In c o l l e c t i n g and r e c o u n t i n g such a n e c d o t e s , writers like C h a t w i n reveal themselves to be skillful raconteurs. Often, o n e a n e c d o t e or slory will tend to generate another: the m o r e uncertain the origin o f a w o r d , or p l a c e , or object, the greater the n u m b e r o f possible c o n lenders—and possible stories. L i k e o p p o r t u n i s t i c journalists, travel writers are often less c o n c e r n e d w i t h ascertaining the details o f a par ticular story t h a n w i t h j u d g i n g w h e t h e r it will m a k e g o o d c o p y . T h e less precise the story, the better c o p y it m i g h t m a k e ; for travel writ ing generates m u c h o f its revenue from r u m o r : it trades in the specu lations that are a t t e n d a n t on uncertainty. In this last c o n t e x t , travel narratives m e d i a t e b e t w e e n the written and the oral. O n e o f the min imum requirements o f the travel writer is that he or she be a g o o d lislener: R a b a n , T h e r o u x , and C h a t w i n , for e x a m p l e , spend less time recounting their o w n experiences t h a n garnering the a p o c r y p h a l stories o f their colorful " i n f o r m a n t s . " W h i l e , once a g a i n , similarities can

be detected here w i t h j o u r n a l i s m and/or e t h n o g r a p h y , a n o t h e r

c o n n e c t i o n is with the folktale: the a n e c d o t e that aspires to legend, t r a v e l writing, for all its trickery, remains a disseminator o f folk w i s d o m ; the travel writer, a r a c o n t e u r a m o n g raconteurs, often cher ishes this w i s d o m and is perfectly prepared to w a n d e r the g l o b e to seek it.

I N 1KOI:>H,K'TIOM

11

ROVING

"l"S

T R A V E L NARRATIVES ARTICULATE A POETICS O F THE W A N D E R I N G SUBJECT. I N M O S T CASES,

THIS

ROVING

SUBJECT REMAINS

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL

THE FOCUS O F INQUIRY;

I N A FEW,

P E R S O N A O F THE TRAVELER (OR TRAVELING WRITER)

THE

IS SUB

S U M E D B Y W H A T M I C H A E L I G N A T I E F F CALLS A " M E T A P H Y S I C S O F R E S T L E S S N E S S " — A P H I L O S O P H Y O F LIFE B A S E D O N T H E A P P A R E N T N E E D FOR M O V E M E N T . WRITING, I NTHIS S E N S E , I SA DISTINCTIVE AUTOBIOGRAPHIES,

IT SEEKS TO M A K E

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL

3

TRAVEL

F O R M ; LIKE

RETROSPECTIVE SENSE OUT

EXPERIENCES: TO CONVERT A M I S H M A S H O F IMPRESSIONS

1

O F

OTHER

DISCRETE

INTO A COHERENT NAR

RATIVE. B U T U N L I K E M O S T A U T O B I O G R A P H I E S — A T LEAST T H O S E S E E N F R O M A TRA DITIONAL P E R S P E C T I V E — T R A V E L NARRATIVES A R E LESS C O N C E R N E D W I T H R E C U P E R ATING, OR REINVENTING, A SINGLE SELF T H A N WITH F O L L O W I N G T H E TRAJECTORY O F A SERIES O F SELVES I N TRANSIT. T H I S DISTINCTION

FAILS T O A C C O U N T , O F C O U R S E , F O R

REVISIONIST STUDIES O F A U T O B I O G R A P H Y , W H I C H STRESS T H E INSTABILITY WRITING A N D VERSE

WRITTEN

SUBJECT, A N D

THE AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL

THAT I NM A N Y

THE MULTIPLICITY

TEXT-IN-PROCESS. I T REMAINS

TRAVEL NARRATIVES

THIS INSTABILITY

TRUE,

TRA

H O W E V E R ,

ISEXACERBATED, A N D

THE SELF-INQUIRIES C O N D U C T E D B Y TRAVEL WRITERS, E V E N THE M O S T UNSOPHISTICATED,

O F BOTH

O F PERSONAS THAT

THAT

APPARENTLY

ARE OFTEN LIKELY TO REVEAL A CONFLICTED SENSE O F B E L O N G

I N G A N D A L L E G I A N C E . P E R H A P S , I NTHIS S E N S E , T R A V E L W R I T I N G I SM O R E C L O S E L Y AFFILIATED WITH M E M O I R . OF AUTOBIOGRAPHY, OVER TIME,"

F O R L E E Q U I N B Y ,

WHICH

IS " P R E S U M E D

SUBJECTIVITY

TO B E

CONTINUOUS

ISAT O D D S W I T H T H E SUBJECTIVITY

(299).

PLE A N D DISCONTINUOUS"

"INDIVIDUALIZED

UNITARY

A N D

O F M E M O I R ,

T H E SUBJECTIVITY

FERS F R O M THAT O F A U T O B I O G R A P H Y , BIOGRAPHY'S

A M O N G OTHERS, THE

W H I C H IS "MULTI

O F M E M O I R

NOT ONLY

(299).

S E L F H O O D "

IT S E E M S W O R T H R E T U R N I N G H E R E F O R A M O M E N T O F TRAVEL WRITING A S" A SUB-SPECIES

O F M E M O I R

TO FUSSELL'S I NWHICH

DEFINITION

THE

AUTOBIO

GRAPHICAL NARRATIVE ARISES F R O M T H E S P E A K E R ' S E N C O U N T E R W I T H DISTANT

(203).

UNFAMILIAR

DATA"

DICTIONARY

S E N S E , AS A " W R I T T E N

OR BIOGRAPHY." OIR IS SEEN, A R O U N D

1

4

H I S

F U S S E L L IS P R E S U M A B L Y R E F E R R I N G T O M E M O I R

A PLURAL SUBJECT. T H E SUBJECTIVITY

PSYCHIC

travel

DISLOCATION—IS

RETURN TO THE EARLIER PROPOSITION

NARRATIVE

O F M E M O I R

M E M O I R ,

VIEW

OR ITS

FOR HISTORY M E M

REVOLVING

ISFRAGMENTED, OR

DISTANCE

A N D

O F TRAVEL WRITING SUGGESTS A

THAT IT D I S R U P T S

T l X I H I S T S W I T II

IN

THIS S E N S E O F F R A G M E N T A

R E I N F O R C E D B YP H Y S I C A L

THE EXPERIENCE O F ESTRANGEMENT. THIS

1 I

AS M A T E R I A L

M O R E SENSE, THOUGH, W H E N

S E E S I T ,A SA D I S C O N T I N U O U S

AT T H E V E R Y LEAST I N C O M P L E T E ; IN T I O N — O F

R E C O R D SET D O W N

DEFINITION M A K E S

A SQ U I N B Y

DIF

I TA L S O RESISTS T H E V E R Y N O T I O N O F A U T O

CONVENTIONAL

I Y I ' H W I U IT'.HS

OPPOSI-

tions between the self and its others, the domestic and the foreign; and that it provides a vehicle for the revision o f expectations concerning both individual subjecthood and the position o f the h o m e country with respect to the outside world. But while such a view certainly applies to many (contemporary) travel writers, it fails to account for others w h o use their travel writing, precisely, as a means o f confirming their iden tity and consolidating their status as imperial national subjects. Into such a category arguably fall Eric N e w b y , Peter M a y l e , and Patrick Leigh F e r m o r , and several others w h o s e w o r k s capitalize on w h a t 5

Renato R o s a l d o calls "imperialist n o s t a l g i a . " ' Clearly, there is a dan ger in claiming travel writing—and the metaphor o f "travel" in gen eral—for the purposes o f subverting metropolitan ties to race, class, and country. Indeed, one o f the characteristics o f contemporary travel writing is its reversion to earlier forms—its cultivated anachronism— and, in m o r e extreme cases, its studied reluctance to see the w o r l d as having irrevocably changed. A study o f this kind needs to account for these retrograde, but hardly vitiated, forms o f travel writing, as well as for those (post)modern forms that interrogate cultural identity and that provide a means for their writers and readers to learn, while also unlearning, modes o f cultural self-imagination and exchange. T h e "imperial I/eye" o f the travel writer, in M a r y Louise Pratt's conflation, is still operational in an age that, after Empire, has yet to settle imperialism's scores.

16

T h e connection between travel writing

and imperial conquest is a long-standing one; as Stephen Greenblatt argues persuasively, the travel narratives o f C o l u m b u s and other early European "discoverers" helped produce a "discourse o f w o n d e r " that both forestalled the act o f conquest and paradoxically legitimized it by stimulating greed (79-80, 132-34). A n d M a r y C a m p b e l l , delving back further into the premodern history o f travel writing, shows in detail how the " w o n d r o u s " beings embodied in medieval geographic fan tasies were behind some o f the stereotypical images that the Spanish (among other) conquerors used to perceive their " m o n s t r o u s " adver 7

saries and put them to the s w o r d . ' B o t h C a m p b e l l and Greenblatt stress the dangers attendant u p o n the supposed eyewitness: the traveler whose "factual report" on far-flung lands enhanced the lure o f differ ence while preparing the ground for plunder. F o r w h a t had been wit nessed really existed; if was empirically " p r o v e n " and thus available for those with (lie will and power to acquire it. T h e "eyewitness" reports o f early t r a v e l e r s

even the obviously mendacious

I N T i l l M II 11 "I n I N

1 \

thus acted as a

M E A N S ,

NOT

AUDIENCE,

ONLY BUT

ACQUIRED

O F D O C U M E N T I N G

O F

A D D I N G

THE FOREIGN

THE

B O D Y

OR IMPERFECTLY TRANSMITTED,

AS A N O P P O R T U N I T Y

FOR MATERIAL

C O N T E M P O R A R Y WITNESS,

TO

O F

CULTURE

FOR A

K N O W L E D G E ,

DOMESTIC

OFTEN

FALSELY

THAT LED TO THAT CULTURE B E I N G

GAIN.

TRAVEL NARRATIVES

ALSO RELY U P O N THE AUTHORITY

O F THE

E V E N IF T H E Y A R E LESS LIKELY TO B E T A K E N AT F A C E V A L U E O R TO

EXPECT

THEIR MYTHS,

PASSING

GREENBLATT

REMINDS

AS FACTS, TO B E ( M I S ) R C A D W I T H A N E Y E FOR PROFIT. US,

THE

EYEWITNESS,

REAL

OR

NOT,

FUNCTIONS

RHETORICAL STRATEGY TO P E R S U A D E THE READER O F THE "AUTHENTICITY" IS

REPORTED

OFTEN

SEEN

1 8

(129).

PLAYS

O N

C O N T E M P O R A R Y

SUCH

TRAVELER IMPOSES

NOTIONS

TRAVEL

WRITING,

O F AUTHENTICITY,

SUBJECTIVITY

IN

O N THE NARRATIVE

AS

A

O F W H A T

P O S T M O D E R N

EITHER

A S

SHOWING

VEIN,

H O W

OR LAYING BARE THE

THE

P O W E R

STRUCTURES U N D E R L Y I N G CLAIMS TO TRUTH. N E E D L E S S TO SAY, H O W E V E R , N O T C O N T E M P O R A R Y TIED

TO

TRAVEL

NARRATIVES

D O C U M E N T A R Y

M O D E S

D O

O F

THIS;

SEVERAL

PRESENTATION

RECORDING

SCATTERED OBSERVATIONS—USUALLY

N A L — T H E N

REARRANGES T H E M

MORRIS

A N D

REMINDING

COLIN

PROBABLY

ARE

O N

IN

B Y

M O R E

W H I C H

W A Y

THOSE

IN

UNRELIABLE M O D E

O F C O N T E M P O R A R Y

SHARE O F THOSE W H O

THE

CONVENTIONS

THIS LATTER CAN

TRAVEL

FEATURE IN

O F AN

STILL I N D U C E

WRITERS,

SELF-CONSCIOUS

CONTINUALLY

DIFFERENT ROLES. T H I S H E I G H T E N E D CONSCIOUSNESS DIMENSIONS THE

J A N

READ

T H O U G H —

ESSAY

A N D

THE

NOVEL,

IS

O N E

PERSONAS;

FOR

SHUTTLES

O F ROLE-PLAY A N D

A L S O — A N D FOR RAPID

TRAVEL WRITING D R A W S

B E T W E E N PER

EQUALLY

C L O S E L Y —

ROLE-PLAY A N D

THE

INSPIRATION

F R O M F U N —

O F THE M O R E SERIOUS-MINDED

OBVIOUS

ITS

CROSSBREED

T H E H I S T O R Y O F C O M I C T H E A T E R . N O T ALL T R A V E L E R S S H A R E A S E N S E O F T H E S O M E

O F MISFORTUNE,

SELF-CON

GENRE.

SUGGESTS THAT TRAVEL WRITING, ALREADY A

A F F I L I A T E D W I T H T H E D R A M A . W I T H ITS C A P A C I T Y STAGING

JOUR

CATEGORY,

THIS B O O K — P L A Y

ALREADY

T H E FIGURE O F T H E TRAVELER, LITERALLY M O B I L E ,

B E T W E E N

OR

NARRATIVE.

F O R M T H I S P L A Y F U L N E S S T A K E S IS T H E P R E S E N T A T I O N O F M U L T I P L E

FORMATIVE

TRAVELER,

O F A DIARY

O R LESS P L A U S I B L E

A M O N G

THE

ALL

CLOSELY

DISBELIEF. THE MAJORITY

THE LION'S

SCIOUSLY

T H U B R O N

A M O R E

US THAT A HISTORICALLY

ERS TO S U S P E N D

A N D

INTO

REMAIN

INSIST O N THEIR J O U R N E Y S B E I N G S E E N

SPIRITUAL Q U E S T S , AS S U R R O G A T E P I L G R I M A G E S — B U T

E V E N IN THE MOST

O F TRAVEL NARRATIVES,

T H E R E IS A N U N D E R L Y I N G H I N T

THE TRAVELER HIMSELF

OR HERSELF CUTS

DISPLACED

PLACES

TRAVEL

ONTO

WRITING

GRUITIES;

THE BUILDS

A FARCICAL

CULTURES

M O M E N T U M

PHILOSOPHICALLY

IN V E R I F Y I N G THE

OR

RELATIVISTIC,

F R O M

O F FARCE. I N

FIGURE; IN

TRAVELED THE

I Ol 1 IMS IS W i l l i

ACCUMULATION

I' Y l ' l ' W K I I I • K S

CASES, IS

L I K E

FARCE,

O F

INCON

IT E N J O Y S N O G R E A T E R P L E A S U R E

IMPROBABLE.

|6

S O M E

OTHERS, FARCE

THROUGH.

AS

EARNEST

THAN

T H E

VARIOUS

A G A M U T

F R O M

O F SLAPSTICK

COMIC

TECHNIQUES O F C O N T E M P O R A R Y

UNDERSTATED U R B A N E WIT

( O ' H A N L O N ) .

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL

T H E S E TWO

( C H A T W I N )

WRITERS'

R A N G E O F TRAVEL WRITING:

T R A V E L E R IS P R I M A R I L Y

AN OBSERVER, HIDING

W O R K

IN

TRAVEL WRITING

TO THE CRUDEST

RUN

FORMS

ALSO ILLUSTRATES

CHATWIN'S

THE

NARRATIVES

B E H I N D T H E ECCENTRICITIES

THE

O F THE

C H A R A C T E R S H E O B S E R V E S ; I N O ' H A N L O N ' S , T H E T R A V E L E R H I M S E L F IS T H E G R E A T EST ECCENTRIC, M A K I N G

A

VIRTUE

O F HIS

M A D C A P

SEXUAL FANTASIES, P O S I N G AS A G R O W N - U P C A M P

R O M P .

ANTICS

A N D

HIS

W A Y W A R D

SCHOOLBOY IN A B A W D Y

O ' H A N L O N A P P E A R S TO B E S E L F - O B S E S S E D , C H A T W I N

ING. B U T THIS DISTINCTION

PROVES TO B E MISLEADING;

S U M M E R SELF-EFFAC

FOR CHATWIN,

ALTHOUGH

LESS O B V I O U S L Y E G O T I S T I C T H A N O ' H A N L O N , N O N E T H E L E S S FILLS H I S B O O K S

WITH

CHARACTERS W H O

ALSO

PARTLY RESEMBLE HIMSELF.

C H A T W I N ' S NARRATIVES

SIMILAR TO O ' H A N L O N ' S IN PRESENTING N O T SO M U C H M O C K I N G

SKIT O N T H E POSSIBILITIES

ARE

A SELF-INQUIRY AS A SELF-

INHERENT IN THE

FIGURE

O F THE TRAVELER-

WRITER. F O R T H E F O R M E R , T H E TRAVELER-WRITER E M E R G E S AS A CROSS B E T W E E N N O M A D ,

AN

INVETERATE WANDERER

A N D

SEEKER IN

FAR-OFF,

A

AWE-INSPIRING

PLACES, A N D A COLLECTOR, A PATIENT G A T H E R E R O F O T H E R P E O P L E ' S STORIES

A N D

CONNOISSEUR

THE

O F DISTANT

PLACES, R E M O T E CULTURES, EXOTIC THINGS.

F O R

L A T T E R , T H E T R A V E L E R - W R I T E R IS P A R T T E A C H E R , P A R T FALL G U Y : A S C I E N T I S T TO

PURSUE,

CLOWN A

OBTAIN,

A N D

RECORD

N E W

FORMS

PERFORMING O N E (INTENTIONAL?)

PERVERSE DELIGHT BOTH

EQUALLY CONTRIVED O ' H A N L O N H U M O R ,

IN

IT

O F T E N IS,

O W N

CONTRIVED

HIS

PLACE

A M O N G

IS

A

ALSO

MISFORTUNES

A N D ACTIONS

A N D

AROUSE IN

DIRECTED

SQUARELY

AGAINST

A

TAKING IN

THE

OTHERS.

O F THE SELF-INDULGENT TRAVELER, E V E N W H E N

M O R E U R B A N E , IS T H E D A N D Y C O N S C I O U S OF

BUT

BLUNDER AFTER ANOTHER, A N D

O U T R A G E THAT HIS W O R D S

IS T H E E P I T O M E

AS

HIS

O F K N O W L E D G E ,

EAGER

HIS

HIMSELF;

CHATWIN,

O F HIS COOLNESS, B U T ALSO

CONSCIOUS

GALLERY O F ITINERANT

WITS

A N D

FRAUDS.

A P P A R E N T I N E A C H C A S E IS T H E R E L A T I V E L A C K O F I N T R O S P E C T I O N ,

W H A T

IS

A N D THE TEN

D E N C Y TO PRESENT THE SELF T H R O U G H A N ARRAY O F STOCK CARICATURAL

MOTIFS.

(LIVEN M O R E CONFESSIONAL O R " Q U E S T I N G " TRAVEL WRITERS, LIKE D E R V L A

M U R

P H Y OR PETER MATTHIESSEN,

IDEN-

T E N D TO U S E T H E S E TROPES AS A M E A N S

LI L Y I N G T H E M S E L V E S A S T R A V E L E R S , A N D O F A V O I D I N G TION

THAT

MIGHT

SENSE, MIGHT PERHAPS

I M M O B I L I Z E

BETTER,

IT

MIGHT

/ W W C I A U T O B I O G R A P H Y : LIFE"

(TRAVELING)

T H E FACT ICILY B Y

THEIR

E V E N B E S E E N AS H A V I N G B E

TRAVEL

WRITING,

INTROSPEC IN

AN AN/ZAUTOBIOGRAPHICAL

CONSIDERED

AS

A

DISINGENUOUS

THIS ASPECT; F O R M

LAST OR O F

O N E THAT, WHILE P U R P O R T I N G TO E X A M I N E THE " R E A L -

WRITER'S

PERSONALITY,

O F THE (TRAVELING)

SWAPPING

QUESTS.)

THE EXCESSIVE

O F

MASKS

ANIL

ENDS

U P

INSTEAD

B Y

E M P H A S I Z I N G

WRITTEN

SUBJECT.

SHIFTING

ROLES, P R E V E N T I N G E A S Y

IM I K O I M K

I IIIN

1/

IDENTIFICA-

TION,

TRAVEL

WRITERS

SUCH

A SC H A T W I N

A N D

O ' H A N L O N

SELVES F R O M THEIR O W N ,

HIGHLY PERSONAL, NARRATIVES.

WRITERS

O FTHE

PLAY

IS THAT

O ' H A N L O N ' S

NARRATIVES,

MODELS; FOR E X A M P L E , A

FIELD

I N PARTICULAR,

O W E

A M E R I C A N

A FURTHER ROLE

B Y THEIR

ACCOUNT

RAIN FOREST, ISA P A R O D Y O F THE

O F

W O R K

H E R E THE NOTION O F THE "ROVING I" TAKES O N A DIFFERENT

OBJECTS

O F

STUDY,

TRAVEL

T H R O U G H THE ACT O F CULTURAL V O Y E U R I S M . AT T I M E S ,

BOTH

T O ANTHROPOLOGICAL

HIS R A U C O U S

CONNOTATION; FOR LIKE ANTHROPOLOGISTS FASCINATED TO THE POINT ENCE

T H E M

PARTICIPANT-OBSERVER:

M U C H

In Trouble Again (1988),

TRIP TO T H E S O U T H

O F LEVI-STRAUSS.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL

DISTANCE

AS I NT H E NARRATIVES

1

9

WRITERS

EROTICIZE

V O Y E U R I S M

O F M O R L E Y A N D

O F

PRURI

THEIR

WORK

TAKES M A N Y

FORMS:

B U S I , S E X I T S E L F IS T H E

SUB

JECT; AT O T H E R S , T H E " E X O T I C " P E O P L E O R P L A C E S D E S C R I B E D A R E A S S E S S E D F O R T H E I R S E D U C T I V E N E S S ( I Y E R , C H A T W I N ) ; A T STILL O T H E R S , T H E V E R Y S T R A N G E N E S S O F T H E C U L T U R E ISC O M P E L L I N G ( N E W B Y , CONFRONTING

BOWLES).

THE SPECTACLE O F (BRAZILIAN)

O ' H A N L O N , FOR E X A M P L E ,

Y A N O M A M I

RITUAL,

TURNS

THE

PRIVILEGE O F THE VISITING FOREIGNER INTO THE LICENSE O F THE V O Y E U R : M A Y B E

I H A D SIMPLY B E E N TRAVELLING I NTHE JUNGLE TOO LONG, BUT I JUST

SAT A N D S T A R E D AT T H E Y O U N G W O M E N , SUNLIGHT THREW L O N G CARESSING

FLICKERS

T O O A B S O R B E D E V E N TO CLAP.

T H E

O F LIGHT O V E R T H E M T H R O U G H T H E

M O V I N G FRONDS, THEIR UNCLOTTED SKIN WAS EXTRAORDINARILY S M O O T H .

T H E

W O M A N W I T H T H E M I R R O R , W H O W A S LAST I NL I N E , D A N C E D W I T H M O R E

PAS

S I O N T H A N T H E REST: S H E H A D D R A W N S Q U I G G L Y LINES D O W N H E R C H E E K S

AND

TWO

EYE

MORE

BROWS,

RAN

DOWN

THE CENTRE OF HER FOREHEAD, BETWEEN HER

TO EITHER SIDE O F H E R N O S E B E N E A T H T H E L O N G W H I T E STICK I N H E R

SEPTUM, WHERE

AND

TWO

THEN BENT OUTWARDS

TO THE CORNERS O F H E R B O T T O M

FRESH STICKS P R O J E C T E D . S H E

HAD

COVERED HER BODY

LIP WITH

LARGE, IRREGULARLY S P A C E D R O U N D BLOTCHES LIKE THE SPOTS O N THE COAT

OF

A J A G U A R ; T H O S E O N H E R BREASTS W E R E AS B I G AS T H E A U R E O L E S A R O U N D H E R ERECT NIPPLES; T H E Y STRETCHED VERTICALLY INTO

OVALS

A SSHE RAISED

A R M S A B O V E H E R H E A D A N D H E R BREASTS T A U T E N E D A N D

FLATTENED,

HER

AND THEN

B E C A M E CIRCULAR A G A I N AS H E R B R E A S T S FELL F O R W A R D A N D R O U N D E D I N T H E SHUFFLING DANCE.

IN

PASSAGES

DETAIL

WITH

REMINDED

LIKE

THIS

O N E , O ' H A N L O N

A FETISHIST'S

DELIGHT

COMBINES

FOR FORBIDDEN

A NATURALIST'S FLESH;

HERE O F THE "SOFT PRIMITIVIST" PHOTOGRAPHS

graphic,

WHICH

(NATIVE)

B O D Y .

IN

(In Trouble Again 225)

SO 2

THE WORK

OFTEN FOCUS

O N

O N E IS O F

E Y E

FOR

INEVITABLY

National

THE E R O G E N O U S ZONES O F THE

Geo FEMALE

0

O F NAIPAUL,

MEANWHILE,

A DIFFERENT K I N D O F

VOYEURISM

CAN

BE DETECTED, A SINDIA'S SQUALOR ISREDUCED TO A S H O W , WITH

CAST

INTHE ROLE O F HORRILIED

18

SPECTATOR:

11 it 1 it 1 v i s w 1 i l l 1 v r i w i d 11 «

HIMSELF

Y o u might think of taking an early morning walk along the balustraded avenue that runs beside the Mandoui River. Six feet below, on the water's edge, and as far as you can see, there is a line, like a wavering tidewrack, of squatters. For the people of Goa, as for those of imperial Rome, defecating is a social activity; they squat close to one another; they chatter. When they are done they advance, trousers still down, backsides bare, into the water, to wash them selves. They climb back on to the avenue, jump on their cycles or get into their cars, and go away. The strand is littered with excrement; amid this excrement fish is being haggled over as it is landed from the boats; and every hundred yards or so there is a blue-and-white enam elled notice in Portuguese threatening punishment for soiling the river. But no one notices. (An Area of Darkness 74) The voyeuristic fervor with which Naipaul documents this activity is matched by the moralism with which he denounces it—a combination often found in travel narratives, which are quick to register distaste for the "degenerate" practices of other cultures, but are less inclined to rec ognize their enjoyment of the tawdriness those cultures display. F o r travel writing, although it freely avails itself o f the license o f the exotic— a mode that, as G . S. Rousseau and R o y Porter describe it, "afford[s] a moral 'time out,' a local habitation and a name for a fantasy world where all the normal rules—of decorum, taste, narrative, plausibility, and causeand-effect—[can] legitimately be suspended" (13)—has the tendency, paradoxically, to see itself as an ethical commentary: as a critique of "declining standards," corruption, physical and spiritual decay. While it would be easy here to lambaste travel writers for their obvious double standards, what they are doing in effect is exploiting the doubleness already inscribed within the exotic. For if exoticists valorize difference, they are as eager to impugn it; exoticism functions-as a dialectic of attrac tion and repulsion through which (cultural) difference can be acknowl 21

edged but also, if need be, held at bay ( T o d o r o v ) . Travel writing tends to function this way, expressing itself through exotic registers that allow for often voyeuristic appreciation o f "different" places, cultures, and peo ples while reserving the right to judge them according to narrowly ethno centric tastes. The roving "I"s of travel narratives, like those of ethnogra phies, seek out difference; but they are less likely than their ethnographic counterparts to relativize their findings, to analyze the local systems through which cultures shape and reshape meaning. Instead, they are often drawn to surfaces

more particularly, to b o d i e s - o n t o which they

project I heir fears and fantasies ol'lhe elhnicized cultural "other."

t

NI

in n i l

11

I K IN

M)

LATE

T H E

VOYEURISTIC

DEPARTURES, EARLY

TENDENCIES O F TRAVEL WRITING SKETCHED A B O V E

HIGHLY PATRIARCHAL

THE

LARGE,

W O M E N ,

A N D

BOTH

BACKGROUNDS. FEMALE

M A R Y

A N D

ACCLAIMED

A M A L E - D O M I N A T E D M O R E

R O B Y N

D E S A I W H O ,

D A V I D S O N

I N "WRITING

A C H A L L E N G E TO

"LOST"

BACK"

LIKE V I R A G O ,

OR FORGOTTEN.

T H E

WRITTEN B Y

" N O N - W E S T E R N "

D E R V L A

ARE A M O N G

T OT H E

POPULAR

K I N C A I D ,

SARA COLO

IMPERIAL

CENTERS, RACIALLY

ARE

J A U N

WHICH SPECIALIZE I N W O M E N ' S O F NARRATIVES

CONSIDERABLE

THAT TRAVEL WRITING HAS B E C O M E A VIABLE

J A N

FORMERLY

SOMETIMES

N U M B E R

TRAVEL WRITING N O W E V I D E N T IN A C A D E M I C

THE MOST

F R O M

ITS

M U R P H Y ,

JAMAICA

T H O S E WRITERS

A R E R E C O V E R I N G A NINCREASING

PREVIOUSLY

NOW.

THEIR COMPLACENT,

A N D PUBLISHERS,

F R O M

THE

ACCOUNT

GENRE, TRAVEL WRITING HAS H A D

SO THAN

ARE A M O N G

FAILS TO

NARRATIVES

INCREASINGLY,

O F C O N T E M P O R A R Y TRAVEL WRITERS;

ANITA

DICED, VIEWS; WRITING

AND,

A M O D E L

O F TRAVEL

THE W E S T

A N D

S U C H

N U M B E R

F R O M

COUNTRIES

M O U N T I N G

BODY.

W H I L E

MORRIS,

SULERI, A N D NIZED

GROWING,

PRACTITIONERS—NEVER

A N D

SUGGEST A

M O D E L THAT INDULGES M A L E FANTASIES SURROUNDING

O B J E C T I F I E D — " O T H E R E D " — F E M A L E FOR

ARRIVALS

THAT

INTEREST I N

WERE

W O M E N ' S

C I R C L E S IS A F U R T H E R S I G N , N O T ACADEMIC

ONLY

SUBJECT, BUT THAT IT IS

BEING TAKEN ACCOUNT O F IN CURRENT RESEARCH O N GENDER CONSTRUCTION O N T H E C H A N G I N G P L A C E O F T H E G E N D E R E D S U B J E C T I NT O D A Y ' S

A N D

TRANSNATIONAL

WORLD. W O M E N ' S

T R A V E L W R I T I N G I SN O T I N S U L A T E D F R O M T H E C R I T I C I S M S

A T ITS M A L E C O U N T E R P A R T ; M O R E S P E C I F I C A L L Y , I TI SN O T I M M U N E RIALIST

A N D

IDENTITY TUTED

ETHNOCENTRIC

NOSTALGIA.

H O W E V E R ,

ITS

B YT H E C O M P L E X

INTERACTIONS

O F PATRIARCHAL S O M E W O M E N

A N D

RACE, A N D

IDENTITARY

NORMS.

S U C H AS D E R V L A M U R P H Y

D E S I G N E D TO C H A L L E N G E MASCULINIST

MYTHS.

T H E

THE

DISPLACEMENT

IRONIC

OR M A R Y

ROLE-PLAY

MORRIS,

O F

IS OFTEN

I NT H E SPIRIT O F I S A B E L L E

HARDT, B O T H TRAVELER-WRITERS "IMITATE," OR DISGUISE

AT

O F

CONSTI

CLASS—MARKS

TRAVEL WRITING AS A VEHICLE FOR T H E

IMPERIAL

WRITERS,

O F GENDER,

I M P E

INTERROGATION

O F T H E TRAVELING S U B J E C T — A SUBJECT R E C O G N I Z E D AS B E I N G

C O N T E M P O R A R Y W O M E N ' S

WHILE

LEVELED

F R O M

E B E R -

T H E M S E L V E S AS,

M E N ;

THIS CROSS-DRESSING SERVES AT O N E LEVEL TO FACILITATE THEIR J O U R N E Y S ,

ANOTHER

M U R P H Y

I T FLIES I N T H E

A N D

ASSOCIATED

MORRIS,

WITH THE

FACE

A M O N G FIGURE

O F CONVENTIONAL OTHERS,

P O K E

FUN

GENDER

A TTHE M A L E

TIONALLY ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR

MI

2 2

BRAVADO

O F THE EXPLORER, D E F Y I N G THE RESTRICTIONS

D R E S S , O F S P E E C H A N D , A B O V E ALL O F C O U R S E , O F M O V E M E N T )

IF TRAVEL, FOR W O M E N

DISTINCTIONS.

THAT ARE

(OF

TRADI

SEX.

LIKE THESE, ISA M E D I U M

O F EMANCIPATION,

' n n i ins i s w i i n T Y I - K W U I I i
IL. I S

also a vehicle for the "queering" o f a heterosexual culture. A n increas ing number o f gays and lesbians h a v e turned to travel writing, d r a w i n g on models in part derived from earlier homoerotic fantasy, but also from current theories o f queer performativity, which lay emphasis on I he expressive potential o f the (gendered) b o d y as well as on the dis cursive power o f language in performance. Several o f these w o r k s posit ;i playful—often energetic—alternative to the geographies they associ:ile with heterosexual (both male and female) thought and action. A l d o Busi, R o l a n d Barthes, and, to some extent, Bruce C h a t w i n are a m o n g l hose writers for w h o m the experience o f travel unlocks conceptual doors: Busi is the unrestrained libertine, m o v i n g from country (and partner) to country; Barthes and C h a t w i n are the aesthetes, connois seurs o f food and fashion, alert to the ritualized spectacles they m a k e of foreign cultures, and producing travel narratives that, self-con sciously seductive, dramatize their theories in a j o y o u s "philosophy-inperformance." Pleasure is the principle that guides these different writ ers; as C h a t w i n ' s later writing shows, it is a pleasure that m a y exact its price. F o r travel, in the age o f A I D S , has presented new frontiers o f danger—dangers that are alluded to in C h a t w i n ' s final, poignant essays but that also feature more robustly in the w o r k o f M o r l e y and Iyer, traveling in Thailand, and o f S h o u m a t o f f in Africa, investigating I he virus's possible sources. While providing another outlet for a staple o f travel writing, the < autionary tale, A I D S culture has inevitably impacted the behavior o f modern-day travelers, bringing with it a heightened awareness o f the risks—an understanding not just that travel's apparent freedoms m a y he misleading, but that the pursuit o f freedom itself m a y be at one's own, and others', expense. Traveler-writers w h o c o m e from areas pre viously colonized by Europe were always likely to see such freedom II i n n a critical perspective. Jamaica K i n c a i d ' s A Small Place (1988) and 1 'uryl Phillips's The European Tribe (1987), b o t h by writers born in the I aribbean but currently living in the diaspora, are t w o g o o d examples ol highly politicized forms o f travel writing, which interrogate both the history o f the genre they are employing and the underlying attitudes— nil en downright x e n o p h o b i c — t h a t have led to its becoming over time II fertile ground for misconception and for the unobstructed play o f I !uro-American (mostly white middle-class) f a n t a s y . Kincaid's and Phillips's work might be described as a kind o f countertrwel writing insofar as it pits ilself against I he d o m i n a n t Eurocentric model. But 23

H O W

L O N G WILL THIS

BEGINNING DIFFICULT

D O M I N A N C E

LAST?

CERTAINLY,

T OTAKE O NA MULTICULTURAL

T O J U S T I F Y T H ET R A V E L E R ' S " O N E - W A Y "

TION, REGULATED F R O M THE I M A G I N E D

TRAVEL WRITING T O D A Y IS

E T H O S . I TISB E C O M I N G VISION—HIS

INCREASINGLY

O RHER

SAFETY O FT H E M E T R O P O L I S ,

PERCEP

O F PEOPLE,

P L A C E S , A N D C U L T U R E S S E E N A S A L I E N O RR E M O T E . F O R O N E T H I N G , T H E OLIS ITSELF IS CLEARLY A M U L T I E T H N I C CONTRADICTORY,

REALITIES

M E T R O P

ENTITY, A PLACE WHERE DIFFERENT, OFTEN

M I X A N D MINGLE.

A N D F O RA N O T H E R ,

ANTHROPOLOGICAL C O N C E P T I O N O FA DISTINCTIVE

T H E OLDER

(SEPARATE) CULTURE H A S B E E N

L A R G E L Y R E P L A C E D B Y A L O N G E R V I E W T H A T S E E S A L LC U L T U R A L F O R M S , ING I NA TRANSNATIONAL

T E R N O F D I S - A N DR E L O C A T I O N .

We

live

in a confusing

intersecting

systems

2 4

R O G E R R O U S E STATES THIS V I E W

world,

a world

o f meaning,

o f crisscrossed

a n d fragmented

PAT

SUCCINCTLY:

economies,

identities.

denly, thecomforting m o d e r n imagery o f nation-states a n d

Sud

national

languages, o f coherent c o m m u n i t i e s a n d consistent subjectivities,

o f

d o m i n a n t centers a n d distant margins, n o longer seems adequate.

(8)

W H A T

H A P P E N S

"TRANSNATIONAL

T O T R A V E L W R I T I N G I N A N A G E O FW H A T H O M I

B H A B H A

DISSEMINATION."

O FA

A TA T I M E

W H E N

CULTURE, O RE V E N "CULTURE," ISU N D E R THREAT? DIAMETRICALLY

2 5

T H EI D E A

M U C H

O P P O S E D , SETS O F R E S P O N S E S A R E P O S S I B L E . F I R S T , T R A V E L W R I T

MODIFICATION—THAT A N D INTERSECT.

2 6

O F THIS

SUBJECT,

LIVING

E M B O D I M E N T

WORLD.

IYER

Video Night in Kathmandu STATES,

G H O S H ,

CHINA,

O F INDIAN

SETH'S

FORMS

(1988)

IS A G O O D A

BRITISH

BACKGROUND,

ISA N

SEVERAL O F T H E MOST

A N G L O P H O N E TRAVEL WRITERS

K A N G A

ARE JUST

EBULLIENT ACCOUNT

A R E SOUTH

STATES. V I K R A M THREE

FLUENT CHINESE,

W O R E

SETH,

From

O F THESE.

O F H I S VISIT T O T I B E T A N D

I SA C A S E S T U D Y O F T H E D I F F I C U L T Y O F A S C E R T A I N I N G

W H O SPEAKS

COLLIDE

TRAVEL W R I T I N G ADJUSTS ITS G A U G E S T O

I N B R I T A I N O R T H EU N I T E D

A N D FIRDAUS

CUL

E X C H A N G E A N D

A N D IYER HIMSELF,

IS N O T A L O N E ; I N D E E D ,

O FC O N T E M P O R A R Y LIVING

O FM U T U A L

DIFFERENT CULTURAL

O FTRAVEL NARRATIVE.

O F WHAT H A P P E N S W H E N

Heaven Lake (1983), M A I N L A N D

IYER'S

KIND

DIASPORICS

A M I T A V

PLACE W H E N

I N T H E U N I T E D

POSTCOLONIAL

ACCOMPLISHED

TAKES

PICO

E X A M P L E

SETH,

FOCUSING NOT S O

O NENCOUNTERS B E T W E E N THE TRAVELER A N D THE TARGET CULTURE (OR

T U R E S ) A S O N T H E P R O C E S S O FT R A N S C U L T U R A T I O N

A S I A N

CALLS

NATIONAL

A T LEAST T W O , M O R E O R LESS

ING CAN RECOGNIZE THE CONFFICTEDNESS O F CULTURAL ORIGINS,

A

INTERACT

C O N T E X T , A SS T R A N D S I N A G L O B A L , H Y B R I D I Z E D

T H E TRADITIONAL

ORIGINS.

M A O I S T

BLUE

TROUSERS, JACKET, A N D C A PD U R I N G H I STRAVELS, A N D W A SD U L Y T A K E N B Y SEV ERAL O F THE P E O P L E H E E N C O U N T E R E D FOR A C H I N E S E T H E

SECOND

SET O F RESPONSES INVOLVES

(100-108).

T H ERECOGNITION

O F BELATED-

NESS. I TISN O L O N G E R POSSIBLE L O (OUT A V I E W OF, SAY, " ( H E E N G L I S H

• I O I I K I M S W I I II

I • Y I T . W H I I !• IN".

GENTLC-

man a b r o a d " as if this gentleman—naturally, white—existed other I han in myth. Y e t this myth, precisely, matters and is adhered to with a. vengeance, even though its effect is largely comic and its p o w e r obvi ously in decline. This is the stance taken b y Eric N e w b y and, to a lesser extent, R e d m o n d O ' H a n l o n ; it even lurks in the b a c k g r o u n d o f C h a t w i n ' s w o r k and that o f the A n g l o p h i l e T h e r o u x . T r a v e l writing, for these writers, dramatizes the unwieldy p a r a d o x o f reconfirming a national identity that is already recognized as being out o f step with the limes. This regressive cultural nationalism has m o r e sinister implica tions, yet these are sidestepped by recourse to p a r o d y and preemptive self-critique. These t w o responses are symptomatic o f a "postimperial" era that has yet to deliver itself from the recrudescence o f its beliefs. T h e dis course o f " p o s t " implies, o f course, an ambivalent relationship with what precedes it, and a sense o f temporal flux that argues against deci sive break. C o n t e m p o r a r y travel writers are arguably caught in this hiatus, aware o f their temporal, as well as their geographical, displace ment. Part o f this dilemma has to d o w i t h the p h e n o m e n o n o f speed. I )eparting late, they find that they are arriving all t o o early: changes in the technology o f transportation, while m a k i n g travel more efficient and easier, potentially rob such traveler-writers o f the leisure time they need. Speed is antithetical to the physical and verbal meandering o f conventional travel writing, w h i c h relies on m o d e s o f transportation (walking, cycling, rail travel) that require the passage o f time. Speed also opposes the myth o f labor on which travel writing so often depends. T h e idea o f hardship is intrinsic to more traditional forms o f I ravel writing it is n o surprise to find a popular anthology entitled, simply enough, Bad Trips (J991). A s the editor o f the v o l u m e , K e a t h Eraser, colorfully puts it, " T r a v e l will still suggest 'travail' to those who k n o w that b y leaving h o m e they risk wire-walking without a net" (xiv). A n d , even more colorfully: " A bad j o u r n e y mirrors its exotic cir cumference, t h r o w i n g b a c k an image o f the writer in extremis, w h o is willing to be tested, m o c k e d , and remain remarkably undaunted when il begins to rain on his parade . . . when the rim o f the troddened w o r l d degenerates into a via dolorosa" ( x v i i - x v i i i ) . Fraser apparently k n o w s I he value o f glibness in travel writing; the reality, however, especially lor c o n t e m p o r a r y travelers, is that their j o u r n e y s are rarely as trau matic or as heroic as they w o u l d have us believe. Eraser's anthology, published in 1991 with pieces collecled mostly from the eighties, wryly illustrates how some traveler-writers, in C i l l e r p u r s u i t o f trouble, will 27

28

Introduction 23

FIND

IT W H E N

THEY LEAST E X P E C T I T — A N D

W H A T HAPPENS, THOUGH, W H E N

O F T E N N O T D E A L W I T H I TV E R Y

THE SPACE O F TRAVEL THREATENS TO

A L T O G E T H E R — W H E N TRAVEL GOES "VIRTUAL," FUSED WITH THE NEEDLESS

U M B E R T O

TO SAY,

SUCH

USE

E C O

DOES NOT

CON

ARE

TWO

THOSE

A N D

EXAMPLES

(1986)

PERCEPTIONS

A N D

PRESENT

J E A N

FORMS.

BAUDRILLARD'S

TRAVEL

TOWARD

VARIANTS

TRAVEL

UNUSUAL

NARRATIVES

O F THE "VIRTUAL"

A SA M E A N S

BOTH

NEW,

O F CONTEMPORARY

O N THE PERCEPTIONS

BAUDRILLARD

SPELL THE E N D O F

IS TO U S H E R I NS O M E

Travels in Hyperreality

ECO'S

THAT, PLAYING IRONICALLY

FORM.

A SCENARIO

ITD O E S INSTEAD

(1988)

TRAVELER,

DISAPPEAR

A N D REALITY ITSELF B E C O M E S

HYPERREAL?

WRITING; WHAT

America

WELL.

OR

" H Y P E R "

REJUVENATING O N

WHAT

THE

M I G H T B E

CALLED THE "THEORETICAL TRAVELER": THEIR ACTUAL J O U R N E Y S ARE O N L Y THE PRE TEXT FOR THEIR THEORIES A N D AS "POST-TOURISTIC" TOURISTS"

(UNLIKE

ACCUMULATING

I NSENSIBILITY,

AUTHENTIC

IMPROVE

O N

LATEST M E D I A T E D

PSEUDOSCIENCE

W H O S E

O F T O U R I S M AS A G A M E .

FACT A N D

HISTORICAL

A N D

O F SURROGATE

TRAVEL NARRATIVES T A I N IT; I N S C A N N I N G A N D

SEEN

"POST-

A N D

WITH

A C O M P L E X

M Y T H ,

BETWEEN

LUDI

SEEK T O WITH

O F PERFECT

BUT

IT ALSO

THE

ITHAS

THE M O D

RESTATES

TO A

O F ILLU

INDETERMINATE THRIVED

O N

TRAPPINGS

O F

W H O S E

AREA

A DIET A

MULTIPLE

O F

WORLD POSSIBLE

BUT ALSO TO

AN INVENTORY O F

TO CONFRONT THE U N E X P E C T E D

TRAVEL WRITING'S DESIRE TO C O M E

CONTEMPORARY

A N D

PAST.

STRANGE

ITSNOSTALGIC

STILL P A R O C H I A L ,

1"UHiM • W I T H

ADJUST

TO

GENRE. THIS

1 Yi'KWRITKits

TERMS

N E E D T O

T H E S E C O M P E T I N G

BRITISH TRAVEL WRITERS,

CON

DOMESTICATED

M A I N T A I N S THAT BALANCE B E T W E E N

I N TRANSFORMATION

NENTS O F A LABILE, BUT S O M E H O W

I

THAT

UNDERSTOOD.

R E S T O R E T H E I M A G I N A R Y SITE O F A " S I M P L E R " A M O N G

SIMU

OR WITH THE

OBJECTS

STRIVE TO E X P R E S S T H E U N F A M I L I A R ,

WORLD

TO B E

O F

I NPART A R E S P O N S E

TRAVEL;

THE PAST, THEY C O M P I L E

REVERSION:

OR

ILLUSIONS—THE

YET THEY ARE M A D E

M E N T

LIKELY

ECO'S FASCINATION

INHABITING

A N D

MYSTERIES,

NESS O F THE PRESENT. THIS B O O K

ARE APPARENT

0

O F T H E " R E A L . " T R A V E L W R I T I N G , A F T E R ALL, I S

OBSERVATION;

ARE ONLY PARTLY

MYSTERIES,

3

O F TRAVEL WRITING WITH THE M A N U F A C T U R E

FABLE, HISTORY

RUMORS,

M O R E

ARTIFACTS,

SITES

WHAT THEY ONCE C O P I E D — I S

FORMS

O F

ARE M U C H

G E O G R A P H Y ISONLY PARTLY COVERED, A N D

HISTORIES

BEST

WITH THE KITSCH DISPLAY

BAUDRILLARD'S

SIONS THAT TEST T H E B O U N D A R I E S

HALF-TRUTHS,

ARE PERHAPS

F A K E R Y — WITH THE CONSTRUCTION

PERENNIAL PREOCCUPATION

BETWEEN

WRITERS

O F " G E N U I N E " NATIVE

THE ORIGINAL.

ELS THAT T H E N S U P P L A N T

A

AWARE

INAUTHENTIC:

T OR E C O N S T R U C T

POSSIBILITY O F A B S O L U T E

THE

BOTH

EXPERIENCE; THEY

LATED PLACES A N D COPIES ATTEMPT

2 9

S E L F - D E S I G N A T E D " T R A V E L E R S " ) A R E N O T AT ALL I N T E R E S T E D I N

TAKEN WITH THE OBVIOUSLY

CROUS

BELIEFS.

ADEPT

DRIVES E X P O

PAROCHIALISM

is embodied in the mythic

figure—already

i n t r o d u c e d — o f the gentle

man traveler, forever on the m o v e but a l w a y s missing h o m e , and defiantly out o f date. B y showing h o w several travel writers manipulate the trope o f the gentleman traveler, the next chapter examines the view that British travel writing, in the nominally postimperial era, continues to trade successfully in ironically recycled imperial myths.

I N T H Q t U K '

i K I N

Chapter one After Empire

IMPERIALIST THE

" A S

TRAVELERS A N D TRAVEL

FUSSELL F O R

ENGLISH

I N HIS STUDY

NOSTALGIA

GENTLEMAN

WRITERS,

AND

T R A V E L E R

T H E ENGLISH

A R E SPECIAL,"

O F BRITISH LITERARY TRAVELING B E T W E E N

SAYS

P A U L

T H EW A R S

(73).

FUSSELL, T H EE N G L I S H TRAVELER-WRITER IS SINGLED O U TF R O M

PARTICULAR

BRAND

O F ECCENTRIC

INDIVIDUALISM.

FUSSELL'S

OTHERS B YA

(PERHAPS

SIVELY) AFFECTIONATE STUDY IS D E D I C A T E D ACCORDINGLY T O THE M E M O R Y NOTORIOUS "ORIGINALS" THE M O R E W A U G H :

A S T H E IRREPRESSIBLE ART HISTORIAN R O B E R T B Y R O N A N D

C U R M U D G E O N L Y ,

B U T SCARCELY LESS F L A M B O Y A N T ,

L A R G E R - T H A N - L I F E F I G U R E S B O T H , B U T N O TU N T Y P I C A L

ELER-WRITERS

O F T H EINTERWAR

PERIOD,

W H O WERE

NOVELIST

M E N T S "

'INTERNATIONALISM,' ROMANTICALLY,

(78).

O F POST-WAR

FREQUENTLY

SOCIAL

E V E L Y N

O FE N G L I S H

CONFORMITY,

A N D POLITICAL

FUSSELL SEES B Y R O N A N DW A U G H

TRAV

"OUTRAGEOUS,

C O N D U C T I N G [THEIR] LIBERTARIAN GESTURE AGAINST THE PREDICTABLE LH E DULL

EXCES O F SUCH

ARRANGE

AS REPRESEN

TATIVES O FT H E " F I N A L A G E O FT R A V E L , " W H I C H H A S S I N C E G I V E N W A Y T O M O D E R N COMMERCIAL ECHOES

TOURISM.

I N P R O N O U N C I N G

T H ESENTIMENTS

O FW A U G H

T H E A G E O F TRAVEL

HIMSELF,

D E A D ,

W H O B E L I E V E D THAT

FUSSELL

T H EE N DO F

T H E W A R A L S O S I G N A L E D T H EE N DO F T H E G O L D E N A G EO F T R A V E L W R I T I N G ; WERE THE HALCYON DAYS W H E N Mr.

G R A H A M

B Y R O N

. . .

W A U G H ' S LATER,

G R E E N E

TO T H ELIBERIAN

T O THE RUINS THRENODY

W E FIND

" M R .P E T E R F L E M I N G W E N T T O T H E G O B I

O FPERSIA"

TURNED

H I MA G A I N

HINTERLAND

. . . [ A N D ]M R .

(When the Going Was Good

O U T T OH A V E

B E E N

PREMATURE;

A N D I N CHARACTERISTICALLY

F O RA

EBULLIENT

G O N E

DESERT, R O B E R T 11). B U T D E C A D E M O O D —

writing a preface f o r the b o o k O F a n e w l y discovered literary traveler: E r i c N e w b y . N e w b y , f o r W A U G H . is " T H E latest, B U T , I p r a y , N O T t h e last o f a w h i m s i c a l t r a d i t i o n . " W a u g h eelebi.iles N e w b y ' s u n d e r s t a t e m e n t ,

SELF-RIDICULE, DELIGHT I NTHE FOREIGNNESS O F FOREIGNERS, C O M P L E T E O F A N Y A T T E M P T T O ENLIST T H E S Y M P A T H I E S O F HIS READERS I N T H E H E H A SCAPRICIOUSLY

INVITED

P R E S E N C E O FT H E SPECIALIST

. . . [AND]

FORMAL

DENIAL

HARDSHIPS

SELF-EFFACEMENT I N THE

(WITH THE ESSENTIAL RESERVE O FU N E X P R E S S E D

SELF-RESPECT). ALL O F THESE QUALITIES DELIGHT THE HEART O F A M A N" W H O S E ARE

D O N E

ABROAD

A N DW H O SEES,

B Y OTHER, N E W

N E WT H A T N E W B Y

U P H O L D E R O F A TRADITION

A N DW I T H O U T

W H O

"SHUNS

E M B O D I E S O F

A N YC O N C E R N W I T H

SCIENCE O R POLITICS

O R C O M

FEET H A V E T R O D "

(PREF

12). W A U G H

SELF,

I SP A R T L Y R I G H T I NHIS J U D G M E N T O F N E W B Y ;

I N THE

O P E N I N G

P A G E S

( 1 9 8 2 ) , ISC E R T A I N L Y Q U I C K S A M E

TIME,

SCHOOL

BOTH

ABROAD.

FIGURE

WRITING—LIKE

(THESIGER,

WITHIN A N D N E W B Y

against

THAT

LEWIS,

SCHOLAR:

F E R M O R ) — A S

O F THE ENGLISH M O R E

A NA V I D

O W N

AFFORDS A N O T H E R

R E M I N D E R

O FTHE

IMPERIAL NATIONAL CULTURE. W A U G H

I M A G I N E D

IMPRESSIVE

SUPERIORITY

BOTH,

THEY A R E — O R P E R H A P S BETTER, THEY P O S E A S — G E N T L E M A N TIME.

SELF-CONSCIOUSLY

B U T FOR N E W B Y ,

T H ESENSE

M O R E U R G E N T . H E H A SB E E N B O R N ,

OCCASION

I NH I S TRAVEL WRITINGS,

ANACHRONISTIC

O N E H U N D R E D

O NM O R E

RETAIN FIGURES

SCHOLARS

O FBELATEDNESS

H ELAMENTS

ERU

O F HIS

A N D , PARTICULARLY, B Y R O N

O FTHESE CHARACTERISTICS:

O FTHEIR

GENTLE

STUDENT A N D C O N

S O M E

M U C H

B E I N G

CLOSELY WITH T H E

S U M E R O F OTHER, MOSTLY N O N - E U R O P E A N CULTURES W H O S E DITION

Life AT THE

O FSEVERAL O FHIS OLD-

L E I G H

THIS TRADITION

G E N T L E M A N

H I M

B U T I TI S I M P O R T A N T ,

THE TRADITION

ASSOCIATES

O FT H E V I C T O R I A N

1

A N D N E W B Y

A Traveller's

O FH I S A U T O B I O G R A P H Y

T OA G R E E WITH HIM.

T OS E E N E W B Y ' S

CONTEMPORARIES

SITUATED M A N

OUT

FOR AS THE

N E W B Y

THE CELEBRATED SPECTACLES O F

M E R C E . . . V E N T U R E S T O SET FEET W H E R E F E W CIVILIZED ACE

I TIS P R E

A N A N T I Q U A T E D , B U T STILL P E R F E C T L Y S E R V I C E A B L E M Y T H — T H A T

THE ENGLISH G E N T L E M A N ABROAD THE TOURIST

IST O B E W E L C O M E D ;

T H A T I SR E S O L U T E L Y A N T I M O D E R N ,

DAYS

REPRESENTED

A N D ( D A M M I T ) L O W E R T Y P E S " ( P R E F A C E 12).

C I S E L Y B E C A U S E H E I S not

IN H I SW O R K

TRAVELLING

A L L T O O O F T E N , H I SC O U N T R Y M E N

IS THAT

THAN

O N E

YEARS T O O LATE; A N D N O T

O N L Y I NT H E S E N S E T H A T T H E F O R C E S O F M O D E R N T E C H N O L O G Y H A V E

CONSPIRED

TO SPOIL THE PLEASURES O F THE RUIN-SEEKING T R A V E L E R — T O RUIN H I S R U I N S — B U T A L S O B E C A U S E T H E M Y T H O F T H E E N G L I S H G E N T L E M A N H A S LOST ITS M O R A L FORCE.

D A V I D

TLEMAN, LONGER

C A S T R O N O V O ,

EXPRESSES A NI D E A L

I N H I S HISTORICAL

T H ED I L E M M A

O RM O D E L ,

WELL.

B U TINSTEAD

STUDY

O FT H E E N G L I S H

T H EE N G L I S H A P O P U L A R

N O

L O N G E R B ES E E N AESTHETIC

iH

A S " A FORCE FOR SOCIAL OBJECT"

(131).

1 0 1 mm I ' . W i l l i

LIKE

THE G E N T L E M A N C A N

COHESION,

N E W B Y ' S

IS N O

ENTERTAINMENT;

T H E L A N D E D ESTATE W I T H W H I C H H EISO F T E N A S S O C I A T E D ,

DELIGHTFUL

G E N

G E N T L E M A N

B U L RATHER

PERSISTENT

I Vl'l'WNITIIHS

NOSTALGIA

[AS] A IS A

THROWBACK

T O T H E LOST G L O R I E S O FE M P I R E — A N

C E S S F O R T H EI D E A

O FT H E G E N T L E M A N — B U T

A G E O FU N P A R A L L E L E D

N E W B Y

THE FACT THAT T H E E N G L I S H G E N T L E M A N A B R O A D , FOR

W H I C H

WORLD

H E STANDS,

D O N O T C U T M U C H

O FT H E LATE TWENTIETH

CENTURY.

TLEMEN C A N ONLY N O WB E H A V E CUMSTANCES M A R X

THAT

AS SUCH,

ARE MANIFESTLY

A N DTHE C O D E O F C O N D U C T

ICE I N T H ERAPIDLY

S I M O N

R A V E N

S U M S

C H A N G I N G

ITU P :

" G E N

O R B E TOLERATED AS SUCH,

CONTRIVED

O R U N R E A L "

(144).

I N CIR P E R H A P S

G O T I TR I G H T A F T E R ALL: T O R E P L A Y T H E H I S T O R Y O FT H E E N G L I S H

M A N

ABROAD,

MANLINESS,

I N A NA G EN O L O N G E R C O N D U C I V E

TO T H EIDEALS

GENTLE

O F GENTLE-

I ST O P L A Y I T O U TA S F A R C E .

C E R T A I N L Y , F A R C E P L A Y S A ROLE I NS E V E R A L C O N T E M P O R A R Y B R I T I S H NARRATIVES

SUC

RARELY LOSES SIGHT O F

THAT SELF-CONSCIOUSLY M A N I P U L A T E

TRAVEL

THE IMPERIALIST M Y T H O F THE

A B R O A D . N E W B Y ' S A Short Walk in the Hindu Kush (1958), Arabian Sands (1959), A N D , M O R E R E C E N T L Y , O ' H A N L O N ' S Into the Heart of Borneo (1984) A R E A L L P O S T W A R T R A V E L N A R R A T I V E S B Y Q U I N T E S -

G E N T L E M A N THESIGER'S

SENTIALLY

ENGLISH

WRITERS

THAT

TRADE

O N , B U T ALSO

PLAY

O N , WHAT T H E

A N T H R O P O L O G I S T R E N A T O R O S A L D O CALLS " I M P E R I A L I S T N O S T A L G I A . " IST N O S T A L G I A , FIED

M O D E

GIVEN

ACCORDING

O F ELEGIAC

TO R O S A L D O ,

PERCEPTION

T OS E N T I M E N T A L I Z E

DESCRIBES

THROUGH

T H EFORMER

W H I C H

RELATIONSHIP

THAT FOSTER THEIR PERCEPTIONS, CONTRIVE T O M O U R N THEY

THEMSELVES

H A V E

IRREVOCABLY

C O M M O D I -

W E S T E R N B E T W E E N

A N D ITS C O L O N I E S . S U C H P E O P L E , A N DT H E C U L T U R E I N D U S T R I E S

THAT

IMPERIAL

A PREVALENT,

P E O P L E A R E T H E E M P I R E

(FILM, T V , ETC.)

THE PASSING

O FA

ALTERED. A S R O S A L D O

WORLD

PUTS

IT

BLUNTLY: Imperialist

nostalgia

somebody,

a n dthen m o u r n s

revolves

around

a paradox:

the victim.

I n more

A

person

kills

attenuated

form,

s o m e o n e deliberately alters a f o r m o flife, a n d t h e n regrets t h a t

things

have n o t remained

as they were prior

t o the intervention.

A to n e

m o r e r e m o v e , people destroy their e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d then they

wor

ship n a t u r e . I n a n y o fits versions, imperialist nostalgia uses a p o s e o f "innocent

yearning" both

c o n c e a l its c o m p l i c i t y

IMPERIALIST NOSTALGIA C O M E S W H O

I NH A N D Y

C A ND E P L O Y IT T O M Y S T I F Y

YEARN

F O RT H E " S I M P L E R "

TLTISTRIAL—THAT SELVES HAVE

to capture

THEY

THEY,

NEED.

people's imaginations

with often brutal domination.

W A Y S

O F L I F E — O F T E N RURAL,

A N D THEIR METROPOLITAN

IMPERIALIST

M O D E

RESPONSIBILITY

O FWISTFUL

NOSTALGIA,

REMINISCENCE

FOR, A MYTHICIZED

AI

a n dto 2

FOR C O N T E M P O R A R Y TRAVEL

THEIR O W NE C O N O M I C M O T I V E S ,

T O D E P E N D O N A V I S I O N O FE M P I R E ;

PASTORAL

(69-70)

P R E M O D E R N ,

PREIN-

READERS, PERSUADE

T H E M

A SR O S A L D O

SEES IT,D O E S N O T

IT D E S C R I B E S A M O R E G E N E R A L I Z E D , THAT

SEEKS CONTROL OVER, B U T N O T

VERSION O FTHE PAST.

1 1 It l i l M I M H

WRITERS,

AS WELL AS TO

I NTHE WORK

O F SEV-

ERAL C O N T E M P O R A R Y

TRAVEL WRITERS,

ALLY PERTAINS T O E M P I R E :

H O W E V E R , THIS M Y T H I C I Z E D

ITATTEMPTS

( I M A G I N E D ) G L O R I E S , A N DT H E R E S U S C I T A T I O N NARY) "SUBORDINATE" WRITERS

LIKE

O FE M P I R E ' S

THESE

A R E AWARE,

THOUGH,

S I D E K I C K , T H EP O E T J A M E S

F E N T O N , E M B A R K

J U N G L E THAT ISALSO A J O U R N E Y BACK

INTO

THAT O N E O FO ' H A N L O N ' S

RAD, FOR HIS O W NTRAVEL NARRATIVES CALLS

" C O N R A D I A N

CLEARLY I NTHE NOVELLA THROUGH

NARRATIVE;

WORK,

THAT

THEIR

(IMAGI

THE AUTHOR A N D HIS

O N A M A D C A P

FAVORITE WRITERS

S U C C U M B

ATAVISM":

FORAY INTO T H E PAST. (ITIS

ISJ O S E P H

DISPLAYED

B Y WHICH A J O U R N E Y

B A C K W A R D

THROUGH TIME.)

B U TH E ISEQUALLY INTERESTED I NRE-CREATING A N D

TURY, AT LEAST A H U N D R E D

O FS A R A W A K

MOST

FORWARD

THERE ISA N EVOLUTIONARY THREAD TO O ' H A N L O N ' S

INHABITING THE COLONIAL ATMOSPHERE

C O N

ALLT O O EASILY T O W H A T R O B

T H E M E C H A N I S M ,

M O V E S

GESTURES A R E

A FONDLY REIMAGINED

Heart of Darkness,

SPACE SIMULTANEOUSLY

CONRAD'S

ERSTWHILE

ISA T U R N T O C O M E D Y — P A R T I C U

Into the Heart of Borneo,

LARLY FARCE. I N O ' H A N L O N ' S

N I X O N

ACTU FORMER

SUBJECTS.

B E L A T E D , A N D T H E RESULT I NT H E I R N A R R A T I V E S

NOT SURPRISING

PAST

THE RESTORATION O FE M P I R E ' S

3

A S I N JUNGLE

IMAGINATIVELY

I NTHE NINETEENTH

CEN

Y E A R S B E F O R E H I S O W NVISIT. O N E O FH I S M O D E L S

APPEARS T OB ETHE " G E N T L E M A N - A D V E N T U R E R " J A M E S B R O O K E , W H O ARRIVED, LIKE HIS LITERARY N A M E S A K E

L O R D J I M , I N S A R A W A K I NT H E

C E N T U R Y , P R O M P T L Y B E C A M E E M B R O I L E D I NA LOCAL W A R , HIS

O W NPRIVATE

4

K I N G D O M .

MID-NINETEENTH

A N D E N D E D U P WITH

B R O O K E W A S LATER S U C C E E D E D B Y H I S N E P H E W

C H A R L E S , A FORCEFUL L E A D E R W H O" G O V E R N E D S A R A W A K F O R FIFTY Y E A R S LIKE A COUNTRY GENTLEMAN M A N A G I N G B R O O K E S

W A S T OC O N T I N U E

{Borneo 14).

HISESTATES"

UNTIL

AFTER T H E S E C O N D

A N D THE LINE O F

W O R L D

W A R , W H E N

V Y N E R B R O O K E , U N D E R PRESSURE T OREBUILD, FINALLY C E D E D HISESTATE T O THE BRITISH C R O W N

(MOSES).

O ' H A N L O N

SEES THE B R O O K E S ' HISTORY AS

B E E N ONE, B Y A N D LARGE, O F BENEVOLENT PATERNALISM, TO

REVIVE

I N H I SO W N M U C H

LATER

EXPEDITION.

B U T A S H E DISCOVERS,

S A R A W A K ISA M U C H C H A N G E D PLACE SINCE THE DAYS PANY.

F O R O N E THING,

T H EC O U N T R Y — N O W

HAVING

A N ATTITUDE H E SEEKS

O FB R O O K E A N D C O M

A M E M B E R

O FTHE

MALAYSIAN

F E D E R A T I O N — H A S O N L Y T H E S L E N D E R E S T O F L I N K S T O ITSC O L O R F U L C O L O N I A L TORY;

A N D F O R ANOTHER,

RESPECT A M O N G

O ' H A N L O N

A N D F E N T O N ,

FAR F R O M

INSPIRING

THE LOCAL PEOPLE, ARE FIGURES O F FUN, ECCENTRIC BLUNDERERS,

THE BUTT O F M A N Y

A PRIVATE JOKE. O ' H A N L O N ' S

PATHETIC EFFORTS T O R E M I N D

S O M E LOCAL CHILDREN O F HIS ORIGINS ARE R E W A R D E D U N E X P E C T E D L Y :

I dislodged [a]sealed b a g o f picture-postcards o f the Q u e e n o n horse b a c k , T r o o p i n g t h e C o l o u r . . . . " L o o k , " I s a i d , " t h i s is f o r y o u . is o u r T u a i R u m a h , o u r c h i e f i n E n g l a n d . "

dren.

HIS

T h e cards were sheeny a n d metallic,

to

1 o n i t l H I'M W i l l i

"litglnng!" (hekind

said

that

I ViWKITItRS

Here

lite chil

eli.inno

(In

POSITION LIGHT.

O F T H E I R S U B J E C T S A S T H E I R O W N P O S I T I O N IS C H A N G E D A G A I N S T

...

I G A V E O N E T O A LITTLE B O Y .

D E L I G H T : H E T U R N E D IT T H I S W A Y

H E

L O O K E D A T IT W I T H

A N D T H A T ; H E S C R A T C H E D IT A N D W A I T E D

SEE W H A T W O U L D H A P P E N ; H E W H I P P E D MAJESTY F R O M THE BACK. SMALL

HANDS

DREN HAD O N E EACH, THE M E N WANTED

THRUST U P LIKE A C L U M P

REGISTERING

THE UNMITIGATED

MORE THAN ONE EACH. IN

FARCE O F SUCH

BY

COMMERCIAL

TOURISM.

THE LOCALS

BECAUSE

CAN

B E

AS

EXPLOITED;

ITSELF H A S

HIS

AWARE

THE M O R E

E N D E D , BUT

ITEMS,

COMPLICITY

HIS

THE

TOURIST

PRIVILEGED

STATUS

alibi AS

A

C E S S . I T IS N O

SURPRISE,

THEIR

WHICH THEY CAN MYSTIFYING

M A N Y

IS

O F COURSE, THAT FINANCIAL

IN HIDING

M A D E

TRAVELER-WRITERS,

W H O S E

O ' H A N L O N ,

THE PEOPLES THEY

M U C H O F

AN

SYMBOLIC

PROCESS,

AFFECTS

TO

TO

FOR SELF-DEPRE

F R O M

HIS

REVEAL

ARISING

METIER

AS

FINANCIAL ARE THE

"FAVORED M A Y

PRIVATE

ACCOUNTING

ARE NOT

THEIR READING

THE

JOURNEYS

STEADY

SUC

RELUCTANT M E A N S

B Y

O N

WELL

I N C O M E

ALONE

PUBLIC.

STATUS" B E

IN

A M O N G BUT

THIS

ENJOYED

BY

FINANCED

B Y

RICH

W H O

ARE

STILL

-BUT

THE MANUFACTURED

"HARDSHIPS"

FOR THE GENUINE P E N U R Y O F S O M E

O F

ENCOUNTER.

S E E N IN THIS LIGHT, T H E RATHER LESS E N D E A R I N G , A N D

FIGURE

CONTEXT, HIS

O F THE GENTLEMAN ABROAD

RATHER M O R E

THE TRAVELER-WRITER FROM

B E C O M E S

B Y

TO CAPITALIZE

THEY EXPERIENCE WITHOUT

CISELY,

SO

H E

TRAVEL WRITERS

A N D

THEIR FACE F R O M

GIVEN,

POSTIMPERIAL

O F

TOURIST

WITH THIS

SYSTEM

PROPENSITY

O F PRODUCTION,

CONSPICUOUS

S P O N S O R S — O R

L E D

NOT

CONSIDERABLE

MOST

MOTIVES,

CONDITIONS

CORPORATE LIKE

A

AFFORD THEIR LIVES O F RELATIVE LEISURE. T R A V E L NARRATIVES,

THEIR O W N

LITERARY W O R K S SITUATION

O W N

IS

THE TRAPPINGS

TRAVELER A N D

A M E T I E R THAT HAS B R O U G H T H I M

DISCUSS

A N D

FORCES

FOR HIS EXCESSES: EXCESSES

TRAVEL WRITER,

TO

AS

EXCHANGE.

WITH

CATION A N D SELF-PARODY PROVIDE AN F R O M

E N C O U N

B E C O M E THE

IT C O U L D B E A R G U E D , IS W E L L A C Q U A I N T E D

O F HIS

WELL,

VANISH,

BECAUSE

C O N V E R T E D INTO TOURISTIC

D E S P I S E . Y E T IT C O U L D A L S O B E A R G U E D T H A T H I S

BOTH

(62-63)

IMPERSONAL

K N O W

M E M E N T O S

O F A PROCESS O F EXPLOITATIVE

O ' H A N L O N , WELL

O ' H A N L O N ,

THE E M P I R E

IMPERIAL PAST, N O W MARKERS

MIN

T H E G A P B E T W E E N HIS P E R S O N A L V I S I O N O F T H E E M P I R E

O F A PRESENT FASHIONED

SUCH,

CHIL

FIVE

"CROSS-CULTURAL"

THE REALITIES

AS

BAM

DEFLATES HIS S E L F - A P P O I N T E D ROLE AS G R E A T C O N C I L I A T O R ,

WELL AS S H O W I N G

AND,

OF

A PILE FOR HERSELF. I F THE

UTES, FOUR H U N D R E D M E M E N T O E S O F THE E M P I R E DISAPPEARED.

IN

TO

IT O V E R , T O C A T C H A G L I M P S E O F H E R

BOO; THE OLD W O M A N , A N N O Y E D , WANTED

TERS, O ' H A N L O N

THE

AMAZED

MIGHT

STARTS TO

LOOK

LIKE A STRATEGY D E S I G N E D TO

PRO-

FURTHER HARM. WELL

A P P E A R

LICENSE LO P E R F O R M .

I L I E N U RRU L I V E S O F I'.RIC N E W B Y :

Al

I II'

A

WRITER,

I MI'ltM

T H E GENTLEMAN ABROAD, RIDICULOUS;

N O W H E R E LIKE

',1

BUT

RIDICULE,

IN

IS T H I S C L E A R E R T H A N

O ' H A N L O N ,

W H O

A

PRE

SEEMS

IN TO

CATER

T OA N (UPPER)

O ' H A N L O N ,

N E W B Y

SYSTEM

ISQUITE

A N D

AFFORDS.

O N E

B O U N D

IDEA

DECLARES

O F

TOAST,

AT

THE

" A S

OUTSET

O F O N E

RELISH

R E A D E R S — H E HAS

SUCCESSFUL WITHIN

TRAVEL

TEA

A N D

PUBLISHED

O F "CRUMPETS

NARRATIVES—OWES

POT,

T OHIS

A N D B Y R O N , HIS O B V I O U S

ONLY A

C O M M O N O F P .G

POPULARITY

A M O N G

A S A WRITER

WORKING

IT OWES

TO

M O D E L S , TO A N IDEAL O F THE

P L E — A M I N O R CLASSIC IN P O S T W A R A N G L O P H O N E TRAVEL A N D

HIS C O M P A N I O N ,

CARLESS, I NTHE R E M O T E M O U N T A I N IT I SP R O B A B L Y N E W B Y ' S EXAMINATION FIGURE,

A N D

O F THE (ENGLISH) THE M Y T H O L O G Y

T H E

THAT

SURROUNDS

WARNS

KABOULISTAN

(7).

F U R O N

REQUIREMENT.

F O R O N E THING,

BRIEF BUT

HILARIOUSLY

EXPEDITION, N E W B Y

A TRUTH B R O U G H T

K N O W E D G E

SUSPICIOUSLY

EXACERBATED

UNCERTAIN

TANCE TO FAKE ADVICE. TAGE; O N

ORGANISEE ET P O U R V U E

O N THE

CARLESS

1

ARE BOTH

SESSION"

I N WALES,

L I K E L A U G H T E R " (33).

RELIANCE

THAT

N E W B Y

DURING

W H E R E

I ' 1 1 Ml VI !« W i l l i

GUIDEBOOKS,

THEIR SINGULAR O F THIS A S A A N D

1 vi'i;wnn ( U N

TO A

THEIR

SHEEP . . .

N O R D O THEY A P P E A R

O NOUTDATED

SEES A N Y

A N D

NEITHER

NOVICES

TO T H E M

A D E

HAUTE

K U S H

FULFILLS

" AF L O C K O F M O U N T A I N

THE CONTRARY, H E S E E M S TO EXULT I NHIS O W N

1/

H I N D U

UNFORTUNATELY,

O F T H E LOCAL L A N G U A G E S , A N D N O T

EXPLORING I N

IMPOSTURE.

T H E P L A C E T H E Y P L A N TO VISIT: A L A C K O F

B Y THEIR

C O M M A N D

BIEN

A N D

EVENTFUL "TRAINING

A GREAT DEAL ABOUT

A N D

PAINFULLY H O M E

B U M B L I N G EFFORTS ARE PRESIDED O V E R B Y M A K I N G SOUNDS

ASIA.

SUSTAINED

F U R O N PROVIDES THE EPIGRAPH FOR

I N H I SB O O K

N E W B Y ' S

CLIMBING:

H U G H

P O U R TENTER L'ETUDE D E CETTE REGION D E

M O N T A G N E , "

M O U N T A I N

DIPLOMAT I NC E N T R A L

IT,A R E W O R T H

ANACHRONISM,

U N E EXPEDITION

M O Y E N S MATERIELS PUISSANTS

THE P U K K A

I TA L S O R E P R E S E N T S H I S M O S T

F R E N C H EXPLORER R A Y M O N D " I I FAUDRAIT

O F

E X A M

G E N T L E M A N TRAVELER. T H R E E ASPECTS O F THIS

M O R E DETAIL HERE: AMATEURISM,

Short Walk:

OUT

WRITING-CHRONICLES

COUNTRY O F NURISTAN

BEST B O O K ;

HIS

FOR B E I N G D A T E D B U T THAT IS

because I T I S A Short Walk in the Hindu Rush (1958), F O R

THE EXPLOITS O F N E W B Y

.

COMMERCIALLY

IRONICALLY CELEBRATED, FOR THE S A M E REASON, PRECISELY DATE. T H E EARLY W O R K

THE

BUTTERED

O F

C O P Y

PARTICULARLY,

E C C E N T R I C G E N T L E M A N T R A V E L E R T H A T I SM O C K E D

O N

W H O ,

A D O Z E N

SKILL

M O R E

CLASS-

H E WRYLY

A N D

BUCKETS

N E W B Y ' S

THAN

LIKE

SYSTEM

JOURNEYS, A RIDE

A P A P E R B A C K

M O R E

THE GENRE'S A C C E P T E D CLICHES.

REVERSION VIA W A U G H

B U N , "

CAN QUIBBLE WITH A M A N

{Big Red Train Ride 10, 89).

W O D E H O U S E ? " BRITISH

O F HIS

THE

THOROUGHLY

A S A B A T H

I NA J U M B O - S I Z E D

ORANGE-COLOURED ENGLISH

A L S O

PRIVATE-SCHOOL

THE ENTITLEMENTS

BRITISH

E X P R E S S — A N D W H O

PUBLIC.

ELITIST

IS A NI D E A L I Z E D ,

HIS J O U R N E Y , IS A L R E A D Y D R E A M I N G

G E N T L E M A N ' S

SWEET,

READING

O F E N G L A N D ' S

P R E P A R E D TO PUBLICIZE

ENGLISHNESS:

HIMSELF

INTO

ENGLISH

O F THESE ENTITLEMENTS

TRANS-SIBERIAN D A Y

MIDDLE-CLASS IS THE PRODUCT

TO

KNOWL THEIR RELUC

DISADVAN

CNRLESS'S

TUNA-

teurism, taking the opportunity to set—and send—himself u p as the latest in a long line o f colorful E u r o p e a n explorers, each equipped with grandiose imperial visions o f adventure and conquest, but little else besides. O f course, N e w b y and Carless are better prepared than they would have us believe; but rather than lend his expedition an aura o f gravitas or expertise, N e w b y chooses to depict it, along with himself, as foolishly, even dangerously, amateurish. T h e amateurism o f the English gentleman abroad—the m a n lack ing in expertise, but schooled for all eventualities—is a fitting subject for parody; but it also confers a paradoxical authority on the tweedy traveler, allowing him to see his egregious errors and violations o f local custom as signs o f his own w a y w a r d munificence. A m a t e u r i s m also provides a spurious form o f self-protection; for unlike professional ethnographers, whose participant-observation cannot help but create a certain complicity between themselves and the culture they are describ ing, adventure-seeking travelers m a y persuade themselves that they are free to indulge in an "innocent" enthusiasm for the wonders they 5

behold. These wonders are often held up as the objects o f a naive or untutored curiosity; but in another sense, it is a paradoxical lack o f curiosity that governs such travelers' endeavors. G a p i n g at the marvels of "foreign" peoples and cultures, they are apt nonetheless to assimi late them to a E u r o p e a n

frame o f reference, thereby

reinstating

Europe—or, in the case o f the gentleman, E n g l a n d — a s the ultimate arbiter o f cultural value. N e w b y ' s travel narrative consciously places itself within this self-privileging tradition. Discovery—itself a powerful European m y t h — t a k e s second place to nostalgic reminiscence; and as a self-styled "literary traveler," w h a t N e w b y is reminded o f most often is b o o k s . K i p l i n g l o o m s large, as does Buchan; avoiding the dull preci sion o f technical j a r g o n , N e w b y directs his attention instead to the vivid images o f heroic myth. A s Philip M a s o n and D a v i d C a s t r o n o v o , a m o n g others, have argued, the m y t h o f the English gentleman has not only been sustained b y literature; it has also been actively produced b y il. By surrounding himself with images o f previous gentlemen-explor ers, mostly from nineteenth-century literature, N e w b y w o r k s toward conferring mythic status on himself. T h e pratfalls o f the amateur cor respond to a kind o f definitional gaucherie; like its mountain-climbing protagonists, the narrative itself frequently slips: most often between categories o f fact ( N e w b y as professional travel writer) and categories of fiction ( N e w b y as "legendary adventurer"). In the process, Nuristan lakes on the configurations of an invented country

Al'TKK

KMI'lltl'

11

a playground, like

L O R D

JIM'S ISLAND

D O M ,

F O R T H E A C T I N G O U T O FS E L F - A G G R A N D I Z I N G B U TU L T I M A T E L Y S E L F - D E F E A T

ING IMPERIAL IN

RETREAT O R C A R N E H A N

K E E P I N G WITH MOST

NINETEENTH CENTURY.

" N E W "

M O U N T A I N

KING

FANTASIES.

MATTER, WITH O ' H A N L O N ' S ) , THE

A N D DRAVOT'S

ISTANBUL

I NT H E

I

O F N E W B Y ' S

TRAVEL NARRATIVES

A Short Walk I S P E P P N A Traveller's Life,

FIFTIES,

N E W B Y

FINDS

(AS, F O R THAT

E R E D WITH REFERENCES TO DURING

A VISIT

T O T H E

HIMSELF E C H O I N G T H E SENTI

M E N T S O FA N O B S C U R E V I C T O R I A N T R A V E L E R , T H E R E V E R E N D W A L S H , W H O H A D VISITED

T H E " O L D "

W A L S H

CONSTANTINOPLE

OVER

A CENTURY

BEFORE H I M .R E V .

H A D F E A R E D THAT T H E B E A U T I E S O FC O N S T A N T I N O P L E W O U L D

B E TRANSITORY. F O R N E W B Y ,

PROVE T O

THESE FEARS ARE CONFIRMED; CASTING A SORROW

F U L E Y E O N T H E R A P I D L Y M O D E R N I Z I N G C I T Y O FI S T A N B U L , H E C A N O N L Y T H E FACT THAT H E H A S B E E N B O R N

Short Walk NISCENCE.

IS M A R K E D

R E A D I N G

" A H U N D R E D YEARS TOO LATE"

M O U R N

(161-62). A

THROUGHOUT B Y A SIMILAR T O N E O F PLANGENT

A TTIMES

ALMOST

LIKE

A NINVENTORY

REMI

O F ORIENTALIST

M Y T H S , T H E NARRATIVE ISS U F F U S E D WITH A F F E C T I O N A T E M E M O R I E S O F BRITAIN'S CIVILIZING M I S S I O N I NTHE EAST. T H E H E A D Y D A Y S O F THE R A J , ALAS, ARE OVER. A T M E S H E D , I N NORTHEAST PERSIA, THE OPULENT CONSULATE BUILDING W A S

lost

a n d forgotten;

arcades

o f Corinthian

columns

supported

a n

u p p e r b a l c o n y , itself collapsing. T h e h o u s e w a ss h a d e d b y great trees, planted

most

magnificent.

B e h i n d b a r r e d w i n d o w s w e r e t h e b i g green safes w i t h

perhaps

a century

a g o ,n o w a t their

combination

l o c k s i n t h ec o n f i d e n t i a l registry.

N E W B Y

ASKS

(57)

CARLESS H O W O N EARTH T H ECONSULATE'S F O R M E R

H A D M A N A G E D T O GET THE SAFES INTO THE BUILDING. D A Y S O F T H E R A JY O U C O U L D D O A N Y T H I N G "

OCCUPANTS

CARLESS'S REPLY: " I N THE

(57).

T H I S H A L F - P A R O D I C T R I B U T E T O T H E P A S T , S T R A I G H T O U TO F K I P L I N G NILIA,

TYPIFIES

THROUGHOUT ANCED,

T H ET O N E

N E W B Y ' S

NARRATIVES.

ANACHRONISM

ATTEMPTS

INTO

T OC O N V I N C E

MAINTAINED

SELF-MOCKERY IS COUNTERBAL

H O W E V E R , B YSELF-EXONERATION. B YTURNING

STUFF O FL E G E N D A N D M Y T H N E W B Y

O FSELF-MOCKING

TRAVEL

JUVE

H I S TRAVELS INTO T H E

A SERIES O F G E N T L E M A N ' S

A D V E N T U R E S —

HIMSELF A N DH I S READERS THAT

HIS EXPERI

E N C E S H A V E LITTLE SOCIAL C O N S E Q U E N C E . T H I S D E T E R M I N A T I O N T O T R I V I A L I Z E I S REMINISCENT SAYS S U S A N (116). C A M P

O FTHE SENTIMENTS

O F

camp.

S O N T A G I NA W E L L - K N O W N

" T H E WHOLE POINT

INDIGNATION"

EXCUSABLE:

SERIOUS"

ISP L A Y F U L , A N T I S E R I O U S , V I G O R O U S L Y A P O L I T I C A L ; B U TA S S O N T A G

P O I N T S O U T , ITA L S O F U N C T I O N S A S A " S O L V E N T O F M O R A L I T Y MORAL

O F C A M P , "

ESSAY, "IS TODETHRONE THE

(118).

C A M P

M A Y B E DISRUPTIVE,

T H E" O U T R A G E O U S " B E H A V I O R

11

IL S P A W N S

[THAT] NEUTRALIZES B U T IT IS A L W A Y S

IS PRIMARILY

n n i K i M • wi'iii 1 vI'l'WHil 1 u

COIILUCLIC

A N D SHOULD B E J U D G E D — O R RATHER, SHOULD NOT B E

JUDGED—ACCORDINGLY.

C A M P , FINALLY, P R O P O S E S " A C O M I C VISION O F THE WORLD TER O R P O L E M I C A L

C O M E D Y .

. . . BUT NOT A

M E N T , C O M E D Y IS A N E X P E R I E N C E O F U N D E R - I N V O L V E M E N T ,

(116).

(IT

IS I N T E R E S T I N G T O S P E C U L A T E H E R E H O W

BRITISH TRAVEL WRITING HAS

ITS R O O T S I N C A M P :

MOST OBVIOUS PRECURSORS, W A U G H

M U C H

N E W B Y ' S

TRAVEL

NARRATIVES,

VISION O F THE W O R L D — M O R E

O F

DETACHMENT"

TWENTIETH-CENTURY

THE WORK

O F N E W B Y ' S

C A M P

THE M E D I U M

ENTERTAINMENT WHILE

OUS DISENGAGEMENT. T H E GENTLEMAN ABROAD, ALWAYS

O F C A M P .

UNREALITY

O N

IS

HIS

SURROUNDINGS?

NURISTAN, N E W B Y OF H I G H NOT

A N D CARLESS

R O M A N C E .

ALWAYS

M E M O R A B L E

THE GENTLEMAN

HIMSELF

SHORT FIND

CLAIMING A

IN

MELODRAH E

CONFER

THE MOUNTAINS

THE GENTLEMAN'S

O F

THEATRICAL O F CIRCUMSTANCES

EXPECTATIONS

O F DEFERENCE.

CAN

IN

O N E

SCENE, FOR E X A M P L E , THE FRAUDULENT HEROICS O F N E W B Y

A N D

CARLESS ARE MERCILESSLY E X P O S E D B Y THE LOCAL NURISTANIS,

W H O

O N T H E T W O H A P L E S S A D V E N T U R E R S AS T H E Y P R E P A R E TO SET U P AS

SPURI

IT E A S I E R T O B R E A T H E I N T H E R A R E F I E D A I R

Y E T E V E N THE MOST

M A T C H

A

A G O O D SUBJECT FOR

UNREAL, OR DOES

O F BREATH

FOR

W O R L D —

PARODY, TURNS INTO AN E V E N BETTER O N E FOR THE " U N C O M M I T T E D " MATICS

O F

O ' H A N L O N . )

PROVIDES

SPECIFICALLY, A VISION O F THE FOREIGN

THAT SEEKS TO P R O M O T E HARMLESS

TWO

A N D B Y R O N , IS C A M P , A S IS T H E W O R K

HIS T W O CLOSEST C O N T E M P O R A R I E S , C H A T W I N A N D IN

BIT

I F T R A G E D Y IS A N E X P E R I E N C E O F H Y P E R - I N V O L V E

THE NEWS

O F O U R ARRIVAL

SPREAD, THE SMART

CONVERGE

C A M P :

YOUNG M E N

OF

TOWN

B E G A N TO ARRIVE. H A L F A D O Z E N O F THE M O S T E L E G A N T SEATED THEMSELVES O N A LARGE ROCK A N D WATCHED US LANGUIDLY. L I K E M E M B E R S SOCIETY, THEY WERE DRESSED RATHER F O P P I S H L Y — B I G D E R E D WAISTCOATS,

SILVER M E D A L S A N D L U C K Y C H A R M S .

A R M E D WITH A D O U B L E STRINGED STONE BOW.

OF THE E T O N

FLAT C A P S ,

EMBROI

O N E OF THEM

WAS

F R O M T I M E TO T I M E H E DIS

C H A R G E D A P E B B L E AT T H E L I Z A R D S T H A T C R A W L E D O V E R T H E F A C E O F T H E CLIFF. B E F O R E T H E S E A L O O F D A N D I E S A N D A N A U D I E N C E O F A T L E A S T FIFTY L E S S E R M E N WE

HOBBLED

HOUSEHOLD

BACKWARDS

AND

CHORES, LIKE

. EXPERIMENTAL THEATRE.

BUT

E V E N IN

M A Y AS

SOME

PERFORMING INTERMINABLE

AS THIS O N E , W H E R E

OUR

MUNDANE

DRAMA

THE TABLES ARE

A N D CARLESS, A N D THEY ARE M A D E

CROUSNESS O F THEIR O W N DISCOURAGE

IN

IN

APPARENTLY

TO CONFRONT THE

A F F E C T A T I O N S , T H E S T A G E IS S E T I N S U C H A W A Y

SERIOUS J U D G M E N T .

T H E

BRAVURA

O F THE GENTLEMAN

B E NEATLY DEFLATED, A N D THE " E V I D E N C E " O F HIS SUPERIORITY FLAGRANT

IMPOSTURE,

AN

(208)

SCENES SUCH

TURNED O N N E W B Y

FORWARDS,

ACTORS

BUT

WE

ARE NOT

ASKED

T O — A R E ASKED

A I ' T I M llMI'IIO'

T O P A R A D E ITS O W N

I

TO

ABROAD REVEALED

NOT

CARRY T H E CRITICISM T O O FAR. S E L F - P A R O D Y OFFERS SELF-PROTECTION: IN A RATIVE THAT S E E M S TO F A K E E V E R Y O P P O R T U N I T Y

LUDIAS

T O — NAR

FRIVOLITY,

N E W B Y

HIDES

HIS RESPONSIBILITIES

FACADE O F WRY H U M O R W O R K

A N D K N O W I N G

ISF O L L O W I N G I NA TRADITION

TURING A N D ITY.

C A M P

SELF-INFLICTED WIT ISTHE PRIMARY

G E N T L E M A N A B R O A D — A

M A S K

WORK

TRAVEL

C A M P . INTO

B U T

THE

N E W B Y

W O R K

W H O ,

A N D

INTO

D A N D I E S

ARE A B U N D A N T

ENGLISH

Y E A R S T O O L A T E , STILL P R E Y

THE FINEST O F BRITAIN'S

O ' H A N L O N

CONSCRIPT

C H A T W I N

C A M P

IS M U C H

AESTHETICS M O R E

dandy:

THE

THE WORLDLY

travel writer,

TERM

TREATISE

O NTHE

PLEASURES

O F

IMPRES

LUXURIANT

T H R O U G H O U T C H A T W I N ' S FICTION:

gonia,

DECAY.

THE ITINERANT

TRAVEL WRITING.

O F ALL H I S W O R K S

H E

ALWAYS

PERHAPS ONLY THE

FALLS R E A D I L Y I N T O T H E C A T E G O R Y O F A TRAVEL B O O K .

LESS, W A S INANT

O F DEFINING

A N D

THE GREATEST PASSION

M E T A P H O R

Patagonia)

I NHIS I M M A C U L A T E

OR TRYING OUT DILETTANTISH

OF THE H U M A N

SPECIES

LANGUIDLY ELEGANT ENERGY

DIVERSE B O D Y

UNRIVALED

B E T W E E N ART A N D

HIS

A N Y THE

TRAVEL, N O N E T H E THE

D O M H E IS

M O L E S K I N

C H A T W I N

PEERS. THIS

O F THE D A N D Y ,

N O T E B O O K S

(In

THE N O M A D I C

ORIGINS

CUTS

ALMOST

COMBINATION

AS IST H E A P P A R E N T

LIFE T H R O U G H O U T HIS

CLOSELY WITHIN THE TRADITION T O

(1977) AS

In Pata

FIRST,

A WITTY,

WORK.

FINALLY,

O F WIT

O F THE TRAVELER'S TALE.

A N D

ELE

INTERCHANGEABILITY THE W I L D E A N

TENCE O N THE AESTHETIC V A L U E O F LYING ISA P P R O P R I A T E TO A WRITER

A

TWO

E V E N AS H E C A R E E N S F R O M P L A C E T O P L A C E W I T H A N

A M O N G

G A N C E ISREMINISCENT

R E G G I E HIS

O F WORK.) W H E T H E R

THEORIES O N

(The Songlines),

FIGURE

ART-

M A N O E L

DISLIKED

I NC H A T W I N ' S LIFE, A N D ITR E M A I N S

T H R O U G H O U T HIS

R E C O R D I N G HIS OBSERVATIONS

C O N

AESTHETE

CONVERTS HIS

(Utz, 1988); T H E D E C A D E N T S L A V E - T R A D E R F R A N C I S C O D A S I L V A (The Viceroy of Oiudah, 1980); T H E E T O N I A N B A C H E L O R B I C K E R T O N (On the Black Hill, 1982); A N D , A B O V E A L L , H I M S E L F I N M O S T O B V I O U S L Y A U T O B I O G R A P H I C A L T R A V E L N A R R A T I V E S , In Patagonia A N D The Songlines (1987). ( C H A T W I N ' S W O R K S H O W S , A S C L E A R L Y THE DIFFICULTY

POST

SPIRIT O F

COLLECTOR U T Z

ONE'S,

TO

AS A F O R M O F ART. H E N C E T H E C O N F L A T I O N I N

T H E G L O B E I NS E A R C H O F S T I M U L A T I O N ,

A W I L D E A N

DISSIMULATIONS;

T OTHE M I S C H I E V O U S

NOSTALGIA,

B E T W E E N THE G E N T L E M A N A N D

W A N D E R I N G

SIONS

ARGUABLY INDEBTED

SERVICE O F IMPERIALIST

SCIOUSLY C O N C E R N E D WITH C A M P HIS

POS

SUPERIOR

GRANDEUR?

IS SIMILARLY

WHEREAS

FOR THESE H U M O R O U S

A

N E W B Y ' S

THAN THE LATE-TWENTIETH-CENTURY

O F BRUCE CHATWIN,

WRITERS,

I NTHIS S E N S E ,

A RESIDUAL FEELING O F MORAL

B O R N A H U N D R E D

FITFUL D E L U S I O N S O F I M P E R I A L T H E

AESTHETICISM.

M E D I U M

M A N

TRAVEL WRITER B E H I N D

O F E N G L I S H T R A V E L W R I T I N G I NW H I C H

A N D WHAT COULD B E M O R E C A M P

WAR

AS TRAVELER A N D

INSIS

WORKING

6

SEE C H A T W I N AS A TRAVELING D A N D Y — O R TO R E C O G N I Z E HIS W O R K A S

DANDIFIED

B E T W E E N E M B O D I E D

TRAVEL

THE D A N D Y

AESTHETICS A N D

B YT H E S E T W O

td

RAISES

THE

QUESTION

THE G E N T L E M A N , A N D HEAVILY

MYTHICIZED

loi'UIXTN w

O F THE

BETWEEN

DIFFERENCE

THE SOCIAL

CODES

FIGURES. O N E ACCOUNT

O F L H E

•yi'lrWMITflK.N

DISTINCTION ISP R O V I D E D STYLES

O FVICTORIAN

"CONTRADICTION SYSTEM

B Y J A M E S

I NH I S S T U D Y O F C O N F L I C T I N G

B O O K

D O M I N A N C E

SETS O U TT O E X P L O R E

B Y W H I C H THE S A M E

G E N D E R

ALSO CALLED INTO Q U E S T I O N T H E

IDENTITY,

SOUGHT

T O R E S O L V E IT B YA P P E A L I N G T O M O D E L S O F

INCLUDING

THE GENTLEMAN A N D THE DANDY.

T H E S E T W O

LATTER M O D E L S W E R E W I D E L Y

UNDERSTOOD AS REPRESENTING A N "ASCETIC

M E N "

O N SELF-DISCIPLINE

THAT

ATTRIBUTE NOTABLY

A

O F INTELLECTUAL L A B O R " (I). SEVERAL WRITERS O F THE P E R I O D , ALERT

TO THIS CONTRADICTION, MASCULINE

A D A M S ' S

WITHIN VICTORIAN PATRIARCHY,

THAT U N D E R W R O T E M A L E

'MANLINESS'

E L IA D A M S

MASCULINITY.

LAID

EMPHASIS

B U T WHEREAS

(2).

C A R L Y L E — A S

A S A DISTINCTLY

T H E G E N T L E M A N

A P A R A G O N

W A S REGARDED

O F SINCERITY,

T H ED A N D Y

REGI

MASCULINE B Y S O M E —

E M E R G E D A SA

FIGURE T O O THEATRICAL F O R H I S O W NG O O D . T H E D A N D Y THUS B E C A M E A FIGURE FOR THE VERY CONTRADICTIONS

H E W A S INTENDED TO RESOLVE: A REMINDER O F

THE D E C A D E N C E THREATENING VICTORIAN LENGE

T O T H EH O N O R

STANCE. A S A D A M S As

O FTHE " T R U E "

C O D E S O FETHICS,

G E N T L E M A N

B U T ALSO A

CHAL

A SA M A N O FM O R A L

SUB

EXPLAINS,

t h eideal o f the gentleman b r o a d e n e d [during t h enineteenth cen

t u r y ] , . . . it a l s o g a v e n e w m o r a l u r g e n c y t o t h e . . . t a s k o f d i s t i n guishing b e t w e e n sincerity a n d p e r f o r m a n c e . I f the status o f the

gen

t l e m a n is n o t s e c u r e d b y i n h e r i t e d d i s t i n c t i o n s o f f a m i l y a n d r a n k , b u t is r e a l i z e d i n s t e a d t h r o u g h b e h a v i o r , h o w d o e s o n e d i s t i n g u i s h t h e " t r u e " g e n t l e m a n f r o m t h e a s p i r a n t w h o i s m e r e l y a c t i n g t h e p a r t ? (53) T H I S

ANXIETY

ISREFLECTED, AS W E H A V E

O ' H A N L O N , BOTH TICITY, M A S C U L I N E A N D

W H O TURN

VIRTUE,

INTO

O F W H O M

HARK BACK

PROWESS—THAT

O FN E W B Y A N D

T O A M O D E L — O F SINCERITY,

AUTHEN

THEY RECOGNIZE A S N O LONGER

T H EGENTLEMAN-ADVENTURER,

HIS "FALLEN"

PERFORMING CLOWN.

M O D E R N

T H EPARAGON

COUNTERPART,

O F

POSSIBLE,

MASCULINE

T H ETRAVELING D A N D Y A S

I NC H A T W I N ' S W O R K , H O W E V E R , THIS F O R M U L A IS G I V E N

A N O T H E R TWIST. F O R T H E D A N D Y ,

perated

S E E N , I N T H EW O R K

AS A N ADMIRABLE

FIGURE:

recu

FAR F R O M B E I N G S E E N A S " F A L L E N , " IS HISPERFORMATIVE

QUALITIES ARE A VIRTUE,

AS IS H I S F O P P I S H N E S S , A S A R E H I S LIES. T A K E L O U I S R O U G E M O N T ( A K A H E N R I G R E E N ) ,

THE PERIPATETIC

" F R E N C H SAVANT"

I N

In Patagonia:

AUTHOR O F A

LEARNED TREATISE O NVIRGINITY; PERPETRATOR O F A SCANDALOUS, A N D THEREFORE BEST-SELLING, AUTOBIOGRAPHY; " T H E

A N DLATER STAR I NH I S O N E - M A N

GREATEST LIAR O N E A R T H "

{In Patagonia

167-69).

ROAD

SHOW,

CHATWIN'S

NARRA

TIVES A R E D E N S E L Y P O P U L A T E D W I T H L O V A B L E R O G U E S LIKE THIS O N E : M E N A N D , SOMETIMES, WHOSE

W O M E N

W H O MANIPULATE

PERFORMANCES, DRAWING

I RAVEL LIAR, R E M A I N AUDIENCE THE

OTHER

O N IH E B E S T

U N E N C U M B E R E D

B Y T H EB A N A L

TRUTH.

S\mW.

PEOPLE'S

TRADITION

HMi'lHI

1

17

CREDULITY,

A N D

O FTHE TRAVELERA S

OBLIGATION

T O TELL

THEIR

F O R C H A T W I N , THE ITINERANT STORYTELLER ISB O T H A N O M A D TOR. N O M A D I S M DESCRIBES SOCIETY

I N CHATWIN'S WORK

IS BOTH

THE PLEASURES O F M O V E M E N T C H A T W I N

TENDS

ANARCHISTS,

EXILES, A N D

SIONS,

FLIGHTS

THE

B E Y O N D

T OSYMPATHIZE,

O U T L A W S — B U T

A CREED A N D

IT ALSO GIVES A N A M E

DRAMATIZES

O F THE WORLD'S

A TENSION

T OA C Q U I R E , E X H I B I T ,

INGS

THAT

DISPLAY

" M U S E U M A N D

A N D R E

WITHOUT

OBJECTS

DETACHED,

THE

CHATWIN'S

DELECTATION

F R O M

O W N

A N D

I N CONTACT.

THE

T H E

W I L D E A N

I N THE

DANDY'S

B U T CONVENIENTLY

ABOUT

C H A T W I N ' S

O F DETACHMENT,

SOCIETIES

A N D

O F MORAL

CULTURES

HYPERCONSCIOUS

LIT

RETREATING

WITH

POSTURING

HIMSELF

W H I C H H E IS A USEFUL

PERFORMATIVE LICENSE A N D A DILETTANTE'S

W H I M .

J U D G M E N T ;

SENSE O F THE CONNOISSEUR

J U D G E N O R B E J U D G E D FOR HIS O W N ,

A F R E E D O M TO ASSIMILATE

M O S T

HIS

O F ALL, IT LIBERATES H I M

FOR THE

D A N D Y — A T

O F AESTHETIC

LEAST I N THE

OBJECTS- -IS

OR OTHERS', ETHICAL

NEITHER T O

STANDARDS.

INSTEAD,

HIS TASK ISTO A P P R E C I A T E BEAUTIFUL THINGS W H E R E V E R H E SEES T H E M ; A N D RESULT,

FOR THE

A

I NWHICH FOREIGN PEOPLES

DELIGHTED,

T H E ILLUSION

EXPERIENCE T OAESTHETIC B U R D E N

A N D

T O RESEMBLE

DELIVER THEMSELVES U PA S AES

R A N G E O F I D E A S A N D O P T I O N S ; ITALSO G I V E S H I M

F R O M

C O M E S

O T H E R P E O P L E ' S STORIES, H E SEEKS TO PROTECT

RHETORICAL STRATEGY: ITGRANTS H I M

PERSONAL

FOR FOREIGN CULTURES; T O

8

CLOSER I N V O L V E M E N T

C O M E S

O FA

PAS

IS REGISTERED I N WRIT

IS O F C O U R S E A CERTAIN D I S I N G E N U O U S N E S S

HIS

E S C A P E —

THE F R E N C H NOVELIST

W O R K

A NO P E N EXHIBITION

ERARY ENTERPRISE; FOR I NPURSUING B E H I N D

PASSION

ADMIRED,

T H E STORIES T H E Y OFFER,

FOR

SPECTATOR.

T H E R E

THAT

APPRECIATION

H E M U C H

M A L R A U X ,

WALLS":

CHATWIN'S

THE CENTRIFUGAL FORCES O F

COLLECT. A N D

A CONNOISSEUR'S

CULTURES, A N D

THETIC

IF THE TRAVELER/STORYTELLER IS

THE CENTRIPETAL FORCES O F RETRIEVAL—THE

A PHRASE F R O M A M A N

HISTORIAN

7

DIGRES

CHARACTERIZE

(TALL) TALES. I N THIS S E N S E ,

B E T W E E N

I M P U L S E — A N D

SION

ART

TO THE

WITH

CEASELESSLY I NSEARCH O F STONES, T H E N H E ISALSO A COLLEC

TOR, A NA C C U M U L A T O R

ADAPT

O F "SETTLED"

ROMANTICALLY,

O F FANCY A N D IMPROVISATIONAL FORAYS, THAT

A TYPE O F N O M A D ,

THE N O M A D I C

THE B O U N D S

S O M E W H A T

THE RESTLESSNESS O F M U C H O F HIS WRITTEN W O R K .

WORK

A N D A COLLEC

A NAESTHETIC: IT

TRAVELING D A N D Y ,

IS A PROCLIVITY

T OCONVERT

THE

THE

PLACES

T H R O U G H W H I C H H E TRAVELS INTO A CLUTCH O F EXOTICIZED OBJECTS FOR HIS

O W N

VOYEURISTIC

O W N

CONSUMPTION.

C H A T W I N

IS WELL AWARE,

THOUGH,

O F HIS

EXOTICIST LEANINGS, A N D HIS BLATANTLY AESTHETICIZED PORTRAYAL OF, SAY, CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN N O B L E

S A V A G E

THAN

NOTWITHSTANDING, THAT

ROMANTICISM

PROPENSITY

ABORIGINES

IN

The Songlines

IT IS A N EXERCISE

CHATWIN'S C O M E S

WORK

A CERTAIN

I N WRY

ROMANTIC;

L OCULTIVATED

L OH O M O G E N I Z E D I F F E R E N T P E O P L E S A N D

lK

SELF-PARODY.

IS U N A S H A M E D L Y TENDENCY

THE

IS L E S S A H O M A G E T O 9

THE

P A R O D Y A N D

WITH

NAIVETE:

A

CULTURES; T O DISCOVER

H I N T S u i i |i i •. i lAVKI I I I

PSYCHIC

OR INSTINCTUAL

HISTORICAL

WORLD INTO A R A N D O M HOWEVER, A B O V E

SIMILARITIES RATHER THAN

DIFFERENCES; A N D ,

ARE

DISPLAY

A DANDY'S

ALL E L S E ,

A TWORST,

O F BEAUTIFUL COLLECTOR'S ITEMS.

VIRTUES;

O F A DANDY'S

FOR C H A T W I N ' S

WILL TO

humor: H O W E L S E T O A C C O U N T Doing Here, 1989), I N W H I C H VICIOUS

ACCOUNTING

FOR SOCIAL

T OR E D U C E A N INFINITELY

style.

W O R K

A N D

FOR STORIES LIKE

"

T H E S E

IS THE

SENSE

C H A T W I N A N D HIS C O L L E A G U E S , S W E P T U P IN

W H E R E

THEY Q U A F F C H A M P A G N E

LACK O F OYSTERS); OR DESCRIPTIONS

The Songlines,

LUDE I N

A B I Z A R R E RITE O F T H E

(WHILE LOUDLY LAMENTING

S U C H AS THIS O N E , F R O M A N A F R I C A N

W H E R E TWO

"TOUGH" O N E HAD A PINK

HAD

B O R O R O YOUTHS P A R A D E THEMSELVES I N

CUPID'S

BOW

A R O U N D HIS LIPS; HIS

FINGER

STRAPLESS B O U F F A N T

LAVENDER PANELS OVER A ROSE-COLOURED UNDERSKIRT.

DRESS

T H E EFFECT

WAS . . .

HIS

FRIEND, THE " B E A U T Y , "

WORE

A TIGHT

MAUVE

TURBAN,

A SHEATH O F

G R E E N A N D WHITE STRIPES, A N D H A D A M O R E M O D E R N S E N S E O F F A S H I O N . HAD

B E E N V E R Y CAREFUL WITH THE LIPSTICK, A N D O N EITHER C H E E K H E

P A I N T E D T W O N E A T RECTANGLES I NB A N D S O F P I N K A N D W H I T E . PAIR O F REFLECTING SUNGLASSES, A N D WAS A D M I R I N G

C E R E M O N Y B E I N G DESCRIBED

PLAINED;

C H A T W I N

POTENTIAL

THE

H E HAD

H E HAD ON A

HIMSELF IN A

HAND-MIR

(264)

ROR.

IS M U C H

A SC A M P

E N D ,

M O R E

S E E M S

U N E A S Y

EXPLOITS

N E W B Y

A N D

TLEMAN

HAS

INTERESTED

LIKE

THIS

PUNCTURING

U N E X

ITS

N E W B Y ' S ,

O FM A L E

N E W B Y , BRAVADO,

G E N D E R ROLES.

- THE PRODUCTS O F AN EPICUREAN

WITH

THE

O U T L I V E D ITS U S E F U L N E S S A N D ,

A N D

O ' H A N L O N

THEY ARE UNSUITED,

ALSO LIKE T H E M ,

BLOWN

DANDY'S

ART.

BUT O N L Y C H A T W I N TIME, TIONS

THAT

THE

ASSIMILATES

N E W B Y

FULLY

A N D

accepts

C O N T E M P O R A R Y

THAT THE

A S ITINERANT

O ' H A N L O N ,

AESTHETE, JACKDAW

I

I I I'

G E N

HEROIC WHILE W H I C H

G E N T L E M A N L Y THEATRICS TO A FULL TOO, ARE DANDIES

O F A

H I M S E L F AS O N E ; A N D REALIZES, AT T H E TRAVEL

L I K E

O F THE

PERSIST, N O N E T H E L E S S , I NP L A Y I N G A ROLE FOR

C H A T W I N

M O R E

GENTLEMAN-ADVENTURER.

C H A T W I N RECOGNIZES THAT THE M Y T H

H I S

ART-LOVER,

C O D E O F C O N D U C T F O R W H I C H H E S T A N D S I SH O P E L E S S L Y O U T O F D A T E . Y E T N E W B Y

C O M I C ACT A S

F A S H I O N — O F F E R A WHIMSICAL RIPOSTE TO THE

ASSOCIATED

O ' H A N L O N ,

I N EXPLOITING

DANDIES,

TO REVERSE C O N V E N T I O N A L

WITTY STORIES A N D O B S E R V A T I O N S EXPERT O N F O O D A N D

I NFACT E X I S T S — G O E S

ADVENTURER PERSONA. B U T WHEREAS WITH

IS ONLY TOO H A P P Y

MUSCULAR

H E R E — W H I C H

SPECTACLE. C H A T W I N ' S

FOILS TO HIS ( M A S C U L I N E )

C H A T W I N

AN

THE

INTER

RUINED B Y A PAIR O F FLUORESCENT LIME-GREEN SOCKS A N D G Y M - S H O E S .

COMIC

A

PASSAGE?

NAILS W E R E SCARLET A N D HIS E Y E L I D S G R E E N . H I S

T H E

O F

What Am I

(IN

C I V I L W A R I NA H E A V I L Y F I C T I O N A L I Z E D B E N I N , T A K E R E F U G E I NA L U X U R Y

RESTAURANT,

IN

VICES,

PRODUCT,

O F A DANDY'S

A C O U P "

OR

C O M P L E X

WRITER'S SNJT.R.

I MI'UILL

(MELO)DRAMATIC

KIND, S A M E ASPIRA

PSCUDO-UXPLORER/REPORTER/

'.'I

B I O G R A P H E R — A R E O F FIGURES, THE

IDEALLY S E R V E D B YTHAT M O S T

LORED

THEATRICAL

DANDY.

IF CHATWIN'S DANDY,

SELF-CONSCIOUSLY

SYBARITIC TASTES

PETER MAYLE'S, T O THAT

A R EBEST

SUITED

T O T H EP E R S O N A

O F THE

I NH I S H U G E L Y SUCCESSFUL P R O V E N C E B O O K S ,

ARE

(1989)

A N D ITS

ENCES

O F M O V I N G

F R O M

L O N D O N

T OA QUIET

CORNER

O FT H E L U B E R O N I N

SOUTHERN F R A N C E , W H E R E H EA N D HISWIFE, H A V I N G B O U G H T A COTTAGE, ADAPT

T OT H E R H Y T H M S

FIRST—ARE

TAI

10

country gentleman O R squire. A Year in Provence S E Q U E L , Toujours Provence (1991), S K E T C H M A Y L E ' S E X P E R I

O FTHE

O F "RURAL

CLASSIC E X A M P L E S

LESS O N M O V E M E N T

O FPASTORAL

TRAVEL NARRATIVE.

THAN O NA NOSTALGIC APPRECIATION

LIFE THAT, T H O U G H I M P E R I L E D ,

SLOWLY

LIFE." T H ET W O BOOKS—ESPECIALLY T H E

REMAINS

RECALCITRANT

T H E I R

ACCENT IS

F O R A R E G I O N A L W A YO F

T OCHANGE. T H I S W A YO F

LIFE, A F F E C T I O N A T E L Y R E N D E R E D B YM A Y L E W I T H T H E R O S E - T I N T E D GLASSES O F T H E " P E R M A N E N T

VISITOR," REVOLVES A R O U N D

TICULARLY, C O N S U M I N G TUNATE (MOSTLY

T H ERITUALS

O FGROWING

F O O D . T H EL U B E R O N , F O R M A Y L E

ENGLISH)

VISITORS, ISA G O U R M E T ' S

AND,

PAR

A N DA STRING O F F O R

PARADISE:

A PLACE

WHERE

F O O D , I NPLENTIFUL SUPPLY,

ISRIGHTLY TREASURED—ESPECIALLY B Y THOSE W H O

A R E R E L I E V E D O FT H E B U R D E N

O F PRODUCING

PLACES

U N A S H A M E D

THORSTEIN

V E B L E N

EMPHASIS FAMOUSLY

IT. M A Y L E , A P R O F E S S I O N A L

O N LEISURE:

O N WHAT

CALLED "CONSPICUOUS

LIFE O FL E I S U R E M I G H T B EH A R D W O R K

WRITER,

T H E SOCIOLOGIST

CONSUMPTION."

(AT LEAST FOR THE EPICUREAN'S

1

1

T H I S

DIGESTIVE

TRACTS) B U TIT R E Q U I R E S LITTLE H A R D L A B O R , S I N C E T H E LATTER I S T A K E N C A R E O F B Y A WILLING M A Y L E

LOCAL WORKFORCE.

WATCHING

M U C H

Y A R D A N DI NT H E S U R R O U N D I N G The

fields

OF

A Year in Provence

OTHER P E O P L E WORKING, FARMERS'

MOSTLY FIELDS.

IS T A K E N U P W I T H

O NH I S H O U S E

H E R E I SA TYPICAL

a r o u n d t h ehouse were inhabited every d a y b y

i n g s l o w l y a n dm e t h o d i c a l l y

A N D VINE PASSAGE:

figures

m o v

across t h elandscape, weeding the vine

y a r d s , treating t h ec h e r r y trees, h o e i n g t h es a n d y e a r t h . N o t h i n g w a s hurried. W o r k s t o p p e d a t n o o n f o r l u n c h in t h e s h a d e o f a tree, a n d the only sounds f o r t w ohours were snatches o fdistant

conversation

t h a t c a r r i e d h u n d r e d s o f y a r d s o n t h e s t i l l a i r . (43) A S

I N T H EBEST

W I L L I A M P O O R " :

TRADITION

E M P S O N

CALLS

A RELATIONSHIP

CONFLICT,

CHARACTERIZED

B Y T H E H A P P Y

LANDOWNING

O F PASTORAL,

A "BEAUTIFUL

COEXISTENCE

BOURGEOISIE.

RECOURSE T OOLD-FASHIONED PRIDES

T H I S

NARRATIVE

BETWEEN

B YT H E A P P A R E N T O FT H E LOCAL

NEOFEUDAL

E N G L I S H — " G O O D

HIMSELF O N HISHONESTY TOWARD

S H O R T SHRIFT

M A Y L E ' S

RELATION

FICTION

U P WHAT

ABSENCE

PEASANTRY

O F CLASS WITH T H E

IS M A I N T A I N E D

MANNERS":

M A Y L E

HIS FAITHFUL WORKERS,

T OT H O S E W H O T A K E T H E I R S E R V I C E S I N V A I N .

I"

SETS

T H ERICH A N D T H E

nmihiku w i Til l VIM WHITIIUS

B Y

CLEARLY

A N DH E GIVES

M A Y L E ,

LIKE

N E W B Y ,

TAKES

REFUGE

I N ANOTHER

ASSET," SELF-DEPRECATION: THE P R O V E N C E B O O K S

M A K E

ENGLISH

"NATIONAL

A VIRTUE O F HIS

TIVE I N C O M P E T E N C E AS A C O U N T R Y G E N T L E M A N , HIS SLOW A D A P T A T I O N EIGN

CULTURE,

Provence NATIVE,"

A N D

E V E N

THE

FINDS

ECCENTRICITIES

H I M

RECOGNIZING

M O C K I N G

THAT

THE

O F

HIS

HIS

CASUAL

ENGLISH

O W N

Toujours

PEERS.

