The Prepalatial Cemeteries at Mochlos and Gournia and the House Tombs of Bronze Age Crete Author(s): Jeffrey S. Soles Source: Hesperia Supplements, Vol. 24, The Prepalatial Cemeteries at Mochlos and Gournia and the House Tombs of Bronze Age Crete, (1992), pp. i-314 Published by: American School of Classical Studies at Athens Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1353994 Accessed: 19/07/2008 10:15 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=ascsa. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission.
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The West Terrace at Mochlos
HESPERIA: SUPPLEMENT XXIV
PREPALATIAL CEMETERIES
THE
AT
MOCHLOS
AND
GOURNIA
AND THE HOUSE TOMBS OF BRONZE AGE CRETE
BY
JEFFREY S. SOLES
AMERICAN
SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY 1992
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Soles, Jeffrey S., 1942The prepalatial cemeteries at Mochlos and Gournia and the house tombs of Bronze Age Crete / Jeffrey S. Soles. cm. - (Hesperia. Supplement; v. 24) p. Includes bibliographicalreferences. ISBN 0-87661-524-8 (alk. paper) 1. Gournia (Ancient city). 2. Moklos Island (Greece)-Antiquities. 3. Tombs-Greece-Crete. 4. Minoans. 5. Architecture,Minoan-GreeceCrete. I. Title. II. Series: Hesperia (Princeton, N.J.). Supplement; 24. DF221.C8S66 1991 91-22767 939'.18-dc20 CIP
TYPOGRAPHY BY THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES PUBLICATIONS OFFICE C/O INSTITUTE FOR ADVANCED STUDY, PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY PLATES BY THE STINEHOUR PRESS, LUNENBURG, VERMONT PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY THE JOHN D. LUCAS PRINTING COMPANY, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND
FOR
MARY ELLEN
PREFACE The early cemeteriesat Gournia and Mochlos were explored shortly after the turn of the 20th century by archaeologistswho worked under the auspices of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. In 1901 and again in 1904 at Gournia, Harriet Boyd Hawes uncoveredseveral tombs on the north spur of the very ridge on which the settlement of Gournia is located. In 1908, Richard B. Seager uncovereda large number of tombs on the western side of the island of Mochlos. Both cemeterieswere used first at the beginningof the of use by gout Prepalatialperiod,ca. 2900 or 2600 B.c.; that at Mochlos appearsto have gone the end of the Prepalatial period, ca. 1900 B.C., although parts were re-used later in the New Palace period, while that at Gournia remainedin use through the Old Palace period, until ca. 1700 B.C. Hawes and Seagerpublishedthe majorfinds from these cemeteriesbut paid little attention to the cemeteriesas a whole, to the architectureof the tombs,or to the actual burials.As a result, the picture of the cemetery at Mochlos was incompleteand somewhat confused, and the very existence of the North Cemetery at Gournia was all but forgotten.The primary aim of this book is to re-examine the extant remains in both cemeteriesas carefully and in as much detail as possible and so to gain a more completepictureof both cemeteries. Such a re-examinationseems warrantedfor several reasons:first, becauseof the important role that each cemeteryplayed in the life of its settlementat a fairly early stage in the development of the Bronze Age civilizationof Crete;second,becauseof the intrinsic importance of the architectureof the tombs in these cemeteries,which make up a sizable portionof the known architectureof the entire Prepalatialperiod;and third, becauseof the general desirability of providingas clear a context as possible for the finds that Hawes and Seager published from these cemeteries,among which are some of the most spectacularobjectsever found in Prepalatialcontexts. As a result of the cleaning operationsthat were carriedout on the sites in the summers of 1971, 1972, and 1976, which were necessarybecausemostof the tombshad been reburied in the intervalsince their original excavation,it has been possibleto draw actual-stateplans and sections of the tombs, as well as over-all maps of the cemeteries,and to furnish the detailed descriptionthat Hawes and Seager neglectedto provide.The first two chaptersof the bookare devotedto these cemeteries.After a descriptionof the cemeteryas a whole, each tomb is consideredseparately.First, a bibliographyis provided(when one exists); then the location and excavationof each tomb are described;its architectureis describednext; and finally, whateverinformationmay be gleaned about its burials and chronologyis provided. When it has been possibleto re-examineold finds, and whenevernew finds have been made in the course of the cleaning, a catalogue of these finds is appended at the end of the description of each tomb. While all the finds reported from the Gournia tombs have been includedin the catalogues,it has not been thought necessaryto republishall the finds from Mochlos, alreadypublishedso well by Seager. The built tombs that were used for most of the burials in both cemeteriesbelong to a distinct class of tomb that was popular in Crete during the Prepalatial and Old Palace
vi
PREFACE
periods.Severalexamples in additionto those at Mochlos and Gourniahave been excavated throughoutthe island, in southernCrete, where they sometimesappearalongsidethe tholos tombs, as well as central and eastern Crete, where they are most common.They have been describedin various ways by their excavators,on the one hand as "boneenclosures","ossuaries",or "ossuarycists", and on the other as "rectangularbuilt tombs","burialchambers",or "housetombs".The confusionresults in part from the use of one term to refer to the nature of burials in the tomb and of anotherto refer to the structuralappearanceof the tomb:for example, the same tomb might be referredto as a chambertomb and as an ossuary simultaneously.1But the confusionalso results from differingopinions regardingthe original structureof the tomb alone. Accordingto one view, the tombs were simple walled enclosureslimiting a certainburial plot. This seems to have been the view of the early British archaeologistsat Palaikastroand has recentlybeen revivedby Nicholas Platon.2According to the other view, the tombs were modeledafter domesticarchitecture,and the low rubble walls that are preservedare socles that originally supporteda roofedsuperstructureof perishablematerial.This view was first expressedby Hawes, who initially identifiedthe tombs on the west slope of the North Cemetery as intramuralburials.3She was secondedin her view by Arthur Evans, who noted that the Mochlos tombs resembled "miniaturestone houses,"4and by John Pendlebury,who believedthat the Mochlos and Palaikastrotombs imitated the "traditionalhouses of the living of a bygone era."5The problem was further complicatedby scholars such as Seager and Stephanos Xanthoudides, and more recently Keith Branigan,who recognizedboth types of tomb.6 In part, this disagreementis due to the failure of all the early archaeologists,not just Hawes and Seager, to study these tombs carefully and to recordthe architecturaldetails of the tombs in their publications.Of the numerous examples of this type of tomb that have been excavated,few have receivedanything but the briefestnotice. As a result, their prevalence has been overlooked,and their importancein the BronzeAge civilizationof Crete has been neglected;scholarshave tended instead to focus on the circulartombs of the Mesara, which are more fully publishedbut which are a regional phenomenon.Anotheraim of this book, therefore,is to fill the gaps in our knowledgeof this class of tomb and to provideas much informationas possibleabout these tombsas a whole. In ChapterIII a catalogueof all known tombsof this type is provided.The tombsare presentedin alphabeticalorderby site, each with a brief discussionof its architecture,burials, and chronology.The catalogueand the architecturaldiscussion in Chapter IV make it clear that Hawes's descriptionof the Gourniatombsand Evans'of the Mochlos tombsare fully justified.These rectangularbuilt tombsor ossuarieswarrantthe title "housetombs"that Hawes introducedto describethem, not necessarilybecause the dead were thought to inhabit the tombs but because the tombs were architecturalimitationsof the houses of the living. In the final chaptersof this book,V 1
Seager,Mochlos II, pp. 13-14. Bosanquet,PK I, pp. 291-292; Dawkins, PK III, pp. 196-197, 202; for Platon, see pp. 198, 200 below. 3 Hawes, UPMTA I, i, 1904, p. 42. 4 Evans, PM I, pp. 72-74; see also Hood, The Minoans, p. 141. 5 Pendlebury,Archaeologyof Crete,p. 63; see also Hutchinson, PrehistoricCrete,pp. 145-146. 6 Seager,Mochlos II, p. 15; for Xanthoudides,see p. 157 below; Branigan,Foundationsof Palatial Crete, pp. 154-158. See also Shaw, p. 170 below. 2
PREFACE
vii
and VI, the various uses of the tombs are examined further. These chaptersare somewhat more speculativethan the precedingones but are offeredhere in the belief that speculation and theory are tools that archaeology,like any science, uses to advanceknowledge.While some details of interpretationmay need emendationin light of future discoveries,the general significanceof these tombs in the political and religious life of early Crete seems clear. The re-examinationof the Gournia and Mochlos cemeterieswould not have been possible without the cooperationof the Greek ArchaeologicalService and particularly Costis Davaras, Directorof the Agios Nikolaos Museum and for a long time Ephor of Antiquities in East Crete, to whom I am deeply indebted for support of the project and continuing encouragement.Dr. Davaras undertooka large part of the cleaning that was required at both sites and has generouslyallowed me to publish many of the discoveriesresulting from this cleaning. I am also grateful to Markos Peronikolis,formerCustodianof Antiquities at Gournia, and lannis Kouroupakis,Custodian at Mochlos, who were both eager to lend assistance whenever it was needed;to the many archaeologistswho have permittedme to discuss in Chapter III tombs that they excavated,especially Nicholas Platon (Agios Georgios and Zakros), lannis and Effie Sakellarakis(Archanes),Costis Davaras (Linares), and Gerald Cadogan (Myrtos, Pyrgos); and finally to Epimeletria StavroulaApostolakouand the staff of the Agios Nikolaos Museum, who always accommodatedme most graciouslyon my frequenttrips to the Museum. The main part of the field work for this projectwas carriedout in the summersof 1971 and 1972 with grants from the United States EducationalFoundationin Greece (Fulbright Program)and in 1976 with the aid of a Harriet PomeranceFellowship from the Archaeological Instituteof America.In 1976 a team of architectsfromCornellUniversity,Frederick Hemans, FrederickGuthrie, and Margaret Denney, drew up the map of Mochlos and its cemetery, and two graduate students from Yale and Columbia Universities, Faith Hentschel and Regina Lee, assistedme in drawing actual-stateplans of tombson the south slope of the Mochlos cemetery.In 1978 a Faculty ExcellenceGrant from the Universityof North Carolina at Greensboroallowed me to return to Crete to study finds in the Agios Nikolaos Museum from the 1976 cleaningon Mochlos, and in 1980 a Grant-in-Aidfromthe American Council of Learned Societies allowed me to complete the topographicalmap of the North Cemetery at Gournia with the aid of two students from the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Nancy Sultan and Jennifer Reid. In 1985 a stipend from the Research Council of the University of North Carolina at Greensboropermittedme to do further work in the Agios Nikolaos Museum. During all these years, I have also been indebtedto the Directors of the AmericanSchool of Classical Studies at Athens, especially James R. McCredie and Henry S. Immerwahr,for their patiencein makingapplicationon my behalf for the necessarystudy permits from the Greek ArchaeologicalService. JEFFREYS. SOLES UNIVERSITY
OF NORTH
CAROLINA
Greensboro,North Carolina 1986
TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE ........ LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .........
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Xv
ABBREVIATIONS AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
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I. THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA ... TOMB I .
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TOMBII ...... TOMBIII ....... BUILDINGIV
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ROCK SHELTERS V AND VI ...
TOMBSVII ANDVIII ....
28 34 36 39 41 42 43 51 63 64 64 65 69 69
.. . . . . . . . . . .. THE WEST TERRAC;AE . . . . . . . . . . . *??.............? ? *??.............? TOMB COMPLEx I/II/III ? ....... *??.............? TOMB COMPLEx IV/V/VI ....... ? *??.............? THE SOUTH SLOPE ? TERRACE7: T(OMBS ? XIX, XXIII, A, ANDB *??.............? *??.............? TOMB XI: ? *??.............? TOMB X) 111 ? ? ? ? TOMB A * * * * * * * * * * * *??.............? ? *??.............? TOMB B * * * * * * * * * * * ? TERRACE 6: TOMBS IX, X, XX/XXI, XXII , AND r . . . . . . . . . . 72 TOMBSXX/XXI . . . . . . . . . . . .. 73 AND XXII .... TOMB r............ *???............ .. 77 ? *??.............? TOMBSIX AND X .... 79 ? TERRACE5: TOMBSXIII, XV, XVI, ANDXIVII . . . . . . . . . . . 87 TOMBXIII ..... .87 ............. TOMBSXV, XVI, AND XVII .... *??.............? ? 88 TERRACE 4: TOMBXI .... *??.............? ? 94 TERRACE 3: TOMBS *??.............? 97 ? VII, VIII, A, ANDE TOMBVII ..... *??.............? 98 ? TOMBVIII ..... . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100 TOMBSA AND E ..... . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100 TERRACE2: TOMBXVIII ... . . . . . . . . . . . .. 105 TERRACE 1: TOMB Z .... . . . . . . .... . . . 106 TOMBS EAST OF THE SOUTH SLOPE ... . . . . . . . . . . . .. 108 TOMBH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 108 TOMB O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 110 .. TOMB I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 112 TOMBK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . ... .112
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' 'ABLE OF CONTENTS
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III. A CATALOGUEOF HOUSE TOMIBS . . . . . . . . . . ....
THE AGIA TRIADA CEME;TERY
1. THE SOUTH BUI1LDING ....
2. TOMB5 . . . 3. TOMB OF THE PtUINTED SARCOPHAGUS . AGIOS GEORGIOS .
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THE ARCHANES CEMETE]
5. ARCHANES B .
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6. ARCHANES 3 ANID .? . .
4 7. ARCHANES 8. ARCHANES 6 7 9. ARCHANES
10. ARCHANES 8 11. ARCHANES12.
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13. ARCHANES18.
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14. ARCHANES19.
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15. TOMBA .
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17. 12. ARCHANES
GOURNES, PEDIADOS
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16. IEPOSAAKKO~ KNOSSOS ... 17. THE TEMPLET OMB . . . . . . . . . THE KOUMASA CEMETERtY .
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19. LINARES. MALLIA: CHRYSOLAKKOS AND THE NECROPOLE DES PIERRES MEULIERES . 20. CHRYSOLAKKOS I ................
II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21. CHRYSOLAKKOS III ................ 22. CHRYSOLAKKOS
23, 24. NECROPOLE DES PIERRES MEULIERES: THE
EASTERN OSSUARIES
25. NECROPOLE DES PIERRES MEULIERES: THE WESTERN OSSUARY . 26. NECROPOLE DES PIERRES MEULIERES: THE HOUSE OF THE DEAD MYRTOS, PYRGOS
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27. PYRGOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE PALAIKASTRO CEMETERIES .................
28. TOMBI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29. TOMBII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30. TOMBIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,32. TOMBSIV a ANDIV b ................ 33. TOMBV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34. TOMBVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
35. TOMBVII ..... 36. TOMBVIIBIS ......... 37. TOMBVIII ..... THE PLATANOS CEMETERY ....
38, 39. TOMBSa AND PORTI . . . . . . . . 40. TOMB8 ...... VASILIKE, IERAPETRAS
41. VASILIKE
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THE ZAKROS CEMETERY....
42. TOMB A ..... 43. TOMB B ...... APPENDIX: CHRONOLOGICALLIST OF HOUSE IV. ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES ..... PLANS .
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AGGLUTINATIVE ARCHITECTURE .... WALLS .
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ORGANIC ARCHITECTURE
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DOORWAYS ........ ROOFING ........ STUCCO REVETMENT AND PAINTED DECORATION .
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PRECINCT WALLS AND PAVEMENTS ... ORIGINS OF THE HOUSE TOMB V. OFFERINGS AND SHRINES
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RITUAL OFFERINGS ............ RITUAL IMPLEMENTS ........... TOMB SHRINES .......
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SKULL RETENTION AND FUNERARY RITUAL POPULATION UNIT
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SOCIAL RANKING ....... INDEX . MAP PLANS PLATES
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VI. BURIALS AND SOCIAL RANKING ........ BURIAL DEPOSITS
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188 191 192 193 193 193 193 194 194 195 195 198
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243 243 247 251 255
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FRONTISPIECE The West Terrace at Mochlos FIGURES IN TEXT
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41.
. Reconstructionof Gournia Tombs I and II (drawn by Jean CarpenterEfe). ..... Plan of Gournia Tombs I and II .......................... SectionsAB and CD through Gournia Tombs I and II ................ Potteryfrom Gournia Tomb I .......................... Potteryfrom Gournia Tomb I Pit ......................... Stone BucketJar G 1-17 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4401) from Gournia Tomb I Pit ......... Stone Vessels from Gournia Tomb I Pit ....................... Pottery from Gournia Tomb II .......................... Jugs: Chamaizi 646, Trapeza Cave 644, and Ag.Nik.Mus. 4390 ............. Vessels from Gournia Tomb II ......................... .. ................. .... Plan of Gournia Tomb III .... Section EF through Gournia Tombs I and III .................... Potteryfrom Gournia Tomb III .......................... Plan of Gournia Building IV ........................... Plans and Sectionsof Gournia Rock SheltersV and VI ................. Plan of Mochlos Tomb Complex I/II/III on the West Terrace ........... SectionAB through Mochlos Tomb Complex I/II/III ................. Mochlos Tomb Complex I/II/III: Table of Strata in CompartmentsI and II ........ Vessels from Mochlos Tomb Complex I/II/III ......... ........... Plan of Mochlos Tomb Complex IV/V/VI on the West Terrace ............. SectionAB through Mochlos Tomb Complex IV/V/VI ............... Mochlos Tomb Complex IV/V/VI: Table of Strata in CompartmentVI. ......... Vessels from Mochlos Tomb Complex IV/V/VI, CompartmentVI. ........... . Vessels from Mochlos Tomb Complex IV/V/VI, Altar Area ........... Plan of Mochlos Tombs XIX, XXIII, A, and B .................. SectionsAlB1, A2B2, A3B3, and A4B4 through Mochlos Tombs B, IX, XVI, and XI ... .......... Spoutedbowl M XXMII-1from Mochlos Tomb XXIII . Plan of Mochlos Tombs XX/XXI, XXII, and XIII .................. . SectionAB through Mochlos Tombs XX/XXI and XIII .............. .. . . Plan and Sectionof Mochlos Tomb r .................. . . .................. Plan of Mochlos Tombs IX and X .... .... IX Tomb .................... Mochlos from Bowls Stone ..84 Stone Jar M X-1 from Mochlos Tomb X .................... F. Tomb . Mochlos Pithos fragmentsM F-1 from .............. Vessels and Sealstonefrom Mochlos Tomb XXII .................. ................. Plan of Mochlos Tombs XVI, XVII, and XV XIII ................ Tomb from Mochlos M One-handledCup XIII-1 XV Tomb .................. XV-1 from Mothlos M Basin Fragments XVI. ................. Tomb Mochlos from XVI-1 M Goblet Stone . . . . Plan of Mochlos Tomb XI ....................... ... Vessels from Mochlos Tomb XI ......................
4 5 6 11 14 15 16 24 25 26 29 30 32 35 37 44 45 49 50 52 53 57 61 62 66 67 72 74 75 78 79 83 85 86 89 92 93 93 95 97
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81.
xiii Xlll *
Plan and SectionAB of Mochlos Tomb VII ......... Plan and SectionAB of Mochlos Tomb VIII ......... Plan of Mochlos Tombs A and E ............ SectionAB through Mochlos Tomb A .......... Stone Vessels from Mochlos Tomb VII .......... Plan and SectionAB through Mochlos Tomb XVIII. ..... Plan of Mochlos Tomb Z ................ Plan and SectionAB of Mochlos Tomb H .......... Plan of Mochlos Tomb ................ Goblet M 0-1 (Siteia Mus.) from Mochlos Tomb . ..... Plan and Sectionof Mochlos Tomb I ............ Plan of Mochlos Tomb K ................ The Agia Triada Cemetery ................ Agia Triada, the South Building .............. Agia Triada, Tomb 5.................. Agia Triada, Tomb of the Painted Sacrophagus ....... Plan and SectionAB of the Tomb at Agios Georgios ...... The ArchanesCemeteryat Phourni ............ Archanes,Tombs B, 3-5, 6, 7, and 8........... Archanes,Building 4 .................. Gournes, Tomb A and the epbsAaKKOS.......... Knossos,the Temple Tomb ................ Hall Knossos,the Temple Tomb: Jambs of the South Doorway in the I[nner The KoumasaCemetery ................ Linares Tomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mallia, Necropole des Pierres Meulieres .......... Mallia, ChrysolakkosI ................. Mallia, ChrysolakkosII ................. Mallia, Plan of the House of the Dead and Detail of Room III.. Myrtos, Pyrgos Tomb .................. Palaikastro,Ta Hellenika: Tombs II, III, and VI ....... Palaikastro,Sarantari:Tombs IV a and IV b ........ Palaikastro,Patema:Tomb V .............. Palaikastro,the Gravel Ridge: Tombs VII and VIII ...... Palaikastro,the Gravel Ridge: Tomb VII.......... ......... .... Zakros,Tomb A . .. .. .. . ........ Zakros, Tomb B ........... Plans of House-tomb Types .............. Plans of Tomb Doorway Types .............. Table of EstimatedPopulation Making Use of the Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MAP Map of Crete with Distributionof House Tombs PLANS 1. The SphoungarasCemeteryat Gournia 2. The North Cemeteryat Gournia 3. The PrepalatialCemeteryat Mochlos
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99 101 102 103 105 106 107 109 109 110 111 112 117 118 120 126 128 130 133 140 150 152 154 156 159 161 164 167 174 177 181 185 186 189 190 196 199 203 212 253
xiv
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATES 1. View of Gournia from the North 2. Gournia Tombs I and II 3. Gournia Tomb I 4. Objectsfrom Gournia Tomb I 5. Objectsfrom Gournia Tomb I, Pit Deposit 6. Objectsfrom Gournia Tomb I, Pit Deposit and Tomb III 7-9. Gournia Tomb II 10, 11. Objectsfrom Gournia Tomb II 12. Gournia Tomb III 13, 14. Objectsfrom Gournia Tomb III 15. Gournia Building IV and Rock SheltersV and VI 16. Mochlos West Terrace and Tomb Complex I/II/III 17. Mochlos Tomb Complex I/II/III: CompartmentI 18. Mochlos Tomb Complex I/II/III: CompartmentII 19. Mochlos Tomb Complex I/II/III: CompartmentIII and Objectsfrom the Complex 20-22. Mochlos Tomb Complex IV/V/VI 23. Objectsfrom Mochlos Tomb Complex IV/V/VI 24. Mochlos South Slope Terrace 7 and Tombs XVI and XIX 25. Mochlos Tombs XXIII and A 26. Mochlos Tombs A and B 27. Mochlos Tombs XIII, XX/XXI, and XXII 28. Mochlos Tomb r 29. Mochlos Tombs IX and X 30. Objectsfrom Mochlos Tombs X and F 31. Objectsfrom Mochlos Tombs IX and XXII 32. Mochlos Tombs XIII and XVI and Objectsfrom Them 33. Mochlos Tombs XV and XVII and Objectsfrom Them 34. Mochlos Tombs XI and VII 35. Mochlos Tombs VIII, A, XVIII, and Z 36. Mochlos Tombs H, 0, and I 37. Objectsfrom Mochlos Tombs Z and 0 38. Agios GeorgiosTomb; KoumasaTomb F 39. Linares Tomb; Mallia, Necropoledes Pierres Meulieres 40. Palaikastro;ZakrosTombs A and B
ABBREVIATIONS AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS AND ARTICLES Excavationreportsare listed chronologicallyunder the author. All other entries are alphabetical. Tafal Alexiou, KprprXpov 5, 1951 = S. Alexiou, (IHnpWcTrolAVwKal
L HepaKXelovt, rapa TO KavAL-Kaore'AAX
KprqrXpov5, 1951, pp. 275-294 rado&ALovos Kvwoooov(KaroapaTra) Alexiou, Karau-ar = S. Alexiou, ' YorrpouLvaKcol l (BLi,AioOKnlrfis Athens 1967 ev 'AOjvaLs'ApxaLoXoyLKis 'EraLpewa56), Banti, ASAtene 13-14, 1930-1931 = L. Banti, "La grande tomba a tholos di Haghia Triada," ASAtene 13-14, 1930-1931, pp. 155-251 Banti, ASAtene,n.s. 3-5, 1941-1943 = L. Banti, "I culti minoici e greci di Haghia Triada (Creta),"ASAtene, n.s. 3-5, 1941-1943, pp. 9-74 Baurain, Aegaeum 1, 1987 = C. Baurain, "Les necropolesde Mallia," in Thanatos.Les coutumesfuneraires en Egee a l'Age du Bronze (Aegaeum 1, 1987), R. Laffineur,ed., pp. 61-72 Becker, AJA 79, 1975 = M. Becker, "Human Skeletal Remains from Kato Zakro," AJA 79, 1975, pp. 271-276 Betancourt,Minoan Objects= P. Betancourt,Minoan ObjectsExcavatedfromVasilike,Pseira, Sphoungaras, Priniatikos Pyrgos, and Other Sites. The Cretan Collectionin the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania I, Philadelphia 1983 Betancourt, White-on-DarkWare= P. Betancourt,East Cretan White-on-DarkWare:Studies on a Handmade Potteryof the Early to Middle Minoan Periods, Philadelphia 1984 Blackmanand Branigan,BSA 77, 1982 = B. Blackmanand K. Branigan,"The Excavationof an Early Minoan Tholos Tomb at Ayia KyriakiAyiofarango,SouthernCrete,"BSA 77, 1982, pp. 1-57 Bosanquet,R., PalaikastroExcavationNotebookfor 1902 and 1905 , PalaikastroExcavationNotebookfor 1904 Bosanquetand Dawkins (Palaikastroexcavationreports;see also Sackettand Popham) Bosanquet,PK I = R. Bosanquet,"Excavationsat Palaikastro,"BSA 8, 1901/1902, pp. 286-316 Bosanquetand Dawkins, PK II = R. Bosanquetand R. Dawkins, "Excavationsat Palaikastro,II," BSA 9,1902/1903, pp. 274-387 Dawkins, PK III = R. Dawkins, "Excavationsat Palaikastro,III," BSA 10, 1903/1904, pp. 192-231 Dawkins, Hawes, and Bosanquet,PK IV = R. Dawkins, C. H. Hawes, and R. Bosanquet,"Excavationsat Palaikastro,IV," BSA 11, 1904/1905, pp. 258-308 Dawkins, PK V = R. Dawkins, "Excavationsat Palaikastro,V," BSA 12, 1905/1906, pp. 1-8 Bosanquet and Dawkins, PKU= R. Bosanquet and R. Dawkins, The UnpublishedObjectsfrom the PalaikastroExcavations, 1902-1906, London 1923 Branigan, Aegean Metalwork= K. Branigan,Aegean Metalworkof the Early and Middle Bronze Age, Oxford 1974 Branigan, CB W= K. Branigan, Copperand Bronze Workingin Early Bronze Age Crete (SIMA 19), Goteborg 1968 Branigan,Foundationsof Palatial Crete= K. Branigan, The Foundationsof Palatial Crete,London 1970 Branigan, Tombs of Mesara = K. Branigan, The Tombsof Mesara: A Study of Funerary Architectureand Ritual in SouthernCrete,2800-1700 B.C., London 1970 Brown, J., "The Search for Rank in Prehistoric Burials,"in The Archaeologyof Death (New Directionsin Archaeology),R. Chapman, I. Kinnes, and K. Randsborg,edd., Cambridge1981, pp. 25-37 Cadogan (Pyrgos excavationreports) Cadogan,ArchReportsfor 1971-1972 = G. Cadoganin H. Catling, "Archaeologyin Greece, 1971-1972," ArchReportsfor1971-1972, pp. 24-25
xvi
ABBREVIATIONS AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cadogan,ArchReportsfor 1973-1974 = G. Cadoganin H. Catling, "Archaeologyin Greece, 1973-1974," ArchReportsfor1973-1974, pp. 37-38 Cadogan,ArchReportsfor1977-1978 = G. Cadogan,"Pyrgos,Crete, 1970-1977," ArchReportsfor19771978, pp. 70-84 Chapouthier,BCH 45, 1921 = F. Chapouthier,"Chroniquedes fouilles et decouvertesarcheologiquesdans l'orienthellenique novembre1920-novembre 1921, Crete,"BCH 45, 1921, pp. 535-539 Chapouthier,BCH 52, 1928 = F. Chapouthier,"Un table a offrandesau palais de Mallia," BCH 52, 1928, pp.292-323 Cherry,J., "The Emergenceof the State in the PrehistoricAegean,"PCPS 30,1984, pp. 18-48 Davaras (Excavationreports) Ka& Davaras, AEAr 19, 1964 = C. Davaras,<'APXa&0TTErS KPT,, AEAT 19, 1964, B' 3 (1967), tv7q.ta Kpra 441-442 pp. Davaras, 'AAA &e&La 2, 1971 = C. Davaras, <<ApXaLoAoyLKe6 epevver a-Tr frTEla KarTa bT OepoS ro7 1971, 'AlAdOeLa2,1971, pp. 197-200 Davaras, 'A,dualA&a3, 1972 = C. Davaras, <<'HapXaLoAoyLK7, KIVla7r) aT77)v avaTroXtK KpIr7] Ka7a TO 1971,, 'AlaAOELa3, 1972, pp. 33-52 Davaras, AeAr 27, 1972 = C. Davaras, <'ApXaLoTr7re Katu v71j.teaavarTOAKi? KpVjrT7,,AeAr 27, 1972,
B' 2 (1977), pp. 645-654 Kat i.v7qeiZa Davaras, ACAr28, 1973 = C. Davaras, <'ApXa&orTTres avaroAlK7rKp7TrlS?,AATr28, 1973, B'2 (1977), pp. 585-596 Kai cat vruv7 a aVaTrohXAKj Davaras, 'AMaaABeLa 5, 1974 = C. Davaras, <'APXaOrTr7TET KprlTqrlS,'AuiAhOeta 5,1974, pp.48-49 Kat tuvflAea avaTrohXKr Kp r7T,?,AAhr 31, 1976, Davaras, AAhr 31, 1976 = C. Davaras, <'APXaLOTT71ET
B'2 (1984), pp. 373-382 Davaras, 'ApX'E4 1973 = C. Davaras, <MirowKalarjpayi^TsTro Movordov 'Ay. N&KoAdovn, 'ApX'E 1973, pp.81-86 Davaras, BCH 109, 1985 = C. Davaras, "Une tombe a voute en Crete orientale (Note complementaire)," BCH 109,1985, pp. 625-628 Davaras,BSA 70,1975 = C. Davaras, "EarlyMinoan Jewellery from Mochlos,"BSA 70, 1975, pp. 101-114 Davaras, CretanAntiquities= C. Davaras, Guide to CretanAntiquities,Park Ridge, New Jersey 1976 Davaras, Hagios NikolaosMuseum= C. Davaras, Hagios NikolaosMuseum, Athens 1982 Davaras, "Une tombe a voute"= C. Davaras, "Une tombe a voute en Crete orientale,"in Aux origines de l'Helle'nisme,la Crete et la Grece, Hommage a Henri van Effenterre, C. Nicolet, ed., Paris 1984, pp. 297-310 Davis, TUAS 4, 1979 = E. Davis, "The Silver Kantharosfrom Gournia,"TUAS 4, 1979, pp. 34-42 Davis, VapheioCups = E. Davis, The VapheioCups and Aegean Gold and Silver Ware,New York 1977 Dawkins. See Bosanquet Demargne, BCH 56, 1932 = P. Demargne, "Culte funeraire et foyer domestiquedans la Crete minoenne," BCH 56, 1932, pp. 60-88 Demargne, Mallia, Necropoles I = P. Demargne, Necropoles de Mallia, les premiers charniers, l'ossuaire principier de Chrysolakkos,premierfascicule(EtudescretoisesVII), Paris 1945 Demargne, Melanges G. Glotz = P. Demargne, "Deux representationsde la deesse minoennedans la necropole de Mallia (Crete),"Melanges G. Glotz I, Paris 1932, pp. 305-314 Demargne and Gallet de Santerre,Mallia, Maisons I = P. Demargne and H. Gallet de Santerre,Fouilles executees a Mallia, explorationdes maisons et quartiersd'habitation (1921-1948), premierfascicule, (Etudes cre'toisesIX), Paris 1953 Doumas, Burial Habits = C. Doumas, Early Bronze Age Burial Habits in the Cyclades(SIMA 48), Goteborg 1977
ABBREVIATIONS AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
xvii
Effenterre,BCH 79, 1955 = H. van Effenterre,"Cupuleset naumachie,"BCH 79, 1955, pp. 541-548 Effenterre,Mallia, NecropolesII = H. and M. van Effenterre,Fouilles executeesa Mallia, Etude du site et explorationdes necropolesde Mallia, deuxiemefascicule(EtudescretoisesXIII), Paris 1963 Effenterre, Palais de Mallia = H. van Effenterre, Le palais de Mallia et la cite minoenne (Incunabula Graeca76), Rome 1980 Evans, Archaeologia65, 1913/1914 = A. Evans, "The Tomb of the Double Axes and AssociatedGroup, and the Pillar Rooms and Ritual Vessels of the Little Palace at Knossos,"Archaeologia65, 1913/1914, pp. 1-94 Evans, PM = A. J. Evans, The Palace of Minos at KnossosI-IV, London 1921-1936 Evans, PrehistoricTombs= A. Evans, The PrehistoricTombsof Knossos,London 1906 Festos II = L. Pernier and L. Banti, II palazzo minoicodi Festos II, Rome 1951 Fried, M., The Evolutionof Political Society,New York 1967 Gesell, Town, Palace, and House Cult = G. Gesell, Town, Palace, and House Cult in Minoan Crete (SIMA 67), Goteborg 1985 Graham, Palaces of Crete= J. Graham, The Palaces of Crete, Princeton1962 Grinsell, Barrow,Pyramidand Tomb= L. Grinsell, Barrow,Pyramidand Tomb,Ancient Burial Customsin Egypt, the Mediterraneanand the British Isles, London 1975 Halbherr, RendLinc 11, 1902 = F. Halbherr, "Lavorieseguiti dalla Missione archeologicaitaliana ad Haghia Triada e nella Necropoli di Phaestosdal 15 maggio al 12 giugno 1902,"RendLinc, ser. 5, 11, 1902, pp. 433-447 Hall, Sphoungaras= E. Hall, Excavations in Eastern Crete, Sphoungaras(University of Pennsylvania,the Museum AnthropologicalPublicationsIII, ii), Philadelphia 1912 Hankey, BICS 33, 1986 = V. Hankey, "Pyrgos.The CommunalTomb in Pyrgos IV (Late Minoan I)," BICS 33, 1986, pp. 135-137 Tao Hazzidakis, ACAT 1, 1915 = J. Hazzidakis, <
rFovtXra, HparsTIKa1974, pp. 228-239
Laviosa,ASAtene31-32, 1969-1970 = C. Laviosa, "Saggidi scavoad Haghia Triada,"ASAtene,n.s. 31-32, 1969-1970, pp. 407-415 Levi, ASAtene 23-24, 1961-1962 = D. Levi, "La tomba a tholos di Kamilari presso a Festos," ASAtene, n.s. 23-24, 1961-1962, pp. 7-148
ABBREVIATIONS AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
xviii
Long, The Ayia TriadhaSarcophagus= C. Long, The Ayia TriadhaSarcophagus,a Study of Late Minoan and MycenaeanFuneraryPracticesand Beliefs (SIMA 41), Goteborg1974 Long, C., "Shrinesin Sepulchres?"AJA 63, 1959, pp. 59-65 Marinatos, AcXr 13, 1930-1931 = S. Marinatos, <
',KprrXpov 8, 1954, pp. 428-483 Platon, KpTIrXpov 8, 1954 = N. Platon, , HIpaKrTKa 1967, pp. 162-194 Platon, "Epyov1967 = N. Platon, ,ZdaKpos,, "Epyov1967, pp. 103-115
Platon, "Epyov1971 = N. Platon, , A/Ar
21, 1966, B' 2 (1968), pp. 405-419
Sakellarakis,"Epyov1966 = J. Sakellarakis,?'Apxdve*, "Epyov1966, pp. 135-142 Sakellarakis, HIpaKrcKa1966 =J. Sakellarakis, <'Ava-rKao1 'ApxavwOv,,NpaKTLKa 1966, pp. 174-184
ABBREVIATIONS AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
xix
Sakellarakis,IllustratedLondonNews, 1966 = J. Sakellarakis,"The First UntouchedRoyal Burial Found in Crete,"IllustratedLondonNews, 26 March 1966, pp. 32-33 Sakellarakis,"Epyov1967 = J. Sakellarakis,(<<ApXa6vEY, "Epyov1967, pp. 97-103 1967, pp. 151-161 HpaKTLKa Sakellarakis,HpaKTLK&1967 = J. Sakellarakis,<'Avao-Ka4b'ApXavCi'v*, Sakellarakis,Archaeology20, 1967 = J. Sakellarakis,"Minoan Cemeteriesat Arkhanes,"Archaeology20, 1967, pp. 276-281 Sakellarakis,AAA 1, 1968 = J. Sakellarakis,<00oAW76 ra6os- eLv '"Ay.Kt'pLAXovMo-o-apa^s-,AAA 1, 1968, pp. 50-53 Sakellarakis,PrdhistorischeZeitschrift45, 1970 = J. Sakellarakis,"Das KuppelgrabA von Archanesund das kretisch-mykenischeTieropferritual,"PriihistorischeZeitschrift45, 1970, pp. 135-219 Sakellarakis, "Epyov1971 =J. Sakellarakis,( 'ApXav6ev,"Epyov1971, pp. 239-252 1971, pp. 277-281 Sakellarakis,flpaKnLKa'1971 =J. Sakellarakis,c 'AvaocKa46'ApXavC'0v*, HpaKTLKca < = E. 1972 and E4 7GAEvT-aL'av6 KfPaMELK?1S Tr7jr Sakellarakis, 'A1ro0&7jSSakellarakis,'ApX' J. 4da'o-ec 7TOW JOVCOV v lrpoavaK70pLKCO. EApXalvavo, 'ApX'E# 1972, B', pp. 1-11 HpaKTLKa 1972, pp. 310-353 Sakellarakis,HpaKTLKa1972 =J. Sakellarakis,<'A`vaOKa4o'ApXav(iv0o, = Sakellarakis,"Epyov1973 J. Sakellarakis,?'APXa6cs.*, "Epyov1973, pp. 111-113 Sakellarakis,rpaK7LKdl1973 = J. Sakellarakis, `'AvaoKa46 'ApXavi'v*,HpaKTLKa1973, pp. 107-187 Sakellarakis,"Epyov1974 = J. Sakellarakis,2(ApXa6vS>,"Epyov1974, pp. 105-107 Sakellarakis,rpaK7tLKa1974 = J. Sakellarakis,o'Avao-Ka4 'ApXavi^v*,flpaMKTLx 1974, pp. 207-212 Sakellarakis,flpaKrLKia1975 = J. Sakellarakis,<'A"Avao-Ka46 'ApXav(0v*,fpaKr7cK1975, pp. 255-321 Sakellarakis, fpaKrLKCa1976=J. and E. Sakellarakis, (,npascTLa' 1977, pp. 459-482 1978=J. and E. Sakellarakis, <`Avao-Ka467'ApXav(^v0,HpaKrudL1978, Sakellarakis, HpaKTLKda pp. 319-321 1980=J. and E. Sakellarakis, `'AvaoKa40j'ApXaviivv, HpaK-rLKai 1980, Sakellarakis, HpaKTrLKal pp. 388-401 1981, Sakellarakis, IpaKTLKa 1981 =J. and E. Sakellarakis, a'AvaO-Ka4n7) `ApXavciiv*,HpaKxrLKa 427-448 pp. Sakellarakis, "Epyov1982 =J. and E. Sakellarakis,o`ApXa6evE,"/Epyov1982, pp. 54-56 Sakellarakis, "Epyov1986 =J. and E. Sakellarakis,?'ApXa6es!>, "Epyov1986, pp. 132-138 , Sakellarakis, "Epyov1987 =J. and E. Sakellarakis,o'Apxa6csve "Epyov1987, pp. 123-129 = Kreta A. mittelminoisches "Ein Schorgendorfer,Forschungenauf Schorgendorfer, Tholosgrab bei Apesoin F. 13-22 Berlin kari," ForschungenaufKreta 1942, Matz, ed., 1951, pp. Seager, Mochios I = R. Seager, "Excavationson the Island of Mochlos, Crete, in 1908," AJA 13, 1909, pp. 273-303 Seager,Mochios II = R. B. Seager, Explorationsin the Island of Mochios, Bostonand New York 1912 Seager, Pachyammos= R. Seager, The Cemeteryof Pachyammos,Crete (University of Pennsylvania, the Museum AnthropologicalPublicationsIII, i), Philadelphia 1910 Seager, VasilikeI = R. Seager, "Excavationsat Vasilike, 1904," UPMTA I, iii, 1905, pp. 207 221 Seager, VasilikeII = R. Seager, "Reportof Excavationsat Vasilike, Crete, in 1906," UPMTA II, ii, 1907, pp. 111-132 Service,E., Primitive Social Organization,New York 1962 The Originsof the State and Civilization, New York 1975 Shaw, "The ChrysolakkosFacades"= J. Shaw, "The ChrysolakkosFacades,"in [Icrpaygeva rov F' ALgevoiv Kpf70loyLKoi3 Athens 1973, pp. 319-331 EvvEbpioZv, = Minoan Architecture Shaw, J. Shaw, Minoan Architecture:Materialsand Techniques(ASAtene49, 1971), Rome 1973
ABBREVIATIONS AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
xx
Silverman,Expedition 17, 1974 = J. Silverman,"A Lost Notebookfrom the Excavationsat Gournia, Crete," Expedition 17, 1974, pp. 11-20 Soles, AJA 80, 1976 = J. Soles, review of The Ayia TriadhaSarcophagusby C. Long, AJA 80, 1976, p. 203 Soles, AJA 83, 1979 = J. Soles, "The Early Gournia Town," AJA 83, 1979, pp. 149-167 Soles, Expedition 20, 1978 =J. Soles, "Mochlos, a New Look at Old Excavations,"Expedition 20, 1978, pp.4-15 Soles, Problemsin GreekPrehistory= J. Soles, "SocialRanking in Prepalatial Cemeteries,"in Problemsin GreekPrehistory,E. French and K. Wardle, edd., Bristol 1987, pp. 49-61 Stefani, ASAtene 13-14, 1930-1931 = E. Stefani, "La grande tomba a tholos di Haghia Triada,"ASAtene 13-14, 1930-1931, pp. 147-154 Tainter, J., "MortuaryPracticesand the Study of PrehistoricSocial Systems,"in Advancesin Archaeological Methodand TheoryI, M. Schiffer,ed., New York 1978, pp. 106-143 Walberg, Kamares= G. Walberg, Kamares:A Study of the Characterof Palatial Middle Minoan Pottery, Uppsala 1976 Walberg, Middle Minoan Pottery= G. Walberg,ProvincialMiddle Minoan Pottery,Mainz am Rhein 1983 Warren, KpqrrXpov19,1965 = P. Warren, "The First Minoan StoneVases and Early Minoan Chronology," Kpr/rXpov19, 1965, pp. 7-43 Warren, MSV= P. Warren, Minoan Stone Vases,Cambridge1969 Warren,Myrtos= P. Warren, Myrtos, an Early Bronze Age Settlementin Crete,London 1972 Warren and Tzedakis, BSA 69, 1974 = P. Warren and J. Tzedakis, "Debla. An Early Minoan Settlementin Western Crete,"BSA 69, 1974, pp. 299-340 Whitelaw, Minoan Society= T. Whitelaw, "The Settlementat Fournou Korifi,Myrtos, and Aspectsof Early Minoan Social Organization,"in Minoan Society, Proceedingsof the CambridgeColloquium 1981, O. Krzyszkowskaand L. Nixon, edd., Bristol 1983, pp. 323-345 Wilson, BSA 80, 1985 = D. Wilson, "The Pottery and Architectureof the EM IIA West Court House at Knossos,"BSA 80,1985, pp. 281-364 rdoo nHpyov*, ACXA 4, 1918 Xanthoudides, AEXT4, 1918 = S. Xanthoudides, ?Meyas 'npcoro.tvwibKOS 136-170 (1921), pp. Xanthoudides, VTM = S. Xanthoudides,The VaultedTombsof the Mesara, London 1924 Zervos,L'art de la Crete= C. Zervos,L'art de la Crete, Paris 1956 Zois, 'ApX'E6 1965 = A. Zois, <,ua&r-T&acia,'ApX'Eq 1965, pp. 27-109 Zois, "EpEvva= A. Zois, 4"EpEvva 7reptrijs p&uvoiKi Kepap,.KEsj, 'EurCr7p's Tra&frrfTpovt&Kv epEVVoV rov navErTr&f7rqpuov'A6Ov&vi1967-68, Athens 1968, pp. 703-732
Zois, Kamares-Stil= A. Zois, Der Kamares-Stil,Werdenund Wesen,Tubingen 1968 Zois, Hpoftjq,para = A. Zois, Hpo,fSAitara XpovoXoylas rT7jsj.tVWiKj KEpafticiS: ropveP--TvAt&osris ev 'AO7jvaLs MaAha(Bfi8AhoO677fi 66), Athens 1969 'EraLpeZas 'ApxaoAooyKcs's
PERIODICALS AND SERIES AA AAA Aegaeum AJA ArchReports 'ApX'E ASAtene BdA BCH BICS BSA CMS
= = = = = = = = = = = =
ArchdologischerAnzeiger AthensAnnals of Archaeology Annales d'archeologieegeenne de l'Universitede Liege AmericanJournal of Archaeology ArchaeologicalReports.British Schoolat Athens 'E,q?uepLs 'Apxa&oAoyuKc Annuariodella ScuolaArcheologicadi Atene e delle Missioni Italiane in Oriente Bollettinod'arte Bulletin de correspondancehelle'nique Bulletin of the Instituteof ClassicalStudiesof the Universityof London Annual of the British Schoolat Athens Corpusder minoischenund mykenischenSiegel
ABBREVIATIONS AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY AcXr
= 'ApXaLoAoy,Kbvo AeATrov
"Epyov
= Tb "Epyov r7
JFA JHS JPR KprlrXpov MonAnt
= Journal of Field Archaeology = Journal of Hellenic Studies = Journal of PrehistoricReligion = Kp71rTKa XPOVLcKa = AccademiaNazionali dei Lincei. Monumentiantichi
HIpaKTica
= IlpaKrTKa rTi eIv 'AOtYvaLs 'ApXaLoAoyKisK 'EraLpelas
PCPS RA RendLinc SIMA TUAS UPMTA
= = = = = =
xxi
'ApXaloXoyKiS ' Eratpedas
Proceedingsof the CambridgePhilologicalSociety Revue archeologique Atti dell'AccademiaNazionale dei Lincei. Rendiconti Studiesin MediterraneanArchaeology Temple UniversityAegean Symposium Universityof Pennsylvania, Transactionsof the Departmentof Archaeology,Free Museum of Scienceand Art DIMENSIONS
D. H. L.
= diameter = height = length
p. Th. W.
= preserved = thickness = width
I THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA When newcomersarrivedin the Mirabello region of eastern Crete at the beginning of the EM II phase of the Prepalatialperiodand establishedtheir settlementon the Gourniaridge (Map), they also chose its north end and the near-byhillside of Sphoungarasfor their cemeteries. Both these areas, with their steep slopes and rockyterrain,were unsuitablefor largescale habitation,and neither could be readily farmed,but both providedsuitable space for the early burials of the settlement. Particularlysuitable were the rock shelters, located in both areas, which consistedof small natural openings in the rocks that needed no working before they could be used. These rock shelters were used for many of the very first burials made by the new settlers and providedthe initial impetus for the cemeteriesthat grew up aroundthem. Sphoungaras,which is located 150 to 200 metersnorthof the Gourniaridge close to the coast, was the larger of the two cemeteries(Plan 1). It includedan area extending over 70 meters in a north-south directionalong the foot of Sphoungarasand reaching40 to 50 meters up its slope. It was exploredby Harriet Boyd Hawes in 1904 and excavatedby Richard Seager in 1910, and the results of the excavationwere published by Edith Hall in 1912.1 The cemeteryremainedin continual use from the foundationof Gournia until its destruction at the end of the LM I phase in the Neopalatial period.In the EM IIa phase of the Prepalatial period, burials were made here in at least two rock shelters. Shelter I, the largest of the shelters in either cemetery, theer had been used earlier at cie a end of the Neolithic for habitation.2In the later EM II and EM III phases, burials that apparently consisted of direct inhumationsin the ground were made in two other areas on Sphoungaras(Deposits A and B). These were much more extensive than the rock-shelterburials, Deposit A comprising an area nearly 9 meters square and up to 1 meter deep, and Deposit B an irregular area about 13 meters in length; together they suggest a considerablegrowth in the size of Gournia's population. They containeda large number of completevases, over 50 reported by Hall, which are mostly mottled Vasilike ware but also include a number of white-onblack EM III vases. The pottery,which includesmany pieces of fine quality, and the other finds, including stone vases and some goldjewelry and ivory seals, also suggestthe growing prosperity of the new settlement.3In the final phase of the Prepalatial period, MM Ia, pithos burial was introducedto Sphoungaras.Direct inhumationscontinuedto be made in both Deposits A and B, and at one point in Deposit A they were clearly stratifiedabove EM II/III remains. Pithos burial, however, now becamethe most popular form of burial, 1 In additionto Hall's
publication,Sphoungaras,Hawes publisheddescriptionsof the excavationof three rock shelters in UPMTA I, iii, 1905, pp. 180-183 and Gournia,p. 56. 2 Hall, Sphoungaras,pp. 46-48. 3 So Hall, Sphoungaras,p. 55: "Itseems accordinglypossiblethat the entire slope had been used as a burial place in Early Minoan times and that many of these earlier graves had been removedby later inhabitantsto make room for their own dead.... This is indeedthe most importantconclusionto be drawn from these early burials,viz., that the town of Gourniawas a large and prosperouscommunityin the Early Minoan II period."
2
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
as elsewhere in Crete,4and although most of the pithoi belong to the New Palace period, MM I burialjars, as well as a few larnakes,were uncoveredat several points over a large area of Sphoungaras. At no time in the Prepalatialperiodor later were built tombseverlocatedon Sphoungaras, nor was any other kind of coherentarchitecturefound there. At most, crude retaining walls were erectedaroundthe gravesor along the slope in orderto hold backthe earth fill of the slope and prevent the erosion of the burials. Quite a different arrangementwas to be found on the north spur of the Gournia ridge, where the other cemeteryof the settlement, the North Cemetery,was located. The north spur of the ridge continuesin the same north-southdirectionfor a distanceof about 80 meters beyond the central peak of the ridge, what Hawes called the Acropolis, where the settlementlay (Plan 2; PI. 1).5 A spine of hard limestone (sideropetra)outcroppings runs down the center of the spur and, towardsthe north, reachesa maximumheight of 36.40 m. abovesea level. Here the spur narrows,and its slopes are particularlysteep and rocky. It is in this area that the rock shelters are located. To the south the spur slopes off towards the east and west more gently, and there was sufficientspace to accommodatea number of built tombs. The cemeterywas explored first by Hawes, who dug here on the first day of her excavationsat Gournia in 1901 and on the last day of her 1904 campaign.In the preliminary report that appeared in 1904 she describedher findings as "intramural burials", but in the report of 1905 and in the final publication of Gournia of 1908 she introducedthe term "housetomb"to describethe buildings which she had uncoveredhere. She defined a house tomb as "an enclosure which from the existing remains of walls and doorwaycannotbe distinguishedfrom an ordinarydwelling, but which is full of bones and skulls in disorder-a veritable charnel house."6She included little additionalinformation aboutthe architectureof the tombsand publishedonly their morenotablefinds.In 1971 and 1972 the cemeterywas exploredagain underthe general supervisionof the Greek Archaeological Serviceand the Ephor of Antiquitiesin East Crete, Costis Davaras, and preliminary reportswere publishedin 1973 and 1974.7The primaryaim was to gain a clearerpictureof the tombs that Hawes had excavated,but in the course of the work new finds were uncovered,and two additionaltombswere excavated.As a result, it becameclear that Hawes's tombswere not isolatedon the north spur but were set in the midstof an importantcemetery containingseveralbuilt tombs. As in the cemeteryat Sphoungaras,burials took place here from the very beginningof the EM II phase. They were made in two rock shelters (V and VI) and in at least one built tomb (III). The remains from both tomb and shelters appear to have belonged to the EM IIa phase of the Prepalatialperiod and to have been contemporarywith those in Rock Shelter I at Sphoungaras.The deposits in the North Cemeteryare more extensive, and it may be that it was the larger of the two cemeteriesat the time the settlementwas founded. No burials have been excavatedfrom the immediatelysucceedingphases of the Prepalatial 4
See Pini, Minoischen Graberkunde,pp. 11-13.
1903 at the time of Wilhelm D6rpfeld'svisit. Reproducedby permissionof the DeutschesArchaologischesInstitut,Athens. 6 Hawes, UPMTA I, iii, 1905, pp. 186-188; Hawes, Gournia,p. 56. 7 Davaras, AeAT 28, 1973, 5, 1974. pp. 588-589; Davaras, 'AAaXAeEa 5 Plate 1 is a photographof the site fromthe northeasttaken duringthe courseof excavationsin
TOMB I
3
period (EM IIb/III), however, and it is clearly in those times that Sphoungaraswith its extensiveremains in Deposits A and B came to be used by the majorityof Gournia'spopulation, continuing to be so used until the destructionof the settlement. At the end of the Prepalatialperiod,however,when majorbuildingwas undertakenin the town of Gournia,8 severalsmall built tombswere constructedon the north spur (I, II, IV, VII, and VIII), and the area came to form a small necropolis on the edge of the town proper. Indeed, these tombs, resemblingthe houses in the town and located adjacentto them, separatedonly by the North Ridge Road, might easily have been mistaken by a visitor for part of the town itself. At the same time that these tombswere constructed,an importantopen-air shrinewas erectedin their midst. It stood for severalcenturies,long beforethe small palace at Gournia and its shrines were constructed,and may have serveda communalfunction. The North Cemetery,then, with its built tombsand its shrine, contrastsmarkedlywith the more modest, if more extensive, cemeteryat Sphoungaras.Its finds of the EM II and MM I phases are also much richerthan those fromthe burialsat Sphoungaras,and it seems likely that while the majorityof the populationwas buried at Sphoungaras,the elite were buriedin the North Cemetery.The cemeterycontinuedto be used into the periodof the Old Palaces, although no furtherbuilding appears to have occurredafter the end of the Prepalatial period. Despite its apparent importance at this time, and unlike Sphoungaras, it ceased to be used for burials after the destructionof the Early Town and appears to have been abandonedonce new burial customs using chambertombs came into vogue and once the palace and its communalshrines were constructed. TOMB I (Figs. 1-3 and 12) Hawes, UPMTA I, iii, 1905, pp. 186-188; Hawes, Gournia,p. 56; Davaras, AErA 28, 1973, pp. 588-589; Davaras, 'AjuaAdeta5, 1974; Soles, AJA 83, 1979, pp. 158-161, ills. 4-6. LOCATION AND EXCAVATION
Tombs I and II are locatedside by side on the east slope of the north spur.9Tomb II is the northernmostof the built tombs in the cemetery,and immediatelyto its north, where Rock Shelters V and VI are located, and to its northeast,the slope steepens and becomes more rocky. Both tombs were excavatedby Hawes in 1904 on her "last day's digging"at Gournia (July 20, 1904), and they can be identifiedtoday on the basis of two points in her report. She noted that the second and northern of the two consisted of "two rectangular roomswith doorbetween"and that it was locatednext to the rockshelterson this side of the spur. She also noted that they lay side by side, 15 feet apart. Since the rock sheltersmay be locatedwithout any difficultyjust to the north of Tomb II and since Tomb II fits Hawes's description,the two tombs may be safely identified, although in fact they lie much closer together,only three to four feet apart. The tombs were cleanedby the author in 1971 with 8 See Soles, AJA 83, 1979, pp. 151-156. 9 Much of the descriptionof Tombs I and II is repeatedfrom Soles, AJA 83, 1979, pp. 158-164 but in a somewhat different format. Further informationabout architecturaldetails has occasionallybeen added, as have the cataloguesof finds. The plans and the reconstructionof the tombs publishedin AJA are republished here, but many of the photographsare simply referredto in the text.
4
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
,
.y
--
I
FIG.1. Reconstructionof Gournia Tombs I and II (drawn by Jean CarpenterEfe)
the assistanceof Markos Peronikolis,Custodianof Antiquities at Gournia, and under the general supervisionof the Greek ArchaeologicalService. In 1972 the pit in the northwest cornerof Tomb I was excavatedfor the firsttime by the GreekArchaeologicalServiceunder the supervisionof Costis Davaras. 2 and 3) Tomb I is a small, nearly square building measuringca. 3.92 m. east-west, ca. 4.20 m. on its west side, and ca. 3.72 m. on its east. It consistsof a large pit dug into the bedrockon the slope of the spur, deeper at the west becauseof the rise of the slope. The pit is unevenly cut in places, and these irregularitiesin turn causedcertainvariationsin the architectureof the tomb. Once cut, the pit was lined with walls on all four sides and then divideddown the middle by a wall running parallel to the outer north and south walls, formingtwo separate rooms. The north wall is the best preservedof the outer walls and best illustratesthe methodof constructionused for the outer walls of the tomb. It consists of a simple retaining wall of stonesset in unevencoursesin earth mortaragainstthe face of the cut bedrock.Seldommore than the thicknessof one stone, this wall is little more than a lining that served in part to preventthe seepageof groundwater into the tomb.At the point where the inner lining of the wall reachesthe height of the cut pit, a height of six coursesat its west end and three at its east, the wall is widened by a secondrow of stones set next to those of the inner wall as an outer facing.Unlike the inner wall, the outer facingrests on the surrounding,uncut bedrock of the slope, and only one courseof this outer facing,restingon a thin layer of earth packing, is preserved.10
ARCHITECTURE(Pls.
10North wall: L. ca. 3.24 m.; W. 0.50-0.72 m.; H. on outsideca. 0.21 m.; H. on inside, at east ca. 0.52 m., at west ca. 1.33 m.
A
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Q
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00
CZ s::
44 U) r
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6
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
32.64
A w?WwA KIk^w.r^z ,,^Avvc,^AW,
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3291
D 32e25Z
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FIG.3. SectionsAB and CD through Gournia Tombs I and II
The remainingwalls use the same methodof construction,but theirouterfacingsare less well preserved.The east wall, standingto a height of three courseson the inside and one on the outside,has lost a numberof the stonesof its outer face. Those remainingrest on a bedding of earth, considerablythickerthan that beneaththe northwall (as much as 0.15 meters thick), which in turn rests on the uncut bedrock.At three points, single large stones are placedacrossthe wall to bindthe outerfacingand innerwall lining. At its northend, the wall appearsto have been set back intentionallyin orderto breakthe right angle. If intentional, this setbackwould have been both decorativeand functionalin origin, providingas it does additionalspacefor the entranceto the narrowpassagebetweenthe two tombs.In the Prepalatial periodMinoan builderswere often capableof such refinements,just as they couldalso, and often at the same time, employ sloppy techniquesand producerathershoddyeffects.1 The west wall of the tomb is the highestpreserved,rising to a maximumof eight courses at its center.The stones of the inner lining are set in the usual earth mortaragainst the cut bedrockbut in less regular courses than those of the other interior linings. Larger stones appearto have been placedin the upper two courses,and perhapsas a result part of the wall in the north room has collapsed. The wall has lost most of its outer facing, only part of which is preservedat the north end and towardsthe south. The large stones locatedagainst 11East wall: L. ca. 3.72 m.; W. ca. 0.44 m.; H. on outside ca. 0.32 m.
TOMB I
7
its outer side towards the north do not belong to it; like the stones found in the earth fill within the tomb during the 1971 cleaning, they have simply rolled down to their present position.12
The constructionof the south wall differs somewhat from that of the other outer walls (PI. 3:a). The pit on this side of the tombwas not cut in a straightline. The westernhalf was cut back fartherthan the easternhalf, and as a result there is a correspondingsetbackin the wall. The western half of the wall has lost all its outer facing, although its inner lining is preservedto a height of six courses. It runs parallel to the eastern half of the wall but is set back from it by ca. 0.28 m. and does not bondwith it. The easternhalf of the wall appearsto be intact, its inner lining rising to a height of three coursesand its outer facing consistingof small, fist-sized stones set in a minimum of earth mortar.13 The peculiar constructionof these walls, with inner lining and outer facing, is rare, but it seems to have at least one parallel in a contemporarystructureat Gournes Pediadosthat 4 In each was used to house funeraryofferingsand has been identifiedas the epos Aa'KKoS.K case the intent of the builders may have been to strengthenthe structuresby sinking them into bedrock,but the techniqueused for constructingthe outerwalls is also a short-cut,since fewer materialsand less time would be requiredthan for the erectionof properwalls. The addedfacing servesto widen the wall and providea socle of the necessarywidth to supporta mud-bricksuperstructure.No remainsof mud brick were reportedby Hawes in any of the tombs, but the preservationof Tomb I, with the inner sides of the north and south walls each three courseshigh on the east and six on the west, suggests that the side walls of this building were providedwith a stepped construction,requiredby the slope of the ground,to providelevel beddingsfor mud-bricksuperstructures. No entranceto the tombis readilyapparent.On the interiorthe tombis dividedinto two roomsby a partitionwall thatjoins the east and west walls without bondingwith either. It is preservedto a maximumof eight coursesat its west, built in ordinaryrubblewith two faces of stones set in earth mortar.A foundationconsistingof a single courseof stonesprojectsca. 0.20 m. beyondthe wall at its base on the north side (Pl. 3:c).15The southernroom formed by this wall is slightly L-shapedin plan as a result of the indentationof the south wall. It is ca. 2.90 m. long, ca. 1.46 m. wide at the east, and ca. 1.78 m. wide at the west. Its floor is evenly formedby the cut bedrock.A low bench runs along the base of the south wall for the entire length of the room. It follows the line of the south wall and is set backmidway, at the point where the wall is set back. The eastern half of the bench is built of a single stone courseset in earth mortarand at the time of its cleaningshowedtracesof white plaster.The western half is built with a stone facing, incompletelypreserved,set against a backing of earth and bedrockthat was not cut down to floor level.16 12West wall: p.L. ca. 4.08 m.; W. at south ca. 0.54 m.; H. on inside ca. 1.45 m. p.L. ca. 3.28 m.; W. at east ca. 0.50 m.; H. on outside,at east ca. 0.08 m.; H. on inside, at east ca. 0.40 m., at west ca. 1.08 m. 14Hazzidakis, AcAr 1, 1915, pp. 59-63; see p. 151 below. 15Partitionwall: L. ca. 2.84 m.; W. 0.43-0.46 m.; H. ca. 0.94 m.; L. of foundationca. 1.64 m.; H. of foundation ca. 0.13 m. 16 Bench: L. ca. 2.90 m.; W. 0.38-0.44 m.; H. ca. 0.17 m. 13 South wall:
8
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
The northernroom of the tomb is a rectangulararea ca. 2.06 m. long, ca. 1.07 m. wide at the east, and ca. 1.16 m. wide at the west (PI. 3:b). Its bedrockfloor is level except along part of the south side, where it is filled with the foundationwall noted above, and in the northwestcorner,where an irregularhole, ca. 0.75 m. deep, was dug. Originallythe north roomseemsto have had the same length as the south room,but it was shortenedby two short walls that fill its east end. These are built against each other and in turn against the outer east wall; they do not bond into the outer northwall or the partitionwall, which theyjoin at either end. They are the same height as the outer walls theyjoin and appearto have formed part of the external wall of the tomb ratherthan a bench inside it.17As there is no passage leading from one room to the other, nor any clear indicationof a doorwayleading into the tomb from outside, it is possible that this corner, strengthenedby the double filling walls contiguousto both rooms,provideda solid platformfor entry fromoutsideand passagefrom one roomto the other throughopenings in the mud-brickwall of the tomb at the level of the stone socle. It is equally possible, of course, that access to each room was gained through trap doorsin the roofthat couldhave been reachedeasily fromthe higher groundlevel along the west side of the tomb. BURIALS AND CHRONOLOGY
Hawes did not reporton the skeletalremainsin the tomb apart from her descriptionof the tomb as a "housetomb"and her definitionof a house tomb as a building "full of bones and skulls in disorder."In her Notebook for July, 1904,18she also reportedfragmentsof sarcophagiin the south room. She published five finds from the tomb: a silver kantharos with quatrefoil mouth (Her.Mus. 202), two clay polychromekantharoi imitating metal shapes (Her.Mus. 3621, 3622), and two stone bowls (Her.Mus. 552, 553). In addition,she reportedthe find of a third stone bowl and a pair of bronze tweezers. In her Notebookshe recordedsome additionalinformationabout the locationof these finds,noting that the silver kantharosand stone bowls were found in the south room and that the clay kantharoi,the unpublishedstone vase, and the tweezerswere foundtogetherin the southeastcornerof the north room. During the cleaning carriedout in 1971 and 1972, severaladditionalfinds were made. In 1971 scattered,extremely fragmentarybones, together with several pottery fragments, were found on the bedrockfloor of the south room. The pottery fragmentsincluded some MM I polychromespecimens (G 1-6, 7, and 8), and both skeletal and pottery fragments were probablyoriginally associatedwith the tomb. Directly outside the southeastcornerof this room, two small vases, a miniaturejug and a handlelesscup (G I-4 and 5), were found in situ. They had been left side by side against the outer side of the south wall, presumably as funeraryofferings.In 1972, when the deep pit in the northwestcornerof the north room was excavatedfor the first time, anotherdepositwas discoveredin the bottom0.60 m. of fill. Davaras, who excavatedthe pit, reportedfinding portions of eight skulls, together with a number of sea shells, two globular pyxides (G 1-13 and 14), two fruitstands(G 1-15 and 17 Interiorwalls: L. ca. 1.07 m.; W. of easternwall ca. 0.28 m., of western wall ca. 0.42 m.; H. 18
ca. 0.51 m.
Recently acquired by the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania. Silverman, Expedition
17, 1974, pp. 11-20.
TOMB I
9
16), four stone vases (G I-17, 18, 19, and 20), two stone seals (G 1-21 and 22), assorted beads (G I-23 and 24), and 15 small ivoryplaques (G 1-25). The pit was dug apparentlyfor the special purpose of storingthese skulls and the burial goodsdepositedwith them. All the finds from Hawes's excavationand from the 1971 cleaning may be dated to the MM Ia or MM Ib/II phase, and the date of constructionof the tomb is presumablyat the beginning of the MM I pottery phase, as Hawes reported.What is surprising,however, is that severalof the finds in the pit excavatedin 1972 are earlier and, with the clear exception of the MM I stone vases, apparentlydate to the EM II phase. While it is possible that the tomb should be redatedon the evidenceof this new material,it seems more likely that these early finds had been buriedelsewhereoriginallyand were redepositedin this pit at the time the tomb was constructed,presumablyafter the collapse of the tomb which originally held them.19Such an explanationwould accountfor the presenceof MM I vases among the EM II material.In the following catalogueall the finds from 1904 and 1971 are groupedtogether, while those from the separatedeposit found in 1972 are listed at the end. CATALOGUE20 VESSELS
Silver G I-I (Her.Mus. 202). Lobed kantharos Hawes, Gournia,p. 60, pl. C:l; Pendlebury,Archaeologyof Crete, pl. XVIII:4 c; P. Demargne, Aegean Art: The Origins of Greek Art, London 1964, fig. 151; H. Buchholzand V. Karageorghis, PrehistoricGreeceand Cyprus:An Archaeological Handbook,New York 1973, fig. 1083; Davis, Vapheio Cups, figs. 65 and 66. From south room. Missing one rivet from base of handle;torn at foot;otherwise intact. H. 0.081 m.; D. at rim 0.102 m., at base 0.04 m. Flat-bottomedconicalbase;flaringbody with carinated shoulder;spreadingquatrefoilmouth. Flat handles attachedto rim by pairs of bronze or copper rivets, to shouldersby silver rivets.
19
Comparea nearly identicalvase in clay from Mallia, Her.Mus. 7882, which comes from a MM Ib/II context in the Necropole sur l'Ilot du Christ (Effenterre, Mallia, NecropolesII, p. 109, pl. XLIV). For a discussion of the vase see Davis, Vapheio Cups, pp. 90-93, and under G 1-3, p. 10 below. Pottery G I-2 (Her.Mus. 3621). Lobed kantharos Hawes, Gournia,p. 60, pl. C:2; Pendlebury,Archaeologyof Crete,pl. XVIII:4 f. From north room. Small parts from rim and sides restored. H. 0.106 m.; D. at rim 0.101 m., at base 0.042 m. Fine pink clay, thin fabric;black slip on exterior and interior of lobes, much worn; decorationin addedred and white paint.
ProbablyTomb III. See p. 31 below. cleaning carriedout in 1971, 1972, and 1976 are housed in the Agios Nikolaos Museum, and the Museum inventorynumbers are providedfor these in the following cataloguesfor Gournia and in Chapter II for Mochlos, whenever possible; where Museum numbers are not available, however, the find numbersprovidedat the time of the cleaning are retained.It has not always been possibleto re-examinefirsthand the finds from Hawes's excavationnow in the Heraklion and Universityof PennsylvaniaMuseums, and the descriptionof these objectshere, particularlyregardingpottery fabrics and measurements,relies on her original description.The names for colors, used in describingnew pottery finds, are those suggestedby the Munsell Soil Color Charts, with the exceptionthat "buff"refersto colorsin the pink to reddishyellow to very pale brown range (5YR 8/4-7.5YR 7/4, 7/6-10YR 7/3) and "brown-black"to colors in the red to dark reddishbrown to blackrange (2.5YR 4/6, 3/4, 2.5/0). A comprehensivestudy of the Prepalatialpotteryfrom Mochlos is planned for separatepublication. 20 Finds from the
10
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
Conical foot; low bowl with low carinatedshoulder; high, slightly concave upper wall; flaring quatrefoilmouth. Flat verticalhandles from lip to shoulder; pellets imitating rivets at juncture of handle and lip. Narrow band of white above foot; shoulder decorated with broad band of red flanked by narrow bandsof white; upper wall with groups of vertical rippled lines, springing from one point, alternate groups red and white; above, a broad band of red flanked underneath by a narrow band of white; lobes decorated on exterior with hanging arcs, hangingred lines with white S-motifs between,alternatingwith hangingwhite lines with white lattice work between;lobesdecoratedon interiorwith hanging arcs, alternatelysolid white and red, and below handles with arcs of rippled lines in white. Upper surface of handles decorated with three groupsof three shorthorizontalstrokesin white. The vase is discussedin Zois, Kamares-Stil,p. 259; Walberg,Middle Minoan Pottery,p. 124;and under G 1-3 below. G I-3 (Her.Mus. 3622). Lobed kantharos Hawes, Gournia,p. 60, pl. C:3; Pendlebury,Archaeologyof Crete,pl. XVIII:4 b. From north room, alongside G 1-2. Small parts from rim and side restored. H. 0.11 m.; D. at rim 0.105 m., at base 0.045 m. Clay, slip, and paint as G 1-2. Conical foot; low bowl with low carinatedshoulder, high upper wall in eight lobes, spreadingtowards mouth. Flat verticalhandle as above;small round handle opposite,set horizontallyon rim. Shoulder decorated with broad band of red flankedby narrow bands of white, as above;lobes with vertical "branches", alternately red and white; inside of lip with hanging arcs of white. Upper surface of handles decorated with short horizontalstrokesin white. The vase is discussedin Zois, Kamares-Stil,pp. 257258 and Walberg,Middle Minoan Pottery,p. 124. In additionto these two kantharoiand the silver one, a fourth kantharosfrom Gournia was published by Hawes (Gournia, p. 38, pl. VI:8) and a fifth, fragmentaryexample by Davis (TUAS 4, 1979, pp. 3637, fig. 3). They belong to a distinct class of lobed kantharoi,of which several examples have been reported, and to a larger group of vases with crinkled rims that first appearin the MM Ib or Early Kama-
res phase. For the other examples and for a possible Anatolian origin of the type, see Davis, TUAS 4, 1979, pp. 34-35. For an MM II date, see Walberg, Kamares, pp. 18-19 and Middle Minoan Pottery, p. 124. Two varietiesof lobedkantharoiappearto be represented.One, which includesall four clay examples from Gournia, as well as another from Zakros (Platon, "Epyov1971, p. 227, pl. 276), has a separate foot, low bowl, and high upper wall. Becauseof the repetitionof the same decorativemotifs on the three intact Gournia vases, the branchmotifs on the lobes of Gournia,p. 38, pl. VI:8 and G 1-3, the bandsof red flanked with white at the shouldersof G I-2 and 3, and the hanging arcs of solid red and white inside their lips, as well as the similarityin shape, all three should be consideredthe productof the same workshop, and G I-2 and 3, as Zois has suggested,perhaps the work of the same hand. The secondvariety, includingthe silvervase and thosefrom Pseira (R. Seager, Excavations on the Island of Pseira, Crete, Philadelphia 1910, p. 20, fig. 5), Mallia (Effenterre, Mallia, NecropolesII, p. 109, pl. XLIV), and Myrtos, Pyrgos (Cadogan, ArchReportsfor 1977-1978, pp. 73-74, fig. 12), has a high flaring body without separatefoot and a low, angular shoulderwith relatively low rim. Her.Mus. 7882, from Mallia, which is virtually identicalto the silver vase from Gournia in size and shape, may perhapsbe considereda copy of this very vase. G I-4 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4385). Fig. 4, PI. 4 Miniaturejug From outside tomb near southeast corner. Rim and part of handle missing. P.H. 0.049 m.; D. at base 0.056 m. Gritty buff clay with pinkish core; traces of buff clay slip. Undecorated. Broad, flat base, slightly everted;cylindricalbody rising to curved shoulder from which sides slope inward and upward to low neck. Roundedhandle rising from shoulder. Finger pinchings around body. Handmade. For shape comparethe miniatureMM Ia jugs from Sphoungaras (Hall, Sphoungaras, pp. 57-58, fig. 30:L) and Gournes, Her.Mus. 7029 (Zois, HpoBX~,ara, p. 83, pls. A, 7). This vase should date to the same phase. GI-5
(Ag.Nik.Mus. 4384). Handleless cup
Fig. 4, PI. 4
11
TOMB I
G I-4
G I-6
G I-5
G I-7
"*' , ^*/.*=.: ; . ,:: .p..... ^
GI-8
FIG.4. Potteryfrom Gournia Tomb I. Scale 1:2
From outside tomb near southeast corner, alongside jug above. Much of rim and parts of body missing. H. 0.061 m.; D. at rim 0.093 m., at base 0.03 m. Fine light-gray clay with darkercore;mottledred exterior similar to Vasilike style, badly flaked; blackenedinterior and rim. Flattened bottom, rounded body curving in towards plain rim. Slightly asymmetrical. Handmade. Cups of this shape are characteristicof the EM III phase but also appear with painted decoration in MM Ia styles. Comparethe MM Ia cups from Palaikastro (Sackett and Popham, PK VI, p. 251, pl. 72:d) and Mallia, Her.Mus. 8636 (F. Chapouthier and P. Demargne, Achevementde lafouille au sud du palais et complementsdivers, quatriemerapport [Etudes cretoises XII], Paris 1962, p. 49, pl. XXXVII). The mottled decoration, although perhaps not the fabric, recalls the Vasilike style of EM II. In the MM Ia phase this style appears to have enjoyed a limited revival. Compare the vases from Gournes, Her. Mus. 7052-7055, 7059, 7060 (Zois, nIpoAXr7?jara,pp. 21-22, 89-90, pls. 29, 30); this vase probablydates to the same phase.
