THEORIZING LANGUAGE
Related Pergamon books
FIGUEROA
Sociolinguistic Metatheory
HARRE & HARRIS
Linguistics and ...
39 downloads
709 Views
19MB Size
Report
This content was uploaded by our users and we assume good faith they have the permission to share this book. If you own the copyright to this book and it is wrongfully on our website, we offer a simple DMCA procedure to remove your content from our site. Start by pressing the button below!
Report copyright / DMCA form
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
Related Pergamon books
FIGUEROA
Sociolinguistic Metatheory
HARRE & HARRIS
Linguistics and Philosophy
KOERNER & ASHER
Concise History of the Language Sciences
LAMARQUE
Concise Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Language
Related journals
Journal of Pragmatics Editor: Jacob Mey Language and Communication Editors: Roy Harris and Talbot J. Taylor Language Sciences Editor: Nigel Love Lingua Editors: Teun Hoekstra, John Anderson and Neil Smith Free specimen copies available on request
THEORIZING LANGUAGE analysis, normativity, rhetoric, history
Talbot J. Taylor
PERGAMON Amsterdam New York Oxford
U.K.
Elsevier Science Ltd, The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, U.K.
U.S.A.
Elsevier Science Inc., 655 Avenue of the Americas, New York NY 10010, U.S.A.
JAPAN
Elsevier Science Japan, Higashi Azabu 1chome Building 4F, 1915, Higashi Azabu, Minatoku, Tokyo 106, Japan Copyright © 1997 Talbot J. Taylor All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without permission in writing from the publishers. First edition 1997 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Theorizing language : analysis, normativity, rhetoric, history. 2nd ed. 1. Linguistics 2. Linguistic analysis (Linguistics) I. Taylor, Talbot J. 410.1 ISBN 0 08 042577 1
Printed in Great Britain by Galliard (Printers) Ltd, Great Yarmouth
a Suzanne Allaire qui m'a appris le gout du langage et la consolation de Vesprit
This page intentionally left blank
CONTENTS SOURCES AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS INTRODUCTION 1. Enculturating language
1
PART I: ANALYTICAL CRITERIA 2. Scriptism and the analysis of ideal speech
29
3. A Wittgensteinian perspective in linguistics
63
4. Do you understand? Criteria of understanding in verbal interaction
79
5. Communication and literary style: The principle of intersubjectivity
93
PART II: NORMATIVITY 6. Reflexivity, politics, and explanation in conversation analysis
111
7. Which is to be master?
121
8. Normativity and linguistic form
139
PART III: RHETORIC AND HISTORY 9. Why we need a theory of language
169
10. Communicational scepticism and the discourse of order
183
11. Bruner and Condillac on learning how to talk
199
12. The anthropomorphic and the sceptical
223
13. The origin of language: Why it never happened
241
REFERENCES
261
INDEX
269
This page intentionally left blank
Sources and Acknowledgments The papers collected herein bear witness to my development as a theo rist of language. Most of the papers were published previously in various journals and edited volumes over the past fifteen years. Three of the pa pers are published here for the first time. The final paper, published origi nally in Language Sciences, has been extensively revised for inclusion here. Draft versions of each of these papers were presented to audiences at one or more of the following universities: the Universite de Rennes II, Cambridge University, Southampton University, Oxford University, the National University of Singapore, the University of Hong Kong, Beijing Normal University, the Universite de Fribourg (Suisse), the University of Cape Town, Duke University, American University, Carnegie Mellon Uni versity, and the School of American Research in Santa Fe, New Mexico. I would like to thank the audiences who attended and commented on these talks, and I am naturally grateful to the institutions themselves for their invitations to present my ideas to a captive public. It amazes me when I think of all the people whose contributions were absolutely indispensable to bringing this book out. Without their talents, advice, time, assistance, patience, encouragement, and sheer hard work, the book would never have seen the light of day. In the last stages of prepa ration I was supported by the generosity of my department chair, Terry Meyers, and by three editorial assistants he made available to me. First among these equals, I must give special recognition to David Morrill, who shepherded every single page into its final crafted form. Shannon Mouillesseaux arrived on the scene just when I most needed her. She de voted many hours to what must have been an exasperating task of reading, editing, and proofing. I never would have finished the book without her. The same goes for Casey Cornelius who took up where Shannon left off. But I may well owe the greatest debt to my patient and generous editor at Elsevier Science and Pergamon Press, Chris Pringle. I want to thank certain friends and colleagues to whom I am especially grateful for their support, advice, and encouragement: Stuart Shanker, Sue SavageRumbaugh, Barbara King, John Joseph, Roy Harris, Paula Blank, and Gordon Baker. I also want to thank Tessa Harvey for coming up with the right idea at the right time. For institutional and financial support while I wrote these chapters, I must express my gratitude to the College of William and Mary, the IX
Guggenheim Foundation, the Virginia Center for the Humanities, the National Endowment for the Humanities, and of course, Mrs. Louise G. T. Cooley. Like Rosie, my children Annie, Charlotte, and Tolly should know how much I do and always will depend on them—how nothing that I am able to achieve or be would be possible without their trust, support, and love. They are everything to me.
Finally, as many of these papers have been previously published, I want to thank their original publishers for the permission to reprint them here. Chapter Five was published in the journal Poetics Today (vol. 3, no. 4), now published by Duke University Press. Chapters Seven and Eight origi nally appeared in volumes published by Routledge: the first in a collection which I coedited with John Joseph, called Ideologies of Language. Chapter Eight was first published in a collection Hayley Davis and I coedited: Rede fining Linguistics. Chapter Ten first appeared in New Departures in Linguis tics, edited by George Wolf and published by Garland Publishing Inc. Chap ters Three, Four, Nine, Eleven, Twelve, and Thirteen all appeared in jour nals or edited collections published by Pergamon Press. I am grateful to each of the original editors and to the publishers for the permission to collect these pieces, in some cases in revised form, into a single volume under my own name.
Introduction
This page intentionally left blank
— 1 — Enculturating Language Theorizing language can be dangerous. Or, on the other hand, illuminat ing. It may be spelled with an "s" instead of a "z." Or it might just be the last book you ever read on the theory of language. And yet, looking at it there, on the page, it is clear that none of its observable properties—18 black ink shapes against a white background— could resolve this ambiguity. For these properties remain invariant from one interpretation to the next: nothing changes. What then determines, if anything does, how theorizing language can be characterized? We can be sure that no matter how theorizing language is to be charac terized—whether as dangerously misleading, therapeutically illuminating, crassly misspelled, or boring and overpriced—all will depend on how it (that is, theorizing language and/or its characterization) is integrated into the circumstances of its occurrence. Under one set of circumstances, theo rizing language will appear as a kind of discourse (compare: "political lan guage"), under a second as a metalinguistic activity (compare: "studying language"), under a third as a matter of contested norms (cf., "skepticism" vs. "scepticism"), and under a fourth as a culturalcommercial artifact (viz., that which you are holding in your hands). In other words, from one set of circumstances to another, everything changes. Still, in the end, merely recog nizing that it (theorizing language and/or its characterization) can appear under any of various different aspects may be what turns out to have been the most valuable part of the whole experience. Or that was how it seemed to me. All the same, it would probably be better if I began not in the end, but at the beginning.... Unorthodox beginnings At the beginning was language, whose study I began while a graduate stu dent in Oxford. At that time, language theorizing in Oxford was in a pe riod not unlike that experienced by the Parisian population under the
2
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
Commune. An intellectual revolution was underway. Its brilliant and icono clastic leader was my graduate supervisor Roy Harris, an inspiring teacher and a gifted and polemical writer (see especially Harris 1980, 1981, 1996a; also Wolf and Love 1997). Within a year or so after my arrival in Oxford, Harris was appointed to the Chair of Romance Languages and then, a few months later, to the first Chair of General Linguistics at the university. Of course, in leading the Oxford revolution against "orthodox" language theory, Harris drew on the ideas of earlier innovators and iconoclasts, among whom the most important were Wittgenstein, Austin, Moore, Garfinkel, Bazell, and Firth. And he also made use of the energy and still unsullied thinking of his students, for we had not been brought up on the authorita tive traditions, lieux communs, and "commonsense" patterns of thought as had those already trained in one of the various orthodox theoretical schools. Although, like that of the Commune itself, this revolution eventually failed (if, that is, the ultimate measure of a revolution's success is attainment, and retention, of political power) and "normal service" was resumed in the academic establishment of AngloAmerican linguistics, some of Harris' stu dents have turned into the most creative and original theorists writing on language today: including Deborah Cameron, Nigel Love, George Wolf, Chris Hutton, Tony Crowley, Daniel Davis, Hayley Davis, and MichaelToolan (see references to these authors in the bibliography, and to a collection of their papers, listed as Taylor 1997). In those years Oxford language theorizing had the same naive but ex hilarating sense of freedom and radical innovation that is said to have been common during the Paris Commune: "naive" because we, like the "communards" were surrounded by hostile enemy forces who clearly pos sessed the power to render our academic freedom shortlived. Neverthe less, these circumstances did encourage creative thinking. At the same time, we were extremely critical of the ideas of all those who manifested submis sion to the orthodox theories of the ancien regime, the authorities in that tradition most of all: especially Chomsky, Saussure, Searle, Lyons, Dummett, Bloomfied, Katz, and Quine. In my earliest papers, written while I was still at Oxford, my goal was to analyze and critique the theories that were dominant in the study of vari ous language topics: in particular, topics in linguistic stylistics, conversa tion and discourse analysis, semantics, and the philosophy of language. Before too long, however, the focus of my critical attention had narrowed to what is perhaps the main foundational principle underpinning modern theories of language and to the methodological puzzles that derive from the adoption of that principle. This principle is what I initially called "THE PRINCIPLE OF INTERSUBJECTIVITY" (see Taylor, 1981) and which Harris came to
Introduction Enculturating Language
3
write of as "the language myth." He aptly characterized this metalinguistic myth in terms of two main "fallacies." The language myth is the product of two interconnected fallacies: the telementational fallacy and the determinacy fallacy. The telementational fallacy is a thesis about the function of language, while the determinacy fallacy is a thesis about the mechanism of language. Although logically independent, the two fallacies complement each other. Historically, too, they are closely associated. According to the telementational fallacy, linguistic knowledge is essen tially a matter of knowing which words stand for which ideas. For words, according to this view, are symbols devised by man for transferring thoughts from one mind to another. Speech is a form of telementation. (...) The determinacy fallacy, or 'fixed code' fallacy (as it might alternatively be called) provides for the explanation of how the telementational process works, and indeed of how telementation is possible. (...) Individuals are able to exchange their thoughts by means of words because—and insofar as—they have come to understand and to adhere to a fixed public plan for doing so. The plan is based on recurrent instantiation of invariant items in two respects: form and meaning. Knowing the forms of sentences enables those who know the language to express appropriately the thoughts they intend to convey. Knowing the meanings of sentences enables those who know the language to identify the thoughts thus expressed. (Harris, 1981, pp. 910) The Principle of Intersubjectivity assumes both that mutual understand ing, conceived as the product of "telementation," is a regular occurrence and that this regular occurrence is only possible because of specific charac teristics of the language used in the communicative act (e.g., Harris' "fixed code"). Language must "give" us what we "get" through communication (cf., Taylor, 1979 and 1981). I refer to this principle as a matter of intersubjectivity because it represents the use of language as making pos sible the mutual sharing by speaker and hearer of something represented as essentially subjective: namely, what the speaker has to say. Like Harris, I took the Principle of Intersubjectivity to raise at least two major kinds of question. The first of these concerns the nature and determinacy of communicational understanding. The second kind of ques tion concerns the methodological issues raised by the need to analyze lan guage in terms of those very properties which render communicational understanding possible: that is, in terms of those properties by which lan guage "gives" communicators what they "get." It has always struck me as strange that the first kind of question—about the nature and determinacy of communicational understanding—is more or less ignored by linguists
4
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
and discourse analysts (but see Schiffrin, 1994), although it is sometimes to be found in philosophers' discussions of language. On the other hand, the second, methodological kind of question is typically treated by lan guage theorists as a matter of analytical criteria. That is, the question be comes one of devising analytical criteria and procedures which will accu rately distinguish between those properties of language which do, and those which do not, matter to the purposes for which language is used. Another way that this has been put is to speak of criteria for identifying features of linguistic "form" (or "structure"}, thereby distinguishing it from the features of linguistic "substance" (cf., Saussure, 1916). To use a stereotypical example, one might say that in Old English it mattered whether the vowels in some words were given a longer or shorter duration. If the [o] vowel in [god], meaning 'God,' were lengthened to [go:d], speakers of Old English would have taken a different word to have been produced: that which means 'good.' In other words, vowel length was a feature of linguistic form in Old English. However, in modern American English, it does not matter whether one produces a long or a short [o] in, say, the context [n_d]: [nod] or [no:d]; either way, the meaning, 'node' is the same. Another way of characterizing this difference is to say that vowel length was phonemic in Old English—it was a property of linguistic form— but it is not in American English. There were two /o/ phonemes in Old English structure; but there is only one in American English. But how does the linguist identify the (emic) features of linguistic form? How does she determine whether the occurrence of, say, four acoustically different wave forms in the speech of speakers of language L indicates the existence of one, two, three, or four phonemes in the linguistic structure of L? How, in other words, can she determine if those acoustic differences matter to speakers of L? What analytical criterion should she use to resolve this issue? By what method can she identify the properties of language form? Methodological questions of this kind underlie all orthodox forms of linguistic analysis. How is the linguist to determine if two words are the same part of speech: e.g., both adverbs? How is she to determine if the grammatical relationship between words W and X is the same relationship as that holding between words Y and Z? How can she determine whether X and Y have the same meaning? How can she identify the properties of strings of words which determine whether they are or are not grammati cal? A language system is taken to have a formal "skeleton"—structural properties—which underlie its observable characteristics, the phenomeno logical awareness of which speakers of the language reveal both in how they use and respond to the language and in their intuitions, as expressed
Introduction Enculturating Language
5
in their metalinguistic remarks. So called "etic" methods cannot reveal the properties of language form. (For instance, phonetic criteria cannot identify phonemic distinctions.) You need to know what the speakers know—how they "see" the language—to determine what matters in its observable features of substance. Hence the struggle to devise analytical criteria/methods that can identify these prop erties. Types, tokens, and linguistic form One analytical issue which is crucial to all versions of what those of us in Oxford called "orthodox" linguistics is that concerning linguistic TYPES and TOKENS. According to this notion, the sounds ("phones") that we utter, like the marks that we make on a page or on a computer screen and the ges tures we make with our hands and faces, are merely tokens of, or instances of, other entitites—such as words, phonemes, graphemes, speech acts, or sentences. It is these latter entities which are conceived of as the funda mental units of linguistic form or structure. It is they which are said to be the properties of the language system which we speak (e.g., English) or of our knowledge of that language. Whereas the actual sounds, marks, and ges tures produced by communicators are not themselves units of that lan guage or of our knowledge. Rather, they are features of what Saussure called "parole" and Chomsky "performance". Accordingly, in order to understand what someone is saying, writing, or signing, communicators must be able to identify the linguistic types underlying their verbal performance—that is, they must be able to identify the words, phonemes, sentences, speech acts, metaphors, and so on, of which the sounds, marks, or gestures they observe are merely concrete tokens or "instances." For it is only because we identify these underlying types that we can apply our knowledge of the language to determine the meaning/effect/function of what was said. (For a full and illuminating treatment of the type/token distinction and its func tion in language theorizing, see Hutton, 1990). Orthodox language theory embodies a rhetorical structure. And at the very heart of that structure is a metaphysical premise: If I am able to un derstand what you say to me, I must be able to identify the phonemes, words, sentences, speech acts, etc., of which your utterance consists in to ken instances. For once having identified these linguistic types, only then could I apply my knowledge of our language and determine the meanings of those types. In other words, only by this method could I possibly come to understand what you mean in speaking. And no orthodox linguist would challenge the commonsense assumption—encapsulated in the Principle
6
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
of Intersubjectivity—that, all things being equal, we usually understand what we say to each other. Therefore, the use of language as a communica tional vehicle must be based on foundational relationship between perfor mance tokens and linguistic types. In orthodox language theory the con nection between, on the one hand, the Principle of Intersubjectivity and, on the other, the analysis of language in terms of relations between tokens and types is a necessary connection. From the perspective of orthodox language theory, formal types must therefore exist in every language system and must be identifiable by lan guageusers "behind" (beneath, inside, above) the sounds, marks, and ges tures produced in actual verbal performance. It is these types, not the char acteristics of actual verbal acts, which must be the subject of the linguist's analysis. Saussure insisted that this assumption had to be the "point of departure" for linguistic theory. La langue thus has this curious and striking feature. It has no immediately perceptible entities. And yet one cannot doubt that they exist.... (Saussure, 1916, p. 149) Be that as it may, how is this nondoubting linguist to identify the types on which her analysis should be based? What criteria should she use to identify linguistic types amidst the concrete activities of speaking, writing, and signing? And how can the theorist determine whether any given set of analytical criteria are the right ones: i.e., the ones that accurately pick out the types of which parts of speech are token instances? What criterion, for instance, should the speech act theorist use in identifying instances of an apology? Or the morphologist in identifying instances of a word? Or the phonologist in identifying instances of a phoneme? Or the stylistician in identifying instances of metaphor? For it goes without saying: if the ana lytical criteria chosen are inaccurate, then the analysis produced will be equally inaccurate. (See Harris, 1981, Ch.4 for the definitive discussion of this topic). The papers included here in Part One, all written during my years at Oxford, take up and expand on the development and consequences of using particular analytical criteria in the study of language. These criteria, in each case, are the methodological consequences of taking the Principle of Intersubjectivity as an a priori assumption. I have been led to view the arguments in these chapters from a somewhat different perspective today, as I attempt to make clear in what follows. At the time of their writing my goal was to reveal the illusory nature of the foundations on which modern orthodox theories of language are constructed. As such, the arguments they contain both supplement and expand upon themes treated in the two
Introduction Enculturating Language 7
books I published during this period, Linguistic Theory and Structural Stylistics and (with my friend and coauthor Deborah Cameron) Analysing Conversa tion: Rules and Units in the Structure of Talk. Where does language theory come from? When I had finished writing these books, my attention turned to certain themes in the history of Western linguistic ideas. This was to some extent a natural development, as my interest in the Principle of Intersubjectivity had already led me to those Enlightenment language theories in which the modern embodiment of that principle first took form: above all in the language theories of John Locke, the abbe de Condillac, and the Port Royal grammarians, Arnauld and Lancelot. I was first drawn to these theo ries by the suggestive discussions in books by Hans Aarsleff and Sylvain Auroux (Aarsleff, 1982 and 1983; Auroux, 1979). As I studied and wrote about various topics in the history of Western linguistic thought, my interest began to focus more narrowly on the follow ing question: Why does Western thinking about language generate the same topics and the same problems again and again and why do those problems always attract what amount to variant versions of the same unsat isfactory "solutions"? Why do these "solutions" always draw on more or less the same set of takenforgranted assumptions? For instance, what is it about the episteme of Western linguistic thought that causes such theoretical topoi as "the Principle of Intersubjectivity" and the type/token relation— and the methodological problems which they inevitably raise—to appear and reappear in every intellectual period? Why has Western thinking not solved these problems, once and for all, and moved on to other topics? Could it be that the problems which monopolize Western linguistic thought are essentially irresolvable? But why should that be? And even if it is, why haven't any of the indisputably intelligent minds who have worked in that tradition recognized this? Influenced by my reading of Wittgenstein's later works and by the many hours of conversation with the Wittgenstein scholar Gordon Baker, I began to focus on the task of explaining what appeared to be an irresistible dis cursive force—akin to a magnetic field—pulling language theorizing to wards the same topical poles and down the same rhetorical paths. What is the source of this powerful magnetism? In what does its magnetic attrac tion consist? How does it "pull" upon the discourses of language theory? How can its power be resisted? The most straightforward approach to this explanatory task is to look for the source of that discursive magnetism in the literate and intellectual
8
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
practices which characterize the development of Western culture. Could it be those practices that explain the perennial character of the topics and problems which are distinctive of theorizing about language by the mem bers of that culture? This was Roy Harris' preferred explanation (Harris, 1980 and 1981). Although I accepted, and still accept, the importance of intellectual tradition in explaining the rhetorical continuity, even monotony, of Western linguistic thought, I also came to believe that this could not be the whole story, and perhaps not the most interesting one either. An explanation based on historical continuity still leaves unanswered the question why this tradition maintains such a mesmerizing hold over new generations of language theorists. For not only does each succeeding generation work on the same topics and questions which preceding gen erations have bequeathed to them, they also conceptualize those topics and questions in the same way, find them similarly puzzling, and develop for themselves the same unshakeable conviction that those topics and ques tions are so crucially important that any satisfactory language theory has to address them. And, in attempting to address them, they also always begin by taking for granted the same foundational assumptions and by choosing the same directions in which to proceed from those assumptions. It seems, in other words, that the Western tradition in language theory has a com pelling character that goes much deeper than that which it accrues by means of intellectual inheritance. Indeed, the mechanism of intellectual inherit ance would seem to depend on the independently compelling nature of the content of the bequest. Each new generation wilfully, even compulsively, follows the same intellectual paths because of something greater than, or at least in addition to, the authority of those who preceded them. Another way of looking at this is to say that, without the right kind of cultural, educational, and intellectual/authoritative soil from which to re ceive nourishment and grow, the seed that is the rhetorical content of lan guage theory would die. No matter how independently compelling that seed is—no matter how strong its magnetic lifeforce—it will not flourish if the contextual circumstances do not continue to nurture it. Moreover, as those circumstances shift and change, the health and strength of the plant into which that seed grows will vary accordingly. So, while I completely agree with the focus placed in Harris' books The Language Makers and The Language Myth on the cultural, educational, and intellectual circumstances which shaped the development of Western linguistic ideas, I still believe that that focus cannot give the whole story. No plant grows, no matter how nurturing its environment, if the seed itself is lacking. And there are further considerations motivating this perspective. The dogmatic conviction with which theorists in the Western linguistic tradi
Introduction — Enculturating Language
9
tion endow the topoi and rhetorical routines making up that tradition is much more than a matter of belief. Its mesmerizing hold on the minds and discourses of language theorists is more powerful than the mechanisms of intellectual conviction can account for. Here we need to invoke the con trast which Wittgenstein emphasized between "understanding the subject and what most people want to see." Because the distinction between these two is so rarely recognized "the very things which are most obvious may become the hardest of all to understand" (Wittgenstein, 1980, p. 17). There can hardly be any doubt: the struggle against the dogmatic force that is the Western tradition in linguistic thought is a very different kind of conflict than one which may be successfully won by producing reams of falsifying evidence and logical argument. The Western tradition has a far stronger hold on language theory than can be grasped if we view thatepisteme as consisting merely in a set of propositional beliefs which we are handed down from generation to generation. In the second place, once one has recognized the illusory nature of the foundations of language theory, as well as the powerfully compelling force motivating its repetitive regeneration, there can arise an understandable desire to devise a means of neutralizing this power and breaking the illu sory spell. (The radicals in the Paris Commune must have harbored simi larly Utopian desires to reform the basic sociopolitical conditions which in 1870, as many times before, had led Europe into war.) The most obvious way to attain this reforming goal is simply to draw attention to the illusory character of Western linguistic thought: pointing, like the boy in the Hans Christian Andersen story, to its misconceived questions, its questionbeg ging premises, its hollow principles, its misleading puzzles, its patently false "answers," and its mythological "solutions." The problem is that this strategy only rarely achieves the desired effect. The language theorist— and I place myself squarely within this class—has an overwhelming com pulsion to believe that the Emperor is indeed splendidly clothed. In other words, as Wittgenstein pointed out, "what has to be overcome is a difficulty having to do with the will, rather than with the intellect" (1980, p. 17). The magneticlike force which pulls every language theorist into the rhetorical vortex of the Western tradition is not rationally based argument. There is much more—or perhaps it is much less?—to it than that. Consequently, a rationally based assault on the content of that tradition will not be suffi cient to neutralize its compelling power. If proof is needed of this claim, one need only look at the continuing and more or less unchallenged dominance of Western language theory in spite of the devastating arguments of such brilliant critics as Wittgenstein, Garfinkel, and Harris. The rational foundations underlying Western lan guage theory have long since been shown to be completely illusory—and
10
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
yet the structure remains upstanding. The Emperor is still in his castle. Dr. Syntax is still in his study. However, if one succeeds in getting readers, students, etc. to see the topics and questions which characterize that theo retical episteme from a different perspective, to see them differently (under a different aspect), the compulsive power on which its rhetoric draws may disappear. Metadiscourse and "what you should say" Perhaps the most distinctive characteristic of the rhetoric of theorizing dis course is its tendency to impose a descriptive interpretation on the re marks that language users regularly make about their language, its use, and the linguistic interactions in which that language occurs. Reflexive language—or language about language (talk about talk, signing about sign ing, etc.)—is a common and practical resource which ordinary speakers make use of in innumerable ways for a wide variety of discourse functions (cf., Lucy 1993, Heritage 1984, Harris 1996a, Taylor 1992). However, theo rizing discourse interprets these reflexive (or "metadiscursive") remarks as "folk" hypotheses about the underlying facts of language. This amounts to removing the metadiscursive remarks from their various and practical func tions in particular interactional contexts and treating them all instead as primitive and naive versions of scientific propositions (see Chapter 9 be low). One wellknown consequence of this practice of theorizing metadiscursive remarks is the "reification" of metalinguistic noun phrases: phrases such as "the meaning of X (a word, phrase, or sentence)," "the language L (English, Spanish, etc.)," "my understanding (of an utterance U)," "her apology," "the rules (of language L)," "knowledge (of language L)," etc. In other words,because we take it for granted that noun phrases like "the tree," "the car," and "the apple"can sensibly be spoken of as being "about" or as referring to particular objects, it is assumed that these metalinguistic nounphrases are also about/refer to particular things. But what things? Well, the theorist responds, the obvious candidates are such things as meanings, languages, states of understanding, promises, rules, knowledgestates, etc. These may not be immediately identifiable objects "in the real world" but that does not mean they are not "there" all the same. Are there not languages in the world, such as English, Swahili, and Swedish? Don't words have meanings? And if my understanding of what you said is different from your own understanding, what sense would it make to say that there aren't any such things as understandings? For instance, when someone says "The meaning of callous is 'unfeel
Introduction Enculturating Language
11
ing,'" this is taken as describing something that already was a fact before he spoke: namely, the fact that the word callous has a meaning and that that meaning is "unfeeling." (See discussion of reified meanings in Chapter 7). Indeed, even if he had never spoken that fact would still have been part of the "furniture" of the world. Here two reified objects, and a particular kind of relationship holding between them, are conjured into existence: the word callous (as distinct from the sounds produced by a given speaker and transcribable as [kaslis] and its MEANING (describable as "unfeeling"). Or as Wittgenstein (1953, §120) put it—"Here the word, there the meaning. The money, and the cow that you can buy with it." There is a no less important, though less recognized, consequence of orthodox language theory's interpretation of reflexive remarks as descrip tive propositions: the cultivation of a theoretical blindness towards the NORMATIVE function of much reflexive discourse. By means of "normative metadiscourse" (i.e., reflexive remarks used for normative purposes), we tell others, or are told ourselves, how a given word "is to be" used, what a word "should" be taken to mean, what rule we "ought" to be following, what the "correct" way to say X is, why one way of pronouncing a word is "wrong," what you "have to" say when someone compliments you, etc. Lan guage users ordinarily treat linguistic acts as something they value, as some thing whose characteristics matter to them; and they convey—and enforce— this attitude, in large part, by speaking of language and the circumstances of its occurrence in normative and evaluative terms. This is most obviously reflected in the normative metadiscourse by means of which — language is taught to foreigners and children, that expressions or con structions are explained to those who are not familiar with them, — speakers/writers are corrected when they do something said to be "wrong," — these latter will justify their verbal acts should they object to being cor rected, and — the status given to such normative authorities as teachers, dictionaries, acknowledged "good" writers, and the like is signaled and enforced. For instance, when I tell a child that comely means "pleasant to look at," my remark does not carry the descriptive force of a generalization about a behavioral regularity. It has the normative force of a rule. What this means is that, if the child replies that when her friend Johnny uses comely "he means 'nasty,'" I do not treat her statement as I would typically treat counter evidence to a descriptive generalization. Rather I treat it as evidence that Johnny is wrong about the meaning of comely. Assertions of what we should do
12
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
are not typically treated in the same way as assertions of what we do in fact do. Analogously, the rule in tennis that players switch ends after every odd game is not disproven by some players who do not follow that practice: rather we treat what they are doing as wrong, mistaken, and "not good tennis." It is the way we treat the remark about switching ends—how we support it, explain it, justify it, etc.—that could be said to give the remark a normative force. It is this which makes it not the description of a behav ioral regularity, but the formulation of a rule or norm informing us how to play tennis properly. Similarly, language is taught, explained, justified, and corrected with remarks which we also treat as carrying a normative force. Thus it is not in the sounds themselves nor in their syntagmatic combi nation that the normative character of language lies, but rather in the characteristic place we give to the utterance of sequences of sounds in the contexts of ordinary interaction: a place which is carved out in large part by the ways we reflexively speak about those utterances and their contex tual circumstances. If we never spoke of language as if it mattered to us what significance people gave to sounds and written marks, how they chose to combine them, or how they responded to their production, then lan guage would not indeed be a normative practice. But language as such would be nothing like we know it to be. To understand the normative character of language, and so to understand an essential feature of language as a hu man practice, we must recognize its integration into the forms of life of which it is an inseparable component (Harris, 1996a). And one of the es sential methods by which this integration is effected is normative metadiscourse. It is crucial that normative metadiscourse not be thought of as a matter of consensual citation of "what the rules are." Foregrounding the norma tive character of language must not be confused with claiming that lan guage is "conventional." On the contrary while the concepts of "conven tion" and "agreement" have often been used to respond to some of the same characteristics of language that I am here calling attention to, they remain fundamentally misleading ways to account for those characteris tics. Related to this, normative metadiscourse is often characterized as a matter of "negotiation" between the parties concerned; however, it would be more accurate, and less idealistic, to characterize it as involving dispute, coercion, the establishing and exercise of authority, the invoking of rights, the imposition of constraints, the assertion of and subjection to the will, etc. The concepts of "agreement" and "convention" are as much out of place here as they would be in characterizing the society portrayed in Lord of the Flies. It is a moral and a political matter—albeit with a small "p"—
Introduction — Enculturating Language
13
which linguistic phenomena are acceptable and which are not, which are "how we say it" and which are not, and how various linguistic phenomena should be performed, responded to, evaluated, and characterized. It is by means of contextually embedded instances of normative metadiscourse— rather than by "unspoken agreements" or "tacit conventions"—that we es tablish language use as a normative form of behavior and impose and ne gotiate and contest the differential values and constraints that "we" in "our culture" place on linguistic phenomena. In so doing, we lay down and "manage" the micro and macrosocial patterns that are identifiable in a community's language practices and that then come to serve as the analyti cal objects of linguistic description, explanation, and theorization. Verbal hygiene Nevertheless, in language theory of the last two centuries, normative metadiscourse has typically been misrepresented as inessential, periph eral, and supplemental to language. The dismissal of "prescriptivism" is a standard theme not only in linguistic textbooks but also in virtually every contemporary school of linguistic thought. The following passage, from a popular introduction to generative linguistics, is a good illustration of this misrepresentation of normative metadiscourse as merely a matter of the prescriptive dogma of a few dyedinthewool, "old school" grammarians. The rules people learn (or, more likely, fail to learn) in school are called prescriptive rules, prescribing how one "ought" to talk. Scientists studying language propose descriptive rules, describing how people do talk. They are completely different things, and there is a good reason that scientists focus on descriptive rules. (...) [Prescriptive rules are, at best, inconsequential little decorations. The very fact that they have to be drilled shows that they are alien to the natural workings of the language system. One can choose to obsess over prescriptive rules, but they have no more to do with human language than the criteria for judging cats at a cat show have to do with mammalian biology. (Pinker, 1994, pp. 37172) One of the main reasons why normative metadiscourse is almost invari ably misunderstood and misrepresented by orthodox language theories is that it is thought to consist only in the more attentiongrabbing normative and evaluative discourses that are sometimes characterized as "language mavenry," "language purism," "language correctionism," or "verbal hy giene." Language mavenry is often portrayed as "silly" or at least naive: a "traditional and popular pastime" practiced by "enthusiasts" like the Reverand Dr. Syntax, who take a "proprietary interest" in language
14
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
(Cameron, 1995, p. vii). Fortunately, a more illuminating view of this popular kind of metadiscourse is presented in Deborah Cameron's book, Verbal Hygiene. Cameron points out that normative and evaluative metadiscourse is typi cally dismissed as unscientific value judgments which are no more signifi cant than people's judgments about proper etiquette at meals. But she argues that they are much more socially and politically important than linguists usually recognize. As a student, I learned that what lay behind misguided folk linguistic be liefs was simple ignorance and prejudice. Now, although I agree ignorance and prejudice play a part, I take people's continued allegiance to their beliefs (some misguided, some not, and very few of them 'simple') above all as a measure of their commitment to the discourse of value: a discourse with a moral dimension that goes far beyond its overt subject to touch on deep desires and fears. It is important for linguists to acknowledge that there is more to people's beliefs than the ignorance and prejudice that meets the eye; for in order to displace the most powerful ideology there is, namely common sense, it is necessary to grasp its hidden principles and to understand the reasons for its enduring popular appeal. (Cameron, 1995, p. xiii) Cameron argues that verbal hygiene should be an important topic for linguistic research (see also Taylor 1990a and 1990b, reprinted as Chap ters 7 and 8 in this volume). For, in the first place, verbal hygienists actu ally wield a considerable amount of social and political power. (In Britain they count the Prince of Wales among their number: cf, Taylor, 1991.) Their arguments are reinforced by the general view that what the "special ists" say—they who have studied the matter in depth—deserves to carry authority. If the specialists say that a particular way of speaking or writing is "bad" or "incorrect"—e.g., speaking with a "Cockney" accent and dia lect—then, Cameron argues, this sort of opinion can be injurious, in any number of ways, to those who do speak or write in that way. If linguists do not engage with verbal hygienists then these latter will exercise that power without the benefit of or the resistance from all the descriptive knowledge which linguists have amassed. But given the orthodox linguistic shunning of "prescriptivist" perspec tives on language, what results instead is that which the French call a dia logue des sourds. It is not that the two sides in this debate—"descriptive" linguists and "prescriptive" verbal hygienists—disagree on points of fact or even on questions of interpretation. They simply feel that the other side's way of talking about language makes no sense. Someone who be
Introduction Enculturating Language
15
lieves that there is a correct and an incorrect way of pronouncing, that there are right and wrong ways of joining words into sentences, and that there are better and worse varieties of English simply cannot understand the scientific linguist who says that the very first principle of languagestudy is the rejection of such terms of value judgment and of the normative per spective they imply. At the same time, the proponent of scientific linguis tics can make no sense of the arguments of the prescriptivist who thinks that the concepts of "right" and "wrong," "correct" and "incorrect" are of the very essence of language and linguistic knowledge. This situation might not at first seem to provide cause for alarm: there are, after all, other academic disciplines which take among their first prin ciples positions which deny some crucial commonsense belief about their subjectmatter. Economics is a good example, since it rejects the commonsense assumption that material objects have a single true value. But what is different about the dialogue des sourds between the linguistic descriptivists and their prescriptivist opponents is reflected in the very fact that the Prince of Wales has felt compelled to enter the dialogue. Linguis tic issues have gained a growing political prominence in recent years. And yet when politicians turn for advice to the institutional experts on lan guage, the latter withdraw into their ivory towers claiming that the issues themselves, because of their normative presuppositions, are illusory. In spite of years of antinormative rhetoric on the part of academic linguistics, the political significance of normative linguistic issues has not faded. Still, all the linguists have to say about this is that they have nothing to say. So, as Cameron points out, what is most distressing about thejact that there is a dialogue des sourds between political and academic authorities on language is that it leaves the crucial political decisions about language in the hands of politicians who cannot be informed and advised by those who devote their professional lives to the study of language and who therefore should be expected to provide some knowledgeable advice on linguistic issues. Cameron's second point is that linguists need to understand evaluative discourse about language—the prejudices it may be based on and the view of language that it produces—because it is part of the scientific object that they are studying. For instance, sociolinguists have for too long studied social patterns of linguistic variation without paying attention to the rel evant population's attitudes toward the linguistic variables in play. More over, when those attitudes have been taken into account it has too often been as if they only consisted mpost hoc judgments, "folk" beliefs, rather than the actual motivating forces in establishing those patterns and main taining conformity to them. Yet, given that one of the main goals of lin
16
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
guistic research is to explain observable patterns of language, then linguists need to take into account some of the evaluative and normative discourse which participates in the formation of those patterns. Imagine for instance, if linguists studied spelling without paying any attention to the fact that "correct spelling" is taught—by the use of highly authoritarian methods— at school. The normative character of language But there is an even more compelling reason to recognize normativity as an essential feature of language. The concepts of correctness, relative value, and propriety are essential to the human experience of language, and of the contextual circumstances in which language is integrated. Consequently, the scientific study of language must redefine itself and give central atten tion to the normative character of language, not only so that it can avoid the charge of social irresponsibility, but also so that its analyses can have some correspondence to how linguistic agents themselves experience and make sense of language, a methodological recommendation first urged on the modern discipline of linguistics by its founder Ferdinand de Saussure. However, modern scientific linguists (including Saussure himself) have been prevented from following this recommendation because of their un wavering faith in an institutional myth: "the language myth." This myth has many ramifications; included among these is the intentional neglect of the normative character of language. The language myth maintains that linguists, like the practitioners of many other academically respectable dis ciplines, have as a scientific object something which is independent of the voluntary acts of individuals. This object—variously conceived as langue, universal grammatical principles, the sign, linguistic competence, or a particular language system—is not subject to the will of individual agents and is therefore independent of individual and social efforts to constrain the individual exercise of the will. This in turn means that the methods which individual agents adopt to integrate their linguistic acts within the normative (as well as nonnormative) features of the situational context fall outside the purview of modern linguistic investigations. Furthermore, be cause linguistics studies not the linguistic act but the abstract (or psycho logical or Platonic or social) object which is claimed to underlie that act, it ignores the normative influence of society in shaping and controlling the linguistic acts of individuals. Consequently, it makes recognition of the political dimension of language impossible. The position defended in Part Two of this book is that normative
Introduction Enculturating Language
17
metadiscourse is far from being the exclusive province of the few journal ists and authors who complain about the declining standards in, e.g., En glish. It is anything but "alien" and "inconsequential little decorations." It is the life's blood without which there could be no languages, no words, no meanings, no understanding. Some theoretical approaches have recognized the central importance of normative metadiscourse to the understanding and theorizing of lan guage. Normative metadiscourse occupies a central position in the writ ings of the members of the "ethnomethodological" movement: cf.,, for instance, Garfinkel, 1967 and Heritage, 1984. And then there is the con siderable attention given to the normativity of language in the works of Ludwig Wittgenstein. Ordinary metadiscursive "language games" involv ing the use of explanations of meaning, of samples, of standards, of crite ria, and of rulefollowing all provide central topics in Wittgenstein's Philo sophical Investigations (1953). Wittgenstein scholars such as Stuart Shanker, Peter Hacker, and Gordon Baker (e.g., Shanker, 1987; Baker and Hacker, 1980 and 1985) repeatedly emphasize the importance of these and other normative language games to the philosophical analysis of language, mind, and the foundations of logic and mathematics. To my mind, normative metadiscourse is the most appropriate referent for Wittgenstein's idiosyncratic use of the term "grammar," although this would be a highly controversial interpretation and one which cannot be adequately defended here (although see Baker 1992, p. 11718). Still, the general point that I am driving at is that it is, at the very least, misleading to view the "grammar" (in the Wittgensteinian sense), or normative struc ture, of language as something that is internal either to language itself, or to its use. "Grammar" is inseparable from the metadiscursive practices by which language is treated as possessing a normative character. It would be less misleading, therefore, to speak of "grammar"—of the normative struc ture of language—as a characteristic of those metadiscursive practices. Pre sented in this way, the "grammar" of language would appear as a feature of the language games within which we talk about and treat language norma tively, rather than of the sounds, words, and combinatorial sequences them selves. Seen under this aspect, language's normative character is some thing we "fashion" (or "manage") "out in the open"—i.e., in our everyday interactions with our fellow communicators. Measuring language The implications of this crucial point, which are considerable, led my think
18
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
ing back to my original interest in the analytical criteria which are required to identify the properties of language form: i.e., those structural, emic char acteristics of language, the phenomenological recognition of which is sup posedly manifested in every speakerhearer's behavior even though they remain "invisible" to the objective techniques of "etic" analysis. For while language's normative characteristics are best viewed not as internal features of language itself, but as inseparable from the reflexive metadiscourse in which its users speak about, justify, and explain language, this could also be said of the characteristics of language form. In other words, language's formal "skeleton"—its units and the patterned relationships between them— are only misleadingly seen as properties that are internal to language it self, or to the interactions in which it occurs, or to the language that is being spoken, or to the languageuser's mind/brain: and one or another of these misleading assumptions is made by virtually every language theory. Rather, the characteristics of language form are better seen as inseparable from reflexive metadiscourse. In other words, language could be said to have, not an internal, but an external skeleton. It may be that the best way to try to make sense of this prima facia bizarre notion is to approach it slowly, as I originally did, by means of an analogi cal comparison. First, consider the following "first order" analogy. In some respects language can be assimilated to a method of measurement, as Wittgenstein has done. The use of a method of measurement can be seen as a way of giving the characteristics of systematicity, reliability, stability, and interpersonal uniformity to the ways in which we characterize and treat the lengths of objects. If we had no method of measurement to draw on, characterizations of the lengths of objects would vary from person to person and from situation to situation, and they would be unreliable to the point of uselessness. Without a commonly applied method of measure ment what would we be able to say? We could say that THIS stick was "long." But how long? Perhaps the stick we saw here yesterday was said to be "long" as well. Was it longer? Is the stick that Peter has longer than this one? Charles says it is. But is he right? And even if he is right, how much longer is it? And is what Charles calls "long" the same as what Peter calls "long"? Sticks are often said to be "long." But are the same criteria applied in each such characterization? How could one justify a claim that a stick was of a certain length? However, by using the British system of measurement, for example, we can say such things as: — "This stick is one foot and two inches long." — "This stick is one inch and a half shorter than that one."
Introduction Enculturating Language
19
— "Each one in this row of sticks is two inches longer than the one next to it." — "The stick that was here yesterday is three inches longer than this one." — "That stick you measured at home is an inch shorter than this one." In other words, with a system of measurement at our disposal, we have a shared method for formulating finely differentiated characterizations of objects in terms of their lengths—a method that we can rely on to yield comparable measurements from person to person and from day to day, as long as we use ensure that "it is used properly." The language games of determining lengths—which otherwise would be haphazard and situationally and individuallyvariable—can, by the use of such a method, be rendered what would typically be called "efficient," "regular," "stable," and "precise." The overall result is that this language game is fashioned into a finelytuned discursive technique: one which is infinitely more use ful for the task of integrating talk, bodily behavior, and objects into the purposive context of an ongoing interaction. (For the background to this "integrational" conception of communicational interaction, see Harris, 1996aandToolan, 1996.) According to this "first order" analogy, then, we can picture language as, in some respects, a kind of "method for measuring the world": by "world" here, I include all its objects, its events, its "facts," and our experiences of them. Language, from this analogical perspective, could be thought of as providing us with methods for fashioning what we take to be precise, reli able, stable, and interpersonally uniform characterizations of the world. However, I do not want this analogy between language and methods of measurement to be confused with the "linguistic determinism" advocated in the writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. For, from the Whorfian perspec tive, the use of a method of measurement would be seen as causing its users to think differently about lengths than they otherwise would, or even to perceive lengths differently. But whether these are sensible ways to make sense of this analogy would depend on what one means by "think" and "perceive"; and, as is well known, Whorf was never very clear on these points. In any case, I do not want the analogy I am making here to be confused with the general Whorfian claim that language constructs the world or our experience of it. For it would be decidedly nonsensical to think of a method of measurement as constructing what it is used to measure. The fact that we measure stick A to be longer than another stick B is not what causes stick A to be longer than stick B. (If it were, then we would have to acknowledge that stick A was not in fact longer than B until we measured the two sticks,
20
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
which makes it sound like their lengths changed from pre to postmea surement, or that they had no length at all before being measured.) No method of measurement treats measuring as what causes the objects mea sured to be longer or shorter. Moreover, to interpret the method in this way would be to incorporate a contradiction into the practice of measure ment: for the practice of measuring is based on treating the items being measured as possessing their characteristics independently of their being measured. (It would of course be possible to invent a practice which did not operate on this basis—that is, a method which assumed the character istics of length to be given to items by the process of being "measured." But this practice would not be the same as, and indeed would clash with, any of the familiar practices of measuring in use today.) One benefit of using measurement as an object of comparison for lan guage is that this analogy brings to light some important but often ne glected characteristics of language. For instance, consider what a child must be able to do if she is to be said to know a given method of measurement. If she truly knows, say, the British method of measurement, she should know how to do certain things: more than simply recite that "twelve inches equals one foot; three feet equal one yard"; etc. We will expect her to know how to participate in a whole range of contextually integrated practices: namely, those which are required to establish "how long" something is. For example, she will be expected to know that the ruler and the stick which she is measuring need to be placed adjacent and parallel to each other. She should know to keep both ruler and stick still during the pro cess. She must be able to determine the number which is to be read off the ruler in answer to the question "How long is the stick?". That is, she will need to know that the "0" is placed next to one end of the stick and that the number which is read off is that which corresponds to the other end of the stick. And so on. Someone who knows a method of measurement knows how to participate in a organized practice. If she truly knows the method, then she knows what to do with it. And this is not all. For if she truly knows the British method of measure ment, she must know w hat it is in our culture for things to have lengths. In other words, if all she can do, after "mechanically" p erforming the prac tices described above, is insert the appropriate number in a formulaic phrase—e.g., "This stick is feet long"— and yet she doesn't know w hat ways such phrases are put to use in our culture, then she does not really know what measurement is. Nor, a fortiori, does she know the British sys tem of measurement. What I am driving at is that knowing a method of measurement in volves knowing how to engage in a variety of activities as well as knowing
Introduction Enculturating Language
21
how to integrate these activities into particular kinds of culturallydeter mined practices. Assimilating language to a method of measurement, then, is intended to help us recognize that knowing language is more than a matter of being able to construct "wellformed" and meaningful sentences, and more even than being able to use such sentences appropriately in particular discursive routines, or language games. For it also involves know ing how to integrate your participation in these language games into the cultural practices which we recognize as characteristic of "us"—of what Wittgenstein called our form of life. It is by means of these practices that we establish our commitment to and dependence on "what is the case"—about the world, its constituent objects and events, and our experiences of them. And it is by this means that we determine "what to do about it." From the perspective of this analogy, then, language appears as a method—an in teractional technique—by which we may more effectively mediate our par ticipation in the developing circumstances of our form of life and thereby render manageable, valuable, and comprehensible that which constitutes our experience of them. The external skeleton of language Thus far, I have used measuring as a "firstorder" object of comparison, whereby language is seen as a method for measuring the world and our experience of it. Yet, in the context of a discussion of language theorizing, what is perhaps even more important is that the analogy can be given a "secondorder" interpretation. For language can also be seen as themethod by which we measure language itself. As mentioned above, in every language there are ways of talking about language itself. At the very least, there are ways of saying things more or less like saying in English "This is what W means," "This is a W," "W stands for this," "What did you say?," "Say that again," "I don't understand," "He told me to <j>," etc. Every language has a variety of such metadiscursive routines and terms that are used in those routines: e.g., terms such as lan guage, word, mean, understand, sentence, remark, question, persuade, cajole, re ply, complain, argue, disagree, promise, etc. With these metadiscursive rou tines we "measure" language: we characterize some aspect of language as a word, as standing for THIS, as telling you something, as an apology, as a complaint, as meaning X, as true, etc. Therefore if, according to the anal ogy I've been using thus far, reflexive language is like measurement, then the various reflexive terms and routines in English are analogous to the British system of measurement. And measuring lengths with that system is
22
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
like talking about language with English reflexive discourse. It should be no surprise that, just as there are different systems of mea surement, the reflexive terms and routines differ from language to lan guage, dialect to dialect, etc. Alan Rumsey (1990) refers to different sys tems of reflexive language, and the different ways that these reflexive sys tems conceptualize linguistic phenomena, as different "linguistic ideolo gies." Harold Schiffman (1996) uses the term "linguistic culture" to refer to the "all the 'cultural baggage' [that the members of a speech commu nity] bring to their dealings with language from their culture" (Schiffman, 1996, p. 149). Linguistic culture [is] the set of behaviors, assumptions, cultural forms, prejudices, folk belief systems, attitudes, stereotypes, ways of thinking about language, and religiohistorical circumstances associated with a particular language. That is, the beliefs (one might even use the term myths) that a speech community has about language (and this includes literacy) in gen eral and its language in particular (from which it usually derives its atti tudes towards other languages). (Schiffman, 1996, p. 5) Accordingly, just as someone who knows a given system for measuring lengths knows how to go about measuring objects with that system, speak ers of every language know how to characterize and evaluate language according to the reflexive resources of their language. And these practices of reflexively "measuring" language are no less integrated into a cultural form of life than are the practices of measuring lengths. One distinctive aspect of reflexive discourse is its typically interactional nature. How, in a particular set of interactional circumstances, a feature of a conversation—e.g., of what has just been said or of what was meant—is reflexively characterized is typically a matter of negotiation—or dispute, etc.—between the parties to the interaction, and thereby becomes entwined with the management and manifestation of the power relations between them. This is typically unlike the measuring of lengths. There is compara tively less dispute about how an object is to be measured, and so its mea surement is comparatively less a matter of negotiation and dispute. How ever, the reflexive characterization of language varies greatly in this re spect. When we look up a word in a dictionary to determine "what it really means," reflexive discourse is more similar to the stability and uniformity of the practice of measuring lengths; it is much less similar when we dis pute the "implied meaning" of someone's remark. The competent speaker of a language knows not only how language can be characterized reflex ively but also how to engage in interactional disputes/negotiations regard ing such characterizations.
Introduction Enculturating Language
23
In sum, every language user lives in and knows how to participate in a cultural world in which verbal interaction is reflexively conceptualized as consisting in the performance of particular kinds of recognizable and con textuallyrelevant acts. In the Englishspeaking culture these acts include everything from "promising" to "saying what we think" to "mispronounc ing the word W" to "making a joke" to "confessing that I love you" to "speaking with a Tidewater accent." Other cultures provide different pos sibilities. But in each case the inventory and characteristics of these verbal acts are determined by the culture's reflexive practices and by their inte gration into particular, culturallyconstituted activities and circumstances. In turn, we make the properties of our form of life what they are—we give them a cultural identity—by talking about them, and also by treating that talk (including making it the subject of normative metadiscourse) in certain ways. The same is true for our culture's language. Its properties, like that of the culture of which it is an inseparable part, are reflexively created and maintained. Language and culture together make up a single, reflexively woven fabric (cf., Agar, 1994). Our experience of language—"what language is for us"—is therefore something that we ourselves make (fashion, fabricate, form, shape, con struct, manage). And we do so to a large degree by means of making lan guage the subject of culturallymediated metadiscourse. What we know in knowing our language—how "to get about" with and in the language—is knowledge of a "measured" phenomenon: measured, that is, by the appli cation of the language culture's own, reflexive methods of measurement. This is therefore what I mean by saying that language form—language's formal (emic] skeleton—is "external." What matters to us in verbal behav ior is not an independent property of that behavior itself but is deter mined by how we in our culture talk about verbal behavior and about the contextual circumstances of which we make that behavior a part. By this means language is enculturated. For instance, the question whether a string of words is grammatical or ungrammatical is best—less misleadingly—seen not as a question concern ing a property of the sentence itself but rather of how we reflexively char acterize it: in which case, the issues of when, and why, and who character izes it thus must also arise. The same applies to the question whether THIS sound is the same as THAT sound. But I do not mean by this that the string of words somehow takes on the property of being grammatical or that one sound becomes the same as another by means of their metadiscursive char acterization. (Nor does the stick acquire a new property when it is mea sured as "ten inches long," as if it were not ten inches long until it was measured as such.) Rather, what matters is the fact that some (all? some but not others?) of the members of our culture would characterize the string of
24
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
words as "grammatical" or would characterize THIS sound as "the same" as THAT sound. And the same goes for metadiscursive characterizations such as "stands for THIS," " is insulting," "is a question," "explains," "is pro nounced," "is not good English," etc.). The formal, emic skeleton is not something which, by reflexive discourse, we put inside language. Reflexive discourse itself provides that skeleton. We manage our experience of lan guage by means of talking (and writing and signing) about it in particular, culturallyenforced, and interactionallymediated ways. Language enculturated What this means is that when the theorist analyzes language—when he says what its parts are, what its meanings are, what its rules are, which of its features are and which are not the same, etc.—he is not entering virgin territory. The domain into which the linguist confidently strides, bearing his methodological techniques and analytical criteria on his back, is already enculturated. Contrary to what he has assumed and what he had been told in school, the languageusing population is already in possession of a highly sophisticated, vigorous, multidimensional, and robust linguisticcultural "civilization." Indeed, this "civilization" possesses those qualities to a much higher degree than do any of the orthodox models with which the linguist had planned to colonize their language. The language to which the linguist intends to bring the benefits of analy sis is already the product of the language users' own prior, and continually refashioned, analyses. And it is by means of these analyses that the lan guage users give language what for them counts as its form: that is, identify its parts, determine its meanings, lay down its rules, establish what is and what is not the same, etc. These metadiscoursemediated analyses are as much apart of the thing (language) itself as they are about the thing itself. Moreover, these analyses are not the work of some "inner" mental pro cedures, but of the "public" reflexive discourses by means of which the language users themselves "fashion" language as the kind of culturally useful and contextually integratable phenomenon that they need it to be. The techniques and the criteria used in these analyses are—like its normative character—part of the very processes of languagemaking, a making that is an interactional creation of the language users themselves. Whereas the techniques and criteria which the theorist brings to the analytical task have no such foundation. At the same time, the theorist must not forget that the reflexive enculturation of language is not a product, already "in place" (i.e., what Humboldt, 1836, referred to as ergon); rather, it is a matter of energeia—a continuously ongoing, creative activity (cf, Harris and Taylor, 1989, Ch. 13).
Introduction Enculturating Language
25
As such, it is socially contested, differentially valued, variable, and insepa rable from its participants' purposes, prejudices, and desires. It is, in short, the creature of its integration into cultural circumstances. Moreover, reflexive discourse is itself the subject of reflexive discussion, dispute, and determination. We explain, pass judgment on, object to, make fun of, characterize, etc., our own and others' metadiscursive remarks just as we do our own and others' "first order" language. In other words, the nor mative skeleton of reflexive discourse itself is no less external and no less a creature of the cultural circumstances than is that of language itself. Accordingly, the theorist of language cannot afford to ignore the prior enculturation of his analytical object—language. Nor can the characteris tics of that enculturation be bracketed away or left to one side while the theorist gets on with his parallel—but "more objective" and "unbiased"— analysis, employing "scientific" techniques and criteria. For the inevitable consequence of such a decision will be that the theorist's discourse ends up being about an analytical object which is not that which he had set out to ana lyze: i.e., not the component features, meanings, rules, speech acts, etc., of the culture's language. Instead, the theorist's analytical object will be a con struct of his own "scientific" metadiscursive practices, as generated by the normative imposition of his own methodological techniques and criteria. The rhetorical path leading into this culdesac is traveled repeatedly in the discourses that constitute the Western tradition in language theoriz ing. Some illustrative examples are examined in the chapters that follow. But there are countless other objects of analysis—from languages, dialects, standard languages, writing systems, and accents to meanings, sentences, grammaticality, speech acts, turntaking structure, relevance principles, etc.—which could just as effectively have been used to illustrate the rhe torical consequences of ignoring or "correcting" the language users' own metadiscursivelymediated analyses of language. But the general point re mains the same: the language user's own reflexive analysis of linguistic phenomena is an inseparable component of the very object which the theo retician intends to analyze. To ignore or "correct" that enculturating analysis, or any part of it, is therefore to alter, or at least render invisible, the object of analysis itself. It amounts, as the cliche goes, to throwing the baby out with the bathwater.
This diagnosis of the rhetorical disorder plaguing Western language theory is motivated in my 1992 book Mutual Misunderstanding: Scepticism and the Theorizing of Language and Interpretation. Its chapters characterize
26
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
the various means by which Western language theory has misunderstood the role of language's inherent reflexivity and the consequences of that misunderstanding. The result is both a study of rhetoric as well as an exer cise in what Wittgenstein called philosophical "therapy," addressed to the compulsively regenerating source of the misunderstanding. In my most recent work I have been examining the rhetorical effects of this misunderstanding on the study of the acquisition of language (cf., Sav ageRumbaugh, Shanker, and Taylor, in press; Shanker and Taylor, in press). Theoretical accounts of language development—whether in childhood, in apelanguage projects, or in human evolution—typically presuppose that what all wouldbe language users must acquire, if they are truly to become linguistically competent, is an embodied form of this conceptual illusion that Western language theory calls "language". In other words, the proper ties of this "what must be acquired" are, unsurprisingly, precisely those which, according to the rhetorical misunderstanding described above, Western linguistic thought has theorized into its selfconstructed analytical object. The general perspective that informs the papers published here assumes that we must look not only to history and intellectual traditions to explain why theorists today (or at any time) conceptualize language as posing cer tain kinds of theoretical problems, but also to the powerful rhetorical incli nations that engender and nurture this conceptualization. The argument behind this assumption is defended at length in Mutual Misunderstanding and, in a condensed form, in Chapters 9 and 10 below. The consequences of these rhetorical inclinations manifest themselves across the widest pos sible range of language subjects: from such "core" topics as grammar, se mantics, speech acts, and pragmatic understanding to the "hyphenated" topics of language acquisition, language variation, the origin of language, primate communication, stylistics, and language change. In what follows, the chapters addressing these topics are intended as illustrative examples of a therapeutic approach to the compulsive rhetoric which constantly re generates the intellectual episteme that is Western language theory.
