THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE IN THE ARCHAIC
AND
PERIODS
CLASSICAL BY
SHEILA
THE
BRITISH
SCHOOL
THAMES
ADAM
OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND 1966
HUDSON
AT ATHENS
PRINTED AT
THE
GREAT
IN
UNIVERSITY BY
PRINTER
VIVIAN TO
THE
BRITAIN
PRESS, RIDLER
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY
PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This workcould not have been begunor finished withoutthehelp ofmanypeople. My first as well as R. M. Cook,who has patientlygivenadviceand encouragement debtis to Professor the To B. I of occasions. Professor Ashmole owe the on subject suggestion practicalhelp many and frequent thework.Professor J. M. C. Toynbeehas beenkindenough inspiration throughout to read and criticizemostof the originaldraft.My husbandhas patientlyassistedand encouragedme throughout. to thestudyoftechniques,and Mr. Professor P. E. Corbettgave me a practicalintroduction and Dr. R. Nockoldshave givenme thebenefitof theirexperience M. Batten,MissP. Jenkins, in varioustechnicalmatters.Mr. R. Johnsonand Mr. B. Cook helpedconsiderably withthe R. has Professor seen the volume Press. the J. Hopper photographs. through I shouldalso liketo expressmygratitudeto themuseumauthorities forthefacilities and staff I was givento studyand photographin Cambridge,London, Copenhagen,Berlin,Munich, and Vienna. In Greece the officers of the ArchaeologicalServicewere mostkind,and I am the late to Dr. J. Papadimitriou,Dr. C. Karouzos,Dr. S. Karouzou, Dr. especiallygrateful G. Dondas, and Dr. N. Yalouris.The American,French,and GermanSchoolsat Athenswere all verygenerouswiththeirmaterial. I haveusedmostthosebookswhicharelistedin theabbreviations. Othersourcesare acknowin The are footnotes. I own unless I apologizefor have stated otherwise. ledged photographs my not havingclearerphotographsof some details,but as I was photographing the statuesby naturallightin theirpositionin the museum,it was not alwayspossibleto obtain the views I shouldhave liked. oftheWalstonStudentship and theCravenFund of Finallymythanksare due to thetrustees to the Mistress and Fellows of Girton CambridgeUniversity, College,and to the Ministryof for studies. Education, financing my
TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction
i
......
PART ONE 1. The Point, Punch, and Mallet
.
.
.
2. The 3. The 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Claw ...... Drove ...... The Flat Chisel ..... The Drill ...... The Rasp ...... Abrasives ...... a. Cements and Glues B. The Cutting Compass c. The Saw ......
PART Introductory
Note
3-17
18-22 23-25 26-39 4°~73 74-77 78-79 80-82
.... ....
82-83 83
TWO
.....
85
Statues 9. Freestanding 1. Kore, AcrM 682 (plates 36-37) . 2. Prokne and Itys, AcrM 1358 (plates 38-39) 3. Hygieia, NM 299 (plates 40-41)
. . .
4. Apollo Patroos, Athens,Agora (plates 42-43) 5. The Daochos Dedication, Delphi (plates 44-49) 6. Asklepios, Eleusis 50 (plates 50-51) . . 7. Seated Woman fromRheneia, NM 380 (plate 52) 8. PortraitStatue of a Roman, NM 1828 (plate 53) 10. Grave Reliefs 1. Aristion,NM 29 (plates 54-55) 2. Athens, NM 715 (plates 56-59) 3. Athens,NM 726 (plates 60-61) 4. Ameinokleia, NM 718 (plates 62-63) 5. Athens,NM 870 (plates 64-66) 6. Athens,NM 869 (plates 67-69)
. . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
86-89 89-92 92-94 94~97 97-102 102-4 IO4~5 IO5~7
. . . . . .
108-10 110-13 113-15 115-17 117-20 121-3
CONTENTS
viii Appendix Indexes
pages 124-8
(plates 70-72)
.......
List of Plates, Plates
at Olympia
on the Hermes
1-72 .
129-33 with principal referencesto the text .
.
.
.
.
.
X34~7
.
at end
INTRODUCTION When the technicalmethodsby whichthe Greekscarvedtheirstatueswerefirstdiscussed, no one doubtedthatthe rangeof theirtoolsand the way theyused themwereverysimilar It was generallyagreedthathammer,punch, at thetimeofsuchdiscussion.1 to thosecustomary saw, drill; pointed,flat,rounded,and claw chisels; files,rasps, and emerywere all used ofGreeksculpture.2 Sole exceptionto theidentity ofancientand modern thehistory throughout in the was the common nineteenth but century, outoffashionnow; techniques pointingprocess, forGardner'sviewwaswidelyaccepted: thatthisprocesswas introduced onlyinthefirst century Pasiteles. by The beautyof the workproducedby the Greekswas regardedas due not to any trick techniques,but to thegreatpatienceand skillwithwhichtheyappliedstandardmethods,and evenmoreto thelovelinessoftheirconceptions. Since 1927theidea has gainedgroundthatwhilethetoolswerethesame themethodsused fromthoseofothersculptors, and theirevolutionhas had moreattention. bytheGreeksdiffered Currentopinionis perhapsbestillustrated who says: 'The tools. . . seemto have by Richter,3 been muchthe same as thoseemployedto-day.. . . Apparentlyin the earlierperiodsthe use oftheflatchiseland thegougewas limited,whilethepointedand claw chiselswereextensively used. Fromthelaterfifth centuryonwardstheflatchiselwas employedon the nude partsfor the finalsmoothing.5 The purposeofthepresentstudyis to see whatfoundation thereis forsuchviews.This will be donefirstby examininghowtheGreeksculptorsused each tool,and secondly,by following stageby stagehow theyaccomplishedthecarvingofindividualworks.For the latterpurpose it willbe necessaryto considerseveralpiecesofsculpture.No one piece can possiblyillustrate a fullrangeofthemethodstypicalofitstime,but,as Blümelsays,'thefirmand unifiedtradition ofhandwork5 amongtheGreeksallowsus to arguefromone exampleto anothercontemporary withit. Part One, therefore, is a surveyof examplesof the use of the individualtool as it is attestedmostplainlyon variousworks.This surveywill help us to determinein Part Two whathappenedat thosestagesforwhichthereis no directevidenceon the particularpieces therediscussed. 1
2 Gf.fig. 1 and Blümel,Erg. xi, pl. 1. 3 Richter,Sculpture andSculptors2 (New Haven, 1930) 144.
Clarac, Musée de sculptureantiqueet moderne(Paris, 1841-
53) i. 5 f., pl. i. Blümner, Technologie (Leipzig, 1884) in 187 f.Treu, Jdlx (1895) 3 f.Gardner,JHSxi (1890) 129 f.
O 3288
B
REFERENCES whichI havegenerally referred tosculptures numbers, bytheirmuseumcatalogueorinventory is given,detailscan be foundin Lippold, everare used morecommonly.If no otherreference in the Griechische Plastik.I have droppedtheprefaceBM in thecase oftheParthenonsculptures BritishMuseum,and used thereferences fromSmith'scatalogue.For example,NF fig.62 = abouttheinventory Northfriezefigure62 in thecatalogue.I was able to obtainno information to themby thenumbers in thePiraeusMuseum,so I have referred numbersofthesculptures whentheywerehiddenduring I foundpaintedon them(thesewerenumbersforidentification the war, but I thinktheyare likelyto endure). Where possibleI have giventhe Lippold reference too. All datesare b.c. unlessotherwise stated.Leftand rightreferto theproperleftand rightofa are usuallyin statueor relieffigure, lefthand and righthand to thespectator's.Measurements of a tool withteethlike the claw or rasp the the metricsystem.In givingthe measurement formula5t/i cm. meansthatfiveteethcan be measuredwithina distanceofone centimetre. to thearea ofstonewhichwas My use oftheGermanAnsatzis explainedon p. 80. 'Base' refers cutin one withthefeetofthestatue,'pedestal'to theblockin whichstatueand base wereset. I have not discussedthe questionofpainton Greekstatues,exceptto mentionanytracesI haveobservedontheworksdescribedin detailin Part Two. Foraccountsofhowpaintwasused Studien andSculptors on sculpturesee Richter,Sculpture zurPolychromie 150 f.,and Reuterswärd, derPlastik.
of Cambridgein The originaltextof thisworkwas presentedas a thesisto theUniversity December1961.It has not been foundpossibleto makeuse of workspublishedsince 1962. ABBREVIATIONS have been used: thefollowing Besidesthestandardabbreviations Lullies AcropolisMuseum,Athens. C. Blümel, Griechische Bildhauerxi (1927). arbeit, Jdl, Ergänzungsheft NM Bildhaueran Blümel,Gr.Bild. C. Blümel, Griechische derArbeit( 1943). Ox TecL einesPraxiteles. Hermes G. Blümel,Hermes Blümel, BM BritishMuseum. Pétrie,TW of Carpenter,JVTP Rhys Carpenter, The Sculpture the Nike TempleParapet. Richter,K S. Casson, The Techniqueof Early Casson, TEGS Greek Sculpture. Schrader Plastik. G. Lippold, Griechische Lippold
AcrM
Blümel,Erg. xi
R. Lullies and M. Hirmer,Greek Sculpture. National ArchaeologicalMuseum, Athens. C Singer,etal., A History ofTechnology. Sir Flinders Pétrie, Tools and Weapons. G. Richter, Kouroi,ArchaicGreek 2nd ed. Youths, MarmorH. Schrader,Die archäischen derAkropolis. bildwerke
PART ONE
CHAPTER 1
THE POINT, PUNCH, AND MALLET In 1927Blümelpublishedthefirst expositionofhistheorythatduringthearchaicand classical theGreeksusedquitedifferent and indeed until the second methodsfromour periods, century, own.The archaicsculptorapproachedhisworkin turnfromthefront, theback,and thesides, He workedat thesamerateon everyside,so that almostas thoughhe werecarvingfourreliefs.1 one part of the workwas nevermorethan a littleahead of the rest,and witheach layerof matrixhe removedhe added a littleto themodellingoftheforms.In thisway theformsgrew naturally,and thesculptorneverfora momentlosthis senseoftheunityofthewholeby becomingabsorbedin any one part. Nor was he distractedfromthe essentialstructure by an interestin the superficial, whichwas laterto lead to thelifelesssmoothness of many Roman works. This accountofan archaicGreeksculptor'saimsand methodsis helpfuland convincing.2 It is whenwe reachhisdescription ofthetoolsused thatBlumeFsideas becomedifficult to accept. For he considers thatexceptfora fewdetailswhichwereexecutedwithothertoolsthesculptor used onlya pick-hammer, a mallet,and a pointedchiselheld at rightanglesto thesurfaceof thework,thenemeryforthefinalsmoothing. In 1933 StanleyCassonin his Technique ofEarlyGreek Sculpture acceptedBliimePstheoryfor the to the from sixth about century freestanding sculpture beginningof the fourthcentury. However,he consideredthattherewas an earlierstage,when the firstcarversin stoneborrowedtheirtoolsas wellas thetypeof the xoanon fromwoodworkers. He uses as evidencefor thisthechiselworkon theAcropolisporossculptures, on Dermysand Kittylos, and on thelimestonebustfromEleutherna.3 The Nikandrededicationis 'transitional5 fromworkin softstone toworkin marble,forthetoolsemployedin itscuttingarein themainthoseofthewoodworker; forexample,thechiselforcuttingtheinscription, 'a largeblade, perhapsevena plane' on the armsand shoulders,and a 'flat-headedhammer'at the back. This is nonsense.A chiselwas as ofcourseit was on everyGreekinscription usedon theinscription, on stoneat any certainly and But the is on the and there is no evidenceof arms, period. 'plane' weathering chipping on the at the surface is which also due to weathering. back, tooling roughgranulated probably Casson saysthereis 'no traceof systematic of surfaces' there never is on surfaces ; punching abrasion as this smoothed one was see the freshsurthoroughly by certainly comparatively facesbesidetheinscription and near the feet.But the tracesof tool markson the plug at the bottomofthestatue,intendedforinsertionintoa plinth,seemto showgentleworkwiththe point.He quotesno othertransitional piece,so we mustconcludethatthereis no evidenceon 1 Blümel,Gr.Bild.16f. 2 And had alreadybeen proposedin its essentials by
Gardner, JHS xi (1890) 129f. 3 Casson,TEGS 85.
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
4
• <£2
k
a
«<^^_J
b. fromfront
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a. front
o. front
b. side
a. front
b. side
b. side
« i
ab
ab
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li D
DROVE
FLAT
CURVED CHISEL
o. front b. side
a. front b. side
a. front b. side
ob
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DRILL
DRILL
a. front
withwooden handle
b. side
A [
POINT
n i
b
1
a
PUNCH
A | ZAvi
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Ll b
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HAMMER a. fromabove
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for use withbow
Fig. i. Some possible formsof tools used by Greek sculptors
(Note:in therasptheteethshouldtaketheformV')
ûs M
^
i * RASPS
THE POINT, PUNCH, AND MALLET
5
thisor any otherGreekworkforany such use of carpenter'stoolson stone.Fromwhatever sourcetheGreekslearntto worktheirmarble,theyfoundout thestandardtoolsforthejob. as oftenas a heavypointor punchand In the quarrytheyprobablyused a pick-hammer mallet,butsincethesametypesofsurfacecan be producedby eitherit is impossibleto be dogmatic. The pick-hammer would,however,be a morepowerfultool,a greatadvantagein the showsus thatit was known.Whentheblowsofthe earlystages,and thereliefofArchedemos4 or of the pointor punch,are directedat rightangles to pointedend of the pick-hammer, the stonethe resulting surfacewillbe pittedwithsmallcraterswheretheflakeswerestruckoff. Or, ifthepointis directedobliquelyto thestone,and drivena shortway alongthesurfaceas it can be madebya seriesofblowsfollowing willresult.Long furrows chipsa flakeaway,furrows one another. We findbothtypesofsurfacein thequarryat Apollonaon Naxos wherethecolossalfigure in thequarry.The wallsof thetrenchfromwhichthe block of Dionysos5remainsunfinished was takenhave beentidiedby chippingaway thejagged edgeswiththepick-hammer, leaving long continuousfurrows.Possibly,as Casson says,6thiswas done to make the trenchmore convenientforworkmento stand in. But we can see the same long furrows tidyingthe face ofthequarryofSpelia on Penteli(plate i (a)),7 and thereasonappearstobe to makethenext stageeasier,whenanotherblockwillbe measuredup and removed.A blockfinished readyfor i shows how in a Paros blocks in on were trimmed thesame (plate (é))8 transport quarry musthave ensuredthat the minimumof materialwas way. This neatnessof workmanship wasted. to use shortstrokes, On thestatueofDionysositselfthemasonpreferred withthetoolheld wereideal forlevellingout theirregularimoreor lessat rightanglesto thestone.Long furrows tieson thequarryface,and in thisworkthemasonwouldsetthepointofthetoolobliquelyto thesurfaceand hold it thereas he strucka seriesofblowsto driveit along.But whenhe was he wantednotsimplyto levelthesurfacebut to shape a numberof carefully carvinga figure, betweentheplanes. Obviouslythenhe neededto proceed variedcurves,and to differentiate worksofthearchaicperiodfound withmorecaution,and thepittedsurfacesoftheunfinished in or near quarries(see below p. 7, n. 18) show us that the masonscut the formswithinnumerableshortcarefulstrokes.Naturallywhereopportunity offeredtheymightspeed the worka littleby a fewlongerstrokes,such as we findon the rightthighof kourosNM 14,9 anotherunfinished workfromtheApollonaquarry. In all thesearchaicexamplestheshape of thestatueis quiteclear even thoughit has notyet beenmoved,or has onlyjust beenmoved,fromthequarry.Thereare threeexamplesstillinsitu on Naxos whichshowthisplainly.We do not knowwhetherthe sculptorcame to choosehis blockand directworkon thespot,orperhapsmerelyspecified theheightofthefigure he wanted. If theGreekslearnttheirmethodsofsculptingfromtheEgyptians, thentheheightwould be a sufficient guideforthe masonsin the quarryto beginworkforthe sculptor.It has been said that the influenceof Egyptiansculptureon Greekhas been arguedby classicistsand truly fora long time.10It seemsquite obvious.The stanceofthearchaic acceptedby Egyptologists kourosis clearlyderivedfromtheEgyptianpattern, whateverdifferences in feelingtheremaybe. DiodorusSiculus,however,whenhe describes11 the Egyptianmethodsofsculpting, saysspeciis practisednowhereamongthe Greeks'.Nevertheless he ficallythat'thismethodofwrorking * Casson, TEGS, figs.^ and ^6. s Blümel,Gr.Bild., figs.2, 3, and 4. 6 Casson, BSA xxxvii (iQ37) 21. 7 Photographby B. Cook. 8 Photographby E. Hansen.
9 Blümel, Gr. Bild., figs.12 and 13. 10 See, however, an excellent recent account by Rhys Carpenter,GreekSculpture (Chicago, iq6o) 7 f. 11 Bibliotheca i. 98, 5-10.
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
6
' givesus one exampleofitsuse by 'the mostrenownedof the ancientsculptorsTeleklesand Theodoros.These two made a cult statueof the PythianApollo forthe templeon Samos. Teleklesworkedin Samos and Theodorosin Ephesus,but whenthe two partswerebrought together theyfittedperfectly. had workedin Egyptand carvedtheSamian Now Diodorustellsus thatthesetwosculptors statueby themethodsfollowedgenerallyamongtheEgyptians. whichin everycase deterweremade accordingto a canon ofproportion Egyptianfigures ofthecanonitself minedtherelationsbetweenthevariouspartsofthebody.Representations have been found,showingsculpturewitha gridimposedon it. This griddividesthebodyinto a setnumberofsquares,whichis thesamein everycase. Forexample,in earlyEgyptiansculpturesthemedialline has eighteensquaresdowneach sidefromthehair-lineto thesolesofthe feet.The linesof thesesquaresalwaysdissectthe figurein the same places, withnecessary and relieffigures.Iversen12 has shownhowit is possibleto made forfreestanding adjustments itsoriginalgridon anyfigure,and in everycase thefigurewillbe dividedexactly reconstruct of The purposeofthecanon was fito as in therepresentations. guaranteethattheproportions conformed withthenaturalproportions ofthehumanbody'.13 thevariousartistic representations ofthenaturalrelationsofthecorresponding parts Althoughthecanonwas 'a standardization of the body', when Egyptianmetrologywas fundamentally changed in the twenty-sixth thegrid,was changedtoo,and now thereweretwenty-one dynastythe canon,and therefore squaresdown each side of the mediallinebetweenthesolesofthefeetand a line throughthe eyes.The restofthegridchangedaccordingly. thatTeleklesand Theodorosmade theirtwohalvesfitexactly, So it is quiteunderstandable sincebothwereworkedaccordingtothesameEgyptiancanon.Did otherGreeksusethecanon? In spiteofDiodorusSiculusitseemslogicalthattheGreeksshouldhavelearntitfromtheEgyptiansat thesame timeas thepatternofthe archaickouros.And sincetheyhad abandonedit at theendofthearchaicperiod,itis easyto see howthememoryoftheuse ofthecanon should showthatthe researches havebeencondensedintothestorywhichDiodorusrecords.Caskey's14 in Greeksmustalmostcertainlyhave used some canon whichproducedsimilarproportions to thesecond kouroi.FromIversenwe learnthattheNew Yorkkouroscorresponds different Egyptiancanonfartoo closelyformerecoincidence.Only a survey,withpreciseand detailed and elevationsofa largenumberofkouroi,coulddefinitely measurements provetheconnexion, but it seemsmorethanlikely. The Egyptiansobviouslyput theircanon to a practicaluse. Lines have been foundpainted and althoughall oftheseare too advancedto showthefullgrid on unfinished pieces,15 directly deniesthesquareswereeverused forthepointing thismustbe theway it was used. Iversen16 canon would not be neededforthis- anysquares a uniform that rightly quite system,saying the masonor sculptormighthave gotmuchthesame advanwould have done. Nevertheless, an der Bildhauer a machineas Blümelshowsin Griechische such from would he as it from tages and at once Arbeit, fig.42. This does notmean thathe adoptedtheevilsofthepointingsystem then ofthesurfacehe wantedeventually, piercedtheblockfromall sidesto withinmillimetres suffiin a not knockedoffthesurplus.A man working quarrywouldcertainly have equipment cientlyelaborateto managethat.He would,however,findit a greathelp to be able to drawa gridon theblockand knowthatwithinthissquare therighteye would come,whilethatline 12 Iversen
(E.),
(London, 1955)-
Canon and Proportionsin Egyptian Art
13 Iversen, Mitteilungendes deutschenarchäologischen Instituts,
Cairo (1957) I34> 'The Egyptian Origin of the Abteilung Archaic Greek Canon'.
14 Caskev, AJA xxviii(1924) 358. 15 Reisner, Mycerinus(Cambridge, Mass., 1931) 115. Edgar, GreekSculpture (Cairo, 1913), 'Sculptors' Studies' 3 and 5. 16 Canon and
Proportions54.
THE POINT, PUNCH, AND MALLET
7
wouldrunthroughtheknees.The squaresbeingequal, he couldrenewthemeasilyas theywere carvedaway. As Edgar says,thecanon would be a farbetterguide thana model. The use ofthecanonwould help to explainan otherwise puzzlingfeatureofarchaicGreek work.Whena statueleftthequarry,itsmainlineswerealreadyfixed: themedialline,thedivi- it wouldbe difficult and oftenimpossibleto alterthese. sionofthelegs,thepositionofthefeet Nowadaystherewould be nothinguncommonin a sculptorgoingto a quarryto choosehis doneon thespot.But are we to imagineevery block,and perhapsgettingsomeofthetrimming Greeksculptordoingthisin the archaicperiod?It is morecredibleto thinkthatmasonssent out roughkouroifromthequarriesas a raw product,each one conforming to theproportions offhisselectedone near thespotwhereit was to stand. of thecanon,and thesculptorfinished as our 'mason' and 'sculptor'anyway,but Veryprobablythe Greekshad no such distinction we shallcontinueto use bothterms,meaningtheman who does theheavierworkand theone who carvesthelaterstage.Undoubtedlytheyweresometimes identical. forthefinalcharacterofa statuemustobviouslyrestwiththe The creditor blame,therefore, of the sculptorof the last stages,who showedhis skillby variationand attemptedperfection themehe had alreadybeen given.'It is obviousthatthe refining be continued processmight fora longeror shortertime,accordingto thequalityofworkdesiredin thefinalstatue.This is the stagein whichthe finalformof the statuewas reached,and the excellenceof the whole on thetimeand labourspenton thisstage.'Reisner17 was speakingofEgyptiansculp«depended ture,but it seemsto the writerto hold good forarchaicGreeksculpturetoo. And forsheer beautyoffinishtheGreeksneverexcelledtheirarchaicwork. Even afterallowingthatthe canon made it easy formasonsto bringthe workto quite an advancedstatebeforeexport,it is surprising just how advancedthe statuewas by the timeit leftthequarry.The masonshad cut to withinan inch or so of the finalsurfaceon all three kouroion Naxos,18and even the stonefrombetweenthe legswas removed. of theunfinished Presumably experiencehad taughtthemexactlywhatthemaximumweightwas thata teamof oxen couldpullovera steephillside,and theyfounditworthwhile toriska fewbreakagesrather thanregularly exceedit. This problemofweightmayhave been particularly acute on Naxos, had to be takento theshoreand thenloaded on to ships,forthematrixhas wherethefigures been leftbetweenthelegsoftheunfinished figurefromPendeli.19 Thus theweightofa blockmightbe reducedby as muchas halfby the timethe piece was Gridsweredrawnon thestoneand themainlinesof thefigurehewnout readyfortransport. witha pick-hammer, punch,or point.Althoughon smallpieces,suchas thehorsefromSparta in theBritishMuseum,20it would be sufficient merelyto draw an outlineand cut roundthis fromthefront,to do thison largerworksmighteasilyspoil the detailon thesides.And so it seemsprobablethatin thequarriesthemasonsdrewgridson all foursides,turningthe block so as to workon threeat a time.Theyworkedintothestonestrictly at rightanglestoeach side, as we can see fromthe squarenesseven of the armsand legs,as well as of the main body,a squarenesswhichhas oftensurvivedthe laterstages.The reliefof Archedemos21 provesthat masonsand sculptorskepttheiranglestruewitha square. As it happensall theunfinished archaicfigures leftin thequarriesare males,butpresumably the canonwas also used to shapeout korai.It wouldnothave been as usefulto theGreeksfor femalestatuesas it was to the Egyptians,since Greekconventionswere opposed to female nudes,and thecanonobviouslytookno accountofdrapery.Even so, theshapeofthehead and 17 Mycerinus1 15 f.
18Bliimel,Erg.xi, no. 2 (NM 14), no. 4 {insitu,Naxos) and anotherunpublishednear the latteron Naxos.
19 Bliimel,Erg. xi, no. 5. 20 Blümel,Gr. Bild., fig.9. 21 Casson, TEGS, fig.55.
8
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
arms,and thelinesofthelegs,couldbe draftedin thequarry,and thebacksofkoraioftenaphowever, proachso nearnuditythatthemasonscouldhaveshapedthemlikenudes.Atthefront, theymusthave leftplentyofsurplusstone,so thatthesculptorwas freeto arrangeand elaborate thedraperyas he wished. we have no evidenceabout the workon sculpturein the quarriesafterthe Unfortunately archaicperiod.It seemslikelythatthehabitofbeginningworkon a statuein thequarrywas droppedabout 500- or at leastby thetimethe Critianboywas made. For theold patternsof thekourosand korego out offashion,and thesculptorbeginsto lookforfreshand morecomworktheblockfromthebeginning, or at plicatedsubjects.The resultis thathe musthimself leastdirecttheworkclosely,to ensurethathe can completehis designas he wishes.The old thesculptornow sought. standardizedproductgave littlescopefortheoriginality to noteforhowshorta time- onlyabout a hundredyears- theGreekswere It is interesting to workwithinthenarrowboundsofa canonwhichtheEgyptiansused,withonlyone satisfied change,forcenturies.Even in the New York kourosIversennotesminordiscrepanciesand and thedesigns wherethesculptortrustedhis eyeinsteadof measuringcarefully, irregularities of Kleobis and Bitondo not tallyexactly.Fromthe beginningthe Greeksrefusedto clingto whichhamperedthem. rulesand traditions or rather to anothertradition, theGreeksclungobstinately And yet,accordingto Blümel,22 and Egyptians. ofa tradition, whichtheyhad learntfromtheBabylonians, imitation Assyrians, usedstonetoolsfortheheavyworkofremoving The latterconsistently largequantitiesofstone The graniteon whichtheyworked in thequarries23 or in theinitialstagesofmakingstatues.24 as cut by metal was so hard thatit could be poundedaway by stonehammersas effectively extremehardand the to the struck at were all the blows tools.25 surface, right angles Naturally evenwhenironpunchescame intouse later.The Egypnessofthegranitemade thisnecessary tiansalwaysusedchiselsat an earlystagewhencuttingsoftstones,buton hardoneshammering and punchingwereused untiljust beforesmoothing.26 Blümelsaysthatthelatterwas thetechniqueadoptedby theGreeks.In spiteofthefactthat stonethanEgyptiangranite,and thattheybeganto workit at a time theirmarblewas a softer was muchfurther whenmetallurgy advanced,theonlychangetheymade was thattheoriginal stonehammerwas exchangedfora bronzepoint.'Greeksculptureat itspeak was createdwith thisone tool.'27It willbe easierto discussall theworkdonebyothertools,whichBliimelignores in a sentenceor two,in theseparateaccountsofeach tool.But in anycase thereis or dismisses to softbronzefortheirpointor other no reasonto supposethatthe Greekswererestricted tools.28 Once a suitablemethodofworkingironhad been discovered,therewas muchto encourage thancopperand themakingofirontoolsratherthanbronze.Iron oresare farmoreplentiful - andsoareeasierand cheaper tinores- theyamounttojustover4 percent,oftheearth'ssurface to obtain.If correctly treated,ironis farharderthanbronze.Tools made ofit can be givena retainit longer.They are easier to resharpen,too,forbronzeneeds and will sharperedge, offinetexture,likeslate,and thisis a slowsharpeningagent: whereasironcan be whetstone quicklysharpenedon a coarserstone. It seemsverylikelythatthe In spiteofall theseadvantagestheuse ofironspreadslowly.29 22 Ere. xi 4. Gr. Bild. 24. 23 Engelbach, TheProblem of theObelisks(London, 1923) 24 Reisner,Mycerinus H5f. 30. 2s Cf. Ox. Tech.i. 609. 'It is remarkablethat,in Egypt,a smoothhammerstoneheld in the hand was used untiliron became general.'
26 Pétrie,TW, pl. lui forillustrationsof stone mauls and sculptureswhich have been hammer-dressed. 27 Blümel,HermeseinesPraxiteles(1944) 14. 28 Gf. Blümel, Gr. Bild. 22. Casson (TEGS 180) points out some of the advantagesof iron tools. 29 Forbes, Metallurgy in Antiquity (Leiden, 1950) 378 f.
THE POINT, PUNCH, AND MALLET
9
method of workingiron so as to produce a metal superior to bronze was discovered in Asia Minor by 1400, and yetthe Iron Age proper apparentlydid not begin in Egypt untilthe seventh century.The probable reason forthisis that it was a long time beforepeople realized that there was at hand a plentifulsupply of the raw material formaking iron. It is at least plausible to suggestthat copper-workingwas discoveredby accident, when someone dropped a lump of ore on to a fireand the shiningmetal became fluid fromthe heat, separated fromthe dross, and set again on cooling. But even ifiron ore had been set in a fire,the resultingspongylumps would anyway have looked like cinders.No furnacein ancient timesreached a heat sufficientto melt iron. The dross could only be removed by hammeringit when hot. We do not know how this discoverywas firstmade, but archaeology apparently confirms the Greek belief that the Chalybes of the Pontic region were the firstto make steel.30Iron objects are known fromearly times in Egypt, but the high nickel content of these shows that theywere made frommeteoriciron.31Naturally this was regarded as a precious material and used mostlyforrings,ornaments,etc. There was none to spare formaking tools. Nor did the iron extractedfromthe ore by hammeringat firstseem any betterthan bronze. It was wrought iron,tougherbut more malleable than bronze, which of course made it impracticalforweapons and implements.Beforeit could be made harder, carbon must be introduced.The early smiths probably thoughtonly of purifyingthe metal, when they repeatedly heated their iron to red heat in a charcoal fireand thenhammeredit. In factwhat theydid was to introducecarbon into the iron, and iron containing0-25-1-5 per cent, carbon is steel. This becomes stillharder when quenched, that is, heated and plunged into cold water. Homer had evidentlyseen a smithat work quenching iron, and he compares the hissingof the Cyclops' eye when Odysseus plunges in his red-hotstake:32 cos S* ot' ccviipx°^K£Ùç7TÉÀ6KUV |jiéyavf)è aKSTrapvov dv 06cm yuxpco ßcnnTi jisyáÀa íáxovTCc 9ap|iáCTacovtò yàp auTs aiSfjpou y£Kpórrosácrriv. Tools made of bronze could not match those made of iron in hardnessand quality Oi cutting edge, and when the knowledge of the processes of carburizing and quenching spread, iron naturally became more popular. There is still some danger that too much carbon may be introduced, and the tool, though gaining in hardness, become too brittle. To prevent this, temperingis needed, when the metal is heated and allowed to cool slowly. But even before temperingwas known, the problem of brittlenesswas overcome by quenching the edge only, so that the heat in the body of the tool retardedthe rate of cooling and preventedthe formation of too brittlean edge. Unfortunatelywe know very little about the dates at which these various techniques were learnt and used. Dates are quoted for Egypt by Forbes,33but these are based entirelyon the analyses of nine tools found in Egypt by Carpenter and Robertson.34This article is a most usefuland instructiveone, but the authors themselveswould certainlynot base a chronologyof ancient metallurgyon theirnine results- theysimplyshow how the problem should be studied. They suggest that temperingmay have been introduced only in Roman times: but as they examine only one inferiortool dating between 700 b.c. and the second centurya.d. this thesis can hardlybe consideredproved. Axes and chiselsofthe tenthand ninthcenturies'had all been 30 Forbes, op. cit. 453. 31 Rickard,JournaloftheIronandSteelInstitute cxx ( 1929) 330 f.,and Man and Metals (New York, IQ32). 32 Odyssey ix. 391.
33 Ox. Tech.ii. 596-7. 34 Journalof theIron and SteelInstitute cxxi-cxxii (1930}
417.
10
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
carburized,heated,and quenched,so as to producea hardedgewithoutdangerofcrackingor distortion'. Pétrie35 foundiron-smelting furnacesand agriculturaltoolsmade in themat Gerar,near Gaza, and dated theseto c. 1200. It seemsto be at about thistime,whentheHittiteEmpire was breakingup, thatironworkingbecamemorewidespread.In Greeceironobjectsdo occur in BronzeAge sites,buttheyare ornaments, rings,and so on. Ironwas stilla preciousmetalin graves,36 sub-Myceneantimestoo; but the firstironswordsappear in Early Protogeometric and fromthenon ironis usedmoreand moreforanyweaponsforwhichit was foundsuitable. A largenumberofironobjects,especiallyweaponsand reinforcement barsin tripodlegs,have beenfoundin archaiccontexts at Olympia: and as Furtwängler37 manymore says,undoubtedly would have survivedhad thesoil therenotbeen so damp. But weretoolsmade ofironas well as weapons?It seemsthatfarmtoolsat leastsometimes as a prizein thefuneralgamesby wereevenin Homer'sday,forhe saysthelumpofironoffered Achilles38 wouldbe sufficient to supplytheneedsofevena largefarmforfiveyears.Hesiod too was probablythinking whenhe wroteofthelast heroicage:39 offarmimplements Ô' eîpycçovTOuéÀas6* oùkeoxecrí8r)poç. X0CÀKCO thereare veryfewreferences to a stonemason'sor sculptor'sworkin classical Unfortunately but whenHerodotus40 exclaimsovertheamountthatmusthave been spenton the literature, makesit food,clothes,and irontoolsofthemasonswho builtthe Pyramids,his anachronism no clear thatby the fifth centurybuilders'toolsin Greeceweremade of iron.It is therefore ofsome a reference to thereplacement of327/6fromEleusis41 surpriseto findin theinscription drills,and an accountofthepricefetchedby thescrapironoftheold ones.42The accountsof 279 fromDelos referto masons'toolsin generalsimplyas t& aiSrjpiatoïs Ài0oupyoïç.43 to the Corrosionand lack ofintereston thepartofexcavatorsmustbothhave contributed and or chisel seem to be the iron The earliest iron of tools adze, axe-head, paucity preserved. in a iron a mass corroded and of found with iron Protogeometric together weapons wedge 45 graveat Vrokastroin Crete.44Iron chiselswerealso foundin a gravein theAgoraofc. 900. bronze broochesfrom Maryon46has shown that patternson some mid-seventh-century Thebes 'could have been producedin one way only,by cuttingwitha steeltool'. Some fifthAn abunand fourth-century toolshave been foundat Rheneia,47Delphi,48and Olynthus.49 dance ofEgyptianand Roman tools,whichhave faredbetterat thehandsoftheirexcavators, and representations oftools,help us to fillin thegaps. The pick-hammer of Archedemos,50 datingc. 600, mightjust as easily have come from is amongtheoldestknownand it is stillin use toof the tool The or shape Egypt,Italy, Spain. in work It is suited to quarries,buta lighterversionmayhavebeen used at a day. particularly laterstageof the workwheretodaya malletand pointwould be moreusual. That it was a one bronze commonGreektypewe know- an ironexamplehas been foundat Naucratis,51 and at iron ones of a number and someironat Rheneiain thepurification Delphi,52 deposit, 35 ILN, 2 July 1927. 36 Desborough, Protogeometric Pottery(Oxford, 1952) iv (Berlin,1041), 47, pl. ^8 m ii v -301-2.Gf. Kerameikos 37 Olympiaiv (1890), especially 173 f. Some iron objects were foundunder the foundationsof the Heraion. 38 Iliad xxiv. 8. 39 Worksand Days 151.
40 ii. 125. 41 /Gii2. 1673. 42 Lines 53-54. I owe thisand the previousreferenceto 43 IG xi.2.161, line 107. Miss Alison Burford.
44 Hall, Vrokastro (Philadelphia, 1914) 138. 45 Hesperiaxxi (1952) 281 f. I owe both this and the previousreferenceto Mr. A. Snodgrass. 46 AJA lui (1949) 117. I owe this referenceto Prof.B. Ashmole. 47 D/lns xviii. QIQ.
48 Delphesv. 213. 49 Olynthus x. 342 f. so Gasson. TEGS, fiers.1^-6. si Pétrie,TW 40.
s2 See n. 48.
THE POINT, PUNCH, AND MALLET
II
a Hellenisticironexampleat Priene.Wiegand53saysthisformis exactlythesame as thatused It appearsalso amongthe collectionsof toolson the by a modernmasonand called imfJKOc. ofRoman masons.54 tombstones - althoughit may But thiswas probablynot thehammerused in combinationwithchisels of a type have been. In Egyptianpicturesa chiselis struckby a bell-shapedwoodenmallet55 It is a veryconvenienttool fora commontoday.This also appearson Roman tombstones.54 - thereis a largestriking stonemason surface,and beingof a softermaterialthanthe chiselit can absorbmoreoftheshockwhenthechiselmeetsthestone.Butothershapesappearfrequently and the Hellenistictombstoneof Metistokles56 bothin Egyptianand Roman representations, at Chalcisshowshim at workwitha T-shapedmallet,whichmightbe metalor wood. The Graeco-Romanvotivereliefin the MetropolitanMuseum57showsa similartypewithsplayed ends. The Greeksmayhave used any or all ofthesefroman earlyperiod. difficult to findpicturesor examplesofa stonemason's It is extraordinarily punchor point. Almostcertainly it musthave been similarto thesmallcarpenter'spunchin the collectionof Pétriedoes notdate thetwoiron iron toolsoftheseventhcenturyfoundat Thebesin Egypt.58 in withone end pointed.59 are which from bars, section, Gurob, Object straight square points no. 7 fromtheAgoragrave (c. 900)6omightbe a pointor a chisel.Thereis no evidenceat all fromthesixthand fifth centuries, althoughone imaginesthatthe numerousbronzeand iron a similar somehexagonalbronzerodsmayhave butts must show very shape.At Olynthus61 spear werealso found.Two endedin points,and perhapsbeenusedin metalwork.Threeironpoints62 oftheseare puzzling,forRobinsonsaystheywerepointedat bothendsand suggeststheyhad a woodenhandle,whichseemsunlikely. The third,however,looksa sensibletool,broadenough in and bluntat theend. It can perhapsbe claimedas the to givea comfortable the middle, grip endshown in Greece.The punchwitha squared-off stonemason's identified only pointcertainly in on thevotivereliefMetropolitan Museum235is a heavytypeoftoolwhichisstillusedtoday63 thepointproperis notcomstonequarriesforflattening surfaces.Even on Roman tombstones mon- presumablybecause it is such a dull shape- but Deonna does illustratea few.Apart Thisisnotsurprising, fromtheodd examplesquotedabovePétriemissesthetypeoutcompletely. forthepopularityamongtheEgyptiansofstonetoolsthroughout thepreliminary stagesmust have meantthatfewerpointsand puncheswereneeded. itsworkis plainso eventhoughthereis verylittleevidenceaboutthetoolitself, Fortunately, Greek The on that can see how it was we used. frequently just sculpture pointwas as important to Greeksculptorsas it has been to sculptorsofall periods,but thereis no need to exaggerate itsimportance theworkdonewithothertools,as Blümelhas done. Bliimel byunderestimating has also over-emphasized the significance of the right-angled stroke,and ignoredthe other the tool be used. We seen to use have ways might already (p. 5 above) how masonspreferred shortstrokes whentheywereworkingon a statuein thequarry.The sculptorcarvingthelater He couldworkmorequickly,becausehe couldsliceoffmore stagessharedthesamepreference. stonewitheach blow,ifhe held thetoolat a low angle to thesurface,and especiallyifhe did not liftthepointbetweenblows.But his shapingwould certainlybe morecarefuland subtle ifhe liftedthechiselat each blow,replacingitperhapsin a slightly different plane. The archaic Greekshave not, of course,been the only sculptorswho have realized this,althoughtheir 53 Wieerand.Priene(Berlin, 1004.Ì
ss Pétrie,TW, pl. lxxix.
56 Casson. TEGS. fif?.*8. 57 Richter,Met. Mus. Catalogue(Oxford, 10^4), no. 2^. 58 Pétrie,TW, pl. lxxix,and Ox. Tech.ii. 229, fig.203.
s« Pétrie,TW, pl. xiii b 28 and 29. 60 Hesperiaxxi (1952) 281, fig.3. 61 Robinson, Olynthus x, pl. cix. 62 Ibid., pl. cviii. <* Ox. Tech.ii. 36, fig.25.
12
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
cautiousapproach perhapsmade themuse a right-angled blow even more than has been at otherperiods.Blümelhas describedhow toolswerestillbeingdirectedat right customary and indeedRoman64and later anglesto thestoneon Pergamenestatuesofthesecondcentury, have foundthismethodbestforpartsoftheirwork. sculptors65 The Greeks,however,did not restrict themselves just to thisway of usingthe point.They used the 'mason'sstroke'66 as oftenas the strictly vertical.For the mason'sstrokethe tool is held at a highangle to the surface,and makesa shortfurrowalong the surfaceas it chipsa flakeaway. It combinesthecontrolof a verticalstrokewitha littlemorespeed. Examplesof shortstrokesmade in thisway witha pointcan be seenon theback ofthegiant'shead from an archaicpedimenton theAcropolis,67 and on theback of kore 11 fromtheAlkmeonidpedimentat Delphi.68Exactlythesame typeofstrokewas used at theback oftheRoman head of AthenafromthePnyx(NM 3718),69and Eric Gill70sayshe used it constantly. Lastly,the pointcan be used to make a long furrow(see p. 5 above), and wherethiswas convenientthe Greeksdid not hesitateto use it. We have noticedthe furrows made by the masonsin thequarryon therightthighofkourosNM 14,71and laterfourth-century masons froma gravestelewiththe same long strokes.Sculptors shaped the back of an akroterion72 also used the tool in thisway when theywantedto clear V-shapedchannels: the marksof furrows cut intothe sidesas thesculptordrovehistooltowardthebottomofthechannelhave oftensurvived(see p. 15 below). These thenare thedifferent waysin whichthepointwas usedby theGreeks.Theydid not simplylearna traditionalstrokefromthe Egyptiansand neveradapt it. Carefulthoughthey to use thetoolin whichever were,theywereas preparedas anyothersculptors waysuitedthem best.This willbecomestillmoreapparentas we examinethepointworklefton Greeksculpturesofdifferent periods. Blümelhas alreadydiscussedexamples73 of unfinished archaic sculptures,some fromthe quarry,somefromthe sculptor'sworkshop.We shouldlike to add to hislistthekourosDelos A 408374(plate 2 {a)). This statuehad probablybeenbroughtto Delos fromthequarryin a conditionsimilarto BlümePsno. 2 or no. 4, and thena sculptorhad continuedworkon it is muchfurther advancedthanBlümel's beforeitwasforsomereasonabandoned.The modelling removedfrommostofthe back,and the no. 2- in factthepointmarkshave been altogether Furrowsmade by a pointheld obliquelyand dents statueherelacksonlythefinalsmoothing. madebya pointheldat rightanglesto thestoneremainclearlyon thesidesofthebodyand on thehands. on Paros, a base togetherwitha leftfootand some There is anotherunfinished fragment also are two Here (plate 3 (a)). typesofpointwork.Actuallyon thefoot,wherethetoes drapery wereused.Wherethedraperywastobe cleared havealreadybeenshaped,gentleshallowstrokes fromunderthehem,thetoolhas dug out furrows alongthesurface.On theSiphniantreasury, too,theworkof clearingthe stoneawayfrombehindthe pedimentalfigureswas donewitha The figures werecarvedin relief,thenthestonewas chippedawayfrombehindtheir point.75 torsosand below theirknees.It is typicalof the periodthatthepointworkhereis almostas gentleas thatused to modela figure. 64 See n. 69 below. 65 Cf. the Virginand Childby Michelangelo,in theRoyal Academy,London. 66 Casson, TEGS 237-8. 67 Schrader,q6^, fig.4^0. 68 Delphesiv. 3, pl. xi. 69 Theophanides,AD xiii 171 f.,pl. 3.
70 See n. 66 above. 71 Blümel,Gr. Bild., fies. 12 and 13. 72 MuseumofClassicalArchaeologyno. 549. On loan frorr* TrinityCollege, Cambridge.Conze iv. 1543. 73 Blümel,Ere. xi. 48 f.,nos. i-q. 74 Richter,A*,no. 11. 75 Followingthe drill. See below p. 48.
THE POINT, PUNCH AND MALLET
13
laterpediment,however,we findsomerougherwork. On thebackofthefigures ofa slightly Parts of the figureof köre 1076fromthe pedimentof the Alkmeonidtempleat Delphi were probablynevertouchedafterit had been shaped roughlyin the quarry.Köre 1177was also short'mason's' leftunfinished, butthecurvesofherbackhavebeensketchedin withratherfiner we can again see theheavy strokes.On theback of thelionfromthegroupoflion and deer,77 fromquarrywork: butthebackofthedeer'sneckwasshaped punchingwhichprobablysurvives entirelyby thesculptorand his finepointworkis visibleat thebase oftheneck.The Eretria pedimentwas probablyslightlylater and is farsuperiorin technique.Althoughthe back of the Theseusand Antiopegroupwas onlycasuallyshaped,themarksofthequarryworkhave was One figure,the kneelingAmazon now in the Conservatori,78 been clearedeverywhere. finished at theback: others,forexamplethe kourosand the kneelingAmazon,are muchthe and have finepointingat thecentreoftheback. same as theAthena,79 The Aiginapediments, rightat theendofthearchaicperiod,giveus verylittleevidence.The in theround,and it is onlyoccasionally,undera beard,on bases,or finished here were figures fromtheEastpediment,80 on smallsupporting wedgessuchas thoseat thebackofa fallenwarrior thatpointworkcan be seen. It is stillas gentleand delicateas theearlierarchaic. all round,but occasionallythesculpFreestanding sculpturewas,ofcourse,usuallyfinished torfallsshortofhisaim to eliminateall toolmarksfromthefinalsurfaceofhisstatue.By lookto reach,or whichwouldhave always ing at placeshe wouldhave foundawkwardor difficult been obscuredby someprojectionand so moreor lessinvisible,it is oftenpossibleto findevidence fortheearlierstagesofwork. Thus in spiteoftheimmensepainsthesculptoroftheDipylonhead (NM 3372) tookto rub hisworkquitesmoothwithemery,theworkofthepointcan stillbe seenjust wherewe should place to clear.Although expectit toremain- in theanglebetweenthehairand neck,a difficult he couldhave cutrightinto the angle witha flatchisel,thiswould have lefta thinscratchy could not reach,on the bottomof theangle.Bothon theDelos kouros line,whichsmoothing to carvethe anglewithhis pointand thensmooth and herethe sculptorobviouslypreferred inwardsas faras possible.Later suchworkwouldprobablyhave been done witha claw. lookedat fromthefrontseemsat first finished The Moschophoros glancea perfectly pieceof work.However,in the hollowbetweenthe animal'shead and the man's thereis some very finepointwork- almostin its originalstateon the calf,partlyerasedfromthe man's head (plate 2 (¿)). This excellentexampleof skillin archaicpointworkis matchedin twofurther and theram'shead fromtheTelesterionofPisistratus at pieces- thelionin theKerameikos81 marks are left on the animal's both Eleusis (plate 3 (¿)). On theformer round the ruff, point edges of the locksof his mane, and also widespreadover the area whichwould have been hiddenin theshadowofhischin.Thus we can see how all theseparatelocksofthemanewere the care whichwas plannedand shaped withthe point.Finally,the ram's head illustrates an The architectural detail. even has of to the sculptor carving again used his point given final The surface. millimetres of the round 'bobbles' to within of the fleecehave verygently beenshapedoutin relief:on themostvisibletheworkhas beencarrieda stagefurther and snail curlscarvedwitha flat. areasonly.It appearsalsoin placeswheretherewas Pointworkdoesnotremainin unfinished ofworkingoverthesurfaceagain. On thebasesofmostarchaicstatues,for neveranyintention 76 Delphesiv. 3, pl. xi. 77 Delphesiv. 3, 34 f. 78 Cf. Stuart Jones,Catalogue(Oxford, 1926) 219, pl. 81. Von Bothmer,Amazons(Oxford, 1957) 124 f.,pl. lxvii. ™ Casson, TEGS, fig.37.
80 Richter,Sculpture2, fig. 114 (front).Cf. also the wedge underthefeetof the figureshere and on the archaic Acropolis pediment,Schrader,363, fiçs.444-5. 81 Cf. plate 12 (c), which does not show the pointwork as clearlyas the chiselling.AA xlviii (1933) 287, fig.20.
14
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
roundthefeet,but therestofthebase is example,theremaybe a smoothband immediately gentlypointed.82On someof the earliestreliefsand stelaithe backs are eitherquite smooth witha (NM 3071,hoplitefromStarnata;NM 40, stelefromDikaia nearAbdera) or finished claw (see p. 22 below). But someare alreadypointedat theback,althoughmoregentlythan in late gravereliefs. with Lyseasis one whichshowsthis,and NM 4472. The edgesare finished a smoothborder. is tocarvethehollowon pedestals Anotherpurposeforwhichwe findthepointusedregularly to takethebase ofa statue.The pedestalofa statuesetup by Phaidimosoverhis daughter's grave (NM 81), and a doublepedestalwithtwo socketson Naxos may serveas examplesof a universalpractice.The pittedsurfacewas ideal formakingthelead adherewhichwas usedin joiningstatueto pedestal.For the same reasona pointedsurfaceis the mostcommonon the contactareasofa join; and oftenthepointwas usedto roughenpartofthesurfaceslightly after it had beensmoothed.On thejoiningsurfacesof armsand heads in the Acropoliskorai,of a leftarm and shoulderon fragments 63 a and b fromthe Eretriapediment,of theoval patch of draperyon therightshoulderof Delos koreA 4064,or even of the odd snail curl on the head NM 3072- in everycase one findsthepointused to makea socketor level the surfaceto whichan Ansatz83 could be attached. It tendsto be moredifficult to findexamplesofthepointin use in classicaltimes.The ideal - and thenevenmorethanin thearchaicperiodwas to obtaina surfacedevoidof toolmarks obviouslythefirstmarksto disappearwouldbe thoseofthepoint,thefirsttoolused. Few ununfinished worksBliimel84 finished piecesfromthisperiodhave survived.In hislistofforty-one and of fifth and fourth centuries those four the four to the writerwould together, assignsonly maintainthathis no. 10, thewoman'shead in Berlin,has a surfacemuchtoogranulatedto be withinthe used as evidenceforany tooling,whilenos. 11 and 12 cannotbe dated definitely classicalperiod. ofthetempleofZeus at Olympiaare unfinished fromthepediments However,thesculptures overlargeareas.The veryroughtoolingat thebackofmanymustbe workdonein thequarry.8s This is especiallytrueof the Westpedimentwherethe sculptorsmade almostno attemptto carvethebacksof thelarge groupsof Centaursand Lapiths,exceptto rounda neck,or an On the arm,or someotherthinprojection:and eventhiswas not alwaysfinished properly.86 East pedimentalso the backs of Hippodameia and Sterope,and thoseof the two teamsof thebacksofgravereliefs.But thereare horses,are punchedintolargeflatsurfacesresembling cases wherethe sculptorhas takenmoretrouble,and the backsoffigs,o and c87of the East pedimentare quite well workedout: whilethe sculptorhad alreadycarvedthe linesof the it draperyat thebackofApolloin theWestpedimentbeforehe changedhismindand finished finer much the work is of course In these at thefrontto an alternative examples point design. thanwheretheback has been workedonlyby a quarryman's pickor punch.Stillfinertooling can be seen behindthe horses'hoofs(m) or behindheads (n and Apollo) whereremainthe finallayersofpointworkonly,just beforeothertoolswereto be used. Only in a veryfewplaces are theresignsof the pointat workon the Parthenonpediment forexamplein smallareasbeneaththegarmenthemsof'Iris' and 'Demeter'.Otherwise figures, thereare occasionaldentswherethetoolhad struckso hardthatthemarkswereonlypartially 82Cf.Schrader, pl. 113. 83As thereis no convenient I shall in English, equivalent use theGermantermforan extrapieceofmarblejoinedto themainblock. 84Erg.xi. 48 f. 85 Cf. Treu, Olympia iii (1897) 45 f.forexcellentdraw-
of Alsohisdiscussion ingsofthebacksofall thesculptures. in Jdlx (i8qO 3 f. theirtechnique 86As on thebackoftherightarmofLapithwomane. in the I shallreferto the separatefigures by the letters Cf.Olympia publication. iii,pls.xviii-xxi. g7Blümel,Erg.xi,pl. 16.
THE POINT, PUNCH, AND MALLET
15
smoothedaway whenthe sculptorworkedover the pointedsurface.Thus in such concealed placesas underthe leftarm of the'Ilissos'of the Westpediment,or in the V-shapedchannel have partly betweenthe heads of the two horsesof Helioson theEast pediment,longfurrows survivedon the walls of the channel.The marblewas firstbrokenup witha drill,thenthe pointwas neededto clear thesurplusaway. at Epidauroswereso carethebacksofthefigures In thecase offourth-century pediments, thatthe is from thefragments it clear At us as to tell smoothed however, Tegea, nothing. fully and what remainslookslike the punched backsof the figureswereregularlyleftunfinished, surfaceoftheoriginalblock.88 If a freestanding were,wheretheback would figurewas to be placed,as pedimentalfigures thebackin sucha case abandoned often the least at notbe seen,bythefourth sculptor century are from also at an earlystage.We maytakea seriesofthreesirensas examples.These figures as a and as beautiful surface have as are well the front : at monuments finished, they grave The seen were not from behind. monuments : but far of grave greaterimportance sculptures earliestis NM 774,89whichis probablyc. 380. Thissirenis ofthesametypeas thosethatappear ofBerlinK 31. It musthavebeen an expensivefigureto carvein the in reliefon theakroterion tail for the round, projecting and deep wingsmean thata largeblockwas required,and much ofit cut to waste.The tail had to be givena support,whichwas partiallysmoothedas it was visible.The wingsmighthave been damagedeasilytoo,so a lumpofmarblewas leftas a supportbetweenthem.This had been cut back witha heavypunch so as not to be obviousin profile.The backsof the wingswere not smoothedeither,and some verygentlepointwork surviveson thelowerarea oftherightwing(plate 4 (a)). NM 77590is oflaterdate,and thesculptorbynowhad founda moreeconomicaldesign:the tail is tiltedto the groundso thatinsteadof needinga supportit servesas one to thewhole figure.The wingswerespreadto theside,and togetherwiththetail theyconcealedtheback, whichwas veryroughlyshaped by punchesoftwosizes.NM 258390showspointworksimilar to NM 774; the supportbetweenthe wingsis roughlypunchedintoshape,but at thebottom of thetailat thebackwe findsomeofthegentlepointworkwhichoriginally shapedthewhole figure(plate 4 (¿)). The finefemalestatueAgora S 37,91whichwas made in thefirsthalfofthefourthcentury, was probablyto be placed againsta wall. The finishat thefrontis exquisite,but theback was nevercompleted.The draperyfoldshad all been planned,and at theback,wherethechannels are shallow,theyhave been cut withshort'mason's'strokesby a finepoint(plate 5).92One of the deeperfoldsat the rightstillshowshow it was cut withlongerstrokes(plate 6 (a)). The leftfoot,too,whichwould presumablyhave been hiddenby an attributeor a sweepof draperyin the finaldesign (plate 15 (¿)),93has been carefullyshaped by the point,then abandoned. There is moreevidence,fromalmostthe end of the fourthcentury,thatthistraditionof was stillalive,evenwhenitsobjectwas merelya gravestatue.In theLouvre fineworkmanship statueof a young thereis a funeralmonumentfromPatissia (Louvre 648), a freestanding woman.The backofthefigureshowsthatthelineofthehairand thefoldsofthedraperywere alreadyworkedoutat a stagewhenonlya pointhad beenused (plate 6 (¿)) . The sameis trueof at presentnear theHephaisteion. so likethegravereliefofAristonautes, theman's torso,94 88 Cf. Dugas, et al., Le sanctuaire d'Aléa Athêna(Paris, 1024), pl. d (24). 89 NM 774 (Collignon,Les Statues funéraires (Paris, igi 1) 217, fig. 138). 90 NM 775, ibid. 219, fig. 140; NM 2583, ibid. 223,
91 Hesperian (1933) 178. fig. 145. 92 Agora negativeno. lxxvin-13. 93 Agora negativeno. 1-77. 94 Himmelman-Wildschütz, Studien zum Ilissos-relief
(Munich,1956)30, n. 141.
i6
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
On theotherhand,thesculptorsometimes did notbotherto workat all thebackofa statue in whichperhapswould stand a niche see the roughpunchingat the back of Metropolitan Museum9495and Chalcis33.96Or again,he sometimes lefta subsidiary The partunfinished. backofthepillarsupporting thelefthandoftheboywitha goose,NM 2772,was neverworked beyondthepointstage (plate 6 (c)) althoughthesculptorcontinuedto shapetheback of the This foreshadows the laterRoman boy and onlyomittedon him the finalemerysmoothing. practice,forin Romanstatuesa nudefigureis usuallyfullyshapedat theback,buthissupport is oftenleftrough. Apartfromthe backsofstatues,pointworkremainsregularlywherestonewas clearedby thepointfromcornerswhichwouldnotbe visibleanyway.It was hardlyworthsmoothing the underneath ofa footwhen,in a favourite pose,thetoesrestedon thegroundand theheelwas raised.In such examplesas Agora S 188297or theSisyphosoftheDaochos dedication(plate 49 (b)) the marblebetweentheraisedheeland thebase was probablyleftas a supportuntila late stage,thenremovedby a point.Oftenthe furrows made by a pointclearingthe marble underneatha hemare stillclear,too: theyouthfromRhamnous,NM 199,and theAsklepios, Eleusis50, are examplesof this. The surfaceofstatuebaseswas usuallyfinished witha pointin theclassicalperiodas it had been in thearchaic.Sometimesthetoolingwas notas fineas on theearlierbases; forexample, thebase ofthedog in Munichis quite roughand untidy.98 Ansätze, too,werestillcommonly attachedwithtwo pointedsurfacescontiguous.The socketsfortherightfootoftheDemeter, Eleusis26,and forthehead oftheApolloPatroos(seep. 95 below) are abouteightyyearsapart and showthesame method. It was natural,as Cassonpointedout,thatthepointshouldbe usedverylittleon low relief. On higherreliefit was obviouslythetoolnecessaryto biteintothestonearoundtheoutlineof a figureand cut it freefromthebackground.(This processmightor mightnot be helpedby a drill,as we shallsee later.)Thereare a fewexamplesofthison theParthenonfrieze,forexample aroundthechariotwheelon NF 59-60, but theyare rare.Even underthe hemofthe Lapithwomanon metopeBM XXIX all the pointworkwhichmusthave made the hollow has been clearedand the undersideof the skirtcarvedintoridgesor smoothed.The Nereid at frieze,however,is verymuchclumsier,and herewe findthemarksofthepointfrequently the On the the of Mausoleum frieze the to the figures. along edges background rightangles werecarvedin muchhigherreliefand so thereare fewersquarededgesalongwhichone figures see evidence,too. might thepoint.The bad conditionofthesurfacemayhave destroyed to thelatefourth However,thereis an abundanceofgravereliefsrangingfromthemid-fifth a and deal of in evidenceabout often condition, great frequently providing verygood century, in a masons' for wide ofcustomers, were because yards variety mass-produced they technique not all of whom were in a positionto pay fora reallywell finishedworkfroman expert hand. Yet althoughthe standardof workmanshipdiffersgreatly,the techniqueremains similar. arecommonto all. It seemsverylikelythatblockswereshapedin thequarryas Somefeatures thinrectangles readyforthecarvingofgravereliefs.Alwaysin thearchaicperiod,and sometimelater- as on the votiverelieffromSounion (NM 3344)- the sculptorhavingcarvedhis reliefon one side trimmedtheback witha finerpoint.But even by thelate fifth century(see NM 716) thegeneralpracticewas to leave theback oftheblockas it came fromthequarry. 95 Richter,Catalogue, pll lxxvi-lxxvii. 96 Constantinou,AE 1953-4, 11 f. 97 Hesperiaxxix (i960), pl. 82 a.
98 But seethe base of Aknoniosofthe Daochos dedication, plate 15 (a).
THE POINT, PUNCH, AND MALLET
17
The base oftherelief,too,at thefront, was usuallyonlyroughlypointed,sinceafterall it was to be setintoanothersocketor intotheearth. In thelate fifth and earlyfourthcenturiesthe customwas forthe frameof the relief-two antae at thesides,and a pedimentabove- to be carvedfromthesame blockas therelief.By thelatefourth centurythisframewas frequently replacedby a niche,made up ofat leastthree separateblocks,but theshape was usuallythesame. At bothperiodstheline ofthepediment and itsakroteriawerefirst workedout witha point," and sinceit wouldhave been above eyelevel anyway,thepointworkwas removedonlyat thefrontedge. The back of the elaborate and showsclearlyhow thecurvinglinesof at Cambridge100 is unfinished, palmetteakroterion also showshow thearea betweenthe theleaveswereshapedfirstofall witha point.NM 943101 twofaceswas hollowedout withthesame tool. We can hardlydoubt,sincethemainlinesofevenarchitectural partswerefirstcarvedby a reliefs.We on gravestelaijust as on architectural point,thatthe same was trueforthefigures - Berlin votivereliefs can see thisprimaryworkingout on a smallerscale on two unfinished and Delos A 3194 (plate 7 (a)), whichprobably K 103,whichBlümelsaysis fourth-century, dates to c. 300. Then naturallythereare certainplaces on all gravereliefswheretheprimary - at the top and back oftheheads,underneaththeseat ofa stool,along worktendsto survive such squareedgesas thetail ofthehorseofDexileos.V-shapedchannelswereofcourseworked so thatwe findpointworkinsidea box held witha pointand weresometimes workednofurther, and pillar of Melkte (NM 720). Whenit anta a maid and the between open by (NM 956) becomescommonto join on heads, arms,or feetseparately,the surfacesare workedwitha pieces (plate 7 (¿), in gravereliefPiraeusE 63).I02 pointherejust as on freestanding the archaic and classicalperiods. Thus the same workwas done by the pointthroughout The onlychangenoticeablein theway it was used is thatsomeofthelaterworkmenhandled The marblehas been chippedaway frombeneath thetoollessgentlythantheirpredecessors. thestoolof Phrasikleia(gravereliefNM 831) farmoregentlythanin thecorresponding posidemandformoreand larger tionon thegravereliefNM 870. It was naturalthattheincreasing reliefsshouldlead masonsto adoptspeediermethods.On theotherhand,theshapingwiththe pointunderthe hem at the back of the Apollo Patroos(see p. 95 below) is as carefulas most standardsas highas workofthearchaicperiod,and showsthata first-class sculptorsethimself thoseofhispredecessors. It is difficult 'After450 it [thepoint]fallsout offashionand to see whyCassonconcluded:103 thelines a late Roman statue104 ofinferior to the flat chisel.5 Even on workmanship givesway of thedraperywereplannedby quiteshortblowswitha point.All theevidenceindicatesthat the toolwas usedforthesame workthroughout theclassicalperiod,and especiallyfordrafting out theessentialshapeofa statue.Nordoestheevidencesupporttheidea thattheGreekslimited themselves by holdingthe toolonlyin theway theyhad learnedfromthe Egyptians,at right to the stone.Wherethiswasinconvenient, orwheretheyfelttheycouldadopta speedier angles methodwithoutloweringtheirveryhighstandardsofworkmanship, theydid so. 99 Cf. NM 3966 (c. 365?) and Prokleides,NM 737. 100Gonze A., Die attischen Grabreliefs (Berlin, 1893-1922) iv. 1543. 101 Möbius,
Die
102Cf. Diepolder, Die attischen (Berlin, 1931) Grabreliefs 50, n. 4. I03 Casson, TEGS 176. 104Agora S 657. Cf. Harrison, The AthenianAgora 1, Portrait Sculpture (Princeton,1953) 79, pll. 41-42.