G I-6 (Ag.Nik.Mus. P.71.1). Rim Fig. 4, PI. 4 fragmentfrom spoutedbowl From floor of south room. Fragment preserving part of rim with open spout. P.H. 0.026 m. Fine buff clay; reddish orange slip on exterior, plain interior; exterior decorated with creamy white paint. Decoration preserves traces of band around rim and two diagonallines on either side of spout. For a spouted bowl with similar decoration,compare Her.Mus. 8610 from Mallia (Demargne, Mallia, Necropoles I, p. 7, pls. III, IV; Zois, Hpoptxrj,ara, p. 44). See also Betancourt, White-onDark Ware,p. 41, Shape 3A. G I-7 (Ag.Nik.Mus. P.71.2). Rim Fig. 4, P1.4 fragmentfrom cup From floor of south room. Two joining fragments preserving part of rim and upper wall of cup, probablyof Vapheio type. P.H. 0.034 m. Fine pinkish buff clay, thin fabric; black slip on exteriorand interior;exteriororiginallydecorated in white paint, now much effaced.Ridge markson
12
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
interiorindicatethat this vase was made on a fast wheel. Decoration preserves one-half of running spiral restingon thin horizontalband. Fabric and decoration(and probablyshape) identical to Hawes, Gournia, p. 60, pl. C:4 (from Tomb II?) and Hawes, Gournia,p. 56, pl. VI:35. For the developmentof the running spiral, see Zois, Kamares-Stil, pp. 130-131, 229-230, 307 and Walberg, Kamares,pp. 50-51; for the introductionof the fast wheel in the MM Ib phase, see S. Hood, "Stratigraphic Excavations at Knossos, 1957-1961," KpprrXpov15-16, 1961-1962 (pp. 92-97), p. 94. G I-8 (Ag.Nik.Mus. P.71.3). Rim fragmentfrom tumbler
Fig. 4, PI. 4
From floor of south room. Three joining fragments preservingpart of rim and upper wall. P.H. 0.053 m. Fine buff clay; black slip on exterior and around interior of rim; exterior originally decorated in white and red, now largely effaced. Decorationin bandof redjust below rim, followed by frieze of triangular spirals in white; another band of red below, followed by a frieze of vertical rippled lines (quirks) in white; another band of red below. The decoration is closely paralleled by that on a MM Ib kantharosfrom Palaikastrowith two friezes flankedby red bands, the top frieze a row of similar triangular spirals (Bosanquet and Dawkins, PKU, p. 14, pl. XI:A; Zois, Kamares-Stil,p. 249; Walberg, Middle Minoan Pottery, p. 133, pi. 3:2). The triangular spiral originatesin the EM III style, invented, as Hall has shown, fromcurvilinearelements,not inspired by nature (E. Hall, "EarlyPainted Pottery fromGournia,Crete,"UPMTA I, iii, 1905 [pp. 191205], pp. 201-202, pl. XXXIII:7 and The Decorative Art of Crete in the Bronze Age, Philadelphia 1907, pp. 9-10; Zois, Kamares-Stil, p. 132). It is probably indicativeof further developmentthat the apexes of the MM I triangularspirals are filled, unlike those of the EM III spirals. For their development in the Kamares style, see Walberg, Kamares, p. 49. The quirks of the lower frieze, closely related to S-motifs, are also an EM III creation,as Zois has pointedout (Kamares-Stil,pp. 128-129, 211). In the Kamaresstyle, however, they appear to be used, as
they are here, in a more standardizedfashion as verticalelementsin horizontalbands.Comparethose on the MM Ib jug from Agia Photia (Hawes, Gournia, p. 60, pl. A:2) and on the MM Ib tumblerfrom Gournia (Hawes, Gournia, p. 38, pl. VI; Zois, Kamares-Stil,p. 218; Walberg,Middle Minoan Pottery, p. 123). Stone G I-9 (Her.Mus. 553). Bird's-nestbowl Hawes, UPMTA I, iii, 1905, p. 187, fig. 6:I f. From south room. Intact,with separatelid. H. 0.042 m.; D. at rim 0.072 m., at base 0.03 m. Limestone,gray, bandedwith gray to black. Undercut interior. Lid with pawn-shaped handle, incut underside. G 1-10 (Her.Mus. 552). Bird's-nestbowl Hawes, UPMTA I, iii, 1905, p. 187, fig. 6:I g. From south room. Intact,originallywith separate lid, now missing. H. 0.044 m.; D. at rim 0.077 m., at base 0.033 m. Limestone,gray, bandedwith gray to black. Undercutinterior. For bowls 9 and 10 and a MM I date, see Warren, MSV, Type 3, pp. 7-11. G I-11 (Her.Mus. ?). Shallow bowl with two ridge handles From north room,togetherwith G I-2 and 3. Although the vase is described by Hawes and sketchedin her Notebook, it is not published. It belongs to Warren, MSV, Type 10, pp. 27-30. Two pieces of skull were found inside it. OTHER OBJECTS
Bronze G 1-12 (Her.Mus. ?). Pair of tweezers From north room, togetherwith G I-2 and 3. The tweezers are sketchedin Hawes's Notebookbut are unpublished.They belongto Branigan'sType II (CBW, pp. 34-35, fig. 10:2) with simple U-bend, splayed tips, and inwardly bent edges. The dimensions of one are recorded:L. 0.09 m. and W. "at flange"0.03 m. Hawes reporteda total of nine pairs of tweezers at Gournia, all but one belongingto this type, which she called "the usual type" (Hawes, Gournia,p. 35, pl. IV:32).
TOMB I
13
PIT DEPOSIT FROM NORTH ROOM21
The four handmadeclay vases cataloguedfrom this deposit date to the EM II phase, and probablythe earlierpart of that phase, while most of, if not all, the stonevases appearto be MM I. VESSELS
Pottery G 1-13 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4405). Pyxis Fig. 5, PI. 5 with cylindricalneck Mended from a few pieces with only small parts of body and handles restored. H. 0.08 m.; D. at rim 0.032 m. Fine red-buff clay; surfacecoveredwith thin reddish slip, some flakedoff. Depressed globular body; tall cylindrical neck with everted lip. Two pairs of lug handles, horizontally pierced, on shoulders (with marks of piercing on wall of vase between handles). Incised line on each handle. For this type of ware, see Wilson, BSA 80, 1985, p. 312. For the shape compare Her.Mus. 5012 from Agia Eirene (Xanthoudides, VTM, p. 52, pl. XXXVI). G -14 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4408). Pyxis Fig. 5, P1. 5 with pedestalstem Davaras, Hagios NikolaosMuseum, fig. 19. Mended from many pieces with parts of foot, shoulder,and rim restored. H. 0.101 m.; D. at rim 0.039 m. Light-gray burnishedware. Flattened globular bowl with short collar neck; two horizontallypiercedlug handles on shoulder. Tall pedestalstem with flaring foot;convexswelling at point of juncture with bowl. Three horizontal zones of incised and impressed decoration. Upper two zones around shoulder of pyxis with incised concentricsemicircles and horizontal rows of impressed dots between; zones separated by three incised parallel lines. Lower zone of incised chevronsaroundcenter of vase, separatedfrom zone above by incised horizontalline. For the fabric and shape, see Wilson, BSA 80, 1985, pp. 304-307. The vase type tends to be globular or
flattened globular with a short collar neck. Examples on pedestal stems are scarce, but compare Her.Mus. 3781 from Sphoungaras Rock Shelter I (Hawes, Gournia, p. 56, fig. 37:9) and Her.Mus. 4192, 4193, 4194 from Koumasa (Xanthoudides, VTM, pp. 9, 34-35, pls. I, XVIII, XXV). The pedestal stems that Wilson believes to have belongedto "goblets"are also very similar (Wilson, BSA 80, 1985, p. 305, P81-84). For the decoration,compare Pendlebury, Archaeologyof Crete, p. 48, fig. 4:1; Zervos, L'art de la Crete,pl. 124, from Marathokephalo; and Hawes, Gournia, p. 60, pl. A:5 from Gournia Rock ShelterV. Once believedto be EM I, such pyxides are characteristicof the EM IIa phase. The vases are rare in northernand easternCrete, and Wilson has suggested a center of productionin the Mesara, where the largest number has been reported (including some 25 examples fromthe Lebenatombs). Eight are now known from Gournia. G 1-15 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4402). Fruitstand
Fig. 5, PI. 5
Complete except for a few restoredpieces around the rim. H. 0.086 m.; D. at rim 0.202 m. Brown-blackburnishedware. Circular, flat-bottomeddish with projectingedge around base and flaring rim; tall pedestal stem flaring at base. The interiorof the dish is worn and shows signs of use. See G 1-16 below. G 1-16 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4404). Fruitstand
Fig. 5, PI. 5
Intact. H. 0.085 m.; D. at rim 0.158 m. Brown-blackburnishedware. Circular, flat-bottomeddish with projectingedge around base and slightly flaring rim; undersideof
21 I am indebted to Costis Davaras, who has already published a report on these finds (AcAr 28, 1973, pp. 588-589), for permissionto publish them furtherhere. I have repeatedmuch of the informationprovided by Davaras but have addedobservations,measurements,drawings, and photographsof my own.
14
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
G I-14
G 1-13
G I-15
G -16 G 1-16
FIG.5. Potteryfrom Gournia Tomb I pit. Scale 1:2
15
TOMB I dish decorated with five circular ridges, three around center and two around edge; projecting edge decorated with four antithetical groups of three raised bosses.Tall pedestalstem flattenedat base. Davaras places fruitstands G 1-15 and 16 in "a known EM II type." Compare the examples from Mochlos, nos. I a and XIX 1 (Seager, Mochlos II, pp. 18-20, 71, figs. 4 and 40) and Koumasa, Her.Mus. 4296, 4297, 4298, 5036, 5656 (Xanthoudides, VTM, pp. 10-11, pl. XVIII), all with circular ridges decorating the underside of the dish, and Mochlos XIX 1, with similar bosses decoratingits edge. For a discussionof these vases, which are mistakenly identified as "lids" by Xanthoudides, see under G 1-8, pp. 25-26 below.
Stone
solid vertical handle on side opposite spout. Lid with archedhandle, incut underside. Compare Warren, MSV, Type 14, pp. 34-35. The type begins in MM I. G 1-18 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4403). Two-handled bowl
Fig. 7, P1.6
Mended from many pieces with only small restorationson rim and handle. H. without lid 0.04 m., with lid 0.061 m.; D. at rim 0.051 m. Limestone, gray. Bowl with curved profile; two elongated horizontal lug handles on shoulder. Lopsidedprofile. Lid with pawn-shapedhandle. Compare Warren, MSV, Type 7, pp. 20-21. This bowl with low, flattened form belongs to Type A, which originatesin EM III/MM I. G 1-19 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4409). Large bowl
Fig. 7, PI. 6
Mended from many pieces with small parts restored. H. 0.114 m.; D. at rim 0.133 m. Breccia, with purple-maroon pieces in creamy white matrix. Bowl with curvedprofile. Compare Warren, MSV, Type 6B, pp. 19-20, which also dates to MM I.
FIG.6. Stone bucket jar G 1-17 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4401) from Gournia Tomb I pit. Scale 1:4
G 1-20 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4399, 4406 Fig. 7, PI. 6 [lid]). Smalljar Davaras, Hagios NikolaosMuseum, fig. 24. Intact. H. without lid 0.042 m., with lid 0.064 m.; D. at rim 0.046 m. Banded tufa. Cylindricaljar with inset base; two horizontalgroovescut below rim. Lid with pawnshaped handle;horizontalgroovearoundedge. CompareWarren,MSV, Type 18, pp. 41-42. OTHEROBJECTS
G 1-17 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4401). Bucket Fig. 6, P1. 5 jar Davaras, CretanAntiquities,pl. 177. Body and lid mendedfrommany pieceswith small parts on side and handles restored. H. without lid 0.17 m., with lid 0.223 m.; D. at rim 0.185 m. Limestone, gray and white mottled. Jar with bridged spout; two horizontal handles on sides,
Stone:Sealstones These findswill receivefull publicationin the volume of CMS devotedto the seals in the Agios Nikolaos Museum, now in preparationby Davaras. G 1-21 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4693). Sealstone Steatite. Davaras describesthe scene on this sealstone as "a swastika, with its arms ending alternately in the heads of dogs and birds."
16
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
IcI
3
G 1-18
ii
G 1-20
G I-19 FIG.7. Stone vessels from Gournia Tomb I pit. Scale 1:2
G 1-22 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4696). Sealstone Steatite. Davaras reportsa scene of "dogswalking to the right with their muzzles to the ground." Silver P1.6 G 1-23 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4691). Necklace of silver beads Ten sphericalbeads of silver foil preserved,graduated in diameterfrom 0.005 m. to 0.011 m. Compare Branigan'sType IV (Aegean Metalwork, pp. 39, 193, pl. 24). Very few silver beads have been found in Crete;Braniganlists only five from Prepalatial contexts.They aboundin Troy and the Cyclades, however, and this necklacemay well have been imported.
Gold P1.6 G 1-24 (Ag.Nik.Mus 4692). Gold-plated bead Intact. L. 0.011 m. Cylindricalbronzebead, coveredin gold foil decoratedwith three sets of nine or ten parallelgrooves on the side. Gold plating and chasing have parallels in other Prepalatial jewelry. Compare the examples from Mochlos and Agios Onouphrios (Branigan, Aegean Metalwork,p. 95).
TOMB II Ivory G 1-25 (Ag.Nik.Mus.). Fifteen ivory plaques Each approximatelyrectangular,with a number of nail holes. Davaras reports that small ivory nails were found separately. He compares the
17
plaques to later examples from Mycenae (A. Sakellariou, ,XpovlKca, 'ApX'Ef 1957, p. 4, fig. 2) and suggests that they formed "the inlay of a woodenbox."A completereportis being prepared by R. D. G. Evely for a forthcomingissue of BSA.
TOMB II (Figs. 1-3) Hawes, UPMTA I, iii, 1905, pp. 186-188; Hawes, Gournia, p. 56; Soles, AJA 83, 1979, pp. 161-164, ills. 4-6. LOCATION AND EXCAVATION
The identification,location, and excavationof this tomb and Tomb I are discussedon pp. 3-4 above. ARCHITECTURE (Pis. 2, 7, and 8)
Tomb II is a two-roomstructure,approximatelyfive meterssquareon the outside,with a doorwayat its northwest.It lies alongsideTomb I, separatedfrom it by a narrowcorridor 1.02-1.26 m. wide. Its walls are oriented in approximatelythe same directionas those of Tomb I, and the two tombs appear to have been constructedtogether as a pair. Unlike Tomb I, however,Tomb II is built directlyon the naturalbedrockof the slope, with its west wall lying at a higher elevation than its east wall, and the north and south walls sloping downwardsat their bases from west to east (Fig. 3). The walls are constructedin ordinary rubble fashion with inner and outer facings of stones, collectedfrom the local outcroppings of gray limestone, which have been set in earth mortar in uneven courses, usually with smaller stones between. The upper, west wall is the most poorly preserved.It is never more than one or two courseshigh on the inside and has lost many of the stonesfromits outer,west face.22During the 1971 cleaning, a line of fallen stones, ca. 0.50-0.80 m. wide, was found lying parallel and adjacentto this wall in the room immediatelybelow it, and it is likely that the stones in this line had fallen from the wall as it was originally excavatedby Hawes. The wall was constructedin two parts, on either side of a large, flat stonethat crossesit near its south end. The longer stretchof wall, extendingca. 3.40 m. northwardfromthis stone, is set somewhat to the east of the shortersouthernstretch,and the setbackat this point, ca. 0.30 m. deep, was probablycarriedup into the mud-bricksuperstructureof the wall. At its north end the wall is widenedto ca. 0.76 m. to formthe base for the westernjamb of the doorwaylocatedat this corner of the tomb. The shorter, southern stretch of this wall is somewhat wider than the northernsectionand continuesits directionfor ca. 1.50 m. (includingthe length of the large stone) until curvingaroundinto the south wall of the tomb. The curvatureof the wall at this 22
West wall: L. ca. 4.90 m.; W. at north ca. 0.48 m., at south ca. 0.66 m.; H. on inside ca. 0.51 m.
18
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
point is continuous;23there is no break and no right angle at the southwest corner of the tomb. The break, as noted, comes farther back in the west wall. Such roundedcornersare not uncommonin the architectureof the period. Examples may be cited from contemporary walls at Knossos and Chamaizi, and Pendleburyhas suggested that, as in Mesopotamia where such corners are frequently found at street intersections,they may have been designedto preventpeople or animals fromknockingagainst a sharp cornerand damagingthe mud-brickwall.24 The south wall, the rear wall of the tomb, is better preservedthan its extension to the west.25 Its western half is constructedof a single course of stones laid, like those of the western wall, directlyon bedrockwith a minimumof earth bedding;its eastern,and lower, half is constructedof two courses of stones set on a bedding of earth and small stones 0.10-0.20 m. thick. The result is that, althoughthe groundslopesdown beneaththe wall, its upper level lies on a fairly horizontalplane and so provideda level beddingfor a mud-brick superstructure.Midway, the outer face of the wall is brokenby anothersetback,ca. 0.26 m. deep, which, coming exactly at the point where the interiorspur wall dividesthe tomb into two rooms,reflectsexternallythe internal arrangement.In many Prepalatialand Protopalatial walls, such setbacksoften appear to have a structuralorigin, but they also serve a decorativefunction. The corridorthat this wall flanks probably served as the major approachto the entranceof the tomb, since accessfrom the north is blockedby large boulders and steep terrain;this functionas a corridorof approachmay explain the peculiar features of the south and west walls of the tomb. The two setbacks that originate in structural tm me them ore attractiveto peculiaritiesalso break the monotonyof the solid walls and make the approachingpedestrian.The roundedsouthwest corner emphasizesthe nature of this space as a corridorof approachand facilitatesmovementtowardsthe entranceof the tomb. The northwall of the tomb servedno such grandiosefunctions.26It is constructedof two courses of stones set on a deep bedding of earth and stones, ca. 0.20 m. thick at the upper, west end and ca. 0.34 m. thick at the lower, east end. The result of this method of constructionis to achievethe requiredhorizontallevel of the upper surfaceof the wall without resortingto the stepped masonrythat was apparentlyused in the north and south walls of Tomb I. At its east end, where it reachesits maximum preservedheight, the wall is terminated by a boulderthat fills the northeastcornerof the tomb and buttressesit at this point. On its outer, north side the wall is boundedby an outcroppingof two largeboulders,and the space between these and the wall is filled with a loose packing of earth, small stones, and sherds. Both bouldersand packingact to buttressthe wall soclealong its entirelength, and it is possible that loose rubble resting on the earth packing outside the wall was also used to supportthe superstructureof the wall. At the same time the western boulderis responsible for the angular orientationof the wall, since it juts in towards the tomb and so forces the western end of the wall to be built out of line with the eastern. Soles, AJA 83, 1979, fig. 14, pi. 21. Evans, PM I, p. 139, figs. 96, 102; C. Davaras, "The Oval House at Chamaizi Reconsidered,"AAA 5, 1972, pp. 283-288, fig. 8; Pendlebury,Archaeologyof Crete,p. 98, note 4. 23 24
25
26
South wall: L. ca. 4.87 m.; W. 0.48-0.63 m.; H. ca. 0.66 m. North wall: L. ca. 3.40 m.; W. 0.40-0.64 m.; H. on inside ca. 0.55 m.
TOMB II
19
The east wall of the tomb is the most stronglybuilt becauseof its lower positionon the slope (P1.2). It employs larger stones in its facings and containsa large amountof fill in its centerwith the result that in places it is twice as wide as the other walls.27It consistsof two courses of stones, set on a thick bedding of earth and stones that rises ca. 0.25 m. above bedrockon the inside of the tomb and ca. 0.48 m. on the outside where the bedrockslopes farther downwards. As a result, the upper surface of thisswall is roughly level with the adjacentupper surfacesof the north and south side walls, and this height must representthe original height of the stone socles on the eastern side. On its outer side the east wall is buttressedby several boulders,the southernmostplaced against the wall itself and the three to the north against the lower beddingof the wall.28These rest on the same beddingof small stones and earth as the wall itself, not on bedrock. At its north end the wall is terminatedby the boulderthat formsthe northeastcornerof the tomb; at its south it projectsca. 0.39 m. beyond the south side wall. Here at the outer southeastcornerof the tomb there appearsto be a low staircaseof three steps that leads from groundlevel up to the top of the wall (Fig. 3, P1.8:a). On their southern,outer side the steps are neatly facedwith large stones, and at their norththey adjointhe boulderbuttressingthe wall. The risers are carefullyedged with rows of stones set against a fill of earth and small and there is no indication of another doorway, these steps may simply form a stepped buttresscomparableto the bouldersthat buttressthe outsideof the wall to the north. On the other hand, the brick superstructureprobablydid not fill the whole width of the wall socle at this cornerof the tomb, and the steps may have providedaccessto a narrowledge that ran along the outer edge of the east wall and, moreimportant,aroundthe southeastcornerof the tomb. At this point, immediately on the other side of the southeast corner, two boulders project from the south wall (Pls. 7:b and 8:b). These are not natural rock outcroppings. They are set against each other and have been faced on the west, where a gap occurs between them, with a narrow wall of stones, three courses high, set in earth mortar. The southernboulder uretitsrests on bedrockon west side but is raisedon earth fill at its east so that it forms a level surface on top. The other boulder, less securely bedded, has tilted downwards on one side so that its upper surface now lies at an angle. When originally placed, however,it was probablyalso level on top. The two bouldersform a low platformthat was intentionally added onto this outer corner of the tomb.30On the basis of its appearance alone, the platform should probably be identified as an altar. It is similar to altars found outside other tombs but especially to the contemporaryrock-built altar found outside the northeastcornerof the tholos tomb at Apesokari,the identity of which is securelybased on the associated finds.31Like the Gournia structure this altar is formed from a boulder, though only one instead of two, with an outer facing of stones on one side. It is reportedto 27
East wall: L. ca. 4.72 m.; W. 0.70-1.092 m.; H. on inside ca. 0.58 m., on outside ca. 0.85 m. Soles, AJA 83, 1979, fig. 9, pl. 20. 29 Steps: L. of lower step ca. 1 m., depth 0.32-0.46 m., H. ca. 0.23 m.; L. of middle step ca. 1.10 m., depth 0.36-0.40 m., H. ca. 0.22 m.; H. of upper step ca. 0.15 m. 30 Platform:L. north-southca. 0.96 m.; W. east-west ca. 0.98 m.; H. on west ca. 0.40 m., on east ca. 0.76 m. 31 Schorgendorfer,Forschungen auf Kreta, pp. 20-22, pl. 16:L; for a discussion of tomb altars, see pp. 219-223 below. 28
20
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
measureca. 0.80 by 0.90 m. and so is also similar in size. A parallel for steps leading up to an altar may be found in the somewhatearlieraltar in frontof Tomb Complex IV/V/VI at Mochlos, which would still have been in use at the time the Gournia altar was built.32 The identificationof this appendageto the tomb as an altar appearsto be confirmedby the stone kernosdiscoveredduring the 1971 cleaningjust below these bouldersto the south (PI. 8:c). It consistsof a flattish, pentagonalstone of gray-bluesideropetra,the top of which has been polished to create a smooth,flat surface.This surfaceis markedwith a ring of 22 small hollows that follow the edges of the stone. Each hollow is a simple mark on the stone without any real depth and appears to have been createdby the blow of a hammer-stone. One hollow in the northwest corner is slightly larger than the rest and was apparently createdby a doubleor triple blow.33Althoughthe surfaceof the stonewas partiallyexposed at the time of the 1971 cleaning,there is no doubtthat the stone was in situ. When the earth was cleared from around its base, sherds belonging to an artificial packing were found tuckedunder its edges. These included(againstits west side) almostthe whole lower half of one conical cup (G 11-5). Because of its position at the end of the projectingpier of stones, the kernos should be thought of as pat of a single architecturalcomplex. Together the kernosand stone platformbelong to a distinct class of cult structuresthat consistsof raised altar and juxtaposed offering table, a class commonly found in Minoan architecturein many differentperiods. Examples from tombs are less common,but two may be cited from the MM Ia and MM Ib/II tombs at Chrysolakkos.34Situatedbetween Tombs I and II, at the entranceto the corridorof approach,this structureprovideda focal point for the two tombs and a centerof devotionalactivity. The entranceto the tomb, locatedat the northwestcornerof the building, is formedby an opening ca. 0.51 m. wide between the west and north walls. The widening of the north end of the west wall to serve as a jamb for this doorwaysuggeststhat a door may once have closedthe opening. During the 1971 cleaning, a flat, roundedstone with a small depression near its centerwas foundjust northof the doorway,no longerin situ. It may have servedas a pivot stone for a wooden door;if it had been placed against the end of the north wall, the door would have closed firmly against the jamb of the west wall. In the space between the two walls in frontof this doorway,a hard beddingof stone chips and earth,ca. 0.10-0.15 m. deep, servedas a threshold. The doorway provides access to the western room of the tomb (PI. 8:d). It is a rectangular space of irregulardimensions,ca. 3.10 m. long at the east, ca. 3.68 m. long at the 32 For other stepped structures,attachedto altars or used as altars themselves,comparethe altar steps at Mochlos Tomb Complex IV/V/VI (pp. 56-57 below), the contemporarysteppedaltar at Juktas (Karetsou, 1974, p. 233), and the later examples from the East Court at Nirou Chani, the northwestcornerof IpaKTLKa the Central Court at Phaistos, and in the painted scene on the Agia Triada sarcophagus(S. Xanthoudides, pUfyapovNipov>,'ApX'E 1922 [pp. 1-25], pp. 2-4, figs. A, 2; Fests II, pp. 55-56, figs. 21, 585; <MtyriOKvMy MonAnt 19, 1908, p. 21, pl. 1), all of which are open-air structures,the latter probablyalso located Parabeni, in front of a tomb. Compare also the three-stepped structure reported inside the shrine at Anemospelia (J. Sakellarakis,<'AvaaKai6, 'ApXavWiv>,HpaKTiKa1979 [pp. 331-392], p. 375). 33 Dimensionsof kernos:ca. 0.43 by 0.36 by 0.15 m.; D. of hollows ca. 0.025 m., of large hollow ca. 0.045 m. For a discussionof these stones and their identificationas kernoi, not gaming boards,see pp. 221-223 below. 34 Demargne, Mallia, NecropolesI, p. 41, pi. LVII:1, 2; pp. 35-38, pls. L, LI; and see pp. 165 and 169 below.
TOMB II
21
west, ca. 1.42 m. wide at the north, and ca. 1.26 m. wide at the south. It is boundedon the east by a spur wall consistingof two courses of stones set on a beddingof earth and small stones ca. 0.20-0.30 m. thick. This wall does not bond with the south wall and runs at a slight angle to the west wall, accountingfor the irregularwidth of the room.35It ends before reaching the north wall of the tomb, leaving a space ca. 0.64 m. wide which forms the doorwayleading into the adjacent,easternroom. No attemptwas made to cut into the natural bedrock of the slope within the tomb, and as a result the natural rock floor of the western room, which is considerablyhigher than that of the eastern room, slopes down sharply from west to east, with the highest point in the southwest cornerlying ca. 0.67 m. above the lowest point in the northeast corner, before the interior doorway. The thick beddingon which the spur wall rests at this point, however,as well as the beddingon which the north wall rests, suggests that an artificial earth floor was raised above the natural bedrockalong the east side of the room in order to providea more level footing. The finds made along this wall during the 1971 cleaning lay at this artificial floor level, ca. 0.20 m. abovebedrock. The eastern room of the tomb, enteredfrom the doorwayat the north end of the spur wall, consistsof a rectangularspace somewhatlarger than the westernroom,measuringca. 1.70 by ca. 3.30 m., also irregular. The natural bedrockfloor is not so uneven as in the western room, sloping downwardsfrom the southwest cornerto the northeastfor a maximum differenceof only ca. 0.50 m., but here too it is likely that an artificialearth floor was raised somewhatabove the natural bedrock,perhapsto a height approachingthe top of the earth beddingof the walls. The northeastcornerof the roomis filled with a large stone set at an angle across the corner with a backing of earth and small stones. It forms a small triangular step rising ca. 0.18 m. abovethe bedrockfloor, and it seems likely that the artificial level of the floor lay at this height along the eastern side of the room.Anothersmall deposit of finds was uncoveredat approximatelythis level along the easternwall of the roomduring the 1971 cleaning. BURIALSAND CHRONOLOGY(P1. 9)
From the original excavationin the tomb, Hawes reported"massesof brokenbonesand skulls, in such poor conditionthat only one skull ... could be saved."36In her Notebookfor July, 1904, she reporteda "brokencasella".She published twelve finds from the tomb: a MM I clay cup (Her.Mus. 3623), four stone vases (Her.Mus. 551, 554-556), and three pairs of bronze tweezers, all from Room 1; three more stone vases from Room 2 (G 1-12, Philadelphia, G II-14); and a stone seal (G II-17) which was found outside the tomb in earth thought to have been thrown from the tomb. She did not recordwhich was Room 1 and which Room 2, the eastern or the western room. In addition, she uncoveredan unspecifiedquantity of potterywhich she describedas "atrue Kamaresdeposit,of exactly the same characteras that describedby Dr. Mackenzie, 'Pottery of Knossos,'J.H.S. XXIII, 1903, p. 180 ff."37This comparisonhas led to some confusion,however, since the deposit 35
36 37
Partitionwall: L. ca. 2.53 m.; W. 0.46-0.50 m.; H. ca. 0.45 m. Hawes, UPMTA I, iii, 1905, p. 187. Hawes, UPMTA I, iii, 1905, p. 188.
22
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
describedby Mackenzie, found immediately beneath the palace floors in the area of the Room of the Olive Press, cannot be considereda "true Kamares deposit".It was found superimposedabove floor deposits of the finest polychromeware and did not contain any examples of such ware itself. Mackenzie later dated the depositto MM III.38The deposit that Hawes found appears to be earlier in date, since it included what she describedas numerous cups of metallic shape of great "delicacy",Kamares fragmentsdecoratedwith white spirals and ferns, and specimens of dark-on-light decoration in "proto-Gournia style".39In her Notebook for July, 1904, Hawes described nine of the vases from this deposit, noting that one came from Room 1 and eight from Room 2, and providedsketches of each. While these vases cannotbe locatedtoday and the informationshe providedis not sufficientto date all nine vases with certainty,a few may be dated tentatively.Two, which she describedas "Kamaresshaped cups"with white on black decoration(Notebook Entry No. 4), are clearly MM I; a third, describedsimply as "a Mycenaean cup with handle" (Notebook Entry No. 5), and a fourth, describedas "a double curved Mycenaean cup" (Notebook Entry No. 7), appear to be MM I shapes; four others, describedas "characteristic handleless Mycenaean cups with straight sides"(NotebookEntry No. 6), resemble the MM I conical cups found in the 1971 cleaning; and another, describedas "a low cup with spreadingflat rim"(NotebookEntry No. 8), might be of any date.40 During the 1971 cleaning further finds were made, some of which help to clarify the date of the tomb. In the western room the remains of a skull were uncoveredlying midway along the central spur wall at the level of the earth floor. The skull was badly crushedand incompletely preserved,but it included the entire mandible as well as large parts of the craniumand both orbits;it probablybelongedto an adult male. Imbeddedin the remainsof this skull were parts of four conical cups, two of which were nearly complete and found lying on their sides (G 11-2 asnd 3; P. 9:a). Wheelmade,with tin walls and undecorated, they belong to the MM Ib potteryphase and providegood parallels for the four handleless "Mycenaean"cups Hawes reported.In the easternroom a small depositof skull fragments was uncoveredmidway along the easternwall, again lying at the level of the earth floor in the room. It consisted of fragments of crania, none complete, belonging to at least three different skulls. On the opposite side of the room against the spur wall, another small deposit was uncoveredjust above the bedrock(P. 9:b).9 It contained,from south to north, fragmentsof a fruitstand(G 11-8), two MM Ia jugs, both handmadeand decoratedin the dark-on-lightstyle which Hawes characterizedas "proto-Gournia"(GII-6 and 7), with a pithos fragmentbetween, and, just inside the interiordoorway, the pedestal of a clay vase (G 11-9). Outside the tomb, in additionto the fragmentof a conical cup by the kernos and various sherds from the fill beneath the east wall, a stone amulet in the shape of a quadruped (GII-16) was found by the southeastcorner. D. Mackenzie, "The Middle Minoan Potteryof Knossos,"JHS 26,1906 (pp. 243-267), p. 265. Hawes, UPMTA I, iii, 1905, p. 188. 40 The page from Hawes's Notebook with the sketchesof these vases is reproducedin Silverman,Expedition 17, 1974, p. 15, fig. 3. For Entry No. 4, cf. Walberg,Kamares,Shape 207, concave-sidedcylindricalcup with flat, S-curved,laid-on handle, p. 150; for Entry No. 5, cf. Walberg, Kamares,Shape 193, semiglobular cup with slightly angularprofileand broad,slightly raised, flat handle, p. 147;for Entry No. 6, see the conical cups describedbelow;for Entry No. 7, cf. Walberg,Kamares,Shape 177, mediumdepressedcup with convexconcaveprofile, pp. 145-146. 38
39
TOMB II
23
Severalconclusionsmay be drawn fromthe 1971 finds. First, the discoveryof skull fragments in both rooms suggests that, as in other tombs of this type, including Tomb I,41 the skulls from previousburials were purposefullysavedat the time of periodiccleaningsof the tomband were set to one side to makeroomfor new burials.During the 1971 cleaning,pithos and larnax fragmentswere foundscatteredthroughoutthe earth fill in the tombbut without significantjoins. Like the broken "casella"reportedby Hawes, however,they probablybelong to the original tomb contents and indicate that some burials, or some secondaryskull deposits,were made in pithoi and larnakes.During the 1971 cleaningno potterywas found in the tomb that could not be datedto MM I potteryphases. This potteryincludesa number of sherdswhich, being extremelyfragmentaryand showing no significantjoins, may belong to modern (i.e., post-1904) fill and are thereforenot catalogued.It also includes the vases from previouslyunexcavateddeposits,however,and these provideseveralgood parallels for the potterythat Hawes reportedbut did not publish. Finally, severalsherdsof EM III and MM Ia date were extractedfrom beneaththe east wall of the tomb in 1971. These, together with the earliestpotteryfound inside the tomb, fix the date of constructionat the very beginning of the MM I phase. Like Tomb I, the tomb appears to have been used into the Old Palace period,when MM Ib potterywas in use, but not to have been used any later. CATALOGUE VESSELS
Pottery G II-1 (Her.Mus. 3623). Angular, one-handled cup
Hawes, Gournia,p. 56, fig. 40:3. From "Room 1" (Hawes). Handle partly restored;otherwise complete. H. 0.053 m.; D. at rim 0.084 m. Fine pink clay;black slip on interiorand exterior; exterior originally decoratedin white paint, now vanished,leaving black-slipbackground. Relatively high ring base; low underside spreading to angularshoulder;fairly high sides flaringto plain rim. Flat handle from rim, rising slightly above it, to side. Narrow band of white aroundbase, shoulder,and lip; frieze of four fish around upper side. The decorationis discussed by Zois (Kamares-Stil, p. 262). Walberg (Middle Minoan Pottery, p. 60) argues that such fish are a commonMM Ib motif in the pottery of East Crete. Compare examples from Palaikastro (Bosanquet and Dawkins, PKU, p. 11, fig. 7, pl. IV:d and e); from Vasilike (Seager, Vasilike II, pl. XXX:b; G. Maraghiannis, Antiquites cretoises,ser. 2, Candia 1911, pl. XXXIV:3, 6, and 41
Skull fragmentswere reportedinside G I-11.
8); from Knossos (Evans, PM I, p. 182, fig. 131:b). The shape is also commonin the MM I phase. Compare from Palaikastro, Bosanquet and Dawkins, PKU, pl. IV:f, and Zervos,L'artde la Crete,pl. 363. G I-2 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4386). Fig. 8, P1. 10 Conical cup Found with skull in western room. Mended from many pieces;small fragmentsof rim missing. H. 0.062 m.; D. at base 0.048 m., at rim 0.095 m. Fine buff clay, thin fabric. Undecorated. Raised base; straight, slightly spreading sides; plain rim. Handleless. Ridge marks around sides and circular striations on base indicate that this vase was made on a fast wheel. G II-3 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4387). Fig. 8, PI. 10 Conical cup Found with skull in western room, with cup G H-2. Mended from many pieces;base and complete profile preserved. H. 0.061 m.; D. at base 0.052 m. Fine buff clay with dark pinkish core, thin fabric. Undecorated.Flat base; straight, slightly spreading sides; plain rim. Handleless. Parallel striations on base indicatethat the vase was made on a slow wheel.
24
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
G H-2
GII-6 G II-3
FIG.8. Potteryfrom Gournia Tomb II. Scale 1:2
G 11-4 (Her.Mus. ?). Conical cup Hawes sketchesthis cup in her Notebookand describes it as a "Mycenaeancup of thin clay"with "flaringsides".It is identicalto cups G 1-2 and 3. G 1-5 (Ag.Nik.Mus.). Fragmentsof three conical cups Two cups found with G 11-2 and 3 inside the western room; the other (P.71.6) found beneath the kernos outside the tomb. Similar to the cups above.Also wheelmade. All six cups should date to the MM Ib phase. Exactly such cups as these are reportedfrom Palaikastrowhere they were especially commonin the MM I tombs. Compare Bosanquet and Dawkins, PK II, pp. 303-304, fig. 1:6,b. The Palaikastrocups are also markedwith striationson their bases, sometimes straight, sometimes concentric, and for the most part are left "quiteplain". For a discussionof striations and the contemporaneoususe of the slow and fast wheels, see Pendleburyet al., II, p. 25 and Poursat,BCH 90, 1966, p. 548. Cups of similar proportions are known from the EM III phase on; the thin fabric results from the introductionof the fast
wheel. For the shape see Zois, Kamares-Stil, pp. 157, 201 and Walberg, Middle Minoan Pottery, Shape 189, p. 181. G I-6 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4390). Figs. 8, 9, PI. 10 One-handledjug From easternroom, against spur wall. Intact;rim worn. H. 0.119 m.; D. at base 0.064 m. Gritty buff clay with small limestoneconcretions and pocked surface, thick fabric;exterior slipped with thin coat of light-buffclay;decorationin redbrown paint. Flat bottom; lopsided, bulging body sloping into low neck;small roundmouth. Round archedhandle fromjust below rim to shoulder.Handmade. Painted bands aroundbase and rim; verticallines between,threeon one side and two on reverse,with short strokes set perpendicularly in horizontal rungs, forming ladderlike motifs; all intervening space, including handle, filled with curvilinearor slantinglines, three forminghorn-shapedmotifs. The rim of this jug is somewhat worn, but it does not seem to have possessed a spout. For the shape,
25
TOMB II
5Cm.
FIG.
9. Jugs (left to right): Chamaizi 646, Trapeza Cave 644, and G I-6 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4390)
compare no. 644 from the Trapeza Cave (Pendlebury et al., I, pp. 76, 81, fig. 17, pl. 10) which is also madeof coarseclay and thick fabric.Both are related in shape to MM I Chamaizijugs (Fig. 9). The decoration is descendedfrom the earlier Koumasa style but is freerand more spontaneousthan earlier linear designs (cf. Zois, "Epevva,p. 722, pl. 8:4137). The band of solid paint around the base is common on MM Ia jugs, and the decorationwith vertical lines, although unique (and the work of a less orderly mind), has something in common with the decoration on several MM Ia jugs from Gournes:compare Her.Mus. 7035, 7042, 7067 (Zois, FpoSXA7),lara, pp. 7, 18, 20, pls. 5, 16). G II-7 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4391). Jug with trefoil mouth
Fig. 10, PI. 10
From eastern room, against spur wall. Complete; mendedfrom many pieces. H. 0.189 m.; D. at base 0.075 m. Sandy buff clay with small white and black concretions;tracesof light-brownpaint. Flat bottom; globular body; tall cylindrical neck with slightly concave profile, attached separately to body and slightly off-center;slightly spreading lip with trefoil mouth. Round loop handle from neck to shoulder. Traces of trickle decorationon front of neck and on interiorof vase; dot below lip. There does not seem to be an exact parallel for the shape. Compare a similar jug from Zakros, in a MM Ia deposit, with globular body, cylindrical neck, and trefoil mouth (Platon, IlpaCKTKa1967,
pl. 173:y). As trefoil mouthsare not foundbeforethe MM Ia phase and the Gournia vase is handmade,it should probably also be dated MM Ia. For the attachmentof the neck to the body, comparethe MM Ia jugs from Tylissos (J. Hazzidakis, Les villas minoennes de Tylissos [Etudes cretoises III], Paris 1921, pp. 80-81, pl. XVI:1 c, d, f, g). For the trickle decorationon MM Ia jugs, compare the examples from Knossos(Mackenzie [footnote38, p. 22 above], p. 249, pl. X:1). G I-8
(Ag.Nik.Mus. 4383 + 4389). Fruitstand
Fig. 10, PI. 11
From eastern room, against spur wall. Rim and parts of dish missing; also chips from base of pedestal. H.0.074 m.; D. at rim 0.167 m. Gritty red clay with white and black limestone concretions;smoothsurfacewith red-brownslip. Circular, flat-bottomeddish with projectingedge aroundbase and slightly flaring rim; tall pedestal stem flaring towardsbase. The shape originatesin the EM I phase with a flat dish but is most commonin the EM II/III phases, at which time the higher pedestaland flaring rim seem to be developed. For MM Ia examples, compare those from the Trapeza Cave (Pendleburyet al., I, pp. 54, 56, pl. 9, fig. 12, especially no. 41 lb), which are, however,datedonly by style. The example from this tomb, as well as a MM I example in stone from Mallia, Her.Mus. 2124 (Demargne and Gallet de Santerre,Mallia, Maisons I, p. 37, pl. XV), which is especially similar in shape, indicates that the shape
26
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
G II-8
G II-9
G I-7
G II-14
FIG.10. Vessels from Gournia Tomb II. Scale 1:2
persistedto the end of the Prepalatialperiod,as Pendlebury supposed. The fabric of this vase is quite differentfrom that of the two EM II examples from Gournia Tomb I (G 1-15 and 16), and the MM Ia vases, while not differingsubstantiallyin shape from the EM II/III vases, exhibit none of the knobs or grooveddecorationof the earlier vases. The vases were erroneouslyidentified as lids or covers by Xanthoudides, Banti, and Pendlebury (VTM, p. 10; ASAtene13-14, 1930-1931, pp. 166167; Archaeologyof Crete, pp. 65-66). They were identified as fruitstands by Seager and Evans (Mochlos II, pp. 18, 20, 71; PM I, p. 75); whatever they held, they were clearly stands of some sort, as the hollow pedestalsand the signs of wear on the interiorof G 1-15 indicate. G I-9 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4388). Fig. 10, P1. 11 Pedestalof vase From east room with deposit of jugs, against southeast corner of doorway. Pedestal and lower part of bowl preserved.
P.H. 0.075 m.; D. at base 0.071 m. Unburnishedlight-grayclay with small white and black inclusions. Disk base with hollowed underside and lower circumferenceflanged, high concave stem, beginningof bowl. The pedestalmay belong to a gobletor lamp. Stone GI-10
(Her.Mus. 544). Alabastron
Hawes, Gournia,p. 56, fig. 40:1; Warren, MSV, p. 5, P2. From "Room 1" (Hawes). Complete:found with lid, now missing. H. 0.035 m. Conglomerate. Molded rim; lid, with pawnshaped handle. CompareWarren, MSV, Type 1, pp. 4-5. G H-11 (Her.Mus. 556). Small jug with carinatedbody Hawes, Gournia,p. 56, fig. 40:2.
TOMB II From "Room 1" (Hawes). Complete, with lid; handle and spout mended. H. 0.06 m. Dolomitic marble, mottled white and gray. Bridged spout; lid with pawn-shaped handle, plain underside,inciseddecorationon top forming six-pointed star. Hawes reported fragments of another just like it (UPMTA I, iii, 1905, p. 187). Compare Warren, MSV, Type 22, pp. 47-48. G II-12 (Her.Mus. 550). Bowl with vertical grooves Hawes, Gournia,p. 56, fig. 40:9. From "Room2" (Hawes). Complete. H. 0.047 m. Serpentine,gray-black. The vase is discussed by Warren (MSV, Type 12, p. 32). G II-13 (Her.Mus. 551). Bird's-nestbowl Hawes, Gournia,p. 56, fig. 40:7. From "Room1" (Hawes). Complete. H. 0.045 m. Dolomitic marble, mottled gray and white. Undercutinterior. CompareWarren, MSV, Type 3, pp. 7-10. G II-14 (Univ.Mus. MS 4158). Fig. 10, PI. 11 Jar with incurvedsides From "Room2" (Hawes). Small parts of rim and base missing. H. 0.057 m. Dolomitic marble, mottledgray and white. CompareWarren, MSV, Type 20, pp. 44-45. G II-15 (Univ.Mus.). Bird's-nestbowl Hawes, Gournia,p. 56, fig. 40:11. From "Room2" (Hawes). Complete. H. 0.024 m.
Serpentine, green. Roughly cut in form of quadruped with small head and pointed tail. Neck pierced vertically for suspension hole (D. of hole 0.005 m.). Legs described by two incisions on base; front legs markedoff by two more incisions at top. Zoomorphicamuletsare not uncommonfindsin Prepalatial tombs. Comparethe quadrupedsfrom Koumasa and Phaistos that are identifiedas oxen (Xanthoudides, VTM, pp. 31-32, pl. XXVI; Zervos, L'art de la Crete,pl. 203; D. Levi, "La campagnadi scavia Festos nel 1953,"ASAtene14-16, 1952-1954 [pp. 389-469], p. 412, fig. 36), anotherfromPlatanos which is identified as an elephant (Xanthoudides, VTM, p. 122, pl. XV), one from Agios Andoni thought to be a pig (Hall, Sphoungaras, p. 184, fig. 108), and a ram from Agia Photia (C. Davaras, veKporateLov 'Aytas ,wTnas?I:nTIpWro7.vwCiiKOV AAA 4, 1971 [pp. 392-397], pp. 396-397). reMas*, G H-17 (Her.Mus. 676). Rectangularsealstone Hawes, Gouria, p. 54, fig. 27; V. Kenna, Cretan Seals, Oxford 1960, p. 37, fig. 52. From earth outsidethe tomb,thoughtto have been thrown from tomb. L. ca. 0.013 m.; Th. 0.0035 m. Bull facing left against reticulate background; branchbeneath forelegs. Hawes noted the circumstancesof the find in her Notebookfor July, 1904 and provideda sketch (Silverman,Expedition 17, 1974, p. 15, fig. 3). The seal is discussed and dated to MM II by Kenna. Close parallels come from the Hieroglyphic Deposit at Knossos: cf. A. Evans, "The Palace of Knossos," BSA 9, 1902/1903 (pp. 1-153), p. 88, fig. 60. Bronze
CompareWarren, MSV, Type 3, pp. 7-10. OTHEROBJECTS
Stone G II-16 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4368). Zoomorphicamulet
27
PI. 11
From outside southeastcornerof tomb. Intact. H. 0.01 m.; L. 0.032 m.
G I-18 (Her.Mus. ?). Blade of tweezers From "Room1"(Hawes). Describedby Hawes as a "halfpair with two small rivets"(UPMTA I, iii, 1905, p. 188). This blade belongsto Branigan'sType IV tweezers: those composedof three separate parts, two blades and a handle of organic material. In this case the blade was rivetedto the handle ratherthan inserted. Compare an example from Platanos (Branigan, CBW, pp. 35-36, fig. 10:5). The chronologicalspan of the type is from EM II to MM II.
28
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
G II-19 (Her.Mus. ?). Pair of tweezers From "Room1"(Hawes). Describedby Hawes as a "pair of usual shape" (UPMTA I, iii, 1905, p. 188). As noted above, p. 12, the "usual"type belongs to Branigan's Type II with simple U-bend, splayed tips, and inwardlybent edges. Comparethe example from Siva (Branigan, CBW, pp. 34-35, fig. 10:2).
G II-20 (Her.Mus. ?). Pair of tweezers From "Room1"(Hawes). Describedby Hawes as a "pairwith thistle-shapedends"(UPMTA I, iii, 1905, p. 188). This pair probablyalso belongs to Branigan'sType II. Hawes reported finding one example, however, with loop base (Hawes, Gournia, p. 35, locus not cited).
TOMB III (Figs. 11 and 12) Davaras, AeAr 28, 1973, p. 588; Davaras, 'ApaXdheLa 5, 1974. LOCATIONAND EXCAVATION
Tomb III is the highest of the built tombs on the east slope of the north spur. It lies directlyaboveTomb I at the very foot of the limestoneoutcroppingthat rises sharplyat the top of the spur and runs along its center. It was excavatedfor the first time in 1972 by the Greek ArchaeologicalServiceunder the supervisionof Costis Davaras. ARCHITECTURE(P1. 12)
The builders of the tomb took advantageof the steep eastern face of the outcropping located here at the top of the spur and used it to form the western side of the structure, runningthe interiorwalls out at right angles fromthe rockface towardsthe east. The result is an oblongbuilding,orientedapproximatelynorth-south, that consistsof four rooms,each of which backs against the outcroppingon the west, and that measuresca. 6.60 m. in overall length. The easternside of the tomb is not preserved,and as a result the original appearance of the tomb is unclear.An exteriorwall may have run along this side of the building in a north-south direction.It has left no trace but, being locatedon the lower side of the hill, could have washed away, and several large stones found to the east, including those that now rest against the western wall of Tomb I and others found inside the tomb during cleaning,may have belongedto this vanishedwall. On the other hand, it is equally possible that the tombneverpossessedan easternwall and that each of its rooms,closedonly on three sides, remainedopen to the east. In this case, the stones found below to the east may have belongedto the interioreast-west walls of the tomb. The four east-west walls to the north appear to have formed the original core of the building. They are parallel and approximatelyequidistant. Each rests on bedrockand is constructedin ordinaryrubble fashion with inner and outer faces of stone set in earth mortar and laid in irregular courses.The northernis the best preservedand perhaps suggests the original length and state of the others.It is built into a slight recessin the cliff face on the west, which gives it additionalstability,and is preservedhere to a height of three courses,its maximum preservedheight of ca. 0.78 m. It extends ca. 3.28 m. eastwardbefore breaking off. The three walls to the south are incomplete,but each couldhave extendedfromthe rock face at least as far as the northernmostwall, since there is ample roomfor them to have done
29
TOMB III
F 35,68
"
33.50
Im 31BO
I
33.47
35(5
0
FIG.
2
3M
11. Plan of Gournia Tomb III (with Tomb I)
so.42The width of the tomb was probablyabout this distancealso, never much more than 3.50 m., at which point the slope of the hill starts to fall off more steeply. 42 North wall, Room 1: p.L. ca. 3.28 m; W. 0.42-0.62 m.; H. ca. 0.78 m. North central wall: p.L. ca. 1.15 m.; W. 0.30-0.40 m.; H. ca. 0.75 m. South centralwall: p.L. ca. 2.25 m.; W. 0.54-0.70 m.; H. ca. 0.72 m. South wall, Room 3: p.L. ca. 1.72 m.; W. 0.40-0.52 m.; H. ca. 0.52 m. The north central wall, however, becauseof its relativelynarrow width, may have been only a short spur wall.
30
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA F
34.44
0
I
2
~
53M. jrrS3E
FIG.12. Section EF through Gournia Tombs I and III
Any of three possibleentrancesmight have been used to gain accessto the interiorof the tomb. If there was an eastern wall, one might have enteredby a doorwayin it and passed through a corridor running along the east side of the tomb. In the absence of such a doorway, one might have entered from the roof, which could be reached easily from the steep outcroppingthat rises alongsidethe west side of the tomb. Each roomcould,of course, have been entered directly from the east. All three northern rooms, Rooms 1-3, are rectangular, ca. 1.30 m. wide and, as suggested,somethingover three meters deep;each has a bedrockfloor that slopes gently upwards to the west. The western walls of these rooms are of some interest. In Rooms 1 and 3 they are formed entirely by the rock face of the outcroppingthat rises verticallyca. 2.10 m. abovethe floors.In Room 2, however,where there is a breakin the horizontalline and the verticalface of the rockoutcropping,the west wall is partiallybuilt in rubbleto providea higher walling and a smoothface (PI. 12:b).Five irregular coursesbuilt into the north half of the unevenrockface are preserved,reachinga height of ca. 0.96 m. abovefloorlevel. These courseswould have neededto extendoriginallysomewhat higher in order to fill the gap in the cliff and providean even horizontalline for the roof supportrunning along this side of the tomb. After constructingRooms 1-3, the builders apparently took advantage of a natural indentationin the rock face of the bedrockoutcroppingto the south to add a fourthroom to the tomb. From 1 to 1.50 m. south of Room 3, where the outcroppingprojectstowardsthe east, the builders addeda small extension to the projectionin order to create an additional room. The south wall of this room is thus formedpartly by the smoothvertical face of the projectingrockand partlyby the built wall, which, as preserved,is only one coursehigh.43It runs at an angle to the wall to the north, narrowingthe entryto the room,and appearsto be completein length. At its outer east end, it is widened slightly to form a jamb flanking the 43
Built sectionof south wall: L. ca. 1.10 m.; W. 0.44-0.52 m.; H. ca. 0.20 m.
TOMB III
31
entry. The space between the two built walls at the northeastcornerof the roomformedthe entrance, ca. 0.60 m. wide; the jamb at one side suggests that it may have been provided with a door. It gives accessto an irregular,almosttriangularspace,ca. 2.30 m. deep and ca. 1.50 m. wide on the inner west side. As in the rooms to the north, the inner west wall is formed by the vertical face of the rock outcropping,which rises here to a height of ca. 1.80 m. Where the rock face is irregular,small stones are set in an earth mortarto fill the gaps and provide a smooth walling. In the southwest cornerof the room, where the outcropping curves towards the east, there is a small nook which extends beneath the rock outcropping. Shallow and only ca. 0.30 m. high, it neverthelesssuggests the resemblance between this chamberand certain rock shelters, which are often extendedoutwardsby the additionof built walls. BURIALS AND CHRONOLOGY
Four depositsare reportedfromthe tomb,one fromeach room.Each containedscattered skeletalmaterialand potteryand was locatedin the inner, westernpart of the room.The remains in the outer, eastern part were presumablywashed away with the walls on this side. The most extensive remains are reportedto have been locatedin the northwestpart of the tomb,in Room 1. A publishedillustrationshows the remainsas they were foundin Room3.44 Some 16 skulls in all were discoveredin the tomb. Unfortunately,the poor state of preservation of the structuremeansthat they cannotrepresentthe total numberof skullsoncestoredin it. It is morethan likely, however,that the eight skulls foundin the pit in Tomb I immediately below originally belongedto burials in this tomb. The potteryfrom the pit is contemporary with the potteryfromTomb III, belongingin each caseto the EM IIa phase, and also similar in type. When Tomb I was constructedsome 600 years afterTomb III, these skulls and their accompanyinggrave goods were perhaps exposed among the remainsof the then collapsed and destroyedTomb III. As a result, the pit was dug in Tomb I in orderto reburythe skulls, and at the same time the MM I stonevases were proffered. CATALOGUE45 VESSELS
Pottery All the cataloguedpottery dates to the EM IIa phase, and the tomb is contemporarywith the rock shelters to the north (V and VI). Seven vases are catalogued.They include four pyxides of pale gray burnished ware with close parallels in shape and decoration to the pyxides from the pit deposit in Tomb I and from Rock Shelter V. For a discussion of the type, see G 1-14, p. 13 above, and Wilson, BSA 80, 1985, pp. 304-307, where further references are cited.
G III-1 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4395). Fig. 13, PI. 13 Pyxis Mended from many pieceswith small parts of side and base restored. H. 0.081m.; D. at rim 0.044 m. Light-gray burnishedware. Globular bowl with short collar neck; two lug handles on shoulder, each vertically pierced with two holes. Three zones of incised and impresseddecoration: upper zone of six horizontalparallel lines; middle zone on shoulder of concentric semicircles with
44 Davaras, AcAT 28, 1973, pl. 556:c. 45Once again I am indebtedto Costis Davaras, whose reporton these finds is
p. 588, for permissionto include them here.
publishedin AerT 28, 1973,
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
32
)e
/D G HI-2
1} G III-1
G 111-4
G II-3
G III-5
0-I G IH-6
G 11-7 FIG. 13. Pottery from Gournia Tomb III. Scale 1:2
TOMB III filling decoration of small impressed dashes arranged in horizontal rows; lower zone on belly with eight horizontalparallel lines. Handles decorated with short incised lines. For the decoration,comparePendlebury,Archaeology of Crete, p. 48, fig. 4:1 and the examples from Marathokephalo, Gournia, and Knossos: Zervos, L'art de la Crete, pl. 124; Hawes, Gournia, p. 60, pl. A:5 and G 1-14; P. Warren, "Knossos 1973: Royal Road Excavation and Study Season," AZAT 29, 1973-1974, B' 3 (1980), pp. 903-904, pl. 672:,3; and Wilson, BSA 80, 1985, p. 305, pl. 31, P73. G III-2 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4400). Pyxis Intact.
Fig. 13, Pl. 13
Light-gray burnishedware. Globular bowl with short collar neck; two lug handles on shoulder, each vertically pierced with two holes. Three zones of incised and impresseddecoration: upper zone of four horizontalparallel lines; middle zone, on shoulder, of concentric semicircles with filling decorationof small impresseddashes arrangedin horizontalrows; lower zone, between handles, of four horizontalparallel lines. Handles decoratedwith short incised lines. In shape and decorationthis vase is a miniatureversion of G III-1 above.The decorationwith a zone of semicircles flanked by subsidiary zones is used on four of the eight examples at Gournia. The execution is always quite meticulous, whether in the arrangementof the filling decorationor in the placing of the semicircles (here one semicircle placed over each handle and two in between, in G III-1 three semicirclesbetween the handles and one over one of the handles, in G 1-14 four semicirclesbetween the handles), quite unlike the more careless decoration of the examples from Marathokephalo(see G III-1) and Koumasa (see G 1-14). G III-3 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4397). Pyxis
handles on shoulder, each vertically pierced with three holes. Seven horizontal zones of incised and impressed decoration. From top to bottom: zone of incised diagonal lines, zone of impressed triangles, two zones of incised diagonal lines forming herringbone pattern, zone of impressed triangles, two zones of incised diagonal lines forming herringbone pattern. Handles decorated with short incised lines. For the decoration,compare Pendlebury,Archaeology of Crete,p. 48, fig. 4:4 and Her.Mus. 4186 from Koumasa(Xanthoudides, VTM, p. 35, pl. XXV). G III-4 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4398). Handleless pyxis
H. 0.049 m.; D. at rim 0.022 m.
Fig. 13, P1. 13
Davaras, AeAr 28, 1973, p. 588, pl. 556:/3.
Mended from six pieces with part of neck restored. H. 0.075 m.; D. at rim 0.04 m.
Light-gray burnishedware. Globular bowl with short collar neck; two lug
33
Fig. 13, PI. 13
Mended from many pieces, with part of base restored. H. 0.046 m. Light-gray burnishedware. Flattenedglobularbowl with inset, horizontalrim piercedwith four holes for securinga lid. Thick network of impressed dots covering all but base of vase, arrangedin lines curvingup on a diagonal. For the shape and decoration,compare Her.Mus. 4294 from Koumasa (Xanthoudides, VTM, p. 35, pl. XXV). Such pointille decorationis common in the Koumasavases but, as is the case with other vessels fromthat site (see G III-2), appearsto have been executedthere with less care, never with the meticulous torsion shown here. All these pyxides possessed lids that could be tied in place by means of holes in the rim, as here, or holes in the lug handles, as in Her.Mus. 4194 from Koumasa (Xanthoudides, VTM, pp. 34-35, pls. I, XXV). G III-5 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4394). Two-handled bowl
Fig. 13, PI. 14
Mended from many pieces, with one handle and large parts of body restored. H. 0.081 m.; D. at rim 0.206 m. Semicoarseware. Buff clay with gray core; surface with traces of burnishedbuff slip. Open bowl with flat bottom,straightflaring sides, and out-curvingrim. Two horizontalhandles below rim, verticallypierced. For the shape and ware, compareWilson, BSA 80, 1985, p. 351, fig. 38, P423, P424.
34
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
G III-6 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4393). Fig. 13, PI. 14 Pyxis Mended from many pieces, preserving base and one side; approximatelyone-thirdmissing. H. 0.06 m. Gritty pinkish buff clay. Flattened globular bowl with short collar neck. Two lug handles brokenfrom vase. For fabricand shape, compareHer.Mus. 3785 from Sphoungaras Rock Shelter I (Hawes, Gournia, p. 56, fig. 37:2). G III-7 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4396). Smalljug
Fig. 13, P1. 14
Intact. H. 0.067 m.; D. at base 0.08 m. Gritty buff clay with tracesof buff slip on exterior. Smalljug with flat base, carinatedside, and vertical handle. Traces of paring on side. For similar juglets, comparethose from Sphoungaras and Knossos (Hawes, Gournia, p. 56, fig. 37:8; Wilson, BSA 80, 1985, p. 312, fig. 16, P122). OTHEROBJECTS
Bronze G III-8 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4689). Two fragmentarypieces of sheet metal
PI. 14
Larger piece: 0.018 m. by 0.037 m.; the larger piece has the shape of a leaf. PI. 14 G III-9 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4690). Awl Intact. L. 0.08 m.; W. 0.03-0.04 m. Pointed awl, square in section. Several examples are known from the Mesara (Branigan, CBW, pp. 32, 90, fig. 9:3), which are identifiedas punches with bone or wooden handles, used in leatherworking. Gold PI. 6 G III-10 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4688). Sheathing of sheet metal Top torn, otherwise intact. L. 0.037 m.; max. D. 0.018 m. Thimble shaped. Davaras notes that it is "evidentlythe coveringof a certain object,perhaps an ivory seal, or another object of perishablematerial."It might also have been affixed to a rock-crystal pendant similar to those from Agios Onouphrios (Zervos, L'art de la Crete, pls. 200, 201). On the other hand, Hawes found an identical gold sheathing in Tomb VII (Her.Mus. 110) which she identifiedas a tip "presumablyfrom some wand of office."See p. 40 below.
BUILDING IV (Fig. 14) LOCATION AND EXCAVATION
Building IV is the southernmostof the buildingsexcavatedon the east slope of the spur. It lies about 6.40 m. to the south of Tomb I on the same line as this tomb and Tomb II. It was excavatedat the same time as Tomb III in 1972 by the Greek ArchaeologicalService underthe supervisionof Costis Davaras. ARCHITECTURE(PI. 15:a)
The building is a simple one-roomstructurethat was originallynearly square. Most of the south side of the building is destroyed,and only the north side is completelypreserved. This side is ca. 3.92 m. long, and the other sides appear to have been approximatelythe same length. The walls of the building rest on bedrockand are constructedin ordinary rubble set in earth mortar.They are only one course high but are peculiar in that they are especially strengthenedat key points by large stones and appear wider and strongerthan such a small building would need. The west wall of the tomb is as much as 1.50 m. wide. It is facedwith large stonesalong the lower, inner side and filled out with smallerstoneson the higher, outer side. As a result, the upper surface of the wall forms a level bedding that is
35
BUILDING IV
0
I
2M
FIG.14. Plan of Gournia Building IV
nearly equal in height to the other walls, and it is doubtfulthat this wall or the othersin the building were ever constructedany higher in stone. The east wall of the building ends at the north with a single boulder that forms the northeast corner of the building, and in this respect it recalls the constructionof the northeastcornerof Tomb II. Like the east wall of Tomb II, it too lies on the lower side of the slope and is thereforeconstructedwith especially large stones.46The north wall, also constructedof fairly large stones,does not bondwith the east and west walls; it simply runs between them, closing the side. Only one stone of the south wall is preserved,and if an entranceto the buildingwas locatedat groundlevel, it may have been somewherealong this side. Of course,as in the case of Tomb I, the entrancemay have been higher, at the level of the stone socles or througha trap door in the roof. The entrancewould have providedaccess to a small room ca. 1.75 by 2.20 m. in size. The bedrockfloor of the room slopes upwards somewhatfrom southeastto northwest. FUNCTION AND CHRONOLOGY
No finds, either skeletal or ceramic,were uncoveredin the building, and its functionin the cemeteryand its date thereforeremain unclear.There are severalpossibilities.The most 46
West wall: L. ca. 3.65 m.; W. 1.10-1.50 m.; H. on the inside ca. 0.70 m. East wall: p.L. ca. 2.58 m.; W. ca. 0.76 m.; H. on the inside ca. 0.68 m.
36
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
likely, that the building also servedas a tomb and that its contentssimply washed out when the lower southeastcornerwas destroyed,is suggestedby its locationwithin the cemetery. On the other hand, the building is unusual in that it is constructedwith exceptionallywide soclesthat would have been capableof supportingtwo storiesof mud brick.It may well have been two stories high and, situated near the southeast limits of the cemetery, may have served as some sort of watchtower over the cemetery. No parallel for such a building is known, however. It may also have servedsome religious function,either as a repositoryfor ritual equipment used in the cemetery cult or votives deposited in the cemetery, or as a shrine itself. Severalparallels may be found for such a structure.47 The details of the construction,similar to those of Tomb II, and the location of the building on the same line of the slope as Tombs I and II, rather than near the top with Tomb III and the Rock Shelters,suggestthat Building IV probablydatesto the same period as these tombs (MM I). ROCK SHELTERS V AND VI (Fig. 15) Hawes,UPMTAI, iii, 1905,pp. 182-183;Hawes,Gournia,p. 56. LOCATION AND EXCAVATION
In 1904 Hawes discoveredburials in two rock shelterslocatedon the easternside of the spur immediatelyto the northwestof Tomb II. ShelterV, situated "belowa dense grove of carob trees," is the more southern of the two, lying about four meters north of Tomb II. ShelterVI, located"inthe same line of rock,"lies aboutthree metersnorthwestof ShelterV. The slope of the spur is steep and rocky here, and it is likely that it accommodatedsimilar burial shelters in still other rocky nooks lying fartherto the northwest, aroundthe side of the spur. DESCRIPTION
(P1. 15:b and c)
Both sheltersare natural rockformations.ShelterV is a triangularopeningin the rocks formedby the overlappingof three boulders.The height of the opening is ca. 0.65 m. and the width at its base, ca. 0.80 m. The depth of the shelteris one meterat the most. ShelterVI is formed in the same way and is somewhat larger. Part of its rock face appears to have fallen away, however, and it is no longer possible to ascertain the original height of its opening. Its width at the base is ca. 1.40 m., and the approximatedepth of the shelter is 1.80 m. The floorsof both shelters are rocky.The floor of ShelterVI is relativelylevel, but that of V slopes upwards from front to rear so sharplythat it would seem some sort of barrier would have to have been constructedat its opening to preventburials and grave goods from rolling out. contemporary structures at Gournes and Agia Triada (Hazzidakis, AeXT 1, 1915, pp. 59-63; Stefani,ASAtene 13-14, 1930-1931, pp. 152-154) and see the discussionbelow, pp. 240-241. 47 Compare the
ROCK SHELTERS V AND VI
37
B
Lin-m-EF
O
FI
2
I
3M.
-- B
B
FIG. 15. Plans and sectionsof Gournia Rock SheltersV and VI
BURIALS AND CHRONOLOGY
Both shelters are reported without further comment to have contained scattered bones
and skulls.48No articulatedskeletonswere uncovered,but it is doubtfulthat the small space 48 For the analysis of skulls from
contemporaryrock-shelterburials at Sphoungaras,however,see Hawes, Gournia,Appendix G, p. 59, fig. 43, and L. McCulley, M. Biel, and A. Mann in Betancourt,Minoan Objects, p. 89. For rock-shelterburials in general, see Pini, Minoische Grdberkunde,pp. 10-11.
38
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
availablein either shelter,particularlyShelterV, couldever have accommodatedmorethan one contractedburial at a time. Hawes's descriptionof the pottery and the published examples suggest that both shelters containedclosed EM IIa deposits with light-gray burnishedware and dark-on-light paintedware but no mottledVasilike pottery.The potteryincludesa dark-on-lightpainted jug (G V-l), perhapsimportedfromKnossos,as well as a fruitstandfromShelterV and two small pyxides, one of them of light-gray burnishedware (G VI-3), from Shelter VI. Both shelters appear to have been contemporarywith the built Tomb III and with the rock shelter (I) that Hawes excavatedat the northernlimits of Sphoungaras.49 CATALOGUE VFSSFRTS
Pottery G V-1 (Her.Mus. 3726). One-handledjug Hawes, Gournia,p. 60, pi. A:3; Pendlebury,Archaeologyof Crete,pi. IX:2 e. From ShelterV. Complete,except for part of spout brokenaway. H. 0.129 m.; D. at base 0.058 m. Buff clay, with yellowish buff slip. Decorationin red-brownpaint. Globular jug with flat base, cylindrical neck cut away to form spout. Round handle, placed vertically from shoulderto mouth. Butterflypatternon body of vase with triangular motif beneath in empty area on front of vase; narrow horizontal bands around neck and spout; wider horizontal bands aroundhandle. The shape and decorationare especially commonin the EM IIa dark-on-lightstyle at Knossos (Wilson, BSA 80, 1985, pp. 319-330, P179-P244, but especially P218), and Wilson has suggestedthat this vase was made in a Knossosworkshop. G V-2 (Her.Mus. 3795). Fruitstand From ShelterV. Found "in pieces." H. 0.032 m.; D. at rim 0.168 m., at base 0.065 m. "Brownishgrey clay." "Flatdish"with "roundedrim"and "hollowfoot". Hawes provides a descriptionin her Notebook and comparesthis vase to one from SphoungarasRock Shelter I (Hawes, UPMTA I, iii, 1905, pp. 180181, fig. 1: I e). G VI-3 (Her.Mus. 3782). Pyxis Hawes, Gournia,p. 60, pi. A:5.