Part I: Analytical Critera
This page intentionally left blank
—2—
Scriptism and the Analysis of Ideal Speech Jourdain: Et comme Ton parle, qu'estce que c'est done que cela? Maitre de Philosophic: De la prose. Jourdain: Quoi, quandje dis, Nicole, apportezmoi mes pantoufles, et me donnez mon bonnet de nuit; c'est de la prose? Maitre de Philosophie: Oui, monsieur. Jourdain: Par ma foi, il y a plus de quarante ans que je dis de la prose, sans que j'en susse rien; et je vous suis le plus oblige du monde de m'avoir appris cela. Moliere, Le bourgeois gentilhomme
Monsieur Jourdain is not the only one who has been misled by the intellec tual authorities. Language theorists of all types typically treat a certain type of speech phenomena—such as silent pauses, filled pauses ("um," "er," etc.), repetitions, etc.—as errors. These "discontinuities" are repre sented as disrupting the ideal fluency of the speaker's utterance. Accord ingly, various language theories have represented discontinuities as the product of nonlinguistic faculties at work in the speaker's mental process ing of "what he is going to say." Others have argued that speakers and hearers required special psycholinguistic processing strategies and discourse devices to keep discontinuities from putting the success of the communica tion process in peril. Repair mechanisms, errorcorrection devices, and editing rules are instances of the kind of remedies that have been pro posed. Their purpose is supposedly to "patch up" the communicational damage, real or potential, which is the presumed consequence of errors of discontinuity. However, why is it that discontinuities are taken to be errors of speech performance? Why do both descriptive and theoretical linguists "edit out"— i.e., discard—such discontinuities from their analytical objects? (No self respecting grammarian would include a filled pause or repetition in the sentences she analyzes.) Should discontinuities be treated as nonlinguistic phenomena whose investigation and explanation properly falls outside of the disciplinary domain of linguistics? Are the speech phenomena catego rized as "discontinuities" not in fact amenable to the same sort of analysis
30
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
that linguistics typically performs on the other, more commonorgarden features of speech? And if not, what does this say about discontinuity phe nomena? More to the point, what does it say about the analytical tech niques on which linguistic theory is founded? Another question may serve to indicate the way to proceed: Why does Jourdain always get what he wants when he calls for his pantoufles and bon net de nuifi The concept of discontinuity Three characteristics of speech discontinuities are immediately apparent to the inquirer. (i) The first of these might well be considered as a defining characteris tic of the notion of discontinuity: discontinuity does not occur in written language. For example, it is not to be found in any of the standard regis ters of fictional narrative, travel brochures, personal correspondence, the sis writing, press statements, etc. Discontinuity, unlike sequential arrange ment, syntactic marking, and so on, is normally "filtered out" of written language even when the latter is intended to be an account of what a speaker has said (such as in court transcripts). In this respect discontinuity is like many of the features of spoken language, including intonation, rhythmic grouping, and articulation rate. And yet all of these, along with disconti nuity, are commonly occurring features of the speech acts we regularly perform in communicational interaction. The following is a transcription of part of a conversation between two middleaged married couples. The subject is pigs. The transcript, edited by Crystal and Davy (1975, p. ), makes use of a simple system for the nota tion of the notation of tone unit structure (explained on p. 17 of Crystal and Davy, 1975). At least some of the discontinuities are not edited out. 1. Ithey ARE re'volting lAREN'T they al I though 2. a t friend of OURS who . w was Iso . 3. I passionately FOND of PIGS that he 4. 'came . Ihe came from NORFOLK you ISEE 5. and he Icame to the er I MIDLANDS er to 6. ITEACH and he I Ithink he was tvery SAD 7. for the . the Host 'fields of t NORFOLK or 8. SOMETHING belcause when I ever we were OUT 9. he would Istop the CAR if lever he 'saw . 10. 'or SMELT Isign of a PIG
Scriptism
31
There is nothing which strikes the listener as out of the ordinary about the speech of which this extract is a transcription. A recording of the actual conversation from which this passage was transcribed may be found on the cassette which accompanies the Crystal and Davy text, extract 4. It does not give the impression of being anything but normal, spontaneous, con versational speech. (Indeed, the speakers were, according to the editors, unaware of being recorded.) And yet, the first reaction the reader of this transcript has is that it is not normal written language. Even as written dialogue, it strikes a reader as out of the ordinary. This is primarily be cause of the transcriptionists' efforts to translate into written form many of the features of ordinary speech which are not part of the written language code. A similarly confusing transcript would be produced if one tried to mark down all the kinesic aspects of a conversation. But this would prima rily involve adding features to the written text, while not really transgress ing the conventions of written language. In the text above, because of the inclusion of discontinuities and other "performance errors," the result is a passage which does not conform to the grammatical conventions of writ ing. It may be best to identify some of the standardly mentioned discontinuities in the above passage. We may start by pointing out the two filled pauses on line (5): er. The second of these filled pauses is preceded by a silent (or "unfilled") pause. Because this silent pause is marked by one hyphen it is said to have a duration of one full conversational beat. The full stops after who and 50 in line (2) indicate silent pauses shorter than one full beat. Such filled and silent pauses are often referred to simply as "hesita tion." There is an instance of what is often called a "false start" on line (6): and he I think he was . .. This is called a "false start" because one interpreta tion of such phenomena holds that the speaker starts to say one thing and then, deciding against a continuation of what he has begun, he discontin ues and starts a new sentence. Some researchers will also call the sequence who . w was in line (2) a false start. In this interpretation, the speaker is taken as beginning to say was, discontinuing, and then beginning again. Others might call this an instance of stuttering and still others a case of selfcorrection or repetition. The lack of a unifying terminology is itself indicative of problems in the analysis and interpretation of discontinuity features. An instance of what researchers would call a simple repeat occurs in line (7): the . the. A longer repeat is found running from line (3) to line (4): that he came . he came. Finally, it should be noted that, if one takes although at the end of line (1) as the beginning of a sentence or major clause, that sentence or clause is never completed. It is, in a sense, abandoned on line (3) after so passionately fond of pigs that . Some researchers would say that
32
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
what follows the quoted sequence is a "repair" on that sequence. In this case, since it is the speaker who performs the repair, it would be called a "selfrepair." It is significant that the decision, if made, to take the clause begun by although (line 1) and ending at pigs that (line 3) as abandoned is not based on grammatical criteria; for what follows could, strictly speak ing, be a grammatically adequate completion of the clause begun by al though. That is, although a friend of ours who was so fond of pigs that he came from Norfolk is a perfectly adequate subordinate clause, if perhaps a bit of a slur on the inhabitants of Norfolk. Furthermore, although one might claim that the sentence or clause begun by although (line 1) is abandoned by line (3), it is clear that the meaning of that clause is not lost. If it had been lost there would be no pronominal reference for the he in lines (3), (4), (5), etc. Nor would it be clear that it was because the friend was fond of pigs that he stopped wherever he saw one. Indeed, for the logic of the passage to be complete the "abandoned" clause must be taken as a premise. The fact that, as far as the communicational success of the passage is concerned, no obstacle has been raised by the speaker's "hemming and hawling" stands in contrast with the term "performance error" used to designate individual features of that performance. A major question is thus raised: how can a speaker's performance be said to fail through discontinuities, and yet re main communicationally successful? While it is true that the speaker fails to produce a sequence of sounds which may be straightforwardly transcribed into a grammatical sequence of written language (i.e., in terms of sen tences), the relevance of this "failure" to the success of the speech perfor mance is to be questioned. (ii) A second important characteristic of discontinuity is that we do not often talk about it. That is, although we—i.e., as ordinary speakers of En glish, rather than trained linguists—often talk about the meaning of what someone said, or the style in which it was said, or the grammar of its con struction, and so have developed a terminology to be used in these metalinguistic language games, we rarely talk about the continuity or dis continuity of an utterance. (The exception here is when reference to a speaker's stuttering or laboriously drawn out articulation is discussed. When discontinuity approaches or attains the pathological, it becomes a topic of common interest.) Consequently, English has not developed an organized terminology for talking about discontinuity. This situation has important implications. In the standard "core" domains of orthodox linguistics—pho nology, syntax, semantics, etc.—the theories developed by linguists must stand up to the theories represented in the everyday language games re ferring to the phenomena in these domains. As a result, semantic theory,
Scriptism
33
for example, has been profoundly influenced by the fact that ordinary lan guageusers have various metadiscursive routines for talking about the meanings of words and the relations between wordmeanings. "Here, this is what hardwood means" someone will say, holding up a piece of hard wood. Another will say "Anxious means 'worried'" in order to explain the meaning of the word anxious. The influence of such ordinary, everyday metadiscourse is inescapable. The semantic theory which is not able to present itself as being in agreement with such language games, or is un able to give good reason why it is in disagreement, has little chance of being accepted even within the academic community. For this community itself is made up of ordinary languageusers and, so, ordinary metalinguists. Our theories of language, like our theories, of social behavior in gen eral, could be said to grow out of what we already know about language and social behavior, knowledge which is manifested in the language games we use for talking about language and behavior. A semantic theory which was not in agreement with our language games about meaning would not ordinarily be thought of by scholars whose "intuitive knowledge" of mean ing is already framed by those language games. For example, there could be no linguistic theory as we know it which did not presuppose something very much like Bloomfield's "fundamental as sumption of linguistics." In certain communities (speechcommunities) some speechutterances are alike as to form and meaning. (Bloomfield, 1933, p. 144) On this assumption is based the notion of a typetoken relation holding between the language system and speech. Without it, the linguist's chosen subject—the language system said to underlie verbal behavior—would be conceptually incoherent, not to say, irrelevant. Now, Bloomfield did not formulate this fundamental assumption simply for the purpose of invent ing a discipline. Rather, the assumption is grounded in the way everyday languageusers will ordinarily talk about each other's verbal behavior. Chris says "The volume is too low." Gill asks Susanne "What did Chris say?" Susanne replies "Oh, he said 'The volume is too low'." Then Gill, "Well, we'd better turn it up then." In this imagined interaction what Susanne replies is taken by Gill to be the same thing as what Chris said and to have the same meaning. The fact that, due to the different shape of her vocal trace, Susanne's utterance was not an identical copy of Chris' utterance is ignored by Gill. Instead, the linguist would say, she takes Susanne's and Chris' utterances to be tokens
34
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
of the same type of speech unit and, so, to mean the same. Gill reacts to Susanne's utterance as if its meaning were identical with that produced by Chris. This example is intended to be taken as typical of ordinary conversa tional interaction. It is on the basis of such typical interactions that the theoretician conceptualizes an underlying structure to human verbal be havior, in this case, a typetoken relation linking specific utterances to sen tences of the language system. In the context of such ordinary interactions Bloomfield's fundamental assumption seems a perfectly straightforward, even commonsense, conclusion. Yet we must not lose sight of the fact that, without such a context, such an assumption would amount to prejudging most of the important questions of linguistic inquiry. In light of the way we talk about other people's talk, Bloomfield could not have been expected to formulate any other "fundamental assumption." Since the topic of discontinuity does not figure in our metalinguistic language games in English, there is a greater freedom allowed to the in vestigator who is constructing a theoretical account of discontinuity in speech. It is important to note that this is a result of our cultural condition ing as English speakers. A linguist from a different culture might not be so free. For instance, since in Tzeltal there appears to be more metalinguistic means for talking about discontinuity, the Tzeltal linguist could be expected to be more restricted in how he theoretically conceptualizes discontinuity phenomena. In his 1974 article "Speaking of speaking: Tenejapa Tzeltal Metalinguistics," Brian Stross presents evidence that the ordinary Tzeltal speaker has the ability to discuss discontinuity with a wide variety of com monplace metalinguistic tools. This makes it easier for the Tzeltal speaker to incorporate remarks about discontinuity into her ordinary metadiscourse that is the case for the speaker of English. Stross lists at least the following expressions which the Tzeltal may use in talk about discontinuity. $'akbil k'op: speech that has been continued; conversation continued af ter a pause. ' abal k'op: silence or near silence (during conversation or a visit); pause in a conversation. keh em k'op: speech cut off (in midstream) by speaker. k'ohkol k'op: speech cut off in midstream, midsentence, or midword by the speaker. t'isebil k'op: speech interrupted by someone else speaking tu bil k'op: speech interrupted by someone else speaking. t'ihsem k'op: words that won't come out: words that are blocked by some problem internal to the speaker. sohol k'op: incompetent or nonfluent speech: not being able to say what one wants to say. (Stross, 1974, pp. 22839)
Scriptism
35
What this list shows is that for one culture, the Tzeltal, the metalinguistic concept of discontinuity is perfectly ordinary and familiar. Indeed there are many different types of discontinuity for the Tzeltal speaker to speak about. Her conceptualization of language—or, perhaps more appropri ately, verbal behavior—is thus fundamentally different than that of En glish speakers for whom the topic of discontinuity is not a feature of their ordinary metalinguistics. It is perhaps unfortunate that we have no more technical accounts by a native Tzeltal linguist of what a language is, how it is learned, and what the role of discontinuity is in communication. If we did have a Tzeltal equivalent of Bloomfield's Language or of Chomsky's Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, we might—among other things—be able to observe the effect on theory of a different cultural metalinguistics of dis continuity and "performance errors." Since, in English, we do not ordinarily speak of discontinuity, the inves tigator into this topic is relatively unconstrained. This means that it is easy for the orthodox linguist, or psychologist, or sociologist to appropriate the notion of discontinuity for her own purposes. Thus we find very different discontinuity theories arising out of what are considered to be more cen tral concerns in psychology, sociology, and linguistics "proper." Sociolo gists have explained discontinuity in such a way that their account con firms what they see as more central sociological theories. Psychologists have used discontinuity as evidence for theoretical accounts of psychological processes. In turn, linguists have "explained" discontinuity in away which suits theories considered to be of greater import to linguistics "proper." The theories which have thus been developed do not agree with one an other. Often the central concepts of one theory appear totally incommen surate with those of another. The normative anchor, which an ordinary metalinguistics of discontinuity might have provided, is absent. The only link with commonsense techniques which all the theories can trace is the practice, discussed above, of excluding all discontinuity from writing. Dis continuity, in so far as it is a general feature of language, belongs only to the spoken medium. Every theory of discontinuity, regardless of its disci plinary background and assumptions, must take account of this. Thus, al though the concept of discontinuity does not have a firm normative foun dation—such as have the concepts of meaning, grammar, style, etc.—in the reflexive practices of practical metadiscourse, nevertheless its founda tion is that of a metalinguistic practice: the literate practice of transposing spoken language onto the page. This metalinguistic practice, and the nor mative contexts within which it is acquired, underlie all the current theo ries of speech discontinuity. (iii) A third important characteristic of discontinuity is that much of it
36
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
does not appear to exist, at least not in the way that other features of lan guage and languageuse—words, intonation, sentences—are said to exist. A common focus of discontinuity studies has been the silent pause. In the most general sense, a silent pause can be said to occur when the speaker is not speaking. So a pause has no linguistic substance. The pause is merely silence. However, all silence does not constitute pausing. In the empty quad where no speakers stand, there are no pauses. An absence of speech does not fulfill the criteria we employ in calling something (or nothing) a pause. The notion of the pause is intrinsically related to its opposite: fluent or continuous speech. When there is no question effluent speech, e.g., the empty quad or a couple fast asleep in their bed, then there is no question of a pause in speech. It would therefore appear that the pause, like the related notion of discontinuity, must be defined in relation to its opposite: fluent or continuous speech. Each is what the other is not. Because the pause is the silence between what are analyzed as the "real" units of speech, it is not analyzable in the same way as are those "real" units, such as words, vowels, consonants, phrases, etc. While, say, a particu lar vowel sound is observable and even measurable along a variety of di mensions—length, fundamental frequency, pattern of formants, loudness, timbre, etc.—the pause only has length. What happens between the begin ning and the end of a pause is, compared to vowel sounds, very simply described: nothing. This makes the pause unique among the significant parts of the act of utterance. It also makes it generously amenable to theo retical speculation. Since there is nothing to observe in the pause, apart from its beginning and its end, there is virtually nothing, no data which can serve to falsify any theory of the pause. This is another reason why the pause has proven to be fertile ground from which a variety of mutually contradictory theories have grown. A problem of identity In his paper, "Some acoustic and grammatical features of spontaneous speech" (Martin, 1971), James Martin discusses the Englishspeaking hearer's perception of certain discontinuities (silent pauses, filled pauses, repeats, and false starts). His work is based on the assumption that, in decoding the incoming speech signal, the hearer edits or "filters out" pauses and other discontinuities because they give false information about the speaker's message. They give false information in the sense that they do not correspond to the form of the speaker's intended sentence and, if inter preted as so corresponding, the unedited message would be a distortion of
Scriptism
37
that intended sentence. To test this hypothesis, Martin developed a series of experiments in which hearers were asked to reproduce a speaker's utterance. Sometimes the subjects were explicitly told to reproduce the pauses in the utterance. At other times, no mention was made of the pauses. Nonetheless, in all cases what Martin calls a "hesitation shift" was observed. That is, in their reproductions of the original utterances, the hearers tended to reproduce fewer of those pauses which were between major constitutent boundaries and produce more, even adding some pauses, at constituent boundaries. The "shift" observed, then, is from (socalled) hesitation pauses at con stituentmedial positions to juncture or grammatical pauses at constituent boundaries. The more the subject were obliged to pay attention to the content of the utterances, the greater was the hesitating shift. The ordi nary listening situation, i.e., when hearers concentrated on content rather than on the precise location of pauses, seemed to produce a relative uncer tainty about the location of the pauses (Martin, 1971, p. 48). It would not do to rely too heavily on these experiments since their only indication1 of how the hearers perceived the incoming speech lies in how the hearers reproduced that speech. There was no control possible on the variables which might come between perception and subsequent repro duction. However, there is at least a fairly strong indication that what might acoustically be defined as a discontinuity is not necessarily identical to what might be auditorily or communicationally so defined. That is, there is evi dence that there is no onetoone correspondence between "real" discontinuities and what might count as a discontinuity in communication. As this is a familiar dilemma in the interface between acoustic phonetics and linguistics, it is interesting to compare this evidence with the emic/etic distinction as used in orthodox phonology. In the same way that the acous tic definition of discontinuity appears not to correspond to a definition of discontinuity based on communicational significance, the phonologist has found great difficulty in defining phonemes in purely acoustic terms. It appears that the variation can be too great between what the phonologist would claim to be two instances of the same sound. In other words, j ust as the subjects in Martin's experiments appear to alter the location of discontinuities, ordinary hearers are said to disregard differences between acoustic signals in treating those signals as tokens of the same phoneme type. There is no determinable correspondence between what language users treat—e.g., speak of—as communicationally identical sounds and what sound spectrograms tell us about the acoustic nature of those sounds. It is on this ground that the difference between the phonemic and the pho netic is based. Consequently, the phonologist studies the phonemic differ
38
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
ences in a language, as evidenced in the communicational behavior of the speakers of that language, without relying on an acoustic basis for identify ing those differences. Is such a solution possible for discontinuities? The methodological import of this question should not be ignored. The issue at hand is not simply rephrasable as the following "Does the ordinary hearer in everyday speech situations perceive the same distinctions on the acoustic signal produced by speech as we, scientific observers, do?" Al though this question is, in itself, of no small importance to the study of verbal behavior, there is more to it than that. For the issue lies on the border between theory and method. The languagetheorist has to do more than simply give conceptual defi nitions of the terms of her theory. If she wants her theory to be of any practical use, she has to give "instructions" as to how her theory is to be applied in the analysis of what is observable in language behavior. That is, in addition to defining the term X as "a kind of (j)," the theorist must give some indication to those analysts who are to employ her terminology as to how to recognize if and when an X occurs. The notion of the phonemic would not have gained the familiar use which it has if it had simply been defined (e.g.) as the minimal unit of language structure. For the notion of the phoneme to be a practical methodological tool, a procedure must be given as to how to identify phonemes. To the (greater or lesser) satisfaction of linguists, the practice of contrastive phonemic analysis fulfills this re quirement. It is possible for the phonologist to take the notion of the pho neme and apply it, by means of contrastive analysis, to observable verbal behavior and come up with some sort of (more or less) acceptable analysis of that behavior in terms of its minimal phonemic units. Theory is trans lated into practice. The phonologist's distinction between the phonemic and the phonetic relies essentially on the language user's metalinguistic ability to distinguish the meanings of the expressions of his language. That is in order to find out the phonemic contrasts in a particular language the linguist must find out from the users of that language which phonetic (acoustic or articulatory) differences in the speech of that language can serve to make two expres sions different in meaning. It may be irrelevant to the phonemics of the language if e.g., a particular medial vowel is pronounced a variety of ways as long as no two of those varieties, substituted in the same contexts, could lead to a languageuser saying that the two expressions do not mean the same. For instance, the sound /ae/ may be pronounced differently by differ ent speakers and in different sequential as well as situational contexts. (Con sider the difference between the pronunciations of/as/ in "Is that contrap tion what you call a /haet/" and in "Yes, it was my mother's /hast/".) How
Scriptism
39
ever, this does not mean that two different phonemes are involved, since in spite of the different sounds produced in the context /h t/ the sequence / haet/ will be characterized as meaning the same, regardless of which sound is substituted. In other words, while phonetic differences may be identified on an acous tic or articulatory basis, such differences do not count as phonemic unless they may be seen to contrast from the perspective of meaning differentiation. Phonetic differences which do not serve to differentiate between expressions do not have phonemic status. They are not held to be linguistically significant. We might imagine applying this etic/emic distinction in a similar way in order to differentiate between different types of discontinuities. Some re searchers, on a fairly arbitrary acoustic basis, have chosen 0.25 seconds as the limit which distinguishes between the pause and the nonpause silent interval. This was the length chosen by GoldmanEisler in many of her studies of pausing in English speech (cf., GoldmanEisler, 1968). The pro fessed purpose in drawing such a boundary is so that the interval pro duced by a stop consonant can be excluded by definition from the class of pauses. Of course, GoldmanEisler did not pick such a figure randomly. Altogether we may consider three types of gaps at which articulatory move ment comes to a halt. There is (1) the discontinuity of phonation which occurs in articulatory shifts, e.g., when two plosives or stops follow each other (e.g., top part, tat tat). In such a case the breath stress is completely stopped and then released anew. (2) There is the discontinuity of phona tion which is unrelated to any requirements of the articulatory processes themselves and is due to hesitation, and (3) there is the gap in speech when the phase of expiration comes to an end and a new supply of air is inhaled. The first phonetic stoppage is part of articulation itself and the gaps in phonation are determined by the need to adjust the position of articula tion. To be quite certain that no such gaps are included in our record, breaks in phonation of less than 0.25 seconds were not considered as discontinuities. This might mean the loss of some data, but it ensures that clear separation of hesitation pauses from phonetic stoppages. (GoldmanEisler, 1968, p. 12) What is implied by the criterion of 0.25 seconds is that there are no silences due to the speaker's actual hesitation which are shorter than 0.25 seconds and that any silence longer than 0.25 seconds is either due to breathing requirements or to the speaker's actual hesitation. The word "ac tual" is twice used here to point out that it is some "psychologically real" state of hesitation in the speaker's mind which is at issue and not simply
40
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
whether the speaker is perceived by hearers as hesitating. GoldmanEisler makes no explicit claims about when a speaker will be perceived as hesitat ing. Let us imagine that GoldmanEisler had not adopted this criterion for identifying hesitation pauses but had instead chosen some sort of emic cri terion: for instance, by asking informants to identify all cases of speaker hesitation. Such a move would be along the same lines as the method used by the phonologist to identify phonemic contrasts, except that the crite rion of meaningdifferentiation, used by the phonologist, is here replaced by a criterion of perceived hesitation. On the assumption that what the phonologist/linguist is interested in is how the sounds used by speakers can be communicationally relevant, the choice of a hesitation criterion— given that researchers like GoldmanEisler take pauses as directly related to hesitation—seems an appropriate one. Thus, we may imagine the re searcher working under this emic paradigm of discontinuity studies to ap ply the term "discontinuity" only to those stretches of speech (occupied or not by actual silence) which informants have identified as periods of speaker hesitation. What would be the outcome of such an "emic turn" in disconti nuity studies? Let us suppose, for the sake of argument, that our emic researcher was able to obtain fairly consistent agreement between informants as to when speakers were hesitating. (For if such agreement were not obtainable the case for an emic approach would collapse in the same way as orthodox phonology would collapse if people could never agree whether two expres sions meant the same. Cf., Harris, 1973.) What would this agreement show? What it would not show is that it is possible to identify, by analysis of their speech, when (and certainly not why) speakers are hesitating. For there is no guarantee that what informants will identify as a hesitation pause is in fact due to "psychologically real" hesitation. Nor can we, given Martin's evidence, even say that an "acoustically real" discontinuity has been identified.) In order to be sure that what the informants identified as a hesitation pause was indeed that, the researcher would have to have some sort of privileged access to the speaker's mind (as well as some method by which, when he got a good look at her mind, he could tell what hesitation was!). But, as it is, he can have no access to the "real facts" about speaker hesitation. Consequently, he cannot know if his informants are or are not mistaken in their identification of speaker hesitation. In the end, all the emic researcher would have is evidence on a particu lar metalinguistic language game involving the use of the term hesitation and related terms. He would not know what, in the hearer's perception of speech, was the cause of the pattern of use reflected in the language game.
Scnptism
41
Nor would he know what in the speaker's output—let alone in the mental state accompanying that output—was the source of his informants' consis tent use of the term hesitation. That is, we could not infer from our infor mants' reactions that they were all reporting on the same communicational effect—what we may call an effect of speaker hesitation—produced by the speaker's utterance. Nor could we know exactly what in the speech signal was leading to our informants' reactions. In other words, what the emic researcher is left with after his experi ments is not evidence on the link between aspects of speech flow and per ceived hesitation—which is, after all, what he was after. He would not, in the end, have arrived at a definition of the hesitation pause based on the hearer's perceptual identification of it. Instead, he would only have (what to him would be useless) evidence on patterns of usage, or language games, with the term hesitation. On the other hand, a researcher might well decide to pursue an ex treme form of the etic approach. That is, she could study the distribution of discontinuities without any reference to the hearer's perception of them or to their purported mental causes. In this case a new problem would arise: what counts as a discontinuity? Neither the fullblown emic criteria dis cussed above nor GoldmanEisler's criterion of 0.25 seconds could be used to resolve this question. But, on what grounds could any other criterion be chosen? The limit of 0.25 seconds could not be used for the pause, except by arbitrary fiat, since it is based on a questionbegging distinction be tween the hesitation pause and "phoneticstoppage." No minimal length limit could be fixed, other than purely arbitrarily. The same would apply to a maximum length limit. Nor would there be any basis on which to group the silent and filled pauses as instances of the same type of phenom enon. Indeed, there would be no ground for grouping together various sounds made by the speaker all as instances of "the filled pause." And certainly no reason would be apparent to group false starts, corrections, repairs, repeats, disfluencies, etc. as varieties of one and the same phe nomenon: viz., discontinuity. From this "pure" etic point of view every mo ment of verbal behavior is distinct from every other. And the question whether any of it has any communicational significance becomes unan swerable. The general point here being made is that a method of identification which takes only acoustic measurement as its criterion—rather than any of a number of possible emic criteria—would have no grounds for grouping under the same heading all the speech phenomena which might be in cluded under discontinuity, or for distinguishing those phenomena from other speech phenomena. Without an emic criterion, an etic method is left only (a)
42
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
with the arbitrary, and so undefendable, choice of a criterion or (b) with chaos. Yet if the theoretical concept of discontinuity is to be applied to the practical study of speech, there has to be some nonarbitrary way of group ing the phenomena observed along lines of identity and nonidentity. We have to be able to say that those two things are the same and that those other two are not. But without a justifiable criterial perspective we cannot even divide up the observed (in this case, human speech) into identifiable "things" or units, let alone decide whether two such "things" are the same or different. The study of discontinuity, then, is exemplary for the investigation of the grounds and techniques of language theory. In studying discontinuity the researcher is faced with many of the obstacles which hinder any study of the fleeting phenomenon that is the act of utterance: (a) the scriptist bias created by the comparison of spoken language to writ ten language; (b) the influence on the theoretical conceptualization of speech that is en forced by everyday ways we have of talking about talking (i.e., common place metadiscourse); and (c) the difficulty facing any attempt to characterize speech precisely by means of physical measurement, observation or criterial identification. In short, the investigator of discontinuity is all the more conscious of the fact that that which matters in language is not directly observable but is, rather, the conceptual product of the way a linguistic culture talks about language, thinks about it, and uses it in culturallydefined contexts. Discontinuity in the rhetorical tradition There is a long history to the practice of taking discontinuities as errors in a certain special type of speech performance, that which is usually called "public speaking": i.e. lectures, sermons, formal talks, toasts, and the like. Many rhetoricians have proscribed discontinuities from the properly de livered speech. The hurried man will stammer, the nervous man will flounder in his talk. The unready will '"hum" and "haw" until he becomes a bore to his audi ence. So there are many things to avoid and some to gain. (Ward et al., n.d., pp. 910.) The above is taken from a Victorian handbook entitled Speeches and Toasts: How to Make and Propose Them, published by Ward, Lock,
Scriptism
43
and Company. In this manual the reader is given examples of speeches appropriate for a variety of occasions: patriotic toasts, temperance meet ings, christenings, regatta dinners, etc. It is urged that the wouldbe public speaker should focus on certain essential qualities: "clearness of utterance, deliberation of manner, and repose of mien." Most types of discontinuity are represented as blemishes to speech delivery. It is revealing that perfect continuity of speech was likened to reading a written text aloud. Indeed, some rhetoricians (although not all) instructed public speakers—whether novices or veterans—to write down and memo rize the written text of a speech before its actual performance. For instance, Lord Brougham, a famous orator of the early 19th century (whose speeches were published in four volumes in 1838) recommends the memorization of a written text as the essential key to attaining the "art of easy speaking." Of course, discontinuity, a common feature of ordinary conversation as well as of the untrained speaker's delivery, would be expunged from speeches consisting of a practice delivery of a written text. As shown in the experi ments of GoldmanEisler (1968), even the most common of the types of discontinuity, that is, the silent pause, tends to disappear as verbal perfor mances are repeated. To attain perfect continuous oratory, Lord Brougham argues, a speech must first be put into written form and then memorized wordforword. There could be no better recipe for excising discontinuities from verbal delivery. It is laborious, no doubt, and it is more difficult beyond comparison than speaking offhand; but it is necessary to perfect oratory, and at any rate it is necessary to acquire the habit of correct diction. But I go farther, and say even to the end of a man's life he must prepare word for word most of his finer passages. (Ward et al., n.d., pp. 1011) In The Lay Preacher's Handbook (Eldridge, 1894)C.O. Eldridge recom mends to the beginning preacher that the filled pause—"um," "er," etc.— be avoided in sermons. Indeed, he appears to prefer a short silent pause rather than the occurrence of other types of disruptive discontinuities. Open your mouth and let the words come out; but let them be real words, and not inarticulate mumblings. If you cannot think of a word, don't "hum" and "ha", and calmly pause a moment, and then, if you cannot find the right word, use the best you can. (Eldridge, 1894) It is not surprising that Lord Brougham, like other rhetoricians, urged the public speaker first to express his thoughts in written prose and then to deliver his speech as a memorized production of that written text. Indeed,
44
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
much of the history of rhetoric is imbued with the notion that the ideal form of language is writing. The more one's speaking style approximates that of a tasteful writing style, the better. This did not apply only to formal speaking situations. When speaking differed from writing, no matter what the circumstance, communication suffered. For instance, speaking is en visaged in the Ward, Lock, and Co. manual as "pronouncing the letters." In the section entitled "Common Errors in Speaking," the authors warn speakers to pronounce words "as they are written." . . . did any one ever see an "hless" speaker who was sensible of his error? We have heard a fluent speaker, and one quite equal to writing his speech correctly, say '"ee 'eld up 'is 'at," '"ee put 'is 'and to 'is 'ead," quite uncon scious that he was infringing any grammatical rule; and yet had he written the sentences quoted he would have put them correctly, with aspirates in the proper places.(. . .) The letter "H" is one of the most sinned against in England, particularly in London. The sin of the Londoner is to have formed speech habits which deviate from those represented in the ideal form: i.e., written texts. Indeed, this written language bias to the study of speech (alternatively "scriptist bias" or "scriptism" following Harris, 1980 and 1981) is not a modern development. As Robins points out in A Short History of Linguistics scriptism formed the basis of early Greek phonetics. Foreign words were written as best they could be with the Greek letters, but no scholarly concern was evinced over alien sounds or alien sound sys tems. The descriptive framework for Greek phonetics was the Greek al phabet, and statements took the form of accounts of the pronunciation of the letters in it.(...) More seriously, an improper analogy was accepted be tween the relation of discrete letters to a text and that of allegedly discrete sounds to a spoken utterance. This fallacy was not challenged, and it ap pears explicitly in Priscian at the end of the classical period, writing on Latin: "Just as atoms come together and produce every corporeal thing, so likewise do speech sounds compose articulate speech as if it were some bodily entity." (Robins, 1967, p.23) It is at least doubtful that Priscian's atomic analogy would occur to anyone not acquainted with an alphabet. It is possible, then, to take the rhetorician's belief in the ideal of written language as stemming from a traditional and still widely accepted view of the relations between speech and writing. The Greek phonetician simply took speech to be sequentially constructed on the model of written lan guage. The rhetorician, on the other hand, advised that speakers perform
Scriptism
45
in a manner resembling, as much as possible, written language style. This advice is a natural development from the belief that speaking is "pronounc ing the letters." If this claim about speaking is assumed true, then to speak well is to speak as if reading out loud. The use of expressions of quality and modality in describing the rhetorician's notion of the relations between speech and writing reminds us that the rhetorician's brief was not to describe but to pre (and pro) scribe. The rhetorician was an acknowledged authority on language use. From this position of experience and authority he gave advice to the inex perienced on how they should use language. If his proclamations were at all descriptive, they were only so in the sense that he believed himself to be describing his own practice. That is, Lord Brougham, Eldridge, and the authors of the Ward, Lock, and Co. manual were not in the business of investigating the nature of speaking. Rather, their intentions were to give advice to speakers on how to improve their performance. Advice is not the equivalent of description. The tennis professional might recommend, for instance: "If you want to hit a good topspin lob, try to peel the cover off the ball with your racquet without actually coming into contact with it". While this may be good advice, in that it encourages the player to form a useful mental image of the ideal lob, it most certainly does not constitute a satis factory description of what the best players do when lobbing. In recent years at least, no player at Wimbledon has succeeded in peeling the cover off of a tennis ball. The point being made is that the rhetorician had a purpose in assimi lating speech to writing. His aim was not to discover the truth about speech but to instruct speakers on how to develop a persuasive and pleasing deliv ery. This must not be ignored when considering the rhetorician's views on discontinuity. The rhetorician was concerned to proscribe discontinuities in public speaking. He made no claims about the nature or causes of dis continuity. This point will be recalled in the consideration below of the scriptist basis of the twentiethcentury language theorist's notions of dis continuity, the "ideal speaker," and the "ideal delivery." The ideal speaker It is perhaps best first to reiterate that discontinuity, as here conceived, falls squarely within the domain of the now famous Chomskyan notion of the "performance error." The latter notion is succinctly outlined in the following two quotations from Aspects of the Theory of Syntax.
46
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speakerlistener, in a completely homogenous speechcommunity, who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance. We thus make a fundamental distinction between competence (thespeaker hearer's knowledge of his language) and performance (the actual use of lan guage in concrete situations). Only under the idealization set forth in the preceding paragraph is performance a direct reflection of competence. In actual fact, it obviously could not reflect competence. A record of natural speech will show numerous false starts, deviations from rules, changes of plan in midcourse, and so on. The problem for the linguist, as well as for the child learning the language, is to determine from the data of perfor mance the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the speaker/ hearer and that he puts to use in actual performance. (Chomsky, 1965, pp. 34) A few preliminary remarks may be made concerning these two paragraphs. We note, first of all, the implication that the "numerous false starts, devia tions from rules, changes of plan in midcourse, and so on" which are char acteristic of natural speech are, in Chomsky's terms, errors in the applica tion of the speaker's linguistic knowledge in performance. There is noth ing very extraordinary in drawing such an implication. It is repeated time and again in the standard texts of orthodox linguistics. What it means, however, is that a great deal of ordinary conversational speech is rife with such mistakes, that is, that much of the time, when we speak, we do so incorrectly. Furthermore, according to the paragraphs above, conversa tional speech does not directly reflect linguistic competence. In other words, conversationalists may be conceived as making errors in applying their knowledge of language in performance, but performance itself cannot re flect competence. For something to be an error it must be incorrect by comparison with something else: in this case, by comparison with the sentences generated by competence grammars. Although it is perhaps not too difficult to con ceive of the act of speaking as consisting of the speaker's (not always suc cessful) attempt to produce grammatical sentences such as those gener ated by his linguistic competence, this notion of the relation between com petence and performance raises some perplexing questions when one tries to form an idea of how hearers come to understand the errorriddled ut terances of speech when, like the speakers, they are supposedly only armed with a linguistic knowledge of grammatical, competencesentences. How can the hearer "filter out" the errors and discontinuities of ordinary speech
Scriptism
47
in order that it may be interpreted according to the semantic, phonologi cal, and grammatical rules which make up his internalized grammar? A further question concerns the task of the child learning the language. Chomsky takes the fact that the speech the child hears is full of perfor mance errors, such as those grouped under our term "discontinuity," to be evidence for his claim that (at least certain important parts of) linguistic competence is innate. Otherwise, so the argument goes, how could the child ever derive the correct grammar of his language from the incorrect data presented to her as inductive premises? But the child, like adult speak ers, also makes socalled performance errors and appears equally capable of understanding utterances in which such errors abound. Where, then, does the child's knowledge of how to discontinue, to restart appropriately and to interpret discontinuous utterances come from? This knowledge can not be part of her innate linguistic competence. Is it then a product of experience? But if what we might call this "performance knowledge" can be something acquired from experience, why could this not also be the case for "competence knowledge"? Chomsky's claim that what he calls "performance errors" arise from the interference of competing features of the communicative act does not meet with much opposition in the writingscof others interested in discontinuity. Indeed, it provides a theoretical justification for turning to sources other than linguistics in order to find the explanatory key or keys to discontinu ity. Chomsky essentially abdicates any authority with regard to the study of discontinuities in speech. Since they do not stem from the linguistic com petence of the ideal speakerlistener, and since linguistic theory is "con cerned primarily with the ideal speakerlistener...who is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as...errors in applying his (linguistic) knowledge," discontinuities are therefore of no concern to the (Chomskyan) linguist. Yet, a vacant dwelling does not stay empty for long. Soon the neighbors or neighboring disciplines move in and begin to set up house. In this case the neighboring, languagerelated disciplines are psychology, sociology, and discourse analysis, and they have each their own accounts of what the competing influence is which causes speakers to discontinue in speech. And each account starts from the premise that, since discontinuities do not reflect Chomskyan competence, they must reflect something else. A final comment must be made concerning Chomsky's separation of the ideal and the real. What linguistics is supposed to focus on is the knowl edge of the ideal speakerhearer. The real features of speech as uttered by real speakers are merely incidental. Discontinuity, seen as a performance error, is just such a feature of the real. It is discarded from the linguist's
48
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
concerns in the same way that the inevitable bumps and imperfections on a real ball are ignored in the physicist's theory of the sphere. In large part, it is discarded for the stated purpose of explanatory generality. If physi cists spent their time explaining why individual balls roll each in a peculiar way, this argument holds, physics would not be where it is today. Similarly, the Chomsky an argues, if the linguist were to concern himself with the details of individual speech acts, performed in unique situations by ordi nary, fallible, and personally motivated people, linguistic theory would also not be "where it is today." The fact that it is just such details which the ordinary speakerhearer must constantly concern himself with is, for the good of the science, ignored. It is the neighboring disciplines who are left to explore and explain these nonlinguistic details of the reality of conver sational speech. Their concerns turn toward the explanation of particular, real features of speech acts. The dilemma which they face, and which the linguist avoids, is how to provide a generalized explanation which, Jpy its inherent generality, does not betray the oneoff individuality of particular speech acts. The ideal delivery In their psycholinguistics textbook, Psychology and Language, Herbert and Eve Clark include a series of chapters on the speech production process. Fundamental to their outline of speech production is the notion of the "ideal delivery." They make a distinction between the (mental) activity of planning what one is going to say and the activity of executing that plan in speaking. In speaking, people take already formulated plans and execute them. But not all goes well in everyday speech. In practice they have fundamental problems. First, they have not always formulated their plans fully before they begin their execution. For this reason they often speak in fits and starts and make a variety of speech errors. (Clark and Clark, 1977, p. 259) Among these "speech errors," Clark and Clark include "hesitations, cor rections, uhs, and many other indications that speakers are interrupting the execution to do further planning." For there to be a speech "error" there must be a "correct" way of executing a sentence, and this will be called the ideal delivery. When people know what they want to say and say it fluently, they are making an ideal delivery. Actors saying their lines, except when making deliberate errors, come close
Scriptism
49
to the ideal delivery, and so do practice readers and orators. For theories of speech production the ideal delivery is of central importance. They all assume that people strive for the ideal delivery, and every deviation points to something that has gone wrong in planning or execution. (Clark and Clark, 1977, p. 261) The notion of "speech errors" then is contrasted with its opposite, the errorfree or "ideal" delivery. What might first be noted here is that this opposition is needed in order that such discontinuities as hesitations and filled pauses may be called speech "errors." For we do not normally say of an ordinary conversational ist that he has made an error when he pauses in speaking or when he slips an "um" into his flow of speech. The concept of error might be more usu ally applied to a speaker who corrects himself in the course of his utter ance, as in the following example. "I wanted Jonathan to...Michael to fix my bike for me." It might commonly be said of the speaker of the above utterance that he had "made an error" in say ing Jonathan. However, in order that such phe nomena be grouped with hesitations and filled pauses, which are not ordi narily termed "errors," they must be seen to share some characteristic. In the case of Clark and Clark, this characteristic is taken to be a shared dis ruption in speech delivery so that that delivery may no longer be deemed "ideal." Both hesitations and phenomena such as the utterance ofjonathan may thus be grouped together as "errors" in relation to the ideal delivery in which neither of them would occur. As an example of typical spontaneous speech, Clark and Clark cite a genuine example referred to in a paper by Maclay and Osgood (1959, p. 25). As far as I know, no one yet has done the / in a way obvious now and interesting problem of [pause] doing a / in a sense a structural frequency study of the alternative [pause] syntactical [uh] / in a given language, say, like English, the alternative [uh] possible structures, and how / what their hierarchical [pause] probability of occurrence structure is. The speech, of which the above is a fairly liberal transcription, is said by Clark and Clark to be "replete with deviations from the ideal delivery." Such deviations here include the marked silent pauses, the filled pauses, and the various "false starts." The latter (marked in the text by a / ) occur, according to the authors, when "the speaker has backed up and begun again."
50
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
Although Clark and Clark do not say what an ideal delivery of this pas sage might have been, we may, for present purposes, assume that at the very least there would have been no pauses or false starts. In this case, we may imagine a transcription looking something like the following: As far as I know no one has yet done the in a way obvious now and interest ing problem of in a sense a structural frequency study of, in a given lan guage, say, like English, the alternative possible structures, and what their hierarchical probability of occurrence structure is. The assumption is that it is such a pause and falsestartfree passage that the speaker was attempting to produce. For, according to the authors, ordi nary speakers constantly strive for an ideal delivery. However, somewhere within the planning process or in the execution of the plan things went wrong. As a result the speaker strayed from the ideal delivery. It must first be pointed out that there is no immediate evidence for this assumption. There is nothing in the unedited transcript which indicates that the speaker was indeed trying to produce an ideal delivery. We merely have a version of what he did in fact produce and no evidence that he was trying to produce something else like the edited passage. In other words, the claim that speakers strive for an ideal delivery is not made on observational or experimental grounds. Although speakers may, in fact, sometimes produce what Clark and Clark might be willing to call an "ideal delivery," there is no evidence to the effect that such a delivery is what speakers are trying for even at times when what they produce is far from such an ideal. Nor is it clear what would be evidence for such a claim. On the other hand, nor is the authors' claim made on prescriptive grounds. Whereas the rhetoricians discussed above hold that speakers (at least in certain contexts) should strive for an ideal delivery, Clark and Clark claim that ordinary speakers do strive for an ideal delivery. When the rheto ricians give their reasons why public speakers should try to avoid "hem ming" and "hawing," they are giving advice. But when Clark and Clark, in the following quote, say why speakers should try for an ideal delivery, they take themselves to be explaining, not advising. Their aim is not prescrip tion but explanation and description. The following passage then is to be seen as a reply to a question with the sense of: "Why should it be the case, given that it is the case, that speakers try for an ideal delivery?" If Clark and Clark had written a handbook on public speaking rather than a text book on psycholinguistics, this passage would acquire a different force. Why should speakers try for an ideal delivery? One reason is to make them selves better understood. Speech with breaks that are not at constituent
Scriptism
51
boundaries is difficult to understand. In the ideal delivery, all breaks will be at grammatical junctures between sentences or major clauses, where they will help, not hinder. Another less obvious reason is that people who speak fluently are very likely judged cleverer, abler, and more effective than people without the same fluency. Moreover, it isn't considered polite to speak unless one has something definite to say, and every hesitation, uh, and false start adds to the impression that one does not have something definite to say. So it is only natural, in most circumstances, to strive for the ideal delivery. (Clark and Clark, 1977, pp. 26162) Speakers are thought to try for an ideal delivery because it is suppos edly more effective in communication. It facilitates the communication of meaning. It also leads to a better impression of the speaker being formed in the hearer's mind. In other words, Clark and Clark claim that the ideal delivery is an aid to the fulfillment of the semantic and social functions of speech. On the assumption that, in the production of speech acts, speakers do try to fulfil these functions, then, according to Clark and Clark, it is reasonable to assume that they should try to produce an ideal delivery. However, this conclusion depends on the claim that deviations from the ideal delivery constitute an obstacle to effective communication. In order to prove such a claim it would have to be shown that deviations from the ideal delivery do indeed obstruct understanding and lead to poor impres sions being formed of speakers. It would also have to be shown in addition that speakers are aware of these consequences and, on these grounds, strive to produce the ideal delivery. Furthermore, the burden of proof is on the investigators who, like Clark and Clark, claim that the ideal delivery is a real goal of speakers. For one merely has to observe people in ordinary conversation to discover that deviations from the ideal delivery are the norm. Even approximations to ideally fluent deliveries are rare exceptions. On what grounds, then, should we suppose that, in speaking, communica tors actively strive to do something that they only very infrequently accom plish? Ordinary discontinuous conversational speech seems to work per fectly well for the communicational tasks of everyday conversational inter action. Discontinuous speech appears to raise no obstacle to the success of communication. So the proponent of the theory of the ideal delivery is asking us to believe not only that speakers constantly try to do what they almost never do but also that, if they fail to succeed, it makes no manifest difference to the success of the speech act. Perhaps deviations from the ideal do make some sort of hidden difference in the minds of the hearers, but, given the observational evidence of successful speech acts incorporat ing discontinuities, the burden for proof for such a claim is on the claim ant. Clark and Clark offer no such proof.
52
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
The influence of scriptism It is indicative of the influence writing has on our conceptualization of speech in particular and on language in general that an example of the ideal delivery is said by Clark and Clark to be the speech produced by a practice reader reading aloud. It is often an aid to the investigator who has chosen the task of explaining some feature of speech to do so by drawing an analogy with writing. The influence of this analogy is understandable, granted the assistance it provides in the task of explanation. Written lan guage has a temporal permanence which speech lacks. It may easily be reproduced and transmitted to hundreds of recipients at hundreds of dis tant locations. It is more open to detailed observational scrutiny than is speech. When we have doubts about our knowledge of language we turn to the two traditional authorities, both of which are written texts: the dictio nary and the grammar book. Even linguistics, through the practice of which our more technical metalinguistic concepts are formed, is "done" in writ ten form. It is not surprising that the influence of written categories can be seen throughout the study of spoken language. The Greeks' notion of "pro nouncing the letters" is one result of the influence of scriptism. Another is the British notion of "the Londoner's sin," namely, dropping 'aitches. Consequently, it is understandable that, in finding ways to analyze speech, theorists of language are led to borrow the concepts that are easily applied in talking about writing. It is no coincidence, on this account, that speech is conceived of as being the utterance of a sequence of phonemes, much like writing is the production of a string of letters. Similarly, language theory represents speech as consisting of strings of separate units, viz., words, since modern writing is easily divisible in that way—thanks to what we might call the grapheme "space." It requires no effort, then, to push the analogy further to conceive of speech as consisting of spoken sentences, just as writing is broken into sentences. Scriptism—that is, the influence of writing on the conceptualization of speech—is pervasive in language theory. Clark and Clark, however, have extended its domain by considering (from a descriptive rather than a pre scriptive point of view) "ideal speech" to be that which approximates the practice reading of a written text. Indeed, the articulatory execution of a planned utterance is held to be the reading off of a mental text. Scriptism tends to push the difference between spoken language and written lan guage farther and farther out to the periphery of the communicative act. The essential features of speech and writing are assumed to be the same. However, the fact that speech is regularly conceptualized in terms of the concepts of written language does not mean that the difference between
Scriptism
53
the two should necessarily be errors or deviations on the part of speech, and yet it is because they are thought to be errors that Clark and Clark believe discontinuities are avoided by speakers. However, that which is dif ferent about speech does not have to be thought of as somehow incorrect. There is no intonation, for instance, in written language, but it is not usu ally thought, on that account, to be an incorrect feature of speech. We may then reasonably ask what Clark and Clark's grounds are for claiming that certain features of spoken language, including discontinuity, constitute deviations from an ideal. Why is continuity regarded as ideal in reading aloud? What is at issue in this question is how the notion of the "correctness" of written language, as compared to speech, is made to ap
piy
There is, of course, no a priori reason why, of speech and writing, the latter should be thought the more correct. It is possible to argue that speech and writing are simply two differing, but equivalent, styles or registers of languageuse. This is the position defended by Lyons in Language and Lin guistics. Lyons holds that A distinction must be drawn between languagesignals and the medium in which the signals are realized. (Lyons, 1981, p.l 1) The languagesystem is held to be independent of the media (i.e., speak ing, writing, gestural signs, etc.) in which the "languagesignals" (i.e., utter ances, paragraphs, sequences of hand movements, etc.) of that language are realized. Consequently, instances of language in two different media, speech and writing, may be thought to differ only stylistically rather than essentially. It does not have to be that one is taken to be the correct ideal of which the other is only a faulty imitation. On this account, there would be no apparent reason for the ordinary conversationalist to try to speak in a style imitative of reading out loud. Having seen that the contrary assumption, expounded by Lyons, ap pears, at least, to be plausible, we may return to the question of the grounds for Clark and Clark's belief that ideal speech delivery is that which ap proximates the practice reading aloud of a written text. It is tempting to turn to the rhetorical tradition for elucidation of this question. However, no answer to our question will be found there. In the rhetorical tradition it is also simply taken as an unsupported assumption that the ideal form of languageuse is writing. A plausible reason why this assumption was ac cepted might be seen to lie in the social value attached to literacy. He who spoke as if reading from a written text would thereby demonstrate a high degree of literacy—a prestige accomplishment, generally associated with being intelligent, welleducated, and therefore of a reasonably elevated
54
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
class. If on only those grounds alone his speech would acquire a desired air of authority. That is, continuous speech would be regarded as the counter part of the kind of fluency in reading which demonstrates literacy. Even so, these speculations will not lead us to the reasons behind Clark and Clark's scriptist assumption. For, as was discussed above, the rhetori cians were concerned to advise wouldbe public speakers. They were not describing what everyday conversationalists actually do. It is a privilege allowed the teacher to draw on a variety of well and notsowellfounded arguments if the end result is that the student acquires the taught skill. Thus the rhetorician was not obliged to show cause for his scriptist as sumptions. If rhetorical advice based on those assumptions led to students speaking in the desired manner, then the theoretical basis for those as sumptions is irrelevant. This is not, however, the case with the explanatory psycholinguistic theories of Clark and Clark. The nature of their enter prise demands that their assumptions regarding the ideal form of speech production be wellgrounded. If it were discovered that Clark and Clark's scriptist assumptions were, in fact, based on a wholesale adoption of the advice of 19thcentury rhetoric, this would lend no support to their case. We would still have to look deeper for the source of their belief in the correctness of the continuity instanced by reading out loud. Indeed, it is noteworthy that much the opposite assumption was ex pressed by Saussure in his discussions of the primacy of speech. Although the question of continuity was not in fact at issue, Saussure argued that speech was the ideal form of language and that writing consisted of a (fre quently infelicitous) attempt to imitate speech. In the Cours de linguistique generate, Saussure took the primacy of speech to be a fundamental principle of linguistics and criticized earlier gram marians such as Bopp and Grimm for thinking that "a language is insepa rable from its alphabet" (Saussure, 1916, p. 46). For Saussure, the study of speech was the only rational basis for linguistics. Langue et ecriture sont deux systemes de signes distincts; 1'unique raison d'etre du second est de representer le premier; 1'objet linguistique n'est pas defini par la combinaison du mot ecrit et du mot parle; ce dernier constitue a lui seul cet objet. (Saussure, 1916, p. 45) That is, the spoken word is taken to be the only legitimate object of linguis tic analysis. Although, at the time, such a position was revolutionary, today it represents a central pillar of orthodoxy. Linguistic textbooks constantly inform their readers that, in the study of language, speech takes priority over writing.
Scriptism
55
Given the Saussurean doctrine of the primacy of speech, Clark and Clark's assumptions regarding the "correctness" of writing stands as a puz zling development of modern linguistic thought. In order to understand this development it is perhaps best to examine its commonsense founda tions. We may first remark that the concept of correctness is more normally applied to writing than to speech. When people write they have the time and the freedom to stop and alter what they have written. This is not pos sible, at least not in the same way, with speaking. Once said there is no "un saying" in the way that one may erase or scratch out a previous bit of writ ing. With this facility in writing comes the habitual process of altering one's written product until it is thought to satisfy the conventions of correct or grammatical prose. When we are taught to write we are taught not simply to transcribe what we might otherwise speak but to alter that transcription until it conforms to certain standards or rules. It is essential that this is not possible with speech. Once something is said, it cannot be unsaid and cor rected in order to meet a standard of grammaticality. Consequently, with writing it is possible to conform ideally to abstract standards. Sentences may be rewritten and drafts may be reedited, even thrown away, until the writer is satisfied that all deviations from grammaticality are purged. In speaking, the dominant priority is to ad vance the interaction according to one's aims, but, in writing, there is a priority of comparable status to that of communicational efficacy: viz., to communicate according to the style laid down by conventions of grammar and usage. Our teachers in school will correct our written output until we so conform. They will not, however, correct all our deviations in speech. There is a fundamental principle underlying this distinction and one which, owing to scriptism, has often been ignored in linguistic studies. Speech takes place within the confines of the temporal dimension, while writing is able, to a certain extent, to overcome the limits of temporality. The teacher may say, "Don't say ain'tl," but his admonishment, no matter how strong, will be powerless to correct what the child has already pro duced. By the time that the teacher is able to utter his command to the child, the latter's utterance of "ain't" belongs to history. N othing can change that. Of course it is true that the teacher's words may provoke the child to repeat her utterance with the shameful "ain't" replaced by an acceptable "isn't." But in a very important sense all the child has really done is to utter another sentence. Two utterances have now been produced by the child, not a single corrected one. However, when the teacher points at the child's paper and says, "Don't say ain't'I," the child may quickly erase the offending letters and actually
56
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
replace them with "isn't." Or if she is writing in nonerasable ink, she may go so far as to throw her text away—under the approving eye of the teacher— and write the whole sentence over again with "isn't" instead of "ain't." Stretches of speech cannot be erased or thrown away as stretches of writing can be. Writing has the (albeit fundamentally illusory) ability to reach back into what has happened and change it. Thus, written language may be changed until it conforms to some ideal of correctness imposed by the society, by our "linguistic betters," or by our teachers. In any case, it is possible for the trained and attentive writer to produce ideal sentence after ideal sentence, in a way that is much less feasible in spontaneous speech. It is not surprising, then, that the notion of the ideal languagesignal (like that of grammaticality) is wedded to that of the perfectly correct written sentence. A correct written sentence is thought to be a transparently perfect instantiation of the abstract language signal. In other words, the process of correcting writing is not thought of as a means of satisfying certain supplementary conventions, applicable mainly to writing, but as a means of realizing a languagesignal without error. The grammatical written sentence is simply the abstract, ideally "cor rect" languagesignal made real. As a result of scriptism an important distinction is lost: the distinction between communicational efficacy and grammaticality. In taking the ideal languagesignal to be an abstract version of the grammatical written sen tence, the standard of communicational efficacy is merged with the stan dard of grammaticality. The important part of communication, the part with which linguistics concerns itself, is taken to be the methods or rules by which we verbalize grammatically. The distinction between communicat ing effectively—which the use of "ain't" does—and communicating in ac cord with the standards of grammatical correctness—which "ain't" does not do—is thereby ignored. Speaking is thought simply to involve the manipulation of grammatical knowledge (in the sense of rules generating the grammatical sentences of a language); and deviations from grammaticality in speech are therefore thought to be errors. They are "er rors" then, because they do not conform to the restrictions which are im posed on our use of language when we are taught to write in school. The result is that the notion of the abstract languagesignal comes to be calqued onto the notion of the ideal written form. The languagesignal, which is abstract and not, in principle, realizable, is thus thought to be a mental version of the correct written sentence. "What is the point," argues the orthodox linguist, "of correcting writing except to get it to reproduce the ideal? That is what the writer aims for in correcting her writing." In this way, the concept of the abstract languagesignal, underlying effective
Scriptism
57
communication in a language, is perceived from the vantage point of writ ing and of our ability to correct, erase, and edit writing to conventional form. If, in orthodox language theory, the languagesignal is thought to be like the correct written sentence, then every difference between spoken utterances and written sentences which cannot be attributed to a constitu tive difference in media (such as intonation) will accordingly be seen as a deviation, on the part of speaking, from the ideal. Consequently, the (non essential) differences which speaking manifests in comparison to writing are conceptualized in terms of errors, as failures to produce the ideal lan guagesignals. Furthermore, since this is what writers supposedly strive to do—viz., produce ideal forms—it is assumed that this is also what speakers typically try to do; but they fail. The differences between speech and writ ing are not therefore thought of in terms of stylistic differences. In both cases the languageproducer is thought to be trying to do the same thing: i.e., produce instances of ideal languagesignals; but in writing success is achieved almost invariably, in speaking only rarely. "Speech errors" and communicating in prose It is reasonable to add a further dimension to this argument. From the perspective of orthodox language theory, the key to effective communica tion is thought to lie in the instantiation of ideal languagesignals. Devia tions from that ideal are therefore thought to raise obstacles to expression and understanding. On this argument, those who express themselves orally in a style closest to that of written style are the most effective communica tors. Discontinuity and other similar features of spoken performance are not taken to be useful aspects of communication. In The Language Myth Harris argues that many of the dilemmas of mod ern linguistics may be seen to be engendered by what he calls the telementational and fixedcode fallacies. Words, according to the telementational fallacy, "are symbols devised by man for transferring thoughts from one mind to another. Speech is a form of telementation" (Harris, 1981, p. 9). The fixedcode fallacy holds that speech is able to transfer thoughts from speaker to hearer because men agree upon some fixed set of correlations between ideas and verbal symbols, in order to provide themselves with a viable system for exchanging thoughts. Lan guages are, precisely, systems of this kind. (. . .) In brief, the model of linguistic communication offered is as follows. Individuals are able to exchange their thoughts by means of words be
58
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
cause—and insofar as—they have come to understand and to adhere to a fixed public plan for doing so. The plan is based on recurrent instantiation of invariant items belonging to a set known to all members of the commu nity. These items are the "sentences" of the community's language (Harris, 1981, p. 10). Thus, an utterance which deviates somehow in form from one of these ideal sentences is "in error." Furthermore, such an error is an obstacle to communication since communication is based upon the instantiation of ideal sentences. An utterance with performance errors such as discontinuities will not be in the hearer's fixedcodebook, i.e., it will not be part of his knowledge of his language. Consequently, he will not be able to decode the thought that prompted the speaker to utter it. Communication will break down over such a discontinuity. The study of linguistic compe tence, conceived of as the study of the internalized knowledge which en ables interpersonal communication to take place will therefore disregard discontinuities as instances of performance errors. In other words, it is not simply that discontinuities are conceptualized as errors of grammar—that is, as failures to instantiate the form of ideal languagesignals. The orthodox model of linguistic communication pro motes the view that discontinuities are also errors of communication. Be cause utterances incorporating discontinuities do not approximate ideal (i.e., written language) sentence form, they are thought to provide an ob stacle to the smooth transfer of thoughts between speaker and hearer. This transfer depends on a preestablished correlation between verbal signals (in this case, competence sentences) and thoughts. A discontinuous utter ance does not unambiguously pick out the sentence of which it is an in stance, and so it does not clearly indicate the thought it encodes. Discontinuities, then, interfere with what should ideally be the instanta neous transfer of thoughts. Thus, the need arises for "repair" and "editing rules" (cf., Taylor and Cameron, 1987). Given this background—in "commonsense" as well as in theoretical as sumptions—it is understandable that Clark and Clark should adopt a con cept of discontinuity features which classifies those features first and fore most as errors of speech performance. For to accept discontinuities as bona fide features of speech delivery, they would have had to free themselves from the influence of the scriptism which permeates our literate culture The theoretical concept of discontinuity, like Jourdain's notion of "speak ing in prose," is a metalinguistic derivative of that authoritative influence.
Scriptism
59
Speech therapy: Explaining the error away The scriptist conception of speech has had a vast influence, not only in discontinuity studies. Still, the effects of scriptism are most easily illustrated in the ways language researchers have conceptualized the nature and ap propriate study of discontinuities in speech. A cursory inspection of the theories discussed in these chapters reveals that this written language bias has influenced investigations into the causes of, management of, and con sequences of discontinuity. For example, given the scriptist conception of speaking, the following question naturally arises: if successful communication, prima facie, may be taken to be every speaker's aim, why do they produce obstacles to commu nication, such as discontinuities? It should be noted that this question only arises because discontinuities are considered to be obstacles to communi cation. Similar questions are never tabled concerning the occurrence of, say, the phoneme /p/ or the fallrise pitch movement, neither of which is considered to be a hindrance to communicational efficacy. Indeed, the occurrence of pauses at locations where a writer would put a comma or a full stop also does not attract the inquiring attentions of researchers. It seems to be because the occurrence of discontinuities compares so unfa vorably with the scriptistbased notion continuity, embodied in Clark and Clark's "ideal delivery," that the question arises concerning their causes. In addition, it is significant that those who have taken an interest in answering that question are not linguists, but psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, etc. The scriptist conception exiles discontinuities to the non or extralinguistic. Because they do not occur in writing they are not thought to be features determined by the speaker/hearer's abstract knowl edge of his language. Their occurrence must then stem from a different source. Consequently, nonlinguistic disciplines are called upon for assis tance. The psychologists, for instance, have attempted to answer the question about the occurrence of discontinuities by referring to the extralinguistic properties of mental processing, emotional states, and facetoface inter action (cf., Maclay and Osgood, 1959; Lalljee and Cook, 1969; Goldman Eisler, 1968; Good and Butterworth, 1980; and Rochester, 1973). This in volves treating discontinuities as akin to features of "noise" in information systems. The question then becomes: what is the source of the interference producing that "noise"? Is it anxiety? Or planning? Other answers are pos sible. It is interesting that in many cases the psychologist's interest in dis continuity arises because of what are taken to be more central psychologi cal concerns. Thus, their interest is not drawn by the question of the occur
60
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
rence of discontinuities as such, but by the possibility that discontinuities are the result of more general human psychological factors: e.g., anxiety, planning, etc. In this sense, discontinuities are used as evidence for more general theories about the human mind. To continue the analogy, the "noise" is taken to be nothing but the manifestation of certain processes of interference. It is primarily the latter which is of interest to the psycholo gist. Whatever the merits of this enterprise, it may be seen to exclude from the start a perspective taking discontinuities as bonafide features of speech. Such a perspective would be seen to be like taking radio static as a feature of the broadcaster's intended program. Again, the same written language bias may be discovered at the bottom of the psychologist's view of discontinuity. The literate person knows that it is possible to lose one's place in a text while reading out loud, or to have difficulty in deciphering the next word in his handwriting, or suddenly to have doubts about how a sentence continues over the page. These "diffi culties with the text"—which are not the result of linguistic features of the sentences making up that text—are typical sources of pauses when reading aloud. As Clark and Clark point out the closest version to the ideal deliv ery is the performance of the practice reader reading out loud. So it may simply be assumed that analogous difficulties with a hypothesized "mental text"—i.e., the utterance plan—must be the main source of pauses in spon taneous speech. The scriptist bias likens speech to reading out loud and so draws attention to those features of speaking which should not occur in a properly performed reading of a text. Scriptism does not only give rise to questions concerning the causes of discontinuity while at the same time, predetermining the type of answers which those questions may receive. It also influences questions regarding the consequences of discontinuity, for speakers and for hearers. Here a typi cal question is the following: given that discontinuities do occur, how is communication between speaker and hearer still possible? Again, for a nonscriptist perspective on speech communication, within which discontinuities were treated as bonafide features of speech, such questions would not arise. There would no more be the need to ask how communica tion is possible in spite of discontinuities than there would be to ask why communication did not break down over the occurrence of vowels and consonants. For such questions to arise, discontinuities must be taken to be errors. This explains why, in ethnomethodological studies of conversation, mention is frequently made of "errorcorrection" (Jefferson, 1972, 1973, 1974), of "selfrighting mechanisms" and "repair" (Schegloff et al, 1977), and indeed of "editing" itself, a notion which does not conceal its written language connotations. What the student of repair can be seen to find of
Scriptism
61
interest are those parts of utterances which do not conform to the canons of written style. It is noteworthy that, for example, ethnomethodological studies of conversation, even those not concerned with repair, only focus on instances of speech which manifest noticeable differences with written style. In essence, the theories of repair and editing accept that discontinuities are errors and so focus on the ways available to speakers and to hearers to fix ("repair") the possible damage to communication. The notion of repair concerns how, from the ethnomethodological per spective, speakers may be seen to repair the damage caused by discontinuities such as inappropriately uttered words, word searches, faulty articulation, and so on. Editing, on the other hand, refers to the hearer's ability to ex tract an underlying sentence from the apparent chaos of an utterance marred by discontinuities and subsequent efforts to repair. The concepts of editing and repair both presuppose that communication is based on the speaker's choice of a sentence which encodes his intended meaning. This choice is then transmitted to the hearer who, in turn, decodes the intended meaning from the sentence. The theories of repair and editing explain how it is that discontinuities do not block the transmission of the chosen sentence and its meaning from speaker to hearer. It is expectable that, as with the explanations of the causes of discontinu ity, the theories of repair and editing—dealing with the consequences of discontinuity—postulate the operation of extralinguistic forces. The mecha nism of repair, like the rules of editing, are proposed as features of the organization of conversational discourse. They are not taken to be sub components of the language in which the conversation is spoken but rather of extralinguistic systems which speaker/hearers supposedly draw upon in order to be able to use their knowledge of the language in conversation. So it is not surprising that those who have taken an interest in explaining( away) the consequences of discontinuity, like those who study the causes of discontinuity, are not from the field of ("core") linguistics "proper." Rather, they are sociolinguists, or ethnomethodologists, or anthropologists, or so cial psychologists. This brief survey reveals how pervasive is the influence of scriptism in the study of discontinuity. Without the notion of discontinuity as an error in speech—a notion rhetorically derived from scriptist premises—there would be no special reason to search for the causes of discontinuities. Nor would any question arise concerning the speaker's and hearer's manage ment of the communicational obstacles created by discontinuities. Indeed, without scriptism, the notion of discontinuity might well prove to be inco herent. It is, after all, only by comparison with the notion of continuity that it is possible to identify a set of phenomena as instances of discontinuity.
