ADVANCE PRAISE
"This important _manual will become even more necessary as people
increasingly recognize the end of the age of oil-and increasingly
relocalize. Toolbox for Sustainable Ciry Living should be on the shelves
of all city dwellers," Derrick Jensen, author Endgame
"These simple, yet powerful steps can transform your life and your concept
of sustainability. Radical sustainability-intimately connected to urban living and urban people doing for themselves-is critically important.
This book provides us with relevant tools to change what we do and valuable thoug"hts to push the conversation forward. If you care about
low income urb"an people and their/ouf future you are going to read this book." Renee Toil-DuBOis, Eagle Eye Institute
"The Rhizome Collective is a force that gets stuff done... it's a surprisingly
effective model for connecting people with dreams to the resources they need." Austin Chronicle
"They had a-nially great idea of where they're going with the site. It was
so sustainable, and the practices they're using are very innovative. We
didn't see... them anywhere else,H Amber Perry, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
"One group distinguishing themselves as a major environmental force is the Rhizome Collective." The Green Building Program Newsletter
'This is so cool. I can't wait to get home and try it myself," Anonymous,
overheard at one of the R.U.S.T. workshops
•
TOOLBOX FOR
SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
SCOTT KELLOGG AND STACY PETTiGREW I LLUSTRATIONS BY JUAN MARTINEZ
TOOLBOX FOR
SU STAINABLE CITY LIVING (A DO-iT-OU RSELVES GU iDE)
SOUTH END PRESS CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS
Copyright () 2008 by Scott Kellogg and Stacy Pettigrew Anv p roperl� footnoted quotation of up to 500 sequen�al ... ordl may be used w it hout permislion, as Icng as
the t otal
number of words quoted do�s not
exceetl 2,000. fo, longe' �uotiti(mS or for a greater numm. , 01 total wo rds
please wrote to South I'nd Pr�IS for permission Dosco....nted bulk qu�"tities of
this book Me
available lor
organizing.
educati o nal. or fundrals .ng purposes. Plea,e cont�ct South End Press for more
information.
Cover design by Beol3mm ShaV�in
Cover illustr�tlO!' bV Juan Martinez Jnd Beth Ferguson
Interior des.gn by AleHnder Dwinell. South End
p�s colleCtive
PriMed In Canada by un .on ·abor on recycled paper
library of Congress Cat"alogins· in ·PublicatlOn
Data
KelloB&, Scort T. Toolbox/or sustainable city lIVing . a dO·it-ourselves guide' Scott Kellogg and
Stacy Perug,ew , illu", ations by Juan Ma,tllle, p em.
"Mc>st of th e 'y,tem, deScribed ore ones th�t we have b�11t and experirr.ented
with O�e, the past eight ye�rs at the Rh"ome Collective (formed in 20001 •."
Au,�n. Texas"--IMrod
Includes bibliographIcal reiefenCeS and
ISBN 978-0-89608-780-4 (pbk
. �Ik
index. pa per)
I. SuStamable Iiv;nB-·Handbooh, manuals, etc. 2. Organ.c Iivlng··H�ndbooks,
manuals. etc 3.
Cc>n,ervation of nat ural reSOurces·· Handbooks, manuals. etc.
·Handbooks, manu al s. etc. 5 Urban ecology·-Handboo;". I. Pettigrew, Stacy. II. Title. III. T itle: Sustainable city IivmB' a do
4 Self-rehant livi ng
m anu als, etc.
iI-ourSelves guide Gf78.K4S 2008 640--11(22
200801173B
12 11 10 09 08 South
End PrfSI
lea d .""" ite.revolt.
7 Brookl ine Street III
Camb rid ge. MA02139 www.Southendpress.orll
1 23456789
CONTENTS "
Introduction
1
FOOD
Mlcrolive�tock (4) Tree Crops and fdible Forests (14) Mushroom Log Cultivation (171 Aquaculture (21) Depave the Planet (47) Siosnellers
(50) Insect Culture (55) Putting It All Together (60)
61
WATER
Rainwater Coliecl1on (64) Code, and lOlling (72) Water Purincatiorl (75) Barrels, Bunt:holes, & Bulkheads (80) Floatlllg Trash Islands (84) Putting ItAl1 Together (8S)
91
WASTE
Wastewater Recycling ,94) CompOS!lng (111) Verm.eompostmg (118) Recyciir'lg Hum�n Wastes (121) Putting ItAll Together lUI)
ENERGY SiOfuels "(139) BIO(har Jnd Gasification
(151)
13J Bioga5 and.JMthane
Generilnon (153) Wind Power (160) Passive Solar (164) Roc�et Stoves (173) Puttlng It All Togt'lher (176)
179
BIOREMEDIATION Pollutants (183)
(181)
Bactenal
Phytoremediation
Comong
up
Remediation
(1gS)
with {184)
Compost
a
Remediation
Str�tegy
Mycoremedl�tion 81oremediatlOrl
(191)
(201)
Air
Purification (202) Putting It All Together (204) Hurricane Katrma A Case Study in Applied Btoremediation (205) Acce,s to land (206) Susta,nability and Gentrifi(ation 1210)
CONCLUSION
213
Resources and Note�
216
Glossary
126
Indc�
231
IllustratIOn & Photo Credits
'"
About the Authors
143
AbOut South End Press
'"
•
•
ACKNOWLEDGEM ENTS We would like to thank our parents-Bill and Karen Pettigrew and Norm and Cind.y Kellogg-whose
numerous hours of babysitting. made this book
possible; Juan Martinez, Beth Ferguson, and David BaileY,John DolleyJr. for their drawings and woodcuts;
Starhawk and Lisa Fithian for their photographs; leah Penniman, Javid Afzali, Richard Linel. and Lauren
Ross for their comments; Aunt Barbara for typing
Stacy's first stories; our grandparents; and everyone
involved with the Rhizome ColleCtive and the Albany Free School Community.
This book is dedicated to Eleanor Elodea Kellogg. •
•
INTRODUCTION In the coming decades, humanity will be faced with an enormous challenge-to
survive the implosion of a society that has overextended its natural limitations
in every capacity. The converging crises of climate change, energy depletion, and
environmental degradation seriously threaten our speciesi surv.ival. Despite the growing awareness of the severity of these threats, the mechanisms that drive them are well in motion and are terribly difficult to stop.
The future is unknown. Climate models and oil consumption projections can be analyzed. but precise details of what and when changes will occur cannot be completely pred icted. What is certain, however, is that if our current trajectory remains unchanged devastating collapse is unavoidable. A massive social transformation is
needed. Driven by the current economic modelfs need' for perpetual growth, todayrs society is marked by unrelenting consumption and an increasing-disparity between
rich and poor. This path has no future. In order to survive, we must become a culture that consumes drastically1ewer resources and is strongly rooted" in the principles of
sustainability, egalitarianism, and cooperation.
Accomplishing this tr.aosition will be no easy task. To be successful a diversity of
tactics will need to be employed on every level of society. The largest and most
important changes will take place on a grassroots level. While people acting on the
f
grassroots are no individually responsible for the looming crises� the scale and depth
of the changes necessary must be based and emerge from the grassroots. One critical component of this transition is the design of ecologicaJly sustainable, community
based infrastructure. It is this component that this book addresses. This manual is a
toolbox of skills, technologies, tactics, and information to giv� people access to, and
f
control over, lifers necessities: ood, water, energy, and waste management.
WHAT I S S USTA I NABLE? When first coined, the word sustainabilitycaptured a very powerful concept. Its many
definitions essentially boil down to the idea of living in such a way that the resources
available today will continue to be available for an indefinite number of future INTRODUCTION
I ..
generations. Sadly, the term has been almost completely co-opted by corporations,
governments, and international financial institutions.
For example, a mainstream sustainable development program might propose insta�lin9
a series of solar panels in a rural village. But solar panels only have about a 25-year life span, provided theyire not damaged sooner, and after this period the panels are useless.
Typically these projects don it consider whether or not the village will have the technical
expertise, access to tools or manufacturing, or money necessary to repair or replace
the panels. Without these resources the village finds itself in a position of dependency.
When the panels fail they must wait for someone to donate another set. These types of projects maintain a colonial traj�_ctory.
Sustainable development has joined the lexicon of the International Monetary Fund
(lMF), the World Bank, and the United Nations and is often used in their public relations campaigns as a euphemism for neoliberal economic development. The only sustainability created by a program which forces people to abandon their traditional
means of sustenance in favor of exclusively raising a single cash crop for export is
the ability of wealthier nations to sustain their monopolies of power.
The ideologies of _narural capitalism and green consumerism dilute the concept of sustainability even further. The mainstream sustainability mov..ement puts the
emphasis on green consumerism6the idea that environmental devastation can be
avoided simply through changes in consumer spending habits. This has led to
businesses from large retail stores to the petroleum industry attempting to sell themselves and their products as being green. As the genuine sustainability of many of
these products is dubious, the use of green, sustainable, and environmentally friendly
as marketing terms has only further devalued the concept of sustainability.
Green consumerism encourages consumption of a different variety. It does nothing
to challenge the patterns of over-consumption and excess that have created the environmental crisis. Green consumerism only reinforces the destructive capitalist paradigm while giving people a dangerously false sense that real change is being made. Capitalism, natural or not, requires infinite expansion and consumption of
material resources. In a world that is fragile and finite, such a system is inherently
xii I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
unsustainable. Any Usustainable" solution that fails to take this into account will not address the fundamental cause of planetary and human degradation. Radical sustainability, on another hand, is- distinct from what mainstream "sustainability" has come to mean. Radical sustainability means rebuilding and
reorganizing homes, neighborhoods, and communities in order to create a world
that is both sustainable and equitable. It is fundamentally an approach to enable
people who do not have political power to gain control over basic resources.
So instead o f installing solar panels a radical sustainable development project might use locally harvested wood to construct a windmill that powers alternators made from scrap cars and other salvaged materials that are locally plentiful.
The windmillis design would be simple enough to be easily repaired, giving it a lifespan considerably longer than solar panels. Equally important, the design could be replicable, giving neighboring villages independence from charity.
RADICAL SUSTAINABILITY
-
Radical sustainability is the philosophy that underlies this book. We use the word radical (derived from the Latin word radix, meaning root)
to stress that we need to address i'ssues at their fundamental root callje, not just the symptomatic manifestations. Radical sustainability confronts the
underlying reasons our current path is not sustainable and works to cr�ate genuinely sustainable alternatives.
A radically sustainable viewpoint recognizes the inseparability of ecological and social issues and the necessity of ensuring the solution to one problem
does not create or worsen another. For this reason it develops autonomous
energy infrastructures and it opposes US imperialism around the world and
gentrification in inner cities of the United States. It simultaneously supports
indigenous movements, womenis rights, and police accountability campaigns and works to create healthy soii. These issues-and many others-are as
critical to our future as preserving the worldis remaining wilderness, fighting
global warming, and creating global sustainable food production.
INTRODUCTION
I
.iii
AUTONOMOUS DEVELOPMENT . This Central to radical sustainability is the concept of autonomous de....elopment. form of development designs systems that give control over basic resources to the
p
peo le using them, increasing community self-reliance and aiding resistance to resource monopolies. Design criteria include: _affordability
use of salvaged and/or locally abundant materials
•
simpliCIty
•
user serviceability
ease of replication d&lI!otralization
Primarily, the systems must be ableio be used and built by people without capital
or monetary wealth. Many of the tools and technologies proclaimed as "sustainable" such as.solar panels and hybrid vehicies are extremely expensive, making them
inaccessible to the average person. Such technologies often function as novelties for the wealthy or as a salve for guilty consciences. .
Use of salvaged andlor locally abundant materials helps minimize expense arid keeps
production local. In a society that produces as much excess as ours does, there
is an abundant supply of trash that can be re-used for constructing many of the
XIV
I TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
systems described in this book. Recycling these materials reduces the demand for virgin supplies and slows consumption overall.
Simple and user serviceable designs ensure that the systems can be built and
maintained with skills and knowledge found within the community making use of the system. This avoids a reliance on foreign experts and ensures the long
term functioning of the project.
All of these criteria lead to systems being replicable. Replicable systems are capable of being transferred and adapted to other communities and locations
without significant redesign, and therefore have the potential to be implemented on a broad level. Though designs may need to· change dramaticiJ,lIy from one community to the next based on particular resources or local dimate,
a commitmem to openly sharing technologies and experiences will lead to a
greater rate o f success.
Las(ly, autonomous development ·systems are decentralized. The decentralization
of critical resources is the best defense against resource monopolization. When the means of production and distribution of food, energy, and water are simple,
affordable, and replicable, it is very difficult for any single entity to gain complete
control over them. The most egalitarian· method of resource management is to have multiple, redundant sources that are held in common by the people using
them, thus ensuring continuing supply, democratic control, and overall quality.
AUTONOMOUS COMMUNITIES _
Along with the development of autonomous design, radical sustainability
promotes the development of autonomous communities-that is, egalitarian
communities that value equality, justice, and mutualism. Not only do these
communities work together to provide members with the essential needs of food, water, energy, and waste management, they also develop their own
horizontal political structures, transportation systems, media, health care,
education, and so forth. Autonomous communities can exist everywhere-
INTRODUCTION
I xv
from rural to urban, north to south. Autonomous communities are especially adapted to creating and maintaining a sustainable world.
- SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING Cities are highly paradoxical places. On one hand they are vital cultural and economic
centers, and on the other they are resource vacuums, supporting extraordinarily high population densities at the expense of the surrounding region. Currently, over SO
percent of the global po pulation lives in cities, As this percentage is increasing and the rate of environmental degradation is quickening, it is critical to sustainably meet the needs of the worldis urban populations.
A radically sustainable response is to empower urban residents to make their cities capable of providing sufficient food, water, energy, and waste management within their local region. Having access to these resources on a decentralized, local level will
promote a community mindset of self-sufficiency and encourage further independence
from the destructive and dangerously unstable dominant systel!ls that cities currently
rely on for providing their needs. Permaculture, a multi-disciplinary practice usedio design long lasting human communities,
is a valuable tool. Its essential goal is to create intensively -(Oultivated spaces capable of providing-for as many human needs as possible in a,. small of an area as possible. By doing so, humans can be self-reliant and lessen thejr impact on their surrounding
environments in a way that doesnit rely on outsourced eaergy and resources.
Because they are already so intensely cultivated, cites are an ideal location for permaculture designs. (ities have plenty of existing infrastructure that can be utilized: food can be grown in former parking lots, rain collected off rooftops, wastewater recycled in scavenged bathtubs, and power generated from wind turbines mounted on buildi�gs.
T H E TRANSITION Humanity has entered an e r a o f decreasing energy resources. Modern agriculture
is highly dependent on cheap energy not only for growing food, but distributing it. Will cities still be capable of supporting their populations when big trucks
.vi I
TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CITV LIVING
How To U�e This Book
are no longer delivering food? What will happen
Thf� book IS desi8ned as a toolbox of
skills �nd IIlformation for the reader Introducing
sy,temi,
technologIes,
and ideas Important for autonomous development in urb�n aH'as The book '5
dIvided inlo the 'hapter> Food, Waler,
Waste, Energy.
and Bioremediation.
Chapters are divided into sections, each detailing the various aspects of autonomous design relevant to the chapter'; theme. Mos! of the systems deScribed are ones
that
we have built
and experimented with over the past
when it becomes too costly to heat buildings?
Will basic sanitation collapse as water becomes scarcer and more expensive to pump? What will
happen to society?
It is critical to plan ahead- and start building
radically
sustainable infrastructure capable of
supporting future urban populations while the
resources to do so are still available. Instead
of
waiting
for
governments,
corporations,
or
city planners to start being responsible, radical
sustainability is about people taking initiative
today, Transformation from,the ground up is our
greatest hope for the future_
e,ght years at me Rhizome Collective ,n Austln, Te�as. Some sectiOi1!'contain detaIled step · by·step deSCriptions of how..ta..build a system with accompanying dqgrams. while other >'1st.eJlJ; Me more briefly explained iq. order to ,nsp,re, share .nformation, and mdlCate paths for further research. While some of the systems described in the book are highly innovative and hlye little written about them elsewhere, most of them can be 'itudled in further depth. A lesources section at the end of the book provides lists of further readings and websites related to (,3eh section. The reader IS encollraged to use It Words and phrases In
bold are defined 111 the glossMY at the
end of the book.
THE HISTORY OF THE RHIZOME COLLECTIVE lhe Rhizome Collective was formed in 2000 out oft he momentum (reated by th� then nascent global justice movement. Inspired by the catc hphrase "another world is possible," we and the Rhizome's other founding members ca me together with the shared intention of making that vision a re ality.:..Rhi:zome was planned to provide secure space for activist and social justice groups, while si multane ously serving as a demonstI'lltion oe urba n susuinabilitr, The project began with the purchase of an old wareho\lse in Austin's industrial corridor. "Ve set about the task of conve rt ing the derelict STn!cture into a center for community organizing in which the Rhizome Collective would make its home. Many months were spent making badly needed repairs to the building and jumping through the many bureaucratic hoops that stood in the way. Once
INTRODUCTION 1 .�ii
basic fixes were made, we began experimenting with, constTllcting,
A N o te on Failure
and demonstrating sustainable, autonomous, urban projects. An asphalt wasteland was transformed into a vibram space housing a constructed wetlands, a bicyde wind turbine, rainwater collection tanks, gardens, fish ponds,
SOIH ovens, fruit trees, and chickens.
Failure-is a
great teacher. M;st�kes
expose wealnesses and lead to better .-
designs Tho>1' fortunate enough
not
to
\".'e built these systems in order 10 demonstmte the possibility of
be living at a subsi,tence level today have
implementing these I>crmacuhure tools and technologies as well
the luxury of
mak ing mistakes_ Because
as to serve the building's live-in caretakers. In 2004, the Rhizome
the gll/tol surplus created by capItalism's
Collective received a S200,000 grant from the EPA to deanup a
wastes
provides us with
a safety net, a
9.8-acre brownfield that we were donated and plan 10 turn into an
small scale crop failure
or fish die·off
ecological justice education park.
is not likely to be catastrophic. In the
Developing the internal structure of the Rhizome has been'
future, that surplus safety net may be
Olle of the biggest challenges. By deciding 10 use consensus for
unava ila ble
ils decision making process, the collective hoped to be horizontal
experiment. Now
and egalitarian in its structure. While it has gone through many
,
leavmg less Ireedom to
errors and learn
is the time
to
make
from t hem.
transitions, the Rhizome Collective evemually evolved into a spokescouncil. Persons appointed as representatives by Ihe various
In the
process of c reating
arld living wilh
spokes of the Rhizome meet regularly to report on their respec
the
susta,nable >ystem>
tive group's activities, review proposals, and plan the collective's
this
book, we have learned from many
direction.
mistakes.
'Iht 1l1an}' organizations based in the warehouse hal'e worked
course
desCflbed
III
IS ccrt�11l t hat over the of tlme: more de"sign flaws Will be It
to bring about cultural lransformation on many level�.lhey in
dIscovered. We encourage readers loshare
clude Bikes Across Borders, l1te Inside Books Project, 111e Austin
the succe,ses and failures they e..per�J1(e
Independent Media Center, Food Not Bombs, Art and Revolution,
tn tmplemennng these systems so that we
and KPWR-People's Will Radio. In keeping with the metaphor
may all coilC(:tively ben efit.
of the rhizome, an underground root-like network linking individ ual p13nts, these groups operate autonomously, ret share common resources and pledge mutual support to each other. All of these elements combined are a manifestation of our phi losophy of dual power anarchism: to be working for social change within today's society while at the same time building functional alternatives 10 oppressive dominant institutions.
xvi,i I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE (tTV LIVING
FOOD
-
Global food production is perilously dependent upon massive petroleum inputs. The processes of mechanical tilling, planting, harvesting, irrigation, fertilization, pest
control, processing, and distribution all require vast amounts of fossil fuels. As fuel
prices begin.ro increase and the truer cost of industrial farming surfaces, food will
become more expensive and inevitably decrease as it becomes more difficult for large
industrial farms to continue to operate. This could result in food shortages around the world, In order to avert widespread starvation, humanity will be challenged to
rapidly reverse decades of poor agricultural practices and relocalize food production.
As transportation costs increase, it will be critical to bring food production back
into the vicinity of Cities, or into cities themselves, where the majority of the world's population lives.
In today's world, urban communities rarely have access to affordable nutritious foods.
This does not have to be the case, Comf!lunity autonomy is based on food security, and cities have the potential to become centers of food production.
N,ot only can existing community gardens and urban farms be greatly expanded, but
within most cities there are numerous other spaces that could be used to produce
food. Vacant lots can be transformed into thriving gardens. Roadways and parking lots
dedicated exclusively to cars can be dosed to vehicular traffic, depaved, and.r.eclaimed
•
- for food production. Potential gardening spots also exist overhead: window boxes and rooftops (with sufficient reinforcement) have the potential to produc,e significant
quantities of food. Many urban homes have a small plot of dirt in their backyards
that hopefully receives some sun. Sh'ad - y areas can be used for raising microlivestock
or growing mushrooms. Manicured parks and golf courses are begging to be made
into edible food forests. By developinQ these many unused spaces, communities can ensure their food security.
In ada-ition to being localized, the development of a food production system that
is organically based, diverse in the variety of foods it grows, and centered around
local economies needs to be encouraged. Such a system is a logical response to large agri,businesses' increasing domination of agriculture, which has resulted in genetically modified monocultures that poison the environment, pose health risks,
and are susceptible to disease and failure. 2 I TOOlBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE (lTV LIVING
Building healthy soil. the foundation of aU land-based food production, is a long and laborious process_ It is also something everyone can do. It is essential that this work begin today. while surplus energy and organic matter are available. Each day, enormous quantities of organic maner are dumped into landfills. Instead of being reused, food waste, wood chips, manure, and grass clippings rot in landfills and produce methane, a potent greenhouse gas. This organic material is exactly what neetls to be diverted from waste streams and properly composted to create good SQir. It is also equally important to take advantage of the remnants of petroleum energy to transport this material to the sites of future food production. Once energy shortages are apparent, it will be far more difficult to do this work. The waste streams of surplus organic matter that exist today will dry up. This chapter contains very little about techniques for straightforward vegetable gardening. This in no way diminishes its importance. Actual gardening techniques
(p @nting, cultivating, harvesting, seed saving, eating) are well covered in many other
worthwhile books. Some of those specifically discuss urban gardening, and the lessons of others can be eaSily applied to urban areas. Rather than duplicate existing material, this book focuses on the creation of environments in which such growing is possible and this chapter explores less-common methods of food production. As with all the tactics in this manual, the reader is encouraged to build connections between the skills discussed here and skills already possessed, while creating autonomous_ sustainable infraslructures in whi�h to apply them.
�
By using intensive gardening methods to best utilize available space and focusing on producing the foods most suitable for the local climate, a significant portion of a community's vegetables could be grown within city limits. It is also good to focus
on those vegetables that are least suited for import; that is, those that consume the . ·most processing and transportation energy when grown far away. Bioshelters and cold frames can extend a community's growing season well into winter months. Major obstacles to urban gardening are gaining access to space and poor soil quality. These issues are addressed in the chapter on bioremediation (page. discussion of access to land (page 206).
179) and the
fOOO j 3
This chapter focuses on methods of food production
Strah!gles to combat global warming
appropriate to urban areas that are not as thoroughly
have placed emphaSiS on reducing
de
as
gard�ning:
aquaculture,
edible
aquatic plants and ilnimals that can be raised in
carbon
emiSSIOnS from
elect ricitv
productIon and tr,;lnSportatlon, as
homemade ponds, and microlivestock, small birds
the�e crealI.' a large percentage of
and mammals that can easily fit into an urban
globoll
environment. It also looks at how yards and parks
AttentIon
could be turned into food forests, systems oOf fruit
carbon
and nut trees grown among perennial vegetables and
food production as well. Worldwid e,
greenhouse·gas
emIssions.
should be given to the emlssiolu
re su lt r n g
from
how mushrooms can be grown on logs in confined,
13_S percent of olll greenhouse·gas
shady spaces. Finally it addresses cultivating insects,
emlSSIOrlS result from agrir.ulture'
never in short supply in cities, as food. This chapter also discusses extending growing seasons by using bioshelters and removing asphalt to increase usable urban land.
MICROLIVESTOCK For millennia, humans have been dome5ticlling ot.hc.unimals. Used for their meat, milk, eggs, skins, feathers, manure, bbor, and comp:mionsh ,p, animals have played a pivotal rolc in the de- .. vdopmclll of human cultures. Domesticated animals have allowed humans
10
prosper in environments th�t might h�\·e otherwise
•
been uninhabitable. Cows, sheep, and goats ne able to digest cellul6se-rich grasses and woody plants, c onverting nutrients in · accessible
10
humans into meat and milk. Animals Slore nutrient!!
illlo the wid months, allowing humans to wntinuc eating afler pl ants hal'e ceased to grow. Because large animals requin: large amounts of space to graze, it is impT"JClical and difficult to sustainably raise them in urban environ· Imn[$. In a con6ned spilCe, they will severely wmpacl the soil and eliminate all 'Wlation, requiring large quantities ofsupplemental feed. lhe)' will quickl), foul their SPJC� and be mon: prone to illness.
4
I TOOlBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY liVING
In a ql.lir'� oi ecolngi,al histo ry the ,
majority of large domesrtcable animals were
found
only
on
the
Eur a sian
conhnent. (entl.lfle� of close wntacl gave Europeans enhanced resistance
to
m�ny
dl�eases
that
oflgmated
from domestlcil1ed animals, including >mali po x.
The
populations.
im mune systems of
like
Native
American
Large animals are also I·ery inefficient at con verting pr otein from fl.."ed to body mass. Ten pollnds of feed are r«Jllired for a cow to pllt on o ne pound of weight, a
1O:) ratio. In com par iso n, the protein con
I"ersion ratio for chickens is 5:1, and it is less than 2:1 for fish. In an urban setting, iT makes f.'1r better sense to raise micro livestock, dom e,ticated small anim als that consume rcbti\"ely little and have minimal impact on the land:" E�amplcs of microlivcstock include chickens, turkeys, ducks, and _ other fowl, as well as sma!! mammals such as mbbits and guinea pigs. '(bese an i mals are all ef
peoples, that did not widely domesticate
ficient protein converters, req uire little space, are lightweight and
IJrge Jnimal� were not conditioned
don't compact soil, and produce few offcnsivc odors whcn properly
to anim al viruses .lncl therefore more
allended. For these reasons, microlivestock are apllropriate for cities.
>usceptible to th em. When Europeans carry,ng
diseases came into
anImal
contact With non-re,i st ant populatlons,
CHICKENS
the wnsequences were devastating.
Chickens can be found in cities throughout the world. Kept either
Native
in small coops or allowed to freely roam the streets, they are at
American
morttollty
approJched 96 percent.'
rates
home in urban environments. Bred from a Southeast Asian wild Jungle bird, chickens were among the first animals to be domesti cated. Valuable for more than just meat and eggs, chickens control
•
insect, and build and fertilize soil. Chickens arc constantly moving around, scratching at the soil in search ofinsects and seeds. This action has the combined efe f ct of i ; aeraTing The upper layer of soi nd breaking down leafy material . into dirt. Simultaneously, t heir nitrogen-rich droppings fertilize the soil. Voracious predators, chickens will hunt everrthing from grass hoppers to lizards to cockroaches to ticks.
MANAGING CHICKENS 111cre arc several ways to manage a chicken system in a n urban setting. Options range from keepin g birds cooped at all times to allowing them partial to full access to a yard or open area (free
FOOD I S
range). Available space and time, along with neighbor relations, will determine what is realistic.
COOPS Many chicken owners build coops for their chickens. Some lIse coops as � nighttime sheller, when predators are more acti.·e. Others may keep thcir birds inside all day. A coop can also provide shelter from rain and winter in cold climates and may be required by law in some places. A coop with an open door can also serve as a nesting area for frce-l"lIngc birds. Coops can be built OUI of a variety of materials and can be beautiful additions to a city landscape� While some predators found in the country (coyotes, hawks, and snakes) are not as COlllmon in cilies, r;u:coons, opossums, skunks, cats, rats, dogs, and hungry humans can cause their own share of
Attlany free School Cilic;,en Coo�-(0 .�c�,.ety
problems. A coop must be well built to provide eRecti"e protection.
m�n3gpd by neighbors tn the '��er c ty
If a predator manages to get in, a coop becomes a deathtrap-the
Albany. NY
of
birds are unable 10 es<:apc. An opossum or I"lIccoon will kill every bird it can catch, often only eating their heads or gullets. Firmly nailing thick:gauge metal hardware cloth to the frame will keep most predators Out of a coop. Despite its name, thin chicken wire can be easily chewed through or ripped out. Because many predators �re able to bllTfOW under a coop, the bonom of the hardware cloth should be partially buried and lined with bricks or rocks. The design should include a human-site door. Smaller open ings can � made for chickens. Coops must be cleaned regularly. The frequency of cleaning depends on the bird density, but foul odor is a surefire indicator that it's time for a cleaning. Lening the birds range freely will reduce the time between coop cleanings. Fresh bedding must also be provided as needed. Straw and sawdust make greal bed ding materials. Rich in manure, fouled bedding is a great com post ingredient. The chiden coop at the Rhiwme {olle,tive
6 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
COOP
The Chicken Tractor Chickens can be used to -prepare an area for garde"ing by making use of
d
chi cken tractor A chicken tractor is a cage without a b ottom that can be mo�ed around a yard. Chickens a�e placed in the cage and allowed to graze.
& YARD SIZE
US org:mic standards require a me re 1.5 sqllare Itct of indoor spacc
per bird. tn Ii sum:y ml1ducted by the Northc."t Organic Farming Associati'on, small comm�rlial organic producers actually ga"c their birds an an:mgc of :tilllo,t 5 square feet of indoor space each. Outdoor yard access was also provided.] 1\ lower density of('hickens means less m:lintcnance, fewer smells, and healthier, happier birds.
In the area covered by the tractor, the
FREE R A N G E
chICkens wilL •
eat all the weeds.
In an ideal situation, chickens have access to a n open area. A chick
•
re mo�e an ' y insect pe�ts,
en can provide for many of i ts own nutritional needs by foraging for
•
till up the 5011 by sCTatcning at ii, Jnd
insects, weeds, and seeds. Free-range chickens are also less prone
•
fertilile the sOil with their droppings
to
After
the
chickens
ha�e
done
a
satishctory job of conditioning the 5011
the tractor can be moved to a new spot. The prepared area is ready for planting
continement stress and many of the diseases that may he broughl
on by prolonged enclosure. And :Kcording to a recenl st\,dy, their eggs arc more nutritious.' Free-range birds can either be kept in a coop at night or :rllowed to roost in the open. Night cooping of free-range birds requires the daily ritual of opening up the coop.---W. the morning and closing it at night, which for some call become tir esome . A cltickcn·s natural ro osting instinct can also blli: utilized. Chickens can be encouraged to fly up into the branches of trees or
�
roos ti ng platforms at sundown. N a i li ng sheet rn tal flashing around
a tree's trunk and main IWJnchcs, and those of any touching t rees, w i l l pwtect sleepi ng birds. Predalors like raccoons and opossums
arc unable to scale the sheer surface of the metal and arc foi led from attacking. If no trees are available, a roo�ting platform con Sisting ofbranches suspended between metal poles can be built.
Actively growing gardens need to be fenced off from free-range chickens. Chickens will devour most vegetables and leafy greens, and their constant scratching will damage the roots of plams. An
8- to lO-foot fence should be sufficient to deler all but the most determined chickens. Alternatively, chicken wings can be dipped.
FOOD I 7
This process invokes trimming the tips of the wing feathers, which prevents them from truly fly ing Clippillg wings does not cause .
the bird pain as there arc no nerves in feathers. Keep in mind that chickens with clipped wings will not be able to fly directly into trces to roost or escape from predators. However, they will be able to hop-flutter up a series of roosting platforms to a fin�l roost.
Make sure the steps arc nOI attached to each other SO ! predator can't climb up. Some frce-range systems are designed so that chickens arc al
Clopping the wings of free-range chicke"s can help keep them away from the garden
lowed to grate a seclion of yard, eating its weeds. Before the cbick ens have devcgctated the area completely, they can � �corralledH into a different area with movable fences, giving the firsl area an opportunity to regrow. (Scc 1he Chicken Tf"3Clor, pagc
7.)
•
•
A: Logs suspended horilOntally make good roosting platforms
B. Shorter roosting platforms <:an be built to
allow chickens to hop·f1y �p to laller ones.
C Predators are �nable 10 scale up the sheer
metal posts.
8 I TOOL80�
fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
L
C H I CKENS AS SPACE H EATERS
y
,�
,.
>(
.,
ib"?�" JJ
/
,
,1 ,
.
"".
"
,.-- ;-:;::
?;:i< �
'
I /£ : :... .,...:�- '"
- Sheet metat flashing protects sleeping birds from predators
In (Old climates, chickens can be kept in side bioshehe� or green houses in the wimer to take advant"Jge of the heat given olfby their bodies. A small group of chickens can help to moderate the temperature inside a bioshcltcr and will benefit from the warmth themselves. Chickens also give off carbon dioxide, which helps ('crmin plants to grow faster. (See Bioshdlers, page 50.)
FEEDI NG CHICK ENS
Chickens are omni�Qrous, eating ooth plants and animals. Their fa �"OTite foods include seeds, cockroaches, liz:lttls, worms, grasshoppers. maggots, oats, maggoty oats, :Illd watermelon. lviuch ofa chicken's diet can be obtained from kitchen scraps or from dumpstered foods. Discarded produce that humans would not consider eating due to mushiness or partial mold is fine for chickens. Nutritious weedy plantS th:lt chickens love, like clover, amaramh, or elderberries, can be planted in the chicken yard to supplement their diet. Insects can be raised for ch icken consuf"!lption as well. A sheet of plYwood or cardboard that is hpt moist provides a fine breeding ground for bugs. When it is overturned, chickens will rapidly gob- ble up whatever was living beneath il. (See Insect Cultj"ation, page 55.) Vermicompost system worms (sec page 118) and spem barley hulls from beer breweries make great chicken feed as well. '- Some people choose to supplcmem their chickens' diets with commercial feed to increase their cgg production during the winter or purely for convenience. Chicken feed is available 3t feed stores, which can be sometimes found not too fur outside ofsmaller cities. It can also be shipped.
BREED SELECTION Most chickens resemble their wild ancestors as mueh as poodles do wolves. Production breeds like white leghorns have been bred down
FOOD I 9
to be docile cgg-layers with few intact survival impulses. (WhilC leghorns ha\� a reputation for drowning in rain SIOrIlIS.) [II select Tng breeds, older heinoom v:lrietics are best, as they've had fewer of their instincts bred out ot them. rntclligellce and self-reliance arc
desirable traits_ The Aracaun;•. originally from South Amcric:.l, is
a hardy, indelX"dem, beamiful bird Ihat lays grecn and blue eggs.
The Rhode Island Red is also a robust, cold-toler-Jnt breed. Bantam chickens, not 3 breed in themseil'es, arc diminutivc versions of 3rty
particular breed. Being smaller, they consume less and have an even
lighter impact on land than regular chickens.
EGGS At 4 to 6 months old. fcmale chickens (hens or pullets) are maturc
and will start laying eggs. If there is a rooster around, the eggs
will be fertiliud and un del'dop into chicks. Hens will lay eggs
without a rooster-the difference is the unfertilized eggs will nCI'cr hatch even though the hens may try to sit on them.
The amount of eggs chickens lay varies with the season and their
age. In their prime (aged 6 months to 2 )'ears) a; ldTr;the summer
months, �kkens may avcrnge an egg every one to two davs. As a
gg pro- ..
chicken ages, and as the days become colder and darker, e
duction declines. How often chickens by is also proportional to -
the amount of protein in thdr di�t-th-e more protein they eat, rITe more eggs they lay. Eggs should be collected regularly :md eaten fresh. Eggs dmt sit around too long will become rotten and can allraCI rats and snakes. Providing hens with straw-lined boxes or similarly protected cozy
areas will encoura.� them to predictably lay in the same Spol. Even
with sllch spaces provided, free-range hens may choose other spQlS for 1000ying, such as inside old tires or beneath logs, requiring a daily
egg hum.
Occasionally a chicken will develop the habit of eating her ew.
This can be easily discouraged by 1,13cing a few ceramic or wooden
10 I TOOLBOX FOR SUS1A:NA8lf CITY liVING
A few chickens in the yard
eggs in the layer boxes. A few pecks at the hard fake egg will make egg eating seem like a bad idea to the offending chicken. It i, also helpful to gather fresh eggs daily. Broodiness is the genetic trait that makes a hen sit on a nest of eggs, calLsing the eggs to hatch. Commercial breeders have dese lected broodiness in egg-laying hens because a chicken will srop laying eggs once she starts brooding� However, to have a ,:dony of successfully reproducing chickens, broody hens arc required. A broody hen is mQre likely tQ be fQund ;\'IlOllg I.Ilder breeds of chick ChiCken. chicks. �nd egg
ens. It would be quite rare ro find this characteristic among produc tion breeds. In order for a chi(ken tl.l go broody, a critinl mass of eggs needs tl.l be laid in a pile-usually around 8 to 12 eggs. Once a chickm starts sitting on the pile, she will only get off the nest once a day lilltil they hatch. She will become viciously defensive of the eggs and attack anything that cumes �ar. J\ chicken is just as likely to sit on infertile eggs and has no way to know if the eggs she's sitting on were hid by her or not. To prevent hens from going broody, be sure to collect the eggs regularly.
•
RAISING CHICKS Raising chicks i s the cheapest way to get chickens. Chicks can be bought from feed �tores and d3yould chicks can bc dclil'ered by mail from hatcherics. Starting with chicks ensures healthy birds-many adult chickens for sale are diseased. Chicks should be kept in a box or small crate and kepiwarm , dry, and awa), from cold drafts. An elecnic heating pad in the- bottom uf the box should provide enough heat. Covering the box with a blanket reduces heat 1uss. lhe temperature should be kept at 95 degrees Fahrenheit the first week of their life, and can be lowered five degrees each week after. Chicks need water and special ch ick starter feed. They can also be fed crumbled hard boiled eggs for added protein. If they are guing to be free-mnge birds, slowly incroduce the chicks tu the outside as
FOOD I II
-
Ihey mature. Keep them in the crate al night, safe away from crit ters, until they begin roosting around twO months ofage. Raising chicks is a learned skill: don', despair if some arc: lost.
LEGALITY
r..IOSl cities ha\"e regulations regarding chickens, ranging from complete prohibition to restrictions on the number of birds to de tailing the distance they must be kept away from neighbor's proper ties. Depending on how strict local authorities are, and how often neighbors complain, it m'.l.y be possible to gel away with bending the laws. [t is part of the local cuhure of some neighborhoods to have chickens ranging aboul lhe streets. UnfoTlullately, this is no! the C;IS(: in most places. Skeptical neighbors can often be won Ol"er by offers offresh eggs. Keeping smells �nd noise to a minimum is critical for maintaining positive neighbor relations. Chickens can
be kept under the radar in a backyard, or even in a basement, espe cially iflhere a� only hens and no rooster. Roosters are vcr}" loud animals, and somc peQple are horribl)' annoyed by them. Contrary to P'lpular mi$(on�ption, roosters don', crow just in the morning. 'Ihey cock-a-doodle aU day and night. This can be a serious problem for light slcepers. ,·jens will still lay eggs without a rooster, they JUSt won't hatch chicks.
OTHER BIRDS Turkeys: Colonizers brought turkeys, which are native to
the Amer1cu, back to Europe, domesticated them, and then brought them back across the Atlantic. 'Ihe modern commercial Thanksgiving turkey is a pathetic creature. Heavily inbred and selected for weight gain, these disease-prone turkeys can barely support the weight of thdr own bodic,. Older turkey breeds., such as Narragansett, Blue Slate, Black Spanish, Bourbon Red, and
12
I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
Beware of the Rooster Roosters
are
potentially
dangerous
animals. Their feet have bony spurs that
to an loth long. Roosters are capable of jumping into the illr and striking out With their spurs at eye level. can grow up
This can create a parncularly hazardOtJs situation if children are present. Overly
aggreSSive
roosters Should
nOl
be
allowed to reproduce so ,heir traits are
not passe
Royal Palm, have more of their survival instincts inwct. Even
though they are closer to wild turkeys, these breeds are sti!! difficult to rear.1hcy have high mortality r;ues and lay lew eggs. \Vhile not
i mpossi�le, it is diffi(uit to raise chickens and turkeys in the same
quarters, as baby turkeys are p�rticu!arly susceptible to chicken dis eases, such as black head disease. Despite these drawbacks, turkeys perform the same bendicial functions as chickens and arc very en tertaining 10 have around.
Muscovy ducks: Muscovy ducks arc technically not ducks, btlt a type of water fowl native to CClilral A[nerica. (A!I other domestic duck breeds have heen bred fro m the mallard.) Origi nally domes ticated by the �vhra, these claw-footed birds wou!d enjoy a pond Mr.
or place to swim, but do not require one. lhcir vocalizations arc
froend. the lUrkev
a pleasant, quiet hissing, making them neighbor-friend!y. Highly proli fic breeders, they lay eggs rhat arc comparab!e to those of chickens in size, lll11Titional I'aluc, and quantity. remales vill of � ten I�rch i n tree s at night, but the males are too cumbersome to get offthe ground_ .
Guinea htns; Native to U f rica, guinea hen;; arc loud birds-their constant high volume KA-PECK! K A-PECK! r£,.1.l!y hits a nerve with some people. Howe\-er, among domestic birds they ar e the su
�
preme insect hunters and arc known for remov lg licks frolll yards.
Phcasallts; TIle �n<,;estor of the chicken, pheasants arc beautifu! wild b i rds raised tor show ;U\d for sport. TIley will likdy Ry away once they reach adulthood_ Other microlivestock fow!: Domestic ducks (Indian Runner, m�l
lards), geese, and peafowl all can be integrated into a sustainable urban landscape, Ducks are renown for their ability to purge a
garden of slugs while callsing minimal harm to vegetables. Peafowl (peacocks and peahens) arc beautiful birds whose shrill cries are loud but enchanti ng_
FOOD 1 13
M AM M ALS RabbilS: Well known for their proli fic breeding, r.1bbiu are Iypi
cally roised lOr meat in small (ages that can be kepI outdoors. They can be fed a \·cgerablc-based diet of food scmps. Vegetarians can
benefit from raising rnbbits as well. 'Rabbit ten," a, fenilizcr made from rabbit droPI,ings, is prized by gardener�. Guinea pigs: Small cute rodents typically raised in the United Slates as pets, guinea pigs are a dietary staple in Andean South Americ2, whw: they arc known as cuy. Their needs are similar to those of rabbits.
TREE CROPS AND EDIBLE FORESTS '!lrc limited supply of horizontal space i n dries demands that verti cal space be maximized. Because fruit and nUl trees produce food in an ovc:rh.:ad canopy, they fit well into a metropol itan 12ndscape.
Food-producing m:es 1150 contribute to lIir quality and prm'idc shade and windbreaks.
ANNUAL AND PERENNfAL CROPS [n the ecological sciences there is a (oncept oiled succession. Succession is the nalUral process where openii.dds slowly fill in with weeds and brush), plams and eventually lTansform imo forests. Auuual crops arc those that grow from new seed ever)' grow
� ing scaSQn. Most vegetables we eat arc annuals. To grow annu-
als, the SQil must be titled and the garden plot must be frequently weeded to allow the crops the chance to grow without competition. Keeping a field open rescts the processes ofsuccession. Since a nat ural progression is being worked against, growing ,'egetable crops is a fairly labor-intensive method offood production. 14 I TOOlBOK fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
SlIlee 1900, 93 percent of American food diverSity has been lost. The Slow
food
moweme nt
is a global network
of local groups striving to bring back food diwersity in a sustainable aud social'v Just way. HOfflfied by the loss of warietv caused bv mass-produced food, the group has created the "Ark of Taste; a listing of endangered products. Through
differe nt
programs,
they
encourage people to support produc� rs
of these food p roducts and to be producers themselves
Numerous old
m>croltvestock breeds are on the US IISI, IIlcluding the HOld Type" Rhode Island Red chiCken, Plymouth Rock 'hic�en. the AmeTICan Buff goose. American rabbi!, Bourbon Red turkey, and Narragansett
tur key.1
Fmit and nut trees are examples of perennial crops. meanin g they continue to produce food without requiriltg replanting. Gct!ing perennial crops started requires an initial high investment ofenergy, but once they have become established, thcy produce food rear after rear with relatively lIlinimal energy input on the grower's part. (Most 'pedes of food trees requi re several years of growth before they produce nuts or fruits.) Food trees can be planted with perennial vegetables to pro duce simulated ecosystems, or �food forests," that mimic the natural processes of succession. A food forest docs not need to be tilled annuaUx_and needs considerably less weeding than a \'eget�blc ga rden .
PLANTING TREES
A peach blossom
Trees are ideally planted when the cold has caused them to become dormant (after their leaves have dropped off and bdore new buds have opened) but when the ground i, not frozen. Plan ti ng trees while they are dormant minimi'�es the shock of being t ransplanted . D
\,hile they are establish i n g their roots. GraduaHy reduce waterin g as the root network devc!ops. For its first SUll) mer, give a tree regular weekly soakings that arc the equivalent of 1 to 2 inches of rain. An area's average minimum winter temperature determim:s what types of trees can be grown. 'lhe United States D epartment ofAgriculture (USDA) has created a hard i nesslnap ofNorth America, divided into wnes, which is a usefu! gu ide for determin ing what varieties of plants are appropriate in what areas. Similar
__
It i, .Iafer to grow food trees in 5011 rT'J)' be po'lut<;>d than it is to srow vegetables, Contamm�nts are much less likelv to pass from soil to roots to trunk to branches and accumulate in fruit bodies than Ihey are to make it into �egetable crops Utile comfort should be laken III thiS knowledge, howeve r. It IS a lways bes t to aVOid growmg food in contamin ated 5011 and to tes t when in quesnon (See Bloremediation, page 179.)
t ha t
fOOD l iS
maps exist for other regions of the world. Cold-hardy varieties of many trees hal'e been developed and call be ohtlined from local nurseries. v\lith the exception of the paw paw, most fruil and !lut Irets need full sun.
Trees are either self-polli nating or necd a partner tree or trees ro produce fruit. When dedding what type of fruit tree to plaul, make sure to research ifit is a self-pollinating species or if more than
one tree will be required. Space constraints may permit only sell: pollinating trees.
OTHER PERENNIAL FOOD CROPS 111ere arc a number o fperennial edible plants that grow as "in<':5 and can be trellised. Trellis stru(;fures ClIO be ,lffixed onto the sides of buildings, and are a [lbulous \Va}
to make usc of I'ertical space. These
"'g�n walls can shade the sides of buildings in the summer and act as a wind barrier in the winter. Trel1isable p erennial plants inchlde: kiwi fruit, hardy kiwi fruit, passion fruit, Jnd grJI)Cs. (Annuals like pole beans, squash, cucumbers, and peas also trellis nicely.) Berries are another delicious perennial. HTacJ.Jierries and msp berrieJ..growjn thorn), brambles. They typically fill in clearings in the wild and do well on the edges ofdearings. 1hey can also b� pruncd to climb trellises. l.Ilueberries comc in high bush and low bush varieties
and prefer colder climates and acidic soil. In drier, honer climates, cacti grow prolifically and can be incor
porated into urban sp-.lce. It is common to see cacti fences i n some regions. Nopales" pads are edible (be careful: the spineless varieties still bave little spines!) and the fruit of prickly pear cacti is made
into jam and wine. Some communities have built ed ible parks filled with food-pro dllcing plants, sllch as the Bountiful City Project in Asheville, NC. Fruit lrees can also be planted along sidewalks, allowing people to
gather fresh foods as they go about their way. Both arc good ways to establish community food security.
16 I TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CtTY LIVING
fruit and Nut Tree Options
almond,
mulberrie s
apples
oab
apricots
olives
black walnuts
paw paws
cherries
peaches
chestnuts
pears
figs
pecans
hickories
persimmons
jujubes
plums
kumquats
pomegranates
loquat;
A cactus fence on trash day
MU SHROOM LO G CU LTIVATION A
•
major obstacle to growillg food in cities is the shortage of space that receives adequate sunlight. Many times buildings and trees shade an area to the point where it's impossible to grow vcget.tbles. However, edible and medicinal mllshrooms (fungi) can be grown on logs in areas that recei,·e marginal sunlight. They do not re quire contact with soil, aoo-cln be grown indoors, on fire escapes, rooftops, or hung by ropes from the sides ofbuildings. Fungi only need to be protected from wind and intense sun and to be kept moist through occasitlnal watering. Properly cared for, mush room logs can provide m�ny years of nutritious food to urban dwellers. Log culture is a method ofgrowing mushrooms that mimics the natural process oHungi growing on dead uees. Holes are drilled into I� and plug spawn are insened, inoculating the log. Plug spawn arc small wooden dowels colonized with fungi that arc pur chased from specialty suppliers.
FOOD 1 17
Following inoculation, the fungi colonize the emire log, using its mass as nutrients. Mushrooms will begin to grow on the sides of the logs within six months to two years, depending on the size of the log, the vitality of the strain of fungi, and climate conditions. Additional flushes, or crops of mushrooms, will continue to grow and may continue for several years following the initial fruiting. The amoum offlushes a log can produce depends on the type of wood and the size of the log.
LOGS The best types oflogs to \Ise are-4ense hardwoods, such,as oak, maple, beech, elm, ash, or alder. Softwoods, or coniferous trees like pine, hemlock, and spruce, are less desirable. Aromatic tree species such as cedar are not recommended, as the antifungal properties that make them ideal for outdoor construction also make them poor choices for mushroom cultivation. lhe woody cellulose inside the log is food for the fungi.lhe fungi will keep growing as long as food is avaihblc. The denser the wood type is, the longer it will take for flmgi to colonize the log, and more flushes ofmushrooms will be produced. When the nu trients inside the log have been used up, the fungi cea:;e to produce mushrooms. At this point, the log will be thoroughly decomposed into a pulpy mush that can be composted. It is possible to find freshl), cut logs inside of cities. Many tree mulching businesses, aroorists, or city parks departments will hal'e piles oflogs waiting to be mulched that the), are often happy to give away for free. Hopefully, whoever CUt the logs can identify the type of tree. Guessing the tree species by looking only at the hark on the log is difficult. Logs should have been cut at least two to three weeks prior to and no longer than three months before they arc inoculated. Trees produce anti-fungal compounds that dissipate two to three weeks after being cut down. After three monthi, it is likely that another
lB I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITV LIVING
The followi ng edible and medicinal species of fungi
can be grown on log
ultures,
c
Edible/Medicinal Oyster Shiita ke
Maitake, or Hen of the Woods Chicken of the Woods Lion's Mane
Medicinal Relshi
rurkey Ta:l Chaga 19rows only cn birch trees)
Some of the,e �re villued for being gOllrmet or rred,c,nai and can be sold at a premium. creaMg the pv;sibility for an urban micrOllldu.try
fOOD f 19
type offungi will hal'e already begun coloni�ing the log and will ('(lmpcte with the plug spawn. Never usc logs that show obvious signs of previous colonization, such as fruiting mushrooms or ex
Ctssive mold growth.
llle ideal diameter tor a mllshroom log is 6 to iO inches. Larger ones will t.lke many years 10 colonize. Space av-ailabili!y is the de termining factor in choosing the length of the log: 'Hlphing from 1 to 6 feet i� acceptable.
PLUGGING
THE LOG
Approximately fifty plugs will cover a 3-fool log with a 6-inch di ameter. Drill holes with diameters equal to the diameter of the plug into the log to a depth equal to the length of the plug. '[he holes should be placed in a diamond pattern, spaced 3 to 6 inches apart. Hammer the plugs into the holes. Paint over the pl.;-tgi and the .-two ends ofthe log with mclted beeswax or cheese �x to prevent contaminants from getting in. Any holes or deep gashes in the bark .hould also be covered with wax. Plugged logs can be stacked in crisscrossing patterns called ricks that allow easy access to fruiting mushrooms. Inoculated logs $hould be kept out of contact with soil, as they will rot quickly and be taken over by competing organisms. Reishi and maitake mushrooms should be planted verticall}' in a pot full of nnd or gravel.
ldnlly, the bark of the log should always be moist. Natural hu midity may be sufficient to maintain adequate moisture levels in climates with regular rainfall. In dry climates, OF during droughts, luppietncntal watering is necessary. Always use collected rainwater or dechlorinated water. After a log has been inoculated for six months to two years a mushroom fruiting can be stimulated by soaking the log in water for a 24-hour period. '[his tricks the fungi into thinking that a he�vy fllin has occurred and that it's an optimal time for artempting
20 I TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CtTy ltVING
to reproduce by producing mushrooms that cast out spores. Leave at lea8t a few weeks between attempts at forced mushrooming.
AQU ACULTURE Aquaculture is the practice of cultivating aqll:ltic plants, algae, and �nimals for the purpose of creating food, fud, fiber, and fertilizer. 111e small scale ecological systems that are a key component of sus tainable cities must require minimal energy inputs, be organically managed, and recycle their own wastes. AquacuirlLrc can produce high yields of edible products in small spaces, making it an ideal method of urban food production. Urban aquaculture deSigns can
he as cJaoorJtc as a recirculating systcm in a greenhouse or as sim ple as a kiddie pool with some plants and goldfish.
T H E CASE FOR AQUACULTURE For thousands ofyears, humam have lived near water and pmcriced some form of aquaculture, whether hal\'esting plants, collecting crawfish and clams, or fishing. Tod�y, over one billion people rely on fish as their main sourcc of protein.- Sadly. in recent years it
lY off
has become difficult to impossible for people to survive direct oceans, lakes, rivers, and swamps.
1he sea is becoming inaccessible to all btl! the wealthiest people. Coastal gentriiication ()(�UrS when property near or on the coa�t increases in value to the IXlint where people making their living oil' the sea can no longer afford to live there. Centuries-old seafaring cultures are being lost as p-eoplc are forccd inland to make room for upscale housing developments, tourist hotels, and water-consuming industries such as power plants. I n tradilioml societies, an imperative for conservation and the technological limitations of (he pole and the net kept lhe fish
harvest in balance with oceanic resources, rarely depleting them. Today, giant ships towing dragnets vacuum the oceans. Due to an
FOOD I 21
increasing global demand fOf fish as food, the nocks of many fish sp<'!cies have been sel'erely depleted amI ocelnic ecosystems have been sel'erely disrup�ed, "Peak fish: the ]lOint ;11 which world fish eries reached their climax and hal'e since gone into decline, was passed in the bte
1980•. A large four-year study financed by the
National Scien« Foundation analyzed the damage wrought on occanic ccosystenlS by glolu.l warming, pollution, and overlishing. They concluded that if the loss of marine biodh-crsity continues at iu current rate, all fish and seafood species populations will col lapse by 2048.'
