The US Home Front 1941-45

Elite

OSPREY PUBLISHING

The US H o m e Front 1941-45

A l e j a n d r o de Q u e s a d a • Illustrated by Stephen W a l s h

CONTENTS 3

INTRODUCTION

• T h e impact o f W o r l d War II: public m o o d - saving and recycling - rationing - clothing - e m p l o y m e n t - sports - internment

9

ENEMY ACTION & HOMEGROWN FASCISM • U-boats - Japanese shelling, b o m b i n g and balloons ALEJANDRO DE QUESADA, a F l o r i d a - b a s e d military

• T h e German-American B u n d

history w r i t e r , is a n experienced researcher and c o l l e c t o r of m i l i t a r i a , p h o t o s and documents and runs an archive as a secondary business, with a strong Hispanic-American content.

13

HOME DEFENSE & PRE-MILITARY TRAINING • Office o f Civil Defense - Reserve Officers Training Corps Civilian Military Training Camps • State Defense Forces

He has written 12 books and o v e r 5 0 a r t i c l e s , including Elite 1 3 7 : The Revolution

Mexican 1910-20.

19

PATRIOTIC SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS • United Service Organizations - Daughters o f the Defenders o f

H e is a l e a d i n g a u t h o r i t y on

the R e p u b l i c - A m e r i c a n W o m e n ' s Voluntary Services - Bundles

Spanish-American subjects.

for A m e r i c a - National Security W o m e n ' s Corps - National W o m e n ' s C o u n c i l o f the Navy League

HUMANITARIAN ORGANIZATIONS

25

• A m e r i c a n R e d Cross - Public Health Service - A m e r i c a n W o m e n ' s Hospitals Reserve Corps - W o m e n ' s A m b u l a n c e 8c Defense C o r p s o f A m e r i c a - Junior American Nurse Ine A m e r i c a n Field Service

MARITIME SERVICES

31

• Army Transport Service - Coast & G e o d e t i c Survey STEPHEN WALSH studied

M e r c h a n t Marine - US Coast Guard Auxiliary

a r t a t t h e N o r t h East W a l e s Institute. Since then he h a s w o r k e d m a i n l y for t h e A m e r i c a n historical b o a r d -

AERONAUTICAL SERVICES

45

• Air Transport C o m m a n d - British Flying Training Schools -

g a m e m a r k e t , fulfilling

Civil Air Patrol - Relief Wings Ine - W o m e n ' s Auxiliary Ferrying

a lifelong i n t e r e s t in historical

S q u a d r o n - W o m e n ' s Airforce Service Pilots

s u b j e c t s . His A m e r i c a n w o r k s include the best-selling Settlers

of Catan.

He has

also p r o d u c e d m a n y p i e c e s of a r t w o r k inspired by J R R T o l k i e n . H e is m a r r i e d w i t h

THE WORKFORCE

51

• Civilian Conservation C o r p s - "Rosie the Riveter": W o m e n O r d n a n c e Workers - W o m e n ' s Land Army

t w o c h i l d r e n a n d lives in M a c c l e s f i e l d .

CHILDREN AT WAR

54

• Boy & Girl Scouts - Victory C o r p s

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

57

PLATE COMMENTARIES

59

INDEX

64

Elite •

161

The US H o m e Front 1941-45

A l e j a n d r o de Q u e s a d a • Illustrated by Stephen W a l s h Consultant

editor

Martin W i n d r o w

Acknowledgments

First published in Great Britain in 2 0 0 8 b y Osprey Publishing, M i d l a n d House, West Way, Botley, O x f o r d 0 X 2 OPH, U K 4 4 3 Park A v e n u e S o u t h , N e w York, NY 10016, U S A E-mail: [email protected]

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I would like to thank the following individuals and institutions who have contributed to making this book possible: Jack and Maggie Grothe, Tony Petruso, Marc Kohlbaum, Alex Solera, Mark Kasal, Martin Windrow, AdeQ Historical Archives, Jefferson Barracks, The American Red Cross, The American Field Service, Civil Air Patrol, United States Coast Guard Auxiliary, National Archives, United States Public Health Service, Pinellas County Historical Commission, Walt Disney Productions, United Services Organizations (USO), National Geodetic Survey, The Boy Scouts of America, The Girl Scouts of America, National Association of Civilian Conservation Corps Alumni, and The Company of Military Historians.

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Editor: Martin W i n d r o w Page layout b y Ken Vail G r a p h i c Design, C a m b r i d g e , U K

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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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THE US HOME FRONT 1941-45

INTRODUCTION

T

* h e rapid fall o f France to the G e r m a n Blitzkrieg invasion o f M a y - J u n e 1940 s h o o k b u t d i d n o t d e s t r o y the s t r o n g isolationist, e v e n pacifist s e n t i m e n t a m o n g the A m e r i c a n p u b l i c . Suddenly, Great Britain s t o o d a l o n e against Nazi G e r m a n y , a n d l o o k e d toward the U n i t e d States f o r s u p p o r t - w h i c h was given, in the f o r m o f vitally n e e d e d supplies s h i p p e d o n a "buy n o w , pay later" basis. As early as 1939 patriotic a n d service o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a d b e g u n to spring u p across the U n i t e d States in anticipation o f the war s p r e a d i n g , a n d these efforts r e d o u b l e d as the r e p o r t s o f the Battle o f Britain a n d the b o m b i n g o f British cities w e r e r e p o r t e d by A m e r i c a n radio correspondents into American h o m e s . President Franklin D. R o o s e v e l t was criticized by m a n y as a w a r - m o n g e r f o r his patient efforts to carry the p e o p l e with h i m in t u r n i n g the U n i t e d States i n t o the "great arsenal o f d e m o c r a c y " d u r i n g 1940 a n d 1941; b u t at the s t u n n i n g news o f the J a p a n e s e attack o n Pearl H a r b o r o n Sunday, D e c e m b e r 7, 1941 patriotic f e e l i n g s o a r e d in A m e r i c a n society, a n d the U n i t e d States b e c a m e fully c o m m i t t e d to t h e war against the dictatorships. A m e r i c a n s ' willingness to carry o u t blackout and civil defense drills; to save everyday materials for recycling; to work l o n g e r hours, while having fewer c o n s u m e r g o o d s to buy with their salaries all these d e m o n s t r a t e d the n a t i o n ' s strong support for the war. T h e r e were more fundamental changes than these habits o f thrift: W o r l d War II b r o u g h t a b o u t a political, psychological and e c o n o m i c shift to the right in the United States. T h e preparations f o r waging a w o r l d war b r o u g h t n e w life into d e p r e s s e d a n d d o r m a n t c o m m u n i t i e s across the country. T h e o u t b r e a k o f W o r l d War II saw e n o r m o u s n u m b e r s o f n e w military airfields a n d o t h e r bases established in many states. T h e Southeast r e g i o n b e c a m e the main focal p o i n t f o r training fighter a n d b o m b e r aircrews, a n d the n e e d f o r m o r e airfields f o r c e d the military to c o n v e r t m a n y sleepy c o u n t y a i r p o r t s i n t o f u n c t i o n i n g military facilities.

W o r l d W a r I v e t e r a n s of t h e A m e r i c a n Legion and t h e Canadian Legion are reunited in St P e t e r s b u r g , Florida, for a p a t r i o t i c f u n d r a i s e r . (Pinellas County Historical Commission)

For instance, at the b e g i n n i n g o f 1940 there were just eight military installations in the state o f Florida; by 1943 there were 172. T h e federal g o v e r n m e n t e n c o u r a g e d Americans to conserve and recycle all materials that c o u l d b e used for wartime p r o d u c t i o n . It turned o u t that lots o f everyday h o u s e h o l d trash had value: kitchen fats, o l d metal shovels, even empty metal lipstick tubes. T h e federal g o v e r n m e n t also c o m p e l l e d Americans to cut back o n foodstuffs and c o n s u m e r g o o d s , and ration cards b e c a m e necessary to purchase such staples as c o f f e e , sugar, and meat. T h e rationing o f gasoline and vehicle tires was particularly shocking in a nation o f h u g e distances and a tradition o f f r e e d o m to travel. Virtually all kinds o f manufactured metal g o o d s b e c a m e hard to replace. T h e s e wartime shortages caused a m o u n t i n g frustation, since they c a m e at a time o f high levels o f e m p l o y m e n t : for the first time in years p e o p l e had m o n e y to spend, but there were few g o o d s available for purchase. W h e n the war finally came to a close in 1945 and industries returned to c o n s u m e r p r o d u c t i o n , Americans w o u l d g o o n a buying spree o f u n p r e c e d e n t e d proportions. T h e necessities o f war even i n f l u e n c e d American fashion. In the spring o f 1942 the War P r o d u c t i o n Board b e c a m e the nation's premier clothing consultant by dictating styles for civilian apparel that would c o n s e r v e cloth for the war effort. For e x a m p l e , menswear rid itself o f vests, e l b o w patches o n jackets, and cuffs o n pants. W o m e n ' s clothing was also r e d e s i g n e d to use fewer materials, and skirts b e c a m e shorter and narrower. De rigueur for patriotic w o m e n were efficient, two-piece bathing suits, which created the biggest public stir since Mrs Amelia B l o o m e r ; Mr Marcus o f the famous Nieman-Marcus department store called these swimsuits "patriotic c h i c . "

The n a t i o n at w o r k T h e war provided an excuse to abolish segments o f the New Deal. Conservative politicians had f o u g h t against these agencies for years, but now that President Roosevelt was focusing o n winning a war instead o f r e f o r m i n g society, they c o u l d slash f u n d i n g f o r the Civilian Conservation Corps ( C C C ) , Works Projects Administration ( W P A ) , and National Youth Administration (NYA). Congress had always i n t e n d e d these p r o g r a m s to h e l p those A m e r i c a n s w h o s u f f e r e d j o b discrimination, even during favorable e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s , so their demise was especially hard o n African Americans, w o m e n , and the elderly. With the elimination o f many New Deal p r o g r a m s , poverty increased for many Americans even at a time o f rising wages. Still, for a great part o f the working p o p u l a t i o n the wartime e c o n o m y b r o u g h t about full e m p l o y m e n t and, in d o i n g so, achieved what New Deal programs had b e e n unable to d o . In 1940, 8 million Americans were u n e m p l o y e d ; during that year, however, this surplus almost disappeared. T h e high wages offered by many rapidly e x p a n d i n g industries s u c k e d in workers f r o m o t h e r parts o f the c o u n t r y , particularly f r o m p o o r rural areas; this, in c o m b i n a t i o n with military enlistments, left these sectors suffering f r o m serious shortages o f labor, with dire c o n s e q u e n c e s for many farming families - even t h o u g h the g o v e r n m e n t was purchasing e n o r m o u s quantities o f s o m e foodstuffs. A n o t h e r hardship was the c h r o n i c lack o f h o u s i n g for the new workers, which meant that many m e n w h o f o u n d work in war p r o d u c t i o n factories planted in formerly small c o m m u n i t i e s in o t h e r states were unable to bring their families with them. Wives and families Despite these m o v e m e n t s o f p o p u l a t i o n , s o m e industries were still short o f vital hands, and this led to m o r e and m o r e w o m e n taking u p factory j o b s that had o n c e b e e n reserved for m e n by the labor unions. "Rosie the Riveter" b e c a m e a p o p u l a r A m e r i c a n i c o n , and by 1945 w o m e n

J u n e 1 9 4 2 : a housewife gives a p o u n d w e i g h t of s a l v a g e d , s i e v e d cooking fat back to her butcher for r e c y c l i n g . ( P h o t o A n n R o s e n e r ; Library of C o n g r e s s P r i n t s & P h o t o g r a p h s Division)

m a d e u p 36 p e r c e n t o f the nation's total workforce. T h e new freedoms and temptations o f wartime led to many family breakdowns, illegitimate births, hasty marriages and divorces. A m o r e positive c o n s e q u e n c e is less often r e m e m b e r e d : w h e n m e n answered the military draft o r traveled to where the work was to b e f o u n d , many left b e h i n d wives w h o had to fend for themselves. T h e s e w o m e n often p o o l e d their efforts in raising their families, f o r m i n g into g r o u p s and sharing such chores as c o o k i n g , h o u s e w o r k , a n d laundry. Many w h o h a d y o u n g c h i l d r e n shared apartments and houses in o r d e r to save time, money, utilities and f o o d . If b o t h w o r k e d , they w o r k e d different shifts so they c o u l d take turns babysitting. For many, this sharing and c o o p e r a t i o n b o r n out o f the d e m a n d s p l a c e d o n the w o m e n o f W o r l d War II created life-long b o n d s among them. Life o n the h o m e front b r o u g h t special challenges as those left b e h i n d by the disruption o f families had to c o p e with rationing a n d shortages; m a n y everyday necessities were scarce o r simply unobtainable. Families with children were constantly worried about their little o n e s falling sick; if they were in work, they might be better able than ever b e f o r e to pay d o c t o r bills, but illnesses that were readily treatable during n o r m a l times often b e c a m e serious because o f a g e n e r a l shortage o f pharmaceuticals a n d o t h e r m e d i c a l supplies diverted for military use - particularly antibiotics such as penicillin. But support for the soldiers overseas never lagged. S o m e p e o p l e g o t rich f r o m the wartime b o o m , but the great majority simply kept working

patiently, all o f them making their contribution to the eventual victory. In the process, they c h a n g e d the A m e r i c a n workplace forever. T h e war t h r e a t e n e d the h a r m o n y a n d m o r a l e o f A m e r i c a n s , a n d g o v e r n m e n t authorities h a d to figure o u t what they c o u l d d o a b o u t it. During the early days o f the war baseball hardly s e e m e d a priority, b u t it was j u d g e d to b e i m p o r t a n t f o r p u b l i c m o r a l e by P r e s i d e n t Roosevelt. O n January 15, 1942 the President issued the " G r e e n L i g h t " letter a n d i n f o r m e d Baseball C o m m i s s i o n e r K e n n e s a w Mountain Landis that the 1942 m a j o r l e a g u e baseball season s h o u l d p r o c e e d . (However, injuries a n d military service d e c i m a t e d the rosters o f many m a j o r league teams.) W h e n the ballplayers w e n t o f f to fight, many w o m e n e n t e r e d baseball w h e n the All A m e r i c a n Girls Professional Baseball L e a g u e ( A A G P B L ) was f o r m e d . T h e w o m e n kept baseball alive at a time w h e n p u b l i c interest w o u l d o t h e r w i s e have w a n e d b e c a u s e o f the war. Eventually, training c a m p s f o r the league were established in Havana, C u b a , a n d Fort L a u d e r d a l e , Florida. T h e A A G P B L c e a s e d to exist after 1954, b u t in r e c e n t years there has b e e n s o m e increase in the p u b l i c ' s awareness o f w o m e n ' s role in baseball b e c a u s e o f the 1992 film A League of Their Own. A p e r m a n e n t e x h i b i t h i g h l i g h t i n g the r o l e o f w o m e n in baseball n o w stands in the Baseball Hall o f F a m e .

A J a p a n e s e - A m e r i c a n U S Navy v e t e r a n of W o r l d W a r I d e f i a n t l y w e a r s his old u n i f o r m a n d A m e r i c a n Legion cap as he r e p o r t s t o f e d e r a l officials for relocation and internment in t h e a f t e r m a t h of P e a r l Harbor. M a n y Nisei

families

lost e v e r y t h i n g d u r i n g t h e i r

The i n t e r n m e n t of t h e

Nisei

T h e saddest aspect o f life in the U n i t e d States was the i n t e r n m e n t o f Japanese-Americans - a harsh measure w h i c h few o t h e r A m e r i c a n s challenged in the a t m o s p h e r e o f paranoia immediately following Pearl

internment; family businesses collapsed, and they were forced t o sell up t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s a t short notice for w h a t e v e r they could get. (National Archives)

Harbor. In February 1942 the US g o v e r n m e n t f o r c e d the relocation o f all Japanese-Americans f r o m the West Coast, a r e g i o n that Roosevelt a n d o t h e r political and military leaders c o n s i d e r e d vulnerable. T h e g o v e r n m e n t established ten i n t e r n m e n t camps in Arkansas, Arizona, California, C o l o r a d o , I d a h o , Utah, and W y o m i n g , which held a total o f 100,000 persons o f Japanese ancestry, many o f w h o m were United States citizens. After his reelection in 1944, Roosevelt c a n c e l e d the evacuation o r d e r and the g o v e r n m e n t closed the camps, but m u c h o f the h u m a n d a m a g e was irreversible. T h e g r o w t h of e x e c u t i v e

power

During the war there were changes in the c o m p o s i t i o n o f the federal bureaucracy. As the federal g o v e r n m e n t c o n t i n u e d to cut funding for social programs, many idealists in Roosevelt's "brains trust" b e c a m e disillusioned a n d left their posts. Business executives with g o o d managerial skills, but little interest in social r e f o r m , quickly filled this political v a c u u m in FDR's administration: the priorities n o w had to be p r o d u c t i o n and organization for the war effort. T h e magazine Business Week r e p o r t e d cheerfully: " T h e war has placed a p r e m i u m o n business talents rather than o n 'brain-trusters' and theoreticians. Businessmen are m o v i n g u p in the New Deal Administration and are replacing the New Dealers as they g o . " F r o m 1940 to 1945, the n u m b e r o f civilian e m p l o y e e s working for the federal g o v e r n m e n t rose f r o m 1 million to nearly 4 million. T h e war also accelerated the growth o f executive power. At war's e n d , the President and his advisors, m o r e than Congress, s e e m e d to drive the n a t i o n ' s d o m e s t i c a n d f o r e i g n a g e n d a . F u r t h e r m o r e , the S u p r e m e C o u r t refused to hear cases that challenged this increase in executive authority.