GESTURES

TOWARD

LIFESTYLE H E A N D

" G O I N G

H I SW I F E

H A V E

A D O P T E D I NF R A N C E O W E S LESS TO T H E C A R E F R E E ATTITUDES H E T E N D S TO TO

THE LOCAL P R O V E N C E A U X THAN

T OT H E P R I V I L E G E S

THAT

RELA

TO A FOR

ACCRUE

ASCRIBE

T OA

FOR

E I G N E R ' S C H O I C E O F C O M F O R T A B L E E X P A T R I A T I O N . C O M F O R T , I N D E E D , I SA THAT RESONATES T H R O U G H O U T

M A Y L E ' S

TWO

P R O V E N C E NARRATIVES.

ARE RARE, A N D W H E N

THESE D O A P P E A R , THEY ARE USUALLY CAUSED B Y

M A Y L E ' S

ACQUIRE M O M E N T U M

NARRATIVES

HOSPITALITIES,

THE UNHURRIED

F R O M

GIVE-AND-TAKE

THE MUTUAL

O F HOSPITALITY,

VISITORS,

M A Y L E ' S

ARE

G U A R A N T E E D

T ORAISE

A N D

ARE TRAVELOGUES THAT W O R K

erase

TO

A N D

B YREVERSING THE CONVENTIONAL

M A Y L E ' S W O R K

THEIR "TRAVEL"

STATUS,

THE PROPERTIES O F

H O M E

B E T W E E N

H E ISRELUCTANT, LIKE M O S T

TO O R DISCUSS T H E R E A S O N S FOR HIS O W N TO REVEAL T H E COST O F A M E A L — W H I C H

STRESSING THE

AFFORDABIL-

TRAVEL WRITERS,

TO CONFESS

A F F L U E N C E , H E ISM O R E T H A N IS, M O S T

OFTEN, " V E R Y

WILLING

REASONABLE."

THIS, I NTURN, ISO N E O F THE REASONS FOR THE STAGGERING POPULARITY BOOKS:

FOR I NS H O W I N G

AVERAGE WEALTH S O M E

C I T I Z E N — O R , TO E N J O Y

W A Y

D E M O C R A C Y M A Y L E ' S

SUCH

AGE-RANGE

O F HIS

B U O U X , P E A C H

COMFORT,

TARGET

M Y T H S

O NA H O R S E M A Y L E

IT D O E S

BOURGEOIS

SUCCESS

A N D

C H A M P A G N E .

I N

Toujours

READERSHIP.

EXISTENCE.)

( T H E

ALSO

SIT

U N D E R

AFTER

OUTSIDE

THE OAKS

IDEAL P H E

INDICATES WORLD,

B E I N G

C O N

THE VILLAGE

SIPPING

A

TASTE.

Provence,

FOR CITY DWELLERS T H R O U G H O U T THE

T OA P I C N I C SITE

GOES

INTO

A SWELL A SI N D I C A T I N G T H E

VILLAGE

HIS

FABULOUS

O FR E F I N E M E N T

O F THE P R O V E N C E B O O K S

CARRIAGE

C O M P A N Y

TAKE

VALUES, BOURGEOIS

MIDDLE-CLASS)

O F " Q U A I N T " A N D

N O T

O F F R A N C E — M A Y L E

CELEBRATED I N STYLE

(BRITISH

O F

ARE WITHIN THE RANGE O F THE

A N ARISTOCRACY

ELSE: THE DURABILITY,

ROMANTIC

THAT

AFFORDABLE H E D O N I S M ,

INTERNATIONAL

S O M E T H I N G O F

CONVERTING

BIRTHDAY,

EPITOMIZES

V E Y E D

B Y EXTENSION,

O F BOURGEOIS FIFTIETH

N O M E N A L

THAT G O U R M E T M E A L S

A LIFE O F LEISURE I N T H E S O U T H

TOWARD

THE

HOST.

FIGHTS FREE O F AFFECTATION B Y

ITY O F L U X U R Y . W H I L E

I NTHIS S E N S E ,

TRAVELER'S DISTINCTION

T E M P O R A R Y GUEST A N D THE P E R M A N E N T

FOREIGN

T OBRING H I M

" C L O S E R " TO T H E LOCALS W H O S E TRUST H E W O R K S SO H A R D TO W I N . M A Y L E ' S B O O K S

O F

SENTIMEN

INVARIABLY B Y

HACKLES,

B O T H B Y ESTABLISHING A FOREIGN BASE THAT ASSUMES

GUESTS.

E X C H A N G E

THAT H E ASSOCIATES

TALLY W I T H T H E C O U N T R Y LIFE. A B U S E S

W O R D

T E N S I O N S

HIS

O F

FAVORITE

T h e r e is n o t h i n g l i k e a c o m f o r t a b l e a d v e n t u r e t o p u tp e o p l e i n a g o o d h u m o r , a n dM a u r i c e [ t h eh o s t ] c o u l d h a r d l y h a v e h o p e d f o r a m o r e a p p r e c i a t i v e a u d i e n c e . H e d e s e r v e d it. H e h a d t h o u g h t o f e v e r y t h i n g , from

a n a b u n d a n c e o f ice t o t o o t h p i c k s ,

a n d , as h e h a d said,

there

w a s n o d a n g e r o f u s g o i n g h u n g r y . H ec a l l e d u s t o sit d o w n a n d g a v e us a g u i d e d t o u r of the

dade

first

course: m e l o n , quails' eggs, c r e a m y

o f cod, g a m e pate, stuffed

tomatoes, marinated

bran-

m u s h r o o m s —

o n a n d o n it w e n t , s t r e t c h i n g f r o m o n ee n d o f t h e t a b l e t o t h e o t h e r , looking,

under the

filtered

sunlight,

like a n implausibly

perfect

still

life f r o m t h e p a g e s o f o n e o f t h o s e a r t c o o k b o o k s t h a t n e v e r sees t h e kitchen.

(43)

Tonjours Provence

A N D ITS P R E C U R S O R S I M I L A R L Y G I V E

US

MOUTHWATERING

G U I D E D T O U R S O FT H E I R W R I T E R ' S F A V O R I T E M E A L S ; W E ,L I K E H I M , G E T T O S A M P L E THE

M E N U ,

B E IT AT A N E I G H B O R H O O D

WINE-CELLAR, TENDS

O RA C O U N T R Y

PARADOXICALLY

TOWARD

routier

CAFE, A

RESTAURANT.

1 2

TRAVEL

T H E IMMOBILITY

CANTEEN, A

NARRATIVE,

PRIVATE

F O R M A Y L E ,

O F STILL-LIFE

PAINTING; O R

RATHER T O W A R D THE FESTIVE REPRESENTATIONS O F THE FRIEZE O R

tableau vivant:

T H E RURAL E V E N T , T H E FEAST, T H E FAIR, T H E J O Y O U S SPECTACLE O F

CONSUMPTION.

T H E S E A N D

A R CN O T , H O W E V E R , T H EVICARIOUS

FAMOUS;

F O RM A Y L E ' S

BOOKS

PLEASURES O FOBSERVING

ASSUME,

TOURISM IS N O LONGER PROHIBITIVE,

T H E RICH

I N A NA G EW H E R E

THAT T H ED R E A M S

"QUALITY"

H E A N D HIS WIFE

O U T — T H E F A N T A S I E S O FT H E C O U N T R Y G E N T L E M A N — A R E A V A I L A B L E

A V E R A G E M E A N S , A S W E L L A S T O T H E W E A L T H Y : T O ALL T H O S E I N FACT W H O , ING T O LIVE, K N O W F O R

M A Y L E ,

O ' H A N L O N ,

A SI N THEIR

VARIOUS

WAYS

F O RTHEIR C O N T E M P O R A R Y ,

WRITING

SPRINGS

TRANSIT, I NN A I P A U L ' S

F R O M

IT—IS

V . S . NAIPAUL,

SOMETHING

N E W B Y ,

QUITE

T R A V E L — A N D T H E

DIFFERENT. T

OB E I N

TRAVEL WRITINGS I N V O K E

A SENSE O F ORIGI-

A P E R C E P T I O N THAT ALL P L A C E S A R ET H EW R O N G

T H A T A L LT I M E S A R ET H E W R O N G

TIME;

FOR AS I NN E W B Y ' S

PLACE.'

ALMOST

CALLY B E L A T E D

I N

FIGURE.

A N DINDIAN BOOKS

IMPERIALIST

NOSTALGIA—NOT

I M M U N E . ) " I NAIPAUL'S N E W B Y ' S .

O FTHE MOST

SEARING INVECTIVE

ISDIRECTED, PRECISELY, AGAINST THAT

ANACHRONISM,

N A I P A U L

I N SPITE O F HIMSELF (RAISED

HIMSELF

C O M I

NAIPAUL'S

T H EFUTILITY O F IS

NECESSARILY

H O W E V E R , ISO FA DIFFERENT K I N D T O

I T REFLECTS T H EFEAR O FA B A N D O N M E N T ,

a COLONIAL NAIPAUL

( S O M E

3

A N D O ' H A N

LON'S TRAVEL NARRATIVES, T H E TRAVELER CUTS A C O N S P I C U O U S L Y ,

AFRICAN

A N D

A SOURCE O FPLEASURE A N D

W O R K , IS T O B E I N A C O N T I N U A L STATE O F CRISIS. A S D E N

NIS P O R T E R H A S N O T E D , N A I P A U L ' S NARY DISPLACEMENT:

F O RCHATWIN,

REMAINS

ENRICHMENT.

A N D

WORK

H O WT O PROFIT F R O M THEIR E N J O Y M E N T .

T R A V E L , D E S P I T E ITS TRIALS,

THAT

LIVE

TO THOSE O F

N O TT H EW I S H F O R

I NTRINIDAD,

O F INDIAN

REVIVAL;

AUCESLRY),

STANDS P O I S E D B E T W E E N a PAST H E C A N N O T ACCEPT A N Da LIILUIC H E

IOUIUSTX

w i 111

1 Y I ' l l W K i t IIIIIM

C A N N O T BRING HIMSELF TO C O U N T E N A N C E — A FUTURE THAT HOLDS N O PLACE FOR HIM.

SARA SULERI EXPRESSES THE D I L E M M A

E X P R E S S I O N T OA D Y I N G

WELL: "[NAIPAUL'S]

GENERATION. . . .

N A I P A U L RECORDS A PERSPECTIVE THAT K N O W S HAS H A D

(English India 150).

T H E R A G E A N D , A B O V E ALL, T H E S E L F - C O N T E M P T O F N A I P A U L ' S TO CONTAIN

T H E VICIOUSNESS

O F NAIPAUL'S

A N D

"CULTURAL

KNOWS

ORIGINS"

THE CONDITION

THEIR O W N

INCURABLY

ISTHE VICIOUSNESS

O F A M A N ,

ALL T O O W E L L . S O M U C H

ULARLY INDIA'S, W H I C H OFTEN REVILES H I M H EBELONGS.

(NAIPAUL'S

INDIAN

F R O M

COMES

OUTSIDER

T OINSIDER,

F R O M THE WRITER'S

THE ALTERNATING STRAINS

CLEAR,

FINALLY,

F R O M

BRITAIN—MORE

A N D

M E M O R Y

O F PATRICIAN

HE EXPRESSES FOR TRINIDAD, THE

A N D

ISCLEAR F R O M N A I P A U L ' S W O R L D "

IRRESISTIBLY

ITS S U D D E N S H I F T S I N S U B J E C T

FOR THE INTENSITY

THAT

O F LOSS.) I TI SC L E A R E N O U G H , T O O ,

F R O M

DISDAIN A N D LINGERING AFFECTION

AMBIVALENCE

H EDEMONSTRATES

E N G L A N D — W H E R E H E HAS

TRAVEL WRITINGS

STRADDLE

CODES

A N D

PASTORAL, ATAVISTIC

TOWARD

RESIDED

O F ERIC M O D E S

N E W B Y ,

DISPLACED.

THE GAP

MOST

THAN

EVER,

BETWEEN

A N UNWANTED

E P I S O D E S I NN A I P A U L ' S

S OI N D E B T E D

O F IMPERIALIST

REPRESENTATION

(EUROCENTRIC

VIEWS O N " P R I M I T I V E " CULTURES, A N D SO ON). A T TIMES,

THE RIGOROUS ASCETICISM

S E E M

T OASPIRE,

DESPISES: TAKING

IF H E W E R E

O F B R A H M I N I C A L CULTURE TO THE

P E R V E R S E L Y , T O B EO N E O F T H E " M I M I C

O N THE TRAPPINGS

O F ANOTHER IMPERIAL

CULTURE,

ING OTHERS' VALUES A N D ATTITUDES, C O N S E N T I N G TO HIS O W N Y E T THIS V I E W ISM U C H DIVIDED

CULTURAL

ORIGINARY

WORK

ARE THEY T O "GENTLE

CONSCIOUSNESS A N D REFINEMENT O F THE G E N T L E M E N TRAVELERS' CLUB. MIGHT

GREAT

FOR

1 5

THE P E R S O N A H E PROJECTS ISWILLFULLY DISTANT A N D ELITIST—AS ING TO W E D

THAT

POSTCOLONIAL P R E S E N T THAT IS N E I

THER FULLY ACCEPTED N O R U N D E R S T O O D . S O M E

M A N L Y "

POSI

O F THE PAIN

COLONIAL INHERITANCE A N D AN A M B I G U O U S

WORTHY

NOTO

An Area of Darkness (1977), A N D India: A Million

O F HIS LIFE A SA FULLY ENTITLED BRITISH SUBJECT B U T W H E R E , M O R E

ALMOST

W H O

CULTURES—PARTIC

B U T TO W H I C H H E FEELS

H E F E E L S ILL A T E A S E , S O C I A L L Y M A R G I N A L I Z E D ,

SEEM

" H O M E "

A WRITER,

W H E R E H E S P E N T HIS F O R M A T I V E YEARS. A N D IT IS

PARTICULARLY,

NAIPAUL'S

IMPULSES.

"TRILOGY,"

(1964), India: A Wounded Civilization Mutinies Now (1990). I S R E M A R K A B L E F O R TION

H E N C E

WRITINGS, AS THEY

MELANCHOLIC

ATTACKS O N ROMANTIC NOSTALGIA FOR

RIOUSLY SPLENETIC P R O N O U N C E M E N T S O N " T H I R D

THAT

CHANGE,

ITS T I M E I S D O N E E V E N B E F O R E I T

T H E C H A N C E TO B E FULLY ARTICULATED"

S T R U G G L E I NV A I N

WRITINGS LEND

I N A N A R E N A O F FRANTIC

IDENTITY; A N D

TIQUE O F IMPERIALIST T H R O U G H O U T HIS W O R K .

HIS

UNDERCUTTING

O F all

N A I P A U L M E N " H E EMULAT

SUBORDINATION.

T O O S I M P L E : F O R O N E , ITFAILS TO R E C O G N I Z E

ALLEGIANCES A N D

LIKE

A CRITIQUE

N E W B Y

THAT

NAIPAUL'S

-I !

CRI

ISP U R S U E D , I F INDIRECTLY,

A N D <>'LL A N L O N . N A I P A U L

AI-TIIH I ' M i M i n

1 6

EXPRESSIONS O F

F O R A N O T H E R , IT A L L O W S N O P L A C E F O R N A I P A U L ' S

THINKING

TRY

CLASS-

ASPIRES JEAL-

OUSLY TO THE PART O F THE " E N G L I S H

GENTLEMAN

TRAVELER" WHILE

ALSO

DIS

TANCING HIMSELF F R O M THAT V E R Y ROLE. B U T WHEREAS SELF-IRONY, FOR THE FOR M E R

TWO

WRITERS,

ISA STRATEGY O F SELF-PROTECTION, A N

T H E M TO REINSTATE O U T M O D E D IMPERIAL MYTHS, T U R N E D O N HIS

O W N

COLONIAL

THE INSTITUTIONS (IN HIM,

UPBRINGING.

PARTICULAR,

N O T AS A M E M B E R

A N D

THE EDUCATION

O F THE NATION'S

NAIPAUL'S

The

AMBIVALENCE

IS P E R H A P S

BEST

TOWARD

WRITER'S

(NAIPAUL'S)

ISA I M E D

THAT H A V E

G E N T L E M A N

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL

STRICTLY S P E A K I N G ,

NOVEL

The Enigma of

Arrival

AT ALL, B U T R A T H E R A F I C T I O N A L I Z E D M E M O I R

SOJOURN

I N WESTERN

C H A T W I N ' S W O R K , TRAVEL REMAINS

E N G L A N D .

THE D O M I N A N T

O F THE

H O W E V E R ,

A SI N

M E T A P H O R — M O R E

PARTIC

U L A R L Y I N THIS C A S E , AS T H E TITLE I M P L I E S , T H E M E T A P H O R O F " A R R I V A L . " CENTER

O F THE

PAINTING,

TEXT

IS NAIPAUL'S

READING

O F D E

CHIRICO'S

W H I C H H E CONSTRUES AS A N IRONIC M E D I T A T I O N LIFE AS A CYCLICAL

PATTERN O F INEVITABLY

(97-104).

T H E

SISYPHEAN

TASK O F E N D U R I N G FRUSTRATION. SHUTTLING B E T W E E N AN

ILLUSTRATES

NAIPAUL'S

UNFINISHED

IDEA

O F

A N D

ARRIVAL.

A NI N T E R M E D I A R Y

TRAVEL WRITING—PERHAPS

SPACE

QUESTS

TRAVEL

NAIPAUL'S

B E T W E E N

RETURN

ALL W R I T I N G — I S A C H A R T I N G

O F

S P A C E : IT D E L I N E A T E S T H E U N F I N I S H E D C H R O N I C L E O F A S E L F I N C O N S T A N T NAIPAUL'S SHIRE,

COTTAGE, O N THE OUTSKIRTS

IS MERELY

O F A MANORIAL

T H E LATEST T E M P O R A R Y

FOR THE

TRAVELER-WRITER. T H E N O V E L DESCRIBES ARCING M O V E M E N T S

A R O U N D ITS S U B J E C T , F O L L O W I N G T H E R H Y T H M S SPIRAL D O W N W A R D F O R M

TO D E C A Y . N A I P A U L ' S

O F"POSTCOLONIAL

PASTORAL"

FRONTING, I NA U T O B I O G R A P H I C A L

HIS

F R O M

O W N

N I X O N

SAYS, A

HAVING

GOLDSMITH,

G R A Y ' S

Elegy,

N O T A P A S T O R A L , A S IT IS F O R M A Y L E , O F S M U G A PASTORAL O F REGRET: A MEDITATIVE ERARIES TAKE H I M OF AN FOR AN

ANCIENT

PAST,

A N D H A R D Y "

B Y

"HISTORY"

M A N ' S R A M B L E S , ALL T W E E D S A N D W A L K I N G

.| 1

1oUHisis

O F

(161-62).

CULTURAL NOSTALGIA, BUT

wiiii

ITS D E S C E N D A N T S , HAS

B E E N DENIED.'

BUT 7

STICKS A N D E L E G A N T

ivri

u . H I 11 11

C O N

T H I S

IS

RATHER

SITE F O R D R E A M S O F L O S S . N A I P A U L ' S

UNAPPRECIATED

TO W H O M

CON

PRESENCE I NE N G L A N D . . .

R E P E A T E D L Y TO A SERIES O F RUINS A N D R E M N A N T S :

"OUTSIDER"

THEY

CURIOUS

"DEFERRED

[HE] ULTIMATELY FACES A G A R D E N C O U N T Y SUFFUSED B Y A N A M B I E N C E STABLE, R U S K I N ,

THIS

LABORIOUSLY

O F THE SEASONAL CYCLE AS

IS, A S R O B

WHEREBY,

TERMS,

WILT

EXHAUSTED

A W A Y

HIMSELF,

THAT

TRANSIT.

ESTATE I NRURAL

RESTING-PLACE

A L R E A D Y P E R I P H E R A L " C E N T E R " ; IT M O V E S , L I K E N A I P A U L

A S A

IRRETRIEV

ABLE POINT O F ORIGIN A N D AN UNASSAILABLE POINT O F DESTINATION, TRAVELER OCCUPIES

THE

O N THE DEFERRAL O F

O N

PAINTING

A T

E P O N Y M O U S

"ARRIVAL":

WORLD-WEARY

M A R

SUBJECTS.

THE FIGURE O F THE ENGLISH I N HIS

AT

S H A P E D

R U L I N G E L I T E , B U T A S O N E O F ITS

DEMONSTRATED

Enigma of Arrival (1987).

IS N O T A T R A V E L N A R R A T I V E

PERMITS

IT IS A W E A P O N

THAT W E A P O N SYSTEM)

GINALIZED COLONIAL A N D , M O R E RECENTLY, I M M I G R A N T

TRAVELER

ALIBI THAT

FOR N A I P A U L

ITIN

REMINDERS FASCINATING

T H E S E

GENTLE

SCLFINOCKERY.

REENACT A NARRATIVE B Y

O F DECLINE E P I T O M I Z E D

ITS L A N D L O R D , A F A D E D A R I S T O C R A T ,

VIVES

The

O N

A DWINDLING LEGACY A N D

Enigma of Arrival,

IZES THE WORK

B Y THE CRUMBLING

N O W

WELL INTO

VAPID

FANTASIES

ESTATE;

IN THIS SENSE, B O T H ALLEGORIZES A N D

M E S M E R I Z E D

B YANOTHER'S

PAST.

WORN-OUT

G E N T L E M A N -

NAIPAUL'S

ROLE

C O U N T R Y G E N T L E M A N IS C O N D U C T E D F R O M T H E W I N G S ; IT IS S I G N I F I C A N T COTTAGE

IS O N

GINAL," A N D

W H O

FADED

OBVIOUS

MYSTIFIES COLONIAL

IT ISN A I P A U L ,

A M O N G

BUT THE

GENTLEMANLINESS

A N D I NRESUSCITATING

N A I P A U L

HAS

FORWARD M O V E M E N T

NAIPAUL'S

THAT

P R O D U C E D

A N D

EMPTINESS

G E N T L E M A N , " A N

ITSELF I S A

IS O N E

POSE

IT, I R O N I C A L L Y ,

A NANTITRAVEL

DEBILITATES

HIS

" M A R

N O TRUE G E N T L E M A N PRESENTS H I M S E L F — H E OTHERS.

DECLINING POWER;

REGRESSIVE

IS A " M I M I C

A S A

THE

GRADUALLY TAKES OVER THE "CENTER," REVEALING THE

CONTEXT,

DISABLES

O F THE ESTATE. B U T

G R A N D E U R A T ITS C O R E . N A I P A U L

IMPOSTOR;

IMPOSTOR

SUSTAIN

THE MARGINS

PAST.

M O N U M E N T A L

O F E M P I R E , R E D U C I N G ITS L A T T E R - D A Y P R O D U C T S T O A

TENANT,

SUR

O F A "GLORIOUS"

LANDLORD, PITIFULLY O U T O F T O U C H W I T H T H E PRESENT, A N D TO HIS M A N Q U E

A N D

HIS D O T A G E , W H O

THAT

I NA POST-

TEXT

THAT

BOTH

THE NOSTALGIC ENERGIES

THAT

MYTHS.

W O R K

REMINDS

US THAT

GENTLEMANLINESS, I NA

LATE-TWENTI

ETH-CENTURY CONTEXT, HAS B E C O M E A M Y T H I C A L ACT O F O F F I C E — A N ACT I N THE L I T E R A L S E N S E T H A T IT P E R F O R M S A D R A M A T I C R O L E . N A I P A U L ' S G E N T L E M A N M A N C E ,

The Enigma of Arrival

I N

ASSIMILATING

N E W B Y ' S

A N D

LACRAL C O P I E S

IT T OA BROADER

O ' H A N L O N ' S

MAYLC'S

D R A M A

ROLE AS A M I M I C

ACCENTUATES O F

THIS

IMPERIAL

PERFOR

IMPOSTURE.

GENTLEMAN-ADVENTURERS ARE, LIKEWISE,

FOR A MYTHICAL

THEIRS, I ND O U B T .

M E R E L Y

FIGURE W H O S E

AUTHENTICITY

SIMU-

IS PLACED,

COUNTRY G E N T L E M A N ISA BOURGEOIS

LIKE

EXPATRIATE

W H O S E O N L Y D U T Y I SE N J O Y M E N T ; A N D C H A T W I N ' S D A N D Y I S A N A E S T H E T E

A N D

A

THE

CONNOISSEUR

D A N D Y

O F THE SOCIAL

GRACES THAT

M A K E

THE G E N T L E M A N , LIKE

H I M S E L F , I N T O A N O T H E R A R T I S T I C O B J E C T . G E N T L E M A N L I N E S S , I F IT

E V E R G E N U I N E , I SN O W

JECT FOR C O N T E M P O R A R Y TRAVEL NARRATIVE, W H I C H NARROWS R E P O R T E D FACTS, E M B R O I D E R E D

TALES, A N D

OUT-AND-OUT

THE G A P

IS W E L L A T T U N E D T O E M P I R E ' S

MYTHS.

I NN A R R A T I V E S

DLE-CLASS M A Y L E ' S

AUDIENCE. WORK

TURAL NOSTALGIA ELSEWHERE,

OWES

THAT, LIKE ERIC N E W B Y ' S ,

T H E M U C H

POPULARITY

T H E ENGLISH

O FN E W B Y ' S

AND,

TO A BOURGEOIS CONCEPTION

SUCCESSFULLY

TRADES. LORMS

A M I

SUCH

NOSLALGIA

O F PASLORAL

LHAL

I' I . M I ' I I M

I ,

A G E GEN

IMPERIAL

P L A Y TO A NOSTALGIC

M I D

PARTICULARLY,

O F (ENGLISH)

A N O S T A L G I A I NW H I C H TRAVEL W R I T I N G , F R O M

RECOURSE TO C O M F O R T I N G

WHICH

I NA N

T L E M A N A B R O A D , H O W E V E R C O N T R I V E D , A P P E A R S N O N E T H E L E S S AS A N R E M N A N T

SUB

B E T W E E N

FABLES, A N D

ACTS AS A U S E F U L V E H I C L E F O R T H E RECYCLING O F I M P E R I A L SIMULACRA THAT, AFTER E M P I R E ,

WERE

A L M O S T CERTAINLY F A K E — A N D , AS SUCH, A FITTING

E N G L A N D

IS REFLECTED

L E - U R E I I L E IH E

IN

CUL A N D T H E

CONDITIONS

FOR

A N IDEALIZED,

MOSTLY

INDOLENT,

REFLECTED I NTHE ATTEMPT, AUTHORITY, A N D

IRONIC

O F

HERE,

ABROAD,

DEMISE

THE

SUGNET'S

LIFE."

B YLINES

NOT

O F

THE

ONLY

F R O M

THE

TRANSPORTS

[THEY]

T OTHE

BACK

O F THE

CONSE

ACERBICALLY:

M A K I N G

" T H E

ITEASIER

FOR

O R [THEIR] R E A D E R S

EVENTS

TRAVEL WRITERS

GEN

HIMSELF

HIMSELF

SUGGESTS

CONVENIENT,

O F RESPONSIBILITY

T H E

O N THE ROLE O F THE

TO DISABUSE

THE SENSE THAT

CASE IS OVERSTATED: MOST

THEY

ARE

REPORT"

(85).

ARE ONLY TOO AWARE

O F

N O R N E E D REPORTAGE B E THE ONLY, OR E V E N

OBJECT O F THEIR EXERCISE: FOR N E W B Y

A N D

O ' H A N L O N ,

FOR

R E P O R T A G E — T H E RECENT PAST RECALLED I NTHE P R E S E N T — T A K E S TO T H E IRONIC

M A K I N G

" G E N T L E M A N

IT SPRINGS

TAKING

S U G N E T

IS PARTICULARLY

SENSIBILITIES.

ROLE

BRITISH

TO THE

F R E E — T O A C T A S I F IT N E V E R H A D .

ALSO ATTEMPTS

SUPPRESS

I T IS ALSO

HAS COLLAPSED, BUT THAT THE TRAVELER IS

TO B E

TRAVELER-WRITER

BUT

WRITERS] TO

THEIR ESCAPIST

T H E

IS ENABLING:

O F THE PRESENT. A SCHARLES

CONNECTED

M A R Y ,

E M P I R E .

RIDICULOUS,

pretend

O F THE E M P I R E

[TRAVEL

"COUNTRY

OR REGIONS FORMERLY U N D E R

HAS FURTHER USES: FOR B Y

ANOTHER TIME,

QUENCES

BRITISH

THAT THE E M P I R E

BETTER, CAN

DECLINE O F E M P I R E

INTO

THE

H O W E V E R

AWARENESS

F R E E — O R ,

TLEMAN

I NCOUNTRIES

O F

TO REHEARSE THE GESTURES THAT O N C E CONTRIBUTED

SUSTAINING

A B R O A D "

W A Y

BUT NEVERTHELESS CONCERTED ATTEMPT

E X A M P L E ,

SECOND

TO REINSTALL A

CIZED VERSION O F NINETEENTH-CENTURY IMPERIAL HISTORY.

PRI

PLACE

ROMANTI

SUGNET IS PERHAPS

T O O K E E N T O D I S C U S S T H E S E R I O U S N E S S O F A G E N R E T H A T O F T E N D O E S ITS B E S T P E R S U A D E ITS R E A D E R S N O T T O T A K E I T S E R I O U S L Y . US,

M A Y

ALSO B E

T H E G E N R E ' S LAST LINE O F D E F E N S E . A N D

ENGLISH

G E N T L E M A N ; FOR THE G E N T L E M A N

SUBJECT

FOR C A M P

STILL V E R Y M U C H

B U T THIS, AS S U G N E T

PERFORMANCE,

WITH US. A N D

BUT

THAT

TODAY

M A Y

ALSO THAT

BUT,

" T H O U G H M A Y

H E ALSO REPRESENTS A LEGACY THAT IS

LEGACY M A Y

(85).

THE POINT.

ACCIDENTALLY

M R

DISCLAIM SUCH

A N

INCIDENT

N E W B Y

ALSO

COMPLICITY,

CONTRIBUTE

INADVERTENTLY

DISPLAY.

PROFESS

SUGNET

RUNNING

D O W N

SAYS

H E STILL A R R O G A T E S T O

A N D

F R O M N E W B Y ' S

A N D

INITIALLY CHARGED

W H A T M A D E TO S A Y , "

O FTHEMSELVES,

O F REPRESENTATION, J U D G E M E N T ,

O F E M P I R E "

T E H R A N .

THE

CARLESS A N D

WITH MURDER,

WITH

A LOCAL P E A S A N T THEY

A N D

HIMSELF

M O B I L I T Y THAT W E R E EFFECTS

A Short Walk

ARE I N TROUBLE

KILLING

S E E M S TO THE LAW

O N

SUP AFTER

THE ROAD

ARE EVENTUALLY

CARLESS WAS

FRIEND A N D

GENTLEMANLY

I N THIS [AFFAIR],

T L E M A N L Y . . . THAT H E H A S D E C I D E D

.|(>

INTERPRETER N I K I , BECAUSE

"THAT Y O U

M E

IT IS B E C A U S E W E R E ALL

N O T T O P R O C E E D W I T H I T " (86),

T U U H l : . ' '• W i l l i I Y l ' U W H I II 11

TO

ACQUITTED.

T H E P R O S E C U T O R C H A N G E HIS M I N D ? " T H E P R O S E C U T O R ASKS CARLESS'S

TO

AGAIN:

T H E TRAVELER N O L O N G E R R E P R E S E N T S A LITERAL I M P E R I A L P O W E R

SPECIFICALLY

T H E RIGHTS

PORT

I N SPITE

O F

B E A FIGURE O F FUN, A

TO THE FURTHERING O F THE CULTURAL P R E J U D I C E THAT TRAVEL WRITERS CRITIQUE

TO

REMINDS

S O

GEN

N E W B Y

A N D C A R L E S S A R E S A V E D , AFTER ALL, B Y T H E M Y T H O F G E N T L E M A N L I N E S S . WE, THEIR READERS, ALLOW T H E M ,

I NTURN, TO GET A W A Y W I T H

C O U N T E R T R A V E L AND

I N HER STUDY

REST

O F

THE

Imperial Eyes (1992), H A V E

WORLD'

M A N Y

M A R Y

E U R O P E A N

CRIT

N O R M S .

TO P R O D U C E

HAS B E E N

of Empire,

IDENTIFIES TRAVEL WRITING AS O N E O F THOSE "DISCOURSES

HIS

(4);

A N O T H E R "

STUDY

B Y

ALI

B E H D A D

I N

SUPPORTED

1993),

W H O

O F COLONIALISM" B Y

W H I C H " O N E CULTURE C O M E S TO INTERPRET, TO REPRESENT, A N D FINALLY TO INATE

THAT " 'THE

A T DIFFERENT POINTS

PRATT'S W O R K

(The Rhetoric

SPURR

DISCERNING

L O U I S E PRATT DEMONSTRATES OR INDIRECTLY,

READERSHIPS

T R A J E C T O R Y " (5).

RECENTLY B Y D A V I D

O F ITS M O R E

THAT REINFORCES E U R O P E A N

H E L P E D , DIRECTLY

FOR

E U R O P E ' S EXPANSIONIST M O R E

B Y

O F COLONIALIST DISCOURSE

TRAVEL NARRATIVES

WRITING

P O S T C O L O N I A L I T Y

TRAVEL WRITING HAS B E E N IDENTIFIED ICS AS A M O D E

S H O U L D

IT?

(Belated Travelers,

1994),

D O M

W H O

SEES

O F N I N E T E E N T H - C E N T U R Y E U R O P E A N TRAVEL WRITING A S CONTRIBUT

ING TO WHAT H O M I

B H A B H A

CALLS A " M E D I T A T I O N

O N THE M Y T H S

O F WESTERN

P O W E R A N D K N O W L E D G E W H I C H CONFINE THE COLONIZED A N D DISPOSSESSED A

HALF-LIFE O F MISREPRESENTATION

A N D B Y INDERPAL

G R E W A L

TIPLE

O F

DISCOURSES

" H A R E M " — " S P A T I A L CALLY

A N D

NATION (4).

A L L

TRAVEL

ANALYZE

I N " E U R O I M P E R I A L "

CONSTRUCTIONS,"

(QTD. W H O

VISIONS

AS S H E CALLS T H E M ,

CONSTRUCT

H O M E

I N B E H D A D

A N D

O F

A W A Y

" T H E HISTORICAL

O N E DEFINED SITUATION

B YS P U R R

M A R K E D

A N D

" M E T A P H O R I

O RE M P I R E

T OA G R E A T E R O R L E S S E R E X T E N T , A D O P T

M E T H O D O L O G Y :

M U L

" H O M E "

THAT

A

A SA NATTEMPT

B YTHE DISMANTLING

A N D

B O D I E S " "POST-

BOTH T O O F

TRADI

TIONAL INSTITUTIONS O F COLONIAL P O W E R " A N D TO "SEARCH FOR ALTERNATIVES THE DISCOURSES " P O S T , "

O F T H E C O L O N I A L E R A " (6).

A W A R E

S P U R R W I S E L Y RESISTS T H E T E M P T A T I O N

COLONIALISM—AS

IF COLONIALISM,

O F A PERIOD

" A F T E R "

A N D VIRULENT

FORMS,

W E R E N O T STILL V E R Y M U C H W I T H U S T O D A Y . N O N E T H E L E S S , H I S D E F I N I T I O N FOCUS O F M U C H

POSTCOLONIAL

C I S M , W H I C H D I R E C T S ITS A T T E N T I O N N O T S O M U C H T O T H E C U L T U R A L O F

THE

F O R M E R

METROPOLITAN FOUNDERS

COLONIES "CENTERS."

A S T O THOSE

O F

POSTCOLONIAL

O NTHESE DEFINITIONAL

THE

\]

S O M E

A N D

CRITI

IMPERIAL

M I G H T

O NT H E

FAILS

PRODUCTION

SELF-DESIGNATED

CRITICISM,

INCONSISTENCIES,

M ' T U H I'MI'MH

TO

O F T H E PERILS O F THE PREFIX

TO S P E A K

I NA VARIETY O F N E W

TO EXPLAIN THE /?RE-TWENTIETH-CENTURY

TO

138);

TRACES T H E

SITES I NT H E C O L O N I A L P E R I O D T H R O U G H G E N D E R E D

O F THESE WRITERS,

COLONIAL"

MIGRATION"

(Home and Harem, 1996),

M E T O N Y M I C A L L Y

AT V A R I O U S

A N D

ARGUE,

TOTALIZING,

ironically dehistoricized v o c a b u l a r y it often deploys in order to talk about irreconcilably different cultures and cultural issues. W i t h the increasing—mostly academic—commodification o f the postcolonial, a further discrepancy has arisen between the oppositional discourses invested in postcolonialism and the marketable exoticism o f socalled postcolonial products. Postcoloniality—not postcolonialism— best describes the present climate within which such strategically "othered" products circulate within the global market. T h e p o s t c o l o nial, in this context, is both an index o f awft'colonial resistance and a code w o r d for the weocolonial process by which cultural "otherness" is assimilated, reproduced, and c o n s u m e d . 18

19

W h a t is the status o f travel writing in the age o f postcoloniality? Historically, travel writing has capitalized on exoticist perceptions of cultural difference: it has made a virtue of, and a profit from, the strangeness o f foreign places and cultures, delivering up t o its mostly white metropolitan reading public what Paul Fussell calls "the exotic anomalies, wonders, and scandals . . . which their own place or time cannot entirely supply" (203). Clearly, travel writing at its worst has helped support an imperialist perception by which the exciting "other ness" of foreign, for the most part non-European, peoples and places is pressed into the service o f rejuvenating a humdrum domestic culture. However, travel writing has also served as a useful medium o f estrangement and as a relativist vehicle for the reassessment and poten tial critique o f domestic culture. Both o f these registers can be seen in contemporary travel writing, which acts alternately as a repository for exoticist forms o f cultural nostalgia and as a barometer for the record ing and calibration o f cultural change. A postcolonial approach to contemporary travel writing—such as that loosely adopted in this sec tion—might therefore seek to examine the continuing complicity between travel writing and cultural imperialism; to analyze new forms of travel narrative that resist these earlier models and that explore the possibilities inherent in travel writing as cultural critique; and, finally, to assess the extent to which these various revisionist or counternarratives are themselves bound up in an ideology o f exoticist consumption. Caryl Phillips's The European Tribe (1987) and Jamaica Kincaid's A Small Place (1988) are two recent examples o f travel narratives set up in opposition to European norms. Both are extended diatribes against European cultural prejudice and, more particularly, against the destructive value-systems enshrined in hierarchies of race. Racism is the subject o f Phillips's often caustic commenlnry, w h i c h draws o n s e v ,|K

11

PI

1 v,IM •» w r i

11 1

'1 r i

\i

n

111 H'I 1

eral o f the tacitly accepted conventions o f European travel writing— the assertion o f race and class privilege, the traveler's license to com plaint, the use o f a nonspecialist genre to pass off personal opinions as sociological observations—but then, twisting those conventions to meet their o w n unspoken biases, "wrestle[s] Europe's face around so that she might at least be forced to stare in the mirror" (xiii). A n d racism is the subject, too, o f K i n c a i d ' s jeremiad on her birthplace, Antigua, a tiny Caribbean island caught in the drifts o f a larger history, its people exploited playthings in the hands o f foreign companies, cor rupt officials, and the tourist trade. B o t h narratives are based on the authority o f their o w n bitter experience: Phillips's recalls a year-long trip as a black m a n in a white-dominated Europe; K i n c a i d ' s returns to an island home distorted out o f recognition by the neocolonial forces of tourism and despotic governments. W h a t is most striking about these narratives, though, is not the general quality o f their anger but the specific hostilities that they direct against their readers. These readers are identified, in each case, as being white Euro-Americans, o f the kind that might read travel writing for the consolations it brings. The consolations, for example, of a tempo rary escape from a work-obsessed society: an escape, however, that confirms rather than threatens the dominant (white) culture. Here, for instance, from Phillips: In your churches, education, government systems, architecture, music, arts, you belong to a group which exports a culture to every corner of the world. . . . Wherever you go in the world, you can carry with you evidence of your visible achievements, and they will be uni versally recognized. . . . [But] your eyesight is defective. Europe is blinded by her past, and does not understand the high prices of her churches, art galleries, and architecture. My presence in Europe is part of that price. (127-28) Or, here, from Kincaid: As your plane descends to land, you might say, What a beautiful island Antigua is—more beautiful than any of the other islands you have seen, and they were very beautiful, in their way, but they were much too green, much too lush with vegetation, which indicated to you, the tourist, that they got quite a bit of rainfall, and rain is the very thing that you, just now, do not want, for you are thinking of the h a r d and cold mid d a r k and long days you spent working in North America (or, worse, H u r o p e ) , earning some money so thai you could slay in this place ( A n l i n u s i ) w h e r e Ihc sun always shines and where

A I ' T K H

HMI'lItt',

t h e s u nis d e l i c i o u s l y h o t f o r t h e f o u r t o t e nd a y s y o u a r e g o i n g t o b e staying there; a n d since y o u a r e o n y o u r holiday,

since y o u a r e a

t o u r i s t , t h e t h o u g h t o f w h a t it m i g h t b e l i k e f o r s o m e o n e w h o h a d t o live d a y i n , d a yo u t i n a place that suffers c o n s t a n t l y f r o m and

drought,

sohas t o watch carefully every d r o p o ffresh water used (while a t

the s a m e time s u r r o u n d e d b y a sea a n d a n o c e a n — t h e C a r i b b e a n S e a o n o n e side, t h eA t l a n t i c O c e a n o n t h eo t h e r ) , m u s t n e v e r cross y o u r mind.

(3-4)

T H E T W OP A S S A G E S I N D I C A T E KINCAID'S O M O U S L Y

THE D I F F E R E N C E I NT O N E B E T W E E N PHILLIPS'S A N D

NARRATIVES—THE

FORMER

P R O V O C A T I V E — B U T

DRYLY

SARDONIC,

T H E LATTER

I NB O T H CASES, T H E WRITER DIRECTS A

V E N

SUSTAINED

A S S A U L T A G A I N S T T H E R E A D E R , D E S I G N E D N O T M E R E L Y T O J O L T H I M O RH E R O U T O F A

FAMILIAR

SENSE O FCOMPLACENCY,

B U T T OA S S O C I A T E

THAT

C O M P L A C E N C Y

W I T H T H E P R O C E S S O FT R A V E L A N DT H E G E N R E O FT R A V E L W R I T I N G . I N T H I S S E N S E , BOTH

WORKS M I G H T

BEST B E DESCRIBED

AS FORMS

countertrzveX

O F

THAT INTERROGATE THE PRIVILEGES THAT ACCRUE HISTORICALLY IN

PHILLIPS'S

TO THE

WRITING

GENRE.

C A S E , T H E S E P R I V I L E G E S A R EA L S O L O O S E L Y C O N N E C T E D T O A

SPECIFIC ITINERARY:

THE G E N T L E M A N ' S E D U C A T I V E CIRCUIT OTHERWISE K N O W N AS

THE G R A N D

T H EG R A N D

T O U R .

EIGHTEENTH

CENTURY

M E A N S — A

KIND

STUDY

O FSOCIAL

A SA FORMATIVE

O F PERIPATETIC GRACES—WAS

NOT SCORN, B Y M A N Y

APPLICATION, B E C O M E NEEDLESS

M O R E

DISSIPATED,

EITHER T O STUDY

I NS O SHORT A TIME TO S A Y ,SUCH

LATER VARIANTS

CASE, HOWEVER,

TOUR ISTAKEN

COMPARATIVE

T H EO U T S E T W I T H S U S P I C I O N , I F

BEST-KNOWN

WRITERS.

J A M E S

SELECTION) A D A M

"RETURNS H O M E A N D M O R E

B U Z A R D

SMITH,

M O R E CONCEITED,

INCAPABLE

O R T O BUSINESS,

THAN

H A DH E LIVED AT H O M E "

(QTD.

WELL

T H EW R Y R E E X A M I N A T I O N

O FTHE

O FTHE

T H EB A C K D R O P

TO, A N D CRIMES

PHILLIPS'S

I N T H E N A M E

O F , A

O FSOUTHERN

E U R O P E , T O M O S C O W

AGAIN TOHISH O M E T O W N ,

2

0

I N

"EDUCATIONAL" FOR A

C O M M E N

"SUPERIOR"

O W NE U R O P E A N TOUR TAKES H I M F R O M CASABLANCA,

BOUNDARIES BACK

C O M M I T T E D

66). THEIR

TRADITION—

TARY, N O T S O M U C H O N CLASS ( O R G E N D E R ) BENEFITS, A S O N T H E PRIVILEGES FALL

H A V E

I NB U Z A R D

WERE WHITE;

BILL B R Y S O N A N D P A U L T H E R O U X .

A STAGE FURTHER, B E C O M I N G

FOR

M O R E

O F A N Y SERIOUS

H E COULD

D E F L A T I N G T H EP R E T E N S I O N S

TRAVEL WRITERS

I N T H E

E N G L I S H M E N O F

F O RT H E

M E N O F L E I S U R E , B YD E F I N I T I O N ,

-IRONICALLY

INCLUDE THE A M E R I C A N PHILLIPS'S

TREATED F R O M

TOURIST

T O P R O M I N E N C E

J O U R N E Y F O R Y O U N G

O T H E R S I NA N A M U S I N G

THE TYPICAL G R A N D

UNPRINCIPLED,

WHICH C A M E

FINISHING-SCHOOL

O FTHE NATION'S

QUOTES F R O M ( A M O N G W H O M

T O U R ,

THAT RACE.

B E Y O N D T H E

O N ITS E A S T E R N E D G E , A N D

L O N D O N . E V E R Y W H E R E H EG O E S , HIS ORIGINAL

THESIS IS C O N F I R M E D : THAT E U R O P E IS A TRIBAL S O C I E T Y , C L O S I N G R A N K S

AGAINST

OUTSIDERS—ESPECIALLY THOSE CONSIDERED AS B E L O N G I N G TOA DIFFERENT RACE.

,>»

' l O d K I S I •. W l l O I Y l ' l W i l l I ' l ' K S

T H E G L O O M O F PHILLIPS'S

NARRATIVE, A L T H O U G H ALLEVIATED B Y A LIVELY SENSE

O F H U M O R , I S A S O P P R E S S I V E A ST H E H E A T I NM O R O C C O , T H E C O L D I N R U S S I A , A N D

T H ER A I N I N L O N D O N . C A S A B L A N C A ,

NEOCOLONIAL JACKBOOT; AN

A R M Y

O F BRITISH

T H ES P A N I S H

TOURISTS;

A N D RUSSIA

, A R R I V E S I NM A N Y

A N D G E R M A N Y

I M M I G R A N T

IDEOLOGICALLY

G E TT H EI M P R E S S I O N

A R E O P E N L Y

LABOR; SCANDINAVIA,

OPPORTUNISTIC.

O FT H E S E C O U N T R I E S T H A N H E W A N T S

:

W E

COASTS SUFFER F R O M T H ET H U G G E R Y O F

F R A N C E , ITALY,

RACIST I N THEIR ATTITUDES T O W A R D HOSTILE,

F O R ALL ITS G L A M O U R , I SU N D E R T H E

PHILLIPS

TOO, IS

N OSOONER

T O LEAVE; A N DOVERALL,

O FA DISAFFECTED, OFTEN FRACTIOUS TRAVELER,

M O R E

A N X I O U S T OP R O V E H I SP O I N T T H A N T OB R O A D E N H I SR A N G E O F E X P E R I E N C E , A N D M O R E

A N X I O U S STILL T O A F F I L I A T E H I M S E L F W I T H O T H E R , M O S T L Y

BLACKS

MUNICATE,

LITTLE I N C O M M O N .

PHILLIPS K N E W

MARGINALIZED,

I NE U R O P E , O N L Y T O D I S C O V E R T H A T H E A N DT H E Y H A V E LITTLE T O C O M

L E A R N S LITTLE F R O M

HIS TOUR, IT SEEMS,

OTHER THAN

WHAT H E

S O W E L L A L R E A D Y : T H A T R A C I S M I SI N G R A I N E D I NE U R O P E ' S S E N S E O F S E L F -

I D E N T I T Y ; A N DT H A T H E , A S A B L A C K B R I T O N , C U L T U R A L L Y A P A R T O F E U R O P E , C A N " F I N D LITTLE E M P A T H Y

(128).

W I T H T H EC U L T U R A L B R A V A D O

L I K E N A I P A U L — W I T H

W H O M ,

O FA EUROCENTRIC

IN C O M M O N — P H I L L I P S

USES TRAVEL WRITING T O E X A M I N E

I N G S O FD I S P L A C E M E N T ,

A N DT O A T T E M P T I NV A I N

DICTION

O F FEELING

BRITISH WHILE

PAST"

IDEOLOGICALLY, H E HAS NEXT TO NOTHING

BEING

HIS N A G G I N G

TO RECONCILE " T H E

CONSTANTLY

FEEL

CONTRA

TOLD I NM A N Y

SUBTLE

A N D U N S U B T L E W A Y S T H A T I D I D N O T B E L O N G " (9).

PHILLIPS POSITIONS

LIKE N A I P A U L ,

WANDERING THE MARGINS O F

A

CONTINENT

HOWEVER,

AS A CONSCIOUSLY LIMINAL THAT

LOCKS

PHILLIPS

RATHER TOC O M B A T

ITSD O O R S

H A S N OW I S H IT—TO M A K E

FIGURE,

AGAINST

" H I S K I N D " ;

T OC A P I T A L I Z E

UNLIKE

HIMSELF,

N A I P A U L ,

O N H I SM A R G I N A L I T Y ,

B U T

O T H E R S R E C O G N I Z E A N DA C C E P T H I S P R E S E N C E :

Black people have always been present in a E u r o p e that has chosen e i t h e r n o tt o see u s ,o r t o j u d g e u s a s a n insignificant temporary,

b u t dismissible,

mistake.

I looked

minority, o r asa

d o w n

at the G r a n d

C a n a l a n dr e a l i z e d t h a t o u r p e r m a n e n c e i n E u r o p e n o l o n g e r upon

white

European

tolerance,

b u t made

a much

more

relied radical

d e m a n d . E u r o p e m u s t b e g i n t o r e s t r u c t u r e t h e t i s s u e o f lies t h a t

con

tinues t o b e taught a n ddigested at school a n dat h o m e f o rw e ,

black

people, a r ea n inextricable peans

must

learn

part

o f this small continent.

A n d Euro

t o u n d e r s t a n d this f o r themselves, f o r there a r e

a m o n g u s f e w w h o a r e h e r e a s m i s s i o n a r i e s . (128-29) L I K E

The European Tribe, A Small Place

CRUSADE AGAINST AS A BLACK

WHITE

RACISM.

U N L I K E

IS T A N T A M O U N T T O A M O R A L

PHILLIPS,

LLRILON R E M A I N S E Q U I V O C A L , K I N C A I D

THOUGH, WHOSE IMMEDIATELY

POSITION

TAKES U P T H E

C U D G E L S O N B E H A L F O F T H E D I S P O S S E S S E D . O R S O IT A P P E A R S A T F I R S T F R O M T H E

AM'KW U M I M i o

'.1

STINGING

RHETORIC

O FACCUSATION

THAT

FLINGS I N THE FACES O F H E R "TOURISTIC" DRAWN,

KINCAID,

A SA NATIVE

A N T I G U A N ,

READERS. T H E BATTLE LINES ARE CLEARLY

A N D THERE CAN B EN OD O U B T AST OKINCAID'S

SIDE:

T H A T T H E N A T I V E D O E S N O T LIKE T H E TOURIST ISN O T H A R D T O E X P L A I N . F O R E V E R Y N A T I V E O F E V E R Y P L A C E IS A P O T E N T I A L TOURIST, A N D E V E R Y TOURIST IS A NATIVE

O FSOMEWHERE. EVERY

WHELMING

N A T I V E E V E R Y W H E R E LIVES A LIFE O F O V E R

A N D CRUSHING BANALITY A N D B O R E D O M A N D DESPERATIONA N D

DEPRESSION, A N DEVERY DEED, G O O D A N DBAD, IS A N ATTEMPT TO FORGET T H I S . E V E R Y N A T I V E W O U L D L I K E T O FIND A W A Y O U T , E V E R Y N A T I V E LIKE T O TAKE A TOUR. B U T S O M E N A T I V E S — M O S T C A N N O T G OA N Y W H E R E . T H E Y A R E T O O P O O R . S O M U C H

FOR ROMANTIC

MYTHS

NATIVES I NTHE

WOULD WORLD—

(18)

O F THE (CARIBBEAN)

N O B L E SAVAGE,

WHICH,

AS K I N C A I D RIGHTLY POINTS O U T , A R E PART O F T H E R A C I S M T H E Y D E N Y . B U T T H E STRENGTH

O FK I N C A I D ' S

ANTITOURIST—IS M A T E , VISITOR. PHILLIPS,

ANTIWHITE,

V E H E M E N T L Y

B Y H E R O W N STATUS AS A RETURNING, I F INTI

( K I N C A I D C U R R E N T L Y LIVES I NT H E U N I T E D S T A T E S , W H E R E ,

S H E M A K E S

HER AT TIMES

P O S I T I O N — V E H E M E N T L Y

C O M P R O M I S E D

A LIVING

LAPSING INTO

TEACHING CREATIVE WRITING.) T H U S ,

NOSTALGIA FOR THE " O L D A N T I G U A , "

HER FELLOW A N T I G U A N S WITH WHAT LOOKS SUSPICIOUSLY I L O O K AT THIS P L A C E ( A N T I G U A ) ,

LIKE

W E FIND

O R VIEWING

LIKE CONDESCENSION:

I L O O K ATTHESE P E O P L E ( A N T I G U A N S ) ,

AND

I C A N N O T TELL W H E T H E R I W A S B R O U G H T U P B Y , A N D S O C O M E F R O M ,

CHIL

D R E N , E T E R N A L I N N O C E N T S , O R ARTISTS W H O H A V E N O T Y E T F O U N D E M I N E N C E I N A W O R L D T O O STUPID T O U N D E R S T A N D , O R LUNATICS W H OH A V E M A D E O W N LUNATIC A S Y L U M , O R A N EXQUISITE COMBINATION L I K E PHILLIPS,

O F ALL T H R E E .

THEIR (57)

K I N C A I D I SO C C A S I O N A L L Y T R A P P E D W I T H I N T H E S A M E

R O M A N

T I C C O N V E N T I O N S O F A G E N R E S H E O T H E R W I S E D E R O M A N T I C I Z E S , S T R I P S O F ITS U M P H A L TIVES

MYTHS.

SUCH

CONCERNED

PHILLIPS'S

A N DK I N C A I D ' S TRAVEL WRITING O P P O S E S

A S N E W B Y ' S

O R O ' H A N L O N ' S ,

WITH D O C U M E N T I N G

WHICH

NARRA

A R E ARGUABLY

LESS

T H E ACTUAL P L A C E S THEIR WRITERS VISIT

THAN

WITH SETTING U P A P L A Y G R O U N D FOR THE ACTING OUT O F THEIR O W N , READERS', PRIVATE FANTASIES.

The European

Tribe

A N D

A N DTHEIR

A Small Place

SOCIOLOGICAL I N THEIR O R I E N T A T I O N , H I G H L Y POLITICIZED I NTHEIR I M P A C T , A B O V E ALL, D E E P L Y C O M M I T T E D

TRI

ARE AND,

T OT H E DRIVE FOR SOCIAL C H A N G E . Y E T T H E Y A R E

ALSO TRAVEL NARRATIVES, I F P O S T C O L O N I A L I NTHEIR P E R S U A S I O N , A N DA S S U C H THEY

REMAIN

COMPLICIT

WITH

T H E TOURISM

THEY

D E N O U N C E .

E S S A Y , F O R E X A M P L E , I SI T S E L F A R G U A B L Y T H E P R O D U C T O F A T O U R I S T I C

KINCAID'S SENSIBIL

racist M O T I V A T I O N , B U T IT A L S O D E R I V E S F R O M A G E N R E T H A T traditionally S E E S itself as A N L I T O U R I S T I C . P H I L L I P S A N D K I N C A I D b o t h s h o w t h e ad van I ages O F A certain k i n d O F T R A V E L W R I T I N G I T Y ; ITS R H E T O R I C O F B L A M E H A S A N A N T I

yi

l O U t U S I S W i l l i T V I'll W W I l | Wt

O N E

THAT

RESISTS,

RATHER THAN

PANDERS

T O , T H EESCAPIST

READERS, A N D THAT INTERROGATES, RATHER THAN ACCRUE TO T H E TRAVELER-WRITER—WHILE HINTING, DICTIONS

INSCRIBED

WITHIN

A GENRE

VERY E C O N O M I C FORCES THAT M A K E T H E

LIMITS

NARRATIVE

O N C E AGAIN, AT THE

SETS ITSELF I N O P P O S I T I O N

SEEKS

Jaguar Smile (1987).

document

TO

O FITS

T OT H E

D E M O N S T R A T E D I N A TRAVEL

RESISTANCE:

S A L M A N

RUSHDIE'S

A S A G U E S T O FT H E S A N D I N I S T A A S S O C I A T I O N

O F C U L ARTISTS,

M U S I C I A N S , C R A F T S P E O P L E , D A N C E R S A N D S O O N ,U N D E R T H E S A M E R O O F I N PHILLIPS'S

CLEARLY

WITH

The

T H E B O O K IS T H E RESULT O F R U S H D I E ' S T H R E E - W E E K TRIP

I N 1986

TURAL W O R K E R S , A N U M B R E L L A O R G A N I Z A T I O N " T H A T B R O U G H T WRITERS,

A S

THAT

CONTRA

IT P O S S I B L E .

O F RESISTANCE A R EALSO A M P L Y

THAT

TO N I C A R A G U A

THAT

FANTASIES

ASSERTS, T H EPRIVILEGES

A N D KINCAID'S

T H E U N D E R D O G :

NARRATIVES,

T H E B O O K

RUSHDIE'S

IS A TRIBUTE

SYMPATHIES

(12). LIE

T O T H E SPIRIT O F

E N D U R A N C E I N W H I C H A N O P P R E S S E D A N DM A R G I N A L I Z E D P E O P L E C O N T I N U E T O RESIST T H E I R S T R O N G E R F O E . T H EE N E M Y I SW I T H I N , I N T H E S H A P E O FT H E ING C O N T R A FORCES, B U T ITISS U P P O R T E D F R O M WITHOUT A N T I - C O M M U N I S T U N I T E D STATES. T H E S C E N E IS A F A M I L I A R COLONIALISM, F O R — O F T E N

A N D I T I S S K E T C H E D B YR U S H D I E C O M I C — D E T A I L

A N D A POLITICAL

WITH

LURK

B Y A NEUROTICALLY O N E O FU . S .

N E O

A TRAVEL WRITER'S E Y E

JOURNALIST'S

E A R F O R CONTRO

V E R S Y A N D S E N S A T I O N A L I S T D E B A T E . T H I S M I X T U R E O FC O M I C T R A V E L O G U E A N D H Y P E R B O L I C POLITICAL C O M M E N T A R Y

R U N S T H E RISK O FTRIVIALIZING

THE OBJECT

O F ITS O S T E N S I B L Y " S E R I O U S " S T U D Y . R U S H D I E C L E A R L Y S I D E S W I T H T H E

SANDIN

ISTAS, AFFILIATING H I M S E L F W I T H THEIR STRUGGLE: W h e n the R e a g a n administration

b e g a n its w a r against N i c a r a g u a , I

recognized a deeper affinity with that

small

country

in a

continent

( C e n t r a l A m e r i c a ) u p o n w h i c h I h a d n e v e r set f o o t . I g r e w d a i l y interested

successful revolt against a great p o w e r , m yconsciousness the of the triumph those

more

i n its affairs, b e c a u s e , after all, I w a s m y s e l f the child o f a

o fthe Indian revolution.

product

It w a s perhaps also true

o f u s w h od i d n o t h a v e o u r origins

in t h e countries

mighty West, o r North, had something in c o m m o n — n o t ,

that

o fthe

certainly,

a n y t h i n g a s simplistic asa unified " t h i r d w o r l d " o u t l o o k , b u ta t least s o m e k n o w l e d g e o f w h a t w e a k n e s s w a s like, s o m e a w a r e n e s s o ft h e v i e w f r o m u n d e r n e a t h , a n d o f h o w it f e l t t o b e t h e r e , o n t h e b o t t o m , looking

u p at the descending

heel.

I

became

a

sponsor

o f the

N i c a r a g u a Solidarity C a m p a i g n in L o n d o n . I m e n t i o n this t o declare an

interest;

wholly

when

[

finally

visited

Nicaragua . . .

n e u t r a l o b s e r v e r . 1 w a s n o ta b l a n k slate.

I did n o t g o as a

(12)

R u s h d i e ' s ties t o N i c a r a g u a t u r n o u t , h o w e v e r , t o b e m o r e c o m p l e x . L o r o n e t h i n g , h e is n g u e s t a n d is t r e a t e d as s u c h w i t h g r a c e a n d c o u r -

A t 1 I:K I'.Mi'iKi'

Y \

TESY, M I X I N G (MOSTLY) A N D

WITH CELEBRITIES A N D THE C O S M O P O L I T A N

FOR A N O T H E R , HIS

MENTARY,

NARRATIVE,

ISC O N T E N T TO R E M A I N

AT T H E LEVEL

LITERARY SET.

TRAVELER'S TALE THAN

FOR THE MOST

SOCIAL

N I C A R A G U A

C O M M E N T ,

ALSO CONTAINS

" T H E

LEADERS (INCLUDING

ASIDES,

FOR INSTANCE, THAT THE " B E A U T Y "

BEAST"

D A N I E L

C O M

PART (AS TRAVELER'S TALES WILL)

O F SURFACES: H E N C E T H E SURFEIT O F A N E C D O T E S , J O K I N G

A N D FOLKSY A P H O R I S M S — H I S

POLITICAL

M O R E

A L O N G S I D E

(90).

INTERVIEWS

O R T E G A A N D HIS F O R E I G N M I N I S T E R )

A CLUTCH O F JOCULAR REFERENCES TO P O P U L A R E U R O P E A N A N D

O F

WITH ARE

A M E R I C A N

CAR

TOONS: THE P O E T E R N E S T O C A R D E N A L IS DESCRIBED AS A " G A R R Y T R U D E A U

CAR

TOON

(43);

O F HIMSELF:

THE RADICAL

A N D AT O N E P O I N T R U S H D I E ,

PRIEST

C O M P A R I N G

THE ANCIENT G A U L S I NTHE F A M O U S U D E R Z O , "

Smile, CAN

NICARAGUA'S

ITSELF B E

C O M P A R E D

G A U L :

NARRATIVE—A TO

THEREBY ROBBING

WRITER'S O W N ENTHUSIASM

VIEW

ILLUSTRATES

POLITICAL

IT ALSO

RAISES

POSITION.

NICARAGUA, CHARGE,"

O F THE

FOR ADULTS,

W H E R E

E N D E M I C

INVESTIGATIVE

H E

WRITER":

A SD O

W H O S E THIS

T OTHE

JOURNALIST

THE H O N O R E D

PHILLIPS

ROLE INCLUDES

A N D

IS NOT

ONLY

" O N

T O A N OPPRESSIVE VIEW

O N T H E RIGHTS,

M A N Y ,

CRITICAL C H U M M Y

LITERARY

A SH E

GUEST. H

E

O F

ANTAGONIST

READILY

ADMITS, I N

SIDE W H O ,

A STHE

P E O P L E I N

ALMOST

WITHOUT

T H E WRITER'S

CAPACITY

INTELLECTUAL

R U S H D I E

NOT

1

SHIES

T H U S ,

, I

POWER:

O F THE OPPOSITIONAL

A W A Y

IS CONTAINED

F R O M

THIS

WRITER—A

THE IDEA

UPSETS

I N

VIEW

RUSHDIE'S APPARENTLY

O F THE INDIVIDUAL. O F THE WRITER

U N D E R

A SA

I D E A O F T H E WRITER AS A "LITERARY M I G R A N T "

LEAST B E C A U S E

WORLDS. '

OUTSIDE

NOT O F THE COLLECTIVE BUT

I D E O L O G U E ; Y E T HIS O W N SUSPECT,

THE

K I N C A I D , A SA " W R I T E R I N

WRITERS

"DISSIDENT"

SERI

A S T O THE

WITHIN A LARGER HISTORY O F RESISTANCE. R E S I S T A N C E IS E M B O D I E D

STATE

STANDABLY,

A N D

THE S A M E

B Y OTHER

FREE-THINKING

LARGELY ROMANTIC BASED

DISCOURSE, MORAL

GENRE,

" T H E FUNCTION

ROLE IS M O D I F I E D ,

IS SURROUNDED

A S A

N I C A R A G U A

M O C K I N G

THE EFFECTIVENESS O F TRAVEL WRITING A SA

E X C E P T I O N , S U P P O R T T H E E X I S T I N G G O V E R N M E N T (70). RESIST

B E H I N D

BUT

T O U N D E R C U T ALL F O R M S O F P U B L I C

"INVITED

Y E T

(70).

BUT

POLITICAL

R U S H D I E ISS E E M I N G L Y C A U G H T B E T W E E N T H E

A WRITER

THE STATE"

INTENDED

DOUBTS,

CLEARLY LIKES TO SEE HIMSELF, OPPOSITION,"

THE

S P E E C H O F ITS P R E T E N S I O N S T O H I G H

O F THE PART-TIME

C O M P L A C E N C Y

THE

Jaguar LIMERICK,

NOVELS, THERE ISA STRATEGIC INFANTILISM

CHILD'S-EYE

B O O K

O U S N E S S — B U T

ITINCORPORATES:

O F A N D

TRUTH.)

RUSHDIE'S

in

B Y G O S C I N N Y

(163). (The

SANDINIX"

TO THE G E N R E THAT

POLITICAL V E H I C L E — I T S CAPACITY

TO

STRUGGLE TO "THAT

F R E N C H COMIC-BOOKS

LIKENS O R T E G A TO " AN E W

ADULT CLAIMS

TO

T O' D O O N E S B U R Y ' "

W H I C H T A K E S ITS T I T L E A P P R O P R I A T E L Y F R O M A N A N O N Y M O U S

C A R T O O N . A SI N R U S H D I E ' S THE

ACCORDING

IT S E E M S

TO A L L O W

I N(HE EPILOGUE

11

H1111

••:

H I M

THE

BEST

of

PARTY IS ALSO

BOTH,

t o The Jaguar Smile, W C L L T U L

1:. " 1 1 1 1 n i ' i ^ 1 1 1 1 1 i r

OR HIM

SWAPPING

STORIES W I T H A N O T H E R AFFLUENT M I G R A N T ,

A N I C A R A G U A N

W O M A N

RETURNING H O M E TOF R A N C E AFTER ATTENDING HER MOTHER'S FUNERAL. BOTH O F THEM

SYMPATHIZE

TIONS.

WITH

(PROPHETICALLY

RUSHDIE'S

We

T H ESANDINISTAS, PERHAPS,

PRESS

WITH A F E W PERTINENT CENSORSHIP

RESERVA

IS T H E HIGHEST O N

LIST.) A F T E R T A L K I N G O N T H E P L A N E ,

parted

in

Madrid,

a n d returned

t o o u r separate

lives, t w o

m i g r a n t s m a k i n g o u r w a y in this W e s t stuffed w i t h m o n e y , p o w e r

and

things, this N o r t h t h a t t a u g h t u s h o w t o see f r o m its p r i v i l e g e d

point

of v i e w . B u t m a y b e w e w e r e t h el u c k y o n e s ; w e k n e w that o t h e r spectives existed. W eh a d seen the v i e w f r o m elsewhere.

UNLIKE N O N E

N A I P A U L — O R ,

O F T H EDISADVANTAGES

OTHER WORK, H E

I N A DIFFERENT CONTEXT,

CO-OPTS

O F MIGRATION

THESE DISADVANTAGES MIGRATION

INTO

P H I L L I P S — R U S H D I E

(ALTHOUGH

T O B EF A I R ,

A R ES H O W N I N A B U N D A N C E ) .

HIS O W N HYBRID

per

(170)

AESTHETICS,

2

2

SEES I NHIS

INSTEAD,

WHICH,

E X P L A I N S THREE Y E A R S L A T E R I N A R E S P O N S E T O T H EF A T E D P U B L I C A T I O N

A S H E O F

The

Satanic Verses, " R E J O I C E S I N M O N G R E L I Z A T I O N A N D F E A R S T H E A B S O L U T I S M O F P U R E . Melange, H O T C H P O T C H , A B I T O F T H I S A N D A B I T O F T H A T I S H O W newness enters the world. I T I S T H E G R E A T P O S S I B I L I T Y T H A T M A S S M I G R A T I O N G I V E S T O T H E W O R L D , A N D I H A V E T R I E D T O E M B R A C E I T " (Imaginary Home lands 394). M I G R A T I O N A F F O R D S T H E P R I V I L E G E O F A M U L T I P L E P E R S P E C T I V E THE

BUT

T H E N S O T O OD O E S T R A V E L I N ITS M O S T

MIGRANTS,

O F C O U R S E , A R EA L W A Y S

O F T W O ( O RMORE) CULTURES THAN H O W E V E R MUCH INFORMATION RARY S O J O U R N S O R TRIPS. DISCOURSE QUENTLY

A DEEPER

FOR VACATIONING

O FMIGRATION,

IN

AVAILABLE TOTHE COSMOPOLITAN

STILL, M I G R A T I O N

A N D HIS A M B I V A L E N T

NICARAGUA.

CONTINUES

F O R

ELITE. ( O B V I O U S L Y ,

FRE

RUSHDIE,

LESS

OBVIOUSLY

S I 11 N E E I S T A K E N

RESIDES

SUCH

I N SHORT SUPPLY.

LUX M O R E

NEED.)

MIGRANT-ORIENTED

STATUS A S A N " O P P O S I T I O N A L "

A

AES

TRAVELER-WRITER

IN T H E WRITER'S

A RHETORIC THAI ALLOWS

T O GIVE H I M SERVICE,

S E A R C H O FA S O L I D A R I T Y A

2 3

IS D R I V E N A B O V E ALL ELSE B Y E C O N O M I C

A N D THIS C O N N E C T I O N

R H E T O R I C O FD I S P L A C E M E N T THAT

T E M P O

LIKE T H E W I D E R

S E E M S T O P R E S U P P O S E A L U X U R Y O FPERSPECTIVE A N DA F R E E D O M

C O N N E C T I O N A P P A R E N T L Y EXISTS B E T W E E N R U S H D I E ' S THETICS

TRAVELERS,

A PART, I S R I V E N B Y ITS O W N CONTRADICTIONS.

A N D F R E E D O M S — H O W E V E R H A R D - W O N — A R E

OBVIOUSLY

SENSE.

UNDERSTANDING

THESE LATTER M I G H T G L E A N F R O M THEIR

Y E TT H EDISCOURSE

O F T R A V E L O FW H I C H IT F O R M S

O F M O V E M E N T URIES

ISATTAINABLE

U N A C K N O W L E D G E D — I N T E R N A L

MIGRATION

G E N E R O U S , CROSS-CULTURAL

LIKELY TO GAIN

UTOPIAN

H I M T O RESIST T H E S T A L E

A N D L OM O V E

ABOUT

T H EWORLD

IN

O F( H E O P P R E S S E D . "OPPOSITIONAL,"

B U TN O N E L H E L E S S

U P B Y T W OCONTEMPORARY

A l l I'M I ' M I ' l l i I

linvrl

UNORLHODOX.

wi ITERS, A L S O O F I N D I A N

BACKGROUND:

A M I T A V G H O S H

Land (1992)

IS, A S ITS SUBTITLE

A N D V I K R A M EXPLAINS,

ELER'S T A L E " : IT U S E S T R A V E L A S A B R I D G I N G TEMPORARY

NARRATIVE

O F G H O S H ' S

E G Y P T WITH H I S HISTORICAL M I D D L E

(1983) STUDIES

A TN A N J I N G

TIBET,

M E T A P H O R TOINTERWEAVE THE

CON

ANTHROPOLOGICAL

RESEARCH

I N RURAL

O FT H E LIFE STORY, O F A

MEDIEVAL

B E N YIJU.

From Heaven

SETH'S

TROUBLED PASSAGE, WHILE

UNIVERSITY

I N C H I N A ,

A N DN E P A L O N H I S W A Y B A C K

CLEARLY

A NADAPTABLE

SCHOLARS GUAGES ABOUT A N D

TRAV

IS, I N A P P E A R A N C E AT LEAST, A M O R E C O N V E N T I O N A L

RELATING T H ESTORY O FSETH'S

F R O M

ACCOMPLISHED

THOSE COUNTRIES'

CULTURAL

HISTORY.

THE MAJORITY

H O M E

A N D ENTERPRISING

O FTHE COUNTRIES

I N D I A N

In an Antique

I N THE GUISE O F A

RECONSTRUCTION

EASTERN TRADER, A B R A H A M

SETH. G H O S H ' S

"HISTORY

TRAVEL

NARRATIVE,

O N LEAVE F R O M HIS

THROUGH

NORTHWEST

W H A T

TRAVELER: BOTH

FAMILIES,

SOCIAL

SEPARATES

O FC O N T E M P O R A R Y

C H I N A ,

TO D E L H I . SETH, LIKE G H O S H , IS

WELL

M E N A R E GIFTED

VERSED I N T H E LAN

T H R O U G H W H I C H T H E Y TRAVEL A N DWELL RESPECTIVE

Lake

CUSTOMS,

SETH

A N DG H O S H ,

TRAVELER-WRITERS

INFORMED

RELIGIOUS

PRACTICES,

THOUGH,

F R O M

IST H EPERSPECTIVE

THAT

T H E Y B R I N G F R O M A HISTORICALLY S U B J U G A T E D CULTURE. T H U S , G H O S H IS INTRO D U C E D TOA FAMILY I N THE VILLAGE O F N A S H A W Y

B Y HISFELLOW SCHOLAR

U S T A Z

SABRY AS a

to Egypt

to d o

research. I Tw a s their d u t y t o w e l c o m e m e [ G h o s h ] into their

student

midst

and

from

India

. . .

a guest w h o h a d c o m e

m a k e m efeel a t h o m e b e c a u s e o f t h e l o n g t r a d i t i o n s o f f r i e n d s h i p

b e t w e e n India a n d E g y p t . O u r countries were v e r y similar, f o r India, like E g y p t , w a s largely A N a g r i c u l t u r a l n a t i o n , a n d the m a j o r i t y o fits p e o p l e lived I N villages, their

like t h e E g y p t i a n fellaheen, a n d p l o u g h e d

l a n d w i t h cattle. O u r countries

ransacked b y imperialists, similar had SETH,

were poor, f o r they h a d been

a n dn o wthey were both

trying,

I N very

w a y s , t o c o p e w i t h p o v e r t y a n dall t h e other p r o b l e m s

b e e n b e q u e a t h e d t o t h e m b y their t r o u b l e d histories.

I NCONTRAST,

M U S T

NEGOTIATE A HISTORY

O FMUTUAL

that

(134) IGNORANCE A N D

CONFLICT: If I n d i a a n d C h i n a were amicable t o w a r d s each other, almost half the w o r l d w o u l d b e a t peace. Y e t f r i e n d s h i p rests o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g ; a n d the t w ocountries, despite their contiguity,

have had almost n o con

tact i n t h e course o f history. . . . [ N ] e i t h e r s t r o n g e c o n o m i c nor

thenatural

affinities o f a c o m m o n culture

interest

tie I n d i a a n d C h i n a

t o g e t h e r . (177-78) C O N C E D I N G NATIONS'

THAT

TIME

A N D PATIENCE

BORDER PROBLEMS,

Mi

WILL

SETH CONCLUDES

I o i . m t s I '1 W 1 I I I

B EN E E D E D THAT

rvniWHI'l

II

T OSOLVE

T H ET W O

t o l e a r n [ o na p e r s o n a l level] a b o u t a n o t h e r g r e a t c u l t u r e is t o e n r i c h o n e ' s life, t o u n d e r s t a n d o n e ' s o w nc o u n t r y better, t o feel m o r e a t h o m e i n t h ew o r l d , a n d indirectly

t o a d dt o t h a t r e s e r v o i r o f i n d i v i d

u a l g o o d w i l l t h a t m a y , g e n e r a t i o n s f r o m n o w , t e m p e r t h ec y n i c a l of national power. G O O D W I L L

IS CLEARLY

A

BELIEVE I N ; B U T UNLIKE N O W

I M P O V E R I S H E D

QUALITY

THAT

G H O S H ,

A S WELL,

W O U L D

LIKE T O

S E T H , H E RELATES ITFURTHER T O T W O O N C E RICH B U T

COUNTRIES

" A C C O M M O D A T I O N

use

(178)

(INDIA

A N D E G Y P T ) ,

A N D C O M P R O M I S E " — B A S E D

R E S P E C T — H A V E HISTORICALLY

M A D E

W H O S E

CULTURES O F

O NM U T U A L

TRUST

A N D

T H E M VULNERABLE TO THE AGGRESSION O F

THE E U R O P E A N IMPERIAL POWERS.

I NTHIS C O N T E X T , G H O S H ' S FINELY CRAFTED

RECONSTRUCTION O FTHE M E D I E V A L

HISTORY O FTHE I N D I A N O C E A N

REGION LINKED GIOUS

B Y C O M M E R C E

A N DT H E CROSS-FERTILIZATION

C U L T U R E S — E M E R G E S A SA C O U N T E R N A R R A T I V E

TORICAL

RECORD: A RECORD M A R K E D

RELI

T O T H EE U R O P E A N

HIS

B Y VIOLENT C O N Q U E S T , T H E WILL T O C O N

TROL L A N D A N D R E S O U R C E S , A N D A U S EO FM I L I T A R Y P E R S O N A L A N DC O L L E C T I V E

R E G I O N — A

O FA N C I E N T

F O R C E I N T H ES E R V I C E O F

GREED.

G H O S H , H O W E V E R , LIKE SETH, TAKES CARE N O T T OPRESENT I N D I A AS A M E R E HISTORICAL ISON

W E I G H E D THE

VICTIM. I N

From Heaven Lake,

O FM O D E R N - D A Y

INDIA

I NF A V O R O FT H E M O R E

ADVANTAGES

BROUGHT

CORUSCATING

ATTACK

COMPARISON

"DEMOCRATIC"

ABOUT

B Y STATE

TAKES O NH I S TRAVELS A C O P Y O F N A I P A U L ' S A

THIS ENTAILS T H E CAREFUL

A N D C H I N A — A

WHILE

NONETHELESS

SHOWS

(SIGNIFICANTLY,

SETH

NATION,

CONTROL.

India: A Wounded

O NT H E " D E G E N E R A T I O N "

C O M P A R

THAT,

O F INDIAN

Civilization: CULTURE

WITH

W H O S E T H E S I S H E C A N N O T A G R E E , B U T A B O O K T H A T STILL I M P R E S S E S H I M W I T H I T S GREAT PASSION G H O S H — A N

A N D RHETORICAL FORCE.) M E A N W H I L E ,

INFORMANT:

In an Antique

INEXPERIENCED ANTHROPOLOGIST, M O R E AT H O M E

THAN I N THE FIELD—IS M A D E MEDICINE.

I N

I N A KIND

O FREVERSE ETHNOGRAPHY,

A RESPONDENT

ABOUT HISH I N D U

I NT H E

T O T A K E A D O S E O F H I S O W N( C U L T U R A L L Y )

T OOTHERS'

G H O S H

ANNOYINGLY

HIMSELF

PERSISTENT

CULTURE A N D , M O R E PARTICULARLY, A B O U T ITS—TO

M U S L I M E Y E S — " B A R B A R I C "

RELIGIOUS PRACTICES.

I NA TETCHY,

CALLY SELF-DEPRECATING E X C H A N G E WITH THE VILLAGE I M A M , T H E LATTER'S ATTACK

O N INDIA

A SA " B A C K W A R D "

Land, ARCHIVE

RELATIVIST B E C O M E S QUESTIONS E G Y P T I A N

CHARACTERISTI

G H O S H FENDS OFF

CIVILIZATION B Y

APPEALING

IRONICALLY T O INDIA'S SUPERIOR MILITARY TECHNOLOGY:

"In m y country ... w ehave guns and tanks a n d b o m b s . A n d they're better t h a n a n y t h i n g y o u ' v e g o t in F g y p t you."

...

"I tell y o u , h e ' s l y i n y , " c r i e d

we're a long w a y ahead o f the

Imam,

his voice rising in

liny. " O u r g u n s a n d b o m b s are m u c h bettor t h a n theirs. O u r s are sec-

AI "I IHU KM I'll!

1

O N D O N L Y TO THE W E S T ' S . " TWO

. . . T H E I M A M

S U P E R S E D E D CIVILIZATIONS,

VYING

A N D I [WERE] DELEGATES F R O M

WITH EACH

OTHER TO ESTABLISH

PRIOR CLAIM TO THE T E C H N O L O G Y O F M O D E R N VIOLENCE. . . . [D]ESPITE

A THE

VAST G A P THAT LAY B E T W E E N US, W E U N D E R S T O O D E A C H OTHER PERFECTLY. WERE

TRAVELLING, H E A N D

I:

WE

T H E

O N L Y DIFFERENCE WAS THAT I H A D B E E N THERE IN P E R S O N : I C O U L D H A V E

TOLD

A G R E A T D E A L A B O U T I T , S E E N A T FIRST H A N D , I T S L I B R A R I E S , I T S

ITS T H E A T R E S , B U T IT W O U L D N ' T BOTH

HAVE MATTERED. W E

O F U S , T H A T ALL T H A T W A S

MILLIONS

MERE

FLUFF:

G H O S H ' S

WOULD

HAVE

AND ONLY

B O O K

ATTEMPTS

O F DESTRUCTION

WITH

A N D

CHALLENGE TO THE FAMILIAR THE W E S T

PHYSICAL

S O M E

SUCCESS

A N D

KIND

A S ITS F R A M E M E N T A L

INTERNATIONAL

(235-36)

TO SET U P

REALPOLITIK.

O F NEOIMPERIALIST

O F REFERENCE,

CONQUEST.

RHETORIC O F R A P P R O C H E M E N T

A N

Y E T

TACITLY

HIS

ESTS O F T H O S E W H O

H A V E

OR WANT

IT. A N D

THIS M A S T E R

IT

ALSO

SUPPORTS

G H O S H

SURROUNDING

ALTERNATIVE— DIA

M O U N T S

TRAVEL WRITING THAT,

IS

A N

WELL

O W N ,

TIC, I D E A O F T R A V E L T E N D S T O O C C L U D E T H E W O R K I N G S

M E A N S

KNOWN,

O F P E O P L E O N T H E L A N D M A S S E S A R O U N D US, T H E W E S T M E A N T

B A S E D O N A HISTORY O F FRIENDSHIP A N D N O N A L I G N M E N T — T O LOGUE

MUSEUMS,

IN T H E E N D , FOR MILLIONS

THIS—SCIENCE A N D TANKS A N D GUNS A N D BOMBS.

ING

W E

W E R E TRAVELLING IN T H E W E S T .

HIM

BOTH

I D E O L O G Y

AWARE

THAT

ESSENTIALLY

O F EFFECTING TRADE B E T W E E N DIFFERENT REGIONS A N D

O F THE

H U M A N I S

O F P O W E R A N D THE

THIS A P P L I E S B O T H

A

TAK

INTER

TO TRAVEL AS AS A

A

M E T A P H O R

FOR THE PROCESS B Y W H I C H K N O W L E D G E CAN B E RELOCATED IN TIME A N D

SPACE.

H E N C E

TO

HIS

CAN

B E

G H O S H ' S

EMPHASIS

O N

ARCHIVAL

RESEARCH

AS

A

COROLLARY

A N T H R O P O L O G Y : A STUDY N O T O N L Y O F THE W A Y S IN W H I C H D O C U M E N T S U S E D

TO (RE)DEFINE CULTURAL HISTORY

E D G E

M O V E S

A N D ,

THROUGH

THAT

BUT

O F THE M A N N E R

M O V E M E N T ,

IS

IN W H I C H

KNOWL

TRANSFORMED.

E D W A R D

S A I D ' S A C C O U N T O F T H E W A Y S I N W H I C H " T H E O R Y " T R A V E L S IS U S E F U L

HERE.

L I K E P E O P L E A N D SCHOOLS O F CRITICISM, IDEAS A N D THEORIES T R A V E L — F R O M PERSON

TO P E R S O N , F R O M

SITUATION

ANOTHER. . . . SUCH M O V E M E N T

TO SITUATION,

FROM

ONE PERIOD

I N T O A N E W E N V I R O N M E N T IS N E V E R

P E D E D . IT N E C E S S A R I L Y I N V O L V E S P R O C E S S E S O F R E P R E S E N T A T I O N A N D T I O N A L I Z A T I O N D I F F E R E N T F R O M T H O S E AT T H E P O I N T O F O R I G I N .

T H E O R Y " 226) O N E SIS:

THE

INSTITU

("TRAVELING

24

RECOGNIZES THE BASIS HERE FOR SAID'S INFLUENTIAL THAT

" O R I E N T , "

AS

IT E M E R G E D

OTHER (EASTERN) REGIONS A N D

AS

A

B O D Y

CULTURES, INVOLVED

" O R I E N T A L I S M "

O F K N O W L E D G E

IMPERIAL

2

5

ORIENTALISM

GOES H A N D

IN

H A N D

WITH WHAT

" I M A G I N A T I V E G E O G R A P H Y " : IT R E D I S T R I B U T E S

TO S E R V E T H E N E E D S O F A D O M I N A N T

i ' 1 1 1 1 1 is I'M

1 u

1 wn|

11

AUTHOR

SAID

K N O W L E D G E IN

CULTURE."' G H O S H ' S

w i i n

THE A B O U T

TECHNIQUES O F REPRESEN

TATION THAT W E R E D E S I G N E D TO ASSERT O R R E C O N F I R M THE INTELLECTUAL ITY O F T H E W E S T .

TO

UNIM

v

NNMILIVE,

CALLS SPACE

IN

THIS

SENSE,

FULFILLS A " C O U N T E R - O R I E N T A L I S T "

TELLS—INCLUDING M I D D L E

THE CIRCULATION

EASTERN/INDIAN

O C E A N

O F A RECUPERATIVE HISTORICAL

FUNCTION:

THE TRAVELS O F W H I C H IT

O F INFORMATION

A B O U T

R E G I O N — A R E F R A M E D

NARRATIVE:

POINT

O F ORIGIN

In an Antique Land,

TURES. T R A V E L WRITING, I N

TATION

THAT

E U R O P E A N

PREDATES

O FHISTORY

MEDIATES

( G H O S H ' S

A N D ,

I NTHE PROCESS, G H O S H

A B O V E

INTERVENTION:

ALL, ITINERANT

K N O W L E D G E THEY ACQUIRED BACK IF G H O S H , I N

B E T W E E N THE

T E M

A N T H R O P O L O G Y A

CAPITALIZED

THE D E M A N D S

IDEAS

O F WAR

SKETCHES A HISTORY

A HISTORY

MERCHANTS;

WAXES

COULD M O V E

M E D I MASTER

B Y PREO F TRAVEL

P E O P L E D B Y PILGRIMS,

A N D

O N E THAT

T OA N O N - E U R O P E A N

In an Antique Land,

GOODS, A N D

Heaven Lake, N O W

CUL

A N D A TRIBUTE T OA " L E G A C Y O F T R A N S I E N C E " E P I T O M I Z E D

(173).

PEOPLE,

Eastern

A N D THE SPATIAL R A N G E O F A N

POLITICS

COLONIAL TRADE

SCHOLARS,

CONTEXT

F O R M E R L Y C O L O N I Z E D C O U N T R I E S . T H E RESULT ISB O T H

O NT H E P O W E R

NARRATIVE)

THE

THE

THAT RESEARCH B A C K T O

A TTHE CONFLUENCE B E T W E E N INTERRELATED

PORAL REACH O F HISTORIOGRAPHY THAT LINKS TWO

WITHIN

WITHIN

O N E THAT, A L T H O U G H S U P P O R T E D I N

P A R T B Y R E S E A R C H D O N E I NW E S T E R N L I B R A R I E S , B R I N G S ITS

A N D

TRACES

THE

SOURCE.

NOSTALGIC FOR A TIME

RELATIVELY FREELY,

W H E N

U N I M P E D E D B Y

From

A N D THE INTRICACIES O F FOREIGN POLICY, S E T H , I N

R E C O G N I Z E S THAT SUCH H E A D Y D A Y S (IF T H E Y E V E R EXISTED)

OVER, A N D THAT M O D E R N - D A Y

T R A V E L E R S , L I K E I TO R N O T , M U S T L E A R N

ARE H O W

BEST TO NEGOTIATE BORDERS THAT ARE THE PRODUCTS O F O F T E N INVISIBLE LINES GEOPOLITICAL SUCH

FORCE. SETH

IS D R A W N

C O N T E S T E D O RM A R G I N A L

K N O W N

A M B I G U O U S L Y

" A U T O N O M O U S " TIBET.

PREDICTABLY,

AUTHORITIES, ERS' RIGHTS.

A S " T H E

B U T STILL

FINDS

XINJIANG,

J O U R N E Y T O PRECISELY

A NORTHWESTERN

N E W BORDERLAND,"

CLOSELY

SETH

I N H I SC H I N E S E

AREAS:

G U A R D E D

HIMSELF

TRAVEL,

A RUNNING BATTLE WITH

FOR SETH,

S E E M S

T OB EL E S S A C E L E B R A T I O N

A CONFRONTATION O F T H E POLITICAL

IN F R E E D O M ' S PATH. T H E DISPUTED

RELATIONS THAT

(178).

HAS

SETH

TRAVEL

O F

H U M A N PLACED

I N D I A - C H I N A B O R D E R ISO N E SUCH

INSUR

KEPT "THESE TWO REALIZES THAT

THE

A N D

OBSTACLES THAT ARE

M O U N T A B L E O B S T A C L E — T H E R E M I N D E R O F A FRAUGHT HISTORY O F

APART

COUNTRY O F

ARGUING ENDLESSLY O V E R ENTRY VISAS, EXIT PERMITS,

F R E E D O M THAN

PROVINCE

A N D T H E PARTLY

A N DS U P E R V I S E D

FIGHTING

O F

GREAT CULTURE Z O N E S "

HIS J O U R N E Y H O M E

(AN

INTERNATIONAL IRRECONCILABLY

UPHILL

STRUGGLE I N

M O R E W A Y S T H A N O N E ) I SO N L Y A S M A L L P E R S O N A L V I C T O R Y I NT H E F A C E O F C O N TINUING TIVE,

CULTURAL I G N O R A N C E A N D

PARTICULARLY

FRIENDSHIP NATIONS NOTE, CAUGHT

ARE

O V E R S H A D O W E D

OR WRENCH

WITH

THE

I N THE

ITSM O D E R N

T H E M

APART.

ATTEMPTED HYSTERIA

POLITICAL SECTIONS, B Y THE

DISTRUST. THE

A SI N G H O S H ' S

RECIPROCITIES

COLLECTIVE

FORCES THAT

In an Antique Land

E X O D U S

O FE G Y P T I A N

O F S A D D A M ' S

" H O L Y "

Al I i n I M I ' I K I

y )

BREAK U P

ENDS O N A

WORKERS

WAR.

NARRA

O F INDIVIDUAL

F R O M

PLAINTIVE A N IRAQ

From Heaven

Lake

ENDS WITH THE TRAVELER'S SUCCESSFUL NEGOTIATION O F A CUSTOMS

BARRIER AT T H E INTERNATIONAL

POSITION

O F THESE TWO

TICS

TO ARRIVE

G H O S H WATCHES

O F N E W

SETH,

THE

"FOREIGN

SAFELY H O M E ,

WHILE

GUEST,"

AS W A R

" B O R D E R " :

DELHI.

E N D I N G S AFFORDS A N INSTRUCTIVE

O F DISPLACEMENT:

DIFFICULTY

AIRPORT

FINAL

T H E

JUXTA

LESSON I NTHE IS ABLE

BREAKS

POLI

AFTER

M U C H

OUT I NTHE

G U L F ,

A N X I O U S L Y I NE G Y P T , AS T H E T E L E V I S I O N S C R E E N R E V E A L S

THOUSANDS A N D T H O U S A N D S O F M E N [ITINERANT E G Y P T I A N WORKERS IN ...

THE

IRAQ]

S O M E IN TROUSERS, S O M E IN JALLABEYYAS, S O M E CARRYING THEIR T V

SETS

O N T H E I R B A C K S , S O M E C R Y I N G O U T F O R A D R I N K O F W A T E R , S T R E T C H I N G ALL T H E WAY

FROM

THE HORIZON

T OT H E R E D

SEA,

T H O U G H WAITING FOR THE WATER TO PART.

G O O D W I L L , CAN

F O R ALL ITS

IT REPAIR

W O R L D S H A M

O F TIME

B E N

SEEKING B E H I N D THAT

Y I J U ,

THE A N D

WILL

O W N

ALLOW

ON

HIS

ALLEVIATE E C O N O M I C

SCHISMS

B E T W E E N

DESCENDANTS,

H O M E .

IMPULSE

TRAVEL

G H O S H ,

H I M — O T H E R S

M A Y

F R O M HIS

NARRATIVES

LIKE

SETH,

NOT

RECOGNIZES

THE CHANGING

THAT

CHALLENGE ETHNOCENTRIC

DISCERNIBLE

GLOMERATE: THE I N D I A N SUBCONTINENT. (OR,

BETTER, DE-WESTERNIZES)

AID

TRADE BLOC W H O S E

O F CAREFUL HISTORICAL

N O M I C SETH,

N O R CULTURAL "THAT

THEY

THE

W E S T E R N

THESE CONNECTIONS,

VIEWS

O F A

G E O P O C O N

D E M Y T H O L O G I Z E S

RELOCATING T H E M

I N A N

ARE RETRACED WITH

THE

LESS S A N G U I N E A B O U T

THE

U N I O N . A F T E R ALL, T H E R E A R E N E I T H E R S T R O N G

LINKS B E T W E E N PART

INDIA

A N D

C H I N A :

O F THE S A M E

" T H E

LANDMASS

ECO

FACT,"

M E A N S O F

SAYS

NEXT T O THINKING"

CONSTRUCT,

M O R E

FANTASY THAN O F I N D I G E N O U S CULTURAL CONTACT.

AS P I C O I Y E R S H O W S IN HIS CLEVERLY O B S E R V E D TRAVEL NARRATIVE

(1988),

FINAL

LINKS WITH ANOTHER EASTERN

" A S I A , " L I K E " T H E E A S T , " IS O F C O U R S E A M Y T H I C I Z E D

in Kathmandu

THE

COUNTER-ORIENTAL

G H O S H ' S NARRATIVE

R E S E A R C H . S E T H I SM U C H

ARE BOTH

A PRODUCT O F IMPORTED

FORTUNE

CROSS

N O T H I N G . T H E R E IS N O S U C H T H I N G A S A N A S I A N E T H O S O R M O D E

(178).

PRIVILEGE

O F

EAST—ITSELF A W E S T E R N

LINES O F C O M M U N I C A T I O N

POSSIBILITIES O F P A N - A S I A N

A B R A

DESPERATELY

TIDES

B E SO L U C K Y — T O

N O R

PEOPLES.

H O M E .

EAST. F O R G H O S H , THE M I D D L E

LITICAL C O N F I G U R A T I O N — H A S

A S I A N

A N D

MIGRANTS

G H O S H A N D S E T H P R O D U C E , IN THEIR DIFFERENT WAYS, IST

SCARCITY;

NATIONS

E C O N O M I C

TO TRAVEL, A N D

B O R D E R THAT DIVIDES H I M

MYTHICIZED

THE BEACH AS

DIFFERENCE SEPARATE THE TRAVELING MERCHANT,

F R O M

A PASSAGE HIS

BENEFITS, C A N N O T

HISTORICAL

STANDING

(153)

A S I A N

COUNTRIES

H A V E

C O M E

Y E T

Video Night

INCREASINGLY

TO

SEE

T H E M S E L V E S T H R O U G H W E S T E R N E Y E S . M O R E PARTICULARLY, A S I A , I N S O F A R AS IT CAN G A M

B E U N D E R S T O O D AS A C O M P O S I T E

CULTURAL

O F RESPONSES TO A N D ADAPTATIONS

T H R O U G H

ENTITY,

O F WESTERN COMMERCIAL

A SERIES O F ARRESTING E X A M P L E S D R A W N

III I

I(

I I t \ ' A '. I \

REPRESENTS AN

M I L

I

1

I'L

PRODUCTS.

F R O M T H E D I F L A C 111

I> •' I I

I

|L '.

AMAL

A S I A N

R E G I O N S — R A M B O PHILIPPINES,

I NCHINA,

BASEBALL

E X P O S U R E TO A M E R I C A N NEW,

EXOTICALLY

M U C H

OUT O F AN

E X C H A N G E W A Y

CULTURAL

IMPERIALIST

B YM A R Y

" H O W

FORMS.

SUBORDINATED

rial Eyes 6). READILY

W H A T

PRATT

OR MARGINAL

" W H I L E WHAT

O F IMPORTED

A M E R I C A N

"EXPRESS PLIGHT"

J A P A N E S E

BASEBALL,

NATIONAL

WAYS

THAT

O R DEGREES,

O F A M E R I C A LOCAL

M U C H

A

A N D

A TWO-WAY

TO

SHOW,

CULTURE,

THEY D O

THEIR

O W N ,

INTO

T O THE

PROFITABLE

[THE

CULTURES

POP-CULTURAL

INFLUENCE

M Y T H S CAN B E

E A S T - W E S T

CONTACT

ADAPTED IS VERY

PROCESS:

D E C A D E A G O . . . LINES O F C O M M U N I C A T I O N

W E R E SO CROSSED THAT

E A S T L O O K E D TO T H E W E S T TO B R I N G ITT H E W I S D O M O F T H E E A S T ; N O W , PROCESS WAS REVERSED. F O R WHAT THE ASIANS W E R E OFTEN N O T SO M U C H

BROUGHT O V E R TO THE

F R A G M E N T S O F T H E E A S T AS N E W A N D

VERSIONS O F THE WEST: THE J A P A N E S E PROVIDED T O K Y O - M A D E THE THAIS

ARE

SUBJECT,

IMPERIALISM.

THE IMPERIALIST

IMPERIALIST

A SWELL, THAT

BANDS,

E C O N O M I C

IS REINVENTED A S THE

ALL O F T H E S E A S I A N

TO INDICATE

THIS GIANT

EAST-WEST

COUNTRY'S]

IMPORT,

A N D

E X A M P L E S O F

S T A T E S ; N O R A R E ALL O F T H E M

AS TO S H O W H O W A M E R I C A N

ENDS.

(Impe " C A N N O L

INTO

P R O D U C E

T OA M E R I C A N

I Y E R ' S T A S K , H O W E V E R , I SN O T S O M U C H

MATERI

TO PRATT,

D O M I N A N T

FED

BOR

DESCRIBE

INVENT F R O M

ABSORB

DEFIES

CLEARLY, NOT

TO THE U N I T E D

A TERM

B Y NOTE-PERFECT FILIPINO

A N O T H E R CULTURAL

SPORT.

A N O T H E R

A N T H R O P O L O G Y TO

FILMS,

INDUSTRY,

O P T I M I S M

STRICTLY " S U B O R D I N A T E " SIMILAR

H O L L Y W O O D

M O V I E

NOT S O SYMBOLIC

FORMS.

LISTS N U M E R O U S

P O P SONGS, IMITATED

A MATERIAL (N.P.);

THE

THEY

IYER'S B O O K

PROCESS:

ARISE,

OR METROPOLITAN CULTURE"

F R O M

EXTENTS WHAT

O F THE I N D I A N

HYBRIDS;

EAST'S

THE

transculluration,

CULTURAL

G R O U P S SELECT A N D

E M A N A T E S

T OV A R Y I N G

TRANSCULTURATIVE

I N THE

PRODUCTS

SUBJUGATED P E O P L E S , " ACCORDING

T H E Y U S E I T F O R " (6).

M A C H I N E

F R O M

TO T H E M B Y A D O M I N A N T

CONTROL

D E T E R M I N E

TO

T H E S E

THE REINDIGENIZATION

L O U I S E

ALS T R A N S M I T T E D

WILLIAMS THAT

I M P O S I T I O N AS O U T O F A PROCESS O F

T O A C C O U N T F O R T H I S P R O C E S S IS T H R O U G H

ROWED

IN

DEMONSTRATES

P O P U L A R CULTURE H A S RESULTED I NT H E E M E R G E N C E O F

HYBRID

INVOLVING

FAST F O O D I N N E P A L , H A N K

I N J A P A N — I Y E R

FILLED

L . A .

WITH BANGKOK-STYLE AMERICAN

THE THE WEST

IMPROVED PLYMOUTHS;

BARS; THE

CHINESE

SERVED U P S W E E T - A N D - S O U R P O R K ( ADISH CREATED EXPRESSLY FOR W E S T E R N PALATES). J A P A N E S E C O U N T R Y - A N D - W E S T E R N BARS, K O R E A N GROCERY STORES, VIETNAMESE

FRENCH

THAT THE A S I A N S AND

RESTAURANTS,

HAD ABSORBED

M O R E SUBTLY THAN

INDIAN-RUN

MOTELS—ALL

SUGGESTED

T H E W E S T , A N D M A S T E R E D IT, M O R E

ANYTHING

THAT

COULD

B E IMAGINED

FULLY

in R E V E R S E .

(360) IYER CONCLUDES FROM BE M U D )

THIS,

V E R Y LOOSELY, HINT

GREATER I NTHE FUTURE H U M

M i l l

1110 A M E R I C A N

I M l I II I

I, I

THE A S I A N E M P I R E

E M P I R E ISAT

WILL

PRESENT:

"THE

TWENTIETH CENTURY [HAS

[WILL] S U R E L Y B E . . . A S I A N " RESULT

BEEN] A M E R I C A N ,

(363).

O F A W E S T E R N — M O R E

27

THE TWENTY-FIRST

SPECIFICALLY,

W E S T E R N

SPRING F R O M T H E M TO THEIR C O M M O D I T Y

THE

CAPITALIST—VIEW O F

"GLOBAL CULTURE" THAT REDUCES CULTURAL RELATIONS A N D

N O

CENTURY

Y E T THIS C O N C L U S I O N ISA R G U A B L Y

THE PRODUCTS

THAT

VALUE O N THE WORLD MARKET.

I T IS

SURPRISE TO FIND, THEN, ALONGSIDE IYER'S FASHIONABLE C O M M E N T A R Y

THE A S C E N D A N C Y O F ASIA, A N EQUALLY GLIB REHEARSAL O F M C L U H A N ' S RIES

O N

THAT

M E D I A

CHIMERA,

H A D

SENT THE WORLD

THE

SPINNING

"GLOBAL

A R O U N D

VILLAGE":

O N

THEO

" C O M M U N I C A T I O N S

S OF A S T T H A T

EVERY

WHEEL

C A M E

A R O U N D FULL CIRCLE. T R A V E L FAR E N O U G H E A S T A N D Y O U ' D Q U I C K L Y E N D U P I N THE WEST;

G O ACROSS THE G L O B E A N D

(102).

H O M E AT A L L "

M E D I A

Y O U ' D

SIMULATIONS

FIND

THAT Y O U H A D

N E V E R LEFT

A N D INSTANT INFORMATION

CREATE THE ILLUSION THAT CULTURAL DISTANCE CAN C O N V E N I E N T L Y B E MEANWHILE,

CULTURAL PRODUCTS F R O M B O T H E A S T A N D W E S T CIRCULATE IN

GLOBAL MARKETPLACE, ENCE,

O N C E

TRANSFER R E M O V E D ;

CREATING THE FURTHER ILLUSION

C O N S U M E D ,

IS UNDERSTOOD.

IYER'S

THAT

"GLOBAL

CULTURAL

DIFFER

CULTURE,"

SPEAR

H E A D E D B Y A S I A , IST H E CULTURE O F T H E GLOBAL S H O P P I N G M A L L , W H E R E TURAL

ARTIFACTS

CONSUMPTION. WORLD'S

F R O M

BOTH

tourism,

A N D

LARGEST A N D

EAST

A N D

W E S T

M A D E

FASTEST G R O W I N G

INDUSTRIES

THEIR

LITERARY B Y - P R O D U C T ,

HIS

BUT

THE M O S T

T H E M O S T

OBVIOUS

THAT HIS

CHARACTERISTIC

BALI,

FOR INSTANCE, WHICH

PROVIDES

TRAV

COMPLICIT

T H E Y S E E K TO D O C U M E N T O F I Y E R ' S W R I T I N G I S ITS

V A T E D G L I B N E S S : ITS A W A R E N E S S O F I T S E L F A N D O F ITS S U B J E C T A S A IN

CONSPICU

TRAVEL W R I T I N G — A R E

WITH THE VERY PROCESSES O F COMMODIFICATION EXPLORE.

FOR

O N A GLOBAL SCALE. H E N C E THE

N E V E R FAR B E N E A T H THE SURFACE O F IYER'S NARRATIVE,

E L S — A N D

CUL

AVAILABLE

AS I Y E R R E C O G N I Z E S , IS N O T JUST O N E O F T H E

OUS MANIFESTATION O F CULTURAL C O N S U M E R I S M IRONY,

ARE

THE

A N D CULTI

C O M M O D I T Y .

THE O P E N I N G S E Q U E N C E FOR

IYER'S

NARRATIVE, THE WRITING TENDS TO M I M I C THE SUPERFICIALITY O F THAT W H I C H IT DESCRIBES:

B A L I , F O R A L L T H E V A R I E T Y O F ITS C H A R M S , W A S R E L E N T L E S S I N ITS C H A R M , IT M E A N T T H E S A M E T O E V E R Y O N E W H O

C A M E HERE. I TOFFERED

AND

PARADISE,

A N D P R O V I D E D IT. I T W A S P R E T T Y A S A P O S T C A R D , A N D J U S T A B O U T A S

DEEP.

O N L Y A SPECIAL K I N D O F P E R S O N CAN R E M A I N FOR L O N G IN PARADISE, I N G HIS P E A C E WITH TRANQUILLITY. M O S T P E O P L E , I SUSPECTED, T O O K

M A K TAKING

IT E A S Y P R E T T Y H A R D . H U M A N K I N D , T O I N V E R T E L I O T , C A N N O T S T A N D T O O LIT TLE R E A L I T Y . H E R E A N D

(51)

AGAIN

P H O N E Y

O N E NOTICES, AS I N R U S H D I E ' S

APHORISTIC

REFLECTING IRONICALLY

(I.

1

QUALITY

BACK

O N

THAT

ARE

ITSELF. B A L I ,

11 M I H I S T S W I T H

WORK, THE ANECDOTAL

THE EFFECTS O F TRAVEL TIBET,

and C H I N A ,

l V i ' I W ML M 1

TONE

WRITING

1educed T O

THEIR O W NADVERTISING JINGLES, ARE LIKENED T OA GIANT V I D E O SCREEN O F C O N SUMABLE

TOURISTIC

IMAGES.

W E A P O N I N THE A M E R I C A N [A]s

V I D E O ,

AS IYER'S

POP-CULTURAL

TITLE I M P L I E S ,

IS A

PRIMARY

ARSENAL:

t h e w o r l d g r e w s m a l l e r a n d e v e r s m a l l e r , s o t o o d i d its p r o p s :

only

had

distances

in

time

and

space

been

shrunk,

but

the

w e a p o n s o f cultural w a r f a r e — v i d e o s , cassettes a n d c o m p u t e r

not

latest disks—

w e r e far m o r e portable t h a n the big screens a n d h e a v y instruments a

decade

points,

before. T h e y

could

under barbed-wire

a l m o s t , as a w h i m .

be

smuggled

fences a n d

through

into distant

border

of

check

h o m e s as

easily,

(5-6)

I Y E R ' S P R O J E C T IS T O D E M O N S T R A T E A S I A ' S C O U N T E R T H R U S T T O CULTURAL I M P E R I A L I S M , T O S H O W

ITS C A P A C I T Y

VENT W E S T E R N CULTURAL PRODUCTS

WHILE

TO ABSORB,

PROVIDING

A M E R I C A N

ADAPT,

A MIRROR

A N D REIN

THAT

REFLECTS

THE W E S T BACK

O N ITSELF A T N E WA N G L E S A N D I N N E W F O R M S . B U TT H I S P R O J E C T

IS U N D E R M I N E D

B Y IYER'S RELUCTANCE TOC O M E TOTERMS WITH HISO W N TECH

N O L O G I E S O FR E P R E S E N T A T I O N , A N D T O A D M I T T H E I R I N V E S T M E N T OGY

O FCONSUMERISM

H E SETS O U T T O CRITIQUE.

CONFESS HIS RELATIVE IGNORANCE AS A

IN T H E IDEOL

H E IS C E R T A I N L Y

READY TO

TOURIST:

I m a k e n o claim to be authoritative

a b o u t the places I visited.

Quite

the o p p o s i t e , in fact. I s p e n t n o m o r e t h a n a f e w w e e k s in e a c h

coun

try, I speak n o t a w o r d o f a n y o f their languages a n d I h a v e never mally studied any Asian culture....

for

I n s t e a d , I let m y s e l f b e l e d b y cir

cumstance. Serendipity was m y tour

guide, assisted b y caprice.

. . .

W h a t r e s u l t s is j u s t a c a s u a l t r a v e l e r ' s c a s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n s , a s e r i e s first

impressions and second thoughts loosely arranged around a

b r o a d ideas. T H E

(24)

O N L Y SPECIAL

CULTURAL INDIAN

QUALIFICATION

I QUICKLY

ALIES A N D T H EM I X E D W H E R E " (24). TRADITION RATIVE

H E CLAIMS,

I N FACT, IS H I S O W N

HERITAGE: " A S A BRITISH SUBJECT, A N A M E R I C A N CITIZEN,

B E C A M E

ACCUSTOMED

" H Y B R I D "

RESIDENT A N D A N

TO CROSS-CULTURAL

FEELINGS O FEXILE. N O W H E R E

W A S H O M E ,

A N O M

A N D EVERY

Y E T DESPITE HISAPPARENT HONESTY (WHICH BELONGS TOA LONG

I N TRAVEL WRITING, THE AUTHOR'S O P E N I N G DISCLAIMER),

ARGUABLY

IDEOLOGY

of few

CONCEALS

O N WHICH

T H EE C O N O M I C

IT IS B A S E D .

IYER'S

MOTIVES

WRITING,

IYER'S

NAR

A N D T H E CONSUMERIST I N THIS SENSE,

O FTHE A M B I V A L E N C E

O N

IT D E M O N S T R A T E S C L E A R L Y T H A T T R A V E L E R S , I N A L A T E - T W E N -

T H EO N E H A N D ,

TIETH-CENTURY CHANGING WORLD,

CONTEXT,

MUST

CONFRONT

O FPOSTCOLONIAL TRAVEL

PROVIDES

ANOTHER REMINDER

A. W O R L D

O F SHIFTING

BORDERS, A N DD E N S E L Y P A T T E R N E D TRANSNATIONAL

TRAVELER-WRITERS

SUCH

UK IYER, COSMOPOLITANS

M ' T I I H KM

MI

FLOWS. FROM

NARRATIVE.

ALLEGIANCES, I N SUCH

A

M I X E D C U L -

TURAL B A C K G R O U N D S ,

ARE N OLONGER THE EXCEPTIONS THEY O N C E WERE; O N THE

CONTRARY, THEY M I G H T YET I NTIME

B E C O M E

THE GENERAL RULE. T H U S ,

THEIR TRAVEL B O O K S M I G H T B E S E E N I N A SENSE AS COURA/ERNARRATIVES, AS

THEY PIT THEMSELVES AGAINST

I M P E R I A L I S M STILL D O M I N A N T THAT

WORLD,

WITH

A ST H E A N T H R O P O L O G I S T

DIFFERENCES EXTENSION IMAGES,

THEIR

A R J U N

A N D DISJUNCTURES, T H EW E S T ]

FORMS

O FW E S T E R N

CULTURAL

W I T H I N T H E G E N R E , T H E Y ALSO REFLECT O N A W O R L D

accords

INCREASINGLY

T H EV A R I O U S

WHILE INSOFAR

O W N E X P E R I E N C E — A

A P P A D U R A I

I N WHICH

DESCRIBES

" T H EU N I T E D

DIASPORIC

IT,O F G L O B A L

STATES

ISN O LONGER T H EP U P P E T E E R O FA WORLD

B U T IS O N L Y O N E N O D E O FA C O M P L E X

O F IMAGINARY

LANDSCAPES"

WRITING, SUCH

A SI Y E R ' S , W H I C H

("DISJUNCTURE

TRANSNATIONAL

[ A N D , B Y SYSTEM O F

CONSTRUCTION

A N D D I F F E R E N C E " 327).

TRAVEL

SIFTS T H E C O M P L E X C O D E S O FW H A T

M A R T I N

R O B E R T S CALLS T H E " G L O B A L I M A G I N A R Y , " SERVES A U S E F U L P U R P O S E I N A D J U S T ING

A N D COMPLICATING

ITSREADERS'

PERCEPTION

O F T H E WIDER

WORLD.

N O N E T H E L E S S , O N E W O N D E R S W H E T H E R I Y E R ' S W O R K M I G H T B E S E E N LESS RATELY AS A G A U G E THAN

symptom

AS A

O F THE C O M M O D I F L E D

W H I L E

Video Night in Kathmandu

NIZATION"

OSTENSIBLY

O FA S I A , A N A L Y Z I N G T H E VARIOUS

OPPOSES THE

RATHER THAN

D U R I N G

A CRITIQUE,

GICALLY CONJURES. almost

2

9

AS E X E M

A CELEBRATION,

O FT H E I N T E R C O N N E C T E D N E S S O FC O N S U M E R

CULTURE,

H U M A N I S M THAT SUCH A CULTURE STRATE

ITSEEMS, SAYS D U R I N G ,

THAT

everyone, almost everywhere, loves the global

popular a n d

s o m e t i m e s c o n s u m e s it: it p r o d u c e s a m o o d i n w h i c h e x o t i c i s m , mality a n dt r a n s w o r l d

SERVES.

"COUNTER-STRATEGIES" THAT A R E

CALLS " T H E G L O B A L P O P U L A R " :

A N D A TRIBUTE T O THE TRANSNATIONAL

CUL

" C O C A - C O L O

P L A N N E D I N ITS R E S I S T A N C E , ITM I G H T A L S O B E S E E N P A R A D O X I C A L L Y PLIFYING WHAT S I M O N

8

ACCU

"GLOBAL

T U R E " O N W H I C H I TR E P O R T S A N D I N W H O S E I N T E R E S T S I TI N A D V E R T E N T L Y

2

s h a r e d n e s s c o m b i n e , a n di n w h i c h

nor

consump

tion w a r m l y glows. T h e global p o p u l a r ' s h u m a n i s m c a n n o t b e dis missed, precisely

b e c a u s e it is s o o p e n l y c o m m e r c i a l .

Its

"general

m a g i c " relies o n t h e t r i c k b y w h i c h g l o b a l m a r k e t s , t e c h n o l o g i e s a n d information

flows

fuse

into

a

humanism

transcending

national

b o u n d a r i e s a t t h es a m e t i m e as, i n its clear d e p e n d e n c e o n m a r k e t i n g , it l e a v e s i n t a t t e r s t h e i d e a l i s m a n d n a i v e a p p e a l t o h u m a n n a t u r e s o integral t o older h u m a n i s m s . "POSTCOLONIALISM," CIPATION

THAT

SAYS D U R I N G ,

TENDS TO OBSCURE

(343) RELIES O N A LOCALIZED RHETORIC O F T H ELARGER " R H Y T H M S

E M A N

O F GLOBALIZATION"

THAT D E T E R M I N E O U R CULTURAL FUTURES. P O S T C O L O N I A L I T Y , A S H A SB E E N A R G U E D HERE, ISA BETTER TERM TO DESCRIBE T H E CONDITIONS TIONAL"

CULTURAL

PRODUCTS

UNDER WHICH

ESPECIALLY THOSE PRODUCTS,

I N G , THAT A R E I N V E S T E D I NT H E POLITICS O F (CROSS-)EULLURNL

((14

loiJKIS'M

Willi

I YI'tSwHIl 1 1

" O P P O S I

LIKE TRAVEL

WRIT

REPRESENTATION

ARE

SUBJECT

POTENTIAL

TO

GLOBAL

MARKET

FOR RESISTANCE.

"ANTIRACIST"

OR KINCAID'S; "RESISTANCE" ENTALIST" NARRATIVES

FORCES THAT

SUCH

S U C H AS

AS R U S H D I E ' S ;

THEIR

PHILLIP'S

"COUNTER-ORI

OR SETH'S; "ANTI-IMPERIALIST"

T I V E S S U C H A S I Y E R ' S : ALL O F T H E S E A R E T H E P R O D U C T S MODELS,

OR MYSTIFY

TRAVEL NARRATIVES

NARRATIVES

S U C H AS G H O S H ' S

U N D E R M I N E

NATIVES

TO E U R O P E A N

COMBAT

CENTURIES O F E U R O P E A N PREJUDICE, A N D

DIFFERENT WAYS

NARRA

O F WRITERS S E E K I N G ALTER

O F SEEING THE WORLD THAT E N J O I N THEIR

THAT

READERS

I N T U R N T O A D J LIST T H E I R A T T I T U D E S A N D P E R C E P T I O N S T O A C O N T E M P O R A R Y TURAL CLIMATE

I N W H I C H " D I F F E R E N C E " IS I N C R E A S I N G L Y

SARILY BETTER U N D E R S T O O D .