Waterways have greatly suffered from the e�pansion ofindusny and human settlements. 'Ihe dumping of industria l wastes, toxic storm-walcr runoR: fuel spills, and thc dischargc of untreated sewage have left many aqu:uic organisms unfit to c�t. Pollutants like PCBs (polrchlorin�ted biphenyls), pesticides , � Ild mercury easily accumula!� in the aqu;ltic food chain. Certain fish are at high risk for such toxic bioaccllmulation, limiting the number of them any person should e�! in a lifetime. Ile�llth warnings have been issued advising Ihe I)ublic, e.pecially pregnant women and chi
�rcn, t9 avoid eating many species 01fish litogethu.' It is a"o
risky 10 harvest many wild edible aqu�lic plantS, as they Iod"can accumulate IOxins found in their environment. (For methods of • treating contamin�tetl water, see \Vastew;\ter Recycling, page 94 and Floating Islands, p�ge 84.) Another dangerous modern IIlnovHiOIl is IIlduilrial fish fuming, in which fish arc stocked at obscenely high denSities, oflen resulting in disease. Lillie different from factory farms, these enl'ironmentally damaging operations rCl.Julre massive chemical , energy, �nd phumaceutica! i nput s. Industrial-scale aquaculture operations also contribute to environmem�l degra darion. Many mangrove swamps have been destroyed in coastal regions 10 make room for offshore shrimp farms. Thc removal of mangro,·c swamps contributed to thc destructive power of
22 I TOOl80� fOR £USTAINABlE CITY lIVING
the 2004 Asian tsunami, as the missing swamps would have dissi{l�ted its energy. [t is important to distinguish between large-scale, commercial
aquaculture prognm s and small-scale, ecolog ically based ones. Small-scale systems have low sto<:king densities, pro«ss their o\\'n wUtes, and don't result in the degrndation of natun! habi tat. Growing aquatic fOodstuffs in'good quality water assures that they're not polluted. To some degree, small-scale aquaculture sys tems c�n replace the access to natural fisheries lost due to degrada
tion and displacement.
AQUACULT U R E SCIENCE Aquatic environments are among the most biologically produ([i� ecosystems in nature. An ecosystem's photosynthetic productivity can be measured by its net primary llroduction (NPP), or the -
�
amount of new plant or algae ! atlcr created within a certain area over
a
yea r. Estuaries, swamps, and marshes have NPP ratings
equal to that of rainforests.' A thriving SwalllP produces more plam life per acre than the most fertile t:'rllls. Granted, not everything that naturally grows in a swamp is edible or palatable. but there are many delicious edible water pbnts that can be cultivated in con structed aquatic environments, providing many calories offood. Plants aren't the only food t1l:11 can come from water. The huge
mounts of algae prodU\:cd in an aquatic system support entire
a
food chains, including edible fish, crust;!ceans (crawfish, [o�ters. shrimp), and mollusks (;;;u.s�ls, clams, oysters). lhere are several reasons"Why so much grows in water so fast: • life requires water. tand plants and animals spend much of their time and energy seeking out water or waiting for water
to come 10 them. A wetland plant Is immersed in water, 50 when its sun, nutrient, and temperature requirements are
met, it can grow prolifically. Many aquatic pla nts are floating.
FOOO
[ 23
Instead of buildin€ e xtensive root and stem structures, their energy is focused on growth and division. • Aquatic animals live in a virtually zero·gravlty environ ment. Unlike a land animal that constantly expends energy moving against gravity, a fish merely floats and can move rapidly with
just a flick of i ts tail. This is one reason why, withil"l the range
of animals grown for food, fish are among the most efficient
converters of protein to body weight. •
Growi ng food in water makes excellent use of three
d ime nsiona l space: foo d producing potentia l is ma�im;zed ·
by g rowing things al the surface, bottom, and mid-level depths of a pond. for example, edible plants can float on the surface of a pond, while edible tubers grow in the mud at its
bottom. Fish occupy the vertical space in between surface and bottom. As urban horizontal space is limited, taking advantage of verti c al space i s essential . For all these reasons, small-scale aqllacultllre systems are ideal for the urban environ ment. Outdoor systems also have th" added feature ofbei!lg_�ildlife anracrors. After only a few months, a pond
will :lttract birds, dragonflies, bees, frogs, snakes, snails, and fish. S om e of these (Tillers will come on their own, others will arrive as ·
eggs stuck to the legs of pond-hopping birds
D I F FERENT AQUACU LT U R E SYSTEMS The focus i n this chapter is on freshwater systems. \¥hile sa ltwater aquaculture is p-ossiblc, it is much more complicated, and there are few examples of it working on a practical level for inland aUlono mous communities.
Two different types of aquaculture systems are described be low: the passive pond and the intensive recirculating system. Passive sYStemS are cheaper. easier to make, and more appropri24 I TOOLBOX fOil SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
ate for beginners. I ntensive systems require a sign;hcant invest ment of time and money and a feasonable understanding of aqlla�ic ecosystems.
PASSIVE POND SYSTEMS The simplest aq uacultu re setups needing the least maintenance are called passive sYSlelils. They arc referred to as "p assive" because they do not use extensive mechanical filtration and aeration, relying instead on the development of resilient, stable ecosystems. Best for plant aquaculture and lower density fish raising, passive systems life basically small ponds made out of some sort of waterproof container. They are relatively worry free and can be placed in a backyard, on a rooftop, or in a greenhouse.
PASSIVE P O N D CONTA I N E R S 1he easiest way to make a p,lssive pond is to lilt an imperme able container with watn....K.i.ddie pools, plugged up bathtubs, old washtubs, and plastic-lined, food-grade �.i-.g;lllon barrels CUI in half all ha'"c pond potemial. ChoQ,Oe materials that won't rust or break down i'l the sun too quickly. Make sure no residual amounts ofhazardol.lS materials 3re pre ent. Using only materi als labeled "food grade" is the best way to ensure this. Avoid galvanized metal: the zinc in the metal leaches into the water and is toxic to fish, although a fish-safe epoxy scalant can be used to COat the inside of galvanized metal containers to make them suitable . -nlC conl":l.incr can bI: dug into the ground or left on the �rfa(e. Ponds in cold climates ml.lst be put umiergrOllnd to prevent them from freezing solid and killing all the fish. Ponds are very heavy-a gallon of water alone weighs 8 Imunds. If not directly supported by the ground, anr structlJre that they arc placed on needs to be ","ell reinforced.
�
fOOD I 25
A ,rOck look pond wltll llaif barrel cell, Qrb,ting
26 I TOOLBOX fOR SUST,I\lNABlf CITY LIVING
T H E CARPET SANDWICH is djfficult t o make a pond by juS! digging a hole i n the ground. Most soils do no! have a high enollgh clay content to adequately retain water. One cheap option for making an in ground pond without using an existing container is the carpet sandwich. Carpel sandwiches, a time-tested pcr maCllh u re mainstay, usc old carpets and plastic shee ting to make a simple pond. It
Supplies
How \0:
needed:
1. Dig a hole and line it with overlapping pieces of old carpet. The carpet should e�tend 1 foot beyond the edge of the hole.
Old c�rpet pieces Construction plastic or other
Z. Place the construction plastic over the c�rpet. The plastic
impermeable membrane
must be one continuous sheet without any holes.
Shovel
3. Add a second layer of ,;upet over the plastlc.
Rocks
4.
Put a ring of rocks around the outside 01 the pond, holding
down the lavers of plastic and carpet.
smal! leak can easily drain a pond and destroy the system. The carpet protects the impermeable membrane from roQS, dog claws, pitchforks, and other sources of accidental plllle HlTe. Unless organic, carpets requ ire a period of "weathering" before use. Carpets often arc made with toxic synthetic glues and may have been sprayed with flea pOisons and other chemi cals. It is a good idea to only usc carpets that have been Sitting outside in the rain for a good six months or have been compa rably washed. While construction plastic can be bought cheaply, it is not the most durable material. Swimming pool businesses will often give away old pool liners, which arc much thicker. More expensive pond liners made ofEPDM mbber or butyl Tubber can also be JlllTChascd. A
FOOD I 27
-
POND D E S I G N CONSID ERATIONS A good 1X11ld has ""av)' edges andlor rocks that protrude above the surface: in order to (�ati: ishnds, or edge_ Edge creates ecotones,
transitional habitats ihat many species can lISC. For example. frogs like to sit on rocks ncar pond banks where they can lay their eggs in shallow waters. Ponds with steep sidcs and no islands are unfriend ly habitats. Ponds needn't be much deeper than 30 inches, as most biological functions occur within this zone. To make a more frien
can be made by sculpting them ioto the din, in the case of a carpet sandwich, or by stacking rocks in the pond al different heights.
A carpet sandwicn oond ,howong edge ew\one,
IS I TOOLBOX fOR �U5TAINABLE ClTV UVIr.G
"Iwa¥, comider child ren when de,igning a pond. Whae educahonal and fun, ponds can be dangerou, liKe pools
,
ponds should be fe nced to prevent tragedy IncllJde at least one ,ide wilh a gradual slope so people and animals can get out If Ihey accidentally fall in
GETTING STARTED Once the pond has been constructcd or installed, it is time to start sctting it up. Begin by layering the bottom of the pond with a few inches of clean gravel. lhc gravel creates a mcdi,un for plants to root in and a habitat in which bottom organisms can grow. Fill the pond with w,lter and allow it to
sit for a fcw days, letting the
chlorine volatilize. After a few days, mix in a lew handfuls ofgood soil and compost to seed the pond with Illmicnts and beneficial microorganisms. Inoculating the pond with organisms from an established, healthy pond will also give it a microbiological kick stan. An casy way to do this is to suck up water and muck from a nearby pond with a lUrkey haster and inject it into the new one. Select a fcl\' different types of rocks and pUl them in the pond. hl a new pond it is important
t� have mineral diversity to give organ
isms the essential minerals_they need for growth. I t is now time ro add plants and snails. (See .Aquatic Animals, page 38, and Plant Aquaculture, page 40.) Plants can either be kept in gravel-filled potS for easy removal or planted directly into the gravel. It s i possible to incorporate fish into a small pond. Small fish, •
•
like minnows or goldfish, are easiest to raise, 3S a pond's ecosystem can effectively process their wastes. Large \'olumes of water are needed to raise large fish (longer than 4 inches) in a passive system. While many factors iriffuence a passive pond's fish stocking capac it)', a safe guideline is ai least
100 gallons ofwater per large·fish.
Fish 1 to 2 inches il! length, like minnows, can be safely stocked at one to two fish per to gallons. Greater stocking densities require a system that incorporate9- aeration and filtration.
MOSQU ITOES A N D PONDS The stagnant water found in many outdoor and indoor ponds pro vides ideal breeding habitat for mosquitoes. It only takes a few days
fo, thousands ofeggs to be laid, dcvelop into larva�, and hatch into
FOOD I 2'>
arc mosquitoes capable of carrying and tr,ulSNot only . mosquIToeS. ' . m�ke our h�s mIserable when dl!:LT numbers _ . the), 5C . • ITHttmg lise:! _ ( nd system must have some way of controllmg mos o p cxplodt. An)' s. population quito Ihe c.asiest, least toxic way of controlling mos�lillnowS IIre ' . . ulatIons of mmnows eat mosqlllto Inr>'ac and all pop qUitocs. S m' "or aerJllOll, G3mbuSia - minnows -cumg .. naI fie . no"'addirio reqUIre . . . hUlltiS), a speCies ofguppy, �rc aggrcsswe inOSi]LlIto _
.1I>' !l (Camhl/sra J) . o
.
.
e to a large part of North Amenca, gambUSI3. I nativ crs.Althoug1 - B ,. - roducmg - gaml>USLJ.. L . tC 01her fi5h species. e ,UTe In! easLly out-cotTlpc c rood -IS Iocated WI' c_ - h-In. thCIT -c sure In - na. . . to 1llJ., LI IS Imporrllnt . . ((lldcr climates. minnow spents such as the fathead tl�'C range. I 11 . , . lcy can be o!Jtalilcd . rvm(/m) 3rc morc 3ppropn3lC. n •.
.
_
(PlmfpiJa/rs p
s. from bait shop
I N TE N SIVE RECIRCULAT I N G SYSTEMS '111:115, fish and other aquatic organisms produce waSle Like Iand aliI . I e 011 Ian
30 I TOOlBD� FoR
SUSTAINABLE CITY lIVIr.G
lions of plants and microbes n�ed to be augmented by mechanical
processes: tiltr�tioll and aeration. Filtration reduces harm ful com poun.ds made by lish. It docs this by forcing water across materials tl)at pro,·ide habitat for the Inicrobcs till! convcft fish wastes into plant nutrients. Atration im·olves llsing mechanical processes to incr�ase the rate of oxygen absorption by the water. A pond that employs extensive liltratiOlI and aer:uion is called an intensive recir ellbting aqll aellit lIre system.
In a natural pond, oxygen diffuses into w,lIer from
the atmo
sphere and throllgh pla ms. In an intensive system, the rale of oxygen diffusion must be enhanced by mechanically aerating the "-,Iter. "The most l"Ommon way is with an air pump. Air pumps ca n be casily bough t at per stores. "Olq arc sized by the volume ofwarer
1\ pond constructed from an ofd hOI tub
fOOD
I 31
they can aerate. The water can also be aerated by pumping it ol'er a waterfall. lhe only way to accurately determine if there is enough oxygen in an aquaculture system is to use a dissolved oxygen meter. an expensive and sometimes unreliable tool. Short ofthis. it is better \0 err on the side of over-oxygenating. Fish should appear vigorous
and excited to eat. �thargy could be an indicator of insufficient oxygen. A reCirculating system can hold many more fish than a pas sive system. They work well in urban environments where space is limited and the need for food is large. lheir major drawback is that they require electrical energy inputs to drive the pumps that keep the fish alive. If power is lost or if a pump breaks and the system is not restored, the fish will die very_quickly. As a result, recirculating systems require daily inspection and a good deal of .maintenance.
g
ReCirculatin aquaculture systems can be- set up in backyards, on
reinforced roofs, and in greenhouses or bioshelters-basically any where with the full sun that the plants that purify and oxygenate the water need. Remember that water weighs 8 pounds per gallon, so even a small system will be extremely heavy.
DESIGN FOR A RELATIVELY S I M P LE RECIRCULATI NG� SYSTEM A recirculating aquaculture system can be built using a series of food-grade 55-gallon barrels that ar� con�ected to each other. A pump in the botfom of the last barrei[eturns water to the first one, �(feating a circular loop. Each barrel, or cell, is host to a dift"crent ecosystem that performs a unique supportive function for the or ganisms living in the entire system. There are many variations of this design. It can be scaled up or down as space allows. lhe following system can fit in a space that is toughly 10 feet by 4 feet.
32 I TOOL80X FOR SUSTAINA.BLE CiTY LIVING
c�1I on�
cell t....o
lIillstration of recirclllat111i Jvltem
moo
1 33
-
Cdl l: This cell is Ihe biohltn. CompleTely filled with gravel 3nd : bulm'h. and IUO, it gil"eS th� recir emerge... plants, like ..altail, culated ""ller a fin:!,l polish betort II goes on
10
the fish. the surface
area of the gT:l.\·d and thc roots of the [)bnts pfovide habitat for ,,,,l,l er-purifying microorganisms dml assist in denitrification. (See Stocking Densities and Denitrification, I'age
36.) These microor
g:lllisms arrive on the roots of phlll� or from an inoculation from another pond. Cell 2: Cdl lv."O contains the fish. It has a few inches ofgravel at its bottom, and perhaps some large rocks or fOOled plants to
provide shdlcr for Ihc fish. (nlcy will be Ius SlTtsscd ifthey have
some hiding spots.) In order to break down dead matler, snails arc an
cd!. A lUbe from the acr.l.lion
pump should run to the
cell. where il is attached to
an airSIOnt. Airstone> are pumps.
V�n�non of intensive recircularmg s��tem
34 I
TOOLBOX FOR SUS1AINA6LE (In LIVING
attached to air
Cells 3 and 4: Cells three and four :HI: WlIu:r purifters. 'Iltelr job s i (0
begin processing the wastes produced by the fish in cell (wo. lilese
cells have severa! inches of gravel :It the bottom,
and have subrner
gelil plantS, like mUroU and hornwort. rooted in them. When fish
wastes suspended in the "-,ller come into contact with these pbnts,
they bounce offof them and sink 10 the bottom of the barrel, where they form a layer ofsedimentary 00"l.C thai provides habitAt to a num ber ofsmall organisms, FasJ-growing plants such as duck.weed, awl la, and water hyacinth Aoat al the tOp of these barreb whert they an as scrubbers, removing excess nUlfiems from the water. 'Ihesc plants should be harvested regularly and fcd to humans, fish, or mkrolive stock; (ompostoo; Of made into methane. (See Bi�s, page 153.) 'Ihick lay.:rs ofgreen al/f.I.<: will grow on the sides of these b...r rcls, which will also help t'o' rcmove exccss nutrients from the wa ler. Snails should also be placed in these cells. They will assist in removing dead algae. Cells three and tOur should have airstones in them as well, which can be powered from the same pump. Zooplank.ton can abo be found in Ihese cells. 'Illest: ti ny bug like aquatic creatures typically arrive on the roots of plants. 'Illey can be scooped up in mesh nets and fed back to rite fish in cell two. Crawfish can be put into either cell lhree and/or four. 'lhey will feed offdead plant material and fish wastes. Cell four call (ontain lin aql,l:lponics component. (Sec Aquaponics, page 37.). A lI'�ter-circula.ting pump should be put at the bottom of cell four. Run a hose ftom j( back (0 a pipe that runs to the bottom of cdl one, This will eOS).lre that the \Vater remains in circulation. A pump cap�ble ofdcli\"eong 100 g�l1ons per hour should be suffi cielll for most systems.
PLU M B I N G The plumbing should be arranged in each of the cells $0 thai WlIter
is dischlrgW. into the top ofthe barrel and is taken out from the
FOOD 1 35
-
bottom. 1his top to bottom waler Aow cllsures that a complete ex change ofwater ou:urs in each cdl. Cell om: could go bottom to top (as it does in the drawing) as long as the intake and outlet are opposite. For cdl one, the important thing is that the water crosses the: whole tank-top 10 bottom or bonom to top. "Ihe miler cells should be plumbed 101' 10 bottom to treal possible ammonia build up. Use bulkheads to make seals on t� sides of the barrels. (See Blrn:is, Bungholes, and Bulkheads, page 80.) St:md:ud 2-inch, schedule 40 PVC (polyvinyl chloride) pipes and fittings work well to direct the flow ofwater and Clm be threaded inlo the bulkheads.
STOCKING'DENSITIES A N D DENITRI FICATION 'rhe number of fish Ihal can be put in a recirculating aquaculture system depends on its age and stability, the number of plants rela tive to its fish population, and the amount offood that is added. One fish per gatlon of wattr in the second cetl is a \"ery high stock
ing density. Tel) gallons for each fish is a more reasonable starting point. Basic ally, the higher the stocking density, thc.greater the amount of energy needed to keep the system alive. Fi.�h produce ammonia as a waste product. ''''hen too much ammo
•
nia builds lip in the water, it can become (bellyro a fish population. In a natuntl system, amnlOllia is removed through the biological processes ofdifferent rypcs ofbacteria. the Uacteria first COfWc:rt the ammonia to n itri«:, then to nitr:ne, and firtlllly it is released inro the atmosphcrc as n itrogen gas. This process is called the denitrillc:nion cycle. Denitrifying bacteria need to be gh"en adequate habit:.lt, ei-
Aquacultur� NitrOI�n Cyd� 1. Nitrogen ga� releasl'd 2
Nitrate feeds plana and algae which
ther on gr.a\"el on the oonom ofthe pond, the roots ofplants, or
arl' eaten by fish. Fish produce ammonia
storc-bought plastic filtering media. The bacter ia also need time to
as a waste product.
develop in proportion to the �mount ofammonia being produced in a system. This can take up to sevtr.ll weeks,
so it is
important
to monitor ammonia levels and fish health after selling up a new aquaculture system. The ammonia test in a simple aquarium test kit
3& I TOOLBOX FOR SIJSTAINABLE CITY lIVtNG
3_ Ammonia/Nitrosomas bacteria 4. Nltrttl'/nitrobactena S. Nitrate
should be sufii..:icnt for most syslCms. High ammonia levels irritate
fish gills. Fish rubbing their gills on surfaces is an indication of
dangerously high ammonia levels. As denitrif�'ing bacteria are de
:'c1oping, ammoni.! len:15 can be redu..:cd by frequent Watef change.s.
'lhe dec ay of uneaten fish 1000 will also l lroduce ammonia-don't feed fish more th'lrI the.I' can eat!
FISH FOOD Fish are as varied in their preferences for food as they arc in their body types and habitats. "The fibh >pccics that are most ideal fOf raiSing in small-scale J(]uJculwfc sys tems have diets consisting primarily of plant matter, insects, and decomposing material-all considered to be low on the food chain. Sources of this food can include compost scraps, worms (rom a \"crmicornpost system , spent barley hulls from a heer brewery, tr:1pped cockroaches , or duckweed
harvested from an aql!ac\dture pond. It is also possible to purchase
high-protein fish tOOd from pet stores . Hanging a light bulb abo� a pond wi!! attmct insects. Flying in er ratic cin:b, they
will frtquentl�, cr�sh into the pond and become fish
food. Another tC\":hnique. Otle that would likely-bettnJlopular with neighbo.", is 10 hang a pi«e of rotting mc� above a pond. Housefly
IllJg).,'Ots eating the meat will fall into therend and be d�voured
F I S H WASTE AS ftRTILIZER An added benefit of raising fish i, that their mamtre is an excellent fcrtilizer ior gardcns. Lt can b� collected trom the botto m of ponds with a Siphon vacuum a tld be :lpplied to soils. [t is also possible to
preserve it in containers for later lise by adding one teasPM'n of pho sphoric acid peT gall on offish manurc .
AQUAPO N I C S Aquaponics is the pr.tctice ofgrowing plants in the nutrient-rich wastewatcr produced by fish in an aquaculture system, rather than fOOD I 37
•
in soil. TIlt plants arc /lwcoo on rafts with their roots dangling into the nutriellt-rich waters. In addition to providing the plants them selves for harvest, this method also lISCS the plants to purify the wa ter by la�ing lip exccss nutrients. Aquaponks works beSt with plants that arc naturally adapted to living in water, like W'�ternc:ss, duckv;c:ed, and water spinach. II is possible to grow some non-aquatic plalllS, li�c basil aud lettuce, aquaponically, but these plants will e"o'cntually-su/fcr from a lack of soil nutrients. Trellising aquaponic plants like watcrt;rcs$ and water spinach can be grown on a cage. "lhis is made by bending plastic chicken fenc ing material into the shape of a cylinder and standing il vertically in the WlI.tcr with 25 10 SO percent of the (age $ticking out of the water. The rylinder shape will allow the rOOli of the plants to grow into the center of the cylinder, while supportil'g the phnts' stems. (See cdl four in lmensive System Illustration, page 33.) Aquaponics should not be confused with hydroponics, a system that invoh·cs growing terrestrial plant� using recirculating water that has �en synthetically fertilized. Since h)-droponics is energy imensive and rdies on artificial fertilizers, it has limited application in sustainable autonomous systems.
AQUAT I C ANIM ALS I;Vith a high rate of protein conversion, omnivorous diet, and good use of three-dimensional space, fish .nako-an ideal choice of animal to raise in concentrated conditions in urban environments.
TILAPIA Tilapia is the most common species offish grown in urb�n aqua culture. Originally from Africa and the Middle East, it is a prolific breeder and is tolerant ofcrowding and less than pristine water quality. An omnivorous fish, tilapia is rdatively nsy to feed. It will
38 l lOOl80X fOR SU$TAINA6lE CITV LIVING
eat earthworms, duckweed, or vegetable scraps. Tilapia is also a filter feeder, meaning it can eat microalgac suspended in the warer. a food niche at the bottom of the tood chain e�ploit"ed by few fish species. All these factors combined make tilapia a good choice for aquaculture. Tilapia·s main drawback is its imlbility 10 survive at temperatures below 55 degrees. In cooler climates, this requires that the fish be grown either seasonally, in bioshelters, or with considerable energy inputs for heating water. Olle option is to grow tilapia in outdoor ponds in the warm months, harvest the fish, and then collect the yotmg to
�� raised (in a smaller tank) indoors in the winter.
J\·lixed-sex tibpia, needed to keep the fish population going for multiple generations, are difficult to obtain. Many /ish hatcheries only sell all-male population,. Anothcr obstacle to raising tilapia is that it is illegal in some ,tates. Tilapia is considered an invasive fish 311d should [leVer be released into the wild.
OTHER FISH SPECIES 1l1ere arc many fish specie� native.or 1l31l1rali7-o suited fur small scale aquaculture. Bullhe-;'ds, cat fish, sllnfish, and carp meet thes.: characteristics and feed dose to the bonom or the foOO chain. [f the), are provided with J rocky, covered shelter, bullheads arc known to breed in small-scale pond systcms. Trout and bass can al>o be raised, but require high kids of protein and prccise watcr tempemlUrcs and conditions.
CLAMS Part of a family of organisms called bivalves, clams play an impor tant role in aquatic ecosystems. As filter feeders, clams constantly pass water through their bodies, cleaning it at the same time. Fifcy percent offreshwater clam species in the United States have gone utinct, largely due to habitat degradation. Raising endangered spe-
fOOO 1 39
-
cies in capliv;t), lor release into wilJ w',uerways ooulo. gf('�dy boost their chance. for survival. Unfortunately, it is imflO$sible to breed mOST dams in sm.all a<]u�culture systems bec:luse their reproductive (relcs arc de�ndcnl on river Aows and /ish
10
rmnsporr their larvae.
Cwmw/iljlllmif/fI/, has been suo.:ess fully raised in small :.J.I\uariullls tOr food Jnd lOr ""�ter purifiCllioo. It However, the Asian river cbm,
is found in many US wJtcrways. Although it is a non-nalil,(, species, i( doesn't seem to affect native populations ofbh".lkcs.
SNAILS Snails pia)' a uitical role ,IS debris consumers in an aquaculture system. Snails CAll be cotb:red from the scdimcill or undersides of vegeration in jusl about any wau:rway. A co\lplc snails ofthe S2.nlC species will quickly multiply.
CRAYFISH Crayfish are frcs!""'-;l.!cr crustaceans lhal resemble small lobsters.
Fmlnd in m,m} parts of the world, cl'"Jytish can be mi�ed alongside m�ny fish s�des in �n aquaculture �)�� and are considered a _
ddi!!;!.cy.
•
PLANT AQUACULTURE lhere arc man)' aquatic plants that can be grown in a small-scale �quacu!ture s)'Stem, iodependemly or in combination with animal systems. Aquatic plants grow prolifica!!r 3nd can be used for food, fcni1iuT, or livestock feed; 3S � high-nitrogen material in compost; or as fuel in methane digester systems. It is alII ays best to use plants that arc native to the climate the)' wi!! be raised in-lake special cue with exotics that they do not escape into natural waterways! Plants can be obtained from water garden nurseries, or, in some cases, carefully tfllTlsplanted from the wild. "fhe following aTe some useful aquatic plants.
40 \ TOOL601l. fO� SliS1AINABLE (In LNlt.G
ARROWHEAD (SAGfTTARfA LATfFOLfA) Native to North America, this water plant produces an attractive purple flower. Its small, egg-sha]lCd roots were an important food to indigenous A!l1crican�. Boil or steam the root to rernovc an oth erwise bitter flavor. Arrowhead spreads r,lpidly and (an Dc grown in cold or warm climates.
AZOLLA (AZOLLA FfLfCULOfCIDES) A-wl!a, or fai ry moss, is a minute Aoaling fern. Several varieties arc native to North America. As its growth (.x>nditions, harvesting, and preparation are quite similar to those of duck weed, the two can easily be grown together, forming an interesting mix of fI�ating green edible stuff. Azolla also has an important agricult...ral use. Like legu mes and dovers, it has a symbiotic relationship with the blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria,1iving on its roots. the algae·s role is ro pull nitrogen out of the atmosphere, "fixing" it into a form where it is usable by plants. Azolla can be harveste d alld tilled into soH as a nitrogen supplement, effectively performing the •
same function as a nitrogen-fixing cover crop. Low-tech awlla cultivation ,·ould reduce global dependence on synthetically pro· duced nitrogen fertilizer, an energy imensive, polluting product llsed worldwide in conjunction with chemical pesticides. In SOlltheast Asia, azolla is commonly grown with rice, ducks, and tilapia in a system called poly,ulture. The different elements in polycultu!e all benefit each other in an integrated pattern of inputs and yields: the wastes of one be,ome the food of another.
CATTAIL (TYPHA SPP.) A reed plant found commonly across the United States, '�ttails hal·c brown, fuziy seed heads that resemble cigars. In addition to
FOOD 1 41
bdng a valu�d wellands plant, callail produc�s edible tubers and shoots.1"h<: root can be dug up, peeled, and eaten like a potato.
Propagating cattails is e�s}'. Dig up the rhi-wme of the plant and""
split it up. Plant the pieces severnl inches below the soil or gravel, in water or we! ground. Be careful: Catmils' pointy rhi1.ornes can poke through pond liners.
DUCKWEED
(LEMNA SPP.)
Tiny, floating, and leafy, duckweed is the world's smallest flower ing plant. -nlere are several sllecies and it can be found in most
parts of North Aillcrica�though its range is global . Although it is considered to be a nuisance plant by many becallsc ofits ten dency to cover the entire surface oflakes and ponds, this trait is what gives duckweed the potential 10 be a major food source for
humans and livestock. Duckweed can double its mass dailv under
opti mal conditions. A floating plant with no root or stem, it puts
all its energy into division. Duckweed's efficient growth makes it
one of the highest yielding crops per acre. to It is commonly llsed
in wastew�ter treatment systems because of ilS r.tpid nutrient up take ability. It is also a good source of nitrogen for compost piles
and un be used as a green rnanu� for land gardens. "(he·rapidly growing duckweed is also nutritious, giving it huge
potential for world food production. Duckweed has a rich protein structure that is closer to an :ltlimal's than a pl:mt's. Harvesting
duckweed is quite easy-it can be scooped ofl· the water's surface
wilh a net Of strainer; jusl make SUfe to leave enough to �grow.
If grown in absolutely clean waler, duckweed could be eaten raw by humans. However, it is a good idea to steam it before eating in cue Iny pathogens happen to be attached.
Duckweed can be red to chickens and othef fowl. It can also be fed to tilapia and other herbivorous fish. Because it is largely water
by weight, it is best to dehydrate duckweed before feeding it to fish
to avoid filling their stomachs with water. Duckweed can be: grown
42 I TOOLBOX fOR SU�TAINASLE CITY liVING
succ�ssiully in a recirculating aquaculture system, llsing the wast�s produced by the fish as a nutrient sourct.
LOTUS (NELUMBO SPP.) An edible water pbnt originally from India, lows is most prized for its beautiful flower. lhc rhiwme lnci seeds arc edible.
RICE A dietary stapk of mlny cultures, rice can also b e grown on 3 small scale in aquatic food systems. Several v;ttieties are adapted . lI1s to growth in the United States. Start seeds in moist soil and tr fer to water once they h:we begun growing. Another option is wild rice, a native w.ller grass originally cultivated by indigenous Americans.
TARO (COLOCASIA ESCULENTA) Taro is one ofthe world's most widdy cultil·ated crops. '[he edible, nutritious part ofth� pbnt is its root. or .:orm. It can be prepared in a \"ariety ofW:l)"s �imi!ar to a pot:\to. It is impo�t"ant to cook it-it is toxic
£
when eaten raw! Taro is the main ingre ient in the Hawaiian dish poi.
WATERCRESS
(RORIPPA NASTURTIUM-AQUATICUM) \Vatcrcrcs, is .\ common salad ingredient. Found in many gro cery stores, it un be grown by placing a single cutting in water. \Vatcrcrcss performs well in ,\quaponic designs.
WATER HYAC I N T H
(EICHHORNIA PANICULATA) While not exactly a top choice fOT edibility, water hyacinth deserves mention for its many other uses. \Vatcr hyacimh is frequently used in wlstewalcr applications because ofits rapid growth mte and nu-
FOOD I 43
trient uptake ability. This sante quality makes it a tlllisance plant in mallY parts of the world. \-Vater hyacinth is despised for its tendency 10 choke
out "�lter\\-"llys w;th its tendril-like networks of floating
_bulbs and leaves. Ncn:r let;t escape into the wild! People living with it have used it for a livestock feed, a mushroom-growing sub strate, a biomass for methane gas production, and fibers for baskct weaving.
WATER M I M O S A
(NEPTUN/A OLERACEA)
Water mimosa is mainly found in tropical Asia, where it is culti vated in still wdter like ricc. Rich in miner�ls and vitamin C, the young !caves, shoot lips, and )'ol.mg pods arc eaten and the roots are used meditinally.
WATER SPINACH
(IPOMOEA AQUATlCA)
1his high-iron, lea!"y plant grows prolifically in warm climates. Originating in China, water spinach is now found in many parts ofthe world. Special care is needed when <.:Ultiv,[titlg;t
10 ensure
it does not escape into natu ral waterways. It is a highly aggressive plant. Many waterways in Florida have been choked by it, and its sale has been banned in sCI'eral wuthern statcs. VVater spinach can be grown either in soil or water and will quickly cover the area
of a pond. Although it is diffic�lt-to obtain, a small cutting is all that is needed. It i� necessar)' to bring it indoors over winter in northern areas. Water spin!.ch qtn be harvested md eaten like a sabd green.
ALGAE Vascular photosynthetic organisms are what we traditionally think ofas plants-organisills that possess stems, roots, and leaves. Algae are photosynthetic organisms that lack these vascular structures. Algae range from tiny single-celled organisms (microalgae) to giant
44 I TOOLIlOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
sea kelp. Some algae Jj'·e on land (like lich�ns, which are actually fungi/algae symbionts) bll! the majority arc aquatic.
M I CROALGAE Microalgae are fundamental to 3quatil· ecosystems. Growing pro lifically when given sunlight, nitrates, carbon dioxide, and other nutrients, algae provide food directly or indirecrly for other con sumers. \Vithout them, mally life forms on Earth could not survive. lhey C31\ be observed in ponds and lakes, turning them a green or green-hlue hue in the summer months. In th.<: simplest sense, aquatic food relationships can be imagined
as a pyramid . Ablilldant 111icroa!gae form the base of the pyramid. It takes many microalgae to feed a number of zooplankton, which
lre on the next level ofthe pyramid. The zoopbnkton can support only a few minnows, which are [hen food for evcn fewer big fish at the top of the pyramid. As one moves up the pyramid, energy is
lost in the form ofwaste heat and excretions. For this reason,
milch more energy is required to produce 10 pounds of fish than 10 pounds of algae. It is most �fficicl1! to eat as dose to the bottom of the pyramid as possible. lhere 3re ",veral species of microalgae, including
ellloTel!:., aphanimmenon, and spirulina, thai·are highly
Ilutritious and have supported traditional cultures for centuries. It is vcry difficult to culture a pure strain of desirable microal· gae in an open pond. Competing algae cells can spread from pond to pond on just about anything-birds, plant>, bugs, even the wind. Among the many types of microalgae are some that are IOxic 10 humans (such as microcystis and c),lindrospermop sis). Since a jar of a lgae-rich water contains millions of minute single algae cells, there is no way to separate out the good from the bad without a microscope. Reliable tests to screen for toxic varieties of algae on a large scale are unavailable. While desir able strains of microalgae can be safely cultivated in sterile con·
FOOD 145
ditions, this option is generally unavailable to the majority of the world's population. However, t<:"lxic '·.lrieties do not frequently occur where spirulina grows, because spirulina prefers water with a high I'll. Spirulina also has a unique pigment that makes it casy to differentiate from potentially toxil: �lgaes. It is difficult to scparJte less distinguishable varieties of algae from toxic ones with the unaided eye. Spirulina, also called blue-green algae or cy:mohadnia, is a spi ral-shaped single-celled photosynthetic algae. It contains a highly digestihle protein structure that has an excellent nutrient profile. A staple of the Aztec diet, spirulina grows in the alkaline lakes of Mexico and Africa. During a spirulina bloom, the thick alg:te mats on the surface of lakes arc easily scooped up with nets or buckets. It is dried and eaten as cakes or powder. Spirulina is also cultivated in
massive production f:KiJitics and sold as a nutrition:!1 supplement. Vnfortun�te1)", spimlin3 produnion is vcry site specitic. Difficult to grow outside of its native habitat, it requires sunny, alkalint!"wa ter with a limited tcmperalllre range. '10 culture spirulina, a high pH environment must be createdhy...WIing large amounts ofbak ing soda (sodium bicaroonate) to water. The bicarbonate ra.i.scs the pH and provides a carbon sourte to the algae. '[his ",holiid only be done in constructed ponds. Altering the pH of a natural body of water would kill offnative species.
O I L FROM ALGAE Certain species of algae prodllce very high concentrations of oil in
their bodies. Some varieties' masses are 50 percent oil, and in laoo ratory experiments, some algae strains produced mall)' more times
_
the amount ofoil in a given space than the highest oil-producing agricultural crop." lllese oils could be extracted from the alg�e and used to power diesel vehicles. Since huge amounts of algae can be grown offsewage, there seems to be a great potential to usc waste products to power an algae-based energy infrastructure.
46 I rOOL60X FOR SUSTAINABLE CtTY LIVING
Yet. growing oily algae is not as simple 3< some would hope. The growth of oils. or lipids, requires consido:rAblc ti'lle and en ergy. Less oily algae easily out'compete oily .algae. It is difficult to grow oil-producing strains in large numbers outside of scaled environments. Huge em'ironment�lly-(ontrolled indoor ponds would be necessuy (Q produce any significant quantity of oil, �n unrealistic option fordecentnilized autonomous communities. The search (oillinucs'for oily �lgae th�t grow in l�rge popul� lions in natur.1 freshwater environmenlS. Because they have fewer com�tilors in all inland sening. culturing oily marine algae in outdoor saltwMer ponds may hold some promise. Other high lipid-content orgulisms include soldier fly larV:le and some species of molds and plants.
DEPAVE THE PL ANET (OR AT LEAST THE D R I VEWAY) In loday's cities, an extraordinary amount ofspace has been al lOlled for the exciusi"e usc of automobiles. Parking lOts and roaas •
•
occupy some of the best polenlial gardening space. People looking to build gardens on lap offormCf parking lOIS or roads are often compelled
10
rem�ve the asphalt cap. Doing so allows plant roots
to go deep and extract minerals from the soil beneath and allows watcr to i!lfihrate the ground. If food production is to become localized inl;itid, it will be: nccc$Suy to fcmOI't the layers of as phalt thaI caver ,Iht soil
.
PROBLEMS WITH ASPHALT Asphalt is an impervious material, which means no water Cl1!l p:m through it. 'nlis makes it an ideal material for roads: the earth below it stays dry and s i unlikely to wash away and become rutted like dirt or i also widely used in roofing shingles. gr:lI'�1. For similar reasons, il s
FOOO 1 47
Asphalt is derived from petroleum mixed with an aggregate
\'
(sand and gravel) as well as numerous toxic solvents. Its manufac<
ture and use rdeases volatile org:tnic compounds (VOCs), indud-
ing Ihe carcinogenic benzene and toluene.11 Because of their mo-
'
le<:u[ar structure these toxins arc pcrsistcm, or hard 10 break down,
which means they are able 10 wreak havoc long after they have been
unleashed.
Normally, !";1infilJ seeps into die ground, where it is either
taken up by plant roots or recharges groundwaTer. I;Vau:r that is
001 absomed creales streams
that Aow into rivers. When nin falls
on asphalt, none ofit � absorbed. Instead,
il all runs off; usually
imo st.. , l el'S. A5 it Aows over p:owed areas, the �inwa!er pick! up a
.-Th��'
toxic load of�s spills, benzene particles, and other pollut:ln ts
sewers Te(eive enormous influxes of (his polluted water in hea�' rainstorms and ofte n
-�
o,·crflow. Umreated sewage and comaminated
l1I.inWluer escapt' imo waterwlIYS. A(luifers are not fe(harged and
the water cycle is disrupted.
Like concrete buildings, �sphah has high thermallllass ptOffr-
�"L'
tlting to the urban heat islanddfecl, where cities are as much as 10
TEARING I T O U T R.:molling asphalt is relatively easy. .Most :Isphah is only I
to
,
� � � �
t: { ) �""" 'o/
--
r
tics. st9fing heat from the sun. This heat is rcle�sed .lowly, contri!> \.
deg:rees warmer than surrounding rurd areas.
( _�"t:ly _
7-
):.�
J
'--..... .:. ..
2 inches
thick and comes offin sizt'!lble sheets rather than small bits. It is CJ(-
tremel), satisfying co feel the soil beneath t,lke its first bn:�th in reus, How to:
1. Start from an edge or make a hole With the picka�e.
One pef10n pries up the edge of the asphalt with the pickaxe while the other thl1Jsts the rockbar as far·under the 2.
asphalt as possible.
3. lift up a piete of asphalt usinS the leverage of the rockbar.
48 I TooL80X FOR SUSTAINABLE CITV LIVING
Supplies needed:
RockbJr, a 4-6 1001 heavy Ifon fod with one etld pointed illld the other ch,sel shaped Pi,ka�e
4. Hold the asphalt up with the plcka�e and thrust the rockbar farther under. S. ere�k off the pie<:e �nd repeat
WHAT NEXT? Under tbe .Isphalt is a layer of road IMse.
Road
b;lse can be lime
Stone. crusbed granite, grJvd, or (,I'en puh-eri-.eed old 3sph;llt. \Ve recOlllmend that the road base also be remOI'cd. l'his will be dif ficult because it has been severely compacted from cars driving O\'er it. At the very least, dig OUt dark spots on the rood base surface. lite spots arc likely 10 bc petroleum spills. Conlamin:l.ted rood base should be bndfilled. IftJO{ contaminated. road base could be reused in naturAl building projeclS, as cle3n fill, or to ll13fk paths. '[lle soil underneath is going to require considerable tilling and flliffing before it can be Ilblllcd in-it h�s been compacted and cut ofr frOIl1 water and air fOr years. Spreading I!ot.cteria-rich compost over this newly exposed ground will speed up its process of reha hiliration. (See !1Jorel1lcdiatiol1. page
179.)
'lite que!lion ofwhat 10 do with the o19.illunks ofasphalt is a diffi �uh one. It·s not a.:h-isahle to reuse i4.because oils may 001.(' OUt when it gets hot. Whik companies exist Ihal req-ck old :l.sphalt into dril'cwa)"S, the bndfill m:ly in many L"JSeS be the only pratlol option.
ASPHALT ALTERNATIVES Ilugc amoums of space and energy are dedicated to making cities accessible to vehicular traffic. The COllStruction of imerstates and byways in citie9 has had de\'astating effects on cOflllllunities. Entire neighborhoods have been razed, Otbers have been liTerally divided, often along racial and class lines. Many cities built highways paral lel to waterfronts. tragically cuning themselves off from the body of water that historica.lly supported the city.
FOOD 1 49
Today. roads are stillixing built through urban areas to allevi ate congestion As energy prices wilt ine\'itably increase in the .
future and fewer people will dri\'t, this is shortsighted planning, In illSlanceS where an �rea must Ix made accessible to I'ehides it ,
is vastly prdcr:lble to usc materials such as crushed stone, granite, gravel, or paver stones (concrete bricJs engineered to allow water to pass through them).
CONCRETE Asphalt should r'IOl lx confused with concrete. anQ(her impcT\'i
ous material commonly used in dri\'Cways. From the mining of
limeslone (its main ingredient) to its dehydmtion at thoUSllnds of degrees for hours on end, concrete production f((luires enormous
energy inputs.
Concrete remOV"J.l is also consi�ernbly more labor intensi"e than
asphalt removal. It ca n be smashe.d 10 bils with a sledge hammer, CUt by a masonry blade on a circular saw (a huge, dusty mess), or jackharnnlered. Concrete's one plus is that it doesl] 1 leach contami '
nants, so it can Ix cut into urbanite and used in gardens, benches, or fouud:'lIional structures, Use Clution ifcuning concrete, as many times it has been poured around melallauices th�t could c�use the saw 10 buck or jump, harming the user or the masonry blade.
BIOSH ELTERS Most biological processes drastically slow dow n or come to a stop when lemperatures drop below freezing. Unless the), arc kept in Warm interior environments, many orthe systems described in this book will only be operative in W:.Hmer seasons. Biosl]eilCNi keep biological systems active during the winter using only the heat of the sun. They can extend Ihe growing season ofplants or C\-'Cn be a year-round growing envronment i
.
so I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CtTY lIVtNG
\Vhilc a bioshelter is similar to a grecllhous� in terms of con struction (see Construction, page 53) and function (�n insulated structure that �l1ows sunlight to enter), it ake conrains objects that passively stOrt: heat. 1hermal mass is the property of materials that allows them to soak up, rdain, and release heat. Rocks, sand, bricks, and water have very high thermal mass. It takes a large amount of heat to increase their temperature. Li ke\\'i�e as they cool, a comparable amount of heat is given off. The higher the mass, the longer the material stores the hcat. Inside a bioshcltcr, high thermal mass materials arc healC(! by the SUIl'S rays. As the bioshcl ter cools off, that heat is released, keeping the interior temperature i wei moderated. In this way; thermal mass performs like a thermal battery: storing heat for times when the sun is ob�cure{L Placing enough thermal mass inside of a bioshdter CAn help to keep it warm during cold nights and stretches of cloudy days. W�ler has exccllent thermal mass properties. 111e Gulf Stream, the oceanic current that transfers heat from the tropics to the tem pef"�te regions of the Atlantic, is evidence of this. Without the Gulf Stream's ability to soak up, transport, lnd rdease heat, the British Isles �nd the northeastern United States/southcastern Canada would be vastly colder places. \'Vater's thermal m3ss properties can he harnessed by phcing containers filled with W;lTer inside of a bioshelter.ll1cse contliners can be I-gallon milk jllgS, 5-gallon buckc{�, 55-gallon barrels, or whole ponds. Small contaillers heat up ljuickly and only hold onto their heat for a dar or so. Large containers need many days of sun to bring their temperature up, and slowly release that hell o\'er a similar amount oftime. In climates that expericrK"c prolonged sun less periods, larger conrainers make more sense, \Vater containers painted blaek will soak up a greater amount ofhcM. 'They should be placed along the inside of a bioshclter's north-facing wall. COlltainers of water in a bioshelter can double as aquaculture tanks. Aquatic plants and animals wil! benefit greatly from being ,
Interior of � blosheiter
fOOD I ';1
•
inside a ht"dled enclosure during colder periods. Bioshelters can 31so
pro"ide space to house: constructed wetlands and rainW";J.ter collec tion syst< ,m9. A well-designed shelter can prevent rainwater tanks from fn.."1::zing solid, and can cnhance the pcrlorrnancc of a con
structed wetland during the winter. Chickens "'ill be happy insidc a
biosheltcr during cold timeS, and their body heat will also help keep the space warm.
It is even possible to have a compost pile inside of � bioshclter.
As composting is a thermal process Ihat can pro
well over 100 degrees, the heat released by a compost pile will aid
in keeping a bioshelter warm. "Ihis process is called biotherrnal
heating. A ,,'ell-maintained l:OmpoSI pile will also produce carbon dioxide, which is beneficial to plants.
LOCATION All :Ire:! that receives ab\ll1d,1I11 s\ll1shine is the ide:tl location for -
a bioshclter. In cities, these :Heas can be ditliclih to corne across.
Buildings and trees in neighbor's yards often creale shade Ihal may
reduce or mtirdy block the amotiiliOf sun &lIing on a particular
-area. Because the sun's angle gelS lower in Ihe "imer, ItiS"impor
tant to observe the amount o( sun a potential spotrccell'Cs not only
at different times of the day, but seasonally as well. As a bioshehcr
will function primarily in the wimer, it should � sited in 3 loc3tion that gets (ull sun in the (old months. "nlC presencc of some decidu ous trees can be a good thing. [n the slimmer they provide some
shading thaI can prel'ent a bioshdter from overheating, and in the winter, when Ihey lose their leaves, sunlight will come through.
A bioshdter should be built horilontally along an cast-west 'l.Xi�.
In the Northern Hemisphere it should fa(e the soUlh (and in the
Southcm Hemisrh ere (3(C Ilorthl.lhis will enSllrt,: that it receives the maximum available sunlight.
Ideally, a bioshclter would be altached to the soulh-facing side
o(a building where il is protected from cold northern winds. The
52 1 TOOL60X FOR �USTAINA8Le CITY LIVING
hledor .,ew of a bioshetler
thermal mass ofthe building's wall can also be used for heat stor age. (Brick and concrete buildings are great for this purpose.) A freestanding sheher should have a well-inst,bted northern wall.
CONSTRUCTION
•
A bioshdter is a simple stick-frame structure built with 2"x4"s and lined with some son ofglazing. Glazing is a transparelll material that allows sunlight through, but blocks wind and insulates against heal loss. Appropriate glazing materials for a small bioshelter in clude construction plastic, recycled glass windows, or greenhouse plastic. Construction plastic can be bought very cheaply in large rolls and stapled OntO a stick frame. Its disadvanl':lgc is that after six months of exposure to the sun, it occomes very brittre and evcntu ally disintegrates. Old windows �an be built into the frame of the slructure 10 act �s glazing. Old_windows should always be tested for lead paint. If lead is present, the windows should be stripped or encapsnlated us ing lead-safe practices before being installed ll Double-paned win dows are optimal, as the air hetween the panes act!; as an ins�)ator. A drawback ofglass windows is thaI they can be easily broken by falling tree branches or vandals. An advantage of windows is that they cfln be opened in the Sl,mmer for ventilation. Special greenhouse plastics that are UV·resisant. t insulated, and shatter-proof can also be purchased frOln gMden shops and nurser ies. The}: are .fairly expensive. To hold heat, biosheltcrs must be airtight. All cracks need to be sealed with'caulk. Ir is ideal to use cedar lumber to build the stick frame. Bioshdters prodnce a lot of internal humidit), Ihat causes condensa tion on the surface ofwood, leading to rot. If cedar is unavailable, be sure to beve! the edges of flat wooden surfaces so that condensa tion can drain off. The floor of a bioshelter can be earthen wilh a covering ofwoodchips or gravel.
tODD I 53
The eastern, western, and northern walls of a bioshelter should be opaque and insulated to minimize heat loss. To maximi'le solar gain, a biosheher should be twice as long (on its cast-west aXis) as it is wide (on its north-south axis). The southern wall should be angled 10 directly face the sun i n the winter. This ensures that the most sunlight passes directly into the biosheltcr and the least amount is reflected away. A rough guide for determining the proper angle i. to add 20 degrees to the latitude where the shelter is being built. For
example, the latitude o f Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, is approxi mately 40 degrees.llorth, so 60 degrees would be a good angle ' for the south-facing wall of a bioshelter built there. In extremely cold climates, bioshelters designed for year round operation may require supplemental heating to prevent freezing during extended sunless periods. I f a wood stove is used, be sure adequate space is given between the stove's chim ney and glazing materials that mar (Tack, 111eh, or catch fire if heated. It is also pOSSible to place insulated curtaim �gaimt the glazing at night 10 reduce heat loss._ \-"hile the purpose of a bioshelter is to collect heat for the liv ing sy>ttms inside of it, without the living systems it could be u·sed 3S a p�ssi"e solar heal collector for a building. A structure built over a door or window leading into a building would col IcC! heat during the day. At night, opening the window or door
would allow th� day's heat to enter the building. Such a system could assist with lowering a building's heating expense,;. In the summer. a bioshelter needs to be ventilated so it doesn't over l l C\'I'T}'Ihing inside. Walls made with plastic gia7jog can be heat and ki rolled up, and doors and windows can be opened for cross ventilation.
Remember that heat rises, so opening a window near the top ofthe shelter will have a superior cooling effect to opening (lne on the bottom. Even with maximum venrilation, it maybe necessary to place a tempo raryshade cloth Q\'l:f the stn.lCture in the summer to prevent Q\-erheating.
S4 I TOOlBOX fOR SUSTAtNABLE CITY lIVtNG
INSECT CULTUR E Compared (0 other livestock, insects rank high in ovcfdll sustain abi lity. 111(; amount ofb'ld and food needed to raise in':leCTS is
minimal compared to canle, pOl/lfry, or fish. In,c(ts cat dose to the
bottom of the 100d chain and are highly efficient protein conven ers. 'Iher arc abl� to feed on garbage, turni ng it into conccntrllted nutrients.
Fish and fowl S;lvor insects and will change them into � palatable protein in the form ofmeat or eggs. Supplementing Ii"estock's diets
with insects can reduce the need to buy commercial feed.
INSECT C U LTIVATION Insect cultivation is ideal lor the urban environment because in sects
can
be raised in small plastic cages kept indoors and stacked
on each other. P,a several individuals oLthc same variety into the same cage and pro"ide table scraps and Water. They will rapidly
multiply.
Insects can be collecled from the wild using nets or traps.
Study the lifecydes of di ffcrc�l spc-cies to cnsure they are raised in optinlal (onditions. Commonly raised species include: meal
worms, crickets, gr3sshoppel"S, butterAies, beetles, bees, ants, and many others.
SIMPLE INSECT BREEDING METHODS FOR CHICKENS An casy, loll' intensity method of breeding inSC'Cts is to create con ditions idc31 for their reproduction. Laying sheets of cardboard or
pieces of",uod on rhe ground and keeping them wet will create
an excellem bug habitat. The sheets should be big enough so lhey
cannot be fUrned over by chickens. Periodically turning them over with lhe chickens nearby will provide a bug lunch for the birds.
FOOD I 55
BARREL BREEDER Another insect breeding techn iqu e is the barrel breeder. This method is used in col�unclion with the woodchip bio-filter on a ki !<:h cn graywatcr filtration system. (See \Vastewater Recycling page 94)
How-to:
Supplies needed:
Fill a S·gallon bucket with woodchips and use it as a filter wetland. (See Wastewater Recycling. ! It wi ll catch the food particles and oils from the kitchen wastewater. 2. Drill numerous Yo-inch holes in the bottom of a 55-ga lion barrel, Place it so the holes are on the ground _ 3. Put 5 gallons of clean woodchi ps on the bottom of the barrel . 4. When the chips are clogged and foul, empty the bucket i nto a 55-gallon barrel. 5. Layer 5 galions of dean woodchips on top of the dirty ones to help the materi al compost and absorb e.cess nuids and odor. 6. Continue this process of layering clean and soiled until the barrel is full 7. Let the full barrel stand for a few months_ Insects will enter the barrel from the holes in the bottom and eat the bits of food and grease. The con.t�n�s will slowly break down into a rich, bug-laden compost. 8_ Empty the barrel in front of chickens and they will engorge themselves on the tasty insects. 9. The remaining compost can then be spread in a 8arden, or used as an inocu lant in aMther compost pile. 1.
to a constructed
ROACH TRAP Placed strategically, this simple roach trap will quickly fill with the
bodies of dead roaches, creating chicken food and reducing the in door breeding population.
56 1 TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITV liVING
Woodchip biolliter 55-gallon barrel
)-I-inch drill bitl drill Woodchi p s
.•
8"'\�1 of woo,kh,p, hiler> �'I,h�"
SMrel breeder: A 55-g�llon bud..t is filled with alternating lavers of clean and dirty wood c�ips. Holes at the bottom allow bug,
(which Mt the ,.. maoning food) to mov" in and out 01 the bar...1 and for th.. wate' to drain
FOOD I 57
How-to:
Supplies needed;
1. Cut off the top quarte r of a pl�stic 2 or 3"liter bottle .
_
rCoat the inside of the bottle with cooking oil 10 pre vent
trapped roaches from cllmbiog O\lt. 3. Invert the top .lod place it inside the bottle. with the edges even. Hold ioto place with binde r clips. 4. Pour mol�sses or soda in the bottom for bai\. 5.
Place it in � high traffic roach area.
5. Let the dead bodies accumulate-they are also great bait!
/l.lolasses-coated roaches are a great !Teat for chickens. lllcy can also be comrosted.
SIMPLE I N SECT BREEDIN G METHODS FOR FISH OR CHICKENS MAGGOTRY /'.1aggols arc the hr\'�l forf'l�lhe houscAy. Commonly seen on decaying malter, they are U'"I<:11 regarded with di�tt;t. However, systcms for thc deliberate cultil'ation of mat;gots, called maggotrys, han: bt:en developed in the Global South. Flv cggs halch on purre. . fied material in cOlllrolled cnvironmcllIs. lhe protein-rich maggots are harvested beforc they become flies lnd �re fed
10
livestock.