Ornamente der griechischen Grabstelen
(Berlin, 1929), pl. 29 (b).
C 3288
C
CHAPTER 2
THE CLAW The claw chiselwas inventedapparentlyby the Greeks.1There is no signof such a tool on It is indeeda toolpeculiarlysuited Egyptiansculpturenoryeton anyotherearliersculpture.2 to workmarble.Its finepointswouldbe bluntedimmediately bygranite,whereasa softstone suchas poroscan be cut so easilyby a flatchiselthatthereis no need fora toolto bridgethe gap betweentheworkofthepointand thesubsequenttools.Marble,however,is hardand compact enoughto maketheextragripofa claw tool an advantage. ofa veryfinechisel One reasonfortheinvention oftheclawwas probablytheimpracticability witha singlepoint.Cassonspeaksofa punchas fineas a knitting needle,butsucha toolcould diameter notsurvivetwoor threeblows,howevergentle,ofthemallet.Evenifa bar ofsufficient weresharpenedto a pointas fineas thisit would removeso littlestoneat each of the short cautiousblowsfavouredby the Greeksthatthelabourwould be verylong.A sculptormight considertheeffort worthwhile to accomplishfinedetails,such as the hair,but commonsense in removinga thinlayerofstonefromoverthe wouldrebelat sucha wasteoftimeand effort bulkof his work.The claw was a fairlyobvioussolutionto the problem.If a claw has four teeth,each blow will accomplishfourtimesas muchas one witha reallyfinepoint. The claw tool 'is like a chiselwiththe cuttingedge serratedlike saw teeth.In fact,it is forgedup injust thesame way as a chisel,thedentsare thencut,and afterthistheyare hareach one denedand tempered.'3 The teethchangeshapewithwear.Immediatelyafterforging will be sharplypointed.When it has been worndown and resharpenedseveraltimes,unless it is reforged the teethwill be blunterand the tool resemblea multiplefineflat completely, chisel.Therefore one mustexpectto findmarksofvarioustypeson Greekwork.The numberof moreteethis often worka toolwTith teethvary,fromaboutfourupwards,and in architectural differ fromone exampleto another,but we used to coverthelargeflatareas. Measurements can see howlittlechangetherewas in thestandardmeasurements duringnearlytwocenturies froma comparisonbetweenthetoolused on theAlkmeonidpedimentat Delphi (5t/i-5cm.)4 NM 738 (51/1-3cm.). and on thesteleofAristonautes, The angle at whichthetoolis heldto thesurfacecan be variedin thesamewayas withthe thestoneat rightangles,a lineofsmalldentsresults;ifitis driven point(see p. 12). If it strikes Bothtypesofworkcan a shortdistancealongthestone,theresultis a seriesofparallelfurrows. be foundon sculptureofall periods. No actualexampleofthetoolhas survivedwhichcan be datedbeforetheRomanperiod,but It is possible thereare two examplesamongthe Roman toolsin the Musée Saint-Germain.5 thatsomeofthemorenumerousflatchiselsin excavationreportsor museumcatalogueswerein Theredo notseemto factclaws,but thecorrosionoftheironhas made themunrecognizable. It would be on Roman tombstones be any representations either,but thisis not surprising. effective. and not to carve a finicking particularly object 1 For a discussionof some reasons forits inventionsee p. 24, below. 2 The tool illustratedby PétrieTW, pl. 47, whichhe calls In any case it is medieval a claw, seemsto be a boucharde. not ancient.
3 Batten, Stone Sculpture1*>.
4 When I give measurementsfor the tool '5t' (= 5, teeth) it does not necessarilymean that the tool had only fiveteeth,but thatthisis the largestseriesofgroovesI have 5 RA* iii-iv (1916) 226, pl. vi. been able to measure.
THE CLAW
19
We do notknowexactlywhentheclaw was invented.The earliestpieceofsculptureon which it appearsis kore593 in theAcropolisMuseum6(c. 560). It was used on theback ofsteleno. Museum,too,and thismustdatetoaboutthemiddleofthesixthcentury. 15intheMetropolitan thinksthatit was used on theblocksofan archaictempledatingto In architecture, Plommer7 theseblocksto a latertempleto bringtheuseofthe Dinsmoorattributes theearlysixthcentury. claw chiselby masonson theAcropolisintoline withtheevidencefromDelphi; fortherethe but appearson the Clazomeniantreasury8 claw is not foundat all on the Cnidian treasury, is There no signoftheclaw beingusedon thebackall later and buildings. century) (mid-sixth from archaic of the or 'beds' Ephesus. sculpture temple grounds It is possible,as Cassonsays,thattheclaw was alreadyin use bythetimetheSounionkouros was carved.It may be thathe is rightin thinkingthat the tool was inventedby architects and masonsand takenover by sculptors.The evidenceat presentpermitsus neitherto confirmnorto denythesetheories.We can be sure only that it was in use on Atticsculpture, and possiblyon architecture, by c. 560. Plommer9thinksthat'it was firstusedforhorizontalsurfaces,or "beds" ' In sculpturewe may comparethe workon kore593,10whenthe tool has been used in shortstrokesto work overthewholeexpanseoftheback. But thetoolalso has anotheruse,forwhichit is peculiarly adapted- to make an edge. The masonsworkingtodayon the new ceilingcoffersforthe Parthenonuse a claw to formthe 'steps'theyneed (fig. 2). It enablesthemto bite into the line. 1hat marblein severalplacesat oncealonga straight is why the claw is particularlyuseful,forexample, to thehairlinefroma forehead.We can seehow differentiate it was usedto shapethe ridgesofthe centralmassof hair at the back of kore593: the hair at the frontwas probably firstcarvedin two blockson eitherside of the face partlywith (similartotheback); thenstripswereremoved, thehelpoftheclaw,fromeach sidetoleavethesixseparate theselvage a claw was usedto distinguish locks.Similarly, ofthecloakoftheyouthon theSalamisstele,NM 715. There is plentyof evidenceofits use in shapinglarge areas. 'The purposeof thistool is to removea layerof stonelessthickthanthatremovedbythepointbutthicker thanthattakenoffbythechisel.It isabletodo thisbecause the dentsmake it "bite" moredeeplythan the chisel.'11 The claw also breaksdown the surfaceleftby thepoint ' and makesit more even, so thatthe fineredge of a flat Fig. 2 chiselwillnotbe in too muchdangerofbeingchipped. into two The work with the claw fallsconveniently and use to model its figures objects,and secondits use on backgroundsand the parts: first, likegravereliefs. framework ofsculptures architectural the modellingwitha claw on the archaic kouroshead in Blümelhas alreadydiscussed12 Munich,whereclaw toolingis clear on faceand hair.At the back oftheheads and bodiesof thereare unfinished the figuresfromthe pedimentof the archaic templeon the Acropolis13 6 Cf. Casson, AJA xli (1937) 107 f. Claw markscan be seen on the back of the body as well as on the hair. 7 JHSlxxx (i960) 132. 8 Dinsmoor,BCH lxxx (1913) 8.
9 Loc. cit.
11 Batten, Stone Sculpture46.
12 Ere. xi, no. 6.
*3 Schrader, pl. 185/.
10 Schrader, pl. 2.
20
THE TECHNIQUE
OF GREEK
SCULPTURE
patcheswherethe claw followsthe point.The same sequenceof toolsis clear behindseveral statueofa woman,of fromtheAlkmeonidpedimentat Delphi too. The fragmentary figures the archaicor earlyclassicalperiod,in theParosmuseum(see p. 12 above) providesa good illustration ofclawworkas wellas ofpointwork(plate 3 (a)). The marksofthetoolcan be seen on thedraperyand on thebase.AtOlympiaa veryfineclaw (6t/icm.)isobviousinmanyplaces on thesculptureofthepedimentsand metopes.The feetofthefigureofKladeos fromtheEast pedimentwould have been turnedrathertowardthe back wall of the pedimentand so have been almostinvisible.The sculptorhas therefore been rathercursorywiththefinalprocesses area and somefineclawingcan be seenon thedraperyhere,as also on theedgeofthefinished thehead ofAtlas,theleftsideofthefaceof alongthetopofthefigure.On theAtlasmetope,14 theclawwas usedhere.Theseexamples Athena,and thebeardofHeraklesshowhowthoroughly could be multiplied. There It is difficult to findevidenceabouttheuse oftheclaw fortherestofthefifth century. is a littleclawworkon thedraperyat thebackofHeliosin theEast pedimentoftheParthenon, but it has been smoothedaway evenfromthe backgroundofthe Parthenonfrieze.The Nike Balustradeis also uninformative, while the sculpturesof the Erechtheumshow us only an in prearchitectural used to leveltheroundedbacksofthefigures use: theclaw is sometimes in sometimes claw work for their attachment the to However, appears background. paration from the in the a finish itself. Thus on where it suitable was to fragment15 places thought provide Parthenonpediments(nowin theAcropolisMuseum)of a drapedfigureseatedon a rock,the on the stele rockhas been shapedand finished witha claw. Againon thehair ofAmpharete16 in theKerameikosthemarksoftheclaw have been leftplain. The freestanding sculptureofthefourthcenturyadds littleto our evidenceabout theuse of in workwiththe deficient the claw. Even the unfinished back ofAgora S 3717is surprisingly claw; thereis a smallpatchofverygentleworktowardthebackon theproperright(5t/1-5cm.), so perhapswe can inferthatthiswouldhave been thenextstage.The sirensNM 774 and NM thepointwork:and somehas survived 258318have a littlegentleworkwiththeclaw following on theturbanofArtemisiafromthe Mausoleum. findthatthejoiningsurfacesofAnsätze On freestanding and reliefsculpturewe sometimes have been workedwitha claw,or roughenedwitha claw,insteadofwitha point.Such work can be seenon theback ofthesmallpiece ofdraperywhichwas added to thefrontofAgora the claw was often S 37, and again on the socketforthe head of Sisyphos.Correspondingly, used on the tenonsof heads whichwereto be set intostatues,like BM 1055 and 1056,and BerlinK 10. On gravereliefs, however,suchsocketsand plinthswereusuallyworkedonlyby a point. at Epidauros fromthepediments Unfortunately manyofthelargerpieceswhichhavesurvived of a horse'stail19in themuseumat Epidaurosshows are badly weathered:but the fragment fromTegea,20howcarefulworkwitha claw at theback. The back ofthepedimentalfigures The is tool coarser work. much show over ever,just clumsy(3t/1 cm.) and thirty yearslater, acrossthe surface.But the Tegea sculpture,so faras can be has been drivenin longfurrows standardsofcarein workmanship. left,was belowthecontemporary judged fromthefragments The claw is used moregentlyevenon threeminorworksofthelate fourthcentury.These are statuefromPatissia(Louvre648), wherethereis a littleclaw workat the back, thefunerary 14 Olympia iii. 173 f. 15 Hesperiai (10,32),pl. ü. 16 AMÌix (iq
18 Cf. p. 15, n. 89, plate 4.
19 Crome, Die Skulpturendes Asklepiostempels von Epidauros
(Berlin,iq^i), no. 12,pl. 18. 20 Dugas,loe. cit.(p. 15,n. 88).
THE CLAW
21
NM 738,and thesteleNM 2574,21wheretheclaw can be seenagain thesteleofAristonautes, ofthehelmetand rightshoulderrespectively. used at the back carefully It stillprovideda finalsurface,too,on occasions.On theDaochos monumentthetreetrunk on whichSisyphosleansshowsa predominance ofclawwork(plate 49 (¿)) : and thesmallsupankles behind were clawed,presumablyso thattheywere distinguished Agias5 clearly ports fromthe smoothfleshofhislegs.Partoftherockon whichtheApollooftheMantineabase22 sitshas been finished witha claw,as was therockfromtheParthenonpediments.Claw marks have been leftjust underthe subsequentsmoothingof one horsefromthe Mausoleum (BM and 1002),perhapsto createa morerealisticsurface,whilelionsofa laterdate in theBerlin23 Piraeusmuseumshave been almostentirely finished witha claw. So muchfortheuse oftheclaw in modellingvariousshapes.Thereis also plentyof evidence in sculptureas wellas in architecture oftheuse ofthetooloverwideflatsurfaces.One obvious is it on where occurs NM 3711, a seatedDionysos, place frequently thechairsofseatedfigures. and AcrM 618,24showthesamework,claw following at the sidesand back oftheirstools, point as appearson the throneof the Demeterof Knidos.25The earlierexampleshave muchfiner and morecarefulwork,and thisis truealso oftheclaw chiselling on thelongseriesoffootstools on gravereliefsdownto thetimeofthereliefofDemetriaand Pamphilein theKerameikos. Fromearlytimesthetop ofthepedestalintowhicha statuewas to be setwas oftenlevelled witha claw. Archaicexamplesare a pedestalon Naxos and theathlete'spedestal,NM 3476, whiletheuppersurfaceoftheblockswhichformeda continuouspedestalforthestatuesofthe Daochos dedicationin the fourthcenturywas also clawed. Bases were oftenfinishedwitha point (see p. 16 above), so perhapsthe Greeksliked the contrastbetweenthe two kindsof and toolingon base and pedestal.Occasionallythesculptordecidedto smooththebase further, - see the bases of the koreAcrM 13626and the thentheclaw was usedto assistthesmoothing kourosNM 3938,27as wellas theParosbase (plate 3 (a)). On thebase ofSisyphosthereis some claw workoverthe point.In Hellenisticand Roman timesbase and pedestalwereoftencut in one withthestatueand made so smooththatclaw marksare removed. In reliefsculpturethe mostcursoryexaminationshowsthatthe claw chiselwas used con- highand low, large and important stantlyto make the backgroundon everytypeof relief architectural and small there votives. was no attemptto makea completely level reliefs, Usually bed. The Greekspreferred notto ironout all differences to thedead, blankuniformity we find on laterwork,wherethebackgroundseemsso hardthatit mustpushthefigures out on top of us. But ofcoursea fairlyevenplane was neededand theclaw was used forthis,sometimes as thefinaltool,sometimes to precedeothertools. Thereis no needtosaywithCasson28thatitis exceptionaltofindtheclawon thebackground in archaiclow relief.As wellas theathlete'sbase,wherethesamefineclaw is usedto shape the hairofthefigures and overmuchofthebackground, thereis a particularly interesting example ofworkwitha claw on a low reliefof thearchaicperiod,AcrM 3706.29A veryfineclaw (4t/ 0-3mm.) has apparentlybeen used,sincethemeasurements tallyexactly,bothin longstrokes acrossthesurfaceand in shortperpendicular onesclosetothefigure(plate 8 (a)). Usuallyhoweverthemarksoftheclaw on backgrounds indicatethatit was usedin shortstrokes. The votive reliefNM 2756 probablydates to the late fifthcentury,the steleof Eukleia in the Piraeus Museumto thefourth and bothoftheseshowhowtheclaw continuedto be usedon the century, 21 Lullies, pls. 226-7. Claw not visiblefromfront. 22 NM 21^-17. 23 Berlin,K. 12. Blümel,Katalog(Berlin, IQ28), pl. 17. 2* Schrader,pls. 86-87. 25 Note that on the thronesof the seated figuresfrom
Didyma in the BritishMuseum, the drove, not the claw, followsDointwork. 26 Schrader.dI. hi. 27 Richter.K. no. 16^. 28 TEGS 140 and 187-8. 29 Schrader314, fig.360.
22
THE TECHNIQUE
OF GREEK SCULPTURE
froma pointto a flaton thebackbackgroundevenofverylow reliefs.The abrupttransition Dioscurireliefin Berlin30 is apparentlyunusual. groundoftheunfinished On higherreliefas on low relief,althoughagain the workdone by a claw chiselon the backgroundis oftenentirelyor almostentirelyremovedby latertooling,thereis plentyof evidenceto showus howregularly it was used.The backgroundoftheSiphnianfriezeis mostly quitesmooth,butworkwiththeclaw can be seencloseto Parison theblockwherehe is shown abductingHelen. The Olympiametopesand theMausoleumfrieze(see BM 1006)tellthesame story.It is pointlessto give examplesfromgravereliefssincethe claw was employedso universallythatsomemarksremainon thebackgroundofalmosteverystele. Thus thereis nojustification fordrawinga sharpdistinction betweenthetoolsused on high and low relief,as Casson does, in thisor any otherrespect.Nor is thereanyneed to account fortheuse ofclaw and pointon theNereidfriezeby its'provincialism' or 'a growingconfusion of method'.31 Both the archaic and the classicalsculptorwould use whatevertool he found and althoughon verylow reliefhe mightwell have no use fora pointand little convenient, fora claw,someoftheworkon theAristionsteleor thesmallfriezefromtheNereidMonument be donemosteasilywitha pointorclawand he wouldnotbe deterred fromusing wouldcertainly thesetoolsbecausethesculpturefallsintothecategorywe label low relief. On theotherhand, Cassonis rightwhenhe saysthattheway thesurfaceof theblockhas sectionfromthesmallfriezeoftheNereidMonubeenpreparedwitha claw on theunfinished The surfaceoftheslabs workon mostreliefs. mentmustbe a typicalexampleofthepreliminary oftheParthenonfriezealso musthave been carefully levelledwitha claw beforethedesignof was drawnupon themand theoutlinescarvedout.32 thefigures The claw is also used on the architectural framework of grave reliefsthroughouttheir is on the of a few It found back earlyexamples(forexampleNM 31) beforetheearly history. habitofsmoothing theback of a stelewas replacedby allowingthe pointworkto standas a finalsurface.Exceptfora fewarchaicexamplesclaw workappearson thesidesofeverystele. This is truewhetherthe antae are cut in one withtherelief(NM 831,33Phrasikleia)or made fromseparateblocks(NM 966). In thelattercase theworkwiththeclaw on thesideoftherethesidesoftheniche.The outsideof liefis to providea joiningsurfacefortheblocksforming smoothedover(see NM 737,Prokleides) withclawworkslightly thesein turnis usuallyfinished or girl,likeNM 1283and Copeniftheyare notdecoratedbylowreliefs(usuallyofservant-boy hagen2807). Sometimesworkwitha claw can be seen underneaththe smoothingon the frontof the antae or insidethem;as, forexample,on thegravereliefNM 720 ofMelitte(plate 8 (¿)). As we shouldexpect,thetopoftherelieftoois preparedbya claw to receivetheupperblockwhen thepedimentis added separately(NM 3927 and NM 717). The Greeksinvented The use oftheclaw chisel,then,remainedconstantand conservative. thaneithera smallpointor it forworkwhichtheyfeltit could accomplishmoresatisfactorily forthe latter a flatchisel.By the Hellenisticperiodit was alreadybeingused as a substitute the tool for this continued and use, modellingthatthe employing Michelangelo (see p. 105) Greeksoftheclassicalperiodwouldhave done witha flat. 3° Blümel,Erg. xi, pl. 19. 31 Casson, TEGS 187-8.
32 Cf. Dinsmoor,^47^4lviii (1954) 144. 33 Lippold, pl. 80, 2.
CHAPTER 3
THE DROVE The droveis a flatchisel with a broad blade- about 3 cm. or more wide. Richter1has alreadydescribedthe tool and the typeof surfaceproducedby it, so I shall add only a few further facts. an Egyptianpaintingin which The toolwas used by theEgyptians,and Richterillustrates2 a blockof stonewitha drove.Actual examplesof the tool masonsare seen at workfinishing have been foundin Egypttoo. Pétrie3illustrates these,callingthemadzes, but theyare what we shouldcall droves.He saysthatEgyptianmasonsdressedstoneblockswiththistoolfrom butthere the timeofthePyramidson. As usual,we have no Greekexampleor representation, are threechiselswideenoughto be called drovesin thecollectionofRoman toolsin theMusée Saint-Germain.4 To quote Richter'sarticle: 'The Greekstonecutterevidentlyused thedroveon largeplane surfaceswhereits widthwould expeditethe workof smoothing.'She quotes examplesof its usedoverthewholesurfaceofa base,including and tiles.It is sometimes use on bases,thrones, NM 3938- sometimesto make a ribbon-likeborder the sides- see the base of Aristodikos, - as in theathlete'sbase,NM 3476, aroundtheedgeof thetop and thusgivea cleanlinethere Museum.5We findit on the backgrounds and thetopofa cavettocapitalin theMetropolitan suchas thatofthediscus-thrower ofsomearchaicstelaiand reliefs, (NM 38) and NM 2823-6, and BM 121,partofa sculptureddrumfromthearchaictempleat Ephesus: and on thesides - the runninghoplitestele (NM 1959) and the reliefof Alxenor or back, or both,of others one ofthelast examplesofthisuse. The latter must be {NM 39). in addition to the uses of the tool whichhave been describedby Richterit does However, A tool so usefulfor in the of also process carvingsculpture.This is hardlysurprising. appear is have areas not to been of the likely ignoredby, forexample,the expediting carving large he had for too the who carved Sounion kouros, many surfacesto cut whichwere sculptor almostlevel.Butwe can onlysurmisethathe wouldhaveusedthetool;ourevidencecomesfrom othersculpture. as well as thebackground.Thus the we findmarksofthedrovelefton thefigures On reliefs head ofthespearheldby theyouthon thegravereliefNM 2687was shapedbya drove,and so NM 29, (plate 54 (b)) . The marksofthetoolhavebeenpartially was theshorttunicofAristion,6 in latter the removedby smoothing case, but iftheyare comparedwiththe marksleftby the be seen it can droveon thebase theyweremade by thesame tool. examinesphinxno. 10 in the MetropolitanMuseum,but to able The writerhas not been marksof the drove are clear on the back and frontof her wings,on the in photographs7 scales aroundherchestand in thechannelbetweenthem.If thisis thecase, thisis theearliest is strengthened examplewe have ofthedrovebeingused on sculpture.The probability by the latersphinxes.Thus on NM 28 (plate 9 (a)) themarksofthetool evidencefromother,slightly to obtainthenecessarycurvingshapescan be seenon thesidesand goingin variousdirections 1 AJA xlvii (1943) 188 f. 2 Loc. cit.. fig.8. 3 Pétrie,TW, pl. xvi. 4 RA5 iii-iv (i 916) 226, pl. vi, 15903, 15905, 60955.
5 Richter,Catalogue, pl. xiv e. 6 I owe thissusrerestion to Prof.Ashmole. 7 Richter, Catalogue,pl. xii. Richter does not discuss thistoolingin the text.
24
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
back ofherhairand all overherwings.It is obviousthatthewholeexpanseofthewingswas carvedin a massby thedrovebeforethe linesof thescalesand feathers wereengravedupon them.It was used in thechannelbetweenthewings,too,exactlyas in MetropolitanMuseum no. io. At the bottomofthechannelare a fewpointmarks,showingthatthedrovefollowed upon thepointjust as we shouldexpect.It is impossibleto say whetherit was used elsewhere smoothedover.On sphinxNM 76 thedrovewas used on thebody,sincethishas been entirely againon wingsand scalesand partlysmoothedaway,butthistimethereseemto be somemarks insidethe rightleg whichshowthatthetoolwas used theretoo. Anothersphinxwhichcan be added to thelistis Ny CarlsbergGlyptotek 4b; drovemarkscan be seenat thesidesofherhead. On the Perseus8fromthe Acropolis,the Sphinxesare not our onlysourceofinformation. sculptordid not troubleto smoothaway all the tool marksfromthe tunic,whichwas to be afterthepoint,the marksofwhich paintedin any case, and thedrovewas used immediately on a smallkorefromDidyma,Berlin surviveon theback. The workwas takena stagefurther 1793 (plate 9 (6)). Here the figurehas been smoothedalmostcompletelyat the front,and has begunon theback. It has notbeen carriedfarenoughto hide themarksofthe smoothing drovewhichwas used rightovertheback. The lion Berlin1790 (plate 10 (6)) is also ofEast Greekorigin,and it providesone ofthebestexampleswe have oftheuse ofthedroveon sculpis smoothedoccasionalmarksprovethatitwas carvedin thesameway ture.Althoughthefront The lovelysweepof curvinglinesherewas unas the back, whichis completelyunfinished. and further modelledwitha drove.It was thistool then first worked the by doubtedly point whichcarvedthe crispridgeofthe backbone.It is used in shortchoppingstrokesovermost oftheback,butat thebottom,nearthebase,itwas turnedon edgeand onlyone cornerapplied surfacelooksas thoughit weremade by an incredibly finepointto thework.The resulting a typeofworkforwhicha flatchiselalso was employedfrequently (see p. 34). It was obviouson thesphinxes,thePerseus,and theAristionstelethatdroveworkhad been onlypartiallyremoved,fromplaceswhereit wouldbe visible,becausethesurfaceswereto be paintedanyway.For the same reasonit has not alwaysbeen quite smoothedaway fromthe hairofarchaicstatues,and can be seenon thesmallkoreNM 27 as wellas ontheTenea kouros.9 becausethedrove All theexamplesquotedhave beenfromthearchaicperiod- ofnecessity, is notfoundin theclassicaland laterperiodseitheron plane surfacesor formodelling. foundthatothertoolsweremoreconvenient Whydiditfalloutoffavour?Obviouslysculptors forthesamework.The drovewouldhavebeenusefulon thewideexpansesofearlymonumental buta smallerflatchiselwas stillneededforfinerdetails.Whena smallerscalebecame sculpture, and the sculptorbegan to aim at a higherstandardof modelling,the flatchisel fashionable, was neededmoreand thedroveless. Not thatthe drovewas replacedentirelyby the flat.The inventionof the claw chiselalso thesurhelpedto oustit frompopularity.It is theclaw whichtakesovertheworkoftrimming faceleftby the pointinto finerforms,and of smoothingbackgroundsand the sidesof grave thentheclaw was foundto be themore reliefs.For a timethetwo toolswereused together,10 and thedrovewas abandoned.One advantageoftheclaw was that,althoughmore convenient The teethgave it a bettergripon thesurfaceand it was not to make,it was stronger. difficult risk same of the to chippingas thelongthincuttingedge ofthedrove. exposed used A stillgreateradvantageofbothclawand flatwas thatofspeed.The clawwasfrequently in a shortoblique mason'sstroke,and we shall see thatthe same is trueoftheflat.We never to findthe droveused in anythingbut a verticalstroke.Its size would have made it difficult 8 Schrader321, fig.369. o Cf. Richter,K, figs.245 and 249.
10 Richter,AJA xlvii (1943) 190, fig.6.
THE DROVE
25
surfacewouldhave pushevenlyalongthestone,and anywayifthishad been donetheresulting beenverypatchyand unpleasant.Inevitablythismeantthatin spiteofitswidththedrovewas a slowtool,and so theextraspeed and strength oftheclaw and flatsentit out offashionafter the archaicperiod.For althoughthe Greekswerewillingto spendthelong timenecessaryto achievethehighstandardat whichtheyaimed,theysaw no virtuein spendinglongerthanwas necessary.
CHAPTER 4
THE FLAT CHISEL 'The chiselis of verygreatantiquity.It may be tracedamongthe bone and stonetoolsof UpperPalaeolithictimes,and is foundin someoftheearliestcoppercultures.The firstcopper chiselswereverysmalland wereprobablyused withouthandles.Later,whenthe chiselhad increasedin size,it was providedwitha tangto enable it to be fittedintoa woodenhaft,as withthemoderncarpenter'stool. In theEast, chiselsappear before3000 b.c., but thecopper a copperchisel chiseldid notfullyreplacethatofstone.Thoughserviceableforwoodworking, is uselessagainststone.Well intotheBronzeAge ofEuropewe findstonechiselsgroundto the ofirondid themetalchiselcomeintoitsown.'1 styleofmetalones.Not untiltheintroduction of the iron so thattempering 'When it was discoveredhow to raise the carbon-content and and chisels were much became gouges hardening improved.'2 possible,axes,adzes, As we haveseen,itis likelythatGreekstonecuttersusedirontoolson theirmarblerightfrom thestart,and we can deduce also fromtheantiquityofthedifferent shapesofchiselthatboth a largenumberof flat-and round-headedcuttingedgeswereknownto them.Pétrie3illustrates and different metals different of them are tangedand designs.Among Egyptianexamples socketedchisels,but probablythe simplebar was the typeused forstonecutting.Egyptian chisels,likemanymodernones,weremade fromroundbars.To judge fromthefourth-century examplesfoundat Olynthus4the Greekchiselwas usuallyrectangularin section,while the seemto be squarebars.5 Roman examplesin the Musée Saint-Germain in the chisel6 discussion of the flatchisel.Probablymanyround We include the round then after the corners had been worndown theywere chiselsstartedwithstraightblades, If sharpenedin theirnewcurvedshape. it has beennoticedespeciallythatworkhas been done by a roundedchiselit maybe mentionedbyname,butit is quiteprobablethatcloseexamination would show that a 'rounded'chiselshouldoftenhave been named insteadof a 'flat'. The workdone by the two toolsis so similarthatthisdoes notmatterin thepresentwriter's opinion. The lastchaptergave an accountofhowthedrovewas usedin modellingbutwas gradually thantheflatand thenewlyinventedclaw. If themarksmade by a foundto be lessconvenient to decide its size and therefore to tool have been even partiallyremovedit is oftendifficult distinguishbetweenthe drove and the flat. From now on we shall talk only of the flat, it maywellhave been assumingthatifthesculptureis archaic,and thetoolis usedvertically, a drove. todistinguish todiscussthegouge.Casson7says'itis verydifficult Nor again is it theintention a made a or a 'bull-nosed' on ancientstatueswhether givengroovewas [= rounded] by gouge ... chiselbecausethesurfaceofthegrooveis rarelyfresh enoughtopreservetheminutestriations ever have used reason ancient should We see no thatmakethedistinction why sculptors possible'. finduselessforworkingin stone.It is thiscarpenter'stool,whichtheirmoderncounterparts difficult to makeand sharpen,and veryfragile. 1 Coghlan, Ox. Tech.i. 603. 2 Ibid. 618. 3 Pétrie,TW 19 f. 4 Robinson, Olynthus x, pl. cviii.
5 RA5 iii-iv (1916) 226, pl. vi. 6 Casson, TEGS 189, fig. 71 (6), Casson's 'bull-nosed' chisel. ~< TEGS 194.
THE FLAT CHISEL
27
The flatchiselis mucheasierto makeand sharpenthana point.To forgea flatchiselit is one end and hammerit to a fineredge,butto makea pointmuchmore necessary onlyto flatten is required.The shafthas to be turned,and thetiphammeredevenlyfrom carefulhammering all sides.In sharpening, too,theedgeoftheflatis formedby onlytwoplanestiltedtowardone another; it is veryeasyto sharpenone sideofa pointtoo muchand upsetthewholebalance of the tool.Thus it seemscertainthattheflatchiselis an oldertoolthanthepoint,whichis a refinement upon it. the And yetas faras Bliimeland Casson are concerned,the flat chisel is quite definitely villainofthepiece. As longas itsattackson Greeksculpturecan be keptat bay all goeswell, Bliimeladmits but as it graduallyencroachesthe battleis lostand standardsfall.Grudgingly thattheflatis usedfordetailsofhairand theedgesofzigzagfolds,and thattheroundedchisel ofarchaicchitons.8But the sculpturesof the Parthenon Avasused to makethewavyfurrows and Olympiashowby thefineroundnessoftheirsmallestformsthattheyweremade by fine theflatwas restricted tooccasional century pointwork,whileevenon gravereliefsofthefourth use on draperyand hair- it was neverused widely,and neveron flesh.9Casson10says that 'the flatchiselwas usedin all reliefworkwhichcan be classedas low reliefand that'it was one Bliimelmodified of themostimportant Consequently primarytools'on theNikeBalustrade.11 Bildhauer an derArbeit(1943) he says12thatwhenworkingon his viewsa little.In Griechische to thesameextentto workwiththepoint, reliefsculpturethesculptor'does notconfinehimself that 'the uses the flatand roundedchisels'.However,he stillconsiders13 but also frequently thesurface, archaicGreeksculptoroccasionallyusestheflattoo,not,to be sure,forsmoothing butalwaysonlywherehe wantedtolenda particularaccenttocertainplacesbya sharpedge'suchas theeyelids,theoutlineofthelips,and thestrandsofhair.As fortheroundedchisel,'the sculptorwouldnevertouchbare partsofthebodywithsuch a tool,but would use pointand einesPraxiteles modification. In theHermes forthem'.14 claw exclusively (1944) thereis a further 'The Greeksculptoroccasionallyused a flatchiselinsteadof emeryand pumiceforthefinal marks thetroublesome butonlyto sparehimself rubbingwithemery.The stunning smoothing, in themarblewerenotremovedand thesurfaceofthestoneremainedopaque.'15Buthowslight is intendedwe findfromhis discussionof the Mantineabase. 'The technique a modification is theusual typein thesecondhalfofthefourthcenturyb.c. The granularbackgroundshows whilethe fineclaw marks.The bare partsof thefigureswererubbedsmoothoverpointwork, in such a that the a with shows flat,though way stunningand the smoothing partly clothing marksoftheindividualblowsofthechiselremainrecognizable.'16 workofmodellingand shapingwas doneby Bliimel'sopinion,then,is thatall theimportant In archaic timestheflatwas usedonlyforedges; the classical and claw period. throughout point ofdraperyinsteadof emery.Cassonmakesrelief laterit mightbe used in the finalsmoothing workan exceptionto theserules,and Bliimelagrees. These ideas about theflatchiselseemto have arisenbecausebothBliimeland Cassonthink ofthetypeto be seen on the oftheflatas a toolwhichcan onlybe usedin longobliquestrokes, DelosA 449 (plate i i (a) ) . HenceBliimel's forexampletheArtemis, backofsomeRomanstatues, thatthesurfaceof marblecarvedwitha flatchiselis lifeless,and resemblesa clay assertion17 'The chisel,likeall toolsthatstrike figurewipedoverwitha wetrag; and Casson'sremark:18 suchas a punch.'Bliimeland Casson worksmorerapidlythanan instrument an obliquestroke, bothinsiston theimportanceoftheverticalstrokeof thepointand claw. In fact,as we have 8 Bliimel,Erg. xi. 7. Q Blümel,Erg. xi. 36. 10 Casson, TEGS 181.
11 Casson, TEGS 182. 12 Gr. Bild. 76. « Gr. Bild. 34.
^ Gr. Bild. 35. 15 Hermes17. 1Utiermes 47.
17 Erg. xi. 6. 18 TEGS 181.
28
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
seen,theshortoblique 'mason's'strokewas themostpopularforboththesetools,and we shall findthe same is trueas well of the flatchiselin the majorityofworkin the classicalperiod. Indeed,thedrovewas probablysupplantedby theflatand claw becausethesetwoweremore convenient fora mason'sstroke(see p. 24). In thelogicofstonecarvingwe shouldexpecta flatchiselto be used aftera pointor claw. One reasonis thatneitherpointnorclaw is suitableformodellingsuchdetailsas theveinson hand,orfoot,orhorse'sbelly.Thesetoolsremoveunwantedstoneand leavewhatwillbe needed fora laterstage.Theycannotmodela convexarea exceptin a broadmass.Theyare essentially toolsto dig intothe surface,not to carveit intosmoothcontoursand gentlemodulationsby a layerofstoneperhapsas fineas a skin.The description removing (see p. 30 below)oftheway in whichthenodulesofhairwerecarvedon theDipylonhead willclarify thedifferent purposes ofthepointand theflat.Ifone deniesthatthismodellingwas donebytheflat,thenpresumably one has to fillthegap as Cassonhas done by sayingthatit was accomplished withemerytools. Aproposis theaccountofan artstudentsetto copya figurefromtheLudovisiThronereliefs. Atfirst shetriedtocarveitin the'Greekway',following clawworkwithemery.Buttheforms lost all theircrispness, and became softand soggy.She foundthe onlyway to achievea similar effectto theoriginalwas to use a flatchiseland followit withemery. Anotherreasonwe shouldexpecta flatchiselto be used beforesmoothing began is thatso muchemerywouldbe wastedifit wereused straight on top oftheroughsurfaceleftby even a fineclaw or point. Quite a lot of the smoothingstonewould be groundaway simplyin thesurface,beforethe sculptorcould proceedto thejob ofburnishing the surface. flattening And theteethoftherasp,too- whichcame intouse at sometimeduringthearchaicperiodwouldhave beenbluntedat onceifthesurfacehad notbeenpreparedpreviously bya flat.It is truethatthe Egyptiansproceededdirectly fromstonehammering tosmoothing on theirgranite sculpture,but theyused chiselswhen workingsofterstoneseitherforsculptureor building blocks.The Greeksrefined on Egyptianmethodswiththeinvention oftheclaw,tohelpwiththe of their own stone. There was no reason for them to problems ignoresolutionswhichalready existed.A flatchisel,used gently,wouldremoveall roughnesses and preparetheway forthe finalsmoothing withrasp and emery. This thenis how the flatworks,accomplishing the finestmodellingand smoothingaway for the next the irregularities ready stage.Certainly modellingdone by the flatis superficial in thesensethatit lies so near thefinalsurface: but all thecare givenat earlierstagescould be ruinedbycarelessness in bringing here.The flatis ofvitalimportance thebeauty to maturity ofthefinalwork. Good flatchiselling is oftenhardtoseeand evenhardertophotograph. The marksleftbythe toolcan be so lightthattheylooklikeaccidentalroughnesses smoothsurface. on an otherwise Thisis whenthesculptordrivesthetoolonlya comparatively fromabout shortdistance(varying a millimetres to and liftsand few the surface each at blow, 5 continually centimetres) along the direction of the blade as he so to mould the curves wants. have adjusts alreadyseena (We crudeversionofthistypeofworkwiththedrove,plates 9 and 10.) Thiscarefulworkis therule on mostGreeksculptureof the archaicand classicalperiods,and appearson Hellenisticand Roman pieces too. But even duringthe classicalperiodwe sometimesfindthe long parallel furrows whichmeanthatthesculptorhas concentrated on levellinghisworkratherthanmodeland these on later work. it, ling appear veryfrequently Once the marblehas been workedwiththeflatitssurfaceis almostcompletely level,and it does not takelongto removeany remainingtool markswithrasp or emery.In factthework flatworkwith withthe flatovera clawed surfaceis muchmoretroublesome thanfollowing
THE FLAT CHISEL
29
fromclaw or ornery.And here,surely,lies the explanationforthe apparentdirecttransitions the point to emeryon such sculpturesas the Athena19of the Eretriapediment, Olympia al figures, and eventheHellenisticwomenfromPergamon(see Blümel,Hermes 15f.). pediment Blümelused theseexamplesto supporthistheorythattheflatwas notused on Greeksculpthiswouldbe ifit weretrue turein theclassicalperiod.It has been shownhow extraordinary Butwhyis and exampleswillbe givenprovinghowwidelytheflatwas usedon Greeksculpture. it that,forexample,theAthenafromtheEretriapedimenthasemeryworkimmediately following and indeedslightly overlappingclaw workifa flatwas used? There are twopossibleexplanaworkby theflatonlyjust so faras tions.The sculptormayhave botheredwiththetroublesome he wanteda smoothfinalsurface,and thensmoothedup to theedgeofthis.Certainlyraspor emerywouldobliterateflatmarksas soonas theytouchedthem.There are veryfewexamples On theotherhand,claw marks in Greekworkwherechisellingcan be seenbelowsmoothing. beneaththesmoothand so lookas thoughtheylieimmediately maysurvivegentleflatchiselling edgeofhisworkthesculptormightsweep ing.A secondexplanationcouldbe thatat thefinished his smoothing stonepast the edge of the flatwork,and so therewould be some emerywork lead us tosupposethatthedrapery overclawwork.Commonsensewouldcertainly immediately at thefrontoftheEretriaAthenawas carvedwiththeflatas wellas withpointand claw; and of techniqueamong theevidencefromothersculptures willsupportthisidea. The uniformity Greekmasonspermitsus to infertheuse ofa toolfromone piece toanotherofthesameperiod. thatnever,at anyperiodofGreeksculpture, We shallnottryto answerBliimePscontention, werethe flatand roundedchiselsused on the nude partsof statues,by a laboriouslistof the placeswherethemarksofsuch a chiselmay be foundon a hand,an arm,or a face.At some as a nude periodsit was quite usual fora sculptorto finishall partsofhisworkas thoroughly is no there Zeus at When this in the of as the from figure. Olympia, Temple happened, metopes in thequalityofmodellingor finishbetweenthefleshand draperyparts,or theskin difference and as the freeof the animals.All conformto the same highstandardsamong themselves that all and there is reason at to of the no theywerenot standingsculpture suppose pediments, made by thesametools.ButfromthebeginningofGreeksculpturewe oftenfindthattheflesh else,and thisbecomesincreasingly partsofa figureare treatedwithgreatercare thananything true.Draperyand animalhide are rarelyfinishedso finelyas humanskinby thefourthcenwere laboriousand if the sculptorcould tury.The finalstagesof smoothingand burnishing as such; there omitthemanywhere he would.A man'sskinis smooth,and mustbe represented was no shortcuthere.Butsomeroughness is excusableon draperyor an animal'shide,and the Thus it hapworkmightwell be stoppedone or twostagesbeforethefinalemerysmoothing. that much of the the the flat from best evidence about use of comes pens draperyor animals. The sculptor'smodellingofthesepartswas ofthesamestandardas hismodellingofthehuman butfrequently he did notaim at thesamedegreeoffinish forthispartofhiswork.Howfigure, ever,it is hopedit willbe obviousthatat anyperioda sculptorwillcarvetheflanksofa lion or a man'ship withthesametools.Exampleswilltherefore be chosenaccordingto howwellthey showtheworkofthetool and regardlessofthesubjectbeingcarved. Harrison20 has alreadypointedout,in a discussionofthekouroioftheSouniongroup,that 'theroleoftheflatchiselin thesekouroihas generallybeenunderrated'.She describeshowthe toolwas used to shapethefingers on theSouniontorso,and a kouroshand foundin theAgora, and also suchgroovesas thoseon theneckoftheDipylonhead. On otherfinished kouroi,althoughsignsofmodellingoverthewholebodyhave been removed,it is stillobviousthatmany detailswerecarvedwitha flat.Thus the anatomicaldetailsof Kleobis and the Tenea youth 19 Cf. Blümel,Erg. xi, pl. 9.
20 Hesperiaxxiv (1955) 292 and 293, notes6 and 8.
30
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
wereengravedby a flatchisel.Presumably Bliimelwantsus to believethatthisuse oftheflat ofanatomy to shapetheanatomyofa figuredied outjust at thetimewhentherepresentation forthepointand claw was becomingmorecomplicatedand subtleand therefore moredifficult the to shape. It seemswe are to imaginethe sculptorof an archaickouroscarefully forming sharpridgesaroundthe eyesor toe-nailswitha flatchisel,but droppingit at once whenhe came to modelthecheeksor toes.We mightaskwhichcategoryeyeballsand toe-nailsfallinto. In fact,Harrison'sAgorahand,and thetoesofthekorein Casson's21 fig.77 showhow theflat was usedgentlytoshapesuchparts.On a figure itisclearthattheflat suchas thatofAristodikos22 wasusedonthehair,theears,theeyes,themouth,thenostrils, thenavel,thegenitals,thestumps whichconnectthearmsto thebody,and thetoes; it is notdifficult to acceptthatthesculptor wouldhaveusedit also to helphimmodeltheintricate shapesofthekneeor abdomen. theway thetoolwas usedover ProbablythehairoftheDipylonhead (plate 10 (a)) reflects thewholebodyfroman earlydate. Followinguponfinepointwork(probablynota clawat this workedoverthewholemassofthehair.The nextstageon back or chestwould time)a flat23 have been smoothing, but on the hair the sculptornextpunchedout the hollowswitha fine point,and finallyanothersmallerchiselwas used to shapeand smooththeconvexbobblesof well around the curls thehairintoits finalpattern.This fineworkcan be seen particularly oftherowabovetheforehead.Casson'sstatement24 thathe 'can detectno chiselmarksat all' on marks thehairis difficult to reconcilewithhisopinionthattheribbon'showstheunmistakable hair and ribbon is so similar. on of a steadyflat-chiselling' the that tooling seeing thereis an exampleoftheflatbeingused overthebodyofa kourosin just the Fortunately way we shouldexpect- thatis, as it was used to smoothand shape themassofthehairofthe its kouroson Delos (4083)2S(plate 2 (a)). Unfortunately Dipylonhead. This is theunfinished surfaceis badlyweathered,but sometoolmarksare stillvisible.The pointworkhas been disoverthewholesurface.On the cussedalready,but it appearsonlyin patches,not uniformly and theway their Their regularity, sides of the chest,and the legs, are seriesof striations. directiondiffers, so thaton therightofthechesttheyare almostparallelwiththerightarm, whileon the leftofthe chesttheyare almostat rightanglesto the leftarm,meansthatthey cannotbe explainedas marksof weathering.In facttheymusthave been made by short in thesameway as theback oftheBerlinlionwas made withtheflatchisel,26 choppingstrokes the drove. Richter this by assigns figureto theMelosgroup,whichshedátese.550. The sculptor used the not have may newlyinventedclaw chiselat all, sincethereis no signofitswork. imfemalefigurefromParos (plate 3 (a)) showstheflatfollowing However,the unfinished used is Thus the flat it used on also. was the claw the even though mediatelyupon point straightafterthepointto definethe edge aroundthe bottomof thefoot.On the draperythe flathas followedtheclaw. Its shortchoppingstrokescan be seenoverthewholesurfaceofthe thesharpridgesofthehem. draperyas well as forming Treu27was mistakenin his beliefthatthesurfaceofall thefiguresfromthe Olympiapedimentswas finishedonly by a chisel,and that therewas no evidenceforthe use of emery. thatthechiselwas used at all on thissculpture.It has Blümel28 denies,witha fewreservations, beenexplained(see pp. 28-29 above) howeasilyit can happenthatno marksofthetoolshould survive,and indeedon the pedimentsonlyone smallpatchofdraperyhas beenfound(on the wherethechiselhas been used and not righttowardthebackoffig.R oftheWestpediment)29 2* TEGS. 23 Or drove: cf. d. 26. 2« TEGS 88. 25 Richter,K, no. in.
22 Richter,K, no. 165.
26 Prof. Ashmole has examined these marks and also considersthat theywere made by a flatchisel. 28 Blümel,Erg. xi. 8. 2? Treu, Jdlxi 1895) 3 f. 29 Olympia iii, pls. xviii-xxi.
THE FLAT CHISEL
31
smoothedaway. The metopesby a fortunate chanceare morerevealing.On theAthenaofthe Atlasmetope30 tracesofthechiselcan be feltratherthanseenon thedraperybesideherright hand.On theAthenaoftheAugeanstablemetope31 (plate 12 (a)) quitea deepchannelhasbeen leftunsmoothed betweenherleftthighand hershield,and boththedraperyand theinsideof the shieldhere have been mostdelicatelyshaped withshortstrokesof the chisel.The very lightlycarvedsurfaceshowshow easilysuchworkwouldhave been removedelsewhere.As the ofthepedimentand ofthemetopesmakesit offinishand stylebetweenthesculptures similarity obviousthattheywerecarvedby thesame tools,we do notthinktheuse oftheflatherecan be thatwouldhappenonlyin reliefworks. explainedaway as something The Parthenonsculpturesrevealas littleabout the workof the flatas of mostothertools. However,it was not thoughtnecessaryto smooththe back of the throneof Zeus, and the hasdescribedhow striations madebya flatherecan stillbe seen(plate i 2 (b)) . RhysCarpenter32 muchofthecarvingoftheNikeBalustradewas done witha chisel.Fromthepedimentsculpthatthetraditionofshortish turesofEpidaurosthereis confirmation gentlestrokeswitha flat has continuedon the draperyundertherightleg ofNM 146. The figureis kneeling,and this area undertheback ofthe supporting leg has not been smoothed. oftouchwith ofthelightness The femalefigureS 37 in theAgoragivesa veryclearillustration whichtheflatchiselmightbe used in thefourthcentury.On theback,flatworkseemstohave followeddirectlyupon the point- althoughthe small patch of claw worktowardthe right back showsthatthistool may well have been used morethanis obviousnow. The channels ofthefoldsat theback ofthestatuewereworkedout fullywitha point,as we have seenabove (p. 15). The flatis usedjust whereone wouldexpectat so earlya stageofthework- to model the topsofthe fineridgesseparatingthe channels,i.e. to carve the convexas opposedto the concavesurfaces(plate 5) . At the figure'sleftthereis evidenceofhow it was used at a later stage.Here theflatverygentlycontinuesthemodellingoftheconcavechannels(plate i i (é)). succeedthoseworkedby the point; but The two channelsworkedlike thisnow immediately theremayeasilyhave been intermediate workwiththeclaw. This is an exampleofhow miscan be. There can be no doubtthatthisworkwiththeflathelped to leadingsuchtransitions the beautiful shape draperyat thefronttoo. Other freestanding statuesfromlater in the centurycontinueto ahow the same typeof underthehemofDaochos I oftheDaochos dedicawork.The flathas beenusedmostcarefully remain Eleusis50, lightchoppingstrokes tion(plate 46 (¿)). On therightsideoftheAsklepios, has a chisel worked across the under while at the back the folds, scoopingthem just smoothing, out. The flatonce again seemsto followdirectlyafterpointworkin shapingthedraperyat the sidesofLouvre648, eventhoughthereis a littleclaw workin themiddleoftheback. Finally, we woulddisagreewithBliimel's33 opinionthatthereis no signofchiselworkon thehead Berlin K 10 (a Dionysosor Apollo?) but thatsmoothing followsdirectlyafterthe point.Verylight but definite chiselmarkscan be seenon eitherside ofthe neck. Animalswerea popularsubjectin Greeksculpturefromarchaicto Hellenistictimes.They were carved forpediments,as grave monuments, or dedicatoryofferings. For the reasons in rich evidence theflatchisel, above be to be about given (p. 29) theymight expected especially and so theyare. One oftheearliestexamplesis thepanthercarvedin relieffroman archaicpedimenton the At thefronttheworkis beautifully smooth,but aroundtheearsand on thecheeks Acropolis.34 at thesideare cleartracesoftheflatcarvingout theshape,and also overtherumpat theback. 30 Olympia iii, pl. xl (6). 31 Olympiaiii, pl. xliii (12).
32 NTP, passim.
33 Blümel, Katalog ii.i. 11.
34 Schrader, pls. 182-3.
32
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
An excellentexampleoftheflatat workcomesfromtheback ofthecalfin theMoschophoros group(plate 13). The back has notbeen workedoverat all aftertheflatwas used,and so its and the beautifulcarefulmodellingis quiteclear.The toolwas usedin almostverticalstrokes, directionoftheblade changedcontinually to workout thedesiredcurves.Such workis clear proofthattheGreeksculptor,likethemodern,usedhistoolto continuetheworkofmodelling his piece,not merelyas a smoothing There are no groundsforarguingthatthis instrument. special effectwas desiredonlyto representthe hide of the animal,forat the frontwhereit wouldhave beenvisiblehishidehas been smoothedas thoroughly as theman'sfaceand cloththereis everyreasonto believethatthecurveoftheman'sshoulderwas ing. On thecontrary madein exactlythesamewayas thecurveofthecalf'sback,buttheflatchiselling wassmoothed afterwards. Stillin thearchaicperiodthemaneofthelion in the Kerameikos(see p. 13) was workedby a flatimmediately afterthepoint.The effectis similarto thehairon theDipylon head. The sculptordid notbotherto smoothawaythemarksofthetoolafterhe had shapedthe locksofthe mane,althoughthe restofthe animalwas mostcarefully No doubtthis finished. was partlyso thatthetextures ofmaneand bodywouldcontrast, and partlybecausethemane would have been paintedanyway(plate 12 (c)). The ram'sheadfromtheTelesterion at Eleusis(plate 3 (¿)) showstheflatfollowofPisistratus and verycommon,way.The examplesquotedabovehaveshownthe ingthepointin a different, flatsimultaneously to thefinalstages modellingthe formsand levellingthesurfacepreparatory ofsmoothing. On theram,afterthepointhad beenusedtoshapeoutthebobblesofthefleece, the flatfollowedto carve the snail curlsof the finisheddesign.This is the methodusual for carvingthe corrugatedhair so dear to Greeksculptors(see Blümel,Erg. xi, pl. 13, head of tobluntthecrispApollofromOlympia). Here theflatis a finaltool,thereis no latersmoothing nessoftheshapesit has carved. In the fifth centurythereis verylittleevidencefromthissource.The animalsat Olympia are finishedas smoothlyas the figures, and the same is trueof the Parthenonsculptures.To takean examplefroma graverelief,it is plain thatthesculptoroftheSalamisstelecarvedthe cat witha flatc. o*oi m. wide. Its marksare stillquite clear over the rumpand tail, and the tail especiallywas carvedin quite longstrokes(plate 58). about The fourth-century sirens35 whosebackshave been leftunfinished giveus information the flatas theydo about othertools.On theback ofthebodyand wingofNM 774 thesame calf(plate 4 (a) ) . The toolissmaller, carefulworkmaybe seenas onthebackoftheMoschophoros thewholefigurebeforesmoothing. and thestrokesslightly used over It was obviously longer. This is truealso ofNM 2583,whereplentyofflatworkfollowsthepointand claw at theback enoughtoremove (plate 4 (¿)). The sculptorofNM 775has notsmoothedhisworkthoroughly all theflatworkevenfromthefront The feathers carvedon herlowerbodyand tail ofhisfigure. weremade by a flat,and itsmodellingis quitecleararoundherears,on herarm,and overthe she carries. shell-lyre ofour in theobscurity withinthefourth It is difficult to date animalsat all accurately century unin Athens and The two store-room, (NM presentknowledge. dogs Ny Carlsberg238b alike. are so since to one close be dated Certainly another, they numbered)mayprobably quite smoothedothers,suchas thehind theirtechniqueis similar,forwhilesomepartsare carefully - gentlestrokes of and the which show immediately precededthesmoothing belly, tooling legs most the a flat rounded with or 14 (a), carefully (plate chisel, modelling shape varyinglength 238b). Ny CarlsbergGlyptothek surface.This piece comesfromthe The lion NM 80336has an outstandingly well-preserved 35 See p. 15, nn. 89 and 90.
36 Brückner,Der Friedhof am Eridanos(Berlin, 1909), fig.48.
THE FLAT CHISEL
33
Kerameikosand was probablysetup as one ofa pair flanking a familyplot.Thus it was meant to be viewedprimarily fromone side,and the sculptorworkedonlythe frontto completion. At thebackwe have been leftmostfortunately an exampleofan ordinarymason'schiselwork as freshas thoughhe had cutityesterday. The workmanship is ofa highstandard(plate 14 (¿)). Shortcutswitha flatchiselhave modelledcrisplythewholeback- thecurvesofthemuscles, the bulgesof flesh,fineveinsrunningacrosslegs and belly.All that is lackingis the final smoothing.The sculptorhas not botheredwiththe back of the sheep'shead underthe lion's leftpaw, and heretheflathas been used in long,jerkystrokes.But thegreatestcare has been givento carvingthelion itself. show The Mausoleumlions,37 whichcan be dated aroundthemiddleofthefourthcentury, chiselworkin severalplaces.Oftenthetoolhas beenusedin quitelongstrokes, e.g. on thechest ofBM 1084,butthehorseBM 1002showsshortchiselstrokesbetweenhisfrontlegsmodelling thebodyas crisplyas on thelion NM 803 above. The same is trueofthehorseBM 1045; and thelefthand ofhisriderwas neversmoothedeither,so thatmarksofa chiselare clear on the back ofit. Finally,threeexamplesmaybe citedfromtheend ofthefourthcenturyor eventhe thirdcentury.The horseon thegravereliefNM 446438was obviouslymodelledby a flatjust and thegooseof beforesmoothing. And boththeharecarriedby a smallgirlfromBrauron,39 theBoywithGoosegroupNM 2772,showsimilartoolingto thecat on theSalamisstele. The flatwas also used,together withothertools,in thesameway as on sculptureproper,on suchelaboratearchitectural ofa plain stele.The largepalmette decorationsas the akroterion in Cambridge40 akroterion is a good example.Althoughthefrontaspectoftheleaveshas been smoothed,the sideswereleftaftertheywerecut witha flat.The workhas been carriedout mostcarefully, withshortstrokesofquite a smalltoolon theleavesand background.Thereis a worldofdifference betweenworklikethisand whatwe findon manyRoman sarcophagi. The flatis also used on statuebases and pedestals.Some bases of all periodswerefinished or nearlyso- likethatofkoreAcrM 136,41Procneand Itys,AcrM 1358,and quite smoothly, theApolloPatroosin theAgora. The toolingon theunfinished base oftheParosArtemisclose - obliquechiselstrokes - showshowthiswas done (plate 3 (a)). If,however,a figure to herskirt formostof was nude,or wearinga shorttunic,itwas moreusualin thefifth centuries and fourth thebase tobe pointedwithonlya smoothband tooutlinethebottomofthefoot(seeplate 15(0), base ofAknoniosoftheDaochosdedication).Thiswouldhavebeencutpartlywhenthesculptor was workingintotheangleat thebottomofthesandal or foot.Then he ran thechiselround, beforethefinalsmoothing, to neatentheworkand to emphasizetheseparationoffootand base. When two pieces of marblewerejoined the corresponding surfaceshad to be roughened to give a keyto the cement(see p. 80) whichbound them.Sometimes,to obtain sufficiently a closerjoin, thesurfacesmightbe firstsmoothedby a flatand thenpickedwitha point.This happenedwhena separatehead was attachedto theAthenafromthepedimentoftheHephaisteion.42 A smoothband aroundtheedgewas alsoworkedwitha flattoforman absolutelytight - forexample,on NM 768mostofthesocketforthe join. Thissamedeviceoccurson gravereliefs head is pointed,but a smoothband runsroundtheedge.WhentheAnsatzis an arm,theouter smoothband oftheanathyrosis join is made quite wide and is smoothedafterflattooling,for in thiscase thejoin cannotbe hiddenconveniently behindsomedraperyas it can at the neck. So farwe havediscussedworkdonebytheflatwhenitscuttingedgeis setmoreorlessparallel with the surfaceit carves.But thisis not the onlyway the tool can be used. When cutting 37 BM 1075-86. 38 Unpublished. 10 BCH lxxxiii (1959) 596, fig.27. C3288
40 See d. 17. n. 100 and d. 12. n. 72. 41 Schrader,pl. in. 42 Agora 51232. Hesperiaxix (1950) 230 f. D
34
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
inscriptions,forinstance,or the sharp edge of an eyelidor a strandofhair, the blade of the tool is set at an angle of 70o or more to the surface to be carved (fig. 3). The corner of the tool digs into the surfaceand formsthe line at the bottom of the channel, while part of the blade cuts one side of it. To make a smooth V-channel such as we see on inscriptionsor in the hair of a statue each side of the channel must be cut separately. To cut the second side the corner runs along the same groove again while the blade, tiltedthroughan angle of 40o or so, neatens the rough wall leftafterthe firstwall was cut. These angles are varied according to how open a V is wanted. When the flatis being used like thisthe tool is not liftedveryfrequentlyfromthe work,forit is importantto keep the line at the bottom of the channel continuous: but forthe same reason it would have been tapped along only with very shortblows. Now suppose that the tool were held like this and driven rapidly along the surface with no particular worry about the X~^' exactitude of the line at the bottomof the groove or the neatness f /v of eitherside of the channel. It is clear that the resultingsurface '^'' ' JT' would look as thoughit had been worked by oblique strokesof a veryfinepoint a point finerthan would be practical. This trick *rr of using the corner of a flat chisel like a finepoint (in the same ^/r^ >• way as a punch was used at the quarryface) became verypopular Fig. 3 with the Greeks when they were working confined areas or angles. The point would have been very liable to eretits nose embedded in, forexample, the deeper recessesof draperychannels, but therewas no fearthat this would happen to the corner of a flat chisel, and the angle of the blade could be varied according to the amount of space available. Only one example has been foundofthistypeofworkin the archaic period, on the back of the lion Berlin 1790 (plate 10 (¿)). Apparentlythe tool used here was the drove which had shaped the rest of the back in the more usual way. Then toward the bottom (perhaps the sculptorwas workingfromabove?) the tool has been tiltedso that only the cornerand part of the blade are in use. Probably thisworkis so rare in the early periods because the archaic sculptorpreferred his longerbut more cautious method of moving the tool along the stone only a shortdistance at a time. It is possible that some of the deep channels in fifth-century draperywere carved partly like thisand smoothedafterwards.A littleofthe workmay be foundunder the footofthe Lapith on the Parthenon metope AcrM 705. To judge fromthe number of examples leftthe sculptorused thismethod increasinglyin the fourthcentury.It saved him labour, and he had lost much of the caution as well as some of the thoroughnessof his archaic predecessor. The Hygieia NM 29g43is fromEpidauros and may be fromone of the pedimentsthere.Her cloak has slipped fromher leftshoulder and curls down her leftside and over her raised left thigh,formingquite a deep but narrowchannel which outlinesthisside of her body. The latest tooling in this channel was with the corner of a flat chisel it is far too fine for point work (plate 15 (¿)). On sirenNM 77544several of the more awkward angles have been cut out with quite long strokesfromthe cornerof a flat at the back of both her arms, forinstance,where originallythe wingswould have made cornersdifficultto reach, and under her rightarm, and behind her legs. Two more veryclear examples may be found on statuesin theAgora. The left side of S 37 would originallyhave been hidden by draperyfallingfromher leftarm. Nowrthe marks of a flat are clear in the broken and exposed depths of the foldsof both her chiton and himation (plate 15 (<;)). This figureprobably dates to c. 360; the Apollo Patroos may be thirty 43 See p. 92.