62
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
Discontinuity is taken to include precisely those features of a speaker's per formance which would not occur in the continuous spoken performance of a practice reader reading out loud. The practical identification of disconti nuity, like its theoretical definition, is dependent upon its opposition to a fundamentally written language notion of continuity. Should these assump tions underlying the notion of continuity be withdrawn, it is not at all clear on what basis the important dialectical opposition between continuity and discontinuity could be justified. Does this then mean that, providing that the scriptist view of speech is abandoned, there is no sense in studying such things as pauses, repeats, hesitations, and the like? It does not. The result of the scriptist bias is that all such features of speech are treated as communicational errors. It groups together actual occurrences of such features as concrete instances of the same abstract formal type: viz., discontinuity. This, in turn predetermines the ways in which their causes, their functions, and their sequential ar rangement in speech are studied. Consequently, little attention is paid to the analysis of individual instances of (e.g.) pauses, and the specific causes and functions of them in particular interactional contexts. Scriptism leads, as the preceding discussion has shown, to the neglect of alternative case bycase explanations of the role of discontinuity features in favor of ex planatory models which (a) take them as unintended errors and (b) as sume that their sequential and interactional organization is designed to minimize their supposedly disruptive effect on communication. It is this strategy of neglect which is proven to be at fault when, on the contrary, the evidence reveals (i) that discontinuities can be intentional features of a speaker's performance, (ii) that they are only disruptive from the blinkered perspective of the scriptist conception of the communicative act, and (iii) that they may serve interactional aims in speech which, due to scriptism, have too often been ignored. The abandonment of the scriptist bias would mean that the speech fea tures which have here been called discontinuities would have to be ac corded the same theoretical, as well as ontological, status as that accorded to any other commonorgarden feature of the speech act. There would be no justification in separating the study of discontinuities from e.g., the study of intonation or syntax. Nor would there be any specific justification to group what have been called discontinuities as instances of the same type. Any recognizable difference in (sound) substance—for instance, the difference between two filled pauses—would have to be considered as of potential interactional significance.
_3 —
A Wittgensteinian Perspective in Linguistics An extraordinary fact about Wittgenstein's later philosophy of language is that, although it acquired and has retained considerable influence in philo sophical circles, nevertheless it has gained little currency among linguists. Throughout the history of modern linguistics, the ideas of philosophers have been plundered for the purposes of the related concerns of linguists. Noam Chomsky has made a point of exposing the Cartesian and Kantian roots of his linguistic theory. J. J. Katz's Linguistic Philosophy attempts to prove that this ancestry makes Chomsky a direct and faithful descendant of Frege and the early Wittgenstein. W. V O. Quine is a central figure in contemporary semantic discussions as well as in the neverending debates about the nature and status of linguistic theories. Indeed, even J. L. Aus tin—often grouped with Wittgenstein as a founder of the "linguistic turn" in philosophy—has acquired a steadily increasing presence in linguistics. But the fact remains, as a cursory look through the standard (and not so standard) linguistic texts of the last 40 years will reveal, there are few refer ences to and even less discussion of the later writings of the man who has been called this century's greatest philosopher of language. What is the reason for this remarkable state of affairs? Is it because Wittgenstein's confusing writing style frequently conceals his message within one of a variety of narrative voices? Is it that the average linguist lacks the knowledge of the argumentative context required to make sense of the often elliptical Bemerkungen? Undoubtedly, these are important contribu tory sources to the linguist's neglect of Wittgenstein's later works; and yet, there are other more powerful reasons. Still, at the same time, no evidence has ever been presented to show that Wittgenstein was the least bit aware of the development of linguistics in his lifetime. Nor has it yet been dem onstrated that an awareness of the work of Saussure, Bloomfleld, Firth et al. would have affected his own philosophical development. However, as regards the latter point, I argue that there are reasons to believe otherwise. Wittgenstein's most important strategic maneuvre was to have given the notions of understanding and explanation priority over the notion of mean ing. This contradicts the outlook of the semantic tradition descending from
64
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
Plato, through Frege, Russell, and the Tractatus, to the contemporary philo sophical semantics of Davidson, Dummett, Kripke et al. In the latter, "Au gustinian" tradition, the accounts of these notions are tailored to conform to a prior concept of meaning. And meaning, from the Augustinian per spective, is based on a surrogational relation between words and things: words stand for objects (or states of affairs). Baker and Hacker (1980) illu minate Wittgenstein's response to the Augustinian picture. Reflection on the criteria for understanding and explanation will show that the puzzles about meaning solutions to which it is the Augustinian's aim to produce— cease to be important. "Consequently," they say, "any need for that con ception of meaning will disappear" (Baker and Hacker, 1980, p. 667). According to the Augustinian picture, communication is based on speaker and hearer correlating an utterance with the same state of affairs. For com munication to proceed in this way the meaning of an expression must be objective and invariant. That is, we have to act under the assumption that other people who speak our language attach the same meanings to the words and sentences of that language as we do, regardless of setting, mood, or purpose of our interaction. This raises the seemingly perplexing philo sophical puzzle that has given impetus to the Augustinian tradition: The question how meaning can be objective and shared when the psycho logical states which are bearers of this meaning are separate existences, and not even identical in qualitative content, is one of the important prob lems of meaning. ( . . . ) If language really conveys anything then there must be something identical in your mind and in mine when we understand each other. (C. I. Lewis, quoted in Waismann, 1965, p. 246) Wittgenstein responds to this puzzle by dissolving the difficulties raised concerning the possibility of understanding. Following Wittgenstein, Baker and Hacker point out that there are a variety of criteria which j ustify our saying that a person understands an expression. We do not need to know anything about the states of mind of interlocutors. Baker and Hacker argue that, by focusing on the criteria of understand ing, Wittgenstein eliminates the apparent need to talk about the meaning of an expression. This strategy may be seen reflected in his discussions of rules and rulefollowing, of the possibility of a private language, as well as in the topics from the philosophy of mind to which much of the latter sections of the Investigations are devoted. In order to achieve an under standing of communication, Wittgenstein asks the philosopher to aban don preconceptions about meanings and to concentrate instead on the manifold practices which provide the essential criteria with which the lan guageuser manages and assesses the progress of communicational inter
A Wittgensteinian Perspective
65
action. He shows that meaning cannot be any mysterious entity providing the content of understanding and that "understanding cannot transcend the practice of explaining and using an expression" (G. P. Baker, 1981, p. 35). Obviously such a perspective on the notion of meaning is very foreign to orthodox linguistics. It presents the primary obstacle to the establish ment of Wittgensteinian influence in linguistics. Wittgenstein's dissolution of the concept of meaning would not only create havoc within the semantic components of a linguistic theory; it would also threaten the key concept of linguistic form.
It may not be immediately apparent why a Wittgensteinian criticism of the orthodox concept of meaning would have such a devastating effect. This is best revealed if one considers the focal point of the linguist's interest: the relation between meaning and form. It was Bloomfield's claim, and no linguist before or since can reason ably be supposed to disagree, that linguistics is based on "a fundamental assumption": In certain communities (speechcommunities) some speechutterances are alike as to form and meaning. (Bloomfield, 1933, p. 144) For instance, when Jane says to Jerome "Where are we?," whereupon Jerome turns to George to ask "Where are we?" these two utterances (as well as my written transcriptions of them) are said to be instances of the same form (viz., in this case, the same sentence) and to have the same meaning. Com mon sense suggests and, as Bloomfield pointed out, linguistics must as sume that when members of the same speechcommunity converse they make use of the same forms—that is, the same phonemes, words, and sen tences—that are, in principle, available to every other member of the com munity. A typetoken relation is thought to hold between an abstract form that the language provides and each of the uncountable actual instances of speech in that language. If an utterance is understandable, it is because it may be recognized to be a token of a particular form/type of the language. Thus, it is possible for Bloomfield's fundamental assumption of linguistics to be true; e.g., Jane's highpitched question may be alike in form to Jerome's booming bass provided that they are both token utterances of the same sentence type. Furthermore, whenever a token of a particular form/ type is used in speech, it is said to convey the meaning which is conven tionally assigned to it in the language. That is, the meaning of two (or
66
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
more) speechutterances is the same if they are tokens of the same type. So, although Jane's utterance was meant as a serious request for information, while Jerome's was said in mock dismay, both utterances—by virtue of be ing tokens of the same formal type—have the same linguistic meaning. Regardless of whatever other interactional function two tokenutterances may have, if they are tokens of the same formal type, then the language assigns to them the same "linguistic" (or "cognitive," or "denotative," or "descriptive") meaning. Thus, Bloomfield's superficially unobjectionable assumption can be seen to presuppose the following (perhaps equally un objectionable) protopicture of communicationbyuseofalanguage. If on a given occasion A communicates successfully with B by uttering a certain sequence of sounds, we explain this by supposing that B's linguistic knowledge enables him to recognize the sounds as a token of a certain type, and, in virtue of belonging to that type, as being understandable in a certain way. (Harris, 1973, p. 17) actual speech events
the language
;
'.
communicational effect or function M.
M Although observably unidentical in sound, X, Y and Z are all recognizable as tokens of one formal type: F
; The meaning of F is given : by the language as M. : : ; :
:
; ; :
X, Y and Z have the same ; meaning despite being uttered ' by different people in different ; situations. Their total communi : cational effect may vary accord ing to situational factors. But ; their linguistic meaning, as the core of their communicational ; effect, remains identical since it : is given by the language; and ; the language is, by definition, ; situationally independent.
An essential correlate of the assumed typetoken distinction is the related distinction between form and substance. This distinction is also to be found, sometimes under a different name, at the center of every modern form of linguistic theory. The distinction between form and substance embodies the general notion that certain features of speech are linguistically rel evant (i.e., enter into the conventional relations of the language) while other features are not. By discriminating between the relevant formal fea tures of an utterance and those irrelevant features of the utterance's sub stance, the languageuser is able to recognize an utterance as a token of a certain type.
A Wittgensteinian Perspective
67
...the working of language depends upon our habitually and convention ally discriminating some features of sound and ignoring all others. (Bloomfield, 1933, p. 77) For instance, in order to recognize Jane's utterance and Jerome's utter ance as tokens of the same formal type, the hearer will have to ignore certain features of these utterances, such as their difference in pitch, while paying attention to other features: e.g., those that distinguish are from were. Voice quality, loudness, and certain aspects of pitch are some of the features of speech which are assumed to belong to substance. Another would be the facial expression of the speaker. Aspects of substance do not distin guish tokens of one type from tokens of another type, although they might serve other communicational functions (such as helping identify the sex or regional identity of the speaker, indicating his mood or purpose for speak ing . . .). But rounding of the lips (usually combined with a raised tongue) can distinguish tokens of two distinct types: e.g., were vs. are. Thus round ing of lips is relevant to the determination of an utterance's form (and therefore also to the determination of its meaning). Without the form/sub stance distinction it would not be clear how a typetoken relation could hold between instances of speech and formal units of the language. Nor would it be clear how we could attribute the same meaning to manifestly different speech events. The form/substance distinction is a prerequisite to Bloomfield's "fundamental assumption of linguistics." It is important that the linguist's picture of verbal communication be seen aright. An utterance is able to convey the same meaning to all inter locutors because the latter recognize that: 1. Certain of the characteristics of the utterance are linguistically relevant while others are not (form vs. substance). 2. The linguistically relevant characteristics indicate that the utterance is to be taken as an instance of a particular sentence of the language (to kentype). 3. The language assigns to that sentence a particular invariant meaning (formmeaning). The crucial importance of the notion of meaning to linguistics should become even more clear when it is seen that linguistics depends upon the above picture in its method of analysis. The linguist attempts to discover the formal system(s) of a language, i.e., the relations between the forms of the language. These relations may
68
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
be explained in terms of a rulegoverned system, as a system of opposi tions, or in other ways. For our purposes, the choice between these modes of explanation is unimportant. Under any currently standard mode of ex planation or description the linguist is obliged to distinguish form from substance in order to identify the formal units of the language. How is this to be done? How can the linguist tell which characteristics of an utterance make it a token of a particular type? That is, how is he to know which features of observable speechbehavior are systematically relevant to the communication of meaning? The procedure most commonly adopted ("the commutation test") con sists of altering the utterance in different ways. If varying (e.g.) the pitch of any part of the utterance does not result in a different meaning for the utterance, then the linguist knows that pitch is not a dimension of form. For if a different meaning is not produced by this variation then each vari ant utterance must be a token of the same form/type. Consequently, it is important that the linguist be able to identify the meaning of the utter ance, to know when it has or has not been altered by sound substitution, and to distinguish the meaning from any other communicational effect. In general, when two such variants do not have the same meaning then the linguist takes their sounddifference to be formally distinctive, e.g., in En glish, the difference associated with tongue position which distinguishes top from cop. Thus, by substituting various soundfeatures the linguist can identify the formal features of a language, viz., those whose substitution can regularly result in two utterances being tokens of different types. Since difference in meaning is the criterion according to which two formal types are distinguished, it also then has the role of distinguishing features of form from those of substance. This crucial part of linguistic method may be seen to presuppose both the specificity and invariance of the meaning of a linguistic form. Bloomfield recognized the fundamental importance of semantic invariance. Our fundamental assumption implies that each linguistic form has a con stant and specific meaning. (Bloomfield, 1933, p. 145) Should a form not have a constant and specific meaning then, among other things, the linguist would not be able to identify the relevant characteris tics of speech which supposedly lead to particular utterances being treated as tokens of certain formal types. And yet, without some sort of agreement on the characteristics of linguistic form then the identification of the for mal units of the language would become impossible. Without formal units—such as words, morphemes, phonemes, and sen tences—for rules to operate on, there would be no sense in speaking of a
A Wittgensteinian Perspective
69
language as a rulegoverned system. However, it is precisely the notion of specific and invariant meaning which a Wittgensteinian perspective brings into question. And in doing so it questions the validity of the notion that speakers communicate by using a (specific, abstract, and invariant) lan guage. The linguist might still hope that the crucial form/substance distinction could be saved. After all, he is not forced to accept the position that formal similarity may only be identified by means of the criterion of meaning. Perhaps the linguist interested in investigating the Wittgensteinian per spective could accept the criticism of the orthodox concept of meaning and yet still retain a "pretheoretical" notion of linguistic form, along with the equally fundamental notions which depend on it. What obstacle is there to finding a method of identifying the forms of a language that is indepen dent of the discredited principle of the constancy of meanings? The linguist might turn to the plausible hypothesis that members of a linguistic community simply know what the relevant forms of their lan guage are. This knowledge might be assumed to be an intrinsic part of their linguistic competence. Thus the linguist could admit the difficulty of determining the necessary and sufficient conditions governing the type/ oken relation and yet, in reply, leave the accomplishments of this task to the native speaker's intuition. We might imagine his maxim to be: "if you want to know what the formal units of a language are, ask its native speak ers." For instance, most English speakers might be claimed to have a very clear idea of what the words of their language are. The evidence for this claim could be seen both in the speaker's ability to divide a text (either spoken or written) into its component words as well as in his ability to use the term "word" in conformity with the practices of other English speakers (e.g., in such contexts as "That's the same word as that"). Still, the ability to perform these tasks does not necessarily reflect an intrinsic distinction ei ther within English or within his knowledge of English. Rather it merely shows that his actions conform to the actions of others as regards talk about language. Here, one must not lose sight of a distinction between language and reflexive talk about language. The linguist may still maintain that he is justified in taking such metalinguistic practices as evidence of real features in their referential ob ject, viz., in the language (or knowledge of the language) itself. However, linguistic analysis does not follow this path when the destination to which it leads is not to the linguist's liking. The linguist might, for instance, at tempt to establish the formal sound units of a language simply by asking its speakers what they are. Here the error of relying on such metalinguistic
70
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
intuitions comes to light. For just as we have a metalinguistic tradition according to which we divide speech into invariant units called words, we have a related tradition for dividing words into their basic constituents: letters. If an English speaker were asked what the basic sounds of English are, he would most naturally respond by reciting the alphabet, perhaps supplemented by "extra" sounds like "ch," "sh," "ng." No mention, say, of intonation or stress would ordinarily be made. Whereas the linguist has been willing to accept the speaker's intuitive division of English utterances into their component instances of formal units called words, he would not be so anxious to accept the further intuitive identification of the compo nent parts of words. Instead, he would distrust these speakers' intuitions on the grounds of the corrupting influence of the orthographic tradition. This is not to say that the linguist's identification of the sound units of a language is entirely free of the orthographic tradition. The development of phonology—the study of the formal sound units of a language—has consisted in a series of alterations to the format of the orthographic tradi tion in order to paint over its glaring errors and inconsistencies. The task which phonology has set itself may appear impossible: to discover beneath the infinity of sounds produced by different speakers of the same language— speaking at different times, in different settings, for different purposes— an underlying sound structure. However, the spirit of the phonologist re mains undaunted, for he is looking for something which he believes must be there. Were he to abandon this belief then it would become unclear to him how an even stronger conviction of his could be true: that hearers understand utterances by identifying parts of them as instances of particu lar formal units of the language, formal units to which meanings are at tached. The reasons for rejecting such an askthespeaker approach to identify ing linguistic form may be summarized as follows. While it is true that we speak about our own speech in terms of its words, the rules governing it, its meanings, and so on, there is no guarantee that the terms used in such metalinguistic discourse stand for concrete or abstract particulars in (or underlying) our speech. Humans have developed a variety of reflexive lan guage games for talking about behavior. The efficiency of the terms used in such language games does not entail their standing for particular in variant parts of that behavior. The structure and "pieces" of these games do not necessarily provide a picture of the reality of our everyday speech. To argue that they do would be to beg a crucial question: that is, it would presuppose knowledge of how language works—e.g., by assuming that words stand in speech as surrogates for things—while it is precisely knowledge of how language works that linguistics attempt to formulate.
A Wittgensteinian Perspective
11
The study of human behavior has often prejudiced itself by incorporat ing into its very method ungrounded assumptions as to the nature of com munication: specifically regarding the relations between speech and things. The effect of these (primarily surrogationalist) assumptions on the study of communication itself is, thanks to the work of Wittgenstein and others, painfully obvious. It is worth pointing out why the linguist is so concerned to find a crite rion with which to identify an abstract formal reality underlying language behavior. The possibility which he seeks to avoid is that what counts as a communicationally relevant feature of an utterance is not determined in advance by impersonal and contextfree conventions. He wants to avoid the possible conclusion that speaker and hearer find different aspects of an utterance to be significant, and significant in different ways. Such a conclusion would amount to saying that utterances do not communicate by virtue of being tokens of objective yet abstract formal types, and hence, that they do not have fixed interpersonal meanings. Nevertheless, following a Wittgensteinian approach to this conclusion does not necessarily mean the complete abandonment of the typetoken relation. Instead, its possible relevance to an understanding of communi cational interaction could be twofold. Prima facie, from this perspective there would be no reason to rule out the hypothesis that the typetoken relation is involved in the individual's perception and interpretation of speech, so long as that relation is not conceived of as objective, i.e., holding for all speakers of the language in all communicational situations. Instead the individual could be thought of as interpreting what he hears (or reads) in the context both of his own perceptual abilities and of his own knowledge of the situation, his co interactants, and the purpose of their discourse. What would count for him as a communicationally relevant feature of a particular utterance would not be identifiable by objective, contextfree criteria, but would vary under the influence of a number of factors. Within such a picture of the hearer's perception of speech there would still be room for a typetoken relation. But it would lose the status it has in linguistics as the primary explanatory link between a language and speech in that language. Secondly, the Wittgensteinian could admit that the typetoken relation is undeniably involved in important metalinguistic language games. A and B agree that C said ripe not rape. Such language games are intricately in volved with the sequentially negotiated management of verbal interaction. The indispensable role of the typetoken relation in the management of communication would be noted not only in the making and use of dictio
72
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
naries, in the teaching and practice of translation, and in the "translation"of speech into writing, but also in ordinary conversation where it provides a method by which interactants can "fine tune" important aspects of their interaction. This prominent feature of communicational interaction de mands scholarly attention but has been completely neglected by linguists because of their assumption that the typetoken relation is implicit to lan guages and/or to knowledge of languages. However, the conclusion drawn by applying a Wittgensteinian perspec tive to the concept of form is that these metalinguistic language games would not be taken as explicit versions either of what "implicitly" goes on in the interlocutors' minds or of the implicit, "underlying" formal reality of language itself. There is, according to such a view, no reason for taking the criteria used by one person in identifying and interpreting an utter ance (whatever the nature of such criteria might be) as an implicit version of those used by two people in regulating the language game deciding "what was said" and "what was meant." This means the rejection of the assumption that there are fixed, objective criteria—either for the linguist or for the languageuser which determine the form and/or meaning of a speech event. In this case, a Wittgensteinian perspective in linguistics would be tantamount to the abandonment of Bloomfield's "fundamental assump tion" along with the notion of speech as the use of a multisubjectively available language.
Before such a Pandora's box the linguist hesitates. He now realizes that not only does the critique of the Augustinian tradition raise grave doubts about the orthodox linguistic notions of form and meaning but, as he sees it, the very possibility of successful communication is questioned. The abandon ment of the form/substance distinction, as well as the notion of an objec tively determined typetoken relation, would appear to question the possi bility that speakers of the same lr ^guage could ever understand one an other. And yet, he reminds himself, nothing is more obvious about verbal interaction than that communication does occur. The linguist comes to realize in effect that, if he allows that there are no fixed, languagegiven criteria for determining what abstract sentence of the language is instantiated by a particular utterance, then there is no guar antee that speaker and hearer will attach the same meaning to that utter ance. And, he asks himself, if speaker and hearer do not attach the same meaning to an utterance, then in what sense could the communication be called successful? These implications of Wittgenstein's critique of the Au
A Wittgensteinian Perspective
73
gustinian notion of meaning, I would argue, constitute the prime reason why the orthodox linguist has ignored the Wittgensteinian perspective. The linguist is not the only one to have balked at this point in a philo sophical reflection on language. The notion of communication has served as an anchor to many theories of language throughout history. Locke's chapter "Of the signification of words" begins with a reflection on the nec essary properties of successful communication. Saussure's "speechcircuit" serves as a backdrop against which the theory of the sign is to be inter preted. More recent linguists and philosophers such as Chomsky and Dummett use the notion of successful communication as a border restrict ing the area beyond which linguistic speculation may not be allowed to stray. Throughout the history of language study it has been paramount for a theory of language to conform to what seemed to be a commonsense account of how interpersonal communication is possible. We know a priori that communication occurs, and so our theory of language cannot be al lowed to question that certainty. It would surely be mistaken to think that Wittgenstein's critique of the Augustinian notion of meaning implies that he doubted the success of com munication. Instead, he might have pointed out that "the success of com munication" is a loaded, ambiguous, and mythcreating phrase. In fact, he never—to this writer's knowledge—dealt explicitly with that phrase. He may not even have recognized the spell that it holds over linguistic specu lation. Nevertheless, it is not unreasonable to take the whole of the Philo sophical Investigations as concerned with the import of that phrase, pictured under the different guise of the notions of meaning and understanding. From this perspective, a central question underlying the Investigations— i.e. "What is understanding a sentence?"—can be seen as a rephrasing of the traditionally troublesome: "how is communication possible?" Here the depth of Wittgenstein's reflection can be appreciated. For he not only dis solves the notion of meaning but silences what has always been behind the need for such a notion. The stumbling block to providing a coherent answer to these questions is the orthodox assumption that "successful communication" and "under standing" imply that the hearer "receives" the speaker's meaning; that, as Lewis suggested, "there must be something identical in your mind and in mine when we understand each other." If this were not the case, according to thisassumption, then the hearer would not have understood the speaker's utterance, and communication would not have been achieved. The great strength of Wittgenstein's argument is that by showing the error of this assumption he opens up a completely new perspective on the questions of communication and understanding. Baker and Hacker see
74
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
the fundamental notion in Wittgenstein's argument as that of criteria. If we listen to two people conversing outside the window, we do not need to find out if each received the other's intended meanings in order to know if their communication was successful. If I ask the waiter to bring me a bowl of soup and he then brings me a bowl of soup, do I need some other crite rion in order to know if he understood my request? There is no need to examine his mind to see if his actions were prompted by an accurate recep tion of the meaning of my utterance. As Wittgenstein repeatedly asserts, the criteria of understanding and communication must be public and ob servable, for, if they were not, we could never know whether our words were ever understood. The error in the reasoning of the Augustinian and linguist alike is to assume that there must necessarily be some private, un observable criteria (e.g., language given typetoken relations) which ac count for what is observably successful communication. However, if the criteria for communication were private, we could never know if successful communication and understanding were possible. Wittgenstein reveals the irony that the Augustinian's notion of what communication must be like— the conveyance of thoughts from speaker to hearer—obfuscates that no tion to such a degree that the question of the possibility of communication must arise. ...if the possible uses of a word float before us in halfshades as we say or hear it—this simply goes for us. But we communicate with other people without knowing if they have this experience too. (Wittgenstein, 1953, p. 181) But under the Wittgensteinian account no such question arises. Necessar ily, we have before us all the criteria we need. For all we know and need to know of communication, we—as languageusers or as linguists—do not need to postulate meanings as the abstract poker chips with which the game of communication is played. Communication is perfectly successful without them. "Imagine a person whose memory could not retain what the word 'pain' meant—so that he constantly called different things by that name—but nevertheless used the word in a way fitting in with the usual symptoms and presuppositions of pain"—in short he uses it as we all do. Here I should like to say: a wheel that can be turned though nothing else moves with it, is not part of the mechanism. (Wittgenstein, 1953, §271) If someone could forget "the meaning" of a word and yet still appropri ately use and react to the use of that word in interaction with other people,
A Wittgensteinian Perspective
75
the observable success of the communication would not be impaired. The absence of "the meaning" in that person's mind would be irrelevant. It could not function as a criterion for the success of the communication act. In this case, what need have we of meanings? The same could be said regarding someone who could never quite remember what aspects of speech were relevant to the determination of meaning and which were not. In deed, he could not remember what type an utterance was a token of, but nonetheless he produced and reacted to utterances in a perfectly normal way. The point is that the role of his speech and his reactions to our speech would remain identical to that of the ideal Augustinian languageuser, i.e., someone who did not "forget" meanings or type/token relations. If this is all that matters, and can matter, then there is no reason to hypothesize objective operational steps which somehow form the mental bridge be tween the observable bits of communication. The notions of meaning and form have been guaranteed a place in both philosophical and general studies of language due to the support they are given by the observable success of communication. "If we did not have objective meanings and forms," so the argument goes, "then commu nication could not be successful; and yet it is." By showing that the ex change of meanings is not (and indeed could not be) a necessary criterion for the success of communication, Wittgenstein removes the need for and the relevance of the notion of meaning in an explanation of the success of communication. At the same time, unwittingly, he silences the need to think of communication as the use of a multisubjective language. As a prerequi site to the study of languages Bloomfield wanted a guarantee that two ut terances can really be the same in form and meaning. But all that can be provided is the fact that people will sometimes say thatv4 and B "said the same thing" and/or "meant the same thing." The reflextive languagegame in which such statements are made is played by individuals for a particular purpose at a particular time. Should any of these variables change, then the same statements might not be made. Their acceptance or rejection at any one time is not independently guaranteed by something about the utterances themselves. The notion of what it would be for two utterances to be "objectively the same" stands in need of clarification; and yet, as we have seen, the Wittgenstein critique of meaning erects an unsurmountable obstacle to any attempt to do so.
Curiously, a Wittgensteinian perspective in linguistics also has implications for Wittgensteinian philosophers of language. The latter, understandably,
76
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
have concentrated their attention on the analysis of linguistic meaning. Little attention has been paid to linguistic form. Instead one finds that, even in the Wittgensteinian philosophy of language, the orthodox notion of form is taken for granted. The evidence of an orthodox notion of form is easily seen in the writ ings of Wittgenstein and his followers. Baker and Hacker sometimes speak of the uses of two tokens of the same type (e.g., Baker and Hacker, 1980, p. 127). Wittgenstein himself usually speaks of language as if it consisted of invariant formal entities. Words and sentences are pictured as instruments which we "make use of" when we speak. Even criteria sometimes appear as some sort of objective determinants of what the particular use of a sen tence is. Baker and Hacker, in the following extract, do not clarify whether the criterion of an utterance's use is to be taken as invariant as to person and setting. A competent speaker of our language must know what it is to use a sen tence to make an assertion, to issue an order, to ask a question, to formu late a rule, etc. (...). There must be criteria for performing these actions, as well as criteria for a person's having a mastery of these practices. (Baker and Hacker, 1980, pp. 12526) There is a danger that the myth of an objective form being "used" at dif ferent times, by different people, for different purposes will generate a replacement for the discredited notion of invariant meaning. A possible candidate for this role is the notion of objective criteria according to which any speaker of the language may determine, at any one time, which use is being made of a form and therefore which action is being performed. A version of Augustinism might be conceived in which fixed criteria take the place of meaningrules. Such a conception of the nature and role of crite ria would ensure that the study of language remained ensnared in the Au gustinian web. The philosopher should not be castigated too severely for presuppos ing the orthodox notion of form. His battle against the orthodox notion of meaning was waged against the powerful twin forces of intellectual tradi tion and ordinary common sense. The claim that words do not have fixed, objective meanings seems intuitively nonsensical and is traditionally he retical. The same forces fight on another front against the idea that an utterance does not have an objective, repeatable form. It is neither surpris ing nor reprehensible that, while waging war on one front, Wittgenstein and his followers should have neglected the other. Indeed a simultaneous attack on both fronts might well have been impractical. A firm foothold
A Wittgensteinian Perspective
77
was needed in the notion of form in order that the errors in the orthodox theory of meaning could be revealed. However, if the linguist takes the philosopher's critique of meaning to heart, he discovers that the orthodox notion of form is as untenable as the orthodox notion of meaning. Each depends on and supports the other. Wittgenstein warned the philosopher against the illusion created in the study of meaning by the identity of form. He did not recognize that the apparent semantic identity of two speech events creates a parallel illusion in linguistics. The linguist is thus led to ignore the difference between the speech events in order that they may be treated as identical in form. If any investigation of speech behavior assumes the "underlying reality" of either of these two identities, the acceptance of some variant of the other will not be easily resisted. Until it is abandoned the orthodox notion of form will continue to gen erate variant versions of the Augustinian picture. The conviction that there is a formal reality underlying speech will cause investigators to search for a parallel invariant communicational effect, interactional function, use, or criterion of use. The net result will be the canceling out of the gains made by a Wittgensteinian critique of meaning. The assumption that form is independent of person, time, and context leads one to the conclusion that such abstract invariance, underlying communicational interaction, is what both makes possible and explains the obvious success of the latter. A cri tique only of half the Augustinian picture, like the division of cell bacteria, will allow the remaining half to regenerate the whole. In the final analysis, as the linguist will insist, form and meaning cannot be treated separately. If the notion of meaning is revised, dissolved, or abandoned, then a subse quent revision of the notion of form is required. The ladder on which Wittgenstein climbed in order to assault the concept of meaning must now be kicked away.
This page intentionally left blank
—4—
Do You Understand?: Criteria of Understanding in Verbal Interaction Perhaps the most important, and surely the most perplexing, concept as sociated with the role of the hearer in verbal interaction is that of under standing. Indeed, it might be argued that how theorists conceptualize what it is for a hearer to understand an utterance constitutes one of the funda mental pillars supporting the edifice of modern linguistic thought. For on the concept of understanding depend the related notions of communica tion and language; and it is these notions which serve a foundational role in determining the goals and methods of modern language study. Conse quently, if we are to search for the foundations of modern thinking about language, about communication, or about the role of the hearer in verbal interaction, and if we are to pursue this search with the purpose of examin ing the strength of those foundations, we could hardly do better than to begin by examining modern assumptions about the nature of understand ing. In what has arguably been the most influential work in the history of linguistic thought, John Locke's Essay concerning human understanding, ver bal communication is represented as a form of telementation: i.e., as the transmission of thoughts from the mind of the speaker to that of the hearer (Locke, 1690, III, i, 2). Understanding a speaker's utterance, then, is viewed as a mental event occuring when the hearer derives from the utterance the thought which the speaker intended to convey by it. To make Words serviceable to the end of Communication, it is necessary that they excite, in the Hearer, exactly the same Idea, they stand for in the mind of the Speaker. Without this, Men fill one another's Heads with noise and sounds; but convey not thereby their Thoughts, and lay not before one another their Ideas, which is the end of Discourse and Language. (Locke, 1690, III, ix, 6) This telementational conception of the nature of communication and understanding has cast an enduring spell on the development of Western
80
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
linguistic thought (cf., Harris, 1981; Taylor, 1981, 1985, 1992); however, it was certainly not original to Locke. Indeed, it can be found lurking in the linguistic reflections of Aristotle, St. Augustine, the Modistae, the Port Royal grammarians, Hobbes and many others. But what does appear to be origi nal to Locke's reflections on telementation, and has since become a central factor in his influence on linguistic thought, is his concern with what he called the "imperfection of words." We can never know, Locke argues, if the ideas we signify by certain words are the same as our hearers signify by the very same words. Consequently, we can never be certain that our hear ers receive the thoughts we intend by our utterances to convey. That is, the "imperfection of words" consists in the fact that, because the understand ing of words as a private, mental event, they do not provide speakers with a means of knowing whether their words are being correctly understood. Locke's concern with the imperfection of words focuses on what we may call the question of the "intersubjectivity of understanding." Since, under Locke's telementational view of communication, understanding is a pri vate, mental event, my understanding of a word or utterance is not observ able by you or anyone else. Consequently, the speaker cannot be sure if the hearer's understanding of utterances is what the speaker intends them to be. It was never Locke's concern in the Essay to do more than draw atten tion to the threat that the imperfection of words poses to the intersubjectivity of understanding; he did not attempt to trace the implications of that threat for the study of language and communication (although he did suggest that such a study, called "semiotic" or "the doctrine of signs," should form a fundamental part of the new sciences: Locke, 1690, IV, 21). Instead, his overriding concern was to suggest how, for the purposes of understanding in the sciences, the imperfections of language could be remedied. This intention conforms with what appears to have been the primary purpose of the Essay, viz., to perform the conceptual groundclearing required for the laying of solid, empirical foundations to the investigations of the Royal Society (cf., Aarsleff, 1982, pp. 24ff.). Locke argued that communicational intersubjectivity could be assured in scientific discourse if speakers clearly defined all complex ideas in terms of the simple ideas of which they are composed. The intersubjectivity of our understanding of words signifying simple ideas was assured; so, if all words simplifying complex ideas were defined in terms of their component simple ideas, the threat posed by the ordinary imperfection of words could be averted. On these grounds, and in response to this view of language and understanding, Locke built his scientific method. The implications of Locke's remarks on the imperfection of words were
Understanding in Verbal Interaction 81
left to those that followed him to consider. In the eighteenth century, theo rists of the origin of language, such as Condillac, Monboddo and Tooke, endeavored to explain how intersubjectivity of understanding was achiev able by the ordinary use of language, in spite of the imperfection of words. They argued that in the natural origins of signusing lay the required guar antee of the mutual understanding of signs. A rediscovery of the natural sources of our common heritage as languageusers, they argued, would provide us with a notion of language free from Locke's doubts about intersubjectivity. In the twentieth century, Saussure countered this natural ist response to Locke with a conventionalist account of how ordinary lan guage guarantees the intersubjectivity of understanding. From Saussure's conventionalist point of view, we may be certain that all speakers of the same language link the same signifies with the same signifiants because that connection is arbitrarily imposed on them by the conventions of their lan guage. Saussure's reply to Locke's worries about the intersubjectivity of the connection between words and ideas was to argue, in effect, that speakers and hearers do not possess any ideas other than those given to them by the signs of their language. Two speakers of the same language must then, by definition, mean and understand the same things by the same words, for meaning and understanding are languagegiven properties of the mind. This conventionalist solution to Locke's worries about understanding has endured until the present day, although now and again (and with increas ing force in recent years), it has been complemented by naturalist argu ments reminiscent of the reasoning of the eighteenth century Lockeans. It is important to see that both eighteenthcentury naturalism and Saussurean conventionalism have adopted the same strategy in attempt ing to remedy the problem raised by Locke's doubts about the intersubjectivity of understanding. This strategy aims to formulate a pic ture of the essence of language that makes it clear how, by the use of lan guage, ordinary speakers can safely convey their thoughts to hearers. For naturalism, the essence of language lay in its genetic roots in natural signs; for conventionalism, that essence was to be found in its arbitrary and supra individual form as a socially imposed norm. Consequently, since the 18th century it is the concept of language which, one way or another, has been assumed to hold the key to Locke's puzzle about intersubjectivity. The Lockean tradition, has, to the present day, taken it for granted that a proper conception of the nature of language, once formulated, would simply make the puzzle of the intersubjectivity of understanding disappear. Therefore, it is on the enduring drive to preserve Locke's telementational concept of understanding and to protect it from his doubts about its intersubjectivity that we should today focus our attention if we hope to explain the source
82
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
and inspiration of modern theories of language and if we seek to under stand modern linguistic theory's neglect of the role of the hearer in verbal communication. However, while postLockean linguistics has endeavored to explain what language must be for it to be a vehicle capable of conveying an individual's thoughts, it has neglected a related issue. Although Locke was the first to face theoretical dilemmas regarding the intersubjectivity of understand ing, ordinary speakers are faced every day with the need to be understood and to know that they have been understood. And yet ordinary speakers do not appear to be stymied by the theoretical complexities surrounding the notion of understanding. Indeed, they will sometimes complain that they have been misunderstood, while at other times they will claim that they have been correctly understood. Yet linguistics—in spite of its con cern with the intersubjectivity of understanding has neglected to investi gate the basis for speakers' knowledge of their hearers' understanding of their utterances. By what criterion do speakers judge their hearers' under standing? This should be the first question asked, for the ordinary layman apparently has always had the practical solution to the Lockean puzzle that has troubled linguistics and determined the course of its theoretical devel opment for nearly 300 years. Although naturalism and conventionalism offer explanations of how telementational success can be achieved, their explanations have no bear ing on the ordinary communicator's practical need for and reliance on means for determining communicational success. For ordinary communi cators are not aware of the theories of naturalism and conventionalism. Furthermore, if, in order to find out if he had been correctly understood, a speaker had to determine if his hearer had received the thought he had intended to convey, then no speaker could ever be certain that he had been correctly understood. But it would be absurd to claim that no speaker ever knew if his utterances were understood. It is not the case that, as speakers, we are constantly puzzled about whether our hearers understand us. And, not only would it be absurd to insist that, because of a lack of determining evidence, speakers never know if they are being correctly understood, it also would render obscure ordinary communicational prac tice. Speakers do occasionally claim that they have or have not been un derstood, in spite of Locke's worries about the theoretical incoherence of such claims. In this case it should be of great interest to the student of language to investigate the grounds on which ordinary communicators make such claims. Given that, as speakers, we often find ourselves of the opinion that we have, or have not, been understood by our hearer(s), as professional stu
Understanding in Verbal Interaction
83
dents of language we ought to make it a primary concern to discover the criteria applied in forming such opinions. We need to investigate the rea sons speakers will provide in support of such assertions as "he (you) did not understand me when I said...." It is worth emphasizing the importance of this question. A modest claim for its importance would point out, at the very least, that it is essential to the study of conversational structure to investigate the criteria conversa tionalists invoke in justifying claims that they have been understood. A fundamental premise of conversation studies is that speakers ordinarily try to be understood. Indeed, it is not hard to find instances of speakers complaining if they feel they have been misunderstood. So, if speakers do care whether they are understood and if their own behavior in conversa tional interaction is in some part responsive to their perception of their communicational success, then it should be important to analysts of con versational structure to examine the reasons conversationalists provide for taking a hearer to have understood or to have misunderstood. At least one of the burgeoning schools of conversation analysis has rec ognized the importance of investigating when and why conversationalists believe themselves to be understood (or misunderstood), the reasons given for those beliefs, and their interactional consequences. Ethnomethod ological analysis of conversation recognizes the role that lay accounts of understanding play in conversational structure, and this may be taken as at least one source of their interest in repair, in formulations, in under standing checks, in securing agreement, and in reference specificity (cf. for instance, Atkinson and Heritage, 1985). A much less modest claim for the importance of investigating criteria of understanding might take its cue from Wittgenstein's dictum, "An 'inner process' stands in need of outward criteria" (Wittgenstein, 1953, section 580). That is, it might be argued that the ordinary concept of understand ing, and the criteria which determine the application of that concept, should provide the foundation for its theoretical formulation. Furthermore, the ordinary concept of understanding is manifested in what we do, specifi cally in how we use "understanding" and other related terms. If we are to construct a solid theoretical account of understanding, and on those foun dations build a theory of language, we should, by this reasoning, first turn our attention to the commonplace use of "understanding," e.g., in the jus tifications speakers provide of claims that their hearers did or did not un derstand their utterance. Such a methodological reversal would turn on its head the priority which the Lockean tradition confers on the theoretical explanation of understand ing. But this reversal would be warranted by the fact that the dilemmas
84
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
encountered by the theoretical explanation of the concept of understand ing are manifestly not encountered by the ordinary speaker's practical use of that concept. And, in turn, this might result in demonstrating that Locke's worries about the intersubjectivity of understanding are groundless, aris ing from the theoretical preconception of communication as a form of thoughttransfer. In the end, a revised notion of understanding, based on the investigation of ordinary communicational practice, might allow us to form a radically original, yet nonetheless empirical, account of the func tion of language in communicational interaction. (An example of the philo sophical interest in criteria of understanding may be found in work in the Wittgensteinian tradition, cf., especially Baker, 1974 and Richardson, 1976.) In order to begin this investigation, we might first ask ourselves: what sorts of reasons do speakers provide when they support a claim that a hearer (H) understood or failed to understand them? On reflection it would seem that they come up with a wide variety of reasons, invoking many different kinds of evidence in criterial support of their claims. (In the following the original utterance will be abbreviated by "U"; "S" will be the speaker of that utterance and will take a masculine pronoun; "H," referred to by a feminine pronoun, will be the hearer of U whose understanding has been queried; "E" will be the reasonfs] S provides in support of his claim that H understood U; "Q" will be the person asking S why he feels that H under stood U.) We might imagine S providing the following type of justification: (1)1 told her to close the door, and she got right up and did it; so of course she understood what I said. Here, as E, S refers to H's behavior following U. This might be expected to be a very typical sort of justification of an understandingclaim. At the same time, however, we should note that, in some contexts, H's lack of behavior could be taken as evidence of her understanding. (2) I told her to leave the door open; and, since she didn't go ahead and close it, she must have understood me. So, it would seem possible both for particular behavioral acts, as well as the absence of such acts, to be used as evidence in support of an understand ingclaim. Related to the latter type, we might imagine a typical sort of justification in which S points out that, since H made no sign of misunder standing, she must have understood. For many (perhaps all) U, there do not appear to be any fixed limits as
Understanding in Verbal Interaction
85
to the sorts of behavior by H a speaker can invoke as evidence of H's un derstanding. For instance, we might imagine a situation in which S said: (3) Since she left the room when I told her to close the door, she must have understood me. She always objects when I treat her as a subordinate. In fact, it would seem that there will always be some possible context for any sort of E to be invoked in support of a claim that H understood U. The type of E chosen will thus be dependent on the situational context. Con sider: (4) I know she understood me because, when I told her to close the door, she took out her handkerchief and blew her nose. She always feigns indifference to even the smallest of my requests. At the same time, we should note that, depending on the contextof utterance, it is not hard to imagine types of E that could be invoked either in support of a claim that H understood U, or as evidence against it. Con sider again the evidence provided in (1) and (4). (5) She must not have understood me when I told her to close the door because she got right up and did it; yet she always makes a point of ignoring me when I tell her to do something. (6) Since she blew her nose when I told her to close the door, she obviously hadn't understood me. These examples indicate what might be called the "practical ambiguity" of an E that is invoked in support of an understandingclaim. No E provides independently conclusive proof that H understood U since, given the ap propriate situational context, that same E could be used to support a claim that H had not understood U. And, at the same time, it is always possible, given the appropriate situation, to respond to S's use of E in support of an understandingclaim: "But what makes you think that shows she under stood?" Of course, a very common reason which speakers provide in support of understandingclaims involves reference to H's verbal behavior following U. This might be taken as a subcategory of the behaviorinvoking justifica tions already discussed. (7) Since she replied to me that she wasn't the one who left the door open, she must have understood my complaint that Fido had escaped from the kennel again.
86
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
Again, it is possible to imagine a situation in which S invoked the same E defense of a claim that H had not understood U. (8) She must have misunderstood me as accusing her of being the cause of Fido's escape since she immediately replied that she wasn't the one who left the door open. Two particular types of verbal response by H should be mentioned as commonly cited evidence of understanding. We might imagine S citing H's production of what he takes to be an acceptable paraphrase of U as indicative of her understanding. (9) She must have understood me when I said Reagan was unpredictable because she replied correctly that I really meant he was a hypocrite. Again we could easily imagine the same evidence being used to argue that H had not in fact understood U. The second type of verbal response often citable as evidence of H's understanding is the reply "Yes" to S's query "Do you understand?" Speakers will often support their claims that H had un derstood by pointing out that, when asked if she did, she had replied affir matively. But, at the same time, given the appropriate context, it is pos sible to imagine S taking H's simple reply of "Yes" as evidence that she had not really understood. Many other types of evidence which a speaker might offer in support of an understandingclaim could be imagined. For present purposes, it is only necessary to mention one more. (10) Of course she understood what I said. I've known H for fifteen years and her English is as good or better than mine. In this invented example, S does not refer to H's behavior in supporting his claim that she understood U; rather he refers to his familiarity with H and with her command of the language in which U was spoken. We might also imagine S indicating that H had been listening attentively, or that the room was perfectly quiet, or that he knew her hearing was fine, or that she was quite familiar with the topic, as well as many other examples of E where neither H's verbal nor nonverbal behavior is invoked to support the claim that she understood U. Indeed, the evidence invocable as criterial support of an understandingclaim is far from being restricted to H's behavior in response to U. It might well seem an impossible task to limit it at all. There is no point in pretending that the imagined examples just dis cussed constitute satisfactory evidence for the investigation of criteria of
Understanding in Verbal Interaction
87
understanding. Not only ought we to widen the survey of examples to in clude explanations of the meaning of utterances, objections to understand ings, and more, but above all we ought to direct our attention not to in vented but to naturally occurring examples. For instance, the use of an invented example makes us rely on decontextualized acceptability judgments, i.e., when we decide intuitively whether a proposed act would or would not be a way a speaker might jus tify the understanding of U. Imagined examples of justifications of under standing claims are far from being acceptable substitutes for the real thing. Indeed, there is every reason to suspect that empirical samples of conver sational data will reveal even greater variability, ambiguity, and indetermi nacy than imaginary data; although, on the other hand, in the empirical study of justifications of understandingclaims, problems will arise as to how to determine what should count as an instance of the category sought. It is all too easy, as an armchair linguist, to imagine that what people actu ally do with language conforms to our theoretical preconceptions. If the study of criteria of understanding is as important to discourse analysis and linguistics as has been argued above, then those criteria should be the subject of empirical, not just speculative, investigation. On the other hand, I would maintain that some important benefits may be gained through reflection on artificial data. At the very least, we may begin to deal with the sorts of questions that will be raised concerning how the data should be interpreted. That is, we have the opportunity now of forestalling future attempts to force the data into inappropriate theoretical moulds. In the remainder of this essay I will discuss and argue the inter pretations of criteria of understanding that will inevitably be raised. In the empirical investigation of criteria of understanding, we might conceive of ourselves as looking for the conditions which competent speakers know must be satisfied for it to be appropriately asserted of a hearer that she understands U. This quest may be dissolved into two main assump tions. 1. For any S, H, E and U, the connection between (a) the assertion of E, and (b) the assertion that H understood U is a rulegoverned connection, given in the language. In support of this assumption, one might invoke the general Wittgensteinian maxim that the criteria j ustifying an assertion of an utterance, i.e., its "as sertionconditions," are given in "grammar." The communicational com petence of the speaker of (e.g.) English would then include knowledge of the assertionconditions, for any English U, of "She understood U."
88
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
2. Knowledge of the rulegoverned relationship between (a) and (b) is tac itly applied by any S in judging his hearers' comprehension of utter ances. That is, when producing U, S unconsciously applies his knowledge of the assertionconditions of "H understands U" to his perception of H's re sponse to his utterance. This latter assumption might be taken to explain why it is that speakers are not perpetually in doubt whether their hearers understand them. Tacit application of languagegiven assertionconditions would thus supply speakers with an intersubjective criterion of communi cational success, a criterion which Locke's discussion of the imperfection of words had seemed to banish forever. Given these two assumptions, the empirical investigation of criteria of understanding might be taken to hold the promise of providing a "win dow" on the mind of ordinary speakers. An empirical instance of a speaker justifying an understandingclaim would be interpreted as an explicit ver sion of a rulegoverned process performed implicitly by all speakers, dur ing the course of every verbal interaction: i.e., the use of languagegiven criteria to judge whether their hearers understand what they are saying. At the same time, these assumptions would bring the study of criteria of understanding into line with what some take as given in the study of as criptions of pain and other "private" phenomena. The assertioncondi tions of an utterance like "Y is in pain" are taken to be a rulegoverned feature of the language, knowledge of which (a) is tacitly shared by all its speakers and (b) informs their implicit judgments regarding Y's ordinary behavior. So by studying the evidence people invoke in support of pain ascriptions, we might think ourselves to be discovering the tacit criteria all speakers of our language unconsciously apply in judging whether some one is or is not in pain. It is tempting to think that, given the two foundational assumptions of the grammargiven determinacy of and the tacit use of assertioncondi tions for understandingclaims, a new theory of conversational structure, and indeed of communicational interaction, could be constructed. How ever, although it is doubtless true that, for some, what we might call this "utopian" picture of criteria of understanding has a definite attraction, a consideration merely of our invented data quickly reveals that the real world of verbal interaction is far from being organized on Utopian principles. For what is immediately apparent is that the ways in which speakers justify claims that their utterances have been understood are heavily de pendent both on the contexts in which those utterances were produced as well as on the contexts in which their justifications are produced. Although
Understanding in Verbal Interaction
89
the Utopian view may leave some room for the assertionconditions of En glish sentences to vary according to the contexts in which those sentences are uttered, it could not permit the assertionconditions to vary according to the contexts in which they themselves are invoked. And yet even our brief glance at the types of justifications speakers produce indicates that the nature of those justifications depends on (1) S's interpretation of the context of U (call this UC). (2) S's interpretation of the context in which he is asked for E (call this context QC). (3) What S knows about H. (4) What S knows about the person who asked for a justification (Q). (5) Why S thinks, in QC, he is being asked for a justification, by Q, of his claim that H understood U. (6) What interactional objectives S thinks he can accomplish in his response toQ. (7) What S thinks Q knows about H, U and UC. (8) What S thinks Q knows about S. (9) What S thinks Q's interpretation of QC is. (10) How much S wants to convince Q of H's understanding of U. It would not be difficult to expand on this list. What becomes increasingly apparent is that what S will invoke as E is not independently decidable or limitable simply by reference to U and to H's behavior in response to U. Instead, the justification of an understandingclaim is an organic feature of the context in which it occurs (and of S's interpretation of that context). Consequently it is illegitimate to make assumption 1 above: the assertion conditions for "H understood U" are not "given in grammar"; they are not determinable independently of the context in which the justification of "H understood U" is supplied. It might help at this point to return to the analogy with justifications of painascriptions, where X says Y is in pain and Q asks him how he knows. It seems unreasonable to suppose that, in response to Q, X pays no atten tion to what he knows about Q, to why he thinks Q is asking him this question, to the circumstances in which the question is asked, to what he, X, knows about Y ("I've known her for thirty years, and she couldn't fake pain if her life depended on it"), to what X thinks Q knows about Y ("Oh come on! Y pretend she's in pain? You know she could never do that"), to the circumstances in which the question is asked (Y is writhing on the floor during the production of a play. X says she's really in pain. Y asks how he knows that's the case and not that she's just acting), and so on. Furthermore, we must not forget that many justifications of understand
90
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
ingclaims (like those of painascriptions) are potentially ambiguous. They might just as easily be used to j ustify a claim that H had not understood U (cf., invented examples 1, 4, 5 and 6 above), and in no case do they provide incontrovertible proof that H understood U. Instead they are best viewed simply as instances of what S feels will accomplish the task requested of him in the situation given. How S views that task will depend on the indi vidual S, on the context in which it is requested, on who requests it of him, and on the particular utterance, hearer and utterance context to which it refers. It would seem then that the assertionconditions for "H understands U" are neither fixed nor determinate. Instead, it seems more plausible to assume that, in justifying an understandingclaim, S does not follow any rule but acts creatively according to his interpretation of the interactional context. Given the argument against taking criteria of understanding as gov erned by languagegiven rules, it is clear that Assumption 2 should also be rejected. There is no possibility of speakers tacitly applying languagegiven criteria it those criteria cannot exist. Yet, for many there will still be an attraction to the notion of speakers constantly assessing their hearers' be havior to determine if it indicates understanding or misunderstanding. "After all," they will say, "why would speakers ever complain that their hear ers misunderstood what they had said if they had not, at least unconsciously, been assessing their hearers' responses to their utterances?" While the force of this argument may be admitted, it should however be pointed out that a speaker's assessment of his hearer's understanding will be dependent on the context (UC) in which that utterance and its response occurs. At the same time, we must recognize that that context is not identical with the context (QC) in which the speaker is asked to justify his claim that H un derstood U. Thus we may not infer the characteristics of the contextde pendent, unconscious assessment of H's behavior, an assessment performed ("online") in the context UC, from the characteristics of the contextde pendent justification performed in the context QC. Similarly, we have no grounds for assuming that, for any utterance U, the criteria according to which one speaker will unconsciously assess a hearer's understanding of U are the same as those another speaker would employ in assessing the same hearer's understanding of U. Indeed, speculation about the criteria un consciously employed in private assessment of understanding can only lead us straight back to Lockean worries about the intersubjectivity of mental phenomena to which we, as observers, have no access. What we, both as observers and as interactants, do have access to are the justifications of understandingclaims that speakers and others produce as
Understanding in Verbal Interaction 91
a functioning part of particular interactions. It is important that, as stu dents of language, we turn our attention to their study, as well as to the study of explanations of, objections to and corrections of particular, situ ated uses of the concept of understanding. It is equally important that we, like the interactants themselves, take such metadiscourse at face value, and not simply as surface images of "hidden" internal processes. To conclude: the telementational picture of communication, passed down to us from Locke, takes the understanding of an utterance to be an unob servable, private, mental event. According to this picture, then, we can never know if our hearers understand what we say to them. Yet this is mani festly not the case: speakers do often object that they have been misunder stood, and they will occasionally produce justifications for their objections. I have argued that it is important for students of language and under standing to focus greater attention on the metadiscourse in which speakers provide reasons for their assertions that a hearer understands an utter ance. For these reasons constitute the lay, commonsense discourse of un derstanding which holds the answer to Locke's telementational picture of communication and the sceptical doubts to which it leads. We should, however, be wary of interpreting the empirical instances of these justifications in a way that only leads back to Lockean scepticism. We would risk that danger were we to interpret actual examples of justifica tions of understandingclaims as explicit illustrations of implicit reasoning mentally performed by speakers during every interaction. In doing so, we would be replacing the Lockean notion of understanding as a private, mental event with a new picture of criteria of understanding as private and men tal. And a similar sceptical problem would arise: do all speakers, even of the same language, use the same criteria in judging the understanding of the same utterance? Such a turn of events would only show that we had not learned the lesson of the failure of the Lockean notion of understanding. If under standing and/or criteria of understanding are private, mental phenomena then we have no way of dispelling doubt whether different individuals pos sess identical versions of those phenomena. But ordinary speakers and hearers do not share these doubts. What this should teach us is that the communality of understanding, and indeed of criteria of understanding, is established in public, observable practice. The intersubjectivity which is the essence of communication is a part of communicational interaction itself and not a phenomenon to be explained by the identity of the private, mental events of different individuals. It is because the intersubjectivity of understanding and of criteria of understanding is a public, interactional phenomenon that speakers do not regularly question its existence. Conse
92
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
quently, we must learn not to study the public face of verbal interaction simply for the value it supposedly has as a window on the private events of the mind, where the "real" and essential activity is occurring. Communica tion is not a private, internal process; it is a public, cooperative activity.
— 5 —
Communication and Literary Style: The Principle of Intersubjectivity To study literary style is to study an aspect of verbal communication. Styl istics, the study of style, has far too long been guided by a theory of com munication imported from linguistics. This situation has provided many benefits for linguistics such as making possible the selfdefinition of its boundaries. But, at the same time, it has had disastrous consequences for stylistics. From Bally to the new wave of processing stylistics, each new theory of style has been forced to adopt the same explanatory model, a model whose intrinsic flaws have given rise to its own instability and, eventually, to the inevitable "overthrow" of every one of the new theories. In addition, this situation has produced the dissatisfaction of literary critics who com plain that each new stylistic theory only offers a priori, inhouse answers to the question of how readers experience literature. This dissatisfaction, the stylisticians have replied, is due to the unjustified expectations of literary critics and to the foundation of literary criticism on subjectivity and intu ition. The result is that, in literary critical talk about the reading experi ence, anything goes. On the other hand, stylistics—so the story goes—is an attempt to explain what literary texts actually can communicate and how. Stylistics claims that it would be useless to attempt to answer the ques tions posed by literary critics for the questions themselves presuppose "facts" about literary communication that are unsupportable, unobservable, and entirely dependent on an unprincipled interpretation of personal experi ence. I will argue in this paper that the dissatisfaction of literary critics with the "explanations" offered by stylisticians is not in fact due to the subjective nature of the questions criticism asks of stylistics. Rather it is due to the theory of communication adopted by stylistics, a theory which inevitably leads to conclusions in stylistics which—ironically—can themselves only appeal to ungrounded assumptions and intuitions for support. The shoe is on the other foot. The model of communication which stylistics has inherited from lin guistics (a model which I will call the "biplanar model of communication" and sometimes called the "transport studies model") holds that communi
94
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
cation is founded on the relationship between (to borrow Hjelmslev's terms) an expressionplane and a contentplane, between—to put it "pretheo retically"—sounds (letters, flags...) and their communication effects (mean ing, connotation, force...).1 The latter may be conceived of as a question of mental phenomena (viz., the effect the words produce in the mind) or in terms of a conventional abstract entity (the signifie, sense, meaning, etc.) which in actual communication situations is apprehended by the minds of the interlocutors. For the purpose of this argument, the choice between these two is irrelevant. An essential part of the biplanar model is that it makes the distinction within each plane between form and substance. A difference in substance in one plane only counts as a difference in form in that plane if it entails a difference in form in the other plane. An example from linguistics will illustrate: two different sounds (expressionsubstances) only count as two distinct phonemes (expressionforms) if substituting one for the other will, in some context, entail a difference in meaning (contentform). Should the substitution of the different sounds produce not different meanings but different communicational effects other than meaning (e.g., a difference in register, different emotive effects...) this difference in contentsubstance would not entail a parallel difference in expressionform. The sounds would, from the linguistic perspective, not be considered as two distinct phonemes. In this way, stylistic features of the expressionplane and stylistic effects in the contentplane are ruled out as extralinguistic. Consequently, the in vestigatory domain of stylistics, while notoriously illdefined, is usually at least restricted to nonmeaning. Not only has this model partially determined the domain of stylistic investigations, but the model itself has been adopted by stylistics and ap plied to the explanation of the communicational relation between stylistic features of expression and stylistic effects of content. An assessment of this importation will serve as the topic of this paper. This assessment will focus both on the consequences of importing the biplanar model into stylistics and on the strength of the reasons for it. First, I will outline the inevitable consequences that the adoption of the biplanar model has had for stylistics, that is, what I see to be the spiritless stagnancy of every stylistic theory since Bally. This will be followed by an attempt to show that the main rea son for adopting the biplanar model—namely, the unquestioned premise that communicational content is intersubjective, that is, shared by all com municators—is not the necessary truth that it is presumed to be. Commu nication would still be possible without intersubjectivity. 1 For a more detailed exposition of the influence of his model in modern linguistics, see Harris (1978) and Taylor (1981, Ch. 1).
Communication and Literary Style
95
In other words, I hope to show that stylistic theory is at every turn de feated by the acceptance of a theory of communication which (1) contrary to orthodox assumptions, is open to doubt, and (2) unavoidably leads to the adoption of inherently unsupportable methodological principles. The latter is, of course, precisely the criticism that stylistics always addresses to literary criticism. Sufficient proof both that this theory of communication does not necessarily have to be adopted and, when adopted, leads invari ably to unacceptable consequences, I hope will constitute a convincing ar gument for the rejection of that theory and of its fundamental principle. Primarily for reasons of space I will be limiting the scope of this article to the examination of the theories of only a handful of stylisticians: Charles Bally,2 Roman Jakobson, Michael Riffaterre,3 and George Dillon. Dillon's work represents the latest and most interesting development in the com bined fields of generative stylistics and recent, processingoriented psycholinguistics (cf. Dillon, 1978). Nevertheless, I do feel that this selec tion of theories adequately represents the thematic substance of com municational presuppositions in twentiethcentury stylistics, while con centrating on those theories in which these presuppositions are the most explicitly developed. My case would only appear stronger against less for malistic proposals. There do exist, of course, many important variations on the themes I will be treating; none, however, significantly distinct from the theoretical principles as I will be presenting them.4 Bally and the birth of modern stylistics The first point requiring support is the claim made in the introduction that twentiethcentury stylistics has consisted only of inessential variations on the model first developed and presented by Charles Bally. The truth of this claim obviously depends in part on what are taken to be the essential characteristics of Bally's model. For this reason, I will begin with an outline 2
Bally explicitly ruled the study of literary style out of stylistics. However, his model was very quickly adapted by his students and thereafter was used almost exclusively in literary stylistics. Consequently, Bally's stylistic model served as a theoretical paradigm in the future development of literary stylistics. 3 The examination of Riffaterre's theory will be restricted to his earliest and most programmatic articles (1959, 1960 and 1966). It is in these articles that Riffaterre pro vides his most fully developed account of the link between stylistic methodology and his theory of literary communication. 4 For a much more comprehensive, chapterbychapter analysis of the work of Bally Jakobson, Riffaterre, and Dillon (along with other generative stylisticians) c.f. Taylor (1981).