Similarly, a pie(c of rotling meal can be 11l1ng ol'cr a pond, attract ing flies. Maggots fJll into the watcr below, hecoming food for fish in the rondo
BLACK SOLDIER FLY Less oAc!ls;ve than the housefly maggot is the larl'3C of thc black soldicr fly. Unlike a housefly, black soldier flies do not spread dis ease because they do not comc in contact with human feces or food. lhe soldier fly has no mouth and docs not cat. Instead, the adult fly
58 I TOOLBOX mR SUSTAINABLE
CITY LIVING
Plastic 2 or 3·liter oottle
Binder clips Cookmg 011 Mol�\ses or soda
lives otToffood stored during the larval st;lge. the black soldier fly also do not come: inside: ofhurnan dwellings, preferring to remain outdoors. Soldier fly larllae are cultivated on compost or manure in outdoor containers. 'lhe protein rich larvae can be fed 10 anim als. Also rich in oil content, the LUllac can be pressed to Iflake oil for fueL wm'ac
that manage to escape and turn into flies pose no threat to human health.
ENTOMOPHAGY £ntomo "' insect . p!Jagy. eating: the practice ofeating insects. . i\'lany cultures have some tradition of insect eating. It ....ould not be: odd 10 sample culonas ants in Colombia, scQrpiOns in China, or caterpillars in Congo. Across the globe, insects provide many peo ple with protein: fat, and nutrients. Over 300 million insc.:t species -
have been ider llificd. lllcir ubiquity :md success i n reproduction m�ke them ideal candidaTeS for a fUTure food source in a world of dcclining resources. Perhaps westerners can overcome their cultural biases against entomophagy and sh are in the potcntial of this undere"ploitcd food
•
TC$Ource.
CAUTION ! ! !
•
As the autho� ofMan Eating Bugs warns, "If}'OO arc allergiC to shrimp. shellfish, dust or chocolate, never eat an insect. Even the
non-allerg,ic, unless in a survival SilU�l!io!l, shol.lld never cat a raw insect. Ceriain insects storc compounds that mah people sick, some arc poisonous, others may be cardnogerlic. Be as cautious It is estimated thaI each penon In
the US inadvertently consumes several
with insects as )'ou would be if you were gathering mushrooms. Know your insects,"U
poonds of Insects a Vt'¥ that have been ;;ccidentaliv processed into food.
FOOD
I 59
PUTTIN G IT ALL TOG ETHER'lhe key to est:.r.blishing community food sccuril)' is to have ood f coming from multiple and di,'crs<' sources. Urban farms and gar dens can grow a considcnble amount ofvcgetolbles, while fruit and nut Utes in parks can prm'ide a foragablc community crop. Fire escapes can be home to llHl5hroom logs and trellising \l!gctables. Neighborhood microlivcstock collectives can be fonned, with members iharing Ihe responsibilities and benefits-cleaning the coop. feeding and watering the ani�a!s, and collecting the eggs. Interlocking backyards mllke idcal 1ooitions for collective microl ivestock operations and expandw bird runs. Local aquaculture spe dalists can offer fresh, 10001ly grown fish. Growing food in a city is a wonderful wa)' to build community, support local economics, and be rooted in
a
place. Considering how
far removed most modern city dwellers are from thc process of rais ing food, cven Ihc simple aCl ofgrowing a few IlCgetables on the fire escape can be: a huge Slep toward self-reliance. •
•
60 1 1OOLBOX fOR SUSTAtNABLE CITY LIVING
WAT E R ,
Of all human resources, water is the most critical for survival. Not only is water necessary for drinking, it is also crucial for growing food and sanitation. Sadly, water is frequently abused and taken for granted. While water is abundant on the planet, only
2.5 percent of that water is fresh (non-salt) water. Of that fresh water, 69.S
percent is inaccessible for human use, locked in glaciers and permafrost. Nearly all of the remaining water is found in slowly recharging aquifers from which it is being used at an ever-increasing, non·sustainable rate.i Additionally, each year, more and more water sourc.es are being contaminated by agricultural and industrial pollutants, making them unfit for use. Historically, rights to water have been held in common by human societies, but. recently, government and corporate leaders have begun to treat water as a resource to be bought and sold. At the World Water Forum at The Hague in March
2000, water
was defined as a commodity. The rights to ttie public water supplies and distribution systems of localiti es in the Global South have been sold to corporations. As their traditional sources of water have become the property of foreign corporations, citizens have suffered from enormous increases in the cost of water, while still relying on the same poorly functioning systems for delivery. Many believe that water is a right belonging to all pepple that should never be bought or sold or denied or controlled. People's resentment toward corporate control of water has grown into a global resistance to water commodification_ In corporation Bechtel purchased the rights lO the
2000, the US
public water supply of Cochabamba,
Bolivia and imniediately raised the price of water so hi9h that it was unafforable to many of the city's residents. Through months of protests and blockades, the citizens of Cochaba_mb? managed to drive out Bechtel and regain control of their water. The reasons tQ be concerned about our water supply don't stop with the practices of water-hoarding private corporations. Municipal water systems are prone to failure, environmentally damaging, energy intensive, and at times deliver water of questionable quality_ Municipalities often draw water from large reservoirs artificially created by ecologically devastating dams. Z Rivers that once flowed to the ocean are being. sucked dry by desert megalopolises, their waters denied to those living downstream. The Colorado River, for instance, was once a beautiful river that supported abundant
62 I TOOLSOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LlYING
wetlands and estuaries on its path to Mexico's Sea of Cortez. Today, it has been dammed in order to supply water to desert farms and for the sprawling populations of Las Vegas and Los Angeles. With 95 percent of its waters being retained jn the US, Mexico now receives a virtual trickle. The water that arrives in Mexico
is
heavily
polluted with pesticides and fertilizers from American agricultural runoff.l People concerned with environmental sustainability and social equality should deeply question the origin of their water. In cities in particular water is given little regard. Most people presume that fresh water will always be available with a simple turn of the tap. Few are aware of the complexity of the hydrological cycle or the enormous amounts of energy needed to bring water to them. In a future of declining energy res-ources, it is questionable whether our current water delivery systems will be able to continue functioning. Weather patterns that cha nge as a consequence of global warming will cause some previously rainy climates to become drought prone. It will become increasingly difficult to provide water to cities in these dry locations. Further more, disasters can cut off water supplies or make them undrinkable for extended periods of time. Autonomous communities would be wise to have redundant sources for a need as basic as water. This chapter will explore practical techniques that can be used by communities in any country to ensure their water security without being reliant
&n
poorly functioning
water utiliti�s. It details how to collect and store rainwater, low·tech methods for purifying water, and innovative technologies to remediate polluted bodies of water. One section describes the safe reuse of old 55-gallon barrels and gives step-by-step instructions for attaching plumbing to them.
WATER 163
RA INWATER COLLECTION Sin<:c 31lcicnl limes. people: all o vc r the world have been arching
roIinw�uc:r. While it is most commooly done today in arid, w.l.lc:r-
5treS� climates, it makes sense to do il in (;linier region� 35 well. Global warming !1l:l.)' lhifr climate p:mcrns, clUsing p eriods of
drought in places where nin is currently abundant. Rainwater col lection is also an 3eh iel'llhlc llltcrnatillC for those wishing to reduce
their rdiance: �nd demand on on unkip:ll wau�r 5ystcms.
Manyof the (onl:uninants present in surface, ground, Of tap water arc nOt likely to be found in nlinWlltc:r.lhe process of water evaporating, condensing in the atmosphere, and coming down again as rain is known as the hplrological cycle. [t is a purification procc:ss. \"'hell water evaporates, environmental con�minams arc often left behind. I\dditionatly, rainwater is1ree of the contami nants added
to
munidp:11 w'lter dllTing the disinfection process and
those that art leached in from old pipes. Rainwater is among the
purest water �vai\:lbloc. Rainwater collection is perror�d by funneling rain that lands on rooftops through gutters intO"containers called cistcrns. lhe water is then stored until it is 10bc used for gardening, drinking,
Of other household u.sc:s. 1\1051 neighborhoods have the potential to
collect thousands of gallons of water from their rooftops, providi ng themselves \vuh"1 free source of ckan water and protecting their w�ter securitv. As more and more communities around the world ha\'e their water supplies privatized, ninw.l.ler collection wit! be
an imp ortant tactic in ensuring that water remains a fnx resource, common
to
all.
A backup water sourcc can become crucial during emergencies when clean w�ter is in shon supply. Of all human needs, watcr is among the most imp ort.l.nt. No one can survive more than a few
64
\
TOOLBOX fOR !iUSTAINABLf CITY LIVING
Globally, 69
percent
of wa tc r used IS
used for agflculwre, 21
percent
for
ifldustrv and 10 percent for domestic purposes. tn the UlllIed States, however,
industry !,Ises the largest proportion.'
Abuodaflt " like
roads
c,ties, aod
-nper' JU; ':0',,:',
(oncrete
),dl'walk>
d�ys without it. t\ rainwater sy�tcm can com plement U� ofcit)' water-i t is i m pOrlant to have a redundanc)' of critical syste ms .
pfev�nt ra;n from IIh!tr�l;lrlt: tlW sad
SETTING UP A SIMPLE RAINWATER COLLECTION SYSTEM
aod r echargiog &,oundwater, IOIe'''8
il mudd ,nto
s torm
,�",ers
1M,
d,scllarge jr'lIO rivers that lead to the ocean
Collectiog ra inwa ter mltlgates
the negJti�e effects of ImperVIOUS covers to some e�tent
When r,)ln 's
1111" simplest and most practiul usc for roinwatcr in a city is to wa-
_
ter garoeos. \Vith minimal cost and skill, a ban:-bones syslem c�n
captur ed and uo;ed over time for Ihmgs
be constructed using a cistern made from a 55-pilon barrel or gar
!ike gardeojo&. ,t 's g,ven time to wor�
bage nn that will provide enough clean water
Its wav back ioto the so, wh.:re it ColO
plot.
recharg(' local aquifers
to
water a vegetable
LOCATING THE ROOF AND DOWNSPOUT 'Ihe first stcl) is 10 find a building from which to collect the rain -
water. Ideally. this building is located Ilear Ihe g�rocoing site. lilc next step
i�
•
to deTCnninc where Ihe 1\",l\er drains off of the roof.
lIthe roof is sloped, it is l ikely thaI a gutter runs along its edge. 'Ihe gutter ",Itches the water coming off the roof 3nd funnels it into a metal�l3$ric pipe, o r downspout, Ihal runs ,·enitally down !Me side of the buildi ng. 111e next time i t mios, check the selected downspout to make sure Wdler is a ctually corning from it. •
,
Some,times io houses with Illuhiple downspou ts little to no rainwater �s through a gil"C�n spout. If there is no guller on a sloped roof, one netds 10 hi: installed. (It is a fairly easy pl'I)Ce$s-consuit a home-repair guide for instr u{(ioos.) Old gutters C:.l.n be salVagea and reused. Gutlers can al!.O be homemade by sli ciog open tubing lenglhwise. Buildings with flal roofs may hal'C a downspout 00 the OUTSide or the inside of the buildiog. For the purpose of rainwate r collec
tio o , it is important that the buildillg drain 00 its exterior. Imerior drainage syMems are "cry diflicu h to tap into without punchi ng holes in the walls.
WATER
I
6S
-
Bring the barrel (see below) or g�rbage can next to the down spout. '[he existing downspou t may discharge w�ter directly ontO the ground or underground. Regard le ss, the downspo \!\ should be cut to end at least a foot above the barrel.
MAKING A BASIC RAIN BARREL Supplies needed:
How to:
1. It using a 55-gallon barrel with a lid, cut the lid off using a
A clean, food-grade 55·gallon barrel (see
jig saw or a reciprocating saw. (See Barrels, Bungholes, and
Barrels, Bungholes, and Bulkheads, page
Bulkheads, page 80.) 2. Stretch the piece of window sc�en across the open top of
the barrel or garbage can.
Tie down the screen around the
outside of the barrel with the old bicycle inller tube to hold it i n plilce. The screen keeps out l e aves, chunks of debris, mosquitoes, a nd animals like cats and squirrels that cou ld fall
in a nd drown.
3. P la"e the barrel under the downspout so the water flows into the barrel. If necessary attach a 4S degree elbow to the end of the downspout. When it rains, the water will go through the screen and fill up the barrel. If the barrel fills up, the water will flow over the top. 4.
To get the water, remove the screen and scoop it Oul with
a bucket or watering can.
Extra precautions should be tak�n iflhe barrd is going to be acces sible to young children. It can he fenced in, or a dosed-top barrel can be used, with water flowing directly through a 2-inch opening.
ADDING A DELIVERY SYSTEM The simple design above works for a small g"Mden, but som e sort ofwater delivery method is desiT1lblc for anything larger. A hose is the easiest way to get water from onc place to another. P utti n g in a host require s inslalli.ng a bulkhead on the side of Ihe barrel near its
66 I TOOlBOX fOR SUSTAINABlE CITY lIVtNG
._
80) or a lilrge plastic garbage can 3 fool x 3 foot window s cre en
A used bicycle inner lUbe
bottom. (See Barrels, Bunghole" and Bulkheads, page 80, for stcp by-step instructions.) [fthe garden is downhill from the barrel, grllvitywill move the waler; though depending on the slope it may not move fast cnough fof impatient gardencr5 and may not be sufficiently pressurized to work with :1 drip line or soaker hose. [f the water moves too slowly, or nOl at all, the head needs to be increased, Head
is the pressure resulting from the height of water.
One foot ofhead is equal to one half PSI, or pounds p<.:r square inch. So. i f the top of a barrel of water was 6 feet above the end of a hose, the water prcssun; would be 3 PSI. While not a tremendous amount,3 PSI is probahlyenough to slowly water a garden. In comparison, a typical house's water pressure is 40-60 PSI. To create the maximllln amount of head, a rain barrel should be positioned at the highest spot ;tv;lilable. Ifthe highest spot i, not ncar a downspout, it is possible to direct watcr from the �pout to l ne tubi� or cornt the barrel with a Aexible pipe like polycthy e gated drain pipe, In somc cases. an aqueduct system sl.pported by pGSIS may need to be built. If n o natural rises in ele l'!itiGn arc preSCIlI, a rain barrel can be put on tGp uf a sturdy stack of concrete blGcks to increase its head. TripGds that hold a barrel iO to 15 feel off;'he ground call be pur
'\
\\ \\
chased frGm sporting goods storC5. Oheylire meant to hGld deer
\\
feed.) Positioning a barrel on a bakony or1ire escape will create
\�
even more pressure. Water weighs approximately 8 pGunds per gal
\, Simple rain barrel :
lon, so a full 55-gallon barrd weighs about 440 pGunds. Make sure R�,n flows
off the roof
t hrough the gutter and into a barrel (A) w,tn a
w,ndow
screen stret,hed .erms the tOp.
From there a ho�e (II) uses gravity to d.li" e r the water to a nearby garden
that any structure supporting a rain barrel is strong enough. Another way to use grlll'it)'to pressurize water is to pump it to a
raised barrcL 111i. technique is most commGnlyused when'Water is collected and stored on the gruund in a container much larger than a 55-gallGn barrel. (See Expanded Water Sturage Capacity, page:
68.) \OVater is pumped from the big tank to a smaller barrel that is located on a tripod, tower structure, or reinfurced roof.
WATER I 67
1hCT( are multiple advantages to this method: The barrel can be located high([ than the downspout and doesn't need a rigid aque duct built to it. i'lstead, a hose can easily run from the pump to the barrel. The pressure of the pre-pumped water in_the barrd is stored as potential energy, ready to be used. Rather than running con stantly, the plllnp only needs to be activated to refill the barr(1. "!"his is especially handy when using solar- or human-powered pumps, whose energy is not alw�ys available. Only as much water as may be needed has to be pu(1)ed at a time, so the raised container can be
as small as 55 gallons.
EXPANDED WATER STORAG E CAPACITY It i� po�sible to use rainwater for more than watering a small garden. Raimvater collC(:tion can meet the water net'
mid formation and strapped together with braided cable or cargo tie down straps, or put in� a "wine rack" structure. Larger operations may require a larger storage capacity than carl be practically provided by barrels. Water storage vessels come in a range ofsizes and are made from a variety of materials. 'Iheycan be purchased or wnstructed. Size requirements and available funds will determine what style is appropriate.
POLYETHYLENE Available in sizes ranging from 55 to 5,000 gallons, polyethylene tanks arc most commonly used by ranchers for storing water for their livestock. "they are also used by a numbu of businesses for
68
I TOOlBOX rOR SUSTAtNABLE CITY LIVING
55-gallon barrels stacked orto a pyramid Ipillmbing not yet installed)
WATER 169
general liquid storage. The tanks are lightweight (c3n be moved by one or two people), durable, and convenient for storage of large "olumes of water. Typically they are cylindrical, alrhou gh now flat, upright tanks designed to be placed against a wal1J.nd take up minimal space arc b eing made specifically for urban environ ments. "nley can be bought from feed stores or specialty suppliers and often can be delivered. Polyethylene tanks are not exactly cheap. The tanks are often black or dark green. Being opaque prevents sunlight from hitting the water and causing algae to bloom, which can cause a bad taste or be harmful. Polyethylene is considerJbly less toxi c than chlorinated plastics, like PVC. It does not produce dioxin if burned. Like most plastics, polyet hylene will degrade when it is exposed to UV light for prolonged periods. It is best to locate the t3'lk in the shade .
FERROCEM ENT Ferrocement t�nks arc made by applying concrete across a lattice
and reinforcing it with iron rods (" fe rro� means. iron). Built on site, ferrocement tanks are ideal for water oo1kction systems o,"cr 5,000 gallons where labor is more abundant than money. As they contain
enormous amounts of water presslIre, they must be huilt properly, preferably by someone who has experience in their construction. It is best to experiment with building a small vers ion first beforc at� tempting to undertake a large one. Once a ferrocement cist<;:f[1 has been built, it is a permanent fixture on a site. For this reason, it is not recommended for non-property owners.
OTH ER SYSTEMS Galvanized metal and fiberglass cisterns also can be bought. While not as ligh!weight as a polyethylene tank, they are p or t able when empty.
70 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAtNABLE CITY LIVING
•
•
[n traditional societies, mortared stone cisterns and giant ceramic vessels are used lor w'Jter storage. Building cither requires highly specialized expertise. Rainwater used ol1ly for gardening can also be stored in a pond. Pond water is unsuitable for drinking beClllSe it is 100 difficult to keep out conuminants. (Sec Aquaculwre, page 21, for pond con stHiction information.)
SIZING A CISTERN 111e size of a cistern depends 011 how often it rains and how much water is needed. For instance, if a system is deSigned for occasion :lily watering a garden in a climate with frequent rainfall, a 55-ga[ Ion barrel may be adequate. Regular [:lin will likcly refill the barrel before it is emptied. The barrel would prob:lbly overflow during�_ heal'y rain, hut it is not necessary to collect every drop because i.f rains frequenLly. On fhe other hand, a system that is meant to prol'ide a commu Calculating Raincatch Potential
nity in a drought-prone climate with all of its water needs will need
�
a much uger storage capacity. It will have to collect and store all 1. Surface area Ex 200 sq. fee t
� �
length x w id th
the rain that falls during the wet season to make it through the dry
20 feet � 10 feet
period.
•
4he size of a system that i� needed in any climate can be.c:l�u 2.
Raincatch potential per inch of rain
�
0.6 gallons x surface area Ex
120 gal lons per inch of r ain
�
0.6
gallons x 200 5q. feet
�
annual rainfall
Ex.: 3,000 galions = 120 gliion s per inch of rainfa ll x 2.5 Inches
services, and the amount of water that is needed.
RAIN CATCH POTENTIAL
3. Annual raincatch pot entia l = raincatch
potential per inch of rain
lared using the raincatch potential formula below, annual ra�nfall data available through agricultural exunsions and weather mapping
To determine the amount of rain that a roofis capable of catching, first find its sur£'1ce area. (This is what the rooflooks like staring st[:light down at it. Ignore the pitch or angles of the roof-the same amount of water falls on a roof regardless of how steep it is.) TIle surhce area of a roof is equal to the length times the width.
WATER I 71
The mincatch potential per inch of rain is 0.6 gallons times the
Codes and Zoning
surface area (measured i,} square feet). For example, if a roofis 10 feet wide and 20 feet long, the surface area is 200 S<J. feet. As 200 times 0.6 is 120, for each inch of min that falls, 120 gallons of wa�
an autooomous design '" a city are the
ter could be collected off that roof If the average annual rainfu.ll is
MI@hly stringent bUilding and loning
25 inch<;s per year, then the avernge collection would be 3,000 gal lons pe�rear, because 25 times 120 equals 3,000.
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS FOUL FLUSH/ROOF WASHER \'Yhile it is generally s;lfe to collect rainwater in cities, particulate matter ill the air could be a concern in highly indllstrializcd areas
�' �;;: .
",(ilh I�s of smokestacks. Typically, the highest !cI-els of fallout
�:
�
�
,
e it! the immediate vicinit)' of the source. In these locations, foul S h �ystcms ue important ifthe Il'lter is to be used for drinking. . l hc basic idea is that heavy particulate matter is likely to fall
�. -- rom
the sky in the first 20 minutes of rainfall. "lhe foul flush tube
is designed to fill up with the water that falls during the fir�t 20
\
I
�
Some of the biggest obstacles to buifding
minutes, and then allowelean water to pass over it and go into the cistern . To install a foul flush system, a horizon�al run of piping is "d ,,(,h, d",,,,p''''''' 'h, "'0 bond. A I,,,,'h "f
codes that regulate development. In most (ases, building and zoning codes MC well intended. TheV were originally
created to prevent landowners from constructing
unsafe,
unhealthy,
substandJfd buildings, and in
or
many
cases are the result of previous justice movements. Sadly, these codes were typically only
ced
er
to
the wealthy,
while parts of towns or used 10 protect perceived property values and
hmit
autonomous actiofls. Today's restricti ve building codes serve a
bureaucratic
system thaI fear� liability and supports the constructIOn mdustry It IS easy to see the appeal of retreati ng to less regulated Meas of the country like the rural South. However, there is
1 /.0------.
hope of challenging certain codes in cities: and the opnon of ignoring others.
Codes do give gu,dance as to what is
I i
l
'---
/�
-.�-
72 I TOOlBO� FOR SUSTAINABLE (ITY LlVtNG
safe or has proven safe in the past. Overloaded electric systems do cause houses to burn down �o being code compliant reduces that risk. What is important to remember is that there are
other ways to build s afe projects, In f act,
l'ertic�1 tubing is then "teed" into the horizontal pipe (sec figure),
if It is not safe it is n ot sustain�ble. II a
and has a removable cap or valve placed Oil its end. This serves as
rooftop solar collector f�ll� th rou gh the
the foul flusntube. Following each rainfall the tube is opened, the
roof it's gomg to be even harder to keep
diny wate r is emptied, and the t ube
the house warm. Construct projects
foul flush tube is based 011 the si'le of the roof and the average in
"to code" ever. If such codes don't yet
tensity of rainf.1!l in the region. A 4-inch diameter tllbe that is 4 to
uist.
6 feet in length should be sufficient
When working with code ir.spectors
mensions arc an approximation.
remember that this is new technolo g y.
If r�in is only being harl'ested
feet. Because the intensity of
Many
or
are
inspectQ.rs
skeptical
about
unaware
the
need
of for
more sustainable design options in cities. Educating city officials about these
concepts
is
a
needed
form
r:I
is elosed again. TIle size of
the
for roofs around t,OOO square
infall is highly I'ariable, these di 10 water
gardens, a foul fllIsh to
al'Oid contaminants is not t er rihly necessary. "nle contaminants that would be removed by a foul flusher arc inSig nificant compared to
the amounts that end up in a garden whcnel'er it rains. Foul flush systems also work as rO()f washers. As it is best to keep organic debris out of a water container, an)' leafy debris or
of acti�ism. Due t o the persistence
bird droppings that were 011 the roof will also wash off in the first
of a few dedicated people, some
twenty minutes of rain.
cities are now accepting ideas like natural construction
and
biological
wastewater tr eatme nt.
more innO�il1ive aspects of sustainable deSign. Composting toilets, graywater systems, straw-bale houses, chickens, and urban cohousing may have to be fought for at city hall. This frustr ating
process can take years.
are a
allowable professional
ramic tile. These natural materiah do not leach harmful substances.
Unfortunately, few buildings are roofed with them, and installing them would be prohibitively expensil"e for !!lOSt. T i n roofing is the next best option. It is rdatively cheap and easy to instalL It may leach some zinc into the water, but this is likely not harmful to humans. Asphalt shingle s and flat tar roo fs are the least preferable roofing materials, as they leach harmful chemicals into water. A foul flush system is particularly useful with asphalt and tar roofs.
alte rn ati�e systems with
___
The best roofing ma.t\i,lials to collect water from are slate and ce
Unfortunatelv, codes seldo m permit the
In some cases,
TYPES OF ROOFING MATERIALS
approval
engineer.
from
Finding
a
sympathetic engineer willing to approve
During the day, the hot sun brings the toxic tars to the surface of the shingle or roof roll . 1hc first few minutes of min washes off these chemicals into a foul flush system. 111e rain that hits the roof after this rinse is not likely to be conta minated as it spends little time in contact with the tar or asphalt surface.
WATER I
73
•
USING RAINWATER IN THE HOME
experimelltal desiglls call be di fficult , It (an also be extremely expensive.
It is a bigjunlp to b'O from using rainwJ.kor in the garden
to
using it
lor washing and drinking_ Going "off the water grLd" is a challenge, mostly because it requires a very large W;llcr storage capacity and way of pressurizing the water. Clever and n:sourceful people can design
Once a precedent has been set in one place. however. the way is paved for replicatiofl
elsewhere.
a home-usc system thelt relies onl)'ol1 gr:lI'iry-fed systems similar to
alternahve
technologies
those described above, but in most cases the installation of a high
te sted and accepted by municipalities
pressure pump and compression tank will be needed. Considerable pressure is needed for acti\�ties like showering and clothes washing
W i ll
they
have
any
Only have
hope
whell been
of being
Imp leme
nte d on a scale large enough
on multi-storied buildings. lhis requires a very good knowledge of
to have a significant impact on the
plumbing systcnlS and should nO! be undertaken without thorough
environment
planning.
DRINKING RAINWATER Around the world, an estimatcd 2 to 5 million people die each year from 1
AI Rhlwme. we wanted to publicly
diseases rdated (0 dirt)' waler. Rai ';V<1rer is among the purest t)'l)Cs of
di�play a ,omposting tOilet. We feel
water aV<1il:tb1e. The primary concem with drinking rainwater is not the
it is very important for people to
quality ofthc w:Iter itself, but what tan happen after it is col!ede
know th at human-waste recycling
IS
P athogenic organisms can-nnd their way into stored water through
an option and want to be "o ut� about
fecal contamination', e ittler from animals or unwashed human hands.
it. Our talk ab out closed-loop cycles
Animals that get into �le tank and drown are another source of
meant little while we flushed away our
p:tthogcns. Unlike a PQ/ld, a min t:lnk does not have a fullydevcloped
llutrlenH"ith humanure. Knowing that
runs deep, particularly
microbial ecosystem. If something dies in it, harmful bacteri;l will
"Iecophobi�"
proliferate without wUlpetition. lhc best defense against eontamina�
among publIC health officials in dellsely
tion is to ensure that;)l1 openings into the tank arc securely screened
p opulateCi areas, we figured that putting
off, It is also wise to usc a fOlll-flush .)'Stem and to filter any before drinking it, and perhaps before using it
to
rainwater
wash dishes and
shower as well, (See \-Vater Purification, page 75.)
WINTER \Vintertirne can pose serious challenges to rainwater collection. In cold climates, an outdoor rain barrel will freeze solid. 'Illis
74 I TOOlSOX FOR $USTIlINIlBLE CITV liVING
an unpeImitted composting toilet on display in a high· profile space would be a grand mistake. The healt h d epar tment would likely shut us down before our
first S·gallon poop-bucket could be filled. Instead, we researched the laws
on composting toilets.
We were surprised to find that composbng toilets were permitted in Ausbn, provided they
met
simple
Nabonal
Sanitabon
Foundabon standards. It was only after
drafting up detailed plans and submitbng them for approval that we learned of -
the legal obstacle which apparently -
forbade them. If your building is within
100 feet of an exisbng sewer line, you must connect all toilets to it. Even though there was no problem with the professionally engineered composbng toilet itself, our applicabon was denied because
of
provision.
It
this
seemingly -illogical
didn't
matter
th-at
we
already had three working fiu,>h toilets and intended the composter 10 be an auxiliary system. Frustrabon prevailed.
Then, in 2004, we acquired a lO-acre brownfield,
which presented
a
new
opportunity. This unusual piece of urban real estate is more than 100 f"et from a sewer line, so the legal obstacle did
not
apply. We applied a second bme for a legally approved composbng-toilet. After several years of uphill bureaucratic battle against state and city officials, the permit was finally granted! We will now have the chance to demonstrate composting toilets' safety and usefulness, gaining leverage to confront the prohibitive legal obstacles that prevent others from
shouldn't be a problem if the water is only for gardening, as grow ing generally only happens when temperatures are above freezing, but it creates an obvious problem for other uses. There are ways to prevent tanks from freezing. A rain barrel can be buried in the ground beneath the frostline, where it should re main mostly liquid. Also, a rain barrel can be put inside a bioshelter or cold frame, which should help moderate the temperatures of both the bioshelter and the rain barrel. (See Bioshelters, page 50.) If a barrel with a sealed top is kept outside during freezing tem peratures, it should be partially drained to keep its frozen contents from expanding and cracking the barrel.
LEGAL ISSUES Rainwater collection is legal in most places. Some progressive mu nicipalities in dry regions, like Austin, Texas, offer rebates for in stalling raincatch systems. Other states, however, such as Colorado, New Mexico, and California, have laws that technically forbid rainwater harvesting. These governments believe that whatever rain falls in their states belongs to them and that it is illegal for a citizen to divert it. There is no instance known to the authors, however, where a resident of these states has been prosecuted for collecting ramwater. The stakes are higher for citizens of nations where water priva tization struggles loom. In Cochabamba, Bolivia, people's right to use rain collection systems were actually taken away when the re gions water rights were purchased by the US corporation Bechtel.
WATER PURIFICATION Each year, millions of people around the world die or become sick from drinking water contaminated by pathogens or chemicals. Sadly, many of the deaths and illnesses caused by contaminated wa ter could have been prevented by simple technologies.
,
WATER
175
•
)
\
) People wishing to live "off the water grid will need to purify "
their water before drinking. In an emergency, municipal water sys tems can be cutpff or become contaminated. Contaminants may
doing the same
day when we will
)
it is important for urban communities to have the ability to purify water contamination and disclisses a few low-tech methods of water purification.
The amount
) Of f'
challenging coaes low success ral
pf
certainly discourag
CONTAMINATION Contaminants that are present in water can be categorized as bio logical or chemical. Turbidity is often a problem as well.
approach can kc_�
under the rada
ye
likely to ever kr
)}'
unless
Turbidity is the measure of suspended solids in water. Dirt, loam, sand, clay, algae, leaf mold, and other organic matter all make� ter turbid. Turbidity can affect water's taste and texture. Suspended particles also serve as hiding places. eo;)bling bacteria and other pathogens to evade purification processes. Turbid water shollid be filtered before being put through the purification racthods de scribed below. This is especially true in the case of ultraviolet
(UV)
•
disinfection, as UV rays cannot penetrate through p'!!ticles. To
$omeonp
c
fruit trees and bJu'
street can be a
)a1
over. It may also hell
-fact that bath,.,), , ''' h. j backyard may be ig the gardens
50
are shared with
,I
)
tightly woven clean cloth, like a
)
T-shirt, sock, or cofe f e filter, over and over until it appears clean. A
)
a
sand filter can also be used. (See Slow Sand Filters, page
80.)
CHEMICAL Whether pesticides from agricultural runoff, metals leaching in from pipes, or intentionally added chemicals, numerous toxic ma terials often show up in municipal tap water. Because they exist on a molecular, rather than cellular scale, chemical contaminants are much smaller than biological contaminants. They also differ -
) ) ) ) ) )
76 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING •
,
factor to s uc cess. Cal
TURBIDITY
filter turbid water, pour it though
r
in clean water.
even be presfnt in rain or municipal water in the Global North. As their drinking water, this section gives a brief overview of drinking
}e
)
from biological contaminants in that they are not living organisms. Instead ofbeing simply killed, they must be removed or chemically bound up to be rendered in3ctive. "lhis makes chemically con[:lmi nated water much harder to.purif y than biologically cont�minated water. Removal of chemicals regl!ires commercially manufactured filters or specifically engineered biologic:d sys(Crm.
Contamination of collected rainwater can be reduced using foui
-
Hush systems.
Lead contamination from pipes is a panicular concern in older cities. There arc a few precautions that can be taken to minimize exposure. 'lhe longer water is in contact with a pipe, the more time it has to absorb lead. Before collecting water for drinking or cook ing, open the tap to let water that has been siuing in the pipes run down the drain. Some people let the water run every morning and when returning home from a vacation. Also, lead is more soluble-in hot water. Never fill a cooking pot frOIll \he hot t3p. Chlorine � added to most municipal water supplies. A powerful disinfectant, it kills most microbiological life it comes into contact with. Soil watered with chlorinated water is also rendered sterile and lifelc$.o... Microbes like bacteria, nematodes, and actinomytes erMhle plants to use nutrients in the ground. Killing these organ isms limit, the growth potential of plants.
)Vhile the use ofchlorine has pre�nted the spread of m;1,ily.dis�
eases, cI'idence orits negative health effects is mounting. Chlorine
mixes with the organic matter found in all water to form dangerous by-products, including chloroform, a cucinogenic gas. -
A container ofwater can he dechlorinated if it is left Sit ting un
covered for a 24-hqur period, during which lime the chlorine will volatilize and escape into the air. Fluoride is also intentionally added to public drinking water supplies to Strengthen teeth. However, the actual health benefits ofthis industrial by-product from phosphate fertilizer factories are hotly debated, with studies to back up both sides. On behalfof the
WATER I
77
Environmental Protection Agency, the National Research Council recently analyud the research on fluoride. lheir report recom mended that the EPA lower the acceptable limit of fluoride in water and highlighted numerous areas where possible adverse health ef fects warranted future srudies.' The American Dental Association, i ng one of the strongest advocates of fluoridation of public drink
water, recently warned that infant formula should not be made with fluoridat;d water.? The Fluoride A{lion Network maintains a list of communities that have forgone fluoridation.1 Other chemical contaminants that find their way imo lOIp water include pesticides, arsenic, ami the fuel additive MTBE (methyl tert-butyl ether).
BIOLOGICAL Biolog�cal contaminants are living organisms: bacteria, proto7.0a, and helminthes. While there is argument over whether viruses are actually "alive ," they arc also included in thi s category. Major routes ofbiological contamination of drinking water include human and animal feces and flood waters. Bacteria are ubiquitous single-celled organisms that coexist with
humans. (See Bacterial Remediation, page \84.) However, certain
bacteria arc human pathogens. Choler:l and typhoid arc waterborne diseases caused by bacteria, and fecal coliforms arc a broad range of bacteria that can colonize water and cause illness. \Vhile also single .
9
,5e11e , protowa an: typic-,lily much larger than bacteria. Amoebas, giardia, and cryptosporidium are all common waterborne proto"lOa
thal.cause diarrhea, \'omitil1g, al1d dyscl1tery. Hehninthes arc worms.
Parasitic helminthes that can be transmitted by water inchlde Guinea worms and blood flukes. Viruses are the smallest hiological contami nant, consisting of DNA or RNA and a protein coat. Hepatitis and polio are viruses that can be transmitted by dirty water. The methods discussed below arc designed to treat water-for bio logical pathogens.
78 1 TOOLBOX FOR susrAINAeLE CtTY
liVING
Gi�rdi�
PURIFICATION METHODS lhere arc I1'I':Iny methods for treating w�tcr. Some :He cheap and simple, and others arc expensive, en�lgy intensive, and rely all toxic chemicals, '1111s section profiles scvcral low-input methods to rcmo\'c biological pathogens from water that can be built with sal vaged materials.
BOI L I N G Boiling is a ,[uick and easy ""JY to pllrify water. A vigorous, rolling boil maintained for ten minutes is more than Sllfficiefll 10 destroy the pathogens most typically present in water. It may loIke longer to
kill some viruses amI bacterial cndospores, which is why hospitals sterilize equipment lIsing hot steam at high preSSl!TeS."
SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET DISINFECTION Solar disinfection uses ultraviolet light from the slin to I'"ri(v water. UV light is a Iypt: of energy with a wa\'e!cngth just shorter than blue visible light. Primarily produced by the sun, it call'also be made by machines. SplaT disinfection is etlcctive at killing biologi cal pathogens, including those that cause cholera, typhoid, giardia, and polio.w It wi11not remove any chemicals.
•
Solar disinfectors can be made el)tirei)' from recycled bottles and require no energy source other than the sun, making them particu larly useful in regions where boiling water is hindered by a shortage ofcooking fuel. Solar disinfectors are rack!; that hold glass bottles on a sheet of coTrtlgated metal. Six hours of bright sun will disin fect the water in the bottles. On doudy days, two consecutil'e dars of exposure may be necessary. lhc water placed in a sobr disinfec tor must be relatively clear. Cloudy water must be filtered through a'c1oth or sand filter. While the UV rays arc
the primary disinfect
ing agent, heat is also a factor. Water tha! is kept at 122 degrees Solar di�onfe'tor
Fahrenheit only requires one hour ofUV exposll� 10 be frec of
WATER } 79
most pathogens. Painting the metal or the back side oflhe bottles black will help heat the water. It is pOSSible to purchase dectric UV fillers rlm reliably destroy biological contaminants in drinking water_Waler is disinfected as it passes throtlgh a chamber lit by a sp<:<"ial UV hllib. Electric UV filters operate on the same principles as sOlar disinfeclOrs, but are ("lirly expensive, require electricity, and rely on bulbs with a limited lifespan. Their �dvalltage over solar disinfection is the ability to qllickly purify water at any time of day.
SLOW SAND FILTERS Slow sand filters are containers filled with fine sand th:lt filter out particles and pathogens from drinkingwater. Sand filt..,rs operate passively, using gravity for pressure and biological processes to filter out contaminants. 'D,c top few inches ofa sand filter is a gelatinous biofilm, called the schmutz�ccke. It prol'idcs a habitat (or beneficial bal"lcria, algae, proto'l.oa, fungi, and larger microorganisms. The or ganisms in the biofilm trap organic materials and harmful organisms. -- Large-scale sand filtmtion systems are employed by some mu nicipalities in the UnitcU-Sfates for drinking water purification. It is pOSSible to build a'ow-t�"(;h sand filter out of salvaged materials. Slow sand filter,; mustj,).e in nearly constant operation in order to maintain
the biofilm, whi".j, needs a small, continuous flow ofwater. lhis is a disadvantage, ofcourse, if they are intended only for periodic use.
BA RRELS , B UNG H OLES , A N D B U L K H EA DS Metal and plastic barrels arc extraordinarily handy when building sustainable systems. They can be used for constructed v.�tland cells,
so I TOOLSO� FOR SUSTAINABLf CITY liVING
COlllposting toilets, �quacu!ture tanks, raincatching ,ystem" and more. While relatively cheap and easy to find in cities, not all bar rels arc safe to use. •
SAFETY ISSUES tl-bkc sure the barrels in a system arc considered "food grade: meaning tim all they ever stored were food products or non-toxic materials. Never use a barrel from the dump; one found buried, hidden, or abandoned; or one whose previous contents arc un known. Found barrds could have contained anything: gasoline, harmful soh-ents. or worse. Barrds arc often dumped because the toxic materials inside arc considered too expensive to dispooe of correctly. Both plastic and ,netal barrels are capable of holding onto residual amounts of the chemicals that were stored in them. Even after repeated washings, the safety of non-food grade containers cannot be guaranteed. Typically, the origin'll contents of a barrel are printed on its exte rior, along with a hazardous materials lah-d describing the hazards
�
of the material inside. Food grade arrds are common ly used to . store cooking oils, tomatoes, jalapeiios, Savoring extracts, and soda syrups. Odl�r produd' stored in barrels that can be considered safi: include hydrogen peroxide and· mineral oil (baby oil). Never cut into or blow a hole inw a barrel with a cutting torch, grinder, or saw without first being certain of its contents. Tiny amounts of combustible materials on the interior can ignite and use the oxygen inside the barre! to explode like a bomb. To be safe, be fore cutting into a barrd, fill it with water to displace any oxygen.
FINDING BARRELS Barrel distributors aud chemical supply companies are the easiest places to find barrels. Prices vary, but are usually within the S10 to $20 range. Add a few dollars for a resealable lid. Food extrnct produce[':;, bakeries, and bre\\�ng supply stores sometimes give barrels away.
WATfR 1 81
BARREL TYPES \Vh;!e 55-gallon drullls are-lhc Olo,t COI!HnOn, barrels can be tounJ in a varict)' of sizes. Barrel. corne in
(1'0'0
main materials: plastic and metaL Plasti\;
harrels arc lighter weight lild less expensive. lhey also do
not mIL
!fmctal barrds arc to be used for storing wOller, they must be lined. Linings consist of a golden or brown thin plastic coating on the harre!'s interior. Metal primer can also be used to rustproof the imerior ofbarrels. If the lining is cut or broken, it will rust through over time. \Velding the barrel will cause the lining to melt. Barrel lids are often scaled shut. lhere arc barrels with rt,ca\ able [ids, that come with remo\'able tops with a locking exterior rim. \\lhile a rescalable barrel usually COStS mure, it is "cry useful if access to the imerior of the barrel is needed. Accessing the inside ofa barrel without a rescalab!e lid requires it to be cut open with a jigsaw OT reciprocating saw. To cut open a barre!, first locate the reinforced, raised rim around the circumference of the top ofthe barrel. Make sure the
e from the top of the barrel. inside of this rim. Cutting
CUI is mad
outside the rim will Tilin the barrd'rnrucniral integrity.
BUNGH OLES The holes on the lid of a barrel arc cdlled bungholes. Typicall)" one of the bungholes has standard 2-inch pipe thread and the other is coarse-threaded. Coarse-threaded bungholes reqllire special adapt ers to fit a standard size pipe. Bunghole caps are called bungcaps. I II the center ofeach bungcap there is a �-inch threaded "female" ;\1tachment. A hole can be drilled into this attachment, and a garden faucet or plumbing piece can be screwed into it. 'This makes it cas)' to get Ruids out of the barrel when it is laid
on its side. While spe
cial bung wrenches are made, any pair of pliers can be used to open the caps.
82 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
Bulkhead (apart and togeth�r)
BULKHEADS A bulkhead i, :t threaded, plastic phunbing pan that make� a �eal against the side of the barrel. It allows plumhing pieces, like a ("1U
cet or threaded pille, to � screwed into the barrel at places other than the bungholes while preventing water from leaking out. A
bulkhead i� necessary because ph'mhing that is threaded directly into a bilfre1 without a reliable seal will i nel'itably leak. The thread siu of the bulkhead will {ktermine what �ize plumb ing can be attached. Threaded plumbing parts, whether they are plastic, galvanized metal, or copper. generally have standard thread sizes that can be made brger or smaller by using adapter pieces commonly found at hardware stores. Bulkheads are specialty parts that cannot be bought from a stan dard hardware store. "They can be found sometimes at a.gricult!! .pl supply stores or ordered online. A bulkhead typically consists of four parts;..;a Ranged threaded stem, a washer, and two rubbe� gas kets.
INSTALLING A BU LKHEAD ON A BARREL Supplie� needed:
•
•
One bulkhead ...·th an Interior thread
size to mater t1e p,umbing pan to be attached A hole saw
and dlili. Of a sha'p I.llade
Dewed plumning
How to: 1. Unscrew the bulkhe�d, plilce the threaded stem agaiost the outside 01 the b�rrel. and trace around it.
2. Cut out the traced hole with a blade or hole saw. It should be just large enough to slide the threade'!..stef'!1 through, but the stem should not be loose when inserted.
3. Place one 01 t he rubber gaskets on the threaded stem� and push it throu,gh the hole so that the wide, flanged end ol the stem a nd the gasket are against the inside of the barrel.
4. Slide the second gasket over the stem on the outside of the barrel, and the n screw the washer onto t he stem. Tighten it down against the gasket and the outside of the barrel. Do not
overtighte n, as this can cause the gasket to buckle and will make the bilrrel leak.
WATER i 83
--
5. Screw the desired plumbing {pipe
o
threaded p ening.
or faucet) into the
FLOATING TRA S H I SLA NDS ;
Fl aling islands occur in nature when part of a lake's bank breaks away from the shore and Aoats around, sometimes for years. -the is lands act as the
lake's liver, purifying its waters. lhe roots of plants
hold the island togetber and dangle down into the lake's waters; creating a habitat for bacteria, algae, woplanklOll, and other eTit
l
lers. lhese organisms, as wdl as the pla"nts themselves, p ay a role
h
in t e llptakc
of nutrients and degradation of toxins in the water.
Artificial floating islands can be used to clean urban bodies of water. Any polluted canal, river, cswary, lake in a city park, or storm water retention pond would benefit from a floating island. Storm water runoff has a large negative impact on urban water
l
qua ity. Before rushing into storm drains, the rain washes across parking lots, roadways, and people's backyards, picking up a load of polllltants and debris. This toxic mixture con.tains motor oil, gaso .-
line, plastic bottles, floating trash, dog poop, lawn fertilizer, and
�sticides. Storm water runoff is difficult to control. Unlike a single heav), polluter, such as a fa tory, known as a "point source pol luter" because its pollution comes from a single "point" which can be treated and gulaled, the toxins and debris picked up by storm c
.
re
water runofforiginate from multiple sources which are harder to track down. Storm water is referred to as �non-point source
Pollu-
tion." During heary rains, storm sewers can be ovuwhdmed and overRolV into water bodies. lhe combined effects ofpollution and choking debris threaten the aquatic life in these ecosystems. Floating trash islands arc one strategy to remediate poUution
in any body of water affected by storm water runoff. Building one
84 I TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
-� I�
l,V \\\ ' '. . ,' ,
•
j
-
WATER I 85
involv�s bind ing together buopnt debris often fou nd along the hanks of pollut�d bodies ofw3ter, c h i eAy cappro p bstic bottlcs and Styrofo:lm ch unks , (\Vhich :11$0 serves to rcuse th is tT1lsh,) \Vatn plants:lre then sll'3pped onto the AO:I.lingmedi:l'and :ll iowed 10 dc\'tlop th�ir root systems, Most waler pbnts do not necd to be footed in soil in order to thrive, :lnd some evt:n do beller with Iheir roots fredy suspended in waler.
BUILDING A FLOAT I N G ISLAND How to: 1. Roll the plastic fencmg into a tube with a diameter of at least � loot. ZiP tie it closed along the side and one end, lea�ing the other end open. The length of the tube will be equa l to the circumference of the island. Islands with a diameter of S to 10 fee t and circumference of roughly 16 to 31 leet work well, (Circwnlerence = diameter � 3.14) 2, Stuff plastic bottles or Styrofoam into the open end of the tube, filling it. Pac� them in snugly, while still allowing the - -�ube to be bent. Make sure the bottles are tighlly capped, otherWise they CQllto.fili with wa ter and cause the island to sink. .. ). Bend the lube lnlo a flng and zip tie the ends together, sealing the rube and completing the circle. 4 Stretch ptaStlC fencing across the center of the ring and zip tie It in place. S. I f water plants are in cantamers, remove them and wash off any gTa�el. Gently place the plants upright on the fencing in the island's center, tallching the inside edge of the bonle stuffed ring. Work the roots through the holes in the fencing so they will dangle into the w.itef. Z,p tie larger roots to the plastic fencing. If possible, try to work the leaves or stems of the plants through the Sides of the ring to help to keep them upright. The plants should cover the surface of the island without choking each other OUI. A combination of plants can be used to encounge diversity. Take care not to int roduce an jnv�sive species to an area.
86 I TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
Supplies needed: tots of n oaong olamc hottles or Styrofoam A roll
� pl�HjC constrUCtlOn fencing
lip titS Water
plants Irises, bUlnlSh, pICkerel
rush. arrowhead, dUCKweed, and Vlatercre�s are good
choices, but just
about any water plant Will work Anchor and ro�; or mOOTmg
Choose a locanon. Ideally, the island should be put in full sun. 7. Choose an anchoring system. The island must be sec ured >0 that it d oes n t float away or �rift into a shady area. It c an either be anchored to the bottom or p laced on a mooring that keeps it in the same location. An anchor can be as simple as a rope tied to a gallon jug filled with concrete. A mooring can be constructed from a meta l pole stuck through the floating island and mounted on a concrete base sitting at the water's bottom. A ki dd ie pool or s imilar shaped container can be used as a mold to make the base. Stand the pole upright in the center at the mold and till the mold with several inches of conuete. Once the concrete has set the. pole should be locked into the base and the mold can be popped oH. The wide bottom of the base will keep the pole tram tailing over. 8. Once a loc atio� and an anchoring system have been chosen, position the island by boat or on foot, wearing waders. 6.
'
,
As the island matures, th� plants will grow throughout th�
plast ic fencing. Their dead leaves and staib will add to the island's mass. Eventually, the shade p!.oouced by the plants will protect the. bottles from degrading in the sun. Soon after it has been launched, giant sheets of algae will begin to form off the bottom of the island, aiding in water pu rific ation. If the body of water is healthy enough
to sllpport fish, minnows will take shelter in the roots ofth� island. \'Vater birds may even n est i n it.
Flo atin g islands can ,till be used in pon ds that are dry for part of the ye ar. To do so, in stall a mooring system in a plastic stock tank
greater in diameter than the island. \'Vhen the water level drops, th� island slides down the moorin g a n d comes to rest inside the water-fined siock tank. The tank may need to be m anual ly filled depending on the len gth and int�nsity of the d ry season. As the water in t he pond returns, th� isl an d rises with the water leveL This
method provides a reservoir for many types of life in the pond. Fish, frogs, a n d birds would l eave or p erish without it.
WATER 1 87
Solar-powered air pUlllpS can be attached to islands to rcmediate cutrophied bodies of water. vVhen a body of water has an excess of nutrients, typically from fenilizer run-off or sewage, algae feed olf these nutrients and explode in population, After thc;,-nutrients arc used up, the algae die and arc eaten by bacteria, 1111' growing bacte ria populations deplete the oxygen in the water, frequently resulting in fish die-offs, 'Otis process is knolYn as eutrophication, It can be mitigated or reversed by increasing the amount of oxygm in the water, 'this can be done by mechanically aerating thc water with an air pump. The pump is placed on the island. Airstone diffusers are connected to the pump with olbbcr hosing and submerged as deep as possible directly beneath the island. A floating island's impact on overali wlter quality depends on the maturity of the island and its size relative to the water. \Vith enough floating islands, it could he possible to rc,tore ,·;tality to an urban aquatic ecosystem.
PUTT I N G I T ALL TOG ETH E R Of all human needs, '1I".1Ier is the most essential for life. Frequentl)" taken for granted, in most cities it simply come� out of a falICct and goes down the dtain. Rarely is water's complex cycle considercd. An awareness and appreciation of this critical resource can be cul ti,'ated by localizing the processes of collecting water, purifying it, and returning it to the ground. Community water security can be de,·e1o�d by collecting the tain that falls off most buildings and storing it for gardening or for emergency purposes. Rainwater collection is a fundamentally im portant tactic that communities can use to ensure their wdl-being and survival. It i s a low-cost, low-tech method of making sure that water, a historically free resource, remains available to everyone. If
88 I TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAIlMBlE CITY LIVING
•
purification sy:;lems are built now, they will be in place for when they arc needed. Urban water consciousness goes beyond immediate survival needs, however. llle ha!d work of remediating the poisoned waters that flow through our cities needs 10 begin. the overall health of
human aud non-human urban life, and surrounding ecosystems, depends ll[)on it.
•
Floating trash island �t
Rhizome brownfield
WATER 189
WASTE
.
�. . <>c...
•
Today's cities consume massive amounts of resources and export large volumes of waste. Cities produce a gigantic effluent of trash, wastewater, and sewage, little of which is managed within their borders. This waste is often brought to surrounding rural or wild areas and dumped in landfills, incinerated in hazardous waste facilities, or discharged into waterways. These practices result in a poisoned environment and broad-scale health problems. "Waste" is a phenomenon unique to modern society. Previously in history, anything discarded was made use of again by someone or something else. As there were no synthetic materials, refuse was either eaten or it decomposed, leaving behind only bones and ceramic shards. Even into the
20,h century, people were able to make a
living traveling and collecting scraps of string. fabric, and tin for reprocessing. Over the past
100 years or so, however, cheap and abundant energy has allowed humans
to extract and transform enormous amounts of raw materials into manufactured
products. The past century's grossly unbalanced cycles. of production, consumption,
and disposal tratl.Sformed the word waSfe into a verb, and with that have come huge problems.
........,-he multitudes of bacteria, fungi, and other decomposers cannot process many of the plastrcs-and synthetic materials produced today. Excess amounts of organic wastes h.fve also overwhelmed nature's capacity to absorb them. What formerly were nutrient� have become pollutants. This overproduction has resulted in mountains of trash. Within this waste stream are unutillzed resources-waste products. The volumes of water, organic matter, and potentially reusable materials being buried, inCinerated, or flushed out to sea could be used to create sustainable infrastructure in cities. It is the responsibility
of a community to deal with its waste products within its
boundaries. Energy·intensive municipal waste·treatment systems may no longer be able to function as cheap energy disappears. Other forms of community waste management will be necessary to prevent widespread disease and pestilence.
92 I roOlBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
Part of sustainable waste management is an awareness of and commitment to environmental justice. Since waste processing has been centralized, there has been a tendency to locate noxious treatment centers in low-income neighborhoods or in communities of color. The resulting soil, air, and water pollution is to blame for the disproportionate amounts of environmentally linked diseases like asthma and cancer in these communities. The ta.sk of waste treatment needs to be shared equitably among all residents. This chapter addres-ses water and solid waste: Vast quantities of relatively clean water from households flow into sewers where it mixes with the more hazardous by-products of households and industry. Municipalities spend huge sums of money and energy to pump and treat this wastewater. The section on wastewater describes how this water can be diverted from the sewers, cleansed, and reused for garden irrigation. Food wastes, wood chips, leaves, brush, and manure are commonly combined with trash and landfilled, instead they can be composted into nutrient-rich soil on a community scale. Energy production and livestock feeds are other potential uses for salvaged organic material. The sections on composting and human wastes detail the composting process.
WAsn I
'13
WASTEWAT E R R ECYCL I NG WHY REUSE WASTEWATER' Apart from some dirt, soap, tOQlhp�s!<.:, food panicles and a few . stcwatcr from cooking and washing is ba,i fecal pathogens, the wl cally clean. With some filtrHion, this water can be used for irriga tion of crops and be allowed to re-enter the water t"ahlc. Reuse of wastewater can lessen a community's consu mption of water and im proVe its soil's fertility. Divening \\':lstcwatcr from the sewer system also reduces pollution and sa,u energy. Instead of being treated in its relatively clean S!;Itc, 'V-Jstewatcr typically drains i!'lto a s(wcr where it is mixed with sewage, phar maceuticals, industrial diluent>, and whatel'er chemicals people pour down the drain or flush. This noxious blend is then pumped to a central location and treated using an encrgy-intcnsi\'c, and sometimes chemical-intensive, process. -Ihc treated WJter, which I'aries
_ __ _
in quality, is then commonly discharged imo w;lterwars, where it has the potential to cause great ell\'lrOllment;d harm. Some cities do not have sepJr:lte storm water and sewer systems. When rains overwhelm the combilled system, it can result in raw sewage spilling over into streets and bodies of water, creating seri ous health and environmental hazards. In place> without wastewa ter treatment systems. wastewater is mixed with raw sewage alld commonly discharge(l, untreated, into oceans, canais, and rivers. Vv'astewater rt:C)"cling combined with a human waste composting system is an environmemally benign alternative to se....'C["l;. In comrast to the enormous amounts of energy needed to pump and treat waste water, eC<1logical s:lnintion is a low-energy option. As energy prices increase in the future, it may become necessary for communities to process their own wastewater on a home or neighborhood scale.