W i t h a minute n u m b e r of individual exceptions, t h e only w a y Wehrmacht

s e r v i c e m e n got

onto US soil w a s as prisoners of w a r shipped back to c a m p s in A m e r i c a - like this class photographed during an English lesson at C a m p Blanding, Florida. M o s t P O W s w e r e decently t r e a t e d , though US government inquiries did identify a n u m b e r of c a s e s of serious a b u s e . (National Archives)

ENEMY ACTION & HOMEGROWN FASCISM

A Japanese miniature submarine, c a p t u r e d in H a w a i i in t h e a f t e r m a t h of P e a r l Harbor, is s e e n a s p a r t of a t r a v e l i n g

Because o f the United States' geographical isolation, separated by the width o f the Atlantic and Pacific O c e a n s f r o m the battlefronts, s o m e thought that the nation was safe; however, the war did reach its shores. In January 1942, G e r m a n submarines arrived o f f the Atlantic Coast; n o serious consideration had b e e n given to the p r o t e c t i o n o f coastal shipping, which i n c l u d e d the regular passage o f oil tankers f r o m the Gulf coast northwards. By night the U-boat c o m m a n d e r s c o u l d see their targets outlined against the u n d i m m e d lights o f the seashore towns, and by May they had already sunk 180 vessels. ( T h e y called these m o n t h s "the s e c o n d happy time," since it recalled their massacre o f British shipping in the western Atlantic following the G e r m a n capture o f the French Atlantic ports in s u m m e r 1940.) S o m e o f the U-boat engagements offshore c o u l d b e seen right f r o m the beaches. M e m b e r s o f the Coast Guard Auxiliary r e s p o n d e d to the sinking vessels, rescuing those w h o were f o r c e d to a b a n d o n ship, but many seamen d r o w n e d o r were badly b u r n e d . In addition, G e r m a n submarines (U-202 and U-584) offloaded two teams o f saboteurs and explosives o n the b e a c h e s o f Amagansett, L o n g Island, and Ponte Vedra, Florida. Even the West Coast had its share o f e n e m y incursions, although the only serious operation was the Japanese invasion o f the Aleutian Islands off the coast o f Alaska. T h e carrier air raids and landings o n the Aleutians took place in early J u n e 1942, in an attempt to split US Navy forces during the Battle o f Midway; the Japanese garrisons presented only a low-priority threat, however, and were allowed to remain until April-May 1943, when Attu was retaken in hard fighting and Kiska was a b a n d o n e d by the Japanese. Enemy activity against the mainland was m o r e alarming than dangerous, though it inevitably tied d o w n s o m e US resources in precautionary response. T h e Imperial Japanese Navy submarine 1-17 shelled Ellwood oil refinery at Geleta o n the Californian coast o n February 23, 1942. A radio station o n Estevan Point, Vancouver Island, Canada, was fired o n by the Japanese submarine 1-26 o n J u n e 20, 1942,

display s e n t a r o u n d t h e c o u n t r y a s a m e a n s of raising m o n e y for W a r B o n d s .

and the next day the 1-25 shelled Fort Stevens, O r e g o n . In September p h o s p h o r u s b o m b s w e r e d r o p p e d o n Mt Emily, ten miles northeast o f B r o o k i n g s , O r e g o n , to start forest fires; the aircraft responsible was a Yokosuka E14Y1 " G l e n " reconnaissance seaplane piloted by Lt N u b u o Fujita, w h o had b e e n catapulted f r o m the d e c k o f the 1-25. P h o s p h o r u s b o m b i n g s were repeated o n the southern coast o f O r e g o n a few weeks later. Balloon

US government law enforcement a n d military p e r s o n n e l e x a m i n i n g o n e of t h e t h o u s a n d s of J a p a n e s e balloon b o m b s s e n t drifting a c r o s s t h e Pacific. T h i s o n e - like m o s t of t h o s e r e c o v e r e d - c a m e d o w n in o p e n c o u n t r y ; t h e d a m a g e t h e y did w a s negligible. (National Archives)

bombs

Between N o v e m b e r 1944 and April 1945, J a p a n l a u n c h e d o v e r 9,000 i n c e n d i a r y b a l l o o n s toward the A m e r i c a n mainland. C a r r i e d by the Pacific Jetstream, these b a l l o o n s were to sail over the Pacific O c e a n a n d l a n d in N o r t h A m e r i c a , w h e r e the Japanese h o p e d they w o u l d start forest fires a n d wreak devastation. A b o u t 300 were r e p o r t e d as r e a c h i n g N o r t h A m e r i c a , but little d a m a g e was c a u s e d . Six p e o p l e - five c h i l d r e n and a w o m a n , Elsie Mitchell - b e c a m e the only deaths d u e to e n e m y action to o c c u r in m a i n l a n d A m e r i c a d u r i n g W o r l d War II w h e n a b a l l o o n e x p l o d e d while o n e o f the c h i l d r e n was trying to r e c o v e r it f r o m a tree near Bly, O r e g o n . A n o t h e r e x p l o d e d in O m a h a , Nebraska, with little effect. Recently released R C M P a n d Canadian military reports indicate that fire b a l l o o n s g o t as far i n l a n d as the rural area n e a r Ituna, Saskatchewan. In all the Japanese fire b a l l o o n s were f o u n d in the states o f Alaska, W a s h i n g t o n , O r e g o n , California, A r i z o n a , I d a h o , M o n t a n a , Utah, W y o m i n g , C o l o r a d o , Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, N o r t h Dakota, M i c h i g a n , a n d Iowa, as well as in M e x i c o and C a n a d a . T h e last k n o w n discovery o f a viable b a l l o o n in North A m e r i c a was in 1955 - its payload still lethal after 10 years o f c o r r o s i o n . A n o n - l e t h a l b a l l o o n b o m b was d i s c o v e r e d in Alaska as late as 1992. The G e r m a n - A m e r i c a n Bund N o t all e n e m i e s were o f f s h o r e , however; s o m e were h o m e g r o w n . Various c o m m u n i s t , fascist, a n d o t h e r potentially subversive organizations existed in the U n i t e d States prior to America's entry into the war. T h e s e i n c l u d e d organizations such as the American NationalSocialist Party, Christian Front, T h e Ultra-American, Nationalist Party, Friends o f N e w Germany, T h e Gray Shirts, German-American Bund, A m e r i c a First C o m m i t t e e , A n g l o - S a x o n F e d e r a t i o n o f A m e r i c a , N a t i o n a l W o r k e r s L e a g u e , A m e r i c a n Patriots, Crusaders for A m e r i c a n i s m , Paul Revere Sentinels, a n d Ku Klux Klan. Known collectively as "fifth columnists" in the j a r g o n o f the 1930s (the r e f e r e n c e dated f r o m the Spanish Civil W a r ) , these organizations sought to u n d e r m i n e US neutrality by giving tacit o r overt support to the Axis. O f these, the G e r m a n - A m e r i c a n Bund attracted the most attention f r o m the Federal Bureau o f Investigation (FBI).

In May 1933 R u d o l f Hess, Deputy Fuhrer o f the NSDAP ( G e r m a n Nazi party), authorized the f o r m a t i o n o f an A m e r i c a n Nazi party to b e known as the "Friends o f New G e r m a n y ; " with assistance f r o m the German consul in New York City, the organization c a m e into existence u n d e r the leadership o f Heinz S p a n k n o b e l . T h e organization e n g a g e d in pro-Nazi activities which i n c l u d e d the storming o f a G e r m a n language newspaper, the New Yorker Staats-Zeitung, to d e m a n d that m o r e articles sympathetic to the Nazi cause b e printed. Eventually S p a n k n o b e l was ousted and d e p o r t e d as a "foreign agent." T h e Friends o f New Germany were openly supported by Hitler's g o v e r n m e n t until, in 1935, Nazi officials realized that the organization was d o i n g m o r e h a r m than g o o d . Hess recalled the leaders to G e r m a n y and the g r o u p d i s b a n d e d in D e c e m b e r 1935. In its place, many f o r m e r m e m b e r s o f the "Friends" f o r m e d a new organization in March 1936 in Buffalo, New York; this was called the Amerikadeutscher Volksbund o r German-American L e a g u e . Fritz K u h n , a f o r m e r veteran o f the Kaiser's army during W o r l d War I, b e c a m e the organization's Bundesleiter, u n d e r his leadership the o r g a n i z a t i o n b e c a m e united and its m e m b e r s h i p grew. A quarter o f the League's m e m b e r s h i p were o f G e r m a n nationality, but the majority were first- and second-generation German immigrants. T h e German-American Bund m i m i c k e d the Nazi organization with their version o f a u n i f o r m e d Hitler Youth, to educate its m e m b e r s in G e r m a n culture language, history, and literature - as well as indoctrinating them with Nazi ideology. In addition, the League formed an Ordnungsdienst ( O D ) that b e c a m e its militant arm; O D m e m b e r s w o r e uniforms based o n those o f the early Brownshirts ( S A ) . Rallies were s o o n b e i n g held regularly; the Bund created recreational camps such as camps Nordland (NewJersey), Siegfried (New Y o r k ) , and H i n d e n b u r g ( W i s c o n s i n ) ; and G e r m a n beerhalls in C h i c a g o and Milwaukee were frequent venues for local League meetings. Anti-Semitic attacks by Bundists increased, and the German Foreign Ministry c o m m e n t e d that the Bund was n o different from the earlier Friends o f New Germany. In 1936 a delegation o f Bundists led by Kuhn traveled to Berlin for the S u m m e r Olympics, and Kuhn and his followers were invited for a meeting and p h o t o opportunity with A d o l f Hitler at the Reichs Chancellery. While it was n o t the intention o f the G e r m a n Fuhrer, Kuhn exploited every opportunity to use the p h o t o g r a p h s as e v i d e n c e o f an endorsement o f his position as Bundesfuhrer o f the United States; consequently, the United States authorities began to believe there was

During a m e e t i n g of t h e Congressional C o m m i t t e e o n U n - A m e r i c a n Activities, C o n g r e s s m a n M a r t i n D i e s is photographed with a former m e m b e r of t h e G e r m a n - A m e r i c a n Bund w e a r i n g t h e u n i f o r m of t h e movement's (See P l a t e A.)

Frauenschaft.

AMERICA CALLING

a significant relationship between the Third Reich and the German-American Bund. In 1937 the FBI investigated allegations that 200,000 Bundists were ready to take up arms against the US government. Although they f o u n d n o evidence for this fantastic claim, in 1938 Martin Dies o f the H o u s e UnAmerican Activities Committee investigated the organization. H e claimed - wildly - that the Bund had 480,000 members; in fact, at its peak in 1938, it had only about 8,500 members and an additional 5,000 or so sympathizers.

T h e Federal G o v e r n m e n t ' s attention o n the Bund was n o t c o n s i d e r e d a p r o b l e m by G e r m a n g o v e r n m e n t officials in the United States. T h e G e r m a n ambassador, Hans H e i n r i c h Dieckhoff, believed that the League w o u l d never succeed because many GermanAmericans living in the United States were as i n d i f f e r e n t to politics as their A m e r i c a n c o u n t e r p a r t s . W h i l e the Bund was b e i n g investigated as a p u p p e t organization serving the ends o f A d o l f Hitler, in fact the Third Reich gave only the most limited financial or even verbal support to the m o v e m e n t , though CONSULT YOUR NEAREST DEFENSE COUNCIL there were s o m e unofficial contacts. In order to appease the United States, o n March 1, 1938 the German government firmly declared that n o G e r m a n citizen c o u l d be a (Library of C o n g r e s s Prints & m e m b e r o f the Bund and that Nazi e m b l e m s were n o t to be e m p l o y e d P h o t o g r a p h s Division.) by t h organization. Kuhn requested a meeting in Berlin with an aide

Take your place in

CIVILIAN DEFENSE e

f r o m the Reichs Chancellery and appealed for this decision to be reversed, but was told that the a n n o u n c e m e n t was final. T h e G e r m a n - A m e r i c a n L e a g u e h e l d their largest rally ever in New York's M a d i s o n Square G a r d e n in February 1939. A c r o w d o f 22,000 a t t e n d e d , a n d a d e t a c h m e n t o f 3,000 O D m e n p r o v i d e d security for the rally a n d f o r Fritz K u h n . T h e Bundesleiter, u n d e r a massive portrait o f G e o r g e W a s h i n g t o n a n d oversized A m e r i c a n flags, m a d e a speech attacking the President, calling h i m "Frank D. R o s e n f e l d , " and accusing the federal g o v e r n m e n t o f c o n s p i r i n g with "Bolsheviks." Following the rally K u h n was arrested by the N e w York District A t t o r n e y f o r f o r g e r y a n d larceny; this arrest and K u h n ' s subsequent i m p r i s o n m e n t m a r k e d the b e g i n n i n g o f the e n d for the organization. G e r h a r d Kunze was n a m e d the n e w Bundesleiter, but because o f political infighting a n d negative p u b l i c p e r c e p t i o n the m e m b e r s h i p b e g a n to d e c l i n e . T h e Bund was dissolved o n D e c e m b e r 8, 1941, the day after the attack o n Pearl H a r b o r . Following G e r m a n y ' s declaration o f war with the U n i t e d States, federal officials raided the h o m e s and businesses o f Bund leaders. Many were arrested f o r "subversive activities," i n c l u d i n g G e r h a r d K u n z e , w h o was a p p r e h e n d e d in M e x i c o a n d served a 15-year s e n t e n c e . For c o n s p i r i n g to violate the 1940 Selective Service A c t , 24 Bundists were arrested a n d served time in

prison. S o m e Bund leaders c o m m i t t e d suicide b e f o r e federal officials caught u p with t h e m ; o t h e r m e m b e r s h a d their A m e r i c a n citizenship revoked, but the majority were left a l o n e . By J u n e 1942 the last signs o f the Bund disappeared. After the war Fritz K u h n was d e p o r t e d by the United States to Germany, w h e r e h e d i e d as a " p e r s o n a n o n grata" in 1951.

T h e b a s i c Civil D e f e n s e a r m b a n d insignia w a s a r e d " C D " on a w h i t e triangle on a

HOME DEFENSE & PRE-MILITARY TRAINING

blue disc, but other e m b l e m s r e p l a c e d t h e l e t t e r s t o identify specialist personnel. Some of t h o s e i l l u s t r a t e d h e r e a r e

O f f i c e of C i v i l i a n D e f e n s e ( O C D ) T h e O C D was established o n May 20, 1941 to c o o r d i n a t e federal, state, and local defense programs for the p r o t e c t i o n o f civilians during air raids and other e m e r g e n c i e s , and to facilitate civilian participation in war programs. As an administrative aid, the national O C D organization was divided i n t o n i n e r e g i o n a l o f f i c e s , c o i n c i d e n t with A r m y C o m m a n d s . These offices a d o p t e d and e x p l a i n e d national p r o g r a m s and offered expert technical advice, but did n o t actually carry them o u t - that was left to states and c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e local D e f e n s e C o u n c i l was the central p l a n n i n g a n d coordinating b o d y for all programs relating to c o m m u n i t y and civilian war effort. As such, it had the responsibility o f mobilizing all forces in the c o m m u n i t y which c o u l d h e l p protect the c o m m u n i t y and prosecute the war. T h e responsibility e x t e n d e d to the mobilization o f civilian volunteers; the Defense C o u n c i l carried o u t this charge t h r o u g h the establishment o f a Volunteer Office, and the a p p o i n t m e n t o f a C o m m a n d e r o f the Citizens D e f e n s e C o r p s a n d an Executive o f the Citizens Service Corps, to which volunteers were referred. With the e n d o f the war the O C D was abolished in June 1945 - only to b e revived during the Cold War. T h e Civil Defense symbol, consisting o f a red " C D " o n a white triangle within a blue circle, was created in 1939 by Charles T. Coiner, art d i r e c t o r o f the N.W. Ayer advertising agency (who also designed the National Recovery Administration's blue e a g l e ) . T h e symbol b e c a m e familiar to generations o f Americans w h o r e m e m b e r e d air raid drills, blackouts, and fallout shelters d u r i n g the C o l d War. R i c h a r d G r e f e , executive director o f the American Institute o f Graphic Arts, n o t e d that "the o l d mark fits in the same category o f simplicity and impact occupied by the London U n d e r g r o u n d m a p . " In 2007 the o l d symbol o f the O f f i c e o f Civil D e f e n s e , n o w r e f o r m e d and r e n a m e d as the Federal Emergency A g e n c y ( F E M A ) , was retired.

OFFICIAL

UNITED

( s e c o n d row) t h e r e d a i r p l a n e of b o m b r e c o n n a i s s a n c e , d i a g o n a l s t r i p e s of air raid w a r d e n s , a n d s h i e l d of auxiliary p o l i c e ; (third row) t h e f l a m e of fire w a t c h e r s , t h e p i c k of d e m o l i t i o n s q u a d s , t h e l a d d e r of r e s c u e w o r k e r s , a n d t h e r e t o r t of d e c o n t a m i n a t i o n s q u a d s ; (fourth row) m e d i c a l p e r s o n n e l , t h e i r aides, drivers, and messengers, a n d t h e c u p of e m e r g e n c y f e e d i n g s t a t i o n s ; (fifth row) t h e p i n c e r s of e l e c t r i c a l r e p a i r m e n , t h e m u l t i p l e s y m b o l s of i n s t r u c t o r s , t h e insignia of c h a p l a i n s , a n d t h e plain " C D " of t r a i n e e s .

CIVILIAN

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Junior ROTC cadets working out, u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n of a c a d e t officer. T h e y w e a r A r m y - s t y l e u n i f o r m s w i t h d i s t i n c t i v e unit s h o u l d e r insignia.

14

Reserve Officers Training Corps & Civilian Military Training Camps T h e Reserve Officers Training Corps ( R O T C ) was formally established by the Defense A c t o f 1916. For several decades b e f o r e World War I the A r m y had p r o v i d e d e q u i p m e n t and annually detailed u p to 100 regular officers to s u p p o r t c o l l e g e military training through R O T C programs, but until the defense acts o f 1916 and 1920 the p r o g r a m was only loosely associated with the Army's own needs. T h e new d e p e n d e n c e o n the National Guard and O r g a n i z e d Reserves for Army expansion, and the establishment o f the Officers' Reserve Corps ( O R C ) as a vehicle to retain c o l l e g e m e n in the US A r m y after graduation, gave impetus to a greatly enlarged a n d better regulated R O T C p r o g r a m after 1920. By 1928 there were R O T C units in 325 schools enrolling 85,000 college and university students. Officers detailed as professors o f military s c i e n c e instructed these units, a n d a b o u t 6,000 graduates were c o m m i s s i o n e d in the O R C each year. T h o u s a n d s o f other college graduates r e c e i v e d at least s o m e military training t h r o u g h this inexpensive p r o g r a m , which paid rich dividends in 1940 and 1941 when the nation b e g a n mobilizing to m e e t the threat o f war. In addition, a J u n i o r R O T C p r o g r a m was i m p l e m e n t e d in A m e r i c a n high schools in o r d e r to prepare youths for c o l l e g e R O T C , military academies, and even for the a r m e d forces. T h e Civilian Military Training Camps ( C M T C ) p r o g r a m was m o r e r e c e n t and limited, e m e r g i n g f r o m the Plattsburg m o v e m e n t just before W o r l d War I and the citizens' training camps that it fostered. T h e Army's C M T C p r o g r a m - a very m o d e s t alternative to the system o f universal military training p r o p o s e d in 1919 - p r o v i d e d a b o u t 30,000 young

volunteers with four weeks o f military training in s u m m e r c a m p s each year between 1921 and 1941. T h o s e w h o c o m p l e t e d three, o r later f o u r years o f C M T C training and related home-study courses b e c a m e eligible for commissions in the Officers' Reserve Corps. T h e C M T C thus provided another source o f leadership for the O r g a n i z e d Reserves. Although relatively few officers e m e r g e d directly f r o m the p r o g r a m , a substantial n u m b e r o f C M T C participants later attended West Point, entered R O T C programs, o r received commissions during W o r l d War II. State D e f e n s e F o r c e s Early in the 20th century, Congress elected to have the existing militia known as the "National G u a r d " p l a c e d in a dual capacity. U n d e r the National Defense Act o f 1916 a "National Guard o f the United States" b e c a m e an e l e m e n t o f the Army for war, but each state retained the training and a p p o i n t m e n t o f officers, and the state National Guard remained available for law e n f o r c e m e n t and for e m e r g e n c i e s . During the Mexican B o r d e r Service a n d W o r l d War I the National Guard was called into federal service, a n d f o r l o n g e r than the 90-day limit that has b e e n in effect since 1792. E x t e n d e d wartime duty left most states without a militia, which in turn led to the creation o f State Guards. After the war and t h r o u g h o u t the 1920s the National Guards were revived and State Guards d i s b a n d e d . In 1940 the National Guards were o n c e again called away for training, and their m e m b e r s subsequently served t h r o u g h o u t W o r l d War II, b e i n g effectively m e r g e d into the US Army; in c o n s e q u e n c e o f this e x t e n d e d and indefinite absence, the states o n c e m o r e b e g a n f o r m i n g their o w n defense forces. Every state e x c e p t for A r i z o n a , M o n t a n a , Nevada, a n d

In a m o t l e y a r r a y of c l o t h i n g , p a r t i c i p a n t s in a Civilian M i l i t a r y Training C a m p t a k e a break from an exercise during 1 9 4 0 . T h e o v e r s e a s c a p is t h e only common item.

O k l a h o m a eventually had what b e c a m e known collectively as State Guards. In addition, the territorial holdings o f the U n i t e d States (Alaska, Hawaii, Samoa, Virgin Islands, and the C o m m o n w e a l t h o f Puerto Rico) each had its own equivalent o f a defense force. For e x a m p l e , the Hawaii Territorial Guard was f o r m e d o n D e c e m b e r 7, 1941 - the day o f the Japanese attack - and was initially c o m p o s e d o f a large p e r c e n t a g e o f R O T C cadets o f the University o f Hawaii. T h e o l d Provisional Police o f H i l o m a d e u p s o m e o f the approximately 4,500 m e m b e r s o f the Hawaii Rifles, a unit o f the Territorial Guard. Many m e m b e r s o f the new Hawaiian Territorial G u a r d w o r e improvised white armbands with black b l o c k letters " H T G " b e f o r e distinctive shoulder patches for the various units were a d o p t e d a few m o n t h s later.

N o n - c o m b a t a n t s - such as t h e s e C o n g r e s s m e n visiting an A m e r i c a n w a r c e m e t e r y overseas a n d w e a r i n g A r m y style khakis - might display a large distinctive blue sleeve p a t c h showing t h e blue letters " U S " on a Civil D e f e n s e - s t y l e triangle (see Plate E2).