From ShelterVI. Complete,except for part of one handle. H. 0.062 m. Light-grayburnishedware. Flattenedglobularbodywith collarneck.Two lug handles, each verticallypiercedwith two holes. Three zones of incised and impresseddecoration: zone on top of five horizontalparallel lines; zone in center of concentrichalf-circleswith filling of impressedtriangles;zone on belly of incisedcrosshatching.Short diagonallines incisedon handles. For the shape and decoration, see the discussions under G 1-14 and G i-1-3, pp. 13 and 33 above, and Wilson, BSA 80, 1985, p. 305, pl. 31, P73. G VI-4 (Her.Mus.). Pyxis From ShelterVI. "Broken". "Redclay". Hawes providesa sketch in her Notebookand compares this vase to one from SphoungarasRock Shelter I with a flattenedglobularbody, low collar neck, and pair of vertically pierced lug handles (Hawes, UPMTA I, iii, 1905, pp. 180-181, fig. 1: f). OTHER OBJECTS
Bone G VI-5 (Her.Mus.). Amulet Hawes, UPMTA I, iii, 1905, p. 182, fig. 2. From ShelterVI, found inside G VI-3 above. Intact. L. 0.039 m.; D. 0.008 m. Hawes: "a hollow piece of bone, shaped by hand, having four perforationsat each end." Comparea very similaramulet from Mochlos Tomb II (Seager,MochlosII, p. 34).
49Hawes, UPMTA I, iii, 1905, pp. 180-183; Hawes, Gournia,p. 56.
TOMBS VII AND VIII
39
TOMBS VII AND VIII (Plan 2) Hawes, UPMTA I, i, 1904, p. 42; Hawes, Gournia,pp. 20, 46; Soles, AJA 83, 1979, p. 157. LOCATION AND EXCAVATION
These tombs were uncoveredon the first day of Hawes's excavationat Gournia, May 14, 1901. They were locatedon the west side of the spur "closein upon the rocks"and are now destroyed.It is apparentlythe more southernof these tombs, however, Tomb VII, to which Hall referredin her publicationof the EM III potteryfromthe North Trench.50 She describedit as "ahouse containingburials"and locatedit 7.35 m. northeastof the northeast limits of the North Trench. At the same time she provided a map of the North Trench showing its relationshipto Wall X-X' and to House Ea at thenorthwestborderof the settlement and giving its approximate dimensions.As a result, even though no traces of the North Trench or the tomb remain, it is possible to locate Tomb VII about 25 metersto the northeastof the northeastcornerof House Ea, Room 1, which is still preserved.The apotheke, which is now located on the west side of the spur close in upon the rocks, and its modernterracelie approximatelythis distancefrom the north Trench, and it is likely that the tombs,which were poorlypreserved,were destroyedin the 1960's duringthe buildingof the apotheke.Their approximatelocationis suggestedon the plan of the Cemetery,Plan 2, beneath the modernterraceof the apotheke,and they are restoredin hatched lines. Tomb VIII is reportedby Hawes to have been locatedseven metersto the north of Tomb VII. It is likely that still more tombs lay in this area, perhaps still fartherto the north, and were also destroyedin the 1960's when the apothekewas constructed.51 ARCHITECTURE
Hawes initially mistook these tombs for ordinary houses and describedthe burials as intramuralburials. It seems to have been only after her excavationof Tombs I and II that she realized that they were tombs and then introducedthe term "housetomb"to describe them.52Other than her general definitionof a house tomb, she published no architectural descriptionof the tombs. As a result of the discoveryof her Notebook for July 1904, however, it has been possibleto gain furtherinformationabout the tombs and their finds. Tomb VII, for which Hawes provideda sketchin the Notebook,reproducedhere in the plan (Plan 2), was a rectangularbuilding measuringca. 4 by 5.70 m. on the outside,with its longerwalls running approximatelyeast-west. The walls were built in ordinaryrubbleand preservedto a maximum height of 0.30 m. No doorwaysare indicatedin the external walls, and it may be that, as suggested for Tomb I, entry was from the roof or from a doorway placed above ground level. On the inside the tomb was divided into two rooms of almost equal size by a partition wall that ran parallel to the shorterwalls and that appears from E. Hall, "EarlyPainted Potteryfrom Gournia, Crete,"UPMTA I, iii, 1905 (pp. 191-205), pp. 192-193, fig. 1. 51As reportedby Markos Peronikolis,Custodianof Gournia, who was present during the constructionof the apotheke. 52 As late as 1905, however, Hall continuedto describethem as "houseburials"and Tomb VII as "a house containingburials",which suggests some lingering doubt among the staff. 50
40
THE NORTH CEMETERY AT GOURNIA
Hawes's sketchto have brokenoff at each end withoutjoining the outer walls, the passages thus left open providingaccessfrom one room to the other. Tomb VIII is describedonly as "a similar enclosure". BURIALSAND CHRONOLOGY
Hawes reportedthat both tombs were badly denudedand and that only 0.15 m. of fill remained. In her Notebook she reportedthat bones were scatteredthroughoutTomb VII but were concentratedin the southwestand southeastcorners."ScatteredthroughoutRoom [a, the eastern room]were pieces of casella, legs of tripod cooking-vesselsand other coarse sherds.With the bones in the southeastcornerlay a bronzeknife."The bottomof a larnax, 0.95 m. long as preserved,was also locatedin the southeastcorner."In Room [b] stood another casella, badly broken[in the northwestcornerof the room];its length appearsto have been about 1.10 m., its width 52 cm.; 11 cm. is its greatest height today. As a handle was found in one corner,it is safe to supposethat the casella was originallyfurnishedwith four handles, one at each corner.In the casella, togetherwith bones, was a secondbronzeknife." Other finds notedfromthis roomincludea thirdbronzedaggerand a sheathingof gold sheet metal that she describedas a thumb-sizedtip of beaten gold "presumablyfor some wand of office."53 Tomb VIII also containedthe remainsof scatteredbonesand the fragmentsof two more larnakes. These fragments were "decoratedin black-on-buff in Kamares style, protoGournia, with a band around the bottom and a broad free vertical stripe."Hawes did not describe the pottery from either tomb, and it is apparently on the basis of these painted larnax fragmentsthat she assignedan MM I date to the tombs. This is apparentlythe same gold "wandof office"that is mentionedagain in Hawes (Gournia,Her.Mus. 110, p. 33, fig. 12), although it is describedthere as belongingto a Late Minoan tomb. 53
II THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY The Mochlos Cemetery is one of the largest and most importantof the Prepalatial cemeteries in easternCrete;it containsmorebuilt tombsthan any other single cemeteryin Crete, of any period, and has produceda wide varietyof rich finds that have providedmuch information about the Prepalatialperiodof Minoan civilization.The cemeterywas excavatedin 1908 by Richard Seager, who uncoveredover 20 built tombs on the island of Mochlos, as well as a number of pithos burials, rock shelters, and simple pit graves. The tombs he excavatedare located in two differentareas on the western side of the island (Plan 3): the larger, monumentaltombs on a narrow terrace running along the west face of the island, apparentlyreservedfor a ruling elite, and smaller,more numeroustombsand pithos burials on the adjacentSouth Slope, which was used by the population at large. Most of the built tombs were constructedat the beginning of the EM II phase and continuedin use in the EM III phase; fewer appear to have been used in the MM Ia phase. After a considerable gap some were re-used in the Neopalatial period, and it was at this time that the pithos burials were made. In 1912 Seager published his discoveriesin his Explorations in the Island of Mochlos, a book that remains an important source for modern research. In it Seagerconcentrateson the small finds, as well he might, since they includesome of the most spectacularobjectsfrom anywhere in Early Bronze Age Crete, but he neglects the architecture of the tombs. His descriptionof them is minimal and often confusing. In order to supplement Seager'sbrief descriptions,with the objectiveof drawing detailed plans of the individualtombsand a map of the entire island, showing the relationshipbetweenthe tombs and the area of settlement,and so to providea clear context for the finds that Seager published, cleaning operationswere begun on the island in the summerof 1971.1At that time 13 tombs were cleaned and studied, and the remaining tombs excavatedby Seager were located. In the summer of 1972 the large tombs (I/II/III and IV/V/VI) on the western terrace of the island were consolidatedwith cement by the Greek ArchaeologicalService, and at the same time two more tombson the South Slope were cleaned.2It was then possible to identify many of the tombs with those that Seager numbered in his publication, but becauseof Seager'smeager, often nonexistentdescriptions,it was still not possible to identify all those on the South Slope or to obtain a completepictureof this part of the cemetery. To do this it was necessaryto clean the entire area of the South Slope, and in the summerof 1976 the Greek ArchaeologicalService,under the directionof Costis Davaras, carriedout this task, cleaning 13 additional tombs. These were studied the same summer, and at the same time it was possibleto completea topographicalmap of the island, providingan overall plan of the cemetery area (Plan 3) and also showing the relationshipof the different archaeologicalremains on the island.3 I These activitieswere carriedout the authorunderthe by supervisionof the GreekArchaeologicalService and with the assistanceof Iannis Kouroupakis,Custodianof Antiquities at Mochlos. 2 Davaras, AcAr 27, 1972, p. 654, pls. a, ,3. 3 Davaras, AcAr 31, 1976, pp. 376-378; Soles, Expedition 20, 1978, pp. 4-15, fig. 3 for a map of the island of Mochlos.
THE MOCHLOSCEMETERY
42
As a result of these efforts, it has been possible to revise much of Seager'sdescription and to gain much additionalinformationabout the cemetery.To begin with, Seager'sbasic definitionof the differenttypes of gravesin the early cemeteryshould be revised.He identified four types.4 He distinguishedbetween the larger roofed tombs on the West Terrace (Type 1) and the smaller,supposedlyunroofedtombson the South Slope (Type 3), but it is now clearthat these shouldbe combinedinto one type, since there is goodevidencethat both were roofedstructuresand that the only real differencebetweenthem is that of size. Most of the tombs of Seager's Type 2 should also be included in this group; although he likened them to Cycladic cist graves on the basis of the upright slabs set in their walls, such slabs were found in the large tombs of Type 1 as well, and their walls are also freestandingand set above ground, unlike those of cist graves. No cist graves were found in the cleaning.5 Seager's Type 4, "burials in holes in the rocks",must be subdividedinto rock shelters (Tombs VII, VIII, and XVIII), which were locatedin the cleaning,and simple pit or holein-the-groundburials (Tomb XIV), which were not located. In addition, many of the 23 graves that Seager published as separategraves belong to the same tomb. Tombs I, II, and III, for example, are really differentcompartmentsin the same building.This is also true of Tombs IV, V, and VI and apparentlyof Tombs XX and XXI on the South Slope. The 23 gravesnumberedby Seager should thus be considered18 separate tombs. All but four are built and belong to the same class of built rectangular tombs. Sixteen were identified in the course of the cleaning and are describedin detail below. The missing two have probablybeen destroyed,since they includethe pit burials or simple inhumations(Tomb XIV) and Tomb XII, which Seager describesas a "cistgrave" with fragile walls. Ten tombsthat Seagerdoes not numberin his publicationhave also been cleaned,making a total of 28 excavatedtombs. In this publicationthese ten have been identified with lettersof the Greek alphabet.6Five of them, Tombs A, B, r, A, and E, appearto have been uncoveredby Seager, since they lie on the South Slope in the area that he excavated, and two are actually noted in his publication;none is describedor numbered,however, since nothing that Seager considerednoteworthywas found in them. The remaining five, Tombs Z, H, 0, I, and K, lie outsidethe area Seagerexcavatedand were uncoveredfor the first time in 1976. THE WEST TERRACE (Frontispiece) The West Terrace formsa narrowledge isolatedon the westernmostedge of the island. It is cut off on the north and east by the rock cliffs that rise 15 metersor more to the top of the island and on the west by the sheer cliff that drops to sea level 20 to 25 meters below. The only entranceis from the south. From this point the terraceslopes upwards, running approximatelynorth-south ca. 45.70 m., varying in width from ca. 3 m. (midway) to ca. Seager,MochlosII, pp. 13-14. Seager used the term "cistgrave"loosely and not, apparently,as it is used today to describea tomb of Cycladic type. For Cycladic cist graves in Crete, see Davaras (under GII-16, p. 27 above); Davaras, 'A,ad.Xera 2, 1971, pp. 197-199; and Doumas, Burial Habits, pp. 68-69. 6 The Roman numeralsused here, however, are the same as those used by Seager. 4
5
THE WEST TERRACE: TOMB COMPLEX I/II/III
43
10.60 m. (in front of Tomb Complex IV/V/VI), and rising from ca. 22.50 m. above sea level, where it begins just below Tomb II, to ca. 28.50 m. above sea level in front of the entranceto Tomb IV. At two points, midway and at the beginningof the entranceapproach to Tomb Complex IV/V/VI, the terraceis providedwith steps, each consistingof a row of stones set in earth packing, which apparentlyextended across the entire width of the terrace.7Traces of four steps are preserved.The uppermost,which is intact, providesthe base line for the entranceto Tomb Complex IV/V/VI and is describedon page 56 below. Some 4.30 m. to its south, midway along the terrace,parts of three steps are preserved.Only two large stones of the lower two steps remain, but the upper, third step, which rests on a bedding of large stones, is preservedfor a length of ca. 2.80 m. acrossthe terrace(PI. 16:a).8 During the cleaning in 1976, a small bronzediadem (M IV/V/VI-3) was uncoveredin the midst of these steps midway between the two large tombson the terrace.It probablybelonged originally to a deposit in Tomb Complex IV/V/VI at the top of the terrace and washed down to its findspot.It is thereforecataloguedwith the finds from IV/V/VI. TOMB COMPLEXI/II/III (Figs. 16 and 17) Seager,Mochlos II, pp. 14-15, 17-40, fig. 2 (view from north), fig. 3 (plan). LOCATION AND EXCAVATION
Tomb Complex I/II/III is the lower, more southern,of the two large tombslocatedon the West Terrace. Like the other group of tombs on this terrace,it should be considereda single complex composedof three main compartments,not three independenttombs. It is a long, rectangular building measuring a maximum of 14.12 m. in length and oriented north-south; the slope of the terrace is such that the northerncompartment(III) lies at a slightly higher level than the centralone (I). The orientationis determinedby the width of the West Terrace at this point, which varies from 5 to 10 meters:the tomb backsagainstthe rock face of the cliff that rises aboveit to the east and opens on the narrowportionof terrace to the west that drops, after a short interval,straightto the sea below. Excavatedin 1908, the tomb complexwas cleanedand studiedby the authorin 1971. In the winter of 1971-1972 a large boulderfell from the cliff that rises above the eastern side and destroyedthe central wall and part of the entranceof the central compartment(I). In the summer of 1972 the boulder and the destroyedwalls were removedby the Greek ArchaeologicalService,and the tomb was consolidatedwith cement. ARCHITECTURE (Figs. 16 and 17, Pls. 16-19)
The centralcompartmentof the tomb (I) consistsof two small roomslying adjacentand parallel to each other, each enteredfrom the west by its own doorwayand communicating on the inside by a doorwayat the east end of the compartment(PI. 17:a). The compartment 7 Seager thought in terms of a continuouspavement"which,commencinga little to the northof Tomb III, extendedto the entrances"of Tomb Complex IV/V/VI (MochlosII, p. 40). The evidencefor such a pavement is somewhatscanty today, and it is unclear whether more evidence,in additionto the steps uncoveredin 1971 and 1972, existed at the time of Seager'sexcavation. 8 H. of lower riser ca. 0.30 m.; H. of middle riser ca. 0.29 m.; H. of upper riser ca. 0.31 m.
;
CD 0
I
2
3.
JSS
FIG.16. Plan of Mochlos Tomb Complex I/II/III on the West Terrace
2'
:...'
.
F9I.
17. Section AB through Mochlos
F23G. 17. SectionAB through Mochlos Tomb
I/I/2115 Tomb Complex
Complex I//
FIG. 17. Section AB through Mochlos Tomb Complex I/II/III
46
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
is formedby three parallel walls running east-west from the face of the cliff. The northernmostjoins the face of the cliff on the east and terminatesin a large upright slab at its west end.9 On its inner, south side, four large slabs, set upright above a narrow beddingof flat stones,formorthostatesalong the base of the wall.10Flat, horizontallylaid stonesare placed betweenthe slabs, and the remainderof the wall abovethe slabs is built with similar stones, set with a minimum of earth mortar (PI. 17:b). Unlike the terminatingwest pier, the upright slabs at the base of the wall do not fill its entire width, and flat stones are used for its outer, north face. Such large orthostateslabs, often resting on a narrow bedding of small, flat stones, may be observedfrequentlyin the Mochlos tombs. A hard, gray-bluelimestone frequentlylaced with white chloriteveins, known locally as sideropetra,is usually used for the slabs, as it is in this wall, but green and purple schists may also be used occasionallyfor color contrasts.All these stones were obtained locally on the island. They were cut along even lines of fracture;as a result most have a flat, smooth surface that gives an almost finished appearance.11The central partition wall of CompartmentI (now destroyed)was also constructedwith such upright base slabs of sideropetra;in this case three filled the whole width of the wall. This centralwall also endedat the west in a large upright slab, but at the east it broke off before reaching the face of the cliff, leaving space for the internal doorway.12The south wall of CompartmentI is constructedsomewhat differently.It consists of an inner, north face of flat stones laid horizontallyin the center of the wall against three huge slabs placeduprightto formthe south face. The outer,westernmostof these slabs projectsca. 0.55 m. west of the northernface of the wall, terminatingit. At its east end, the wall turns north at a right angle and runs along the face of the cliff, ending at the north in anotherlarge upright slab. Finally, yet anotherhuge slab, over three metersin length, is set uprightagainstthe outer, south side of the wall and, togetherwith a filling of smallerstones at its east, serves as the north wall of CompartmentII. The resulting wall, constructedin three parallel sections,is nearly twice the width of the other walls in CompartmentI.13 The three slabs that terminate the walls on the west, the northern and southern of sideropetra,the central (now destroyed)of green schist, form large decorativepiers framing the doorwaysthat give accessto CompartmentI (PI. 17:c).14The doorwaysthemselvesare set back0.50 to 0.60 m. fromthe ends of the walls in such a way that a small rectangularalcove is formed in front of each doorway. The northerndoorway,ca. 0.61 m. wide, is provided with two jambs of small, upright, rectangularslabs that projectfrom the side walls of the room and narrowthe entry space (Pl. 17:d). The southerndoorway,ca. 0.68 m. wide, lacks such jambs, but the inner face of the south wall serves a similar function,narrowing the entranceat the point where it ends, to the east of the south pier. Seager reporteddoor slabs closingthese entrances,but no traceof these was foundduringthe cleaning,and so it is 9 North wall, Compartment I: L. ca. 3.30 m.; W. 0.56-0.62 m.; H. ca. 1.46 m. 10H. of largest slab 1.07 m., max. W. 0.58 m.
"' See the discussion,p. 208 below.
12 13
Central wall, Compartment I: L. ca. 1.98 m.; W. 0.40-0.44 m.; H. ca. 0.99 m. South wall, Compartment I: L. ca. 3.43 m.; W. at west end ca. 0.57 m., at center ca. 1 m.; H. ca. 1.37 m.;
L. of return to north ca. 0.90 m. from inside corner;W. 0.90-0.94 m.; H. ca. 1.20 m. Seagergives a height of 1.60 m. for this wall. 14
Southernslab: ca. 1.10 by 0.23 by 0.90 m.
THE WEST TERRACE: TOMB COMPLEX I/II/III
47
not possible to determinethe original height of the doors. The northernroom of Compartment I is the larger:it extends all the way back to the face of the cliff, ca. 2.75 m. from the interiorof the doorjambs, and is ca. 0.91 m. wide at the west end, ca. 1.26 m. at the east.15 At the northeast corner of this room, a small rock overhang forms a natural cavity ca. 0.40 m. high and ca. 0.50 m. deep. At the southeastcornerthe internaldoorway,ca. 0.69 m. wide, which is framed by the upright slabs in the flanking walls, provides access to the southernroom. This roomis somewhatsmallerbecauseof the built wall that closes it on the east; it measuresca. 2.02 m. in length (fromthe west end of the inner south wall) and varies from 0.58 to 0.66 m. in width.16CompartmentI alone of the three in the tomb appears to have had a level earth floor. CompartmentII, which lies to the south, consists of one long rectangularroom, the south wall of which is completelydestroyed(PI. 16:b). Its north wall, as noted above, consists of the huge upright slab set against the south wall of CompartmentI. The west wall, which is partly destroyedtowardsits south, is constructedin a similar fashion,the preserved portion consisting of two slabs set upright on the inside of the wall with a rubble wall flanking the larger of the two slabs on the outside (PI. 18:a).'7 As preserved,this outer rubble wall has the appearanceof a bench lying in front of the tomb. At the north it breaks off without joining the pier that flanks the south doorway of CompartmentI, nor does it appear ever to have done so (PI. 18:b). It leaves a small opening here, ca. 0.85 m. deep and 1.10-1.26 m. wide, which may have served as a niche in the facade of the tomb, or, if the northernslab of the inner wall is in fact the blockingslab of a small doorway,which is also possible, the opening here would be an alcove in front of the doorwaylike those in front of CompartmentI. At the south, after a gap, a small part of the rubblewall, consistingof three stones, is still preserved.This segment probablymarks the south end of the wall, since the terrainbegins to fall away at this point.18The east wall of CompartmentII is formedpartly by the exposedcliff face at the north and, where it recedesalong the south, by a built wall of upright slabs (PI. 18:c).19At its north the built section of wall rests on natural horizontal beddingsin the cliff face;at its south, where it rests on the bedrockfloor,it ends on approximately the same line as the preservedsouth end of the west wall, suggestingthat this point marksthe original southernlimit of the compartment. CompartmentII may have been entered through a doorway somewhere in the west wall, as are CompartmentsI and III, or, as Seager suggested,20in the destroyedsouth wall. The entrancewould have given accessto a roomat least 5.42 m. long and ca. 1.90 m. wide at the north. The floor of the room is remarkablefor the large cavity locatedat the north end (PI. 18:d),the mouth of which occupiesthe entire width of the roomand extendsca. 1.70 m. 15 Cf.
Seager'smeasurements:3 by 1.10 m. Seager'smeasurements:2 by 0.60 m. 17 West wall, CompartmentII: larger south slab, ca. 1.98 by 0.28 by 1.26 m.; smallernorthslab, ca. 0.49 by 0.20 by 0.68 m.; outer rubble wall, W. ca. 0.82 m., H. ca. 0.72 m. The outer rubble wall is omitted from Seager'ssketchplan (MochlosII, fig. 3). 18 P.L. of west wall, CompartmentII, including gap, ca. 5.91 m. 19 East wall, CompartmentII: total L. ca. 5.42 m.; L. of built section ca. 4.38 m.; W. 0.28-1.24 m.; H. ca. 1.26 m. 20 Seager, Mochlos II, pp. 22-23. 16 Cf.
48
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
south of the north wall (Fig. 17). It was thoughtby Seagerto have been partiallymanmade and was reportedto have a depth of 0.70 m. To the south the floor is more regular and is formedby a large outcroppingof sideropetrathat is level on top, except for a slight slope downwardstowardsthe south, and is filled in with rubblemasonryat the northwest,where a gap would otherwiseoccur. The upper, northerncompartmentof the tomb (III) consists of another single oblong room (PI. 19:a). Its walls are constructedin ordinaryrubble masonrywithout the monumental slabs used in the compartmentsto the south, and there is a distinctpossibilitythat it is a later addition. Its outer, west wall, resting on a bedding of earth and small stones 0.05-0.35 m. thick, is irregularlybuilt and is set out of line from and west of the west faCadesof CompartmentsI and II. At the south it is incomplete,leavinga gap ca. 1.50 m. wide between itself and the north wall of CompartmentI, which serves as its south wall. At the north it ends in an upright slab that forms a pier flankingthe doorwayat the corner.21The short north wall, running east-west from the face of the cliff, is flankedafter a short gap of exposed bedrockby a short wall at right angles to it, running north-south along the face of the cliff.22 The doorwayat the northwestcorner,ca. 0.87 m. wide, providesone accessto the room; Seager believedthat a secondexisted at the southwestcorner.Such an entranceis likely in view of the line of the west wall, which would have preventedit fromjoining the northwall of CompartmentI. In the photographof the tomb publishedby Seager (fig. 2), an upright slab appears to have been located against the outer northwest corner of the north wall of CompartmentI and to have formeda pier flanking a doorwayon the south similar to the pier flankingthe preservednorthdoorway.No traceof this pier is preserved,exceptperhaps a single flat stone that may have servedas bedding.The north doorwayopens onto a small vestibule, measuringca. 1.26 by ca. 1.58 m., formedby the section of built wall that runs along its east side. To the south of this point, the room opens out considerablyas a result of the diagonalslant of the cliff face, so that the width of the room at the south, ca. 2.90 m., is morethan twice that at the north,ca. 1.26 m.23The length of the roomis ca. 5.95 m. Its floor slopes downwardsfromnorth to south (Fig. 17) and is brokenmidwayby an outcroppingof sideropetrathat runs diagonally through its center, sloping downwardsfrom northwestto southeast.Of special interestis the locationof a shallow cave, ca. 2.15 m. high at its mouth, in the face of the cliff (Fig. 17, Pls. 16:b, 19:b).It lies ca. 1.78 m. abovethe floorof the compartmentand is separatedfromit by three superimposedstrataof sideropetra, purple schist, and sideropetra,each set back from the other and forming as it were three natural steps leading up to the floor of the cave. This floor, ca. 2.90 m. wide at its mouth and ca. 1.85 m. deep, is partially paved with roundedslabs set in a loose gravel of sand and schist, suggesting that the cave was an integral part of the compartmentand served a special function within it. Of the three compartmentsof the tomb, this one alone may have been only partly roofed.The east wall at the north of the compartmentsuggeststhat a roof was locatedover 21 West wall,
CompartmentIII: L. ca. 3.67 m.; W. 0.64-0.87 m.; H. ca. 0.68 m.
North wall, Compartment III: L. ca. 1.84 m.; W. 0.45-0.55 m.; H. ca. 0.82 m. Adjacent east wall: L. ca. 0.88 m.; W. 0.32-0.58 m.; H. ca. 0.81 m. 22 23
Cf. Seager'smeasurements:3 m. at the south, 1.70 m. at the north.
THE WEST TERRACE: TOMB COMPLEX I/II/III Disturbedsurface Filling of earth and small stones;MM III
49
MM III Pottery 0.20 m.
EM IIa clay and stonevases
EM Ib/III Pottery EM IIb/III Pottery
EM IIa Pottery Bone fragments
Confusedmass of bones; thirty skulls
0.70 m.
1.20m. CompartmentI
CompartmentII
FIG. 18. Mochlos Tomb Complex I/II/III: strata in the south room of CompartmentI and in the cavity in
CompartmentII
the vestibule,but the absenceof an east wall along the face of the cliff to the south, the wide east-west span here, and the presenceof the cave, rising nearly four metersabovethe floor, suggest that this part was open to the sky. BURIALS ANDCHRONOLOGY (Fig. 18)
Seagerreportedskeletalremainsin CompartmentsI and II, apparentlynone still articulated. The larger, north room of CompartmentI was empty and had apparently never been used for burials. The southern room contained "at least thirty skulls mixed with a confused mass of other bones."24In addition, Seager reportedthree distinct strata in this room, representedgraphicallyhere in Figure 18, consistingof disturbedsurface,0.20 m. of artificial fill, and one meter of burial stratum. From the top artificial fill Seager reported MM III pottery fragmentsbut no burials, and from the lower burial stratum an EM IIa clay vase painted in typical Koumasa style (I b) and EM IIa incised stone vases,25which suggest that this lower stratumwas a closed EM IIa deposit. The findsin CompartmentII came fromtwo separatelocations.From the surfaceat the south end of the room Seager reportedMM III vases (unpublished)and on the rock floor, "manybones"of unspecifieddate. From the rockcavityat the north end of the room, Seager reportedthree distinctstrata, also representedin Figure 18, consistingof disturbedsurface, 24
Seager,Mochlos II, p. 18. For a general discussion of the Koumasa style and the clay vase (I b) see Zois, Kamares-Stil,pp. 81, 84-85 and Zois, "Epevva,pp. 717-718, pl. 31; for the stone vases see Warren, KplqrXpov19, 1965, pp. 8-9, 13 and Warren, MSV, p. 82, D250, P457. The letters in parentheses(I b, etc.) are those that Seager used to identify finds in his publication. 25
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
50
0.20 m. of fill abovethe cavitycontainingVasilike ware (unpublished)and an EM III vase (II b), and the fill of the cavity itself containingKoumasa-stylevases (II 1, r).26The lower stratum,then, should date to EM IIa and the one above it to EM IIb/III. Both contained bone fragments. No skeletal remains were found in CompartmentIII, and the pottery (III m, n) and presumablythe majorityof finds date to MM Ia.27A few objectsof gold and silver fromthe southeastcornerof the room,however,were thoughtto be the remainsof an EM burial that was clearedout in the MM I phase. During the cleaningand consolidationof the tomb in 1971 and 1972, fragmentsof stone vases, sherds, and pieces of bone were uncovered.For the most part they showed no significantjoins, and the only finds that may have been in situ and so thoughtto be part of the original contents include a small stone pyxis with lid (M I-1), which was found in the rubble-wall debris in CompartmentI after the fall of the boulder in the winter of 1971/ 1972, as well as a few sea shells and the remainsof a spouteddish (M II-1) that were uncovered in the lower part of the cavity at the north end of CompartmentII. CATALOGUE Lightly incised lines around underside radiating from center. This pyxis, which comes from the same room as the famous pyxis lid with dog handle (Her.Mus. 1282), representsone of the very first attemptsat working this type of material into a vase, and thus one of the very first stone vases.28The results are less than satisfactory,since the lid fills the whole interior of the bowl, and the decorationis crude and undeveloped. In a short time, however, the vasemakermastered this new materialand was able to produceworkslike the pyxis Her.Mus. 1282.
VESSELS
Stone M I-1 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4364, 4365). Fig. 19, PI. 19 Miniature pyxis From Compartment I, destroyed wall. Intact, with separatelid. H. of bowl 0.012 m.; D. at rim 0.041 m.; D. of lid 0.025 m. Schist, green chlorite. Shallow bowl with low cylindricalbase and flaring sides. Flat disk lid with plain underside.
I
i M
_ _
_
_
i5 _
_
_
_
_
7> A~~~
I-i
MI-1 FIG.
19. Vessels from Mochlos Tomb Complex I/II/III. Scale 1:2
26For a discussionof these vases see Zois, Kamares-Stil,pp. 83-84 and Zois, "Epevva,pi. 32. 27 For the polychromedecorationon III n with flankingred of these vases are
published. Only descriptions and white lines and alternatingred and white motifs, see Zois, npo,Ai37jara, p. 10 and Zois, Kamares-Stil, pp. 223-236. 28 See Warren, Kpq7rXpov 19, 1965, pp. 7-9; it would seem that a more experimentalstage, such as that representedby this vase, would precedethe first stone vases that Warren identifies,with their fully developed shapes and accomplisheddecoration.
THE WEST TERRACE: TOMB COMPLEX IV/V/VI
51
OTHEROBJECTS
Pottery MII-1 (Ag.Nik.Mus. P.71.7). dish
Shallow Fig. 19
From Compartment II, cavity. Five fragments preserved:one join of three with handle;one join of two with spout. Approx. D. 0.22 m. Red-brown slipped ware; fine pink fabric with light-browncore. Shallow, open bowl with flat base and flaring sides;open rim spout on one side, small horizontal rim handle on other. Compare Hall, Sphoungaras,p. 46, fig. 20 top center; a similar vase with deeper bowl is known at Myrtos (Warren,Myrtos, p. 117, P 216).
Shell PI. 19 M 11-2 (Ag.Nik.Mus.). Cowrie shells From CompartmentII, cavity. Five shells. L. 0.069-0.086 m. Numerous shells, including cowries and limpets, were uncoveredduring the cleaning of the Mochlos tombs on the West Terrace and the South Slope. With the exception of these, however, none could safely be said to be still in situ. For the shells at Myrtos, see N. J. Shackleton in Warren, Myrtos, pp. 321-325.
TOMB COMPLEXIV/V/VI (Figs. 20 and 21) Seager, Mochlos II, pp. 14-15, 40-56, fig. 17 (view from south), fig. 15 (plan); Davaras, AcAT 27, 1972, p. 654; Davaras, CretanAntiquities,fig. 114; Soles, Expedition 20, 1978, figs. 8, 9 (sectionand plan).
LOCATION ANDEXCAVATION (P1. 20:a)
Like Tomb Complex I/II/III, this structure,also describedby Seager as three separate tombs, should be considered a single building. It is rectangular, consists of three separatecompartments,and measures a maximum of 5.54 by 8.20 m. on its exterior. One of the best preservedof the tombs on the island, it stands at the upper, north end of the West Terrace (Plan 3), flanked on the north and east by the cliff that rises here to its highest point and on the west by the edge of the terracethat dropssharply to sea level. The tomb faces south, its orientationdeterminedby its location at the end of the terraceat the widest and most level part. Excavatedin 1908, like the lower tomb, it too was cleaned by the author in 1971 and consolidatedwith cement in 1972 by the Greek ArchaeologicalService. During the 1971 cleaning, much of the area in front of the tomb was uncoveredfor the first time, and an importantdeposit of EM II/III materialthat had escapedSeager'sexcavationwas discovered in CompartmentVI. During the consolidationof 1972, the outer, southwest cornerof this compartmentwas partially rebuilt. ARCHITECTURE (Figs. 20 and 21, Pls. 20-22)
The walls of this tomb complex are unusual in that they are built entirely in stone and are preservedin places to their original height. Like those of Tomb Complex I/II/III they use base orthostate slabs in the more important wall facades and flat, horizontally laid stones with a small amount of earth mortar.All the walls are entirely built, however, and living rock is not utilized. Only the north wall is not freestanding;it is set against a rise in
52
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY /
7
,??
;i??
:
0
2
1 _ --
'
3M, 1
5~~~s
/-; FIG.20. Plan of Mochlos Tomb Complex IV/V/VI on the West Terrace
ground level, leaving an irregular corridorlying at a higher level between it and the cliff that rises to the north.29 The south faCadeof the tomb, which extends westward from the face of the cliff on the east as far as the main entranceleading into CompartmentIV, is facedwith two orthostate 29
It was in this area, behind CompartmentIV, that Seager found traces of roofing material, "piecesof white plaster, smoothon one side and showing the impressof reeds on the other"(MochlosII, p. 46).
53
THE WEST TERRACE: TOMB COMPLEX IV/V/VI
28.32
0
1
2
3m
FIG.21. SectionAB through Mochlos Tomb Complex IV/V/VI
slabs of sideropetra,both set at its west end (PI. 20:b). The slab that terminatesthe wall at the west is a large rectangularblock, placed on end, that forms an importantcornerstoneat the junction with the east wall of CompartmentIV. The south wall is built with large stones, including several roughly squaredblocks, as well as the usual flat stones, and these too have a smooth outer surface. It is further adorned by the addition of a low course of stonesthat runs along the base of the wall as a kind of toichobate.This course,0.03-0.05 m. high and 0.21-0.25 m. wide, lies partly underthe cornerstoneat the west end of the wall but elsewhere simply runs alongsidethe wall at ground level, rising where bedrockrises at the east end, in two steps.30 The main entranceto the tomb, opening into CompartmentIV, the central compartment, is set back between the projectingeast and west walls (PI. 20:c). The cornerstoneof the south wall of CompartmentVI forms a pier, as it were, on one side, and the projecting end of the west wall, which is carefully built up with a series of slabs, forms a pier on the other side. The space between these piers, ca. 1.68 m. wide and 0.48-0.54 m. deep, forms a small alcovebeforethe doorway.The doorwayitself is set between two jambs that are built up like the west door pier in carefully laid, horizontal coursesof flat stones. These do not bondwith the side walls of the compartmentbut form simple rectangularprojectionsplaced against them. The doorway,ca. 0.78 m. wide, is providedwith a stone thresholdconsisting of a single slab. The threshold and the jambs suggest that at some point the tomb had a wooden door, but at the time of the original excavation Seager reported"a great upright slab"that closedthis doorway.31 The doorwayopens into a rectangularcompartmentca. 3.50 m. deep, ca. 1.70 m. wide at the south, and ca. 1.90 m. wide at the north. Its east and west walls are both constructed with uprightorthostateslabs. The east wall uses three at its base, two of sideropetraand one of green schist, and the west wall uses four, three of sideropetraand one of purple schist 30 31
South wall: L. ca. 4.02 m.; W. 0.76-0.80 m.; H. ca. 2.06 m. Seager,Mochlos II, p. 44. No trace of this slab was found during the cleaningof the tomb.
54
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
(Pl. 20:d).32The colorcontrastsappearto be intentional,and the decorativeeffectof the orthostatessuggeststhat the compartmentwas intendedto serve as an importantroom in the tomb. The north wall, which rests on rising bedrockabove floor level and lacks these slabs, is preservedto its original height, ca. 2.30 m. above floor level, indicatingthe height of the roof over this room. Midway, the room is divided into two parts by a narrow partition wall.33 This wall, only a single stone course of which is preserved,would have blocked access to the north half of the room; it does not bond with either side wall and, as Seager observed,is a later addition. The floor of the compartmentis level earth fill except at the northwest corner, where an outcroppingof bedrockis exposed. At the northeastcorner a break in the east wall of the compartment,ca. 1 m. wide, providesaccessto Compartment VI. The thresholdof this doorwayis located0.53-0.80 m. abovethe floor of Compartment IV and is formedby the extension of the base of the east wall on the south and by exposed bedrockon the north.At the time of the originalexcavation,the doorwaywas blockedwith a wall of rubble masonry. CompartmentVI may be entered only by the northeastdoorwayof CompartmentIV and is, as a result, isolatedat the east end of the tomb (P1.21:a). The doorwayopens onto a large outcroppingof bedrock,level with the thresholdof the doorwayand partially forming it, that immediatelyslopes down towardsthe centerof the room.The roomis approximately rectangular,measuringca. 1.60m. north-south and ca. 1.90 m. east-west at the north end. The floor is formed by irregular outcroppingsof bedrockthat line the room on the south, and against part of theast wall. the center west, and north and leave a large cavity inth t and Seagerreportedthe depthof the depositin this cavityto be some 3.85 m. below the top of the north wall. The west and south walls of CompartmentVI, which rest on outcroppings,are also constructedwith large orthostateslabs. Two stand at the base of each wall, all of sideropetra. The west part of the northwall rests on the outcropping,but where this falls away at the east it rests on a projectingfoundationof flat stones (PI. 21:b). The wall is constructedin ordinaryrubble and is preservedto its full height, ca. 1.93 m. aboveits foundationwall, ca. 2.86 m. in all. The east wall is only partly preserved.It was erectedagainstthe face of the cliff on this side of the tomb and originally concealeda small cavity in the rock face. At its north it also rests on the projectingfoundation,which continues here at right angles from beneath the north wall. At its center it is flush with this foundationwall; the small sectionpreservedof its south stretchrests on horizontalledges in the cliff face that projectinto the compartment. The rest of the wall, destroyednow, was also beddedon these ledges;the foundationbeneath the north half of the wall (and beneath the north wall) was used only to fill gaps where bedrockfalls away and to providea level bedding for the upper part of the wall. The east wall itself, aboveits foundation,doesnot appearto bondwith the northwall of the roomand 32 East wall, CompartmentIV: L. ca. 3.26 m.; W. 0.50-0.57 m.; H. ca. 2.09 m. West wall: L. ca. 5.56 m.; W. 0.56-0.94 m.; H. ca. 1.60 m.; largest orthostateslab in west wall: ca. 1.32 by 1.05 m. 33 Partition wall, CompartmentIV: L. ca. 1.80 m.; W. 0.30-0.45 m.; H. ca. 0.35 m. The southernof the two rooms createdby this wall measures 1.25-1.30 m. (north-south) and the northern 1.78-1.90 m. (northsouth); cf. Seager'smeasurementsof 2.20 m. (north-south) for the southernroom and 1.85 m. (north-south) for the northernroom. Seager'smeasurementsfor the entire compartmentare 3.90 by 1.80 m.
THE WESTTERRACE:TOMB COMPLEXIV/V/VI
55
runs at an acute angle to it. The diagonal line on which the east wall runs precludes a junction with the east end of the south wall without makinga sharp turn towardsthe southeast; the south end of the compartmentmust have been narrowerthan the north.34 Seager believedthat the east wall of the room was a later additionto the tomb and that only the foundationwall belongedto the time of the originalconstructionat the beginningof the EM II period.35He observeda layer of fallen wall debris between the lower, EM II stratumin the roomand the upper, MM III stratumand suggestedthat this debrisbelonged to the collapsedoriginal wall. His explanationis certainlycorrectand is also suggestedboth by the apparentfailure of the east wall to bond with the north and by its irregular,diagonal line, projectinginto the compartmentand narrowing it at the south. The date that Seager assignedto the rebuildingof the wall, however,is less certain. CompartmentsIV and VI, forming a but-and-benunit, appear to have comprisedthe original core of the tomb. CompartmentV, on the west side, is constructedwith less care;it seems to have been addedsomewhatlater and to have servedsecondaryfunctions(PI. 21:c). Whereas the north wall behind CompartmentsIV and VI is built in ordinaryrubble with inner and outer faces and runs in a fairly straightline, the westernpart, lying behind Compartment V, is built more crudely, with only a single face of stones set against the rise in bedrock.36It veers towards the south at an angle to the rest of the wall and does not bond with the main north wall. Instead, it overlaps this wall and is set back ca. 0.22 m. to the north at the point where it meets it on the outside;as a result, the inner north side of CompartmentV lies farthernorth than do those of CompartmentsIV and VI. These structural peculiaritiesseem to reflectdifferentbuilding phases, althoughthey may result insteadfrom changes in the terrain, since bedrocklies at a higher level along the north side of Compartment V and beneath the west extension of the north wall than along the north sides of CompartmentsIV and VI and beneath the main section of the wall. The west wall of CompartmentV is also somewhat crudelybuilt, without regardfor the rest of the tomb, in that its south end lies considerablybehind the line of the main south faade. The wall is set, as Seager noted, at the very edge of the precipice,droppingto the sea and terminatingat its south in two rough bouldersthat serve to strengthenthis end, erectedas it is in a somewhat precariousposition. These boulders, although set upright, are not comparableto the upright slabs used elsewhere in the tomb, since they fill the whole width of the wall and are rough and unfinished.37None of the walls in this compartmentis built with the upright orthostatesfound in the rest of the tomb. CompartmentV lacks a wall on the south, so that the entranceextends the entire distance between its east and west walls, ca. 1.31 m. This space is ratherwide for an ordinary 34 East wall, CompartmentVI: p.L. ca. 2.50 m.; W. 0.30-0.66 m.; H. above foundationat north end ca. 1.50 m. Foundation:L. along east side ca. 1.50 m.; L. along north side ca. 1.22 m.; W. of projectingsections 0.01-0.41 m.; H. at northeastcornerca. 0.93 m. 35 Seager'sobservationthat the later builders did not find the top of the original wall when laying the new east wall and placedthe new wall somewhatfartherforwardis not wholly accurate.In fact, althoughthe new east wall does narrow the compartmentat the south, it rests directlyon the earlier foundationand is set back on it at the north. 36 North wall: L. of east sectionca. 5.70 m.; W. 0.60-0.92 m.; H. at inside northeastcornerca. 2.86 m.; L. of west sectionca. 3 m.; W. 0.36-0.54 m.; H. at inside ca. 1.16 m.; total L. ca. 8 m. 37 West wall, CompartmentV: L. ca. 4.36 m.; W. 0.54-0.80 m.; H. ca. 1.14 m.
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
56
doorway,but Seager believed it to have been closed originally by a huge slab that he observed"lyingpart way down the slope caughtbetweentwo boulders."38 The entranceopens into a narrow rectangularroom ca. 4.40 m. long, ca. 1.70 m. wide at its north, and ca. 1.32 m. wide at its south.39Its floor is formedby a small level area of packed earth at the entranceand by uncut bedrockthat slopes sharply upwards to the north. The north wall again appearsto be preservedto its original height, the same as that of the rest of the north wall lying to the east, but because of the rise in bedrockat the north end of the room, it stands only ca. 0.85 m. above floor level, and it would have been possible to stand upright only at the south end of the room. Outsidethe tomb to the south, Seagerreported"a small roughlypavedcourt."40He did not elaborate, and during the cleaning of this area a much more complicatedsystem of approachwas revealed.It consistsof four interrelatedelements (Figs. 20 and 21; P1.22:a). First is the uppermostof the four steps uncoveredon the West Terrace,which is locatedca. 5.50 m. south of the tomb. Some 0.38 m. high, it extends the whole width of the terraceat this point, ca. 3.60 m., and forms the base line of the approachto the tomb (PI. 22:b). A paved area resemblinga sidewalk lies alongsidethe facade of the tomb about four meters north of the base step and ca. 0.95 m. above it. As preserved,this area is ca. 3.55 m. long east-west and extends 1.40 to 1.64 m. in front of the tomb. The north side of the pavement joins the low courseof stones at the base of the facadebut is separatefrom and lies slightly below it. The west end of the pavementis incompleteand breaksoff in front of Compartment IV; originally, it probablyextended somewhat farther west, but whether it also extendedfarthersouth is unclear.There are no tracesof any pavementstoneshere today, and the fairly straightline of the south face of the pavementmay indicatethat it did not extend farther. In that case, the area between the upper pavement and the base step formed a sizable open space with an uneven earth surfacesloping gently upwardsto the north.41 This open area is flankedall along the east side by a raisedterraceset againstthe face of the cliff overlookingthe tomb (PI. 22:c). The terrace,which is paved on top, is ca. 4.45 m. long at the front and 1.80-2.00 m. wide. Its outer, west face is built up with flat stones as well as larger blocks, and the terraceis raised ca. 0.69 m. above the base step at the south and ca. 0.15 m. abovethe upper pavement,which it overlapsat the northand fromwhich it is best approached. Finally, set at the outer southeastcornerof the tomb, againstits south wall and the face of the cliff rising to the east, at the junctureof the upper pavementand the raisedterrace,is a small rectangularplatform.This platform,which is providedwest and south with neatly built faces and is also paved on top, measures ca. 1.64 by 1.74 m. It is raised ca. 0.59 m. abovethe upper pavementto the west and ca. 0.47 m. abovethe raisedterraceto the south, and it may be approachedfrom both sides by small cornersteps, one at the northwestand the other at the southeast.42During the cleaning of the area, fragmentsof stone vases were found on top of this structure,including severaljoins from the same vase (M IV/V/VI-1 38
39 40 41 42
Seager,Mochlos II, p. 42. No trace of this slab was found during the cleaning. Cf. Seager'smeasurements:5 by 1.40 m. Seager, MochlosII, p. 40. See footnote7, p. 43 above. H. of northweststep ca. 0.28 m.; H. of southeaststep ca. 0.23 m.
THE WEST TERRACE: TOMB COMPLEX IV/V/VI
MM III/LM I Pottery
EM Ib/I
57
Pottery
EM IIb/III Pottery
Disintegratedbones
outsideeast wall
Wall debris
EM IIa Pottery 0.50m. Bone fragments
CompartmentVI FIG.22. Mochlos Tomb Complex IV/V/VI: strata in CompartmentVI
and 2). While they may have been thrown here from inside the tomb in antiquityor during the original excavation,they may be the remains of vases actually placed here as offerings; in that case, the platformitself shouldbe identifiedas an open-airaltar similarto that found outside Gournia Tomb II.43 Each of the main elementsin this systemof approach-upper pavement,raisedterrace, and corner platform-uses flat paving slabs of varying colors, mostly blue-gray limestone (sideropetra),but also black, red, and green stones, which impart a decorative,"mosaic" effect to the whole area. These slabs are laid directlyon the earth without a beddingof sand or other material, and the horizontallevels are somewhatirregular;as a result, the slabs of the upper pavementand raised terraceboth slope upwards somewhat,towardsthe west. BURIALS ANDCHRONOLOGY (Fig. 22)
During the excavationof the tomb, Seager discoveredstratifieddeposits in each compartment.ThroughoutCompartmentIV, deepestat the northend, lay a stratumcontaining MM III pottery and other grave goods, including a small terracottahead, but no skeletal remains. Beneath this stratum, along the north face of the partition wall at floor level, an EM III burial was exposed. The skeletal remains are not described, and it is unclear whether they were still articulated. One clay cup fixed the date of the burial (IV 2).44 Apparentlyno EM II remains were found inside the compartment.Seager did reportfragments of black burnishedware just outside the entrance,however, which he believedto be the remainsof an original EM II stratumthat was thrown out when the compartmentwas cleanedfor re-use. 43 See
discussion,pp. 219-221 below. Mochlos II, p. 47, figs. 18, 19; Zois, Kamares-Stil, pp. 160-161; Walberg, Middle Minoan
44Seager,
Pottery, p. 129.
58
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
In CompartmentVI Seager also found two distinct strata. Both containeddisturbed skeletalremains.The upper stratum,which apparentlycoveredthe whole floorof the room, containedMM III/LM I potsherdstogetherwith somemodestgravegoodsand was thought to represent the relics of "people of poor condition."45It was separated from the lower stratum by a layer of fallen wall debris. It was this lower stratum,composedof the lower 0.50 m. of fill in the large cavitythat formsthe floor,that containedthe rich depositof stone vases and goldjewelry for which the tomb is famous. The potteryhere, as noted by Seager, belongedto the early part of the EM II phase, "whenthe grey subneolithicclaysand the buff polishedwares which precededthe mottledfabricswere still in use."46Five clay vases were published from this stratum, one of gray burnishedware (VI 11)47 and four of Koumasa style (VI 6, 15, 19, 20).48 During the cleaningof this compartmentin 1971, a third depositof a completelydifferent naturewas discovered.It was locatedin a slide of looseearthcomingfromjust outsidethe northeastcornerof the room, extending over the collapsedeast wall and filling the whole floorof the compartment(Fig. 22). The actual depositconcealedin this earth slide was limited to a somewhatsmallerarea, extendingfromjust outsidethe east wall to the middleof the roomand sloping down fromthe top of the northend of the east wall to a pointjust below its foundations.The deposit had originally lain outside, between the east wall and the face of the cliff, at least partiallyin the small cavitylocatedthere,which would accountfor Seager's having missed it when he excavatedin this area. Sometimeafter the original excavation,it was washed down into the compartmentand then coveredby earthslides.At least 85 percent of the sherdscollectedfrom this depositbelong to EM IIb/III styles, Vasilike mottledware making up 69 percent of the total, and white-on-black painted ware accounting for 16 percent(PI. 23:a and b).49No vase is complete.The majorityof the Vasilike fragmentsbelong to spouted teapots, however, and over ten spouts were collectedwith fragmentsof as many bases, as well as one completebody (M VI-1). In additionto mottling,many of these fragmentsbear horizontaland verticalrows of impresseddots, a type of additionaldecoration that appears to be less common elsewhere and that may be a distinctive feature of Mochlos Vasilike ware.50The deposit also containeda few objectsof considerablevalue, includinga marblebowl (M VI-4), a bronzedaggerand a bronzescraper(M VI-5 and 6), a one-handledsilver cup that had been foldedover at the time of its depositto enclosea small Seager,Mochlos II, p. 51. Seager,MochlosII, p. 50. 47 Seager, MochlosII, p. 52, figs. 22, 23; Zois, Kamares-Stil,p. 86; Warren, Myrtos,p. 103. 48 Seager, Mochlos II, pp. 52-54, figs. 22, 23; Zois, Kamares-Stil,p. 86. The jugs (VI 15, 19, 20) may be datedto the EM IIa phase on the basis of their shape alone:flat base, globularbody, short and narrowcylindrical neck with small pointedspout, small loop handle from below rim to shoulder.For the shape, cf. Mochlos I b (footnote25, p. 49 above)in painted Koumasastyle. While VI 15 and 19 were apparentlyundecorated, VI 20 carrieddark paint on its spout and handle. 49 A total of 282 sherds were counted in this deposit. They may be classified into the following groups: Vasilike ware (including four fragments with white paint) 68.6%;white-on-black EM III styles 15.8%; brown-blackburnishedfabrics 7%;polished buff fabrics and Koumasa style 3.5%;remaindercoarse or undiagnostic. No sherds could be classed as gray burnished ware, and it is probable that the brown-black burnishedsherdsshouldbe datedto the same time as the EM IIb/III material.No stratificationwas observed, and severaljoins were made between basketstaken from differentlevels. 50For a discussionof this form of decorationsee Warren, Myrtos,pp. 132-133. 45
46
THE WEST TERRACE: TOMB COMPLEX IV/V/VI
59
hoard of gold jewelry (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4298, 4299-4313, 4347-4362), and an ivory seal (Ag.Nik.Mus. 3106). With the exception of the blades, which were found together, all these objects were found at different levels.51The deposit contained no skeletal material whatsoever. In CompartmentV the burial deposit uncoveredby Seager consistedof scatteredskeletal remains mixed with unstratifiedEM II and EM III potteryand other grave goods, all of which were thought to have been dumpedhere after initial burial elsewhere. Two vases are published from this compartment, an EM III white-painted jug (V a)52 and a two-
handledjar that should belong to the EM IIb phase (V b).53 As a result of the cleaning and restudy of this tomb, many of Seager's original observations about its use may be confirmed,while others seem to require some modification. Since the originalburial depositin CompartmentVI belongsto the EM IIa phase, it is clear that the main compartments(IV and VI) were built at this time. Seager believed that the outer CompartmentIV was not used for final intermentsuntil much later, however, and that even when it came to be used for burials, the outer part of the room always remained open. He suggestedthat the compartmentwas designedas a "mortuarychapel"and that the black burnished ware found outside the entrance represented the remains of offerings placed in this chapel.54Such a conclusionwould tie in well with the architecturalelaborationof the room. CompartmentVI, which did containskeletalmaterialof this period,was intendedto serve as the burial chamber. At the end of the EM IIa phase the tomb appears to have undergonesome major alterations.In this period, and probablynot in the MM III phase as suggestedby Seager,the east wall of Compartment VI collapsed and was rebuilt. This sequence is suggested by the
closed EM IIa deposit beneath the collapsed wall debris and by the EM IIb/III deposit found during the cleaning in 1971, which presumably came from CompartmentVI and originally lay above the fallen wall debris. Seager'scontentionthat the room was closed at the end of the EM IIa phase by the blocking wall in the door between CompartmentsIV and VI is unlikely to be true, since this wall lay considerablyabove the EM IIa deposit in the floor cavity and presumablyat the level of the MM III deposit in the room. It is more likely that the room continuedin serviceto the end of the EM III phase, as did both CompartmentsIV and V, and that the wall blockingthe internaldoorwas addedat the very end after the MM III/LM I period, so that the room remainedopen to those who re-used it for burials at this time. In this case, the EM IIb/III material,found duringthe 1971 cleaning, It was from this same deposit "behindthe collapsed east wall" that Hood uncoveredan EM IIb stone teapot (N. Platon, 0XpovrKa>,Kp7/rXpov 2,1948 [pp. 584-590], p. 589, fig. 18; Warren,MSV, p. 99). Seager also excavated here and uncoveredseveral finds, including a "large disk of thin gold ... together with the fragmentsof a couple of fine stone vases,"all apparentlyEM II in date (MochlosII, pp. 55-56). 52 Seager, Mochlos II, p. 42, figs. 18, 19; Zois, Kamares-Stil, p. 149; Walberg, Middle Minoan Pottery, 129. p. 53 Seager, Mochlos II, p. 43, fig. 18. This jar, thought by Seager to belong to the early part of the EM II phase, should be dated to the EM IIb phase on the basis of its decoration.It is made of buff clay coatedwith a brown slip (note the line around the interior of the mouth), which is burnished and decoratedwith three parallel horizontal rows of impressed dots running between the handles. Such dotted decoration,as noted above, is common on Mochlos Vasilike ware and should be distinguishedfrom the incised and punctuated decorationof gray burnishedware. It is imitatedin white paint in the EM III phase immediatelyfollowing. 54 Seager, Mochlos II, p. 44. 51
60
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
would have been thrown out when the room was cleanedto make room for new burials at the start of the MM III phase. Furthermore,CompartmentVI was probablynot filled with burials by the end of the EM IIa phase, since the EM IIa depositdid not extend abovethe floorcavitywhen the east wall collapsed.It is morelikely that this roomwas filledonly in the courseof the EM IIb/III phases, and it was then that the north,rear sectionof CompartmentIV was used for burials, in orderto accommodatethe overflowfromthis room.CompartmentV was probablyerected at this time, too, either sometimein the course of the EM IIb/III phases as a result of the overcrowdingin the tomb or at the beginning of the EM IIb phase in anticipationof this overcrowdingand in conjunctionwith the repairsmadeto the east wall of CompartmentVI. Such a date for CompartmentV is suggestedby the two published vases belonging to the EM IIb and EM III phases and by the depositnotedby Seagerbeneathits south floor,which containedsome EM IIa polished buff and painted Koumasa-stylefragments.55Compartment V would thus have been designedprimarilyas an ossuaryfor the secondarystorageof burials originally made in CompartmentVI, a use suggestedby the scattereddispositionof findsnotedby Seagerand the comparativelycarelessconstructionof the chamber. CATALOGUE
A. Depositfrom Compartment VI Several objectsfrom this deposit have been published fully elsewhere and need no further publication here. They include:the silver cup (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4298) and the jewelry found inside it (Ag.Nik.Mus. 42994313, 4347-4362), published by Davaras, BSA 70, 1975, pp. 101-114; an ivory seal (Ag.Nik.Mus. 3106) found by Davaras in 1971 and publishedin 1973 ('ApX'E4, 1973, pp. 82-84); and a stone teapot (Her.Mus. 2395) foundby Hood in 1948 and publishedby Platon in KprqrXpov2,1948, p. 589 and Warren,MSV, p. 99 (see footnote51, p. 59 above). Severalother objectsfound in 1971 have also been catalogued. VESSELS
Pottery M VI-i (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4376). Fig. 23, PI. 23:a Teapot Outside easternwall of VI. Three large joining fragments preserving body and part of ring foot. Two handles restored. H. 0.068-0.095 m.; D. at base 0.05 m. Fine buff clay; mottledVasilike surface, reserved aroundrim and centerof vase. Flattened piriform body with small raised collar and ring foot. Decorated with three horizontal rows of impressed dots, two around center of body, one below rim. The vase should probably be restored as a typical Vasilike teapot, not a two-handledjar, with one ver55 Seager,Mochlos II, pp. 42,
92-94.
tical handle opposite one side spout. One of the several spoutsfoundin this depositmay in fact belongto the vase. For the decorationcompareV b and M 44 from Mochlos (Seager, Mochlos II, pp. 43, 82, figs. 18, 48) and Warren's discussion in Myrtos, pp. 132-133. The Mochlos examples differ in decoration from the Myrtos vases in that the area behind the dots is reserved. M VI-2 (Ag.Nik.Mus). Fragmentsof Vasilike teapots
PI. 23:b
Found throughout deposit. Fragments of several teapotssimilar to M VI-1, includingat least seven completespouts. Many of the fragments are decoratedwith rows of impresseddots, perhapsinspiredby the dot repousse of contemporaryjewelry, and the decorationseems to be characteristicof Mochlos Vasilike ware. It is
THE WEST TERRACE: TOMB COMPLEX IV/V/VI
M VI-t
61
MVI-4
FIG.23. Vessels from Mochlos Tomb Complex IV/V/VI, CompartmentVI. Scale 1:2 copied, as Seager pointed out, in white paint in the successiveEM III style. M VI-3 (Ag.Nik.Mus.). Fragmentsof PI. 23:b cups Found throughout deposit. Fragments of four cups, preservingrims and part of sides. P.H. 0.038-0.058 m. Sandybuff clay;black slip on exteriorand around the interiorof the rim; white painted decoration. Rounded body curving in towards plain rim. No handles found. Decoration in three or more horizontal friezes around upper part of vase: top frieze invariably with a row of dots; lower friezes plain or with other geometricpattern. The shape and decorationare typical of EM III pottery. See the discussionon p. 11 (for the shape) and under M XIII-1, p. 92 (for the decoration). Stone M VI-4 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4375). Fig. 23, PI. 23 Bowl Found just inside eastern wall at two levels. Join of two fragmentspreservingcompletebowl. H. 0.04 m.; D. at rim 0.112 m. Marble, gray, banded with gray-black, with
bands running horizontally around vase. Bowl with curvedprofile and evertedrim. CompareWarren,MSV, Type 8A, pp. 21-22. Eight examples, includingtwo more of identicalstone, are preserved,completeor intact, from Mochlos.
OTHER OBJECTS
Bronze M VI-5 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4371). Triangular PI. 23 dagger Found inside eastern wall together with M VI-2 and one fragment of M VI-4. Intact, with two rivets. L. 0.109 m.; W. at base 0.041 m.; D. of rivets 0.011 m. Straightbase with two rivets, flat profile. Compareanotherexample froman EM II contextat Mochlos, XIX 26 (Seager,Mochlos II, p. 73, pl. 44) and Branigan, CBW, Type TD.I. M VI-6 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4370). Scraper PI. 23 Found with M VI-5. Intact. L. 0.08 m.; W. 0.012-0.028 m. Long blade, flat profile, with convex cutting edge, concave sides tapering towards straight base. No rivets. Compare Branigan,CBW, Type Sc.IIIa.
62
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
B. Findsfrom outside Tomb Complex IV/V/VI Various pieces of jewelry found in the area in frontof the tombcomplex(Ag.Nik.Mus. 3107-3112,3115, 4366a, b) have been publishedby Davaras:BSA 70,1975, pp. 107-114. Like the cylindricalgold beads4366a, b, which are identicalto those that Seagerfound in CompartmentsIV and VI (MochlosII, figs. 20, 25, pp. 48, 55), many of these pieces may have been thrown out of the tomb during its excavation. The stone-vase fragmentscataloguedbelow (M IV/V/VI-1, 2), however, were found in the same area, apparently unexcavated,and include one group of seven fragmentsthat belong to the same vase. They may have been in situ. M IV/V/VI-2 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4374). Small pot
VESSELS
Stone M IV/V/VI-1 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4373). Fig. 24, PI. 23 Fragmentsof tall jar From surface of altar. Seven fragments without joins; two preservingrim, one part of base. P.H. of largestfragment0.11 m.; approximateD. at rim 0.093 m. Calcite, translucentcreamy white. Flat base, cylindrical body with slightly sloping sides, everted rim. Two horizontalhandles on body. CompareUniv.Mus. MS 4693 from Gournia (Warren, MSV, p. 100, D305). This example, although somewhat taller than the Gournia vase, should be restoredsimilarly. No other examples of the shape are known.
M IV/V/VI-1
Fig. 24, PI. 23
Found with M IV/V/VI-1. Base and lower part of vase preserved. P.H. 0.082 m.; D. at base 0.059 m. Limestone, gray-green with white calcite veins. Flat base, straightcylindricalwalls. CompareWarren,MSV, Type 36 C, pp. 91-92. OTHER OBJECTS
Bronze M IV/V/VI-3 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4363). Small diadem
PI. 23
Found on steps midway along West Terrace. Intact. L. 0.11 m.; max. W. 0.014 m. Short,narrowbandwith roundedends, flat in section. Piercedwith one hole at each end.
M IV/V/VI-2
FIG.24. Vessels from Mochlos Tomb Complex IV/V/VI, altar area. Scale 1:2
THE SOUTH SLOPE
63
THE SOUTH SLOPE The area that Seager referredto as the main slope lies just southeastof the West Terrace, and anyone approaching the West Terrace would have passed through this area first (Plan 3). Like the West Terrace, it is delineated by distinct topographicalfeatures. It is boundedon the northeastby a sharp rise in bedrockthat formsa low cliff, on the northwest by a drop in bedrockthat falls to the level of the West Terrace, and on the southwestby the sea. The slope rises from sea level about 35 meters at its highest point and enclosesa much largerarea than the West Terrace, over 2000 squaremeters.It also containeda much larger number of tombs. Twenty of these have been cleaned and re-exposed, but they represent only a fractionof the total number that once stood here. There is room for nearly twice as many, and Seager estimatedthat there were at least 34 tombs here, doublethe numberthat he excavated.He observedthat many tombs had been completelydestroyed"owingto the steep declivity"on which they were placed and the "processof denudation".Evidence of these destroyedtombs survived,however, in their contents,which were scatteredover the "entirehillside, the soil of which was found to be filled with objectsfrom tombs which had otherwisedisappeared,"and in depositsof a "stickywhite clay"that were thoughtto belong to the vanishedwalls or roofs of these tombs.56The destructionhas been greatestacrossthe exposed centerof the slope, where erosionhas been most severe,while most of the preserved tombs are protectedby overhangingcliffs along the top of the slope and along its sides. The cleaning of this area, carriedout in 1971, 1972, and 1976, has revealeda rather methodicallayout, unusual in Prepalatial cemeteries,which reflectsthe terrain of the site. Most of, if not all, the tombswere built on terracesthat run approximatelyeast-west across the slope,57starting near the edge of the water and rising one above the other up the hill. Each terracebackson the one aboveit and is supportedeither by a rise in bedrockor, more often, by the rear walls of the tombs on the terracebelow. The terracesare partly natural, therefore,and partly artificial. Narrow passages appear to have run lengthwise along the outer side of each terrace, while thindividual the tombs stood on the inner side, backing in the rise level of the ae terrace behind and opening onto the outer passage in against ground front. While only one of these terraces,the topmost,is completelypreservedalong its entire length, the terraces that are partially preservedbelow this one and the contour intervals along the slope suggest that there may once have been as many as seven terracesof tombs. The section drawn along the eastern side of the slope through the upper four terraces, Figure 26, indicatestheir general disposition. Many of the tombs on the South Slope can be identified with those that Seager excavatedand published.Since Seager'ssystem of numberingwas often haphazard,however, in the following descriptionthe tombsare arrangedby the terraceon which they are located, startingwith the topmostor seventhterrace. 56 Seager,MochlosII, pp. 13, 16. It should also be notedthat a great numberof small stones,of the type that may once have been used in the constructionof tomb walls, lie strewn about the South Slope. 57 The actual orientationis more nearly southeast-northwest.The tombs are oriented accordingly,running usually northeast-southwest,although in the following descriptiontheir walls are designatednorth, south, east, and west, as they are by Seager.
64
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY TERRACE
7: TOMBS XIX, XXIII, A, AND B (Figs. 25 and 26, PI. 24:a)
Seager,Mochlos II, pp. 70-74, 79-80. LOCATION AND EXCAVATION
Terrace 7, the highest and best preserved of the terraces on the South Slope, extends for
a distanceof ca. 20.40 m. east-west and averagesca. 5 m. in width (but only ca. 3.20 m. at its east end). It is boundedon the northby a sharp rise in bedrock,which formsan overhanging cliff along its easternhalf, on the west by a rise in the hill that overlooksthe West Terrace, and on the east by a sharp drop to the level of the sixth terrace. Four tombs lie in a row here, and since there is little space for additional tombs, four
appears to be the original number on this terrace.Each backs against the cliff rising to the northand facessouth,with its side walls runningfromthe faceof the cliff parallelto the side walls of the other tombs. The tombs may be identified without any doubt, since Seager describesfour such tombs, only two of which, XIX and XXIII, containedany finds, and these are the only tombson the South Slope that may be so described.Tomb XXIII, which "layin a line with No. XIX," is the third from the west in this row, since Seagernoted that the two empty and unnumberedtombs lie to its right and left. Tomb XIX, therefore,must be the westernmostof the four. With the exceptionof XXIII, which was blockedby a huge boulderthat had fallen into its center,the tombswere cleanedby the author in 1971. In 1976 the Greek Archaeological Serviceremovedthe boulderfrom Tomb XXIII and re-exposedthe tomb. TOMBXIX (P1. 24:c and d)
Seager describedthe constructionof the tomb as "verypoor, consistingof a retaining wall at the lower or southernend, with two side walls runningbackto the face of the cliff at the foot of which the tomb lies."58The tomb is the least well preservedof those on this ledge, and thus its construction might well be described as "very poor". In its layout it meets
Seager'sgeneral descriptionexcept for one detail. In 1976 the remainsof a secondchamber were found next to and west of the chamberthat Seager excavated.Very few traces of it remain:its west and south walls are largely destroyed,and only its north wall and shared eastern wall are preserved. It does not appear to have been previously excavated. The eastern chamber,on the other hand, which had been excavated,matches Seager'sdescription of the tomb. He noted that the soil at its north end against the cliff was only 0.10 m. deep and that the soil covernever reachedmore than 0.40 m. in any part of the tomb. The tomb is the least sheltered of the four on this terrace, since the cliff to the north is not high
here (and might betterbe describedas an outcropping),and it rests directlyon the bedrock slope; a deeper soil cover would be impossible. The tomb is also providedwith the "very uneven"rockfloor that Seagernoted. The buildingis, then, a two-roomrectangularstructure,not one roomas Seagerreportwith an over-all length east-west of ca. 4.60 m. There is no clearlydiscernibleentrance, ed, but doorwayswere probablyonce locatedin the destroyedsouthernwalls, as they are in the 58
Seager,Mochlos II, p. 70.
THE SOUTH SLOPE,TERRACE7
65
rest of the tombs on this terrace. The eastern room, which held the rich finds uncovered by Seager, is the larger, measuring ca. 2.40 m. at its wider north end and ca. 2.20 m. north-south. Both the east and west side walls remain, projectingat right angles from the cliff face and restingon bedrock.59The better-preservedeast wall is built in ordinaryrubble on the inside, but the base on the outsidenear its northend is facedwith a small uprightslab of green schist. This slab is quite thin and appearsto have been primarilydecorative.Other such slabs, now destroyedand washed down the slope, may have lined the exterior walls. Except for a very small built section of wall located in an indentationin the bedrock,the north wall of the room consistsof the cliff face that rises here 1.50 to 2.00 m. abovethe floor of the room. The western room is quite narrow, measuring ca. 0.74 m. at its north end. Unlike the easternroom, its northernwall was providedwith a stone socle that rests on the rise in bedrockand runs between the centralwall of the tomb and a bedrockoutcroppingat the west. A small stretchof the westernwall is also preservedat the northwestcorner.60Both roomshave irregularbedrockfloors,consistingof a colorfulcombinationof purple schistand sideropetrawith white calciteveins, that slope down towardsthe south. TOMBXXIII (P1.25:a and b) Seager describedthis tomb as "longand narrow, with a doorwayat the lower end"and gave its measurementsas "length2.80 m., width 1 m."61The tomb in question meets this general description,and although it is nowhere quite so narrow as one meter, its internal measurementsare approximatelythose that Seager provided. In general, Seager did not give accuratemeasurementsfor the South Slope tombs. Instead,he noted, "Thesetombs ... are always of about the same size, viz. 1 m. wide by 2 m. long. Therefore I have given no dimensionsin describingthem except in cases which are markedexceptionsto this rule."62 In fact, all Seager's measurementsare approximate.Seager reportedthat the walls of the tomb were "builtpartly of small upright slabs, partly of horizontalcoursesof small stones." Unfortunately,becauseof the destructioncausedby the fall of a large boulderinto the tomb and the damagedone in removingit, large portionsof the walls are destroyed.Nevertheless, this feature of Seager's descriptionseems as if it would have matchedthe lost walls, since horizontalcoursesof small flat stonesand a few small uprightslabs are foundin the walls at the north side of the tomb. There are, however,no large orthostateslabs. The tomb is a rectangularbuilding. Its east and west walls projectat right angles from the face of the cliff at the north, varying in length from ca. 3.30 m. on the east to ca. 4.30 m. on the west.63The east wall is badly damagedtowardsthe south and along the outer face. At the northit rests abovethe floorlevel on the part of the cliff facethat projectsinto the tombat this corner.At the south it ends in a large cornerstoneand is joinedby a shortsegmentof wall 59
Tomb XIX, east room, east wall: L. ca. 1.30 m.; W. 0.47-0.75 m.; H. ca. 0.50 m. West wall: L. ca.
0.32 m.; W. ca. 0.57 m.; H. ca. 0.35 m. 60
Tomb XIX, west room, north wall: L. ca. 1.04 m.; W. ca. 50 m.; H. above floor ca. 0.81 m. Only one or two stones of the south wall that Seagerobservedare preservedtoday. 61 Seager, Mochlos II, p. 79. 62 Seager, Mochlos II, p. 56. 63 Tomb XXIII, west wall: L. of northernsectionca. 0.67 m.; H. includingfoundationca. 0.98 m.; total L. ca. 4 m. East wall: L. ca. 3.46 m.; W. 0.54-0.60 m.; H. ca. 0.81 m.
i> l:
.-
-
_
fO
V:
Q 0 FP-
0
c
-4 ra
0
OI.o
J2 0
Cl r.
EJ* LSl 0
s) 4.
64?
.