44 See p. 15, n. 90.
THE FLAT CHISEL
35
On eachsidehiscloakwould yearslater,butin thisrespecthisdraperyhas beencarvedsimilarly. have swungforward farenoughto hidelargeareasofhischiton.The designofitsfoldshas been workedout roughlyat thesides,but thesurfacewas notfinished ; insteadthecornerof theflat chiselsweptoverthesidesofwhatwouldhavebeendeep channels,shapingand partlysmoothing (plate 43 (¿) ) . In someofthedeeperfoldsand underthehemsofthedraperyoftheAsklepios, Eleusis50, and thecloakedDaochos fromDelphi,narrowgrooveshereand therehavenotbeen smoothedaway and showthatthe same methodwas used. Minorworksfromlate in the cenUnderneaththe leftthighofone of the kneelingarchers(NM turyalso serveas illustrations. 824) fromthe Kerameikosand along theinsideedge of thearmrestingon thelap of each of theWeepingMaids fromBerlin(K 13a and 13b), thecornerflathas been usedto cut an awkward angle.45Similarlyits workappears insidethe mouthsof the Mausoleumlions,and of thehorseon thegravereliefNM 4464. Up to thispointverylittlenoticehas been takenof how the flatwas used in reliefwork. Casson46consideredthattheflatwas alwaysa primarytoolforlow relief,and becamepopular forworkson higherreliefby theend ofthefifth are absurd. distinctions century.Such artificial A sculptordid not at any periodchooseone set of toolsforlow, anotherset forhighrelief, and a thirdforfreestanding sculpture.He simplyhandledhis toolsto suitwhateverhe was othersare higher,and itis unlikely carving.PartsoftheParthenonfriezeare in verylow relief, thata tool such as the flatwould be used freelyin some places and be taboo in others.Nor does any difference in modellingor finish,eitherbetweenhigh and low relief,or between reliefand freestanding toolswereused. sculpture, justifytheassumptionthatdifferent In thefollowing discussionmostoftheexampleswillbe takenfromgravereliefs.Theyoffer an abundance of technicalinformation not quite finished. because theywere so frequently Their evidencecannotbe dismissedas showingthe methodsonlyof unskilledmasons.Cerwereproduced,but the better-quality tainlya greatmanypoor monuments pieces compare with other The man who carvedthe Salamis stele,NM 715, works. favourably contemporary probablyworkedon theParthenon;themenwho carvedNM 870 or theIlissossteleNM 869 rankwiththesculptorsof Mausolusor Daochos. Certainlyall the evidencepointsto the fact thattheyused thesame methodsofcarving. 'The SiphnianTreasury,at least certainportionsof it, mustdefinitely be classed as high relief.'47 Nevertheless theflatchiselmusthavebeen usedwidelyon it to settheseal on itsclear, firmlines.The highstandardoffinishmeansthatthereare onlyoccasionalglimpsesofworkof thetool- on themanesofthelions (comparetheKerameikosexample,plate 12 (c)), and inside the mouthsofthe horseson theEast frieze:on thechariotofParisor theaegisofAthena fromtheWest.Cassonhas discussedalready48 thechiselworkon otherreliefs fromthearchaic period. The carvingdone witha chiselon theOlympiametopes,theParthenonfrieze,and theNike Balustradehas been mentionedabove (p. 31), so we shallmoveon to theendofthefifth century and thegravereliefofPhrasikleia, NM831. This typeofreliefenjoyeda greatvogueat theturn ofthecentury.It is quiteshallow,thedraperyis cutin sharpridges,and obviouslyneededa lot of crispchiselworkto produceits effect.On the reliefof Phrasikleiathereis onlyone small on thedraperybelowherrightfoot.On thesteleofAmphpatchofthischiselworkremaining, arete49 therasphasonlyjustremovedchiselworkfromall overthefigure;shortmason'sstrokes witha smalltoolcan stillbe seenon theear-ring. increasedsteadily,and although Throughoutthefourth centurythedemandforgravereliefs 45 This can be seen clearlyin Blümel,K átalos.2 1. 46 TEGS 181. 47 TEGS 139.
48 TEGS 140 f.
49 AA xlviii (1933), fig.17-
36
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
the averagestandardof workremainedhighall sculptorsbegan to save timeby leavinginand a numberwerecarelessanyway.Sometimesthechiselling conspicuouspartsunfinished, can be seenquite easilyfromthefront.It has been onlypartlysmoothedfromthedraperyof Ny Carlsberg219a (plate 16 (0)), Damasistrate(NM 743), and NM 960. Probablythesculptor realizedthatmarblecutlikethisdid in factresemblecrumpledcloth,and savedhimthetrouble ofcarvingseparatelythegroovesand dentswhichwerepartoftheformulafordraperyin the to see. This is trueofthe fourthcentury.Sometimesthe chisellingis so finethatit is difficult workon NM 717,wherethelowerpartofthedraperyofthewomanon therightand theman on the lefthand has not been smoothed.The flathas modelledthe stuffin shortstrokes,its directionvariedto suittheline ofthefoldit was working.However,the sculptorusuallydid and left visiblefromthefront, preferto removeall thechiselworkfromthepartsimmediately oftheseatedwomanon NM 3966 (plate 16 (¿)), at the it onlyin suchplacesas overthemidriff NM 738 (plate 17 (0)), and on thedraperyat thebacksof back ofthehelmetofAristonautes, NM 2708,NM 768,and anotherstelein Athens50 thefiguresstandingon the leftof the reliefs chisel work on thebackofthedraperyofoneofthelatest plate shows the 16 17 (é)). (c) (plate is stillveryapparentin the NM 1005. The traditionof fineworkmanship of the gravereliefs, has been of the back chiselled. curve the and skill with which gentleness Workwithflator roundedchisels,showinghow thewholereliefwas workedoriginally, may above or below any projection,forthesetoo stilloftenbe foundon the ledgesimmediately would have been hiddenfromthe spectator.Typical examplesare the hand of Damasistrate (NM 743), theneckand hand ofthewomanon NM 1986,and thebare rightshoulderofthe old man on NM 2574.51 thechiselworkmaynotbe equal to thehigheststandardsofcontemporary On all thesereliefs but it is carefulenough- withthe exceptionof Ny Carlsberg219a. or earlierworkmanship, are usinglazy methods,and someworkmen Butalreadyin thesecondhalfofthefourth century on such a reliefas NM 2885 we findthatthe girl'scloak has been chiselledin long,harsh strokes(plate 18 (a)). Similarworkwitha chiselis visiblealso on thecloakofthefigureMetropolitanMuseum94, althoughherskirtand theskirtofherchildcompanionshowsomemore has itsplace; longfacets, carefulshaping.Now thisidea ofusinga chiselto cut longfurrows tail the cat's on NM cut were one 715 another, along (plate 58), and down gently overlapping Butit is onlya stepfrom thestoollegofNM 717,and havecarvedtheshapesmostsuccessfully. usingthetoolas it was used on NM 2885,in harshstrokeswhichaim at levellingratherthan modellingthesurface,to all theabusesoflaterwork.To giveonlytwoexamples: on theunblockfromtheTelephosfriezeall thesubtlecurvesofa man'sarm have been reduced finished to a dozen or so facetsof equal width (plate 18 (¿)), whilethe back of theArtemisDelos A 449 (plate 11 (a)) has also been shapedwiththeminimumpossiblenumberofstrokes. On theotherhand,by no meansall laterworkmenhandledtheirtoolsso carelesslyas this. Roman head of Athena,NM 3718, the curvesof the helmethave been On the unfinished Then thegentleworkwitha smalltoolon theunofthechisel.52 carvedwithveryshortstrokes finishedbust of 'Eubouleus' typerecentlyfoundin the Agora,53whichcannotdate before Hellenistictimes,showsthata workmanmightstilluse his chiselveryfinelyand carefully thatthedateofthe'Eubou(plate 18 (c)). The evidenceofthisnewcopymakesitlesssurprising leus', NM 181, has been disputedforso long.54Its techniqueis so closeto normalfourththem.When piece theremightbe no wayofdistinguishing centurymethodsthaton a finished s° National Museum. I could not finda number.Conze, Grabreliefs 207, pl. lv. s1 Lullies, pl. 226. It does not show tooling.
52 See p. 12, n. 69. 53 Agora 52089. Hesperiaxxix (i960), pl. 85, c and d. 54 Harrison,Hesperiaxxix (i960) 382 f.
THE FLAT CHISEL
37
masonscopied a completefiguretheyoftentookmoretroublewiththe head than with the restof theirwork.If the head of the Hermesat Olympiahad beenlostthedate ofthestatue mightneverhave been contested. everydetail of the workwere During the fourthcenturythe old standardsof finishing in miniatureofthisprocessis thehistory abandonedforthesakeofsavingtime.An illustration ofthetoolingon thelongseriesofstoolscarvedto almostthesame patternon gravereliefsall The frontofthestoolwas alwayscarvedwitha flat,butusuallythemarks thecentury. through or Then on earlyexamplessuchas Xenocrateia,55 are moreor lesserasedby latersmoothing. Polyxena,NM 723, theundersideoftheseat and theinsidesofthelegswerefinelyworkedin mason'sstrokeswitha flat,and muchofthiswas smoothedovertoo. By the timeofNM 717 a shortcutis taken.Mostoftheundersideofthestoolis leftfinelypointed,withjusta borderof flatworkat the frontedge to give a good clear line. NM 768 is an exampleof the standard patternforlaterwork- quite heavypointworkunderthe seat,witha band of flatalong the frontedge,and theinsideofthelegsshapedby a rowofratherlongflatstrokesat rightangles to thebackground. on relief The use ofthecorneroftheflatchiselas a finepoint(see p. 34) appearsfrequently work.Inevitablya largernumberof awkwardangles,whichcould be clearedmosteasilyby Thus itsworkcan be foundrecurthismethod,werecreatedbythepresenceofthebackground. The betweenthetop ofthehead reliefs. different in same on the valley places ringfrequently and thepedimentwas clearedlikethison thereliefofHippomachosand Kallias56and on NM 826: as also thechannelsbetweenthehead and anta on NM 965 and PiraeusE 62. Then the same toolingcan be foundabove or belowan arm,or insidethecurveof a hand- see XenofromtheKerameikos.It appearsalso veryfrequently BM 625, and theHydrophoros crateia,57 NM on thefarside offaceswhichare carvedalmostin theround- thereliefsofArchestrate, of Other similar E this. and Piraeus K and Euandria Berlin Thraseas 63 giveexamples 34, 722, angles,likethechannelbetweenthepillarand anta ofMelitte,or betweenthecloakand body are carvedin thesameway.On two or underthehemoftheseatedProkleides, ofAristonautes, late examples,wherea seatedfigurewas placed at an angle to thebackgroundthefarside of likethis- Louvre3382and Istanbul5248 (plate 19 (a)). Finally finished thefigurewas entirely reliefin a deep recesson a sculpan exampleofthesame typeofworkoccursin architectural turedpierfromEphesus(BM 1200). The flatchiselwas usedin thenormalway,withthefullwidthoftheblade setto thesurfaceof thestone,verycommonly on thebackgroundofreliefs.In manycasesnowwe can onlydeduce ofthesurface,but thereare someexamplesfromall periods.On the thisfromthesmoothness ofa chariot ofthereliefofHermesin front westfriezeoftheSiphnianTreasurythebackground withfourwingedhorsesshowsclearmarksoftheflatchisel.Thereis a remarkableexampleof wherethetriangle ofbackground enclosed itsuseon thevotivereliefofan athletefromSounion,58 flat had arm after the been raised and his head was never smoothed and the used, by figure's right in shortstrokes, can be seenclearly(plate 19 (¿)). Its itscarefulwork,levellingthebackground - NM 717 and NM 768 are examples.We ofgravereliefs marksoftenappearon thebackground haveseenabove (p. 36) howthesculptorfrequently whereitwasconvenient extendedhisstrokes is and drovethetoolto produceslightly Such found on thebackground striations. work longer ofgravereliefstoo. Oftentheflathas been used onlyon thepartofthebackgroundcloseto a - see NM 2708 and NM 966 (plate 19 (c)). This was probablyin partan unavoidable figure consequenceof the carefulshapingof the figureitself.But perhapsalso the sculptorthought 55 National Museum, Athens.I foundno number. 56 Piraeus Museum.
S7 Above, n. 55. 58 NM 3344.
38
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
as thefeetof a statuemightbe emphasizedby a to throwthefigureintogreaterprominence, smoothband aroundthem(cf.plate 15 (a)). Certainly we occasionallyfindthata plainsmooth - such chiselledintothebackground arounda verylowpartofa relief band has beendeliberately as theleftankleofDexileos. The architectural ofgravereliefsalso calledforworkby theflatin severalplaces. framework witha claw once thistoolhad supAlthoughthe outsideof the antae was invariablyfinished plantedthe drove,the capitalsof the antae were as invariablyshaped all roundwitha flat. The stelaiofPhrasikleia(NM 831), NM 764,and NM 3966 all giveclearexamplesofthis.Just as the underneathof the stoolwas givena firmsharpedgeby a borderofflatwork(see p. 37) so thetopofthepediment,whichwas alwaysleftroughlypointed,was chiselledintoneatness NM 743). On theearlyfifth-century Sounion alongitsfrontedge (see NM 3966,Damasistrate, votiverelief, wherethesidesweremade quitesmooth,a levelband was workeddowntheback ofthereliefat each side,again to ensurea clean edge.Naturallychiselworkmayalso be found underneath thepedimentand insidetheantaeofgravereliefs, fromPhrasikleia veryfrequently the plate to blocks of the frame of Prokleides 8 (b) showsthe 831) (NM separate (NM 737). chisellinginsidetheanta ofNM 720.59 Like the pointand claw the flatwas sometimesfoundusefulto give a particularfinishto certainfeatures.For thisreasonthe fleeceof a sheepon BM 1212, a fragment of a column a rockycave on thevotivereliefNM 446660 drumfromEphesus,and the lumpsrepresenting wereneversmoothedaftertheyhad been workedby a flat. The flatand roundedchiselsare mostversatiletoolsand theGreeksculptorwouldhavebeen indeedifhe had ignoredthem.Insteadwefindthatheusedthemwidelyand thoroughly, perverse meansto They werenot used merelyas a labour-saving exploitingtheirvariouspossibilities. - ratherthiswas themistakethe Romansmade. The out ofsmoothing takesomeoftheeffort detailsofmeddGreeksusedthechiselas an intermediary tool,whichcouldcompletethefinest a the and at the same time surface for With it could carvemost smoothing. sculptor ling prepare did subtleties of continual of the wonderful slightchanges plane.Veryrarely theGreeks carefully mishandlethetoolas theRomansbecameaccustomedto do, holdingit to themarbleforlong all varietyin a seriesofuniform surfaces whichignoredall but sharply stretches, extinguishing a later handle histoolsin a similarway when does differentiated even However, planes. sculptor Bothpointand flat to a Greekof the classicalperiodthe resultusuallylooksquite different. head NM 3718 whichis presumably have been used in shortcarefulstrokeson theunfinished made of Greekmarbletoo, but the linesof the face remainhard and cold. Once again the ofexplainingthebeautyofGreekworkon technicalgroundsbecomesobvious. impossibility the differences betweenthe surfacetextureproducedby the Blümelrightlyemphasizes61 The Greeksneveraimedat theshining, and hissuccessors. Greekstonemason porcelainappearance which,as Blümelsays,is themodernconceptionofhowmarbleshouldlook;insteadGreek sculpturehas an opaque, granularsurfacewhichmanywould not recognizeas marbleat all. The reasonforthis,accordingto Blümel,is the Greekmethodof hittingthe marbleat right angleswiththepoint,so thatit was stunnedand becameopaque to a depthof about 2 cm., would have 'wiped away' this theworkdirectlywithemery.The flatchisel62 thensmoothing wereto savesomeofthelabourof work,and theonlyoccasionson whichit was used,therefore, withemery.Then thestunnedpartsofthemarblewerenotremovedand thesurface smoothing the remainedopaque.63Blümelpresumablybelievedalso that the masonswho constructed 59 And also the chisel work smoothingthe area leftbetweenher arm and sleeve. 60 See Hausmann, Griechische Weihreliefs (Berlin, i960),
fig.36.
61 Gr. Bild. 22; Hermes 16. 62 Gr. Bild. 23.
63 Hermes 17.
THE FLAT CHISEL
39
Parthenonand otherbuildingsall workedtheirstonein exactlythissameway,sincethemarble membersis as opaque as thesculptureand has thesame velvetyfinish. -ofarchitectural The evidence,as reviewedin thesefourchapters,doesnotappeartosupportBlümePsaccount ofso impracticaland laboriousa method,but suggestsratherthattheway theaverageGreek Withthisqualification, he onlyforitscarefulness. sculptorused his chiselswas extraordinary used themostconvenienttoolin themostconvenient way foranyjob. He did notuse theflat but to carvetheshapeshe wanted.Point,claw, and toolforsmoothing, merelyas a substitute flatwereused at variousanglesand in strokesof varyinglength.The surfacetextureof the marbledoes notchangewiththe tool,itsangle,or thelengthofstrokeused. We do notknowwhetherthe Greeksdid not aim at a shiningsurfacebecause theydid not likeit,or becausetheyhad notyetdiscoveredabrasivesquitefineenoughto achievea positive whichwould polish(seep. 78). It seemsthattheearlystatuesat leastwerenotquarry-bedded,64 forthebelief,whichseemsto be makepolishingmoredifficult. However,thereis no foundation widelyaccepted,thatearlystatuescould not be polishedbecausethemarblewas 'stunned',65 methodsofhandlingtoolshad been introduceddid polishingbeand thatonlywhendifferent stunnedsurfacecan be polishedquite easilyby usingfine come possible.Even a thoroughly abrasives. structures of Parian,Naxian, and The Greeksdid not tryto exploitthe variouscrystalline Pentelicmarble(whichis whywe have to examinebreaksto discoverwhethera largeor fine As Blümelsays,one must ofthestone.66 grainedmarblewas used), noroftenthetranslucency and its surface was was Greek remember that preparedwiththisin sculpture painted, always mind.The surfacethe Greekswantedwas one freefromall extraneousmarks.Ideally,every toolmarkshouldbe removed.Claw and flatin turnremovedthemarksofprevioustoolseven whiletheyadded to the modelling,and we shall see how raspsremovedthe marksof theflat and abrasivessmoothedaway all signoftherasps. This orderofworkis notuniqueto theGreeks.Whatis uniqueis thecare theybestowedon to makeup forit withsupereverysinglestage,neverscampingtheearlyworkand thentrying ficialglitterlater.Geniustheyhad, and as usual it turnsout to be ninetypercent,hardwork. 64That is,withtheverticaland horizontal planesofthe in thefinalstatue. stoneas it lav in thequarrypreserved 65The questionof 'stunning' is a difficult one. Masons and sculptors agreethat,ifa chiselis heldat rightangles The thestonewillbestunned. tothestonewhenitisstruck, resultdependson thetypeofmarbleand howhardit is. One sculptoragreedwithBlümelthatthe stonewould masontoldme thatthe becomeopaque; an experienced stonebecomesdiscoloured, and brownringsformaround
the pointof contact.Clearlythe Greeksoftendid use a butitis notpossibletoseea difference stroke, right-angled betweenthesurfaces wherechiselswereused at different tosaythatI havenotbeenable toreconcile angles.I regret as I do notagreewith theseapparently facts, contradictory Casson {TEGS 176) thatenoughstonewas removedby thathad ocofanystunning abrasionto clearthesurface curred. 66 See,however, Hygieia,NM 199,p. 92.
CHAPTER 5
THE DRILL The first use ofa drillis to borea hole.All thevariationswhichwe have developeddependon thesimpleprinciplethatifa toolofsuitableshape is rotatedsteadilyon thesame spotit will largerthanthecuttingedgeofthetool.'As soonas piercethesurfaceand makea holeslightly hispowersbymanipulating bitsofstoneor wood somesubhumanprimatebeganto supplement Laterhomofaber he couldturnthesein a boringmovement.'1 began to adapt theseready-made toolsto suithis needs,and he began 'to shape themto serveforboringand otherpurposes5.1 Objectswhichhave been drilledsurvivefromUpper Palaeolithictimes,but whereholesare notdrilling.The foundin stoneobjectsofthisdate theymayhave been made by percussion, stonevases whichwereso popularin theNear East fromNeolithictimesonwardswereprobIn Egyptat least by the thirdmillenium ably catfirsthollowedout merelyby percussion'.1 theworkwas done by drillswithflintbits. Examplesoftheseflintbitshave beenfound.2Theircuttingedgehas been chippedto a crescentshape. Theywereinsertedin or tiedon to a shaft,and by whirlingtheshaftbetweenthe palmsofhishandsa man could bore a hole. This is the mostprimitiveand laboriousway of workdownthetooland haveto be liftedtothetopagain, doingthejob, forthehandsinevitably whileverylittlepressurecan be exerted.Obviouslytheworkwillgo fasterifthecuttingedge or a cap is pushedmorefirmly againstthestone.Eitherweightsmaybe tiedon to theshaft,3 as In such it a man can on the so that work, quarrytop pressupon comfortably. heavy placed forthecap to be a looseone,eitherofwood or stone,4with ing,it is probablymoreconvenient a hole underneathlargeenoughto allow the shaftfreeplay as it turns.In lighterwork,and especiallywhenmetaltoolsare in use, a woodenstockmay be fittedto the end of the shaft. This revolveswiththetool,butprovidesa bettergrip.5The masonno longerhas bothhands freeto roll the shaft,so an assistantmustprovidethe rotarymovement.A strapor cord is on each end thetoolwhirlsbackwardsand loopedaroundtheshaftand as he pullsalternately in thecoilsofthestrap. forwards stick. A refinement on thismethodis theuse ofa bow,6whichmayin factbe just a straight The endsofthecord are tiedto thebow, and theworkmansetsthedrillwhirlingby pulling and pushingthebow. He can do thiswithone hand,and leave theotherfreetoguidethehead withthebow as well.The plain strapdrill twomenworktogether ofthedrill;but sometimes mustbe olderthanthebow,and it seemsverylikelythateventhelatterwas alreadyin use by in Egyptfrom2500 onwards. Mesolithictimes.7It is represented forusingstonetoolson sculpturetheEgyptiansdid use a In spiteoftheirmarkedpreference metaldrill.The mostpopulartypewas apparentlya hollowcylindricalborerofcopper.The actual cuttingwas probablydone by emeryor sand,and it mayhave been operatedeitheras a strap-or as a bow-drill.There is plentyofevidenceofitsuse in cuttinghollowson statues, 1 Gordon Childe, Ox. Tech.i. i88f. 2 Ox. Tech.i. 193, fig. II7B. 3 Cf. Egyptian example, Ox. Tech. 193, fig. 117A,and illustratedby Casson, fora Greek example the gem-cutter TEGS, fie. 81. * Cf. Pétrie,TW 39.
5 The enormousnumberof variationspossibleon these principlesare well illustratedin McGuire's 'Study of the Instn. for Primitive Method of Drilling', Rep. Smithson. 1894, 623-756. 6 Gordon Childe, Ox. Tech.i. 189, fig. 112. 7 Gordon Childe, Ox. Tech.i. 190.
THE DRILL
41
suchas the part betweenthe feetunderthehem of a seatedstatue,8or in eye-sockets when theeyewas to be added separately.9 Then it appearsalso in thelintelsof a templedoor,and mouths,, helpedto cut vases.10A small pointeddrillwas also usedoccasionallyin thenostrils, and earsofstatues.9 Casson11sugTraces ofthehollowdrillhave been foundin plentyof Myceneanstonework. was used on sculpture,and he gestsit mayhave been usedin quarryingthestone.It certainly The mostnotableis on thereliefoftwolions givesa listofexampleswhereit maybe found.12 above themaingateat Mycenae,wheresignsofitsuse in cuttingtheoutlineoftheanimalscan be seenquiteclearly.The stumpsleftat thebottomoftheholeswhenthecoreinsidethedrill was brokenoffprovethatit was a tubulardrillwhichwas used. It seems,however,thatthetubulardrillwas leftbehindwiththeBronzeAge. The tool the Greeksused was likean ordinarychisel- a bar ofmetalwitha cuttingedge at one end. Probusedas a drilland as a finechisel.The cuttingedgewas made ablythesametoolwasfrequently invariousshapes,as we gatherfromthesectionsat thebottomofdrillholes.Someearlyexamples are shapedthus| | (kourosNM 3858; Kleobis) and musthave been made by a tool exactly thesameas a flatchisel.Thisis ofcoursea holeofthesameshapeas thatcutby a tubulardrill, exceptthatthereis no centralcore. Anothershape of whichthereare a fewexamplesis the conicalKJ (Delphi,koreno. 10); thesewerepresumably cutby a toollikethedrillsillustrated Blümel.13 is But far the crescent the most LJ, likea smallroundedchisel by by popularshape - and ofthesame shape as theold Egyptianflintbits.This too]obviouslyran moresmoothly than eitherof the othersand supplantedthemcompletely, forits marksmay be seen everywhere.It can drivea hole intothestoneat any angle (see fig. 4), althoughifit wereused at a verylow angle (c) it wouldhelpifa 'nick5or smallbed werechiselledfirstto enableit to grip.
v'_^_ _i-L_ («)
W
Fig. 4
(0
This drillcouldbe usedeitheras a strapdrillor as a bowdrill.We haveno representation ofa stonemason have picturesofgemworkingwitha drill,but twogemsin theBritishMuseum14 cuttersusinga bow drill,whilea hydriain Boston15 of c. 510 and the unfinished slab of the bothshowcarpenters at workwitha bow drill.So thereis no doubtthatthe Telephosfrieze16 Greeksculptorknewofthebow drill.But eventodayin somemasons'yardswherean electric is preferred to a bow. An assistantpullsthestrings, drillis notused,a strap-drill and themaster masonhas bothhandsfreeto guide his drill.The Greeksmay have workedin thesame way. 8 Reisner,Mycerinus 1151".
9 Lucas, AncientEgyptianMaterials and Industries2(London,
1948) 85 f. 10 Pétrie,TW 44.
»
TEGS 211.
12 TEGS " Erg. xi, pl. i (i), (¿), and (/). 31 î. *♦ Blümel, Ere. xi. 15, fig.2; and TEGS 20s, fie. 81. «« ARV 163. TEGS 203, fig.82. 16 Pergamon iii. 2, pl. 31. 3.
42
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
The strap-drill and bow-drill mustnotbe confused withtherunningdrill,whichwillbe dealt withseparatelylater(see p. 61). Thereis an abundanceofevidenceto showhow theGreeksculptorused hisdrill,fora drill is used to shapea channelor a recess,and thesearejust thepartswhichwillbe lostin shadow whenthepiece is finished, so thatthesculptorwill not thinkit worthhiswhileto removeall tool-marks. The tremendously wide use ofthedrill,theway it is used overand overagain in placeswherea modernsculptormightbe contentwithonlyone 'pilothole'17beforehe follows careand cautionoftheGreeksculptor. up withpointand chisel,showsus againthetremendous notesratherdoubtfully:'Apparentlythe drillremovedstonemoreeasily Rhys Carpenter18 than the chisel,laboriousas thissystemof parallelperforations19 may appear.' But the drill as wellas facilitated theexactplace where thework.The sculptor, decided safeguarded having he wantedto cut intothe stoneand the exact depthto whichhe wishedto penetrate,could accomplishthisbyusingthedrillwithfargreateraccuracythanwas possiblewhenhe removed stoneby percussion. When was the drillfirstused by Greeksculptors?Pausanias20tellsus that Kallimachos outgococía TrávTCOv If he does meanby thisthat eorìvapioroçcooreKaiÀíOouç êTpv/nricje. irpcoTOÇ Kallimachoswas thefirst tousea drillin sculptureone can onlysaythathe waswrong,because it had been in use forgenerations beforethe Kallimachoswho made a bronzelamp forthe as Blümnerpointedout longago.21Casson22considersthat'thesimpledrill'was Erechtheum, introducedtowardthe end of the sixthcenturyand made itsdébuton theSiphnianfrieze,23 where'it is used withextremecautionand veryrarely'.Beforethis,he says,it had been used onlyin somestructural work,and was 'used until500 b.c. solelyforundercutting draperyand occasionalincidentalwork'.However,Thiersch24 was undoubtedlynearerthe truthwhenhe says: 'Der Gebrauchdes Bohrersbeim Marmor kann nichtjunger sein, als die frühesten Marmorwerke von einigerBedeutung.' Not onlydid theGreekmasonknowand use thedrillfromthe earliestbeginningof Greek but he used it at all stages,too,fromthequarryto finaldetails.The bestevidence sculpture, fortheuseofthedrillin thequarriescomesfromNaxos. In hisdescription25 ofhowthecolossus at Apollonawas quarriedit seemsCasson has leftout the veryfirststage.He considersthat forthisstatue'.However,a fewyardsabove 'possiblythissmallquarrywas openedspecifically for it on thehillside,thereis evidencethatotherblocks,notso large,butstillofa sizesufficient a kouros,had beenquarriedpreviously. It is interesting thattheseblockshad notbeenobtained bycuttingdeep intothehillside.Insteada goodveinhad beenfoundmoreorlesson thesurface and theblockswerecutfromthere.The colossusitselfis at a lowerlevel,partlybecauseofthe slopeofthehillside,but perhapsalso becauseit was thefirstofa secondlayerofblockswhich was to be cut frombeneaththefirstrow. The sitesoftheotherblocksshowthestagewhichtheundergrowth aroundthecolossushas concealed (fig. 5, a and c). Straightrowsof drillholesspaced at shortintervalsmarkedout thelengthand breadth,and piercedthemarbleto thedepthoftheblockrequired.This work musthave been longand tedious,but it was absolutelyaccurate.And aftertherockhad been 'honeycombed'in thisway it was quite easy to knockout the stoneremainingbetweenthe drillholes,withtheresultthata channelhad been cut all roundtheblockwitha minimumof so thatitwillseparate marblewasted.Justas theedgesofa postagestamphavebeenperforated 17 Batten, StoneSculpture54. 18 Carpenter,NTP 78. 19 See below p. 46. 20 Paus. i. 26.7. 21 Technologie (Leipzig, 1884) iü. !93« 22 TEGS 118.
« TEGS 116.
24 Über die Epochen der bildendenKunst unterden GriechenII
(Munich,i8iq), 201,n. 128. 2s BSA xxxvii(1937)21 f.
THE DRILL
u
^
^^--
43
-^
-
'h
a. drillingroundblock
ft iwjjUa
b. puttingwedges into position
Ml
^ li '^1 u'
c. diagramof present appearance of site where kouros was quarried showingremainsof drill holes and wedge marks Fig. 5. Work in the quarry
^
44
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
and a lineofweakness easilyfromthesheet,so theedgesoftheblockherehavebeenperforated formedalong the centresof the drill holes, whichcan easilybe turnedinto a continuous marble.The evidenceforthisworkis the channelseparatingthe blockfromthe surrounding lineson thehillside. rowsof round,regularholes,c. 4 cm. wide, whichremainin straight and These are thebottomsofthedrillchannels,someofwhichsurvivedeventhelaterprocesses On Parosa blockofmarblequarriedin ancienttimesalsotwothousandyearsofweathering. ofthismethodofquarrying(plate 20 (0)).26 providesan excellentillustration The blockhad stillto be detachedfromthehillsideand thiswas doneby breakingit offwith wedges(see fig.5 b). Casson27saysthatforthecolossusa widechannelwas cuton all foursides and wedgesinsertedon the two long ones,and forso large a blockthismay well have been Buttheotherblockshave beencutso closetogether thatit seemslikelythatonlyone necessary. was made a channel for man in to drive the largeenough long wedgesundertheblock.The otherthreenarrowdrilledchannelswouldhave helpedto splitofftheblock,and a minimum ofmarblewouldhave been wasted. Marblewas quarriedlikethisat otherplaceson Naxostoo.Thereare at leasttwoblocksand unfinished kouroinear thevillagenow called Melanes.Indicationsofan ancientquarrywere noticedby a travellerin 1878,28and the marksfoundall over the hillsideindicatethe same methodofquarryingas thatused at Apollona- thereare rowsofdrillholeshereand there,or whatis obviouslya corefromwhicha blockhas beensplitbywedges.It looksalmostas though the top layerof marblewas skinnedfromthe hillside.This is impressive evidenceforNaxos an centre of the marble trade the archaic important being during period,since we know itsmarblewas neverso popularagain. One oftheearliestGreekstatueswe possess,theNikandrefromDélos (NM 1), is ofNaxian is only0-17m.,which marbleand was dedicatedby a Naxian. The greatestdepthofthefigure is veryunderstandable whenone remembers thattheblockfromwhichit was cutwas probably amongtheearliesteverquarriedon Naxos.The shallowertheblock,thelessthelabourofdrilling,and theeasierthejob ofwedgingitfromthehillside.The largercolossiwouldbe attempted The handsofthestatuerestat hersides,and onlywhenpracticehad givenincreasedconfidence. drilled each a have been into with tool 6 mm.in diameter.The lefthandis broken,, holes single but thechannelin herright,unbrokenhand stretches obliquelyupwardsfor6 cm.,thoughit and presumably servedto securean attachment. doesnotpiercerightthrough, Nikandre,then,, haveheldtheleadsofan animalat eitherside,likethecaryatidsfromperirrhanmayoriginally Berlin(K 1747), and Olympia.30 teriain themuseumsofCorinth,29 The drillwas probablyused at an earlierstagetoo. The armsof Nikandrewereseparated someofthestonewas removedbydrillfromhersidesfora shortdistanceand almostcertainly has in the We find that this than happenedon otherstatues.Particularly percussion. ing rather arm and and the the between the above below wrists, space body is just armpits partsjust narrowthoughstillquitedeep, and therewouldhave been a considerableriskwithmosttools slenderlimb. thata blow mightbe struckwhichwould accidentallysplitthe comparatively Butifa lineofdrillholeswas piercedthroughthemarble,theresidueleftafterthishoneycombing could be removedwithgreatease. kouroson Dclos31thereis no signofthedrill,butonlythecomparatively On theunfinished wide area insidethe elbows,whichgivesroomforpointand flatto manœuvre,has been re26 I am indebtedto ErikHansen forthisphotograph,and of the block's existence. the information 27 BSA xxxvii (i<m) 21. 28 Jules Martha apudSauer, AM xvii (1892) 44, n.2.
29 Ancient Corinth: a Guide to the Excavations0 (Corinth,
30 Lippold, pl. 9, 2. i960), 24. 31 plate 2 (a). Richter,K9 no. in.
THE DRILL
45
moved.The narrowstripsaboveand belowthisarestillinpositionand doubtlesswouldhavebeen removedlaterby thedrill.Sometimesthesculptormiscalculatedand drilledactuallyintothe bodyorintothearmofa figure.Sincethismistakewouldhavebeenshieldedfromviewbetween armand bodyhe did notalwaysbotherto correctand clearit. Thus on theSounionkouros,for example,a singledrillholeis clearon theinsideofthelowerpartoftherightarm.The channel, in Kouroi,fig.33, is fartoo regularand whichcan be seenquiteeasilyon Richter'sphotograph roundedto havebeenmade by a point.KourosNM 3858is anotherearlyexample.Here a row undereacharmpitbya tool7 mm.wide,plate 20 (b) ofholeshas beendrilledveryclosetogether theholesundertheleftarmpitand showsthattheyweredrilledfromthefrontby a illustrates ,| |-shapedtool.A kourosfromParos,Louvre3101,32also displaysquiteclearlythemarksof a itseemsas though and on thekourosat Eleusis,33 drillon theleftsideofhisbody.On thisfigure, besideone another,but a littlestoneleftbetween, theholeswereno longerdrilledimmediately whichcouldstillbe removedquiteeasilybylightblows.The drillon theEleusisfigureseemsto have beenc. 5 mm.wide,and itsworkcan be seenat each sideon wristand body.Naturallythe tool was used in thesame way on korai,as NM 26 and the Peplos Köre (AcrM 67g)34show. workwiththedrillis stillvisibleon koreAcrM 594. The factthat Anothersortofprimary35 wereswaddledin drapery,and thevariationsin thedesignofthedrapery,made it koraifigures impossibleforquarrymento roughout koraifiguresto such an advancedstageas kouroi(see decided p. 7 above),so thesculptoroftenhad moresurplusstonetoremove.Atleastone sculptor to usea drill.On thesideofdraperyundertherightelbowofAcrM594a drillof5 mm.has been It is notposto separateitfromthesurplusstone.36 usedon theoutlineofthefigure, presumably but there are three swathes rest of the around the was used drill the how to tell sible figure, widely been used to cut them drill must have free. and the main the from loose ofdraperyhanging body needed different sorts of and kore kouros the outside archaic Other schemes, compositions, used to cut where drills were the two We have a drill. with away examples primaryshaping marblebetweena fallingfigureand itsbase- thegiantin thegroupNM 229, and thewarrior MunichA 33, fromtheAiginapediment.The groupofhorseand riderAcrM 700 showsthat, as we shouldexpect,thetoolwas usedtoseparatethelegsofa riderfromhismount.The hollow behindtheleftleg ofthedog AcrM 143 was made witha drill,and a rowofholeswas drilled Telesterionat Eleusisto separatetheanimal's underneaththeram'shead fromthe Pisistratid all holes overthemane,on thelocksas wellas at their are drill lefthornandjaw. Finallythere Alkmeonid pedimentat Delphi. It seems that all the surplus edges,of the lion37fromthe witha drillbeforeit was removed. stoneherewas weakenedby honeycombing to carvethefinaldetailson a statue.The pupils date The drillwas also used froman early weresetin separately,and a singlehole was of the eyesof the smallcaryatidfromOlympia38 made bythedrillin each eye.Thismethodwas usedalso on theMoschophoros. Later,whenthe the whole of the was warriorat Olympiaand the'Leónidas' ofSpartawerecarved, eye-socket •drilledout by a smalldrillused manytimesover. workedwitha drill.It is Otherfacialdetailsofbothmale and femalestatueswerefrequently in the earsofthesphinxDelos and Biton of Kleobis and theears used in thehair,thenostrils, ; and ears of the Siphniancaryatid in the nostrils and A 583; undertheedge ofthecurls, again the curls of of the made the centres at Delphi. A finedrillhas Anavyssoskouros,NM 3851,39 and back. Manyofthekoraiin the his hands at the front of out the and has also hollowed palms 3* Richter,K, no. 116. fig.357. 33 Richter,K, no. 87. 34 Hole insiderightwrist. 55 The classification of workas 'primary'and 'secondary'
is quite artificial,but convenientfor establishingsome orderof procedure. 37 Delphesiv. 3, 34 f. 36 Cf. Schrader,pl. 77 a. 39 Lullies, pls. 53-57. 38 Lippold, pl. 9, 2.
46
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
Acropolisand Delos museumsshowtheworkofthedrillin nose and ears and hair.The ringlets beside the neck of the seated goddessfromTaranto in Berlinhave been cut freemost daringlywitha drill,and the rollofhair aroundthe head of the Critianboy40is punctuated withdrill-cutchannels.Many otherexamplesmaybe found. The honeycombing method,which,as we have seen,was used in the quarriesand in the workofshapingthemainoutlinesofa statue,couldbe usedon finerworktoo. Casson41 primary has describedhowin cuttingdraperyca seriesofdrillholescan be made along thelineofthe intoa continuousgroove grooveor hollowrequiredand thentheseholescan be transformed thepartitions whichseparatethem'.The channelcan be shapedfurther byremoving bychiselSuch workis equallyconvenientforundercutting lingbeforethefinalsmoothing. draperyor formakinglongverticalfolds.And afterundercutting therewas no need to removethe drill workwhichwould be hiddenquite satisfactorily behindthe crispouteredge of the overfokL the Greekmasonwas such a perfectionist thatveryoftentheseundercutareas Nevertheless, have been clearedand smoothedquite thoroughly. Bliimel42 and insteadsuggests givesno exampleof thisworkbeforetheOlympiapediments, thatthesharpstraight channelsin archaicdraperyweremade withsomesortofrasp. Casson consideredthatthe drillwas used onlyin undercutting draperyuntil500, and he givesthe AthenaAcrM 140,whichhe dates470-60,as theearliestexampleofthehoneycombing method. In spiteofthefactthat,as he says,he foundno indubitable traces'ofsaw work,he considers thata fisemi-lunar5 saw was used,and 'suchalso musthavebeentheblade whichcutthedeeper Yet no one has ofheavyfoldsofdraperyin thearchaicperiodofHellenicsculpture'.43 furrows everfoundany traceofsaw workon Greeksculpture,and we are forcedto concludethatno suchtoolwas everused (see p. 83). As thosedeep furrowsof archaic draperywhichare not - eitherby nickson theside,or holeson thebottom - • smoothedshowdefinite signs completely thattheyweremade by thehoneycombing methodofdrilling, it seemsonlyreasonableto conclude thatthisis how all suchfoldsweremade. In the earliestrepresentations of foldsof drapery,on such statuesas the BerlinStanding Goddessand theLyonsKore,thefoldsare uniformly shallow,and thedrillwasnotneeded.But and wanted to emphasizeat leastsomeofthe became more adventurous, graduallysculptors linesof the clothingtheycarved.They wanted,forexample,to dividesharplythe borderof with the himationfromthe chitonbelow. Occasionallythismightbe done by undercutting on the kore mm. on the korai from a drill 8 mm. of from holes Antenor,44 9 single quite large theAlkmeonidpedimentat Delphi. But as we have seen in discussingeverytool, the Greek twiceoverthanto thatit was betterto use a smalltoolcarefully sculptorbelieved,and rightly, did not affectthe when this use a largeone quicklyonce, and was willingto save effort only result.So in mostkoraitheonlyplace a largerdrillis usedisunderthecentralpleatofthebodice tocutthedeepholeswhichoccurthere(4 cm.deeponDelosA 4064,6 cm.onAcrM674). overfold is cleanerand daintierwhena line ofholesis a zigzag bordertheeffect For in undercutting drilledwitha smalltool- usually2 or 3 mm.- underneathand behindthe actual edge. This providesa pocketofshadowand throwsthesharplychisellededgeitselfintoclearerrelief.The koreDelos A 4065 (plate 20 (c)) showsmoreofthisworkthanmostpiecesbecausetheoriginal edgeshave beenwornaway and thedrillingbehindrevealed.It can also be seenon theseated figureAcrM 618,on thekoraiAcrM 594,AcrM 673, and others,on thetunicofAntiopefrom theEretriapedimentand on theAthenafromthewestpedimentat Aigina. Thisworkis exactingand tediousenough,buteventhelabourherewas slightcomparedwith 4° Lullies, pl. 85. 41 TEGS 134.
42 Erg. xi. 9. « Casson, TEGS 221.
44 Casson, TEGS 123, fig.46.
THE DRILL
47
method.On theSiphniancaryatid thatofcuttinglongverticalfoldsbythesamehoneycombing a samplemeasurement fromone ofthechannelsshowsthatfourdrillholeswerecut withina space of 1-4cm. NM 22 is in the traditionalkorepose. Withherlefthand she pullsherskirt tightacrossherlegs,and the materialhangsdown at herleftside in a bunchofregulardeep folds.It is quiteclearhowthesewerecut (plate 21 (a)). The nicksmadebythedrillare stillon thesideofthechannelsand fivecan be countedwithin2-5cm. Kore AcrM 673 (plate 21 (b)) and theAthenafromtheEretriapedimenthave somedeep folds,or rathersomefoldswhichin placesbecomedeep enoughto be cutin thesameway. Of coursea sculptoroftendecidedthat he did not need manydeep folds,and the shallowerones and shallowparts,such as the tops in undercutting ofdeeperones,werecutonlybya chisel.One findsthedrillusedmorefrequently thanin longfolds.Butwheredeep narrowfoldsappearon archaicdraperytherecan be nodoubt thatthisis how theywerecut. and The archaicsculptordelightedin adorninghis workwitha multitudeof attachments, the holesto fastenthesewere drilledwherevertheywereneeded. The severekourosscheme withgroupsof horseand gave no scope forthispractice,but thereweremoreopportunities rider.Holes forharnessand trappingsand reinsare foundon Delos A 4101 and A 4102, and AcrM700,whiletheholein therighthandoftheKerameikosRider45was perhapsintendedfor a spear. Fragmentsof bronzeare stillleftin the stoolof the seated man in the Kerameikos museum,46 showingthatit was decoratedwithbronzeornaments. abound. Bronzeornamentsweresometimesplaced directly On femalestatuesattachments in the hair (Peplos Kore, AcrM 67g)47but more oftenon the Stephane'tiedroundit- cf. AcrM 670, 673, etc. Eithera wholenecklacemightbe fixedon by a line ofholesin theneck (AcrM669) orelsethestringwas carvedin marbleand onlypendantsfixedseparately(NM 22)• Ear-ringswere quite oftencarved,but sometimesbronzeones werehungin the smallholes drilledin each ear, as on thekoraiAcrM 681 and AcrM 678. Perhapsthiswas whenelaborate baubles (see LyonsKore, AcrM 269, a uniqueexamplein carving)wereworninsteadofplain Thereis a holepiercedthroughtherighthandofthePeplosKore AcrM 679,so it diskear-rings. seemsthata filletwas added here similarto that carriedby koreAcrM 593. Holes on her shouldersshowthatherpeploswas securedby brooches,probablysimilarto thosewe see on vases. Chitonswerefastenedacrosstheshouldersand down the armsby buttons,whichwere - Delos A 4064 and A 4065. carved,but wereadded separatelyin some examples frequently A and the AthenaofEndoios (AcrM werefixedon to Delos 4069 or decorations Sandal-straps as 625). Finally,snakesare usuallyadded to the aegis of Athena, we see on Delos A 4197, AcrM 140, and the Athenafromthe westpedimentat Aegina. This listis by no meansexhaustive,but simplygivessometypicalexamples. wereofmetalor stone.The natural In manycasesonecannotbe surewhethertheattachments wouldbe thatintricateshapeswereadded in metal,but thereis evidencethatthe supposition Greeksculptordid add some minuteand finickydetailsin stone.Odd locksof hair are an example.On thewoman'shead fromDelos K 1880 one mighthave assumedthatthe double wereit notthata marble row of holesacrossthe frontof her hair was forbronzeornaments, whichwere peg stillexistsin one of themand indicatesthatit was separatelycarvedringlets added here.Thereis a similarplug leftin one oftheholesdrilledintothehairoftheSiphnian anothercommonpractice,too- thesculptordecidedhere caryatid.The Delos head illustrates to add thefrontringletsquite separately,and drilleda hole,behindtheear,fromwhichthey mighthang. The same methodmay be seen on theArtemisof the Siphnianpediment.Even the sculptorcarvedthe upperpart of theselocksin one withthe figure,but morefrequently 45 AA xlviii (1933) 286, figs.18-19.
46 AA xlix (1934) 226, fig.20.
47 Lullies, pl. 43.
48
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
added theendswhichwereto hangfree.NM 22 and AcrM 673 (plate 21 (b)) areexamplesof this. Apartfromfemalestatues,some small Ansätzewere added forexampleto the kouros Kleobis48(genitals)and thedog AcrM 143 (bothears). It is clearthattheGreeksculptorwas also readyto add quite largepiecesof marbleto his - as indeed we have seen above in originalblockif he needed themto completehis design thetoolingon thesejoiningsurfaces. Such deviceswouldbe scornedbymanymodern discussing of the material'ratherthan 'imposing'a sculptorswho believein 'exploitingthe possibilities formon it. A Greeksculptorhoweverwas notto be deterredby a flawin hisblock,or a fault in itsshape,frommakingwhatever hewished- nordidhewanttowastemarbleas hewouldhave froma singleblock.Indone, forinstance,if he had cut a figurewithone arm outstretched steadhe fitteda head and neck(AcrM674), or an arm(AcrM674,AcrM 673,plate 21 (¿)), or a piece ofdrapery(AcrM 674), on to themainblockby a tenonand mortise join.49The drill holeswhichhave survivedin therecesson therightside ofNM 22 showhow thestonein the socketswas brokendownbeforeit was removed.Oftentoo a holewas drilledthroughtheoutside ofthesocketand rightthrough thetenon- see plate 21 (è), AcrM 673,wherethestumpof thetenonis stillin place. The Ansatzwas securedby a bronzepeg,whichhas survivedon NM - as on therightarmoftheAthenafrom 3687. If theouterend ofthehole was inconspicuous - the channelwas simplyfilledup withlead; but whereit mightbe the Eretriapediment like the of visible, piece draperyat theleftofAcrM 672,theoutsideoftheholewas maskedbya marbleplug (plate 21 (c)). The socketsin thebacksofthefigures fromthe Eretriapedimentmusthave been forsome sortofsupportwhichsecuredthemto theback wall. The marksin thesocketofTheseusand Antiopemakeit clearthatthedrillwas used here. Duringthearchaicperiod,low reliefwas themostpopularformofreliefsculpture.The drill was usedlittle,ifat all, on this,so our evidenceabouttheuse ofthedrillon archaicreliefcanthefriezesand pedimentof the not be takenfroma wide rangeof monuments. Nevertheless are cutfree the are here since which pedimentalfigures SiphnianTreasury groupedtogether from in the a the of show of tool, primary only parts thoroughunderstanding potentialities workto theshapingoffinaldetails. One ofthemostobviousexamplesoftheprimaryworkdone by thedrillis on thepediment. ofthecentralgroup.50 The stonehasbeencutawayfrombehindthebarelegsofthemalefigures he removedthe his when risk of the wanted to avoid damaging figures Naturally sculptor any almost channels and so he drilled behind stone, them,making parallelwiththebackcarefully he before to free the stone them from chippedthissurplusaway. surrounding ground, gently There are semicircular channelsleftfromthisdrillingbehindthelegsofApollo and Herakles. - see especiallythe asIn manyplaces on thefriezepartsofthe sculpturehave been cut free are armsofthefigures and the of the stools of the and 151 the on blocks where j legs sembly gods here. same in the used been drill must have detached from The the way background. quite excellentexamplesof The chariotson the westand southfriezes(p, q,,and n) are further how thedrillwas usedin primarywork.To cut a marblesinktoday,a masondrillsa seriesof holes,as deep as he plans to make the basin of thesink,intoa blockofmarble.He setsthem aroundtheedgesso thathe can removethestonelaterbyonlygentleblowshere; closetogether are further they apartin thecentrewherehe can affordto hitthestoneharder,sincethereis no riskthat by doing so he will crack the walls of the sink.The centreofthechariotswas *8 Richter,/f,fig.78. 49 For a listofjoins and theirvariationson the Acropolis korai cf. Dickins, Catalogue(Cambridge, 1912) i. 38-39.
so Richter,Sculpture2, fig.382. s* These and thefollowinglettersreferto Delphesiv. 1-2, fig.34. For betterphotographs,see Lullies, figs.44-49.
THE DRILL
49
hollowedout in the same way. The sculptordid not clear rightdown to the bottomof the drillholes,and thuswe findon theinsideofthechariotofAthenatwenty-five holesmade bya an area measuring10x3-5 cmtool 7 mm.wide,honeycombing The Greeksearlydiscovered,and afterwards theconvenienceofcuttingthe used constantly, outlinesofa reliefwitha drill.At a fairlyearlystage,perhapsimmediately afterdrawingthe outlinesof theircompositionon the block,or at any rate whenonlya fewcontourshad been mappedout,a seriesofholeswas drilledat rightanglesto thebackgroundaroundtheoutline - the background - could be The areas betweenthese perforatedchannels of the figure.52 levelledoffrapidly,and the individualfiguresleftmoreor less clearlydefined.The sculptor sometimes lefta safetymargin,thatis, he drilledthelineofholesa centimetre or so awayfrom wherethefinaloutlinewas to be, thenchiselledin towardit. The marksof thesedrillholes ofthefigureor thesmoothing ofthebackground, have usuallybeenerasedduringthechiselling but occasionallytheycan stillbe seen. On the Siphnianfriezetheyappear behindthehorses' has legs on blockp (plate 22), and aroundthe horsesand thereinson blockm. Benndorf53 describedhowthistechniquewas usedon someofthemetopesat Selinus.A fewsuchoutlining drillholesare also visiblearoundthe bumpson thestaffof Hermeson theearlyfifth-century reliefsin the Louvre fromthe Prytaneumof Thasos. The techniquewould be particularly usefulforcarvingintricatedetailsand exactangles.It is difficult to sayhowwidelyit was used on the Siphnianfrieze,but the evidenceoflaterworksuggeststhaton sculptureas carefully carvedas thisit mayhave been extensively used. usefulin reliefis forcuttinga littlebehind Anotherpurposeforwhichthedrillis particularly a figure,makingholesor a channelalmostparallelwiththe background,whichare invisible fromthe frontbut producea sharplydefinedoutline.This is a methodof workwe shallfind muchused,and abused,on laterwork,so itis interesting tosee thatithas beendiscoveredbythe masonsoftheSiphnianfriezeand usedbehindtheParison blockp. Butusuallytheyrelysimply on a firmly chiselledlinetoproducetherighteffect,and thedrillholeson thebackofthedrapery and thefarsideofthefaceofHermeson blockp, and behindtheprofileofa youthon a later archaicreliefin theSalonikamuseum,werenotusedtocutseparatechannels,butshowhowthe sculptorfelthiswayinwardsgraduallywitha drillto thefinalsurfaceofhisfigure.As Casson54 remarksof laterwork,'it is, indeed,easyto see how thewholemodernprocessof "pointing" use of paralleldrillholesmade forthepurposeoffacilitatdevelopedfromthismoreprimitive work'. ing heavy Mostofthedraperyon theSiphnianfriezeis carvedin crisplychiselledangularand shallow foldsforwhichthe drillwas not needed. It is used widelyin undercutting, however,bothon - see Athena,Herakles,and Artemis - and on the frieze - Athenaon block c, the pediment warrioron g, thefragment ofcharioteer's draperyon d. Bothsingleholesand linesofholesare drilled.Almosta primaryuse,becausequite a lot ofmarblewas cleared,is thedrillingunderneaththehemofAthena(p),55betweenthefrontand back ofherskirt. Apartfromthedraperythereare otherdeep narrowchannelsforwhichthedrillwas needed. The long hair ofAphroditeon j (plate 23 (a)) has been beautifully carvedwitha chiselinto wavingstrands.Overherneckitfallsmoreloosely,and so theshadowsmustbe deeper.The rows of small drillholeswhichaccomplishedthiscan stillbe seen. Then signsof drillingmay be discoveredin the channelbetweenthe rightarm and the body of Hermeson p. The fallen 52 The principleis exactly the same as that followedto quarry a block. See p. 42 above. 53 Benndorf,MetopenvonSelinunt(Berlin, 1873) 41. 5« TEGS 206. C328S
55plate 22 unfortunately does not show thistooling. Similarlinesofdrillholesclearingthearea undera hem maybe seenon NM 229. E
50
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
warrioron g lies withhis hand stretched out, the fingers curlingtowardthe ground.In the drillholesare foundin a lineonly3-6cm. long.An evenfinertool hollowofhishand thirteen was usedon thesnakesaroundtheaegisofAthenaon p, wherea drillcutlinesofholesmeasuring only1 mm.each. work. The drillwas used on facialdetails,insideears and nostrils, just as on freestanding to the Siphnianfrieze.Many holeswere There were a verylarge numberof attachments and so on. The sculpdrilledforear-rings, stoolornaments, reins,weapons,helmetornaments, in stone» torsseemto havebeenindifferent totheproblemwhethertheyshowedsuchaccessories the three-bodied Thus find that we or mixed method bronze they every paint, quitehappily. Geryon(b), forexample,carriesa speartheshaftofwhichis carvedin stonebehindhimwhile a bronzepointprojectsfromthefront. Althoughtracesofpaintedreinshave survivedin places are a number mustbe forbronzereinsto be attached.The aegis of there of holes which (qJ Athenais regularlymade (p and c) withthesnakesat theback carved,whiletheones at the frontare added on separately. Manypiecesofmarblewereadded. Some are quitelarge- suchas thewingofa horseon p,. or thetophalfoftheshieldofAreswhichis stillin positionon j. Othersaresmall- thetipofa horse'stailon p and £, or thetinyarmofthesatyrcarvedas a decorationto thethroneofZeus. (j) . Large or small,theholesintowhichthesepieceswerefastenedmusthave been made with a drill. and earlyfourth The evidencefromsculptures ofthefifth centuryshowsthattheuse ofthe drillexpandedto matchthedevelopment oftheclassicalout ofthearchaicstyle.The greater demandson techniquemade by the large scale of new enterprises, by newposes,and bythe met not were in a naturalistic convention more of by newmethodsand tools rendering drapery old ones. of the but by further application as Treu56pointedout yearsago, theway thedrillwas used in On the Olympiapediments, in Olympia iii. 80,figs.126-7 in manyplaces.The illustration is still clear the shaping sculptures fittedto figuref ofthewestpediment,and how thedrillcut theback of the showsa fragment marble.Similarlymarksof thedrillare clearon theback boy'sleg freefromthesurrounding ofthecalfoftheleftleg offigureb57fromtheeastpediment.Quite a largedrillwas used also alongtherightfootoffigurec fromtheeastpedimentand to hollowout the channelbetween team.Smallerdrillswereusednearerthefinalshapingof thenecksofthehorsesofthenorthern the hollowof thelefthand offigurev of the bodiesor heads. A tool of 5 mm. honeycombed westpediment,and thisor a smallersize can be foundsometimes deepeninga mouth,particue west the see of in the corners pediment.Examplesof the drillused in nostrils figure larly to be parworkthatit is unnecessary and ears are so commonon thisand laterfifth-century ticular.The archaichabitofdrillingsingleholesto emphasizethe centresofthe curlsofhair executedon thehead and beardis seenforalmostthelasttimeat Olympia,and is beautifully offigureN58oftheeast pediment. The figuresof the Parthenonpedimentwerefinishedso completelyin the roundthatit is difficult to see anysignsofearlyprocesses.Underneaththehemof Irisof theeastpedimentis a channelunusuallywide and deep forthisposition.The wayit was honeycombed by drilling beforethestonewas removedmustindicatehowmanyofthedeep hollowsweremade,and how marblewas removedto cut freelimbsand partsofdrapery.On a smallerscale a line ofholes was drilledto makea channelseparatingthebuttocksoftheIlissosofthewestpediment.From thefriezeand othercontemporary sculpturewe can be surethatthedrillwas usedon theheads ofthefiguresaccordingto thetasteofthesculptor.Not all themouthsoffifth-century figures 56 J¿/x(l895)3.
57 These lettersare takenfromOlympiaiii, pls. xviii-xxi.
58 Lullies, pl. 113.
THE DRILL
51
are deepenedwitha drill,but thesculptorsometimes likedthiseffect(see AcrM 1309). As for The frontofthehair hair,thesoftwavesnowin fashionare bestexecutedbydelicatechiselling. on thehead ofa goddessfromtheAgora,S 2094,59is a fineexampleofthiswork. In the earlyfourthcenturythe figuresin the pedimentat Epidauroswere also finishedat the back as well. But a line ofdrillholesbetweenthe back legs oftheAmazon'shorsein the groupNM 136,as wellas thedelicateworkwitha tool4 mm.widebehindtheear ofthehead NM 140 (plate 23 (£)),showus thatthesamemethodswereusedtocutlargeand smallchannels workwitha drillon a minorworkoftheperiod. here.Thereis an interesting exampleofprimary The masonwhocarvedthesirenNM 775 (seep. 15,n. 90) usedthesamemethodstoclearaway the stoneas his predecessors who workedon the pedimentsat Olympia.Thus on the underneathofherbellybetweenherlegsa rowofholeswas drilledfromthefrontto shape it; and again acrossthefrontofthelumpofmarblewhichwas leftto supporthertail are groovesleft fromholesdrilledfromtheside to separateit fromthesurplusstone. His These are a fewofthewaysin whichthesculptorused hisdrillto suithisrequirements. his the folds work for of and skill best are among by searching signs patience comprehended ofthedrapedfigures ofthetime. To take the pedimentsfirst : plate 24 showsa detail of the draperyof figuree fromthe westpedimentat Olympia,wherepartof theoverhangof thegirl'speploshas brokenaway, and the toolingbelow it has been revealed.The channelherewas chiselledand smoothed, butthenicksmadeas thedrillpiercedintothestonehavenotbeencompletely erased,sincethey wouldhave beeninvisibleanyway.Two sizesof drillare clear- theholesof thelarger,4 mm. wide,are setfurther apart,whilethe smallertool,only2 mm.wide,drilledholesalmostside side to into by penetrate thedepthsofthenarrowchannelup undertheoverhang.Anotherline of holes,moredifficult is in factquite clear on the original,in the to see on the photograph, channelbetweenthedraperyand thesole ofherrightfoot.Again twosizesofdrillhave been used- a smallerone higherup thechannel,a largernearertheground.In generalmostofthe are as on manyarchaicsculptures, longfoldsofthedraperyon theOlympiapedimentfigures, shallowenoughto have been cut by thechiselwithoutusinga drill.But whereverdraperyhas been undercut,and especiallyin all themanyplaceswherethedraperyswirlson thegroundin carefulexaminationshowsthatthechannelshavebeencutbylinesofsmall omega (_qJ folds60 drillholes. The draperyof thefigures on the Parthenonpedimentsis carvedin a wealthof deep and folds. The richlyvariegated sculptorhas made no attemptat all to save himselftrouble; the and to accomplishit. Literallythousands was design all-important techniquemustbe stretched of holesof different sizes musthave been drilledin the carvingof thesedraped figures,but veryfewhavesurvived.The Demeterof theeastpedimentgivesus themostevidence.Nickson in thesidesand holesin thebottomofchannelsofherdraperyat frontand back,particularly thearea tuckedbehindherrightleg,showhow drillholeswerecut at closeintervalsalongthe AcrM folds,and leave us in no doubtthatthisis howall thedraperywas carved.The fragment a of a similar A drill 8 from the shows work. of mm. was used 1363 drapedfigure pediments the a mm. hollowed out channel beside her foot. The hem,another,4 wide, along right omega swirlsofthehemofthecloakofIlissoswereundercutwitha drilljustliketheOlympiaexamples, and so was theoverhangofthechitonofIris ofthewestpediment. The sculpturesof the Hephaisteionmay well have been almostcontemporary withthe it is so not find the to that of the Athena61 the from Parthenon, surprising drapery pedimenthas s« Hesperiaxxix (iq6o), pl. 81 (a). 60 Cf. Lullies,pl. in.