94 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE (IH lIVtNG
•
\Vater is a precious resource. Ideally, water is made USt of sel'eml times hefore it is finally discharged. For instance, W'dter coUected off of rooftops can be used-m wash clothes. Next it can.1}<; filtered and used for watering plants, from there it can go bick into the soil to recharge local aquifers, By reusing w�stewatcr for irrigation, a community's overall consumption of water can be greatly reduced. 11lis is particularly import:lnt in dry cli,nates, where water conser vation is critical. Discharging filtered wastewater into gardens helps to build soil health. High moisture contmt in ,oils promotes the microbial ac tivity that builds new soil and makes nutrients 31'ailable to plants. HousdlO1d reuse of wastewater also promotes awareness about what is put down the drain. People arc far less likely to pour paint or bleach down the drain if it leads dirl"Ctly to their vegetable gar dens where the consequences are immediately noticeable_
WASTEWATER BASICS Household wastewater is classified into two categories, depending on the amount offecal coliforms and org:lnic matter it contains. Gravwater: Water draining f ro mlhe shower,
bathroom sink, washing machine, dishwasher, or kitchen sin�. Blackwater: Water nllshed down the toilet. "
The>e definitions can vary based on local wdes. In some states, water from the kitchen sink is considered blackwater because of its high organic matter conttnt. Water used for washing baby diapers is also considered blackwater. Graywater can be rellsed and purified far more easily than blackwater. While it is possible to purify blackwater for reuse, the process is far mOlt intensive. Autonomous communities arc en couraged to avoid creating blackwater in the first place and instead to develop dry fecal composting systems. (See RcC)'cling Human
WASTE
I 95
W3steS, p�ge
121.) lhe information in this section 3pplies only to
fihering gnyw:.uer. While graYW3ter is e�sicr to dean than blackwater, in its un
treated state it is far from bel1ign. Because it contains hlgh amoun t$ of nu trien ts, harmful bacteria will r.lpidly grow in any unfihtrtd graywattr stored in an open (OfII3iner. After 24 hours, the gr.lywa ter will begin 10 smell horrible. To avoid odors, graywaler should be immedi:,nely put ioro a filtration system following its discharge. One such system i s the constructed wetland.
CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS \Vetbnds a� the ecosystems found between aquatic and terrestrial 'lones, characterized by being saturated with water either all or pari of the time. r.. lore oommonly called swamps, marshes, fens, or bogs, wetlands provide habitat
to
a number of dh'Crsc animal and
plant species. Wetlands are na t ure's
purifiers. Often located along
the banks of waterways, wetlands filter polhllants that run off the h,,,l before the), reach op-c:n waler and cause damage to sensitive ecosystems. Wetbnd plants are able to lil'C sUbmerged in water btcausc they h�,'C Ihe ability to trAnsport o�'gen to their TOOtS. By doing so,
they c!'Care an ideal habitat fOlf aerobic bacleria. lhi5 region of high microbiological anivity 3rourTtl a plant's roots is called the rhi7.0llhert. Water passing through the rhi ws p here has its Cllrbon load, or the amount of organic matter in it, reduced by the hungry bac
S
teria living there. Just ootside of the rhizOIiphere exim a n oxygen
deficient zone filled with anaerobie bacteria. In a wetland, the two t)'(X's of bacteria work in conjunCtion
[0 dtan
the water, each
capable of breaking down difef rent forms of pollutants. The plants also
remove
nit roge n and
phosphorus, which they usc as nutrients,
frolll the w.ltcr. Constructed wetlands arc 3 type of wastewater purifiClltion sys tem thaI mimic the function of nalUral wetlands. lheir filtration
96 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE (lTV LIVING
processes can reduce the amountS of nitrogen, phosphates, organi C material, and other pollutants found in graywater, making it usable for watering plants or for simply discharging OIHO soi l. Constructed wetlands can be built on a varicty of scales: everything from small, home-use designs to large -scale municipal treatment systems. In addition to cleaning water, conSTructed wetlands are beautiful and can- provide shelter for wildlife.
Very Basic Plumbing In a home there
plumbing
types
are two
water
'
coming
In
of
and
out. Water com ing into a home '$ under pressure an d is deli�ered to Its point of use shower, wastewater gOing
Sink.
toilet,
and
washing machines.
DES IGN BASICS
Wastewater plumbing carries the water away to the sewer pipes buried beneath the ground in the drainage pipes rely
Constructed wetlands are made by filling containers (called cells) with gravel and wetland plan t s. Graywater is plumbed from it� source and disc harged into the bottoms of the cells through per
streeL Wastew ate r on gravity to carry
the water away and are not under pressure,
Dramage
ha.·e
two
important features that prevent
foul
smelling sewer
pipes
forated piping. EXiting through a drain pipe at the top, the water passes from one cell to anothe r um;1 it is clean and can be reused. -Constructed wetland's effectiveness in treating wastewater is de fermined by two main factors: tempcr3nirc and the amO>.lnt of time the water is retained within the system.
gas from entenng iii
home. P-traps are the U-shaped wrves in pipe that Me easily �isible under a
Con,tructed wetlands are basically microbial habitats. 'lhe me tabolism of microbes speeds up or slows down proportionately to temperature. 1he wanner it is, the more efficie�t!y the bacteria will clean the water, while their ability decreases as it geTS cold. (See
presence of water in the u pr events gilS and
�ink. The constant the bottom of
critters from finding their way up the drain. Or a'nage pipes a re also connEcted
Cold Climatcs, page 110, for more on cold"weather designs.) Bacteria need time to process w�stewater. 1he larger a system is, the longer it takes for water to pass through it, and the more time bacteria have to work on it. Logically then, a big system with a
to a main vent pipe that typically vents_
out onto a roof, "/low,,,g methane and other sewer gases t o float away. (UIMg into drainage pipes
serious
lmdertaking,
often
can
be a
involving
digging up pipes. removing nooring. or crawling
beneath a building, It is
a good
Idea when replumbing. particularly m a rented home,
to
incorporate three
way valve systems that connect t o
the
_
small amount of water goi ng into it will produce the cleanest fin ished water. How cleallwater needs to be depends on its intended use and its point of discharge. Ifthc wetland is located near a body of water such as a river, lake, Of pond, it should be filtered to a higher level than if it is to be discharged onto soil far from any water. Also, watcr that is meant for irrig.tting food crops should b e cleaner than water that just goes b�ck into the groun d .
WASTE 197
PLANTS
new g'J"',ah"; $·/.Iem w�.le leavIng H i,n�, dr�lna@e p,pe, in pldce. Th,s
I'
\'Vhile just about an)' wafer plan! wilLwork in a COn5tfllcleO wet
m fanon m .
bnd, C('rtain types ;lfe preferable. lht most irnp orta
choosing I,[ant s are rooling depth, speed of growth, and c1illl�lc adaptability. Proper rooting depth ensures that all wa ter passing though a �d\
bic acti vity. Plants with shallow roots do not ef fectively treat w�tcr at the bottom of a dCCI) cdl.l\losl planls do not
is exp ose d 10 aero
send d o wn fOOlS further than two feel (with many only going down onc foot), SO a wetland cell should be no deeper. Fau-growing
k
.. plants uc preferred a! the), will more quic ly colonize: the cell.
�lIows for � sewer
m
l
It IS Imp o Jnt 10 be fami'lilr wl h the
g
UdSO(S of plumbing before attemptir'l
to Implemt"!nt an� of th e,e systems.
CMSlIlt one of th e many good how·to books writterl on the subjeLt. (also Sf'e Code� & lonlng. page 12.
Bulrush. cattail, I'hr:lgmilcs (or giant re<'J). lind Glnna lily arc all vigorous. deep-rooting plants. Other usable planu include t:lro, ar
h
rowhead, t alia, pal'YruS, hor;etli1, or any pllllllS found growmg in weI areas. An pre fer full sun . Plants can be bought at � nursery or can be collected from til<" wild. Colkc ting local plants is frce and ensures Ihlt the species an:
adapted 10 the local climate. HowcI'er, Ihi s should not be done ifit
.. • ...1
would endanger a sensitive wetland area.
lor'
to
b
dama� the roots as little as �i lc. Keel) the roots wet and
Inmsl'lant them imo their new home:u soon as possible.
B U I L D I N G A CONSTRUCTED WETLAND TO F I LTER WASH I NG MACH I N E WASTEWATER
b
'This section descri es how 10 build � constructed wetland system out of three reqded bathll.lbs that is c �pable of treating the w�ste water from a clothes wash�ng machine. From the washing machine
the IVlller Rows Ih
lOugh a series of bathtubs filled with ",-efland
plantS which dean the water. After the last tub, the filtered waler is
98 I Tool80X fOR SUSTA.INA8l£ (Ill lI�ING
,' ·fe.""hu,
they are
rapidly
Jl'Vlng'- milnv �reilS. Cons,dered
Digging up deeply rooted wetland plants iHllr.! 'fork. Loosen the roolS by digging around all sides of the planl with a shol'("1. Try
�s ;upport �ume'o"s dnd d' ve rse
1
'Y
•
many 10 O� lI:1de,irable. w·�tlands re4.oentl� drai.....d alll' eu!ldozed
.�I ruom for farm, ·�lJburi:ls, .c(l ;wp malls. Care,e;, harvesnng In >en�lt1V� Jre�s can cause great harm to Ihe wetlands alld the hfe thev support.
h
Never tilke a plant if il is t e olliV one
of its kind in the area. Don'l tak" toa m�ny piant§ of dny kind from a single area to aVOid makmg a big gaping hole il'llh(' landscape
Carbon loads ;snd £utro phitation
discha�d through a h� th�t CoIn lead
to
a g".lrden bed, food tl«,
or just OntO well-drained soiL Ailernatil'ely, lhe hooe could lead to a The
nu trlellts
in
.,.,,:lS tev . ate r
are
55-gallon storage barrd, from which water is scooped out
as needed
fernlizers for algae, Wt>en wastewater
using bw:: kets or pumps. In w;um weather, this system c�n s afely
enters a bod y 01 water, the algae
filter the water frolll a load of wash about every other day, making
"bloom," or rapldlv proliferate, nutrient slJppiles arc
As
the
used up, the algae
die and become food for bactena. The bacteria then rnulnply and consume
much
of the o�vg('n
III
the water. Thrs
commonly resultsin milssdie-offsof fish
it suitable for usc in irrigation. As washing machir es usc an averag e � of 40 gallons per load, w�ste wate r rec yding <:an sl';ve a significant amount of water.
Washing machine water is one of the easiest types of wastewater to treat, as it contains few grea se s anrl food particles, two of the moot difficult pollurants to process OUt of wastewater. A washing
"nd other creatures dependent on that
machine's drainage system is also easy 10 tap into: it's usually just a
o�ygen Bodie� of wd te...."tn low level�
flexible ho1;e coming out of the �ck. Anmher advantage 10 wash-
of dissolved o�vgen are eutrophied.
ing machines is that they are desig ned to sit in a-basement a nd
and can
support
lile, Carbo n
hnle
lo�d is the measure of how much of the kinds
of o rganic matter that cause
eutroph,cation are found in a gi�en flow
pump their water up to ground level, as much as�ght feel . This allows the constrUCled wetland to be located
either far away from, or
- vertically above the washing machine . Bathtubs are ideal constructed wetland cells, Easily salvaged
01 wastewa1t'f':""""fhe pnmary purpO$('
from houses being demolished or remodeled, these imperm e able
of pilHIIIg wat.-, th ro ugh
bjoIOC'�I!I�
containers come with existing plumbin g that CoIn be utilized. Both
mlnftnize it s
plastic, porcelain. and metal bathrubs a� usable. Bathrubs are also
flltranon
system
carbon load It
is
10
a
IS par tl(ularlV!mportant
to filtl"f waste....at"'r
anv body of ....ater .
if ,1 il draln.og near
about the perfect depth for a wetland cdl-plam rQ()[S typically
won't go down much further than 2 feet. Cel1.t can also be made from any impermeable container: sinks, 55-ga llon plastic barrels cut in half, kiddie pools, galvani'Zed metal siock ranks, or even in ground structures like carpet sandwich pondS. Cells should nOI b e more than 2 feet deep. (See Aqu ac u lture, page 21.)
.lJl order
to prevent backflow and
assist gravi t y, the crl1s should
b e staggered at different heights. In locations where space is not:l.n issue, stacks of concret e blocks and bricks could be used
to
elevate
lhe wbs. The diagram and photographs show:l. tiered structure that raises the bathtubs off of the ground. It is designed like a suircase, allowing grav ity 10 pull water from one tub to anolher and lelting
WASTE I 99
100 I TOOlBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
the pbnt5 in each tub receive full sunlight. '[he best m�terials to build the structure with are 4" x 4"5 of rot-resistant wood (cedar, black locust, or white oak) held together with notches and lag bolts. If access to welding equipment is available, a steel structure could be bbricated. In spaces where horizontal space is extremely limited, it is pos sible to build an entirely vertical structure to hold the tubs. With these designs, be sure that that there is enough space between rubs so that the ones on top do nOT completely shade out those beneath them and so that the plants have room to grow (bulrush and cattail each grows stalks five or more feet in height). The main disadvan tage to a vertical tower is that a ladder must be used to access the tubs for maintenance. Remember that a single bathtub full of gravel and water will weigh more than 440 pounds. \"'hatever structure is built to sup port thelll will need to be very strong and reliable. 'nlc design bclo-.cllas an additional component called the surge tank. Surge unks are 55-gallon barrels designed to take the initial gush of water that blasts out from a washing machine. This water might otherwise overwhelm the wetland and cause the washing machine to b;ciup and burn out its pump. 'Ihe surge tank allows • the water to be sluwly distributed into tbe first w�t1and cell and also gives ho!""'ater from the washing machine time to cool. It is a good idea tu filter washing machine graywater before it enters a constructed wetland system. Synthetic fibers, lim, and hair can prematurely clog a wetlands system. A nylon stockin& tied across the end of the drain pipe that fills the surge tank works well. It must either be cleaned or replaced when fu!! of debris as a blocked filter can burn ouf a washing machine's pump Nearly all wetland plants need full sun in order [0 grow. The constructed wetland therefore needs to be placed in a sunny spot, ideally close t o both the washing machine and the area where the water will be used.
WASH 1101
How to:
1. Suitd a Wucture for the tubs . 2. For st�cked �tructures put the tubs In poSition so that the o�erflow drains of tub Itl �nd 113 are above each other
and the overflow drain of tub 112 is at the opposite end. for
terraced designs arrange the tubs so the o�erflow drain of
t ub III is adjace nt to where you want the water to enter tub 112 and the. outflow of t ub 112 is adjacent to the inflow of tub
".
3. P l u g the drain holes in the bottom of the bathtubs by
sealing jar lids over them with silicone adhesive. If the drain holes are thr eaded, this c an also be done with a thr eaded
Mate(l�I\ to bUild support muclure
(cedar 4" � 4"s. stee!. or concrele bloc h) Three bathtub s or other cell container Three j�r l ids Clnd �ilicone adhesive or
three threaded plumbmg caps Thlee bathtub overflow tubes (if miSSing from Ihe tubs)
TI!.�ee adapters that (Onnen bClthtub
plu mbing cap. It is important to get a good seal. because if a
o�erflow tubes to standard l-mch
dr�ln leaks later on it will be very difficult to rep�lr.
"...
4. Create an inflow for each tub:
a. Cllt !Iength of 2· inch pipe slightly shorter than the
length of �h e bottom of the tub ( about 4 feet�. It is important that the pipe run along the bottom to ensure a complete excha n ge of w�ter in the cell.
b. Drill multiple lI,-inch to }!i·inch hol es all aro un d the pipe, s paced e�ery few inches. c. Use the 2-inch cap to close off one end of the pipe;-and connect the other end to a 90·degree elbow. d. Measure the depth of the tub. Cut a piece of pipe
equ al 10 this distance. Insert it into the other end of the elbow:"Once inserted into the elbow, these pi(><es shoold stick out 4·6 Inches over the top of the tub.
5. Create a sc reen ed diffuser around each inflow pipe to
prevenl plant rools from doggi n g it s hole s.
a. lay a piece of window screen lengthwise on the
b ott om of the t ub . Place a 2-inch deep layer of I·inch gra�el on top of the screen.
b. Place the perforated pipe down the middle of the tub o n top of the rocks so that the capped end is on the same side as the tub's overflow drain. The smaller pipe attached to the elbow should be vertical Clnd extend slightly above the top rim of the tub.
102 !
Supplies needed:
TOOlBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
Surge tank (a sing le plaHic 55 ·gall on
barrel) One male·threaded 2- inch adapter Nylon stocking lilter and strong rubber bands or hose clamp
Unlity knife or hole saw Drillw.th Y, Inch to %-lOcli bit Roughly 30 fl!et of l·incn pipe. plastic or metal !See PipeS. page 105) Three 4 foot by 3 foot pie<es of Window screen
Seven 2·IO(h 90·degree pipe elbows Three 2·inch caps
30 gallons of t·inch diameter roc�s 90 gallons of Y,·inc h dlameler gravel Plants
PI.nl. Upl.�� nluogeo .n� pno,ehOty,
i
(;. Cover the pipe in a few more Inches of gravel, pulling the edge5 of the 5creen up to hold it in place. When fini5hed, the screen should be a cylinder. holding two inches of gravel all a�out1d the pipe. The weight of the rods should keep the screen irl place. 6. Empty the remairling l-inch gravel around the diffusers, di�iding it evenly between the three tubs. 7. fill each cell halfwav with }:I-inch gravel. 8. Install bathtub o�erflow tubes if not already present. Overflow tubes are the part of the tub that excess water drains out to prevent the tub from overflowing. They drain toward the top of the tub With a pipe attached on the outside. Replacement overflow tube\ (an be purchased at hardware stores. 9. Attach the surge tanK to tub Ill: a. Cut a hole in the bottom of the surge tank equal to the diameter 01 the washing machine drain h05e. b. Scr� tlw m�le-threaded 2·inch adapter into the standard·thre3ded bunghole on the top of the 55·gallon barrel. Make sure that the coarse-threaded cap is screweo on tight. (See Barrels, Bungholes, and Bulkheads. page 80.)
• •
",,�pe� ..ouod pipe bb,h
planl ,00IS fro".
p
block,nl"p hole,
�k>"'-"P
01 b'tteti.,
C<>"'nl"n;tll,.;n� around l�e rooIS of th� pl.n"
WASTE j 103
c. Apply glue to the outside of the top of the vertical
inflow pipe going into tub 111 (if using plastic pipe].
d.Turn the barrel upside down and slide the adapter
over the inflow pipe, creating a seal.
e. The surge barrel will rest on the gra�el once tfie tub is
filled. In the meantime, it may be necessary to temporarily
support the barrel with boards and brickS.
10. Connect the bathtubs:
a. Twis t the overflow tubes out, so they are pointing toward the ne�t tub
b. Connect the standard 2·inch pipe adapters to each
overflow tube. c. Join the outflow on tub Ul to the inflow on tub 112, and
the outflow on tub �2 to the inflow on tub 113 using pipe and
elbows.
d, Attach an irrigation'hose to the outflow on t ub 113.
11. Put in the plants.
12. Continue filling the cells with gravel, to a height a few
inches above the top of the outflow we. The gravel should cover the plants' roots, bul nol too much of the stems.
Initially, only a few plants are needed in each cell. Ideal
spacing-i�a&eut a foot apart. With sun, water, and nutrients, the plants will fill in t h e spaces.
__
13, Fill with non·chlorinat� waler. �A container of water can be dechlorinated if it is left sitting uncovered for a 24·hour
penod, during which timo-the chlorine will volatilize and escape into the air.f
14. Connect to the washing machine: a. Make sure the washing machine prain hose is long
enough to reach the top of the surge tank. If not, it will need to be extended.
b.Attach the nylon stocking filter by wrapping il around
the end of the drain hose. Hold it in place wtth st rong rubber
bands or a hose clamp. c.lnsert drain hose into the hole on what is now the top of the surge tank.
IO� I TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CITV LIVING
� '\
� �
�
Plumbifig d,�g(am
c/
J
1\
'\
J
�
�
-
Now that the system has been built, it will need time to develop be
pipes (More Basi, Plumbing)
fore il can be IIsed. ConstruCled wetlands need time to mature be The
main
types of pi pe s used
wnV!'ntional
plumbmg
irl
metal
are
fore they can be expected to effectively process wastewater. Ba<:teria have to multiply and self-organize, and plants need time to grow
(wpper, iron, and gal�an'led sleel) and
and establish their root systems. Following constructioJl, allow the
plastk (PVC and HDPE).
system to sit for two to three months, being sure that it remains full
Metal
piping
is
considerably
more
e�pensive than plastic. It is also more diffiwlt to cut apart and join together, Copper pipe can be cut to length, but
pieces must be sweated together, a process invol�ing a torch. Iron and galvanized pipes ha�e threaded ends:
Because they are bought in precuL lengths and cannot be (ut to lit on site,
they are a challe nge to work with.
Plastic pipes carl be easier to work with, but allO have drawbacks. The
manufacture of PVC (polvvinyl chloride) is a highly toxic process. When PVC is burned in incinerators or accidental
fires,
it
crl"!ates
dioxin,
a
krlOwn
carCinogen and one of the most toxic synthetic compounds ever milde. PVC
is wmmonly used irl everythirlg. from piping to toys_
Not only is the process of making PVC harmful, using it is far from pleasant. Standard
PVC
cement
and
primer
releases a homd �apor that burns eyes
of water. \OVastewater can be introduced in small quantities after this period. In six months, the system can be rdied on to process full loads of wastewater.
INOCU LATION One way to jumpstart the microbial processes in a new wetland system is to inoculate il. This iii done by deliberately introdUCing the bacteria and microorganisms that the wetland needs to fUJlc tion. While bacteria will likely arrive over time through plant roots and bird and insect droppings, the process can be accelerated. Inoculation could possibly shorten the time it takes for a I'oTtland system to be ready for wastewater. The best source for inoculants would be another constructed wetland, but a healthy pond, swamp, or river will work. Collect inocubms by inserting a turkey baster into the muck of the wetland or water body. Suck it up and inject it into the new system.lhe desired microorganisms will quickly multiply throughout the cells. l1uough exchange of DNA, introduced bacteria can give others the information needed to process wastes.'
WHAT S HOULD OR S H O U L D N 'T GO DOWN T H E D R A I N INTO A WETLAND SYSTEM> Biodegradable soaps are ideal because they are more easily broken down and leave fewer toxic residues. Regular shampoos and soaps won't kill a system right away, but are nor good for its long-term health. Never use chlorine bleach or antibacterial soaps, as they will
WASH. 1 105
destroy a wetland's microbial community. [fb[each must be u�d,
and nasal cavities. If PVC must be used,
hydrogen peroxide, while still humfu[, is benn to u� than ch[o
nonto�ic glues are available
rine ble3ch. Avoid w:uhing synthetiC materials like fleece, as their fibers do not degl'1ldc and will eventually clog the sptem. No�
Despite Its dn ...backs. PVC is cheap,
chlorinated water is illC31 to usc ill connection with COnstructed
available. Jnd easy to ....-ork With, making
i the only option, it may reduce the wetlands. If chlorinated Wlner s
It the mos t common type of drainage
functioning of the system, but is not likely to destroy it.
plumb"l£
MAI NTENANCE lhe wetland will require regular pruning and removal ofdead plants. Any plant thit has turned brown or whose stem has broken and fallen over shou ld be taken out, as it wil! block sunlight from getting to growing plants. [kad plants can be compomd. After time, the constructed wetland may become clogged. ·Ihis will be cviden! if water is no longer able to lIIo'·e through it.lhe most likelycausc of dogging is plant roolS that have grown so dense that watcr cannot mo'·c through them.lhc solution to this problem is to pull out abou t h�lf of the rlant� in the cell. with their roots attached. If this hils to solve the problem, there may be a blockage in thc discharge pipe that will.lleed to be manually cleared.
IS IT WORKING? Ideally, the w.uer leaving a constructed wetland is clear and odor less. Generd criteria used to judge the quality ofw:c;tewater are: •
Total suspended solids (TSS]-how much floating gunl:
•
Carbon load-also called bIOlogical oxygen demand
•
Total nitrates and phosphates
Elaborate pond-water fcsling kits (with instructions) that measure nitrates, ammonia, phosphates, hardness, fecal coliforms, and dis solved oxygen are available for purchase. Alternatively, a cheap
106 I TOOLBOX fOR SUSfAINII.BLE CITY LIVING
While 001 euctlv CfWironmefltally friendly,
HOPE (high-densltv polyethylene) is
fT"IOI"@
benign than PVc. Secause HOPE lacks
chlOrine in Its molecular structu re , its manulacturt' and bl.l rnlrlg release fewt'r
toxins than that 01 PVC. Tvpically sold in the form
of black nCKlble tubing,
HOPE
can be joint' d with "barbs" and hose clamps to m",e! plumbing needs. The
cost of the
hnlngs nt'eded lor HOPE
make ,\ Ie,s con-monlv used •
Construct� ",etland at the RhilOme Coliecti·,e
WASTE 1 107
and simple tCSt is to place a sample of fresh water, a sample of lHl treated Wastewater, and a sample of treated wastewater in a dark place for five days. 111en compare the three. The treated wastewa ter's color and odor should be closer to the fresh W1llcr's than to that of the untreated wastewater. Ifit's cloudy and stinky, it needs morc filtration.
G O I N G BI G GE R In the system described above, water is cleaned as it sits i n the bathtubs umil it is displaced by new wastewater. Because it would give the water more time to be treated before it is displaced, a larger system would filter the same quantity of water to 3 higher quality. A larger system is also capable of cleaning greater volumes of graywater. B"elow is a description of how to size a constructed wet
� to accommodate any volume ofwater use.
land syste
Because it takes a well-functioning wetland at least one day to clean water, the first step is to determine the number of gallons of graywater being produced daily. 1his can Ix: done by m_e3suring . how many gallons leave a faucet in a minute and multiplying this by the length ofits use. For example, if the water flowed Out of the shower head at a r1lle of2 gallons per minute and two people each tonk"a six-minute shower every day then the shower would product: 24 gallons of graywater daily. Re�at for every major water-consuming activity, like dishwashing or laundry, that feeds
g
the ray"Water system. The �econd step is to plan the size of the system. The majority of the volume of a wetlands container is filled with gravel and plants. To determine. how much water it can hold, multiply its total volume byO.3. If a bathtub can normally hold 40 gallons, it will only take 12 when full of rocks and plants. So, if a house is producing 24 gal lons ofwastewater a day, two bathtubs would be needed to give all of the wastewater a full day of treatment.
lOB
I TOOlBOX FOR SUSTAtNABLE CITY LIVING
Tempo'�'y gr�yw�ler sy,tem (C�ncun. Mex'Co)
1111' system should be sized slightly larger Ib . 11 the approximate calculation to accommodate for p-eriros of occa.sion�1 high water us· age. It is always p6!isible to add on cells to the system if the finished warer quality is 11'55 than desired. The only tim'italions arc space, -
sun, and gral'ity.
F I LTERING OTHER SOURCES OF GRAYWATER \Vashing machine WlI.ter is
not the only wastewater that can be
reC)"ded. Showers and sinks certainly produce water that
has the
potemial to be reused; howe\'er, treating these kinds ofwastewater is irickier. Unlike � washing machine with its built-in pump, the water draining out ofa shower or sinks must be del/ated enough to hal'e suflicient pressure, or head, to reach the gr.tywater system. This can be a problem if the shower or sink is on the first floor. Some buildings, howel'er, hal'e sinks and showers on �col\d floors. or h:we sloping yards. Another possible issue is gaining access to Sizing a Constructed Wetland
I.
Rail' of now from faucet � sum 01
length 01 activities " daily graywaler produced
E�.; 2 galions/mlnute
x
�6
minutes � 6
minutes) " 24 gallons/day 2. Volume
01 empty cell � 0.3 " water
volume of filled cells
Ex.: 40 gallons x 0.3 " 12 ga llons 3. Daily graywater produced + water volume of filled celis " cells needed Ex.: 24 gallons produced..; 12 galions per cell
=
2 cells
dr.tin�ge plumbing, u many first-Aoor pipes lead directly into a ce· Illem block. Every building is unique in this regard and needs to� assessed for its gr.l),water potential.
�
Craywater from sinks i'r!d sh wers often
contain large
a mou nts of grease, hair, food, and soap scum that can quickI)' clog a graywater system. These can be filtered out using a wood chip biofilter. A 5-gallon bucket with many sm�1! holes drilled into
its bottom is placed between the drainpipe and
the surge
tank. A funnel slightly larger than the diameter of the bucket is placed below the bucket, leading into the surge tank. The bucht is filled with woodchips. Crease and large picces offood stick to the woodchips as the wastcw.ter p�sses through the bucket.
If
there are chickens Hound, they wil! pick Ollt l arge food particles from the top of the biofilter. The soiled chips can be composted or used in a barrel breeder to cultivate insec!$ for chickens. (Sec hlsect Culture. page 55.)
WIlSTf [ 109
COLD CLIMATES Constructed wetlands are 1lll.lcn easier tQ maintain when grown Qutdoors. It's wise to use plants that are well adapt:d tQ the climate and can tolerate eXlrcm�s 1.11' Temperatures. A wetland is a micro
bial habitat: its performance directly correhte. with temperature. Water-cleansing baClcria arc most active at higher temperatures; their activity comes to a standstill near freezing. Furthermore, plants unly take IIp nlltrients during active growth. A wetland that is frozen solid will nut dean water until it thaws. However, living in a cold climate docs not make it impossible to have a wetland. lllc season can be extended by insulating the tOpS and sides of the cdls will, straw or dead plant stalks, burying
the cells in the ground, or llsing bioshdtcrs or cold frames. (See Hioshclters, page 50.) If a wetland is not frozen solid, some of its microbial processes will continue, although greatly slowed. In cold climates, it is im[lOrt:lllt to build:l li¥stem extra large to compensate for reduced activity. If freezing cannot be avoided. it is a good idea to hal'e_� backup method of wastewater disposal (like a sewer con nection) for cold times. I n m,?s_t..£�ses the freezing will not kill the microbes. lhe system cot�d be back up and running pretty soon after it th�ws.
-
-LEGALITIES 'The usc ofgraywater and constructed wetland systems is legally ambiguous. Often, codes arc different depending on the specific source of the wastewater and its method of discharge. Laws vary from state to state. lile drier states are ty!!.k . alIy more permissive ofalternative water systems and arc more likely to have established codes. Other states expressly forbid it. The obl-Ious alternative to the legal permitting process is going under the radar. Officials tend to be unaware of these systems un less they receive complaints about them. The responsible and dis-
110 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
creet I.Ise ofgraywater will hopefully avert problems. A constructed wetland could be explained as a water garden. Staying connected to the city sewer through a tee valvc leaves the option of switching back if nceded.
U N F I LTERED DISCHARGE OF G R AYWATER While in many places unprocessed gra),water is discharged directly onto soil, this pl"actice is genel"ally not advised in cities. The high amount ofimpcrvious cover in cities often reduces the amount of soil with good drainage. This can lead to unfiltered graywater form ing pools on the ground's surfucc, an undesirable con�jtion. Tn some emergency situations, unfiltered discharge may be the only option available. In,this case, it is best to pour it into a pit filled with gravel. 'Ihis will allow the water to be dispersed below ground where it will not cause as many odor problems. A pile of woodchips on top of the pit will help to remove some large particles, while also suppressing odors. If it is impossible to dig a pit, unfiltered graywatn should be dumped in small amounts over as wide of an area as possible, preferably on well drained soils.
CO M PO ST I N G Soil is the foundation of all I.and-based food production. the deg radation of soils through unsustainable agriculml"al practices has
been a contributing factor to the collapse of many civilizations. If food is to � grown in today's cities, the creation and maimenancc ofhcahhy soil s i crucial. Most urban soils are compacted, contami nated, and nutrient deficient. Compost can improve soil conditions and make soil when there is none. Compost, or humus, is decomposed organic matter that is rich in nutrients and microbiological life. Adding compost to soil has the following benefits:
WASTE 1 111
• • • •
Improvement I>f50il structure
Enhancement of moisture retention Neutralizal10n of soil pH Fertilization
•
tncrease in microbiologicill diversity and activity
•
Bind ing and degradation of toxins
Cl>mposting is a simple way for urban residents to reduce the amouut of food wastes they throw imo the g�rb3ge and to retl>fn nutrients to the soil. Small oornpoSiing I>perations need little sp�ce �nd can fit imo � b�ckyard. !kcau!;(: sunlight is 1101 required. com post piles can be located in fully shaded areas. Composting involves mixing carbon-based m�terials, like dead le�ves, woodchips, I>r stT:lW, with niuogen·b�sed m�teri�ls, like food SCl":ll'S, illll> 3 pile. Within this mixture, there i� 3 teeming population of microscopic life forms. ll1cse include bacteria, fungi, nematooes, protozoa, actinomycctes, and micro and macro arthropods. \\fhen the correct ratio of carbon :1Ild nitrogen is present, these organisms become activated and begin cOIl�uming the organic matter. Their metabolic Ilroces!;(:s I,roouce consider' able amounts of heat that raise the tem�ratur� of the compost
pile. After sufficient time. the orvnic matter in the pile will ha"e
been largely consumed. Stable, nutrient-rich compost will be left. I fdone correctly. the process of colllposting will even degrade some contaminants, such as certain t}'p·es of pesticides. (Sre
Biorclllediation. page 179.)
COLLECTING COMPOSTABLE M ATERIALS IN THE CITY Millions of tons o forganiC wastes are dumped i n landfills each day, taking up a huge amount ofspace. When this material is buried. it
decomposes anaerobiCally and produces mcthane, a major grern
house gas. 1hc process of collecting, transporting. and bndfilling organic wastes is energy intensive. It all'O robs poI:cntial nutrients
112 I TOOLBOll FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY lIVtNG
Pedal People is
a human·powered
from the soil. 1his organi, matter should be diverted from the
delivery and h,llJ li!lg service based rn
waste stream and tllmed into compost. If a community were to col
Northampton,
le't these mat<.:rials, it wuld produce composr for its
Massachusetts, active
Sln,e 2001 They haul trash re(vciables, .
and (ompost vear·round on G-foot
OWIl
needs and
possibly develop a composting m)uocnterprise. Many cities have large·scale food processing facilities, like cof
trailer, pulled behrnd bicyde,. even
fee brewers, rofu producers, beer b�weries, and tortilla factories.
In the cold of a northern winter. A
Food waste disposal is a major exrense for these tyres ofbusi
worker·run and ·owned cooperative
IIcsses. Homes, restaurants, groccry stores, and cafeterias also pro
corporation they success fully compete
duce huge volumes of food scraps. Local businesses may be eager
with
to donate to a neighborhood composting operation. 'Th(se food
,
truck-based
waste-collection
operation, In addition to being a viable
wastes could be regularly picked up, and some businesses may even
busrness, Pedal People ha, ne(lled a
pay for the sen·icc. Dumpstering is also an option. Some products
model for community·baled wa�te pick·
arc easier to handle than others. High-nitrogen foods that have
.
up that IS Inde p endent 01 petroleum.'
been processed under high heat, like spent brewer's grains and tofu wastes, ar( (spc,ially prone to putrefaction and must be wmposted immediately in wcll-furKtionillg compost piles.
Grass clippingTare a good source of nitrog(n. Green leaves and most yard trimmings arc nitrogen ri,h. Horse and other animal manures are also high in nitrogen, and may be available from dty stables or zoos�
WO<¥l chips. a carbon source, may be collected for free from tree trimming businesses or city mulching operations. Dead leaves are
{
�
anoth r great carbon source. Many cities have a ,urbside eaf cQI: lec!ion program. Brown bags of leaves on curbsides can be (asily. collected by composters. (Trash that often gets mixed in must be removed.) Shredded newspaper, brown paper bags, and cardboard are also acceptable.
A neighborhood comyosting operation is a great way to build -
community. It could make use ofa vacant lot, or a S(ction of a
community garden_ R(siden(s could be encouraged to bring their food scraps, yard clippings, and leav(s to the composting site. In exchange, donors could receive finished compost.
WASTE I 113
COM POST BASICS
Material
C:N
Alfalh hay
18:1
"lhe k ey to successful compost;ng is a proper ratio ofcarbon to
Blood
3:1
nitrogen. Different materials have diAcrent proportions of carbon
C� rdbo ard
400-563:1
and nitrogen. Typically, brown, dry materials are high in carbon,
Coffee gro unds
20:1
and grecn, we! materials are rich in nitrogen. Ideally, for every part
Corn cobs
56-1131
nitrog�n in a compost pile, there SllOllld be)O pans c�rbon. lhe
Corn sta,ks
60:1
farm manure
90:1
f ish scraps
3.6:1
food
15:1
cha({ -below lists common types oforganic matter and their carbon to nitrogen ratio. the number before the colon is the amount ofcar bon for each part nitrogen. 'Ihe h igher the firST number, the more carbon-rich the material is.
HOW TO CALCU LATE A P ILE'S CARBON:N ITROGEN RATIO
Gra ss clippings
19:1
Hum�nure
5-10,1
Tree leaves
3S-85:1
Newlpaper
170:1
A pile's total C:N rat io is found by first multiplying the carbon to
Pine needle.
60-110.1
Poultry carcasses
"
nit ogen ratio of each ingredient by the weight of that ingredient.
Rotted manure
'[hen. that total is added together to find the r�tio for the entire
20:1
Sawdust
�
pile, If the total ratio ca[l he Simplified to around 30:1, then the pile
weathered two month,
is balanced.
5awdu�t
For example, if 10 pou nds of food scraps were added, lhal is
15: I
multiplied by 10, or 150:10. Two pounds ofleaves is 54:\ multiplied
by 2, or 108:2; and 2 pounds ofstraw ;5 80:1 inultiplied by 2, or
. 16"0:2. 111en each side of those ratios is added together to get a total of 418:14. 418 divided by 14 is roughly 30, so the final ratio can be simplified to 30:1. Most people don't actually weigh the materials going into the . compost pile to calculate a ratio. Over time and with experience it will become intuitive. When i n doubt, it is berteT to err on the side of adding too much
carbon. Excess carbon will just slow the composting process, but tOO many nitrogenous materials will c�use the pile to stink. Certain types of food break down more easily than oth ers. Chopping food into smaller bits speeds up decomposition.
114 I TOOlBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY lIVI�G
weathered three years
6251 142 1
Seaweed
19:1
Shrimp residues
341
Straw
80:1
Tel�phone boo�s
772,1
Urine
0.8,)
Vegetable produce
19,1
Water Hyac,nth
20-30 1
Woodch,p;: hardwood. (AYg.) Woodch,ps: lonwood. (Avg.)
560 1
641:1
Sources: Humanure H�ndbool & University of Cafifornla Cooperative Extension'
C:N rario of Ingredienl X � weight of
Vegcubles �nd breads degr-Ade quickl)'. "'·1eats. oils, and dairy
ingredienl X
product; break down slowly �nd can I>otentially produce smell. or
EL Food �craps: 15:1 x 10 pou nds "-
attr-dct vermin. Experienced (oml>osten can add them sl) �ringly 10 a well-functioning pile.
150:10
_
Composting is an aerobic, or oxygen-using, process. If a eompost C:N rario of ingredient Y
..
weighl of
pile is deprived of oxygen. it will iurn anaerobic, smelling horribly and producing alcohol, which should nOI be PUt direclly on planls.
ingredient Y fl.: leaves: 54:1 .. 2
pounds a 108:2
\\lhil(' oxygen can diffu� into lhe pile from the outside to $Orne extent. t he oxygen-filled spaces between ingredients arc essential.
C;N rario of Ingredient l � weight 01
E.
Finished, mature compost should be dark brown in color. not black. l31ack compost is a sign that the compost wellt anaerobi( at solne
ingredient l
point.
Straw: 80:1 � 1 pounds" 160:2
MoiSlUre l"Qntent is also impon"il.nt. When a handful of compost TOlal Pi le Ratio " Total C 01 Ingredient
is squec:zc:d, there should only be: a few drops of moisrur(', like: a
C of ingredient 'll t tot..! C of
moist sponge, nO! a wet one. Excess moisture can turn composl
)(
• lotal
ingredient l t
:
Tolal N of ingredient )(
tola l N of ingredient Y • 1 0la l N of
Ingredient l
anaerobic. while the composting process will Ix hindered if it is roo
dry. A pile llIay need to be protectco+from rain or occasiona!!y
waten:!. ,
E_.. 418 14" 150 � 108 + 160 10 + 2 + 2
In some Jllaccs. rat, and dogs can c"il.use problems by gelling into compost piles. llle key to thW;lrrifl&.illelll is to \Onp metal h"il.rd
Simplify and COI'npareto target ,..tio of
Ex,
418+14 :: 29.9, or nearlV 30,1 Pile
bal a nced
ware doth around the pile a� 1)l;lce a $Olid lid on top. Finished compost should appear as dark brown, rich dirt. It will
30:1
I,
have a pleasant. earthy smelr. lller( should be few to no remaining recognizable pieces of food. !lm:!11 :l Inoullts of non-broken down materiJls like 11C:ldl pilS, nut shells. or woodchips C3n be sifted oul and Jdded b:k:k into a new compost pile for further composting. Finished compost can be added direclly to gardens and pul around the basc� offood uees.
Composling methods primarily differ in the labor and toe time needed to produce compost. Using p:lSSi\'e compo.ting, a properly layered pile left to sit may take a yenor more. With the active method, rnanu"il.!!y turned compost that has its temperature moni toted c:J.n bc: made in as little :lS sc:vcr.t1 weeks.
WASTE 1 115
PASSIVE COMPOSTI N G In passive composting, carbon and nitrogen materials are layered into a pile and left to sit. lhis method involves no labor other than adding the materials. The tradeoff is that it can take up 10 a year to break down into finished compost. lhe compQst cOlltaina can be a·circular cage m:ldc from live stock panel fencing or a box constructed from wooden freight pallets. lhe container gives the pile shape, allowing it to build up \·crtically. [t should be large enough that the volume of the compost can be at !east three cubic fect.lhis volume is necessary to create sufficient internal heal. Ingredients arc added over lime, 3S they are collected. Once the container has been filled, it is left alone to break down. A second container can b� buih next to it ami filled while the first is breaking down. AftcHufficient time has past (ahout a year), the container is opened and its content's remo" ed. lhe con tainer ca n be used again for a new pile.
ACTIVE COMPOSTING Activc composting produces finished compost far qllicker than the passive method. In this labor-intensive method, the tcmper.l(ure of the pile is carefully monitored and it is regularly turned. It rcquires a composting thermometer--a thermometer with a long stem that can be inserted into the center of a compost pile to give imernal tcmperdture readings. Composting thermometers arc available at mlrseries and gardeningsupply stores. In active composting, the �ompost materials are put in a pile that can be easily accessed for turning. When the temperature of the center ofthe pile rtaches hetween 13S and ISS degrees Fahrenheit, it is turned: the contents are moved to a new pile with a pitchfork. Turning the pile brillgs the temperature down. When it rises again, il is turned agaill. Ideally, the pile should be turned five times in
116 I
TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE Cln LIVING
the first
15 days. When the compost temper�ture suys t<Jual to the
outdoor temperature after turning. the compost is finished.
A.plle that reaches temperatures abo\·e 160 degrees F can kill
ilS beneficial microbial popobiions. Adding more carbon-rich material will bring the temperature of a I)ik down. Piles that fail
10
reach high temperatures need more nitrogen-rich mate
riaL (Urine is very nitrogen rich and can be added for a quick nitrogen boosl.) If the temperature fails to increase even after morc nitrogen is added, it may indicate thaI some of the materi als have been treated with strong pesticides and the pile's con tents should Ix: landfil1ed.
COMPOST FIRST A I D [t is not uncommon to find ao e)Cistingcomposl l'ile that has been
poorly maintained for years and smells b:ldly whencver wind blows across it. [n most cases, this is a result of people JUSt piling up food
scr�ps with l ittle or no carbon material mi)Ccd in. Fortunately, these embarrassing piles can be salvaged. -[he contents of the pile will need to be 5hoveled out, and then put back with copiott;n ;..,u ounts of carbon malerial dumped in between SllO\·d loads. This first aid m:ument should t�rn a bad pile around. Nose.; should be held during the process, however.
• •
SHEET COM POSTING Shce! COlnlXlsting is a method of quickly producing soil i n areas with no or poor soil. It is a quick war to process large amounlS of food scraps thaI docsn·t involve making a pile, or having to turn anything. Sheers of cardboard are laid A·n across an area, serving as a weed barrier. Layers of food wa5tes and nitrogen materials are piled on top of Ihe cardboard. lite pile is capped with brown leaves or straw. -!he sheet can be over a fOOl thick. It is watered and allowed to st;tnd. "Ihe pile will break down into Sheet (ompostin,
usable soil in a year.
WASTE j 117
S I O T H E R M A L HEATING 'fhe bioiogicai processes occurring inside a compost pile generate a . consicrerablc amount of heat. Rcf�rreJ to as biothcrmal heat, it can Ix: used to heat water, or even a greenhouse or bio,helfer. Water in
a hose or tubing dml is run through a compost pile will be heated, and can be used as a compost hand wa�h. A compost pile located in a bioshelter will produce considerable warmth that helps
to moder
;I(C the internal Icmpcrall.m:. (See Bioshclters, page 50.)
OTHER OPTIONS Composliflg is an ideal process for moderate amounts of food waste. A Rock of chickens can also rapidly reduce the I'olume of food waste and create nluab!c manure. (Sec Microlivestock, page 4.) Vermicomposting, discussed below, can process smaller amounts of food, yielding incredibly rich compost. A combination of all these methods can be tailored to meet differing needs while building soil.
V E R M I CO M POST4N G •
Vermicompos!ing ("vefmi" means worm) is a method of compost
t
ing that uses worms 1O break down food wast s into a nutrie.nt-rich manure that is excellem for gardens. \·Vonn composting is great for urban residents because it can be done without access to land. Worm composting boxes can fit neatly underneath the kitchen sink. If dOlle correctly, the process is odorless. Worms can eat their own weight in food during a 24-hour period under optimal c0r:!.di tions. When fed regularly, worms will multiply and can be used to start new worm boxes or be ted to birds or fish. Large operations are capable of processing institutional-scalc food wastes. The worm manure, or castings, is rich in nutrients and mi(fobio logical life. As a worm has no acids in its stomach, all the digestion
118 I TOOLBOX FOR
SUSTAINII.BLE CITY liVING
•
is performed by bacteria living in its gut. These bactcri�-rich cast ings are often used as an inoculalll in compost tea. (Sec Compos! Tea, page 185, lor a definition.)
WORMS Red wigglers
(Eismillfilida) are the type ofworm most rommonly
used in vcrmicoinposting. Unlike the common e�rthworm, which prefers a m;nec:l!-base{] environment like soi!' red wigglers require a nutriCIlHkh environment like compost. Red wigglers wouldn't survive long in regular garden soil. Red wigglers have another properly that makes them ideal for treating food wastes: they secrete a subst�nce that kills patho genic bacteril. If placed on a Petri dish colltaininK E (ofi bacteria, a wigglcrwo�dd not only kill all the bacteria it ale, it would kill any bacteria tll:!{ touched its skill. For this reason, vermicompost Lng systems would be an ideal choice to process restaurant waste. Hundreds of\vorms wriggling about in the food scraps would dis infect them of any possible b�cteria from customers' saliva. lhe best place to get wigglers is from an existing vermicompost system. Simply dig through a friend's worm bin for a smalr contain er's worth. A pint ofworms will soon multiply to create a healthy vermicomposting system. They can also be bought from bait stores or some garden supply stores.
BINS The ,vorm hin is a wood or plastic container with a lid. The dimen sions can"\'JIry depending on the size of the operation. A guideline is 1 square foot of bin for every pound of food waste put in the box at any given time. Bo:<es should be shallow. Piled up food waste will begill to compost thermally, producing heat. Because the worllls are trapped in the box, the heat can kill them. 111(: sides of the box should have holes covered with screen to al low for ventilation while preventing Aies from becoming a problem.
WASTE 1 119
lhe lid should keep lighl OUI, as worms prefer a dark environment. As the worms reproduce and the vennicornpost system expands, bins can be added and stacked on top ofeach Olhcr. Worm bins made of stacking, shallow trays are also commercially
�vai1abk and (an probably be con:;!ructed with a little ingenuity.
B U I LDING A CHEAP AND EASY WORM BIN How to;
Supplies needed:
1. Using either a utility knife or hole saw, ClJI two. 2·inch
Plastic or wood storage bin WIth
hole� on each of the long sides of the bin, near its top.
2. Cut pieces of window screen slightly larger than the holes.
3_ Attach to the O\Jtside of the bin, over the holes, using silicone Of other adhesive_
Make sme a bead ofadhesive spans the entire
circumference of the hole so worms will
flOl be able to eS(::lpe.
4. Allow silicone to ClJre. 5. Add
bedding, worms, and food.
r�movable. snug·fntmg lid that measures roug.-i ly 18 inches wide, 24 inches long, and 8 Inches deep.
DimenSIOns can vary. Utility knife or 2-inch hole iiJW Silicone or other adheSIve Window screen
BEDDIN G Fill � of the box with bedding. lhe bedding absorbs excess mois
ture and is s omething to bury Ihe food llllder. 111e best bedding is sbreddl-d newopaper. It can also be made from cardboard. sawdust,
old leaves, or straw. Bedding is a starting material: the worms will eventually eat the bedding and turn it into castings. More bedding can be added if moist ure becomes a problem, but Ihe worms are generally happy to live in their own castings.
FOODS A worm has no teeth. It can only eat what it is able to pass its body through, making soft foods ideal. Smaller pieces of food are more quickly digested. Avocadoes, mangos, bananas, apples, melon, cof-
120 I TOOlBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE (lTV LIVING
fee grounds. pasta. rice, tofu. and tomatoes are all favorite worm foods. Worms do not handle meat, dairy. oils, or :;piey foods well. Initially. give the worms small amounts of food. Add more only
'.,
'
..-
when it has all been eaten.
MOISTURE AND TEMPERATURE l\'ioisture levels need to be monitored. A slight dampness is ideal. Too much liquid will make the box go an:lerobic and kill all the Worm b,n
worms. Too little moisture wi!! dry them out. As worms do be�t in temperatures in the human oomfort range, indoor \'crmkomposting is easier. Outdoor operations must be i'1sllbted and heated.
HARVESTING A N D U S I N G THE CASTINGS Periodically. th� castings should be harl'e,ted for use as a fertilizer. The easiest way is to push all the material in the bin to one side and pbce fresh food and bedding on the other side. The worms will mi grate to the new food. !caving the old castings worm-free and ready to harvesf.-Anmher method is ro spread the finished compost on a screen with holes big enough fonlre-worms ro crawl through. Put the screen in the sun. The light-sensitive worms will burrow away from the top byer. Keep r'i/llol'ing the wortnlcss top byer ltntil all the worms have crawled tlw-ough the screen. \Vorm castings can be applied directly as a fertilizer to gardens. They can also be used to make comp-ost tea. (Sec Compost Tea, page 185.)
REC YCLI N G H U MA N WA STES Nutrients exist in limited supplies in soil and are replenished at a I'ery slow rate. When food is grown in soil, it removes nutrients
WASH 1 121
from the ground. Unless those nut[iem� are returned to the dirt, there will be a net loss of nmrients. Eventually, the soils will be come depleted and ine311ablc of supporting agricultllre Nutrients .
returned in several ways. FOod-scrap composting is one the majority of food gets eaten and not compos ted, the bulk of nutrients arc not being returned in this way. tI'lost nutrients pass through human digestive systems, are e�creted, and flushed away. 1he crcation of uruly closed-loop system, where the nutrients used to grow food are being rchlrned to the soil, requires some form oflllHlIan-walte recycling. lhroughout history, many cultures have returned their feces to the soils that grew their food. \Nhile this practice did restore soil can be
method, but since
fertility, in some cases it also was responSible for causing illness.
In a raw, uncompostcd state, human feces can spread disease if improperly handled or applied to agricultural soils. Today, with advances in the fields of microbiology and disease transmission, the knowledge exists to compost numan manures safely, without chem icals or mechanical systems. \Vhcn properly cOlllpostcd, hu man feces (or human manure or humanure) can add fertility to urban soils and create a truly closed loop offood production and nutrient replacement.
PROBLEMS WITH STANDARD SEWAGE TREAT M E N T The typical municipal method o fprocessing human fcres is terribly
begins with defcrating into dum water. Not only is this an incredible waste of an increasingly scarce re source, but once harmful pathogens enter water they can proliferate and possibly make others sick. Untreated sewage is pumped to a central processing f!Cility and mixed with everything poured down the drain, flushed, or washed into the sewers: metals, pesticides, toxic household cleansers, and industrial and medica.l wastes. 111e sewage is treated with energywasteful on many level; It
122 I TOOLSOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
and chemically-intensive processes. Treated sewage is either il1(in erated, dumped at sea, or sprayed on golfcourses. None of thes� di,posal methods are environmentally sound. In some places it is resold as compost, which would be a bener idea if it were not mixed
with all the 1l;Iricties ofhaz�rdous mH!erials thM also make th�ir w�y into sewers. '[he inefficiency of modern waste treatmen! systems only strengthens the argument for human manure eomposting.
CARBON AND COM POSTING TOI LETS In a composting toilet, human mHnurc is collected in a conminer and mixed with a carbon-based nmteriaJ. 1l1e mixlllre is allowed to sit for a two-year period to ensure that any possible pathogens are dead. (Pathogens cannot survive that length of time outside of a human host.) Following this two-year period, there are differ ent choices for handling the finished compost. There arc some who feel confident that the compost is now �afe and choose to add it to garden soil. However, due to the small chance that some pathogen mar have survived the composting pr()(e�s it·�ccommendcd that compostcd human manure be applied only to nOll-edible p!arlts. Hopefully in the future, as more experiments are done and more data gathered, the absolute safety of applying human manure com POSt to food crops will be assured. Success in composting relics on a proper balance of carbon and nitrogen. 1l1e same applies to human manure composting as well. Feces are high in nitrogen and need to be bahnced with a high carbon material. Sawdust is most commonly used. It is carbon-rich, absorbent, and will soak up urine and other moisture. Sawdust comes in many varieties and using the right kind is important. The ideal sawdust s i light and fluffy, closer to a shaving than a dust. Actual wood dust compacts and blocks oxygen from diffusing into the compost pile. Often wood mills or lumber yards are happy to WASH I 123
gIve aw:ty sawdust. Be cerrain dIe sawdust is nOI from pressure
It is Important to make a dlstincnon
Ire�led wood, as pressuro: tro:atcd wood contains arsenic and otho:r
between
toxic substances that :Ire bad for compost. U�ed toilet paper shou ld be th rown into compOSling loilets.
outhol,l!>e$.
u wclL
with the human manure. creating a
Other high-c�rboll matcr i:.ls suit:lblc for ust: in a composting
toilet
include dead leave"
Sfl'JW,
alld shrcdded paper. As a general
compostmg
In
carboniKt'OUS
a
toilets
afld
composting toilet.
material
is
mixed
in
balanced ration of carbon to nitrogen. Composting toilets keep human manure
rulc, selltr�1 handfuls of carbonaceous material should be added
on tne surface of the ground, where anv
aftt:r every lime someone poops. A wcll-m�naged oomposIing loi
pathogens in its leachate are deacnvated
let should nOt smell. Presence ofodors indiC2tes 100 little carbon and/or tOO much moi5tuTe. fo,'lakc SUTe the poop is wcll CO\·cred, 10 pre\oem Rics from gel ling to il. (Remember, Ales pick up pathogens from feces and tr:lI1smit them ro what they bnd on next. This C21l be espedally dangerous if they land on food someone is about to
bV mICroorganisms lIving in the top few
COMPOSTING TOILET DESIQ.JS \Vhile there arc many w!Tl!Tlt:rtially available wm]losling roile!., they arc all fairly expensive aiiOdifficuh to get pcrmits for in cities.