Tomb B
Tomb IX Tomb XVI
FIG.26. Sections A1Bl, A2B2, A3B3, and A4B4 through Mochlos Tombs B, IX, XVI, and XI Slope Terraces 7, 6, 5, and 4 (drawn by Faith Hentschel and the author)
68
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
to the west, which closes off the southern side of the tomb, leaving an opening ca. 0.86 m. wide between it and the western wall that servesas the main entrance.The westernwall of the tomb was also badly shatteredat the south by the fall of the large boulder,and only the lowest course of the southern half of the wall remains. At the north the wall is better preserved:its upper portion rests on a low projectingfoundation,two to three irregular courseshigh, which also servesas the thresholdof an internaldoorway(P1.25:b). This section of the wall is also unusual in that it turns at right angles alongsidethe internaldoorway it flanksand extendsto the west about one meter along a projectingsectionof the cliff face. The main doorwayof the tomb, locatedon the south, is flankedby two short walls that projectsouth of it and form a small alcove or landing. Both projectingwalls are relatively narrow and are built primarilyof green and purple schist slabs;they form decorativepiers on either side of the entrance.The alcove,ca. 1.24 m. long and 0.46-0.58 m. wide, is paved with a large, perfectlyflat slab of green schist. It providesaccess to the doorway,which is also providedwith a thresholdslab of green schist. This entry opens into a room 2.72-3.04 m. deep and 1.26-1.42 m. wide. It is provided with an irregularbedrockfloor that rises to the northeastwhere the cliff face projectsinto the room. The north wall of the room, which rests on this projection,is particularlyinterestingfor the evidenceit providesfor roofing.It is built in two sectionsabovethe flooron natural ledges in the rock face.64Each sectionis constructedof flat stones, horizontallylaid one stonedeep, and is separatedfromthe otherby a small gap filled with projectingbedrock. At neither end does the wall bond with the side walls of the tomb:it lies north of the west wall, and at its east end, inside the east wall. It cannotbe considereda retainingwall, since none is requiredagainst a cliff face of sheer rock;its functioncan be explained only by the need to provide this side of the tomb with a vertical wall to support a roof. The highest preservedpoint of this wall lies ca. 1.80 m. above the level of the thresholdat the entrance and indicatesthe minimum height for the roof. The internal doorway in the west wall opens onto a rock ledge, behind the adjacent Tomb A, that appearsto have formedan additionalinner room.Althoughthe ledge lies 0.65 to 1.10 m. abovethe floor level of Tomb A, it couldapparentlybe reachedfromthere as well as from Tomb XXIII. It is boundedat the north by the irregularface of the rock cliff that rises severalmetershigher and at the west by a natural rise in bedrockthat lies on the same north-south line as the built sectionof the westernwall of Tomb A and couldhave provided a natural rock socle for a mud-brickwall. The floor of the ledge is relatively flat bedrock except at the east, where a depressionbeforethe doorwayleadingto Tomb XXIII was filled in with earth. Since both Tombs A and XXIII are providedwith main entrancesat the south, it is unclear whether they were originally designedto connectinternallyand form a unit or whether the internal doorway is a later modification.In Tomb XXIII, the course projectingfrom under the northernportionof the westernwall and flush beneathits southern portion may representthe original line of this wall, which was altered when the doorway was opened into Tomb A. 64 Tomb XXIII, north wall: L. of west sectionca. 0.80 m., of east sectionca. 0.71 m.; total L. ca. 1.58 m.; W. 0.20-0.32 m.; H. of built west sectionca. 0.79 m., of built east sectionca. 0.40 m.
THE SOUTH SLOPE, TERRACE 7
69
TOMBA (P1.26:a and b) The tomb lying immediatelyto the west of Tomb XXIII is one of the two emptyones on this terracethat Seagerexcavatedand left unnumbered.Like all the others,it backsagainst the cliff face to the north, its east and west walls extendingsouth from the cliff. The tomb is unusual in that it appearsto incorporatethe flat ledge in the face of the cliff at its rearand is, as a result, partly a natural rock formationand partly a built structure.Its maximumoverall dimensions,includingthis ledge, are ca. 3.90 m. east-west and ca. 4.60 m. north-south. The east wall of the tomb is the west wall of Tomb XXIII. Its south portion extends from the face of the ledge at the rear of the tomb, and its north portion lies on the higher level of the ledge itself. The west wall of the tomb is only partlyconstructedof masonry.The built sectionruns betweenthe face of the ledge at the northand an outcroppingof bedrockat the south that is used for the cornerstoneof the west and south walls. Two irregularcourses are preserved,set on a beddingof earth and small stones 0.20-0.30 m. thick. To the north, as noted above,level, steppedrises in the natural bedrockalong the western side of the rock ledge continuethe north-south line of the built sectionof wall and may well have servedas natural stone socles for its mud-bricksuperstructure.The south wall of the tomb runs from the bedrock"cornerstone"at the southwest cornerof the tomb parallel to the rock ledge at the rear. Only one course, containinga large amount of earth mortar, is preserved.At its east end, where it is widened on the inside, it leaves a space ca. 0.50 m. wide for a doorway at the southeastcornerof the tomb.65 This doorwayprovidesaccessto an irregularroomon two levels, ca. 2.50 m. wide at the south. Its lower, southern part forms a rectangular space provided with a level floor of packedearth, while its upper, northernpart extendsback into the face of the cliff on a natural rock ledge 0.65 to 1.10 m. above the lower part. There are no traces of any kind of interveningwall between these two levels, and the north wall was formed simply by the verticalrock face of the cliff that rises severalmetersabovethe ledge. TOMBB (Pls. 24:a and 26:c)
Tomb B is the eastern of the two unnumberedtombs that flank Tomb XXIII and is locatedat the easternend of the terraceat the point where the bedrockoutcroppingthat runs along the eastern side of the South Slope begins to rise. The tomb, a one-roombuilding ca. 2.70 m. wide (east-west), nestles against the rising bedrock and makes use of it in the constructionof its walls and perhaps even its roof. All its walls are constructedof the usual flat stones laid in irregular horizontal courses, with a few small slabs occasionallyplaced upright, and they rest partly or entirely on bedrock outcroppings.Where the west wall extends from the face of the cliff that rises above the tomb to the north, it rests on an outcroppingca. 0.45 m. above the floor of the tomb. At the south, where it lies at floor level, it extendsca. 0.68 m. south of the south facadeof the tomb.The east wall, which runs parallel to the west wall, formsa retainingwall in frontof the bedrockthat rises along this side of the 65 Tomb A, west wall: L. of built section ca. 1.46 m., total L. includingbedrock"cornerstone"ca. 2.31 m.; W. 0.55-0.58 m.; H. ca. 0.76 m. South wall: L. of built section ca. 2.05 m.; W. 0.50-0.56 m., at east end by
door ca. 0.71 m.; H. ca. 0.32 m.
70
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
tomb and, like the outer walls of Gournia Tomb I, appearsto have been built with an inner face commencingat a lower level than the outer, which lies at the higher level of the exterior bedrock.At its north end the wall rests on a small projectingledge in the cliff face ca. 1 m. abovefloorlevel;at its south end the inner face rests on earth fill ca. 0.30 m. thick, while the outer face rests on the exteriorbedrockca. 1 m. abovethe floor.The south wall of the tomb is constructedin two parts on either side of the entrance.The westernsection,which formsa doorjamb, is set back from the end of the west wall, which projectsbeyondit ca. 0.68 m. to the south and does not bond with it. The easternsectionis built largely on the bedrockthat rises to the east, while its inner face rests partly on an earth beddingca. 0.28 m. thick.66 The entranceto the tomb is unusual for its resemblanceto that of Tomb IV on the West Terrace. Like that entrance,it is set at the back of a small shelteredarea or alcove, but in this case the alcoveis partlynatural. It is formedby the projectingsectionof west wall on the west and on the east by the outcroppingof bedrockon which the east wall and the east end of the south wall are built. This outcroppingprojectsca. 1.54 m. south of the south wall and leavesa space ca. 1.20 m. wide betweenit and the west wall. The doorway,ca. 0.73 m. wide, is pavedwith a stonethresholdconsistingof one flat slab set diagonallyin the doorspaceand a fill of smallerstonesto its northwest.It gives accessto a roomthat is roughlyL-shapedas a result of the projectionof the cliff face at the northeastcorner.The length of the roomalong the shortereasternside is ca. 1.80 m., while along the westernside, where the roomextends fartherbackinto the face of the cliff, it is ca. 2.32 m.; the width of the roomat the south is ca. 1.65 m. but only ca. 0.68 m. at the northwest corner. Only part of the north wall is constructedof masonry.At the northeastit is formedby the overhangingcliff face that formed part of the roof; at the northwest, where the indentationin the cliff face is located, it is formedby a single thicknessof stone walling set abovethe floor. This wall abuts the north end of the west wall without bonding with it and joins the cliff face on the east. It is preservedto a height of only three coursesbut was probablyoriginallybuilt higher to meet the overhangingcliff above.67The floorof the roomappearsto have been level packedearth at the south;at the north it is formedby the rising bedrock. During the 1971 cleaning, a small stratum, 0.08-0.20 m. deep, of burned material containingmany carbon flecks was uncoveredin the southeast corner of the tomb. It appeared to be an original stratum, since it extended beneath the walls at this cornerof the tomb, and it included numerous undiagnosticsherds.Just outside the east wall, approximately one meter abovethis burnedarea, were found fragmentsof mud brickbakedby fire and made of the coarsered-brownclay, with tracesof the original straw reinforcing,that is typical of Minoan mud brick.68It is likely that this small area outsidethe east wall was left unexcavatedby Seager and that these fragmentsbelongedto the superstructureof the tomb along this side and were preservedby the fire of which tracesare visible in the stratumat the southeastcornerof the room. There are several indicationsthat mud brick was used above 66Tomb B, west wall: L. ca. 4.10 m.; W. 0.44-0.56 m.; H. including ledge at north end ca. 1.35 m. East wall: L. ca. 2.20 m.; H. includingnorth ledge ca. 1.43 m. South wall: L. of west section(east-west) ca. 0.29 m.; W. ca. 0.45 m.; L. of east section (east-west) ca. 1.20 m.; W. ca. 0.40 m.; H. on inside ca. 1 m. 67 Tomb B, north wall: L. ca. 0.85 m.; W. 0.30-0.54 m.; H. of built sectionabovebedrockca. 0.78 m. 68 The largest fragment measures ca. 0.21 by 0.16 by 0.11 m. See also the fragmentsfound in Tomb Z, p. 108 below.
THE SOUTH SLOPE, TERRACE 7
71
stone socles in many of the tombs on the South Slope, but these fragmentsand those from Tomb Z on the first terraceare the only actual remainsthat have been noted. BURIALS AND CHRONOLOGY
The burials from these tombs are not describedby Seager. Tomb XIX, although one of the more modest of the Mochlos tombs in construction, was one of the richest in finds. In addition to quantities of gold jewelry and stone vases reportedby Seager, it alone of the tombs in this row was reportedto have containedany pottery:EM III sherdsare reported,and four EM II vases are published.The vases include two fruitstandsof dark brown burnished ware (XIX 1, 10) and two teapots of plain red ware (XIX 8, 9).69 The remainingtombson this terracehad been plundered,but Seagerbelieved that all four should be dated to the same phases of EM II and III because of their locationside by side in a row. The resemblanceof the facadeof Tomb B to that of Tomb IV and the similarityof the wall constructionof this tomb and that of Tomb XXIII would suggest the same conclusion. In addition to the mud-brick fragments, the only finds made in the 1971 and 1976 cleaningwere a quern and rubberfromthe southwestcornerof Tomb A (M A-i and 2) and a stone vase from the southeastcornerof Tomb XXIII (M XXlll-1). These finds were all uncoveredat floor level in apparentlyunexcavatedcornersof the tombsand must have been among their original contents. CATALOGUE
TombA OBJECTS
Stone PI. 26:b M A-1 Saddlequern From southwest corner of Tomb A. Fragments missing from sides. Dims. 0.48 x 0.30 x 0.07 m. Limestone, light gray, fine grained. Rectangular, with roundedcorners.Surfaceworn from use.
These stone implements are only two of a large number of fragmentaryquerns and stone tools scattered around the South Slope tombs (PI. 24:b). Although none is reported by Seager and only one other stone tool was found in situ during the cleaning, it is likely that all these implementswere originally among the contentsof the surroundingtombs.
Compare those from Myrtos: Warren, Myrtos, pp. 224-225.
Tomb XXIII VESSEL Stone
PI. 26:b M A-2 Rubber Intact. M A-1. with Found quern Dims. 0.155 x 0.12 x 0.06 m. Limestone,light gray. Ovoid, rounded. Compare those from Myrtos: Warren, pp. 234-235.
M XXIII-1 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 6866). Fig. 27, PI. 25 Spoutedbowl Davaras, AcAr 31, 1976, p. 377, pl. 298:8. Found in the southeast corner of Tomb XXIII, shatteredinto many pieces but complete. H. 0.078 m.; D. at rim 0.152 m.
69For a discussionof fruitstandssee under G II-8, pp. 25-26 above;for a discussionof plain red ware see
Warren, Myrtos, pp. 93-94. The teapot XIX 8 appears on the basis of its shape to belong to the EM IIb phase;cf. P670 from Myrtos (Warren,Myrtos, p. 151).
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
72
FIG.27. Spoutedbowl M XXIII-1 from Mochlos Tomb XXIII. Scale 1:2
Marble, gray-black with gray-white mottled patches. Low open bowl with rim spout and three rim lugs; decoratedwith incisedrectangleon base. For an identical,thoughsmaller,vaseof the samematerial, compareM 19 from Mochlos (Seager,Moch-
los II, p. 81, fig. 47). Five otherexamplesof the same shape are reportedby Seager,and a sixth was found in the 1976 cleaning of Tomb VII (see M VII-1, p. 104 below). CompareWarren,MSV, Type 37 B.1, PP. 94-95.
TERRACE 6: TOMBS IX, X, XX/XXI, XXII, AND F Seager,Mochlos II, pp. 57-58, 74-79. LOCATION AND EXCAVATION
Terrace 6, which lies 4 to 4.50 m. immediatelybelow Terrace 7, extendssomewhatfarther east and west (Plan 3). It measures ca. 37 meters in length and varies in width from ca. 4.30 m. at its west end to ca. 9.40 m. at the east. It is boundedon the west by the steep drop in bedrockthat falls to the level of the West Terrace and on the east by the rise in bedrock that flanks the east side of the South Slope. It is well definedon the north by bedrock outcroppingsthat rise to the level of Terrace 7. Five tombs are preservedon this terrace:two at the western end, one near the middle, and two at the easternend. There are no tracesof others, althoughthere is ample space for at least three more in the areas to either side of the middle tomb. The preservedtombs resemblethose on the terraceabovein that they backagainsta rise in bedrockand open onto a narrow corridorto the south. At the west end of the terrace,this corridorwas completely exposed and is still intact. It is quite narrow, as little as 0.70 m. in width, and is formedby level packedearth held in by the north wall of the tomb on the terracebelow. The tombs at the west end of the terracemay be identifiedwithout any doubtas Seager'sTombs XX and XXI, which form a single unit like the tomb complexes on the West Terrace, and Tomb XXII, while those at the east end are most likely Tombs IX and X. The tomb in the middle was probablynot identifiedas such by Seager becauseof its poor state of preservationand may not even have been excavatedby him; it is identifiedhere as Tomb r. The tombs at the west end of the terrace were still largely exposed when they were cleanedby the authorin 1971. The tombsat the east end and in the middleof the terrace,on
THE SOUTH SLOPE, TERRACE 6
73
the other hand, had been completelyreburiedsince Seager'sexcavation.They were cleaned by the Greek ArchaeologicalServicein 1976. (Figs. 28 and 29, P1.27) These tombs,which lie side by side at the west endof the terrace,receivethe mostdetailed descriptionof any of the small tombsin Seager'spublication,and their identificationhere is certain.Tomb XXII, which is describedas "avery narrowgrave or rathertrenchlyingjust outsidethe west wall of No. XX,"70is the westernmostof the tombsand is locatedat the very edge of the cliff that drops down to Tomb Complex I/II/III on the West Terrace. Tomb XX/XXI, which is describedincorrectlyas two tombsby Seager,lies immediatelyto the east. Seager believedthat a MM III tomb, XX, cut into an earlier EM II/III tomb, XXI. He noted that the later tomb lay next to the earlier, which was located "alongthe face of the adjacentcliff,"71and that it re-usedthe south wall of the originaltomb,which was brokenby a doorway,and perhapsalso its west wall. He believed,however,that the east wall of XX, "a wall of small stones,"was a later additionthat cut the originaltombin half. At the sametime, he notedthat if the east wall of XX was a lateradditionand if the west wall of XX was indeed the original west wall of XXI, then "the original enclosure was a large one, about 2 m.
TOMBSXX/XXI
AND XXII
square."72
All these features (the adjacentcliff, the doorway in the south wall, the wall of small stones) may be observedin the tomb cleaned in 1971. Seager'serror lay in identifyingthe east wall of XX as a later additionwhen in fact it servedas an interiorpartitionwall in the original tomb and was requiredto supportthe roof of the original tomb, the south facadeof which actually extends ca. 3.70 m. east-west, not the two meters estimatedby Seager. The tomb is a single building, then, which was used initially in the EM II and III phases (XX/XXI) and re-used in the MM III phase (XX). The tomb is a two-room rectangularstructureset against a natural L-shapednook in the face of the cliff that rises above it on the north and east and providesnatural rockwalls on these two sides. The eastern section of rock projectssouthwardsfrom the northernsection almost at right angles, and it is this sectionthat Seager called the "adjacentcliff".The south wall runs parallel to the face of the cliff at the north side of the tomb and joins the adjacentrockprojectionat its east end. This wall is built of ordinaryrubblewith a doorway in the center dividingit into two sections.73The east section,which is complete,terminates at the doorwayin a large, nearly square block, while the west section ends in small, irregularly placed stones that suggest that this jamb of the doorway may be only partially preserved.At the southeastcornerof the tomb, where an indentationin the rock face of the cliff leaves a small gap between the south wall and the solid rock that forms the east side of the tomb, a short sectionof wall was built at right angles to the south wall. Its inner side is faced with one oblong, upright slab, the only upright slab in the walls of the tomb, and Seager'suse of the expression"slab-lined"to describeXX/XXI differsfrom his application Seager,Mochlos II, p. 78. Seager,Mochlos II, p. 74. 72 Seager, MochlosII, p. 76. 73 Tomb XX/XXI, south wall: L. of east section ca. 2.10 m., of west sectionca. 1.67 m.; W. 0.50-0.63 m.; H. includingbeddingca. 0.69 m. 70
71
A
2 2&46
I I I I
z5.36
I1 I I I I
B
" [I
0
nm
1
2
FIG.28. Plan of Mochlos Tombs XX/XXI, XXII, and XIII on South Slope Terraces 6 an
THE SOUTH SLOPE, TERRACE 6
75
A
26.46
-25.36
0
I
2
3M. Jss
FIG.29. SectionAB through Mochlos Tombs XX/XXI and XIII on South Slope Terraces 6 and 5
of the term to the large tombs on the West Terrace with their orthostateslabs. At its west end the south wall is bondedwith the built section of west wall, and the outer angle where these two walls join, the southwest corner of the tomb, is strengthenedby a single large block. The bonding of these two walls confirmsthe "possibility"suggestedby Seager that the west wall is contemporarywith the south wall and formedpart of the originaltomb.The west wall, only part of which is built of masonry, rests at a slightly higher level than the south wall, on bedrockinsteadof earth fill, becauseof the rise of the bedrockflooralong this side of the tomb. Midway, the wall overlies and was actually built upon projectingrock, which rises here in three steps to meet the cliff face along the north side of the tomb. The north end of the built section of wall rests on the lowest of these steps, while the rock itself formsthe rest of the west wall (althoughone loose stone, lying on the secondstep, may have belongedto an extensionof the built wall). At the north end of this projectingsteppedledge, in the right angle formedwhere it meets the north side of the tomb, a small, nearly square pier is built up on a natural horizontalledge rising a total of ca. 1.40 m. abovethe bedrock floor. This pier, although structurallyindependent,formsthe north end of the west wall.74 The doorway in the south wall, ca. 1.08 m. wide as preserved,providesaccess to two rooms of approximatelyequal dimensions (PI. 27:b). The doorway is peculiarly situated, however,since it opens onto the internal dividingwall and onto both roomsequally instead 74 Tomb XX/XXI, built sectionof east wall: L. ca. 0.32 m.; W. ca. 0.32 m.; H. ca. 1.10 m. West wall: L. of built sectionca. 1.88 m.; W. 0.52-0.56 m.; H. ca. 1.02 m. West pier: ca. 0.42 by 0.39 by 0.80 m.
76
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
of being set to one side and giving primaryaccess to one room. The internal dividingwall, which runs approximatelyparallel to the east and west sides of the tomb, is built with a double course of "smallstones",as observedby Seager, and is considerablynarrowerthan the outer walls of the tomb. It rests on an earth bedding0.05-0.21 m. thick, and it is apparently this bedding and the early gold beads caught in it at the northwest that prompted Seager to considerthe wall a later addition. In fact, this bedding is not much higher than that on which the south wall rests, and it representsnot later fill in the tombbut the original floorlevel createdwhere bedrockfalls away. At the south the wall is incomplete,althoughit is not likely that it continuedmuch farther;at the north it is built up with eight additional coursesof flat stonesto form a verticalpier set against the cliff face and rising a total of ca. 1.34 m. above floor level.75This centralnorth pier is locatedon the same line as that in the northwestcornerof the tomb, and both are in line with a naturalledge in the rockface at the northeast corner. The three features are all approximatelythe same height and clearly formedthe verticalsupportsfor an importanthorizontalroof beam that ran along this side of the tomb. The internalpartitionwall to the south of the north pier, as preserved,formsa level horizontal surface which most likely supporteda mud-bricksuperstructure,and the outer walls of the tomb on the south and west must also have supported such a superstructurethat rose attleast as high as the piers at the north side. The roomto the west of the internalpartitionmeasuresca. 2.55 m. north-south and ca. 1.37 m. acrossits center;its bedrockfloor slopes down from west to east. The room east of the partitionmeasuresca. 2.70 m. north-south and ca. 1.98 m. acrossits center.Its bedrock floor slopes upwards slightly from west to east, and along the east side and the northeast corner,bedrockprojectsinto the tomb at a higher level.All the bedrockis quite colorfuland includesveins of green and purple schists as well as sideropetrawith white chlorite.At the northwestcornerof the easternroomis "acreviceof the rocknear the back"notedby Seager, which containedthe richestdepositof EM II/III materialin the tomb.76 Tomb XXII, as Seager observed,is a narrow rectangulartomb lying just outside the west wall of Tomb XX (PI. 27:c). It occupiesthe small area between Tomb XX and the edge of the cliff that falls straightdown here to the West Terrace. The tomb is a one-room structureorientedin the same directionas the tombnext to it. Its northwall is formedby the face of the cliff that rises aboveit, while its west and east walls, running south fromthe cliff face, are constructedin normal rubble fashion and probably formed low socles for mudbricksuperstructures.The east wall, lying only ca. 0.20 m. fromthe west wall of Tomb XX, is constructedon a ledge in the cliff ca. 0.48 m. above the floor level. At its south end it is largely destroyed;at the north it joins the same projectingrock that the west wall of Tomb XX joins, in such a way that the northeastcornerof the tombis also formedby the rockface. There is also a naturalledge in the rockface at this corner,rising ca. 1.30 m. abovethe floor, which could have supporteda roof beam running east-west. The entire length of the west 75 Tomb XX/XXI, centralpartitionwall: L. ca. 2.05 m.; W. ca. 0.37 m.; H. includingbeddingca. 0.40 m. Centralpier: ca. 0.30 by 0.45 by 1.34 m. 76 Seager,MochlosII, p. 76. It is locatedin the space betweenthe internalpartitionwall and the projecting bedrockon the east.
THE SOUTH SLOPE,TERRACE6
77
wall is preservedand rests directlyon the bedrockfloor.77Bondedwith the base of this wall at the south and running at right angles to it is what appearsto be a fragmentof south wall, only three stones of which remain but which may originally have partially enclosed the tomb at this end, formingthe jamb of a doorway. The south end of the tomb opens into a space ca. 1.91 m. long and ca. 1.13 m. wide at its center.It is providedwith a bedrockfloorthat slopes down from north to south. TOMBr (Fig. 30, P1. 28)
Near the middle of Terrace 6 still another tomb is locatedin the area of the cemetery that has suffered most from erosion. It is a rectangularone-room building in a very poor state of preservation.Very little of the structureremains, but the tomb is neverthelessan important example of the architectureof the cemetery. Its south wall is completely destroyed,and its contentswere presumablywashed down the slope long ago. If Seagerexcavated the tomb, and there is some evidencethat he did not, it is doubtfulthat he would have mentionedit. It does not match any of the descriptionsthat he providedfor the numbered tombs in his publication. Like Tomb A on the terraceabove, hi tomb appearsto have made use of two levels of bedrock.The upper, northernmostlevel is a ledge lying 0.50-0.60 m. above the lower and surroundedon the north, east, and west by the rockcliff that rises severalmetersto the level of the seventhterrace.It forms an irregularspace at one side of the tomb, ca. 3.65 m. wide acrossits southernside and 1.00-1.55 m. deep. The lower part of the tomb appearsto have been roughly rectangular;at each side of this section,built walls projectfrom the face of the ledge. At the east only two large stones, which may once have formed orthostateblocks, remain.The westernwall, on the other hand, appearsto be largelyintact.At its south end it terminatesin one large boulderof sideropetraset upright on a courseof small stones, while the part of the wall between this boulder and the bedrockledge to the north is built in ordinaryrubble.78At the time of the 1976 cleaning white plaster still adheredto the north part of the wall; it also extendedonto the northwestcornerof the floor. No trace of the south wall remains, but it is likely that the entry would have been locatedsomewherealong this side as it is in each of the other tombson the terrace.It would have providedaccessto a room ca. 3.80 m. wide at its rear and ca. 1.84 m. deep on the west. There is no evidencefor any internal wall, and there was apparently,as in Tomb A, direct accessfromthe lower part of the tombon the south to the rear upper part. The lower part of the tomb used plaster on earth for its floor, while the upper part used the rockledge. In the 1976 cleaning,dozensof small roundedstoneswere uncoveredin the lower part of the tomb; they may have formed some kind of additional flooring (PI. 28:a). Fragments of a pithos were also found in this room (M F-I).
77 Tomb XXII, east wall: L. of built section ca. 1.86 m.; W. 0.40-0.68 m.; H. including ledge ca. 0.84 m. West wall: L. ca. 2.47 m.; W. 0.36-0.47 m.; H. ca. 0.31 m. 78 Tomb r, west wall: L. ca. 1.84 m.; W. 0.50-0.84 m.; H. ca. 0.80 m.
25.88
BX
-
I
cJ B
0
1
2
3M. RA L
FIG.30. Plan and section of Mochlos Tomb F on South Slope Terrace 6 (drawn by Regina
THE SOUTH SLOPE,TERRACE6
79
2824
[IX]
t
-Ii
I
28.04
-
t I I I
I i
0I
I
I
-
I
I
I
1,-B2 3M.
2 -I
iss
FIG. 31. Plan of Mochlos Tombs IX and X on South Slope Terrace 6
TOMBSIX AND X (Figs. 26 and 31, PI. 29)
These tombsare locatedagainst the bedrockoutcroppingsthat rise at the easternend of Terrace 6. They are locatedside by side and share a single dividingwall. Each is provided with a doorway opening to the south, and on the inside a third doorway, located at the northern end of the dividing wall, provides direct access from one tomb to the other. In this respect, the building resembles Tombs A and XXIII on the terrace above and forms a kind
of double tomb. In addition to the tombs on the seventh terrace,which have already been identified,Seager describedonly two other groups of tombsthat lie adjacentto one another:
80
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
IX, X and XV, XVII. If the identificationof the other tombs is correct,then these two tombsat the east end of the sixth terraceand those lying immediatelyto the south of them on the fifth terrace,which also lie side by side, are the only candidates.Two facts suggest that those on Terrace 6 shouldbe identifiedas IX and X. First, SeagerdescribedIX, X as "slablined"and XV, XVII as "builttombs",and indeed, upright slabs are placed along the base of the interior dividing wall here, whereas none are to be found in the two tombs on the terracebelow. Second,a third tomb lies next to the two on the terracebelow, and wherever threetombsclustertogetherSeagerused consecutivenumbersto identifythem:I, II, III; IV, V, VI; or XX, XXI, XXII. Since the third tomb on the fifth terracecannotbe Seager'sVII (which is a rockshelter)or XI (which has no doorway)but does matchSeager'sdescription of XVI, the three tombs on this terraceshould be XV, XVI, and XVII. Partly by a process of elimination,then, the two tombs at the east end of the sixth terracemay be identifiedas IX and X. There is no way of knowingwhich shouldbe IX and which X, however,and the western is here designatedIX, the easternX, simply for the sake of convenience. The tombs were built together and form a unit, the southern facade of which is ca. 4.90 m. wide. This is the only side of the buildingthat would have been completelyexposed at ground level, since the remainingthree sides of the structureare built against rock outcroppings,and as a result it is here that the main doorwaysare located.They lie alongside each other in the same fashion as the doorwaysin the faCadeof Tomb I and are separated like them by a projecting,monolithicpier of sideropetrathat forms the southernend of the wall between the two tombs. The western doorway leading into Tomb IX also resembles the doorwayof Tomb IV. Its two jambs, each constructedwith coursesof flat stones,are set back a short distancefrom the ends of the east and west side walls; they projectfrom these walls without bondingwith them and leave a space ca. 0.94 m. wide for the doorway.The east and west walls of the tomb thus form a small alcovein front of the entrance. This doorwayprovidesaccessto an L-shapedroom ca. 4.30 m. long, ca. 2.66 m. wide at the north, and ca. 1.56 m. wide at the south (PI. 29:b and c). It is providedwith an irregular bedrockfloor that rises in the short leg of the L at the northwestcornerof the room. The southernpart of the westernwall, which is built of roughlyhorizontalcoursesof flat stones, lies at the base of the rock slope that rises along this side. The northernpart of the wall jogs west and then returnsto the north until it meets the bedrockcliff along the north side of the tomb.This northernsection,now largely destroyed,restedabovethe floorlevel on the rising bedrockslope itself. While the west wall appears to have been freestandingat its southern end, at the north it servedpartly as a retainingwall that held back the earth of the seventh terraceand supportedthe passage running in front of Tomb XXIII, from which one could have walked directlyonto the roof of the tomb if one chose.79The north wall of the room, which is destroyedat its west end, is built up only at its base with similar courses rising approximatelyone meter in height. At this point it meets the overhangingface of the bedrock cliff that formsthe upper part of the wall and rises over three metersabovefloorlevel. A small rectangularniche built into the middle of the wall (PI. 29:b) lies ca. 0.65 m. above floor level, measures ca. 0.55 by 0.46 by 0.44 m., and is closed above by the overhanging 79Tomb IX, west wall: p.L. ca. 3.80 m.; L. of east-west section ca. 1.40 m.; W. ca. 0.56 m.; H. ca. 1.35 m.
The outer west side of this wall has not been cleaned.
THE SOUTH SLOPE, TERRACE 6
81
rock. During the 1976 cleaning,fragmentsof a large stonevase (M IX-3) were foundin this niche in a previouslyunexcavateddeposit. The easternwall of the tomb, the central wall of the building, is the most impressively constructed.It is decoratedwith two upright slabs of sideropetraplaced to form orthostates at its base near the southernend, and it employsmany flat stonesof green and purple schist set in rough horizontalcourses.At the south it terminatesin the large monolithicpier noted above. At the north, where it rests on rising bedrock,it breaks off to form a doorway ca. 0.40 m. wide opening into the adjacenttomb. The bottom two courses of the wall project here beneath the doorwayto form the southern part of the threshold,while rising bedrock alone forms the northern part; this is still another detail of constructionin this tomb that finds a close parallel in Tomb IV. The thresholdis raisedca. 0.68 m. abovethe floorlevel of Tomb IX but lies flush with the higher floor level at the northernend of Tomb X.80 The easternmosttomb, here designatedTomb X, may be enteredthrough the interior doorwayfrom IX or from its main entry in the south faCade,which is locatedbetween two short walls that form the jambs of a doorway ca. 0.75 m. wide. The west jamb is set back behind the projectingpier at the south end of the interiorpartitionwall, and like the jambs at the entranceof Tomb IX it is constructedof flat stones and does not bond with the wall from which it projects.The eastern jamb of the doorway is bonded with the short built sectionof the easternwall, which runs at right angles to it. The doorwayopens into a long irregularroom, ca. 5.76 m. deep, that narrowstowards the north. The room is tuckedagainst the bedrockcliff that terminatesthe terraceand uses the natural rock face, which rises here over four meters abovethe floor level, for most of its north and east walls. Along the east side the face of the cliff is smooth and fairly perpendicularexcept at its base, where it curvesunder, and at the south, where it curvesoutwards to the east. A small stretchof wall was constructedat this point, at the south end of the cliff, in orderto fill the indentation.81At the northend of the room,where a small creviceopens in the cliff, four stone coursesare built up to fill the gap. They form a kind of pier betweenthe divergingsides of the creviceand rise ca. 1.60 m. abovethe floorlevel at this end of the tomb. They appear to be complete and may therefore indicate the original level of the roof. A series of natural holes in the rock cliff to the east runs at about the same height and may have servedas socketsfor roof supportsat this level. The floorof the room lies at two levels: at the southeast,just inside the entrance,it is formedby level earth;at the southwestand to the north, by outcroppingsof green and purple schist. Near the center, between these two levels, a built stone step, ca. 0.40 m. high, leads up to the higher floor level in the northern, rear sectionof the room. BURIALS AND CHRONOLOGY
Only the burials from Tomb XXI are mentionedin Seager'spublication,where "the bones of many bodies"are reported,the earlier EM II remainslocatednear the back of the 80 Tomb
IX, north wall: p.L. ca. 1.70 m.; W. 0.30-0.44 m.; H. ca. 1.00 m. East wall: L. ca. 4.46 m.;
W. 0.38-0.70 m.; H. ca. 1.54 m.
81 Tomb X, west jamb: ca. 0.36 by 0.67 m. East wall: L. ca. 1.68 m.; W. 0.17-0.41; H. ca. 0.94 m. East jamb: ca. 0.38 by 0.40 m.
82
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
tomb and the EM III remainsnear the door.82The MM I pithos (M F-1) foundduringthe 1976 cleaning of Tomb F, belonging as it does to a type of vase often used as a burialjar from the end of the Prepalatialperiod on, suggeststhat by this time burials may also have been placed inside the tombs in pithoi, as they were in the tombsat Gournia and elsewhere. The finds made during cleaning in 1971 and 1976 have been helpful in clarifyingthe dateof all the tombson this terrace,and all may be datednow to the Prepalatialperiod,most to the EM II phase. SeagerreportedMM I and NeopalatialfindsfromTombs IX and X but remarkedat the same time that the tombs must have been built earlier:"Boththese tombs appearto have been plunderedin the M.M. period,inasmuchas their type of constructionis of much earlier date (E.M. II or III) than any objectswhich they contained."83 The orthostate slabs at the base of the interiorparty wall, as well as the design of the doorways(especially in Tomb IX, which parallels the doorwayof Tomb IV so closely), point to an EM II date for the constructionof the tombs.In addition,the four stone vases foundin the tombsin 1976 date to the Prepalatial period in manufacture.At least one, a small bowl of green chloriteschist (M IX-1), should be datedto the EM II phase. It was foundin a small unexcavatedpocketat the base of the centralpartywall in Tomb IX togetherwith M IX-2 and 4 and a small numberof undiagnosticsherds;it may representthe remainsof an original EM II depositin the tomb. The interiordoorwayat the north end of the centralparty wall indicates that the two tombswere built as a unit and must be contemporaryin date. The finds from Tombs XX/XXI and XXII suggest that they too were built in the EM II phase and used well into the Prepalatialperiod;like Tombs IX and X they were reopened, plundered, and re-used for further burials in the Neopalatial period. Although Seagerdatedthe burial on the westernside of XX/XXI to the MM III phase, he notedthat the only two clay vases found on this side (XX 1 and 6) "mustbe referredto an earlier interment."84These vases, as well as the three published from the east side of the tomb (XXI 5, 11, 12), belong to the EM II and III phases. Vessel XX 1 is similar in shape to the EM II spoutedgoblet from Tomb VI (VI 11), althoughmore carelesslymade, and XXI 11 by shape and decorationshould belong to the Koumasastyle.85Vases XX 6 and XXI 5 are paintedin the white-on-blackstyle of the EM III phase.86Early finds came fromboth west (XX) and east (XXI) sides, then; they apparently covered the whole area of the tomb originally and indicatethe date of its constructionand initial use. Only the western side of the tomb was re-used in the MM III phase. Seager found no pottery in Tomb XXII and datedthe tomb to the LM I phase of the Neopalatial periodon the basis of the goldjewelry he found there. During the 1971 cleaning, however,two small potterydepositsthat should be associated with the original contents were found outside its west wall. One vase (M XXTI-1)from the northerndeposit belongs to the EM II phase, and the vase from the southerndeposit (M XXTT-2)belongs to the MM Ia phase. The contentsof these deposits Seager,Mochlos II, p. 76. Seager,Mochlos II, p. 58. 84 Seager,MochlosII, p. 74. 85 For Seager's"gourd"shape compareVI 15 (MochlosII, p. 52, figs. 22, 23); for a general descriptionof suchjugs see Wilson, BSA 80, 1985, pp. 319-330. 86 The shape of XX 6 is comparedto the EM III cup from Tomb IV, IV 2; XXI 5 is discussedby Zois (Kamares-Stil,pp. 164-165). 82
83
THE SOUTH SLOPE, TERRACE 6
83
representremains thrown out of the tomb when it was reopenedand cleared for re-use in the Neopalatial period. The constructiondate of Tomb F is less clear becausethe only potteryfrom the tomb is the fragmentaryMM Ia pithos found in 1976. The similarityin design to Tomb A, immediately aboveit, suggestsan early date;the use of plaster on the walls, however,which does not appear to have come into general practicein tombs until the MM Ia phase, points to a date later in the Prepalatialperiod. CATALOGUE
TombIX VESSELS Stone M IX-1 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 6861). Bowl
Fig. 32, PI. 31
Found below middle of east wall. Parts of side missing;otherwise complete.
H. 0.03 m.; D. at rim 0.065 m. Schist,green-graychlorite.Bowl with curvedprofile and everted rim; shallow, open form with gently curvedunderside.Scratchedwith shortvertical lines around sides as if to create a rudimentary decoration.
M IX-1
M IX-2
M IX-3 FIG.32. Stone bowls from Mochlos Tomb IX. Scale 1:2
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
84
CompareWarren,MSV, Type 8 A, pp. 21-23. Five vases of this type are published from Mochlos (Seager, MochlosII, VI 10, XIII e, XVI 7, XX 5, M 1), and four more were found in the cleaning; four are chloriteschist. M IX-2 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 6862). Fragment Fig. 32 of bowl Found below middle of east wall with M IX-1. Base and lower part of bowl preserved. P.H. 0.01 m. Marble, banded gray, gray black. Bowl with curved profile; probably also a shallow, open form. Base decoratedwith a circular hollow surroundedby a hexagonal star. M IX-3 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 6873 A, B). Fig. 32 bowl of Fragment large Found in niche in north wall. Three fragments join, preservingbase and part of side; fourth fragment preserveslip. Approx. H. 0.089 m.; approx. D. at rim 0.17 m. Marble, banded gray to gray-black. Bowl with curvedprofile. Although only a small part of the bowl is preserved, the profile suggests the shape of a bowl with rim spout and rim lugs. Compare Warren, MSV, Type 37 B, pp. 93-94.
pp. 44, 188-189). Two other examples are published from Mochlos Tomb XXI (Seager, Mochlos II, p. 77, XXI 17a, b). Tomb X VESSEL
Stone M X-1 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 10364). Fig. 33, P1.30 Cylindricaljar Imbedded in wall at southeast corner of tomb. Small chip from rim, otherwiseintact. H. 0.042 m.; D. at rim 0.045 m. Dolomitic limestone,white, with small gray patch at rim. Jar with evertedrim and base. Compare Warren, MSV, Type 30 D, pp. 75-76. One other example from Mochlos is published, Her.Mus. 1294 (Seager, Mochlos II, p. 80, fig. 47, pl. II); it is of the same materialand similar in shape to M X-1. The jars from Mochlos differ from the Mesara examples in having more slender and concave sides and more widely flaring rims and bases; they thereforeseem to be closer copies of Sixth Dynasty Egyptian prototypes.
OTHEROBJECTS
Stone M IX-4 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 6863). Core of black obsidian Found below middle of east wall with stone vases M IX-1 and 2. L. 0.027 m.; W. 0.009 m. Groovesleft on side from chippedblades. A large number of obsidian blades and cores litter the South Slope. Although none was reported by Seager, it is likely that all were originally associated with the tomb depositson the slope. Gold M IX-5 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4367). Finger-ring Davaras, BSA 70, 1975, p. 106, pl. 21:a. Found in fill alongsideeast wall. Intact. D. 0.016 m. Unbrokenwire, circularin section. Compare Branigan's Type I (Aegean Metalwork,
FIG.33. Stone jar M X-1 from Mochlos Tomb X. Scale 1:2
Tomb r VESSEL
Pottery M r-1 (Ag.Nik.Mus. P.76.1). Fig. 34, PI. 30 Fragmentsof pithos From easternside of lower chamber.Fifteen large fragments,including one join of five and parts of base and rim. Approx. D. at base 0.275 m. Coarse ware. Reddish pink clay with buff slip on exterior and interior. Traces of red-brown paint in trickledecoration.
THE SOUTH SLOPE, TERRACE 6
85
Only XIII c of the Mochlos examples, apparently made of the same reddish clay as this vase, may be dated closely by its context, which is EM IIb/III, but the ware is commonthrough the whole EM II phase. Compare from Myrtos nos. P670 and P671 (Warren,Myrtos, p. 151).
/
J FIG.34. Pithos fragments M r-i Tomb r. Scale 1:4
from Mochlos
Piriformvase, small collar with evertedrim; three ridges at base. Compare the MM I examples from Pachyammos: Seager,Pachyammos,p. 16, pl. XI.
TombXXII VESSELS
M XXI-2 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4377). Fig. 35, PI. 31 One-handledjug Found midway along the west wall of Tomb XXII. Brokenby pick;handle missing. H. 0.069 m.; D. at rim 0.052 m. Fine buff clay. Black slip with fugitive white paint. Flat base, convex body, raised collar neck with signs of paring at juncture with body. Vertical loop handle rising slightly above rim to body. Frieze around upper part of body with three parallel diagonal lines partly filled between with small squares;horizontallines above and below. The decorationrecalls EM III styles, but the white paint itself, which has vanished and left only the dark black outline beneath, and the vase shape are MM Ia. Compare from Mochlos nos. M 51, M 52 (Seager, Mochlos II, p. 83, fig. 49), from Koumasa Her.Mus. 4156 (Xanthoudides, VTM, pp. 13-14, pls. V, XX). The natureof the MM Ia paint is noted by Seager,who observedthat it is often the only way of distinguishingbetween EM III and MM Ia designs (MochlosI, pp. 292-293). See also Zois, Ipoi3A4ijara, p. 9; Betancourt, White-on-Dark Ware, p. 55.
Pottery M XXII-1 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4379). Fig. 35, P1.31 Side-spoutedjug Found at outer northwest corner of Tomb XXII against face of cliff. Spout, one side and large part of rim missing;base and one side with handle preserved. H. 0.134 m.; D. at base 0.076 m. Gritty, reddishclay. Dark brownburnishedware, with slip on outside of vase and inside of rim. Flat base, wide piriform body, raised everted collar. Vertical loop handle at shoulder, round in section. This is a commontype of vase on Mochlos;compare Seager, Mochlos II, XIII c, XIX 8, M 22, M 23, M 46, M 72. On the basis of these examples, a short tubular spout may be restored to the side opposite the handle and a round knobbed lid to the mouth.
OTHER OBJECTS
Stone M XXI-3 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4372). Pestle PI. 31 Found togetherwith M XXII-1. Intact, with only small chip from base. H. 0.178 m.; base 0.047 m. square. Limestone,green-gray,fine grained. Flat base, roundedtop. Square in section at base with rounded corners, changing gradually into circularsectionabove. For a similar stone pestle comparethe EM II pestle from Myrtos, no. 178 (Warren, Myrtos, p. 233). Pestle M XXII-3 is especially colorful and artfully shaped. It shows no trace of use and is identical in shape to some of the clay "phalloi"identifiedby Xanthoudides at Koumasa and Platanos and thought to have had a ritual function(VTM, pp. 41-42, 97).
86
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
I
t/
tt \
M XXII-2
M XXII-i
_
zz
M XXII-4
FIG.35. Vessels and sealstonefrom Mochlos Tomb XXII. Scale 1:2 (M XXII-1 and 2); 3:1 (M XXII-4) M XXII-4 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 7179). Loop Fig. 35 seal signet Found outside and just to south of Tomb XXII. Suspensionloop missing, otherwise intact. P.H. 0.008 m.; D. of face 0.011 m. Banded tufa. Face decoratedwith grid of floral motif;stalk cut with three horizontalgrooves. Seager reportedthree seals of this type (III i, X b, XV h), all similar in size. He believedthe type to be commonin the MM III phase, but it is now known to have appeared as early as MM I. See J. Boardman, Greek Gems and Finger Rings. Early Bronze Age to Late Classical, New York 1971, pp. 34-35, pl. 7; and J. Poursat, B. Detournay, and F. Vande-
nabeele,Fouillesexecuteesa Mallia. Le quartierMu II (Etudes cretoisesXXVI), Paris 1980, pp. 174179, figs. 242-249. Gold M XXII-5 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 7178). Decorative boss Found with M XXII-4. Intact. D. 0.012 m. No perforations. Compare Branigan, Aegean Metalwork, Type II, pp. 42-43, 187, pl. 21. Three other examplesare reported from Mochlos by Seager: II 12, II 32, IV 8 (MochlosII, pp. 30, 32, 48, figs. 9, 10, 20).
5 THESOUTHSLOPE,TERRACE
87
TERRACE 5: TOMBSXIII, XV, XVI, AND XVII Seager,MochlosII, pp. 63-69. LOCATION ANDEXCAVATION
Terrace 5 lies from one to four meters below the level of Terrace 6 (Plan 3). It is terminated by the same boundarieson the east and west and extends for approximatelythe same distance,ca. 35.30 m. Four tombs are preservedon the terrace,one at its western end lyingjust below Tombs XX/XXI and XXII and three at its easternend lying below Tombs IX and X. The area between probablyaccommodatedthree or four additionaltombs,and a great amount of loose rubble lying there today may have belonged to tombs that are now destroyed.At the east end of the terrace,the corridorthat ran along the terraceis still preserved.It is supportedon the south by the rear wall of the tomb lying on the terracebelow and measuresca. 1.80 m. in width. The tombs at this end of the terrace,each providedwith a doorway,open onto the corridor;they are probablyto be identifiedas Seager'sTombs XV, XVI, and XVII. The tomb at the westernend of the terraceshouldprobablybe identifiedas Tomb XIII. All four of the tombshad been completelyreburiedby the time they were cleanedin the 1970's. Tomb XIII was cleaned by the author in 1971, and XV, XVI, and XVII were cleanedby the Greek ArchaeologicalServicein 1976. TOMBXIII (Figs. 28 and 29, Pls. 27:a and 32:a).
This tomb, located at the westernmost edge of the terrace, lies just below Tomb XX/XXI across the narrow corridorthat runs between its rear wall and the facade of XX/XXI. Because it may be describedas "slab-lined",it might be either of two tombs so describedby Seagerthat remain to be identified,XIII or XVI; but becauseit has no readily apparentdoorwayand XVI is reportedto have a doorway,it should be Tomb XIII. The tombis a one-room,rectangularbuilding. It is unusual in that it is one of only three tombsin the entire cemeterythat does not appearto have had a doorwayat groundlevel. Its north wall, the best preserved,is set as a retainingwall against the corridorof Terrace 6. It is constructedwith five large orthostateslabs at its base, using sideropetraas well as green and purple schist in an especiallycolorfulcombination,and is identicalin this respectto the walls of the large tombs on the West Terrace. It rises to the height of the corridorbehind it and provides an even socle at this level, apparently completelypreserved,for a low mudbrick superstructurethat probablyrose another50 centimetersor so. Potteryof the EM III phase (M XIII-1) was found at the foot of this wall during the 1971 cleaning.87 The east and west walls, both of which bondwith the northwall at right angles, are less well preservedand less impressivelybuilt with smaller, flat stones. The east wall rests on a bedrockledge that runs along this side of the tomb and rises to a height of ca. 0.67 m. above floorlevel at the northeastcorner.At the north end one small uprightslab rests on the ledge; at the south end, where the bedrockledge descendsin small steps, the wall is missing. The west wall, which is considerablynarrowerthan the other walls of the tomb,rests directlyon 87 Tomb XIII,
north wall: L. ca. 4.16 m.; W. 0.45-0.65 m.; H. on inside ca. 1.34 m. Center orthostate:ca.
0.65 m. by 0.85 m.
88
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
the bedrockfloor, which slopes down from north to south. It runs parallel to and only one meter from the edge of the cliff that drops to the West Terrace.88The south wall of the tomb, also poorly preserved, appears to have been substantially constructedwith large stones. It runs at a slightly acute angle to the west wall between two rock outcroppingsat either cornerand terminateson the east well inside and to the west of the east wall. It lies at the lowest level of the walls in a rather precariousposition where the face of the island slopes more steeply towards the sea, and it appears to have been especially widened, anchoredbetween bedrockoutcroppings,and perhapsbuttressedby larger stoneson the outer south side in orderto strengthenit against the slope.89 The tomb could have been entered from the upper corridorof Terrace 6 through a doorwayin the mud-bricksuperstructureor by a trap door in the roof;in either case, however, there would have been a considerabledrop to floor level. It could also have been approachedfrom the ledge at the southeastcornerof the tomb where the bedrockoutcropping forms a fairly level landing. Becauseof the inward slant of the south wall, the room itself is trapezoidal,ca. 2.97 m. long east-west, ca. 2.29 m. wide at the west, and narrowingto ca. 1.29 m. at the east. The bedrockthat slopes down fromwest to east formsan even rockfloor. TOMBSXV, XVI, AND XVII (Figs. 26 and 36, Pls. 32:b and c, and 33:a and b)
These threetombs,locatedat the easternend of the terracebeneathTombs IX and X on the terraceabove,are tuckedagainstthe bedrockthat rises abovethem here on the northand east. Each is providedwith a doorwaythat opens towardsthe south onto the narrowpassage running in front. Each is built up against the next: the two to the west are separatedby a double wall; the two to the east share a commondividing wall. The westernmosttomb is built with massive stone walls that use orthostateslabs; the eastern tombs have walls of ordinary rubble. Seager describeda pair of tombs "lying beside" one another: XV and XVII. He noted that both are "built"tombs and that XV "lay against the face of a small cliff."The two easternmosttombson this terraceare the only tombsnot otherwiseidentified that meet this description.Neither has orthostateslabs in its walls, yet each is a built tomb, and the more eastern lies against the face of a small cliff. It should be identified as XV, therefore,and the one to its west as XVII. Tomb XVI, which Seager describedas "a slablined tomb with a doorwayat the south end,"should be identifiedwith the westernmostof the three, since it is the only remainingtomb that matchesthis descriptionand since Seager numberedtombs consecutivelywhereverthey are clusteredtogether,as these are, in groups of three.90 The westernmosttomb,XVI, is the largestand the most substantial(PI. 32:b and c). Its exteriorwalls appearto have been constructedentirelyin stoneand still standto an impressive height. Both the easternand westernwalls projectfromthe face of the cliff rising on the northernside of the tomb and rest here on higher bedrockthan on the south. The interior face of the west wall is constructedwith a few small slabs set uprightat its base;its exterior, 88 Tomb XIII, east wall: p.L. ca. 1.25 m.; W. ca. 0.63 m.; H. includingledge ca. 1.18 m. West wall: L. ca. 2.64 m.; W. 0.32-0.37 m.; H. 0.63 m. 89 Tomb XIII, south wall: L. of built sectionca. 2.14 m.; W. 0.50-0.85 m.; H. on inside ca. 0.30 m. 90 E.g. Tombs I, II, III; IV, V, VI; XX, XXI, XXII.
THE SOUTH SLOPE, TERRACE 5
89
.1
I
iI
I
I I I I II I II ! .
ILEUU 0
2
3M.
FIG.36. Plan of Mochlos Tombs XVI, XVII, and XV on South Slope Terrace 5
western face has not been cleaned, but from Seager'sdescriptionone might expect to find orthostateslabs here too.91At the north the wall rises to a height of ca. 2.30 m. above the floor level of the tomb at the entrance,and this height, which approximatesthat of the walls in Tomb Complex IV/V/VI, probablyindicatesthe level of the roof. At its south end the wall turns to the east to form the western jamb of the doorway.92The inner face of the easternwall is constructedwith two upright slabs of sideropetraat its base, one of which is as large as any of those in Tomb Complex IV/V/VI,93 but neither of which has their distinctivelysmooth face. The exterior face of this wall is blockedat the base by the west 91 Tomb
XVI, west wall: L. ca. 4.26 m.; W. 0.48-0.60 m. 92Tomb XVI, west jamb: L. ca. 0.42 m.; W. ca. 0.95 m.; H. ca. 0.92 m. 93Tomb XVI, east wall: L. ca. 3.60 m.; W. 0.54-0.70.; H. ca. 2.16 m. Largerorthostate:L. ca. 1.23 m.; H. ca. 0.80 m.
90
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
wall of Tomb XVII, which rests against it. At the south the wall ends in line with the west jamb of the tomb and with the fagadesof the tombs to the east. The easternjamb of the doorwayis set at right angles to the easternwall at this point, but unlike the west jamb does not bond with it.94 The doorway,ca. 0.87 m. wide, opens onto a rectangularroom ca. 1.92 m. wide at its south end and ca. 3.50 m. long at the west side. It is providedwith an irregularbedrockfloor that rises at the northwest a good 0.90 m. above the floor level at the entrance.A narrow spur wall, projectingfrom the cliff at the north and running parallel to the west and east walls of the tomb, divides the rear of the room in two; the doorway, like that of Tomb XX/XXI, opens directly onto the spur wall at the center of the room rather than at one corner. The southern part of the spur wall is destroyed,but as its primary function was probablyto provide additionalroof support at the north end of the tomb, it may not have extendedfar.95It partitionsthe rear part of the tomb into two rathernarrowcompartments. The eastern compartment,ca. 0.80 m. wide, is providedon its northernside with a thick built wall that fills an irregular indentation in the rock cliff.96 The western compartment,
ca. 0.63 m. wide, uses the natural bedrock for its northern wall; it extends beneath an overhangingrockin the face of the cliff and is as a result somewhatdeeperthan the eastern compartment. The tomb adjacentto the east, XVII, is also constructedwith two side walls that project fromthe face of the cliff (PI. 33:b). Unlike those in Tomb XVI, however,they do not appear to have been built wholly in rubble.The westernside wall is built up againstthe east wall of XVI with its outer, west face preservedto a higher level than its inner, east face. It is set directly against the eastern wall of XVI and runs the same length.97The eastern wall, which extends from bedrockthat projectsinto the tomb at the north, is somewhat shorter than the western wall; it is also much lower, with only one or two stone coursespreserved, and probablysupportedan upper sectionof mud brick.98At its south end it widens to form the easternjamb of the doorway.There is no correspondingjamb on the west, and the doorway is formedby the interveningspace between this jamb and the end of the western wall. This doorway, ca. 0.60 m. wide, opens onto one corner of a rectangular space ca. 1.13 m. wide at the south end and ca. 2.40 m. long at the west side. Like Tomb XVI, it is dividedat the rear into two narrow compartmentsby a spur wall projectingfrom the cliff. As preserved,this spur wall is only one coursehigh and one coursewide.99It runs alongside a rise in the bedrockfloor at the easternside of the tomb and once probablyextendedas far as the middleof the roomto the point where the bedrockdropsoff. The space to the west of this wall, entereddirectlyfrom the outer doorway,is only about0.65 m. wide. It is provided with a fairly level earth floor and uses the face of the cliff, which rises about two meters Tomb XVI, east jamb: L. ca. 0.48 m.; W. ca. 1.00 m.; H. ca. 0.44 m. XVI, centralspur wall: p.L. ca. 0.82 m.; W. ca. 0.50 m.; H. ca. 0.64 m. 96 Tomb XVI, north wall, easternroom:L. ca. 1.32 m.; W. ca. 0.65 m.; H. ca. 1.64 m. 97 Tomb XVII, west wall: L. ca. 3.60 m.; W. ca. 0.50 m.; H. at north ca. 1.42 m., at south ca. 0.78 m. 98 Tomb XVII, east wall: L. ca. 2.98 m.; W. 0.34-0.40 m., at south ca. 0.84 m.; H. ca. 0.78 m. 99 Tomb XVII, centralspur wall: L. ca. 0.60 m.; W. ca. 0.22 m.; H. ca. 0.27 m. 94
95 Tomb
THE SOUTH SLOPE,TERRACE5
91
abovefloor level, for its rear wall. The space to the east of the dividingwall is much smaller and more irregular.The northernrock face is much lower here; a built wall rests on top of it, formingthe northwall of the compartmentand a retainingwall againstthe terraceabove. The compartmentis providedwith an irregularbedrockfloorca. 0.30 m. higherthan that of the western compartment. Tomb XV, the easternmostof the three under discussion, is a small one-room tomb. The east wall of XVII is its western wall, and the face of the adjacentbedrockcliff bordering the South Slope forms its eastern wall (PI. 33:a). A pier of stones is attachedto the cliff at the east, in line with the south facadesof Tombs XVI and XVII, and formsthe only built sectionof the south face.100An opening ca. 0.80 m. wide between it and the wall to the west serves as the doorwayto XV. The room itself is a small rectangularspace ca. 1.85 m. deep and 1.16-1.32 m. wide at floor level. The bedrockcliff that forms the east wall rises over three metersabovefloor level:at the south,just inside the entrance,it rises vertically;at the north the upper part of the cliff projectsca. 1.06 m. above floor level, forming a small shelteredarea beneath its overhang.The north wall of the room is a built wall that does not bond with the western wall of the tomb and forms an even face against the rising bedrock and earth of the terracebehind.101 BURIALS AND CHRONOLOGY
The burials from these tombs are not describedby Seager. Tombs XIII and XVI containedpottery of the EM II, EM III, and MM Ia phases. They appear to have been built in the EM II phase (to judge from the methodof construction, at its very beginning) and to have been used continuouslyto the end of the Prepalatial period.Seagerreportedthree vases of red and blackburnishedware fromTomb XIII (XIII a, b, c), wares especially common in the EM II phase.102The side-spoutedjug (XIII c) belongsto a type of vase that was popularon Mochlos at this time and has a close parallel in the jug found outside Tomb XXII in 1971 (M XXTI-1,p. 85 above). Seageralso published an anthropomorphicrhyton from this tomb (XIII g), modeled in the shape of a Minoan goddess, which has a good parallel from Mallia.103Both examples are painted in typical EM III white-on-darkstyles. During the 1971 cleaningof Tomb XIII, an EM III cup with very similar decoration(M XIII-1) was found with fragmentsof similar cups at the foot of the north wall (P.71.8 and 9, see p. 92 below). Seager also publishedtwo side-spoutedjugs (XIII h, j) from the tomb, one with MM Ia "plume"decoration,the other with characteristically fugitive MM Ia paint.104He reportedtwo EM II vases from Tomb XVI: a fruitstand of black burnishedware (XVI 10) and a "smallcoverof ... polished buff ware with 00Tomb XV, south wall: L. ca. 0.61 m.; W. 0.40-0.54 m.; H. ca. 0.46 m. 10'Tomb XV, north wall: L. ca. 1.10 m.; H. ca. 1.10 m. 102 For the black burnishedware see G 1-15 and 16, p. 13; for the red burnishedware see Wilson, BSA 80, 1985, p. 317. 103Demargne, Mallia, N&cropolesI, p. 14, pls. XXXI, XXXII; for a comparisonof the two vases, see Betancourt,White-on-DarkWare,pp. 48-49. 104 For the decorationand date, see Zois, npotXBtI.4ara, pp. 17, 67, pls. 44, 45 and Walberg,Middle Minoan Pottery,p. 129.
92
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
bands of dark paint."105He also published a bridge-spoutedjar painted in EM III style (XVI 8) and a MM Ia side-spoutedjug (XVI 9).106 Seager reportedno pottery from Tombs XV and XVII and dated both tombs to the "E.M. II or E.M. III period"on the basis of their stone vases. In 1976 a small deposit of EM II potterywas found in Tomb XV. Locatedin an unexcavatedarea at floor level just below the middleof the east wall, it includedfragmentsof two large basins (M XV-1) and a Vasilike-ware teapot (M XV-2) and confirmsan EM II date for the constructionof the tomb.To judge fromthe other findsreportedby Seager,the tombcontinuedto be used in the MM Ia phase of the Prepalatialperiod and was then re-used in the Neopalatial period. In 1976 fragmentsof a MM Ia side-spoutedjug (M XVII-1) were found in an unexcavated area of Tomb XVII, and it is clearthat this tombwas also used in the Prepalatialperiod.Its stone vases suggest a constructiondate early in the EM II phase.107It seems likely, then, that all the tombs on this terracewere built in the EM II phase and used to the end of the Prepalatial period. Tomb XV is exceptional in that it, or some part of it, appears to have been reopenedand re-used for burials in the Neopalatial period. CATALOGUE
TombXIII VESSEL
Pottery M XIII-1 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4378). Fig. 37, PI. 32 One-handledcup Davaras, Hagios NikolaosMuseum, fig. 18. Found against north wall in northeast corner. Mended frommany pieces;missing part of handle and small pieces from rim. H. 0.06 m.; D. at rim 0.07 m.
FIG.37. One-handledcup M XIII-1 from Mochlos Tomb XIII. Scale 1:2
Sandybuff clay. Black slip outsideand aroundinteriorof rim; decorationin white paint. Flat base, low round body with incurvingprofile above. Looped handle rising just above rim, circular in section. Decoration in three horizontal zones: top zone with row of dots; central zone with continuous row of chevrons,except under handle;lower zone plain. Fragmentsof two other cups (P.71.8 and 9): one with identicaldecoration;one with centralzone of zigzags. The shape is discussed by Seager (Excavationson the Island of Pseira, Philadelphia 1910, pp. 17-18, figs. 1, 2) and Betancourt (White-on-Dark Ware, pp. 43-44); it is more commonwithout a handle (as G 1-5, pp. 10-11 above). For the decoration,compare the EM III vases from Palaikastro, Vasilike, and Knossos in A. Zois, ,'Y7rapXe IIM III 'EroXr?k, HIerpayuEvaTOVB' AiLEvoVS Kp?7roXoytLKO Lvve8plov,A', Athens 1968, pls. K 44, L 3, 6.
105Although the "cover"is not illustrated, both vases are dated EM II by Seager; for the fruitstand see G 1-8, pp. 25-26 above. 106For the EM III jar with crescentbands, see Betancourt, White-on-DarkWare, pp. 29, fig. 3-6.9; the decorationof the MM Ia jug is comparedto the MM Ia polychromedecorationof XI 16 (Seager,MochlosII, p. 61, fig. 29, pl. VIII). 107 All three are made of green chlorite schist which is called green steatite by Seager. See Warren, MSV, Type 10, pp. 27-28; Type 17 A, p. 38.
93
THE SOUTH SLOPE, TERRACE 5
FIG.38. Basin fragmentsM XV-1 from Mochlos Tomb XV. Scale 1:2
TombXV
TombXVI
VESSELS Pottery
VESSEL Stone
M XV-1 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 7278 A, B). Fragmentsof large basins
Fig. 38, PI. 33
Davaras, AEAr31, 1976, pp. 377-378, pl. 298:5' Found at base of east wall. Approximately sixty fragmentsof at least two differentbasins, including two joins of seven pieces each from A and one join of 11 pieces from B, preserving rims, sides, and part of base. A: p.H. 0.09 m.; p.L. 0.32 m. B: p.H. 0.057 m.; p.L. 0.25 m. Coarse,reddishpink clay;sides scoredon exterior. Slightly rounded base, sloping sides with large rectangulardepressioncut along rim. Decorated with line of circular holes below rim, impressedfrom interior. It is difficultto say how these vases were used. They show no traces of burning and could not have held much, if any, liquid. Compare the shallow bowls or basins with perforations from Knossos, P 287, P 316, P 389 (Wilson, BSA 80, 1985, pp. 334-339, 346) and the baking plates from Myrtos (Warren, Myrtos,pp. 111-113). M XV-2 (Ag.Nik.Mus.). Fragmentsof PI. 33 teapot Found near east wall. Six fragments, including one join of four pieces and one of two pieces, preservinglarge part of bowl. Fine buff clay; Vasilike ware. See M VI-1 and 2, pp. 60-61 above.
M XVI-1 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 6860). Goblet
Fig. 39, P1.32
Davaras, AEAT 31, 1976, p. 377, pl. 298:c. Found at base of upright slab in east wall. Broken at base, otherwiseintact. P.H. 0.048 m.; D. of rim 0.057 m. Brecciawith black dolomitepieces. The shape imitates the standard EM II Vasilikeware "egg-cup" without the standard ring foot, which is here much adumbrated.CompareMochlos XXI 7 (Seager, Mochlos II, p. 77, fig. 46, pl. VII) and Warren, MSV, Type 29 A, p. 73.
FIG.39. Stone goblet M XVI-1 from Mochlos Tomb XVI. Scale 1:2
TombXVII VESSEL Pottery M XVII-1 (Ag.Nik.Mus.). Fragments of side-spoutedjug
PI. 33
94
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
Five fragments,includingone join of two and one join of three, preservingpart of rim and most of side. Fine buff clay; black slip. Biconical bowl with carinated side, slightly evertedrim. Base, handle, and spout missing. Reservedzone aroundupper part of shoulderdecoratedwith incised band of crosshatching. TERRACE
Seager believedthe shape and decorationto be transitional from EM III to MM Ia. Compare M 75, M 92 from Mochlos (Seager,MochlosII, pp. 85, 86, figs. 49, 50), and for the MM Ia date, see Zois, Ipo/?XAa//ara,p. 94, pl. 46; Zois, Kamares-Stil,p. 156.
4: TOMB XI
Seager,Mochlos II, pp. 58-61. LOCATION AND EXCAVATION
This terraceis preservedonly at its easternend, where a single tomb is located,and it is not clear how far it extendedto the west (Plan 3). The slope of the hill is rather steep beneath Tomb XIII, and it is doubtfulthat the terraceextendedthis far. It would have been somewhatshorterin length, therefore,than the terracesimmediatelyaboveand below, perhaps extending no more than 30 meters in all. At its east end it lies ca. 1.30 m. below the level of Terrace 5. While only one tomb is preservedon the terrace today, three or four others could have been accommodatedin the space to the west. TOMBXI (Figs. 26 and 40, P1. 34:a)
The tomb preservedat the eastern end of the terrace, lying immediatelybelow Tomb XVI, was cleanedby the Greek ArchaeologicalServicein 1976. Its westernwall and part of its south wall are destroyed,but the tomb appearsto have been approximatelysquare with an interior dimension of ca. 1.90 m. north-south. The walls are of ordinary rubble construction.Seagerdescribedone such tomb, Tomb XI, with which this tomb shouldbe identified. He called it "anenclosure2 m. squarewith low walls built of small stones"and noted that "apparentlythere was no doorway,but at one point the wall had given away owing to pressure from the soil above."The only other tombs that might fit this descriptionare Tombs XIII and F. Tomb XIII uses orthostateslabs in its walls, however, while XI does not. Tomb r does not appear to have been excavatedbefore 1976; in any case it has barely any built walls left at all and is more rectangularthan square. In addition,duringthe 1976 cleaning of the tomb at the eastern end of Terrace 4, numerous fragmentsof green-schist bowls, like the examples reportedby Seagerfrom Tomb XI, were uncovered. The tombis situatedeast of a smoothbedrockoutcroppingthat slopes down towardsthe east into its interior. The north and south walls are bedded on this outcropping on the west
and rest at a much lower groundlevel on the east. No traceof any built walls remainson the west side of the tomb, and this side may always have been open;however,since the bedrock rises nearly to the height of the north and east walls along this side, a stone socle of a single courseor two would have sufficed.The north and east walls are the best preserved,and the north wall, with a fairly level surface over its entire length, may survive to its original
95
THE SOUTH SLOPE, TERRACE 4
\~ O
y
0
I
2M
FIG.40. Planof MochlosTombXI on SouthSlopeTerrace4
height.108It rises to the level of Terrace 5 and servesas a retainingwall against its earth fill. The east wall is preservedto the same height at the northeastcorner,and both walls probably supported a mud-bricksuperstructureat this level. Only a small stretch of the south wall is preservedat the centerof the south side.109 As Seager noted, there is no apparentdoorwayto the tomb. It was probablylocatedin the customaryfashion along the southern side of the tomb, at the southeast or southwest, where the wall has given way and been destroyed.It may, however,have been locatedat the western side of the tomb, where the bedrock outcropping forms a natural threshold, or access may have been by way of a trap door in the roof, which was easily reachedfrom the terraceabove.Consistingof a single roommeasuringca. 1.90 by ca. 3.10 m. at its center,the tomb is providedwith a sloping bedrockfloor along the west side and a paved floor of carefully laid flat slabs along the lower, east side.110During the 1976 cleaning,numeroussmall rounded stones like those found in Tomb F on Terrace 6 were uncovered,some at floor level; they may have been used as flooringin the area between the sloping bedrockfloor on the west and the paved floor on the east, or as flooringfor later burial levels in the tomb. 108 Tomb XI, north wall: p.L. ca. 2.86 m.; W. ca. 0.60 m. East wall: L. ca. 2.64 m.; W. 0.42-0.47 m.; H. above floor at northeastcornerca. 1.16 m.
109Tomb XI, south wall: p.L. ca. 1.95 m.; W. 0.42-0.70 m.; H. ca. 0.42 m. 1 0 Tomb XI, pavement: L. ca. 1.88 m.; W. 0.50-0.72 m.
96
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
BURIALS AND CHRONOLOGY
Individualburials in the tomb were not reportedby Seager. Seager found pottery of the EM II and MM Ia phases. The earlier pottery lay "in a heap in the northwestcorner"of the tomb, while the MM I objects"laytogetheralong the east side,"and Seager believedthat the tomb was built in the EM II phase and re-used in the MM I phase. During the 1976 cleaning, however, pottery of the EM III phase was uncoveredin the southwestcornerof the tomb, and it would appearthat the tomb was used throughall three phases of the Prepalatialperiod. Seagerreportedtwo vases of the EM II phase, includinga "fruit-stand"of brown-black burnished ware (XI 6) and a Vasilike-ware "egg-cup"(XI 23), together with numerous small green-schistbowls that should also be dated to the same phase."' During the 1976 cleaning several fragmentsof similar bowls were uncoveredin the same area at the north and northwestof the tomb. Seager reportedfive vases of the MM Ia phase, includinga jug with round mouth and a bull rhyton, both painted with dark-on-lightdecoration(XI 11, 14), and a one-handledcup and two-handledjar painted in familiar MM Ia polychrome styles (XI 13, 16). 112In 1976 a small unexcavateddepositwas uncoveredtowardsthe southwest cornerof the tomb;it includeda small conical cup decoratedin characteristicEM III paint (M XI-2) and two bird's-nestbowls (M XI-4 and 5), which could also be as early as EM III/MM I. The fragments of a third stone bowl (M XI-3) were found near by in disturbedearth, and a lamp foundjust to the north of the tomb (M XI-1) may or may not be part of its original contents."3 CATALOGUE
TombXI VESSELS
M XI-2 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 6815). Conical
Pottery M XI-1 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 6813). Lamp At north side of tomb. Handle broken, otherwise intact. H. 0.035 m.; L. 0.09 m. Semicoarsereddishclay. Unpainted. Shallow rounded bowl with rim drawn out to form spout; cylindrical handle, placed vertically opposite spout. Sixteen similar examples (including M 77, 79, 81, 83) were foundby Seagerin approximatelythe same location, just above this tomb "in the earth near Tomb XVI" and dated to the MM I phase (Seager, MochlosII, p. 85, fig. 50).
Fig. 41
cup
Davaras, Hagios NikolaosMuseum, fig. 17. From southwestcorner.Intact. H. 0.038 m.; D. at rim 0.065 m. Fine buff clay. Black slip with white paint. Festoonshanging from rim. A commondecorativemotif in EM III styles, the festoon is found on severalvases from Mochlos, including anotherconicalcup, Siteia Mus. 5439. Compare Betancourt, White-on-DarkWare, p. 32, fig. 3-6:8 from Gournia. Stone M XI-3 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 6864). Fragments Fig. 41 of bowl
111For the fruitstand,see the discussionunder G II-8, pp. 25-26 above. 112For discussionand date, see Walberg, Middle Minoan Pottery,p. 129. 113All these finds are reportedby Davaras (AeAT 31, 1976, p. 377).