61 Agora S 1232. Cf. Thompson,Hesperiaxix (1950) 23of.
52
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
fourholescan beencutin thesameway.In one of theverticalchannelsat thebackofthefigure be foundwithin2 cm., and a smalldrillwas used to undercutthedraperyalso. Thereis no changeofmethodin the Epidaurossculptures either.If theHygieiaNM 299 is not fromthe pedimentsshe mustbe ofthe same date (see p. 92) and rowsof drillholes are man ofa striding clearon herdrapery(plate 41 (¿)). The sameis trueoftheunnumbered figure in theEpidaurosmuseum.Two drills,measuring7 and 3-5mm.,have leftnickson thesideof is thedeep channelinsidehisrightleg. NM 14562is certainly fromthepediment.Thisfragment his a man of his His is the lower of on cloak around foot. body, part squatting part right pulled and a channeldeeperthan mostof the draperyseparatesthe cloak fromthe body.A line of sevenholescutbya drill4 mm.wide,stillplainwherethecloakcurvesroundhisleftside,shows us how the channelwas made. It is interesting fromtheEpito notethatalthoughthefigures So thesculptor daurospedimentarefinished at thebackthedraperyhereis alwaysmuchflatter. to did not continuethe laboriousdrillingout of channelsat theback- thereit was sufficient chiselin thelinesofthefolds.And indeedthe thindraperyfashionableat thisperiod usually meantthatless drillingwas requiredaltogetheron a draped figurethan at the timeof the Parthenonpediments. female The same consistent of methodis foundin the draperyof freestanding uniformity at Nike in and the The Rome63 and and minor works. Niobid statues,large small,important drilled lines show of holes like the Eleusis continue to Demeter 26 Olympia, (plate 25 (a)-(c)), one byone,downverticalchannels(plate 25 (¿z),underrightarmpit),to underindividually, cut overhanging pouch at waist),and drapery(plate 25 (a), remainsof holes undercutting underhems (plate 25 (c)). The universality of the methodis amazing.The Aphroditefrom female Delos 4287, the smalllate fifth-century Corneto,BerlinK 6, Boreason an akroterion is there all of them on and the monument Naxos the Nereids64 from Xanthos 63, figure evidencein partsof theirdraperyto showthatthe drillwas used in thesame preciseway as at Olympiaand on theParthenon. The contrastbetweenthe thinnermaterialof a chitonand thethickerhimationhad been sincethearchaicperiod.Graduallytheyincreasethetransenjoyedand exploitedby sculptors a of the as chiton,and, parency comparisonbetweentheAphroditeoftheeastpedimentofthe Parthenonand the HygieiaNM 299 shows,thenumberoffoldsis reducedto a minimumand fullemphasisis giventothemodellingofthebodyunderneaththeclothes.Whilethisstylewas and earlyfourthcentury, partsofthe developingand becomingmorepopularin thelate fifth carve a could chisel that so shallow thin and the folds on were so only drapery manyfigures them.But as soon as the draperybunches,or an edge is undercut,the drillis needed again. Lippold65has consignedthe lightlyclad AphroditeVienna 1192 to the late fourthor early fromthefifththirdcentury,sayingthatthe characterof the transparent draperyis different as is It an earlier date. in is But Schrader66 true, he says,that centurytype. right claiming the from removed all drill been most of the have drapery;buton Aphrocarefully nearly signs dite'sleftthehemof her chitoncurlsin omega foldswhichhave been undercutcarefully by linesofholesmade witha smalldrill.The figureprobablydatesto c. 380. The Aphroditefrom the Agora (S 1882)67was carvedin the late fifth century.She also wearsa thinchitonand overhertrunkmostofitsfoldswerecut witha chiselonly.But evenheretheflapofmaterial whichcurlsabovetherightbreastis undercutbya drill,and whereitfallsintodeepfoldsaround her legs thereare severalseriesof nicksand holes in channelsat frontand back. On the 62 Crome, Die von Epidauros, Skulpturendes Asklepiostempels
pl. 45. 64Cf. BM 909, 91 1, and 912.
63 Lullies, pl. 172.
65 Op. cit. 298, pl. 103, 2. 66 Phidias(Frankfurt,1924) 315, figs.284, 286, 290-2. 67 Hesperiaxxix (i960), pl. 82.
THE DRILL
53
himationverylittledrillinghas survivedthechiselworkwhichfollowed, butindividualholesare clear on top oftheswatherunningfromherrighthip to herleftarm,and undercutting it at the bottomtoo. There is the same contrastbetweenthinchitonand thickerhimationon the and plate 23 (c) showstherowsofdrillholesnowexposedin thechannels AgoraNereidS 182,68 ofherhimationtowardtheback on herright.On herleftthechitonhas slippedfromherleft shoulderand bunchedtogether besideherwaistand in thesedeeperchannelsalso rowsofdrill holescan be seen. Piraeus21369will be takenas a finalexampleofa freestanding femalestatuewhosedrapery was cutby thismethod.The figureis ratherunusualin thatshewas designedto be seenin profilefromherrightside70(plate 26 (a))9 so thebackand front, and especiallytheleftside (plate 26 (è)), have been treatedsummarily. The sculptorhas doneno morethanbreakup thesurface on theleftwitha fewlongchannels,whichhesimplydrilled,clearingthestoneremaining between the holes, and smoothed.The resultingmonotonousfurrows, with their completelack of variationofwidthand depthalong theirentirelength,providea clear lessonon how much skilful chiselworkwas neededafterpreliminary drillingto givelifeto theplayofdraperyfolds. Nickson thesidesand holeson thebottomofvariouschannelsshowconclusively thatthemethod of drillingused throughout was thesimplehole by hole method.One can onlyconcludethat at theperiodwhenthisstatuewas carved- 380 to 370- therunningdrillwas notknown.For howeverquick a sculptorbecame- and undoubtedlylong practicebroughtgreatspeed- in drillingsingleholesdowna longchannel,he couldcertainly accomplishtheworkmorequickly witha runningdrill.And in a situationlike this,wherethe sculptorwantedto give onlythe minimumof timeand care necessaryhe would have used the runningdrillif he had known about it. This bringsus to the questionof when the runningdrillwas used first.But before and early discussingthisI shall summarizethe remaininguses of the simpledrillin the fifth fourthcenturyon freestanding, and architectural relief, sculpture. The practiceof attachingarmsand heads separatelycontinueson fifth-century works.The head ofAthenafromthepedimentoftheHephaisteion71 oftheAphrodite72 and bothforearms in theAgorawereadded as separatepieces,and socketsand the holesformetaldowelswere drilled.The leftarm of Piraeus21373was fastenedin just the same way as the rightarm of koreAcrM 673 (plate 21 (¿)). The socketintowhichthe rightfootoftheDemeter,Eleusis26, was fitted stillhas themarksofthedrillusedto makeit,74and so have thevarioussocketsmade - on the Iris of the westpedimentof the Parthenon,on the akroteriafrom to receivewings the Nike at Nikein Paros.OtherAnsätzewhichthe Delos, Patras,and theearlyfourth-century drillmusthave been usefulforjoiningrangefromtheextrapiecesofdraperyon theleftofthe Apolloand on thesleeveoffigureo of thewestpedimentat Olympia,to thetailof thedeeron the akroteriawithBoreasat Delos. Decorativeadditionsin bronzewerestillpopulartoo: thestaffoftheseeron theeastpedimentand thebow ofApolloon thewestpedimentat Olympia;broochesforthecharioteer and reinsforthehorsesoftheParthenonpediments;ornaments forthebeltofDemeter,Eleusis26, and forthehairofProcneAcrM 1358; ear-rings and thestrings ofherlyreforthesirenNM 77575 - thisis a representative selectionof the typesof attachments whichwere fastenedinto the holeswe finddrilledon thesculptures oftheperiod. The manywaysin whichthedrillwas helpfulto a sculptorworkingon reliefweredeveloped
68 Lippold, 221. 69 Lippold, 161. 70 Gf. Dohrn, Attische Plastik(Krefeld,1957), pl. xxv (a), left-handficmre of votive relief. 71 Agora S 1232. Thompson,Hesperiaxix (1950) 230 f.
72 Agora S 37. Hesperiaii (1933) 178. 73 Lippold, 161. 74 They are at the right-handside, and so not visiblein
PLATE 25 (c).
75 See p. 15, n. 90.
54
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
in thefifth fromthesurrounding The drillwas indispensable forseparating stillfurther century. musthave been whichwereto standfree(see p. 48) and therefore stoneanypartsofthefigures so highthatthefigures wherethereliefis frequently usedmuchon themetopesoftheParthenon, arefoundon thebackofthe are in factcarvedalmostin theround.Thus thesamecorrugations BM as on on the of the on theSiphnianpediment. of the 319 legs figures leg Lapith metope right Most of the Parthenonfriezewas cut in quite low relief,but hereand therepartshave been - the upperpartof the torchof Demeter(EF fig.26), the arm cut freefromthebackground ofa steward(NF fig.45) or partsofa chariotwheel (NF slab XII). This lastis one ofthefew placeswheretheactual drillingused to separatethefrontand back partscan stillbe seen; in smoothed. mostplaces thebackgroundhas been completely On theNikeBalustradethereliefwas higherand moreofit separatedfromthebackground, at the back as at thefront. but the manyfreestanding partshave been smoothedas carefully undertheleftarmofthe thedraperyimmediately The largedrillwhichwas usedto cutthrough Nikeof detach of the of on slab or to Nike largeparts wings theright-hand 972,76 right-hand usedbehindarmsand legstoo. In spiteofitssmallscalemanyparts slab 98g77was undoubtedly ofthefriezeon theNikeTempleitselfwerealso cut free,and theslabsin theBritishMuseum, nos. 421-4, enable us to see the drillinghere.Such workwas not neededon the Erechtheum butitwas on totheirbackground, werecutseparatelythenfastened frieze,wherethesculptures behindtheleftarmofthewomanon BM usedwidelyon thePhigaleiafrieze.The corrugations and holesat least4 cm. or 520 weremadeby thedrillwhichseparatedit fromthebackground, so longweredrilledto detachpartsofshieldson BM 527 and 538. Even thecornerofa cloak was emphasizedby cuttingit freewitha singledrillholejust beforeitspointon BM 529. And on the pedimentrelieffromthe NereidMonument,BM 925, a drillhole on the background behindtherightleg ofone warriorshowsthatit was cut freein thesame way. Otherplaceswherecomparatively heavydrillworkhas oftensurvivedare smalldeep cavities whichwouldhave remainedalwaysin shadow.The area behindtheleftfootofAthenaon slab 989 (plate7826 (c)) and theinsideofthehelmetheldbyAthenaon slab 99179areexamplesfrom the Nike Balustrade,and the undersideof the hem of the groupno. 668°of the Erechtheum friezehas been hollowedout witha drilllikewise.Fromthe Phigaleiafriezewe may takethe hollowbetweenthe neckof the woman and the child'shead on BM 522, and thetriangular recessinsidethecentaur'srightarmon BM 529. On a minorwork,thejar heldbya Centauron one end oftheLyciansarcophagusIstanbul63 was also carvedout witha drill. For suchworka fewholesmightbe scatteredoverthecentrepartofthesurplusstone,but at the edgesholeswould be drilledin a line (see p. 48). This of courseresemblesthe drilling work. around the outlinesof figuresin relief,whichwe findused constantlyin fifth-century in them The drillhelpedto cut the outlinein threeways,whichfig. 6 illustrates byshowing above. In {a) a lineofholeswas drilledat rightanglesto the backgroundaround sectionfrom theedge,or nearto it ifa safety marginwas desired,fig. 6 (b) showshow thedrillmightbe set and usedtopenetrate at an angleofabout45o tothebackground by rightintothecornerformed thefigureand thebackground.This anglewouldofcoursebe variedas requiredand in (c) we findithasbecomeverylow; thetoolin factbeingusedtodrilla lineofholesas nearlyas possible parallelto the backgroundin orderto forma channelbehindthe figureand emphasizeits outline(cf.p. 49). The firmsureoutlinesofthe Parthenonfriezewereachievedby a lavishuse of thiskindof 76 Carpenter, NTP, pl. vii. 77 Carpenter, NTP, pl. xxv. 78 Carpenter, NTP, pl. xxiv.
79 Carpenter, NTP, pl. xix. 80 Cf.Fowler'scatalogueofsculptures in Paton,Stevens, etal., TheErechtheum Mass.,1927)andpl.xliii. (Cambridge,
THE DRILL
55
work.It is presentalso on the metopes,wherethe drillholeswhichformedthe outlineofthe leftleg oftheLapithon BM 307, and theouteredge oftheLapith'scloakon BM 316, are still obvious. The carefulsmoothingof the backgroundof the friezemeans that all traceshave vanishedof any instanceswherethe holes may have been drilledoriginallya shortdistance fromthe finaloutlinesof the figureto leave a safetymargin.But veryoftennickshave been wheretheywouldhave been invisibleto the lefton theactual edgesofpartsofthesculptures, at rightanglesto the background,confiand these were show how holes drilled, spectator, line final is a clear ofholesdownthebackofthehorseman Thus there the outline. dentlyalong NF fig.115.8l Some have been leftaroundthelegsofthehorseofriderNF fig.117,and nicks on thefrontand backoftherightkneeofNF fig.53 showthathisleg was cutin thesame way. Furtherclearexamplesmaybe foundunderthecrestofthehelmetof NF fig.65 and downthe carriedby EF fig.57. The sculptorof the largevotiverelieffrom edge oftheincense-burner EleusisNM 158 musthave used thesame technique,forsomeholesstillsurvivealong theleft arm ofTriptolemus.
11 ^^'
_ Y
Y
Y_
(c)
(b)
(a)
desired finaloutline
X = relieffigure
Y = background
Fig. 6. Relief sculpture, in section, and the drill
The higherreliefand thepositionoftheNike Balustrademeantthatthesidesofthefigures Underneaththetaeniaabove and so theywerefinished werevisibleto thespectator, carefully. drill two holes survivewhichwereprobably slab one or of Nike the head oftheright-hand 972 used is quite large. More like The drill head of the cut duringtheoutlining (plate 27, top). the on slab the side of is the work down theParthenonexamples 994.82The comparative trophy find makes it to there. On slab BM 525 a row frieze the of Phigaleia lackoffinish easy examples the the outline of Centaur'sbreast,and seen on the still be ofsevenholescan following background the of the between of the the thereare morealong legs Lapithon thelefthand of drapery edge horse of the on round the The drill also worked thesame slab. PhigaleiaBM 541. Simirump a horse's mane on BM 855 oftheNereid the of slab is clear edge along larlya lineofdrillholes friezes. The secondmethod(fig.6 (è)) of usingthedrillin cuttingthe outlinesof reliefsculptureis reallya shortcut to carvingtheanglebetweenthefigureand thebackground.It is seenmost clearlyon the Parthenonfriezeon thefigureofHera, EF fig.29 (plate 28 (a)). Here a lineof nickson thebackgroundshowshow thedrillwas tiltedintotheangleto shapethebackofher as on theNikeBalustrade,and thepedimentreliefBM 925 raisedarm.On thePhigaleiareliefs, fromthe Nereid Monument,themostusualplace to findsuchworkis behindtheheadsofthe wherethedrillis usedat varyinganglesto cuta channelbetweenhead and background. figures, but at Sometimesthechannelcut hereis so deep thattheworkmightwell be called primary, to emphasizeit. timesit is onlyjust sufficient 81 This showsclearlyin Lullies, pl. 149.
82 Carpenter,NTP, pl. xii.
56
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
This is truealso forthe thirdmethodof drillingan outline,when the drillis held almost parallelwiththebackground(fig.6 (c)). A channelcutin thiswayis ofcoursequite invisible of drapery;the actual fromthefront.The principleis the same as in ordinaryundercutting Occachannelmaybe quiteshallow,it is thesharpridgeleftat thefrontwhichis important. - channelsare cut behind sionallya profileis emphasizedin thisway on the Parthenonfrieze thefacesofArtemison AcrM 856 and theriderSF fig.33 in theBritishMuseum(plate 28 (b)). The lineofholeswhichundercutstheupperpartoftherightarmofNF fig.46 servesthesame - see WF fig.3 and channelsare drilledout behindthelegsofhorses purpose.Veryfrequently NF fig.73, and a longrow (over25 cm.) ofholesmaybe seenbehindthetail ofthehorseon had littleuse NF xxii (plate 28 (c)). The sculptors oftheNikeBalustradeand theErechtheum forthisdevice,but it occursbehindtheheads ofhumansand horseson thefriezeoftheNike and channelsare cut intothe edge temple.At Phigaleiait was adoptedwithgreatenthusiasm ofmanyfigures.On slab BM 526 is an especiallyclear examplewherea longline ofholescan stillbe counted- was drilleddowntheback ofthehead and mostofthebodyof overthirty thecentralLapithand again behindhisleftleg fromthekneedown.The drillingbehindthe lefthandofa womanon BM 524 showsthesameworkon a smallerscale,and so doesthechanofsomeminor nel behindthedeer'shornon BM 525. It is interesting to see how thesculptors monuments borrowedthesametechnique,and drillholesare quiteclearbehindtheforeheadof thehorsemanon thevotivereliefin theVilla Albani83and behindthelegsofthewomanseated on therightofthebanquetvotivereliefin thePiraeusmuseum. The drillwas usefulin reliefsculptureformanyotherpurposesthanto cut the outlinesof figures.Apartfromdrapery,whichI shall discussseparately,it was used on the Parthenon friezeforcuttingeverysortofchannel,includingmanywheresculptorsofmostperiodswould have employedonlya chisel.The menwhocuttheParthenonfriezeaimedat thehigheststandards of precisionand clarity,and the drillwas perpetuallyin theirhands. An enormous amountofitsworkis stillvisible,and as muchagain musthave been smoothedaway. fromitsdrapery. It can be foundin manyplacescuttingthechannelswhichseparatethefigure Thus a row of nicksis visiblearoundthe rightshoulderof Hera, EF fig.29 (plate 28 (a))9 and also on herleftsidewherethedraperyhasfallenbackand revealspartofherbody.Similar workis cleararoundtherightshoulderofSF fig.126,and a rowofholeshas survivedbetween the shoulderand cloak of one of the maidenson AcrM 877. The draperyof both Zeus (EF fig.30) and Apollo (AcrM 856) is separatedsharplyfromtheirseatsby channelsin whichthe drillworkcan be seen (plate 28 (a)), and holesweredrilledbetweenthehydriaand neckofthe witha drill;on themetopes watercarrierson AcrM 864.84Finerdetailstoowereaccomplished and on the AcrM 705 and BM 319 a rowofholeswas workedundertheinstepsofthefigures, friezethechannelbetweenthetoesofNF fig.53 was drilled.Finally,thetoolis usedcarefully oftheleft-hand to carvethechannelsofthehandsofNF fig.131,and to cutbetweenthefingers 84 on AcrM 864. youth No otherfriezeshowssuchan abundanceand varietyofdrillwork,butit maybe foundto a lesserdegreeon all. Thus on the Nike Balustradea line of holescarvedout the instepof the Athenaon slab AcrM 99185and hollowedout thehand oftheSandal Binder,AcrM 973.86On a woman'shead fromthe altarofAresin theAgora museumthe drillwas used betweenher veil and herneck.A warrioron slab BM 538 ofthePhigaleiafriezebendshisrightarmback acrossthetop ofhishead, and a lineofdrillholeshas made a channelbetweenthetwo.Again The LyciansarcophagusIstanbul we finda reflection ofthetechniqueon a minormonument. 83Lullies,pl. 179.Toolingcannotbe seenin thephoto84Lullies,pls. 158-9. graph.
»s Carpenter, NTP, pl. xix. 86 Carpenter, JVTP,pl. xxvii.
THE DRILL
57
63 was surelymade by a man trainedin Attica,and probablyone whohad workedon theParthenon.We findrowsofholesdrilledto emphasizesome channelsin thehorse'smane here. The sculptorcontinuedto use thedrillon detailsofheadswherethiswas thetoolmostsuited to his tasteand convenience.On the Parthenonfriezeit is commonlyused forthe heads of animals.The nostrils and mouthsofhorseswereusuallydrilled,and rowsofholescan be seen also roundtheedgesoftheearsofhorsesand cows(e.g. thehorseofNF fig.51). The outeredge oftheear ofa beardedman on slab AcrM 865 has also been separatedfromthehead by a row of eightdrillholes.Naturallytheinnerhollowof the ear was oftendrilled,mouthsmightbe deepenedby holesat the corners(see AcrM 1309,a woman'shead probablyfroma metope) and wereoccasionallydrilledveryfinelyalong theirlength(NF figs.105, 106,and 108). Nostrilswerealso drilledat times,but thesculptorjust as easilymightdecide to use onlya small chiseltohollowoutanyofthesefeatures. Afterall,he wouldoftenbe usingthesametoolwhether as drillor chisel.These remarksapplyto otherreliefstoo- drillingis found,forexample,in a horse'smouth,in ears,and in thehairofa Centauron the Phigaleiafrieze. On reliefas on freestanding sculpturethe carvingof draperycalled forconsiderablework withthedrill.Therewas no attempton theParthenonfriezeto lightenthelabourinvolvedby cuttingdraperywithmainlyshallowfolds;insteadthe quiet poses of the seatedgods,of the maidenscarrying ceremonialobjects,oftheyouthscarrying waterjars or theoldermentalking, are enrichedand enlivenedby theample foldsoftheclothestheywear.The draperygathered into thelaps of Zeus (EF fig.30) and Hephaistos(EF fig.37) has been variedpleasantlyby deepeningsomeofthefoldswitha drill(plate 28 (a)). The hemofApollo (AcrM856) has been and linesofdrillholescan also be seencuttingupwardsbehind sharplydefinedbyundercutting, thehemsofthetunicsofwarriors such as NF fig.53. Alongthe hemofthe maidenEF fig.61, on theotherhand,the drillhas been used in singleholesto emphasizethe frills.As well as the hems,rowsof drillholesalso undercuttheselvagesofa garmentwhen one cornerhung downas on NF fig.5 1. Bliimel87 oftheParthenon thatthecomplicateddraperyofthefigures saysit is 'unthinkable' were cut without the use the it seems unthinkable thatifthe of pediment runningdrill; equally drill on the skirt were known it used the folds ofsucha was not to cut running long straight as EF the a drill must But our shows that have bored more 20. evidence figure girl fig. simple thanforty holesdownone channelhere,fornicksfrommanyofthemstillsurviveon thesides.88 plate 29 (a) illustrates numeroussignsofdrillworkleftin theskirtofEF fig.58. Threesizesof and waterdrill,9 mm.,5 mm., 4 mm.,have been used in thedraperyoftheyouthscarrying AcrM on The size the others in was used for some can be seen 864. jars largest under-cutting, vertical folds. As as well the channels from the which were cut with the drill visible front, long heldat rightanglesto thebackground, we also findit has beenused as in fig. 6 (c) above to cut longchannelsbehindtheselvagesofthedrapery.On slab AcrM 864 thisworkhas hardlybeen clearedat all,89and it is stillquite obviousalso behindthepie-crustselvageon AcrM 865. At thetopofthecontinuous rowofdrillholesherea finedrillof2-5mm.was used,thenlowerdown thechannelwidenedand theholesweremade by a drilldouble thatsize. The draperyofthefigures on theNikeBalustradeis stillricherin variationoflineand depth, butthedrill,whichwas as popularwiththesesculptors as withthosewhocarvedtheParthenon in was used the same on both friezes. For example,in theskirtof theleftfrieze, exactly way hand Nike on slab AcrM 97290we findtwochannelson the sidesofwhichrowsofnicks,left fromholes drilledalmostside by side,resembleexactlythosein the foldsofthe skirtsof the 87 Ere. xi. i^. 88 Cf. Richter,AJA xxxvii
(1933) 572 f.,fig. i.
s« Cf. Carpenter,NTP, pl. xxxiv, 1. 9° Carpenter,NTP, pl. v, cf. pl. vi, 4.
58
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
Parthenon too,buttheouterridges girls(plate 29 (b)) . In factthechannelscutherewerestraight, have been chiselledintocurvinglineswhichdeceivetheeyefromthefront.Naturallywherea genuinelycurvingfoldwas requiredit wasjust as easyto drilla curvinglineofdrillholes,and theremainsofthisworkcan be seenin thefoldsbehindtherightleg ofAthenaon AcrM 989.9I oneofthefinest NikeofAcrM97292offers The cloakoftheright-hand examplesofundercutting. sizesweredrilledundertheswirling Lines of holesof different edgesof hercloak (plate 27), whileunderthehemofherskirtlargeholeshave beendrilledat rightanglesto thebackground Someofthedraperybunchedjustaboveherwaisthas beenunderto forma clean edgethere.93 cut by drillingisolatedholeshereand there,and thistypeofworkcan be seenon NikeAcrM 1003. 94
friezeprovidesevidencethatthedrill The fine,delicatelycarveddraperyoftheErechtheum was stillbeingusedin thesamewaysin thelastdecade ofthefifth century.Marksleftby drill holescan be foundin theverticalfoldsbesidethefeetofsomefigures(e.g. no. 13), and a horizontallineofholesmarksthebottomofthehemofno. 8 (plate 30 (a)). A verysmalldrillwas usedtoshapeone ofthecurvingfoldsin frontoftheboy'sbreastin thegroupno. 20, and nicks leftby it are stillvisible. The workon thedraperyofthePhigaleiafriezeis clumsyby comparison.Much ofthestuff we findthatthedrillhas been is thinenoughto have beencutby thechiselalone.Nevertheless in thedrapery,sometimes used frequently economically makinga singlelongholewhereAttic line has been drilledalonga channel. a of holes but sometimes have bored would two, sculptors Thuson slabBM 537 sixholesare drilledwithina distanceof3 cm.in a foldbesidean Amazon's waist.A coupleofrowsofholesare clearalso cuttingquiteshallowchannelsin thecloakofthe Amazonon the Amazonon BM 535, whiletheswirlsofthecloak oftheleft-hand right-hand onBM 525,havebeenundercut witha drill. ofthedraperyofArtemis same slab,liketheoverfold and its friezeof the NereidMonumentis of coarseworkmanship The earlyfourth-century finesse the drill with the of their Attic to use be could contemporaries. hardly expected sculptors However,we findthatit was used occasionallyin partsofthedrapery,sinceholesmade by it ofa hemon BM on BM 924 and in theundercutting are visiblein theverticalfoldsofthefigures on relief as we have seen as universal work was of This method cuttingdrapery obviously 890. ofmetopesfromthe statues(see p. 52). Even on thebatteredremnants it was on freestanding the Tholosat Delphi95a rowofdrillholescan stillbe foundundercutting earlyfourth-century hem a under the of Artemis on the row of holes votive man bored who and the a of cloak, edge relieffromBrauron96(plate 30 (¿)) was usingexactlythe same techniqueas thesculptorof the NikeAcrM ion (see above n. 92). to thefriezeofthe Parthenonthantherehad been to Therewerefewermetalattachments musthaveensured theSiphnianfrieze.Buttheadditionofbronzereinsand harnesseverywhere line along mostof the procession.Occasionallyalso a bronzewreathmightbe a glittering added to a rider'shair,or the handleinsidehis shieldbe made ofbronze.And variousholes oftheGods- on theleftarmofApollo,thekneeofZeus,thehand maybe foundon thefigures ofHermes,and along theleftside ofAthena- whichmusthave servedto fastenbronzeattriadded to thebeltsofthefigures, werefrequently butesthere.On theNikeBalustradeornaments and thesnakeson theaegisofAthenaon AcrM 989 wereprobablybronzetoo. In thebattlescenesof the Nike templefrieze(BM 421-4) bronzeweaponsand reinswerefittedinto the we holes provided.Many of theweaponson the Phigaleiafriezewerecarved,but sometimes 91 Carpenter,NTP, pl. xxiv. 92 Carpenter,NTP pl. xxxiv, 2, shows a similar detail fromthe hem of AcrM ion.
93 See above, n. 92.
9* Carpenter,NTP, pl. xx, 2.
95 Cf. Dinsmoor, Architecture of Ancient Greece3(London,
1950), 234-5.
96 BCH lxxxiii (1959), pl. xxxi, 1.
THE DRILL
59
finda hole drilledfora bronzeone, and in manycases the swordscabbardwas added and may have been bronze.So were the swordson the Nereid Monument.The sculptorof the tasteforbronzeadditions, in his thoroughgoing largevotivereliefNM 158 was old-fashioned and lavishedear-rings, bracelet,a pendant,and chitonbuttonsupon Penelope.On thevotive relieffromBrauron97the hole in the hand of Artemisshowsus that the reinswerebronze additionsherealso. The factthatthe Parthenonmetopeswerein higherreliefpartlyexplainswhytheyneeded extrapiecesof marbleaddingto themto completetheirdesignmoreoftenthandid thefrieze. Partsof a Centaur'slegs were added on BM 315, and the head and neckof a Centauron - genitals,and the toesofthe BM 312. Dowel holeshave also been drilledforsmallerAnsätze Lapith on BM 317. On thefrieze,holesare foundforthelegsoftwostoolscarriedbygirlson the east frieze,and in one case wherea horse'sjaw overlapsa block (NF fig.119) the lower part was added separately.On the small friezesof the Nike templeand the Ilissostemple (BerlinK 14 and Vienna 1093)holeshavebeendrilledto fastenarmsand heads,butthefriezes freeof any such additions.In several of the Nike Balustradeand Phigaleiaare surprisingly the small frieze of NereidMonumentbutin everycase a the fastened on to an arm was places small recesshas been hollowedout withthepointalone and thereis no signofthedrillbeing used evento borea dowelhole. decorationsalso, for The drillwas foundusefulby the masonswho carved architectural has been describedin the of this work needed here. Some was already greatprecision naturally In the capitalsof the Erechtheum.98 with and others of dealing publication Stevens,Caskey, is visiblein theinnerend ofthegroove the columnshere'a seriesofdrillholes,closetogether, boredto aid in cuttingthegroove of thevolutesof thesecapitals.These holeswereoriginally The capital in the BritishMuseum and were not entirelyremovedin thefinalchiselling.'99 (408) can be examinedat eyelevel,and showshowa verysmalldrillof 2 mm.was usedwhere thechannelnarrowstowardtheinnercurvesofthevolute,and thenfinallya flatchiseltapered showsthatthe A fragment oftheeyeofan Ionic capitalfromPhigaleia100 thegroovetonothing. drillwas used to hollowit out,and thisis trueoftherecessesfortheeyesofthecapitalsofthe templeofNiketoo.Nicksand holesmadebya drillare visibleamongthevolutesand palmettes of the elaboratemouldingwhichcrownedthe monumentin honourof thosewho fellin the battleagainstthe Corinthiansin 394 (NM 754); and similarworkappearson the palmette fromthesame familyplotin the Kerameikosas the akroterion above thesteleofKoroibos,101 steleofHegeso. In a discussionofgravereliefsthe lack of anythingbut thevaguestchronologicalarrangementis a serioushandicap.The following examplesofdrillworkon stelaiare, I believe,taken frommonuments whichare earlierthan 365.102The dates occasionallygivenare not at all but merelyaccordwithpresentconventions. The drillwas used on thesestelaiin trustworthy, reliefsdiscussedso far. the way it was used on the architectural in theClassicalperiodto Althoughfashionhad changedand a higherreliefwas preferred the verylow reliefofthearchaicgravemonument, it was stilllow enoughforthereto be few occasionswhenpartsof the figureswerecut freefromthe background.On the Salamis stele NM 715we findone oftherareexamplesofthedrillbeingusedforthiswork(see p. 112). The same reliefgivesa clear demonstration of how the drillmightcut a row of holesaroundthe 97 National Museum, Athens. BCH lxxxiii (1959), pl. xxxi, 1. 98 G. P. Stevens,J. M. Paton etal., TheErechtheum (Gambridge, Mass., 1927).
99 Op. cit. 23. 1001 owe ^is informationto ProfessorP. E. Gorbett. 101Gonze, Grabreliefs 1534, pl. cccxix. 102See p. 66.
6o
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
- some can stillbe seenon thebackgroundbesidetheleftarmoftheyounç outlineof a figure attendant(plate 56 (¿)). The steleofMelitta,NM 720,was carvedperhapsfifty yearslater,but on thisrelieftooit is possibleto see howthedrilledoutlinehas been chiselledawayfromabove herleftshoulder,and holeshave survivedon the edge of herleftelbow.A commonplace to findsuchworkis at theseparationofthetop ofa head fromthepedimentabove it, and holes ofPolyxena(BerlinK 31), NM 716 (plate 31 (a)), and are visiblein thispositionon thereliefs Dexileosin theKerameikosmuseum.Then marksofthedrillmayoftenbe foundin thechan- such as thelefthand of theboy playingwithhis nelsbehindtheprojectingpartsof a relief in the hareon NM 794. This especiallyappliesto heads,and drillholesare foundfrequently areas hollowedout behindthem- see NM 3790,NM 831, Hippomachoson the Piraeusstele, and theyouthon BM 625. usedhisdrillas in fig.6 (c), and cuta channelinThe sculptorofa gravereliefalsosometimes to theoutlineat thatpoint.As on theParthenonfrieze, to add prominence to a partofa figure suchchannelsare cutbehindtheprofileofthemaid on NM 4006 and thestandingwomanon NM 716. NM 1385is fromAigina,and showsa youthstandingbesidehishorse.Two holesof 1 cm. each have been boredupwardsunderthebellyofthehorsein thesame fashionas under thecow on slab AcrM 857 oftheParthenonfrieze.On thesteleofDexileosa rowofholescan be seenin thedeeperchannelbehindthehorse'sleg (plate 31 (¿)). manyotheruseswerefoundforthe drill.Lines ofholescan be seen Apartfromoutlining, in NM 3472 and therighthand oftheyouthon NM 794. On the hand of Ktesileos hollowing the Dexileosstelesomelinesof thehorse'smane weredeepenedto emphasizethem,and one seriesofholesis stillveryclearin thechannelabovetheear (plate 31 (c)). Bliimelhassuggested thattheholesdrilledin themouthofthehorseon therelatedstelefromChalandri,BerlinK 30, ofbronzereins,but thefactthatthereare fourshallowholesin a line werefortheattachment makesit moreprobablethattheirpurposewas to hollowout themouth. ofthe also thedrillwas usedon thefeatures On gravereliefs accordingto thetasteand energy fine is the an work An on otherwise very drillingwith insignificant example sculptor. interesting thesmallestpossibletoolbetweenthelipsofthewomanon thegravereliefno. 9 in themuseum masonfellfarbelowtheaveragestandardofhis at Chalcis.Althoughthisearlyfourth-century them from notonlythemainlinesofhisfigurebutsome he borrowed Atticcontemporaries yet oftheirmethodstoo. ofmethodbothamong Whenwe turntodraperywe findstillthesameremarkable consistency reliefs and thearchitectural we have alreadyexamined.This thestelaioftheperiodthemselves and The runningdrillwas certainlyin use by the middleofthefourthcentury, is surprising. forsurelythemenwho we shouldexpectto findsamplesofitsworkbeforethison gravereliefs, method.And we shouldexpectit cutthemwouldhavewelcomedthistime-and labour-saving needed. less exactitude was where in the Instead,all theevidenceshows drapery, particularly thatwhereverthedrillwas used on thedraperyofthegravereliefsoftheearlyfourthcentury thechannelswerecutin exactlythesamewayas on theParthenonfrieze,byboringholesalong thelengthofthefolds.However,it maywell be thatthepopularityoflightdraperyon grave ofthefashionsetbytheleadingartists was notonlya reflection reliefsat theturnofthecentury oftheday,but was partlydue to thefactthatit demandedlessworkwiththedrill.Certainly heavydraperydoes becomefashionableon gravereliefsonce therunningdrillis established. thesteleofDexileosin theKerameikosmuseum,which We haveonlyone closelydatedrelief, mustbe c. 393. Most ofit is too finelyfinishedto showhow it was cut, and theonlysignsof drillworkonhistunicarethesingleholeswhichpunctuatetheendsofa fewofthedeeperchannels. the cloak whichfliesout behindhim, However,a line ofdrillholescan be seen undercutting
THE DRILL
6l
and thesebear out the evidenceof the horse'smaneand leg (see p. 60 and plates 31 (b) and them. 31 (c)) thatthedrillwas employedto cut channelsby honeycombing The stelaiBerlinK 31 and NM 3624 (Hegeso) wereprobablymade withina fewyearsof one another.Althoughher maid's draperyis designedin simplelines,Hegeso'shas thesame fussytwirlsas thoseofthewomenon K 3 1. In thedeeperchannelson bothstelai- besidethe of Hegeso,and in the draperycoveringthe overhangand in the foldsin frontof the klismos left lines ofholescan stillbe seen. K nicks from of the maid on 31 rightleg has said thatthe steleof Philonoe,NM 3790, was carvedby Himmelmann-Wildschütz103 thesame masteras NM 726. The evidenceis not at all conclusive,foralthoughit is truethat as well, we findit repeatedon otherstelai104 a similarpatternwas used fortheseatedfigures whichwere certainlynot by the same hand- it was obviouslya popular motifof the time. However,thedrillwas handledin thesamewayon bothreliefs.AlthoughPhilonoeis verywell finished, yetnicksremainon thesideofmanychannels,and on NM 726,as we shallsee when clearon thelowerpartof discussingthispiece separatelylater,linesofholes are particularly the chitonand deepeningsomechannelsto givevarietyto thefoldsoverthelap. The steleof Mnesarete,Munich G 491, whichis commonlyassociatedwithNM 726, is perhapsa little earlier.Againholeswereboreddownthechannelsat thebottomof herchitonand along the seemsa later(c. 370 ?) version hem(plate 30 (c)). The reliefofXenocrateia(NM unnumbered) - the figuresseem more as is overlappedonly slightly of the same pattern.The framework around Xenocrateia's in a The himation niche. hips looksheavierthanthe though wrapped have channels been cut,and theunderfew versionswornbyherpredecessors. However, deep rows of holes. still with hem of her himation was of the accomplished cutting NM 3089 are slightly The steleof Polyxena,NM 823, and the closelyrelatedfragment earlierthanXenocrateia.Bothshowa seatedwoman,closelywrappedin herhimation,pulling it forwardoverhershoulder.On bothreliefsa fewdrillholescan be foundbetweenveil and hair. Finallyon the steleof Melitta,NM 720, it is obviousthatthesimpledrillwas used not onlyon heroutlineand to cut theshapeofherhandsbutin herdraperytoo. The signsofthis are particularly clearin thefoldsunderherrightelbow. Attachments appear on a fewstelai- on NM 1385,forexample,the horse'sharness,some hair ornaments, and a spearwereadded in metal,and on the Dexileossteleweapons,reins, a sword-scabbard, themost and a petasoswereall fittedintotheholesprovided.Butotherwise commonattachment whichdecoratedmanyofthewomen'sreliefs. was theear-rings Extrapiecesofmarblewererarelyadded to stelaiofthisperiod. There is, then,no signat all of the runningdrillon any of thesculpturediscussedso far, of this methodis the only major whetherfreestanding or reliefwork.As the introduction technicalchangewhichoccursin Greeksculptureof the classicalperiod,an attemptto disFirstthe termitselfneedsdefinition. coverwhenit occurredseemsworthwhile. Casson105 that 'there is no structural difference ofanykindbetweenthesimpleand emphasizes therunningdrill'.That is, theactual instrument whichdoes thecuttingis a chiselofthetype describedon p. 41, and the rotarymotionnecessaryfordrillingmay be impartedeitherby attachingit to a bow or by an assistantpullingtheendsof a cord (cf.p. 41). Casson differentiatesthus betweenthe simple and runningdrill: 'The simpledrillboresalwayseitherat rightanglesor else at a verylow angleto thesurfaceto be drilled.The runningdrillis a name whenit is used at so sharpan angleto thesurfacethattheend of givento thesameinstrument the drillcan movein any desireddirection.'Now as we have seen already(p. 54 and fig. 6) 103 Studienzum Ilissos-relief18, n. *>o.
104Gf.Diepolder32 f.: and also Ny Carlsberg198 and
Althakein theNationalMuseum,Athens. I05 TEGS 203.
62
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
thesimpledrillcan in factbe usedat anyangle.It is truethatan angleofabout45ois the most and usualfortherunningdrill.The important betweenthetwomethods difference comfortable is thatthecuttingedge oftherunningdrillis 'movedalongwhilerevolvingso as to produce,, In otherwordsthe tool may be called a running not a singlecircularhole,but a groove'.106 drillwhen pressureis applied in such a way thatthe tool movesin two directionsat once,, bitingintoand movingalong thestonesimultaneously (fig. 7). The actual cuttingis accomas with the continuous ofthesharpedge. Howevershortthe rotation drill, by plished, simple a as as axis drill has soon the of moved distance at all alongthesurfaceit maybe groove, any called a runningdrill.107
^ '
S
ft i
»» surface
I
b. fromthe front
a. from the side Fig. 7. The runningdrill
of the tool beingused in ancienttimes.When Bliimeltalksof We have no representation to thebow-drills shownon a he refersforillustration of the runningdrill108 theintroduction in the In the he frieze. fact tool describes the and on Museum109 British in the Telephos gem textis a bow-drilltoo,which,ofcourse,can be used eitheras a simpleor as a runningdrill.110" of bow-drills(p. 41), two- the Bostonhydriaand the Telephos Of our fourrepresentations - showcarpenters frieze usingthe tool; thisrulesout theidea thata runningdrillisintended, sincea runningdrillcannotbe used on wood, whichis liable to splinteralongitsgrain.On and thescale oftheirworkmakesit very boththegemsthedrillis in thehandsofgem-cutters, the tool hereis held at rightanglesto the Also be used. would drill a unlikelythat running the for an inconvenient be runningdrill,as thehead wouldtendto angle work,whichwould thetoolmustcomefromtheworks about information all our Thus in. stickand bore straight themselves. it is It mustbe emphasizedthatonce a channelhas been smoothedand finished completely the To decide between used. has been method of what to simple drilling quite impossible say and the runningdrillit is necessaryto examineeach channelforpartsthathave not been foreithermethod. as onlythesepartsare valid arguments finished, entirely The evidenceleftbehindby a simpledrillis, as we have seen above, a line ofroundholes alongthebottomofthechannel,and grooveson thesideswhichare arcsleftfromtheoriginal or one setofmarksmayhave been circularborings.Groovesand holesmaybe foundtogether, ïo6 ProfessorB. Ashmole,JHS 1 (1930) 102. 107For an illustrationof the moderntool and its use see Richter,AJA xxxvii (1933) 573 f->%*• 3 and 4108Erg. xi. 15.
109Ere, xi, fie. 2. 110I am gratefulto ProfessorP. E. Corbettfordrawingmy about the attentionto this fact and forotherinformation runningdrill.
THE DRILL
63
removedby laterworkwhichtheothermarkssurvived.This appliesespeciallyto thegrooves. out ofline,or ifthesculptorhas decidedafterusing If a fewholeshave been drilleda fraction a 5 mm. drillthatone of4 mm.is wide enoughforhis channel,he willnotremovethenicks fromthesideseventhoughhe smoothesthebottomcompletely. Whenusinga runningdrill,thesculptorshouldapplypressurein such a way thatthe tool In movessteadilyforwardalong the stoneand cutsa grooveof even depth.This is difficult. in the drill a series furrow of of as 'the Richter111 running proceeds gougesprosays, practice, duced by theintermittent pressureoftheworkman'shand and so is apt to showmarksofthe drillchannel,plate 32 (a) shows different scoopsalongitscourse',fig.8 isa diagramofa running whichwere cut by the runningdrilland thenleft.The somechannelsfroma graverelief112 arcsare causedwhenthemasonrenews bottomof thechannelis bumpy,and thesemicircular hispressureon thetool.Occasionallyhe maypresstoo hard,thedrillwillstick,and theresult willbe a roundholeon thebottomofthechannel.Onlyquitea shallowchannel(c. 3 mm.)can be cut at one time,although,of course,it can be deepenedby cuttingseveralgroovesone afteranother.The widthof the channelwill be uniformin its pristinestate; as the drillis actuallycuttinga groove,notsimplybreakingup themarbleso thata chiselcan cut a groove moreeasily,thewidthofthechannelequals thewidthofthetooland thereis no wayfornicks to be lefton thesides.
o
)
))
________ b. from side
0. fromabove
Fig. 8. Bottom of a typical running drill channel
To sumup : ofthevariousmarkswhichmaybe foundin a channel,nickson thesidesand thata simpledrillwas used. If the groupsofroundholesalong thebottomshowconclusively the answeris lesscertain,for,as we bottom on the holes round are occasional marks left only have seen,therunningdrilltoo sometimescatchesand leaves a circularholeon thefloorof a besideone anotherthenagainwe can channel.Butwhentheseholesoccurin rowsimmediately be surethata simpledrillwas used,forthisdoes nothappenwitha runningdrill.It mightbe arguedthatwhennickshave beenleftby a simpledrillon thesideofa channel,butthebottom is smooth,a runningdrillcould have been used aftera simpledrill.Such a methodcould have beenusedin thesortofchannelwhereit was necessaryforthestonefirstto be brokendownby witha runningdrill. This beforethe bottomof thechannelcould be finished honeycombing a relief and between in the is to occur of work figure itsbackground(seep. 69), angles likely type forordinarydraperychannels,whereit would be quickerforthe but is quite unnecessary sculptorto runhis drillalong the same groovemorethanonce untilhe reachedthedepthhe wanted. partsofchannelson a certainstatueweremade Havingdecided,then,thatthefewunfinished witha simpledrillalone,do we concludethattherunningdrillwas notused elsewhereon the statue,in partsthat are now finished?Does the use of the one methodexclude the other? thatas the parallelboringsof thesimpledrillappearon Richter113 followsCassonin thinking 111AJA xxxvii (1933) 577.
"2 NM 1986.
"3 AJA xxxvii (1933) 573.
64
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
- and we wouldadd and theunfinished workofMichelangelo Romanwork,medievalsculpture, the eighteenth-century bust ofJuliusCaesar in the BritishMuseum then'parallel borings furnish no evidencefordetermining the date of thefirstappearanceoftherunningdrill'.But whateverthe methodsof laterworkmenmay be the evidencefromGreek sculptureshows us moststrikingly thatonce therunningdrillmethodis discoveredit ouststhesimpledrillfrom everything exceptsomeprimarywork(see below). The Greekmason adopted the new techand neverlookedback. Nowherein thedraperyofMausolus,or in the nique withenthusiasm DemeterofCnidus,do we findtherowsofparallelboringswhichare clearon theDemeterand Persephoneof the Parthenonpediments.Nowhereon the Mausoleumfriezedo we findthe theNikeBalustrade,or rowsofholeswhichwereso commonon the friezesof theParthenon, Phigaleia.Nowherein the draperyof a late graverelieflikeNM 870 do we findtheseriesof monuholeswhichappearso regularly cuttingpartsofthedraperyoftheearlyfourth-century ments. On theotherhand,themultitudeof places wheredrillworkis stillvisibleon piecesof the fifth and earlyfourthcenturiesshowwithcompleteconsistency thata simpledrillwas always used. It seemslogical to assume,therefore, thatwhereall unfinished partsof channelswere made a then the finished the same statue.Andconversely so were of drill, clearly by simple parts thatwhereon laterpieceswe findunfinished channelsmadeby a runningdrill,thenthisis how the finished channels,fromwhichall evidencehas disappeared,weremade too. Carpenterconsidersthattherewas a transitional stagebetweenthetwomethods,and after how on the he consome folds Nike Balustrade were workedby honeycombing,114 describing withit; tinues: 'The drillis notalwaysdirectedat rightanglesto thestone,butrunslengthwise so thatif the drillhole is brokenopen or leftexposed,a long tubularvalleywill result.This transition fromthestationary ofthe to therunningdrillseemstobe due to theexperimentation mastersoftheParapet.'This use ofthedrill,however,has nothingat all in commonwiththe runningdrill(cf.p. 62). One long hole is drilled,not a groove,and the axis of the tool does notmovealongthestone.Nor was thisconvenient wayof usingthe simpledrillthe invention of the mastersof the Balustrade.We findit used on the Parthenonfrieze,especiallyat the frontand back ofsomebunchesofdrapery(e.g. on EF fig.43), underthenosesofthefigures on the gravereliefsNM 716 and NM 4006, and at the edgesofdraperyand hair on several to the runningdrilland figuresfromthe Phigaleiafrieze.It does not representa transition no indication as to when the latter was introduced. gives It has been generallyaccepted for some time that Pausanias'115statementconcerning in meansthatKallimachosintroducedan improvement Kallimachos: Xldovç irpcòroç ¿rpv7rrjG€ - the and therefore methodsofdrilling, therunningdrill.Some datesin hiscareerareknown116 Hera of Plataea was made soon after426, the lamp of the Erechtheumsoon after406- so if Pausaniaswererightwe shouldexpectworkdone by the runningdrill to appear sometime between420 and 390. This is not the case, and one can concludeonly that Pausanias was mistaken. thatall the complicated Earliercandidateshave been proposed.Blümelwrotein 1927117 Balustrade wouldbe unthinkable the the Parthenon and the Nike of of figures pediment drapery withoutthe runningdrill;in 1943he was lesspreciseand citedonlythedrapery'der späteren but saysthatthe marksoftherunningdrillare visibleoccasionallyin Kunst',118 griechischen thesecondhalfofthefifth century.He givesno evidence,and I have foundnonewhichsuphis ports theory. "♦ Carpenter,NTP 78. "5 1. xxvi. 7.
116Lippold 222-3. 117Erg. xi. 15.
118Or. Bild. 36.
THE DRILL
65
Kraiker119 consideredthathe had foundtracesofthenewmethodon theNiobidin theTerme Museumand theSalamissteleNM 715. Yet therowsofholeswhichundercutthehemofthe weremade by thesimpledrillin exactlythesamewayas on thefigures of Niobid'sdrapery120 theOlympiapediments.On theSalamisstelethesimpledrillis plain tosee in variousfoldsand in undercutting (see pp. inf.). - themetopeBM 319,EF fig.43, and the RichterI21citesthreeexamplesfromtheParthenon are fartoowellfinished Demeterof the east pediment.In each case thechannelssheillustrates to give any evidenceat all, and on each examplethereare unfinished partsofchannelselsewhereon thefigurewhichshowtheworkofthesimpledrill.It seemstoounluckya coincidence thatthesculptorsmoothedonlythosechannelswhichhad been made by a runningdrill. afterdescribing Ashmole,122 veryexactlyhowthesimpledrillwas normallyemployedon the Parthenonfrieze,said 'the runningdrillwas introducedin Athens(and thereis no shadowof evidenceto indicatethatitsuse was anticipatedelsewhere)betweenthetimeoftheParthenon friezeand thatofthebalustradeofAthenaNike'. But althoughthesimpledrillis certainand oftheNikeBalustrade,thereis notone place ofwhichit clear on manypartsofthesculptures thatheretherunningdrillwas used. The same answermustbe made to can be said definitely Casson's123 opinionthattherunningdrillwas introducedby themastersoftheNikeBalustrade for 'allowing theoccasionaluse of a runningdrillat earlierperiods.For, afterall, any sculptor in usinga drillcould use it obliquelyand on rareoccasionsmakeit serveas a running drill.' We have seen thatnot merelya changeof angle was required,but a completelydifferent conception;thattheworkmanhad to realizethathe could makethetooldo twojobs at once, movingit alongthe surfaceand cuttingthe stoneat the same time.Did thisidea sometimes used formany occur to a workmanin the periodsbeforethe runningdrillwas 'extensively seem There are a where such channels to under the rightarm few exist; places purposes'?123 ofNF fig.45 on theParthenonfrieze,behindtheback oftheyouth'shead on theSalamisstele onthePhigaleiafrieze(e.g.BM 530),andbehind (plate 57 (¿)), behindtheheadsofa fewfigures theleftarmoftheyouthon thegravereliefBM 625. Thesechannelsare all unfinished, shallow, ofevenwidth,and have no signofindividualholes.Butaftercarefulexaminationnoneofthem as a runningdrillchannel.Thereareseveralholesmadebythesimple can be claimeddefinitely drill also underthearm of NF fig.45, and the mostlikelyexplanationof the 'runningdrill' channelis thatafterdrillinga lineofholesas usual thesculptorclearedsomeofthemby using his drillas a chisel,withtheresultthatthechannelis thesamewidth.I thinkthiswas also the At methodused behindthehead and armoftheyouthson NM 715 and BM 625 respectively. the sidesoftheheads on the Phigaleiafriezethesculptordrilledone longhole and brokeaway one side ofit (like Carpenter's'semi-running' drill,p. 64 above), thenscoopedout thecurve at thebottomoftheneckusinghisdrillas a chiselagain. In each one oftheseexamplesall the restoftheworkhas been done witha simpledrill,and it is difficult tobelievethatthesculptor wouldnothave attemptedto repeathisdiscovery ifhe had made one, and to see whyno more use was made ofit beforeit leapt to popularitymanyyearslater. Some sculptorsand masonstodaydenyaltogether thattherunningdrillwas used on Greek work- or indeedthatthereis any such tool. They considerthat'runningdrill'grooveswere alwaysmade in thewayjust described,by runningthedrillqua chiselalong a channelwhich had firstbeen honeycombed made by the Italian and by a simpledrill.However,thefurrows "» RM li (iqq6) 125. 120Cf. Lullies, pl. 172. 121AJA xxxvii (1933) 577, figs.8-10. C3288
122 JHS 1 (1Q30) 102 and n. ^. I23 TEGS 207. F
66
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
so closelywiththoseleftunfinished on Greekstonemasons whostillusethetooltodaycorrespond Greekworkthatwe cannotdoubtthattheyweremade in exactlythesame way.124 Therewereadvantagesin usingtherunningdrill.It couldcut a grooveveryquickly,and in some cases wherethe channelwas hidden anyway,forexample in undercutting drapery, Even in positionswheresmoothing was necestherewas no need forfurther workafterwards. fromdrillto raspwithoutanyintermediate sary,thesculptorcouldproceedstraight chiselling. All theseadvantageswereobviouslyappreciatedby Greekmasonsof thefourth who century used therunningdrillconstantly. We havealreadyseenthattherewas no signofitsuse on theErechtheum(408), theDexileos whichshouldbe dated c. 370 accordingto the most stele (394), or the Epidaurossculptures, whoworked recentresearch.125 We knowthattheMausoleumwasbegunby353,andthesculptors The the drill. new on it werethoroughly with running technique,then,musthave acquainted to pinpointthe date withgreater been introducedbetween370 and 350. It is verydifficult and our uncertainty about datingminorones precision,becausethelack ofmajormonuments meanthatwe knowverylittleabout thesculptureofthesecondquarterofthefourth century. on thecolumnwiththedancinggirlsat Delphi,so ifthis The runningdrillis used plentifully could be datedto thesixtiesthenso could therunningdrill.And someofthestelaion whichit appears(e.g. NM 743,Damasistrate)are probablyearlierthantheMausoleumsculpture.But we can go no further thanthisat present. In theworkofbreakingdownan area ofstoneso thatit could be removedmoreeasily,the runningdrillcould neverreplacethe simpledrill.For thisworkdeep holes are needed,not sculptureof the fourth grooves.There is littleevidenceleftof the processon freestanding the that marble between thelegsofSisyphos for but we century, maysafelypresume, example, and Aknoniosat Delphiwas weakenedwithdrillholesbeforeit was removed.Some tracesofa And whencarvingdeep drillare foundon thesidesofthethroneoftheDemeterofCnidus.126 thesculptorprobably or over-life-size recesseslikethelargerfoldsofdraperyon life-size figures used a few'pilotholes'to guidehim. to help cut the socketsforAnsätze. The simpledrillmuststillhave been used frequently has listeda numberoffourth-century Ashmole127 exampleswhereheads and armswereadded Daochos the There are more on dedication,wherethe drillwas probablyused to separately. make theholesfordowelsforthe arms.The head of as to as heads well the for hollow sockets intoquite a deep socket. made was NM separatelyforinsertion 323, AsklepiosfromAmorgos, and was so the were Mausolus The head and rightarmof added, rightarmoftheearlythirdthetailofthe animal On fourth-century sculptures centuryThemisfromRhamnous,NM 231. fixed were intosockets of and the lion BM 1085 fromthe Mausoleum eyes Ny Carlsberg238 hollowedout forthem. werefastenedwerealso stillmade by thesimpledrill.The The holesintowhichattachments head NM holesat thebackoftheboar's 178fromtheTegea pedimentwereprobablyforspears were Kerameikoscarrieda bow. Personalornaments from the NM or arrows.The archer 823 a sandal and a brooch wears Aknonios statues stillattachedto many ornaments, Sisyphos wore Brauron small from of the one and Blacas the wreathwas added to ear-rings. Head, girls So muchfortheusesofthesimpledrillin freestanding quarterofthe sculptureafterthefirst beendone The runningdrillwas nowusedforotherworkwhichhad previously fourth century. in but all of channels cut drill to descriptions, especially drapery. by thesimple I2+ I have heard thesedoubtsexpressedby Englishmasons; one has to rememberhow much softerthe marble is when it has just been quarriedin Greece and Italy.
125This is the opinion of Miss A. Burford. 126ProfessorB. Ashmole,JHS lxxi (1951) 24 and n. 47. I27 Ibid. 19, n. 40.
THE DRILL
67
Two statueswhichweremade to standon graves,theyounggirlLouvre648 and theseated womanLouvre3382,bothshowus how therunningdrillwas used at an earlystagein cutting drapery.On both thesestatuesthe areas whichwould not have been visibleare onlypartly worked.On 648 thelinesofthefoldshave been sketchedout witha point,and a runningdrill todeepenthem.Similarlythebackof3382has beenworkedoverwiththecorner usedafterwards of a flatchiselused obliquelylikea point,thentherunningdrillhas cut thelinesofthefolds (plate 32 (¿)). The nextstagein bothcaseswouldhave been workwitha flatchiseltovarythe linesand shapesofthedrilledchannels. BlümePs128 no. 19,NM 779 fromRheneia,apparentlyshowsus thisnextstageon a workof thefirst centuryb.c. A runningdrillhas been used in thechannelsofthedrapery,betweenthe and fingers, betweenneckand veil.A flatchiselhas followeditand shapedtheridgesofthefolds but theworkis so poorthatall thathas been doneis to roundoffthefoldsbeand thefingers, have not been recarvedor variedat all, tweenthe drilledchannels.The channelsthemselves widthand depththefinalresult and sincetherunningdrillcan onlycut channelsofuniform would have been extremelymonotonous.The sculptorof the bust of 'Eubouleus',Agora S channels.He was also contentto employthe runningdrillto cut a seriesofuniform 2089129, intendedtouseitonlyat a verylatestage,foralthoughthefaceand locksofhairare completely copyNM 181 showsthata greatdeal of shapedby thechisel,a comparisonwiththefinished surfaces drillworkis stillto come.'Lumpsofmarbleare leftprojecting beyondthesurrounding - thatis,aroundthelocksat thefront ofthehair,in in all areaswherethedrillwas tobe used'130 a continuous channelbetweenthehairand theface,and betweenthelips.Thisunfinished copy makesit clearwhythedrillworkin thehairofNM 181 appearsso harshlyregular. centurythispitfall Althoughtherunningdrillwas usedverywidelyon draperyin thefourth is usuallyavoided.The sculptormanipulatedtherunningdrillas he had thesimple ofmonotony drill;itwas ofgreatassistancein cuttingoutchannels,buta lotofchiselworkwas neededafterwardstogivevariationand lifeto thelieofthematerial.On theSisyphosat Delphi(plate 47 (a)) ofthechannelshavebeenconsideredas carefully thedifferent lengthsand depthsand directions and of as on fifth-century the costume Aknonios,wherefewdeep foldsoccuracrossthe pieces, frontofhisheavycloak,showsthatthesculptorcontrolledand was notcontrolledby his new method.The draperyoftheDemeterof Cnidusis drilledmoreheavily,but heretoo any sughas beenavoidedbyplanningthelinesofthefoldsand bycarefulchiselling gestionofmonotony areas and theridgesofthefolds.The ThemisofRhamnous,however,is dull,dry oftheflatter workbecausethesculptorreliedfartoo muchon therunningdrillwhenhe carvedthedrapery. Naturallyit was usedin all thesameplaces as thesimpledrillhad been- downlongvertical folds(ApolloPatroos,plate 43 (¿)), toundercuthems(Daochos,plate 46 (a)) and theedgesof etc. (Asklepiosat Eleusis,plate 51 (a)). On largeand smallmonuments, overfolds, rangingfrom a harefromBrauron,thesculptormightusethetool theApolloPatroosto a smallgirlcarrying whocarvedtheEpidaurospediments, and,likehispredecessors economically, deepensomefolds at thefrontofa figurewiththedrill,but use onlya chiselat theback. - for Channelsmade by the runningdrillappear veryfrequently on the edges of drapery instancealong the hemsof the Apollo Patroos,of Berlin1725, a late fourth-century woman fromSamos,and ofLouvre648. In thesame way itschannelsseparatethedraperyand parts of a figure.Thus the thighsof the Daochos dedicationare outlinedagainstthe surrounding drapery,and a groovemarkstheedge ofthecap ofHerakles,Tegea 60 fromtheTegea pediment.On theWeepingMaids,BerlinK 13 a and b, therunningdrillhas been used to separate 128Erg. xi. 59, pl. 26. 129Harrison,Hesperiaxxix (i960) 382 f.,and pl. 85 c, d.
"° Ibid.
68
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
thefigures fromtherockstheysiton, to markofftheneckfromtheupperedgeoftheirdrapery, and to carvetheanglebetweentheirlaps and thearmsrestingacrossthem.131 The habitofdistinguishing one partof theworkfromanotherby a furrowmade withthe later. runningdrillis keptin controlby fourth-century sculptors,but increasesdisastrously Sometimesin the fourthcenturya groovewas apparentlymade to guide the sculptorat an butelsewhereit remainsso clearthatit earlystageand becomessoftened duringlaterprocesses, musthave beencutat a late stage.Thus we finda runningdrillchannelaroundtheleftfootof Eleusis50,a channel Sisyphostoseparateitfromthetree-trunk (plate 47 (a) ) . On theAsklepios, remainsbesidetheedgeofthestickunderhisrightarm(plate 51 (a)). The samethingoccurson minormonuments; thereis a channelbetweenthebodyof the sirenNM 775132 and the shell she carries;and on thedog MunichG 497, whereroughlumpshave been leftto supporthis legs,groovesmade by therunningdrillseparatetheedgesofthelegsfromtheseroughareas. On the dog Ny Carlsberg238b runningdrillchannelshave beencut to markofftheback legs fromthebody; and in worklike thislie theseedsofmanylaterabuses.For thesculptoris in factusinghisrunningdrillto sparehimself one planefromanother thelabourofdifferentiating Thus by firmuse ofhischisel.The anglesare blurred,and over-emphatic groovessubstituted. on the groupNM 3335 (secondcentury)the linesof Aphrodite'sarmpitsare carvedwitha The sculprunningdrill,and thenymphDelos A 4156 has a groovedrilledroundherbuttocks. torof Delos A 449, a groupofArtemisstriking at a deer,used the runningdrilleverywhere thefront and in the ofthestatue- in thedrapery,outliningthedeer'sleg againstthetreetrunk, scabbardin the hand of Artemis.The wholethingis morelikea drawingon marblethanan attemptto carve a statueofvariousplanes. The runningdrillis usedwheresuitableon headsand faces.Hair is drilledmuchmoreoften thatone hardlynoticesthefact.Thus somechannelsare deepened now,butusuallyso discreetly withtherunningdrillin thelonghairofMausoluswhereit has beensweptback fromhisforestrandsand mostof the rootsof the hair are chiselled.A similar head; but the intermediary as thesculptor is used on the hair oftheDemeterofCnidus;viewedfromherleft,133 technique her it is clear bothabove be but from the drill in her hair can work intended, right hardly seen, ofthewaythesimple herforeheadand in somechannelsacrossherringlets.(Thisis reminiscent drillwas usedin theringlets ofkoreAcrM682,see p. 87.) The longstrandsofhairfallingon the ofsirenNM 2583134 are carvedwitha runningdrill,and on boththeDemeterand the shoulders sirenthereare runningdrillgroovesbetweenhair and neck.Wherea man's hairis carvedin aroundthe edgesofsomeof shortlockstherunningdrillhas been used gentlyand discreetly head ofAlexander, themto increasethe play of lightand shade. Thus on thefourth-century AcrM 1331, thehair at the top and back of the head is onlychiselled,but thedrillhas been used aroundthefrontand sides.The head ofAsklepiosfromAmorgos,NM 323,has beensimilarlytreated,and a verysmallrunningdrillhas also been used in a fewpartsof his beard. lionswerehandledinjustthesameway: on Ny Carlsberg238 and The manesoffourth-century thenthelocksat thefront NM 803 we can see thatthemaneswerechiselledat back and front, drill channels.135 were only emphasizedby running - hair and beard are drilledon the Poseidon This techniquewas continuedon laterworks ofMelos,NM 235, and thePoseidonfromPergamonin Berlin.Oftennow theoriginaldiscretionis abandoned.On sucha head as 'Eubouleus',NM 181,thechannelsstriketheeyeimmedithemas on the withthe chiselledpartsinsteadof supplementing ately,and contraststrongly Mausolusor Alexander. 132See p. 15, n. 90. 131Blümel,Katalog,pl. 21. 133Cf. ProfessorB. Ashmole,JHS lxxi (1951), pl. iii a, b.