Y E T THESE WRITERS

A PERCEPTUAL LEGACY O F EXOTICISM: ING,

FUELING E U R O P E A N

PRODUCTION

FANTASY,

A N D CONSUMPTION

A M O D E HAS

LOOK VERY DIFFERENT IN KIND

POSTCOLONIAL THEY MUST

STRUGGLE TO M A T C H

M A N Y

WAYS

NESS"

E V E N

ESTRANGES

TRAVEL WRITERS,

ANTITHETICAL AS

O N

IT C L A I M S THE

THESE MYTHOLOGIES THESE

MYTHS

MOST

IN

THEIR POLITICAL

A N D

IT.

THEIR

TRAVEL

NARRATIVES

INVENTORY O F FAMILIAR REVISION

A N D

A N D

IMAGES

IS

A N D

DOUBLE

NATURE,

i

0

E V E N

AS

A N D

THOSE

IT

A M O N G

FORM

PROVIDING

TOWARD

IN

"OTHER

PLACES. S O M E

UNDERPINNINGS,

A N D A M E A N S

HMI'IIM,

PLACES.

LEAST

3

U P

EMBATTLED:

RELIANT N O T

SELECTIVE—CHAPTER.

CRITIQUE.

A I i IN

THAT

MYTHS.

THE

POSTCOLONIAL

MANUFACTURES

TO PARTICULAR

IDEOLOGICAL

REVEAL THEIR SPATIAL

THAT

O F WESTERN

SUBJECT FOR THE FOLLOWING—NECESSARILY TOO,

VEHICLE FOR

V I E W S W I T H A G E N R E T H A T IS

GENRE

DEMYSTIFY

FAMILIAR

WITH WRIT

E V E N I F T H E E X O T I C A IT T H R O W S

ARE THE ONES ATTACHED

O F PLACE,

AS A P R I M A R Y

CONTEXT, ARE NECESSARILY

TO T H E M — A TO

IN W H I C H TRAVEL

F R O M THOSE O F EARLIER TIMES

THIS

CUL

NECES

C O N T E N D , AS WELL,

O F VISION

ACTED

BUT NOT

O F CULTURAL " O T H E R N E S S . " IN A

E R A , " O T H E R N E S S " IS A P R O F I T A B L E B U S I N E S S , MIGHT

MUST

VISIBLE

O F THE

HERE,

BOTH

AN

IMAGES'

Chapter two Zones

T H E DESIRE TO TRAVEL TO, A N D A C C O U N T FOR, PARTICULAR REGIONS O F THE OFTEN IN

FIGURES

FACT,

I NT H E F R A U G H T M O T I V A T I O N S

C O N T E M P O R A R Y

E U R O P E — H A S TION

TRAVEL

WRITING—AT

LEAST W H E N

O F REGIONS

THAT

ARE

SPECIFIED

THROUGH

TO THE

FIFTEENTH

THE

T OA C C R U E E V E R D E N S E R L A Y E R S O F T E X T U A L I T Y

O F

W E S T E R N

A SE U R O P E A N

CLASSIC B O O K S

ABOUT

CRYSTALLIZA

LATER, THESE

C O N D U C T E D VISITS I NT H E W A K E O F E A R L I E R " D I S C O V E R I N G " NEERS. I NTURN, THESE TRAVELERS' N O W

A N D

PROCESSES

CENTURY.

WORLD

WRITERS.

IT IS N O T

ARGUABLY E V O L V E D F R O M THE IDENTIFICATION

IMPERIALISM, TRACING BACK WERE

O F C O N T E M P O R A R Y TRAVEL

REGIONS

TRAVELERS

A N D EXPLORING

H A V E

S P A W N E D

PIO

NARRA

TIVES THAT, S T R I P P E D O F I M M E D I A T E P I O N E E R I N G THRILL, A T T E M P T TO R E C A P T U R E IT T H R O U G H R E C O L L E C T I O N , P A R O D Y , R E V I S I O N , T H U S , E V E N W H E N THE

TRAVEL

SERVATIVE, CAL

ITSTRIVES TO C O M M U N I C A T E

C O N T E M P O R A R Y

VERSIONS.

TRAVELER'S

WRITING,

T H I S

ACCOUNT

SERVING

CHAPTER

A T BEST

T OREPEAT A N D

E X A M I N E S

THE

A M A Z O N

("EXOTIC"); A N D

FICTION

A N D

("TROPICAL");

THE ARCTIC

CONSTRUCT

(MAINLY)

A N D

J A P A N

("LIMINAL").

D E P L O Y T H E M ,

POLITICAL,

THEY

B E C O M E

BRIAN

M C H A L E

ANTHROPOLOGICAL, C O M P L E X

TEXTUAL

ARE A TBEST

1

I N

INCIDENTALLY

A N D

Postmodernist

O F POSTMODERNISM.

P R O D U C E D

B Y SUCH

LID IONS

ii'

G E O

E X P E R I E N T I A L —

Fiction (1987),

IN. P O S T M O D E R N I S T

IS I N E V I T A B L Y

SEAS

WRITING

K N O W L E D G E — H I S T O R

A C C O R D I N G T O M E L T A L E , G E O G R A P H I C A L S P A C E ISC O N T I N U A L L Y SPACE

C O N G O

SOUTH

USES " Z O N E S " LO D E N O T E THE ONTOLOGICAL SCRAMBLING

H E S E E S A SC H A R A C T E R I S T I C

T H E

WRITING

THE

REGIONS, A STRAVEL

CULTURAL, MYTHICAL,

zones.

THE

C O N

TROPOLOGI-

TRAVEL

REGIONS:

("ORIENTAL"); S U C H

EARLIER

IS INHERENTLY

POSTWAR

GRAPHICAL; BUILT U P OUT O F SEVERAL DIFFERENT KINDS O F ICAL,

S U P P L E M E N T

CONSOLIDATE

AS IT RELATES T OS E L E C T E D G E O G R A P H I C A L / T R O P O L O G I C A L A N D

REFUTATION.

C H A N G E O R FRESH PERCEPTION,

WILL

F O R ALL I T S S E N S A T I O N A L I S M ,

ITS NARRATIVES

MYTHS.

OR, I NS O M E CASES,

THAT FICTIONS,

RECONSTRUCTED.

OVERDCTCRMINED:

IT

NEEDS

TO

M E R E L Y

B E

SEEN,

THAT

GEOGRAPHICAL,

IS,

IN

TERMS.

IDEOLOGICAL TRAVEL

A N D

MYTHICAL,

NARRATIVES

TEND

TO

RATHER

THAN

PRODUCE

SIMI

LARLY O V E R D E T E R M I N E D S P A C E S — E V E N IF, B Y A N D L A R G E , P O S T M O D E R N I S T IS N O T THAN

O N

THEIR A G E N D A

" M Y T H "

IT S U G G E S T S

FOR THESE NARRATIVES'

THAT

" [TRADITIONAL

. . . IN EFFECT TRANSCRIBE D O M

A N D

ING

IS

C O M M O N

THAT

R E A D I N G F R O M

( M C H A L E

ENCYCLOPEDIA

TRAVEL NARRATIVES THAT

O F

TURAL DISCLOSER. N O R THE MOST

EXTRACT

IS M O R E SPACES THEIR

PLAY TELLING

BECAUSE ATTRIBUTES

IS

47).

WIS

Y E T AS FAR AS TRAVEL

ALREADY

TOPOI

WRITTEN:

WRIT

C O M P O S E D

O F "CONVENTIONAL

O F

W I S D O M

T H E M IN THE OVERDETERMINED

CUL

O F TRAVEL.

THE

F R O M

TRAVELER

EXPERIENCING

O F THE Z O N E , SUBJECT,

RATHER

NECESSARILY

TRAVELER AS PIONEER/DISCOVERER OR

CUL

IS IT J U S T T H A T A " L A S T F R O N T I E R " N O L O N G E R E X I S T S ;

FOR

CONSCIENTIOUS

NOVELTY

THE PERSPECTIVE

AS

INHIBITS PERCEPTION O F THE M O D E R N

E V E N

" Z O N E "

ENCYCLOPEDIA O F CONVENTIONAL

K N O W L E D G E , " E M B E D D I N G

TURAL DISCOURSE

4).

CATALOGUES O F PLACES A N D

ENDLESSLY R E D E P L O Y THE

A N D C O M M O N

THAN

THIS

CHAP.

GEOGRAPHICAL/TEXTUAL

THE UNWRITTEN

K N O W L E D G E "

CONCERNED,

ACCOUNTS

(SEE, H O W E V E R ,

A N D

O F M O D E R N

EXCITEMENT

F R O M

TRAVELERS M U S T

THE

FRONTIERS

ALSO

THAT

LABOR

O N C E

TO

EXISTED.

F U R T H E R M O R E , THE TRAVELER'S E X P E R I E N C E , FIGURED IN RELATION TO THE

Z O N E ,

G E N E R A L L Y T A K E S ITS C O L O R I N G F R O M

PREVIOUS

SEAS,

FOR

PROSPECTIVE

INSTANCE,

HEDONISTIC A W A K E N S L O U I S

CAN

STILL

PARADISE,

APPEAL

TO

THE " D R E A M S

ACCOUNTS;

IF T H E S O U T H

VISITORS

AS

A N D WISH-FULFILMENTS"

ARE LIKELY TO REPEAT THOSE OF, SAY, H E R M A N

A N

UNSPOILED

( M C H A L E

R O B E R T

STEVENSON.

T R A V E L WRITERS

TODAY,

LIKE M O S T

O F THEIR PREDECESSORS, T E N D TO

WITH PROFESSIONAL ETHNOGRAPHERS THE Y E A R N I N G TO ESTABLISH

A

CASES,

THE TRAVELER-WRITER

AS P E R S O N A L , THAT A R E A L W A Y S

MOBILIZES

FANTASIES,

ENTIAL CATEGORIES O F THE Z O N E : IN THE ARCTIC, PURGATION

WRITING, F R O M DISCOVERY,

INSOFAR

DEPARTURE THAN

AS

O N RETURN. T H U S ,

O F E X C H A N G E A N D

ACQUISITION,

THE RESERVES O F PREVIOUS T H E

HIS

PREDECESSOR

tiJI

EXPERI

ORIENT.

SEEK

W H A T

WHILE

THEY

K N O W

M O R E

TRAVEL

TRAVEL WRITING SUSTAINS

IT O F T E N E N D S U P

B Y

COLLAPSING

THAN

FULLY

O N

THE ALLURE BACK

O N T O

JOURNEYS.

Z O N E S O F TRAVEL WRITING, T H E N , ARE Z O N E S O F REPETITION,

IT IS A C A S E O F R E D M O N D BY

COLLECTIVE

A N D

SEEMS TRAPPED WITHIN QUEST RATHER

QUESTERS

IN

IN J A P A N , THE DESIRE FOR

SEEKS EXPERIENCE O F THE FEMINIZED

THIS PERSPECTIVE,

Y E T

AS WILL B E S E E N , T H E DESIRE F O R

SEEKS EXPERIENCE O F THE LIMINAL; WHILE

A POETICIZED EROTICISM

AS M U C H

ALREADY ENTANGLED IN THE M Y T H S

SHARE

RECIPROCITY

W I T H T H E P E O P L E A N D PLACES T H E Y VISIT A N D A B O U T W H I C H T H E Y WRITE. M O S T

IT

55)

MELVILLE OR

O ' H A N L O N

PETER

F L E M I N G

STEPPING EASILY IULO LO E X C E E D

11 >i 11-: is 1 s w 1 1 M 1 v i'i

IT

» 11

IN

THE ROLE THE

WHETHER VACATED

A M U / O N ,

OR

R o l a n d Barthes assuming the stock m e t a p h o r o f penetration—to con test i t — i n J a p a n . T h e ( W e s t e r n ) m y t h o l o g i e s t h a t a d h e r e t o w o r l d sites seem u n s h a k a b l e a n d offer a n e c o n o m i c a l , i f fairly basic, w a y o f get ting t o k n o w the w o r l d . B u t can the travel b o o k offer more? A s " p o p ular" c o m p e n d i u m s o f different kinds o f disciplinarity—history, geog r a p h y , politics, a n t h r o p o l o g y — t r a v e l b o o k s offer c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d i n f o r m e d c o m m e n t a r y , a route along w h i c h travelers, w h e t h e r a r m c h a i r o r field, c a n b e c o m e k n o w l e d g e a b l e a n d o p e n - m i n d e d a b o u t t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r l d . A f e w o f these b o o k s d o u b t l e s s d o p r o v i d e such routes. M a n y m o r e , h o w e v e r , either contain the travel z o n e w i t h i n the cultural stereotypes they p r e s u p p o s e f r o m the outset o r c a n n o t n e g o t i ate those b o u n d a r i e s , m a i n t a i n e d b y a n e c o n o m i c a l l y a n d culturally p o w e r f u l t r a v e l i n d u s t r y , w i t h i n w h i c h t h e t r a v e l b o o k cleaves t o its preassigned generic p a t h .

ZONE

THE

ONE: THE

TROPICS

CONGO 2

N e a r l y every m o d e r n travel b o o k that features the C o n g o as travel z o n e a t s o m e l e v e l r e i n s c r i b e s C o n r a d ' s classic n o v e l l a Heart of Dark ness (1898). I n Heart of Darkness, as is w e l l k n o w n , C o n r a d set o u t t o contest aspects o f B e l g i a n imperial practice in the late nineteenth c e n t u r y w h i l e expressing, a t the s a m e time, the imperialist p a r a d i g m i n its starkest f o r m . N e a r l y a c e n t u r y later P a u l H y l a n d , i n his C o n g o n a r r a t i v e The Black Heart (1988), c e r t a i n l y h a s C o n r a d i n m i n d w h e n h e observes that "[i]n a n age o f optimistic materialism [white m e n ] held u p t h i s b a r e l y m a p p e d t e r r i t o r y as a m i r r o r t o t h e d a r k side o f t h e i r s o u l s " (63). S i n c e C o n r a d , t h e C o n g o h a s b e c o m e t h e t e x t u a l site o f a f e b r i l e metaphysics: a n abject z o n e o f e x t r e m e yet undifferentiated " o t h e r ness" in w h i c h every aspect o f life- landscape, people, culture, poli t i c s — p r e s e n t s i t s e l f as a l w a y s a l r e a d y w r a p p e d i n m e t a p h o r a n d m y t h . 3

T h e C o n g o t r a v e l e r is first a p t t o l o c a t e u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d " o t h e r ness" in the landscape. T h e celebrated Africanist Basil D a v i d s o n — n o t o t h e r w i s e k n o w n f o r his travel w r i t i n g — o f f e r s t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r o d y o f C o n r a d a n d G i d e in a formulaic view f r o m a boat: The

checks its d i l a t o r y p u c e o n c e a d a y o r s o m e t i m e s halls at small l o g q u a y s i d c i H , e a c h w i t h its h a n d f u l o f b u t t h e s e arc figure* In a b r o o d i n g v o i d . D n y s a h e a d t h e r e

river s t e a m e r

more,

and

humanity,

w i l l bo 11 r i v e r s i d e l o w n l e l U ' l m i ^ i i i j ! 10 l l i r " m o d e r n

w o r l d " o f futile

b u s y w o r k . B u t this w i l l be a b r i e f glimpse o f u r b a n dust a n d d e c a y b e f o r e the b u s h a n d the trees close i n a g a i n , a n d e v e r y t h i n g is o n c e a g a i n as it w a s b e f o r e . N o t h i n g changes; there is o n l y the i m m e m o r ial m e r g i n g o f o n e d a y i n t o the next. (254) A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s e a r l i e r j o u r n e y , d o c u m e n t e d i n Travels in the Congo (1927), G i d e h a d p r o n o u n c e d h i m s e l f d e p r e s s e d b y " [ f j h e a b s e n c e o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y , o f i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n . " " E v e r y t h i n g is u n i f o r m , " complains G i d e ; "there can be n o possible predilection f o r a n y p a r t i c u l a r s i t e " (137). T h e C o n g o , t h a t is, o f f e r s n o p o i n t w h e r e t h e W e s t e r n observer m i g h t f r a m e , perspectivize, a n d i m p o s e spatial pat tern. B u t t h e absence o f spatial pattern also denotes a historical absence: C o n g o travelers like G i d e b e c o m e i n v o l v e d in a j o u r n e y that o b l i t e r a t e s h i s t o r y as E u r o p e a n s c o n c e i v e it, a j o u r n e y i n w h i c h , w h i l e " t r a v e l l i n g b a c k t o t h e e a r l i e s t b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e w o r l d " ( C o n r a d 66), they are simultaneously "sucked . . . into the continent's m a w " ( H y l a n d 13). T h e t e m p o r a l " o t h e r n e s s " o f t h e C o n g o a c t s i n t a n d e m w i t h its spatial " o t h e r n e s s , " impressing itself u p o n t h e prospective traveler w i t h a p o w e r g r e a t e r t h a n m o t i v a t i o n — w i t h n o t h i n g less, it a p p e a r s , t h a n the inexorable force o f fate. T h u s , the n i n e - y e a r - o l d C o n r a d , p o r i n g o v e r a m a p o f " d a r k e s t " A f r i c a , a n d " p u t t i n g [his] finger o n t h e b l a n k space representing the u n s o l v e d m y s t e r y o f that continent, . . . said t o [him]self w i t h absolute assurance a n d a n a m a z i n g a u d a c i t y . . . ' W h e n I g r o w u p I s h a l l g o there'" ( q t d . i n H y l a n d 21), j u s t a s G i d e r e m a r k s o f h i s j o u r n e y , " I h a d n o t s o m u c h w i l l e d i t . . . a s h a d it i m p o s e d u p o n m e b y a s o r t o f i n e l u c t a b l e f a t a l i t y " (4). T h i s a t a v i s t i c c a l l n o t o n l y d r a i n s t h e p o w e r o f t h o s e w h o h e a r it; i t a l s o b u r d e n s t h e m w i t h a metaphysical l o a d . C o n t e m p o r a r y narratives b y writers like H y l a n d , N a i p a u l , a n d S h o u m a t o f f h a r k b a c k t o this p a t t e r n , reinscribing C o n r a d ' s z o n e i n different w a y s . W i t h i n t h e zone, history disappears; t h e landscape b e c o m e s sinisterly p r i m e v a l ; h u m a n figures b e c o m e either h y p e r s e n sual o r abject; politics b e c o m e s a n a r c h y ; n o n c o n t i n u o u s p h e n o m e n a are sucked into a n "essential" stigmatized center. T r a v e l into t h e C o n g o disfigures, b e c o m e s a f o r m o f d y s t o p i c transgression. B y f o r e g r o u n d i n g p e r s o n a l sensitivity, a c c o u n t s such as H y l a n d ' s The Black Heart s e e k , h o w e v e r , t o m i t i g a t e t h e s e n s e o f radical " o t h e r n e s s " that decades o f travel n a r r a t i v e s have stamped o n t h e C o n g o . A c c o r d i n g t o this f o r m u l a , H y l a n d represents himself

/11

11 n 1 K I M , W I T H

1 \ I-I w M ' j I 1

as altered: he is the alienated one, the "other"; m o d e r n m a n in search o f a soul, in search o f h o m e . A l t h o u g h H y l a n d sees himself as the "inheritor o f S t a n l e y ' s self-glorifying vision o f the D a r k C o n t i n e n t , o f Joseph C o n r a d ' s a m b i g u o u s and anachronistic c h r o n i c l e " (22), his ultimate destination is a mission station, far upriver even from C o n rad's Inner Station, f o u n d e d b y his great-uncle D a n C r a w f o r d on the shore o f L a k e M w e r u at L u a n z a . W h e n he arrives there, a villager greets him: " E e h B w a n a , Bibi, y o u h a v e c o m e home. T h i s is y o u r vil l a g e " (243). Y e t even while the narrative situates the L u a n z a mission as an alternative reality (an " o t h e r " heart) to C o n r a d ' s Inner Station and affirms H y l a n d ' s inheritance there, it is not quite " h o m e . " Selfc o n s c i o u s m o d e r n angst plays between the senses o f provisionality and nostalgia: Can you run away from home? Escape can feel like homecoming, love and success like death. Travel is gloriously promiscuous: the shifting destination, arrival again and again, the unknown possessed, the quest for an illusory home. So I may have travelled light with a heavy heart. The quest for a cure. I'm in the air, unearthed like Antaeus, needing to make touch. (211) T h e perplexing ambivalence o f this passage suffuses The Black Heart, poising H y l a n d between the figures o f doubtful quester and mission ary-inheritor. A t L u a n z a , H y l a n d plays the latter role, participating in the work o f building and repairing the mission station, while his wife Nocllc shares in the lives o f the w o m e n teachers, nurses, housekeepers, and children. R e c o u n t i n g the life o f D a n C r a w f o r d , C r a w f o r d ' s wife, and the mission's history, H y l a n d adopts something o f the authority o f I he heroic male missionary, producing a framed narrative that installs order, progress, and traditional Western paradigms in Africa. Describ ing a mission that his brother-in-law once administered, Hyland becomes proprietary. He w a l k s past "the orange grove Peter had planned," where "Peter's water-tank still stood high," and notes that an African m a n "had served as a corporal in the F o r c e Publique for six years before Peter, 'Petrus' he called him, t o o k him on to w o r k " (89). T h e link between missionary consecration and appropriation is comi cally posed when the Hylands, arriving in Zaire, "[lay] hands on the surface o f A f r i c a " (13; emphasis added). Seen in this context. The Black Heart affirms the very mythology it wishes to reject:. Hyland wishes Mini "all while nivlhs and histories for

/i>NI".

/1

w h i c h t h e p e o p l e h a v e n o u s e s h o u l d v a n i s h , as i f f l u s h e d a w a y b y t h e rains"

Y e t his mission m o v e s i n the w a k e o f S t a n l e y , w h o

(136).

a r r i v e d b e f o r e t h e m o u t h o f t h e r i v e r t o a s c e n d it, [ t o s o w ] a l o n g i t s b a n k s c i v i l i s e d s e t t l e m e n t s , t o p e a c e f u l l y c o n q u e r a n d s u b d u e it, t o remould

it i n h a r m o n y

with modern

ideas into

within w h o s e limits the E u r o p e a n m e r c h a n t

National

States,

shall g o h a n d in

hand

w i t h the dark A f r i c a n trader, a n d justice and l a w a n d order shall pre vail, a n d m u r d e r and lawlessness a n d the cruel barter o f slaves shall f o r e v e r c e a s e . (28-29)

W h i l e H y l a n d glancingly critiques the ideal o f the nation-state, he nev ertheless casually d r a w s f r o m t h e s t e r e o t y p e reservoir t h a t w r i t e r s f r o m Stanley t o V . S. N a i p a u l h a v e i n v o k e d — o n e in w h i c h , for e x a m p l e , the t r a v e l e r c a n feel " a t o n c e , t h e d e p t h o f t h i s s o i l , t h e d e p t h o f t h o s e e y e s , t h e h i s t o r y i n t h e b l o o d " (124); c a n o b s e r v e s o m e o n e p r a c t i c i n g " t h e A f r i c a n a r t o f b l a n k n e s s " (50); a n d c a n a t t r i b u t e t o a c o l o n i a l b u i l d i n g a n " A f r i c a n s o u l " (54). L i k e w i s e , H y l a n d essentializes the A f r i c a n s he describes, p o r t r a y i n g t h e m as e i t h e r m y s t e r i o u s l y s e n s u a l o r e x t r e m e l y a b j e c t . T h r e e y o u n g w o m e n c a v o r t i n g b y the ocean, d o i n g a " n a i v e , self-conscious s t r i p - t e a s e , " stir h i m f a v o r a b l y : o n e " d a n c e d a s h a p e l y d a n c e t o t h e waves in a white b r a a n d green p a n t s , " a second "wriggled w i t h p l u m p breasts held h i g h , . . . p i n k d r a w e r s clinging d a r k l y t o p r o u d b u t t o c k s , " w h i l e a t h i r d w a s " a b u d d i n g t w i g o f a g i r l i n w h i t e p a n t s " (39). O n t h e other h a n d , a m a n w h o " h a u n t s " h i m "fell a b o u t , raving, . . . wearing t a t t e r s o f c l o t h , f i l t h y m u l t i - c o l o u r e d b a n d s o n a r m s a n d legs, w i d e e y e s s t a r i n g t h r o u g h glassless w e l d e r ' s g o g g l e s , l o s t s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n i n i 4

t i a t i o n i n t h e f o r e s t a n d t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Z a i r e " (194). W h e n H y l a n d finally

arrives at the d e m o n i c center, t h e I n n e r S t a t i o n w h e r e K u r t z

once reigned supreme, he has a vision o f C o n r a d ' s gorgeous phantas mal woman: I saw K u r t z ' s familiars and, w i t h M a r l o w ' s eyes, the w o m a n , " s a v a g e and

superb,

wild-eyed and

magnificent,"

bedecked

with

fetishes,

gleaming with ivory, a g l o w with brass, w h o s e arms flung s k y w a r d s , w h o s e s h a d o w m o v e d o n earth and river and gathered the steamer into her embrace.

But

tin-pot

(203)

soon, he conjures a fallen descendant o f that

figure,

another

"essential" A f r i c a n w o m a n w h o b u r s t f r o m t h eh o s p i t a l gates w i t h h e r a r m s f l u n g h i g h , w a l k i n g in a trance,

wailing

an extraordinary

T O d H I N T S

tune,

W I T H

strong

a n d plaintive,

TYI'tiWHITIHtlt

an

e x a l t e d dirge, her spirit straining after the spirit o f the d e a d . S o m e t i m e s I c a n a l m o s t r e c a l l t h e fierce q u a l i t y o f t h a t s o u n d . it s e e m s l i k e t h e a n t h e m o f A f r i c a .

Sometimes

(227)

I t is w i t h p o r t e n t o u s s y m b o l i s m l i k e t h i s t h a t t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r s i n t h e C o n g o offer glimpses into the heart o f the deadly " A f r i c a n " z o n e . I f V . S. N a i p a u l ' s incursions into the C o n g o — " t h e h o t z o n e " — a r e b o t h less f a n c i f u l a n d m o r e l i t e r a r y - m i n d e d t h a n H y l a n d ' s , t h e y a r e a l s o w i t h o u t t h e l a t t e r ' s a m b i v a l e n c e . I n t h e n o v e l A Bend in the River (1979), a n d i n t h e " N e w J o u r n a l i s m " pieces r e p u b l i s h e d as The

Return

of Eva Peron (1980), N a i p a u l c l a i m s t o w r i t e i n t h e s p i r i t o f a C o n r a d p o r t r a y i n g t h e disintegration o f the colonial w o r l d . F e e l i n g that his o w n i n h e r i t a n c e is a " m i x e d , " " s e c o n d - h a n d , " a n d " r e s t r i c t e d " w o r l d , N a i p a u l first a c c o u n t s f o r t h e C a r i b b e a n e x - c o l o n i e s i n t h o s e t e r m s , then proceeds t o i n v o k e them again t o analyze decolonization in other 5

p a r t s o f t h e T h i r d W o r l d . T h u s i t is, i n A f r i c a , t h a t h e feels t h e g r o u n d m o v e b e n e a t h me. T h e n e w politics, the c u r i o u s reliance o n m e n a n d institutions they were yet w o r k i n g to undermine, the sim plicity o f beliefs, and the h i d e o u s simplicity o f actions, the

corrup

tions o f causes, half-made societies that seemed to remain half-made: these w e r e the things that b e g a n to p r e o c c u p y me. . . . I f o u n d C o n r a d had been everywhere before me.

that

(Return 207-8).

W h e n h e v i s i t s Z a i r e , t h e n , N a i p a u l t r e a d s i n t h e steps o f C o n r a d , b u t w i t h a r e v e r s a l i n m i n d . W h e r e c o r r u p t i o n i n Heart of Darkness is r e p resented b y a E u r o p e a n , in N a i p a u l ' s " A N e w K i n g f o r t h e C o n g o : M o b u t u a n d t h e N i h i l i s m o f A f r i c a " it is m a n i f e s t e d i n b l a c k A f r i c a n s , c r a z e d b y c i v i l i z a t i o n . R o b N i x o n ' s c o m m e n t , " W h e n t h e w o r d primi tive o c c u r s i n [ N a i p a u l ' s ] t r a v e l w r i t i n g s , it d o e s s o , n o t i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a l a s t - g a s p r o m a n t i c d e s i r e t o s a l v a g e a p u r e r p a s t , b u t as a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d t e r m o f a b u s e " (London Calling 54-55), is c e r t a i n l y a p p r o p r i ate f o r N a i p a u l ' s A f r i c a n essays a n d n o v e l . N a i p a u l r e p l a c e s C o n r a d ' s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e C o n g o as m y s teriously savage w i t h a simplistic analysis o f neocolonial d e r a n g e m e n t . T a u g h t t o m i m i c their civilized colonial masters, N a i p a u l ' s A f r i c a n s h a v e b e c o m e c a r i c a t u r e s , f i g u r e s o f f u n , y e t s t r a n g e l y sinister. W h a t C o n r a d h a d o n c e r e a d as n e b u l o u s a n d i n a c c e s s i b l e , N a i p a u l r e a d s as the c o n f u s i o n , b e w i l d e r m e n t , a n d r e s e n t m e n t o f " p r i m i t i v e "

people

w h o h a v e been r e m o v e d f r o m the bush then offered the b l a n d i s h m e n t s o f a civilization they are incapable o f attaining. T h e i r resentments " c a n at a n y t i m e b e c o n v e r t e d i n t o a w i s h t o w i p e o u t a n d u n d o , a n A f r i c a n

/ . O N its

yi

n i h i l i s m , t h e r a g e o f p r i m i t i v e m e n " (Return 187). N a i p a u l p r o c e e d s t o n a t u r a l i z e this " p r i m i t i v e n e s s " w i t h i n a drastically simple historical f r a m e : i n " A N e w K i n g , " f o r e x a m p l e , h i s t o r y is c o n s t r u e d a s a b r i e f interval b e t w e e n a n " A f r i c a o f the ancestors" a n d a n e w " m i m i c " civi l i z a t i o n (169). B e t w e e n t h e s e t w o is a c o l o n i a l w o r l d w h o s e p a s s i n g N a i p a u l n o w regrets, as h e deplores h o w " t h e B e l g i a n past recedes a n d is m a d e t o l o o k a s s h a b b y as its d e f a c e d m o n u m e n t s . " T h a t " t h e s t a t u e o f Stanley that o v e r l o o k e d the rapids has been replaced b y the statue o f a t a l l a n o n y m o u s t r i b e s m a n w i t h a s p e a r " is p a r t , f o r h i m , o f t h e silli ness o f n e w Z a i r e — t h e s a m e silliness t h a t l e d t h e d e c o l o n i z i n g state t o c h o o s e f o r i t s e l f a " n o n s e n s e " n a m e , a n d its p r e s i d e n t t o reject J o s e p h M o b u t u f o r t h e ludicrously grandiose " M o b u t u Seso Seke K u k u N g b e n d u W a Z a B a n g a " (167). N a i p a u l ' s c o m m e n t a r y o n Z a i r e d e s c r i b e s t h e s a m e p h e n o m e n a as a m u l t i t u d e o f c o n t e m p o r a r y A f r i c a n a c c o u n t s : i m p o v e r i s h e d , d e g r a d e d cities; a c h a n g e l e s s l a n d scape; grotesque people; g o v e r n m e n t ostentation a n d c o r r u p t i o n . T h e list s t r e t c h e s o n a n d o n . W h a t m a k e s N a i p a u l ' s v e r s i o n s t r i k i n g is its extreme c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e C o n g o as a n o v e r h e a t e d z o n e , a H e a r t o f N o t h i n g n e s s d o o m e d t o d r a g itself b a c k into t h e v a c a n c y o f b u s h a n d ancestors: T o arrive at this sense o f a c o u n t r y t r a p p e d a n d static, eternally v u l nerable, is t o begin t o h a v e s o m e t h i n g o f the A f r i c a n sense o f t h e v o i d . I t is t o begin t o fall, i n the A f r i c a n w a y , into a d r e a m o f t h e p a s t — t h e v a c a n c y o f river a n d forest, the h u t in the b r o w n y a r d , t h e d u g o u t — w h e n the d e a d ancestors w a t c h e d a n d protected, a n d t h e enemies were o n l y m e n . (196) I n t h e passage, typically, N a i p a u l ' s chosen adjectives—"trapped," "static," " v u l n e r a b l e " — d e n o t e a collective p s y c h o l o g y i m m u n e t o the Western rational mind. I n m o r e recent C o n g o narratives, t h e d a r k fascination w i t h t h e " h o t z o n e " h a s escalated once again w i t h t h e e m e r g i n g scandal o f A I D S . F o r D a v i d W i l l s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e A I D S crisis r e p r e s e n t s " t h e w h o l e m y t h o l o g y a l l o v e r a g a i n o f a m o n k e y o n a h o t c o n t i n e n t " (91): It is i n a neglected A f r i c a once again that a n obsolete t e c h n o l o g y m e a n s d e a d bodies b y t h e t h o u s a n d s , t h e threat o f millions that w o u l d likely h a v e m e as dead as y o u were I o n e o f t h e m , f o r some strange reason they just keep o n d y i n g there in wholesale quantities o f causes as o l d as b a d water a n d as n e w as A I D S , while the f i r s t W o r l d disingenuously searches f o r the software glitch thill: limit he

I

H M I H I K T H Wl'l M I V I ' K W H I I "

causing it all, so A f r i c a c o m e s b a c k t o h a n g o n o u r necks, the w e i g h t and m o v e m e n t o f it has y o u d i z z y , it is A f r i c a y o u balance o n y o u r h e a d (91). I n Wills's account, the association between A f r i c a a n d A I D S h a s upped the ante b e y o n d C o n r a d ' s dark imperial metaphysics, H y l a n d ' s m y s t e r y , guilt, a n d sentimentality, a n d N a i p a u l ' s essential a t a v i s m , t o reach the all-encompassing hysteria o f deathly "systemic d y s f u n c t i o n . " I n African Madness (1988), A l e x S h o u m a t o f f a l s o r e c o r d s a j o u r ney into the d a r k heart o f A I D S . S h o u m a t o f f does n o t present himself i n a g l a m o r o u s l i g h t : h e is a p r o f e s s i o n a l j o u r n a l i s t w i t h a l i k i n g f o r t r o p i c a l r e g i o n s , a l w a y s o n t h e s c e n t f o r stories t o b e t r a c k e d d o w n i n A f r i c a a n d S o u t h A m e r i c a . S h o u m a t o f f writes a direct, c o n v e n t i o n a l , and unpretentious prose, f r o m a n A m e r i c a n liberal point o f view, w i t h s o m e resistance t o A m e r i c a n h e g e m o n y a n d m i n i m a l a n i m u s t o w a r d t h e A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s h e visits. N e v e r t h e l e s s , h e d o e s n o t r e a l l y c h a l lenge the f o u n d a t i o n a l m y t h s a b o u t " d a r k e s t " A f r i c a that h a v e p r o v e d i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o g e n e r a t i o n s o f t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r s . N o r c a n h e resist t h e t e m p t a t i o n t o t r a n s f o r m a scientific investigative c o n c e r n t o locate t h e s o u r c e o f t h e A I D S v i r u s i n t o a p r o c e s s a c t i v e l y s y m b o l i z i n g it as " t h e A f r i c a n disease"; a n d h e seems repeatedly surprised that professional researchers h a v e n o t shared his mission o f " t r a c k i n g d o w n the source." 6

" H o w c u r i o u s it w o u l d b e , " m u s e s S h o u m a t o f f , " i f t h e s o u r c e o f the N i l e arid the source o f A I D S p r o v e t o b e o n e a n d the same, the vast t e e m i n g l a k e d e e p i n t h e d a n g e r o u s h e a r t o f d a r k e s t A f r i c a " (133). A m o r e economical f o r m u l a t i o n j o i n i n g the traveler's personal quest t o the c o n v e n t i o n a l r o m a n c e a n d h o r r o r o f A f r i c a (searches f o r the source of the Nile, the R i d e r H a g g a r d romances o f the M o u n t a i n s o f the M o o n , a n d so o n ) can hardly be imagined. A n d a l t h o u g h S h o u m a t o f f t e n d s t o q u e s t i o n m y t h s a b o u t A f r i c a a n d A I D S , h e still f o r e g r o u n d s the m y t h - l a d e n impulse b e h i n d his trip: "despite there being evidence o f A I D S as e a r l y a s 1972 i n n o r t h w e s t e r n U g a n d a , i n t h e N i l e p r o v i n c e , Idi A m i n ' s h o m e l a n d , . . . a t s o m e level, p e r h a p s o n l y m y t h i c a l , K a n s e w e r o is t h e f o n t o f A I D S " (132). I n S h o u m a t o f f s s e a r c h f o r t h e source, A f r i c a becomes a portent o f apocalypse, a promise o f horrors that will i n v a d e the W e s t in a parody-reversal o f the E u r o p e a n colonial m i s s i o n i n A f r i c a : " [ M a n y scientists] c l a i m t h a t w h a t is h a p p e n i n g i n A f r i c a is a n i g h t m a r e v i s i o n o f t h e f u t u r e o f t h e W e s t " (134-35). S e v e r a l o f S h o i m i a t o f P s interviewees, t o o , "believed that the curtain w a s f a l l i n g , l h a t t h e f l o o d w a s c o m i n g . . . . A I D S w a s t h e hist s t r a w , t h e

,m>NIK«

•»«

final flail. I t p l a y e d right i n t o t h e g a t h e r i n g m i l l e n a r i a n t e r r o r " (170). S h o u m a t o f f displays a skeptical irony that holds his account b a c k f r o m p r o m o t i n g w i l d e r m i l l e n a r i a n i s m . H e is r e a d y t o a c k n o w l e d g e i g n o r a n c e a n d d o u b t , t o pass o n q u i p s that m i g h t easily u n d e r m i n e his project, a n d t o report personal encounters w i t h o u t condescension. H e asks, f o r e x a m p l e , "[I]s the clinical picture o f A I D S really A f r i c a n ? " (140), r e p o r t s a c o l l e a g u e ' s c o m m e n t , " I t ' s f u n n y h o w t h e y a l w a y s s a y it's u s . . . . F i r s t i t ' s t h e A f r i c a n k i l l e r b e e s . N o w i t ' s A I D S " (180), a n d q u o t e s a m e d i c a l officer w h o , w h e n a s k e d a b o u t a n A f r i c a - t o - H a i t i - t o A m e r i c a r o u t e , " replied, " [ W ] h y c o u l d n ' t it h a v e b e e n t h e o t h e r w a y a r o u n d ? " (163). U l t i m a t e l y , t h o u g h , S h o u m a t o f f s a c c o u n t d o e s l i t t l e to shake u p the established m y t h s a n d symbolic patterns that h a v e long since m a r k e d t h e C o n g o a s a d i s t i n c t d i s c u r s i v e z o n e . T h u s , h e l i n k s A f r i c a n A I D S historically which

populations

with the maelstrom o f decolonization, in

"mushroom,"

"upheaval"

occurs,

and

H I V

" s w e e p s " f r o m its " h i d i n g p l a c e " (139). M o r a l l y , h e l o c a t e s t h e v i r u s i n " d e g e n e r a t e " scenes l i k e t h e b a r i n U g a n d a w h e r e , a h o r r i f i e d s p e c t a t o r , h e w i t n e s s e s " t h e c l o s e s t t h i n g t o S o d o m " (195). A n d

finally,

as i f

to c o n f i r m t h a t A f r i c a n p h e n o m e n a a l w a y s exist i n a " n a t u r a l , " dehistoricized z o n e rather than a cultural a n d political one, he evokes the specter o f A I D S i n a n a n o d y n e d o m e s t i c allegory: A c o l o n y o f m a g n i f i c e n t . . . egrets h a d t a k e n o v e r a h u g e tree a b o v e [a b u n g a l o w ] a n d the r o o f a n d y a r d were spattered w i t h their g o o e y w h i t e d r o p p i n g s . T h e o w n e r seemed t o be l i v i n g w i t h the situation, t o be m a k i n g n o effort t o d r i v e t h e birds a w a y . Il was a case study in tropical acceptance. (145; e m p h a s i s a d d e d ) I n scenes s u c h as t h i s o n e , S h o u m a t o f f c o n f i r m s t h e m y t h i c i z e d C o n g o o f C o n r a d , N a i p a u l , a n d H y l a n d . T h e C o n g o r e e m e r g e s as t h e t r o p i c a l z o n e o f s a d inevitability,

the terminus—the

endzone—of

extreme,

death-driven abjection.

THE

AMAZON

T h e A m a z o n , like the C o n g o , has a m y t h i c i z e d history o f abjection, a legacy

o f remorse—"tristes

tropiques"—that

anticipates

its o w n

7

d e s t r u c t i o n . B e f o r e r e c e n t y e a r s , h o w e v e r , w h e n it h a s b e c o m e t h e p r e e m i n e n t z o n e o f the sensitive e n v i r o n m e n t a n d threatened i n d i g e n o u s cultures,

the A m a z o n

ground

f o r the "tropical traveler": the adventurer-hero or, perhaps

/it

w a s also a ludic

space—a happy

l o n i n s 1 \ w i 111 I V I ' l f W H I i 11

hunting

better, the w o u l d - b e hero o f the g u n g h o type m o s t p o p u l a r l y expressed in the B o y ' s O w n a d v e n t u r e tale. T h i s tradition, primarily t h o u g h b y n o means exclusively British ( t h e l e a d i n g " f o r e i g n p r e t e n d e r " is p r o b a b l y t h e A m e r i c a n T i m C a h i l l ) , has been kept alive m o s t conspicuously b y the traveler-natu ralist R e d m o n d O ' H a n l o n . T h e genre w i t h i n w h i c h O ' H a n l o n writes, like the tradition h e s t u b b o r n l y u p h o l d s , has thrived o n turning out d o o r danger into a r m c h a i r c o m e d y . O n e o f the genre's " o l d h a n d s , " P e t e r F l e m i n g , n e a t l y d e m o n s t r a t e s its a w a r e n e s s o f its o w n c l i c h e s : 8

T h e w h o l e t e c h n i q u e o f e x p l o r i n g [in the tropics] is o v e r l a i d w i t h c o n v e n t i o n s so u n m i s t a k e a b l e a n d so o f t e n m o c k e d — h a s a j a r g o n so impressive a n d so easily g u y e d — t h a t the m a n w h o at his first essay a d o p t s t h e c o n v e n t i o n s a n d e m p l o y s t h e j a r g o n m u s t lack b o t h s h a m e a n d h u m o u r . (122) F l e m i n g , w h o s e 1 9 3 3 t r a v e l b o o k Brazilian Adventure is a classic o f its k i n d , a p p a r e n t l y lacks neither: his o w n experiences in the jungle, h e a d m i t s self-ironically, w e r e " a l w a y s perillously close t o t h e pages o f those b o o k s w h i c h publishers catalogue u n d e r the heading o f T r a v e l and A d v e n t u r e ' " ( 1 2 2 ) — p r e c i s e l y the b o o k s that that other wellk n o w n tropical traveler, C l a u d e Levi-Strauss, derides, in w h i c h "actual e x p e r i e n c e is r e p l a c e d b y s t e r e o t y p e s , " a n d i n w h i c h " p l a t i t u d e s a n d c o m m o n p l a c e s [are] t r a n s m u t e d i n t o r e v e l a t i o n s b y t h e sole fact t h a t their a u t h o r , instead o f d o i n g his plagiarizing at h o m e , h a s . . . s a n c t i f i e d it b y c o v e r i n g t w e n t y t h o u s a n d m i l e s " (Tristes Tropiques 3 9 , 1 8 ) . "I hate traveling a n d explorers," are the f a m o u s o p e n i n g w o r d s o f Tristes Tropiques ( 1 9 5 5 ) ; " y e t h e r e I a m p r o p o s i n g t o tell t h e s t o r y o f m y e x p e d i t i o n s " (17). " A d v e n t u r e is o b s o l e t e , " d e c l a i m s F l e m i n g , t h e n proceeds t o regale us w i t h his adventures ( 3 1 ) . I t appears the tropical t r a v e l o g u e needs t o disclaim itself i n o r d e r t o b r i n g itself into b e i n g . D r a w n i n s p i t e o f i t s e l f t o c l i c h e , t h e g e n r e is a l s o i r r e s i s t i b l y a t t r a c t e d to p a r o d y . M o r e than just attracted; for in the danger-ridden jungles o f Brazil, p a r o d y provides b o t h the a m a t e u r explorer ( F l e m i n g ) a n d t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t ( L e v i - S t r a u s s ) w i t h n o t h i n g less t h a n a strategy o f s u r v i v a l . P a r o d y f u n c t i o n s as p r o t e c t i v e c o v e r i n g , as c a m o u f l a g e ; it c o n s t i t u t e s a n e c e s s a r y a c t o f s e l f - d e f e n s e . H e r e , a g a i n , f r o m Brazilian Adventure: II' I n d i a n s a p p r o a c h e d us, w c referred to t h e m as the O n c o m i n g S a v never said, " w a s thai 11 s h o t ? " b u t a l w a y s , " w a s that the

ages. W e

w e l l - k n o w n b a r k o f a M a u s e r ? " A l l insects o f a harmless n a t u r e a n d ridiculous a p p e a r a n c e w e p o i n t e d o u t t o each o t h e r as creatures " w h o s e slightest glance spelt D e a t h . " A n y b i r d larger t h a n a t h r u s h w e credited w i t h the a b i l i t y t o " b r e a k a m a n ' s a r m w i t h a single b l o w o f its p o w e r f u l w i n g . " W e s p o k e o f w a t e r a l w a y s as the " P r e c i o u s F l u i d . " W e referred t o ourselves, n o t as e a t i n g meals, b u t as d o i n g " A m p l e Justice t o a F r u g a l R e p a s t . " ( T 2 2 ) A n d so the s h o w c o n t i n u e s . " T o a n y o n e w h o did n o t t h i n k it f u n n y as w e d i d , " concedes F l e m i n g , "it must have been an intolerably tiresome k i n d o f j o k e " (122). B u t t h e j o k e a l s o s e r v e s i t s p u r p o s e , b e c o m i n g , f o r F l e m i n g , " a n important feature in that private code o f nonsense which w a s o u r c h i e f d e f e n c e a g a i n s t h o s t i l e c i r c u m s t a n c e " (122). T w o options a p p e a r t o be o p e n here t o aspiring tropical travelers: either they can strike u p a pose o f m o r a l rectitude, t h e r e b y

allowing

t h e m s e l v e s t o i n t e r p r e t their e x p e r i e n c e as a p a r a b l e o f e c o l o g i c a l d e v astation a n d / o r civilizational decline (the L e v i - S t r a u s s m o d e l ) ; o r they can p l a y o u t p a r o d y t o the full, t r a n s f o r m i n g their experience into the stuff o f high m e l o d r a m a (the F l e m i n g m o d e l ) . Several c o n t e m p o r a r y A m a z o n t r a v e l b o o k s — m o s t n o t a b l y t h o s e o f J o e K a n e (Running the Amazon,

Savages)—succeed

with

i n c o m b i n i n g these t w o m o d e l s . O t h

ers, s u c h a s P e t e r M a t t h i e s s e n ' s The Cloud

Forest (1961) o r , m o r e

r e c e n t l y , B r i a n A l e x a n d e r ' s Green Cathedrals: A Wayward Traveler in the Rain Forest (1995) a r e b e t t e r s e e n as m o r a l i s t i c " e c o t r a v e l o g u e s " i n c o n t e m p l a t i v e L e v i - S t r a u s s i a n v e i n . A n d still o t h e r s a r e e t h n o g r a p h i c studies, p o p u l a r i z e d f o r a w i d e r audience: e x a m p l e s here m i g h t include Alan

Campbell's

Getting

to Know

Waiwai

(1995) a n d P h i l i p p e

D e s c o l a ' s r e c e n t l y r e i s s u e d The Spears of Twilight (1996). T h e s e b o o k s , a n d m a n y others like t h e m , a d d themselves t o the steady f l o w o f " r a i n forest" products that h a v e transformed the vivid colors o f the A m a z o n into a swathe o f political green. Y e t w o r k s like O ' H a n l o n ' s

indicate

t h a t t h e z o n e o f t r o p i c a l c o m e d y is f a r f r o m e m p t y , a n d t h a t i t o c c u p i e s a residual space b e n e a t h even the m o s t serious accounts. T h e p o p u l a r i t y o f O ' H a n l o n ' s b o o k s o w e s m u c h t o t h e i r use o f k n o c k a b o u t farce a n d j u v e n i l e h u m o r t o offset their scientific ratio nale: the observation o f local flora a n d f a u n a . I n his tropical travel o g u e s t o d a t e , Into the Heart of Borneo (1984) a n d In Trouble

Again

(1988) ( t h e m o s t r e c e n t , Congo Journey [1996], is r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t , b e i n g m u c h m o r e "serious" a n d introspective), O ' H a n l o n combines D a r w i n ian science w i t h a k e e n sense o f t h e theatrical: his n a m * lives, like his p r e d e c e s s o r F l e m i n g ' s , a r e e x u b e r a n t b u r l e s q u e s , 11
r u n in-, i s W I I I I

1

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antics served u p in a " r a c y " l a n g u a g e a n d spiced w i t h " n a u g h t y " jokes. T h e B e n n y H i l l o f the tropics, O ' H a n l o n careens a r o u n d the rain forests o f B o r n e o a n d B r a z i l w i t h a n a l m o s t d e m e n t e d e n t h u s i a s m , tak i n g as m u c h p l e a s u r e i n l e e r i n g a t t h e l o c a l ( f e m a l e ) t a l e n t as h e d o e s i n sighting the latest rare a n i m a l o r b i r d . " I h a v e d e c i d e d , " says O ' H a n lon's sidekick in B o r n e o , t h e poet J a m e s F e n t o n (himself a travel w r i t e r ) , " t h a t t h e h u n t f o r o r n i t h o l o g i c a l r a r i t i e s is e s s e n t i a l l y f r i v o l o u s " (Borneo 143). S o i t p r o v e s , t o o , i n B r a z i l ; b u t t h e m o r e O ' H a n lon's c o m p a n i o n s rave a n d bluster a b o u t their u n c o m f o r t a b l e living c o n d i t i o n s , a b o u t the a b s u r d risks t h e y are t a k i n g , a b o u t the sheer stu pidity o f the exercise, t h e m o r e O ' H a n l o n enjoys himself, c o m f o r t e d t h a t t h e p e o p l e a r o u n d h i m a r e as u n b e a r a b l e as h i m s e l f . O ' H a n l o n ' s o u t r a g e o u s n e s s is, o f c o u r s e , a classic t r a v e l w r i t e r ' s posture; b y acting the b u f f o o n , he protects himself f r o m further h a r m (see c h a p . 1). W h i l e i n o n e s e n s e O ' H a n l o n is s u i g e n e r i s — t h e o d d e s t s p e c i e s i n t h e j u n g l e — i n a n o t h e r h e is f o l l o w i n g i n a t i m e - h o n o r e d t r a d i t i o n : t h a t o f t h e E u r o p e a n n a t u r a l i s t - e x p l o r e r . In Trouble Again begins w i t h a nalmost obligatory invocation o f H u m b o l d t , Bates, and W a l l a c e , O ' H a n l o n ' s h e r o e s , a n d t h r o u g h o u t h i s t r a v e l w r i t i n g lie does his u t m o s t t o keep their m e m o r y alive. I n so d o i n g , h e allows h i m s e l f t o b e s e e n — i n v i t e s o t h e r s t o see h i m — a s o u t o f d a t e : " Y o u live in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , " F e n t o n a d m o n i s h e s h i m i n B o r n e o . " E v e r y t h i n g ' s changed a r o u n d y o u , although y o u d o n ' t appear to n o t i c e " (Borneo 34). O ' H a n l o n d o e s n o t i c e , b u t h e p r e t e n d s n o t t o ; f o r the willful a n a c h r o n i s m that permeates his travel writing p a r a d o x i c a l l y e n s u r e s its ( a n d h i s o w n ) s u r v i v a l . B y p r e s e n t i n g h i m s e l f as a l i v i n g fossil, a s u r v i v o r f r o m a n o t h e r age, O ' H a n l o n d u l y grants h i m s e l f t h e p r i v i l e g e s o f h i s f o r e b e a r s . F o r e x a m p l e , h i s d e s c r i p t i o n i n In Trou ble Again o f h i s b r i e f s t a y a m o n g t h e Y a n o m a m i I n d i a n s another A m a z o n i a n i c o n — d r a w s self-consciously o n evolutionary a n t h r o p o l o g y t o r e i n f o r c e t h e sense o f his o w n c u l t u r a l s u p e r i o r i t y . T h e o b s e r vation o f "native rituals" provides him, too, with a further o p p o r t u n i t y f o r v o y e u r i s m as, h o m i n g i n o n the Y a n o m a m i w o m e n , he details t h e m a r k i n g s o n t h e i r f l e s h . T h i s f e t i s h i z a t i o n o f t h e " n a t i v e b o d y " is o f f e n s i v e o n m a n y levels, b u t O ' H a n l o n seeks refuge b y t u r n i n g t h e s t e r e o t y p e s b a c k o n h i m s e l f . T h u s , in a m o v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h i s t y p e o f p i c a r e s q u e t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e , h e o v e r t u r n s I he m o r e s o f his " c i v i l i z e d " s o c i e t y t o recast h i m s e l f as 11 b a r b a r i a n : " a h o r r i b l e n a k e d sav a g e " (In Trouble Again 194). N o n e l h e l c H M , w e l l u d h i m r e c u p e r a t i n g t h e m o r a l h i g h g r o u n d b y t h e c u d I n t h e f u n d p a r a g r a p h o f In 9

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Trouble Again, t h e u n e x p e c t e d d i s c o v e r y o f a t i n y b i r d ' s e g g a f f o r d s a wistful reminder o f the comforts o f h o m e : B e n e a t h the tropical sun o n T o u c a n Hill, ignorant, momentarily, like a Y a n o m a m i , o f the l a w s o f s c i e n c e , g a z i n g at t h a t little e g g , I m i g h t h a v e been l o o k i n g at one half o f an e m p t y eggshell, a message

of

b r o w n y - w h i t e , a p r e s e n t f r o m a mistle t h r u s h d r o p p e d at m y feet o n a Vicarage lawn.

(258)

B y a p p e a l i n g t o t h e t w i n discourses o f (positivist) science a n d ( H i g h C h u r c h ) religion, O ' H a n l o n reclaims a temporarily mislaid authority o v e r his " i g n o r a n t " i n d i g e n o u s subjects. B a s k i n g i n the k n o w l e d g e o f that authority, he allows himself a m o m e n t o f harmless distraction: t o associate the egg w i t h E n g l a n d m a y r u n c o u n t e r t o the rigorous laws o f W e s t e r n science—laws that the Y a n o m a m i , in their " p r i m i t i v e simplic ity," c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d — b u t such instances o f fanciful nostalgia a r e o n l y t e m p o r a r y a b e r r a t i o n s ; t h e y a r e p e r m i s s i b l e , t h a t is, w i t h i n t h e context o f an expedition that reconfirms the tried-and-tested m e t h o d s o f the W e s t . In Trouble Again p r o v i d e s a s e q u e n c e o f s u c h a b e r r a t i o n s ; as i f i n defiance o f the i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e logic o f W e s t e r n science, O ' H a n l o n ' s n a r r a t i v e h i g h l i g h t s t h e r i d i c u l o u s a n t i c s a n d w a y w a r d f a n t a s i e s o f its b l u n d e r i n g naturalist-hero. B u t f a r f r o m d i m i n i s h i n g his a u t h o r i t y , O ' H a n l o n ' s b u f f o o n e r y m e r e l y i n c r e a s e s it. S e c u r e i n t h e k n o w l e d g e o f his s o p h i s t i c a t i o n , O ' H a n l o n p e r m i t s h i m s e l f t h e l u x u r y o f p l a y i n g t h e f o o l . C h a r g i n g a b o u t the tropics w i t h his g r i n g o ' s m e d i c a l k i t a n d o u t d a t e d E u r o p e a n m a n u a l s , O ' H a n l o n sets h i m s e l f u p as a figure o f f u n ; b u t t h e l a s t l a u g h is o n u s , f o r h e a l s o k n o w s h i m s e l f t o b e a s e r i o u s sci entist. H o w e v e r eccentric his m e t h o d s , h o w e v e r o u t r a g e o u s his b e h a v i o r , O ' H a n l o n n e v e r loses s i g h t o f h i m s e l f a s a s c i e n t i s t ; n o r d o e s h e f o r g e t t h e privileges t h a t a c c r u e t o t h e W e s t e r n scientist i n t h e field. T h e w o n d e r s o f science p r o v i d e O ' H a n l o n w i t h a m o r e t h a n a d e q u a t e c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r the a g g r a v a t i o n s o f living in the jungle, instilling in h i m a fighting spirit t h a t a l l o w s h i m t o b o u n c e b a c k o f f the insults o f his " u n c o m p r e h e n d i n g " colleagues a n d r e t u r n , r e f r e s h e d , f o r m o r e . U s i n g the p o s e o f the "reckless a d v e n t u r e r in t h e t r o p i c s " as a c o v e r , O ' H a n l o n p r o c e e d s t o g o u n c h a s t e n e d a b o u t his s c i e n t i f i c b u s i n e s s . O ' H a n l o n succeeds i n t u r n i n g the stereotypical " b a d t r i p " ( F r a s e r ) i n t o a m u l t i f a c e t e d c o m e d y o f e r r o r s i n w h i c h t h e A m a z o n l e a f ures as a z o n e o f b e w i l d e r m e n t , b u t also o n e o f scientific e x p e r t i s e . T r a v e l b o o k s l i k e O ' l l a n l o n ' s o f f e r a r e m i n d e r t h a t the / o n e o f t h e ( A n i a / o n 11

1 0 U H H M •> w i i n

1

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IIIII

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i a n ) t r o p i c s h a s p r o v i d e d a f e r t i l e soil f o r t h e n o u r i s h i n g o f E u r o p e a n r o m a n t i c m y t h s . P e r s u a d i n g themselves that t h e tropics lends itself " n a t u r a l l y " t o h y p e r b o l e , self-styled " t r o p i c a l travelers" h a v e g i v e n free rein t o their c o n q u i s t a d o r i a l a m b i t i o n s a n d exoticist fantasies. Y e t i f t h e t r o p i c s c a n b e s e e n as a p l a y g r o u n d f o r t h e v o y e u r i s t i c E u r o p e a n i m a g i n a t i o n ( i n s e a r c h o f " w i l d n e s s " ) , it is a l s o a v a s t s a n c t u a r y f o r t h e naturalist ( i n search o f wildlife). P o i s e d b e t w e e n the fiction writer's desire t o i n v e n t n e w w o r l d s a n d t h e scientist's n e e d t o v e r i f y t h e k n o w n w o r l d , t r o p i c a l t r a v e l o g u e s s u c h as O ' H a n l o n ' s a d d t h e s u r v i v a l s k i l l s o f t h e s e a s o n e d t r a v e l e r — s k i l l s t h a t m a y t h e m s e l v e s b e seen as p a r t o f a r o m a n t i c m y t h — t o the k n o w l e d g e a n d expertise o f the professional naturalist. O ' H a n l o n ' s travel w r i t i n g thus m a k e s use o f the tropical z o n e t o recollect exotic ( m i s ) a d v e n t u r e , b u t also t o reinstate a u t h o r i t y in W e s t e r n s c i e n c e ' s n a m e . 12

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TWO:

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(JAPAN)

W h e r e a s " t h e t r o p i c s , " a s t r a v e l z o n e , is a n a r e a f r a u g h t w i t h v i r i l e d a n g e r , " t h e O r i e n t ' s " m y s t i q u e is o n e o f f e m i n i z e d s e x u a l a l l u r e . N o w h e r e m o r e s o t h a n i n J a p a n , figured i n m a n y m a l e e r o t i c f a n t a s i e s after the fashion o f the F r e n c h n a v a l officer Pierre L o t i w h o , arriving in N a g a s a k i f o r a f o u r - m o n t h v i s i t , s a w t h e c o u n t r y " o p e n e d t o o u r v i e w , t h r o u g h a f a i r y - t a l e r e n t , w h i c h t h u s a l l o w e d us t o p e n e t r a t e i n t o h e r v e r y h e a r t " ( 1 3 ) . S c h o o l b o o k s u s e d t o tell o f a n o t h e r a r r i v a l , C o m m o d o r e P e r r y ' s in T o k y o B a y , a n d o f his " o p e n i n g " o f J a p a n t o t h e A m e r i c a n a n d E u r o p e a n p o w e r s . I n L o t i ' s t e x t , t h e v e r b is u s e d i n t r a n sitively, indicating t h e e n c h a n t i n g disclosure o f s o m e t h i n g h i t h e r t o concealed, while the next verb, "penetrate," expands the m e t a p h o r w i t h suggestions o f possession a n d sexual conquest that are only implicit i n the historians' transitive f o r m o f " o p e n i n g . " T o g e t h e r , these m e t a p h o r s s u g g e s t a r a n g e o f s i g n i f i c a t i o n s f o r J a p a n as z o n e : m y s t e r i ous a n d e n c h a n t i n g , i n v i t i n g y e t resistant a n d , a b o v e all—like other " O r i e n t a l " z o n e s — f e m i n i n e . I n W e s t e r n representations, J a p a n has m o s t o f t e n figured as a n a l l u r i n g y e t e l u s i v e f e m i n i n e " o t h e r . " W r i t e r s h a v e generally eroticized the rituals a n d artifacts o f the c o n t a i n i n g cul t u r e , w h i l e f o c u s i n g t h e s e t h r o u g h a t t e m p t s t o l o c a t e a specific o t h e r i n fantasy a n d reality. B u t while " J a p a n e s e " icons like L o t i ' s M a d a m e C h r y s u n l h e m e a n d Puccini's M a d a m a Butterfly h a v e u n d e r g o n e sev eral i n c a r n a t i o n s , " J a p a n " i t s e l f ( h e r s e l f ? ) h a s p r o v e n s t u b b o r n l y resis-

1 ir 11

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t a n t t o p e n e t r a t i o n . F r o m the early writings o f L o t i t o the later n a r r a tives o f P i c o I y e r , J o h n D a v i d M o r l e y , a n d R o l a n d B a r t h e s , t h e i m p r e s s i o n is o n e o f o b s e r v e r s w h o h a v e b a r e l y s c r a t c h e d t h e s u r f a c e . F r o m L o t i o n , t r a v e l e r s h a v e s e i z e d u p o n w h a t lies c l o s e s t t o t h e W e s t e r n p o p u l a r i m a g i n a r y t o c o n s t r u c t J a p a n as a z o n e : n a m e l y , r o m a n c e a n d e r o t i c i s m . ' L o t i , w h o s e Madame Chrysantheme pre sented a n early a n d influential image o f J a p a n , consistently exploited t h e e r o t i c p o t e n t i a l o f p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a v e l ; as a F r e n c h n a v a l o f f i c e r h e v i s i t e d a n d w r o t e a b o u t T a h i t i , S e n e g a l , a n d T u r k e y , as w e l l as J a p a n . ' I n N a g a s a k i , L o t i claimed t h e institutionalized privilege o f taking a t e m p o r a r y J a p a n e s e " w i f e , " C h r y s a n t h e m u m . I t is c o m m o n t o r e a d L o t i ' s b o o k r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y t h r o u g h t h e lens o f t h e P u c c i n i o p e r a it i n d i r e c t l y i n s p i r e d . B u t o t h e r m o t i f s o f Madame Chrysantheme o v e r s h a d o w the initial r o m a n t i c premise. L o t i ' s c o n d e s c e n d i n g friendship w i t h h i s j u n i o r s i d e k i c k Y v e s is u l t i m a t e l y m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n h i s a r r o g a n t m a t i n g w i t h C h r y s a n t h e m e ( K i k o u - S a n ) , w h i c h seems a l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y i r k s o m e t o h i m . L o t i anticipates m a n y later writers in c o n s t i t u t i n g J a p a n a s a f e m i n i n e w o r l d , o b j e c t i f y i n g its w o m e n a n d r e d u c i n g its m e n , w h o r e s e m b l e " n o t h i n g s o m u c h as d a n c i n g m o n k e y s " (83). H e u n d e r c u t s h i s s u r f a c e c e l e b r a t i o n o f J a p a n as a l i b i d i n a l territory b y a c o n t i n u o u s process o f m i n i a t u r i z a t i o n in w h i c h J a p a n e s e w o m e n b e c o m e " l i t t l e N i p p o n e s e d o l l s " (74). I f , h e c o n c e d e s , " I r e a l l y m a k e a s a d a b u s e o f t h e a d j e c t i v e little," 3

4

I a m q u i t e a w a r e o f it, b u t h o w c a n I d o o t h e r w i s e ? I n d e s c r i b i n g t h i s c o u n t r y , t h e t e m p t a t i o n is t o o g r e a t t o u s e it t e n t i m e s i n e v e r y w r i t ten line. Little,

finical,

affected— all J a p a n is c o n t a i n e d , b o t h p h y s i

c a l l y a n d m o r a l l y , in these three w o r d s .

(242)

F a r f r o m b e i n g a n e x c e l l e n t g u i d e t o J a p a n t o d a y , as o n e r e c e n t e d i t o r characterizes h i m , ' L o t i shows t h r o u g h his constant belittling his inability t o engage with J a p a n — a people a n d culture with which " w e [ E u r o p e a n s ] h a v e a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g i n c o m m o n " (184). 5

W h i l e L o t i is t h e l i t e r a r y p r e c u r s o r o f m a n y s u b s e q u e n t c h r o n i c l e r s o f J a p a n , h e is b y n o m e a n s f o u n d a t i o n a l i n c o n s t r u c t i n g it a s a n imaginative zone. A craze for things Japanese was flourishing in E u r o p e a n c a p i t a l s d u r i n g t h e 1880s; w h a t L o t i o b s e r v e d w a s a l r e a d y f a m i l iar f r o m " t h e p a i n t i n g s o f l a c q u e r a n d p o r c e l a i n " he h a d seen at h o m e (42). L o t i ' s r e s p o n s e t o w h a t h e l a b e l s t h e J a p a n e s e " a r t o f d e c o r a t i o n " (327) a n d , o n a l a r g e r s c a l e , t o E u r o p e a n fin d e siecle d e c a d e n c e , is a m b i v a l e n t . W h i l e h e a n t i c i p a t e s R o l a n d B a r t h e s in j u d g i n g s o m e 1 6

•<'

TOURIMTa WITH TYtMtWUI lli>.

d e s i g n s h e sees t o b e " t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f a n u n k n o w n a r t , t h e s u b v e r s i o n o f a l l a c q u i r e d n o t i o n s o f f o r m " (186), o v e r a l l h e f i n d s t h e a r t t o b e " e n t i r e l y c o n v e n t i o n a l " (298), d e c o r a t i v e b u t c h e a p , t r i v i a l p r e c i s e l y i n its f e m i n i n i t y . L o t i ' s simple story o f W e s t e r n sailor d a l l y i n g w i t h the d e p e n d e n t affections o f Japanese m a i d e n was t o b e c o m e the p o w e r f u l archetype for a version o f Western Orientalism. Later Puccini, via J o h n L u t h e r L o n g a n d D a v i d B e l a s c o , raised it t o a n e v e n h i g h e r p i t c h i n his r o m a n tic o p e r a Madama Butterfly. P u c c i n i ' s o p e r a raises t h e stakes b y t r a n s f o r m i n g L o t i ' s generic W e s t e r n sailor into a successor t o C o m m o d o r e P e r r y , L i e u t e n a n t P i n k e r t o n o f the U . S . n a v y . A f f a i r s take a tragic t u r n : the y o u n g n a v a l officer takes an A m e r i c a n wife after a b a n d o n i n g his J a p a n e s e mistress C h o - C h o S a n , w h o s e s o n ( b y P i n k e r t o n ) b e a r s t h e m e l o d r a m a t i c n a m e o f S o r r o w . M o r e p o i g n a n t l y still, C h o C h o S a n , a l l h e r r o m a n t i c i l l u s i o n s d i s p e l l e d , t a k e s h e r o w n life. Madama Butterfly r e i n f o r c e s s o m e o f L o t i ' s p o w e r f u l s t e r e o t y p e s w i t h out i n v o k i n g L o t i ' s brutal m i s o g y n y a n d c o n t e m p t f o r Japanese cul t u r e . B u t a s f a r a s c u l t u r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n is c o n c e r n e d , t h e effect is pretty m u c h the same: W e s t e r n m e n travel E a s t t o " o p e n u p " a culture t h a t is b e g u i l i n g , e l u s i v e , " o t h e r " ; t h e y c o u r t its f r a g i l e w o m e n ; a n d then t h e y - - often a b r u p t l y leave. J a p a n as i m a g i n a t i v e z o n e e n c o u r ages t e m p o r a r y e n g a g e m e n t , f o l l o w e d s h o r t l y b y d i s e n t a n g l e m e n t a n d nostalgia in retreat. 11

L o t i ' s J a p a n continues t o h a u n t several c o n t e m p o r a r y travel nar r a t i v e s l i k e , f o r e x a m p l e , P i c o I y e r ' s The Lady and the Monk (1991), even a l l o w i n g f o r the later w o r k ' s greater subtlety a n d m o r e n u a n c e d t o n e . I y e r ' s b o o k is i n f o r m e d b y a p e r c e p t i v e o u t s i d e r ' s a n a l y s i s o f J a p a n e s e c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s ; b u t i t is d o m i n a t e d , f o r a l l t h a t , b y t h e writer's fervid r o m a n t i c i m a g i n a r y , p r o d u c i n g layers o f self-conscious f a n t a s y i n a m u l t i l e v e l n a r r a t i v e . W i t h i n this n a r r a t i v e , I y e r locates t w o J a p a n s , t h e " s o l a r " a n d t h e " l u n a r . " S o l a r J a p a n is " a t o y l a n d g o n e berserk w i t h a n intensity that could n o t h a v e been further f r o m the l y r i c a l l a n d I i m a g i n e d " (5), a n d a n a t i o n p o i s e d t o c o n t r o l t h e g l o b a l e c o n o m y , a "collective rising s u n o f e c o n o m i c p o w e r " ( 7 ) . L u n a r J a p a n , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , is r o m a n t i c a n d m y s t i c a l . T h e t r a d i t i o n s o f K y o t o , H o k u s a i prints, a n d K a w a b a l a n o v e l s are p a r t o f this J a p a n ; so t o o a r e " t h e r a i n y - n i g h t lyrics o f J a p a n e s e w o m e n , [ a n d ] t h e c l e a r w a t e r h a i k u o f i t i n e r a n t / e n m o n k s " (<j). K y o t o , a " t e m p l e d c i t y t h a t h a d b e e n t h e c a p i t a l f o r a I b o u m i i l d v e n t ' s " (12), is w h e r e I y e r b e g i n s his q u e s t l o j o i n h i m s e l f t o it l a n l i o i y t h a t w e m N t o stir s o m e t h i n g in h i s •1

:I|

o w n past. H e finds t h e B u d d h i s t t e m p l e w h e r e he m a k e s his first h o m e s i t u a t e d i n t h e d i s t r i c t o f w h a t is v a r i o u s l y c a l l e d " t h e w a t e r t r a d e , " "the

floating

w o r l d , " a n d "the pleasure quarters," and imagines he will

live t h e link, celebrated in literature a n d c o n f i r m e d in e t y m o l o g y , b e t w e e n the w o r l d s o f m o n k a n d g e i s h a - c o n c u b i n e . H e clinches this l i n k b y c i t i n g o n e o f B a s h o ' s classic h a i k u s : " A t t h e s a m e i n n / P l a y w o m e n t o o w e r e s l e e p i n g / B u s h c l o v e r a n d t h e m o o n " (21). H e t h u s sets u p f o r a n a r r a t i v e t h a t w i l l i n d u l g e b o t h a r e l i g i o u s t e x t ( B u d d h i s t monasteries, Z e n m o n k s ) a n d a romantic-erotic one, a n d will bring the t w o into m u t u a l play. B u t the temple belongs m o r e t o "solar" than t o " l u n a r " J a p a n , a n d I y e r stays o n l y briefly. Its t w o resident m o n k s are a e u n u c h a n d a n albino: t h e one clad in a M i c k e y M o u s e T-shirt a n d scooting a r o u n d o n a tricycle; the o t h e r s h o w i n g snapshots o f h i m s e l f i n f a m o u s w o r l d cities; b o t h o f t h e m T V a d d i c t s . I y e r q u i c k l y e s c a p e s f r o m this f e m i n i z e d , infantilistic cloister, m o v i n g t o a n a p a r t m e n t o n the o t h e r side o f the city. I m m e r s i o n i n t h e w o r l d o f t h e m o n k seems d i f f i c u l t ; b u t t h e n p e r h a p s I y e r is less i n t e r e s t e d i n m e d i a t i n g J a p a n e s e t r a d i t i o n s a n d a n c i e n t Z e n p r a c t i c e s t h a n h e is i n i n v o k i n g t h e idea o f t h e m o n k as a p o i n t o f s e l f - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f the romantic-erotic text. G i v e n Iyer's t e n d e n c y t o assimilate J a p a n t o his o w n n o s t a l g i a f o r a l o s t h o m e , i t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t h e r e f e r s t h e c o u n t r y h e v i s i t s i n t h e late t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y b a c k t o the celebrated H e i a n c o u r t culture o f nearly a t h o u s a n d years before. H u g h C o r t a z z i has defined the H e i a n p e r i o d a s elitist, " c r e a t e d b y a s m a l l h e r e d i t a r y a r i s t o c r a c y , w h o w e r e largely divorced f r o m t h e agricultural e c o n o m y w h i c h p r o v i d e d t h e e c o n o m i c basis f o r their existence," a n d cultist, p r o d u c i n g " a n aes t h e t i c c u l t o f b e a u t y i n n a t u r e a n d a r t " (40). I y e r uses t h e l y r i c a l s e t pieces o f h i s n a r r a t i v e , f e a t u r i n g t h e m o o n , w a t e r , l o v e r s , g i g g l i n g g i r l s , a n d p l a y f u l c h i l d r e n , t o t e x t u a l i z e the " H e i a n v i s i o n I h a d s o u g h t since c h i l d h o o d " (338). T h i s v i s i o n p r o v i d e s s c o p e i n t u r n f o r O r i e n t a l i s t f e m i n i z i n g , as I y e r , e x p l o i t i n g the b i n a r y o p p o s i t i o n o f m o n k versus l a d y , teases i t i n t o a p l a y o f s e d u c t i o n a n d r e s i s t a n c e , " l a d y t e m p t i n g m o n k , m o n k r e n o u n c i n g l a d y " (98). I y e r ' s C h r y s a n t h e m u m is S a c h i k o , a r o u n d thirty, m o t h e r o ft w o children, married to a salaryman. F r o m t h e m o m e n t I y e r m e e t s S a c h i k o , she carries the b u r d e n o f m e d i a t i n g the " r i d d l e " o f H e i a n J a p a n . S a c h i k o has m o r e roles t o p l a y , o f c o u r s e , than that o f H e i a n L a d y t o Iyer's M o n k . B u t while Iyer concedes " a sense o f t h e t i g h t l y d r a w n l i m i t s o f a J a p a n e s e w o n m n ' s l i f e " (H9). h e p r o b e s t h e s e o n l y in r e l a t i o n t o his f a n t a s y o f M u p m i w i W W O t u n n , " »'

Miuitlkl

N UM 111 J V '".uiul'IIHJIli

Housewife, mother, Sting fan, avid moviegoer, Sachiko embodies t h e e n i g m a o f " J a p a n e s e w o m a n , " o f J a p a n itself/herself. I y e r r e p r e sents t h i s u p d a t e d C h r y s a n t h e m u m a s a f i g u r e o f c o m i c p a t h o s , i n w h o m A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e is a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o m i n i a t u r i z e d J a p a n e s e frames. L o t i ' s condescension resurfaces in Iyer's pidgin v e n t r i l o q u i s m ; h e r e , f o r e x a m p l e , is S a c h i k o r e c o u n t i n g h e r v i s i t t o The Sound of Music: " I v e r y s c a r e d . A l l d a r k . M a n y p e r s o n t h e r e . B u t t h e n , film b e g i n , I s o o n f o r g e t . I m u c h l o v e . I d r e a m I J u l i e A n d r e w s " (89). W h e n Iyer responds in a similar pidgin, h e seems t o a c k n o w l e d g e the a s y m m e t r y i n v o l v e d i n this k i n d o f literary r o m a n c e : " ' B u t d r e a m w o r l d n o t so g o o d , ' I r e p l i e d , r e f l e c t i n g h e r E n g l i s h b a c k t o h e r . . . . I r e a l i z e d t h a t I m u s t be s o u n d i n g b i z a r r e l y like R i c h a r d C h a m b e r l a i n addressing t h e a b o r i g i n e s i n The Last Wave" (252). H a v i n g ruled o u t a n y engagement with a J a p a n that might pose a t h r e a t t o A m e r i c a n e c o n o m i c h e g e m o n y , I y e r is free t o c o n s t r u c t it o u t o f s c r a p s o f l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n a n d a n u r b a n c u l t u r e p i c t u r e d as v u l g a r i z e d f a i r y tale. F o r I y e r , S a c h i k o personifies b o t h t h e H e i a n a n d t h e W a l t D i s n e y Japans. Sachiko's "soft femininity" allows h i m t o project J a p a n as a n a l l u r i n g r e a l m t h a t m a k e s n o significant p u r c h a s e o n h i m ; h e is f r e e t o c o m e a n d g o , a n d finally t o l e a v e , w h i l e t h i s m y t h i c i z e d " J a p a n " c o n t i n u e s t o e x i s t i n t h e f o r m it h a d a l r e a d y t a k e n o n t h e clay o f his a r r i v a l . N o m a t t e r h o w s e n s i t i v e , s e l f - r e f l e x i v e , a n d k n o w l e d g e a b l e h e is a s t r a v e l e r a n d c u l t u r a l c o m m e n t a t o r , I y e r f a i l s t o c h a l l e n g e e n d u r i n g O r i e n t a l i s t m y t h s " o f s t r o n g m a n l i n e s s a n d soft f e m i n i n i t y a n d thedoctrine o f male supremacy . . . invented during the samuraim i l i t a r i s t p e r i o d s " ( M i y o s h i 196). H e d o e s , h o w e v e r , s u c c e e d i n e v a c u a t i n g t h e Japanese m a l e f r o m t h e ( O r i e n t a l ) z o n e . W h i l e S a c h i k o is s p a r e d C h r y s a n t h e m u m ' s l u t e , I y e r l e a v e s h e r j u s t as s u r e l y c o n t a i n e d b y W e s t e r n r o m a n c e . S t e p b y s t e p h e l e a d s h e r to recognize h e r subjection t o the d r e a m w o r l d o f the media. A t the end, she plans t o divorce h e r — a l r e a d y i n v i s i b l e — h u s b a n d , has trained to b e a t o u r g u i d e , a n d h a s e v e n p l u c k e d u p c o u r a g e t o t a k e a t o u r a b r o a d w i t h h e r " s a v i o r " P i c o . I y e r r e v e a l i n g l y r e m a r k s that s h e h a s b e e n " c l e a r l y c a p t i v e t o n o t h i n g but h e r s i t u a t i o n , c a p t i v e t o J a p a n , in f a c t " (265). S o I y e r h a s " r e s c u e d " S a c h i k o , b u t o n l y f r o m the z o n e o f his o w n e n c h a n t m e n t . H e then g o e s o n l o cite t w o p o w e r f u l l y m a n i p u -

l a l i v e m y t h s , c o m m e n t i n g I tin 1 classical n o v e l i s t s d w e l l u p o n y o u n g w o m e n " m o s t l y f o r t h e use t h e y i n a d o o l ' l h e i n , p y g m a l i o n i z i n g llieni. t r e a t i n g t h e m ns f l o w e r s a l u m n i "

a n d I'nnliiHizing t h a t

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" w u s a k i n d o f s l e e p i n g h o m i l y a w t i J H M i c d b y H n u a n c e " (i;,;t). S u c h a n a

lytic e m b r o i d e r y suggests that Iyer's c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n " o t h e r " ( O r i e n t a l ) c u l t u r e seeks t h o s e f a m i l i a r satisfactions o f t r a v e l

writing—nos

t a l g i a , f a n t a s y , p o w e r — t h a t a r e d e p e n d e n t o n c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d selec tive m o d e s o f experience. J o h n D a v i d M o r l e y ' s Pictures from the Water Trade (1985), i n c o n trast, d e m o n s t r a t e s that the travel b o o k can d r a w familiar items f r o m a collective image-reservoir o f the exotic a n d m e d i a t e t h e m

through

personal experience t o p r o d u c e a culturally richer d o c u m e n t . M o r l e y ' s b o o k is t e c h n i c a l l y a n o v e l s i n c e its t r a v e l e r - p r o t a g o n i s t is t h e t h i r d p e r s o n B o o n , b u t its p r o v i s i o n o f a p e r s o n a f o r t h e t r a v e l e r a n d o f a m o t i v a t i o n f o r t r a v e l , a n d its u s e o f i l l u s t r a t i v e a n e c d o t e s f o r e t h n o graphic reflection, are evidence o f the travel narrative, delivered in a n i n n o v a t i v e f o r m . B y creating the character o f B o o n , M o r l e y achieves a d o u b l e d d i s t a n c e f r o m his n a r r a t i v e m a t e r i a l : B o o n e x p e r i e n c e s J a p a n , a n d M o r l e y reports B o o n ' s reflections. A n d unlike so m a n y o t h e r travel writers, M o r l e y presents a J a p a n o f conceptual difference, o f codes n o t i m m e d i a t e l y accessible t o a m a t e u r W e s t e r n e t h n o g r a p h y . M o r l e y ' s n a r r a t i v e finds its p l a c e w i t h i n a n e x p a n d i n g s u b g e n r e 8

o f travel writing, the"visiting teacher-student" a c c o u n t : ' h e w e n t t o J a p a n o r i g i n a l l y o n a c u l t u r a l s c h o l a r s h i p a n d spent p a r t o f his t h r e e y e a r s t a y t e a c h i n g E n g l i s h . T h e i m p l i e d p r e m i s e o f t h i s s u b g e n r e is t h a t t h e p e d a g o g i c a l v i s i t is i n i t s e l f h e u r i s t i c ,

a n d problematic

aspects o f the process o f acquiring insider k n o w l e d g e o f a different culture are duly f o r e g r o u n d e d . M o r l e y underlines the provisionality o f his experiment in cultural investigation, consistently

exposing

B o o n ' s incomplete knowledge and emphasizing h o w cultural under s t a n d i n g u n d e r g o e s c o n t i n u o u s r e v i s i o n . Pictures

from

the

Water

Trade t h u s c o n s t r u c t s a l i b e r a t i n g p l a y b e t w e e n its p r o t a g o n i s t ' s c o o l self-confidence a n d t h e d a w n i n g sense o f a c u l t u r a l z o n e t h a t p r o v e s resistant t o d e c o d i n g . A s its title indicates, M o r l e y ' s b o o k shares a central t r o p e w i t h m o s t W e s t e r n travel b o o k s a b o u t J a p a n — a strongly eroticized z o n e . W h i l e B o o n / M o r l e y , u n l i k e L o t i a n d I y e r , d o e s n o t excise o t h e r m e n f r o m t h e z o n e , h e still c e n t e r s t h e t e x t o n M a r i k o , t h e t a r g e t o f h i s p a r ticular sexual quest, a n d o n t h e " w a t e r t r a d e " (also k n o w n as t h e " f l o a t i n g w o r l d " ) as a n e n v e l o p i n g c o n t e x t f o r h i s e r o t i c a d v e n t u r e s . E v e n w h e n M o r l e y focuses o n c u l t u r a l practices (shodo),

like

these suggest erotic experience. H i s m o s t insistent

calligraphy nietonym

f o r J a p a n e s e e r o t i c s is t h e n a p e o f t h e n e c k ( " J a p a n e s e w o m e n s h o w e d themselves m o s t beautiful w h e r e they were also most v u l n e r a b l e " IK7]), Kfi

1111!u 1 s i s w i i i i rvi-i'wwi'l 1 1

b u t , as h e d e m o n s t r a t e s , a great m a n y t h i n g s — n o t just parts o f the b o d y — c a n i n d e x the erotic: B o o n still h a d n o i n k l i n g o f the b r e a d t h a n d r e s o n a n c e o f

shodo.

h i m it w a s l a r g e l y t h e s e n s u a l f r i c t i o n o f c o n t r a s t s , b l a c k a n d wet-dry, hard-soft. flush,

The dark

illicit s e x u a l i t y w i t h w h i c h

For

white,

shodo

was

the r a m p a n t b r u s h spilling o n t o the p a g e , all this h a d e x c i t e d h i m

f r o m t h e v e r y s t a r t , a n d b y c h a n c e it c l a s h e d w i t h a d i s c o v e r y h e m a d e at a b o u t the s a m e time he t o o k up

shodo.

After three or four

inert

m o n t h s he h a d a w o k e n to the attractiveness o f J a p a n e s e w o m e n .

(86)

Passages like this o n e d r a w a clear c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the erotics o f cultural practices a n d t h e potentially sexual n a t u r e o f cross-cultural encounters. A n d , i n contrast with Iyer, w h o overlays his relationship w i t h S a c h i k o w i t h o b f u s c a t i n g layers o f r o m a n t i c sentimentality, M o r ley describes t h e B o o n - M a r i k o r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h c a n d o r w h i l e using t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s it a f f o r d s f o r i n t e r r o g a t i n g r o m a n t i c c o n v e n t i o n s in different cultures. M o r l e y m o v e s easily f r o m experiential n a r r a t i v e t h r o u g h analysis to c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n o f the particular p h e n o m e n o n w i t h i n b r o a d e r cul t u r a l structures. T h e w a t e r t r a d e , f o r i n s t a n c e , p r o d u c e s specific p r a c tices i n r e l a t i o n t o c u l t u r a l i d e o l o g y . I n a n a l y z i n g o n e p a r t i c u l a r l y v i v i d e p i s o d e , i n w h i c h B o o n / M o r l e y visits a c a b a r e t w h e r e the e x t e n t o f the c l i e n t s ' " f r e e d o m " is t o f o n d l e t h e e m p l o y e e s ' b r e a s t s . M o r l e y sees t h e c a b a r e t as a n a n t i - O e d i p a l i n s t i t u t i o n o f m o t h e r s a n d d a u g h t e r s w h e r e the phallic a s p i r a t i o n s o f m a l e c u s t o m e r s m u s t b e " k e p t u n d e r I he c o u n t e r . " W h a t B o o n / M o r l e y sees is a m y t h a s o l d as h u m a n i t y . . . T h e desire for m o t h e r s a n d sisters, real e n o u g h but afraid o f censure, defied t a b o o u n d e r the veil o f s y m b o l . T h e p a r t n e r s o f desire w e r e m o t h e r s a n d sisters in n o m o r e t h a n n a m e ; it w a s o n l y p l a y . I n t h i s w a t e r y m y t h o l o g i c a l l a n d s c a p e t h e r e w a s n o Laius,

and

hence

no

Oedipus.

Sage

mamas

prevented

sons

putting o u t their eyes b y k e e p i n g fathers eternally o u t o f sight.

from (214)

T h e d i s c o v e r y t h a t " t h e a n d r o g y n o u s w o r d chichi. .. w a s a h o m o n y m , e i t h e r b r e a s t o r f a t h e r b u t n o t b o t h a t t h e s a m e t i m e " (213) m a k e s t h e analysis plausible. T h e d e n s e s t c u l t u r a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t f o r M o r l e y is t h e i n s i d e r / o u t s i d e r o p p o s i t i o n . T h e u r g e l o u n d e r s l a n d t h i s o p p o s i t i o n as f u l l y a s p o s s i b l e p r e s e n t s a m n l o r l u l c h a l l e n g e l o h i m , since it b e a r s u p o n his o w n q u e s t a t o m r c i i l l n r t i l a n d s e x u a l t o b e c o m e a n i n s i d e r . T h e b o o k s u g g e s t s t h a i MIR i p i n l hi p i i M l v s u c c e s s f u l , b u t e v e n Y 1 1

N1

so M o r l e y recognizes t h a t n o visitor c a n " p e n e t r a t e " a n o t h e r culture. T h a t r e c o g n i t i o n , a n d t h e w a y i n w h i c h i t is p r e s e n t e d a s e v o l v i n g , a r e further indications o f the narrator's candor. M u c h o f w h a t [ B o o n ] h a d l e a r n e d a n d t h o u g h t he h a d a c q u i r e d f r o m the J a p a n e s e character a n d w a y o f life w a s o n l y a precious veneer, s o m e t h i n g o n t h e surface w h i c h i n his heart h e d i d n o t share. A s i f this insight h a d disqualified h i m in his o w n eyes B o o n b e g a n t o feel a l m o s t like a n i m p o s t e r a m o n g his J a p a n e s e friends. W h a t w e r e these things h e c o u l d n o t share. R u e f u l l y h e h a d t o a d m i t t h a t h e d i d n o t k n o w . H i s claims t o f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h J a p a n e s e culture w e r e u n f o u n d e d . (186-87) R o l a n d B a r t h e s , w h o s e Empire of Signs (1970) h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d as " o n e o f t h e m o s t r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t t r a v e l b o o k s e v e r w r i t t e n " ( P o r t e r 228), w o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e a p p r o v e d o f t h e a g n o s t i c i s m M o r ley attributes t o B o o n . F o r B a r t h e s , E u r o p e ' s e n g a g e m e n t w i t h " o t h e r ness," d e m o n s t r a t e d in a n a r r a y o f scientific a n d nonscientific

dis

c o u r s e s , " m a n i f e s t s ] t h e d e s t i n y o f o u r [ E u r o p e a n ] n a r c i s s i s m " (4): i n o t h e r w o r d s , w h e n E u r o p e e n c o u n t e r s d i f f e r e n c e , it i n e v i t a b l y sets i n m o t i o n a process assimilating the unfamiliar t o t h e E u r o p e a n k n o w n . A s i a is a c a s e i n p o i n t : " W e " e n d u p " a l w a y s a c c l i m a t i n g o u r i n c o g nizance o f A s i a b y m e a n s o f certain k n o w n languages (the O r i e n t o f V o l t a i r e , o f t h e Revue Asiatique,

o f P i e r r e L o t i , o f Air France)"

(4). I n

his travel b o o k , t h e n , B a r t h e s t u r n s L o t i ' s f a n t a s y o f p e n e t r a t i n g t o the v e r y h e a r t o f J a p a n inside o u t . M o r l e y r e c o g n i z e s that J a p a n , as z o n e , is d e f i n e d i n c o d e s h e c a n n o t p e n e t r a t e ; B a r t h e s ' s c o n c e i t is r a t h e r t h a t t h e s e c o d e s , f a r f r o m s t i m u l a t i n g p e n e t r a t i v e d e s i r e , insist o n s u r f a c e a n d p l a n e . J a p a n attracts precisely b e c a u s e it contests t h e W e s t e r n drive f o r understanding and mastery, f o r penetrating to the cultural " h e a r t . " I t challenges W e s t e r n semiological systems, especially the o n e t h a t seeks t o c o n t a i n difference b y s i t u a t i n g it w i t h i n a r i g i d b i n a r y o f (Western) masculine and (Oriental) feminine. Empire of Signs is n o t a c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y o r d e r e d n a r r a t i v e , b u t r a t h e r a c o l l e c t i o n o f e s s a y s t h a t p r o c e e d s t h r o u g h a series o f a p p a r ently arbitrary topics: f o o d , city plans a n d m a p s , packages, B u n r a k u theater, Z e n a n d t h e h a i k u , faces a n d b o d i e s , a n d s o o n . T o k y o , w h i c h B a r t h e s c h a r a c t e r i z e s as " i n itself a n a m a z i n g m a s s o f e t h n o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l " (Grain of the Voice 264)—a c i t y " h e e n j o y e d . . . w i t h o u t the b a d faith o f an ethnologist w h o goes to e x a m i n e foreign c o u n t r i e s " (230)

d r a w s the material into t h e collusiveness o f (he

KH

lOliJUSTS W i l l i

I VI'ltW

c o n v e n t i o n a l travel b o o k . But Barthes d i s a v o w s any intention

to

actually represent Japan; he invites the reader instead to accept " J a p a n " as a semiotic system, a fantasy z o n e constructed from " a cer tain n u m b e r o f [distinguishing] features" (Empire

of Signs 3). N e v e r

theless, Barthes's empire o f signs does signify, and in contexts that are similar to those o f m o r e o r t h o d o x travel b o o k s . T a k e his assertion that "in that c o u n t r y 1 am calling Japan sexuality is in sex, not else w h e r e , " whereas in the U n i t e d States, "sex is everywhere, except in sexuality" (28-29). But for Barthes, as for M o r l e y , the " e l s e w h e r e " that does not exist in sex is in eroticism—an eroticism that infuses hosts o f cultural practices and p r o d u c t i o n s . T h u s , he talks o f "the pure . . . erotic project o f the Japanese b o d y " (10); c h o p s t i c k s are " s o m e t h i n g maternal . . . the instrument never pierces, cuts, or si its. never w o u n d s but only selects, turns, shifts" (16); vegetables an: "garbed in an aesthetic n a k e d n e s s " (19); a calligraphy brush "has the carnal, lubrified flexibility o f the h a n d " (86); and, m o r e startling, lie gives us the "the i m a g e o f a n a k e d Japanese b o y , tied up very neatly like a sausage: the sadistic intent . . . absorbed in the practice o f an extreme art: that o f the p a c k a g e , o f fastening"

(45). T h e cult 11 nil

seduction registered here is not, after all, so very different from tinone w e find in Iyer's and M o r l e y ' s a c c o u n t s . Barthes's " J a p a n " is not a country so much as it is a pretext foi rejecting Western sign systems that encode "the rights o f the T a l l i n tongue"" (6). T h i s West, phallic and patriarchal, "moistens everyl.hin with meaning . . . i m p o s i n g ] baptism on entire peoples" (70): its " w a y s of interpretation are intended to pierce m e a n i n g " (72). A l l y i n g himself with other French poststructuralists o f the period (Derrida, Lacan, KLristeva), Barthes uses Japan to celebrate the kind o f play with signifiers that produces w h a t these theorists call puissance—•& rebels against the authority.'

9

fixed

play that

signification they associate with cullunil

W h e n Barthes describes a Japanese body, in fairly ordi

nary circumstances, as "sustaining] with y o u a sort o f b a b b l e " (10), he is p r o b a b l y alluding to the form o f pre-Oedipal babble (explicated by Lacan and Kristeva) that functions as a m o d e o f intimate connection between infant and mother, and that is brielly available before llu: baby is forced into the phallic world (hat I.acan calls "the Symbolic order."

Dennis

Porter,

in

Haunted

Journeys,

explains

Barlhes's

improbable rhapsody over cliopslii'kN in terms of his celebration of a maternalized Japan:

MMM

M-

C h o p s t i c k s r e a w a k e n i n B a r t h e s t h e pleasures o f o r a l i t y a n d o f t h e m o t h e r ' s b o d y f r o m w h i c h w e are separated a t the m o m e n t o f o u r weaning and o u r entry into paternal language o r the symbolic order . . . [ T h e y represent a] f a n t a s y . . . o f d y a d i c p l e n i t u d e a n d a breast that is a l w a y s there. (298-99) O r a l i t y thus becomes a privileged alternative to the overdetermined c o d e s o f W e s t e r n w r i t i n g ; it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g , i n t h i s c o n t e x t , t h a t B a r t h e s t a k e s p a r t i c u l a r p l e a s u r e i n not u n d e r s t a n d i n g a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e , a n d i n i n t u i t i n g its c h a l l e n g e — b e y o n d t h e t y r a n n y o f " m e a n i n g " — t o t h e " f a t h e r t o n g u e . " W h i l e Empire of Signs c a n c e r t a i n l y b e seen as a different k i n d o f travel n a r r a t i v e , P o r t e r ' s c l a i m t h a t " i t m a r k s a n e n d o f t r a v e l l i t e r a t u r e as w e h a v e k n o w n it i n t h e W e s t " is e x c e s s i v e ( i n ) . A l t h o u g h B a r t h e s ' s r o m a n t i c i z a t i o n o f J a p a n is v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m , s a y , I y e r ' s i n d u l g e n t s e n t i m e n t a l i s m , h i s b o o k still b e a r s w i t h i n its e m p i r e t h e f a m i l i a r s i g n s o f ( e x o t i c ) r o m a n c e . I f t h e b o o k is m a r k e d b y t h e particular grace, playfulness, a n d intelligence that B a r t h e s h a s a t h i s d i s p o s a l , it is n o t s o u n u s u a l i n s u b j e c t i n g J a p a n e s e c u l t u r a l f o r m s t o s y m p a t h e t i c scrutiny. A n d it d o e s after a l l — i n e v i t a b l y i n a c c u r a t e l y — r e p r e s e n t aspects o f a n actual culture while t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e site o f t h a t c u l t u r e i n t o a n i m a g i n a t i v e z o n e . B a r t h e s c o n t i n u a l l y r e m i n d s his readers that t h e J a p a n e s e sign h a s n o referent t h a t h e w i l l c l a i m f o r it. B u t o f c o u r s e t h e s i g n d o e s r e f e r : i t s r e f e r e n t is f o u n d w i t h i n the context o f Barthes's rejection o f W e s t e r n semiology, w i t h its r a g e f o r " m e a n i n g , " j o i n i n g w i t h a. p a r t i c u l a r p e r s p e c t i v e o n J a p a n as a culture saturated w i t h n o n s i g n i f y i n g codes. I f a feature o f t r a v e l w r i t i n g is its p r o p e n s i t y f o r e s c a p i s m , t h e n Empire of Signs t a k e s u p its p l a c e within, a s w e l l a s a g a i n s t , t h e g e n r e ; a n d i f a f e a t u r e o f O r i e n t a l i s t t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s is c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e O r i e n t a s f e m i n i n e , t h e n B a r t h e s ' s b o o k c e r t a i n l y o c c u p i e s s p a c e as a n O r i e n t a l i z i n g t e x t . A s L i s a L o w e has concluded a b o u t such narratives, A n a n t i t e x t t o the W e s t [ , ] . . . J a p a n is u l t i m a t e l y n o t a n " a t o p i a " b u t a " U t o p i a . " . . . [Barthes's] desire t o escape his o w n subjectivity, his t o r y , a n d l a n g u a g e is quite evidently a n o p p o s i t i o n a l desire, still c a u g h t w i t h t h e b i n a r y logic he seeks t o a v o i d . J a p a n is c o n t i n u a l l y described w i t h reference t o the O c c i d e n t , solely in terms o f w h a t t h e O c c i d e n t is not. (159) Barthes's m o v e t o bracket referentiality

i n this " J a p a n "

ultimately

l e a d s h i m t o a m o d e o f e s s e n t i a l i z i n g t h a t is n o less c o m p l e t e t h a n i n other, m o r e c o n v e n t i o n a l l y presented travel b o o k s . 1 1 M 1141 SI S W I I II I V 1 ' I W H H |i n

ZONE

The

THREE:

"otherworldliness"

of

THE

Japan,

SOUTH

SEAS

as c a p t u r e d

in a variety o f

( s e m i ) u t o p i a n E u r o - A m e r i c a n t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s , is r e p l i c a t e d in t h a t m o s t Utopian o f t r a v e l l o c a t i o n s : t h e S o u t h S e a s . P a u l T h e r o u x , f o r i n s t a n c e , b e g i n n i n g h i s p a d d l e - b o r n e t o u r o f t h e r e g i o n i n The

Happy

Isles of Oceania (1992), m u s e s t h a t " t h e P a c i f i c s e e m e d l i k e o u t e r s p a c e , an i m m e n s i t y o f e m p t i n e s s , d o t t e d w i t h m i s s h a p e n i s l a n d s t h a t t w i n k l e d l i k e s t a r s , a r c h i p e l a g o e s l i k e s t a r c l u s t e r s " (18). T h e r o u x ' s t e r m s are suggestive o f a last f r o n t i e r , c h i l d h o o d w o n d e r , a n d a frisson o f the grotesque—all o f w h i c h w e m i g h t expect in a traveler's response t o z o n e s a s " e n c h a n t i n g " a s t h e P a c i f i c . B u t t h e s i m i l e a s a w h o l e is a l s o historically apposite, echoing the poetic delight o f K e a t s , w h o , in " O n F i r s t L o o k i n g i n t o C h a p m a n ' s H o m e r " (1816), r e g i s t e r s t h e n a i v e w o n d e r o f a " w a t c h e r o f t h e skies / W h e n a n e w p l a n e t s w i m s i n t o h i s k e n . " A s t r o n o m i c a l science h a d m a d e t h e h e a v e n s accessible as a figure f o r t h e w o n d e r o f " d i s c o v e r y " n o t so l o n g b e f o r e , w h e n C o o k ,

sailing

the Pacific, o b s e r v e d t h e transit o f V e n u s a n d p r o d u c e d his m a p s (1768-71); t h u s it w a s t h a t t h e P a c i f i c e n t e r e d i n t o B r i t i s h c o n s c i o u s n e s s , b o t h a s a m a p p a b l e r e g i o n a n d , n o less, a s a m y t h - g e n e r a t i n g zone.

2 0

A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e S o u t h S e a s b e c a m e a v a i l a b l e a s a site f o r

t h e i n t e r r o g a t i o n o f r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t d i s c o u r s e s : on t h e o n e hand, those o f geography a n d a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d , o n theother, those o f travel writing.

C o n t e m p o r a r y travel writing a b o u t the Pacific

i n e v i t a b l y s u p p l e m e n t s its t e s t i m o n i e s of e x p e r i e n c e a n d c o n t a c t w i t h a v a r i e t y of o t h e r d i s c o u r s e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y

those o f ethnography, f o r 2

w h o s e d e v e l o p m e n t t h e r e g i o n h a s b e e n so i n s t r u m e n t a l . ' T r a v e l ing/writing

t h e P a c i f i c testifies to a m b i v a l e n c e a n d u n d e c i d a b i l i t y :

p o i s e d b e t w e e n t h e scientism o f d i s c i p l i n a r y treatises a n d t h e height ened impressionism o f narratives o f (experienced) contact, contempo r a r y t r a v e l s / t r a v e l o g u e s in t h e P a c i f i c m i m i c b o t h t h e a c c u m u l a t e d records o f the past t w o a n d a half centuries a n d the region's g e o g r a p h y i t s e l f as t h e y m o v e r e s t l e s s l y f r o m i s l a n d t o " e n c h a n t e d " i s l a n d . T h e cultural geographer D e r e k G r e g o r y has recently

underlined

the " e x t r a o r d i n a r y significance o f the S o u t h Pacific f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s " a n d , b y e x t e n s i o n , t h e h u m a n sciences at a time w h e n the contents a n d contexts o f E u r o p e a n knowledges were b e g i n n i n g (0 c o n s t i t u t e a n e w ( F o u e n u l d i a n ) e p i s t c m e (20). O b s e r v a tion records a n d expedition reports, although " m e d i a l e d b y E u r o p e a n c o n c e p t u a l c a t e g o r i e s a n d E u r o p e a n w a y s o f s e e i n g " ( G r e g o r y 23). / I L L ' ,

Ml

claimed authority deriving f r o m on-the-spot witness. S o m e early inves tigators a t t e m p t e d a degree o f self-reflexiveness, a c k n o w l e d g i n g s o m e reciprocity in encounters between themselves a n d indigenous "others," b u t o b v i o u s l y t h e y c o u l d n o t s i m p l y c a n c e l t h e i r p o s i t i o n as c o l o n i z e r s , their i m m e n s e privilege in situations w h e r e their ultimate a i m w a s t o possess the culture o f the " o t h e r . " T r a v e l w r i t i n g c a m e to j o i n a n t h r o p o l o g y , g e o g r a p h y , a n d t h e h u m a n sciences g e n e r a l l y as o n e s t r a n d o f a n e w r e g i m e o f k n o w l e d g e s a n d as a n e n c o d i n g o f t h e P a c i f i c . C h r o n icles o f t r a v e l a n d a d v e n t u r e , a s G r e g o r y p u t s it, a d d e d " a f f e c t i v e response" a n d " e m o t i o n a l investment" t o m o r e "scientific" m o d e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n a l d i s s e m i n a t i o n (20). B u t w h i l e s u c h c h r o n i c l e s — o f b o t h p a s t a n d p r e s e n t — m i g h t s e e m t o b e less m e d i a t e d , a n d m o r e e x p e r i e n tially based, t h a n f o r m a l i z e d discourses, they inevitably share the space a n d b o r r o w t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e h u m a n sciences f o r w h i c h t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s t o p r o v e so v i t a l . 2 2

R e c e n t S o u t h S e a s t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s c e r t a i n l y a t t e s t t o , a s w e l l as invoke, anthropological authority. Bougainville a n d C o o k ritually a p p e a r , n e x t a cast o f missionaries, traders, a n d b e a c h c o m b e r s w i t h their t a l k o f c a n n i b a l i s m , gifts, a n d t a b o o s , t o b e f o l l o w e d b y the p r o fessional observers M a r g a r e t M e a d , B r o n i s l a w M a l i n o w s k i , a n d M a r shall Sahlins. P a u l T h e r o u x carts M a l i n o w s k i ' s talismanic e t h n o g r a p h y The Sexual Life of Savages (1929) a r o u n d w i t h h i m i n h i s k n a p s a c k ; R o n a l d W r i g h t i n t e r v i e w s S a h l i n s i n a F i j i a n m u s e u m (1986, 182-84). S o u t h S e a travel b o o k s t h u s rehearse e t h n o g r a p h i c lore, setting it a l o n g side t h e " e n c o u n t e r " a n e c d o t e s t h a t are characteristic o f their genre. I n so d o i n g , they echo M a l i n o w s k i ' s o w n Pacific-inspired anxieties, as a r t i c u l a t e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y , i n h i s p o s t h u m o u s l y p u b l i s h e d Diary in the Strict Sense of the Term (1967). I n Diary, M a l i n o w s k i y e a r n s f o r a n e w , m o r e e m o t i o n a l l y i n v o l v e d a n t h r o p o l o g y . M a l i n o w s k i ' s last w o r k testifies t o t h e i n a b i l i t y o f s o c i a l s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o u r s e s t o a c c o u n t f u l l y f o r " e x o t i c " cultures o r t o offer a n " o b j e c t i v e " portrait o f t h e m . M a l i n o w s k i reveals h o w his o w n s u b j e c t i v i t y — h i s loneliness, l o n g i n g s , a n d erotic fantasies—effectively deconstructs the potential f o r a u t h o r i t a t i v e o b s e r v a t i o n a n d accurate description: the activities c o n v e n t i o n a l l y c o n sidered as b o t h m e a n s a n d ends f o r a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l k n o w l e d g e . H e r e a l i z e s t h a t a " d i s p a s s i o n a t e " a p p r o a c h t o h i s m a t e r i a l is s i m p l y n o t possible a n d , m o r e importantly, that anthropological w o r k c a n n o t b e a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h o u t precisely those personal a n d cultural transac t i o n s t h a t cast t h e p r o j e c t ' s c l a i m s t o s c i e n t i f i c t r u t h in d o u b t , A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , M a l i n o w s k i i m p l i e s , a r c t r a v e l e r s b e f o r e t h e v a r c scientists;

n •

11 M I N I ' . 1 '

Willi

I YI'IKVVIM 1 '

their self-effacement papers o v e r the g a p between the "objective" truths t h e d i s c i p l i n e seeks t o c a p t u r e a n d t h e i n s t a b i l i t y — t h e m o t i v a t i o n s , d e s i r e s , a n d w i l l - t o - p o w e r — o f scientists a s ( f a l l i b l e ) p e o p l e . O n t h e other h a n d , friendly a n d informal contact experience—of the k i n d that m o s t travel b o o k s aim t o r e c o r d — c a n never i m p a r t certain k n o w l e d g e a b o u t the culture being visited; n o r can they, in the w o r d s o f that S o u t h Seas " o l d h a n d , " R o b e r t L o u i s S t e v e n s o n , "describe the l i f e . . . o f m a n y h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d p e r s o n s , s o m e o f o u r o w n b l o o d a n d l a n g u a g e , all o u r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , a n d y e t as r e m o t e in t h o u g h t a n d h a b i t as R o b R o y o r B a r b a r o s s a , t h e A p o s t l e s o r t h e C a e s a r s " (6). C o n t e m p o r a r y narratives such as T h e r o u x ' s , o r J u l i a n E v a n s ' s (Transit of Venus, 1992), o r G a v i n B e l l ' s (In Search ofTusitala, 1994), a l l seem chastened b y the opacity o f the islands a n d people o f the Pacific z o n e — a l t h o u g h T h e r o u x , as m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d , is m o r e f o r c e f u l t h a n m o s t i n his a t t e m p t s t o p a r t t h e m i s t . I n the P a c i f i c — a n d m o r e partic ularly, for the m a l e traveler in the Pacific—the experience o f travel has o f t e n b e e n represented i n the t o p o s o f V e n u s : o n o n e level, the planet w h o s e passage across the s u n C o o k h a d sailed s o u t h t o o b s e r v e , b u t o n a n o t h e r a m y t h i c a l b o d y o f a m b i v a l e n c e — t h a t t e a s i n g figure o f f e m a l e allure, seemingly u b i q u i t o u s i n m a l e - a u t h o r e d narratives. Characteristi c a l l y , as J u l i a n E v a n s s u g g e s t s i n The Transit of Venus, 2 3

The

real V e n u s t h a t C o o k o b s e r v e d , in t h e r e p o r t s t h a t h e

brought

b a c k f r o m h i s first c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e P a c i f i c , h a d n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h the shade o f another planet trickling across the face o f the sun. The

r e a l V e n u s o b s e r v e d w a s in t h o s e m y t h i c a l a n e c d o t e s , o f f r e e d o m

a n d desire, that m e n are a l w a y s astonished to relate a b o u t

'

women.

(184)

I t is t h i s f a m i l i a r t r o p e o f " f r e e d o m a n d d e s i r e " t h a t M e l v i l l e f a m o u s l y i n v o k e d in his fabrication o f the m a i d e n F a y a w a y in his part novel, p a r t t r a v e l o g u e Typee (1846). I n h e r m o s t c e l e b r a t e d m o m e n t F a y a w a y , v a c a t i o n i n g o n a M a r q u e s a n l a k e w i t h h e r l o v e r T o m m o , is epiphanically "struck with some h a p p y idea": " W i t h a wild exclama t i o n o f delight, she d i s e n g a g e d f r o m h e r p e r s o n t h e a m p l e r o b e o f l a p p a t h a t w a s k n o t t e d o v e r h e r s h o u l d e r . . . a n d s p r e a d i n g it o u t l i k e ;i sail, s t o o d e r e c t w i t h u p r a i s e d u n i t s in t h e h e a d o f t h e c a n o e " (132). f a y a w a y seems t o offer innocent delight; frankness a n d transparency; a n a l t e r n a t i v e b u t readily accessible o r d e r o f experience. S h e also seems t o e x i s t , at least i n t h e l i g h t h e a d e d v i n l o i t N o l ' a NAM I m a n y n u d e t r a v e l ers, as a fad o f P a c i f i c c u l l u i c . MM I m v i n v u v , h k u V e n u s , is a figure o f /

I

.

I

>1

t

f i c t i o n as w e l l as a n o b j e c t o f f a n t a s y . A s T h e r o u x , m u s i n g a b o u t F a y a w a y ' s l a k e i n The Happy Isles of Oceania, n o t e s w i t h t r a d e m a r k w r y ness, [The lake] w a s where the n a k e d F a y a w a y h a d m i s c h i e v o u s l y p l a y e d at being T o m m o ' s mast, a n d w h e r e T o m m o had splashed a m o n g the d u s k y b a t h i n g beauties. . . . " W h a t a b o u t the l a k e ? " I asked. . . . " T h e r e is n o l a k e , " V i c t o r i n e s a i d , a n d a n o t h e r i l l u s i o n w a s s h a t t e r e d .

(395) T h e r o u x , n e v e r less t h a n a k n o w i n g t r a v e l e r , is p l a y i n g t h e r o l e o f a r c h tease h e r e , b u t it is a tease t h a t m a k e s a p o i n t a b o u t h o w t r a v e l n a r r a tives c a n g e n e r a t e a s p a c e f o r t h e m s e l v e s b e t w e e n f a c t a n d m y t h . T h i s i n - b e t w e e n s p a c e is n o t s i m p l y f a n t a s y , b u t a k i n d o f i l l u s i o n a r y surmise in w h i c h a n element o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l f a b l e — t h e b e a u t y a n d f r e e d o m o f P a c i f i c i s l a n d w o m e n , f o r e x a m p l e — a p p e a r s as f a c t i t i o u s , y e t a s s o m e t h i n g , f o r all t h a t , t h a t " m e n a r e a l w a y s a s t o n i s h e d t o r e l a t e . " T h e travel writer's i r o n y h o l l o w s o u t t i m e - w o r n illusions b u t also holds t h e m i n s u s p e n s i o n — a s i f t h e r e m i g h t b e s o m e t h i n g t o t h e m a f t e r all. I n seeking t o fulfil their f a n t a s y quests i n f a r a w a y ( F a y a w a y ? ) places, Pacific travelers p a r a d o x i c a l l y enter a t e m p o r a l z o n e o f " e x o t i c memories."

2 4

F o r t r a v e l w r i t e r s , as f o r a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , t h e " p r i m i

t i v e , " p r e - E u r o p e a n S o u t h Seas island c o r r e s p o n d s t o the lost w o r l d o f c h i l d h o o d ; in that w o r l d , they glimpse the possibility o f recuperating p a r a d i s e , o n l y t o f o r e c l o s e o n it. W h e n b o t h p a s t a n d f u t u r e a p p e a r illusory, the exotic assumes the f o r m o f a frontier z o n e o f despoliation a n d d e s t r u c t i o n ; as E v a n s c o n c l u d e s o f o n e i s l a n d , it w a s " t r a s h a n d o v e r c r o w d i n g , b o y s g e t t i n g p i s s e d o n a S a t u r d a y n i g h t , fighting a n d p o r n videos. I t w a s just like E n g l a n d "

(218).