96
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
of Rally's model and of its inherent failings before going on to show how and why that model has made its way unscathed through the supposed "revolutions" in modern stylistics, playing an equally fundamental and dam aging role in each of the major stylistic theories since Bally. Modern stylistics was inaugurated by Bally in his Traite de stylistique frangaise (1951). Significantly Bally was also one of the first disciples of Ferdinand de Saussure and the editor (along with A. Sechehaye) of Saussure's Cours de linguistique generate (1926). Much of what we know of Saussure's pioneering thought in linguistics is seen through the interpre tation that these two students made of his teaching. It is important that Bally's work be seen in the context of the develop ment of Saussurean thought. In this light Bally's work in stylistics may be recognized as an attempt to explain aspects of verbal communication other than those accounted for by Saussure's biplanar model of linguistics. The need for this is clear. Saussure's new model, as it stood, was open to the criticism that its coherence is only achieved due to the systematic exclusion of important aspects of communication as irrelevant to the interests of linguistics. Should these aspects have been included within linguistics, it might have been claimed, Saussure's formalistic goals for an autonomous linguistics would have been rendered impossible. In other words, by limit ing the extension of the phenomena that were relevant to linguistics, by arbitrarily carving out of the center of linguistic behavior, a domain that was defined a priori as uniquely and exclusively linguistic, Saussurean lin guistics was vulnerable to the claim that this allimportant isolation of the linguistic domain was dictated by methodological requirements rather than by correspondence to the nature of the phenomenon described. But if those excluded, nonlinguistic aspects of communication could be provided with a similar explanation, based on the same model and same principles, the force of such claims would be defused. Ever since, as far as linguistics is concerned, stylistics has had this important but surprisingly unacknowl edged role as a buffer zone for the defence of the autonomy of the linguis tic domain. Consequently, the central question Bally's stylistics asks is: how do com municators link aspects of the expressionplane with content other than meaning? The system which he hoped to find underlying this communica tional process Bally called "le systeme expressifde la langue." Bally's model for this "systeme expressif" was a replica of the biplanar model developed by Saussure for linguistics. Within this model the same questions were asked as in linguistics: what differences in the expressionplane are linked to par allel differences in the contentplane? According to the methodology of the biplanar model, the way to answer
Communication and Literary Style
97
such questions is to compare different elements of the expressionplane to see if they entail differences in the relevant dimension of content (i.e., for Rally's stylistics, expressive or stylistic content). By noting the different types of content opposition that each pair of contrasted expressions re veals, Bally could work out the map of communicationally relevant differ ences in expression and the content values that belong to each one. The "systeme expressif" would be revealed. This approach unfortunately generated two important flaws. In accord with the logic of this method, Bally stated that the way to reveal a particu lar expression's stylistic content (i.e., content other than meaning) is to compare that expression with a synonym. The two expressions, equivalent in meaning, will differ only in their stylistic content. Thus the first prob lem raised is the following: in order to determine if expression A is or is not synonymous with expression B, the investigation already has to have distinguished, within the communicational contents of the two expressions, the stylistic content from the meaning. Otherwise, he cannot tell if their difference in communicational content does or does not entail their non synonymity. Consequently, the investigator is forced to beg the very first question that the method is designed to answer. However, even if the ability to distinguish the stylistic content from the meaning of an expression is taken for granted (e.g., left up to linguistics, as many stylisticians have been wont to do), a larger, even more significant problem arises. There is no criterion by which the sameness or difference of the stylistic contents of two expressions may be determined. Unlike lin guistics, which has a tacit (if flexible) criterion for attributing sameness or difference of meaning to two expressions, stylistics has no comparable cri terion for determining if two stylistic contents are or are not equivalent. It might be thought that this is a relatively unimportant difficulty which might be resolved simply by appeal to the investigator's intuition. On the contrary, within the workings of the biplanar model such a difficulty is disastrous. For, within this model, the way in which two elements of the expressionplane (i.e., two words, two intonation contours, two syntagmatic patterns,. . .) are determined to be either two v ariants of the same form or two entirely different forms is by observing whether they entail differences in content. But, as in the case of stylistics, if it is impossible to tell if two contents are or are not identical, then it is thus equally impossible to dis tinguish between the expressions. If we could not tell if such expressions as /pit/, /pat/, /pet/, etc. were synonymous or not, then our analysis of the phonological opposition involved could not proceed. Similarly, Bally's in ability to provide a criterion for determining the sameness or difference of two stylistic contents rendered useless the proposed biplanar model of
98
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
stylistics. Of course, Bally could say that his intuition told him that expres sions A and B were not identical in stylistic content, but C and D were, and construct his "systeme expressif" accordingly. But if someone disagreed, there was no way to decide between them. Everyone could construct their own incommensurate expressive systems with no ground for meaningful argu ment between them. This dilemma, which is inherent to the biplanar sys tem itself, has undermined every subsequent stylistic theory. Evidently, this dilemma stems from the impossibility of observing the stylistic contents on which the crucial analysis of the expressionplane de pends. It might be possible to privately observe the experience of this con tent, but one could never tell if what they privately observe is the same as what someone else privately observes, or even, as Wittgenstein remarks, whether what they privately observe now is the same as what they privately observed two days ago. The principle of intersubjectivity (or mutuality) states that we all do experience the same pattern of samenesses and differ ences of content, but it does not say how to determine what that pattern is. It may be claimed, as deductive premises, (a) that stylistic contents are intersubjective, (b) that they "belong" to particular expressions (or pat terns of expressions), (c) that native languageusers all (at least implicitly) recognize this, and (d) that this is why the communication of stylistic con tents works. But when it comes down to applying these claims to the inves tigation of the empirical details of its inferred model of communication, the crucial intersubjectivity of the contents seems to dissolve in unsupport able, mw/&"subjective intuitions. "Contents must be intersubjective" Bally might say, "and I know what those contents are." To sum up the argument so far: because of the general assumption of the principle of intersubjectivity, the stylistician is led to attempt to deter mine the regularities in the expressionplane which uniquely determine the perception of stylistic contents. Here he reasons that if stylistic con tents are intersubjectively perceived then there must be particular features, or markers, in the expressionplane which, due to their observability, pro mote the perception of those contents. But in order to determine just which features in the expressionplane are the relevant markers, he must be able to tell (1) when and only when suchandsuch particular stylistic content is communicated and (2) that he is not mistaking it for another content. In other words, here he must make unsupported and unsupport able assumptions about the isolability and detectability of what he claims to be the intersubjective stylistic content(s). But a contrary account will be no less firmly supported than his own, with no ground on which a decision between the two might be made.
Communication and Literary Style
99
The inheritors of Bally This is the dilemma that Bally encountered—and which caused the criti cism of his theory as purely subjective and based on intuition. This di lemma, it will now be argued, has defeated every major stylistic theory since Bally. What different investigators have chosen for the nature of sty listic content and for the particular stylistic features of the expressionplane has varied greatly, as has their explanatory account of how the expression features cause the decoder to perceive the relevant content. But the struc ture of the model arrived at and its dependence on the isolability and detectability of an unobservable content has remained, in every case, the same. There could not be a truly new approach to stylistics as long as the principle of intersubjectivity dictated the same logical form to the result ant model. This argument will be supported in two parts. First, I will show that the reasoning underlying Bally's model also underlies the theoretical models of Jakobson, Riffaterre, and Dillon. Then the complementary claim will be supported that the major differences between these theories and Bally's do not result in altering the underlying model or in avoiding its criterial dilemma. The theories of Jakobson, Riffaterre, and Dillon all propose different characterizations of the stylistic features of the expressionplane. For Jakobson, the projection of the principle of equivalence from the paradig matic axis into the syntagmatic axis produces sequential structures of equiva lence in the expressionplane. But for Riffaterre, what is important is a syntagmatic structure of an element contrasting with its sequential con text. Dillon also focuses on sequentiality in his choice of expression fea tures but is more concerned with the sequential order in which the words, phrases, and clauses are arranged in the text than with relations of equiva lence and difference between the expressions. But in each case the specifi cation of the stylistic features of the expressionplane is determined by the particular notion of the communicational content on which the investiga tion concentrates. Jakobson chose sequential equivalence as the character istic feature because he thought it could bring about a "focus on the mes sage for its own sake." Riffaterre, however, criticized Jakobson for lack of reflection on how a particular structure in the expression could communi cate a particular content. Basically he agreed with Jakobson's choice of a "focus on the message" as the relevant content but denied that a simple structure of equivalences would cause such an effect. Instead, relying on his knowledge of information theory, he argued that a focus on the mes sage could only be achieved if something in the expressionplane coun tered the reader's supposed natural tendency to read only for meaning.
100
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
Thus, in the text there had to be an unpredictable expression which would surprise the reader and cause him to pay closer attention to the details of the message. Dillon continued Riffaterre's concern with reading behavior. But, on the basis of his own postChomskyan rejection of behaviorist infor mation theory and backed by his own knowledge of psycholinguistic inves tigations into cognitive processing models for reading, he argued that sty listic content is essentially a matter of the different mental operations that readers are forced to perform in their processing of particular sequential structures. So the relevant stylistic features of the expressionplane were those which Dillon saw as the cause of different mental operations or "pro cessing strategies." In each case an appeal is made to a hypothesized, specific, yet unobserv able communicational content: focus on the message, increased attention, mental processing strategies. In the case of Riffaterre and Dillon the exist ence of this content is claimed to be supported by reasoning from a psycholinguistic theory which purports to explain how it is possible that such a content might be derived from the expressionplane. Yet in every case, no empirical support is or can be produced to prove (1) that the hypothesized content does exist, (2) that it is isolable from other communica tional contents, and (3) that it arises if and only if the relevant features are present in the expressionplane. The reason why these theories have a tendency to be shortlived is not hard to see. The most noticeable, if superficial, difference between these three theo ries and that first proposed by Bally is the reorientation of stylistics from a study oflangue to a study of parole. This was performed initially by Jakobson who was concerned with the function of language in situation. Riffaterre and Dillon carried on this orientation while narrowing the focus to the study of the performance of the reader while reading. However, although stylistics, as a whole, changed its orientation in this way, the explanatory model remained the same. The model has simply been relocated for the purpose of explaining nonlangue aspects of communication in the same way that langue itself is explained. In fact, as the most recent psycholinguistic investigations of reading performance prove, this "new" orientation merely amounts to postulating another distinct competence, along the very same lines as linguistic competence. This competenceforperformance (process ing strategies, reading models, etc.,) is supposed to explain those aspects of performance which do not appear to be explicable within the model of linguistic competence. So, whereas today Dillon proposes a model of read ing which supposedly consists of the processing strategies we use in perfor mance—this model being a separate competence, distinct from linguistic competence—Bally, in a much earlier investigation, attempted instead to
Communication and Literary Style
101
incorporate such aspects of communication within his own particular model of competence, the Saussurean langue. One competence or two, the model and the dilemma remain the same. The consequences which stem from this reorientation of stylistics present further contrasts in the later theories. The first is the greater concern with the syntagmatic or sequential aspects of the expressionplane, thus mov ing away from the paradigmatic atomism of Bally. Whereas Bally had tried to discover the hypothesized stylistic content belonging to each individual expression by comparing it with its synonyms, the later stylisticians, in an identical manner, attempted instead to discover in the expressionplane the particular syntagmatic patterns which are the supposed source of the relevant stylistic content (s). The application of the model is not altered. A third, perhaps more interesting, difference is suggested by the first two. Bally, for the reasons outlined above, had tried to explain how all intersubjective contents, other than meaning, are communicated. He pro posed a huge variety of stylistic values, classified according to their simi larities and differences. However, in what was perhaps a response to the vastness of the criterial problem which plagued Bally, Jakobson and Riffaterre significantly only attempted to explain the communication of one content: an increased attention on the part of the reader to the linguistic construction of the message. This reduction to one stylistic content neces sarily led to a parallel reduction in the analysis of the expressionplane. Each theorist proposed only one type of sequential pattern: Jakobson's equivalence within sequence and Riffaterre's contrast within context. Con sequently, this reductionism led to the justified objections voiced by liter ary critics that literary communication was being misrepresented due to the purely methodological requirements of a formalist explanation. How ever, Dillon has now augmented the quantity of stylistic contents by con sidering not just one mental operation, caused by the processing of one type of sequential structure, but rather an as yet unlimited number of dis tinct mental operations which are produced by the processing of a (simi larly unlimited) variety of sequential arrangements. But one stylistic con tent, like an angel on the head of a pin, is no more or less observable, isolable, and specifiable than two, twenty, or a thousand. So although the history of stylistics presents a tumultous appearance with new wave after new wave of scarcely related theories, this is only an illusion. The same explanatory model has been adopted at each new stage. In this there was never any doubt, due to the unquestioned assumption in each case that the communication of stylistic content is intersubjective. Just as this assumption is represented in the analogous belief that when two people hear the same utterance they "receive" the same meaning, it
102
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
leads also to the belief, underlying all these stylistic theories, that when two people read the same text they perceive the same stylistic content. The relation between meaning and expressionform is said to be given by the language or by our linguistic competence. Similarly stylistic content is pic tured by Bally, Jakobson, Riffaterre and Dillon as given by the language, by communication competence, by the laws of information, or by our in ternalized processing strategies. Otherwise, the assumption is, commun ication of stylistic contents would not be possible. Each individual would decode a different content from the same expression. But, so the argu ment goes, this would be a denial of the claim that communication is going on at all. This would contradict what obviously appears to be the case, namely, we do appear to communicate contents other than meaning. Two editors will agree that the style of a text is inappropriate. An audience will react to the informality of a speaker's style. If we did not all receive the same stylistic content from an utterance, then, it is argued, this would some how be revealed; just as, if two people come to different interpretations of what a third has said, this will eventually be discovered. And even if it is not, this only means that the communication was not entirely successful. For communication of any type of content to be as successful as it obviously is, the principle of intersubjectivity must be true. On the basis of such an argument, stylistics has at every turn adopted the principle of intersub jectivity. But the presupposition of the truth of this principle leads a theory to make important inferences about how it can be true. If we all receive the same content then this must be because in the observable features of the expressionplane there are signals, markers which are the source of our reactions. It could not be the case that we all simply make up identical contents on our own initiative, just as it could not be that we all arrive at the same meaning for an utterance without, so to speak, "deriving" this meaning from the words themselves. And so the biplanar model is adopted in stylistic theory, j ust as it is in linguistics. And stylisticians are led to make unsupportable assumptions about the nature of stylistic content in order that they may discover, or support their own intuitive choice of, which features in the expressionplane are the determiners of stylistic content. The adoption of the principle of intersubjectivity will invariably lead to these assumptions and to the very same consequences. The necessity of the principle of intersubjectivity In view of these consequences, the question must be asked why stylistics should continue to adopt the principle of intersubjectivity as a fundamen
Communication and Literary Style
103
tal assumption on which to build the explanation of how stylistic content is communicated. I will now examine both the logic of the argument for this principle and its evidence. A formidable reason for its adoption in stylistics is that it plays such an essential role in what, for the past seventyfive years, has been the most successful and influential investigation of verbal communication, that is, linguistics. It is easy to see that the history of linguistics would look noth ing like it does had the principle of intersubjectivity not figured in the foundational premises on which the linguistic model was built. Like Bloomfield's "fundamental assumption of linguistics" (c.f. Bloomfield, 1933, p. 76 et passim), the principle of intersubjectivity is crucial to the acquisi tion of the type of knowledge that linguists have accumulated over the last century. There can hardly be a linguist who does not believe that the or thodox notion of linguistic communication would be nonsensical without the principle of intersubjectivity. Nonetheless, this does not mean that the principle must necessarily be adopted in linguistics and stylistics. There has, as yet, been offered no a priori reason why the linguistic approach to explaining communication is the only "right" or acceptable one. In addition, many of the reasons for adopting the principle in linguistics are inapplicable when the investiga tion concerns not linguistic meaning but stylistic content. As regards the specification and individualization of contents, the stylistician has no com parably useful arbiter as the linguist has in the notion of truth. Usually, a minimum condition in attributing synonymy to two expressions is that they are substitutable in equivalent contexts salva veritate. This condition will understandably not satisfy many linguists and logicians. But barring cer tain wellknown exceptions, it will generally be sufficient for producing agreement between native speakers as to the sameness of meaning of two expressions and so support the principle of intersubjectivity. This use of the relations between language and the world as a criterion supporting the adoption of the principle is not comparable to anything in stylistics. However, a further support for adopting the principle in linguistics is relevant to stylistics. This is, for linguistics, our ability to agree on charac terizing the meaning of expressions, an ability that may be seen to be re flected in our respect for dictionaries. This argument claims that our mani fest ability to talk without apparent difficulty about the admittedly unob servable entities called "meanings" is evidence that there are such refer ents. For this reason we are as successful talking about meanings as we are about rocks, trees, and jam butties. And, in spite of the fact that for charac terizing styles we have no books which command the same respect as dic tionaries, we do, all the same, have manuals of style in which the different
104
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
stylistic effects of particular constructions and words are characterized. But, more importantly, we do possess a similar ability to talk in agreement about other aspects of communicational content than meaning. That is, in ordi nary conversation, we have no trouble agreeing with one another that, for example, someone's tone was disrespectful, that the Prime Minister's reply was terse, that Proust possesses a certain elegance of style, and so on. This then is taken as evidence that the utterances and texts concerned do com municate the same stylistic content to all. How could we agree, how could we successfully communicate with each other on these topics, if the pre sumed intersubjectivity were not in fact the case? However, the reasoning from that evidence to those conclusions is un sound. It should not be surprising, for instance, that two faithful followers of Riffaterre will have little trouble in agreeing when their attention is or is not drawn to the text. The trouble arises when an outsider joins the discus sion. Then, I will argue, it is revealed that what they were really in agree ment on was the use of a phrase, for example, "heightened attention," in conjunction with certain formal features of the observable text. The pres ence or absence of a purported stylistic content, a particular intersubjective stylistic content, is not a determining factor of the language game involv ing the use of the phrase "heightened attention." The following analogous situation will serve as an illustration of my argument. A respected member of a circle of friends reveals to them his recent discovery: "As I walk home at night, whenever I avoid stepping on a crack in the pavement I arrive home in a state of peace with the world." His friends think to themselves about what they feel like when they arrive home after performing the same feat. "Oh yes" says one of the friends, "so do I." Another thinks to himself: "Well, perhaps I do feel a tiny bit differ ent when I get home after missing the cracks. That feeling is probably what they mean by 'peace with the world'." He states his agreement with his friends. Others follow. As a group they publish their findings: "Avoid ing cracks on walk home induces state of peace with world." They admit that "at peace with the world" is not a publicly observable response. But, they argue, we are all in agreement that the privately observable state which each of us feels in the appropriate circumstances is indeed "at peace with the world." Apparently, the avoidance of cracks has the power of produc ing an intersubjective response. A new academic discipline is proposed. But then a member of the new generation publishes his own findings (some call him a nihilist and troublemaker, but others—especially those of the new generation—a truthseeking revolutionary). He proclaims that people do not feel "at peace with the world" when they succeed in avoiding pavement cracks. He outlines a theory of behavior which specifically rules
Communication and Literary Style
105
out the possibility of such a response being caused by the stimulus of missed pavement cracks, or indeed, by any stimulus. Instead, his theory shows that avoiding pavement cracks could cause a particular response, but only when combined with the sighting of a red bus on the way home. This re sponse he calls "artificial nirvana." The old generation, he argues, misread the extension of the appropriate stimulus conditions because they did not all really have the same feelings when they arrived home. Those that had seen red buses had one feeling while those that had not instead felt an other sensation. Others from the new generation examine their feelings when they misspavement cracks and see red buses. "Yes," one of them thinks to himself, "I guess there is something similar about my feelings in those circumstances. That bit which is the same must be what is meant by 'artifi cial nirvana.' I don't know what this reactionary 'peace with the world' mumbojumbo is on about." Others agree. What is to support the claim of the new generation against the old, or vice versa? Furthermore, how is any one individual to know whether to agree with his friends or not? Both sides have claimed that everybody has the same feelings in the same circumstances, but they have come to con tradictory conclusions both about the type of response felt and about the circumstances which cause the response. And yet it is only when two indi viduals from differing generations meet and converse that there is ever any problem about the use of the terms "at peace with the world" and "artificial nirvana." Within a generation the success of communication is not affected by the dispute. What most bothers the member of the new generation is that in spite of the fact that the members of the old genera tion do not (according to him) really imagine identical sensations when they use the expression "at peace with the world," still this does not im pinge in any way on their ability to use that expression, among themselves, in what appear to be perfectly successful communication situations. There is, indeed, a pervasive misconception underlying the assumption that the ability people have to use certain related expressions ("focus on the message," "what was meant," "the tone conveyed,"...), expressions which all supposedly refer to specific communicational contents, constitutes a proof that the people are all therefore perceiving the same content in rela tion to the designated features of the expressionplane. It is quite possible that they could all be perceiving different contents without this producing any noticeable effect on the satisfactory progress of the talk. As long as the conventional terms are used in conjunction with the relevant features of the expressionplane, communication will be as ordinary as it ever is. The particular content that each of the communicators perceives in conjunc tion with the expressionfeatures is a free variable in the regulation of the
106
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
usage of the terms. And yet it was on the satisfactory regularity of that usage that the claim was based for the intersubjectivity of contents. Intersubjective or multisubjective, the language game would not be affected. In discussing the analogous problem of the possibility of a private lan guage, Wittgenstein draws a similar conclusion. Imagine a person whose memory could not retain what the word "pain" meant—so that he constantly called different things by that name—but nevertheless used the word in a way fitting in with the usual symptoms and presuppositions of pain—in short he uses it as we all do. Here I should like to say: a wheel that can be turned though nothing else moves with it, is not part of the mechanism. (1953,§271) In support of this argument against the necessity of intersubjective com municational contents, it is perhaps worth raising a point against the possi bility of their intersubjectivity. How could a child ever learn to derive the "correct" stylistic content from an expression? Furthermore, how could we ever tell if he was or was not succeeding? Again, the only evidence of this success would lie in his manifest ability to use the terms which purportedly refer to those contents. But, as we have seen, this ability does not infer the possession of the contents, but merely knowledge of the use of those terms in relation to particular features of the expressionplane. It would there fore appear that not only could we never be able to tell if the child was or was not deriving the appropriate content, but the child could not either. In addition, there is no reason to think that this dilemma only concerns chil dren. Instead, what matters is not a hypothesized sharing of communica tional contents, but our ability to manage subsequent behavioral response (and this would include verbal and nonverbal response) to the satisfaction of all concerned, regardless of the private causes leading to that response. What matters is making the observable moves in the language game in a manner acceptable to all other players. I am not claiming to put forward a watertight argument for the aban donment of the principle of intersubjectivity in communication studies. Such an argument, although I believe it to be formulable both for style and for meaning, would be beyond the scope of this paper. In the last section I have merely attempted to show that the possibility of communicationaswe knowit would not be ruled out should the principle be false. On the con trary, the evidence we have of the success of communication gives us no necessary reason to adopt the principle, and certainly not in stylistics. In deed, there appears to be some evidence against the possibility of the prin ciple being true. Where the fault in the reasoning has always surfaced is in the inference that the intersubjective principle is necessarily implied by
Communication and Literary Style
107
the observable evidence. I hope only to have shown that the necessity of this implication is an illusion. The principle could be false and life would still go on. Instead of proving the falsity of the intersubjective principle, I hope in this paper to have presented a persuasive argument against the adoption of the principle of stylistics. By showing (1) that the principle, by means of the biplanar model, leads inevitably to very unsatisfactory consequences for stylistics, and (2) that the principle does not necessarily have to be adopted, I hope to have produced convincing reasons for dropping the dependence of stylistics on a principle that, in any case, was only originally adopted by stylistics in order to help linguistics out of its own perilous dilemmas. Today linguistics is finally beginning to face those dilemmas, and so, stylistics' obligation holds no longer.
This page intentionally left blank
Part II: Normativity
This page intentionally left blank
— 6—
Reflexivity, Politics, and Explanation in Conversation Analysis All of the current forms of conversation analysis are founded on the as sumption that every conversation can be seen to consist of at least some events (and sequences of events) which are, at some pertinent level of analy sis, the same as events (or sequences of such events) that have occurred in other conversations. It is this assumption that analysts rely on in saying, for example, that this and that conversation both begin with a compliment agreement adjacency pair, or that that conversation contains two preclosing sequences, or that every conversational exchange consists of three structur ally related moves. Note that, if every conversational event were viewed as irreducibly unique, analysts could not make such statements: such a view would amount to the denial of structural regularity in conversation. Conversation analysis, on the other hand, simply takes for granted that conversational interaction is appropriately viewed as consisting of something like tokeninstances of par ticular types of events, occurring and reoccurring in regular types of se quences. It is this (often unstated) assumption that is to be discussed here and to which I will refer in saying that the explanation of "structural regu larity" in conversation is taken as one of the primary tasks by all of the familiar versions of conversation analysis. Further instances of the assumption of the regularity of conversational interaction are exemplified by the following typical kinds of analytical state ments. "Closing sequences are usually preceded by preclosings." "Rejections of invitations are usually hedged." "Selfinitiated repair is much more frequent than otherinitiated repair." In its postulation of regularity, conversation analysis is fully in line with standard treatments of other socalled "levels" of language. Indeed, what Leonard Bloomfield called "the fundamental assumption of linguistics" amounts to nothing more than the assumption of the structural regularity
112
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
of language. The alternative to Bloomfield's fundamental assumption would be to conceive of each utterance or part of an utterance as irreducibly unique (so that it made no sense to say that this is the same sound as that, or this the same word, or construction, as that). In this case, any of the familiar forms of linguisticsasweknowit simply could not get off the ground. For similar reasons, it is reasonable to claim that a parallel assumption is fun damental to conversation analysis. The remainder of this paper will contrast two perspectives on the expla nation of regularity in conversational interaction. The first is common to the familiar rulesandunits approaches discussed in Taylor and Cameron (1987), including the ethnomethodological, Gricean, Hallidayan, experi mental inductivist, and speech act models of analysis. The second is that which I wish to propose in its place. Before beginning I should add the dangerously openended proviso that what I will say about the explanation of regularity in conversational interaction applies equally to the explanation of regularity in language tout court. I do not conceive of the analysis of conversational interaction as a suburb located on the outskirts of the downtown district of linguistics "proper", but rather as the natural center to a reconceived geography of the linguistic metropolis. It is therefore all the more important that its buildings be constructed on solid foundations. Moreover, I fully realize that there is more to the analysis of conversa tion and of language than the explanation of structural regularities, and, at the same time, that there is much even in the explanation of regularities which exceeds the explanatory power of the proposals to be put forward here. By the term "epistemic" I will refer to the standard perspective on the explanation of regularity in conversational interaction. This perspective views the production of conversational regularity as explicable, at least in part, by the proposition that the interactional participants mutually grasp a common object of knowledge, the latter being specified in any one of a number of possible ways. In other words, the members of a given speech community are taken regularly to produce the same sorts of conversational events and to combine them according to one of a specifiable set of pattern because of something they both know in common. Analogously, a straightforward way of explaining why a whole room of people are moving chess pieces in similar sorts of ways on chess boards would be to refer to something that they all know in common: namely, they all know the same rules distinguishing the types of chess pieces and deter mining the possible moves that may be made with those pieces in a game of chess. The regularities manifest in their interactions at the chess board
Reflexivity, Politics, and Explanation
113
are thus explained in terms of what they know and know in common: in this case, the rules of chess. So, what I will call the "epistemic" approach to the explanation of conversational regularities, takes the analytic task at hand to be one of specifying what it is that conversationalists know, with the achievement of a complete specification of that object of knowledge as the realization of the analyst's explanatory goal. In this way, epistemic expla nation ican be seen to deflect the analyst's investigative energies from the conversational regularities themselves to the task of specifying the hypo thetical object known in common by the conversationalists producing the regularities. As is argued in Taylor and Cameron (1987), all the standard versions of conversation analysis adopt as a model of that object of common knowl edge some form of the rulesandunits framework borrowed from linguis tics. According to this framework, what conversationalists know in com mon (and which therefore explains their interactional regularities) is speci fiable in terms of a set of possible conversational units (acts, moves, turn types, etc.) and rules (maxims, constraints, conventions, etc.) for the com bination of those units into possible sequences. There is no doubt that, in combination, the epistemic perspective and a rulesandunits specification of the object of knowledge offer what seems a compelling approach to the explanation of conversational regularities. What is most persuasive about this approach is that it responds directly to "the principle of intersubjectivity." This is the overarching principle, imping ing on any language theory within the epistemic perspective, which re quires a model of conversation to show how two or more agents can arrive at a common interpretation of a conversational event: that is, interpreting it as a repair, as a facethreatening act, as an insult, as meaning "it's time to go home," as a contravention of the maxim of quantity, etc. Respecting the principle of intersubjectivity, all the analytical models discussed in Taylor and Cameron (1987) take for granted the notion of successful conversa tion as implying the participants' common epistemic grasp of conversa tional events. In this case, if conversationalists are conceived as sharing common knowledge of possible conversational units and their possible combinations, then it becomes considerably clearer how it might be that they arrive at a common analysis of actual conversational events and se quences of such events. Because it has just this sort of explanatory power, the epistemic per spective has been dominant in language theory generally since the begin ning of the 19th century, and the sorts of questions it raises have become so familiar that they are now simply conceived as fundamental to the study of language, regardless of explanatory perspective. To a large extent it is
114
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
how those questions are answered which distinguishes the different "schools" of linguistic theory from each other. Even though the analysis of conversa tional interaction is a much younger branch of language study, its own fledgling adoption of the epistemic perspective leads it to face the very same set of questions. It is worth pausing a moment to indicate their connection to the adop tion of an epistemic perspective in explanation. 1. The most notorious of these questions concerns the acquisition of the postulated shared object of knowledge. Formulated in terms of conversa tional knowledge, it asks: if the production of conversation is thought to depend, in part at least, on something participant conversationalists know in common, then how is it that each individual conversationalist acquires the same (or nearly the same) knowledge? Of course, we are familiar with the sorts of answers that this question typically receives, characterizing those answers in terms of their rational ist, empiricist, behaviorist, functionalist, (etc.) presuppositions. All that needs to be made clear here is that if the explanatory perspective is one which does not postulate a common object of knowledge, then no question about the shared acquisition of that object of knowledge can arise. 2. How can the analyst determine what conversationalists do or do not know? Another way of putting this is: how can the object of knowledge be specified and competing specifications be evaluated? The type of answer given here obviously depends on the analyst's supporting scientific creed: e.g., inductive, hypotheticodeductive, ethnomethodological, etc. However, beyond this, the question itself is easily seen as presupposing the adoption of an epistemic perspective on explanation. 3. In the analysis of particular conversations, how can the specification of a common object of knowledge inform the analyst's investigation? How, for instance, can s/he tell if this event is or is not (e.g.) a facethreatening act or if this sequence of events does or does not conform to the maxim of quan tity? If such questions cannot be answered, then the explanation in terms of a common object of knowledge is analytically useless. 4. What is the ontological status of such objects of knowledge? Are they social conventions? Psychological realia? Behavioral dispositions? Abstract objects? Or merely explanatory constructs? Their explanatory power de pends on the resolution of this question.
Reflexivity, Politics, and Explanation
115
5. What makes conversationalists conform to what they know in common? Knowledge is one thing; but it still needs to be shown how that knowledge guides behavior. If not, the whole purpose of adopting an epistemic per spective is lost. Indeed, it's important to recognize that raising this problem of relating knowledge to behavior has the consequences of recycling (ad infinitum) the very same explanatory problems that the epistemic perspective is supposed to provide an escape from. That is, even if we grant common knowledge of the conversational system, it still needs to be asked whyconversationalists apply this conversational knowledge in the same regular ways. Do they also share common knowledge of a system for applying their conversa tional knowledge? And what makes them apply that knowledge in the same regular ways? And so on.... Such questions determine the analytical horizons of both linguistic and conversational enquiry. They determine what linguists and conversation analysts see as the "big issues" and as the possible ways to address those issues. In turn, such questions are the consequence of adopting an epistemic approach to explaining conversational interaction and linguistic behavior generally. In this case it may be salutary to remember that it can, at the very least, be a refreshing experience to turn from one's familiar horizons to consider the view from an entirely different perspective. How then do things look if we abandon the epistemic perspective in conversation analy sis?
The general question we are faced with concerns the regularity of con versational interaction: why do individual conversationalists act in ways similar to how they have acted before and to how other individual conver sationalists act? If we grant that conversational action is a voluntary form of behavior, that conversationalists are not mechanistically determined in their performance, then why should their interactions manifest the sort of structural regularities that constitute the explanatory "stuff" of conversa tion analysis? It may be profitable to treat such questions as formulating a version of what is known as the (Hobbesian) problem of social order. The problem of social order may be roughly glossed as follows: how and/or why do indi vidual agents—given their own personal desires, fears, experiences, and intentions—produce socially coordinated behavior? What explanations may
116
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
be given for the conformity of the acts of free individuals to social order? If we recast the problem of conversational regularity in this form, then we can begin to envisage a possible alternative to epistemic explanation. For, to a large extent it is the very individuals constituting a particular social group who enforce conformity in the behavior of their fellow group members. The mechanism enforcing structural regularity in a group's be havior thus may be seen to lie in the behavioral practices of the individuals comprising that group. We ourselves, you might say, police our own regu larity and conformity. What the remainder of this paper will propose, then, is that the expla nation of the regularities manifest in a particular group's conversational behavior should be sought through the investigation of the practices by which the members of that group bring about the reproduction of those regularities. I will focus on two essential characteristics of these practices: their reflexivity and normativity. That is, it is by their everyday practices of "reflecting on" their conversational interactions and by the moral status that they assign to those reflections that the members of a social group enforce regular behavior in their group's interactions. The first point, then, is that the enforcement of regular behavior in conversational interaction is facilitated by the fact that talking about con versational actions and their agents is an everyday feature of conversa tional interaction itself. Ordinary conversation is full of references to and characterizations of events and agents in the ongoing conversation and in linguistic behavior generally. In these reflexive practices (or metapractices) of talking about what they and fellow agents do, conversationalists categorize and characterize: they impose a descriptive grid on conversational behavior and its agents. But, this imposition of a descriptive characterization on conversational events is itself a contextdependent and locally managed act. It is sensitive to the situational features of the context in which it is delivered, including the fellow interlocutors. For instance, whether a particular conversational event will be characterized as an "insult" to the hearer will depend on the context in which that characterization is made and on the person(s) to whom it is addressed. Equally, what "interrupting someone" is taken to be will depend on who is making use of that expression, on whom they are speaking to, and on the context in which they are speaking. In this way, the characterization of verbal behavior is as much a locally managed, creative, and socially responsive act of interactional negotiation as is the character ization of nonverbal events and objects. In this regard, we could dispel many of the confusions that arise over the role of "intuition" in language analysis if we came to appreciate that
Reflexivity, Politics, and Explanation
117
our technical ability—as analysts—to recognize verbal interaction as a regu lar form of behavior is itself completely dependent on our lay ability to engage in such reflexive (meta) practices. Furthermore, to the extent that our technical analyses and descriptions of conversational interaction are based on "emic" (rather than "etic") criteria they are projections of these lay reflexive practices of categorization and characterization. In "identify ing" the structural regularity of conversational interaction we are simply exercising our "lay" ability to engage in those reflexive practices. The only categorizations and characterizations of conversational events that are therefore pertinent to analysis are those that conversationalists themselves construct in talking about what they or others have done, are doing, or can do in conversation. (It is worth noting that this principle is fundamental to structuralist theory, but that Saussurean structuralists mis conceived its implications, taking the languageuser's reflexive categoriza tion of linguistic events to be a reflection of an underlying psychological categorization in terms of which agents "perceive" and interpret linguistic events. In so doing, these structuralists neglected the contextdependent and negotiated status of the practices of reflexive categorization.) The second crucial feature of the practices by which the members of a social group enforce regularity on the conversational behavior of their fel low group members arises from the moral status with which conversation alists endow their reflexive characterizations of behavior. Conversational ists do not ordinarily talk about their own and other conversationalists' actions just for the sake of description. Nor do they or their cointeractants treat such reflexive talk simply as descriptively accurate or inaccurate. In stead they treat it as an evaluation of what it characterizes. In talking about conversational events, conversationalists are taken as evaluating those events and their agents as good, bad, incorrect, right, unfair, inappropriate, thoughtless, effective, tricky, frank, secretive, and so on. And, with particu lar regard to the explanation of regularity is the fact that one way in which conversational acts are commonly evaluated is as being in accord with or not in accord with how that act "should" be performed: i.e., as regular or as not regular. Of equal importance is that such a characterization is a value attribution, not a valueneutral description. That such characterizations are taken to be valueladen may be seen in the fact that people whose behavior is regularly characterized as nonconforming usually find that that characterization comes to be applied to more than just their linguistic behavior. Its attribution spreads to their personality, their rationality, their intelligence, their character, etc., with all the social consequences that such characterizations will normally entail. It is no wonder that the character ization of one's social behavior as regular or not regular, (as "what we do"
118
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
or as definitely not "what we do"), is ordinarily treated by all concerned not as a descriptive but as a moral characterization. And in this case it is not surprising that such characterizations serve as powerful weapons in the mutual enforcement of perceivedly regular and conforming behavior on each other. The explanation of conversational regularity must therefore be sought not in the specification of common objects of knowledge from which regu lar behavior somehow flows, but rather in the investigation of the everyday practices by which conversational agents themselves enforce perceivedly regular behavior among the members of their group or groups. These practices are essentially reflexive and normative; as such they provide con versational interaction with a means of addressing and evaluating its own production and producers. In this way, the production of regular behavior is represented as a moral good, and the production of nonconforming behavior a moral defect. By thus putting a desirable value on regular be havior we may succeed in ensuring its reproduction. Just as the epistemic approach to explanation leads directly to certain obvious theoretical questions about the acquisition, application, and inter subjectivity of the postulated common object of knowledge, this nor mative approach to explanation suggests its own puzzles. Perhaps the most obvious and important of these concerns the political character of these reflexive and normative practices. For it seems to go without saying that in the management of such practices there emerge all the familiar political issues of power, authority, status, rights, and so on. Characterizing a cer tain way of talking as "wrong" or "clear" or "different," thus encouraging or discouraging its repetition, is by its very nature a political act, an act of the imposition of personal will, with potential social, moral, and even eco nomic consequences for those involved. In studying the normativity of con versational interaction we cannot escape its inherent politics. In this way, the normative approach to explanation will allow us to bring political con cepts, such as power, authority, and oppression, to bear on both the macro analysis of general conversational regularities and on the microanalysis of particular interactional events. This in turn would mean that conversation analysis would no longer have to promote the politically naive and sterile picture of conversational interaction as if it consisted in two machines talk ing to each other at the dictates of the program both of them "know." In addition to raising a number of political questions, a normative ap proach to the explanation of conversational regularities will have other implications. A normative explanation will make possible a nonepistemic account of intersubjectivity: that is, an account which does not look for intersubjectivity in the shared apprehension of a common event or object
and
and
do do do
1 19
This page intentionally left blank
—7—
Which is to be Master? "When /use a word," Humpty Dumpty said, in rather a scornful tone, "it means just what I choose it to mean—neither more nor less." "The question is," said Alice, "whether you can make words mean so many different things." "The question is," said Humpty Dumpty, "which is to be mas ter—that's all." The emergence of the view that language can be the subject of an empiri cal, descriptive science is one of the most interesting topics in the history of Western linguistic thought. This paper will focus on one important con ceptual step in the transformation of metalinguistic discourse (by which I mean discourse on language) from a normative, prescriptive mode to that of descriptive science: namely, the replacement of a voluntaristic concept of signification by an institutionalist one. This consists in the abandon ment of the view that the connection between a word and what it signifies is forged by the will of the individuals who utter that word in favor of a view which takes that connection to exist independently of the will of individual speakers. The difference between a voluntaristic and an institutionalist concept of language may be summarized as follows. Voluntarism takes language to be a voluntary act performed by individual agents, agents who themselves bear the responsibility for the success of their linguistic acts. The volunta rist may argue, therefore, that linguistic acts will only be successful if indi vidual agents submit their linguistic freedom to the constraint of norms: the prescriptive rules of linguistic "authorities" are notorious examples of such norms. The function of discourse on language (what I am here calling ''metalinguistic discourse") is, from this point of view, normative: it tells us how, as linguistic agents, we should behave. Such a normative discourse on language may take more or less institutionalized forms. Within such a con ceptual framework, it is natural that HumptyDumpty's question, who is to be "the master," looms large. Who or what determines which norms we should obey, and why? Not surprisingly, as a normative form of discourse,
122
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
a linguistics which takes a voluntaristic view of language inevitably raises fundamentally political questions of responsibility, power, authority, and ideology. Institutionalism, on the other hand, focuses on language (or a language) as an institution which exists independently of the individuals who perform linguistic acts. Individual agents, with or without political power, have no say in determining the features of that institution (e.g., what a given word signifies), any more than individual agents have a say in determining, for instance, the economic structure of an agrarian society. To find out what those features are we must turn not to normative authorities but to trained professionals with specialist techniques of investigation: i.e., to descriptive linguists. From this perspective, if properly performed, (descriptive) lin guistic discourse is seen to be an empirical science, with truth (as opposed to political power) its only authority. Consequently, because it denies the relevance of individual agency and of the normative mechanisms by which agency is influenced, the science of language is conceived to be indepen dent of political issues of authority, power, and ideology. Lest this issue be thought to be merely of historical interest, it ought to be pointed out that it has a modern form in the controversy about the autonomy of linguistics (see Newmeyer, 1986) and in debates about the status of linguistic rules (see Harris, 1987 and Baker and Hacker, 1984, Chs. 8 & 9). With regard to the latter debate, the difference between a normativist and a descriptivist perspective is clearly seen. On the one hand, we might take rules like Soporific means "tending to produce sleep" or "Verbs agree with subjects in number" to be prescriptions. In their ordinary con text of use, their utterance has a normative force. On the other hand, from another perspective they are seen not as carrying a normative but rather a descriptive force. That is, they are seen as statements which either truly or falsely describe, depending whether in (the institutional entity called) En glish soporific really does mean "tending to produce sleep" and whether verbs in English really do agree with their subjects in number. Conceived as carrying descriptive force linguistic rules, like scientific hypotheses, ei ther do or do not correspond to the (institutional) facts. But from the normativist perspective such a condition is seen as nonsensical. There are no institutional facts to which a descriptive linguist's rules do or do not correspond: language as an empirical phenomenon consists of communi cational events, and a linguistic rule could hardly be conceived as a de scription of one or more such events. At the same time, the normativist will argue, it makes no more sense to hold a linguistic prescription up to the standard of "correspondence to the facts" than it does to hold up to the same standard a sign reading "There is no smoking in the first four rows."
Which is to be Master?
123
Whether anyone is or is not smoking in the first four rows is irrelevant to determining whether the sign is a prescriptive rule. Although this debate has a peculiarly modern flavor to it, the conten tion to be supported here is that these two ways of viewing rules have been in competition for many years. This paper will examine an instance of this competition as it occurred in the evolution of the linguistic thought of classical British empiricism. For one of the most important steps in the transformation of empiricist linguistics from a normative to a descriptive mode of discourse is the slow abandonment of the practice of treating sig nification as an aspect of voluntary behavior to one which treats it as inde pendent of the will of linguistic agents. This metamorphosis from a normative to a descriptive approach to lan guage is well illustrated in the popular and highly influential criticism of John Locke's linguistic ideas presented in the Diversions ofPurley by John Home Tooke. Although he is little known today, at the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, Tooke was perhaps the most influ ential of British philosophers, as influential as Locke had been in his day (see Aarsleff, 1967, Ch. 3 and Smith, 1984, Ch. 4). Like Locke, Tooke was known not only for his philosophical writings but also for his liberalist political views, leading to his imprisonment on the charge of sedition in 1777. Given Locke's status as one of the founders of liberalist political thought, it is a curious feature of Tooke's criticism of Locke's linguistic ideas that it draws its inspiration from Tooke's own political liberalism. In this respect, the development of empiricist linguistic ideas and that of lib eralist political ideas flow into the common stream of the evolution of Brit ish thought in the Enlightenment. Tooke argued for a descriptive approach to language in part because he felt it would help to free language from the control of political authorities and would thereby offer access to the use of that powerful instrument by the politically oppressed. But to give a clear account of Tooke's argument and how it was addressed to what he per ceived as imperfections in Locke's linguistic thought it will be best to begin with a sketch of Locke's discourse on language in Book III of his Essay concerning human understanding (1690). From the institutionalist perspective of modern linguistics it is not easy to see just what Locke is trying to achieve in Book III of the Essay. His aim is not to give a description of any or all languages; nor is it to present what we might today call a "philosophy of language" or a "theory of language." We can better appreciate Locke's reasons for writing Book III of the Essay if we compare it to his aims in discussing civil society in the Two Treatises of Government (1689b), organized religion in the Letter concerning Toleration
124
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
(1689a), and mental contents and operations in Book II of the Essay. Locke is no more a linguistic theorist than he is a political, theological, or psycho logical theorist. His broad aim in discussing human affairs is neither that of description nor explanation; his aim is to improve the ways we humans conduct our affairs. He discusses the operations and contents of the mind in order to recommend ways for better and more effective use of the mind in the advance of knowledge. In the same way his discussion of civil society in the Second Treatise on Government has the aim of providing a ground from which he can recommend how societies should govern themselves. It is not a theory of any particular political society (say, that of England in the late seventeenth century) nor of an ideal political society nor of the general laws which might be conceived to govern all political societies. In this light it may be easier to appreciate that his aim in discussing language in the Essay is to persuade us of the need for improving language and to suggest ways by which that improvement may be brought about. His aim therefore is not descriptive, explanatory, or theoretical; rather it might more aptly be termed "normative" and "therapeutic," concerning what he calls "Practica: The Skill of Right applying our own Powers and Actions, for the Attainment of Things good and useful" (Locke, 1690, IV, 21, iii). In this respect the rhetorical foundation of Locke's discourse on language is not unlike that of the seventeenth century rationalist grammarians such as Arnauld and Lancelot of PortRoyal (For an expansion of this argument see Harris and Taylor, 1989, Chs. 8 & 10). The "good and useful thing" which it is the purpose of language to achieve is communication. Words must excite, in the Hearer, exactly the same Idea, they stand for in the Mind of the Speaker. Without this, Men fill one another's Heads with noise and sounds, but convey not thereby their Thoughts and lay not before one another their Ideas, which is the end of Discourse and Language. (Locke, 1690, III, 9, vi) In Book III of the Essay he discusses how well we ordinarily achieve this purpose of language, examines why we commonly fail, and suggests "rem edies" which would help us achieve greater success. One of the main obstacles to the right achievement of the communica tional purpose of language is our failure as linguistic agents to recognize that communicational success depends on us. We ourselves must endeavor to use words in such a way that communication will result. Communica tional success is not guaranteed by Nature, God, descent from Adam, soci ety, or the inherent characteristics of language itself. Instead Locke views language as resulting from acts of our own free will which, if they are to
Which is to be Master?
125
bring about mutual understanding, must be effectively and rationally per formed. Locke's argument in favor of recognizing the responsibility of the speaking agent for achieving communication through language is in this way analogous to his arguments elsewhere in favor of recognizing indi vidual responsibility in political, religious, and scientific conduct. Through out his work he argues against unquestioned acceptance of inherited dogma which obscure the natural freedom of the individual and for the conse quent requirement that the individual take personal responsibility for the management of his/her civil, mental, and communicational affairs. The linguistic dogma against which Locke argues is the inherited as sumption of a "double conformity" in signification: i.e., a (representational) conformity of ideas to the things they are ideas of and a (communica tional) conformity of the ideas signified by one person's use of words with those signified by another's use of the same words. And hence it is, that Men are so forward to suppose, that the abstract Ideas they have in their Minds, are such, as agree to the Things existing without them, to which they are referred; and are the same also, to which the Names they give them, do by the Use and Propriety of that Language belong. For without this double Conformity of their Ideas, they find, they should both think amiss of Things in themselves, and talk of them unintelligibly to others. (Locke, 1690, II, 32, 8) Locke attributes great importance to man's mistaken faith in the myth of this "double conformity" of signification; for it is a mistake which has consequences for all of our efforts to expand our knowledge of things and to communicate that knowledge to others. We too easily assume, in effect, that the relationship between words, ideas, and things is ideal, is perfect. Furthermore, we take it for granted that this relationship exists indepen dently of us and of our actions. It is irrelevant to our misconception whether we take the perfection of that relationship to be an inheritance from Adam, to be Godgiven, or to be a product of Nature. What is important is that our daily activities are based on the assumption of its perfection and its independence. However, Locke's argument is that the relationship between words, ideas, and things is not perfect; signification does in fact depend on our own actions and choices. Consequently, our belief in the myth of the perfect "double conformity" means that our attempts to acquire and to communi cate knowledge are too often frustrated by this imperfection. If we do not come to recognize the "imperfection" of the signifying relationship be tween words, ideas, and things (and to do something about that imperfec tion), it will remain as an obstacle hindering the progress of human under
126
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
standing. Locke first attacks the dogma of the "double conformity" by show ing, in Book II, the extent to which the formation of ideas (that which words signify) is dependent on our own free choices: in this way he speaks of complex ideas as both "voluntary" and "arbitrary." In forming a com plex idea we combine simple ideas, the passive products of experience, into larger molecules. Given the passive formation of simple ideas they may be assumed to conform representationally to the phenomena they are ideas of. However, the individual takes an active and voluntary role in the formation of complex ideas. It is we ourselves who determine which simple ideas are included in our complex ideas. This combination is not deter mined by some exterior force (Nature, God, etc.), nor does it directly re flect essential patterns in experienced reality. On this last point rests his important distinction between the nominal essences of things, consisting in our voluntarily formed ideas of them and their real essences, which are unknowable. The result of this argument is that there cannot therefore be a representational conformity between our voluntary and arbitrary com plex ideas and the things which they are ideas of. In Book III Locke opens a second attack on the doctrine of the "double conformity," arguing not only that ideas are formed voluntarily and arbi trarily but that the private links we forge between words and the ideas they signify are also voluntary and arbitrary. The signification of a word I utter, i.e., the idea for which it stands in my mind, is not determined prior to my free act of the will in using it to so signify. Words signify not by Natural affinity to particular ideas, by an inheritance from Adam, nor by any other prior arrangement; to deny this, Locke says, is "an abuse of language." Instead the words a given individual uses signify by a voluntary, arbitrary, individual, and private act performed in the mind of the speaking agent. They have no preexistent signification prior to that act. And every Man has so inviolable a Liberty, to make Words stand for what Ideas he pleases, that no one hath the Power to make others have the same Ideas in their Minds, that he has, when they use the same Words, that he does. (Locke, 1690, III, 2, 8) Furthermore, this means that we cannot directly check whether the idea we signify by a given word is the same as is signified by others when they use that very same word. To assume that our ideas do conform to the things they are ideas of and that they also conform to the ideas in other men's heads is therefore an unsupported assumption, a dogma which is injurious to the proper and effective conduct of the mind and of language for the purposes of the advance of knowledge. Given this it is easy to see that the communicational purpose of Ian
Which is to be Master?
127
guage will rarely, if ever, be achieved. If the ideas I signify by my words are chosen voluntarily and arbitrarily by me in mental privacy and if those ideas are themselves formed by a voluntary, private, and largely arbitrary act, then it would surely be irrational to assume that others understand me when I speak. When dogmatic belief in the "double conformity" is aban doned, Locke leaves the reader staring into the vertiginous abyss of com municational scepticism. But it would be wrong to conclude that it is Locke's purpose in the Essay to promote a sceptical theory of communication. For his overiding aim is a practical one: the improvement of our conduct of the understanding. And in this case the point of his discussion of signification is to improve our linguistic conduct: to help us achieve greater and more reliable under standing when we speak and write. Consequently, he prescribes in Book III, Chapter 11, "remedies" for the "imperfections" of language. These may be paraphrased as follows: 1. Use no word without knowing what idea you make it stand for. 2. Make sure your ideas are clear, distinct, and determinate; and if they are ideas of substances, they should be conformable to real things. 3. Where possible, follow common usage, especially that of those writ ers whose discourses appears to have the clearest notions. 4. Where possible, declare the meanings of your words (in particular, define them). 5. Do not vary the meanings you give to words. If language is an act of the will, then it is an act that the speaking agent can intentionally alter so that the goal of mutual understanding can best be achieved. From the individualist and voluntarist perspective adopted by Locke, language is subject to the control of the individual will. It is therefore improvable, and it is each individual speaking agent who is re sponsible for that improvement. This position is completely opposed to that which rests on a dogmatic trust in external forces—Nature, God, his tory, society—to ensure that our individual acts fulfil their goals. So after affirming what we might call the individual's linguistic "freedom", i.e., their control over the communicational power of the words they speak, Locke follows with prescriptions which, if followed, will function as rational con straints on that freedom in order that the goals of communication may be secured. In this respect his rhetorical strategy in working towards prescrip tive conclusions is no different than that used elsewhere in his recommen dations for the rational conduct of the mind and the just conduct of civil society. Locke is a linguistic normativist because he believes that the indi
128
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
vidual is a free, and therefore practically responsible and perfectable, lin guistic agent. Locke's view of language is obviously quite different from that of the dominant linguistic theories today. Nevertheless, from our perspective it is easier to see more clearly how his view of language is related to (we might even say "determined by") his more general liberalist ideology, as reflected elsewhere in his political, educational, and religious writings. He begins with human freedom and works towards recommendations for moral con duct from that premise. If we want to speculate why his writings were so influential, and so controversial, in the British Enlightenment, we could not do better than to begin with the prominence he gives to the concepts of individual freedom and responsibility. To understand Locke's linguistic ideas and his place in British thought of the Enlightenment, first consider ation must be given to his role as one of the main proponents of the ideol ogy of liberalism. Yet it is curious that his views on language have not even endured within the domain of liberal ideology. Instead they have been replaced by a per spective which rejects the premise that language results from a free act of the individual will. Instead, this new perspective takes as its starting point the assumption that language and signification are not subject to the vol untary control of speaking agents, but rather exist independently of the individual will: in society, in the unconscious operations and states of the brain, or in logical abstraction. The rise of what appears to be an anti liberalist account of language would be understandable within an ideology that was equally antiliberal. It is therefore quite surprising that one of its earliest and most influential proponents was a wellknown political liberal of late 18th century England: John Home Tooke. Like Locke, Home Tooke was also interested in freeing speakers from linguistic dogma. They both thought that belief in such dogma was a ma jor source of the failings of philosophy and political theory. Furthermore, Tooke agreed with Locke that the purpose of language is to communicate ideas from one individual to another and that this purpose is only too rarely achieved. But whereas Locke blamed the fundamental properties of language and ideaformation for communicational failure, Tooke directed the blame elsewhere: to the misguided analyses of language and ideas pro pounded by philosophers, grammarians, and other intellectual authori ties. From Tooke's point of view, language is far from the imperfect vehicle of communication which Locke takes it to be. Rather, it is "the perfections of language, not properly understood, (which) have been one of the chief causes of the imperfections of our philosophy" (Tooke, 1857:19). And when Tooke comes to examine the ways in which past analyses of language have
Which is to be Master?
129
misunderstood the true properties of language, his own description of lan guages as historical institutions, independent of human will, stands in di rect opposition to the voluntarist perspective of Locke. From Tooke's point of view, Locke gave too much attention to the first of the two principle aims of language. The first aim of language was to communicate our thoughts; the second to do it with despatch. (...) The difficulties and disputes concerning language have arisen almost entirely from neglecting the consideration of the latter purpose of speech: which, though subordinate to the former, is almost as necessary in the commerce of mankind, and has a much greater share in accounting for the different sorts of words. Words have been called winged; and they well deserve that name, when their abbreviations are compared with the progress which speech could make without these inventions; but compared with the rapidity of thought, they have not the smallest claim to that title. Philosophers have calculated the difference of velocity between sound and light: but who will attempt to calculate the difference between speech and thought! What wonder, then, that the invention of all ages should have been upon the stretch to add such wings to their conversation as might enable it, if possible, to keep pace in some measure with their minds. Hence chiefly the variety of words. (Tooke, 1857, pp. 1415) In his Diversions of Purley (first edition published in two volumes, 1786 and 1805), Tooke argues that although the first goal of language is to com municate thought, there is a second goal: to achieve the first goal effi ciently, according to the temporal constraints of ordinary verbal interac tion. So it is not sufficient for language to enable the communication of thoughts; it must also make communication possible at or near the speed at which the thoughts to be communicated are themselves formed. Thought, for Tooke, consists in a stream of simple ideas, or sensations, occurring rapidly in sequence, one after the other. Complex ideas do not exist. They are an invention of philosophers who, assuming that all words must di rectly signify ideas, imaginatively populate the mind with a different type of idea to be signified by each different type of word. But, for Tooke, the mind consists only of passively registered simple ideas of sensation. The business of the mind, as far as it concerns language, appears to be very simple. It extends no further than to receive impressions, that is, to have sensations or feelings. What are called its operations, are merely op erations of language. (Tooke, 1857, p. 25) For Tooke, then, all ideas are passively registered by the mind. There
130
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
can be no ideas which are formed by voluntary operations of the mind, for there are no such operations. However, if we were to utter a word for each of the simple ideas occurring in a thoughtstream, we could never speak quickly enough to keep up with the speed of our thoughts. So for language to be an effective vehicle of thought it must contain verbal forms of expres sion which can be produced at a rate similar to that of the thoughts they express. Civilized languages achieve this temporal efficiency by including what Tooke calls "abbreviations": i.e., words which stand indirectly for more than one simple idea at the same time. By uttering a sting of such abbreviations, the speaker can produce speech at a rate equal to that of the simple ideas passing though his/her mind. An abbreviation is in fact an etymologically derived substitute for other words which themselves stand directly for simple ideas. Though indeed... without abbreviations, language can get on but lamely: and therefore they have been introduced, in different plenty, and more or less happily, in all languages. (Tooke, 1857, p. 24) At the core of all civilized languages must exist a set of forms, many per haps no longer in use, directly signifying simple ideas of sensation (for this is all there is for words to signify). All the other words in the language—the "abbreviations"—are etymologically related to one or more of the mem bers of this set; and it is by means of this etymological relation that the meanings of the abbreviations are derived. The truth of this claim is proven, Tooke argues, by the application of the historical methods of etymological analysis. Much of Tooke's Diversions of Purley consists of the etymological analysis of over two thousand English words, with the aim in each case of revealing their true significations. If my reasoning...is well founded, there must then be in the original lan guage from which the English (and so all other languages) is derived, liter ally such and such words bearing precisely such and such significations. [...] The event was beyond my expectation: for I instantly found, upon trial, all my predictions verified. (Tooke, 1857. pp. 679) Tooke takes there to be many benefits gained by a full appreciation of the role played by abbreviation in language. The most important of these, and that on which what I am calling Tooke's "institutionalise' view of signi fication is founded, is the realization that words do not mean what we or anyone else make them mean. They signify independently of us and of how we use them. Their true meanings can be discerned by means of etymo logical analysis, revealing the simple "atoms" from which they are derived.
Which is to be Master?
131
For example, in the following, Tooke shows how the English preposition "through" has a different meaning than grammarians and metaphysicians have led us to believe. Etymology reveals that "through" simply means door.
For as the French peculiar preposition CHEZ is no other than the Italian substantive CASA or CA, so is the English preposition thorough, thourough, thorow, through, or thro', no other than the Gothic substantive dauro, or the Teutonic substantive thurrh: and, like them, means door, gate, passage. (...)! am persuaded that Door and Through have one and the same Gothic origin dauro, mean one and the same thing; and are in fact one and the same word. (Tooke, 1857, pp. 18083) Here, the (purported) fact that through really means 'door' is a fact of the language, not of some individual speaker's use of the terms. If I used through to mean something else, I would simply be wrong. It is not up to me to determine the meaning of the words I use. In turn, etymological analysis, by tracing the meanings of complex and abstract terms to the sensory impressions formed by simple concrete ob jects, holds the promise of dispensing with confusing metaphysical and psychological theories the only purpose of which had been to explain the nature of the phenomena signified by complex and abstract terms. With Tooke's etymological account of signification, the need for psychological and metaphysical speculation disappears, for all such terms can be shown to be abbreviations of other words which stand directly for simple ideas. The speculative and elitest disciplines can thus be replaced by an empiri cal and egalitarian science of etymology. Another benefit gained by a full appreciation of the role of abbrevia tions in language is that we need no longer worry whether communication is possible through language. Directly or indirectly all words signify simple ideas of sensation; and, since simple ideas of sensation are derived pas sively from common human experience, we can be certain therefore that the ideas signified by any word are the same regardless of who uses that word. Of course, a speaker may mistakenly believe, perhaps influenced by speculative philosophical theories, that they can make the words they use signify whatever ideas they choose. Such an illusion is fostered by philoso phers and grammarians. In fact, the meanings of the words we use are not subject to our voluntary control. The signifying connection between a word and its meaning is a historical reality, laid down in the etymological rela tions which constitute the language, independent of the will of individual speakers. Consequently, what a given word signifies cannot vary between users or between speaker and hearer. It is the institutional independence
132
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
of language, isolating it from the control of the will of individual agents, which makes language the perfect vehicle of communication Tooke be lieved it to be. Furthermore, to the extent that we reject the authoritarian and obfus cating arguments of philosophers and grammarians, we will finally come to see that language is a public institution which, because of its very inde pendence, exists as a common good over which no individual or group can exercise any authority or control. Tooke believed that political authorities had been able to reject or defuse populist arguments in favor of greater rights, basic liberties, just laws, and the like because those authorities had tricked their subjects into accepting the obfuscating significations the au thorities gave to the crucial terms law, right, just, etc. But if we accept Tooke's institutionalist argument, we will see that such moves simply mask the truth: all words have objective meanings which can be revealed by the empirical techniques of etymology. Apolitical authority can no more impose his own meaning on right than he can impose a chemical structure on water. The meanings of political and ethical terms are "facts" not fundamentally dif ferent from the facts of chemistry, biology, and physics. Meanings are mat ters of fact; they are not, pace Locke, matters of the will and individual agency. And etymology provides an empirical technique for uncovering the facts of meaning. Meaning statements are therefore not prescriptions, but descriptions (scientific hypotheses). They are empirical statements, relying on scientific techniques, rather than normative statements, relying on authority and power. So the political significance of Tooke's argument lies in its advocacy of the free access, by means of etymological study, to linguistic knowledge, a good the possession of which had previously been a guarded privilege of the elite (a privilege Tooke felt to be given the illusion of legitimacy by normativist linguistics). Henceforth knowledge of the meanings of words becomes a possession open to anyone who will but master the empirical techniques of etymological analysis. There is of course a great irony in Tooke's transformation of empiricist discourse about signification from the prescription of behavioral norms to the description of institutional facts: most of his etymological "facts" soon came to be seen by fellow institutionalists as falsehoods. Tooke came to be thought a very bad etymologist. One notorious example of bad etymology is Tooke's equation of through with door. But this in turn suggests a more general irony in the institutionalist approach to language. Such an approach describes the institutional "facts" (as opposed to saying how agents should behave). But the "facts" described by the institutionalist are not directly observable. The purported facts that
Which is to be Master?