97
THE SOUTH SLOPE, TERRACE 3
/ M XI-2
M XI-4
M XI-3 FIG.41. Vessels from Mochlos Tomb XI. Scale 1:2
Davaras, AeAr 31, 1976, p. 377, pi. 298:e. One join of seven pieces preserving over half of bowl. H. 0.044 m.; D. at rim 0.136 m. Marble, gray, gray-blackbanded. Curved profile with evertedrim. CompareWarren, MSV, Type 8 A, pp. 21-23. This bowl is cut in such a way that the darkerbandsare at the top and the lighter bands at the base of the vase. M XI-4 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 6812). Bird's-nestbowl
Fig. 41
Davaras, AeAT 31, 1976, p. 377, pl. 298:e. From southwest corner of tomb. Broken in two pieces, otherwise complete. H. 0.06 m.; D. at rim 0.072 m. Breccia, light brown matrix with gray and black pieces. Compare Warren, MSV, Type 3. Seven of these bowls are reportedby Seager. TERRACE
M XI-5 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 6814). Bird's-nestbowl Found with M XI-2 and 4. Intact. Breccia,reddishmatrix with black pieces. CompareM XI-4 above. OTHEROBJECTS
Stone M XI-6 (Ag.Nik.Mus.). Fragmentsof two stone weights From lower stratum along north and east side of tomb. Each brokenin half. Approx. D. of larger fragment0.08 m. Limestone. Round, doughnut-shapedstones with biconicalperforations. Compare those from Myrtos (Warren, Myrtos, pp. 216-217).
3: TOMBS VII, VIII, A, AND E
Seager, Mochlos II, pp. 56-57. LOCATION AND EXCAVATION
Terrace 3 is the longest of the South Slope terraces since it extends farther to the west
than any of the other terraces,a total distanceof ca. 46 meters (Plan 3). Boundedon the east
98
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
by the rock outcroppingsthat borderthe South Slope cemetery,it runs beneath the West Terrace and terminatesin the rocksthat drop steeply to sea level at the southwestcornerof the island. The width of the terrace is defined at various points on the south by bedrock outcroppingsand steep dropsand on the northby bedrockoutcroppingsat the east and west ends and by the rear walls of the tombsat its center.It ranges in width from ca. four meters at the west end to ca. six metersat the centerand lies ca. 4.90 m. below the level of Terrace4 at its east end. The modernpath to the West Terrace runs along this terracetoday, and in antiquitytoo Terrace 3 probablyprovidedthe most directroute to the West Terrace for one approachingfrom the settlement. The remains of four tombs have been exposed along the terrace:two rock shelters at each end of the terrace and two built tombs near its center. There is room for one or two more, particularlyin the space between the rock shelter and the built tomb at the west, but no trace of other tombs survives. Only one of the four exposed tombs may be identified without any doubt:Tomb VII, the locationof which was clearly describedby Seager at the west end of the terracejust below and to the south of Tomb Complex I/II/III. The tomb at the easternend of the terracemay be one of two rock shelters,VIII or XIV. The two tombs in the center of the terrace do not appear to have been numbered by Seager; they are identifiedhere as Tombs A and E. All four tombson this terracewere cleanedby the GreekArchaeologicalService,A and E in 1972 and the two rock sheltersin 1976. TOMBVII (Fig. 42, PI. 34:b and c) Seager describedTomb VII, a rock shelter, as "a fissure running between two large boulders"that "hadbeen walled in at the southernend."In generalthis descriptionis accurate, although some furtherpoints should be made aboutthe walls. These extend, one from each of the two boulders, towards the south, and each turns at right angles at the south towardsthe centerof the tombto form a small doorway,ca. 0.58 m. wide. The easternwall, which rests on a low bedrockoutcroppingand backs against bedrockon its east, is considerably shorterand does not extend to the rear of the tomb. The western wall, which rests at groundlevel and is freestanding,extendsall the way backto the rear of the shelter,where it was built entirely in stone to fill the space between the earth floorand the rockoverhang.114 The entrance to the tomb is flanked by low bedrockoutcroppingsthat projectsouth fromthe cornersof the built facadeand form a small natural alcovein frontof the tomb, ca. 1.10 m. wide, reminiscentof the one in front of Tomb B. The entranceopens into a small irregularspace measuringa maximumof 1.17 m. east-west and 1.08 m. north-south. This front area was providedwith a level earth floor,but at the rear a rockledge rises ca. 0.62 m. abovethe floorand projectsanother0.70 m. backinto the rock.The roof is formedpartlyby rockoverhangat the rear of the shelter,which standsca. two metersabovefloor level in the centerof the tomb;the roof presumablyconstructedin front of this area would have rested on the two projectingboulders at either side of the tomb and in front on the mud-brick superstructureof the built walls. 114 Tomb VII, west wall: L. ca. 2.10 m.; W. ca. 0.44 m.; H. ca. 0.89 m. East wall: L. ca. 1.15 m.; W. ca. 0.45 m.
B
17.30
A 0
I
2
3M. RAL FH
I
JJSS
FIG. 42. Plan and section AB of Mochlos Tomb VII on South Slope Terrace 3 (drawn by Faith Hentsche
and the author)
100
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
TOMBVIII (Fig. 43, P1.35:a) This tomb is the largestof the rocksheltersin the cemeterythat were used as tombsand may even be describedas a small cave. Its identificationas the Tomb VIII that Seager describedsimply as "a natural hole in the rocks"is made largely by a processof elimination and is not absolutelycertain.Seager'sTombs VIII, XIV, and XVIII are the only remaining unidentifiedrock shelters.Tomb XVIII may be locatedfairly certainlyon Terrace 2 and is discussedbelow, and Tomb XIV is describedas "a small hole in the rocks".This tomb, becauseof its large size, is most likely to be Seager'sTomb VIII. Althoughthe tombhas not been cleanedto bedrock,it is well exposed.The mouthof the shelter is set back between projectingarms of bedrock,each ca. 1 m. high, that on the east extendingca. 1 m. from the mouth of the shelter, and that on the west ca. 1.25 m. Like the lower outcroppingsin front of Tomb VII, these rock ledges form a natural alcove, ca. 1.60 m. wide, in frontof the tomb. The mouthof the sheltermeasuresca. 1.40 m. acrossand probably does not rise much more than one meter above the bedrockfloor: to enter, one would always have had to crawl. The mouth opens into a small solutioncave createdby the erosion of a pocket of conglomerate,leaving floor, walls, and ceilings of hard sideropetra. The interioris an irregularspace measuringa maximumof three metersin width, 2.70 m. in depth, and only ca. 0.80 m. high at its rear. TOMBSA and E (Figs. 44 and 45, P1.35:b)
These two tombs,which lie side by side between the two rockshelterson the terrace,do not appear to have been excavatedby Seager. Only the very southeast cornerof E is preserved,so little that it might easily be overlooked,and it requiressome imaginationeven to recognizethe remainsof a tomb. It providesa good illustration,however,of the erosionthat has occurredacross the center of the South Slope and caused the destructionof so many tombs. Since the cleaning of A in 1972, severalof its walls also have collapsedand washed away. Tomb A is the betterpreservedof the two. It is a two-roomedrectangularbuildingwith over-all measurementsof ca. 4.10 by 4.20 m. It is somewhat awkwardly oriented northsouth, with the slope of the hill such that the northroomlies at a higher level than the south. It is also one of the more poorlybuilt of the Mochlos tombs:no attemptwas madeto anchor any part of the tombon exposedbedrockor even to base the walls on bedrockin spite of their ratherprecipitousposition.All the walls are constructedin ordinaryrubbleand rest directly on the earth slope. The north wall of the tomb acts as a retaining wall against the rising ground.115For most of its length it lacks an outer face and simply backs against the earth, but at its west end it was carefully widened and strengthenedwith inner and outer faces. The east wall of the tomb, which runs down the slope of the hill, appears to have been The cornerof each of the steps, above constructedwith four stepped,horizontalsurfaces.116 each vertical rise, is broken off, but the remainder of each of the horizontal levels is preserved.This type of stepped constructionis not uncommonlyfound in walls built on slopes, and it parallels that of the north wall of Gournia Tomb I (p. 4 above). At its south 1'5
Tomb A, north wall: L. ca. 4.32 m.; W. at west end ca. 0.50 m.; H. ca. 1.05 m.
116Tomb A, east wall: L. ca. 4.10 m.; W. 0.50-0.55 m.; H. ca. 0.71 m.
B-,
I
t
I
0
1
2
/
<
'% i :1770
|jI ,
3M.
RAL
FIG. 43. Plan and section AB of Mochlos Tomb VIII on South Slope Terrace 3 (drawn by Regina L
B
-
IL_mm 0
FIG.44. Plan of Mochlos Tombs A and E on South Slope Terrace 3
2
THE SOUTH SLOPE,TERRACE3
103
A 19.56
0
2
3M.
JSS
FIG.45. SectionAB through Mochlos Tomb A
end the wall curves, so that the south wall of the tomb is an unbrokenextension of the east wall. Lying at the lowest level on the slope, the south wall is missing a large centersection, which apparentlywashed downhill, but originallythe sectionof wall preservedon the east probablyjoined the small end sectionpreservedfartherwest. 17 No sectionof west wall is preserved,and the tomb was apparentlyalways left open and entered at the west. The central north-south partition wall runs parallel to the outer walls.11 Like the north wall of the tomb, it acts as a retaining wall against the higher ground level behind it and has only an outer south face except at its west end, where it was widened and strengthenedwith inner and outer faces at the entrance.At its east end it does not bond with the outer east wall. The open spaces on the west between this partitionwall and the north and south walls of the tomb,on the northca. 1.40 m. wide and on the south ca. 1.04 m. wide, provide access to the two rooms. The lower, southern room measures a maximum of 1.43 by 3.50 m. and uses the natural earth slope for its floor. The slightly larger upper room, measuringa maximum of 1.62 by 3.72 m., is set roughly a meter above the lower room. It appears to have been paved, at least along its southernside, where slabs are placed irregularlyabovethe loose fill of stones and earth behind the partitionwall. Tomb E may originally have looked similar to A, although its plan is largely hypothetical:only fragmentsof two parallel walls running east-west are preserved. 19They rest at about the same level on the slope as the south and centralpartitionwalls of Tomb A and 117
Tomb A, south wall: L. includinggap ca. 3.58 m.; W. 0.47-0.52 m.; H. ca. 0.44 m. Tomb A, internal partitionwall: L. ca. 3.62 m.; W. at west end ca. 0.72 m.; H. ca. 0.76 m. 119Tomb E, south wall: p.L. ca. 2.05 m.; W. 0.42-0.50 m.; H. ca. 0.40 m. 118
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
104
run in the same direction.At the west they are incomplete;at the east they abut a low bedrock outcroppingthat may have formed the footing for the now vanished east wall. As preserved,then, the tomb appearsto have consistedof one rectangularroom,corresponding in size and orientationto the lower south room of Tomb A, but a secondroom, now totally destroyed,may also have stoodto the north as it does in A. BURIALS AND CHRONOLOGY
Seagerreportedfinding "afew bones"in Tomb VII and "agreat many bones"in Tomb VIII; he did not describethe burials further. During the 1972 cleaningonly the most fragmentarybits of skeletalmaterialwere uncoveredin and aroundTombs A and E. Seager did not reportany potteryfrom Tomb VII and dated it on the basis of its stone vasesto "thetransitionalstage betweenthe E.M. III and M.M. I periods."During the 1976 cleaning of the tomb, however, EM II/III sherds were uncoveredwith several stone vase fragments(M VII-1-3) in an unexcavatedarea at the northwestcornerof the tomb,and the date of constructionshould probablybe pushed back to the EM II phase. Seager reported four vases fromTomb VIII, includingthree datingto the EM II phase (VIII b, d and e) and one of the EM III phase (VIII c).120No diagnosticpotterywas uncoveredduringthe cleaning of Tombs A and E, and they cannotbe dated securely.Severalfeaturesof the construction of A, however, suggest that it may not have been built as early as VII and most of the tombs on the slope. These include the somewhat shoddywall constructionwithout orthostates as well as the steppedeasternwall and the curvedsoutheastcornerof the tomb. The only finds cataloguedfromthe cleaningof this terraceare three stone vases (two of them fragmentary),which were found in Tomb VII and are describedbelow. CATALOGUE
Tomb VII VESSELS Stone M VII-1 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 6811). Spouted Fig. 46 bowl Davaras, AcAr 31, 1976, p. 377, pl. 298:y. From the northwest corner of Tomb VII, shattered into severalpieces but complete. H. 0.045 m.; D. at rim 0.097 m. Bandedtufa. Low open bowl with rim spout and three rim lugs. CompareM XXTII-1,pp. 71-72 above. M VII-2 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 6867 A).
Fig. 46
From the northwest cornerof Tomb VII. Upper part of vase preserved. P.H. 0.055 m.; approx. D. at rim 0.085 m. Serpentine. Jar with sloping sides and evertedrim. Compare Warren, MSV, p. 100, Penn.MS 4693 from Gournia; this vase has no trace of handles, however. M VII-3 (Ag.Nik.Mus. 6867 B). Fragmentof shallow cup From the northwestcornerof Tomb VII. Serpentine.
Fragment of jar
These include vases of dark brown burnishedware, includingwhat Seager describesas "blackware",a M XXII-1, p. 85 above (VIII b, d, e), and an "egg-cup"painted in white on dark (VIII c). like jug 120
105
THE SOUTH SLOPE, TERRACE 2
M VII-1
M VII-2
FIG.46. Stone vessels from Mochlos Tomb VII. Scale 1:2
TERRACE 2: TOMB XVIII Seager,Mochlos II, pp. 69-70. LOCATION AND EXCAVATION
Below most of Terrace 3 the groundfalls sharplyto the coast,and it is doubtfulthat any tombs could be built in most of the area. Only at the southeastcornerof the slope are there any indicationsof terracingbelow the level of Terrace 3. Like the slope above,this area is delineatedby bedrockoutcroppings:on the east those that flankthe SouthSlope abovecontinue until they breakoff some ten metersabovesea level;on the west, anotheroutcroppingrising at the level of Terrace 3 parallels that on the east, running eight to ten meters from it, and continuesdown to sea level. In this area, approximatelyfive metersbelow the level of Terrace 3, there are good indicationsof anotherterrace.It extends about eight meters between bedrockoutcroppingseast and west and is flankedon the north by additionalrockoutcroppings. Only two tombsappear to have been locatedon this terrace.One is a tiny rockshelter at the westernend in the outcroppingsthat rise along the north.The otheris a simple hole in the rockslying to the east;it has no apparentbuilt structure,except perhapsthe rocksplaced loosely aroundits perimeter.The rock shelterto the west is to be identifiedas Tomb XVIII (Plan 3); the hole to the east, althoughit clearlywas excavated,cannoteven be identifiedas a tomb with any certainty.121 Tomb XVIII was cleanedin 1976. TOMBXVIII (Fig. 47, P1. 35:c)
Seager's descriptionof Tomb XVIII as "a natural hole in the rock" (apparently the descriptionthat he used for all rock shelters) that "lay low down the slope near the edge of the cliffs"exactly matchesthe locationof this shelter,and since no sheltersare locatedbelow it, its identificationas Tomb XVIII seems secure.The shelter is locatedin a small outcropping, itself no morethan 1.65 m. across,of conglomerateand sideropetra.The conglomerate has erodedin such a way that the floor and walls are formedof sideropetrawhile the roof 121 This may be the missing Tomb XIV, the only one of the South Slope tombs that is unaccountedfor, which Seager describesas "a small hole in the rocks";on the other hand, XIV could be locatedbeneath the unclearedrubble on Terrace 5, especially if Seager numberedthe tombson this terracein sequence.
106
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
B-
A-
A
o
I
2rt
FIG.47. Plan and sectionAB through Mochlos Tomb XVIII on South Slope Terrace 2
remains conglomerate.The shelter is very small, with an opening ca. 0.60 m. wide at its base and ca. 0.40 m. high. It extendsback into bedrockonly ca. 0.60 m. BURIALS AND CHRONOLOGY
Seagerdid not describethe burials in the tomb, and only a few very fragmentarybits of bone were uncoveredduringthe 1976 cleaning. Becauseof the small size of the shelter,only one burial could be made here at a time, and it would have to have belonged to a small
individualtrussedup in a sharply contractedposition. Seager reports six vases from the shelter, all of them small. One still wonders how so many vases couldfit inside the sheltertogetherwith a burial. None of the vases is illustrated, but they appearto belong to the EM II (XVIII c, e, g) and EM III (XVIII h) phases.122 TERRACE 1: TOMB Z LOCATION AND EXCAVATION
One additionaltomb has been clearedand exposed below the level of Terrace 2. It lies at the very bottomof the South Slope at the edge of the rockycoastlinethat formsthe southern boundaryof the first and lowest terrace(Plan 3). This terraceis boundedon the west by the same line of rockoutcroppingthat rises at the level of Terrace 3 and runs alongsidethe westernside of Terrace 2. To the east, where the bedrockbarrierthat bordersthe whole east side of the South Slope subsides,the South Slope lies open towardsthe settlementarea, and it is unclear how much farther the cemeterymay have extended in this direction.'23The 122Vessels XVIII c and are examples of EM II red washed ware and red burnishedware (Wilson, BSA g
80, 1985, pp. 312, 317); XVIII h may be datedby its white-on-darkchevrondecoration(Betancourt,Whiteon-Dark Ware,p. 22, fig. 3:2). 123 The remainsof one unexcavatedtomb, however,which lie in line with Tomb Z, are exposedin the scarp abovethe rockcoastlineca. 10.60 m. to the east. Becauseof the proximityof the Prepalatialsettlementremains in BlockA, the cemeteryprobablyextendedno fartherthan this.
THE SOUTH SLOPE, TERRACE 1
107
excavatedtomb was exposed for the first time in 1976 by the Greek ArchaeologicalService and is identifiedas Tomb Z. TOMBZ (Fig. 48, P1.35:d) Tomb Z, which lies at the western end of Terrace 1, is a one-roomrectangularbuilding nestled between low bedrockoutcroppingson its east and west. It has no discernibleentrance and may have been approachedfrom either the higher north side or the now destroyed south side, which opened onto the rocky coastline. The north and west walls are constructedin ordinaryrubble, but without the flat stones that characterizeso many of the higher tombs. The west wall rests on the bedrockoutcroppingthat bounds this side of the terrace.One to three coursesare preservedhere, but the bottompart of the wall is formedby the bedrockitself that slopes into the floor.'24The north wall is entirely built: six irregular courses are preserved,and the wall was carefully bondedat its corners.125It rests at floor level and serves as a retaining wall against the rising slope to its north. Like the west wall, the east wall is only partially built: its southern half is formed by bedrock,and only the
e 0
I
I 2M. FH
FIG.48. Plan of Mochlos Tomb Z on South Slope Terrace 1 (drawn by Faith Hentschel) 124Tomb Z, west wall: L. ca. 2.50 m.; W. 0.58-1.18 m.; H. ca. 0.56 m. 125Tomb north wall: L. ca. 2.96 Z, m.; W. 0.48-0.70 m.; H. 0.90 m.
108
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
northernhalf is constructedof rubblewhere bedrockfalls away. The south wall of the tomb is destroyed,but it is unlikely that the tomb extendedmuch farther south than its western wall becauseof the sharp drop in groundlevel at this point. The interiorof the tomb, then, was ca. 2.30 m. long, while its width variedfrom 1.37 to 1.72 m. The rockfloorslopes down sharply from north to south, and the contentsmust have spilled into the sea long ago with the collapse of the south wall. During the 1976 cleaning, however,fragmentsof mud brick (P1.37:a)126and a pivot stone (M Z-1) were uncovered. CATALOGUE Stone
M Z-1 Pivot stone
PI. 37
From the outer west wall of Tomb Z. Intact. Dims. 0.124 by 0.136 by 0.08 m. Calcareous sandstone, reddish buff, coarse grained. Flat, irregularstone with conicalhole on one side. Outer D. of hole 0.064 m.
Clearly something turned in the depression in this stone, and Warren has identified similar stones at Myrtos as door socketsfor wooden pivots. Compare no. 61 from Myrtos (Warren,Myrtos, pp. 218-219, pl. 71A).
TOMBS EAST OF THE SOUTH SLOPE In addition to the two areas that Seager explored on the West Terrace and the South Slope, a third that he did not explore was also used as a cemeteryin the Prepalatialperiod. This area is located immediatelyeast of Seager's South Slope, on the opposite side of the rock outcroppingthat borders its east side. It too is delineated by distinct topographical featuresand is boundedon the east by a north-south line of furtheroutcroppingslike those on its west, althoughnot running so far south, and on the northby outcroppingsthat follow the 35-meter contourline like the low cliffs that rise above Terrace 7 on the South Slope. The area is not so large as the South Slope:it extends east-west about the same distance,a maximumof 45 meters,but not so far south as the coast.Only four tombshave been cleared in this area, and while their dispositionon the slope is not entirelyclear, they do not seem to have been arrangedin so orderlya fashion as those on the South Slope. Two were cleaned by the Greek ArchaeologicalServicein 1976, H and 0; the other two, I and K, appear to have been only partly excavated sometime in the past, although it is unclear when or by whom (Plan 3). Traces of other tombs, as yet unexcavated,are to be seen in the area and warrantfurtherinvestigation. TOMBH (Fig. 49, PI. 36:a and b) Tomb H is a small, nearly square tomb of one room with internal dimensionsof ca. 1.40 m. on each side. It nestles in a natural recessof sideropetraoutcroppingwhich rises to the north and west. The northwall rests on a depressionin this outcroppingand is built approximatelyfive courseshigh to the level of the outcroppingat the northeastand northwest. The east wall rests on bedrockabove the floor level and is preservedto a height of three 126Similar mud-brickfragmentswere found in Tomb B on Terrace 7; see p. 70 above.
TOMBS EAST OF THE SOUTH SLOPE
109
A
_
-_
B 0
1
2
3M. ISs
FIG.49. Plan and sectionAB of Mochlos Tomb H
18525
0
I
2
3M. <3
FIG. 50. Plan of Mochios Tomb 0
110
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
courses. Only one course of the south wall remains.127Nothing remains of the west wall, and the outcroppinghere may have been the locationof the accessto the tomb or servedas a socle. The floor is formedlargely by the sideropetra,which slopes down at a 450 angle from west to east. Apart from fragmentarypieces of bone, no finds are reportedfrom the tomb. TOMB0 (Fig. 50, P1.36:c)
Tomb 0 is a rectangularbuilding,ca. 4.15 m. in length, with two rooms.The south side is destroyed.The north wall, preservedfor its entire length, is set partly as a retainingwall againstthe rise of the hill and is strengthenedat its west end by a large uprightblockof sideropetra.The wall is indentedat its centerand set fartherback against the slope on the west than on the east. Part of the centralpartitionwall is preserved,standingtwo coursesabove floorlevel at the middleof the tomb. The easternwall is set on an outcroppingof sandstone conglomerateca. 0.35 m. above floor level and is largely destroyed.The northeasternand southern parts of the west wall are preservedto a height of one course, resting on sloping sideropetra.128 Each room of the tomb is ca. 1.30 m. wide and probably did not extend beyond the preservedsectionsof wall on the south. The floor of the easternroom, formedlargely by an eroded sandstone conglomeratepit, lies lower than that of the western room, which is formedof sideropetrasloping downwardsfrom northwestto southeast. In addition to fragmentarypieces of bone, sherds of dark brown burnishedware and Vasilike ware were uncovered.One EM II vase is preserved. CATALOGUE VESSEL Pottery M 0-1 (Siteia Mus.). Goblet Fig. 51, PI. 37 From east room. Mended frommany pieces,missing part of bowl. H. 0.071 m.; D. at rim 0.104 m. Gritty reddish clay. Dark brown burnishedware with slip on exteriorand interiorof bowl. Shallowbowl with straightsloping sides carinated near base, slightly thickenedrim; pedestalfoot. Compare no. XX 1 from Mochlos which, however, has a rim spout (Seager, Mochlos II, p. 74, fig. 32). For a discussionof the shape, see Warren, Myrtos, pp. 102-103 and Wilson, BSA 80, 1985, pp. 297299.
FIG.51. GobletM 0-1 (Siteia Mus.) from Mochlos Tomb 0. Scale 1:2
Tomb H, north wall: L. ca. 1.42 m.; W. 0.30-0.42 m.; H. ca. 1.00 m. East wall: L. ca. 1.92 m.; W. 0.460.52 m.; H. ca. 0.85 m. South wall: L. ca. 2.40 m.; W. 0.40-0.58 m.; H. ca. 0.40 m. 128 Tomb 0, north wall: L. of west section ca. 2.50 m.; W. 0.58-0.60 m.; H. 0.77 m.; L. of east section ca. 1.42 m.; W. 0.40-0.50 m.; H. ca. 1.11 m. Orthostate:ca. 0.58 by 0.66 by 0.77 m. West wall: p.L. including gaps ca. 2.36 m.; W. at south ca. 0.88 m. 127
A
B
Ir. 0
B
-
u
2
3M.
JSS
FIG.52. Plan and section of Mochlos Tomb I
112
THE MOCHLOS CEMETERY
31.63
I0
0
I
1
2I
2 M.
FIG.53. Plan of Mochlos Tomb K
TOMBI (Fig. 52, P1. 36:d)
Tomb I is a one-roomtomb with a doorwayat the southeast.The tomb backsagainst a small cave on the north and west; only its east and south walls are built of masonry.The south wall, preservedto a height of two courses,projectsfromthe bedrockon the west side of the tomb;a small rectangularplatform,only one course high, is locatedat its outer southwest corneragainstthis bedrock.The east wall projectsfromthe bedrockat the northside of the tomb. At its north end, where it is preservedto a height of four courses,it turns west at right angles and runs ca. 0.52 m. along the bedrockface enablingthe mud-bricksuperstructure of the wall to meet the roof of the cave.129The roof was formedpartlyby the projecting bedrock,which standsca. 1.25 m. abovefloorlevel near the centerof the tomb,and partlyby a built roof towardsthe south, the beamsof which couldrest on top of the bedrockprojection to the north. A doorway,ca. 0.57 m. wide, opens into an irregularspace with maximumdimensions of ca. 1.95 by ca. 2.82 m. It was a colorfulinterior:the cave at the north is formedby purple schist overhanginga bed of blue-gray sideropetra,which also forms the floor at the northwest sloping down towardsthe entrance.The tomb is not yet completelyexcavated. TOMBK (Fig. 53)
Tomb K is a small one-roomtomb set, like Tomb 0, in the bedrockoutcroppingsthat borderthe South Slope. Only its east and west walls are built of masonry,each preservedto a height of about two courses and set against bedrockoutcroppings.130Its north wall is 129Tomb I,
south wall: L. ca. 2.32 m.; W. 0.54-0.60 m. Corner platform:ca. 0.54 by 0.72 m. East wall:
L. ca. 1.54 m.; W. 0.44-0.48 m.; H. at northeast corner ca. 0.42 m. 130 Tomb K, east wall: L. ca. 1.80 m.; W. ca. 0.52 .; H. a. 0.50 m. West wall: L. ca. 1.52 m.; W. 0.100.62 m.
TOMBSEASTOF THE SOUTH SLOPE
113
formedentirely by sideropetrathat rises ca. 1 m. abovethe floor level and formsa ledge that could have provideda level socle for a mud-bricksuperstructure.A landing on the south appearsto have providedaccessto the interior,which measuresca. 1.50 by ca. 1.70 m. The tomb is not yet completelyexcavated.
III A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS The house tombs of Mochlos and Gournia find close parallels in a numberof tombs excavated in Crete;some 43 similar examples from 14 differentsites are known. Althoughsome were built as adjunctsto the tholoi of the Mesara, most are located in central and eastern Crete, where 12 of the sites and 73 of the 80 documentedtombsare found (Map). This type of tomb appears, then, to be as characteristicof the people who inhabited these parts of Crete as tholoi are of the Mesara culture. The earliest tombs date to the beginning of the EM II phase, a time of general expansion in the population of Crete and of nearly revolutionarychange in the material culture and political organizationof the island;the tombs are one manifestationof those changes. While they are 400 or more years later than the Mesara tholoi, they represent the first built tombs of an indigenous type in central and eastern Crete and an importantbreak from the age-old traditionof burial in caves or rock shelters. The earliest examples are located in larger cemeteries,often close to tombs of an older or differenttype, at sites that appearto be new foundationsat this time. They include Archanes(Tomb 6), Gournia (Tomb III), Koumasa(Tomb F), Linares, Mallia (the West-
ernOssuary),Mochlos(TombsI-VII, IX-XI, XIII, XV-XVII, XIX/XX, XXII/XXIII,
A, B, Z, H, 0, I, K), and Palaikastro(Tombs I and II). Mochlos accountsfor the largest numberby far, some 21 of 28 documentedexamples, and if numberalone were a sufficient criterionfor identifyingthe place of origin of the house tomb, Mochlos,which led the way in so many importantdevelopmentsof the period,would be so cited. Tombs from four of these sites, however, contained extensive deposits of EM IIa pottery: at Gournia, Koumasa, Mochlos, and Palaikastro;they must be judged to be contemporary.It is also tempting to identifyeastern Crete, where five of these seven early sites are locatedand where the house tomb is most common through the remainder of the Prepalatial period, as the place of origin, but the evidencefrom Knossosis lacking,and since all these East Cretansites appear to have been settledby colonistsmigratingfromthe area aroundKnossos,it may be Knossos where the house tomb originates. Many of the tombsbuilt in the EM II phase continueto be used throughoutmuchor all of the Prepalatialperiod,but it is only at the end of this period,in the time of the MM Ia pottery phase, that the house tombs proliferate.Like the EM II phase, this is a time of considerable developmentin the material culture and political organizationof the island. It is a periodof importantchangedistinguishedby the growingoccupationand increasingurbanization of the island. The first country villas appear;cave and peak sanctuariesspring up everywhere;villages with closed plans appear to be broken up into open settlementsand expanded into larger urban centers; and, most remarkably,the componentsof an early palaceare thoughtto be laid in place at Knossos.It is at this time too that housetombsshow a significantincrease in number, that some of the largest examples are built, and that many are combinedwith shrinesto providecentersof worship. At least thirty new tombsare built at 14 differentsites in this period,nine of them new sites where the house tombhad not been
A CATALOGUEOF HOUSETOMBS
115
documentedbefore.Many are clusteredtogetherin larger cemeteries.New tombsare added alongside older ones in the cemeteries at Archanes (Tombs B, 8, 12, 18, 19), Gournia (Tombs I, II, VII, VIII), Mallia (the House of the Dead, the EasternOssuaries),and Palaikastro (Tombs IV-VIII), and others are introducedto cemeteriesat Porti and Platanos for the first time. Some tombs were built in isolation, and several,such as those at Agios Georgios, Gournes, and Myrtos, Pyrgos, appear to have stood alone. Those in the large cemeteries servedthe expanding communitieswith which they were associated,whereas the more isolatedtombsmay have been built to servethe countryvillas that sprangup at this time. Most of the tombs built in the MM Ia phase, with the notable exception of those on Mochlos, continueto be used into the MM Ib phase. Only one or two new tombsappear to be constructedin the Old Palace period,and it is a curiousphenomenonthat the greatbuilding activityassociatedwith the constructionof the first palaces is not paralleledin funerary architecture.The only tomb connectedwith this activitythat may be describedas truly monumentalis the secondtomb at Chrysolakkos:it sharesseveralarchitecturalfeatureswith the Protopalatialbuildingsat Mallia and, it has often been suggested,was designedto house the deadof the palaceelite. The failure to build new tombsduringthe Old Palace periodmay be the increasing othermethodsof burial. Pithos and larnax i asof explainedin part by poy burials become ever more common, and the chambertomb, introducedin the Old Palace period, increasesin use until by the beginning of the New Palace period it has replacedthe house tomb and nearly all other earlier methods of burial. In light of these new burial methods,it is almost surprisingthat a segment of the population should be content to continue using the house tombsof their predecessors,which must have been considereda somewhat traditionaland conservativemethodof burial. It is quite likely that the choicebetween one form of burial and the other reflects a division in the social makeup of the population. Anotherreason,then, for the failure to build new tombsin the Old Palaceperiodmay be that use of the house tomb tomis restricted a relativelysmall segmentof the population. A lingering conservatismoften distinguishesthe burial methodsof the ruling class, and so it is in the New Palace period,long afterthe house tombhas gone out of generaluse, that a few tombs of this type continue to be used at centers of the palatial civilization. Tombs at Myrtos, Pyrgos,Archanes(Tombs 3 and B), and Mallia (ChrysolakkosIII) are re-used, in the latter two cases after undergoingextensiverenovation,and new tombs are built at Agia Triada (Tomb 5) and Knossos, where the Temple Tomb combines features of the house tomb and the chambertomb in a new hybrid. During the period of Mycenaeanoccupation, when tombs at Knossos (The Temple Tomb), Mallia (the House of the Dead), and Agia Triada (Tomb 5) are used one last time, one new tomb was built, the Tomb of the Painted Sarcophagusat Agia Triada, and it too apparentlybelongedto very special individuals. In the following catalogue the tombs are arrangedby site in alphabeticalorder. Bibliography is followed by a brief discussion of the location and excavationof the tomb, its architecture,and its burials and chronology.When tombs are already fully publishedelsewhere descriptionhas been kept to a minimum;other tombsare publishedhere in detail for the first time; still others must await final publicationby their excavators.In the Appendix 1Pini, MinoischenGriberkunde,pp. 11-13.
116
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
to the chapter all the tombs, including those at Gournia and Mochlos, are arranged in chronologicalorder. THE AGIA TRIADA CEMETERY The Agia Triada Cemetery (Fig. 54) lies at the west end of the hill that the palace of Phaistos also occupies, some 100 meters northeastof the Neopalatial villa at Agia Triada, and adjacentto an EM II settlement.It looksout to the west towardsthe Bay of Mesara and to the northtowardsthe twin peaks of Mount Ida. Not yet completelyexcavated,it contains the remains of at least five tombs and funerarybuildings. The earliest of these are the two tholoi, A and B, lying near the foot of the hill to the north.They appearto have been erected in the EM II phase; near the end of the Prepalatial period, series of antechamberswere addedto their southeasternsides. Perhaps at the same time a precinctwall was addedto the west side of Tholos A.2 This wall, constructedof large upright slabs set against the rising slope to the south, extendsca. 13.65 m. west of Tholos A in a nearly straighteast-west line. At its preservedwest end it veersto the north, but it may originallyhave extendedfartherto the west and enclosed the cemeteryon its north. Both tholoi and wall were used into the Protopalatialperiod, and at the end of the Neopalatial period a larnax burial was addedto the south side of the Tholos B annex. Higher up the slope to the south of Tholos A is the South Building, which was constructedin the MM Ia phase and is included in the Catalogue below. To the south of Tholos B, lying at the highest point in the cemetery,is the somewhat enigmatic Tomb 5, which appears to be Neopalatial in date and which is also includedin the Catalogue.Between this tomb and Tholos B lies the last of the house tombs, constructedapparently in the LM IIIa phase, which containedthe famous Agia Triada sarcophagus.Only the two tholoi and Tomb 5 are visible today. The cemetery,then, remainedin use throughoutnearly the whole of Minoan civilization. It lies some two kilometersfromthe palace at Phaistos,where early settlementremains have also been revealed,and it may have servedas the cemeteryfor the settlementsat both Phaistos and Agia Triada. It also served as a religious center at important points in its history, and this fact, as well as its use by important settlements,explains its prolonged existence. 1. THE SOUTHBUILDING (Fig. 55) Stefani, ASAtene 13-14, 1930-1931, pp. 152-154; Banti, ASAtene 13-14, 1930-1931, pp. 162, 217-232; Zois, 'Apx'E4 1965, pp. 70-75, 82-83.
LocationAnd Excavation The South Building, which is locatedabout eight meters south of Tholos A, was excavated in 1904 at the same time as the tholos, by Federigo Halbherr and the Italian ArchaeologicalSchool. The building was not completelyuncovered,with parts on the south and northwest left unexcavated,but it does not appear to have served as a tomb and is 2 Laviosa, ASAtene31-32, 1969-1970, pp. 414-415; this publicationalso gives details of the EM II settlementremains.
117
THE AGIA TRIADA CEMETERY
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includedin this Cataloguebecauseof its domesticarchitectureand its funeraryfunction.It has been reburied,and it has not been possible to examine it firsthand. Architecture The irregularlyshaped structureof ten rooms, with ordinaryrubble walls of varying widths, appears to have been built in two or possibly three phases. In the first phase it
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
118
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consistedof a two-roomedrectangularunit orientedapproximatelynorth-south. The two rooms do not interconnect,and each is providedwith an entrance. Room 1, the southern room, opens to the west, and Room 2, the northernroom, opens to the north. Each room is small and rectangular,Room 1 only ca. 1.20 m. square and Room 2 ca. 1.22 by 1.45 m. At some time a wall was erecteda shortdistanceto the northof this unit, runningparallelto its north face, and the spacesbetween it and the north face of the building at the east and west were closed off by rough walls, thereby preventingaccess to Room 2. Perhaps at the same time the more extensivecomplexto the west was erected.The east wall of this complexwas built againstthe west wall of the originalunit, thus blockingaccessto Room 1, and the original building may have gone out of use. The largercomplexto the west is composedof six rooms,5-6, 7-8, and 9-10, locatedin three parallel compartmentsopening towardsthe north.3Each compartmentconsistsof an outer and an inner room, the one opening onto the other; each appears to form a selfcontainedunit, although it is possible that the units connectin the northern,unexcavated portion of the building. In the eastern compartmentthe outer Room 5, ca. 1.05 m. wide, now 3 Banti, ASAtene 13-14, 1930-1931, p. 161, fig. 5. This is the only published photographof the reburiedSouth Building.Taken fromthe east, it shows Room 4 at the lower left with Rooms 7, 8, and 9 to the right. Traces of the curvedwall at the west end of the trench are visible in the background.
THE AGIATRIADACEMETERY
119
providesaccess towards the south to Room 6, measuringca. 1.05 by ca. 1.30 m. The outer room is paved with three different layers of pale red stucco set in turn upon an original pavement of stone slabs. Its east wall is broken to form a niche, ca. 0.45 m. wide and ca. 0.90 m. deep, where severaldishes were found.4 Room 7, which lies at the east side of the central compartment,is the largest of the excavatedrooms, measuring ca. 1.20 m. at its south end and ca. 2.30 m. in length. At its north it seems to open onto a still larger room that is only partly excavated.The floor of Room 7 is pavedwith cobblestones,and a low benchruns along its east wall. The roomgives access to a smaller room at its west, Room 8, which is L-shapedand measures ca. 2 m. in length and ca. 0.80 m. in width at its south side. The published photographof this area indicates that it was also paved. A small niche where a vase was found is located at floor level in the southeastcornerof this room. Many vases in addition, including some heaped one upon another,were found in Room 7 and in the northernpart of Room 8. The western compartmentis arrangedlike the eastern, with Room 10 opening to its south into Room 9. Room 10, measuringca. 1.20 by ca. 1.60 m., is paved with stone slabs, while Room 9, only ca. 0.75 m. wide, preservedtracesof a red stuccoflooring. The southern facadeof the rooms in this complex is ornamentedwith a series of three setbacksthat correspondto the internal compartmentaldivisions.At some time additional walls were addedto this facade,creatingat least two more rooms,3 and 4, to its south, but it seems probable that the facade was the original southern face of the complex. Both the internalwalls, which are visible in the publishedphotographof the building,and the facade wall lie at a considerablylower level than do the walls that form Rooms 3 and 4. Those enclosingRoom 4 on the south do notjoin the south wall of the larger complex,and the wall enclosing Room 3 on the south does not appear on the plan (Fig. 55) to bond with the partially destroyedeast wall of this room. As a result, it seems that the southernmostrooms in this building are a still later additionto the earlier complexes. Use and Chronology Banti comparedthe South Building to the buildings found in Area AB at Platanosthat Xanthoudides describedas huts used as tombs or storehousesfor vases of clay and stone. The care taken to pave rooms of the building, as well as the bench in Room 7 and the signs of wear in the stuccofloor of Room 5, suggeststhat the buildingwas accessibleto visitorsin the cemetery. Zois has assumed that it was a "religiouscenter"for the cemetery,and the depositsin niches and the stackedvessels, includingcups like those found in Room L of the Tholos A annex, suggestthat the roomswere indeedused for ceremonialfunctions,presumably, becauseof the locationof the building, in connectionwith the funeraryritual. The potteryhas been fully publishedby Banti, who has dated it MM I. Recently Zois has restudied the pottery and demonstratedthat the majority of the vases belong to the MM Ia phase; becauseof the abundanceof barbotineware the building should be considered a type site, along with Drakones, for MM Ia barbotineware. It may not be considered a closeddeposit, however, since severalvases belong to the MM Ib phase, and the building clearly continuedto be used in the Protopalatialperiod. 4
Banti, ASAtene 13-14, 1930-1931, p. 218, fig. 122.
120
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
2. TOMB 5 (Fig. 56) Paribeni, MonAnt 14, 1904, pp. 719-755; Banti, ASAtene, n.s. 3-5, 1941-1943, pp. 23-26; Platon, Kpv)rXpov8,1954, pp. 455-456; Long, AJA 63, 1959, pp. 61-65.
Locationand Excavation This building, known also as the Tomb within an Ancient House, is locatedabout 27 meters south of the Tholos B annex, higher up the slope of the hill but still within the cemeteryarea (Fig. 54). It was excavatedin 1903 by RobertoParibeni and is still exposed today. Architecture As at Tholos B, the slope of the hill has been cut away to bedrockto form a level terrace to accommodatethe building. As a result, the long axis of the building is orientedapproximately east-west against the hillside. The entire northern side of the building has been destroyedby the erosionof the slope, but sufficientremains surviveto the south to restorea rectangularbuilding of four successiverooms, ca. 15.40 m. long5 and considerablyless in width becauseof the limits of the terrace. The south wall is preservedfor its entire length.6It stands a maximum of five courses high and is constructedof a single row of large stonesset in fairly regularcoursesagainstthe slope. The true width of the wall, ca. 1.10 m., is best representedby the five stonesof the top coursethat lie in a line near the centerof the wall. The upper surfaceof these stonesformsa N
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FIG.56. Agia Triada, Tomb 5 (after Paribeni, MonAnt 14, 1904, pp. 719-720, fig. 22) 5This measurement,taken on the site, differs considerablyfrom that given in the publication,26.30 m., which is clearly an error. See p. 122 below. 6 South wall: L. ca. 15.40 m.; W. 0.50-1.10 m.; H. ca. 1.75 m.
THE AGIATRIADACEMETERY
121
level beddingthat representsthe original height of the stone wall and the level at which the mud-brickor rubble superstructureof a secondstory rested. Five additionalwalls, none completelypreserved,are set north-south, perpendicularto this wall. The four to the west are constructedin the usual rubble and bond with the long south wall. Today they are preservedto a maximum height of four courses,but at the time of their excavationthey were apparently much higher. The published photographof this building7indicatesthat the east wall of the pillar cryptrose some sevencoursesto nearlythe same height as the south wall. Only the southernmostpart of the east wall is preserved today. It differsfrom the other walls in that it is constructedof flat slabs only a single course high that are set next to one anotherwithout an interveningearth mortar.It lies ca. 0.18 m. inside the end of the long south wall and does not bond with it. Forming a level surface of uniformheight, it appearsto have servedas a stylobateand was perhapsdesignedto support a series of columns,although no trace of these survives.In the publishedplan (Fig. 56) this wall is preservedthe longest of those running north-south, ca. 4.20 m. in length, and provides the minimum north-south measurementfor the building. The building was probably entered through this eastern room, which, measuring ca. 4.15 m. east-west, may have formedan entranceportico.To the west are the remainsof two parallel narrow rooms, the more easterly ca. 1.50 m. wide and the other ca. 1.30 m. wide. The function of these rooms is not clear, but they may have formedthe well of a U-shaped staircase, as Long has suggested, or served s storerooms.8The westernmostroom of the tomb, ca. 4.15 m. wide east-west, is a pillar crypt. Two of the pillars, now destroyed,were in situ at the southernside of the room at the time of excavationand are visible in the published photograph.9They were constructedof separate, superimposed,roughly squared blocks;three blocksof the western pillar but only the bottomone of the easternremained.10 Becauseof the positionof the preservedpillars near the south wall, to one side of the room,it is probablethat at least two others originally stood to the north, perhaps, if the room was square, near the north wall. No passage from one roomto anotheris preserved,but because the building could not have extended much fartherto the north and the north-south walls block the south side of the building, one is tempted to restore an opening in the northwest cornerof the porticoand a corridorleading along the north wall to the pillar crypt. No trace of an upper floor was reported,but its existence is indicatedby the width of the south wall, by the pillars of the crypt, which may have supportedcolumnsin a room above, and by the joins between finds from differentroomsof the lower story. The excavators reported another wall lying just to the east of this building but not attachedto it; its axis was similar to that of the long south wall, but it was set just to the south at a slightly higher level. Only a small part of this wall is exposedtoday,but it appears 7 Paribeni,MonAnt 14, 1904, p. 721, fig. 23.
In the plan (Fig. 56) and the published illustration (Paribeni, MonAnt 14, 1904, p. 721, fig. 23) the western wall of the western room appears to lack an inner face. This face is visible today, however, and the room cannot be thought for this reason alone to have been filled in with the lower flight of a staircase.Storerooms are frequent adjunctsto pillar crypts, and in the complex of rooms that these most resemble in contemporarydomesticarchitecture,Tylissos House C, Rooms 2, 3a, and 3b, the narrowside roomswere used as storerooms(Platon, KpqrXpozv8, 1954, pp. 455-456, pl. I:KET). 9 Paribeni, MonAnt 14, 1904, p. 721, fig. 23. 10Western pillar: W. ca. 0.60 m.; H. ca. 1.29 m. 8
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
122
to consistof a single courseof carefullysquaredstones. One of these, fallen out of place and found in the vicinity, was incised with a trident sign similar to those found on the blocksin the Neopalatial palace at Phaistos. The extent of the wall is not reported,but the wall is included in the published plan of the entire site,11extending ca. 10 m. to the east with a short wall running north-south at its end, and it is possible that the measurementof 26.30 m. given in the publicationfor the length of the building includesthis eastern structure. The wall seems to have been planned as an additionto the main part of the building, orientedas it is in the same directionas its south wall and locateda short distancefrom it. Since it enclosessuch a large space, it may be part of a precinctwall enclosingan open court in front of the building. Burials and Chronology All the finds in the building were disturbed,includingthe burials, which were located only in the pillar crypt and the eastern of the two central rooms and lay well above floor level. The skeletalremainsfromthe easternof the two centralrooms,all fragmentary,came from a "highstratum"in the room. None were found in the 1.15 m. of fill directlyabovethe floor with the majorityof finds from this room, and no finds at all were made in the last 0.30 m. of fill. The skeletal remains in the pillar crypt were concentratedin the southeast corner, scatteredthrough the top 1.50 m. of fill together with the other finds, but with a greater concentrationat a depth of 1.30-1.40 m. All the skeletal material was greatly disturbed,although at least five separateskeletonswere representedand an unpaintedconical cup was foundwith one skull. No findswere made in the lowest 0.50 m. of fill directlyabove the floor of the crypt. Because of the disturbednature of the deposits, many of the finds cannot be securely dated. Those that can be datedwith a fair degreeof certaintyon stylisticgrounds,however, are includedin the following catalogue.They appear to fall into three differentchronological groups:objectsof the EM II phase; a group, by far the largest, belongingto the Neopalatial period;and objectsof LM IIIa date. Catalogueof Objects EM II Pottery AT 5-1 Fragmentsof a vase of 'dark bucchero" From pillar crypt, 0.80-1.00 m. below surface level. This vase is comparedto two vases found in Tholos B annex (Paribeni, MonAnt 14, 1904, p. 702, fig. 13), both three-footed cylindrical pyxides belonging to the EM IIa phase. Compare Her.Mus. 5035 from Koumasa (Xanthoudides, VTM, p. 11, pl. XVIII). " Banti, ASAtene,n.s. 3-5, 1941-1943, p. 10, fig. 1.
AT 5-2 (Her.Mus. 3130). Zoomorphicvase Paribeni, MonAnt 14, 1904, p. 753, fig. 46; Zervos, L'art de la Crete,pl. 184. From east centralroom,0.30 m. abovefloor. Parts of tail restored;otherwisecomplete. H. 0.065 m. Fine buff clay, undecorated. Bird shape: short flat feet, spherical body with large tail, small head with beak and round pellet eyes.
THE AGIA TRIADA CEMETERY Dated to the EM IIa phase by Zois, who has suggested that it is the work of the same artist who produced Her.Mus. 4121 from Koumasa ("Epevva, p. 722, note 1, pl. 2). Bronze AT 5-3 (Her.Mus. 797). Dagger Paribeni, MonAnt 14, 1904, p. 726, pl. XLIV:9. From pillar crypt, 0.80-1.00 m. below surface level. Intact. L. 0.24 m.; W. 0.048 m. Long dagger with concave edges, cut-away base, and cast ribbing. See Branigan, CBW, pp. 16, 79. AT 5-4 Dagger Paribeni,MonAnt 14, 1904, p. 748, pi. XLIV:5. From east central room, in a "high stratum". Point missing, otherwise complete. Long dagger with concave edges, rounded base, three rivets (one missing) in triangularformation. See Evans, PM IV, p. 24, note 4. MM III/LM I Pottery AT 5-5 Fragmentsof a tall cylindricaljar From pillar crypt, 1.00-1.50 m. below surface level. Unpublished but comparedto a MM III "incense burner"from Agia Triada (Paribeni, MonAnt 14, 1904, p. 745, fig. 41). For a discussionof such vases see H. and M. van Effenterre,Fouilles executeesa Mallia, exploration des maisons et quartiers d'habitation (1956-1960), quatriemefascicule (Etudes cretoises XXII), Paris 1976, pp. 11, 52-53 with bibliography. AT 5-6 Pedestaledvase From pillar crypt, 1.00-1.50 m. below surface level. Unpublished but comparedto a vase from Phaistos (L. Pernier, "Scavidella Missione Italiana a Phaestos 1900-1901," MonAnt 12, 1902 [pp. 5-142], p. 107, fig. 39; Festos II, pp. 112-113, figs. 60, 61). For a discussion of the shape, see Evans, PM I, pp. 415-417; PM III, pp. 402-403; PM IV, p. 779. The example from Phaistos, with an opening between the vase proper and the hollow pedestal,
123
was used as a rhyton. For the date see Festos II, pp. 112-113. Terracotta AT 5-7 (Her.Mus. 3033). Female figurine on swing Paribeni, MonAnt 14, 1904, figs. 42, 43; Zervos, L'art de la Crete,pl. 578. Figurine from pillar crypt, 0.50 m. above floor; posts of swing from east central room, in a "high stratum".Missing and restored:base and parts of side posts of swing, parts of birds, arms of figurine; head of figurine missing. P.H. of side posts 0.16 m., of figurine0.063 m. Buff clay; white slip, reddishbrown paint. Figurine in half-sitting position with large apron, perforatedat thighs for insertionof bar;rectangular side posts of swings piercednear top for insertion of string;posts topped by doves. Side posts decorated with horizontal bands of paint; ankles of figurine with narrow bands, apron with two chevronfriezes,backof dresswith wavy lines. For discussion and parallels, see Evans, PM IV, pp. 24-27; C. Delvoye, "Rites de feconditedans les religions prehelleniques,"BCH 70, 1946 (pp. 120131), pp. 123-124; Nilsson, MMR2, p. 331, note 7; for the date at the end of LM I see Banti, ASAtene, n.s. 3-5, 1941-1943, p. 24. AT 5-8 (Her.Mus. 3034). Female figurine Paribeni, MonAnt 14, 1904, p. 724, fig. 24; Zervos, L'art de la Crete,pl. 252. From pillar crypt, 0.80-1.00 m. below surface. Missing: head, part of left arm, small parts of skirt. P.H. 0.375 m. Pinkish buff clay; undecorated. Tall cylindrical skirt, hollow inside, barbotine decorationoutside, built up with clay coils; relatively low torso with arms archingto skirt. Comparethe figurinefrom Phaistos, Room 10 (Festos II, p. 114, fig. 62, right). For date at end of LM I see Banti, ASAtene,n.s. 3-5, 1941-1943, p. 24. Stone AT 5-9 (Her.Mus. 384). Sphinx Paribeni, MonAnt 14, 1904, pp. 749-753, figs. 44, 45; Zervos,L'art de la Crete,pl. 587.
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
124
From east centralroom, 1.15 m. above floor. Missing left forepaw;otherwisecomplete. Serpentine. A Hittite import. Identifiedas an inkstandby Evans (PM III, pp. 419-427). AT 5-10 Ceremonialhammeror mace head Paribeni,MonAnt 14, 1904, p. 728, fig. 26. From pillar crypt, 0.80-1.00 m. below surface. Breccia;oblong with flattenedends. Only a limited number of ceremonial hammers of this shape are known, all from Neopalatial contexts. Comparethe MM III/LM I examples from Knossos and Zakros (Evans, PM I, pp. 468-469, fig. 336; N. Platon, Zakros,the Discoveryof a Lost Palace of Ancient Crete,New York 1971, pp. 9, 145). Gold12 AT 5-11 (Her.Mus. 139). Bull's head pendant Paribeni, MonAnt 14, 1904, pp. 730-731, figs. 27, 30. From pillar crypt, 0.80-1.00 m. below surface. AT 5-12 (Her.Mus. 140). Lion pendant Paribeni, MonAnt 14, 1904, pp. 730-731, figs. 27, 30. From pillar crypt, 0.80-1.00 m. below surface. For the date of AT 5-11 and 12, see A. Marinatos and M. Hirmer, Creteand Mycenae, London 1960, p. 148 and R. Higgins, Greekand RomanJewellery, London 1961, p. 75. LMIIIa Terracotta AT 5-13, 14, 15 (Her.Mus. 3035, 3036, 3038). Female figurines Paribeni, MonAnt 14, 1904, pp. 739-744, figs. 37-39.
From pillar crypt, 1.00-1.50 m. below surface. H. 0.10-0.12 m. Buff clay; white slip, reddishbrown paint. Hollow cylindricalskirts, arms extendedin front. Eyes, hair, and skirt painted. AT 5-16 (Her.Mus. 3037). Female figurine Paribeni,MonAnt 14,1904, pp. 739-744, fig. 40, left. Found with AT 5-13-15 above. Buff clay; undecorated. Body like AT 5-13-15; pinched-outface. For the date of these four figurines (AT 5-13-16), all belonging to the class with hollow, cylindrical base, see Banti, ASAtene,n.s. 3-5,1941-1943, p. 24. Stone AT 5-17 Seal of Queen Tiy Paribeni,MonAnt 14, 1904, pp. 733-735, fig. 33. From pillar crypt, 0.80-1.00 m. below surface. Steatite,white. Cartoucheof "Royalwife Tiy" on base. See J. Pendlebury, Aegyptiaca, Cambridge 1930, pp. 8-9; F. Stubbings,"The Aegean BronzeAge,"in Cambridge Ancient History I, Cambridge 1962, p. 245. The seal should, however,be associatedwith the latest finds in the tomb and not the MM III/ LM I finds as Pendleburyand Stubbingssuggest. A scarabof the same queen was foundat Mycenaewith LM III pottery (C. Tsountas, <'ApxaorTjres EK MvKV&v>>,,'ApX'E4 1887 [pp. 155-172], p. 169), and more recently a scarab of Amenophis III was found in a LM IIIa contextnear Knossos(P. Fraser, "Archaeologyin Greece," ArchReportsfor 19681969 [pp. 3-39], p. 33, figs. 44-45). See also M. Popham, "Late Minoan Chronology,"AJA 74, 1970 (pp. 226-228), pp. 227-228.
The dispositionand peculiar nature of these finds have promptedconsiderablediscussion concerningthe building in which they were discovered.Paribeni concludedthat because none was foundon the floor,the buildingwas originallya house that was later re-used as a tomb. The female figurinesfound in the building led Nilsson and Evans to suggestthat the building must also have contained a shrine,13a suggestion supported and somewhat 12With the exceptionof the diadems (Paribeni,MonAnt 14, 1904, pp. 732-733) and the gold-platedpendant (ibid., pp. 754-755, fig. 47), which could be as early as EM II, all the jewelry from this building should belong to the New Palace period. See Evans, PM IV, p. 24, note 4. 13Evans, PM IV, p. 24, note 4; Nilsson, MMR2, pp. 303, 331, note 7.
THE AGIATRIADACEMETERY
125
elaboratedupon by Platon and Long, who have noted the similarity of the building to the Temple Tomb at Knossos.In the meantime,Banti arguedthat the finds could not belong to the building because of their location above floor level, because of their disarray, and because of their wide chronologicalspan and had probablywashed into it from higher up the hill. This hypothesisis the most tenuous. The EM II finds, if correctlyidentified,may well be intrusive, since the building is too advancedarchitecturallyto date to this period. The closestarchitecturalparallels belong to the Neopalatial period,as does the majorityof finds. Furthermore,the Neopalatial findsshow a certainhomogeneitythat one would not expect if they were simply "washedin" from above;it is importantto note a remarkablysimilar deposit with cylindrical incense burner, pedestaled vases, a female figurine with barbotine decoration,and several figurines with cylindrical or bell-shaped skirts in a Neopalatial shrine at Phaistos.14 The locationof the finds abovefloorlevel may simply indicatethat they had fallen from the floor above, and the building is included in this Catalogue on the presumptionthat, regardlessof its contents,its location in the Agia Triada Cemeterymarks it as a funerarybuilding. 3. TOMB OF THE PAINTEDSARCOPHAGUS(Fig. 57) Paribeni,RendLinc 12, 1903, pp. 342-343; Paribeni,MonAnt 14, 1904, pp. 713-719; Paribeni,MonAnt 19, 1908, pp. 5-86; Long, The Ayia TriadaSarcophagus,pp. 11-15.
Locationand Excavation The Tomb of the Painted Sarcophagusis locatedsome six meterssouth of the Tholos B annex in the Agia Triada Cemetery.It was excavatedby Paribeni in 1903 and was apparently reburiedsometimeafter excavation. Architecture The tomb is nearly square, with outside measurementsof ca. 3.85 by ca. 4.10 m. It is oriented east-west and is built with rubble walls, rather more carefully constructedthan most, laid on the natural bedrockslope. The walls are unusual for their width, which is relativelylarge in comparisonto the small area enclosedand sufficientto supportan upper story.15The eastern wall is broken at the north by a doorway, ca. 0.87 m. wide, the thresholdof which is formedby the continuationof the wall at its base. The doorwayprovides accessto a single small room measuringca. 1.95 by ca. 2.39 m. At the time of the excavation it was noted that the upper surfaces of the walls were preservedto a uniform horizontal level,16and it was suggestedthat the preservedsurface representedthe bedding for a superstructureof mud brick or wood. It was also suggested that the building resembled the tomb representedon the painted sarcophagusthat was found inside and might also have had an elaboratelypainted facade.17 4 Room 10: Festos II, pp. 110-115. 0.90-0.95 m.; H. of south wall ca. 1.20 m. 16 Paribeni,MonAnt 14, 1904, pp. 715-716, fig. 19. 17 Long (The Ayia TriadaSarcophagus,pp. 49-50) has pointed to several Mycenaeantombs with painted facadesthat have been excavatedsince and providegood parallels. 15 Walls: W.
126
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
A
A
B 06
11
2 11L
3m.
FIG. 57. Agia Triada, Tomb of the Painted Sacrophagus(Paribeni,MonAnt 14, 1904, pp. 715-716, fig. 19)
Burials and Chronology The tomb containedtwo rectangularlarnakes,orientedeast-west, one of undecorated terracottaset in a trenchjust inside the door, and the other of plasteredlimestoneplacedon the floor of the tomb farther to the south. Parts of two skulls were found in the painted larnax, and one skull, togetherwith fragmentarybones, was in the unpaintedone. Because only one larnax was decoratedand the other was in a subordinateposition,it was suggested that the unpainted larnax served as an ossuary for primary burials made in the painted larnax.
AGIOS GEORGIOS
127
No pottery is reportedfrom the tomb. It is dated on the basis of the larnax painted in fresco technique, which should belong to a period just before the final destructionof the palace at Knossos. AGIOS GEORGIOS 4. AGIOSGEORGIOS (Fig. 58, P1. 38:a) N. Platon, <,XpovtKda>, KprJrXpov13, 1959 (pp. 359-393), p. 372.
Locationand Excavation This tomb, which is still visible, is located southeast of the modern village of Agios Georgios in Siteia (formerlyknown as Tourtouli) on the northeastslope of Mount Mantalia. It is situated at the southern end of a long terrace,one of several running around this side of the hill. At the south the terraceis no wider than sevenmeters,but towardsthe north, where it is plantedwith olive trees, it widens considerably,and it is possiblethat this section of the terraceaccommodatedother tombs. The tomb was excavatedby Nicholas Platon in 1959.18
Architecture The tomb is tucked into a small rectangularspace that opens to the north. It skirts the edge of the terraceon the east and is shelteredby a low earth cliff that rises above it to the west. Originally the tomb must have been nearly square, with an over-all north-south measurement of ca. 5.40 m. It enclosed at least two adjacent oblong rooms running north-south. The tomb is now partially destroyed,part of the northern face of the north wall by plowing in the adjacentfield, and the entire stretchof its east wall as well as large portionsof the adjoiningside walls by the erosionof the terrace. The parallel north and south walls backagainstthe face of the cliff to the west. Only the western end of the north wall remains;the south wall is the better preserved.19They are constructedin the usual rubble, that on the south with a large number of irregularlylaid small stones at its west end. The southern wall appears to have been connectedat its preservedeast end to a large stone lying ca. 0.40 m. to the south, thus forminga kind of external niche ca. 0.65 m. wide and ca. 0.40 m. deep. There are no signs of any doorwayleading into the tomb or between its two rooms,and while an outside doorway might have existed in one of the destroyedwalls to the east, it seems likely that each room was enteredat a level above the preservedsocle of the walls or through a separateopening from the roof. The east, outer room is largely destroyed,but its dimensionswere probablysimilar to those of the west, inner room.The western wall of the lost eastern room, which forms the eastern wall of the inner room, is narrower than the north and south walls, often only the thicknessof a single large stone;20its ends do not bond 18
I am indebtedto the excavatorand the Greek ArchaeologicalServicefor permissionto study this tomb. p.L. ca. 4.54 m.; W. 0.60-0.68 m.; H. ca. 0.75 m. North wall: p.L. ca. 2.48 m.; W. ca. 0.68 m.; H. ca. 0.45 m. 20 East wall: L. ca. 4.18 m.; W. 0.36-0.50 m.; H. ca. 0.57 m. 19South wall:
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
128
+-3~52 10
+
+ 67d
0.00
p +-830
0 ---
--
0
Br--.
1
0
I
I
2m.
I
A FIG.
58. Plan and section AB of the tomb at Agios Georgios
+ 2.5 7
THE ARCHANESCEMETERY
129
with the north and south walls, and it was clearly built after them. The maximum distance from this wall to the edge of the terrace to the east is 3.10 m., and it is doubtful that this space accommodatedmore than one room. The L-shaped room to the west of the central partition wall measures ca. 4.13 m. north-south, ca. 1.52 m. at the wider south end, and ca. 0.86 m. at the north. Its western wall, the rear wall of the tomb, consists of two separatebut connectingwalls, both only a single course wide. The northernhalf, constructedof larger stones than the southern,runs ca. 2.13 m. south fromthe northwall beforeturningwest at a right angle towardsthe face of the cliff. The southernhalf, set back,west of this return,does not bondwith the returnof the northernhalf or with the outer south wall.21The tomb is unusual for its type (tombswith side walls runningbackto the face of a cliff) in that insteadof using some part of the cliff for its rear wall, as do so many of the tombs at Mochlos, its rear wall is formedcompletelyby a built wall placed a considerabledistance, 1.48-1.90 m., in front of the cliff. This construction may be due to the type of cliff, which is earth and not rock, but it should be noted that the side walls run back beyond the rear wall on either side of the earth fill, as much as 1.45 m. on the south to the point where the side wall actually hits the face of the cliff, and it may be that the fill behind the west wall, especially behind the southern part, conceals anothersmall room. Burials and Chronology Scatteredbones are reported from the inner west room, and undisturbedburials are reportedfrom its square southernend. The potteryincludesa total of about 50 completeor nearly completevases, mostlyjugs and small cups. No examplesare illustrated,but they are reportedto belong entirely to the last phase of the Prepalatial period. Many vases were found against the walls outside the tomb and apparently in a niche at the preserved southeast corner,where a small pit had been dug. In the excavator'sview these once held offeringsof food for the dead. THE ARCHANES CEMETERY Phourni, the burial site of ancient Archanes, is a long hill lying at the northeast foot of Mount Juktas and extending between the modern towns of Epano and Kato Archanes (Fig. 59). Its southernend lies about a kilometernorthwestof Epano Archanes,the site of the ancienttown, and the ancientcemeteryhas been uncoveredon top of the hill at this end. It is an impressivelocation with the peak of Juktas towering on one side and the town of Archanes,its houses often using the foundationsof the ancient Minoan houses, lying below on the other.22 The cemeteryis one of the best preservedin Crete and providessome of the most complete examples of house tombs. It covers a large area, extending about 150 meters northsouth along the southeastend of Phourni. Some 24 funerarybuildingsof varioustypes have been partly or completelyuncoveredso far, and excavationsstill continue.In additionto the 21 22
West wall: L. of north half ca. 2.13 m., of south half ca. 1.88 m.; H. ca. 0.50 m. For a plan of the area see Sakellarakis,PrihistorischeZeitschrift45, 1970, p. 138, fig. 1.
130
V
A;-=
l
0
8
igv 11
10
0 r
20m
,_T
FIG.59. The Archanescemeteryat Phourni (Sakellarakis,"Epyov1982, pi. 128)
THE ARCHANESCEMETERY
131
house tombs describedin this Catalogue,they include tholos tombs,tholos tomb antechambers, shaft graves, and burial mounds,and still other structuresthat servedritual purposes. Burials began to be made in the cemeteryin the EM II phase in both house tombs (6 and perhaps 7) and in at least one tholos (E) and continuedto be made in the EM III phase in still another (F), which is the earliest surviving example of a corbel-vaultedtholos. The largest number of burials and the greatest amount of building in the cemetery,however, belong to the end of the Prepalatialperiod, when Tomb 6 was enlargedand re-used, when Tomb E was also re-used and antechambers(16 and 9) were added to both E and F, and when entirely new house tombs (8, 12, 18, and 19) and the monumentalTomb B were all constructed.A large numberof individualswere buriedin these tombsat this time, and as if there were not space enough to accommodateeveryoneinside the tombs, many were buried directlyin the ground in the large open area west and south of Tomb F. In the Old Palace period the number of burials appears to have fallen off somewhat. They continuedto be made in Tomb 19 and also in Tomb 5, which may have been built as an additionto Tomb 3. By this time, as a result of continuedconstructionover hundredsof years and repeateduse, the cemeteryhad assumedwhat is practicallya closedplan with its individualtombsclosely packed together, either attachedto one another or separatedby narrow and winding passages, themselves sometimesblocked by supplementarywalls, and with many of its tomb chambers accessible only from above. In the New Palace period burials continued to be made in Tombs 3 and B, and at least two buildings that servedritual functions (4 and 17) appear to have been built to service them. In the Mycenaean era still more burials were made in tholos tombs (A and A) and in shaft graves (11). Many of the buildings in the cemeteryprovidedfor religious needs as well as for burials; the dual nature of the site as necropolis and religious center may account for its uninterrupteduse through nearly the whole durationof Minoan-Mycenaeancivilization. The cemeteryis also importanthistorically,for the two main types of Minoan tombs, tholos and house tomb, one characteristicof the Mesara, the other of central and eastern Crete, come together here. From the time the cemeterybegan to be used, they were built adjacentto one another, and when the greatest building activity in the cemeteryoccurred and it was used more than ever, the two types were thoroughlyintegrated,and the tholos was concealedbehind or inside the house tomb. Clearly the proliferationof tombs in the MM Ia phase reflectsan increasein the populationusing them, but the combinationof the two differenttypes of tombs in the same cemetery,indeed the unificationof the two in the case of Tomb B, may also reflecta politicalcombinationof two differentculturalelementsin the area that is responsiblefor the increase in population and the great spurt of building activity. The excavationof the Archanescemeterybegan in 1965 and is being carriedout under the directionof lannis and Effie Sakellarakis.23 23 I am indebtedto the excavatorsfor permissionto study these tombs and reproduceplans they have published in "Epyov and IlpaKrcla. For the most part I have followedthe excavators'accountin my own description, but not always, and my remarksshould be consideredtentativeuntil the final publicationof the cemetery appears.
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
132
5. ARCHANESB (Fig. 60) Sakellarakis, "Epyov1966, pp. 135-137; Sakellarakis, IpaKTrKad 1966, pp. 175-180; Sakellarakis, "Epyov 1967, pp. 97-100; Sakellarakis, lpaKTrKa 1967, pp. 150-156; Sakellarakis, "Epyov 1971, pp. 239-249; Sakellarakis,IlpaKrTKa1971, pp. 277-281; Sakellarakis, 'Apx' Eq 1972, pp. 1-11; Sakellarakis,HIpaKTrKa 1973, pp. 171-174; Sakellarakis, "Epyov 1986, pp. 134-138; Pelon, Tholoi, tumuli et cerclesfuneraires,
pp. 14-15;Hiller,MinoischeKreta,pp. 102-104.
Locationand Excavation Tomb B lies near the middle of the Archanes cemetery. It is built on top of an earlier
tomb on the site (Tomb 7) and is hemmed in by structuresof varying dates on the west, south, and northeast.On the west an earlier building, Tomb 6, lies at a higher level, supported by a high retaining wall and separatedfrom Tomb B by a cul-de-sac. Immediately south lies Tomb 3, which was built so close to the southwall of Tomb B that one cannotpass between the two buildings. A short distanceto the northeastlies a later structurethat was never used as a tomb, Building 4 (Fig. 59). To the north it seems likely that an open area within the cemetery was faced by both the north faCadeof Tomb B and the portico of Building 4, and from it a paved ramp led up to the higher ground level to the west. The excavatorshave suggested that an opening to the tomb may have been located at the destroyednortheastcornerof the building, at least in the final stage of its use. The building was excavatedin a series of campaignscarriedout in 1966, 1967, 1971, 1972, 1973, and 1986. Architecture
The tomb is the largest at Archanes.Standingtwo storieshigh, with over-all measurementsof ca. 16 m. on the south side and ca. 15.40 m. on the west, it is one of only a few house tombsthat might be describedas monumental.In size, plan, and details of constructionit is an innovativebuildingand standsas an importantlandmarkin the historyof Minoan architecture.It was used for a long periodof time and underwenta numberof alterationsbut was originally conceivedas a unified structure and laid out with a carefully planned, almost symmetricaldesign. It consists of a massive rectangularbuilding, oriented north-south, with projectingcornerspreservedat the northwest, southwest, and southeast. Inside, it is dividedinto two distinct,interconnectingareaswith tholos and adjacentchamberslocatedin the northernhalf of the building and pillar crypt with relatedroomsin the southernhalf. The outer walls of the tomb are constructedin a distinctivestyle of rubble masonry.24 Stoneswith roughlyrectangularfaces are laid in regularcoursesof approximatelythe same height, and the verticaland horizontalspaces between stones are filled out with earth mortar and stone chips in a decorativefashion. In addition,the basesof the north and west walls are decoratedwith freestandingupright slabs laid against the walls to form a dado. The walls on the north, west, and east are extremely wide, and, together with a fourth wall locatedmidway inside the tomb and runningparallel to the outer north wall, were designed to supportthe vault of the tholos and in places the rubble fill that surroundedthe vault. The tholos was originally isolated within these walls in the north half of the tomb. It has a base diameterof ca. 4.80 m., and its walls are built with large blocks, smoothedand 24
Sakellarakis,"Epyov1971, pls. 291 and 294, right.
THE ARCHANES CEMETERY
133
FIG. 60. Archanes,Tombs B, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8 (after Sakellarakis,HlpaKTCKa1973, p. 168, fig. 1)
curved on their interior faces, and corbeledabove.25A small rectangularopening located well abovefloor level gives accessto a rectangularside chamberat the northwest.The walls of the side chamber are slightly corbeled at the top in order to narrow the span for the ceiling, which is formedof huge stone slabs, two of which are in situ. The tholos was originally entered at the southeastthrough a long dromosleading from the southeast cornerof the tomb. The walls of the dromos are set back at the tops, and the ceiling was closed by slabs resting on these setbacks. During its period of use a number of rough rubble walls were constructedto block the inner part of the dromos,26and at the end of this period the entry into the tholos was carefully blockedso that only the large curving lintel block of the entryis still distinguishablein the wall. At the end of its periodof use, in the LM IIIa phase, a new opening was cut in the northeast wall of the tholos, leading to another room and probablyto a new entrance.At the same time the floor of the tholos was raised and a bench 25
26
Sakellarakis,ripaKrcLK1966, pl. 146:a. Sakellarakis,IpaKrLiKa 1966, pl. 147:8.