T h e m o t i v a t i o n s o f B e l l , E v a n s , a n d T h e r o u x f o r a spell i n t h e S o u t h S e a s t u r n o u t t o h a v e b e e n q u i t e s i m i l a r . T h e r o u x , his m a r r i a g e i n t a t t e r s , " w a n t e d t o see t h e e x t r e m e g r e e n isles o f O c e a n i a , u n m o d ern, s u n n y , a n d s l o w " ; he imagines the Pacific t o be a place w h e r e he 25

m i g h t b e " p u r i f i e d b y w a t e r a n d w i l d e r n e s s " (19-20). T h e j o u r n a l i s t Bell, exhausted b y the experience o f covering a sequence o f vicious w a r z o n e s , recalls a n e p i s o d e w h e r e , o n " r e t u r n i n g t o J a v a a f t e r h a v i n g been scared o u t o f m y wits b y a n ill-tempered v o l c a n o near S u m a t r a , [he h a d ] f o u n d p e a c e o n [ S t e v e n s o n ' s ] Beach ofFalesc'r

(4 5 ) . S p u r r e d

o n b y this m e m o r y o f r e c u p e r a t i v e r e a d i n g , Bell e m b a r k s o n a l o u r o f t h e P a c i f i c i n a q u e s t f o r S t e v e n s o n ' s " s p i r i t . " Eviuis'st m o t i v a t i o n s a r e r a l h e r m o r e c o m p l e x . N e w s p a p e r p h o t o g r a p h s o f I V u e e l u v p e r tests

9.1

I 01 H U N T S W I T H

1 v I'ltWI*

(the missiles' reentry vehicles splash d o w n i n a n atoll o f the M a r s h a l l Islands) e v o k e memories o f childhood, o f h o t Q u e e n s l a n d summers, a n d later, bizarrely, o f a n o l d w o m a n i n L o n d o n d a n c i n g w i t h h i m t o t h e s o n g " Y e l l o w P o l k a D o t B i k i n i " (7). G i v e n t h e a p o c a l y p t i c v i o l e n c e o f its p h o t o g r a p h i c t r i g g e r , E v a n s ' s d r e a m o f a " r e t u r n t o t h e h e l i o t r o p i c s e n s a t i o n s o f c h i l d h o o d " s e e m s s o m e w h a t f r a u g h t (9). N e v ertheless, i n c o m p a n y w i t h legions o f o t h e r w h i t e travelers, h e h o p e s f o r " s o m e s u d d e n l i b e r a t i o n f r o m n e u r o s i s a n d d e s i r e " (149). S u c h m o t i v a t i o n s a l r e a d y d i s t a n c e t h e S o u t h P a c i f i c , l i n k i n g it w i t h a z o n e o f r e t u r n t o c h i l d h o o d , o r a r e t r e a t t o s o m e t h i n g l i k e a rest h o m e f o r r e c u perative therapy—"exotic memories." T h e v i s i t o r s , a t t h e i r m o s t f o r t u n a t e , a r r i v e b e f o r e it is " t o o l a t e . " T h e C a n a d i a n t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r G e o r g e W o o d c o c k , i n his d o c u m e n t a r y s t y l e South Sea Journey (1976), n o t e s t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m

"traditional

subsistence e c o n o m i e s " t o t o u r i s m a n d r e m a r k s : " I t seemed that w e h a d c h o s e n a crucial time. A d e c a d e ' s d e l a y , a n d w e m i g h t easily a r r i v e t o o l a t e " (19). H e m i g h t w e l l b e e c h o i n g S t e v e n s o n , w h o h a d m i s s e d " t h i n g s a n d p r a c t i c e s . . . t o b e seen i n u s e " t e n y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y , g o i n g o n t o n o t e that " t e n years m o r e , a n d the old society will h a v e entirely v a n i s h e d " : W o o d c o c k ' s " c r u c i a l t i m e " is S t e v e n s o n ' s " h a p p y m o m e n t " ( S t e v e n s o n 224). B e l l , m e a n w h i l e , still i n h o t p u r s u i t o f S t e v e n s o n ' s g h o s t l y presence, t h r o w s a s h a d o w o f a different k i n d o v e r the fleeting a p p e a r a n c e o f " t r a d i t i o n a l " l i f e i n t h e c a m e r a ' s l e n s w h e n h e sees a n islander " s i t t i n g m o t i o n l e s s l y o n a stone b e n c h l o o k i n g o u t t o sea, f r a m e d b y t h e d a r k outlines o f p a l m f r o n d s , " a n d speculates a b o u t w h e t h e r h e is " d r e a m i n g o f t h e p a s t , o r w o n d e r i n g a b o u t a n u n c e r t a i n f u t u r e " (62). B e l l , n e e d l e s s t o s a y , d e c i d e s t o c o n s i g n h i m t o t h e p a s t : " I left h i m t o h i s r e v e r i e , a l o n e l y r e l i c o f a f o r g o t t e n r a c e o f w a r r i o r s a n d c a n n i b a l s " (62).

26

B e l l is a m b i v a l e n t , n o n e t h e l e s s , a b o u t t h e success o f

his q u e s t i n g m i s s i o n , f e e l i n g o n t h e o n e h a n d t h a t h e h a s " d i s c o v e r e d t h a t p a r a d i s e e x i s t s i n t h e S o u t h S e a s , a n d t h a t t h e essence o f it is l o v e a m o n g p e o p l e s w h o h a v e little else t o s h a r e , " b u t o n t h e o t h e r t h a t w h a t h e h a s g l i m p s e d is " a w a y o f life w h i c h m a y s o o n b e r e m e m b e r e d o n l y i n o l d t a l e s " (318). T h e v a s t a m o u n t o f e t h n o g r a p h i c a n d t r a v e l w r i t i n g o v e r t h e last O n e a n d a h a l f centuries has diffused t h e S o u t h Seas i n t o w h i t e c o n s c i o u s n e s s as a d w i n d l i n g r e s i d u e o f h a p p y p r i m i t i v i s m a n d p a r a d i s a l i n n o c e n c e ; t r a v e l e r s c a n still e x p e r i e n c e i n t i m a t i o n s o f t h e s e states i n t h e 1990s. T h e t r o p e o f t h e b e l a t e d a r r i v a l ern travel w r i t i n g

o n e o f the staples o f m o d

is s i m p l y a s t r o n g e r f o r m o f t h e e q u a l l y u b i q u i t o u s .'ONT'„N

<>

2 7

" j u s t i n t i m e " m o t i f . C h r i s t o p h e r B o n g i e , i n Exotic Memories, t r a c e s the t r o p e b a c k t o t h e artist G a u g u i n ' s l a m e n t o v e r t h e d e a t h o f K i n g P o m a r e V in Tahiti, uncannily foreshadowing V i c t o r Segalen's arrival in t h e M a r q u e s a s just t o o late f o r a m e e t i n g w i t h G a u g u i n h i m s e l f (the painter h a d died o n l y a f e w m o n t h s before). B o n g i e finds these parallel accounts "firmly g r o u n d e d in b o t h the dichotomies o f nineteenth-cen tury exoticism a n d the fatidic pessimism t h a t . . . h a d become the pre s c r i b e d w a y o f s p e a k i n g a b o u t m a t t e r s e x o t i c " (72). C o n t e m p o r a r y t r a v e l e r s a r e still i n t h e h a b i t o f a r r i v i n g j u s t t o o l a t e . I f B e l l c a n still f i n d a n i d y l l i c S a m o a , " l e s s s p e c t a c u l a r t h a n T a h i t i , less f o r b i d d i n g t h a n t h e M a r q u e s a s , b u t w i t h a n ethereal b e a u t y o n l y a poet could c a p t u r e i n w o r d s , " i t is o n l y t o h a v e t h e i l l u s i o n p u n c t u r e d a s s o o n a s e n t e r t a i n e d : " T h e n w e t u r n e d a c o r n e r a n d f o u n d a fleet o f e x c a v a t i n g machines building a reservoir; a n d w e passed o u t o f yet a n o t h e r shrink i n g d r e a m w o r l d " (293). T h i s " s h r i n k i n g d r e a m w o r l d " t r a n s f o r m s easily into a n e x p a n d i n g apocalypse, the strongest f o r m o f S o u t h Seas disillusionment—a c o u n t e r i l l u s i o n p e r h a p s . M a n y t r a v e l e r s ' tales i n c l u d e t h e i r a u t h o r s ' repulsed descriptions o f polluted atolls, g a r b a g e - s t r e w n strands, a n d t o u r i s t - i n d u c e d v u l g a r i t i e s . F a r s t r o n g e r , h o w e v e r , a r e larger scenes o f neoimpcrial violence like M u r u r o a , the n o t o r i o u s location o f repeated F r e n c h n u c l e a r testing. Bell, S t e v e n s o n ' s p i l g r i m , reacts w i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o u t r a g e , d e s c r i b i n g t h e site a s " a l a b o r a t o r y f o r m a s s d e s t r u c tion in a n illusory paradise," submerged b e l o w a l a g o o n where " a r e d a n d w h i t e d r i l l i n g r i g rises l i k e a f a i r g r o u n d h e l t e r - s k e l t e r , a n d d e e p l y t a n n e d y o u n g m e n foster the illusion o f a h o l i d a y resort b y c a v o r t i n g o n g a i l y c o l o u r e d s a i l b o a r d s " (97). F o r t h e E n g l i s h w r i t e r E v a n s , t h e l a t e s t h e a r t o f d a r k n e s s is t h e M a r s h a l l I s l a n d s , t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f h i s j o u r n e y , w h i c h h e b e g i n s t o see as " a p e n a n c e 1 h a d i m p o s e d o n m y s e l f ' (241). F o r E v a n s , K w a j a l e i n , a n A m e r i c a n b a s e c l o s e t o w h e r e t h e r e e n t r y v e h i c l e s o f n u c l e a r w e a p o n s s p l a s h d o w n , is t h e V e n u s w h o s e " t r a n s i t " p r o v i d e s t h e quasi-novelistic basis f o r his travel b o o k . U l t i m a t e l y , E v a n s decides, t h e base resembles n o t so m u c h D a n t e ' s Inferno a s a m o r e m o d e r n s u r r e a l i t y , " a F i f t i e s s.f. m o v i e , s o m e t h i n g i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f Fire Maidens from Space o r Robinson Crusoe on Mars" (257). D y s t o p i a s m a r k e d b y s u r r e a l i t y o r v i r t u a l r e a l i t y a r e v e r y m u c h p a r t o f t h e r e p e r t o i r e o f c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a v e l w r i t i n g (see c h a p . 4); i n t h i s specific S o u t h S e a s c o n t e x t , t h e y e n a c t a k i n d o f r e c o i l o f t h e e x o t i c , t r a n s f o r m i n g i t a n d t h r u s t i n g it t o w a r d a n a p o c a l y p t i c f u t u r e . A p o c a l y p s e m a r k s the e n d point o f w h a t A l a n M o o r h e a d has called

9(1

louuis 1

W I T H r \ I T w n 11 I K S

" t h e f a t a l i m p a c t " : t h e t i t l e o f h i s 1966 s t u d y o f " t h e i n v a s i o n o f t h e South Pacific." O v e r a c e n t u r y earlier, M e l v i l l e h a d a l r e a d y p r o v i d e d a s h a r p c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f " f a t a l i m p a c t " i n Typee: W h e n t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f s o m e s e q u e s t e r e d i s l a n d first d e s c r y t h e " b i g c a n o e " o f the E u r o p e a n rolling d o w n through the blue waters t o w a r d their s h o r e s , t h e y r u s h d o w n t o t h e b e a c h in c r o w d s , a n d w i t h o p e n a r m s stand ready to e m b r a c e the strangers. F a t a l e m b r a c e ! T h e y fold t o t h e i r b o s o m s t h e v i p e r s w h o s e s t i n g is d e s t i n e d t o p o i s o n all t h e i r j o y s ; a n d t h e i n s t i n c t i v e f e e l i n g o f l o v e w i t h i n t h e i r b r e a s t s is s o o n c o n v e r t e d into the bitterest hate.

(24)

A l m o s t e v e r y travel b o o k a n d e t h n o g r a p h i c a c c o u n t since M e l v i l l e h a s implicitly accepted o r rehearsed "fatal i m p a c t , " a l t h o u g h there are sev eral d i f f e r e n t v e r s i o n s o f the thesis i n c i r c u l a t i o n . B e l l , f o r e x a m p l e , quotes ( C a p t a i n ) C o o k ' s o p i n i o n that "it w o u l d h a v e been f a r better f o r these p o o r p e o p l e n e v e r t o h a v e k n o w n o u r superiority in t h e a c c o m m o d a t i o n s a n d arts that m a k e life c o m f o r t a b l e , t h e n after o n c e k n o w i n g it, t o b e a b a n d o n e d i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l i n c a p a c i t y f o r i m p r o v e m e n t " (178). T h e c o n c l u s i o n t o C o o k ' s s e n t e n c e is s u r p r i s i n g i n its regret, n o t for the invasion b u t for subsequent a b a n d o n m e n t ; a n d t w o centuries later, w r i t i n g a b o u t the G i l b e r t s ( K i r i b a t i ) , W o o d c o c k seems to agree: the islands' "fragile balance . . . has already been destroyed, a n d n o w t h e i r r e m o t e n e s s is n o l o n g e r a p r o t e c t i o n , b u t t h e t h r e a t o f a n i s o l a t i o n t h a t c a n o n l y b e d e s t r u c t i v e " (182). T h e r o u x , f o r h i s p a r t , is well pleased w i t h t h e S o l o m o n s , naively professing o n t h e contrary " t h a t i f the people were n o t interfered w i t h b y tourists o r bureaucrats, the island w o u l d r e m a i n intact a n d the people w o u l d be able t o m a n a g e o n t h e i r o w n " (180). I f t h e t r o p e o f f a t e f u l e n c o u n t e r ( o f t e n c o m b i n e d w i t h that o f fatal a b a n d o n m e n t ) seemed a l m o s t indispensable t o earlier t r a v e l w r i t e r s , it is j u s t as m o t i v a t i n g a n d e m p o w e r i n g f o r P a c i f i c chroniclers t o d a y . These writers' commentaries implicitly a c k n o w l e d g e the v a r i o u s societies' e m p l a c e m e n t i n a w o r l d t h a t d r a w s e v e n t h e remotest islands into transnational w e b s o f trade a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n (the so-called global village); b u t the plot o f the travel b o o k d e p e n d s o n the c o n t i n u e d revival o f a nostalgic exotic v i s i o n — a vision, as B o n g i e p o i n t s o u t , t h a t is a l w a y s a l r e a d y i n a n d o f t h e p a s t . 2 8

T h e narratives o f S o u t h S e a travelers c o m m o n l y b e c o m e p s e u d o u n l h r o p o l o g i c a l as they, l o o , a t t e m p t t o bridge gaps b e t w e e n I lie o b s e r v i n g s u b j e c t a n d ils " o t h e r s , " a n d b e t w e e n a l i v e d p r e s e n t a n d .

0/

a n irrecoverable past. O b v i o u s l y these a t t e m p t s , t h o u g h

generally

i n f o r m e d , are h a p h a z a r d l y unscientific; recent S o u t h Seas travel writ ers t y p i c a l l y a c c u m u l a t e a n e c d o t e s i n p r a i s e o f n a t i v e h o s p i t a l i t y , u s i n g t h e s e as e v i d e n c e o f t h e t r a v e r s a l o f c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e . Y e t t h e s e a n e c d o t e s m a y also attest t o the trials ( o r defeats) o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , p o i n t i n g i n s o m e cases t o a m e a s u r e o f r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e t r a v e l e r ' s a p p a r e n t cultural mastery. T h e r o u x , for e x a m p l e , includes o n e such "resistance a n e c d o t e " i n The Happy Isles of Oceania. A f t e r s e t t i n g u p b a s e o n o n e particular

( T r o b r i a n d ) island,

Theroux

paddles

back

a n d forth

b e t w e e n t h e m , b e a r i n g gifts t h a t seem t o help h i m establish a special r a p p o r t w i t h his h o s t villagers. H o w e v e r , w h e n h e r e t u r n s t o o n e o f t h e villages f o r a farewell visit, h i s hosts are u n r e s p o n s i v e , hostile even. T h e r o u x leaves d i s a p p o i n t e d ; later, a l t h o u g h t h e villagers h a v e n o t t o l d h i m so, he speculates that a f e u d b e t w e e n his hosts a n d a n e i g h b o r i n g village m u s t h a v e d a m p e n e d the enthusiasm that h a d greeted p r e v i o u s v i s i t s . H e finally a d m i t s t o d e f e a t — " I c o u l d n o w see t h e u t t e r impossibility o f m y e v e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g the p l a c e " (150)—but n o t w i t h o u t o f f e r i n g o n e o f his characteristic p a r t i n g shots: islands w i t h " t r a d i tional" culture, h e concludes, "are riddled w i t h magic, superstition, m y t h s , d a n g e r s , rivalries, a n d [the culture's] old routines. . . . T h e k e y t o [the culture's] s u r v i v a l w a s that it l a u g h e d a t outsiders a n d k e p t t h e m a t a r m ' s l e n g t h " (150). T h e r o u x ' s h u m i l i a t i o n g a u g e s t h e c o m p l e x cultural a s y m m e t r y that often tends t o go unnoticed in W e s t e r n ( E u r o A m e r i c a n ) t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s . T h e h o s t - g u e s t c o n t r a c t , a f t e r a l l , is n e v e r o n e o f stasis o r e q u i l i b r i u m : e v e n t h e v i s i t o r w h o a d o p t s g i f t r i t u a l s w i t h w h a t s/he b e l i e v e s is i n f o r m e d s e n s i t i v i t y c a n n o t p r o f i t f r o m t h e m p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e s/he is a c u l t u r a l o u t s i d e r ; a n d p r i v i l e g e p a s s e s b a c k a n d f o r t h , i n this w a y , b e t w e e n h o n o r e d guests a n d culturally

vigilant

2

hosts. ? E v e n t h o u g h the Pacific z o n e has failed t o s u p p l y full edenic ther a p y t o its w h i t e t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r s , it h a s c e r t a i n l y o f f e r e d t h e m r e c u p e r a tive m o m e n t s that serve to justify their trips. N o m a t t e r h o w p e r v a s i v e their stoical d i s a p p o i n t m e n t a t the islands' failure t o fulfil the paradisal d r e a m , these writers d o m a n a g e t o locate " m a g i c a l " m o m e n t s that k e e p a t least s o m e t h i n g o f t h e d r e a m a l i v e ; a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y , e v e n those readers w h o identify the Pacific with m a r k e t a b l e ( " C l u b M e d " ) i l l u s i o n s — h a p p y , childlike natives ministering t o visitors in a n a m b i e n c e o f s a n i t i z e d h e d o n i s m — k n o w t h a t a f u t u r e still e x i s t s f o r t h e S o u t h Seas travel b o o k . T h u s despite his frustrations. Bell, ever a n x ious t o experience t h e M a r q u e s a s t h r o u g h Stevenson (and >)•'•

'I 1 ' ( I K I !I I 'I

W i l l i

1.1

1 I I 11

through

m o r e t h a n j u s t S t e v e n s o n ' s e y e s ) , finds h a p p i n e s s a n d p u r i t y i n a v i l l a g e M a s s , f r a m e d b y " t w o p a l m trees . . . e t c h e d i n p e r f e c t s y m m e t r y a g a i n s t a c r i m s o n s u n s e t . " T h e i d y l l is d e s c r i b e d as f o l l o w s : [A]

thin sliver o f m o o n directly a b o v e a c h u r c h created a circle o f

b r i g h t light suffused w i t h all the c o l o u r s o f t h e r a i n b o w ; the w i n d o w s o f the c h u r c h e m a n a t e d a w a r m , r o s y g l o w ; the lilting m e l o d i e s f r o m within drifted o n the evening breeze. A m o r e exotic scene c o u l d be imagined. (71-72)

not

3 0

A n d t o c a p it, e a c h w o r s h i p e r a c c o r d s B e l l " a s m i l e a n d a f r i e n d l y bonsoir" o n l e a v i n g t h e c h u r c h (72). E v e n t h e m o r e g r u d g i n g T h e r o u x experiences serenely u n c o m p l i c a t e d m o m e n t s o f grace, as " o n o n e o f t h o s e m o o n y n i g h t s a t t h e p a v i l i o n b y t h e l a g o o n w h e n t h e bliss o f t h e s o u t h seas d r e a m w a s p a l p a b l e " (31). Nonetheless, those m o m e n t s at which the exotic becomes palpable are b y their n a t u r e evanescent, e x p u n g i n g consciousness o f alienation o n l y t o r e i n t r o d u c e it as i n e v i t a b l e r e a c t i o n . E a r l i e r " d i s c o v e r e r s , " a f t e r all, h a d i n v e n t e d the S o u t h Seas i n a self-reflexive gesture t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d a c a t e g o r y o f r u p t u r e : t h e e x o t i c as a z o n e d e f i n e d b y its d e s t r u c t i o n at the m o m e n t o f contact. I n travel writing, the S o u t h Seas exotic flickers i n its e v a n e s c e n c e u n d e r t h e s i g n o f g u i l t y a l i e n a t i o n . T h e e x o t i c z o n e a w a k e n s a sense o f a n o m i e , c o n f r o n t i n g t r a v e l e r s , a p p r o p r i a t e l y p e r h a p s , w i t h their o w n feelings o f intrusion, guilt, a n d b o r e d o m — e v e n i f those feelings a r e often projected o n t o " t o u r i s t s , " " t r a d e r s , " " b u r e a u c r a t s , " a n d t h e like. F o r E v a n s , e c h o i n g L e v i - S t r a u s s , w h i t e settlers b e t h e y p l a n t e r s , t r a d e r s , o r b e a c h c o m b e r s — " w a n t e d s o m e w h e r e . . . t o b r i n g t h e i r p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a g g a g e a n d d u m p it. . . . [ T j h e y l o n g e d f o r s o m e s u d d e n paradise to flower there, s o m e s u d d e n libera t i o n f r o m n e u r o s i s a n d d e s i r e " (148-49). B u t a s T h e r o u x n o t e s , " I t is s i m p l y n o t possible . . . t o lose y o u r s e l f i n a n e x o t i c place. M u c h m o r e l i k e l y is a n e x p e r i e n c e o f i n t e n s e n o s t a l g i a , a h a r k i n g b a c k t o a n e a r l i e r s t a g e o f y o u r l i f e , o r s e e i n g c l e a r l y a s e r i o u s m i s t a k e " (31). A r r i v i n g a t this p e r c e p t i o n , travelers experience a bitter recoil, realizing, like T h e r o u x , t h a t t h e " s a d n e s s w a s m i n e " (180); o r , l i k e E v a n s , t h a t e x o t i c s u r faces o n l y y i e l d " f l o u r i s h i n g s t a t e s o f b o r e d o m " (186); o r , l i k e W o o d c o c k , t h a t " n o s t a l g i a . . . is d a r k e n e d b y d e s p a i r " (182). S o u t h S e a s travel narratives c u l m i n a t e m o s t often in u n l i b e r a t e d w i t h d r a w a l , sug gesting that even the m o s t astute travelers inevitably project p s y c h o logical a n d c u l t u r a l deficits o n t o the places they visit, o n l y to t a k e t h o s e d e f i c i t s just as s u r e l y w i t h I h e m h o m e

ZONE

FOUR!

THE

ARCTIC

T h e m o t i f o f r e t u r n i n a n o t h e r , d i s s i m i l a r b u t still " e x o t i c "

travel

z o n e — t h e Arctic—is tied in w i t h that zone's m o s t o b v i o u s temporal a t t r i b u t e : d e f e r r a l . " T o t r a v e l i n t h e A r c t i c is t o w a i t , " s a y s t h e A m e r ican biologist

B a r r y L o p e z i n Arctic

Dreams

(1986). T h e u n p r e

dictable climate a n d shifting terrain o f the A r c t i c present travelers w i t h a stern test o f p a t i e n c e : t h e y m a y h a v e t o w a i t f o r q u i t e s o m e time before reaching their destination; again before traveling in t h e a r e a ; still m o r e b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g h o m e . T h e A r c t i c ' s i n d i g e n o u s p e o ples, i n u r e d t o their t r e a c h e r o u s e n v i r o n m e n t , k n o w w e l l h o w t o a d a p t t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e subtly c h a n g i n g r h y t h m s o f A r c t i c life; n o t so W e s t e r n travelers a n d explorers, w h o s e i m p a t i e n c e — o r

incompe

t e n c e — c a n c o s t t h e m d e a r . ( O n e o f t h e m a n y i r o n i e s o f t h e A r c t i c is t h a t w h i l e it h a s r e c e n t l y b e c o m e a d u m p i n g g r o u n d f o r t h e d e t r i t u s o f W e s t e r n [ m i l i t a r y ] t e c h n o l o g y , it is still l i t t e r e d w i t h t h e b o d i e s o f W e s t e r n t r a v e l e r s — m e n w h o t h o u g h t , mistakenly, that their technol ogy was g o o d e n o u g h . ) G i v e n the tragic history o f exploration in the A r c t i c — a history allied, o f course, t o t h e c o n t i n u i n g e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e A r c t i c — i t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t c o n t e m p o r a r y A r c t i c t r a v e l o g u e s should tend t o b e cautious, soul-searching affairs: narratives w h o s e halting progress affords o n e reminder after a n o t h e r o f the need t o reeducate W e s t e r n sensibilities—to

r e c o r d n o t o n l y w h a t o n e sees,

b u t a l s o h o w o n e l e a r n s t o see. Three

recent

North

A m e r i c a n travel

books—Lopez's

Arctic

Dreams, R u d y W i e b e ' s Playing Dead (1989), a n d J o h n M o s s ' s Endur ing Dreams ( 1 9 9 4 ) — m i g h t b e s t b e d e s c r i b e d a s A r c t i c

contemplations:

accounts in w h i c h description prevails o v e r narration t o t h e point w h e r e t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e , r e d u c i n g its m e t a b o l i c r a t e a s i f t o a d a p t t o its w i n t r y surroundings, hypostatizes into lyric p o e m , into crafted m e d i t a tion o n t h e motionless. T h e similarities b e t w e e n t h e three accounts o v e r r i d e t h e i r w r i t e r s ' d i f f e r e n t p r o f e s s i o n s — L o p e z is a r e s e a r c h s c i e n tist, W i e b e a f u l l - t i m e w r i t e r , M o s s a p r o f e s s o r o f E n g l i s h — t o s u g g e s t the shared c a t e g o r y o f the " A r c t i c d r e a m e r . " T h e s e writers are all fas cinated b y the phenomenological links between people a n d t h e envi ronments they explore o r inhabit. T h e i r o w n encounters w i t h the A r c tic l a n d s c a p e ( f o u r y e a r s ' r e s e a r c h i n t h e A r c t i c c i r c l e f o r L o p e z , n u m e r o u s visits t o t h e u p p e r reaches o f their C a n a d i a n h o m e l a n d f o r W i e b e a n d M o s s ) i n t u r n raise l a r g e r q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e h u m a n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e l a n d . T h e s e q u e s t i o n s a r e in p u r l m e l a p h y s i c a l : h o w

Mi"

T O I I HI,vi v W I T H

'I v I ' H W I U

II-11

d o w e distinguish between t h e w o r l d " o u t there" a n d t h e world(s inside o u r heads? T h e y are also epistemological: h o w a r e w e t o " u n d e r stand" the land, through which m o d e s o f knowledge a n d perception A n d , n o t l e a s t , t h e y a r e e t h i c a l : h o w a r e w e t o " b e h a v e " t o w a r d th< l a n d , t o u s e i t w i t h o u t a b u s i n g it? T h e i s s u e is c o m p l i c a t e d f u r t h e r b y t h e s i n g u l a r e l u s i v e n e s s o f th< A r c t i c , b o t h a s ( p h y s i c a l ) l a n d s c a p e a n d as ( m e t a p h y s i c a l ) i d e a . F r e t ting a b o u t the A r c t i c ' s a p p a r e n t resistance t o verbal l a n g u a g e , M o s : c o n v e r t s h i s e x p e r i e n c e o f A r c t i c t r a v e l i n t o o n e i r i c m e t a p h o r : hi dreams the Arctic "in a language o f which I can only grasp the rough est e d g e s , e d g e s t h a t b r e a k o f f i n f r a g m e n t s w h e n 1 t o u c h t h e m " (32) F o r W i e b e , m e a n w h i l e , t h e A r c t i c is c o n s t r u e d a s a l i m i n a l e n v i r o n ment: located at the edge o f the w o r l d , suspended between water a i u l a n d ( w i t h t h e c a p a c i t y t o c h a n g e a l m o s t i m p e r c e p t i b l y f r o m o n e stall t o t h e o t h e r ) , t h e A r c t i c defies, s o m e t i m e s d e s t r o y s , t h o s e w h o are fool ish e n o u g h t o t h i n k it c h a n g e l e s s . T h e A r c t i c o c c u p i e s a v a s t s p a c e ; a m y e t , l i k e t h e p o l a r t r a v e l e r i n N e r u d a ' s p o e m ( c i t e d b y W i e b e ) , it i: p o i s e d b e t w e e n " t h e s h o r e s a n d t h e o c e a n , " its s u r f a c e " s o n a r r o v [ t h a t ] i t is n o m o r e t h a n a p o s s i b l e l i n e f o r a p o s s i b l e b a l a n c e " (115) T h e I n u i t p e o p l e s w h o p o p u l a t e t h i s h y p o t h e t i c a l r e g i o n k n o w h o w It n e g o t i a t e a n d m a i n t a i n t h e p r e c a r i o u s b a l a n c e t h e y n e e d t o ensure their o w n survival. F o r those w h o are reared o n the discriminator) classifications o f W e s t e r n science, t h e t a s k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e A r c t i c — k n o w i n g h o w t o l i v e w i t h it, a s w e l l a s w i t h i n i t — i s a l l t h e g r e a t e r F o r as a l l t h r e e w r i t e r s s h o w , t h e A r c t i c h a s h i s t o r i c a l l y s c o r n e d W e s t e r n p r e t e n s i o n s t o c o n t r o l a n d c o n t a i n it. O v e r s p i l l i n g t h e b o u n d a r i e s t h a t s c i e n t i s t s h a v e s o u g h t t o i m p o s e o n it, t h e A r c t i c is a p t t o c o n f o u n d e v e n t h e m o s t m e t i c u l o u s o b s e r v e r s , r e m i n d i n g t h e m o f t h e gat; t h a t s e p a r a t e s w h a t t h e y see f r o m w h a t t h e y wish t o see. L o o m i n g particularly large in the s y m b o l i s m o f L o p e z ' s , W i e b c ' s a n d M o s s ' s n a r r a t i v e s a r e t h e c r u c i f o r m m a s t s o f J o h n F r a n k l i n ' s l.wi s h i p s , Erebus a n d Terror, w h i c h r a n a g r o u n d o n t h e ice d u r i n g h i s t h i n ( a n d final) e x p e d i t i o n t o t h e A r c t i c i n 1845. A s L o p e z e x p l a i n s F r a n k l i n ' s i l l - f a t e d e x p e d i t i o n q u i c k l y t o o k o n m y t h i c p r o p o r t i o n s , lit l e a d e r e m e r g e d as a n a l m o s t m e s s i a n i c figure, a m a n w h o s e h e r o i c selfs a c r i f i c e w a s t o d e l i v e r his c o u n t r y m e n f r o m t h a i f a t a m o r g a n a o f A r c tic n a v i g a t i o n : a N o r t h w e s t P a s s a g e D i a l led o u t b e y o n d t h e u p p e r A r c lie l o t h e s i l k s a n d spices o f t h e L a s t . F r a n k l i n ' s c a t a s l r o p h u expedition d i d not put a n c u d , h o w e v e r , to A n t i c exploration. O n llu contrary: "N|f.N

i"l

S c o r e s o f e x p e d i t i o n s set o u t f r o m E n g l a n d a n d A m e r i c a t o search the entire u n e x p l o r e d C a n a d i a n a r c h i p e l a g o if necessary. . . . W h e r e o n c e the g o a l [of A r c t i c exploration] h a d b e e n to get

through

en r o u t e

to s o m e w h e r e else, n o w expeditions were p r o p o s e d . . . to m a k e the r e g i o n itself the f o c u s o f their attention.

. . . F r o m this [collective]

e n t e r p r i s e c a m e , i r o n i c a l l y , t h e first e x t e n s i v e a n d a c c u r a t e m a p s o f the high Arctic.

(363)

L o n g after the British a n d t h e A m e r i c a n s h a d pulled their ships o u t o f the A r c t i c — s h i p s t h a t h a d g o n e there, i n several cases, i n search o f t h e lucrative reward that awaited F r a n k l i n ' s "discovery"—expeditions s u c h as F r a n k l i n ' s w e r e t o k e e p t h e i r h o l d o n t h e p o p u l a r i m a g i n a t i o n , "in the m i n d s o f scholars a n d poets, in the perceptions o f travellers, the s e n s i b i l i t y o f e v e r y o u t s i d e r w h o h o l d s t h e A r c t i c l a n d s c a p e as a n o p t i o n a l reality i n i m a g i n a t i o n , a n d a m o n g the bibliographies o f A r c tic d r e a m i n g " ( M o s s 96 97). F r a n k l i n h e l p e d t o p r o v i d e w h a t L o p e z calls a " l e g a c y o f d e s i r e " i n A r c t i c h i s t o r y : t h e d e s i r e o f " i n d i v i d u a l m e n t o achieve their goals," b u t also o n e " t h a t transcends heroics a n d was p r i v a t e l y k n o w n t o m a n y — t h e desire f o r a safe a n d h o n o r a b l e p a s s a g e t h r o u g h t h e w o r l d " (309). L o p e z , W i e b e , a n d M o s s thus all i n c o r p o r a t e F r a n k l i n ' s expedition into a larger, spiritual quest: o n e in w h i c h W e s t e r n travelers, r e m i n d e d o f the limitations o f their k n o w l e d g e , a n d chastened against the dangers o f c u l t u r a l a r r o g a n c e , set o u t t o ( r e ) d i s c o v e r t h e p r i m o r d i a l n a t u r e o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e w o r l d . T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g r e q u i r e s a sense o f reciprocity with the land, a n appreciation that the various landscapes t h r o u g h w h i c h travelers m o v e , o r u p o n w h i c h t h e y are m o v e d t o c o n t e m p l a t e , are t o b e seen " n o t solely [as] areas o f h u m a n i n v e n t i o n " b u t as " c r u c i b l e s o f m y s t e r y " ( L o p e z 412). I n s t e a d o f i m p o s i n g t h e m s e l v e s o n t h e l a n d , m o l d i n g it t o t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s o r a l t e r i n g its d i m e n s i o n s t o fit t h e s h a p e o f t h e i r d r e a m s , t r a v e l e r s m u s t l e a r n s o m e h o w t o m e r g e w i t h t h e l a n d , t o s u r r e n d e r i n silence t o its i m m a n e n t m y s t e r i e s . F o r M o s s , t o " e n t e r " t h e l a n d s c a p e i n t h i s s p i r i t is t o a b o l i s h its t h r e a t o f alienation: " Y o u m a y enter landscape, b u t i n humility; i f truly there, y o u c a n n o t tell y o u r s e l f a p a r t f r o m i t " (5). S u c h m o m e n t s o f m y s t i c a l convergence are rare, b u t invariably epiphanic: hence L o p e z , w a l k i n g one night o n the t u n d r a , trading inquisitive b u t respectful glances w i t h the birds while the "serene A r c t i c l i g h t . . . c a m e d o w n o v e r the land like breath, like b r e a t h i n g " ( x x ) ; o r W i e b e , also o n the tundra., seeking c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e " p r i m e v a l e a r t h " i n a l a n d s c a p e that r e a c h e s o u t t o h i m " l i k e I h e k n o b b y p a h n o f ( J o d ' s h a n d " (113).

in,

1

1 M I M S ' l ' . w i 111 1 1 r i . W H i 1 i i " '

A c c o r d i n g t o M o s s , t o o m a n y writers o n the A r c t i c h a v e dispos sessed t h e I n u i t , " m a k i n g t h e m i n t r u d e r s " a n d d e n y i n g " n a t i v e k i n s h i p w i t h t h e l a n d " (75). C o n s e q u e n t l y , a n y s e a r c h f o r r e c i p r o c i t y w i t h the l a n d also entails a quest f o r reconciliation

w i t h its i n d i g e n o u s

i n h a b i t a n t s . W i e b e r e c o g n i z e s t h a t i f h e is t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e A r c t i c i f t h e A r c t i c is t o r e v e a l s o m e o f its secrets t o h i m — t h e n h e m u s t , l i k e his p r e d e c e s s o r V i h j a l m u r S t e f a n s s o n , l e a r n t o " t h i n k like [the] I n u i t " (107). L o p e z , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c a n n o t s e p a r a t e t h i n k i n g f r o m s e e i n g ; h e seeks t o r e c a p t u r e t h e " n a t i v e e y e " : t h e k e e n - s i g h t e d n e s s o f a p e o ple w h o , a w a r e o f the " v a g u e s t flutter o f life" i n a n e n v i r o n m e n t that m i g h t otherwise seem "featureless a n d interminable," are gifted with " a p r e d a t o r ' s a l e r t n e s s f o r m i n u t i a e , f o r r e v e a l i n g d e t a i l " (96). T h e A r c t i c is a n e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t n o t o n l y r e w a r d s s u c h " p r e t e r n a t u r a l l y h e i g h t e n e d a w a r e n e s s " (202), it r e q u i r e s it. N o n e o f t h e w r i t e r s is SI) i n g e n u o u s as t o suggest t h a t t h e W e s t e r n i z a t i o n o f the A r c t i c h a s n o t b r o u g h t w i t h it c e r t a i n m a t e r i a l a d v a n t a g e s t o I n u i t p e o p l e s ' l i v e s , b u t t h e y w a r n against t h e a t r o p h y i n g o f spatial awareness that a reliance on machines a n dmechanized modes o f transportation m a y inadver tently p r o d u c e . I n their cautious efforts t o rehabilitate I n u i t culture a c u l t u r e t h a t , a s H u g h B r o d y h a s r e m i n d e d u s , still s u f f e r s f r o m t h e 3

s u b o r d i n a t i n g practices o f W e s t e r n c o l o n i a l i s m ' — t h e y point o u t the benefits p r o v i d e d b y traditional

Inuit technologies. W i e b e d e m o n

strates, f o r e x a m p l e , h o w " I n u i t travel t e c h n o l o g y a n d their t w o d i m e n s i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f space, b o t h o f w h i c h were taught I hem b y the a w e s o m e landscape in which they h a v e learned to live" (.m), c a n b e u s e d t o e x p l a i n t h e success o f F r a n k l i n ' s first e x p e d i t i o n t o the A r c t i c i n 1819-22. I n u i t t r a c k i n g t e c h n i q u e s , s a y s W i e b e , d e p e n d o n t h e p e r c e i v e d (.lis U n c t i o n between " a r e a l " a n d " l i n e a r " dimensions o f space. In Itiuklitut, says W i e b e (via t h e linguist R a y m o n d G a g n e ) , A l l visible p h e n o m e n a . . . are v i e w e d t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l l y . M o r e o v e r , all o f t h e m fall into t w o basic categories: first, those o f r o u g h l y e q u a l d i m e n s i o n s , such as a ball, a n igloo . .. o r a n ice surface; a n d second, those that are o r a p p e a r t o b e o f u n e q u a l d i m e n s i o n s , . . such as a h a r p o o n . . . a rope . . . o r a river. ( Q t d . in W i e b e 15) A n o b j e c t classified as a r e a l ( a b a l l ) m a y b e c o m e l i n e a r w h e n il is in m o t i o n (a r o l l i n g b a l l ) . W h e n h u m a n b e i n g s m o v e , I h e y l o o c h a n g e f r o m being areal t o linear ( 1 5 ) .

Imiii 1 racking techniques aic based o n

a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s lis w e l l as o n a c a l c u l a t i o n

o f the intersection o f linear routes: these w e r e the techniques that s a v e d Franklin's (grounded) expedition. Franklin's third expedition, h o w ever, w a s n o t so l u c k y . A s W i e b e e x p l a i n s : A

ship frozen in the ice has m o v e d o u t o f the linear into

another

d i m e n s i o n a l t o g e t h e r : i n t h e v a s t A r c t i c it h a s a c h i e v e d t h e d i m e n s i o n o f a r e a l stillness. . . . a d i m e n s i o n w h i c h s a i l o r s e x p e r i e n c e d o n l y in the endless, u n b u r d e n e d m o t i o n o f the sea, c a n n o t understand.

Still

n e s s d e s t r o y s t h e m . (117)

A n d it d i d : n o t a single m e m b e r o f F r a n k l i n ' s e x p e d i t i o n a r y p a r t y sur vived. I n a sense, L o p e z , W i e b e , a n d M o s s w r i t e travel b o o k s that t h e m selves b e c o m e " i c e b o u n d , " m e t a m o r p h o s i n g f r o m n a r r a t i v e s o f m o v e ment into meditations o n immobility. B u t immobility, in the Arctic, can m e a n m a n y different things. W i e b e , f o r e x a m p l e , distinguishes b e t w e e n the potential benefits o f a p p a r e n t m o t i o n l e s s n e s s — t h e a d v a n tage g a i n e d , in c o n f r o n t i n g p r e d a t o r s , o f " p l a y i n g d e a d " — a n d the dis astrous consequence o f enforced i m m o b i l i z a t i o n : the impotent aware n e s s o f o n e ' s o w n e n t r a p m e n t . A f u r t h e r d i s t i n c t i o n is m a d e b y L o p e z , f o r w h o m ( c l i m a t i c ) stillness is n o t t o b e c o n f u s e d w i t h ( b i o l o g i c a l ) s t a sis. T h e r o m a n t i c n o t i o n o f a " t i m e l e s s " I n u i t c u l t u r e , s a y s L o p e z , h a s less t o d o w i t h g e o g r a p h i c a l k n o w l e d g e t h a n w i t h c u l t u r a l p r e j u d i c e ; s u c h p r e j u d i c e s w e r e , a n d t o s o m e e x t e n t still a r e , n u r t u r e d b y s t e r e o t y p i c a l W e s t e r n v i e w s o f t h e A r c t i c as a " p r i m i t i v e l a n d s c a p e , a p a i n t i n g i n h a b i t e d b y a t t e n u a t e d p e o p l e " (352). N i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y e x p l o r ers i n t h e A r c t i c o f t e n " m i s t o o k t h e stillness a n d t h e c o l d f o r b i o l o g i c a l stasis. T h e y t h o u g h t n o t h i n g a t a l l c h a n g e d [ i n t h e A r c t i c ] .

They

t h o u g h t it w a s a d e s e r t , a w a s t e l a n d " (382). S u c h a t t i t u d e s , s a y s L o p e z , b e t r a y e d a colonial sensibility: a sensibility, needless t o say, b y n o m e a n s r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . B y e n v i s i o n i n g t h e A r c t i c as a tabula rasa, a blank white page, nineteenth-century explorers ( a n d s o m e o f their twentieth-century counterparts) were able t o inscribe u p o n it the e x p a n s i o n i s t i m p e r a t i v e s o f their o w n " e n l i g h t e n e d " cul t u r e . Y e t a s L o p e z s h o w s , it is a w h o l l y d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f a n t i c i p a t i o n t h a t t h e A r c t i c calls f o r ; t o c o n t e m p l a t e t h e stillness o f t h e A r c t i c is n o t t o p r e f i g u r e o n e ' s o w n i m p a c t u p o n it, n o r y e t t o i m a g i n e o n e ' s m o v e m e n t t h r o u g h o r b e y o n d it, b u t r a t h e r t o a p p r e c i a t e i t s own p o t e n t i a l f o r m o v e m e n t . F a r f r o m b e i n g lifeless o r m o n o t o n o u s , t h e e c o s y s t e m o f I h e A r c t i c , l i k e t h a t o f t h e d e s e r t , is c o m p l e x a n d v a r i e d : it a l l o w s n o t o n l y f o r c h a n g e , b u t f o r s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e ; n o t o n l y f o r life, b u t f o r 1

1

I

C M o n . 1 \ W | I II IV l - l ' W l ' I 1 1 1 •

a b u n d a n t l i f e . S t i l l n e s s i n t h e A r c t i c , as i n t h e d e s e r t , c o n n o t e s n o t s t a sis b u t d e f e r r a l — i n t h e o s c i l l a t i n g e c o s y s t e m , " l o n g stillnesses [ a r c ] b r o k e n b y s u d d e n m o v e m e n t " (175-76). I t is t r u e , a s L o p e z c o n c e d e s , that vast expanses o f t h e A r c t i c a r e , t o all intents a n d purposes, " e m p t y " ; b u t t h e A r c t i c a l s o c o n t a i n s w i t h i n it c o n c e n t r a t e d p o c k e t s o f life—pockets that, once discovered, a m p l y r e w a r d the patience o f the traveler o r ( i n L o p e z ' s case) the visiting research biologist. Arctic Dreams r e c o r d s t h e s e e x c i t i n g d i s c o v e r i e s : its s t r u c t u r e , l i k e its s u b j e c t , e n a c t s a series o f " l o n g s t i l l n e s s e s " p u n c t u a t e d b y i n s t a n c e s o f " s u d d e n m o v e m e n t . " I t is s i g n i f i c a n t , h o w e v e r , t h a t L o p e z c o n s i s tently d o w n p l a y s h i s o w n m o v e m e n t s . W e are g i v e n little i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t h o w h e g e t s f r o m p l a c e t o a n o t h e r , still less a b o u t t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e it takes h i m t o g e t there. I n o n e sense, this m a k e s f o r a f r a g m e n t e d , d i s c o n t i n u o u s n a r r a t i v e ; i n a n o t h e r , it c r e a t e s t h e i l l u s i o n o f s i m u l t a n e o u s experience. M o s s also suggests as m u c h w h e n h e reports—in o n e o f his free-verse interludes—the w o r d s o f his Iiuik h o s t , w h o " s p o k e o f A r c t i c p l a c e s / as i f t i m e w e r e n o t h i n g p a s s i n g / a n d a n y t h i n g t h a t h a p p e n e d h a p p e n s s t i l l " (91). T h i s i l l u s i o n m i g h t easily l e n d itself t o r o m a n t i c cliches a b o u t the timelessness o f " p r i m i l i v e " c u l t u r e s , b u t L o p e z , i n p a r t i c u l a r , m a n i p u l a t e s it s k i l l f u l l y l o s u e gest t h e p e r c e i v e d t o t a l i t y o f t h e A r c t i c l i f e w o r l d . L o p e z casts h i m s e l f as a n o b s e r v e r o f t h i s p h e n o m e n a l l i f e w o r l d , b u t h a r d l y a n e u t r a l o r d e t a c h e d o n e . A n x i o u s n o t t o o v e r b u r d e n us w i t h his o w n p e r s o n a l i t y (as M o s s s o m e t i m e s s e e m s t o d o ) , L o p e z r e m a i n s a w a r e , n o n e t h e l e s s , t h a t h i s p e r s o n a l i t y i n e v i t a b l y i m p i n g e s o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t h e is d e s c r i b i n g . B u t d e s c r i p t i o n , f o r L o p e z as f o r M o s s , is n o t a n a c t o f d i s i n t e r e s t e d d o c u m e n t a t i o n ; it is a g e s t u r e , r a t h e r , o f ( u n f u l f i l l e d ) desire. In M e x i c o , f a r r e m o v e d f r o m t h e A r c t i c , M o s s m a k e s notes that are " s o u v e n i r s o f c o n t e m p l a t i o n a n d d e s i r e " (24). S i m i l a r l y , d e s i r e t r a n s lates t h e d i s t a n c e s t h a t s e p a r a t e L o p e z f r o m t h e A r c t i c , a n d t h a t d i v i d e L o p e z ' s culture f r o m the indigenous culture(s) o f the Inuit, into imag i n e d lines o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . L o p e z r e c o g n i z e s t h e p a r a d o x : ( h e m o r e he w i s h e s t o e s t a b l i s h c o n t a c t w i t h t h e A r c t i c , t h e m o r e h e b e c o m e s a w a r e o f his o w n " f o r e i g n n e s s . " W i s e l y , h e d e c i d e s t o s t a y b e h i n d t h e scenes, a l l o w i n g the A r c t i c ' s w i l d l i f e t o t a k e center stage. T h a t w i l d l i f e is p r o l i f i c , b u l a l s o p r o d i g i o u s l y m o b i l e : in L o p e z ' s t r a v e l w r i t i n g , it m a y n o t a l w a y s b e t h e a n i m a l s w h o d o ( h e t r a v e l i n g , , b u t il is t h e a n i m a t s w h o i n v a r i a b l y gel t h e c r e d i t f o r d o i n g i 1. 3 3

is

It is n o t o n l y t h e m o b i l i t y o f A r c t i c a n i m a l s i h n l I . o p e / a d m i r e s , il a l s o ( h e i r <|iialilv
'

1 1

1

a n e n v i r o n m e n t " m a r k e d b y n a t u r a l c a t a s t r o p h e " (33). W i t h i n t h i s e c o s y s t e m , a n i m a l s s u c h as t h e m u s k o x a n d t h e p o l a r b e a r a r e t h e v e r y " i m a g e o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y " (118). A f t e r a n a f t e r n o o n s p e n t w a t c h i n g m u s k o x e n o n t h e p l a i n , L o p e z is m o v e d t o t h e f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n : " T h e y were s o intensely g o o d a t being precisely w h a t they were. T h e longer y o u watched, the m o r e intricately they seemed a part o f where they were living, o f w h a t they were doing. T h e i r color, the proportions against the contours o f the land, were exquisite. . . . T h e y were, in evo l u t i o n ' s t e r m s , i n n o c e n t o f us a n d o f o u r p l a n s " (75). T h e b i o l o g i s t d o u bles a s m o r a l i s t , as a e s t h e t e : t h e p a g e s o f Arctic Dreams a r e c r o w d e d w i t h rhapsodic h o m a g e s t o a n unself-conscious, threatened b e a u t y — a b e a u t y threatened, a b o v e all, b y the invasive presence o f people. L o p e z cites t h e case o f t h e b e a r s a t C h u r c h i l l , M a n i t o b a , " i n n o c e n t " v i c t i m s o f a "parade o f amateur a n d professional photographers, filmmakers a n d television personnel [ w h o bait the] bears w i t h jars o f m a y o n n a i s e [ w h i l e ] i m p o r t u n i n g ] C h u r c h i l l p e o p l e t o assist t h e m i n s t a g i n g v a r i o u s s c e n e s " (115). T h e b e a r s r e p r e s e n t a s a d e x a m p l e o f " a n a n i m a l i n a c o m p a r a t i v e l y accelerated rate o f e v o l u t i o n a r y d e v e l o p m e n t [that] h a s e n c o u n t e r e d a n o t h e r creature e v o l v i n g a t a v e r y m u c h higher rate o f c h a n g e " (n6). T h e d i s t i n c t i o n m a k e s s o u n d s c i e n t i f i c s e n s e , b u t L o p e z ' s p o i n t is a b o v e a l l a n e t h i c a l o n e ; t h e " i n n o c e n c e " o f A r c t i c w i l d l i f e , a n d o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h it c o n t i n u e s t o l i v e — i f n o t always t h r i v e — p r o v i d e s h i m w i t h a necessary c o u n t e r p a r t t o t h e (lib e r a l ) w h i t e m a n ' s g u i l t . T h e A r c t i c c a n b e seen i n t h i s sense as a c o n f e s s i o n a l site f o r t h e u n b u r d e n i n g o f a t r o u b l e d c o n s c i e n c e . Y e t it is a l s o the repository o f a "transcendent" w i s d o m , a w i s d o m that brings w i t h it t h e h o p e f o r b o t h i n d i v i d u a l a n d c o l l e c t i v e r e d e m p t i o n . T h e A r c t i c , s a y s L o p e z , h a s a " p e r v a s i v e s p i r i t u a l p r e s e n c e " (124); it is i n v e s t e d w i t h a m y s t i c a l p o w e r t h a t is f r e q u e n t l y d i m i n i s h e d o r c o m p r o m i s e d i n W e s t e r n i n d u s t r i a l i z e d societies. A s a s a n c t i f i e d s p a c e , t h e A r c t i c p r o vides a splendid o p p o r t u n i t y f o r beatific c o n t e m p l a t i o n : L o p e z , birdw a t c h i n g o n e d a y a m o n g t h e ice floes, a n d " h a l f - a w a r e o f t h e b i o l o g i cal m y s t e r i e s i n p l a c i d , d e p t h l e s s w a t e r s , " p e r m i t s h i m s e l f , w i t h o u t a p p a r e n t i r o n y , t o feel " b l e s s e d " (124). E l s e w h e r e , m u s k o x e n g r a z i n g o n t h e A l a s k a n t u n d r a a r e " l i k e B u d d h i s t m o n k s " (54); a n d i c e b e r g s o f f B e l l e Isle p r e s e n t , l i k e " P o t a l a P a l a c e a t L h a s a i n T i b e t , a m o u n t a i n o u s a r c h i t e c t u r e o f ascetic c o n t e m p l a t i o n " (206). T h e A r c t i c is, i n d e e d , a l i m i n a l e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d the line separating inspired lyricism f r o m e a r n e s t s e n t e n t i o u s n e s s is a t h i n o n e , T h e A r c t i c , as a l i m i n a l z o n e , inspires

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M o s s in

their turn t o a s o m e w h a t p o n d e r o u s oracularity a b o u t s u b o r d i n a t i n g "speech" t o "experience." F o r M o s s , the "greatest A r c t i c narrative w a s s i l e n c e " (56), m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e silence o f e x p l o r e r J o h n H o r n b y , w h o p e r i s h e d i n t h e A r c t i c i n 1927. U n l i k e s e v e r a l o t h e r d o o m e d e x p l o r e r s , H o r n b y left n o w o r d s b e h i n d : " H e [ r e f u s e d ] t o e x t r i c a t e h i s d r e a m s f r o m the landscape, t o enter w i t h w o r d s the c o n t i n u u m o f his t o r y a n d g e o g r a p h y , c u l t u r e a n d k i n d r e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s " (56). M o s s r e a d s H o r n b y ' s silence as i n d e x i n g t h e A r c t i c i t s e l f as l i m i n a l t e r r i t o r y : "it is t h e a b s e n c e o f v o i c e t h a t m a k e s H o r n b y ' s v i s i o n t h e i n e l u c t a b l e limit f o r others, w r i t i n g o f their o w n a d v e n t u r e s t o t h e edges o f t h e s a m e t e r r i t o r y " (56). I n Playing Dead, t o o , W i e b e p r e s e n t s a n A r c t i c t h a t c o n d u c t s t o silence a n d stillness: W h a t I e n c o u n t e r here in the N o r t h , where 1 h a v e o f necessity c o m e to l o o k , are secrets; enigmas; mysteries. . . . [ W ] a l k i n g alone in this e n o r m o u s landscape . . . I a m steadily rendered m o r e a n d m o r e w o r d less. O n e c o u l d so easily, o n e p e r h a p s m u s t o f necessity b e c o m e a motionless d o t o f stillness. E x p e r i e n c e the d a y a n d night a n d n o o n a n d sun a n d the imperceptible t u r n o f the stars. (113) A t m o m e n t s l i k e t h e s e , t h e A r c t i c is c o n s c r i p t e d i n t o t h e s e r v i c e o f a r e d e m p t i v e allegory; e m p t y i n g itself o f s p e e c h — t h e Z e n concept o f satori c o m e s t o m i n d — A r c t i c travelogue pares d o w n t o h u m a n i s t parable ( L o p e z ) , metaphysical meditation ( M o s s ) , o r devotional p o e m (Wiebe). Arctic Dreams, Playing Dead, a n d Enduring Dreams a l l o p e r a t e w i t h i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t r a v e l w r i t i n g as r e t r o s p e c t i v e p i l g r i m a g e , a l t h o u g h M o s s ' s b o o k — t h e m o s t recent o f the t h r e e — e m b e d s records o f pilgrimage in layers o f self-conscious m e m o i r , c o m m o n p l a c e , j o u r nal, a n d criticism o f previous A r c t i c travel narratives. S u c h records, a c c o r d i n g t o E r i c L e e d , effect " c h a n g e s i n t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e t r a v e l e r that a r e . . . a n a l o g o u s t o a cleansing, t h e reduction o f the purified e n t i t y t o its s m a l l e s t , t r u e s t d i m e n s i o n s " (11). A s L o p e z s u g g e s t s , m a n y W e s t e r n e x p l o r e r s a n d t r a v e l e r s h a v e p e r c e i v e d t h e A r c t i c a s a site o f b o t h t h r e a t a n d s a l v a t i o n , as a n a r e n a f o r t h e p l a y i n g o u t o f p u r g a t o r ial m y t h . T h e j o u r n e y s o f L o p e z , W i e b e , a n d M o s s a r e n o t , o f c o u r s e , p ' u r g a t o r i a l i n its l i t e r a l s e n s e ; b u t i n t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n s o f e a r l i e r A r c t i c e x p e d i t i o n s , as in their a t t e m p t s t o c o m e t o terms w i t h their o w n limi t a t i o n s a n d w e a k n e s s e s , all t h r e e w r i t e r s g o s o m e w a y t o w a r d l o c a t i n g I he A r c t i c a s a n a g o n i s t i c s p a c e as a site o f p s y c h i c c o n f l i c t a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n that d e m a n d s a c c o u n t a b i l i t y f o r h u m a n e r r o r ,

• 1

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and f o r " t h e darkness n o t only in one's o w nculture b u t within o n e s e l f ( L o p e z 413). T o p l a c e t o o m u c h e m p h a s i s o n t h e " d a r k s i d e " o f t h e s e b o o k s w o u l d b e m i s l e a d i n g , t h o u g h , f o r all three a r e p r i m a r i l y celebra t o r y o f t h e l a n d s a n d p e o p l e s t h e y d e s c r i b e . I n e a c h c a s e , t h e A r c t i c is presented as a t r e a c h e r o u s , b u t n o t necessarily hostile, e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e e n t h u s i a s m that energizes all o f these narratives derives f r o m their writers'

determination

to project

onto the Arctic landscape

their

u n s h a k a b l e f a i t h i n life. C l e a r l y , L o p e z , W i e b e , a n d M o s s all feel a d e e p a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h t h e A r c t i c . T h e y see it, i n Y i - F u T u a n ' s t e r m s , a s a " t o p o p h i l i c " s p a c e — o n e t o w h i c h t h e y a r e c o m p u l s i v e l y a t t r a c t e d , less o u t o f a sense o f a f f e c t i o n , p e r h a p s , t h a n o u t o f a sense o f a d m i r a t i o n t h a t b o r d e r s o n awe.

3 5

T h e A r c t i c t h u s t a k e s o n t h e a u r a o f t h e r o m a n t i c s u b l i m e : as

L o p e z says, in the A r c t i c t h e l a n d w o r k s its w a y i n t o t h e m a n . . . . [It] b e c o m e s l a r g e , a l i v e l i k e a n a n i m a l ; it h u m b l e s h i m i n a w a y h e c a n n o t p r o n o u n c e .

It is n o t

t h a t t h e l a n d i s s i m p l y b e a u t i f u l b u t t h a t it is p o w e r f u l . I t s

power

d e r i v e s f r o m t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n its o b v i o u s b e a u t y a n d i t s c a p a c i t y t o t a k e life. Its p o w e r

flows

into the m i n d from a realization o f h o w

d a r k n e s s a n d l i g h t a r e b o u n d t o g e t h e r w i t h i n it, a n d t h e f e e l i n g t h a t t h i s is t h e f l o o r o f c r e a t i o n . ( 3 9 2 - 9 3 )

O n a level t h a t is m o r e a f h T i a t i v e b u t a l s o m o r e a b s t r a c t , M o s s d e c l a r e s that intimations o f a n o t h e r w o r l d shape the d r e a m e r d r e a m i n g , the writer writing; desires;

we

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ourselves,

infinite a n d eternal, s h a d o w s w i t h o u t p e o p l e , b e l o n g i n g to the scape.

land

(128)

B o t h o f these passages speak w i t h eloquence a n d sincerity, a n d y e t they invite a degree o f d o u b t . T h e i r respective writers clearly h a v e experi e n c e a n d k n o w l e d g e o f t h e A r c t i c , b u t t h e y a r e still, i n t h e e n d , visitors—travelers

w h o s e actions a n d observations are based o n the

k n o w l e d g e that their stays in the A r c t i c will be t e m p o r a r y . " F o r a rela tionship w i t h t h e land t o be lasting," says L o p e z , "it m u s t b e recipro c a l " (404). B u t w h i l e L o p e z m a y g e s t u r e t o w a r d s u c h r e c i p r o c i t y , h e c a n n o t achieve t h e lasting r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e A r c t i c h e desires. W h i l e a w a r d i n g L o p e z generous praise, M o s s concedes grandiloquently

somewhat

t h a t " t h e A r c t i c b e c o m e s a n o u r i s h o n (lie m a r g i n o f

the chart o f the writer's c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f himself" ( y j ) , < ininlcd. but

to w h a t degree does M o s s ' s A r c t i c b e c o m e m o r e central, m o r e fully a subject? S u c h p r o b l e m s i n e v i t a b l y arise f r o m the c o n t r a d i c t i o n s e m b o d i e d i n t r a v e l w r i t i n g as a g e n r e ; f o r w h i l e t r a v e l w r i t i n g — o f t h e s y m p a t h e t i c k i n d , a t least, t h a t L o p e z , W i e b e , a n d M o s s p r a c t i c e — attempts to bridge the gaps b e t w e e n different peoples, places, a n d cul tures, these are gaps t h a t the genre itself c a n n o t h e l p b u t create. T r a v e l w r i t i n g r e i n s t a l l s d i f f e r e n c e e v e n as it c l a i m s t o d i s m a n t l e it; t h e h u m a n i s t desire for reconciliation, in k e e p i n g w i t h the desire for a m o r e p e r m a n e n t relationship w i t h the land, tends to f o u n d e r o n the very (socioeconomic) conditions that m a k e travel w r i t i n g possible. Travelers' economic p o w e r enables them to mobilize resources—the same p o w e r allows t h e m b o t h to leave a n d , eventually, to return. A n d because travelers c a n "see h o m e w h i l e d i s t a n c i n g [themselves] f r o m it" (Fraser xvii), the writing that they produce tends to be paradoxically e t h n o c e n t r i c . T h e h u m a n i s t s y m p a t h i e s o f t r a v e l w r i t i n g d i s g u i s e its interested m o t i v a t i o n s — i t s ( r e ) p r o d u c t i o n o f the w o r l d for a W e s t e r n m e t r o p o l i t a n a u d i e n c e ( P r a t t 5). L o p e z , W i e b e , a n d M o s s are well aware, o f course, o f travel writ i n g ' s c a p a c i t y f o r d i s s i m u l a t i o n , a n d t h e y all a t t e m p t t o d i s t a n c e t h e m selves f r o m t h e g e n r e ' s a c c e p t e d c o n v e n t i o n s . T h e i r A r c t i c c o n t e m p l a tions c o n t a i n f e w o f the elements w e m i g h t usually associate w i t h travel w r i t i n g , a l t h o u g h t h e y still r e m a i n a n i d e n t i f i a b l e s u b g e n r e o f c o n t e m p o r a r y travel literature. ( I f , as P a u l F u s s e l l s u g g e s t s [see i n t r o d u c tion], travel w r i t i n g c a n b e located at the interface b e t w e e n W e s t e r n picaresque a n d p a s t o r a l t r a d i t i o n s , t h e n the A r c t i c c o n t e m p l a t i o n falls s q u a r e l y i n t o t h e c a t e g o r y o f t h e l a t t e r : its m o t i v a t i o n s , l i k e t h o s e o f pastoral, are to restore a n ideal relationship w i t h the land.) A l l three writers are " A r c t i c d r e a m e r s , " p r o j e c t i n g their i n d i v i d u a l desires a n d the collective l o n g i n g s o f their cultures o n t o t h e i n d i g e n o u s l a n d s c a p e . T h e i r b o o k s bear t e s t i m o n y to the impossible aspiration to b e c o m e i n d i g e n o u s t o t h e A r c t i c : t o its p l a c e s , p e o p l e s , a n d c u l t u r e s . T h e y u s e t h e " o p e n , u n o b s t r u c t e d s p a c e s " ( L o p e z 200) t o e x e r c i s e r e f l e c t i o n ; t o escape f r o m " [ g e o g r a p h e r s w i t h w r y m a p parodies o f the e a r t h " ( M o s s 9); a n d t o w o r k " t h e m i n d w e k n o w i n d r e a m i n g , a n o n r a t i o n a l , n o n l i n e a r c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f e v e n t s i n w h i c h slips in t i m e a n d s p a c e a r e n o r m a l " ( L o p e z 200). L o p e z , W i e b e , a n d M o s s a r e a m o n g t h e m o s t s y m p a t h e t i c , sensitive, a n d " o p e n " o f c o n t e m p o r a r y travel writers. N o n e t h e l e s s , their readers m i g h t d o well to lake heed o f M o s s ' s obser v a t i o n t h a t " U l t i m a T ' h u l e is a p r o j e c t i o n o f p r i v a t e a n d c o l l e c t i v e a s p i r a t i o n s , a p a r a d o x , just b e y o n d ( h e last p l a c e l o be r e a c h e d . L i g u r a 36

3 7

Z.UNllJi

I IM,

t i v e l y it e x i s t s ; l i t e r a l l y it is a f a n t a s y " (134). U l t i m a T h u l e , t h e m y t h i c i z e d " A r c t i c , " is a z o n e o f s i l e n c e , c o n t e m p l a t i o n , a n d t h e p a t i e n c e w i t h w h i c h its v i s i t o r s n e g o t i a t e t h e i r s t a y — a n d t h e i r p a s s a g e h o m e . T h i s c h a p t e r has s h o w n h o w , at their best, travel n a r r a t i v e offer s u b j e c t i v e p o r t r a i t s o f zones: g e o g r a p h i c a l - t r o p o l o g i c a l r e g i o n s , c o u n t r i e s , o r g r o u p s o f countries. T h e s e z o n e s are defined, n o t o n l y b y the obser v a n t m o v e m e n t s o f travelers t h r o u g h territory, b u t also b y a n a c c u m u lation o f lore (geographical, historical, ethnographic, m y t h i c ) . S u c h l o r e , as h y b r i d t o t a l i t y , g i v e s a t e x t u a l d e n s i t y t o t r a v e l e r s ' e x p e r i e n c e s , e v e n if t h e y d o n o t e n d u p t u r n i n g these experiences i n t o travel b o o k s . O n this level, travel b e c o m e s a p o t e n t i a l l y rich w a y o f " k n o w i n g " the w o r l d : it m e d i a t e s k n o w l e d g e s t h a t a r e all i n s o m e s e n s e " d i s c i p l i n a r y " t h r o u g h a special k i n d o f lived e x p e r i e n c e ; a n d these k n o w l e d g e s , equally, m e d i a t e the personal experience o f travel. O n a n o t h e r level, t h e c u m u l a t i v e p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d in t e x t u a l i z i n g ( t r a v e l ) z o n e s h a v e achieved, despite their c o m p l e x i t y , a certain c o n d e n s a t i o n . T h e s e p r o c e s s e s h a v e b e e n e c o n o m i z e d , t h a t is, b y b e i n g c a r e f u l l y a l l o c a t e d w i t h i n specific W e s t e r n i m a g i n a t i v e a n d ideological b o u n d a r i e s : the " f r o n t i e r , " the " l i m i n a l , " the " e x o t i c , " the " O r i e n t a l , " a n d so o n . T r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s a r e b e s t s e e n , t h e n , as r e v e a l i n g e x p l o r a t i o n s , b u t a l s o i n t e r r o g a t i o n s , o f these ideologically b o u n d e d discourses. E v e n w h e n travel writers inscribe their texts " u n p r o b l e m a t i c a l l y " w i t h i n o n e o r o t h e r o f t h e s e d i s c o u r s e s , t h e t e x t s t h e m s e l v e s o f f e r sites w h e r e r e a d e r s can u n d e r t a k e the w o r k o f interrogation. T r a v e l writing, in other w o r d s , b e c o m e s a v a i l a b l e as a n i n s t r u m e n t w i t h w h i c h w e c a n b e g i n t o refine, revise, a n d d e c o n s t r u c t t h e cliches t h a t h a v e r e d u c e d z o n e s o f great historical range a n d cultural c o m p l e x i t y to a clutch o f "instant" images a n d one-dimensional stereotypes. T h e following chapter links these stereotypes t o g e n d e r (mis)perceptions. It suggests t h a t the i m a g e r y o f travel has historically been a m a l e o n e , b u t also that travel w r i t i n g m a y act t o estrange these phallic m y t h s a n d m a l e t r o p o l o g i e s ; t o i n t e r r o g a t e their cliches; a n d t o t r a n s g r e s s — t o s o m e e x t e n t — t h e g e n d e r codes o f h e r o i c m a l e a d v e n t u r e , clearing a space in the process f o r the subjectivities o f w o m e n travelers, a n d f o r the e x p l o r a t o r y j o u r neys a n d performances o f gay m e n .

Chapter three Gender and Other Troubles

WOMEN'S

TRAVEL

FEMINIST

WRITING

AND/AS

CRITIQUE

T r a v e l a n d travel writing are saturated w i t h m y t h o l o g y , b u t m o r e often than n o tthe m y t h s they i n v o k e are p r e d o m i n a n t l y male. A c c o u n t s o f travel writing tend t o suffer, likewise, f r o m a n acute gender i m b a l a n c e : E r i c L e e d , i n The Mind of the Traveler, c l e a r l y h a s t h e m a l e t r a v e l e r in his m i n d , w h i l e P a u l F u s s e l l (Abroad) a n d D e n n i s P o r t e r (Haunted Journeys) m e n t i o n h a r d l y a s i n g l e w o m a n w r i t e r . A c c o u n t s s u c h as t hese n e g l e c t a h i s t o r y o f w o m e n ' s t r a v e l a n d t r a v e l w r i t i n g ; t h e y o v e r l o o k the o b v i o u s differences in the conditions facing w o m e n travelers; a n d t h e y a l s o f o r g e t t h a i t r a v e l i t s e l f is a t h o r o u g h l y g e n d e r e d c a t e g o r y . T h e r h e t o r i c o f t r a v e l is s h o t t h r o u g h w i t h m e t a p h o r s t h a t r e i n force m a l e p r e r o g a t i v e s t o w a n d e r a n d c o n q u e r as t h e y please. " T r a v e l " itself—a currently fashionable m e t a p h o r f o r the slippage o r displacement o f cultural k n o w l e d g e — i s usually defined b y m e n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e dictates o f their experience. T h u s , while E d w a r d S a i d ' s i n f l u e n t i a l e s s a y " T r a v e l i n g T h e o r y " (1983) r i g h t l y asserts t h a t I l i c o r y h a s n o u n i v e r s a l v a n t a g e p o i n t , it t h e n m i s s e s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o i n q u i r e f u r t h e r i n t o t h e gendered p o l i t i c s o f l o c a t i o n . A n d J a m e s C l i f f o r d ' s " T r a v e l i n g C u l t u r e s " (1992), w h i l e o u t l i n i n g a f l e x i b l e , " c u t t i n g e d g e " m o d e l o f e t h n o g r a p h y — o n e t h a t sees e t h n o g r a p h e r s a n d t h e i r subjects as traversing, rather t h a n m e r e l y i n h a b i t i n g , a cultural terri t o r y t h e n fails a g a i n t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f s e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e : l o see h o w s u c h t r a v e r s a l s a r e a l w a y s a l r e a d y g e n d e r e d . S a i d a n d ( l i f f o r d , a m o n g o t h e r l e a d i n g c o n t e m p o r a r y social a n d c u l t u r a l t h e o rists, h a v e b e e n a t t a c k e d f o r b e i n g i n a d v e r t e n t l y m a s c u l i n i s l . T h e s e 1

2

3

HI

a t t a c k s h a v e b e e n m o s t c o n c e r t e d , s i g n i f i c a n t l y , i n t h e field o f g e o g r a p h y . G i l l i a n R o s e ' s Feminism and Geography (1993) e x e m p l i f i e s a h a r d h i t t i n g a p p r o a c h t h a t sees g e o g r a p h y , a n d its a p p r o p r i a t i o n i n c u r r e n t s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l t h e o r y , as a n a c a d e m i c h a v e n f o r ( m o s t l y w h i t e ) b o u r g e o i s m a s c u l i n i t y . G e o g r a p h y , a c c o r d i n g t o R o s e , is b a s e d o n a positivistic legacy w h o s e claims t o objectivity a n d d e t a c h m e n t bolster the i d e o l o g y o f masculinist reason; i n a d d i t i o n , t h e discipline h a s t e n d e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u r s e o f its h i s t o r y t o set a n d d e f i n e i t s e l f o v e r a n d a g a i n s t a n " e m b o d i e d f e m i n i z e d O t h e r " (6-7, 60-61). R o s e ' s b o o k is b o t h a c r i t i q u e o f e x i s t i n g g e o g r a p h i c a l m o d e l s a n d a n a t t e m p t t o e s t a b l i s h first p r i n c i p l e s f o r a f e m i n i s t g e o g r a p h y . A f e m i n i s t g e o g r a p h y insists o n w h a t T e r e s a d e L a u r e t i s calls " t h e p o l i t i c s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e " (12); it b r e a k s d o w n c h e r i s h e d d i v i s i o n s b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s ; a n d a b o v e a l l p e r h a p s , it d i s m a n t l e s w h i t e m a l e c l a i m s t o a privileged territoriality, i n p a r t b y stressing c u l t u r a l differences a n d a multiplicity o f possible perspectives. W h a t does feminist g e o g r a p h y m e a n in practical terms f o r c o n t e m p o r a r y w o m e n t r a v e l w r i t e r s ? F i r s t , it asserts w o m e n ' s t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s as b o t h e x p l o r a t o r y a n d d i s r u p t i v e , b r e a k i n g t h e c h a i n t h a t ties g e n e r a t i o n s o f m a l e e x p l o r e r s t o t h e l a n d . A n d s e c o n d , it a l l o w s f o r t h e possibility o f alternative perspectives: the o p e n i n g u p , f o r e x a m p l e , o f Utopian z o n e s o r liberated spaces t h r o u g h w h i c h w o m e n ' s travel w r i t ing c a n emerge as a n e x p l o r a t i o n o f female desire.

4

This balance

between critique a n d celebratory self-expression has been e m p h a s i z e d in several recent a c a d e m i c studies o f w o m e n ' s travel w r i t i n g . K a r e n L a w r e n c e ' s Penelope Voyages (1994), f o r e x a m p l e , sees w o m e n t r a v e l w r i t e r s ( h e r f o c u s is o n B r i t a i n ) as r e i n v e n t i n g a n O d y s s e a n t r a d i t i o n t h a t l e g i t i m a t e s t h e m a l e e x p l o r e r . I n H o m e r ' s Odyssey, U l y s s e s w a n ders while P e n e l o p e , his wife, m u s t w a i t ; L a w r e n c e counteracts this o r t h o d o x v i e w b y s t r e s s i n g P e n e l o p e ' s r o l e as a w e a v e r w h o , i n M i c h e l Serres's w o r d s , b o t h " m a k e s a n d u n d o e s t h e c l o t h that m i m e s t h e p r o g r e s s . . . o f t h e n a v i g a t o r " (7). P e n e l o p e c a n t h u s b e seen as f a s h ioning h e r o w n clandestine itinerary: a n itinerary that, rather t h a n e m u l a t i n g the exploits o f the m a l e explorer, incorporates t h e m into a pattern—a

weave—that

symbolically

crosses

gender

boundaries

( L a w r e n c e 8-11). L a w r e n c e ' s p a r a d i g m is s o m e w h a t c o n t r i v e d , b u t it is u s e f u l i n s o f a r as it r e m i n d s u s t h a t w o m e n h a v e h i s t o r i c a l l y u s e d t r a v e l w r i t i n g t o c u t a c r o s s g e n d e r c o n v e n t i o n s . B y " w e a v i n g " t h e m s e l v e s in a n d o u t o f e s t a b l i s h e d places a n d social r o l e s , w o m e n t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r s h a v e f a s h 11 •

r o u R h S T s w i 111 i v c i t w i ' t 11 i'

ioned a space in which to explore their own identities. T h e y have used travel writing to liberate themselves, at least temporarily, from the con straints placed upon them by their own societies, and to find the free d o m to engage in an alternative w a y of life. Needless to say, serious dis advantages remain for w o m e n traveler-writers. Some o f these are historical: as M a r y Morris points out in her introduction to a recent anthology of women's travel writing, Maiden Voyages (1993), "Flights and evasion, the need to escape domestic constraints and routine, to get a w a y and at the same time to conquer—this form o f flight from the home [has been] more typical o f the male experience" (xv). A n d others are biological; for w o m e n traveler-writers cannot help but be aware of their own physical vulnerability—"the fear o f rape, for example, whether crossing the Sahara or . . . just crossing a city street at night, most dramatically affects the ways w o m e n move through the w o r l d " (xvii). Morris holds the consensus view a m o n g w o m e n traveler-writers that "the constraints and perils, the perceptions and complex emotions women journey with are different from those o f men" (xvii). A n t h o l o gies such as Morris's reinforce this special status, serving to celebrate women's triumphs over conditions unfavorable to their sex. Here, for example, from the introduction to Lisa St. A u b i n de Teran's collection Indiscreet Journeys (1990): "Because of social taboos and the physical vulnerability o f w o m e n , it has always been harder for them to travel, particularly alone. Perhaps that is w h y their feats seem all the more admirable once achieved" (xvi). O r here, from the introduction to Sonia Melchett's Passionate Quests (1991): " M o d e r n travel stretches women's imagination and power o f physical endurance to the limit. . . . By risking hardship, sickness, boredom and even death, and then by surviving," w o m e n travelers validate life, "not just escaping from a humdrum existence, b u t . . . reaching for a kind o f liberty" (3). There are problems, o f course, associated with this separatist view of women's travel writing. F o r one thing, anthologies in the spirit of, say, de Teran's or Morris's risk essentializing women's travel writing, seeing it as inevitably "feminist" or preoccupied with "the private sphere." A n d for another, the tendency to l o o k for connections between different women's travel narratives—to see w o m e n ' s travel writing as a repository o f shared female experience—is a function, at least in part, o f contemporary market forces: of the commodification of women writers, women's writing, women's literature, and the institulionalizalion of women's studies al. Western universities. (So much is clear IVom the plethora of anthologies c u r r e n t l y available on the inar-

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Iket, o r f r o m t h e w i d e r a n g e o f r e c e n t c r i t i c a l s t u d i e s t h a t f o c u s o n w o m e n ' s travel w r i t i n g . Interestingly, t h o u g h , m a n y o f these latter e m p h a s i z e the nineteenth century, tending t o s u c c u m b in the process t o the v e r y n o s t a l g i a o n w h i c h m e n ' s t r a v e l w r i t i n g is o f t e n b a s e d . ) F i n a l l y , a t e m p t a t i o n exists t o c o n s c r i p t w o m e n ' s t r a v e l w r i t i n g i n t o the service o f a n e m a n c i p a t o r y politics, m o s t o f t e n t h r o u g h a c o m b i n a t i o n o f w o m e n ' s l i b e r a t i o n a n d a n t i c o l o n i a l i s m . S a r a M i l l s ' s Discourses of Difference (1991) is v a l u a b l e h e r e i n s h o w i n g h o w w o m e n ' s t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s m a y be " f e m i n i s t " i n s o m e respects w h i l e r e m a i n i n g " i m p e rialist" in others. Mills's study o f nineteenth-century w o m e n travelerwriters e x a m i n e s , precisely, the interface b e t w e e n w o m e n ' s travel writ ing a n d imperialism, s h o w i n g h o w w o m e n such as Isabella B i r d , N i n a M a z u c h e l l i , a n d M a r y K i n g s l e y reached in their travels f o r f r e e d o m f r o m the constraints placed u p o n t h e m b y a Victorian patriarchy while r e m a i n i n g b o u n d w i t h i n the d o m i n a n t imperialist discourse o f the d a y (27-66). T h e s e w r i t e r s , a c c o r d i n g t o M i l l s , o c c u p i e d a n i n t e r m e d i a r y p o s i t i o n like t h a t o f the ( A n g l o - I n d i a n ) m e m s a h i b : w h i l e t h e y w e r e rel atively e m a n c i p a t e d a n d sometimes c h a m p i o n e d w o m e n ' s rights, they were a l s o c a l l e d u p o n t o u p h o l d a n d p r o t e c t t h e c o l l e c t i v e i n t e r e s t s o f E m p i r e (58-80; see a l s o B a r r ) . A s i m i l a r p o s i t i o n is a r g u a b l y o c c u p i e d b y s o m e o f t h e i r l a t e - t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c o u n t e r p a r t s , w h o i n a n a g e a f t e r E m p i r e a r e still a p t , i n spite of t h e m s e l v e s , t o exercise i m p e r i a l rights. T w o p o s t w a r w o r k s w r i t t e n i n t h i s v e i n a r e D c r v l a M u r p h y ' s Full Tilt (1965) a n d , m o r e r e c e n t l y , M a r y M o r r i s ' s Nothing to Declare (1988). B o t h a r e c o n f e s sional narratives that illustrate M o r r i s ' s v i e w that w o m e n ' s travel writ i n g is m o r e d i r e c t l y p e r s o n a l — m o r e r e v e a l i n g o f t h e w r i t e r ' s o w n e m o tions—than men's. M u r p h y , f o r example, favors a n epistolary f o r m — s e l d o m used b y male travel writers—to recount her experiences o f t r a v e l i n g a l o n e b y b i c y c l e to A f g h a n i s t a n , P e r s i a , a n d I n d i a . A n d M o r r i s , p r a c t i c i n g w h a t s h e p r e a c h e s , sees t h e n a r r a t i v e o f h e r e x t e n d e d j o u r n e y t o C e n t r a l A m e r i c a as a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r i n q u i r y a n d o f t e n a g o n i z e d self-debate. B o t h o f these narratives enact a dia logue b e t w e e n a d v e n t u r e a n d introspection: their external j o u r n e y s are a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n inner quest f o r self-understanding. A t times, the c o n f e s s i o n a l strain o f t h e w r i t i n g b e c o m e s u n d u l y narcissistic, l a p s i n g in M u r p h y ' s case i n t o a b r e a s t - b e a t i n g e x a m i n a t i o n of h e r o w n i n a d e quacies o r , in M o r r i s ' s , into trancelike reveries redolent of N e w A g e psychobabble:

114

TWIKINTS W i l l i

TVI'I'lwHITIIMft

At various times ghosts or gods run my life. The ghosts I find in my room a t night, in the eyes of brujas [witches], in the bird nailed t o the tree. While the past struggles to keep me back, the gods propel me forward. Into risk and sacrifice, choice and responsibility. The ghosts are in charge of memory, the gods' domain is destiny. . . . I listen to the ghosts and obey the gods. The ghosts whisper, the gods prod. I listen like a cat at an opening t o a wall, and then when it is safe, I pass through. When the gods recede, the ghosts take over and when I let go of the ghosts, some of whom mean me no harm, the gods send me out on my missions. I return to find the infiltration of ghosts. (125-26) M o r e endearing than such indulgences are Morris's and, especially, M u r p h y ' s efforts to analyze their compromised status as white West ern w o m e n travelers. T h u s , despite her

entirely conventional—revul

sion for "busloads o f French and G e r m a n tourists." M o r r i s manages (unlike some o f her male counterparts) to admit that she is a tourist too; M u r p h y , meanwhile, irritated at being taken for and deferred to as a memsahib during her travels, nonetheless recognizes that her bohemian demeanor cannot mask her Western privilege. M u r p h y and, in a different context, M o r r i s emerge as variations on what, adapting Albert M e m m i , we might call the "memsahib w h o refuses."

For

M e m m i , "the colonizer w h o refuses" plays an impossible historical role: He may openly protest, or sign a petition, or join a group which is not automatically hostile toward the colonized. This already suffices for him to recognize that he has simply changed difficulties and discom fort. It is not easy to escape mentally from a concrete situation, to refuse its ideology while continuing to live with its actual relation ships. From now on, he lives his life under the sign of a contradiction which looms at every step, depriving him of all coherence and all tranquillity. (20) The colonizer, however much he dissents, is still part o f the oppressing g r o u p and—at least as M e m m i sees it—will be forced to share its des tiny. M e m m i ' s opposition is overdrawn, essentializing "the c o l o n i z e d " as a victim and "the colonizer" as an oppressor w h o k n o w s h o w to use his greater force; nonetheless, his critical description has relevance for F u r o - A m e r i c a n traveler-writers-especially for those, like M u r p h y , who

have leftist anticolonial views. M u r p h y is certainly

genuine

enough in her anticolonial sentiments, and Full Till includes several full-blooded lirades against the First World's depredations on the

UHNIII'K

A N l l I H I I I I I I I K I I I 111

I I t

T h i r d . B u i s h e b e l o n g s , l i k e it o r n o t , t o a p r i v i l e g e d g r o u p o f F i r s t W o r l d wanderers: her romanticization o fT h i r d W o r l d plight and her fierce c r i t i q u e o f W e s t e r n m a t e r i a l i s m a r e i n p a r t t h e p r o d u c t o f a c u l tural b a c k g r o u n d that allows her freedom o f m o v e m e n t a n d expres sion, in part the result o f a genre t h a t tends t o t a k e such f r e e d o m s f o r g r a n t e d . M u r p h y ' s i n t e r m e d i a r y s t a t u s as a t r a v e l i n g " m e m s a h i b w h o refuses" scotches the binaries o f the " c o l o n i z e d w o m a n " a n d the " c o l o n i z i n g m a n . " B u t t h e s l i p p a g e b e t w e e n t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s c r e a t e s its o w n h i s t o r i c a l a n x i e t i e s ; a n d i n r e c o g n i z i n g t h e s e , M u r p h y resists t h e t r a v eler's s t o c k t e m p t a t i o n t o ( f a l s e ) e s c a p e . M u r p h y , a n I r i s h w o m a n in India, a n d M o r r i s , a n A m e r i c a n w o m a n in M e x i c o , are conscious t h r o u g h o u t their narratives o f the a m b i v a l e n c e o f their position. O n the o n e h a n d , they are F i r s t W o r l d tourists in relatively i m p o v e r i s h e d T h i r d W o r l d countries; o n t h e other, they are w o m e n travelers l a b o r i n g u n d e r the (heightened) disad v a n t a g e s o f t h e i r sex. B o t h w o m e n , t r a v e l i n g a l o n e , a r e t h e o b j e c t s o f u n w e l c o m e m a l e a t t e n t i o n , a n d M o r r i s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , is c o n s t a n t l y alert t o the threat o f r a p e . I n M e x i c o , she rides i n t o t h e j u n g l e , a c c o m panied b y a taciturn guide: I l o o k e d at A b o n d i o carefully. H e w a s a silent, h a r d e n e d m a n . I h a d entrusted m y s e l f to h i m t h r o u g h this j u n g l e that h a d n o trail. A n d he c o u l d d o a n y t h i n g he w a n t e d to m e . B u t there w a s a softness to his eyes, a gentle c u r v e to his lips, a n d I k n e w he w o u l d n o t h a r m

me.

W h e n y o u travel alone, y o u learn to read those inner maps. Y o u l e a r n t o t r u s t a l a n d s c a p e t h a t is f a m i l i a r o n l y i n s i d e y o u r h e a d . ( 7 9 )

L a t e r , d a n g e r r e a p p e a r s a f t e r she h a s t a k e n a m o o n l i t s w i m . B e l i e v ing- - i m a g i n i n g ? - - t h a t s h e is b e i n g p u r s u e d b y t w o m e n w h o a p p e a r s u d d e n l y o n t h e h o r i z o n , she dives b a c k i n t o t h e w a t e r a n d s w i m s slowly u n d e r the surface: 1 t h o u g h t h o w e a s y it w o u l d b e f o r t h e m t o p l u c k m e f r o m t h e s e a . I k e p t s w i m m i n g u p the s h o r e , a w a y f r o m the p l a c e in the m o o n l i g h t I h a d found, oblivious o f the urchins, the barracuda, the night eaters, the reaching

fingers

o f j e l l y f i s h . I s w a m into the d a r k e s t w a t e r o f all

and stayed there, until they were g o n e .

(102)

T h e f a n t a s y o f being chased recurs m a n y times in M o r r i s ' s narrative; c o n t i n u a l l y s u r r o u n d e d b y things a n d , especially, people m e n that f r i g h t e n h e r , she c o n v e r t s h e r w r i t i n g i n t o a g r a p h o f h e r s u b l i m i n a l fears a n d desires. T h e s e fears a n d desires a r e c e n t e r e d o n h e r o w n e r o t i -

I Id

1 I >I II'1 •-1w

I

1

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I I

cized body. Morris's b o d y has its o w n geography, its o w n itineraries and landscapes; it acts both as a sensor for her experience in the present and as a receptacle for collective memories o f experiences in the past: " W o m e n remember. Our bodies remember. Every part o f us remem bers everything that has ever happened. Every touch, every feel, every thing is there in our skin, ready to be reawakened, revived" (101). F o r Morris, travel is a register for the experience o f embodiment: it sets in motion a process that provides the stimulus for "revival." But travel is also a site o f risk where the "reawakened" female body becomes the object o f others' desire and threatens to turn into a trap. Morris c o m pares her situation to that o f other w o m e n travelers, some of w h o m she befriends; she feels, as she imagines they do, that her journey is a test o f mettle, a trial not only of her own strength but of the collective strength of her sex. M o r e apparent, however, are the moments o f weakness with which she punctuates her narrative—moments that draw her nearer, perhaps, to her target female readership, but that also show the gap between her and her fellow w o m e n travelers' aspirations to greater freedom and the awareness o f their movement between alternative forms o f confinement. If the freedom o f travel turns out, in some respects, to be an empty promise, it m a y yet hold consolations, Pyrrhic victories for the dispos sessed. N o t least a m o n g these is the capacity to play with gender stereotypes. Morris and M u r p h y try to draw attention away from themselves as w o m e n travelers by pretending to imitate men, both in their attitudes and styles of dress. Both travelers favor men's clothing, and M u r p h y , in particular, takes on a persona "so beyond the imagin ing o f everyone [in India and, especially, Afghanistan] that it's univer sally assumed I'm a m a n " (27). Eric N e w b y , w h o negotiates similar geographical territory in A Short Walk in the Hindu Kush (see chap. [), is seemingly horrified o f being found to be effeminate. M u r p h y , in contrast, takes advantage o f her ambiguous sexual status; in Afghani stan, for instance, she grows accustomed to being the only w o m a n present, on more than one occasion being asked to share in the locals' macho jokes: 5

It c e r t a i n l y is a c u r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e t o b e a w o m a n t r a v e l l i n g a l o n e i n -

M u s l i m c o u n t r i e s . M o s t o f o n e ' s t i m e is s p e n t i n t h e c o m p a n y o f m e n o n l y , being treated w i t h the respect d u e t o a w o m a n , b u t being talked t o n i i i n - l o - m a n , s o t h a t i n t h e e n d o n e begins t o feel s o m e w h a t h e r m a p h r o d i t i c . (213)

' . 1 '•; 1 > 1;it AND i l l i n 11 1 in m i l l 1 \

11 /

W h i l e neither M u r p h y n o r M o r r i s goes t o the lengths o f a n o t h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y w o m a n traveler, S a r a h H o b s o n , w h o , e m u l a t i n g Isabelle E b e r h a r d t , f o l l o w s a f o r b i d d e n t r a i l i n I r a n b y p o s i n g as a m a n , t h e y b o t h question the b o u n d a r i e s separating m a l e f r o m female travelers, counteracting the perceptions associated w i t h their sexuality b y delib e r a t e l y m a n i p u l a t i n g s t e r e o t y p i c a l g e n d e r r o l e s . I n t h i s sense, t h e y p r o v i d e o b l i q u e e x a m p l e s o f w h a t M a r j o r i e G a r b e r w i t t i l y calls " c r o s s d r e s s i n g f o r s u c c e s s " : t h e i r " h e r m a p h r o d i t i c " s t a t u s is, i n G a r b e r ' s w o r d s , " a m e c h a n i s m o f d i s p l a c e m e n t , " o p e n i n g u p a " c a t e g o r y cri sis," r e v o l v i n g a r o u n d t h e figure o f g e n d e r , t h a t " d e s t a b i l i z e s t h e c o m f o r t a b l e b i n a r i t y " o f c o n v e n t i o n a l s e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e (16-17). 6

T h i s d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n is t a k e n a s t a g e f u r t h e r b y t h e p o p u l a r W e l s h w r i t e r J a n M o r r i s , w h o s e e a r l i e r n a r r a t i v e s w e r e n o t o n l y w r i t t e n as, b u t l i v e d a s , t h e male t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r , J a m e s . O n e o f t h e m o s t p r o l i f i c a n d highly rated o f c o n t e m p o r a r y travel writers, w i t h m o r e t h a n t w e n t y b o o k s t o h e r n a m e , J a n M o r r i s w a s b o r n i n 1926 a s t h e m a l e child J a m e s M o r r i s . James's c h i l d h o o d , affectionately rendered i n the a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l v o l u m e Conundrum (1974), r e s e m b l e s t h a t o f t h e C h a r l e s R y d e r figure o f E v e l y n W a u g h ' s Brideshead Revisited: sensi tive, s o m e w h a t f e m i n i z e d , sexually u n f o r m e d , a n d avidly aestheticizi n g . A l s o l i k e R y d e r , t h e y o u n g M o r r i s p r o c e e d e d i n t o t h e a r m y as t h e Second W o r l d W a r ended, j o i n i n g the N i n t h Q u e e n ' s R o y a l L a n c e r s after a formulaic high school education at L a n c i n g , one o f E n g l a n d ' s g r e a t p r i v a t e s c h o o l s . A s Conundrum p r e s e n t s t h e m , t h e n e x t f i f t e e n y e a r s o f M o r r i s ' s life w e r e " d o u b l e d " : f o r w h i l e o n t h e s u r f a c e h e f o l l o w e d a n e x e m p l a r y m a l e career pattern, e m e r g i n g f r o m the a r m y o f B r i t a i n ' s last i m p e r i a l d e c a d e t o t a k e u p the p r o f e s s i o n o f f o r e i g n cor r e s p o n d e n t , he also felt o n a d e e p e r level t h a t he w a s a w o m a n i m p r i s o n e d i n the b o d y o f a m a n . A s these feelings increased, M o r r i s b e g a n t o p r e p a r e h i m s e l f p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y f o r the sex c h a n g e — i n i t i a t e d a d e c a d e l a t e r a n d c o m p l e t e d i n 1972 a f t e r a n o p e r a t i o n i n C a s a b l a n c a — f r o m w h i c h M o r r i s , J a m e s ( m a l e c o r r e s p o n d e n t ) e m e r g e d as M o r r i s , J a n ( w o m a n travel writer). G i v e n t h e associations in other w o m e n travel writers' w o r k b e t w e e n travel a n d sexual transgression, o n e m i g h t expect t h e sex change t o have h a d p r o f o u n d implications f o r Morris's travel writ i n g s . Y e t , s t r a n g e l y p e r h a p s , t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r t r a v e l t o b e f i g u r e d as a f r a u g h t c r o s s i n g o f s e x u a l b o u n d a r i e s is u n d e r e m p h a s i z e d i n , i f n o t entirely absent f r o m , J a n M o r r i s ' s later w o r k . O n o n e level, M o r r i s s e e m s in h e r t r a v e l w r i t i n g t o d i s a v o w h e r s e x u a l i t y : " M u c h o f t h e IlK

T O U R L S I S W I T H T V T ' K W U I I I'.HS

e m o t i o n a l force . . . that m e n spend in sex, I s u b l i m a t e d i n t r a v e l " (101). M o r r i s a p p e a r s t o h a v e s e e n t h e s e x / g e n d e r s p l i t t h a t m o t i v a t e d h e r s e x c h a n g e m o r e as a p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m s/he n e e d e d t o s o l v e t h a n as a p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o m p l e x ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e s e e m s l i t t l e s c o p e f o r r e a d i n g h e r t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s a s screens f o r f a b l e s o f ( g e n d e r ) s u b v e r sion. Issues o f g e n d e r t h r o u g h o u t J a n M o r r i s ' s w o r k t a k e a distant s e c o n d p l a c e t o t h e a t t e m p t — p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t i n t h e Pax Britannica t r i l o g y — t o r e c u p e r a t e a n d i m a g i n a t i v e l y r e p o s s e s s t h e B r i t i s h i m p e r i a l w o r l d . S u c h a v i e w o f M o r r i s ' s w o r k implies t h a t she m i g h t b e b e t t e r s e e n , a l o n g s i d e N e w b y a n d O ' H a n l o n , as a t o n g u e - i n - c h e e k chronicler o f Britain's f o r m e r imperial "glories." B u t m o m e n t s o f sex u a l t e n s i o n do e x i s t i n M o r r i s ' s w o r k , b o t h b e f o r e a n d a f t e r t h e o p e r a t i o n , t h a t suggest a m o r e conflicted v i e w t h a n t h e o n e she wishes t o present i n her a u t o b i o g r a p h y . F o r J a m e s M o r r i s , ideally p o s i t i o n e d as a foreign correspondent f o r the romantic observation o f a male w o r l d in t h e s e r v i c e o f E m p i r e , g i v e s t h i s w o r l d a n u n m i s t a k a b l y F o r s t e r i a n homoero'tic twist. 7

A t o u c h s t o n e l o c a t i o n h e r e is C a i r o , w h e r e M o r r i s , i n t h e fifties, was clearly responsive t o the same M i d d l e E a s t e r n / A r a b i a n m y s t i q u e , w i t h its r e s o n a n c e s o f a r i s t o c r a t i c m a s c u l i n i t y , a l l u r i n g l y v e i l e d f e m i ninity, a n d a m b i v a l e n t sexual impulse, that W e s t e r n writers a n d i m a g e - m a k e r s h a v e invested i n icons like L a w r e n c e o f A r a b i a . W h i l e M o r r i s might n o t have h a d a n y long-term fascination with exploring the b o r d e r l i n e territories o f sex a n d g e n d e r , the L e v a n t i n e sphere o f his a c t i v i t i e s a s a c o r r e s p o n d e n t d u r i n g t h e fifties p r o v i d e d a s i t e — a " c o n tact z o n e " ( P r a t t ) — f o r t h e r o m a n c i n g o f h i s p e r s o n a l " c o n u n d r u m , " a n d f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s i m a g e s t h a t h e m i g h t call u p o n t o s y m b o l i z e it. C a i r o , t h e p l a c e w h e r e " I s l a m . . . is t r a n s l a t e d i n t o w o r l d l y terms, into t h e languages o f art, politics, s h o w m a n s h i p a n d e c o n o m i c s , i n t o the dialectics o f thinkers a n d t h e f o r m u l a s o f science" (171) is t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f t h i s L e v a n t i n e w o r l d ; it is a c i t y t h a t a c h i e v e s a n a l m o s t m a g n e t i c r e s o n a n c e i n M o r r i s ' s w o r k , a city t h a t lures h i m ( a n d , later, h e r ) i n , a n d d r a w s b o t h o f t h e m b a c k f o r m o r e . I n t o this s y m b o l i c site M o r r i s i n t r o d u c e s s e v e r a l o f t h e s t r a n d s t h a t E d w a r d S a i d l a t e r u n r a v e l s i n Orientalism (1978)- - t h e W e s t e r n e r s ' O r i e n t o f sexual allure, religious fanaticism, a n d political/moral duplicity. C a i r o , and the L e v a n t in general, although described a b o v e in material lerms, gather u p elsewhere the m o r e predictable associations o f d e s p o t i s m a n d e s p i o n a g e . H e r e , f o r e x a m p l e , is a b r i e f p a s s a g e f r o m t h e n o v e l Lust Letters from /lav (1985): 8

9

O I S N D H U A N I.) O T I I l i U T H O I I I t l . l i S

119

T h e longer I l o o k e d a t t h e G o v e r n o r t h e less h e seemed like t h e benevolent figurehead o f an idiosyncratic M e d i t e r r a n e a n b a c k w a t e r , a n d t h e m o r e like o n e o f those spidery despots o n e reads a b o u t i n o l d b o o k s o f O r i e n t a l travel, c r o u c h i n g there at the heart o f his w e b . (117) N o t , o f c o u r s e , t h a t C a i r o i t s e l f is a n " i d i o s y n c r a t i c b a c k w a t e r , " a n d i n Farewell the Trumpets (1978), t h e final v o l u m e o f t h e Pax Britannica trilogy, M o r r i s goes so f a r as t o declare, " F o r s o m e years o f the w a r C a i r o w a s t h e m i l i t a r y c a p i t a l o f t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e " (438). A c r o s s t h e r a n g e o f passages, essays, a n d chapters i n b o o k s w h e r e C a i r o a p p e a r s , it d o e s s o i n a n u m b e r o f g u i s e s : as t h e s e t t i n g f o r a l a t e c o l o n i a l s h o w d o w n between British a m b a s s a d o r Sir Miles L a m p s o n a n d E g y p t i a n K i n g F a r o u k ( a t r i u m p h , in Morris's view, o f British integrity o v e r L e v a n t i n e w e a k n e s s ) ; as a n o s t a l g i c a l l y m e m o r i a l i z e d b a s e f o r M o r r i s ' s a c t i v i t i e s as a f o r e i g n c o r r e s p o n d e n t ; a s a n " a r c h a i c " a n d m e d i e v a l c i t y , c a p i t a l o f t h e A r a b a r t i s t i c w o r l d ; a n d , l a t t e r l y , as a h e d o n i s t i c a n d v o l a t i l e c i t y d u r i n g t h e last d a y s o f P r e s i d e n t A n w a r S a d a t . T h e " e s s e n tial" C a i r o , h o w e v e r ( w h i c h , like so m a n y other travel writers, M o r r i s i m a g i n e s h e r s e l f t o h a v e d i s c o v e r e d ) , is a p l a c e o f e v o c a t i o n a n d l o n g ing, a vestige o f the " m y s t e r i o u s E a s t " : Y e t there remains f o r m e still that sediment o f the sinister, a sugges t i o n o f stealth, secrecy a n d subversion. I sense it always i n that i m m e n s i t y o f desert, so e m p t y , so close a n d s o m e h o w so threatening. I feel it in t h e detestable folds o f the E g y p t i a n b a n k notes, w i t h a smell o f their o w n a n d evocations o f s l u m a n d bordel; i n t h e postures o f t h e silent, l o n g - r o b e d w a t c h m e n , sleepless i n the night streets; in the tall presences o f t h e minarets, elegant b u t a l w a y s w a t c h f u l ; a n d m o s t p a l p a b l y o f all, in those terrible m o n u m e n t s o f e g o i s m a n d e n i g m a , the p y r a m i d s o f G i z a . {Destinations 176-77) I f here the E g y p t i a n b a n k n o t e s are "offensively" folded, the folds o f t h e alert w a t c h m a n ' s r o b e s a r e n o t s o c o n s p i c u o u s l y s t i g m a t i z e d ; a n d it s e e m s , i n d e e d , as i f t h e f o l d i n g s , d r a p i n g s , a n d o b s c u r i n g s o f t r a ditional L e v a n t i n e costumes are offering M o r r i s t h e possibility o f i n t r i g u e o f a d i f f e r e n t , s e x u a l , k i n d . T h e v e i l e d figure is i n f a c t a r e c u r r e n t m e t a p h o r o f s e l f - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n M o r r i s ' s w o r k . I n Conundrum, M o r r i s r e f e r s t o h e r p r e v i o u s p o s i t i o n as a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y a m b i v a l e n t m a l e a m o n g t h e British soldiery i n t h e s a m e terms she will later use t o describe m o r e c o n v e n t i o n a l f o r m s o f espionage. T h u s , she likens her s e l f a t o n e p o i n t t o " a s p y in a e o u r l e o u s e n e m y c a m p " ( 3 3 ) , " c a m o u f l a g e d " a nil v i e w i n g t h e w o r l d " f r o m s o m e silenl c h a m b e r o f

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[her] o w n " (56); t h e t e x t t h e n e x p l i c i t l y finds a n i m a g e f o r t h e s e i d e a s o f d e t a c h m e n t a n d i s o l a t i o n i n t h e figure o f t h e M u s l i m w o m a n , w h o s e veil " p r o t e c t s h e r f r o m so m a n y nuisances, a n d a l l o w s h e r t o be a t h e r b e s t o r h e r w o r s t i n s i d e " ( 1 1 3 ) . F i n a l l y , she r e t u r n s u s t o t h e N o r t h A f r i c a n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , a n d t o a series o f i m a g e s s h e m i g h t e q u a l l y w e l l h a v e a p p l i e d t o C a i r o . H e r e , f o r i n s t a n c e , is a v i v i d , p h a n t a s m i c vision o f C a s a b l a n c a — t h e place w h e r e the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m m a l e to female was eventually accomplished: T h e office b l o c k s m i g h t n o t l o o k m u c h like castle w a l l s , n o r the taxis l i k e c a m e l s o r c a r r i a g e s , b u t still I s o m e t i m e s h e a r d t h e l i m p i d A r a b music, and smelt the p u n g e n t A r a b smells, that h a d for so l o n g per v a d e d m y l i f e , a n d I c o u l d s u p p o s e it t o b e s o m e c i t y o f f a b l e , o f phoenix

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R e f l e c t i n g b a c k o n a f o r m e r life, M o r r i s h i n t s a t its s e x u a l r e a w a k e n i n g — a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n that m i g h t be effected i f " t h e o m e n s are right a n d t h e m o o n i n its p r o p e r p h a s e . " S u c h h i n t s a r e as f a r as M o r r i s g o e s in " t r a n s g r e s s i n g " s e x u a l b o u n d a r i e s ; h e r p r i m a r y p r o j e c t lies else where, in the restoration o f imperial m y t h s . Nonetheless, i n using a n O r i e n t a l m y s t i q u e t o veil h e r p e r s o n a l feelings, M o r r i s suggests a tactic a v a i l a b l e t o w o m e n (as well as t o h o m o s e x u a l ) traveler-writers: t h e mystification o f their sexual preferences—the m a s k i n g o f their sexual being - that allows t h e m t o m o v e m o r e freely i n a m a l e - d o m i n a t e d world. 1 0

F o r M o r r i s , f r e e d o m o f a k i n d c a n be f o u n d b e h i n d the veil, c o n c e a l e d . F o r o t h e r t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r s , h o w e v e r , s u c h as t h e A u s t r a l i a n R o b y n D a v i d s o n , f r e e d o m is b e s t l e a r n e d i n t h e o p e n , i n t h e s u n l i t glare o f "desert places." L i k e several o f her m a l e c o n t e m p o r a r i e s — Bruce C h a t w i n and Paul T h e r o u x are the best-known e x a m p l e s — D a v i d s o n is d r a w n t o t h e d e s e r t as a site o f b o t h a d v e n t u r e a n d c o n t e m p l a t i o n . Tracks (1980), o n e o f t h e c a n n i e s t o f c o n t e m p o r a r y w o m e n ' s t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s , is h e r a c c o u n t o f a s i x - m o n t h t r i p a c r o s s t h e C e n t r a l A u s t r a l i a n desert, a c c o m p a n i e d (for the m o s t p a r t ) o n l y b y her p a c k c a m e l s a n d h e r e v e r - f a i t h f u l d o g . Tracks c o n t a i n s t h e classic ingredients f o r a w o m a n ' s survival narrative: the c o u r a g e o u s solitary t r a v e l e r , d e f y i n g t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s p l a c e d o n h e r sex; t h e fearless c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f total strangers a n d " h o s t i l e " s u r r o u n d i n g s ; the g r a d u a l a d a p t a t i o n t o a n d c o m m u n i o n w i t h the e n v i r o n m e n t . Y e t D a v i d s o n , 1 1

1 2

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t o h e r credit, c o u n t e r a c t s these e a s y cliches, resisting o t h e r s ' a t t e m p t s to corral her experiences into profitable m y t h : It w o u l d s e e m t h a t the c o m b i n a t i o n o f e l e m e n t s — w o m a n ,

desert,

c a m e l s , a l o n e n e s s — h i t s o m e soft s p o t in this e r a ' s p a s s i o n l e s s , h e a r t l e s s , a c h i n g p s y c h e . I t fired t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f p e o p l e w h o s e e t h e m selves as alienated, powerless, unable to d o a n y t h i n g a b o u t a w o r l d g o n e m a d . A n d w o u l d n ' t it b e j u s t m y l u c k t o p i c k t h i s c o m b i n a t i o n . . . . I w a s n o w public property. I w a s n o w a feminist s y m b o l . 1 w a s n o w a n object o f ridicule for small-minded sexists, a n d I w a s a crazy, irresponsible adventurer (although n o t as c r a z y as I w o u l d have been h a d 1 failed). B u t w o r s e t h a n all t h a t , I w a s n o w a m y t h i c a l b e i n g w h o h a d d o n e s o m e t h i n g c o u r a g e o u s a n d outside the possibilities that other people could h o p e for. A n d that w a s the antithesis o f w h a t I w a n t e d to share. T h a t a n y o n e c o u l d do anything. If 1 c o u l d b u m b l e m y w a y a c r o s s a desert, t h e n a n y o n e c o u l d d o a n y t h i n g . A n d this w a s especially true for w o m e n , w h o h a v e used c o w a r d i c e for so l o n g to p r o t e c t t h e m s e l v e s t h a t it h a s b e c o m e a h a b i t . ( 2 3 7 - 3 8 )

Instead o f playing u p the hardships o fher j o u r n e y — t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e , like m a n y o f her peers, o f travel writing's p r o p e n s i t y f o r self-congratu l a t i o n — D a v i d s o n e m p h a s i z e s its f e a s i b i l i t y , e v e n c a l l i n g it, a f t e r w a r d s , " e a s y " (254). H e r m a j o r d i f f i c u l t y c o n s i s t s , r a t h e r , i n d e a l i n g w i t h p u b licity: i n c o p i n g w i t h those i m a g e m a k e r s , such as h e r s p o n s o r s National Geographic, w h o s e e k t o c a p i t a l i z e o n h e r " a d v e n t u r e s " b y t u r n i n g t h e m i n t o lucrative m e d i a spectacle. D a v i d s o n c o u l d b e accused h e r e o f a c t i n g i n b a d f a i t h ; after all, she accepts t h e s p o n s o r ship o f a m a g a z i n e she s e e m i n g l y despises, t h e n p r o c e e d s t o t u r n h e r j o u r n e y i n t o a n o t h e r c o m m o d i t y , a t r a v e l b o o k . Tracks is b e t t e r s e e n , t h o u g h , as a self-consciously critical e x a m i n a t i o n o f the m e d i a sensa t i o n a l i s m t h a t c o n t i n u e s t o d o g — a n d p a r t l y , t o d e f i n e — b o o k s o f its g e n r e . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , it r a n k s a l o n g s i d e C a t h e r i n e L u t z a n d J a n e C o l l i n s ' s r e c e n t c r i t i q u e o f National Geographic, w h i c h l a m b a s t e s t h e p o p u l a r m a g a z i n e f o r its m e d i a i m p e r i a l i s m a n d i t s v o y e u r i s t i c a p p r e c i a t i o n o f p h o t o g e n i c " p r i m i t i v e " p e o p l e s . ' H e r e , f o r i n s t a n c e , is a n e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n D a v i d s o n a n d t h e t r i g g e r - h a p p y National Geo graphic p h o t o g r a p h e r R i c h a r d S m o l a n , w h o j o i n s h e r p e r i o d i c a l l y , n o t a l w a y s happily, o n her trip: 3

W h a t e v e r justifications for p h o t o g r a p h i n g the A b o r i g i n e s I had c o m e u p w i t h b e f o r e , n o w w e r e t o t a l l y s h o t . It w a s i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e y h a t e d it. . . . I a l s o r e a l i z e d t h a i c o v e r a g e in a c o n s e r v a t i v e m a g a z i n e l i k e Gt'o^mp/iic

w o u l d d o the p e o p l e n o g o o d al a l l , n o

I'Ol/IUiNTIS W t I II T V I ' l ' W K I I I'.KS

m a t t e r h o w I w r o t e the article. T h e y w o u l d r e m a i n q u a i n t primitives t o be g a w k e d at b y readers w h o c o u l d n ' t really give a d a m n w h a t w a s h a p p e n i n g t o t h e m . I a r g u e d w i t h R i c k t h a t he w a s i n v o l v e d in a f o r m o f parasitism. . . . H e c a m e u p w i t h all the o l d a r g u m e n t s , but w a s t o r n , I k n e w , because h e r e c o g n i z e d it was true. (49) D a v i d s o n ' s n a r r a t i v e resists, b y a n d l a r g e , s u c h o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r c u l t u r a l v o y e u r i s m : h e r s u p p o r t f o r t h e A b o r i g i n e s is o f a n e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t k i n d t o , s a y , C h a t w i n ' s i n The Songlines: it is b a s e d o n a n u n d e r standing o f their material situation rather than o n a n aestheticized a d m i r a t i o n o f t h e " m y t h i c " q u a l i t i e s o f t h e i r c u l t u r e . D a v i d s o n is e q u a l l y r e s i s t a n t t o t h e m y t h i c i z a t i o n o f h e r o w n p e r s o n a : s h e m a k e s it c l e a r t h r o u g h o u t t h a t s h e is ( o r , p e r h a p s b e t t e r , w o u l d l i k e t o b e ) a w o m a n w h o travels rather t h a n a credentialed " w o m a n traveler," a candidate f o rthe anthologies a n d a c o m m o d i f i e d "tribute t o her sex." N o n e t h e l e s s , h e r n a r r a t i v e is w r i t t e n , t o s o m e e x t e n t , f r o m a f e m i n i s t viewpoint, berating her A u s t r a l i a n f e l l o w m e n f o r their crudeness a n d " s m a l l - m i n d e d s e x i s m " (237); finding c o n s o l a t i o n , s o m e w h a t r o m a n t i cally, in a n older A b o r i g i n a l system in w h i c h , " w h i l e m e n a n d w o m e n h a v e s e p a r a t e r o l e s , t h e s e r o l e s . . . a r e m u t u a l l y r e s p e c t e d " (174); a n d vigorously dismantling the m y t h s that surround the supposedly " w e a k e r sex," m y t h s that support the view o f her o w n "uniqueness" o r "exceptionality": [ G i r l s ] w a s t e so m u c h o f [their] e n e r g y seeking . . . t o p u s h u p the m i l lions o f tiny t h u m b s t h a t h a v e tried t o quelch . . . creativity a n d strength a n d self-confidence; t h a t h a v e so effectively caused [ t h e m ] t o b u i l d fences against possibility; t h a t h a v e so effectively k e p t [them] i m p r i s o n e d inside [their] n o t i o n s o f s e l f - w o r t h l e s s n e s s . . . . A n d n o w a m y t h w a s b e i n g created w h e r e I w o u l d a p p e a r different, e x c e p t i o n a l . Because society n e e d e d it t o be so. B e c a u s e i f p e o p l e started living o u t their fantasies, a n d refusing t o accept the fruitless b o r e d o m t h a t is offered t h e m as n o r m a l i t y , t h e y w o u l d b e c o m e h a r d t o c o n t r o l . (238) Tracks raises u n a n s w e r e d q u e s t i o n s a b o u t D a v i d s o n ' s c o l l a b o r a t i o n i n the m y t h o l o g i e s o f " e x c e p t i o n a l i t y " she seeks so u r g e n t l y t o d i s c l a i m . N e v e r t h e l e s s , h e r u n e a s i n e s s w i t h t h e g e n r e i n w h i c h s h e is w o r k i n g , a n d her readiness t o expose that genre t o internal critique, are valuable correctives t o those travel n a r r a t i v e s — a n d here b o t h w o m e n a n d m e n are implicated that d r a w attention t o themselves ( a n d their writers) as s a l e a b l e c o m m o d i t i e s a n d ( h a t p r o f i t u n a s h a m e d l y f r o m m a r k e t a b l e romantic myths. T w o e x a m p l e s o f t h i s l a t t e r k i n d o f t r a v e l wrilini?, a r c I , u c y I r v i n e ' s l.U'NI»tH ANI> nj'MI'H

I H O l ' M I'N

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Castaway (1983) a n d J o a n a M c l n t y r e V a r a w a ' s Changes in Latitude (1989). I r v i n e ' s a n d V a r a w a ' s t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s a r e p e r h a p s b e s t s e e n as exercises i n c o n t r o l l e d s e l f - c o n g r a t u l a t i o n , a i m e d a t a c o m m e r c i a l m a r k e t that k n o w s h o w t o retail W e s t e r n " i s l a n d p a r a d i s e " m y t h s . B o t h writers celebrate their o w n ability t o survive in, a n d a d a p t t h e m selves t o , a w h o l l y u n f a m i l i a r e n v i r o n m e n t ; s c o r n i n g the n o n c o m m i t t a l a t t i t u d e o f t h e l e i s u r e d t r a v e l e r o r , still w o r s e , t h e t o u r i s t , I r v i n e a n d V a r a w a take o n demanding—self-consciously heroic—roles: I r v i n e as a " c a s t a w a y " o n t h e t i n y P a c i f i c i s l a n d o f T u i n , V a r a w a as a n " i n i t i a t e " i n t o t h e F i j i a n w a y o f life s h e h a s a d o p t e d b y m a r r y i n g a local fisherman. I n w r i t i n g a b o u t their respective experiences, Irvine a n d V a r a w a c o n f r o n t t h e p a r a d o x o f seeking independence t h r o u g h apparentlyd e p e n d e n t m e a n s . I r v i n e ' s o n e - y e a r stay o n T u i n results f r o m h e r a n s w e r i n g the call t o j o i n E n g l i s h eccentric a n d l a t t e r - d a y C r u s o e G e r a l d K i n g s l a n d , n o t j u s t a s h i s W o m a n F r i d a y b u t as h i s w i f e — a r o l e t h a t , a s s h e d i s c o v e r s , b r i n g s w i t h it t h e u s u a l " c o n j u g a l o b l i g a t i o n s . " V a r a w a , m e a n w h i l e , a d o p t s a n o t h e r culture as h e r o w n , b u t i n s o d o i n g loses m u c h o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e s h e h a d p r e v i o u s l y e n j o y e d , as a single w o m a n i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c — a n d s u p p o s e d l y " l i b e r a t e d " — s o c i e t y o f h e r n a t i v e U n i t e d S t a t e s . Castaway a n d Changes in Latitude c a n b e s e e n , t h e n , as s e m i - i r o n i c c o n t e m p l a t i o n s o n t h e n a t u r e o f f r e e d o m : as e x p l o r a t i o n s , m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h t h e escapist c o n v e n t i o n s o f travel writing, o f the cultural relativities o f i n d e p e n d e n c e . I r v i n e a n d V a r a w a assert their i n d e p e n d e n c e , i n part, b y m a n i p u lating the m a l e c o n v e n t i o n s o f travel w r i t i n g t o serve their o w n ends. Irvine, o n T u i n t o p l a y the part o f W o m a n F r i d a y t o K l n g s l a n d ' s C r u s o e , f o r g e t s t o r e a d t h e s c r i p t , a n d b e c o m e s i n s t e a d a k i n d o f selfa p p o i n t e d i s l a n d m o n a r c h : " T u i n l a d y . " T h e " c a s t a w a y " m y t h is f e m i n i z e d as I r v i n e , t a k i n g o v e r f r o m t h e w o e f u l l y i n a d e q u a t e K i n g s l a n d , plays o u t p r o p r i e t a r y fantasies o n a n otherwise u n i n h a b i t e d island, a n d r e g a r d s t h a t i s l a n d as " a p r i v a t e s p a c e , r e m o t e f r o m t h e rest o f t h e w o r l d , i n w h i c h a n y t h i n g c o u l d h a p p e n " (17). F o r V a r a w a , a s f o r I r v i n e , " h e r " i s l a n d ( G a l o a ) is " r o m a n t i c a l l y r e m o t e " (1); t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r r o m a n c e is t h e n p u s h e d f u r t h e r w h e n V a r a w a m e e t s a l o c a l fisherman a n d , after a w h i r l w i n d courtship, marries h i m a n d begins t o l e a r n " t h e p s y c h i c r e a l i t y o f a n o t h e r w a y " (219). Q u i t e h o w V a r a w a proposes t o learn "the Fijian w a y " w i t h o u t learning the Fijian lan guage remains a mystery. W e are given to understand, nonetheless,

1 .'.4

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that t h r o u g h a c o m b i n a t i o n o f sensory experience a n d a n t h r o p o l o g i cal r e a d i n g s a b o u t " p r i m i t i v e " c u l t u r e s , V a r a w a e v e n t u a l l y a r r i v e s a t an intuitive grasp o f the "essence" o f F i j i a n culture; a n d at a n a w a r e ness t h a t s h e a n d h e r n e w h u s b a n d , c o l l i d i n g " l i k e m u t e p l a n e t s i n t h e n i g h t , i n a q u i e t e x p l o s i o n o f d a r k a n d l i g h t " (55), a r e " b r i d g i n g a g a p d e e p e r t h a n d i f f e r e n c e i n l a n g u a g e , a d e e p s e a - t r e n c h t h a t lies b e t w e e n o u r c u l t u r e s " (227). A s t h e f l o r i d p r o s e s u g g e s t s , V a r a w a ' s n a r r a t i v e belongs t o t h e rarefied w o r l d o f exotic r o m a n c e ; y e t , like Irvine, she m a n i p u l a t e s a genre t h a t h a s o f t e n b e e n u s e d t o cater t o m a l e f a n t a s i e s , t u r n i n g it i n s t e a d i n t o a n o u t l e t f o r h e r o w n p r e v i o u s l y repressed e m o t i o n a l n e e d s . ' 4

W h a t is m o s t a p p a r e n t i n b o t h n a r r a t i v e s , t h o u g h , is t h e flagrant e x h i b i t i o n i s m o f t h e i r w r i t e r s — a f l a u n t i n g o f self, i n V a r a w a ' s c a s e , t h a t belies h e r d e s i r e t o n a r r o w c u l t u r a l d i v i d e s . Castaway is c o n structed, i n p a r t , o u t o f clippings f r o m Irvine's "secret" diary: a n effec tive m e a n s o f " r e v e a l i n g " herself t o a m i l d l y stimulated readership. Less a sharing o f intimacies, then, than a baring o f them; a n d Irvine certainly wastes n o time in literally shedding h e r clothes, declaring her self w i t h e x c r u c i a t i n g c a n d o r t o b e a n u n r e g e n e r a t e s u n - w o r s h i p e r , r e a d y ( a n d c a n w e d o u b t it?) t o " c o m m i t a d u l t e r y w i t h a s u n b e a m " (125). I r v i n e ' s t i t i l l a t i n g g e s t u r e s a n d s o f t - p o r n p o s t u r i n g {Castaway includes several p h o t o g r a p h s o f t h e scantily clad a u t h o r ) m o c k t h e same (male?) readers t h e y a p p e a r t o b e attracting, as d o h e r p l a y f u l reiteration o f m a l e p i o n e e r i n g cliches a n d h e r p a r o d i c c a p i t u l a t i o n t o erotic m a l e fantasies (as in h e r pledge o f allegiance t o a "phallic m u s h r o o m ! " [166]). T h e s e i r o n i c t r i b u t e s t o m a l e h o o d a r e e n t e r t a i n i n g e n o u g h ; less e n d e a r i n g is h e r s u p e r i o r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e n e i g h b o r i n g (Torres Strait) Islanders w h o " i n v a d e " T u i n , daring t o land o n a n i s l a n d s h e t h i n k s is h e r s — t h e site o f " h e r s u r v i v a l p r o j e c t " — b u t t h a t is b y e n t i t l e m e n t theirs a n d that, like t h e islands t h a t s u r r o u n d it, consti t u t e s t h e i r p r i m a r y s o u r c e o f s u s t e n a n c e . V a r a w a is g u i l t y , l i k e w i s e , o f p u t t i n g h e r o w n desires a n d fantasies a b o v e t h e needs o f t h e p e o p l e w h o s e g u e s t s h e i n i t i a l l y is, a n d o n w h o s e g e n e r o s i t y s h e c o n t i n u e s t o rely. T h u s , e v e n after t h e n o v e l t y h a s w o r n o f f o f b e i n g " a star a t t r a c t i o n , o b j e c t o f s p e c u l a t i o n a n d d e s i r e " (9), s h e m a i n t a i n s h e r selfi m p o r t a n c e b y s w i t c h i n g roles t o G r e a t C o n c i l i a t o r — a n e m i s s a r y o f Hie ( w h i t e ) c i v i l i z a t i o n she r e c o g n i z e s as b e i n g f l a w e d , b u t w h o s e gift o f " r e a s o n " s h e c a n still f i n d il in h e r s e l f t o b e s t o w o n h e r y o u n g e r , volatile h u s b a n d .