133
soporific means 'tending to produce sleep' or that "through" really means 'door' are not accessible to empirical investigation. Nor is the purported fact that English has a rule: "Verbs agree in number with their subjects." What is observable is the behavior of individual agents: someone agrees a verb in number with its subject. But this instance of behavior is not itself the fact described by the institutionalist: the rule is. But that cannot be directly observed. Consequently, unlike what are called the facts of biology, chemistry, and other natural sciences, the purported institutional facts of descriptive lin guistics appear to change from decade to decade, from generation to gen eration, and from school to school. The wholesale rejection of Tooke's ety mological and semantic "facts" is a perfect case in point. But what light does this irony, which is, to be fair, of an essentially historical nature, shed on the more general, logical claim that institutionalist linguistics is an apo litical discourse, standing in direct opposition to the unavoidably political discourse of normativism? To address the more general claim, it ought first to be noted that, as Aarsleff (1967) has demonstrated, Tooke's ideas were probably the main inspiration driving the proposal and eventual composition of the New (Oxford) English Dictionary. What was (and still is) such a dictionary sup posed to be but an exhaustive description of the institution of the English language, in particular of the meanings of its words? It stands resolutely opposed to the notion that what a word means is something to be voluntar ily determined by the individual agents who use that word. The OED sim ply reports the facts, both contemporary and historical. As such it is a metalinguistic discourse of a very different kind than the earlier prescrip tive dictionaries fostered by the normativist tradition. And yet the OED is also by far the most authoritative and influential normative influence on the behavior of individual speakers and writers of English. It is the supreme normative discourse on the behavior we call "speaking English": the final court of appeal. As such it has an immense political significance, the last remaining jewel in Victoria's crown. Nevertheless, the institutionalist will argue that the normative use of the descriptive statements in the OED is epiphenomenal. The descrip tions of wordmeanings in the OED do not themselves prevent individual speakers from using English words any way they choose. It may very well be true that prescriptivists make use of the descriptive statements in the OED for normative ends, but that does not make the statements them selves inherently normative or political. Similarly, someone might use an empirical investigation of the causes of death in a particular community for political ends; but the possibility of such a use does not make that in
134
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
vestigation or its descriptive conclusions inherently political. What the OED contains, argues the institutionalist, are descriptions of the facts about the meanings of English words; such descriptions have nothing to do either with the freedom of individuals to use those same words to mean anything they like or with the efforts of "authorities" to guide, control, and con strain that use, even should those authorities make use of the OED's de scriptions as a part of their efforts. In describing the facts of wordmean ings, the only criterion against which the descriptive linguist's statements should be measured is truth. It may well be, as the case of Tooke's many false etymologies show, that those descriptive statements are sometimes, even often, wrong. But that in itself does not show that it is in principle impossible to apply a criterion of true correspondance to the facts to de scriptive linguistic statements. On the contrary: it shows that there is such a criterion. Otherwise what sense would there be in saying that Tooke's are false etymologies? If there are false descriptions of the institutional facts of language, then there can be true ones; and there is nothing therefore wrong with speaking of the linguist's statements as descriptions or empirical hy potheses. Furthermore, the institutionalist concludes, if it is legitimate to take the linguist's statements as descriptions of institutional facts, then it is equally legitimate to say that, as such descriptions, they have no inherent normative or political significance. In the apparent cogency of this argument, a logical sequence which seems to move along of its own will and strength, lies the key both to the transformation of discourse on language into a descriptive, scientific mode and to the continuing dominance of that discoursal mode even today. But it is an argument based on sweeping the most important questions under the rug. To see this it is best to ask: if the statements in the OED are de scriptions, what do they describe? They are not empirical descriptions of particular speech events, nor of the behavior of an individual in such a speech event, nor of the behavior of many individuals in many such speech events. Descriptions of those phenomena would look very different than something of the nature of "Soporofic means 'tending to produce sleep.'" To reply that they are descriptions of abstractions or of mental contents is to evade the question, and to do so in precisely the way that Tooke's advo cacy of institutionalism was intended to destroy: that is, by the postulation of unobservable metaphysical or psychological realms populated by phe nomena which act as the denotata for obscure and complex descriptive ex pressions. In other words, the institutionalist falls, starryeyed, for the old est form of seduction in linguistic mythology: viz., if the meanings ofwords like Socrates, horse, and tree are the things for which they stand, then what do justice, beauty, and if stand for? Ideas? Forms? Relations? Theoretical
Which is to be Master?
135
entities? There is no answer to this question, for the question itself is ab surd. But if there are no empirical phenomena for descriptive linguistic state ments to be descriptions of, retorts the institutionalist, then how can they be true or false? How can "Soporific means 'tending to impregnate sheep'" be false and "Soporific means 'tending to produce sleep'" be true unless those statements are conceived as descriptions of some state of affairs? The answer to this eternally mystifying question is surprisingly simple: such statements are not descriptions of states of affairs, but rather asser tions, or citations, of norms. In this case they are neither true nor false, in the sense of corresponding or not corresponding to some state of affairs. We there fore need to reconceive the act of calling such statements "true": not as asserting the correspondance of a descriptive statement to some state of affairs but rather as asserting (or assenting to) a normative statement. That is, in calling "Soporific means 'tending to produce sleep'" "true," one is simply saying that it should be followed; in calling it "false," one is saying that it should not be followed. This cannot be reconceived in terms of the description of some (real, abstract, or mental) state of affairs. In the same way, whether or not it could be said—in this nondescrip tive use— to be "true" that "There is no smoking in the first four rows" is not a question to be decided by checking if someone is smoking in the first four rows, but rather by finding out if there is a practice of using that statement normatively to control, guide, judge, constrain, etc., the behav ior of those in the first four rows. However, it would at the same time be no less mistaken to claim that the state of affairs which that statement de scribes is the very practice of using the statement normatively. There are, of course, utterances which could appropriately be termed descriptions of the practice of using that statement normatively. But such descriptions would not ordinarily take the form of "It is true that 'there is no smoking in the first four rows'" but rather of (e.g.) "He just told all the people in the first four rows that they weren't permitted to smoke" or "He threw us out be cause we would not comply with his rule prohibiting smoking in the first four rows." A critical mistake on the road to institutionalism lies in assimilating the assertion of the "truth" of normative statements such as "Soporific means 'tending to produce sleep'" to the assertion of the truth of descriptive state ments like "Grizzly bears hibernate in the winter." While the utterance of the latter describes the behavior of grizzly bears, the utterance of the former does not describe anything: it merely asserts or cites a norm. Mutatis mutandis, while asserting the truth of a descriptive statement is asserting that that statement corresponds to the facts, asserting the "truth" of a nor
136
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
mative statement does nothing of the kind. Instead it asserts or (assents to) the normative authority of that statement (within some context, by some individual or group). How we evaluate each of these kinds of assertions involves very different practices indeed. What then of the supposedly descriptive statements of wordmeaning given in a dictionary like the OED? Such statements are not descriptions of facts, but rather citations of norms. A dictionary which says something like "SOPORIFIC: tending to produce sleep" cites a norm, a statement which (presumably) would be normatively enforced by some group in some con text. But, by what group and in what context? By the best educated? In informal conversation? By the social elite? In a writing class? By the hand somest men? And, in any case, why should that norm be obeyed? Why should the authority of those who enforce it be accepted? If what the de scriptive linguist does is reconceived as the citation of norms, then there is no avoiding questions about the authority behind those norms. "Yes, it is true that there is no smoking in the first four rows. This is my theatre." But who owns English? Whose norms do the editors of the OED cite, and why should they apply to my behavior, or his, or hers? To present normative statements of wordmeaning not as such, but rather as descriptions of some institutional state of affairs, amounts only to a deceptive way of attempting to enforce their normative authority: namely, by denying that their au thority comes from any other source than a purported correspondence to the truth. What better way to get people to follow the norms you propose than to say: "I am not saying how you should or should not use this word. I am simply saying what it really means in English. You may use it any way you wish. Although not to use it according to this definition amounts to making a mistake." If purportedly descriptive discourse on language is best reconceived as a (covertly authoritarian mode of) normative discourse, then the assertion of the political irrelevance and ideological neutrality of linguistic science can no longer be maintained. Descriptive linguistics is j ust another way of doing normative linguistics, and an ideologically deceptive one at that. If in language, our situation is one in which there is no escape from the mecha nisms of power, then it is better that we be aware of our situation. From Tooke's institutionalist perspective, language can be studied in the way that other objects of the empirical sciences can be studied. For it does not consist in voluntary or private human actions, but in words them selves and the institutional relations between them. Furthermore, these relations can only be accurately perceived if the history of the language is studied. Under Locke's normativist perspective, prescriptive authorities had derived their power to determine the meanings of words from politi
Which is to be Master?
137
cal or social sources: e.g., from their position in the Church, or in the government, or from their acknowledged (or selfappointed) standing as the most "skilled" users of the language (i.e., as the best authors). But under Tooke's institutionalism the power to determine the meanings of words rests in the hands of the linguist, as a scientific authority, possessing the technological skills to uncover the "truths" of language. In fact, this development is a familiar one in the evolution of myths. Utterances which begin with the status of moral maxims or political norms come eventually to be seen as descriptive truths about a supernatural reality. We must obey the king not just because he says we must, but because he is the true repre sentative of God on Earth. The transformation of prescriptive norm into scientific description is one of the most characteristic features of the devel opment of linguistic ideas in the Enlightenment. As a prominent propo nent of liberalist ideology, Tooke championed this development in order to free individual speakers from the control of prescriptive authorities and to give everyone equal access to language. But in reality, Tooke's institu tionalism is no less authoritarian than Locke's normativism. The differ ence is that Tooke places that authority under the institutional control of a newly empowered elite, the new masters: namely, the professional scien tists of language*. With a little industry and application, anyone who is willing to extricate himself from the system of shared ideology and propaganda will readily see through the modes of distortion developed by substantial segments of the intelligentsia. Everyone is capable of doing that. If such an analysis is often carried out poorly, that is because, quite commonly, social and politi cal analysis is produced to defend special interests rather than to account for actual events. (Chomsky, 1979, p. 4) People who live in glass houses....
This page intentionally left blank
—8—
Normativity and Linguistic Form In other words, the language itself is a form, not a substance. The importance of this truth cannot be overemphasized. For all our mistakes of terminology, all our incorrect ways of designat ing things belonging to the language originate in our unwittingly supposing that we are dealing with a substance when we deal with linguistic phenomena. (Saussure, 1916, p. 169) A redefined linguistics will undoubtedly retain some components of the previous definition. There is no reason to abandon previous insights, al though the formulation of those insights may itself require some redefini tion. To my mind, the most important insight in modern linguistics is that captured by the concept of linguistic form, an insight first formulated au thoritatively in Saussure's Cours de linguistique generate. To understand and explain language it must be studied not just as a material (phonic or graphic) substance, not j ust as behavior, nor just as a product of human biology. The force of what we could call Saussure's "semiotic principle" is that to under stand and explain language it must be studied as a means of making sense. Language matters to languageusers in a way that distinguishes it from mere material, behavioral, or biological substance. The fact that language makes sense, that it matters to its users, is an essential feature of its character as a human phenomenon. And it is only as something that makes sense that language can be seen to have form. The semiotic principle and the concept of linguistic form were crucial to the Saussurean revolution in the study of language. Nevertheless, for reasons I will discuss later, Saussure did not pursue this insight to its logical conclusion. If language has form only as a means of making sense and if it can only be explained as a sensemaking human phenomenon, then a re defined linguistics must begin by reopening the issue of how, with lan guage, humans make sense: how language matters to us. The main con tention of the discussion below will be that an analysis of language as a sensemaking phenomenon must include as a central component the study of the normative character of language. If language has form, it is pre
140
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
cisely because it is a normative activity, an activity that matters to its par ticipants because they make it do so. The perspective from which linguistic form appears is not statistical, biological, abstract, chronological, logical, or psychological: it is a moral and political perspective. It is ironic that, before the advent of the institutionalized practice we call "modern linguistics," the notion of language as a normative activity was central to discourse on language (i.e., what I will call "metalinguistic discourse"). But the complex ideological process of defining modern lin guistics as the scientific study of language involved the explicit exclusion of issues of linguistic normativity. To determine how best to redefine linguis tics we must first examine how it came to be given its current definition. This paper will begin with just such an examination. The second part of the paper will suggest two crucial components to an adequate redefinition of linguistics. The final part of the paper will consist in remarks on the implications of redefining linguistics so that, once again, the normativity of language holds a central position.
In the Essay concerning human understanding (1690), John Locke argues that the "imperfections" of language make it an insufficient vehicle of com municational understanding. Due to what he saw as the freedom of indi vidual speakers to use any words they choose to signify their private thoughts, Locke argued that there is no way of knowing if a given speaker and hearer take the same words to signify the same thought. The freedom of the individual linguistic agent's will is thus perceived as a threat to lin guistic intersubjectivity: a threat therefore to human understanding. As Locke explains ...every man has so inviolable a liberty to make words stand for what ideas he pleases that no one hath the power to make others have the same ideas in their minds that he has, when they use the same words that he does. [...] And let me add that, unless a man's words excite the same ideas in the hearer which he makes them stand for in speaking, he does not speak intelligibly. (Locke, 1690, III, ii, 8) To make sense of Locke's argument, it is important to distinguish be tween his concepts of voluntariness and arbitrariness. As he uses the word, "arbitrary" means that there is no determining feature, in either the word or the idea for which it stands, which necessitates that the two be linked together. "Voluntary," on the other hand, means that the use at any time of a given word to stand for a given idea is the result of a free act of the
Normativity and Linguistic Form
141
speaker's will. Attributing "voluntariness" to signification means that the relationship between word and the idea for which it stands, arbitrary or not, is forged by the individual speaker's will, and not by some other deter mining force. For Locke, then, signification is an act: an act performed in mental privacy by an individual speaking agent. Signification is not a pre existant relation between two entities. Thus the voluntariness, privacy, ar bitrariness, and individuality of the semiotic act are threats to its intersubjectivity. For, if the signification of what I utter is determined— freely, and privately—by me, then there is no guarantee that my hearer will take my utterances to signify what I take them to signify. Indeed, it is hard to see how they could. In this context, it is revealing to compare Locke's ideas on linguistic voluntariness, presented in Book III of the Essay, with his ideas on political freedom and constraint, as presented in the Second Treatise on Government. Locke begins the Second Treatise by identifying what he sees as the natural political powers and rights of the individual. To understand political power aright, and derive it from its original, we must consider what estate all men are naturally in, and that is, a state of perfect freedom to order actions, and dispose of their possessions and persons as they think fit, within the bounds of the law of Nature, without asking leave or depending upon the will of any other man. (Locke, 1689b, II, 4) In the Second Treatise, this discussion of the political state of nature is followed by a demonstration of the social and political chaos that would result were every individual given the full exercise of these natural powers and rights (that is, as Locke says, were every individual allowed "to be the judge in (their) own case"). The roots of political norms are then traced to the individual's sacrifice of a share of their own natural freedoms and pow ers to the political authority of laws, the aim of this sacrifice being the avoidance of the social anarchy that would arise were every individual al lowed the full exercise of their natural freedoms. For the end of civil society being to avoid and remedy those inconvenien cies of the state of Nature which necessarily follow from every man's being judge in his own case, by setting up a known authority to which every one of that society may appeal upon any injury received, or controversy that may arise, and which every one of the society ought to obey. (Locke, 1689b, VII, 90) Locke thus complements his analysis of the individual's basic freedoms by
142
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
a discussion of the necessity of normative constraints on those freedoms. To return now to Locke's linguistic ideas: a crucial passage in the Essay comes in the 32nd chapter of Book II. Here, Locke suggests that man misunderstands the relationship between ideas, words, and things: assum ing that relationship to be determinate, exhibiting what he calls a "double conformity." Ordinary people take it for granted both that their ideas con form to the things they are ideas of and that the idea they signify by a given word conforms to the idea other men signify by the same word. That is, I would ordinarily assume my idea of "the sun" to conform to (to be an accurate representation of) the sun itself; and I would also assume that the idea I signify by the expression "the sun" is the same as the idea other speakers of English signify by the same expression. Furthermore, we take it for granted that this relationship on which our agreement depends exists independently of us and of our actions. Perhaps we take the perfection of that relationship to be an inheritance from Adam, to be Godgiven, or to be a product of Nature. What is most important, and most dangerous to the progress of understanding, is that our daily activities take for granted its determinacy and its independence. For, as we have seen, Locke's argu ment is that the relationship between words, ideas, and things is not in fact ideal; instead that relationship depends on our own voluntary actions and choices. Language in this respect is "imperfect": i.e., it does not match up to our assumption of its perfection. The ordinary assumption of the ideal double conformity is at the core of our misunderstanding of our epistemo logical status, the misunderstanding from which Locke must free his read ers if they are to grasp the foundations of human knowledge. However, analogous to his strategy in the Second Treatise, Locke does not stop at his demonstration that language is imperfect and is therefore not the ideally intersubjective vehicle of ideas implied by the double confor mity assumption. He also offers practical remedies to the imperfection of language, in the form of prescriptive, normative constraints on the free dom of the linguistic agent's voluntary action. With the application of these remedies, language might become a more effective tool for the convey ance of ideas. In other words, the rhetorical format of Book III is both descriptive, describing the true, "imperfect" nature of language and com munication, as well as prescriptive: offering prescriptive rules the follow ing of which (Locke believes) can take us some way towards making lan guage the effective vehicle of communication we mistakenly assume it al ready to be. In Book III, Chapter 11, Locke recommends five rules that should be followed to avoid the "inconveniences" of the imperfection of language. These may be paraphrased as follows:
Normativity and Linguistic Form
143
1. Use no word without knowing what idea you make it stand for. 2. Make sure your ideas are clear, distinct, and determinate. 3. Where possible, follow common usage, especially that of those writers whose discourses appear to have the clearest notions. 4. Where possible, declare the meanings of your words (in particular, de fine them). 5. Do not vary the meanings you give to words. It is not altogether obvious (to say the least) whether obeying these norms would suffice to make language the reliable vehicle of communication that Locke wants it to be. Nevertheless, regardless of their usefulness, it is clear that Locke takes a normative view of language. The normative prescrip tions offered in the Essay, by commonly restricting the basic linguistic free dom of a community of individual agents, are designed to avoid the com municational anarchy that would result if all individuals exercised their linguistic freedom to express themselves as they choose. In both the Essay and the Second Treatise, the analysis of the individual's basic freedoms is matched by a discussion of the necessity of common consent to normative constraints on those freedoms. In this sense I refer to them both as "nor mative discourses." We should also note here that the prescription of norms presupposes a prior ascription of freedom to the individual agent, linguistic or political. For if we are not free, then we cannot choose to obey the recommended prescriptions. Signification remains, in the Lockean perspective, a free act of the will; but it is a voluntary act which the individual agent should make conform to sociallyimposed norms. Locke's normative discourse on lan guage is undoubtedly an authoritarian discourse in this respect. It is instructive to compare Locke's perspective on language as a nor mative phenomenon with that of the two most influential proponents of modern linguistic science: Saussure and Chomsky. Although the scientific models advocated by Saussure and Chomsky are superficially quite dis similar, they can be seen to share some common principles: namely, the exclusion of issues of agency, voluntariness, and normativity from the do main of linguistic science, precisely those issues which we have seen to characterize Lockean linguistics. To begin with Saussure, the discussion of language in the Cours de linguistique generate is, of course, very different than Locke's moral discourse. (I will use the name "Saussure" to refer to the author of the Cours, even though many of the characteristics of the position put forth in that work are best attributed to its editors, Bally and Sechehaye.) Saussure proposes a radically different view of the place of the individual agent in language, a
144
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
view which has largely determined this century's neglect of the topics of agency and normativity within the academic discipline of linguistic sci ence. The language (la langue) itself is not a function of the speaker. It is the product passively registered by the individual. (...) Speech (parole], on the contrary, is an individual act of the will and the intelligence. (Saussure, 1916, p. 30) Saussure's originality is to locate the exercise of the individual will in the domain of parole and, at the same time, to identify the semiotic system langue as the object of linguistic inquiry. Parole may involve the individual's exercise of the will, but langue and its constituent signs are seen as a passive inheritance from previous generations. At the same time, this means that issues of agency and the normativity of language are shunted onto the side track of the study of parole, not the primary subject matter of the Saussurean science of linguistics. Thus, for example, whereas Locke had envisaged the signifying connection between ideas and words as forged by the will of the individual speaker, i.e., as a voluntary connection (and therefore a connec tion to which may be applied the coercive pressures of norm establishment and enforcement); Saussure, on the other hand, takes this connection to be determined independently of the speaker's will (a position I will call "linguistic determinism," in opposition to Locke's emphasis on the voluntariness of language). For Saussure, neither the speaker nor the hearer has any say in choosing which signifiant is to stand for which signifie. Conse quently, from Saussure's perspective there is no basis for Locke's sceptical conclusion that a given speaker and hearer might not connect the same signifie to the same signifiant. For, says Saussure, this connection is not of their own making. It exists independently of them and so is the same for both of them. By this break with the voluntarism of the Lockean tradition, modern linguistics was able to present itself not as a normative discourse with the aim of constraining the voluntary character of language, but as an objec tive science, with the autonomous and determinate object langue its object of scientific inquiry. And as a science, linguistics could sever its links to prescriptive grammar and lexicography, links founded on the emphasis of Locke and others on the nature of linguistic agency and on the consequent need of normative constraints in order to attain the communicational goals of social discourse. We see here an example of the connection discussed by Harris (1981) between the notion of communication as a form of telementation (or thoughttransfer) and that of a language as a fixed code making this trans
Normativity and Linguistic Form
145
fer possible. In brief, the model of linguistic communication offered is as follows. Indi viduals are able to exchange their thoughts by means of words because— and insofar as—they have come to understand and to adhere to a fixed public plan for doing so. The plan is based on recurrent instantiation of invariant items belonging to a set known to all members of the community. (Harris, 1981, p. 10) Both Locke and Saussure would have agreed with this model of linguistic communication. The difference is that while Locke felt that this model does not represent an actual state of affairs but one to which we should aspire, and for which we should constrain the exercise of our natural lin guistic freedoms, Saussure believed this model to represent an existent state of affairs, the way things really are. Consequently, Locke's aim is nor mative: his metalinguistic discourse has the purpose of constraining the behavior of individual linguistic agents so that they may more closely ap proximate the model of language and communication described above. Saussure, on the other hand, has a descriptive goal: namely, to describe the general characteristics of the linguistic systems we already use in achiev ing communication. Furthermore, Saussure reasons that one characteristic that such a code must have in order to be an effective vehicle of telementation is independence of the will of the individual and of the group. Hence, because it is independent of the will, it cannot be subject to norma tive constraint. No individual is able, even if he wished, to modify in any way a choice already established in the language. Nor can the linguistic community ex ercise its authority to change even a single word. The community, as much as the individual, is bound to its language. (Saussure, 1916, p. 104) By denying a linguistic dimension to voluntariness (and thus also to normativity), Saussure is able to provide the fledgling science of linguistics with an autonomous and determinate object of inquiry, at the same time offering an answer to Locke's scepticism about the nature of linguistic com munication. The result is that the transference of professional discourse on language from a normative to a descriptive mode is given its conclusive theoretical justification. It is interesting to speculate how Locke might have reacted to Saussurean linguistics. He might have pointed out that the Saussurean speaker is not only powerless with regard to her language, she also undertakes no moral or practical responsibility for any of its characteristics. For Saussurean de
146
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
terminism, by adopting what amounts to a social version of the "double conformity" myth, lifts the burden of linguistic responsibility from the shoul ders of the individual languageuser. In the end, no one—whether indi vidual or collectivity—shoulders any moral responsibility for their language, for as Saussure repeatedly points out, "the sign eludes control by the will, whether of the individual or of society: that is its essential nature" (Saussure, 1916, p. 34). And we could go one step further to point out that this means that if certain features of a given language disadvantage some of its speak ers, that's just too bad. Nothing can be done about it, and no one is to blame. If our language refers to women with a term that means "wife to man," then no individual or group bears any responsibility for the injuries that may be inflicted by the use of that term. After all, that's just what "woman" is in our language! What this in turn reveals is that individual responsibility is the other side of the coin to normativity. Viewing language and signification as a voluntary act means that the individual can be held responsible for that act and can also be subject to the imposition of norms. Negating the voluntariness of language negates the applicability of concepts of linguis tic normativity and linguistic responsibility. A different but related form of what I am calling "linguistic determin ism" underlies the generativist linguistics inspired by Noam Chomsky. Generativism focuses not on linguistic systems as such, but rather on knowl edge of such systems and on the acquisition of that knowledge. Linguistic knowledge is conceived to exist independently of the will and of agency, as a mental state of the individual speaker/hearer. The individual is assumed to have no hand in the making of linguistic knowledge. Rather, linguistic knowledge develops by natural means from a set of fundamental gram matical principles ("universal grammar") which has its source in our hu man biological inheritance. The parameters of human linguistic compe tence are then fixed with particular values by means of experiential trig gering of predetermined options. Only certain values are possible, as de termined by universal grammar. Universal grammar is taken to be a characterization of the child's pre linguistic initial state. Experience... serves to fix the parameters of univer sal grammar, providing a core grammar... (Chomsky, 1981, p. 7) Once the values of the parameters are set, the whole system is operative.... we may think of universal grammar as an intricately structured system, but one that is only partially "wired up." The system is associated with a finite set of switches, each of which has a finite number of positions (perhaps
This page intentionally left blank
148
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
data available are much too impoverished to determine it by any general procedure of induction, generalization, analogy, association, or whatever. (Chomsky, 1986, p. 55) ...the system of universal grammar is so designed that given appropriate evidence, only a single candidate language is made available, this language being a specific realization of the principles of the initial state with certain options settled in one way or another by the presented evidence. (Chomsky, 1986, pp. 8384) In this respect there is also an interesting parallel between Chomsky and Locke. For they both argue that experience alone is not sufficient to guarantee linguistic intersubjectivity (although in Locke's case it is semiotic intersubjectivity which is at issue while for Chomsky grammatical intersubjectivity). However, unlike Locke but like Saussure, Chomsky takes it for granted that linguistic intersubjectivity is a reality: i.e., that children from the same community do all acquire the same articulated linguistic knowledge, just as Saussure assumes that, for all the members of a given linguistic community, the same signifiants are linked to the same signifies. For Locke this state of intersubjectivity does not currently exist and must be strived for in part by the normative constraint of the individual's natu ral linguistic abilities. Furthermore, connected to their common presup position of linguistic intersubjectivity, both Saussurean structuralism and Chomskyan generativism take the object of linguistic science to be the in vestigation of that which makes linguistic intersubjectivity possible. For Saussure this is langue, conceived as a system of signs independent of the will of its speakers. For Chomsky it is the innate principles which ensure that, presented with similar experiences, the children of a given commu nity will all acquire the same (or roughly similar) articulated forms of lin guistic knowledge. Generative linguistics thus espouses a form of what I have called "natural determinism" because it locates the source of linguis tic intersubjectivity in facts of human biology; while Saussurean structural ism promotes a Durkheimian form of social determinacy, locating the source of linguistic intersubjectivity in the abstract social object langue. Ironically, it speaks to the subliminal power of the communicational scepticism of Locke's Essay that, in spite of Chomsky's repeated attacks on empiricism, the link Locke establishes between experiential individualism and communicational intersubjectivity remains a primary motivating force in the development of contemporary generative theory. In their common espousal of linguistic determinism, then, Saussurean and Generativist theory share a common foundation. This foundation, is at least partly inspired by the sceptical problem of linguistic intersubjectivity,
Normativity and Linguistic Form
149
a problem first developed in Locke's Essay concerning human understanding. Locke proposed a prescriptive solution to the problem of intersubjectivity with an argument based on a normativist view of language as an activity which is both voluntary and, because voluntary, subject to prescription and social coercion. Linguistic intersubjectivity thus becomes a moral and po litical responsibility. However, Saussure's structuralism defines the scien tific object langue in such a way that it is immune to sceptical doubts about intersubjectivity: for the properties of langue are independent of the indi vidual and the will. Chomsky's generativism, on the other hand, argues for biological determinism on the grounds that the shared properties of lin guistic knowledge are too complex to be acquired by means of individual experience. In the one case, then, modern scientific linguistics protects language from scepticism by a vacuum of autonomy and arbitrariness, while in the other language is given the privileged, supernatural status of a hu man genetic endowment. It is these antisceptical maneuvers which give the outline to what we now think of as the modern science of language. As an institutional descendent of these maneuvers we have today an academically enshrined linguistic science which takes as its data a decontextualized, ahistorical, and autonomous product, ignoring the vol untary, contextualized actions of individual agents in producing that data. An analogy may help clarify our position. We may imagine the position of the modern linguistic scientist as similar to that of a Martian visitor to Earth, long after the disappearance of human civilization. She finds in the middle of a wrecked building hundreds of pages of what she takes to be printout from a computer. She begins to analyze the sequences of symbols that are printed therein, taking as her goal the reconstruction of a hypo thetical computer program which could have produced those sequences. Perhaps she finds similar piles of printout in other bombed out buildings and so attempts several such reconstructions. On her assumption that each is the output of a different program, she may even attempt to determine the formal principles common to each of the hypothetical programs she reconstructs. Indeed, she might hope that she can uncover principles of such generality (e.g., the "AoverA principle") that they can be plausibly attributed to the hardware parameters of Earthling computers. I hope that the sense of my analogy is clear. It is, I believe, easy to understand how such a project might hold a visiting Martian spellbound and how a Martian could hope that it would offer epistemic access to as pects of a culture otherwise hidden from Martian observation. After all, when all you have is a few piles of computer printout on which to focus your desires, well, you might as well have a go. But if my analogy is clear, then two points (at least) should emerge.
150
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
First, the act of producing human language is nothing like the production of computer printout. Computers have no choice when or what to pro duce. They do not have the option of breaking the rules of the programs under which they are operating. Nor are they subject to moral sanction when they break those rules. Their output is not held morally accountable by those who receive it. Computers do not have the choice of how to inte grate their production within the (social and situational) circumstances in which they are made to produce. In sum, we take it to be one of the essen tial as well as one of the most useful characteristics of computer processes that they are completely determined. Yet it is only in the rarest of circum stances that we would ever speak of human linguistic production as com pletely determined. Away to focus on this point is to consider the familiar programmer's maxim: "Computers don't make mistakes; people do." Second, we have as available data for linguistic research much more than a product analogous to computer printout. Our analytical circum stances are not restricted in the way that our imaginary Martian's were. We can observe people producing language in interaction with other people within particular circumstances. We can watch them being taught how to speak, being corrected for making what are called "mistakes", and being insulted, praised, classified, sanctioned, and even punished by others for the characteristics of their speech. We can investigate the complex network of beliefs that different groups entertain about the powers, purpose, and value of different features of linguistic acts. And we can inquire into the connections between those beliefs, their articulation and propagation, and the changing and varying characteristics of linguistic production itself. We can, that is, study the interaction of linguistic attitudes and linguistic be havior in the political marketplace of everyday life. (That is, we can study language as a normative activity.) There is quite obviously nothing compa rable in the study of computer printout. It is thus my general contention that modern linguistics, under the in fluence of what Harris (1981) calls "the language myth," is based on ques tionbegging foundations. Those foundations support what I have else where called "the principle of intersubjectivity" (see Taylor, 1981, ch. 6 and Taylor & Cameron, 1987, ch. 8), a principle which leads Saussure to postulate the existence of an autonomous langue which it is the business of linguistic science to study and which leads Chomsky to postulate the exist ence of shared grammatical knowledge the acquisition of which it is the business of linguistic science to explain. The way to address these founda tional problems is to reexamine the notion of intersubjectivity, both semiotic and grammatical and, by reconsidering the voluntariness of language, to address the question of linguistic normativity. It is this which I propose to do in the following section.
Normativity and Linguistic Form
151
I want now to present a very different way of viewing the relationship between individual agency, understanding, and normativity (in part in spired by Wittgenstein's "private language argument"). It is easiest to ex plain this different perspective by reference to an imaginary example. Late one night, listening to the radio in bed, Ronnie asks Nancy to close the window. That is, he says "Could you close the window, please?" Forthwith, Nancy gets up and closes the window. A few seconds after she gets back into bed Ronnie says in a stern voice "Did you understand what I said?" "Yes dear," she replies, "I shut the window." But little does poor Nancy know, this is just what Ronnie has been hoping she would say. For, while Nancy has been thoughtfully studying her horoscope, Ronnie has been watching a videotaped dramatization of Locke's Essay on the television. So, he quickly replies: "But that doesn't prove anything! You can't know if you understood what I said. And I can't possibly know either. No one can. Re ally, dear, you've never understood a word I've said!" In fact, Ronnie is being quite faithful to Locke in his challenge to Nancy. For, from the perspective of Locke's mentalist account of communication, even if we have observed this sequence of events, we still do not know whether Nancy understood what Ron said. Indeed, neither Ronnie nor Nancy can possibly know if Nancy correctly understood his request. To attain such knowledge one would have to perform the impossible: a com parison of the private ideas which Ronnie expressed by his words with those which Nancy privately took them to signify. Anything short of such a comparison of their private ideas would only amount to inductive evidence, which in itself cannot justify a claim to knowledge. But there is something crucial left out in this reasoning. For requiring a mental criterion of understanding contravenes the normative practices of what we call "speaking English." Unless we put on our philosopher's cap, we usually have no problem in determining if someone understands what we say. And if a problem does arise we often have ordinary ways of resolv ing it. Communicational scepticism is simply not a regular feature of our linguistic experiences. Consequently, to impose, as Locke suggests, more stringent criteria on our use of the expressions understand and know than those we customarily place on that use is not to delve deeper into the hid den depths of the real meaning of those expressions or to discover what understanding and knowledge really are. Rather, it is to give new mean ings to those expressions. So, Locke might be seen as creating the hom onymic forms understand^ and knowy different in use but identical in form to the ordinary understand^ and knowr And this difference in use lies pre
152
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
cisely in the requirement that the correctness of the application of the sub script2 expressions can only be justified by comparison of speaker and hearer's mental contents. But we should see straightaway that analysis of the criteria for the cor rect use of these two new subscript2 forms cannot be said to shed any light on the way the terms understand and know are ordinarily used by English speakers. If we give a new use to a word, we learn nothing about the old use by investigating the specific conditions for that new use. If I decided to use black hole to refer to chocolate milkshakes, it is easy to see that I would learn nothing about the ordinary use of that expression, about what it really means, or about the true nature of black holes (in the ordinary sense) by studying the physical characteristics of what I now refer to by the expres sion black hole. And yet Locke's scepticism about verbal understanding is based on using the expression understanding in a very different way than we ordinarily use it, i.e., giving it a new meaning. The sceptical doubts that Locke raises do not address features of that ordinary use. So, the first lesson to be drawn from this imaginary drama is that Locke's communicational scepticism is unwarranted. Another way of putting this is that Locke's scepticism is not about understanding, but about a concept of mental convergence to which he has attached a new application of the word understanding. But I want to be clear that this is not to say that it is impossible or intrinsically nonsensical to choose, as Locke does, to use the words under stand and know in his own way. Anyone could, should they so desire, decide to use understand only to mean the identity of neurochemical events hap pening in the heads of both speaker and hearer. That is, making a word mean is a voluntary act, free from outside determination. Furthermore, they might go on to complain that no one can therefore ever tell if they or anyone else "understands" (in this new sense of the word) what another says. But it would be nonsense to claim on the basis of this recoining that, therefore, anyone who had ever said they knew they understood someone else had in fact been mistaken. For this would amount to saying that what other people had actually meant by understand (although involuntarily and without their being aware) was in fact the new meaning which we have just given to it. Such a claim would be as nonsensical as my complaining that the south bank of the Thames will not cash my checks. The point here, then, is that the purported nonidentity of mental or neurological states is irrelevant to our ordinary, normative use of the ex pression understand. Consequently, it cannot serve to ground a sceptical appraisal of our use of that expression. And this in turn means that we do not require deterministic theories of langue or linguistic competence to
Normativity and Linguistic Form
153
defeat that scepticism. For what such theories attempt to explain is how verbal understanding conceived as a form of mental convergence could occur; and such a requirement is not imposed by our customary use of the expres sion understand. This conclusion can also be applied to a sceptical question that might arise about the sharing of linguistic knowledge. Tom and Mary both, when presented with neologisms, add the same allomorphs of the past tense morpheme. After a present tense form ending in a voiceless consonant they both always add [t]. After one ending in a voiced consonant or a vowel, they both always add [d]. And after one ending in a [t] or a [d], they both always add [id]. But the sceptic may ask: " how can we be sure that they both share knowledge of the same morphophonemic rule? There are count less possible rules knowledge of which might lead one to produce the same results; we would need to compare the private contents of their individual minds in order to know if they do really both know the same rule." The reply to this scepticism about grammatical intersubjectivity is the same as that given to scepticism about semiotic intersubjectivity. The fact that Tom and Mary both produce the same past tense forms would ordi narily be taken as sufficient justification of the claim that they are both following, and therefore both know, the same rule. To impose more strin gent criteria on the use of the expression to know the same rule is to have it mean something different than it ordinarily means: i.e., to have it mean something like "be in the same mental or neurological state." But discov ering whether two people are in the same mental or neurological state is not ordinarily required in order to determine if they both know the same rule (or how could we ever know if two people both know the rules of tennis?). And to impose such a requirement on attributions of ruleknowl edge would be to render nonsensical the countless everyday situations in which people have been said to know the same rules: e.g., "Tom and Mary both know the rules for twohanded bridge because they both discarded all their face cards." Knowing a rule (and thus knowing the same rule) is not a mysterious mental or neurological state, hidden behind the closed doors mental privacy. If it were then our ordinary practice of attributing knowl edge of rules (or of anything else for that matter) to agents would be non sensical. And, if knowledge of a rule does not consist in a private mental or neurological state, then we need not speculate about how two or more in dividuals could come to acquire roughly the same private linguistic knowl edge, nor develop hypotheses about the innate principles which they must share in order to make that acquisition possible. Thus, when the concept of intersubjectivity is reexamined it becomes clear that there is no need to postulate abstract or social objects or to specu
154
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
late about the acquisition of shared mental states in order to account for shared understanding of meanings or shared knowledge of rules. What we do need to examine are our ordinary practices of attributing, and justify ing attributions of, shared knowledge, mutual understanding, and the like. These are the normative practices with which we forge the conformity, regu larity, and multiindividuality of verbal interaction: i.e., by which we give the individual acts of verbal expression a social instrumentality. But in re focusing our attention on such normative practices, we turn away from speculation about abstract objects and mental states "underlying" verbal interaction, and concentrate once again on language as a voluntary activ ity performed by individuals. What does it mean to say that speaking (e.g.) English is a normative practice? Is what I propose here really just another form of determinism? Or Lockean prescriptivism? To return to my imaginary drama, we might say that what is at issue here is the status of the grounds justifying Nancy's claim that she under stood Ronnie's request to close the window. In addressing such issues, we should first observe what is customarily taken as sufficient justification of the claim that someone understands a given expression E. In fact, we ordi narily take someone's ability to explain the meaning of an expression, to respond appropriately to its use, or to use the expression in acceptable discourse as a criterion justifying the claim that they understand its mean ing. In this respect I will refer to the "criterial relations" between assertions such as "he gave a correct explanation of E" and "he understands E." Part of knowing the meaning of the word understand is ordinarily taken to be knowing that the assertion of "he gave a correct explanation of E" provides criterial support for the justifiable assertion of "he understands E." This criterial relation is similar to that between "he performs every sum cor rectly" and "he understands how to add" or between "he rides his bicycle to work every day" and "he knows how to ride a bicycle." In each of these examples, knowing what the latter statement means is customarily taken to include knowing that the former justifies its assertion. But there is more to saying that a practice is normative for a community than that it is ordinarily performed. For that would only amount to a claim of the regularity of a practice and not of its normativity. So what is meant by saying that these ordinary criterial relations are normatively enforced? The key here is that there is a moral weight given to the maintenance of such relations. They are taught to children and to other initiates into the community as the "right" things to do. Their contravention is said to be "wrong" and, on those grounds, may be subject to sanction. They are cited
Normativity and Linguistic Form
155
as justification for further actions and assertions. Normative criterial rela tions are, generally speaking, relations which the members of the commu nity place a value on the maintenance of. They will to some extent try to maintain them in their own behavior and to enforce in the behavior of others, although their concern and their value will very much depend on the situational context. Even teachers do not enforce grammatical norms all the time: for instance, while they are playing basketball with their friends. Furthermore, the members of the community will hold each other respon sible for their maintenance. Anyone who says "he always performs his sums correctly but I don't know if he understands how to add" breaks with an ordinary practice which speakers of English make a subject of moral en forcement. It is this that I mean by saying that, in so acting, such a person is contravening a norm of English speech. In other words, we are in principle free as linguistic agents. Meaning X by a given expression or combining that expression with others are both voluntary acts. But we do not live "in principle." We live in social contexts which function (to a large degree) by restricting the free exercise of our voluntary actions. If we regularly exercise our freedom to call anything by whatever word we like or to combine words however we choose, we may well find ourselves being "corrected," sanctioned, or even ostracized. We are free, but we are also held morally responsible (and "politically respon sible," in the most general sense of the expression) for the public exercise of our freedom; and we in turn hold others responsible. Indeed, to some extent, for language to be socially useful, we need to do this: although the extent to which this is really required will vary greatly from context to con text. This constant moral focus which is placed on our verbal behavior is what brings us into the semblance of linguistic conformity that every speech community exhibits. That is, it makes us (mostly) all call this a "tree" and that a "bush" and say "John ran" rather than "John rans" or "ran Johns." To view such social conformity as having its source in underlying social objects or in natural determinism is to blind oneself to the everyday nor mative and political pressures by which we all (although some with much greater power than others) create and police that conformity ourselves. So, in saying that such a criterial relation is a norm, what is meant is that that relation is subject to normative enforcement by the community. A norm in this sense does not exist in a Platonic third realm, forming part of our social inheritance, or as an abstract or theoretical object. Nor do they somehow have a natural, psychological, or biological source. Rather, to speak of norms is to refer to certain features of our daytoday initiation into, participation in, and selfenforcement of the moral characteristics of life in our community (or communities). So, to speak of the norms of Ian
156
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
guage is thus to speak of holding people morally responsible for their lin guistic performance. In so doing we draw attention to the role of language in the moral/political fabric that is everyday social interaction. We expect people to obey our norms; and if they do not, we look for a reason why. If no reason is forthcoming, we may well label those people "confused," "de viant," "mistaken," or the like. Consistent nonconformity will probably lead not only to the application of such disapproving labels, but also to social ostracism. Part of being "one of us" is submitting to the sort of coer cive practices that make linguistic interaction a normative phenomenon. That is, the everyday political activity of enforcing our norms on our neigh bors (and having those and others enforced on us) is one side of a social coin, the other side of which is the equally political activity of making them define themselves as one of "us" or not as one of "us." To view language as a normative practice is thus not to adopt a form of linguistic determinism (biological, psychological, or structural). Rather it emphasizes the location of the voluntary acts of individual linguistic agents within the coercive moral context of everyday life. The social conformity which we can observe in linguistic practice of individuals is thus not the product of a social or natural determinism; nor is it the shadow of an un derlying shared object: biological, psychological, or social. Instead its source lies in the normative pressures individuals impose on those within and without their communities. That conformity comes from the social impo sition of responsibility on the individual, not from the absence of moral responsibility embodied in determinism. To understand the regularity (as well as the irregularity) which characterizes verbal interaction we must there fore eschew the study of underlying determinate systems and instead study verbal interaction itself and the political and moral contexts from which verbal interaction cannot be separate. Such a study would immediately stand in opposition to the methods of generative and structural linguistics which, by decontextualizing, formalizing, and "idealizing" the patterned products of linguistic conformity, attempt to construct equally formal and ideal devices which could have generated, or are conceived as structurally immanent to, those patterns. Ill
In the remainder of this paper, I want to expand on the points just raised by considering some of the implications of redefining linguistics in a way that recognizes the normative character of language. In the first place I think such a redefinition would allow us to make better sense of some themes in the history of linguistic ideas. For instance, structural and
Normativity and Linguistic Form
157
generative linguists pay scant attention to the earliest and perhaps most important linguistic treatise in the Western tradition: that is, Plato's Cratylus. This is primarily because they cannot see the presentday relevance of its discussion of conventionalism and naturalism. And this in turn has its ex planation in their neglect of the issues raised by a normative perspective on language, in particular the issues of correctness and authority. But if language is taken to be a normative, not an abstract or psychological, phe nomenon then it is natural that the most salient issue for linguistic debate should have been the foundation of the notion of "correctness" in lan guage. The kinds of issues addressed in the Cratylus are the following. If it is not possible for us all to speak as we please (e.g., to use any names we choose to stand for things) and if we must therefore submit our speech to normative constraints, then which constraints should we follow? Do some constraints have a higher priority than others, and if so, why? What is the authority behind such constraints? Are arguments about the correctness of norms to be grounded in appeals to the authority of nature, logic, conven tion, religion, or tradition? Or is the only real authority that of political will? In this light the Cratylus can be seen as a component of Plato's at tempt to rebut what he saw as the nihilism and political opportunism of the Sophists. Not only does the contemporary neglect of such issues lead us to misun derstand the thought of earlier linguists who took them to be of prime importance. It also explains why the absence of such issues in contempo rary linguistics should be perceived by "the outside world" as a failure by academic linguistics to come to terms with the most important features of its own subject. For as the growing political prominence of linguistic issues today attests, notions such as that of "correctness" are at the very heart of the lay public's concept of language. Consider the following excerpts from a newspaper editorial by a conservative educationalist, published in No vember 1988 by the London "Evening Standard." Its author, John Rae, is commenting on suggested reforms in the way English is taught in school, as proposed in a report issued by the office of the Secretary of State of Education ("The Cox Report"). After 20 years of permissive education of telling children there is no such thing as right and wrong, along comes a report on the teaching of English in primary schools that perpetuates this most damaging fallacy of the Sixties. At the heart of the report is a classic Sixties fallacy. It is argued that the accurate and grammatical use of English is no better than what the report calls "nonstandard forms of English." So that, if a child uses phrases such as "we was," "he ain't done it," "they never saw nobody," there is nothing
158
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
"inherently wrong." Standard English turns those phrases into: "we were," "he has not done it," "they never saw anybody," but standard English, the report tells us, is just a dialect like any other. It should not be mistaken for correct English. You could have fooled me. I thought it was correct to write "we were" and incorrect to write "we was". I did not realize it was just a question of dialect; I thought it was a question of grammar or, if you do not like that word, of logic. You cannot use the singular form of the verb with a plural pronoun. The idea that children can be persuaded to learn standard English when they are told at the same time that it is no better than any other type of English is a typical intellectual conceit. Children want to know what is right and what is wrong. Like most members of the lay public, Rae takes a normative view of language. He feels that there is a right and a wrong way of doing what we call "speaking English" and "writing English," and he wants teachers to teach their pupils what he believes to be the right way. Furthermore, he opposes his views to that of academic linguists who, as he sees it, deny that the normative concepts of 'right' and 'wrong' have any application to lan guage. As he sees it (and as most introductory linguistic textbooks heartily agree), academic linguists simply give a scientific description of the rules of a given community's (or individual's) language, without attributing any normative values to those rules. This means, for instance, that the rules followed by those who speak what are called "nonstandard dialects" do not have, from the linguistic point of view, a different normative status or value than those used by the literate and educated speakers of the "stan dard" dialect. And this is precisely because neither set of rules is seen to have any normative value at all, positive or negative. Whatever one feels about Rae's politics, it is obvious that the linguist's argument about the valuefree character of language will carry little weight with him or with those who make similar arguments, whether or not they share his political views. And it is not hard to see why. If our ordinary experience of language is as a normative activity, i.e., an activity in which such concepts as 'correct,' 'right,' 'wrong,' 'good,' and the like play an im portant role, then to assert that there is no right or wrong in language seems to run counter to our experience and, furthermore, to be irrespon sible. Most teachers of linguistics know how difficult it is to persuade stu dents to abandon their initial assumption that there is a right and a wrong to language. Perhaps this is because the students cling to what experience has taught them, at least until the authority of experience finally defers to the greater contextual authority of the professor's institutional status. (Ironi
Normativity and Linguistic Form
159
cally, what this shows is that at least the metalinguistic norms advocated by the professor do carry a much greater normative weight than those the student encounters in life outside of class, in spite of what the professor says about the equality of norms.) What Rae's editorial reveals is that modern linguistics has painted itself into a corner from which it can no longer carry on a meaningful dialogue with those who stubbornly resist the linguist's arguments that normative concepts do not have an application to language. Because modern linguis tics does not place normative concepts at the center of its inquiry, it simply cannot understand the values members of a culture will place on their linguistic practices—or why, for instance, people may become upset about the role they perceive language to be playing in their lives or in their com munities. Such issues, from the perspective of modern linguistics, have nothing to do with the avowed concern of linguistic science to describe the contours of the object "language" as a social or mental structure. Analogously, it would not concern the investigator describing the rules of tennis that tennis players want to play well (e.g., serve hard and hit unplayable returns) and that they want to win the matches they play in. It is not, after all, a rule of tennis that you must try to play to the best of your ability or that you must try to win. But then, a scientific analysis of tennis which consisted in a description of the rules and which therefore left out the fact that tennis players care about how they play could not explain why some people become upset at the conclusion of a point while others are elated. Nor would it have the means to address their concerns. "After all," the tennis analyst might say, "both players followed the rules!" Indeed, both a softly looping serve which may be easily returned and an unplayable cannonball ace are in accord with the rules of tennis. From the point of view of the rules, there is no difference between them. But a scientific analysis of tennis which treated these two serves the same and which gave no rea son why players would prefer one to the other would be a misanalysis of tennis for the very reason that it leaves out an essential feature of the game: the players want to win. In the same way, a scientific analysis of language which leaves out the normative character of language, and the consequent values languageusers place on its features, commits a similar sort of misanalysis. The general point here is that academic linguistics, by excluding the normative character of language from the cocoon of scientific autonomy, prevents itself from connecting up with or even understanding contempo rary debates on the important political issues of language, i.e., on those aspects of language which really matter to speaker/hearers. Its inability to address the concerns of a conservative like Rae provides only one example
160
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
of this impotence. For academic linguistics is no more able to address the concerns of feminists (cf., Cameron, 1985) or the concerns of other pro gressive languagereformers (whatever their politics). Progressives and con servative reformers alike share a common recognition of the social, cul tural, and political power of language, and of discourse on language, a power which has its source in the fact that language in the real world is, as Bourdieu (1982) argues, a highly valued economic (and political) property. And s/he who can determine the relative values of different aspects of that property possesses a dominion of little equal in human affairs. No wonder language power is the source of daily and unrelenting struggle and is, if won even temporarily, jealously guarded. In order to be able to engage with the important issues of the politics of language, regardless of the political positions espoused, academic linguis tics must first come to grips with the fact that, from the perspective of the languageuser, concepts such as 'right', 'wrong,' 'good,' and 'correct' (no less than 'word,' 'meaning,' and 'sentence') are necessary to an understand ing of what language is. In this case, a redefined linguistics must begin by reminding itself of Saussure's belief that the only appropriate perspective to take in the synchronic study of language is ... that of the languageusers; and its whole method consists of collecting evidence from them. In order to determine to what extent something is a reality, it is necessary and also sufficient to find out to what extent it exists as far as the languageusers are concerned. (Saussure, 1916, p. 128) Only from the perspective of the languageuser can we perceive what Saussure called "linguistic form" (opposing it to "linguistic substance"). It is linguistic form that makes language not a meaningless natural phenom enon, but rather a phenomenon with significance. This semiotic principle, the most fundamental in the structuralist revolution, has been forgotten in much of modern linguistic theorizing, due in no small way (and with great irony) to Saussure himself. For, it was Saussure's overriding aim to show how languages make communication possible, a feat which he attributed in part to the invariance and intersubjectivity of linguistic form. Conse quently, Saussure assumed linguistic form, that which is significant in lan guage, must be the same for every member of a given speech community and must remain the same from speech situation to speech situation. In other words, Saussure assumed linguistic form to be psychologically and contextually invariant. Only by making such an assumption could the con cept of a determinate linguistic form, and its opposition to that of infi nitely variable substance, be the key to explaining how communication
Normativity and Linguistic Form
161
from one individual psychology to another could occur. Consequently, as I have argued above, Saussure removes linguistic form from the control of the human will and in so doing denies the relevance of normative concepts to an understanding of language and communication. Generative linguistics has simply compounded this problem. For it finds grammatical intersubjectivity not in the concept of shared discriminatory perspectives on an infinitely variable verbal reality, but in common bio logical inheritance. In so doing, generativism abandons Saussure's semiotic principle that to understand and explain language, linguistics must focus on how language matters to languageusers, replacing it with a linguistics which treats language as a natural phenomenon, its semiotic potential thus being totally ignored as irrelevant to its analysis. From Saussure's point of view such a linguistics would be seen as a study not of linguistic form but of linguistic substance (and therefore would not be seen as worthy of the sta tus of an autonomous discipline: for that which is distinctive about the linguistic treatment of language is, from Saussure's perspective, its focus on language as something that means). Nevertheless, we must still see that if, according to Saussure's semiotic principle, the only perspective from which form, that which in language is significant, may be seen is that of the languageuser, then a linguistics which does not place normative concepts at the heart of its conceptualization of language will miss that which makes language significant, thereby simulta neously missing that which gives language form. It is because language is normative that it matters to us, that it can be used to mean, that it has a communicational and a psychological instrumentality. Through normativity, we make language significant; and, from the perspective of this signifi cance, language has form. From any other perspective all that can be seen is what Saussure called substance. In appreciating the force of Saussure's semiotic principle, a redefined linguistics must therefore begin with the realization that how language users make language significant is irremediably contingent: depending on the individuality of person and of situation. What matters in my pronun ciation in one situation will not matter in another, or to another person. Furthermore, whether and how features of my speech act matter can re main an "open question," to be negotiated and perhaps fought over in the remainder of the interaction or in subsequent interactions. I may have "meant nothing" by using he as the generic pronoun in my speech; but someone else may try to make it matter, either to me or to other people. In my defense I may cite the dictionary entry for he; others may oppose me by citing psychological studies of the kinds of assumptions people draw when "generic" pronouns are used. The general point here is that what is signifi
162
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
cant in the speech event, and therefore what is form, is itself a matter of normative focus. How language "matters" (in the largest sense) to its users is context and person and interactiondependent; consequently, linguis tic form is equally context, person, and interactiondependent. It thus becomes apparent that, in a redefinition of linguistics, the semiotic per spective on language must undergo radical revision. In this respect, Saussure might have done better by comparing language not to the economics of money but to that of property, e.g., land. What value the features of a given property have (its trees, its minerals, its soil, its location, etc.) is always to be determined. The price that I can get for my half acre is not determined in advance of a particular transaction. One buyer may feel I am too close to the road and so will only offer half the price of another who likes the ease of parking in front of the house. Or, on "a good day" I may be able to talk up a potential buyer to a price far above what I could convince someone to pay on "a bad day." The general point here is that my half acre does not have a fixed value. (The state could fix its price but, note, not its value.) What value it has is contingent, dependent on the transactional context and on the likes, abilities, beliefs, prejudices, etc., of the participants in the transaction. Furthermore, what counts as a feature of that property, and a contribution to its value, is equally "up for grabs." Is the air above my half acre mine? Is the oil thousands of feet below it mine? Indeed the power to determine what counts as a feature of that property and the value of that feature will be greatly prized. Academic linguistics currently operates on the naive assumption that we all agree on our valuation of language, as well as on the features of language that carry value. Given this assumption the goal of linguistic analy sis is simply to record those values and valued features. It is a lucky thing that the proclamations of linguists do not carry the same weight with po litical policymakers as do those of economists. Connected to the contigency of linguistic form is the contigency of what I have been calling norms. What norm applies in a given speech situation is open to contextual determination. The answer to the question "what norm applies here?" does not somehow preexist the context in which the question occurs. And what answer is given is dependent on the relation ship between the interactants, their beliefs and prejudices, their past expe rience, their "pushiness," their political skills, and the like. Since the issue "what norms apply here" is always "up for grabs," it cannot therefore be the business of linguistics to describe the norms, e.g., of English, or of the lower middle class in New York, or of George Wolf, Esq. Such an enterprise would ignore their radical contigency. Recognition of the normative character of language must also lead to
Normativity and Linguistic Form
163
an appreciation of the authoritarian status of academic linguistics (cf., Crowley, 1989). Linguists are the 'experts' and from that institutional sta tus gain a powerful position in the normative management of language itself. As such, scholarly discussion of language is a morally accountable part of language as a normative phenomenon. And it does no good for academic linguists, claiming scientific neutrality and autonomy, to attempt to deny that authority and consequent responsibility (cf., Chomsky, 1979 and Taylor, 1990a). Such a claim is both morally evasive (at best) as well as intellectually naive. Analogously, no one today is fooled into thinking, when political scientists present a purportedly "unbiased" discussion of what they call "the fundamental rights of man," that that analysis is ^//politically neutral. And yet, under the influence of Saussure and Chomsky, we con tinue to mistake theories of the nature of languages and linguistic compe tence as culturally neutral and valuefree, conceiving of ourselves as unbi ased conveyors of scientific objectivity (cf., Newmeyer, 1986). But if we recognize the essential normativity of language (and its consequent in separability from issues of power and ideology), then we will not ignore the fact that any institutional discussion of language is inseparable from the cultural context in which it occurs, a cultural context which itself is sup ported by and constrained by the normative practices of that culture's lan guage. Academic linguistics is an attempt to make sense of language within our culture. It has an ineradicable link to our ordinary, normative linguis tic practices; and (whether we like it or not) it is no more detachable from those practices than, as I have argued above, the concept of "understand ing" is detachable from the ordinary normative practices of attributing understanding to individuals and of evaluating, objecting to, and support ing such attributions (cf., Taylor, 1986). Consequently, academic linguis tics, as a decontextualized and institutionalized extension of our ordinary metalinguistic practices, cannot help but reflect, reproduce, and at the same time influence the prejudices, preconceptions, and ideologies of our cul ture. Lastly, a redefined linguistics must once again recognize something that was clear to many who studied language before its 19th century transfor mation into a descriptive/explanatory science: that the concepts of correct ness, authority, and norm are crucial to the selfcontrol by linguistic agents of their creative linguistic powers, of their expectations regarding the lin guistic behavior of others, and of their responses when their expectations are or are not met. In this case, a redefined linguistics will provide a new perspective on the question that looms largest in the modern study of lan guage: i.e., why does language exhibit such a great degree of regularity? This question addresses what seem to be two quite different concerns, both
164
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
of which are absolutely central to orthodox linguistic concerns. On the one hand, there are questions such as: "Why does everyone in this speech com munity pronounce "nurse" as [nois]?" and "Why do they all agree that soporific means 'tending to produce sleep'?" This sort of question addresses what we could call the "external" regularity of language. These appear to differ from questions about what is seen as the "internal" regularity of lan guage: e.g., "Why do nearly all words of this class ("adjectives") occur be fore words of this class ("nouns")?" Another version of the latter type of question would be: "Why are all past tense morphemes voiced after vowels or voiced consonants and yet unvoiced after voiceless consonants?" Here the issue is not about why everyone in a given community does something the same way but rather why they do so many different things the same way. Why, in other words, does language appear to be like a formal system? It is perhaps easier to see how the former questions, concerning what I have loosely called "external regularity," can be given new insight from a normative perspective on language (indeed this sort of perspective has a growing influence in contemporary sociolinguistics, cf., Cameron 1990). And yet it is for this very reason that the more formalist of linguists have argued that such questions are not "interesting" and so have exiled them from the domain of linguistics "proper," preferring linguistics to be an "autonomous" science, focusing on the "purely linguistic" questions of the internal regularity of language. The impulse behind such a restriction of focus is easily grasped. The internal regularities of language are most eas ily formalized if they are treated as sui generis, without "external" motiva tion (hence the resistance to the "importation" by variation theory and generative semantics of external concerns into linguistic explanation). And the formalization of such regularities seems more readily to allow for an application of the scientific methods of hypothesisformation and verifica tion. Furthermore, explanatory insight seems attainable by mean of the formalization of rules and principles of greater and greater generality. And as the Martian analogy above suggests, the more such formalizations can be generalized the more they appear to explain the regularities from which they were originally extrapolated. In other words, by restricting itself to the "autonomous" perspective, focusing only on the internal regularities themselves, the most formalistic modes of contemporary linguistics be lieve that an explanation of those regularities can be achieved, i.e., a for mal explanation (which then, depending on the deterministic tastes of the linguist, can be attributed to the abstract principles of language, to cogni tive predisposition, or to biological inheritance). The analogy to the Mar tian investigation of computer outprint is much closer to the truth than many linguists would care to admit.
Normativity and Linguistic Form
165
But, resorting to such deterministic explanations of linguistic regulari ties, internal or external, based on a formalization of the products of ver bal interactions, only masks the normative (and explanatory) source of those regularities in the everyday, humdrum political battles of will that make up the normative practices of verbal interaction. If the products of verbal interaction are amenable to formalization, this is because the con textdependent activities of producing are normative activities. The pat terning of language is of our own making: to explain it we must examine it in the making. We make each other conform our speech habits to the external regulari ties. And this in turn leads us to enforce "internal" analogies on each other's linguistic production. If I know that I should pluralize "cat," "dog," and "house" by adding the plural morpheme /s/, then when you pluralize /wug/ by saying /wuga/1 may well "correct" you, depending on the circumstances and on our relationship (etc.). And I may provide a justification for that "correction" by referring to examples such as "cats" and "dogs," or per haps by reference to an explicit rule that I have been taught by authorities we both respect, e.g., teachers. Countless ways will be open to me to at tempt to support my normative correction. Whether any will succeed re mains to be seen. You may attempt to resist this norm enforcing act; per haps you will say that /wug/ comes from Latin where its plural form is / wuga/. Or you may simply dismiss my authority in the matter. The rhetori cal power of justificationbyanalogy or of citing a general formalization of that analogy is a strong weapon in the normative enforcement of such "internal" regularities. In either case, "internal" or "external" regularity, we ourselves are the sources of our own verbal regularity. Thus, even the internal regularity of language has a social source: "do like the rest of us or be wrong." If we want to explain the formal regularity of what we produce in language, then we must recognize the normative character of the situated events of linguistic production. Regularity in language is merely the outcome of the place of linguistic events at the heart of the moral and political struggle between individual creativity and freedom and the social expectation and imposi tion of conformity. To treat the products of those acts as formally autono mous is to blind oneself to their significance, that is, to how they matter in human affairs. It is thus to fail to treat them as linguistic p henomena at all. Agency, normativity, responsibility, authority, voluntariness, and correct ness should therefore be central concepts in a redefined study of linguistic form. And yet, under the influence of its two founders, Saussure and Chomsky, modern linguistics has exiled such concepts from the explana
166
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
tory domain of linguistic science. This is perhaps because they failed to realize that, if language is not conceived as a moral, political, and norma tive form of human activity, then it is not amenable to explanation at all.