134
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
with roundededges erected around it. The whole area, including floor, bench, and walls, was then coveredwith a reddishplaster, much of which still remains. Two otherroomslie northof the tholos,both isolatedfromit and probablyenteredfrom above.The roomat the northwestcornerof the tombis part of the originalbuilding,but that lying along the northernwall is an addition27and is not built with the same care as the rest of the building. The pillar-cryptcomplex,locatedin the southernhalf of the tomb,consistsof four main rooms.28The southernis a long corridorthat extend the whole width of the tomb.At the east it gives access to the dromosleading to the tholos and to a narrow rectangularroom to the north.At this end it is paved,as is the roomto the north.Towardsthe west the corridorleads up overan initial step formedby the east wall of Tomb 7, overthe buriedsouthcompartment of this earliertomb,and up a flight of five steps to a large rectangularroomat the west end of the pillar cryptcomplex.This roomlies at the second-storylevel in the tomband gives access througha doorwayin its east wall to a roomthat lay immediatelyabovethe pillar crypt. The pillar cryptitself consistsof a basementroomca. 3.50 m. square.29The lower parts of the walls are constructedin coursesof flattish, neatly laid stones brokenon the inside by verticalchases for wooden beams;abovethese lower courses,at the top of the verticalbeam chases, the walls are constructedmore irregularly with rough stones that projectslightly beyond the lower courses. This break between smooth and rough constructionmarks the approximatelevel of the upper floor. A rectangularniche, set at the northeastcornerof the crypt two to three courses above floor level, extends the height of the lower wall. A somewhat enigmaticwindow or small doorway locatedat the southeastcorner30may have provided accessto the crypt from the south corridor,but it also appearsto have openedinto the buried south chamberof Tomb 7. The crypt is built on top of this earlier tomb, which may be significant,and uses part of its walls for its own south wall and apparentlypart of its pavedfloor for its own floor. The pillar, locatedin the centerof the crypt,is built of roughly squaredblocks;the upper surfaceof the top block,worn smoothand flat, lies near the level of the second-storyfloor, the crossbeamsof which the pillar apparently supported.Fragments of painted plaster found throughoutthe crypt, many with a combinationof colors, were thought to belong to frescosthat may have decoratedthe walls of the upper room. At the southwesta doorwayopened fromthe crypt into an adjacentroom to the west. Burials and Chronology
Remains of burials have been uncoveredat severalpoints inside the tomb. In the pillarcrypt complex, skeletal remains were found in differentstrata of the southwest projecting room;31in the westernmostroom at ground-floorlevel, burials were found on the floor and in a sarcophagus,walled in at the northernend of the room and reachedby a staircasefrom above, with as many as 13 burials inside;32and in the crypt itself, skeletal fragmentsand 27
Sakellarakis,"Epyov1971, pl. 291, right. Sakellarakis,HpaKTLKac1967, pl. 137. 29 Sakellarakis,HpaKLTKa 1967, pl. 138. 30 Sakellarakis, ipaKT&KaO 1967, pl. 143:3, lower left. 31 Sakellarakis, 1971, pl. 298. "Epyov 32 Sakellarakis,"Epyov1986, pl. 116. 28
THE ARCHANESCEMETERY
135
pieces of sarcophagiwere thought to have fallen from the upper room.Undisturbedburials were discoveredin both the eastern section of the south corridorand in the room immediately north of this area, in which a contractedburial was foundjust abovethe pavement, orientednorth-south. Only the mandiblewas in situ; the remainderof the skull was founda short distanceto the northeast,beside the feet of the skeleton.A conicalcup had been placed beneath the mandibleand anothercup, inverted,by the remainingpart of the skull. At the east end of the south corridorbeforethe dromos,six completelarnakeswere uncovered,all but one restingon the pavementand all but one orientedeast-west.33No undisturbedskeletons are reportedfrom the larnakes,but some 15 skulls were found in four of them, including five in one larnax alone, as well as other fragmentaryskeletal remains, and some 15 additional skulls were found in the spaces between larnakes. One undisturbedburial is reportedbeneath a larnax;it lay in contractedpositionwith the head to the east.34 Only a few scattered skeletal fragments are reported from the tholos, although one would expect it to be the principalburial chamberof the tomb.The depositbeneaththe LM III floor, however, has not been completelyexcavated.In the original dromos,the remains of dogs, includingskulls and completeskeletons,were found near the entranceto the tholos after the secondblockingwall. Further undisturbedburials are reportedfrom the northwestroom of the tomb and the addition along the north wall. In the northwest room a skeleton was found at floor level along the south wall, togetherwith fragmentsof larnakes.The skeletonhad been placed in contractedposition on its right side with the head to the east. In the north addition two burial strata were uncovered:in the upper stratum,a larnax placed against the south wall, orientedeast-west, and two skeletonsin the southwestcorner;35in the lower stratum,other undisturbedburials in the southwestcornerand along the east wall. The earliest pottery reported from inside the tomb belongs to the MM Ia phase. In addition, a large deposit of MM Ia potterywas found in the cul-de-sac alongsidethe west It includedsome 272 completeor nearly completevessels, severalpieces, including faCade.36 one kernosand a compositevessel, of a ritual nature.37The distinctivestyle of masonryused in the facadesand the pillar crypt have close parallels in other architecturalremains of the MM Ia phase,38and the constructionof the tomb is datedto this time. The tomb is reported to have continued in use to the end of the Neopalatial period and was re-used in the LM IIIa phase. 33Sakellarakis,IlpaKToKa 1967, pl. 139. The larnakes are carefully describedby Sakellarakis(pp. 154156) and ascribedto the earlier Tomb 7. Stylisticallythey appear to be MM I: see B. Rutkowski, Larnaksy Egejskie, Warsaw 1966, pl. XLIII:5, 6, 8, and compare the MM I examples from No. 8, Archanes 6 (pp. 142-143 below), Pachyammos(Seager, Pachyammos,pl. III), Stavromenos(J. Hazzidakis, Tylissos a l'epoque minoenne, Paris 1921, pp. 80-82, fig. 42), and Vorou (Marinatos, AcAr 13, 1930-1931, pp. 147, 152, figs. 10, 17). 34Sakellarakis, FIpaKTtKa1967, pl. 140:a.
35Sakellarakis,"Epyov1971, pl. 292. 36Sakellarakis,"Epyov1971, pls. 295-297. 37Sakellarakis,'ApX'E 1972, pp. 1-11, pls. A-IG. 38 For these see pp. 208, 217-218 below.
136
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
6. ARCHANES3 AND 5 (Figs. 59 and 60) Sakellarakis, "Epyov1966, pp. 138-142; Sakellarakis, IpaKrtKa1966, pp. 180-184; Sakellarakis, "Epyov 1967, pp. 100-103; Sakellarakis,IlpaKTLKa1967, pp. 157-160; Sakellarakis, "Epyov 1971, pp. 249-252; Sakellarakis, IpaKrTKa 1971, p. 281; Sakellarakis,
HpaKrTKa
1972, pp. 319-327; Sakellarakis, IlpaKrcKa
1978, p. 320.
Locationand Excavation Tombs 3 and 5 lie in the space between Tomb B on the north and Tomb F on the south.39They were built separately,and in the excavator'sview Tomb 3, which is flanked by Tomb 5 on the west and south, is a later additionthat displacedthe eastern part of the latter. The reverse,however, may also be possible, namely that Tomb 3 is the original unit and the variousroomsof Tomb 5 were addedto its west and south at a later time. The two tombs were excavatedover several years. Most of the work on Tomb 3 was carriedout in 1966, and most of the work on Tomb 5 was done in 1967 and 1972. Architecture Tomb 3, conceivedas a separateunit, is a rectangularbuildingca. 6.50 m. wide and ca. 7.90 m. long.40Like Tomb B it was a two-storybuilding with the lower storybuilt entirely in stone. Although only the lower story remainsintact, it is one of the best preservedtombs on the site, or anywherein Crete. The outer walls resemblethose of Tomb B on the outside but are constructeddifferently and in a more advancedfashion. The blocks are roughly dressedonly in front and on top and bottom;they are wedge shaped at the back and set in rudimentaryashlar techniquein the outer faces of the walls with ordinaryrubbleconstruction behind.Quantitiesof plaster,includingred and white fragments,were foundinside the tomb and probablycoveredthe rubblefaces of the interiorwalls. There is no entranceto the tomb throughits lower story;entry must have come at some point in the upper story, perhaps at the northeastcorneror from the roof. A staircaseconstructed in two parts along the eastern side led from the upper story to a lower-story landing.41It providesaccessto a long corridoron the lower storythat runs north-southparallel to the staircaseand in turn providesaccessto the two main roomsin the westernpart of the tomb. The larger, southern room is entered through a doorway over a thresholdthat marksthe originalfloorlevel of the lower story.At somepoint in its use the roomwas divided in half by a roughlyconstructednorth-south wall. The base of this later partitionwall rests on loose fill, well above the level of the threshold.The northernroom,42which is entered from the central corridorthrough a doorwayalso providedwith a built threshold,is somewhat smallerthan the southernbut was also dividedat a later time by a north-south wall. At the time of its constructionTomb 3 was flankedby other tombs on the north, east, and south and perhaps also by a retaining wall on the west, supportingthe higher ground level like that to the west of Tomb B. The tomb then appearsto have been enlargedby the three separateand consecutiveadditionsthat constituteTomb 5. The first was made in two Sakellarakis, IIpaKrTKa1967, pi. 359:/3. 1967, pl. 146:,3. 41 Sakellarakis, HIpaKTLKa 1967, pl. 146:a. 42 Sakellarakis, "Epyov 1971, pl. 299. 39
40 Sakellarakis,IIpaKrKca
THE ARCHANES CEMETERY
137
parts along the west and south sides of the tomb (Fig. 60). That on the south, which consists of three rooms (7, 8a, and 8b), fills the long and narrow space between Tomb 3 and Tomb r, while that on the west, which also consistsof three rooms (5a, 5b, and 6), rests on top of the earlier wall that flanked Tomb 3 on this side. Another compartmentwith three rooms (2, 3, and 4) was then addedalong the western side of the first western addition,and still anothercompartmentwith only one room (1) was addedalong the western side of this addition,set back and extendingsomewhatbeyondit to the north. None of the walls of these additions bonds with those of the others, nor do any of their walls bond with those of Tomb 3. It is specifically the constructionof the rooms in the first western addition that shows that Tomb 5 is an additionto Tomb 3 and not, as the excavatorsuggested,an earlier tomb that was partly destroyedin orderto make room for the constructionof Tomb 3. The north wall of this addition carefully abuts the outer west wall of Tomb 3, and its interior east-west walls, which are cut backat the east to form doorwaysalong the easternside of the addition, also carefully abut the outer west wall of Tomb 3 at the base where they extend beneaththe doorwaysas thresholds.All this construction,which shows no signs of repairor rebuilding,could have been done only after the west wall of Tomb 3 was completed. The result of these additionsis a tomb running east-west, the first additionson the east and south lying at nearly the same level as Tomb 3 and considerablylower than the two later additionsto the west, which rest on the rising bedrock.Each addition,althoughjoined in a single continuous structure,was designed as a separate unit. Thus, the first eastern additionhas its own entrancethrough a doorwayat the north, and each of its three roomsis approachedby the corridorrunning along its east side. The south additionis isolated from the east additionand, with the exceptionof Room 7, which is providedwith its own internal doorway,43appears to have been enteredfrom above. The secondadditionon the west has its own entrancethrougha doorwayon the south, and each of its three roomsis enteredby a corridorwith doorwaysopening along its western side. The last, westernmostadditionappears to have been enteredfrom above. Burials and Chronology The excavationof Tomb 3 revealedthree main strata. The lowest containednothingof importance,and the excavatorbelievedit to be a simple earth fill thrown in to raise the floor level. It should be noted, however,that this fill containedthe fragmentof a "sheepbell"44in the northwestroom and that it coveredthe original floor level of the tomb. The middle or second stratum in the tomb containedscatteredskeletal remains in all rooms and fragmentsof larnakesas well as animal teeth in the southwestroom. Severalof the remainswere in situ. A larnax designedto hold an infant burial lay near the centerof the northernpart of the centralcorridor,orientedeast-west, andjust to its south lay two feet of a second,similar larnax.45A completeskull lay in the southwestcornerof this corridor.In the southwestroom anothercompleteskull was found in the northwestcorner,and the remains of a skeleton,orientedeast-west with head to the west,46were foundalong the south wall. In 43
Sakellarakis,IlpaKrKad 1972, pl. 271.
44For a discussionof "sheepbells"see p. 230 below. 45
46
Sakellarakis,Archaeology20, 1967, p. 279, fig. 8, left. Sakellarakis,HpaKrTKa1967, pl. 147:/3.
138
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
the northwest room two further larnakes, oriented east-west, lay in the northwest corner behind the dividing wall that belonged to this stratum and was apparentlythrown up to blockoff these burials.47A skull fragmentwas found at the west end of the northernlarnax. The upper stratumof the tomb containedmore skeletalremainsas well as fragmentsof larnakesin all but the south part of the corridor,where the stratumwas destroyed.All these remains were scattered,however, and since finds in the stratum belonging together came from differentrooms,they may have fallen from the secondstory. Schist slabs also found at this level are thought to have fallen from the roof of the building. All the rooms of Tomb 5 containedburial remains, some of which were in situ. The westernmostcompartment(Room 1) was tightly packedwith some 21 pithoi and two larnakes, all filled with skulls. Most of the pithoi had been placed right side up on stone bases in neat north-south lines,48while others had been placedon their sides or upside down and were sometimesboundedby stones. The best-preservedpithoi in the northwest section of the room contained from one to four skulls each.49A larnax in the northwest corner, oriented north-south, held some ten separate skulls.50The central compartment(Rooms 2-4) contained scattered skeletal remains in each of is rooms, including fragments of larnakes in the central room and animal bones in the northern room. The eastern compartment (Rooms 5a, 5b, 6) containedburials in larnakes and on the floor. Two larnakes were foundin the northernroom,one in the northeastcorner,orientedeast-west, and one in the southwest. A third was found at the entrance to the southern room, oriented northsouth, containingthe remains of a contractedburial with the head to the north.51Another contractedburial lay on the floor to the west. The southerncompartment(Rooms7, 8a, 8b) also held burials on the floor and in larnakes. Room 7 was packed with bones, including some 37 skulls, togetherwith at least 19 vases and a numberof sea shells.52The skulls were stacked,some on stone slabs, some in vases, on top of one another and extendedabove the lintel of the doorwayin such a way that they must have been depositedfromabove.Room 8a containedat least five larnakesand two burial pithoi as well as some 31 skulls depositedon the floor at the narrow sides of the room.53A number of sea shells and animal teeth were also found at this level. At a lower level in the room remainsof furtherburials were found on the floor, including some 11 skulls with approximately 70 vases, mostly dishes and conical cups, stackedin vases;by one skull a conicalcup had been placed in invertedposition. Sea shells and animal bones were also found here. Room 8b containedtwo larnakes, one on the eastern,one on the western side of the room, each with the remainsof two skeletons. Beneath the eastern larnax four skulls were found togetherwith seashells and a bull rhyton.54 Although the potteryfrom these tombs has not been definitivelystudiedyet and only a few examplesare published,that fromTomb 5 is reportedto belongto the earlierpart of the 47 48 49 50
Sakellarakis,IlpaKTLKa 1966, pi. 147:a. Sakellarakis,HpaKTLKa' 1967, pl. 150:a. Sakellarakis, HpaKTKa' 1967, pl. 151. Sakellarakis,HpaKTLKa 1967, pi. 150:/3.
Sakellarakis,HpaKTLKa 1972, pl. 268:,3. Sakellarakis,rpaKTLKa 1972, pl. 269. 53 1972, pl. 273. Sakellarakis,HpaKTLKa' 54 Sakellarakis,HpaKTLiKa1972, pl. 277.
51 52
THEARCHANES CEMETERY
139
Old Palace period, and that from Tomb 3 is reportedto be Neopalatial. In the excavator's view, Tomb 3 dates to the New Palace period and displacedthe older Tomb 5 on the site when it was built. It is significant,however,that the lowest stratumin Tomb 3 consistedof simple earth fill, placed above the original floor level of the tomb, and it may be that the tomb was actually built and used at a much earlier time than its pottery suggests. The fragmentof a "sheepbell" (p. 230 below) reportedin its lowest stratum suggests a date in the MM I phase, and the incipient ashlar constructionof its outer walls suggests a date at the beginningof the Old Palace period for its erectionand initial use. In this case, it may be that the tomb,erectedand first used in the MM Ib phase, was cleanedof its earliestcontents beforeit was used in the Neopalatial periodand that the compartmentserectedsuccessively to the west and south were built to hold the material from periodiccleanings of the tomb. The last cleaning would have occurredjust before the Neopalatial use of the tomb, and at this time its floor level would have been raised in preparationfor new burials. 7. ARCHANES4 (Fig. 61) Sakellarakis,"Epyov1966, p. 137; Sakellarakis,IfpacTxKa 1966, p. 180; Sakellarakis,"Epyov1967, pp. 101102; Sakellarakis, HpaKriKa1967, pp. 158-159; Sakellarakis, "Epyov 1974, pp. 105-107; Sakellarakis, 1977, pp. 460-481; Hiller, MinoischeKreta, p. 190. rlpaKTsKa 1974, pp. 207-212; Sakellarakis,HlpaKrLKa
Locationand Excavation Building 4 lies a little more than five meters to the northeast of Tomb B along the eastern edge of the cemetery.It faces west towards a large flat area that probablylay open within the cemetery.The building was first examinedin 1966 and 1967, and its excavation was resumedin 1974 and 1977. Architecture Building 4 is a rectangularstructure,nearly 14 meterslong, dividedinto two parts by a wall on its north-south axis. On the west, where the bedrocklies at a higher level, a large terrace,five to six meterswide, runs the entire length of the buildingand facesthe open area to the north of Tomb B. This terracewas pavedwith large stone slabs, severalof which still lie in situ along its outer, west side. It is unclearwhether they coveredthe entire area of the terrace,but a foundationwall preservedmidway at the north and south ends of the terrace appears to have been designedto support further slabs. Three round stone bases that once supportedwooden columnswere found at variouspoints on the terrace.One of these, which rests on top of the pavementalong the very edge of the terrace,appears to be in situ, and a colonnadesupportinga flat roof apparentlyran along the west facade. On the east, where the bedrockfalls away, eight basementrooms are preservedbelow the level of the west terrace.Rooms 1 and 2 on the south are the larger and more important of these. Room 2 may be enteredfromthe outsideby a doorway,flankedby a window, in the outer, east wall of the room. It in turn providesaccessto Room 1 by a doorwayat its southeast corner and, by another doorway at the northeast corner, to a very narrow corridor running northjust inside the east wall of the building. The floors of both Rooms I and 2 have been cut out of bedrock,and the rooms were used for importantactivitieswithin the building. With the exception of Room 4, where 13 conical cups were found stacked one
140
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
0
,
2m.
"
FIG. 61. Archanes,Building 4 (after Sakellarakis, lpaKTLKa1977, p. 462, fig. 2)
upon the other together with a bronze knife, few finds were made in the rooms north of Rooms 1 and 2, and the excavatorhas suggestedthat these small rooms (3 to 8) servedonly to providefoundationwalls for structuresin the upper floor. At least three roomsmay be restoredon the main floor level abovethe basementrooms in the easternhalf of the building:one each above Rooms 1 and 2, the third above Rooms 3 to 8. Remainsof the flooringof these rooms,includingstoneslabs coveredwith lime cement, were found fallen into the rooms below. Although no evidencefor doorwayson this upper level has survived, they were presumably located in the western walls of these rooms and permittedpassage directly from the west terrace. In architecturaldesign and perhaps function as well, the building recalls the small LM III terracottamodel from Kamilari
THE ARCHANES CEMETERY
141
Tomb I,55which is also providedwith a terrace and colonnadeand appears to representa funerarybuilding where offeringsare being made to the dead. Functionand Chronology No burials were found in Building 4. It was never used as a tomb, and only some of its several functions are clearly funerary. Its west terrace was used as a place of offering: a large number of conical cups were found here.56The largest deposit was located in the southeastcornerof the terrace,where some 248 conical cups were found intact and where more than 2000 fragmentsof bases belongingto similar cups were also found. Many of the completecups had been placed upside down. The deposit, which also containedtwo "milk jugs", the fragmentof a four-sidedstone offering table, and fragmentsof two "bellvases", ranges in date from the end of the Prepalatial period to the beginning of the Neopalatial period. It is thoughtto have been laid down, however,perhapsas a foundationdeposit,only at the beginningof the Neopalatial period. In virtually all the rooms in the eastern half of the building were found numerous fragmentsof plaster, often lying in small heaps. They had apparentlyfallen from the walls on the upper level; they were painted in an array of colorsand indicatethat the upper-floor walls were richly decorated.Most finds in this part of the building came from Rooms 1 and 2, where they lay in two strata. In the upper strata in both rooms,where the contentsof the upper-floorrooms are thought to have fallen, numerous fragmentsof pithoi, various stone tools, including pestles, querns, and obsidian blades, and material for the preparationof dies were found. Some 47 loom weights were also found in these two rooms, most in the upper strata, and most from Room 2, where a verticalloom is thoughtto have stoodagainst the south wall.57 Part of a female figurine was also found in Room 1,58 and three tripod cookingpots, thoughtto belongto the upper floor,were foundin Room 2. The excavatorhas identifiedboth correspondingroomson the upper floor as workroomsor storerooms. In the lower stratum in Room 1 was found a completepithos fallen on the floor in the southeastcorner,togetherwith several other vases, includingone with the remainsof olive pits near by; this room too appears to have served as a storeroomor pantry. In the lower stratumof Room 2 a large spoutedvat, used for makingwine or olive oil, was foundfallen at the southeast side. The rock floor of this room is cut at two levels;the vat originally sat on the higher level on a stone platformagainst the south wall with its spout turnedtowardsthe east, where the floorwas cut out to receivethe runoff.Two shallow residuebasins are cut in the flooralong the north side, and the area appearsmost suitablefor the productionof wine. The excavatorcomparedthe building to similar establishmentsin Egyptian cemeteries used for ritual purposesand for the preparationof goodsused in ceremonies.The discovery of cookingequipment, large numbers of conical cups (in additionto those placed as offerings on the terrace), and the remains of animal bones in the building suggests that eating and drinking, perhaps a funerary banquet, were among the ceremoniesperformedhere. 55 Levi, ASAtene23-24,
1961-1962, pp. 124-127, fig. 70.
Sakellarakis, fIpaKrtKa 1974, pl. 154. 57 Sakellarakis, HpaKrtKd 1974, pl. 153. 58 Sakellarakis, IpaKTLKa 1974, pl. 150:8. 56
142
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
The area above Rooms 3 to 8 could even have servedas a dining room. The excavatorhas dated the building to the Neopalatial period, but large amountsof MM Ia and Protopalatial pottery were also uncoveredbeneath floor levels of the building and against the outer east wall. 8. ARCHANES6 (Figs. 59 and 60) Sakellarakis, Kadmos IV, 1965, pp. 177-178; Sakellarakis, AeXTr 21, 1966, pp. 411-412; Sakellarakis, IllustratedLondonNews, 1966, pp. 32-33; Sakellarakis,Archaeology20, 1967, p. 276; Sakellarakis,"Epyov 1973, pp. 111-113; Sakellarakis,HpaKT&Ka 1973, pp. 167-171; Hiller, MinoischeKreta, p. 108.
Locationand Excavation Tomb 6 lies on the west side of the cemeteryat a higher level than Tomb B. It is approachedfrom the lower ground level and open area to the north of Tomb B by a paved ramp running east-west up the slope of Phourni.59The tomb was excavatedin 1965-1966 and again in 1973. Architecture The tomb appears originally to have been a single, oblong building, ca. 6.80 m. in length, consistingof two parallel rooms, 1 and 3. Sometime after the constructionof this original core at least four additionalrooms were added on the north and west. The south, rear wall of the tomb reflectsthese successiveadditions:its brokenseries of verticalsetbacks was created as new rooms were added, reflectingthe internal structure.All the walls are built of ordinaryrubble and form level socles designedto supportmud brick above. Each room of the original building has its own doorway, Room 1 at the north and Room 3 at the east. A rectangularalcove (Room 6), destroyedat the east, was addedin front of the doorwayof Room 1, and the doorwayof Room 3 was blockedby a rubblewall. Each providedaccessto a long rectangularroom with irregularbedrockfloor. Room 3 was subdividedby a shortspur wall at the north.The later roomsaddedto the west (2, 4, 5) have no visible doorwaysand were presumablyenteredfrom the roof. Burials and Chronology The most extensiveremainswere found in Rooms 1 and 3, where the burials consisted mostly of skulls, some 196 counted;no complete skeletonswere found. Two burial strata were uncovered.In the lower, skulls were depositedon the earth floor and in vases;60in the upper, they were placed in pithoi61and in larnakes,orientedfor the most part north-south with the long axis of the room62and so closelypackedtogetherthat the last burials in Room 1 were thoughtto have been lowered in place from the roof. Of the later roomsaddedto the west and north, Room 2 containedno finds, "asif it had neverbeen used."63Rooms4 and 5 containedfragmentaryskeletal remains and pieces of sarcophagi,enough to indicate that 59Sakellarakis,HpaKTiKa1973, pl. 172:a. 60Sakellarakis,Archaeology20, 1967, fig. 2. 61
Sakellarakis,AEAT 21, 1966, pi. 439:,8. Archaeology20, 1967, fig. 3. 63 Sakellarakis,KadmosIV, 1965, p. 178. 62Sakellarakis,
CEMETERY THEARCHANES
143
burials had probablybeen made here in the same fashion as in the upper strataof Rooms 1 and 3. The northernaddition to the tomb (6) also served for burials; five skulls as well as other fragmentaryskeletal materialwere found here. Of special interestamong the finds in this room is a large flat stone, locatedin the northwestcorner,on which variousobjectshad been placed in a row. These includedtwo cups, both inverted,two sea shells, and a "sheep bell".64Other finds in the room includedfragmentsof animal teeth and at a lower level the fragmentsof another"sheepbell". The potteryin the later rooms (4, 5, 6) is datedto the MM Ia phase, the same time that the ramp at the north was constructed.Only examples of this pottery have as yet been illustrated,but in the early publicationsof the tomb, potteryranging in date from EM II to MM Ia is reportedfrom Rooms 1 and 3. The larnax burials in the upper stratumof Rooms 1 and 3 should belong to the MM Ia phase, and presumablythereforethe burials in the lower stratumand the constructionof the original two-roomunit to the earlier phases.65 9. ARCHANES 7 (Fig. 60) 1967,pp. 153-157;Sakellarakis,"Epyov1971,pp. 239-243. Sakellarakis, HpaKTLKa
Locationand Excavation Tomb 7 lies beneath the southernchambersof Tomb B, and some of its walls serve as foundationsfor the walls of the later tomb. It was excavatedin 1967 and 1971. Architecture The plan of the tomb is obscuredby the later building above it, but it appears to have consistedof three narrow, rectangularcompartmentslying parallel in the same manner as those of Tomb 6. Two of the compartmentslie beneath the pillar crypt of the later tomb, extending beneath and east of its east wall; the third compartmentlies to the south of the crypt, partly beneaththe staircasein the south corridorof the later tomb and partly in front of it. The southerncompartmentis the best preserved,for it seems to have been incorporated into the later tomb for a special purpose.66Its south wall lies just inside and adjacentto the outer south wall of the later tomb; its north wall, which is the south wall of the central compartment,is preservedbeneath the south wall of the later pillar crypt running at the base of a "window"in the wall of the crypt;its east wall is preserveda short distanceeast of the later staircase.The central compartmentof the tomb, which extendedbeneath the east wall of the later pillar crypt, is paved with carefullylaid limestoneslabs.67Its north wall is only partly preservedwhere it forms the south wall of the northerncompartment.Only the western wall of the northerncompartmentis preserved.68It is set back from the west line of the other compartmentsof the tomb and does not bond with the north wall of the central 64
Sakellarakis,IIpaKTLKa1973, pl. 171:a. For "sheepbells"see p. 230 below. Sakellarakishas noted that the eastern rooms of Tomb 6 are apparentlycontemporarywith the earliest tholos tomb on the site, Tomb E (FIpaKTrKa1975, p. 307, note 1). 66 Sakellarakis,HpaKTLKca1967, pl. 143:/3. 67 Sakellarakis,rIpaKTLKd 1967, pl. 138:a. 68 Sakellarakis,HpaKTrKa1967, pl. 138:/8. 65
144
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
compartment.The roomis analogousin these respectsto Room 2 in Tomb 6 and is probably also an addition. The eastern and western boundariesof the tomb are unclear, but the excavatorhas suggestedthat the tomb extendedeast all the way into the paved area beforethe dromosof Tomb B and the paved area to the north, east of the dromos.Both these areas, however,are enclosedby the walls of the later tomb, and since the finds from these areas are contemporary with the earliestfinds fromother locationsin the later tomb,they would seem to belong to it and not to Tomb 7. Burials and Chronology Scatteredskeletalremainswere uncoveredin each of the three compartments.Some six skulls were collectedfrom the southerncompartment,but apparentlyno completeskeleton. In the centralcompartmentan undisturbedburial was uncoveredrestingon the pavedfloor. It lay contractedon its right side with the head to the east. The pottery from the tomb has not been published, but the tomb must antedate the MM Ia Tomb B under which it lies. It may thereforebe contemporarywith the original structureof Tomb 6, which it seems to resembleclosely. 10. ARCHANES 8 (Fig. 59) Sakellarakis,HpaKTrKa1973, pp. 177-179; Sakellarakis,"Epyov1982, p. 54; Hiller, MinoischeKreta,p. 108.
Locationand Excavation Tomb 8 lies at the southeastcornerof Tomb B. It is flankedon the west by Tomb 3 and on the south by the antechambersof tholos Tomb r and is separatedfromall three tombsby a narrowpassagethat was blockedoff at variouspoints by crosswalls.The tombwas discovered in 1971 and excavatedin 1972 and 1982. Architecture The tomb is a two-room rectangularbuilding roughly five meters square. The north, west, and south walls are well preservedand appear to have been built entirely in stone to the height of one story.Only the lower coursesof the east wall are preserved;as a result, it is unclearwhetherthe tomb was enteredfromabove,as was Tomb 3, or througha doorwayat some point above the stone foundations of the east wall. The interior is divided by a north-south spur wall into two narrow, rectangularrooms connectedby a doorwayat the south that was blockedwith stonesat the time of excavation.69The northwall in both rooms rests on a foundationthat projectsinside and formsa high bench;the west wall and the spur wall also rest on projectingfoundationwalls, which form a paved floor over a large part of both roomsand which the excavatorbelievesbelong to an earlierbuilding phase.70 Burials and Chronology Most of the burials were found in the western room. One burial was uncoveredin the southwestcorner,apparentlysurroundedby stones,with a sea shell and an invertedconical 69 Sakellarakis,
HpaKTLKa 1973, pl. 173:a.
70 Sakellarakis, IlpaKTLKa1973,
pl. 173:/3.
THEARCHANES CEMETERY
145
cup. The main burial stratumwas locatedbeneath.Here the remainsof 14 individualswere uncovered;12 were placed along the north wall, their skulls exactly on or alongside the bench.The only objectfoundwith them was a fruitstandplacedupsidedown on the bench.71 Two other skulls were found in the southern half of the room, one by the doorwaywith a conicalcup attachedto the forepartof the skull. Other findsin the roomincludeda sea shell, animal bones,and teeth. Along the southernside of the easternroomwere founda few skeletal remains with two invertedconical cups. Two burials with skulls survivingwere found along the north side of the room.All the potteryin the tomb is datedto the MM Ia phase. Outside and along the north wall of the tomb eight vases, including four conical cups, and a small animal figurine were uncovered.In the corridoroutside the south wall of the tomb, which was subdividedby crosswalls, 18 additionalburials were uncovered. 11. ARCHANES 12 (Fig. 59) Sakellarakis,IlpaKrLKa 1973, pp. 174-177; Hiller, Minoische Kreta,p. 109.
Locationand Excavation Tomb 12 is locatedimmediatelysouth of Tomb 6, between it and the western roomsof Tomb 5 on the higher ground level above Tomb B. It is approachedby a paved walk that runs along the east side of Tomb 6. It was excavatedin 1973. Architecture Since the area was badly eroded before excavation, the tomb itself was largely destroyed,and its plan is lost. Traces of exterior walls are preservedalong the north and east sides of the building, however, and part of an interiorwall is preservedwhere it abuts the northwestcornerof Tomb 5. Areas within these walls were paved. Burials and Chronology The main burials were uncoveredon either side of the survivinginteriorwall. Remains of one burial were foundon the west, and remainsof some 35 skulls were foundin two areas to its east. All were placed directly on the ground, but fragmentsof sarcophagiwere also found. Conical cups, togetherwith other stone and clay vases and remainsof animal bones, were found with severalof the burials. The potteryis datedto the MM Ia phase. 12. ARCHANES17 (Fig. 59) Sakellarakis, IpaKTLKa 1975, pp. 312-317.
Locationand Excavation Building 17 is located a short distance north of Building 4. It was discoveredin 1974 and excavatedin 1975. Architecture The building,which might best be describedas a depository,consistsof an enclosureca. 4.26 m. deep flankedby irregularwalls along the east and west. Traces of pavementwere 71 Sakellarakis,
nIpaxruca 1973, pl. 175:B.
146
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
found between these walls, and towardsthe south and east of the structurea pit measuring ca. 3.60 by 3.80 m. and as much as 1.55 m. deep was cut in the bedrock.How the buildingis to be reconstructedis unclear,but the excavatorhas suggestedthat its walls servedmerelyas retainingwalls; in this case, the structuremay have been hypaethral. Use and Chronology The enclosurewas used as a depositoryfor objectsthat, in the excavator'sview, had been gatheredfrom the cleaning of other buildingson the site. Although fragmentsof three animal figurines were uncoveredin the surface deposits, the finds consistedprimarily of LM Ia pottery.Over 120 whole or nearly completevases of this date were uncovered.They include 84 conical cups, a "milkjug", and other shapes, many finely decoratedin LM Ia styles, and representthe best examplesof potteryof this periodin the Archanescemetery.In addition,a group of Prepalatialpotterywas found in the lowest depositsin the structure.It is thought to representthe remainsof the cleaningof a Prepalatialbuilding on the site. 13. ARCHANES 18 (Fig. 59) Sakellarakis,IlpaKTLKa 1976, pp. 344-351; Sakellarakis,"Epyov1987, pp. 124-127; Hiller, MinoischeKreta, p. 109.
Locationand Excavation Tomb 18 is located in the southern half of the Archanes cemetery,midway between Tholoi r and E. It was excavatedin 1976 and 1987. Architecture The tomb consists of a rectangularbuilding of about 10 rooms.72The seven northern roomsare enteredfrom the east and interconnectthroughdoorways;the roomsto the south couldbe enteredonly fromthe roof. Many of the northernroomsare pavedwith large slabs; an earliertomb (Archanes24) lay beneaththeir floors. Burials and Chronology The tomb was used as an ossuary and for primaryburials at the end of the Prepalatial period and in the Old Palace period. The burials in the southern rooms are dated to the MM Ia phase. One of these roomsheld 18 burials lying one abovethe other in four strata. Another room, in the southwest corner, containedremains, mostly skulls, belonging to 95 burialsdepositedin three strata;approximately37 skulls were foundin the uppermoststratum.73Three sarcophagiwere found in the middlestratum,one orientednorth-south, lying to the east near the entrance,and the others lying to the west, orientedeast-west. Some 17 skulls were found in and aroundthe sarcophagusnear the doorway.Five skulls were found in the second sarcophagusat the northwest corner, together with other skeletal remains indicatingthat primaryburialshad been made in it.74In the third sarcophagusat the southwest cornerwere found three skulls and the remains of a contractedburial beneath them. An additional22 skulls were found in the areas aroundthese three sarcophagi.Nine more skulls were found in the lowest stratumbeneaththe sarcophagi,restingnear bedrock. 72
Sakellarakis,"Epyov1987, pl. 150.
73 Sakellarakis,IlpaKrTKa 1976, pl. 214:a. 74 Sakellarakis,HpaKTLKa 1976, pl. 214:/3.
THE ARCHANES CEMETERY
147
The roomsto the north were used into the MM II phase, with most burials locatedin the two westernmostrooms. Forty-eightburials are reported,including 14 in sarcophagi,75 nine in pithoi,76and 15 on the the floor. The northwestroom held 16 burials in four strata: in the uppermosta small sarcophaguswith two child burials, a pithos with a burial still in contractedposition, and two burials on the floor; in the second stratum one sarcophagus placed alongsidethe south wall and one along the north, each with one burial, a pithos with two burials, and two burials on the floor. In the third stratum another sarcophagusand a burial on the floor were found;in the fourth, three sarcophagi,one pithos, and two burials on the floor are reported. In additionto MM II Kamares-stylepottery, a large numberof seals and stone vases, includingone kernos,77were found in the tomb. 14. ARCHANES19 (Fig. 59) Sakellarakis,
IpaKLrKa 1976, pp. 351-391;
Sakellarakis, IpaKTLKa 1977, p. 481.
Locationand Excavation Tomb 19 is locatedjust south of Tomb 18, a short distancenorthwestof Tholos E. It too was excavatedin 1976. Architecture Tomb 19 is a small one-room building ca. 2.80 m. by 3.40 m. on the outside.78It is unusual for several reasons. It was built with extremely wide walls on three sides; on the northwest,northeast,and southeastthey range in width from 0.95 m. to 1.05 m. The number of fallen blocksfound aroundand insidethe tomb suggestthat they were built entirelyin stone and, in the excavator'sview, that the roof was also constructedin stone. To aid in the support of this superstructure,nearly the entire base of the southeastwall was reinforced with a huge monolith set on end on the outer side. The interior of the tomb, which is approachedfrom the west, is unusual for its apsidal plan with straightwalls on three sides but a curvedwall on the northeast. Burials and Chronology One hundredeighty burials were uncoveredin two strata inside the tomb. In the upper stratum remains of 76 skulls, at least 12 of which belongedto children,were uncoveredin five small sarcophagi,in vases, and on the ground. The remains of one infant burial were identified inside one of the sarcophagi (no. 5), and all the sarcophagi,which were found orientedeast-west along the western side of the building,79appearto have been designedfor infant burials because of their small size. At least 19 skulls, again largely belonging to infants or young individuals,were found inside some 11 large vases or jars, often together with smaller vases, animal, chicken,and fish bones, sea shells, and other small grave goods. In the northeastcorner,remainsof three individualswere foundin one vase, togetherwith a 152. Sakellarakis,"Epyov1987, pi. 153. 77 Sakellarakis, "Epyov1987, pl. 157. 78 Sakellarakis, IIpaKrLKa1976, pl. 215:,8. 79 Sakellarakis, IlpaLKTrt1976, pl. 215. 75 Sakellarakis,"Epyov1987, pi. 76
148
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
female figurine of the Petsofa type. In at least five other vases the remains of animal and chicken bones were found. The remaining burials in this stratum lay on the ground. The best preservedof these belongedto an infant burial that lay in contractedpositionbeneatha large stone in the northwestcorner.Animal and fish bones were foundwith it. In the lower stratumwere uncoveredremainsof 104 skulls, all at groundlevel, only two of which belongedto children. Many were found with the remains of other bones, which suggeststhat primaryburialsmay have been madeat this level, too. The skulls were grouped mostlyaroundthe sides of the room,often stackedin layers,one groupaboveanother.At one pointin the southeastcornerof the roomfive skulls appearto havebeen placedon top of a flat stone. Occasionallya conical cup would be placed by a skull. Other finds includeda large numberof sea shells, one zoomorphicand one anthropomorphicfigurine,and two composite vessels.80One hundredeighty-two vases were uncoveredfrom these two strata,all of which belongto the MM Ia or MM Ib phase. In addition,in the area between and west of Tombs 18 and 19, a numberof objectsthat may or may not be associatedwith the two tombs were also uncovered.Among the finds between the tombswere nine vases, includinga fruitstand,two conicalcups, and an EM II Agios Onouphriosjug, as well as parts of two anthropomorphicfigurines, one of them of folded-armtype,81and a large number of sea shells. Among the finds west of the tombs, where material from the cleaning of near-by tombs is thought to have been dumped,were parts of several more folded-arm figurines,82hundreds of obsidian blades, complete and fragmentary,and pieces of human bone. Most of the pottery from this area dates to the MM Ia phase, although some from the EM II phase is also reported. GOURNES, PEDIADOS Hazzidakis, AATr 1, 1915, pp. 59-63; Hazzidakis, AeAr 4, 1918, pp. 45-58; Zois, JIpopAk7,ara,pp. 2-24, 79-92.
Locationand Excavation A single built tomb, designatedhere as Tomb A, and a related structure,called by the excavatorthe ipoS AaLKKOS,or "sacred pit", were uncoveredin 1915 by Joseph Hazzidakis on the northernslope of a hill that lies 150 to 200 meterseast of the village of Gournesin an area that enjoysa splendidview towardsthe sea to the north and the island of Dia. Neither structureis visible today. The tomb is destroyed,but its location, immediatelybelow two chamber tombs, just west of an abandoned threshing floor, is still recognizable and is markedwith a heap of stones. Some ten meters to the north (not south as reported)in the lower adjoiningfield are traces of the sacred pit; it standsjust east of a second threshing floor. Both structuresdate to the end of the Prepalatialperiod. Althoughthe surroundingarea was carefullyinvestigatedfor furthertombsof the same type and date, none was found. Instead,six LM III burials,both chambertombsand larnax 80
Sakellarakis,HIpaKTrKa 1976, pl. 218:/3. Sakellarakis, IpaKrcKa1976, pl. 219:y. 82 1978, pl. 195. Sakellarakis,HpaKrTKa
81
GOURNES, PEDIADOS
149
burials, were discoveredin the immediatearea. The two large chambertombs, 1 and 2, are still exposed, Tomb 1 cut into the slope immediatelyaboveTomb A.83 15. GOURNES,TOMBA (Fig. 62)
Architecture At the time of its excavation,the tombwas alreadydestroyedat the east, where a threshing floor had been built. The western part of the tomb, which survived,consistedof three parallel rooms of unequal width, the southernmostset back from the others. For the most part only the lower course of the stone foundationremained. It is reportedto have been constructedof fq^poXALLas or "dry-stone"masonry,by which is probablymeant that only a minimum of earth mortar was employed.84The excavator'splan suggests that a standard rubble constructionwas used with outer and inner faces ofofstones set side by side r simply one large stone filling the entire width of the wall. The southwestcornerof the centralroom appears to have been reinforcedby one such stone. In size, details of construction,and general layout the surviving section of the tomb recalls Archanes anTomb 6, which it also overlapsin date, and the tomb should probablybe reconstructedaccordingly.The preservedwestern portion would then be one of the short ends of a rectangularstructure.The western wall is about the same length as the original rear wall of the Archanestomb,just over six metersin each case, and at the point where the third side chamberis located,the walls of both tombs are set back ca. 0.50 m. At Archanes the rear wall of this chamberdoes not bond with the rest of the rear wall, and the same appears to have been true at Gournes. In both cases,then, the third side chamberappearsto be an additionto an original complex of two rooms. No trace of a doorway is preserved,but one may have been located in the destroyed easternend of the tomb, as at Archanes,or the roomsmay have been enteredfrom the roof. The roomswere probablylong and narrowlike those at Archanes.They vary in width, with the northernroom ca. 2.50 m. wide, the centralroom ca. 1 m. wide, and the southernroom ca. 0.55 m. wide, and extend a maximum preservedlength of ca. 2.35 m. Burials and Chronology
Remains of approximately20 burials are reportedfrom the north room of the tomb, of approximatelyten from the centralroom, and of only one fromthe southernroom.All were scattered,so that the original positionof each burial was unclear.A small cup is reportedto have been placed by each skull. Zois has recentlystudiedand republishedthe potterypreservedfrom Hazzidakis'excavation. It is predominantlyMM Ia, with the exception of only a few later examples, and shows severalparallelswith vases from Knossosand fromeasternCrete.85The tomb and its sacred pit may be dated to the MM Ia phase, but they also appear to have been used to a lesser degreein the Old Palace Period. For a general view of the area from the north, see Hazzidakis, AeAr 4, 1918, p. 63, fig. 7. For this type of constructionsee p. 207 below. 85 Walberg, in a recentcritiqueof Zois' work, while agreeingthat the majorityof vases are MM Ia, emphasizes the presenceof MM Ib/II vases as well; thus Gournes should probablynot be considereda closed MM Ia deposit (Middle Minoan Pottery,pp. 107-109). 83
84
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
150
4
IEPOI AAKKOS
z
Tomb A
p
0
1
i.
L
2
3
4
5m.
FIG. 62. Gournes,Tomb A and the LeposXAaxKo(after Hazzidakis, AeAr 1, 1915, pp. 59-60, figs. 1, 2)
KNOSSOS
151
16. GOURNES,IEPOEAAKKOI (Fig. 62) Architecture is essentiallya pit. It was dug into the bedrockof As the name suggests,the i'po AaClKKOS the hillside at the point where a low rise of ca. 0.50 m. dividesan upper field from a lower. The pit is ca. 0.20 m. deep on the north side but deeperon the south where it backsagainst the hillside. The north, east, and west sides of the pit are faced with walls of small stones that are also carriedaroundthe edge on these three sides, presumablyin orderto supporta superstructure.The south side, however,does not appearto have had a built foundationbut used the natural face of the pit and the rise in the hillside. The room so enclosedmeasures ca. 2 by 3.50 m. In construction,particularlyin the built foundations,the pit recalls Gournia Tomb I, which is also deeperon one side, but which is lined with walls on all four sides. Both structureswere apparentlyroofed,but the LeposXAaKKOS may not have been enclosedon its south side where it faced Tomb A. Chronology The [pos XAaKKOScontained no burials but only pottery deposits, and these contain materialof the same style and date as those from the tomb.A large percentageof the pottery from Gournesconsistsof miniaturevases, and the few examplesof ordinarysize are thought to be mostly importsfrom Knossos.Often decoratedwith unique or archaizingpatterns,the local pottery is individualin nature, and Zois has suggestedthat the miniaturevases were speciallymanufacturedfor use as votives,KTepLr.AaTrLK7^-aLefpIwMaTLrK^s. The Efpo AaJKKOS, which contained"manyhundreds"of these miniaturevases, seems to have been designedto receive them, and the excavator has suggested that such small built structuresare often located beside principal tombs. "They are used as a type of shrine for the deposition of offerings dedicatedto the dead;they are analogous to the shrines beside the Protodynastic tombs of Egypt that developedafterwardsinto great temples."86 KNOSSOS 17. KNOSSOS, THE TEMPLETOMB(Fig. 63) Evans, PM IV, pp. 959-1018; J. Pendlebury,Guide to the StratigraphicalMuseum in the Palace at Knossos, London 1933, pp. 9-10, 29; Platon, KpqlrXpov 8, 1954, pp. 446-447; C. Long, AJA 63, 1959, pp. 60-65; M. Popham, The Destructionof the Palace at Knossos:Potteryof the Late Minoan IIIA Period (SIMA 12), Goteborg 1970, pp. 74-76.
Locationand Excavation The Temple Tomb, perhaps the best-known Minoan tomb and therefore requiring little description here, is located south of the palace at Knossos on the eastern slope of Gypsades,overlookingthe gorge of the KairatosRiver. It was excavatedby ArthurEvans in 1931, and a large part of it was restoredin reinforcedconcrete. Architecture The tomb is a long rectangularbuilding that cuts into the slope of the hill and sharesits east-west orientation.Most of the walls are built of freestandingmasonry,and while part of 86
Hazzidakis, AEAr 1, 1915, p. 61.
,
tI .rI
PILLAR PAVILION CRYPT
I PLAN V
zuJ
ROCK - CUT ENTRANCE PLATFORM,
v ..-
0,, .-
77--)i*>XttA\400
,SCALE
.
l:i[LpL____
LONGITVDIWN,LSEC TION
Xa- vi wv---,,
1
2
3
__
4
5
6
I _l--.~_-
79
I?
L__ __L~_
'
_7
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1_1 L
2
44
_ 2
(Ev'ans, 1PA IV,, pocket plan) FI(l. 63. Knossos, the 'Temple IToDnmb
IS
A
KNOSSOS
153
the tomb is concealedunderground,much stoodaboveground,includingthe easternportion and the secondstoryto the west. In this respectit resemblesotherbuildingsin the immediate area, including the High Priest's House, and although it has sometimesbeen comparedto Egyptiantombsmany times its size, or describedas a built chambertomb,87its architectural details and over-all plan have good parallels in other domesticbuildings at Knossos. The tomb stands at the end of a long traditionof tombs built in imitationof houses. At the same time it is somethingof a hybrid:it includesa rock-cutchamberat one end that served,in the contemporaryfashion, as a chambertomb. The exposed, built structurehas an east-west measurementof ca. 22.40 m. and is one of four monumentalhouse tombs. The tomb has two entrancesfrom the north, one giving access to the ground level and the other to the upper story. The ground-levelentranceleads througha walled corridorto a portico at the east end of the tomb and to an enclosed paved court; in plan it recalls the walled entrancecorridorthat leads to an enclosedcourt in the High Priest's House.88The corridoraxis, which bends at right angles in the porticoand then continueson an east-west line, dominatesthe ground-floorplan: the porticoopens upon the court, the court upon an alcoveflankedby twin bastions,the alcoveupon the main doorwayto the tomb,the doorway inner hall, and the hanl upon a pillar crypt. Only the rock-cutburial chamberlies upon an off this axis. Such axial arrangementsare not uncommonin Neopalatial domesticarchitecture, especially in the Minoan Hall complex, and one need not turn to Egypt for parallels. The secondstory, which may be reachedby a flight of stairs from the inner hall or from the outer north entrance,consistsof an upper columnarroom over the pillar crypt and two roof terraces,one on the west above te inner hall and bastions, and one on the east above the portico, both overlookingthe paved court below. Needless to say, upper columnar rooms and roof terracesare also commonfeaturesin contemporarydomesticarchitecture. One of the most intriguing features of the architectureis the locking system of its ground-floorrooms. Each of the four doorways on this level is providedwith monolithic gypsumjambs and, with the exceptionof the one leading into the inner sepulchralchamber, each is carefullyprovidedwith a double lockingsystem. The main outer door, leading from the paved court to the inner hall, could be bolted shut from both inside and outside. The inner side may be shut by two large crossbeamsset in rectangularsocketsin verticalpiers on either side of the door,one restingon the other,presumablyin a metal bracketon the backof the door. From the outside this door could be closed by sliding a bolt that fastened to the outer face of the door and slid into a slot in the northjamb; it could easily have been moved back and forth on the outside, preventing someone only from opening the door from the inside, and a small square cutting adjacentto the bolt slot on the northjamb was probably used for a sealing which, attachedby string to the bolt, would have been brokenif the door were tamperedwith. The doorleading into the pillar cryptfromthe inner hall could also be locked from inside and outside by a similar system;89here, however, a bolt with bronze locking pin was substitutedfor the inner crossbeamson the inside of the door.90The door 87 A. Persson,New Tombsat Dendra Near Midea, Lund 1942, p. 166; G. Mylonas, "The Cult of the Dead in Helladic Times," in StudiesPresentedto D. M. RobinsonI, St. Louis 1951 (pp. 64-105), pp. 101-102.
88 89 90
Evans, PM IV, p. 203, fig. 155.
Evans, PM IV, pp. 994-995, figs. 945 and 947. For a discussionof this door, see Graham, Palaces of Crete,pp. 177-178.
154
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
O
(/_/
.w
'
FIG. 64. Knossos,the Temple Tomb:jambs of the south doorwayin the inner hall FIG.
leadingfromthe innerhall to the innerstaircase(Fig. 64) couldalsobe lockedby meansof the usualbolt-and-slotsystem,at leaston the inside,buta differentsystemwas usedon the outside,wherecircularcuttingsat the tops of bothjambsare locatedfor a crossbar and anothercircularcuttingat the baseof the westjambfor a transversebar.This door,then, couldbe used tomb after after bolting fromwithin. could usedfor forleaving thetomb the outer outerfront frontdoor doorfrom within. boltingthe leavingthe Ritualrequirements seemto havedetermined features,includmanyof thearchitectural the corridor the court and roof terraces with horns of thedoubleaxes axis, consecration, ing incisedonthefaCade, andthepillarcrypts;thedouble-locking systemsof its doors,whichare three were also some ritual meet three were also to meet some ritualneed. need. times, probably designed repeated times, probably designed repeated Burialsand and Chronology Burials Chronology Burialswere discoveredin the pillarcryptand the sepulchralchamber.In the pillar cryptthe spacesbetweenthetwopillarsandbetweenthe westpillarandthe southandwest walls were were subdivided subdividedby rough walls andthe two two areas areaswere wereused usedfor forburials; walls,91and rough partition burials; partitionwalls,91 in In were apparently uncovered each. lower strata two strata two stratawere each. the the lower strataonly boneswere werediscovdiscovapparentlyuncovered onlybones II material Ia and some in LM LM in the LM and some LM material strata, ered; upper reported pottery ered; Pendleburyreported upperstrata,Pendlebury pottery the southeastpart of the room.The skeletalmaterialis reportedto have been largely In one but to have have belonged least a score scoreof individuals." "atleast individuals." oneor two two cases casesparts belongedto "at destroyed parts destroyedbut of the sameskeletonhad been placedon the sameslabs.In the northwestern part of the room,outsidethe entranceto the sepulchralchamber,a skull and a smallheap of bones that were were thought and an elderly were found found that were childand man.A small smallquantity belong to a child quantityof thoughtto belong elderlyman. boneswas also foundin the northeastcornerof the chamber.Both these depositswere 91
Evans, PM IV, p. 991, fig. 943.
THE KOUMASA CEMETERY
155
associatedwith the potteryfound in a pit dug in the floorat the entranceto the chamberand were believedto representthe last burials in the tomb. The pottery from the pit was dated LM II by Evans and has been redatedLM IIIa by Popham. At least two separate periods of use may be distinguished,one belongingto the earlier part of the Neopalatial period and the other to the Mycenaean. MM III potterywas found in the sepulchralchamber,and the constructionof the tomb probablydates to this time. No skeletal material was found with this pottery,and Popham has suggestedthat the building was originally a shrine, later convertedto a tomb. Evans suggested,however,that the MM III pottery was originally associatedwith burials that were later removed.In the LM Ia phase the tomb suffered considerabledamage, probably caused by an earthquake. Evans noted that the evidenceof this destructionwas to be seen in the re-used northjamb of the main outer door of the tomb and the re-used schist plaques laashlarand masonry in the partitions thrown up in the pillar crypt. He interpretedthe skeletal material in the pillar crypt as the remains of devotees present in the tomb at the actual moment of the LM Ia catastrophe.It would be consistentwith Minoan burial practice,however,if these were instead remains of previous intermentsin the tomb, heaped here during a cleaning made in preparationfor further use sometimeafter its partial destruction.In this case, some of the skeletal materialmay have belongedto the MM III phase as well as the LM Ia phase. It is unclear whether there is a break in use after the LM Ia destruction.The tomb continued, however, to be used in the LM II phase. Evans believed that the last burials belongedto this phase and that LM IIIa deposits,foundby the entranceplatformleadingto the building and the entranceto the sepulchralchamber,were the remainsof offeringsof a memorial cult made after these burials. Since the skeletal material by the entranceto the sepulchral chamber is now associatedwith this same LM IIIa phase, the other LM IIIa potterydepositsmay be interpretedsimply as the usual offeringsplaced with the dead. THE KOUMASA CEMETERY The Koumasa cemetery,one of several excavatedin the Mesara by Stephanos Xanthoudides, is situatedon a low rise in the foothills of the Asterousiamountainsjust southwestof the modernvillage of Koumasa (Fig. 65). Below it, to the north,the Mesara Plain stretches out towards the east and west. Overlookingit to the south rises what Xanthoudides describedas the "two-peakedhill" of Korakieswhere the remainsof MM and LM III houses were found and where an earlier town contemporarywith the cemeterymay also have been located. The cemeterywas used first in the EM II phase when two tholos tombs,A and B, and a rectangularbuilt tomb, F, were constructed.Only Tholos B seems to have continuedin use in the EM III and MM Ia phases, and a new tholos, E, was constructedat the end of the Prepalatialperiod.A numberof smaller and contemporaryrectangularbuildingsappearto have stoodoutsidethe main tombs in Areas Z, AB, and A. While the four large tombswere partly intact at the time of excavation, the smaller buildings were destroyed,and only a large numberof collapsedstonesremainedto indicatetheir originalpresence.Xanthoudides suggestedthat these buildingswere "lightlybuilt"structuresresting entirely aboveground, "someto be used as tombs, others as store-roomsfor the gifts made by the living to the
156
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
AB
A
0
Sm
FIG.65. The Koumasacemetery(Xanthoudides,VTM, pi. LXI)
In Area Z Xanthoudides noted layers of ash and charred wood that may have dead.""92 belongedto the roofsof these small buildings.Just southeastof Area Z and east of Tholos E,
he uncovered remainsof a pavedcourt,ca. 6.50 m. wideat thesouth,thatwasborderedby a wall on the west. 18. KOUMASA,Tomb F (Fig. 65, P1. 38:b) Xanthoudides,VTM, pp. 32-40; Zois, "EpEvva.
Location and Excavation
Tomb r, which Xanthoudidesexcavatedin 1904, is located north of Tholoi A and E (equidistantfromthem and not adjacentto Tomb E as shown on Xanthoudides'plan) on the 92
Xanthoudides, VTM, p. 33; see also Pelon, Tholoi, tumuli et cerclesfuneraires, pp. 23-25.
THE KOUMASA CEMETERY
157
northern edge of the rise that the cemeteryoccupies. As a result of its position at a point where groundfalls away to the north,a large part of the tombon this side has been destroyed: the entire northwestwall, as well as adjoiningparts of the northeastand southwestwalls, is missing. The tomb appears originally to have formeda simple square, orientednortheastsouthwest, with an outside measurementof ca. 5.10 m. on the southeast.The floor level of the tomb is lower than that of the neighboringTholoi A and E; apparentlya large pit was dug out of the north slope, similar to that at Gournia (p. 4 above) but shallower and somewhat larger, in order to constructthe tomb. The southeast and the adjoiningparts of the northeastand southwestwalls were built againstthe sidesof the pit, and the preservedupper surfaces of these walls today are flush with the ground level outside the tomb. Unlike the walls of Gournia Tomb I, however,the walls of this tomb are built in usual rubble fashion with inner and outer facingsof stone. The constructionis not nearly so regular as that indicatedon the plan (Fig. 65), and the drawingof the stonesthere is schematic. The southwest wall of the tomb, the highest preserved,curves inwards towards the northwest end. Apparently, as is the case along the southern side of the pit of Gournia Tomb I the side of the pit at this point was not cutt in a straightline, and the sectionof wall built against the side curves in with it. Only the southeast wall is preservedfor its whole length. Its coursesbondwith those of the adjoiningwalls at right angles. The northeastwall is the most poorly preserved of the three remaining walls and less well preservedthan indicatedon the plan. Most of the northwesternsection is destroyedwhere the wall would originallyhave been freestanding.93 The entranceto the tomb is not apparent;it may have comeat some point in the missing sectionsof wall, or abovethe preservedremains of the walls, or from the roof. The interior of the tomb, which ca. 4.10 m. northeast-southwe and wa. measures me. 4.20 southeastseems to have of one consisted since no trace of an internal northwest, large space, dividing wall was found. Xanthoudides suggestedthat the tomb may have resembledthe Mochlos tombs and "it is possible that it had a wooden roof of beams with reeds or branches laid across them, but no of anything of the kind was brought to light. ..." He suggested therace that the tomb may thereforehave been an open burial enclosure"likethose at Palaikastro and Gournes."94 Burials and Chronology The burials in the tomb, like those in the neighboringtholoi, were disturbedand mixed with other finds. None of the skeletal material was well preserved.Four vases are published, includingsphericalpyxides of gray burnishedware, one a kernoswith three pyxides on pedestal foot (Her.Mus. 4194 and 4187) which should be dated to the EM IIa phase, and a one-handledcup and a bowl (Her.Mus. 4248 and 4283), both painted in the Koumasa style of the EM IIa phase.95Other finds includedstone vases that may be datedto the 93 Northeast wall: p.L. ca. 2.84 m.; W. 0.60-0.64 m.; H. ca. 0.46 m. Southeast wall: L. ca. 4.50 m.; W. 0.58-0.66 m.; H. ca. 0.45 m. Southwest wall: p.L. ca. 5.10 m.; W. ca. 0.65 m.; H. ca. 0.98 m. Xanthoudides reported 1.35 m. as the maximum height of the walls, in which case they rose above the surrounding outside ground level. 94 Xanthoudides, VTM, p. 32. 95 For these vases see Zois, Kamares-Stil,pp. 77-78, 80; Zois, "Epevva,pp. 719-720.
158
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
same phase.96Vasilike ware, which is foundelsewherein the Mesara region,is not reported in the Koumasacemetery,and the initial building and use of Tomb F as well as the tholoi falls in the EM IIa phase alone. After this it seems likely that the cemeterywas abandoned for a period.Tomb r was not re-usedand, like Tholos A, representsa closedEM IIa deposit. In the areas AB, A, and Z, where the small rectangularbuildingswere located,EM IIa materialwas foundtogetherwith EM III/MM I material,includingmany objectsof ritual use. The same areas were used for burials, but it is unclear to which phases these burials belonged. Apparently the deposits were mixed and too badly disturbedto report precise associations.Zois has suggestedthat these areas were used for burials only in the EM IIa phase. The burials here, however,mayjust as well have belongedto the later phases, especially since Tomb r and the tholoi were being used for burial in the EM II phase, or the burials may have belongedto all phases. The presenceof MM vases outside the tombswas regardedas evidenceof a memorialcult by Xanthoudides,who noted that ". . . even if the Middle Minoan descendantsof the builders of the tombs did not continueto use them, at least they went on for a long time paying honourto their dead forbears,and perhapsburied Such an inferenceis possible,however,only if the burialsoutside their own dead outside.""97 the main tombswere confinedto the EM IIa phase. LINARES
19. LINARES (Fig. 66, PI. 39:a) Davaras, 'A,uaAOEla3, 1972, pp. 45-46; Davaras, AEAr 27, 1972, pp. 650-651; Davaras, "Une tombe a
voute,"p. 308, note 63; Davaras, BCH 109, 1985, pp. 625-628, fig. 4.
Location and Excavation
Linares, the locationof a small churchof St. John, lies in the mountainsto the northof Chamaizi. A short distance below the church, to the south, a built rectangulartomb was uncoveredby Costis Davaras in 1971.98The L-shaped structure built around irregular outcroppingsof bedrock at its northeast corner is located in a level area on the hillside between these outcroppingsand a larger one rising on the south. To the east and south the hill slopes away to a narrow rivulet that leads to the sea. No settlementhas been locatedin the neighborhood,but just south of the excavated tomb are traces of an unexcavated building, a house or another house tomb somewhat more substantially constructed.The whole area commandsa spectacularview of the sea, and in the distanceCape Phaneromenis is visible, with its sheer rock sides and level summit. Architecture
The tomb is built with rubble walls, the outer using large stones for the faces with smaller stones set between and against them on the inside. It is a distinctivetype of rubble construction that foreshadows the later form of Minoan ashlar masonry.99 It is best seen in the west and south walls of the tomb, which are the best preserved. The west wall has seven 96
Warren, MSV, p. 83.
42. I am indebtedto the excavatorfor permissionto study this tomb and publish a plan of it here. 99For this type of constructionsee p. 208 below. 97 Xanthoudides, VTM, p. 98
159
LINARES
0
I
1 I
2m.
FIG.66. Linares tomb
large stones in its face and the south wall nine; in each case several are wedge shaped, like later Minoan ashlar blocks.The south wall, which rests on exposed bedrockfor most of its length, bonds with the west wall at right angles, but at the east it narrows somewhat and joins the east wall at a diagonal. The latter, which does not run in a straight line, is not so well preservedas those on the west and south, and it is unclear if it was constructedin a similar fashion. 00 The entrance to the tomb is not evident. The excavatorhas suggested an entry from above, presumablyfrom the roof, but it may also have come at the southeastcorner,where the south wall contractsand a large flat stonewas set inside the tomb;it couldhave servedas a step down from a doorwaylocatedin the wall at the level of the stone foundation.Such an entry would give access to the east room of the tomb, a small irregular room with a 100West wall: L. ca. 4.87 m.; W. 0.50-0.72 m.; H. ca. 0.87 m. South wall: L. ca. 5.41 m.; W. 0.51-0.68 m.; H. ca. 0.78 m.
160
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
maximum east-west length of 2.17 m. and a width at the west of ca. 1.40 m.10' Its north wall, constructedsomewhat differently than the outer west, south, and east walls, is set against the bedrockoutcroppingand follows its line, slanting inwards towards the west. Unlike the other walls of the tomb, it is constructedof relativelylarge stones on the inside and terminatesat the west in a large upright block. This block,over one meter high, serves as a pier or jamb flankingthe north side of a doorwayleading to the inner, southwestroom of the tomb.A short spur wall, running north-south at right angles to the south wall across from this pier, bordersthe room on the west. The inner doorway,ca. 0.60 m. wide, gives accessto a rectangularroom measuringca. 2.50 m. east-west and ca. 2.07 m. north-south, the floorof which is brokenalong the south side by a bedrockoutcropping.102 The north wall lies somewhatnorth of the east room and does not bond with the walls at its east and west. Much narrowerthan the other walls and constructedwith inner and outer faces of small stones, it is clearly an inner partitionwall, and a third, unexcavatedroommust lie behindit to the north. Indeed,the outer west wall of the tomb extendsnorth well beyondthis inner partitionwall, and tracesof anotherunexcavated wall may be seen behind the north pier of the inner door, also running north. Originally, then, the tomb consistedof at least three rooms.Were it not for the outcroppingsat its northeastcorner,it might have been roughly square. Burials and Chronology skeletalremainsof "manytens"of containedthe The tomb is reported to have ae conid scattereporte in found their none burials, apparently original position. The pottery from the tomb is as yet unpublished, but it is reported to be "Early Minoan". A cylinder seal that has been published'03and a stone "egg-cup"reportedamongthe finds are apparentlyEM II in date. MALLIA: CHRYSOLAKKOS AND THE NECROPOLE DES PIERRES MEULIERES The majorcemeteryat Mallia is locatednorthof the palace,on the promontorydominatedby the Chrysolakkoscomplexand extendingabout 100 metersalong the coastfrom La Plage de l'Escalieron the east to the area of Les PierresMeulieres on the west (Fig. 67). It is here that the earliestburialsat Mallia were madeat the beginningof the EM II phase, as well as some of the latest, duringthe Mycenaeanoccupationof the site. While other areas, such as L'Ilot du Christ,were also used for burialsfromtime to time, this promontoryappearsto havebeen used as a cemeteryfor the durationof the BronzeAge occupationat Mallia.104 The promontorywas most popular as a burial place, however, during the Prepalatial and Old Palace periods,when differenttypes of graveswere used, apparently,as the French 101 102 103
Davaras, ACAr 27, 1972, pl. 606:a. Davaras, ACAr27, 1972, pl. 605. Davaras, 'ApX'E4. 1973, pp. 81-82.
For a plan of the area see Effenterre,Mallia, NecropolesII, plan II; for a generalsummaryof the Mallia cemeteriessee Effenterre,Palais de Mallia, pp. 214-247 and Baurain,Aegaeum 1, 1987, pp. 61-72. 104
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excavatorshave suggested,for differentsocial classes.105Directly on the coast with its conglomerateoutcroppingsa numberof natural crevicesin the rocks,charniers,were used for burials from the beginningof the EM II phase. Some appear to have continuedin use into the LM I phase and thus to have spanned the entire period of Minoan occupation.It has also been suggestedthat they were used only by the poorest inhabitantsof the site.106At approximatelythe same time that these crevicescameinto use, a small rectangulartomb,the Western Ossuary, was built on the coast overlookingthe small bay at the west of the Chrysolakkospromontory.It is unclear if this tomb was used in the following EM III phase, when the first of a series of tombs was built at Chrysolakkos.In the MM Ia phase, when numerouspithos cemeterieswere openedalong the coastand pithos burialbecamethe most commonform of burial at Mallia, at least three additionaltombs were constructedin the Necropole des Pierres Meulieres (the Eastern Ossuaries and the House of the Dead). Finally, at the beginningof the Old Palace period,the second,monumentaltombat Chrysolakkoswas built. This tomb has often been describedas a "royal"tomb,while the Necropole des Pierres Meulieres has been describedas the burial place of the commonpeople.107Since all the tombs in the necropolis,however, antedatethe monumentaltomb at Chrysolakkos and few appear to have been used extensivelyafter its construction,it may be that the built tombs in the necropolis were used in the Prepalatial period by the same element of the populationthat used Chrysolakkosin the Old Palace period. In additionto the tombs on the promontory,remains of a long wall of uncertainfunction survive in its southwesternpart. Although it is now interruptedby a series of gaps, originally this wall was probablycontinuousand stretchedfor more than 100 meters in a straight line, broken only by a series of setbacks,from the vicinity of Chrysolakkoson the east along the north side of the Necropole des Pierres Meulieres to the sea on the west. At the coastit makesa sharpturn south and runs some 18 metersalong the coastbeforeending. It is solidly constructedwith boulders of local limestone conglomeratelaid in irregular courseswith loose earth and stones in the interstices.The sectionalong the coast is the best preservedand stands with a single face of boulders, four courses high, against the rising 105 Demargne and H. and M. van Effenterrehave been the chief proponentsof the view that differencesin burial types at Mallia reflectdifferencesin social rankingwithin the community(Demargne,Mallia, Necropoles I, pp. 1-69 and Effenterre,Mallia, NecropolesII, pp. 85-102; Effenterre,Palais de Mallia, pp. 214247); recentlyBaurain and Pierponthave taken a more cautiousapproachand stressedinsteadthe limitations of the evidence(Baurain,Aegaeum 1, 1987, pp. 61-72; Pierpont,Aegaeum 1, 1987, pp. 79-93). 106 Demargne (Mallia, NecropolesI, p. 2) refersto them as the "cimetierede pauvres",and Effenterre(Palais de Mallia, pp. 233-234) calls them the "modele plus primitif d'enterrement". 107 Among those identifyingChyrsolakkosas a royal tomb are Demargne (Mallia, NecropolesI, p. 56), who believedthe famousbee pendantto be a symbolof royal authority;Effenterre(Palais de Mallia, pp. 246-247), who prefersthe terms "noble","seigneurial",or "princier";Hood (The Minoans, pp. 145-146), who suggests that it was "theburial place for the royal family of Mallia";F. Matz (The Art of Creteand Early Greece,New York 1962, p. 115), who describesit as a "sepulchralpalace"for the "courtnobility";P. Warren(AegeanCivilizations, London 1975, p. 70), who calls it a "royalburial place";and Davaras (CretanAntiquities,p. 35), Hutchinson (PrehistoricCrete, p. 188), Picard (Religions prehelleniques,pp. 162-166), R. Higgins (The Archaeologyof Minoan Crete, New York 1973, p. 69), and F. Schachermeyr(Die minoischeKulturdes alten Kreta, 2nd ed., Stuttgart 1979, p. 71). For the description of the Necropole des Pierres Meulieres, see Effenterre,Mallia, NecropolesII, pp. 59-60.
MALLIA, CHRYSOLAKKOS I
163
groundto the east.108The original circuitof the wall is unclear;it may have surroundedthe Necropole des Pierres Meulieres or, as Effenterre has suggested, simply delineated the boundarybetween the necropolisand the cemeteryof rockcrevicesthat lies to the north. Its date is also unclear, although several MM Ia structuresare built against the wall and provide a terminusante quem for its construction. A stonekernos,similarto that at GourniaTomb II (p. 20 above),lies by the northfaceof this wall near the west end.109The stone is not in situ but had apparentlyfallen from the cemeteryarea behindthe wall and is clearlyassociatedwith the necropolis,perhapswith the House of the Dead, which lies some ten metersto the east. Partiallybroken,it consistsof an oblongslab of sideropetra,smoothon top with a rectangularpatternof hollows curvedat the edges (P1. 39:b). Eighteen of about 30 original hollows are preserved,each quite shallow, probablyformedby a hammerstone;one in the corneris somewhatlargerthan the rest.110 I (Fig. 68) 20. MALLIA, CHRYSOLAKKOS Demargne, Mallia, NecropolesI, pp. 25-69; Effenterre,Palais de Mallia, pp. 214-247; Zois, HpoA&71,uara, pp. 53-74.