P e r h a p s the m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g o f these territorial d e f e n s e f o r c e units were the o n e s raised in A m e r i c a n Samoa. In 1904 the naval g o v e r n o r o f S a m o a h a d f o r m e d the Fita Fita G u a r d a n d B a n d , a n d the native recruits were to serve as l a n d s m e n f o r the naval station located o n the island. In a d d i t i o n , the Fita Fita were trained as c o m b a t a n t s , m e d i c a l p e r s o n n e l , c o d e p e r s o n n e l , a n d f o r such duties as ship repairs. Prior to the spread o f W o r l d War II to the Pacific, the g o v e r n o r o f A m e r i c a n Samoa f o r w a r d e d a letter, d a t e d F e b r u a r y 13, 1941, to the C h i e f o f Naval O p e r a t i o n s , a b o u t the establishment o f a native insular f o r c e . T h e first recruits enlisted o n August 16, 1941 into the First Samoan Battalion, US M a r i n e C o r p s R e s e r v e , a n d c a m e u n d e r the c o n t r o l o f the local M a r i n e C o r p s c o m m a n d e r ; thereafter the unit t o o k o n a m o r e m a r i n e a p p e a r a n c e than their naval Fita Fita counterparts. T h e unit was c o n c e i v e d as a m e a n s o f d e f e n d i n g the possessions o f A m e r i c a n S a m o a , a n d was n o t i n t e n d e d f o r service in o t h e r theaters o f the war. T h e S a m o a n M a r i n e unit d i s b a n d e d o n January 15, 1944 with nine M a r i n e officers, o n e Navy officer, 32 A m e r i c a n a n d 494 Samoan Marines o n its rolls. T h e f o r m e r First S a m o a n Battalion's p e r s o n n e l w e r e assigned to the M a r i n e Barracks at the US Naval Station Tutuila f o r the d u r a t i o n o f the war. T h e s e units were the only territorial d e f e n s e f o r c e s to b e u n d e r the c o n t r o l o f the Navy a n d Marine Corps rather than that o f the A r m y a n d its National G u a r d c o m p o n e n t s . B o t h the Fitas a n d the S a m o a n Marines were o f inestimable value d u r i n g the m o n t h s i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g Pearl Harbor. W h e n the Navy left A m e r i c a n S a m o a after W o r l d War II, m o s t o f the Fita Fita transferred to Hawaii (the first significant out-migration o f A m e r i c a n S a m o a n s to the U S ) . T h e u n i f o r m s o f the two organizations were similar in style e x c e p t f o r the h e a d g e a r ; the Fitas w o r e a stiff red cloth b a n d a b o u t 3in w i d e a r o u n d the h e a d , leaving the hair o n the scalp e x p o s e d ; f o r g e n e r a l duties a white lava-lava was w o r n (the Samoan

w o r d for the skirt, as well as f o r c l o t h i n g in g e n e r a l ) , a n d o n e o f dark blue c o l o r f o r dress. T h e y w o r e a r e d sash a r o u n d the waist with b o t h the white a n d b l u e lava-lavas. T h e m e n o f the First S a m o a n Battalion, U S M C Reserve w o r e white tee-shirts with r e d - t r i m m e d khaki overseas caps a n d lava-lavas; an i m p r o v i s e d U S M C e m b l e m was w o r n o n b o t h items.

*** During the war several states had paramilitary organizations which acted as "umbrella" units, serving within the state and p e r f o r m i n g "guard-like" functions, which in most cases were i n d e p e n d e n t o f that state's Defense forces. T h e s e c a r r i e d o u t r e a r - e c h e l o n duties such as first aid, transportation, a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s . O r g a n i z a t i o n s such as the American W o m e n ' s Voluntary Services, W o m e n ' s A m b u l a n c e and Defense Corps o f America, Massachussetts H o m e Defense C o r p s , and the W a t c h m a n / F e d e r a l Guard unit o f Puerto R i c o are examples o f s o m e o f these groups that served alongside many state guard units during World War II. With very few qualified military p e r s o n n e l available for instruction, the special training o f the Boy Scouts o f A m e r i c a (BSA) was r e c o g n i z e d by the c o m m a n d e r s o f the State Guards o f A m e r i c a , w h o m a d e the greatest use o f it and a p p o i n t e d Scout instructors to their Tactical School. T h e results o f the training the Scouters gave to e m b r y o State

M e m b e r s of t h e Fita Fita G u a r d in A m e r i c a n S a m o a ; w h i l e they, a n d t h e 1st Samoan Marine Bn, came u n d e r U S Navy c o m m a n d , t h e y w e r e in f a c t a t e r r i t o r i a l defense force. T h e blue stripes on the

lava-lava

identify r a t i n g s : t w o for apprentice seaman, three for s e a m a n second class, a n d f o u r for s e a m a n first class. T h e higher ratings w e r e i d e n t i f i e d by r e g u l a r U S Navy b a d g e s p l a c e d above the stripes, as just visible o n t h e f o r e g r o u n d m a n in t h e f r o n t r a n k .

M e n of t h e Florida D e f e n s e Force (later, Florida S t a t e Guard) undergo m a r k s m a n s h i p t r a i n i n g ; n o t e t h e w i d e variety of clothing a n d headgear. S o m e a r e w e a r i n g t h e distinctive alligator p a t c h s e e P l a t e F - on t h e i r c a p s . (Pinellas C o u n t y Historical Commission)

G u a r d s m e n were extremely e n c o u r a g i n g . T h e Scouters imparted their instruction by means o f a "learning by d o i n g " process, treating the recruits m u c h as they treated Cubs and Scouts. " D o n o t b e surprised," said MajGen Sherman Miles, c o m m a n d i n g the 1st Corps Area o f the United States Army, w h e n o p e n i n g the Tactical S c h o o l , "if we frankly teach y o u Boy Scout Law. W e grown m e n and soldiers may have thought we were b e y o n d such elementary games. We were mistaken." T h e "games" to which the general referred were adaptations o f the old Kim g a m e - stalking, hiding, and personal camouflage. T h e r e was also an obstacle hike during which trainees m e t with such barriers to forward progress as "bottomless c a n y o n s " and electric fences. T h e course e n d e d with instruction in tracking, based o n Baden-Powell's original work o n that subject. S o m e states h a d State G u a r d organizations that r e m a i n e d intact over m a n y years. T h e N e w York G u a r d was f o r m e d in 1914 and has b e e n active ever since - it never c l o s e d b e t w e e n the W o r l d Wars - and various o t h e r State G u a r d p r o g r a m s survived the p e a c e t i m e years. In 1947 m o s t o f the State Guards were c l o s e d d o w n and all National Guards were r e o r g a n i z e d .

PATRIOTIC SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS United Service O r g a n i z a t i o n s The mission o f the U S O was stated to be to enhance the quality o f life o f the personnel within US A r m e d Forces military communities, and to create partnership between US military and civilian communities worldwide. In 1941 President R o o s e v e l t r e q u e s t e d that six o r g a n i z a t i o n s provide on-leave r e c r e a t i o n f o r m e m b e r s o f the US A r m e d F o r c e s , the great majority o f w h o m w o u l d find themselves s p e n d i n g their b r i e f off-duty time in strange cities far f r o m h o m e . T h e Salvation Army, YMCA, YWCA, National C a t h o l i c C o m m u n i t y Services, N a t i o n a l Jewish Welfare B o a r d , a n d N a t i o n a l T r a v e l e r s ' A i d A s s o c i a t i o n c o o r d i n a t e d to f o r m the U S O ( U n i t e d S e r v i c e O r g a n i z a t i o n s ) . Despite the conflicts a n d uncertainty o f the d e c a d e s that f o l l o w e d , U S O has e n d u r e d , a n d c o n t i n u e s to p r o v i d e "a t o u c h o f h o m e " f o r US forces to this day. T h e U S O is a private, n o n - p r o f i t , civilian organization, w h i c h works in c o o p e r a t i o n with the military to p r o v i d e service to military p e r s o n n e l a n d their families. D u r i n g the war the U S O filled a critical r o l e in c o m m u n i t y participation in the war effort. U S O facilities were f o u n d everywhere: in c h u r c h e s , l o g cabins, museums, barns, a n d even railroad cars. At its h i g h p o i n t in 1944 the U S O had over 3,000 clubs. T h e U S O was m a n y things to m a n y p e o p l e : a lively place to d a n c e a n d m e e t p e o p l e , see movies, have free c o f f e e a n d d o n u t s , write letters o r just relax. T h e U S O all b u t d i s b a n d e d in 1947, and then r e s u r f a c e d d u r i n g the K o r e a n War w h e n the D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e r e q u i r e d e x p a n s i o n o f t r o o p s a r o u n d the g l o b e - so the U S O e x p a n d e d with t h e m . Early in the war the o n l y uniformed representatives o f the U S O were the Salvation Army. Salvation A r m y Representatives always worked in a trim gray u n i f o r m o f lightweight serge with matching hat; the collar b o r e a strip o f blue felt, resembling a British officer's g o r g e t patch, bearing a silver "S" and the rank insignia o f the wearer. W o m e n w o r e a gray silk blouse, navyblue tie, off-black o r gunmetal h o s e and black shoes. T h e overseas cap had a red c o r d p i p i n g and a rank insignia p i n n e d to the wearer's left side. Eventually U S O m e m b e r s and entertainers serving in c a m p shows overseas w o r e US Armystyle uniforms with " U S O " pins o n their lapels. In keeping with the U S O desire to give a " h o m e away from h o m e " to the service m a n , U S O hostesses did n o t ordinarily wear u n i f o r m s , a n d w e r e identified only by an a r m b a n d . D a u g h t e r s of t h e D e f e n d e r s of t h e Republic T h e Daughters o f the Defenders o f the R e p u b l i c was a national patriotic organization, f o u n d e d by

Many entertainers, such as Marlene Dietrich, joined the United Services Organization to provide morale-boosting shows for US servicemen at h o m e and abroad. Photographed here wearing an Army-style uniform w i t h U S O insignia, t h e sultryvoiced Dietrich w a s particularly k n o w n f o r s i n g i n g t h e English l a n g u a g e v e r s i o n of Lili

Marlene,

the German forces' favorite e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y a d o p t e d by A l l i e d p e r s o n n e l in N o r t h A f r i c a .

Mrs A m a n d a Shaw Hirsch in 1918. M e m b e r s were descendants o f men w h o served the U n i t e d States in previous wars, o r relatives o f loved ones currently serving in the a r m e d forces. T h e Defenders Corps was started in 1940 in anticipation o f the next W o r l d War. T h e corps established recreational canteens for servicemen, with a special emphasis o n the M e r c h a n t Marine. T h e organization also g o t involved with salvage drives, first aid classes, and preparatory training o f volunteer workers for hospital and o t h e r e m e r g e n c y duties. For discipline and precision, military drills were h e l d weekly u n d e r the supervision o f Army officers. Associate m e m b e r s o f the Defenders Corps did n o t n e e d to b e American citizens, but had to p l e d g e allegiance to the American flag.

T h e comedy film star Mickey R o o n e y h a m m i n g it up f o r t h e t r o o p s ; oddly, h e s e e m s t o w e a r a h u n t i n g k n i f e o n his b e l t .

American Women's Voluntary Services T h e AWVS was a national organization created in anticipation o f war, the first office b e i n g o p e n e d by Mrs Alice T. M c L e a n in January 1940 in C o o p e r s t o w n , New York. T h e organization was o p e n to w o m e n , irrespective o f race, c r e e d o r color, w h o were loyal to the principles o f the g o v e r n m e n t o f the United States, and was strictly n o n partisan and n o n political. T h e i r p u r p o s e was to mobilize and train w o m e n and place t h e m where they c o u l d r e n d e r the greatest service to the community, state, and nation in time o f p e a c e as well as war. T h e aim was to c o o p e r a t e with established agencies, maintaining an AWVS program so flexible and varied that it c o u l d readily b e adapted to meet any e m e r g e n c y n e e d s . T h e organization had the following services and activities: M o t o r Transport Service, Volunteer Placement, Volunteer W o r k s h o p , Canteen C o r p s , War Savings Stamps and Bonds, Salvage,

Victory Pastime, Child Care, Harvesting, J u n i o r Auxiliary, M e n d i n g and Repair Service, Fingerprinting, Legal Advice Bureaus, E m e r g e n c y Switchboard Service, Bureau o f Arts and Decorations, War Service Photography, Radio, Recreational, Recruiting, and Typing and Clerical Service. T h e AWVS boasted a m e m b e r s h i p o f 350,000, u n d e r the m o t t o "Unite and Serve." T h e AWVS u n i f o r m was blue-gray, m a d e o f either w o o l o r lightweight cotton and rayon material. T h e tunic was o f military cut, fastened with four large simulated brass front buttons; epaulets o f self material were fastened o n each shoulder with small buttons; there were f o u r pockets with small buttons o n the flaps, and two small buttons o n each sleeve. T h e AWVS e m b l e m was w o r n o n the u p p e r left sleeve. T h e skirt was straight cut with a single inverted pleat in front; regulation shoes were four-eyelet brown o x f o r d s with sensible heels, w o r n with tan stockings. T h e white or light blue shirt, masculine in style, was w o r n with a navyblue tie. Brown leather belts and either white o r b r o w n leather gloves were worn. Either an overseas cap o r a visored " l e g i o n n a i r e " cap m i g h t b e w o r n with the u n i f o r m . T h e latter was r e i n f o r c e d , with a flat t o p a n d a squared 2in visor, and was to b e w o r n straight across the eyebrows, with the AWVS m e m b e r s h i p pin in the center o f the b a n d just above the visor. T h e AWVS pin was also w o r n o n the left side o f the overseas c a p , l/^in off center. T h e M o t o r Transport Service w o r e a special cap with a

N o t all e n t e r t a i n e r s w e r e f l e s h and-blood; Disney w e r e just one of s e v e r a l s t u d i o s p r o d u c i n g animated features with cartoon c h a r a c t e r s f i g h t i n g t h e Axis or living life on t h e h o m e f r o n t . H e r e D o n a l d D u c k is s e e n in t h e 1 9 4 2 c a r t o o n D e r Fuehrer's

Face,

t a k i n g his last c a r e f u l l y h o a r d e d c o f f e e - b e a n f r o m a s a f e . T h i s is a period press release photo, m a r k i n g t h e film's a c h i e v e m e n t of a n A c a d e m y A w a r d t h e f o l l o w i n g year. ( C o u r t e s y Walt Disney Productions)

soft visor and a r o u n d M T S insignia w o r n o n the front; they also had a special t o p coat. T h e u n i f o r m o f the J u n i o r Auxiliary o f the AWVS was a shirtwaisttype dress o f bright light blue, o f a rayon-wool b l e n d material. It had two breast pockets and epaulets with small AWVS buttons, and closed down the front to the waist with the same buttons. A b r o w n leather belt was w o r n ; the J u n i o r cap was o f the overseas style, in the same material as the dress, and b o r e the J u n i o r pin. Juniors might wear white ankle socks and had to wear sensible, low-heeled shoes. Bundles for

America

Bundles for A m e r i c a was a direct outgrowth o f Bundles for Britain. W h e n Lend-Lease b r o u g h t British ships into American harbors, the w o m e n b e g a n to work directly with the crews, and these contacts revealed to t h e m that sailors t o o - o f b o t h nationalities - n e e d e d their generosity; thus Bundles for Bluejackets was b o r n . After Pearl Harbor, requests c a m e in to Bundles for Bluejackets to p e r f o r m the same service for the A r m y as well, and the m o r e inclusive n a m e Bundles for America was a d o p t e d . A l m o s t simultaneously, the President's War Relief Board asked that n o agency carry o u t b o t h foreign and domestic relief;

Sex appeal enlisted in t h e patriotic c a u s e , at t h e s a m e t i m e as advertising Chesterfield cigarettes; D e a n n e Furneau is d e p i c t e d h e r e in t h e uniform of t h e M o t o r Transport Corps of t h e A m e r i c a n Women's Voluntary Services.

PtfENStf

Bundles for A m e r i c a therefore i n c o r p o r a t e d as a separate entity, w o r k i n g o n l y with American armed forces. Bundles for America was a national n o n profit war relief organization which knitted regulation garments to fill official requests f r o m the Army, Navy, Coast G u a r d a n d Merchant Marine, and provided clothing for the families o f m e n whose lives had b e e n disrupted by war. With the e x c e p t i o n o f necessary office assistance, all executives, knitters and sewers were volunteers, and those w h o knitted m a d e the contribution n o t only o f their labor, but o f the cost o f the yarn. U p o n request it furnished the government's day r o o m s at Army posts and air bases. It supplied libraries and comforts for soldiers and sailors in hospitals; e q u i p p e d music r o o m s in large e n c a m p m e n t s , a n d hospital p o r c h e s ; a n d m e n d e d and repaired clothing at large posts. Thousands o f "service kits" were distributed, containing many necessary items specifically desired by m e n at points o f debarkation and to survivors o f sea battles and disasters. After the Japanese attack o n Pearl H a r b o r the organization a d o p t e d the slogan "Let's Hit Back H a r d , " a n d this was f o u n d o n the organization's sleeve e m b l e m , a g o l d eagle o n a blue shield. T h e official u n i f o r m o f the organization was made o f dark blue material c o m p o s e d entirely o f aralac and rayon, processed to

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N A S S A U C O U N T Y W O M E N REGISTER MONDAYS M A Y M&lh AT A L L P U B L I C SCHOOLS

reduce wrinkling to the m i n i m u m . T h e semi-fitted u n b e l t e d j a c k e t fastened with self-color plastic buttons, and had shoulder epaulets and four button-flap pockets. T h e shoulder patch was w o r n o n the u p p e r left sleeve and a similiar e m b l e m o n the front o f a visored hat m a d e o f the uniform material. T h e skirt was straight and slim, with kick pleats at front and back. A classic white shirt was w o r n with its n o t c h e d collar o p e n i n g over the suit collar and lapels. A shoulder-strap bag o f matching gabardine trimmed with blue leather, low-heeled shoes and white gloves c o m p l e t e d the u n i f o r m . National Security Women's C o r p s T h e NSWC was f o u n d e d in J u n e 1940, and a year later was i n c o r p o r a t e d by approximately 200 w o m e n w h o wanted to serve their c o u n t r y in s o m e capacity; this semi-military organization required m e m b e r s to have standard first aid and regular military drill skills. T h e Corps was c o m p o s e d chiefly o f businesswomen, w h o gave w e e k e n d s and evenings to volunteer work; they f o r m e d "readiness g r o u p s , " each o f which required certain courses which were constantly reviewed to k e e p members ready for any emergency. T h e r e were units in N e w York, New Jersey, Florida, and Washington, D C . O f the 200,000 hours given to

3 9 R M'

(Library of C o n g r e s s P r i n t s & P h o t o g r a p h s Division)

volunteer work, m o r e than half were devoted to supplying the A r m e d Forces with clerical h e l p at the various recruiting stations. After new m e m b e r s were s c r e e n e d for p r o o f o f A m e r i c a n citizenship, high school o r c o l l e g e graduation, and a d o c t o r ' s certificate o f health, a series o f courses were o p e n for them to begin their N S W C training in the following fields: Military Drill and Courtesies ( c o m p u l s o r y ) , Standard First A i d ( c o m p u l s o r y ) , A d v a n c e d First Aid, H o m e Nursing, Nutrition, Air Raid Precaution, Riflery, C o m m u n i c a t i o n s , Map Reading, M o t o r Mechanics, Canteen, Photography, Switchboard, Physical Fitness, and Public Speaking. T h e u n i f o r m , consisting o f a gray-blue suit, was identical to that worn by the Office o f Civil Defense, but with a woven red shield insignia o n the left sleeve. T h e regulation white shirt was finished with a navy-blue tie. T h e privates and n o n c o m m i s s i o n e d officers w o r e an overseas cap and the c o m m i s s i o n e d officers a visored hat. T h e NSWC pin was worn o n the left side o f the overseas cap and c e n t e r e d o n the front o f the visored hat.

A m e m b e r of t h e A m e r i c a n R e d C r o s s (right) giving a s s i s t a n c e t o a n A r m y N C O ; only t h e A R C insignia o n t h e f o r m e r ' s u n i f o r m d i s t i n g u i s h it f r o m t h a t of a n A r m y officer.

N a t i o n a l W o m e n ' s C o u n c i l of t h e Navy L e a g u e T h e National W o m e n ' s C o u n c i l o f the Navy L e a g u e o f the United States was o r g a n i z e d in January 1942 by Mrs R o b e r t Weeks Kelley, f o r the p u r p o s e o f r e n d e r i n g all possible aid a n d assistance s u p p l e m e n t i n g that e x t e n d e d by the US g o v e r n m e n t - to officers a n d m e n o f the US Navy and the M e r c h a n t Marine. It was a branch f r o m the Navy L e a g u e o f the U n i t e d States, o r g a n i z e d in 1902 in

the interests a n d f u r t h e r a n c e o f "naval preparedness." T h e w o m e n ' s b r a n c h shared in the p r o g r a m and activities o f the L e a g u e , and in addition s o u g h t to bolster m o r a l e by helping to solve family p r o b l e m s that m i g h t arise during a serviceman's e n f o r c e d a b s e n c e . Their slogan at the time was "If You C a n ' t J o i n the Navy ... Join the Navy L e a g u e . " T h e u n i f o r m o f the N W C consisted o f a navy-blue suit with epaulets, brass b u t t o n s , and navy-blue leather belt, with the Navy League's a n c h o r insignia o n the left sleeve; it was w o r n with a plain white shirt a n d navy-blue four-in-hand tie. T h e overseas c a p , w o r n only by m e m b e r s o f the C a n t e e n a n d M o t o r C o r p s , carried the insignia o n the left side, while the visored hat w o r n by all o t h e r m e m b e r s o f the L e a g u e b o r e the insignia in front. T h e navy-blue o v e r c o a t was singlebreasted, with navy-blue belt, brass b u t t o n s , a n d the insignia again o n the left a r m . T h e insignia also d e c o r a t e d the navy-blue u n i f o r m dress, w h i c h had a white gilet in addition to brass b u t t o n s , b l u e leather belt, and epaulets.