W h a t I w i l l t e a c h h i m is u n c e r t a i n ; a g e n t l e r s e n s e , a k i n d l i n e s s , I h o p e . M o s t l y I w a n t t o t e a c h h i m t h a t t h e r e is n o n e e d f o r t h a t d a r k ness to enter his eyes, the darkness that blots o u t t h o u g h t a n d reason, t h a t m a k e s h i m w a n t t o s m a s h a n d h i t a n d flow w i t h b l o o d , t o w a s h clean with anger.

(37)

W h a t I r v i n e a n d , particularly, V a r a w a a p p a r e n t l y fail t o c o m p r e h e n d is t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s t h e y p e r c e i v e b e t w e e n t h e i r o w n " d e v e l o p e d " societies a n d t h e r e l a t i v e l y " b a c k w a r d " i s l a n d societies t h e y e n c o u n t e r are differences they ( a n d , indirectly, the b o o k s they h a v e written) help p r o d u c e . I r v i n e , a t l e a s t , is a w a r e o f h e r o w n e s c a p i s t p r o c l i v i t i e s ; b u t despite h e r f r e q u e n t self-irony, h e r m o c k i n g awareness o f herself as "less o f a G r e a t

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E s c a p i s t " (139), I r v i n e s e e m s r e l u c t a n t t o t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c o n tributing toward thediscrepancy between First and T h i r d Worlds—the s a m e d i s c r e p a n c y o n w h i c h h e r n a r r a t i v e o f isolation a n d its c o m m e r c i a l v i a b i l i t y s o o b v i o u s l y d e p e n d . A f t e r all, h e r s t a y o n T u i n is a carefully orchestrated touristic event; a n d as J o h n F r o w points o u t , " t h e l o g i c o f t o u r i s m is t h a t o f a r e l e n t l e s s e x t e n s i o n o f c o m m o d i t y relations a n d the consequent inequalities o f p o w e r between center a n d periphery, First a n d T h i r d Worlds, developed a n d underdeveloped r e g i o n s " (151). T h e i s o l a t i o n o f T u i n , a n d t h e a p p a r e n t b a c k w a r d n e s s o f T o r r e s Strait Island culture, m a y be attractive t o I r v i n e because they s e e m s o d i f f e r e n t , s o r e m o v e d f r o m t h e w o r l d s h e k n o w s . Y e t as F r o w t e r s e l y c o n c l u d e s ( v i a S u s a n B u c k - M o r s s ) , it is " p r e c i s e l y t h e lack o f d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h m a k e s a n a r e a a t t r a c t i v e as a t o u r i s t g o a l " ( q t d . i n F r o w 151).

15

V a r a w a , f o r h e r p a r t , seeks t o a b s o l v e h e r s e l f f r o m t h e s t i g m a s associated w i t h W e s t e r n tourism b y " g o i n g n a t i v e " : b y a d o p t i n g a n o t h e r c u l t u r e a s i f it w e r e h e r o w n . W h i l e t h e g e s t u r e s b e h i n d h e r a t t e m p t a t cultural conversion are clearly heartfelt, t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e y a r e d e s c r i b e d is s u s p e c t i n t h e e x t r e m e . T h u s , w h i l e s h e r e p e a t e d l y states h e r w i s h t o d i s s o c i a t e h e r s e l f f r o m t h e " m a t e r i a l W e s t , " she reinforces t h e Islanders' p e r c e p t i o n o f h e r b y p l a y i n g t h e part o f w e a l t h y benefactor. V a r a w a b u y s her h u s b a n d M a l e clothes, a s p e a r g u n , a b o a t : s h o u l d s h e r e a l l y e x p e c t h i m n o t t o see h e r a s a n affluent Westerner? V a r a w a acknowledges t h e d i l e m m a : " I realized t h a t I k n e w n o t h i n g , " s h e s a y s a f t e r b u y i n g M a l e m e d i c i n e t h a t h e is unable t o stomach, a n d " c o u l d o n l y offer the coldness o f m o n e y a n d t h e b u r d e n o f g u i l t t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s it. . . . T h e useless m e d i c i n e s t a i n i n g his face in t h e l i g h t o f t h e ii.U

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w r o n g , J o a n a , y o u have n o heart, only a wallet t o trade f o r l o v e " (82-83). S u c h i n s t a n c e s o f b l e e d i n g - h e a r t l i b e r a l i s m o n l y e m p h a s i z e V a r a w a ' s dependence o n the material culture o f the W e s t ; behind her a t t e m p t t o b r i d g e t h e g a p b e t w e e n t w o " v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t " c u l t u r e s lies an awareness, albeit repressed, o f the e c o n o m i c s u p r e m a c y o f her o w n . V a r a w a ' s rhetoric o f reconciliation—a rhetoric derived n o t so m u c h f r o m h e r u n i v e r s i t y a n t h r o p o l o g y t e x t b o o k s as f r o m t h e a r c h e t y p e s o f light a n d d a r k that p e r m e a t e J u n g i a n p o p p s y c h o l o g y — c a n n o t dis guise the u n e q u a l p o w e r relations b e t w e e n F i r s t a n d T h i r d w o r l d s , h e r c o u n t r y a n d M a l e ' s ; a n d i n this sense, V a r a w a ' s l o v e m a t c h , a l o n g w i t h t h e n a r r a t i v e t h a t p r e s e n t s it, o n l y h e l p s i r o n i c a l l y t o d r i v e t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e societies f u r t h e r a p a r t . Changes in Latitude is p e r h a p s b e s t s e e n a s a n e x e r c i s e i n f l a g r a n t c u l t u r a l v o y e u r i s m , a n a d a p t a t i o n o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l t r o p e s t o selfingratiating ends. T h e F i j i a n islands satisfy V a r a w a ' s c h i l d h o o d fasci nation w i t h the "primitive," a fascination nurtured b y the (limited) a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l k n o w l e d g e she h a s a c q u i r e d a b o u t " e x o t i c c u l t u r e s . " V a r a w a seems t o use a n t h r o p o l o g y p r i m a r i l y as a m e a n s o f legitimat i n g h e r e r o t i c f a n t a s i e s ; a n d i n s o f a r as t h e t e x t c a n b e s e e n a t a l l as c o n v e y i n g e t h n o g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n , it d o e s s o t h r o u g h t h e filter o f " s o f t primitivist" r o m a n c e . I n a typical passage, V a r a w a , while sitting d r i n k i n g yaqona ( a l o c a l c o n c o c t i o n ) w i t h M a l e ' s f r i e n d s a n d f a m i l y , casts f u r t i v e g l a n c e s a t t h e m e n s i t t i n g w i t h s u c h c o m f o r t o n t h e g r a s s , noting 1 6

strong bodies, m u s c u l a r a r m s a n d chests, the seductive careless w a y t h e y w r a p t h e i r sulit w h e n t h e y g e t u p , t h e p e r v a s i v e c o u r t e s y o f t h e i r t a l k a n d m o t i o n . A timeless g r a c e drifts here, a n eternal d r e a m

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of people comfortable with where they are a n d w i t h each other.

(90)

F o r a l l i t s p r e t e n s i o n s t o a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a c c u r a c y , its o n - t h e - s p o t explanations o f local customs a n d events t o a n u n a c c u s t o m e d audi ence, Changes in Latitude is b e s t seen a s r o m a n t i c t r a v e l o g u e — a n d i n its m o s t m e l o d r a m a t i c v e i n . I n its d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o e x o t i c i z e its P a c i f i c island e n v i r o n m e n t , t o p l a y self-consciously o n E u r o p e a n paratlisal m y t h s , Changes in Latitude p r o b a b l y o w e s as m u c h t o t h e l u r i d talcs o f R o b e r t L o u i s S t e v e n s o n as it d o e s to t h e m e t i c u l o u s o b s e r v a t i o n s o f its m o r e o b v i o u s model, M a r g a r e t M e a d . ' L i k e Irvine, V a r a w a m a n i p u lates E u r o p e a n c o n v e n t i o n s o f t h e t r o p i c a l i s l a n d p a r a d i s e s o a s to c a t e r t o h e r o w n d e s i r e s a n d liiiiliisuiN. I n thin HCIIIKC, ill least, b o t h w r i t ers p r o v i d e a l t e r n a t i v e s | o l i i n l i t i n u i i l b n u t l r o h m i c d m y t h s : the 7

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resourceful castaway c o m i n g t o terms with, a n d eventually conquer ing, " h i s " island; the irresistible h e r o seducing " h i s " d u s k y m a i d e n ; a n d so o n . I n a n o t h e r s e n s e , h o w e v e r , b o o k s l i k e Castaway a n d Changes in Latitude s h o w t h e c o n t i n u i t i e s b e t w e e n w o m e n ' s t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s a n d the masculinist p a r a d i g m s o f conquest they seemingly wish t o disavow. B o t h n a r r a t i v e s seek t o m a k e capital o u t o f a k i n d o f c u l t u r a l v o y e u r i s m , a n d t o m a r k e t themselves as quests f o r " f r e e d o m " f r o m t h e i r o w n ( a n d t h e i r r e a d e r s ' ) societies. B o t h n a r r a t i v e s c o n t r a d i c t t h e antimaterialist pretensions o f their writers, merely accentuating the a f f l u e n c e o f t h e societies t o w h i c h t h e y b e l o n g . B o t h n a r r a t i v e s , f i n a l l y , place a n emphasis o n fantasies o f individual achievement, advertising the exploits o f their intrepid traveler-writers a n d exhibiting, h o w e v e r i r o n i c a l l y , t h e i r i n d e p e n d e n c e , c o u r a g e , s t r e n g t h . I t is u n f a i r , p e r h a p s , to bracket the b o o k s o f Irvine a n d V a r a w a w i t h those of, say, M u r p h y or D a v i d s o n : writers w h o are m o r e o b v i o u s l y a w a r e o f the b r o a d e r implications o f travel writing, a n d whose w o r k s arguably reach out t o a m o r e d e m a n d i n g , c r i t i c a l a u d i e n c e . Castaway a n d Changes in Lati tude a r e , h o w e v e r , b y n o m e a n s u n t y p i c a l o f a c e r t a i n k i n d o f m i d d l e b r o w travel narrative, one that continues t o enjoy considerable c o m m e r c i a l success. T h i s t y p e o f n a r r a t i v e u n a b a s h e d l y s u p p l i e s e s c a p i s t e n t e r t a i n m e n t , d e l i v e r i n g T h i r d W o r l d e x o t i c a t o its t a r g e t F i r s t W o r l d r e a d e r s h i p , b u t e i t h e r t e m p e r i n g its c u l t u r a l v o y e u r i s m w i t h a m e a s u r e o f s e l f - i r o n y o r a s s i m i l a t i n g it t o t h e w r i t e r ' s a l l e g e d l y c a t h a r t i c p e r sonal quest. I n the e n d , narratives like these d o n o t so m u c h celebrate i n d e p e n d e n c e as r e i n f o r c e t h e i r w r i t e r s ' ( a n d r e a d e r s ' ) ties t o t h e s o c i eties f r o m w h i c h t h e y w i s h t o e s c a p e . A n d t h e w r i t e r s t h e m s e l v e s k n o w t h i s ; f o r t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s o f t e n c o n t a i n a n e l e m e n t o f strategic w i s h f u l f i l l m e n t , a n d w h i l e it m a y b e t r u e t h a t I r v i n e a n d V a r a w a , a n d o t h ers l i k e t h e m , a r e " r e a c h i n g f o r a k i n d o f l i b e r t y " ( M e l c h e t t 3 ) , it a l s o seems that t h e y e n d u p c o n v e r t i n g potentially liberating narratives into self-admiring confessions a n d recycled versions o f m a r k e t a b l e r o m a n tic m y t h s . Irvine's a n d V a r a w a ' s travel narratives, focusing o n the " o t h e r e d " b o d y , assimilate " p r i m i t i v e " experience t o the dictates o f W e s t e r n c o m m o d i t y culture. Irvine's b o d y , in " n a t i v e " posture, turns into a vehicle f o r c o n s u m p t i o n , j u s t as t h e F i j i a n s ' s e d u c t i v e b o d i e s b e c o m e c o m m o d i f i e d objects o f desire. T h i s " o t h e r i n g " o f the T h i r d W o r l d b o d y , o r o f its s i m u l a c r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f m e t r o p o l i t a n travel narratives that aestheticize their m a r g i n a l subjects.'" S a r a S u l e r i ' s p o e t i c a l a u t o b i o g r a p h y Meatless D a y s ( l ' ) K ' i ) p r o v i d e s a n 1 •:;

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alternative to this model: one in which the b o d y remains a focal point—an instrument—for w o m e n ' s travel narrative, without being turned into and exploited as an "otherness machine" (105). Meatless Days arguably belongs to a category of postcolonial autobiography in which the autobiographical subject is grafted onto a wider ethnic or "creolized" community (Lionnet). Suleri's w o r k , however, is distinc tive in that it utilizes travel as a metaphor for the dispersal o f its subject in both time (history) and space. 19

Travel has many connotations in Suleri's intricately structured text. O n one level, travel refers to the diasporic movements o f Suleri's family: across various cities, countries, continents; across linguistic and cultural borders. (Suleri's Pakistani father and Welsh mother form the nodes around which a multicultural family organizes itself, is disas sembled, partially coheres.) O n another level, the text itself is a densely patterned geographic circuit, traversing a variety o f physical and cul tural bodies, mapping out arcane itineraries and complex structures o f speech and thought. A n d on still another, the b o d y itself constitutes its own private geography: it has its o w n distributing mechanisms, its o w n structured patterns of response; and in acting on other bodies, it also has its o w n communicative signals: its register o f facial gestures, its semiology of touch. Meatless Days, as a travel text, traces the m o v e ments within the b o d y as it acts upon, and is acted upon by, the various environments that surround it; but it also records the movements between separate, related bodies as they interact with one another at different times or in a different space. These movements take place across cultural borders in what is clearly a transnational space; in this sense, Meatless Days interrogates t he kind o f national (travel) narrative that it associates with ethnocenI ric vision and a patriarchal view o f place. Such a view is affectionately ironized through the treatment of Suleri's father, an itinerant journal ist committed to the cause of the Pakistani nation but "in too many places at once, recounting different histories for e a c h " (112). A b o v e all, though, Meatless Days enacts a family romance between different women's bodies: Suleri's and her sisters'; her sisters' and her mother's; all o f theirs and their maternal grandmother's. These intimate connec tions establish a bond o f shared affection that persists despite the tur bulence o f a new nation's (Pakistan's) history and the pressures o f a family in bereavement, often, and almost always displaced. Suleri's text mourns personal losses while seeking out new paths and connec tions; it refuses to succumb 1.0 w i l f u l n e s s or the paralysis o f nostalgia, I N U I ' . H A M I 1
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tracing alternative histories—and geographies—to that o f "return." S o m u c h is c l e a r f r o m t h e t r e a t m e n t o f S u l e r i ' s s c h o o l f r i e n d M u s t a k o r i , herself a resolute transient w h o s e passport stamps rival Suleri's o w n (Tanzania, K e n y a , Pakistan, Ireland, England, A m e r i c a , China). M u s t a k o r i m a k e s the m i s t a k e o f returning t o the c o u n t r y o f her ancestry: " T h o s e w h o t r a v e l c u r i o u s l y i m a g i n e t h a t r e t u r n i n g is s o m e h o w s w e e t e r , less d a n g e r o u s t h a n s e e k i n g o u t s o m e n o v e l h i s t o r y , a n d M u s t a k o r i e v i d e n t l y h a d s u c h n o s t a l g i a e n c o d e d i n h e r g e n e s " (49). I n e v i t a b l y , s h e is d i s a p p o i n t e d ; r e t u r n o n l y b r i n g s f u r t h e r d e p a r t u r e , b u t a life o f d e d i c a t e d t r a v e l leaves h e r " u n t a i n t e d b y e x p e r i e n c e , as t h o u g h her w i s d o m consisted in r e m a i n i n g p u r e o f a n y k n o w l e d g e that t r a v e l p r e t e n d e d t o c o n f e r " (66). S u l e r i ' s i r o n y , o f c o u r s e , is t h a t m u c h m o r e caustic f o r b e i n g p a r t l y self-directed; she r e c o g n i z e s h e r o w n life o f t r a n s i e n c e a n d t h e e m p t y w i s d o m it b r i n g s . I f r e t u r n f o s t e r s i l l u s i o n s , s o t o o d o e s d e p a r t u r e w i t h its f a l s e p r o m i s e s ; S u l e r i ' s n a r r a t i v e oscillates energetically b e t w e e n u n a c c e p t a b l e alternatives, u n a b l e , like its n a r r a t o r , t o settle f o r o n e c o n s i s t e n t c o d e . T h e f o l l o w i n g e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n S u l e r i a n d h e r sister T i l l a t , w h o h a s " s e t t l e d " i n K u w a i t , is instructive: " S a r a , y o u m u s t learn h o w to settle n o w . " S h e w a s t a l k i n g a b o u t

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y o u r head that shapes itself unwittingly to s o m e o n e else's c r a n i u m , so t h a t e v e r y n e r v e e n d o f f i d e l i t y i n y o u l e a p s u p t o e x c l a i m , ' T h i s is n o t the c u p m y skull requires?'"

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S u l e r i ' s n a r r a t i v e , d e s p i t e its f o c u s o n P a k i s t a n , is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a d e t e r m i n e d c o s m o p o l i t a n i s m t h a t w o r r i e s fixed i d e n t i t a r y c a t e g o r i e s , blurring the boundaries between " s e l f a n d " o t h e r . " " I ' v e lived m a n y y e a r s as a n o t h e r n e s s m a c h i n e , " s h e c o m p l a i n s t o h e r b r o t h e r S h a h i d , " h a d m o r e t h a n m y f a i r s h a r e o f b e i n g o t h e r " (112). S u l e r i , w h o c u r r e n t l y t e a c h e s T h i r d W o r l d l i t e r a t u r e a t Y a l e , is w e l l p o s i t i o n e d t o c o m m e n t o n the ironies o f the a c a d e m i c " a l t e r i t y i n d u s t r y . " I n h e r crit i c a l s t u d y , The Rhetoric of English India (1992), t h e s e i r o n i e s a r e m a d e explicit: " [ A ] l t e r i t i s m begins as a critical a n d theoretical revision o f a E u r o c e n t r i c o r Orientalist s t u d y o f the literatures o f colonialism, b u t its i n d i s c r i m i n a t e r e l i a n c e o n t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f o t h e r n e s s t e n d s t o r e p l i cate w h a t i n the c o n t e x t o f imperialist discourse w a s the f a m i l i a r cate g o r y o f t h e e x o t i c " (12). S u l e r i is o n l y t o o w e l l a w a r e t h a t h e r o w n IV>

I O H K I M S WITH TVI'l',wmH!H!t

w o r k , l i k e t h e s u b j e c t s h e t e a c h e s , r i s k s b e i n g a p p r e c i a t e d p r i m a r i l y for its e x o t i c c a c h e t . Meatless Days, i n t h i s c o n t e x t , r e a c t s p r e e m p t i v e l y a g a i n s t its o w n r e c e p t i o n ; its n a r r a t i v e o f p o s t c o l o n i a l t r a n s i e n c e c h a l l e n g e s t h e c o m m o d i f i e d d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n " s e l f " a n d " o t h e r , " reject ing a wholesale v i e w o f difference that " p a y s n o a t t e n t i o n t o the cul t u r a l n u a n c e s t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i m p l i e s , " a n d r e l o c a t i n g it i n s t e a d a t t h e site w h e r e a c o l o n i a l / p o s t c o l o n i a l h i s t o r y is p l a y e d o u t a n d r e e n acted across the g e n d e r e d ( a n d / o r ethnicized) b o d y . F o r Suleri, as f o r M a r y M o r r i s , memories are channeled t h r o u g h the b o d y : e m b o d i m e n t is n o t j u s t a n a n a l o g u e f o r t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e b u t a m n e m o n i c device f o r the recuperation o f a personal o r collective past. I n Meatless Days, e m b o d i m e n t f u n c t i o n s as a k i n d o f c o u n t e r m e m o r y t h a t sets i t s e l f o v e r a n d a g a i n s t t h e p o l i t i c s o f c u l t u r a l n o s t a l g i a . Suleri's text travels b a c k in time, n o t t o recover a n i m a g i n e d w h o l e ness, b u t t o c o n s t r u c t a l t e r n a t i v e h i s t o r i e s t o t h e o n e s i n s c r i b e d i n official records—histories that w e r e w r i t t e n o v e r , a n d are n o w rewrit ten b y , the female b o d y . 2 0

T h e s e abstractions d o n o t d o justice t o t h e sensual i m m e d i a c y o f Suleri's w r i t i n g o r t o the intricacy o f a prose t h a t aspires t o , a n d s o m e times reaches, t h e height o f lyric. T h e y indicate, nonetheless, that a case c a n b e m a d e f o r s e e i n g Meatless Days, n o t j u s t as a n i d i o s y n c r a t i c a u t o b i o g r a p h y o r m e m o i r , b u t as a self-consciously gendered travel n a r r a t i v e t h a t raises s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s : a b o u t t h e p o s i t i o n i n g o f t h e traveling subject w i t h i n a rhetoric o f displacement ( t o u r i s m , m i g r a t i o n , e x p a t r i a t i o n , etc.), a n d a b o u t t h e n e e d t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p a s t , b o t h i n its b r o a d e r s w e e p o r t r a j e c t o r y a n d i n t h e m u l t i p l e , e m b o d i e d m i c r o n a r r a t i v e s t h a t g o t o m a k e u p w h a t w e call history. Meatless Days p r o v i d e s a r e m i n d e r , a s w e l l , n o t o n l y t h a t w o m e n travel differently, b u t that their j o u r n e y s can be used t o install "differ e n c e " i n t o t h e m o d e r n c u l t u r e o f t r a v e l . A n d t h i s is a c u l t u r e , as I n d e r p a l G r e w a l r e m i n d s u s , t h a t is i n m u c h n e e d o f r e a s s e s s m e n t : T h e r e is m u c h in the culture o f travel that needs e x a m i n a t i o n . . . . P a r ticularly in the area o f sexuality, m o r e texts that a t t e m p t t o d e c o l o nize c u l t u r a l a n d n a t i o n a l f o r m s are necessary, creating narratives o f the travel o f sexualities t h a t w o u l d , once a g a i n , fracture disciplinary practices t h a t were part o f E u r o p e a n m o d e r n i t y a n d colonial m o d e r nities. (232) S u l e r i ' s is o n e s u c h t e x t , a l t h o u g h , a s h e r c r i t i c i s m w a r n s u s , " d i f f e r e n c e " s h o u l d n o t b e c o m e a c a t c h a l l a c a d e m i c c a t e g o r y t h a t enlists
<,mii'.tt - r i i i M i n i 1 •".

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v a g u e l y r e l a t e d c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s in t h e s e r v i c e o f a s e l f - c o n g r a t u l a t o r y "transgressive" cultural critique. Indeed, Suleri's narrative, placed a l o n g s i d e o t h e r s in this section, e m p h a s i z e s the e n o r m o u s differences within t h e f i e l d o f w o m e n ' s t r a v e l w r i t i n g . T h e v i e w o f w o m e n ' s t r a v e l w r i t i n g as n e c e s s a r i l y l i b e r a t i n g c l e a r l y n e e d s a d j u s t i n g j u s t as m u c h as t h e p a t r i a r c h a l m o d e l s o f i m p e r i a l t r a v e l it o f t e n c l a i m s t o d i s a v o w . W o m e n ' s t r a v e l w r i t i n g is m o r e d i f f e r e n t , b u t a l s o less d i f f e r e n t , t h a n it m i g h t s e e m : m o r e d i f f e r e n t i n s o f a r as it c o m p r i s e s a l a r g e , d i s t i n c t l y h e t e r o g e n e o u s b o d y o f t e x t s , b u t less d i f f e r e n t b e c a u s e s o m e o f t h e s e texts are entirely complicit w i t h the d o m i n a n t m o d e . T h e imperialist e x o t i c i s m t h a t S u l e r i a b j u r e s is a l s o o n e t h a t , s a y , V a r a w a p r a c t i c e s ( e v e n t h o u g h t h e c o m p a r i s o n is p e r h a p s i n v i d i o u s i n s o f a r as t h e i r t e x t s a r e a d d r e s s e d t o d i f f e r e n t a u d i e n c e s ) . O b v i o u s l y , n o t all w o m e n ' s travel narratives are f e m i n i s t — h o w e v e r w e m i g h t w a n t to define the t e r m — a n d i n t h o s e t h a t a r e , o r p r o f e s s t o b e , t h e r e is n o n e c e s s a r y l i n k b e t w e e n f e m i n i s t c r i t i q u e a n d a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t r e v i s i o n i s m . ( T h i s is a l s o t r u e , o f c o u r s e , as w a s a r g u e d i n a n e a r l i e r c h a p t e r , f o r " p o s t c o l o n i a l " travel narratives.) A s Sara Mills has s h o w n for nineteenth-century t r a v e l w r i t i n g — a n d h e r a r g u m e n t is s u r e l y r e l e v a n t t o t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y as w e l l — i t is q u i t e p o s s i b l e t o b e d i s a d v a n t a g e d , e v e n o p pressed, w i t h respect to gender while r e m a i n i n g privileged, e v e n oppressive, w i t h respect to race, ethnicity, class. T h e c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f w o m e n ' s travel w r i t i n g tends t o o b s c u r e these crucial differ e n c e s , e v e n as it c e l e b r a t e s t h e w r i t e r s t h e m s e l v e s — o f t e n , p r e c i s e l y , f o r being " d i f f e r e n t . " M a n y o f the best w o m e n travel writers, h o w e v e r , are m u c h m o r e self-awarc t h a n the anthologies give t h e m credit for; a n d s e v e r a l o f t h e s e , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , h a v e g o n e u n r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s sec t i o n . W r i t e r s as d i f f e r e n t as C h r i s t i n a D o d w e l l , B a r b a r a G r i z z u t i H a r r i s o n , S a r a W h e e l e r , a n d , f r o m a n earlier p e r i o d , F r e y a S t a r k , are well a w a r e , like M u r p h y or D a v i d s o n o r (at the fringes o f the genre) Suleri, that the traveling subject—a c o m p o s i t e o f the variety o f rhetor ical p o s i t i o n s a v a i l a b l e t o t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r s — i s i r r e d u c i b l y c o m p l e x : t h a t it is s i t u a t e d firmly b u t s u b t l y w i t h i n t h e r a c e - c l a s s - g e n d e r n e x u s ; t h a t it s h a p e s , b u t is a l s o s h a p e d b y , w i d e r s o c i a l , h i s t o r i c a l , a n d i d e o l o g i c a l f o r c e s . T h e t r a v e l i n g s u b j e c t is a l w a y s g e n d e r e d , a l w a y s e m b o d i e d , a n d a l w a y s active: r e c o g n i z i n g this, m a n y w o m e n t r a v e l w r i t e r s — a l t h o u g h b y n o m e a n s a l l — h a v e turned their narratives into critical e x p l o r a t i o n s o f b o t h the potential for a n d limitations o f female a g e n c y in t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r l d . 2 1

22

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T h e a g e n c y o f t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r s i m p l i e s a set o f p r i v i l e g e s — p r i v i l e g e s , though, that are almost invariably occluded in travel narratives. M o s t o b v i o u s l y , privilege consists i n t h e possession o f r e a d y m o n e y , p a r t i c u larly f o r u n p l a n n e d trips. M o n e y allows the traveler t o decide o n , b u t also t o d i v e r g e f r o m , d e s t i n a t i o n s a n d r o u t e s ; it also b e s t o w s p o w e r o n t h e t r a v e l e r a t v a r i o u s sites a l o n g t h e w a y , a p o w e r t h a t t h e r e s i d e n t native o f t e n expects h i m o r h e r t o exercise b y passing a l o n g a m o d i c u m o f w e a l t h . I n m a n y cases, t h e n a t i v e ' s p u r c h a s e in t h e s i t u a t i o n o f b e i n g t r a v e l e d upon d e p e n d s o n t h e a b i l i t y t o w r e s t m o n e y f r o m a t e m p o r a r y patron. T h i s patronage relationship remains a n unequal one. A l l the s a m e , i t a s s u m e s a c e r t a i n s y m m e t r y : t h e t r a v e l e r is p r e p a r e d t o d i s p e n s e l a r g e s s e i f i t w i l l p e r m i t licenses n o t a v a i l a b l e a t h o m e ; w h i l e t h e n a t i v e r e c i p r o c a t e s w i t h g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s , w h e r e t h e r e c o m p e n s e is s i g n i f i c a n t a n d c u l t u r a l i n t e g r i t y is u l t i m a t e l y n o t a t s t a k e . A l t h o u g h recent travel narratives a n d c o m m e n t a r y are gradually a d j u s t i n g t h e d o m i n a n t p a r a d i g m , i t is still t r u e t h a t m o s t o f t h e world's producers o f travel narratives are white heterosexual males w h o enjoy considerable economic privilege a n d , even w h e n they h a v e responsibilities, t h e c a p a c i t y t o s h u c k these o f f , a t least t e m p o r a r i l y . I f t r a v e l is c o m m o n l y figured as t h e e m b r a c e o f f r e e d o m , o f l i b e r a t i n g ( o r l i b e r t a r i a n ) f o r a y s i n t o less c o n s t r a i n e d l o c a l e s , it o f f e r s f r e e d o m u n d e r t h e s p o n s o r s h i p o f financial r e s o u r c e s a n d a p p a r e n t c u l t u r a l d e t a c h m e n t . O n b o t h sides, " t r a n s g r e s s i v e " liberties n e e d t o b e n e g o t i a t e d . T h e (male) traveler deploys disposable income t o obtain exotic sexual a d v e n t u r e , t h e ( f e m a l e ) n a t i v e offers services i n o r d e r t o p r o c u r e o t h e r w i s e u n a v a i l a b l e assets: i n c o m e , c o m f o r t p e r h a p s , o r s e c u r i t y i n l i v i n g arrangements. S u c h transgressions, f o r white heterosexual males, are i n e v i t a b l y b o u n d e d : t h e l i n e i n t h e s a n d is o f t e n i n d i c a t e d t h r o u g h m o m e n t s o f h o m o s e x u a l panic, w h e n the traveler reclaims cultural n o r m s b y detaching himself f r o m a h o m o s e x u a l l y c o m p r o m i s i n g situa tion. T h e s e m o m e n t s o f p a n i c also serve t o reclaim n o r m a t i v e heteroscxuality as a " h i g h e r " ( w h i t e ) cultural attribute, i n contrast w i t h t h e frequently feminized, potentially c o n t a m i n a t i n g " o t h e r " culture. C i i v e n t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t r a v e l c a n n o t b e l i n k e d t o sexual l i b e r a t i o n o r g e n d e r revision in a n y s i m p l e w a y . W r i t ers m a k i n g s u c h c l a i m s h a v e generally d o n e s o w i t h i n a m a l e h e t e r o -

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a l i t y — h a s b e e n c o m p e t e n t t o figure t h e s e x u a l l i c e n s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t r a v e l as t r a n s g r e s s i o n , w h i l e s h u t t i n g o u t m o r e r a d i c a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s , projecting these b e y o n d t h e t h i n k a b l e . C o n v e r s e l y , n o w that h o m o s e x u a l i t y is n o l o n g e r i n t r i n s i c a l l y t r a n s g r e s s i v e i n w h i t e c u l t u r e s , g a y t r a v e l h a s b e c o m e a field i n i t s o w n r i g h t , c o n n e c t e d w i t h g u i d i n g g a y travelers t o f a v o r a b l e locales r a t h e r t h a n w i t h r e c o r d i n g trajectories o f s e x u a l p l a y i n m o r e o r less c o d e d d i s c o u r s e s . S u c h r e c o r d e d t r a j e c t o r i e s d o i n d e e d exist b u t , u n l i k e m o s t o t h e r texts c o n s i d e r e d i n this b o o k , t h e y are in the m a i n either historically e m b e d d e d i n earlier discourses o r a p p e a r i n stories a n d n o v e l s r a t h e r t h a n i n t r a v e l o g u e s . T h e t w o cat egories o f earlier, c o n t e x t u a l l y c o d e d discourses a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a v e l fictions p r o v i d e t h e b a s i s f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s as g a y a n d / o r q u e e r t e x t s . F o r t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y r e a d e r h o m o s e x u a l i t y , as figured i n t h e first t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , is f o r t h e m o s t p a r t p r e s e n t o n l y i n i m p l i c i t a n d m a r k e d l y c o d e d t e r m s . T h e t e r m homoeroticism h a s l o n g since d o m i n a t e d t h i s l i t e r a r y r e g i o n ; o n l y d e t e r m i n e d r e t r o s p e c t i o n c a n reclaim t h e incidents a n d their n u a n c e d literary representation as " g a y . " 4 M o r e o v e r , the codes are m o s t recognizable in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h English c u l t u r e , w h e r e s e x u a l i t y a n d e r o t i c i s m o f t e n m a k e sense o n l y w h e n r e a d i n t e r m s o f class. T h e E n g l i s h p u b l i c s c h o o l , w i t h t h e p r i v i lege it g r a n t e d t o l i m i t e d f o r m s o f s a m e - s e x e n g a g e m e n t a t t h e s a m e t i m e as it p r o m o t e d h o m o p h o b i c m a s c u l i n i t y , witnesses t o this p h e n o m e n o n , a s d o e s t h e s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n i n s o m e E n g l i s h fiction t o h o m o s e x u a l t r y s t s a c r o s s class l i n e s . I n t h i s h i s t o r i c a l p h a s e t r a v e l — literally u n d e r s t o o d — p r o v e d liberating, enabling f r a n k e r e x p l o r a t i o n o f s e x u a l i d e n t i t i e s a n d p r a c t i c e s , e v e n w h e n it w a s a m a t t e r o f e x c h a n g i n g o n e set o f c o d e s a n d c l o s e t s f o r a n o t h e r . Y e t e v e n w h e n t r a v e l ( i n its m o s t specific s e n s e ) w a s n o t i n q u e s t i o n , E n g l i s h h o m o sexuality often involved a crossing o f boundaries: o v e r into t h e e n c l o s e d w o r l d o f t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l ; a c r o s s class l i n e s ; o r i n t o a d i f f e r ent a g e g r o u p . I n the travel n a r r a t i v e s o f this p e r i o d , e v e n t h e m o s t t e n uous o f b o u n d a r y crossings can seem erotically charged. 2

25

D e n t o n W e l c h ' s a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l fiction Maiden Voyage (1943) is a g o o d e x a m p l e . W e l c h r a n a w a y f r o m s c h o o l i n 1932, r e t u r n e d l a t e f o r his final t e r m , a n d t h e n s a i l e d t o v i s i t his b u s i n e s s m a n f a t h e r i n S h a n g h a i . W e l c h r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y stages h i s t r a v e l s a s a series o f e n c o u n t e r s w i t h i n a d i a l e c t i c o f r i s k a n d f e a r . A t first t h i n g s h a p p e n l o h i m ; t h e n increasingly he participates i n . a n d s o m e t i m e s instigates, e n c o u n t e r s .

W e l c h ' s delicate, highly aestheticized sensibility u n f o l d s these e n c o u n ters t o s u g g e s t v o y a g i n g as a m e d i u m o f s e x u a l a w a k e n i n g . H i s u n d e r stated d e c l a r a t i v e style e v o k e s erotic n u a n c e r a t h e r t h a n e x p l o r e s sex u a l a f f e c t i v i t y . R e c o r d i n g a r o u t i n e c a n i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , h e feels " t w o bars o f fire e a t i n g i n t o ice"; the light b e c o m e s " t h i c k like m i l k a n d . . . s e e m f s ] t o f l o a t c l o u d i l y a b o u t t h e r o o m " ; a n d h e feels a " s u r g e o f a d m i r a t i o n f o r [his a g g r e s s o r ] N e w m a n , " w i t h his " p o w e r f u l b o d y a n d s p r i n g y , u n c o l o u r e d h a i r " (55-56). W e l c h r e n d e r s t h i s e p i s o d e as p a r t o f a larger experiment in w h i c h the risk-seeking traveler c o m p l e m e n t s (he a e s t h e t e ' s s e a r c h f o r p e r f e c t o b j e t s d ' a r t w i t h a h o m o e r o t i c q u e s t f o r r o u g h e r m e n — s o l d i e r s , s a i l o r s , b o x e r s . Maiden Voyage c u l m i n a t e s w i t h the b o y ' s tentative ( n o n s e x u a l ) liaison w i t h a n older British sailor, a figure h e s e d u c e s i n t o f r i e n d s h i p , s i n g l i n g h i m o u t a n d i n v i t i n g h i m t o lea. T h e sailor hesitates t o enter the b o y ' s l u x u r y a p a r t m e n t , a w a r e t h a t his o f f i c e r s " m i g h t w o n d e r w h a t I w a s u p t o i n t h e r e " (202); o n c e inside, h o w e v e r , h e teaches D e n t o n t o s m o k e a n d d r i n k w h i s k e y , w h i l e his y o u n g s e d u c e r sits o n t h e s o f a ' s a r m , " l o o k [ i n g ] d o w n o v e r h i s s h o u l d e r " (204). W h e n t h e D e r b y s h i r e - b o r n s a i l o r d i s c o v e r s t h a t D e n Ion has g o n e t o school in the s a m e c o u n t y , he wistfully suggests, " W e c o u l d h a v e s o m e l o v e l y t i m e s i n D e r b y s h i r e " (260). I n t e r e s t i n g l y , m e a n w h i l e — a n d i n contrast w i t h other literary travelers o f t h e p e r i o d — W e l c h ' s attitudes t o the native C h i n e s e remains o n e o f racial a n d class c o n d e s c e n s i o n , s o m e t i m e s e s c a l a t i n g t o d i s t a s t e . W e l c h foregoes interpretation so that incidents a n d encounters, held in a b e y a n c e , enact a k i n d o f liminality w h e r e elements o f aesthet ics, a f f e c t i v i t y , a n d s e x u a l i t y f l o a t i n a d o l e s c e n t i n d e t e r m i n a c y . N o w h e r e is t h i s m o r e c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a n i n a n e p i s o d e o f c r o s s dressing experimentation. G u e s t a t a neighbor's house, D e n t o n occu pies t h e r o o m o f his m a r r i e d w o m a n - f r i e n d V e s t a . S u r v e y i n g h e r j e w elry ("silver hair-pins w i t h kingfishers' feathers, rose q u a r t z , b e l l - s h a p e d d r o p s w i t h c a p s o f g i l t filigree; r i n g s c a r v e d o u t o f pieces o f j a d e a n d a g a t e ; t w o t h i c k l i t t l e tassels o f seed p e a r l s " [242]), h e w a n t s t o dress u p , a desire c o n n e c t e d w i t h a s c h o o l b o y e p i s o d e w h e n , r e t u r n i n g by train t o school, he h a d h i d d e n i n the l a v a t o r y " w o n d e r i n g i f I c o u l d d i s g u i s e m y s e l f as a w o m a n , t o e s c a p e b e i n g c a u g h t a n d s e n t b a c k t o s c h o o l " (242). N o w , h o w e v e r , h e w i s h e s n o t t o d i s g u i s e b u t t o r e m a k e h i m s e l f , a n o c c u p a t i o n " a s a b s o r b i n g a s r e d e c o r a t i n g a r o o m " (243). B u t t h e a d v e n t u r e s o o n t u r n s r i s k y w h e n a s t r a n g e r o n t h e street s e e k s directions f r o m h i m , a n d h e beats a hasty retreat t o the safety o f the house a n d Vesta's r o o m . T h e cross-dressing gesture terminates almost (ItlNliMt

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as s o o n a s it h a s b e g u n . I n s u c h e p i s o d e s W e l c h p l a c e s t h e r e a d e r a t a cusp where incidents o f a w a k e n i n g defer, rather t h a n impel, m o m e n t s o f disclosure; travel occurs in t h e gap between r e m e m b e r e d incident a n d its l a t e r e m e r g e n c e as n a r r a t e d m o m e n t . A t m u c h the same time that the y o u n g D e n t o n W e l c h was running a w a y f r o m s c h o o l , J . R . A c k e r l e y ' s classic Hindoo Holiday: An Indian Journal a p p e a r e d — a v e r y f u n n y b o o k t h a t cast a w h i m s i c a l r e t r o s p e c t i v e g l a n c e a t a n e a r l i e r y e a r , 1924, w h e n A c k e r l e y h a d s e r v e d a f i v e m o n t h stint as private secretary t o t h e M a h a r a j a h o f a small H i n d u n a t i v e s t a t e . I n 1924, a l s o , E . M . F o r s t e r ' s l i t e r a r y m o n u m e n t t o t h e l a t e p h a s e o f t h e B r i t i s h R a j , A Passage to India, a p p e a r e d : a n o v e l t h a t m e m o r i a l i z e d a British I n d i a t h a t h a d , i n the v i e w o f m a n y , a l r e a d y dis a p p e a r e d . F o r s t e r ' s n o v e l is e x p l i c i t l y a b o u t t r a v e l , a b o u t a w o m a n v e n t u r i n g u p o n d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l t e r r i t o r y t h a t s h e is d e t e r m i n e d t o e m p a t h i z e w i t h a n d u n d e r s t a n d . B u t it is, a b o v e all, i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e E n g l i s h m a n F i e l d i n g a n d t h e M u s l i m A z i z that F o r s t e r addresses his b i g t h e m e o f the testing o f cultural barriers a n d b o u n d aries ( t h e s a m e t h e m e t h a t , l a t e r , w a s t o d o m i n a t e t h e p o s t h u m o u s l y p u b l i s h e d Maurice). A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e s m o l d e r i n g i n t e n s i t y o f t h e affection between F i e l d i n g a n d A z i z draws attention t o the centrality o f I n d i a ( a l o n g w i t h E g y p t ) t o F o r s t e r ' s a t t e m p t s t o find h u m a n — i n c l u d i n g s e x u a l — s a t i s f a c t i o n d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d , 1917-25, w h e n h e w a s a w a y f r o m E n g l a n d o n c o l o n i a l s e r v i c e . T h e fictional F i e l d i n g - A z i z r e l a t i o n ship d r a w s u p o n Forster's loyal b u t frustrating a n d u n c o n s u m m a t e d friendship w i t h the I n d i a n M u s l i m S y e d M a s o o d . I n fact, virtually all o f F o r s t e r ' s experiences in the L e v a n t i n e w o r l d a n d in I n d i a w e r e inflected b y s e x u a l p r e s s u r e s . W h e n h e w e n t t o I n d i a f o r a s e c o n d t i m e i n 1921, as private secretary t o the M a h a r a j a h o f D e w a s , t h e latter f o u n d h i m a y o u n g retainer t o satisfy his sexual needs, e v e n t h o u g h he h i m s e l f cus t o m a r i l y d i d his u t m o s t t o e r a d i c a t e s a m e - s e x i n t i m a c i e s a t c o u r t ( F u r b a n k 2:81-86). I t w a s F o r s t e r w h o t h e n g o t A c k e r l e y t h e p o s t o f p r i v a t e s e c r e t a r y a t C h h a t a r p u r ( C h h o k r a p u r i n Hindoo Holiday). Hindoo Holiday is p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f o r m o f a j o u r n a l , o n e s o e l e g a n t l y w r i t t e n a n d s t r u c t u r e d t h a t it b e s p e a k s c a r e f u l r e t r o s p e c t i v e e d i t i n g . I t is e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s t o r y o f A c k e r l e y ' s q u e s t t o k i s s S h a r m a , m o s t beautiful o f t h e M a h a r a j a h ' s y o u n g cup-bearers. T h e text's e r o t i c s a r e set u p e a r l y o n : first, i n c o m m e n t s o n t h e s c u l p t u r e s i n a J a i n temple, w h o s e "indecencies, M a j o r P o m b e y [was] considerate e n o u g h t o m e n t i o n , [ i n c l u d e d ] a l o n g file o f s o l d i e r s m a r c h i n g g a i l y a l o n g , a n d a n o t h e r s m a l l e r , m o r e e l a b o r a t e d e s i g n . . . b o l h s o d o m i l i e " ( 1 7 18); 2 6

I td

I'd I HI IS I -, W I I'M I V IMOA

and second, in a n exchange w i t h the M a h a r a j a h w h o , after asking A c k e r l e y a b o u t a literary reference t o " N e r o m a r r y i n g P y t h a g o r a s in public," receives t h e c o y r e p l y , " W e l l , . . . it m a y m e a n either t h a t N e r o , as a p a t r o n , g a v e P y t h a g o ras in m a r r i a g e t o s o m e y o u n g l a d y , o r t h a t he p u b l i c l y e m b r a c e d Pythagorean philosophy." " B u t , m y g o o d sir," said his H i g h n e s s , "this w a s n o t that P y t h a g o ras; this w a s a n o t h e r P y t h a g o r a s , a b o y . " " O h , " I said hastily. " W e l l , in t h a t case p e r h a p s it m e a n s exactly w h a t it s a y s . " H i s H i g h n e s s simpered i n t o his sleeve. (21) T h i s a r c h e x c h a n g e is a p r e l u d e t o A c k e r l e y ' s a c c o u n t s o f t h e M a h a r a jah's " G o d s ' " entertainments in w h i c h c o m e l y m a l e H i n d u y o u t h s d a n c e f o r t h e c o u r t , e n a c t i n g s t o r i e s f r o m t h e m y t h s . I t is a t o n e o f these c r o s s - d r e s s e d e n t e r t a i n m e n t s t h a t t h e M a h a r a j a h singles o u t t h e barber's s o n S h a r m a f o r his guest's attention. A c k e r l e y ' s desire t o take S l i a r m a f o r h i s v a l e t is i n i t i a l l y f o i l e d , t h o u g h , w h e n h e a l a r m s t h e s h y hoy w i t h a d e m a n d f o r a kiss. A c k e r l e y is e v e n t u a l l y g r a t i f i e d w i t h s o m e d e g r e e o f i n t i m a c y a t court, a t r i a n g u l a t e d succession o f exchanges b e t w e e n A c k e r l e y , S h a r m a , a n d S h a r m a ' s friend, the guest house clerk N a r a y a n , allowing for a measure o f physical contact. T h e E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g N a r a y a n r e v e a l s t h a t h e h i m s e l f is t h e o b j e c t o f S h a r m a ' s a f f e c t i o n s ; A c k e r l e y , m e a n w h i l e , seems increasingly d r a w n t o b o t h , o n o n e occasion a d m i r i n g N a r a y a n ' s g r a c e f u l n e s s " i n h i s w h i t e m u s l i n c l o t h e s , t h e sleeves o f his l o o s e v e s t w i d e n i n g o u t a t t h e w r i s t , t h e l o n g s t r e a m e r s o f h i s t u r b a n f l o a t i n g b e h i n d h i m " (217). T h e d e s c r i p t i o n c o n t i n u e s i n s i m i l a r v e i n : The b r e e z e p u f f e d at his dhoti as he a p p r o a c h e d , m o u l d i n g t h e soft s t u f f t o t h e shape o f his t h i g h ; t h e n as he t u r n e d a b e n d in the p a t h a n o t h e r gentle gust t o o k the g a r m e n t f r o m b e h i n d a n d blew it aside, m o m e n t a r i l y b a r i n g a slim b r o w n leg. I t o o k his h a n d a n d led h i m into m y tent. (217-18) O n this, t h e a c c o u n t ' s m o s t c h a r g e d o c c a s i o n , N a r a y a n d r a w s t h e l i n g l i s h m a n i n t o t h e s h a d o w o f a tree a n d kisses h i m o n t h e c h e e k ; not a b o u t t o lose a n o p p o r t u n i t y , A c k e r l e y seizes N a r a y a n a n d p l a n t s t w o kisses o n h i s l i p s a m a r k e d t r a n s g r e s s i o n , s i n c e t h e h i g h - c a s t e H i n d u neither eats n o r deigns lo dally w i t h t h o s e w h o e a t m e a t . Shnrmu, t o o , unbends on o n e occasion, holding hands with the amorous liuglishman.
F o r s t e r d e c l i n e d A c k e r l e y ' s i n v i t a t i o n t o w r i t e a p r e f a c e f o r Hin doo Holiday, u n w i l l i n g t o e n d o r s e a b o o k t h a t e x p o s e d t h e s y b a r i t i c M a h a r a j a h ' s s e x u a l tastes a n d p r a c t i c e s . N o n e t h e l e s s , it w a s e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y r e c e i v e d , b e c o m i n g t h e k i n d o f b o o k t h a t finds its w a y i n t o t h e " t o p t e n " o n t h e lists o f w i d e l y d i f f e r e n t r e a d e r s . G i v e n its c l a r i t y a b o u t t h e s e x u a l p r e f e r e n c e s o f its a u t h o r ( m a l e s ; young m a l e s ; y o u n g Hindu m a l e s ) , this seems surprising. C a n d o r p r e s u m a b l y r e m o v e d the b o o k ' s p o t e n t i a l t h r e a t t o its e a r l i e r E n g l i s h r e a d e r s . T h e M a h a r a j a h , d e s c r i b e d c o n d e s c e n d i n g l y , is little m o r e t h a n a figure o f f u n ; t h e H i n d u G a n y m e d e figures a r e f e m i n i z e d a n d a e s t h e t i c i z e d ; a n d t h e a u t h o r d o e s h i s b e s t t o p r e s e n t h i m s e l f as a h a r m l e s s e c c e n t r i c , unthreateningly attracted t o characters w h o turn o u t t o b e n o m o r e t h a n m i l d l y e x o t i c t h u m b n a i l sketches. B a s k i n g i n his E n g l i s h privilege, A c k e r l e y s u g g e s t s t h a t his j o b as p r i v a t e s e c r e t a r y t o t h e M a h a r a j a h w a s j u s t a n i n t e r l u d e , a trifle; n o t h i n g w a s a t s t a k e f o r I n d i a , f o r h i m , or for the E m p i r e . B u t F o r s t e r ' s refusal t o indulge a friend b y writing a p r e f a c e s u g g e s t s t h a t h e , a t least, t h o u g h t d i f f e r e n t l y . 27

T h e travels o f the A u d e n - I s h e r w o o d - S p e n d e r g r o u p t o G e r m a n y , e s p e c i a l l y B e r l i n , b e t w e e n 1928 a n d 1933 r e p r e s e n t e d a m o r e d e t e r m i n e d b i d t o enlist t r a v e l a s e s c a p e t o w a r d g r e a t e r e x p e r i e n t i a l f r e e d o m , while linking in a m o r e c o m p l e x fashion w i t h E n g l i s h ideologies o f the period. G r o w i n g familiarity w i t h the w o r k o f F r e u d e n h a n c e d the resistance t o repression that constellated a r o u n d D . H . L a w r e n c e ' s n o t o r i o u s fictions, j o i n i n g w i t h t h e i n i t i a t i v e s o f y o u n g O x b r i d g e g r a d uates t o get a w a y f r o m their genteel upper-middle-class families. B e r l i n w a s a s t r o n g m a g n e t , a n d it w a s r e l a t i v e l y a c c e s s i b l e . A s S t e p h e n S p e n d e r p u t it i n his i n t r o d u c t i o n t o The Temple, F o r m a n y o f m y friends a n d f o r myself, G e r m a n y seemed a paradise w h e r e there w a s n o censorship a n d y o u n g G e r m a n s e n j o y e d e x t r a o r d i n a r y f r e e d o m in their lives. B y contrast E n g l a n d was a c o u n t r y w h e r e J a m e s J o y c e ' s Ulysses was b a n n e d , as was also R a d c l y f f e H a l l ' s The Well of Loneliness—a n o v e l a b o u t a lesbian relationship. E n g l a n d w a s w h e r e the police, at the o r d e r o f M r M e a d , a L o n d o n magistrate, t o o k d o w n f r o m the walls o f the W a r r e n G a l l e r y pictures f r o m a n e x h i b i t i o n o f D . H . L a w r e n c e ' s paintings, ( x ) S h o r t l y a f t e r a r r i v i n g t h e r e , W . H . A u d e n p r o c l a i m e d B e r l i n as " t h e b u g g e r ' s d a y d r e a m . T h e r e a r e 170 m a l e b r o t h e l s u n d e r p o l i c e c o n t r o l . I c o u l d say a l o t a b o u t m y b o y , a cross b e t w e e n a rugger hearty a n d J o s e p h i n e B a k e r " ( q t d . in C a r p e n t e r 90). A u d e n , C h r i s t o p h e r I s h c r w o o d , a n d S p e n d e r all n e g o t i a t e d ( h e i r w a y a r o u n d G e r m a n y i n t h e 118

T O U K I N T N W I T H TYf>|(WUITIi',lt

late W e i m a r period, characteristically moving from bourgeois host families into the resources their own English-contemporary circles a Horded, and from there either into the G e r m a n intellectual/profes sional set or into a sort o f underworld populated by "adolescent boys who hung about many o f the Berlin bars and cafes, and were willing to have sex with English visitors in return for presents and m o n e y " (90). In the earlier part o f the period, the English affectionately ex changed news about their antibourgeois sexual experiments against a background of heady conversation about sex, class, and politics. Y o u n g G e r m a n males brought out in them a sort o f boastful hedo nism, evoking an interesting vacillation as the rugged Berlin hustler competed for favors with the noble blond Teuton. Both types, far from the delicate Oriental favored by Forster and Ackerley, shared the advantage o f seeming to m o v e around publicly, offering their privi leged English clients a way out o f the genteel closet. Unsurprisingly, the homosexuality o f the English circle in preNazi G e r m a n y does not declare itself openly in their writings from the period but is displaced, in A u d e n ' s case, onto enigmatic Freudian lyrics and, in Isherwood's, onto the iconic evocation that eventually emerged as Goodbye to Berlin in 1939, more than half a decade after Nazi successes had made it impossible to view G e r m a n y as a healthy homosexual haven. Spender's major contribution to the literature came only with the (somewhat embarrassed) publication of The Tem ple in 1988. T h e rapid collapse of W e i m a r G e r m a n y brought the h o m o sexuality o f reasonably affluent, well-educated, "liberated" English youths up against G e r m a n Fascism, rendering their admiration for blond nobility and tough physicality extremely fraught. Goodbye to Berlin refracts Isherwood's homosexuality through the febrile atmosphere o f Berlin between 1930 and 1933, giving it unstable definition. The first-person narrator is an observer, a shadowy figure providing sharply realized portraits o f others in a relationship with himself that remains equally elusive. A m o n g these is the legendary Sally Bowles, but the male figures are also piquant and suggestive. The depressed Peter has escaped from his father and family home, passing through the hands o f several psychiatrists before imagining that he can finally settle d o w n with the blond y o u n g G e r m a n Otto. Then there is < )llo himself, "squatting . . . on the b e d , . . . so animally alive, his naked brown body so sleek with health" (118), his youthful vigor and work ing-class vulgarity as seductive to the narrator as it is to the unfortu nate P e t e r . A n d then there are the street boys, w h o hang out at the l;ll< A N I > O T I I I ' . U T t U H J I H i s

139

A l e x a n d e r C a s i n o " w h i l e their girls w e r e o u t w o r k i n g t h e F r i e d r i c h s t r a s s e a n d t h e L i n d e n f o r p o s s i b l e p i c k u p s " (123), a n d w h o i n d e x I s h e r w o o d ' s a n d A u d e n ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n casual same-sex liaisons i n Berlin. T h e m o s t i n t r i g u i n g p o r t r a i t , p e r h a p s , is t h a t o f B e r n h a r d L a n d a u e r , w h o , i n r e c o u n t i n g his h i s t o r y t o t h e n a r r a t o r , d e s c r i b e s h i m s e l f as h a v i n g b e e n " a q u e e r s o r t o f b o y . " S o n o f a w e a l t h y J e w i s h d e p a r t m e n t store o w n e r , B e r n h a r d invites t h e n a r r a t o r t o his a p a r t m e n t a n d , later, t o h i s lakeside villa. T h e n a r r a t o r registers h i s h o s t ' s b i d f o r attention (he answers t h e d o o r " w e a r i n g a beautifully e m b r o i d e r e d k i m o n o " [ 1 5 6 ] ) a n d gestures o f i n t i m a c y (the h a n d o n the shoulder), p r e s e n t i n g h i m as f a s t i d i o u s , o v e r l y i r o n i c , a n d e v i d e n t l y p l e a d i n g f o r friendship. W h i l e B e r n h a r d ostensibly distinguishes himself f r o m the n a r r a t o r i n t h e w o r d s h e uses t o express h i s o w n a l i e n a t i o n , these w o r d s tacitly suggest a deeper c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the t w o m e n : R e m e m b e r t h a t 1 a m a c r o s s - b r e e d . P e r h a p s , a f t e r a l l , t h e r e is o n e d r o p o f pure Russian b l o o d in m y polluted veins. . . . Y o u , Christo pher, with y o u r centuries o f A n g l o - S a x o n freedom behind y o u , with y o u r M a g n a C a r t a e n g r a v e d u p o n y o u r heart,

cannot

understand

t h a t w e p o o r B a r b a r i a n s n e e d t h e stiffness o f a u n i f o r m t o k e e p u s s t a n d i n g u p r i g h t . (161-62)

S t i f f u n i f o r m s , o f c o u r s e , will n o t suffice l o n g t o k e e p B e r n h a r d u p r i g h t ; e q u a l l y , M a g n a C a r t a is n o t t h e g u a r a n t e e o f a b s o l u t e f r e e d o m f o r C h r i s t o p h e r that B e r n h a r d thinks it t o be. T h e b r u t a l N a z i a s s a u l t s o n t h e streets o f B e r l i n , e s c a l a t i n g t h r o u g h t h e 1930s, e v e n t u ally force the visitor t o c o n f r o n t a c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n y o u t h f u l , b l o n d m a l e b e a u t y a n d N a z i i d e o l o g y , as w e l l as a p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n t h e marginality o f Jews and homosexuals. T h e m o m e n t o f disengagement c o m e s d u r i n g C h r i s t o p h e r ' s visit t o a m e e t i n g o f pathfinders w h e r e , t o his d i s c o m f o r t , h e d e c o d e s a N a z i i c o n : A b o v e the table with the candlesticks w a sa sort o f icon—the framed d r a w i n g o f a y o u n g pathfinder o f unearthly beauty, gazing steadily i n t o t h e f a r d i s t a n c e , a b a n n e r i n h i s h a n d . The whole place made

feel profoundly

uncomfortable.

me

(198; e m p h a s i s a d d e d )

S t e p h e n S p e n d e r ' s The Temple r e q u i r e d a f a r g r e a t e r t i m e - l a p s e between experience, writing, a n d publication t h a n the w o r k o f A u d e n a n d I s h e r w o o d . The Temple is a n a l l e g o r i c a l r o n i a n a c l e f i n w h i c h S p e n d e r h i m s e l f f i g u r e s as n a r r a t o r P a u l , A u d e n us S i m o n W i l m o t , a n d I s h e r w o o d as W i l l i a m B r a d s h n w / " The Teni/ilc is m o t i v a t e d b y P a u l ' s l.|o

l'" 11 M U X I •. " I I I I I I I ' I ' W I ' I I I I'

infatuation with fellow undergraduate M a r s t o n , a n idealizing h o m o sexual attraction that misfires, a n d that leads h i m t o accept the invitalion o f E r n e s t S t o c k m a n n . a visiting student at O x f o r d ( a n d a figure w h o recalls B e r n h a r d L a n d a u e r i n Goodbye to Berlin), t o j o i n h i m i n H a m b u r g . I n t h e first p h a s e o f t h e n o v e l , G e r m a n y signifies b e a u t i f u l — a n d beautifully p h o t o g r a p h e d m a l e bodies, carefree, generous c o m panionship, and the trappings o f m o d e r n i t y : " P a u l watched the y o u n g G e r m a n s . T h e y h a d a s t y l e w h i c h h e t h o u g h t o f as e x c i t i n g l y ' m o d e r n . ' T h e fashions they w o r e were sun a n d air a n d their b r o n z e skin. T h e b o y s g e n t l e a n d s o f t , t h e g i r l s s c u l p t u r a l , finely m o u l d e d " (42). P a u l ' s visit t o G e r m a n y , t h e n , seems like a d i s c o v e r y o f the b o d y — p a r t i c u larly the y o u n g m a l e b o d y — a n d the potential f o r a quality a n d inten sity o f c o m p a n i o n s h i p , s e x , a n d l o v e . T h i s s y n e c d o c h i c b o d y c o n s o l i dates itself aesthetically i n p h o t o g r a p h i c images, like t h e o n e that provides the novel's central e m b l e m : It w a s o f a b a t h e r s t a n d i n g n a k e d a t t h e r e e d - f r i n g e d e d g e o f a l a k e . The

picture w a s taken slightly from b e l o w so that the torso,

rising

a b o v e the thighs, receded, a n d the w h o l e b o d y w a s seen, layer layer o f hips a n d rib-cage and shoulders, up to the t o w e r i n g

on

head,

with dark hair helmeted against a dark sky. V - s h a p e d s h a d o w s o f wil low

l e a v e s fell l i k e s h o w e r s

of arrows

on

San

Sebastian,

on

y o u t h ' s sunlit breast and thighs. " O h , wonderful!" said Paul, temple o f the body!"

the "The

(69)

I . a t e r , P a u l tries t o r e p l i c a t e t h i s p h o t o g r a p h w i t h o n e t h a t s t a g e s h i s f r i e n d L o t h a r as t h e S e b a s t i a n figure. A n o t h e r s c e n a r i o , i n t h e n o v e l t h a t W i l l i a m is w o r k i n g o n w h e n P a u l visits h i m p r i o r t o l e a v i n g f o r H a m b u r g , i n v o l v e s the " i m a g e o f a ( l e r m a n b o y w h o m [ M r . S] has t o seek o u t i n the l o w e s t bars a n d dives of B e r l i n . . . . T h e r e a r e s o m e p e o p l e w h o , t o b e r e d e e m e d , h a v e t o g o into the lowest kennels o f the gutter—like Ibsen's W i l d D u c k diving t o I h e b o t t o m o f t h e p o n d a m o n g t h e m u d a n d w e e d s " (21). T h e s e " l o w csl k e n n e l s , " i n The Temple, i n c l u d e n o t o n l y t h e w a t e r f r o n t s t r e e t - a n d b a r life o f H a m b u r g , b u t a l s o c h a r a c t e r s w h o e x p l o i t t h e i r m o n e y e d linglish p a t r o n s , w h o b e c o m e N a z i s , a n d w h o fail t o realize the d r e a m of u n r e p r e s s e d c o m r a d e s h i p a n d s e x u a l i t y . I n f a c t , t h e n o v e l , i n t h e l o r m in w h i c h it w a s f i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d , s e e m s t o g o b e y o n d s i g n a l i n g i t s a u t h o r ' s critique o f a n earlier E n g l i s h h o m o s e x u a l i d e o l o g y . M a r k i n g a break f r o m the a n d r o g y n i z e d a n d f e m i n i z e d figures o f the c o l o n i a l R a j , the iilctilizcd m a s c u l i n i t y a n d heroic physieality o f N a z i G e r m a n y I

II'.MI

»l

.11

\ HI 1

< I I

I I I It T R O I I I I I I N

I ,|l

p u t h o m o s e x u a l i t y i n t o a different k i n d o f closet, proleptic o f later urban gay b a r scenes.

29

S p e n d e r ' s r e w r i t i n g o f t h e n o v e l h e h a d first

c o m p o s e d s e v e r a l d e c a d e s b e f o r e e v i d e n t l y enlists t h e p i c a r e s q u e h e d o n i s m o f t h e E n g l i s h B e r l i n c i r c l e t o p r o d u c e a n a l l e g o r y o f t h e rise o f fascism. S u c h m o r a l strictures are scarcely e v i d e n t in the w o r k o f A l d o Busi, a practitioner o f the Italian n e w novel w h o exploits the travel narrative's ability to scandalize. O n e o f Busi's m o r e cryptic observa t i o n s is t h a t " [ a ] h e t e r o s e x u a l d o e s n o t t r a v e l — h e m o v e s f o r w a r d " (102). W h a t d i s t i n c t i o n is B u s i s u g g e s t i n g h e r e ? P e r h a p s it is t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n e x p e r i e n c i n g a p l a c e as other a n d

queer—"travel

i n g " — a n d e x p e r i e n c i n g it as a v a r i a t i o n o f t h e same—and

thus " m o v

ing f o r w a r d . "

3 0

C o m p a r i s o n o f Busi with P a u l Bowles, celebrated

d o y e n o f t h e T a n g i e r circle o f e x p a t r i a t e s a n d visitors, establishes this d i f f e r e n c e m o r e c l e a r l y . I n t e r v i e w i n g B o w l e s f o r Rolling Stone i n

1974,

M i c h a e l R o g e r s suggested that M o r o c c o was "really a v e r y bisexual c u l t u r e " ( C a p o n i 6 9 ) — t o w h i c h B o w l e s a s s e n t e d , m o r e o r less. R o g e r s thus neatly eliminated the need to deal w i t h M o r o c c a n sexual codes a n d p r a c t i c e s as d i f f e r e n t a n d c u l t u r a l l y

specific, a s s i m i l a t i n g

them

i n s t e a d , as h e a n d o t h e r s h a v e a s s i m i l a t e d A r a b d r u g u s e , t o a " l i b e r a t o r y " A m e r i c a n c o u n t e r c u l t u r e . S u c h elisions p r e s u m a b l y facilitate the m o v i n g f o r w a r d — a n d m o v i n g o n — o f Busi's " n o r m a l " (hetero s e x u a l ) t r a v e l e r . B u t i f t h e q u e e r s u b j e c t is a t t h e c e n t e r o f B u s i ' s fictionalized

travels, w h a t constitutes that traveling? D o e s the queer

subject articulate

particular and differentiated

w a y s o f acting

and

reacting in the situations o f travel? D o e s he engage differently w i t h the p l a c e s h e visits? A n d t o w h a t d e g r e e c a n h e c l a i m t o s i t u a t e a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y — t o k n o w — t h e other culture? S o m e reflection o n P a u l B o w l e s a n d W i l l i a m B u r r o u g h s , a l o n g w i t h B u s i , will b r i n g these q u e s t i o n s into clearer focus. P a u l B o w l e s has m a d e M o r o c c o — m o r e specifically, h o m e s i n c e 1947.

Tangier—his

U n l i k e B u s i , B o w l e s has n e v e r p u b l i c l y defined his

sexuality; a n d in the M o r o c c o t h a t emerges f r o m his writings, h o m o s e x u a l i t y is a b o v e a l l a n a t m o s p h e r e : d i f f u s e d l a r g e l y t h r o u g h l e g e n d , passing increasingly

into

m y t h . T h e literary

h o m o s e x u a l i t y o n l y b y n u a n c e , is h i s n o v e l The filmed

foundation, Sheltering

Sky

evoking (1949),

b y B e r n a r d o B e r t o l u c c i s o m e d e c a d e s later u n d e r the s a m e title.

B o t h n o v e l a n d film l o o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d t r a v e l in N o r t h A f r i c a w i t h f r a u g h t m a r r i a g e , a l o v e t r i a n g l e , a n d v i o l e n c e : all o f w h i c h , in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e h a l l u c i n a t o r y d e s e r t s e l l i n g , m e d i a t e d a. g e n e r a l i z e d I,I J

In 11 it I M S W i l l i 1 »

>> I'll I MN

image o f existential extremity, particularly for A m e r i c a n readers. S u b sequently, B o w l e s w a s t o d r a w e n o u g h literary a n d p o p - c u l t u r a l figures t o T a n g i e r — a m o n g t h e m J a c k K e r o u a c , A l l e n G i n s b e r g w i t h his l o v e r Peter O r l o v s k y , T r u m a n C a p o t e , W i l l i a m B u r r o u g h s , Tennessee W i l l i a m s , B y r o n G y s i n , a n d G r e g o r y C o r s o — t o suggest the A m e r i c a n experience o f a cult p h e n o m e n o n . Bowles's wife J a n e , herself a lesbian writer, w a s v i v i d l y present, i f n o t precisely a t h e r h u s b a n d ' s side. T o b e p a r t o f c u l t life w a s t o i n d u l g e b o h e m i a n , s o m e t i m e s e x p e n s i v e , tastes for chic parties, d r u g s , spectacles, sorcery, a n d a freewheeling a p p r o a c h t o f r i e n d s h i p a n d s e x u a l i t y . M i c h e l l e G r e e n ' s The Dream at the End of the World (1991), i t s e l f a b r e a t h l e s s s y n t h e s i s , i n d e x e s g o s s i p as a n o t h e r k e y i n g r e d i e n t o f c u l t life. I n e f f e c t , t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e s e elements a n d their transmission t h r o u g h a variety o f m e d i a has given M o r o c c o a c u l t u r a l m y s t i q u e — a domesticated m y s t i q u e — t h a t m i g h t w e l l p r e e m p t t r a v e l i n B u s i ' s sense. B u t Bowles's authority as traveler-interpreter o f M o r o c c a n ( h o m o ) s e x u a l i t y derives f r o m m o r e t h a n the m i x o f chronicle, reminis cence, a n d gossip that m a k e u p G r e e n ' s b o o k . A r o u n d the time he w a s c o m p l e t i n g w o r k o n his n o v e l Up Above the World, i n 1963, B o w l e s i n i tiated a project that has s p a n n e d several decades. H e b e g a n t a p i n g Driss b e n H a m e d Charhardi's ( L a r b i L a y a c h i ' s ) autobiographical episodes, delivered i n M o g h r e b i ; the edited result w a s the translated " n o v e l , " A Life Full of Holes, p u b l i s h e d b y G r o v e P r e s s i n 1964. According t o J a y M c l n e r n y , Bowles had "virtually invented] a new g e n r e " ( C a p o n i 192). M o h a m m e d M r a b e t ' s s i m i l a r l y p r o d u c e d Love with a Few Hairs f o l l o w e d i n 1967, a n d M o h a m m e d C h o u k r i ' s m o r e e l a b o r a t e For Bread Alone i n 1973. O f fifteen g e n e t i c a l l y s i m i l a r b o o k s , C h o u k r i c o n t r i b u t e d t h r e e , i n c l u d i n g Jean Genet in Tangier (1974) a n d Tennessee Williams in Tangier (1979), b u t M o h a m m e d M r a b e t ' s titles constitute the b u l k o f the project. N e w Y o r k ' s I n a n o u t Press p u b l i s h e d t h e latest B o w l e s - M r a b e t c o l l a b o r a t i o n , Chocolate Creams and Dol lars, as r e c e n t l y as 1992 i n a n e x p e n s i v e a r t e d i t i o n , g a r n i s h e d w i t h p h o lographic illustrations b y Philip Taaffe. T h e project has u n d o u b t e d l y succeeded in c o m m o d i f y i n g the c u l t u r a l m y s t i q u e o f M o r o c c o f o r p o s t B e a t N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d , t o a lesser e x t e n t , B r i t a i n . T h e t r a n s l a t i o n theorist R i c h a r d J a c q u e m o n d h a s described a process that seems appropriate to Bowles's work:

In t r a n s l a t i o n une, the

f r o m ti d o m i n a t e d

translator appears

Iniijuiage-eullurc inlo a h e g e m o n i c

as the a u t h o r i t a t i v e

1 I I M I It It \ M 1 u I I I I I!

1 i n .11 I I I 1 ,

mediator

I |\

through

w h o m t h e d o m i n a t e d l a n g u a g e - c u l t u r e is m a i n t a i n e d o u t s i d e t h e l i m i t s o f t h e s e l f a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e a d a p t e d t o t h i s s e l f i n o r d e r f o r it to be able to c o n s u m e the d o m i n a t e d linguistic-cultural object. (Qtd. in V e n u t i 155)

J a c q u e m o n d ' s c o m m e n t , h o w e v e r , suggests that g a y travelers—like h e t e r o s e x u a l o n e s — c a n p r o d u c e alibis t h r o u g h c u l t u r a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r their o w n m o t i v a t i o n s a n d performances. Characteristically, the chronicles o f Bowles's " n e w genre" are nar ratives o f native i m p r o v e m e n t a n d a d v a n c e m e n t . T h e i r m a i n charac t e r s , v e r s i o n s o f t h e i r T a n g i e r a u t h o r s , b e g i n as s t r e e t - s m a r t v i c t i m s o f class p o v e r t y a n d p a r e n t a l a b u s e . I l l i t e r a t e b u t r e s o u r c e f u l , t h e y a l l y t h e m s e l v e s w i t h f e l l o w M o r o c c a n s w h o s c a v e n g e , steal, a n d , a t t h e h i g h e n d . r u n small cafes. T h e y m e e t u p w i t h a n d b e f r i e n d A m e r i c a n a n d E n g l i s h visitors w h o , in return f o r sexual f a v o r s , s u p p o r t t h e m . M r a b e t ' s m a l e h e r o i n Love with a Few Hairs m a n a g e s a d o u b l e s u c cess, p a r l a y i n g t h e e c o n o m i c r e s o u r c e s a f f o r d e d b y h i s i n t i m a c y w i t h a n E n g l i s h p a t r o n i n t o o w n e r s h i p o f a f i s h i n g fleet a n d a p a r a l l e l c a r e e r as a s u c c e s s f u l f i s h e r m a n a n d w h o l e s a l e r . H e w e d s a M u s l i m w o m a n a n d has children, while r e m a i n i n g loyal t o his p a t r o n , continuing t o p e r f o r m services f o r h i m a n d t o receive his d u e r e w a r d . R e c u r r i n g patterns in several o f these narratives indicate h o w B o w l e s , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r E u r o - A m e r i c a n expatriates a n d visitors, suc ceeded in constructing a mythicized " M o r o c c a n " culture. T h e (native) p r o t a g o n i s t generally searches f o r a n d marries a M u s l i m w i f e , w h o r e m a i n s largely invisible; his o t h e r (hetero)sexual e n c o u n t e r s inject r o m a n t i c fantasy into a misogynistic stance; he entertains sexual activ ity w i t h o t h e r m e n , m o s t l y w h i t e p a t r o n s , b u t o n l y w h e n such activity n e e d n o t b e c o n s t r u e d a s h o m o s e x u a l — t h a t is, w h e n t h e p a r t n e r is a n o l d e r E u r o p e a n a n d t h e h e r o is n o t a t r i s k o f b e i n g f e m i n i z e d ; t h e r e is m u c h k i f c o n s u m p t i o n ; M u s l i m identification

is r e t a i n e d

through

p i e t y , a b s t i n e n c e f r o m a l c o h o l , a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n d a n c e c u l t s s u c h as jilala; a n d t h e r e is a c o n s t a n t t h r e a t o f s o r c e r y , u s u a l l y i n v o l v i n g p o i son

(tsoukil),

following

the betrayal o f sexual/marital

contracts.

N a t i v e M o r o c c a n c u l t u r e , t h e n , is I s l a m i c , s o d o m i t i c a l , d r u g f r i e n d l y , s o r c e r o u s , a n d ecstatic. F o r t h e t r a v e l e r - e x p a t r i a t e circle, it offers a n e x p a n s i v e field f o r l i c e n s e d , i f t r i c k y , p l a y . E u r o p e a n a n d native encounter each other in t h e shiftingly a s y m metrical p a t r o n - p r o t e g e contract. M r a b e t ' s m o s t explicit a c c o u n t o f this e n c o u n t e r a p p e a r s in t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l

Look and Move

On

(1989). M r a b e t r e c o u n t s h o w h e lirsl niel t w o v i s i t o r s , R e e v e s a n d i-M

101 'IMS 1 s w i 1 n rvi-i'WKi 1 n o l

M a r i a , o n a c a f e t e r r a c e . H e tells t h e m t h a t h e is " g l a d t o h a v e m e t s o m e A m e r i c a n s " ( 1 3 ) , s u b s e q u e n t l y visits t h e m at their h o t e l , a n d travels w i t h t h e m to M a r r a k e s h . H e u n d e r s t a n d s v e r y well their inter est i n h i m : I said t o myself: B o t h o f these p e o p l e are vicious. T h e y b o t h w a n t to sleep w i t h m e . A n d w i t h all the k i f a n d w h i s k e y I h a d in m y h e a d , M a r i a l o o k e d v e r y b e a u t i f u l to m e , a n d R e e v e s l o o k e d v e r y h a n d s o m e , a n d I felt like m a k i n g l o v e to b o t h o f t h e m . (14) H i s attentions later lead to his a c c o m p a n y i n g M a r i a o n h e r r e t u r n t o N e w Y o r k . F r o m t h e r e M a r i a , d i s c o v e r i n g s h e c a n n o t c o n t r o l his q u e s t for experience, p a c k s h i m o f f t o R e e v e s ' s f a m i l y in I o w a , w h e r e he p r o ceeds t o o f f e n d R e e v e s ' s a b s t i n e n t m i d d l e - A m e r i c a n p a r e n t s a n d t o e m b a r r a s s R e e v e s h i m s e l f , w i t h his d e f i a n t p u r s u i t o f a l c o h o l a n d s e x . F o r g o o d m e a s u r e , h e i n f o r m s R e e v e s ' s m o t h e r , " I l o v e t o s t a y u p all n i g h t a n d l o o k f o r g i r l s t o sleep w i t h " (52), a d d i n g , p r o v o c a t i v e l y , " W h a t d i d h e h a v e o n his m i n d , y o u r s o n , w h e n h e a s k e d m e t o c o m e h e r e ? " (55). S o h e is d i s p a t c h e d t o N e w Y o r k a n d f r o m t h e r e b a c k t o T a n g i e r , s h a k i n g t h e A m e r i c a n d u s t o f f his feet. T h e R e e v e s e s h a v e financed M r a b e t , p r o v i d i n g h i m w i t h resources a n d opportunities o t h erwise u n a v a i l a b l e to the M o r o c c a n d e p e n d e n t ; he, in t u r n , has offered sexual services t h a t seem t o j u s t i f y s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n d e p e n d e n t m a i n t e n a n c e — b u t o n his o w n t e r m s . T h e r e w i l l a l w a y s b e o t h e r p a t r o n s . M r a b e t ' s ( o r is it B o w l e s ' s ? ) s k i l l c o n s i s t s i n t h e d i s c r e t i o n w i t h w h i c h he negotiates the r a w e r edges o f such a r r a n g e m e n t s . B u t M r a b e t , all t h e s a m e , d o e s n o t r e p e a t t h e l i m i t c a s e t h a t t h e R e e v e s e s represent. Look and Move On i n v i t e s t h e r e a d e r t o s i t u a t e M r a b e t ' s v a r i o u s n a r r a t i v e s o f p a t r o n a g e w i t h i n t h e w i d e r f r a m e w o r k o f his r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h B o w l e s ; t h e e p i s o d e i n v o l v i n g R e e v e s sets u p f o r a n a c c o u n t o f M r a b e t ' s m e e t i n g w i t h P a u l a n d J a n e B o w l e s o n the b e a c h at M e r k a l a , after w h i c h p o i n t t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h y d e v o t e s e q u a l a t t e n t i o n t o life at I he Bowleses a n d to M r a b e t ' s courtship o f a n d eventual m a r r i a g e to Z o h r a . M r a b e t recounts h o w J a n e B o w l e s hailed h i m o n the b e a c h — " Y o u s m o k e a lot o f k i f f o r s o m e o n e so y o u n g " — a f t e r he h a d a l r e a d y i d e n t i f i e d t h e c o u p l e , P a u l w a l k i n g in t h e c o m p a n y o f " a t a l l A m e r i c a n I h c y call B l H o m b r e I n v i s i b l e [ W i l l i a m B u r r o u g h s ] " (90). A n d it w a s llms that M r a b e t a c q u i r e d , not o n l y a n o t h e r p a t r o n , b u t i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o a n i n s i d e r g r o u p w h o s e p r e s t i g e lie h a s d o n e his p a r t t o p r o m o t e . 3 1

T h e M o r o c c o translation project c o m p l i c a t e s (he sexual c o n t r a c t i . l ' N I M t H AND <> I 111' 14 I'ltul'iii r\

|,p,

b y situating it w i t h i n a c o l o n i a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h s e x u a l acts m e d i a t e shifting p o w e r gestures a n d relations. T y p i c a l l y , the native protege will a s s u m e o n l y the d o m i n a n t role i n the s o d o m i t i c a l act. H e will also b e q u i c k t o characterize t h e acts o f s o d o m y h e witnesses in terms o f p o w e r , especially colonial p o w e r . T h e E u r o p e a n s o d o m i t e , f o r t h e native c o m m u n i t y , displays the n o r m a t i v e decadence o f t h e West; M r a b e t consistently " o t h e r s " t h e g r o u p h e likes t o call " t h e N a z a r e n e s , " dissociating h i m s e l f f r o m their values. I n t h e strongest m o m e n t o f resistance, his rejection o f W e s t e r n decadence explicitly l i n k s s e x u a l / s a d i s t i c p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h c o l o n i a l d o m i n a t i o n . I n Look and Move On, h e a c c o m p a n i e s a f r i e n d t o a T a n g i e r p a r t y a t w h i c h t h e E n g l i s h h o s t , A l b e r t , p r e s i d e s w i t h a w h i p , l a s h i n g t w o S p a n i s h b o y s as t h e y lie f a c e d o w n o n a r u g . T h e n , a t A l b e r t ' s b e h e s t , a l a r g e b l a c k m a n publicly s o d o m i z e s t w o other S p a n i s h b o y s w h o are lying o n the same r u g . A s a " m a n w h o h a t e s E u r o p e a n s " (17), M r a b e t r e p o r t s h i s c o m m e n t s t o t h e b l a c k m a n w h o is " w o r k f i n g ] o n " o n e o f t h e b o y s : Happy

with

any American

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or Englishman,

or

any

F r e n c h m a n , yes? T h e y c o m e here and y o u s h o w t h e m your

filthy

backside

a n d e v e r y t h i n g else y o u ' v e g o t . A n d they t a k e pictures o f y o u d o i n g y o u r w o r k , a n d s e l l t h e m l a t e r i n E u r o p e . A n d y o u l i k e t h a t . (19)

M r a b e t t e m p o r a r i l y enters into the colonial contract, o n l y t o e x p o s e a n d r e p u d i a t e it. I n s e d u c i n g M a r i a a n d s o d o m i z i n g R e e v e s , b e f o r e e v e n t u a l l y s p u r n i n g b o t h , M r a b e t uses t h e i r c u l t u r a l a s s u m p t i o n s a n d fantasies in o r d e r t o dissolve the contract. S e d u c i n g a n d being seduced ( a t least figuratively) b y M r a b e t , B o w l e s a s s u m e s t h e a u t h o r i t y o f p r e senter a n d m e d i a t o r , s t a n d i n g outside o f t h e e n g a g e m e n t s b e t w e e n W e s t e r n visitors a n d M o r o c c a n natives, a n d c o n t a i n i n g t h e m w i t h i n t h e l i t e r a r y f r a m e ( t h e " n e w g e n r e " ) h e i n v e n t s . T h e m a t e r i a l , w h i l e it e m b o d i e s s o m e sort o f critique o f the colonial/sexual contract, remains a t t h e s a m e t i m e d e p e n d e n t o n a n d c o m p l i c i t o u s w i t h it. B y this time, t h e T a n g i e r experience h a d a l r e a d y a s s u m e d m o r e g e n e r a l i z e d f o r m i n t h e c u l t classic Naked Lunch (1959) b y " E l H o m b r e I n v i s i b l e " h i m s e l f , W i l l i a m B u r r o u g h s . Naked Lunch, o f f e r i n g a n e x o t i c i z e d , f a n t a s i z e d p a r a d i g m o f e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n t h e s t a t e a n d its d r o p o u t s , stands o n the threshold o f p o s t m o d e r n i s m . L i v i n g in T a n g ier c o n t i n u o u s l y f o r a b o u t f o u r y e a r s , B u r r o u g h s p l a y e d a c o m p r e h e n sive r o l e as p a r t o f t h e B o w l e s c i r c l e ; in Naked Lunch, h o w e v e r , h e d i s tances h i m s e l f f r o m t h e city m o r e decisively t h a n B o w l e s h a d d o n e . T a n g i e r , in f a c t , d o e s n o l i t s e l f a p p e a r , b u t b e c o m e s i c o n i c a s I n t e r -

h|fi

r o i < HIS i s W i l l i I ' V l ' i ' W H I 1 if MM

z o n e : a t r a v e l site t h a t d r a w s o n , m a g n i f i e s , a n d t r a n s f i g u r e s s e x , d r u g , a n d p o w e r t h e m e s a l r e a d y p r e s e n t i n B o w l e s ' s w o r k . I n t e r z o n e is a l i m inal, surreal territory w h e r e regimes o f law e n f o r c e m e n t a n d m e d i c i n e jointly control a total culture o f transgression, including heroin c o n sumption, s o d o m y , and coprophagy. Burroughs's A r a b boys charac teristically disport themselves in a sexual athleticism c h a r g e d w i t h v i o lence: A l i seize h i m b y o n e ankle, t u g the a n k l e u n d e r the a r m pit, l o c k his a r m a r o u n d the calf. T h e b o y k i c k d e s p e r a t e l y

at A l i ' s face.

Other

a n k l e p i n i o n e d . A l i tilt t h e b o y b a c k o n his s h o u l d e r s . T h e b o y ' s c o c k e x t e n d s a l o n g h i s s t o m a c h , f l o a t free p u l s i n g . A l i p u t his h a n d s o v e r his h e a d . Spit o n his c o c k . T h e o t h e r sighs d e e p l y as A l i slide his c o c k in. T h e m o u t h s g r i n d t o g e t h e r s m e a r i n g b l o o d . S h a r p m u s t y o d o r o f penetrated rectum.

Nimun

d r i v e in l i k e a w e d g e , f o r c e j i s m o u t

the

o t h e r c o c k in l o n g h o t s p u r t s . ( T h e a u t h o r h a s o b s e r v e d t h a t A r a b c o c k s tend to be w i d e and w e d g e shaped.)

(ji)

Passages such as this s t r i p p e d - d o w n , o b s e r v a t i o n a l n a r r a t i v e — w h i c h a l s o o c c u r i n B u s i ' s Sodomies in Elevenpoint—are intercut w i t h scenar ios i n a v e r y d i f f e r e n t m o d e ; o n e p h a n t a s m i c s e q u e n c e , f o r e x a m p l e , c e l e b r a t e s a M o r o c c a n f u n e r a l : " T h e h o g is d r e s s e d i n a j e l l a b a , a k e i f pipe j u t s f r o m its m o u t h , o n e h o o f h o l d s a p a c k e t o f feelthy pictures, a m e z u z z o t h h a n g s a b o u t its n e c k s [sic]. . .. I n s c r i b e d o n t h e c o f f i n : ' T h i s w a s t h e n o b l e s t A r a b o f a l l ' " (95). S e v e r a l i n t e r v i e w e r s since t h e sixties h a v e p e r s i s t e n t l y p r e s s e d Bowles t o p e r f o r m the t i m e - h o n o r e d task o f the travel writer a n d authoritatively s u m m a r i z e " M o r o c c a n culture." Bowles's characteris tic r e s p o n s e s h a v e b e e n a d r o i t a n d c o y . H i s r e p l y t o o n e q u e s t i o n , f o r instance, w a s , No

M o r o c c a n w i l l e v e r tell y o u w h a t h e t h i n k s , o r d o e s , o r

means.

H e ' l l t e l l y o u s o m e o f it a n d tell y o u o t h e r t h i n g s t h a t a r e c o m p l e t e l y false a n d t h e n w e a v e t h e m t o g e t h e r i n t o a v e r y b e l i e v a b l e c o r e , w h i c h you

s w a l l o w , a n d that's w h a t ' s considered civilized. W h a t ' s the pur

pose o f telling the truth? ( C a p o n i

66)

B o w l e s ' s a p p a r e n t reticence gives the impression that h e has c a n nily p l u m b e d f a r beneath the cultural surface; in contrast, B u s i — i n line w i t h c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n v e n t i o n s o f " r e a d i n g c u l t u r e s " — r e g a r d s t h e c h a l l e n g e as i n h e r e n t in c o d e s t h a t t h e v i s i t o r m u s t c r a c k : " I k n o w w h e r e I a m u n b e a t a b l e in a c q u i r i n g i n five m i n u t e s w h a t is e s s e n t i a l in t h e e t h i c a l c o d e s o f a n y p e o p l e o r s o c i a l c l a s s . . . . T h e i m p o r t a n t

11

1

U I ' . N O H H A M I ' 1 1111M IH O U U U ' S

147

t h i n g is n o t t o h i t t h e n a i l o n t h e h e a d r i g h t a w a y b u t n o t c o m m i t h o w l e r s r i g h t a w a y " (44). B u s i o f f e r s a l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g : M o r o c c a n c u l t u r e is s o d o m i t i c a l . B u t s o d o m y is i m b r i c a t e d i n a t i s s u e o f e t h i c a l c o d e s a n d p r a c t i c e s ; t h e v i s i t i n g W e s t e r n e r s h o u l d assess t h e s e c o d e s rather t h a n indulge the illusion o f a liberated h e d o n i s m — t h e c a n n y s e x u a l t o u r i s t is t h e o n e w h o " l e a v e s [his] p s y c h o l o g i z i n g a t h o m e " (39). A r m e d w i t h t h i s a t t i t u d e , B u s i e n v e l o p e s f r a n k r e p o r t s o f s e x u a l episodes in witty discourses o n the writer a n d writing, c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r a r y t h e o r y , a n d s u b j e c t i v i t y . A n d , n o less, o n t r a v e l a n d t r a v e l w r i t i n g : " T h i s is a n o - t r a v e l a n d n o - s e x b o o k , " h e d e c l a r e s a t o n e p o i n t , s i g n a l i n g his a v e r s i o n t o " t r a v e l j o u r n a l s a n d t r a v e l

literature"

(65). T h e a p h o r i s m t h a t f o l l o w s — " P e o p l e w h o d i s c o v e r n o t h i n g u s u a l l y d i s c o v e r g e o g r a p h y " (65)—is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y

ironic,

demon

strating the extent o f Busi's impatience f o r t h e travel writer's s o d i e s o f n a t u r e . Sodomies

in Elevenpoint,

f o r a l l t h a t , is a b o n a

rhap fide

t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e , w h i c h d i s c l a i m s its o w n s t a t u s p a r t l y i n o r d e r t o c l e a r a cant-free space f o r its o w n resistances a n d assertions. B u s i m o s t n o t i c e a b l y resists t h e s o r t o f d o m e s t i c a t i o n s t h a t e a r l i e r

American

expatriates h a d p e r f o r m e d . H e foregrounds, for e x a m p l e , the colonial r e l a t i o n s t h a t e n a b l e his o w n s e x u a l p l e a s u r e : " t h e w h i t e m a n . . . w h i l e h e fills t h e bellies o f t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s o f m i x e d b l o o d , lets h i m s e l f b e s t u f f e d , c o m f o r t a b l y s e r v e d a n d r e v e r e d . C o l o n i a l s h u d d e r s ! " (38). M o r e forcefully, h ereports the c o m m e n t o f an " e d u c a t e d M o r o c c a n s t a l l i o n , " w h o tells h i m . T h e t o u r i s t s d o n ' t g r a n t u s a g l a n c e t h a t i s n o t sentimental—that say

erotic. . . . T h e public organizations a n d the Jewish

is t o

shop-and

h o t e l - o w n e r s tell t h e m w e a r e a l l t h i e v e s — t h i e v e s a n d r a p i s t s a n d murderers, a n d the tourists give u s a w i d e berth o r c o m e u p t o u s only sufficiently to take o u r measurements.

(60)

F o r B u s i , the sexual pleasure h e takes ( a n d gives) a m o u n t s t o " m a x i m u m privilege"

(217).

A setting free f r o m q u o t i d i a n life, it d o e s n o t

n e e d a t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e t o j u s t i f y i t ; a n d it is o n t h i s b a s i s t h a t B u s i o f f e r s h i s o w n fiction as " n o n - h e t e r o s e x u a l . " B u s i ' s s h a r p e s t e p i s o d e o f t r a v e l / s e x i n M o r o c c o , h o w e v e r , is f a r f r o m t h e i r o n i c h e d o n i s m t h a t g e n e r a l l y i n f o r m s his w o r k . T h e e p i s o d e recalls t h e B o w l e s - M r a b e t a c c o u n t o f t h e d o u b l y v i o l a t e d S p a n i s h b o y s i n Look and Move On; i n it, B u s i d r a m a t i z e s t h e l i n k b e t w e e n c o l o n i a l i s m a n d t h e M o r o c c a n s e x u a l e c o n o m y , i n w h i c h t h e s e x u a l a s s a u l t is s t a g e d as t h e c o l o n i z e d ' s v i n d i c t i v e r a g e . A s c h o o l t e a c h e r a c q u a i n t a n c e

I4H

1 o 111
WITH

I VI'UWHITltH.S

| | f Busi's, Said, h a s t a k e n h i m t o a B e r b e r village in the H i g h A t l a s . Said has invited t w o other b o y s a l o n g t o the village w h e r e h e teaches. The three o f t h e m subject B u s i , virtually i m p r i s o n e d i n the h o u s e , t o r e p e a t e d r a p e . T h e least c o m p r e h e n s i b l e , a t h i c k s e t b l a c k , is t h e l a s t t o join t h e i n v i t a t i o n t o r a p e . P r o v i d i n g this latter w i t h oral satisfaction, Uusi realizes: " I h a v e t o m a k e h i m c o m e publicly i f I w a n t t o h a v e a n y further h o p e o f saving myself, I m u s t m a k e h i m the equal o f the other t w o " (84). I n k e e p i n g w i t h h i s c a n d i d — e v e n b r u t a l — u n v e i l i n g o f t h e colonial d y n a m i c , B u s i attaches his o w n a i m o f escape t o the necessity o f " r o b b i n g [ t h e b l a c k ' s ] h a t r e d o f m e o f its d r a m a " (84). T h r o u g h o u t his n o t a b l y laconic accounts o f sodomitical e n c o u n ters i n M o r o c c o , B u s i insists t h a t s u c h i n t e r c u l t u r a l e n g a g e m e n t s h a v e n o t h i n g essential a b o u t t h e m . T h e y a r e m a d e possible b y m a t e r i a l f e a tures o f c u l t u r a l e x c h a n g e a n d specific life-practices; g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a l o n g t h e lines o f " M o r o c c o is a b i s e x u a l c u l t u r e " c a n n o t u n i v e r s a l i z e h o m o s e x u a l experience f r o m t h e p o i n t o f view o f either individual desire o r g l o b a l g e o g r a p h y a n d h i s t o r y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e i m p u l s e t o u n i v e r s a l i z e — t o erase specificities o f t i m e , p l a c e , a n d c u l t u r e — r e m a i n s strong. T h e assimilative tendencies o f N o r t h A f r i c a n travel narratives like B o w l e s ' s a n d B u s i ' s h a v e r e c e n t l y b e e n m a t c h e d b y e t h n o g r a p h i c lexis l o c a t i n g h o m o s e x u a l societies i n t h e S o u t h Pacific, p a r t i c u l a r l y I P a p u a ) N e w G u i n e a . G i l b e r t H e r d t (Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia, 1984) h a s p i o n e e r e d t h i s field, w r i t i n g o f t r i b a l s o c i a l c u s t o m a n d ritual i n a d o p t i o n practices; o f wife e x c h a n g e a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n of male potency through semen transmission. T o b i a s Schneebaum, fol l o w i n g H e r d t , h a s p r o d u c e d a n i n v e n t o r y o f these practices in his l p s e u d o ) e t h n o g r a p h i c t r a v e l o g u e Where the Spirits Dwell (1988): T h e p e o p l e o f the S o u t h C a s u a r i n a C o a s t d i d n o t h a v e the great raids a n d h e a d h u n t i n g ceremonies o f t h e n o r t h a n d n o r t h w e s t . T h e y h a d n o k n o w n rites of passage t h a t d e m a n d e d heads f o r i n i t i a t i o n , t h o u g h this w a s true f u r t h e r s o u t h a m o n g the M a r i n d A n i m , w h e r e m a s c u l i n i t y w a s s t i m u l a t e d i n y o u n g s t e r s b y t h e a b s o r p t i o n of semen t h r o u g h s o d o m y w i t h older males. T h e A s m a t also believe t h a t semen has m a g i c a l qualities, a l t h o u g h c o n c e p t i o n conies a b o u t f r o m t h e spirit w o r l d . I t is, h o w e v e r , o n l y t h r o u g h repeated acts o f sexual intercourse t h a t the fetus will g r o w . W i t h o u t a c o n s t a n t b u i l d u p o f semen from a n u m b e r o f different mules, including the h u s b a n d , the child will n o t be b o r n n o r m a l a n d healthy. In the same w a y . . . a b o y becomes increasingly masculine 11 rid g r o w s more q u i c k l y as he takes in mine a n d m o r e soman us the piuoiive p i u l n o r in s o d o m y . (1X1)

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T h i s s o u n d s like t h e k i n d o f s u m m a r y t h a t m i g h t issue f r o m a m o r e fully researched analysis b y a professional such as G i l b e r t H e r d t . S u c h s u m m a r y accounts, however, are embedded in autobiography a n d experience, merely advertising the traveler's personal investments a n d anxieties. F o r S c h n e e b a u m , these concerns are centered o n his quest f o r a c c o m m o d a t i n g places w h e r e h e m i g h t be able t o live o u t his h o m o sexuality u n a s h a m e d . H i s travels, i n effect, a r e a " g o i n g o u t " o f A m e r ica t o places w h e r e h e need n o t h i d e " a vital p a r t " o f himself: Why

d i d I h a v e to g o o u t o f m y c o u n t r y , o u t o f m y f a m i l y , t o find t h e

kind o f assurance and c o m p a n i o n s h i p necessary to m y inner peace? Why

d i d n o o n e tell m e e a r l y o n t h a t I w a s n o t a l o n e ? W h y was I

i t is l i k e t o b e h o m o s e x u a l — t h e s u f f e r i n g a n d f r u s t r a t i o n

of what o f always

h i d i n g a v i t a l p a r t o f o n e ' s b e i n g ? (43)

'

always guilty? W h a t can heterosexual men and w o m e n k n o w

W i t h the A s m a t o f N e w G u i n e a , S c h n e e b a u m finds a functioning cul ture that a n s w e r s t o his o w n sexual needs, fostering i n t i m a t e s a m e - s e x relationships

a n d a u t h o r i z i n g s o d o m i t i c a l c o n n e c t i o n s . A l t h o u g h it

s e e m s a t t i m e s a s i f S c h n e e b a u m is r e m o v i n g t h e s e p r a c t i c e s f r o m t h e A s m a t a s a s p e c i f i c c u l t u r a l b o d y ( h e " f e l t f o r t h e first t i m e p a r t o f a universal c l a n " [43]), he generally takes care t o l i n k t h e m t o t h e i m p e r a t i v e s o f a g r o u p life. S c h n e e b a u m finds a c l o s e r c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n h i s o w n n e e d f o r h o m o s e x u a l exchange a n d A s m a t cultural practice i n the institution o f mbai o r " e x c h a n g e f r i e n d , " a n a s p e c t o f t h e c u l t u r e t h a t a m e m b e r o f t h e t r i b e , A k a t p i t s j i n , t e a c h e s h i m . A l t h o u g h h e is a l r e a d y b o u n d b y a p e r m a n e n t mbai c o n t r a c t , A k a t p i t s j i n still c h o o s e s S c h n e e b a u m a s a t e m p o r a r y " e x c h a n g e friend," c o n s u m m a t i n g t h e relationship in t h e act o f " b a l a n c i n g " ( e n g a g i n g i n reciprocal

s o d o m y ) with his white

g u e s t . S u b s e q u e n t l y , S c h n e e b a u m is a b l e t o f o r m a l i z e h i s p r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d g e i n a seminar w i t h A k a t p i t s j i n a n d others o f the tribe: It a s t o u n d e d m e t h a t e v e r y t h i n g w a s s o o p e n , t h a t e v e r y o n e k n e w w h a t w e n t o n between Akatpitsjin a n d myself, that old m e n listened talked and y o u n g boys, too. Akatpitsjin even called m e his wife, startling m e . E v e r y o n e k n e w w h a t

mbai d i d

mbai i n

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front o f

together a n d there

a p p e a r e d n o reason not to discuss all aspects o f the relationship. T h e y obviously trusted m e completely and even paired off to s h o w m e w h o s e

mbai w a s

whose, allowing me to take photographs.

(195)

32

T h e subject's d o c u m e n t e d experience p r o d u c e s a m o m e n t o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d i s c o v e r y o n e t h a i , h o w e v e r m u c h it m i g h t i n v i l e t h e r e a d e r ' s I5<>

11 Ml l< IS'I tt W i l l i I V I'l.W

1(

1 I I' MS

skepticism, mediates the romantic white d r e a m o f incorporation with ;the c u l t u r a l l y " o t h e r " b o d y . I T h e a m a z i n g f i n a l s e q u e n c e t h a t a c t s as a c o d a t o Where the Spir its Dwell p r o j e c t s S c h n e e b a u m ' s n a r r a t i v e i n t o t h e m o r e e x t r e m e f a n tasy r e a l m s o f transgression, signaling t h e travel tale's trajectory t o w a r d a n d across limits: territorial, textual, cultural, a n d sexual. I n t h e s e q u e n c e , S c h n e e b a u m d r e a m s t h a t h e is i n t h e v e r y d i f f e r e n t l a n d scape o f the artists' c o l o n y a t Y a d d o , r u n n i n g i n a w i n t r y N e w Y o r k l a n d s c a p e — l a k e s , ice, n o r t h e r n t r e e s — o n h i s w a y t o j o i n a l u n c h e o n feast. A b r u p t l y , A k a t p i t s j i n a p p e a r s a t t h e d o o r a n d o r d e r s p o a c h e d crocodile's eggs. T h e n J a n e t F r a m e , the eccentric N e w Z e a l a n d n o v e l ist, a p p e a r s . A l l t h e g u e s t s , i t t r a n s p i r e s , a r e p a r t o f o n e f a m i l y . A k a t p i t s j i n , s p e a k i n g " w i t h a c l i p p e d B r i t i s h a c c e n t " (202), c o n f i r m s t h a t t h e r e is i n d e e d s e x b e t w e e n three p e o p l e . S u d d e n l y h e s h o o t s a l l t h e guests e x c e p t f o r F r a m e a n d S c h n e e b a u m , a n d t h e y p r o c e e d t o eat the flesh o f t h e s l a i n . S c h n e e b a u m a w a k e s t o f i n d h i m s e l f l y i n g w i t h A k a t pitsjin, w h o p r o c e e d s t o i n f o r m his c o m p a n i o n o f t h e A s m a t p r o t o c o l s f o r s e x b e t w e e n t h r e e p e o p l e (203). S c h n e e b a u m ' s w o r k locates the project o f liberating the gendered s u b j e c t i n t h e s p a c e — p h y s i c a l , g e o g r a p h i c a l , c u l t u r a l — o f a fieldw o r k e d " o t h e r . " I n s o d o i n g , h e d r a w s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e close links between travel writing a n d e t h n o g r a p h y . B o t h discursive categories are partly f o u n d e d o n liberatory premises, travel writing privileging a putatively free, m o b i l e , t r a n s f o r m a t i v e subject a n d e t h n o g r a p h y a cul t u r a l l y d e f i n e d , fixed, y e t p o t e n t i a l l y t r a n s f o r m i n g s p a c e . T h e s e c a t e gories j o i n together i n a n unstable e q u a t i o n that the m a l e traveler o f same-sex o r i e n t a t i o n — h o m o s e x u a l , gay, o r q u e e r — m u s t interrogate. S u c h is t h e p r o j e c t o f E d m u n d W h i t e ' s e x p l o r a t i o n o f p r e - A I D S A m e r i c a i n t h e p e r i o d o f g a y l i b e r a t i o n , States of Desire: Travels in Gay America (1980). T h e t i t l e i t s e l f r e f e r e n c e s b o t h sides o f t h e e q u a t i o n , since t h e " s t a t e " c o r r e s p o n d s b o t h t o t h e d e s i r i n g , t r a v e l i n g s u b j e c t a n d l o t h e g e o p o l i t i c a l t e r r a i n t h r o u g h w h i c h h e t r a v e l s . W h i t e is a r e l u c tant traveler, a n y t h i n g b u t n o m a d i c a l l y inclined, a n d his b o o k vacil lates b e t w e e n t h e i n f o r m a t i v e m o d e o f t h e g u i d e b o o k a n d t h e p e r s o n a l , a n e c d o t a l style o f the t r a v e l o g u e . " T h o u g h t r a v e l i n g s o u n d s g l a m o r o u s , " W h i t e observes, " I f o u n d it a r d u o u s a n d alienating. L i s t e n i n g l o o t h e r p e o p l e a n d s e l d o m t a l k i n g is f r u s t r a t i n g f o r s o m e o n e as o p i n ionated as 1 a m . E a t i n g a l o n e a n d sleeping in rented r o o m s c a n b e d e p r e s s i n g " (334). W h i t e , h o w e v e r a l i e n a t e d h e m a y feel, f o c u s e s o n l lie r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n g a y d e s i r i n g S U B J E C L N m i d I h e v a r i o u s " s l a t e s " i n 3 3

(II!NIM:U

ANI»

O T H K U

NTOLLLLT.LII'i

w h i c h t h e y live, s e a r c h i n g o u t h o w g a y life o r g a n i z e s itself socially i n a representative scattering o f u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t s in the U n i t e d States. H e recognizes that g a y s construct i n d i v i d u a l a n d g r o u p identities, a l o n g w i t h w a y s o f a c t i n g , w i t h i n a series o f specific a n d h i s t o r i c i z e d s o c i a l s e t t i n g s . H e t h u s c o n v e r s e s w i t h c l o s e t e d g a y s , as w e l l as p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n social e n c o u n t e r s w i t h gays w h o , t h o u g h " o u t , " f o r m special ized, private communities. W h i t e ' s w o r k highlights problems f o r the wider category o f travel writing b y complicating the relationship between a n " o u t " w o r l d a n da "closet." Isherwood's Berlin, Busi's M o r o c c o , a n d S c h n e e b a u m ' s N e w G u i n e a all r e p r e s e n t m o r e o r less liberated terrains f o r their respective visitors; b u t they a r e liberated precisely because, f r o m a historicized global perspective, they are spe cialized a r e a s — t h e " f r e e z o n e " emerges i n effect as m e r e l y a n o t h e r k i n d o f closet. W h i t e ' s w o r k seems t o p o s i t i o n h i m w i t h i n t h e g a y liberationist discourse o f p o s t - S t o n e w a l l A m e r i c a , b u t h e also prefigures a n e m e r g e n t q u e e r d i s c o u r s e i n his a t t r a c t i o n t o w a r d a c o n s t r u c t i o n i s t , p e r f o r m a t i v e m o d e l o f self-definition. A t o n e p o i n t he declares himself t o b e " a n a f f i c i o n a d o o f t h e p r o v i s i o n a l " (154), a c k n o w l e d g i n g h o w g a y s i n v e n t a n d stage themselves differently i n differing settings: L i k e N i e t z s c h e . . . w e c o u l d s p e a k o f the " g a y science," that o b l i g a tory existentialism forced on people w h o must invent themselves. . . . O n c e o n e d i s c o v e r s t h a t o n e is g a y , o n e m u s t c h o o s e e v e r y t h i n g , f r o m h o w to w a l k , dress a n d talk to w h e r e to live, w i t h w h o m and o n w h a t t e r m s . (16)

C o n t e s t i n g R i c h a r d S e n n e t t ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t m o d e r n m a n is " a n a c t o r w i t h o u t a s t a g e , " W h i t e finds N e w Y o r k t o b e a p r e e m i n e n t s p a c e f o r p e r f o r m i n g t h e self: o n t h e streets o f N e w Y o r k h e is o u t " t o farmi vivo, as t h e I t a l i a n s s a y , t o ' m a k e m y s e l f a l i v e ' i n a r e s p o n s i v e a n d o b s e r v i n g p u b l i c " (286). O f c o u r s e , N e w Y o r k is a s p e c i a l p l a c e . W h i t e r e a l i z e s t h a t h e c o u l d n o t c l a i m t h e s a m e l i b e r t i e s i n m a n y o t h e r w o r l d cities; t h a t t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f sex a n d s e x u a l i t y is a l w a y s p a r t o f a l a r g e r c u l t u r a l a n d site-specific p r o d u c t i o n . 3 4

W h i t e deploys b o t h gay liberationist a n d queer p e r f o r m a t i v e m o d els i n h i s c h a r t i n g o f g a y A m e r i c a ; h e t h u s d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e i m p o s s i bility o f p r o d u c i n g a n y consistent account o f h o w the traveler brings h i s ( h o m o ) s e x u a l i t y t o b e a r o n h i s t r a v e l s , o r o f p r o v i d i n g a n y fixed m o d e l f o r the discourse o f g a y / q u e e r travel. W h i l e g a y / q u e e r travelers locale spaces that p r o m i s e l o p r o v i d e ( o r d o p r o v i d e ) p e r f o r m a t i v e I .

I' MJHtN 1 • u 1 1

11

1 v 11

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runs

IJfreedom, these selfsame spaces are b e h o l d e n t o specific c o d e s t h a t c o n strain p e r f o r m a n c e . E v e r y t r a v e l o g u e u l t i m a t e l y discloses a different r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s e l f a n d ( c u l t u r a l ) s p a c e i n w h i c h t h e l a t t e r is e r o t i c i z e d — a n d sexualized—through nuances o f perception. O n e o f the m o r e d i s t i n c t i v e t r a v e l o g u e s i n t h e s e t e r m s is t h a t o f a n o t h e r W h i t e , P a t r i c k , w h o s e a c c o u n t o f his t r a v e l s i n t h e G r e e k i s l a n d s f o r m s a secl i o n o f his a u t o b i o g r a p h y Flaws in the Glass (1981). A l t h o u g h (Patrick) W h i t e pays statutory tribute to that darling o f travel w r i t e r s , P a t r i c k L e i g h F e r m o r . his r e c o r d o f his travels in G r e e c e a n d the G r e e k Islands could h a r d l y be further f r o m L e i g h t e r m o r ' s , o r L a w r e n c e D u r r e l l ' s . W h i t e sets o u t t o s h o w " h o w [ t h e G r e e k islands] a d d t o this self-portrait I h a v e u n d e r t a k e n , a n d [to] the m o s t i m p o r t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p o f m y l i f e " (171). W h i t e is r e f e r r i n g h e r e t o h i s c o m p a n i o n s h i p w i t h M a n o l y L a s c a r i s , w h o m h e h a d first m e t in A l e x a n d r i a d u r i n g t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , w h o l a t e r a c c o m p a n i e d him back to Australia and a lifelong relationship, a n d w i t h w h o m he t r a v e r s e d G r e e c e a n d its o f f s h o r e i s l a n d s o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s . W h i t e , l i k e B u s i , is a n a c e r b i c t r a v e l e r : t o u r i s t s i r r i t a t e ; f o o d d i s g u s t s ; c e l e b r a t e d sights d i s a p p o i n t , disillusion e v e n . N o t h i n g c o u l d be f u r t h e r f r o m the traveler's characteristic blend o f scenery a n d society w i t h r o m a n c e t h a n W h i t e ' s c a n t a n k e r o u s c h r o n i c l i n g o f his j o u r n e y s through Greece with M a n o l y . White's frankness and candid vulgar ity d o m a n a g e t o p r o d u c e t h e o c c a s i o n a l i l l u m i n a t e d m o m e n t o f travel: " A n y G r e c o p h i l e will u n d e r s t a n d w h e n I say that the unsinkable c o n d o m a n d the smell o f shit w h i c h precede the m o m e n t o f illu m i n a t i o n [ a first g l i m p s e o f O l y m p u s ] m a k e it m o r e r e w a r d i n g w h e n it h a p p e n s " (157). 3 5

W h i t e p e p p e r s his n a r r a t i v e w i t h v i v i d c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s t h a t s u g gest a c a m p , o p e r a t i c p e r c e p t i o n : " O r t h o d o x m o n k s s c r e a m l i k e e n r a g e d q u e e n s " (158), a n d " e x q u i s i t e a c o l y t e s t i t t u p e d o n s o m e e r r a n d f o r a n i m p e r i o u s s u p e r i o r " (160). Y e t h e s t a y s a w a y f r o m f a m i l i a r m o d e s o f sexual suggestiveness: n o arch i n n u e n d o s , n o gentle h o m o e r o t i c i s m , n o b r a v u r a sexual e x p l o i t s . W h i t e enlists t h e G r e e k islands, r a t h e r , as a s p a c e i n a n d t h r o u g h w h i c h h e c a n e x p l o r e his r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h M a n o l y . I f t h e y a r e o n a p i l g r i m a g e , W h i t e s u g g e s t s , it is o n e s p l i t b e t w e e n " m y l u s t i n g s p i r i t a n d M a n o l y ' s o r t h o d o x d e v o t i o n " (177). W h i l e p e r s i s t e n t l y p u r s u e s " t h e idea o f " G r e e c e (175), m o v i n g f r o m dellalion to the edge o f disillusionment. T h e m o r e patient M a n o l y a c c u s e s W h i l e o f h a l i n g G r e e c e , s p u i rimj, h i m t o r e e x a m i n e his r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h his l o v e r : 1

t . H N P I 1 \ M O 1 > 1 III 1»: I I- • 'i i' 1 1 '

1,1

[ E a c h o f a disparate g r o u p o f islands] p l a y s a p a r t i c u l a r role in m y relationship

with

Greece

and

Manoly.