Part III: Rhetoric and History
This page intentionally left blank
—9—
Why We Need a Theory of Language The question to which the title of this paper alludes could also be expressed in the following way: Why have language theorists in the Western tradition felt compelled to discuss, over and over again, what are apparently the same questions, the same controversies, the same arguments, the same theories, etc.? Another way of putting this: why have they felt and why do they feel a need to produce theories of language, as these latter are under stood within the history of Western thought? The historian of linguistic ideas fashions his answer to this question by making use of the explanatory tools provided by such concepts as "intellectual tradition," "historical in fluence," and "conceptual inheritance." It is not my intention to argue against this way of addressing the question of continuity in Western lin guistic thought, and for the very simple reason that I think it makes a great deal of sense. Nevertheless, it is my intention to approach that question from a different direction, to view it from an unfamiliar perspective, so as to make sense of it differently than it is made sense of from the perspective afforded by the history of ideas. I will present a hypothetical account of what might be called "the rhe torical source" of language theory. I will not argue for that account here: I will merely present it. My aim is to see if it can be made sense of. For if we find that it can be made sense of—that is, that the continuous threads uniting Western linguistic thought can intelligibly be represented as the product of otherwise unremarkable patterns of everyday discourse—that very realization will itself, I believe, make this a useful exercise. The premise underlying this approach, in short, is this. In order to break free from the intellectual constraints of the Western linguistic tradi tion, it is not enough simply to chart the mythological features of that tradition, to uncover its logical and conceptual presuppositions, to chronicle its historical development, and to strive to solve its problems and correct its mistakes "once and for all." For it is we ourselves—in our nonprofes sional identities as ordinary languageusers—who unwittingly regenerate the source of that tradition and who exercise the authority by which con tinued submission to its constraints is enforced. The essential features of
170
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
that tradition emerge whenever we are in those discursive circumstances which oblige us to speak or think "seriously" about language: in informal arguments, in afterclass conversations, in seminar discussions, etc. In other words, it is in these dialogic contexts—when we are called upon to justify what in other contexts would probably strike us as perfectly mundane, "in nocuous" metalinguistic remarks—that the "synchronic" origin of the West ern linguistic tradition may be found: an origin, that is, located not in Ancient Athens or 17thcentury Europe but in what, if asked, we might simply call "ordinary commonsense." It is therefore here we must look to determine why we find that tradition's problems and arguments compel ling: to understand why they make sense to us and why we feel a need to address them. And it is perhaps by thus bringing ourselves to recognize the source of our compulsion to adhere to, and indeed to continue weav ing, the Western linguistic myth, that we may find the means to free our selves from its entanglement. My strategy therefore will be to present an account of linguistic theoriz ing as a rhetorical derivative of what I will call "the commonsense picture of language." I will begin by explaining what I mean by "the commonsense picture of language" and will then discuss how that picture can be seen as generating the puzzles that characterize the intellectual discourses of mod ern Western linguistic thought. What do I mean by the commonsense picture of language? Well, noth ing too controversial. It is hardly controversial to say: 1. that we usually understand what we say to each other; 2. that to understand someone's utterance, we must understand what it means; 3. that words have meanings; 4. that the meaning a sentence has in a given language is not a matter determined by the wishes of any single speaker or writer; 5. that when we speak, we express our thoughts; 6. that by speaking we may refer to things; 7. that the truth or falsity of what we say depends on how the things we refer to really are; 8. that many of us know and use the same language. Pretty clearly, only someone who would typically be called a "sceptic" would want to deny these and other similar claims. That is, only such a sceptic would maintain: 1'. that we don't usually understand each other; 2'. that we don't have to understand the meaning of someone's utterance in order to understand that utterance;
Why We Need a Theory of Language
171
3'. that words don't in fact mean anything at all; 4'. that an (e.g.) English sentence means whatever anyone wants it to mean; 5'. that when we speak, we aren't expressing our thoughts; 6'. that our utterances never really refer to anything; 7'. that the truth or falsity of what we say is independent of how the things we refer to really are; 8'. that, surprising though it may seem, there are no two people who speak the same language. Indeed, the fact that someone who denied claims like 18 would be treated as a sceptic, is directly related (as two sides of the same coin) to our readi ness to characterize those claims as what we call "commonsense." Accord ingly, we treat the sceptic's denial of such claims as controversial and dis miss his position as "an assault on commonsense." And this holds regard less of whether we are dealing with a "strong" sceptic, who denies the truth of 18, or with a "weak" sceptic, who merely denies that we are justified in taking their truth for granted. It goes without saying that part and parcel of taking claims like 18 to be commonsense is taking them to be true. (Thus another word for a statement of "commonsense" is "truism.") Moreover, j ust as commonsense tells us (see #7 above) that the only reason the sentence "Saturn has seven moons" is true is that there really are seven of the things we call "moons" revolving around the planet we call "Saturn," we also take the truth of the claims 18 to inhere in the fact that things really are as those claims state them to be: that is, we take them to be true because they correspond to the facts. Take (3) as an example: "Words have meanings." That sentence is as sumed to be true because the words we use really do have meanings. This is just another way of saying that if, in fact, the words we use did not really have any meanings, then (3)wouldbefalse. Therefore, the sentence "Words have meanings" is not just some groundless platitude or meaningless tau tology that we mouthe dogmatically to each other; it actually corresponds to "the real facts" about words, facts that are independent of our awareness of them or of how we describe them. Commonsense tells us that we don't just say that words have meanings; they really do. And, by extension, the same goes for the other statements listed in 18 above and for other simi larly commonsense truisms about language and communication. What this comes down to is that "commonsense"—of which the eight claims above are intended as representative samples—provides a very rich and complex picture of the communicational reality (the "facts") underly ing ordinary communicational behavior. We may not be able directly to observe components of that reality: such as the meanings of words, or the English language, or states of mutual understanding. But no matter, for
172
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
"commonsense" confirms that there definitely is a reality there for us to study, to describe, and to explain: in short, to theorize. It is in this way that language theory acquires its investigative assignment. To see this, consider the example of (1). When treated as an empirical truth, the claim that "We usually understand what we say to each other" naturally leads to a host of very puzzling questions. For instance, what par ticular kinds of facts must obtain for two communicators to understand what they say to each other? Can we determine what these facts are? Are they facts about the communicators' mental states, about their brains, about their bodies, about the contextual circumstances, about their observable behavior, about the behavior of their cointeractants, about the social struc ture of their community, etc.? And, whatever these facts are determined to be, how can we explain their occurrence? In other words, if we can pre sume that communicators ordinarily do understand each other and that mutual understanding consists in some determinate state of affairs, what explanation can we give for the obtaining of that state of affairs: how do communicators come to understand (thus conceived) what they say to each other? Questions such as these are the very stuff of the intellectual discourse that is language theory. Accordingly, the goal of the theorist of language is to provide answers to such questions, the puzzling nature of which is a legacy of the a priori status which is accorded to some or all of the claims that make up the commonsense picture of language. It is the theorist's attempts to answer these questions that act as the continuous threads run ning through the length of Western linguistic thought, weaving it into a single discursive fabric. Consequently, the fact that language theories in the Western tradition have again and again encountered the same puzzles, have applied to them the same strategies, and have come up with the same "solutions" should be the cause of no particular surprise. For the discursive continuity of Western linguistic thought can be seen as the inevitable legacy of its rhetorical origins: that is, of the interpretation of commonsense claims about language and communication as empirical truths. Within this discourse, the task assigned to the theorist is a. to describe, in as much detail and as accurately as possible, the underly ing reality—the facts—that the commonsense picture of language and communication is true of, and b. to explain how those facts occur. Let me illustrate this with some cases from the history of Western linguistic thought, taking the theoretical treatment of claim (1) as my particular ex ample: "We usually understand what we say to each other." (For a much
Why We Need a Theory of Language
173
fuller discussion of these examples, cf., Taylor, 1992.) In the European Enlightenment, we find language theorists describing communicational understanding in terms of the qualitative identity of mental content. That is, it is held to be true that I understand what you say if and only if the following state of affairs obtains: your utterance produces ideas in my mind that are qualitativly identical to those ideas in your mind which your utterance was intended to express. This conception of commu nicational understanding is clearly articulated in the following passage from Locke's Essay. To make words serviceable to the end of communication, it is necessary that they excite in the hearer exactly the same idea that they stand for in the mind of the speaker. Without this, men fill one another's heads with noise and sounds; but convey not thereby their thoughts, and lay not be fore one another their ideas, which is the end of discourse and language. (Locke, 1690, III, ix, 6) But how can such a state of affairs come to obtain? That is, how can your words produce the same ideas in my mind that you intended to express by uttering those words? Addressing this question, the French philosopher Condillac, a selfdeclared follower of Locke, argued that language could not in fact be a vehicle of communicational understanding, thus conceived, unless the connections between words and ideas were somehow given in nature. Only the shared natural history of human communicators could possibly provide the intersubjective bond required to explain their mutual understanding of words. Thus, in the following passages, Condillac sug gests that a language based not on natural principles, but on arbitrary choices, could never be a successful vehicle of communicational under standing: It is a mistake to think that in the first creation of languages men could choose indifferently and arbitrarily which words were to be the signs of which ideas. If this had been the case, how could they have understood one another? (Condillac, 1798, pp. 36566) Nature, which is the beginning of everything, begins articulate language...and analogy, which completes the task, does it well to the ex tent that it continues in the way that nature began. (Condillac, 1981, p.2) In other words, Condillac's reasoning proceeds as follows. Since we know that communicators usually do understand each other (Commonsense tells us this), and
174
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
since understanding requires qualitative identity of mental content (How the Enlightenment theorists describe mutual understanding), and since a language which was not based on natural principles could not be a vehicle of communicational understanding, thus described, we may therefore be certain that the connections between words and ideas are based on natural principles. On the other hand, the founder of linguistic structuralism, Ferdinand de Saussure, reasoned that communicational understanding must consist not—as Enlightenment theorists had supposed—in the qualitative iden tity of the speaker and hearer's mental content, but in its formal identity. For two people to understand each other it must be that the concept which each attaches to a given signifier has the same formal value, which is deter mined solely by that concept's structural place in the system of differential relations that is a language (langue). In other words, for you and I to un derstand what we say to each other we must both have internalized and must both be using the same langue, conceived as a structured system of differential relations between arbitrary signs. Without the use of such a mutually internalized language system, Saussure argues, it would be im possible for us to share the same concepts and signifiers, and therefore also impossible for our acts of speech to result in communicational under standing. "A language is necessary in order that speech should be intelli gible" (Saussure, 1916, p. 37). Consequently, since we can take for granted the commonsense claim that communicational understanding is a perfectly ordinary occurrence, we can conclude with confidence that such internal ized language systems really do exist. In other words, it is not by empirical observation that Saussure comes to the conclusion cited in the following passage; it is forced upon him by his assumption that whatever kind of entity a language is, it must be something that makes communicational understanding possible. (For if it were not, then communicational under standing would not be possible; and yet we know it is!) A language is a method, an instrument, perfectly suited to accomplish constantly and immediately its purpose: to make oneself understood. (Saussure, 1974, p. 16) Writing at about the same time, the German philosopher Gottlob Frege made use of a different possible "solution" to the same rhetorical puzzle. Frege argued that if it were true that communicational understanding re quired identity of speaker and hearer's mental content, then it would be impossible for any speaker and hearer ever to understand each other.
Why We Need a Theory of Language
175
It is so much of the essence of any one of my ideas to be a content of my consciousness, that any idea someone else has is, just as such, different from mine. (Frege, 1984, p. 361) Consequently, since we know that speakers and hearers do usually under stand each other, Frege continues, we may conclude that communicational understanding consists in something other than identity of mental con tent. Instead, Frege reminds us of the commonsense truism (cf., #2 above) that if you understand my words, then you understand what those words mean. In other words, our mutual understanding consists in our common grasp of the same thing: namely, the meanings of the words used. That is, for communicational understanding to be possible at all, our understanding of a word cannot involve two things: your mental meaning (or idea) and mine. Rather, it must be the case that every word has an objective, person independent, nonmental meaning and that this objective meaning (or sense) is graspable by you and me as the very same thing. Our mutual understanding of that word will thus consist in our shared grasp of its ob jective meaning. Such an objective meaning is not the result of an inner process or the product of a mental act which men perform, but something objective: that is to say, it is something that is exactly the same for all rational beings, for all who are capable of grasping it, just as the Sun, say, is something objective. (Frege, 1979, p. 7) Again, what interests me in Frege's theory is not this conclusion, but the rhetoric of the argument by which that conclusion is motivated. It has the following structure. a. We do usually understand each other. b. For two people to understand each other, each must grasp the same thing: namely, the meanings of the speaker's words. c. If the meanings of words were something mental, then it would not be possible for two people, in grasping the meaning of a word, to grasp the same thing. d. Therefore, words must have objective meanings, independent of the mental content associated to them by individual communicators. Note that, given the commonsense character of the premises (a) and (b), Frege's conclusion accrues an almost irresistible rhetorical force. Pragmatic theorists, such as Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson (cf., Sperber and Wilson, 1986), take communicational understanding to consist not in the matching of mental content or in a mutual grasp of an objective sense
176
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
but in the speaker and hearer pursuing a "similar train of thought." That is, the speaker and hearer must draw similar inferences from what is said, and similarly see the relevance of what is said to the interactional context in which it is said. But how could this occur? Sperber and Wilson maintain that communicational understanding would be impossible if speakers and hearers were not naturally equipped with the same inferencedrawing mechanisms. If the drawing of pragamatic inferences were an arbitrary process under the communicator's voluntary control, what could possibly lead them to draw the same inferences and agree on the relevance of the speaker's utterance to the interactional context? That is, how could they possibly come to understand each other? Therefore, given (a) Sperber and Wilson's view of the nature of communicational understanding and (b) given the commonsense truism that communicational understanding does regu larly occur, we are led ineluctably to the conclusion that speakers do natu rally follow the same inferencedrawing procedures, governed by what Sperber and Wilson call the "Principle of Relevance." Our claim is that all human beings automatically aim at the most efficient information processing possible. This is so whether they are conscious of it or not. (Sperber and Wilson, 1986, p.49) Communicators do not "follow" the principle of relevance; and they could not violate it even if they wanted to. The principle of relevance applies without exception. (Sperber and Wilson, 1986, p. 162) The last account of understanding that I will mention here is that of the conversation analysts of the ethnomethodological school, such as Emmanuel Schegloff and John Heritage. What is distinctive about the ethnomethod ological account of communicational understanding is that it does not take understanding to consist in shared mental contents, in the mutual grasp ing of objective meanings, or in similar psychological inferencing proce dures. If that were what communicational understanding consisted in, the ethnomethodologist maintains, then it would be impossible. But of course communicational understanding does occur. Our "commonsense" view of the world is clear on this: we do usually understand each other. Therefore, communicational understanding must consist in something other than what Condillac, Saussure, Frege, Sperber, and Wilson have assumed it to consist in. It cannot consist in a private mental state or process or in the mutual grasping of mysterious Platonic entities. It must, the ethnomethodologist argues, consist instead in something the obtaining of which we can con firm without the need of postulating such theoretical phantasms. Commu nicational understanding must consist in something straightforwardly ob
Why We Need a Theory of Language
177
servable in the public practice of verbal interaction. The ethnomethodologist thus concludes that we need look no further in identifying instances of communicational understanding than the ob servable characteristics of those particular interactional events that com municators themselves count as instances of mutual understanding. In other words, for the ethnomethodologist, if two communicators treat their inter actional events as instances of mutual understanding—at the very least by not treating them as instances of misunderstanding—then those interactional events are instances of mutual understanding. Whatever actual communi cators accept as instances of mutual understanding, that is what communi cational understanding is. In this case the theorist is wrong to treat the observable characteristics of communicational events as evidence of "the real thing," i.e., understanding itself, and he is confused if he thinks he must look in the communicators' minds or in Platonic heaven in order to find true understanding. Rather, whatever actual communicators, in par ticular communicational circumstances accept as instances of mutual un derstanding, that is what communicational understanding is. It's been right there before our eyes all the time. (Indeed, the ethnomethodologist ar gues, how could it not have been? If mutual understanding had really been something unobservable—in hidden Platonic or psychological realms— how could two people ever have known if they understood each other? And yet, of course, we know that communicators usually do understand each other.) What the language theorist should therefore do is describe the observable features of communicational interaction; for, in so doing, he will be giving an account of what it is for two people to understand each other. Rather than treating intersubjectivity as an essentially philosophical prob lem for which a determinite inprinciple solution must be found, (the ethnomethodologist) treats its achievement and maintenance as a practical "problem" which is routinely "solved" by social actors in the course of their dealings with one another. (Heritage, 1984, p. 54) What I hope emerges from this quick sketch is that while each theory takes the regular achievement of communicational understanding for granted, they also each take that achievement to consist in something dif ferent. What is therefore essential in the discursive construction of a theory of communicational understanding is the presupposition of the truth of the claim that it ordinarily occurs. It is left up to the theorist to determine what state of affairs that claim is true of. In other words, that we do usually understand each other is invariably treated as a synthetic, a priori truth; what it is for us to understand each
178
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
other, and how its occurrence may be explained, these are matters for theo retical determination. In general, then, the rhetorical legacy of the commonsense picture of language and communication consists only in the presumed truth of remarks like 18. The task assigned to the language theo rist is therefore one of solving the resultant discursive puzzles for the empty variables what and how. If this somewhat depressing account of the rhetorical origins and legacy of language theory makes any sense, then it will naturally focus our atten tion on the following question. Why must theorizing about language begin by presuming the truth of commonsense claims such as those listed 18? Why don't language theorists, like their colleagues in the natural sciences, adopt a more sceptical attitude toward whatever it is that "commonsense" tells them about their chosen subject? Or, to come at it from a different angle, why do I assume that no one would ever reject the commonsense picture of language and communication, at least not its basic outlines? What are the grounds for this assumption? My answer, in short, is that if we gave into a wholesale sceptical rejection of that picture, we would be unable to live. We accord propositions such as 18 the status of commonsense truisms because we believe them to be nothing more than generalized formula tions of the countless trivial, circumstancespecific remarks we regularly make about communicational events. (Analogously, "Molly usually wears a red dress on Friday" is a generalized formulation of countless specific re marks of the type "Molly wore a red dress on Friday.") In other words, we take propositions such as 18 to be generalized formulations of (what I will call) commonplace "metadiscursive" remarks. (By "metadiscursive," I mean here discourse which reflexively concerns—which "reflects back on"—dis cursive behavior itself: in other words, talk about talk). The following are typical examples of metadiscourse. 9. "OK, we understand each other then." 10. "Sure, I understand the meaning of your remark." 11. "Guess what? I just learned what soporific means." 12. "No, you nitwit; soporific doesn't mean 'fatally poisonous'; what it re ally means is 'sleepinducing.'" 13. "My letter clearly expresses my thoughts on the matter." 14. "Well, what I was referring to was his sarcastic tone, not what he actu ally said." 15. "Look, he's not actually in his room, so the fact of the matter is that what you said is false." 16. "If we hadn't all spoken the same language, our meeting would have been even more of a disaster."
Why We Need a Theory of Language
179
I take it that metadiscursive remarks such as these are a common and familiar feature of our daily lives. Now, imagine someone who went about claiming all instances of such ordinary metadiscursive remarks to be false hoods. In other words, they claim it to be untrue whenever anyone says of themselves, or of anyone else, that they understood what someone else said ("No, you don't. That's im possible!"), that they meant X by what they said ("Nah, you only say you do, but there's really no such thing as meaning anything by one's words!"), that they knew what a given word meant ("You say you know what bicycle means, but you really don't!"), that, in speaking they are expressing their thoughts ("Of course you aren't; . that would be impossible!"), And so on. Anyone who made a regular habit of this, would probably receive the sar castic reply: "Get a life!" Pretty quickly, they'd lose what friends they had; and if they kept it up, they would probably be put under psychiatric super vision in a mental hospital. Now, imagine if we all did this, and we did it all of the time. Everyday interaction—and so life as we know it—would col lapse. The sentences listed under 18 above—from which emerges the commonsense picture of communication—are derived from the repeated, uncontroversial utterance of metadiscursive remarks like 9 to 16. As an example, take sentence 1 again. It is a perfectly ordinary and uncontroversial occurrence for people to say, in particular circumstances, that they under stand someone else, as in 9. This doesn't mean that no one ever objects to particular instances of such claims. Of course they do. However, communi cational interaction would be nothing like we know it to be if we all always objected whenever someone was said to understand what someone else said. Consequently, it seems perfectly justifiable to us to make the general claim given in 1: "We usually understand what we say to each other." In other words, the assignment of the status of commonsense truism to sentence 1—and, hence, the theorist's assumption of the existence of the reality he takes it to describe—is motivated by the fact that it would be absurd to deny (i.e., to declare false) the countless instances of metadiscursive commonplaces like 9. Moreover, if called upon to justify the truth of the general statement 1, this would most naturally be done by reference to the accepted truth of the particular metadiscursive remarks. (Would it not be nonsense to agree that commonplaces like 9 are usually true yet to deny the truth of 1?) If it would be absurd regularly to deny
180
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
particular instances of "We understand each other," then it would be no less absurd to deny the general statement "We usually understand what we say to each other." And the same goes for the metadiscursive remarks 10 through 16, and their corresponding components of the commonsense picture. So, "ordinary life" would appear to exclude as a viable attitude (outside of the philosophy classroom) the sceptical treatment of claims such as 18. Consequently, it should come as no surprise that those who reflect "seri ously" on the topic of language and communication typically begin by tak ing for granted (a) the truth of those claims and (b) the existence of the communicational reality that, if the claims are true, they are true of. The point of a theory of language, then, is to describe and explain that taken forgranted communicational reality. Hence the rhetorical stranglehold that the commonsense picture of language has on the discursive construction of theories of language. In other words, according to the rhetorical per spective adopted in this paper, it is here that we may locate an answer to the question why we (in the Western intellectual tradition) need a theory of language.
Now, if—as I have argued—the language theorist cannot, without courting absurdity, deny the commonsense picture of language and com munication and if the legacy of affirming that picture can only be the re peated regeneration of the same frustrating rhetorical puzzles and simi larly unproductive "solutions" to those puzzles, is there therefore no hope of redirecting theoretical reflection on language towards more positive ends? Is my conclusion that the rhetorical force of the commonsense picture is such that theoretical reflection on language must necessarily remain a fruit less form of intellectual discourse? No, this is not the message with which I would like to leave the readers of this piece. I hope that the picture I have presented of the everregenera tive rhetorical source of language theory will instead motivate the follow ing conclusion. If language theory is to avoid the rhetorical legacy of the commonsense picture, we must focus our energies on addressing the rhe torical source of that picture. And this, as I have just argued, lies in the interpretation of everyday metadiscursive remarks—such as 9 to 16—as generalizable, empirical propositions. In other words, as long as it is taken for granted that, when we say such things as "We understand each other," "Soporific means 'tending to produce sleep,'" and
Why We Need a Theory of Language
181
"You know English as well as I do,"
the communicational relevance of these utterances is appropriately char acterized by reference to particular states of affairs the obtaining of which justifies their assertion, that is, our state of mutual understanding, the meaning of soporific, and our mutual knowledge of the English language, then the first step will already have been taken down a welltrodden rhe torical path leading inexorably, via the conceptual picture we call "commonsense," to the familiar problems and paradigms of the Western linguistic tradition. If we are to avoid taking this first step—and so avoid its rhetorical consequences—we must try to develop alternative ways of understanding, and expressing our understanding, of the relevance of prac tical metadiscourse to the interactional construction of everyday talk.
This page intentionally left blank
— 10 —
Communicational Scepticism and the Discourse of Order This chapter concerns what has been called "linguistic reflexivity": that is, the use of language to talk about language (or, alternatively, discourse about discourse). I will concentrate on the contrast between linguistic reflexivity in everyday discourse and linguistic reflexivity within the context of the discourses of academic inquiry. The former will be called "practical metadiscourse" and the latter "intellectual metadiscourse." This distinc tion is drawn according to the difference in the rhetorical norms which the practitioners of these two forms of metadiscourse impose on their perfor mance: that is, according to the distinction between how practical and in tellectual metadiscourses are themselves "talked about" and evaluated as re flexive objects. To be more precise, this chapter will focus on that form of intellectual metadiscourse which addresses doubts about whether communicators or dinarily understand each other, doubts which most often find expression in the criticism of languages or languageusing as a means of achieving mutual understanding. I will refer to the form of intellectual metadiscourse which either expresses or attempts to rebut such criticism as "metacommunicational discourse." My aim is to analyze what I take to be an important shift in metacom municational discourse, from an emphasis on explaining the nature oflan guage as a communicational vehicle—its structure, its use, its acquisition, its variability, etc.—to an emphasis on explaining social conformity in com municative practices. This might be called the "practical turn" in metacommunicational discourse; it has resulted in the merger of the con cerns of that discourse with those of sociopolitical discourses which ad dress what sociologists refer to as the "problem of social order." The "problem of social order" has its source in Thomas Hobbes' Levia than of 1651, in which he asks why—given their personal desires, fears, experiences, and intentions—individual agents regularly produce socially coordinated behavior. Why is it that collections of such individuals do not regularly fall into that anarchic state which Hobbes called "a condition of
184
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
Warre"? In such a condition of "Warre" there is, according to Hobbes, no Society; and which is worst of all, continuall feare, and danger of vio lent death; and the life of man, solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short. (Hobbes, I, 13) In the context of metacommimicational discourse, the problem of order is typically expressed in questions such as the following. Why do individuals in the same community speak in a similar fashion? Why do they regularly profess agreement on what their words mean and on what is a "correct" and what an "incorrect" way of speaking? And why do they usually act as if they understand one another? My method of approaching this topic is that of discourse or conver sation analysis. What this means is that I will not evaluate metacom municational discourse from the perspective of the rhetorical norms which its practitioners themselves apply to that discourse, according to which particular "moves" or sequences in that discourse are characterized as "true" or "false," "well" or "poorly supported by evidence," "probable" or "im probable." Instead, I will do a "discourse analysis job" on metacommuni cational discourse, analyzing the sequential rhetoric of its various strate gies and moves. It is not my aim to evaluate metacommunicational dis course according to its own reflexive rhetoric but rather to analyze that discourse as the product of its practitioners' application and orientation to that rhetoric. In plain (or plainer) terms: I do not want to look at what language theo rists claim about communicational understanding from within their own preferred rhetoric of representational adequacy. It is that rhetoric which leads to questions such as "Is this claim true?" and "Are its evidential grounds secure?" and to rhetorical strategies designed to address those questions. Rather, I want to raise questions with a very different concern: questions such as "Why is this strategy adopted now?" and "Why is this strategy taken as justifying or as undermining that claim?" It is by asking such questions that I hope to draw attention to metacommunicational discourse as a re flexive intellectual practice: in particular, as a practice which is itself made "regular" and "functional" by virtue of its own reflexively applied rhetoric. Why I think it worthwhile to undertake such an admittedly bizarre enter prise is perhaps best summed up by transforming Richard Rorty's construc tivist dictum about metaphor and intellectual change: that is, "Changing the way we talk about our 'talk' [is] changing what we want to do and what we think we are" (Rorty, 1989, p. 20). One last point about my method: I believe that the rhetorical character istics of particular instances of intellectual metadiscourse are determined
Communicational Scepticism
185
by local and contingent factors operating in the situated production of that discourse—in short, that intellectual metadiscourse can be given a sociopolitical explanation. Nevertheless, it is not this conviction which gov erns my own (exaggeratedly meta} discourse here. The methodological perspective adopted in this chapter is not that of historicism. For I feel that modern intellectual metadiscourse exhibits recurrent patterns which are more usefully traced, not to the sociopolitical characteristics of their con tingent production, but rather to a common rhetorical origin. By this I mean that intellectual metadiscourse emerges, I believe, by means of the decontextualization of contingently functional, commonplace expressions of practical metadiscourse and their recontextualization within intellectual dis course. In other words, intellectual metadiscourse acquires its rhetorical framework and possibilities because it consists in treating the ordinary, contingent things we say about what we say as (primitive) empirical hypoth eses; and because they are so treated they are therefore evaluated as "true" or "false" and—if true—as corresponding to states of affairs which can be—indeed, should be—investigated, described, and explained. For example, it is only within the rhetorical context of intellectual dis course that we would treat a commonplace such as "This (pointing at one's nose) is what 'nose' means" as an empirical statement, which in turn leads us to raise (and attempt to answer) bizarre questions such as "What can it possibly be for the sounds [ noz ] and THIS (my nose) to stand in the relationship here called 'meaning'?" and "Can that way of 'meaning' be the same as when I say that the meaning of winking is 'I don't believe you'?" and "How can the sounds [noz] mean his nose and my nose at the same time?" and "How far can I alter my pronunciation without altering that meaning?" Questions such as these are, of course, the very stuff of language theory in the modern Western tradition. In sum, my method is based on the assumption that it is the intellectu alization (or "theorization") of the commonplaces of practical metadiscourse which not only gives intellectual metadiscourse its subject matter—by cre ating certain kinds of puzzles—but also, by allowing only certain kinds of "solutions," determines its rhetorical possibilities. In my effort to chart those possibilities I pay comparatively less attention to the sociopolitical forces determining their realization in particular, historically situated dis courses. For, I take those rhetorical possibilities to structure any intellec tual metacommunicational discourse, regardless of whether that discourse takes place between graduate students meeting in the bar for an after seminar beer or between the institutionally recognized "greats" convers ing with one another down the hallowed corridors of the Western tradi tion.
186
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
Having said this, my analysis will spotlight one type of rhetorical strat egy that has become a dominant force in intellectual discourse on commu nicational understanding. This strategy I will refer to as "communicational antirealism," thereby drawing attention to its opposition to "communica tional realism" and at the same time suggesting its connection to the se mantic antirealism of Michael Dummett and the rulefollowing antireal ism of Saul Kripke. I group together under "communicational antirealism" those strategies which explain what communicational understanding is in terms of public, behavioral practices. Communicational realism, on the other hand, ex plains communicational understanding as consisting in something "above," or "underlying," or "behind" public, behavioral practices, such as in the following statement by Wallace Chafe: Language enables a speaker to transform configurations of ideas into con figurations of sounds, and it enables a listener within his own mind to transform these sounds back into a reasonable facsimile of the ideas with which the speaker began. (Chafe, 1970, p. 15) Antirealists deride realism for its "telegraphic" theory of communication. An illustrative example of antirealism is provided in the following passages from Barbara Herrnstein Smith's Contingencies of Value. [T]here is no "communication" in the sense either of a making common of something...that was previously the possession of only one party or in the sense ofa transferal or transmission of the same (information, feelings, beliefs, and so on) from one to the other. What there is, rather, is a differentially consequential interaction: that is, an interaction in which each party acts in relation to the other differently...and also with different consequences for each. (Smith, 1988, p. 109) She continues later in the book: It must be added, however, that although these interactions obey no "rule" and have no "reason," they do nevertheless operate reliably enough under recurrent conditions to permit their more or less coherent description through various modes of reflexive... analysis and also yield local resolu tions and provisional stabilities that, for longer or shorter periods of time, are good enough to keep us—and thus [our] interactions—going. (Smith, 1988, p. 148) Another way of putting this is that the antirealist says that there is no such thing as communicators "really" understanding each other—in the realist's
Communicational Scepticism
187
sense of that adverb. There are, however, familiar social practices which are sufficiently reliable and efficient for the purposes of the communicational agents involved and which—although those practices do not in fact in volve what the realist would call "real" understanding—may well be char acterized by those agents in terms such as "we understand each other" (or even, "we really understand each other"). Nevertheless, the communicational realist describes those behavioral practices—in terms of which the antirealist explains communication—as communicators "merely acting like they understand." For the communica tional realist, claims about communicators acting like they understand each other are to be sharply distinguished from claims about their really under standing. For the realist there is a normative distinction between these two claims which is essential to coherent discourse on communicational under standing; for the antirealist, the distinction amounts to little more than a stylistic preference. Before I analyze the relationship between the rhetorical strategies of realist and antirealist metadiscourse it will help my presentation to draw a distinction between (what I will call) three "topics" of metacommunicational discourse. I will refer to these topics by three terms which the grammar ians call "Wh words": these are "whether," "what," and (oddly enough) "how." I will use these terms simply as a shorthand way of referring to the unsurprising fact that intellectual discourse on communicational under standing focuses on such issues as "whether communicators ordinarily un derstand each other," "what communicational understanding is (what it is to understand what someone says/writes)," and "how (or why) communica tional understanding occurs." Of primary importance to the rhetorical struc ture of metacommunicational discourse in the modern Western tradition is communicational scepticism, which in this context will be defined sim ply in terms of its reply to the question "whether communicators ordinarily understand each other," that reply being "No, they do not." Neither the communicational realist nor the antirealist is a communicational sceptic; they agree that communicators ordinarily understand each other. Where they disagree is on "what" communicational understanding is and on "how" it occurs. Let me begin by considering the relationship between the issues of "whether," "what," and "how" in a text that is exemplary of a realist strat egy in metacommunicational discourse: Saussure's Cours de linguistique generate. Saussure's discourse begins with a picture and a conviction. The picture is the familiar one of two "talking heads." The conviction is analyzable into three parts: in Saussure's discourse it is taken for granted (a) that communication does in fact occur (the topic of "whether"); (b) that
188
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
it consists in the state arrived at by the two heads pictured (the topic of "what"); and (c) that it occurs because the two heads are speaking a com mon language (the topic of "how"). What I want to draw attention to is the rhetorical relationship which Saussure's discourse establishes between his treatment of the topics of "whether," "what" and "how." The major part of Saussure's metacommunica tional discourse consists in the derivation of the essential properties of lan guages: that is, of those metaphysical properties which languages must pos sess given the place which the concept of a language occupies in Saussure's realist account of successful communicational understanding. As is well known, in the Cours the concept of a language (Saussure's langue) is the rhetorical key to explaining "how" (realist) communication occurs. It is from this assumption about the relationship between "what" communica tional understanding is and "how" it is achieved that Saussure deduces the essential properties of langue. In order to account for how (realist) communication occurs, languages must, for instance, be both individual and supraindividual: that is, they must be properties both of individual speakers' minds and of the society as a whole. For this essential condition to be possible, languages must consist of signs composed of two internally related "sides," signifiant and signifie, which are not subject to the voluntary control of signusers. For signs to be independent of their users' control, Saussure argues, they must be arbitrary. And this in turn means that the identity of any given sign—as a speakerindependent, arbitrary combina tion of internallyrelated "sides"—must be determined not by substantive properties but by the differential relations between its signifiant and other signifiants in the language and between its signifie and other signifies in the language. In other words, the rhetorical strategy employed in Saussure's realist discourse makes use of a transcendental logic. We have no other choice—if we are to conceive of languages as the vehicles of (realist) understanding (and this conception Saussure simply takes for granted)—but to conclude that languages are structural systems of arbitrary signs. This logic may be outlined as follows: Premise la ("whether"): Communicators ordinarily understand each other. (So, Saussure is a believer in communicational understanding, rather than a sceptic.) Premise Ib ("what"): Communicational understanding consists in the speaker and hearer both taking the speaker's message to consist in the same signifiant/signifie pairings—that is, to consist of the same signs. (This is Saussure's metacommunicational realism.)
Communicational Scepticism
189
Premise 2: If languages did not possess the properties P (arbitrariness, independence from voluntary control, etc.), then (realist) com municational understanding could not occur. Conclusion ("how"): Languages do possess the properties P. The rhetorical "work" of the Cours consists in "solving" this transcendental formula for the variable P: that is, in working out the essential metaphysical properties of languages as the vehicles of successful realist communicational understanding, thus providing an answer to "how" communicational un derstanding occurs. Linguistics, the autonomous science of language, con sists in the study of particular human languages as actual instances of what Saussure's essentialist discourse proves they must be. Although I will not be able here either to substantiate—or even explain— this claim, I maintain elsewhere (Taylor, 1992) that transcendental logic is a characteristic of the rhetorical strategies employed by every form of com municational realism. For instance, naturalist realism—as expounded by both Condillac and Chomsky— derives claims about the natural properties of languages from realist premises about linguistic intersubjectivity (e.g., shared internalized grammars). Epistemic realism—as exemplified in the arguments of latterday Fregeans—derives the epistemic properties of lan guages and meanings on the basis of realist premises about languages and meanings as objects of mutual knowledge. And, more generally, I would argue that attention to the transcendental rhetoric of realist metadiscourse suggests away of explaining why that discourse focuses on identifying the (natural, epistemic, or metaphysical) properties of communicational ve hicles (languages, meanings, pragmatic rules, etc.); for that investigation is taken as promising the solution to "how" (realist) communicational under standing occurs. Having provided this illustration of communicational realism, I want now to introduce antirealism as a rhetorical strategy which emerges in re action to the communicational sceptic's deconstruction of the logical frame work on which realist discourse is founded. For it should be clear that real ism begs the very issue which the sceptic refuses to take on trust: namely, that communicators ordinarily understand each other. From the position of the communicational sceptic, taking such an assumption for granted amounts to a dogmatic insistence on mistaking common sense for scien tific truth. A good example of a sceptical attack on realist rhetoric occurs in John Locke's criticism, in the Essay concerning human understanding, of what he calls the dogma of the "double conformity" of words (II, 32). By the dogma of "double conformity" Locke means the "commonsense" assumption that,
190
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
because communicators "talk intelligibly to each other," the words they use must therefore conform representationally to the things they speak of and must also stand for the same ideas in the heads of whoever uses them. But Locke, assuming the role of the communicational sceptic, argues that it is "an abuse" of language to assume we ordinarily understand each other's words and that we therefore have no grounds for drawing the conclusion that we each mean the same by the words we use or that our words ac curately represent reality. Moreover, Locke argues, this pervasive "abuse" in our ways of thinking and talking about communication has led to a distorted view of what words are and of how we can best make use of them for communicational purposes. Within the rhetorical framework of metacommunicational discourse, communicational realism is thus painfully vulnerable to scepticism. By at tacking the first premise of realist discourse—i.e., that concerning the topic of "whether" communicators understand each other—the sceptic deconstructs the rhetorical foundations on which realism bases its account of "how" communicational understanding occurs. In so doing, the sceptic undermines the realist's justification for deriving particular claims about the nature of language as a communicational vehicle. Realist rhetoric is defenseless against sceptical criticism because it is only on grounds of socalled "commonsense" that the realist can justify his assumption that communicators ordinarily understand each other. That is, communicators supposedly take it for granted that they ordinarily un derstand each other: they say they understand each other; they seem to believe they understand each other; they act like they understand each other. But this defense is useless against the sceptic; for, according to the rhetorical norms by which metacommunicational discourse is governed, such justificatory grounds are insufficient. The fact that practical agents say, believe, or act like some statement about their actions is true does not count as sufficient justification for exempting that statement from the nor mal requirement for evidential grounds. And the realist is unable to pro vide that evidence. The sceptic's strategy thus draws its rhetorical power from the fact that it consists in nothing more than reminding the realist of the norms of intellectual metadiscourse, norms which the realist himself accepts. In other words, the sceptic's strategy is that of strict constructionism: he draws the realist's attention to the fact that "strictly speaking" realist discourse "doesn't have a leg to stand on." In the terminology of conversation analysis, we can conceive of com municational antirealism as a "sequentially implied next move" following the sceptic's deconstruction of communicational realism. For the strategy of antirealism is founded on accepting the sceptic's criticism of the rhetori
Communicational Scepticism
191
cal framework of realism while maintaining, against the sceptic, the correct ness of the realist's position on the ordinary achievement of communica tional understanding. That is to say, antirealism retains the realist's claim regarding the issue of "whether" communicational understanding occurs; however, in order to render that claim safe from the sceptic's criticism of its evidential foundation, the antirealist substitutes for the realist's account of "what" communicational understanding is an account designed to destroy the sceptic's rhetorical leverage on the topic of "whether." For the sceptic cannot plausibly deny that communicators act like they understand each other. Another way of putting this is that, in contradistinction to the sceptic, the antirealist is (like the realist) a believer on the topic of "whether" com municators ordinarily understand each other. But the discourse of antire alism is constructed according to a strategy which can reestablish and se cure the rhetorical authority of that belief in metacommunicational dis course, a strategy founded on altering what that belief is a belief in. The antirealist says "We do understand each other, except that understanding is not what realist dogma takes it to be." Consider, for example, the antirealism of Jacques Derrida: [Communication, if one insists on maintaining the word, is not the means of transport of sense, the exchange of intentions and meanings, the dis course and "communication of consciousness." (Derrida, 1982, p. 329) That is, communication is not what the realist conceives it to be. Never theless, Derrida continues, one "cannot deny" that communicational acts do succeed: sessions are opened, questions are asked, boats are launched, and (according to Derrida at least) "one even marries occasionally." Such events, it appears, have occurred. And were only a single one of them to have taken place, it would still have to be accounted for. (Derrida, 1982, p. 326) What Derrida says we need an account for is, we should note, the fact that it appears that communicational acts occur; what is important is that com municators treat each other as understanding; they seem to understand each other; they act like they understand each other. Like Derrida, Stanley Fish attacks the realist account of "what" com municational understanding is; and he also agrees with Derrida that, nev ertheless, "the world's verbal business gets satisfactorily done" (Fish, 1989, p. 51). Communicators act on the conviction that they understand each other. "[S]uch events occur all the time," Fish says (Fish, 1989, p. 51). An
192
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
other communicational antirealist, Richard Rorty argues that to say we understand what someone else says is to say nothing more than that "pav ing off the marks and noises [they] use with those we make will prove a useful tactic in predicting and controlling [ their] future behavior" (Rorty, 1989, p. 15). The problem with communicational realism, the antirealist suggests, is that it is based on a mythical notion of "what" communicational under standing is, a myth which if examined closely can be seen to represent an impossible state of affairs. Still, we do know that communicators succeed in accomplishing (what Fish calls) their "verbal business." What the antirealist therefore asks is that we forego the temptation to conceive of that accomplishment as consisting in something mysterious, unobservable: something "behind" the practice itself or "in the minds" of the communi cators themselves. We must instead conceive of communicational under standing, in the words of the ethnomethodologist J. R. E. Lee, as "made available as a necessary part" of communicational practice. The partici pants' understanding of their communicational activities is, Lee argues, "built in" to the very performance of those activities (Lee, 1987, p. 44). So, just as scepticism exploits the rhetorical weakness in realist discourse, antirealism is founded on the exploitation of the rhetorical weakness in herent to scepticism. For, in order to have something to be sceptical about, sceptical rhetoric needs the distinction (the realist's distinction) between "really" understanding and "merely acting like it." Once the antirealist abandons this distinction—by reducing the notion of "what communica tional understanding is" to observable, public practice—the sceptic's rhe torical leverage disappears. However, as we can see by examining the divergent strategies now emerg ing in antirealist metadiscourse, the rhetoric of antirealism remains vul nerable to a "next move" by the communicational realist. For the antirealist solution to the problem of whether communicators understand each other is bought at the cost of the realist's transcendental strategy for deriving an account of how communicational understanding occurs: that is, how com municators come to act like they understand each other. And, if the antirealist does not explain how (antireal) understanding occurs, the real ist is only too quick to point out that he has such an account: the reason communicators act like they understand each other is that they really do! In other words, from the realist perspective, antireal communicational un derstanding is no more than an epiphenomenal product of real communi cational understanding, and accounts of how real understanding occurs have been on offer for thousands of years. Consequently, unless antireal ism can provide its own account of how (antireal) communicational
Communicational Scepticism
193
understanding occurs, an account that is independent of realist presuppo sitions, it is in danger of losing the distinctiveness and force of its rhetori cal position in metacommunicational discourse. It is in reaction to just this form of rhetorical pressure that antirealist discourse has come to address Hobbes' problem of social order. I will finish by talking about two quite contrasting strategies which have emerged as antirealist solutions to the problem of communicational order. It is perhaps to be expected that one strategy which the antirealist employs in addressing the problem of communicational order is the same as that which the sceptic applies in deconstructing the rhetoric of metacommunica tional realism: namely, to refuse to accept one of the premises on which the problem is founded. The problem of order consists in the conflict created by two apparently commonsensical premises: how can it be both that (1) individual agents are free to act as they choose and (2) individual agents regularly produce and reproduce patterns of social conformity? Perhaps the most straightforward way of subverting the logic on which this problem is founded is simply to deny the liberalist premise on which it is founded: that is, to assert that we have no independent grounds—other than the dogmas of "common sense"—for maintaining the freedom of individual action. Accordingly, we might just as well conceive of individual action as the product of an (un derlying) determinism. It is this strategy which leads, for instance, to the determinist explanation of communicational order as the product of individuals whose agency is a function of their inherited biological characteristics in combination with shared subjection to environmental conditioning. From the determinist perspective the problem of order is, quite simply, not a true problem; for it makes no sense to ask why different individuals freely act in conformity when they do not, in fact, act freely at all. It is such a determinist account of communicational order that Richard Rorty appears to recommend in suggesting that all issues of mind and language be naturalized as "causal questions" (Rorty, 1989, p. 15). A more explicit advocacy of a determinist (behaviorist) antirealism occurs as part of the "economics of verbal exchange" proposed in Smith's Contingencies of Value. To the extent that anything could prevent...individual amoralism or social havoc...it would be the same things that have always made some actions and patterns of action if not impermissible, then at least unlikely, and that, 7 think, is as good as we can get. Among the most important of those things...are the in numerable...continuously operating...behavioral tendencies that emerge from
194
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
individual and social practices themselves. These are not...external forces that operate on agents to direct or control their actions but are, rather, the recurrent inclinations of the agents themselves: inclinations to act in certain ways rather than others, that are corporeally inscribed traces of the differential consequences of their own prior and ongoing actions and interactions. (Smith, 1988, p. 162) The implication of Smith's position is that the actions of the different mem bers of a community conform to a degree sufficient to produce (perceiv able) social order because those actions are determined by the agents' re current behavioral inclinations; moreover, these inclinations are the "cor poreal traces" inscribed in each agent's "personal economy" by virtue of their experiences within a common social environment. In other words, communicators produce social order—including acting like they ordinarily understand each other—not because they freely choose to do so, but be cause they are not free to do otherwise. The rhetorical structure of determinist antirealism can be represented as follows: Premise la. ("whether") Communicators ordinarily understand each other. Premise Ib. ("what") Communication consists in communicators acting like they understand each other. Premise 2. If communicators were appropriately conditioned (P), then they would act like they understand each other. Conclusion: ("how") P is true. It should be clear that, in contrast to the transcendental logic underlying realist rhetoric, the rhetoric of determinist antirealism is based on induc tive logic. However, because of this reliance on inductive logic, determinist antirealism leaves itself open to a sceptical reply. For, even if we accept that if communicators were appropriately conditioned, they would act like they understand each other and that they do so act, we are not obliged to con clude that they are therefore appropriately conditioned. Other causes could be producing their behavior: including, as the realist points out, their com mon knowledge of a realisttype code. What this means, of course, is not that determinist antirealism is wrong, or poorly supported, or improbable; such questions are not at issue here. Instead, it simply means that, within the rhetoric of intellectual metadiscourse, determinist antirealism can claim no greater normative authority—in the face of the sceptic's "strict con structionism"—than that which is entitled to communicational realism. It is in reaction to the rhetorical vulnerability of a determinist account of social order that a nondeterminist (or "voluntarist") form of antireal ism first arose. This reaction first appears in Harold Garfmkel's criticism
Communicational Scepticism
195
of the determinist implications of Talcott Parson's writings on the problem of social order (Garfinkel, 1952). Following Garfinkel, subsequent ethnomethodologists—such as Harvey Sacks and John Heritage—have argued that the agent's perception of her interactional circumstances must be taken into account in explaining her behavioral contributions to those circumstances: that is, in explaining why she acts as she does. In this re gard, agents are said to treat social interaction as a moral form of behavior. They treat their fellow agents as morally responsible for their actions and expect to be treated similarly themselves. Moreover, one can only hold someone responsible for their actions if those actions are treated as the voluntary product of the agent's free will. It makes no sense to hold some one responsible for an action which is not taken as subject to their volun tary control. And, the ethnomethodologist argues, it is because agents treat each other as responsible for their social behavior that their behavior tends to conform; i.e., that perceivable social order arises. We act like our fellow agents, and they act like us, because we oblige each other so to do. In this consists ethnomethodology's "voluntarist" solution to the problem of or der. To illustrate the ethnomethodological perspective on the antirealist prob lem of order, Heritage takes the example of the relationship between (a) the everyday practice of returning greetings and (b) the rule applying to that practice. Two colleagues—Nancy and Ronnie—pass each other in the corridor. Ronnie says "Good morning." Once Ronnie has issued this greet ing, Nancy is put in the position of having to choose between at least two possible next moves. She could respond to the greeting, thereby obeying the rule to return a greeting, or she could give no response at all. Nothing makes her respond one way or the other. But the "catch" is that in failing to respond or to acknowledge his greeting in any way, Ronnie may well take her as having done something of significance: that is, as having chosen not to respond. And this imputed choice may be treated by Ronnie as signifying any one of a variety of meanings. Ronnie may think: "Perhaps she didn't respond because she's mad at me. Could it have been something I said at lunch? Perhaps she's worked out what I'm really after. Is she looking at someone else over my shoulder?" In other words, failing to respond may be seen as having as much—or even more—significance as responding itself. In fact, given the innocuous character of returning a greeting, Nancy's failing to respond risks being treated as meaning much more than its al ternative, a simple "Hello." Moreover, relative to a simple "Hello," what ever implications Ronnie may draw from her failure to respond are out of Nancy's control, in which case her own grasp on the interaction as a comprehensible social event will itself be threatened. By not acting in ac
196
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
cord with the rule to return a greeting, the agent thus risks losing her own sense both of "what is happening here" and of how to continue the interac tion. Given the treatment of social action (or nonaction) as a voluntary form of behavior, acting in contravention to the rule is j ust as potentially disruptive and disorienting for her as it is for her cointeractants. Conse quently, Nancy and others in her community will usually conform with the rule to return a greeting, not because they are made to but because they make themselves. As Heritage argues, ...it is the very reflexivity of the actors, their awareness of the options to gether with their anticipation of some of the interpretations to which their exercise of the options will give rise, which may ultimately keep them "on the rails" of perceivedly normal...conduct. (Heritage, 1984, p. 119)
As regards the achievement of communicational order, it is worth men tioning Garfmkel's wellknown experiments testing the moral character of understanding (Garfinkel, 1967). He instructed his students, upon return ing home, to act as if they did not understand what their friends and fam ily said to them. In every case, the students were treated as having behaved reprehensibly. For instance, one student (E) is told about a mishap that a family member (S) has had with a car. (S) I had a flat tire. (E) What do you mean, you had a flat tire? She (S) appeared momentarily stunned. Then she answered in a hostile way; "What do you mean, 'What do you mean?' A flat tire is a flat tire. That is what I meant. Nothing special. What a crazy question!" (Garfinkel, 1967, p. 47)
In another such "experiment," one of the students is addressed a friendly greeting: "How are you?" "How am I in regard to what? My health, my finances, my school work, my peace of mind, my....?" (Red in the face and suddenly out of control.) "Look! I was just trying to be polite. Frankly I don't give a damn how you are." (Garfinkel, 1967, p. 44)
The ethnomethodologist explains the occurrence of communicators acting like they understand each other by reference to how agents treat each other when (a) they act like they understand and (b) when they act like they do not understand. In sum, it is because they treat each other as
Communicational Scepticism
197
morally responsible for their social actions—including whether they act like or do not act like they understand what is said to them—that commu nicational agents tend to conform in behaving as if they understand each other. Antireal understanding thus, occurs as a.practical accomplishment of interactants treating social interaction as a moral phenomenon. What this comes to is the following: ethnomethodology not only adopts an antirealist account of what communicational understanding is, but—in response to the rhetorical vulnerability of determinism—it also adopts an antirealist account of (what ethnomethodologists call) the "practical accom plishment of understanding" (i.e., what I refer to as the topic of "how"). This comes across clearly in the following. Rather than treating intersubjectivity as an essentially philosophical pro blem for which a determinate inprinciple solution must be found, [the ethnomethodologist] treats its achievement and maintenance as a practical 'problem' which is routinely 'solved' by social actors in the course of their dealings with one another. (Heritage, 1984, p. 54) It is worth noticing that, as a strategy within the rhetorical framework of intellectual metacommunicational discourse, ethnomethodology leaves no opening for the future continuation of that discourse, whether by the scep tic or the realist. For by maintaining (a) that communicational understand ing consists in nothing more than communicators acting like they under stand each other and (b) that the reason they ordinarily act so lies not in some phenomenon "behind" or "beneath" their actions but in the practi cal character of their actions and reactions to each other, ethnomethodological discourse makes no claims or assumptions that the sceptic can doubt or that require realist foundations. In so doing, ethnomethodology achieves "a separate peace," safe from the dialogic ten sions which structure metacommunicational discourse. The result is the deflation of the rhetorical impetus to continue that discourse. And yet there is a cost. For although ethnomethodology has a "solu tion" to the intellectual puzzle motivating metacommunicational discourse— a puzzle here characterized in terms of the rhetorical relationship between the topics of "whether," "what," and "how"— that "solution" consists in projecting that puzzle, as well as its solution, into the rhetoric governing practical discourse itself. For, from the ethnomethodological viewpoint, it is the lay communicator whose task it is, in the course of her everyday interac tions, to solve—as a "practical accomplishment"—the theorist's puzzle of the relationship between the topics of "whether," "what," and "how." It is she who—by treating communicational behavior as a moral phenomenon— has the assignment of defeating the bogeyman of intellectual metadiscourse:
198
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
the communicational sceptic. Moreover, the ethnomethodologist concludes, since that task can be seen to pose no serious problems to her everyday communicational performances, this is a victory to be taken as won. The result is that the process by which the rhetorical puzzle of intellectual metadiscourse arises—namely, that process which I earlier called the "in tellectualization" or "theorization" of the commonplaces of practical metadiscourse—comes, with ethnomethodology, full circle. That intellec tual puzzle and its "solution" are both portrayed as having been, all the while, constituent features of practical discourse itself. What is therefore most heartening—from the perspective of intellectual metadiscourse—about the ethnomethodological "solution" to that discourse's motivating puzzle is that it can seem to vindicate the theorist's longstanding belief in the "real ity" and "seriousness" of that puzzle.