I3* P. 15, n. 90. 135Cf. pl. 34 and Brückner,DerFriedhof amEridanos, fig.48.
THE DRILL
69
foundbehindan earAs forotherdetailsofheads,runningdrillchannelsare quitecommonly seetheyouthNM 254,theAgias,and fora laterexampletheAphroditefromthesecond-century groupNM 3335. A drillwas probablyused alongthemouthoftheDemeterofCnidusand of AlexanderAcrM 1331,butitsworkhas beenremovedby laterchiselling.On somelaterpieces - the AsklepiosfromMunychia,NM 258, and the LykosouraZeus, NM 1736- it was used moreharshly.It is interesting to noticethaton theMausoleumlionsand theboarNM 178 from a has been usedto finishthedepthsoftheirmouthsaftertheyhad drill channel Tegea, running been hollowedout withothertools. On reliefas on freestanding sculpturethereis someworkwhichmuststillbe doneby a simple whetherby socket,dowel,or both.Very drill.Obviouslyit was needed forfastening Ansätze, fewpartsofthe Mausoleumfriezeweremade separately,but a horse'sleg was added on BM 1018. On gravereliefsthe drillwas probablyused at an earlystagein makingthe socketsfor Dowel holeswereboredto fastenarmson headson NM 768 and therelieffromTrachones.136 PiraeusE 63 (plate 7 (b)) and NM 826, and feeton NM 833 and theseatedwomanin the Kerameikos. werepopularon the Mausoleumfrieze,and we findholesdrilledforweapons Attachments and reins.Even on thesmall-scalereliefsoftheAlexanderSarcophagus,Istanbul68, weapons wereoftenadded. On thePergamenefriezes, however,thepracticeofthemasonswas to carve to this contributes greatly the crowdedappearanceof the Great Frieze. everything possible but the sculptorswere defeatedby reinsand thesewere are all the carved, Nearly weapons otherattachments As wellas theever-popular added separately. maybe foundoccaear-rings, NM on head the the of like the band round on reliefs 869,theornaments youth sionally grave chair ofDemetriain the on and the decorations on thehelmetofAristonautes (plate 17 (a)) the Kerameikos. The simpledrillcontinuesto be used in the carvingproperof reliefstoo. Many partsof figuresare cut freeon the Mausoleumfriezeand thesimpledrillwas certainlystillnecessary forthiswork.Wheredeep channelsexistbehindpartsof thereliefcuthigherthantherestthe eventhoughthebottomofthechannels simpledrillwas probablyusedto hollowthemout first seemsto be someindicationof this a drill. There afterwards with be neatened running may workbehindtheheadsofthewomenon NM 870 (plate 65 (¿)). In otherplacestoowhereareas theold ofthemarblehad to be hollowedout we findtracesofthesimpledrill- undercutting ofthe man'scloakon theIlissossteleNM 869 (plate 69 (è)), and in thecornersofthepediments were rechannels narrow Then rather 10. where Istanbul Women deep sarcophagus, Weeping times drill several drill the was safer use the than work it to for exact running simple quired very over,and so thereare signsofa simpledrillin thearchitectural mouldingsat Tegea, and in a deeperchannelin a horse'smaneon thesarcophagusfromSalonikain theLouvre,althoughthe shallowergroovesare cut by a runningdrill. withgarlandsillustrates at theback ofthesamesarcophagusthereliefofgriffins Incidentally, have been invented the a which of Romans,sincethereis no by may excellently type drilling evidenceofiton Greekwork.It mightbe describedas 'bridgedrilling'(fig.9 and plate 32 (c)). The masonholdshisdrillat an angleof45o or lessto thesurfaceand boresa seriesofsingleholes thiswasa quicker whichslanttowardone anotherandforma zigzaginverticalsection.Evidently ofboringa and moreconvenient methodto obtaina deep narrowchannelthanthealternatives rowofholesat rightanglesto thesurfaceor pushingtherunningdrillalongseveraltimes,even examplesofthe thoughhe is leftwitha bumpyunevenchannelafterdrilling.Therearefurther at Ephesus. methodon thesarcophagus Vienna 1183and on someofthearchitectural mouldings 136National Museum, Athens.Conze, Grabreliefs, 207, pl. lv.
70
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
The simpledrill,as we have seen (pp. 49 and 54), was invaluableto thesculptorin cutting theoutlinesofthefigures on hisrelief.Rows ofholescould be drilledaroundtheiredgesat an earlystageto the depthof the intendedbackground,the areasbetweencouldbe clearedand The runningdrillhad no advantage thesculptorcontinueworkon hisclearlydefinedfigures. overthesimpledrillin thiswork.A sculptorusingit wouldtakeat leastas longto drilla deep to keep thedepthofthechannelregular.Even more groove,and mightfindit moredifficult
' A s a. drill cutting channels
b. channel fromabove
'^/
xpy
-
c. section throughchannel Fig. 9. 'Bridge' drilling
therunningdrillcannot'run5roundsharpangles: everytimehe came to a corner important, the sculptorwould have to lifthis tool out and startagain. In factin manycases he would findhe was usingit as a simpledrillanyway.Therefore we mightexpectthatthemethodof theoutlineofa reliefwitha rowofsimpledrillholescontinuedaftertheintroduction perforating of the runningdrill.Unfortunately thereis verylittleevidenceabout this.However,the unseemstosupportthe finished reliefDelos A 3194 (plate 7 (a)), whichis probablythirdcentury, idea. A drillof about6 mm.widthhas boredholes,whichin placesare 2*5cm. deep,closetogetheraroundmanypartsoftheoutlines. But therunningdrilldid replacethesimpledrillwhereit had been used at a laterstagein cuttingtheoutline.For example,thereis a smallunfinished patchon theMausoleumslabBM 1006 (Lullies,pl. 203 below)underthehemofa fallenAmazon.Here a drillchannelhas been runalongthebottomedgeofthebackhembeforethesurplusstonewas clearedfromthebackgroundjust below. In a moreconspicuousplace, thechannel,once itspurposeofhelpingthe
THE DRILL
71
removedwhenthe wouldhavebeenpartlyorentirely sculptordefinetheedgehad beenfulfilled, backgroundwas chiselledafterwards. Likethesimpledrill(fig.6) In thisexamplethechannelwascutdirectly intothebackground. therunningdrillcould be used at variousanglesaroundan outlineto emphasizeit,and many invisiblefromthefront.In theplaceswheretheyare visible,as on of itschannelsare therefore BM 1014 (Lullies,pl. 202 below) betweenthelegsand underthehelmetcrestoftheGreekon untiltheylooklikeshadows theleft,theyhavebeenpartlyerasedand smoothedbylaterchiselling castbytherelief.Channelshaveoftenbeenleftin theiroriginalstatein theinnumerable places wheretheycut intotheback ofa figure-as downtheleftside oftheAmazonon therightof slab BM 1013 (Lullies,pl. 202 above) or downthefrontoftheAmazonturningon herhorse on BM 1015 (Lullies,pl. 203 above);.This techniqueis stillobviousto somedegreeon nearly everyfigureon thefrieze.Especiallywherepartsoflegsand armshave been cut free,running drillchannelslead up to thebreakand oftencurveintoitfromaboveand below(plate 33 (a)). Sometimesa channeloutlininga figurein thiswaywillcutrightacrossotherpartsoftherelief; her left Amazon on BM 1014 (Lullies,pl. 202 below) a grooveundercutting on the striking the her and all the of her where intersects vertical folds rightleg overlaps leg of drapery, thigh anotherfigurethechannelcutsacrossittoo(plate 33 (¿)). On BM 1015(Lullies,pl. 203 above) the grooverunningalong the horse'sback and straightthroughthe rightkneeof the rideris - thoughpresumably it wouldnothave been frombelow. evenvisiblefromthefront This lavishuse ofthedrillaroundoutlinesis labour-saving;itenablesthesculptorto achieve sharpclearoutlinesquicklywithouta lot ofpatientchiselwork.The popularityofthemethod was widespread.Behindtheheadsofseveraloftheweepingwomenon thesarcophagusIstanbul 10 (plate 34 (#)),underthe lefthand ofDeath on theEphesuscolumnBM 1206,behindthe dancinggirlson thecolumnat Delphi,runningdrillchannelsstressthecontoursof thefigures. worktoo,and groovesare drilledalongtheleaveson Occasionallytheyappearon architectural NM 943.137 the akroterion too. NM 717 and NM Masonscarvinggravereliefsadoptedthetechniquewithenthusiasm and date to the second of the fourth both 3927probably century, runningdrillchannels quarter are usedon bothtooutlinepartsoftheheadsofthefigures againstthebackground(plate 34 (c), NM 717). On NM 717 theclaspedhandsofthetwowomenarechannelledaboveand belowinthe same way and a smalldrillran a groovedowntheedgeofthefrontleg ofthestoolto separate it clearlyfromthedrapery.In thesecondhalfofthefourthcenturymanystelaiwerecarvedin ofan outlinemaybe detachedfromthebackgroundor another higherrelief,and longstretches channels into the carved back ofthem.Examplesoccurbehindthelegs and armsof figureby the womenon NM 768 and in therelieffromTrachones138 Quite (plate 17 (¿)) respectively. shortstretches ofKorallionand theHydromaybe emphasizedtoo- behindfaceson thereliefs phoros,underbeardson the Charonrelief,all in the Kerameikos;aroundhandson NM 2708 and NM 966; and finallyaroundthefeetoftheboyand thehoofsof thehorseon thelate relief NM 4464 showinga negroboy holdinga horse. The samemethodis usedevenon smallvotivereliefs.Groovesbehindthefigures on BM 1953 and down the side Herakles a in of relief the Piraeus on Museum were made 5. 30 bya running and more channels can be found around the head of Artemis drill, (plate 34 (¿)) and thedeer on thevotiverelieffromBrauron,139 and roundmanypartsofthe figures on NM 4465.14° No discussionof the use of the runningdrillon the outlinesof reliefsculptureswould be 137 Möbius,
Die
Ornamente der griechischen Grabstelen
{Berlin, 1929), pl. 29 b. 138Conze, Grabreliefs, 207, pl. lv.
139BCH lxxxiii (1959), pl. xxxi 2. 140Hausmann, Griechische fig.31. Weihreliefs,
72
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
a reference totheGreatFriezefromPergamon.Hereitwasusedin all theways completewithout we saw on theMausoleum,onlyto a greaterdegree.The sculptornow reliesheavilyupon the tool to achieveclarityof outline,and allowsits channelsto appear farmoreconspicuously. As Winnefeld theoutlineisoftenstrengthened ofthetechnique,141 saysin hisexcellentdescription need it to by runningdrillchannels,and notonlyin thoseratherflatpartswhichparticularly are almostfreestanding. but also in placeswherethefigures And,indeed, givethemdefinition, the channelsdo not cut intothe backgroundonly,but also quite unorganically acrossother thedrillworkis at itsmostobviousand seems partsofthereliefas well. In theAthenagroup142 almostto guidetheforms;and, althoughin otherplacesitsmasteryis lessobviousto the betheirwork. holder,the sculptorsused it constantly throughout The long successionofhard tiringoutlinesalong boththe friezesbearseloquenttestimony to theseobservations In manycaseson theTelephosfriezeit is obviousthatthe ofWinnefeld. drilland chisel,theappearanceofa firmly was with drawnline seeking, sculptor deliberately to encloseall hisfigure, so thatit had no chanceto mergewiththebackground or otherpartsof therelief(plate 35 (a)). On Roman sarcophagiit is usedevermorecontinuously and heavily likea crayonaroundthefigures:and on thearchofGaleriusin Salonikawe findthatalthough werecarvedso deeplyinto muchofthesculpturehas disappearedtheoutlinesroundthefigures thebackgroundby therunningdrillthattheystillremain.143 The fourth-century workman,however,did not use his runningdrillin thisheavy-handed On the Mausoleumthetoolhardly either around the outlineor insidetheactual figures. way, in a horse'smane (BM 1015)144 a channels the few or on the heads of figures;only appears weremade by a runningdrill.Then on betweenan Amazon's hair and neck (BM 1006)145 NM 737, his mouthand thechannelsbetweenhisfingers thelargegravereliefof Prokleides, have been drilled,and on NM 833 the main linesoftheman's beard have been cut deeply witha drill.But such workis stillfarfromthe excessof the second-century friezes,where channelsare cut aroundthe edge of the eyes,or hair carved straightinto the background witha runningdrill.On the Pergamenefriezesthesculptorscut so manyofthelinesoftheir figureswiththe runningdrillthat the originalemphaticforceof the techniqueis dulledby repetition. as on freestanding tocutdrapery.Most sculpture, Finallytherunningdrillwas usedon relief, the chisel some with but carved alone and gave it did not use indiscriminately, parts sculptors On the for drill. with the to others and Caryatidcolumn, example,the running variety depth clothofthegirls'dressesis thin,and onlywhereitbunchesaroundthewaistoris blowntogether at the sidesis thedrillnecessary.On theMausoleumfriezestoo theuse ofthedrillis planned ; manyof theAmazons'tunicshave hardlyany deep channels,and the foldsof the carefully thatall signof drillinghas vanished.Some chiselledafterwards cloakshave been so carefully drill a with undercut have been (BM 1022),but by no meansall. running edges areas Earlierstagesofworkoftherunningdrill,as ofothertools,maybe foundon unfinished have notbeenfinished ofgravereliefs.The menon NM 2574 and therelieffromTrachones146 rightto theback. In bothcases somerunningdrillchannelsstretchintotheincompleteareas and showhowthesculptorusedhistoolto cutguidinglineswhichwouldthenbe almosterased ofgoodquality.NM 1986(plate 32 (a)) was madebyan in thelaterwork.Thisis workmanship ofhisdraperywitha runningdrilland thendid channel almost cut who inferior mason, every 141Per^amon iii. 2. n8f. 142Lullies, pl. 241. 143Prof.J. M. C. Toynbeeinforms me thatthesame process can be seen on the reliefsof the monumentof theJulii at
Saint Rémyin Provence,and on manyotherSouth Gaulish reliefs. I45 Lullies, ibid. 144Lullies, pl. 203 above. 146Gonze, Grabreliefs, 207, pl. lv.
THE DRILL
73
littlemorethanleveland smooththeareasbetween.And yetevenherethereliefis savedfrom theharshmonotonyofso muchlaterworkbecause the patternhe was following obligedthe sculptorto altertheangleofhis drilland to varythedepthofthefolds. On thegravereliefsofthesecondhalfofthefourth centurywomenoftenwearan extragartunic- overtheirchitons,and as a resultdraperybecomesheavier ment- a thickhigh-girdled The sculptorpunctuatedthe voluminousmassesby drillingsome parts and moreenfolding. moreheavilythanothers.The seatedwomanon the Trachonesrelief,forexample,has only a fewfoldsdrilledoverherbodice,manymorein theswathearoundherhips(plate i 7 (b)) . On otherexamplesofa seatedwomantheverticalfoldsoverherfeetmightbe drilled,or a cornerof drillchannels.The standingmanon plate i 7 (b) hercloakresting onherlap undercut byrunning is typicalin thewaya fewfoldsbetweenhislegsare deeplydrilled,and theedgeofhistriangular overfoldis undercut.This is exactlythe typeof workwe findon theAsklepios,Eleusis 50 NM byrunningdrillchannelsup behindthehemofProkleides, (p. 103),and theundercutting find with is to other It monument. the Daochos reminiscent of is parallels possible 737, very work- the edge of the hem of the Hydrophorosin the Kerameikoshas been freestanding drilled,and thereis a channelrunningroundtheinsideoftheneckofa womanon NM 2708. to the end ofthefourthcenturytherunningdrillis Thus fromthe timeofitsintroduction used by sculptorsand masons,on workof varyingimportanceand different sizes,fairlyconin variations are due The to differences and similar for in similar only purposes. sistently places thetasteor theskilloftheworkman.
CHAPTER 6
THE RASP The purposeoftheraspis to workaway theroughness usedtools. ofsurfaceleftby previously As it is pushedand pulledinsteadofbeingstrucklike a chisel,it can be applied muchmore and as itsteethare smallitremovesonlya thinlayerofstone.It cannotbe gentlyto thesurface, and Romans2,and therefore sharpened.Fileswereused by the Egyptians1 by the presumably Greeks.However,ifa filewereusedon marbleitwouldremoveevenlessstonethana rasp,and wouldbecomecloggedmoreeasily.Nor couldit be sharpened.In fact,emerychipsor powder wouldaccomplishthesameworkas quicklyas a file,and itseemslikelythattheywerepreferred and masons.Cassonand Blümel(seebelow)thinkthatfileswereusedas well byGreeksculptors as raspsbut giveno evidence. A selectionofmodernraspsand rifflers3 showshowwidetherangeofthesetoolsis now.The is a verycomplicatedtool,4butit is an elaborationofa simpleprinciple.A metal modernriffler shaftis punchedin sucha waythatsmallV-shapedteethare raisedup to forma gratingsurface. Egyptianbronzerasps5weremade by punchingdentsintoa thinsheetofmetal,likea modern kitchengrater,and wrappingit roughsideout arounda woodencore.The shaftfromwhichan ironraspis made can be ofanyshape,straight orcurvedin sectionor alongitslength.It is more difficult to makethanthebronzeversionbut itsextrahardnessmakesit wellworththeinitial trouble.An ironrasp,resembling closelya modernone illustrated by Batten,was foundin the collectionofAssyriantoolsoftheeighthcenturyfromThebesin Egypt.6 of Althoughwe have no exampleofa raspfromtheclassicalperiod,we have representations The theraspsusedbybronzeworkers on theBerlinFoundrycup7and a cup in theAshmolean.8 musthave been similarlycurvedinto the different shapeswhich raspsused by stonemasons would enable themto penetrateinto the deeperfoldsof complicateddrapery,and probably werealso fittedwithwoodenhandles.Thereis no evidenceto suggestthata doubleraspofthe modernriffler typewas known. Blümel9saysthattheraspis similarto thefile'and leavesfineirregularscratcheson thesurface.On earlyGreeksculpture one findsthesculptoroftenuseditin theplaceshe was preparing and becamethetoolforsmoothforan applicationofcolour.Laterit was usedmoregenerally, betweenthe two a distinction Casson10 draws and the surface,replacingemery ing pumice.' ormake tools.'Filescutgroovesand lines;raspsweardownsurfaces alreadypreparedotherwise, theway He also distinguishes to be classedas grooves.5 hollowsor cavitiesthatare notstrictly thetoolswereused at different times.cTo whatextentthefileand rasp wereused in thefirst halfofthesixthcentury itis impossibleto say.' In thesecondhalfofthecentury 'raspedsurfaces can be detectedin a good manycasesin theKorai series,mainlyon drapery'.He too considers on archaicand earlyclassicalsculptureto 'hold the thatraspedsurfaceswereleftunsmoothed oftheParthenon thesurfaceofthesculptures between Then a difference he sees paintfirmly'. and Erechtheumon theone hand,and oftheNike Balustradeon theother.The latteris 'less glowingand rougher... a new fashionhad comein and thatfashionwas popularizedby the mediumoftherasp'.11 1 Pétrie.TW A±. 2 RA5iii-iv(iqi6) 2^8, pl. xiii. 3 Batten, Stone Sculpture59.
* See also Casson,TEGS,fig.86. s Pétrie,TW 38. 6 Pétrie,TW, pl. lxxvii,S 46.
7 Gasson,TEGS,figs.52, 53. 8 Ibid., fig.73. 9 Gr. Bild. 37.
10 TEGS 216. 11Ibid., 218.
THE RASP
75
What neitherBliimelnor Casson mentionsis thatit is not alwayseasy to decide whether markson the surfaceweremade by a rasp or not. The tool can leave irregularscratches,or illustration ofthedraperyon a Roman figurein the groupsofquiteregularlines,as Casson's12 if lines theteethare placed unsystematically, or The occur Museum shows. irregular Acropolis to decidewhether if theraspcrossesand re-crosses thesamearea. Thenit can be quitedifficult thesemarkshavebeenleftby a rasp,or by a coarseabrasivestone.But apparentlythemajority ofGreekraspshad teethcutin orderlyrows,and thesculptorstendedto use themquitegently in longstrokes, so thatgroupsofregularlinesresult.Thesemaybe thinand sharpwhenthetool is new,squarerwhentheteethhave beenbluntedbywear.In bothcasesit can be verydifficult to decidewhetherthesemarksweremade by a raspor a fineclaw; notby a claw used witha theseparateblows; but hammerin theordinaryway,forthenwe wouldbe able to distinguish so even are the marksat timesthatit looksas thoughthesculptormay have drawnhis claw acrossthe stonelike a rasp. We do notknowifthiswas everdone. On thewhole,it seemsunmustbe bornein mind. likely(see p. 76) butthepossibility The averageGreekrasphas teethabout 1mm.apart,butsomeofthoseusedon backgrounds especiallyhad teethabout 2 mm.apart. archaicsculpture.We do notevenknowifit was Marksoftheraspare rareon freestanding used in the firsthalfofthe sixthcentury;theratherroughtextureof,forexample,theBerlin StandingGoddessand theTenea kourosmightbe explainedbythefactthattherewas no interbetweenthedroveand emery.The marksofthetool cannotbe seenvery mediarysmoothing oftenon worksofthesecondhalfofthesixthcenturyeither,thoughtheyare frequentenough to showthatit was usedgenerally.But thestandardoffinishat thistimewas veryhigh,and a easyto smooth.Examplesofraspingmaybe foundon theback raspedsurfacewas particularly of koreAcrM 615,on thebacksofa lion and a horsefromtheAlkmeonidpedimentat Delphi, and on partsofthe Giant'sleg and Athena'sheel in the groupNM 229, whichis probablyto be datedc. 490. selectedparts Alreadyit is clearthattheGreeksculptordid notuse hisrasponlyon carefully of his work,whetherforthe receptionof colour or forany otherpurpose.The rasp was a smoothingtool,and he used it alike on flesh,drapery,and animal.Its markswereleftonlyin - and inthearchaicperiodusually thoseplaceswheretheywouldescapetheeyesofthespectator not even there.There is no regularconnexionat all betweenpartswe knowwerecoloured and partswhereraspworkhas survived. littleraspingis actuallylefton theOlympiasculptures, thoughit was obviously Surprisingly are under the usedgenerally.13 left tail of one ofthehorseson the the clearest examples Perhaps east pedimentand on theCretanbull on a metope.The NikefromParos,so similarin styleto theOlympiafigures, has someraspworkon herdrapery.Not surprisingly we findthatin the more the folds of the of the Parthenon of deeper pedimentfigures raspinghas been left drapery the for the visiblefolds unsmoothed.On the Demeterof eastpediment, example, immediately all roundare beautifully in the marks of the some of those crevices but tool survive smoothed, whichcan be seenonlyaftermuchpeeringand craning.On thecharioteer AcrM 881 fragment the sweepofa rasp can be seen rightdownone fold.A particularly finerasp (4t/3mm.) was used on the draperyof theAphroditeAgoraS 1882,14but an ordinaryone, withteeth1 mm. apart,can be seenon hersandals. Rasp workcan be seenmoreoftenon fourth-century pieces.In theearlypartofthecentury, on theEpidaurosfigures, itis stillvisibleonlyon occasionalpatcheswhichhaveescapedsmoothand on thehorses.But laterin thecentury ing,on thedrapery,on the wingsofan akroterion, 12 TEGS, fig.87.
» Gf. Blümel,Erg. xi. 9.
14 Hesperiaxxix (i960) pl. 82 a, b.
76
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
thecontrastbetweentheeventextureoffleshand the thesculptorbeginsto enjoyconsciously thelatterlessthanbefore,or notat all. Thus the smoothed and either slightly rougherdrapery, on thecloakofDaochos (plate 49 (c) and oftheraspcan be seenclearlycriss-crossing strokes on thegarmentofSisyphos(plate 48 (a)). All thevisiblepartsoftheirbodiesare rubbedto an betweenthe butraspmarksare stillin evidenceundertheleftarmofSisyphos, exquisitefinish, the cloak Aknonios. under of of the and the at back on legs legs Agias Alsopresentin theDaochos dedicationare examplesoftheraspusedon thejoiningsurfaces ofAnsätze. The outeredgesofthepartspreparedforthereceptionoftheleftarmofSisyphosand therightarm ofAknonioshave all been raspedreadyfora tightfit.The same is trueof the stumpoftherightarmoftheAsklepios,Eleusis50. The use of the rasp on reliefworkfollowsthe same patternas on freestanding sculpture. butsmallparts oftheSiphniantreasury, Thereis scarcelyanyraspworktobe seenon thereliefs ofthearmouroftheAristionsteleand thechild'shead and woman'shand on thegraverelief The sculptorofthevotive NM 4472provideevidenceofraspingfortheendofthesixthcentury. relieffromSounion,NM 3344,removedall the rasp workfromthefrontof theyoungman's head, but did notbotherabout a stripacrossthetop. Likewisea smallpatchofraspingis left at thebackofthefaceofArtemisfromslab AcrM 856 oftheParthenonfrieze,and themarksof thetool can be seen hereand therein the draperiesof thefriezefiguresas in thosefromthe of to see themarkedchangewhichCassonnotesbetweenthetextures pediment.It is difficult smoothedand forthelatterare stillcarefully theParthenonand theNikeBalustradesculptures, onlyoccasionalpatchesofraspingcan be seen.The Phigaleiafrieze,however,presentsquite a different picture.Rasp workis widelyvisiblein thefinishofpartsofthefiguresand drapery. : the reliefof Amamountof evidence.To summarize Grave reliefsofferan embarrassing fine The is to be dated Museum c. in Kerameikos the 400. raspwhichwas probably pharete15 usedall overthefigureis stillobviouson thebackofherface,herdrapery,and herstool.Most of thereliefscarvednear thebeginningof thefourthcentury, however,likethatof Dexileos. visible.On NM 717 rasp workis finishand raspingis notimmediately tendto have a smoother from clearbehindthefaces; bytheperiodofNM 966 (plate i 9 (c)) ithasonlyjustbeensmoothed thefrontof the face,and is stillplain in the dimpleof the chin,and aroundthe cornersof brow,mouth,and hairline.Throughthecenturythereis thesametendencyon gravereliefsas on freestanding sculptureto leave moreand moreoftheraspingon drapery. Thisis truealso ofmajorand minorreliefs.Raspingcan be seenon manypartsofthedrapery and stillmoreon the Ephesusdrums.While the document ot the Mausoleumrelieffigures, smoothedthatthereis hardlya toolmark reliefof403-402,AcrM 1333,has been so thoroughly c. relief to be seen,thevotive Ny Carlsberg231, 329-328 (plate 35 (è)) showsthatno attempt at all was made to removetheraspworkfromthedraperyhere. fromarchaic and reliefsculptures Thereis one typeofraspworkwhichoccurson freestanding - thesmoothing oflargeflatareas,rangingfroma seator throneto thebackto Roman times whethera claw groundofa relief.This is thetypeofworkforwhichone wondersparticularly that the are so and Yet lines often the used not have been theywaver way regular. long might and curvein some examples,or slideevenlyoffan edge on others,mustindicatethatthese longlineswerealwaysmade by a rasp and not a claw. - ithas alreadybeen The archaicvotivereliefAcrM 3706 (plate 8 (a)) maybe an exception in thechapteron theclaw. On thearchaicgravereliefNM 4472 theraspwas used mentioned the and thefurrows ofitsteethcan be seenfollowing as wellas on thefigures, on thebackground line of the child'shead. Then thereis raspingon the backgroundof the metopesfromthe 15AAxlviii(1933) 285,fig.17. Raspingnotclearon thephotograph.
THE RASP
77
treasuryof theAtheniansat Delphi. We have seenabove (p. 37) how partofthebackground and showstheworkof a flatchisel. on the Sounionvotiverelief,NM 3344,was not finished, relief: the flatbetweentherightarmand the be seen on this of work can three Actually stages on head, a ratherbluntraspwithsquareteethin frontoftherightarm,and emerysmoothing the lowerpart (notin thephotograph). ofthebackgroundofthe Parthenonfriezehas been accomplishedso The emerysmoothing - underthe all that carefully nearly previoustoolmarkshave beenremoved: buthereand there - linesof stoolof Poseidonon slab AcrM 856, besidea girl'sfeeton slab III ofthe eastfrieze raspworkcan be seen.Long linesmade by a ratherbluntrasp appear also on theedge ofthe cheston whichtheDemeteroftheeastpedimentis sitting.Thereis stillverylittleevidenceof raspingon the backgroundof the Nike Balustrade,but the marksof a tool withteeth1 mm. apart can be seen on the backgroundofslab AcrM 989, and a largerrasp withteeth2 mm. apart was used underneaththeuppermouldingon slab AcrM 972. It is noticeablethatmuch moreof thebackgroundraspingremainson the Mausoleumfriezethanon the Parthenon,so trendto allow rasp workto stand applies to backgroundas well as that the fourth-century fine is a And there exampleofraspwork,perhapslightlysmoothedby emery,in the drapery. of the statuebase Agora 1416516withthesignatureof Praxiteles. the front across strokes Jong leftbyearliertoolsoverbroadareaswas needed Thisworkofsweepingawayanyunevenness in manyplaces on gravereliefs.I shall not cite examplesof its universalappearanceon the background,on thefrontofthepediment,on the frontofthe antae and ofteninsidethemas reliefs.On some of the earlierstelai the raspingis partly and fourth-century well, on fifthsmoothedaway. Sometimesthereare flatareasin partsofthedesignwherethemarksofa raspare stillvisible. on the Salamis reliefNM 715 again at first The lines along the top of the stelerepresented made been have as look by dragginga claw along thestone(plate thoughtheymight glance and to the tool curved but the edges slippedoffsideways,stillcuttingevenand gradually 58) ; a claw likethis.Stoolsand footstools are balance difficult to be It would very parallelgrooves. have been used on the in or two cases curve And one quite heavyrasps usuallyrasp-finished. - cf.PiraeusE 63I7andIstanbul5248 (plate i 9 (a) ) . ofthefootstool underneath theproperfront This same typeofheavyraspingacrossa curvecan be foundalso in a foldofdraperyon fragmentBM 1212 fromEphesus. Thereis no evidenceto supporttheidea thattheraspwas everused formodellingas it is by in cavities,thisis because modernsculptors.Althoughits marksmay be leftmorefrequently withabrasive. thesewerethepartsmosteasilymissedby thesculptorwhensmoothing as a smoothing The Greeks,then,used therasp consistently tool,preparingtheway forthe whenthisfinalpolishwas appliedto all parts finalpolishingwithemery.On archaicsculpture, removed.By thefourthcenturyit is removed ofthework,theraspinghas usuallybeen entirely and backgrounds. The fromthevisiblepartsoftheflesh,butis oftenlefton clothes,accessories, as a and as not Blümel did emery smoothingagent, graduallyreplacepumice says; its rasp marksweresimplyleftmoreoftenwhenabrasiveswereused less. 16 Hesperiav (1936) 340, fig.5.
17 Diepolder 50, n. 4.
CHAPTER 7
ABRASIVES We haveseenhowstatueswereshapedwithchiselsand drills,and thenanyirregularities on the even of surfacewereremovedby rasping.The finalstagewas thesmoothing away raspmarks fromthosepartsoftheworkwherethesculptoraimedat thebeautifulsurfaceso characteristic ofGreekwork;a surfacewhichdoes notshinewitha superficial glossbutglowsfromlongand with abrasives. patientrubbing 'The firststages of polishingare smoothingprocessesin which the abrasive is usually or emery.For thefinalpolishseveralmaterialsare used.... It is finely powderedcarborundum masons'puttypowder,whichis usuallycomposedof finely is called done with what generally of tinor a mixtureof the two. Some sculptorsuse rougeat oxide of zinc or oxide powdered howtheRomansmay one stage.'1The secondpartofthisquotationis includedas a suggestion - withpowderedoxide oftin (puttypowder)or oxideof have achievedtheirpolishedsurfaces iron(rouge).2The Greeks,however, stage,thesmoothing. stoppedat whatBattencallsthefirst The abrasiveswhichthe Greeksare mostlikelyto have used are emeryand pumice.From ofpumicewerewellknown,and he menwe learnthattheabrasiveproperties Theophrastus3 s as sourcesforit. Probablyhe refersto emeryalso, as a gem cutter. tionsMelos and Nisyros4 mineral name for the derives from Naxos our in on is found Cape greatquantities Emery Emerion Naxos- so theGreekshad a plentiful supplyto hand. PlinymentionsNaxian whetand also explainsthatwhena saw is usedwithNaxian,or anyotherabrasivesand,it is stones,6 sandsfor Aftera discussionof the meritsofdifferent the really sand whichdoes the cutting.7 and sand made from marble Theban that for he different concludes slabs, sand, polishing jobs, and marble statues for most suitable are the and stone ; cuttinggemsthe polishing pumice porous fora longtimewas Naxian.7 favourite We do not knowin what formthe abrasiveswereused,whetheras rubbersor crushedto powder.Emeryis, of course,muchharderthanpumice,but can be splitquite easilywitha and the hammer.It maywellhave beencrushed,sieved,and regroundintoeverfinertextures, and masons a felt But of ancient the with undoubtedly pad. sculptors equivalent powderapplied keptby themalso a storeofvariouslyshaped chipsofthestonefromwhichtheycould select and whichever theyneededfora particularcrevice.Pumiceis ofa muchmoreuneventexture, the more and therefore coarser as a used was therefore powder. Emery, probablyalways abrasiveof the two,was presumablyused firstto removethe rasp marks; thenfinepumice overthosepartsofthemarblewhichwereto be absolutelyfreeof powderwas rubbedpatiently toolmarks. It followsfromwhathas been said about therasp thatwhilein archaictimesalmostevery partofa statuewas usuallysmoothedby abrasives,by thelate fourthcenturytheywereused less widely.But the toesof theApollo Patroosand the legs and neckofAknonioshave been smoothedas exquisitelyas any earlierpiece. The fourth-century sculptorconsidered,likehis texture ofhumanfleshwas by a even the smooth to the that onlyway represent predecessors, surfacequite devoidoftoolmarks.
1 Batten,StoneSculpture 58-59. 2 This was used in pigments:cf. Caley and Richards, Theophrastus,On Stones(Columbus, 1956) 177.
3 On Stones 22.
4 On Stones2 1.
5 Galey and Richards,op. cit. 147 f. 6 NH xxxvi. 22. 47. 7 NH xxxvi.6. 9.
ABRASIVES
79
Cassonconsidersthatemerywas usedin otherwaysalso on Greekstatues.'Abrasionwas not confinedto the paringoffof surfacesand the smoothingof planes or curves.Abrasivecould clearlybe usedas a majortoolforbitingintothesurfaceofmarbleso as to makegroovesnarrow and deep or thinincisionsthatwerebothaccurateand clearlydefined.'8He citesas examples thecuirassflapson the oftheuseofemeryas a majortooltheSamio-Naxiangroupofsculptures, Aristionstele,thecuttingoftoeson a seriesofarchaicand fifth-century statues,and thefoldsof draperyon somekorai. It is truethatany of the grooveshe mentionscould have been workedby abrasion;it is It equallytruethatanyofthemmighthave been workedby a chiseland abradedafterwards. is difficult to see whythesculptoroftheAristionstele,who usedhischisellavishlyovertherest shouldsuddenlyhave decidedto cutone groovewitha stonetool.If thesculptorof oftherelief, so did theRomansculptorof köre1689used an abrasivetoolto workoutthetoesofhisfigures, NM 1828 (see p. 106); in fact,the sharpnessof the groovesin bothplaces seemsto indicate on thedraperyofAcrM 61910 ratherthattheyweremadewitha chisel.Certainlythestriations weremadeby abrasion,butthisdoesnotprovethatthefoldswereactuallycutin thisway; the For a marksmighteasilyhave been made when the surfacewas smoothedover afterwards. to hold,and easierto contool.It is morecomfortable chiselis, afterall, a farmoreconvenient trol.An emerypoint,directedby pressure, mayeasilybitetoo quicklyintoanyweakerpartof thestone. on the tasteof the sculptor. the methodused mustalwaysdependultimately Nevertheless, Thereis oftenmorethanone wayofproducingthesameresult,and theone usedin anyinstance eventheone whichwould appear moresensibleto us. is notnecessarily 8 Casson, TEGS 200.
9 Gasson, TEGS, fig.77.
10 Casson, TEGS, fig.39.
CHAPTER 8
A. CEMENTS AND GLUES In previouschapterswe have oftenreferred to theAnsätze, orextrapiecesjoinedon tothemain blockof marbleto completethe composition. We have seen thatthe contactingsurfacesare sometimes whenworked quiterough,whentheyhavebeenworkedwitha pointonly,smoother and as witha claw,and sometimes smooth when have been used well. very rasp emery Frequentthenpickedwitha point;it is usuallysaid thatthis ly a surfacehas beensmoothedcompletely, is to providea keyforthecementor stuccowhichjoined thetwopieces,butsomeauthorities do not agree thatsuch a cementwas ever used. It seemsworthconsidering whetherthe usual in architecture), or whethermortarwas used join (likeanathyrosis practicewas to make a 'dry5 at leastforsomejoins. In sculpturethejoins needed rangefromthe attachmentof an over-life-size statueto its are needed a small on the a methods to to of nose. different patch tip Naturally plinth fastening a intotwo forsuchdifferent and at of can be seen. divide any period variety joins They jobs, maincategories : first, thosewherea tenonfromtheAnsatzis inserted intoa sockethollowedout on themainpiece,and second,thosewheretwoplane surfacesarejoined together.Each categorycan be dividedagain intothe exampleswheredowelsare usedforextrasafetyand those wheretheyare not.It willbe obviousthatwhilethesurfaces ofa socketand tenonjoin maybe are least or where two surfaces at theouteredgesofthecontacting rough smooth, plane joined areas mustbe smoothed,so thatonlya thincrackwill appear betweenthem. The fitting ofa statue,or a graverelief,intoitspedestal- forfromthearchaicto theend of theclassicalperioditwas veryrarefora statueand pedestalto be cutfromone block- fallsinto A recesswas carvedoutofthepedestaland theunderneath thefirst ofthebase formed category. a tenonwhichfittedintoit. Similarlyheads are frequently made separatelyand fittedintoa socketbetweenthe shoulderblades; Berlin1725 will serveas an examplefromthe archaic period;theDemeterofCnidus1as a fourth-century example.Armswereoftenattachedjust by socketand tenon(cf.koreAcrM594) and althoughthisbecomeslesscommonlaterthemethod seemsto haverecurredon thelatefourth-century girlLouvre648. The practiceofaddingsome in thearchaicperiodthanlater.A rectcommon of the was also more parts draperyseparately an extra on koreAcrM594; at a muchlaterperiod has been cut to receive swathe socket angular tenon.2 we findthatpartofthedraperyoftheHermesat Olympiawas attachedbya triangular added A was in at too. small fastened this different were often patch way periods Quite pieces to thedraperyon theback oftherightshoulderofthekoreDelos A 4065,and armsand shoulderswerefittedintothesocketson thesmallNereidfrieze. The othertypeofjoin withinthesocketand tenoncategoryhas a dowelalso whichgaveextra betweenthebase and plinthof This was notnecessary and strength to theattachment. security a statue,forthesheerweightofthesculpturemade it unlikelythattherewouldbe anyshiftof position.Nor was a dowelusuallyconsiderednecessaryto helpfixa head intoplace, butoccasionallyone was added as an extraprecaution.Two can be seenat thesidesofthehead-pieceof koreAcrM 674,forexample; and a dowelpiercedthroughtheback wall ofthesocketintothe necktenonon thegirlPiraeus2 13 (plate 26 (a) ) , on Mausolus,andon Sisyphosat Delphi,plate 1 Ashmole,JHS lxxi (1951) pl. iv.
2 Olympiaiii, fig.232.
CEMENTS AND GLUES
8l
howa pinwasusedtohelpsecurethearmofkoreAcrM673,and threepegswere 2 1 (b) illustrates womanAgoraS 37 (plate 15 (c)).3On usedforthispurposeon theleftarmofthefourth-century the AphroditeAgora S 18824the dowelwas placed betweenthe bottomofthe tenonand the bottomofthesocketforherleftarm.The sculptorofkoreAcrM 680 apparentlythoughtthata in additionto thetenonand socketto securea piece ofdowelswas necessary complicatedsystem of draperyto hisfigure. dowelsare used In thesecondcategoryofjoins,wheretwoplane surfacesare fixedtogether, moreoftenthannot.Bothsurfacesare made quite level,and at leasttheouteredgesare thorso thatonlya thincrackwillappear betweenthem.Then one or moreholes oughlysmoothed, on thetwosurfaces are drilledin corresponding readyfordowels.Thereare somelarge positions in twopartsandjoined together like made a has been statue when for instance of this type, joins koreAcrM 682 and thehorsemanBM 1045fr°mtheMausoleum.AndthebackoftheDemeter This typeofjoin was ofKnidoswas levelledandjoined witha dowelto thebackofherthrone.5 not used to fastena head to theshouldersforobviousreasons; but occasionallyin the archaic lateritwas usedto fastenarms.The AthenaoftheEretriapediment periodand veryfrequently is an early example and it occurs severaltimeson the statuesof the Daochos dedication (plate 35 (c)). It was simplerto attachsmallpiecesby thismethodthanto carvesocketsfor them,and it was used on thetoesofa Lapith on ParthenonmetopeBM 317 and on theright thumboftheboy PiraeusE 20.6 Finallywe come to thejoins wheretwo plane surfaceshave been stucktogetherwithouta oftheleftfootofthearchaicseatedmanin theKerameikosMuseum7is one of dowel.The front theearliestexamples.The join surfacehereis quitesmooth;buton thesteleofAristionNM 29 thenroughened thepartswherethetipofthebeardand thegenitalswerejoinedweresmoothed, added on theleftofthe A was of a with point(plate 55 (a)). wedge drapery apparently slightly TermeNiobidwithoutanydowel,and so werehertoes.Againsmallpatcheswereadded to the tip ofthenoseof Mausolus,and theHellenisticArtemisDelos A 449. Obviouslyin a position like thisthesculptorwantedto reducetheapparatusofthejoin to a minimum. This apparatuswas probablyas variableas the different typesofjoin. We mighthave exused since be would that bronze dowels always, theywould not rustand therebysplit pected One has beenfoundon the or discolourthemarble.Butin factirondowelswereusedsometimes. head Agora S 12428(c. 400), and anotheris stillin place at the back of the Piraeusgirl 213 (plate 26 (a)). Perhapsthesculptorhopedthatthelead withwhichthedowelwas surrounded would protectthestoneagainstrust. Lead was usedonjoins in twoways.It was pouredintothenarrowgap leftbetweenthebase in position.The and thehollowin theplinth,and thusheldthepiecefirmly ofa statueor relief, Eleusis50 (plate 51 (b)) . Then NM 29 and theAsklepios, lead is stillthereon thesteleofAristion lead was frequently pouredintoa dowelholeafterthedowelwas in positionto holdit firmtoo. Sometimesseparatechannelsforpouringthe lead can be seen- see the AthenafromEretria - butin manycasesthereis no suchchannel.Either (plate 35 (c)), and theDemeterofKnidos9 or elsethesculptormade do witha doweland mortar. it was carvedthroughthemissingAnsatz, Verylittlemortaror cementhas survivedon Greeksculpture,but we can be certainit was used regularly.Especiallythe typeofjoin wheretwo plane surfacesare connectedwithouta dowel- seetheAristion stele,NM 29,and thenoseofMausolus- wouldobviouslybe impossible 3 4 5 6
7 AA xlix (1934) 226, fig.20. 8 Hesperiaxvii (1948) 177. The dowel is not mentioned here, but on the recordcard in the Agora files. 9 Ashmole,JHS lxxi (1951) pl. vii.
Hesperiaii(1933) 178. Hesperiaxxix (i960) pl. 82a. Ashmole. JHS lxxi (iq^i) dI. vii. Lullies, pl. 190.
C3288
G
82
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
withoutit. Even in places wherea dowel was used the surfacesaround it have oftenbeen smoothedthen picked again. On a true anathyrosis join only the edges would have been smoothedin the firstplace, the restwould merelyhave been workedaway by the point.Sa the usual explanationthat the pickingwas necessaryto providea keyformortar,stucco, or cementis obviouslythetrueone. The Greekswere well acquaintedwith these materials.Hydrauliccementwas used for and stuccowas quitecommonas a coveringforthecolumnsof Myceneanand classicalcisterns, templesnot builtof marble- like the templeofApollo at Corinth,and of Zeus at Olympia. talksof a 'gypsos'whichis 'used on buildingsand pouredroundstonesor anyTheophrastus10 One sortof'gypsos'is madebyburningmarble,, thingelseofthiskindthatone wishestofasten5. othersfrom'moreordinary kindsofstones'.Caley and Richards,in theirexcellentcommentary on thisworkof Theophrastus, show conclusively thatamongotherthingsthe term'gypsos* meanslime mortar.'Thoughonlya fewchemicalanalyseshave been made of ancientGreek mortars, theyindicatethatlimemortarwas theonlykindusedin Greeceat thetimeofTheophrastus.' Therewere,however,occasionswhena fineradhesivethanmortarwas needed.An analysis11 ofthecementused to fastentheeyesofa fifth-century bronzestatueintotheirsocketsreveals thatit was a beeswax-limemixture.Furtheranalysisof the cementused to fastena statuette intoitsbase (fourth is almostidentical.As Farnsworth century a.D.) showsthatitscomposition and Simmonssay, this cement'has manyinteresting possibilities.For example,a slightly warmednail willgo throughit withease, butwillbe heldin an irongripwhencooledto room, . . . evenby placingitin theAthenian However,thefactthatit 'couldbe softened temperature.' sun' wouldhave made it uselessformanypieceswhichwereto standout ofdoors. Anotherevenfineradhesivelay to hand. The Egyptiansused a glue made fromresin,sometimesthickened withpowderedlimestone.Lucas12has foundtracesofit used 'to luteon thelids of alabasterand limestonevases',to repairthebrokenlid ofa sarcophagus, and evenoccasionin as a mortar as a resin mentions ally building.Pliny13 specifically glue joiningagentformarble. His actualwordsare 'glutinumest... resinaplumboet marmori'.The idea thatresinis a solder forlead is probablydue to his confusing thefactthatbothlead and resinare fastening agents formarble. The Greeks,then,had a wide rangeof apparatusforsecuringjoins. They mightuse lead alone,or a doweland lead, or mortaror cement,or evena dowelwithlead and mortararound it. Forfinejoins theycoulduse glue.The choicewas made accordingto thetypeofjoin, and- as always- accordingto thetasteand habitofthesculptor.
B. THE CUTTING COMPASS We do notknowexactlywhattheformofthistoolwas. However,we maypresumefromthe marksleftthattwoironbars,eitherpointedorshapedlikea veryfineflatchiselat one end,were at theother. hinged14 together the Apparently cuttingcompasswas used duringthe archaicperiodonly.Its workcan be seenin twoplaces- on eyeballsto outlinetheirises,and on leopardsto cut theirspots.Thus in 10 On Stones6<' f.
11 Farnsworthand Simmons.Hesberiaxxix ( i q66) i i 8 f. 12 Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries313.
13 AT/xxxiii.5. 30. 14 The tongson black-figuredpots (Ox. Tech.ii, figs.2930) show that the principleof hingingwas known.
THE CUTTING COMPASS
83
both cases the main purposeof the tool is to emphasizeby incisionthe guidinglines for paint. - thehead of The majority ofexamplesofitsusein cuttingirisesoccuron limestone sculpture Hera at Olympia,the'Bluebeard'in theAcropolismuseum,the Chrysaorand theleopardsof the Corfupediment.The techniquewas used occasionallyon marble,as the markingson the kouros,NM 3851, prove. The lattershows sphinxin the Kerameikosand the Anavyssos15 a of for the does not cuta fullcircleon theeyeballbutonlytwo refinement, something compass arcs. This is the latestexampleI have noticed. In the leopardsofthe Corfupedimentand thosefroman archaicmarblepedimenton the Acropolisof Athens(AcrM 552 and 554) the cuttingpointmakingthe concentriccirclesis broader,and morepressuremusthave been exertedto forceit round.
C. THE SAW The Egyptianswereusingthesaw before2000 b.c.16and itsmarkscan be seenon thelids of granitesarcophagiand thebacksofalabasterstatues.The Myceneansalso used a saw on stone, as thecutson someblocksoftheTreasuryofAtreusshow.17 Pliny18 explainsat somelengthhowa saw is usedon marble,and how 'thecuttingis doneby sand,thoughit seemsto be done by iron,thesaw pressingon a verythinline and rollingthe suitsEgyptianworkas well This description sand about as it movesbackwardsand forwards'. as Roman. Plinyapparentlyconsidersthattheartofcuttingmarbleintoslabs (thatis by sawingthem) is a comparatively The first newinvention. exampleofwhichhe knowsis thepalace ofMausolus - whichin thiscontexthe datesmistakenly to thelate fifth at Halicarnassus century. thatsomestones remarks19 fourth at end of the On Stones the century, Theophrastus, writing to can be sawn,somecarved,and othersturnedon a lathe- butofcoursehe couldbe referring in Eleusis the mentioned or soft The stone. inscription npícovÀiOo-n-pícrrris, any precious of 40820also showsthatthe Greeksdid cut somestoneswitha saw; but forsomereasonthey neverusedthistechniqueon marble.As Dinsmoor21 says,'thereseemstobe no positiveevidence of the use of the saw forthe cuttingof marbleblocksin Greektimes,or at least beforelate withRoman; all theinstancesofsaw Hellenistictimeswhenthe techniquesmergeinsensibly also marble either Roman or modern'.And Richter22 of hitherto cited to be cutting prove correctstheidea thatthe saw musthave been used at leastby the timeofByzes.'Pausanias' to maketilesofmarbleis statement halfofsixthcentury)was thefirst (v. 10,3) thatByzes(first thatsuch But course theinference sometimes as an the saw. of evidence for use of quoted early tilesweresawnis a guess,and themarksthatappear on earlytilesare marksnotofthesaw but thedrove.' Thus no saw marksexiston marblearchitecture or sculptureof the archaic and classical We have seen narrow foldsofarchaicdraperywerecut witha how the periods. already deep work.It drilland chisels(pp. 46-47). It is surprising thatthesaw was notusedon architectural would have been a mostusefulinstrument in cuttingrooftiles,and in cuttingslabs readyfor stelai;but drovesand puncheswerepreferred by theGreekmason. 15 Lullies, pl. 57. 16 Pétrie, TW 44 f. and Lucas, Ancient EgyptianMaterials and Industries3 85.
17E. Hansen of the FrenchSchoolat Athenstold me
aboutthese. 18NH xxxvi.6. 6 and 9. 20 /G'i2.313, 129. 19Theophrastus, OnStones 41. 21AJAxlvii(1943) 188,n. 1. " AJAxivii(1943) 188.
PART TWO
INTRODUCTORY NOTE In PartTwo, by a detailedanalysisofthetechniqueofa numberofstatuesand reliefs, we shall to the and we methodswhoserange attempt showhow variety have exploredwerecombinedto suitparticularpieces. Obviouslythe sculptor'sorderof procedurecannotbe recalled,but an attemptwill be made to show approximatelyhow he handled his toolsfromthe timehe receivedhis raw materialuntilhis commission was completed. The choice of exampleswill seem arbitrary.Amongthe statuesare includedone archaic fiveofthefourth and twolaterworks;onearchaic,one century, century, example,one ofthefifth and fourfourth-century fifth-century, gravestelaimakeup thetotalofsixreliefs.The emphasis thenrestsheavilyon fourth-century sculpture.This, it is felt,is justifiedby the factthatthe - theintroduction of therunningdrill- takesplace duringthe onlymajorchangeof technique fourthcentury.Also our interestin the greatnamesof the centuryhas caused the neglectof muchofthatsculpturewhichcannotbe relatedto theworkof Praxiteles,Skopas,or Lysippos. Thus Siisserott's work*on fourth-century sculpturerefersto theApolloPatroosin a footnote, ignoresthe Daochos dedicationexceptforthe Agias, and does not mentionthe Asklepiosat Eleusis. * H. C. Süsserott,Griechische Plastikdes4 Jahrhunderts vorChristus (Frankfurt,1938).
CHAPTER
9
FREESTANDING STATUES i. KoreAcrM682 (plates 36-37) on her Kore AcrM 682,*whichmaybe datedc. 530, has notreceivedthesamecompliments of the sees the more as of the other korai. 'The less one of the detail,the whole, beauty many betterthe impression'is Payne's1verdict.Schrader2agrees,and commentsthatthe sculptor However,thezeal withwhichthesculp'behängtdie FigurmitDetail,wie ein Zuckerbäcker'. torhas used thewholebag oftrickson thisone statuemakesa technicalstudyofit especially rewarding.It is also one ofthemostcompleteofthelargerkorai.3 Mostofthestatueis carvedfromtwoblocks,joinedjust above theknees.4It is impossibleto saywhetherthefigurewas roughedout in thequarry,butthefactthatit was made fromtwo blocksmakesthisratherunlikely.Even if the blocksweretrimmedat all beforetheyleftthe especiallycouldnothavebeenworkedveryfar,sincekoraiwerenotdesignedin quarrythefront to leave thesculptorplentyofscopeto drape a uniform schemelikekouroi,and it wasnecessary his figureas he wished.Anyway,the twoblockswereprobablyfastenedtogetherat an early stageand workedas one. Perhapsthissculptor,likethe man who carvedkoreAcrM 594 (see p. 45) used a drillto stone.He mustthenhavefollowed helphimfreetheoutlinesofhisfigurefromthesurrounding up withpunchesand points,usingfinertoolsas he came nearerto thefinalsurface.He would untilthe main linesof thebodyand continueworkingwitha point,in short,carefulstrokes, draperyhad been indicated,and the plan of the wholewas clear. This stageof approaching or so ofthefinalsurfaceall overthestatuecouldnotbe completedwithout withina centimetre assistancefromthedrill.The marblebetweentheleftarm and thebodyhad to be refurther moved,and thiswouldhave been done by a rowofdrillholes (see p. 45). A groovemade by belowher one ofthesewhichwas boredtoonearherleftarmcan stillbe seena fewcentimetres us thata drillofc. 8 mm.pierceda holeover6 cm.long(plate 37 (a)). leftarmpit,and informs The recessbetweenherfeetwas probablyhollowedout withthesame drillso thatthesculptor could shape the feetwithhis point.And the triangleson eitherside of the neckbetweenthe were frontand backofherhairmayhave been drilledout nowtoo,althoughthefrontringlets leftin a blockuntila laterstage. almostcertainly - evenat theback,wherethedesignis ratherperfunctory The workhas beenso wellfinished - thatthereis almostno signoftoolingfromtheearlystages.However,a verylittlepointwork and is leftinsidetherightheel,whereitwouldhavebeenhiddenbydeep shadowfromthefront, small This foot. the at the back by the hem,whichalmosttouchesthe groundbehind right patchshowshowgentletheworkwas,as indeedwe shouldexpectwheneventhebase and the ofa workedwithshortstrokes socketfortherightfore-arm (plate 36 (a)) havebeenso carefully used been have it of course rinetool.There are no marksat all ofa claw chisel,but very may in defining someofthe convenient generallyoverthework,and wouldhave been particularly foldsand edgesofdrapery. 1 Payne and Young, ArchaicMarble Sculpture fromthe
(London,1936)27,pls.40-41etc. Schrader86 f., Acropolis z Op. cit.88. pls.53-56.
3 Main restorations occur on the neck and ringlets, acrosstheknees,and acrosstheankles. 4 Foran accountofthisjoin see Schrader88 f.
FREESTANDING STATUES
87
Verylittleoftheworkoftheflatchiselhas survivedintact.A fewmarksofit can be seenon herrightfootafterthepointwork,and ofcourseit has oftennotbeen smoothedfromherhair. But in spiteofthelack ofdirectevidencewe can be surethatit was used widelyto shape the formsofthestatueas well as to carvethewealthofdetail. thehairin four The varietyofthisis enormous.The sculptorhas, forexample,represented in cuttingall ofthem.He has shownthe •different ways,and thechiselhas been instrumental and balancingeachunitagainstanother. strictest regardforsymmetry, dividingand subdividing acrossthetopofthecrown,thefront The generalplan5is thatthehairwas partedhorizontally in curlsaroundtheface,therestleftto hanglooseat theback exceptfor partcombedforward on to herbreast.Even at theback thehairis morecarewhichare drawnforward eightringlets fullyplannedthanon mostkorai.It is dividedintotwohalves,and shallowwavesradiateout, centralline.At theedgesthewaveshave overlappingone another,fromeach sideofa straight finish thebottom beencurvedand nickedmoredeeply(plate 36 (¿)), and twelvelittlerat's-tails The of thestrands.The hairoverthecrownhas been designedwiththesame exactsymmetry. and four filled each with into hair inside the the divided segments, tight, Stephane sculptor parallelwaves,carvedin V-shapedchannelsby a chiselused as it wouldhave been to carvean inscription(see p. 34). The heightof elaborationis reachedin the hair above the forehead, wherethesculptorhas indeedworkedas thoughhismaterialwereicingsugarinsteadofstone. The hairis in two layers.The underneathone is longerand formsa row of tightsnail curls - an arrangement likethaton theRampinHorseman.Shorter aroundtheedgeoftheforehead the ofhairon anotherhorseman, recalls of these and this rest on locks arrangement top spiky NM 61. The edgesofall thesestrandsand curlshave beenserratedwithminutecare,except,as edgeswere Paynepointedout,thecurlsin thecentreandjust above theearswherethestraight and thewavygroovescarvedalongthestrands, feltto punctuatetherest.These corrugations, musthave been executedwitha smallchiselused mostpatiently. A smalldrill(c. 2 mm.) cut The chiselwas nottheonlytoolused to cut thisornatecoiffure. holes betweenthe tightlypacked curlsalong the foreheadso thattheyshouldbe separated Thesewere clearlybydarkspotsofshadow.And thedrillwas neededstillmorefortheringlets. risk lessen the of finished a late to but it will at be conalmostcertainly stage, breakage, only that of the rest the with of As are hair. venientto describetheirworkmanship together they now the locks the is see of beside neck were it to whether cut restored, impossible eight any originally in onewiththemainblock.However,itdoesseemlikelythatthesculptortriedtodrilland carve whenhe failed.For,amazingas it seems,he did themin thisway and onlyresortedto Ansätze in sucha way thatquitelongstretches theendsofsomeringlets succeedin undercutting were carvedoutofthemainblock.Thereis no signofa peg tojoin extrapiecesto thecentralringlets on herright,and insteada smallstrut(plate 36 (a) and (b)) c. 9 cm. below the breakof the notattached.The sculptor musthave righthandoneshowsthatthislengthofcurlwas undercut, drilleda rowofholessidebysidebehindthecurlwithdrillsofvarioussizesand thenverygently chiselledawaythemarbleremaining.He mayhave triedto do thison otherringlets too,butif The outsideoneswere so, he failed,and fourcurls,thelongestc. 20 cm.,wereadded separately. carvedin reliefon the arms.The drillwas used also to cut the deeperchannelsof the spiral : thenthecornerofa finelysharpenedchiselengravedthethinlineson patternon theringlets the ridgesbetween. Bothchiseland drillwereusedon otherfeatures too.The linesaroundtheedgeofthemouth, betweenthelips,and betweenthelipsand nosehave been cut so sharplythatSchraderlikens themto a workin bronze.The sculptornickedthe middleof the bottomlip to emphasizeits 5 Payne and Young, pl. 41. 1.