HUMANITARIAN ORGANIZATIONS

A s e n i o r f e m a l e m e m b e r of t h e A m e r i c a n R e d C r o s s w e a r i n g its blue-gray uniform - see Plate D 1 .

The A m e r i c a n R e d C r o s s During World War II the A R C was called u p o n to provide extensive services to the US military, the Allies, and civilian war victims. It enrolled m o r e than 104,000 nurses for military service; p r e p a r e d 27 million packages for American and Allied prisoners o f war; and shipped m o r e than 300,000 tons o f supplies overseas. At the military's request, the R e d Cross also initiated a national b l o o d d o n o r p r o g r a m that collected 13.3 million pints for use by the a r m e d forces. American R e d Cross involvement in W o r l d War II p r e c e d e d the entrance o f the United States into the conflict. W h e n hostilities b e g a n in Europe in 1939 the R e d Cross b e c a m e the c h i e f provider o f relief supplies for the civilian victims o f conflict, distributed by the Genevabased International R e d Cross C o m m i t t e e . In February 1941 the R e d Cross r e s p o n d e d to a request by the US g o v e r n m e n t to b e g i n a B l o o d D o n o r Service to p r o d u c e lifesaving plasma for the a r m e d forces in anticipation o f America's entry into the war. After the attack o n Pearl Harbor the R e d Cross quickly m o b i l i z e d a volunteer and staff f o r c e to fulfill the mandates o f its 1905 congressional charter, which required that the organization "furnish volunteer aid to the sick and w o u n d e d o f armies in time o f war," and "act in matters o f voluntary relief and in a c c o r d with the military and naval authorities as a m e d i u m o f

N o t e t h e pin w i t h five s t a r s ; t h i s indicates that she has five family m e m b e r s s e r v i n g in t h e US armed forces.

A f e m a l e driver of t h e British & A m e r i c a n A m b u l a n c e Service s h o w s off her British-style uniform.

c o m m u n i c a t i o n between the p e o p l e o f the United States o f America and their A r m y and Navy." At h o m e , millions o f volunteers p r o v i d e d c o m f o r t and aid to m e m b e r s o f the a r m e d f o r c e s a n d their families; they served in hospitals suffering f r o m severe shortages o f m e d i c a l staff, p r o d u c e d e m e r g e n c y supplies f o r war victims, c o l l e c t e d scrap, ran "victory g a r d e n s , " a n d m a i n t a i n e d training p r o g r a m s in h o m e nutrition, first aid a n d water safety. Overseas, R e d Cross workers served as field d i r e c t o r s , p r o v i d i n g c o m p a s s i o n a t e s u p p o r t f o r the t r o o p s they a c c o m p a n i e d ; they o p e r a t e d clubs a n d m o b i l e canteens for the a r m e d f o r c e s , a n d were attached to military hospitals, hospital ships, and hospital trains. At the p e a k o f R e d Cross wartime activity in 1945, 7.5 million volunteers were o n the rolls, a l o n g with 39,000 paid staff. T h r o u g h o u t the war years, the R e d Cross served a total o f 16 million military p e r s o n n e l , i n c l u d i n g o n e million c o m b a t casualties. By the time the war e n d e d in S e p t e m b e r 1945 the A m e r i c a n public had c o n t r i b u t e d over $ 7 8 4 m i l l i o n in s u p p o r t o f the A m e r i c a n R e d Cross. Nearly every family in A m e r i c a c o n t a i n e d a m e m b e r w h o had either served as a R e d Cross volunteer, m a d e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f m o n e y or b l o o d , o r was a r e c i p i e n t o f R e d Cross services.

General Dwight D. Eisenhower, in an address to Congress o n J u n e 18, 1945, a c k n o w l e d g e d that " T h e R e d Cross, with its clubs for recreation, its c o f f e e and donuts in the forward areas, its readiness to meet the needs o f the well and to h e l p minister to the w o u n d e d . . . has often seemed to b e the friendly h a n d o f this nation, reaching across the sea to sustain its fighting m e n . " The P u b l i c H e a l t h S e r v i c e T h e origins o f the PHS may b e traced to the passage o f an act in 1798 that provided for the care and relief o f sick and injured merchant seamen. A reorganization in 1870 converted the loose network o f locally controlled hospitals into a centrally controlled Marine Hospital Service, with its headquarters in Washington, D C . T h e position o f Supervising Surgeon (later Surgeon General) was created to administer the service, and J o h n Maynard W o o d w o r t h was appointed as the first i n c u m b e n t in 1871. H e moved quickly to reform the system, and a d o p t e d a military m o d e l for his medical staff, instituting examinations for applicants and putting his physicians in uniform. W o o d w o r t h created a cadre o f m o b i l e , career service physicians w h o c o u l d b e assigned as n e e d e d to the various marine hospitals. T h e u n i f o r m e d services c o m p o n e n t o f the Marine Hospital Service was formalized as the Commissioned Corps by legislation enacted in 1889. At first o p e n only to physicians, over the course o f the 20th century the Corps e x p a n d e d to include dentists, sanitary engineers, pharmacists, nurses, sanitarians, scientists and other health professionals. As immigration increased dramatically in the late 19th century, the federal g o v e r n m e n t also t o o k over f r o m the individual states the processing o f immigrants, b e g i n n i n g in 1891. T h e Marine Hospital Service was assigned responsibility for the m e d i c a l inspection o f arriving i m m i g r a n t s at sites such as Ellis Island in N e w York. C o m m i s s i o n e d officers played a m a j o r role in fulfilling the Service's c o m m i t m e n t to prevent disease f r o m entering the country. T h e PHS p e r f o r m e d active wartime service during 1898 by s u p p o r t i n g military forces d u r i n g the Spanish-American War. B o t h A r m y a n d Navy personnel were treated in the PHS marine hospitals, a n d yellow fever was c o n f r o n t e d by PHS officers sent o n e m e r g e n c y duty to front-line positions in C u b a and Puerto R i c o . T h e PHS C o m m i s s i o n e d C o r p s a c c o m p a n i e d t r o o p transports, staffed t e m p o r a r y quarantine stations, and saw c o m b a t within the fleet at the battle o f Manila Bay in the Philippines. Because o f its b r o a d e n i n g responsibilities the n a m e o f the service was c h a n g e d in 1902 to the Public Health and Marine Hospital Service, and again in 1912 to simply the Public Health Service. T h e PHS c o n t i n u e d to e x p a n d its p u b l i c health activities in the 20th century, with the C o m m i s s i o n e d C o r p s leading the way; they h e l p e d c o n t r o l the spread o f c o n t a g i o u s diseases such as smallpox and yellow fever, c o n d u c t e d important b i o m e d i c a l research, regulated the f o o d and d r u g supply, p r o v i d e d health care to under-served g r o u p s , supplied medical assistance in the aftermath o f disasters, and served in n u m e r o u s other ways. President Wilson invoked the A c t o f July 1, 1902 to militarize the PHS by executive o r d e r o n April 3, 1917. A l t h o u g h c o n f i r m e d by a Congressional resolution o f July 9, 1917, this militarization was later repealed by the US Attorney General o n O c t o b e r 29, 1921. H e ruled

that only Congress c o u l d create a military force f r o m a civilian agency; the PHS c o u l d b e utilized alongside the a r m e d forces, but c o u l d n o t b e transformed into part o f them. President Roosevelt put the PHS under his newly created Federal Security Agency with effect f r o m July 1, 1939. T h e FSA was established to p r o m o t e social and e c o n o m i c security, e d u c a t i o n a l opportunity, and the health o f A m e r i c a n citizens. W h e n A m e r i c a m o b i l i z e d d u r i n g 1940 the PHS p r e p a r e d for war. In N o v e m b e r 1941 the Coast Guard was militarized, and PHS officers served as its medical branch; nearly 700 o f them saw c o m b a t duty with the USCG during World War II, including nurses from 1944. W h e n the US declared war in D e c e m b e r 1941 many PHS officers were immediately detailed to the A r m y a n d Navy. All PHS programs experienced t r e m e n d o u s g r o w t h , and the n u m b e r o f personnel increased f r o m 8,000 in 1940 to over 16,000 by 1945. T h e Commissioned C o r p s o f the PHS e m p l o y e d top-rate doctors, highly trained scientific personnel and nurses o f the finest quality. T h e Service was consolidated during 1943 to c o m p r i s e four main c o m p o n e n t s : the Office o f the Surgeon General, the National Institute o f Health, and the new Bureau o f Medical Services and Bureau o f State Services. T h e 1944 Public Health Service Act further s t r e n g t h e n e d the m e d i c a l and administrative authority o f the service and its Surgeon General.

A m e m b e r of t h e C a d e t N u r s e C o r p s (right) is p r e s e n t e d t o M r s C h u r c h i l l , w i f e of t h e British p r i m e minister. N o t e t h e silver Public H e a l t h S e r v i c e insignia on t h e nurse's beret, t h e M a l t e s e cross s h o u l d e r p a t c h , a n d t h e transverse shoulder straps e n d i n g in b u t t o n s ( s e e P l a t e D 3 ) .

T h e PHS was active in most health areas during the war, ensuring adequate public health services, strengthening medical assistance to the states, and working in disease prevention; malaria c o n t r o l a r o u n d military camps and training sites was supervised by the Malaria C o n t r o l in War Areas program. Late in the war the PHS established an Office o f International Health Relations to h a n d l e increasing overseas health c o n c e r n s . Medical services were p r o v i d e d to the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration within refugee camps in E u r o p e and the Near East. T h e service also s u p p o r t e d research into many aspects o f health care o n the h o m e front. For instance, it investigated hazardous substances to p r o t e c t war factory workers; it e x a m i n e d new explosives, developed m e t h o d s to d e t e r m i n e the a m o u n t o f lead o r T N T in urine (so that workers c o u l d b e tested for o v e r e x p o s u r e ) , and demonstrated the affinity o f lead for b o n e tissue. O t h e r investigators d e t e r m i n e d that the vapors o f methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, and butyl a l c o h o l were acutely toxic to workers. This work i m p r o v e d c o n d i t i o n s o f e m p l o y m e n t for m o r e than 300,000 workers in wartime industries. Treatment o f tropical diseases was undertaken at the PHS Rocky Mountain Laboratory in Hamilton, Montana, where yellow fever and typhus vaccines w e r e p r e p a r e d f o r military f o r c e s . In Bethesda,

Maryland, a synthetic substitute for quinine was sought to treat malaria. Sampling techniques were d e v e l o p e d to avoid bacterial contamination in plasma and b l o o d . T h e PHS revealed that s o d i u m deficiency was a direct cause o f death after burns o r traumatic shock, leading to the widespread use o f oral saline therapy as a first-aid measure o n the battlefield. PHS military physiologists researched p r o b l e m s o f high-altitude flying; they determined the altitude at which oxygen n e e d e d to b e given, and designed an apparatus to supply the extra oxygen efficiently. T h e y also studied the relation o f pressure changes to b u b b l e formation in liquids to address the p r o b l e m o f embolisms f o r m i n g in the b l o o d o f pilots. Other tests were m a d e to evaluate the efficiency o f flight clothing, especially electrically heated suits; to determine the effect o f altitude o n visual ability; and with devices to improve night vision. The severe wartime shortage o f nurses resulted in a uniformed Cadet Nurse Corps as part o f the PHS under the Nurse Training Act o f 1943. Participants received scholarships and monthly payments to attend nursing schools by agreeing to work in essential nurse positions after graduation for the duration o f the war. T h e program graduated 124,000 nurses, o f w h o m over 3,000 were from the African American and other minorities. Since the PHS C o m m i s s i o n e d C o r p s was o n e o f the US u n i f o r m e d services, officers were authorized by the agency to which they were assigned to wear various uniforms. T h e s e were mostly p u r c h a s e d f r o m US Navy sources, and officers were r e q u i r e d to o w n a service dress b l u e uniform. T h e legal e n t a n g l e m e n t over USPHS military status was avoided during W o r l d War II, because President Roosevelt was given direct Congressional authority to militarize the service, effective f r o m N o v e m b e r 11, 1943; but although the Public Health Service A c t o f July 1, 1944 r e i n f o r c e d the militarization, a few anomalies r e m a i n e d . T h e C o m m i s s i o n e d C o r p s was e x p a n d e d in 1944 to i n c l u d e female scientific p e r s o n n e l and nurses, and there was a practical n e e d to designate the PHS as a military f o r c e in all regards. For e x a m p l e , s o m e nurses were detailed to secret organizations like the Office o f Strategic Services ( O S S ) ; this required c o n f i r m a t i o n o f full PHS military capacity to serve in c o m b a t , regardless o f mission s c o p e o r secrecy. T h e r e f o r e , o n June 21, 1945 President T r u m a n signed Executive O r d e r N o . 9 5 7 5 that declared "the C o m m i s s i o n e d C o r p s o f the Public Health Service to be a military service and a b r a n c h o f the land a n d naval forces o f the United States during the p e r i o d o f the present war." American W o m e n ' s Hospitals R e s e r v e C o r p s T h e A W H R C was a u n i f o r m e d organization o f volunteers trained to serve the c o m m u n i t y in time o f war and p e a c e . It was c o n c e i v e d by Dr Luvia Willard o f Jamaica, New York, Secretary o f the B o a r d o f the American W o m e n ' s Hospitals, which was f o r m e d in 1917 as a War Service C o m m i t t e e o f the A m e r i c a n Medical W o m e n ' s Association. Early in 1940 Dr Willard suggested that a g r o u p o f "lay" w o m e n b e trained to augment the services o f the medical agencies in time o f disaster. She was given authority to f o r m such an organization, and was a p p o i n t e d National Director o f the A W H R C , with Mrs J o h n Adikes as Co-Director. During World War II the A W H R C b e c a m e a well trained organization o f m o r e than 10,000 m e m b e r s , with units in many states (as well as o n e in Argentina). T h e Corps was organized along semi-military lines and was

divided into the following divisions o f service: Medical, Transportation, Administration, and Supplementary. It was a u n i f o r m e d corps, though the u n i f o r m was n o t compulsory, and rank was awarded o n the basis o f achievement. T h e units m e t o n c e a week in an a r m o r y for two-hour military drills given by m e m b e r s o f the military p o l i c e , state guardsmen o r veterans' organizations; during these sessions instruction was given in teamwork, discipline, c o o r d i n a t i o n and physical fitness. M e m b e r s also served in the selling o f War B o n d s and Stamps, in the Speaker's bureau, and as hospital workers. W o m e n ' s A m b u l a n c e a n d D e f e n s e C o r p s of A m e r i c a T h e W A D C A c a m e i n t o existence in L o s A n g e l e s , California, in N o v e m b e r 1940. F e m a l e m e m b e r s were trained in infantry drill as well as b o t h standard a n d a d v a n c e d first aid. In addition m e m b e r s c o u l d take o p t i o n a l c o u r s e s in a m b u l a n c e a n d heavy vehicle driving, r e s c u e squad w o r k , litter drill, c h e m i c a l warfare, nutrition, h o m e nursing a n d military first aid. T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n participated in A m e r i c a n R e d Cross first aid classes, sold War B o n d s , h a n d l e d sandbags a n d c e m e n t , w o r k e d in c a n t e e n s , served as a m b u l a n c e drivers a n d c h a u f f e u r s , a n d visited v e t e r a n s ' h o s p i t a l wards. Interestingly, there was even a cavalry unit within the organization: a p h o t o exists o f a m o u n t e d W A D C A c o l o r g u a r d with the United States Flag a n d a u n i q u e l y d e s i g n e d W A D C A cavalry "regimental" standard, a n d o n e o f the m e m b e r s is seen saluting with a US cavalry saber. T h e circular e m b l e m o f the W A D C A b o r e a r e d eagle with a s h i e l d e d "A" o v e r a b l u e cross with the letters "W," "A," " D , " and " C . " W h i l e m o s t o f t h e m e m b e r s w e r e in C a l i f o r n i a , t h e r e w e r e representatives in states such as Nevada a n d N e w York. T h e g r o u p even h a d a D i s n e y - d e s i g n e d m a s c o t , consisting o f a f e m a l e centaur in W A D C A u n i f o r m h o l d i n g a first aid kit. J u n i o r A m e r i c a n N u r s e Inc T h e J u n i o r A m e r i c a n Nurse Inc was f o u n d e d in 1939 by Mrs Dixie Love D e a n , to train y o u n g girls o f high s c h o o l age with a special emphasis in the fields o f nursing, nutrition and child care. JAN activities included voluntary work as nurse's aides and helpers in nursery schools, play schools and canteens. Courses i n c l u d e d first aid, h o m e nursing, child care, nutrition, and playground leadership. It was thus n o t only a wartime agency, but also p r o p o s e d to prepare its y o u n g m e m b e r s for life and h e l p t h e m to select their vocation. T h e u n i f o r m w o r n by the J A N consisted o f a j a c k e t , skirt and t o p c o a t in soldier-blue w o o l . T h e fitted suit was fastened with three brass b u t t o n s b e a r i n g an e t c h e d g o l d cross. A white c o t t o n shirt was w o r n with a b r i g h t r e d four-in-hand n e c k t i e . T h e soldier-blue t o p coat was d o u b l e breasted, with d e e p lapels, f o u r brass b u t t o n s , and a halfbelt in b a c k . A maritime-style n a r r o w r e d line o n wide navy-blue stripes o n the sleeve d e n o t e d rank. T h e hat was an off-the-face m o d e l in the same material as the suit, generally r e s e m b l i n g a nurse's c a p , with a frontal insignia a n d a r e d r i b b o n across the back. Girls in training w o r e a fitted j u m p e r dress o f the same b l u e , with white b l o u s e a n d r e d tie; w h e n c o u r s e s were c o m p l e t e d the trainee c o u l d wear the j a c k e t .

American Field Service T h e AFS was b o r n as an auxiliary military hospital in Paris during W o r l d War I. T h e volunteer-run, civilian-financed and u n a r m e d A m e r i c a n A m b u l a n c e , an extension o f the nearby A m e r i c a n Hospital o f Paris, o p e n e d its d o o r s in September 1914, and by the e n d o f the Great War 2,500 m e n had served with the AFS. During W o r l d War II, a total o f 2,196 AFS volunteers served with the armies o f many nations, alongside British, Free French, Canadian, Indian, and South African troops. T h e i r ambulances carried m o r e than a million casualties; 36 AFS drivers were killed, 68 w o u n d e d and 13 taken prisoner. T h e AFS w o r e a variety o f uniforms but the most c o m m o n types were those used by the British Army, including but n o t limited to the w o o l Battledress u n i f o r m while serving in E u r o p e , and the Khaki Drill c o t t o n shirts, slacks and shorts while in North Africa or Italy during h o t weather.

MARITIME SERVICES The A r m y T r a n s p o r t S e r v i c e T h e ATS was organized in late 1898 as an integral part o f the A r m y Quartermaster Department. T h e c o n c e p t o f an Army-operated fleet had its origins in the experiences o f the military sealift during the Spanish-

T h e s e m e m b e r s of t h e W a t e r Division of t h e A r m y Transportation Service are civilians, t h o u g h t h e y w e a r u n i f o r m s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e of the other American maritime services. T h e captain, wearing t h e b l u e " r e e f e r " j a c k e t , is i d e n t i f i e d by his f o u r s l e e v e rings b e l o w a f o u l e d a n c h o r ; t h e p e t t y o f f i c e r in k h a k i s displays a helmsman's w h e e l d e v i c e o n his c a p .

A US M a r i t i m e S e r v i c e p e t t y officer, w i t h t h e r a t i n g of c h i e f boatswain's m a t e , teaches an apprentice how to tie an eyes p l i c e . T h e old salt's insignia a r e b a s e d o n t h o s e of t h e U S Coast Guard, who supervised M e r c h a n t M a r i n e t r a i n i n g up t o t h e e a r l y m o n t h s of W o r l d War II, w h e n the War Shipping A d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o o k over.