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and

over . . . when

M a n o l y tells m e I h a t e G r e e c e , I c a n n o t e x p l a i n m y love. . . . I c a n n o t p r o v e that w h a t I believe in m o s t d e e p l y , the n o v e l s for w h i c h m y c o n s c i o u s self c a n ' t t a k e full r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , o u r d i s c o m f o r t i n g e x h i l a r a t i n g t r a v e l s t h r o u g h G r e e c e , o u r l i f e t o g e t h e r , its

but

eruptions

a n d r e w a r d s , m y o w n c l u m s y w r e s t l i n g w i t h w h a t I see a s a r e l i g i o u s f a i t h — t h a t a l l o f t h i s i s w h a t k e e p s m e g o i n g . (187-88)

" T r a v e l s t h r o u g h G r e e c e " turn o u t t o b e travels w i t h , a n d t h r o u g h , M a n o l y ; a n d these a r e , tautologically,

" w h a t keeps [the traveler]

going." S u c h a disarmingly casual, y e t startling, e l a b o r a t i o n o f the triang u l a t i o n b e t w e e n self, c o m p a n i o n , a n d p l a c e t w i s t s t h e c o m m o n p l a c e " b a d t r i p , " q u e e r i n g it i n t o a n e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n a n t i t r a v e l e r a n d o v e r d e t e r m i n e d s p a c e . W h i t e , i n i n t e r r o g a t i v e m o d e , s u g g e s t s as m u c h by w o n d e r i n g : " L a c e r a t i o n s ["Lascarations"?] alternating w i t h visions: is t h i s w h a t h o o k s t h e m o r e p e r v e r s e G r e c o p h i l e ? " (162). P a t r i c k W h i t e ' s j o u r n e y s suggest t h e scope f o r associating g a y travel w i t h m e m o r y a n d desire rather t h a n free spaces, w i t h personal a n d p h e n o m e n a l differences rather t h a n w i t h quests f o r gay-liberated territories. E d m u n d W h i t e , m e a n w h i l e , w r i t i n g a t t h e e n d o f the " g a y l i b e r a t i o n " era, concedes t h a t f o r w o m e n a n d g a y s (as f o r o t h e r m i n o r i ties) " t h e g o a l h a s a l w a y s b e e n a c h a n g e i n o u r s o c i e t y t h a t w o u l d b r i n g equality o f opportunity a n d restored dignity a n d a u t o n o m y t o all" (62). H e m a k e s c l e a r , t h o u g h , t h a t t h e r e is a s i g n i f i c a n t i m p e d i m e n t t o this g o a l ' s a c h i e v e m e n t : " a steadfast denial o f the real sources o f p o w e r i n o u r s o c i e t y , i.e., m o n e y . R i c h a n d m i d d l e - c l a s s g a y s a r e n o t l i k e l y t o identify w i t h t h e p o o r ; they retain a loyalty t o m e m b e r s o f their o w n c l a s s , w h e t h e r s t r a i g h t o r g a y " (62).

36

T o theorize the writing o f h o m o

s e x u a l / g a y / q u e e r t r a v e l e r s is t o c o n f r o n t , o n c e m o r e , t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e p r i v i l e g e o f t h e t r a v e l e r — t h e o n e w h o s e " l i b e r a t i o n " is l i k e l y t o t a k e t h e f o r m o f e x p l o i t a t i v e license, o r t h e o n e , p u l l e d this w a y a n d t h a t , w h o s e " t o u r i s t m a p [is c o n t i n u a l l y ]

traversed b y n e w trails"

( H o l l i n g h u r s t 99). I n b o t h c a s e s , w h a t m u s t c l e a r l y b e r e s i s t e d is t h e a l l t o o - e a s y i m p u l s e t o c e l e b r a t e t r a v e l e i t h e r a s necessarily as essentially

perceptive o r

liberating. T h e n e x t c h a p t e r takes this a r g u m e n t i n a

slightly different direction, l o o k i n g at t h e s u p p o s e d l y l i b e r a t o r y dis course

o f p o s t m o d e r n i s m , a n d at t h e g r o u n d

it o p e n s

up for

textual/generic play. In negotiating the tensions between playfulness

1v |

1 oniuft i s w i i i i 1

iM.wwTitKs

I^nd r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , t h e c h a p t e r a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t t r a v e l w r i t i n g ' s a e s t h e t i c f e a t u r e s m a y b e a t o d d s w i t h its e t h i c a l c r e d o s ; a n d t h a t its c a p a c i t y t o reflect o n i t s e l f r i s k s b e i n g a c c u s e d o f s e l f - i n d u l g e n c e i n a p o s t m o d e r n era characterized b y destructive o v e r c o n s u m p t i o n , a n d b y the split b e t w e e n m a t e r i a l e x h a u s t i o n a n d t e x t u a l excess.

<;i'NI>l'.l< A N D O T W ' i

i !»••!• 0 1 i

Chapter four Postmodern Itineraries

1

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VIRTUAL I

PLACES:

THE

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AND

HYPERREAL

T h e celebratory rhetoric o f travel—its perceived capacity t o o p e n u p n e w e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l , as w e l l as g e o g r a p h i c a l , h o r i z o n s — h a s b e e n a s s o ciated in recent years w i t h t h e " d i s r u p t i v e " discourses o f p o s t m o d e r n i s m . A t f i r s t b l u s h , i t c e r t a i n l y s e e m s t h e r e ought t o b e a n a f f i n i t y b e t w e e n t r a v e l w r i t i n g a n d p o s t m o d e r n i s m ; f o r a m o n g its m a n y , n o t infrequently contradictory features, p o s t m o d e r n theory f o r e g r o u n d s the instability o f the h u m a n subject, shifting ontologies o f space a n d place, a n d the u n d e r m i n i n g o f linear history, w h i c h characteristically assumes a fractured o r palimpsestic structure. I n short, the traditional narrative g r o u n d that m o d e r n i s t texts w e r e already testing h a s col l a p s e d — o r s u c h is t h e c l a i m — i n t o p e r s p e c t i v i s m a n d r a d i c a l c o n t i n gency. O n e m i g h t expect such relativizing features n o t just t o occur in, but t o b e necessary t o , travel narratives. Travelers tend t o present themselves, after all, as u n u s u a l l y flexible p e o p l e , w h o are m o r e o p e n t h a n m o s t t o a l i e n a t i n g experience, a n d w h o seek o u t places t h a t d e f y q u o t i d i a n expectation a n d p r e f o r m e d assessment. T h e traditional mis trust o f travel n a r r a t i v e s — a s i f truth-seeking readers h a d already anticipated a n d prefigured their unstable narrative g r o u n d — s h o w s u p in t h e p o p u l a r d i s a r m i n g p h r a s e " t r a v e l e r s ' tales": tales t h a t i n v i t e a healthy skepticism. 1

A l l t h e same, postmodernist devices h a v e n o t so consistently in filtrated t h e I r a v e l b o o k as t h e y h a v e t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y n o v e l . P e r haps travel writing, as genre, has r e m a i n e d relatively i m m u n e precisely b e c a u s e o f its p r a c t i t i o n e r s ' n e e d t o d e f e n d a n d its r e a d e r s ' t o i n o c u -

i s;

l a t e — t h e m s e l v e s a g a i n s t c o n t a m i n a t i o n b y t r a v e l e r s ' lies. A t s o m e p o i n t , it m i g h t b e a r g u e d , b o t h p a r t i e s n e e d t o a p p e a l t o t h e " a u t h e n t i c ity s t a n d a r d " — t o envision the possibility o f " n e w " a n d " g e n u i n e " expe rience, even i f that n o v e l t y a n d that genuineness a r e simultaneously a c k n o w l e d g e d as d o o m e d . I n f a c t , t h e b u l k o f w o r k s t h a t c u r r e n t l y a p p e a r o n b o o k s h e l v e s as " t r a v e l b o o k s " a d h e r e t o o n e m o d e r n i s t p a r a d i g m o r a n o t h e r . E q u a l l y , travelers c o n t i n u e b y a n d large t o a s s u m e stable experiential identities, a n d t o present their destinations, g u a r a n t e e d b y g e o g r a p h y a n d h i s t o r y , a s o n t o l o g i c a l l y s e c u r e . P a r a d o x i c a l l y , it often seems that the potentially transgressive, destabilizing character o f t r a v e l seeks a c o m p e n s a t o r y s t a b i l i t y i n b o t h its s u b j e c t a n d its d e s t i n a t i o n . T h e t y p i c a l t r a v e l b o o k ( i n s o f a r as it c a n e v e r b e a g r e e d u p o n t h a t s u c h a c r e a t u r e e x i s t s ) c o n t i n u e s t o c l e a v e t o m o d e r n realist c o n v e n t i o n s . W h e n p o s t m o d e r n i s m i m p i n g e s o n t r a v e l w r i t i n g , t h e n , it u s u a l l y does s o o b l i q u e l y , u n d e r t h e sign o f " m e t a " : m e t a t r a v e l , m e t a h i s t o r y , m e t a g e o g r a p h y , metafiction. P o s t m o d e r n i s t travel b o o k s are almost i n v a r i a b l y m e t a n a r r a t i v e s , reflecting o n their o w n status as t e x t s — a s theoretical t e x t s — o n t r a v e l . T h i s s e c t i o n e x a m i n e s s o m e r e c e n t a n d notable instances o f such metanarratives, f r o m suggestive revisionings o f s p a c e , site, a n d d e s t i n a t i o n i n C a l v i n o , t h r o u g h t h e s e m i o t i c s a n d hyperrealism o f Barthes, E c o , and Baudrillard (linked, in Iyer, with a p o s t c o l o n i a l p e r s p e c t i v e ) , t o v a r i o u s , m o r e o r less s e l f - r e f l e x i v e c o n structions o f the traveling subject in C h a t w i n , D e s s a i x , a n d T h e r o u x . A s a b o d y , this w r i t i n g insistently a t t e n d s t o t h a t instability, i n b o t h terrain a n d subject, w h i c h tends t o b e elided in m o r e traditional types o f t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e . I t a l s o insists, t h r o u g h its e m p l o y m e n t o f p e r v a s i v e citation a n d intertextual inflection, o n t h e inseparability o f travel a n d w r i t i n g — a s i f all t r a v e l , t o b e n d P a t e r ' s a p h o r i s m , a s p i r e d t o t h e c o n d i t i o n o f literature. W h i l e s u c h " l i t e r a t u r e " c a n r e c a p i t u l a t e a ( t r a v e l ) site, it c a n n e v e r c a p t u r e it. I t a l o C a l v i n o ' s Invisible Cities (1974), a f a n t a s y o n M a r c o P o l o ' s c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h K u b l a K h a n , insists a c c o r d i n g l y o n t h e i r r e d u c i b i l i t y o f cities; as P o l o w a r n s t h e K h a n , " t h e c i t y m u s t n e v e r b e c o n f u s e d w i t h t h e w o r d s t h a t d e s c r i b e i t " (61). I n t h e c a s e o f A g l a u r a , o n e o f t h e m a n y cities c a n v a s s e d , n o t h i n g said o f [the city] is true, a n d yet these accounts create a solid a n d c o m p a c t i m a g e o f a city, whereas t h e h a p h a z a r d o p i n i o n s w h i c h m i g h t be inferred f r o m l i v i n g there h a v e less substance. T h i s is t h e result: the city that, they speak o f has m u c h o f w h a t is needed lo e x i s t , whereas the city that exists o n its sile, exists less, ( 6 7 ) I ;•>'

I I M I H I N I :. W I I I I

I t I ' M ' li I I I I I " ,

P o l o thus points t o t h e ambivalent, shifting valences o f w o r d s a n d things that are so g e r m a n e t o travel writing: t h e lived-in city irreducibly is, b u t i t s e x p e r i e n t i a l d i s c o u r s e s c a n n o t d e s c r i b e i t ; t h e c i t y , a s d e s c r i b e d f r o m t h e o u t s i d e , is not ( " n o t h i n g . . . is t r u e " ) , a n d y e t it r e p r e s e n t s " m u c h o f w h a t is n e e d e d t o e x i s t . " P o l o ' s d e s c r i p t i o n s , h o w e v e r precise, u l t i m a t e l y c o n d u c t their i n t e r l o c u t o r t o w a r d invisibility a n d immateriality. C a l v i n o ' s cities d o e x i s t i n f a c t , b u t a s f o r m a l , a b s t r a c t e n t i t i e s . T h e y are explicitly signal: synecdochic o f every o r g a n i z e d space, t h e y are c o n s t e l l a t i o n s o f signs t h a t r e d u p l i c a t e , r e a r r a n g e , a n d e v e n p r o j e c t t h e i r o w n m i r r o r a n d s h a d o w s y s t e m s . E a c h s t o p o n P o l o ' s i t i n e r a r y is a S a u s s u r e a n d e m o n s t r a t i o n ; s i n c e a " c i t y [is] m a d e o n l y o f d i f f e r e n c e s " (34), its d e s c r i p t i o n s e e m s a t o n c e s y s t e m a t i c a n d a r b i t r a r y , a n d " t h e passage f r o m o n e [city] t o a n o t h e r i n v o l v e d n o t a j o u r n e y b u t a c h a n g e o f e l e m e n t s " (43). C a l v i n o ' s r e a d e r m i g h t w e l l r e c a l l h e r e t h e effect o f t h o s e travel a c c o u n t s t h a t lead f r o m o n e locale t o a n o t h e r , dif ferentiating successive destinations t h r o u g h c o m p a r i s o n a n d c o n t r a s t , and often inducing a kind o f exhaustion—exasperation, e v e n — n o t unlike that b r o u g h t o n b y the K h a n ' s responses t o P o l o . T h e u n k n o w a b l e i n d i v i d u a l cities, i n r e l a t i o n t o " t h e c i t y " as a s y s t e m i c e n t i t y , a r e like S a u s s u r e ' s p a r o l e in r e l a t i o n t o l a n g u e : " e a c h m a n bears in h i s m i n d a c i t y m a d e u p o n l y o f d i f f e r e n c e s , a c i t y w i t h o u t figures a n d w i t h o u t f o r m , a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l cities fill it u p " (34). A n d j u s t as S a u s s u r e ' s langue p o s t u l a t e s a p o i n t f r o m w h i c h t h e i d i o s y n c r a c i e s o f parole t a k e o n m e a n i n g , s o it is w i t h P o l o ' s c i t y : A l l o f E u d o x i a ' s c o n f u s i o n , the m u l e s ' b r a y i n g , the l a m p b l a c k stains, t h e f i s h s m e l l i s w h a t is e v i d e n t i n t h e i n c o m p l e t e p e r s p e c t i v e

you

g r a s p ; b u t t h e c a r p e t p r o v e s t h a t t h e r e is a p o i n t f r o m w h i c h t h e c i t y s h o w s its t r u e p r o p o r t i o n s , every, tiniest detail.

the

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Is t h e r e a s p a c e f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l t r a v e l e r w i t h i n t h e o v e r a r c h i n g s y s tem? C a l v i n o suggests, t h r o u g h t h e evocative spareness o f P o l o ' s speech, t h e indeterminate a n d evanescent m o v e m e n t o f subjectivity: " I t is m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o fix o n t h e m a p t h e r o u t e s o f t h e s w a l l o w s , w h o cut the air o v e r the roofs, d r o p p i n g long invisible p a r a b o l a s w i t h their still w i n g s " (89). N o w o n d e r t h e K h a n u p b r a i d s h i m : " C o n f e s s w h a t y o u a r e s m u g g l i n g : m o o d s , s t a l e s o f g r a c e , e l e g i e s ! " (98). " C i t i e s , l i k e d r e a m s , " w e a r e told, "arc made o f desires uiui fears, e v e n i f the t h r e a d o f t h e i r d i s c o u r s e is secret. I h e i r I'MIIW iil't? a b s u r d , t h e i r p e r s p e c t i v e s I'll'. I Ml U H II1 1 I 1 1' I I ' I' U ' l i"

I v.

d e c e i t f u l , a n d e v e r y t h i n g c o n c e a l s s o m e t h i n g e l s e " (44). C a l v i n o ' s cities, t h e n , b r i n g t w o characteristic p o s t m o d e r n i s t v e c t o r s i n t o a l i g n m e n t : t h a t o f the abstract, a p p a r e n t l y static s y s t e m (the a r r a n g e m e n t ) ; a n d that o f — s e e m i n g l y w a v e r i n g — i n d i v i d u a l desire. T h e s e t w o vec tors begin t o conjoin, o r m o r e accurately t o m e r g e , i n the K h a n ' s gar d e n , w h e r e t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n i n n e r a n d o u t e r w o r l d s is m o m e n tarily elided: At

t h e m o m e n t w h e n I c o n c e n t r a t e a n d r e f l e c t , I find m y s e l f a g a i n ,

a l w a y s , in this g a r d e n , at this h o u r o f the e v e n i n g , in y o u r a u g u s t presence, though I continue, without a moment's pause, m o v i n g up a r i v e r g r e e n w i t h c r o c o d i l e s o r c o u n t i n g t h e b a r r e l s o f s a l t e d fish b e i n g l o w e r e d i n t o t h e h o l d . (103)

W i t h i n the b r o a d e r c o n t e x t o f C a l v i n o ' s poetics o f travel, the K h a n ' s f r u s t r a t e d a t t e m p t t o l i n k P o l o ' s i m a g e s w i t h h i s o w n desires suggests the possibility o f a personal, rather t h a n collective, relation between d e s i r e a n d i m a g e . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e t w o t o f u s e is a m a t t e r o f t h i n g s , n o t w o r d s : " F a l s e h o o d is n e v e r i n w o r d s ; it is i n t h i n g s " (62). C a l v i n o ' s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h i m a g e s ( P o l o cites a t o n e p o i n t t h e " s p e c i a l d i g n i t y o f i m a g e s " [53]) is s h a r e d b y t h e s e m i o t i c i a n R o l a n d B a r t h e s a n d his successors, T J m b e r t o E c o a n d J e a n B a u d r i l l a r d . T h e s e latter also r e c o g n i z e t h e " i m m a n e n c e o f desire i n t h e i m a g e " ( B a u d r i l l a r d 56) b u t e x p l o r e t h a t i m m a n e n c e i n t e r m s o f p u b l i c a n d c u l t u r a l , rather t h a n i n d i v i d u a l , i n v e s t m e n t . I n B a r t h e s ' s w o r k (as, later, i n E c o ' s a n d B a u d r i l l a r d ' s ) t h e images t h a t arrest t h e traveler a r e cer tainly significant, b u t they d o n o t signify outside o f the frames o f ide o l o g y a n d m y t h . A s in the images surrounding the " n e w C i t r o e n , " they l a y c l a i m t o a m y t h i c a l w o r l d t h a t exists a b o v e a n d b e y o n d n a t u r e , a w o r l d i n w h i c h " o n e c a n . . . see a t o n c e a p e r f e c t i o n a n d a n a b s e n c e o f o r i g i n , a closure a n d a brilliance, a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f life i n t o m a t t e r . . . a n d i n a w o r d a silence w h i c h b e l o n g s t o t h e r e a l m o f f a i r y - t a l e s " (Mythologies 88). L a t e r , i n t h e w o r k o f E c o a n d B a u d r i l l a r d , w e e n t e r the terrain o f t h e s i m u l a c r u m a n d hyperreality: a terrain in w h i c h i m a g e m a k e r s h a v e discovered the magical a r t o f s u b s u m i n g nature, a n d w h e r e " [ a j b s o l u t e u n r e a l i t y is o f f e r e d as r e a l p r e s e n c e . . . [ w i t h t h e ] sign aim[ing] t o be the thing, t o abolish the distinction o f the reference, the m e c h a n i s m o f r e p l a c e m e n t " ( E c o 7). I n L e o ' s a n d B a u d r i l l a r d ' s w o r k , t h e c u l t u r a l c r i t i c is a t r a v e l e r , e x p l o r i n g t h e c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n h i s t o r y , n a t u r e , a n d c u l t u r e at w h a t h a s b e c o m e t h e p a r a d i g 1(H)

11 M I MINI ,S W l ' l M I V I'l v v l l l l l 11

m a t i c site o f c o l l i s i o n ( a n d c o l l u s i o n ) b e t w e e n t h e R e a l a n d t h e M y t h i cal—America. E c o ' s A m e r i c a , p r e f i g u r i n g B a u d r i l l a r d ' s , is a t e r r a i n o f " f u r i o u s h y p e r r e a l i t y " (7). A m e r i c a , f o r t h e d e e p l y h u m a n i s t E c o , is a c o u n t r y w i t h o u t a sense o f h i s t o r y — i n d e e d , w i t h o u t a s e n s e o f e x p e r i e n c e . F l a u n t e d b y a horror vacui (8), t h e c o u n t r y s e e k s i n s t a n c e s o f p l e n i t u d e i n w h i c h i t m i g h t m a t e r i a l i z e , r e a l i z e , i c o n i z e everything, m a k i n g e x p e rience itself p a l p a b l e a n d c o n s u m a b l e . T h i s emptiness, t h e implicit result o f a failure t o h a r m o n i z e h i s t o r y , culture, a n d n a t u r e , m u s t b e filled e q u a l l y w i t h i c o n s o f t h e p a s t , p r e s e n t , a n d f u t u r e — W i l l i a m R a n d o l p h H e a r s t ' s "castle," the W h i t e H o u s e , C a p e K e n n e d y rockets. I n E c o ' s A m e r i c a , " k n o w l e d g e can only be iconic, a n d iconism can o n l y b e a b s o l u t e " (53). E v e n c o l l e c t i v e f a n t a s y d e m a n d s t o b e m a d e r e a l a n d palpable. D i s n e y l a n d , the p r o d u c t o f an "obsessive determination n o t t o l e a v e a s i n g l e s p a c e t h a t d o e s n ' t s u g g e s t s o m e t h i n g " ( 2 3 ) , is the (American d r e a m - f a c t o r y : a factory that totalizes " f a k e r y , " creating m o n u m e n t s o finstant nostalgia. !, I f E c o recognizes in A m e r i c a t h e universal shape o f things t o c o m e — t h e p r e e m i n e n t signs o f g l o b a l p o s t m o d e r n i t y - — - h e stops s h o r t o f saying so; rather, in juxtaposing a hyperreal " A m e r i c a " w i t h a E u r o p e t h a t h o n o r s t h e i r r e c o v e r a b l e pastness o f t h e p a s t , a n d t h a t retains the capacity t o discriminate b e t w e e n reality a n d i m i t a t i o n , h e s i t u a t e s h i s c u l t u r a l c r i t i q u e w i t h i n a set o f p r i v i l e g e d , t r a d i t i o n a l l y E u r o c e n t r i c p a r a m e t e r s . E c o ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a n A m e r i c a t h a t is u b i q u i t o u s l y s i g n , f a k e , a n d f a c s i m i l e b e s t s e r v e s , p e r h a p s , as a p o l i s h e d g l o s s o n a r a s h o f m o r e o r less u n d i s t i n g u i s h e d t r a v e l b o o k s p u r v e y i n g adventures i n A m e r i c a as infernal D i s n e y w o r l d "descents." B a u d r i l l a r d ' s America ( 1 9 8 8 ) , i n c o n t r a s t , t a k i n g E c o ' s c o m m e n t a r y a s read, proceeds t o engage m o r e strenuously w i t h A m e r i c a n g e o g r a p h y , society, a n d culture. Baudrillard's A m e r i c a n j o u r n e y induces a m e t a p h o r i c a l f r e n z y , as t h e traveler-writer d e t e r m i n e d l y scans t h e l a n d s c a p e i n search o f s o m e m e t a p h y s i c a l essence. N o m a t t e r t h a t the p r o f u s i o n o f m e t a p h o r s entails t h e collapse o f m e t a p h o r , o r t h a t t h e essence t h e w r i t e r seeks t u r n s o u t t o be t h e l i m i t o f e v a c u a t i o n ; t o t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h B a u d r i l l a r d insists, like E c o ' s A m e r i c a n s , o n r e a d i n g signs t o e x h a u s t i o n , he assimilates terrain a n d culture t o a s y m b o l i z e d state o f desire. 2

B a u d r i l l a r d ' s d e s i r e d " o i l i e r " recalls C a l v i n o ' s f a m o u s t r a v e l a p o t h e g m : " E l s e w h e r e is a n e g a t i v e m i r r o r . T h e t r a v e l e r r e c o g n i z e s t h e little t h a t is his, d i s c o v e r i n g the m u c h h e h a s n o t h a d a n d w i l l n e v e r l-i >•. 1 m i i U I I I U ' I

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m m 1 'I

l M

h a v e " (29). A m e r i c a is t h e n e g a t i v e m i r r o r h e r e , i n d u c i n g a " [ n ] o s t a l g i a b o r n o f t h e T e x a n h i l l s a n d t h e s i e r r a s o f N e w M e x i c o " ( B a u d r i l l a r d 1). D r a i n i n g l a n d - a n d cityscapes into abstractions o f horizontality, vertic a l i t y , a n d e m p t i n e s s , B a u d r i l l a r d c e l e b r a t e s h i s f a n t a s t i c " A m e r i c a " as a " c o l l a p s e o f m e t a p h o r " (27), e v e n a s h e s o p a t e n t l y m e t a p h o r i z e s b e y o n d t h e h o r i z o n o f B a r t h e s ' s e a r l i e r " e m p i r e o f s i g n s " (see c h a p . 2), w h i c h h a d insisted that " J a p a n " w a s a semiotics, w i t h o u t reference t o a n y " r e a l " p l a c e . B a u d r i l l a r d ' s " n o n - r e f e r e n t i a l d e s e r t " (10), l o c a t e d a t the h e a r t o f A m e r i c a , b e c o m e s " a n ecstatic critique o f culture, a n d e c s t a t i c f o r m o f d i s a p p e a r a n c e " (9). T h i s A m e r i c a is b o t h p r e - a n d p o s t c u l t u r a l , i n v o l v i n g a s it d o e s t h e virtual a b o l i t i o n o f E u r o p e ' s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s , i r o n i e s , a n d s u b t l e t i e s . I t s v a r i o u s sites c a l l t h e v i s i t o r t o an experience b e y o n d that o fthe tourist o r holiday traveler, t o " p u r e " object-free itineraries i n t o t h e gloriously " b a n a l " z o n e s o f desert a n d m e t r o p o l i s , w h i c h a r e " n o t a t a n y s t a g e r e g a r d e d as p l a c e s o f p l e a s u r e o r c u l t u r e , b u t [ a r e ] s e e n t e l e v i s u a l l y as s c e n e r y , a s s c e n a r i o s " (9). B a u drillard's "extraterritorial" virtual scenarios, appealing t o the fantasy s c r e e n s o f " s o p h i s t i c a t e d , n u c l e a r , o r b i t a l , c o m p u t e r t e c h n o l o g y " (4), m a k e B a r t h e s ' s n o n r e f e r e n t i a l signs seem c u r i o u s l y o l d - f a s h i o n e d . B a u d r i l l a r d ' s t e x t c a n n o t h e l p b u t recall E c o ' s earlier essay o n hyperrealist A m e r i c a ; b u t B a u d r i l l a r d , u n l i k e E c o , salutes the A m e r i can processes o f t h e s i m u l a c r u m w i t h all t h e h e a d y e n t h u s i a s m o f someone greeting a m a r v e l o u s future: [ S i n c e the A m e r i c a n s ] w e r e n o t t h e first t o b e in o n h i s t o r y , t h e y w i l l b e the

first

to immortalize everything b y reconstitution

things in m u s e u m s ,

they can match

in a n i n s t a n t

the

(by

putting

fossilization

process nature t o o k millions o f years to c o m p l e t e ) . B u t the c o n c e p t i o n t h e A m e r i c a n s h a v e o f t h e m u s e u m is m u c h w i d e r t h a n o u r o w n . T o t h e m , e v e r y t h i n g is w o r t h y o f p r o t e c t i o n , e m b a l m i n g ,

restoration.

E v e r y t h i n g c a n h a v e a s e c o n d birth, the eternal birth o f the

simu

l a c r u m . (41)

A n d as f o r t h e p a s t , s o f o r t h e f u t u r e : w h e r e a s , f o r E u r o p e a n s , f i c t i o n is a m e a n s " t o a n t i c i p a t e r e a l i t y b y i m a g i n i n g i t , " f o r A m e r i c a n s it " a n t i c i p a t e s i m a g i n a t i o n b y g i v i n g i t a f o r m o f r e a l i t y " (95). A n d t h i s a n t i c i p a t o r y " f o r m o f r e a l i t y " is n o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e s i m u l a c r u m . Baudrillard endorses the transformation o f dense materiality into the s m o o t h surfaces o f the s i m u l a c r u m ; a n d yet, at the s a m e time, h e ^ m a t e r i a l i z e s t h e p h e n o m e n a o f t r a v e l i n t o a series of a b s t r a c t i o n s , s o t h a t t h e d e s e r t " a s s u m e s t h e s t a t u s o f a p r i m a l scene" (?.X); L o s A n g c -

n>.'

1 oill< 1'•• 1 •. W I I 11 i"i in W H I T M N K

les becomes "merely an inhabited fragment o f the desert" (53); speed is "simply the rite that initiates us into emptiness" (7); and change embodies "the aesthetic form o f a mutation" (23). F o r the E u r o p e a n traveler, the experience o f travel through A m e r i c a becomes a glimpse in C a l v i n o ' s "negative mirror": T h i s is o n e o f t h e a d v a n t a g e s , o n e o f t h e p l e a s u r e s o f t r a v e l . T o see a n d feel A m e r i c a , y o u h a v e t o h a v e h a d f o r a t least o n e m o m e n t i n some d o w n t o w n jungle, in the Painted Desert, o r o n some bend in a f r e e w a y , t h e f e e l i n g t h a t E u r o p e h a s d i s a p p e a r e d . (104-5)

Nonetheless, it is Europe (though less obviously than in E c o ' s essay) that continues to haunt the nexus o f political, historical, cultural, and geographical affairs to which Baudrillard attaches the label " A m e r ica." A n d w h a t is more, the very c o m m e n t a t o r w h o had seemed to abolish metaphor and m y t h from the travel b o o k has ended u p smug gling it in—and not so surreptitiously—by the b a c k door. In Baudrillard's text, the experience o f travel in A m e r i c a is con verted into surface, or—to be willfully, if appropriately, p a r a d o x i c a l — into the essence o f surface. Recalling "the immensity o f the T e x a n hills and the sierras o f N e w M e x i c o , " Baudrillard insists that photographs cannot, will not, recreate the experience: W e ' d n e e d t h e w h o l e film o f t h e trip in real time, including t h e u n b e a r a b l e h e a t a n d the m u s i c . W e ' d h a v e t o r e p l a y it all f r o m e n d t o e n d at h o m e i n a d a r k e n e d r o o m , rediscover t h e m a g i c o f the free w a y s a n d the distance a n d t h e ice-cold alcohol i n the desert a n d t h e s p e e d a n d live it all a g a i n o n v i d e o a t h o m e i n real t i m e , n o t s i m p l y f o r the pleasure o f r e m e m b e r i n g b u t because the fascination o f sense less r e p e t i t i o n is a l r e a d y p r e s e n t i n t h e a b s t r a c t i o n o f t h e j o u r n e y . (1)

" R e a l time" is, o f course, reel time or, perhaps better, an a p p r o x i m a tion o f it, since Baudrillard's virtual travel depends on the "futurist" technologies o f the shallow surface: the video screen and the computer monitor. T h e drained landscapes o f A m e r i c a find their mirror in the reduplicative surfaces o f simulation technology. V i r t u a l travel, as experienced on the video screen, promises an "interactive" experience that m a k e s simulation m o r e real than actuality. A s Baudrillard implies, it is the very abstractness o f the surface that enables such sat isfying travel. In the viewer's " d a r k e n e d r o o m , " the combination o f visual and aural effects melds i n l o a l o l a l but absolutely abstracted and thus perhaps essential experience, al the same time as the

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"futurist" technologies o f fast-forwarding a n d hypertextuality evoke an instant nostalgia. A s w i t h other aspects o f a c o m m o d i f i e d c o n t e m p o r a r y m e t r o p o l i t a n l i f e s t y l e — f o o d a n d sex b e i n g t w o o b v i o u s c o m m o d i t i e s — v i r t u a l technologies hold out the promise o f participatory, interactive experi ence. B u t such experience a m o u n t s , in E c o ' s terms, t o a n o t h e r f o r m o f " f a k e r y " ; t h e i n t e r a c t i o n it p r o d u c e s is w i t h a v a r i e t y o f s u r f a c e s — s u r faces t h a t o v e r l a y t h e subject i n a u n i f o r m , a b s t r a c t b l a n k e t i n g . T h i s "travel o f the f u t u r e " precludes travel f r o m t h e outset; u b i q u i t o u s instantaneity converts labored m o v e m e n t into abstract patterns o f "senseless r e p e t i t i o n . " V i r t u a l t r a v e l is t h e l a t e s t l i n k i n a c h a i n t h a t r u n s f r o m t h e t r a v e l b o o k t h r o u g h t h e t r a v e l g u i d e , film, a n d v i d e o , ft is t e m p t i n g , a g a i n , t o i n v o k e nostalgia: lament for the progressive evacuation o f " r e a l " expe r i e n c e f r o m t r a v e l . B u t " t r a v e l , " i n w h i c h e v e r f o r m it is m e d i a t e d , is a l w a y s t e x t u a l a n d s u p p l e m e n t a r y ; it r e s p o n d s t o p e r s o n a l a n d c o l l e c tive m a n d a t e s that a r e necessarily o v e r d e t e r m i n e d . C o m p l e x tracts, these m a n d a t e s seek t o s u p e r i m p o s e o n e g r i d o r a n o t h e r o n a n e x p e r i ence ( o f travel, o f the w o r l d , etc.) t h a t r e m a i n s irreducible. T h i s s t u d y h a s a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d P i c o I y e r ' s " g r i d , " i n Video Night in Kalhmandu (1988), a s a p o s t c o l o n i a l r e s p o n s e t o A s i a ' s e n t r y i n t o a " g l o b a l c u l t u r e " (see c h a p . 1). B u t Video Night is, e q u a l l y , a n o f f - t h e s h e l f p o s t m o d e r n i s t r e s p o n s e : i n its s t r e t c h e d c o m p a r i s o n s , its s t a r t l i n g p a r a l l e l s , a n d its s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y i n g e n i o u s t e x t u a l e f f e c t s . I y e r s p r i n k l e s h i s e s s a y s w i t h r e f e r e n c e s t o l e a d i n g t h e o r e t i c a l figures ( B a r t h e s , M c L u h a n , etc.), a l o n g w i t h n u m e r o u s p o p - c u l t u r e allusions, designed t o a s s u r e h i s r e a d e r s t h a t h e is m o v i n g a r o u n d i n t h e a g e o f g l o b a l c u l t u r e w i t h e a s y a u t h o r i t y . I y e r ' s " v i d e o n i g h t " is h y p e r r e a l i s m a t l o w t e m p e r a t u r e . W e n e e d t o a s k w h a t specific c o m m e n t a r y — a b o u t m o b i l ity, c u l t u r a l representation, a n d m y t h — I y e r ' s supple t o u r p r o v i d e s . I y e r ' s b o o k offers s o m e t h i n g o f a thesis a b o u t l a t e - t w e n t i e t h - c e n tury capitalism—a phase in w h i c h the older f o r m s o f imperial conquest have given w a y t o a " n e w i n v a s i o n " b y tourists, the latter-day "terror ists o f c u l t u r a l e x p a n s i o n i s m " (13). B u t t h i s thesis is r e a l l y n o m o r e t h a n a n enabling f r a m e w o r k : a space w i t h i n w h i c h Iyer can operate relays o f incongruities. T h i s A s i a , ironically recolonized in free-floating p o s t m o d e r n i s t f a s h i o n , is a l a n d o f s u r f a c e s t h a t I y e r c o m p o s e s a c c o r d ing t o the " l a w s " o f pastiche, collage, the crazy quill. K a t h m a n d u strikes I y e r , f o r e x a m p l e , as " e x a c t l y t h e k i n d o f cross-cultural cross r o a d s ' * h e h a d h o p e d t o f i n d (94); yet a l t h o u g h this s i t u a t i o n i n v i t e s lf»i|

T O O M I S T S W i l l i 'I VIM: w i l l T h l t N

d e f i n i t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s , it is less c o m p e l l i n g t o I y e r t h a n a r e its s u r f a c e incongruities. T h e s e I y e r describes in a flippant l o n e o f c o m i c h o r r o r , as t i m e a n d a g a i n h e finds h i m s e l f f a l l i n g " l i k e A l i c e t h r o u g h t h e l o o k i n g g l a s s " i n t o " u p s i d e d o w n w o r l d s " (78). A t o n e m o m e n t , h e d i s c o v ers t h a t h e h a s " t r a v e l e d 8,000 m i l e s o n l y t o e n d u p . . . i n a f a c s i m i l e o f t h e E a s t v i l l a g e " (103); a t a n o t h e r , W e s t e r n v i s i t o r s t o B a l i — " b e e f y m e n w i t h sunglasses p r o p p e d u p in their h a i r " a n d "freshly t u r n e d blondes in halter tops and miniskirts"—have transformed K u t a Beach i n t o " t h e p o o r m a n ' s C l u b M e d " (47); a t still a n o t h e r , B a l i n e s e sales assistants, " n o w s p o r t [ i n g ] tight j e a n s a n d sun-glasses . . . h a d scarlet h e a d b a n d s a b o v e their m a s c a r a e d eyes . . . [and] w o r e T - s h i r t s t h a t said ' p r o u d l y A u s t r a l i a n ' a c r o s s t h e i r c h e s t s " (68). Video Night is, t o b e s u r e , a n a t t r a c t i v e a n d s u p e r i o r t r a v e l b o o k . Well informed (to thepoint o f sometimes appearing too k n o w i n g , t o o u p - t o - t h e - m i n u t e ) a n d s t y l i s h l y w r i t t e n , it n e v e r t h e l e s s b e g s s e v e r a l questions that readers m i g h t well w a n t t o a s k a b o u t t h e " n o t - s o - f a r E a s t " as a conjunction o f postcolonialism w i t h p o s t m o d e r n i s m . T h e m o s t o b v i o u s q u e s t i o n h e r e is: h o w d o t h e s e t w o " p o s t s " r e l a t e t o o n e another? Tyer's response typically vacillates b e t w e e n w o n d e r m e n t a n d controlled nostalgia: h e marvels, f o r e x a m p l e , at the Japanese a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f b a s e b a l l b u t insists, a t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h a t J a p a n h a s n o t s u c c e e d e d i n m a k i n g t h e s p o r t f u l l y its o w n , i n d i c a t i n g a w i s t f u l p r e f e r ence f o r e x h i b i t i o n s o f m o r e " d i s t i n c t i v e " J a p a n e s e social codes. A r a t h e r less o b v i o u s q u e s t i o n ( i f t h e first o n e p r o v e s u l t i m a t e l y u n a n s w e r a b l e ) is: w h a t k i n d o f a n a l y s i s m i g h t t h e t r a v e l b o o k o f f e r t h a t w o u l d e x e m p t a u t h o r a n d reader f r o m t h e charge o f b a d faith? Iyer seems a t his m o s t v u l n e r a b l e w h e n h e targets " o v e r l a n d e r s " - t h o s e ubiquitous hordes o f global b a c k p a c k e r s toting their L o n e l y P l a n e t g u i d e b o o k s — a s a tribe o f "counter-cultural imperialists that w a n d e r s t h e p l a n e t i n s e a r c h o f c u t - r a t e p a r a d i s e s " (78). I n t h e A s i a n " o u t b a c k , " travelers like these h a v e t o " t u r n themselves into locals" t o sur vive, eating cheaply a n d locally, w a s h i n g clothes in streams, a n d a d o p t ing t h e locals' dress styles. A n d y e t , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , these travelers " w e r e f o r c i n g [places like] L h a s a t o t u r n [themselves] i n t o a r o u g h v e r s i o n o f t h e h o m e s t h e y h a d q u i t " (81). I y e r , it b e a r s r e m e m b e r i n g , u n d e r t o o k h i s t r i p u n d e r t h e s p o n s o r s h i p o f Time: a g l o b a l m a g a z i n e pur excellence. L o n g - h a u l b a c k p a c k e r s ; s h o r t - t e r m visitors o n p a c k a g e tours; peripatetic E n g l i s h - l a n g u a g e teachers; international business t r a v e l e r s ; a n d , n o t least, I y e r a n d his r e a d e r s : all o f t h e s e g r o u p s a r e i n t e r e s t e d , n o t t o m e n t i o n i m p l i c a t e d , in b o t h t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e

( • O N T M r i W . K N I T I N t. IIA II11

165

E a s t a s a site o f c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e a n d its p r o p u l s i o n i n t o a w o r l d t h e m e - p a r k , a g l o b a l v i s i t o r - f r i e n d l y a r e n a . A n d i r o n i c a l l y , it is t h i s l a t t e r d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t k e e p s t h e a d r e n a l i n e o f n o s t a l g i a flowing; I y e r , a f t e r all, is v e r y m u c h p a r t o f t h e p r o c e s s t h a t p r o d u c e s r e g r e t t h a t " t h e r e a l B a l i n e s e smiles s e e m e d t o b e f a d i n g " (68). Iyer invokes techniques o f identification a n d reduction that are related t o those o f , say, Baudrillard (likening exotic K u t a t o " D u v a l S t r e e t i n K e y W e s t o n a S a t u r d a y n i g h t " [47]), b u t h e s t o p s j u s t s h o r t o f collapsing layered actuality into virtual representation b y t a k i n g care t o discriminate b e t w e e n surfaces a n d depths: " T h e w h i r l i n g surfaces [of K a t h m a n d u ] existed, n o d o u b t , but they seemed to be n o m o r e t h a n s u r f a c e s " (105). H i s r e p r o a c h s e e m s less d i r e c t e d t o w a r d t h e O r i e n t ' s " p r o v i s i o n o f a l l t h e latest i n p o s t - p o s t - M o d e r n i s t c h i c " t o A m e r i c a t h a n t o w a r d its c o n s p i c u o u s ( a n d c o n s p i c u o u s l y l a t e ) c o n s u m p t i o n o f its o w n e l e c t r o n i c p r o d u c t s (105). O n a n o t h e r level, Iyer's descriptions lead b a c k t o C a l v i n o a n d his r e v i s i t a t i o n o f M a r c o P o l o ' s t r a v e l s . S o m a n y o f C a l v i n o ' s cities split, e n g e n d e r i n g r e f l e c t i v e o r r e v e r s e d d o u b l e s , t h a t t h e c i t y b e c o m e s a mise en abyme, t h a t f a v o r i t e a m o n g c o n t e m p o r a r y t e x t u a l effects o f d e s t a b i lization. " [ A ] s each o f t h e three tourist havens h a d g r o w n m o r e bloated," Iyer comments about Bali, "each o f them h a d spawned a k i n d o f s h a d o w self, a n a n n e x - t o w n t h a t h a d m a t e r i a l i z e d b y its side t o c a t e r t o t h e o v e r f l o w " (53). I y e r ' s b o o k , i n f a c t , r e f e r e n c e s p o s t m o d e r n w r i t i n g p r a c t i c e m u c h less i n its d e s c r i p t i o n s o f c r a z y - q u i l t s u r f a c e s t h a n i n t h o s e m o m e n t s o f a b s t r a c t f o r m u l a t i o n w h e n it r e a d s l i k e a p a r ody o fCalvino: E v e r y t h i n g , in f a c t , a p p r o x i m a t e d t o its P l a t o n i c i m a g e : e v e r y Z e n garden w a s a picture-perfect i m a g e o f w h a t a Z e n g a r d e n should be; the E m p e r o r disappeared within the idealized role o f an

Emperor;

and every geisha c o r r e s p o n d e d exactly to the proto-typical m o d e l o f a geisha (a T o k y o rose w a s a T o k y o rose w a s a T o k y o rose).

(386)

E n c o u n t e r i n g this k i n d o f d i s t a n c e d c o m m e n t a r y , readers m i g h t well b e d r a w n t o reflect o n t h o s e p a s s a g e s o f a c t u a l t r a v e l w h e r e t h e u n f a m i l i a r v i l l a g e , t o w n , o r c i t y a w a k e n s n o t s o m u c h a sense o f m a t e r i a l e s t r a n g e m e n t as o n e o f m e t a p h y s i c a l d i s - e a s e . F o r a l l its v i v i d c e l e b r a t i o n o f p a r a d o x a n d h y b r i d i t y i n t h e e n c o u n t e r o f E a s t a n d W e s t , Video Night, c o m m u n i c a t e s a s t r o n g sense o f w h a t Iain C h a m b e r s has called the " E u r o c e n t r i c domestication o f s p a c e " (31). I y e r ' s d e s t i n a t i o n s f e a t u r e as d i v i s i b l e " c h a p t e r s o f t r a v e l 1 1

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WIIII

1 \ i-i'Wi'i 1 1 I'',

and experience, as well as neatly separated sections in his b o o k . E a c h is discursively contained and discriminated, either by a leading idea, a set of images, or an intertextual frame; there are few signs here that the traveler-writer has found himself—and his sense o f self—unsettled by incongruities o f place, culture, or situation. S o far this section has dis cussed some o f the ways in which travel writing configures space— cities, deserts, countries—while examining briefly a few more or less postmodernist effects o f spatial representation. B u t postmodernist inflection is also relevant to the traveling and writing subject. F o r if travelers are dependent on a sense o f stable identity from which to experience and interpret difference, they also tend to claim another, rather special identity as travelers: one that is experientially open and interpretively flexible, generous. Chambers has described postmodern, metropolitan travel as experience o f the dislocation of the intellectual subject and his—the gender is delib erate—mastery of the word/world. The illusions of identity organised around the privileged voice and stable subjectivity of the "external" observer are swept up and broken down into a movement that no longer permits the obvious institution of self-identity between thought and reality. In this disjunctive moment, the object of the intellectual gaze—the cultures and habits of the "natives" of local, national and global "territories"—can no longer be confined to an obvious chart or map, and there freeze-dried as a fixed or essential component of knowledge. (95) The traveler w h o can recognize and confront such a "disjunctive moment," while leaving the objects o f his/her gaze "unconfined," m a y well be something o f an ideal. It is at this point, where the need to con struct a " g o o d " traveler as against the " b a d " tourist figure again comes to the forefront, that the nomad has proven to be a useful rhetorical device. Bruce C h a t w i n , something o f a cult figure in the travel-writing industry, has been instrumental in making the nomad available as an ideal version o f the modern traveler. C h a t w i n ' s theories on nomadism are articulated most conspicuously in his celebrated The

Songlines

(1987), but they can also be found in some o f his shorter essays in the posthumously published collections What Am I Doing Here (1990) and Anatomy of Restlessness

(1996). C h a t w i n at one stage planned a b o o k

on nomadism, but the outline that he wrote for it (excerpted in Anatomy)

is rather puzzling. Puzzling, because nomadism emerges

bolh as a universalized yearning and as a number o f specific ways o f

I" 1; 1 M n i U ' M N II INIIUAM.ItIS

H'7

life t h a t a r e c o n s t r a i n e d b y t i m e a n d p l a c e . " E v o l u t i o n i n t e n d e d u s t o be travellers," claims C h a t w i n : " O u r m a d obsession w i t h technological p r o g r e s s is a r e s p o n s e t o b a r r i e r s i n t h e w a y o f g e o g r a p h i c a l p r o g r e s s " (Anatomy T 0 2 ) . W h a t e v e r e v o l u t i o n m a y h a v e i n t e n d e d , n o m a d s first d e n o t e h e r d s m e n , then later h u n t s m e n , w h o "shift f o r e c o n o m i c rea s o n s " (76). B u t n o m a d s , a c c o r d i n g t o C h a t w i n , a r e " i n t r a n s i g e n t ] i n face o f settlement"; t h e y are d r a w n t o w a n d e r e v e n w h e n it m a k e s eco n o m i c sense t o s t a y p u t , a n d as a r e s u l t a " m u t u a l a n t a g o n i s m " h a s g r a d u a l l y e v o l v e d b e t w e e n " c i t i z e n a n d n o m a d " (76). A t a m u c h l o o s e r r e m o v e , " t h e n o m a d " b e c o m e s a g e n e r a l i z e d figure o f restlessness a n d escapism, o r a semi-ironic m e t a p h o r f o r the itinerant storyteller—"a s u p e r f l u o u s p e r s o n s u c h as m y s e l f " — f o r w h o m n o m a d i c w a n d e r i n g is a l s o a n a n a l o g u e f o r t h e " s t r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r " o f t r a v e l e r s ' tales (14). C h a t w i n poses a link, then, between the m o d e r n n o m a d i c r o m a n c e a n d travel writing, in the "stringing together" o f glittering kernels o f travel experience i n t o a r t f u l w h o l e s . T h e s e assemblages a r e strategic; f o r C h a t w i n - a s - n o m a d is a figure t h a t is c o n s t r u c t e d r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y , p r o v i d i n g a n alibi f o r his p a r t i c u l a r t r a v e l - w r i t i n g enterprise. O n t h e face o f it, C h a t w i n ' s w r i t i n g d o e s n o t l o o k p a r t i c u l a r l y p o s t m o d e r n . H i s v e r y f o r m e d a n d E u r o c e n t r i c sense o f s t y l e — o f t h e sparkling object i n the antique s h o w r o o m o r f r o m some cabinet o f c u r i o s i t i e s — p l a c e s h i m r a t h e r firmly w i t h i n a t r a d i t i o n o f E n g l i s h c o l l e c t i o n a n d c o n n o i s s e u r s h i p . 3 H e is a w a r e o f t h e e a r l y s t i r r i n g s o f p o s t m o d e r n i s t t h e o r y i n t h e w o r k o f M a r s h a l l M c L u h a n , w h o m h e sees as a r g u i n g t h a t " l i t e r a c y , t h e l i n c h - p i n o f C i v i l i s a t i o n is O U T ; t h a t elec t r o n i c t e c h n o l o g y is b y - p a s s i n g t h e ' r a t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s o f l e a r n i n g ' a n d t h a t j o b s a n d specialists a r e t h i n g s o f t h e p a s t " (Anatomy 84). H e h a s reservations, t h o u g h , a b o u t M c L u h a n ' s endorsement o f a " n e w Inter n a t i o n a l i s m , " i n w h i c h " [ m ] u c h o f t h e w o r l d ' s p o p u l a t i o n is o n t h e m o v e as n e v e r b e f o r e " (84). C u r i o u s l y , h e a s s o c i a t e s M c L u h a n ' s "global village" w i t h parochialism a n d separatism; certainly, he recog n i z e s t h e d a n g e r s i n e s p o u s i n g n o m a d i s m as a u n i v e r s a l p r o g r a m — o n e o f t h e s e b e i n g t h a t " t h e n o m a d " is r o b b e d o f s p e c i a l m o t i v a t i o n , a n d o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s as a s e r v i c e a b l e a l i b i f o r t h e t r a v e l w r i t e r . C h a t w i n ' s stylistic a n d descriptive gifts are certainly v e r y s t r o n g ; a n d y e t t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g i n excess o f t h e s e gifts t h a t h a s p r o d u c e d t h e " s p e c i a l " a p p e a l o f C h a t w i n — a n d t h a t s o m e t h i n g , as V e r o n i c a H o r well has suggested, has m u c h t o d o w i t h the allure o f the n o m a d - i n d i v i d u a l i s t : " T h i s is C h a t w i n the b l o n d l l i r l . . . . t o s s i n g his b o o t s b y t h e i r laces o v e r his s h o u l d e r a n d l o o k i n g b a c k , u s i n g t r a v e l a s a c o m e - o n . |()K

niMUNTN Willi

I V I ' M W U I I IIt S

D o y o u want me? O r do y o u want to be me?" (28). This airy sketch o f the unfettered, venturesome, and freewheeling individual suggests w h y there is always likely to be a gap between "cultural" theories o f the nomad and envisionings o f nomadism as a pretext for personal— romantic—flight.

4

In Chatwin's work, nomadism is different again

from either o f these theories; it is tantamount to a highly idiosyncratic personal mythology, relying on a potpourri o f materials that C h a t w i n , as determined bricoleur, can seize upon and utilize at will. It is in The Songlines

that C h a t w i n deploys his talents as a

bricoleur most ambitiously; for it is there that his gifts as a travel writer, combined with those o f the amateur ethnologist and cultural historian, find their ideal subject in the Aborigines o f Australia, an extant instance o f nomadism. Iain Chambers, w h o in passing cites "[fjhe Nietzschean vision o f the w o r l d " suggested "in Bruce C h a t w i n ' s marvellous b o o k The Songlines"

(53), conflates nomads with contem

porary "migrants." " M i g r a n c y , " in Chambers's theory, becomes a defining characteristic of social life in a "new," increasingly globalized, postmodern culture: It is the dispersal attendant on m i g r a n c y that disrupts and interro gates the o v e r a r c h i n g themes o f modernity: the nation and its litera ture, l a n g u a g e and sense o f identity; the metropolis, the sense o f cen tre, the sense o f psychic a n d cultural h o m o g e n e i t y . In the recognition of the pther, o f radical alterity, lies the a c k n o w l e d g m e n t that w e [Europeans] are no longer at the centre o f the w o r l d . O u r sense o f centre and being is displaced. A s historical, cultural and psychic sub jects w e , too, are uprooted, forced to reply to our existence in terms of m o v e m e n t and m e t a m o r p h o s i s . (23-24)

For Chambers, the sense o f migrancy, " o f living between worlds, between a lost past and a non-integrated present, is perhaps the most fitting metaphor o f this (post)modern condition" (27). The ( p o s t m o d ern sense o f cities, in turn, is that they are "both real and invisible, to echo Italo Calvino: places whose symbolic and real alterity provide another chance, a further question, another opening" (28). Even in the metropolis, "we, too, become nomads, migrating across a system that is too vast to be our own, but in which w e are fully involved—translat ing and transforming what w e find and absorb into local instances o f sense" (14). Chambers's object

is to open up the condition

o f migrant

(post)modernity, to make it serve as an imaginary site for the exercise of

greater

cross-cultural

understanding

and

I ' O M ' M M I H U N ITINI'MAHII'.N

freedom. 169

Chambers

a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e d a n g e r i n d o m e s t i c a t i n g " p o e t i c figures o f t r a v e l a n d e x i l e " (6), a n d h e is w e l l a w a r e t h a t c o n t e m p o r a r y m i g r a n c y is m o r e o f t e n a m a t t e r o f b r u t e necessity t h a n c o s m o p o l i t a n privilege. I t p r o v e s d i f f i c u l t , n o n e t h e l e s s , not t o c e l e b r a t e , i n t e r m s r e m i n i s c e n t o f C h a t w i n ' s " N i e t z s c h e a n vision o f the w o r l d , " the h u m a n

adventure in w h i c h the m o v e m e n t s o f peoples, and

the

r i g o u r s a n d r h y t h m s o f b o d i e s , l i m b s a n d v o i c e , set the patterns,

the

d e s i g n , the n o m i n a t i o n , o f the land, o u r c o u n t r y , o u r h o m e . T h e reli g i o u s a u r a o f this n o m a d i s m h a s clearly w a n e d in the m o r e

secular

n e t w o r k s o f W e s t e r n s o c i e t y . P e r h a p s it still c o n t i n u e s t o e c h o i n s i d e the

miniaturised

headphones

of

modern

nomads

as

the

barely

r e m e m b e r e d t r a c e s o f a o n c e s a c r e d j o u r n e y intent o n c e l e b r a t i n g its p r e s e n c e in a m a r k , v o i c e , s i g n , s y m b o l , s i g n a t u r e , t o b e left a l o n g the t r a c k . (53)

In such h e a d y evocations o f C h a t w i n ' s general meditations o n travel, as w e l l a s i n m o r e specific c o m m e n t a r i e s — o b v i o u s l y i n d e b t e d t o Jacques D e r r i d a ' s account o f the " t r a c e " — o n the songlines o f the A u s tralian A b o r i g i n e s , C h a m b e r s veers a w a y f r o m t h e o r i z i n g a p o s t m o d ern/postcolonial cultural condition, seeming intent instead o n e x t r a p o lating a poetics—even a m e t a p h y s i c s — o f travel. I n the process, C h a m b e r s quotes at length f r o m the w o r k o f P a u l C a r t e r : a n A u s t r a l i a n theorist o f space, place, a n d travel w h o has m o r e c o g e n t l y a r g u e d t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f n o m a d i s m a n d m i g r a n c y . I n Living in a New Country ( 1 9 9 2 ) , C a r t e r s p e c u l a t e s , An

authentically migrant perspective would, perhaps, be based on an

i n t u i t i o n t h a t t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n h e r e a n d t h e r e is i t s e l f a c u l t u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n , a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i n k i n g i n t e r m s o f fixed e n t i t i e s a n d d e f i n i n g t h e m o p p o s i t i o n a l l y . It m i g h t b e g i n b y r e g a r d i n g m o v e m e n t , n o t as a n a w k w a r d interval b e t w e e n fixed p o i n t s o f d e p a r t u r e

and

arrival, b u t as a m o d e o f b e i n g in the w o r l d . T h e q u e s t i o n w o u l d be, then, not h o w to arrive, but b o w to m o v e , h o w to identify convergent a n d divergent m o v e m e n t s ; a n d the c h a l l e n g e w o u l d be h o w to

notate

s u c h e v e n t s , h o w t o g i v e t h e m a h i s t o r i c a l a n d s o c i a l v a l u e . (101)

N o m a d i s m , w h e t h e r it t a k e s t h e f o r m o f C h a t w i n ' s elite r o m a n c e o r o f C h a m b e r s ' s u n c r i t i c a l t h e o r i z i n g , fails t o g i v e a s a t i s f a c t o r y a c c o u n t o f m o v e m e n t as a p r o b l e m a t i c . H o w t o m o v e , a n d w h y ; h o w t o identify m o v e m e n t s ; h o w t o n o t a t e these m o v e m e n t s , g i v i n g t h e m h i s t o r i c a l a n d s o c i a l v a l u e : a l l o f t h e s e q u e s t i o n s a r e b r o a c h e d in a r e m a r k a b l e recent t r a v e l b o o k b y a n o t h e r A u s t r a l i a n w r i t e r , t h e Night Letters o f R o b e r t D c s s u i x ( 1 9 9 6 ) . Night Letters is a n e x o r c i s e in p o s t 1/ u

lunuiN'r.s u 1 1 1 1 i ! 1 ' i ' W n r r w i i N

m o d e r n i s t m e t a n a r r a t i v e : t h e t r a v e l b o o k p o s i n g a s fiction, o r fiction p o s i n g as t h e t r a v e l b o o k . T h e a n o n y m o u s first-person t r a v e l e r - n a r r a t o r o f Night Letters, l i k e s e v e r a l o t h e r " e n d o f t r a v e l " w r i t e r s a l r e a d y e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h i s s t u d y , r e g r e t s t h a t " t r a v e l i n t h e o l d sense [is] n o w out o f the question—travelling t o w h e t y o u r appetite, t o pique y o u r h u n g e r , n o t t o s a t i s f y i t " (214). M o d e r n t r a v e l , f o r D e s s a i x ' s n a r r a t o r , is " [ f j u l l o f m o v e m e n t b u t n o t h i n g a c t u a l l y happens. I ' m b e g i n n i n g t o h a n k e r f o r t r a v e l o f a d i f f e r e n t k i n d " (191). A n d it is t r a v e l " o f a d i f f e r ent k i n d " that D e s s a i x in fact produces t h r o u g h o u t t h e t h o u g h t f u l pages o f his fiction/travel b o o k . T h e m a j o r p o s t m o d e r n i s t s t r a t e g y o n h a n d i n t h e Night Letters is the d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e w o r k ' s t e x t u a l / g e n e r i c s t a t u s . S u b t i t l e d " A J o u r n e y t h r o u g h S w i t z e r l a n d a n d I t a l y , " t h e w o r k is " b y " R o b e r t D e s s a i x ; b u t it is " [ e ] d i t e d b y I g o r M i a z m o v , " w h o r e c o r d s i n a p r e f a t o r y n o t e t h a t " t h e s e letters ( i f t h a t is i n d e e d w h a t t h e d o c u m e n t s a r e ) w e r e w r i t t e n i n a first-floor r o o m i n t h e H o t e l A r c a d i a i n V e n i c e t o a c o r r e s p o n d e n t [ w h o remains a n o n y m o u s ] in M e l b o u r n e . " A l t h o u g h the "let t e r s " w e r e all o r i g i n a l l y c o m p o s e d i n V e n i c e , M i a z m o v h a s g r o u p e d t h e m u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g s " L o c a r n o , " " V i c e n z a , " a n d " P a d u a , " since " t h e reflections c o n t a i n e d i n t h e m a p p e a r t o arise q u i t e specifically f r o m the a u t h o r ' s b r i e f s o j o u r n i n e a c h o f these three cities." M i a z m o v has h e a v i l y e d i t e d this c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ; a n d i n w h a t l o o k s like a n i r o n i c sideswipe at certain kinds o f detail-conscious travel b o o k s , h e reveals his e d i t o r i a l p r a c t i c e : S o m e p a s s a g e s o f a deeply personal nature, as well as references to matters

of no

c o n c e i v a b l e interest

to

anybody

apart

from

close

acquaintances (details o f m e n u s a n d r a i l w a y timetables, complaints a b o u t the w e a t h e r a n d the rates o f e x c h a n g e , a m o r o u s encounters and the like) h a v e b e e n o m i t t e d f r o m this e d i t e d version. (Preface, n.p.)

A u g m e n t i n g the already highly m e d i a t e d character o f the w o r k . M i a z m o v g o e s o n t o p r o v i d e a series o f n o t e s a n d r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e l e t t e r s — notes that are often critical, directly o r indirectly, o f their writer. I t is h a r d t o i m a g i n e a m o r e m e d i a t e d t r a v e l a c c o u n t : " l e t t e r s " t h a t arc n o t necessarily letters; a n o n y m o u s d i s p a t c h e r a n d r e v i e w e r ; a b r e a k b e t w e e n t h e sites w h e r e t h e d i s c o u r s e ( o f t r a v e l ) is g e n e r a t e d a n d where the "letters" were written; and the intervention o f an editor— himself suspiciously fictional w h o has r e m o v e d a great deal o f t h e r a w m a t e r i a l f r o m the travel a c c o u n t , a n d w h o has also " [ s t a n d a r d i z e d ] t h e L n g l i s h in t h e r e p o r t e d s p e e c h o f c e r t a i n I t a l i a n s a n d G e r m a n s t h e I'OfilTMi ' U i 1 1 I I INHH A 1 1 1 1 , ' ,

I 71

a u t h o r e n c o u n t e r e d " ( p r e f a c e , n . p . ) . T h i s is c l e a r l y a b o o k , t h e n , t h a t f o r e g r o u n d s its o w n t e x t u a l p a c k a g i n g , i n s i s t i n g t h a t t h e r e a d e r is a t several r e m o v e s f r o m i m m e d i a t e , " a u t h e n t i c " t r a v e l — t h e possibility o f which, nonetheless, animates m u c h o fthe b o o k ' s discussion. " I l l n e s s is t h e n i g h t - s i d e o f l i f e " : S u s a n S o n t a g ' s p o i g n a n t m e t a p h o r , w h i c h s e e m s s u g g e s t i v e o f D e s s a i x ' s t i t l e , o b l i q u e l y raises t h e issue o f m o t i v a t i o n t h a t o c c u p i e s t h e b o o k ' s o p e n i n g p a g e s . F o r t h e l e t t e r w r i t e r is i m p e l l e d o n his I t a l i a n j o u r n e y b y t h e d o c t o r ' s r e v e l a t i o n t h a t h i s p a t i e n t is H I V - p o s i t i v e a n d l i k e l y s u f f e r i n g w i t h t h e A I D S v i r u s . T h e w r i t e r ' s e n s u i n g q u e s t is u n c o n c e r n e d , h o w e v e r , a b o u t s e a r c h i n g f o r a c u r e o r e v a d i n g t h e d i s e a s e ; r a t h e r , w h a t is a t s t a k e is experiential, traveling inquiry: finding o u t w h a t living in the w o r l d entails, w h a t m a k e s f o r " g e n u i n e " travel. A n d the risk o f a p r e m a t u r e d e a t h m e r e l y raises t h e s t a k e s , m a k i n g t h e t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r ' s i n q u i r i e s that m u c h m o r e vital, that m u c h m o r e urgent. 5

A t o n e m o m e n t , w a t c h i n g p a s s e r s b y o n t h e street, t h e t r a v e l e r is s t r u c k t h a t " t h e y a l l t h o u g h t t h e y w e r e going s o m e w h e r e , t h e y w e r e a l l facing the front" (10). L a t e r , i n P a d u a , h e d i s c o v e r s " s o m e t h i n g s u s p i ciously religious. . . a b o u t m o d e r n t o u r i s m " : At

least w h e n y o u t r a v e l a l o n e t h e t e m p t a t i o n t o t i c k t h i n g s o f f is

w e a k e n e d . . . . Y o u ' r e less l i k e l y t o g i v e in t o the n a r k y little v o i c e telling y o u y o u

should

see St A n t h o n y ' s t o m b , y o u

" r e m a r k a b l e loggias of the L a w C o u r t s " (why?), y o u

must l o o k a t t h e ought a t l e a s t t o

l o o k i n o n St G e o r g e ' s O r a t o r y . W h y s h o u l d 1? y o u c a n s a y t o y o u r self. I n t h e i n f i n i t u d e

o f t h e c o s m o s w h a t d i f f e r e n c e w i l l it

make

w h e t h e r I d o or I don't? I like sitting here, just l o o k i n g at the red-tiled r o o f s a n d t h e t i n t e d , b u t t r e s s e d h a i r . I'll j u s t sit.

(215)

I f this attitude seems t o c o n v e y a m o d e s t l y hedonistic y e a r n i n g f o r free d o m , i t is d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e f r e e d o m a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y n o m a d . I t is t h e a t t i t u d e , r a t h e r , o f a c e r t a i n s t a t e o f d e s i r e , a s e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h e t r a v e l e r ' s m e m o r y o f a m a n w h o r e c o u n t e d his p r a c t i c e o f r a n d o m l y choosing someone in a c r o w d to follow: " f o r hours, o n and o f f t r a i n s , i n a n d o u t o f s h o p s , i n l i f t s , a c r o s s p a r k s " (14). W h e n D e s saix has this m a n describe t h e process as p r o d u c t i v e o f " u n b e a r a b l e b l i s s " (14), w e m i g h t w e l l s u s p e c t t h a t i t is B a r t h e s ' s i d e a o f bliss h e is i n v o k i n g . L i k e C a s a n o v a , i n t r o d u c e d later in t h e b o o k , t h e p u r s u e r " w a s n ' t h u n t i n g f o r h a p p i n e s s . . . , w h i c h is a l w a y s e p i s o d i c , h e w a s t r y i n g t o e x p e r i e n c e b l i s s " (254). A n d as w i t h B a r d i e s , bliss t u r n s o u t t o b e t h e m o m e n t o f a n e x p e r i e n t i a l " g a p , " a I e m porn ry loss o f s e l f - p o s s e s s i o n . T h i s m o m e n t m i g h t b e " l i k e w i i k i n g u p w i t h o u t a s e l f in a n I/.'

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u n k n o w n c o u n t r y " (14), o r l i k e " s t e p f p i n g ] o f f a t r a i n a t a n u n k n o w n station f a r f r o m a n y w h e r e [ w h e n ] t h e train clatters r o u n d a b e n d i n t o silence a n d y o u ' r e l e f t s t a n d i n g t h e r e , m o m e n t a r i l y w i t h o u t a s e l f ' (25). I n B a r t h e s ' s w o r k , b l i s s is i n e x t r i c a b l y l i n k e d w i t h t e x t u a l i t y : " ' t h e pleasure o f the text." T h i s points t o another feature o f Dessaix's b o o k , its a l l u s i v e n e s s a n d i n t e r t e x t u a l i t y , w h i c h a r e c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n a l a r g e , m a r k e d l y p o s t m o d e r n , field o f r e f e r e n c e . A t o n e p o i n t , s o m e w h a t archly, t h e traveler notes, " 1 d i d n ' t care a scrap a b o u t w h e t h e r o r n o t I wrote another b o o k , g o t the n e w b a t h r o o m cupboards built, ever r e a l l y u n d e r s t o o d p o s t s t r u c t u r a l i s m , e v e r r e a l l y t r a v e l l e d a g a i n " (123). Y e t t h e letters a r e f u l l o f r e f e r e n c e s t o m o d i s h c o n t e m p o r a r y a u t h o r s : Patricia H i g h s m i t h gives t h e traveler a n audience, a n d a m o n g t h e m a n y names he drops are those o f V i k r a m Seth, P a u l A u s t e r , G e o r g e S t e i n e r , a n d M a r i o V a r g a s L l o s a (27). T h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s , e x a g g e r a t edly self-conscious meditations o n walled gardens a n d ghettos, while one o f the traveler's interlocutors " f a v o u r e d B a r t h e s ' theory o f the city t o w e r : it's t h e city-dweller's belvedere, t u r n i n g t h e cityscape b a c k i n t o n a t u r e " (117). T h i s s a m e figure, a G e r m a n a c a d e m i c v a c a t i o n i n g i n Venice n a m e d Professor E s c h e n b a u m , seems t o b e a ludic a m a l g a m o f Thomas Mann's Gustav v o n Aschenbach a n d Michel Foucault. E s c h e n b a u m observes, f o r instance, that " C a s a n o v a a n d M a r c o P o l o h a v e c o m e t o r e p r e s e n t e n t i r e . . . 'mentalites' (241); t h e t r a v e l e r e x p e c t s h i m t o give a n a n s w e r t o o n e o f his q u e s t i o n s t h a t " w o u l d i n v o l v e t h e O t h e r , a n d p o s s i b l y T r a n s g r e s s i o n " (132); a n d w h e n E s c h e n b a u m expatiates o n C a s a n o v a as " y e t a n o t h e r s u b v e r t e r o f p a r a d i g m s , " a n d as a n e x e r c i s e r o f t r a n s g r e s s i v e s e x u a l i t y , t h e t r a v e l e r is v i n d i c a t e d , f o r he h a d guessed t h a t " t h e w o r d 'transgressive' w o u l d c o m e u p e v e n t u a l l y " (251). T h e i n v a l i d ' s t r a v e l s a r e p l a y f u l , h e r e a s e l s e w h e r e , i n a knowing, redoubled manner. T h e t r a v e l e r ' s " s t a g e s " — L o c a r n o , V i c e n z a , P a d u a ( w i t h t h e letters all w r i t t e n f r o m V e n i c e , a n d w i t h V i c e n z a a s a " h e l l , " t h e j o u r n e y ' s n a d i r ) — l i g h t l y e c h o t h e s t a g e s o f D a n t e ' s Divina Commedia, t h o u g h i n i n c o r r e c t o r d e r , a s t h e e d i t o r n o t e s . T h e Divina Commedia acts as t h e l e a d i n g i n t e r t e x t f o r t h e Night Letters, l e n d i n g t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y b o o k the a u r a o f a n " o p e n " m e d i e v a l allegory. B u t each stage o f the D a n t e a n itinerary also incorporates allegorical narratives that align t h e text m o r e closely w i t h c o n t e m p o r a r y ( p o s t ) m o d e r n textual practices. L o c a r n o p r e s e n t s ( h e tale o f t h e p e r e g r i n a t i o n s o f a n e r o t i c a m u l e t o f Indian origin through O r i e n t a l , L e v a n t i n e , and northern Italian hands; V i c e n z a o f f e r s a li i g h t c u i n g t a l e o f t h e b i z a n v s e x u a l c o d e s o f V e n i c e 1

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a n d C a s a n o v a , w h o turns o u t t o b e bisexual, each represents " o n e important kind of journeying": A l m o s t o p p o s i t e k i n d s , i n f a c t . A n d j o u r n e y i n g , a f t e r a l l , is s o f u n d a mental to the w a y w e h u m a n s think o f ourselves a n d assign our lives a m e a n i n g . E v e r y s e c o n d b o o k y o u r e a d is a b o u t s o m e k i n d o f j o u r n e y , r e a l l y , isn't it? A n d w e c o n s t a n t l y talk a b o u t p a t h s in l i f e — w a y s , roads, progress, stages a n d so on- -all travel metaphors, w h e n

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t h i n k a b o u t it. I w o u l d s a y t h a t M a r c o P o l o a n d C a s a n o v a h a v e c o m e to s t a n d f o r c o m p l e t e l y different w a y s o f t r a v e l l i n g — a n d t h e r e f o r e o f l i v i n g o u t y o u r l i f e . (241-42)

E s c h e n b a u m ' s d i s q u i s i t i o n seems as i f it s h o u l d a c c o r d well w i t h t h e afflicted A u s t r a l i a n ' s views o n travel, especially w h e n h e presents C a s a n o v a as o n e w h o " z i g z a g g e d t h r o u g h t i m e i n search o f timeless m o m e n t s , blissful instants w h e n the past a n d the f u t u r e ceased t o exist for him- - t h e only k i n d o f spiritual perfection h e could conceive o f (254). Y e t D e s s a i x ' s p r o t a g o n i s t u l t i m a t e l y p r e f e r s a v e r s i o n o f D a n t e a n spiraling: t r a v e l i n g as " g r a d u a l l y s u f f u s i n g m e r e h u m a n k n o w i n g w i t h timeless seeing ( u n t i l y o u a r e s e e n — w h i c h d o e s n ' t so m u c h d e m o l i s h as p u t t o o n e side t h e l o n g d r a w n - o u t m o d e r n a r g u m e n t s a b o u t s u b j e c t i v i t y a n d o b j e c t i v i t y . . . ) " (262-63). D e s s a i x ' s t r a v e l e r w r i t e r , h a v i n g c o m p l e t e d h i s j o u r n e y , sets o f f f o r h o m e h a v i n g a p p a r ently escaped the nets o f choice a n d chance. I n D e s s a i x ' s b o o k , e v i d e n t l y , r e a d e r s c a n find a m p l e m a t e r i a l f o r a t h e o r e t i c s o f t h e self, o f illness, a n d o f t r a v e l ( a n d , b y i m p l i c a t i o n , t r a v e l w r i t i n g ) . T h e b o o k ' s r i c h n e s s c a n b e g a u g e d b y its d e p l o y m e n t o f v a r i o u s p o s t m o d e r n i s t t e x t u a l s t r a t e g i e s , b e s t s u m m e d u p i n its t h o r o u g h g o i n g s e l f - r e l i e x i v e n e s s , w h a t w e m i g h t c a l l its " m e t a - a c t i v i t y . " I t is w o r t h n o t i n g h e r e t h a t t r a v e l b o o k s — p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e t h a t d e c l a r e themselves as g e n e r i c — d o n o t generally e x p l o i t o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r tex tual play a n d reflexivity. S u c h play m i g h t perhaps threaten the differ ent kinds o f authority t h e traveler claims, including that o f truth t e l l i n g , i t s e l f d e p e n d e n t o n t h e f i c t i o n o f a c e r i l e r e d self. O n e c o n t e m p o r a r y writer, h o w e v e r , has increasingly f o u n d w a y s o f (re)vivifying

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the travel account through the use o f a variety o f metanarrative tech niques. This writer is Paul T h e r o u x , w h o s e cross-generic My Other Life (1996) mixes fiction, autobiography, and travel in a virtuoso, confess edly self-indulgent performance. My Other Life—like all o f T h e r o u x ' s travel narratives—raises a series o f important questions about travel writing: about its status as a "truth" narrative, its relation to the per formance o f the self, and its right to claim the privileges o f fiction. It is the " s e l f that is most obviously "indulged" in travel writing, for as T h e r o u x remarks in one o f his blunt asides, " O n e o f the delu sions o f travel is that y o u can be a new person in a new land" (432). Elsewhere, T h e r o u x comments with characteristic self-irony on the travel b o o k : T h e r e w a s s o m e t h i n g so artificial a b o u t a travel b o o k : t a k i n g notes, a n d then lugging y o u r notes b a c k a n d m a k i n g t h e m into a b o o k , as t h o u g h in justification o f all that self-indulgence. Y e t w h a t w a s m o r e self-indulgent t h a n w r i t i n g s u c h a b o o k ? A s a w r i t e r , I felt s o m e h o w that I w a s forever h a v i n g t o account f o r m y m o v e m e n t s , a n din so d o i n g h a v i n g t o m a k e t h e m seem as t h o u g h they mattered.

(276)

But which self is being indulged here; and w h a t does it mean, a n y w a y , to indulge the self? T h e r o u x continues to enjoy the somewhat dubious reputation o f belonging to Sterne's category o f the "Splenetic T r a v eller" (see, for example, Porter 57-59). This type o f traveler, in the uncompromising words o f one o f T h e r o u x ' s reviewers, "drags his e m o tional b a g g a g e along with him on excursions . . . merely injecting his fluctuating biorhythms into the heart o f his tales" (Buhasz n.p.). But it is more complicated than that; for while T h e r o u x has never explicitly joined postmodernist writers in theorizing the instability o f the self or its constructed character, in his travel b o o k s he has increasingly pre sented himself and the people he encounters as characters in fictions or as actors on the stage. " R e a l i t y for me w a s the past, and it was else where. T h i s — L o n d o n — w a s like a role I had been assigned to play, and I w a s as yet still unaware o f m y lines" (My Other Life 145). While T h e r o u x ' s novels tend to read as w o r k m a n l i k e contemporary fictions in the political-existential tradition of, say, C o n r a d , Greene, or Burgess, his travel b o o k s foreground intertextuality and performance, and all the self-referential trappings we usually associate with niclaliction. By following the increasingly favored—procedure o f nominating My Other Life a 110vol." T h e r o u x also claims the authority that the writer o f fiction o ' K c n iwa over the reader, ( A n t h o n y Burgess 7

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the novelist becomes " A n t h o n y Burgess," a fictional character, a n d an episode presenting a dinner party at w h i c h " B u r g e s s " is a guest becomes a fiction [My Other Life].) In this w a y , T h e r o u x retains the freedom to c o m p o s e a (Active) autobiography, a travel account, and a c o m m e n t a r y o n the self as at once exhibitable entity a n d concealed identity. T h e r o u x does not so m u c h "inject his fluctuating b i o r h y t h m s " into his travel tales as hide and disclose them in a series o f (mock-)fantastic episodes. T h e r o u x ' s Active/autobiographical fantasies, however, d o n o t emerge as part o f a project to dissolve the self; quite the reverse, they reaffirm the authority o f the self through the act o f shaping the episode, inventing its details, characterizing its agents, and masking its fictionally fantastic producer b y blurring the b o u n d a r y between "fact" and "fiction." T h e r o u x invites us t o speculate about w h o he "really" is, but n o t that he really is: " W e are better o f f k n o w i n g that w e belong here, alone in our o w n world. N o one is waiting for us somewhere else" (436). The dedicatee o f My Other Life is the British writer Jonathan R a b a n , the symmetry o f w h o s e writing life with his o w n must surely not have escaped T h e r o u x . B o t h writers have divided their production between novels a n d travel b o o k s ; both are m u c h given to intertextual referencing a n d casual theorizing in their travel narratives; and, more specifically, T h e r o u x ' s "British" travel b o o k , The Kingdom by the Sea (1984) is neatly counterpointed by R a b a n ' s " A m e r i c a n " one, Hunting Mister Heartbreak (1990). T o c a p this symmetry, whereas T h e r o u x lived in Britain during the middle period o f his career, R a b a n m o v e d to A m e r i c a in the middle stage o f his. R a b a n ' s w o r k , like T h e r o u x ' s , shows increasing tendencies toward metafictionality. In an episode in Hunting Mister Heartbreak, R a b a n (transformed here into the genial m a n o f letters " R a i n b i r d " ) finds himself pleasantly occupied in the city of Seattle. T h e city is just the right size; he finds an affordable apart ment with a view; he has a novelist friend there he can meet for a drink and chat in the evenings; and there are several interesting people to interview—an ideal situation, all in all, for the itinerant novelist. R a i n bird soon plans a novel, fictionalizing his situation, about a gay actor who has relocated from N e w Y o r k and a K o r e a n w o m a n w h o has "learned the astounding temerity that h a d at last enabled her to walk out o f a K o r e a n marriage" (312). B u t to finance his relocation, Raban—travel writer- needs first to complete his travelogue. Decid ing that a final chapter, to be set in F l o r i d a , is needed, he Hies off (o the K e y s for a l i t t l e e x p l o r a t o r y c o a s t i n g . A twilight trip, perhaps, f o r t h i s

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inveterate traveler-storyteller; a t a r o u n d t h e same time, R a b a n a n d T h e r o u x discover the z o n e where autobiographical travelogue merges i m p e r c e p t i b l y i n t o t h e f a n t a s y l i f e o f fiction. T h e r o u x e n d s My Other Life w i t h a n e p i l o g u e , r e m i n i s c e n t o f C h a t w i n t h e c o l l e c t o r , i n w h i c h h e c o m p i l e s a list o f o b j e c t s a s s e m b l e d by v a r i o u s m e a n s a n d i n d i f f e r i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s o n his travels. B u t t h e similarity b e t w e e n T h e r o u x a n d C h a t w i n falls s h o r t o f t h a t b e t w e e n T h e r o u x a n d R a b a n ; f o r w h e r e a s C h a t w i n establishes t h e relation between travel a n d collection t h r o u g h " n o m a d i c a l l y " associative nar rative, T h e r o u x n e i t h e r collects (generally) n o r travels as a " n o m a d , " a n d h i s t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s t e n d t o t r e a t e p i s o d e s as f r e i g h t e d c o n f r o n t a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n as e l e m e n t s i n f r e e c o l l a g e . A s a " n o m a d , " C h a t w i n seems t o insinuate h i m s e l f into situations r a t h e r t h a n i m p o s e h i m s e l f o n t h e m ; w i t h o u t necessarily r e m o v i n g h i m s e l f f r o m t h e scenes h e describes, h e e x t r a p o l a t e s objects a n d stories f r o m t h e m o r assembles theories f r o m their scattered fragments. T h e r o u x , v e r y u n - " n o m a d i cally," projects himself emphatically, indulging the anxieties o f travel while d e f e n d i n g his a p p a r e n t l y v u l n e r a b l e e g o . B u t w h i l e the t w o w r i t ers p r o d u c e d i s t i n c t i v e v e r s i o n s o f t r a v e l a n d t r a v e l w r i t i n g , b o t h s u g gest d i f f e r e n t p o s t m o d e r n i s t p o s s i b i l i t i e s : C h a t w i n t h r o u g h t h e fluid narrativity o f the " n o m a d , " a n d T h e r o u x t h r o u g h p r o g r a m m e d travel as a s e l f - r e f l e x i v e n a r r a t i v e site. T h e s e w r i t e r s , a l t h o u g h i n v e r y d i f f e r ent w a y s , d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t considered travel c a n n o t e n d o r s e a n y single m o d e l o f m o v e m e n t , self, o r w r i t i n g . " P o s t m o d e r n i s t possibilities": t h i s s e c t i o n h a s a s s u m e d t h a t p o s t m o d e r n i s m c a n n o t b e d e f i n e d as a unified field b u t m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , a s a c o n t e s t e d site i n c u l t u r a l d i s c o u r s e . P o s t m o d e r n i s m does o f course impinge o n a n d overlap with travel writing; b u t as this d i s c u s s i o n h a s s u g g e s t e d , it c a n o n l y d o s o i n d i f f e r i n g a s p e c t s a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s . C a l v i n o ' s cities i n d e x t h e a b s t r a c t i n g a n d r e d u p l i c a t i v e tendencies o f travel d e s c r i p t i o n ; b u t t h e t e x t u a l effects Invisible Cities m a k e s p o s s i b l e w o u l d f r e e z e i n its t r a c k s — w o u l d i r o n i cally i m m o b i l i z e — a n y travel b o o k that d e p l o y e d t h e m b e y o n d a cer tain point. Similarly, hyperrealism a n d virtuality p r o v e useful in fore g r o u n d i n g incongruity a n d a n o m a l y ; b u t in insisting o n the fake a n d I he p r i m a c y o f the perfect surface, t h e y also s u b v e r t the travel b o o k ' s project t o p r o v i d e a sense o f experiential d e p t h . T h e dissolution o f t h e u n i t a r y subject a l r e a d y t h r e a t e n e d in l h e p r o c e s s o f 1 r a v e l a l s o p l a c e s a l risk t h e l a y e r e d , e n i g i m i l i c t r a n s a c t i o n s b e t w e e n s e l f a n d p l a c e ( h a t s o m e travel n a r r a t i v e s p r o v i d e . T o p o s i t i o n Ihe t r a v e l e r a s a n ideal I ' O N T M O I I I ' i H N i i iNHMiSHII '

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n o m a d is to snatch at a metaphor one might not be too h a p p y defend ing—to be a (European) n o m a d today, after all, is to enjoy a privilege, an availability o f options, which is obviously quite different from that o f the desert herdsman/huntsman. C h a m b e r s ' s attempt to conflate n o m a d with migrant calls, equally, for skeptical attention. A n d while the various techniques o f metafiction provide scope for injecting a sense o f play into travel narrative, by definition they also detract from the travel b o o k as a more or less "authentic" autobiographical account. Nonetheless, if travel writers turn to these techniques more often, and use them more discriminately, they m a y well help to induce a much-needed critical reexamination o f earlier Eurocentric theories and practices of travel writing.

E C O T O P I A S : T R A V E L I N G IN THE NEW A G E Y e t h o w "visionary," how innovative, can travel writing ever really be? A n d h o w can it respond, in a different w a y , to the dangers o f extinc tion: to the risk o f "disappearing" cultures, and to global environmen tal threats? In Ernest C a l l e n b a c h ' s futuristic novel, Ecotopia (1975), a large c h u n k o f the A m e r i c a n W e s t C o a s t has seceded from the United States. " E c o t o p i a , " the state thus formed, is a self-governing, survivaloriented community, committed to the environment in an age of increasing global scarcity. Such visionary communities•— a t h r o w b a c k to the countercultural sixties—are m u c h in v o g u e as the twentieth cen tury draws inexorably toward its close. T h e millenarian revivalism oi the N e w A g e — a l s o an outgrowth o f sixties' optimism—is partly a response to the overdetermined postmodern rhetoric o f exhaustion.^ Y e t it also belongs to the globalized c o m m o d i t y culture o f postmoder nity, one characterized by the saturation o f media images o f a global future and by the conversion o f endangerment, a genuine threat at many levels, into the media-friendly spectacle o f a world at mortal risk. T h e N e w A g e desire for " g l o b a l consciousness" and the postmod ern fascination with apocalypse converge in commodified expressions o f environmental angst. O n e such expression is ecotourism: one o f the fastest growing branches o f the modern tourist industry. Ecotourism, as one o f its critics, Joe B a n d y , has recently pointed out, stands poised between the seemingly contradictory agendas o f environmental sustainability and industrial development. Ostensibly il is an a t t e m p t t o

17 K

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d e m o c r a t i z e leisure c o n s u m p t i o n , b o t h b y e n c o u r a g i n g local p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n its e n v i r o n m e n t a l projects a n d b y raising consciousness o f g l o b a l issues ( p o v e r t y , s c a r c i t y , t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e l i f e w o r l d , a n d s o o n ) . Y e t a s B a n d y s u g g e s t s , e c o t o u r i s m is as m u c h a v a r i a n t o n as a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e " m a i n s t r e a m " t o u r i s t i n d u s t r y , a n d , as s u c h , it remains g o v e r n e d b y tourism's neocolonial relations o f p o w e r : " E c o t o u r i s m is a t r a n s f o r m a t i v e p o l i c y o f i n c l u s i o n a n d d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n , a s well as a p r o d u c t o f a racialized justification f o r m o d e r n i z a t i o n , in w h i c h m a r g i n a l i z e d peoples are subject t o a n e w d e p e n d e n c y a n d a n e w c o l o n i a l i s m " (541). E c o t o u r i s m , o r n a t u r e t o u r i s m , a s it is s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d , is " t h i n k a b l e o n l y i n a n e r a i n w h i c h n a t u r e h a s b e c o m e a n u n s t a b l e s p h e r e o f o u r p a n i c k e d l i f e w o r l d s t h a t is e v e r m o r e a t r i s k o f total a n n i h i l a t i o n , a n d a spectacle o f a p o s t m o d e r n c o m m o d i t y culture o f d e f e r r e d aesthetic pleasure, leisure c o n s u m p t i o n , a n d v i r t u a l a d v e n t u r e " (541). T h i s suggests in t u r n a n alternative v i e w o f e c o t o u r i s m ' s literary b y - p r o d u c t , nature writing: o n e t h a t stresses t h e p o s t m o d e r n c o m m e r cialization o f narratives o f disappearance ("vanishing worlds," " e n d a n g e r e d species," a n d so f o r t h ) , a n d t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f these narratives into a Levi-Straussian redemptive allegory that combines (collective) e n v i r o n m e n t a l consciousness w i t h (personal) spiritual quest. T h i s section collapses t h e distinction b e t w e e n n a t u r e writing, which focuses m a i n l y o n the p h e n o m e n a l lifeworld, a n d m o r e c o n v e n tional f o r m s o f travel narrative that d o c u m e n t the traveler-writer's adventures. I n t h e process, several connections emerge that m a y b e a t t r i b u t e d i n p a r t t o t h e c u l t u r a l c l i m a t e o f p o s t m o d e r n i t y : first, t h e c o o p t a t i o n o f p r i m i t i v i s t aesthetics i n t o a c o n s u m e r - d r i v e n fascination w i t h s c a r c i t y — s y m b o l i z e d in t h e traveler's e x a m i n a t i o n o f " v a n i s h i n g species" ( o r , in s o m e cases, e x p l o r a t i o n o f "lost w o r l d s " ) ; s e c o n d , t h e l i n k b e t w e e n t h e s p e c t a c u l a r i z a t i o n o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l crisis a n d t h e marketing o f N e w A g e m y t h s o f spiritual regeneration o r a w a k e n i n g : a n d t h i r d , t h e use o f t r a v e l / n a t u r e w r i t i n g as a vehicle f o r t h e p o p u l a r ization o f "salvage e t h n o g r a p h y " (Clifford), a n df o r the commodiflcation o f spiritual a n d ecological alternatives t h r o u g h the m o t i f o f the traveler's quest. S u c h conflations b r i n g i n t o a l i g n m e n t a p p a r e n t l y dis parate kinds o f travel narrative: f r o m the adventurer L a u r e n s V a n d e r I ' o s t ' s m e t a p h y s i c a l m e m o i r The Lost World of the Kalahari (1958) t o ( h e n a t u r a l i s t D a v i d Q u a m m e n ' s e v o l u t i o n i s t p a r a b l e The Song of the Dodo (1996) t o t h e s e l f - s l y k x ! g u m M a r i o M o r g a n ' s N e w A g e o d y s s e y 1 0

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Mutant Message Down Under (1994). These narratives attempt, in very different w a y s and with varying degrees o f self-consciousness, to account for "disappearing" realities or perceptions o f reality, and to articulate " c a r i n g " alternatives to the destructive material culture o f the West. N o n e o f these texts is identiiiably postmodern in its aes thetics, and V a n der Post's and M o r g a n ' s are resolutely antimodern (if still arguably modern/.?/) in their primitivist nostalgia. W h a t links them is their reverence for more or less threatened nature. This reaction is characteristic o f the modernist desire for ecological reconnection; but it has been assimilated in an age o f increasing environmental awareness to a postmodern c o m m o d i t y culture: one in which nature is presented as an edifying spectacle for consumption, and as a repository for spiri tual wisdom available at market price. T w o postwar narratives o f disappearance that present similar eco logical dilemmas are V a n der Post's previously mentioned The Lost World of the Kalahari and Peter Matthiessen's The Cloud Forest: A Chronicle of the South American Wilderness (1961). Both narratives fol l o w the pattern o f the spiritual quest into the interior, V a n der Post's taking him into the South African K a l a h a r i desert-region in search o f the talismanic Bushman, Matthiessen's taking him on a more labyrin thine j o u r n e y through South A m e r i c a that ends in another "lost w o r l d " : the ancient rain forests o f Peru. Both o f these journeys, spiri tually motivated, a m o u n t to a kind o f surrogate pilgrimage: for V a n der Post, the desert and its original—now endangered—inhabitants are spiritual entities, an antidote to the destructive material culture o f the West; for Matthiessen, the wilderness is a site o f personal (and col lective) redemption: the place he goes to purge himself o f the corrupted values o f Western civilization. The tone in b o t h w o r k s is Levi-Straussian: serious, moralistic, lamenting the plight o f "primitive" peoples whose authenticity has gone unrecognized, and whose w a y o f life, irrevocably altered by their contact with (Western) modernity, is n o w "degenerating" (Matthiessen) or residual in the face o f extinction ( V a n der Post). T h e following passage illustrates the melancholic awareness o f deterioration that suffuses The Cloud Forest: " A t present the C a s h i b o [Indians] are in a degenerate state and m a y soon disappear; unlike the river C h a m u s , they have failed to adapt to civilization. N o t only is their culture disappearing, but they manifest such s y m p t o m s o f decline as indiscriminate exchange o f mates and two husbands for each wife" (257). The Lost World of the Kalahari, meanwhile, is redolent o f the nostalgia o f N o b l e Savagery: 12

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[ T h e R i v e r B u s h m a n ' s ] l e a n - t o shelter o f grass a n d reeds o n his island . . . w a s s u r r o u n d e d w i t h m o u n d s o f the bones o f fish h e h a d c o n s u m e d over the years. N o o n e k n e w where h ec a m e f r o m o r w h o his p e o p l e h a d b e e n . W h e t h e r h e k n e w h i m s e l f , n o o n e c o u l d tell. I s t o o d there stirred t o the heart, w a t c h i n g h i m progress across the b u r n i n g w a t e r into t h e p a p y r u s s t a n d i n g s o erect b e f o r e t h e night. I n that m y t h o l o g i c a l light o f the d y i n g d a y h e seemed t o m g . the complete s y m b o l o f t h e s i l e n t f a t e o f h i s r a c e . (141)

Matthiessen's and, particularly, V a n der Post's pathos for "disap pearing" A b o r i g i n a l cultures is recorded with Rousseauesque nostalgic fervor and an almost biblical intensity. B o t h writers turn, as if to seek scientific support for their romantic myths, to anthropological models: Matthiessen is most obviously indebted to Tristes Tropiques (1955), that landmark text in which Levi-Strauss converts a n t h r o p o l o g y (the study o f man) into " e n t r o p o l o g y " (the study o f disintegration) by expressing the conviction that native cultures are d y i n g out, to be replaced b y a global "monoculture"; and V a n der Post, for his part, appears to be influenced by the w o r k o f earlier evolutionists, such as E d w a r d T y l o r , w h o recuperate "primitive" cultures even as they c o n sign them to the historical trashcan, and w h o disguise their cultural arrogance b y appealing to a mythicized indigenous w i s d o m . W h a t is evident, in each case, is that the conventions o f travel writing are being used to popularize outdated anthropological notions (hierarchies o f h u m a n "development," "disappearance," the idea o f a "pristine" native culture). Perhaps foremost a m o n g these notions is the idea o f anthropological rescue. A s James Clifford points out, the idea o f res cue, h o w e v e r vitiated within the contemporary discipline, has still retained m u c h o f its earlier ideological force: T h e rationale f o r f o c u s i n g one's a t t e n t i o n o n v a n i s h i n g lore, f o r res cuing in writing the k n o w l e d g e o fold people, m a y be s t r o n g . . . . I d o n o t w i s h t o d e n y specific cases o f d i s a p p e a r i n g c u s t o m s a n d l a n guages, o r t o challenge the value o frecording such p h e n o m e n a . I d o , however, question, the assumption that with rapid change something essential ( " c u l t u r e " ) , a c o h e r e n t differential identity, vanishes. . . . S u c h attitudes, t h o u g h t h e y persist, are d i m i n i s h i n g . . .. B u t t h e alle g o r y o f s a l v a g e is d e e p l y i n g r a i n e d . ( " O n E t h n o g r a p h i c A l l e g o r y "

112 1 3 ) In c o n t e m p o r a r y travel writing, which is less concerned than anthro pology with the accuracy o f its terminology, or with the rules and reg ulations that govern its disciplinary practice, one might go further: one I W I ' M o m i M N

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might g o so far as to say that "the allegory o f salvage"—the exoticist recuperation o f the disappearing native "other" (Behdad)—remains an essential ingredient o f what has always been a self-consciously mystificatory genre.'

3

Travel narratives like V a n der Post's and

Matthiessen's have little interest in explaining native customs or in assimilating their writers' observations to a coherent intellectual sys tem; instead, they aim to capitalize on the mystique o f authenticity: an authenticity, loosely associated with ancient peoples and "primitive" nature, which is perceived as disappearing, or as having disappeared, from the modern world. Here is a sample passage from The Lost

World

of the Kalahari: With our twentieth-century selves we have forgotten the importance of being truly and openly primitive. We have forgotten the art of our legitimate beginnings. We no longer know how to close the gap between the far past and the immediate present in ourselves. We need primitive nature, thefirstman in ourselves, it seems, as the lungs need air and the body food and water; yet we can only achieve it by a slink ing, often shameful back-door entrance. I thoughtfinallythat of all the nostalgias that haunt the human heart the greatest of them all, for me, is an everlasting longing to bring what is youngest home to what is oldest, in us all. ( 1 6 3 ) The shamanic ring to V a n der Post's statement is characteristic o f certain kinds o f spiritual travelogues that attempt, not only to quest after Aboriginal sources o f knowledge, but to mimic A b o r i g i n a l lead 4

ers—the legendary "wise m e n " o f their tribe.' V a n der Post's hieratic rhetoric, invoking the mysteries o f creation, helps set himself u p as a kind o f visionary, a divinatory Western seer. Matthiessen, to his credit, is well aware o f the perils o f such afflatus; and even though, like V a n der Post, he is by no means immune from romantic flights o f fancy, he tends to temper these with caution and a traveler's recourse to selfirony. (Like Levi-Strauss, Matthiessen adopts a skeptical, even scorn ful attitude toward the rumors and legends that continue to surround the figure o f the "tropical traveler" (see also chap. 2). "[Colonel] F a w cett has his disciples still," says Matthiessen at the outset o f his jungle adventures in The Cloud Forest, adventures that culminate in a haz ardous boat trip upriver in search o f the fabled Picha ruins. "I attracted [these disciples] like flies all the w a y upriver. But since I am doing m y best to remain hardheaded, I had better not report their sto ries here" (32). But: the stones creep in, nonetheless, and Matthiessen cannot help basking in their reflected glory. N o r is he averse to a little li MI HIS 1 ' W I T H 1 1 I ' l i W I t l T M I S

bragging o f his own: " A n d r e a s and I are the first white men to travel the P o n g o de M a n i q u e in what the Indians call 'the time o f the water.' Since this feat was the one farthest from our minds we thus became the greatest heroes malgre eux since the v o y a g e o f W r o n g - W a y C o r r i g a n " (213-14). These slippages are not u n c o m m o n in a genre much given to selfcongratulation, and Matthiessen remains, in many ways, an admirable example o f a travel writer w h o refuses to allow his ego to overshadow his collective cause. This cause has less to do with the Indian peoples he encounters than with the environment in which they live: one that, like them, is under threat. L i k e the g o o d naturalist he is, Matthiessen is sen sitive to ecological issues and well informed on the fluctuations and fragilities of the world's different ecosystems. (Van der Post, in con trast, offers little by w a y o f detailed nature description, and one is left with the impression that the K a l a h a r i functions primarily as a psychic or moral landscape: an objective correlative to the "lost w o r l d " cap tured in the writer's memories o f childhood.) Matthiessen is hardheaded enough, at least, to recognize his o w n fantasies o f innocence, and to take care not to project these onto a prelapsarian wilderness. The wilderness, as a mythicized " z o n e , " is thus as much a place o f deceit and lawlessness as it is a locus o f spirituality and a site for mys tical trains of thought. It is a "contaminated" area, not only through its exposure to (Western) mercantile interests but through the abuse of its resources, which have become chronically depleted. The myth o f eter nal return that is j o y o u s l y dramatized in The Lost World of the Kala hari is unavailable to a traveler, like Matthiessen, w h o has a clearer sense o f environmental history. Thus, while V a n der Post's and Matthiessen's texts are clearly derived from similar liberal-humanist agendas (despoliation o f the environment, mistreatment o f indigenous peoples, and so on), they fulfill, as narratives o f disappearance, very different ideological functions: whereas The Lost World of the Kalahari recaptures a—largely imagined—world o f the past to its cause o f spir itual revival (making V a n der Post an unlikely precursor o f N e w A g e gurus such as M o r g a n ) , The Cloud Forest records an elegy to an irrecoverable w a y o f life. Both texts are "allegories of salvage," but only V a n der Post's is successful—mainly because it obscures the hislory behind its own triumphal mythology. F o r in eventually conjuring Hie reappearance o f (he "authentic" Bushman, Van der Post's narra tive inadvertently erases the ciivumslances thai have led to his near extinction. A s Mnty Louise 1*1 at I has observed, Van dor Post's narra-

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tive advertises its o w n contradictions: on the one hand, it historicizes the Bushmen "as survivor-victims o f E u r o p e a n imperialism"; on the other it "naturalize[s] and objectifies] them as primal beings virtually untouched b y history" ( " F i e l d w o r k " 48). T h u s , while The Cloud Forest is disabused by the end o f its previous "jungle hallucinations," The Lost World of the Kalahari succumbs in spite o f itself to its illusion o f Timeless N a t u r e . ' It is V a n der Post, the p r o t o - N e w A g e seer, not the " m a g i c a l " Bushman, w h o is sanctified in a narrative that ends up b y reinstating the white m a n ' s proprietary myths: 5

The desert looked as empty as it had ever been. Yet in that vast world behind the glitter of pointed leaves and in the miracle of sand made alive, and thorn of steel set alight with flower by the rain, the child in me had become reconciled to the man. The desert could never be empty again. For there my aboriginal heart now had living kinsmen and a home on which to turn. I got back into my Land-Rover. I drove over the crest and began the long, harsh journey back to our twenti eth-century world beyond the timeless Kalahari blue. (279) A different kind o f narrative o f disappearance is one that focuses on endangered species: into this category come t w o recent studies, D i a n e A c k e r m a n ' s The Rarest of the Rare: Vanishing Animals, Time less Worlds (1995) and D a v i d Q u a m m e n ' s The Song of the Dodo: Island Biogeography in an Age of Extinction (1996). B o t h o f these b o o k s are popular accounts o f the biological process o f extinction, written b y professional naturalists w h o , like Matthiessen, double as travel writ ers. The Rarest of the Rare and The Song of the Dodo are perhaps best classified as nature writing: they focus, that is, on description o f the natural environment and its various lifeworlds, deemphasizing in the process the specific adventures—and the general self-absorption—of the traveler-observer. N a t u r e writing is more likely than other kinds o f travel narrative to moralize a b o u t its surroundings, less likely to psy chologize the traveler-observer's personal experience. A t times, as in Barry L o p e z ' s w o r k (see chap. 2), the traveler-observer is ironically immobilized: at a hidden vantage-point, recording the m o v e m e n t s o f other creatures (birds and animals); or at a lab desk, using biological data to develop theories o f migration. Notwithstanding, biological fleldworkers are another kind o f traveler, however much they might w a n t to distinguish themselves from mere tourists or casual observers, and however much Ihey might want to d o w n p l a y their own subjective roles. ( A s was argued in an cnrlicr cluiplcr, I ho position o f L o p e z is

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somewhat anomalous: far from wishing to hide behind a set o f m o r e or less objective data, L o p e z infuses his material with his o w n finely nuanced subjectivity.) A s M a r y Louise Pratt has argued for ethnogra phers, so might also be said o f naturalists: there are

continuities

between their accounts and more o r t h o d o x forms o f travel narrative— continuities that blur the boundaries, on one level, between ama teurism and professionalism and, on another, betweeh the d o m i n a n t strategies o f journalistic

narration (travel writing) and

informed

description (scientific research) (see also Pratt, " F i e l d w o r k " ) . N a t u r e writing, which is clearly designed in most cases for a lay (if educated) audience, mediates between these modes: it can be seen simultaneously as a carefully researched, ethically saturated m e d i u m for the raising o f global consciousness o f environmental issues and as a popularized, thoroughly commodified vehicle for the recycling o f journalistic cliches a b o u t endangerment on the planet. Clearly, not all nature writing falls into the category o f the cau tionary tale. Y e t it is equally clear that nature writing thrives, ironi cally, on the fear o f natural cataclysm, and that its current b o o m can be attributed b o t h to the threat o f unprecedented extinction and to the need—as A c k e r m a n ' s subtitle graphically illustrates—to reinstate the m y t h o f a "timeless w o r l d " in an era when time, for so m a n y w h o live in it, appears to be running out. Hence the p a r a d o x , w h o s e anthropo logical equivalent can also be seen in w o r k s such as V a n der Post's, that popular b o o k s on "rarity" have b e c o m e almost a c o m m o n p l a c e ; and that "vanishing creatures" and "lost w o r l d s " victoriously reemerge, in writing. B o o k s like A c k e r m a n ' s and Q u a m m e n ' s are alert to these ironies, well attuned to their o w n commodified status. O f the t w o , it is A c k e r man's that plays most obviously on the fears o f its lay readership. T a k ing care to distinguish itself from dry academic studies o f biodiversity, A c k e r m a n ' s b o o k bills itself as both a tribute to the Earth as a single, if multifarious, organism and a warning that it must be protected, or else it and its creatures (including ourselves) will surely perish. T h e tone, as might be expected, is consistently homiletic, as can be seen from a ran d o m sample taken from the introduction: The vanishing of so many other animals may indicate that we're not far from the brink ourselves. If we'd like our species to hang around for a while, we must be vigilant about what we're doing to other species, because evolution is a set of handshakes, not a list; of winners, (xiv ..xv) I ' O N T M n l H ' I ' N I ( I N I l> A I I 1 1 <(

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We are among the rarest of the rare not because of our numbers, but because of the unlikeliness of our being here at all, the pace of our evolution, our powerful grip on the planet, and the precariousness of our future. We arc evolutionary whizz kids who are better able to transform the world than to understand it. . . . Because vast herds of humans dwell on the planet, we assume we are invulnerable. . . . Because our cunning has allowed us to harness great rivers, to fly through the sky, although we were not born to, and even to add our artifacts to the sum of creation, we assume we are omnipotent. Because we have invented an arbitrary way to frame the doings of nature, which we call time, we assume we are immortal, (xviii-xix) Humans could be among the fossils other life-forms speculate about one day (if they speculate), puzzling over our tragedy as we puzzle over the dinosaurs', (xiii) These dire injunctions remind us o f A c k e r m a n ' s view o f biodiversity as " a sort o f rigid morality play" (xvi), with herself cast in the role o f prin cipal moralist as well as mystical "naturalist/poet w h o patrol[s] the wilds o f the world and the emotional j u n g l e o f ourselves with snares m a d e o f sentences and darts tipped with w o n d e r " (xx). A c k e r m a n ' s task, playing on "rarity," is to show the preciousness o f existence while lamenting the dwindling numbers o f some o f the world's most precious creatures. A n d her o w n language, as if in sympathy, also lapses at times into the precious, most obviously in those overwritten sequences where she compares (rare) m o n k seals to "a dying race o f m o n k s , swimming through underwater caves in a cathedral o f light" (28), or where she likens her search for rarity to "an arduous religious jour ney," a pilgrimage during which " w e will take m a n y unavoidable steps and endure m a n y hardships" (60). "In ancient times," she continues, "people went on quests to behold a sacred relic or other artifact. T h e journey was as important as the goal, m o r e important, in fact, because it w a s meant to anneal the soft metals o f the soul" (60). Such bargainbasement mysticism undermines a b o o k that is, in other respects, a well-observed and ecologically sensitive variation on the travelogue as spiritual quest.