Locationand Excavation Chrysolakkosis locatedabout 500 metersnorth of the palace at Mallia, in the middleof the promontorythat served as its main cemetery during the Prepalatial and Old Palace periods.The site was excavatedin 1921 by Louis Renaudinand again from 1930 to 1933 by Pierre Demargne.Two structureswere uncovered,and evidencefor as many as three building stages was revealed.The first building on the site, which is designatedhere as Chrysolakkos I, lies beneath and is partly incorporatedinto the monumentalrectangularbuilding, here called ChrysolakkosII. The clearestremains of the first building were uncoveredbeneath the east and west terracesof the later structure;only those on the west are still visible. Architecture The over-all plan of ChrysolakkosI is lost because ChrysolakkosII was built in its midst. It includedan open court on the west, however, and a numberof rectangularrooms on the east; both areas were designed to accommodatevisitors. The court was uncovered beneath the western terrace of the later tomb.111It too is paved with irregular limestone slabs, but they are set on the natural slope of the terrain and not on an artificialhorizontal level of sand, as is the later terrace. The extent of this court to the east and south is unknown. It extendedat least as far as the west wall of the later tomb and perhaps originally stretchedfarthereast. It extendsnorth somewhatbeyondthe northwall of the later tomb. It is boundedon the west by an irregularwall interruptedby gaps at three points and broken by angularjogs and setbacksat others.Visible today, the differentparts of the wall are constructedin varying fashionsand orientedslightly differently.The wall runs along the western side of the court and clearly servednot to supporta roof but simply to borderthe court. 108
Wall at coast: W. 0.75-1.20 m.; H. ca. 1.90 m.
109 Just east of the point marked4 on plan III, Effenterre,Mallia, NecropolesII. Kernos ring: ca. 0.24 by 0.40 m. 111Demargne, Mallia, NecropolesI, pl. LIII:1. 110
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
164
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Numerous half-roundedsandstoneblocks plasteredonly on the upper surfaceswere found behind this wall.112They were identified as capping stones and surely served the wall; its upper parts were presumably constructedin mud brick and required such stones for 112
Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, pl. LIII:3.
I MALLIA,CHRYSOLAKKOS
165
protectionagainst rain.113The central gap in the wall is paved with a stone thresholdand servedas the main entranceto the court. Further remains of the same complex were uncoveredbeneath the east terrace of the later tomb. They are locatedat approximatelythe same level as those beneaththe later west the walls, like those of the early western court, are oriented more truly northterrace;114 sout than are those of the later tomb. The remains consist of a long narrow corridor(a) giving access through a sectional wall to the west to the later burial compartmentsand throughtwo separatedoorwaysto the east to two sets of rooms(h and g to the north;j, k, and e to the south). All these rooms are providedwith low plasteredbenchesalong the walls115 and with plasteredor paved floors,and they appear to have accommodatedfrequentgatherings of people. Fixed furnitureincludes a terracottadisk imbeddedin the floor of Room h, which has been identifiedas a hearth,116a plaster bin locatedbetween Rooms h and g, and an important structurelocatedjust outside the southwest corner of Room a, identified as Structure b.117Although the excavators made little of it, calling it simply "un curieux massif",it providesthe key to interpretingthese rooms and deservesa closer examination. The structureconsistsof a mass of earth and small stonesca. 1.10 m. squareand ca. 0.43 m. high, coveredtop and sides with hard stucco and crownedwith a raised stucco border ca. 0.05 m. high. It backsagainstthe western wall of Room a and opens onto the large room (or court) that flanks Room a on the west.118Its exposed face on this side appearsto have been partly lined with sandstoneblocks,still visible today.A stone kernoslies in situ immediately against the structureon the south, fixed in the pavementof Room d. It is an irregularstone, ca. 0.62 by 0.45 by 0.42 m., markedwith a centraldepressionand a ring of 31 hollows.119 The kernosidentifiesStructureb as an altar belongingto the same class of raised altar with juxtaposed offering receptacleas that at Gournia Tomb II (pp. 19-20 above). It is paralleled in the later Chrysolakkostomb by the hollow stucco altar with kernosjuxtaposed in the plaster floor. Indeed,the later altar complex, locatednear this earlier altar and oriented in the same direction,with kernosand paving slabs to the south, may have been intendedto reproducethe earlier altar complexwhen it went out of use and the new tomb was erected. Throughout their investigationof the interior of the later rectangulartomb the excavators found tracesof two building levels, the earlier of which belongsto the same complex as the remainsfound beneaththe east and west terracesof the later tomb.These remainsare not sufficient,however,to reconstructthe plan of this part of the earlier complexor even to 113 The parts of the wall built in sandstonemeasure ca. 0.29-0.32 m. in width, those in rubble ca. 0.500.59 m.; the capping stones are ca. 0.25 m. wide. It is most unlikely that these stones could have belonged,as Shaw suggested ("The ChrysolakkosFacades,"p. 329), to the monumentaltomb at Chrysolakkoswith its massiveexteriorwalls; their findspotand relativelynarrow width indicateotherwise. 114 Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, pl. XXXIX:1. 115 Demargne, Mallia, NecropolesI, pls. LV:3 and LVI:3. Benches:W. ca. 0.35 m.; H. 0.12-0.15 m. 116 Demargne, Mallia, NecropolesI, pls. LVII:3 and LVIII:2; idem, BCH 56, 1932, pp. 76-88. 117 Demargne, Mallia, NecropolesI, pl. LVII:1. 118 This is erroneouslyrepresentedin the plan (Demargne, Mallia, Necropoles I, pl. XXXVIII:2) but is clearly stated in the text (ibid., p. 41) and visible in the plates. 119 Demargne, Mallia, NecropolesI, pl. LVII:1 and 2.
166
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
tell whether it had the same cellular arrangementas the later tomb. The earlier remains include the small walls in Room c of the later tomb, found ca. 0.50 m. below the base of the large wall AB, and certainsectionsof smallerwalls underneaththe later wall CD (Fig. 69). The only roomof the earlier complexthat may be identifiedwith some certaintyappearsas Room g in the later structure.Its north wall is still partly exposedjust below and south of wall CD, which bordersit, and its south wall may be identifiedas the small wall lying just south of wall EF.120All these walls have a width of 0.60-0.65 m., similar to that of the earlier walls under the east and west terracesand contrastingwith the greaterwidth of the later walls. The floor of Room g is stuccoedlike those of the earlier roomsto the east; wall EF was later built on top of this floor, cuttingthroughthe middleof the room. Burials and Chronology No burials are reportedfrom the areas beneath the east and west terracesof the later tomb, and these areas were clearly not intendedto be so used. It has been suggestedrecently that the early remains at Chrysolakkosbelong to a house or complex of houses and should not be associatedwith a tomb at all.121The fixed featuresand the findsof the easternrooms, however, indicate that the remains belong to no ordinary house. The numerous benches, Structureb with its fixed kernos, and the small conical offering vessels found both in the eastern rooms and on the west terracesuggest that these rooms were used as a shrine, and the presenceof benches,a very similar altar complex,and identicalofferingvesselsin ChrysolakkosII122 suggeststhat the early shrine servedthe same funerarycult that was servedin the later tomb. The identificationof ChrysolakkosI as a tombrests on the presumptionthat the interveningarea beneaththe later tomb was used for burials as it was in the later tomb. Skeletalremains,though not abundant,were not confinedto any one stratumin the interior of the later tomb, and some may have belongedto the earlierbuilding. The potteryfrom Chrysolakkosincludesspecimensrangingin date from the EM III to the MM III phase. All depositswere mixed, and the dating of the differentbuildingphases dependslargelyon the date assignedto the monumentaltomb, ChrysolakkosII: on the basis of its architecturalrefinementsand the pottery deposits of the north trenches, it may be datedto the Protopalatialperiod.The earlier structure,ChrysolakkosI, then belongsto the EM III/MM Ia phases.123 II (Fig. 69) 21. MALLIA, CHRYSOLAKKOS Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, pp. 25-69; Effenterre,Palais de Mallia, pp. 241-247; Shaw, "The ChrysolakkosFaCades,"pp. 319-331; Shaw, Minoan Architecture,pp. 222-229; Zois, Hpo,SAjlara, pp. 74-77.
Architecture The secondof the tombs that occupy the site of Chrysolakkosis the largest of its class. Monumental in scale, it forms a vast rectangularenclosuremeasuringca. 38.80 m. northsouth and ca. 29.80 m. east-west. It is still visible today, although its original faCadehas Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, pl. XXXIX:1; SectionAB. Muhly, AJA 88, 1984, pp. 114-115; Pierpont,Aegaeum 1, 1987, pp. 79-93. 122 Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, pl. XXXIX:3. 123 For the identificationof some of this earlier pottery,see Walberg,Middle Minoan Pottery,p. 111. 120 121
MALLIA, CHRYSOLAKKOS
167
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A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
168
been altered in part by a third building phase and its interiorhas been damagedby earthquake, rebuilding,and looting. The tomb is surroundedon all sides by a pavedterraceand was frontedon the east by a colonnadeof which seven rectangularbases of green schist are still preserved.124 The original faCadeof the tomb is partly preservedon the south and east, where severallarge orthostate blocks still stand, set back ca. 0.35 m. on a plinth 0.20-0.40 m. high. The orthostates are badly preservedlimestoneblocksthat were originallycut flat in frontand dressedon top and sides,125while bases and inner sides are irregularlyshaped.Only two of the blocksthat stand in situ have intact upper surfaces;they measureca. 0.87 m. and ca. 0.91 m. in height. The projectingplinth is constructedof medium-sizedstonesset in earth mortarand of large, roughly shaped blocks. Some of the orthostatesrest directly on the plinth, and others are raised slightly above it on a fill of stones and earth, presumablyin order to create an even horizontalbedding along all the upper surfaces.The irregular constructionat the base of the orthostateswould have been partly concealedby a series of thin slabs placed upright The againstthe plinth face, forminga kind of dadobetween it and the terracepavement.126 two orthostateswith partly intact upper surfaces,the fourth and seventhfrom the north in the east faCade,127 both preservecirculardowel holes at their outeredges.The outer edgesof the other orthostatesare largely destroyedbut would also have had such dowel holes, and those re-used in the north and west facadesin a third building phase demonstratethat all the orthostatesin the originalfaCadewere providedwith such dowel holes along the edgesof their upper surfaces.They were designedfor the erectionof verticalor horizontaltimbersin a mud-brickor rubble superstructure,and the total height of the wall, including plinth, orthostates,and superstructures,is estimatedat 2.5 to 3.5 meters.128It is clear that at least one large doorwaywas located in the facade, for Shaw has identifiedtwo bases for jambs Like the re-usedorthoamongthe re-usedlimestoneblocksin the northand west faCades.129 states,they apparentlycame fromthe originalfaCadesof the tomb;they would have been set on either side of a stone threshold,and their dowel holes would have held the pins that fixed the woodenjambs of a doorway. Although the tomb is largely destroyedat the south, its internal arrangementis Iluch clearerthan that of its predecessor.It consistsof severalwide walls running parallel to the outer faces of the tomb, north-south and east-west, intersectingat right angles to form a number of isolated, cell-like divisions. These divisions are usually rectangular(Rooms a and f), but at least one (b) is dividedinto two parts by a spur wall. The roomsrange in size from ca. 2 m. square (in the northeastcorner)to ca. 4 m. square (f). They often have plastered floors and walls, and as fragmentsof both red and white plaster were collected,they were apparentlydecoratedwith zones of differentcolors. Two rooms have been identified as shrines. Sunk into the floor of Room f, a nearly square room near the center of the tomb but isolated from the surroundingchambers,is a 124Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, pl. XLVII. 125
Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, pls. XLIII:2 and XLIV:1.
126 Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, pl. XLIV:2.
127
Shaw, "The ChrysolakkosFaCades,"pls. 99 and 100. 329; Effenterre,Palais de Mallia, p. 246. 129 Shaw, Minoan Architecture,figs. 272-274. 128 Shaw, "The ChrysolakkosFaCades," p.
MALLIA, CHRYSOLAKKOS II
169
circularstuccodisk with a centralcavity.'30The disk resemblesthe terracottadisksfoundin Roomsf and h of the earlierbuilding and like them showedsigns of burning.It is constructed differently,however,simply a stuccocoveringoverhard earth, and since it is centrallylocated in Room f between the walls CD on the north and EF on the south it is probablypart of the later tomb. A bench is set against wall EF in the southeastcornerof the room.13'Demargne suggestedthat a lamp burned some "aromaticsubstance"in this room, perhaps in honor of the dead, and that the bench was designedto receiveofferingsor to seat pilgrims who came to pay their respects to the dead. If such were the case, access may have been providedby the long corridorimmediately to the west between walls EF and CD. This corridoris also providedwith a long benchalong the whole of its south side and leadsdirectly to the west facadeof the tomb. Another shrine was identified in a rectangularroom measuring ca. 2.20 by 6.70 m., located midway along the eastern side of the tomb. A circular structure was discovered against its eastern wall.'32 It consists of a stucco cylinder with serratededges, resting directlyon the stuccofloor,without a base;since it containeda loose fill of earth and pebbles,it was thought to have been hollow originally.'33The excavatorscomparedit to a libation table from Palaikastrowith similar serratededges and a circulardepressionin the center.134 Both are thought to have been used for libations, and the Palaikastrotable, which dates to the Neopalatial period,may have been inspiredby the Chrysolakkosaltar. Remainsof three or four small circularhollows were discoveredin the stucco floor immediatelysouth of the A large part of the stucco floor at this point is destroyed,but the curvedarrangealtar.'135 ment of those extant suggeststhat originally a circleof hollows formeda kernosin the floor at the base of the altar. The area is thus identifiedby the excavatorsas a place where libations and offeringsof first fruits might be made. Demargne identifiedthe cult centeredhere as the same as that located in the palaces and speculated that the Minoan Goddess "extended her empire over the dead"as well as the living.136Three superimposedlayers of stucco flooring preservedsouth of the altar suggest that the room remained open for repeated use. There is no clear entry into this room, but as it seems unlikely that pilgrims would have climbedinto it by means of a ladder, passage may have been providedthrough the south wall from the small alcove immediatelyto the south and from there through an opening in the outer wall of the tomb from the east terrace.The east porticoitself suggestsa majorentry into the tomb somewherealong this side, and furtherevidenceof a door in the east facadeis providedby the bronzepivot cap found somewhereagainstthe exteriorface of the east wall.137 130
Demargne, Mallia, NecropolesI, pl. XLVIII:2; idem, BCH 56, 1932, p. 64, fig. 2.
131Demargne, BCH 56, 1932, p. 63, fig. 3. Bench:p.L. ca. 2.00 m.; W. ca. 0.70 m.; H. ca. 0.35 m.
132 Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, pl. L. 133Altar: D. ca. 1.12 D. of inner circle ca.
1.08 m.; H. ca. 0.36 m. m.; 134Bosanquetand Dawkins, PKU, p. 137, fig. 119:A, pl. XXXI:a. 135Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, pl. LI:2. 136 Demargne, BCH 56, 1932, p. 75; Pierpont (Aegaeum1, 1987, pp. 79-93) questionsthe identificationof all shrines at Chrysolakkosbut is now refutedby Pelon (Aegaeum2, 1988, pp. 41-43). 137 Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, LXIV: 1 and 2. For otherexamples,two in situ, see F. Chapouthierand J. Charbonneaux,Fouilles executeesa Mallia, premier rapport (1922-1924) (EtudescretoisesI), Paris 1928, pp. 32, 59, pl. XX: 1; F. Chapouthierand R. Joly, Fouilles executeesa Mallia, deuxiemerapport,explorations
170
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
While there is evidencefor some doorwaysin the tomb, it is clear that not all the rooms could be enteredfrom ground level, and it may be that only those that had to be accessible for funeraryrituals couldbe so entered.The majority,cut off fromthe outsideby the faades and isolated from one another by thick walls, and which appear to have been the burial chambersthemselves,were accessibleonly from the roof. While both Shaw and Effenterre have maintainedthat the tomb was hypaethral,the easterncolonnade,the doors (including one with a locking pin), the interior theer room divisions, d and painted stucco decorationall indicate that it was roofed. Wood was presumablyused in combinationwith large stone slabs like that found in Room d138or those in situ over the tholos side chamberand dromos of ArchanesTomb B. These heavy and cumbersomeslabs could be movedaside when new burials were deposited.Although no staircaseleading to the roof was reported,what may have been the remains of a well for a U-shaped staircaseof wood are visible on the plan outside the northwest corner of the tomb. They consist of two narrow, parallel compartments, each 1 to 2 m. wide and ca. 5 m. long, of the shape and dimensionsrequiredfor such a staircase. Burials and Chronology A "certainquantity"of bones is reportedto have been found mixed with the debris of the tomb. Only at one point (Fig. 69: X) did they seem to be in situ. Here the bones of a leg were foundtogetherwith two skulls on a layer of greenishclay. They originallybelongedto a contractedburial that rested on its left side; a conical cup lay with the bones.139Details concerningthe other remainsare not given, but apparentlythe quantityof skeletalmaterial was not great, since the tomb was initially identifiedas a shrine.140 There is good ceramic and architecturalevidence for dating ChrysolakkosII to the Protopalatialperiod. The ceramicevidencecomes from the two trenchesexcavatedoutside the north faCade.141 They extend ca. 14.50 m. north, flush with the foundationsof the faas not do underlie it,142it may be concludedthat they were dug sometimeafterthe Cade; they constructionof the wall, apparentlywhen the tomb was cleanedin contemplationof further use. While there is some MM Ia material in the trenches,Zois has demonstratedthat the majorityof the potterybelongsto the MM Ib/II phases, and it was apparentlyat the end of the Protopalatialperiod or the beginningof the Neopalatial that the trencheswere dug.143 The architecturalevidence for dating the constructionof the tomb to the MM Ib phase includesthe orthostateblocksof the faCade,the dadocourseat the base of the east and south facades, and perhaps the green schist column bases of the east colonnade.Each of these du palais (1925-1926) (Etudes cre'toisesIV), Paris 1936, p. 42, fig. 12; Festos II, pp. 69-71, figs. 32 and 33, p. 407, note 34. 138 Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, pp. 32, 64, pl. XXXIX:2. 139 Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, pl. XXXIX:2. 140Chapouthier,BCH 45, 1921, p. 537, note 3. 141 Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, pp.XXXVIII:1. 142 Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, pl. XXXIX:1. 143 Zois, npopArI7ara, pp. 74-77; see also Walberg,Middle Minoan Pottery,pp. 111-112.
III MALLIA,CHRYSOLAKKOS
171
architecturalfeatureshas its closestor only parallel in the Protopalatialperiod,and similar dado slabs and columnbases are used elsewhereat Mallia at the beginningof this period.144 The tomb was erectedat the same time as the first palace at Mallia, and its scale and architecturalrefinementsare a productof the same forcesthat broughtthe palace into being. III 22. MALLIA, CHRYSOLAKKOS
Architecture Remains of a third building phase, here designatedChrysolakkosIII, are to be found in the north and west facades. Orthostateblocks from ChrysolakkosII have been re-used on the original foundationsor the old plinths of that structureto providethe base courseor new plinths for walls constructedin a totally different fashion. The old orthostateshave been placedon their sides, their original outer faces placedupwardto providethe beddingfor the new wall and, with one exception, their original upper surfaces (with dowel holes) placed outward to provide a smooth, even face for the base of the new wall.145The excavators founddressedsandstoneblocksagainst the northwall of the building,which they believedto belong to its superstructure.Some 30 separatepieces are still preservedon the site, including three intact blocks.With outer faces cut flat, upper and lower surfacesroughly dressed, sides and rear faces brokenobliquely forminga wedgelikeshape, they are the typical ashlar blocksused in other Neopalatial walls at Mallia.146The new tomb then was designedwith walls of newly cut sandstoneblockssitting on a plinth of re-used limestoneblocks. Burials and Chronology The new tomb was designed to follow the lines of the old one, but the reconstruction work was never completed,and it is doubtfulthat ChrysolakkosIII receivedmany burials, if any. A very small amount of MM III pottery is reportedfrom the interior, however,147 and the attempt at reconstructionbelongs to the beginning of the Neopalatial period when just such ashlarblocksas those intendedfor the new facadeswere in widespreaduse. Reconstruction work ceased, and the tomb itself was abandoned,probably because of the new burial methodsthat becamefashionableat this time. 144
For the orthostates,comparethose at Knossosand Phaistos (Evans, PM I, pp. 127-128; E. Fiandra, "I periodistruttividel primopalazzo di Festos,"KprlrXpov15-16, A', 1961-1962 [pp. 112-126], p. 125); for the dado, comparethat in the Agora at Mallia (H. and M. van Effenterre,Fouilles executeesa Mallia, le centre politique, I, L'agora (1960-1966) [Etudescre'toisesXVII], Paris 1969, pp. 28-33, pls. XXXI, XXXII); for the green schist bases, comparethe re-used bases from the palace at Mallia (Chapouthierand Joly [footnote 137 above, p. 169], pp. 13-14, fig. 3; F. Chapouthierand P. Demargne, Achevementde la fouille au sud du palais et complementsdivers,quatriemerapport[EtudescretoisesXII], Paris 1962, pp. 26-29, pls. XXVII, L; Chapouthierand Charbonneaux[footnote137 above, p. 169], p. 35, fig. 8). 145 Demargne, Mallia, Necropoles I, pls. XL and XLI. Shaw, Minoan Architecture,pp. 221-226; idem, "The ChrysolakkosFacades,"pp. 322-329. Shaw, overlookingChrysolakkosI, has confusedthis third building stage on the site with the second,and his datingfor the orthostatesof ChrysolakkosII to EM III/MM Ia is erroneous. 146Ashlar blocks:L. of Block 1 ca. 1.04 m.; W. ca. 0.47 m.; H. ca. 0.39 m. L. of Block 2 ca. 0.90 m.; W. ca. 0.54 m.; H. ca. 0.43 m. 147 Demargne, Mallia, NecropolesI, p. 45, pl. XII:1, n; and see Walberg, Middle Minoan Pottery,p. 112.
172
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
23, 24.
MALLIA, NECROPOLEDES PIERRESMEULIERES:THE EASTERNOSSUARIES(Fig. 67)
Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, pp. 61-62.
Locationand Excavation Two tombs are locatedjust north of the east end of the precinctwall in the Necropole des Pierres Meulieres, some 40 meters west of Chrysolakkos.Both were excavatedby Demargnein 1930 and reburiedin such a way that only parts are visible today. Architecture The northernand betterpreservedof the two tombsis a rectangularbuildingwith overall measurementsof ca. 4.40 by 5.20 m.148 It is constructedin ordinaryrubblefashionwith the long walls running north-south. The interioris dividednear the centerby a spur wall, preservedto a height of five irregularcourses,into two rooms, the northernmeasuringca. 1.20 by 3.60 m. and the southern ca. 1.60 by 3.60 m. They are connectedby an interior doorwayon the west ca. 0.80 m. wide. The floor consistedof a thick layer of sand. Although the tomb resemblesTomb II at Gournia in plan and size, it does not appear to have been providedwith an exterior doorway; at least none is reported, and none is visible in the publishedphotographof the tomb. The secondtomb,locatedsome six meterssouthwest,is not specificallymentionedin the publication,although it is includedin the plan of the site. It lies alongsidethe north face of the precinctwall, just east of a retainingwall running north-south at right angles and reinforcingthe terraceon which the tomb stands. The tomb is a rectangularbuilding approximatelythe same size as the northerntomb,orientedeast-west. Its southwall appearsto have been formedby the face of the precinctwall againstwhich it is built, and its otherwalls were constructedin ordinaryrubble.Traces of an internaldividingwall remainand suggestthat the tombwas originallya two-roombuilding similar in plan to the northerntomb. Burials and Chronology Remains of skulls and bones were found on the floor of the northern tomb. In the northwestcornerof the southern room, against the spur wall and by the doorway,the remains of two skeletonswere found in situ. These were placed on a layer of hard earth ca. 0.30 m. abovefloor level and apparentlyrepresentedthe latest burials in the tomb. The potteryfrom the tombs in this area is not publishedbut is reportedto be MM I.
25.
MALLIA, NECROPOLEDES PIERRESMEULIERES:THE WESTERNOSSUARY(Fig. 67,
P1. 39:c) Effenterre,Mallia, NecropolesII, pp. 70-72; Effenterre,Palais de Mallia, pp. 238-239.
Locationand Excavation The westernmosttomb in the Necropolisis situatedon the coast,overlookingthe bay of PierresMeulieres. It is built into an outercornerof the precinctwall at a pointwhere, having turnedsouth, the wall again projectswestwardtowardsthe sea. The tombwas excavatedby Louis Renaudinin 1921 and is sometimesreferredto as the ossuaireRenaudin. 148
Demargne, Mallia, Necropoles I, pl. LXIX:1.
MALLIA, NECROPOLE DES PIERRES MEULIERES
173
Architecture The tomb is nearly square, its south and east walls formedby the precinct wall that creates a terracerising above the rocky seashore.The east wall has caved in at the center, while the south is preservedto a height of three irregularcourses.'49 Only one courseof the north and west walls, both built in the usual rubble fashion, is preserved.The west wall is buttressedby a boulderset midway againstits outerface and terminatesat the northwestcorner in anotherboulder,which forms an importantcornerstone.'50The north wall is largely destroyed,and it is unclearwhetherthe tombwas enteredthrougha dooron the lower levelor throughthe roof fromthe terraceabove.The tombappearsto have consistedof a single room measuringca. 3.50 by 3.80 m. that was not subdividedas were the easterntombs. Burials and Chronology Heaps of human bones, with at least one skull still intact, are reportedfrom the tomb. These remains are similar to those from the rock fissures to the north and like them are thoughtto belong to primaryburials. Five vases fromthe tombwere inventoriedand published.15'They includetwo vasesthat Effenterredatedto the EM IIb phase in his latest discussionof the pottery,as well as three cups of the MM I phase. Becauseof the early vases, Effenterresuggestedthat the tombwas in use as early as the rock fissures. He has also suggestedthat the tomb is earlier than the precinctwall against which it is built and that the peculiar indentationalong the coast that the wall follows is due to the presenceof the pre-existingtombon the site. In addition to the pottery from inside the tomb, a number of deposits were found in natural cavities on all sides of the tomb and at the foot of the precinctwall to the south.'52 These depositsdate to the MM I phase and are distinctivefor the numerousclay imitations of stone-vaseshapes. Becausethe largervases were brokenand scattered,the depositswere interpretedas dumps of unwanted material from the surroundingburials, but it is also possible, especially because of their distinctivenature, that the vases originally belongedto votivedepositsassociatedwith the tomb and were brokenand scatteredby the sea.
26.
MALLIA, NECROPOLE DES PIERRES MEULIERES: THE HOUSE OF THE DEAD(Figs.67
and 70)
Effenterre,Mallia, NecropolesII, pp. 85-102; Effenterre,Palais de Mallia, pp. 236-237.
Locationand Excavation The House of the Dead is locatedalong the south side of the precinctwall ca. 25 meters east of the Western Ossuary and ca. 100 meters west of Chrysolakkos.It was excavatedin 1928 by Jean Charbonneauxand Charles Picard and reburied;it is not visible today. Because the building was re-used in the Mycenaean period-and is destroyedin part, there is some doubt about its original appearanceand function. 149
South wall: W. ca. 0.80 m.; H. ca. 1.30 m.
150 West wall: L.
ca. 4.20 m.; W. ca. 0.55 m.; H. ca. 0.35 m. 51Effenterre,Mallia, NecropolesII, pl. XXIX. 152 Effenterre,Mallia, NecropolesII, pls. XXV-XXVIII.
174
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
a. Plan (Effenterre,Mallia, NecropolesII, plan III)
b. Detail of room III (Effenterre,Mallia, NecropolesII, pi. XXXV) FIG.70. Mallia, The House of the Dead
MALLIA,NECROPOLEDES PIERRESMEULIERES
175
Architecture The building is constructedagainst the inner, south face of the precinctwall at a point where Effenterresuggestedthat a break in the wall and an entranceto the Necropoliswere located.Most of the centerof the building and its southernlimits are destroyed,but the remains suggest an essentially rectangularoriginal structureincluding Rooms I throughVII and measuringca. 12 m. east-west, so that the north wall, the precinctwall now partly destroyed,would have been continuous.The southern limits may be markedby sections of a wall preservedin Rooms III and V that lie on a line. The west wall is an additionto the precinctwall, which runs at right angles to the latter alongside Effenterre'sentrance,and the east wall is the east wall of Rooms V, VI, and VII running parallel to the west wall and to which an additionalroom, VIII, is appendedon the east. The interioris dividedby two walls running north-south, parallel to the outer east and west walls and set nearly equidistant from them and from each other. They form three parallel compartmentsthat are further dividedinto rooms and burial cells by shorterwalls running for the most part east-west. RoomsV, VI, and VII are locatedin the easterncompartment,each ca. 1.60 m. wide and ca. 2.40-2.80 m. long. Only Room IV is preservedin the central compartment,measuring ca. 1 by 1.35 m., but two more rooms correspondingto Rooms VI and VII may have been locatedin the space to the north. Rooms I, II, and III in the western compartmentappear to have been more carefully constructedthan the other rooms and to have serveda special function.The only clear accessto the building from the outside is through Room III, where a "probable"threshold was noted in the south wall. This room, measuringca. 1.80 by 3.40-3.70 m., is providedwith stuccoedwalls decorated with a painted red band and a stuccoedfloor. It gives accessthrough a doorwayin its north wall to Rooms I and II, each measuringca. 1.60 by 4.80 m. and connectingthrougha doorway at the south. These rooms alone containedritual objectsand, providedwith easy access and architecturallyenriched,were probablydesignedas a cult center. Burials and Chronology Burials in the building includedsimple inhumations,bone dumps,and burials in pithoi and in cists of both the MM I and LM IIIc phases. It is not clearlystatedin the publication which pithoi containedburials, but the general impressiongiven is that most, if not all, did. The pithoi are inverted,sometimesranged in rows along the sides of the rooms, and their tops are brokento place the burials in the jars more easily. Only some of the cists contained burials;most were found empty. All the cists are built well above floor level, in most cases abovethe preservedlevel of the walls, and some are locatedoutside the building. They are constructedwith sides of sandstoneblocksand coveringslabs of sandstoneor limestone. Room I containedan empty cist (6) locatedagainst the spur wall near the centerof the room, a jar containing an infant burial in the southwest corner, and fragmentsof pithoi, thickestalong the south wall. Anotherempty cist (7) was found in Room II, and fragments of bones beneath sandstoneblocks against the east wall. Room III yielded an invertedjar with the skeletonof an infant inside and an inhumationbeside it locatedca. 0.50 m. above floor level; "severalskeletons"were found on the stucco floor of the room. Room IV contained another empty cist (3) in the southeast corner and, directly below, an inhumation. In Room VI were found an empty cist (9) in the middle of the room and a pithos in the
176
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
northeast corner. Room VII contained an empty cist (11) located above the walls at the northwestcornerand, beneathit and rangedalong the northwall to the east, remainsof five pithoi togetherwith a sixth against the south wall. The potteryfrom the tomb is datedto the MM I and LM IIIc phases. That foundwith the inhumation in Room IV, mostly one-handledand handlelessconical cups,153includes some paintedin MM Ia styles. Other finds of special interestincludea libationvase and an offeringtable stampedwith a doubleaxe on its base, both found in Room III and belonging to the MM I phase.154 Two interpretationsof the finds and the functionof the building have been suggested, one by the original excavators,Charbonneauxand Picard,'55the other by Effenterre,who preparedits publication.The excavatorsidentifiedthe buildingas a tomboriginallyused in the MM I phase for the burials and rediscoveredby the LM IIIc occupantsof Mallia, who establisheda memorialcult of the dead by buildingcists abovethe earlierburialsto serveas bothroi.Theories of memorialcults of the deadhave gone out of vogue, however,and Effenterre has arguedthat the buildingwas a house, perhapsa guardhouse at the entranceto the Necropolis, that was abandonedat the end of the MM I phase and rediscoveredby the LM IIIc occupantsof the site, who used it and its pithoi for their own burials, building bothroi in the form of cists for cult purposes. Effenterrehas pointed to the discoveryof a LM IIIc pyxis inside a MM I pithos in Room IX as particularevidencein supportof Mycenaeanre-use of the original pithoi and his interpretationas a whole. Neither interpretationseems wholly satisfactory.The identificationof the building as a house ignores its location in a cemetery,the location of burial pithoi and inhumationsdirectly on the floor of the building, the MM I finds associatedwith these burials, and the popularityof just such tombsat this time. Both interpretations,in their identificationof the cists as bothroiused for libations in a cult of the dead, disregardthe cists found outside the tomb (1, 2, 4, 5, 10), those found with coverslabs (10, 11), and those containingburials (1, 2, 3, 4, 5). All these cists were probablyintendedto serve as graves, and the House of the Dead is simply a MM I house tomb that was partly re-used in the LM IIIc phase for furtherburials. MYRTOS, PYRGOS 27. MYRTOS,PYRGOS(Fig. 71) Cadogan,ArchReportsfor 1971-1972, pp. 24-25; Cadogan,ArchReportsfor 1973-1974, pp. 37-38; Cadogan, ArchReportsfor1977-1978, pp. 70-74; Hankey, BICS 33, 1986, pp. 135-137.
Locationand Excavation Pyrgos, the first of several hills that lie along the coast east of Myrtos, is the site of a small settlement with an imposing villa and tomb complex. The tomb is located directly next Effenterre,Mallia, NecropolesII, pl. XXXVIII:EFH XIII. Effenterre,Mallia, Necropoles II, pl. XXXV, Her.Mus. 8513, 8516; pl. XI. For a discussion of the offeringtable, see pp. 234-235 below. 155 F. Chapouthier, "Chroniquesdes fouilles et decouvertesarcheologiquesdans l'orient hellenique novembre 1927-novembre 1928," BCH 52, 1928 [pp. 466-510], p. 503; see also Pini, Minoischen Graberkunde,pp. 8, 51, 87. 153
154
177
MYRTOS, PYRGOS
+
0 Im -
1
2 I
3
4 ' -
FIG.71. Myrtos, Pyrgos tomb (Cadogan,ArchReportsfor1977-1978, fig. 5)
5 Mt
tcS
178
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
to the settlementon the western slope of the hill, just below the summit that the villa occupies andjust outsidethe fortificationsthat protectedthe settlementin the Old Palaceperiod. It was reachedfrom the settlementby a flight of steps that appearsto have descendedfrom the top of the hill to the north end of a paved road,which in turn runs northeast-southwest along the westernslope, ending at the south in a small courtyardin frontof the tomb.156The tomb and its approachwere excavatedby Gerald Cadoganand the British Schoolat Athens in the summersof 1970, 1971, and 1973.157 Architecture The approachto the tomb, like that to Mochlos Tomb Complex IV/V/VI (pp. 56-57 above), is an integral part of its over-all plan. The paved road and court lead nowhereelse and were designedto play an importantpart in the funeraryritual. Both road and courtare pavedwith slabs of sandstoneand show few of the colorcontrastsso popularelsewhere.One e northcornerof the court (now partlybroken)is markedwith a ring of holof the slabs at the lows forminga kernos.The court,which lies open at the northeastand northwest,is flanked by a terracewall at the southeast,and a bench is locatedhere at the foot of this wall. The tombitself lies at the southwestside of the courtand is enteredfrom its west corner. It is a rectangularbuilding with ordinaryrubble walls. Only its outer northeastand northwest walls were entirely freestanding,however,and its southeastwall, which appearsto be largelyintact,is built in the formof a high retainingwall againstthe slope of the hill. A doorway set back at the north cornerof the tomb leads down by three steps to the original floor level of the main chamber.This room is describedby the excavatoras an irregularpolygon measuringabout 3 by 5 meters.A large pillar, its base built of rubblemasonry,is locatedin it supportedan upper floorof wood. Two ossuarieswere attached the centerof the room;158 to the tomb. One, an oval space measuringca. 1 I y 1.50 m. that rose at least as high as the lower story, was built at the south cornerof the tomb. The other, a rectangularroom, was locatedbetween the northeastwall of the main chamberand the court and was apparently providedwith its own doorwayopening at the northwestadjacentto the main doorway. Burials and Chronology In the space between the court and the tomb, below the level of the courtand alongside the northeastwall, a depositof potteryincluding EM III and MM Ia cups and an EM III dove rhyton159was uncovered.The excavator identifiedthe deposit as a "foundationdeposit",and it seems that the building of the tomb and the original approachfrom the north date to the EM III/MM Ia phases, what the excavatoridentifiesas Pyrgos Phase II. Later in this phase, perhaps in the MM Ib potteryphase, the court and road were coveredwith a gravel spread, and the tomb itself may have ceased to be used. In Pyrgos Phase III, which spans most of the Old Palace period, and in Phase IV, which includes most of the New Palace Period,burialswere again made in the tomb. In Phase IV some 300 LM I terracotta 156
Cadogan,ArchReportsfor 1977-1978, p. 71, fig. 4. am indebted to the excavatorfor permission to study this tomb and reproduceits plan published in Cadogan, ArchReportsfor 1977-1978; my descriptionfollows that of the excavator closely but should be consideredtentativeuntil the final publicationof the tomb appears. 158 Cadogan,ArchReportsfor1971-1972, p. 24, fig. 39. 159 Cadogan,ArchReportsfor1977-1978, p. 73, figs. 6, 7. 157
THE PALAIKASTRO CEMETERIES
179
vases,160 as well as stone vases and triton shells, were depositedin the upper story of the
tomb abovethe pillar crypt (where they later fell), and the excavatorhas suggestedthat the upper level of the tomb was used as a place for offeringsto the dead. Remains of about 65 individuals were found in the tomb and its ossuaries. In the south ossuary the excavator reports a large pithos full of bones. "Skulls were set around the base of
the pithos and other skulls and bones packed into the remaining space. They were all so tight that the flesh had to have rottedbeforethey were put in."161In the actual tomb chamber burials were found in two strata, the lower belonging to Phase III and the upper to Phase IV. Several appear to have been intact and clearly belonged to primary burials.162 What is most startling about the burials is that all those in the tomb chamber,and apparently in the ossuariesas well, appearto be male ("oneof them as tall as 1.75-1.76 m.").The excavatorhas describedthe tomb as a "communal"grave, but it appears to have been used by one small element of the population. THE PALAIKASTRO CEMETERIES The earliest burials at Palaikastroare located in two differentcemeterieson either side of the main settlement at Roussolakkos:the Gravel Ridge, lying some 100 meters northeast of Roussolakkos,and Ta Hellenika lying about 300 metersto its north on the south slope of Kastri.163At the beginning of the EM II phase a small tomb (I) was built on the Gravel Ridge, a narrow peninsulajutting into the sea, its top ca. 100 m. long and no more than 15 meterswide. Somewhatlater, in the EM IIb phase, a tomb (II) was built at Ta Hellenika, a much larger area than the Gravel Ridge but without its spectacularview; a third tomb (III) followed here in the EM III phase. At the beginning of the MM I phase four additional tombs were built in these areas, one at Ta Hellenika (VI) and at least three more on the Gravel Ridge (VII, VIIbis, and VIII). At the same time two additionalsites came into use: one at Patema, the locationof at least one tomb (V), lying ca. 500 m. southwestof Roussolakkos on the northernmostslopes of Petsofa; and another at Sarantari, a small hill ca. 350 m. northwestof Roussolakkos,where two tombs (IV a, IV b) were uncovered.While only Tomb II of the early tombsappearsto have been used in the MM I phases, all the later MM Ia tombs continuedin use into the Protopalatialperiod, and the site of Sarantariwas re-used in the LM III phase for larnax burials. A total of ten tombsand part of an eleventh have been excavated,then, in these cemeteries,and all are small built tombs "with houselike walls."'164 By the Protopalatialperiod the main settlementat Roussolakkoswas nearly encircledby its cemeteries. 28. PALAIKASTRO, TOMB I Bosanquet,PK I, pp. 290-292; Dawkins and Bosanquet,PK IV, p. 272. 160
Cadogan,ArchReportsfor1971-1972, p. 24, fig. 40. Cadogan,ArchReportsfor1977-1978, p. 74, fig. 9. 162 Cadogan,ArchReportsfor1977-1978, p. 74, fig. 8. 163 For a map of the site see Sackettand Popham, PK VI, pl. 64. 164 C. H. Hawes in Dawkins and Bosanquet,PK IV, p. 293. The numbersused to identify the tombs are providedby Dawkins in his brief summaryin PK IV, p. 269. 161
180
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
Locationand Excavation Tomb I, locatedat the northwestend of the Gravel Ridge, is the northernmostand the earliestof the tombs locatedon it. It was excavatedin 1902 by Robert C. Bosanquetand is totally destroyedtoday. Architecture Lying on the western slope of the ridge near the water's edge, the tomb was already badly destroyedat the time of excavation.Its walls had slid downwards,and no plan of the remainswas attempted.The tombis reported,however,to have subdividedthe west slope of the ridge with low walls of "dry-stone"masonry,and it is comparedto the much later Tomb VII on the center of the same ridge, characterizedby parallel subdivisionsand cell-like compartments. Burials and Chronology The burials from the tomb are not described.The finds includedclay vases and incised stonevases of the EM II phase;there is no evidencefor datingthe tombas early as the EM I phase, as Dawkins does. The two publishedclay vases are describedbelow.165 Catalogueof Objects Pottery P I-1 (Her.Mus. 4707). Sphericalpyxis PK I, p. 290, fig. 3; Zervos, L'art de la Crete, pl. 100. Collar neck and lug handles restored, otherwise complete. H. 0.125 m. Fine gray clay. Flat base, globularbody. Decorationin alternatingconcentricbands of impressedtrianglesand incised parallel lines. Compare the pyxides from Gournia, Tombs I and III, G 1-14 and G III-1-4 (pp. 13, 31-33 above). For the decorationsee also Warren, MSV, p. 81. P I-2 (Her.Mus. 2851). Beakedjug PK I, p. 290, fig. 4. Complete.
H. 0.255 m., D. at shoulder0. 11 m. Reddish clay, brown paint outside and inside neck, burnished. Low ring foot, globular body, broad cylindrical neck cut away at back forming elongatedbeak in front. Compare the jugs from Myrtos (Warren, Myrtos, p. 132, note 1). A number of beakedjugs are reported from the tomb and are probablythe same shape as this example. It is a commonVasilike-ware shape, and while Warren has suggestedthat the tomb should be considereda closed EM IIa depositbecauseof the pyxis of fine gray ware and the incised stone vases, the beakedjugs suggest that it continued in use to the end of the EM II phase.
29. PALAIKASTRO, TOMBII (Fig. 72) Dawkins, PK III, pp. 196-198; Dawkins and Bosanquet,PK IV, p. 272; Bosanquet and Dawkins, PKU, pp. 5-7; Bosanquet,PalaikastroExcavationNotebookfor 1904.
Locationand Excavation Tomb II at Palaikastrois the most northerlyand the earliest of the three excavatedat the southern foot of Kastri. It was excavatedin 1904 by Bosanquet and was apparently reburied.It is not visible today, but its locationis markedwith a heap of stones. 165For the stone vases from the tomb, see Warren, Kpq1rXpov 19, 1965, pp.
10-14.
THE PALAIKASTRO CEMETERIES
181
L
III
0 L
10 I
20m. _
FIG.72. Palaikastro,Ta Hellenika: Tombs II, III, and VI (after Dawkins and Bosanquet,PK IV, p. 270, fig. 4 and Sackettand Popham, PK VI, pl. 64)
182
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
Architecture The tomb is a rectangularbuilding of two rooms.As preserved,it measuresca. 7.30 by 9.10 m. on the outside.166Its walls are apparentlybuilt in ordinaryrubblefashion,standing "abouta foot high,"the outer averaging0.50 m. in width and the inner 0.40 m. The whole outer northwestwall of the tomb is destroyed,167 and the westernend of the northeastwall is incomplete. The southwest wall is partly destroyedat both west and east ends, and the southeast wall is partly destroyedat the south. No entry to the tomb is noted by the excavators,but it may have been locatedin any of these destroyedsections. The inside of the tomb is dividedinto an L-shapedroom that runs the whole length of the southwest and southeast sides of the tomb, ca. 6 by 6.30 m. as preserved,somewhat wider on the southwestthan on the southeast,ca. 2.55 m. and ca. 2.10 m. respectively,and a smaller,rectangularroomin the north corner,measuringca. 3 by 5.60 m. as preserved.The southwest wall of the smaller room, which runs parallel to the outer northeastand southwest walls of the tomb, is preservedfarther to the west than either of them; the published plan of the tomb suggeststhat it is preservedfor its entire length and that its west end marks the western limit of the tomb. The southeastwall of the smaller chamber,which runs parallel to the outer southeastwall of the tomb, is brokenby a doorwayca. 1 m. wide between the inner and outer rooms. Burials and Chronology No burials were found in the larger chamber."A few bones and a fragmentof a skull" are reportedfrom the smaller north chamber.168The small number of bones suggestedto the excavatorsthat the tomb may have been that of a single individual.Since such a burial would be unusual, however, if not unique, it is more likely that additionalburials in the tomb were lost along with the western side. Twenty-five vases were found nearly complete,and while a numberof MM vases are reportedamong them, the published examples belong entirelyto the EM IIb phase.169No fine gray ware or Koumasa-styleware is reported,and it seems that the tomb came into use somewhatlater than Tomb I. The MM pottery,which is unpublished,is reportedto be like that fromthe othertombsat Palaikastroand is thereforepresumablyMM I. All potteryand reportedfinds, including the fragment of a triton shell and a model boat, came from the larger room and from its southwesternsection, leaving the space before the inner doorway free; Dawkins thereforesuggestedthat after the burial in the smaller room was made, the larger "was left open as a sort of mortuarychapel for offerings,and the vases used for this 166
All measurementsgiven for this tomb are taken from Bosanquet,PalaikastroExcavationNotebookfor 1904, for the use of which I am indebtedto Peter Warren, formerlyAssistantDirectorof the BritishSchoolat Athens. This particularmeasurementdiffers from that given by Dawkins in PK III but not from that of the plan publishedin Dawkins and Bosanquet,PK IV, fig. 4:1. 167 This is stated in both Dawkins, PK III and Bosanquet,PalaikastroExcavationNotebookfor 1904, and the sectiondrawn in the publishedplan (PK IV, fig. 4:1) is apparentlyrestored. 168Dawkins, PK III, p. 197. 169 All are made of fine buff clay, and all but one are paintedwith a red slip, flakedoff and badly preserved, which displaysonly tracesof mottling,if any, never so brilliant as on the best examplesof Vasilike ware. The major shapes include teapots (Dawkins, PK III, fig. 1:h), pedestaledgoblets (fig. 1:f), beakedjugs (fig. 1:a), and straight-sidedbowls with rim spout. One example of importedMyrtos ware may also be noted (figs. 1:i, 3:b).
THE PALAIKASTRO CEMETERIES
183
If indeed the tomb were used for only one burial, it purpose allowed to accumulate."170 would have to be concludedbecause of the presence of MM vases that the building continued to be used for cult purposeslong after its initial use as a tomb. On the other hand, the tomb may have been re-used for burials in the MM phase and the MM vases deposited with these. 30. PALAIKASTRO, TOMBIII (Fig. 72) DawkinsandBosanquet,PK IV, pp. 268-272.
Locationand Excavation Tomb III is the lowest of the tombs at Ta Hellenika, locatedat the bottomof the southern slope of Kastri, ca. 60 meters south of tomb II. It was excavatedin 1905 by Dawkins, and like Tomb II it is no longer visible, although its locationis markedby a heap of stones. The land here at the bottom of Kastri is flat enough so that the hillside does not interfere with the placementof the long side walls of the tomb, and the tomb is orientednortheastsouthwest. Architecture Little is publishedabout the architectureof the tomb except that it consistsof six rooms enclosed by low walls and "doesnot differ essentially from the others."A few additional observationsmay be made on the basis of the publishedplan.171The tomb is a rectangular building ca. 4.80 by 10 m. on the outside.172It is divided into three consecutivecompartments with two roomsin each. The northerncompartment,containingRooms 5 and 6, and the central compartment,containing Rooms 3 and 4, are nearly identical in size and plan. The northernone is entered from its southeastcornerthrough an opening giving access to two adjacentroomsdividedby a short spur wall and connectedby an internaldoorway.The centralcompartmentwas originallyenteredthroughan openingat its southwestcornerthat providedaccessto two rooms arrangedexactly like those in the northerncompartment.On the plan, each of these four roomsmeasuresca. 1.80 by 3.30 m. The southern compartment,containing Rooms 1 and 2, appears to have been a later addition;on the plan, its walls do not continuefrom those to the north and do notjoin them. The west or rear wall is set back from the west walls of the two northerncompartments, marking the break and reflectingthe internal division of rooms. The additionof this compartmentshut off the entranceto the centralone. The southerncompartmenthas no visible entrance,unless a narrow breakin the east wall leading into Room 2 representsa doorway. It is composedof smaller, cell-like rooms that do not interconnect,Room 1 measuringca. 1.80 by 2.40 m., and Room 2 ca. 0.90 by 1.80 m. The fragment of another wall over three meters long is shown on the plan running parallel to the southeastwall of Tomb III. The wall is brokenmidway by a doorway,apparentlywith thresholdintact, and at its north end the wall continuesto the southeast.It is most likely the remainsof a fourth tomb at Ta Hellenika. 170
Dawkins, PK III, pp. 197-198. Dawkins, PK IV, fig. 4:3. 172All measurements here are taken from the 171
given
plan and should be consideredapproximate.
184
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
Burials and Chronology Rooms 3 and 4 of the centralcompartmentwere "filledwith the usual confusedmass of re-interredbones mixed with potteryand other objects."The four remainingroomsyielded few finds. In the adjacentcorridorto the east, however, additionalpotterywas uncovered, including three hole-mouthedjars and four cups with slightly contractedmouths "a little differentin style"fromthe potteryinside the tomb. The potteryincluded41 completevases, which are describedin the publication.73With only a few exceptionsthey are decoratedin EM III white-on-darkstyles. The most commonshape consistsof handlelesscups, including some 20 straight-sidedconicalcups. The tomb appearsto have been used mainly in the EM III phase and only briefly, if at all, thereafter. TOMBSIV a ANDIV b (Fig. 73) 31, 32. PALAIKASTRO, Hawes in Dawkins and Bosanquet,PK IV, p. 293.
Locationand Excavation The two tombs are locatedon top of the hill of Sarantari,at its northwestside; immediately below them, LM III larnax burials were found. They were excavatedin 1905 by Charles H. Hawes and re destroyedtoday. Architecture The summit of Sarantariis flat bedrocktoday, and the tombs were alreadybadly preservedat the time of excavation;very little informationis available about them. The excavatorremarkedthat they were built with "house-likewalls,"presumablyof ordinaryrubble construction,and contained compartmentsdistinguishablefrom those of ordinary houses only becauseof the skeletalremainsand funeralgoodsfound inside. In the publishedsketch they are roughly rectangularand orientednorth-south. plan of the tombs as preserved,174 The northerntomb, measuringca. 5 by 6 m. on the outside, containstwo adjacentrooms; the southern,measuringca. 5.25 by 7 m. on the outside,containsthree, two to the north and one to the south,with interconnectingdoorways.The fragmentof what appearsto be a third tomb lies just to the southeastand suggeststhat originallythe summitof Sarantariwas built up with a numberof tombs. Burials and Chronology The burials are not described.The pottery, which is unpublished, is reportedto be MM, and the tombs are dated by the excavatorto the same period as those on the Gravel Ridge and Kastri,which is presumablyMM I. 33. PALAIKASTRO, TOMB V (Fig. 74) Duckworth in Bosanquetand Dawkins, PK II, pp. 350-355; Bosanquet,PalaikastroExcavationNotebooks for 1902 and 1905; Dawkins, PK IV, p. 272, fig. 4:5. pp. 7-9 and Betancourt,White-on-DarkWare,pp. 15-16, 36. Walbergemphasizesthe presenceof some MM Ia material (Middle Minoan Pottery,pp. 133-134). 174 Dawkins, PK IV, fig. 4:4. 173See also Bosanquetand Dawkins, PKU,
THE PALAIKASTRO CEMETERIES
185
IVa
I IVb
0
5
lOm.
FIG.73. Palaikastro,Sarantari:Tombs IV a and IV b (Dawkins and Bosanquet,PK IV, p. 270, fig. 4)
Location and Excavation
Tomb V is located some 600 meters southeast of the Gravel Ridge, low on the north slope of Petsofa in the area known as Patemaoverlookingthe Bay of Palaikastro.The tomb was excavatedin two separate seasons, in 1903 by W. L. H. Duckworth and in 1905 by Bosanquet.It is apparentlydestroyedtoday. Architecture
No architecturalinformationabout this tomb is available other than that providedby two ratherdissimilarplans, one drawn in the Notebookand reproducedhere with measurements (Fig. 74:a), the other published in PK IV (Fig. 74:b), which may be a reconstruction based on the Notebookdrawing. The building representedin the Notebookis an irregular structure, perhaps originally rectangular,with over-all measurementsnorth-south of ca. 7.90 m. It containsthree parallel roomsin a compartmentat the east side of the buildingand three or four additionalrooms in a compartmentto the west. Burials and Chronology
Scatteredskeletal remainsand one burial in situ were reportedfrom the earlierexcavations. The skeletonlay on its left side in contractedposition,orientednortheastby southwest,
186
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
.65'
2.75 0 (1)
\,j
(2)
1.70
o' IO010
1.20 , ' _--
(3)(4)
N S N
_
L
2.15
0
0
2.00
cSt: i
a. Bosanquet,ExcavationNotebookfor 1904, sketchplan
V
0
5
10m.
b. Dawkins and Bosanquet,PK IV, p. 270, fig. 4 FIG.74. Palaikastro,Patema:Tomb V
with the head originallyto the east.175The skull was missing. Further skeletalremainsare describedin the Notebookand locatedon the plan. They includetwo skeletonslocatedin the northeastroom of the tomb against the south wall (Fig. 74:a, 1, 3) lying in contractedposition on their left sides with the skulls to the east. A skull was found directly above and crushedinto the pelvis of Burial 3; another (4) was found among a heap of bonesjust to the east. In addition,one vase "fromthe same neighborhood"(P 1419) containedbones.Another skull (2) was found in the east centralroomagainstthe northwall. The dateof the tomb,like its plan, is a matterof someconfusion.In the initial reportsthe tomb was datedto the MM I phase, and the only vase publishedat this time is a miniature 175Bosanquetand Dawkins, PK
II, p. 354, figs. 5, 6.
THE PALAIKASTRO CEMETERIES
187
jug of the MM Ia style.176Someyears later, however,Bosanquetand Dawkins notedthat the Patema tomb was "alreadyin use in the EM period,"and in the chronologicalsummaryof the site of Palaikastropublished in 1965 the tomb was cited as evidence that occupation began with the EM I phase.177Only one of the "EM" vases has been published. It is a cylindrical pyxis without handles or feet, decoratedwith incised vertical bands of chevrons.178Dawkins datedthis vase to the EM I phase, and Renfrewhas comparedit to Cycladic vases of the Grotta-Pelosculture.179 It has severalparallelsin shape with MM Ia pyxides, however,and it is by no means clear that it should be datedto the EM phase.180In any case the potterysketchedand inventoriedin the Notebookis without exceptionMM I. The entries are reproducedhere with additionalcomparanda. Catalogueof Objects Pottery P V-1 (P 1400). Bowl with hole in bottom Compare from Apesokari, Schorgendorfer, ForschungenaufKreta, pl. 22:3. P V-2 (P 1401). Squat black "Schnabelkanne" Comparefrom Palaikastro,PK II, p. 322, fig. 21:2. P V-3 (P 1402). Vapheio cup D. at rim 0.093 m. Handle missing. Compare from Palaikastro,PK II, p. 302, fig. 1:11. Two other Vapheio cups are noted without inventory numbersor description. P V-4 (P 1404). One-handledcup Found under Burial 3. Comparefrom Palaikastro,PK II, p. 302, fig. 1:la. P V-5 (P 1406). One-handledcup H. 0.06 m.; D. at rim 0.09 m. Found near skull 2. Comparefrom Palaikastro,PK II, p. 302, fig. 1:8. P V-6 (P 1407). Handleless cup D. at rim 0.083 m. Compare from Palaikastro,PK II, p. 302, fig. 1:6.
Six othercups of "handlelesstype"are notedwithout inventorynumbersor descriptions. P V-7 (P 1408). Cup Half missing. Comparefrom Palaikastro,PK II, p. 302, fig. 1:6a. P V-8 (P 1412). One-handledcup Broken. Decoration in "white festoons on poor glaze ground." See Zois, Kamares-Stil,p. 232 and M XI-2, p. 96 above. P V-9 (P 1415). One-handledcup D. at rim 0.075 m. Comparefrom Palaikastro,PK II, p. 305, fig. 4:3. P V-10 (P 1419). "Very rotten vase, containing bones." Incisedornament. This appears to be the incised pyxis mentioned above. P V-11 (P 1430). One-handled cup with spout at right angles to handle.
Bosanquetand Dawkins, PK II, p. 322, fig. 21:11. Comparethejugs from Gournes (Zois, nIpo,3AhiarTa, pls. 3, 5); elsewhere at Palaikastro the shape is found in association with Chamaizi jugs (Bosanquet and Dawkins, PK II, p. 323). 177 Bosanquetand Dawkins, PKU, p. 116; Sackettand Popham, PK VI, p. 249. 178 C. Renfrew, "Creteand the CycladesbeforeRhadamanthus,"Kp7rrXpov18, 1964, pp. 107-141, pl. T:1. 179 Bosanquetand Dawkins, PKU, p. 5, fig. 2; Renfrew, op. cit., p. 116. 180 For parallels in shape, comparethe MM Ia pyxis from Vasilike (G. Maragiannis, Antiquitescretoises, ser. 2, Candie 1911, pl. 24:13; Seager, VasilikeII, pp. 127-128, fig. 12); and for fabric, comparevase no. 40 from PalaikastroTomb VII (Bosanquet, PK I, p. 293, note 1). J. A. MacGillivray, P. M. Day, and R. E. Jones now date it MM Ia ("Dark-faced Incised Pyxides and Lids from Knossos: Problems of Date and Origin,"in Problemsin GreekPrehistory,E. French and K. Wardle, edd., Bristol 1988, pp. 91-93). 176
188
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
TOMB VI (Fig. 72) 34. PALAIKASTRO, Dawkins, PK III, p. 202; Bosanquet,PalaikastroExcavationNotebookfor 1904.
Locationand Excavation This tomb is locateda shortdistancesouth of Tomb II at Ta Hellenika. It was excavated in 1904 by Bosanquet.and was apparentlyreburied.Like Tomb II it is not visible today, but its locationis markedwith a heap of stones. Architecture Only a little informationis publishedabout the architecture,but some additionalfacts, includingmeasurements,are providedin the Notebook.The tomb is a rectangularbuilding with a but-and-benplan. It is constructedwith "low"rubble walls, the north wall parallel to the south but a meter longer, and the east and west walls convergingtowardsthe south. The east wall does notjoin the south wall but turns west at a right angle, runningparallelto it and ending before reaching the west wall.181The tomb thus consists of two rooms, the main entranceat the southeastcornerthrough the space between the east and south walls, and the inner room reachedthrough the space at the northwestcornerof the outer.182The southern, outer room forms a vestibule ca. 1.10 by 1.90 m. in size, and the larger, inner roomappearsto have servedas the main burial chamber,measuringca. 2.40 by 3.80 m. Burials and Chronology The outer room containedthe remains of only one burial, which rested on a layer of small roundsea pebbleslike those mixed with plasterin the laterhouse floorson the site. In contrast,the inner room was full of bones packedclosely togetherin an irregulararrangement including a number of skulls: 12 listed in the Notebookwere for the most part badly crushed. Dawkins noted that "the intermentswere certainly not all secondary,for there were two clear cases of contractedburials."These, like those at Patema, lay on their left sides with heads to the east. The pottery,which is unpublished,is reportedto be MM, all of it unpainted.Twentythree completevases were found. Eleven are plain handlelesscups of PalaikastroTypes 6, 6a, and 6b,183which are the tumblers and conical cups typical of the MM I phase. In addition,the Notebookrecordsin sketchesthe find of two jugs, one like PalaikastroType 7 with round instead of trefoil mouth.184At least one of the jugs is wheelmadewith a stringmarkedbase and belongsto the MM Ib phase. 35. PALAIKASTRO,TOMB VII (Figs. 75 and 76, Pl. 40:a) Bosanquet,PK I, pp. 290-297; Duckworth in Bosanquetand Dawkins, PK II, pp. 350-355. 181 L. of north wall ca. 3.40 m., of south wall ca. 2.40 m., of west wall ca. 4.80 m., of east wall ca. 6.50 m.; W. ca. 0.50 m.
182 In Bosanquet,PalaikastroExcavationNotebookfor1904, the orientationwith doorto the east is given in three separateentries;in Dawkins and Bosanquet,PK IV, p. 270, fig. 4:2, the directionis reversed. 183 Bosanquetand Dawkins, PK II, p. 302, fig. 1. 184 Bosanquetand Dawkins, PK II, p. 322, fig. 21.
189
THE PALAIKASTRO CEMETERIES
0
15
30m.
FIG.75. Palaikastro,the Gravel Ridge: Tombs VII and VIII (after Bosanquetand Dawkins, PK II, p. 352, fig. 4)
Locationand Excavation Tomb VII is locatedon the central peak of the Gravel Ridge, about 70 meters south of Tomb I. It was excavatedin 1902 by Bosanquetand in 1903 by Duckworth. Becauseof its locationon a peak of the ridge, much of the tomb, includingits entire northeastcorner,was alreadydestroyedat this time. In recentyears the remainderhas been largely demolishedby a shepherdwho has used the stonesof the tombto constructa small hut at its north side. The north and south walls of this hut appear to rest on the ancient foundationsof the tomb, however,and the hut itself, with its low walls and flat earthenroof, gives an idea of how one
190
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
----
50
- ?e G
I ,
"
Iet, 1
0 FIG.
1
2
3
4
--
`i
--
--N.
5m.
76. Palaikastro,the Gravel Ridge: Tomb VII with detail of northwestcell (Bosanquet,PK I, pp. 291292, figs. 5 and 6)
THE PALAIKASTRO CEMETERIES
191
part or cell of the tomb originally appeared.Parts of the outer west and south walls of the tomb remainvisible today at groundlevel. Architecture The tomb consists of a roughly rectangularbuilding ca. 8.25 by 9.70 m. Its walls are constructedin ordinaryrubble,occasionallywith a single stone filling the entire width. The outer walls on the west, south, and east are somewhatwider than those on the interiorand on the north, and the preservednorthwall may be anotherinteriorwall and not the original north facadeof the tomb. The interioris dividedby four long, parallel east-west walls. All are brokenoff at the east, but in the view of the excavators toouter they originallyjoined the east and west walls and createdfive long, narrow compartmentsthat did not interconnect (Fig. 76, bottom). This reconstructionis somewhat misleading,however, since these compartmentswere further subdividedinto small cells by short, non-continuouswalls running north-south betweenthe longer dividingwalls. Only one of these shortnorth-south walls is illustrated (Fig. 76, top), and they are omitted entirely from the plan,185although their locationsseem to correspondwith the gaps between the finds plottedon it. A photographof the tomb taken in the 1940's shows these internal dividingwalls quite clearly (PI. 40:a).186 At least three cells were locatedin Compartments1, 2, and 3, and at least two in Compartment 4. The cells vary in size; some are rectangular some square. The cell in the northan. andry west cornerof the tomb (Fig. 76, top) measuresca. 1.15 m. square. No entranceto the tomb is reported,and while one or more may have existed in the destroyednortheastcorner,most of the cells were probablyenteredfrom the roof. Burials and Chronology With the exception of an infant burial inside a tall, two-handledvase, no burials were found in situ inside the tomb, and Bosanquetconcludedthat only "theskulls and principal bones of bodies skeletonisedby previous interment elsewhere were depositedin this final resting place."Severalskulls togetherwith other bones and accompanyingfuneralofferings were locatedin each cell, and no cell appearsto have been reservedfor only one individual. Some 97 skulls were recoveredin all. In addition,a primaryburial, consistingof a skeleton stretchedat full length, was found outside the southeastcornerof the tomb. Over 140 vases were collectedin the 1902 excavationalone. They includedmany cups and plates that were found inverted.Twenty-four of the vases are illustrated;187 they belong to the MM Ia and Ib phases and are characteristicof the MM I potteryfrom Palaikastro.188 36. PALAIKASTRO, TOMB VIIBIS Bosanquet,PK I, p. 294; Bosanquetand Dawkins, PKU, p. 12, note 2. Bosanquet,PK I, p. 291, fig. 5. At that time a maximum of three courses of the south interior wall was still preserved;only the lower courseof the others remained. 187 Bosanquet,PK I, p. 293, fig. 7. 188 For a discussionof the potterysee Walberg, Middle Minoan Pottery,p. 131. 185
186
192
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
Locationand Excavation This buildingis one of two tombslocatedon the Gravel Ridge not includedin Dawkins' summaryof the Palaikastrotombs.189It is reportedto have been locatednear Tomb VII "on the opposite slope of the ridge,"apparentlyon the eastern slope, since Tomb VII lies towards the western side of the ridge. It was excavatedby Bosanquetin 1902. Architecture Only part of one wall was found intact; the rest of the building had already been destroyed.The part preservedis describedas a "fragmentof good ashlar wall three courses high."190The blocksof the top two coursesmeasuredca. 0.22 by 0.53 by 0.20 m. Bosanquet suggestedthat the wall had been carriedhigher in mud brickand plasteredover and that it representedthe remainsof "anossuary-enclosurebuilt with more than usual care." Burials and Chronology No burials are reported,and only two vases were found alongsidethe survivingwall. These are a coarse red bowl containingfine lime and the famous bowl with shepherdand flockthat belongsto the MM Ib style.191 37. PALAIKASTRO, TOMBVIII (Fig. 75) Duckworthin Bosanquetand Dawkins, PK II, pp. 352-353, fig. 4.
Locationand Excavation This tomb is the second of the two on the Gravel Ridge not included in Dawkins' summary.192It lies some 15 meters south of Tomb VII on the southernmostpeak of the ridge and like Tomb VII is only partially visible today. It was excavatedby Duckworthin 1903. Architecture Little informationabout the appearanceof the tomb is available. It is built with ordinaryrubblewalls, and the part excavatedseems to have been a roundedbuildingof irregular plan. The roundedwalls may be due to their locationaroundthe side of a conglomerate outcroppingto the north, however, and the part that once lay to the south may have been constructedmore regularly. The excavatornoted that "suggestionsof compartmentswere met with." Only the one illustratedin the plan (Fig. 75), which containedskeletalmaterial, appearsto be complete.It measuresca. 1.20 by 3 m. and is enteredthrougha doorwayat the northeast,just outsideof which a large flat flagstoneof uncertainuse was uncovered. Burials and Chronology "Ten skulls and many limb bones"are reportedfrom the one completeroom. Apparently no skeletal remains were found in situ. The pottery from the tomb is not mentioned, IV, p. 269. By "ashlar"Bosanquetcould not mean true ashlar, which does not appear beforethe MM Ib phase;for the type of constructionto which he may refer, see p. 208 below. 191For the date of the bowl, discussion,and bibliography,see Zois, Kamares-Stil, pp. 243, 262. 189 Dawkins, PK
190
192
Dawkins, PK IV, p. 269.
PORTI
193
and no date is given; Duckworth, however, describesthe tomb together with the MM I tomb at Patema, and the implicationis that the two are contemporary. THE PLATANOS CEMETERY The cemetery of Platanos, lying just west of the modern village on level ground in the Mesara Plain, contains several majortombs, includingthree large tholoi. In many ways it resemblesthe Koumasacemetery.It too was first used in the EM II phase and then re-used after some interval in the EM III/MM Ia phases. It continued in use longer than the Koumasa cemetery,however, lasting into the Protopalatialand Neopalatial eras. Like the Koumasa cemeteryit is providedwith a paved court, also flanked by a precinctwall, and with a numberof smaller built rectangulartombs in additionto the tholoi. 38, 39. PLATANOS,TOMBSa AND y Xanthoudides, VTM,p. 93.
Locationand Excavation The rectangulartombs are in the field north of the two tholoi A and B, near the largely destroyedTholos F. They were excavatedin 1914 and 1915 by StephanosXanthoudides, who providesvery little informationabout them. The field is cultivatedtoday, and nothing remainsof them. Architecture Xanthoudides describes the tombs as "small buildings square in plan arranged in groups,"each building consistingof several chambers.Tomb a is actually a group of three rectangularbuildings, each from ca. 3 to 4 m. long. Pieces of clay with reed impressions found with the buildings caused Xanthoudidesto concludethat the tombs had been roofed with timber and clay. Burials and Chronology The burials are not describedexcept for the note that a mass of half-burnt bones was found in Tomb y. The buildings are reported to be the burial places of "poorpersons", presumablybecauseof the paucity of funerarygifts. Sherdsof the LM I phase were recovered, and the tombs were used at that time. Somewhat enigmatic objectsof unbaked clay describedas "phalloi"were also recovered,however, and since these are identicalto "phalloi" found in MM I contexts in Trench 8 and at Koumasa,the tombs may date to a much earlier period. PORTI 40. PORTI,TOMB8 Xanthoudides, VTM, pp. 54-69.
Locationand Excavation The site of Porti is easily accessibletoday a short distancebeyond Kantela,just to the easternside of the road leading south towardsVasilike in the Mesara Plain. The hill where
194
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
the cemeteryis locatedis as Xanthoudidesdescribesit, and Tholos nI may still be seen at its northwestcorner.On the same plateau, apparentlysomewhereto the east of the tholossince the acropolisrises almostimmediatelyaboveit to the south, Xanthoudidesuncovereda built rectangulartomb, 8, which is not visible today. Architecture Xanthoudidesreportsthat the tomb was built partlyby cuttinginto bedrock,that it had a wall length of ca. 2.60 m., and that an entrance "hole"ca. 1 m. wide was located on its south side. Since he does not provideany additionalinformation,the appearanceof the tomb is somewhatunclear. Burialsand Chronology A pithos, inverted and containing human bones, was found in one corner. Other inverted pithoi with bones found "a few meters farther on" together with remains of walls suggestedto Xanthoudidesthat they too had been placedin small tombslike 8 "lyingcloseto the surface." No potteryis reportedfromTomb 8 otherthan the burial pithos, which is said to belong to the Kamaresstyle. The burials in pithoi and small tombs elsewhere at Porti are datedto the MM phase, although none of the potteryfrom these areas is published.The MM pottery from the tholos and its annexes includesexamplesof the MM Ia and Ib phases,193and it is likely that the adjacentMM tombs, including8, are contemporary. VASILIKE, IERAPETRAS IERAPETRAS 41. VASILIKE, I Seager, Vasilike II, p. 115; Seager, Pachyammos,p. 20; Hall, Sphoungaras,pp. 71, 73; Zois, Bao-L)LK7 r7^ ev 'AOBjvaLs'ApXaLoAoyKijo'Eratpdasv 83), Athens 1976, p. 22. (BL,AXLO0OK71
Locationand Excavation The tomb at Vasilike is locatedon a slope south of the Kephala,where the settlementis situated, apparentlynear the remains of walls connectedwith a small Roman conduit. It was excavatedby Seagerin 1906. The area aroundthe Kephala is heavily cultivatedtoday; while parts of the conduitmay still be traced,there are no tracesof the tomb itself, and it is probablydestroyed. Architecture Seagerdescribedthe tombsimply as a "boneenclosure"without furthercomment.Hall, who presumablyhad firsthandknowledgeof it, provideda few more details. She compared it to the tombs at Palaikastroand Gournia and noted that it belongedto a class of tombs built abovegroundwith long, narrow burial chambers.She reportedthat it had more than one roombut did not say how many. 'ApX'E4P1965, p. 67, note 2; Zois, HpoSAXhtara,pp. 32-33, 97; Walberg, Middle Minoan Pot100. tery, p. 193Zois,
THE ZAKROS CEMETERY
195
Burials and Chronology Four undecoratedlarnakes, compared to one from Pachyammos,194were recovered from the tomb. Their contentsare not described.One small black MM cup is also reported, and Seagerdatedthe tomb to the MM I phase. The earliestof the MM houses in the settlement on the Kephala appearsto have been built in the MM Ia phase, and both houses were used in the Old Palace period. It is likely that the tomb was used at the same time. THE ZAKROS CEMETERY In the Prepalatial and Protopalatialeras the mountain slopes that surroundthe plain of and as well as the gorgeformedby the Zakrosriverto Kato Zakroson its nor westsouth,,, the northwestof the plain, were used as burial sites. Some 15 graveshave been investigated and reportedto date.195Most are simple burials in the rock sheltersand caves that abound in the rockyslopes to the north and in the precipitouscliffs of the gorge.Two exceptionsare the house tombslocatedlow on the easterlyslopes of the hills lying to the west of the plain at Pezoules Kephalas near the modernroad leading to Epano Zakros.The slope is gentler at this point, extending some distance to the north and south, and may have accommodated other built tombs in additionto those that have been exposed.The area overlooksthe plain, includingthe site of the palace to the northeastand the sea beyond. 42. ZAKROS,TOMBA (Fig. 77, P1.40:b and c) Platon, rIpaKTLKa 1967, pp. 190-194; Platon, "Epyov1967, pp. 113-115; Becker,AJA 79, 1975.