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fullroundness.In chiselling overthecurvesofthefacehe was carefulto preservethecleardistinctions betweenthevariousparts.In chisellingtheStephane he levelledall unevennesses. The and sockets werecutfromstoneon thisstatue: theeyes,however,weresetin separately earrings weretherefore hollowedout witha drillforthem.The earsand nostrils weredrilledtoo. And whenthesculptorwas carefully outtheshapesofherlongand beautiful feethe drilled chiselling outthehollowbetweenherbig toeand thenext.He tookthetroubleto carvethesandals;later werecontentto carveonlythesolesand paintthestraps. sculptors The sculptorwas able togivefullreinto hislikingfora varietyofsurfaces whenhe carvedthe but draperytoo. We shallnottryto decidewhetherthekoreis wearingtwoor threegarments, forthesakeofconvenience shallreferto thedifferent and the partsas thechiton,thehimation, in representing skirt.The sculptorwas notat all interested a realisticrelationship betweenthe - thechitonsimplyfadesintothehimationon therightshoulder(plate 36 (¿)) - but garments concentrated on makingtheclothesas decorativeas possiblethroughcarvingand paint.The chitonis buttonedovertherightshoulder,but in orderto showa patternedborderin itsfull glory,notsquashedamongthefolds,thesculptorcarvedtwomorerowsofbuttonsparallelwith thefirst, and thebunchesoffoldsarepinnedtogether bythetwoouterrows(plate 36 (a)). The thinmaterialwas carvedherein V-shapedfoldsratherlikethehairon thecrownofthehead - a seriesofcurvesparallelwiththeopenings (plate 36 (¿)). The main patternof the border betweenthebuttons are carvedin verylow reliefto guidethepainter(plate 36 (a)). We findmanydifferences whenwe lookat thechitonovertheleftshoulder.Here theedges weresewntogether, and an extrastripofwovenor embroidered patternis revealedalongthe in which was turned on the sleeve veryedge, right (plate 36 (c)). The newpattern presumably to ofsquaresis seenmostclearlyin frontoftheleftelbow.Againthesculptorhas notattempted of in hisdesign,forthoughthetwoborderswiththeirrespective be consistent patterns squares and wavylinescan be seensideby sideat thetop ofthearm,thewavylineshave disappeared ofthe here.The crinkles lowerdown(plate 37 (a)). The carvingofthematerialis quitedifferent clothare shownbyindividualridgesraisedabove thegeneralflatsurface,and theirwavylines are made moreobviousby the V-shapedchannelschiselledalongthem(plate 37 (a)). At the back thesculptorhas dispensedwiththislast touch.Wherethecornerofthechitonspillsout it thematerialis stackedintofoldsin frontofand overthetop ofthehimationwhichconfines behindherleftelbow.Afterhe had shapedtheflatfoldsat thefrontand theloopsat theback withhischisel,thesculptorundercuttheiredges;ifhe did use a drillat thefrontthefewholes therowsof buthe did notbotherto removeentirely werechiselledaway afterwards, necessary holesunderthefoldsat theback (plate 37 (¿)). Chiseland drillwereused widelyoverthehimation.A fewnickshereand thereon someof thedeeperpartsofthechannels(plate 36 (c)>secondand thirdfoldfromlefthand,levelwith arrow;plate 37 (c), underdeepestcurveofswatheon the leftshowhow rowsof holeswere drilleddown them.But the chiselworkwhichfollowedto shape the ridgesand channels removednearlyeverysignofdrilling.Probablythechiselhad alreadycut theedgesofthefrill overthe top of the himation,thezigzag borderacrossthefront,and thecornerat herright, beforethedrillwas usedtoundercutand maketheseedgesstillfiner.Butwithsuchdelicacydid thesculptorhandlehischiselthatevenin suchplaces,wheretherewas a strongriskofcracking theprojecting chiselling edgeabove,he did nothesitateto followup hisdrillworkwithfurther to shape thedepthsofthechannel. At presentthefigurelookscompletely top heavybecausethelightcarvingofthelowerhalf cannotbalance theheavyelaborationofthetorso.But we mustrememberthattheswathesof materialwhichoriginally anysuchimpression. hungdowntorightand leftwouldhaveprevented
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Althoughthe fewfoldsremainingoutsideher leftleg are quite shallow,it is verylikelythat to herleft,as wellas a widedarkborder.Even on what therewereotherdeeperchannelsfurther remainsof the skirt,thoughit looksso dull at firstglance,the materialhas been shownin different ways (plate 37 (c)). At the back and acrossmostof the frontthe foldshave been littlemorethanengravedon to theshapeofthelegswiththeflatchisel.Butbesideherlefthand the sculptorhas carved a seriesof undulations,the ridgesemphasizedby a groovechiselled along each. Excellenceoffinishis thehallmarkofarchaicsculpture,and theman who had goneto such painsovertherestofhisworkwas notlikelytostinthere.Onlyin thedepthsofa fewfoldsdo we findany signseven of rasp work;otherwisethe sculptorhas penetratedinto everynook and crannywith his abrasives,and has smoothedher draperyto almostas finea textureas herskin. finished beforetheyweresetintoplace. The largestpiece, werecertainly The smallerAnsätze her on swathe of the however, right,probablywas not.The join hereis unfortunately drapery was fitted intoquitea large so brokenthatthemethodofjoiningis obscured.The rightforearm a arm. dowelor pinwas a for tenon from the No socket of which was the bottom at recess, ready is stillin position. which cement to secure the sort of some but tenon, used, helped probably attached bronze the shoulder were least some locks on Dickins6 at to by pins.The According assisted in small marble on at front were the tenons,probably by a hung place long ringlets littleglue.Somesortofcementor gluemustalso have beenusedto helptheeyesdefygravityin sockets. theirforward-tilted The pedestalofthestatuemayhave been eithera shortpillaror a squaredblock.The base, trimmed to a sizenotmuchlargerthanitis now,was setintoa socketon topofthepedestalwith moltenlead. remain- thepainting,and attachment ofbronzeornaments. Only thefinalembellishments differences this In discussing thepaintingofeach statuewe shallmentiononlytheoutstanding has been the The of this statue of statue. made to the have already painting appearance might describedbyDickinsand Schrader.The elaborationofthecarvingwas obviouslyechoedin the themainlinesofthedrapery,and The darkborderswouldhave outlinedeffectively paintwork. thewhiteness ofher thepaintedbangleon herarm,and herdarksandalstrapssetoffeffectively skin.We do notknowwhethertheborderofthe chitonwas carvedon theAnsatzofherright but thejoin was probablydisguisedby paintingas on koreAcrM 680. forearm, were pinnedinto place rightat the end. The square bar Perhapsthe bronzeattachments 'umbrella5 above herhead is stillin position.Holesjust belowthe herprotective whichfastened cornersof her himationon the rightindicatethatbronzetasselswere added here,and some hersandalstoo. metalornamentfinished thisstatuegothis money'sworth. No one can denythattheman who commissioned 2. Prokne andItys.AcrM 1358 (plates 38-39) This statuehas notmetwithunmixedappreciation.Frazer7was following and Furtwängler Michaelisin his opinionthat'the workis too faultyto be the workof a greatsculptor'.The to especiallywere the ratherstockystature,the way the boy is carvedout of faultsreferred thewoman'srightleg,and themonotony ofthedraperyfolds.Praschniker8 whenhe ascribedthe the tried to show the true merit of the as of but as 1946Stevens9 head, fragment piece; recently dismissedit as 'an indifferent workofart'. It maybe thathisjudgementwas influenced by his 6 Catalogue i. 234.
7 Pausanias, Translation and Commentary (London, 1898)
ii. 300. 9 Hesperiaxv ( 1946) 1o f.
8 ÖJh xvi (1913) 121 f.
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so it is worthwhile theoriginal own mistakeabout thesculptor'sdesign,10 tryingto reconstruct motiveas faras we can. as Proknemeditating the No one nowdisputesthatthisis thegroupdescribedbyPausanias11 murderofItys.The woman'spose is clear.She standsquietly,herweighton herleftfoot.The rightleg is bentand seta littleback.As thereis no pointofcontactbetweenthehead fragment and thebodywe cannotbe sureoftheoriginalpoiseofthehead; but theangleat whichit is morepleasingthantheold restoration nowsetin themuseum(plate 38) is infinitely (Lippold, ofthebodymuchbetter.Her leftarmwasraised,and the pl. 66. 1) and seemstosuittherhythm handmusthavebeencarvedin theround.Almostcertainly ithelda weapon- a swordordagger. Her rightarmwas heldcloseto herbodyand stretched downtowardthechild(plate 39 [a)). The figureofItysis muchmorebroken,butit is sufficiently clearthattheboyhas flunghimwiththewholeweightoftheupperpartofhisbody,and withhis selfagainsthismother'sskirts todrawa foldofherskirtprotectively lefthandwas perhapstrying aroundhimself (plate 39 (¿) ) . his In factthesculptorwas notconstrained the limits of block cut the child out ofProkne's to by him to show into her His cut but wished were sinkingdeeply rightleg, drapery.12 legs quitefree The ofthemainblock,and musthavebeenbent;hisupperbodyis swivelledroundto thefront. and is is to so most of the drilled for attachments arm lost but the holes us, head, right completely to it perhapsgivesomecluetoitsposition.On theright,at thetop oftheneck,thereare three holes,twoofwhichweremadewitha drillofc.8 mm.and arevisibleon plate 39 (a) .Justinfront ofthelowerone is a smallerhole,4 mm.wide,whichis stillfulloflead. On theleftwe findthere are twoholes,one madewiththelargerdrillwhichis at a slightly higherlevelthanthoseon the smaller drill is the which lower. Now the and one with largeholeswereforsomesortof right, wreathor band aroundhis head. The smallerone on theleftmustobviouslyhave been fora necklace,forit comesexactlyon the angle betweenneck and shoulder.Why thendoes the hole on therightoccuralmostat thehairlineat thetop oftheneck?I suggest corresponding thisis becauseProknehas graspedherchildbythehair,and caughtup hisnecklaceas shedoes so. She pullshishead back,and looksdownintohisface,whilehe looksup at her- Atticgrave reliefsshowus thatthepoignancyofa mutualgaze was alreadya motivemuchappreciated. The child,frightened by theweapon,yetclingsto his mother,his kneessaggingin fear.The and was subject powerful emotional,but treatedaccordingto the tasteof the timewiththe utmostrestraint. untiltheend. The pose ofthewoman,and theway I shallleave thequestionofauthorship - so thatthecurvingfoldson one leg are balancedby thestraight lines herdraperyis arranged - are typical ofthechitonfallsin softcurvesbetweenherbreasts oftheother,whiletheoverfold of thesecondhalfofthe fifth century.Parallelscan be foundon the Parthenonfrieze,in the and the of Erechtheum, in thecopiesoftheEireneofKephisodotos(c. 394), toname Caryatids ofthehead recallstheLabordehead,and againtheCaryatids.Perhaps buta few.The fragment ofthe Tereus ofSophocles,whichprobably theunusualsubjectwas suggested bytheproduction occurreda littlebefore414.13Thus c. 415 seemsa likelydate. ofthisgroupthemoreone findsto admire. The morecloselyone examinestheworkmanship No traceat all has been leftfromthe earlystageswhenwithpunch and pointthe sculptor theoutlineofItysand thedifferent workedout themainlinesofthetwofigures, parts settling whereitschannelswereto come.The area betweenthe ofthedraperyofProkne,and indicating out ofone blockupperpartoftheboy'slegs- and thelowertoo iftheywerecarvedentirely 10Loc. cit.fig.1. He ignores of Praschniker's description " Paus.i. 24. 3. ofItys. theattitude 12As Praschniker alsopointedout (loc. cit.).
13Cf.Jebband Pearson,Fragmenta (Cambridge,1917) ii. 221f.
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musthave been firstpiercedthroughwitha drillso thatthe marblecould be removedmore Then thesculptor easily,and thesameis trueofthearea behindProkne'slefthandand forearm. was able to shapeout thedifferent partswithgentlepointwork.The deep and narrowchannel was undoubtedly above theleftshoulderofItys,whichMichaeliscomplainedwas unfinished,14 also cutwitha rowofdrillholesbeforethepointchippedit intoshape; but all signofthesehas been removed. createdpartly The sculptorofkoreAcrM 682 had reliedon a varietyofpatternedsurfaces, this meant thatthe his make to and interesting. Inevitably drapery partlyby paint, by carving Prokne wears one so the had been as it looked only garment, designedpiecemeal. though figure and did the of he but could to textures had no arrangement design exploit; contrasting sculptor ofthevariationswhichwould occurin reality.Thus the the foldswithan artfulexaggeration overfoldofthepeplosis carvedin wideshallowfoldsto expressthesoftheavinessofthematerial and thefigurebeneath.Its edge is unfortunately chipped,but musthave formeda crispthin line whichcontrastedwiththe softlypouchedmaterialjust below. On the shouldersand the bunchedto accentuatethelinesofthefigure.It is surelyunfairto carp hipspartsofthestuffare ofthesmallrathersquarefoldsacrossthehipswithoutnoticinghow skilfully at theregularity the thesculptorvariedthewidthand depthofthechannelsofthelowerskirt,whereoriginally Then the . the of the from stood forward swing drapery shadowydepths(plate 39 (b)) boldly ridges linesoftheDemeter,Eleusis26,plate 25 (c)) and curlingacrossherrightfoot(cf.theratherstiff the finepleatingofthematerialas it lies on herleftfootwerecarvedby a man whoseeye for designwas matchedby his attentionto thenicetiesofcarving. The sculptorexecutedhis designwitha lavishuse of the drill.We have onlya littledirect evidenceofthis;on theside ofone typicalfoldof Prokne'sskirtat theback a rowofsix nicks withina distanceof2.5 cm. showshow thedrillwas used here,and on thesidesofotherfolds occasionalnickshave survived.Even theundercutpartshave been so wellworkedand finished thatonlyan occasionalholeis stillvisibleunderthedraperypouchedaroundthewaist,oron the righthip; and thoughthechannelunderthehemis over2 cm. deep mostofthewayround,and neverthe6 cm.or moredeep at thefrontand at therightsidewhereit mightbe seenin profile, removed.But thisscantevidenceagreeswith,and lessthedrillholeshave been almostentirely can be supplemented from,theworkon othercontemporary sculpture(see p. 52). Thus we can werecutfirst be surethatall thechannelsofherdrapery,excepttheveryshallowest, bydrillsof varioussizes,whichboredrowsofholesside by side along them. - likethe one betweenherlegs- would thenhave needed somework The largestchannels withthepointbeforetheywerereadyforchiselling.In thesmalleronesthechiselmighthave followedthe drilldirectly.All weremodelledintothe gracefulflowingcurveswhichdemand The shallowfoldsover suchcarefulworkand lookas thoughtheyweremadewithoutanyeffort. withthechisel. thefront ofthebodice(plates 38 and 39 (a) ) wereprobablymadealmostentirely I have alreadydescribedhow almostall thedrillworkhas been carvedawayfromthedrapery - and thisshowsin itself was.A comparison howcarefulthechiselling betweenthefeetofProkne and Eleusis of the will illustrate further oursculptor's 26 Demeter, (plate 25 (c)) (plate 39 (è)) attentionto detail.On the Demetera rowofdrillholesis quite plain underneathpartofher skirt;whileas thesculptorhas notbotheredto drillto anydepthjust insideherleftfootthefact thathersandalwas notfullyworkedoutwouldhavebeenclearevenbeforethehemwasbroken. On the Prokne,however,theodd drillhole leftis at the bottomof a channeldeep enoughto 14Probably becausethedrapery channelsarenotcarried line; butthesculptor's aimwas rightdowntotheshoulder tocreatea pocketofshadowtoincrease theapparent depth
ofthechannel,and emphasizethewaytheboy'sshoulder wassunkin thedrapery.
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overshadowit entirely. The sandalhas beenworkedback as faras theeyecan see and eventhe underneathoftheclothhas been veryneatlychiselledand smoothed. It is no surprise, thesculptorusedhischiselon thedrapery,to find afterseeinghowcarefully the body of Itysand the fragment of the worked.The tenderness of the head so beautifully child'sbodyis emphasizedby creasesin thefleshacrosshisbelly.Littlethoughwe have ofthe Eventhesimplecurveofthecheekshowsthesculptor's head,itsqualityis unmistakable. feeling forform,and we can also admirethe gentleprecisionwithwhichhe cut theeye.The corner ofthemouth,sunkintothesoftcheeks,and theearweredeepenedwiththedrillbeforechiselling. On the hair the chiselalonewas used; thetop ofthehead was onlyroughedout,butthefront partwas carvedintoformalbut gracefulwaves. We may assumethatraspswereused all overthegroup,fora fewpatchesare stillvisiblethemarksofa veryfineone on therightsideofItys'neck,occasionalmarksin thedepthsofa coarserone on thesandals.Butpractically fold,and a slightly everyinchofthestatue,fleshand was a fine and worked over with abrasives, drapery, very powdermusthave been used in the finalstages. Verylittleis leftof the base, whichmustoriginallyhave been largeenoughto includethe boy'sfeet;butthearea betweenProkne'sfeethas beenchiselledoverpointwork.It was setinto a pedestalsomewhere end ofthe Parthenon.15 near thenorth-east The attachments whichwerefitted on to Ityshave alreadybeendiscussed.A rowofholeswas drilledroundProkne'shead, and a wreathofsomesortfittedthere. and as thenameis uncommon Pausaniastellsus thatthestatuewas dedicatedbyAlkamenes, it has oftenbeen suggestedthatthefamouspupil of Pheidiasmade and dedicatedthegroup. carvedby a sculptor Thereseemsno reasonto doubttheattribution.16 The statuewas certainly ofthefirstrank. JVM299 (plates 40-41) 3. Hygieia, and a snakeon herleft. This under-life-size a younggirlleaningforward, statuerepresents the that his for reasons does not girlis Hygieia.Since doubting Lippold17unfortunately give snakesappear mostcommonly18 withthis goddessor her fatherAsklepiostheidentification seemsalmostcertain. The girlwears a thinchiton,whichhas slippedapart and fallenfromher leftshoulder, leavingmuchofherleftsidebare.A himationis flungacrossherback: shepinsone cornerunder ofsomefigures on herrightarm,anotheris caughtup byherleftthigh.Her poseis reminiscent wherea womanplaces one foot whitegroundlekythoi, forexampletheBosanquetlekythos,19 BotharmsofHygieia and leansforward on a stepofthemonument holdinga basketofofferings. werestretched forward too.The brokenarea on thetopofherleftknee(plate 40 (b)) mayindithatitwas cate thepositionofherlefthand,and thedullnessofthearea acrossherbellysuggests hiddenbehindtherightarmor an attribute.Perhapsshe held a vesselin bothhands.Her left footwas raisedand placed on the coilsof the snake; thereis no signof the treetrunkwhich Arndt20 suggested.The snake'stail undulatesalong herleftside (plate 41 (¿)), and the body for twistsitselfintoseveralcoils- at leastone ofwhichis nowbrokenaway- to forma footstool that the snake her left outside The blank area of 40 suggests leg (¿)) (plate just drapery Hygieia. strutor a partof roseup here,and thesmallstumpjust belowherkneewas eithera supporting the snakeitself.Perhapsit was drinkingfromthe vesselshe held. We cannotbe sureof the 15 Stevens,Hesperiaxv ( 1946) 1o ff. 16 Cf. Brommer,in Gymnasium lix (1052) 117 f. 17 Lippold 220.
18 Reinach, Rep. I. 287 f. « Beazley, AWL, pl. iv. 1. 20 Arndt-Amelung,E A 710-11.
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originalpoiseofHygieia'shead, but as thereis no signofherhairon hershouldersthe latter was probablycaughtup in a knotat theback. It is not difficult to arriveat an approximatedate forthe statue,whichcloselyresembles otherworksoftheearlyfourthcentury.In pose and styleit recallstheLeda knownto us from Then thesamecontrastbetweena thinchitonand massedhimationis foundon manycopies.21 betweenthe the NereidAgora S 182.22Again thereare similarities ofstyleand workmanship Hygieiaand the sculpturefromthe templeat Epidauros,and if the designand scale did not or pediment excludethepossibility it would be temptingto considerthe piece an akroterion, figure.BoththeLeda and Nereidhave been ascribedto Timotheosbecausetheyresemblethe style, Epidaurossculptures;butsurelythesculptureofthetemplewas carvedin a homogeneous and Hektoridas, whocarvedthepediments whichmusthaveowedat leastas muchtoTheo and one setofakroteria, as to Timotheos,whomerelycarvedthreeakroteriaand sixslabsofan ofa particularsculptoron internalfrieze?23 to see theinfluence It wouldtherefore be arbitrary theHygieia.Sufficeit to say thatit was carvedat Epidaurosc. 370. The designof the statueis a bold one, and the sculptorhas had to plan exactlyand then carvemostdelicatelymanyofthemainshapesand minordetails.The cuttingfreeofboththe armsand thevesseltheyprobablyheld,oftheupperpartofthesnakeand thefrontcoilswhich supportedherleftfoot,was workwhichneededdaringand patience.Then thesculptorwas not contentto createan illusionof the deep channelswhichoutlineherrightleg, but insteadhe hollowedthemoutthoroughly. Sincehe also wantedto presentat thesidesviewswhichshowed thefigurewrappedonlylightlyin herclothes,he has cut thewallsofdraperyverythinindeed - in facton thelefttwoholeshave beenknockedouteitherin antiquity on therightand theleft or in moderntimesand showhow themarblein somepartswas cut almostas thinas material (plate 41 {b)) . The Hygieiawas probablysetup in a positionwherethebackoftherightsideof her bodywas not seen,forthoughthishas been workedquite neatlythe designis summary comparedwiththerestofthestatue(plate 41 [a)). triIn its firstroughingout the blockmusthave been carvedinto a shape approximately back the of the in in the where This lower can still be seen most section. half, right angular clearly (plate 41 (a)) formstheshortsideofthetriangle,and the two longersides (plate 40 (a) and (¿)) cometo an apex at theleftfoot.The sculptormusthave begunto use hisdrillsat an early stage.We cannotbe surehow completelyhe workedaway the marblebetweenthe armsand thebodyduringthepreliminary shaping,butuntilhe had begunthiswork,and also thedrilling out ofthedeep channelson eitherside oftherightleg,he wouldnotbe able to settlethemain linesofhis figure.He probablyalso drilleda pilothole or two throughthefrontloops of the snake.We can stillsee wherehe drilledrowsofholesto makethedeep channelsin thehimation insideherleftleg (plate 41 (c);24cf.plate 41 (a)). Theseholesweremadebya drillalmost1cm. wide.Undoubtedly thechannelbetweenhercloakand theleftsideofherbodywas also planned first witha rowofdrillholes.Havinglightenedhislabourin thisway thesculptorwas able to workoverthewholeofthestatuewitha point,perhapsfollowedby a claw,and in mostplaces to approachverynearthefinalsurface.He foundsomedifficult angleseasierto clearwitha flat chiselused cornerwise, and themarksofthiscan stillbe foundinsideherhimationon theleft, bothbesideherbody(plate 15 (b)) and amongthefoldsinsidetheleg,as wellas onsomecoilsof thesnake. Beforehe proceededto hisfinicky, preciseworkwiththeflatchisel,thesculptoronce again his drills the to work of pickedup begin carvingthesmallerchannels.Rowsofnickscan be seen 21 Lippold 221 and pl. 70. 3. 22 Hesperiaii (1933) 526 f.
23 Cf. Roux, BCHlxxx (iq^6) 518 on tvttol. 24 Photographby Prof.B. Ashmole.
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on thesidesofthechannelswhichoutlinetherightsideofherbodyand herrightarm (plate 40 (c))9and occasionallya nickhas notbeenclearedfromthesidesofone ofthesmallerdrapery channelsor alongthehem. But so carefully did thesculptoruse hisflatchiselthatnearlyeverysignofdrillinghas been removed.He finished theshapingofthebodywithit,thenwenton to carveall thevariedparts acrossthebodyit ofthedrapery.The materialofthechitonis so thinthatwhereit is stretched wouldlooksimplylikean extraskinwereit notfortheoccasionalfoldsplannedto emphasize thelinesofthefigure.Slightthoughtheyare, theiredgesare crispand firm: and thesame is trueoftheridgesformedwherethechitonis gatheredintodeeperfoldsacrossherbreastand - on herrightand insideherleftleg- is chippedand betweenherlegs.Much ofthehimation of lessdamageand showssomething broken,butoutsidetheleftlegis an area whichhas suffered theoriginalcarefuldesignand execution(plates 40 (b) and 41 (b)) . The materialofthehimation is heavierthanthechiton,and fallsin broaderfolds,whichpile uponone anotherand interlock in a muchmorecomplicatedmanner.Someare roundedand pinchedto emphasizetheirroundmakeitclearwhy ness(plate 41 (b), top); theedgesofothers,delicatelychiselledintosharpness, so manyhave been chippedand ruined.And we mustrememberthatwhilethesculptorwas hischiselaroundpartsoftheseridgesone falseblowwould have ruinedhiswork, negotiating by knockinga hole in thethinwall ofmarbleat thebottomofthechannel(plate 41 (¿)). No elaborationis attemptit unnecessary. The sculptordid notwasteeffort wherehe thought ed ofeitherchitonor himationat therightoftheback (plate 41 (a)) and besidetherightfoot,, and on theoutsideat theleftonlya fewshallowlineshavebeenengravedtoindicatethechiton. Then thesculptorevidently decidedat thelastminuteto sketchin a cornerofmaterialon the leftknee(plate 40 (¿)), and has notrelatedit to therestofthecloak.Butnoneofthosefaultsis at all obvious; and thisstrengthens myopinionthatthedull blankareas acrossherbellyand hidden. outsideherleftleg wereoriginally The drillwasusedagainin thefinalstagesofcarvingthedraperytoundercutsomeedges,and thusto makethecornersinsidetheleftleg and undertheleftarmstandout clearly.Perhapsit themarblebetweentheupperpartofthe was at thislatestagethatthesculptorpiercedthrough snakeand herleftleg. Thereis enoughraspwork- someon thechitonon theleftat theoutside,someon thesnake, - to showthatthetoolwas usedgenerally overthework.And moreon thehimationat herright wasgivena finalsmootha lotmorehasbeenleftthanon theProkne.Butstillmostofthesurface ing withabrasives. The Hygieiais nota majorworkofart. It is a pleasingpiececarvedwithdelicacyand skill, all themorefrombeingdamaged.If smallfoldsand edges and has perhapstherefore suffered are brokenon a statuefromtheParthenonpediment,we can stillappreciateitsgrandeur.The and showiness of elegantlightness charmof a worklike thisspringsfroman impression ; like is lost. effect whole as is the as soon it damaged, filigree, 4. ApolloPairóos.Agora(plates 42-43)
and itsoriginalposerestored, Thisstatue25 has alreadybeenfullydescribed, byH. A. Thomphislyrein hisleft dressedas a citharode,and carrying son;26he showsthatApollois represented, thatitisthecultstatue,whichPausanias arm.27 As he says,thefinding place ofthestatuesuggests declareswas madebyEuphranor,ofthetempleofApolloPatrooson thewestsideoftheAgora. Certainlythestyleagreeswithwhatlittlewe knowabout theworkofEuphranor.The temple 25 NM 3573, now in Agora. Cf. Lippold 261. 26 AE 1953-4, 30 f.
27 The best copy is in the Vatican, Thompson,loc. cit., figs.3 a, b.
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was builtin the thirdquarterof the fourthcentury,and the close resemblancesof styleand techniquebetweentheApolloand otherworksofthisdate- especiallytheDaochos dedication - indicatethatthestatuewas contemporary and someAtticgravereliefs28 withit. Thereis no it is evidencewhatsoever to supporttheidea thatthestatueis ofRoman date; on thecontrary, an excellentexampleofthehigheststandardsofdesignand workmanship ofthesecondhalfof thefourthcentury. The verylargeblockfromwhichthebodyofthestatuehas been carvedis Pentelicmarbleof good quality,withveryfewofthemicaceousveinswhichoftenmar thisstone.The head was made separately, and it is quitepossiblethatthelowerarmsor partofthelyrewerealso made fromseparateblocks,but we have no evidenceabout this. As usual thesculptorset to workwithpunchesand pointsofvarioussizesto plan themain linesof his figure.The blowsof some comparatively heavytoolscan just be seen underthe at theback,whilethechannelunderthebackofthehemwas neverworkedoverand smoothing clearedthe thefinalshapingwithshortcarefulblowsbya finepointis stillclear.Longerstrokes stonefrombeneathhis raisedrightheel. Drillswerenotused at theback,wherethe sculptor buttheymustcertainly intendedonlyto sketchin a fewfoldsbeforehe smoothedthesurface,29 have beenusedat thefrontto weakenthestonereadyforthepunchin thedeep channelsofthe skirt,betweenthe cloak and skirt,and insidethe rightfoot.As well as drillsand points,flat chiselswerealsousedcornerwise toclearmanychannels.The sidesofthedeepchannelsbetween the figureand the cloak,forexample,were levelledin thisway, and now that the cloak is brokentheworkis revealedquiteclearly30 (plate 43 (¿) and (c)). The fineridgesmade bythe toolcan alsobe seeninsidetheedgeofthecloakon theright,on thesidesofmanyofthedrapery channels,and on theinsideof therightfoot(plate 42 (¿)). themainlinesofthefigurewerequiteclear.It is notable By thetimethisworkwas finished thatthesculptorhas evenworkedoutto thisstagemanyofthelinesofthefoldsat thesidewhich wouldhave been obscuredby thecloak,forexampletheopeningofthepeplosand theedgeof theoverfold on theright(plate 43 (c)). The effect ofthetotaldesignis ofcourselosttous with thebrokencloak,butit is clearthatEuphranorplannedmostcarefully thatthefirst impression made byhisstatueshouldbe one ofgracefuldignity, notofcolossalsize and weight.Thompson refersto the 'pyramidaloutline',and thesculptorhas echoedthe taperingeffectofthewhole and most designin manyofthedetails.The draperyis tiered;theupperportionis theshortest ofthefoldsare veryshallow,theoverhangbelowthegirdleis longerand thefoldsare deeper, and theskirtfallsin longfoldsbothwide and deep. The mainchannelshereare all triangular, broad at the base and narrowingtowardthe top (plate 42 (a)). Thus theyanchorthefigure butdo notsubtractfromitsheight.The subtlety ofthisschemebecomesapparentwhen firmly we compareit withthestraight, monotonous furrows oftheVatican copy.31 Once the main linesof the draperywere settledthe sculptorused runningdrillsand flat chiselsforthenextstagesofthecarving.Euphranorgivesus an excellentdemonstration ofhow therunning drillshouldbe used: he exploitstothefullthefacility itgiveshiminmakinggrooves, but neverallowsthe tool to dictatea mechanicaldesign.The opportunities providedby the tool are illustratedclearlyby a comparisonwiththe draperyof Prokne.There the sculptor boredrowsofdrillholes,beforehe shapedthechannelsand ridgeswithhisflat.Thus thepurposeofthedrillworkwas to open up thechannelratherthanto shapeit. Buton theApollothe sculptordrilleda furrow, shapeditwithchisels,thenusedthedrillagainto makefurther grooves in thedepthor intothesidesoftheoriginalchannel,cuttingvariedand complexshapes.Often 28 Gf.Thompson,loe. cit. 4.1f. 29 Thompson,loe. cit. 31, fig. i.
30 Thompson, loe. cit. pl. i c. 31 Thompson,loe. cit. figs.3 a, b.
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we findthata runningdrillchannelhas giventhefinaltouchto thebottomofa fold,butthisis - wherethesculptor neverobviousfromthefront : onlywhenwe standto one side or another himself stoodas he usedhisdrill does thechannelbecomeclear.The moststriking difference betweentheresulting draperyofthe twofiguresis that,sincewe are able to see down to the bottomof the foldsof Prokne'sskirt,in spiteof all the subtlevariationsofwidthand depth ofthe marble; but exceptfor plannedby the sculptorwe remainconsciousofthe limitations the shallowfoldsjust above and below his girdlewe can neverlook directlyinto the depths of thefoldsofApollo'sdrapery,and the channelsswirlingout of sightbehindthe projecting offoldsofmaterialpiledone on top ofanother. ridgesleave us withan impression then,onlyone runningdrillchannelis obvious- theone Lookingat thestatuefromthefront, along thehem (plate 42 (c)). Some ofthesmallerchannelsat thegirdleweredrilledfromthe butall thelargeroneswerecutin fromthe sides(plate 43 (a) and (c)). In plate 42 (c) front, thegroovemadebya drillofc. 5 mm.isclearinthebottomofa verticalchanneljustinsidetheleft hiddenfromthefrontby a projecting leg,butthiswas completely ridge(cf.plate 42 (a)). The in thelastfewinchesbelowtheoverhangby a top ofthisfold,as ofmanyothers,was finished smalldrillofc. 3 mm.Even thechannelswhichoutlinetherightthighwerecarvedat an angle. Runningdrillswereusedtoundercutthewholeedgeoftheoverhang(plate 43 (c)) exceptwhere it lies stretched acrosstherightthigh.At theback,one or twooftheshallowchannelsat the bottomof the peplosmighthave been drilled,but the tool was not used otherwise;even the groovecut alongthehemstopsat thesides. The flatchiselwas usedacrosstheback,afterthepointand perhapstheclaw,toleveloutall and finishwhatlittleshapingwas required.We have seenhow it was neededat irregularities thefrontto complement theworkofthedrill.Over a wide area liketherightthigh,or in the channelsbesidetherightleg, thesculptor'sfirsttaskwas again to levelirregularities, and the shortstrokesof the flatused forthiscan be seen in the depthsof the channels.Then it was ofthose necessaryto roundoffthetopsoftheridges,and carveintofirmclearlinestheprofiles whichprojectedin frontofrunningdrillchannels.In thedepthofsomeofthelargerchannels minorridgeshad beenleftto provideinteresting variationsand thesetooneededshaping.Lines of tensionare chiselledalong the girdle.Finally,therewerethe detailsintendedto showthe - quitelongnarrow'creases'acrosstheskirtand textureand enliventhesurfaceofthematerial the overhang,sometimescrossingone another;and small shallowgroovesexpressiveof the ofthematerial(plate 43 (a)). All are carvedsufficiently nottodistract oureyes rumpling lightly fromthemainverticallinesofthedesign. Unfortunately verylittleremainsto showus how any partofthefigureexceptthedrapery was worked.On therightfootthespacesbetweenthetoeswereclearlydrilledout beforethey wereshapedwitha flat,and themouldededgesofhisopenshoehave beenchiselledcrisplyand The soleis firmly drillchannel(plate 42 (b)) . fromthebasebya running carefully. distinguished The smallareasofbase surviving witha flat showthatthevisiblepartsweresmoothedcarefully chisel,but a pointwas used obliquelyto clear thechanneljust insidetherightfootunderthe hem (plate 42 (è)). The head,as we haveseen,was setin separately, and thelargesocketforit is pickedroughly witha point.32The locksof hair at the back are workedwitha flatonly,but the mutilated showthatthehairherewasin higherreliefand itmaywellhavebeendrilled. stumpsat thefront of different sizeswereusedoverthedraperyand thesandal,and verylittleattemptwas Rasps with made to smoothaway themarks.The toes,however,have been smoothedmostcarefully abrasives. 32 Thompson,AE 1953-4, 31, fig.2.
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Euphranorprobablyused somebronzeornamentson his statue,but we do notknowwhat. Since Thompsontellsus thata fragment ofa pin stillinsituon thebeltis iron,thebow added separatelyherewas presumablya stoneone. in 1916. to realize thatthisstatuewas foundin 1907,and reconstructed It is astonishing Euphranor'sApollodeservesfarmoreattentionthanit has receivedso far.It is a noblework, and illustrates well theGreekgeniusforcarvingsimpleunostentatious beautyout ofstone. withespecial referenceto the statuesof SisyphosI and Aknonios 5. The DaochosDedication, (plates 44-49) Daochos II, tetrarchof theThessalians,set up a monumentin honourofApollo at Delphi six of the c- 335-33The monumentwas composedof nine statues;one of the god himself,34 ancestorsofDaochos,Daochos and hisson. Six ofthestatueshave survivedin quitegood conof at leastone more,so we are able to forma fairidea of the ditionand thereare fragments originalmonument. Ten blocksofblue-greylimestoneformeda continuouspedestalforthe statues.35 Eightinwitheach ofthesocketshollowedout for one corresponding are carvedon thefront, scriptions thebasesofthestatuesexcepttheright-hand one,and givethename,and in sixcasesa verseon we have ofeach man. By relatingthebases to thesocketsin thepedestal,36 the achievements our statues. been able to identify The linebriefly fromleftto rightwas:37SisyphosII, thesonofthededicator,whois shownas a slimyouth,leaningon a hermat hisleft.Of Daochos II, thededicator,we have onlythefeet. SisyphosI (plate 47 (0)), dressedin a shorttunic,occupiedthenextsocket,and on hisleftstood - theslimAgelaos, DaochosI, wrappedin hisheavycloak.Then comesa groupofthreeathletes is headedbythefatherofthese Telemachos(lost),and themuscularAgias.The lineofancestors in whois alsowrappedin a heavycloak (plate 44 (a) ) . Asthereisnoinscription three,Aknonios, frontofthesocketat theextremerighthand thenaturalconclusionis thatthestatuewas ofa was dedicatedto Apollohe is whocouldbe rcognizedat once,and sincethemonument divinity Now thecavitypreparedhereforthestatuebase39is notonlythe the mostlikelycandidate.38 largestbut also the shallowestof all. The usual explanationof its size is thatthe statuewas draped,but a largedrapedstatuestandinghigherthantherestwould surelyhave been fixed intoa socketdeeperthanthis- 4 cm. at itsdeepest?ButiftheApollowas ofthetypeseatedon a rock,liketheApolloon thedocumentreliefof 355-35440and theMantineiabase, a shallow - an awkward This wouldalso explaintheshapeofthesocket cavitywouldbe quitesufficient. one fora drapedfigure.Finallyin thisway thegod could be portrayedon a largerscale than theotherfigures withoutcompletely unbalancingthecomposition. The signatures ofseveralsculptors appearon thebase oftheArcadians,and thestatuesofthe Daochos monument mustcertainly have beencarvedbya groupofsculptors. Althoughthereis no signatureon the Daochos base, the name of the sculptorLysipposhas been associatedat identicalwiththatofAgias was foundon a leastwiththe statueofAgias; foran inscription an in extra with the addition of Pharsalos,41 quatrainand thesignatureof Lysippos. pedestal Now Lysipposwas particularly famousforhis bronzestatuesofathletes,and all thepedestals 33 Preuner, Ein delphischesWeihgeschenk(Leipzig, 1900).
fromtherestoration ofGardinerand Smith,AJAxiii (1909) 34 Will, BCH lxii (1938) 289 f. 47 1. This makesthe figureslcok fartoo dumpy. 35 Monuments of this type are known from archaic 38 Cf. Will, IOC. Cit. 2QI. 39 Cf. Will, IOC. Cit. pl. XXX. times- cf. the Geneleos group in Samos, and the Spartan, 40 Süsserott, Griechische Plastik des 4 Jahrhundertsvor Arcadian, and Argivemonumentsat Delphi. 36 See n. 33, above. Christus,pl. 4, 2. 37 Following Will's arrangement,which differsslightly 41 Marcadé, Recueildessignatures (Paris, 1953) i. 66. C 3288 H
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whichhavesurvivedwereforbronzes,so itseemslikelythatthePharsalos bearinghissignature42 statuewas also a bronze.Severalquestionsarisefromthesefacts.Whywas Lysippos,in the secondhalfofthefourth commissioned to makea bronzestatueofa youth(Agias)who century, had won his victoriessomehundredyearsbefore?Was the Pharsalosstatue,likethe Delphi one, one of a group?Was the groupidenticalwiththe Delphi one,so thatin factthemarble statuesat Delphi are all copies of bronzes?We can only speculateon the answersto these questions. It seemsso unlikelythattwopeopleshouldhave orderedstatuesofAgiasat about thesame timethatwe mustconcludethatitwasDaochoswhocommissioned Lysippostomakethebronze at Pharsalos,withtheobjectofglorifying himself ofhisancestor. byrecallingtheachievements However,evenifDaochossetup morethanone statueforthispurposewe neednotassumethat theywereidenticalwiththe Delphi group.The dedicationto Apollo is likelyto have been is thestatueofthegod and the dedicatoryinscription of peculiarto Delphi,and so therefore We knowtoothattheinscription forAgias Daochos,and perhapsthestatueofDaochoshimself. was longerat Pharsalosthan Delphi, and it is difficult to thinkwhythisshouldhave been wereidentical. changedifthetwomonuments Our evidencethatthestatueofAgiasis a copyofa bronzeis external.Nothingin thestatue itselfwouldlead one to thisconclusion.The lumpsofmarbleleftas supportsat theback ofhis lowerlegsmerelytellus thatan experienced sculptorrealizedthatthiswas themostvulnerable his of statue. is true are It that there no part parallelsforthedeviceexcepton Agelaos;butthen we have no nude male freestanding statueofmarbleas completeas Agias untilwe go back to thearchaickouroi,standingfirmly and theirweightevenly plantedwiththeirfeetclosetogether distributed. The sculptoroftheAgiaswas bold enoughto cutthearmsfreewithoutanysupport on thekourosNM 3938 and theCritianboy). Thisis no timidcopybyan inferior (cf.thestruts workman. Thereis no externalevidencefortheotherstatues,so onlythepiecesthemselves can supply as information to whether are of The be bronzes. any they copies Agelaosmighteasily such.The II43 of seems most unsuitable for it would be difficult to castas a whole bronze; design Sisyphos arms and difficult to splitintoparts,and a bronzehermwouldbe surprising. The outstretched ofSisyphos, and been rendered in but Daochos have more Aknonios, might easily bronze, after all theGreekshad beencuttingarmsin marblelikethisquite happilyfromthe archaicperiod thespacebetweenthefigures hereas on thepediments on,and thedevicewas as usefulin filling ofAegina and the Parthenon.The sculptorseased theirlabour hereby dowellingtheminto numerous ofSisyphos(plate 47 (a) ) withitsspacesbetweenbodyand trunk, position.The figure diffihis left arm also have been and over would and folds tiny (plate 49 (a)) deep pileddepths intothe designof everyfigureas theywereon cult to cast. Supportscould not be integrated had to useplainpillarsto helpsupporttheshortdraperyof SisyphosI and II, and thesculptors Aknonios(plate 44 (a)) and Daochos I (plate 46 (c)). ButtheGreekswerequiteresignedeven - as underthebelliesofhorsesorbulls- and herethey to conspicuoussupportswherenecessary weretuckeddiscreetly out ofsight.Againtheway thearea betweenthelegsundertheirskirts has been hollowedout (plate 46 (¿), Daochos I) mightbe thoughtan imitationof the way but thisdetailis not bronzelegswerecastseparatelyand weldedintothebottomofa skirt;44 one likelyto be adoptedby a copyist,and a betterexplanationseemsto be the desireofthe as possible.45 Some ofthe moreintricateshapesof sculptorsto finishtheirworkas thoroughly 42 Marcadé, Ree. dessign.i. 66. « AJA xiii (1909) fig.5. 44 Cf. Delphi Charioteer,Chamoux, Delphesiv. 5, pl. xx.
45 The sculptorsof the Siphnian treasuryoftenhollowed out the area behind the hems.
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the curvinghems,especiallyof the tunic(plates 46 (a) and (A)) would also have been very to workin bronze- comparethesimplercurveson thedrapedfemalestatuesfromthe difficult Piraeus.46 Thus whattechnicalevidencethereis suggeststhatthe draped statuesare not copiesfrom as opposedto their'plastic' bronzeoriginals.We shallnotattemptto argueabouttheir'glyptic5 has out47 'howlittlethematerial Harrison who with We already pointed agree qualities. entirely But how can we reconcilethe knowledgethatthe thestylein monumentalsculpture5. affects Agiasis a copyofa bronzewiththeidea thatsomeoftheotherstatuesare not?It is noticeable ofa groupwithina group.Theywere thattheTelemachos,Agelaos,and Agiasformsomething wereathleticnot and theirachievements thefather-to-son so theyinterrupt brothers, sequence, had been set up- or monument no that Daochos, contemporary regretting political.Possibly to maketheusual evenreplacingone commissioned Lysipposand perhapstwoothersculptors he decidedto When athletic ancestors. his three of the of statue commemorating prowess type at Delphi,theoriginaldesignofthreeathleteswas incorporated setup an elaboratemonument intothelineoftherulersofThessaly.Theirepigramswerere-used,and rathervague eulogies was made on behalfof were attachedto the figuresof Daochos I and SisyphosI ; no effort wouldbalance thatofSisyphosII, whowas tooyoungto Aknoniosso thathisshortinscription have achievedanything. This is hypothesis. What is certainis thatall the statueswerecarvedby sculptorsof high standardsand greatskill,who recreatedratherthan mechanicallycopied even thosestatues wereAttic;theirmethods tosaythesculptors ofwhichtherewerebronzeversions.It is tempting closeto thoseofEuphranorand themasteroftheIlissosstele.Butin ourpresent werecertainly stateofknowledgewe can distinguish onlythecompletely provincialfromAtticworkanyway. thantheothers, is finished morethoroughly the nude statues the whole surface of Inevitably thetechniqueofthedrapedstatuesofAknonios(plates 44 (aj-^ß (a)) so we shalldiscussbriefly - each carvedbydifferent and SisyphosI (plates 47 (fl)-49(A)). Theywerecertainly sculptors in their had his own wayofcarvingsandals,and ofmakinga join- butmostofthedifferences the demands of are due to the various subjects. technique Aknonioswearsan unbeltedshorttunicand a cloaksecuredbya broochon hisrightshoulder. His head was an Ansatzand partoftheneckis stillinsitu.His leftarmwas raised,horizontally or higher,and perhapsheld a staffor spear; althoughthereis no signofa dowelthelowerhalf Mostoftherightarmwasadded (plates 44 (A)and 45 (A)) . atleastwasprobablymadeseparately. forThe upperarmmusthave been closeto hisside,thelowerpartwas perhapsheld slightly ward. The Ansatzhad twojoining surfaces,whichmet at an oblique angle, and each was he wore, fromkneeto ankle,but originally securedby a substantial dowel.His legsare restored like Sisyphosand Daochos, calf-length socksofsoftleatherand over themsandalswiththick hardsolesand strapswhichtiedin a bow nearthetopofthesocks.The squaredsupportbehind thesizeoftheancientone. hisleftlegis alsorestored, butso faras can be seenitis approximately The cornersof thesupportstillinsitubehindthe leftleg of Daochos I are chamfered(plate 46 (c)). At thetop bothcome betweentunicand cloak. The sculptorhad probablyshapedout mostof thestatuebeforehe removedthelast of the his marblefrombetweenthelegs.But at whateverstagehe accomplishedthecuttingthrough, hollows : under the and The same is true the various toolswereundoubtedly drill. of deep point draperybetweenthelegs,wherethecavityis up to 15 cm. deep,betweentheedgesofthecloak ina strong on hisleft(plate 45 [a)) , and behindtheedgewhichcurlsforward curve(plate 44 (A)) reminiscent oftheApollo Patroos(plate 42 (a)). At theback thedrillwas notused at all; the 46 ILN 29 Aug. i960, 131.
47 AJA lxi (1957) 298.
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foldsweremerelysketchedin witha point,readyto be neatenedat a laterstage.None ofthis carvedintoshape and the earlyworkhas survived.Even the area undertheskirtis carefully to pointworkremoved.Only a fewpatchesremainwherethe flatchiselwas used cornerwise cut theangleswhichwouldhave been difficult fora point. The real characterofthedraperywas thengivento it withchiselsand therunningdrill.The betweenthetextureofthetwogarments : thefoldsofthetunic sculptorhas notdifferentiated are as stiff and heavyas thoseofthecloak.The designis plannedto enhancethedignityofthe thesoftfoldsofthecowlroundtheneck figureand is austerebut notharsh- noteparticularly and on the leftof the tunic.The deep foldsare economicallyspaced, and as on the Apollo Patroosmanyof the channelsforming themwerecutfromthesides(plate 44 (¿)) so thatthe linesweseefromthefront aretheirfirmly chiselled,roundededges.Minorfoldswerecutbetween themwitha chiselonlyto givemanysubtlechangesofsurface,butit is typicalofoursculptor's ratherthanfussydetailthatthereare onlya fewsmallsharp'laundry likingforbroad effects creases'.This preference does not mean thathe did not pay carefulattentionto thosedetails whichwerepartofthe design: his thoroughness is bestillustrated by theway he workedout thefoldsofthetunicunderthehem(plate 46 (a) ) , cutting themwitha running drill,thenchiseloftheskirtofDaochosI (plate 46 (¿)) illustrates stillmore lingthemintoshape.The underneath the how the the from material with drill and channels, clearly running sculptorseparated thighs on thelowerpartoftheskirtherewe can see someoftheshortcarefulstrokesoftheflatchisel whichmusthave shapedall thedrapery.The materialofthecloak and tunicnarrowsto form crisplines at the edges; partsof the edge of the cloak were deeplyundercutto standaway sharplyfromthetunic(plates 44 (b) and 45 (a)). A thinlinehasbeenchiselledalongsomeedges to indicatea sewnhem.At theback thesculptorsimplyshapedthefewridgesand levelledthe surfacesbetweenthem(plate 45 (¿)). The flatwas,of course,usedoverotherpartsof thesculptureas well as on the drapery.No as thoseofDaochos (plate 46 (c)). doubtthemusclesofAknonios'legswerechiselledas firmly Chiselmarksare stillclear on partsof thesandalstrapsand on thesmoothborderwhichoutlinesthefeetagainstthebase. A lotofworkwiththeraspis stillobvious.Tools withteethseta littleoverand under1 mm. apartwerepulledin longsweepsoverthedrapery,and theirmarkslookas freshtodayas when theyhad just been cut. The resultingtextureis verypleasant.Rasp workis foundtoo on the sandals and on the edge of the surfacepreparedforthe Ansatzof the rightarm; the whole surfacewas smoothedwitha chiseland rasp beforethe centralpartwas pickedwitha point to make a keyforthe cement.We can be surethatraspswereused on the fleshpartstoosomecan just be seen on the thighsunderthe skirtthoughit is cleareron Daochos I (plate - theneckand theknees- aresmoothed 46 (¿)) . But thesmallpatchesofvisiblefleshthatareleft withfineabrasivepowdersto a finishas fineas anyin Greeksculpture. Most ofthe base is gentlypointed,thougha smootherborderhas been workedwithchisel and rasparoundthefeet.Its edgeswereneatenedbeforeit was fittedintoitssocketwithlead, werefittedintoplace- perhaps someofwhichstillclingsto one edge. Finallytheattachments a staffin hislefthand,and bronzeor marblebowson hissandalslikeDaochos I (plate 46 (c)) ; certainlya bronzebroochon hisrightshoulder. hisleftelbowon a convenient to hisleftand supporting The pose ofSisyphos, leaningslightly and Aphroditeofthe see the in the fifth late first used was Amazons, century apparently prop, reliefNM 1601 is a on the votive but in earlier versions The usual pillar; prop 'Daphne' type. a goddessis shownleaningagainsta treetrunk,and treetrunksoftenappearin reliefsculpture - comparethemetopesoftheTreasuryoftheAtheniansand theDelphi as 'hangers'fordrapery
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tholos,and the Bassae frieze.On such grave reliefsas Melkte,NM 720, and NM 794, we betweenthe figureand its findswathesofdraperyfillingthe gap and helpingthe transition support. The head ofSisyphoswas also added separately.The cavityforit is quiteshallow,and the thejoin witha dowel at back and front.Holes for sculptorevidentlydecided to strengthen thesecan stillbe seen piercingthe walls of the socket,and probablyat least the one at the front(plate 47 (a), top left)was disguisedby a smallplug of marble.The lefthand and the wholeoftherightarmwereadded separately. The man who carved Sisyphos,likethesculptorof Aknonios,mayhave waiteduntila late stagebeforehe workedawayall themarblefromaroundthelegswithhispointand drill.There are a fewplaceswherepointworkis stillvisible; on the trunksome markson the insideand and underhisraisedleftheel outside(plate 47 (b)) have notbeenremovedby laterchiselling, - fromwhichthemarblewas certainly made by a point clearedonlyat a late stage- furrows can stillbe seen.Butthehollowcarved as wellas the finerones of a flatchiselusedcornerwise finishedas it was on Aknoniosand no pointwork out betweenhisthighshas been as carefully remainshere. The draperyof Sisyphoswas also cut largelywiththerunningdrilland flatchisel,but the forbothcloak and tunicappear to be of much effect, sculptorhas aimed at a quite different neededevenmoreto cut thenumerousfolds drill was a result the As material. running lighter has used it withgreatfacilityboth at frontand back. The sculptor packed tightlytogether. The longfoldsacrosstheskirthave as usualbeen cutfromthesides,exceptforthelongchannel outliningtheleftthigh,but theshortfoldsabove and belowthebelt,likethoseon theApollo Patroos,wereworkedfromdirectlyin front.The sculptorobviouslywentto greatpains in and emphasizing, cuttingthecloak. The runningdrillswoopsaroundthefolds,undercutting the mass and of the material from also from the trunk the (plates 47 (c) and separating edges drilled even inside the hollow under his were left arm. Further Folds runningdrill 49 (a)). channelsundercuthisleftsleeveand outlinehisleftfootagainstthetrunk(plate 49 (¿)). At firstsightit mightseemthattheflatchiselwas notused withthesame versatility hereas forthereis farlessscopeforthesubtleminorfoldswhichenliventhesurfaceof on theAknonios, forthesedidoccurthesculptor seizeditboldly(plate 47 (c)) . hisdrapery.Wheretheopportunity But in factall the foldscut by the runningdrillwould have been harshand dull had not thesculptorremouldedthemwithhischisel.This is illustrated clearlyby a smallpatchbehind theleftelbow (plate 48 (b)) wherethesculptorhas usedhischiselonlyto tidythedrillchannels ofmuchRomanwork.Apartfromthedrapery and nottoreshapethem.The resultis reminiscent the flatwas usedalso on thelimbs,and the sandals,and a fewstrokesare foundon the inside ofthetreetrunk.Someguidelinesfora paintedborderwereengravedlightly aroundtheedgeof thesleeves. Much moreclaw workis to be seen thanon the othersculptures.The treetrunkhas been finishedwitha claw, and it was used over the pointworkon the base (plate 49 (¿)). There are themarksof a claw in thesocketpreparedforthehead,buttheothersurfaces preparedfor thenthecentreoftheirsurfacepickedwitha pointreadyforthecement. weresmoothed, Ansätze overthedrapery(plate 48 (a)) and raspmarks Againtheworkoftheraspis cleareverywhere his arm the back of left too at thebeautifully smoothsurappear (plate 48 (¿)). Butat thefront faceof the legs,workedwitha fineabrasive,contrasts with the raspedsurfaceof his sharply footwear. The Sisyphosis theonlystatueof thegroupwhichstillshowssomesignsofpaint.A spiral patternwas paintedon thesleevesand thebelt,and a stripofanotherpatternwas used on the
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tunicundertherightsleeve(plate 48 (a)). This seemsto indicatethatpatternswerepreferred to a flatwash ofpaint,on thetunicat least. Sisyphoswas now readyto be placed in his socket,which,likeseveralothers,overlapstwo blocks.48 All theblockswhichcomposethepedestalare leftquiteroughlypointedat theback. The topsand fronts, witha claw,and borderscutround however,wereworkedmostcarefully themwitha flat.The areas at thefronton whichtheinscriptions wereto be carvedwereraspsmoothed. The monumentset up by Daochos was verysmall beer comparedwith manyothersat thededicatorwas able to findsculptors ofoutstanding Delphi. Nevertheless, abilityjudged by thestandardsofany age. 6. Asklepios, Eleusisno.50 (plates 50-51)
This statueofAsklepioswas setup by Epikrates,sonofPamphilos,in thelastquarterofthe fourthcentury.The inscription49 on the base and our otherevidenceabout the dedicator50 confirm the date. The statueis not a majorworkof art,but an ordinarydedicationin quite a smallsanctuary.The marbleis not of the highestquality,and severalveinsof greenmica the statueon its left.However,the man who carvedit was carefuland competent, disfigure and mightbe expectedto observethestylistic oftheday. His work and technicalconventions is therefore worthsomeattention. on a staffunderhisrightarmpit.He was Asklepiosstandswrappedin hiscloakleaninglightly almostcertainly or turneda littleto hisrightas bearded,and hishead mayhave been frontal, and the on otherversions.His weightrestson hisleftleg,whilehisrightkneeis swungforward heelliftedfromtheground.His leftarmis bentand tuckedbehindhiship; hisrightarm,most of whichwas attachedseparately,hungbesidehis body,and the hand probablytouchedhis staff.The topofthestaff was carvedagainstthesideofhisbody(plate 51 (a)), and thebottom restedon thatpartof the base whichrisesin leveljust outsidetherightfoot,and presumably whichis now broken(plate 51 (a) and (¿)). The stumpon thesideoftherightlegjust below theknee(plates 50 (a) and 51 (a)) musthavebeena supporting strutforthelowerpartofthestick and indicatesthatitwas carvedin one withthefigure.A shallowcircularhollowin thepedestal (plate 51 (¿)) and a smallholedrilledin therightthigh(plates 50 (a) and 51 (a)) are theonly tracesleftof thesnakewhichwas wrappedaroundhisstaff.The statuewas brokenacrossthe anklesand has been mendedhere; thelump ofdraperyat thebottomof thefoldson his left is restored. In thecircumstances we shouldnot expectto findthatthesculptorhad introducedan oriand our confirms thattheschemeofthisstatuewas a popularone in the evidence ginaldesign, fourthcentury.Althoughwe have no similarfreestanding work,versionsappear on several A man (notAsklepios)on theright-hand sideofthedocumentreliefof347-34651stands reliefs. in thesame pose and his draperyis arrangedin almostthesame wayas thatofourAsklepios. On a documentreliefof 3 18-317s2a god or heroshowsthe same swinginglinesof pose and The figureof Asklepioson the votiverelief draperyalthoughhis armsare posed differently. NM 140253is verysimilarto ours,as was noticedlongago,54and so is theAsklepioson a votive on gravereliefs reliefin theSalonikamuseum.55 One ofthemostpopulartypesofmale figures - compareNM 768,NM 1986,and Louvre767- is an ofthesecondhalfofthefourthcentury 48 BCHWü ÎIQQ8Ï nl. xxx. 49 IG ii24414. so ADelt 1924-5, 109 f. 51 Süsserott,Griechische Plastik,pl. 4. 3.
52 Süsserott,op. cit., pl. q. 4. 53 Süsserott,op. cit,,pl. 18. 4. 54 ADelt 1924-5, loc. cit. 55 Hausmann, Griechische Weihreliefs 72, fig.41.
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adaptationofthesamepattern:therelaxedswingoftherightleg,theswatheofmaterialacross of the Eleusis the breast,and the curvingline of the triangularoverfoldare all reminiscent Thoughthereare onlya fewlatercopies- the figure.Does thestatuethenreflecta prototype? theJohnsHopkinsstatuette,58 the Capitoline statuetteNM 270,56theJamesonstatuette,57 alike tojustifytheidea. and thetorsoVienna 1177- theyseemsufficiently statue,59 versionwiththemorefamous'Neugebauer' to comparethisfourth-century It is interesting The have so of which we originalof thiswas probablymade c. 420. many replicas. Asklepios60 This god also standswithhis rightleg relaxedand hislefthand supportedon his hip; but his on theground,and therectangular twofeetare firmly patternformedby thehorizontallines of Wulstand hem,and theverticallinesofthestickon hisrightand thefoldson hisleft,givesthe statue.The EleusisAsklepios figurea staticqualitywhichis notpresentin thefourth-century or to pivoton hisleftfoot. restsso lightlyon hisstaffthathe mightbe about to moveforward, The linesofthedraperyare conceivedas a seriesofswingingdiagonals,radiatingout fanwise - therightarmpit,theleftwaist,and therightankle.Our sculptormay froma fewfocalpoints have beenindebtedto someoneelseforhistheme,buthe did appreciateit and executedit with thedesignand in their did notbotherto tryto understand The latersculptors a freshliveliness. handsit becomesflatand pointless. Drillswerenotneededmuchin theearlystagesofcarvingthisstatue.The marblebetweenthe rightsideofthefigureand thestaff(whichwe have seenwas apparentlycarvedfromthemain was undoubtedly removed block),betweenthefeet,and betweentheleftfootand thedrapery, The underneath of the hem has drill and been a the at late point. simplysquared stageby only - thereis noneoftheelaborateshapingwe find offwitha pointand flatchiselused cornerwise - and pointmarkscan be seen under underthehemsof thestatuesof theDaochos dedication therightheel.Thereare fewchannelsin thedraperydeep enoughto have neededpreliminary witha drill,but partofthedeep channeloutsidetheleftleg was cleared,like honeycombing somefoldsin thedraperyofDaochos and theApollo Patroos,by a flatchiselused cornerwise. The linesofthedraperyhavingbeenplannedfrontand backwitha point,theworkwas continuedwithrunningdrillsand flatand roundedchisels.Althoughoursculptordoesnotdisplay as Euphranorin hisuse oftherunningdrill,he stillemploysit mosteffecthesamevirtuosity Traces of the toolare cleardeepeningthe channelsat the back of the rightleg (plate tively. thelinesoftheswatheacrossthebreastand thefoldsradiatingovertheleft 51 (a)), emphasizing arm.One channelhereoutlinestheleftarm,anotherchanneloutsidetheleftthighwasdeepened to distinguish theleg fromthe bundleof draperyhangingfromthe leftarm- see the similar channeloutsidethe leftleg of Sisyphos.Partsof the triangularoverfoldhave been undercut by therunningdrill,and it has carveda groovebetweenthetop ofthestickand thedrapery. Apartfromthefoldsdesignedto revealtheshapeoftheback oftherightleg thedraperyat the back ofthefigurehas notbeen workedwitha drill. The runningdrillwas also usedin carvingthefeet.Tracesofchannelsaroundtheloweredge ofthe sole of thesandal showhow the sculptorworkedin to thisangle witha runningdrill; and a further channelwas drilledat a laterstageto separatethe arch ofthesandal sole from the base. The flatchiselfollowedstraight overthe uponthepointworkovermostoftheback,smoothing fewfoldsthesculptorhad designed.Chiselworkcan stillbe seenin severalplaces. Thereare the striations leftby a roundedchiselcuttingintothe deep foldbehindthe rightthigh,and short madebya smallflatchiseltowardthebackdownhisrightside.The very choppingstrokes 56 Bieber, Proceedings of the AmericanPhilosophical Society 57 Loc- cit->figs-!-4■I(J57)7° f->fig-34-
58 Loc. cit., fig. 15. 60 Neugebauer,BWPr. lxxviii.
s« Loc. cit., fig. 16.
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open foldsofdraperyat thefrontmusthave been made in the same way. Mostof the edge of leftshow thatit was chiselledquite crisply. the overfoldis now chipped,but the fragments thetextureof thematerialwithhis chiselthe sculptor Whenhe cameto theworkofexpressing methodofshowingthepliability carveda fewnarrowcreasesovertheleftleg; buthisfavourite - as overtheleft is to carvequitelongshallowgroovesseparatedby roundedridges ofthestuff calfand insidetherightkneein plate 50 (b). As usual,themarksofrasp workare stillclear overmuchof the drapery,but all the flesh smoothedwithabrasive. partshave been carefully The top of the base was levelledwitha point,thenpartswereworkedoverlightlywitha thena hollow closeto themarginsofthesculptureitself, clawor a flat.The edgesweretrimmed or so larger,was cut into the top of the pedestal.This of a similarshape,but a centimetre marblewithwhitestreaks,ofthetypeusuallyknownas Eleupedestalis a blockofblue-grey sinianstone.The back of thepedestalhas been leftroughlypointed,thesidesand fronthave been smoothed,and thetop was clawed.Two hollowswerecarvedin the uppersurface.The statueis fixedwithlead intothemain one, thesmalleris now emptyand showsthemarksof thepointwhichcarvedit (plate 51 (¿)). fortheattachment ofthesnakewhichappearswithsimilar The smallerholewas presumably statuesofAsklepios(see p. 102) coiledoutsidehisrightfootand windingitsupperbodyround hisstick.The factthatthereis no signofa tailon thebase butthata separatehollowwasneeded ofthehollowand thesmallsize61ofthehole in hisrightthigh fortheserpent,theshallowness to securetheupperpartofthesnakeshowus thatit was added in bronze. The rightarmwas dowelledsecurelyintopositionby a methodsimilarto thatused on the rightarm of Daochos, thatis a rectangulardowel was pinnedinto place by two cross-bars. of the outeredge of thejoiningsurfaceshowsthatit was rasped; the centrewas A fragment probablypicked. rankand thestatuesoftheDaochos dedicaWhiletheApolloPatrooswas a workofthefirst theAsklepiosis a routineproduct.And yetafterwe have allowed tionwerescarcelyinferior in the methodsof carvingall in quality,we finda remarkableconsistency forthe difference thesestatues. 7. SeatedWomanfromRheneia,JVM380 (plate 52)
hasshownhowtheunfinished unfinished Thisstatueis thefirst exampleofthisseries.Blümel62 her stateprobablyindicatesa datec.88. The poseofthewoman,whositson a rock(?)and twists her her head back toward then turns her from a different into right legs, plane upperbody thisspiralpose appears To judge by theevidenceofvotivereliefs shoulder,isjerkyand restless. in thethirdcenturyand is a popularmotifin Hellenistictimes. The statueprovidesampleevidenceforall theearlystagesofwork.The backoftherockand muchofthesidesarepittedbytheblowsof a heavypunch(plate 52 (b) and (c)). Finerpoints wereused afterthis,and clearlycarvedthe area betweenthe woman'sfeet(plate (¿)). The sculptorcontinuedtoworkwithshortstrokesofthepointuntilhe was quite closeto thefinaL surfaceall overthefigure,as we can see fromthepointworkat thetop ofherhead. Thus the mainlinesofthefigureand draperymusthavebeenclearbeforehe begantopickup othertools. Claw chiselswereused afterthepoint,and theirworkcan be seenovermostofthesurface. The sculptorused thetoolin variousways.The curveofthehead at the back was shapedin and it is obviousalong the hairlineand along theedgesofmanyshallow rathershortstrokes, 61
4 mm. wide, 1.5 cm. deep.