American War, w h e n US-flagged c o m m e r c i a l shipping was f o u n d to be inadequately responsive to the Army's needs. During the early 20th century the A r m y o p e r a t e d a large trans-Pacific sealift, consisting o f its own ships as well as a n u m b e r o f c o m m e r c i a l vessels, partly o f foreign registry. These were time-chartered to support American troops during the Philippine Insurrection and the Relief o f Peking. Following 1904, a somewhat skeletonized fleet remained in service until the entry o f the United States into W o r l d War I, when it was rapidly e x p a n d e d . By early 1918 A r m y crews were m a n n i n g in excess o f 50 ships in support o f the A m e r i c a n E x p e d i t i o n a r y Force in France. In July 1918, beset by disciplinary p r o b l e m s with its employees, the War Department requested that the Navy's Overseas Transportation Service take over the Armyo p e r a t e d fleet, but this had n o t b e e n completely accomplished by the time o f the Armistice. Starting in early 1919, the Army began taking back its historic sealift function. With the severe reduction in military requirements which t o o k place b e g i n n i n g in 1921, the fleet reverted to a small nucleus o f mainly transports e n g a g e d in serving American holdings in the Pacific. (continued on page 41)

G E R M A N - A M E R I C A N BUND, 1: Fritz Kuhn, 2: Drum Major, Jugendschaft,

Ortsgruppe

3: Youth Leader,

1939-42

Bundesfuhrer Brooklyn Frauenschaft

CIVIL DEFENSE 1: US Citizen's Service Corps 2: Black-Out Warden 3: Spotter, Aircraft Warning Service 4: Educational advisor, Civilian Conservation Corps

HUMANITARIAN O R G A N I Z A T I O N S 1: Clubmobile Volunteer, American Red Cross 2: 1st Lt, American Women's Hospital Reserve Corps 3: C a d e t Nurse, US Public Health Service 4: Senior Surgeon, US Public Health Service

STATE DEFENSE FORCES 1: Sergeant, Florida Defense Force 2: Captain, 4th Regt, Missouri State Guard 3: Private, Women's Ambulance & Defense Corps of America

PATRIOTIC ORGANIZATIONS 1: 2nd Lt, Motor Transport, American Women's Volunteer Services 2: National Commander, Daughters of the Defenders of the Republic 3: Entertainer, United Services Organization 4: Volunteer, Junior C o m m a n d o s

THE W O R K FORCE 1: W o m a n Ordnance Worker, Springfield Armory 2: Auxiliary Military Policeman, St Louis O r d n a n c e Plant 3: Volunteer, Women's Land A r m y

With the b e g i n n i n g o f World War II the fleet was again e x p a n d e d . In 1942 the ATS was absorbed into the Army's Transportation Corps, b e c o m i n g part o f the Water Division, its civilian seamen e m p l o y e e s being classified as m e m b e r s o f the Water Division's "Civilian B r a n c h . " At peak strength during the war the Army's o w n e d and b a r e b o a t chartered fleet have b e e n e n u m e r a t e d as follows: Self-j)ropelled vessels over 1,000 gross tons and over 200 feet LOA: 35 large troop transports; 16 cargo; 55 inter-island; 2 cable-laying; 1 news and c o m m u n i c a t i o n ; 36 floating, self-propelled warehouse, repair, spare parts, and m i s c e l l a n e o u s ; a n d 23 hospital ships. W i t h b u t few exceptions, the large-tonnage ships were m a n n e d by civilian seamen o f the Water Division; o f the large-tonnage fleet, 31 vessels were lost to either enemy action o r marine casualty. Self-propelled vessels less than 1,000 gross tons and less than 200 feet LOA but over 65 feet: 510 freight supply; 104 Y-class tankers; 746 tugs o f various classes. T h e small craft were in part m a n n e d by the Civilian Branch o f the Water Division and in part by military crews f r o m the A r m y a n d / o r Coast Guard, the latter operating u n d e r Army control. O f the small-tonnage fleet, 28 vessels were lost either to e n e m y action o r marine casualty. During the war the Army's civilian seamen labor f o r c e n u m b e r e d at peak strength approximately 15,000 m e n . T h r o u g h o u t the war, it has been estimated that a total o f a r o u n d 20,000 civilians were e m p l o y e d by the Army aboard those vessels which saw service outside o f the US continental limits. T h e Transportation Corps, Water Division (Civilian Branch) suffered a total o f 529 m e n lost to e n e m y action o r marine casualty. T h e Navy's Military Sea Transport Service t o o k over the Army's prior role in o c e a n g o i n g shipping during the early 1950s. T h e A r m y Transportation Corps still operates a substantial fleet o f small craft, the crews o f which are n o w all military.

E x c e l l e n t s t u d y of t h e u n i f o r m s w o r n by s e a m e n , p e t t y o f f i c e r s (left) a n d o f f i c e r s (right) of t h e U S M a r i t i m e S e r v i c e in t h e l a t t e r p a r t of t h e w a r .

M e m b e r s of a St Louis flotilla of t h e U S C o a s t G u a r d Auxiliary, serving as Temporary Reservists. Note t h e officer-style tunics being worn with enlisted rating insignia. S u c h " T R s " w e r e o f t e n e m p l o y e d for patrolling local waters, guarding government facilities, and other rear-echelon support duties.

Coast and Geodetic Survey T h e National G e o d e t i c Survey, the nation's first civilian scientific agency, was established by President T h o m a s Jefferson in 1807 as the Survey o f the Coast. Its mission s o o n included surveys o f the interior as the nation grew westward. In 1878 the agency was reorganized and renamed the Coast and Geodetic Survey ( C & G S ) ; this existed until 1970, when a reorganization created the National O c e a n i c and A t m o s p h e r i c Administration ( N O A A ) , with the National O c e a n Service (NOS) as a line office. T h e Coast & G e o d e t i c Survey and the Weather Bureau answered the call to arms during b o t h W o r l d Wars. T h e field officers o f the Survey were c o n v e r t e d to c o m m i s s i o n e d status by virtue o f a law that allowed t h e m to b e transferred directly into the branches o f the armed services, and m o r e than half o f t h e m were so transferred during b o t h conflicts. T h e civilian weather observers, laborers, meteorologists, cartographers, scientists and administrators o f b o t h the Weather Bureau (later Service) and C&GS also signed u p in droves; m o r e than 1,100 personnel o f the C&GS and 700 f r o m the Weather Service voluntarily j o i n e d the fighting forces during W o r l d War II. Both organizations contributed greatly to final victory - the C&GS t h r o u g h its maps, charts, field survey, and intelligence-gathering, and the Weather Service through world-wide weather forecasts, climate studies, and special weather products to help plan the m o v e m e n t s o f m e n , ships, and aircraft.

Merchant Marine T h e Merchant Marine Act o f 1936 p r o v i d e d for establishment o f federal training for Merchant Marine officers. T h e US M e r c h a n t Marine Cadet Corps was officially f o u n d e d o n March 15, 1938 u n d e r the auspices o f the US Maritime C o m m i s s i o n , chaired by J o s e p h P. K e n n e d y - a position taken over by Admiral E m o r y Scott Land. Initially, training o f cadets was given aboard government-subsidized ships u n d e r the direction o f shorebased Port Inspector-Instructors. In February 1942 administration o f the training p r o g r a m was turned over to the Coast Guard, but in July 1942 it was given to the War Shipping Administration. US C o a s t G u a r d

Auxiliary

With the prospect o f war a p p r o a c h i n g , Congress d e e m e d it necessary to augment the US Coast Guard with a civilian reserve f o r c e , and o n J u n e 23, 1939 the US Coast Guard Reserve was authorized. This organization w o u l d b e a d m i n i s t e r e d by the C o m m a n d a n t o f the U S C G a n d c o m p o s e d o f unpaid, volunteer US citizens w h o o w n e d m o t o r b o a t s o r yachts. In 1941, Congress created a military Coast Guard reserve, renaming the volunteer Coast Guard Reserve the US Coast Guard Auxiliary. In 1939 Congress d e f i n e d the Reserve's p u r p o s e as b e i n g "to assist the Coast Guard: (1) to p r o m o t e safety and to effect rescues o n and over the high seas and o n navigable waters; (2) to p r o m o t e efficiency in the operation o f m o t o r b o a t s and yachts; (3) to foster a wider knowledge of, and better c o m p l i a n c e with, the laws, rules, and regulations governing the operation o f m o t o r b o a t s and yachts; (4) to facilitate other operations o f the Coast Guard." O n N o v e m b e r 1, 1941 President R o o s e v e l t s i g n e d an o r d e r transferring the Coast Guard f r o m the Treasury D e p a r t m e n t to the Navy Department. A few weeks later the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, and the Coast Guard's reserve system was put to the ultimate test. O n the night o f D e c e m b e r 7, amid r u m o r s o f Japanese invasion, 20 Coast Guard Auxiliarists f r o m the 13th District t o o k their boats o u t o f Seattle o n the service's first wartime patrol cruise. In May 1942 the Secretary o f the Navy authorized uniforms for the Coast Guard Auxiliary. T o h e l p c o u n t e r the i m a g i n e d threat o f e n e m y saboteurs, in the light o f a lack o f sufficient coastal patrols, the U S C G established a p r o g r a m similar to the L o c a l D e f e n c e V o l u n t e e r s (later, H o m e Guard) in Britain, w h e r e b y qualified v o l u n t e e r individuals o r entire units w o u l d b e assigned as T e m p o r a r y m e m b e r s o f the US Coast Guard Reserve ( T R s ) . T o m a k e this p r o g r a m m o r e effective many Auxiliarists were c o m m i s s i o n e d as t e m p o r a r y officers o f the Coast Guard Reserve. Each T e m p o r a r y m e m b e r o f the R e s e r v e , even t h o u g h o n n o n - p a i d duty status with the Coast G u a r d , was a m e m b e r o f the a r m e d f o r c e s o f the U n i t e d States. All w e r e r e q u i r e d to swear allegiance to the US and all were subject to military discipline a n d p u n i s h m e n t u n d e r what is n o w called the U n i f o r m C o d e o f Military Justice ( U C M J ) . A r m i n g o f the T e m p o r a r y reserves a n d their boats rested with the local Coast G u a r d o f f i c e r in c h a r g e . T h e Coast G u a r d Auxiliary was a non-military, n o n - a r m e d service; w h e n Auxiliarists were o n duty as T e m p o r a r y Reserves, they w e r e n o l o n g e r Auxiliarists but military p e r s o n n e l - but as s o o n as they w e n t o f f duty, they returned to Auxiliary status.

T h e Beach Patrol p r o g r a m b e g a n o n O c t o b e r 12, 1942; the Coast G u a r d ' s j o b was to patrol, and alert the A r m y o f any possible dangers. B o t h h o r s e a n d d o g patrols were established, as were a network o f watchtowers. In a d d i t i o n , the 45 bridges spanning the Inland Waterway f r o m St Augustine to Key West were g u a r d e d . T h e Coast G u a r d c h e c k e d b o t h land a n d sea traffic. By spring 1943, there were 2,000 m e n a l o n g with 200 d o g s and 500 horses o n duty in the 7th Naval District. T h e m o u n t e d patrol c o v e r e d 20 miles o f b e a c h per night, the f o o t patrol 12 miles. Perhaps the Auxiliary's m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n to the war effort was the Volunteer Port Security Force. A n executive o r d e r o f F e b r u a r y 1942 d i r e c t e d the Secretary o f the Navy to take the necessary steps to p r e v e n t "sabotage a n d subversive activities" o n the n a t i o n ' s w a t e r f r o n t s . T h e task o f p r o t e c t i n g the countless w a r e h o u s e s , piers a n d o t h e r facilities that kept the A m e r i c a n shipping industry in business fell to the Coast G u a r d , w h i c h in turn delegated it to the Reserve a n d the Auxiliary. Every p o r t city within the United States h a d a Coast G u a r d o f f i c e r with the title o f Captain o f the Port, w h o was p l a c e d in c h a r g e o f a Port Security F o r c e consisting o f TRs, Auxiliarists, a n d o t h e r civilians r e c r u i t e d f o r the p u r p o s e ; the precise organizational structure varied f r o m city to city. T h e Coast Guard set u p a Reserve T r a i n i n g S c h o o l in Philadelphia to train TRs in such subjects as anti-espionage m e t h o d s , fire p r e v e n t i o n , customs i n s p e c t i o n s a n d small-arms h a n d l i n g . Eventually s o m e 2 0 , 0 0 0 Reservists a n d Auxiliarists p a r t i c i p a t e d in p o r t security patrols. A b o u t 2,000 w o m e n also e n r o l l e d as " T R SPARs," attending to the m o u n t a i n o u s p a p e r w o r k that d e s p a t c h e d ships, c a r g o e s and t r o o p s overseas. As the war w e n t o n a n d the Coast G u a r d ' s resources were stretched thinner, Auxiliarists a n d TRs were called u p o n to fill gaps wherever active duty Coast G u a r d s m e n left t h e m . Auxiliarists' boats patrolled the waterfronts a n d inlets l o o k i n g f o r saboteurs, e n e m y agents and fires. At least o n e unit o f T e m p o r a r y Reservists, recruited f r o m the Auxiliary, p a t r o l l e d east coast b e a c h e s o n h o r s e b a c k . O t h e r Auxiliarists m a n n e d l o o k o u t a n d lifesaving stations near their h o m e s , f r e e i n g regular Coast G u a r d s m e n f o r sea duty. W h e n a f l o o d struck St L o u i s in the spring o f 1943, Coast G u a r d Auxiliarists and Reservists evacuated 7,000 p e o p l e a n d thousands o f h e a d o f livestock. By the e n d o f the war the Coast G u a r d Auxiliary b o a s t e d a total m e m b e r s h i p o f 6 7 , 5 3 3 , o f w h i c h 5 3 , 2 1 4 m e n a n d w o m e n w e r e serving as T e m p o r a r y m e m b e r s o f the Reserve. At the e n d o f the war the Coast Guard TRs were "honorably disenrolled," but many remained Auxiliarists f o r years afterward. Wartime service h a d e a r n e d t h e m n o veterans' benefits a n d p r e c i o u s little o t h e r p u b l i c r e c o g n i t i o n . In 1946 the T R s w e r e awarded the V i c t o r y M e d a l ; Auxiliarists w h o had n o t j o i n e d the Reserve h a d to b e satisfied with the thanks o f A d m W a e s c h e : " T h e Auxiliary d u r i n g the war years was indispensable. Many t h o u s a n d s o f y o u served faithfully a n d loyally as Auxiliarists and as t e m p o r a r y m e m b e r s o f the C G R e s e r v e , p e r f o r m i n g h u n d r e d s o f tasks a n d relieving t h o u s a n d s o f Coast G u a r d s m e n for duty outside the c o n t i n e n t a l limits. T h e Coast G u a r d is d e e p l y appreciative o f this s e r v i c e . "

A b r i e f i n g for c o n t r a c t a i r c r e w s of t h e Air T r a n s p o r t C o m m a n d ; j u s t visible o n t h e b r i e f i n g officer's c a p is t h e d i s t i n c t i v e A T C insignia.

AERONAUTICAL SERVICES Air T r a n s p o r t C o m m a n d O n May 29, 1941 the Air Corps created the Ferrying C o m m a n d to fly aircraft from US factories to Canada and to Atlantic ports for delivery to Great Britain. By the c o m i n g o f war in D e c e m b e r that year the C o m m a n d had delivered approximately 1,350 planes for Britain, and had also established an air transport service between Washington and Britain. O n July 1, 1941 LtCol Caleb V. Haynes m a d e the first flight in a modified B-24 Liberator b o m b e r by way o f N e w f o u n d l a n d , and s o o n the C o m m a n d was making regular flights to England. With Maj Curtis E. LeMay as co-pilot, Haynes began a p i o n e e r i n g 26,000-mile survey trip o n August 31, 1941, f r o m the US to the M i d d l e East and back, via Brazil and the southern Atlantic. That year a start was also m a d e o n building airbases along a southern flight c o r r i d o r f r o m the US to Australia, and regular service along this route began in 1942. W h e n the US went to war the War D e p a r t m e n t was f o r c e d to turn to the civil airlines for aid in securing additional aircraft, d e v e l o p i n g new flight routes, and transporting c a r g o and passengers o n contract over domestic and foreign routes. T h o u s a n d s o f new transport planes were ordered, reservist pilots were called to active duty, and h u n d r e d s o f civilians were c o m m i s s i o n e d as officers and m a d e "service pilots" - a rating for which physical qualifications were lower than for a c o m b a t pilot. O n June 20, 1942 the Ferrying C o m m a n d b e c a m e the Air Transport C o m m a n d ( A T C ) , with world-wide responsibility for ferrying aircraft, for transporting p e r s o n n e l , materiel, a n d mail, a n d f o r maintaining air route facilities outside the US. By the e n d o f 1944, A T C had m o r e than 3,000 transport aircraft in use and had b e c o m e the

Flight i n s t r u c t o r s f r o m British Flying Training S c h o o l N o . 5 , a t R i d d l e Field in C l e w i s t o n , Florida. T h e y w e a r heavily B r i t i s h - i n f l u e n c e d insignia on their khakis, although with the letters "BFTS" replacing t h e king's c r o w n a t t h e t o p of the cap badge and centered on t h e pilot's w i n g s .

r "lifeline" o f the A r m y Air Forces, flying to every part o f the world where US troops served. W h e n the war e n d e d the A T C was the largest airline in the world. Most o f the civilians returned to their respective airlines and air transport services. T h e A T C b e c a m e the Military Air Transport C o m m a n d after the creation o f the US Air Force in 1947 (from 1965, the Military Airlift C o m m a n d ) . British Flying Training Schools T o this day, a bit o f Britain can b e f o u n d in a small Florida town: 23 Royal Air F o r c e Cadets sleep eternally in a peaceful cemetery in Arcadia. T h e y c a m e across the Atlantic to learn h o w to fly, as thousands o f others went elsewhere in the USA and to C o m m o n w e a l t h countries which shared A m e r i c a ' s advantages as a flight s c h o o l : predictably g o o d weather f o r many m o n t h s o f the year, and lack o f interference from e n e m y intruders. T h e British Isles were c r o w d e d with operational airfields f r o m which the RAF was waging war against Germany; flying training s c h o o l s r e q u i r e d space, and safety f r o m e n e m y raids. Royal Air F o r c e training airfields were b o m b e d for the first time o n August 13, 1940; and eight m o n t h s later, o n April 13, 1941, it was agreed at a c o n f e r e n c e between RAF Air Vice-Marshal G a r r o d and USAAF General H . H . A r n o l d that a part o f the training facilities in the United States w o u l d b e t u r n e d o v e r to the British. A r r a n g e m e n t s f o r the establishment o f six British flying training schools in the US had already b e e n m a d e , and these n o w t o o k shape, several m o n t h s before Pearl Harbor. S o u t h e r n Florida received its share, and the city o f Arcadia in south-central Florida b e c a m e a pivotal p o i n t for two

important British training schools: the British N o . 5 at Riddle Field, Clewiston, which o p e n e d in S e p t e m b e r 1941, a n d the US S c h o o l at Carlstrom and D o r r Fields, Arcadia - Carlstrom, a W o r l d War I A r m y airfield, r e o p e n e d in J u n e 1941. F r o m 1941 to 1945 the L o d w i c k S c h o o l o f Aeronautics o f Lakeland trained 8,825 cadets, o f which 1,327 were British, while the schools in Arcadia and Clewiston trained well over 1,879 British cadets. O f the six British flying training s c h o o l s in the U n i t e d States, BFTS N o . 5 at Clewiston r e c e i v e d the h i g h e s t p e r f o r m a n c e rating. Civil Air P a t r o l T h e CAP was c o n c e i v e d in the late 1930s by l e g e n d a r y N e w Jersey aviation advocate Gill R o b b W i l s o n , w h o foresaw aviation's r o l e in war and general aviation's potential to s u p p l e m e n t A m e r i c a ' s military operations. With the h e l p o f N e w York M a y o r F i o r e l l o La Guardia, the new Civil Air Patrol was established o n D e c e m b e r 1, 1941, j u s t days b e f o r e Pearl H a r b o r , a n d initially c a m e u n d e r the O f f i c e o f Civil D e f e n s e . D u r i n g the war CAP m e m b e r s flew antisabotage, antisubmarine a n d b o r d e r patrols, target towing a n d search-andrescue missions, and also a i d e d in recruiting A r m y Air F o r c e trainees. T h e CAP consisted o f m o r e than 75,000 v o l u n t e e r s o n April 29, 1943 when it was transferred to the War D e p a r t m e n t as an auxiliary o f the AAF.

M e m b e r s of t h e Civil Air Patrol p o s e a s if a t a b r i e f i n g ; n o t e t h e distinctive red epaulets and the shoulder patches on their k h a k i s h i r t s . J u s t visible on t h e left c h e s t of t h e m a n s e c o n d f r o m right is t h e e a r l y - s t y l e C A P pilot's w i n g s b a d g e .