16

W h a t is most noticeable in the b o o k , t h o u g h , as in

V a n der Post's, is its tendency to ahistoricism: its ironic reversion to the very primal myths its subject—extinction—debunks. T h u s , while A c k erman is at pains to point out that the A m a z o n i a n rain forest is not the original G a r d e n o f Eden, or that the romantic image o f the fieldworker in a pristine environment is far from the truth, her impulse to lyricism precipitates her back into these selfsame cliches

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making her sound, at

MMIMINI !» W I T H I VI'I " HITMt

times, like a voiceover for a Discovery Channel p r o g r a m , or like a female A t t e n b o r o u g h uttering platitudes about "teeming life" on a "shrinking planet." T o single out A c k e r m a n for criticism is no d o u b t unfair and possibly smacks o f self-righteousness; her w o r k is better seen as an example o f an identifiable genre. N a t u r e writing, like travel writing at large, involves the negotiation o f cliches—to call it platitudi nous is, in this respect, surely to miss the point. A t its best, nature/ travel writing is able to redeploy its chosen cliches in the service o f a t h o r o u g h g o i n g cultural critique. T h e problem, though, is that this cri tique m a y itself acquire c o m m o d i t y status- it m a y be appropriated b y and remodeled for a materialistic culture. In this sense, b o o k s like A c k erman's are faced with an irresolvable contradiction: as "nature stud ies," they objectify—naturalize—the phenomena they investigate, turning their celebrations o f life into collections o f natural-history curios, and into exotic objects o f consumption in the overdeveloped world. D a v i d Q u a m m e n ' s The Song of the Dodo faces a similar dilemma, but the strategies it adopts to counteract it are very different from those o f A c k e r m a n . F o r one thing, Q u a m m e n is by no means averse to rehearsing academic arguments: a large part o f his weighty b o o k is given over to the intellectual sparring that has historically surrounded (and still surrounds) the evolution debate. F o r another, he has a thesis to present, evident from the first pages, where he sets out his theory o f the partitioning o f the planet into isolated island zones that place their resident flora and fauna increasingly at risk. A n d for a third, his w o r k is clearly aimed at a different, more specialized audience; with its close attention to details, its precise definitions, its careful lists and copious bibliography, The Song of the Dodo is much less like The Rarest of the Rare than like L o p e z ' s Arctic Dreams (see chap. 2): a well-written study, geared for a lay readership but hardly a mass audience, o f the effects o f environmental change on evolutionary patterns o f habitat and migration. Unlike L o p e z , though, Q u a m m e n is content to play the twin roles o f scientist and adventurer; as he says, referring to pioneers of b i o g e o g r a p h y like Alfred W a l l a c e (a hero, incidentally, to O ' H a n lon, and m u c h cited in O ' H a n l o n ' s b o o k s ; see chap. 2): " B i o g e o g r a p h y was always romantic, physically challenging, enlivened by adventur ous field trips to exotic locales" (426). Q u a m m e n sees himself as a lat ter-day Wallace, following in the footsteps o f his famous predecessor, venturing into areas that, although long since "discovered," remain coin Lively remote. (Examples here include the A r u Islands in the M a l a y POVl'MOIII'ltN ITINI'.HAHIKS

l.X'7

archipelago, or the better-known but still isolated islands o f M a d a g a s car and Tasmania.) Q u a m m e n ' s b o o k accordingly maintains a balance between scientific commentary and g u n g h o adventure, as its writer alternates between the nitpicking details o f his treatise and his ram bunctious expeditions, often led by equally flamboyant guides. L i k e other nature writers operating at the fringe o f the conven tional picaresque travel narrative, Q u a m m e n uses interludes o f adven ture to offset, as well as to illustrate, his serious study. T h u s , w e find him at one point narrowly escaping from the clutches o f a carnivorous K o m o d o dragon or, at others, in anxious nocturnal pursuit of the G u a m tree-snake and the (probably extinct) T a s m a n i a n tiger. Q u a m men's escapades are sensationalist e n o u g h to capture the interest o f even the most distracted readers without c o m p r o m i s i n g the intellectual rigor o f his broader evolutionist argument. This argument sees "disap pearance" as a possible prelude to extinction—the likely result o f a series of biogeographical factors including population size and geo graphical distribution, as well as of a w h o l e panoply o f frequently avoidable man-made causes. Q u a m m e n is well aware o f the shock appeal o f disappearance: an appeal that, for example, has turned the obscure (Mauritian) d o d o into an unforgettable subject o f literary myth. H e is also aware o f the pitfalls surrounding the rhetoric o f dis appearance: in a brief excursus, for instance, on the reputedly vanished T a s m a n i a n A b o r i g i n e s , he makes the conventional but valid point that their descendants are still with us, and that their culture, although dec imated by a history o f European depredation, has adapted like any other to meet different environmental needs. By showing the suscepti bility o f myths o f disappearance to ideological manipulation—by iron ically exploring the authoritarian temptation to rescue "threatened" creatures and cultures, or to resuscitate "vanished" o n e s — Q u a m m e n is able to fend off the argument that seems to m a k e him, and his work, vulnerable: that they are both exploiting the current v o g u e for cau tionary parables o f depletion at a time when rarity and extinction have themselves become consumer items. Narratives o f disappearance such as Q u a m m e n ' s and A c k e r m a n ' s focus on a threatened planet w h o s e diversity is dwindling and whose ecosystems are in decay. A s is evident in A c k e r m a n ' s b o o k (if not in Q u a m m e n ' s ) , the mystical tenor o f the writing counteracts the g l o o m i ness o f its subject, turning what might potentially be an elegy for mori bund nature into a eulogy o f nature's capacity to regenerate itself, even at high risk. T h i s optimism in (he face of disaster is reminiscent o f the |UK

1 1 n in r,

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N e w A g e : a smorgasbord o f beliefs and philosophies, often d r a w n from mystical traditions, which aim to turn the apocalyptic fear o f material cataclysm into the clarion call for a j o y o u s spiritual renais sance at the millennium. ? T h e N e w A g e encompasses a dizzying vari ety o f "therapeutic" media, from protective crystals, self-help manuals, and arcane treatises on angelic bodies to in-depth studies o f holistic medicine and the complex structures o f N a t i v e belief. T r a v e l — o n m a n y levels—is integral to the N e w A g e ethos, as is a concern for the environment, usually considered in "alternative" (i.e., non-Western) spiritual terms. N e w A g e spiritual odysseys, with ecological ramifica tions, are a m o n g the most popular—and idiosyncratic—of c o n t e m p o rary travel narratives. Unsurprisingly, the sixties, with its developed counterculture, has been the " b o o m " decade so far for the production of such narratives. (Probably the best k n o w n a m o n g these are the cult " D o n J u a n " b o o k s o f the anthropologist C a r l o s C a s t a n e d a , w h o s e recycled primitivist wisdoms, inspired by an impressive array o f hallu cinogens, were to prove irresistible to their mostly youthful, often dis affected, Western readers.) T h e nineties, however, with the millen nium at hand, is not far behind; for N e w A g e products proliferate—the merchandise o f the Earth's salvation—in a postmodern age that "extends the p o w e r o f the market over the whole range o f cultural pro d u c t i o n " ( H a r v e y 62). Such products, it might be said uncharitably, provide a series o f "quick fixes" for an alternative-seeking populace reacting against its o w n materialism in material ways. W h a t is evident, al any rate, is that the N e w A g e is more than just a "transformative" philosophy; it is a full-blown industry, catering to a g r o w i n g number o f consumers, which markets "alternative" spirituality in a variety o f appealing forms. 1

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Hence the staggering w o r l d w i d e success of one o f the more recent N e w A g e vehicles, M a r i o M o r g a n ' s controversial Australian-based Iravelogue Mutant Message Down Under (1994). M o r g a n ' s b o o k , a massive best-seller in her h o m e country, the United States, aroused a storm o f protest after its m u c h fanfared publication in 1994. A t the eye of the storm was M o r g a n ' s contention, within the framework o f a fictionalized account o f her travels in Australia, that she was "let i n t o " the tribal secrets o f the A b o r i g i n e s a m o n g w h o m she traveled, but that in order to protect these secrets she could not reveal the name o f the tribe. Playing up to this transparent fiction-within-a-fiction, M o r g a n proceeded to regale A m e r i c a n audiences with further stories o f her "induction," and was astonishingly touted for a while as a genuine I'OM

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N e w A g e savior figure: the "messenger d o w n under," chosen b y her A b o r i g i n a l kinsmen, spreading spiritual enlightenment to the " M u t a n t s " — t h e materially clouded folks b a c k home. Here, in M o r gan's narrative, is the culminating m o m e n t o f her selection: Y o u h a v e b e e n c h o s e n [said t h e E l d e r ] a s o u r M u t a n t m e s s e n g e r t o tell y o u r k i n d w e a r e g o i n g . W e a r e l e a v i n g M o t h e r E a r t h t o y o u . W e p r a y y o u w i l l s e e w h a t y o u r w a y o f l i f e is d o i n g t o t h e w a t e r , t h e a n i mals, the air, a n d t o each other. W e p r a y y o u will find a solution t o y o u r p r o b l e m s w i t h o u t d e s t r o y i n g this w o r l d . T h e r e are M u t a n t s o n the edge o f regaining their individual spirit o f true beingness. W i t h e n o u g h f o c u s , t h e r e is t i m e t o r e v e r s e t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o n t h e p l a n e t , b u t w e c a n n o l o n g e r h e l p y o u . O u r t i m e is u p . A l r e a d y t h e r a i n p a t t e r n h a s b e e n c h a n g e d , t h e h e a t is i n c r e a s e d , a n d w e h a v e s e e n y e a r s o f plant a n d a n i m a l r e p r o d u c t i o n lessened. W e c a n n o longer p r o v i d e h u m a n f o r m s f o r spirits t o inhabit because there will s o o n b e n o m o r e w a t e r o r f o o d l e f t h e r e i n t h e d e s e r t . (148)

W h i l e the o r a c u l a r tone o f the p a s s a g e is l a u g h a b l e , the a p p r o priation o f A b o r i g i n a l spiritual w i s d o m — h o w e v e r m i s c h i e v o u s l y intended—is not. M o r g a n risks being taken here for a n o t h e r o f the N e w A g e ' s fraudulent gurus, exhibiting disrespect for the p e o p l e w h o s e factitious "tribal w i s d o m " she retails so shamelessly, a n d e x p l o i t i n g the gullibility o f her unsuspecting audience. A n o t h e r reading is possible, t h o u g h , w h i c h m i g h t help put Mutant Message in perspective. T h i s reading, e m p h a s i z i n g the status o f M o r g a n ' s text as a travel narrative, d r a w s attention t o a genre that historically j u g gles " f a c t " and m y t h . T r a v e l writers are often h o a x e r s ( a l t h o u g h very few are mistaken for gurus); and in this sense, M o r g a n ' s sleight o f h a n d m i g h t be seen in a less inquisitorial light. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , M o r g a n ' s text certainly rings b o g u s as a N e w A g e narrative o f spiri tual a w a k e n i n g . T a k i n g rhetorical a d v a n t a g e o f the " d i s a p p e a r a n c e " o f the A u s t r a l i a n A b o r i g i n e s — n e e d l e s s to say, M o r g a n ' s critics h a v e corrected her, less than kindly, on that p o i n t — M o r g a n uses their " i n h e r i t a n c e " for a w o r l d w i d e spiritual transformation: a revelation, n o t h i n g less, that the w o r l d exists in a state o f Oneness, and that this Oneness must be intuited and protected for the sake o f all. M o r g a n ' s m y s t i c i s m is a r g u a b l y more opportunistic, and certainly less in formed than, say, V a n der Post's or A c k e r m a n ' s ; but it is not w h o l l y unrelated to these writers' recuperative projects, which either seek to m a k e capital out o f a "timeless" Native w i s d o m , even as they

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c o n s i g n N a t i v e peoples to a p r e m a t u r e extinction ( V a n der P o s t ) , or w h i c h take a r o m a n t i c v i e w o f interdependence o n the planet, using that v i e w to l y r i c i z e — a n d reify—the "lost i n n o c e n c e " o f e n d a n g e r e d species ( A c k e r m a n ) . T h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n these otherwise highly disparate cultural p r o d u c t s indicate the moral righteousness that is a r g u a b l y c o m m o n to their (sub)genre. T h e y also suggest that N e w A g e p o p u l i s m m a y underscore very different kinds o f nature/ travel writing, and that travel w r i t i n g — a t least o f the m o r e serious, e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y c o n s c i o u s v a r i e t y — h a s b e c o m e a v a l u a b l e source for the m a r k e t i n g o f N e w A g e m y t h s (the healing o f the Earth; the nostalgia for m o r e authentic, nonmaterialistic w a y s o f life; the recovery o f wholeness in the face o f g l o b a l extinction). F i n a l l y , they hint, o n c e a g a i n , at the c o n t r a d i c t i o n s in c o n t e m p o r a r y W e s t e r n nature/travel writing, c o n t r a d i c t i o n s in part attributable to the belatedness o f p o s t m o d e r n i t y : that in celebrating threatened nature, it observes the p r o d u c t s o f the W e s t ' s destructiveness; and that in recuperating "timeless" peoples and cultures, it obscures the W e s t ' s part in their decline. These contradictions are also contained, o f course, in the Zeitgeist of the N e w A g e , and some younger, k n o w i n g travel writers have already started exploiting them to satirical effect. O n e such satirical travelogue is Melanie M c G r a t h ' s Motel Nirvana: Dreaming of the New Age in the American Desert (1995). Motel Nirvana takes its y o u n g author to the A r i z o n a and N e w M e x i c o desert in search o f N e w A g e eccentricities—and she finds them in abundance. T h e charlatan gurus and crackpot psychics M c G r a t h encounters on her travels are s y m p t o matic o f a N e w A g e culture taken to its absurd limits. Whether she is describing tree-hugging hippies in latter-day communes in the forest or smarmy televangelists ministering to their flocks on their luxurious estates, M c G r a t h has a keen eye and ear for pseudomystical entrepreneurship and spiritual fakery, and for the confused ideals and values that underlie N e w A g e r s ' soulful quests. In a typically caustic sequence, M c G r a t h recounts the days she spends at a N e w A g e retreat—the L a m a F o u n d a t i o n — h i g h up in the Sangre de Christo mountains o f N e w M e x i c o . A ritual event at the foundation is the "consensus" o f its raggle-taggle members: an open meeting at which decisions concerning the running o f the retreat are made. A m a n "in a T-shirt bearing the imperative ' G e t Naked!' opens the meeting and everyone looks up and smiles oversized smiles, which makes me w o n -

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der if w e all use the same muscles because every time 1 try to emulate them, it hurts" (177-78). T h e meeting soon turns into yet another opportunity for bonding: G e t N a k e d a n n o u n c e s t h a t i t is t i m e f o r t h e c o n s e n s u s , s o p l e a s e t o close o u r eyes a n d d e l v e i n t o o u r i n n e r m o s t selves. W e j o i n h a n d s a n d close o u r eyes a n d so I i m a g i n e w e l o o k into o u r hearts. A f t e r a l o n g pause G e t N a k e d whispers "yesss" and the w o m a n next t o h i m whis p e r s " y e s s s " a n d w h e n it c o m e s r o u n d t o m y t u r n I w h i s p e r " y e s s s " a n d s o it g o e s o n . T h e g r o u p r e s u m e s its m a m m o t h s m i l i n g a n d I w o n d e r i f it's j u s t m e w h o h a s n ' t t h e l e a s t i d e a w h a t a l l t h e y e s s s e s a r e i n t e n d e d t o a d d u p t o . (178)

In example after hilarious example, M c G r a t h suggests that the N e w A g e r s ' heartfelt confessions and passionate camaraderie only serve to reconfirm a creed o f frantic selfishness: T u r n e d in u p o n themselves, the outside w o r l d can seem uninteresting a n d p r o f a n e , e v e n i r r e l e v a n t , t o N e w A g e r s . F a i t h is n o l o n g e r a m a t ter o f trust, s o m e t h i n g t o w h i c h o n e m u s t a b a n d o n oneself, b u t a n e x e r c i s e i n i n t r o s p e c t i o n , w h o s e o u t e r e x p r e s s i o n is s i n c e r i t y .

Hence

the N e w A g e preoccupation with "authentic experience," and with sincerely-expressed e m o t i o n , f o r t o N e w A g e r s these a r e b o t h a p r o t e s t against p o s t - m o d e r n life a n d a visible m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the sacredness within. T h e tear a n d the h u g are the sacraments o f N e w A g e r i t u a l . (179-80)

New

A g e r s ' spiritual quests are at once reactions against p o s t m o d e r n

material lifestyles and effects o f the p o s t m o d e r n commodification o f spirituality.

20

M c G r a t h recognizes this: the N e w A g e , she concludes

acerbically, is "the consumer culture's answer to spirituality. It takes w h a t serves it and leaves the rest" (182). She is astute e n o u g h to recog nize, also, that travel b o o k s a b o u t the N e w A g e - including her o w n — risk subscribing to the same consumerist essentialism they debunk. Hence the link M c G r a t h explores between travel writing, N e w A g e soul-searching, and cultural voyeurism: deluded manifestations all o f an essentialized cultural knowledge, or o f the temptation to sift experi ence for the signs o f an essential self. T r a v e l b o o k s , as last-gasp guardians o f the "authenticity" o f lived experience, might seem ideally positioned against the postmodern technologies o f a globalized capi talist culture. But as M c G r a t h points out, "|e]ven as 'first w o r l d ' travel b o o k s and magazines berate the global spread o f K.PCs and C o c a - C o l a and prophesy the death o l ' c u l l u n i l difference, their readership o f cul-

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tural voyeurs keeps them in business" (224). C u l t u r a l voyeurism, she continues provocatively, is a "kind o f essentialist p o r n o g r a p h y , " a n d w e i n t h e W e s t a r e e a g e r c o n s u m e r s o f it. W e s a l l y f o r t h , w i t h t h e intention o f b u y i n g u p all experience, t h e n retreat i n the face o f dif ference, like sullen h e r m i t crabs. W e are deflated b ythe p o p u l a r i t y o f B a r t S i m p s o n a m o n g the T h a i s , a n d yet w e are secretly thrilled b y the potency o f o u r cultural exports. W e invest i n "third w o r l d " folk art, b u t n e v e r trouble ourselves greatly w i t h their politics, expecting t o s e n d i n o u r b o y s w h e n t h e local p o p u l a t i o n a c c i d e n t a l l y elects s o m e devil-in-a-turban.

T h e d i s e a s e is s o p r e v a l e n t

that

Pornamerica

[ M c G r a t h ' s ironically c o m m o d i f i e d c o d e - w o r d f o r t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f A m e r i c a n c o n s u m e r c u l t u r e ] . . . has c o m e not only t o represent the culture o f the U n i t e d States t o A m e r i c a n s a n d foreigners alike, b u t a l s o t h e i d e a o f c o n t e m p o r a n e i t y i t s e l f . T h i s is a s r e d u c t i v e a n d d i s r e g a r d i n g o f A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e a s i t is o f a n y o t h e r . N o n e t h e l e s s w e b e c o m e daily m o r e a n d m o r e accepting o fthe n o t i o n that the essence o f h u m a n i t y lies i n t h e c o n s u m p t i o n , a s p i r a t i o n a l

o r realized, o f

A m e r i c a n i c o n o g r a p h y . P o r n a m e r i c a is b e g i n n i n g t o b e o u r u n i f y i n g spirit. . . . [ A n d w h e n ] t h e C o c a C o l a c o m p a n y can print

billboard

posters w i t h the legend " W e t a u g h t the w o r l d t o sing," t h e n o u r spir i t u a l a l i e n a t i o n is c o m p l e t e . (224-25)

M c G r a t h ' s is a more or less conventional attack on the material arro gance and spiritual impoverishment o f postmodernity; it is enlivened, though, by her awareness that travel writing is not so m u c h a desirable antidote as a symptom o f the voyeuristic essentialism that characterizes the postmodern era. Motel Nirvana, in this context, is both an a n t i - N e w A g e satire and an ironic confession o f travel writing's invest ment in a self-centered N e w A g e culture. In such a culture, alternatives collapse in an interplay o f k n o w i n g paradoxes: spiritual guidance becomes dependent on the latest material products; global conscious ness is intuited at isolated b a c k w o o d s retreats; and travel itself, the very symbol o f travelers' desire to reconnect with nature, transforms itself into an index o f their alienated state. In Motel Nirvana, as in other recent self-ironic explorations o f New A g e therapies, collective environmental awareness is assimilated to the individualistic quest for " h a r m o n y " — f o r an arrival at the dubi ous understanding that the self is balanced between contending psychic forces, and for a realization o f the self's at-homeness with the wider natural w o r l d . M c G r a t h , for all her satirical intent, takes care to show that N e w Agers are by no means ecologically irresponsible that, the eonliiiry, they are hypersensitive to the future o f the 21

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planet. (Conservation, as M c G r a t h shows, is very m u c h a N e w A g e issue: a battle between the desire to preserve the natural environment and to insure its availability for restorative trips and transcendent quests.) B u t M c G r a t h also indicates the discrepancy between N e w A g e r s ' search for g l o b a l h a r m o n y and the excessive self-absorption that m a y lead them to neglect, or even ignore, the outside world. Motel Nirvana charts the contradictions in N e w A g e attitudes to the environ ment even as it accepts, in principle, its greater ecological cause. But as an ecotravel b o o k — a s m u c h a product o f the N e w A g e as a diatribe against it—Motel Nirvana is itself conflicted. It recognizes that eco travel, h o w e v e r responsible, is after all a form o f tourism; and that e c o travelers, like other tourists, are inevitably alienated from their envi ronment—an alienation that only increases when they attempt to "reconnect." Environmentally conscious travel narratives tend to reg ister this alienation in a variety o f pastoral, elegiac, and romantically mythicized forms. Y e t as M c G r a t h suggests, the discourse o f environ mental consciousness is, or should be, as m u c h a subject for critical analysis as the environment itself. T o invoke the beauties of nature (the romantic travelogue) or to seek to express natural feelings (the N e w A g e quest) begs the question as to h o w nature a n d the natural are ideologically constructed. A s the late A l e x a n d e r Wilson, a widely respected ecological theorist, reminds us, N a t u r e is a p a r t o f c u l t u r e . . . . O u r e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e n a t u r a l ...

i s a l w a y s m e d i a t e d . I t is a l w a y s s h a p e d b y r h e t o r i c a l

world

constructs

like p h o t o g r a p h y , i n d u s t r y , advertising, a n d aesthetics, as well as b y i n s t i t u t i o n s l i k e r e l i g i o n , t o u r i s m , a n d e d u c a t i o n . . . . T o d a y n a t u r e is filmed,

pictured, written, and talked about everywhere. A st h e mil

lennium approaches, those images a n d discussions a r e increasingly p h r a s e d i n t e r m s o f c r i s i s a n d c a t a s t r o p h e . B u t t h e c u r r e n t c r i s i s is n o t o n l y o u t t h e r e i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t ; i t is a c r i s i s o f c u l t u r e . . . . T o s p e a k u n c r i t i c a l l y o f t h e n a t u r a l is t o i g n o r e these social q u e s t i o n s . . . . T h o s e w h o wish t o speak o nb e h a l f o fn a t u r e m u s t be especially care f u l . (12)

While ecological theory has stepped u p the pace in interrogating its own ideological biases, nature/travel writing has been slow to d o s o — partly because it remains a site o f escape. In fact, as M a r y Louise Pratt suggests, the invocation o f nature in contemporary nature/travel writ ing might be traced back to the imperial practices o f eighteenth-cen tury European natural history. Natural history, according to Pratt, emerged as an all-encompassing classilicatoiy system that, while

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designed to assert "an urban, lettered, male authority over . . . the planet," did so in a dissociative w a y that made this authority seem benign (Imperial Eyes 38). " C l a i m i n g no transformative potential whatsoever, [natural history] differed sharply from overtly imperial articulations o f conquest, conversion, territorial appropriation, and enslavement. T h e system created . . . a Utopian, innocent vision o f European authority. . . . an anti-conquest" (38-39). W h i l e it w o u l d be excessive, churlish even, to see contemporary nature writing as surrep titiously imperialist—as merely another clandestine form o f E u r o A m e r i c a n domination—it is easy to see h o w some, certainly not all, environmentally conscious travel narratives run the risk o f aestheticizing nature as an object o f wonderment and control. W h i l e the best nature writers—Lopez, Matthiessen, Q u a m m e n — a r g u a b l y function as both moralists and aesthetes (see chap. 2 ) , they are also alert to the dangers o f reifying the wonders o f nature. Other self-conscious travel writers, like M c G r a t h , enter in a similar caveat: that nature and the natural are not pristine essences but mediated concepts; and that these risk b e c o m i n g the ideological pawns o f a consumer-oriented culture that seeks belatedly to rescue, advertise, and sell the very resources that its o w n expansionist imperatives have helped to place at risk. Clearly, consumer culture in the age o f postmodernity has much to gain from the retailing o f endangered species and vanishing worlds. Y e t con sumers, including the readers o f travel b o o k s , also have their part o f the bargain; and while nature writing travel writing as a w h o l e — c e r tainly needs careful critical sifting, it m a y yet teach its readers about the fragility and impermanence o f our world. O n e certainly hopes so; for otherwise, traveler-writers in the not t o o distant future m a y really find themselves, like Levi-Strauss's forlorn m o d e r n traveler, "chasing after the vestiges o f a vanished reality" (43).

l'i

i'M< m i l K N

1iTNlMMIUI'.s

i«n

Postscript Travel Writing at the Millennium

This study began with Evelyn W a u g h ' s a p o c a l y p t i c — i f wry—1946 announcement that the end o f travel writing, and o f real travel itself, w a s drawing nigh. W a u g h ' s announcement, echoed by Levi-Strauss, later elegized by Fussell, w a s very m u c h part o f late—specifically post w a r English—modernist anxiety. Bureaucratic impersonality; progres sive means o f transportation allied to a sophisticated travel infrastruc ture; the monstrous rise o f tourism—all o f these struck W a u g h as symptoms o f the modern (male) adventurer's decline. B u t as w e have seen, W a u g h ' s sense o f crisis- o f belatedness and approaching i m p o tence—was a c o m p o n e n t o f the traveler's anxiety rather than its bale ful diagnosis. Travels multiplied exponentially; and travelogues also flourished, impelled like their g u i d e b o o k counterparts b y an everexpanding tourist industry. W h a t e v e r losses the crisis o f modernism precipitated, travel and its adjunct, the travel b o o k , have hardly been a m o n g them. But w h y not? H o w is it that travel writing has continued to flourish, only gaining in prestige? This study has sought to reflect on these compelling questions. Summarizing those reflections, w e have suggested that contemporary travel writing has answered W a u g h ' s challenge by i n v o k i n g a number o f late-capitalist cultural possibilities. Three o f these are notable, and can be briefly recapitulated here: c o m modification, specialization, and nostalgic parody. T h e inexorable cultural mechanism o f commodification w o r k s symbiotically with textuality: with writing, as with a whole host o f other media forms (film, video, computer graphics, artistic and p h o t o graphic images, and so forth). However strenuously the travel text might attempt, to decommodify travel ity"

to recuperate its "authentic

it presents itself to a world thai the travel industry has played a

107

major role in referencing to the global. T h e global field emerges not so m u c h as a two-dimensional, chartable surface but rather as a set o f interlocking—specialized but also readily accessible -spaces: exotic zones, adventure terrains, hedonistic playgrounds, interactive muse ums, political mazes, " n e w " frontiers, and so on. T h e late-capitalist process o f hypercommodification involves the production o f c o m modities that are commodifying in their turn—such as travel and the travel b o o k . M a n y travel b o o k s , o f course, are little more than adver tising vehicles, commodifying their respective terrains as a means o f selling their second-level products. But even those b o o k s — a n d there are also m a n y — t h a t seek to disrupt the flow o f the market invariably show their complicity with it (as might also be said, o f course, o f this particular study!). This is not a call for dismissal, but rather an invita tion to analysis—an analysis that takes account o f the resilience o f travel texts. Such resilience can be seen, for example, in the appeal to specialized kinds o f travelers. A m o n g those we have identified in this b o o k are (postcolonial) countertravelers, resisting the history and cul tural myths o f Eurocentrism; w o m e n travelers, subverting the male traveler's traditional values and privileges; gay male travelers, either seeking liberatory spaces or flouting heterosexual travel codes; and ecological travelers, reacting against the environmental d a m a g e that they most frequently associate with tourists. Such special-interest groups generally locate themselves in opposition to " c o n v e n t i o n a l " modes o f travel, particularly tourism; this oppositional stance provides a further alibi for travel writing while still depending on its traditions and its—not least, commercial—cachet. Together with the invention o f new models for the traveler (the postmodern n o m a d , the virtual trav eler) and the traveled world (the global village, hyperreality), these guises—or, m o r e accurately, disguises—have produced a spawn o f recent travel narratives while conveying the illusion o f all but endless travel/writing possibilities. In invoking a specialized mission, these writers often appeal to the reader's yearning for a kind of countertravel to assuage their heightened (Western, postmodern) guilt. C o u n t e r travel, o f one sort or another, has certainly energized travel writing and, increasingly, travel theory in the decades since the war. Y e t such oppositional narratives cannot escape being haunted by an array o f hoary tropes and cliches (originary, primitivist, exotic, etc.), any more than they can hope to distill "authentic" encounters from their cornmodified sources. Specialization, the several forms of countertravel, might have been luX

T o O H I S ' l N W lM l I , i'l W j R M ' K H S

expected to put W a u g h ' s old-fashioned travel adventurism out o f busi ness. But it has not done so. O n the contrary, English imperial quest ing—or more or less self-conscious parodies of it—continues to form the basis o f m a n y a recent traveler's tale. In such tales, as w e have seen, a surface gesture to self-parody barely conceals a deep nostalgia for obsolete empires and manly discoverer-explorers. This, it seems, is a subgenre that lends itself to endless replication. M a n y readers continue to find exercises o f even the most basic kind (say, N e w b y ' s ) hilariously funny, as parodies o f any developed genre can often p r o v e to be; but even writers aiming for some more c o m p l e x response than the belly laugh tend to produce moments o f p a r o d y and self-indulgence, per haps to disarm that shifting line k n o w n to all travelers w h o tell: the line where recounted episode sinks into repeated cliche. B u t then repeated cliche sometimes appears to be the stuff o f travel writing, a c o m m o d i t y that cries out to be purchased and consumed and purchased again. It is as if this cycle o f production, consumption, and reproduction were at the genre's core; and as if repetition were the paradoxical gesture that both marked and w a r d e d off the risk o f its demise. It is hardly surprising, then, that W a u g h ' s postwar premonitions about travel and writing are currently being repeated on the edge o f the third millennium. Countless writers—from erudite scholars to sensa tion-seeking journalists—seem to assume that the world is poised at a crucial, e p o c h - m a k i n g moment. This m o m e n t is spatial, as well as tem poral, the product o f b o u n d a r y marking; confusion over where exactly to place the millennial m o m e n t reflects thf shifting borders o f the con temporary political world. Similarly, the times through which we are moving, whether with hope or in despair, carry no essential dates, no definitively demarcating stages. T h e w o r l d ' s millennial m o m e n t cannot be revealed as if b y magic; the w o r l d is less in progress (or in regress) than it is in process. Millennial discourses usually invoke t w o registers. O n the one hand, there is the register o f decisive ends and beginnings: the "end o f history" ( F u k u y a m a ) ; the beginning o f " g l o b a l culture." O n the other, there is the register o f process: o f emergence and rise, o f fall and exhaustion. Both registers, however m u c h they reference postwar/post modern intellectual trends (the paradigm shifts of T h o m a s K u h n , for example, or the world-systems theory o f linmanuel Wallerstein), seem io risk miring the traveler in the well-worn tracks o f Western thought, with past matched against future, East against West, center against margins, atavistic tribalism against progressive globalism, apocalyptic PON I

sen M M

oi')

dread against millennial optimism, and so on. A n d it is within these alltoo-familiar, frequently stereotypical parameters that the current debates surrounding travel and travel writing are often placed. A glance, for instance, at the relevant Guardian Weekly files from the midnineties reveals a startling unanimity a m o n g British travelers, travel writers, and reviewers on the subject o f travel. It might seem inherently silly to ask a question like "where is travel/travel writing going?" B u t asked the question is and, increasingly, answered: "nowhere; don't move; just stay at home." While the general (postmod ern) malaise o f belatedness encourages inertia, the specific forms it takes—political resistance, postcolonial guilt, antitouristic distaste — can produce something stronger: a revulsion from travel. Catherine Bennett, for example, one o f the contributors to the Guardian Weekly debate, seeks an explanation for "[w]hy the right people choose to stay at h o m e " by excoriating the travel industry itself. F o r Bennett, the industry's glossy brochures strike all the right exotic chords, inviting clients, say, to indulge their postimperial fantasies in B u r m a ( M y a n mar) from the insulated space o f the appropriately fabular cruise ship The Road to Mandalay. These brochures say nothing, o f course, about child exploitation, forced labor, the torture o f dissidents, and the perse cution o f opposition leaders in countries like M y a n m a r . A n d although some guidebooks (in trendy series like Lonely Planet) do refer to such unsavory features, they tend to do so in what Bennett calls inappropri ately "jaunty" terms. T h e Lonely Planet " M y a n m a r , " for instance, mentions "hav[ing] heard tell [there] o f a smorgasbord o f dictators, anti-government rebels, guerrillas, insurgents, and assorted malcon tents"—an unruly hodgepodge o f troublemakers that merely makes travel in that country more compelling. Bennett quotes tellingly from the guidebook: "[Myanmar] offers a glimpse o f an incredibly Orwellian society. . . . W e believe—now more than ever—that the positives o f travel to M y a n m a r outweigh the negatives" (qtd. in Bennett 30). Bennett avoids the usual classificatory markers—group/individual tourist, "alternative" backpacker, and so on—that might allow her to justify a superior kind o f travel; instead, she blames the increasing thirst for travel in "difficult and bewildering territory" on the romantic travelogues o f writers like T h u b r o n , C h a t w i n , and R a b a n , correctly if uncharacteristically a c k n o w l e d g i n g the link between "high literary" travel narratives and their " l o w l y " counterparts, the guidebook and the tourist brochure. R o u n d i n g o f f her brief commentary, Bennett offers the caustic judgment lhal "most l nivalin's bring back nothing ilOO

1 ' Hi UlN'tN W I T H ' I V I'll W i l l CIS UN

more useful than tarnished jewellery from their expeditions into the lands o f contrast. It seems like a small justification for . . . callous curiosity" (30). A n d , collapsing travel with travel writing, she goes on to quote from R o b y n D a v i d s o n : "I think perhaps the whole genre needs to close. . . . W e all carry a lot o f cultural prejudices, and I just don't feel comfortable with it" (30). It seems to have escaped Bennett's attention, though, that D a v i d s o n is m a k i n g a different point; for while the former is implying that travelers should e m b a r g o such territories as M y a n m a r and Iran as a form o f political dissociation, the latter is caught up in something quite distinct, a version o f liberal cultural guilt. Bennett's high-handed dismissal o v e r l o o k s the fact that travel to "other" countries opens up, at least potentially, an opportunity for considered self-reflection—it offers a chance, that is, to interrogate and negotiate, if not eliminate, b o t h the traveler's cultural prejudices and those o f the peoples he or she encounters. In her o w n contribution to the Guardian son, respected author o f Tracks

and Desert

Weekly Places

debate, D a v i d (see chap. 3),

recounts h o w she came to see herself as a cultural "invader." D a v i d son's confession falls, however, into some o f the usual traps. She endorses the m y t h that tourists are, by definition, people w h o "impose h o m e environments on a foreign p l a c e " — a s if, by implication, travel ers do not—but she does express some sympathy, that rare c o m m o d ity, for the tourist: "It's a bit m u c h to ask people w h o have three weeks holiday a year to spend it struggling with the confusions o f an alien place, or to put u p with discomforts when what they have earned is rest" (27). Is D a v i d s o n , with perverse magnanimity, doing herself out o f a j o b here? A p p a r e n t l y not, for the solution she offers to the tourist's quandary is the travel book: If literature was a compensation for the problems created by civilisa tion, then perhaps books provide us with a way out. Reading is like taking a journey. It's an entry into another world, another con sciousness. It can satisfy curiosity, educate, excite imagination. There are too many of us: there are too many books. Ergo, stay home and read (27). H o w e v e r frankly D a v i d s o n might disabuse herself o f some o f the recurrent myths o f travel—the one, for instance, that leads the lonely, enterprising,

hardship-enduring

pioneer to w a x self-righteous on

encountering signs o f others' invasions—she leaves herself at the end with the travel writer's standard escape clause: namely, she will c o n I'liS'l'SCIIII'T

201

tinue to travel and to produce further literary j o u r n e y s in order to sat isfy that most insatiable (and most convenient) o f consumers, the "armchair traveler." Ian Sansom, another contributor to the Guardian

Weekly

sympo

sium, produces a similarly double-edged review o f a recent a n t h o l o g y of travel fictions. Such travel stories, S a n s o m suggests, might be taken along as holiday reading, but then again "the mass-market middle b r o w paperback . . . is the modern vade mecum for a j o u r n e y " (28). S a n s o m ' s skepticism about travel targets the figure o f the traveler him self/herself, a figure w h o is always liable to return from trips arrogant and wasted. A t best, according to Sansom, travel is futile, unduly both ersome: Travel, etymologically, is identical with "travail"; they share a com mon root in the Latin trepaliare, meaning "to torture with a trepalium, a three-staked instrument of torture." There's no denying it, travel is a pain—you're better off staying at home, reading. (28) T o n g u e similarly in cheek, V e r o n i c a Horwell, also a reviewer for Guardian

Weekly,

acidly observes that " w e lost an empire and gained

T h e Traveller's B o o k s h o p " (28). Sansom, discounting the potential o f travel to diffuse (and also defuse?) the traveling subject, underlines the "terrible truth that con fronts any travel writer": " y o u can run but y o u can't hide; y o u can pre tend to be someone else, but y o u can't escape yourself; y o u m a y be m o v i n g through a landscape, but it's still y o u w h o ' s m o v i n g through it" (28). A n obvious but still interesting theorem, one that the travel b o o k s o f Paul T h e r o u x might confirm; and one that S a n s o m , as in his comments on travel as travail and pain, raises without inflection, with n o apparent connection to issues o f postcoloniality, postmodernity, or even "post-tourism" (Feifer). Sansom's theorem, nonetheless, usefully suggests the topos o f exhaustion.

There is literal exhaustion, o f course,

where the traveler runs out o f steam or the destination is c r o w d e d out. But an end-of-century and, especially, an end-of-millennium view is more likely to indicate less literal forms o f exhaustion, to point to the w a y s in which travel and travel writing participate in hypertextual exhaustions, where both subject and world are construed as postcolonial, postmodern, "posthistoric." Significantly, though, the

Guardian

Weekly writers cited above (with the possible exception o f Catherine Bennett) take care to reserve a last place for (ravel writing

and thus

for travel writers. Their collective advice is to slay home, because there .'ii,

1

TOUUINTS W l i n

1 1 1' 1 ivtllTt'RM

is nowhere left to g o , because travel is essentially futile, because "cor rect" people do not travel. B u t they then displace travel itself onto the travel b o o k , which apparently—or so they see it—offers a "purer" form o f journey. In this w a y they manage, in spite o f themselves, to reinstate some threadbare distinctions: between the traveler and the tourist, between both o f these and the travel writer. T r a v e l writing's value as c o m m o d i t y rises as that o f travel itself falls. Sallie Tisdale, whose personal perspective on pornography, Talk Dirty to Me: An Intimate Philosophy of Sex (1994), gained her some notoriety, has recently recommended that even travel writers are best off staying home. Tisdale's long piece in Harper's, " N e v e r Let the Locals See Y o u r M a p , " purports to be a review article covering eight travel b o o k s , but the article soon turns into a wide-ranging discussion o f travel writing that canvasses a number o f issues currently under debate. T h e article exhibits ambivalent attitudes. O n the one hand, Tis dale follows Evelyn W a u g h , Paul Fussell, and others in lamenting the exhausted possibility for "genuine" travel and the sad decline o f the travel b o o k : whereas "[t]ravcl b o o k s were [once] shiny with promise— informing and diverting in g o o d measure," now, in contrast, although "travel literature is b o o m i n g , " " g o o d travel writers are few and far between" (66). Since her travelers of promise turn out to include such household favorites as R o b e r t B y r o n and Eric N e w b y , Tisdale alerts us to the link between the notion o f exhaustion and the barely concealed motivation for a g o o d deal o f travel writing: nostalgia. D e c r y i n g a cult of personal idiosyncrasy in the travel writer, Tisdale decides that "[tjoday, true travel writing—the lyrical account o f an adventure marked b y curiosity and courage rather than showmanship—scarcely exists" (67). A s if neither B y r o n nor N e w b y enlists idiosyncrasy or showmanship in his narratives! It is w o r t h noting again (see the intro duction) that this type o f lament for "true" travel writing can be used to promote, rather than discourage, the circulation o f contemporary I ravel narratives. Tisdale falls short, however, o f simply endorsing Fussell, whose second major thesis is the necessity of distinguishing the "true" traveler from "the tourist. W h i l e she agrees that "a particular distinction between travel and tourism m a r k s modern travel writing," it is a fine distinction, and "all travel writers think they k n o w where it is—far from themselves" (67). One function the contemporary travel book serves, then, is lo flatter readers w h o "wish to separate [themselves] from the rabble," t o identify themselves as bona fide travelers, not vul-

gar tourists. In dismantling this distinction, Tisdale makes an inge nious move: she argues that the traveler's professed desire to " p a s s " is fundamentally dishonest, because he or she is also yearning to be noticed, to stand out: "Travelers dissociate themselves from tourists not because tourists are noticed but because they are not. . . . tourists are the least intrusive travelers o f all" (72). F o r Tisdale, it is not tourists w h o give offense but contemporary travel writers, w h o strive (seem ingly in panic) to purvey "authentic" experience. Travel narratives, Tisdale concludes, m a y well discourage not only tourists but also "purer" travelers. M a r r e d though her essay is b y its nostalgic appeal to a history of "true" travel, Tisdale's association o f exhaustion with the commodification o f the dream o f "authentic experience" needs to be taken seriously. It is hardly surprising, in this context, that a number o f recent travel b o o k s m a k e their pitch to the "traveler [who] g r o w s ever more desperate for pure experience, something authentic" (72); nor is it surprising that this ideal traveler is more likely to be a reader. 1

This quest for "authenticity" is, as will be clear b y now, curiously fraught. It seeks to engage further frontiers that are, by definition, exotic. These frontiers are at extremities: o f the map; of the Western, metropolitan world; o f historical regimes; o f fully grounded worldly experience. There is seldom any doubt, though, that the frontier is out there somewhere: as one writer puts it, " b e y o n d the last tollbooth on the last scrap o f potholed pavement at the very end o f the turnpike" (Millman 239). T h e frontier exists in the future, beckoning, enticing, seducing. Y e t it is also chimerical, vanishing, already extinguished as soon as reached (see discussion of the exotic travel zone in chapter 2). Tisdale formulates the c o n u n d r u m neatly: the traveler "wanders the b a c k roads, then writes his b o o k so that everyone will k n o w what mat ters most: not to be the first to see remote lands, but to be the last to see the land remote" (72). T h e traveler-writer attests to h a v i n g been there last, and to having turned out the lights on leaving. A l l the lights but one: the bedside lamp that allows the reader to a c c o m p a n y the author into the always-receding territory o f the exotic. W h i l e there is nothing intrinsically harmful in the transactions between traveler, writer, and reader that satisfy individual fantasies o f discovery, exploration, and exotic experience, the relationship o f such fantasies to collective geo political practices o f control, exploitation, and subjugation is problem atic at best. 2

T h e end-ol'-millennium commentary just examined illustrates the dilemma. This commentary, offered through n series of book reviews UU\

TUl.1 H I N T S W i l l i

I V I ' l i W I U I'l'lHSI

and articles, m a k e s clear that it is the genre itself, rather than the w o r k of any individual writer, that is at stake. F o r , as Tisdale says, travel writing has proliferated as "travel has b u r g e o n e d " within a global, media-driven e c o n o m y (72); as the genre has " b e c o m e . . . a w a y o f life, a w a y o f seeing the w o r l d " (67); and as it has begun to formulate its protocols, to shape a c a n o n for itself. N o d o u b t Paul FusselPs study Abroad has been instrumental in suggesting not only criteria for a seri ous c a n o n but also individual " l a n d m a r k " w o r k s . Evidence of a travelwriting canon, and o f its importance to the marketing o f travel b o o k s as both supplementary to and an alternative form o f travel, can be seen in the recent establishment o f the " P i c a d o r Travel Classics." This is a series that partly announces the classic status—the c a n o n i c i t y — o f its volumes through their hardback covers, their introductions, and their numbering—they are intended to form a library. This canonizing impulse is foreshadowed in Ian Pearson's article in Destinations, the travel section o f the T o r o n t o Globe and Mail ( N o v e m b e r 1992): " A r o u n d the W o r l d in 6,000 Pages. A G u i d e to the Ultimate in A r m chair Journeys." Pearson is unsure whether classic travel writing is literary privilege or salvage mission, its primary function being to "pre serve" the "truly great j o u r n e y s " in b o o k s , even while the "serendipi tous adventure is b e c o m i n g harder and harder to achieve as the jugger naut o f massive tourism levels the planet" (15). But whether they are mandarins o f a superior order or merely last-ditch rescuers, the mainly British, p o s t w a r " c l u b " members all find themselves represented: Byron, Leigh F e r m o r , Lewis, Thesiger, N e w b y , O ' H a n l o n , R a b a n , T h e r o u x , C h a t w i n — a n d one w o m a n , D e r v l a M u r p h y . Literary cre dentials are strengthened b y the inclusion o f such older w o r k s as Kinglake's Eothen (1844), T w a i n ' s The Innocents Abroad (1869), and Stevenson's Travels with a Donkey (1879). Pearson leaves the reader in little d o u b t that travel writing is a consolidated genre, with its acknowledged classics--its founding monuments—and its rapidly expanding membership; and that it has achieved respectability as a (Western) cultural product by m o v i n g off the beaten paths o f travel into the rarefied sphere of " h i g h " literature. Henceforth or so the for mula* runs—every ambitious travel narrative will have to situate itself 111 relation to its literary precusors even before it gets to the starting line. T h e tacit message here is that travel is a primarily textual activity; and that in an age o f depletion and exhaustion, writing is "better" then 3

4

i'Hpei"icncc.

T o publish, or rcliosptxlivuly place, an individual writer's book I'ONTJK'IUN

40
within a named series already gestures toward the canonical by pro claiming the w o r k ' s affiliation with a supposedly identifiable, and already validated, g r o u p . (The Picador Classics imprint assumes both the patent existence o f the "travel classic" and the purchaser's auto matic assent to the v o l u m e s ' "classic" status.) S o m e readers o f travel ogues might be predisposed to favor certain imprints or series, k n o w ing, like seasoned travelers perhaps, what kind o f thing they want. T h e dust jackets and back covers o f travel b o o k s are also witness to the process and function o f c a n o n formation. Y o u can see the " c l u b " at w o r k as established authors write blurbs congratulating one another, or signaling a probationary acceptance for lesser-known writers. O n e of these latter might be hailed as a "true successor" to R e d m o n d O ' H a n l o n , another as a "stylish descendant" o f R o b e r t B y r o n , a third as an "eagle-eyed observer" o f the absurd, like Paul T h e r o u x . T h e blurb industry, an indispensable agent in m o v i n g b o o k s off the store table and into consumers' hands, always risks discrediting itself; after all, some readers are more likely to see blurbs as revealing, not the can did opinions o f experts, but the interested gestures, insider friendships, and mutual puffery o f a handful o f card-carrying club m e m b e r s . A t this point, prestigious literary prizes (like the T h o m a s C o o k A w a r d ) become useful supports, supplying the travel-writing business with a regulated set o f "impartial" endorsements. A s with other elements in the travel-writing infrastructure, such prizes validate not only the sin gle, notable instance but the genre as a whole, which emerges worthily as a stable yet expanding entity. 5

6

The expansion o f travel writing as genre, particularly in the cities for urban audiences, arguably serves to counteract the discourse o f exhaustion. T h e travel sections o f major newspapers, as well as jour nals like Granta and Conde Nast, w o r k continuously to recuperate and reinvigorate travel in a format that blurs the distinction between activ ity and text and (even when it seems to invoke it) between traveler and tourist. These travel sections offer practical instruction for those w h o seek to be "active"; responding to inquiries about equipment for "tramping" N e w Z e a l a n d wildernesses or a b o u t the cheapest w a y to Tibet, they rehearse the travelogue in personal profiles o f particular places or, playing up the travel-as-literature angle, they include brief reviews o f travel b o o k s . A quick survey of the substantial " T r a v e l B o o k s " column in the " T r a v e l " section o f the Toronto Globe and Mail over a period o f some weeks in ii)()(S c o n f i r m s that travel c a n be m a r keted a s replenishment and i n n o v a t i o n , whether in I'uidcbonks, travel

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TiMlHIS'l N W I T H

I YIM'.WHITI'.MS

narratives, or anthologies o f shorter travel accounts. L a s z l o Buhasz, for example, recommends Jim Haynes's People to People "guides to eastern E u r o p e a n countries," which are "directories o f people . . . w h o speak English or another western European language, are from profes sions ranging from medicine to engineering, and w h o are willing to house, guide or help visitors to their countries"; H a y n e s , effuses Buhasz, "is trying to transform tourists into travellers. G o o d for h i m " (August 14,1996). B u h a s z also notes that Arthur Frommer's New World of Travel "deals with a rapidly g r o w i n g demand for alternative ideas by spirited, intellectually curious travellers tired o f mass-produced v a c a tion p a c k a g e s , " and quotes from F r o m m e r ' s preface: "After 30 years of writing standard travel guide b o o k s , I began to see that most o f the vacation journeys undertaken by A m e r i c a n s were trivial and bland, devoid o f important content, cheaply commercial, and u n w o r t h y o f our better instincts and ideals" ( M a r c h 23, 1996). A n t h o l o g i e s , too, seek to recuperate and reinvigorate travel. B u h a s z c o m m e n d s the Trav elers' Tales series (edited b y James O ' R e i l l y and L a r r y H a b e g g e r ) for their "articulate explanation o f the difference between travel guides and travel literature," a difference apparently m a r k e d b y the latter's emphasis on experience and story. A c c o r d i n g to O ' R e i l l y and H a b e g ger, travelers need to be prepared, "with feelings and fears, hopes and dreams, goals. . . . N o t h i n g can replace listening to the experience o f others, to the w a r stories that come out after a few drinks, to the mem ories that linger and beguile" (February 10, 1996). T h e Travelers' Tales editors clearly throw their pitch to those w h o plan to use travel texts as an overture to travel, as a preparation for the real thing. A s suggested throughout this study, neither travel itself nor the travel b o o k exists in isolation; in the symbiosis between them, it is less a matter o f seeing one as "superior" than o f seeing each as a supple ment to the other: the travel account as a c o m p a n i o n to actual travel, the travel itinerary as supplementary to its texts. Eric K o r n . in a recent TLS article, suggests that supplementarity can take positions o f "before." "after," and "instead": went to Marrakech because I read The Alleys of Marrakech; I went to Cannery Row because I read Cannery Row. . . . On the other hand I returned from Haiti late in Papa Doc's time, read The Comedians and discovered . . . just where I'd been, who had been sitting in my chair, sleeping in my bed, floating in my swimming-pool. In retro spect (the best way to enjoy abroad), a deeper tint of danger coloured my rather placid trip. . . . On the third hand, 1 didn't go to Borneo I ' O N T N t H 11' I

207

. . . a n d h a v e given the Y a n o m a m i a wide berth, because I read R e d m o n d O ' H a n l o n . (36)

V a r i o u s mechanisms continue to enforce a distinction between actual, degraded, "post-touristic" travel and "purer" forms o f travel, not o f course as a means o f actively discouraging travel, but rather o f replenishing it b y appealing to untainted motivations and higher ideals. T h e material continuity between higher and lower forms o f travel is evident in most bookstores, where the shelves filled with travel guides are adjacent to those, almost as many, carrying travelogues. The L o n e l y Planet imprint, a m o n g others, has begun to exploit this overlap by establishing a sister series, L o n e l y Planet Journeys, which converts the raw material o f travel guides into more "literary" travel accounts. This travelogue series, like its g u i d e b o o k counterpart, is clearly aimed at the lifestyle and mindset o f self-styled "offbeat" trav elers and "irreverent" backpackers. T h e following summary, for instance, is taken from the cover o f the first in the series, Sean C o n don's Sean and David's Long Drive (1996): S e a n C o n d o n is y o u n g , u r b a n a n d a c o n n o i s s e u r o f h a i r - w a x . H e can't drive, a n d he doesn't really travel well. S o w h e n S e a n a n d his f r i e n d set o u t t o e x p l o r e A u s t r a l i a i n a d u c k e g g b l u e 1966 F o r d F a l c o n , t h e r e s u l t is a d e c i d e d l y o f f b e a t l o o k a t l i f e o n t h e r o a d . O v e r 14,000 d e a t h - d e f y i n g k i l o m e t e r s , o u r h e r o e s c h e c k o u t t h e re-runs o n T V , get f a b u l o u s l y d r u n k , listen t o N e i l Y o u n g a n d w o n d e r w h y t h e y ever left h o m e . Sean and David's

Long Drive m i x e s s h a r p i n s i g h t s w i t h d e a d p a n

h u m o u r a n d o u t r i g h t lies. C r a n k it u p a n d r e a d i t o u t l o u d .

A n o t h e r in the series, A n n i e Caulfield's Kingdom of the Film Stars (1997), takes the reader (according to a brief newspaper notice) "through a jolly r o m p through contemporary Jordan. A s y o u ' d expect from a long-time television comedy-script writer . . . , Caullield always sees the funny side o f things. A n d there's plenty to laugh at: struggling with her toilette in the middle o f the Jordanian desert, dealing with the ' M a r l b o r o B o y s ' and their horses at the foot o f the ruins at Petra." Aficionados o f the popular L o n e l y Planet " T r a v e l Survival K i t " series will be familiar with the travelogues' jocular, wryly self-ingratiating tone. But the publishers also acknowledge a more significant point, namely that the transparent "fictions" o f travelogues are closely inter twined with the g u i d e b o o k ' s hard "Tacts." '('heir spaces overlap; you can stay home with the Lonely Planet " A u s t r a l i a " kit or you can "over-

itoH

' l o n k r 1 ' . w r i •• 1 VIM V, I;I I i\m

l a n d " with Sean and D a v i d — b o t h b o o k s serve as facilitators o f the actual process o f travel while locating the traveler fair and within a set o f (Western) travel m y t h s .

square

7

Clearly, the culture and media industries are continuing to m o b i lize travel in its widest sense, b o t h activating and responding to main stream,

overwhelmingly metropolitan

avidity to

experience—or,

rather, purchase—the greatest range o f g l o b a l commodities. A m o n g those commodities are, o f course, the ideologies and collective fan tasies o f the West, in particular A m e r i c a , Britain, the white diaspora in C a n a d a , Australia, N e w Z e a l a n d , and South Africa, parts o f E u r o p e and, increasingly—though in a different form—the countries o f the Pacific R i m . A s the millennium approaches, the fetishizing o f the m o m e n t in terms o f "end o f and " d a w n of," o f (pessimistic) a p o c a lypticism and (optimistic) global progress, is ubiquitous. Some travel writing, particularly the strand that crosses over into political journal ism, seems well attuned to geopolitical hysteria, the obverse o f global optimism. T h e w o r k o f the A m e r i c a n writer R o b e r t D . K a p l a n — Balkan

Ghosts

(1993), " T h e C o m i n g A n a r c h y " (1994), and,

most

recently, The Ends of the Earth: A Journey at the Dawn of the 20th Cen tury (1996)—is w o r t h considering at some length here because o f the eagerness with which m a n y readers have embraced his vision o f the Balkans and the Third W o r l d . A blurb for the paperback edition acclaims The Ends of the Earth as " a terrifying j o u r n e y around w h a t is both the rim and the center o f the w o r l d , " a j o u r n e y that "describes, in haunting detail, the abyss on which so m u c h o f the world teeters." Where K a p l a n ' s B a l k a n chronicle had specified a local instance o f breakdown, and his Atlantic

Monthly

article had generalized the ter

rain and deepened the despair, the last item in his trilogy fits in some where between, with the j o u r n e y m o v i n g from Africa through Central Asia and ending up in the Indian subcontinent and Indochina, and with K a p l a n attempting to balance a sense o f the abyss with tentative hope. Overall though, K a p l a n ' s w o r k evokes " T h e Second C o m i n g " in ils remorseless apocalyptic g l o o m , and it seems likely that the title o f his article " T h e C o m i n g A n a r c h y " was intended to stir an echo o f Y e a r ' s famously doom-laden poem. K a p l a n himself labels The Ends of the Earth a "travel b o o k , " "a prcmodern general!st's book that mixes history a n d other subjects in with travel," a n d is written "in the style o f John Gunther, not P a u l T h e r o u x " (preface, n.p.). Using G u n t h e r and T h e r o u x to represent opposing extremes o f the liavcl book s e e m s a I first to b e a useful m o v e : |M >•, 1

: 1 111 (• 1

1

.11

Gunther's "Inside..." series establishes these "insides" through an accu mulation o f facts and statistics, largely erasing any sense o f a traveling, perceiving subject, whereas T h e r o u x foregrounds a subject w h o consti tutes place precisely through his unstable "outsider" presence. But the distinction is hardly that simple, and K a p l a n ' s narrative, far from lock ing on factual details, floats between alternative means o f recording and registering cultural difference. A t one point, K a p l a n claims that, to opti mize knowledge o f the "other," the traveler should g o on foot: In a n air-conditioned medium

four-wheel-drive T o y o t a L a n d

through which

senior diplomats

Cruiser—the

a n d top Western

relief

officials o f t e n e n c o u n t e r A f r i c a — s u s p e n d e d h i g h a b o v e the r o a d a n d l o o k i n g o u t t h r o u g h closed w i n d o w s , y o u r forehead a n d u n d e r a r m s comfortably dry, y o u m a y learn something about Africa. Traveling in a c r o w d e d p u b l i c b u s , flesh p r e s s e d u p o n w e t , s o u r flesh, y o u l e a r n m o r e ; a n d in a " b u s h t a x i , " o r " m a m m y w a g o n , " w h e r e there are n o t e v e n w i n d o w s , y o u l e a r n e v e n m o r e s t i l l . B u t i t is o n f o o t t h a t y o u learn t h e m o s t . Y o u a r e o n t h e g r o u n d , o n t h e s a m e level

with

Africans rather than looking d o w n at them. Y o u aren o longer pro tected b y speed o r air-conditioning

o r t h i c k glass. T h e s w e a t p o u r s

f r o m y o u , a n d y o u r s h i r t s t i c k s t o y o u r b o d y . T h i s is h o w y o u l e a r n . (25)

K a p l a n ' s apparent aim is to m o v e through Africa on the level, present ing a sequence o f experiential encounters whose "authenticity" is guar anteed by the rejection o f insulating media (speed, w i n d o w s , air condi tioning, etc.). Y e t this smacks (as it so often does in this type o f narrative) o f disingenuousness; as a seasoned A m e r i c a n journalist m o v i n g freely on the international circuit, K a p l a n frequently capital izes on reliable and expensive transport, on comfortable, protected lodging and, especially, on the kind o f personal contacts only available to the privileged Westerner. In spite o f distancing himself from the kind o f self-absorbed travel associated with T h e r o u x , K a p l a n , in his account, m a k e s use o f several similar materials and techniques. F o r example, like T h e r o u x , K a p l a n w o r k s u p the personal encounter or interview. W h e n a m a n approaches him on the road, inviting recognition, K a p l a n has to think hard before he recalls having met him the previous day. K a p l a n remembers that the man, seeing him without change, had offered to pay for his C o k e : " T h o u g h I had thanked him profusely only yester day, today he was at first glance just another black face, another o f my statistics" (26). IIore, however, a major d i f f e r e n c e between T h e r o u x in

M i n i a t i s w i 111 i v I T w M T l i t k

and K a p l a n emerges, for where the former w o u l d likely disarm the episode of sentimental potential, the latter m a k e s it stand, somewhat improbably, for universal prospects: " T o see individuals, I realized, was to see possibilities and, thus, m o r e hopeful scenarios" (26). K a p l a n also shares with T h e r o u x — a n d with a great m a n y other contemporary travel writers—an impulse to keep (inter)textual layers between himself and w h a t he is reporting. K a p l a n ' s citations range from C . P. C a v a f y to the L o n e l y Planet series, from T h o m a s M a l t h u s to T h o m a s M a n n , from Joseph C o n r a d to Barry L o p e z , from R i c h a r d 8

Burton to Bruce C h a t w i n . It seems as if K a p l a n has less confidence in what observation and interaction can achieve than his comments about traveling on foot might suggest. H e confesses, at any rate, that he "read a l o t " in preparation for his various tours (95). A n d then, sur prisingly, he enlists such reading to distance himself from tourists: "In an age o f mass tourism, adventure becomes increasingly an inner mat ter, where reading can transport y o u to places that others only a few feet a w a y will never see" (96). It also suggests the achievement o f an existential authenticity: " T h e more I read about a place and about issues that affect it, the more I feel I a m traveling a l o n e " (95). While K a p l a n ' s dense allusiveness and cultivated sensitivity align his travel with T h e r o u x ' s , his anxiety to assign causes to the various regional malaises he witnesses links his w o r k more closely with G u n ther's.

9

Here, encounter narrative yields to data and written history.

But neither o f these can satisfy K a p l a n ' s relentless search for causes, and his narrative returns addictively to—-largely undeveloped—gen eral theories. Africa is trapped in atavism ( K a p l a n entitles the section, " B a c k to the D a w n ? " ) and enervation. " N a t u r e , " K a p l a n observes, "appeared far too prolific in this heat, and m u c h o f w h a t she created spoiled q u i c k l y " (19). Africa is a place o f "passivity, fatalistic and defeated" (24), racked by overpopulation and disease, and lost in a kind o f "premodern formlessness" (45). Even climate and geography point to violence and atrophy: " W h e n you read the history of Sierra Leone y o u cannot help but realize h o w m u c h the past was decreed by geography and climate" (48). T h e travel account swerves into disaster journalism. " C a u s e s " become t o o "natural" ( " b l o o d , " "heat," "tribal ism," "the forest") or too pseudoscientific (overpopulation, disease, boundary problems) lo engage. Such "causes" w o r k against the pro duction

of

useful

analysis.

The

constant

deployment

of

vivid

metaphor, in which such nulural phenomena as seeds, eruptions, and conllagiations pioduce cultural effects, occludes both historical terms

M • I '.I llll' I

II

and the consideration o f economics and politics: those o f the states and territories themselves, and those o f powerful international interests and institutions. In "explaining" w h a t he sees in the Third W o r l d , K a p l a n returns obsessively to a key formula. " G e o g r a p h y is destiny" (130) is not only K a p l a n ' s personal m o t t o ; it is also a kind o f shorthand for Western traveler-observers w h o s e accounts o f the countries through w h i c h they m o v e substitute easy myths for hard analysis. K a p l a n ' s speculations a b o u t Iran in The Ends of the Earth are symptomatic: [ W ] e r e m o r e o f I r a n — r a t h e r t h a n j u s t its n o r t h a n d n o r t h w e s t b o r d e r p r o v i n c e s — g r a c e d b y t h e moist a n dm o d e r a t i n g influences o ft h e Caspian, then perhaps the history a n d character o f the Iranian people w o u l d h a v e b e e n v e r y different, a n d t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f a n air p l a n e c a b i n i n t o a v e r i t a b l e m o s q u e w o u l d n e v e r h a v e o c c u r r e d . (176)

But g e o g r a p h y ' s edicts are complicated by other universalizing struc tures, which lead K a p l a n in turn to a number o f portentous statements and questions: " T h e story o f man is the story o f n o m a d i s m " (130); "rural poverty is age-old and consistent with an ever-turning planet" (107); and, most egregiously perhaps, "the condition o f a country's public toilets—or the lack o f them—says something about its progress t o w a r d civil society" (274)! O n the other hand, as K a p l a n admits, " N o one can foresee the precise direction o f history, and n o nation and peo ple is safe from its w r a t h " (438). H a r m o n i z i n g such a c a c o p h o n y o f explanation is n o easy matter. W h a t is the relation between the human "story o f n o m a d i s m " and "progress t o w a r d civil society"? H o w can w e protect "a country's public toilets" from the wrathful j u d g m e n t o f an implacable history? In F r e e t o w n , K a p l a n says, "I wished I had been younger and more naive, and that I w a s not addicted to political analy sis" (43). Y e t it is precisely firm political analysis, from any perspective, that seems to be missing, as K a p l a n ' s text repeatedly entraps itself in a kind o f apocalyptic banality: T h e e n d was nigh in the failed battle, f o u g h t valiantly b y the liberal W e s t , t o equalize cultures a r o u n d the w o r l d . T h e differences between s o m e cultures a n d others (regarding the ability t o p r o d u c e exportable material wealth) appeared to be growing rather than

diminishing.

(54) Platitudes like these render statements such as " A f r i c a . . . has to be confronted" (25) opaque to the point o f futility. K a p l a n ' s title phrase, "the ends o f the earth," is oddly anachronisI'OUIttSl

w i 1 11 1 s H ' W K I T H K S

tic, belying the awareness he otherwise shows o f global shrinkage; while the subtitle, " a j o u r n e y at the d a w n o f the 21st century," hints at an exploration o f newness that flies in the face o f the text's tired stereo types and despair at the possibility o f prediction. K a p l a n ' s stated aim is to " m a p the future, perhaps the 'deep future,' by ignoring w h a t was legally and officially there and, instead, touching, feeling, and smelling w h a t was really there" (6); but his conclusion is that "the effect o f cul ture was more o f a mystery to me near the end o f m y planetary journey than at the beginning" (425). K a p l a n ' s j o u r n e y o f political travel ends in all kinds o f exhaustion: the exhaustion o f the traveler, o f the terrains and cultures he has traversed, o f the textual effects o f travel—and, per haps, o f the reader. Such a journey might perhaps more accurately be described as a "midnight" (of the twentieth century) than as a " d a w n " (of the twenty-first). 10

T h e p r o g r a m m e d travel account, insofar as it fulfills a d o c u m e n tary function, offers to interrogate contemporary global issues in a variety o f contexts: economic, geographical, historical, sociological. It undertakes its p r o g r a m via a mixed route o f travel experience, onsite reportage, and wide-ranging textual reference. A tall order; and it is perhaps unfair to pass harsh j u d g m e n t on K a p l a n ' s b o o k , probably the most ambitious and broadly defined o f a clutch o f popular "political" travelogues sparked by the end o f the C o l d W a r , the dissolution o f the U . S . S . R . , a g r o w i n g fear o f the Islamic East, and the end o f the twen tieth century. T h e Western commentators iji these accounts most fre quently find their encounters confirming ideological biases and prescripted knowledge, and many o f them find it hard to negotiate the spaces between w h a t K a p l a n calls T h e r o u x - and Gunther-type travel. It might well seem from K a p l a n ' s nostalgic cultural reverence, his sense of depletion and failure, and his declarations o f futile guilt, that a sacrificial rhetoric o f exhaustion has overtaken contemporary travel writing, particularly the kind o f travel writing that purports to offer political analysis (see discussion o f N a i p a u l ' s w o r k in chap. 2). B u t need this be so? Peter R o b b ' s Midnight in Sicily (1996), a study o f southern Italian M a f i a culture, offers an alternative model, demon strating that the travel b o o k ' s generic flexibility and hybrid status can be turned to positive effect in contemporary, disaster-tilted documen tary writing. T h e Australian R o b b , w h o lived in southern Italy for fourteen years from 1978 onward, returned to Sicily in 1995 as the Andreotti trial began. R o b b reports a friend's concerns about the possibility o f i'i'-.

1 ;< • i n n

. 0 1

his writing a b o u t Sicily and the Mafia: that he w o u l d have to trivialize contexts, events, and characters; that he w o u l d end up, in short, b y turning it all into travel writing. This skeptical friend, the Sicilian C l a r a , tells o f an Italo-American w o m a n , w h o had come to T r a p a n i (in Sicily) some years before to find out more a b o u t her family. This w o m a n had enlisted C l a r a ' s help through letters o f introduction; but as it turned out, she w a s also preparing a travel b o o k . W h e n the b o o k w a s eventually published, C l a r a discovered to her horror that her local restaurant featured in it as a prime tourist site: Ten days ago [Clara explains to Robb], 1 got a phone call from a travel agent in Palermo. He had a coachload of American ladies and they all wanted to come and eat at Clara's restaurant. 1 told him it was closed and he said they were coming anyway. They wanted to see me. (247) But as C l a r a acknowledges, " y o u wouldn't be writing anything like that, after all" (247); and it is certainly true that R o b b is no Peter Mayle, sell ing a romance o f Mediterranean peasant life (and gourmet cooking) to hundreds o f thousands o f eager A n g l o - A m e r i c a n consumers. Midnight

in Sicily is a subtly written and allusively layered travel

b o o k . R o b b frames each o f its twelve chapters with episodes such as visiting a market or a restaurant, catching a bus to some destination, interviewing a political or artistic figure. Several o f these episodes derive from the earlier years he spent in Sicily. Political commentary, as well as historical narrative, unfolds from local specificity, with dis cussions o f regional cuisine (say, the ice cream o f the M e z z o g i o r n o ) opening out into accounts o f Mafia revenge killings. T h e b o o k is alive with movement, from w a l k s through city streets and assorted local car, bus, and ferry rides, to the narrative oscillations between g e o g r a p h y and history, aesthetic commentary and urban practice, political analy sis and dramatically reconstructed scenes. T h e effect is at first immedi ate and artless but, on reflection, heavily mediated, with the sense o f careful patterning o f a densely w o v e n tapestry. T h e various transitions, from apparently "free" experiential narratives to more structured his tories and commentaries, attune the practice o f reading to the recogni tion o f travel as a process close to that o f negotiating between disparate orders o f life and k n o w l e d g e . " Robb's

specific narrative

investigations

into

the

notorious

Andreotti Kiss, the assassinations o f the prosecutors Borsellino and Falcone, the kidnapping and killing o f A k l o M o m , and a host o f vio-

l O U R I S T . S W l ' l II I V I ' l . W H I l I ' H S

lent M a f i a murders—gain in complexity and, paradoxically, credibility as they are balanced against other literary accounts: most notably, the Sicilian novelist Sciascia's. L a m p e d u s a ' s The Leopard

(1957) also

receives careful attention, and other key artists, including Eugenio M o n t a l e , Pasolini, R e n a t o G u t t u s o , Letizia Battaglia, and L i n a W e r t muller, heighten the nuanced sense o f a rich, fraught culture o f exploitation and intimidation. R o b b ' s figuring o f the midnight at which the b o o k begins and ends is another heightening device; but it is one that, in spite o f its melodramatic symbolism, does not act to reduce the cultural specificity o f Sicily's politics o f violence b y naturalizing it or assimilating it to some overarching "universal" theory. T h u s , although R o b b quotes Sciascia as having declared that "Sicily is a metaphor for the modern w o r l d " (314), he at no point balloons it out into a "cause," instance, or explanation o f a millennially exhausted w o r l d — a s K a p l a n might well have done. But

R o b b ' s travel b o o k has more u p its sleeve than an informed

commentary on the Mafia crisis in postwar Italy. This surplus is c o n nected with Tisdale's gloss (in her previously mentioned essay on travel writing) on Isherwood's remark that "the ideal travel b o o k should be perhaps like a crime story in which y o u ' r e in search o f something" (qtd. in Tisdale 71). Tisdale adds her o w n observation: Part of a search is momentum, and not knowing where you might end up. In the best travel books, the narrator is looking: for a person, a building, a view, a rare bird, a certain truth, (gi) In this case, R o b b is retracing Sciascia's (the midcentury novelist's) footsteps. Sciascia lived in R a c a l m u t o , a quiet mining t o w n — a n d Mafia stronghold. R o b b takes a bus to the town, which occupies t w o sides o f a hill l o o k i n g seaward and inland; on this particular afternoon, the t o w n is bleak on both its slopes, "closed and shuttered" with doors "tight shut" and "sightless streets." T h e atmosphere is one o f contain ment, augmented by a somber funeral procession. R o b b seeks a town center and a hotel, but ends up finding neither. Instead, the town offers only a vista o f sheep-tracked slopes and lifeless streets. T h e visitor speculates that these horizontal streets weren't in fact parallels, like altitude lines on a map but a single spiral, one immensely long street winding through I he deserted town from top to bottom, like the thread in a screw. Then in the shadows I saw another hearse, another glimpse of pol ished mahogany, d r a g g i n g me up and down the narrow parallels or

I'ON T S C I U I ' T

JIIS

w i n d i n g r o u n d a n d r o u n d R a c a l m u t o o n its w a y t o t h e g r a v e y a r d .

(278) The description seems to have both writer and reader trapped in a kind of mise en abyme; but, as R o b b suggests, Sciascia was already familiar with this territory, and it is less that the earlier writer had created this seemingly postmodern m o m e n t than that the " t o w n embodied the hid den secrets and the vertiginous symmetries or asymmetries in the archi tecture o f Sciascia's labyrinthine stories" (280). Sciascia, in turn, " o w e d to his master Borges that sense o f an annihilating metaphysics hidden in experience" (280); and before them b o t h c o m e the mazes and winding, redoubled narratives o f The Thousand and One Nights. R o b b m a k e s the case, if indirectly, that certain literary tropes and techniques situate the writing o f southern Italy within the ambience o f E u r o p e a n postmodernism, with its pastiche o f actions and agents replacing "confidently realistic fiction" (280). Y e t he ultimately finds "something pinched and limited in the solutions [Borges and Sciascia] found, a withering o f promise" (282). R o b b shows here h o w some con ventions of contemporary, postmodern travel writing (discontinuous narrative, allusiveness, free allegory; see chap. 4) can be used to pro duce a defined rendering of culture, rather than—as is more usually the case—freeing the material from such "historical" portraits. If R o b b corresponds to a type o f Tisdale's searching traveler-writer, he leaves the reader feeling that he has found at least part o f what he sought. A t the same time, R o b b ' s travel b o o k suggests possibilities for the replen ishment o f the genre through an intuitive, informed use o f some o f its most traditional elements: the quest to become an insider without resorting to appropriative arrogance; the deployment o f a firm yet flexible repertoire o f cultural knowledge; the practice o f a lively and nuanced narrative art. Such resources are still available, and their adoption holds more promise than the tactic, more c o m m o n l y prac ticed, o f falling back on forms o f generic imitation (see chap. 2). A t the millennium, the travel writer occupies a compromised, ambivalent position. O n the one hand, as w e have seen, he or she is likely to be dismissed as a pulp producer, a p a w n of crass industry pres sures, an overexuberant performer, even a liar: as a participant, in short, in what Jonathan R a b a n has m e m o r a b l y called "a notoriously raffish house where very different genres are likely to end up in the same bed . . . literature's red-light district" (qtd. in B o u r k e 46). R a b a n ,

.•!<>

i m i H l N T N WliH I VPIfWRlTItl

who has declared that he "absolutely detestfs] the term 'travel writer,'" recites a familiar catalogue o f the genre's stock-in-trade types: t h e c l a s s i c y o u n g p e r s o n ' s t r a v e l b o o k , w h i c h is b a s i c a l l y d e s c e n d e d f r o m the picaresque n o v e l ; the adventures o f a rolling stone in foreign territory; fiction

t h e political j o u r n e y ; social history;

some very

explicit

w r i t i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y W a u g h , G r e e n e a n d R o b e r t B y r o n ' s The

Road to Oxiana; l a n d s c a p e w r i t i n g , w h i c h is a l m o s t t h e v e r b a l e q u i v alent o flandscape painting; a n d the travel b o o k w h i c h belongs i n the genre o f memoir. ( Q t d . inB o u r k e 46)

Y e t R a b a n , a leading practitioner, still very m u c h believes in the travel book, distinguishing between the type o f b o o k that is little more than an assemblage o f fragments, a promiscuous mixture, and the one that subtly modulates between different literary registers and cultural resources. R a b a n clearly k n o w s w h a t he believes to be a "superior" travel b o o k ; b u t neither he nor anyone else c a n provide a prescrip tion- -a formula for it. Millennial thinking is, b y definition, a form o f closure; it radically domesticates time and space b y turning them into ghosts in the house. Travel, at least potentially, opens u p a world o f estrangement: one in which the w o r k — t h e travail—of travel is to engage with others pro ductively, to produce a site or number o f sites that resist uniformity, and that gesture instead t o difference, "otherness," and a diversity o f (cross-)cultural forms. This study has suggested that travel and travel writing are flourishing, and will continue tc* flourish b e y o n d the mil lennium. S o m e o f the reasons for this are only t o o apparent. It is cer tainly true that selling travel is one o f the things that helps to sell travel b o o k s , a n d that these sales p a y literal tribute to all the cliches o f the moment: a shrinking world, " g l o b a l culture," the containment o f cul tural difference through the processes o f commodification. Y e t it is also true that the travel b o o k , through its negotiation o f time, space, and culture, continues to engage large numbers and several different kinds o f readers. There is every reason to invite the travel b o o k to reex amine its biases, to realign the boundaries within which travel risks being reified and paradoxically immobilized as a discursive category. There is no reason, though, t o announce an obituary on travel or, w h a t would be just as premature, to decree travel writing's end.

I'liNTNClNMM

."i

7

NOTES

I N T R O D U C T I O N 1. P r i v a t e c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h M a r t i n R o b e r t s , 1996: w i t h t h a n k s . 2. T r a v e l w r i t i n g is, o f c o u r s e , a p r i m a r y v e h i c l e f o r t h e e x o t i c i n s o f a r as it registers a p p r e c i a t i o n o f — s o m e t i m e s r e v u l s i o n f o r — p e o p l e s a n d c u l t u r e s c o n s i d e r e d " d i f f e r e n t " o r " r e m o t e . " T h e e x o t i c i s t o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r a l " o t h e r " is a s t a p l e o f t r a v e l w r i t i n g , as is t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f " o t h e r " c u l t u r e s i n t o a m e d i a friendly spectacle. V i c t o r Segalen's definition o f e x o t i c i s m as t h e "aesthetics o f d i v e r s i t y " is w e l l s u i t e d t o a g e n r e t h a t f r e q u e n t l y d e p o l i t i c i z e s ( a n d / o r d e h i s t o r i c i z e s ) t h e o b j e c t s o f its s t u d y , a n d t h a t s e e k s t o c a p i t a l i z e o n a e s t h e t i c i z e d m y t h s o f cultural difference. A s a n exoticist m o d e , E u r o - A m e r i c a n travel w r i t i n g risks being seen a s t a c i t l y i m p e r i a l i s t : see, f o r e x a m p l e , A r a c a n d R i t v o ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f e x o t i c i s m as " t h e a e s t h e t i c i z i n g m e a n s b y w h i c h t h e p a i n o f [ i m p e r i a l ] e x p a n s i o n is c o n verted t o spectacle, t o culture i n the service o f e m p i r e " (3). F o r f u r t h e r discussion o f t h e e x o t i c i s t p r o j e c t i n i t s h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , see B o n g i e , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o Rousseau and Porter, and Todorov. 3. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , E r i c N e w b y ' s a n d R e d m o n d O ' H a n l o n ' s s e l f - m o c k i n g a t t e m p t s t o p a s s t h e m s e l v e s o f f as n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y t r a v e l e r s ( c h a p . 1), o r t h e u b i q u i t o u s distaste f o r tourists s h o w n in the worjk of, a m o n g m a n y others, P a u l T h e r o u x ( c h a p . 2). T h e r h e t o r i c o f n o s t a l g i a o f t e n a c c o m p a n i e s s u c h d i s t i n c t i o n s a nostalgia o n w h i c h , ironically, the m o d e r n tourist industry depends. See here Culler's essay " T h e Semiotics o f T o u r i s m " ; P r o w ' s " T o u r i s m a n d the Semiotics o f N o s t a l g i a " ; M a c C a n n e l l ' s The Tourist; K r o t z ' s less a n a l y t i c a l Tourists; a n d B u z a r d , e s p . c h a p s . 1 a n d 2. A s C u l l e r s a y s , " [ F ] e r o c i o u s d e n i g r a t i o n o f t o u r i s m is in p a r t a n a t t e m p t t o c o n v i n c e o n e s e l f t h a t o n e is n o t a t o u r i s t . . . . T h e d e s i r e t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t o u r i s t s a n d r e a l t r a v e l e r s is a p a r t o f t o u r i s m — i n t e g r a l t o it r a t h e r t h a n o u t s i d e it o r b e y o n d i t " (156). T r a v e l w r i t i n g , b y c o r o l l a r y , r e m a i n s c o m p l i c i t w i t h t h e ( m a s s ) t o u r i s m it d e n o u n c e s ; a n d w h i l e it m a y b e g i v e n t o see itself as a n a n t i d o t e t o m o d e r n t o u r i s m , its m o r e u s u a l e f f e c t m a y b e t o p r o v i d e a f u r t h e r i n c e n t i v e f o r it. 4. F o r a n a c c o u n t o f t h e " r e a l i t y e f f e c t " o f c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a v e l w r i t i n g , see I ' r a t t ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f T h e r o u x ' s w o r k i n t h e final c h a p t e r o f Imperial Eyes. P r a t t offers t h e f o l l o w i n g reasons f o r h e r students' defense o f T h e r o u x ' s " v e r a c i t y " : " f h e depth-creating p o w e r s o f the travel writer m u s t c o m p e t e w i t h the t e n - d a y nine-night a i r p a c k a g e , tips included, a n d t h e glossy, d i s e m b o d i e d fantasies o f l o u r i s t p r o p a g a n d a . I n t h e 1960s a n d 1970s, e x o t i c i s t v i s i o n s o f p l e n i t u d e a n d p a r a d i s e w e r e a p p r o p r i a t e d a n d c o m m o d i f i e d o n a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d scale b y t h e t o u r i s t i n d u s t r y . ' R e a l ' w r i t e r s l o o k u p the task o f p r o v i d i n g 'realist' ( d e g r a d e d , c o u n t e r -

to

c o m m o d i n e d ) versions o f p o s t c o l o n i a l reality. T h e 'effect o f the real' T h e r o u x h a d o n t h e class I t a u g h t w a s d o u b t l e s s c o n s t r u c t e d i n p a r t o u t o f s t u d e n t s ' o w n identification w i t h 'real' representation o v e r a n d against c o m m o d i f i e d representa t i o n s t h r o u g h w h i c h t o u r i s m , q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l l y , m a r k e t s t h e w o r l d t o t h e m " (221). 5. S e e h e r e a l s o L e e d , e s p . i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d e p i l o g u e . F o r L e e d , " t h e h i s t o r y o f t r a v e l is i n c r u c i a l w a y s a h i s t o r y o f t h e w e s t . I t r e c o u n t s t h e e v o l u t i o n f r o m n e c e s s i t y t o f r e e d o m , a n e v o l u t i o n t h a t g a v e rise t o a n e w c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h e p e c u l i a r m e n t a l i t y o f t h e m o d e r n t r a v e l e r " (14). H e r e as e l s e w h e r e i n his b o o k ( a s a l s o i n C o c k e r ' s ) , L e e d p r e f e r s t o see f r e e d o m i n g e n e r a l i z e d e x i s t e n t i a l t e r m s — t h e r e b y eliding the e c o n o m i c distinctions that usually m a k e travel possible. 6. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e r a t h e r w e i g h t y i n t r o d u c t i o n t o V a n d e n A b b e e l e ' s Travel as Metaphor. F o r V a n d e n A b b e e l e , t h e m e t a p h o r o f t r a v e l is p a r a d o x i c a l : it n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l i e s a c h a n g e o f p l a c e , y e t it is p r e d i c a t e d o n , a n d r e s t r i c t e d b y , a c e r t a i n c o n c e p t i o n o f h o m e ( t h e oikos). " H o m e , t h e v e r y a n t i t h e s i s o f t r a v e l , is t h e c o n c e p t t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e v o y a g e is ' o i k o n o m i z e d ' i n t o a c o m m o n p l a c e " ( x v i i i ) . H e n c e t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n : " D e s p i t e its a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h the interesting o r the i n n o v a t i v e , t h e m o t i f o f t h e v o y a g e c o u n t s as a m o n g t h e m o s t m a n i f e s t l y b a n a l i n W e s t ern letters" (xiii). F o r a different v i e w o f the dialectic b e t w e e n " h o m e " a n d dis p l a c e m e n t i n t h e a g e o f p o s t m o d e r n i t y , see t h e e s s a y s i n R o b e r t s o n e t a l . , a n d C a r e n K a p l a n ' s Questions of Travel. I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h e d i s c r e p a n c y between "transgressive" academic approaches t o travel a n d the m o r e traditional, o f t e n n o s t a l g i c , n a r r a t i v e s t h a t a r e still v e r y c o m m o n i n c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a v e l w r i t i n g . T h i s d i s c r e p a n c y is d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n c h a p t e r s 3 a n d 4 o f t h i s b o o k . 7 . O n b e l a t e d n e s s i n t r a v e l w r i t i n g , see B e h d a d , Belated Travelers. F o r B e h d a d , travel w r i t i n g expresses the "exoticist desire f o r the d i s a p p e a r i n g o t h e r " (14); " b e l a t e d o r i e n t a l i s t s , " s u c h as F l a u b e r t i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a r e t r a v e l e r w r i t e r s s t r u g g l i n g t o " c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h t h e loss o f t h e o b j e c t o f [ t h e i r ] d e s i r e s — t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e O r i e n t , its d i s s o l u t i o n b y E u r o p e a n c o l o n i a l i s m " ( 6 6 ) . F l a u b e r t ' s travel w r i t i n g inscribes the " i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f . .. d r e a m s o f r e s t o r a t i o n " (66); it articulates the desire t o preserve a past t h a t has a l r e a d y p a s s e d i n t o m y t h . T w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y travel w r i t i n g like, say, O ' H a n l o n ' s also articulates this desire, b u t w i t h m o r e t h a n a measure o f self-parody. See the discussion o f O ' H a n l o n ' s w o r k , a n d o f his a t t i t u d e t o b e l a t e d n e s s , i n c h a p t e r 1 o f t h i s b o o k . 8. S e e F r o w a n d a l s o B o n g i e ( e . g . , 4-5), f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t r a v e l w r i t i n g , e x o t i c i s m , a n d n o s t a l g i a . N o s t a l g i a , as F r o w a n d B o n g i e s u g g e s t , e n a c t s a d i a l e c t i c o f d e s i r e : it seeks a p a s t o f its o w n i n v e n t i o n t h a t it k n o w s i n a d v a n c e t o b e i m p o s s i b l e . B u t w h i l e n o s t a l g i a o f f e r s a s p u r i o u s p a n a c e a f o r d i s a f f e c t i o n w i t h a " d e g r a d e d " p r e s e n t , i t is its v e r y f a l s e n e s s , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h a t m a k e s it s o a p p e a l i n g . T h e " i n a u t h e n t i c i t y " o f n o s t a l g i a is i t s o w n m o t i v a t i n g force; t o u r i s m a n d , indirectly, travel w r i t i n g t u r n this afflictive desire t o their o w n material advantage, exploiting t o commercial ends nostalgia's self-perpetuating a n x i e t y . H e n c e t h e e l e g i a c s t r a i n i n m u c h c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a v e l w r i t i n g , as it y e a r n s n o s t a l g i c a l l y f o r l o s t v i s i o n s o f " a u t h e n t i c " e x p e r i e n c e . F o r a n e x p l o r a t i o n o f tile i r o n i e s i m p l i c i t i n t h i s p o s i t i o n , see t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f R o s a l d o ' s t e r m " i m p e r i a l i s t n o s t a l g i a " i n c h a p t e r t o f this b o o k . 9. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , W a t t ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f v e r i s i m i l i t u d e i n t h e e a r l y n o v e l in The Rise of the Novel, c h a p t e r 1, o r lire a t t e m p t l o a c c o u n t f o r I h e i n f l u e n c e o f D e f o e ' s j o u r n a l i s m o n his f i c t i o n i n c h a p t e r s 3 a n d 4 10. W h i t e ' s a r g u m e n t applies p r i m a r i l y 1 0 W e s u - r n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , w h o s e .' .'i >

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t r o p o l o g i c a l n a t u r e defies s o m e o f its p r a c t i t i o n e r s ' c l a i m s t o r e c o r d e d " f a c t . " T h e s t a t u s o f t h e " f a c t u a l " i n t r a v e l w r i t i n g is f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d , b o t h b y t h e ( o f t e n conspicuous) unreliability o f the i n f o r m a t i o n being presented a n d b y the a m b i v a l e n t f u n c t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t e r as a r e p o r t e r / s t o r y t e l l e r . W h i l e s o m e t r a v e l w r i t e r s c l a i m , o r w i s h t o c l a i m , d o c u m e n t a r y s t a t u s f o r t h e i r w o r k , it is c l e a r t h a t m o s t travel n a r r a t i v e s are i n f u s e d w i t h t h e traveler-writer's subjectivity. A l s o , like cer tain kinds o f investigative journalists, travel writers often w i t h h o l d their s o u r c e s — they m e d i a t e b e t w e e n the desire t o i m p a r t verifiable i n f o r m a t i o n a n d the t e m p t a t i o n t o o b f u s c a t e , t o present the spectacle o f " m y s t i q u e . " T r a v e l w r i t i n g , i n this c o n t e x t , is n o t j u s t p r o f i t - d r i v e n o r e n t e r t a i n m e n t - o r i e n t e d , b u t m a y b e u s e d t o c h a r t t h e l i m i t s o f k n o w l e d g e a n d t o test t h e c l a i m s o f i n f o r m a t i o n . F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e t r u t h c l a i m s o f t r a v e l w r i t i n g , see t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n s t o M a r y C a m p b e l l a n d N i x o n ; f o r d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n " f a c t " a n d fiction i n r e f e r e n t i a l w r i t i n g , see a l s o F o l e y , S a u e r b e r g , a n d t h e e s s a y s i n W e b e r , e s p . M a c D o n a l d ' s piece o n " p a r a j o u r n a l i s m . " 11. S e e a l s o P r a t t ' s e s s a y " F i e l d w o r k i n C o m m o n P l a c e s . " L i k e W h e e l e r , Pratt deconstructs the opposition between travelers a n d ethnographers, c o m m e n t i n g f o r e x a m p l e o n t h e figure o f t h e " c a s t a w a y " a s a p o p u l a r , s t r a t e g i c a l l y mystificatory self-image for the ethnographer. " T h e authority o f the e t h n o g r a p h e r o v e r t h e ' m e r e t r a v e l e r ' rests c h i e f l y o n t h e i d e a t h a t t h e t r a v e l e r j u s t p a s s e s t h r o u g h , w h e r e a s t h e e t h n o g r a p h e r lives w i t h t h e g r o u p u n d e r s t u d y . B u t o f c o u r s e t h i s is w h a t c a p t i v e s a n d c a s t a w a y s o f t e n d o t o o , l i v i n g i n a n o t h e r c u l t u r e i n e v e r y capacity f r o m prince t o slave, learning indigenous languages a n d lifeways w i t h a proficiency a n e t h n o g r a p h e r w o u l d e n v y , a n d often p r o d u c i n g accounts that are i n d e e d f u l l , r i c h , a n d a c c u r a t e b y e t h n o g r a p h y ' s o w n s t a n d a r d s " (38). L i k e W h e e l e r , P r a t t uses c o m p a r i s o n s w i t h t r a v e l w r i t i n g t o d e m y s t i f y e t h n o g r a p h y ' s pretension to objectivity, a n d t o d r a w attention t o the investment placed b y b o t h travel w r i t i n g a n d a n t h r o p o l o g y i n exoticist representations o f a designated cul tural " o t h e r . " See here also K e e s i n g ' s essay " E x o t i c R e a d i n g s o f C u l t u r a l T e x t s . " L i k e P r a t t a n d W h e e l e r , K e e s i n g sees e t h n o g r a p h e r s a s " d e a l e r s i n e x o t i c a " ; h e goes f u r t h e r , h o w e v e r , t h a n either i n c l a i m i n g that the a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l "predilec tion f o r p u r v e y i n g e x o t i c a " impels ethnographers " n o t o n l y t o choose the m o s t exotic possible cultural d a t a f o r [their] texts b u t t o give t h e m the m o s t exotic p o s sible r e a d i n g s — a n d , i n d o i n g s o , o f t e n d i s t o r t a n d m i s t r a n s l a t e " (459-60). T h e d i f f e r e n c e w i t h t r a v e l w r i t i n g h e r e is t h a t m a n y t r a v e l w r i t e r s w i l l f u l l y m i s t r a n s l a t e a n d distort; t h e y are n o t c o n s t r a i n e d b y the s a m e rules a n d r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g the presentation o f " f a c t u a l " d a t a , a n d o u t l a n d i s h interpretations o f such d a t a arc not o n l y c o m m o n to, b u t sometimes desirable in, the genre. F o r further discussion o f t h e l i n k s b e t w e e n t r a v e l w r i t i n g a n d e t h n o g r a p h y , see c h a p t e r s 2 a n d 3 ( o n Varawa's " u n c o m m o n anthropology"). 12. T h e n o t o r i o u s d i a t r i b e a g a i n s t t r a v e l w r i t i n g a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f Tristes Tropiques c a n n o t d i s g u i s e t h e f a c t t h a t L e v i - S t r a u s s g o e s o n t o p r o d u c e , p r e c i s e l y , an e t h n o g r a p h i c travel narrative. F o r a f u r t h e r discussion o f the ironic implica t i o n s o f his d i s c l a i m e r , see t h e s e c t i o n o n A m a z o n t r a v e l i n c h a p t e r 2. D e s p i t e t h e o b v i o u s s l i p p a g e i n L e v i - S t r a u s s ' s a r g u m e n t , t h e v e n o m t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s his d i s m i s s a l o f t r a v e l w r i t i n g r e m a i n s m e m o r a b l e (see t h e e x c e r p t f r o m Tristes Tropiques in t h e p r e f a c e t o lliis b o o k ) , 13. S e e I g t u i t i e f f ' s i n t e r v i e w w i t h C h u t w i n a m i a l s o C h a t w i n ' s p o s t h u m o u s c o l l e c t i n n Anatomy of Rvxtlesswss (OMMMIIIKHI in c h a p . 4 ) , NUTllS

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14- T h e d e f i n i t i o n is t a k e n f r o m Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary ( E d i n b u r g h : P i t m a n P r e s s , 1981), 818. 15. S e e R o s a l d o , e s p . 68-74; also discussion o f imperialist nostalgia in c h a p t e r 1. 16. F o r P r a t t , c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a v e l w r i t i n g o f t e n h e a r k e n s b a c k t o " l o s t i d i o m s o f d i s c o v e r y a n d d o m i n a t i o n " (Imperial Eyes 224); i n c o n t i n u i n g t o d e p l o y i m p e r i a l i s t t r o p e s s u c h as t h e " m o n a r c h - o f - a l l - I - s u r v e y , " it r e p l a c e s t h e n i n e teenth-century White M a n ' s B u r d e n with the twentieth-century W h i t e M a n ' s L a m e n t ( c h a p . 9, e s p . 216-21). s e e

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17. S e e M a r y C a m p b e l l , The Witness and the Other World, e s p . c h a p s . 2 ( o n the m e d i e v a l W o n d e r B o o k ) a n d 5 ( o n C o l u m b u s ' s voyages). A s C a m p b e l l notes a c e r b i c a l l y , " [ C o l u m b u s ' s ] Journal a n d t h e Letter c o n f l a t e t h e E a r t h l y P a r a d i s e o f M a n d e v i l l e ' s E a s t w i t h t h e p a s t o r a l locus amoenus; t h e result is a C a r i b b e a n t h a t b e l o n g s as m u c h t o t h e O t h e r W o r l d o f m e d i e v a l g e o g r a p h i c f a n t a s y as it d o e s t o t h e m a p [he] h e l p e d r e a l i z e . . . . [ H i s ] l i t e r a l b e l i e f i n t h e f a n t a s t i c m a y s e e m c h a r m ing t o a m o d e r n reader, b u t m a y well h a v e helped p r o p a g a t e the m o n s t r o u s stereo types t h r o u g h w h i c h the S p a n i s h E m p i r e p e r c e i v e d — a n d m o n s t r o u s l y abused—its A m e r i c a n ' s u b j e c t s ' " (10-11). 18. S e e G r e e n b l a t t , 128-36, a n d M a r y C a m p b e l l , c h a p s . 5 a n d 6; see a l s o d e C e r t e a u , f o r w h o m " t h e d i s c o u r s e t h a t sets o f f i n s e a r c h o f t h e o t h e r w i t h t h e impossible task o f saying the truth returns f r o m afar w i t h the authority t o speak in t h e n a m e o f t h e o t h e r a n d c o m m a n d b e l i e f (69). 19. O n v o y e u r i s m i n a n t h r o p o l o g y , see T o r g o v n i c k ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e w o r k o f M a l i n o w s k i a n d M e a d i n c h a p . 5 o f Gone Primitive, 225-43; ' Hawthorn's " T h e P o l i t i c s o f t h e E x o t i c " a n d L u t z a n d C o l l i n s ' s c r i t i c a l s t u d y Reading National Geographic, f o r d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e v o y e u r i s t i c t e n d e n c i e s o f d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e s i n their perception a n d e x p l o i t a t i o n o f those w h o m they strategically consider " o t h e r . " A l l o f these w r i t e r s d e t e c t a l i n k b e t w e e n c u l t u r a l v o y e u r i s m as i m p e r i a l ist p r a c t i c e a n d t h e o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n — t h e " o t h e r i n g " o f t h e e t h n i c i z e d / g e n d e r e d s e e a

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b o d y ; f o r a f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , see c h a p . 3 i n t h i s b o o k . 20. S e e L u t z a n d C o l l i n s , e s p . c h a p s . 4 a n d 7. A s t h e y o b s e r v e , " N o t h i n g d e f i n e s t h e National Geographic f o r m o s t o l d e r A m e r i c a n r e a d e r s m o r e t h a n its 'naked' w o m e n . T h e widely shared cultural experience o f viewing w o m e n ' s bodies in the m a g a z i n e d r a w s o n a n d acculturates the audience's ideas a b o u t race, g e n d e r , a n d s e x u a l i t y , w i t h t h e m a r k e d s u b c a t e g o r y i n e a c h case b e i n g b l a c k , f e m a l e , a n d the unreprcssed. . . . [ T ] h e m a g a z i n e ' s n u d i t y f o r m s a central p a r t o f the image o f t h e n o n - W e s t t h a t it p u r v e y s " (115). 21. I n e x o t i c i s m , a c c o r d i n g t o T o d o r o v , " o t h e r n e s s is s y s t e m a t i c a l l y p r e f e r r e d to l i k e n e s s " (264). B u t " o t h e r n e s s , " b y d e f i n i t i o n , is a l s o s e p a r a t e d f r o m l i k e n e s s ; t h e effect o f e x o t i c i s t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n is t o d e r e a l i z e t h e r e p r e s e n t e d s u b j e c t . A s T o d o r o v explains in a n instructive c o m p a r i s o n o f the " e x o t i c " a n d " c o l o n i a l " n o v els: " T h e e x o t i c n o v e l g l o r i f i e s f o r e i g n e r s w h i l e t h e c o l o n i a l n o v e l d e n i g r a t e s t h e m . B u t t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n is o n l y a p p a r e n t . O n c e t h e a u t h o r h a s d e c l a r e d t h a t h e h i m self is t h e o n l y s u b j e c t o n b o a r d a n d t h a t t h e o t h e r s h a v e b e e n r e d u c e d t o t h e r o l e o f o b j e c t s , it is a f t e r all o f s e c o n d a r y c o n c e r n w h e t h e r these o b j e c t s a r e l o v e d o r d e s p i s e d . T h e essential p o i n t is that t h e y a r e n o t full-fledged h u m a n b e i n g s " (323). T h e e x o t i c i s t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n " s e l f " a n d " o t h e r " is m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n T o d o r o v i m p l i e s ; n o n e t h e l e s s , T o d o r o v ' s urguinviit h e l p s n e o o m U f o r the s i n g u l a r 2M

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discrepancy in m u c h travel writing between t h e expressed attraction t o w a r d " o t h e r " people/cultures a n d t h e tacit w i s h t o keep t h e m a t a distance. 22. F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e f u r t h e r i m p l i c a t i o n s o f c r o s s - d r e s s i n g , see c h a p . 3 o f this b o o k . 23. F o r a c r i t i q u e o f t h e — e x p l i c i t o r i m p l i c i t — e t h n o c e n t r i s m o f E u r o - A m e r i c a n t r a v e l w r i t i n g , see t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n s t o P o r t e r ' s Haunted Journeys a n d P r a t t ' s Imperial Eyes; see a l s o , i n m o r e p o l e m i c a l v e i n , S u g n e t . C h a p t e r 1 o f t h i s b o o k deals i n s o m e detail w i t h " p o s t c o l o n i a l " alternatives t o these E u r o c e n t r i c m o d e l s . 24. T h e w o r k o f J a m e s C l i f f o r d is e x e m p l a r y h e r e : see, f o r i n s t a n c e , h i s essays " T r a v e l i n g C u l t u r e s " a n d " D i a s p o r a s , " r e p r i n t e d i n h i s m o s t r e c e n t b o o k Routes ( 1 9 9 7 ) , a n d t h e special e d i t i o n o f t h e j o u r n a l Inscriptions, e d . C l i f f o r d a n d D h a r e s h w a r (1989). T h e e m e r g e n c e o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l a n d / o r p o s t n a t i o n a l s t u d i e s as a n a c a d e m i c d i s c i p l i n e is s i g n a l e d i n n e w j o u r n a l s s u c h as Diaspora a n d Public Culture, w h i c h f o c u s o n c o m p l e x flows ( o f i n f o r m a t i o n , i d e a s , m o n e y , e t c . ) t h a t t r a v e r s e , transcend, a n d challenge t h e status o f national/cultural b o u n d a r i e s . F o r expressly t r a n s n a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s t o t r a v e l w r i t i n g , see t h e r e c e n t w o r k o f G r e w a l a n d C a r e n K a p l a n . See also chapters 1 a n d , especially, 4 o f this b o o k . 25. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , B h a b h a ' s e s s a y " D i s s e m i N a t i o n , " i n h i s e d i t e d Nation and Narration; f o r a m o r e d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e " e m e r g e n c e o f a p o s t n a t i o n a l o r d e r , " see a l s o A p p a d u r a i , Modernity at Large. 26. T h e t e r m transculturation is u s u a l l y a c c r e d i t e d t o t h e C u b a n a n t h r o p o l o gist F e r n a n d o O r t i z . F o r its a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o t r a v e l w r i t i n g , see P r a t t , Imperial Eyes; a l s o , i n t h i s b o o k , t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f I y e r ' s w o r k i n c h a p t e r 1. 2 7 . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i m p a c t o f s p e e d o n ( p o s t ) m o d e r n s o c i e t y , see V i r ilio. F o r V i r i l i o , s p e e d p o t e n t i a l l y erases t h e g a p s t h a t s e p a r a t e g l o b a l s p a c e s — p r e cisely t h e g a p s t h a t t r a v e l a n d t r a v e l w r i t i n g o c c u p y . V i r i l i o ' s e m p h a s i s is o n t h e v i o l e n c e o f s p e e d a n d its d e p l o y m e n t i n t h e g l o b a l a r m s r a c e ; s p e e d c o n s i s t s i n " t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g d e s t r u c t i o n " (138). W h a t s p e e d u l t i m a t e l y g e s t u r e s t o w a r d , a c c o r d i n g t o V i r i l i o , is " t h e e n d o f t h e w o r l d as d i s t a n c e " ; b u t t h i s " d i s t a n c e l e s s " w o r l d i n w h i c h " e v e r y l o c a l i t y . . . is j u x t a p o s e d ] " creates a " f e a r s o m e f r i c t i o n o f p l a c e s a n d e l e m e n t s t h a t o n l y y e s t e r d a y w e r e still d i s t i n c t a n d s e p a r a t e d b y a b u f f e r o f d i s t a n c e s " (136). V i r i l i o ' s is a p a r a n o i d v i s i o n a k i n , t o s o m e e x t e n t , t o D e l e u z e a n d G u a t t a r i ' s i n f l u e n t i a l " T r e a t i s e o n N o m a d o l o g y . " I t is a useful c o u n t e r w e i g h t , nonetheless, t o c o n t e m p o r a r y m e d i a fantasies o f a h a p p y "global village" brought together through "instant" communication, and enjoying t h e f r u i t s o f a single w o r l d u n i t e d i n t h e p u r s u i t o f c o n s u m e r g o o d s . F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e i m p a c t o f s p e e d a n d / o r g l o b a l i z a t i o n o n t r a v e l w r i t i n g , see a l s o chapters 1 a n d 4 o f this b o o k . 28. T h e B r i t i s h e d i t i o n o f F r a s e r ' s a n t h o l o g y is i n s t r u c t i v e i n its c h a n g e o f title: Worst Trips, as i f t h e a g g r a v a t i o n m e r e l y i n c r e a s e d w i t h e a c h r e t e l l i n g . 29. O n t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f t h e " t h e o r e t i c a l t r a v e l e r , " see t h e essays i n C l i f f o r d a n d D h a r e s h w a r , a n d also V a n d e n A b b e e l e ' s essay "Sightseers: T h e T o u r i s t as T h e o r i s t . " 30. S e e F e i f e r , Going Places, f o r a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f " p o s t t o u r i s m . " See also H u g g a n ' s discussion o f F e i f e r i n t h e essay " S o m e R e c e n t A u s tralian F i c t i o n s . " F r o m H u g g a n ' s essay: " P o s t - t o u r i s t s , a c c o r d i n g t o F e i f e r , a r e d i s t a n c e d f r o m t h e ( o u r i s l w o r l d , y e t o p e n t o t h e m a n y d e l i g h t s it o f f e r s ; t h e i r s is a d e m o c r a c y o f Uisto, as l i k e l y t o t a k e p l e a s u r e in a c h e a p piece o f m a s s - p r o d u c e d k i t s c h us in n n e x p e n s i v e i t e m o f local h a i k l i i T u l ' l s , a w a r e thiil t h e o n e is n o m o r e NOT IIS

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g e n u i n e t h a n the o t h e r , a n d t h a t b o t h are p r o d u c t s o f a leisure i n d u s t r y d e s i g n e d t o convert the trappings o f indigenous culture into a profitable supply o f c o n s u m e r g o o d s " (173).

CHAPTER ONE 1. N e w b y cites d i r e c t l y f r o m W a u g h ' s p r e f a c e t o A Short Walk a t t h e e n d o f t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o A Traveller's Life. 2. F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n s o f i m p e r i a l i s t n o s t a l g i a i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t r a v e l a n d t r a v e l w r i t i n g , see t h e r e l e v a n t s e c t i o n s o f G r e w a l ( e s p . 151) a n d C a r e n K a p l a n ( e s p . Questions of Travel 70-71). 3. S e e N i x o n ' s e s s a y o n t h e N a i p a u l b r o t h e r s , " P r e p a r a t i o n s f o r T r a v e l . " C o n r a d is o n e o f t h e N a i p a u l s ' s f a v o r i t e w r i t e r s : see, f o r e x a m p l e , " C o n r a d ' s D a r k n e s s " i n The Return of Eva Peron. S e e a l s o O ' H a n l o n ' s c r i t i c a l s t u d y o f C o n r a d , Joseph Conrad and Charles Darwin, i n w h i c h h e t r a c e s t h e i n f l u e n c e s o f D a r w i n ' s e v o l u t i o n a r y t h o u g h t o n C o n r a d ' s fiction. O ' H a n l o n ' s w o r k b e l o n g s t o a self-consciously primitivist school o f travel writing that trades, sometimes ironi cally, o n the " b a c k w a r d n e s s " a n d seductiveness o f " r e m o t e " indigenous peoples. T r a v e l w r i t i n g is a p r i m a r y v e h i c l e f o r t h e r e i n v e n t i o n o f t h e " p r i m i t i v e " i n t h e o v e r d e v e l o p e d ( W e s t e r n ) w o r l d o f the late t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . F o r a useful discus s i o n o f p r i m i t i v i s t t r o p e s c i r c u l a t i n g i n W e s t e r n c o n s u m e r c u l t u r e , see T o r g o v n i c k , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e first s e c t i o n " G o i n g P r i m i t i v e " a n d t h e s u b s e c t i o n " T r a v e l i n g w i t h C o n r a d . " A l s o r e l e v a n t h e r e is M i c h a e l T a u s s i g ' s w o r k o n t h e f i g u r e o f t h e " w i l d m a n . " T h e " p r i m i t i v e " a n d the " w i l d m a n , " tropes liberally sprinkled t h r o u g h o u t O ' H a n l o n ' s w o r k , testify b o t h t o the exoticist c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the " o t h e r " i n travel w r i t i n g a n d t o the genre's c o n t i n u i n g critical role in interrogating a p u t a t i v e l y civ i l i z e d self. 4. U s e f u l b a c k g r o u n d o n t h e B r o o k e s is p r o v i d e d i n t h e c h a p t e r o n Lord Jim i n M o s e s ' s The Novel and the Globalization of Culture. 5. T h e i r o n y h e r e is t h a t N e w b y is a f u l l - t i m e p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a v e l w r i t e r w h o , l i k e o t h e r w e l l - k n o w n t r a v e l w r i t e r s , is w o r k i n g o n c o m m i s s i o n i n a l u c r a t i v e field. N e w b y is b y n o m e a n s a l o n e i n c h o o s i n g t o d o w n p l a y t h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l a s p e c t . T r a v e l writers r a r e l y let us k n o w a b o u t their i n c o m e , o r i n f o r m u s a b o u t t h e e c o n o m i c circumstances b e h i n d their trips. I t c o u l d b e a r g u e d , o f course, t h a t such i n f o r m a t i o n is u n i n t e r e s t i n g t o t h e r e a d e r . B u t it a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t t r a v e l w r i t e r s like t o k e e p t h e i r m o t i v e s h i d d e n , o r a t least t o p r e t e n d t h a t t h e i r trips, o f t e n p r e p a i d a n d p r e p r o g r a m m e d , are g e n e r a t e d b y n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n artless c u r i o s i t y and spontaneous enthusiasm. 6. T r a v e l w r i t i n g , o f c o u r s e , h a s a v e n e r a b l e t r a d i t i o n o f a r t f u l l y i n g a n d p r a n k i s h d e c e i t : see, f o r e x a m p l e , P e r c y A d a m s ' s Travelers and Travel Liars, o r t h e c h a p t e r o n M a n d e v i l l e i n M a r y C a m p b e l l ' s The Witness and the Other World. W i l d e ' s r e c u p e r a t i o n o f l y i n g as " t h e p r o p e r a i m o f a r t " is e x p r e s s e d w i t h c h a r a c teristic wit i n his s e m i n a l essay " T h e D e c a y o f L y i n g . " 7. O n C h a t w i n ' s " n o m a d a e s t h e t i c , " see t h e i t a l i c i z e d s e c t i o n s o f The Songlines, w h i c h b o t h e x p l o r e t h e m e t a p h y s i c s o f restlessness a n d i m i t a t e it i n l i t e r a r y f o r m . S e e a l s o H u g g a n ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f The Songlinvs i n his e s s a y " M a p s , D r e a m s , a n d the Presentation o f E t h n o g r a p h i c N a r r a t i v e " ; a n d the treatment o f n o m a d i s m e l s e w h e r e in this b o o k , e s p e c i a l l y i n c h a p t e r 4 . 8. M n l n i u x d e s c r i b e s t h e m u s e u m w i t h o u t w a l l s in 'I'lie Voircs of Silence; I

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C h a t w i n ' s p r o f i l e o f M a l r a u x c a n b e f o u n d i n What Am I Doing Here (114-35). T h e m u s e u m is a t o p o s o f t r a v e l w r i t i n g , d r a w i n g a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n the mobility o f traveler-writers a n d the curatorial immobilization o f the peoples/cultures a b o u t w h i c h t h e y w r i t e . C h a t w i n , like several o f his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , is a n e n t h u s i a s t i c m u s e u m v i s i t o r ; b u t t h e m u s e u m is e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t a s a n i l l u s t r a t i v e m e t a p h o r f o r t h e p r o c e s s o f t r a v e l w r i t i n g i t s e l f a s it g a t h e r s , o b s e r v e s , a n d reifies i t s c u l t u r a l l y " o t h e r e d " s u b j e c t s . 9. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e d u b i o u s l y c a t h a r t i c e n d i n g o f The Songlines, a t o n g u e - i n - c h e e k p a e a n t o a " d y i n g " p e o p l e , o b v i o u s l y c a m p in sensibility, w h i c h turns a p s e u d o m y s t i c a l a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r A b o r i g i n a l A u s t r a l i a i n t o a n o t h e r aestheticized c a m e o o f a " w o n d r o u s " n o m a d i c race. 10. O n t h e d u t i e s a n d s y m b o l i c i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s q u i r e , see C a s t r o n o v o , e s p . 79-80,102-4. 11. F o r a n e x t e n d e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e n o t i o n o f c o n s p i c u o u s c o n s u m p t i o n , see V e b l e n ' s classic s t u d y The Theory of the Leisure Class. V e b l e n ' s w o r k c l e a r l y u n d e r s c o r e s M a c C a n n e l l ' s s o c i o a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h t o t o u r i s m (see The Tourist 11-12). T o u r i s m is o f c o u r s e i t s e l f a m o d e o f c o n s u m p t i o n , b o t h l i t e r a l l y (the p u r c h a s e o f g o o d s a n d services) a n d m e t a p h o r i c a l l y (the practice o f "sightsee i n g " ) . T h e c o n s p i c u o u s c o n s u m p t i o n o f l e i s u r e i n M a y l e ' s P r o v e n c e n a r r a t i v e s is literalized i n the g o u r m e t meal. 12. C o n t i n u i n g i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e t r a v e l o g u e - a s - c o o k b o o k a r e T o m H i g g i n s , Spotted Dick, S'il Vous Plait (1995), a q u i r k y a c c o u n t o f t h e a u t h o r ' s first e i g h t y e a r s as a n E n g l i s h r e s t a u r a n t e u r i n L y o n ( i n c l u d i n g t w e l v e r e c i p e s ) ; P e t e r B i d d l e c o m b e , Travels with My Briefcase (1994), w h e r e t h e a u t h o r ' s b u s i n e s s t r i p s p r o v i d e t h e p r e t e x t f o r a series o f s u c c u l e n t e x p e n s e - a c c o u n t d i n n e r s ; a n d , n o t least, M a y l e h i m s e l f , w h o s e Acquired Tastes (1993) f u r t h e r s t h e s e a r c h u n d e r t a k e n in t h e P r o v e n c e b o o k s f o r g e n t l e m a n l y l u x u r y b y t a k i n g v i c a r i o u s p l e a s u r e i n t h e e x t r a v a g a n t s p e n d i n g — a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y , e a t i n g — h a b i t s o f t h e r i c h . F i n a l l y , see a l s o P e t e r R o b b , Midnight in Sicily (1996)—discussed i n t h e p o s t s c r i p t t o t h i s b o o k — w h e r e the author's strongly aestheticized descriptions o f traditional Italian cuisine are h e l d i n c o u n t e r p o i n t t o his a c c o u n t s o f M a f i a violence. 13. S e e t h e c h a p t e r o n N a i p a u l , " O r i g i n a r y D i s p l a c e m e n t a n d t h e W r i t e r ' s Burden," in Porter. 14. F o r a t h o r o u g h g o i n g c r i t i q u e o f N a i p a u l ' s t r a v e l w r i t i n g , see N i x o n , Lon don Calling. A s N i x o n p o i n t s o u t , N a i p a u l ' s a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t s t a n c e is i n e v i t a b l y c o m p r o m i s e d b y h i s a m b i v a l e n t s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n as t h e F i r s t W o r l d ' s e x p e r t o n t h e T h i r d W o r l d a n d as a n e x p a t r i a t e c u l t u r a l c r i t i c . 15. F o r a c r i t i q u e o f N a i p a u l ' s v i e w o f h i m s e l f a s a u b i q u i t o u s e x i l e , see N i x o n , London Calling, e s p . c h a p . 1. 16. O n N a i p a u l ' s " m i m i c r y t h e s i s , " a n d t h e ( o f t e n h e a t e d ) r e s p o n s e t o it i n t h e ( " a r i b b e a n , see F f u g g a n , " A T a l e o f T w o P a r r o t s " a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y , W a l c o t t . 17. O n N a i p a u l ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e d i l e m m a o f " h i s t o r y l e s s n e s s " i n t h e < ' a r i b b e a n r e g i o n , see h i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l h i s t o r i c a l s t u d y The Middle Passage, e s p . 1110 i n t r o d u c t i o n . 18. F o r a s a m p l e o f r e c e n t c r i t i q u e s o f t h e t o t a l i z i n g t e n d e n c i e s o f p o s t c o l o nial t h e o r y a n d c r i t i c i s m , see A h m a d ' s e s s a y " P o s t c o l o n i a l i s m : W h a t ' s i n a N a m e ? " m i d M v C ' l i n l o c k ' R a n d S h o h u t ' s e s s a y s i n a s p e c i a l issue, d e v o t e d m a i n l y in A h m a d , o f Social Test ( I W T ll lias a r g u a b l y b e c o m e m o r e f a s h i o n a b l e t o M O T I I I S 1 •• t ' A t . i '• | S ' 4 >•

a t t a c k p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m t h a n t o d e f e n d it; b u t i n spite ( o r p o s s i b l y because?) o f this, p o s t c o l o n i a l studies prospers. 19. F o r a n e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h i s d i s c r e p a n c y , see A p p i a h ' s c h a p t e r " T h e P o s t m o d e r n a n d t h e P o s t c o l o n i a l " i n Africa in the Philosophy of Culture. 20. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , B r y s o n , Neither Here Nor There (1991); a n d T h e r o u x , The Pillars of Hercules: A Grand Tour of the Mediterranean (1995). S e e a l s o , o n t h e g r a n d t o u r , P o r t e r ; L e e d , 184-85; a n d B u z a r d , 97-110. 21. S e e t h e title e s s a y o f R u s h d i e ' s c o l l e c t i o n Imaginary Homelands, w h e r e h e d e s c r i b e s h i m s e l f as a " l i t e r a r y m i g r a n t , " a p r o d u c t o f c u l t u r a l t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n a n d o f t h e " l i t e r a r y c r o s s - p o l l i n a t i o n " o f a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e r a (20-21). F o r a c r i t i q u e o f t h i s p o s i t i o n , a n d o f t h e c o s m o p o l i t a n p r i v i l e g e s i t d i s g u i s e s , see B r e n n a n , Salman Rushdie and the Third World; a l s o H u g g a n ' s " T h e P o s t c o l o n i a l E x o t i c , " w h i c h d i s cusses t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f R u s h d i e ' s s t a t u s as a b e l e a g u e r e d c e l e b r i t y . 22. S e e , p a r t i c u l a r l y , The Satanic Verses (1988), w h i c h is, a m o n g m a n y o t h e r things, a ludic allegory o f the d e m o n i z a t i o n o f British immigrants. 23. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e s o m e w h a t n a i v e c e l e b r a t i o n o f " m i g r a n c y " i n C h a m b e r s . A s C a r e n K a p l a n p o i n t s o u t i n Questions of Travel, t h e f a s h i o n a b l e t h e o r i e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e figure o f t h e d i a s p o r i c m i g r a n t m a y b e l i t t l e m o r e t h a n p o s t m o d e r n u p d a t e s o f e a r l i e r , e q u a l l y u n c r i t i c a l , n o t i o n s o f t h e m o d e r n i s t e x i l e (140). S u c h theories, in i n v o k i n g t h e universal poststructuralist m a n t r a o f "displace m e n t , " risk " o b f u s c a t i n g a n d e v e n erasing the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f social relations i n h i s t o r i c a l l y g r o u n d e d a n d p o l i t i c a l l y m e a n i n g f u l w a y s " (140). F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n s o f " m i g r a n c y " a n d / a s " d i s p l a c e m e n t , " see c h a p t e r s 3 a n d , e s p e c i a l l y , 4 o f t h i s book. 24. S a i d ' s e s s a y is t h e ( d i r e c t o r i n d i r e c t ) i n s p i r a t i o n b e h i n d a w h o l e n e w s c h o o l o f c u l t u r a l critics w h o practice " t r a v e l i n g t h e o r y , " G e o r g e s v a n d e n Abbeele, C a r e n K a p l a n , James Clifford, Iain C h a m b e r s , and R e y C h o w a m o n g t h e m . F o r a n o v e r v i e w , see C l i f f o r d , Routes; K a p l a n , Questions of Travel; a n d t h e essays i n C l i f f o r d a n d D h a r e s h w a r . 25. S e e , p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d " T h e S c o p e o f O r i e n t a l i s m " i n S a i d ' s Orientalism. A l t h o u g h it h a s a t t r a c t e d a g o o d d e a l o f n e g a t i v e c r i t i c i s m , t h i s r e m a i n s o n e o f the f o u n d a t i o n texts f o r c o n t e m p o r a r y postcolonial studies. 26. S e e t h e s e c t i o n o n " i m a g i n a t i v e g e o g r a p h y " i n Orientalism, 49-72. I m a g i n a t i v e g e o g r a p h y , f o r S a i d , p r o v i d e s a n e x p a n s i v e i m a g e - r e p e r t o i r e t h a t legiti mates distinctions b e t w e e n t h e familiar, " i n s i d e " spaces o f d o m i n a n t (imperial) cultures a n d the " o u t e r " reaches o f the " b a r b a r i a n s " w h o s e territories they i n v a d e a n d w h o s e cultures t h e y subjugate. A s S a i d suggests, a n d as h i s f o l l o w e r s (e.g., B e h d a d ) h a v e g o n e o n t o d e m o n s t r a t e i n m o r e detail, travel writing—particularly E u r o p e a n travel w r i t i n g — h a s tended t o bolster preconceived cultural distinctions: it h a s s e r v e d as a v e h i c l e o f " i m a g i n a t i v e g e o g r a p h y " t h a t a n s w e r s t h e d o m i n a n t culture's needs. 27. S e v e r a l c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o p o p u l a r m y t h s o f A s i a n a s c e n d a n c y : see, f o r e x a m p l e , W i n c h e s t e r , Pacific Rising, a n d Viviano. 28. R o b e r t s ' s w o r k , c u r r e n t l y i n p r o g r e s s , c h a r t s t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m E u r o p e a n " p l a n e t a r y c o n s c i o u s n e s s " ( P r a t t , Imperial Eyes 9 10) t o I h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l " g l o b a l i m a g i n a r y , " s e e i n g t h e b o o m in t r a v e l w r i t i n g a n d t o u r i s m i n g e n e r a l as s y m p t o m s o f a p o s t m o d e r n c o n d i t i o n in w h i c h O u t c a p i t a l i s t w o r l d - s y s t e m p r o d u c e s a n d m a n i p u l a t e s i m a m ' s (if H " g l o b i i l c u l t u n ,"

29. T i m o t h y B r e n n a n , i n At Home in the World (1997), t a k e s t h i s c r i t i c i s m f u r t h e r , s e e i n g I y e r ( a n d o t h e r t r a v e l w r i t e r s l i k e h i m ) as e n d o r s i n g a Utopian g l o b a l i s m t h a t f a i l s t o a c k n o w l e d g e its o w n , p o i n t e d l y E u r o - A m e r i c a n , f r a m e o f c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e . F o r B r e n n a n , I y e r ' s t r a v e l writing f u s e s a n a i v e l y " u p - t o - d a t e " i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m w i t h a n o s t a l g i c " c o l o n i a l e r o t i c s . " T h e r e s u l t is a r e f a s h i o n e d e x o t i c i s m , m o r e c o n t i n u o u s w i t h imperialisms o f the past t h a n critical o f i m p e r i a l i s m s o f the p r e s e n t , a n d w h o l l y c o m p l i c i t w i t h t h e g l o b a l p r o c e s s o f A m e r i c a n i z a t i o n it c l a i m s to resist. W h i l e B r e n n a n ' s c r i t i c i s m s h a v e s o m e v a l i d i t y , his a r g u m e n t is w e a k e n e d b y h i s t e n d e n c y t o c o n t r a s t w r i t e r s like I y e r , s e l f - s e r v i n g c o s m o p o l i t a n s , w i t h w r i t ers like R u s h d i e , D o r f m a n , a n d G o r d i m e r , w h o s e t r a v e l o g u e s t a k e t h e f o r m o f p o l i t i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s . A s w i t h t h e e x a m p l e o f The Jaguar Smile, a n a l y z e d e a r l i e r in t h i s c h a p t e r , s u c h d i s t i n c t i o n s — p r e s u m a b l y b a s e d o n p o l i t i c a l s t a n c e a n d d e g r e e o f p e r c e i v e d c o m m i t m e n t — a r e c o m p l i c a t e d b y a g e n r e t h a t t e n d s (as B r e n n a n r e c ognizes) t o aestheticize the dispossessed. 30. T h e t r a v e l " z o n e s " s e l e c t e d f o r d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r a r e i n t e n d e d t o p r o v i d e s o m e b a l a n c e ; c o m p r e h e n s i v e c o v e r a g e is o u t o f t h e q u e s t i o n , t h o u g h , so t o s o m e e x t e n t t h e " z o n e s " c h o s e n reflect t h e a u t h o r s ' c u r r e n t i n t e r e s t s and preferences. T h e popularity o f particular " z o n e s " — a n d t h e narratives attached t o t h e m — s h i f t s according t o fashion, a recent instance being the spate o f I ravel b o o k s ( n o t a b l y J o n K r a k a u e r ' s ) o n M o u n t E v e r e s t expeditions.