(See Legalit ies, plge 126.) Discusso:d below are sei'eHI designs for user-built composling toilet systems !llll c"ln"'bc built cheaply and OUI of recycled materials.
•
FIVE GALLON B UCKET-IN -A-BOX A N D THERMOPHILIC METHOD 'Ihis simple (omposring toilet design consists of a
den box with
woo
toilet scat mounted on top. A 5-gallon bucket lined with a brown
paper bag is placed beneath the seat.
tanks wor� on the same prlllclple
Full buckets are clumpell into
a design3tcd human 1ll3nUre composting pile or a larger, separate
container. lhe main drawback to the bucket method is th:1.I it's fairly labor intensi\'C: a 5-g
In
outhouses, Of pIt latrines, raw leces lall intO a hole several lee\ deep ground and are
eat.) A light-filling lid wilt also help.
II
inches 01 the soil. Conventional sepnc
io the
not mi...ed with carhon.
Because leachate from the feceS" does not paH through the most bIological IV active laver 01 soil, potential pathogens could find thelf way into groundwater. Also,
when
an
outhol.lse's
pit fills,
n IS covered WIth din and left. The
composted material IS not available lor mil build,ng.
of accidentally coming into comact with uncompostcd fecal matter when the bucket is dumped. The 5-gallon method works well for urban homes without space for a large composting pile: buckets can be transported to other lo cations. It also requires no plumbing, is quick to instal!, and easy to relocate if the landlord or inspectional serl'ices drops by. It is possihle to usc the 5-gallon bucket method in a thermophilic compostinSl'rocess. 'Ihe thermophilic process is based on the theory that heat and time kill pathogenic organisms. A temperature of 122 degrec� Fahrenheit, maintained for one day, should be suf ficient to kill all pathogens. When a rompost pile is properly made, it can produce these temperatures. The temperature of the compost pile can be monitored with a long-probed compost thermometer. 'lhe microorganisms in a compost pile assist in'the destruction
of pathoge� as well. This method is named for the thermophilic (heat-Ioviog) bacteria that become active at these high tempera
tures. According to Joseph Jenkins, author of 'fh� Humamm Handbook., feces processed by thermophilic composting nn safely be used as a garden fertilizer. Even if thermophilic temperatures have been attained, it is still a good idea to al!ow the compost to sit for two years before llse.
STRAW BALE VAU LT 'Ihis human manure composting method requires a somewhat
hidden outdoor location. Boards ue placed on the ground in a Ie<:tangular·shape. Straw bales are stacked on the boards to form a
Iectang�lar vault. A generous amount of sawdust is placed on the ground in the cemer space. An outhouse is constructed to sit on top of the suaw bales. lhe roof must be wide enough to keep the
bales dry. When the space between the bales is fil!ed, a new vault is constructed next to the old one and tbe outhouse is moved onto it. A w�w bale v�ult compo,t1ng tOIlet
The old vault is capped with loose straw and allowed to decompose.
WASTE I US
AfteT two years, the remains ofthe bales lrc mixed with the vault's composted contents.
FIFTY-FIVE-GALLON BARREL I n this method.
1
I, \
\.
�-
hOllsed wi!ct i s built on a frame tall enough to
fit a SS�gallon barrel underneath. Human manure falls into the
�_I
open-top barrel, and is mixed with sawdust. Once the barrel is fi!led it is covered with a few inches of sawdust and then pulled out from under the structure (a barrel filled with composring human manure can be quite heavy and may require two people
Diagram of placement for
a
straw bale
vault
to move). A new barrel can then be put in the bId one's place. lhe full barre! is then pm aside and has a lid put on it. A shee! of plywood weighted with a rock makes a good lid. As the wood docs not make a perfect seal with the. barrel, it allows it to ITnt. yet keeps rain out. 'nle barrel then has the date written 011 il. and it is allowed w sland for two years. After this time period, the human manure/sawdust minure will have composlcd and can be applied \0 soil.
URBAN CAMOUFLAGE COMPOSTING TOILET A plastic-shelled porr-a-potty can be used to conceal a composting chamber with a S-ga!lon bucket in it instead of a chemical bath. Such units could be displayed conspicuously, as they're being used for their intended purpose. No one nttds to know that they've been "modified.� The manure can be treated Similarly to the 5-gallon bucket method above.
LEGALITIES Peop!c's socialized resistance to human ma,nurc composting is high. Raised in a society thaI disassociates itself from itS own wastes, most people are very Si]ueamish about Ihe subject. Feces are seen
126 I TOOLBOX FOR SlJSTAINABL€ (Iry LIVING
J
,
•
/
1.21 WASH. \
as something deeply unclean that should immediately disappear. Overcoming these cultural obstacles is an enormous task
.
Of all the sustainable systems outlined in this book, compost ing humanure mar be the one that is least tolerated by authorities. Local health departments will likely shut down and fine human manure operations. For this reason, it is necessary to be completely clandestine while using unpermitted composting toilets. It is also
important to do it right to cre:lte conditions for the laws to be chal
lenged. Most states have laws agai nst composting human excrement in anything other than manufactured composting toilets with NSF (National Sanitation Foundation) certification. These toilets can cost thousands of dollars. r.hny use mechanical
_
aerators and moistening systems that are energy intensive and I.lnnecessary. Legal approval for self-designed, owner-built composting toilets is typically a battle against bureaucracy. (See Codes, page 72.) Such
systems need to have the signature of a professional engineer and be approved by city or state regulatory agencies. Creating permitted user-built eomposting toilets is noble work, as it sets a precedent for others wishing to do The same.
_
_
URINE
Each day, millions ofgallons of toilet water arc used to fll.lsh away urine, a potentially hene6cial human by-product. Urine contains high amounts of nitrogen, a valuable pbmt nutrielll. Unlike fe
ces, which are almost certain to contain pathogens, the urine of a healthy person is essentially sterile. Properly maflaged urine will ptodl.lce no offcflsivc odors. Ideally, urine is separated from feces at the source. This is not always possible or practical, but fortunately, most composting toi let systems have sufficient carbon in them to handle some urine.
Ideally, a separate system would be set up for urination alone.
118 I TOOlBO)( FOR SUSTAINABLE (lTV LIVING
(ompo:;tmg toilet on wheels
...
-
For garden use, urine c�n be collected in cont�iners �nd diluted
to �bout
1 part urin� to 7-15 partS water. (The high nitrogen IC\'ds
ill undiluted urine Cli.1l
bum pianM'oots.) Vegetables will benefit
greatly from it. Urinating on high-C:Hoon materials, like dead IC;llles. Straw
bales. sawdust, or old books with th�ir CO\lt:TS tom off will break these materials down into an odorless, nutrient-rich compost.
This final product can be tilled into the ground or placed arOund vegetables. Finally, urinating on a compost pile will add high lellels of Ili
trogcn to it, and can greatly �ccclcratc the composting process. jU st remember that a pror:r b:lianct: of carbon and nitrogen is essential for a successful compOSt pile.
T H E ADVENTU RES OF THE MOBILE COMPOSTING TOIL ET Aside from tellr gas, rubber bullets, and concuS5iOfl grenades, a
major discomfort suffered by global justice protesters during Inass
demonstrations i� the lack ofsanit1l.ry facilities. Propaganda abou t violent protesters leads many stores and re!!Mur;mfs in the vicinit y of protests to close up. and few protesters e\'Cr bofl�r 10 rent a "" I"'rt a·potty. To find � plaa: to 1)00 while struggling to breathe thrC>l.I gh
gas mask is too much. Something has to be: done. And sorneth illg \V1I.s-a mobile COlliposting toilet. a
'nle toilet was constructed in pn:paration for the 2003 anti_ FTAA (Free Trade Arcaofthe Americas) protest in Miami. The needed parts were usembled at the Rhizome \Varehousc in Austin. The !Oilet was installed on a cargo Iric}'l=le, a hefty
pedal-powered vehicle that had been used to transport employcCl around an auto manufacturing plant in Michigan. It CQuid be biked to the scene of a street protest and bt fast enough to ride
)vn·p.er on mobile toilet
aW1l.Y from an advancing polia: line. The tric.ycle also had an e� "Or mous load capadty and was able to handle the combined weig ht
ofthc tricycle riuer, the pooper and a full container of poop. -[he human manure container was a plastic 55-gallon barrel. A hole was,cut in the barrel's top. and a toilet scat was bolted into the �arrel itself. The bHrc1 was then hoisted on to the back of the tri: cycle. Using a I,OOO-pound ratchet strap, the barrel was secured to the frame of an old hand truck that had been welded onto the tricycle. A blue tarp hung Irom a metal hoop above the barrd, pro"iding sOllie privacy for activists wanting to relieve their Irow cis. A fold,up I:\dder provided access to the toilet scat. TIle mobi!..: toilct was ferried via pickup truck to Miami, when: it
camc in quite useful, serving as one of the main latrines at the pro test convergence center. A cardboard sign was made for the toilet. painted bright yellow with the words "give a shit for the re,'olut;on" written across it in bold lettering. ('The collected human m;lI1ure
was donated to a local gardener M the end o(the action.) The mobile toilet brought a grounded, earth-focused clement into the
movement, highlighting the. connections between g"mbal justice and local sustainability. Near the end o( the pr�, Juniper, a compost toilet co-conspir aror, and Scott werc riding the toilet back ftom.thc �rcally free mar ket," where it had again served its duty. AoIJ o(a sudden. a bright red pickup truck pulled a<.:ross the road in front of them. SCI'eral
y
undercover cops alljumped out at once I ilh their guns drawn. Surely the police imagined that this container of crap was going 10 be catapulted at them on the front lines of the protest. "What's in that barrel?»
kl!'s filled with shit," Juniper calmly replied. MOh, that's all it is? We were sure it was full of bombs apd ex plosives." The cops were quite glad to know that it only contained poop, �jllst like a fXlrt-a-pony."
Scott and Juniper biked away from the scene, the shit and their freedom imact.
130 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CtTY LIVtNG
PU TT I N G I T ALL TOG ETH E R lllC cocalion of waste products is a trait common to all living organ isms. \Vaste products should be seen as another phase in an ongoing (}'c1c of nutrient usc. lnste�d of being empt ied into rivers to pollute the watel'!! o1fdownstream communities, waste products could build local soil fertility or irrigate crops. Along with food, water, and en ergy prodl.lction, the intelligent processing and recycling of human generated wastes is an integral componcm of a sustainable city.
WASTE 1 131
E N ERGY
,0;:;.., • •
..:. ;... .;� l-. ,.
Whether by eating food, burning wood, combusting oil, or splitting atoms, humans have always sought to extract energy from nature. Cheap and abundant energy fueled the growth of i n dustrialism. This ascent was first powered by burning wood. Depleted forests spurred i nnovation, leading to the rise of coal. which was then largely replaced by petroleum, a n even more energy·dense fuel. Society has now become entirely dependent on this black liquid. Not only has this addiction fueled the rate of global climate change, but o u'r dependence upon it will cause the consequences of peak oil to be particularly severe. A transition i n t o a culture that consumes drastically less and whose energy infrastructure is based on non·polluting, renewable, and decentralized energy sources is necessary to avert catastrophic collapse.
OIL The global industrial economy and the society 'it supports are entirely reliant on the continued availaoility of cheap petroleum energy. Worldwide food production, the transportation i r:tfrastructure of global trading, the manufacture of medicines, mining and resource. extraction, the mil itary, and electricity generation all require o i l . Petroleum has e l evated the standard of living of an elite minority to levels never before experienced by humanity while accelerating the rate of planetary environmental destruction and resource depletion. Oil, however, is a limited resource. It is a "fossil fuel,fl made from the bodies of ancient photosynthetic organisms. Over millions of years, their biomass was transformed by tremendous
hr;at and pressure into coal and petroleum. The resulting products
are incredibly energy dense. While the process of biomass being changed into oil is still ongoing, the speed at which fossil fuels are renewed is immeasurably small compared to th-e rate at which they are presently being consumed. In the scale of human lifetimes, fQssii fuels are a finite, non·renewable resource. The quantity of petroleum in the ground was a one·time supply. Driven by the desire for short·term profit in an economy based on infinite expansion, humans have consumed this resource in a remarkably short amount of time. Energy that could have been shared by hundreds of generations has been used up in only a few. Upon its completion, the petroleum era will have lasted for a mere
134 I TOOlBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE on liVING
150-200 years.
In history it will be seen as the petroleum bubble, a brief period of tremendous energy expenditure used to power a wasteful civilization. Cultures of the future will be shocked by the current society's extreme selfishness and utter lack of regard for . future generations.
PEAK OIL Cheap o i l will become unavailable long before o i l reserves are exhausted. The peak oil theory predicts that the world will reach a point where all of its oil wells are at ma x imum production, following which they will go into irreversible decline. After this point, d i m i nishing returns will make petroleum increasingly expensive: i t will take more and more energy to extract less and les� oil. The exact date of the peak is hotly debated. Some claim it has already happened, while others insist it is still years off. Even more uncertain is how quickly society will go into decline afterwards. I n any scenario, the economic and social repercussions will be enormous. At present levels of consumption, there are no sustainable energy sources available for the world today. N o other fuel source presently known is capable of providing anywhere near oil's net return of energy. Even if the planet was covered with solar panels and windmills, it still wouldn't meet the needs of an economy based on infinite expansion. Witliout a drastic reduction of resource usage, n o sustainable options exist. When the massive energy inputs required by today's world are no longer available, humanity will be forced to transition into a low·energy society. If people are wise and have foresight, they will use the energy surpluses that exist today to invest in the development of a sustainable global infrastructure. If the greedy and arrogant path of today's political and economic leaders is continued, total collapse will be inevitable. The world w i l l experience scarcity and starvation on levels before unknown.
GLOBAL WARMING Fossil fuels are made up o f carbon (from ancient 'organisms) that was on t h e surface of the planet millions of years ago. Since then, that carbon has been locked up underground. When oil and coal are brought to the surface of the planet and burned,
ENERGY I
135
that carbon
binds with oxygen to form carbon
Climate Justi(e
dioxide. The practice of burning fossil fuels has led to a s i g n ificant increase in the percentage of carbon
It is tragic that the people who will
dioxide in Earth's atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, along
be affected first and most sellerely
with methane, n i trous oxide, and other greenhouse
by
gases, act as heat trappers: the sun's heat is allowed
le
in, b u t i s prevented from escaping back into space.
emisnons.
climate (hanle con!nbute the to wor ldWide
carbon diOXide
Global warmtng already
1 . 1 3 degree Fahrenheit increase
d,sprOpO([lOnately affects the- world'�
in average global temperatures since the beginning
poor. Those who inh
of the indu strial era.1
and hurrrcane·prone regions of the
This has created a
Slight increases in temperature have the potential to set off a chain of positive feedback loops that will
accelerate
the
warming
process.
Glaciers'
white surfaces reflect large amounts of the sun's radiant heat back into space. As they melt, that heat w il l
instead
be
absorbed
by dtt r k oceans,
further increasing planetary temperatures. As ocean temperatures rise.._ tb.e i r capacity to absorb carbon dioxide is reduced, allowing more in
the
QUUO accumulate
atmosphere, funherinq the
effect.
heat-trapping
forests act as
balancing the
carbon sinks, critical to
Earth's climate. Slight changes
in
temperature and weather patterns, however, can cause already imperiled forests to become drier and more prone to fire and desertification. loss bf these forests will have devastating repercussions. These and other feedback cycles have the potential to create
a runaway warming
effect that could
destabilize many of the underpinnings of civilization,
136 I TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
of chmate di�ruption as �a levels rise and weather becomes more seve re.
People producing food on a suil5istence level are also pa rticularl y susrepti ble
to the harm caus(!d bv errati( w(!ather
patterns. Unpredictability of -seasonal temperature and preCIpitation patterns makes it difficult to successfully grow
food. For these communi\1es, surVIval IS
a
lways at stake, especiallv when no
safety net of surplLiS IS available.
•
By sequestering atmospheric ·carbon dioxide, the world's
world are already suffering the effects
Me
N{)fth with the highest !otandards of living are the b'ileSt erffiner"sof carbon. With a carbon energy infrastructure that provides food, water, and thermal comfort, they will likely be the last 10 feel
the WQrst effects of climate chanle. Climat@ justice is a lerm for the movement that seeks to ana lyze the
root causes of climate change and
such as
agriculture, fishing,
and potable water.
provide support to those most �ffe'ted
Even i f worldwide carbon emissions are reduced,
It
grassroots,
continued warming is likely inevitable, as many of
community-based solutions to the challenge of global warming. Rising Tide
these feedback cycles are already in motion. Climate
encourages
genuine
change is a certainty. Nonetheless, humanity must
(http://nsingtidenorthamerlca.org ) i s a n
do whatever it can to reduce its carbon emissions
international, decentraliled organization
to mitigate the damage of global warming and avoid
that promotes the goals of the climate
its worst consequences.
justice movement The Environmerltal Justice Climate Change Irlitiative (http:// www.ejcc.org) has developed a list of principles for climate justice.
RESPONSES A N D AUTONOMOUS ENERGY The actions taken i n t h e near future will b e critical.- A "descent is
capable
culture"
must
be
created-one
of functioning
on
the lower
that
energy
provided by renewable sources. This low-energy life needn't be
a
grim existence. Instead, it cou ld be an
opportu n i t y to redesign society and to eliminate the gross disparities between the haves and have-nots. Energy is strateg ically i m portant. The global elite have engineered a h i g h l y centralized and' technically complicated method ofenergy extraction, refinement, and
distribution.
Through
enforced
economic
depe-ndence and military coerCion, dominant powers maintain an energy monopoly, keeping a stranglehold
on the rest of the world. En.ergy
self-reliance
would
allow
communities
and nations to be free of the monopolies. An infrastructure based on
small·scale biofuels and
wind power could offer self-sufficiency. A country independent of oil imports is not easily controllable. For t h i s reason, those
in power greatly discourage
energy autonomy.
ENERGY 1 137
It i s i n the interest of sustainable communities to develop autonomous energy. Autonomous e n e rgy comes from sources where the means of extraction, development, maintenance, and disposal can be managed completely on the scale of a village· sized commu nity, or by an equivalemly sized neighborhood in a city. The energy source must be renewable and n o n ' polluting in nature, decentralized in structure, and most importantly, give total control of its processes to the people who are u si n g it. Sources of energy may vary from community to community, depending on available natural resources. Some regions receive abundant sunshine, white others have consistemly strong winds. Fertile parts of the world are rich in biomass. Regardless, it w i l l be in every community's interest to reduce energy demand at the household level
and
supply as much' energy as possible from as close by as possible. As with
many other t h i ng s , local i s better when it comes to energy. Autonomous energy is different from monopolized energy sources such as o i l , coal, natural gas, nuclear, and big hydroelectric dams. These types of energy require extremely centralized a n d technically complicated means of extraction, refinement, and distribution. Their operations are dangerous, polluting, and environmentally destructive. They cannot be managed on a sustainable scale. Energy sources such as solar panels, big vdnd farms, tidal power, and large-scale biofuels production are examples of technologies that utilize renewable resources to some degree, yet are still highly cent'ralized in their means of production. While they may be a transition into a more sustainable future, they have considerable social and ecological shortcomi n g s . This chapter covers some examples o f autonomous energy sources that are appropriate for the urban environment: small w in d turbines, passive solar technology, biochar, biogas, and small-scale biofuels. A section on b u i l d i n g efficient rocket stoves is also included.
138 I TOOlBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
• •
BIOFU ELS Biofucls uc fuels thaI come (rom biological materiJI, or biomass, harvested from rhe surface of the planet. One defining prorert)' ofbiQfuels is th11 the biomass used 10 produce them was recently growing on the surface: of the planet (wood, agricultur;ll plants, algae, �nd m:mu�). VVhilc this broad definition ofbiofuels includes energy soura:s like biogas, the gas made through pyrolitic gUifi calion, and wood, the public discussion ofbiofuds is generally fo cused on fuds that can power \'ehid�, such as \'Cgemhlc oil, biod iesel, and ethanol. 'lhereforc, this section is aboul t hesc vehicular fuels. (Pyrolitic gasification is discussed in the hiochar section and biogas in the biogas seerion.) With t he price of oil rising and the correlation between cli Illatc change and auto emissions becoming harder to refute, $oci�ty has �gun to look for alternatives to p-etroleum. Biofuds, pJrllculJrly biodiesd :tnd cIha;'ol, are among Ihe options that �re �ing proposed. Some :ugue that biofuds arc preferAble to petroleum because their use results in fewer cHoon emissions dOd allows independence-from oil-exporting nations. However, when considering th�...orld's current and projected energy de mands, biofuds wouJd need to � produced on a gigam1c scale to meet at!.)' part of! hii. nccd.
G rowing fuel crops in so<;h massive
(lu:.intities would require puuing an enormous amount of the world's surface area into agricultural production. Forests would be replaced with a monoculture of chemically de[lcndent, ge
netically modified soy, corn, palm, and canola farms. Any ben efit i n reduced carbon emissions froll� biofuels would be offset by the destruction of the WQrld 's forests, a crucial carbon sink. Considering the huge p-etroleum energy inputs needed to piant, fertilize, apply pesticides, huvest, process, and distribute biofu els, it is debatable whether tbey are a viable energy option. The energy needed for their production could exceed the energy pro-
ENERGY I 139
•
duced, making them energy negat ive. As petroleu m resources
Nuclear
become scucer, brge-scale biofud proouclion may not even he
possible. '[here is also conccrn that wealthier nations' demands
In re�ponse to growmg fearsoverglobal
for biofuels wilt create food shomges for the world's poor. If
warmlrlg and oil depletion,
resources useo to grow corn and Ot her crops are reallocated for
search has begun
biofuels, food production could decline.
IhJt
'[he world s energy proolcms will no t be solvcd by biofllds,
can
a
desperate
for an energy
prolong
industrial
source society
whIle producing fewer greenhouse-gas
'
hybrids, hydrogen, dew coal, n uclear powcr, or any other energy
emissions Nuclear power IS being held
source. Hum anity's current demand for energy 'is fundamentally
up bV many, includi rlg
some so·called
unsustainable . lhe on ly feasible choice is to conduct a massive
environmentalists, as
the answer
downscaling of all economic, industrial, and political operations.
world
A dece ntralized, autonomous, and locally-based energy infra
nuclear power
structure is ultimately the on ly sustainable opt ion.
!>(lluhon. Among all energy sources,
I lowever, slIlall-sc;l.k. susuinable production ofbiofuels is
problems.
IS lar
nuclear po....er is
pOSSible In a society making a transition to a low-energy future, .
automobiles, f�rnl equipment, generators, and other machines will
emu_�v
likely still play a role , albeit red uced. 'Ihese machines re
to
However,
lrom being
die
the most dangerous,
environmentallv destructive, polluting,
centrally
and
to
managed.
the propaganda of
Contrary
the nuclear
order to operate. Starchy and sugary plants
mdustry, the entire cycle of nuclear
can be made into ethanol to I,ower gasol ine engi nes, and plant
po.....er prodUCtion IS responsible for
oils can run diesel e ngines Both can be made from a variety of
considerable greenhouse-gas emissi ons
qu ire liquid fuel
in
.
.
surface-grown crops in an organic, energy positive "'
Furth('rmore, as global uranium suppites
waSles left behind from their processing can be returned to the'
will peak n the near future,
soil or used as a H\'CSlDCk feed. (It is imp-ortant to remember that
po...·er m�y soon be facinl: severe
altho ugh the wastes may be returned to the ground, the most
peo1ogical hmitatiollS, JUSt as petroleum
energy-rich elements have been bUfI\cd off". As with an)" crop,
nuclear
IS now
continued biofuel production will eventually deplete soils if the)
"
are not replenished. from external sou rces or given time to lie
Nuclear
power is made when uranium
fal low ) Biofuds can- be made in a slll�l1 space, "laking it po s
fuel rods arc exposed to ea ch other.
sible for them to he locall y produced in cities The rest of this
Atomic particles flymg off
sect ion
bounce off one another and create
a small Kale
a
.
.
plan ted and harvested by hand, manually pressed,
-
and used locally,
(haUl
reactlOJl
that
the
rods
generates
tremendous heat, boiliJlg water that powers an electrICIty-producing turbIne
140 ! TOOlBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
The fuel rod� used in a nudear reactor are made from uranium, a mined re�ource. In the Americas, Aumal!a, China. IndIa. and
III
other counlnes,
man� uranium mines are located on the lands of indigenous and tradItional peoples. These
mines were often
bUIlt by taking ad�antage of the local people's e�cllJSlon from political power and without first InformIng tllem about the dangers of uranium mining. As onl� a ver� small amount 01 usable uranium
g
present in uranium are.
gIgantic quannties of material must be e�ca�ated ThIS process, along WIth manv other aspects of the nuclea! fuel cycle,
reqlllfe!
enormous
of conventional energy
B I O F U E LS A N D T H E CLO S E D - LO O P C A R B O N C YC L E 'Ihe production and combustion ofbiofuels creates a dosed�loop
carbon cycle-the amount of carbon dioxide that is used to grow
the plants from which the biofud is m�de is equal 10 the amount that is released when the fuel is burned. For e,,-ample, a crop ofsunflowers takes C'.lrbon dioxide oul of Ihe atmosphere as i t grows. The plants are harveslcQ, and the oil COIl� 11Iining Ihat urtlon is exttacted from thc plants. '[he oil is h\lfllcd as a biofuel and the carbon forms carbon dioxide again and is re� \(;I.scd back in to the atmosphere. ,"Vhen thl: neXI crop of sunAowcrs is grown, it will �bsorb the same amount ofcarbon dioxide th�t was rele�scd when the prior crop's oil was burned,
amounts
to be used
and results in SIgnificant greenhouse gas emissions To get to tile enriched uranium that is n,eedl;'d for fuel rods. the ore must be crushed and treated With chemicals, producklg highly radioactive tailings as a b�·product, In the past. these tailings wefe dumped directly into rivers and lakes, Today, they are stored on-sIte at the mines, where they IreqlJently leak into surface water and groundwater and (feate Windblown radIoactive dust.
In theory,
if the plantS arc then replanted.
burning biofucls does
�llYl1rming, bcc:I.use lc\'c\s ofcarbon dioxide, � p, remain constllnt in the atmosphere. Sources of
not contribute 10 g
major greenhouse
encrgy with this characteristic are referred to 115 Ixing carbon neu�
ENERGY 1 141
tnl and Cf"e31e closed-lool) Glrbon cr..::1es, BC<:3Use 13rge-scale biofllel
production, a� described in the introductory pafllgraph, invol\'eS po: trole�m energy inputs, it is not truly Glrhon neutral. _-Petroleum, coal, nafUral gu, and peat are not carbon neutraL
\Vhen burned, these fucls release ancien! sou�s ofGlrbon dioxide into the air, contributing to global "-.Hllling.
VEG G I E D I E S E L : B I O F U E L FOR T H E D I E S E L E N G I N E 1892 br German engineer Rudolf DieseL [t was designed to run off a variety of fuels including miner ai oi l, coal dust, and peanut oil. Diesc! hoped th'at nrmm ,vould be able 10 run equipment oIT'I"J.Slt Ilroducls produced on their farms.
lhe diesel engine was invented in
chiefly ]113m oils. In a gasoline engine explosive g�soline va]}{)rl) arc.Jgnited by .
the
engine s spark plugs. Diesel fuel and vt;getable oils are more dif '
ficuh to igni te, needing much grealer lemperatures and pressures in order to combust. A regular gas engine is not Gl.pablc of creating these conditions. Only a diesel engine, whIch usespistoll5 to com
press fuels instead of having spark plugs, can burn oils. \Vilh some modific�!ions to the fuel aiid the vehicle, tooa)"s diesel engines arc capable of running off't"cgetable oils. Because po: troleum-Insro diesel gas is con�iderably less "iscous tban "egetable oil and can turn into a gel at low temper-1Iures, vegetable oil must be 1II3de le$5 viscous 10 burn propc:rly in the d iesel engine. This is done: in tWI) ways: through chemical processes and through heat. These methods produce biodieselll.nd str.tight "egetable aft/wastc vegct3blc oil (SVO/WVO), respectively Biodicsel and SVO/WVO ,
an: collenivdy referred to as veggic diesels.
With modi hcatioll to the «Juipment, n�ggie diesels also can be burned in oil burners to heu homes 3nd can rUIl electric power generators.
142 I TOOl80� FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
Commumtie5 exposed to radloactlVe. ta ilings
suffer from high instances of cancer and birth defects. Resis!an�, however, is strong. In 2006. people from ali over the world who were opposed to uranIUm m'n,ng came together at the lna'geoous World Ur,inium Summit. Calling for a global bin on environmentally raCiSt uran,um mlnlllg on native lands, they demanded that mlnlllg compaflles leave uranium in the ground Alter fuel rods ha�e been used, thev are extremelv radioactive, aM will remam so for millions of yean, They are currently most commonly stored at reactor sites, where thev are vulnerable to attack or leaKilge. In the US. the nuclear industry is look'ng to create a long term storage facility for this high level radioactive waste. The propose-d site is Vucca Mounuln, a Jocanon on nanve lands in Nevada that Is on seIsmic tines and prone to leakage. Any high· level waste will need "to In! guarded Into the mdefinite future LO protect It from theft or from anyone aCCidentaJly coming upon It The energy needed to run evenso much as a light bulb, lei alone a lull security operation guarding spent fuel. for the duranon of nuclea, waste's radioactivity would rival that of all of -
the energV ever product'd by a' of the world'� nuclear po....er plants comb''led ThIs fact alone makes nuclear power a complete en!U�V loser, o�er time, more energy must be PilI into its prodUCTIon and waste disposal Ihan will ever be made from ,t The waste produced today by nuclear power will remain a threat to
everV future generation of humans, a� well as most 01 the hfe on the planet, for ages to come
B I O D I ESEL Bickliesel is vegetabk oil tilat has urldcrgone a chemical l)rocess called transestcrficalion to make it permam:ntiy les� viscous. l1iodiesd h�s a low gelling point, II1c3ning it smys in a liquid state at rdatil'ely low tCmperatures (usually down \0 around 30 degree; Fahrenheit). Provided the lemperature is above freezing, biod iese! can·be put into a diesel engine and used :l.s a fuel with no supplemental heatin g. I;VhcrI temperntures drop below freezing, biodicsel elW be mixed with petroleum diesel ro lower its gelling
poin!. t-.'iany individuals and small ooopernri,'cs are suca:$Sfully prodUCing biodiesel e\'en though the process of making il is fairl),
Uranium Itself is a fif1l\e resource. Just Io�e oil, there ,s only so much of It in the ground, and when It'SKone, that 's it. The cor.cept of 'peak urar.,um" is becoming
complu and time consuming (and beyond the $Cope of this book). Tf"olnse�lerfica!ion involves working with lye amimelhanol; both arc quit� dangerous. ifbiodiese1 is used in older vehicles, old rubber fuel lines and
usage rates there is
seals must be replaced by s),nthetic materlals (either viton or poly
eSTlmatC'd to be only SO vC'ars worth of
urethane). Biodiesel degrades natural rubber, causing rubber hoses
e�lracldble uranium in the ground_ If all
10
- known. At
ClJrrent
cur�ent electrie'ty demands were to be met by nucle3r power. thaI would drop to a thrcC' year ",pply. In consideration Oflhi,. a nd ali lhe other negativea,pe
II
makes linle sense
to bUild more nuclear reactors just to allow a hlgh·consumption society
10
ConTlrlue Its wasteful e�trava8ance for a few wore years,
Illfn mushy and collapse:.
l1iodicse:1 can rlOW be purchased frOIll fuel pumpSicross North America al:l. price comp:uable to standard diesel fueL
SVOjWVO Heated vcgernble oil thaI has not been chemically processed can also be used to run diesel engines. SVO, or straight vegetable oil, -is new oil that has not been used to cook food. Oil Ihal has already beel] used to cook food is caned WVO, or waste vegetable oil.
Vegetable oil gels at a much higher temperature tharl diesd f ud arid biodiesd. When il is cold, il turns solid and will no t flow
through a fuel line. \Vhen it is heated, the oil becomes less viscous and can flow through a vehicle's fuel system. In an SVOIWVO sys tem, waStC heal is captured from the �'ehicle'$ enginc cooling system and is used to heat the ''egl:table oil. When the oil is warm ed 10
ENERGY ! 143
�round 70 degrees Fahrenheit it is brought to a fluid li'luid state and can be burned as a fuel. For lOllg-tcrm engine health, thc opti mal temperature for 5VO/\o\IVO when used as a fuel is
160 degrees
Fahrenheit. SVO can be purchased as cooking oil or pressed from plants. \VVO can be collected for free from restaurants �nd food process ing facilitics. It must be filtered to rcmove residual amounts of food that would otherwise elog an engine's injectors and filters.
BASICS FOR CONVERSION OF A CAR TO R U N ON SVO/WVO To start with, the vehicle must have a diesel engine. With the exception ofbig trucks and Volkswagen., not many new diesels arc sold i n the United States today. Other new foreign diesels are available, but are ntremel y difficult to legally import and register in the United States. Compared !O today, there were many more diescl models made ill the 19805, many of which can still be found in reasonable condition. Don't he put offby high miles 011 a diesel cngine, they are far more robust than gasoline engines and can run -
for
.
500,000 miles or more. 1hey typically also get many more miles
per gallon than gasoline vehides. A vehicle s i converted to run offSVO/WVO by installing a sec ond fuel tank for the vegetable oil. Hot coolant from the engine is redirected through a heat exchanger in the second fuel tank, where it heats up the vegetable oil. The original tank, filled with diesel or biodiesd, is used to start the engine. Once the vehicle's waste heat (carried by the coolant) has sufficiently warmed the oil in the second tank, it can then be used 10 power thc engine. Beforc the "chide is turncd off, diesel i used to purge the fuel system of I'egetable oil from the first tank s to prevent it from congealing in the lines. 1he materials needed to cO!ll'ert a I'chide can be conveniently bought as a kit or can he purchased for less money as illdividual
144 I TOOLBOX. FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
•
comllOnems. Then: arc stvtr:ll comp�nics Ih�t sell conversion equil'me!ll and do professional conversions. While simple in theory. converting �nd maintaining a SVO/WVO vehicle requires an undeTSlan�ing of mechanics. In("orrc�ct modifltatiom can cause serious damage to vehicles. Using SVO/WVO is COlli III
also messy and
requ i res a sign ificant time
itment.
COLLECTING A N D F I LTER I N G WVO \VVO is most frequently collected from restaUr:lnts. II is much easier to tr.insport if the kitchen staff put the oil buk into the plas tic S-gllllon containers it was purchased in. Used oil is often mixed with impurities such as hrdrogcn�ted oils, food particles. and wa
ter. "Ihese contaminants must be n:moved by filu:Jlion. Failure to do so will caust the fuel filters in the engine to clog very quickly. Generally, the darker an oil is, the more times it has been cooked with �nd the more likely it is tohave impurities. Light-colored oil is ideal. -I-IydTogenalcd oils and even animal fats can be burned in a diesel tngine,
but their \l'5e-fs not ideal. 111e$e fats congtal at a
lIluch higher tempt.-u.ture than vegetable oils and can lead to cloggtd fud lines �nd filters if sufficient temptnltures arc not
being reachtd in t� WVO system. Hydrogenated oils and ani m�l fats can be recognized 3S cloudy patches in oil �nd should be
rejected.
Containers should be allowcd to sit for at least a week (although longer is better) in a reasonably warm space to allow time fot the oil to separate into visibly smtified layc.c.s. Watu and large food par ticb will settle to tht bottom of the containcr. Smallcr food par ticlC$ m�y remain in suspension. 111e WVO must now be filtered, ilo$
even small food particles can clog �n engine's injenors. Oncc
filtered, \YVO should be stored in � sealed (anlaine! to keep out dirt and moisture.
ENERGY 1 145
G R AVITY FILTER BAGS The simplest filtering method is to pour the oil through a hanging filter bag. "Ihis is an inexpensive, easy way to filter oiL Filter bags made of synthetic materials are available, and come rated for their ability to remove different si�e particles. Oil should � filtered down to at least 10 mIcrons, although finer filtration is preferable. When pouring W,,{O into a filter bag don'1 try to get every Jast drop, leave the sludge ofwater and large food particles at the bot10m of the container. The quality ofoil determines the life of a filter bag. Dirty oil quickly clogs filters. A filter bag can be reused as long as oil still passes through it. The warmer the oil is, the faster it \\fill filter. Oil can rn: warmed by bringing it indoor1> 'lose to a
. heat source, by using an electric fish-aqllarillm water heater, or by building a cold fran"�;;: sized to your barrel (see Biosheher, p�gc 50). Unfiltered oil shottld not be heated above 90 degrees Fahrenheit, as
any waxes present will meh and pass through the filter, carrying
along small impu rities
.
ENVIRON MENTAL EFFECTS As far as fllelS go, vcggie diesels are a11l0ng the safest. Unlike petroleum-based fuels, veggie fuels are non-toxic and degrade easily in the enviromnent if spilled. With the exception of nitrogen oxide emissions, which may be higher, "cggie diesels also have consider ably fewer harmful emissions than regular diesel. They have no explosive fumeslike gasoline and need a much higher temperature flame to cause tbem to ignite. Nonetheless, they still can create a fire hazard, especially when being stored in large quantities. Grease fires burn "cry hot and are difficult to extinguish. Always keep an ABC fire extinguisher on hand-never attempt to put a grease fire out with water as that will only spread burning oil around. Any town or city ])roduces only enough waste vegetable oil to keep a limited number ofveggie diesel cars on the road. llle huge
146 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
d
MOltl
Oft Cui ,010 'h"
IO� of the ba"el �nd �;Ir' b" . if, m,eflei;!
o I;, I)(Mt� thfG�i� the t>;I,I and " coll<,
ENERGY 1 147
amo...nts of waste oil that currently exist are a by-prod...ct of the ex cesses ofpetroleum culture. As oil price. rise, wrpillses of anything
will become scarce. Vegetable oil will most likely bc<.:omc far more valued as J food than a fuel. But for now, veggie diesels "flrovide a
way for a lew resourceful people to save money on fuel and utilize a waste product, ridi ng out the end of the petroleum era A sust3inable, bllt labor-intensive method of creating veggie die
sel fuel would be to extract oils from small plots of oil-pro ducing crops. A porrion of the harvest can be set aside for fuel, with the oils pressed out by hand. Examples of oily crops indllde corn, ol
ives, soy, palms, sunflowers, sesame, safflower, rapeseed, canola (a type of rapeseed), a nd many nuts. More adventurous people could e.xperimcnt with certain types of molds, maggots (see Insect Culture, page
55), :lIld algae (see AqU:tCUitl'TC, page 21).
Veggic diesels may make the act of driving somewhat less otlen sivc, bUl their use docs nothing to chan� one of thc least sustain ahle and most des(ructiw aspects of the modern world-automobile culture. It is i1!ljlortant th:n mass transportation and bicydes be
emphasized over any alternatively fueled automobile.
148 I TOOLBOX mR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
ETH A N O L Ethanol is alcohol produced by lh� fermentation of st:1 rchr or sugary pla nts. When distilled to a high concentration, it can fuel
modified gasoline engines. 'Inc waste products of the fcrmen[:ltion pr�ss can be cOlllpostcd or used as a livestock feed. Limited <Juan ti�es of CIhanoi can be produced on a small scale.
FERMENTATION A N D DISTILLATION Ethanol is a flammable and uploslve fuel. Treat it with til!!. same respect and caution given to gasoline. While the process for making ethanol fuel and moonshine are the �ame, don'l ever drink ethanol f!Jade by an ine�perienced moonshiner,
u
it can contain harmful,
non-alcoholic compounds that un cause blindness or death. - t.hking ethanol hegins with sdcnioll ofa plant crop. While grains and corn are most typic;AlIy use
1hc higher the sugar romem of the crop, the 1ni5ft> ethanol it will make. Sometimes the� crops can be obt:lincd :t5 "secondst crops con
sidered nol ofsellable qu:ility, from a food dimiburor or from farmers. _
As with crops used for �ie diesels, it is also possible to grow dlCSe
crops inside ofcit)' limits. While their sug-.If content is low, Jerusalem artichokes grow expllll.!iwJy in manyplaces with minimal energy on the grower's part. Cllttlil tubers, lu.rvcsted from constructed wetlands,
a starchy root that Gin be made into alcohol. In drier climates. cacti and mesquite set:ds an: also an option. 1hc plants are ground and mixed with water making a slurry, or mash. Enzymes that convert starches into sugar s {similar to the ones (Olmd in human saliva) arc add ed to the mash. Yeasts, mi croscopic fungi, are then added. In anaerobic conditions like those found in the mash, }'e:t5!S convert sugar into alcohol and carbon an::
tNERGY 1 149
dioxide. \Vhen the alcohol concentrntiol1 reaches the point where it kills off the yeast, the mash is ready for distillation, that is, it's time to separate the alcohol from water.
l1.e mash is di8tilled hy carefully heating it to vaporize its liq-.
uids. The water/alcohol fumes are passed through a condenser col umn. llle temperature cools as the gases pass through the column. Because water vapors condense at higher temperatures thall alcohol, they condense first and are separated from the alcohol vapors. The remaining vapors leave the column, whcre they aTe fUTther cooled back into a liquid form and collectcd in a separate vessel. If the dis tillation process is done correctly, the liquid in this vessel will con tain a high percentage of alcohol and can be burned in an engine.
U S E I N VEHICLES Ethan�l wa:; the fuel u:;ed in the internal combustion engine before refined gasoline became available. Today howel'er, modern engines arc designed specifically for gas and need to be modified to run ofr ethanol. (Exceptions are the new flex fuel vehicles deSigned to Hill off"either ethanol or g.I�o1ine.)
Alcohol is a less encrgy-den:;e fuel than gasoliu,e. An.cnginc needs more alcohol available to it than gasoline. 'Inis modification is achieved by increasing the size of carburetor jets by 40 percent (beSt done by a machinist with precision drills) in older cars or by altering the onboard computer in newer cars.
OTHER USES If distilled sufficiently, and i forganic crops are used, a n orgAnic grade alcohol can be produced. 'This alcohol can De used ro make herbal tinctures, which can then be sold at a premium. The gol'crn ment regulates production and sale of alcohol, but it is possible to obtain licenses 10 produce alcohol on a small scale, especially ifit is for use as a fuel and not conslunption. City ordinances may sli!! prohibit distillation, so clandestine operations may be required.
150 I TOOlBOX fOR SUS1AINASlE ClTY LIVING
•
BIOCHAR AND G AS I F I C AT I O N A GRASSROOTS TACTIC FOR PRODUCING POWER AND FIGHTING GLOBAL WARMING' Recently, a lot of rcsc.lrch has been conducted on the lara/,,/11 (dark soil), a type of soil found in pans of the Arnnonjungle. It is theorized thal the ancien! peoples of the Amazon made the terra prcta by adding charcoal to (OmpOSI, which was then used to ' amend the soil. Full of nutrients, the terra prcla continues to sup port agriculture today, centuries after its creation. Its richness and Slaying power is beliel'cd to be due to its high content of charcoal made from biomass, or Mochar. Biochar's greatest attributes as a soil amendment are it�'hulrient affinity, surface area, and stability. Biochar has the ability to bind many nutrients to its surface (a - ---;lr()Ccss called adsoqlliunJ and make them available to plants over a long period oLtiule- Biochar's ability to retain nutrients appar endy exceed!; that n( compost, potentially making it an excellent soil additive.
;licroscope, a charcoal particle resembles a coral reef,
Under a
with many nooks, crannies, and crel'iccs. Similar to a reef. char coat·s many cracks and holes create a habitat for a n ab<.lndant and diverse array orlifc forms. albeit microbiological rather than rna- rine. The community of bacteria, fungi, and other microbes sup ported by the charcoal play irnponant roles in making nutrients available to plants and in the development of new soils. (Charcoal is also used in water filters bcca<.lse the many notches i n its large sur face area arc able to lrap water-borne contaminants.) Lastly, biochar is an extremely persistent fOfm of organic matter. It has the ability to remain stable in soil for perhaps thousands of
ENERGY I 151
years, unlike othn types oforganic mltter th:n may degrade or be: leached aWllf in much less time_ Biochu is made through a process called pyrolysis: heating in the ��nce ofmrgen. Produced in special burners Ihat can be built OUI of natural m;Jteri'dls, biochar is made from biomass like wood, grass, rice, or grain. Pyrolysis is essential to lhe production ofbiochar. Simpl)� burning organic malter will only produce ash. Although ash call be: added to soil as a' source of IXllassiurn, it has none ofbiochar's desirable properties
.
During pyrolysis, organic maner is broken down into its compo nent gases of methane, h)'l:irogen, and carbon monoxide in 11 process called glsifiatioll. All three of these combuslible gases can be: direcled away from the pyrolysis chamber and burntJI lOgelher 10 produce heat, electricity, or mechanical power. II is even possible to modify 11 vehicle to run off these gases. During the ldter yelrs of World War 11, most of civilian Germany was powered off ofwood gasifiers that were attached to cars.s
(I nconvenient :lnd brgc, the
gasifiers were mostly disposed of following the war. Technical in novalions h1ll'c made modern gasificf'l easkr to use.)
Following pyrolysis. the biochar contains lip to SO percentofthe
carbon that WllS in the original source material, Mixing biochar with soil takes carbon out of the atlllosphere. Due to biochar's great stability, that arbon will be locked up for 1I13ny ye3rs. For this re3son, biochar h:u the potenti31 to be: used as a carbon sink and could possibly reduce the eflect of global warming. Acting as:i carbon sink, biocharlgasification has the rare property of being cll�n negative, where its manufActure and use takes more carbon dioxide out of the atfll{)spherc than it adds. Compaf".l.til'eiy, c3rbon-neutral fuels return an cqual amou!II of COl to the 3ir, 3nd fossil fuels actually im:rcase atmospheric CO lcvels. (For a more de l railed uplanation ofcarbon-neutral fueis, see Biofuds, p:ige 139) Combined with glsificillion, the,production ofbiochar creates a connected cycle ofbuilding fertile soils, combating global warming.
152 I
TOOL80� fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
and pro"iding a source or autonomous energy. Urban communi{ies can produce biochar by putting biomass grown or �olle<:ttd in cilies into home-built, low-t!.:ch pyrolizerslgasifiers. the biochar can be added as an amtndmcnt to garden soils, while the�a. is lIsed ror energy production. ProductiOll orbioclur and its use in agriculture is:1 potentially promising way for people to be actively working ,lgainsl glob;tl wArming on an autonomOlis grassroots level: a global citizens' movement for a decentralized CO, dmwdown. While it has great potential, it is important to know that bio char's application is sti!! experimental. Studies u:;ing biochar as a soil anlcndment hal'e had mixed success-the unique microbio logical combination of the terra preta has eluded replication. Also. the level at which bioch,1T production would significantly mitigate global warming is uncertain. Despite these unknowns, biochar pro duction offers a hopeful addition to Ihe toolbox or tactics fur build ing community autonomy.
B I O GAS A N D M ETH A N E G E N ERAT I O N '[he primary component of natural gas is methane. Extracted from
below ground, Ilatural gas is pressurized and pumped through pipe lines. It is used for heating, cooking, generating elecrricity, fueling vehicles, and manuracturing synthetic pnxhlcts. Like petroleum, the extraction. refinement, and distribution of natural gas has resulted in a number of negative environmental and social consequences. Also like petroleum, natul":l.l gas is considered 3 non-renewable stl":l.tegic resource and is fought over by govern ments of the world, However, methane's combustion, while it still produces pollutants, is conSiderably cleaner than the burning of oil
ENERGY 1 153
i released di or coaL l\'lethane il:;clfis a potem grecnhollS<.: g�s f rectly into the atmosphere, but when methane is burned it becomes
carbon dioxide, a much less harmful gas.
M E T H A N E D I G ESTERS r-Iuch like plants gil'e ofr oxygen and animals breathe out car bon dioxide, b iogas is a waste product of an:lerobic bacteria. Anaerobic bacteria thrive in lhe absence of oxygen . lhey live ill places like landfills, the muck in the bottom ofa pon d, and the large intestine. Th rusting a stick into the mud in a pond will re
lease biogas bubbles. moga, consists of desce nd ing percentages of met hane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and other gases. (,Ille small amoums of
hydrogen sulfide produced in biogas give it its distinctive rollen eggs smell.) When the carbo n dioxide has been bled off from the
biogas, mostly methane remains. For years, emire I'ill:lges in Asia hal'Cheen producing much of
their energy needs from methane digesters: I�rge containers thaI collect anim:"1hm.llllrC and break it down anacrobical!y.� Meth:mc
digesters recrCM/; the conditions IOtmd in pond mll(k. In a sealed container ofwater, anaeTObic�acteria are given food to eat and per mitted to proliferate.
•
11H: scale ofa rneth:me diges tcr em V'Jry. A gi1m facility cO\lld
ferment the waste of an emire cit)' and feed gas back imo its pipe lines, or a 5-gallon bucket filled Wilh TOning plants could make a 6-inch flame. 'lhe biogas made from these systems can be used for just about everyth i ng that nmlral gas is used for in the home, primar ily cooking an d h eating. There is also )lOtential to use it for
powering electrical generators. As is the case with man)' energy sources, the scale and size of the system will determine how sus rainable it is overall. \01/hen made on a small, backyard scale, biogas can be used with none of the ulldesir..ble political and environmen tal consequences that plague natural gas production.
154 1 TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY liVING
MANURE A N D G R E E N MANURE Biogu C2n be rn:t
1 car
boll to nitrogen ratio. Be Slife that the materials used arc properly •
balanced. (see Composljng, page
111)
Animal manure is an option, but unless the livestock is kept in dose quarters, more energy may be spent (aliening the manure than is derived from the gas produced. It is possible to use hurna flure for biogas production. Gre:u care. h�vcr, would need to be taken to ensure that fY.Ithogens were not spread in the prOCess. (See Recp:ling '-Iuman Wastes. page 121.) Fast-growing water pl:tnt5 proouce one of the highest colleen troltions of melha",:. Water plants can be easily grown in ponds as small as a 55-gallon drum or a kiddie pool. (Ste Aquacult u rt, page 21.) Pbnts can be regularly scooped off the pond surface and throwll into a digester. Dllckwccd and a'lol1a are twO fast-grow
i ng native North American water plants. Grtell algae, or spiro gyra. is also �bundallT in ponds alld lak«4nd can be harvested in large quantities. Biogas production can also be used to turn problem plants into a resource. The water hyacinth is a rapidly growing, ag gressi\'e aquatic species. In some warmer regions. it forms dense mats that harm the diversity of native ecosystemS, prevent sun light from penetrating the watcr's surface, and inttrfcre with boal navigation. Affected communities could harvest it for en ergy production.
BIOGAS I N THE HOME Since hiogu is mostly methane, the primary component of natunl gas, anything in a home that runs off nalUnl g:lS theoretically could be powered by biogas :lS wdl. The main obstacle is pressurizing the
ENERGY I 155
gas sufficiently. When natural gas goes into a horne, it is under con siderable pressure. This pressure is needed to force the gas through gas lines and out through appliances. \Vithout adeqllate gas pres- . sure, stoveS and heaters will not work properly. Prcs>urized gas is extremcly dangerous-working with it requires advanced skills and knowledge.
BIOGAS I N VEHICLES Any vehicle that has been modified to rUJl oR· of natural gas can be powered by biogas as well. Similar to home use, the main difficulty --1n using biogas as :l fuel is pressure. Natural gas pumped into a ve hicle's fud tank is under enormous pressure. \Vhen unprcssurized, biogas takes up a great I'ohmle. A CH powered by non-pressllrized gas would require an enormous storage tank to Illake it a few !Hiles down the road. Because a fuel tank as large as the vchicle irse1fis impractical, and gas pressurization is technically complicated, there is limited usc for biogas in powering cars.
I NSTRU C T I ONS FOR B U I LDING A SMALL-SCALE 5 - GA L LON B I OGAS DIG ESTER In this system, a 5-gallon bucket is filled with the material to be digested and non-chlorinated water. A dear, bottomless 5-ga11on water jug slides into the bucket, covering the material. After the material ferments for two to three weeks in a sunny spot, gas will form, causing the water jug to rise. lht gas is forced out a hose in the top by depressing the jug. WARNING: E)(ercise caution when working with
ethane. It is highly
m
combustible when mixed with oxygen. Never smoke or prod uce open flames or sparks where metha ne is being slored.
156 I TOOlBO� fOR SUSTAtNABLE CtTY LIVING
• •
q
Supplies needed: 5-gallon buc\;et Hafldsaw or i!gSilIV Clear plastic-S-galion water jug (the
kind used for office water dispensers) Bungcap: a cap from a 55-gallon barrel with a female Y.-inch adapter in the center Garden hose faucet With Y.-mc h inlet and o utlet
Flexible metal gas hose with Yo-inch ends Tube of adhesive sealant, like Liquid
Nails Organic matter to bl! digested
How 10:
1. Cut the bottom off of the 5-ga llon jug with a hafldsaw or Jigsaw. Because the jug must be able to slide up and down in the bucket without getting jammed, the cut should be above the bottom rim on the jug, wh ich is ils widest part. If the
jug gels stuck, gas will bubble up around the edges and the container won't rise. 1\ is okay if the jug isn't tight against the sides as long as the biomass is cOl'ltail'led within it. 2 . fil the bungcap o�er the opening on the lop of the jug. Apply the adhesi�e sealant around the joint to form an airtight seal. Allow it to dry. 3. Punch out the center of the threaded part of the bungcap and thread the garden faucet into it. Attach the metal gas hose to the end of the faucet. 4.
Fill Y. of the bucket with the digesti ble matter. (Chop any
large plaflt matter into small parts first. The smaller the particles, the quicker the bacteria can break it down.)
Fill the rest of the bucket with non-chlorinated water. Use rain water or spr.iL1g water, or allow tap water to sit out in an
S.
open container for 24 hours to evaporate i ts chlorine. Tap water contains chlorine, a mi crobi cide that kills t he a naerobic
ba cteria you are trying to cu lture.
6. Agitate �Iend the material With a stick so that it mixes
in Ihe�ater, formine a slurry.
O pen the faucet val�e. Put the open bottom end of the jug inside of the open top of the bucket. Push down on the jug untilll almost touches the bottom 01 th e bucket, allOWing the 1.
air to e,cape in the process. Make sure that the digestible mateoal is i nside of the jug. Close the valve tightly, making su re no a ir is getting i nto the conta iner_ 8.
Place the whole container in the sun. Depending
on the temperature, gas production will begin in two
to three weeks, and tlie jug will rise up in the bucket. The air temperature surrounding the container, either indoors or outside, should be between 70 and 90 degrees Fahrenheit. Temperatures a bove or below will resull in l ittl e gas being produced. In cold climates, gas productiOn can be extended by placi ng the biogas container inSide
ENERGY
I
IS)
a greenhouse or cold frame. Se sure eIther structure is regularly ventilated to prevent mettlane from building up
to daJlgerous le...els
9. Bleed tile container: opeJl the valve slightly and push down on the jug, allowing the gas to es(:ape. When tile jug has been pushed back to the botlom of tile bucket, dose the valve. (The gas causing the jug 10 nse Initially should
be rejected�Carbon dlo�lde, 11 non·flammable gas, is the predominant gas-produced during the early stages of anaerobiEd&omposltion. Methane is more prevalent in the later stages.) 10. Restart the process by putting the container back in the sun and wait for the jug to rise a second time. 11. Sleed the con tainer again.