— 11 — Bruner and Condillac On Learning How to Talk It is quite illusory to believe that where language is concerned the problem of origins is any different from the problem of per manent conditions. There is no way out of the circle. (Saussure, 1916, Course in General Linguistics, p. 9) In Book Three of his Essay concerning human understanding (1690) Locke describes a communicational puzzle which has troubled scholars ever since. He suggests that language, the use of which is to convey thoughts from the mind of the speaker to that of the hearer (Locke, 1690, III, i, 2), is not adequate for that task. Nevertheless, he points out, the "common use" of words regulates their meaning tolerably well for the purposes of ordinary discourse (Locke, 1690, III, ix, 8). The puzzle then is this: language, the vehicle of communication, is not adequate for the task demanded of it; and yet, in the ordinary use of language, that task is normally accomplished. The essential inadequacy of language, what Locke calls "the imperfec tion of words," is that it can signify only the thoughts in the mind of the speaker. As the hearer cannot know the thoughts of the speaker, he cannot be sure what the words of the latter signify. That is, the words you utter express your own ideas; but when I hear those words, I can only interpret them as the signs of my own ideas. Thus language fails to perform its required task of providing an intersubjective conduit between our minds. Given the inadequacy of language, it is therefore puzzling that Locke should feel that our ordinary use of language is successful. What is it about the way we use language in ordinary talk that "papers over" its fundamental inad equacy? It is not a concern of Locke's in the Essay to explain this puzzle. His aim is to repair the imperfections of language so that it may become a reliable tool in scientific discourse. The question of how ordinary laymen manage to communicate successfully, in spite of the inadequacies of the linguistic vehicle, is passed over more or less without comment. Locke's puzzle did however exercise the minds of his eighteenthcentury followers: philoso
200
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
phers such as the abbe de Condillac. They struggled in part to show how, in spite of its inadequacies, language could be used as an effective vehicle of communication. ...the same words have in different mouths, and often in the same, very different meanings. (Condillac, 1798, Oeuvres, I, p. 762)
Condillac hoped to find the solution to Locke's puzzle through specula tion about the phylogenetic origins of language. If we could determine how men first came to use language, we could discover the intersubjective principle regulating ordinary discourse. For although language using is primarily an artificial creation of man, a social institution, it arose from the natural capacities with which every human individual is endowed. There is presumed to be an essential continuity between the human individual's natural gifts and the artificial, social practice of using language for com munication between individuals. Thus, by revealing the origins of that so cial practice, i.e., by discovering how in his natural state man might have learned to use language, we could identify its fundamental principle of intersubjectivity. By studying the origin of language, Locke's eighteenth century followers hoped to resolve his communicational puzzle. Speculation about the phylogenetic origins of language does not arouse the same degree of interest today as it did in the Enlightenment, when it was perhaps the central mystery about language. It is not that linguists today are uninterested in the topic; rather there simply seems no way even to approach its investigation without relying heavily on speculation, some thing few modern linguists would like to admit to. We have no "hard" evi dence about phylogenesis of language, nor have we any hope of discover ing any. And yet, on the other hand, Locke's communicational puzzle still baffles those who consider it. So, without the eighteenthcentury solution— derived by speculation about the origins of language—there is a modern impulse to devise a new solution to the puzzle. One avenue of investigation which has seemed to offer hope to those troubled by Locke's puzzle leads to the study, not of the phylogenesis of language, but of its ontogenesis. It may be that the explanation of the intersubjective success of ordinary languageusing is to be found by inves tigating how children come to use language. Happily, this topic appears much more amenable to scientific investigation than does that of linguistic phylogenesis, and yet it offers the same promise of a solution to the puzzle posed by Locke: viz., how, in spite of the privacy of their minds, do indi viduals manage to communicate with other individuals? The thesis argued in this paper incorporates both comparison and criti cism: investigations of the origins of language, whether phylogenetic or
Learning How to Talk 201
ontogenetic, are fundamentally the same sort of regressive enterprise. That is, the study of ontogeny recapitulates the study of phylogeny. Their aims, and even their methods, are much the same. More importantly, the reasoning and assumptions they are led to adopt are strikingly similar. Indeed, as I have already suggested, the theoretical impulse, conscious or unconscious, behind each form of investigation is the same. And yet, while the "bow wow" and "gruntgrunt" theories of phylogenesis provide the readers of linguistic textbooks with a great deal of comic relief, current models of linguistic ontogenesis occupy the vanguard of theoretical linguistic respect ability. It is obvious that Locke's puzzle will only be of interest to the proponent of a mentalist view of language and would therefore have no place in the behaviorist's concerns. Consequently, within modern linguistics it drew little attention before generativism transformed the psychological foundations of the discipline. In this case, it might appear curious that, with the mentalist's domination of linguistics during the past thirty years, there has not, until recently, been a notable increase of overt interest in Locke's puzzle. However, on reflection it can be seen that the extreme nativist position adopted by Chomsky and his followers, the instigators of the mentalist revolution in linguistics, stifled any possible interest. For Locke's commu nicational puzzle will only appear relevant to the mentalist who accepts that at least some aspects of languageusing are learned. Once the mental ist concedes that there is at least some degree of truth in empiricism, even if only to repair the rough edges of a fundamentally nativist theory of learn ing, then the epistemological worries behind Locke's puzzle take hold. In this respect, then, psycholinguistics is about right for a revival, in some form or other, of Locke's puzzle. After the downfall of behaviorism, the generativist theory of mind dominated psycholinguistic investigations for a number of years. Psycholinguists set to work looking for evidence of the mental representation of transformational rules, deep structures, lexi cal insertion, cyclical ordering of rules and the like. For the study of lan guage acquisition, the effect was even more pronounced. What had tradi tionally been an investigatory domain of psychology was removed from that position and incorporated as a central topic of linguistics proper. How ever, during the move, the content of the domain was significantly altered. For it was a major principle of generativism that language competence is innate. Consequently, there was no point in investigating how children learn language; for in an important sense, they already knew it. Rather, investigatory energy should be focused on the task of characterizing that innate competence, and this could only be done by discovering the prin ciples and structures which are universal to all languages. In this way, the
202
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
study of language acquisition had no need to investigate children at all but would search instead for the universal properties of fully developed gram mars. In the last fifteen years, however, Chomsky's dominance of psycholinguistic thought has declined. Psychological and computational investigations of language processing have given rise to increasing doubts about the claim that any features of the generativist model of language have a psychological reality. In a related move, psychologists have step by step regained certain areas of child language study as part of the psycho logical domain. This has resulted in a measured reduction in the domi nance of the nativist position on language acquisition and has allowed the reintroduction of a certain degree of empiricism. In this the work of the psychologist Jerome Bruner has had the greatest influence. The ontogenesis of language use: Mediating between genes and culture In his book Child's Talk: Learning to Use Language (1983) Bruner situates his position somewhere between the extremes of empiricism and nativism. He adopts George Miller's characterization of the extreme empiricist view of language acquisition as "impossible" and of the extreme nativist view as 'miraculous,' while professing to occupy a middle position incorporating only the best points of each view. In order to bridge the gap between em piricism and nativism, and, in so doing, to identify a component of the study of language acquisition as the property of psychology, Bruner splits the notion of language acquisition into two. Not only must the child some how attain knowledge of his language (i.e., linguistic competence), he must also acquire an ability to use that knowledge for communicational ends (i.e., pragmatic competence). It is the acquisition of the latter, viz., prag matic competence, that forms the topic of the psychological investigation of child language. The linguist, we may assume, is permitted to retain pos session of the question of how we acquire linguistic knowledge. By splitting the investigatory domain in this way, Bruner is able to achieve a (historic?) compromise with nativist generative linguistics. In so doing, he concedes the nativist position on linguistic knowledge, while maintaining that we still need to discover how the child learns to make use of that knowledge for the purposes of communication: i.e., how the child acquires the ability to refer, to request, to deny, to warn, to query, and so on. In this view, entry into language is an entry into discourse that requires both members of a dialogue pair to interpret a communication and its
Learning How to Talk
203
intent. Learning a language, then, consists of learning not only the gram mar of a particular language but also learning how to realize one's inten tions by the appropriate use of that grammar. (Bruner, 1983, p. 38) While Bruner accepts that the child's knowledge of language is largely the product of an innate "set of languagelearning capabilities, something akin to...LAD" (Bruner, 1983, pp. 1819), he argues that the ability to use language is, to some degree, taught. The child's pragmatic competence is formed in the environment of a socialization routine imposed by the mother. The child's formative communicational experiences are not random but are the result of the mother's constructive patterns of interactional train ing. The development of language, then, involves two people negotiating. Lan guage is not encountered willynilly by the child; it is shaped to make com municative interaction effective—finetuned. If there is a Language Ac quisition Device (LAD), the input to it is not a shower of spoken language but a highly interactive affair shaped, as we have already noted, by some sort of Language Acquisition Support System (LASS). (Bruner, 1983, p. 39) In other words, without the LASS there would be nothing for the little LAD to do. The acquisition of language is aided by the mother who ar ranges early interaction with the child within routinized and familiar for mats. These interactional formats, the central vehicle of LASS, provide a controlled, competencesensitive guide to the child's experience of the func tion of language, forming a continuous bridge between prelinguistic and linguistic interaction. Thus, while Bruner accepts the nativists' claim that linguistic knowl edge is biological in origin, he insists that that biological capacity neces sarily requires cultural expression. And culture must to some degree be learned. While the capacity for intelligible action has deep biological roots and a discernible evolutionary history, the exercise of that capacity depends upon man appropriating to himself modes of acting and thinking that exist not in his genes but in his culture. (Bruner, 1983, p. 23) But, although culture is a social phenomenon, a biological capacity is the possession of an individual. So the question arises: how does the child learn to exercise an individual capacity in a shared, social form? Bruner continues,
204
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
There is obviously something in mind or in "human nature" that mediates between the genes and the culture that makes it possible for the latter to be a prosthetic device for the realization of the former. (Bruner, 1983, p. 23) What mediates between genes and culture is the learned ability to use geneticallyencoded linguistic knowledge for the communicational ends of social interaction. Thus a (the?) central puzzle for the study of language acquisition must be how the individual child acquires the ability to per form the social activity of using language. Perhaps the most significant feature of Bruner's theory is that, having split the notion of language acquisition into two—(1) acquisition of lin guistic knowledge and (2) acquisition of an ability to use that knowledge— he insists that these two tasks are developmentally interdependent. Not only is it claimed that the child cannot develop an ability to use knowledge which he doesn't yet have; but also his linguistic knowledge cannot "grow" without a parallel development of his ability to use that knowledge. Lin guistic and pragmatic development are interdependent. ...the infant's Language Acquisition Device could not function without the aid given by an adult who enters with him into a transactional format. That format, initially under the control of the adult, provides a Language Ac quisition Support System, LASS. It frames or structures the input of lan guage and interaction to the child's Language Acquisition Device in a manner to "make the system function." In a word, it is the interaction between LAD and LASS that makes it possible for the infant to enter the linguistic community.... (Bruner, 1983, p. 19) So, the development of the child's genetically endowed Language Acquisi tion Device depends upon his acquiring the mediating ability to use the fruits of that endowment in social intercourse. The origin and develop ment of that mediating ability form the twin topics of Child's Talk. The enlightenment: Linguistic phylogenesis In his Essai sur I'origine des connoissances humaines, Condillac argues that it is by the exercise of his innate powers of reflection that man distinguishes himself from the animals. The primary concern of Condillac, like that of Locke, is to examine, and render more secure, the foundations of human knowledge. He believed, however, that man would have remained in the unenlightened state of the animals and would not have acquired the wealth of human knowledge if primitive men had not learned how to control the reflective powers with which they were naturally endowed. And it is only by
Learning How to Talk
205
the use of language that man can control reflection. Consequently, if man had not learned how to use language (specifically, how to use arbitrary signs) then he would never have achieved mastery over his rational gift of reflection. It would have remained an unfulfilled potential. The progress of the human mind depends entirely on our proficiency in the use of language. (Condillac, 1798, I, p. 366) Like Bruner, Condillac holds that the development of man's rational gift and the improvement of his ability to use language are fundamentally interdependent. Not only does man's increasing control of his reflective powers depend on his languageusing ability; it is, at the same time, the prerequisite for the growth of that ability. This position is argued in Condillac's Cours d'etudes pour ['instruction du Prince de Parme: De I'Art de Penser: It is the use of signs which enables the exercise of reflection; but, at the same time, this faculty serves to multiply the number of signs (...). So signs and reflection are causes which provide mutual assistance and which recip rocally contribute to their progress. (Condillac, 1798, I, p. 733a) From Condillac's point of view, this interdependence of reflection and languageusing poses a difficult chickenandegg question for the episte mologist. How could primitive man, in his natural state, have learned to use language, given that the ability to use language presupposes a certain degree of control over the reflective powers? In order to account for how man could have broken this original stalemate between reflection and lan guageusing, Condillac attempts to explain how, not yet in control of his reflective powers, man could have learned to use signs. It might appear that one would not know how to make use of conventional signs if one were not already capable of sufficient reflection to choose them and attach them to ideas: how then, it might be objected, can the exercise of reflection only be acquired by the use of signs? (Condillac, 1798, I, p. 226) It is important to recognize here that Condillac's work, as Aarsleff has shown (Aarsleff, 1982), constituted a merger of postLocke empiricism and the PortRoyal tradition ofgrammaire generate. For Condillac, as for Arnauld and Lancelot, language is an expression or "picture" of the mental opera tion of reflection. But, as an empiricist, Condillac did not accept that the ability to control reflection is innate. That control is acquired with the abil ity to use language, and the growth of man's reflective powers depends on
206
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
the learning and development of that ability. In other words, Condillac's originality was to add an historical, developmental perspective to univer sal grammar (much as Locke had added a developmental perspective to the study of government in The Second Treatise on Government). The ratio nality underlying language could not be understood from a purely synchronic perspective since its present form was largely the result of man's improving ability to use language, an ability acquired in part from experi ence. Consequently, the foundation of rationality lay in the origin of lan guageusing; and so for Condillac the question of that origin provided the key to the study of the principles of human understanding. It is here that the influence of Locke's communicational puzzle becomes clear. For who is to say that I use language to control my thinking and to express my thoughts in the same way that you do? If languageusing is an ability learned through experience, then it becomes crucial to our notions of rationality, knowledge, and understanding that we all acquire the same ability. Not only must we share innate reflective powers; we must also some how learn to control those powers, through the use of language, in the same way. Given the importance that Condillac attributes to languageus ing, Locke's puzzle poses a challenge to the epistemology presented in the 1746 Essai. Hence, Condillac's enquiries into the origin of language can be seen as an attempt to discover a shared source which can guarantee intersubjective accord in the use of language and reflection. Condillac believed the use of conventional signs to have originated in natural expressions of emotion. A cry of fear upon seeing a lion, for ex ample, is a natural, contextdetermined response. It is important that such a response is contextdetermined. Even a complex "vocabulary" of such responses (expressions of pain, of fear, of joy, etc.) would not constitute a "trtre" language from Condillac's perspective because the production of any one such vocal response would not be under the control of the speaker. It would depend on the occurrence of the appropriate contextstimulus. Mastery of such a vocabulary, then, would not allow man to exercise con trol over his mind for it would not yet even constitute control over the use of the vocalizations themselves. An important step would be taken when man came to live in society with other men. For he would then hear the same vocalizations produced by those around him and would recognize them as (natural) signs of the emo tions felt by the producer. By this stage, then, the emotional cry is not simply a response to felt emotion; it also acquires a use, albeit as yet an uncontrolled and unintentional one. That is, it now also serves as an intersubjective link informing others of the speaker's emotions. But the most crucial stage is passed when man comes to use such natural signs, not
Learning How to Talk
207
simply in uncontrolled response to emotion, but with an intention to commu nicate. For instance, from a high tree I might see a lion creeping up on you; I would then use the "fear vocalization" to warn you of that danger, even though I do not myself feel threatened by the lion. Thus, my production of this natural sign would have been the expression of my intention to warn you, rather than a simple uncontrolled reaction of fear. Condillac describes a similar scene. He who saw a place where he had been frightened imitated the cries and the movements that were the signs of fear in order to warn the other(s) not to expose themselves to the same danger. (Condillac, 1798,1, p. 61a) This is an important step because, for the first time, the stimulus which triggers the fear vocalization is, in a sense, selfgenerated by the intention to warn. (Condillac makes no mention of where such an intention might have "come from." We can only assume that it is a natural endowment.) Hereto fore, fearvocalization had been the natural response to an emotion which itself was stimulated by the environment. Man exercised no control over the natural stimulusresponse chain which resulted in his fearvocaliza tions. However, when man produces the same fear vocalization as the re sult of his intention to warn, it is man who generates the stimulus (the intention) which leads to the vocalization response. The intention to warn, then, like the intention to refer which is crucial in the next stage of the languagelearning process, is not contextdetermined; it originates in the speaker. It is noteworthy that Condillac speaks of the connection between the intention to warn and the fearvocalization as an "imitation" of the uncon trolled connection between genuine fear and its expression. For the essen tial feature of "true" languageusing for Condillac is that it is an artificial invention of man; its artificiality and conventionality provide man with the means to exercise control over his natural powers of reflection. However, the key to Condillac's argument lies in his "demonstration" that the source of the artificiality of "true" languageusing lies in its originally being an imitation of a natural behavior pattern, viz., the natural behavioral response to emotional stimuli. Thus, the guarantee that we all use language in the same way inheres in the fact that the ability to use language is based on a more primitive, shared, natural stimulusresponse system. "True" language using may be an artificial, social phenomenon, but it is grounded in the natural endowment common to every individual. Once man has reached this stage, Condillac argues, it is a simple step to begin supplementing the vocabulary of natural emotive signs with arbi trary conventional signs. The crucial skill has already been mastered: i.e.,
208
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
the ability to control the source and means of expression. For this ability allows man to begin to control his reflective powers and thus to bring his innate rationality into play. Once this is achieved, the invention of arbi trary signs presents no problems. Natural cries served men as a model on which to form a new language. They articulated new sounds, and by repeating them a number of times while accompanying them with gestures indicating the objects to which they wanted to draw attention, they became accustomed to giving names to things. (Condillac, 1798, I, p. 6Ib) From this point, the development of languages and the growth of the abil ity to use language progress slowly but steadily, receiving support from and at the same time giving assistance to the developing mastery of reflection. Three crucial factors may thus be identified in Condillac's theory of the origin of languageusing: (a) a natural stimulusresponse system (b) intentionality (c) a social, cooperative environment. Once, within (c), man has somehow discovered that he may make imitative use of (a) for the purposes of (b), he has crossed the threshold into "true" languageusing. For he now has controlling access to his innate power of reflection and this, in turn, enables him to develop more sophisticated methods of using language. The germination of competence There are likewise three components to Bruner's picture of how a child learns to talk. Two of these are "natural endowments"; the third has its source in the cultural context of infancy. First, there is the innate Language Acquisition Device. Bruner refrains from speculating about the specific characteristics of LAD; he simply as sumes that it must exist in some form. Apparently the child could not get further than very rudimentary, semicommunicative behavior without "a unique and predisposing set of languagelearning capabilities, something akin to ... LAD" (Bruner, 1983, pp. 1819). However, Bruner's concern is not with LAD but rather with how the child acquires the ability to use the linguistic knowledge it provides, i.e., the ability to communicate verbally. To learn how to talk Bruner feels the child requires a second set of
Learning How to Talk
209
innate capacities, but in this case nonlinguistic endowments. Particular attention is paid to four such "enabling conditions," but at least five more are identified and play an important role in Bruner's picture of language learning. The first four "original mental capabilities" which the child re quires in order to learn how to talk are (a) meansend readiness; (b) a sensitivity to transactional enterprises; (c) systematicity in organizing experience; and (d) abstractness in rule forma tion. (Bruner, 1983, p. 119) Of the first, Bruner describes the child as "active in seeking out regulari ties in the world about him" and in "converting experience into species typical meansend structures" (Bruner, 1983, pp. 2425). The child, in other words, is pictured as naturally endowed with a desire to discover (or, per haps, create) what we might call paradigmatic regularities (viz., repetitions of the same thing) and syntagmatic regularities (viz., patterns of temporal sequence). Furthermore, this search for regularities is goaloriented. The child has natural desires and is naturally gifted with the ability to recog nize patterns connecting his desires with their satisfaction. As regards the innate "sensitivity to transactional enterprises," Bruner seems to mean that the child is naturally social. "Social interaction is both selfpropelled and selfrewarding" (Bruner, 1983, p. 27). In one sense this seems undeniable, for if the child were naturally asocial, he would have difficulty (to say the least) entering the world of verbal interaction. On the other hand, it is not clear why this "innate sensitivity to transactional en terprises" should not be seen as a simple consequence of the previously mentioned innate meansend readiness. If the child naturally seeks out patterns which can help him attain specific goals, it would seem equally natural to employ the people around for those purposes. This criticism also applies to the thirdmentioned innate "systematicity in organizing experience." Is this not simply an instance of the child's purportedly innate drive to "seek out regularities in the world about him"? To say that the child is naturally systematic seems equivalent to say that he naturally seeks out regularities. If the second and third natural capacities seem to be consequences of the first, the fourth endowment—"abstractness in rule formation"—seems equally unnecessary. It is difficult to see what the special characteristic is of "abstractness in rule formation," over and above the innate sensitivity to patterns of regularities. In support of the fourth endowment, Bruner ex plains: Infants during their first year appear to have rules for dealing with space,
210
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
time, and even causation. A moving object that is transformed in appear ance while it is moving behind a screen produces surprise when it reap pears in a new guise. (. . .) The infant's perceptual world, far from being a blooming, buzzing confusion, is rather orderly and organized by what seem like highly abstract rules. (Bruner, 1983, pp. 2930) It is never made clear why the child's surprise at the transformation of an object as it moves behind a screen should be taken as evidence for the innate organization of the child's perceptual world by "highly abstract rules". One must hold a rather odd notion of abstract rules to take as evidence for their existence the fact that a child would manifest surprise if the world about him lost its spatiotemporal continuity! Nor is it explained why the only alternative to the child's perceptual world being "a blooming, buzz ing confusion" is its being organized by "highly abstract rules." Does not the innate tendency to seek out regularities, listed in the first natural en dowment, offer a middle ground between these two equally absurd ex tremes? In addition to these four "original mental capacities" Bruner also at tributes to the child an innate ability to follow the mother's gaze and, even tually, to follow a point. But what is more significant is that the child is said to be born with innate intentionality. It does not have to learn to demand, to deny, to seek mutual attention with a partner, or, indeed, to recognize certain intentions in the mother's behavior (Bruner, 1983, pp. 85, 92, 122 123). Were these abilities and intentions not innate, then the child suppos edly could not learn to master the complex cultural functions of language: that is, he could not learn to communicate with others. In other words, that which the child eventually learns how to communicate to his mother must be innate to the child as well as to his mother and other future ad dressees; for otherwise the intersubjectivity which is presumed to be the essence of successful communication would be unattainable. The third component required for language acquisition, LASS, is not biologically endowed; it is a product of the cultural context of infancy. Even with innate possession of the aforementioned linguistic and nonlinguistic gifts, the child still needs to be made into a communicator. Without the appropriate "training" the child would not develop the ability to use lan guage; and, because the development of his knowledge of language de pends on the concurrent development of his ability to make use of the fruits of that knowledge, without that "training" the child would never come to know language in the full sense of the word. The crucial feature of the child's environment, the feature which en ables the child to learn to talk, is the routinized interactional behavior pattern: i.e., what Bruner calls the "format."
Learning How to Talk 211
A format is a standardized, initially microcosmic interaction pattern be tween an adult and an infant that contains demarcated roles that eventu ally become reversible. (Bruner, 1983, pp. 12021) These "familiar routines in the child's interaction with the social world" are primitive forms of adult speech acts. At first, they have a scrip tlike quality that involves not only action but a place for communication that constitutes, directs, and completes that action. Given that play is the culture of childhood, it is not surprising that formats often have a playful, gamelike nature. (Bruner, 1983, p. 121) Formats arise in the mother's repeated activity patterns with the child. For instance, mother and child will play "peekaboo" or "hideandseek" to gether, or they will jointly examine the pages of a picture book. Such games provide a type case for the framing of early communication. For not only do they fill the bill as rolestructured transactional micro cosms in which words produce, direct and complete the action, but they have certain crucial languagelike properties of their own. They are, within their bounds, languagelike "ways of life." (Bruner 1983, p. 121) An essential feature of the format is that its behavioral components are fixed and ordered. Bruner gives the following instance of the "book read ing" format, involving a child of 13 months. Each of the mother's contri butions is labeled by Bruner with its intentional category: Mother: Look! (Attentional Vocative) Child: (Touches picture) Mother: What are those? (Query) Child: (Vocalizes a babble string and smiles) Mother: Yes, they are rabbits. (Feedback and label) Child: (Vocalizes, smiles, and looks up at mother) Mother: (Laughs) Yes, rabbit. (Feedback and label) Child: (Vocalizes, smiles) Mother: Yes. (Laughs) (Feedback) (Bruner 1983, p. 78) According to Bruner, the four intentional components of this format— Attentional Vocative, Query, Label, Feedback—account for "virtually all of the mother's utterances" in the instances of the reading format he studied. These four components constitute the mother's side of a routinized inter actional "game." Places are left for the child to participate, and the child's participation is encouraged and reenforced no matter how accurate it is.
212
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
In fact, the interaction quoted above provides an example of another crucial feature of the format. It allows the child to participate without de manding more linguistic sophistication than he can yet manage. And it allows the mother to "understand" the child's vocalization as appropriate even if it is not a recognizable token of the required linguistic expression. In other words, the mother may "overinterpret" what the child says and thus reenforce the child's attempt to participate communicatively. As the child reaches greater levels of linguistic sophistication the mother "ups the ante" on the degree of approximation to an appropriate verbal token which she will accept. So the formatting of motherchild interaction at the prelinguistic and early linguistic stages allows the child to practice communicating without yet possessing the linguistic skills required for "true" linguistic communi cation. Indeed, as the example shows, the child is treated as communica tionally successful, i.e., as having produced the appropriate speech act at the appropriate moment, long before he has even uttered his first words. The format thus not only reenforces the child in his attempts to play the communicationgame, but it encourages the mother to think that the child is in fact catching on. From this primitive, practice communication format the mother can encourage the child to make greater use of naturally en dowed linguistic knowledge. Increased functional demand on that innate knowledge will cause it to grow. A third important feature of the format is that it establishes continuity between prelinguistic and linguistic interaction. In a sense, by being made to play a role in such primitive interactional formats, the child becomes a "communicator" before he becomes a languageuser. Languageusing is the result of applying the innate linguistic endowment to the communica tional tasks already achieved nonlinguistically at early stages of develop ment. The format, then, allows the mother to exploit the child's nonlinguistic endowments in order to turn the child into a communicator. This is the crucial step in learning how to talk. Once the child has mastered these primitive language games, all that remains is to demand more and more of his verbal contributions to them. He is thus forced to draw upon his innate linguistic knowledge and will, as a consequence, progress linguisti cally. In a sense, then, the child learns to "talk," before he has the linguistic means to do so, by being placed in an interactional environment which exploits his natural, nonlinguistic skills and his innate intentionality. Then, thanks to LAD, his "talking" gradually becomes more and more linguisti cally appropriate. That is, like Condillac's original man, the child begins to do by truly linguistic means what he has already been doing nonlinguistically.
Learning How to Talk 213
It is worth emphasizing here the parallel between Bruner and Condillac. In Condillac's picture of learning how to talk, man is led by his social envi ronment (as well as by sheer good luck) to develop his natural signing ability to a point where he can use it at will to communicate his intentions to others. By using signs at will, he is able to bring his reflective powers under control and, consequently, to use reflection to invent arbitrary signs, the hallmark of "true" language. Thus the intentional use of signs, whether natural or arbitrary signs, arises when man's natural endowments are called upon to fulfil a social function (like warning). For both Bruner and Condillac, this is the crucial step in learning to communicate verbally, and a step which guarantees escape from Locke's puzzle. In his Projet d'elements d'ideologie (1801), Destutt de Tracy, a leading exponent of Condillac's lin guistic thought, gives a perfect summary of the position shared by Condillac and Bruner. He says that for language to be possible . . . prior to language we must have the means of reciprocally understand ing each other . . . and this means can only be the consequence of our being, a necessary effect of our organic being. (trans. Aarsleff, 1982, p. 352) An evaluation of Bruner's theory: The Krypton factor In the light of the nativist domination of child language study over the past thirty years, Bruner's theory of the acquisition of languageusing con stitutes a significant and encouraging development. Child's Talk should give the psychologist greater confidence that at least one area of child language study is appropriate for the traditional empirical methods of psychological investigation. Furthermore, Bruner's book may well serve to draw atten tion away from scholasticist speculation about linguistic structure in the genetic code. Instead, the readers of Child's Talk will apply their investiga tive energy to the study of how, within a certain type of social context, the child learns to use language for the complex purposes of communicative interaction. Of course, Bruner is not the first to advocate the study of how children learn to use language. Since the first studies of "motherese," psychologists have been interested in the interactional context of language acquisition. Bruner has been only one of the leading figures in this trend. But his real originality lies in merging this trend with related trends in speech act phi losophy and psycholinguistics, specifically with the growing interests in intentionality and in linguistic performance. Bruner's argument amounts to saying that not only must the child become linguistically competent, he
214
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
must also acquire a pragmatic competence. Indeed, "developmental prag matics" and "developmental linguistics" cannot be treated independently. So, in the current intellectual climate, with its interests in pragmatics, in tentionality, "motherese," language processing and the like, Bruner's pro posals deserve, and probably will receive, serious consideration. While Bruner must be sincerely applauded for formulating a new per spective on language learning and for focusing that perspective on lan guageusing, rather than on linguistic knowledge, it remains open to doubt whether he has a fruitful conception of the theoretical foundations of his project. Thus far, this paper has been concerned to point out the similari ties between Bruner's account of linguistic ontogenesis and Condillac's theory of linguistic phylogenesis. The problems with speculative theoriz ing about linguistic phylogenesis are well known. It remains here to show how these same problems continue to haunt Bruner's account of the onto genesis of languageusing. The most conspicuous problem with Bruner's account of how children learn to use language is its distinction between knowledge of language (linguistic competence) and the ability to use language (pragmatic compe tence). Condillac made a related distinction. For primitive homo sapiens, it was not enough to have innate reflective powers; he also had to acquire an ability to exercise his reflective powers through the use of signs. Similarly, it is not enough for Bruner's child to be born with innate LAD; the child must also acquire an ability to use the knowledge which LAD provides. But if the motivation for postulating LASS is to explain how LAD, oth erwise sterile, can be put to fruitful use, then the maneuvre plugs one ex planatory gap only to open up another. It now becomes legitimate to point out that, in turn, the possession of pragmatic competence is presumably sterile unless the possessor knows how to put that to fruitful use. It cannot be maintained that the acquisition of this further (metapragmatic) compe tence is already assured either by LAD or by LASS (which allegedly takes care merely of the problem of putting LAD to work). For systems of knowl edge do not, presumably, incorporate all the possible uses to which they might be put: if they did the original problem would never have arisen, i.e., postulating innate LAD would, in a single explanatory move, have provided all the explanation required. But once having embarked on the alternative explanatory route, there is nowhere to stop. If one system of knowledge^ requires another system of knowledge B in order to apply the first system correctly, then the second system will require a third system C in order to apply the second; and so on ad infmitum. As regards pragmatic competence, therefore, the question must arise whether the metapragmatic ability to acquire it is innate or learned. If it is innate, no real explanatory
Learning How to Talk 215
gain has been achieved, granted that in the present state of linguistic stud ies any appeal to innate mechanisms is simply an appeal to the biologically unknown; whereas if it is learned, then we have simply substituted one learning problem for another. Perhaps the latter move might be counted an advantage if the second learning problem were simpler or more trac table than the first; but, on Bruner's account, that could hardly be the case. Needless to say, such conundrums are not confined to language. They arise for any developmental theory based unquestioningly on the two distinc tions "innate" vs. "learned," and "knowledge" vs. "ability to make use of knowledge." But this is not all. If the acquisition of pragmatic competence is postu lated in order to account for how LAD is put to work, it needs to be shown exactly how the pragmatic acquisition program fulfils precisely those re quirements which LAD by itself leaves unfulfilled. In short, we need to be shown exactly what it is that LAD lacks in order that we can assess whether or not the postulated pragmatic acquisition program supplies what is miss ing. Otherwise, the explanation must fail: for exactly the same reason that an engineer cannot hope to design the missing component(s) to complete a circuit unless he is clear about what it is that the equipment already avail able can do, and also how it falls short of what is ultimately required. Bruner's account is very unsatisfactory here, because he is deliberately vague about the properties of LAD. Consequently, he affords no grounds for assessing how well—or how ill—LASS supplies what is missing. Just as there is no point in offering to harness a horse to a Pullman coach if what is needed is a locomotive, so there is no point either in offering a pragmatic acquisition program which is too weak or too irrelevant to measure up to the task of making linguistic knowledge communicationally utilizable. For example, it is far from clear that training in the picturebook format is in principle able to supply what Junior needs in order to grasp the difference between success in playing a nursery "geegee" game with his mother and success in achieving reference to a (or any) horse. Bruner seems to assume that it is intuitively obvious how the link is made. But is it? And what happens in those cultures where children are deprived both of picture books and pic turebookoriented mothers? Furthermore, nothing in LASS appears to guarantee that the results will be uniform over the whole community. From the perspective of both Bruner and Condillac, this uniformity is essential: otherwise their accounts leave the problem of communication unresolved. If, having grasped a rule, we still need to acquire the ability to apply that rule in practice, the acqui sition must be effected in such a way as to ensure that we all acquire the same ability. Otherwise we might well apply the rule differently from one
216
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
another in practice. Shared knowledge of the Highway Code is not enough to guarantee safe driving: we must all have the ability to apply its rules in the same way. Otherwise accidents will occur: and the analog to an acci dent where language is concerned is a communicational breakdown, a fail ure to transmit the message from sender to receiver. But unless the LASS program is applied in essentially the same form to all individuals it is dif ficult to see how it inculcates the uniformity required. It is consequently obligatory for any theorist who takes Bruner's position either to spell out what invariant core in the LASS program guarantees the required unifor mity despite superficial differences in the form the program takes in indi vidual cases: or else to seek the source of the uniform results elsewhere than in the program itself. One cannot help but be struck by the irony that Bruner ends up attrib uting many more innate endowments to the child than does Chomsky. While Chomsky simply assumes an innate LAD, Bruner credits the new born not only with LAD but also with the four "original mental capacities" discussed above as well as innate intentions to refer, to deny, to request, to seek mutual attention and to query. Furthermore, Bruner's child has an innate ability to follow a point and to follow the gaze of a cointeractant. For someone who seeks a compromise between "miraculous" nativism and "impossible" empiricism, Bruner seems much happier to compromise with nativism than with empiricism. If we ask ourselves why Bruner feels com pelled to attribute so much to the child's natural endowment, the answer is not hard to find. It will be best illustrated by means of a simplified outline of what Bruner calls "the growth of reference." To begin with, it is assumed that the child has an innate drive to seek mutual attention with his mother. The first realization of this drive is achieved in the early establishment of eyetoeye contact between mother and child. Then the mother begins to introduce into their joint visual field an object, such as a doll, for their shared attention. She develops a routin ized way of preparing the child for the presentation of the object. This is normally done with what Bruner calls an "attentional vocative": e.g., "Oh, look!" The attentional vocative tells the child that there is something in the environment to attend to; the seed of conventionalized reference is sown. Thus far, however, the child is only playing a passive role as regards acts of reference. During the latter half of the first year the child begins to reach for objects he desires. This may be accompanied by "effortful" noises. The principal achievement during this active phase is that the child now becomes a. giver of signals about objects desired and is not just involved in comprehending and decoding others' efforts to direct his attention. (Bruner, 1983, p.75)
Learning How to Talk 217
From this activity, "pure pointing" develops by thirteen months, a behav ioral achievement that is genetically preprogrammed. During this period, the mother will have been exploiting these growing natural abilities of the child by incorporating their behavioral expression into routinized interac tional formats such as the "book reading format" discussed above. This may proceed as follows: by uttering an attentional vocative, the mother will draw the attention of the child to a picture in the book. She then utters what Bruner calls a "Query": e.g., "What's this?" The child has an innate ability to recognize the intention of a Query. The next slot in the format is for labeling. Either the child will produce some sort of vocalization which will be interpreted as an attempt to name the picture, or the mother will provide a label herself. Then, an optional Feedback slot follows, e.g., "That's right. It's a moocow." From this primitive languagegame, adult reference is developed by means of the mother's injection of a greater degree of complexity and abstractness into the format as the child's innate linguistic abilities develop. The essential feature of such formats is that they exploit the child's natu ral abilities (a) to seek joint attention with the mother, (b) to appreciate the intention of a query, and (c) to recognize the intention to refer. By incorpo rating the behavioral expression of these natural abilities within a routin ized format, the mother effectively "teaches" the child how reference is conventionalized in the culture. True reference begins "with nominals placed appropriately in a dialog format where attention is jointly concentrated on a target" (Bruner, 1983, p. 123). The important thing to notice here is that learning how to use words in order to refer originates in a naturally en dowed intention to refer (as well as to recognize other's intention to refer) and in the natural tendency to seek joint attention. Furthermore, intersubjectivity of adult reference is thus assured by its natural origins in shared intentionality and joint attention. A similar account is given of how the child learns to request. By means of the format, the newborn's innate intention to demand, evident in the form of crying known as "demand crying," is made to develop into the conventionalized form of the speech act Request. Negation is also made to grow from its natural intentional seed, inherent in the newborn's "denial crying." Essentially, the child is thought to be born with certain innate intentions, shared with all other children; and these are guided and trans formed by LASS so that they grow into their conventionalized forms. The intersubjectivity of conventional languageusing arises from shared, innate intentional seeds. In such an account, then, Locke's puzzle about the pri vacy of minds and the intersubjectivity of discourse ceases to be a problem. Our ability to understand each other when we talk is the result of the con tinuity of pragmatic intentions: from innate source, through formatting, to
218
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
developed linguistic forms. It is easy to detect Bruner's agreement with Condillac that, were our reasons for using language not naturally endowed in the individual, and as a result socially shared, we would never be able to formulate conventional methods for securing the recognition of those rea sons by others. Indeed, I rather assume that it is this continuity of function that makes it possible for an adult to "understand" the more primitive forms by which a child realizes various communicative functions. In this sense, functional continuity provides a basis for adult fine tuning and for the operation of the Language Acquisition Support System. (Bruner, 1983, p. 127) In other words, the child is always trying to do the same sorts of things with words, or with prelinguistic vocalizations. The mother's contribution is to assist his acquisition of the conventional (culturespecific) methods for re alizing those intentions. And, indeed, were the child not born with innate intentions, there would be nothing for the mother to conventionalize. She needs, at the prelinguistic stage, to be able to recognize the child's inten tions as primitive versions of adult intentions, even though they are not yet conventionally formulated. So, she "understands" that the child is demand ing when it cries one way and denying when it cries another way, and she "understands" the child when it tries to draw her attention to an object in the environment. It is her ability to recognize these primitive expressions of intention that enables her to begin her teaching of pragmatic conven tions . And yet, while Bruner's assumption of innate intentions may serve to provide a shared, mental basis to languageusing, it results in a picture of the newborn child as containing some sort of miniature innate homunculus, complete with a handful of adult, but asyet undeveloped, communica tional intentions. While Bruner seems anxious to reestablish the respect ability of "learning" in an account of linguistic ontogenesis, he seems un able to settle for anything but a nativist account of the fundamental intersubjective properties of languageusing. The following quote makes evident Bruner's respect for Locke's puzzle: Some basis for referential intersubjectivity must exist before language proper appears. Logically, there would be no conceivable way for two human be ings to achieve shared reference were there no initial disposition for it. (Bruner, 1983, p. 122) Bruner may not overtly confront Locke's puzzle, but there can be little doubt that his account of the learning of languageuse, like Condillac's, is heavily influenced by the implications of that puzzle.
Learning How to Talk 219
We may now summarize the critical evaluation given here of Bruner's theory of language acquisition. First, it has been demonstrated that the concept of pragmatic competence, as an abilitytouse, mediating between linguistic competence and performance, only leads to regress and, as a result, presents the child learner with an impossibly infinite task. Secondly, Bruner's response to Locke's puzzle about communicational intersubjectivity was shown to consist in the postulation of innate sources for the inten tional features of languageusing. Consequently, it may now be seen that the combination of these two implications of Bruner's theory results in the attribution of infinite natural powers to the child. For, if there is an infinite number of mediating abilities required to use language and if for each of those abilities to have an intersubjective ground we need to postulate a further set of innate endowments, then there will be no end to the innate endowments with which the child must be endowed. Only a baby Super man, infinitely provided with languageusing abilities, could ever—under Bruner's theory—come to learn how to talk. Linguistic origins (reprise) The question raised by Locke's puzzle is essentially that of the dialectic of the individual and the social in communicational interaction: how can individuals transfer their private mental content to other individuals? Bruner and Condillac (and, for that matter, Chomsky) give ample evidence that, if Locke's puzzle is taken seriously, its only answer lies in some form of nativism: we can communicate because, to some extent, our minds have had the same (ontogenetic, phylogenetic, or biogenetic) origin. But the real question that ought to be asked, yet almost never is, is this: why is Locke's puzzle taken seriously'? Why must we follow Locke in assuming that communication consists in the conveyance of thoughts from the mind of the speaker to that of the hearer and therefore that this is what the child (or Neanderthal man) must learn how to do? If that telementational pic ture of communication is dropped, Locke's puzzle collapses with it. At the same time, parts of Bruner's theory will become salvageable, particularly the account of the socializing influence of routinized interactions, play, games, and formats. For it is not mentally represented competence that the child must acquire in learning to use language. Instead he must learn to speak, to act, and to use words in ways that adults will approve as com municatively competent. If he manages that, then no one will deny his membership of the linguistic community, regardless of his subjective, pri vate, and/or original intentionality.
220
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
It is generally acknowledged that in Plato's Cratylus, a threecornered debate about how words mean, lie the origins of the western tradition of linguistic thought. Nevertheless, the contents of the Cratylus have been more often the subject of ridicule in modern linguistic writings than of admiration or of serious study. After all, much of the debate consists of quite farfetched speculation about the etymological origins of Greek words, intended as evidence for either the naturalist or conventionalist position on the connection between words and what they stand for. What has often been overlooked in accounts of the Cratylus is the reason why its topic should have interested the ancient Greeks. Why should it have mattered to them, or at least to Plato, what sort of connection a word has to what it stands for? The answer to this question is to be found in Plato's polemical writings directed at the Sophists, masters of the rhetoric of persuasive argument. Plato strove to distinguish between the laws of rhetoric, the object of which is persuasion, and the laws of logic (or dialec tic), the object of which is truth. The laws of rhetoric, from this perspective, are what they are because of the unstable nature of man's opinions and because of the effect that skillful discourse might have on those opinions. The laws of logic, on the other hand, are determined by the representa tional correspondence between words and what they signify: i.e., between language and reality. Consequently, the application of logical laws can lead men from truth to undeniable truth; while the use of rhetorical laws can, at best, only guarantee the inculcation of (always provisional) opinions upon the hearer(s), opinions which may in fact have little or no correspondence to the truth. From this perspective it is evident that Plato's project depends on there being a representational connection between words and what they stand for. Consequently, the foundations of that connection must be assured. Do men call certain things "boulders" and other things "pebbles" because of some natural, immutable connection between those words and their nominata? If so, then the laws of logic originate in nature itself and, thus, are universal and are not open to contradiction. Or does the source of their appellations lie in human convention, i.e., in agreement between men? And, if logic does originate in human conventions and social agree ment, are the laws of logic then fundamentally no different than those of rhetoric? Is truth then merely a matter of convention, agreement, and opin ion? To discover a firm ground for human reasoning, knowledge, and com munication, the ancient Greeks, like Condillac and Bruner, speculated about the origins of our use of words. In this speculation lie the origins of linguis tic thought. In the end, Socrates proposes a compromise between the extreme natu
Learning How to Talk 221
ralism of Cratylus and the extreme conventionalism of Hermogenes. He suggests that the origin of language is part conventional and part natural. Ever since, language theorists have been dividing up the spoils.
This page intentionally left blank
— 12 —
The Anthropomorphic and the Sceptical This paper is an exercise in what might be called "the comparative rheto ric of inquiry." The subjects of this exercise are two different, although closely related, fields of inquiry: the study of human communication and the study of nonhuman primate communication. I will begin by noting that much of the scientific study of nonhuman primate communication is concerned to address such questions as the fol lowing. — To what extent are the systems of vocalizations and gestures made natu rally by any species of nonhuman primates similar to and to what ex tent different from the languages used by humans? Indeed, is it correct to call any of the former systems "a language"? — Do any nonhuman primate vocalizations or gestures refer to or name, as many human signs do, entities in the world (or in the mind)? — Does any monkey or ape vocalization or gesture have a linguistic mean ing, that is, in the sense in which human signs have meanings? — Are any of the vocalizations or gestures produced by a nonhuman pri mate true (or false), that is, in the sense in which many human utter ances are true (or are false)? — Does a monkey or ape understand the vocalizations or gestures of its confreres, that is, in the way that we understand the utterances of our fellow languageusers? Do exchanges of such vocalizations or gestures produce, as is typically the case with human linguistic exchanges, mu tual understanding? — Assuming that it does not do so already, can any nonhuman primate be taught (or trained) to (a) use a human language; (b) use human signs to name or refer; (c) use linguistic signs meaningfully; (d) speak truly (or falsely) of the world; or (e) participate with understanding (that is, as we understand) in meaningful linguistic exchanges?
224
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
From this list it is clear that at least one of the salient characteristics of the scientific study of primate communication is an interest in comparing the communicational abilities of nonhuman primates to the communica tional abilities of Homo sapiens. In other words, primate communication specialists want to determine the extent to which what monkeys and apes do is like what we do and the extent to which monkeys and apes can be taught or trained to do the kinds of things that we do. For this reason, many of the concepts that are central to discourse about human communi cation—that is, metalinguistic concepts such as "meaning," "language," "reference," "truth," and "understanding"—have an equally important use in scientific discourse concerning nonhuman primate communication (cf., Harris, 1984). As an exercise in the comparative rhetoric of inquiry, this paper will focus on the similarities and differences between the ways that these metalinguistic concepts are used, on the one hand, in scientific dis course about human communicational competence and behavior and, on the other hand, in scientific discourse about the communicational compe tence and behavior of nonhuman primates. It is important that we keep the following in mind. Given the important role—in primate communica tion studies—of the concepts typically employed in characterizing proper ties of human communication, our understanding of primate communica tion will naturally be very distorted if our conceptualization of the proper ties of human communication is itself a rhetorical product of myth and confusion. It would therefore seem a requirement for progress in the study of primate communication that critical attention be given to the commonsense picture of human communication as well as to the rhetorical consequences of the use of particular features of that picture in primato logical inquiry.
As I pointed out in Ch. 8, it is hardly controversial to assert of us hu mans such claims as the following: 1. We usually (but not always) understand what we say to each other. 2. To understand someone's utterance, we must understand what it means. 3. All, or at least most, of the words we use mean something. 4. In speaking we often refer to things and/or ideas. 5. The truth or falsity of what we say depends on how the things we refer to really are. 6. There are others who speak the same language we do.
The Anthropomorphic and the Sceptical
225
There are many (perhaps countless) metalinguistic remarks that could be added to these or to the slightly different list in Chapter 8: remarks such as — We often use words to communicate our, otherwise private, thoughts to others; — If we understand someone's statement, then we know what possible situations it would be true of; — If we know a given language, we know whether a possible combination of its words is or is not grammatical; — To converse successfully with another speaker, we both must know and use the same language, etc. In this chapter I will focus on the six metalinguistic remarks numbered above, but the difference from the list given in Chapter 8 is not intended to be significant. As argued in that chapter, anyone who denied these metalinguistic claims would typically be called a "sceptic" and that this is directly related to our readiness to characterize the claims themselves as "commonsense." Only such a sceptic would maintain that 1'. We don't usually understand what we say to each other; 2'. We don't have to understand the meaning of someone's utterance in order to understand that utterance; 3'. The words we use don't mean anything at all; 4'. We don't ever refer to things; 5'. The truth or falsity of what we say is in fact independent of how the things we refer to really are. 6'. Even though we take there to be millions of speakers of English, this is incorrect. In fact, there are not now and never have been two people who speak the same language. In sum, "commonsense"—here illustrated by the six claims above—pro vides a very rich, albeit vague and incomplete, picture of the communica tional reality ("the facts") underlying ordinary human behavior. Theorists of human communication thus begin with the premise that (some as yet unspecified version of) this reality must obtain. Consequently, the theorist formulates his/her task as one of investigating that reality, an investigation that consists in (at least) the following components. I. IDENTIFYING the specific properties of that underlying communica tional reality. II. EXPLAINING that reality: how it works; how it is acquired; how it evolved; etc.
226
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
Of course, in formulating such theories scientists of human communi cation typically "tinker with" or "reinterpret" some of the features inher ited from the commonsense picture of communicative reality. (Accordingly, they may argue that we are mistaken to assume, say, that we know anything about what other people mean by their words (see claim 2); rather, we only have "reasonable guesses." Or they may argue that no two people really know the very same language (see claim 6); rather, the language known by any single one of us is only moreorless similar to that known by others in our community and is less similar to those living at a greater social or geographical distance from us. Etc.) But only someone whom scientists of human communication would typically dismiss as a "radical sceptic" would want to reject the basic outlines of the commonsense picture as the founda tion, the core set of assumptions, from which to begin serious inquiry into the principles of human communication. Moreover, this response to scep ticism is quite understandable; for if we gave in to such radical scepticism, the cultural fabric of our form of life would be torn to shreds. Let me expand a bit on that last point. Imagine that, every time you and I meet, I make a point of denying (and behaving in accord with that de nial) — that you understand anything I say, — that I understand anything you say, — that the words we are using mean or refer to anything, — that either of us knows the meanings of any of the words we're using, — that the truth of what I or you say depends on the facts, — that you and I are speaking the same language, etc. Such behavior would amount to an overt rejection of the kind of familiar metalinguistic remarks which languageusers say to and of each other throughout the momentbymoment unfolding of their daily cultural lives. Moreover, my behavior would pose a serious, probably insuperable ob stacle to our interactions. How could we go on—what communicational goals could we possibly achieve—if I persisted in such behavior? And, to go one step further, if everyone began to act as I do, and did so all the time, what would be left to hold the cultural fabric of our form of life in tact? The conclusion drawn in Chapter 8 is that the cultural practices of "or dinary life" exclude as a viable attitude the wholesale sceptical treatment of commonplace metalinguistic remarks such as 16 above and that it is for this reason that few objections are raised when theories of human commu nication take as unquestioned premises
The Anthropomorphic and the Sceptical
227
(a) the truth of (some tobespecified version of) the commonsense picture of communication and (b) the existence of the communicational reality (in some form that it is the theory's task to clarify) that that picture represents. These two premises act as the rhetorical cornerstones to the scientific dis courses of human communicational inquiry. Together they exert the most powerful normative influence on the structure and development of those discourses: determining, to a large extent, what can be said, what cannot, what makes sense, and what can only appear as nonsense.
However, when we turn to scientific inquiry into animal communication, a different rhetoric emerges. It is true, for instance, that we commonly say of our pet dog that 7. his barking means he wants us to take him for a walk 8. he knows what I am scolding him for 9. he understands that we are talking about going to the vet 10. he knows what "naughty" means Nevertheless, those scientists who study animal communication are not treated as crazy sceptics if they object that such commonsense remarks are unwarranted: that is, if they insist that it is not justified to attribute mean ing to the sounds made by a dog or to speak of a dog as knowing what our utterances refer to (e.g., the puddle he made on the carpet) or to describe a dog as understanding a human sentence or word. Indeed, not only is it perfectly acceptable—among those scientists who study the abilities and behavior of nonhuman animals—to treat with scep ticism any commonplace remarks about animal communication; in fact, this scepticism is a rhetorical requirement for those who want to be ac corded a respected status in the discipline. In complete contrast with the case of human communicational inquiry, in animal communicational in quiry there is a special adjectival label attached to someone who is deemed to be not sufficiently sceptical about what we ordinarily say about animal communicational behavior: viz., the adjective "anthropomorphic." Of course, very often the scientist's scepticism will be (only partially) concealed behind a comment which, although acknowledging the accept ability in colloquial contexts of metalinguistic remarks such as 710, never theless relegates such remarks, in the context of serious inquiry into ani mal communicational abilities, to a peripheral, nonserious status. We may
228
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
thus imagine the scientist of animal communication smiling knowingly and patiently correcting the speaker of, e.g., (7), saying something like: "Well no, actually his barking doesn't really mean anything at all. Rather, the description of the animal's behavior as having a meaning—although perfectly acceptable in colloquial speech—is strictly incorrect. It is in fact only a metaphor. Yet, when we have the scientific goal of discovering and stating the truth—as opposed to displaying a sentimental affection for our pets—such a figurative description of the dog's behavior manifests a dan gerous intrusion of emotion into the crucial scientific practices of empiri cal observation and description. Strictly speaking—and scientific inquiry obliges us to obey strict norms of languageuse—there is no justification in attributing meaning to the vocalization of a nonhuman animal." Yet, it goes without saying that only someone who would be dismissed as a "crazy sceptic" would raise an analogous objection to a remark about a human's communicative behavior, such as "Barbara's comment about the lateness of the hour means she wants us to end the meeting soon." This asymmetrical pattern is curiously reminiscent of the asymmetry in English terms used to describe the sexual behavior of men and women (cf., Cameron, 1985, Ch. 5). Whereas a sexually promiscuous man is typically described as a "Don Juan" or a "playboy," the typical term used for a sexu ally promiscuous woman is "slut," a word which—unlike those used for men—is heavily laden with negative moral connotations. Similarly, just as there is no equally negative synonym to "slut" for the description of male sexual behavior, nor is there in the vocabulary of human communicational inquiry an equivalent to the way "anthropomorphic" is used to criticize nonsceptical remarks about animal communication. Furthermore, while the term "sceptic" has, in animal communicational inquiry, the positive connotation of hardheaded scientific rationality, it has in human commu nicational inquiry the contrastively negative connotations of nihilism, obscurantism, and an assault on commonsense. What is the reason for such rhetorical asymmetry? Why isn't the sceptic's denial of commonsense re marks such as 710 viewed as disdainfully in the study of animal communi cation as is the denial of the commonsense remarks 16 in the study of human communication? It is not a goal of this paper to formulate an an swer to this question. All the same, it is interesting to speculate about one possible explanatory source of that asymmetry. For it seems clear that our daytoday interactions with and life with animals would not be severely affected by the adoption of the scientist's scepticism about the ability of animals to understand, refer, mean, deceive, intend, etc. (Indeed, the con verse is more likely: that is, a wholesale rejection of that scepticism—analo
The Anthropomorphic and the Sceptical
229
gous to the commonsense rejection of scepticism about the ability of hu mans to understand, refer, mean, etc.—would not sit at all well with the ethical presuppositions of our treatment of animals as exploitable sources of food, free labor, clothing, cleaning agents, jewelry, and so on.) As we have seen, the situation is quite different when we turn to consider the hypothetical consequences of a wholesale sceptical denial of our fellow human beings' communicative abilities. In this context the commonplace adoption of a sceptical attitude to everyday remarks about meaning, un derstanding, reference, etc., would constitute a dangerous threat to the metalinguistically mediated understanding of human behavior that is es sential to our participation in and maintenance of social life as we know it. In any case, it is clear that to be a good scientist of animal communica tion one has to adopt a sceptical attitude toward commonsense remarks (such as 710) about the communicative behavior of animals. This require ment manifests itself, for example, in the norms of primatological dis course: by this I mean the rules which are enforced by, among, and on primatologists who study communication and cognition in nonhuman pri mates. These rules are taught to those coming into the field. They deter mine what may and what may not acceptably be said, what may count as justification of a given claim, what may count as evidence, what may count as a strong argument, what a plausible hypothesis, and so on. Further more, it is by the use and enforcement of these norms that the decisions are made determining how research programs in primate communication are set up and directed, which proposed programs receive funding, whose papers get published in which journals, who gets tenure, etc. At this point I can offer a preliminary synopsis of the rhetorical dilemma facing the primatologist inquiring into the communicative behavior of nonhuman primates. Her task emerges as one of establishing the degree to which the reality which commonsense tells us underlies human communication—a reality expressed in the terms of some particular explanatory theory—also underlies primate communicational behavior. Furthermore, this task must be performed in strict accord with the rhetorical norms of primatological discourse: in particular, no "free moves" are granted to she who invokes "commonsense," for that would be to succumb to "anthropomorphism." What is claimed to be true of the nonhuman primate's communicational abilities must be shown to be true, according to the scepticismimbued methods of empirical science.
230
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
The use of, enforcement of, and respect given to the rhetorical norms in primatological inquiry could easily form the subject of an entire mono graph. In lieu of this (at least for the time being), I propose a somewhat closer consideration of an illustrative example, as represented by the fol lowing passages from Cheney and Seyfarth's How Monkeys See the World. We have called the vocalizations of vervet monkeys semantic signals and have drawn an analogy with human words because of the way these calls function in the monkeys' daily lives. [...] It is tempting to suppose that in the monkey's mind the call "stands for" or "conjures up images of" a ... predator. (Cheney and Seyfarth, 1990, p. 139) Over a period of eleven years, Cheney and Seyfarth observed the behavior of six different groups of vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) in Amboseli National Park, Kenya. On the basis of their observations of countless inter actions within these groups, Cheney and Seyfarth admit to a natural incli nation to refer metalinguistically to the monkeys' vocalizations using the same terms—"stand for," "conjure up an image of," "refer," "word"—that are commonly used to refer metalinguistically to the utterances produced in human communicational interaction. At the same time, however, they feel an obligation to resist this anthropomorphic "temptation." Clearly, however, descriptive evidence of this sort does not elevate animal signals to the status of human words. (Cheney and Seyfarth, 1990, p. 139) Why not? Why is their "descriptive evidence"—culled from observations of the interactional function of the monkeys' vocalizations—felt to be criterially insufficient to justify their use of metalinguistic concepts in referring to those vocalizations? How is that "descriptive evidence" crucially different from that justifying our use of those same concepts in referring to the communicative behavior of the humans whose daily interactions we ob serve? Or is there another kind of nondescriptive evidence? Cheney and Seyfarth continue: When humans use words like apple or eagle, we recognize the referential relation that holds between such signs and the things for which they stand. (Cheney and Seyfarth, 1990, p. 140) The justification for characterizing human utterances as referring to things apparently lies in the following fact: we humans recognize the referential property of our utterances. We understand that when we say "The Presi dent has been misinformed" the first two words of our utterance stand for
The Anthropomorphic and the Sceptical
231
a particular person who spends most of his days working in the Oval Office at the White House. Yet in the case of the Amboseli vervets, Cheney and Seyfarth concede that they do not have sufficient justification to claim that the monkeys understand reference. It seems that observations of the mon keys' interactions cannot by themselves prove that the monkeys recognize a referential relation holding between their vocalizations and particular objects (e.g., leopards). Consequently, Cheney and Seyfarth lack the justi fication to characterize the monkeys' alarm calls as "referring" to anything. And, because human words are used to refer to things, the monkeys' alarms cannot justifiably be called "words" either. It is... unclear whether the noise that we have called a leopard alarm call is a word in the minds of vervet monkeys. [...] The vervets' different responses to different alarm calls... do not, by themselves, prove that vervets under stand referential relations like "leopard alarm calls stand for leopards." (Cheney and Seyfarth, 1990, p. 150) Of course, no one ever argues that it is unclear whether "Snake!" is a word or whether it refers to anything when a human hiker shouts this alarm to her companions while walking through the woods. All the same, it could be asked: Do we in fact have any proof that humans understand the refer ential relationship which is said to hold between that alarm and some actu ally existing serpent? Yet there is an familiar reply to this question: we don't need proof. For it is simple commonsense that "snake" is a word and that, in this instance, its utterance refers to that hissing thing in the under growth. We do not need to prove anything about what its users do or do not understand about referential relations to justify our acceptance of that truism. On the other hand, as a consequence of the asymmetrical rhetoric discussed above, proof is said to be required to justify characterizing an alarm made by a monkey as "referring" to something; and, apparently, the descriptive evidence of the interactional function of that alarm among vervets does not qualify as that required proof. But what must such a proof consist of? What is the primatologist to look for in the communicative behavior of a nonhuman primate to prove that that animal naturally uses or has successfully been taught to use its vocal izations or other signs knowingly to refer to things? Another way of saying this: what feature or features of human communicative behavior—if ob served in the behavior of the animal—would be sufficient evidence to count as proof that that animal was knowingly using words to refer to things? Commonsense may tell us that no evidence is needed to prove that we humans understand reference and competently use words to refer. How ever, the rhetorical obligation put on the primatologist—to prove that her
232
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
animal refers—in turn obliges us to say what we would count as proof that we humans refer; for it is only with that information that the primatologist can determine what to look for in the observable behavior of her animals. If the communicative behavior of the animal is to be compared to that of humans—if we are to determine whether metalinguistic concepts typically applied to humans are or are not justifiably applied to an animal—then it can only make sense to ask what it is about human communicative behav ior which, if also found in the communicative behavior of the animal, would justify using those concepts in describing the animal's behavior. So, what feature (or features) of human communicative behavior can we consider as proof that humans—and any other animal whose behavior also manifests that feature—knowingly use words to refer? Perhaps the answer to this question is: "We know that we humans knowingly use words to refer to things simply because we say that we do." (That is, we are typically ready with an answer if someone asks us what we are talking about or what we are referring to; whereas a monkey never is.) Still, such a reply can hardly be said to yield the requested proof; instead it only leads to a dissatisfying regress. For why should we be justified in taking it for granted that some one who claims they understand that an utterance U "refers to" an object O does in fact understand that referential relationship? Certainly, their mere assertion of such a claim would not satisfy ordinary canons of proof. Couldn't they be mistaken about that fact? Or lying? Or pretending? Is not the obtaining or nonobtaining of that fact independent of its assertion? In other words, one wants to ask: "But do they really understand?" (And yet, of course, none of this takes away from the fact that it is an affront to commonsense to deny, or even simply doubt, that we humans understand that the words we use refer to things.) Consider, on the other hand, if we trained, say, a parrot—one which regularly produced the vocalization "Chocolate biscuit"—to say "I under stand what 'Chocolate biscuit' refers to"? Would this j ustify our making the metalinguistic claims that (a) it understands what "Chocolate biscuit" re fers to and (b) that therefore reference is accomplished each time it utters "Chocolate biscuit"? Certainly not, for there would still be no proof that it knows what it means to say "I understand what 'Chocolate biscuit' refers to." Would it therefore help if we trained it to say "I know what it means to say 'I understand what "Chocolate biscuit" refers to'"? Contemplating the regress that such a strategy generates, we are led to an inescapable conclu sion: it is not on the basis of metalinguistic evidence that a proof can be constructed of the referential powers of vocalizations, whether made by humans or by animals. Still, in the past few years a related argument has emerged to the effect
The Anthropomorphic and the Sceptical
233
that proof does exist—independent of metalinguistic evidence—that we humans understand that our words refer to things. And so, the argument goes, the same kind of proof must be established for animals if they are justifiably to be said to understand referential relations. The fact that we understand referential relations could be said to be proven by behavioral practices ("language games") that we commonly perform with words: be havioral practices, that is, other than that of simply using words to refer to things (for it is the "private" performance of the latter practice that it is our ultimate aim to prove). To put this another way: it is some of the other things that we humans typically do with words that prove that when we use words we are knowingly referring to things. Indeed, it is this argument that is behind most of the recent experi ments designed to prove that some animals—whether laboratorytrained or wild—understand reference and that they therefore do indisputably use signs to refer (cf., respectively, SavageRumbaugh, 1986 and Cheney and Seyfarth, 1990, Ch. 5 for illustrative examples). So, to imagine a suitably simplified example, one might propose that an animal may justifiably be said to refer by its use of a given sign if and only if, when asked to touch a photograph of the thing the sign purportedly refers to, the animal does so correctly. After all, such an "operational definition" of reference—i.e., a definition framed in terms of performance in such an experiment—agrees with commonsense. Any normal human languageuser will perform suc cessfully in this experiment; so it seems legitimate to require animals to do this too if they are justifiably to be said to refer by their use of signs. However, suppose that an animal fails this test. As with Cheney and Seyfarth's vervets, the descriptive evidence of his use of signs in interac tions with humans and other animals "tempts" us to say that he uses signs to refer to things. But then it turns out that no matter how long we train him, he remains a complete failure at the simple experiment outlined above. He cannot learn to indicate photographs of the things referred to by the signs we produce for him. So what? Why should this, or any other experi ment, be the litmus test determining whether a creature does or does not understand reference (and, therefore, whether he is or is not using those signs to refer)? Is this test impossible to fail for an animal which (ex hypothesi] does in fact knowingly use signs to refer to things? Couldn't there be other reasons—that is, reasons that are unrelated to his understanding or non understanding of reference—why the animal fails a test requiring him to touch photographs of the things referred to by particular signs? We must not lose track of the fact that what we are trying to determine is whether, when the animal produces signs, he is knowingly u sing those signs to refer to things, not whether he can touch the appropriate photographs when
234
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
their names are called out. Usingsignstorefertothings and responding tosignsbytouchingphotographs are not one and the same behavioral practice: one and the same "language game." Nor, analogously, is the prac tice of throwing a ball at a target the same as that of hitting a ball with a bat. In neither case, is it clear why demonstration of skill in the latter practice should be required as proof of skill in the former practice. On these grounds, it therefore always remains open to the primatologist to reject the attribu tion of a crucial significance to poor performance in the experiment. In stead she can maintain that, while the animal's failure in the experiment may have proven that he has not mastered the practice of responding to signs by touching photographs, we still have not determined whether when he uses those signs he is referring to things. This can be put another way: an operational definition of reference, based on a commonsense connection between the human's ability to refer and performance in a controlled experiment such as that discussed above, begs the question of the necessity of that connection. Is the connection — between the referential ability of humans and their ability to perform well in a given experiment—a necessary connection or is it merely a contingent connection, like that between the ability to throw and the ability to hit a thrown ball with a bat? In the latter case, it would seem absurd to give an operational definition of throwing ability: i.e., a definition which stipu lated a demonstrable ability at hitting balls as the necessary criterion for the attribution of throwing ability. For the bizarre consequence of such a definition would be that, e.g., a child's poor performance in hitting balls would count as incontrovertible proof that the child did not possess the ability to throw: the child who was not able to hit a ball would not, by definition, be able to throw a ball either. Yet we all know that someone may be hopelessly incompetent at batting and yet possess a perfectly adequate throwing ability; for there is in fact only a contingent connection between these two abilities. Such an operational definition—begging the question of the actual nature of that connection by stipulating it to be a necessary connection—would clearly result in an inaccurate tool for assessing throw ing competence. Analogously, we should ask: Do we know that there is a necessary, not a contingent, connection between the ability to respond to signs by touching photographs and the ability to refer? A definition which simply stipulates a necessary connection between the latter and the former abilities begs the question of the actual nature of that connection; and consequently its use in assessing an animal's ability to refer is, at the very least, misleading. Even worse, unless the necessary nature of that connection is itself proven, an animal's successful performance in the experiment will not be sufficient
The Anthropomorphic and the Sceptical
235
to prove its ability to refer. For the sceptic will always have a ready objec tion: "Yes, it has learned to touch photographs when presented with certain signs. But does it—as we humans unquestionably do—really know that those signs refer to the things in the photographs? Couldn't its successful perfor mance in the experiment be the product, say, of a conditioned response: i.e., of something that is independent of the ability to refer? Successful performance in the experiment or not, what still needs to be proven is whether the animal knowingly refers to things. To jump from a demon strated ability to perform well in this experiment to the attribution of ref erential ability is no less a manifestation of creeping anthropomorphism than our 'intuitive' tendency to attribute, e.g., understanding to a domes tic pet who responds to the utterance "Walkies!" by finding her leash and carrying it to the door in her mouth." (For a version of this objection see, e.g., Wallman, 1992, Ch. 5) We should note that it is irrelevant whether someone criticizes the par ticular experiment imagined in the discussion above, insisting that it be replaced by an experiment based on a better operational definition of ref erential ability. For the point of the discussion is that any such experiment would only be a test of the animal's ability to perform well in that experi ment. Yet, as we have seen, the rhetoric of primate communication stud ies—a rhetoric reflected in the sceptic's objection above—requires that what the primatologist must prove is that the animal possesses nothing more or less or different from that particular ability which commonsense tells us we know humans have: the ability to refer.
Thus, in spite of the rhetorical obligation on the primatologist to prove the legitimacy of her application of a metalinguistic concept like reference to a nonhuman primate, there simply isn't any (nonvacuous) means of proving whether an animal—or, for that matter, a human—knowingly re fers to things when it uses signs. The scientist can collect evidence about a primate or human's metalinguistic selfdescriptions or about its perfor mance in behavioral practices which seem intuitively to be related to refer ence; but neither of these forms of evidence can possibly provide the called for proof that the primate or human knowingly refers to things. Further more, when this fact is seen within the rhetorical context of primate com municational inquiry—according to which an unrefuted accusation of an thropomorphic description amounts to an automatic conviction on the charge of "bad science"—it becomes apparent that the methodologically
236
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
rigorous primatologist has only one choice open to her: to exclude from her behavioral descriptions all those metalinguistic concepts typically used in the description of human communication. On the other hand, it is no consolation to the primatologist to be told that we humans are in the same boat: i.e., that it similarly cannot be proven that the same commonsense metalinguistic concepts are justifiably applied in describing human communicative behavior. For as we have seen there is no need to prove that it is justified to speak of humans as referring, as meaning, as intending, as understanding each other, etc. It goes without saying that these are things that people do. These truisms are the premises of human communicational inquiry, the goal of which is to discover what it is, e.g., to refer and how we humans succeed in doing it. To ask whether we refer (mean, understand, etc.) is to ask the sceptic's question, and there simply is no rhetorical room for such questions in human communica tional inquiry. Therefore, unlike the case of the methodologically rigorous primatologist, the student of human communication has no choice but to accept the premises inherited from commonsense: humans really do refer (mean, believe, understand, etc.). For, he who refuses to accept those pre mises, until they are proven to him, thereby convicts himself as a sceptic and—within the context of a discipline based the acceptance of those pre mises as foundational truths—a nihilist; the sentence for these crimes is exclusion from the discourse of "serious science." And yet at the same time, there remains the primatologist's strong mo tivation to continue trying to prove that the differences between the com municative behavior and abilities of the higher primates and those of hu mans are merely quantitative: i.e., that there is a continuum linking the two, with no unbridgeable, categorial "gap." To abandon this effort would seem to be to abandon an important part of the continuum picture of evolution inherited from Darwin. However, a serious threat to this picture is raised by the apparent impossibility of proving, according to the ac cepted norms of scientific proof, that any nonhuman primate may justifi ably be spoken of as"referring," "meaning," "understanding," etc. For one explanation of this impossibility immediately imposes itself: these forms of communicative behavior are, irrevocably, beyond the capabilities of any animal except the human. In other words, it is in the communicative facts referred to by these metalinguistic expressions where lies the explanation for the categorial difference between the application of those expressions to humans and to nonhumans: namely, in the existence of an equally categorial, qualitative "gap" between the communicative behavior and abili ties of the human and those of the nonhuman animal. We cannot speak of even the most sophisticated of nonhuman animals using the terms with
The Anthropomorphic and the Sceptical
237
which we speak of humans because the differences between them are not of degree, but of kind. Yet evolutionary science stands firmly against this conclusion: there is no sharp break—no impassable rubicon—separating the animal from the human. It is this assumption that continues to moti vate the primatologist to attempt to solve the dilemma which I have here outlined: that is, to construct a scientific confirmation of the evolutionary premise of a continuum existing between (a) the communicational realities that are taken for granted to underlie human behavior and (b) the communicational realities that may be demonstrably proven to un derlie animal behavior. But, given the rhetorical "rules of the game" to which the primatologist must conform in attempting this task, there is no reason to expect that her efforts will ever succeed.
What can be done? Thus far the point of this paper would seem to be to chart the contours of the primatologist's dilemma and to show why it is inescapable. But this would be to misunderstand my full intention. For my main goal has been to show that, in spite of appearances, the dilemma is indeed escapable—or rather, dissolvable—but that this escape/dissolution first requires recognition of the kind of dilemma it is: a rhetorical dilemma. The key is to see that the picture of a qualitative/categorial—as opposed to a quantitative—difference between human and nonhuman primate com munication is an illusion: an illusion created by use of the qualitatively different rhetorics governing, respectively, h uman communicational inquiry and primate communicational inquiry. To make this clear it may help to liken the role of rhetoric in an aca demic discourse to that of the system of measurement in a practice of mea suring: e.g., measuring areas. According to this analogy, we may say that in academic discourse about the communicative behavior and abilities of non humans, as compared to academic discourse about the communicative be havior and abilities of humans, different systems of measurement are ap plied. What is misleading is that the "units" in both systems of measure ment are the same: i.e., the metalinguistic terms "reference," "meaning," "understanding," "truth," etc. However, the rules for the application of those terms in each system of measurement are, as we have seen, radically different. It must be proven, according to the canons of scientific proof, that any application of one of those terms to a nonhuman animal is j usti
238
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
fied; but for humans such an application is taken for granted to be justi fied. In other words, human communicational inquiry, following commonsense, concedes no grounds for doubting that humans do the things we call "refer," "mean," "understand," etc.; whereas in inquiry into animal communication it has to be proven (per impossible) that nonhuman ani mals do any of these. Analogously, one might imagine two systems of measuring areas, both of which use the terms "inch" and "foot"; however, each such system de fines those terms and determines the relationship between them quite dif ferently. So, while system A applies those terms in the standard fashion, system B uses the word "inch" for a centimeter and "foot" for a meter. And whereas in system A there are 12 inches to a foot, in system B 100 of its inches make one of its feet. Now imagine that someone using system A is measuring floor areas in one house and calling them into a factory where carpets are being cut for the house. So, for one room he calls in " 15 feet and 9 inches by 10 feet and 2 inches." In another house someone using system B is also calling in floor measurements. For her room she calls in "15 feet and 9 inches by 10 feet and 2 inches." It hardly needs to be pointed out what a mistake it would be if the person cutting the carpets back at the factory cut out the same carpet for both houses. Since those doing the measuring were not using the same system of measurement, the measurements they take—although superfi cially identical—cannot be equated. Consider another analogy: if one evaluative system grades a painting "poor," "good," or "excellent" according to the price it fetches at a particu lar auction and another system grades a different painting with the same terms, but does so according to votes cast by a panel of schoolchildren, can a meaningful comparison be made between the grades awarded to the two paintings? Surely not. The "good" awarded to one painting cannot sensi bly be deemed inferior to the "excellent" awarded to the other, since those grades are the products of the application of different systems of measure ment. Such a comparison would be as foolish as betting equally high when one is dealt the ace and ten of spades in a game of blackjack (in which an ace and ten are unbeatable) as when one is dealt the same two cards in a game of sevencard stud (in which the strength of the hand remains un clear until more cards are dealt). Accordingly, we may trace the problems besetting the scientific study of the communicative behavior and abilities of nonhuman primates to (a) the use of a different system of measurement (a different rhetoric) from that used in inquiry into human communication and
The Anthropomorphic and the Sceptical
239
(b) the comparison of the results achieved in "measuring" primate com munication to the results achieved in "measuring" human communica tion, as if both results had been achieved using the same system of measurement. For, the inescapable result of ignoring the fact that different systems of measurement are being used is that the comparison produces a picture of nonhuman primates as having nothing like reference, meaning, under standing, etc., all of which—according to the rhetoric of human communi cational inquiry—are communicational phenomena assumed unquestion ably to be mastered by humans. In other words, a categorial difference in the systems of measurement (rhetorics) used in the comparison results in the appearance of a categorial difference in the abilities measured. This, then, is the source of the threat which the study of communication presents to the continuum picture of evolution. That threat inheres in the illusion created by the application of different rhetorics in the academic discourses devoted to human and nonhuman primate communication. Once that illusion is dispelled, we will have cleared away another major obstacle to a nonprejudicial evaluation of the continuum picture.