62
Erg. xi. 29 and 5b, pls. 22 and 24a.
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foldshowa claw was heldat rightanglesto thestoneto bitein and formtheedge.Butoverthe restofthefigurewe findthatthesculptorhas drivenhischiselin longstrokes acrossthesurface > he and as he was usinglargeclaws (4t/1.7 cm. and 6t/2cm.) withsquare teeth,the furrows made in thisway are quite conspicuous.He has made no attemptto portraythe smallsubtle curvesofthecheeks,or theplayofmusclesin theneck,or theveinsor bonesofthefeet.Instead he pushedtheclaw chiselin longstrokesaroundtheplaincylinderoftheneck,and acrossthe curvesof thecheeksand thefeet(plate 52 (a) and (c)). The draperyhas oftenbeen simplified carvedwithshorterstrokes, becausethesculptorhad to pay attentionto thelinesofthefolds, fortheclaw chisel but he usuallymade his strokesas longas he could. The sculptor'sfondness is due to thespeedand facility it gave himin levellingan area. So he usedit to plan thewhole designofthedrapery,includingthoseparts,liketheswatheofmaterialaroundthehips,which he intendedto drillafterwards (plate 52 (c), top),and thesmallfolds,likethoseon thebodice and overtheleftleg. Nexttherunningdrilldeepenedsomeofthosefoldswhichthesculptorhad shapedwithhis with wheretheywouldmakethemaximumeffect claw. The sculptorscoopedout longfurrows theminimumofeffort. He concentrated on a fewareas- theswatheacrossthehips,thefolds betweenand on eithersideofthelegs,plate 52 (c) showshowlittletroublehe tookto varythe He wanteda fewwiderand deeperfoldsbetweenthe size or spacingofthefurrows. direction, and here drill channels havebeencut sideby side and one on top ofanother. the legs, running The drillhas also been used to undercuttheedgesofthematerialat theleft. We can The sculptorhad onlyjust begunto use a flatchiselbeforehisworkwas interrupted. see its workon the eyes and the lips, and partsof the draperybetweenthe legs have been to clear thedeeperpartsofthefolds,thenthe chiselledtoo. A flatchiselwas used cornerwise facetsalong the topsand sidesof the ridgesshowhow it was used in long strokesto prepare themforsmoothing. Judgingby theway thesculptorhad alreadyused his claw he wouldnot have attemptedmuch,if any,modellingwithhis flat.He mighthave sharpenedthe edgesof but the somesmallfolds,and carvedin thelinesofthetoe-nailsand sandalstrapsmorefirmly, main taskof the flatwould have been to smoothaway the furrows made by the claw. This wouldhavebeendonewithlongstrokes whichsimplified theforms butlefta surface stillfurther what In further to fact the would have reduced still veryeasy rasp. succeedingstages probably littlemeritthestatuehas. The head, neck,and part of the shoulders,and both arms were added separately.The sculptorhas notevenbegunto preparethejoiningsurfacesforthetwoarms,whichwerelevelled roughlywitha point,butthehead was apparently joined at an earlystageand thenworked in one withthebody.Whatcan be seenofthejoiningsurface is smoothwithjust a littlerasping; thecentrepartwas perhapspickedand joined witha dowel. The workhas proceededquitefarenoughforus to be able tojudge thequalityofthestatue^ whichis poor.The formsare lumpishand lack subtletyor even thought.In all thesculptures we have lookedat before,the sculptorhas onlyallowedhimselfsuch shortcutsas would not detractfromthehighstandardhe wanted; the sculptorofNM 380 has wantedto carveonly whathe could do mostquicklyand easily. 8. Portraitstatueof a RomanfromDelos, JSTM1828 (plate 53)
Michalowski63 concludedwhenhe publishedthisstatuethatit was a portraitof a Roman whomthe inhabitantsof Delos decidedto honourwitha public magistrateor businessman,
63Délosxiii,17 f.andpls.xiv-xix.Note17,fig.11 which also showsthebroken leftarm.The scaffolding aroundthe
whenI sawit (cf.plate 53 (c)) madeitimpossible to figure takea full-length photograph.
io6
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
statueabout themiddleofthefirstcentury.Thereseemsno reasonsto disagreewiththisconclusion.The Romanslikedthetypeofstatuewhichcombineda portrait head withan ideal nude whosatisfied thedemandwereat libertyto interest themselves morein body,and thesculptors the carvingofthehead and accessoriesthanoftheconventional body.Obviouslythiswas true - perhapsit was abandonedforthesamereasons ofoursculptor.The statuewas neverfinished as no. 7 but it is alreadyclear thatthesculptorwas morecarefuland moreskilfulthanthe man who carvedthewomanfromRheneia. The designis bold. The wholestatuewas cutout ofone blockofmarbleexceptfora sliceat thetopofthehead,so drillsas wellas punchesmusthave been usedin theearlystagesto separatethelegsand thearmsfromthebody,andthedraperyfromthesmalloftheback.The sculptor clearlydecided it would be saferto leave the marblebetweenthe trunkand the rightleg foras longas possible,so he simplyworkedthisdownwithhispointto a verythinwall (plate 53 M) whichcould be piercedquite easilylater.At otherweakpointstoo- betweenthelegs, betweenthelefthandandthigh,andbehindthecornerofthedrapery(plate 53 (c))- supporting strutswereleftduringthe carving.Pointworkis leftin severalplaces; the tool was used in longobliquestrokesto clearthechannelbetweenthedraperyand theback,and theflatchisel was used cornerwise as wellas thepointin the channeloutsidetherightthigh.Naturallythe so on it sculptordid not botherto workthe strutbetweenthe legs any morethannecessary, and thetreetrunkwe can stillsee thestrokes ofquitea finepointwhichmusthave first shaped thewholefigure(plate 53 (c)). Althoughthemanwhocarvedthisstatueuseda largeand ratherheavyclawchisel(8t/3cm.) he did not tryto reducesurfacesto a uniform levelwithit in thesamewayas thesculptorof NM 380. Partsoftheback (plate 53 (6)) and thetreetrunk(plate 53 (c)) werecarvedin the orthodoxway withshortstrokesoftheclaw. The drillwas usedon variouspartsofthebodyto preparethewayfortheflatchisel.The ears were a prominent feature,and theirshape has been drilledout mostcarefully.The nostrils weredrilledand so probablywas thechannelbetweenthelips,butthesignshavebeenremoved and others by laterwork.A smallrunningdrillwas usedtocutthechannelbetweenthethighs, betweenthetoes,and ofcoursethefoldsofthedrapery,theedgesofthematerialand itsseparationfromtheleftshoulderwereall accomplishedwiththerunningdrill. The sculptorusedsmallflatand roundedchisels,and usedthemwithcare and precision.He that carvedtheformshe wantedwithshortlightstrokes,as we can see fromthe chisel-work and remainson the frontand backoftheneckand therightshoulder-blade (¿)). (plate 53 (a) The impressivemodellingof the face,with its high,lined forehead,shaggyeyebrows,thin cheeksand firm,kindlymouthwas undoubtedlyexecutedlargelywiththe chisel.Then the unfinished part of the draperyover the leftshoulder(plate 53 (a)) showshow it also was workedwithquiteshortstrokesof a flatchisel.We saw in nos. 4, 5, and 6 how the sculptors used the chiselto cut variouslines and groovesto expressthe textureof the material.This way, simplyby sculptorhas triedto show the plasticityof the stuffin a moresophisticated contours in a series of the minor folds (plate 53 (c), and Délosxiii, natural-looking arranging used by Kleomeneson the the method of a less skilful This is a reflection sculptor by pl. xvi). 128 Louvre of below). 1207 (see p. drapery Germanicus, The raspalso seemstohaveplayedan important partin carvingthedrapery.The linesmade the and as it re-cross the tool cross large and smallridgesand channels.Probably shapes by thisraspedsurfacewas to be thefinalone forthedrapery;but althoughtheworkon thebody certainthattheinwas abandonedafterithad beenthoroughly raspedall overwe mayfeelfairly withabrasivesand perhapsevenpolishit. It is interesting tentionwas to smooththefleshfurther
FREESTANDING STATUES
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to see thesimilarity betweenthemarkslefton thebase herebythechiselor abrasivewhichwas used betweenthetoesand on thearchaicbase AcrM 168.64 The base of the statuewas as usual firstlevelledwitha point,thenthefrontwas smoothed overwithlongstrokesby a flatchisel,whilea striparoundtheedge oftherightfootwas even rasped. The edges would probablyhave been trimmedfurther, ready forinsertioninto a pedestal. It is notclearfromthepublicationhow theAnsatzwas fastenedto thetopofthehead. The line ofthejoin wouldhave been disguisedby thepainton thehair. all The evidencesuggeststhatthe sculptorintendedto finishthe statuefairlythoroughly thanon the thewayround,forworkon thedraperyat theback has alreadybeencarriedfurther body.Then he wouldhave cut away themarblebetweenthetreetrunkand therightleg,and thesurfaceofthetrunkeitherwitha claworwitha flat.Finally,he obviously mighthavefinished - he has alreadycut intothe sidesof the one betweenthe legs, intendedto removethe struts and would not have carvedtheone behindthe draperyin thispositionifhe had intendedto leave it- and would probablyhave done so just beforethe finalsmoothing. 6+ Casson, TEGS fig.77. See p. 79.
CHAPTER
10
GRAVE RELIEFS The menwhocarvedGreekgravereliefs bothin theirsubjectsand their wereveryconservative, Gravereliefs werenotworksofart,intendedfortheeducation technique.Thisis notsurprising. ofcontemporaries and thepleasureofposterity, butusefularticleswhichhad topleasecustomers. The same Andcustomers couldbe expectedto makea conventional choicein thecircumstances. and combinations recuroverand overagain,in different typesand patternsoffiguretherefore of executedwithvaryingskill,butwiththegenerallinesofthepose and eventhearrangement the draperyfairlyconstant.In the archaicperiodof tall, narrowstelai,a man facingto our rightis regularlydepictedwithleftfootadvanced1and oftena spearor stickin his lefthand. The beardedold men,themaidswearinga sakkosand leaningon thebackofa chair,theseated reliefs.A womenliftingtheirhands to theirveils,appear timeaftertimeon fourth-century richcustomermightwant something or a masondecide forhimselfthathe would different, likea change.If theresultwas approveda new motifwouldpass intotheuniversalrepertoire. Presumablynot everyreliefwas made to order.Masonsmusthave kepta fewin stockand carvedin thenamesas thecustomer If something waswanted- a daughter different required.2 to be exchangedfora husband,or a maid added sample figurescould be shownto the customerfromreliefsin stock,or froma 'patternbook', and combinedas he chose. This is thebackgroundofthosereliefswhichwillnow be discussedin detail. i . The Aristion Stele,NM 2g (plates 54-55)
This relief3was carvedat theend ofthe sixthcentury.Althoughwe now referto it by the name oftheman in memoryofwhomit was setup, thename ofthe artistactuallyoccupiesa and hisis one ofthe muchmoreprominent place on the workitself.He was called Aristokles, fewnameswe knowofall thehundredsofmasonswho carvedgravereliefs. The reliefwas made froma blockofPentelicmarble.There is no evidence(see p. 83) that theGreeksusedthepresenteconomicalmethodofslicinglargeblockswitha saw,and it thereforeseemslikelythata long narrowblock,not muchlargerthanour stele,was cut fromthe quarryface. The streaksof mica runningacrossthe surfacesuggestthatthe blockis quarry bedded,and was cut froma verticalface,not fromthe surfaceof a hillsidelike the Naxian or hammerand punch,thendekouroi.The blockwas roughlylevelledwitha pick-hammer liveredto Aristokles. - was to carveit intothefashionable The first taperingshape, job forhim- or an apprentice in thearchaic and to smoothit on all sides.This workwas carriedout muchmorethoroughly thanin latertimes.Firstfinerpointswereused,thena claw,and thesidesat leastwerefinished witha drove. couldbeginto carvethereliefproper.Firstthefigurewas drawnon thestone,, NowAristokles thenhe startedto cuttheoutline.Probablythedrillwas notused,sincethereliefis veryshallow 1 Becauseit is artistically forthefarlegto be preferable as on freestanding statuestheleft and on reliefs forward, leg is alwaysforward. 1 And on the reliefPiraeusE 62 it looksas thougha
Cf.also beardwasalsocarvedin at thecustomer's request. Studien zumIlissos-relief, Himmelman-Wildschütz, pl. 15. 3 Lullies,pl. 68.
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109
(nevermorethan2.5 cm.), and thereis no signofdrillwork.Instead,in a roughpatchjust at thebackofthehelmetwe findtheworkofa finepoint,whichmusthavebeenusedall roundthe outline.A claw followedthis,and at the back of the helmetits marksare clear,bitinginto the helmetfromthe backgroung,and also clearingthe marksof the the angle to distinguish from the ridgebetweenthe edge ofthe helmetand thebackground. pointaway made no attemptto carvetheedgesofthefigureto a uniform Aristokles depthall round.In - the edges are square and steep,but some parts- round the head and beside the greaves behindhisshouldersand in frontofhis chestthefigurecurvesgentlytothebackground.Corlevelledoffthe backgroundwithhis claw, he did not aim at a whenAristokles respondingly, The surface. even backgroundcurvesback behindthefigurefromthenarrowstrips completely thehighestpartsoftherelief,to frameit on bothsides.But than lower level a at left, slightly seen fromtheside,thereis a definite bumpin thebackgroundabove Aristion'slefthand,and out to the front(plate 54 (a)). Aristokles his spear curvesstrongly mayhave used a canonof in his lines of but the out to figure, carvingit he trustedhis eyes proportion(see p. 6) map ratherthanmeasurements. Aftertheclaw,Aristokles pickedup hisdroveand flatto developtheformsofhisfigureand ofthe to smooththebackground.The marksofthedrovecan stillbe seenunderthesmoothing tool was worked across the surface of the into the the blade how angleof showing breastplate, theshoulderpiece and cut theclean firmangle there.The curvingfoldsoftheskirtunderthe righthandwerealso cutwitha drove(plate 54 (¿)). It was toolargea tooltobe usedin cutting smallcurves,however,and so we findtheshortchoppingstrokesofa flaton thelowerpartof thebuttock(plate 54 (b)). The channelsbetweentheflapsofthetunicwerecutwitha flat(see p. 79) and so werethe smallnicksalongthebottomofthetunicwhichservedas guidelinesfor thepaintedfringe(plate 54 (b)) . The V-shapedchannelson thegreavewerecutin thesameway The roundedchannelswhichformthemusclesaroundthekneesmayhave as on inscriptions. witha curvedchisel(plate 55 (¿)). The marksofgentle,carefulflatchiselling been carvedfirst are stillso plainalongthefoldsandedgesofthesleeveand theskirt(plates 54 (b) and 55 (a)) that thetoolmusthave been used hereat a verylate stage,aftertheyhad been smoothedwithrasp and emery. freeoftoolmarks,butthe Mostofthenudepartsofthefigurehavebeensmoothedcompletely as as the is clear on facets of the of the toes the edges spear (plate 55 (a)). The chisellingalong and beard head were of the first cap, hair,features, probablydistinguished separateparts strokes of the The short which was used and claw. next to the carve the flat, gentle, by point linesoftheeyeand brow,thelips,and theears,are stillvisibleon theend ofthenose.Then the •drillwasusedin thenostriland ear (plate 55 (a)). The bobblesofthehairmayhavebeencarved witha pointalone,orwithpointand claw; a flatwas usedon someendsofcurlsand tocarvethe Aristokles startedin frontoftheear,carvingbasicallyvertical strandsofthebeard.Apparently had he found a but after while lines, they begunto curlroundto fillin theshapeofthebeard. the vertical restarted he So beganagain, channels,and in thetriangular spaceleftcarvedshorter channelsparallelwiththenew line. At somestage,however,he had an accidentwiththetipofthebeard. Or perhapsat first he had not even designeda beardedfigure.Anyway,a separatepiece had to be added here to completethe beard,and anotherbetweenthe thighsforthe genitals.No dowel was used. In both places the patch was smoothedas finelyas the surrounding areas, thenpickedwitha the mortar. On the off end the a for of beard a smoothborder to squared point provide key was leftto providea tightjoin. The helmetcrestmayhave been added in stonealso,sincethe slotprovided(5-8cm.long x 0-09cm.wide X0*06cm.deep) wouldaccommodatea stonetenon.
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whichwe leftcoveredwithdroveand flatchiselmarks;all theforms To returnto thefigure, werecompletednow,and neededonlyto be smoothed.This was done firstwitha rasp- the theline oftherightwrist,and similarly longstrokesofwhichare clearon thetunic,following - and finallyby emeryand pumice.A veryfinepowder on theleftarm in frontof the breast musthave been rubbedpatientlyoverthewholefigureto producethebeautifulgleamofthe burnishedsurface. The sameseriesoftoolscan be seenon thebackground, thestandard althoughhere,naturally, did notbotherto removetheclaw workfrombefore offinishis notso high.In factAristokles theface(plate 55 {a)) althoughthearea in frontofthelegswas workedwitha droveand then smoothed(plate 55 (¿)). The narrowbandsat thesidesweresmoothedverythoroughly, and theplain area at thebottomoftheshaftwas also levelledand polished. Finallythe sculptorcarvedhis name,and the painterwas called in to do his work.Many - fora colouredrestoration tracesofcolourwerefoundon thesteleat thetimeofitsdiscovery a designwas paintedon thearea under see Conze,Attische Grabreliefs, pl. ii. i. Almostcertainly The of horses. would also have been requiredto colour thefeetofAristion, painter probably thesteleoriginally.This akroterion was probthepalmettefinialwhichprobablysurmounted in the shaft.4 one with carved ably The bottomof the stelewas levelledoffreadyforinsertioninto the plinth,whichis of an - a blue-greylimestone.No doubt it was customarythenas now to set an material inferior apprenticeto workon the boringtaskof carvingplain blockslike this.He levelledthe four verticalsideswithstrokesofthedrove,then,usinga claw,carvedthetop in a shallow,convex curve. A borderof drovinground the edges ensureda good angle and firmappearance. A rectangularsocketwas hollowedout witha point,the reliefraisedinto positionand lead to makeall secure. pouredin untilit overflowed The masoncarvedthename ofAristionand paintedit red. Salamis'NM y15 (plates 56-59) 2. Thestele'from broaderand shorterthanthe The Salamisstele5is, likeotherreliefsofthelate fifth century, archaictype.The blocksstilltaperslightly(on the Salamis reliefthetrueverticalis givenby thesideofthestele(?) againstwhichtheboyleans) and are usuallysurmounted by a pediment. to carvean exquisiteborder The sculptoroftheSalamisstele,however,seizedtheopportunity ofpalmettesand lilies.6 The dateofthereliefis probablyc. 420. It is usuallyassociatedwiththeParthenonfrieze,and ontheParthenon manyfigures especiallywiththeApollooftheeastfrieze(AcrM856). Certainly friezeprovideparallelsfortheway thecloakoftheSalamisyouthis flungroundhisbody (see especiallya stewardon AcrM 865), or forthestyleofhishead (AcrM 857).7 It is also truethat - butwe the technique,withitswealthofcarefuldrillwork,is likethatoftheParthenonfrieze thatso is thetechniqueoftheNikeBalustrade.Manyofthemasonswhohad haveto remember workedon the Parthenon,and underthe directionof Pheidiashad createdtheretogethera in style,musthave been glad once the templewas finishedto findemployment homogeneous thatthey,and wheregraveand votivereliefsweremade. It is not surprising the stone-yards theirapprentices,continuedto use manyof the motifsand techniqueswhichhad been so on theParthenon.But styleswerechanging,and especiallyin drapery.The drapery successful on theParthenonfrieze,thoughit seemsnaturaland freewhencomparedwith ofmanyfigures still designedin formaland symmetrical the stifflines of archaic drapery,is nevertheless 4 Richter,ArchaicAtticGravestones 112. 5 Lullies, pl. 180.
6 There is one otherexampleofthis(cf.Conze, Grabreliefs ,. 103 pl. xxv) but it is veryinferior. 7 Lullies, pl. 161.
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III
patterns,withparallel lines dominanteven wherethe stuffappearsto fallin naturalcurves ofApollo,AcrM 856). The foldsofthecloakoftheSalamisyouthare morebroken,, (cf.thefigure linescrossone anothermuchmore,and althoughthe unityof the wholeis stillpreservedby the underlying disguised.The sharply systemofparallellinestheyare muchmorethoroughly of the Rhamnous or Nike Balustrade8 also resemble his folds over thigh parts right ridged the stele was Parthenon. Therefore carvedat about the far than the more probably sculptures same timeas theNikeBalustrade. butgravereliefsofyouthsand girlsoftendo show Thereare no parallelsforthecomposition, in or both.A youthis similarlyrepresented themwiththeirpets,or withyoungattendants, frontalview on the stele NM 794 whichis probablyabout twenty-five yearslaterthan the ends Salamisstele,and thereis an animal (a hare) on thesteleat hisside.Buttheresemblance there.He has no child attendant,unlessone was huddledinto the bottomlefthand corner. His leaningpose has nothingin commonwiththe firmstanceof the other.The raised right - and thiscould be true hand oftheSalamisyouthis usuallyexplainedas a gestureoffarewell of theraisedlefthand ofthe boy on NM 794. But the way the Salamisyouthturnshis head towardhis righthand, and the alertnessof the cat lookingup at it, suggestthat perhapshe withthetipsofhisfingers. was releasinga bird,whichhas nowbeenbrokenofftogether haveworkedover Whentheblockwas deliveredfromthequarryto thesculptor,he mayfirst it withpunchor point,forthepointworkis fineron theback ofthisreliefthanon mostlater works,whichobviouslyretainthetoolingofthequarry.He did notbothertolevelthebackwith a claw as Aristokles had done, but he did use a claw on thesides(plate 59 (¿c)).He probably smoothedoverthefrontoftheblockwithit too,thendrewhis design. It is quitepossiblethatalmostthefirsttoolhe used was a drillto guidehimin shapingthe outlines;or he may have sketchedthemin firstwithhis point,leavinga considerablesafety margin,and used the drillas he cautiouslyapproachedthe finaloutline.The clearesttraces ofthisdrillworkin outliningare to be seenaroundtheleftarmoftheboy (plate 56 (¿)). Nicks on his body underhis leftarmpitas well as the line of holesfollowingthe curveof his iliac crestshowhowthearea betweenarmand bodywas honeycombed by a drill(2.5 mm.) before it was cutaway.We cannotbe sureexactlyhowmuchoftheoutlinesofthefigures was worked in thisway, but the tracesoutsidethe boy's leftarm,above his head and underthe youth's rightelbowindicatethatit was fairlywidespread.In theseexamplesthedrillwas usedat right anglesto thebackground.Otherholes,on thebackgroundbehindtheyouth'schin (thesecan ofhisrighthand (plate just be seen on plate 57 (#)),on his rightcheek,behindthe fingers and the his behind curve of himation the drillwas also used show how 57 (b)) (plate 58) with the to work towards or to cut behind the outline. parallel background Withtheoutlinesestablished,thesculptorcould use a finepointto drawin the mainlines withinthefigures. He beganto distinguish thedifferent parts.On theyouth,ridgesmarkedthe curveof the himationroundthe figure,its loweredge, and the 'sleeve' at the top of the left shoulder.The featuresof the face too would beginto appear at thisstage.The workof disthedifferent tinguishing partswas continuedwitha claw,whichalso servedto leveloutirregularities.Tracesoftheclaw survivedowntheedge ofthecurvingselvageofthecloak at theleft and also on thehairat theback ofthehead (plate 57 (è)). Probablythedrillwas used again beforetheflatto cut thechannelsseparatingthedrapery fromthebodyand on thedeeperfolds.Rows ofholescut away the marblebetweenhis right hipand cloak,and we can stillsee (plate 59 (a)) thenicksleftbytwelveholesdrilledsidebyside withina distanceof5 cm.in thechannelbetweenhisleftarmand thedrapery.The drillingwas 8 Carpenter,NTP} pl. xiv.
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removedfrommostofthedraperyduringthelaterchiselling. Witha smallflatchisel- a largeone could neverhave accomplishedthisdelicatework he shaped the ever-varying curvesof the ridgesbetweenthe channels,the gentleundulationsof the flatterareas, and the sharpcrisp linesofsomeofthesmallerfoldsand edges.Then as a finaltouchto theclarityofthelines,the drillwas usedagaintoundercutsomeedgesand etchina darklineofshadowthere(plate 59 (6)) . This workcan onlyhavebeendoneafterthechiselling;on the'sleeve',forexample,therewould be fartoogreata riskthata blowwiththechiselmightchipoffpartoftheoverhanging edge. The restofhisbodymusthave been chiselledin thesameway,withshortstrokesoftheflat workingroundthecurvesofhis muscles,and also cuttingthe sharplinesof the creasedflesh in thepalm ofhis hand and underhis rightarmpit.Bothdrilland flatwereused in thelater stagesof carvingthe head. The insideof the ear was drilled,and the anglesof the mouth hollowedoutwitha chiselratherthandrilled. wereapparently (plate 57 (a))9 thoughhisnostrils inthenapeofhisneck(plate 57 (¿) ) . On thehairlinesofholeswerecutacrossthetopofthefringe Anotherverticallinewas boredparallelwiththebackgroundto makea channelrightdownthe a firmlineforthe back ofhishair,betweenit and thebackground(plate 57 (¿)), thusensuring A flatchiselclearedthischanneland lightly back ofhishead whenseenfromthefront. worked and surely,hisear delicatelyand beautithestrandsofhishair.His features werecarvedfirmly fullyshaped. todiscusstheremaining It willbe moreconvenient stagesofworkon theyouthbeforeexaminbut ofcoursethesculptorwouldhavekept of the the earlier on the other relief, ing stages parts and notallowedanyone partto getfarin advanceof therest. thewholeworkgoingtogether, It wasprobablywhenthewholereliefwas at thestageto whichwe have broughttheyouth,and thatthe sculptorundertookthe cuttingfreeof bothwrists. lacked onlythe finalsmoothing, and itsmarkscan be seen behindtherightarm (plate a drill was used, Quite large (9 mm.) In and left hand the 58) (plate 59 (c)). thelattercase a longholewas drilledacrosstheupper hand and thestoneoverthiswas brokenaway,leavinga semicircular of the left groove. part Then it was necessaryto shape and tidytheareas behindthesefreestanding parts. In smoothing, sizes,one withteeth raspswere used first.Traces of raspsof two different just ovrr,theotherwithteethjust under1 mm.apart,can be seenbehindthefaceand on the was backofthewristsas well as on the drapery(plate 59 (6), bottom).The finalsmoothing and until it most of the has been rubbed the The surface of with abrasives. gleams, body given too. from the was removed drapery rasping The figureofthesmallboy,whichwe leftat thepointand drillstage,was workedin thesame way as theyouth,by claw and flat,raspsand abrasives.His hair has been carvedin long Vshapedstrandswitha flat,and is workedrightto theback,withno channeldrilledoutbehind. The outlinehas been helpedin anotherpart though.The sculptorhas allowed a V-shaped thelinesoftheleftside ofhisbodyand his channel,cutwitha flat,to remainand strengthen leftarm (plate 56 (b)). finished. The holesleftunderneaththe None of therestof thereliefwas quite so carefully frontleg and tailofthecatshowclearlyhowpartsofhisoutlinewerecutwitha drill(plate 58). butraspworkis stillvisibleon someparts,and so are the Much ofhisbodyhas beensmoothed, facetscarvedwitha smallflatalonghistail. The stelehas hardlybeensmoothedwithabrasive at all; theshortstrokesofa claw whichshapedthecurveat thetop are stillvisiblehereand thereunderthelongstrokesoftheraspwhichhas smoothedthebulkofthesurface. so cornerwas notsmoothedat all afterchiselling, The cage whichhangsin thetopleft-hand ofa flatchiselovermostofit. The workis so thatwe can stillsee theveryshortcarefulstrokes gentlethatthesurfaceis almosteven,and themarksofthechiselare onlyvisibleon theangle
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ofthecage in a photograph(plate 58). The triangular partat thetophas beenchiselledrather roughly,perhapsbecauseit was hiddenby a birdflyingaway fromtheyouth'sfingers. is fairlylevel.Over mostofit themarksofa claw chiselare stillclear,butin The background someparts- forexampleat theleft-hand side- bothflatand rasp have workedovertheclaw (plate 58). The palmettefriezeand the Lesbian cymabelow it have been mostcarefully chiselled,and littleraspworkhas survivedthesmoothing excepton theledgeunderneaththe frieze. Paintwouldhavemade a lotofdifference to theappearanceofthestele.The low reliefofthe palmetteand lilyfriezewouldhave stoodout moresharply,and a leafand dartpatternhave Tracesofthiscan be seenon plate 57 (a). The youth'sbodywas painted emphasizedthecyma. and thelittleboy'sprobablya palershade.Theirhair,lips,and eyeswere brownlikeAristion's, coloured,and eithera borderor a patternpaintedon the youth'scloak. The subjectof the reliefwould have been clearer,too, forthe bird (?) in his lefthand would have been more obvious,and bars,and perhapsan open door,would have been paintedon the cage. 3. SteleNM y26 (plates 60-61) The fashionableshape fora gravereliefchangedagain in the periodbetweenthe Salamis steleand NM 72o.9Two antaewerenowregularly carvedat thesidesto supportthepediment, - by which,however,theyare almostinvariably and to providea sortofframeforthefigures overlapped.The antae had variouspracticaladvantages.Their capitalshelpedto fillthe top havebeenempty,and thepartsofthefigures whichoverlapped corners,whichwouldotherwise themcould be carvedin veryshallowrelief. The subjectofthisstele,a womanseatedwithher maid standingbeforeher,is a favourite one in thelate fifth and earlyfourth NM 831,showsthesame century.The steleofPhrasikleia, subjectexecutedin a ratherelaborateand manneredstylewhichindicatesa date contemporary withthe Erechtheum is stillapparentin the sculptures(c. 410). A certainamountoffussiness of the designof figureof Hegeso,NM 3624,10but as Dohrn11has pointedout, the simplicity her maid suggestsa ratherlaterdate- perhapsin the nineties.The fussiness has disappeared fromthesteleofMnesarete,MunichG 491, whichDiepolderdatesc. 380,but thesculptorhas stillnotweldedtogether thelinesofbodyand drapery.Justas on whitegroundlekythoinude bodiesweredrawnfirst, thentheirdraperysuperimposed, so in thesefigures one feelsthatbody and draperyhave been conceivedseparately, and thatin different the parts sculptoris concentratingon firstone,thentheother.But thesculptorofNM 726,althoughhe wrappedbothhis in theircloaks,neverforgotthevolumeand weightofthebodiesbelow figuresalmostentirely and succeededin integrating the lines of the draperywith the figuresthemselves.He also realizedthepossibilities ofusingan anta as a frame,and whereasthe sculptorsof Phrasikleia and Hegesofeltit necessaryto draw in verticalfoldsof draperydownthe outerside of their maids,and theskirtof Mnesarete'smaid hangsin unnaturally folds,the sculptor stiff, straight of NM 726 makesthedraperyfollowthe naturalswingof thefigure, and getsa strongvertical linefromtheinsideoftheanta behindher. On stylistic groundsthenwe mayconsidersteleNM 726 to be thelatestofthesefourworks, and to be datedc. 375. The reliefwas foundin Piraeus.The largenumberofstelaiand stonelekythoidiscoveredin thearea showthatflourishing existedtherein thefourth workshops centuryand later.We shall 9 Lullies,pls. 196 and 197. Restorations: left-hand chipat thebridge.(Gf.plate 61 (b)). 10 Lullies,pl. 185. cornerat bottom, baseandbacklegofstool.Note including 11 Attische thattheapparentshapeofthenosein profileis due to a Plastik104 f. C 3288
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findthatthetechnicalmethodsusedto cutthisreliefvarylittlefromthoseusedon theSalamis stele.Butjust as theSalamisstelewas notquite as wellfinished as Aristion, so did thesculptor of NM 726 notfinishhisworkas thoroughly as thesculptorofthe Salamisstele. It has beensaid alreadythatthedesignis a commonone.The actionsofmaidand mistress are divorcedfromone another.The maid opensa jewel-box,readyto takesomething completely out. Her mistress her,and raisesherrighthand to hershoulderapparentlyto draw disregards hercloakmorecloselyroundher- a gesturewhichis cleareron otherstelai,wherethewomanis seenfromherrightside.12 On otherstelaitoothemaidstandsidle- Mnesarete's claspsherhands in frontofher,Xenocrateia's13 crossesherarmsupon herbreast. The first stagesofthecarvingmusthave been thesame as on 1 and 2, thatis, theblockwas shaped,thefrontlevelled,thedesigndrawn,and workbegunwitha point.The drillwas used - a rowofholeswas bored in at leastone place duringthepreliminary outliningofthefigures above the head ofthe maid alongtheundersideofthepediment(plate 61 (a)). Althoughthe top ofherhead is actuallysome 3 cm. below thisledge,the sculptorobviouslyfeltunwilling to hacka fairlynarrowand deep channelwithpointand chiselsalone.Buthe followedup with ofthepointcan be seenat thetop ofherhead,whileon theundersideofthe these,and strokes pedimentare thefinecurvinglinesmade by thecornerofa flatchiselused as a point(p. 34). As he approachedthefinaloutlineofhisfigures, thesculptorpickedup hisdrillagain.A row as well as in theangleofherchinand ofholesis clearbeneaththerighthand ofthemistress, neck,and on herrightcheek(plate 61 (¿)). The faceofthemaidmusthavebeencutinthesame way,and thereare severalholesaroundtheoutlineofherrighthand.Evenin theshallowchannel betweenthe woman'sfootand sandal one drillhole has survived(plate 60 (<;)),so presumablythetoolhelpedto carvethischanneltoo. However,thedrillwas notused muchon the detailsof the heads. Neitherhair nor nostrils is wellshapedand drilledthesculptor normouthare drilled,and thoughtheear ofthemistress saved himself troubleby hidingthemaid'sear underherhair. We maypresumethatas usual a flatwas used afterpointand claw to carvetheshapesand can stillbe seenmostclearlyon thehair,whichwas not cutthedetailsoftheirheads.Its strokes In thecarvingoftheeyesa linewas chiselledjust belowthebottomlid workedoverafterwards. ontheAthena whichhas beennoticedonlyonceelsewhere, and parallelwithit- an idiosyncrasy The flatwas, ofcourse,used on armsand legs Birdsmetopeat Olympia.14 oftheStymphalian and chiselstrokesare stillvisiblehere,but too. A smallpatchof the leftheel is unfinished, thisarea is hiddenin shadow.The sculptor in plate as the relief 60 on itself, (c)9 unfortunately has also chiselledthetoe-nails,althoughhe did notbotherwiththefinger-nails. As on the Salamisstele,the mainlinesofthe draperyweredoubtlesscarvedwithpointand claw,thenall thedetailedworkwas donewiththeflatand thedrill.But thedrillis usedmuch here.Veryfewfoldsofthemaid'sdraperyare deep enoughto haveneeded moreeconomically the sculptorhas reliedon his chiselto makethemplain. The chitonofthe mistress,, drilling in a singlelayeracrossher breastand feet,has been renderedby a few whereit is stretched lines shallow engravedintoherflesh(plates 6 1 (b) and 60 (c)) . Wherethematerialbunches sharp betweenherfeettheouterridgeshave also been engravedwiththeseshallowlines,but a few deeperchannelshave been cut withthe drill,and theirdarkverticallinesadd weightto the designofthelowerpartofthe figure.Partsof thehem weredrilledtoo. Even on the thicker materialofthehimationthedrillworkhas beenlimitedto a fewkeypointswhereit emphasizes - overher leftbreast,in her lap, acrossherthighsand behindher hips the linesof the figure (plate 60 (¿)). 12 E.g. Polyxena,NM 723.
13 NM, unnumbered.
14 Lullies, pl. 107.
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In everyplace wherethedrillhas been usedit has boredsingleholes,or rowsofholes.There is no signoftherunningdrill. Beforediscussingthesmoothing processes,let us look at thechisellingon otherpartsof the stele.Some neatflatchiselworkis clearon theunderneath ofthestool,and a squarefirmedge was ensuredby cuttingan evenborderwiththeflatalongitsfront.This was done also around thetopedgeofthepedimentand itspalmettefiníais, thentherestofthestonewas pointedaway. The whole of the ledge underneaththe pedimentwas tidiedcarefullywitha flat,and the mouldingsofthepedimentand the anta capitalsweremade withthesame tool. The floorof the reliefshowsflatworkoverpointwork(plate 60 (c)). Variousplane surfaceshave been levelledwitha claw. Signsofthiscan be seenon thefront ofthestool,in thetympanum and on partsofthefrontas wellas all overthesidesoftheantae. The backgroundis so granularthatno toolingis clear,althoughthe patch of raspingon the area underthestoolindicatesthatitwas carefully smoothed.As usual,thesculptordid notwork back to a uniform maid's the behind the leg has notbeen cut to thedepthofthe depth; part partbehindherhead. Much ofthesurfaceofthereliefwas finished withraspsofdifferent sizes.Quite a largetool - teethover 1 mm.apart- is clearon thestooland footstool 60 of (plate (c)), and on thefront theantae.Smalleroneswereusedwidelyoverthedrapery(plate 60 (¿)). The raspmarkshave - ifit was usedhere- butthesculptorhas allowed beenclearedfromthethinstuff ofthechiton themtoremainall overthehimation.Here he differs fromthesculptoroftheSalamisstele,who removedmostoftheraspworkfromthedraperytoo; buthisstandardsare closerto thoseofhis in thesmoothness of the flesh,fromwhichnearlyall rasp markshave been carepredecessors removed fine abrasives. fully by The pickedsurfaceat the bottomofthe stelehas been workedovera littlewitha claw. It wouldin anycase have beenhiddenwhenit was setintothesocketofitspedestal.Probablythe woman'snamewas paintedalong thebottomofthepediment. NM y18 (plates 62-63) 4. The steleof Ameinokleia
This relief15 was set up in memory ofAmeinokleia, The inscription daughterofAndromenes. whichsaysso was carvedalong the bottomof the pediment,for,as on NM 726, thereis no epistyle.AlsolikeNM 726 thisstelewas foundin Piraeus.But notonlydo thetworeliefsdiffer in theirsubjectsand composition;differences ofstyleand techniqueare apparentalso. We noticedhowthesculptorofNM 726had succeededin unifying thelinesofhisfigures and theirdrapery;thesculptorofAmeinokleiahas almostsubmergedthetwoadultfigures in their clothes.Ameinokleia herself wearstwochitons(onlythebuttonedsleeveoftheIonicis visibleon herrightarm) as well as her himation.The standingmaid has at least a Doric chitonand a himation.Even thoughthesmallkneelingmaid wearsonlyone garment,herbodyis modelled to showherpose.Anotherchangeoffashionis apparentin throughit onlyso faras is necessary Ameinokleia'shairstyle and face.The hairofthewomanon NM 726 is drawnback fromher forehead.Ameinokleia'sis raisedaboveit in a sortofpeak,presumably bycombs.Her faceis of thetypeusuallylabelledPraxitelean(plate 62 (b)) . That is,theshapeis ovalratherthanround, and theforehead is triangular. The eyesare ratherlongand narrow,theirlidsverysoftly carved, at the corners. The especially lips appear softerand smallertoo. However,sincethesenew fashionsnaturallydo notsuddenlyoustand replacetheold ones, it seemsfairto assumethatat least theydo nothelp us muchin datingtherelief.Nevertheless 15 Diepolder, pl. 41. Restored: top right-handcorner,not includingany part of the figure.
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be dateda little yearselapsedbetweenNM 726 and thisstele,and thatitshouldtherefore twenty before350. witha kneelingmaid Thereare no exactparallelsforthecomposition, althougha fragment musthave comefroma stelewitha similarsubject.Ameinokleia's foot16 touchinghermistress's sandal. Ameinokleialifts maid has eitherjust adjusted,or is about to adjust,her mistress's her leftfoot,meanwhilesteadyingherselfby placingher righthand on the child'shead. A anta. secondmaid in thebackgroundleans againsttheleft-hand and The compositionas a wholehas been verywell planned. There is no overcrowding, thoughthe maids outnumberAmeinokleiatheydo not outweighher. Her figureis given in severalways: herhead is carvedalmostin theround(plate 62 (6)) : herrightarm prominence is stretched forwardand undercut ; and fromhead to toe thereare partsof herfigurein the forefront planeoftherelief.On theothersideof thestele,theupperpartof thestandingmaid Butthelowerhalfofherfigure, is carvedin somedetail,thoughinlowerreliefthanAmeinokleia. evenwhereit is nothiddenbehindthekneelingmaid,fadesawayin thelightlinesoflow relief. The sculptormanagesthisby lettingthe backgroundslide forwardin the lowerpart of the relief,thatis, by not cuttingback to thesame depthhereas on theupperpart(plate 63 (a)). Indeed,he has notevenbotheredto hollowout therecesswhichshouldhave been cutbetween therightthighofthestandingmaid and theinsideedgeoftheanta,just above theback ofthe kneelingmaid. Finally,theplain simplelinesofthelatterbalance thebottomofthestelewithfromthefigureofAmeinokleia. out distracting any attention The sideshave The blockis roughat theback,and maywellstillshowthequarrytrimming. beenlevelledwithclaw chisels(a finerone was used on theupperpart) in strokesabout 1 cm. long,plate 63 (a) showshowthesidesoftheoriginalblockweresmoothedlikethisin theirenwas tooledin thesame framework tiretybeforethereliefwas cut.The restofthearchitectural a flat on theanta capitals on flat a of a with border as NM by chiselling top, 726 by point way The base was fim and underthe pediment,while the frontof the anta was rasp-smoothed. levelledoffwithoblique strokesofthepointthensmoothedwitha flatchisel(plate 63 (6)). in the Thereis no evidenceto showwhetherholeswereboredaroundtheedgesofthefigures used were drills shall as we of the to out see, definitely outline, although, parts earlystages shape at laterstages.Pointworkcan be seen aroundthe topsof the heads of bothstandingfigures (plate 62 (è)) thoughithasbeenremovedfromtherestoftherelief.Underneaththepediment, on thepartsabove theirheads,are thefinecurvingridgesmade by thecornerofa flatused as a point(plate 62 (6)). The workoftheflatchiselis stillapparentin manypartsofthecarving.The hairofAmeinoin shortjabs, and thestandingmaid's kleia (plate 62 (b)) has beenrenderedimpressionistically strands.The featuresof all threehave been chiselledgently was carvedintoratherill-defined intosoftlines.No greatpainsweretakenin thecarvingoftheirears.Ameinokleia'swas largely hidden by her hair, and the sculptorobviouslyreliedon the attachmentof an earringto lobe (plate 62 (¿)). The wholeoftherightear ofthesmallmaidisvisible disguisetheover-long and the 62 sculptorhas made a gestureat hollowingthisoutwitha flatchisel.The (c)) (plate ofa flatchiselcanstillbe seenunder is quitegoodfroma distance(plate 62 (a) ) . The strokes effect therightwristofAmeinokleia(plate 62 (c)) as wellas alongtheupperedgeofherarm(plate and thisis stillmoretrue 63 (a)). Butthesculptorhasnotlingeredlongovershapingherfingers, oftherighthand ofthekneelingmaid. He carvedout thegeneralshapeofherhandwitha flat further thethumbandindexfinger (plate 63 {a)). Lastly, chisel,butonlybotheredtodistinguish Hisworkwith flatchiselling. after maidwasnotsmoothed thetopoftheboxcarriedbythestanding 16 Conze, Grabreliefs, no. 902, NM.
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finesse we havenotedon earlierpieces. butlacksthepainstaking thistoolis carefuland effective, The onlyplace wherethedrillwas usedon thefeatureswas to carvethesmallholes(2 mm.) in bothearsreadyfortheattachment ofearrings.But aroundpartsoftheoutlinea largerdrill seenon thestelai1-3- as a runningdrill.One channel in a not we have was used way (5 mm.) was cutbetweenthefarsideofthehairand thebackgroundto helpthesculptorworkin toward thefinaloutlineofthehead there(plate 62 (¿)) and anotherbetweenherrightcheekand neck, and herveil. Then it was used again aroundherrighthand,whichis one ofthefewundercut partsoftherelief.A shortrunningdrillchannelwas cutat leastto finishthehollowand deepen the shadowinsideherhand (plate 62 (c)) ; and again to helpcut thefleshy partofherthumb her hand. underneath joint in hisuse ofthetool.Veryfewof However,thesculptorseemsto have been veryrestrained the draperyfoldsare deep enoughto have warranteddrilling,and on the two maidsit was almostcertainlynotused at all. Two verticalchannelsat the bottomofAmeinokleia'schiton maywellhave been drilled,and also a fewfoldshereand therein herhimation.Then a groove mayhave been drilledalong thecornerofherhimation,besidethe tassel.But thisis all. The edgesofthecloakhavebeensquaredoffwitha chisel,notundercut,and wherethehemreaches to thegroundno attempthas beenmade to separateit fromthebase. The factthatthesculptor hasmanagedtocreatean illusionofdepthwithquiteshallowlinesagain showstheeffectiveness ofhis chiselwork. witha raspfollowedby abrasives.The rasping The finalprocesseswereas usual smoothing has again beenleftquiteclearon thedrapery,and it can also be seen at the back ofthefaces. But thevisiblepartsofthefleshhave been carefully smoothedwithabrasive. The reliefwas nowreadyforpainting,and fortheadditionofAmeinokleia'searrings.These musthave been quite long and dangling,fortheone fittedintoherrightear would not have been seen at all unlessit was well over 2 cm. long. It is possiblethatthe motiveof the stele wouldhave beenclearerafterpainting.Perhapshersandalstrapwas showntobe twistedordisin need ofadjustment. arranged,and therefore 5. JVM8yo(plates 64-66) The nameofthewomanin whosememorythisstelewas setup was almostcertainlycarved on an architrave aboveherhead. The wholearchitectural framewas madeseparatelyand is now lostto us, but the find-placetellsus thatshe livedin Athens,and the size and qualityof the monumentindicatethatshe was of a wealthyfamily.The reliefis usuallydated c. 330. It is easyto see howthefashionformemorialsofthisgrandeurshouldhave provokedthesumptuary decreeof Demetriusof Phaleronin 317. The blockwhendeliveredfromthe quarry- forthe wholereliefis cut fromone block- musthave been about 2 m. high,over 1 m. broad and nearlyhalfa metredeep. So thelabourinvolvedin settingup a memoriallikethiswas almost theequivalentofcarvingtwoover-life-size statues,even beforethe workof carvingthe frame and settingall fourblocksin positionwas begun. For convenience'sakeI shallreferto thefigures on thereliefbyletter:a standsfortheseated b for the woman and c the maid behindb. for woman, facingher, All our attention is concentrated on thefigures oía and b, psychologically by theirembrace and interlocked and their sheer size. Their massive gaze, physicallyby solidityis emphasized the thick clothes but the of the surface and the balance of thecomposition by theywear, variety as a wholedispelanysuggestion ofmerelumpiness. reveals several faults inthedraughtsAnalysis - the The a of are as is often the case with seated manship. thighs abnormallylong figures back ofb is so deep as to makeherappear a hunchbackfromany otherangle thanthefront,
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and herrightfootis mostawkwardly obviousto placed. But noneofthesefaultsis sufficiently butservesthepurpose upsettheharmonyofthecomposition. Figurec is a meremake-weight, lineofher offilling twoawkwardspaces,behinda's head and underherstool.And thestraight line oftheback offigureb. back,mergingwiththeback ofthestool,balancesthestraight usedhisdrilltobreakdownthe Whenhe startedto carvethisrelief,thesculptor probablyfirst areaswherehe wantedto removea massofstone- as betweentheupperpartsof thetwomain and underthe stool.He could chip thisaway withquite heavypunchesand points, figures, A patch of careful thenbeginto use finerones as he came nearerto the figuresthemselves. pointworkwitha finetoolhas survivedon thebackgroundbehindfigureb (plate 64 (b)) and his work illustrates how the surfaceof the figuresappeared when the sculptorwas finishing withthepoint.It musthavebeena longand laboriousprocess,butat theendofitthemainlines Somepointworkon the ofhisreliefwereclearlyindicatedand thedifferent partsdistinguished. stoolhas notbeencompletely removedbylatersmoothing(plate 66 (a) and (¿)). One group to consider of strokesdrivingacrossthefrontleg to a's sandalis so regularthatit is tempting themto be nicksleftbya drill,buttheirsimilarity to otherdefinite pointmarkslefton thestool On thebase thepointworkis ratherrougher, especiallyunderthestool. legsmakesthisunlikely. Claw chiselsmaywellhave been used nextoverlargepartsoftherelief,but theonlymarks leftare on thebackground. A heavytool (6t/2-3cm.) was usedbehindb's head (plate 64 (¿)) and a lighterone (6t/i.7cm.) betweentheheads ofa and b. Whilehe was stillusingpointand claw to approachthe finalshapes,the sculptorresorted of cuttingsome deeperrecesses.As we saw on p. 66 the again to thedrillto lessenthe effort such drill be used for continued to work,and so we findtheremainsofa rowofholes simple whichweredrilledwitha tool6 mm.widebehindthenecksoía and b (plates 64 (b) and 65 (b)) . It is possiblethatasimilarrowwas drilledbehindthefaceofc; butifso themarkswereknocked and thefinalchannelwas awaywhentheanglewas workedwitha pointand chiselafterwards, made by a runningdrill(plate 65 (a)). Thisis truealsoofthechannelbetweentheveiland the leftside of the neckof figureb, and again underher righthand. When he was clearingthe channelsbehindtheheads,and shapingthecurvesat thebackoftheface,thesculptorsometimes removedfrombehindthefaces and itsmarkshavenotbeenentirely useda flatchiselcornerwise, ofa and c (plate 65 {a)). The curveof the bird'sneckwas cut like thistoo (plate 66 (¿)). Used in thiswayon thesidesofchannelstheflatchiselis the equivalentofa finepoint.In the nextstageit workedall over the relief,shapingthe subtlecurvesand sharplinesof the in severalplaces. figuresand theirdrapery.The marksofthetool have been leftunsmoothed haveworkedroundthecurves(plate 66 (¿)). All overthebird,forexample,quiteshortstrokes removedby theraspingwhich Close besideit, the chiselworkon c's slipperwas not entirely were planed in short followed.Then the underneathof thestooland the top of thefootstool 66 stool inside of the the seen on be can ones while legs(plate (6)). Finally,chisel strokes, longer workis stillvisibleon partsofb's back and behinda's heels. forthesculptorintendedthemto be has been leftaccidentally, In theseplacesthechiselling smoothed.On the hair the flatwas as usual the finaltool. Both the shortlocksof b and the longerstrandsofa's hairhavebeencarvedonlyon thesidesoftheirheadsvisiblefromthefront, behindb's (plates 64 (A)and 65 (6)). c's and pointworkis leftbehinda's head,roughchiselling ofcurls,but thechiselhas tidieda line above hairwas leftin lumpswhichgivetheimpression herforehead(plate 65 (a)). The drillseemsto have beenusedneitheron thehair,noron the features, exceptperhapsin therightear and nostriland betweenthepartedlipsofa. Otherwise ofall threewerechiselledintotheirpresentsoftlines.A comparisonofthefaceof thefeatures b (plate 64 (b)) withAmeinokleia(plate 62 (A))showsseveralchanges.The eyesofb arewider
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in proportion to theirlength;the lids are even less angularand the bottomlid nowstretches thinlyacrosstheeyeball.The mouthis notas wide- it barelyexceedsthespreadofthenostrils - and thecupid'sbow effect thanthe is markedly heightened by makingthebottomlip shorter are sunkintothecheeksin a way upper.The cornersofthemouthand theedgesofthenostrils whichemphasizesthefleshiness ofthewholeface. The sculptorhas devoteda greatdeal oflovingattentionto thedrapery.The chiseland the runningdrillwerebothused withexpertartto obtaintheappearanceofheavyclothat which the sculptoraimed; but theirworkneverdictatesthe design,and oftenthe signsof it have been completely removed.We maybe surethattherunningdrillwas usedto cutall thedeeper channels- arounda's hips,betweenherknees,and behindherleftleg (plate 66 (c)); in b's bodiceand in theverticalfoldsat thebottomofherchiton.Anditwas also usedforsomeunder- in a's lap and underthe cornerofb's himation.But in manyof theseexamplesthe cutting channelshave been so alteredby laterchisellingand thenrasp-workthatthereis almostno ofb (plate 65 (¿)) signoftheoriginaldrilling.The areaswhereitis clearestare on theshoulders and at thebackofa's neck- areaswhichwouldnormallyhave beenhiddenfromthespectator. to see The channelalong b's hem was also clearlycut by a runningdrill. It is interesting statues how it stops abruptlywhen it reachesthe side,just as we noticedon freestanding
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drapery,but are so discreetlyused that our eyes are not distractedfromthe designas a whole. The carvingofthedraperyhas beendiscussedas thougha's armwerealreadycutquitefree. In facta supporting strutmusthave linkedit to thebackground, probablyuntilthestagewe Then this have reachednow,whenthesculptorwas about to proceedto thefinalsmoothing. lastsupportwas cut away as therestofthemarbleherehad been,witha pointand chisel,the marksof whichcan stillbe seen behindthe arm. This cuttingfreeis reallyverybold, forit extendsacrossthe wholeof the area betweenthe figuresand thereis a space of over13 cm. Thereis a crackacrossa's armjustbelowherwrist,which betweenthearmand thebackground. has chippedso thatit lookslikea break.But thisit cannotbe, sincethereis no corresponding breakelsewhereto marktheotherend ofa brokenpart. linesofraspwork The sculptornowusedraspand abrasivetosmooththerelief.Long straight and thesmoother havebeenlefton thestool,and thefootstool, Rasping partsofthebackground. is clear over muchof thedraperyand also behindpartsof the facesplate (65 (a)). But the smoothedwithabrasiveas muchof thefacesand limbsas was visiblefrom sculptorcarefully thefront. The architectural framework whichwould have been setup aroundthestelewas probably made in threeparts- thepedimentfromone blockand each side wall fromanother.All were at leastas deep as thehighestpartoftherelief.The nichethusmade forthereliefservedthe fromtheweather.We can and practicalpurposesofprovidinga frameand a protection artistic the exact of the framework of NM for the surmise form examplesthatsurvivefrom 870, only similarmonuments showsomevariations.It is fairlycertainthaton thefrontofthesidewalls anta capitalswerecarvedand returnedalong partoftheoutside,just as theywerewhenthe antae werecut in one withearlierreliefs.Then probablya curvedmouldingwas cut around there.The insideof thesidewallswas probably thebottomof theantaetoprovidea neatfinish and occasionally or the latter also the outside clawed,17 mightbe smoothedfurther, rasped, thefigurewould had a figurecarvedupon it in low relief.In thecase ofNM 870 presumably have been thatofa maid.18Most probablytheslab at the top ofthereliefwas carvedin the formof a pedimentwithpalmetteakroteria,but it is just possiblethatinsteadthe sculptor like one examplein the decided to carve an architravesurmountedby a row of antefixes, undersideof thisblock2a of the A rectangular have been carved out Kerameikos.19 cavitymay whichwouldhave made it easierto lift. The base was preparedfromone or twoblocks,and a socketwas cut in theformof I 1.21 The reliefwas fittedintotheback (i.e. long) partofthesocketand thesidewallsintotheshort returns.Whenthesehad been fixedin positionwithlead, thepedimentwas liftedintoplace and restedon the threewalls. No dowelsat all wereused- thereis no traceof a hole in the edgesofNM 870. All theedgeshave been claw smoothed.It is possiblethatsomemortarwas used betweenthesidesofthereliefand thewalls and pediment. now thatthereliefmightbe partly evenmoreimportant The paintingbecame,ifanything, obscuredby theshadowofitsframe.The backgroundwas probablya brightred or blue, and on it in paint; on so too theinsideofthewalls.The ceilingmayhave had coffers represented the painterdrewthemin perspectiveto give an effectof the examplesin the Kerameikos22 greaterheight.On a and b perhapsone garmentwas paintedin a plain wash and the other patterned.An earringwas hungin a's rightear and theworkwas finished. 17 Cf. frameworkof Prokleides,NM 737. is Cf. NM 1283.
19 Bruckner, Der Friedhofam Eridanos, fig. 58.
20 See n. 17, above. 21 Bruckner,loc. cit., figs.56 and 59. 22 Loc. cit., figs.39 and 46.
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6. The IlissossteleNM 86g1*(plates 67-69)
as hunterson gravereliefs.Even on thatgroupof stelai Youthsare not oftenrepresented thedesignofthisone theyoungmenappearas athletes,nothunters.24 reflects whichapparently - no othercould have afforded But likeNM 870 thismemorialwas setup by a wealthyfamily an appropriateone. The so excellenta sculptor and thesubjectwas therefore to commission influence of Skopas has oftenbeen tracedin the work,but as we knownextto nothingofhis thereseemsno pointin discussitfromthatofhiscontemporaries workand whatdistinguished muscularyouthand the heavily ing this.The obviousresemblanceof the broad-shouldered, cloakedold man of thisreliefto the Agias and Aknoniosof theDaochos dedicationindicates withthelatter,thatis c. 330. a date moreor lesscontemporary thewholeoftheright-hand edge is broken,and muchofthefigureoftheold Unfortunately was planned.Our we are able to appreciatetheway thecomposition man is lost.Nevertheless focussedon theyoungman by his frontalpose and the heightof the attentionis immediately back- bothhis head and feetare in reliefin whichhe is carved.The old man is set further ismadesufficiently imporplanesbehindthoseoftheyouth(plate 67 (A)) and thoughhisfigure tantto balancetheotheritis obviouslyintendedas a foil.His heavycloak,and thewayhe leans on hisstick,contrastwiththenudityand relaxedvigouroftheyouth,whilethedirectionofhis gaze alwaysleads us back to itsobject.The steleand the childon one side oftheyouth'slegs and thechildis drawnin an and thedog on theotheradd weightto thelowerpartofhisfigure, attitudeofgriefto echo themood ofthewholerelief. This stelealsowas carvedfromone largeblock.Largeor small,theearlystagesare thesame; the sidesand frontwerelevelledand the designdrawnforthe firsttime. (Undoubtedly,on The sculptorthensetto ofthisheight,variouspartswereredrawnas theworkprogressed.) reliefs workwithpunchand point,and probablydrillholesstrategically placed wereboredto help thesetoolsremovelarge areas of stone.Our evidencebeginsat a later stage,when he was approachingtheedgesof the figures.There are tracesof holesmade by a simpledrillon the backgroundbetweenthelegsoftheyouth,and in thehollowunderneaththecloak oftheold man (plate 69 (¿)). It seemscertainthatit was also widelyusedin theinitialstagesofcarving therecesses,betweentheboy and theyouth'slegs,undertheold man'srighthand and so on. Afterthisassistancefromthedrillthesculptorwas able to shapeout theformsofthereliefwith thepoint,perhapstheclaw, and theflatchiselused cornerwise. usefulforclearingangles,where This last methodwas, as we have seen,(p. 34) particularly thetipofa finepointmightwellgetembeddedin thestoneas thesculptorwas drivingit along be foundin a numberoftherather thesidesoftherecess.The marksofthetoolcan therefore awkwardcavitiesaroundthe youth'slegs; on the backgroundbehindthe space betweenthe knees,forexample,as wellas shapingthefarsideofhisleftankle,theback ofhisrightleg,and theleftleg oftheboy.Then it appearsagain carvingout a hollowbeneaththehemoftheold man's garment.Behindtheyouth'shead,wheretherewas moreroomto manipulatethetools, of a pointused obliquely(plate 68 (¿)). we findthefurrows Thus by the timethe sculptorhad finishedthisstageofhis workthe figureswerewell and trulyliftedoutfromthebackground.But he wantedto make a clean finishalong the bottom and therebyto reinforce oftheseanglesbehindtheprojecting theirseparapartsofthefigures, tionfromthebackground.A runningdrillwas used forthispurposebehindmanypartsofthe outlineoftheyouth.Oftenthechannelshave been removedby laterchisellingand smoothing, buttheyare stillclearforexamplebetweentheback ofthehead and neckand thebackground 23 Lullies, pl. 218. A sectionof the base fromthe leftfoot of the youthto the right-handside, and all the right-hand
edge is restored. 24 Himmelmann-Wildschütz,Studienzum Ilissos-relief 27.