47

Excellent portrait photo of a C A P pilot, displaying t h e A n t i s u b m a r i n e Patrol p a t c h o n his left f o r e a r m - s e e also P l a t e E 3 . H e also w e a r s t h e l a t e r

T h e CAP insignia - a r e d three-blade p r o p e l l e r in the Civil D e f e n s e white-triangle-in-blue-circle - b e g a n to a p p e a r o n civilian aircraft e v e r y w h e r e . A l t h o u g h originally envisaged as limited to liaison a n d r e c o n n a i s s a n c e flights, the CAP mission e x p a n d e d when G e r m a n U-boats b e g a n to attack US s h i p p i n g o f f the east coast o f the U n i t e d States. O n antisubmarine patrol, CAP crews in light planes r a n g e d as far as 150 miles o u t to sea. D u r i n g 18 m o n t h s o f antisubmarine patrols in 1 9 4 2 - 4 3 , CAP crews flew 244,600 hours, the equivalent o f 24 m i l l i o n miles. T h e y r e p o r t e d 173 e n e m y subs and s u m m o n e d aid f o r 91 ships in distress and f o r 363 survivors o f s u b m a r i n e attacks. After s o m e CAP planes b e g a n carrying b o m b s and d e p t h c h a r g e s , they attacked 57 subs, allegedly sinking o r damaging at least two; o t h e r s w e r e destroyed by AAF o r Navy planes and ships called o u t by CAP pilots by r a d i o . D u r i n g these antisubmarine patrol o p e r a t i o n s a l o n e , the CAP lost 90 airplanes a n d 26 m e m b e r s . In all the CAP flew half a m i l l i o n h o u r s d u r i n g the war, a n d 64 aviators lost their lives.

v e r s i o n of t h e pilot's w i n g s ; t h i s replaced the earlier form, which w e r e felt to be rather too "Third R e i c h " in o u t l i n e .

R e l i e f W i n g s Inc This o r g a n i z a t i o n , s p o n s o r e d by leaders in aviation, medical, civic, c h u r c h a n d business life, was f o r m e d in May 1 9 4 0 ; it was p r o j e c t e d as a p e r m a n e n t n o n - p r o f i t h u m a n i t a r i a n air service, to p r o v i d e air a m b u l a n c e s and disaster relief by air to civilians, in time o f p e a c e or war, at h o m e o r a b r o a d . D u r i n g W o r l d War II the r e g i s t e r e d facilities o f R e l i e f W i n g s w e r e available f o r i m m e d i a t e e m e r g e n c y service. T h e r e were 11 sectional units with j u r i s d i c t i o n over 38 states. By 1943 s o m e 200 flight s u r g e o n s a n d flight nurses h a d e n r o l l e d , and were available to other a g e n c i e s s u c h as the Civil Air Patrol, the A m e r i c a n R e d Cross and the Office o f Civil D e f e n s e . F e m a l e flight nurses o f R e l i e f W i n g s w o r e a h o r i z o n - b l u e suit with a tailored white shirt. T h e b e l t e d j a c k e t had a pleated work-back, and a skirt d e s c r i b e d as c o n c e a l i n g the trouser o r culotte feature d e s i g n e d f o r c l i m b i n g in a n d o u t o f planes. T h e overseas c a p was w o r n with R e l i e f W i n g s p i n a n d the p a r t i c u l a r Corps e m b l e m . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s wings w e r e d e s i g n e d to show the various offices and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f the wearer, such as: National C o o r d i n a t i o n C h a i r m a n , Sectional Director, State L e a d e r o f V o l u n t e e r Flight S u r g e o n s , C o r p s L e a d e r o f V o l u n t e e r Flight Nurses, Flight L e a d e r o f Aircraft, Aircraft O w n e r o r Pilot Volunteer, a n d A m a t e u r Radio Operator.

Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron & Women's Airforce Service Pilots The WAFS came into existence o n September 5, 1942 at Newcastle Army Air Base, Delaware, and Nancy Love was appointed its director. T h e WAFS were qualified female pilots hired by the War Department and working under the supervision o f the Ferrying Division o f the Air Transport C o m m a n d . Their duties were to ferry light liasion and training planes within the continental limits o f the United States, thereby relieving male pilots for combat duty or for ferrying planes to c o m b a t zones. S o m e o f the basic requirements to serve with the WAFS were: American citizenship, age between 21 and 35, high school education, Commercial Pilot's Certificate, 500 hours o f flight time with 50 hours within the past year, 200 horse-power rating, and two letters o f r e c o m m e n d a t i o n . T h e average pay rate at the time was $250 a m o n t h with $6 per d i e m while o n ferrying missions. Initially the WAFS uniform consisted o f a jacket, skirt, and slacks o f light gray gabardine. T h e single-breasted jacket had four patch pockets with buttoned flaps, a belt o f self material, and epaulets. Civilian pilot wings were worn above the left pocket, and o n the left shoulder an Army Air Force e m b l e m above a tab bearing the letters "W.A.F.S." in blue o n light gray. Within a m o n t h o f the establishment o f the WAFS another organization, the W o m e n ' s Flying Training Detachment ( W F T D ) , was f o r m e d in order to train pilots for later service in the WAFS.

V a r i o u s l e a t h e r flight j a c k e t s a r e w o r n by t h e s e f e m a l e f e r r y pilots p h o t o g r a p h e d in f r o n t of a B-17 Flying F o r t r e s s ; t h e "Fifineila" e m b l e m of t h e W A S P s p a i n t e d on s o m e of t h e m d a t e s t h e picture to 1 9 4 3 at the earliest. (National Archives)

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In 1943 the W o m e n ' s A i r f o r c e Service Pilots (WASP - an acronym p e n n e d by G e n " H a p " A r n o l d ) b e c a m e the official n a m e o f all w o m e n ' s auxiliary flight organizations. O n August 5, 1943 the WAFS and WFTD w e r e a b s o r b e d i n t o the WASP. J a c q u e l i n e C o c h r a n b e c a m e the organization's new Director o f W o m e n Pilots, and Nancy Love was a p p o i n t e d as a WASP executive in the Ferrying Division o f the Air Transport C o m m a n d . By the time that the WASP was disbanded in D e c e m b e r 1944 the w o m e n pilots had flown 12,650 planes over a collective distance o f 9,224,000 miles within its short 27-month history. O f the 916 WASPs, only 38 were lost in flight accidents.

B E L O W LEFT The Army m a i n t a i n e d a close relationship w i t h t h e Civilian Conservation C o r p s , as e v i d e n c e d by t h e uniform w o r n h e r e a t s o m e d a t e before 1 9 3 9 . This young w o r k e r displays t h e C C C Honor A w a r d for distinguished service. BELOW RIGHT

By 1 9 3 9 a n e w

spruce-green C C C uniform had b e e n i n t r o d u c e d ; it w a s i s s u e d through t h e Army's Philadelphia Quartermaster Depot.

Despite the creation o f the WASP in August 1943 and the merging o f the WAFS and W F T D , it was n o t until July 1, 1944 that 1,600 blouses were o r d e r e d f r o m the Philadelphia Quartmaster D e p o t . T h e first graduates o f the newly f o r m e d WASP receiving the new uniforms first, and it was the e n d o f s u m m e r 1944 b e f o r e it was standardized for the existing m e m b e r s . T h e walking-out u n i f o r m consisted o f a Santiagoblue blouse with three w o o d e n buttons, a matching skirt, and a white shirt with a black necktie. A u n i q u e feature o f the u n i f o r m was the beret headgear, with a gilt A m e r i c a n eagle for pilots o r the winged propeller for trainees ( t h o u g h the latter was never actually w o r n ) . In addition, a Santiago-blue battledress blouse similiar in style to the US Army's "Ike" jacket, and matching trousers also p r o v e d popular, and WASP pilots w o r e t h e m o n ferrying missions. A m o n g s t flight gear, the A-2 and B-3 leather flight jackets were the most c o m m o n l y issued m o d e l s worn by these w o m e n pilots.

THE WORKFORCE The C i v i l i a n C o n s e r v a t i o n C o r p s At the height o f the Depression, President Roosevelt had called the 73rd Congress into e m e r g e n c y session o n M a r c h 9, 1933 to authorize his proposal to recruit thousands of unemployed young men, enroll them in a peacetime army, and send t h e m into battle against the destruction and erosion o f America's natural resources. Before it was over, m o r e than 3 million m e n had e n g a g e d in a massive salvage operation - the most popular e x p e r i m e n t o f the New Deal, and the beginning o f the Civilian Conservation Corps ( C C C ) . Regular and reserve A r m y officers, and regulars o f the Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard were temporarily assigned to c o m m a n d camps and c o m p a n i e s ; the A r m y also p r o v i d e d logistical s u p p o r t such as transportation, clothing, f o o d , and medical care. T h e departments o f Agriculture and Interior were responsible for planning and organizing work to b e p e r f o r m e d in every state, while the D e p a r t m e n t o f L a b o r , through its state and local relief offices, was responsible for the selection and e n r o l l m e n t o f applicants. All four agencies p e r f o r m e d m i n o r miracles in c o o r d i n a t i o n with a National Director, R o b e r t Fechner, a u n i o n vice-president personally picked by FDR. T h e administrative Advisory C o u n c i l , c o m p o s e d o f representatives o f the secretaries o f War, Labor, Agriculture and Interior, would serve for the duration. Controversial, but important to the President's hopes for the program, was the appointment o f an educational adviser to every c a m p ; eventually m o r e than 40,000 illiterates were taught to read and write and others acquired further skills. In April 1937 a further A c t o f C o n g r e s s formally c r e a t e d a Civilian Conservation C o r p s , b u t FDR's attempt to p u t it o n a p e r m a n e n t f o o t i n g failed. Nevertheless, j u s t s o m e o f the C C C ' s a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s during its existence i n c l u d e d : 3,470 fire towers e r e c t e d ; 9 7 , 0 0 0 miles o f fire roads built; 4,235,000 man-days d e v o t e d to fighting fires, a n d m o r e than 3 billion trees p l a n t e d . Five h u n d r e d c a m p s w e r e u n d e r the c o n t r o l o f the Soil C o n s e r v a t i o n Service, eventually arresting e r o s i o n o n m o r e than 20 m i l l i o n acres. T h e C C C also m a d e outstanding c o n t r i b u t i o n s in the d e v e l o p m e n t o f national, state, county, and m e t r o p o l i t a n parks. F r o m 83 c a m p s in 15 western states a n o t h e r 7,153,000 man-days w e r e e x p e n d e d o n such p r o g r a m s as p r o t e c t i n g range f o r the Grazing Service a n d natural wildlife habitats, stream i m p r o v e m e n t , restocking o f fish, a n d b u i l d i n g d a m s for water c o n s e r v a t i o n .

A popular, if i d e a l i z e d i m a g e of a W o m a n Ordnance Worker. Note the distinctive headscarf, with t h e r e p e a t e d m o t i f of a f l a m i n g ordnance bomb - see Plate H 1 .

Military representatives and f a c t o r y officials d i s p l a y a n A r m y - N a v y " E " p e n n a n t for excellence, as a w a r d e d to some plants to recognize outstanding achievements in w a r t i m e p r o d u c t i o n .

52

By late s u m m e r 1941 a lack o f applicants, desertions, and the n u m b e r o f e n r o l l e e s leaving f o r c o n v e n t i o n a l j o b s had r e d u c e d the Corps f r o m s o m e 300,000 to fewer than 200,000 m e n in about 900 camps. T h e r e were also signs that public o p i n i o n was beginning to question the n e e d for it n o w that u n e m p l o y m e n t had practically disappeared; and after Pearl H a r b o r any federal project n o t directly associated with the war effort was u n d e r threat. A j o i n t committee o f Congress r e c o m m e n d e d that the C C C b e abolished by July 1, 1942, and despite a last-ditch attempt to vote its c o n t i n u e d funding it survived for only a matter o f m o n t h s . "Rosie the Riveter:" W o m e n Ordnance Workers "Daddy, what did y o u d o in the war?" was a p o p u l a r question for war veterans, but W o r l d War II p r o v i d e d a w h o l e new twist - "Mommy, what did you d o in the war?" Rose Will M o n r o e probably best represented the new way o f life whereby the w o m e n w h o raised the post-World War II baby b o o m generation had already p r o v i d e d m u c h o f the labor for p r o d u c i n g the materiel o f war. M o n r o e (who died o n May 31, 1997 in Clarksdale, Indiana) b e c a m e famous as "Rosie the Riveter," N o r m a n Rockwell d e p i c t e d h e r for the Saturday Evening Post, and she b e c a m e well k n o w n as a War B o n d p r o m o t e r , as well as a poster-girl flexing her muscles while wearing a W o m e n O r d n a n c e Worker bandanna. But Rosie was n o t just a n o t h e r pin-up; she was the real thing. She was working as a riveter building B-29 and B-24 b o m b e r s at the Willow Run Aircraft Factory in Ypsilanti, Michigan, w h e n she was discovered by actor Walter P i d g e o n . Because she fitted the image o f the Kay Kyser hit song, "Rosie the Riveter," she was selected to appear in a short film that p r o m o t e d War B o n d s t h r o u g h o u t the nation's theaters.

After Pearl H a r b o r the y o u n g m e n o f A m e r i c a p o u r e d o u t o f the factories and offices to line u p at the recruiting offices, and the y o u n g w o m e n o f A m e r i c a lined u p at the factories and arsenals to fill the traditional male j o b s left vacant by those w h o went o f f to fight. T h o s e w h o were involved in the p r o d u c t i o n o f military hardware b e c a m e known as W o m e n O r d n a n c e Workers ( W O W s ) . T h e s e w o m e n w o r e hardhats and coveralls, and pulled the same load as many o f the m e n they replaced; they o p e r a t e d heavy cranes, milling machines, and countless other heavy tools that most w o m e n had never heard o f b e f o r e the war. T h e W O W s also m a d e weapons, b a g g e d g u n p o w d e r , crated ammunition and did whatever else was asked o f them so that their fathers, husbands, sons, and sweethearts c o u l d win the war and c o m e back h o m e again. T h e "Rosie the Riveter" m o v e m e n t is credited with h e l p i n g push the n u m b e r o f working w o m e n to 20 million during the f o u r years o f war a 57 percent j u m p f r o m 1940. A b o u t 300,000 w o m e n were e m p l o y e d in War Department activities in N o v e m b e r 1943. T h e W O W b a n d a n n a b e c a m e a well-known symbol o f the 85,000 w o m e n w h o w o r k e d directly for the O r d n a n c e Department. A n advertisement in the July-August 1943 issue o f Army Ordnance e n t h u s e d : "... and she wears the W O W b a n d a n n a . Water R e p e l l e n t . W a s h a b l e . Dust P r o o f . T h e ' W O W ' Bandanna, designed in a c c o r d a n c e with US A r m y specification, is an attractive, safe, a n d unifying h e a d c o v e r i n g to identify W o m e n O r d n a n c e Workers. A b o u t 27in square, it is available either in O r d n a n c e red with white O r d n a n c e insignia, o r in white with red O r d n a n c e insignia. Every w o m a n in your plant will want o n e - it's a ' W O W ' for morale! $3.75 per d o z e n , net FOB, New York. Manufactured u n d e r authorization f r o m the Army O r d n a n c e Department. We invite your inquiry. Brian Fabrics C o r p o r a t i o n , 1441 Broadway, New York City." These w o m e n h e l p e d their workplaces, b o t h civilian a n d government, to be recognized by the military. A r m y / N a v y " E " Award pennants for Excellence in P r o d u c t i o n were given to businesses that s u p p o r t e d the war effort; the award c e r e m o n y was elaborate, with senior military officers present a n d Airforce fly-overs provided. S o m e of the WOWs formed a uniformed organization referred to as the W o m e n O r d n a n c e Workers I n c o r p o r a t e d . It was first o r g a n i z e d at the Hurley Machine C o m p a n y in Chicago o n September 22, 1942 and was in n o way c o n n e c t e d with the O r d n a n c e D e p a r t m e n t o r the government. Members wore a trim air force-blue u n i f o r m with patch p o c k e t s , b r o w n leather

W O W s g a t h e r in f r o n t of a Treasury flag, a w a r d e d to c o m p a n i e s in w h i c h 9 0 p e r c e n t of e m p l o y e e s i n v e s t e d r e g u l a r l y in W a r B o n d s . N o t e t h a t s o m e of t h e s e w o m e n w e a r c a p s or coveralls with ordnance workers' badges. T h e role of w o m e n in W o r l d W a r II n a t u r a l l y did not e n d w i t h temporarily replacing the m e n in civilian j o b s . In 1 9 4 2 C o n g r e s s established the Women's Army Auxiliary C o r p s (WAAC), a n d several hundred thousand w o m e n volunteered to "free a m a n t o f i g h t . " A l t h o u g h issued military-style uniforms, and r e p l a c i n g s o l d i e r s in c l e r i c a l and other non-combat related j o b s , t h e W A A C s h a d no official m i l i t a r y s t a t u s until 1 9 4 3 , w h e n t h e y officially b e c a m e p a r t of the a r m e d forces as the Women's A r m y C o r p s (WAC). S e e M e n - a t A r m s 3 5 7 , World War II Women's

Allied

Services.

A

belt, o p e n - n e c k white blouse o r gilet and an overseas cap. W O W S Inc had as its symbol a shield s u p e r i m p o s e d u p o n crossed cannons, bearing the letters " W O W , " and t o p p e d by eagle wings and the m o n o g r a m "USA." Women's Land Army T h e W L A h a d its origins in W o r l d War I, w h e n it was created in r e s p o n s e to President W o o d r o w W i l s o n ' s call f o r an increase in f o o d p r o d u c t i o n ; the organization w o r k e d in c o o p e r a t i o n with the U n i t e d States F o o d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e "farmerettes" relieved the shortage o f m e n w h o h a d g o n e o f f to fight, a n d t e n d e d the c r o p s in farmlands across the country. T h e same call went o u t in W o r l d War II; the W o m e n ' s L a n d A r m y was part o f the Registration o f Farm L a b o r program organized and developed through t h e state o f f i c e s o f the U n i t e d States E m p l o y m e n t Service that was a part o f the W a r M a n p o w e r C o m m i s s i o n . The D e p a r t m e n t o f Agriculture had o u t l i n e d to C o n g r e s s five necessary steps to m e e t the f a r m l a b o r shortage: (1) K e e p o n the farms as m a n y e x p e r i e n c e d m a n a g e r s as p o s s i b l e ; ( 2 ) r e c r u i t m o r e industrial l a b o r f r o m the cities; (3) use the services o f m o r e w o m e n a n d y o u n g p e o p l e , training the i n e x p e r i e n c e d ; (4) d e v e l o p efficient ways o f transporting m i g r a n t f a r m workers to areas where they are n e e d e d ; (5) take g o o d farmers o f f p o o r land a n d put them o n g o o d land. A statistical estimate m a d e by the War M a n p o w e r Commission figured that 70 p e r c e n t m o r e w o m e n were working o n the farms in the s u m m e r o f 1942 than in the s u m m e r o f 1940. T h e W L A had a force o f 50,000 w o m e n w h o w o r k e d o n farms and ranches across the United States. By the e n d o f the war it was a familiar sight to see w o m e n driving trucks and tractors a l o n g A m e r i c a n highways. T h e standard " u n i f o r m " o f the W L A consisted o f blue d e n i m overalls, a long-sleeve shirt, and a u n i q u e W L A hat that almost r e s e m b l e d the b o n n e t s worn in the p i o n e e r i n g days o f the O l d West.