12. When the jug rises a thIrd time it wilt be filled WIth a
suffiCIent percentage of methane 10 be blolfnedfAs one person holds Ihe end of the metal hose away from Ihe
cOrllainer wllh a lighler or a sparker under the open end, the other person app lies light downward pressure on the top of
the jug and opens the valve. If it has worked correctly, the
m ethane will ignite, creating a bluish flame.
1]. To ensure that the flame does not travel up the line and
into the bucket, keep COl"lstant pressure on the jug. The
_.
amount of gas coming out and the Size of th e flame will be
proportional to the pressure applied.
14. Close the val...e to stop the gas flow and put out the flame. IS. WIlen the gas is emptied,
step 12 can be repeated. It may
be possible 10 get several batches of gas from one round of
material.
lhis is an extremd), small-scale system. '[he amOUJlt of gas produced 111 one batch is hardly ustful for more than warming a pot ofw'il.ter, let atone bringing it to boil. The poi nt is experi mentation. After gaining experience with the 5-gallon version, bigger batches in 35- or 55-gallon barrels can be tried. Small batches are also good for testing the viability of different materi als for �s production.
158 1 TOOt80X FOR SUSTAINASLE CITY LIVING
BACKFLOW PREVENTER lllis simple device prevents a flame from {rJvding backward through the gas line(0 the gas >ouree, where it collid cause an ex plosion_ While the positive pressure from rhe-flow of gas from the source is usually ,ufficicnt to prcI'cnt a flame from tr. l yciing back, a backfio\\' preventcr is a wise precalllion when burning gas from a source container larger than 5 gallons. This design is appropriate only for gas kept under low pressure, like in the systems described in this section. lhc backfiow preworcr is made of a scaled bucket filled ,nostly with,water. Gas enters the bucket through a line that pushes it out at the bottom of the huckt;t, ulldcrwatcr. It then bubbles upward, through the W'�tcr into the airspace at the lOp of the bucket, and then travels on through the exit pipe to tbe stove. 'Ow water pre vents any flame from tm,-ding past it back to the stored gas.
L£J I : ::: ·'.
�:
.
'• . ," , . . ..
:
I
\Vhile small inline backflow prcvcntcrs can be purchased at gas and plumbing supply stores, the water buck�t design also helps clean the homemade gas. l3ecause carboll dioxide is much more soluble in water than methane, the water �scrubsH OUI an)' residual
J?
carbon dioxide as the gas bub les up. It will also remOl'e any hydro gen slilfide that may be in the biogas. For 10ng-lCrm use, it is ideal to remove hydrogen sulfide as if is highly corrosil'e and will cl'entu ally mst out metal parts.
LEFTOVER SLURRY When the material i n {he digester no longer produces gas, dispose of the spent slurry. Slurry can be composted i1\ a compost pile. Keep in mind that human pathogens breed in anaerobic condi tions. Anaerobic bacteria can also prodlIce compounds that arc harmful to plants. \Vhile the temperatures reached in a biogas di gester arebigh enough to kill some pathogens, there cOlild be some harmful pathogens left in the spent slurry. Spent manures are !i�ly
ENERGY 1 159
to have started with more pathogens than plant material and shOldd be handled with particular care. Usc calltion when handling any spent slurry and ne\'er apply it directly to plants.
W I N D POWER Winds are created by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface. When the sun shint"" s on a particular part of the atmosphere, it heats the air and causes it to rise, creating a low-pressure area. When air from a higher pressure area moves into the lower one, wind is created. Wind power has great potential to provide renewable energy to people while resulting in relatively little pollution or cnvitonrnental damage. Centuries before th� disco\'ery ofelectricity, wind was used to power mechanical equipment and for sailing. Today, wiud turbines convert wind power into electrical energy. The size and scale of turbines range widely, from massive wind farms with gi gantic towers to tiny turbines made from recycled parts. Wind e.<:.�is all cw:llent cnrnple of autonomous energy. Small wind t\lrbines can be made cheaply from locall)' available materials. They are simple enough-j;-be constructed and main•
rained by persons with minimal technical expertise and wilh tools that can be commonly fou..d in � city. Users building a turbine from >(!'llch will be familiar with all of its workings and be able to easily troubleshoot and repair any problems that may arise. vl/ind turbines can provide independent power to autonomous communi ties in many regions of the world.
HOW T U R B I N E S WORK Turbines have blades (hat spin when the wind moves thro\lgh them. The bl�des aTC connected
to
a component called a rotor,
which has magnets attached to it. The rotor spins around another part called the stator, which is made up of copper coils. The ro-
160 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
tor and the stator together creatc what is called an alternator. 1he magnets and thc coils arc spac�d i n a particubr way in the alternator such that when thcy cross e;l(h other, electrical current is produced. 1his electricity can be stored in batteries or used to power equipment directly. \Vind is stronger at higher altitudes, as it loses power to friction against the Earth's sur[1.ce. Buildings and tfees also weaken wind strength. For this reason, small turbines may not produce as much power in cities as they might in rural areas. The trick to getting a turbine to perform optimally is to place il as high off the ground as pOSSible, and ideally as far away from any large buildings or tfecs as pOSSible. While many places in cities arc obstructed, the-rooftops of tall buildings or the tops of hills would be good sites for placing a
turbine in the city. Wind strength varies greatly in differe nt parts of the world. Some regions may experience conSistently strong winds throughout the year, while others barely receive a calm breeze. As a result, wind power may be more practical in some p!aces than others. 1he map below shows average wind strengths for different P'irtS of rhe United States. Similar maps exist for most
places in the world. In many areas, wind strength can o:;hange with the seasons, mak ing it necessary to have redundant sources of power. \Vind turbines
can be used in cor�unction with other l)Ower systems, like solar, to ensure year-round electriCity. Conveniently, d\lring cloudy, storm),
times when the sun is obscured, wind strength may pick up. Wind and active solar systems can share the same network of charge COIl
lroUers, wires, im'ctters, and batteries.
DESIGNS FOR SMALL-SCALE TURBINES Building a smal l scale turbine that produces a significant amount of -
power and thaI is safe is not a simple task. While the skills and tools ENERGY I 161
needed to build one arc dmstiC"dlly less than those needed to con struct a solar pane l, a fait degree of handiness and a dece n t kn owl edge of m e chan iaJl �nd e lect riClI S�"Stc1ns are n eeded . Complete in: struclions for building a turbine are 100 brge and detlliled to Ix)n eluded in t his book . 'This section ronmins basic overviews of different
f
exist i ng de signs and suggestions of where to find mor e in or mation . �ety is an important factor in constructing a tu rbine. Turbines contain ITlIIIIiIlI: partS thai afe spinning at
hCh velocities and are
pliICed al
high
altitudes.. In a crowded city, this could create a very dilne:e100s situation. It is
._
critical that all parts ofa turbine be firmly attached and that the turbine itself is securely mounted. Keep a turbine on the ground and test II lor reliability
before mQUnting. Once motlnted, regular safety inspections afe required.
AXIAL-FLUX W I N D M I LL l lout The axial-flux wi ndmi ll is a turbine that Gin produce a lOO-w.l put u nder optimal ronditiom. Its bhde!l arc carved
from wood ,\lId arc
mounted onto the hub from a wheel of a car. 1hi5 in tu rn is connected
to welded
me l rompoo.:nts tnat an: mourned to a pole. Constructing
the turbine
requires a
�lu ding
to specia lized toolsj
3
120'mll
i h are com mon in wdder, d rill press, and grir!dcr. Machine shops, whc cit ies, will have these tools and can fabricate Ihe nt"edt"
fcc. Building an altern:uor and m ounti ng unit c-alls for purchas
ing neodymiumll\a@;n�ts, copper nugnel win:, and $t�"C1 disks, -all of
which can acid up to a price of $C\"t:ral hundred dollars. to bui lding this turbine is that a
good per
cc
1hc ac!v
nuge ofits p.;IrtS can be
a from reC}ded materials, and the end produc t is sturdy, safe, and
m de
efficient.
T H E RECYCLED BICYCLE-PART W I N D .TURBINE 111i5 d esign was inspired by the turbine� built ,It the Gaviotas COl11mu nity in Colombia.. However, instead of being built from new
162 I
TOOLBOX mil SUSTAINABLE CITV
liVING
• •
Scavenging Magnet$ and Wire
c, 0,'.. of :ht'
Neodymilim magr'leb
most expe'lSolv(' a "'lInd tufbine . be
component'> u,e{] on Forturlately. they can
edsll� scavenged, her� computer
hard
dfi�e
powerful
contains two
small
but
neodymium m�gnets. Thev
the hard dri�e and prying the magnets out can be removed
by
t�klng apart
An altem�tor can be cOr'lstructed after accumulating enough of thcse magnets.
Hard dnve . can be pu led hom d,;cardcd
computers Of s ometlmel go:ten for free from computer rep]i
,tore,
whdt'
they often �it in pil,,\ Copper n,�g"et wire, also used in illt,,(!1i1tJ"'. Cdr) b"
m�chined parts, this turbine W�\S COllstructed largely from recycled bicycle parts for under SSO The Illrbine is mounted onto the bot Tom brJ.cket of a bicyc le, the stfl)ng component where the pedals attach. Poles made of bent electrical conduit are bolted onto a flat metal disk, 3bout ¥.o inch thick and around 10 inche!! in diameter. 'nlis disk is m ounted on to the bottom bracket of the bicycle. The bl3des 3rc made from sheet metal ben t in the shape of an air foil and are screwed OHIO the conduit poles. lhe entire unit is mounted onlO a car axle, which is welded Onto the steel frome of the building upon which it sits. The car axle allows the turbine to spin freely 360 degrees as the wind changes directions. lhe rear end ofthe bonom bracket is connected ro a dynahub, a tiny alternator that is normally used on bicycles. In its usual usc, as the bicycle's wheels Spill, the dynahub produces enough voltage to power a bicydc light. Similarly, when the wind turns this turbine, the dy nahu b lights a light bulb. (A cool feature when the wind blows at night!)
pulled from broken rmt(uwJ.'· oven,;
The Rh,zome'\ Wind turbin2 con�tI�[ted
with recycled bicycle pJrtl
ENERGV ! i63
Despite it s innigue, this turbine still has design flaws. The chain ring frequently cracks, which causes the whole machine to fail.
A
more reliable steel plate should be used in its place. Tinkering with such an inexpensive design i s a good \\Illy for a beginner to become familiar with t urbines and build up the confidence necessary in o r
der to construct a larger one.
SAVONIUS W I N D M I LLS Savonius turbines differ from traditional ones in that they are built on a venical axis, rather than a hori7.0n�1 one. They can be made
very simply by sliCing metal 55-gallon barrels in half and attach ing them to a central steel rod. Savonius turbines are often used for pumping water as well as for elect ricity production.
i
Overall, with some ingenu ty, wind turbines can provide a con siderable amount of"electrical power to an u rban community look ing to be.:;ome independent from a non-renewable power grid. TIley
arc one of the fc","means of produci ng el ectricity from a comm on resource using machines that can be built and repaired by people having intermediate level skills and access to minimal techn ic al infrastructure.
PASS IVE S O L A R The sun is a source of abundant, non-polluting energy that powers many biological, atm ospheric, and oceanic systems on the planet.
For centums, lrumans have built their sel!lemcnts in relationship with the sun and its cycles in order to benefit from its li ght and
he at. The sun's �nergy can heat and light a living space and can be harnessed for cooking and heating water. The utilization of the direct radiano: of the sun is called passive solar design. Devices made to capture the sun's direct energy arc passive solar technolo gies, and buildings designed to incorporate passive solar design are
exampl es of passive solar architecture.
164 I TOOL80X FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
PASSIVE SOLAR TECHNOLO G I ES Plssiv( solar tcchnoJogic� utiliu glazing. mirrors, thermal mass,
and insul�tion to m;ximizc solar energy for '!JOking and heating.
'lhc$I: decentralized and non-polluting technologIc) meet the erile ria for autonomous energy. Passive SOIM dClices CJll he
built largely
out of recycled m:ltcri:lls sllch as refrigerators, gl�ss windows, bro
ken mirrors, and old satellite dishes. Passi\'� sohr technologies can be applied all over the world. "Iher arc particularly
important in
places where deforestation has occurred as � result of high demands for wood as a cooking fuel. Using the sun (or rooking C�II drJmati cally' reduce the amount of wood fud Ihat I�ds to be burned. In
cold northern (It its. passil'e solar designs (JIl heal buildings, reduc ing the amOllnt of fossil fuds that ntt
Direct sunshine is necessary for most passi"e solar technologies
p
to function. For this n:ason, they will erform better in �",micr
climates. TIley arc still useful in less sunny regions, hOll'el'er, as
pplem
when the sun is shining they can significantly redlLce or su people's reliance on other energy sources.
em
i
J>assil'e solar technologies differ fooln act ve sohr technology, or-
photovoltaic pands (PV).
\'0ik
-
pY uses scmiconducturs to tran,-
form the sun's rays into dectricity, passive solar has no electronic components. Although solu panels an provide power ·off the
grid" and utiliu the sun's rem:W"Jble energ�, the) are nOl examples of autonomous energy. TIle manufacture of solar panels is an ex-
i
pensh'e, energy-intensive,. polluting, and techn cally complicated process. Few people ha"e the expertise or the �ccess to the technical
infrastructure needed to build solar l)and,. Panels have a limite d lifespan and are subject to damage by falling objects. Once their
period of usefulness is used up, they have little polt:ntial to be re-
paired Of reused. J\lost DIY-built sol:u panels afe terribly inefficient aocl hardl.y worth the effort. PholO\"()ltaks are not the magic bullet solution
10 world
energy problems that many hope Ihey are. Despite
Iheir limitalions, howc\'Cf, PVs are enormously pree i rable to coal or I:NERGY I 16S
nUl:lear power for elec tricity geueration ;lnd can be useful tools in the transition to a more ;usr-ainable future. Many different low-tech passive solar designs have been invented and arc in lise by people worldwide. Designs using p.i,lssive solar technology to provide clean water and maintain a hioshelter have been dis.:ussed. -Ihis section describes how to build a few simple devices: a sohr oven. a p;,rabolic solar cooker, and a passive solar water heater.
SO LAR OVEN Solar ovens cook food o\'er the course of a day. Although it may take several hOllrs to bakt;t potato, slow cooking's conversion of starches to sugars makes up lor the "' Jit. Food cooked in this way is especially tasty. Sobr ovens proollce deliciously cooked food with no energy inpuls other th.\!l the sun and arc great for tasks from cooking vegetables and to(u to toastil� nuts. In their most basic form, solar ovens are boxes covered by glazing that heat up when set in the_slln..lheir designs c�n be highly elaborate or plain and simple. Solar o\'cnl call be cons\fJlilld out of wood or even layers of cardboard. • 1hc sheet of glazing that co\"ers a solar oven allows sun rays in, htH doesn't Ie! heat back oUI. 'Illis trapped high heat sometimes nears 200 degrees and wilicr;lck regular glass. Tempered glass must be used for glazing. Store-bought tempered glass is vcry expensive. However, one salvageable source of tempered glass is the heat-resis tant glass doors found on some ovens. Another cheap option is to use ba king bags-plastic bags designed to roast turkey. These can � cut open and stretched leross l solar ove �. For the same reason that regular glass can't be used for glning, only oven-safe cookware (�n be used inside of � solar oven. Below are instructions for building a simple solar oven. TIle dimensions given �re just suggestions; it is best to size an oven ac cording to what size cookware and glazing are av�ilable. "
166 ' TOOlBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LlVtNG
DIagram of s()lar ()ven
Supplie� needed:
How to:
4 loot � 4 loot sheet of Y,·inch plywood
4 loo� � 4 loot sheet of rigid foam
1. Cut out pieces of wood according to the dimensions in the
diagram. 2. Attach the wood With screws or nails and glue to construct
board insul"tion
the box.
24 inch x 2S Inch piece of glazing
3. Using a utility knile, cut pieces 01 rigid foam insulation to
Grill rack .maller than 2 feet x 2 feet
line the inside of the box. Put the pieces in place. They should lit together snugly, sealing the corners.
and two bricks
4. Paint the exposed face of insulation with heat-resistant
98 inches of weather stripping or
black paint to help absorb the heat.
silicone
5.
Heat-resistant black paint
Put the bricks in the oven and place the grill rack on top of
them. The rack will allow hot air to circulate beneath the_pot.
Wood 5aw
6. Place weather stripping around the perimeter of the top of
Utility knife
the box. 7. Add glazing to the lap of the box, making an airtight
Hammer, nails, and glue; or screws and �crew gun
seal. If the glazing is glass, ils weight will make a seal. II a lighter material is used for glazing. it can be sealed using duct tape. Wetting the weather stripping can help make
Optional: ,andpaper
a ,eal. 8. To put in or take out cookware, the glazing can be lifted
off or a simple hinged door can be made In the back of the
box. If a door is cut, the glazing can be p��manently attached with silicone sealant and less heat will escape when pots are accessed.
COOKING WITH A SOLAR OVEN Place the sohr oven in a sunny spot with the glazing angled towards the sun. An ol'en thermometer can be ust"d
to
trac k the
temperature inside the oven. Generally, the hotter it is, the bet ler. The temperature can be regulated if necessary by moving the stove into the shade or covering it with a shading object. As some foods take many hours to cook, planning ahead i s neces sary. Check periodically thro ugho ut the course of the day to be ,
sure that the sun is still shining on the oven .
Solar oven ENERGY 1 167
PARABOLIC SOLAR COOKER DMk sunglasses or welding goggles should be worn to protect ey!."
when using this cooker. Never look directly into the reflective si d e of the dish when It is facing the sun.
lhis device focuses the SUIl'S rays onto
�
small area, producing
highly conwlIrnlcd heat capable of cooking, lighting fires, or pro ducing steam. It is made by lining the (Qf1(�ve side of:1.II old satel lite dish with n:Rectrvc material. The object to be heated is placed at the dish's focal point. While any size dish will work, a larger dish will produce more heal, boili n g a gallon ofwater in about ten minUles. Older 8-1001
diameter models c:tn be found in rural areas and �t metal scrap prd•. Smaller, 30-inch dishes arc more commonly used today,
and are more likely to be scal'enged in orb,lIl areas. Lightweight
and ponabk, the 30-inch dishes maybe
J
sm�rter option for non
homeowners. i\"lirror-plated aluminum sheets, My!ar p!�tic, o( mirror shards
on be
used as reflective matcria!s.lhe aluminum sheeting will cre
ate a perfectly smooth surfaee, but is I":iirly expensin:. Mylar pbstic is inopensive, but degrades in the sun fairly rapidly. Tin foil has low reflectivity and easily becomes dented. llle dents create distor tions in light that eql1al i nefficien cy. Mirror shards can be broken into small pieces and made into a mosaic Olllhc dish's sur[1.ce with
an
adhesive, similar
(0
a disco ball. 111e smaller the mirror pieces,
the more concentrated the heat will b-t:. Broken mirrors can be eas
ily scavenged. Use gloves when handling the dish and broken mir
ror shards, as they can be quitt sharp. To al'oid a continuous dusty mess of tiny mirror shardS tilt grout can be used to seal between Iht pieces.
168 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE (ITY LIVING
• •
TESTING T H E DISH Before taking tllis step, protect eyes witll dark sunglasses or welding Goggle�. Again, never look directlv into the reneetive side 01 the dish
when it is latin g the sun.
The dish needs to be used in nearly direct sunlight with little to no clolld cover to function corrcctly. To align the dish cre ate a sm�11 hole directly in the center of the dish and aim it �t the sun. Hold � piece of paper directly beneath the hole on the shaded side of the disk. The light shining on the paper should run perpendicularly through the dish. This will indicate that the disk i� keyed i n properly. Ifit is not correctly aligned, the light will shint: off to an angle. This step will need to be taken every time the cooker is used. "lllc next step is
to find the
focal point ofthe cooker. '[he focal
point is exactly wm:re the receiving apparatus sits. If the apparatus is missing, the focal point can still be easily found. Face the dish
toward the sun and hold a piece of cardboard up to its face. As the cardboard is. m!ll:ed toward and away from the dish, the light re Aected Q,(I it will appear more concentrated or scattered. The focal point is where the light appears about the sit-e of a quaner. Hold
�
the car board in place for 30 se(onds. It should begin to darken,_
smoke, and burst into Aames. If the cardboard ignites, you've fOUJId the focal point. TI\e focal point is where you want to place objects to
be hc�te{1. To usc the dish for (ooking, a stand must be constructed that . will hold a pot exactly at the dish's focal point. The stand can be .
�
independent of the dish or can be connected to it.
As the sun moves across the sky, the focal point shifts. The dish
must be moved every 10 minutes
or so
in order to properly track the
sun.lhis feature can be a benefit as a forgotten pot will cool instead A �mall pardhohc d'lh solar cooker
ofburn.
€NERGY I 16<)
-
A large parabolic d,IM solar �ooker
SOLAR WATER HEATER 'nlis simple device uses the sun to heat large quantities of water for cooking or washing. It is made by placing a recycled hot water heat ing tank inside of a refrigerator and cOl'ering it with a sheet of glaz ing. SUll rays pass through the glazing, heating the tank and the air
170 I
TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
\ )
around it. ·The glazing and the insulation in t he refrigerator .10\\ the heat from being lost alief the sun has gone down. The performaltCe of thc solar w�ter he�t�f, U with any pas
sivc solar device, is s\lbj�C{
to
c limat e conditions. The seasonal
a ngle of the sun, outside �ir te mp·cra ture, and relative cloud
cOI'cr �rc
a lt I'ariables in det e rm ining how qu ickl y the water
wilt heat, how hot it will gel, �nd h ow long it will ;;tay warm
for. A dea r, hot day in the summ er would be the o p timal time to usc one.
There arc many designs for passive sobr hot wau�r heatSolar hOI
water
refrige
heater. using a
redaimed
ers.
This model makes usc of two items Iha\ arc frequently
thrown away-refrigerators and household water heat ing unks. Refrigerators arc
I m:ljor waste proble m. They arc bulk)· and
create a hazard for children when
not
properly disposed of
However, t hey make uce!!cnt storage boxes for solar waler
he ating. Because they arc made mosdy of p ai nted metal and plastic, they arc
not
prone to rot or rust and therefore can b e
kept outdoors. They are also i nsu la ted. A byer of household
fiberglass i nsulat ion lies i nside the fridge's walls . Ke ep i t Ihe re
__
(I will help the hot WJter tank retain ils hell! once the sun h�s
gone aw�)'. Using refrigtr:llOTS for solar he�ters keeps th�m out of the bndlill and gil'es them a second life. Refrigerators use gases called refriger..ln b for cooling. Sume
refrigulInts, like Freon, are potent greenhouse gase� ami o lhers
may be toxic. When working witb a fridge, it" $ ea.y to rupture a refrigerant line and release the gas. Before moo if)'ing one, bring the refrigerator to a WllSte management facility lnd have its refrigerant gas safely drained. Hot water heating tanks consist of a black, iron tan k inside of an aluminum shell, with insulation in between. llley arc also corn· monly t �ro wn
away and easy to fi nd. t-lan)' t:lnks arc thrown out
because they leak-reject any t:l.Ilk with visible rust spots: they will
EflEflGV 117!
only "''OfSen. As � pr ecaution before u sing � t�nk. fill to make sure th�t it does
nOt leak.
it with water
How to:
Supplies needed:
1. Strip off the ouler layers of aluminum and mSlllation from
Hot water heating tank Any Sl2e is fine
the hot wa ter heater to re�al the black Iron tank inside.
2. Remove the refrigerator door and any $helving inside.
as long ill. it fits imide the refrigerator
3. Place a piece of reflecn� sheet metal inside the fridge,
Old sca�en ged refrigerator drained of
sunlight back onto the tank, adding heat.
Glalillg Heat-resistant glass, Plexiglas,
curving it with the contour of the interior. It will reflect
4. Construct a frame with rx4�s inside the fridge that will
hold Ihe lank toward the side where the door wa$. The frame should hold the tank steady and prevent it from rolling or slidmg.
S. Put the tank on the frame inside the fridge.
refrige rants or twin·wall polycarbonate (a material
used for green ho uses)
Silicone sealant or we ather stripping Reflective �heet meta l
6. Plumb Ihe tank: hose or pipe can be used. Tanks are
Pipe or !wse
fitted with Ihreaded connections. Hot water rises, 50
2""X4"L
the inflow should be at \lie bottom
of the
tank and the
outfl o w ilt the lOp. The pipes or hose can come into and
leave the fridge through the e�istlnll holes in the bac�. C!.It
--.....fteles if needed. The illflow call be from mUllicipal water or water from an on >5lte source, such as a pressurized
ramwater talll(.
7. ?lace a layer of siilcolle or weather stnppmg around the perimeter of �e frolll of Ihe fridge. Put Ihe glazillg on top of the wealhE!'l' stripping or silicone jwhere the dOOT was), making an airtight seal 8. Place the
u
nit in an area With good sun exposure-a sturdy
ro oftop or sunny backyard. face It south and set it at an angle
where it will receive a balance of summer and winter sun. It
h best to have the tank Iymg parallel to the ground, as it will
receive more sun.lf space is iimrted, it IS a cceptable to stand
it vertically.
9. Run the outflow to Its point of use. It CIIn
be attached to
existmg house plu mbi n g Of used nearby as hot water for
hand washing or for an outdoor shower. (See Rainwater
Harvesting: Adding a Delivery System, page 66.)
172 I TOOLBOX FOil SUSTAINABLE CITV LIVING
Q
With the widespread use of fossil
fuels. designing with the sun has been
mos tly abandoned. The majority of
st ructures in today's cities were built at a time when fossil fuels and wood were perceived as being cheap and abundant.
As a result, many buildings are horribly inefficient in regard to heating. Spaces
with few or no windows that face the
sun have been built in th e shadows of
other structures. Insulation is minimal
or non existe nt. Once fuel prices begin -
to escalate. this lack of fore sigh t on
the part of arch i te c t s and city planne rs
will conde mfl many structures- to be uninhabitable.
Urban
reSI�nts
of
the future will need to redeslgn th eir nei8hborhoods, de molis hing some SUfi' blockifl8 buildings and knocking large
holes In others for sun facin8 Window s. ·
PASSIVE SOLAR ARCHITECTURE Passive solar architecture designs structures that are eith er en_ tirely or partially heated by the sun. Most passive solar h Olnes have large windows on their sun-facing sides that let thA '- SUn,8 ray s enter the building and heat the interio r air space. Efficien,' Insu_ lation and abundant thermal mass keep the heat i nsid A E '-. ven' It extremely cold and cloudy environments, a well-desi gne d : bui l dln g can remain comfortably warm with only minimal supplem cilIa! ' heatmg. ..
Passive solar design is easieSl10 incorpomte into new COns t
lion. Passive solar relrofits on old buildings typically involve hug e windows, which can be prohibitively expensive. Constr
::;C.
�Ing uetlIl g a sun-collecting bio.helter on the sun-faCing side of a bUildin d making sure the building is well insulated are more cconom' ," '" War); to take advantage of passivc solar energy. (See Biosl", ters, page SO.)
RO CKET STOV ES Rocket stoves are high-efficiency cooking stoves that can bri
n water to a boil or cook food using minimal amounts of WOOd.
�
'r can be made almost cntirely from salvaged materials and, . re JUSt as useful in an urban outdoor kitchen as they are in a cam pground, Using a rocket stove can help communities reduce their feU anee a n natural gas, a non-renewable energy source.
Boiling water on an open fire pit is a terribly inefficiem pr s. Very little o f the heat produced by th is type of fire is actuall � y l s_ " I'ln ferred to the cooking pot: most is lost to the surround ing a If, ear th ' and space. Large amounts of wood are burned, contributing to deforestation. Open pit fires also produce a lot of smoke, which a n cause respiratory ailments in rhe people working around the . C m
On the other lund, rocket stoves are highly efficient
cookers.
Their combustion chamber (where the fuel burn,) is insulated, en suring that minimal heatls lost to space and maxiuy ufll heat is di re cted ro the cooking pol. Only small amounts 01 w,.....d are needed
10 bring a pot of water to a hoil-a handful of dry sticks is lIsually
eno
rocket stoves also burn I'cry hot. Hot fires with plenty of oxygen burn de an , producing linle smoke or soot.lhis makes them mllch healthier to work around than open pit fires.
MAKI NG A ROCKET STOVE A rocket stO\'e can be made by joini ng together horizontal and
\'ertical lengths of stovepipe with a 90-degrcc dbow. "!"he base of the 90-degrce elbow serves as the comb
metal vegetable-oil container. \Nood ash is packed in arolmd them to insulate the combustion chamber. The cooki ng POt is pla ced di
rectly on top of the vertic;ll length of stove pipe.
How to:
Supplies needed:
1. Iden tify the "crimped" end of the stovepipe. This IS the
end with the wa�y, bumpy appearance. The crimped PM! is
•
S·gallon re:L''1gu�" t1'en ·,egeTable01
wn tdiner lof�"'" b"�d behmd
de signed to slide inside of the normal end of stovepipe. 2. Open up the stovepipe and lay it ou t fl at. 3. Cut a 4 inch piece of pipe off t h e non·cnmped end of the
2.) men .ength oi') 'n.h d;ameter metal
This will be come the horilOntal section.
4·inch stovepipe w':h a 90·degree
stovepipe. (Be sure to wear gloves : cut metal is razor ,harp.)
4. Cut a 7 inch piece off the crimped en d of t he stovepipe.
This will be the ver tical se<:tion.
S. Make both pieces into round pipe s by popping them closed along their seams.
6. Hold one-section of pipe against the face of the oil
container, centered and 2 inc hes off its bottom. Trace the
circ\lmference of the pipe on t he can.
snips.
174 I
TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
Cut out the hole with
r�staufant'l ,wvcp'pe
e:bow EmptV I1n can Burner grate from it YO' ,to',� Of metal grill
T,n sn,ps
Can opener
Work gloves
About 7 gallons of woo d ash
7. Trace the circumference of the pipe on t he center of the lop side of the
oil tan. Draw a second ring
1
inch wider
aro u nd the fir,! one. (The wider circle's diameter should be 2
inches larger.) (ut QuI t he wider circle. g. Stick the crimped end of the vertical section into the non
crimped end of the 90-degree elbow, and insert both pieces into the oil container thro ugh the hole on the top. 9. Sl i d e the horiwntal section through the hole on th e side so that it sleeves over the cri!!lpe d end of the gO-degree elbow. 10. Po ur wood ash into the oil can thro ugh the 1 incl! gap b etwee n the t op of the container and the vertical pipe. Tamp it occasionally as it fills by sha�ing the container. fill the can to its top. 11. If t he vertical section protrudes more than an inch above the top of the ca n, trim it. If desired, a metal narlge carl be cu t from sheet metal that slides aroumj the vertical pipe and seals off the gap on Ihe top. preverlting ash from getting out. 12. Make a tray to insert fMO the opening of the horizOrltal
I""'" f � . Ilfr�
Rocket stove. insul�ted with ash Jround the p.pe, Ihe chimney sends most of its heat to the pot Ule
run:
a. Take a soup can aIld cut off both its lids With a can opener. b, Cut the can lerlgthwise with snips. e. Open the can, n atte ning it into a rectangular section of metal.
d. Cut the metal so that its width is equal t o the diameter of the horizontal section of pipe. e. Cut tabs into the sides of the metal and fold them d own to bl! legs thatw'ill hold the metal at about half the height of the horizontal opening. The tray provides a platform to put sticks on as they are slid into the combustion chamber. The space bene:Jth IIII' tray rema ins unobstructed arld allows oxygen to flow freely into the combustion chamber. As Ihe a ir enters the chamber, it is heated by the b urning sticks above. When oxyge n is prehealed, it burns more efficiently. 13. Put the burner grate or metal grill over the top of Ihe rocket stove to place a pot on. Make sure that there is at least a half inch between the bottom of the pot arld the top of the vertical stovepipe. If there is not enough space, raise the grill up using ro ck s.
£NERGV 1175
L I G H T I N G THE STOVE To light the Stove, drop � felY looseJy crumpled piw:s of paper downlhc vertical pipe. Insert dry slkks infO the horizolltll pi�
by placing them on the
tr:l.y :Ind push ing them 10 th e back of the
chamber. Light the paper by dropping a match 0(1 it. The stove should light very quickly-it takes off'likc a rockel.
PUTT I N G IT A L L TOG ET H E R When people t()(hy arc confronted with climate change, peak oil,
and oUler energy issues,
often their main concern is how their
standard of living un be mainllined. will I dri\"c?" or "How Clln I
O!!estions such as "How
keep my air conditioning?" a� more
frel[uently asked than the important ones like "Where will our food and water toille (rOI1l?� or �How will our waste be processed'· Energy is necessar y fo r providing society with ils most basic needs. This is comm only fo rgotten in an ag� wh�n cn�rgy is.primarily as sociated with
ti�e el ectr icity that powers the telcvision.
In thc ncar future, enormous investments will be made trying to dcvelop energy so u rces that can maiO{:lin the status quo. Sincf no known energy source is c;lpable of thi s, th� only rational option is for el'cryunc to get by with le$8. While many of the autonomous technologies described in this book arc helpful mmsitional tools, they will be of no usc unless an ethic of conserv,lIion, effic iency,
and r«Iuced co nsumption is adopted. Ultimately, the best w:ay to
harness energy is to grow food for fewing people, thereby produc ing human power. While underrepresentcd in this book, bikes, wheds, gean, flywheels, levers, and pullc� are aU enormous labor saving devicc$th:l.I can maximiu human energy. TIleir inteHigcnt
usc can reduce reliance on external power 5OUfCe.
176 I TOOl80� fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY l1VlNG
A Word About Wood Ash Wood ash is made from burning \'load in a flre pIt or a wood nove An excelle nt I11sufatOf, ash has P
;JS a n insulator
for a rockel stove, ait ho"gh the fact that
wood ash is naturally produced afld i s geflerally conSIdered a waste prod"ct
makes it greatly preferable Malenals such as sand or dirt are not go od insulators �r'ld should not be used with a rocket stove. $Jnd ar'ld dtrt have good thermal mass properties-th�y are good at s oa�inll up and storing t>eat
but � are po or at slOWIng down the I05S of it
ENERGY 1177
BIOREMEDIATION -
I Teday's urban soils have been poisoned by years of the irresponsible use of toxic metals and chemicals. These contaminants pose a great risk to human health and have rendered much of the land that CQuid potentially be used for urban food production dangerously u-nfit. Not only can plants grown in polluted soil. pass pollutants on to those who eat them, but mere exposure to contaminated dirt and dust can be hazardous. The problem is so extensive that along with gaining access to land, contaminated soil is
one
of the greatest obstacles to growing food in the city.
The approaching era of declining energy resources will most likely necessitate a relocalization
of food production.
The increasing urbanization of the world's
population makes this issue particularly significant to cities. If cities are to become potential centers of food production, current available resources must be used to begin eraSing industrialism's toxic urban legacy. Fortunately, there is hope for doing this work. Bioremediation is the process of using the natural abilities of living organisms (typically plants, bacteria, and fungi) to speed the degradation of or assist in the removal of contamwants. In relatively short periods of time, bioremediation can break down chemicals or absorb metals that otherwise might persist indefinitely or ta���ars to degrade. Usjng bioremediation to treat contamination is not radical in and of itself-it is an accepted method in mainstream engineering.\ovhat is radical is an approach that uses techniques that are cheap and simple and Gln be carried out by people with little to no background in science and without beirrg dependent on engineers and massive funding. These techniques give people a genuine hope of proactively cleaning the soil in their backyards, community gardens, playgrounds, and parks. Bioremediation differs greatly from conventional ex-situ (off-site) methods of soil remediation. Typically,
such methods destructively excavate huge amounts of
contaminated soil. The soil is then either landfilled and replaced with sterile fill dirt or transported to a facility for chemical- and energy-intensive treatment and then returned, all at great financial cost. Such investments tend not to benefit poor communities. In contrast, bioremediation is an in-situ (on-Site) process, All treatments
180 I TOOl60X FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY UYING
are done o n location. No soil is removed from the site. Bioremediation's processes result in an improvement of the overall quality and health of the soil.
CAVEAT Most bioremediation research has been done in controlled laboratory settings. Community-based, DIY appli cations of b i oremediation have been few. The interactions between molecules, micro-organisms, and human bodies are complex and not entirely understood. Much of the information in this chapter is still of an experimental nature. At minimum, these treatments will not cause harm to the soil or to people a p p lying them. There is no guarantee that soils will be safe following remediation. It will take many people participating in this experiment a n d recording their results to create a more complete picture of what processes work in what concentrations, against what contaminants, and under what conditions.
P O Lb.UTA N TS The two JOOS! gener,ll categories ofsoil contaminants are heavy metals and molecularcontaminams.
'·Ieavy metals H e elements. Elements are the basic building
blocks of maner. They cannot b e broken down any further by •
regular natural processes. The Periodic Table lists all known
elements, incl uding oxygen, hydrogen, carbon. The elements
lead, cadmiu m, mer��ry, chromium, and arsenic a r e called
heavy metals. Ifleft alone, heavy metals present in soils remain indd"initely.
\'Vhile some heavy tll etals, l ike iron and magnesium, are essen
tial nutrients in smal l amounts, humans and most other life forms did not evolve with heavy metals present in the high concentra
tions found today. Fueled by the demands of industry, enormous
amounts of heavy metals han� b e e n brought to the surface of the planet by extractive mining and concentrated through smelting
and re fining. Excessive exposure to heavy metals can result in a
SIOREMEDIAnON
I
lSI
-
number of negative heal th effects, including orgm damage, binh
defects, and immune system disorders.
Since ther cannot be destroyed, there arc limited methods for
treating elemental contaminants. Phytorcrnclliation and compost
rcmcdialioll am the biorcmediation methods most commonly used
to treat heavy metal C<JJlt:tminarion. Phytoremcdiation accumulates
metals in certain metal-loving plants that are then removed :tlld
disposed ofelsewhere. Compost binds I.lp metals with organiC mol
ecules in the soil, reducing the percentage that is absorbed by plants
or human tissue.
Molecular cOl1tamina,,� art: made up of molecules: ele
ments hound toge ther in d iffe re nt ways to create substa nces
with.varying chemical properties. Some molecular contami
nants found in soils arc p e sticides (dieldrin and chlordane),
fuels (diesel and gasol i ne), and by-products of indus !ry (PClh
and dioxin). Others, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
can result from'either human or natural events, such as fires or
volcanic eruptions.
lhe industrialized world is a virtual toxic soup. Poisons pervade
almost all e!l\ �ironmellts, from air to soil to water. Potential
health
eAeCIS from exposure to these contaminants indude cancer, repro ductive dirordcl), and liver and nen'e damage. Even when present
in rdatively low concentrations, toxins pose a health risk over a life time of exposure. Mycorcrnediation, hach:rial remediation, and compost biore
mediation are the mosl appropriate melilOds for treating molecular contaminants. lhe natural metabolic processes ofbacteria and fun
gi are capable of ripping apart molecular contaminants into Ixnign components, which they then usc as food. These processes occur
naturally over time, but the rate of degradation can be accelerated by adding beneficial organisms to a site a[Jd providing the proper
e
habitat and nutri nts.
182 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
D EVELO P I N G A R E M E D I AT I O N STRATEGY Once :1 site has been identified as being possibly contaminated, it will be necessary to come up with a remediation plan. Different oontaminatlls reql,lill: different treatment methods, and unique site conditions require OOflsider:uion. liackgroond research on the site history will gi\'C dues to its p:m uscs and posSible pol1ut:mls. Towns oflen keep hisloriaJ Tel:OroS and aerial photographs. These on be used to identify potential hnnrds such as factories, fud
storJgc t�nk$, or landfills. P�SI building permits can reveal prt\'i QU! site conditions and uscs of the prO!JC:rty. Knowing the bnd and
what pollutants are present is the first step in crafting an effective c1callllp pbl1.
TO TEST O R NOT TO TEST? Soil tests tell which pollutants arc present It Nlli:h concentrations. Testing m�y e�cn reveal that dangerous l.I:\els of toxins are not pr�5�nt and that 00 action is nl:o:ssary.
�
Wilh Ih� c)((tption ofl�ad, il i� Irpi� lly exp�nsivc to ttst for cOnilunin3ntS in soil. lherc is no on� single test that will comprc hensh·dy tell which toxin. arc present. Ea�h suspected contaminant must be tested for individually. A single soil test c;m potcntially
COSt hundreds of dolbrs, so narrowing the range of possible con taminants s�ves money! Sometimes lUlivcrsities or agricu!mral
extensions :Ire able to conduct tests cheaply or fr«, or sympathetic engineering firms may be convinced to donate their services. DJY testing options are limited.
lhc other option s i ro 001 resl :md assume the site s i contaminated.
In Ihis case, utilizing a variety of mClhods
10 coltCr a
number of
810REMEOIATION 1 183
potential toxins is a good idea. At a minimum, building soil health and microbial dh'crsity through regular applications of compost and other organic matter provides some degree of protection.
T Y P ES O F B I O R E M E D I AT I O N Bioremediation can be broken down into fo�r categories: bacterial remediation, myroremcdiation, phytoremediation, and compost bioremediatio!1.
BACT ERIAL REM ED IATION Bacterial remediation is the process ofusing"bacteria to break down
molecular contaminants like hydrocarbons jrUo simpler, safer com
ponents. It can be accomplished by culturing (breeding) bacteria in high numbers and then introducing them into a contaminated arca, and/or by turniu)5 growth.
the affected
soil into an ideal habitat for bacterial
Large numbers ofbenefidal bacteria can be introduced into soil by brewing something called compost tea or through use of 2. prod
UCI called Effective Microorganisms.
THE ECOLOGY OF BACTERIA Bacteria are simple, single-celled orlfiniSAlS found in abundance in almost all regions ofthe world. They are found in dil'erse environ ments, from extremes like the human intestine to hot oceanic sulfur
·VCfllS. A
single teaspoon of healthy garden soil contains o\'Cr a bil
lion of them. Although often associated with disease, most bacteria are not harmful to humans. Many arc essential [0 human health. Ten percent ofhurnan body mass s i made of bacterial cells.'
184 1 TooLBOll fOR SUSTAINABlE (tTY LIVING
BaCleria nl�y be aerobic (ox)'gen using), anaerobic (non-oxygen using), or somewhere octween the two on an overlapping continu um. Aerobic bacteria are l)'picaUy found in healthx...r.oii Anaerobic .
bacteria are found in low-oxygen environments such as I)()nd muck, I)()()rly maintaincd compost piles, and intestinal tracts. \Vhile sollle anacrobes are pathogcnic (discaSC'--causing) organisms, nuny, likc acidophilus and bctobacillus, an: e$SCnti�1 to eftectiw human di gcstion.
COM P OST T EA Compost n:a is a water-based, oxygen rich culture containing l�rge -
populations ofbeneficial aerobic bacteria, nem�todes, fungi, and proto:roa, which can be used to bioremediatc toxins. It is maclc by adding an inoculant and 11 food 5OUoce to non-chlorinated water and aerating it. lhe microorganisms present il i the inocul31l1 rJpitily multiply wh�n put in oxygen-rich W".n�r with ample food. 'lhis br�w is applied \0 contaminated soil, where the microbial p opulations go to work bn:aking down certain types
of mol<xular contaminants.
The e�se and low cost of making compost tea make it a method of biorcmcdiation with the potcntial for widespread applint�.
T H E C O M P O N ENTS O F COM POST TEA I NOCULANTS A cup ofworm Cllstings m�ke an ideal inoculant for compost tea. The eastings can be harvested from a worm composting box or bought from a specialty nursery. Worms have no digestive adds in their stomachs. Instead, they lise bacteria to break down
food..
Worm excretion is an excellent fertilizer i n itself, rich in beneficial b�cteria, fungi, protozoa, and nematodes Another inoc.u[�nt choice .
is aerobic compost, teeming with microbial life. It is important (or
810l'lEMEOlATION
1 18S
•
the oompQSI to havt: been well-made, Of few bene/ie i:!.l (filiuS will
be: preSem.
-[he inoculant is (?U! into a nylon stocking that is suspended into
the water. 111;5 a�ows the microbes to enter. hut prevents the pas
��ge of larger objects lhal could dog a sprayer's screen filter du ring application.
FOOD Rapidly reproducing organisms need food 10 fud their cdlular divi
sions.
Microbial foods arc added to compost tca to help the process
�long. ll1c most commonly used foods arc molasses, humic acid, and fish h)·drolasc. lhe mobsS!:;, whkh should be unsulfured, is
widely 3\'3.iJabJe al grocery stores. !lumic acid and fish hrdrobsc, both fertilizers, need to be purchased from garden stores.
l\'lolasscs primarily feeds hacteria, while humic acid and fish hydrolase feed fungi. lhcteri:d tcas enhance �1l111ml gardens. whilc _ tfCes prder fungal lcas. i\ Illixture "f these oods f will crClilC a fin
ished lea with bOlh bacteria and fungi, which is idul for remedia tion of contaminants. -
WATER
•
Chlorine, a powe rful microbicide found in !l1uniciJlllI wafer, will kill ihe microbial life being cultivated in compOSt lea. W'hi1c it is far prefernblc to use collecled rainwater or healthy pond water,
municipal water can also be dechlorinated by allowing it to sit un co�red for at bst 24 hours. Most of the chlorine will volatilize during this period. Aernting the water speeds up the procrss.
AERATION Proper aeration is critical. As compoSl lea is being brewed, the
population of microorganisms is rapidly expanding. Like humans, aerobic bactera need OX)'gen for survival . There needs to be enough i
oxygen present in the W1ltCr to kap the bacteria a[i�. If [00 liule
186 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABlE CITV LIVING
"
. 0
· .
'".
810REMEOIATION 1 187
•
oxygen is available, anaerobic org'Jnj�ms will begin to grow instead. Some anaerobes produce alcohol as a by-product, whi<.:h is harmful
to plan ts. A small aquariu m pump connected to a n airstonc will
supply su fficient aeration for a 5-gallon batch of compost tea.
B REWI N G A N D A P P LY I N G T H E TEA This simple recipe for 5 gallons of compost tea can be multiplied for
larger batch es. How to:
Supplies needed:
.1. Fill the bucket with non·chlorinated water. (If using tap
water follow the instrllctiorls above first.) Water temperature
is ideally between SS arid 80 degrees Fahrenheit.
2. Put the ai rsto ne in the bottom 01 the bucket, attach the air pump, a nd let it start to bubble.
3. Pu t the inoculan t in the stocking, tie off the end and
suspend it in the water. Squeeze the stocking g ent ly to re lease t he organisms into the wa ter.
4. After an hour or so, add the lood.
S. Let the whole brew bubble for 24 to 36 hours . After 36
hours. the m icro be s begin to die, oxygen levels drop, and the tea can become dangerously anaerobic. If the tea received i nsuffic ient oxygen or too much lood,
will overcome the
anaerobic organisms
beneficial aerob ic organisms. It will be
obvious if t he tea went anae ro bic, because it will stink! If that
has happened, pour it out away from garden plants and start
over.
6. Pour the mixtu re through a strainer to remove large debris..
APPLICATION Once the lea has been brewed and removed from the oxygen, it
must he applied within four hours, before it starts to go anaerobic.
188 I TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
5-gallon bucket
Ofle aqua r iu m pump with �Irstone [bubbler)
J:i cup of food 1
cup of inocul�m
one nylon stOCKing Watering can or backpaCK sprayer
'lite tCA c�n he .I.pplied to the ;.oil with a wJteringcan or a b�ck pack sprJ)1:r Applying to moist soil s i ideal. Dircctly following a rainstorm is a perfect time. Remember, these �re living organisms - tliat need ro be put in �n environment c�pable of supporting lik If ,
p
il is dry, spray the ground with non-cltlorinJled water prior to a plying the t�a.
If the tea is for bioremediation, apply il Stl":light. For geneml soil conditioning where cOllurnination is not a concern, dilute the Ie:!. with five to ten parts non-chlorinated water. For bioremediation, a minimum application rate would be 1
g�lJon on 1,000 squ:!.re feet of soil, though a he:!.vier applica
tion rate would not be harmful. As there have been few stud
ies done on using compost tea for remediating toxins, it is not known exactly how quickly or how cOecli\ cly the trulmen! '
'
will work. It would be best to apply the tea several times, with a period of a month or two in between applic:ltions. If testing is to be done, it should be conducted before s�aying the tea and :1I intervals between effectiveness
:I
pplicat ions to charr the treatment's
.
SOIL CONDITIONING USES FOR COM �OST TEA The weight of a building or parking loi severely compacts tlK: soil
underneath it. \Vith the air squeezed OUt and Jepri\'Cd of moisture, these soils arc nearly del'Oili ofbenefidal bac tcrial lifc After the .
soil is exposed (sec Depavc the 1'1:1I1et, page 47), compost tea is an easy way to quickly reintroduce the hCillthy microbes necessary for soil building :md gardening. Compost te� is also regularly llscd by organic fannc� as a fertil izer and foliar spray. Plants benefit gread), from the nutrients made available to them by thr microbes in the te1l.. Ii is equ1I.lIy beneficial for use in urban gudens or 011 houseplants.
BIOREMEOIATION 1 189
E F F E CTIVE M ICROORGANISM S ERective Microorganisms (EM) is a trademarked product made by several different companies. It is basically a liquid culture of microorganisms consisting of yeasts, anaerobic bacteria, and photosynthetic bacteria. lherc are many dairm for EM lises, from enhancement of agricultural produc!io� to w:\stcwa[cr treatment and remediation of toxins. What sets it apart from compost tea is that EM bacteria are facultative anaerobes. Unlike the strictly aerobic bacteria found in comllOS! tea, fac ultative anaerobes can survive in both ox),gcnatcd and oxygen lacking environments. lhis allows EM to be bottled with a long
shelf life, unlike compost tca, which must be"jppJied shortly
after being brewed. EM microbes include tbe bacterium 11I((Q
bacil/u.., which is found in our gastrointestinal tract and helps us
digest d:liry, and the yeast Saaharomyus (rr(·viiiae. which is used 10
ferment beer. Containers of EM tan be pllrchased at specialty
nurseries or over the internet.
EM is an effective alternative to chlorine bleach for mold abatement. It was used successfully for mold remediation in New
Orleans following Hurricane Katrina. A�t:r �eaks in mold-stricken
homes were repaired and mold was scraped off of surEtees, EM was
sprayed. The organisms in the EM competed for space on the sur faces with the mold spores, and either sJowe.d or stopped regrowth of mold. Compost tea and EM differ in that EM only contains 8 to 12 types of organisms, while compost tea contains thousands.
CompoS! tea's diversity is what makes it desirable for use in
remediating toxins-it is morc likely that one of those thou sands of organisms will be able to break down a puticular toxin.
190 ] lOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
M YCO R E M E D I AT I O N Mycoremediation ("myco" means fungus) is thc-.rrocess of using fungi 10 degrade toxic compounds. Fungi afC nature's decompos ers. 'Ihey arc oftell found digesting dense, woody materials. lllis ability to break down tough materials is what makes them effec tive at degrading certain persistent environmental pollutants. The majority of fungi'5 biomass grows underground in the form ofwhite, ropy threads called mycelia. The mycelia secrete powerful enzymes capable of breaking down not only wood. but also molecular contaminants. 11](: enzymes can literally tcar molecules apaTl, reducing them.to safer, smaller components.
Fungi can degrade hydrocarbons and arc capable of breaking down toxins, like PCBs and even dioxins, that bacteria canllot.' Fungi can be used to clean up toxic sites if an environment suit able for the expansion of mycelia is created. Mycoremediation is a discipline in relative infancy. Various strains of fungi have been shown to break down certain con taminants in controlled laboratory settings. These discover ies hold much promise, but ,vith few exceptions, they have not been demonstrated to be practical outside of the.l1b. A challenge of mycoremediation is getting desired strains of
fungi to grow expansively in the outdoors among (ompeting organisms. Mycelial growth is also constrained by seasonal and climatic factors. For these reasons, mycoremediation's potential for broad-scale, community-based applications has yel to be proven. However, the possibility of cleaning pollut ants using only natural processes deserves exploration. It is :l wonhy experiment for autonomous comrnllnities wanting to remediate small oil or fuel spills in localized areas. Below is a description of how to conduct a small-scale mycoremediation project.
BtOREMEDIATION 1 191
G ROW I N G OYSTER M US H ROO M S TO BREAK DOWN PETRO LEU M PRODUCTS Oyster mushrooms (P/turolIiS OSI1((1/UJ) ne a n edible s�cies of fungus found in most places in (he world. In experimencs., oyster mushrooms haVe" been grown on soil he3vil,. cont:unin:l.led with diesel fuel. Diesel fud,
:a hydrocarbon,
is made up ofchains of hy
drogen and urbon. In experiments, tilt: fu n gi grew through the soil and lore apan the hydrocarbon chains, c:aling the carbon and off�ssing the hyd rogen. After a ew f w�k� of fungi growth, the
soil's diesd b'Cis were reduced by 9S percent.I 'Ihis method could
be u5!:d 10 clean 1,Ia;.:es where cars hal'e been worked on or fud has
been .pilled ncar urban g'Jrdens. Oyster mushrooms can be cuiliHtcd with rc1ati� ease, mak-
ing them ideal for clc,ming lip smaU spills. llecmse there may uc
residual COnl',101inants, and because fungi accUlnlllatc metals (com- mon in urban soils), Cluing mushroorn� from a mycoremediation
What Are Fungi?
Fungi are a di�t\Oct ta�Orlomic kingdom,
IIiHererlt from plant50. arllmalS, or pronsts
($lJlgle·(ened Mu>hrooms,
d,gde
and
bacterid).
molds.
and veasts are
all [Qn$ldered fUrlgl
Mushroom� are
referred to as upper fongl, while molds (the Ihillgs that grow on old food in refrigerators) and yeasts (the orgallisms that make bread rise) are the lower
lungl. like afllmals, fungi take III o�vgen
and give oH carbon dio�ide Fungi differ III
th�t they are saprophvnc-they have
evolved to digest food on the outSide of the,r bod,es, rather than iMide. lacking chlorophyll, the pigment that allows
plants to photosynthesize, fungi secrete
enzymes 10 brea � down materials in
their environment and use them for nutrients
Fungi can be microscopIC or enormous. II IS poSSible that the largest organism in the world IS a mass of honey fungi In Oregon_ II cOliers an area of
2,2OQ.
acres and is estimated to weigh 605 tons.' Recent studies have showll that �me melanm-containing fungi may be capable of using ionillnl radiation as an energy source, a unique ability indeed.'
192 I TOOl!KI� FOR SUST.6.INABLE CITY LIVING
• •
proj�"c1 is Ilot advised. If it is certain that no metals were present in the soil, the mushrooms rna)' be oomposted. Otherwise, they should be landfilled like plants (lsed for metal extraction. (See Phrtorcmediation. page 198.) Climate is an important factor in successful mushroom growing. Oyster mushrooms can be grown indoors or out, and generally prefer high humidity and temperatures in the area of 65-85 degrees Elhrcnheit. Temperatures below this range will slow or stop the growth of the fungi, while higher temperatures will also slow growth ami increase the likeli hood of contamination by foreign molds and mushrooms. l\'1ycoremediation c�pcriments should be put on hold until a several-month window of time is available under which these conditions can be mer. Successful mycoremetliation requires getting fungi to grow across the cont�minated-area. This is done by mixing spawn (my . celia th:!t has grown an,d colonized a materia\) with wood chips on top ofthe affected soil. There are often many other microorganisms living in the soil and wood chips that will compete with the remc� di�ting fungi. In order for the fungi to surviv.: and grow expan sively, I�rge quantities of spawn need to be introduced initiall,the more spawn, the better the chance fOT the fungi to fight off com petitors. Described bdo\v ire twO methods of growing spawn: from sterile sawdust spawn mixed with coffee grounds and rhizo morphs mixed2"'itJ1. cardboard. The sterile spawn-coffee ground method has a higher success rlte at producing large volumes of spawn than the rllizomorph-cardboard method. However, once on the ground, the spawn made using the rhizomorph method has a better chance of surviving the hurdles and growing ex pansively in a mycoremediation project, because it uses locally adapted strains of oysters.