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partofquite (plates 68 (b) and 68 (c)). On hisrightthegroovemadebytherunningdrillforms a wide channelwhichcutsintothe back of the head. It is interesting to comparethewaythe simpledrilland chiselwereused at theback ofthehead oftheSalamisyouth(plate 57 (¿)) for - to ensurefirmness and clarityto the outlineof the head. There are more thesame purpose tracesofrunningdrillchannelsdowntheinsideand outsideofhisrightleg (plates 68 (a) and 69 (a)) and underthearch ofhisrightfoot(plate 69 {a)). Then it was used to markoffthe back ofhisleftheelfromthechild'sfoot,and theball ofthefootfromthebase (plate 68 (a)). Nor was the runningdrillused onlyaroundthe outlineoftheyouth.Channelscan be found tuckedbehindthehead ofthesmallboy,and onlypartlyremovedfromunderneaththedog's leg and aroundhismuzzle.The channellingout oftherighthand oftheold man was finished withthe runningdrill.It has alreadybeen mentionedhow the holesof a simpledrillcan be seen hollowingthe underneathofthe old man's cloak; whereit lies closerto the background to separateit. a runningdrillchannelwas sufficient None of thesechannelsis visiblefromthe front,but the runningdrillhas also been used onepartoftherelieffromanother. todrawin channelswhichcan be seendistinguishing sparingly Betweenthe leftside of theyouthand his cloak a narrowchannelover 1 cm. deep has been from drilledto outlinetheedgeofhisbody.Runningdrillchannelsseparatetheold man'sstaff hisdraperybothabove and belowhislefthand. The channelsdrilledbetweeneach sideofthe behindand theycurvein towardone anyouth'sclub and hiscloak are again tuckedslightly otheruntiltheyalmostmeetwherethesculptorcutthetopoftheclubfreefromthebackground. The cuttingfreeoftheupperpartoftheclub,thelefthand and therightarmoftheyouth and delicatetask,and was probablynotcompleteduntila late stage. musthave beena difficult We mayassumethatbothhandsand theclub werecutfromthesameprojection.It is unlikely thatthe sculptorcarveda long stretchof thinhandle withoutany support,so probablythe righthand was placed below the leftand the club disappearedbehindit. Both hands were almostcertainlyclaspedovera spear(possiblytwo,as oftenoccursin huntingsceneson vases). The cuttingfreeofthelegshas been plannedin sucha way thatmaximumsupportis leftfor thefreestanding parts(plate 69 (a)). The onlypartoftheold man whichhas been cutin the roundis thefingers ofhis righthand,and herethe sculptorhas cautiouslylefta struthidden behindthem. Probably,however,severalof the partsto be cut freewereonlyindicatedwhilethe main formsand detailswerecarvedwitha flatchisel. shapesweresettled,and evenwhiletheslighter We have seen thatquite a lot of thechiselworkof theearlystagesis leftwhenthetoolwas but thereis littleofthegentlerworkof thelaterstageswhenthe blade of the used cornerwise, chiselmusthave beenpushedin shortstrokesacrossthe varioussurfaces.A littlecan be seen oftheold man's behindtheyouth'srightshoulder,and moreis clearjust underthesmoothing the chisel workhas been and too On the stele and chest. shoulder (see below) steps right carriedout withcare. The chiselwas used on all threeheads and was indeed essentialin carvingtheirdifferent to The browsof the old man are drawntogetherand his foreheadfurrowed characteristics. seem to with The of the little swollen features his spill boy, weeping, express grief(plate 67 (¿)). thesmooth towrinkle havebeennonsensical outoverhishands(plate 68 (a)). It wouldobviously browof a child,but by the neat trickofchisellingthe hairsofthe eyebrows(a mostunusual carewornappearanceto the face.No distinctive feature)the sculptorhas givena frowning, traitsappear on the face of the youngman, whosefeaturesare carefullychiselledinto the ideal ofbeauty.The smallneathead,withitssmallneat curlsand smallneat ears, fashionable strandsoftheold man's is setoffby thebroadmuscularshouldersand chest.The thickflowing
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curlsat the hair and beard,thethinwispswhichcoverthechild'shead, and theclose-cropped frontoftheyouth's,wereall cut witha chiselused in variousways.The top and back ofthe youth'shead have been leftrough. Drillshave been used to help cut some details.There are a fewholesmade witha simple drill in the body hair of the youngman, and a channelmade by a runningdrillunderthe drilledtoobuthismouthand perhaps moustacheoftheold one. The youth'searswerecertainly werenot. his nostrils The cloaksof the twomain figureshave been cut witha runningdrilland a chisel.Where the youth'scloakis gatheredoverhis leftarm and bunchedintoa cushionon top ofthestele numerousdeep foldswereformedand have beenworkedby a runningdrill.Thoughsomeof fromtheside (plate 67 (b)) theylookmosteffective thelinesoftheseseemdryand uninteresting fromthefront.Thereis notmuchscopeforchiselworkin theareas betweenthechannels,but evenso shallowgrooveshave been cuthereand thereto showthecrumplesofthecloth.On the otherhand,at leaston thepartofthe old man's draperywe have left,thereis littlescopefor drillwork;butthecornerofthecloakas wellas thehembelowithas beenundercutwitha drill. Again the sculptorhas sketchedin a shortcreaseor two besidethissame corner,and a hem on showingthe textureof the cloththroughthe along the bottom,but he has concentrated a soft around theneck,and fallsin generouscurvesand folds. it forms cowl the way design by The steleand stepswere,ofcourse,roughedout witha pointat thesame timeas therestof therelief.Next,thesidesofthesteps,likethesideofthesteleitself, werelevelledwithfairly short oftheproperfrontand top ofthestepsand the strokesofa ratherbluntclaw. The smoothing and themarksofa chiselcan be seenhere. stelewas carrieda stagefurther The backgroundalso was levelledwitha claw- see thearea on thelefthand oftheyouth The base, as usual, was roughlylevelled but mostof it was chiselledand raspedafterwards. witha point,thoughthepartsjust besidethefeetoftheyouthwerecut witha flatduringthe carvingoftheyouthhimself(plate 69 (a)). The sculptorhas made no attemptto cuta definite rightangle betweenthe backgroundand the base (plate 69 (a)) butrelieson thecontrasting surfacesto provideas clear a divisionas he wanted. sizescan be seen overdifferent Rasps of different partsof the work.A veryfineone, with - see undertheyouth'schinand behindhis teethlessthan 1 mm.apart,was used on theflesh shoulders,on theold man's chestand at theback oftheboy'sfaceand shoulder.Littleofthe raspinghas beensmoothedfromthedrapery,and it is cleartoo overthefeetoftheboyand the old man,who mustbothhave been wearingsoftshoesor boots.The heaviestrasping,done by a tool withteethset nearly2 mm. apart,can be seen over the body of the dog and in long strokesacrossthebackground(plate 68 (b)). The body of the youthwas carefullysmoothedwithabrasivesto the beautifultextureremarkedso oftenbefore,and thevisiblepartsoftheskinoftheold manand theboywereworked almostas carefully. The framework ofthereliefmusthavebeencarved,and thewholemonument setin position, in thesamewayas NM 870 (see p. 120). Then came thefinaltouchesofpaint,and theattachments.Holes drilledin thebackground,on eitherside oftheyouth'shead and in frontofthe old man's,showthatsomesortofbronzewreathwas fastened aroundboththeirheads.Presuma hole or holes was drilled the man's hands to receivea spear,which ably through young musteitherhave been slottedthroughthembeforetheframework was setin place aroundthe relief,or else have been added in twopartsafterwards.
APPENDIX TheHermes at Olympia(plates 70-72) on the Hermesat Olympia concentrates on the AlthoughRhys Carpenterin his latestcomments1 have neverbeen conproblemofwhetherthestatueis ofHellenisticor Roman date,manyauthorities2 ofBliimeland hissupporters, and considerthestatuean originalworkbyPraxivincedbythearguments A famous of the fourth whole volumewould be requiredto assessin detail the teles, sculptor century. thevalue ofthevariousopinionsexpressedsince1927 ;3we have reachedtheabsurdstagewherealmost and refutations. about thestatueshouldbe followedby a stringofacknowledgements everystatement to acknowledgeat onceintotoherdebtto This would be so wearisomethatthe presentwriterprefers and opinionsofothers,and to keep thespecificreferences to a minimum.An attempt the observations will be made once again to startwiththestatueitself,and discusswhetherit could be the workof a fourth-century sculptorfroma comparisonofthemethodsused on it withthoseused on otherfourthwithlater centurypieces.As thepresentwriterhas notstudiedlatermethodsin anydetail,comparisons limited. are necessarily pieces it is particularlyimportantto distinguish between In any discussionabout a piece so controversial in order factand opinionor deductionfromthefacts,and so no attemptwill be made to reconstruct willbe repeatedofthestatueand whattoolingis theprocessesby whichit was made, but a description left.The simplestmethodis perhapsto workfromhead to foot. Thehair.As is well known,therunningdrillwas used in thehair,and carvesthesurfaceintorough lumpsat the top and sides. In one or twoplaces holeshave been drilledrightthrougha tuftofhair. A fringeof small curlshas been chiselledaround the forehead,and a rough arrangementof locks workedout at theback withthe chiselonly.4A thinstringis carvedacrossthe back ofthehead. Theface.The featureshave been carvedwithsucha gracefulfacilityand so lightlythatit seemsimpossiblethattheywere made withmetal on stone.5The sculptormusthave rubbed themoverwith afterchiselling. The nostrils aredrilledoutdeeply,and thereareshortrunning abrasivequitethoroughly drillchannelsat the cornersof themouth.The runningdrillwas used behindbothears,and has cut a groovein frontof the rightone.6 Bothfaceand bodyare polishedat thefrontuntiltheyshine.This surface,howThebodyofHermes. ever,stopsabruptlyat thesides,and mostoftheback was originallyrasped: thebacksofthelegsseem to have been abraded afterraspingbut are not polished.The raspworkis cleareston theback ofthe neckand leftarmand in a patchon theleftshoulder.7Othertoolswereused on theback aftertherasp and have cut muchofitsworkaway. There are marksofa claw chisel,and of a roundedchiselwhich acrosspartsof the back and buttocks. has cut quite long furrows Theright footandbase.The legs are restoredfromjust below the knees,but the rightfootand some ofthebase aroundit are original.Rasp workis leftclearlyon thesandal,wherethereare stillsignsof .8 A bronzeornamentwas attachedto red paint,thoughnot ofthegiltvisibleat thetimeofdiscovery thetongueofthesandal. On thebase a borderroundthefoothas been completelysmoothed,and the resthas been clawed. Dowel markson the side of the base cannot be examinedat present;from of the base to the drawingin the publication9it looks as thoughtheywere to fastenthisfragment the rest.The formof the clamp is Hellenisticor Roman.10 The rightarmwas apparentlyunsupported. Armsandattachments. Perhapsthelowerpartwas attached a of bunch restored It is separately. usually holdingup grapes. The lefthand may have held a 1 AJAlviii(1954) 1 f. 2 Richter, Lippold,Dohrn,Brommer. 3 See RhysCarpenter, to recent loc. cit.,forreferences a listofearlierworksisgivenbyAntonsson, bibliography; MarbleGroupat Olympia100 f. The Praxiteles 4 Bliimel,Hermes40, fig.24.
5 Lullies, pl. 22q. 6 Lullies, pl. 221. 7 Antonsson,op. cit., pl. 1. 8 Treu, Olvmbiaiii. 200. 9 Treu, Olympiaiii. 201, fig.231. 10 Dinsmoor,AJA xxxv (1931) 297.
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thatthesculptorwentto thetroubleofcarvingout thenatural kerykeion, althoughit is rathersurprising of of drillinga hole throughto fitthe attachment.The forethe hollow of the hand instead shape was with a added bronze finger pin. separately of his skillby cuttingthe child out of the Thechild.The sculptorhas givenus a bold demonstration workedpartoftheheadsame blockofmarbleas the Hermes.The child'shair is themostcarefully strands have cut with a flat of we see more of it. been chisel,and a brokenpatch and, course, Crinkly above the forehead11 showswherea topknotis missing.The featuresare softlychiselled,thoughwith farlesscare thantheHermes.The farside ofthefigureis barelyshapedwithpointand roundedchisel. Thetreetrunk andstrut at theback and showsomeratherheavyand somelighterpoint are unfinished work.On thepartswhichcan be seenfromthefront,or obliquelyfromthelefthand,thesurfaceseems to have been levelled,thenparallel furrowswere carved carefullywith a roundedchisel across the trunkand thesmallprojectingstumps(plate 70 (b)). Similarparallellineswerecutacrossthefrontof the strutand itscornerswere chamfered. Thedrapery is also unfinished at the back, whereit has been carvedrathermessilywitha flatchisel There are a few (plate 70 (b)). runningdrillchannelsat theback,and itsworkcan stillbe seenin the depthsofsomechannelsat thefront(plate 72 (c)). The mostconspicuousmarksat thefrontare those of the rasp whichprovidedthe finalsurfaceforthe drapery(detail, plate 72 (a)). A hem has been chiselledlightlyroundsomeedgesofthecloak; linesrepresenting 'laundrycreases'have been chiselled acrosssomefolds(plate 72 (c)). Fromthepublication12 we knowthatpartsofthedraperywerefastened on separately,at least one by a tenonand socketarrangement.The arrangmentof the cloak, which showstwoedgesfastenedtogetherunderHermes'leftelbow,makesit obviousthata broochmusthave been paintedhere. Thepedestal. The presentwriterhas notstudiedpedestals,and therefore acceptstheopinionofDinsmoor13and othersthatthispedestalis secondor firstcenturyb.c. date. On thecontrarytherearefreeNothingin theposeoftheHermesarguesagainsta fourth-century statues the and Telemachos of the Daochos standingoriginal (like Sisyphos dedication),copiesoforiginals whichcan be assignedto thefourthcenturyon firmgrounds(liketheSauroktonos,theAphrodite ofKnidos,and theHerculesFarnese),and minormonuments likevotivereliefs14 to showus thatcompositionsunitinga figurewitha supportor supportingattributewerepopularat thetime.To decidehow the executionof the Hermestallieswith fourth-century pieces we mustgo througheach part again. Thehair.On theAgias and theyouthon the Ilissosstele,NM 869, a rowoflockshas been cut carefullyaroundtheforeheads,and the back has been chiselledroughlyas on the Hermes.But theirhair has not been drilled.The runningdrillhas been used in the hair of Mausolus and Alexander,AcrM 1331,butin quite a different way fromtheHermes.For on thesetwoheads,as on otherfourth-century the drill has been used to emphasizethelinescarvedby the chisel;on the Hermes examples, running it has beenusedas a primarytool to cut stonewhichhas been barelyshapedintoroughimpressionistic locks.I have been unable to findan exactparallelto thismethodon classicalor latersculpture.There are unusualfeatures in thewreathtoo. On theAgiasa plain grooveis cutreadyfora band tobe fastened round,whileon thoseheads to whichleaves were to be fastenedseparately,fromthe Prokneto the Blacas Head, theywerefixedby a rowofholesdrilledintothehead. On theHermestheywereapparentlywound among the hair. Theface. Runningdrillchannelsare foundfrequently behindthe ears of fourth-century statuesas are on the the in but channel front of the ear is unusual. So are the short channels at each Hermes, they end ofthemouth.The usual practicewas to makea channelofevendepthbetweenthelipsor to deepen the actual cornerswithsingleholes. The extremesoftness of the linesof Hermes' mouth (softereven than theDemeterof Cnidus) meantthatsome emphasiswas needed to definethem: but the sculptor obviouslyfeltthata deep channelrightalong would have upsetthe balance of the face. The device used givesa mostdistinctive expressionto the mouth. 11 Olympiaiii. io6, fier.228. 12 Olympiaiii. 202, fig.232.
13 Dinsmoor^47^4xxxv fiorii 206. 14 Cf. Süsserott,pls. 19, 22, etc.
126
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
Thebody The shineon thefrontofthebodyand thefaceis,as we all know,withouta paralofHermes. lel in classicalsculpture.It is quite different fromtheburnishedgleam producedby friction withfine abrasiveson forexampletheSalamisstelein thefifth I or in the of Daochos the fourth cencentury legs thisdifference can be measuredonly by eye, but at least everyone'seyes agree tury.Unfortunately thatthesurfaceoftheHermesresembles the'shimmering flesh'1* ofthe'Eubouleus',NM 18 1,moreclosely than any othersculpture.The date of the 'Eubouleus' head has itselfbeen hotlydisputed,but the recentdiscoveryofanotherverysimilarcopy,whichis certainlypost-classical, makesa fourth-century date forNM 181 virtuallyimpossible.15 The back of the figureis puzzlingin severalways. It is difficult to see whya revisionwas attempted afterthesurfacehad once been finishedwitha rasp,and whythentherevisionwas nevercompleted. These questionsremainevenifwe supposethatthechiselmarksweremade by laterworkmen,as has been suggested.Althoughthechisellingon theback ofthefigureis ratherclumsy,so is theworkon the back of the treetrunk,whichwas certainlynot revised.So bothare probablycontemporary withthe freeon the back of a fourth-century carvingof the statue.This heavy toolingwould be surprising the statue. The and flat on the back of the S standing point point AphroditeAgora 37 (plate 5), underthe hem at the back of the Apollo Patroos,and the flatchiselon the draperyat the back of theAsklepios,Eleusis 50, have all been used mostcarefully and gently.Nevertheless on otherworks wherethe generalstandardof workmanship was lower,liketheTegea sculpturesand thegraverelief NM 2885,thereare parallelsto theheavytoolingat the back of theHermes.Amonglatersculptures thesimilarity oftheworkat thebackofNM 1828 (see plate 53 (b)) maybe noted,and thereare similar apparentlyillogicalmixturesof tool markson the backs of some femalestatuesfromPergamon. The originalraspedfinishat the back of thestatueis not a verycommonone forGreekor Roman work.Some rasp workcan oftenbe foundon the backs of nude fourth-century statues,the Agias for but a little has survived the later example, smoothing. only Theright footandbase.Wallace16has alreadypointedout theunusualformof thesandal,whichshe thanthatof thinkscannotbe called earlierthanHellenistic.The surfaceofthe base is muchsmoother17 theDaochos dedication,or theAsklepiosofEleusis,but smoothbases are knownin thearchaicperiod and may easilyhave recurredin classicaltimes.The clampjoining thispart of the base to the rest indicatesthattherewas a crackor breakherewhichwas mendedin Hellenisticor Roman times,but ofcoursewe do notknowwhetherthisrepairwas contemporary withthecarvingof thestatueor not. Armsandattachments. No comment. Thechild.Childrenwerebecominga popularsubjectby theend ofthefourthcenturyand theheads, of apKTOifoundin recentexcavationsat Brauron18 show how much varietysculptorscould introduce intotheirrenderings ofroundchildishforms.However,theclosestparallelto thefaceand hairstyle and infant the with the of infant is the Eros of the Pan, Aphrodite including topknot group Dionysos NM 3335, whichis dated c. 100. Thetreetrunk andstrut.As we have seenabove (see plate 47 (b)) nearlyall thepointworkhas been all round.The backofthehermof removedfromthebackofthetreetrunkofSisyphos,whichis finished However> Telemachos,and ofthesupportunderthedraperyofDaochos I was also finishedcarefully. theback ofthepillarsupportand thestrutofthesmallboywitha goose,NM 2772,whichmaybe third century,stillshowsthe pointworkof an earlystageand thusprovidesa parallel withthe treetrunk and strutof the Hermes (plate 6 (c)). There are no parallelsin classicalsculptureforthe furrows, : the trunkof the chiselledacross the frontof the trunk,but thenwe have onlytwo real precedents Este Aphrodite,Vienna 1192, is smooth,thatof Sisyphosis clawed. The treetrunkson both grave and votivereliefs,however,are invariablysmooth. The strutis unusual but not exceptional.The strutsbetweenthe thighsand hands of the archaic kourosNM 3938 (Aristodikos) , werealso facetedwitha flatchisel.Strutsare foundunderthe bellies 15 Harrison,Hesperiaxxix (i960) 382 f. 16 AJA xliv (1940) 213. 17 The smallpatchesoutsidethefeetoftheApollo Patroos are smooth, but this is always true on statues wearing
draperywhichtouchesthe groundbecause thereis so little base anyway. 18 BCH lxxxiii (1959) 595-6, figs.25 and 27.
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127
ofanimalsfrom theOlympiapediments totheMausoleumgroups, andwehaveseen(p. 102)howone wasleftbetween thelegand stickoftheAsklepios, Eleusis50. In all thepointsdiscussed Thedrapery. in finding so fardifficulties parallelsmightbe explainedby had delighted a lackofsuitablematerialforcomparison. Thisis nottrueforthedrapery. Sculptors to tryand expressthevolumeofheavymassesofdrapery froman earlyperiod,and we havemany thecentury in thefourth toshowhowtheytackledthisproblem examples century. Rangingthrough theApollo we findthefigure NM 146fromthepediment at Epidauros,19 Mausolus,and Artemisia, Patroos(plate 42 (a)), Sisyphos (plate 47)- wherethedrapery playsthesamepartinthecomposi- and thecolumndrumsat Ephesus.20 all between tionas thecloakofHermes Therearedifferences drilled were ofthese,butfundamentally Lines same. to them was the eachsculptor's approach carving - and themoreskilful and depthof to form thefolds theworker, themorehe willvarythedirection - thentheridges overtheir thechannels hecuts werediversified between thechannels shape bychiselling and by introducing variousdevices,suchas dentson thesurface, to enliventheappearanceofthe In otherwords, material. AsRhysCarpenter is basedonlinearconstructions. hassaid,classicaldrapery sincetheclassicalsculptor oftheouterridges reliedmainlyon thecontrast betweenthelightsurface formed and theshadowy thepattern thevolumeofthematerial, to express by depthsofthechannels thechannels wasat leastas important to himas theshapesoftheridgesbetween. betweenit Thisis nottrueofthedrapery thedifference oftheHermes.RhysCarpenter expresses and fourth-century but as the former as the latter linear, unfortunately drapery bydescribing plastic, theseterms aresovaguethattheyareopentomisinterpretation. oftheHermes Thesculptor approached withhisblock hisworkwithan entirely different ofwhathe wantedto carve.Confronted conception ofmarble,hisaim was to carvea seriesofshapesin relief, insteadofcarvinga seriesofchannels. aboutwhether the included of didnotworry the but the Naturally process drilling channels, sculptor insuch marble an interesting in the on themselves he concentrated ; theyformed pattern cutting away It is thiswhichgivessucha three-dimenofstriking contours. shapesas wouldleavean arrangement we sionalappearanceto thefolds.Howeverdeepthefoldsmaybe in theskirtoftheApolloPatroos, Hermes remain of cloak conscious thattheyhavebeenworked the a frontal the folds of backfrom plane; of seemtofallouttowardus.21Evenwhenthesculptor is carving thetinyfoldswhichvarythesurface theridgesitis thesmallbumpshe leavesbetween ofthematerial thedentswhichexpress thetexture rather thanthedentsthemselves, as isthecasewithSisyphos (plate 47 (c)) ortheApolloPatroos(plate the andwherehehadnoscopeformodelling was,infact,boredbylineardrapery, 43 (a)) . Thesculptor - at thebackoron thechild - hisworkis summary material as hewished orevenmessy.He doesnot careforthecleardecisivestyles in thefourth whichwerein fashion It is typicalofhistastes century. thathe carvestheedgesofthematerialin wide,opencurves,and prefers to use thezigzagmotive, belovedoffourth-century forgivingsharpdefinition toan edge(plates 43 (a), 47 (a) and sculptors a where doubled-over fold of material will soften itscrispangularity 49 (a))> only (plate 72 (cf). Thustheconception ofthedrapery differs ofthefourth fromthestyles andformulas fundamentally Aswe havequiteenoughevidence from toshowus thatfourthcentury. majorandminormonuments liketheirpredecessors, oftheirtime,the workedconsistently withintheconventions century sculptors, alone would make a in thecarving. date But there is also a difference style fourth-century impossible. is The running drilland flatwereobviously usedin thewaywe shouldexpect,buttheraspedsurface We have seen how raspworktendsto be leftmore quiteunlikeanyin fourth-century sculpture. andmoreondrapery thefourth andplates48 (a) and49 (c) showtypical surfaces throughout century, fromtheDaochosdedication, plate 72 (a) showsthattheraspworkon theHermeslooksquitedifferent. Insteadofthelongsweeping the strokes acrossthesurface whichwefindon earliersculptures, oftheHermeswas raspedin shortirregular I do notknowwhether thisis due to a strokes. drapery - becausetheraspwasnowbeing intheshapeofthetool,or- andthisseemsmoreprobable difference usedformodelling, notforsmoothing can I alone,as it was in classicaltimes.Nor,unfortunately, 19 Detailin Richter, AJAxxxvii(1933) 283,fig.4. 20 Lullies,pls.214-15. 21 I do notthinkthisproves,as RhysCarpentermain-
Itmerely tains,thatthestatueisa copyofa bronzeoriginal. showstheskillofthesculptor.
THE TECHNIQUE OF GREEK SCULPTURE
128
- thelongregular sweepsand the suggest anydateforthischange.Butwhilebothtypesofraspwork ofthe the found for no have been strokes on later rasping irregular jerky appear sculptures, parallels Hermeson fourth-century sculpture. is far either.Plasticdrapery It is noteasyto findparallelsforthedrapery amonglatersculptures it.Two in Hellenistic or Romantimesattempted harderto carvethanlinear,and veryfewsculptors whodid are Kleomenes, thesculptor oftheGermanicus,22 (plate 71 (a) and (b)) and themanwho likethesameclassas the carvedtheRomanNM 1828(plate 53). Neitherofthemwasin anything theconthevolumeofthematerial oftheHermes, buttheyalsoaimedat expressing through sculptor showshowtherasp oftheGermanicus, toursoftheridges.Andplate 72 (b), a detailofthedrapery was usedon it in thesamewayas on theHermes. stoodon another Thepedestal thatthestatuehadformerly Thereis no evidence pedestal.The arguthefactthatthe sideofthetempleignores mentthatthefigure wasdesigned fora nicheontheopposite obliqueviewsfromtheleftand therightare equallysatisfactory.23 arousedby thesuspicions oftheHermesconfirm To sumup: thestyleand technique ofthedrapery - thatthestatuecannothave - thehair,thepolish,thechild,thesandal,thepedestal otherfeatures offinding beencarvedinthefourth The difficulty goodlaterparallelsdoesnotaltertheimcentury. a universal werestillemploying that we know which of it to a date sculptors possibilityassigning during and style technique. He mayhavecopieda workbyPraxiThe manwhocarvedtheHermeswasa first-class sculptor. havegothisfacts orPausaniasmay teles,hisnamemayhavebeenPraxiteles, wrong.It wouldhelpifwe oflater butforthisa detailedstudyofthetechnique couldfixthedateofthestatueat all accurately, and NM NM statues and those the would be 1828, However, base, (Louvre1207, periods necessary. 100 b.c. a date c. indicate to the which some furnish Hermes, 3335) parallels 22 Louvre 1207.
23 Cf. AJA xxxv (i 93 1) 260, fig.6 and Olympiaiii, pl. 1.
GENERAL INDEX ABRASION, 3.
abrasives,39,78-79,89,92,94,100,101, 106,112,120,123,124. additions,bronze,53, 104; in marble,50. 10. adze, iron,Protogeometric, Agelaos, 97-102 passim. Agias, 21, 69, 97-102 passim,125. Aigina pediments,13, 45; Athena in west,46, 47. Aknonios,97-102 passim. Alkamenes,92. Alkmeonidpediment,Delphi, 18, 20, 45, 75; kore 11: 12, 13; korai,46; lion and deer, 13. Alxenorrelief,23. Amazon, kneeling(Rome, Conservatori),13. Ameinokleiastele, 115. Amorgos,head ofAsklepiosfrom,66. Ampharetestele,20, 35. Anavysoskouros,45, 83. animals,in Greeksculpture,31 ; dating,32; at Olympia, 32; hide, degree of finish,29. Ansätze,14, 20, 33, 48, 53, 59, 66, 69, 76, 80, 87-123 passim; pointedsurfacein, 16. antae, in grave reliefs,113. Antenorkore,46. Antiope,in Eretriapediment,46. Aphrodite,fromCorneto,52 ; in east pedimentofParthenon, 52; Este, 126. Apollo Patroos (Athens,Agora), 16, 17, 67, 78, 94-97, 127. Apollona quarry (Naxos), 5; unfinishedkourosin, 5, 42. archaic period,unfinishedworks,5 ; sculpture,3 ; sculpture and canon of proportions,7; statuesand quarrying,7. Archedemos(Vari) relief,5, 7; pick-hammer,10. Archestrate relief,37. architecturaldecoration,use of drill in, 59. Ares,altar of,56. Aristionstele,22, 23, 76, 79, 108-10. Aristodikosbase, 23; kourosof,30. Aristokles,108. Aristonautes,grave relief,15, 18, 21, 37. Artemisia(Mausoleum), 20, 127. Asklepios,Capitoline, 103; at Eleusis, 67, 68, 102-4; nead from Amorgos, 66; Jameson statuette, 103; Johns Hopkins statuette,103; 'Neugebauer', 103. Athena, of Aigina (west) pediment, 46, 47; of Eretria pediment,29, 46, 47, 48, 81 ; of Hephaisteion,33. Athens,Acropolis: archaic pediment,12, 19; 'Blue Beard', 83 ; panther,fromarchaic pediment,3 1; Perseus, from Acropolis,24. See alsos.v. Erechtheum,Parthenon.Agora Museum: Altar of Ares, 56; Apollo Patroos, 33, 34; 'Eubouleus', 36, 67, 68; iron chisels from Agora, 10. National Museum: votiverelieffromBrauron,58, 59, 139. attachments,sculptural,47 ff.,69, 89, 100, 117, 123, 124; holes for,47. 10. axe-head, iron,Protogeometric, base, of Hermes (Olympia), 124, 126; carvingof bases, 89, 92,97, 102, 104, 107, no, 120, 123, 128; finishwithpoint, 16, 21.
beeswax-limecement,82. C3288
K
Berlin,Dioscuri relief,22; korefromDidyma, 24; lion, 21, 30; Poseidon from Pergamon, 68; seated goddess, 46; standinggoddess,46, 75; woman's head, 14. Blacas head, 66. 'Blue Beard', Athens,AcropolisMuseum, 83. borders,88. bow-drill,40. Brauron,votiverelieffrom,58, 59, 139. 'bridge-drilling', 69. bronze,additions,53 ; point,8 ; attachments,47 ff. brooches,47. buttons,47, 88. Byzes,83. Cambridge,stele akroterion,17, 33. canon (Egyptian),use by Greeks,6; of proportions,period of use, 8 ; used forkorai, 7-8. Capitoline Asklepios,103. carburizing,of iron,9. 3-5. carpenter'stools,use in stone-carving, caryatids,in perirrhanteria,44. cement,80-82, 89. Chalcis Museum, grave relief(9), 60. Chalybes,Pontic,9. channels,drill used in, 56. Charon relief,71, 73. of,92, 126. children,representation chisel,Claw, 1, 14, 18-22, 30, 38, 75, 76, 86-123 passim,124; date of use, 19 ; mannerof use, 19 ; use on edges, 19 ; use on Clazomenian Treasury, 19; not used on Cnidian Treasury,19; (corner)used as point,34; use by Romans, 38. Flat, 1, 18, 24, 26 ff.;archaic use of,30, 39; use after point, 22; functionof, 28; use in relief,35; use instead of emery, 27; flat and rounded in relief sculpture, 27. Pointed,3. Point and chisel, 27 f. Rounded,1, 27. Chisel work,decline of, 36. Iron chisels,fromAthenianAgora, 10; Protogeometric,10. Stone and copper chisels,26. chiton,rendering,52. Chrysaor,83. Clazomenian Treasury,Delphi, 19. Cnidian Treasury,Delphi, 19. colour, and rasp preparation,74-75. compass,cutting-,82-83. conical drill,41. Corfupediment,leopards in, 83. CorinthMuseum, perirrhanterion, 44. Corneto,Aphrodite,52. crescentdrill,41. CritianBoy, 8, 46, 98. Damasistrate relief,38. Daochos dedication, 31, 33, 35, 66-67, 73, 76, 78, 80, 81, 97-102; and Apollo Patroos,95; pedestal of,21 ; Daochos I, 97-102, 126; Daochos II, 97-102. Delos, akroteria,53 ; buildinginscriptionsand referencesto tools,10; Roman portraitfrom,105 f.; unfinishedkouros, 44.
I3o
GENERAL INDEX
Delphi,Alkmeonidpediment,18, 20, 45, 75; Athenian Treasury,19; Treasurymetopes,77, 100; Glazomenian GnidianTreasury,19; Dancing-Girl Column,66, 71; oftholos, SiphnianCaryatid, 45,47; tholos,101; metopes 58; toolsfrom,10, 11 (pick-hammers). ofCnidus,21,64,66, 67, 68, 69, 80,81. Demeter, Demetria and Pamphile(Athens, 21,69. relief, Kerameikos) Demetrius ofPhaleron, law, 117. sumptuary Dermysand Kitty los,3. details,addedin stone,47. 60. Dexileosrelief, 17,38,60,61,76; drillusedon drapery, Didyma,korefrom, 24. at Apollona(Naxos),5. Dionysus(figure) in Berlin,22. Dioscuri,relief DipylonHead, 13,28, 29,30, 32. dowels,69, 81, 98, 104,124; ofbronze,81; or iron,81. 34; drapery, 73,113,114,115,119,123,125;deepchannels, degreeof finish, 29; folds,9 1; of Hermesat Olympia, of material,94; runningdrillin, 72, 127-8; rendering texture, 52. 96; thinmarble,93,94, 106; transparent, drill,1, 40-73,86-123; used as chisel,41; date of introduction, 42; Greekuse of,42 ff.59; use on korai,45; as of, 55; use in device,57; manipulation labour-saving Romanuse of,72; use for quarries,42 f.; running-drill, outlining, 49, 55. withclawand flat,24. drove,23-25,26,34, no; compared
frompoint,5. furrows, Galerius arch,Salonika,use ofrunning-drill, 72. near,10. Gerar,iron-smelting statuein Louvre,106,128. Germanicus, in. gestures, glues,80-82. gouge,1,26. of,8. working granite, offigures, 17; fourth35, 113,108-23;carving gravereliefs, century, 35-37; frameof,17,38; shapedin quarry,16. 6. sculptural, grid,Egyptian of,122. rendering grief, Gurob,punchesfrom,11. 82. 'gypsos', 68. 115,116; and running-drill, hair, 92, 125; rendering, hammer,1, 11; flat-headed, 3; stone,8. Hektoridas, 93. Hephaisteion,Athena in pediment,33; drill used in 51. sculptures, at Plataea,64; headat Olympia,83. Hera,ofKallimachos Herakles, 67. Tegea pediment, Hermes,of Praxiteles(?), base, 124, 126; date, 125, 126, ofback,126; general,124-8. 128; finish himation, 52. and Kalliasrelief, 37. Hippomachos hollow-borer, 40-41. Kerameikos), 37. (Athens, Hydrophoros
ear-ringattachments, 47; ofstone,88. in,6; 26; drovein,23; Greekscupltors Egypt,chiselsfrom, and kouros, toolsin,9. 5 ; sculptor's 6 ; grid,6 ; hammer-shapingIlissosstele,35, 121,125; templefrieze, canonofproportions, 59. Egyptian ofgranite, usedbyGreeks( ?), 5; scuplture inscription 28; methods cutting 3. and theGreeks,5; useofchisels, 28. iris,ofeyes,83. of,9; EireneofKephisodotos, iron,adze, axe-head,chisel,wedge,10; carburizing 90. Athenian from chisels Agora,10; inHomer,10; meteoric, 10; Eleusis,Asklepios, 67, 68, 102-4; buildinginscription, 8 ; quenching furnaces, of,9 ; smelting 9 ; pin,97; punches, kouros, 45. of,9; tools Eleutherna times,10; tempering 10; in sub-Mycenaean bust,3. (limestone) 1o ; working 1o, 26; toolsonPyramids, madefrom, of,8-9; emery,1; forsmoothing, 3, 13, 16, 27; tools,28, 29, 38, wrought, 9. 78-79,no. emotion, of,122. rendering ofAsklepios, statuette 103. Ephesus,archaicreliefs,19; archaictempledrum,23; Jameson ofAsklepios, architectural 103. JohnsHopkinsstatuette drums,76. mouldings, 69; relief Epidaurus, 15,20, 31,51, 75,93, 127; drillused joins,in marble,33. pediment, in sculptures, 52. Kallimachos(sculptor), 42; dates,64; Heraat Plataea,64. man,52. EpidaurusMuseum,striding Eireneof,90. at Eleusis,67, 68, 102-4. Kephisodotos, ofAsklepios dedication Epikrates, 20,35, 76; archaic relief, architectural Museum,Ampharete decoration, Erechtheum, 59; Caryatids,90; Kerameikos seated man, 81; archer,66; Demetria,69; Dexileos 20. frieze, 58; useofclawon sculptures, and Hydrophoros, stele,60; Hydrophoros, 37; Korallion, Eretria, 46; Athena,29,46, 47, pediment, 13,81; Antiope, Charonreliefs, 71,73; lion,13,32; rider,47; seatedman, 48, 81; fragments 63a and b, 14. EsteAphrodite, 126. 83. 47; seatedwoman,69; sphinx, Kleobis,29,41, 48. 'Eubouleus',fromAthens, Agora,36, 67,68. Kleobisand Biton,8, 45. Eukleiastele(Piraeus),21. Kleomenes(sculptor), 106,128. 97; 103,ApolloPatroosof,94. Euphranor, korai,ofAthensAcropolis, 14,86-89; canonusedfor,7-8. eyes,inset,88. SeealsoAlkmeonid pediment. Korallionrelief, 71, 73. file, 1, 74. Koroibosstele,59. ofanimalhide,29; ofdrapery, 29. finish, 30; 'chisel'. kouros,archaic head in Munich, 19; Aristodikos flat.Seeunder flintbits,40. 5, 6; Melosgroup,30; New York,8; Egyptianpattern, in Delos44; in Naxos, Sounion19,23,29,45; unfinished 122. free-cutting, 7, 44; useofdrillin,44-45. sculpture, 3. free-standing
GENERAL INDEX Laborde Head, 90. lead, 14; forjoins,81; forfastening, 90. Leda, 93. leopards, 82-83. lion,in Berlin,21,24; in Kerameikos, 13,32; fromMausolofmane,68. eum,33,66,69; in Piraeus,21; rendering Louvre,relieffromPrytaneionof Thasos, 49; sarcophagusfromSalonika,69. Lyonskore,46, 47. Lyseas,gravestele,14. 97-102 passim. Lysippos,
131
additions, 59; pediments, 14,75; useofdrillin,50, 51,57; drillin outlines,55; sculptures (general),27, 32; use of claw chisel,20; use ofdrillin (general),56; use offlat chiselin,31; methods, 39. and pointing, 1. Pasiteles, Patras,Nike,53. 88. patterns, pedestals,14,80, 125;use ofclawchiselon,21; double,on Naxos,14; ofHermesat Olympia,128. pegs,forAnsätze, 48; 87-123passim. ofstatues,7. Penteli,quarrypreparation PeplosKore,47. MALLET, 5, IO, II. fordrilling, percussion, 40. MantineaBase,Apollo,21, 27. Pergamon,Great Frieze,69, 71-72; HellenisticWomen, of natural marble,exploitation qualities,39. stroke 68; useofright-angle at,12; Telephos 29; Poseidon, mason'sstroke, 12,13, 15,28. frieze, 72. Mausoleum,Artemisia, 20, 127; frieze,16,22, 64, 69, 77; Perseus, fromAcropolis, 24. additions, 69; lion,33, 66, 69; relief,72, 76; running- Phaidimos statue,14. drill,66. Pharsalos, pedestalinscription, 97. Mausolusstatue(British Museum),64, 68, 81, 125,127. Phigaleiafrieze,54, 55, 56, 58-59,64, 65, 76, 101; Ionic Melanes,Naxosquarry,44. capitalfrom, 59. Melitterelief, 37,60, 61. Phrasikleia relief, 22, 35. See also under museum reference Melosgroup,kouroi,30; Poseidon,68. NM 831. Athens, archaicand classical,3. methods, pick-hammer, 3, 5, 7, 108. tombstone at Ghalcis,11. Metistokles, 81. pins,forattachments, Museum,NewYork,cavettocapital,23. Metropolitan Piraeus Museum, (votive) banquet relief,56; Eukleia mortise and tenonjoint,48. 21; Heraklesrelief, and Kallias relief, 71; Hippomachos Moschophoros (Acropolis), 13,32,45. relief, in, 113. 37; lion,21; stele,60; workshops Munich,archaickouroshead,19; dog,16. plane,3. Mycenaeanuseofhollowborer,41. and use ofpoint,20. plinths, plug,ofmarble,48. Naucratis,pick-hammer from,10. from, 3, 8, 10, 16,21,86-123passim;furrow Naxos,archaicmarblecentre,44; quarrying by drill,44; point(punch), use in 12; Siphnian Treasury,12. inquarry, unfinished kouroi, figures 5; unfinished 5, 7,42. insculpture, 1; useoftechnique withgrid,6. pointing process necklaceattachment, 47. (withpunch),ofjoin, 14. NereidMonument frieze,16, 22, smallfrieze,22, 59, 80; pointing polish,ofHermesat Olympia,126. Monument (gen.),52, 55, 58, 59. media,78-79. polishing NewYorkkouros, canon,6. 8; and Egyptian Polyxenastele,37,60. Nikandre dedication, 3, 44. 3. NikeBalustrade, 27, 31,54, 55, 56, 57, 59,64, 65, 77, no; porossculpture, 68. Poseidon,ofMelos,68; Pergamon, attachments, 58; useofclawon,20. onbase,77; possible ofHermes Praxiteles, signature sculptor NikeTemple,54, 56,frieze, 58, 59. at Olympia,124 ff. Niobid,in Rome(TermeMuseum),52,65, 81. Priene,ironpick-hammer from,11. Olympia,animals,32; Caryatid, 45; Hermes,37, 80, 124- priõn lithopristes, 83. 22, 29, 114; Museum, Prokleides relief, 22, 37. See also under museum reference 8; ironobjectsfrom,10; metopes, NM 737. Athens, in,44; Nike,52; pediments, perirrhanterion 29,30-31,46, 53 (west);(Apollo)32; use ofdrillin pediment, 50, 51; Prokneand Itys,89 ff. ironswords,10; toolsfromCrete,10. sculptures (general)of Zeus temple,14, 27, 75; use of Protogeometric, clawin,20; warrior, pumice,78-79,no. 45. fromEgypt,11; on Roman chiselsfrom,26; punches(?) from,11; tools,10. punch,1, 5, 7, 18; carpenter's, Olynthus, 11; right-angled stroke tombstones, with,11. 66. ornaments, bronze,97; attached, punching, 3. irontoolsusedon, 10. paint,fordetails,91, 101,no, 113,117,120,123,124; for Pyramids, detailson Siphnianfrieze, Delphi,50. PythianApollo(Samos)6. ofmarble,39,89. painting, in archaicsculpture, panther, 31. quarrying,drillin,42; in Paros,44; inpost-archaic period, statueof Paros,Artemis from,33; base, 21; fragmentary 8; shapingin, 16. ofiron,9. woman,20; Nikefrom,75; quarryblock,5; unfinished quenching, femalefigure, 12. 30; unfinished fragment, Parthenon ,frieze,16,22, 35, 54, 56; additions, RampinHorseman, (Acropolis) 87. 59, 65, 77, 90; drillusedin, 57; metalattachments, 58; rasp,1, 28, 39,46, 66, 74-77,89, 92, 94, 96, 100,101,104, relation offriezeand Salamisstele,no; metopes, marble 106, no, 112, 115, 117, 120, 123, 124, 126, 127.
132
GENERAL INDEX
ofsculpture, stools,carvingof,37. 7. refining process, and clawchisel,21. reliefsculpture, 41. strap-drill, struts, resin,as glue,82. 92, 98, 102,106,107,120,125,126. Themisfrom, 66. stucco,82. Rhamnous, from,10; seatedwoman,104; tools stunning marks,27, 38, 39. Rheneia,pick-hammers ofstatues, from,10. supports, 98, 125. rifflers, 74. 11. Tegea, architectural punchstroke, 66, right-angle mouldings, 69; boarin pediment, Romanchisels(Musée St-Germain), 26; use of,38; drove, 69; Herakles, 67; pediment, 15,20. 6. stroke, 12; tools,10, 18; toolson tomb- Telekles,sculptor, 23; right-angled Telemachos, stones,11. 97-102passim,126. fromDelos,105; sculpture, Romanportrait fullyshapedat Telephosfrieze, on,41. 36; bow-drill represented of Telesterion leftrough,16; tempering at Eleusis,13,32,45. back,16; style,3; supports (ofPisistratus) ofiron,9. tools,9. tempering, Tenea,kouros, Rome,Niobid(TermeMuseum),52,65. 24, 29, 75., roundchisel,26, 27, 124. tenon,80, 109. ofSophocles, 90. 42, 61 f.,68, 95, 125; in draperyrendering, Tereus, running-drill, 68; possiblerepresentation, 62; Terme(Museum),Niobid,81. 60 ff.; in hairrendering, madewitha steeltool,10;Thebes(Egypt), abuseof,68. Thebes,brooches toolsfrom,11. NM 715), 19,32, 35, 110-13. Salamisstele(Athens, Themis,ofRhamnous, 66, 67. 6. Salonika Museum,archaic relief,49; Asklepiosvotive Theodoros, sculptor, Theo . . . (Epidaurussculptor), 102. relief, 93. Theseusand Antiope(Eretria),13. statue,67. Samos,female(fourth-century) Thraseasand Euandriarelief, saw, 1,46, 83, 'semi-lunar', 46. 37, tiles,ofmarble,83. of,121. Scopas,influence Timotheos, tools,fromEgypt,9. 93. sculptor's fromCrete,10; tools,madefromiron,10; Protogeometric, Selinus,metopes, 49. fromDelphi,Olynthus, and Rheneia,10; Roman,10; on Delphi,35, 37; use ofdrillin, 48-49; SiphnianTreasury, 11. tofrieze, Romantomb-stones, 22,76; attachments 50; Caryatid, 45,47; frieze, Trachonesrelief, useofdrillin,42; pediment, 12,47, 54. 69, 71, 72, 73. treetrunk 100,125,126. Sirens,15. supports, Sisyphos(Daochos dedication),16, 20, 21, 126, 127; tubulardrill,41. II, 97-102passim. I, 97-102passim-, Sisyphos Sisyphos smoothing (process),1. drillusedin,47. undercutting, and useofpoint,20. sockets, unfinished archaicsculptures, 12. softstonetechnique, 3. Sounion,kouros,19,23,45; group,29. V-CUTTING,34. horserelief, 7. Sparta,'Leónidas',45; unfinished Villa Albani,votiverelief, 56. Speliaquarry,Penteli,5. toolsfrom,10. Vrokastro, Protogeometric 83. Sphinx(Kerameikos), 7. square,usedbysculptors, 10. wedge,iron,Protogeometric, drill,41. square-headed wood-working technique, 3. 10. Theban on used tool brooches, steel,9; 8; stone,hammer, 8; tools,8; stonetoolsusedbyEgyptians, Xenocrateia relief, 37,61. vases,40. stone-mason's xoanon,3. punch,11.
INDEX
OF AUTHORS
DiODORUs Siculus,Bibl.i. 98. 5-10: 5. Herodotus ii. 125: 10. Hesiod,Opera151: 10. ix. 391: 9. Homer,Iliadxxiv.8: 10; Odyssey Pausaniasi. 24. 3: 90; i. 26. 7: 42, 64; v. 10. 3: 83.
EPIGRAPHIGAL
PlinySen.,NH xxxiii.5. 30: 82; xxxvi.6. 9: 78; xxxvi.6. 6 and 9: 83; xxxvi.22. 47: 78. delap.(Caleyand Richards)21: 79; 41: 83; Theophrastus, 65f.:82; 177: 78.
INDEX
IG xi. 2. 161. 107: io. /Gi2.313. 129: 83. IG ii2. 1673: io.
133 MUSEUMS
INDEX
are References givenas in thetextin each case. Here thoseobjectsonlyare listedforwhichmuseumnumbers in theGeneral namesofpiecesofsculpture givenin thetext.See also undermuseumnamesand conventional in theplates i to 72,see thelistpp. 134-7forreferences to thetext. Index.Forthosewhichareillustrated ATHENS AND ATTICA CHALCIS Museum:136: 21, 33; 140: 46, 47; 143: 45, 48; 9: 60; 33: 16; 63Aand b: 14. Acropolis 168: 79, 107; 269: 47; 552, 554: 83; 593: 19,47; 594, COPENHAGEN 45, 46, 80, 86; 615: 75; 618: 21; 46; 619: 79; 625: 47; 669: 47; 670: 47; 672: 48; 673: 46, 47, 48, 81; 674: 46, NyCarlsberg : 4 b : 24; 219 a : 36; 231: 76; 238: 66> Glyptotek 48, 80; 678: 47; 679: 47; 680: 81, 89; 681: 47; 682: 68, 68; 238b: 32, 68; 2807: 22. 81, 86-89,91; 700: 45, 47; 705: 34, 56; 856: 56, 57, 76, 77, 110; 857: 60, 110; 864: 56,575865:57, 1105877:56; DELOS 881: 75; 972: 57,77; 973: 56; 989: 58,77; 991: 56; 1003: 58; ion: 58; 1309:51, 57; 1331:68, 69, 125; 1333:76; A449: 27, 36, 68, 81; A 583: 45^3194: 17, 70^4064: J358:33, 53»89-92; 1363:51; 3706: 21, 76. 14,46, 47; A 4065: 46, 47, 80; A 4069: 47; A 4083: 12,30; A 4101 : 47; A 4102: 47; A 4156: 68; A 4197: 47; 4287: AgoraMuseum:S 37: 15,20,31,34,81, 126;S 182:53,93; S 657: 17; S 1242:81; S 1882:16,52,75,81; S 2089:67; 52; K 1880:47. S 2094: 51; 14165:77; 52089:36. NationalMuseum:1: 44; 14: 5, 12; 22: 47,48; 26: 45; 27: DELPHI 24; 28: 22; 29: 23,81, 108-10; 31: 22; 38: 23; 39: 23; Koreno. 10: 41. 40: 14; 61: 87; 76: 24; 81: 14; 136:51; 140:51; 145:52; 146: 31, 127; 158: 59; 178: 66, 69; 181: 36, 67, 68, 126; ISTANBUL 199: 16; 229: 45, 75; 231: 66; 235: 68; 254: 69; 258: 69; 10: 68: 69; 5248: 37, 77. 69, 71; 63: 54, 57; 270: 103;299: 34,52,92-94; 323: 66,68; 380: 104; 715: 19,35, 36, 59, 65, 77, 110-13; 7J6: 16,60, 64; 717: 22, 36,37,71,76; 718: 115;720: 17,22,38,60,61, 101; 722: LONDON 37; 723: 37; 726: 61, 113,115; 737: 22, 38, 72, 73; 738: British Museum:121: 23; 307: 55; 312: 59; 315: 59; 316: 18,ai, 36; 743^36,38,66; 754: 59; 764: 38; 768: 33,36, 55; 3J7: 59, 81; 319: 54, 56, 65; 421-4: 58; 520: 54; 37, 69, 71, 102; 774: 15, 20, 32; 775: 15, 32, 34, 51, 53, 68; 522: 54; 524: 56; 525: 55; 526: 56; 527: 54; 529: 54; ni 60, 101, 61, ; 68; 66; 779: 67; 794: 803: 32, 33, 823: 535: 58; 537: 58; 538: 54, 56; 541: 55; 625: 37, 60, 65; 824: 35; 826: 37, 69; 831 : 17, 22, 35, 38, 60, 113; 833: 69, 855: 55; 890: 58; 924: 58; 925: 54, 55; 1002: 21; 33, 725869:69, 12 1-3, 1255870: 17,35,64,69, 117-20; 943: 1006:22,70,72; 1013:71; 1014:71; 1015:71,72; 1018: 17, 71; 956: 17; 960: 36; 965: 37; 966: 22, 37, 71, 76; 1022: 72; 1045: 33, 81; 1055-1056:20; 1084: 33; 69; 61 1601 : 60, ; 100; 1005: 36; 1283: 22; 1385: 1402: 102; 66; 1200:37; 1206:71; 1212:38,77; 1953.5.30:71. 1085: 1828: 1736: 69; 79, 105, 126, 128; 1959: 23; 1986: 36, 72, 102; 2574: 21, 36, 72; 2583: 15, 20, 32, 68; 2687: 23; 2708: 36, 37, 71, 73; 2756: 21; 2772: 16, 33, 126; 28232826: 23; 2885: 36, 126; 3071: 14; 3072: 14; 3089: 61; 3335: 68, 69, 128; 3344: 16, 37, 76, 77; 3372: 13; 3472: 60; 3476: 21, 23; 3624: 61, 113; 3687: 48; 3711: 21; 3718: 12, 36, 38; 3790: 60, 61 ; 3851 : 45, 83; 3858: 41, 45; 3927: 22, 71; 3938: 21, 23, 98, 126; 3966: 36, 38; 4006: 60, 64; 4464: 33; 4465: 71 ; 4466: 38; 4468: 71 ; 4472: 14; 4472: 76. Eleusis Museum: 26: 16, 52, 53, 91; 50: 16, 31, 35, 68, 73, 76, 81, 102-4. Piraeus Museum: E 20: 81 ; E 62: 37; E 63: 17, 69, 77; 213: 53,80,81.
BERLIN
Staatliche Museen: K6: 52; K io: 20,31; K 13a and b: 35, 67; K 14: 59; K 30: 60; K 31: 15, 60, 61; K 34: 37; K 103: 17; K 1747:44; 1725:67,80; 1790:24,34; 1793: 24. CAMBRIDGE MuseumofClassicalArchaeology: 549: 12, 17.
MUNICH A 33: 45; G 491: 61, 113; G 497: 68. Glyptothek: 63:52.
NAXOS
NEW YORK 10: 23,24; 15: 19; 94: 16,36; 235: Museum: Metropolitan 11.
PARIS Louvre:648: 15,20, 31, 67, 80; 767: 102; 1207: 106,128; 3!0i: 45; 3382: 37,67. ROME Cat. 219 (StuartJones): 13. Conservatori: VIENNA Museum: 1093: 59; n 77: 103; n 83: Kunsthistorisches 69; 1192: 52, 126.
LIST OF PLATES WITH
PRINCIPAL
REFERENCES
1. The Point,Punch,and Mallet (a) Quarryface at Spelia, Penteli (b) Blockin Quarryon Paros 2. The Point,Punch,and Mallet (a) Kouros,Delos 4083 (b) Moschophoros,AcrM 624 3. The Point,Punch,and Mallet. (Claw in (a)) (a) Base and Feet, Paros (b) Ram's Head, Eleusis
TO THE
TEXT
p. 5 p. 5 pp. 12, 30 p. 13 pp. 12, 20 21, 30, 33 p. 32
4. The Point,Punch,and Mallet pp. 15, 32 (a) Siren,NM 774 pp. 15, 32 (*) Siren,NM 2583 5. The Point,Punch,and Mallet pp. 31, 126 Athens,Agora S 37 6. The Point,Punch,and Mallet p. 15 (a) Athens,Agora S 37; foldof draperyat the back at and side back Louvre Grave p. 16 statue, 648; drapery (b) pp. 15, 126 (c) Boy withGoose, NM 2772 7. The Point,Punch,and Mallet pp. 17, 70 (a) Votiverelief,Delos A 3194 pp. 17, 69 (b) Grave relief,PiraeusE 63; head cavityofseatedwoman 8. The Claw pp. 21, 76 (a) Votiverelief,AcrM 3706 pp. 22, 38 (b) Grave relief,NM 720 9. The Drove pp. 23, 28 (a) Sphinx,NM 28 1 Berlin p. 24 793 [b) Kore, Drove The 10. pp. 28, 30 (a) DipylonHead, NM 3372 pp. 24, 34 (b) Lion, Berlin1790 11. The Flat Chisel pp. 27, 36 (a) Artemis,Delos A 449; flaton bodice,skirt,and tree-trunk p. 31 (b) Athens,Agora S 37; sectionofdrapery 12. The Flat Chisel p. 31 (a) Metope, Olympia; insidea channelin the drapery p. 31 (b) Zeus, in the Parthenonfrieze,BritishMuseum (c) Lion, Athens,Kerameikos;part ofmane and throat pp. 13, n. 8, 32, 35 13. The Flat Chisel (a) Moschophoros,AcrM 624
p. 32
LIST OF PLATES 14. The Flat Chisel p. 32 (a) Dog, Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg 238 b p. 33 (b) Lion, NM 803 15. The Flat Chisel pp. 33, 38 (a) Base of Aknonios, Delphi pp. 34, 93 (b) Hygieia, NM 299; channel between body and drapery pp. 15, 34, 81 (c) Athens, Agora S 37 16. The Flat Chisel p. 36 (a) Grave relief,Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg 219 a p. 36 (*) Grave relief,NM 3966 (c) Grave relief, NM 1005; back of draped figure and section of background p. 36 17. The Flat Chisel pp. 36, 69 (a) Grave reliefof Aristonautes, NM 738 pp. 36, 71, 73 (b) Grave relief,Athens, National Museum, fromTrachones 18. The Flat Chisel p. 36 (a) Grave relief,NM 2885 p. 36 (b) Telephos frieze,Berlin, Pergamon Museum p. 36 (c) Athens, Agora, S 2089 Flat The Chisel 19. pp. 37, 77 (a) Grave relief,Istanbul 5248 p. 37 (b) Votive relief,NM 3344 pp. 37, 76 (c) Grave relief,NM 966 20. The Drill p. 44 (a) Block in quarry on Paros p. 45 (b) Kouros, NM 3858 ; section under leftarm, which is broken away p. 46 (c) Kore, Delos A 4065 21. The Drill p. 47 (a) Kore, NM 22; drapery channels pp. 47, 48, 53, 81 (b) Kore, AcrM 673 p. 48 (c) Kore, AcrM 672 22. The Drill The Siphnian Frieze, Delphi ; Athena stepping into her chariot p. 49 Drill The 23. (a) Siphnian Frieze, Delphi; hair of Aphrodite p. 49 (b) Head from Epidauros pediment, NM 140 p. 51 (c) Nereid, Athens, Agora S 182 p. 53 Drill The 24. Olympia, West Pediment, Figure E p. 51 Drill The 25. (a) Demeter, Eleusis 26, right side p. 52 (b) Demeter, Eleusis 26, leftside and back p. 52 (c) Demeter, Eleusis 26, feet pp. 52, 91 26. The Drill (a) Girl, Piraeus Museum 213 pp. 53, 80, 81 (b) Girl, Piraeus Museum 213 y?.53 (c) Nike Balustrade, AcrM 689 p. 54
135
136
LIST OF PLATES 27. The Drill Nike Balustrade,AcrM 972 pp. 55, 58 28. The Drill (a) Parthenonfrieze,BritishMuseum,Hera pp. 56, 57 (b) Parthenonfrieze,BritishMuseum,head ofrider p. 56 p. 56 (c) Parthenonfrieze,BritishMuseum,horse'slegs,tail,and chariot The Drill 29. (a) Parthenonfrieze,BritishMuseum,East, Figure58; girl'sdrapery p. 57 (b) Nike Balustrade,AcrM 972 p. 58 Drill The 30. p. 58 (a) Erechtheumfrieze,AcropolisMuseum,draperyhem p. 58 (b) VotiverelieffromBrauron,National Museum,draperyhem p. 61 (c) Grave reliefofMnesarete,Munich G 491 31. The Drill p. 60 (a) Grave relief,NM 716 (b) Grave reliefofDexileos,Athens,Kerameikos;channelbehind horse'sleg pp. 60, 61 Grave relief of detail Dexileos,Athens,Kerameikos; pp. 60, 61 (c) 32. The Drill pp. 63, 72 (a) Grave relief,NM 1986 p. 67 (b) Grave statue,Louvre 3382, back oflegs p. 69 (c) Sarcophagus,Louvre Drill The 33. p. 71 (a) Mausoleum frieze,BM 1013 p. 71 (b) Mausoleum frieze,BM 1014 The Drill 34. p. 71 (a) Sarcophagus,Istanbul 10 p. 7 1 (b) Votive relieffromBrauron,Athens,National Museum p. 71 (c) Grave relief,NM 717 The Drill 35. p. 72 (a) Telephos frieze,Berlin,PergamonMuseum The Rasp p. 76 (b) Votive relief,Copenhagen,Ny Carlsberg231 Cementsand Glues p. Si (c) Athena,Chalcis Museum,back view pp. 86-89 36-37. Kore, AcrM 682 pp. 89-92 38-39. Prokneand Itys,AcrM 1358 NM pp. 52, 92-94 40-41. Hygieia, 299 pp. 35, 67, 94-97, 127 42-43. Apollo Patroos,Athens,Agora Daochos pp. 97-102 Aknonios, 44-45. Group,Delphi p. 67 46. (a) Aknonios,Daochos Group,Delphi p. 31 (b), (c) Daochos I, Delphi Daochos 126, 68, 127 pp. 67, 47. (a)-(c) SisyphosI, Group,Delphi pp. 76, 127 48. (a) SisyphosI, Delphi; underrightarm pp. 76, 127 (b) SisyphosI, Delphi; back ofleftarm
LIST OF PLATES
137
pp. 16, 21, 127 49. (a), (b) SisyphosI, Delphi pp. 76, 127 (c) Daochos I, Delphi; sectionof draperywithrasp-marks pp. 67, 68, 81, 102-4 50-51. Asklepios,EleusisMuseum 50 pp. 104-5 52. (a)-(c) Seated woman,NM 380 pp. 105-7, I2^ I20 53. (a)-(c) Portraitstatue,NM 1828 54-55. Grave reliefofAristion,NM 29 pp. 23, 81, 108-10 32, 36, 60, 65, 77, 110-13, 122 />/>. 56-59. Grave relief,NM 715 60-61. Grave relief,NM 726 pp. 113-15 pp. 115-17 62-63. Grave reliefofAmeinokleia,NM 718 Grave NM relief, 64-66. 870 pp. 69, 117-20 67-69. Grave relief,NM 869 pp. 69, 121-3 70. (a), (b) Hermes,Olympia 71. (a), (b) Germanicus,Louvre 1207 72. (a), (c) Sectionsof draperyof Hermes,Olympia (b) Sectionof draperyof Germanicus,Louvre 1207
pp. 124-8 pp. 124-8 pp. 124-8 pp. 124-8
PLATES
Plate 1
(a) Quarryfaceat Spelia,Periteli,(b) Blockin quarryon Paros.
Plate 2
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Athens, AgoraS 37.
Plate 6
at back, (b) Gravestatue,Louvre648. AgoraS 37; foldofdrapery (a) Athens, (c) BoywithGoose,AthensNM 2772.
Plate 7
Delos A 3194. (b) Graverelief, PiraeusE 63; head cavityofseatedwoman. (a) Votiverelief,
Plate 8
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Plate 12
trieze. channel. (6) British Museum,Zeus ot Parthenon (a) Metope,Olympia;insidea drapery maneand throat. Kerameikos; (c) Lion,Athens,
Plate 13
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(a) BaseofAknonios, Delphi, (b) Hygieia,AthensNM 299; channelbetweenbodyand drapery. (c) Athens, AgoraS 37.
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[a) Grave relief,AthensNM 2885. (b) Telephos frieze, Berlin, (c) Athens,Agora S 2089.
Plate 19
Graveand votivereliefs,(a) Istanbul5248. (4) AthensNM 3344. (c) AthensNM 966.
Plate 20
(a) Blockin quarryon Paros, (b) Kouros,AthensNM 3858; sectionunderleftarm,whichis brokenaway. (c) Kore,DelosA 4065.
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AthensNM 140. (a) Siphnianfrieze, Delphi.Hair ofAphrodite,(b) Head fromEpidaurospediment, (c) Nereid,Athens, AgoraS 182.
Plate 24
Olympia, West Pediment,Figure E.
Plate 25
Demeter,Eleusis 26.
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Plate 26
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NationalMuseum: Museum:draperyhem. (b) VotiverelieffromBrauron, Athens, frieze, Acropolis (a) Erechtheum MunichG 491. hem. (c) Mnesarete relief, drapery
Plate 31
: channelbehindhorse'sleg. (c) Dexileos,detail. Gravereliefs,(a) AthensNM 716. (b) Dexileos(Kerameikos)
Plate 32
Louvre. AthensNM 1986. (b) Gravestatue,Louvre3382: backot legs, (c) Sarcophagus, (a) Graverelief,
Plate 33
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AthensNM 717. fromBrauron, NM. (c) Graverelief, Istanbulio. (b) Votiverelief Athens, (a) Sarcophagus,
Plate 35
Berlin, (b) Votiverelief, (a) Telephosfrieze, Ny Carlsberg, Copenhagen 231. (c) ChaléisMuseum:Athena,back.
Plate 36
Köre,AcrM682.
Plate 37
Köre,AcrM682.
Plate 38
Prokneand Itys. AcrM 1358.
Plate 39
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Plate 42
Agora. ApolloPatroos.Athens,
Plate 43
ApolloPatroos.Athens, Agora.
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Asklepios,Eleusis 50.
Plate 51
Asklcpios,Eleusis 50.
Plate 52
Seatedwoman,AthensNM 380.
Plate 53
Portrait statue,AthensNM 1828.
Plate 54
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GravereliefofAristion, AthensNM 29.
Plate 56
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Plate 58
Graverelief, AthensNM 715.
Plate 59
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Plate 63
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Plate 67
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Plate 68
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AthensNM 869. Graverelief,
Plate 70
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Plate 71
Louvre1207. Germanicus,
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