C H A P T E R T W O 1. F o r a r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t , b u t i n f l u e n t i a l u s a g e , see a l s o P r a t t ' s i n v o c a t i o n o f the " c o n t a c t z o n e " i n Imperial Eyes. T h e c o n t a c t z o n e is " a n a t t e m p t t o i n v o k e t h e spatial a n d t e m p o r a l copresence o f subjects p r e v i o u s l y separated b y g e o g r a p h i c a l II n d h i s t o r i c a l d i s j u n c t u r e s , a n d w h o s e t r a j e c t o r i e s n o w i n t e r s e c t . . . . A ' c o n t a c t ' perspective e m p h a s i z e s h o w subjects are constituted i n a n d b y their relations t o each other. I t treats the relation a m o n g colonizers a n d c o l o n i z e d , o r travelers a n d 'Inivelees,' n o t i n terms o f separateness o r apartheid, b u t i n terms o f copresence, interaction, interlocking understandings a n d practices, often within radically a s y m m e t r i c a l r e l a t i o n s o f p o w e r " (7). P r a t t ' s " z o n e " e m p h a s i z e s , t o a g r e a t e r extent t h a n M c H a l e ' s , t h e often intricate w o r k i n g s o f (imperial) p o w e r ; like M e l l a l e ' s , h o w e v e r , it is a site o f c o n t e n t i o n , o f c o n t i n u a l r e n e g o t i a t i o n : it is shaped a n d r e s h a p e d b y a h i s t o r y o f social interaction a n d ideological conflict. 2. T h e B e l g i a n C o n g o (1908-60) t o o k t h e n a m e Z a i r e i n 1971. O n M a y 17, i')97 after a p e r i o d o f instability a n d internal resistance t o M o b u t u — i t b e c a m e 1 lie D e m o c r a t i c R e p u b l i c o f t h e C o n g o . 3. H y l a n d d e s c r i b e s h i s A f r i c a n j o u r n e y a s " t r a n s g r e s s i n g t h e h o t l i m i t " I) 1 22), b o r r o w i n g t h e p h r a s e t h e " h o t l i m i t " l o o s e l y f r o m C a m o e s ' s Os Lusiades, 1 lie s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y P o r t u g u e s e e p i c p o e m . F o r C a m o e s , w h a t w a s l a t e r t o I income C o n r a d ' s / M a r l o w ' s " d a r k " river h a d never before been "seen b y t h e II i i e i e n l s " ; this c o n v e n i e n t l y c l e a r s t h e w a y f o r C a m o e s t o c e l e b r a t e t h e " d i s c o v e r y " n i l he C o n g o b y t h e P o r t u g u e s e e x p l o r e r G i o r g i o C a o i n 1482. 4. O n t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f " l o w , " d e m o n i z e d i m a g e s ( s t r a t e g i e s o f " d e b a s e i i i e n l " a n d " a b j e c t i o n " ) i n c o l o n i a l d i s c o u r s e s , see S p u r r . 5. F o r 11 f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i m p a c t o f N a i p a u l ' s c o l o n i a l b a c k g r o u n d m i Ins t r a v e l w r i t i n g , see N i x o n , London Calling, a n d t h e s e c t i o n o n N a i p a u l ' s The h'nifiiiiti of Ai•rival in t h e p i e v i o u s c h a p t e r o f this h o o k . N<

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6. F o r a m o r e r e c e n t c h r o n i c l e o f a n E a s t A f r i c a n t r i p t i n d e r t h e s i g n o f A I D S , see C o n o v e r . 7. S e e , p a r t i c u l a r l y , L e v i - S t r a u s s ' s l a n d m a r k Tristes Tropiques. D r a w i n g o n a E u r o p e a n t r a d i t i o n o f m y t h i c i z i n g t h e A m a z o n , Tristes Tropiques h a s i t s e l f become a mythical text for a w h o l e n e w school o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y - m i n d e d travel w r i t e r s . F o r f u r t h e r b a c k g r o u n d o n m y t h s o f t h e A m a z o n , see S l a t e r ; see a l s o t h e discussion o f "ecotravel w r i t i n g " i n chapter 4 o f this b o o k . 8. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , C a h i l l ' s d i s p a t c h e s f r o m t h e j u n g l e i n Jaguars Ripped My Flesh (1996) a n d A Wolverine Is Eating My Leg (1994). L i k e O ' H a n l o n ( a n d s o m a n y others), Cahill takes inspiration f r o m C o n r a d , accentuating the dangers o f t h e j u n g l e b u t a l s o its c a p a c i t y f o r f a r c e a n d h i g h j i n k s . A l s o l i k e O ' H a n l o n . C a h i l l stresses t h e p h y s i c a l i t y o f t r a v e l , f a v o r i n g a w a g g i s h v o y e u r i s m a n d a ( d u b i o u s ) taste f o r the scatological j o k e . U n l i k e O ' H a n l o n ' s , h o w e v e r , C a h i l l ' s b o o k s are n o t sustained picaresque narratives, but collections o f — o f t e n irreverent—journalistic reports ranging b r o a d l y in time a n d space. 9. B o t h In Trouble Again a n d Into the Heart of Borneo i n c l u d e f a i r l y e x t e n sive bibliographies; O ' H a n l o n , f o r all his faults, c a n n o t be accused o f n o t h a v i n g d o n e his h o m e w o r k . 10. O ' H a n l o n d r a w s m o s t o b v i o u s l y o n t h e w o r k o f N a p o l e o n C h a g n o n , w h o s e sensationalist account o f Y a n o m a m i aggression has p r o v e n p o p u l a r w i t h A m a z o n travel writers. O ' H a n l o n ' s u n a s h a m e d l y a m a t e u r a n t h r o p o l o g y also h i n t s , h o w e v e r , a t t h e w o r k o f e a r l i e r e v o l u t i o n a r y a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , s u c h as E d w a r d T y l o r , w h o s e i n f l u e n t i a l t r e a t i s e o n ' " p r i m i t i v e " c u l t u r e is m u c h i n v o k e d b u t l i t t l e u n d e r s t o o d . O ' H a n l o n ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a n t h r o p o l o g y is b y n o m e a n s as n a i v e as his n a r r a t i v e i m p l i e s ; h e is p r o f i t i n g , h e r e as e l s e w h e r e , f r o m t h e r h e t o r i c a l s t a n c e o f t h e f a u x n a i f (as a l s o s u g g e s t e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h i s b o o k ) . S e e also P o r t e r ' s c o m m e n t , i n his c h a p t e r o n D a r w i n , t h a t " t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l naturalist [often] turns out t o be . . . a perceptive a m a t e u r e t h n o g r aph e r, w h o c o m m e n t s o n r a c i a l o r c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e as w e l l a s o n d i v e r s e f o r m s o f c o l l e c t i v e b e h a v i o r o r s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n " (148). O ' H a n l o n is w e l l a w a r e o f his l i m i t a t i o n s as a n e t h n o g r a p h e r , b u t , l i k e m a n y o t h e r t r a v e l w r i t e r s , h e c a n n o t resist a n o b s e r v a t i o n o r t w o a g a i n s t his b e t t e r j u d g m e n t . 11. O n t h e " s c i e n t i f i c t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r , " see P o r t e r ' s c h a p t e r o n D a r w i n ; c h a p t e r 1 o f P r a t t ' s Imperial Eyes; c h a p t e r 7 o f L e e d ' s The Mind of the Traveler; a n d P e t e r R a b y ' s Bright Paradise. I t is a s c o m m o n f o r t r a v e l w r i t e r s t o d i s g u i s e t h e i r s c i e n t i f i c a u t h o r i t y a s t o i n v o k e it- - a s t r a t e g y t h a t s u p p o r t s t h e i r a d v a n t a g e o u s rhetorical p o s i t i o n as i n q u i r i n g a m a t e u r s . F o r a discussion o f t h e rhetorical b e n e f i t s o f ( d i s s i m u l a t e d ) " a m a t e u r i s m , " see t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h i s b o o k a n d , e s p e c i a l l y , t h e s e c t i o n o n E r i c N e w b y i n c h a p t e r 1. 12. O n " w i l d n e s s " i n a n A m a z o n i a n c o n t e x t , see T a u s s i g . 13. T h e r e a r e m a n y i m a g e / m y t h p a t t e r n s i n t h e W e s t e r n r e p e r t o i r e o f J a p a n o t h e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e e r o t i c i z e d O r i e n t : f o r e x a m p l e , a m a s c u l i n e J a p a n o f fe'Ctdal h i e r a r c h y a n d m i l i t a r i s m , o r a d e m o n i z e d J a p a n o f g r o t e s q u e m o n s t e r s (see B u r u m a ) . I n t h e case o f W e s t e r n l i t e r a r y r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f J a p a n , t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a n e r o t i c p a r a d i g m n o t o n l y reflects a d o m i n a n t s t r a i n i n t r a v e l w r i t i n g , b u t a l s o signals the W e s t ' s inability t o deal w i t h the c o m p l e x i t y o f a range o f n o n i d e n t i c a l cultural characteristics. 14. F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f I ,oli"s oil KM- ortilir n a i n i l i v e s , see Umifiir. "/<) 1116. Null

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15. S e e K a o r i O ' C o n n o r ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o L o t i , Madame Chrysanthemum, e s p . 5. 16. P a r t i c u l a r l y i n f l u e n t i a l a m o n g t h e s e w a s L a f c a d i o H e a r n , w h o s e s u r p r i s ingly full a n d c o m p l e x c o m m e n t a r i e s o n J a p a n w e r e r e a c h i n g A m e r i c a i n the late n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e r a n g e o f these c o m m e n t a r i e s — a l o n g w i t h H e a r n ' s m o d esty—detracted f r o m their ability t o "fix" a singular i m a g e o f J a p a n f o r m a n y W e s t e r n readers. See F r a n c i s K i n g ' s representative selection o f H e a r n ' s w o r k i n Writings from Japan. 17. J e a n - P i e r r e L e h m a n n h a s p r o v i d e d a u s e f u l a c c o u n t o f t h e s t o r y ' s t r a n s m i s s i o n , a n d o f its v a r i o u s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , i n his e s s a y " I m a g e s o f t h e O r i e n t , " i n a s p e c i a l issue o f Opera Guide. T h e t e x t o f J o h n L u t h e r L o n g ' s s t o r y " M a d a m e Butterfly" can be f o u n d in the same v o l u m e . T r a n s f e r r e d f r o m J a p a n t o V i e t n a m , a n d f r o m the late nineteenth t o the late t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , the story o f the a b a n d o n e d O r i e n t a l w o m a n c o n t i n u e s t o h o l d s w a y i n t h e p o p u l a r m u s i c a l Miss Saigon. 18. A p o p u l a r n a r r a t i v e i n t h i s v e i n is M a r k S a l z m a n ' s Iron & Silk (1986). S a l z m a n , a martial-arts e x p e r t , t a u g h t E n g l i s h i n C h i n a in the early eighties, t h e n s t a r r e d i n a m a r t i a l - a r t s m o v i e b e f o r e m o v i n g b a c k t o his n a t i v e U n i t e d S t a t e s . 19. F o r a c o m p a r i s o n o f Empire of Signs w i t h o t h e r O r i e n t a l i s t n a r r a t i v e s b y F r e n c h p o s t s t r u c t u r a l i s t w r i t e r - i n t e l l e c t u a l s , see L o w e , e s p . c h a p . 5. 20. O n C o o k a n d t h e P a c i f i c , see t h e w o r k o f B e r n a r d S m i t h ; see a l s o t h e often ill-tempered exchange between t h e anthropologists M a r s h a l l Sahlins a n d G a n a n a t h O b e y e s e k e r e o v e r the m y t h i c a l status o f C o o k . 21. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f J o a n a V a r a w a ' s " e t h n o g r a p h i c " t r a v e l w r i t i n g , a n d o f its i n d e b t e d n e s s t o M e a d , i n c h a p t e r 3 o f t h i s b o o k . F o r a c r i t i c a l v i e w , see a l s o A l b e r t W e n d t ' s e s s a y " T o w a r d A N e w O c e a n i a . " W e n d t , a n a t i v e S a m o a n , c o m p l a i n s b i t t e r l y a b o u t t h e m y t h o l o g i z i n g o f t h e " S o u t h S e a s " as a site for ethnographic voyeurism a n d commercialized E u r o - A m e r i c a n fantasy. Several o f t h e s e m y t h s a r e c r i t i c a l l y a n a l y z e d i n N e i l R e n n i e ' s Far-Fetched Facts. 22. F o r a f u l l e r , F o u c a u l t - i n f l e c t e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a n e w knowledge-regime in eighteenth-century E u r o p e , focusing particularly o n t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s b e t w e e n g e o g r a p h y , a n t h r o p o l o g y , a n d t r a v e l o b s e r v a t i o n , see G r e g o r y , e s p . 16-30. 23. T h e r o u x is o n e o f t h e m o s t s e l f - r e f l e x i v e o f c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a v e l w r i t e r s ; f o r a n a n a l y t i c a l o v e r v i e w o f his o f t e n s e l f - i r o n i c c o m m e n t a r i e s , see G l a s e r , " T h e Self-Reflexive T r a v e l e r , " a n d also G l a s e r ' s " P a u l T h e r o u x a n d t h e P o e t r y o f Departures." 24. S e e B o n g i e ' s Exotic Memories f o r a t h o r o u g h i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f ( m o d e r n ) W e s t e r n e x o t i c m y t h s ; see a l s o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h i s b o o k f o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n s o f e x o t i c i s m — t h a t a m b i v a l e n t discourse o f the " o t h e r " that underpins so m u c h travel writing. 25. I t is w o r t h n o t i n g h e r e , as i n m u c h o f T h e r o u x ' s t r a v e l w r i t i n g , a p u r g a t o rial t i n g e ; t h i s b e c o m e s m o r e p r o m i n e n t i n t h e w r i t e r s o f A r c t i c t r a v e l d i s c u s s e d later in this c h a p t e r . 26. W o o d c o c k p e r f o r m s a s i m i l a r e l e g i z i n g a c t o n a n o l d b e a c h c o m b e r i n S a m o a : " I w o n d e r e d w h e t h e r h e w a s r e a l l y . . . t h e last o f t h o s e w a n d e r i n g M e l v i l l e a n s a i l o r s , f e t c h e d u p a t last t o d i e u p o n s o m e d i s t a n t s t r a n d , o r w h e t h e r h e w a s a M e n d e l i a n t h r o w b a c k , g r a n d s o n o r great-grandson o f the original b e a c h c o m b e r , his l o n g l i n e t a k e n i n t o t h e a b s o r b e n t a n d i n f i n i t e l y t o l e r a n t f a b r i c o f f a ' a S a m o a " <"/<>>.

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27. O n b e l a t e d n e s s , see t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o this b o o k , w h i c h d r a w s o n t h e w o r k of, a m o n g others, A l i B e h d a d . 28. O n t h e s y m b i o t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e x o t i c i s m a n d n o s t a l g i a , see B o n g i e , particularly the chapter o n C o n r a d . T h e nostalgic impulses o f travel writ i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d s e v e r a l t i m e s i n t h i s b o o k : see t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e , o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f N e w b y ' s a n d O ' H a n l o n ' s w o r k in c h a p t e r 1. 29. T h e C a n a d i a n R o n a l d W r i g h t , a u t h o r o f t h e a c c l a i m e d Time among the Maya, s e e m s o b s e s s e d b y t h e p r o t o c o l s s u r r o u n d i n g h o s p i t a l i t y a n d t h e e x c h a n g e o f g i f t s . S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , W r i g h t ' s t r a v e l o g u e On Fiji Islands (1986), w h e r e h i s g i f t g i v i n g , l i k e T h e r o u x ' s , is p e r h a p s i n t e n d e d t o d i m i n i s h h i s p r i v i l e g e w h i l e a t t e m p t ing t o gain insider status. W h i l e travel b o o k s , despite appearances, rarely c o m m u nicate B a k h t i n i a n " h e t e r o g l o s s i a " — a multiplicity o f languages a n d viewpoints— t h e y c a n a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y d o c o n v e y a degree o f " s u b a l t e r n resistance" ( G u h a ) , as in t h e u n e x p e c t e d r e b u f f t h a t so irritated T h e r o u x . F o r a discussion o f t h e rele v a n c e o f B a k h t i n i a n c o n c e p t s t o c r o s s - c u l t u r a l p e r c e p t i o n a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , see t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o J a m e s C l i f f o r d ' s ( m e t a - ) a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l s t u d y , The Predica ment of Culture. C l i f f o r d ' s a r g u m e n t is c l e a r l y r e l e v a n t t o t r a v e l w r i t e r s l i k e W r i g h t a n d T h e r o u x , w h o s e w o r k is o b v i o u s l y i n f l u e n c e d b y r e l a t i v i s t e t h n o g r a p h y . 30. T h e " i n s e a r c h o f t r o p e is a c o m m o n o n e a m o n g c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a v e l writers, w h o frequently h a r k b a c k (sometimes ironically) t o their predecessors. See, f o r e x a m p l e , the discussion o f O ' H a n l o n ' s w o r k i n this c h a p t e r a n d i n c h a p t e r 1. S e e a l s o y e t a n o t h e r C o n r a d i a n t r a v e l b o o k , v e r y m u c h i n t h e s p i r i t o f B e l l ' s : G a v i n Y o u n g ' s In Search of Conrad (1991). 31. S e e H u g h B r o d y , The People's Land (1991), e s p . c h a p . 5, " W h i t e A t t i t u d e s to the limit." 32. F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n " a r e a ! " a n d " l i n e a r . " see Leer. 33. T h e l i f e w o r l d — a t e r m d e r i v e d f r o m t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g y o f H u s s e r l — i s e x p l a i n e d b y t h e g e o g r a p h e r A n n e B u t t i m e r as " t h e c u l t u r a l l y d e f i n e d s p a t i o t e m p o r a l s e t t i n g o r h o r i z o n o f e v e r y d a y l i f e " (277). F o r a l t e r n a t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e s o n t h e l i f e w o r l d . see t h e e s s a y s i n B u t t i m e r a n d S c a m o n , a n d a l s o t h e " g e o s o p h i c a l " essays i n L o w e n t h a l a n d B o w d e n , especially those b y A l l e n a n d T u a n . F o r a cri t i q u e o f B u t t i m e r ' s a n d T u a n ' s p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h t o g e o g r a p h y , see Pickles. 34. S e e L o p e z ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e m i g r a t o r y p a t t e r n s o f A r c t i c b i r d s a n d a n i m a l s i n c h a p t e r s 3 a n d 5 o f Arctic Dreams. T h e lives o f m a n y o f t h e s e b i r d s a n d a n i m a l s , says L o p e z , " a r e c o n s t r a i n e d b y the schemes o f m e n , b u t the d e t e r m i n a t i o n in their lives, t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n o f m o v e m e n t , are a c a l m i n g r e m i n d e r o f a m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l o r d e r " (155). T h u s , i n a g e s t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f L o p e z ' s p a t tern-seeking narrative, t h e a n i m a l s ' m o b i l i t y consists in their capacity t o repeat their m o v e m e n t s according t o preestablished codes. 35. A l l t h r e e w r i t e r s , b u t m o s t o b v i o u s l y L o p e z , a r e i n f l u e n c e d b y Y i - F u T u a n ' s p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l g e o g r a p h y : o n e t h a t e m p h a s i z e s t h e effect o f h u m a n perception o n the landscapes that people inhabit a n d , t o some extent, shape a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r f e a r s a n d d e s i r e s . " T o p o p h i l i a " is a p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e l a n d a s b e n e v o l e n t a n d / o r c u r a t i v e ; it is b a s e d o i l a s p e c i a l a f f i n i t y w i t h c e r t a i n p l a c e s . F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n , see t h e o p e n i n g c h a p t e r o f T u n n ' s Topopliilia (1974). 36. A n t a r c t i c a , t h a t t e r r i t o r y a( t h e o t h e r p o l a r l i m i t , is n o w a m u c h - v i s i t e d t r a v e l wrilinjt d e s t i n a t i o n . T h e ill-l'iiU'il S i / o i l e x p e d i t i o n pei l o i ins 11 a i l n l y / n i n rule 31,30

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similar t o that o f the third F r a n k l i n expedition f o r the Arctic; the literary m o n u m e n t h e r e is A p s l e y C h e r r y - G a r r a r d ' s The Worst Journey in the World ( 1 9 2 2 ) . T h e m o s t recent A n t a r c t i c travel narratives, interestingly, a r e b o t h b y w o m e n . J e n n y D i s k i ' s Skating to Antarctica ( 1 9 9 7 ) m o b i l i z e s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t r a v e l t o , a n d i n , A n t a r c t i c a f o r a k i n d o f psychic a r c h a e o l o g y related t o t h e m u s i n g s o f L o p e z . W i e b e , a n d M o s s , w i t h the very starkness o f the visual images m e l d i n g impercepti b l y w i t h states o f i s o l a t i o n a n d d e p r i v a t i o n t o p r o d u c e a s t o r y . I n c o n t r a s t , S a r a W h e e l e r , i n Terra Incognita: Travels in Antarctica ( 1 9 9 6 ) , finds t h a t it is m a l e t e r r i tory, a place w h e r e m e n h a v e i m p o s e d their (imagined) mastery u p o n nature. I n s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s , o f c o u r s e , A n t a r c t i c a d i f f e r s f r o m t h e A r c t i c — n o t least in t h e absence o f a n i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n . F r a n c i s S p u f f o r d ' s a c c l a i m e d s t u d y o f t h e p o l a r r e g i o n s i n t h e E u r o p e a n i m a g i n a r y , / May Be Some Time: Ice and the English Imagination ( 1 9 9 6 ) , r e d r e s s e s t h e i m b a l a n c e , i n t r a v e l a c c o u n t s , o f p o l a r discourse. I n c o n f i r m a t i o n o f this b o o k ' s insistence o n t h e close relation b e t w e e n t r a v e l w r i t i n g a n d t h e t r a v e l i n d u s t r y , a L o n e l y P l a n e t Antarctica is n o w o n t h e travel guide shelves i n b o o k s t o r e s . 37. F o r a f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e d e s i r e t o b e c o m e i n d i g e n o u s , see t h e o p e n i n g c h a p t e r o f G o l d i e ' s Fear and Temptation (1989). S e e a l s o G o l d i e ' s r e a d i n g o f Wiebe's w o r k (191-214).

CHAPTER

THREE

1. I n f a i r n e s s t o P o r t e r , h e is p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d i n a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c approach to travel writing that explores the "transgressive" relationship between the father a n d his " e r r a n t " son; a n d i n fairness t o L e e d , he does include a chapter entitled " S p a c e a n d G e n d e r : W o m e n ' s M e d i a t i o n s , " in w h i c h he a n a l y z e s w h a t he i n f e l i c i t o u s l y calls " t h e g e n d e r i z a t i o n o f t r a v e l " : t h e i n c r e a s i n g c h a l l e n g e t o p a t r i a r c h a l m y t h s o f s p a c e , b e l o n g i n g , a n d m o v e m e n t t h a t o n c e d e s i g n a t e d t r a v e l as a " m a s c u l i n i z i n g a c t i v i t y " set o v e r a n d a g a i n s t a f e m i n i n i t y o f t e n seen as " r o o t e d i n p l a c e " ( 1 1 6 ) . F u s s e l l is p r o b a b l y t h e w o r s t o f f e n d e r , i m p l y i n g t h a t ( i n t e r w a r B r i t i s h ) " l i t e r a r y t r a v e l i n g " is a n o v e r w h e l m i n g l y m a l e t r a d i t i o n , a n d t h u s o v e r l o o k i n g the i m p o r t a n t w o r k o f . a m o n g several others, F r e y a S t a r k . S a r a Mills, in h e r s t u d y o f w o m e n ' s t r a v e l w r i t i n g , p u t s it b l u n t l y : " F u s s e l l e x p l i c i t l y r e f u s e s t o c o n s i d e r w o m e n t r a v e l w r i t e r s w i t h i n h i s a c c o u n t o f l i t e r a r y t r a v e l , as h e states t h a t they are n o t sufficiently c o n c e r n e d either w i t h travel o r w i t h w r i t i n g i t s e l f (3). 2. S a i d ' s h u g e l y i n f l u e n t i a l w o r k h a s b e e n c h a l l e n g e d b y a n u m b e r o f f e m i nist c r i t i c s f o r its m a s c u l i n i s t a n d / o r h e t e r o s e x u a l a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t c o l o n i a l e m p l a c e m e n t s o f p o w e r . See, f o r e x a m p l e , t h e criticism o f S a i d b y S a r a Suleri ( w h o s e a u t o b i o g r a p h y Meatless Days w i l l b e a n a l y z e d l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r ) i n The Rhetoric of English India, o r t h e r e j o i n d e r t o S a i d i n J u l i a E m b e r l e y ' s Thresholds of Difference ( 1 9 9 3 ) . 3. F o r a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f C l i f f o r d ' s w o r k , see Caren K a p l a n , Questions of Travel, e s p . 1 2 7 - 3 9 ; s e e a l s o bell h o o k s ' s c r i t i q u e o f C l i f f o r d ' s i n a t t e n t i o n t o b o t h ( t e n d e r a m i r a c i a l p o l i t i c s . C l i f f o r d a d d r e s s e s s o m e o f I h e s e c r i t i c i s m s in his m o s t

recent b o o k , r e f e r r i n g a p p r o v i n g l y t o t h e w o r k o f . l a n d W o l f f o n m a s c u l i n i s t b i a s e s in 1 h e n r i e s o f t r a v e l , a n d a d m i t t i n g t h e t e n d e n c y f o r " t h e o r e l i c a l a c c o u n t s o f d i a s p o r a * a n d d i a s p o r a : c u l t u r e s to talk o f i n i v e l and d i s p l i i M i n e u t w a y s , i l u i s n i i r n i s d i / i u i t m i d o i ' \ p « i i o i u : e s " (Ruinrx

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4. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , E l a i n e S h o w a l t e r ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e " w i l d z o n e " a s a liberated female space. 5. S e e , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e final s c e n e i n A Short Walk, w h e r e N e w b y a n d C a r less m e e t t h e c e l e b r a t e d e x p l o r e r ( a n d t r a v e l w r i t e r ) W i l f r e d T h e s i g e r . T h e s i g e r , after venting m u c h w r a t h at t h e general decline in British standards, turns his scornful attention t o his t w o awestruck British c o m p a n i o n s . ' " L e t ' s turn in,' he s a i d . . . . T h e g r o u n d w a s l i k e i r o n w i t h s h a r p r o c k s s t i c k i n g u p o u t o f it. W e s t a r t e d to b l o w u p o u r air-beds. ' G o d , y o u m u s t b e a c o u p l e o f pansies,' said T h e s i g e r " (248). S e e a l s o t h e n e x t s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r f o r a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f h o m o s e x u a l anxiety in c o n t e m p o r a r y travel writing. 6. S e e S a r a h H o b s o n , Through Persia in Disguise (1973); see a l s o V i r a g o P r e s s ' s r e r e l e a s e d d i a r y o f I s a b e l l e E b e r h a r d t , The Passionate Nomad (1987), a n d t h e b r i e f b u t i n t e r e s t i n g c o m m e n t a r y o n E b e r h a r d t i n G a r b e r , 324-29, 334-36. 7. S e e P a t r i c k H o l l a n d ' s u n p u b l i s h e d e s s a y o n M o r r i s , " ( P o s t ( i m p e r i a l N o s t a l g i a a n d P o s s e s s i o n . " A s H o l l a n d s u g g e s t s , h o w e v e r . M o r r i s ' s sex c h a n g e w a s a n d is a s o u r c e o f f a s c i n a t i o n t o o t h e r s — i n c l u d i n g o t h e r t r a v e l w r i t e r s . J o n a t h a n R a b a n a n d P a u l T h e r o u x , f o r e x a m p l e , b o t h d o c u m e n t their encounters w i t h the p o s t - s e x - c h a n g e M o r r i s . T h e r o u x d i s p l a y s less d e f e r e n c e t h a n h i s y o u n g e r c o l league R a b a n , a l t h o u g h , like R a b a n , he puts the subject o f M o r r i s ' s sex c h a n g e at t h e c e n t e r . W h e r e R a b a n finds M o r r i s w a r m l y a f f a b l e . T h e r o u x d e t e c t s s o m e t h i n g " m a l i c i o u s " i n h e r v o i c e . T h e r e is a l s o a h i n t o f p r o v o c a t i v e a n t a g o n i s m i n T h e r o u x ' s allusions t o t h e sex c h a n g e . I n s p e a k i n g o f W e l s h n a t i o n a l i s m , f o r instance. T h e r o u x s u g g e s t s t h a t it w a s s o m e t i m e s " l i k e a k i n d o f f e m i n i s m , v e r y m o n o t o n o u s a n d o n e - s i d e d " ; w h e n M o r r i s r e p l i e s t h a t t h i s s e e m s t o h e r a v e r y male v i e w o f t h e m a t t e r , T h e r o u x s n a p s b a c k , " D i d n ' t it l o o k t h a t w a y t o y o u w h e n y o u w e r e a m a n ? " — s p i t e f u l l y i m p l y i n g that M o r r i s ' s change has affected her ( " m a l e ' V ' r a t i o n a l " ) a b i l i t y t o see s u c h issues a s n a t i o n a l i s m a n d f e m i n i s m i n t h e i r p r o p e r p e r s p e c t i v e ( f o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s o f t h e e n c o u n t e r , see T h e r o u x , The Kingdom by the Sea). T h e r o u x ' s a n d R a b a n ' s r e s p e c t i v e e n c o u n t e r s i n d i c a t e t h e — n o t a l w a y s c o r d i a l — c o n n e c t i o n s that several c o n t e m p o r a r y travel writers like t o m a i n t a i n w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . T h e r o u x is p a r t i c u l a r l y f r a c t i o u s : see a l s o t h e testiness u n d e r l y i n g his c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h C h a t w i n o n Patagonia Revisited. 8. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e . G a r b e r ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f L a w r e n c e o f A r a b i a , a n d o f o t h e r O r i e n t a l i z e d H o l l y w o o d i c o n s , i n t h e c h a p t e r o f Vested Interests, " T h e C h i c o f A r a b y . " M o r r i s is m e n t i o n e d i n G a r b e r ' s b o o k , t h o u g h n o t i n a n y g r e a t d e t a i l ; b u t w h i l e G a r b e r r e f r a i n s f r o m t r e a t i n g M o r r i s ' s c a s e as a n o v e r s t a t e d t r a n s s e x u a l d r a m a , t h e r e is n o s t r o n g e v i d e n c e t o l i n k M o r r i s , as s h e d o e s , w i t h a " c u l t u r a l f a n t a s y t h a t p l a y e d i t s e l f o u t i n c r o s s - d r e s s i n g " (224). 9. S e e S a i d , Orientalism, e s p . " O r i e n t a l i s m N o w . " I n t e r e s t i n g l y , w i t h r e g a r d t o M o r r i s , S a i d ' s r i c h l y d o c u m e n t e d s t u d y h a s b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r its r e l a t i v e l a c k o f a t t e n t i o n t o s e x u a l — p a r t i c u l a r l y h o m o s e x u a l — p o l i t i c s (see a l s o n o t e 2 a b o v e ) . Suleri, w h o tends t o blame Said's followers rather than Said himself, d r a w s atten tion t o the "discourse o f e f f e m i n a c y " that traverses Orientalist representation. T h e " n a r r a t i v e s o f c o l o n i a l i s m . . . a s s u m e [ a ] p r e d o m i n a n t l y h o m o e r o t i c cast . . . [which] further suggests that the m a n i f o l d c o m p l i c a t i o n s that g e n d e r poses t o t h e c u l t u r a l l o c a t i o n o f t h e i m p e r i a l t a l e " (Rhetoric of English India 15-16). F o r a f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f c o l o n i a l i s l h o m o e r o l i c s , see I h e n e x t s e c t i o n o f this c h a p t e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e i i v n l m c n l o f A c k e r l e y ' s Hindoo Holiday.

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10. S e e t h e n e x t s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r f o r a m o r e e x t e n d e d d i s c u s s i o n o f s o m e o f these " ' m a s k i n g " tactics. 1 1 . Desert Places is t h e title o f D a v i d s o n ' s l a t e s t b o o k ( 1 9 9 6 ) . T2. T h e desert remains a favorite t o p o s o f W e s t e r n travel writers. S e e C h a t w i n ' s The Songlines, f o r i n s t a n c e , a n d C h a t w i n a n d T h e r o u x ' s P a t a g o n i a n narratives. C h a t w i n a n d T h e r o u x b o t h seem t o b e attracted t o P a t a g o n i a f o r the s a m e r e a s o n B o r g e s ( w h o m T h e r o u x m e e t s ) h a t e s it. A s B o r g e s s a y s , ' " [ P a t a g o n i a ] is d r e a r y . . . t h e g a t e o f t h e h u n d r e d s o r r o w s . . . . T h e r e is n o t h i n g i n P a t a g o n i a . It's n o t t h e S a h a r a , b u t i t ' s as c l o s e as y o u c a n g e t t o it i n A r g e n t i n a . N o , t h e r e is n o t h i n g t h e r e " ( q t d . i n Old Patagonian Express 3 7 4 , 3 7 7 ) . Y e t it is p r e c i s e l y t h e u n r e m i t t i n g harshness a n d absence o f features that m a k e the desert so c o m p e l l i n g : as D a v i d s o n s a y s i n Tracks, " T h e s e l f i n a d e s e r t b e c o m e s m o r e a n d m o r e l i k e t h e d e s e r t . I t b e c o m e s l i m i t l e s s , w i t h its r o o t s m o r e i n t h e s u b c o n s c i o u s t h a n t h e c o n scious—it gets s t r i p p e d o f n o n - m e a n i n g f u l h a b i t s a n d b e c o m e s c o n c e r n e d w i t h realities r e l a t e d t o s u r v i v a l . B u t as is its n a t u r e , it d e s p e r a t e l y w a n t s t o a s s i m i l a t e a n d m a k e s e n s e o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n it r e c e i v e s , w h i c h i n a d e s e r t is a l m o s t a l w a y s g o i n g t o be translated into the l a n g u a g e o f m y s t i c i s m " (197). 13. S e e L u t z a n d C o l l i n s ' s u n c o m p r o m i s i n g s t u d y , Reading National Geo graphic. A s L u t z a n d C o l l i n s s u g g e s t , t h e m a g a z i n e is, b y a n y s t a n d a r d s , a p h e n o m e n a l success s t o r y , r e p r e s e n t i n g f o r i t s A m e r i c a n — a n d . i n c r e a s i n g l y , i n t e r n a t i o n a l — p u b l i c a sanitized e x o t i c w o r l d that c o n f i r m s A m e r i c a n s e l f - w o r t h . See p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e o v e r v i e w c h a p t e r s (1 a n d 2 ) a n d t h e e x t e n d e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e f u n c l i o n o f p h o t o g r a p h y i n c h a p t e r s 3, 4 , a n d 7 . 14. S e e h e r e J a n i c e R a d w a y ' s r e a d i n g o f r o m a n c e a s a p o t e n t i a l l y l i b e r a t i n g form. 1 5 . O n t h e p r o b l e m a t i c r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t o u r i s m a n d d e v e l o p m e n t , see a l s o M a c C a n n e l l , The Tourist, 1 7 0 - 7 2 , a n d K r o t z . c h a p s . 3 - 7 . 1 6 . S e e B e r n a r d S m i t h . European Vision and the South Pacific ( 1 9 8 5 ) , f o r a d i s tinction between "soft p r i m i t i v i s m " - the native as N o b l e Savage- -and " h a r d p r i m i t i v i s m " — t h e n a t i v e as d e p r a v e d b a r b a r i a n . I t seems likely that the a n t h r o p o l o g y c o u r s e s V a r a w a ( t h e n M c l n t y r e ) t o o k i n C a l i f o r n i a i n t h e sixties d e b u n k e d 1 he p r i m i t i v i s t m y t h s t h a t a r e s o v i g o r o u s l y r e i n s t a l l e d h e r e . V a r a w a ' s " u n c o m m o n a n t h r o p o l o g y , " w i t h its glossary a n d " N o t e s o n C u s t o m s " f o r the l a y m a n , p r o v i d e s a r e m i n d e r o f t h e r a c i s t i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t r a v e l w r i t i n g w h e n it m a s q u e r a d e s as ( p o p u l a r ) e t h n o g r a p h y . B u t it a l s o d r a w s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e e x o t i c i s t p o t e n t i a l t h a t a l r e a d y exists w i t h i n e t h n o g r a p h y , a p o t e n t i a l t h a t V a r a w a seeks, h o w e v e r c r u d e l y , lo exploit. 17. See, for e x a m p l e , Stevenson's colorfully e m b r o i d e r e d novella, " T h e B e a c h o f F a l e s a , " o f w h i c h h e b o a s t e d a t t h e t i m e t h a t h e h a d w r i t t e n " t h e first r e a l i s t i c S o u t h S e a s t o r y " ! O n S t e v e n s o n ' s p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e S o u t h S e a s , see a l s o K n i g h t . M e a d ' s r e l e v a n t w o r k i n c l u d e s t h e classic Coming of Age in Samoa, t h e " m e t i c u l o u s n e s s " o f w h i c h has been called in q u e s t i o n , m o s t n o t o r i o u s l y b y D e r e k f r e e m a n . F o r a " c o r r e c t i v e " t o w h a t J a m e s C l i f f o r d has a p t l y called the " c o u n t e r m y t h o l o g i e s " o f M e a d a n d F r e e m a n , see t h e l i t e r a r y a n a l y s e s o f B i l l P e a r s o n a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h e " c o u n t e r - e t h n o g r a p h i c " fictions o f W e n d t . E l s e w h e r e i n his w o r k , I k - S a m o a a W e n d t h a s g i v e n s h o r t shrift t o H u m - A m e r i c a n t r a v e l w r i t i n g , w h i c h lie 'ires as c o n t i n u i n g t o c o n s p i r e in i m p e r i a l i s t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e S o u t h P a c i f i c ( s e e , particularly, the essay " T o w a r d a N e w ( J e e a n i a " ) . 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p a r a d i s e , " h o w e v e r t i r e d a n d t i r e s o m e , is still p r o d u c t i v e , as h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d b y , a m o n g o t h e r s , P a u l T h e r o u x . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f T h e r o u x ' s The Happy Isles of Oceania i n c h a p t e r 2 o f this b o o k a n d , m o s t r e c e n t l y , D e a B i r k e t t , w h o s e S e r p e n t in P a r a d i s e ( 1 9 9 7 ) p r o v i d e s a u s e f u l a n t i d o t e t o t h e excesses o f I r v i n e a n d V a r a w a . 18. O n t h e p r a c t i c e o f " o t h e r i n g " i n t r a v e l w r i t i n g , see M i l l s , 8 8 - 9 2 . C o n d e n s ing the w o r k o f S a i d , L e v i - S t r a u s s , F a b i a n , P r a t t , a n d others, Mills demonstrates t h a t t h e " o t h e r i n g " p r o c e s s is i n t r i n s i c t o E u r o p e a n t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s , w h i c h t e n d t o assert, explicitly o r i m p l i c i t l y , the s u p r e m a c y o f the traveler-writer's culture, e v e n w h e n t h a t c u l t u r e ( a s i n I r v i n e ' s a n d V a r a w a ' s cases) is s u b j e c t t o c r i t i q u e . O n t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n " o t h e r i n g " a n d t h e e t h n i c b o d y , see a l s o L u t z a n d C o l l i n s , e s p . c h a p . 3; T r i n h M i n h - h a , e s p . 7 9 - 1 1 8 ; a n d t h e i n f l u e n t i a l w o r k o f S p i v a k . 19. I n h e r w o r k o n p o s t c o l o n i a l a u t o b i o g r a p h y , L i o n n e t d i s t i n g u i s h e s — p e r h a p s t o o s h a r p l y — b e t w e e n t h e m o r e o r less i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c t r a d i t i o n o f w h i t e W e s t ern a u t o b i o g r a p h y a n d the m o r e c o m m u n i t y - o r i e n t e d autobiographies o f "ethnic" ( n o n - W e s t e r n ) w r i t e r s . F o r f u r t h e r r e l e v a n t d i s c u s s i o n s o f a u t o b i o g r a p h y , see C a r e n K a p l a n ' s a n d W a r l e y ' s e s s a y s i n AIB, a n d t h e e s s a y s i n S m i t h a n d W a t s o n . 2 0 . T h e t e r m " c o u n t e r m e m o r y " is d e r i v e d h e r e f r o m t h e w o r k o f t h e F r e n c h historian M i c h e l F o u c a u l t . F o r F o u c a u l t , c o u n t e r m e m o r y opposes a progressivist view o f history underpinned b y notions o f identity, continuity, a n d tradition. Suleri's text also implicitly u n d e r c u t s this " a n t i q u a r i a n " v i e w o f history, replacing it w i t h t h e d y n a m i c , r a d i c a l l y d i s c o n t i n u o u s m i c r o h i s t o r i e s o f t h e b o d y . 2 1 . T h e q u e s t i o n o f a u d i e n c e is p a r a m o u n t i n a n y s t u d y o f t r a v e l w r i t i n g . S e e the preface o f this b o o k f o r s o m e p r e l i m i n a r y observations, w h i c h are connected t o p e r c e p t i o n s o f t r a v e l a n d t r a v e l w r i t i n g as p o p u l a r p h e n o m e n a . A n i n - d e p t h s t u d y o f audience, similar perhaps to R a d w a y ' s w o r k o n the reception o f r o m a n c e , remains t o be u n d e r t a k e n — s o m e u s e f u l p o i n t e r s a r e p r o v i d e d b y M i l l s i n c h a p t e r 4 o f Dis courses of Difference. T h e d e t a i l e d s o c i o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h t h a t s u c h a s t u d y r e q u i r e s is u n f o r t u n a t e l y b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f a n i n t r o d u c t o r y s u r v e y s u c h as this o n e . 2 2 . M i l l s ' s e m p h a s i s is o n t h e r a n g e o f " d i s c u r s i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s " a n d r o l e s i n w o m e n ' s t r a v e l w r i t i n g . T h i s " d i s c u r s i v e " a p p r o a c h is v a l u a b l e i n c o m p l i c a t i n g , a n d sometimes correcting, naive celebrations o f w o m e n ' s travel/travel writing that c h a m p i o n female bravery. 2 3 . T h e list a b o v e c o u l d o b v i o u s l y be a d d e d t o ; f o r w o m e n ' s t r a v e l w r i t i n g is in a " b o o m " p h a s e , f o r r e a s o n s p a r t l y e x p l a i n e d a b o v e , e v e n i f w o m e n ' s n a r r a t i v e s c o n t i n u e ( f o r r e a s o n s a l s o p a r t l y e x p l a i n e d ) t o b e o u t n u m b e r e d b y m e n ' s . I t is interesting t o note that w o m e n ' s travel writing, t o a far greater extent t h a n men's, is d o m i n a t e d b y t h e a n t h o l o g y ( a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s e l e c t i o n h e r e m i g h t i n c l u d e M o r ris's Maiden Voyages, d e T e r a n ' s Indiscreet Journeys, G o v i e r ' s Without a Guide: Contemporary Women's Travel Adventures, a n d , m o s t r e c e n t l y , B i r k e t t a n d W h e e l e r ' s Amazonian: The Penguin Book of Women's New Travel Writing). W h i l e t h i s is a s i g n , as p r e v i o u s l y s u g g e s t e d , o f t h e c u r r e n t c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f " w o m e n ' s w r i t i n g , " it m i g h t a l s o b e t a k e n as a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t w o m e n ' s t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s a r e seen as o c c u p y i n g a special p r o v i n c e o f travel w r i t i n g , a n d are thus i m p l i c i t l y f a l s e l y — c o n s i d e r e d as b e i n g less w i d e - r a n g i n g t h a n m e n ' s . F o r f u r t h e r t h o u g h t s o n t h i s issue ( a m o n g o t h e r s ) i n w o m e n ' s t r a v e l w r i t i n g , see K r o l l e r . 2 4 . T h e issue o f t e r m i n o l o g y homosexual, gay, o r queer h a s r e c e n t l y b e c o m e p a r t i c u l a r l y t r i c k y . I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n t h a t f o l l o w s i n this s e c t i o n , homose.s mil a p p e a r s as a p r o v i s i o n a l c a t e g o r y m u r k e r ; gay signifies h o m o s e x u a l (sell'-jpic s e n l a l i o n w h e r e a l i b e r a l i n n i s l inlli-ciuui seems a p p r o p r i a t e ; a n d queer is u s e d t o • ;1

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s u g g e s t a p r o v o c a t i v e c o u n t e r d i s c o u r s e . Queer is t h e m o s t p r o b l e m a t i c o f t h e t e r m s , since u n t i l r e c e n t l y it t e n d e d t o s i g n a l t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n o f b o u n d a r i e s ; its i n e x p l i c i t n e s s , h o w e v e r , f r e q u e n t l y s e p a r a t e s it f r o m c o n t e m p o r a r y d e p l o y m e n t . F o r a g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e t h r e e t e r m s i n t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s , see J a g o s e . 2 5 . A B e l g i a n c h a r a c t e r i n A l a n H o l l i n g h u r s t ' s n o v e l The Folding Star ( 1 9 9 4 ) tells a y o u n g e r E n g l i s h f r i e n d o f his e a r l i e r s e x u a l a t t a c h m e n t t o a n o l d e r , w o r k i n g class m a n : " I ' m s u r e t h e r e w a s t h a t class t h i n g , t o o , w h i c h y o u ' r e s u p p o s e d t o h a v e m u c h w o r s e than u s — t h e place a n d the event conspired t o m a k e m e think o f h i m as a , w h a t ' s t h e w o r d , a w o o d l a n d e r " ( 4 0 8 ) . 26. A c k e r l e y ' s m a l e selection contrasts w i t h that o f F o r s t e r , w h o " u n d e r s t o o d M o h a m m e d a n s as h e d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d H i n d u s " ( F u r b a n k 2 : 9 9 ) ; i n Hindoo Hol iday, A c k e r l e y ' s M u s l i m t u t o r is t h e r e j e c t e d y o u t h , a f o i l f o r t h e a t t r a c t i v e y o u n g Hindus Sharma and Narayan. 27. Saros C o w a s j e e provides useful i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t A c k e r l e y ' s b o o k a n d its r e c e p t i o n i n his i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a r e p r i n t i n g o f t h e s e c o n d ( 1 9 5 2 ) e d i t i o n , w h i c h was w i t h d r a w n before publication. 2 8 . I n 1985 J o h n F u l l e r " f o u n d " t h e m a n u s c r i p t , d a t e d 1 9 2 9 , i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T e x a s l i b r a r y . I t r e m a i n s u n c l e a r t o w h a t e x t e n t The Temple ( 1 9 8 8 ) is a r e w r i t e o f t h e o r i g i n a l l y u n p u b l i s h e d w o r k o r w h e t h e r it is v i r t u a l l y a n e w n o v e l ; S p e n d e r h i m s e l f h a s . s a i d t h a t h e relied h e a v i l y o n t h e e a r l i e r m a n u s c r i p t f o r t w o s e c t i o n s . B u t h e h a d a l r e a d y sent a n " i n t e r m e d i a t e v e r s i o n " t o A u d e n a n d I s h e r w o o d , a m o n g o t h e r s ; it is e v e n p o s s i b l e t h a t I s h e r w o o d d r e w o n it f o r Goodbye to Berlin, a l t h o u g h it is e q u a l l y l i k e l y t h a t S p e n d e r , i n t u r n , d r e w o n e a r l i e r w o r k b y I s h e r w o o d ( t h e n o v e l t h a t t h e y o u n g B r a d s h a w is w o r k i n g o n as P a u l leaves L o n d o n f o r H a m b u r g m a y w e l l r e p r e s e n t a p r o j e c t o f I s h e r w o o d ' s ) . A t a n y r a t e , t h e r e are c l e a r i n t e r t e x t u a l l i n k s b e t w e e n S p e n d e r ' s w o r k a n d t h a t o f his f r i e n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e figure o f O t t o , a n I s h e r w o o d p r o t e g e i n b o t h Goodbye to Berlin a n d The Temple. A l s o c l e a r is t h a t S p e n d e r , r e v i s i t i n g a m a n u s c r i p t piece t h a t h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a shared experience o f E n g l i s h h o m o s e x u a l i t y i n G e r m a n y , heightened the earlier w o r k ' s quotient o f political a n d m o r a l allegory. 2 9 . A n o t h e r p a s s a g e i n H o l l i n g h u r s f s A Folding Star (see n . 2 5 ) s u g g e s t s t h e c o n n e c t i o n : " O n c e i n s i d e t h e h e a v y s o u n d - p r o o f e d d o o r w i t h its little w i r e d j u d a s I w a s i n a p l a c e so f a m i l i a r . . . T h e r e w a s t h e s a m e m a d d e l u s i o n o f g l a m o u r , t h e same over-priced lawdriness, the s a m e ditsy p a r o c h i a l i s m a n d sullen l a r d y q u e e n e r y , a n d u n d e r n e a t h it all t h e s a m e u r g e n c y a n d d e f i a n c e " ( 2 1 ) . 30. A u s t r a l i a n g a y w r i t e r R o b e r t D e s s a i x p e r h a p s e c h o e s B u s i i n h i s p o s t m o d e r n t r a v e l m e m o i r / f i c t i o n Night Letters ( 1 9 9 6 ) . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f Night Let ters, see c h a p t e r 4 o f t h i s b o o k . 3 1 . M r a b e t is s o m e w h e r e o n t h e sidelines, r e s i s t i n g m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n , i n m a n y o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s c o l l e c t e d i n C a p o n i ' s Conversations with Paid Bowles ( 1 9 9 3 ) . 32. I n My Kenya Days ( 1 9 9 4 ) , W i l f r e d T h e s i g e r a l s o a u g m e n t s a n d a u t h e n t i cates a h o m o e r o t i c , q u a s i - a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a c c o u n t o f his t r a v e l s i n E a s t A f r i c a with idealizing photographs o f attractive native y o u t h . ' 33. W h i t e ' s b o o k m a y well b e the inspiration b e h i n d the emergence o f the s u b g e n r e o f " g a y t r a v e l g u i d e s , " a s i g n i f i c a n t c a t e g o r y t h a t is r e l a t e d t o t h e g a y I r a v e l o g u e , b u t is n o t u n d e r s c r u t i n y i n t h i s s t u d y . 34. F o r a n a o c o u n l o f q u e e r p e r f o r m a t i v i t y a n d its c o n t e s t a t i o n s , see J a g o s e , /.'. 1 2 6 . J u d i t h B u t l e r ' s i n f l u e n t i a l Gender Trouble s h o u l d a l s o b e a c k n o w l e d g e d , m i l least for its i i i d i u r i link i n t h e title c h o s e n for this cluipk-i'.

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35- P a t r i c k L e i g h F e r m o r a r g u a b l y m e r i t s m o r e t h a n a p a s s i n g r e f e r e n c e . P a r t o f the m a n d a r i n tradition o f E n g l i s h gentleman-eccentric-stylists that perhaps cul m i n a t e s i n B r u c e C h a t w i n , h e a c h i e v e d t h e s t a t u s o f m i n o r c u l t figure w i t h t h e a n a c h r o n i s t i c A Time of Gifts (1977). M a r k C o c k e r ' s t r i b u t e is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c : " I n a literary age c o n s u m e d w i t h t h e literary p r i z e , f o u r o f his w o r k s h a v e b e e n h o n o u r e d w i t h s i x a w a r d s . H e is t h e m o s t o b v i o u s h e i r t o [ R o b e r t ] B y r o n ' s p r e - w a r m a n t l e as leading philhellene a m o n g s t British writers a n d as the travel b o o k ' s great stylist" ( C o c k e r 195). 36. T h i s p o i n t e m e r g e s v e r y c l e a r l y f r o m a r e c e n t t r a v e l o g u e , i n w h i c h a h i g h l y a r t i c u l a t e b u t t e m p o r a r i l y d e s t i t u t e g a y m a n t a k e s t o t h e streets a n d r o a d s o f t h e A m e r i c a n S o u t h w e s t . I n Travels with Lizbeth (1993), L a r s E i g h n e r m a k e s a v i r t u e o f e c o n o m i c p o w e r l e s s n e s s , a p p a r e n t l y r e f u s i n g t o enlist h i s s e x u a l e n d o w m e n t s t o p r o d u c e e c o n o m i c g a i n s . H e p r e s e n t s h i m s e l f as e c o n o m i c , n o t g a y , v i c t i m : he c a n t a k e his sexuality f o r g r a n t e d , b u t n o t his joblessness o r his p o v e r t y .

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1. I t is p o s s i b l e t o a r g u e , a l s o , t h a t s p a c e a n d p l a c e h a v e b e c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y " < f e o n t o l o g i z e d " ; a s U m b e r t o E c o , f o r e x a m p l e , h a s it, " t h e l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n R e a l W o r l d s a n d P o s s i b l e W o r l d s h a s b e e n d e f i n i t i v e l y u n d e r m i n e d " (14). 2. S e e . f o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e c e n t , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y s n i d e a c c o u n t s b y B r o o k and Amis. 3. S e c a l s o t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f C h a t w i n ' s w o r k i n c h a p t e r 1 o f this b o o k . 4. F o r a n o t h e r , t h e o r e t i c a l l y i n f l e c t e d a c c o u n t o f " n o m a d i c " c u l t u r e , a l s o d i s t i n c t f r o m C h a t w i n ' s e n t e r p r i s e , see D e l e u z e a n d G u a t t a r i . S e e a l s o A s c h e r s o n ' s h i s t o r y / t r a v e l b o o k Black Sea (1996), e s p . 55-86, f o r a l a y e r e d , h i s t o r i c i z e d d i s c u s s i o n o f n o m a d i s m a n d n o m a d o l o g y . A s c h e r s o n , glancing particularly in Bruce C h a t w i n ' s direction, writes p o i n t e d l y o f " E u r o p e ' s long, unfinished ballad o f y e a r n i n g f o r noble savages, f o r hunter-gatherers i n t o u c h w i t h themselves a n d their ecology, f o r c o w b o y s , cattle-rievers, gypsies a n d C o s s a c k s , f o r B e d o u i n n o m a d s a n d aboriginals w a l k i n g t h e i r s o n g - l i n e s t h r o u g h t h e u n s p o i l e d w i l d e r n e s s " (83). A s c h e r s o n alerts u s t o the t e n d e n c y (present in C h a m b e r s as well as C h a t w i n ) t o a b n e g a t e history a n d context, eliding enforced m i g r a n c y w i t h the " f r e e d o m " o f the n o m a d . 5. N e i t h e r H I V n o r A I D S is e x p l i c i t l y n a m e d a s t h e c o n d i t i o n o f D e s s a i x ' s traveler. Interestingly, as in a surprising n u m b e r o f c o n t e m p o r a r y travel fictions, t h e t r a v e l e r tells a s t o r y a b o u t C h a t w i n t h a t s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e " o u t i n g " o f A I D S , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t r a v e l , is t r a n s g r e s s i v e : " H a r r y s t a r t e d t e l l i n g t h e s t o r y o f B r u c e C h a t w i n ' s s l o w d e c l i n e . . . . I t w a s a l o n g s t o r y — t h e illness i n I n d i a , t h e t w o - h o u r struggles t o get t o t h e b a t h r o o m a n d b a c k u n a i d e d , e v e r y tiny, ghastly detail. T h e consensus, o f course, w a s that C h a t w i n h a d A I D S , although the m o m e n t H a r r y m e n t i o n e d t h e w o r d o n t h e t e l e p h o n e [ t o C h a t w i n ] , t h e calls c e a s e d . A t a b o o h a d b e e n b r o k e n . V e r y E n g l i s h " ( D e s s a i x 104). F o r a f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e A I D S e p i d e m i c f o r t r a v e l w r i t e r s , see c h a p t e r s 2 a n d 3. 6. D e s s a i x ' s t r a v e l e r b e l i e v e s t h a t " [ t ] h e r e w i l l a l w a y s b e s o m e t h i n g a b o u t the bisexual a n d h o m o s e x u a l male which favours a picaresque existence—and s o m e t h i n g a b o u t a picaresque existence w h i c h will a l w a y s h a v e h o m o s e x u a l o v e r t o n e s " (225). S e e a l s o t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f A l d o B u s i ' s w o r k in c h a p t e r 3 o f I his b o o k . 7. F o r a f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of 1 Ins m c l a l i c t i o n i i l a n d s e l f - r e f l e x i v e a s p e c t s o f I I U T O U X ' S work, see (lie e s s a y s hy t i l a s e r . • |(>

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8. O n e e x a m p l e is N a i p a u l ' s The Enigma of Arrival a n a l y z e d i n c h a p t e r i o f this b o o k . 9. O n m i l l e n a r i a n i s m , see C o h n ; see a l s o t h e e s s a y s i n R a b k i n , G r e e n b e r g , and Olander. 10. L e v i - S t r a u s s is a s p e c t r a l f i g u r e h o v e r i n g b e h i n d m u c h o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y e n v i r o n m e n t a l l i t e r a t u r e . Tristes Tropiques, i n p a r t i c u l a r , h a s h a d a g r e a t i n f l u e n c e o n w h a t J a m e s C l i f f o r d calls t h o s e " s a l v a g e n a r r a t i v e s " t h a t t a k e it u p o n themselves t o "rescue" e n d a n g e r e d peoples, animals, a n d cultures ( " O n E t h n o g r a p h i c A l l e g o r y " ) . L e v i - S t r a u s s h a d seen h i s f a m o u s e t h n o g r a p h y o f t h e " d e t e r i o r a t i n g " i n d i g e n o u s t r i b e s o f c e n t r a l B r a z i l a s n o t h i n g less t h a n a n a c t o f a t o n e m e n t f o r t h e " c i v i l i z a t i o n " — h i s — t h a t c o r r u p t e d t h e m ; this spiritual d i m e n s i o n , a n d t h e guilty conscience t h a t inspired it, c a n also b e f o u n d i n several c o n t e m p o rary travel narratives that popularize Levi-Strauss's sentiments w i t h o u t imitating his s t r u c t u r a l m e t h o d s . F o r e m o s t a m o n g t h e s e a r e t h e e t h n o g r a p h i c / n a t u r e s t u d i e s o f P e t e r M a t t h i e s s e n , w h o s e e c o l o g i c a l j e r e m i a d The Cloud Forest (1961) w i l l b e dealt w i t h later i n this section. 11. T h e t e r m is e x p l a i n e d m o r e f u l l y i n C l i f f o r d ' s " O n E t h n o g r a p h i c A l l e gory." 12. M a t t h i e s s e n , i n k e e p i n g w i t h s e v e r a l o t h e r p o s t - L e v i - S t r a u s s t r a v e l w r i t ers, l a m e n t s t h e l o s s o f " a u t h e n t i c i t y " t h a t h a s c o m e w i t h t h e i n c u r s i o n o f t h e w h i t e m a n . E n c o u n t e r s w i t h t h e white m a n , he implies simplistically, can o n l y h a v e neg ative consequences: " I n S o u t h A m e r i c a , w i t h few exceptions, the tribe that permits itself t o c o m e i n t o c o m p l e t e c o n t a c t w i t h the w h i t e m a n , o n t h e w h i t e m a n ' s t e r m s , h a s p e r h a p s a h a l f - c e n t u r y o f e x i s t e n c e left t o i t " {The Cloud Forest 223). F o r a c r i t i q u e o f t h i s r o m a n t i c v i e w , see t h e w o r k o f M a c C a n n e l l a n d C l i f f o r d , f o r w h o m " a u t h e n t i c i t y " is a t a l i s m a n o f white p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e " n a t i v e o t h e r " : it is " s o m e t h i n g p r o d u c e d , n o t s a l v a g e d " ( C l i f f o r d , The Predicament of Culture 250), a n d s e r v e s t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e ' s n e e d s . I t is s t r i k i n g h o w o f t e n t h e t e r m i n o l o g y n o w c o n s i d e r e d d a t e d i n a n t h r o p o l o g y is p i c k e d u p i n c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a v e l w r i t i n g a s p a r t o f its n o s t a l g i c s t o c k - i n - t r a d e . S e e h e r e t h e t r e a t m e n t o f V a r a w a ' s " u n c o m m o n a n t h r o p o l o g y " in t h e p r e v i o u s chapter; also t h e discussion o f V a n der P o s t ' s w o r k that follows i n this section. 13. T h e w o r k o f A l i B e h d a d is u s e f u l h e r e i n e l u c i d a t i n g t h e v a r i o u s s t r a t e g i e s that travel writers d e p l o y t o recuperate o r " c o n s e r v e " — a n " o t h e r " u n d e r threat o f disappearance. B e h d a d distinguishes between t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a l g u i d e b o o k , w i t h its c u r a t o r i a l r e t e n t i v e n e s s , a n d t h e t r a v e l o g u e , w h i c h e n c o u r a g e s a n i l l u s i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e ( q u e s t i n g ) t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r (44-45). C o n t e m p o r a r y t r a v e l n a r ratives, b a l a n c e d b e t w e e n d o c u m e n t a t i o n a n d fabrication, m a y use b o t h o f these r e c u p e r a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s , a l t h o u g h — a s is t h e case w i t h M a t t h i e s s e n ' s a n d V a n d e l P o s t ' s — w h a t i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y p r o v i d e is o f t e n o v e r s h a d o w e d b y t h e t r a v e l e r ' s i n y t h o l o g i z e d quest. F o r further attempts t o clarify, a n d complicate, t h e distinc t i o n b e t w e e n t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s a n d g u i d e b o o k s , see t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e p o s t ' script t o t h i s b o o k . 14. T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e o f N e w A g e I r a v e l o g u e s , w h i c h a r e o f t e n p r o d u c e d " i n c o n j u n c t i o n " w i t h A b o r i g i n a l s h a m a n s , o r in w h i c h t h e t r a v e l e r - w r i t e r , t i d i n g its a n i n t e r m e d i a r y , " c h a n n e l s " A b o r i g i n a l w i s d o m . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f C H H I I I I N N I I I ' S a n d . e s p e c i a l l y . M o r g a n ' s w o r k l a t e r in this s e c t i o n . 1 v It is o n e o f tin; i r o n i c ; o l 1 r a v e l wiiiiii),' t h a i its f r e q u e n t appeals t o " t u n e N O

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less n a t u r e " o r t h e " t i m e l e s s e s s e n c e s " o f n a t i v e c u l t u r e s e f f e c t i v e l y r o b t h e v e r y cultures they celebrate o f their h i s t o r y — a n d their agency f o r change. 16. F o r f u r t h e r b a c k g r o u n d o n t h e l i n k s b e t w e e n t r a v e l w r i t i n g , t o u r i s m , a n d s p i r i t u a l q u e s t , r e f e r b a c k t o c h a p t e r 2 ( t h e w o r k o f B a r r y L o p e z ) ; see a l s o c h a p t e r 5 o f L e e d ; the w o r k o f N e l s o n G r a b u r n : the essays i n B h a r d w a j , R i n s c h e d e , a n d S i e v e r s ; a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y , G i t a M e h t a , Karma Cola: Marketing the Mystic East (1979). M e h t a ' s b o o k , a n acerbic backlash at t h e pretensions o f the "spiritual t o u r i s t , " s h o u l d b e r e q u i r e d r e a d i n g f o r t r a v e l w r i t e r s w h o see t h e i r j o u r n e y s , u n c r i t i c a l l y , as " p i l g r i m a g e s . " A m o n g t h o s e w h o s h o u l d r e a d it is R u d o l p h W u r l i t z e r , t h e s c r e e n w r i t e r f o r B e r t o l u c c i ' s The Little Buddha, w h o s e b o o k Hard Travel to Sacred Places ( 1 9 9 4 ) is v e r y m u c h grist t o M e h t a ' s m i l l . A m u c h s u b t l e r e x a m p l e , a n d t h e a c k n o w l e d g e d classic o f i t s s u b g e n r e , is P e t e r M a t t h i e s s e n ' s The Snow Leopard ( 1 9 8 7 ) . 1 7 . F o r a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o N e w A g e c o n c e r n s , see R h o d e s ; see a l s o t h e e s s a y s in L e w i s a n d M e l t o n a n d i n H o y t a n d Y a m a m o t o . 1 8 . C a s t a n e d a ' s " D o n J u a n " t r i l o g y (The Teachings of Don Juan, 1 9 6 8 ; A Sep arate Reality, 1 9 7 1 ; Journey to Ixtlan, 1 9 7 2 ) c a n p e r h a p s o n l y b e c o n s i d e r e d p e r i p h e r a l l y as t r a v e l w r i t i n g , e v e n t h o u g h it f a m o u s l y d o c u m e n t s a v a r i e t y o f w e i r d a n d w o n d e r f u l d r u g - i n d u c e d " t r i p s . " T h e r e c o r d o f the h a l l u c i n a t o r y " t r i p , " itself a s u r r o g a t e f o r m o f travel, b e c o m e s a n o t h e r limit case f o r travel w r i t i n g ' s o n t o l o g i cal s t a t u s : a s t a t u s t h a t , as p r e v i o u s l y a r g u e d , is n o t a n d c a n n o t b e r i g o r o u s l y f i x e d . 1 9 . H a r v e y (Condition of Postmodernity, e s p . c h a p . 1) a n d F r e d r i c J a m e s o n are the best k n o w n o f a large g r o u p o f p o s t m o d e r n theorists w h o insist o n p o s t m o d e r n i s m ' s connections w i t h late-capitalist c o m m o d i t y culture. Seen in this c o n t e x t , t h e N e w A g e e m e r g e s as v e r y m u c h a p o s t m o d e r n p h e n o m e n o n : a n o t h e r s i g n o f t h e m a s s i v e r e a c h a n d s c o p e o f W e s t e r n c o m m o d i t y c u l t u r e , a n d o f its c a p a c i t y to ransack the w h o l e range o f h u m a n experience—material a n d spiritual—for c o n sumer goods. 2 0 . N e w A g e s o u l - s e a r c h i n g is a l s o a s y m p t o m o f t h e p o s t m o d e r n c u l t o f self: see h e r e D e a n M a c C a n n e l l ' s e x t r a o r d i n a r y a t t a c k o n p o s t m o d e r n i s m i n " T h e D e s i r e t o b e P o s t m o d e r n " (Empty Meeting Grounds 1 8 3 - 2 2 9 ) . " [ I ] n C a l i f o r n i a , " says M a c C a n n e l l sneeringly, " i n precisely those regions that are the m o s t m a r k e d l y p o s t m o d e r n , w e also hear a l m o s t constant chatter a b o u t 'getting i n t o u c h w i t h ' o n e ' s o w n ' t r u e , ' ' i n n e r ' f e e l i n g s , ' c e n t e r i n g ' a n d s o o n . T h e p r e d i c t a b l e r e s u l t is a n aggressive p r o m o t i o n o f the ego a n d i n d i v i d u a l i s m " (188). 2 1 . S e e , b y w a y o f c o m p a r i s o n , H e n r y S h u k m a n ' s Savage Pilgrims ( 1 9 9 6 ) . S h u k m a n , a l t h o u g h e q u a l l y w h i m s i c a l i n c a t a l o g u i n g N e w A g e e c c e n t r i c i t i e s , is less a c e r b i c t h a n M c G r a t h , a n d less r e v e a l i n g o f t h e w r i t e r ' s a n g s t .

POSTSCRIPT 1. F o r o t h e r c o m m e n t s o n T i s d a l e ' s p r o v o c a t i v e a r t i c l e , see K r o t z , 1 8 3 - 8 4 . 2. V a r i a t i o n s o n t h i s t h e m e i n c l u d e M i l l m a n , Last Places ( 1 9 9 0 ) ; M i d d l e t o n , The Last Disco in Outer Mongolia ( 1 9 9 2 ) ; W i n c h e s t e r , Outposts ( 1 9 8 5 ) ; a n d I y e r , Falling Off the Map ( 1 9 9 3 ) . 3. R o b e r t B y r o n ' s The Road to O.xiana, v o l u m e 2 i n t h e series, c a r r i e s a n i n t r o d u c t i o n b y C h a t w i n ; t h e f o u n d i n g v o l u m e is A p s l e y C h e r r y - G a r r a r d ' s The Worst Journey in the World. 4. T h e o m i s s i o n o f w o m e n ' s lexl.s l i m n I Y . i m u t t ' s s e l e c t i o n s e e m s l o b e a r o u t

T i s d a l e ' s o b s e r v a t i o n a b o u t t h e c l a s s i c t r a v e l b o o k , t h a t it is " a little b i t s a c r e d a n d m a s c u l i n e . I t despises the masses a n d loves the u n b e a t e n t r a c k , the s e l f - i m p o s e d b u t p u b l i c e x i l e " (67). S e e c h a p t e r 3 o f t h i s b o o k f o r a n e x t e n d e d d i s c u s s i o n o f m a s culine m o d e l s a n d p a r a d i g m s in travel writing. 5. T h e p h e n o m e n o n is s o w i d e s p r e a d t h a t it s e e m s p o i n t l e s s t o p r o v i d e specific e x a m p l e s . 6. T h e p r a c t i c e a m o n g l e a d i n g w r i t e r s o f i n t r o d u c i n g t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s o r f r i e n d s , a n d t h e n s t a g i n g e n c o u n t e r s w i t h t h e m i n t h e i r t r a v e l o g u e s , is s u r e l y a n elaboration o f the courtesies o f the b l u r b . 7. L o n e l y P l a n e t is a p p a r e n t l y e x p a n d i n g i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s . A n o t h e r n e w s p a per article observes, " T h e y ' r e o n the Internet, o f course, a n d n o w o n o u r television screens.. .. Y o u can't h e l p b u t like [the presenter] I a n W r i g h t . H e ' s a great L o n e l y P l a n e t m a n . T r y a n y t h i n g o n c e . A n d p e r f e c t f o r A l a s k a w h i c h , as W r i g h t t o l d u s . is a w i l d p l a c e . F u l l o f m o o s e , t h e c a u s e o f s o m e r a t h e r m a n u f a c t u r e d a n x i e t y f o r W r i g h t " (New Zealand Herald, F e b r u a r y 19, 1997, B i o ) . E v e n t h e n e w s p a p e r p l u g a s s u m e s t h e flippant L o n e l y P l a n e t t o n e . 8. T h e c h a p t e r o n A f r i c a m a k e s c o n s i d e r a b l e u s e o f J o s e p h C o n r a d a n d G r a h a m G r e e n e , t h o u g h n o t , s u r p r i s i n g l y , o f V . S . N a i p a u l . H o w e v e r , it c l e a r l y " r e a d s " A f r i c a f r o m w i t h i n t h e C o n r a d - N a i p a u l t r a d i t i o n (see N i x o n , London Calling; a l s o c h a p . 2 o f t h i s b o o k ) . 9. K a p l a n p r o t e s t s t h a t " m i n e w o u l d b e a n u n s e n t i m e n t a l j o u r n e y [ u n l i k e that o f L a u r e n c e Sterne]. M y impressions m i g h t be the ' w r o n g ' ones t o have, b u t t h e y w o u l d b e b a s e d o n w h a t I s a w " (11); l a t e r , h e asserts t h a t h e is " a t i m e t r a v e l e r , but n o t necessarily a r o m a n t i c o n e . . . . I chart places w h e r e a literary tourist w o u l d r a r e l y g o " (131). The Ends of the Earth, n o n e t h e l e s s , is s a t u r a t e d w i t h l i t e r a r y r e f e r ences; despite his a t t e m p t s t o p r o v i d e alibis, K a p l a n u l t i m a t e l y invites r e c o g n i t i o n as s e n t i m e n t a l t r a v e l e r , l i t e r a r y t o u r i s t , a n d a d v e n t u r e r — p r e c i s e l y t h e m o d e l s o f the traveler h e wishes t o disclaim. 10. F o r a r e c e n t , c o r u s c a t i n g c r i t i q u e o f K a p l a n ' s w o r k , w h i c h sees its " p r o g n o s e ^ o f d i s i n t e g r a t i o n " as p o s s i b l y " t e s t i n g c o n s e r v a t i v e w a t e r s f o r t h e d e p t h s o f a r e e m e r g e n t p o s i t i v i s t r a c i s m , " see B r e n n a n , At Home in the World, 125-27. A s B r e n n a n a r g u e s , K a p l a n ' s " r h e t o r i c o f f e a r a n d l o a t h i n g " is " e n t i r e l y a t o d d s w i t h m a i n s t r e a m h u m a n i t i e s d i s c o u r s e " (126). B u t as w i l l b e c l e a r f r o m t h i s b o o k , it is n o t a t o d d s w i t h a c e r t a i n s t r a n d o f " p o l i t i c a l " t r a v e l w r i t i n g , w h i c h uses t h e g e n r e to j u s t i f y — a l t h o u g h also, i n s o m e cases, t o i r o n i z e — x e n o p h o b i c s e n t i m e n t s a n d cultural m y t h s . Sophisticated e x a m p l e s o f this f o r m o f political travelogue are the " A f r i c a n " a n d " I n d i a n " w o r k s o f V . S . N a i p a u l (see c h a p s . 1 a n d 2). 11. T w o o t h e r r e c e n t n a r r a t i v e s s u c c e s s f u l l y n e g o t i a t i n g b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l travel experience a n d the stuff o f history, in layered a n d n u a n c e d fashion, are N e i l A s c h e r s o n ' s Black Sea (1996; see c h a p . 4, n o t e 4 a b o v e ) , a n d D o r o t h y C a r r i n g t o n ' s The Dream-Hunters of Corsica (1995).

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A c k e r l e y , J . R . Hindoo Holiday: An Indian Journal 1932. N e w D e l h i : A r n o l d H e i n e m a n n , 1979. A c k e r m a n , D i a n e . The Rarest of the Rare: Vanishing Animals, Timeless Worlds. N e w Y o r k : R a n d o m H o u s e , 1995. A d a m s , J a m e s E l i . Dandies and Desert Saints: Styles of Victorian Masculinity. I t h a c a , N . Y . : C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1995. A d a m s , P e r c y . Travelers and Travel Liars, 1660-1800. B e r k e l e y a n d L o s A n g e l e s : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1962. A h m a d , A i j a z . " P o s t c o l o n i a l i s m : W h a t ' s i n a N a m e ? " Late Imperial Culture, e d . R o m a n d e la C a m p a , E . A n n K a p l a n , a n d M i c h a e l Sprinker. N e w Y o r k : V e r s o , 1995. 11-32. A l e x a n d e r , B r i a n . Green Cathedrals: A Wayward Traveler in the Rain Forest. N e w Y o r k : L y o n s a n d B u r f o r d , 1995. A l l e n , J o h n L . " L a n d s o f M y t h , W a t e r s o f W o n d e r : T h e Place o f the I m a g i n a t i o n i n t h e H i s t o r y o f G e o g r a p h i c a l E x p l o r a t i o n . " Geographies of the Mind, e d . D a v i d L o w e n t h a l a n d M a r t y n B o w d e n . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d University Press, 1976. 41-61. A m i r t h a n a y a g a m , G u y , e d . Writers in East- West Encounter: New Cultural Bear ings. L o n d o n : M a c m i l l a n , 1981. m i s , M a r t i n . The Moronic Inferno and Other Visits to America. L o n d o n : J o n a t h a n C a p e , 1986. ppadurai, A r j u n . "Disjuncture a n d Difference in the G l o b a l Cultural E c o n o m y . " Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory: A Reader, e d . P a t r i c k W i l l i a m s ! a n d L a u r a C h r i s m a n . N e w Y o r k : C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1994. 324-39. . Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization. Minneapolis: U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n n e s o t a P r e s s , 1996. A p p i a h , K w a r r i e A n t h o n y . In My Father's House: Africa in the Philosophy of Cul ture. N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1992. A r a c , J o n a t h a n , a n d H a r r i e t R i t v o , e d s . The Macropolitics of Nineteenth-Century Literature: Nationalism, Exoticism, Imperialism. P h i l a d e l p h i a : U n i v e r s i t y o f P e n n s y l v a n i a P r e s s , 1991. A s c h e r s o n , N e i l . Black Sea: The Birthplace of Civilisation and Barbarism. L o n d o n : V i n t a g e , 1996. Itnndy, J o e . " M a n a g i n g the O t h e r o f N a t u r e : Sustainability, Spectacle, a n d G l o b a l R e g i m e s o f C a p i t a l in l l i c o t o u r i s m . " Public Culture 8 (1996): 539-66. B u r r , P a t r i c i a . The Memsitliibs: The Women of Victorian India. L o n d o n : S e e k e r a n d W a r b u r g , 1976.

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B a r t h e s , R o l a n d . Empire of Signs. 1 9 7 0 . T r a n s . R i c h a r d H o w a r d . N e w Y o r k : N o o n d a y Press, 1989. . The Grain of the Voice: Interviews, 1962-1980. 1 9 8 1 . T r a n s . L i n d a C o v e r d a l e . N e w Y o r k : H i l l a n d W a n g , 1985. . Mythologies. 1 9 5 7 . T r a n s . A n n e t t e L a v e r s . L o n d o n : J o n a t h a n C a p e , 1 9 7 2 . . The Pleasure of the Text. T r a n s . R i c h a r d M i l l e r . N e w Y o r k : N o o n d a y Press, 1990. B a u d r i l l a r d , J e a n . America. 1 9 8 6 . T r a n s . C h r i s T u r n e r . N e w Y o r k : V e r s o , 1 9 8 8 . B e h d a d , A l i . Belated Travelers: Orientalism in the Age of Colonial Dissolution. D u r h a m , N . C . : D u k e U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1994. B e l l , G a v i n . In Search of Tusitala: Travels in the Pacific after Robert Louis Steven son. L o n d o n : P i c a d o r , 1 9 9 4 . B e n n e t t , C a t h e r i n e . " W h y t h e R i g h t P e o p l e C h o o s e t o S t a y a t H o m e . " Guardian Weekly, J u n e 2 3 , 1 9 9 6 , 3 0 . B h a b h a , H o m i . " T h e O t h e r Q u e s t i o n : Difference, D i s c r i m i n a t i o n , a n d the D i s c o u r s e o f C o l o n i a l i s m . " Literature, Politics and Theory: Papers from the Essex Conference, e d . F r a n c i s B a r k e r c t al. L o n d o n : M e t h u e n , 1 9 8 6 . 1 4 8 - 7 2 . , e d . Nation and Narration. L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e , 1 9 9 1 . B h a r d w a j , S . M . , G . R i n s c h e d e , a n d A . S i e v e r s , e d s . Pilgrimage in the Old and New World. B e r l i n : D i e t r i c h R i e m e r V e r l a g , 1 9 9 4 . B i d d l e c o m b e , P e t e r . Travels with My Briefcase: Around the World, on Expenses. B o s t o n : L i t t l e , B r o w n , 1994. B i r k e t t , D e a . Serpent in Paradise. L o n d o n : P i c a d o r , 1 9 9 7 . B i r k e t t , D e a , a n d S a r a W h e e l e r , e d s . Amazonian: The Penguin Book of Women's Travel Writing. L o n d o n : P e n g u i n , 1 9 9 8 . B o n g i e , C h r i s t o p h e r . Exotic Memories: Literature, Colonialism, and the Fin de Siecle. S t a n f o r d , C a l i f . : S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 9 1 . Bourke, Chris. " H a v e Imagination, Will Travel. Jonathan R a b a n : T h e Studious E n g l i s h m a n A b r o a d . " New Zealand Listener, A p r i l 1 2 - 1 8 , 1 9 9 7 , 4 6 - 4 7 . B o w l e s , P a u l . The Sheltering Sky. N e w Y o r k : N e w D i r e c t i o n s , 1 9 4 9 . . Up above the World. N e w Y o r k : S i m o n a n d S c h u s t e r , 1 9 6 6 . B r e n n a n , T i m o t h y . At Home in the World: Cosmopolitanism Now. C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . : H a r v a r d University Press, 1997. . Salman Rushdie and the Third World: Myths of the Nation. N e w Y o r k : S t . M a r t i n ' s Press, 1989. B r o d y , H u g h . The People's Land: Inuit, Whites, and the Eastern Arctic. V a n c o u v e r : D o u g l a s and M c l n t y r e , 1991. B r o o k , S t e p h e n . Hanky Tonk Gelato: Travels through Texas. L o n d o n : H a m i l t o n , 1985. B r y s o n , B i l l . Neither Here Nor There: Travels in Europe. L o n d o n : S e e k e r a n d W a r burg, 1991. . Notes from a Small Island. N e w Y o r k : D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 9 6 . B u c k - M o r s s , S u s a n . " S e m i o t i c B o u n d a r i e s a n d the Politics o f M e a n i n g : M o d e r n i t y o n T o u r — a V i l l a g e i n T r a n s i t i o n . " New Ways of Knowing: The Sciences, Society, and Reconstructive Knowledge, e d . M . R a s k i n a n d I I . B e r n s t e i n . T o t o w a , N . J . : R o w m a n a n d Liltlelield, 1987. 200 236. B u h a s z , L a s z l o . " A n I n t r o s p e c t i v e S o u t h Piicilie V o y a g e . " Toronto Globe ami Mail, J u n e r / , 1 9 9 : ! , n . p .

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I

w n H R S CITIKD

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ben Hamed Charhardi, Driss (Larbi Layachi), 143 Bennett, Catherine, 200-201, 202 Berlin, 138-42 Bhabha, Homi, 22, 47 Bongie, Christopher, 96, 97 borders. See boundaries Borges, Jorge Luis. 216 Borneo, 79 Bororo, 39

Aborigines (Australian), 122-23, 169-70,189-90 Ackerley, J. R., 138,139; Hindoo Holi day: An Indian Journal, 136-37 Ackerman, Diane, 190-91; The Rarest of the Rare . . . , 184-88 Adams, James Eli, 37 Adams, Percy, 9 Afghanistan, 117 Africa, 69-76, 210-12 A I D S , xii, 21, 7 4 - 7 6 , 1 7 2 Alexander, Brian, 78 A m a z o n , 68, 76-81 America. See United States o f America anachronism, xiii, 6 , 1 5 , 28, 34, 42, 71, 79, 212-13 Antigua, 49-50, 52 antitravel text. See counterdiscourse antitraveler, 1 5 3 - 5 4 Appadurai, Arjun, 64 Arctic, 68,100-110 Asia, 60-64, 88,164-66 Auden, W. H., 138-40 Australia, 121-23

Bougainville, Louis, 92 boundaries, 59-60,134,199, 204, 217; cultural, 136 Bowles, Jane, 143,145 Bowles, Paul, viii, 18,142-49 B o y ' s O w n , 77 Brazil, 77-78 British Empire. See imperialism Brody, Hugh, 103 Brooke, James 30 Bryson, Bill, viii, 50 Buck-Morris, Susan, 126 Buhasz, Laszlo, 207 Burgess, Anthony, 175-76 Burma. See M y a n m a r Burroughs, William, 142,143,145; Naked Lunch, 146-47 Burton, Richard, 211 Bushmen (Kalahari), 180-84 Busi, A l d o , 18, 2 1 , 1 4 2 , 1 5 2 , 1 5 3 ; Sodomies in Elevenpoint, 147-49 Buzard, James, 2-3 Byron, Robert, 27, 28, 32, 35, 203, 205, 206, 217

autobiography, 1 2 , 1 4 , 1 7 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 1 , 144-45,150,153,175-78 Bali, 62,166 Bandy, Joe, 178-79 Barthes, Roland, 6, 21, 69, 82,160, 162, 164, 172-73; Empire of Signs, 88-90 Brfudrillard, Jean, 160,161,166; Amer ica, 24, 1 6 1 - 6 3 Udukid, A l i , 4 7 beluledness, xi, xii, 5 6 , 22 23, 28, 30, ,|2, 95- 96, 191, 195, 197 lii-ll. G a v i n , 9 3 , 95. 97. 98 99

Cahill, Tim, 6, 77 Cairo, 119-21 Callenbach, Lniest, 178

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C a l v i n o , Italo, 1 5 8 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 6 , 1 6 9 ; Invisible Cities, 1 5 8 - 6 0 , 1 7 7 camp, 3 4 - 3 5 , 3 9 , 4 6 , 153 Campbell, A l a n , 7 8 C a m p b e l l , M a r y , 15 Carless, Hugh, 3 2 - 3 5 , 4 6 - 4 7 Carter, Paul, 1 7 0 Casablanca, 1 2 1 C a s t r o n o v o , D a v i d , 2 8 , 33 Caulfield, Annie, 208 Cavafy, C . P., 2 1 1 Chamberlain, Richard, 8 5 Chambers, Iain, 1 6 6 - 6 7 , 1 6 9 Chatwin, Bruce, viii, 6 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 3 , 1 7 - 1 8 , 21, 23, 35-40, 42, 44, i2i, 1 6 7 - 7 0 , 1 7 7 , 2 0 0 , 2 0 5 , 2 1 1 ; The Songlines, 3 9 , 1 2 3 , 169 China, 2 2 , 5 6 - 5 7 , 59, 6 2 Choukri, Mohammed, 143 class, x, 4 , 4 3 , 4 9 - 5 0 , 1 3 2 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 5 , 1 3 6 , 139,154 Clifford, James, ix, 2 , i n , 181 C o c k e r , M a r k , 1, 4 colonialism, 7 3 - 7 4 , 7 6 , 9 2 , 1 0 3 - 4 , 1 3 0 - 3 1 , 1 4 1 , 1 6 4 ; anticolonialism. 1 1 4 , 1 1 5 ; neo-colonialism, 4 9 , 53, 7 3 , 1 7 9 ; and sexuality, 1 4 6 , 1 4 8 - 4 9 . See also postcolonialism commodification, 2 9 , 4 8 , 1 2 6 , 1 6 4 , 1 8 5 , 2 0 4 , 2 0 9 ; cultural, 3 , 1 5 - 1 6 , 6 2 - 6 4 , 1 2 8 , 1 4 3 . T 7 8 - 8 0 , 1 9 1 , 1 9 5 , 2 1 7 ; spiri tual, 1 7 9 , 1 9 2 ; o f travel writing, 1 1 3 , 1 2 2 - 2 4 , 1 3 . 1 8 7 - 8 9 , 1 9 7 - 9 9 , 2 0 2 , 203 Condi Nast Traveler, 1, 2 0 6 C o n d o n , Sean, 2 0 8 - 9 C o n g o . See Democratic Republic of Congo

counter-Orientalist, 5 9 , 6 5 ; countertravel, 50, 1 9 8 - 9 9 counternarrative. See counterdiscourse cross-dressing, 2 0 , 1 1 7 - 1 8 , 1 3 5 , 1 3 6 dandyism, 3 6 - 4 0 Dante, Alighieri, 1 7 3 , 1 7 4 Davidson, Basil, 6 9 - 7 0 Davidson, R o b y n , 2 0 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 2 , 2 0 1 ; Tracks, 1 2 1 - 2 3 de Chirico, G i o r g i o , 4 4 deferral, 1 0 0 , 105 de Lauretis, Teresa, 1 1 2 Democratic Republic o f C o n g o ( C o n g o , Zaire), 6 9 - 7 6 Derrida, Jacques. 8 9 , 1 7 0 Desai, Anita, 2 0 Descola, Philippe, 7 8 Dessaix, Robert: Night Letters, 1 7 0 - 7 4 destination, 1 5 8 , 1 5 9 displacement, viii, ix, 2 , 1 0 , 2 0 , 2 3 , 4 3 , 5 1 , 5 5 , 6 0 , 1 3 1 ; originary, 4 2 Dodwell,Christina, 1 3 2 During, Simon, 6 4 Durrell, Lawrence, 153 Eberhardt, Isabelle, 2 0 , 1 1 8 Eco, U m b e r t o , 2 4 , 1 6 0 - 6 2 , 1 6 4 ecological effects o f travel (ccotourism), xii. 7 6 , 7 8 , 1 0 1 , 1 0 5 - 6 , 178-80,183-89,191,193-95,198 Egypt, 5 6 - 6 0 emancipation. See freedom emigration. See migration Empson, William, 4 0 England, 4 3 , 4 4 eroticism, 6 8 , 9 2 , 1 1 6 - 1 7 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 7 ; o f culture, 8 1 , 8 2 , 8 6 - 8 7 , 8 9 , 1 4 8 , 1 5 3 ; homoeroticism, 1 1 9 , 1 3 4 - 3 5 , 5 3 ^ tual, 8 4 , 1 3 6 essentialism, 38, 7 0 , 7 5 , 1 1 3 , 1 4 9 , 1 5 4 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 7 , 1 9 2 - 9 3 , 1 9 9 ; cultural, 72-73, 90,120,125 ethnocentrism, viii, 5, 1 1 , 2 0 - 2 1 , 33, 4 3 , 51, 8 8 , 1 0 9 , 1 2 9 - 3 0 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 6 , 1 6 8 , 1 7 8 , 198

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C o n r a d , Joseph, 30, 6 9 - 7 3 , 7 5 * 7 » - 1 7 5 , 211 Constantinople. See Istanbul consumption. 4 0 - 4 2 , 4 8 , 1 2 8 . 1 7 9 - 8 0 , 1 8 7 , 1 9 3 , 1 9 9 ; conspicuous. 4 0 , 1 6 6 ; cultural, 6 2 , 6 5 ; over-, 1 5 5 C o o k , Captain James, 9 1 , 9 2 , 93, 9 7 Cortazzi, Hugh, 8 4 counterculture, 1 4 2 , 1 6 5 , 1 7 8 , 189 counterdiscourse, 4 1 , 4 5 , 54, 6 4 65, 1 3 7 ; h i s t o r i c a l , 5 7 ; i l l u s i o n a r y , 96;

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127,

8i; |ravel

writing as, 1 8 . 6 8 , 9 4 - 9 5 , 9 7 - 9 8 , 1 4 9 - 5 1 ; vs. travel writing, 1 1 - 1 3 , 33, 68 Eurocentrism. See ethnocentrism Europe, 4 9 , 1 6 1 - 6 3 Evans, Julian, 9 3 , 9 4 - 9 5 , 96, 9 9 exhaustion, 2 0 2 - 6 , 2 1 3 , 2 1 5 exoticism, 2 , 1 8 - 1 9 , 4 8 , 64, 86, 9 0 , 1 2 5 , 1 3 0 - 3 2 , 1 3 8 , 1 4 6 , 1 8 7 , 2 0 0 : o f cul tures, 6 1 , 9 2 ; o f memory, 9 4 - 9 5 , 9 7 ; of "Other," viii, 5, 6 5 , 1 8 2 ; o f places, 38, 9 9 , 1 2 7 , 1 2 8 , 1 6 6 , 1 9 8 , 2 0 4 ; sexual, 133 farce, 2 9 - 3 1 feminization, 68, 8 1 - 8 5 , 8 9 - 9 0 , 1 1 2 , 1 2 4 , 133, 138, Hi, 144 feminism, xii, 1 1 3 - 1 4 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 3 , 1 3 2 ; and geography, 1 1 2 , 1 1 7 Fenton, James, 30, 7 9 Fleming, Peter, 2 7 , 68; Brazilian Adventure, 7 7 - 7 8 Forster, E. M . , 1 3 8 ; A Passage to India, 136 Foucault, Michel, 1 7 3 Franklin, John, 1 0 1 - 4 Fraser, K e a t h , 2 3 - 2 4 freedom, ix, xiii, 6 4 , 1 2 4 , 1 2 8 , 1 4 0 , 1 4 2 , 1 5 1 , 1 6 9 ; sexual, 8 7 , 1 3 8 , 1 4 8 , 1 5 2 - 5 3 , 1 9 8 ; textual, 1 7 6 , 2 1 4 ; o f travel, 4 , 2 0 - 2 1 , 46, 55, 5 9 , 1 1 6 - 1 7 , 1 3 3 - 3 4 , 154, 1 7 2 ; of women, 9 3 , 9 4 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 4 , 1 2 1 , 132 Freud, Sigmund, 1 3 8 , 1 3 9 Frommer, Arthur, 2 0 7 Frow, John, 1 2 6 ^ Furon, R a y m o n d , 3 2 Fussell, Paul, vii, 3 , 9 - 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 4 , 2 7 , 4 8 , 1 0 9 , i n , 1 9 7 , 2 0 3 , 205

2

gentlemanliness, xi, 6 - 7 , 2 2 - 2 3 , 5> 2 8 - 3 7 , 3 9 - 4 7 ; - dandyism, 3 6 - 3 7 G h o s h , A m i t a v , 2 2 , 65; In an Antique Land, 5 6 - 6 0 Gide, A n d r e , 6 9 - 7 0 Gilbert Islands, 9 7 globalization, 2 , 8 , 6 4 , 9 7 , 1 6 1 , 1 7 8 - 7 9 , 1 8 5 , 1 9 2 , 1 9 8 , 2 0 5 , 2 0 9 , 2 1 3 ; o f cul ture, 2 2 , 6 2 , 1 6 4 - 6 6 , 1 9 9 , 2 1 7 global village, 1 6 8 , 1 9 8 Granta, 1, 5, 2 0 6 Greek Islands, 1 5 3 - 5 4 Green, Martin, 4 Green, Michelle, 1 4 3 Greenblatt, Stephen, 1 5 - 1 6 Greene, G r a h a m , 2 7 , 1 7 5 , 2 1 7 Gregory, Derek, 9 1 - 9 2 Grewal, Inderpal, 4, 4 7 , 131 Grizzuti Harrison, Barbara, 1 3 2 Guardian Weekly, 2 0 0 - 2 0 2 guidebook, 9 , 1 5 1 , 1 9 7 , 2 0 0 , 208 Gunther, John, 2 0 9 - 1 0 , 2 1 1 , 2 1 3 v s

Habegger, Larry, 2 0 7 Hall, Radclyffe, 138 H a m b u r g (Germany), 1 4 1 Haynes, Jim, 2 0 7 Hearst, William Randolph, 161 Herdt, Gilbert, 1 4 9 , 1 5 0 history, 5 6 - 6 0 , 7 0 , 7 4 , 1 0 2 , 1 5 7 - 5 8 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 2 , 1 8 3 , 1 9 8 , 1 9 9 , 2 1 2 ; alternative, 1 2 9 - 3 1 ; cultural, x, 1 6 1 , 1 6 9 , 1 8 4 ; o f exploration/travel, 1 0 0 , i n , 1 7 0 , 2 0 4 ; imperialist, 4 6 ; mythicized, 7 6 , 1 8 3 Hobson, Sarah, 1 1 8 Homer: Odyssey, 1 1 2 Hornby, John, 1 0 7 Horwell, Veronica, 1 6 8 - 6 9 , Hyland, Noelle, 7 1 2 0 2

Hyland, Paul, 7 0 , 7 6 ; The Black G a g n e , R a y m o n d , 103 Galoa, 1 2 4 - 2 5 Garber, Marjorie, 1 1 8 G a u g u i n , Paul, 9 6 gay liberation, 1 5 1 - 5 3 gay travel, 1 3 3 - 5 5 , 198 gender, x, xii, 4 , 3 7 , 39, 4 7 , 50, 88, n o 55, 198

Heart,

69-73 hyperreality, 1 6 0 - 6 2 , T 7 7 , 1 9 8 Ignatieff, Michael, 1 4 imperialism, ix, x, xi, xii, xiii, 2 8 , 4 3 - 4 8 , 5 7 - 5 8 , 6 7 , 69, 7 5 , 1 1 4 , 1 1 9 - 2 0 , 1 3 2 , 1 3 8 , 1 6 4 , 1 8 4 , 1 9 4 - 9 5 , 1 9 9 ; con nection to travel writing, 1 5 - 1 6 ;

INDlx

•7

imperialism (continued) cultural, 4 8 , 6 1 , 6 3 - 6 4 , 1 6 5 ; discourse of, 1 3 0 ; media, 1 2 2 ; myths of, 4 - 5 , 2 9 - 3 0 , 4 4 - 4 5 ; neo-imperialism, 5 8 , 9 6 ; postimperial era, 2 3 , 2 5 , 3 1 - 3 2 , 4 5 , 1 1 4 , 2 0 0 . See also nostalgia: imperialist imposture, 3 5 - 3 6 , 3 8 , 4 3 , 4 5 , 7 8 - 7 9 , 88 India, 1 8 - 1 9 , 4 3 . 5 6 - 6 0 , 1 3 6 - 3 8 Inuit, 1 0 1 Iran, 3 4 , 2 1 2 Iraq, 5 9 - 6 0 Irvine, Lucy: Castaway, 1 2 3 - 2 8 Isherwood, Christopher, 1 3 8 - 4 0 , 1 5 2 , 2 1 5 ; Goodbye to Berlin, 1 3 9 - 4 0 Istanbul, 3 4 Iyer, Pico, 1 0 , 1 8 , 2 1 , 6 5 , 8 2 , 8 6 , 8 7 , 8 9 , 9 0 ; The Lady and the Monk, 8 3 - 8 6 ; Video Night in Kathmandu, 2 2 , 60-64, 164-67 Jacquemond, Richard, 1 4 3 - 4 4 Japan, 6 8 , 8 1 - 9 0 , 91 Joyce, James, 1 3 8 Kalahari Desert, 1 7 9 - 8 4 K a n e , Joe, 7 8 K a n g a . Firdaus, 2 2 K a p l a n , Robert D . , 2 1 5 ; The Ends of the Earth: A Journey at the Dawn of the 20th Century, 2 0 9 - 1 3 Keats, John, 91 Kincaid, Jamaica, 2 0 , 2 1 , 5 3 , 5 4 , 6 5 ; A Small Place, 4 8 - 5 2 Kinglake, Alexander, 2 0 5 Kingsland, Gerald, 1 2 4 K o r n , Eric, 2 0 7 Kristeva, Julia, 8 9 Kuhn, Thomas, 199 Kyoto, 83 Lacan, Jacques, 8 9 Lampedusa, Giuseppe, 2 1 5 landscape, 6 9 - 7 0 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 9 , 2 1 7 Lascaris, Manoly, 1 5 3 - 5 4 Lawrence, D . H., 138 Lawrence, Karen, 112

Lawrence, T . E. (Lawence o f Arabia), 119 Leed, Eric, 2 , 1 1 1 Leigh Fcrmor, Patrick, 6, 1 5 , 2 8 , 1 5 3 , 205 Levi-Strauss, Claude, vii, 1 2 , 1 8 , 7 7 , 7 8 , 9 9 , 1 7 9 , 180, 1 8 1 , 1 8 2 , 1 9 5 , 1 9 7 Lonely Planet series, 2 0 0 , 2 0 8 - 9 , Lopez, Barry, 9, 1 8 4 - 8 5 , 1 8 7 , 1 9 5 , 2 1 1 ; Arctic Dreams, 1 0 0 - 1 0 9 Loti, Pierre, 8 1 - 8 3 , 8 5 , 8 6 , 8 8 ; Madame Chrysantheme, 8 2 L o w e , Lisa, 9 0 Luanza, 7 1 2 1 1

MacCannell, Dean, 2 - 3 Malinowski. Bronislavv, 9 2 - 9 3 Malraux, Andre, 38 Malthus, T h o m a s , 2 1 1 Mann, Thomas, 1 7 3 , 211 Marquesa Islands, 9 6 , 9 8 - 9 9 Marshall Islands, 9 6 M a s o n , Philip, 3 3 Matthiessen, Peter, 9 , 1 7 , 7 8 , 1 8 4 , 1 9 5 ; The Cloud Forest: A Chronicle of the South American Wilderness, 1 8 0 - 8 3 M a y l e , Peter, viii, 1 , 1 5 , 4 0 - 4 2 , 4 4 , 2 1 4 ; A Year in Provence, 4 0 ; Toujours Provence, 4 1 - 4 2 M c G r a t h , Melanie: Motel Nirvana: Dreaming of the New Age in the American Desert, 1 9 1 - 9 4 , 1 9 5 M c H a l e , Brian, 6 7 - 6 8 M c l n e r n y , Jay, 1 4 3 M c L u h a n , Marshall, 6 2 , 1 6 4 , 1 6 8 M e a d , Margaret, 9 2 , 1 2 7 Melchett, Sonia, 1 1 3 Melville, Herman, 6 8 ; Typee, 9 3 - 9 4 ,

97 M e m m i , Albert, 1 1 5 memoir, 1 4 , 4 4 , 1 0 7 , 1 3 1 , 2 1 7 Mexico, 116 migration (migrancy), ix, xii, 5 5 , 6 0 , 131, r 6 9 - 7 0 , 1 7 7 , 187 M i l l s , S a r a , 4 , 114, 132 M o o r h e a d , A l a n , 96 9 7

M o r g a n , M a r i o : Mutant Message Down Under, 1 7 9 8 0 , 189 9 0

^,58

(NIH'.K

M o r l e y , J o h n D a v i d , 18, 21, 82, 89; Pic tures from the Water Trade, 86-88 M o r o c c o , 142-49 M o r r i s , J a n ( J a m e s ) , v i i i , 6, 20, 118-21; Conundrum, 120-21 M o r r i s , M a r y , 20,113,131; Nothing to Declare, 114-18 M o s s , J o h n : Enduring Dreams, 100-110 M r a b e t , M o h a m m e d , 143; Look and Move On, 144-46 M u r p h y , D e r v l a , 17, 20,128,132, 205; Full Tilt, 114-18 M u r u r o a , 96 M y a n m a r , 200-201 m y t h s , 23, 45, 74, 81, 9 1 , 1 0 1 , 1 3 7 , 1 4 2 , 160, 163,164, 185,188, 2 1 1 ; c u l t u r a l , v i i i , x , x i , 3, 5-7, 8, 7 1 - 7 2 , 1 2 3 , 1 4 4 , 184; o f g e n d e r , 4, 93, i n , 122-24, 127-28; i m p e r i a l i s t , 25, 45, 6 1 , 1 2 1 ; N e w A g e , 179,191; O r i e n t a l i s t , 34; p e r s o n a l , 33,169; o f p l a c e , x i i , x i i i , 3, 65, 67-69; p r i m a l , 186; r o m a n t i c , 181, 194; o f t r a v e l , 25, 34, 94,190, 201, 209 N a g a s a k i , 81-82 N a i p a u l , V . S . , v i i i , 6, 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 3 , 1 8 - 1 9 , 42-45, 5i, 55, 57, 7 C 72, 7 3 - 7 4 , 7576, 213; The Enigma of Arrival, 44-45; The Return of Eva Peron, 73-74 National Geographic, 1. 18, 122-23 N e r u d a , P a b l o , 101 N e w A g e t r a v e l , x i i , 178-95 N e w b y , E r i c . 6 , 1 3 , 1 5 , 1 8 , 23, 27-29, 31-36. 37, 39, 41, 42, 43, 45, 4QJ 52, 119, 203, 205; A Short Walk in the Hindu Kush, 32-35, 46-47, 117; A . Traveller's Life, 34 N i c a r a g u a , 53-55 N i x o n , R o b , n , 30, 44. 73 n o m a d i s m , 3 8 , 1 6 7 - 7 0 , 1 7 2 , 177-78, 198, 212 N o r t h w e s t P a s s a g e , 101-2 n o s t a l g i a , x i , x i i , 5, 8, 2 0 , 24-25, 2 8 - 2 9 , 40, 4 5 - 4 6 , 5 2 , 59, 8 4 , 86, 9 7 , 99, 114, 120, 1 2 9 - 3 0 , 1 6 6 , 1 9 1 , 197, 2 0 3 4 ; cul tural, 4 4 - 4 5 . 4 8 . i p , n y , imperialist,

1 Nli I

15, 29, 33-34, 36. 42-43,199; i n s t a n t , 161-62,164; p r i m i t i v i s t , 180,181 N u r i s t a n , 33-35 O c c i d e n t , 90 O ' H a n l o n , R e d m o n d , 6 , 1 3 , 1 7 - 1 8 , 23, 29, 30-32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 42, 43, 45, 46, 52, 68, 77, 78-81,119,187, 205, 206, 208; In Trouble Again, 79-80 O ' R e i l l y , J a m e s , 207 O r i e n t , 81-90 O r i e n t a l i s m , 58-59, 83-86, 90 o r i g i n s , 13, 44; c u l t u r a l , x i , x i i , 22, 43; o f i d e n t i t y , 43 P a k i s t a n , 129-30 P a p u a N e w G u i n e a , 149-51 p a r o d y , 33, 38, 7 7 - 7 8 , 1 2 5 , 1 6 6 , 1 9 7 , 198 Pearson,Ian,205 P e r s i a . See I r a n P e r u , 180,182 P h i l l i p s , C a r y l , 21, 53, 54, 55, 65; 7 7 i c European Tribe, 48-52 P i c a d o r T r a v e l C l a s s i c s series, 205-6 P o r t e r , D e n n i s , v i i i , 2, 5, 42, 89-90, i n P o r t e r , R o y , 19 p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m , x , x i i . 4-5, 22, 43-45, 47-48, 52, 63-65, 7 3 , 1 3 1 , 1 6 4 - 6 5 , 170,198 p o s t c o l o m a l i t y , x i , 48, 64,129, 202 p o s t m o d e r n i s m , x , x i i , 4 , 1 5 , 67-68, 1 4 6 , 1 5 4 - 5 5 , 1 5 7 - 9 5 . ' 9 ^ , 202, 216 P r a t t , M a r y L o u i s e , v i i i , i x . 2, 4, 5 , 1 5 , 47, 61, 183-84,185,194 P r o v e n c e , 40-42 P u c c i n i , G i a c o m o , 81-82 Q u a m m e n , D a v i d , 195; The Song of the Dodo: Island Biogeography in an Age of Extinction, 179, 184-85, 187-89' q u e s t . 17, 83, 94, 95, 114, 128, 172. 199, 204, 216; s e x u a l , 8 6 - 8 7 , 1 3 5 , 1 3 6 , 1 4 5 , 150; s p i r i t u a l , 102, 179, 182, 186, 191-92 Q u i n b y , L e e , 14 R a b a n , J o n a t h a n , 6, 13, 176-77, 200, 2 0 5 , 216 17

race (racism), 4, 5, 48-51, 132,135, 179 Raven, Simon, 29 reminiscence. See nostalgia representation, 58, 63-64, 70,120,128, 159,167: and culture, viii, 64, 81, 164; imperialist, 43; of subject, 134; vir tual, 166 R o b b , Peter: Midnight in Sicily, 213-16 Roberts, Martin, 2, 64 Rogers, Michael, 142 Rosaldo, Renato, 15, 29 Rose, Gillian, 112 Rouse, Roger, 22 Rousseau, G. S., 19 Rushdie, Salman, 62, 65; The Jaguar's Smile, 53-55

Stark, Freya, 132 St. A u b i n de Teran, Lisa, 113 Stefansson, Vihjalmur, 103 Sterne, Laurence, 175 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 68, 93, 94-95, 96, 98-99, 127, 205 subject (subjectivity), 1 1 , 1 4 - 1 6 , 97,105, 148,150.184-85; cultural, 4; and gen der, 2 0 , 1 1 0 , 1 3 2 , 1 5 1 , 1 6 7 ; position, 43, 92; queer, 142, 151-53; stability

Sahlins, Marshall, 92 Said, Edward, ix, 2, 58, i n , 119 Samoa, 96 Sansom, fan, 202 Sarawak, 30-31 Schneebaum, Tobias, 152; Where the Spirits Dwell, 149-51 Sciascia, 215-16 Segalen, Victor, 96 self. See subject Sennett, Richard, 152 Serres, Michel, 112 Seth, V i k r a m , 22, 65,173; From Heaven Lake, 56-57, 59-60 sexuality, 81, 86-87, 8 9 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 4 - 5 5 . 173-74; ambiguous, 117-19,121; bisexuality, 142,174; heterosexualfty, xii, 2 1 , 1 3 3 - 3 4 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 4 , 1 9 8 ; h o m o sexuality, xii, 121, 133-55; queer, 21, 142; and voyeurism, 18 Shoumatoff, Alex, 21, 70; African Madness, 75-76 Sicily, 213-16 simulacra, 45,128,160, 162 Smolan, Richard, 122 S o l o m o n Islands, 97 Sontag, Susan. 34-35,172 South Seas, 91-99 Spender, Stephen: The Temple, 138-42 Spurr, David, viii, 4, 47 Slanley, Henry M o r i o n . 71, 7;!, 74

Taaffe, Philip, 143 Tahiti, 96 Tangier, 42-149 Tehran, 46-47 Theroux, Paul, viii, 1, 6 , 1 3 , 23, 50, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 98, 99, i2i, 202, 205, 206, 209-11, 213; My Other Life, 175-77 Thesiger, Wilfred, 6, 28, 29, 205 Tibet, 22, 59, 62 Time, 165 Tisdale, Sallie, 203-5, 5 , 6 T o d o r o v . Tzvetan, 19 T o k y o , 88 Torres Strait Islands. 126 tourism, viii, xiii, 8, 42, 49, 50, 62-63, 99,116,126,131,164,172,179,197, 205; post-tourism, 24, 202, 208; sex ual tourist, 148; vs. travel, viii. xi, xiii, 2-3, 8, 27-28, 31, 52,115, 124, 1 5 3 , 1 6 2 , 1 6 7 , 1 8 4 , 1 9 4 , 1 9 8 , 200-201, 203-4, 206-7, transculturation, xii, 61 transgression, x, xii, 4, 5, no, 132, 137, 173; sexual, 118,121,133,147, 151; travel as, 70,134,158 transnational space, 22,129 travel: armchair, 202, 205; political obstacles to, 59-60; technologies of, 23 24, 103, r63-64,197 travelinn t h e o r y , ix. 198

jhi 1

l6

2

2 I

o f 157-59, 7 > 174-77, ! 9 , ° ; traveling, 151,167, 202, 210 Sugnet, Charles, 4-5, 46 Suleri, Sara, 20, 43; Meatless Days, 128-32 Swift, Johnathan, vii

2 I

2 1 1

IN

mix

2 I

travelogue, 1 5 1 , 1 5 3 , 1 7 7 , 1 8 2 , 200, 208 travel writers, viii, 5-7, 9 , 1 1 - 1 3 , 54- 67. 94,144, 216; economic status of, 3 i - 3 , 4i, 6 3 , 1 0 9 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 3 , 1 5 4 , 1 7 8 , 210; gender of, 93, i n , 133-34, 5 > 197, 9 9 ; subjectivity of, 16-18, 27, 167, 183 travel writing, 148, 177, 193, 206; and academics, viii, 2, 20,131; and com edy, 16-17; conditions of production, 31, 109; dissimulation in, xi, xiii, 9, 12-13, 36-37,109, 204; and escapism, xiii, 38, 49, 90, 116,124,126,128, 168, 194; estrangement in, viii, xiii, 3,14, 18, 48, 65, n o , 166, 217; and gender, xii, 20-21,117; as genre, vii, x - x i , 8-12,16, 24, 46, 49-50, 52, 54, 64-65, 69, 77, 86, 90, 109, 116, 122, 123, 125, 132, 143,144, 157, 171, 182-83, 187, 190,191,199, 205, 206, 216-17; as interference, ix, 3, n ; nature writing, 179,184-88,191,194-95; reception in/of, vii-viii, ix, 1, 3,12, 45, 49-50, 52, 64-65, n o , 1 1 7 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 1 , 132, 134. 136,138, 143, 1 5 0 - 5 1 , 1 5 7 - 5 9 . 1 6 4 . 1 6 5 , 1 6 6 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 5 , 1 8 7 , 188, 189-90,192-93,195,198,199, 203-6, 213, 214, 216, 217; resistance in, 53 55, 64-65; self-consciousness in, 5-8, 16, 62, 71, 79, 124, 131,155,180, 195.199 2

l

l

Veblen, Thorstein, 40 Vintage Departures series, 1 Virago Press, 20 virtual reality, 96 virtual travel, xii, 2, 24, 163-64,177,

:

Trinidad, 43 Tuin, 124-26 T w a i n , M a r k , 205 Tylor, Edward, 181

179,198 voyeurism, 18-20, 38, 79, 81,122-23; cultural, 127-28,192-93 Wallace, Alfred, 79, 187 Wallerstein, Immanuel, 199 Watt, Tan, 10 W a u g h , Evelyn, 1, 8, 27-28, 32, 35,197, 199. 203, 217 Welch, Denton: Maiden Voyage, 134-36 Wheeler, Sara, 132 Wheeler, Valerie, n White, Edmund, 154: States of Desire: Travels in Gay America, 151-53 White, Hayden, 10 White, Patrick: Flaws in the Glass, 153-54 Wiebe, Rudy: Playing Dead, 100109 Wills, D a v i d , 74-75 Wilson, Alexander, 194 women's travel writing, 20-21, i n 32 women travelers, 131,198; status of, 115: vulnerability of, 113, 116 W o o d c o c k , George, 95, 97, 99 Wright, R o n a l d , 92 Xinjiang, 59

\ Uganda, 76 "Ultima T h u l e " (Arctic), 109-10 .United States of America, 61-64, 85, 151-53,161-63, 191-94 Van der Post, Laurens, 185,186, 190-91; The Lost World of the Kala hari, 179-84 Varawa, Joana Mclntyre: Changes in Latitude, 124 28

INIM

Y a n o m a m i Indians (Brazil), 18, 79-80, 208 Y o u n g s , Tim, 4 Zaire. See Democratic Republic of Congo zones, 67-68, 76, 78, 80. 81-83, 85, 86, 88-91, 93-94, 98-99,106, n o , 177, 187; exotic, 198, 204; mythicized, 183

T o u r i s t s w i t h T y p e w r i t e r s offers a s e r i e s of c h a l l e n g i n g a n d p r o v o c a t i v e c r i t i c a l i n s i g h t s into a w i d e r a n g e of t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s w r i t t e n i n E n g l i s h a f t e r t h e S e c o n d W o r l d War.

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enduring popularity. The book g a u g e s both the best and w o r s t in c o n t e m p o r a r y travel w r i t i n g , c a p t u r i n g t h e e x c i t e m e n t of t h i s m o s t v o l a t i l e — a n d a t t i m e s i n f u r i a t i n g — o f liter a r y g e n r e s . It w i l l a p p e a l to g e n e r a l r e a d e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n a c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n o f t r a v e l w r i t i n g a n d to a c a d e m i c r e a d e r s i n d i s c i p l i n e s s u c h a s l i t e r a r y / c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s , geography, history, a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d tourism studies.

"In its thrust and scope, I think it's the most interesting study of the modern travel book to date."

- C O L I W

T H U B R O N ,

A U T H O R

O F

I

N S I B E R I A

A N D

B E H I N D

T H E

W A L L

"A goldmine of information and stimulation . . . Critical w i t h o u t becoming polemic, this articulate and well-written volume offers a w e a l t h of insightful c o m m e n t a r y on the w o r k s of a n u m b e r o f c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a v e l w r i t e r s — a m o n g t h e m , V.S.

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C H O I C E

P a t r i c k H o l l a n d , A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r of E n g l i s h , U n i v e r s i t y of G u e l p h , w a s b o r n i n N e w Z e a l a n d a n d e d u c a t e d i n E n g l a n d , A u s t r a l i a , a n d C a n a d a . G r a h a m H u g g a n , P r o f e s s o r of E n g l i s h , U n i v e r s i t y of M u n i c h , w a s b o r n i n H o n g K o n g a n d e d u c a t e d in E n g l a n d a n d in B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a .

Cover photo: Robyn Davidson, from Desert Places by Robyn Davidson (New York: Penguin, 1996). Photography D i l i p M e h t a o f C o n t a c t ( C o l o r i f i c , 1 9 9 6 ) , c o u r t e s y o f R o b y n D a v i d s o n a n d C o l o r i f i cP h o t o g r a p h i c L i b r a r i e s . C o v e rd e s i g nb y M a r t yS o m b e r g/ S o m b e r gD e s i g n/A n n A r b o r ,M i c h i g a n

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ISBN II H7EDfl7Db-l

The U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan Press www

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