BIOREMEDIATION
1 193
STERILE SPAWN-COFFEE GROUND BUCKET METHOD The easiest way to gencr:lte oyster fungi spawn is 10 begin with a
bag of sterile spawn. Sterile spawn is mycelia that has colonized
straw, grain, or sawdust and has been grown in laboratory condi tions. It can be purchased from a number of companies and arrives in a sealed plastic bag. Large quamitie> of oyster fungi spawn can be grown from a single bag of sterile spawn. When a fungus has been grown in a sterile environillent, its �im mum� syslcm� is weak. It has never had to compete with other organ isms to survive. BeC:l.llSC it has so [ell' defenses, fUIlKi directly from
the lab would stand little chance of sur viving if mixC(i into outdoor
soil right away. One strategy to cncourJgc fungi growth and nurture its defenses is 10 first cultiv; \ te it un a substrate. Substr:1te.> are the
nutrient-rich materials on which mycelia grow-for example, straw, sawuuSl, coffee grounds, coffee hulls, and cardboard. As the mycelia grow, they break the substrate down and absorb its nutrients. CofFee grounds are an ideal suhstl"&te. When coffee is brewed, the heat ster ilizes the g!:?unds, killing any competing organisms in it. By growing
in a sterile substrate, yet exposed to open air, fungi can slowly build
up their immune system while still being pampered. Oncc· the fungi have colonized the substr.ue, they can be mixed
with denser, non-sterilized materials {like woodchips} in a "wilder"
Supplies needed:
environment. How to: 1. Drill Six J{·inch drainage holes in the bottom of the bucket.
2. ln the bucket, mix the sterile 5P�wn with the coffee
grounds by breaking apart the block of spawn. 3. Wet the midure with non-chlorinated water. Keep it moist, but not saturated. Placing a pla�ti c bag with holes poked into
it over the top of the bucket will help retain humidity in dry climates.
194 1 TOOLSO� FOR SUSTAINABLE CITV LIVING
S·�al lon bucket 1 gallon bag of oyster mushroom
spawn (pleurolus oslreo/tls) 4 g allons of used coffee grounds (lilte's ale okay) 1 gallon non·chlorinated w�ter
Drill with :4·inch bit
Plastic bag large enough to cover bucket
A note about coffee grounds: If i�
important that the coffee grounds do not Sit around I£lng enough for mold to
grow on them. If a large amount can't be
obtained all at once from a local coffee
shop, small �mounlS can be stored in
4. Put the bucket in a shady (but not lightless) S!)QI.
5. After three to six weeks. the mycelia will colonize the
grounds and mushroom, will begin to form. Because the coffee grounds are de�n, these mushrooms can be picked and eaten or sold regrowths of m ushroo ms or nushes, can occur. Mushrooms will keep srowing as long as there are nutrients
6. Successive
,
the freeler until enough are gathered.
available to them. When mushrooms have stopped forming,
Reject any grounds With mold growing
the contents of the bucket can be further propagated by
on them. While harder to find, coffee chaff (the hull of the beanl is also a great substrate. It is completely dehydrated .so it won't get moldy.
mixing the colonized grounds in with other buckets of fresh grounds. 7. Once enough spawn has been made, it can be used for remediation. (See Remediation Using Mycelia, page
197.)
Because the final spawn should be used for remediation as soon as possible after the bucket is colonized, the final batch of spawn should be cultured all at the same time. For
example, i l lS gallons are needed, the first 5 gallon batch can be mixed in with three other 5 gallon buckets of coffee grounds to produce a final batch of 15 gallons.
R H I ZOMORPH-CARDBOARD METHO D Bypassing the need to pllrchase sterile sp a\l'n ;-the rhizomorph m..,thod uses native ,·arieties oHungi to generate spawn. Rhizomorphs arc root-like fungal st�uctures. Like stem cells, they are capable ofregeneration and can s.£:nd out mycclia of their own. Gathered from wild llIushrOOIllS, rh izomor phs arc used to colonize
cardboard and turn it into spawn usable for mycorcmediation.
Rhizomorphs are found at the bases of the stems of mushrooms
.
\-Vhen a m ushroom is dug out of the ground or a log, dangling,
thread-like roots are attached
to its
base. 'lbest rootS :Me the rhizo
morphs, and can be CUT off from the stem. Oyster mllShrooms can be found in woody areas in urban parks, often growing on logs or the ground. A good tim e to hu nt for them is several days after a hea,,), rain, when Ih.., tempcrature is between 55 and 85 degrees. A mushroo m field guide is needed for identificaBtOREMEOIATtON
1 19S
•
lhere are m;!!))" poisonous mushrooms-mrrte! identification is extremely important! To collect rhiwmorphs from a log, CUIOIlt a chunk ofthe rotten wood at the base ofthe mushroom with a knife and remove it i n a whole p;t'(c. If the"mushroom is growing on the ground, carefully dig up the dirt un der the stem with a hand trowel. Separate the rhizomoTphs from the dirt or wood and the mushroom stem, being careful oor to damage them. Ik sure that they do not dry oot while being handled. lion.
How to:
1. Soak the cardbO
minutes.
2. Tear the cardboard open to expose the corrugated (;Uris. Place the rhilOmOrph on the open face of one piece of
cardboard, and cover it with a second one.
3. Rewet, being careful not to damage or wash away the
rhizomorph, and place the card board 1n shady loc�tion, Keep
damp.
4. C heck once a week to see if the mycelia have coloniled
the cardboard. The length of time this will take will vary
depending on many factors. It will be obvious when the ropy
white fans of mycelia cover the inside area of the cardboard. There are two possible next steps: Sa. Alter the mycelia have tho roughly colOnized the cardboard, they can be mixed with-more cardboard. A
cardboard box filled with she ets of o pened wet cardboard works well. Eventually, mushrooms will sprout from the box. Because the cardboard iSj]ot o;;.ontaminated, these mushrooms can be eaten. Sb. Alternatively, a piece of colon iled cardboard can b e
mixed in with a bucket of coffee grounds, as in the coffee ground�spawn method. lSee Sterile Spawn�Coffee Ground
Bucket Method, page 194.)
Once enough spawn has been made, the), should be used fOf re mediation as soon as possible.
196 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLf em LIVING
Supplies needed: Handful of oyster mus h room
rhizomorphs
Corrugated cardboard Non-chlorinated water
There is debate over whether it is necessaryto usepastcuriied woodchips. Pasteurillng the chips will kill off some competing organisms,
increasing the
likelihood that the remed,ating fung' will colonize the woodchip bed. Woodchips can be pasteurized by heating them in
REM EDIATION USING MYCELIA Roughly 15 gal lons of coffee ground spawn or the equ ivalent
amount of coloni'led cardboard is needed to renlcdiatc a 10 foot by
10 foot area. The hasie ide:, is to creare a woodch ip sandwich (a lay
er of woodchips, then a layer of spawn, then another layer of wood
chips) on top of the contaminated area. The mycelia in the spawn
a bath of water to a temperature of
will colonize the woodehips and eventually work their way down
period and then allowing them to cool.
spilL lhe more spawn, the faster it will colonize the woodchi ps.
170 degrees fahrenheit for a 1-2 hour Containers such as a metal 55-gallon barrel or a metal bathtub would be suitable. They can be heated by either a wood fire or a gas burner. On the other hand, mycoremediation trials have been successful using unpasteurized chips. As pasteurization is an energy·intensive process, it may be acceptable to skip it.
into the soil, where they can begin degrading the pollutants in the
How to:
1. If the spill is on compacted soil, aerate the dirt with a pitchfork.
2. Spread woodchips across the area affected by the spill.
3. Pour the spawn across the area and mix in lightly wilh
the wood chips and the contaminated ,0i!. l f using the
rhilOmorph-cardboard method, tear the cardboard into pieces and mix in with the woodchips.
4. Cover the mix with another layer of woodchips. 5, Spray the area down with non·chlorinated water. Keep it moist but not saturated through the duration of t��
eKperiment. Supplies needed to remediate a 10. 10
foot area:
15 galions of coffee ground spawn, or the equivalent volume of colonized cardboard Two wheelbarrows full of woodchips
After a few weeks, examine the sandwich to see if the mycelia
havt: begun to grow. This will be evident if there are white,
thread
like growths fanning off of the spawn onto the woodchip s. Don't
disturb the fun gi too much, as this will only hinder its growth.
Stand back and let the pile of ch i p s Ix colonized. Mushrooms may
eventually be formed, but it is more important that the mycelia
grow. With luck, the mycelia will conti nue to expand and eventu
ally start breaking down the petroleu m wastes. Even if the mycelia
fail to colonize the woodchips, there .will still be some benefit from sim ply having applied the spawn, as rain will carry the active en-
BIOREMEDIATION 1 197
l
The Worcester Roots PrOject and
will WQrk to degrade the contaminants.
youth
ymes produced by the mycelia into the atlectcd area, where they
- - HAS I T WORKED' Labora tory tes ting of cOnl.lmination levels in
the soil prc and post remediation (an measure success. Ilowc:ver, if testing is prohibit ive· Iy expensil"C, rhe soil can be examined lor �vlor, texture, �nd smdl. Areas contaminated by oil or fuel will o!"!en be dark, oily, and hal'e a chemical odor. Evidence of sl.Iccess would be a lightening of the soil and a reduction in odor and oily u:.nure. Regrowth ofplants in t he area and dc,'Clopment of mushroom$ are also indiotors that some degree of remedi ation h;L$ occu rred. AlWAYS wea r blCX glo,·cs when handling soil rh:1\ may be contaluinated. \Vhilc signifiont reductions in toxicily will take pl�ce in the first few months. full remediation will luPIJoCn over years. Lea'·e the sandwkh intact and allow it 10 fully dCl"OmPOSe naturally. Watering it during dry periods will :lsmt in its dccomp·osition.
P H YTOREM EB-lATION I-ieavr metals arc clements, so unlike molccubr l"Ont"lminims, they canOO£ be broken down intu an)" simpler forms. Once they arc prcsclll in soil, they will n:main there. When theJ arc accidentalG ingested or inhaled, thcyon cause a varier:.· ofadl'tI"SC health cffl"l:t:s. An:as of oontamination in cities GIn include old folCtories and W,lste StOl""Jge �itcs, places whcn: baueric� or tires may have been du mped or bu rned. and around old buiklings wher<' lead ft3-int may have chipped off. Also, in many cities blocks hal'!: hetn built OI1:r old orchards. Arsenic was oom monly used as an insecticide �nd may still be present in the soil. Phytol"('mcdiation (�phylO· means plant) is the process of using plants to take up hea"f met-Als from soil, reducing contamination levels. While very much a new te-chnology in its experimental pha�. phyton:mediation has the potential ofbeing a low-tech, low-cost
198 I TOOlBOX FOR SUSTA1�ABLE (lTV lNl"�
program,
To�ic
Soil
its
8u�ters.
Me inspirng examples of community i
organl1lng
and
aalon
dLfect
to
combat soil contamilla tt on In inner·city Worcester, MassaChusetts
They have
taken action to remediate community gardens
yard5
and
neighborhoods
Iow·income
in
uSing
pelargoniums
(geraniums). compost applications, and
groundcovers. ImportantlV, the group ha� been teshng the soil and building data for future bioremediation projects. The
youth
remediation
program klg
about leild, seeds,
has
With and
created
IIlfOlmatlOn instructions
for minlmizin8 contact. They also host wor\:>hops on environmental health and ra(;'om.
method of soil deanLlp that could be accessible to lim an co _ rnmUni tics. In one study, plants grown on land hea,·i1y COllt _ alnllla ted b) old car batteries in New Jersey dr.lstically reduced lead levels ' the �iP dill In nature there are certain types of plants known. as YnamlC accumulalOrs. lhcsc plants have the ability to tak e UP sp eC I-" ,, ( clements and minerals and store them in their fOOt<; , Stem s, Or leaves. Ccftam plants an:. known to be able to take up lot ic met Phyrorcmediation projeCls typically imdvc plan als. tillg sev . . . eral suc crops of selected dynamIC accumulators. SlI'e ces_ '
.
lhe problematic aspect of phytoremediation is . tI Ie d,SPOSa , I of the must be treated as hazardo" haf\,<;:sted plants. Ther uS W astC vc 1- _cau of their high levels of toxic metals. Currently, the se �:l cornlllo n methods of plant disposal arc either incin�ration O dl a landfill. Incineration creates a toxic ash dust, b(, . og them to nglO g tile flsk . of accumulation to another area. 'Nhile also content . ratIng to . XlIls ;n another location, double-baggillg the plants and landtilh ng the ln unfortunately is the mOos! practkal option. FOT 80m ( ep rCCiQUS mCt als like silvcr and gold it can be cost-effective to xtraCt thern the plants by smelting. fTorn Overall. phytoremediation is a very new and exp (Tll len tice which requires significant scientific monitoring l lal prat_ _ alld rre . quellt costly sotl tests The strategIes explaIned here will d o no hann to . the soil, but it is strongly recommended that aoy e . p x _ tTl tne nts conducted on small, controlled test patches. Clear aTc SIgns s h o uld be posted warning people not to eat the plants. 0
�
_
0
•
o
-
o
•
SO I L Ael Dt TY A ND M ETAL SO LU B i l T i Y
In case it wasn't complex enough, the acidity of the
SOil affects thc two g , nera e l Cat_ cgories: cationic and an ionic. Each one is remed iated d er ntly. lf electrons in metals donate J" t Cationic chemical rCactl on , cations, or positively charged ions. Common tOxic . s forming catto nic '" ·"etability ofplants to take up metals. Metals fall into
0
als include lead, cadmium, and mercury. Cationic metals are more
soluble, and therefore more easily absorbed by plants, in acidic soils. Conversely, anionic metals receive electrons in chemical reac-_
lions, forming anions, or negatively charged ions. Examples are ar senic and chromium. Anionic mdals in alkaline soils.
:tfC
more soluble (absorbable)
lhese [1.ClOrS can make phytorcmediation more challenging.
vVhen phytorcmediating soil contaminated with arsenic, it is help
ful to add lime to increase the pH and mah the soil more alkaline.
On the other hand, adding sulfur will acidify the soil and help with
removing mercury or lead. Ifboth cationic and anionic metals arc
present, tWO separate rounds o( phytoremediatiOfl may be needed,
one using acidic soil additives and another with alkaline additives.
- Following the ,arne logic, ifphytorcmediation is not planned for
soil that is contaminated with cationic metals, it would make sense to limit the danger posed by the contamination by making the soil
alkaline to bind up the metals, and vice versa for anionic comami nation.
200 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABl( CITY LIVING
Lead
Cationic Metals
Anionic Metals
lead Is a parti�ularly in!>irlious meta:,
Cadmium (Cd)
Arsenic (As)
Chromium (er)
Boron (B)
and Its source, Indude car batteries,
smelters, old paint. old pipes, and leaded_
gasoJlne_ It IS found in daroserously high concentrallons In the SOIls of most urban neigl\borhoods
lead-based paint on
older bUildings can become dust-borne and IS either inhaled or insested_ Some old pai r'lt IS more than SO per�ent lead
Lead impairs neurological development by readily binding to fat cells ifl our bodies.
particularly brain cells. ThiS can severely affect children's brain development Also d,sturblnS, lead
IS
mOfe easily absorbed
into the blood on an empty stomach Lead poisoning IS
it
serioos problem,
disproportiooately aHectinB low Income lOner otv youth
Interestlnstv, the pr;m..ry danger of
Copper (Cu)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Lead (Pb)
SclCllIum (Se)
Manganese (Mn) Mercury (Hg) NICkel (Ni) llnc (In)
PLANTS USED FOR PHYTOREM EDIATIO N Lead (in order of eHe<.:tiveness): Indian and Japanese
Mustard, Scented Geranium, Corn, Pumpkins, Sunflowers, Penny Cress, Amaranth, Nenles, Tomatoes ArsenIC: Chinese Brake Ferns Nlc�el and Cadmium: Scented Geranium"
LOM P OST BIOREM E D IA+ ION __
•
gardening In heavy-metal contam"'1ated
The most direcr alld easie�r mefhod of rrearing contaminated soil
soils comes not from eating contaminated
is to siml)ly �dd (omposr-which is us( great for gardens no mat
food, but from prolonged contact With the dirt Itself Therefore, anoth-e,r strategy for dealing With heaVV metals is to
j
ter what! l\'lany toxic metals wi!! rea,lily form compounds with the
org-mic particles found in compost. \Vhen this occurs, the metals e5�mill ly get "locked up· and arc less likely to be absorbed into
(feate a barrier between people afld the
the bodies of plants, making them in turn less likely to be eaten.
contaminated soil, Groundcover crops_
Compost high in phosphates will bind with lead to form a stable
woodchips, gravel, and payer stones all block contact With 5011. It is parl1cularly important to concentrate on the area a few feet around the outsides of older buildings, where lead paint chips probably
compound called chloropyromorphite. In one study, ihc addition of compon reduced lead bioavailability by 39 percent.' To some ex
tent, the microbes living in compost will act 10 break down chemi
cal polJue:!.llts, pa rticularly hydrocarbons.
fell for yea(l BIOREMEO!ATION
1
201
Adding compost 10 soil complcments other hioremediation Itch niques. It creates habitllt and provide� mmierus for many of the organisms cultivated by other stratcgie�.
It will also bcililatc future
plant growth. A good use for a piece of possibly co"taminat�d bnd is a com
munity compos1in8 oper:.tion. -Ihe land may be unfit for growing
food, but suitable for surface compost piles.
Finished compost C211
be shared with ndghbors, and unused cyn11)()5t can be raked across
the surface of the property. Not only will the organisms present in
compost assist with rernediating toxins, the compost itselfwill the contaminated soil and people. In time, a sufficient depth ofcompost may allow people to garden there. lfit is too much work to run a compo5ting oper.uion, COIl sider spreading wood mulch, which call often be aequirc:d for free from tree mulching businesses. Ailhou&b 110t as rich in bacterial life as compost, wood mulch is an exccllem habitat fOT fungi, pro vides a bar rier, and will eventually turn into soil. \NhUe soil is in the process of being remediated, it is safer to grow food in raised containers, like old bathtubs or POlS, filled with the
act 1I.S a physical barrier between
•
soil that is known to be clean.
A I R P U R I F I CAT I O N ·-
Air is the most immediate of :&.11 human needs. Unfoffunatdy, the
air of most urban areas can be diffi�u!t to breathe, if nOt eye-sear
ing. Exhaust from ,'ehiclcs, indJ!str):;. and power generation creates a toxic smog. The short-ttrm htalth tITects ofbreathing polluted air
g-
include ht:tdachts and eye and lun irritalion. Long-term effects
include asthnl:l., emphysema, and cancer. As a gas, air transports
pollution o�-er large distances. While water and $Oil contamination
the origin of air cont;\mination could be miles away and possibly be from numerous sources. Controlling and re mediating air pollution is an important political Struggle: and public tend to be localized,
Air enter, through the surface of the $oil and passes by the roots of th@ plant>, where bacteria break down to..11I prellmt ,n
202 I TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
the .Ilr
While mo,t plant, have some capability
health issue, particularly as poorer, inner city wmrnunities sutTer
of removing toxins
disproportionately from poor air quality.
from the air, these
do a t accelerated rates·
Next to stopping pollution at its source, lhe 1l1ost basic defense against outdoor air pollution is to plant more trees. Aside from
Reea palm
producing oxygen, tree leaves ad as filters. Leaves catch particulate
Corn plant
matter on their surfaces and prevent people from inhaling them.
Lady palm
Less commonly considered is indoor air pollution. Typical build
Samboo palm
ing materials contain all kinds of toxins, including the volatile
Fiws/Weeping ftg
organic compounds (VOCs) benzene, xylene, and chloroform.
Boston fern
Particle board and plywood release formaldehyde, a carcinogenic
English ivy
gas. Paints and adhesives alS(J release VOCs. 1he release of these
Mom
toxins [rllo the air is called otTgassing. Many buildings are built to
Umbrella tree
be nearly airtight. While airtightness i, great for heat retention in
Peace lily
cold weather, ventilation is important. \Vith no exchange of Otmidc air, toxins (and mold) nn bllild up and cause the health-threatening situation known as sick building syndrome. Humans themseh'eS offgas. Over time, humans will render a her
metically st'alcd space unlivable occause dthe eJ(crerion ofbioellluents. 1hese airborne chemicals include alcohols, ammonia, and acetones.
Indoor plants can greatly reduce the amount of chemicals in
haled. Plants have the ability to remove offgassed toxi�nd bloef fiuents from the air.lhis discovery was made by NASA during a search for a low-energy means of air purification on space ships. Plants' purification mechanism is facilitated by the process of transpiration. As water droplets and oxygen are emitted from plant
leaves, a convective effect is produced that draws carbon dioxide and other gases through the soil of the plants into the root zone, or the rhizosphere. Soil microbes in the rhiwsphere break down toxic chemicals and convert them into useful nutrients for the plants. Designs exist that usc plants to filter a building's entire ventila tion system. AU incoming air is forced to pass through plant roots ' before being inhaled. It is theorized that such systems could remm·e life-threatening bacteria, like the kind that causes legionnaires'
BIOREMEOIATION
1 103
disease, from the air. Simply keeping houseplants can help improve
indoor air quality.
l-Iousepbnts �ome in many shapes and sizes, each needing \":uy
ing levels ofiun and water. Tropical l'lants are typically easy to care
for, preferring low light and little "'':lter, similar to conditions on a
rainforest floor. A little research into specific needs will make for a
Inuch happier plant. ApplicJtions ofvcrmicompost will help them thrive. A common cause of death for houseplants is ovcrwaterillg.
Plants call develop root rot from sittillg in water. Cat feces and
urine a re also deadly to most plants. Cowrillg the soil surface with
stones can discourage C:lt5 from l'sing the plant as a litter box_
Often, businesses that provide and maintain plants for office
buildings throw them out after their first ycar�a possible house plant goldmine1
PUTT I N G IT ALL TOG ETH E R It can b e a challenge to determine the most appropriatcJUQre mediation strategy for any given site Information,about con
taminant levels may not b e available, and the idea of cultur-
ing remediative organisms may seem daunting. A1 with most
things, it makes sense to begin on
;1
small scale, and become
more ambitious as confidence is gained. Consider this simple
�tratcgy: Begin with importing large amounts of compost to
make a suitable habital for organisms that will later be intro duced. Next apply compOSt tea. Treatments with fungi and
plants can then follow. If conducting soil lests is not possible, it is likely that this broad approach wil! degrade or bind up some
of the toxins that may be present, though there is no guarantee
that the soil will be safe for gardening. At a minimum, how
ever, it will greatly improve the overall quality of the soil.
2()4 I TOOL80X fOA SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
Toxic soil is an unfortunate reality of urban Ji\'ing. Through in {dligtln
intervenli,?" on our put. we can imprO'o-C:: the quality of
soils for Ihe benefit ofgenerations 10 come.
HURRICANE KATRINA: A CASE STUDY IN APPLIED BIOREM EDIATION Hurricane Katrina ckyJ.statcd Ihe Gulf Coast and Ihe city of New Orleans in September 2005. It left numerous oil spills, roxie hot SPOIS, and biologic..l pollution (sew:lgc:) in its wake, compounding the multitude ofsocial and environmental problems already plagu ing the rcgioll.
One of the ironic consequenccs of 11K: flood was that it brought
the n31ion', :ltlention to the aen after reus of neglect. In New
Orleans, grassroots org.miz.'uions were able to receive donations of testing supplies fronrlaboratories eager to C011lribute to Ihe relief effort. One of the greltest limitations to implementing communiry based bio�(mediation technologies is The COst of conducting soil and water tests, and these donations al10wed groul)S without academic • •
A sn"!»hot 01 the damage (au\.ed by HUHlCiI
8!OREMEDlATION
I 205
or governmental financial Sllpport the rare opportunity to get a dt"arer picture ofthe extent ofthe contamination. One such organization is the Meg Perry Bioremediation Project, part of the Common Ground Collective. The group mapped New Orleans' toxic profile llsing independently collected soil and w;lter samples. 1his map verified the oflicial data presented by govern ment authorities, whose data in the past has been known to be inaccurate. The group has also worked to creale the infrastructure for a com Immity-based bioremcdiation project. It built compost tea brewers to make tea for applicatl!?n in the yards of residents ami distributed sllnftowcr seeds for bId remediation. The toxicological data col Jected from these remediation experiments will give a better picture of the effectiveness ofdifferent methods. 1he lessons learned here will not only benefit the people orNew Orleans by assisting them in cleaning the soil in their backyards, but will be applicable to residelllS of c011taminated cities all over the world.
ACC ESS TO LA N D Creating and building sustainable systems in a city reqllires a con siderable amount of time, energy, and love. A person's reluctance 10 make investments into a propert), they don't own is understandable. It is absolutely heartbreaking to be evicted from a rented or squat ted property after putting in years ofwork. Money is also a con cern. While the systems in this book are designed to be aftordable, it makes lillie sense to spend money to improve a landlord's prop erty on lOp of paying rent. Systems like those that reuse graywatcr sometimes involve extensive retrofits that could jeopardize a renter's security deposit. Secured access to land is desirable when creating long-lasting projects worthy of a significant investment of resources. Land pro-
"06
I TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE (In LIVING
Tempoculture Many of
th� "'SYs!ems deSCrlb�d
in thIs
book ar� port(lble or small enough to b�
brought with a pe rson when they move. Others, such as garden beds, ponds, or
constructed wetlands, can be deSigned
to be detached .;md moved. Food can be
grown in contamers like pots, bathtubs,
old toilets, and truck beds. Attaching
wheels to the bottom of a contailler is
an easy way to make it transportable.
Easier SI1I1 would be access to a forkhft and a pickup truck.
vides the blsis for communit) sclf-reliance, equality, andju.tice. Security of place aiM> encour�ges people 10 take the effort that it t�kes to build real community. lhe struggle for l and is at the cen ter of many revolutionary movements. Although acquiring land or space in a city can be quite difficult, incllviduais
and commun"ity groups have used creative strategies 10 successfully �cquire or secure access 10 properly.
BUYING LAND lhe legal purchase ofproperty can be confusing: whether or not 10 hire a rul e51:lIe agent, bow to
make � bid, what inspections should
be done, how TO arrange tinancing, how !lluch does a closing COSI, etc. �bny homeowner adnlCacy organiutions or govt:rnmentaJ agen c�s ofter daSS(s to help tim-time home-buyers navigdtc
Ihe complex
process. "Ihe righl real eslate agc:nt can also be \'ery helpfuL In most e3s.cs, financing tht purchase of a huilding will neces sitate a mortgage. An investigation of1(X;al �urces cou ld be:
fruitful-cities often hale grant programs 10 help first-time hom ·
eowntl"$. Also, thc-�aculture Credit Union in Santa Fe, New
Mairo, gives loans for permaculture il1SpilUi projects. 1\hn)' times abandoned or negl,*ed buildings and vac'Jnt lOls can be booght reblll"ely cheaply. Coonties seize properties from people who have not paid thtir pr�lCrry taxes and au ction them ofF 10 the highcsi bidder. lnform:uion on properties and �lpcoming auctions can be found at count)' tax offices. Counties may also be willing 10 sell the buildings to non-profits for cost (back laxes) out side ofan auction. Depending on the neighborhood, COIIsideration should be: gillen to the issue ofgentrification in the �izure and pur chasing ofproperties. Non-profit groups can conduct capita l campaigns to raise the money 10 buy property. Capilal campaigns are intense fundraising effort� for a SllCCific project, offen prOperty-related.
BtOREMEDtATtON
I 207
ADVERSE POSSESSION Adl'er5C possession is a process that allows people to claim legal title tO:.l. picce ofland after openly occupying it for an eJ((ended
period of time. "he persoo doing so must be obvious about the fact that they are using the property, and must be the only ones using it. The details of the bw, including the period of time, vary from SMC to stau:.
More Gardens! The New York City based organization More G ardens! is committed to creating
community
garden
space
and
to
protec ting eXIsting gardens. Since 1998, they have worked to save hundreds of
garden spaces m New York City that
SQUATTING A less secure method to access land is squatting or guerilla garden
have been threatened by developers, using t�ctics rangmg from legislative
appeals to direct actioD, Recognizing
ing on abandoned property. While it runs the risk ofeviClion and,
the
OIl occasion,
j:ommunlly outreach, More Gardens!
arrest, it could begin rhe process ofadverse possession.
The MST, the Br:1silian landless workers movement, provides a snnd out example of people gaining Kcess 10 millions of acres of land. Over 530,000 families hal'c peacefully occupied unused lands, and ovef half of them have received1egal title to those lands. Their occupations arc working to neate people-centered socio-economie Structures. Schools, clinics, and cooperative farms have been built.
MST chapters hal"e sprung Ull across Latin America, making it the largest social movement in the region.
PROPERTY DONATIONS One ofthe greatest ad"nnmges ofbeing a non-profit is the ability to receive donations in exchange for tax write-offs. L:andowners are more
likely to donate property to a
legal charity. A developer or individual
may makf: more momy from a write-offthan they woold dealing with a pankular propeny, or they may
really suppon the cause.
City governments often own many buildings and lou a nd can
be convinced to donate outright, or at least donate the use of urban space for non-profit projects that benefit city residents. Similarly, county governments can donate foreclosed buildings and lots to non-profits.
208 I TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY liVING
importance
of
education
and
also brings gardening workshops to
local schools.
Mill Creek Farm The Phlladelphi� Water Oepartmerl1 put out a request ill 2005
for proposals for
projects on a 2-acre piece of land they owned m the Mill Creek Neighborhood
of West Philadelphia, For the past 15 years a community garden had been
located on part of the lot and the rest was
vacant.
proposal
to
The
Mill
Creek
F;:um's
create a cooperatively run
urban educational farm was chosen arld
It.was the only to incorporate the eXlstlllg
g,ven a 99-year lease. proposal
commullity garden. The Mill
Creek
Farm IS ded,cated to Improvmg food secl.lroty
and access 10 nutritious loods,
while educating school groups and the
pubhc about urban agriculture, natural
resource management, and wstamaDle I,YmS· Thev have d.splays of a biodiesel operation, and a cob cottage \'Nh solar panels, a I,Ymg roof, a compostln g \ollet,
and
graywater
collection
They
are
comnl ltted to I mp roving the wellbeing of
the neighborhood and parlnermg elder commullity gardeners With local youth. They are funded through donations, grants, and mcome from produce sales.
T H E R H I Z O M E C O LLECTIVE'S G ROVE BROWN FJ ELD Browllfitld:.I1pr()/J(rty that rru" ()/is (()mplicaud by t�pr(ftIlU ()r potmtialP"UIIU ofa haurd()IIJ $IIbsfallu, pollut.mt, or It,,,faminallt.
we visited the City of Austin Brownfield Redevelopment Office'and learned about the 9.8-acre Grewe Brownfield, which had been a legally-operated, privately-owned l�ndfill from 1967 to 1970. Following the closure of the landfill an additil)llal 5,000 cubic yards of debris had bcen illegally dumped. lllc owner decided it was morc economical to donate thc land than to clean and sell it and was looking for � non-profit to take it on. In 2004, the Rhizo� Collective was donated the Grove Brownfield. We applied for and r«dved a $100,000 EPA Brownfield Cleanup AWllrd 10 clean the property. The gr:lnt pro �ides feder:ll funding to clean cont-aminated properties. In our application we outli ned a vision to usc innovative sustainable tech nologies to clean Ihe debris from the 5ite. Instead ofjust moving the trash to another landfill, it �ould be utilized to build infrastructure for the park we wished to Create. . llle cleanup officially began in JallUarr 2005 when the multi �rson crew and generous volunteers took on the formidable t.lsk of t.lking down the 25-foot-high by 600-foot-long w-all of debris. The wall was a gian! jigsaw puzzle that needed to be undone piece by piea:; crew members carefully dismantled this monolithic moun tain of trash. A tractor powered by \'cgetable oil ex�dited the cleanup by extracting tires and tAngled unidentifi1ble metal objC1:ts, and by pulling down concrete blocks. All debris was separated into piles based on its potential to be recycled: metal, asphalt shingles, wood scraps, tires, concrete, glass. and mixed trash. All the metal anclgla5s were taken to local recy cling facilities. Some wood was put through a chipper/shredder to create mulch for trails while some "-,15 used IS erosion control to fill In 2002,
IItOREMEOtATtON I 209
in a badly i:roded gull)'. ConCll:ti: was con!;Olidated and kept onsill: to be
used in building inf!",mruclure for the p�rk in the fut ure. We but found none.
searched for � local recycler of asphalt shingles,
la ndfill the shingles along with the mixed household trJ.sh pulled off the pile. F'romJanuary 2005 to July
1hi: only � iption was to
2006, we: lemO\'Cd 680 lires, 10.1 tons and 36.5 cubic y.nds of [r:lsh, llnd 31.6 10115 of reqclllble rmr:.tl from the site. I luge amounts of
wood ser:lP alld concrete well: diverted from landfills and used for erosion control . As there is no power on the sile, combi nations of biofuel gen
eralors and solar panels were set up [0 power e(lllipmenr. Other eX31ll],ies of sustainable technologies employed lIIc1udcd chainsa� inoculated with fung,-spore-Iadeu oil (used to assist in the degr:lda lion of Il:sidual pollur:.tnts) and [he conSIrU(lion of floating islands
made from ri:COI'Cred 50(13 bottles. (&e Flo:ating Islands page 84) 111e islands create habit-at
for diverse aquatic life forms that biore mediale toxins flowing through the retenlio" pond on the property. The process of wrll ing thi: brownfield into an Ecological Justice
Eduelltion Park has begun.
S U STA I N A B I LlTY· A N D G E N TR I F I CAT lD N Gentrification is a process who.:rc h istorically working-class neigh borhoods or communities of color are Ir:lnsforme:d to the bendlt of middle:- and upper-class Jl'I:ople:. Although it occurs most com monly in inner cities, gentrification happens in rural localion s :lS well. Generally, gentrification begins with � coalition of landow n ers, business owners, banks, and city planners thaI str:ltcgiv: to profit off Ihe increase of properly I"Jlues in a neighborhood where
[hey plan to invest. ·Ihis is oflen done hy creafing nell' up-seale real estate and business de,·cloprnents and -cleani ng up' 3 neighbor hood-reducing crime r:.ttes through increased police oppressiOfl. 210 j TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABl£ CITY LIVING
lhcsc changes arc designed to make an arca more attractive to wealthier peopk who will SUPPQrt high-end businesses and be able to afford expensive rents. lllC increase of property values creates economic pressure in a neighborhood that usually results in the displacement of a neigh borhood's poorer residents, many times families that h,we been living in an area for generations. Not able {O afford increased rems or pay property ta�d al reassessed higher ["dIes, displaced people often end up moving to the outskirts of ciTies, or becoming home less. One of the most tragic consequences ofdisplacement is the destruction of communities. The networks and relationships formed over years arc easily lost when people are rdocattd. Gentrification can have a rippling effect. Development that is initially concentrat.cd to one neighborhood can (ause surround
ing areas to bewmc.anracrive to speculators as welt. Although the
exact form that g�ntrification takes can vary greatly from place to place, the end restllt is almost always that the poor lose while the wealthy plunder.
Working-class neighborhoods deserve community gardens, green spaces, and easy access •
to
bcalthy food, transportation, and services.
It is a deplorable catch-22 that these quality of life improvements often put a COITlIllU nity at 'risk of being gentr;fied. lhere has p�e(l a recent trend to use the term wf/llir/ubi/it)'
and its alleged prin(iples to promote gentrifying developments. Programs that go under the names mlllr!grflW/b and n� urban
iml are ofl<';n agents ofgentrification masquerading themselves in
the rosy lang,!age of sustainabk development. Many high-income housing projects are promoted as beinggrun and Ius/ainabl, be
cause they have incorporated a few environmental features in their design, such as natural building methods or solar panels. It is a hor rible abuse of the term 'sustainabilityn to use it to describe develop ments that proceed without regard to issues of class and race, or concern about the destruction of communities. In a radical analysis
BIOREMEDIATION I 211
ofsustainability, nothing that displaces a neighborhood s poorer '
residents can be coru;idered sustainable. In 11 cal)italist society, eoonomi<: for�s push for gentrification, making it difficult to challengt:. There arc many differing opinions on the cause� of gentrification and appropriate str.l.tcgies to combat it. As it can manifest differently in every community, responses must be formed locally. VI/hile abolishing gentrification mar seem
impossible, it can be fought against, and in some cases, stopped.
Recently, gentrifiers have attempted to recast gentrification as having 11 positive social influence,
Of
to aS$Crt irs inevitability. As
many people are entirely unfamiliar with gentrificlIion, creating comtnunity dialogue about its existence and neg:uive consequences is an importllnt first step. Positi\"C resistance to gentrification can tlIke sevcflll f()l"ms. Rent controls, laX limit3tions, and land trust programs that support low-income horne owners can \\"Ork 10 com bat gentrification. An awareness of and resistance to gentrification is critical to autonomous urban communities.
212 I TOOl80� fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY UVING
CON CLUS ION
� I
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I
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This book is choc kful of information about a variety of different systems that can be applied o n a range of scales. Deciding which systems to build and how to link them together is a decision that depends on goals and available resources. Some people may be focused on their desire to live in a more environmentally sustainable way. Practical beginning options for this goal might include using worms to compost kitchen scraps and keeping some indoor mushroom logs�simple systems that can be done in an apar_tment without sunlight. Other people may want to create a small-scale, zero-waste, micro-farm in their yard or in a neighboring vacant lot. A gardening operation supported by rainwater collection systems, mound composting,
constructed wetlands, and microlivestock could be designed. People interested in making a large, long-term investment into a whole urban community could develop aquaculture ponds and food forests, emergency water purification systems, human manure composting toilets, and neighborhood-scale "autonomous power sources.
The 10,ng process of remedi cUing toxins in soils could also begin. With most things it
makes sense to start small.and build up incrementally as you gain confidence.
When designing a sustainable system, it is important to be mindful of the relationship of its components. Many of the systems described in this book have yields that become the inputs of others. For example, food scraps produced from_garden vegetables can be put in a worm composting box, worms grown in the box can be fed to fish, whose wastes (along with worm castings) can be used as nutrients by plants that can be used to generate methane gas. Cycling nutrients throughout a sustainable system in this manner makes a
clo-sed loop. Creating a closed loop minimizes the amount of
external inputs needed for a system to function, and reduces the waste products that are exported.
The chart that opens this_ section shows many of the ways the inputs and outputs of the systems described in this book relate to each other. Today's world and industrialized culture is far from anything that could be called true sustainability�mi llions of people are com pletely reliant on a fossil fuel driven economy to provide them with their needs. Were this system to fail without a sustainable alternative in place, as is likely to happen with society's current trajectory, millions
214 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE (In liVING
would perish. As it would be the world's landless poor who would suffer most, to wish for a sudden and dramatic collapse is misanthropic and untenable. A transition towards a sustainable society that is both rapid and urgent, yet still accounting for human needs, must begin. The process of buil ding sustainable infrastructure can be started by implementing the technologies described in this book on as broad of a scale as possible. As a large percentage of the world's landless poor live in cities, constructing these systems in urban environments can minimize their suffering, and with enough work may even create conditions of prosperity. While i t is most likely that we will not see "true sustainabiJity" in our lifetimes, it is a goal that must be worked towards. The enormous task given to our generation is to figure out how to repair the damage that has been done to our natural systems, to undo the social structures that act as blockades to self-reliance, and begin bu ilding communities and networks that are founded in the values of sustainability and egalitarianism.
CONCLUSION I 2lS
RESOURCES
ONE-FOOD 1° 'Greenhouse Earth m�p Insert,'
FOOD Aquapo niC5.com
E N D N OTES
Notional Geographic (October 2007). 2 ChMles C Mann, 1491. New
AQUACULTURE
Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus (New York Vintage
{Basic informationl
Booh,
wwwaquaPQnics.tom
2006),
Fox, R ipley O. Splrll/ino_ ProduC/;IOI'I and Poteonal. A'K-en'Province,
3, Karma GI05, Humallf! and Healthy
to B'OW splrulina thaI is used il'l lhe Global Sou,''' )
OrganiC Growers. OrgaolC
Furuno, Takao. The Power of Duc/( Sisters Creek, Australia: Tagan
Narthe�st OrB�nic F�rming AS50clanon
France: Edinons Edi�ud, 199&. (hpr�'n' it low tech, low-cost method
Pov1try Production' A Manvalfor
Principles
and Pr�cnces Handbook Series,
Publicanons, 2001 (Dud: amlia tllJp'a rlce-Ioactl !ish polyeullUre
'
(AthOl. MA: Highland Press, 2004)
martual )
4. Cheryl Long and Tabitha Alterman, Hutchinson, laurence.
Ecologlroi4quClwltur<,. E�st Mean. UK:
Permaflent PublicatIOns, 1005- If.oI�ppropria:e lor owners of 1Miter
land parcel>. but 51'111 ;se1u' io' urba
J:
'M!'ct Real Free·RanGe Egg>,�
Mother
forth /'yews. October/November 2007,
canons •
5 Slow Food U,S,A., 20 Jay St., "10 313,
logsdon, Gene. Gertmg rOM {"rur'" .YIHPf. fmrraus, PA- Rodale Press.
8rook'�n, NY 11201; www.slowfood org.
. and the End of Molyneaux, Paul. SWimmIng in Cr' 1('1. 4quowltl',e
Atla� of Food. Who fots Whot, WI!�re,
\978 (One of the bt'sl boOks on srr,d:i" (
6, E'lk M.II�tone and Tim Lang, Penr1Ufn
Wild Oceans, Ne.... York; Thur'lde"
, Muut" Pre�s, 2006.
The Nelli AlchemV Institute 111111111,vsb,cape.cam!-n�ture!gr,,�ncenter!aquaculture.html (A list 01
all public�tians on aquaculture by th"
Nelli Alchemy InStltute. IIIhicl"t
researched aquaculture and sust�l"able sy�tems from 1971 to 1991, IIIlth an order form for prim copte; ) Romanowskr, Nick Sustamoblr Ffesnworer Aquaculwre. 5ydney, Austraha� UniverSity of New South Wales Pre�s, 2007.
216 1 TOOlBOX FOil SlJSTAI"IABLE CI-Y lI�ING
and Why ( New York PenGuin Books,
2003), S2
7
BOilS Worm et aI., #Impacts of
8iodiverSI ty Loss on Ocean Ecosystem Services: Science 314, no. 5800 (2006):
787-790.
8. For more information on determining whkh fish are safe to
pat In wllat qu�ntities. see "Safe Su�talnab;(' Seafood" by Coop AmerICa at www.coopamerica.org/pubs/ realmoney/articles/seafood.dm; the Environmefltal Working Group at ewg. org; and Paul John�n, Fish Forever: The Drftnlti�e Guide to Understondlflg,
Todd, John. "Ecological Aquaculture al Ocean Arks," Annals of carth 18, no 2 (2000), aVoililable at htlPJ/oceanarhorg/ann�ls/�r\1des/ aquaculture/. .
Van Gorder, Steven 0 SfflOI/ Scole Aquaculture. 8r('inigsvillc, PA The Allernati�e Aquaculture MSOClallon, 2000. (Great Introduction to b.lsic aquacultur('.)
Seiectmg, ond Preporlflg Healthy, DelicIOUS, and Environmentally .sustolflabJe Seafood {Hoboken, HJ:
Wiley. 20071
9. George Kling, "The Flow 01 Energy: Primary Production to Higher Trophic le�els" (Ie
11 From 1978 to 1996. the US
Department of Energy condl.lcled an eKperiment called the Aquatic Species Program, extenSively researchmg algae's OII·producmg potential. Theirfinal report is, John Sheehan et aI., A Look Boekal the U.S. Deparrment ofEnergy's Aquatic Species Program�Biod;esel From Algoe
(Golden, CO: National Renewable Erlefgy laboratory, US Department of Ellf'rgy. Midwest Research Institute, 1998). www. nrel.gov/docs/legosti/Iy98/24190.pdf.
Woods, Jonathan, Th(' Urban Aquaculture M�nua!. www webofcr('ation.orf,iBuildingGrounds/aqua/TOC.html.
B I O S H E LTERS
Frl'eman. Mark, Buildrng Your Own Greenhouse. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. 1997. McCullagh, lames C 50larGrrenhouse Book. Emmaus, PA Rodale Pr('SS, 197B,
DOMESTI CATED A N I MALS AND DISEASE RESISTANCE
Crosby, Alfr('d, Ecological lmp('rlolism: The Bl% curop(', Cambridge UniverSity Press, 2004
glCol ExponSlOn 0/
Diamond, Jared. GU(l5, G('rms, and 5t('eJ. New York W
W
Norton,2ooS
Mann, Char.l�s �. 1491: New RevelatIOns a/the Ame"cas 8e/or(' Columbus, New Yor�: V;ntage Books, 2005,
I N SECT CULTIVATION
Gordon, Da...id George. Eol·o·Bug Cookbook. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press, 1998: M('nl('l, Peter and faith D'AJusio. Man coting Bugs: The Art and Science 0/ Eating insects, 8erkel('y, CA: T('n Sp('ed Press, 1998, Ramos·Elorduy, Juli('ta. Creepy Crowly Cuisine: A Gourmet Guide to Rochest('r, VT: Park Street Press, 1998.
Edible Insects.
RESOURCES AND NOTES I 217
FOOD TREES
Jacke, Dave with Eric Toensmeier. Edrble Forest Gardens. While River Juncllan, VT: Chel}ea Green, 2005. An el1cyclopl!'dla·length IW2" volume 51'1 describing food forests and th elf deSign
Toensmeier. Ene. Perennial Vegf'/oble{. White River Junella'!, VT: Chelsea Green, 2007.
GARDENING
Ellis, Barbara W and Fern Marshall Bradley. eds.
The Organic
Gardener's Handbook ofNo/uro/lnst(1 ond Diseose Conual.
Emmaus,
PA: Roda!e Press, 1996.
12 US Environment�1 Protection Agency "Fact She�t F n.1l Rule to Reduce TOXIC Air E/l'I'�Slons From Asphalt ProceSSing and Asphalt Roohng Manufatlufl�g Facilities· (Washington, DC: US EnVIronmental Protecrion Agency, febfllary 18. 2003). B. See www.hl.ld.gov/offices/lead/ tral n,ng/LBPgu ide. pdf
14 Peter MeMel and Fa,li} D'Aluisio, Man Eating Bugs� The Art and Scien,e
Je
New
M I CROLIVESTOCK
Lee, Andy afld Pal foreman. Chicken TraClar.' The Permawllure Gwde to Happy Hens and Healthy 50;1, Suena Vista, VA: Good E�rth Publications. 2000.
McCoy, lenn. A GUide to Outdoor Mushroom Log Cultivation; HilJhl;ghtmg 5hll/oke Reish;, and Tree ()yJ;ter Mushrooms. Dorchester, NH: 0 Acres of tlew Hampshire, 2004, avall�ble �t www.danes, org/pdfs/MushroomCultivationGuide.pdf (Great guide to m�kin& mushroom logs.) ,
218 I TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAINABLE (lTV LIVING
I. Robin Clarke and Janet King, The
of rhe World's MOSI CMICal Resource
Woelfle-Erskine, Cleo. Urban Wilds. Oakland, CA waler/under/ground piJbhcanons, 2003,
MUSH ROOM LOGS
TWO-WATER WOler Atlos' A Un-que Visual AnolyslS
GENERAL
Pfeiffer, Da le Allen. foting Fossil Fuels_ Gabrlola Island, BC: SOClt�IV Publishers, 2006.
of Eonng Insects IBerkeley, CA Ten Speed Press, 1998).
(New York
The New Pre,>, 2004), 20
2. �or a thorough e.amonalion of see Cleo Woelne·Erskine, Jllty O,kar Cole. afld Laura A!le�, I'd, Dom dams and Ihe" consequences.
Nanan' Disporches Fro'l'l r�e WOler UnderlJrolJnd INew Yorx
Soft Skull
Press, 2007), 3. Alexantler Co-ckburn and Jeffrey 51, Clai re. "rothe Last Drop: Why the Colorado Rover Doesn't Meet the Sea CO!JnterPunch 3/14/01 http://www counterpUllch.org/colorado.html. 4, Clarke and King, (2004). 24.
5 Peter H, Gleick, Dirty Warer:
;>.0\11
Estimated Deaths from Water· Related Disease 2000�2020 10aklarld.
Starnets.
M�celfrum Running, Berkeley, CA Ten Speed Press,
CA Paclftt Irlstltute for Studies in
m l.I�hroom ·growif"lg techniq lies,)
2005 (Contains basic informanon on log cuit\lre, as well as other
Development, €nvironment. and Security, 2002).
WAT E R
4.
6, Committee on Fluoride in Dnnking
FLOAT I N G ISLANDS
Water, Board on Envirorlmentai Studies and Toxicology, Division on Earth and Ufe Studies. National Research Courlcii
of the National Academies, Fluoride in Drinking Wafer: A Scientific Review of
EPA's Srondords. (Washington, DC: The
National Academies Press. 2006).
7. American DenIal ASSOCiation, ADA eGRAM. lnferim Guidance on
Reconstituted Infant Formula, 1Chicago:
ADA, November 9,
2006), www.ada
org/prof/resources/pubs/epubs/egram/ egram�061109,pdf,
g, Fluoride Action Network.
"Communities Wliich Ha�e Rejected Fluoridation 5mce 1990," www.
nuoridealert.org/communlnes.htm 1accessed Jan. 3. 2008).
9. Certain strains of hep,anns can iiVl:! up to a half hour in boiling water, and baclenal endospores can survive for hours. Some bacteria have the ability to turn into endo>pOrei and essentially hibernate. These if"lacnve cell, have strorlg coats Jnd are very hard to �iII. Thous,mds-of-years �d endospores have been discovered 3f"ld coaxed back into living cells. Gerard
Qceaf"l Arks Imefrlational hnp//oceanarks,org/restorer/ This Massachusetts-based operatiof"l is an ifll1ovator of noatif"lg island restorer technology
RAI NWATER COLLECTION/PU R I F I CATIO N Banks, $UlY and Richard Heinichen. Ramwoter Co!lection for the Merhi)n'�i);Jy (hal.'pngej. Orippif"lg Sprif"lgs. TX Tan� Town. 2006 Hu;sman. l. afld W E Wood. Slow Sand Filtranon Geneva World Health Dr�anilation, 1974 ldnca'>tef, Br'!t!�worer Hor�'esnng for Drylands (Vol. 1): Gooding
P"nclpl"s to Welcome Rain inlo Your Ufe ond LondKope, White River
JunctiOf"l, VT: Chellea Green Publishirii."1006. •
ludwig,
Aft Wote' 5toroge: To'1!S. Cisterns, Aquifers and Ponds. Santa
BMbMil CA OlSlS O",lgfl, 200�
53nd filt-at'o,",
www.oa.isdesign.flet/water/treatment/slawsandfilter.htm 50iJr Water Olsll'Ifecnon SWISS Federal lnstHute for Environmental ScienU'-'pf"ld Techrlology
WIVW,so(liS.ch
WATER PRIVATIZATION BarlolV, Maude and Tony Clark. Blue Gold, New York: New Press. 2003.
Tortora, Berdell Funke, and Christine
RESOURCES AND NOTES 1 119
Olivera, Oscar and Tom lew s jCocllobambol Water Warin BoliVIa.
Case, Micrabiology: An Introdu(tion (San
Reisner, Marc. Cadillac Desert. london, Pimlico, 2001
10. The Swiss federal Institute for
ShlVa, Vandana. Water Wars: PflVatllahon, Pollution, and Profit.
(EAWAG) has conducted numerous
'
,
Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 2004,
Francis(Q: Pearson Education, Inc.. 2(04)
Environmental Science
afld Techflology
te�ts on solar diSinfection. For more
Cambridge, MA South End Press, 2002,
information, including charts of Woelfle·Erskine, Cleo, July OslGJr Cole, ilfld laura A ll en. Dam Nonon:
Dispatches/rom the Warer Undergrormd. N�w York: Soft Skull Press, 2007,
patho�ens killed and lists of research studies, see www.sodis.ch.
WASTE
THREE-WASTE 1 lynn Margulis and DOrian Sagan,
AI R PURIFICATION
Wolve rton, S.c. How to Grow Fresh Air: 50 House Plants that Purify Your Home or Office. New York ; Penlluin, 1997.
Microcosm05: Four Billion Years
0/ Microbial Evolullon (Berkeley: UnIverSIty of California Press, 1997), 88,
and http)lenwikipedia .or�!wiki/Pilu s.
COMPOSTING
Gershuny, Grace a nd Deborah L M
2
Composnng. New York: Rodale PreSS, 1990
Pedal People Cooperatwe, Inc., PO
80x 415, Northampton, MA 01061,
www.pedaipeople.(om.
H U MAN WASTE RECYCLING
JenkinS, Joseph. The Humonure Handbook. White River Ju nction VT'
3, UniverSity of California Cooperative
Chelsea Green Publishing, 1999.
EKtension, Placer afld Nevada
Steinfeld, Carol, LiqUid Gold. N_e!'l.Bedford, MA: Ecowaters Publishing,
and Nitrogen, hnp:/jucce.ucdavis.
2004,
edu/files!filelibrary!1808!3S3.PQF;
,
VERMICOMPOSTING
counties. Comp05ting 10L Corban
and Joseph Jenkins, The Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting
Appelhof, Mary. Worms fatMy Garbage. Kalamazoo, MI: Flower
Human Manure, Second Edition
Press, 1997.
(Grove City, PA: Jenkins Publishing,
WASTEWATER RECYCLING
Woelfle·Erskine, Cleo, July Oskar Cole, and laura Allen. Dam Notion: Dispatches/rom the WocerUndergroulld. New York: Soft Skull Press, 2007. Campbell, Craig S. and Michael H. Ogden. Constructed Wetlands in tile Sustainable Londsccspe. New York: John Wiley and Sons Inc, 1999.
220 1 TOOLBOX WR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
1999L 56.
FOUR-ENERGY 1 , Thomas flannery, The Weather Makers: How Man Is Changing the
Climate and What It Meansfor Ufe on Eorth (New Yor�: Atla�tk Mo�thly Pres�.
2006), 152
Ludwig, Art, The New Ueale an Oasis
With Greywater. Choosing,
Bwldmg and Using Greywoter Systems -Includes Branched Drains. Santa Barbara, CA: Oasis Designs,
2006.
EN ERGY
2. Hele� Caldicott, Nuclear Power Is Not the Answer (New York' New Press,
2006). 8_
BIOGAS
Crook, Michael. A Chmese 810905 Monual. london: Intermediate
3 Ibid.
Technology Publications Ltd" 1976.
4, http://www_css,corneILedu/faculty/ lehma��/terra_preta/TerraPretahome.
HOUSE, David. Biogos Handbook. USA: Alternative HOUSE Infonnation, 2006,
htm.
5 http://www.green-trust,org/
- BIOCHAR Biochar overview
woodgas.htm.
www.c.s.com ell.edu/facultyjlehmann/biochar/Biochar_home,htm
5, Michael Crook, A Chinf'se Siagas
hnp://terrapreta.bloenergylists.org
Manual. (londo�: Intermediate Technology Publications,
1976), 11.
FIVE-BIOREMEDIATION 1.
lynn Margulis a�d Dorian Sagan.