CHILDREN AT WAR Boy and Girl Scouts T h e Boy Scouts o f America (BSA) was inspired by and m o d e l e d o n the Boy Scout Association, established by Baden-Powell in Britain in 1908; it was incorporated o n February 8, 1910. Girl Scouting in the United States began o n March 12, 1912 when f o u n d e r Juliette "Daisy" G o r d o n Low organized the first Girl Scout t r o o p meeting with 18 girls in Savannah, Georgia. During b o t h World Wars, Scouts helped out o n the h o m e front by selling defense b o n d s , growing victory gardens, and collecting waste fat

and scrap iron. Girl Scouts b e c a m e famous for selling their Girl Scout Cookies as their annual fundraiser, which they began in 1917 - a tradition that has long outlasted the World Wars. T h e BSA i m p l e m e n t e d the Sea Scouts p r o g r a m in 1912 - basically a nautical/naval equivalent for o l d e r youths. In 1917 Scouter James "Kimo" Wilder c a m e o n b o a r d as Chief Seascout; his revamping o f the program in an attempt to invigorate the m o v e m e n t was unsuccessful, and he stepped aside in 1923 for C m d r T h o m a s J. Keane. Keane's reorganized Sea Scout p r o g r a m was basically that which still exists today; he d e v e l o p e d the naval-style uniforms, office titles and insignia, fourlevel a d v a n c e m e n t p r o g r a m o f A p p r e n t i c e , O r d i n a r y , A b l e , a n d Quartermaster, and other features. In 1935, Sea Scouts b e c a m e part o f the larger Senior Scout Division o f the BSA. In addition, the Girl Scouts also launched the Mariner Girl Scout p r o g r a m in O c t o b e r 1934, for older Girl Scouts interested in o u t d o o r water-based activities. By the e n d o f that year 12 Mariner ships were registered, and the first two h a n d b o o k s - Launching a Girl Scout Mariner Ship, and Charting the Course of a Girl Scout Mariner Ship - were published. With a membership o f m o r e than 27,000 boys, Sea Scouting served the United States well in World War II, when Keane was recalled to active service in the Navy and resigned his position as national director. Thousands o f former and active Sea Scouts j o i n e d the Navy, and they made a tremendous impression o n A d m Chester Nimitz, w h o sincerely believed that Sea Scouts were better trained and better e q u i p p e d to face the e n e m y and the elements. (In 1949 Sea Scouts were r e n a m e d Sea Explorers, as part o f the renaming o f Senior Scouts to Explorers. T h e Mariner Girl Scout p r o g r a m remains active but in a smaller f o r m ; most girls have instead j o i n e d the Sea Scouts, which has b e e n co-ed since 1971.) T h e Scouts c o n t r i b u t e d in o t h e r areas o f war work. T h e i r part in training State Guards in fieldcraft at the Tactical S c h o o l has already b e e n m e n t i o n e d (see u n d e r "State D e f e n s e F o r c e s " a b o v e ) . In mid-1942 an o r d e r by the President m a d e the Scouts official g o v e r n m e n t dispatchbearers for the O f f i c e o f War I n f o r m a t i o n ; since there were 1,589,281 o f t h e m , this must have b e e n the largest m e s s e n g e r service in the w o r l d . Eventually the Scouts service was r e d u c e d by s o m e half-million w h o , leaving the O f f i c e o f War I n f o r m a t i o n , j o i n e d the Civil D e f e n s e services, but 424,000 still r e m a i n e d to carry the O W I ' s v o l u m i n o u s dispatches. War Savings b e c a m e o f major i m p o r t a n c e , a n d b e f o r e VJ-Day the Scouts had s u c c e e d e d in selling an impressive $ 1 , 8 0 0 millon-worth. By then their c o l l e c t i o n o f paper, t h o u g h it had b e e n slowed d o w n by the War P r o d u c t i o n B o a r d , had r e a c h e d the figure o f 240,019 tons - an a m o u n t sufficient to m a k e , a m o n g o t h e r things, 3.5 m i l l i o n p r o t e c t i v e

A p o p u l a r f a s h i o n for c h i l d r e n w a s m i n i a t u r e c o p i e s of a r m e d forces uniforms; this proud y o u n g s t e r s p o r t s a c o p y of t h e A r m y Air C o r p s u n i f o r m .

55

b a n d s f o r 1,0001b b o m b s , m o r e than 5 million similar b a n d s for 5001b b o m b s , p a c k i n g f o r m o r e than 16 million 7 5 m m shells, s o m e 64 m i l l i o n c o n t a i n e r s f o r b l o o d plasma, a n d 93.59 million cartons e a c h c o n t a i n i n g ten cartridges for inflating life-floats. By 1945 m o r e than 67,000 Scouts were working in victory gardens, and m o r e than 20,000 possessed g a r d e n s over 400 feet square; these w e r e eligible f o r " G r e e n T h u m b " certificates and MacArthur medals. T h e y also h e l p e d the Forestry Service by planting 142,103 trees. B l o o d banks were established all o v e r the c o u n t r y which received b l o o d donations f r o m Scouts, w h o also w o r k e d in large n u m b e r s with the hospitals. T h e y p r o v i d e d entertainments for the A r m e d Forces, c o l l e c t i n g m o r e than 3 million musical instruments, g r a m o p h o n e r e c o r d s and furniture for Services hospitals. As elsewhere, the n u m b e r o f f o r m e r Scouts and Scoutmasters w h o w o n distinction in battle w h e n serving with the A r m e d Forces was very large. Nearly 2 million Scouts had served by the time the war was w o n , and the Scouts o f A m e r i c a then c o n c e n t r a t e d o n raising the World Friendship Fund launched by their National C o u n c i l , with the object o f helping the reorganization o f Scouting in Allied countries devastated by the war. T h e Boy S c o u t s of A m e r i c a w a s t h e l a r g e s t of t h e c h i l d r e n ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n s ; it c o n t r i b u t e d considerably to t h e w a r effort, v o l u n t e e r i n g for e v e r y t h i n g f r o m scrap collection drives and War Bond sales to performing government messenger service a n d i n s t r u c t i n g S t a t e G u a r d s in f i e l d c r a f t . (National A r c h i v e s )

Victory Corps As A m e r i c a n s b e c a m e m o r e involved in the wartime v o l u n t e e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , o n S e p t e m b e r 25, 1942 C o m m i s s i o n e r o f Education J o h n W. S t u d e b a k e r e s t a b l i s h e d the V i c t o r y C o r p s , u p o n the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o f his advisory Wartime C o m m i s s i o n , to increase the i n v o l v e m e n t o f h i g h s c h o o l students. T h e p u r p o s e o f this o r g a n i z a t i o n was to p r e p a r e h i g h s c h o o l students to aid in the war effort b o t h o n the h o m e f r o n t a n d the frontlines. B o t h girls and boys f r o m white a n d African A m e r i c a n s c h o o l s participated. In o r d e r to b e a m e m b e r a student n e e d e d to participate in a physical fitness p r o g r a m , e n r o l l in a war-effort class, a n d v o l u n t e e r for at least o n e extracurricular wartime activity. T h e physical fitness p r o g r a m s were essential, b e c a u s e military officials w e r e a l a r m e d by the p o o r c o n d i t i o n o f r e c e n t enlistees. At the advent o f the war h i g h s c h o o l curricula in Maryland had b e e n altered to a c c o m m o d a t e war-effort classes; by m o d i f i c a t i o n o f industrial arts a n d vocational-industrial classes, students c o u l d learn a b o u t m a c h i n e r y , the f u n d a m e n t a l s o f electricity, radios, the c a n n i n g o f f o o d , a e r o n a u t i c s , first aid, rifle s h o o t i n g , a n d o t h e r pertinent topics. D u e to its p r o x i m i t y to W a s h i n g t o n , D C , Maryland had the first

three V i c t o r y C o r p s p r o g r a m s : Ellicott City H i g h S c h o o l in H o w a r d County, and S h e r w o o d H i g h S c h o o l a n d M o n t g o m e r y Blair S e n i o r H i g h S c h o o l , b o t h in M o n t g o m e r y County. As the war p r o g r e s s e d 126 o f the 145 Maryland c o u n t y h i g h s c h o o l s a n d all o f B a l t i m o r e City's high s c h o o l s established V i c t o r y C o r p s . As the hostilities a p p r o a c h e d a close the V i c t o r y C o r p s p r o g r a m was p h a s e d o u t , b e g i n n i n g in J u n e 1944. Uniforms o f any type or style differed from school to school, but the Victory Corps did use a series o f standardized insignia. Many students wore an oddly shaped light gray overseas-style cap which had the top corners squared off. A red "V" patch was sewn to the front left side o f the cap. A round blue patch could be sewn over the top o f the "V" for students involved with the following activities: Agriculture (wheat within c o g w h e e l ) , Aviation (three-blade propeller), Community Service (Geneva cross), Land (American eagle), and Sea (fouled a n c h o r ) .

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY Bailey, Ronald H., The Home Front:

USA (Alexandria, VA; Time-Life

Books, 1977) Billinger, R o b e r t D., Hitler's Soldiers in the Sunshine State (Gainesville, FL; University Press o f Florida, 2000) Brayley, Martin J., The British Home Front, 1939-45 (Elite 109; Osprey Publishing, 2005) Brayley, Martin J., World War II Allied Nursing Services (Men-at-Arms 370; Osprey Publishing, 2002) Breuer, William B., The Air Raid Warden was a Spy and Other Tales from Home-Front America in World War II (Edison, NJ; Castle B o o k s , 2003) Burnett, Betty, St Louis at War: The Story of a City, 1941-1945 (St Louis, M O ; T h e Patrice Press, 1987) Burnham, Frank A., Aerial Search: The CAP Story (Fallbrook, CA; A e r o Publishers Inc, 1974) Coffey, Frank, 50 Years of the USO (New York; Brassey's (US) Inc, 1991) C o h e n , Stan, The Tree Army: A Pictorial History of the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-1942 (Missoula, M T ; Pictorial Histories Publishing C o m p a n y Inc, 1980) C o h e n , Stan, & D o n DeNevi, They Came to Destroy America: The FBI Goes to War Against

Nazi

Spies &

Saboteurs...

(Missoula, M T ;

Pictorial

Histories Publishing C o m p a n y Inc, 2003) Cole, David J., P h D , Florida World War II Heritage Trail (Tallahassee, FL; Florida Department o f State, 2004) de Quesada, Alejandro M., "Guarding the Skies Over Pass-A-Grille", Veterans SentinelVolume 1, N u m b e r 6 (February 1994) de Quesada, Alejandro M., "Pass-A-Grille Steeled for War", Yesterday in Florida, N u m b e r 20, Winter 2005 de Quesada, Alejandro M., "Soldiers o f the Reich in T a m p a Bay", Pastimes, V o l u m e 2, N u m b e r 1 (Fall 1995) de Quesada, Alejandro M., " S o m e C o r n e r o f an A m e r i c a n Field", The Armourer, Issue 12 ( N o v - D e c 1995) de Quesada, Alejandro M., The Royal Air Force Over Florida (Charleston, SC; Arcadia Publishing, 1998)

d e Quesada, A l e j a n d r o M., World War Two in Tampa Bay (Charleston, SC; Arcadia Publishing, 1997) Dies, Martin, The Trojan Horse in America: A Report to the Nation (New York; D o d d , M e a d 8c Company, 1940) D u k e , David, 8c Iris, State Guard Distinctive Insignia (Shawnee, KS; K & M Collectibles Inc, 2004) Emert, Phyllis Raybin ( e d ) , World War II: On the Homefront (Carlisle, MA; Discovery Enterprises Ltd, 1995) Freitus, J o s e p h & A n n e , Florida: The War Years 1938-1945 (Niceville, FL; W i n d Canyon Publishing Inc, 1998) Jacobs, Martin, World War II Homefront Collectibles (Iola, WS; Krause Publications, 2000) J o h n s o n , Stephen D., 8c Gary S. P o p p l e t o n , Cloth Insignia of the US State Guards and State Defense Forces (Hendersonville, T N ; Richard Smith Military B o o k s , 1993) J o n e s , W i l b u r D., 8c Carroll R o b b i n s , Hawaii Goes to War: The Aftermath of Pearl Harbor (Shippensburg, PA; White M a n e Books, 2001) Keefer, Louis E., From Maine to Mexico with America's Private Pilots in the Fight Against Nazi U-Boats (Reston, VA; C O T U Publishing, 1997) Krammer, A r n o l d , Nazi Prisoners of War in America (New York: Stein and Day, 1979) M o r m i n o , Gary R., Hillsborough

County Goes to War: The Home-Front,

1940-1950 (Tampa, FL; USF Libraries, 2001) Petersen, G e o r g e , American Women at War in World War II Vol. I (Springfield, VA; N C H S Inc, n o date - r / p o f wartime uniform references o f various w o m e n ' s organizations) R e x f o r d , O s c a r Whitelaw, Battlestars & Doughnuts: World War II Clubmobile Experiences of Mary Metcalfe Rexford (St Louis, M O ; T h e Patrice Press, 1989) Ross, Mary Steele, American Women in Uniform: Complete descriptions, duties, qualifications, and requirements of 27 Women's Organizations ( G a r d e n City, NY; G a r d e n City Publishing C o Inc, 1943) Sage-Gagne, Waneta, Pilots in the Sun: Primary Pilot Training Schools in Lakeland and Avon Park, Florida 1940-1945 (Lakeland, FL: Friends o f the Library, 1990) Smith, Jill H o l c o m b , Dressed for Duty: America's Women in Uniform 1898-1973 (San Jose, CA: R . J a m e s B e n d e r Publishing; Vol 1, 2001; Vol 2, 2004) Tilley, J o h n A., The United States Coast Guard Auxiliary: A History 1939-1999 (Washington, D C ; United States Coast Guard, 2002) W e a t h e r f o r d , Doris, American Women and World War Two (New York: Facts o n File Inc, 1990) W y n n e , Lewis N. ( e d ) , Florida at War (Dade City, FL; Saint L e o C o l l e g e , 1993)

PLATE COMMENTARIES A: A M E R I C A N F A S C I S T S : T h e G e r m a n A m e r i c a n Bund, Camp Nordland, 1 9 3 9 - 4 2

A1: Fritz Kuhn, Bundesfuhrer A2: Drum Major, Jugendschaft, Ortsgruppe Brooklyn A3: Youth Leader, Frauenschaft Fritz Kuhn's uniform (A1) consisted of a light gray, singlebreasted coat with black cap, epaulets, cuffs and upper part of the open collar, and silver piping and buttons. He wore this over a gray poplin shirt with turndown collar, two breast pockets and shoulder straps, with a black four-inhand tie and the Bund badge. For duty indoors he wore long black trousers without cuffs, black shoes and socks. The Ordnungsdienst left armband has a black ground with a white stripe near the top and bottom edges, and the black and gold insignia of the Bund centered between a gold "O" and "D." The Drum Major (A2) of the Jugendschaft is wearing Hitler Jugend (Hitler Youth) articles imported from Germany: the "swallow's-nest" shoulder ornaments with white fringes, black leather belt with HJ steel buckle, and HJ knife. The female youth leader (A3) is wearing a uniform similiar in style to those worn by the German Bund Deutsche Madel (BDM) and NSFrauenschaft girls' and women's organizations. She is holding a white oak pole with the rigid white triangular

M e m b e r s of t h e C i t i z e n s D e f e n s e C o r p s serving a s m e d i c a l v o l u n t e e r s ; s e e also P l a t e B 1 . (Pinellas C o u n t y Historical C o m m i s s i o n )

pennant bearing a black siegrune within a red circle. (Inset) The Bund stickpin badge. B: C I V I L D E F E N S E ,

1941-45

B1: US Citizen's Defense Corps B2: Blackout Warden B3: Spotter, Aircraft Warning Service B4: Educational advisor, Civilian Conservation Corps The Citizen's Defense Corps woman (B1) wears a suit in slate-blue rayon with a matching overseas cap, a white cotton shirt and navy-blue tie. The embroidered insignia for the staff was a blue circle and white triangle, with "CD" superimposed in red; it is attached to the left sleeve one inch below the shoulder seam. On her collars are a pair of emblems consisting of the blue circle and white triangle, with a star over "CDC" in red superimposed, all superimposed over "US" in silver. On the left side of her cap is a small "CD" patch; note also the purse in uniform color. The warden (B2) is wearing a high-domed, whitepainted helmet with gray canvas chinstraps, and the CD emblem on the front; a World War l-style trench coat; and an armband with a blue circle and white triangle, the superimposed red and white stripes identifying his role as an air raid warden. He is equipped with a whistle, a black plastic trench flashlight clipped to the cloth belt of his coat, and a slung gas mask. The female Aircraft Warning Service observer (B3) is identified only by a blue armband with a yellow-winged white disc and the words "U.S. ARMY/AIR FORCE/AWS/OBSERVER." The CCC education officer (B4) is wearing an Army-style uniform consisting of a spruce-green gabardine jacket with green buttons and olive-green sleeve braids, with three small buttons on each cuff. On the left sleeve near the shoulder is the CCC patch. On the right collar is a diamond-shaped gilt insignia with the letters "CCC," and on the left collar a burning lamp emblem. Rank insignia consisting of two small embroidered discs of gold bullion are worn on the outside center of the coat sleeves, one inch above the braid. The Army-style cap has a gilt emblem of an American eagle below the letters "CCC." C: M A R I T I M E

ORGANIZATIONS,

1941-45

C1: Third Class Petty Officer, United States Coast Guard Auxiliary C2: Chief Petty Officer, United States Maritime Service C3: Ship's Master, Army Transportation Service C4: Coxswain, Sea Scouts, BSA Nearly all the maritime services wore uniforms identical in style and cut; usually the only differences were that service's distinctive insignia and rank structure. The Coast Guard Auxiliarist (C1) is wearing an officer-style singlebreasted jacket that had been adopted by the auxiliaries and temporary reservists performing shore duties. On his collar are two brass USCG Auxiliary emblems. On his right wrist he has a silver chained bracelet consisting of a World War II USN-style dogtag (oval disc) - this was the service award given to auxiliarists during the war for devoting more than 600 hours' service. The Maritime Service

M e m b e r s of t h e U S Public H e a l t h S e r v i c e a t t a c h e d t o a s e r v i c e b r a n c h w o r e t h e u n i f o r m of t h a t a s s i g n m e n t ; h e r e t w o s u c h e m p l o y e e s c o m p a r e Navy a n d A r m y u n i f o r m s w i t h

"SEA SCOUTS B.S.A." in white embroidery. (Inset) The Walt Disney-designed insignia of the "Corsair Fleet," volunteer CG Auxiliarists who performed antisubmarine patrols on the East Coast in their own small craft.

U S P H S insignia - s e e also P l a t e D 4 .

(Merchant Marine) CPO (C2) wears a dark blue uniform with a USMS rating patch on his right sleeve, and on his left an armband for Maritime Shore Patrol. His white pistol belt supports a black leather holster for his .38in revolver. The ATS officer (C3) wears the dark blue double-breasted coat with six buttons, and on each sleeve four gold stripes in full lace beneath a gold upright fouled anchor. The Scout (C4) is wearing a US Navy jumper, trousers and white "dixie cup" cap, the latter with the Sea Scout emblem in silver - the BSA eagle superimposed on an anchor pinned to the front. The following insignia are worn on the jumper: at the top of the right sleeve, a round light blue patch with the American shield in red, white and blue, bordered in yellow; midway between shoulder and elbow is the coxswain's insignia; and just above the cuff is the bugler's device, embroidered in white with red tassels. On his left sleeve he has a white-bordered, white-lettered shoulder tab "JERSEY SHORE"; about an inch and a half below this are white block numerals "49"; 2in below this is a red-bordered patch with a white sailing ship on dark blue waters beneath light blue sky. On his right breast is the title

D: H U M A N I T A R I A N 1941-45

ORGANIZATIONS,

D1: Clubmobile Volunteer, American Red Cross D2: First lieutenant, American Women's Hospital Reserve Corps D3: Cadet Nurse, United States Public Health Service D4: Senior Surgeon, United States Public Health Service The Red Cross clubmobile volunteer (D1) has a gray-blue rayon jacket in British battledress style, with women's slacks tucked into knitted socks with brown leather ankle boots. On her left shoulder is a Red Cross patch lettered with "'AMERICAN RED CR0SS7MILITARY WELFARE SERVICE." Her cap is of the same material, and has a red enameled Geneva cross emblem on the front. She is showing off her OD field jacket, with many souvenir military unit patches given to her by grateful soldiers. The AWHRC officer (D2) is wearing a grayish-tan military-cut uniform consisting of a six-gore skirt with one pleat in front, and button fastening; a tan military cut shirt with long sleeves, maroon shoulder straps, one-button cuffs, and a maroon rayon tie; a fitted blouse with hip and breast pockets, shoulder straps, half-inch silk braid bands around the sleeves 3in above the ends, joined "RC" devices

A B O V E LEFT Female m e m b e r of t h e Civil Air Patrol posing with the "Wolf Squadron" badge of t h e Corpus Christi, Texas, Coastal Patrol Base. (National Archives)

A B O V E R I G H T Willa Beatrice Brown, t h e first African A m e r i c a n w o m a n to be commissioned in t h e CAP; she w e n t on to be a flight instructor. Here she w e a r s a male-style coat buttoning from left to right. Note cap badge; red epaulets; lapel badges "C.A.P." above Army Air Force-style w i n g e d propellers; a n d the earlier, Germanic-looking pilot's wings. (NARA, courtesy Alex Bielakowski)

on the collar points and caduceus emblems on the lapels. Her rank is designated by a pair of bronze metal discs worn on the shoulder straps, over the crossed stitching at the end and parallel with the seam. Above her left pocket are three ribbons: the Award of Merit, Efficiency Award, and Distinguished Service Award. The Cadet Nurse Corps uniform (D3) consists of a cadet-gray wool coat and skirt; the USPHS Cadet Nurse patch is worn on the left sleeve, and a pair of silver USPHS emblems on the lapels. A cadet-gray wool beret-style headgear with the USPHS emblem in silver completes the uniform. The senior surgeon (D4) is wearing an Army-style officers' uniform with gilt USPHS emblems for medical officers on his collars and Army officer's cap.