This page intentionally left blank
-13-
The Origin of Language: Why it never happened Questions about the origin of language hold an important position in the selfimages of many, possibly all, of the world's known cultures. It seems, after all, a natural question to ask, from within a culture, about the histori cal foundations of that culture's practices. Are not some of the first reflec tive questions that children ask of the kind: Why do we do this? And is it not a natural response to such questions to provide an account of how the practice in question began? Why do questions about the origin of language continue to fascinate us? Perhaps this is because an account of the origin of language provides a narrative way of satisfying a people's feeling that they are special; it is a vivid and comprehensible way of explaining why, from their intracultural perspective they are different, whether in contradistinction to other groups of people or to other animal species. Animal behaviorists have said that, from the perspective of the animal in the wild, the fundamental phenom enological divide is between those who want to eat me and those whom I want to eat. However, from the internal perspective of a human culture, the most important phenomenological division is between those who make sense and those who do not; or to put it in another, slightly more enlight ened way, between those who make sense the way we do and from those who do not. In the first case, we humans as a species are on one side of the divide and all nonhuman animals are on the other. Whereas in the second case, the divide is between those within our culture and those "others" who, because what they say makes no sense, the ancient Greeks simply called "barbarians." A culture's selfimage is formed as a reflexive byproduct of the daily tasks of making sense of its environment, of its members' biological being, of its group activities and interactions, and of those very methods it uses, primarily verbal methods, in order to make that sense. Accordingly, those who do not make sense as we, in our culture, do—that is, members of other cultures and other species—will typically not be perceived by us merely as
242
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
different versions of the same basic kind of thing that we are, but rather as categorically different: as different kinds of things entirely. Our culture's account of the origin of language is a readily grasped way of making sense of why we make sense, and they don't. An origins myth is a compelling way of explaining to ourselves, and thereby justifying to ourselves, our ways of making sense. It might, in this respect, be likened to a reflection in a mir ror of that mirror's own reflective properties. Today, however, the origin of language has become the focus of scien tific research. Indeed, it has become a pivotal topic in the modern sciences of man, drawing attention from a variety of disciplines, including linguis tics, cognitive psychology, anthropology, evolutionary science, and the phi losophy of mind. The reason for this interest is the puzzling dilemma posed by what scientists have identified as a fundamental "gap": the gap which separates us humans, who possess language, from all nonhuman animals alive or extinct, who do not and did not. How could evolution, whose pro cesses were first explained by Charles Darwin, have led to the opening of such a broad and profound gap? Some leading scientists have claimed that this question cannot be answered. Moreover, they have argued that be cause it is unanswerable, there must be something fundamentally mistaken at the heart of the Darwinian theory of evolution. Now, given the place of Darwinian theory in modern scientific thought and given the challenge posed to that theory by the problem of the "language gap," it should sur prise no one that the attempt to explain the origin of language has become one of the most compelling theoretical "quests" in contemporary science.
The languageorigins theories which are most favored in contempo rary science all have their roots in the intellectual preoccupations of the early scientists and philosophers of the European Enlightenment. If we want to understand and evaluate today's theories of the origin of language, we would do well to examine those intellectualhistorical roots. In 18th century Europe anyone who had anything to say on language—or for that matter, on philosophy, political theory, rhetoric, psychology, or education— was more or less obliged to discuss the origin of language. The main rea son for this was that it was generally accepted that the possession of lan guage is the main distinguishing feature between humanity and the ani mal kingdom: that which separates "us" from "them." Some argued that possession of language is what made us different (what caused us to be dif ferent); to others language is the proof of our difference (i.e., a difference which we had acquired by other means). But, under either option, one had
The Origin of Language
243
to tackle the question whether this distinguishing feature of humanity was a gift from God or whether it was an "artificial" human invention. For the response one gave to this question had farreaching repercussions for other Enlightenment arguments about the foundations and justification of hu man institutions and activities. If it was granted that language, the distin guishing feature of humanity, was a gift from God, then it became much more difficult to maintain that art, literature, government, law, education, and human psychology are—or should be—founded on principles that are within the domain of human rights to change and reconstruct according to the dictates of human reason. For this reason, when one theorized about human activities or human institutions, one had to say something about the nature and origin of what was perceived as the crowning and distin guishing feature of humanity: language. Although many different accounts of the origin of language were pro posed during the European Enlightenment, by far the most influential account of the "language gap," and of the means by which it was originally crossed by man, was that advocated in France by the abbe de Condillac. His Essai sur I'origine des connaissances humaines (1746; reprinted in 1798) was one of the most important books of the period. Even those theorists who disagreed with Condillac's account of the human invention of lan guage still generally accepted his account of the distinctive properties of language and of its unique possession by man. (For a more complete ac count of Condillac's theory of language and mind, see Harris and Taylor, 1989, Ch. 11). Condillac took it for granted that only humans have language. And he believed that the possession of language gives man, alone among the ani mals, the ability to control the operations of his mind (Condillac, 1798, p.733). An animal's mind—like that of the prelinguistic human—can and does perform the same basic operations that are performed by the mind of languageusing humans. An animal's mind, like ours, perceives, attends, compares, imagines, reflects, judges, and so on. However, the prelinguistic mind, whether animal or human, does not and cannot perform these op erations consciously or voluntarily; rather they only occur as subconscious, reflex responses to physiological or circumstantial stimuli. The prelinguistic mind works "automatically," we might say; it cannot be "manually" oper ated (Condillac, 1798, pp. 37373). Yet Condillac is not saying that, before he had language, man was nothing but a reflex machine, unable to per form any acts intentionally. On the contrary: Condillac believed that the difference between prelinguistic man and animals is that man possessed freedom of the will. Yet, and this is the crucial point, without language the will was unable to "access" the mind's operations. So, even before he be
244
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
came a languageuser, man was able to control his bodily actions and act purposefully. However, like the animals with whom he lived, he could not, as Condillac says, "direct" the operations of his mind. In other words, prelinguistic man was the victim of a fundamental dis junction between his mental faculties and the faculty of the will. But once he finally had the use of language, he then became able consciously to direct his thinking, and consequently, to act on the basis of such directed reasoning. Once man had acquired language, thinking, like speaking, be came what Condillac called a rational and creative "art." Now, what is it about the possession of language that enabled man to repair this disjunction between the mind and the will? Condillac replies: "Gestures, sounds, numbers, and letters: only with instruments as foreign to our ideas as these can we put our ideas to work." (Condillac, 1798, p. 73435) In other words, language is only crucially useful in this way be cause of two main characteristics. It is, in Condillac's words, both "artifi cial" and "foreign." By "artificial" Condillac means that, like a tool such as a lathe or a drill, language is "manmade" invention. And by "foreign," he means that language is an invention whose properties are distinct from the properties of either of the natural faculties that it brings into cooperation: in other words, the mind and the will. It is because the invention of lan guage has this artificial and foreign (that is, what we would today call "au tonomous") character that primitive man could use it to drive a wedge between himself and the other animals, separating himself from them for evermore. There is a second crucial benefit provided by the autonomous, or "for eign," character of language: in particular by the fact that neither the words nor the grammatical structure of a linguistic sentence replicate the proper ties of the individual speaker's mental ideas or the thought into which they are combined. That is, because it is autonomous, language may be used in common by both the speaker in performing the task of expressing her thought and by any hearers in performing the complementary task of in terpreting the meaning of that expression (Condillac, 1798, p.403). If lan guage were not independent of the particular characteristics of, on the one hand, the speaker's mind and, on the other, the hearer's mind, then it could not be a vehicle of communication between them. It could not be the public and neutral ground on which your mind and my mind meet and on which our mutual understanding depends. In other words, it is because a language is autonomous that it can be intersubjective: that it can facilitate the transmission of my thought—by these our language's words—to you. Finally, Condillac attributes a third crucial benefit to the acquisition of an artificial and autonomous language. Prelinguistic man, like the animals,
The Origin of Language
245
was said to perceive holistically. The perceptual image (of an event, or situation) which the mind derived from the senses was, as Condillac de scribes it, a confused "tableau," with different characteristics of the visual, olfactory, tactile, etc., all mixed in together and occurring simultaneously in the mind. And, at the same time, prelinguistic man's expressions—manual gestures, as well as vocalizations—also represented in a holistic fashion. The natural expressive response to a frightening scene, for example, did not distinguish particular parts of that scene from other parts. However, once man came to use the linearly structured sentences be longing to an artificial language, his mind was forced to impose an analy sis on the perceptual tableau and "decompose" it into a set of discrete conceptual components. To each of these concepts corresponded a word in the sentence, and the logical relations between the concepts reflected the grammatical relations between the words. Furthermore, Condillac takes one of the most important consequences of this aspect of language to be its use as a method to facilitate creative thinking. For, just as a language is (what Condillac calls) "a method" permitting man, by combining its words, to create new sentences at will, it also enables him—by the same means— to create new combinations of concepts. In other words, the structural pos sibilities of grammar allow language to be used as an "analytic method" by which man may direct the mind to the generation of new thoughts. Condillac's empiricist theory of the mind and traditional account of language may well strike us today as quaintly oldfashioned and distinctly nonscientific. His claims about the mind are clearly founded on, shall we say, "intuition"; and much the same—or worse—could be said about his view of language. On the other hand, Generative linguistic theory, the dominant approach in recent years, rejects the empiricist theory of mind and is said to be founded on rigorously scientific principles and methods. Nevertheless, for both historical and rhetorical reasons that cannot be dis cussed here (Cf. Taylor, 1992, Ch.3), the account that Generative linguis tics today gives of the "language gap" separating man and animal is strik ingly similar to that given in the 18th century by Condillac. Interest in the origin of language today is motivated by the perceived conflict between Generative theory's view of the "language gap" and the Darwinian view of evolutionary descent. How could gradualist and adaptative processes of natural selection have led to the emergence of lan guage? Or, to put it somewhat differently, given the profound gap between prelinguistic man and modern languageusers, how could the evolution ary set of events we call "the origin of language" have spanned that gap? There are fundamental divisions among Generativist linguists as to how language originated. On the one hand there are those, including Massimo
246
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
PiattelliPalmarini, Carlos Otero, and Noam Chomsky, who argue that lan guage must have emerged through some "catastrophic" event and that language could not be a consequence of the gradual adaptation of an ear lier trait (PiatteliPalmarini, 1989, 1990; Otero, 1990; Chomsky, 1988, 1991). On the other hand, there are a number of Chomsky's closest followers who have shrunk from the challenge that his proposed "catastrophic" origin of language would present to the Darwinian theory of evolution. Instead, these renegade disciples, such as Frederick Newmeyer, Steven Pinker, and Paul Bloom, have attempted to show how Generative theory could be recon ciled with evolutionary theory (Newmeyer 1990, 1991; Pinker 1994; Pinker and Bloom 1990). Nevertheless, in spite of these differences over how language originated, there are few appreciable differences between the Generativists as to the nature of language and to the fundamental "gap" between creatures who do and creatures who do not have language. In the following, I will there fore represent their views on the "language gap" as constituting one coher ent whole. According to Generative theory, the communicational dilemma faced by prelinguistic man was that speech is not naturally suited to the repre sentation, and so communication, of thoughts. Why? Along with most cog nitive theorists today, the Generativists take a thought—that is to say, a proposition—to be a complex hierarchical and relational structure. It is composed, on the one hand, of concepts, each of which possesses its own internal structure, and, on the other, of the formal relationships between those concepts. These relationships may be of a number of different logi cal types, including predicateargument dependencies, structures of iden tity, inclusion, and crossclassification, subcategorization hierarchies, and implicational relations. However, speech—or phonation—has an entirely different set of intrin sic properties, whose structural complexities, according to Newmeyer, "have nothing in common with the properties of a conceptual structure" (Newmeyer, 1991, p. 7). Phonation is temporal and quantitative. Its formant frequencies and tone patterns are not isomorphic with and so cannot in trinsically represent the kinds of hierarchical and relational structures which characterize a mental proposition. As the computer people say, the two structures cannot "talk" to each other: as if cognition had a digital and speech an analog configuration. If it were not for language, there would be no possibility of bringing these two domains—speech production and cog nitive content—into a representational relation. Therefore, prelinguistic man, like the animals with whom he lived, must have been the victim of a fundamental disjunction between his mental and
The Origin of Language
247
vocal powers. His thoughts must have remained entirely internal and pri vate. However, once primitive man had a true language, the Generativists claim, he would have been able to represent cognitive contents and struc tures in a form that could in turn be displayed in the vocalauditory chan nel of speech. How does language make this feat possible? According to Generative theory, linguistic structure is independent both of the properties of cognition and of the properties of phonation. It is because of this independence—or structural autonomy—that language is able to act as what Newmeyer calls a "switchboard": a neutral intermediary between cognition and phonation. Autonomous linguistic structure, as Newmeyer says, consists in a small number of lexical and syntactic catego ries which are placed into simple relationships governed by an autono mous syntactic calculus (Newmeyer, 1991, p. 8). Moreover, this autono mous calculus generates an infinite set of possible sentences. Once in pos session of such a language the individual speaker/hearer has the power to create, at will, original conceptual combinations—that is, new propositions, new thoughts. Having language means that one has the necessary struc tural tool to make voluntary and creative use of one's cognitive powers. In discussing what they call "the Requirement of Parity," Pinker and Bloom add that it is only because linguistic structure has an autonomous and arbitrary character that language can be a vehicle of communicational understanding. If, on the other hand, linguistic structure were functionally motivated—shaped, that is, by cognitive or phonetic forces—then nothing would prevent two or more people from responding differently to those motivating forces, and so failing to represent the same thoughts by the same phonetic output. Pinker and Bloom explain: There are many possible rationales for any formmeaning pairing, and that is exactly the problem—different rationales can impress different speak ers, or the same speakers on different occasions, to different degrees. But such differences in cognitive style, personal history, or momentary inter ests must be set aside if people are to communicate. (Pinker and Bloom, 1990, p. 718) In other words, if linguistic structure were neither autonomous nor arbi trary, different people might, for different reasons, employ different means of encoding their thoughts phonetically or of decoding the phonetic utter ances of others. The result would be what we could only characterize as "mutual misunderstanding." It should be clear from even this brief sketch of Generativist thinking on the evolution of language, that both the Enlightenment philosophers and the Generative linguists agree in their views of the gap between hav
248
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
inglanguage and lackinglanguage. In other words, they both pose "the problem of the origin of language" in similar terms. According to them both, prelinguistic hominids would have been unable to communicate anything more than isolated grunts and alarm calls to each other; they could not communicate true thoughts (Cf., Bickerton 1990 and 1995 for similar ar guments). They could not have shared a common code—pairing shared meanings with particular expressions—nor followed common grammati cal or semantic rules. Nor could they have exerted voluntary and creative control over the contents and operations of their minds. The mind of prelinguistic man was therefore tied to the activities of the here and now. However, once humans acquired language—say both the Enlightenment philosophers and the Generativists—then these cognitive and communi cational limitations disappeared. Now, in possession of an autonomous and creative language structure, linguistic man—homo loquens—would have acquired the ability to create new expressions (and also new thoughts) at will, to share the means and results of that creation with his neighbors, and therefore to understand others and be understood. One general point needs to be made here before we continue. And this is to emphasize how the particular form taken by "the problem of origin of language" and so also its puzzling character, are both entirely determined by the theorists' preconceptions about, on the one hand, the nature of the mind (both before and after it acquires language) and, on the other, the nature of language. In other words, the intellectual or scientific "problem of the origin of language," as it is conceived in any period, is not sui generis. Yet most theorists of languageorigins typically present, discuss, and "solve" the problem of the origin of language as if it were a strictly empirical prob lem whose existence and form are independent of cultural context and conceptual predisposition. They address the problem of languageorigins as if it were not different in kind from a problem like "How did the human eye evolve?" or "When did our ancestors first leave the African continent?" However, when one looks closer, the problem of languageorigins re veals itself as a conceptually derivative issue: as a problem which is gener ated by the theorists' overarching conception of the nature of language and the mind. For, as we j ust saw with Condillac and the Generativists, it is from that overarching conception of language and the mind that the theo rists' particular notion of the languagegap derives. And it is as the re quired bridge across that soconceived gap that the problem of the origin of language attracts scientific attention. Therefore, to the extent that the lan guageorigins theorist ignores that she is working within a larger concep tual framework and to the extent that she ignores the rhetorical and cul tural foundations of that framework, her investigations will necessarily go
The Origin of Language
249
awry. Analogously, to the extent that a comparative mythologist ignores the role that the languageorigins myth plays within the culture's more general myths about their own "special" character and their difference from the "others," he will fail to grasp their origins myth for the kind of cultural artifact that it is. To return to our story. Given their accounts of the language gap, how do Condillac and the Generative linguists conceive that that gap was bridged: what is their solution to the problem of the origin of language? As for Condillac, he himself recognized that the way he had posed the question left him with a particularly difficult problem. If prelinguistic man does not yet have voluntary control of his mental faculties, cannot communicate with his neighbors, and cannot think creatively, then how could he possi bly manage to take that crucial step and invent an artificial language? (And yet he must have!) How could man have invented artificial language if the very powers that such an artificial language would later give him were them selves required for that invention? As we have seen, the terms in which Condillac posed the problem of languageorigins were widely accepted in 18thcentury Europe. However, the solution that he himself proposed to that problem was not considered to be equally convincing. Condillac speculated that prelinguistic children must somehow have accidentally become consciously aware of their natu ral, expressive signs. Then they discovered that they could make voluntary use of these natural signs to represent their ideas. Having voluntary com mand of some signs in this way, but having need of further signs for their other ideas, they then invented artificial signs analogously. Because they relied on natural analogies for these inventions, the newly invented form meaning pairings would have been understood by all. As each new sign gave them better control of their mental faculties, it became easier and easier for them to invent further artificial signs. Eventually, modern lan guages of the kind with which we are familiar came into being. In the European Enlightenment, there were a number of accounts of the bridging of the language gap which competed with Condillac's account. But the central dilemma remained the same: how, w ithout divine interven tion, could an involuntary and subconscious mind purposefully construct an artificial language? The intractable character of this dilemma was such that even in the middle of the 19th century, a hundred years after Condillac's Essai, the most stubborn obstacle preventing acceptance of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution was the widespread assumption that only an act of di vine will could have given humans the gift of language. And if God had intervened at the origin of language, why should the whole of the natural order not also have been the result of his purposive plan?
250
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
Darwin himself was well aware of the threat to his evolutionary theory that was posed by human language. And he was concerned that the human's unique possession of what he called "the faculty of articulate speech" should not be taken as "an insuperable objection to the belief that man has devel oped from some lower form." For many who opposed his evolutionary theories argued that, since only humans possess language, this was evi dence that we humans had required a "special act of creation." In the world of late 20thcentury science, in which Darwinian evolu tionary theory is the accepted norm, there is an ironically parallel dilemma in the Generative theorists' attempt to bridge the language gap. The di lemma is this: If the essential characteristic of language is its autonomous and arbitrary structure, how could language, thus conceived, have emerged gradually through the process of natural selection? If language is essentially dissimilar to and independent from any pre or coexisting feature, how could it have originated, in Darwin's words, as a "variation, however slight" which is "profitable to an individual... in its infinitely complex relations to other organic beings and to external na ture" (Darwin 1859, p. 61)? How could such a variation be functionally advantageous in these ways and yet, paradoxically, be essentially arbitrary? How could it emerge through slight, adaptive modifications of some pre existing feature(s) and yet be completely autonomous? Out of this confu sion, one thing has become clear to the scientific community: if these para doxical questions cannot be answered satisfactorily, then as Pinker and Bloom themselves confess "one could hardly blame anyone for concluding that it is not the theory of evolution that must be questioned but the theory of language" (Pinker and Bloom, 1990, p.708). Rallying to the defense of the Generative theory of language, linguists have come up with a number of conflicting theories of how autonomous and arbitrary linguistic structure evolved. Some have denied any role to natural selection; instead language emerged by means of "a single mon ster mutation." Others have suggested that language emerged gradually, but not through modification of any preexisting feature: that is, that lan guage is not an adaptation. Still others have tried, paradoxically, to search for functional motivations for the evolution of functionally unmotivated, autonomous structures. But there remains profound disagreement and confusion within Generative theory as to how its central principles can be reconciled with evolutionary theory, or even whether language should be seen as an exception which falsifies significant parts of that theory. In these respects, the debate today replicates much of the rhetorical structure of the debate in the European Enlightenment, with the position of the hardline Generativists such as Chomsky occupying the same role in
The Origin of Language
251
the debate, even using many of the same arguments, as that occupied by those who in the 18th century maintained that language was a gift from God. What is most striking, and certainly most ironic, about this rhetorical parallel is how today it is the defenders of Chomskyan theory who advo cate the rejection of continuist explanations of the evolution of language, while in the 18th century it was the defenders of divine will.
In recent years new light has come to illuminate these issues. It suggests an approach which does not begin by presupposing an a priori list of cog nitive and communicational abilities separating man from the other pri mates. This new approach does not presume a broad and deep language gap; and naturally, therefore, it does not require a theory of the origin of language as way of explaining how evolution bridged that gap. The components of the new approach derive from a variety of different disciplines and research programs. But I would like very briefly to focus on one of the more important components: namely, the revolutionary shift in perspective brought about by primatological research on the cognitive and communicational abilities of our nearest genetic cousins, the higher pri mates. I want to be clear about what I'm saying here. My claim is not the one that has often hit the headlines and stirred up endless controversy: that is, the claim that primatological research has shown that there are some non human animals—chimpanzees, in particular—who currently possess or have the ability to acquire a recognizably human language. I do not believe that primatological research has shown this; although nor do I believe that claim has been shown to be false either. On the contrary, what I do believe has been shown is that the way that issue has been conceived and the way the research and findings have been interpreted, both by its critics and by its supporters, have been fundamentally misconceived. (This argument is made at length in SavageRumbaugh, Shanker, and Taylor, in press.) But the point that I want to make now is this. What is so revolutionary about recent primatological research is the way it breaks down the dogma of "the language gap" itself: that is, the dogmatic conception of the gulf separating the mind and abilities of a creature who does not possess lan guage from the mind and abilities of a creature who does possess language. This Enlightenment conception—more or less adopted wholesale in Gen erative linguistics—turns out to be a grossly inadequate way of approach ing any of the topics in this domain: primate sign systems, ape language, human grammatical ability, child language development, chimpanzee or
252
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
human cognition, or the origin of language. Research by Sue SavageRumbaugh and her colleagues at the Language Research Center in Atlanta indicates that if chimpanzees are brought up under certain kinds of conditions, they can come to understand spoken English sentences of some grammatical complexity: original sentences that they have never encountered previously. When he was 8 years old, con trolled experimental studies confirmed the bonobo Kanzi's ability to un derstand English sentences exhibiting a variety of syntactic patterns (Sav ageRumbaugh et al. 1993). The more than 650 spoken sentences on which he was tested were all new to Kanzi. Some of the sentences exhibited a degree of syntactic complexity, including—for instance—he use of embed ded constructions. And many had unlikely meanings, in order to make sure that Kanzi was not able to derive their meaning simply on the basis of semantic predictability—that is, without really understanding the gram matical relationships involved. These experimental tests compared Kanzi's ability to demonstrate comprehension of these sentences with that of a 2 !/2 yearold human child, finding them to be more or less equivalent. Like the creative ability of a human child, Kanzi's comprehension ability was not apparently limited to sentences he had ever heard before. For instance, Kanzi manifests complete understanding of sentences such as the following: Tickle Rose with the sparklers. Give the doggie (a toy dog) some yogurt. Put the toothbrush in the lemonade. Take the snake (a plastic snake) outdoors. Go scare Matata with the snake. Can you pour the ice water in the potty? Can you take the gorilla (a toy) to the bedroom? Go get the balloon that's in the microwave. Can you put the blanket on the doggie? Can you put the bunny on your hand? Make the snake bite Linda. Drink the coffee that's hot. Drink the ice coffee. I want Kanzi to grab Rose. Pour the Coke in the lemonade. Pour the lemonade in the Coke. The linguist tells us that to understand sentences such as these a hearer must do more than simply know the meanings of the words used. The hearer must also understand various types of grammatical and conceptual relations, comprehend word order patterns, and have some grasp of the
The Origin of Language
253
creative possibilities of English sentence structure. Yet these requirements are said by the "language gap" theorists only to be achievable by a creature who possesses an autonomous language faculty. However, again, there seems no good reason to attribute possession of such a faculty to Kanzi. What this example reveals is the irrelevance—to the languageorigins question—of arguments about whether various animals in the wild or some laboratoryreared chimpanzees do or do not "have language." For, regard less of how one votes on that (fundamentally misleading) question, it is hard to dispute the claim that current research has established that various nonhuman animals manifest at least some cognitive and communicational abilities that the dogma of "the language gap" has long insisted could only be the properties of a creature that possesses language. This conclusion should therefore make us question the existence of such a language gap. And if that gap is itself only a conceptual illusion, then the question of the origin of language loses the meaning it has long been taken to have as the explanation of how that crucial gap was crossed. Both the philosophers of the European Enlightenment and the Generativist theorists of the 1990s insist that if a creature—living today or 100,000 years ago—did not have language, it would also lack a number of cognitive and communicational abilities. Thus, the languageorigins prob lem is one of explaining how we humans came to acquire the very kind of thing—language—which made it so we have those abilities. Moreover, seen from this perspective the language gap seems especially wide and deep. For if the mind did not have these abilities until language originated, then how can it have taken the leap to language? This was Condillac's problem, his rhetorical Achilles' heel, to which the divine origin theorists responded so effectively. And it is this way of looking at the origins problem that makes Chomsky's "monster mutation" hypothesis seem at all plausible, despite its blatant contrasts with modern evolutionary theory. However, there is no need of a "monster mutation" hypothesis, or of a divine origin story. Nor is there any need of the kinds of "Just So" stories dreamed up by Condillac, Rousseau, Newmeyer, Bickerton, or Pinker: that is, once we see the illusion of believing in a gap between a prelinguistic and postlinguistic mind that only an autonomous language can bridge. It would be better to conclude that what, in our late twentiethcentury, literate, Englishspeaking linguistic culture, we call "language" is a metalinguistic illusion. Languageasweknowit is the legacy of the ways we talk about the behavioral manifestations of those cognitive and communi cational abilities in forms that are recognizable—and whose recognizability we normatively enforce—among members of "our" culture. In other words,
254
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
recognizably linguistic behavior is neither the source nor the product of our cognitive and communicational abilities. It is an evaluative criterion by which we, from within "our" culture, typically evaluate possession of those abili ties. (And, significantly, the other side of this coin is that we also use that criterion to determine membership of that culture; for if you don't charac terize as language—as the meaning of the word soporific, as grammatical, as a promise, as English, etc.—what "we" characterize in those terms, then you are not one of "us.") Too often possession of "language" is taken to be the source of those culturally recognizable cognitive and communicational abili ties: consider, for instance, the familiar questions—Do the enculturated apes have language? Was it homo erectus or only homo sapiens sapiens who first had language?. These questions would therefore appear to be based on a confusion whose rhetorical source lies in misunderstanding the reflexive nature of our evaluative methods. The conclusion can only be, then, that the origin of language never happened. Language, as conceived in the traditional quest for its origins, is not something that could have had an evolutionary origin (nor, for that matter, a "creationist" or "monster mutation" origin either). Metalinguistic myths and illusions have rhetorical origins; and they need to be addressed accordingly.
One way to do this is to tell another story, weave a different rhetorical web: one which may be able to wean us away from our compulsion to see the familiar story as necessary, as the only account that could make sense of all that we "know" about language, evolution, primate behavior, paleoanthropology, hominid development, and so on. To do this, we need to show that all the pieces of that intellectual puzzle—which the traditional myth arranges so compellingly—can be arranged according to a different story, with a different picture emerging, and one which also makes sense. Such a therapeutic method does not amount to giving us "the answer" to "what happened." For, remember, the question was itself based on a confu sion. Instead, its purpose is to free us from the compulsion to ask that question, and so also from the resultant conviction that only certain kinds of "answers" are possible. Where we go from there is up to us. Another story of "what happened," then, might begin by representing language ability in a way that is fundamentally different from the received, "orthodox" conception. Instead, it could be represented as the ability to contribute to interactions whose ongoing, contextualized development is
The Origin of Language
255
mediated by the use of signs (cf. Harris, 1996a). Conceived as such, the basic language ability that we humans have would appear not to be terribly different from the basic language ability that various species of primate have been shown to have. (And, by the "triangulation hypothesis," this would mean that our basic language ability is not terribly different from that possessed by "the common ancestor" of all apes and humans.) We may then set against this way of conceptualizing language ability the obvious fact that what we humans do with—what we make of—our basic language ability is much more than (quite different from) what wild apes do with—and make of—their ability. However, these techniques and prac tices—that is, the kinds of things we do with and make of our language ability—need not be conceived as the evolutionary products of natural se lection, no more than our techniques and practices of writing, representa tional painting, music, dancing, etc., are thought to have evolved through natural selection. The techniques we have for doing things with language (including writing it) draw on a range of complex cultural skills that have a long history—or histories—of development. The development of these skills and techniques would therefore be seen not as evolutionary development—but, rather, as social, cultural, and his torical. This would imply that if, due to some environmental catastrophe— such as a global comet shower—only a few prelinguistic orphans remained in the world to breed and continue the species, the basic ("natural") lan guage ability would remain intact, but the cultural language skills would not be passed down to the next generations. Like the complex communi cational techniques and practices which draw on these skills, they would be completely lost. Similarly, these remaining children would not have lost the basic ability to stand upright, to walk, to change direction by turning on the ball of the foot, to maintain joint attention with a partner, and so on. But they would have lost the cultural skills on which the interactional prac tice we know as "waltzing" depends. For, unlike the basic language ability (which we share in large part with bonobos and other primates), the gen erationtogeneration passing on of language skills depends on the child's development within a nurturing ecology that involves normative socializa tion, teaching, and enculturation. And our orphaned prelinguistic chil dren would have been deprived of this crucial cultural ecology. Who is to say that a scenario involving something more or less equiva lent to the environmental catastrophe imagined above has not occurred in the evolutionary history of the higher primates, including those in the hominid line? We know how close so many species live to the border sepa rating continuity from extinction. Could bonobos or other primate species have at one time (perhaps even more than once) developed "more sophis
256
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
ticated," enculturated language skills, techniques, and practices—that is, "more sophisticated" than those we are able to observe them using in the wild today? And could they not have then, as in the imagined environmen tal catastrophe, lost them? The evidence from Kanzi and his confreres—the fact that, brought up within the appropriate nurturing environment, they are able to acquire the necessary linguistic skills to participate in practices of some humanlike "sophistication"—suggests that, given the right cul tural ecology, the bonobo does have the basic language ability to develop at least some of these skills. And why could not the same sort of alternation between "progress" (i.e., development of more recognizably humanlike lan guage skills) and "loss" also have occurred in the development of the homi nid line? If what is crucial in the development of language skills is the existence of environmental conditions which stimulate the development of more and more skilled uses of the basic language ability—techniques and practices which are in turn culturally passed down to, and built upon by, succeeding generations—is it not plausible to suppose that those condi tions could have come, and then gone, and then come again, many times, over the many thousands of years of primate history? Pictured in this way, the intellectual puzzle of "how recognizably hu manlike language arose" changes from — a set of questions concerning the evolution of "biologically encoded" abilities by means of natural selection to — a set of questions concerning the development and preservation of en vironmentallystimulated uses of our abilities by means of cultural pro cesses. "Preservation," here, refers to the cultural processes by which those skills, techniques, and practices come to resist the vicissitudes of environmental (as well as historical) change. This story then entails that, for some reason, this ecologically repetitive cycle—of technocultural "progress" and "loss"—was finally arrested, and cultures became more reliable transmitters of their technical skills and prac tices from generation to generation. Building on each such inheritance, the members of these cultures were able to develop these skills, create more sophisticated techniques, and construct more and more complex practices for making use of their basic language abilities. But this was a cultural historical not an evolutionary process: i.e., it was not a matter of natural selection operating on biological variation. This story therefore also implies that at least the major part of the lin guistic skill we now possess is not the result of the different evolutionary
The Origin of Language
257
paths followed in the human and (e.g.) the bonobo lines. The relationship between the complex linguistic technocultural skills which our behavior manifests, the quite different skills manifested (e.g.) in bonobo behavior, and the basic and moreorless shared language abilities on which we, the bonobo, and "the common ancestor" all draw is not an evolutionary relation ship. So, within this way of telling the story, we may focus on the question: What reason could explain how (e.g.) humans became able to preserve their technocultural skills against environmental changes and pass them down, for further cultural development, to the succeeding generations? It seems clear that one technical practice which has been profoundly impor tant in our culturalhistorical construction and preservation of language skills is metadiscourse: that is, the reflexive use of our language abilities in order to communicate about those abilities and their behavioral manifes tations. With the creative tool of reflexive discourse, we can give a kind of recognizable, cultural physiognomy to our communicational behavior. We can fashion it into recognizable "types" of behavioral acts, determine in stances of their reoccurrence, manage their sequencing and combinatorial relevance to each other, and make these acts and sequences matter in par ticular kinds of ways (i.e., determine their significance) within the varying circumstances of their production. With reflexive discourse we can impose a normative character on communicational behavior and make its use a subject of explanation, teaching, responsibility, and justification. We can make language the kind of thing that is characterizable in terms of the culturally determined expressions that, for example, English speakers use today. That is, we can characterize it (and so recognize it) as consisting of words, meanings, sentences, repetitions of the same thing, promises, flip pant remarks, nagging, etc. Languageasweknowit is a fundamentally reflexive phenomenon: it is fashioned into the complex, culturally embedded, and contextually integratable sort of thing it is by being made the reflexive, and so also normative, subject "of its own devices." By this means language becomes a more useful, precise, powerful interactional tool—analogous, in some re spects, to a method of measurement (see Ch.l)—and it becomes some thing that we can teach to our children until they get it right. (With metadiscourse we can, for example, have and impose conformity to the language game of "getting it right.") This story does not entail that the reflexive use of language is the mani festation of some special language ability or cognitive endowment (e.g., "consciousness"); nor does it imply that reflexive skills are the product of evolutionary processes. To use language reflexively is to engage in a par
258
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
ticular kind of practice: it draws on a variety of techniques for making use of our language abilities. There is nothing about the skilled use of lan guage for reflexive purposes that is beyond, say, what the bonobo can do. Kanzi has manifested an ability to use language reflexively (see Savage Rumbaugh, Shanker, and Taylor, in press, Ch. 1). Of course, Kanzi is an enculturated ape, brought up in the highly reflexive and normative con texts of a human learning environment. Still, his reflexive skills are proof of the bonobo's ability to use language reflexively. On the other hand, al though there is only scanty evidence as yet, no argument has yet been made for anything but the most rudimentary kind of reflexive practices in the behavior of the wild bonobos living in Zaire. This suggests that reflex ive behavior is indeed a culturally transmitted skill, rather than a basic ability. Bonobos can acquire the skills and techniques to engage in reflex ive practices; whether they will or will not would seem to depend on the cultural ecology of the learning environment. In this case, we may add a new piece to our alternative way of putting together the intellectual puzzle of "how recognizably humanlike language arose." The emergence of reflexive practices as an application of our basic language abilities would have profoundly affected the development (and increasing sophistication) of all of our skills and techniques for doing things with language. But, no less important, it also would have affected our suc cess in conveying to others, teaching, correcting—that is, "passing on"— those skills and techniques, and the cultural practices in which they were employed, from one generation to the next. In other words, having ways of talking about our linguistic skills and practices would have helped both to refine, and render more useful, those skills and practices, and it would have provided the means to transmit them to the next generation within reflexively molded and normativelyinfused learning environments. So, in this story, we may picture the human's development and increased so phistication of reflexive practices as what enabled humans—but not (e.g.) wild bonobos—to build upon, to render more stable and culturally robust, and, finally, to preserve their linguistic skills, techniques, and practices by the establishment of methods of cultural learning and "tradition."
According to Noble and Davidson (1996), the archeological record shows the emergence in the Paleolithic period of material artifacts which, inter preted from our own linguisticcultural perspective, are hard to see in any other way except as indicating the use of reflexive language skills. That is, we cannot make any sense of such artifacts as the Lascaux and Chauvet cave
The Origin of Language
259
paintings and the Vogelherd sculptures unless we make use of such reflex ive notions as 'means,' 'understands,' 'stands for,' 'is about,' etc. (cf. Harris 1996b for a similar point). In this case, there are at least some grounds for going on to argue that those who made and used these artifacts themselves employed some such reflexive concepts and that therefore some of the ways they made use of their linguistic and cognitive abilities were also re flexively mediated. Incorporating this interpretation into our story, we are led to the conclusion that, by the period when these artifacts were made, hominids had developed the skills to use their language ability in reflexive practices of the kind that are not manifest, for example, in the behavior of wild bonobos. Nevertheless, this interpretation does not imply that the first humans who made and used these artifacts—and then passed on the tradition of their fabrication to others—must have had any different linguistic or cog nitive abilities than were possessed by their predecessors or are today pos sessed by bonobos. Nor does it imply that these CroMagnon "artists" were closer to us in neuroevolutionary terms. It only means that, from our per spective, they appear to have been skilled users of their communicational and cognitive abilities in reflexive practices (1) for which there is no earlier evidence in the archeological record and (2) which we have not seen mani fested in the behavior of other higher primates living today. Furthermore, not only do we have these indications of reflexive practices in the Pale olithic period, we find evidence of these practices continuing unbroken from that time down to the present day. At the same time, we know that new linguistic technologies—because, in part, of the different forms of metadiscourse they require—alter what language reflexively is for us and what we conceive its possibilities to be (cf. Olson, 1994 and Harris, 1995). One might therefore argue that the mate rial form of these symbolic artifacts would have altered how the culture they came from "saw" the reflexive practices by which language skills were developed and maintained. The preservable and reproducible character of these material artifacts would have drawn their producers' and users' attention to certain properties of the reflexive practices by which their manufacture was explained, taught, and normatively "managed" and by which the artifacts themselves were given meaning and value. In other words, the perceived "materialization" of the cultural products of reflexive practices would have led to an aspectshift in how reflexive practices them selves were conceived, treated, maintained, regulated, evaluated, and taught. Seen from our enculturated perspective, then, these artifacts indicate a moment in human development at which there seems to have occurred a crucial shift in how reflexive discourse was itself treated.This perspectival
260
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
shift would have rendered those practices all the more culturally stable, authoritative, and preservable, and so it would have made the properties of the subject of those reflexive practices—e.g., language behavior or craft making—that much more a matter both of "what we all know" and "what we are." Here are the beginnings of cultural tradition.
The point of this avowedly imaginative speculation is to see that there is an alternative way to put together the pieces of "what we know" in order for a sensible picture to emerge from the intellectual puzzle of "how recog nizably humanlike language arose." Specifically, my intention has been to show that there is a plausible way of approaching this puzzle which makes no use of those particular pieces of "what we all know about language and the mind" that are the cornerstones of the rhetorical illusion called "the language gap." Another way of looking at language and our skilled uses of language can help us to make a very different, but no less plausible, sense of the various bits of evidence produced by archeological, evolutionary, and paleoanthropological studies of prehistory. For, it is essential to keep in mind the implications of the first part of this paper: while the reflexive use of language is a powerful tool for devel oping an increasingly skilled use of language abilities, reflexive language also has its dangers. In this paper, the danger to which I have drawn atten tion is that which results from the language theorist's misunderstanding of the use of reflexive discourse. The rhetorical products of that misunder standing are the conceptual confusions to which Wittgenstein constantly drew attention. Here, the conceptual confusions which have confounded the investigation of "the origin of language" are those which generate the illusion of a "language gap" for which the story of that origin has to pro vide a bridge. That gap is a legacy of our confused conceptions of lan guage, of language using, of metadiscourse, and of communicational and cognitive abilities. If we adopt different conceptions of—different ways of characterizing—these topics, we can see that the evolutionary history of language needs no gap, and therefore needs no bridge.
References Aarsleff, H. (1967). The Study of Language in England, 17801860. 2nd edition 1983, Minneapo lis: University of Minnesota Press. Aarsleff, H. (1982). From Locke to Saussure. London: Athlone Press. Agar, M. (1994). Language Shock. New York: William Morrow. Andresen, J. (1987). Some observations on a current issue in American linguistics. In H. Aarsleff (Ed.), Papers in the History of Linguistics: Proceedings oflCHoLS III. Philadelphia: J. Benjamins. Atkinson, M. and Heritage, J. (1985). Structures of Social Action. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer sity Press. Auroux, S. (1979). La semiotique des encyclopedistes. Paris: Payot. Baker, G.P. (1974). Criteria: a new foundation for semantics. Ratio, xvi, 2. Baker, G.P. (1981). Following Wittgenstein: some signposts for Philosophical Investigations, Sec tions 143242. In S. Holtzman and C. Leach (Eds.), Wittgenstein: To Follow a Rule. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Baker, G.P (1992). Some Remarks on "Language" and "Grammar". Grazer Philosophische Studien, 42. Baker, G.P. and Hacker, P.M.S. (1980). Wittgenstein: Understanding and Meaning. Oxford: Blackwell. Baker, G.P. and Hacker, P.M.S. (1984). Language, Sense and Nonsense. Oxford: Blackwell. Baker, G.P and Hacker, PM.S. (1985). Wittgenstein: Rules, Grammar and Necessity. Oxford: Blackwell. Bally, C. (1951). Traite de stylistique francaise. Paris. Bickerton, D. (1990). Language and Species.Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Bickerton, D. (1995). Language and Human Behavior. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Bloomfield, L. (1933). Language. London: Allen & Unwin. Bourdieu, P. (1982). Ce que parler veut dire. Paris: Fayard. Bruner, J. (1983). Child's Talk: Learning to Use Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Buhler, K. (1982). Semiotic Foundations of Language Theory, ed. New York: R.E. Innis. Includes 'The Axiomatization of the Language Sciences', first published in German in 1933. Cameron, D. (1985). Feminism and Linguistic Theory, London: Macmillan. Cameron, D. (1990). Demythologising Sociolinguistics: Why language does not reflect society. In Joseph and Taylor (Eds.), Ideologies of Language. London: Routledge. Cameron, D. (1995). Verbal Hygiene. London: Routledge.
262
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
Chafe, W. (1970). Meaning and the Structure of Language. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Cheney, D.L. and Seyfarth, R.M. (1990). How Monkeys See the World. Chicago: Chicago Univer sity Press. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge: MIT Press. Chomsky, N. (1979). Language and Responsibility. New York: Pantheon. Chomsky, N. (1981). Lectures on Government and Binding. Dordecht: Foris. Chomsky, N. (1986). Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin and Use. New York: Praeger. Chomsky, N. (1988). Language and Problems of Knowledge: The Managua Lectures. Cambridge: MIT Press. Chomsky, N. (1991). Prospects for the study of language and mind. In A. Kasher (Ed.), The Chomskyan Turn. Oxford: Blackwell. Clark, H. and Clark, E. (1977). Psychology and Language. New York: Harcourt Brace, Jovanovitch. Condillac, E.B. (1798). Oeuvres, philosophiques de Condillac. Georges le Roy (Ed.). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1947. Condillac, E.B. (1981). La langue des calculs. S. Auroux and A.M. Chouillet (Eds.). Lille: Presses Universitaires de Lille. Crowley, T (1989). The Politics of Discourse. London: Macmillan. Crowley, T. (1996). Language in History. London: Routledge. Crystal, D. and Davy, D. (1975). Advanced Conversational English. London: Longman. Darwin, C. (1859). On the Origin of Species (Facsimile ed., 1964). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Darwin, C. (1871). The Descent of Man. 2 vols. London: J.Murray. Davis, H. and Taylor, TJ. (Eds.). (1990). Redefining Linguistics. London: Routledge. Derrida, J. (1982). Signature Event Context. In Margins of Philosophy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Descartes, R. (1637). Discours de la methode. In Oeuvres de Descartes. Publiees par Charles Adam & Paul Tannery. Nouvelle presentation, en coedition avec le C.N.R.S. XI tomes. Paris: Librarie Vrin (19641974). De Tracy, D. (1801). Projet d'elements d'ideologie a I'usage des ecoles centrales de la Republique franfaise. Paris. Dillon, G. (1978). Language Processing and the Reading of Literature. Bloomington: Indiana Uni versity Press. Douay, C. (1984). Pour une histoire des theories de 1'enonciation: 'The Theory of Speech and Language'de A.H. Gardiner. In S. Auroux et al (Eds.), Materiaux Pour une Histoire des Theories Linguistiques. Lille: Presses de FUniversite de Lille III. Eldridge, C. (1894). The Lay Preacher's Handbook: first steps in homiletics. London: C. Kelly. Fish, S. (1989). Doing what comes naturally. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. Frege, G. (1979). Posthumous Writings. Oxford: Blackwell.
References
263
Frege, G. (1984). Collected Writings on Mathematics, Logic, and Philosophy. Oxford: Blackwell. Gardiner, A.H. (1919). Some Thoughts on the Subject of Language. Man, January 1919. Gardiner, A.H. (1932). The Theory of Speech and Language. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Gardiner, A.H. (1940). The Theory of Proper Names. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Gardiner, A.H. (1951). The Theory of Speech and Language. (2nd Revised Edition). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Gardiner, B.T. & Gardiner R.A. (197l).Twoway communication with an infant chimpanzee. In A.M. Schrier & F. Stollnitz (Eds.), Behavior of NonHuman Primates. New York: Academic. Garfmkel, H. (1952). The Perception of the Other: A Study in Social Order. Unpublished Ph.D. dis sertation, Harvard University. Garfmkel, H. (1967). Studies in Ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: PrenticeHall. GoldmanEisler, F. (1968). Psycholinguistics. London: Academic Press. Good, D. and Butterworth, B. (1980). Hesitancy as a conversational resource: Some method ological implications. In H. Dechert and M. Raupach (Eds.), Temporal Variables in Speech. The Hague: Mouton. Harris, R. (1973). Synonymy and Linguistic Analysis. Oxford: Blackwell. Harris, R. (1978). Communication and Language, An Inaugural Lecture delivered before the Uni versity of Oxford on February 24, 1978. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Harris, R. (1980). The LanguageMakers. London: Duckworth. Harris, R. (1981). The Language Myth. London: Duckworth. Harris, R. (1984). Must Monkeys Mean? In R.Harre and V. Reynolds (Eds.), The Meaning of Primate Signals, pp. 11637. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Harris, R. (1987). The Language Machine. London: Duckworth. Harris, R. (1995). Signs of Writing. London: Routledge. Harris, R. (1996a). Signs, Language and Communication. London: Routledge. Harris, R. (1996b). Prehistoric moving picture show. The Times Higher Education Supplement. December 20, 1996. Harris, R. and Taylor, TJ. (1989). Landmarks in Linguistic Thought: The Western Tradition from Socrates to Saussure. London: Routledge. (References are to the 2nd edition, 1997). Hayes, C. (1951). The Ape in our House. New York: Harper Brothers. Heritage, J. (1984). Garfmkel and Ethnomethodology. Cambridge: Polity Press. Hobbes, T. (1651). Leviathan. London. Hutton, C. (1990). Abstraction and Instance. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Humboldt, W. von (1836). On language: the diversity of human languagestructure and its influence on the mental development of mankind. English translation by P. Heath. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Jefferson, G. (1972). Side Sequences. In D. Sudnow (Ed.), Studies in Social Interaction. New York: Free Press.
264
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
Jefferson, G. (1973). A case of precision timing in ordinary conversation. Semiotica, 9, 1. Jefferson, G. (1974). Error correction as an interactional resource. Language and Speech, 17. Jordan, M. (Ed.). (1990). The Sixteenth LACUS Forum 1989. Illinois: Linguistic Association of Canada and the United States. Lalljee, M. and Cook, M. (1969). An experimental investigation of the function of filled pauses in speech. Language and Speech, 12. Lee, J.R.E. (1987). Prologue: Talking Organization. In Talk and Social Organization. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Locke, J. (1689a). Letter concerning toleration. London. Locke, J. (1689b). Two Treatises of Government. Peter Laslett (Ed.), 2nd edition 1967. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Locke, J. (1690). Essay concerning human understanding. PH. Nidditch (Ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975. Love, N. (1981). Generative Phonology. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Lucy, J. (1993). Reflexive Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lyons, J. (1981). Language and Linguistics. London: Cambridge University Press. Maclay, H. and Osgood, C. (1959). Hesitation phenomena in spontaneous English speech. Word,15. Martin, J. (1971). Some acoustic and grammatical features of spontaneous speech. In D. Horton and J.Jenkins (Eds.), The Perception of Language. Columbus: Merrill. Newmeyer, F. (1986). The Politics of Linguistics. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Newmeyer, F. (1990). Natural selection and the autonomy of syntax. Behavioral and Brain Sci ences, 13, 745746. Newmeyer, F. (1991). Functional explanation in linguistics and the origins of language. Lan guage & Communication, 11, 338. Noble, W. and Davidson, I. (1996). Human Evolution, Language, and Mind: A psychological and archaeological inquiry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Olson, D.R. (1994). The World on Paper. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Otero, C. (1990). The emergence of homo loquens and the laws of physics. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 13, 747750. PiattelliPalmarini, M. (1989). Evolution, selection and cognition: from "learning" to param eter setting in biology and in the study of language. Cognition, 31, 144. PiattelliPalmarini, M. (1990). An ideological battle over modals and quantifiers. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 13, 752754. Pinker, S. (1994). The Language Instinct. New York: William Morrow and Company. Pinker, S. and Bloom, P. (1990). Natural language and natural selection. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 13, 707727. Plato (1961). Cratylus. In E. Hamilton and H. Cairns (Eds.), The Collected Dialogues of Plato. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
References
265
Premack, D. (1986). Gavagaif Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. Premack, D. (1988). "Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?" revisited. In R. Byrne and A. Whiten (Eds.), Machiavellian Intelligence. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Premack, D. & Woodruff, G. (1978). "Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?" Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 4, 51526. Richardson, J. (1976). The Grammar of Justification. London: Sussex University Press. Ries, J. (1931). Was ist ein Satz? Prague. Riffaterre, M. (1959). Criteria for Style Analysis. Word, 15,1. Riffaterre, M. (1960). Stylistic Context. Word, 16,2. Riffaterre, M. (1966). Describing Poetic Structures. Yale French Studies 367. Robins, R. (1967). A Short History of Linguistics. London: Longman. Rochester, S. (1973). The significance of pauses in spontaneous speech. Journal ofPsycholinguistic Research, 2. Rorty, R. (1989). Contingency, Irony, Solidarity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rousseau, J. (1755). The First and Second Discourses. R.D. andJ.R. Masters (trans). New York: St. Martin's Press. Rumsey, A. (1990). Wording, meaning, and linguistic ideology. American Anthropologist, 92: 346 361. Russon, A., Bard, K., Parker, S. (Eds.). (1996). Reaching into Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Saussure, F. de (1916). Cours de linguistique generate. English translation by R. Harris. London: Duckworth, 1983. (Page references to 2nd edition, 1922). Saussure, F. de (1974). Cours de linguistique generale, vol. 2. Critical edition by R.Engler. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. SavageRumbaugh, E.S. (1986). Ape Language: From Conditioned Response to Symbol. New York: Columbia University Press. SavageRumbaugh, E.S., McDonald, K., Sevcik, R., Hopkins, W, & Rupert, E. (1986). Sponta neous symbol acquisition and communicative use by pygmy chimpanzees. Journal of Experi mental Psychology: General, 115, 211235. SavageRumbaugh, E.S., Murphy, J., Sevcik, R., Brakke, K., Williams, S. and Rumbaugh, Duane M. (1993). Language Comprehension in Ape and Child. In Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, Serial No. 233, Vol.58, Nos. 364. SavageRumbaugh, E.S., Shanker, S., & Taylor, T.J. (in press). Apes, Language and the Human Mind. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Schegloff, E. (1979). The relevance of repair to syntaxforconversation. In T. Givon (Ed.), Discourse and Syntax. New York: Academic Press. Schegloff, E., Jefferson, G., and Sacks, H. (1977). The preference for selfcorrection in the organizationof repair in conversation. Language, 53 (2), 381. Schiffman, H. (1996). Linguistic Culture and Language Policy. London: Routledge. Schiffrin, D. (1994). Approaches to Discourse. Oxford: Blackwell.
266
THEORIZING LANGUAGE
Sebeok, T.A. & UmikerSebeok, J. (1980). Speaking of Apes: A critical anthology of twoway commu nication with man. New York: Plenum. Shanker, S. (1987). Wittgenstein and the TurningPoint in the Philosophy of Mathematics. London: Groom Helm. Shatz, M. (1994). ,4 Toddler's Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Smith, B.H. (1988). Contingencies of Value. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Smith, O. (1984). The Politics of Language, 17911819. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Sperber, D. and Wilson, D. (1986). Relevance: Communication and Cognition. Oxford: Blackwell. Stress, B. (1974). Speaking of Speaking: Tenejapa Tzeltal metalinguistics. In R. Bauman and J. Sherzer (Eds.), Explorations in the Ethnography of Speaking. London: Cambridge University Press. Taylor, TJ. (1979). Style as a Theoretical Problem in Saussurean Linguistics. M. Litt.Thesis. Univer sity of Oxford. Taylor, TJ. (1981). Linguistic Theory and Structural Stylistics. Oxford: Pergamon. Taylor, TJ. (1985). Linguistic origins: Bruner and Condillac on learning to talk. Language & Communication, 4, 209—224. Taylor, TJ. (1986). Do You Understand? Criteria of Understanding in Verbal Interaction. Lan guage & Communication, 6, 3, 17180. Taylor, TJ. (1987). The place of Charles Bally in the Lockean tradition. In H. Aarsleff et al, (Eds.), Papers in the History of Linguistics. Philadelphia and Amsterdam: J. Benjamins. Taylor, TJ. (1990a). Which is to be Master? The Institutionalization of Authority in the Science of Language. In Joseph and Taylor (Eds.), Ideologies of Language. London: Routledge. Taylor, TJ. (1990b). Normativity and Linguistic Form. In Davis and Taylor (Eds.) Redefining Linguistics. London: Routledge. Taylor, TJ. (1990c). Review of F. Newmeyer The Politics of Linguistics. In Language, 66, 1. Taylor, TJ. (1990d). Linguistic Agency and the Normativity of Language. In The Sixteenth LACUS Forum, (M.Jordan, editor), Lake Bluff, 111.: LACUS. Taylor, TJ. (1992). Mutual Misunderstanding: Scepticism and the Theorizing of Language and Inter pretation. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press and London: Routledge. Taylor, TJ. (1993). Why we need a theory of language. In R. Harre and R. Harris (Eds.), Lin guistics and Philosophy: the Controversial Interface, pp.23347. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Taylor, TJ. (Ed.). (1997). The Philosophy of Linguistics. Special issue of Language Sciences, 19, 1. Taylor, TJ. and Cameron, D. (1987). Analysing Conversation: Rules and Units in the Structure of Talk. Oxford: Pergamon. Terrace, H.S. (1979). Nim. New York: Knopf. Tooke, J.H. (1857). The Diversions ofPurley, R. Taylor (Ed.). London: William Tegg. Toolan, M. (1996). Total Speech: An Integrational Linguistic Approach to Language. Durham: Duke University Press. Waismann, F. (1965). The Principles of Linguistic Philosophy, R. Harre (Ed.). London: MacMillan.
References
267
Wallman, J. (1992). Aping Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ward, Lock & Co. (no author listed) (n.d.). Speeches and Toasts: how to make and propose them. London: Ward, Lock & Co. Wellman, H. (1990). The Child's Theory of Mind. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Wimmer, H. &Perner,J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children's understanding of deception, Cognition, 13, 10328. Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical Investigations. Oxford: Blackwell. Wittgenstein, L. (1980). Culture and Value. Oxford: Blackwell. Wolf, G. (Ed.). (1992). New Departures in Linguistics. New York: Garland. Wolf, G. and Love, N. (1997). Linguistics Inside Out. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Yerkes, R. and Learned, B.W. (1925). Chimpanzee Intelligence and Its Vocal Expressions. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.
This page intentionally left blank
Index Agar, M. 23 Aarsleff, H. 7, 80, 123, 133, 205, 213 anthropomorphic Ch. 12 antirealism (communicational) 186189, 197 arbitrariness (of language) 140,149 Atkinson, M. 83 Augustinian picture 64, 7274, 77 Auroux, S. 7
Davidson, I. 258 Davis, H. 2 Derrida, J. 191 determinism, natural 147,155 determinism, social 147 Dillon, G. 95,99 discontinuity (speech) 2935, 37, 40, 42, 45, 47, 6062 Dummett, M. 2,73, 186
Baker, G. P. 7, 17, 64, 73, 76, 84, 122 Bally, C. 93,95105 Bickerton, D. 248,253 Bloomfield, L. 2, 63, 6568, 75, 103 "Fundamental Assumption in Linguis tics" 3335,6768,72,112 Bourdieu, P. 160 Bruner, J. 202205, 208220
emic/etic distinction 4, 5, 18, 23, 37, 3941, 117 enculturation 24, 254, 256, 258259 epistemic perspective 7, 910, 112115, Ch. 6,189 errorcorrection 29 errors, speech 29, 31, 42, 4647, 49, 55, 57 59 ethnomethodology 17, 61, 83, 112, 1767, 195, 197 etymological analysis 131 evolution Ch. 13
Cameron, D. 2, 7, 1415, 58, 112113, 150, 160,164,228 Cheney, D.L. and Seyfarth, R.M. 230231, 233 Chomsky, N. 2, 5, 35, 4547, 63, 73, 137, 143, 146150, 163, 165, 189, 201202, 219,246,250,253 Clark, H. and Clark, E. 4854, 5960 commonsense picture of language 170181, 189,225227,231 communicational order, problem of 193 Condillac, E.B. 7, 80, 173, 189, 200, 204 208, 212, 218220, 243245, 248249, 253 conversation analysis Ch. 6, 190 criteria 7989 Crowley, T. 2, 163 Crystal, D. 30 Darwin, C. 236, 242, 249250 Darwinism 2456
Fish, S. 191 folk linguistics/folk beliefs Ch. 9 form of life 2129 Frege, G. 63,174175 Garfinkel, H. 9, 17, 194196 generative linguistics 146149, 161,202, 245,250 generative theory 201, 245250, 253 GoldmanEisler, F. 3941,43,59 Good, D. 59 grammaire generate 205 Hacker, P.M.S. 17, 64, 73, 76,122 Harris, R. 2, 3, 6, 810, 19, 24, 40, 44, 57 58, 66, 80, 94, 122, 144145, 150, 243, 255,259
270
INDEX
Heritage, J. 10, 17, 83, 176177, 195197 hesitation 4041 Hobbes,T. 183 Humboldt, W. von 24 Hutton, C. 2, 5 ideal speaker 4548 ideal delivery 4850, 59 intersubjectivity 81, 84, 91, Ch. 5, 101, 104 107,118,148149,153,161 Jakobson, R. 95,99 Jefferson, G. 60 Kanzi 252253,256,258 LAD 203204,208,212,214216 Lalljee, M. 59 language mavenry 13 language acquisition 47, Ch. 11 language, origin of 200, 219, Ch. 13 language gap 246, 248249, 251, 253, 260 language form 18, 2324, Ch. 8 language myth 3, 16, 150 languageasweknowit 106, 253, 257 LASS 203204,210,214217 linguistic ideology 22 linguistic culture 22 linguistic analysis 4, 24, 150, 162 Locke, J. 7, 73, 7982, 8688, 91, 123137, 140145, 148149, 150, 173, 189, 199, 206
Locke's Puzzle 199201, 206, 218219 Love, N. 2 Lucy, J. 10 Lyons, J. 2, 53 Maclay, H. and Osgood, C. 49, 59 Martin,J. 3637,40 material artifacts 259 measuring/measurement 1721, 23723 8 metacommunicational discourse Ch. 10 metadiscourse 1014, 1718, 21, 25, 33, 178179, Ch. 10,257 metalinguistic 3435,70, 121, 140, 145, 224-225, 230, 232-235
moster mutation hypothesis 253 motherese 214 Newmeyer, F. 122, 163, 246247, 253 Noble, W. 258 normative, normativity 1118, Ch. 6, Ch. 8 operational definition 234235 Otero, C. 246 PiattelliPalmarini, M. 246 Pinker, S. 13,246247,250,253 Plato 157,220 pragmatics 176,214,217 Principle of Intersubjectivity 2, 3, 67, 98, 102107, 113 realism (communicational) 190192 reflexive, reflexivity 1012, 18, 2123, 25 26, 70, Ch. 6, Ch. 10, 205, 257260 repair 61 rhetoric 4245, 54, 169, Ch. 9, 188, 220, 235,237239, 260 Rousseau, J. 253 Rumsey, A. 22 Saussure, F. de 2, 46, 16, 54, 63, 73, 81, 95, 101, 117, 139, 143147, 149150, 160 165, 174, 187, 199 SavageRumbaugh, E.S. 26, 233, 251, 253, 258 scepticism 170171, Ch. 10, Ch. 12 Schegloff,E. 60,176 Schiffman, H. 22 Schiffrin, D. 4 scriptism 52, 55, 5962 Shanker, S. 17,26,251,258 Smith, B.H. 186,193194 Smith, O. 123 social order 183,193194 Sperber, D. and Wilson, D. 175176 Stross, B. 3435 stylistics 95107 systeme expressif 9698 telementation 3, 91
INDEX Tooke,J.H. 81, 123, 1128137 Toolan, M. 2, 19 types/tokens 57, 34, 65, 7071, 112 verbal hygiene 1314 voluntariness (of language) 121, 140, 145 149 Wallman,J. 235 Wittgenstein, L. 7, 9, 11, 17, 18, 26, Ch. 3, 63,83,87,98,106,151 Wolf,G. 2 "grammar" (Wittgenstein's notion) 17, 87
271