Microcosmos: Four Billion Yf'ars of Microbial Evolution, (Berkeley' Univenity of California Press. 1997)_ 2, Jeft Barnard, 'Oregon'> Monster Mushroom is World's Biggest Uving Thing," The iandon Independent, August 6,
2000.
3. Ehterina Dadachova, et ai., "Ionizing Radiation Changes the Electronic Properties of Melarlin and Enhances the Growth of Melaniled Fungi: PLoS ONE 2(5): e4S7
(2007), www.plosofle.
org/article/fetchArticle.action'art
Biomass gasification http://tech5ci,msun.edu/cot.l/biomass_ga5ihcation.htm
CliMATE CHANGE
flannery. Tim. The Wet"ltherMakers: How Man Is Cho� the.(limote and What II Meansfor Life on Earrh. New YOfk: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2006. Rising Tide (a climate justice organizatlon) hnp://risingtidenorthameric
GENERAL
Heillberg. Richard.
The Porty's Over. OIl, War, and the Fore of
Industrial Societies. Gabriola Islalld, BC: New Society Publishers. 200S_ Pfeiffer, Dale Allen. Earing Fossil Fuels_ Gabriola Island, BC: New
Society Publishers, 2006.
RESOURCES AND NOTES I 221
lC'eURI=info,doi/lO t37t/journal pone oooo4S7.
The POil Caroon 'nstitute www.po�tca"bo'1 orgj
4. For a chart of contaminants that
PASSIVE SOLAR
different speC1es of fungi are capable of
Halacy, Beth and Haiacy, Dan. Coo/(ing With rhe Sun How to Build and
Use Solor Cooh!rs. Lafayette, CA: Morning Sun Press, 19'12.
Reif, Danlel lC POSSlve Solar Water Heoters, Andover, MA: Bric� House
Publi shing Co, 1983.
degrading, see Paul Stamets, Mycelium
IIl/llnillg (Berk.eley, CA: Ten Speed Press, 2005] .
S. Paul Stamets, " Helping the Ecosystem Through Mushroom Cultiyation,· Fungi Perfl'i:tl's
Parabolic Dishes www,humboldl edu/-ccat/solarcookiog/parabOIic/paraboli(
r_
50Ia
_
cooker_PI.3 hlml hIm
Mycotechnology Page, www. lunglperfecti.com/mvcotech/mycova
_
hlml (accessed January 20081.
ROCKET STOVES How to bUIld a rOde! 5to�e http.//v,deo.google,com/y;deoplay?docid�797446823830SJ3401
Edenspace Systems Corporation. Information on the stud y is found
ETHANOL
Gingery, Vincent R. The Secrets of Suild,ng on AlcOtlol Prodllnng Stlll
Rogersville MO David J Ginge(O!...I!ubhshlng LlC. 1994
Blume, Davod, Alcollot Coo Be a Gas" F�'elmg a
6. The study was conducted by
Phytotech Inc., later bought by
•
Doxon, lynn Ellen The Alcoho!�''f': HOllobook H�,'efford, PA Illfmity
Publishing.com, 2001.
VEG G I E DIESELS
-
in the" Statement of Qualifications, under Magic Marker Site, Trenton, New Jersey, at www edenspace.com/
quahhcanon.htmL
7
Worcester Roots PrOject, Stone Soup
Bulldong, 4 King St., WOf(ester, MA 01610; www.wOrteslerroots.org •
S Plar"lt hst compiled by the Worcester
Roots Project, www.wOf(esfi moOls.org.
50,1
Greasecar Vegetable Fuel Systems
9. Sally Brown et aI., "In Situ
www.greasecar.com
Treatments to Reduce the Phylo
Holan, Ray, Slidmg Home: A Complete GUide to Orrvmg Your Diesel on
Cadmium: Journal o[ EnVlronmentol
Straight Vegetoble 011. T ed. Oeveland, Ray Holan, 2006. PlantDrive www planldftve,com
222 I TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY liVING
and Bioavailabilily of lead, Zi nc, and
Quolity 33 (2004) 522-531.
WIND POWER Axial-flux windmills www.othE."rpower.com www.scor�igwind.com Computer magnets www,reuk.co.uk/Hard-Dlsk-Drive- Magnets-For·Wlnd-Turblnes,hIm Detailed plans for €onstructing it turbine out of moslly recycled parts
for under SlS0. ll:s blades are made from PVC pipes, and its alternator is made trom it recycled permanent magnet �otor. for particularly resourceful people, this design may work out to be a cheap and
practical way to produce wind power in
it
city. Davis, Michael. "How
I Home-Built an ElectriCity ProdUCing Wind Turbine_" 2006, www. mdpub com/Wind�TurblJ'\e/inde�,html Hackleman, Mich"ael A. and David W. House. Wind ond Windspinners; A NulS and 80lts li:pprooch /0 Wind-Elec/ric Systems. Culver City, CA:
Peace Press, 1974. Kozlowski, lozef A, Sevonius Rotor Construction; VeHlcal Axis Wind
Machines from Oil Dwms. MI, Ranier, M D Vita Publishing, 1977.
•
Savonius turbines and photos of ingenious windmill designs wwwsouthcom_com_au/�windmill/
B I O R E M E D I AT I O N
Harte, John, et al. TOKics A (0 Z, A Guide to Evervda� Pollunon Hcuords. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991. Higa, Teruo,.An Eorth Saving Revo/utlon_ English edition, Vol. 2.
Tokyo: Suoma rk Publishing. Ir\C., 1998. (By the developer of Effective MIcroorganisms.) Ingham, Elaine, The Compost Teo Brewing Manual. Corvallis, OR: Soil Foodweb, loc., 2003 www.soilfoodweb.com/02_resources/c_tea_ manual.html.
RESOlJRCES AND NOTES I 213
Margulis, lynn and Dorian Sagan. Microcosmos: Four Billion Yean of Microbial Evolution. B�rkeley: University of California Press,
1997.
Ra5kin, lIya and Burt D. Ensley. Phytoremediation of Toxic Metals: Using Plants to Cleon Up the fnvironment Hoboken, NJ: Wiley·
Interseience. 1999.
Stamets, Paul. Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help Save the
World. Berkeley, CA" Ten Speed Press, 2005.
US Environmental Protection Agency. Innovative Uses of Compost: Bioremediotion ond Pollution Preventlon. Washington, DC: US
Environmental P!otection Agency, October 1997. www,epa.gov/ epaoswer/non-hw/compost/bloremed.pllf. US Environmental ProtectIOn Agency. Citllens Guide 10 Bioremediotion. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency, April
1996. www.bugsatwork.com/xyclonyx/epa_guides/bio.
pdf. (This verSIon is no longer provided by the EPA,)
The Worcester Roots Project (a grassroots bioremediation organization) .bttpJ/worcesterroots.org/
ACC ESS TO LA N D Branford, Sue and Jan Rocha. Cutting the Wire: The Story 0/ the
Landless Movement In Brazil. London: Latin American Bureau, 2002. Wright, Angus lindsay and Wendy Wolford. To Inhent the farth: The Landless Movement and the Strugglefor a New Brazil. Oakland. CA: food
First, 200).
Tracey, DaVId. Gueri//(1 Gardening: A Manllalfesta. Gabriola Island, British Columbia: New Society Publishers, 2007, Home Sweet Home: A How-TO Guide/ Stories and Politics Behind Homebuying (Zine avaIlable from [email protected])
224 I TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
•
Tempo�"lture-mrt�:ne' garden'ng: wWVi jo",rnevtofQre�oer.org/giJrden_con_html
Mill Creek FMm {PhiiadelphJ, PAl www m" 'crc('kurb�nfarm.org Mo'e Gardens! INew York City) www.moregarden�.org Mov,mento dl)S Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra · MST (Braz,l's Landless Workers Movement) EnSIish language website www mstbraz,l,org The Rh,zome Collective (A" still, TX) '1WW rI"l�
"collt'ctlVt'.org
• •
RESOURCES AND NOTES ) 225
G LOSSARY
Bioavailability: "lht extent to which certain com pounds are capable ofbeing degraded by bioremedia ti\'C: processes; also the extent to which a chemical
Adsorption: the attachment ofliquids, gases, or dis
can be absorbed and used by organisrns (including
solved substances to the surfaces of materials, includ
humans).
ing soil particles. Malcrials that are highly adsorptive
help to retain nunients in soil.
BiocllU: Charcoal that has been produced from �urface-grown organic matter through pyrolySiS. It is
Airstone: Device that helpi diffuse oxygen into waler.
used as a soil additive.
Aerobic Bacteria: A type ofbacteria that requires
lliodiesd: A fuel made from vegetable oil that has
oxygen in order to live.
Anaerobic Bacteria: A type ofbacteria that lives in
undergone a process called uansesterification which make the oil perl\lanently lessviscous.
low or no-oxygen environments, including intestinal
Bioeffiucnts: l\'laterials excreted by humans, includ
tracts and pond muck.
ing gases, baCleri'&, viruses, and particles, that can
Anionic: A negatively dl�rgcd atom or molecule. Annual: A type of plant that lil"CS for just one season and reproduces by creati ng seeds. MHny �nnual veg etable plants reql.lirc human assistance to fe-seed. Aquifer: An underground geological formation of a permeable material such as gr.lI'd or sand that stores and transmits water. Autonomous Community: A cornmutlity of people that is sdf-sufficient, ecologically sustainable, and socially equitable. llacterial Endospore: A state of dormancy that a
bacterium can enter when faced with harsh condi tions that can allow it to revive when conditions are more favorable. Bacterial Remediation: lht use ofbacteria to de
grade certain types of toxic compounds.
226 1 TOOLBOX FOR SUSTAtNABlE CITY LIVING
build up to unhealthy levels in a sealed environment. Biofilm: A thin. slimy layer made by mieroorgani�rns as they attach to surf a ces. Biomass: lhe total mass of all living organisms withe in a specific ar��. Biomass also rtfers to agricultural
and wood wastes that can be used for soil building or for producing energy. Biosheltcr: A structure similar to a greenhouse that relies
011
passi"e solar and biothermal processes for
heating. Biothermal Heating: A method of capruring the heat produced bybiological organisms, such as the microbes in compost piles, or chickens or other larger animals.
Broodiness: A trait of chickens determining their likeliness to sit on a nest full of eggs and to hatch
them.
Bulkhead: A two-part pla.nic fitting that att.J.ches a
the atmosphere. and taken up b� the neH generation
pipe or faucet to a oontllincr while making a water
ofplants.
tight seal. CUOOIi Loall: lilt amount oforganic ll\�tter fOllnd
in wastewater.
Carbon Negative: A pnx.'ess that removes carbon
from the atmosphere and stabilizes it, typically in soil or in biological matter, thereby reducing atnlospherk carbon dioxide levels. Carbon NeUll'lli: A Pf'OC('SS that rcmo,'e!i and emits
Compost Remediation: 'Ihe process ofusing linlshed compost as a means to dean l'Ontaminat�d soil. 1h� compost provides habitat for microorganisms to de g!".ld� toxic compounds and certain toxic metals form stable compounds with the organic matter in compost. Coml}()st Tea; A liquid culture ofbeneficiai micm organisms used for bioremediation, soil conditioning and fertilization, and plant disease controL
equal amounts of carbon dio.xide from and to the
Dynamic Accumulator: Plant that has the ability to
atlllosphere, thereby, in theory, not contributing to
sequester specific minC!".lls or to-xic metals from the
global warming.
SQil.
Carbon Sink: Something that sequesters carbon
Ecotones/Edge: Transitional ecosystems, or the
from
space whcre two different ecosystems meet. such as
the atmosphere, like a foreM and the oce�l\.
Cationic: A n atom or molecule that is positively
where water meets land or wher� forcst meets ficld.
charged.
EcolOm:s provide habitat to I�rge populations that . make usc of aspeCtS ofboth eCO!iystems. In designing
Chicken Tnlctor: A bottomless cage th�t chickens
a biological system, edge, or thE1lmouill of(,(:010ne5,
�re placed inside of, atilized to prepare a plot ofland
forgartkning.
should be maximi1:ed. Elldosymbiont: An organism that lives inside the
Cistern: Cont�iner used to store water, often used
body or cells of another organism, in a mutually ben
in conjunction wilh rainwater collection systems.
eficial manner.
Cisterns can be made of plastic, metal or concrete.
Emergent: A type of water plant whose roots are
Closed Loop Carbon Cyele: A process that does not
underwater but whose stems and leaves are above the
increase carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. For
water's surface.
enmple, when plants are grown on the surface of the pbnet, they absorb arbon dioxide from the at
mosphere. When oil is pressed from those plants aoo
burned in an engine, th�t COj is released back into
Energy Negative; A tYI>C of energy production whose required energy inputs exceed its outputs. Such energy sources are oftell subsidized financially or politically in order to remain operati ng.
GLOSSARY I 227
Energy Positive: A type of energy production whose
Green Manure: A nitrogen-fixing plant that is
energy outputs exceed its required i nputs
grown to be tilled into soil as a fertilizer.
_
Estuary: The ecosystem that exists on the horders
Groundwater: \¥ater found beneath the surface of
of fresh and salt waters. Estuaries contain abundant
the ground.
populations and diverse species. Elltrnl,hication; A process that results in low oxygen
levels stemming frOIll a chain of reactions that occurs in a body of water tholl is too rich in nutrients. E�-Situ: Treatment of contaminated soil off-site, of
ten requiring the excavation and transport of soil. Facultative Anaerohe: A type of bacteria that is ca
pable of sUrl'il'ing wit h or without oxygen.
Flush: t\ "crop" of mushrOOIllS produced by a mU5h
roo m log.
Free Range: A
method of raising animals in which
they arc not kept in C3�
b. k
Glazing: Glass. p st
,
or other trans£arent mate
rial that allows sun light to pass into a gre enhouse or
bioshelter
�
.
Global North: Nations with high rotes of consllmp
tion and high standards of living that typically main
l i
H�rdware Clotlo: t\ type of strong wire mesh with
l
smal squares, useful for chicken coops.
f bearing trees, like
Hardwoods: Deciduous, or lea
-
maples or oaks, distinguished from I'Oftwoods, or co
niferous trees like pines, spruce, etc,
Head: A measure of the pressure in a column ofwa
tcr resulting from the weight of the water abOl'e it .
� be
Heavy Metals: A group ofelements that c
toxic in high concentrations, including \ea,d, mercury, chromium, and cadmium. Hydrological Cycle: lhc complex process that water
goes through as it moves from the ocean to the atmo
e
sphere, falling as pr cipitation to the Earth and then
returning to the ocean once again through rivers and groundwater.
b
l
Inoculate: To del i erate y introduce microorganisms
illto an environment.
tain economic, po it c al, and military control Ol"er
In-Situ: Treatment oftoxic soils wnere 'they are
those of the Global South.
located-no excavation is required.
Global South: Nations in Africa, A sia, and Latin
Microlivestock: Small domesticated animals that are
America holding t e majority of the world's popula
appropriate to raise in an urban environment, includ
h
tion but whose resources typically flow to the Global
North.
228 I
TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CITY LIVING
k
ing but arc not limited to chickens, t ur eys, ducks,
rabbits, guinea pigs, fish, and insects.
Molccular Contaminants: Con(,uninants that con list of more than a single demerit. Mycelia : The part of fu ngi's body that grows under
ground or through substrates, usually visible as white, ropy threads. Net Primary Production (NPP): The total mass of
all photosxmhetic organisms grown in a given area
over a certain period of time.
Offgassing: '[he process of materials rdeasing toxic
compounds into a space. PolycydicAromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs):
Carcinogc!'lic molecules with mu ltiple rings found in
Pcnnaculture: A Illethod of design (hat incorpo rates disciplines ranging from sciences to traditional
knowledge in order to create long lasting human cultmes. Phytorcmcdiation: A technique that IlSCS plants to
absorb toxic metals Ollt of soils.
Plug Spawn: Small lVood�n dowel colonized with fungal m)"celiulll (hat is inserted into a log to produce
mushrooms.
I'olyculture: Jhe practice of raising any combination of plants, animals, fll ngi, and algae in a shared space, commonly with symhiotic relationships.
many fuelund oils; and commonly produced as a by
Proto'toa: Single-cellcd organisms with organdles;
product of combustion.
more comple:\ and larger than bacteria.
Passi"e S�lar Architecture: A style of a rchitecture
Pyroliric Gasification: The process of heating bio
that utilizes the sun's direct radiance for heating inte
mass in anaerobic conditions, breaking it down into
rior spaces.
Its componem combustible gases, typIcally hydrogen,
Passive Solar Design: A method of design lhat in
methane, and carbon monoxide.
corporntes both passive solar technologies and archio
Pyrolysis: The process by which a substance is broken
lecture.
down by heat in the absence of oxygen.
Passive Solar Technologies: Devices used for cook
Rhizome: A stem that grows horizontally Ilnder
ing and heating that utilize the sun's radiance with -; cOllbi�ations of glass, insulation, and dark and re flective surfaces. Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs): A p ersistent en vironmental toxin freqllently fOllnd in mban cm'iron menu (older circllitry, sealants, paints, etc.). rows year after year from its Perennial: Plant that reg
gro\ltJd that produces leaves and shoots. Rhizomorph: A root-like structure that grows at
the base of mushrooms that can be used to propagate mushrooms. Rhizosphere: An area of enhanced biological activity
surrollnding the roots of a plam.
root without requiring replanting.
GLOSSARY I :129
Ricks: A STructure formed by stacking mlLshroom
Transpiration: lhe process where plants absorb wa
logs in a crossing pattern.
ter through their roots and rdeasc it through their
Sick Building Syndrome: Ailmeru:s or symptoms suffered by people living within a hUilding that result
Urban Heat Isi:mJ Effect: -nle phcnoHleuon whcrc
produced within the building.
then su rrounding areas due to the thermal mass
(rom combinations of poor ventilation and p olluta nts
Spawn: A material such as sawdust, gt"ain or wood
ch ips that has been I horoughly colonized by fllngal
mycelia.
by urban areas may b� as much as \0 degrees warmer properties ofhuildings and streets, combined with
heat trapping smog in urban atmospheres. lhe urban heat island effect is often most pronounced in sum mer months.
Submerge"t: A type of waler plant that grows and lives bene�th the water's surface; helpflll in oxygenat ing waler.
Urbanite: Discarded chunks of concrete that can be
used in some Types of construc tion or in the forma tion ofgarden beds.
Substrate' A material that a ftlngal mycelillln grows through, foe example, sawdust, woodchips, coffee
grounds, and cardboard.
Veggie Diesels: Fueb such as SVO/WVO and hiod
iesel that
,ire
made from I"cgl:tablc oils and power a
diesel engine.
Succession: A nalural process whereby over time one community of plants will replace another; can be
-V�s: A microscopic entity that is incapable of self-replicating witholil-ifflst organis m; many arc
observed as the g�scs of an open field arc slowly re
pathogenic.
a malure forest.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Toxic
placed by brush and small trees, eventually becoming
Straight Vegetable Oil/ Waste Vegetable Oil (SVO/WVO): Vegetable oil tlsed as a fuel in diesel I'chides. SVO is new oil that has nOI be tlsed to cook
_
lcal"es into the atmosphere.
...
compounds thal71Tc fOlL nd in paints. solvents, and gasol ine t hat easily volatilize. or escape into the air as vapo�.
food, once it has been used il is considered \VVO.
Volatili�e: To convert a liquid into gas.
"'hermal Mass: The property of rn�Herials to retain
Wind turbine: A device that tran5"forms the energy
heat.
of winds nto electrical current.
i
Thermophilic: Heat 10\'ing; refers 10 certa n micro
i
organisms Ihat become active at h gh temperatures .
230 I TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE CtTV LIVtNG
i
Zooplankton: Small animals or protists that float or swim in both rresh and salt water, that form an im portant part of the aquatic food chain.
IN DEX
ar.d, 25-29, sloc�'ng densities and. 35-37, systems for, 24-26 X� 0150 tonst",.ned wetlands; waste....Jter .
aquapomcs, J5, 37-39
aquatlc olants, 4. 21-23, 41-44; an,ma ls and, 38-40 A(juatic SPKN!S Progsam, 217nl1
a(juofers, 62. 65, 95
Aracuana chickens, 10
a[elones, 203
Arir. ofTaste I.st, 14
..c,day. 199
"cu:lopll,lus, 199
activ(! composting. 116-17. Stt (I/SO compost\ng
arthropods, 112
MSeniC. 78, 124, 181; phytoremediation and, 198, 200-201
act>nomvtes, 77 adsorpMn, lSI
ash, 18, 152, 199, rocket stoves and, 174-76
ae,aMn, 25, 29-32. 34, 186, 188, 197. St!e olw oxygen
asphalt, XViii, 4, 47-48, 73; altem�tives to. 49-50; Grove
ad�fle pOl�nlon, 208. �t ulso land, properlY
aerobIC lNIete,;a, 96. ISS-ali, 190 agrl·bus,ness. 2
agriculhlre, 64. 122, 137. 1�1. 153, 209; lood and, 2, 4
aif pumps, 31-32, 88. 188
As,,,n river clam (Corbiculo !IumirIN), 40
bro.....nfield and. 209-10. 5ee also corn:rele
asthma. 93, 202
Ausnn, Texn, �vi""XVI ' . 75, 119,)09
automobiles. .,i" 2, 47, 49. 192. biofuell and, 146, 148. ISO. 152. 156; em.sslons from, 139-40
alf pu.;Hcallon, 14,202-4
autonomy, 47. 63. n. 212: bloremediation indo 191;
""stoOts. 34-35, 188
commUniMS and, 95; energy .ind, 137-38, 140
... Albany Free SchoOll, 6
•
algae. 139, 148, IS5. 192; aquaculture and. 21, 23, 35-36,
44-47; canst.utteo ...etlands lind, 99, tyanobiK!eU'
form 01, 41; nOJtmg Ira_II �Ian.ds and, 84, 87-8.8;
m.cro form of. 39; �I from, 46-47, 217nll; rainwater
153, 160, 165, 114; food and, 3. 24, 38; oil ind, 2,
sustaln�bthtv and. xlv-xv'li; t�hnOlo&y ind, 176 Se� GI50 commUfl,ty
a�Ial"flux ..... ,ndm.,I. 162
Alolla (faory moss). 35, 41. 1$5
collection and, 70. 76, 80; to.., form� of. 45-46 "I�aljn'!y. 46, 200
Alten. 46
alternators, 161-6)
b'Cleml. 36-37. b,olu�lund, lSI, 154", 157, 159,
allernative u.·cllnologleS. 74
bior�media�on and, 180, 181, 184-86, 189-92. 202-3;
Amacon rainfore\!, lSI
compoStlnl and, 112, 119; constructed .....ell'nds and,
Amer"an 8uff goose. 14
%-97. 99, 103, lOS. human waste and, 115; ...,stewater
Amencan Dental AS!>OCi
and, 92. 110; water�d, 74, 76-80, 84, 88
ammoma, 3&-31, 188, 190
bacterial endospo,es, 79; hepatitis and. 219n9
amoebn, 78 anaerobic procen. 115. 121, 149, 157-59. ISS; bilCl.erla �nd.
lukin, saGa (sod,um bica,bonate), 46
�niQnlc. 199-201
bathtubs, xvi, 25, 16, 197, 202, 201; constructed wetlands
496, 154. 157, 159. 185. 190
5n Q/l{} bioluels; compost
annual crops, 14
anriba{terkll ��ps, 105
aQu
animals and, 38-40; aqu..pon;cs and, 35, 37-39; carpet
5.andwich and, 26-28; intens,ve redrculating $ystems
and, 30-34, plants .ind, 4, 21-23, 41"'4, pond design
barrel breeder. 56-57, 109. SH 0150 .n5«t5 and. 98-99. 101-4, 108
Bechtel Corporation, 62, 75 bedd,ng. 120
benlen�, 48, 203
berries, 16
bloaccumulatlon, 22
INDEII: I 231
bunlholes. 80. 82-83. 103
blOavail�b,l.ty, 201 bH)(hj., 118-39. 151-53
biodiesel. �e allO b,of�eis; gasoline; 01 biofHl�fnu, 203 boofilm, 80
biofuels. 137-39, 2]0; automobiles and, 139-40, 146, 148,
150. 152, 156; biocha. and, lSI-53; blOl1S d.sesters
and. 156-59; dosed·loop systems and, 141-42; ethanol and. 149-50; methane �nd, 15 3-56; SVO/WVO and,
143-45; vfUie diesel and, 142, 145-48
blosas, 138-39. 153-56; digester 10'. 156-59 blol"8l(al oxygen demand. 106
biomass. u. 134, 138-39, 151-53, 157, 191 bioremediatlon, 3, 180-82, 184-85, 202-6. aor pUJlfitation
ucti, 16-17. 149
cadmIum, 181, 200
(allfornia, 75, 114
cancer, 93, 142, 182,
(ancun, Mexico, 108
202, 5ee olso disease
Canna lily. 98
carbon: carbon 10dd and, 96, 99. carbon negaove and, 152; carbon sink and, 136, 139, 152; dosed·loop carbon
cycle and, 74, 122, 141-42, 214, 128; emissloM of. 4,
137, 139; r.Hon to nltro,en of. 114-15
carbon dio.,de, 9, 45, 52, b�.emfd,anoo and, 191. 203; enerlVand. 136, 141-42. 151-55. 159
and, 202-4; compost tea and, 185-89; GlOve
carboo mono.,de, 151
brownfield and, 109-10; Hurricane KitJlI'Ij and, 204-6;
carbonneul/al. 142, 152
mushrooms �d, 191-93, 195-98, mycelia and, 191-98;
carbon \.ink, 136, 139, 152
phvtoremedi�tion and, 198-101, sumie spawn method and. 194-95, See olso contammanH; pollutants; toxins bloshellen, 3-4. 9, 50-53, 110, 166, 173; aquaeultu'e and,
n, 39, blothermal heatmg and, 52, 118; construCtltln of, 53-54, rainwater and. 7S
calbon to nil/agen ratio. 114-15
cirburetol jets, ISO ca,p, 39
carpet sandwH:h, 27-28. 99
cars, .iii, 2, 47, 49, 192; blofuels and, 146, 148, ISO, 152, 156;
emissions from, 139-40
brothe.mal heaHng, 52. 1 18
castings, 118-21, 185, 214
b"th defe
catfish.-39
black soldle. fly. 58-59
canOOl(. I99-201
bleach. 95. 105-6, 190
cedar. 18, 53, 101-2
blackwate•. 95-96. � 0!50 wanewate.
Ste olso worms
ca!t
cells (constn.teted wetlands). 97-105; deSign fOl. 97-]00, now
blood "uk!'!, 18
bolioi'll. 19
10 build, 101-5
Bountiful City PrOject (Asheville, North Carolina), 16
ceramic tilr, n
brain development, 201
Chickens, .�iil, 38. 42, 13, 109, 118: bioshelt...,rs and, 51-52,
Bourbon Red t�rkev, 14
charcoal. 151
56; breed seleC\1Qn and. 9-10; dll(k falling and. 11-12;
brewer's ,rains, 1I1
insects and, 55-56. S8, Iegailty of, 12; ra" lng of. 5-7.
broodlnus, 11
8rownfield Redevelopment Office, 209 brownfields, 75, 89, 209-10 buc�et mett>od, 124-26
buildlOl codes, 72, 13, 76, 95, 1 10 Seeolso i@gahties; lofllnl ,
bulkheads, 36, 66, 80, 82; installatIOn of, 83 bullhelds, 39
13-14; tractor house for. 7
chicken I/a ctol, 7
China, 59 chlorine, 29, 77, 104-6, 157, 186, 190
chloroforms,77,20]
chlorophyll. 192. 5e't (liso photosynthesis
bulrusi'>es, 14. 86. 98. 101
chloroP'lromorphite, 20I
bunlcaps, 82-83, 157
cholera, 78-19
232 I Tool80X FOR SUSTAlNA8LE CITY liVING
180; r
gO.)tS. 4
raiSing mushroomi fOl. 17-19; iecuritv and. t•. 2. 16.
gold. 199
60. 209; shortagei of, 2, 140; iustaHlabohty and, IN, lvi, ��II,
vermlcompoll and, 118-11; w�;te and. 93-94, 131.
WistI' dispoul and, 111 water and. 62
forests. 134. 136, 139. 114; ed,ble plannn! of, 2,4, 14-15 formaldehyde, 203
fossil fuell, 134-36, 152, 165, Ill, 214, fooo and, 2 �e also gasolme; all; petroleum
fGul·l1ullI s�stems. 72-74. 77
free ra nII'. 6-8. 10-11 freellnl. 75
freon, 171
helhwitersySlems, 24 See Glso constructed wetlands,
,,,"',
flU'\' lvi.i, 4. 14-16. 60, 76
gold hsh, 29 gra.s clippings, ], III
,raWOOlS, 137, 153, 205 gra.,tv. 24. 67, 80, 97, 99, 109 grav'tv hlter bag, 146
8r�ywater,
73, 95-98, 108-11, 206, 209; filtration of, 56;
measurement of, 108; unfiltered discharge of, Ill,
wa.h,ng clothes and, 98, 101. �e also wastewater
grease fire, 146
greenhouse gdies, 3-4, 136, 140-41, 154, 171
urbon
SU also
greenhou.es, 9, 32, 172; pl.stic.s for, 53 green nWnJre, 42
Ireen walls, 16
fuel (felPS, 139
,roundwaler, 48. 65, 124, 141 Sa also w�tewatef
lungal ail, 186
growing seiSOn, 3-4, SO
fuel rGSls, 141>-42 lungl, 45, 80, 92, 112. 149. 151, bimemediation and, 180, "182, ISS-S6, 202, 204; mushrooms and, 17-lS, 20; Inycoremediation and, 191-95. 197
GambUlla minnGw$, 30
GlOW' Brownfie!d, 209
Guinea Hens, 13
Guinea p'gs, 14 G�inea WOrlllS, 78
Gulf Stream, 51
gUile,s, 64-65
,albage. 55. 65-66, 112
galdeninl, 47, 8.8, 116, 208. 114. blGremed,�tion ind, 18!f." Z(ll, 204, fGOd indo 3-4. 7. ,a'nwal., collec""n and,
64-65, 71, 75. See also harvesting
gas,hcanon, 139, 152-53
gnallne, 81. 84, 182. 201; blOluels indo 140, 142, 144 146, 149-150, Sa 0150 bioo,�el; diesel lGSsil fuels; G,I; petrGleum ga� pressure, IS6
G;J.iotas. 162 seese, 13 ge;unhcanon, 21. 162,201, 210-12; coallal, 21
Germany, IS2
Hiard�, 78-79 gluine, 53-54, 165-67, 170-12 Global North, 16
GIob.i1 South, 58, 62
global warming, 4, 22, 61--ti4, 136-37, 140--42, 152-53. Sa
olso climate chinge
Hague, The, 62
hard,ness maps, 15 hardwa.e cloth, 6
I'I.Jrdwoods, 18, 114 ilal"eS\lng. 2-3, 75, 139, 148, 155� aquoKU'tl,lre and. 21-21, 38�39, 4\; (OnStrutted wellands and, 98; oil a...t. 2;
�ermicompOSI 'lnd, 121 Sa olso .,rdenlng
HOPE Ihigh dens,ly pol'ji!thy1ene), 105-6 ·
head,67. 108-9
health department, 74, 128
heat. 9, I\. 45, 48, 194, 203; blofuels and, 140, 142-44, 146,
152; bioshelters and, SO-54; com posting and, 112-13, 116, 118-19. 125; energy and, 134, 136, 176: rocket
Slo.es and, 173-1S; solar power and, 164-1>8, 170--13;
trapp,ng, 136; water pUrification .nd. 79-80 heiNY m etals, 181, 198, WI heilioom varlenes, 10
helminthe. 7&
INDEX
1 235
hep.lflfls. 7S, baClenal endo�pOfe, and, 119r9 hl,h thermal mus, 48 horselail, 98
lanJ. 3; ac;�ss to, 118. 180, 206; Jd.er�e pos�e�Slon and, 208. �e Q,S<) prope,1V
landhlls, 3, 49, 154, 111, 209-10; blOremfd'�tlon and. 180,
houGpLants, 189. 204
183, 193, t99; compost and, t12, 111; wa5te at>li, 91-
humanure, 14, 114, 121-22. 128.155 5et also loilet,
93. SU aisa wast�
human wastes, 93-94. 111-24; compostmg toMts aM, 12421, 129-30, UrIne �nd. 128-19
land trusts, 11l Las Veg�l, Ne�ad., 61
humic ac,d, 186
latitude, 54
humid,tv, 10, 53. 193-94
leachate. 124
Ilumus, 111
Hurrleane �atrina. 190,205
lead, 12. 99, 109. III. 145, a�u"ulture and, 30;
bioremedlation and, 181. 183, 198-201. 206; paint w,tll, 53, 198. 201; wat... and, 65, 11
Ilybfids, 140 Itydrocen, 140. 151, 181, 192 hydrosen pero�ide, 81, 106 hydrGIen sulfide, 154, 159
legahlV' compostln, 10,lets and. 126; grilywale. and, 110; mictofiveslock and, 12; waler pUfificanon and, 15, 110. 5et olro bu,Id,", codes; 100'"1
hydrologKill cycko, 63-64
l>l:hens,45
hydropomc:s, 38
111lW!,200
Ind,geflOus people.... 141-42
logs. 4, 10, 60, 195-<)6, 214, ",ush,ooms and, 17-20
Ind,genous World Uranium Summ,t I2006), 142
Lo.. Anseles, California, 63
,ndumlal
lotus. 43, 43
local ecollDm.e>, 2, 60
hlh farming, 22
,ndustrlalism, 134, 136, 18.0 industry. 22. 64, 93, 140-42. 181-8.2, 202 infant formula, 78
low-'n�ome ne,ghborhoo�, 93 maggo\S, 9. 37, 58, 148
Inoculatloo, 17-18, 34. 56, lOS, 119. 185-118 ,nputs, 2, 22. 32. 39, 41. 214
Inseen, 4-5. 7..., 1, 37, lOS, 109; barrfl b
breM'"loI, 55-59. eilllng of. 59-60
f'lilgnesl�m. 181
ma'ta�e m ush�ms. 20
mammal5. 14
insuIatloo, 53, 165, 167. 171-73; wetland. and. 110
Man fOI;119 s"gs (Manlel and O'A;"SIO!, 59
IntensIVe recirculaMI S\'stems, 21, 24. 31-33; \'mple lieslln
m�n,ro�e sWilmps, 22
for, 32-35
",.n..re, 37, 59, 139, 154-55. 159. 214; ch,c�en (OOPS and, 6,
invas,ve spectes, 86
�omoo,t. 113-14, 118; enpr,y and, 139. 154-55. 159,
.r1lt�S, 86
food and, 3-4, 6; Muman willte and, 112-26. 128; wute
iron, 44,48, 70, 105, 171-72. 181 irrigation, 2, 93-95. 99, 104; 011 and. 2
islands. 28, S4. 87-88. 210; flo.ung tralh aI, 84
and.93,130
marine b'od,ver$llY, 22 meJ\. 4-5, 14, 37, 55. 58, 121
Je,usalem al!icho�es, 149
Meg Perry B;Of�med'at1O� Prolect 206 mefcury, n. 181. 200
justice, n. 93, 129-10, 136-37. 107; suuatnabd.ty and, .'v,
me�u;te seeds, 149
>Vli, .vill Lactolu"Jlul, ISS, 190
metal extranion, 193
methanf, 3, 91, 112, 136, 214; d'lester systems for, 40, 1S4,
156-59; ene(IY ilnd U6, 152-56; ponds and, 35, 40, 44
Muico, 46, 61, lOS
236 1
TOOLBOX FOil SUSTAINABLE (!Ty LIVING
m'(IOJIS�e, 39.44-45 m'
m,crobi�' 'Iab,raa. 97 m'Cfob,oIOllt(�1 diverSlty, 112 mi{rocvsM,45 m,croiove.tGci<. 2, 4-5, 13-14, 35. 6-0, 114 ):(or olro {tud(ens "'"roors,n,sms, 29, 34, 80, 105. 124-25; btoremed'a�on a�d. 185-86, 190, 193, d,vers,tv among, Ill: mkroboal h�b,tat' ,md, 97. moJso baCleri;! m,I',4 51 M,II Creek, 209 mineral dlver�IV. 29
nitrous oxide, 136
minerals, 44,47, 199 m,nnows, 29-30. 45,
87
Northeast
molal�s, 58. 186 mQ;ds, 9, 20, 47, 76. 87, 148; booremed,atlon ilnd.
190, 192-
9l. 195. 2{l3 mo elyl"r (ONam,nilnon. 181-82, 184-85, 198 mo�owllUre, 2. 139
More Gardens'. 20a
mOlqu1toes. 29-30, 66
ISraz,lIan 'andiesl wOI�er$ movement), 208
MTS' ("'_thy( tert·butyl ether), ?S rm.rnt'IIl3'1l1el, 92, 97, .122, 172,
Organic farmong AS'iociation, 7
Northern Heml;phert, 52
mo SlurI' retention, 112
MST
nematodes, 11. 112, 185 neodymium magnets, 162-63 net primary ploduction (NPPf. 23 New Mex.co, 7S. 207 New Orleans, 190, 205-6 new urbanism, 211 New York City, 20S mtrogen. 36; aquaculture piants and, 41--42; btoluels and, 123-24.128-29, 146. 1�; COl!l�st and, 112-14 1l6-17; COmpoShn8 tOIlets and, 123-24. 128-29; constructed wetlands1nd, 96-97, 103 nitrosen ollde, 146
180; water purificaoon indo
nutltar power, 138, 166; Ifldustry 10<. 140, 142; reutors for, 141.143 nutrientl. 4, 18, 151. ]14. alg�e and, 45--46; b'Ofemtil,al1On and, 181-82, 189, 192,-19·1-95, 202-3; compmting and, 111-12; humanw�ste and, 121-22, 128, 131; ime.:n and, 55, 59; pond, and, 23, 29, 31, 35, 38. 42-43; �ermi<:omposting anel, liS. 121; wastewater and, 9596, 99, 104, 110; water purification and, 77, 84, 88, 92 nU!I, 4; �a"etie, of, 16 nylon stocking fiher, 102-4
61,,4, 74-17. &0
mUKO'.yduch B mUlh'coml. 2, 4. 59-lb. 198. 214. loS cu,lUre and, 11-21; me:!."ne and, lJI; m�ella and, 198; mvcOfemed.atlon and. 192-96; sttr,le spawn and, 194-95 mycelia, 191; mvcoremedianon and, 193, 196-98; stelile Ipawn method and, 194-95 mycoremediiltion, IS2. 184, 191-95; myCelia and. 197-98; nellie spawn method and, 194-95
my'ar, 11;8 Ni'lJg���e!t turxev, 14 NASA,203
Na�onal Rtsurch CouflCiI, 78 Na�onal Sanltation foundanon, 75, 128 NaflOnal SCience Foundation. 22 Nanve Amef'Cans. 41
136 offgassing. 192, 203 0,1. 49, 56, 58-59, 134-39. 209-10; al,ae 101, 46-47; autonomy and. �� 137-38, barrels and, 81. 84. bloluels and. 139-43, 145-48; bIO�3S and. 153. bioremedlation and, 191, 198, 200, 205; clored·loop �ystems ind, 141-42; compo�ting and, lIS, 121, lood and, 2; global warming anr:r,135�1l7. peak 0,1 and, 134-35, 176; rocket SloYeS and, 174-76; SVO/WVO ind, 143-45; Yeu'e d,esel and,-t42-43. 145-48. See ol!o lossil luels; ocean�21-22,62,65, 94,
pl'troleum
orlan;c material, 3, 80. 93, 97 orsani{�, 2; chickI'M and, ?; standardS fOf, 7 outhou5e5, 124 overh �hing, 21-22 overflow lUbes, 102-4
nilt,,'al,as, 138, 142. 153-56. 173
INOH I
237
o�ygtn, 136; �Qu;t(;ulture anc, 3(}--32, 34; biofuels and, 1Sl, 154, 1S6; bloremedlanon and, 181, 185-86, ISS, 192,
pnyt()'em�dlJ\lon.182. 184, 193, 198-200; pl�"h u�d ;n. '"
203; compost �nd, 115, 113; rocket StoYei and, 174-15;
P"vtoteth Inc. 222n6
wilttr and, 81, 88, 96, 99, 106
p.cke.el .u,h, 8G
oyster mushrooms (Pleuwru. oslrealus/, 18, 192, 194, 196 P'PYflIS, 98 parabolic solar cooker, 168-69 pils�ive compostins, 115-16 passive pond systems, 25-26 passive solar hunnS, 54, 138, 164-66, 171; architecture 01, m puteunution, 197 pathoeens, 42, 122-25, 128, ISS, 159-60; water puri�utlon and, 74-1G, 18-80. SH also bacteri,; W"Mamlnann PCBs (poly<:hlorIlYt
pl�nt�, 3, 7, 160, 214, algae and. 4S, 47, �Quatult"re and, 21, 23, 28-12, 34-18, 40-44, blofue!> and. 139-42.
144.
149, lSI; biO&a� and, 154-55, 159; bioremed,atllln and, 180, 182, 188,192-93, 202-4; blo�helter, and, 50-�2;
compo�\lnB and, liS, 123, digg,ng wellmd\ for, 98;
ed,ble, 16, 24; emer,en! Wpes III, 34; food and, 4, 7, 9, 14-16; graywater and, 105-6, 108, 110; 001 and, 2; phytoremedlanon aoo, 198-201, tree, and, 15; water purification and, 11, 84, 86-81, 95; v.etl.lnd, and,
96-98,101-4 plug�wn.17.20
plumbing, 35-)6, 74, 125, 159, 172; lraVW3!er and. 97-99.
pufowl , 1 3
102, 105-G, 109: punfl(ar>on and, 82-84. ralnwate.
peak fish, 2Z
collection and, G3. 68-69, 7�. 82-84. 97-99, 102,
peak oil, 134-35, 176
105-6,109, 125,159,172
peak uranium, 143
Plymouth Rock ch>eken 14
peat, 142
poison, 2, 27, 59, 190
Fedill Feople, 113
pollln�tlon, 16
perenn;alc.ops, 14-15 periodic table, 18! permacu!ture, l(IIi, XViii, 27, 107 Permiculture Credit Union,-10?
pollutants, 22,48, 62.84, 210; air and, 160: biofufls and, 153, bioremediat;on and. 180, 183. 191. 197,101-3, 20�: lIIater and, 92-94, 96-91, 99, SH II'SO b'o'emed'iltlon;
tontaminanu; to.ins
pesticides, 22, 41, G3, 84, 139, 181; bacteria ind, 76, 78, 011
poIy
ind, 2; W,lSIe and, 112, 117, 121 . pem, 1, 92
potyethyleOf!, 61-611, 10, 106
petroleum, ..i, 2-3, 113, 197; blofuels and, 139....0, 142-43, 148, 153; dep;lwmenl and, 48-49; spills and, 49 �e g/so fossil fuels, 011 pH, 46, 112, 200 pharmaceuticals,94
pOflds, ,vlil, �I&n ffld, 45--'7; ,.qUilculture an-d. 24, 27-31, aquilponlCS Ind, 38-39; blllla, and, 15�-55. bloremedlanlln ,nd, 185-86, lOS; Cil'pet sandwltli and 26-28; cllnmucted wetlands and, 97, 99, 105 design
of, 25-29; intensive r!Circulann. s�tems, 30-35;
pasSive pond systems, 25-26, plants ind, 40, 44; r�lnfall
Philadelphia, Pennsylva,ia, 54, 209
collecnon and, 71, 74; Itocking denlmes of. 35-37: trash
phosphoric aCid, 37
wetlilnds; w�Slewa!er
phosphates, 77. 97. 106, 201
Island, and, 84, 87, S�e IIi)O aqu
phosphorus, 96, 103
potassium, 152
photosynthesis, 30, 192; bacteria for, 190; productivity in, 23
predatDl5, 5-G, 8-9
5u II/SO noet pnmMY Pfoduction photowlulc panels (PV), IG5 ptlfiljmltes, 98
238 1 10OL80X fOR �USTAINA.BLE CITY LIVING
pres\.Ule treated wood, 124
:
pres\.Uli.zatlOn 109, 134 211. biOtal �nd, 156. 158-60; water ..nd, 67-68, 70, 74, SO. 97
property. 21. 51, 119. 139. 152. •08-11; "dyerse p<Melw.m �nd, 208. b.oremed'at'oo �nd, lin, Z02; land access and. 206-8; water and, 62, 70. 71, See also land prole,n. 10-11, 46. 78; aQuacul1.J,IfI� and, 21. 24, 38-39, 42, conversoon ,atlO for. S� in,eels and. 55. 58-59 protozoa, 78, 80. 112. 185 purification, 40. 214; air ano. 202-204; bacteria
roach traps, 56....58 road base, 49 rocke! stove, llS, 173-76 100fl, 32. 65; fl�sher for. 71....73; m�ler,all for. 73. ��e> of, 2 . root network•• IS '�bber, 143 w�of/ n.63.
16,84
Saccharomyce< urevisioe lyeastl,
190
saltwater aqu�cultu,e, Z4 san.lanon, .v,i, 62. 9� Santa Fe, New Me�i,o, 207 Savonius wmdmills. 164 schmutldecke, 80 ,,,ubbe", 3S
rabbits, S, 14 racism, 142. 198 ramfall, .vi,i. 20, 4B, 52. 63 214; b,oremed,a�on and, 186; collection of, 64-68, 75: contamonatlon and, 77: ,aincalch potenMI and, 71-72, 75; roof flusher and. 71-73; solar water heater and. In; uses for, 74-75; water pUfFfication and, 75 rainlorelll, 23. 151 rec,((led bic'((le part wmd l�rbme. 163 red wigglers, 119 refrigerator's, 165, 170-72. 1'12 Relshi mushrooms, 20 _ remediation. 3, 180-82. 184-85. 202-6: air pu(OticatlOn 89; Grove and, 202-4; compost tea �nd, 185.... brownfield and, 209-10; Hurricane Katrina and. 201-6; mushrooms and. 191-93. 1'15-98; mycelia and, 197-98; phytoremedlation and. 19B-201; Iteriie spawn method and, 194-95 rent control, 212 Rhizome Coliecnve, XV"', ....,,', 107, 209; coop aI, 6 rhimmes, 42 rhizomorph, 193, 195-97 rhllosphere, 96. 203 Rhode Island Red chickenl. 10 rice. 41, 43-44, 121, 152 .
nch,20
Rising Tide, 137 RNA, 78
seJfarrng cultures, 21 Sea of Cortel. 63 secu"t�, 53, 64. 88, 142, 206 seed s....mg. 3
lepn� tanks, 124 sewage, :12, �6. 48, B8, '12. 94; b.oremecianon �nd, 205; d;,pola' m�thodl of, 122�23 se....er gales, 97 \�ade, 2, 14. 16-17: b'o5helters and, 52, 54 5�ampoo'. lOS s�eep. 4 s,ee!compo>ti�� 117 • \�owef\, 109 ,,do: bu,ld.ng Iyncirome. 203 I !ver. ,99 ,'nk�. 99. 109 s at�, 13 510.... food nlo.emenl, 1.1 ,:0'"' sand filters, 80 II�rry. 149, 157, 159-160 smart growth, 211 snails, 24, 29. 34, 40 soap'>, '14. lOS, 109 sodium b'carbonale Ibak,ng soda). 4& \oil. 'i'i. 3-5. 7. 214: aquaculture and, 20, 27. 29, 37-38. 41-44; baC1ena and. 184-85; btoremediation and, 180-B3. 202-6; compacting of, 5; compost and. lll-B, 117-19; compo>flng toilet, �nd, 126, 131; compolt
INDEK 1 239
•
tea and, 185, 189; crops and, 14-17; depavenent a�d, 47-49; �nel8Y and, 140, 151-S3. 176; human waste
tar, 73
pnvtoremediation J nd, 198-201; testlng of, 183. 199,
tee valvel, 111
and, 121-24, mycoremed,atioll alld, l92-94, 197-98; 204; wa$lewatl" and. 93-95, 97. 99; water and, 65, 86
talO, 43. 98
tempoculture, 207
'olar COllec\or, �
t�rm preto (dar�, so' I), lSI, 153
>olar energy, 164-67; archItecture and, Ill; cooking wilh,
therator. 161
solar d'�h. 169
166-69; dison/ectJon with, 80, 2201110; pan�l$ for, xi;-�I'I, 138, 162, 165. 210-11, waler heatmg with, 170-72
solar oven, 167; diagram ot 166
thalia. 98
thermal mass, 48, 51, 53, 165, 173, 176
three-w�y valve Ivstems, 97 tidal power, 138
solar p;!neh, �;i·�IV, 138, 162, 165, 210-11
tilapia, 38-39, 4\-42
Southern Hemisphere, 52
tin, 73, 92, 174
wlar watet healer, 170-71
;outll·lacing wall., 54
SOllth (United State�), n space heaters, 9
spawn, 193-94 spifogyra, 155
spirulina.45-46
.lquatting, 106, 208
...tator, 160--61
,terlle .oawn-(olfe� ground method, 193-95 'tocking den5lhel, 23, 29, 36
tilling, 7, 49, 164; oil and, 2
tofu wastes, 113 toMt paper, 124
toil�ts, 74-75, 81, 125-28. 209, 214; mobile 10,let and, 12930.. 5.... olst> compt>lt
total suspended sohdl lm), 106
Toxic S
to. ins, 48, 70, 73, liD, 214; a" pUlihcation and, 202-4; algae and, 45-46; aquaculture and, 22, 2S, 27, 30; bacteria
and, 76. 79; blOlemediation and, 180, 182-85, 189-91,
205-6; compo,t and, 112: degradation of, 112; human
storm wat�r sy>1ems, 94
waIte and, 122, 124; phytoremedial1On and, 198-99,
m�w-bale b�lld'ng, 73. 125-126
201; water purihcJtion and, 81, 84, 105-6 . See also
submergem plants, 35 lubwates, 44. 19S-9S '>ucce!>'on.14-1S lugar. 149
\unfilh, 39
lunAowerl. 141, 148 ,urge barrel. 104 ,urge tanlo:•. 101
sustainabilitv, .,-x,v; autonomy and lvhv,ii
bioremedlation; contaminants; pollutants tran�ei>te"fication, 143 transpiration, 203
tlamportation, xiv, 2-4, 134, 148, 211
tree crops, 14
trellis structules, 16 tripods, 67
tlunami of 2004, 23 tub!;, 101
SVOjWVO lWa'ght vegetable oil/wa5t� vegetilble 0 ,1).-142-
tuolene. 48
swamps, ll, 13, 96
turbines, x�i, XViii, 138, 140, 160-64; cOllltruction of, 223
45; conve(5ion to, 144-45
SwiSS federal Institute for I:nvironmental Science and Technology lEAWAGI. 220nl0
wmbionll, 45
svnthetic fibers, 106
synthetic materials, 92, 106, 143, 146
240
I
TOOLBOX fOR SUSTAINABLE (In LIVING
turb'dlty, 76 turkeys, 5, 12-13 typhoid, 78-79 ultraViolet (UV), 70, 76, 79-80
United States, 51. 62, 80, 144; aqua�ulture and, 39, 41, 43;
water purrfication, 35, 40, 63, 75, 80, 87 Se/' also wastewater water spinach, 38, 44
wind wength' in, 161 United St�tes Department of Agriculture (USDA), 15
waterways, 40, 44, 48, 91. 94, 96, wastes and. 22
uranlum, 140-43; minong for, 141; peak ur'lflium and, 143
weeds, 7-8, 14 West Philadelphia, 209
urban ;lland heat effect. 48
wetland" 23 42, 52, 63; digsing p:ants for, 98; tesnng of, 106,
urbanite, 50
,
las. See also conltructed wetlands
urban plann ing, 49-50 urine, 114, 117, 123, 128-29, 204
while leghorns, 9�10 wildlife anraClor5, 24 wind, ,vi, X.'II, 16-17, 4S, 53, 117; energy from, 137�38, 160�
valvel, 111, 157-58 vegetable" 129, 139, 14S, 166, 209, 214; aquaculture and,
39; bioluel, and, 166, 209, 214, food and, 3-4, 7, 13-15,
61; farms lor, 138, 160; turbine design and, 161-64; wlndmills and, 135
17. 60; human waste and, 129; vegetable oil and, 139,
windbreaks, 14
142-44, 146, 209; water and, 65, 95
windows, 53-S4, 165, 171
veggie die�I, 142-43, 146-49; SVO/WVO and, 143-45
wine ra�k structure, 68-69
ventilation, 53-54, 119, 203
wing clipping, 7-8
vermkompo,t, 37, 118-21, 204; building binI for, 120-21;
winter, 113, 172; aquacullure and, 39, 44, bioshelters and, 50,
52, 54; food and, 3, 6, 9, 15-16
chicken, and, 9 vermiculite, 176
wood chip bio-filter, 515
viruses, 5, 78-79
wood chips, 3, 56, 93, 109, 193, 197
vltamin C, 44
wood chip sandwich, 197
VOC, (volatile organic compounds), 48, 203
wood stove, 54, 176
Vol�,wagen5, 144
Worcester Roots Project. 198
washing machine water, 74, 95-98, 109; cOnltructed
World Water Forum (2000), 62
World War It, 152 wetlands and, 915-99, 101, 103-4, designrng 8raywater
worms, 9, 37, 39, 78, 18S, 214: ca�t;ngs from, 118-21. 185,
214; chldeM and, 9; manure from, 118
sYlteml for, 102-105 waste, 3, 30, 36, 92-93, 131, 214; algae .nd, 45-415; broluels and, 142-44, 146, 148-49, 154; bioremedlation Jnd,
198-99; wllection 01, 113; compost and, Ill; energy and, 171, 176; export of, 91: human waste and, IH�24;
-
wvo (w..ste vegetable oil), 142�45; collecti n@ of, 145; lilterin@of, 146, See also �VO/'lIVO
xylene, 203
susta,nability and, .i, xiii, .iv, .
118-19 ",astewater, 37, 42�43, 515, 73, 76; bioremedration and,
190; eon�tmcted wetlands and, 96�99, 105-6;
environmental justice and. 93; gravwater uses for, 108�
10; reevcling of, 92�9S, 99; su,tainab,hty and, .vi. See also aquaculture; constructed wetlands; ponds
YU([ii Mountain, 142 line, 25, 13 10ning, 72 See a/50 building codes; legalities !ooplankton, 35, 45, g4
water, See aquaculture; wnstructed wetlands; ponds; wastewater watercress, 38, 43, 86 water hyacinth, 35, 43-44, water mimosa, 44
IS5
INDEX I 241
I LLUSTRAT I O N A N D P H OTO C R E D ITS Beth Ferguson: 161 Dave Bailey: xiI', 112 Juhn Dolley: 141 Juan Martinc'l: 9, 19, 34, 48, 55, 58, 61, 72, 85, 91, 96, 100, 127, 133, 148, 171, 177, 187, 190, 191, 199 Juan Martine1, and Beth Ferguson: Cover, 1, 179, 200 Lisa Fithian: 205 Scoll Kellogg: 7, 8 (bottom), 12, 28, 33, 36, 45, 57, 67, 78, J03, 104, 116, 117, 147, 166, 175, 202, 213 Stacy Penigrew: )3 (top), 121, 126, 159 Starhawk: \08, 129
• •
A B O U T TH E AUTH O RS Scott Kellogg is a co-founder ofthe Rhizome Collective and the designer of its sum.inability educational program. He is the organizer and primary teacher of the R.U.S.T: Radical Urban
Sust�inability Training workshop. In addition, Scott has given wor hops on small-scale I""�dical sustainability in locations ranging
�s
from the South Bronl( to East Timor. Curremly pursuing a Masters in environmental science from Johns Hopkins Uni,·ersity, Scott has completed numerous permaculture and ecological design work shops, including a teachers' training. He has a BA from the N
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