E: A E R O N A U T I C A L 1941-45

ORGANIZATIONS,

E1: Flight instructor, British Flight Training School No.5 E2: First Officer/Station Manager, Air Transport Command E3: Major, 3rd Coastal Patrol, Civil Air Patrol E4: Pilot, Women's Airforce Service Pilots The flight instructor (E1) of BFTS No.5 at Clewiston is wearing a Royal Air Force-style cap emblem and pilot's wings on his shirt, but with the king's crown above the wreathed eagle replaced with "BFTS". The ATC first officer (E2) is wearing an Army-style officer's uniform with ATC copilot wings, and on the ends of his shoulder straps are his ATC distinctive rank discs. On his left sleeve is a large blue patch with a white triangle and "US" in blue superimposed, designating him as a non-combatant. His rank is further identified by two bars at the end of the shoulder straps of the trenchcoat. The CAP major (E3) wears Army-style khaki cap, shirt, and pants. On the lower left sleeve is his antisubmarine patrol insignia, consisting of a bomb dropping onto a submarine, in gold stitching on a gold-bordered black background. He is holding his brown leather A-2 flight jacket, with the painted squadron insignia of the 3rd Coastal Patrol. The female pilot (E4) is wearing her old WAFS uniform while awaiting issue of the new WASP uniform during summer 1944. Her A-2 jacket shows her organization's new emblem, "Fifinella" - a gremlin designed by Disney Studios.

shirt and tie; on the left sleeve is the patch for the 4th Regiment. Instead of the US Army officer's cap emblem bearing the Great Seal of the United States, his displays the Missouri state seal. The WADCA member of the "Santa Monica Defense Force" (F3) is wearing an Army-style khaki overseas cap, shirt and long skirt (a four-pocket khaki blouse was also worn). A WADCA patch was worn on the left sleeve of the shirt and blouse, as well as on the overseas cap. In addition, in most cases an arched tab bearing the wearer's home town or unit designation was worn below the organization's patch on the sleeve; (inset) is that of the Santa Barbara (Hollywood) unit. She is armed with an M1917 bolt-action rifle. G: P A T R I O T I C O R G A N I Z A T I O N S , 1941-45

W h e n t h e W A F S a n d W F T D w e r e a m a l g a m a t e d into t h e W A S P in 1 9 4 3 , a n e w u n i f o r m of s o - c a l l e d S a n t i a g o b l u e w a s designed and issued. Note the distinctive beret headgear. As well as this four-pocket coat there w a s a matching waist-length "Ike" j a c k e t that proved popular for flying d u t i e s .

F: S T A T E D E F E N S E

FORCES,1941-45

F1: Sergeant, Florida Defense Force F2: Captain, 4th Regiment, Missouri State Guard F3: Private, Women's Ambulance and Defense Corps of America Typical of most state guard units, the Florida Defense Force (F1) wore Army-style khaki overseas caps (without piping), shirt and pants. On the left shoulder is an orange twill disc with a light gray embroidered border and title "FLORIDA DEFENSE FORCE." On the left side of the overseas cap is a small orange twill disc with a green alligator and the letters "FDF" in white (inset). In 1943 the Florida Defense Force changed its name to Florida State Guard. The Missouri State Guard captain (F2) is wearing an Army-style olive drab gabardine coat and pants, khaki

G1: Second lieutenant, Motor Transport, American Women's Volunteer Services G2. National Commander, Daughters of the Defenders of the Republic G3. Entertainer, United Services Organization G4. Volunteer, Junior Commandos The AWVS Motor Transport uniform (G1) consisted of a four-pocket suit in gray-blue wool with four large brass buttons, topped with a matching cap with the round MTS emblem in front, and completed by a white cotton shirt and navy-blue tie; the AWVS patch is worn on the left shoulder. The Daughters of the Defenders of the Republic (G2) wore a uniform in Army khaki wool, the tunic having epaulets, these four pockets, and a brown leather belt. The skirt was a wrap-around style, worn over trousers that come down over the knees, and was designed so that the skirt itself could be removed and used as a blanket to cover patients during first aid treatments. The khaki visored hat was in "Pershing" style, bearing the emblem of the DDR. As commanding officer this woman wears a gold braid on the shoulder straps, an aqua-blue cloth collar and a hat band edged with gold braid; her rank is further identified by three gold sleeve rings on blue cuffs, and three gold bars across the right lapel. The USO entertainer (G3) is wearing an Army-style officer's uniform but cut for a woman, with the "USO CAMP SHOWS" patch worn on the left side of the overseas cap as well as on her jacket. The youthful member of the Junior Commandos (G4) is wearing an Army-style khaki shirt with a black necktie tucked in. An improvised arm band displays a black hand-stenciled emblem consisting of "JC" over three stars within an oval; it is fashioned out of cardboard covered with white cloth, with two straps for fastening. On his shirt he is wearing a Theodore Roosevelt Medal for academic achievement with a red, white and blue ribbon. He is seen bringing a World War I helmet to the scrap drive - probably without his father's knowledge... H: T H E W O R K F O R C E , 1 9 4 1 - 4 5

H1: Woman Ordnance Worker, Springfield Armory H2: Auxiliary Military Police, St Louis Ordnance Plant H3: Volunteer, Women's Land Army The oil-stained blue coveralls and heavy brown work boots are typical of clothing worn by both men and women industrial workers; (H1) is also wearing the red head scarf with white flaming bomb designs that became the symbol

A B O V E Unit photo of m e m b e r s of t h e 3 r d B n , 2 8 t h I n f a n t r y Regt, M a s s a c h u s e t t s S t a t e G u a r d , t a k e n a t C a m p O'Connor, F r a m l i n g h a m , in July 1 9 4 5 . All e x c e p t t h e c o o k w e a r k h a k i s , w i t h rank on collar or s l e e v e s a n d a n M S G left s h o u l d e r p a t c h . S e e also P l a t e F.

R I G H T B a r b a r a O h m a n , p h o t o g r a p h e d in 2 0 0 5 w e a r i n g h e r old W L A s u n b o n n e t - s t y l e h a t - s e e P l a t e H - a t a n e v e n t c o m m e m o r a t i n g t h e 6 0 t h a n n i v e r s a r y of t h e e n d of W o r l d War II. (Author's photo)

of the Women Ordnance Workers. The auxiliary military police officer (H2) is wearing a blue police-type uniform loosely based on the military model; on the left pocket is a factory picture ID, and on the left sleeve is a large shield patch lettered "AUXILIARY MILITARY POLICE." The cap is of the police type, with paneled sides; and he is wearing a black Sam Browne-type belt with an open holster for a .38in Colt revolver, a common sidearm among American policemen. He is raising the Army/Navy "E" Award pennant that has been awarded to his ordnance plant for excellent performance. The Women's Land Army Volunteer (H3) is wearing the WLA's unique sun bonnet-type headgear with the organization's emblem on the crown, repeating that on her armband.

INDEX Figures in bold refer to illustrations.

J u n i o r A m e r i c a n N u r s e I n c . (JAN)

a e r o n a u t i c a l services

L a n d , A d m E m o r y Scott

30

W o m e n ' s Voluntary Services 2 1 - 2 2 , 22; A r m y T r a n s p o r t Service, Water Division 31, C3 (35,

45-50

Air Transport C o m m a n d

43

5 9 - 6 0 ) ; Boy Scouts 56; British Flying Training

45, 4 5 - 4 6

S c h o o l s E l ( 3 7 , 6 1 ) , 46; Bundles f o r A m e r i c a

Aleutian Islands 9

M c L e a n , A l i c e T 20

2 3 ; C a d e t Nurse C o r p s 28; Canadian L e g i o n

All A m e r i c a n Girls Professional Baseball L e a g u e

M a r i t i m e Services 3 1 - 3 2 , 32, 4 1 - 4 4

4; Citizens D e f e n s e C o r p s B l (34, 5 9 ) , 59;

m e d i c a l care 6 see also B l o o d D o n o r Services;

Civil Air Patrol E3 (37, 6 1 ) , 47, 48, 61;

(AAGPBL)

7

a m b u l a n c e s a n d A m b u l a n c e Services 17, 26, 30, 31 A m e r i c a n Field Service (AFS) American Legion

Merchant Marine

31

Civil D e f e n s e B ( 3 4 , 5 9 ) ; Civilian

43

military training

4

A m e r i c a n W o m e n ' s Hospitals R e s e r v e C o r p s (AWHRC)

nursing; R e d Cross-

Conservation Corps (CCC)

13-18

Military T r a i n i n g C a m p s

M o n r o e , R o s e Will ('Rosie the Riveter') Motor Transport Corps

29-30

5 2 , 53

22

N a t i o n a l G e o d e t i c Survey

4 1 ; W a t e r Division

31-32,

31

Arnold, Gen H.H. 'Hap' (1886-1950)

46, 50

M o t o r T r a n s p o r t C o r p s 2 2 ; National W o m e n ' s

19

C o r p s 24; National W o m e n ' s C o u n c i l o f the

42

National G u a r d o f the U n i t e d States

award 5 2 , 5 3 A r m y T r a n s p o r t Service ( A T S ) a n d C o r p s

N a t i o n a l Jewish Welfare B o a r d

Navy L e a g u e 2 5 ; patriotic organizations

15

N a t i o n a l Security W o m e n ' s C o r p s 23, 2 3 - 2 4

50; Public Health Service 29, D3, D 4 (36,

National Travelers' A i d A s s o c i a t i o n

6 0 - 6 1 ) , 60; R e d Cross 24, 25, D l (36, 6 0 - 6 1 ) ;

19

1 7 - 1 8 , 5 4 - 5 6 , 56 26

14; Salvation A r m y

Territorial G u a r d

N e w Deal p r o g r a m s 5, 51 N e w York G u a r d

see also Girl Scouts British a n d A m e r i c a n A m b u l a n c e Service

R e l i e f W i n g s Inc. 48; Reserve O f f i c e r Training Corps

24-25

B o y Scouts o f A m e r i c a ( B S A )

G

( 3 9 , 6 2 ) ; P h i l a d e l p h i a Quartermaster D e p o t

19

National W o m e n ' s C o u n c i l o f the Navy L e a g u e B l o o d D o n o r Services 2 5 , 5 6

19; S a m o a , Fita-Fita

1 6 - 1 7 , 17; Sea Scouts C4

( 3 5 , 5 9 - 6 0 ) , 5 5 ; State D e f e n s e Forces F (38,

18

Nimitz, A d m C h e s t e r W. ( 1 8 8 5 - 1 9 6 6 )

6 2 ) ; State G u a r d s

55

18, 63; V i c t o r y C o r p s 57;

British Flying T r a i n i n g S c h o o l s 46, 4 6 - 4 7

Nisei see J a p a n e s e - A m e r i c a n s , i n t e r n m e n t o f

W o m e n O r d n a n c e Workers Inc. 5 3 - 5 4 ;

Bundles for America

nursing

W o m e n ' s A i r f o r c e Service Pilots (WASP)

22-23

C a d e t N u r s e C o r p s 28, 29

see also R e d Cross

Civil A i r Patrol ( C A P ) Civil D e f e n s e

( 3 7 , 6 1 ) , 5 0 , 62; W o m e n ' s Auxiliary Ferrying

Relief Wings Inc.

Service (WAFS)

48

59 4 7 , 4 7 - 4 8 , 48, 61 13, 13, 16

Civilian C o n s e r v a t i o n C o r p s ( C C C )

50, 5 1 - 5 2

Civilian Military Training C a m p s ( C M T C )

1 4 - 1 5 , 15

O f f i c e o f Civilian D e f e n s e ( O C D )

13

O f f i c e o f Strategic Services ( O S S )

29

Officers' Reserve Corps ( O R C ) O h m a n , Barbara

o r g a n i z a t i o n s H (40, 6 2 - 6 3 ) U n i t e d Service O r g a n i z a t i o n s ( U S O )

14

63

attacks o n U S m a i n l a n d 9 - 1 0 ; e c o n o m i c

O l y m p i c G a m e s , Berlin ( 1 9 3 6 )

11

c o n d i t i o n s 5; a n d growth o f executive p o w e r 8; p u b l i c o p i n i o n

patriotic o r g a n i z a t i o n s Daughters o f the D e f e n d e r s o f the R e p u b l i c Dieckhoff, Hans Heinrich

12 19

21

19-25

3; social c h a n g e

5-7;

war p r e p a r a t i o n s 3 - 4 ; wartime m o r a l e Victory Corps

10-13

56-57

p r i s o n e r s o f war 8

Volunteer Offices

Public H e a l t h Service 2 7 - 2 9 , 60

V o l u n t e e r Port Security F o r c e

P u b l i c H e a l t h Service A c t ( 1 9 4 4 )

13 44

28, 29 W a e s c h e , A d m Russell R. ( 1 8 8 6 - 1 9 4 6 )

Eisenhower, G e n Dwight D. ( 1 8 9 0 - 1 9 6 9 ) fascist d o m e s t i c subversion fashions ( c l o t h i n g ) fat r e c y c l i n g

27

10—13

3, 4

5

rationing

4

Federal E m e r g e n c y A g e n c y ( F E M A )

10, 11 13

r e c y c l i n g o f materials 4, 5

War M a n p o w e r C o m m i s s i o n

R e d Cross 24, 25, 2 5 - 2 7

weather forecasting

see also n u r s i n g 14,

28

Rooney, Mickey (b.1920)

17

Roosevelt, Franklin D. ( 3 2 n d President o f the US)

German-American Bund

(1882-1945)

(1856-1924)

20

11, 12, 13

46-47

Salvation A r m y

19

S a m o a n Battalion, U S M a r i n e C o r p s Sea Scouts

H a y n e s , L t C o l C a l e b V.

45

Hitler, A d o l f ( 1 8 8 9 - 1 9 4 5 ) h o m e defense

State G u a r d s

16-17

Women's Army Corps (WAC) 49-50

T r u m a n , H a r r y S. ( 3 3 r d P r e s i d e n t o f the U S ) (1884-1972)

29

49-50

submarine

54, 54, 63

W o o d w o r t h j o h n Maynard ( 1 8 3 7 - 7 9 )

U n i f o r m C o d e o f Military Justice ( U C M J )

attacks o n U S

W o m e n ' s Flying Training D e t a c h m e n t ( W F T D ) Women's Land Army (WLA)

U-boats 9, 48 43

workforce organizations

27

51-54

uniforms

9-10

weapons; balloon bombs

53

53

W o m e n ' s Auxiliary Ferrying Service (WAFS) 15-18

i n t e r n m e n t 7, 7 - 8 Japanese

5 0 , 62

17, 30

W o m e n ' s A r m y Auxilliary C o r p s ( W A A C )

1 5 - 1 6 , 17, 18, 63

Territorial G u a r d s 25-31

W o m e n ' s A i r f o r c e Service Pilots (WASP)

W o m e n ' s A m b u l a n c e and Defense Corps o f America (WADCA)

15-18

11,12

13-18

humanitarian organizations

1 6 - 1 7 , 17

55

State d e f e n s e f o r c e s

51,

5 2 - 5 4 , 53

S a m o a , Fita-Fita Territorial G u a r d

16

5-6 53-54

W o m e n O r d n a n c e Workers ( W O W )

Girl Scouts

Hawaii Territorial G u a r d

27, 54

women W o m e n O r d n a n c e Wbrkers Inc.

G e r m a n y : attacks o n U S 9, 48 54-55

47

a n d baseball 7; r o l e c h a n g e s

3, 5, 7, 8, 12, 28, 29, 43, 51

Royal A i r F o r c e 10, 1 0 - 1 3

German-American League

W i l s o n , Gill R o b b

W i l s o n , W o o d r o w (28th President o f the US)

14-15

Fita-Fita G u a r d ( S a m o a ) 18

54

42

Willard, Dr. Luvia 29

48

Reserve Officers Training Corps ( R O T C )

Federal Security A g e n c y Florida D e f e n s e F o r c e

44

War B o n d s 1

Relief Wings Inc.

FBI (Federal B u r e a u o f Investigation)

7

P h i l a d e l p h i a Q u a r t e r m a s t e r D e p o t 5 0 , 50 political subversion

1 1 , 11

Dietrich, Marlene ( 1 9 0 1 - 9 2 ) Disney c a r t o o n s

19-20

19

U n i t e d States

28, 4 2 , 4 3 - 4 4

Dies, Martin ( 1 9 0 0 - 7 2 )

49, 49; W o m e n ' s Hospital

R e s e r v e C o r p s D 2 (36, 6 0 - 6 1 ) ; w o r k f o r c e

6, 12, 1 3 - 1 9 , insignia

Coast Guard

E4

C a d e t N u r s e C o r p s 28, 29; c h i l d r e n ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n s 5 4 - 5 7 , 5 5 , 56 Citizens D e f e n s e C o r p s

11,

30; Maritime Service 32, C2 (35, 5 9 - 6 0 ) , 41; N a t i o n a l C a t h o l i c C o m m u n i t y Services

Army-Navy ' E ' ( e x c e l l e n c e ) p e n n a n t industry

CI

( 3 5 , 5 9 - 6 0 ) , 42; G e r m a n - A m e r i c a n B u n d

A ( 3 3 , 5 9 ) ; J u n i o r A m e r i c a n Nurse Inc. (JAN)

A m e r i c a n W o m e n ' s V o l u n t a r y Services (AWVS) 17, 2 0 - 2 2 , 22

50; Civilian

15; Coast G u a r d

10, 10; m i n i a t u r e

9

J a p a n e s e - A m e r i c a n s , i n t e r n m e n t o f 7, 7 - 8

Air Transport C o m m a n d

E2 ( 3 7 , 6 1 ) , 45;

A m b u l a n c e Service 26; A m e r i c a n Field Service 3 1 ; A m e r i c a n L e g i o n

4; A m e r i c a n

Y M C A ( Y o u n g M e n ' s Christian Association) Y W C A ( Y o u n g W o m e n ' s Christian Association)

19

19

Related Titles ISBN

SERIES

No.

TITLE

978 1 84176 474 0

Elite

85

US Commanders of World War II (1) Army and USAAF

978 1 84176 475 7

Elite

87

US Commanders of World War II (2) Navy and USMC

978 1 84176 710 9

Elite

104

Britain's Air Defences 1939-45

978 1 84176 661 4

Elite

109

The British H o m e Front 1939-45

978 1 84603 185 4

Elite

157

The German H o m e Front 1939-45

978 1 84603 072 7

Elite

158

African American Troops in World War II

978 1 84176 053 7

Men-at-Arms

357

World War II Allied W o m e n ' s Services

978 1 84176 185 5

Men-at-Arms

370

World War II Allied Nursing Services

978 1 84176 407 8

Men-at-Arms

393

World War II German W o m e n ' s Auxiliary Services

978 1 84176 312 5

Warrior

36

Grey Wolf: U-Boat Crewman of World War II

978 1 84176 385 9

Warrior

55

Imperial Japanese Naval Aviator 1937-45

978 1 84176 874 8

Warrior

102

The Hitler Youth 1933-45

978 1 84603 013 0

Warrior

110

Hitler's H o m e Guard: Volkssturmmann: Western Front, 1944_45

978 1 84603 076 5

Warrior

117

French Resistance Fighter: France's Secret Army

978 1 84176 390 3

Campaign

62

Pearl Harbor 1941: The day of infamy - Revised Edition

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T h e h i s t o r y o f m i l i t a r y f o r c e s , artifacts,

The US Home

personalities and techniques of warfare

Front 1941-45 This book details a wide range

E B B JP^--

of the auxiliary, patriotic, humanitarian and other organizations that emerged in America during World War II everything from Cadet Nurses

/

•i m

M

U

p LEFT

to volunteer sub-hunters, and v

.

from "Rosie the Riveter" to Photographs

veterans enlisted in State Guards. While some opposed

BEHIND"

President Roosevelt's prewar expedients - the GermanAmerican Bund, for example millions of citizens supported national preparedness, and stepped forward after Pearl Harbor to make their patriotic contributions towards victory. Rare photos and detailed color plates show a wide range of the uniforms worn - many of them Unrivaled detail

Full color artwork

quite forgotten since 1945.

ISBN 978-1-84603-208-0

OSPREY PUBLISHING

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