Locationand Excavation The larger of the tombs, lying higher up the slope alongsidethe modernroad, Tomb A is set against the east face of a large outcroppingof gray limestonewhich forms a natural L-shapednook against which the tomb is built. Its steep faces shelter the western walls of the tomb and are used for part of the wall. The tomb was excavatedin 1966 by Nicholas Platon196and reinvestigatedin 1973 by Marshall Becker. Architecture Tomb A is a three-roomrectangularstructuremeasuringca. 4.28 by 6.56 m. (irregular) on the outside. It is orientednortheastby southwest,as the locationrequires.197Its east wall runs more or less parallel to the face of the cliff on the west, and two lateralwalls run at right angles from the east wall to the cliff face. The east wall, the most stronglyconstructed because of its position on the outside of the slope, is composedof large stones that run the 194
Seager, Pachyammos, pl. XII:X a.
For a plan of the general area, see N. Platon, Zakros,the Discoveryof a Lost Palace of Ancient Crete, New York 1971, p. 25; for the tombs see Hogarth, "Excavationat Zakro,Crete"BSA 7, 1900-1901, pp. 142145; Platon, nIpaKTIKa1962, p. 165; Platon, IIpaKruca1963, p. 187. 196 I am indebtedto the excavatorand the Greek ArchaeologicalServicefor permissionto study the Zakros tombs. 197 For conveniencein the following discussion,southeastwill be called east and southwest,south;northeast will be called north and northwest,west. 195
196
B
0.00
+ 2.0 7
A
+0O3
0 FIo.
77. Zakros,TombA
1
2m.
THE ZAKROS CEMETERY
197
whole width of the wall. Only three remainin place, however,to the height of one course,in the northernhalf of the wall; the southernhalf has been largely destroyedby erosion.The lateral walls are constructedin usual rubble fashion. The outer north wall, preservedto a height of two courses near the face of the cliff, is partly destroyedat the east. At the west, where it joins the face of the cliff, a bedding cut in the cliff face extends about 0.70 meters fartherwest and may have servedto support an extensionof the wall. The south wall, also preservedto a height of two courses, has been destroyedat the east, where it apparently joined the vanished section of the east wall. The west end joins the face of the cliff, which juts out to the east at this point so that the built sectionof the south wall is shorterthan the north wall. The interiorface of the wall, however,is carriedfartherwest in an even line by an extension consistingof a single face of stones, preservedto a height of four courses, set against an indentationin the cliff face.198 The tomb has no visible entrance.It may have been enteredthrough an opening at the destroyedsoutheastcorneror from above,perhapsfromthe level of the cliff to the west. The interior is dividedin half by a central partition wall running east from the face of the cliff parallel to the lateral walls. Built in the same manner as the lateral walls but somewhat narrower, it is preservedfor six irregular courses, nearly one meter high. It ends before reachingthe east wall, leaving space for a doorwayca. 0.62 m. wide along the easternside of the tomb. The largest room, B, lies north of this wall and the smallerrooms,A and F, to the south. Originallythe southerncompartmentseemsto have been as large as the northern,but at some point it was dividedinto two rooms by a short wall running north-south between the centralpartitionand the south wall.199Although the two upper coursesof this wall are constructedin normal rubble fashion, the base consistsof two faces of large flat stones laid on edge against rubble fill, a technique not found in the other walls. At the south the wall curveseast, and it does not bond at either end with the walls running east-west. The erection of this wall isolated the small room r in the southwestcornerof the tomb;it measures ca. 1.96 m. north-south and widens from ca. 0.64 m. at the northto ca. 1.04 m. at the south. It is flanked on the west by a retaining wall, preservedto a height of three courses, set against rubble fill in front of the cliff. Like the east wall of the room,the west wall does not bondwith the north and south walls, and it may have been addedat the same time. Since the room has no entry at floor level, the fill at the west side may have been designedto providea solid platformfor enteringthe room from above. Room A, the southeasternlimits of which are lost, probablydid not extend much farthereast than Room B to its north. The preserved south end of the east wall reachesinside Room A and probablycarriedstraightacrossto the outer south wall of the tomb. The room measuresca. 1.72 m. in length and ca. 1.44 m. in width at the north. As noted, it may have servedas an antechamber,for it providesaccessto Room B through an opening at the northeast.Room B, which occupiesthe northernhalf of the tomb, is roughly rectangular,but because of the slanting line that the face of the cliff follows in this room it is ca. 3.12 m. long at the south and only ca. 2.08 m. long at the north. 198Exterior walls: p.L. of north wall ca. 2.32 m.; W. 0.68-0.76 m.; H. ca. 0.45 m. P.L. of east wall ca. 3.16 m.; W. 0.68-1.04 m.; H. ca. 0.42 m. Total p.L. of south wall ca. 1.12 m.; W. at east 0.68-0.84 m.; H. ca. 0.64 m. 199Interior walls: L. of central partition ca. 2.64 m.; W. 0.48-0.52 m.; H. ca. 0.98 m. L. of added northsouth wall ca. 2.02 m.; W. 0.40-0.48 m.; H. ca. 0.66 m.
198
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
Its width, on the other hand, is fairly uniform:ca. 1.76 m. The west wall is formedby the face of the cliff at the south and by a supplementarywall, preservedto a height of two courses, at the north where the natural rock is indented.200The floors of all three rooms appearto have been formedof packedearth abovebedrock. Since no traces of roofingwere found, the excavatorconcludedthat the tomb was unroofedand consistedsimply of a walled burial precinctor rTadLKos 7rEp'oAos. Accordingto this view, each burial, a true inhumation,would have been placed in a hole dug inside the enclosure;the hole would then be filled in and the area leveled.The presenceof an interior doorway,however,and the dispositionof skeletalmaterialwithin the tomb suggestthat one could move aroundinside. It is more likely that the walls were finishedoff in mud brickand that the buildingwas roofed.Roof beamscouldhave been laid north-southacrossthe lateral walls. The tracesof a beddingfor an upper wall in the cliff face at the northwestcornerof the tomb may thus best be explained by the need to extend the north wall in orderto bring the west end into line with that of the central dividing wall. The fill on the west side of Room r, which establishesthe even line for this side of the roomnot providedby the irregular cliff, may also have aided in the supportof a roof. Burials and Chronology The excavatorestimatedthat there had been as many as 600 burials in the tomb. Most of the remains consistedof scatteredbones, including a large number belonging to skulls, limbs, and pelvises. The missing pieces were thought to have been thrown away during cleaningsof the tomb. Some 45 completeskulls were reported.Most of these, as well as the other skeletal material erand the accompanyinggrave goods, were locatedat the sides of the rooms,and much of the materialwas found lying in successivestrata. In additionto skeletal remains, Rooms A and r yielded fragmentsof larnakes.Room B containedan undisturbed burial inside a narrow rectangular larnax in the center of the room, oriented northsouth.20 The head of the skeletonlay to the north and the contractedlimbs to the south. A secondskull, which the excavatorbelievedto have belongedto an earlier burial in the larnax, had been placed at the foot of the preservedskeleton.Pieces of two lids and three other larnakeswere foundat the foot of this larnax, and remainsof two or morewere foundin the eastern and northernparts of the room. Remains of pithos burials were found along the easternside. In the excavator'sview all the potteryfrom the tomb belongsto the MM Ia phase.202It has recentlybeen examinedby Walberg, however,and shown to include examples of MM Ib/II styles as well.203Among the most common shapes are cups, some conical, with or without handles,others carinatedwith one handle. 43. ZAKROS, TOMBB (Fig. 78, PI. 40:d) For bibliographicalreferences,see No. 42, p. 195 above. 200 Western walls: L. of wall in B ca. 1.24 m.; W. 0.32-0.40 m.; H. ca. 0.38 m. L. of wall in F ca. 1.98 m.; H. ca. 0.54 m. 201 Platon, HpaKTiKac1967, pl. 167:a and /. 202 Platon, HpaKrWKa1967, pls. 168, 169. 203 Walberg, Middle Minoan Pottery,p. 134.
THE ZAKROS CEMETERY
6a\^
199
+0.00
1.43
0
1
2m. En
FIG.78. Zakros,Tomb B
ii
200
A CATALOGUE OF HOUSE TOMBS
Locationand Excavation The smallerof the tombslies just southeastof the larger,fartherdown the slope. It is set among large outcroppingsof gray limestonethat fill part of the wall space on its south and west sides. They do not rise so high, however, as the outcroppingswest of Tomb A. The tomb was excavatedby Platon at the same time as A. Architecture The tombis a one-roomrectangularbuilding,orientedin approximatelythe samedirection as Tomb A, with internal measurementsof ca. 2.24 by 3.32 m. None of its walls is completelypreserved.The eastern wall has been largely destroyed,most of it apparently washeddown the slope, exceptfor a few oddstonesstill in place providingits insideface. It is boundedat the northby a single large stone and at the south by a limestoneoutcroppingthat acts as a cornerstonefor the east and south walls. The south wall is formedby a row of large stones placed upright in the gap between this outcroppingand the large one to the west. Although unworked,the stones fit tightly togetherwith only a minimum of earth bonding and form a retaining wall against a loose fill of earth and rocks. The west wall is formed largelyby the outcropping.Where the outcroppingslopes backon the northand south, supplementarywalls have been built to maintaina straightside. The north wall, constructedin usual rubblefashion,is the best preservedand standsin placesto a height of two courses.204 No entrancewas visible, and while one may have existedwhere there is now a large gap in the east wall, it may also have taken the formof an openingin the roof.The excavatorhas suggested that there was no entrance and no superstructurebut, like Tomb A, simply a walled area into which holes were dug for each inhumation.The straight lines formedby the interiorfaces of the walls and the right angles at the corners,however,are refinements that usually indicatea more substantialstructure.The bases of the walls all lie at the same level, and the tomb was originally designed for a level floor. Towards the southwest an undulatingoutcroppingof stone formspart of the floor;simple packedearth appearsto have formedthe remainder. Burialsand Chronology As in Tomb A most of the burials and accompanyinggrave goodswere found near the sides of the tomb. The skeletal remains again consisted mainly of the larger bones and skulls, some 20 complete examples of which were reported.A large number of the skulls were found along the north side, where they had apparentlybeen gatheredtogether.Three burials, which were thought to be the latest in the tomb, were undisturbed.One, located midway along the western side of the tomb, was placed inside a narrow rectangularlarnax like that from Room B of Tomb A.205The skeleton was contracted,its head to the north. The other two had been placednear the easternwall of the tombin a small rectangulararea markedoff by small stones. They lay in an east-west directionin contractedposition with their funeral gifts near by.206 204 Walls: p.L. of east wall (excludingoutcropping)ca. 3.72 m.; W. ca. 0.56 m.; H. ca. 0.30 m. L. of south retaining wall ca. 1.88 m.; W. ca. 0.52 m.; H. ca. 0.87 m. L. of north wall ca. 3.24 m.; W. ca. 0.56 m.; H. ca. 0.55 m. 205
206
Platon, HIpaKT-lca1967, pl. 171:,3.
1967, pl. 171:a. Platon, HIpaKTrKa
APPENDIX: CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF HOUSE TOMBS
201
In 1973 Becker re-examinedTomb A and studied the skeletal material that had been saved from both tombs. Seventy-fourindividualsof a total possible numberof 81 saved, no longer identifiableby tomb, are representedin this material. They include both males and females, the greatestnumber,perhaps as many as 40, being females, and representall ages above six years, with the largest percentage,nearly half, belongingto adults in the 18 to 50 year range and the smallest number,only four, belongingto childrenor adolescentsin the 6 to 16 year range. Some 70 completevases were collectedfrom the tomb. Similar in shape and decoration to those from Tomb A, they are also dated by the excavatorto the MM Ia phase. APPENDIX: CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF HOUSE TOMBS EM IIa: Gournia III; KoumasaF EM II: Linares(?);PalaikastroI EM II, III: Mochlos VIII, XVIII, XIX, XXIII, A, B, 0 EM II, III, MM Ia: Mochlos VII, XI, XIII, XVI, XVII, XXII EM II, MM Ia: Archanes6; Mallia, Western Ossuary;PalaikastroII EM II, III, MM III/LM I: Mochlos IV/V/VI, IX, X, XX/XXI EM II, III, MM Ia, MM III: Mochlos I/II/III, XV EM III: Archanes7(?); PalaikastroIII EM III, MM Ia: Mallia, ChrysolakkosI EM III, MM Ia, Ib/II, MM III/LM I: Myrtos, Pyrgos MM Ia: Agios Georgios;Archanes8, 12; Mochlos F(?), A(?), E(?) MM Ia, Ib: Agia Triada, South Building; Archanes 19; Gournes; Gournia II, IV(?), VII, VIII; Mallia, Eastern Ossuaries;PalaikastroIVa, IVb, V, VI, VIII; Vasilike; Zakros A, B MM Ia, Ib/II: Archanes 18; Gournia I; PalaikastroVII; Porti 8 MM Ia, Ib/II, MM III/LMI, LM IIIa: ArchanesB MM Ia, Ib/II, LM IIIc: Mallia, House of the Dead MM Ib/II: Mallia, ChrysolakkosII MM Ib/II, MM III/LM I: Archanes3-5(?) MM MM MM MM
III: Mallia, ChrysolakkosIII III/LM I: Archanes4 III/LM I, LM II/LM IIIa: Knossos,Temple Tomb III/LM I, LM IIIa: Agia Triada 5
LM I: Archanes 17; Platanos a, y LM IIIa: Agia Triada, Tomb of the Painted Sarcophagus
IV ARCHITECTURALFEATURES The tombs at Mochlos and Gournia share fundamentalarchitecturalsimilaritieswith the tombscataloguedin Chapter III. They all have close parallels in domesticarchitectureand were constructedalong the lines of real houses, althoughthey were to have a quite different use. In this respectthey are remarkableamong the built tombs of the period, and both the tholos tombs and cist graves, which appear considerablyearlier at the beginning of the Bronze Age, are distinctlyseparatephenomena,perhaps reflectingthe influenceof foreign contacts.1
PLANS (Fig. 79) Few tombs at Mochlos and Gournia are unique in plan, and all fall into the three broad categoriesthat encompassmost of the tombs of this type: they may simply be describedas tombs with single, double, or compoundrooms (Types A, B, and C). All are introducedas early as the EM II phase and used throughoutthe Prepalatialperiod.The one-roomtombs of Type A are particularlycommonamong the smaller South Slope tombson Mochlos and includeTombs VII, XI, XIII, XV, XXII, B, Z, H, I, and K, or ten of the 26 exposedtombs. Similar one-roomtombs are to be found at the same time at the Mallia Western Ossuary and at Koumasa,Tomb F, and perhapsthe small tombslocatedoutsidethe tholoi. The type continuesin the MM I phase at Gournia IV, Zakros B, Archanes 19, Porti, and the lepoS adKKosat Gournes. It reappearsin the Mycenaean age at Agia Triada in the Tomb of the Painted Sarcophagus.All these tombs are approximatelysquare or rectangularin plan; they vary in size from as little as ca. 2.15 by 2.45 m. to as much as ca. 5.10 by 5.20 m. Many are providedwith doorwayslocatedeither in the centerof one wall or at one corner;others have no apparententrance.Parallelsin domesticarchitecturemay be foundboth at Magasa in eastern Crete and Debla in western Crete. The Late Neolithic rock-shelterhouse at Magasa recalls Mochlos VII and I, as all three structuresare formedby extensionsof walls in front of already existing rock shelters. The house at Magasa appears to have been ca. 4.50 m. deep, somewhatlarger than either Mochlos tomb;its exact plan is lost, and so it is unclearwhether it was any morecomplex.2Dawkins comparedit to modern-daysheepfolds that are also built against pre-existingrockshelters,and that is exactly what the two Mochlos tombs resemble as well. The EM I/II houses at Debla, particularlyHouses 2 and 3, offer clearerparallels. Both are nearly square, about the same size as the smaller one-room See, however, S. Hood ("Cyprusand the Early Bronze Age: Circular Tombs of Crete," IlpaKTrKaB' ALEOvoVKvp&rpLoXoytKov Lvvebplov, To/,uo A', Nicosia 1985, pp. 43-49); he argues that the tholos represents an ancientform of house. There may also be a connectionbetweenthe house tomb and the tholos annex. The earliest annexes, including those at Siva, Lendos, and Agia Kyriaki, which appear to be additions to earlier tholoi, and those at Koumasaand Platanos A are contemporarywith the first house tombs and show some architecturalresemblance. 2 Dawkins and Bosanquet,PK IV, pp. 261-262, fig. 1.
203
PLANS
A
B
D
C
0O~l
...~2 m
.3
.
FIG.79. Plans of house-tombtypes
tombs,and each is providedwith a doorway,either at the centerof one wall or at one corner of the wall.3 Other houses like those at Debla have yet to be reported,but the relativelylarge number of tombs with one room suggests that such a house plan was once commonin the Prepalatialperiod. Tombs with two rooms, Type B, include severalvarietieswith slightly differentinternal arrangements.The most commonare those dividednear the centerby an internal wall that leaves space at one end for passage between the two rooms. The earliest examples are 3
Warren and Tzedakis, BSA 69, 1974, pp. 313-315, figs. 14, 15.
204
ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
found at Mochlos: XVI, XVII, XX/XXI, I (before additions), IX and X, and A and XXIII; later examplesinclude Gournia II, the two EasternOssuariesat Mallia, ZakrosA, where one roomis subdividedby a later wall, Archanes8, and perhapsGourniaVII, which may have been incompletelypreserved.Closely related are the tombs that have continuous internalwalls without any apparentinternaldoorwayfrom one roomto the other:Mochlos A, Archanes 6 in its original plan, Gournia I, and perhaps Agios Georgios. Less common are those with but-and-ben plan (PalaikastroVI and Mochlos IV/V/VI in its original plan) and an internal room reachedthroughan outer vestibule (PalaikastroII). Like Type A tombs, these may or may not be providedwith an external doorway;some are unusual, however, in that each room has its own entrancedespite the internal doorway (Mochlos I, IX-X, A-XXIII). The tombs range in size from ca. 3 by 3.70 m. to as much as ca. 7.30 by 9.10 m., although most fall in the 5-6 m. range. Probably the best parallels in domestic architecturefor the type are House 0 at Mallia in its first stage of development(MM Ib), the North House at Vasilike in its first stage (EM IIa), and the late Neolithic but-and-ben house at Magasa. The northwestwing of House 0, Roomsy and 8, which may have formed a separatehouse with its own entranceat one corner,is especiallysimilar in plan and size to Gournia II and the Eastern Ossuaries at Mallia.4 Unlike the tombs, however, it is not a freestandingbuilding, as it is joined at the southeastby a separateunit of rooms.The North House at Vasilike, on the other hand, is a freestandingstructureand is also similar in size to most of the tombs.5It has no apparentdoorwayson the interioror exteriorand most closely recallsGournia II and Agios Georgios.The but-and-benhouse at Magasa, also a freestanding structure,is identicalto PalaikastroVI and Mochlos IV/VI in plan but is about twice their size.6 Freestanding houses, to which the tombs may be compared,are rare in the Prepalatialand Protopalatialperiods since most, like Mallia House 0, have been addedto and enlargeduntil the originalcoreof the buildingis scarcelyrecognizable.As a result,most of the parallels for Type B tombs are found within larger structuresfrom the time of the EM II phase on.7 While Type A and B tombs are originally built as single units, tombs with compound plans, Type C, seldomare. These tombshave three or morerooms,some of which are likely to be additionsto an original unit. Amongthe early tombsof this type are the large tombson the West Terrace at Mochlos, where original two-room units have been expandedby the additionof one or morerooms;Gournia III, where the tombis simply a seriesof walls added one alongside the other; Archanes 6, where the original unit is nearly lost among later additions;and Archanes7. Among the later examples are Archanes 5, Gournes, probably Vasilike, and the South Building at Agia Triada. With the exceptionof Archanes6, where 4 Effenterre(under AT 5-5, 123 above), p. pp. 13-14, pl. XXI. 4 I (BLfiLOO'iK7rTjS Ev 'AOj1vaLs'ApXaXoAoy&Kis'Erapeias 83), Athens 1976, plan 5A. Zois, BaoLALK XIII. 6 Dawkins and Bosanquet,PK IV, p. 263, fig. 2. See also the MM II shrine at Mallia which is similar to Mochlos IV/V/VI in several respects (Poursat, BCH 90, 1966, pp. 514-551, figs. 3, 4). Its but-and-ben nucleus is about the same size as that of the Mochlos tomb and is also flanked on the outside by a narrow pavement;its Room 2 appearsto be an additionlike Mochlos V. 7 For the evolutionof this type, see D. Mackenzie, "CretanPalaces and the Aegean Civilization,"BSA 14, 1907-1908 (pp. 343-422), pp. 362-369, figs. 4-7.
AGGLUTINATIVEARCHITECTURE
205
the additions seem to have been made long after the constructionof the original unit, and perhapsthe north additionto Mochlos I, the additionsto these buildingsappearto be nearly contemporarywith the original constructionor at least within the same potteryphase. Such tombs again find parallels in contemporaryarchitecture,and the North House at Vasilike, an MM Ia house at Tylissos,8 and Mallia House 0 all illustrate the same sort of agglutinative process where additions are quickly made to a two-room unit resulting in a larger, more complex plan. At the end of the Prepalatial period still a fourth type of tomb appears, Type D, with multiple rooms, which is not, however, representedat either Mochlos or Gournia. These tombs are large rectangularstructureswith a regular external appearancethat are subdividedinto a numberof small roomsby crosswallsusually runningparallel to the outer walls and intersectingat right angles. Often the interior rooms do not connectand appear to be isolated cells entered from the roof. Tombs of this sort include PalaikastroV and VII, the House of the Dead at Mallia, and Archanes3 and 18; the type gives rise to ChrysolakkosII at Mallia in the MM Ib phase. The earliertombsrange in size fromca. 6.50 by 8 m. to ca. 8 by 12 m.; they are dwarfedby the huge ChrysolakkosII, which is nearly five times as large as Archanes3. The same type of plan appearsin domesticarchitecture.Apparentlycontemporarywith the earlier of the tombs is Mallia House B,9which was originallymistakenfor a tomb because of its similarity to ChrysolakkosII.10The Protopalatialhouse Stou Kouse also belongs to this type,11and still others of the same date are reportedat Kalathiana.12 The houses at Mallia and Stou Kouse are not much larger than the earlier tombs, Stou Kouse measuringca. 11 m. square, and each containsa numberof apparentlyisolated,celllike roomsas well as a numberthat connectat groundlevel. AGGLUTINATIVE ARCHITECTURE The tombs at Mochlos and Gournia, as well as many of those catalogued in Chapter III,
illustrate important stages in the evolution of Minoan architecture.Many of the tombs appear to be more fully evolvedthan others. The tombs that are only half built and make use of natural rockcliffs for a large part of their structure(Mochlos X, XX/XXI; Gournia III) or those that are mere extensionsof rock shelters (Mochlos VII, I) suggest a formative stage when men are still experimentingwith built architectureand still take full advantage of the natural terrain in erectingtheir structures.Many of these tombs,with their irregular lines and rockwalls, suggesta stage when men are not quite sure what a house ought to look like, and experimental plans result. Still other tombs illustrate a stage when the idea of something more complex than a simple one-room structure was beginning to emerge. Mochlos IX and X, A and XXIII are all basically one-roomtombs, each providedwith its 8J. Hazzidakis, Les villas minoennes de Tylissos (Etudes cretoises III), Paris 1921, pp. 59-60, pl. XXXIII. 9 Demargne and Gallet de Santerre,Mallia, Maisons I, pp. 19-20, pl. LXI. 10See, however, S. Hood, rev. of Mallia, Maisons I, in Gnomon26, 1954, pp. 347-348. 11S. Marinatos, <MefrolALVoiK71oZ,ca ev KaTro Meoaapa>, AeAr 9, 1924-1925
pp. 53-58, fig. 2. 12Xanthoudides, VTM, pp. 84-85.
(1927; pp. 53-78),
206
ARCHITECTURALFEATURES
own entrance, that have been transformedinto two-room structuresby the opening of a doorway in their party walls. Like Mochlos I they seem to have been designed with interior doorways from the start, but they nevertheless illustrate an important step when the possibility of a plan more complex than that of a simple one-room structure and "the convenience
of directinternal communication,"as Mackenzie put it, havejust been realized.13The next step is the realizationthat two entrancesare not necessaryonce the internal doorway has been created,and a true two-roomstructureemergeswhen one of these externaldoorwaysis closedoff. Such a stage appears in severalof the two-roomtombswhere one room provides the only access to the other. Tombs with compoundplans illustrate a still further step in which the original building, whether a one- or two-room unit, is enlargedby one or more additions.In most cases, these additionsare made without full realizationof their inherent possibilities.Even after all its additions,Mochlos I/II/III, for example, remains basically three separatechamberswithout any means of internal communication.PalaikastroIII, on the other hand, may representa slightly more developedstage in which the possibility of using one of the additionsto reach one of the original units is realized, and a larger, more coherentinteriorresults. The type of agglutinativeconstructionthat characterizesso many of these tombs, especially those with compoundplans, has been thoughtto explain the evolutionboth of the oneroom house into more complicatedhouses and of these into the small villages with closed plans that appearin the EM II phase at sites like Myrtos and Vasilike.14In this respect,the cemeteriesat Mochlos and Gournia representa pre-villagestage in which the characteristic plan of the EM II village has not yet appearedand freestandinghouses are still the fashion. They should be comparedto EM I/II sites like Debla or Elenes, Amariou, each with an open settlement plan.15Mochlos appears slightly more evolved, not because of its deceptively regular layout but because the agglutinativeprocess has begun, and several of the tombs are attachedto one anotherto form small but continuousblocks.The cemeteryplan, however,is still an open plan and contrastswith the contemporarysettlementon the island, a sufficientportionof which was revealedby Seagerin BlockA to suggesta closedplan with many small attachedrooms. While the Prepalatial settlementat Gournia has never been exposed, it probablyresemblednear-by Vasilike, and once again the settlementplan had evolvedto a much greater extent than the cemetery.To this extent the two cemeteriesat G earlier age, and Pendlebury'sobservationthat the and Gournia arrelis of Mochlos and a of houses tombs on Mochlos imitated bygone age is basically correct.It might be more accurate,however,to observethat the cemeteriesillustratean incompletestage in the formation of a Prepalatialsettlement.The cemeteryat Archanes,on the other hand, is considerably more developedthan either Mochlos or Gournia;it illustratesthe way the closedplan of a Prepalatial village might emerge from a number of pre-existing units that are added to again and again until they all join in one agglomeration of buildings and the original units 13
Mackenzie (footnote7 above,p. 204), p. 364. R. Hutchinson, PrehistoricCrete, London 1962, pp. 49-50; Whitelaw, Minoan Society, pp. 324-325, fig. 62. 15 For Elenes, Amariou,see G. Karo, "ArchaologischeFunde vom Sommer1931 bis Mai 1932: Kreta,"AA (JdI 47) 1932 (pp. 174-179), p. 177; S. Hood, P. Warren, and G. Cadogan, "Travelsin Crete, 1962,"BSA 59, 1964 (pp. 50-99), pp. 73-74, fig. 12. 14
WALLS
207
from which the village sprang are obscured. In different circumstancesthe cemeteriesat Mochlos and Gournia might have done the same. That they did not may be the result of population demandsand changingburial customs.In the MM Ia phase, when the greatest growth occurs in the Archanes cemetery, Mochlos appears to have been in decline, and many of its tombs went unused. At Gournia the population at large chose a new type of burial in pithos fields instead of furtherdevelopmentin the North Cemetery. WALLS With few exceptionsthe tomb walls are constructedin rubblemasonryof standardMinoan type. Such masonry consists of inner and outer faces of rough, unworked stones laid in irregularcourseswith earth or mud bonding.Within this standardtype are many variations that have no chronologicalsignificance. In width, the walls average about half a meter, although some may be narrower, especially interior walls, and exterior walls may sometimes exceed one meter. The stones employed, usually ordinaryfieldstonesgathered from the surroundingcountrysidewithout quarrying,averageca. 0.20 by 0.30 m. in size but may also vary from fist-sized stones to boulders.They tend to be irregularin shape, and the flat stones employed in so many of the Mochlos walls are unusual. The laying of the stone coursesvaries in regularity.Usually uneven,on occasionthey appearto have been laid more carefully along roughly parallel lines. Often regularly and irregularlylaid coursesmay be observedin differentwalls of the same tomb. Earth is the standardbondingand is used both as mortar between horizontal layers of stone and as fill in the center of walls. It is always mixed with pebbles or stone chips and occasionallywith pot sherds.The quantity of sherds varies widely, however, and in some walls almost none can be found, while in others large numbers are used, thus providinga convenientmethod for dating the construction.Sometimes the earth also appears to have been mixed with water to form a mud mortar. The amountof bondingvaries from large to small dependingon the size of the stones used in the facings and on the width of the wall itself. The term "dry-stone"masonry, 6r1poX6tasa, sometimesused to describewalls, is misleading, since all Minoan walls in all periods used some bonding, whether earth, mud, or clay, and this practice is often the sole means of distinguishingthem from modernwalls.16 In the majorityof cases these rubble walls serve only as socles for superstructuresof mud brick.There is little directevidencefor such superstructures,but they must be assumed to have existed because of the special care taken to provide proper beddings for them. In many cases, the rubble socles of the tombs are intact and preserveperfectly level surfaces that must have been designedfor the laying of horizontalrows of brick.Occasionally,when walls are built on slopes, they are carefully stepped,like those of Mochlos A or Gournia I, in order to minimize the amount of rubble constructionand still providelevel beddingsfor the mud-bricksuperstructures.The mud-brickfragmentsassociatedwith Mochlos B and Z are importantbecausethey are the only traces of mud brick reportedfrom any of the tombs (PI. 37:a). Mud brick usually survivesonly if bakedby fire, and it is significantthat Mochlos B is one of the few house tombs where traces of fire have been observed.Were there as 16 Shaw, Minoan Architecture,pp. 77-83.
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many signs of burning in the house tombsas there are in the tholos tombs,more mud-brick fragmentsmight be expectedto have survived. In only a few cases do walls appear to have been constructedentirely in stone. Such instances include the walls of Mochlos IV/V/VI and XVI, the lower-storywalls of ArchanesB, 3, and 19, and a few individualwalls such as the partywall of Mochlos IX and X, the southeasternretainingwall of Myrtos, Pyrgos,and perhapsthe centralpartitionwall of Gournia I, as well as the walls of certain Neopalatial tombs (ChrysolakkosIII at Mallia, Agia Triada 5, the Temple Tomb at Knossos).The walls show a remarkablevarietyof construction.Especially distinctiveare those of the tombs at Mochlos that are built with large slabs, set on end at the base of the wall and filled out aboveand betweenwith flat stoneslaid moreor less horizontally.These slabs are quite large, often a meterin length or width. They comefrom local depositsof purple or green schistas well as a silver-graysideropetraand are extractedalong even lines of fracture;as a result they have a flat, smoothsurfacethat gives them a finishedappearance.They are used decoratively,often with differentcolorsalternating in the same wall, and only in the importantfaces of these walls. With the exceptionof the north wall of IV/V/VI, which is reinforcedwith a separatefoundation,such slabs are used in all the walls that are entirely rockbuilt, as if it was thoughtnecessaryto build such walls with especiallystrong bases. They also appear in a few other walls, where, however, they are seldom as massive as those in the rock-builtwalls. They are used in some South Slope tombs, as well as the West Terrace tombs, but never so extensively as in I and IV, rooms that probablyhad special functions in the West Terrace tombs and perhaps in the cemeteryas a whole. It is noteworthythat the contemporaryhouses at Mochlos exposed in Block A are built of ordinaryrubble, without the same care that went into the construction of the tomb walls, and no precise parallels may be cited for the early walls with their large base slabs.17They are the first, however, of varyingtypes of dadoesthat grow increasingly popular with Minoan builders for their monumentaleffect and foreshadowthe orthostate blocksused at ChrysolakkosII and in MM Ib palatial architecture. The walls of Archanes B and 3 illustrate another distinctivemethod of construction. The stones in these walls are roughly squared and laid in fairly regular courses filled in with vertical and horizontal layers of stone chips. They have parallels in near-by MM Ia walls at Knossos,18and the fragment of "ashlar"wall reported on the Gravel Ridge at Palaikastro(see No. 36, p. 192 above) may belong to the same type. True ashlar masonry, which seems to be restrictedto palatial structures when it appears in the Protopalatial period, is not found in funeraryarchitectureuntil the Neopalatial period,when it appears in such tombs as ChrysolakkosIII and the Temple Tomb. The walls of stone construction,when complete,providethe only availableinformation on the original height of the tombs. The preservedheights are similar and probablyrepresentative. The north wall of Mochlos VI measures ca. 1.93 m. from the top of its inner foundation.The maximumpreservedheight of the east wall of Mochlos XVI is ca. 2.20 m. the bottomcoursesof Bastion 34 at Poliochni,a structurecontombs Mochlos EM with the II Bernabo-Brea,Poliochni,cittapreistoricanell'isoladi Lemnos (L. temporary I, Rome 1964, pp. 274-277, figs. 151-153). The later slab in the facadeof Archanes19 is similarbut lacksthe smooth,almost polished surfaceof the Mochlos examples. 18 Evans, PM I, pp. 148-149, fig. 109. 17 See, however,the upright slabs placed in
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abovebedrock.The west wall of ArchanesB measuresnearly two metersto the floorlevel of the secondstory in the tomb. The west wall of Archanes3 also measuresabout two meters from the original floor level to the breakin the wall markingthe second-floorlevel. A height around two meters is the average and suggests that the tombs with stone walls were built about as high as other contemporarybuildings.19It is, of course, not clear that mud-brick walls rose as high as stone walls, although they certainly rose no higher. The maximum preservedheights of the interior wall of Gournia I and the north central pier of Mochlos XX/XXI are bothjust under 1.40 meters, and the brickwalls of these tombs may not have risen much higher. Few of the tombs, and probablynone of those at Mochlos or Gournia, appear to have been more than a single story high, since the width of their lower-storywalls is usually not sufficientto support a second story. The only actual evidencefor second stories is found at Archanes B and 3, where the levels are actually preserved,at Myrtos, Pyrgos, where the upper floor, supportedby a large pillar, seems to have held a shrine, and at the Neopalatial tombsAgia Triada 5 and the Temple Tomb at Knossos,where the upper floors,also partly supportedby pillars, also seem to have accommodatedshrines. The only other possibility may be ChrysolakkosII with its uniformlywide walls. It may be significantthat only this tomb and ArchanesB used timberin their walls, and in both casesthe timbermay have been designedat least in part to provideextra supportfor an upper story.The height of 2.5 to 3.5 meters that has been estimatedfor ChrysolakkosII would not, however,be sufficientfor a two-story building. The tomb walls are provided with a variety of foundations.In a few cases they rest directlyon bedrock.These include the walls of Mochlos IV/V/VI, ArchanesB and 3, and other walls built entirely of stone and perhapsthought to require solid beddingsbecauseof their great weight. In some cases bedrockwas just below surface,but in others,as in the east room of Archanes 5, it requiredconsiderabledigging to reach. Additionalsupport is sometimes providedby a projectingbase or plinth designed to fill irregularitiesin the natural bedrockand providea level beddingfor the erectionof the wall. They might be quite simple, consisting of only a single row of stones like those supporting the west wall of Mochlos XXIII and the partition wall of Gournia I, or considerablymore substantial, like those th north o and south walls of Arsupporting the north and east walls of Mochlos VI and the chanes 3. In most cases these plinths are peculiar in that they projectonly on one side, the inner side if belongingto an outer wall. In a few cases walls may be built upon earlierwalls and so gain additionalsupport, like the south wall of the ArchanesB pillar crypt and some of the interiorwalls of ChrysolakkosII, or they may be built on a shallow footing of rubble construction,like the exteriorwalls of ChrysolakkosII. In most cases, however,the bedding of walls appears to have been somewhat haphazard. Some walls might rest on bedrock, while others in the same tomb rest on the natural groundlevel or an earth fill, occasionally with the addition of a few loose stones. This seems to have been the case with most of the tombs that have survivedon the South Slope at Mochlos. In still other cases no part of a 19
Comparethe heights of Room 76 at Myrtos (Warren,Myrtos, p. 66) and Room IL at Phaistos (D. Levi, "Attivitadella Scuola ArcheologicaItaliana di Atene nell'anno 1951," BdA, 1952, pp. 320-339, fig. 7), each ca. 2 m.
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tomb might rest on bedrock.Even when bedrockmight lie only a few centimetersbeneath the walls, as at Mochlos III or Gournia II, no effortwas madeto carrythe stonesoclesdown to that level. The same sort of haphazardbuilding may be noted in the constructionof other Minoan walls where solid bedding was providedwhen thought necessaryor when convenient, but a less substantialbeddingwas thoughtsufficientfor the relativelylight walls built of mud brick above rubble socles.20Normally a sall one-story tomb did not require any substantial bedding, and the natural ground level would be sufficient,particularlyif the tomb rested on level ground, as at Agios Georgios;on the other hand, more of the South Slope tombs on Mochlos would have survivedif they had been built on bedrockinstead of the natural slope. Occasionallysome attempt was made to decoratethe external faces of the tomb walls. One of the most commonmeans was the use of vertical setbacksor recesses such as those built into the walls of Mochlos IV/V/VI, Archanes6, PalaikastroIII, Gournes, Gournia II, and Archanes3 and 5. In the earliest of these, at Mochlos and Palaikastro,the setbacks seem to be the result of the addition of rooms to the original structure.The walls of the additionsare simply set back (or forward)where theyjoin the originalwalls. At Archanes5 and 6 and Gournes setbacksare createdby the same means and also mark actual breaksin the walls. At Archanes3 and Gournia II a secondtype is introducedin which the wall is not structurallybrokenat the point of setback,but instead the internal structureof the tomb is reflectedby the external setback.Here the setbackhas becomechieflya matterof design, no longer a primarily structuralfeature, and serves to break the monotonyof a solid wall. In Archanes3 the processis carriedsomewhatfurther,and the setbacksin the north and south walls of the tomb, while still reflectingthe internal arrangementof the tomb, are less pronouncedand primarilydecorative.The setbackseems to have originatedthen as a result of structuraladditions,but becauseof its decorativeeffect soon becamea commonadornment of Minoan walls.21 Still othertechniqueswere used to decoratethe facadesof Mochlos IV/V/VI, Archanes and B, ChrysolakkosII. Once constructed,the walls of these tombs were underlined,as it were, by string courses, separate from the walls, placed at the bases for adornment.At Mochlos this course consists of a separate line of horizontal slabs, set between wall and terrace.At Archanesand Chrysolakkosthe coursesconsistof a numberof slabs set vertically against the bases of the walls. ORGANIC ARCHITECTURE As a rule, the tombs are set harmoniouslyin the landscape.They are orientedaccordingto the slope of the terrain and are often tucked into its natural contours.At the same time, natural topographicalfeatures are often incorporatedinto the constructionwith the result that the tombsappearto be part of their naturalsurroundings.In this accommodationof the Graham,Palaces of Crete, pp. 149-150. For setbacksin domesticarchitecture,see the notes in Demargne and Gallet de Santerre,Mallia, Maisons I, p. 43, note 1; J. Deshayes and A. Dessenne, Fouilles exe'cuteesa Mallia, Exploration des maisonset quartier d'habitation (1948-1954), deuxiemefascicule (Etudes cretoisesXI), Paris 1959, pp. 8-9; Poursat, BCH 90, 1966, p. 528. 20 21
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211
architectureto the land and the use of the land as a building material, the natural and the manmadeare integratedin what might be describedas an organicarchitecture.It is a type of architecturethat is particularlywell illustratedby the tombs at Mochlos, where several techniques are used to achieve the integration, but it is also characteristicof much early Minoan building. One techniqueis the use of natural crevicesfor floorsand the positioning of rooms over them, so that burial depositscan accumulatewithout hinderingaccess to the rooms. Both Mochlos II and VI are constructedin such a way, as are many peak sanctuaries, where, however, it is votives and burnt offeringsthat accumulatein the natural rock crevices.Related is the use of natural ledges in the rock like those in Mochlos A, F, and III to form extensionsof the tomb. In each example the natural featuresof the groundbecome an integral part of the building. Another method is the use of a natural outcroppingas a "cornerstone"of two walls, as at the southwest cornersof Mochlos A and XI or the southeast cornerof Mochlos XIII, in orderto ensure the bondingbetween walls. Often a rise in bedrockwill form the base of an entire wall, serving as the socle for mud-brickor stone walling. In each case, the living rock projectsinto the manmadewall, and the two become part of each other. Sometimesthis practiceis carriedstill further, and the rise in the rock cliff, where high and steep enough, is used to form one entire side of the tombor more. Such use is made of the rock cliffs along the west sides of Mochlos I/II/III, the north sides of Mochlos A, XX/XXI, and XXII, and the east sides of Mochlos X and XV. The wall ledge may be partially built where it is necessaryto fill irregularitiesin the rock face, as at the southeastcornerof Mochlos XX/XXI, or to provideadditionalsupport for the roof, as at the north side of the same tomb, but often it is left untouched.This transformationof living rock into walls is found in other tombs such as Gournia III, Zakros A, and Porti 8 and in Elenes, Amariou, Prepalatial domestic architectureat Myrtos, Debla, and particulartialy where one house is reportedto have had an entire wall of living rock.22In this sort of architecturethe buildingsseem to grow out of the ground,and it is often difficultto tell where the ground ends and the buildings begin. It is an economicalmethod of building, requiring relativelylittle labor and a minimumof building materials,and it is also sound engineering, ensuring a solid structure.At the same time, the integrationof natural topographicalfeatures and manmadematerials is so commona feature of early Minoan architecturethat it constitutesan importantaspect of the architecturalaestheticof the period. DOORWAYS (Fig. 80) Doorways are found in a majorityof, but by no means all, the tombs. Unlike the trilithon doorwaysof tholos tombs,they are constructedin ordinaryrubblefashion,that is, with built jambs that presumablysupportedlintels of wood. They range in width from half a meterto a meter; the preservedheight of the doorway from Mochlos IV to VI is ca. 1.73 m. Ordinarilydoorwaysare a simple breakeither in the middleof a wall, with the two ends of the wall formingthe jambs (Mochlos XX/XXI), or at one end of a wall, with the wall running at right angles to the brokenwall forming one of the jambs (Mochlos A, Gournia II). The position of the doorway varies, and there is no indicationthat one position was preferred 22 Warren, Myrtos,p. 257; Warren and Tzedakis, BSA 69, 1974, p. 335; Karo (footnote15 above,p. 206), 177. p.
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L A D
1OL1 B
E
C
I
O
. 1
2m.
FIG.80. Plans of tomb doorwaytypes
over the others.Often the ends of the walls formingthejambs appearto have been strengthened:they are sometimeswidened like those at Mochlos A and Gournia II (Fig. 80:D), or they might be built with large stones laid more carefullythan usual, like the northjamb at the bottom of the staircase in Archanes 3, which is actually built in rough headers and stretchers.Usually the break in the wall is complete;a separatestone thresholdlike the flat slabs in Mochlos IV and XXIII may be provided,but more often a simple earth threshold, sometimesreinforcedwith stone chips as at Gournia II, sufficed.Sometimes,however,the wall is continuousat the base and only brokensomewhereabove to providea doorway.In such cases the doorwaymay be located0.20 m. to as much as 0.80 m. above floor level, and its threshold is composedof the rubble base of the wall itself. Such doorways are found between Mochlos IV and VI, in the lower-storyrooms of Archanes3, and in the houses at Vasilike and Myrtos. At Mochlos short projectingpiers insteadof the ends of walls are often used to formthe jambs. They may be placed in a variety of positionsbut always in such a way as to form a
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small alcove or sheltered area in front of the doorway. Usually they stand between two parallel walls, narrowingthe space for the door opening (Mochlos I, IV, IX; Fig. 80:C), or opposite the end of a wall, against a wall running at right angles to the doorway (Mochlos B; Fig. 80:B), or outsidea doorway,flankingit and servingnot as jambs but as pure decoration (Mochlos XXIII; Fig. 80:A). In most cases such piers are built in ordinaryrubble and simply attachedto the walls without bonding.The piers at the entrancesof Mochlos I are unusual in being composedof monoliths,at least at the bases. Most of the doors were presumably constructedof wood. The locking system of the Temple Tomb, requiringwooden bolts, the woodenjambs and bronzepivot cap of Chrysolakkos II, and the stone pivots of Gournia II and Mochlos Z suggest wooden doors, and while no direct evidence is available for other tombs, wooden doors revolvingon wooden door posts set in rough pivot stones might be expected.Rarely, a rubblewall like that in the doorwaybetween Mochlos IV and VI might be used to close a doorway,presumablywhen the room behind the doorway had gone out of use. Monolithic slabs are also reportedby Seager to have closed the entrancesof Mochlos III, IV, V, and XII. They are no longer visible on the site, and it is unclear exactly how they were used. If they blockedthe entire doorway,they must have been quite large, perhapsresemblingsome of the monolithicslabs used in the tholos tombs.23The use of such slabs is exceptional,however, and is clearly a feature of funeraryrather than domesticarchitecture.They are used somewhat incongruously together with architecturalforms such as stone thresholdsand built jambs that are normally associatedwith wooden doors and may have been introducedonly at the time the tombs were finally closed. A few of the tombs are not providedwith any apparent entrance. Because walls are often preservedonly to a low level and doorways are sometimesplaced at the level of the stone socle without breakingthe wall, it cannot always be assumedthat doorwaysdid not exist: they may have existed but are simply no longer visible. Sometimesan additionalwall at one corneror end of a room,like that in Gournia I, built to the same height as the external wall it joins, may have servedas an entry platformprovidinglandings for doorwaysplaced abovegroundlevel and no longervisible (Fig. 80:E). In still other cases where the walls are preservedto a considerableheight without door openings or where the tomb is dividedinto numeroussmall rooms,it is clearthat the tombwas enteredfromthe roof, probablythrough a trap door, as rooms frequently were in domestic architecture.24At Mochlos and many other sites the roofs could be reached easily without ladders since the tombs are located against a steep rise in groundlevel.
ROOFING Direct evidencefor the roofing of the tombs, that is, actual remains of roofing material, is slight, a fact that has promptedseveralscholarsto concludethat many, if not all, tombswere unroofed.25Seager, for example, argued that while the West Terrace tombs at Mochlos, See the closing slab from the Kamilari tholos, which is ca. 1.30 m. high (Levi, ASAtene 23-24, 19611962, p. 13, fig. 17). 24 Warren, Myrtos, p. 258. 25 See Preface,p. vi above. 23
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where he found remainsof roofingmaterial,were roofed,the South Slope tombs,where he believedhe found no such remains,were not. In fact, the Mochlos cemeteryprovidesmore evidenceof roofing,directand indirect,than Seagerrealized.The directevidenceconsistsof the "piecesof white plaster, smooth on one side and showing the impress of reeds on the other"that Seagerfoundbehind Mochlos IV and identifiedas part of the originalroofingof the tomb,which collapsedsometimeafter the last EM III burialswere made and beforethe tombwas re-used in the MM III phase.26In addition,a "fillingof stickywhite clay"foreign to the island was found in all the tombs that Seager excavatedon the South Slope. At the time of the excavation,the clay was identifiedas the same materialthat the workmenused to waterproofthe flat roofs of their own houses.27In 1971 a fairly large quantity of asbestos was found with the EM IIb/III depositbehind the collapsedeast wall of Mochlos VI, and in 1976 still more was found in the northwest corner of Mochlos r. This is probablythe same sticky white clay reportedby Seager, for although it has a sandy texture when dry, it becomessticky when damp or wet and was once again identifiedby the workmen as the substanceused locally to waterproofroofs (and whitewash walls). It is not availableon the island but is currentlymined in great quantitiesin a mountainon Cretedirectlyacrossfrom it.28The same material is reported from Archanes 3, where it was mixed with pebbles and was apparentlyused as a flooringin the secondstory or as a sealing (XaXLKacp-reoTov) in the stone roof of the tomb.29In the Mochlos tombsit may also have been used as a sealing or may representthe decomposedroofingitself. A similar methodof roofing,perhapsusing a differentsealing, is reportedat Platanos a and y, where lumps of clay were found with impressionsof reeds.30 Considerableindirect evidence for the existence of roofing is also to be found in the South Slope tombs on Mochlos, especially Mochlos X, XX/XXI, and XXIII, which were each providedwith special featuresto supporta roof.These includethe two piers of stone in Mochlos XX/XXI, one built against the rock face at the north end of the mud-brickdividing wall, the other restingon a natural ledge in the rockface at the northwestcorner;the pier of stones in Mochlos X that rests on a ledge at the north end of the tomb;and the two sections of walling in Mochlos XXIII that rest on natural ledges in the rock at the north side. In each case these built additionsto the rock walls of the tombs were designedto provide verticalsupportfor horizontaltimbersin the roofs.At ZakrosA the apparentcuttingin the rockface at the northwestcornerof the tomb,which continuesthe line of the northwall, probablyserveda similar functionas a supportfor an importantceiling beam. In addition, the presenceof doorways,often internal and external and occasionallywith closing slabs in place, the dispositionof walls in such a way that no room is too large to be spanned, and occasionalembellishments,such as fixed furnitureor plasteredfloorsand walls, all provide good indirectevidencefor the existenceof roofs in the house tombs. The remains from the EM II and MM I tombs at Mochlos and Platanos probably representthe most commonform of roofingin all the tombs:clay or lime plaster laid on a Seager, MochlosII, p. 46. Seager,MochlosII, p. 16; and see Shaw, Minoan Architecture,p. 225. 28 M. Becker, "SoftStone Sourcesin Crete,"JFA 3, 1976 (pp. 361-374), p. 366. 29 Sakellarakis,FIpaKrTKa 1966, p. 183, from the centralstratumin the centralroom. 30 Xanthoudides, VTM, p. 93. 26
27
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215
bedding of reeds that rested in turn on the rafters spanning the room. Such a method of roofingwas the most commontype in Prepalatialdomesticarchitecture.It is reportedfrom Vasilike using clay and from Myrtos using lime plaster,31and there is evidence that this simple method of roofing persisted into the Neopalatial period.32It is not the only type of roofingused in the house tombs, however, and remains of two other types, one using large stone slabs and the other a combinationof timber supports and stone paving, have been found at Chrysolakkos,Archanes,and the Temple Tomb. A large stone slab uncoveredin ChrysolakkosII and clearly fallen from above was identifiedas a roofing slab by the excavators.33Its dimensionswere not recorded,and it is unclear exactly how it might have been set in the roof or indeed if there were other such slabs. At Archanes B, however, similar slabs may still be observedin situ. They consist of large, limestone slabs obtainedby surface quarryingfrom the local hillside and measuring over two meters in length and nearly one meter in width. Two methods are used for the placing of these slabs. In the north antechamberof the tholos the upper portionsof the walls are corbeledinward slightly to reducethe span of the roof, and in the dromosleading to the tholos the walls have been set back at top leaving a narrow ledge on each side on which the coveringslabs rest.34At Knossos,the gallery leading across from the upper entranceto the Temple Tomb to the roof of the terrace pavilion displays a similar roofing system with limestone slabs measuring as much as ca. 1.30 by 0.50 by 0.30 m. resting on the two side walls of the gallery.35This roofingtechniqe is especiallywell suited to tombs dividedinto many small cells. While the length of the slabs at Archanesis sufficientto span the ceilings of many of the house tombs, their great weight requires either thick and heavy walls for support, quite unlike the modestwalls of most tombs, or else a small, limited area to cover, like a tomb cell. It is therefore unlikely that this method was used in many of the other tombs. It would also seem not to be a commonform of roofingin domesticarchitecture,in which even lintels were customarilywood, and, as Demargne has pointed out, it has its closestparallel in the roofingof cist graves.36 The third methodof roofing,using a combinationof timbersupportsand stone slabs, is found at the Temple Tomb and perhaps at Archanes B and 3, where schist plaques were found fallen from above. Evidencefor the techniqueis preservedmost clearlyin the Temple Tomb. Here, socketsfor the support pashlaof large woodenbeamswere lefttrin the masonry in the upper part of the walls of both the inner hall and the pillar crypt.These beams were 0.40-0.50 m. square and ca. 2.50 m. long in the inner hall and the crypt, where one end of each beam rested on each of the pillars midway across the room. In the pillar crypt they supportedthe transversebeamsof the floorabovewith its schist paving slabs. At ArchanesB and 3 a similar system appears to have been used, with more modest timbers supporting Seager, VasilikeI, p. 209; Warren, Myrtos, pp. 258-259, pl. 82. Graham, Palaces of Crete, p. 149; J. Shaw, "New Evidencefor Aegean Roof Constructionfrom Bronze AJA 81, 1977, pp. 229-233, ill. 1. Thera," Age 33 Demargne, Mallia, NecropolesI, pp. 32, 64, pl. XXXIX:2. 34 Sakellarakis,HpaKTLKCa 1966, pl. 147:/3. 35 Evans, PM IV, pp. 988-999, figs. 949, 950. 36 Demargne, Mallia, NecropolesI, p. 64. The system is also found in later tombs, includingthe forehallsof the tombs at Isopata (Evans, PrehistoricTombs, pp. 163-164) and the Kephala (R. Hutchinson, "A Tholos Tomb on the Kephala,"BSA 51, 1956 [pp. 74-80], p. 76, fig. 1). 31 32
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schist slabs either in the upper floorsor in the roof.37Schistplaques used as pavingstonesin upper floors or roofs are also commonin Protopalatialand Neopalatial architecture,especially at Phaistos and Knossos, and in the houses on Pseira, where they were frequently found fallen within basements. The intersticesbetween these slabs were generally filled with a waterproofplaster, and Evans believedthat in some cases the entire pavementwas coveredwith such plaster.38 STUCCO REVETMENT AND PAINTED DECORATION Stuccorevetment,which is found in a few of the tombs,is used in Minoan architecturefrom the beginningof the BronzeAge. In the EM I phase red stuccois used as a floorcoveringinside houses, and in the following EM II phase it is used extensivelyon floors and walls as revetmentand at Vasilike structurallyas an outer cement solidifying the interiors of the rubblewalls.39In the EM III/MM Ia phases stuccobecomesespeciallyfashionableand is used both as revetment for every interior architectural detail, including floors, walls, benches,stairs,and ceilings, and as a buildingmaterialformingbins, fixed hearths,and even walls.40It is at this time that stuccofirst appearsto have been used in tombs.It is found first at ChrysolakkosI, where it is used nearly as extensively as in domesticarchitecture,as a flooringin Rooms a, e, f, g, and k, as revetmentfor the capping stones of the west precinct wall, and as cementsolidifyingthe largely earth walls and benchesof the building. In other MM Ia tombsstuccowas employedwith considerablymorerestraint.It is used as revetment for the low bench along the south wall of Gournia I, concealingits haphazardconstruction, partly built and partly bedrock.It was also used in the South Building at Agia Triada as flooringin Rooms 5 and 9, the stuccoflooringin Room 5 consistingof three differentlayers abovean originalfloorof stone slabs, and in the House of the Dead at Mallia in Room III as flooringover earth and bedrockand as revetmenton the walls of the room. During this time, at the closeof the Prepalatialperio, white stuccoappearsto havebeen introducedand quicklybecomeas popularas red. It is still not the fine white plaster,consisting of practicallypure carbonateof lime, that seemsto havebeen introducedat the time of the first palaces,but has a yellowish hue.41Nevertheless,its introductionis probablydue to the same factorthat led to the perfectionof a brilliantwhite plasterin the Protopalatialperiod, namelythe desireto providea surfacesuitablefor decorativetreatment.The firstattemptsat such decorativetreatmentare well illustratedin the House of the Dead at Mallia: along the base of the west wall of Room III a thin band of red was paintedagainstthe yellowish white ground.It is a type of simple geometricdecorationthat enjoysa long vogue at Mallia and is 37
Compare the beam sockets in the rubble walls at Phaistos, Rooms XXVII, IL, L, LI, LIV (Zois,
'ApX'EP 1965, pp. 40-46, pls. 6, 7).
38 See the evidence from Phaistos, where pavement slabs from a second-storylevel were uncoveredwith stucco still adhering to their edges: D. Levi, "Attivitadella Scuola ArcheologicaItaliana di Atene nell'anno 1954,"BdA 1955 (pp. 141-164), pp. 143-144, fig. 4; Zois, 'ApX'E4 1965, pl. 7. 39 D. Levi, "L'archivodi cretule a Festos,"ASAtene,n.s. 19-20, 1957-1958 (pp. 7-192), p. 169, fig. 349; Seager, VasilikeI, p. 209; as revetmentat Knossos(Evans, PM I, p. 533, note 3) and Myrtos (Warren,Myrtos, pp. 305-310). 40 Especially at Mallia; see Demargne and Gallet de Santerre,Mallia, Maisons I, p. 28, note 2. 41 Evans, PM I, pp. 530-533.
PILLARS
217
paralleled by what is probably a contemporarystucco fragment from House A at Mallia consistingof a red band, ca. 0.03 m. wide, between blue panels.42Wall decorationat Mallia neverseemsto have reachedthe stage of developmentachievedat Phaistosand Knossos,and during the Protopalatialperiod it may have consisted mainly of contrastingcolors:floors white or blue, walls white, and ceilingsred.43Suchmodestcolorcontrastsalso appearto have been used to decoratethe interiorsof severalroomsat ChrysolakkosII.44 More sophisticatedformsof wall decorationare found in the Neopalatial periodat ArchanesB and 3 and in the Temple Tomb. In each examplethe walls of the upperroomswere adornedwith frescosin rich colors.The most decorativefragments,found in the pillar crypt of Archanes B but apparentlyfallen from the upper columnarroom, includednaturalistic designs. Sakellarakishas reportedfragmentswith white stones on red ground and others with dark papyruslikeleaves on orange groundthat he believesto have belongedto a larger compositionwith human figures. Fragments of a fresco were also preservedin the upper columnarroomof the Temple Tomb, where plaster painteda Venetian red was still adhering to the base of the walls, and Evans'conjecturethat "afriezeof morevariedcharacter"ran abovethis level does not seem far fetchedin the light of the evidencefromArchanes.45 PILLARS While not found in the tombsat Mochlos or Gournia,pillars are presentat four of the other sites: Myrtos, Pyrgos, ArchanesB, Agia Triada 5, and the Temple Tomb. They are found in at least one tholos annex, at Apesokari,which is contemporarywith the earlier of these and in two late chambertombs.46With the exceptionof the rock-cutpillars of the chamber tombs,the tombpillars are constructedin the same manneras those in domesticarchitecture and appearto have servedthe same structuralfunction:as supportsfor ceiling beamsand, in some cases,for columnsin upper floors.47Most of the pillars, includingthose at ArchanesB, Apesokari, and Agia Triada 5, are constructedof several stackedblocks, roughly shaped, alternatingwith thin layers of earth and small stones. Of these examples only the pillar at Archanesis completelypreserved,consistingof six such blocks and standingto a height of ca. 1.60 m. The Myrtos pillar, which is preservedonly at the base, is constructedsomewhat morecrudely,of rough rubblemasonryand probablywith mud brickor morerubbleabove. Only the pillars of the Temple Tomb use true ashlar construction:in the outer pillar crypt, each is constructedof five carefullycut blocks,with only a minimumof clay bonding,standing about two meters high, while in the inner sepulchral chamberthe pillar consists of a 42
Demargne and Gallet de Santerre,Mallia, Maisons I, p. 12; for Neopalatial frescosat Mallia, see 0. Peexecutees a Mallia, exploration des maisons et quartier d'habitation (1963-1966), troisieme Fouilles lon, fascicule (Etudes cretoisesXVI), Paris 1970, pp. 110-111. 43 Effenterre,Mallia, NecropolesII, p. 87, note 2. 44 Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, pp. 31, 37. 45 Evans, PM IV, pp. 967-968. 46 ApesokariI (MM I), Schorgendorfer, ForschungenaufKreta,pp. 18-19, pl. 18;the Tomb of the Double Axes (LM II), Evans, Archaeologia65, 1913-1914, p. 36, fig. 49; and Katsamba H (LM IIIa), Alexiou, Karoraji7ra,p. 26, fig. 27. 47 For their function in domesticarchitecture,see Evans, PM II, p. 820 and Platon, KplrXpov 8, 1954, p. 464; they argue that the small size of most crypts rendersthe pillars unnecessarysimply to supportceiling beams.
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ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
monolithicgypsum slab ca. 1.80 m. high. The topmostblocksof the pillars in the outer pillar cryptare cut with dowel holes, and the pillars are alignedwith beam socketsin the north and south walls, so that it is clear that they supportedlarge cross beams in the floor above. The discoveryof a gypsumcolumnbase belongingto this floorindicatesthat the pillars also supportedwooden columnsin the room above. At ArchanesB, where the pillar rises to the level of the second-storyfloor, at Myrtos, where a large numberof vases were fallen from the floorabove,and at Agia Triada 5, where an adjacentU-shapedstaircaseappearsto have led to a room above the crypt, it is clear that the pillars also helped supporta second-story floor.48Like the pillars in the Temple Tomb they may also have been designedto support in as Platon has argued in the case of the domesticcrypts, columns in the upper rooms snce, the rooms could be spanned easily without the aid of additional floor supports at their centers.In this respectit may be significantthat each of the upper-storyroomsappearsfrom the material fallen below to have accommodateda shrine, and although no other column bases are preservedthese shrines may well have been columnar shrines like that in the upper floor of the Temple Tomb. The tombpillars and their cryptsshare a numberof additionalfeaturesthat relatethem directlyto the pillar cryptsof Neopalatial domesticarchitecture.The tombcryptstend to be small in size. Those at ArchanesB and Apesokariare each ca. 3.50 m. square,49and while these dimensionsare never exactly repeatedin the later crypts,they are approachedin the inner sepulchralchamberof the Temple Tomb, which is ca. 3.80 m. square, in the cryptof the SoutheastHouse at Knossos,which is ca. 3.15 by 3.65 m., and in severalother domestic crypts. The tomb crypts never stand alone but are always surroundedby three or more relatedrooms.Those at ArchanesB and Apesokariare again especiallysimilar and include in each case a forehall, a corridorto one side of the crypt, and an antechamber(in one case leading to the tholos, in the other to the roomabovethe crypt). Platon has notedthat domestic crypts are also surroundedby importantsubsidiaryrooms, which he has identifiedas forehall,treasuryor storeroom,sacristy,and upper columnarroom.In two cases,at Myrtos, Pyrgos and ArchanesB, the crypts are also sunk in the ground,below the floor level of the surroundingrooms, and this is still another characteristicfeature of the domesticcrypts. The niches in the walls of the cryptsat ArchanesB and Apesokarialso have parallelsin the domesticcrypts,where they are thought to have servedas cupboards. The tomb crypt that sharesthe greatestnumberof featureswith domesticcrypts, however, is the inner sepulchralchamberof the Temple Tomb. The pillar in this room stands ca. 1.80 m. high, a standardheight in Neopalatialpillar crypts.Its bevelededgesrecallthose of the pillars in the north pillar crypt of Knossos;50the basin in which it standsrecallsthose around the bases of several pillars that Platon has identifiedas impluvia for libations;the cist in the floorto one side of the room is like those foundin many of the subsidiaryroomsof the domesticcrypts;and the blue kyanosused to paint the ceiling is used for the pillar itself 48 The outer of the doublewalls of ApesokariI could also have supporteda second-storywall of mud brick, with the floor beams resting on the inner sectionof the walls and the interiorpartitionwalls. 49 For the domestic cryptsand their characteristicfeatures,see Platon, KprrXpov 8, 1954, pp. 463-471 and Gesell, Town, Palace and House Cult, pp. 26-29. 50 Evans, PM I, p. 401.
FIXED ALTARS
219
in the crypt of Zakros House A.51 Only the doubleaxes that one might expect incisedon the pillar are missing.52 FIXED ALTARS An altar can be securelyidentifiedby the finds associatedwith it, the remainsof sacrificesor votive offerings, but when such finds are lacking an altar may still be identifiedwith some assuranceby its form and position.53Some nine fixed altars have been identifiedat seven of the house tombs. In additionto those at Mochlos IV/V/VI and Gournia II, there are two examples at ChrysolakkosI, one in the Necropole des Pierres Meulieres, one at Myrtos, Pyrgos,one at PalaikastroVIII, and two at ChrysolakkosII. Only the altar at Mochlos with its fragmentarystone vases and that at Gournia with its conical-cupfragmentpreserveany tracesof associatedvotiveofferings.Five of the altars are identifiedon the basis of their form and position,and two, no longer in situ, on the basis of their form alone. In additionto these altars, four fixed altars have been identifiedby their excavatorsat the tholostombsat Apesokari, Kamilari,and Agia Kyriaki.54Those at Apesokariand Kamilariare especiallyimportant, for they are securelyidentifiedon the basis of associatedvotiveofferings,both stoneand clay vases, and demonstratethat fixed altars shouldnot be unexpectedin funerarycontexts. Two types of fixed altars are represented:seven built altars of stone or stucco and six stone offering tables or kernoi. In four cases, at ChrysolakkosI and II, Gournia, and Myrtos, the two types are associatedin a single complex, and while the built altars sometimes stand alone, no kernosfound in situ at any of the tombs stood apart from a built altar. This sort of compoundaltar, consistingof a raisedplatformandjuxtaposedofferingreceptacle,is a distincttype of altar complexthat persistsin Crete to the very end of the BronzeAge. The most famous example, of course,is the complexwith bench and fixed kernosthat standsby the south entranceto the centralcourtof the palace at Mallia. It is unusual in that it belongs to the Neopalatial period, a time when the kernos has usually been replacedby a portable tripod altar. But the type is so commonthat it may be safely identifiedas an altar complex even when the offerings no longer remain. The locationof the altars is also helpful in their identification.In the majorityof cases, at Mochlos, ChrysolakkosI, Myrtos, Gournia II, PalaikastroVIII, as well as Agia Kyriaki,Apesokari,and Kamilari,the altar standsoutside the tomb at or near its entrance.Only two examples, those at ChrysolakkosII and Apesokari, are locatedinside the tomb,but again probablyat or near the entrance.The locationat entrancesor along passagesof accessis significantand, as FernandChapouthierobserved,is also characteristicof other types of shrines, particularlyin the palaces.55 The built altars are constructedin a variety of fashions. Some are neatly constructedin rubblewith earth mortar,often pavedwith flat slabs on top; some consistof flagstones,often 51 Hogarth (footnote 195 above, p. 195), p. 130, Room 4; blue is also used for the ceiling of Katsamba Tomb H (Alexiou, Karo-ra,ra, pp. 35-36). 52 These are cut on the walls of the outer pillar crypt. 53 For a discussionof the problem,see Nilsson, MMR2, pp. 117-119. 54 Schorgendorfer,Forschungenauf Kreta, pp. 19-21, pls. 16, 17:4; Levi, ASAtene 39-40, 1961-1962, pp. 80-83, fig. 106; Blackmanand Branigan,BSA 77, 1982, pp. 9-10, 54, fig. 15. 55 Chapouthier,BCH 52, 1928, pp. 320-322; Pelon, Mallia, Maisons III, p. 146.
220
ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
roughlyjoined, without any great height; others are basically rock altars and only partly masonry,if at all; and those in a fourthgroup are built of stucco,often stuccorevetmentover earth or clay. They vary in height, dependingon the method of construction,from only a few centimetersto nearly a meter;most approachone meter square. There does not seem to be any chronologicalsignificancein the differentbuilding techniques,and each type has a good parallel in a non-funerary,if not always contemporary,context. The Mochlos altar is the earliest;it is also the largestand most carefullybuilt. While it has contemporaryparallels in the settlement at Myrtos and probably outside the tholos tomb at Agia Kyriaki, its closest parallel in form is probablythe MM Ia altar in the peak sanctuary on Mount Juktas. Both structuresare built in rubble, paved on top with flat slabs, and providedwith steps. The Juktas altar, measuringca. 4.70 m. in length, is much largerbut aboutthe same height as the Mochlos altar. Its excavatornotesthat it "constitutes the crown of the terraces(in the sanctuary),and marksthe end of the ascendingceremonial way,"56and in this regardit is also similar to the Mochlos altar that standsat the end of the West Terrace, which was probably also used for ceremonialprocessions.The large flat flagstonenoted outside the entranceto PalaikastroVIII may also be identifiedas an altar, although its identificationis the most dubious of all, partly because so little information about it is available. It has good parallels, however, in the three flagstone altars found outside the tholos tombs at Agia Kyriaki and Kamilari and just inside the entrance at Apesokari,the last two with offeringsor cult statue still in place. The EM II altar at Myrtos with its fallen cult idol also preservesa good parallel for this type, for although it was describedas a "benchaltar"by its excavator,the three or four flat stones from which it was built were not built upon and have little height.57The rock altar at Gournia II also has a good parallel at Apesokari in the rock altar located outside the tomb; it is even about the same size as the Gournia altar. They are built in a similar fashion and differ from other built altars in being constructedprimarilyof one or two large boulderswith only a subsidiary wall of rubble. Rock altars have been reportedin the caves at Psychroand Skoteino,58 but the best parallel for the rockaltars of Gournia II and Apesokariis that picturedin relief on a rhyton fragment from Knossos.59The scene shows a man placing an offering in a basketon a rockaltar in frontof a peak sanctuary.Like those at Gourniaand Apesokari,the picturedaltar stands in the open air to one side of the entranceto the sanctuaryand is built of a large boulderwith smaller stones at the base. While the rhyton was manufacturedin the Neopalatial period, peak sanctuarieswere foundedat the end of the Prepalatialperiod, and the altar depicted,if real, could even be contemporarywith the tomb altars. The stuccoaltars of ChrysolakkosI and II are the productof the taste for stuccorevetment that becamefashionableat Mallia at the end of the Prepalatialperiod and continued throughoutthe Protopalatialperiod, resulting in the stuccoingof floors,walls, and ceilings as well as benchesand altars. The altars of ChrysolakkosI should probablybe classedwith Karetsou, "The Peak Sanctuaryof Mount Juktas," in Sanctuariesand Cults in the Aegean Bronze R. Age, Hagg and N. Marinatos, edd., Stockholm1981 (pp. 137-153), p. 141, figs. 5, 11. 57 Warren, Myrtos, p. 86, pl. 28:A. 58 P. Faure, Fonctionsdes cavernescretoises,Paris 1964, pp. 152, 164. 59S. Alexiou, ?Nea 7raparoraos Aarpelavs erl .lVCOKOV avayXvXov ayyEiov>, KpqrXpov 13, 1959 (pp. 346-352), pp. 350-351, pis. AA, AE. 56 A.
FIXED ALTARS
221
the bench altars that later becomeso popular in the palace shrines;they are about the ousame the as of bench altars and are also built walls.60 Of bench a need course, height many against not necessarilyserveas an altar, and most of the benchesin ChrysolakkosI, like those in the South Building at Agia Triada, servedas simple seats for people gatheredin the buildings for funerary ceremonies. On the other hand, an ordinary bench becomes an altar when votiveofferingsare placedon top of it or an offeringreceptacleis placedin frontof it. Structure b at ChrysolakkosI and the bench at Myrtos, Pyrgos, may well have served as altars because of the kernoi located near by; similar arrangementswith stuccoedand unstuccoed benches and juxtaposed offering receptacles are found in Prepalatial and Protopalatial shrines at Gournia, Phaistos, and Mallia.61In addition, a bench might be identifiedas an altar on occasionbecauseof specialdecorativefeatures.The raisedmoldingand the rounded cornerof Structureb have close parallelswith the portableofferingtables of the period.62In addition,the sandstonerevetmentsof this structureand that standingat the entranceto the west terrace seem to be a feature of other stucco altars at Mallia, such as that in the early sanctuarysouthwest of the palace encasedon two sides with sandstoneblocks topped with single horns of consecration.63The stucco altar of ChrysolakkosII is unique. A stone libation table with similar serratededges from Palaikastro,belongingto the Neopalatial period, is still the best parallel for the shape.64Ajar locatedin the contemporarysanctuarywest of the palace at Mallia is thought to have serveda similar function.65Locatedat the entrance to the sanctuaryroomand buried in the floor up to its handles,it appearedto have an openbase and wass identifiedas a libationjar at would permit liquid offeringsto flow ing at thethe into the ground. The fixed stone offering table or kernos has by far the most parallels in non-funerary settings and in the Prepalatialand Protopalatialperiods is a ubiquitousfeatureof Minoan civilization.66Well over a hundredexamples may be countedat the settlementsof Myrtos, Vasilike, Gournia, Mochlos, Mallia, Knossos, and Phaistos; seven have been noted above with the tombs at Gournia, Myrtos, Pyrgos, Chrysolakkos,and the Necropolesdes Pierres Meulieres; and two more have been uncoveredat the peak sanctuary on top of Mount Juktas. The one associatedwith the hollow altar at ChrysolakkosII is plaster;all the rest consist of a stone slab, irregular,rectangular,or roundedin shape, usually flat. The type of stone varies widely, but at Mallia, Mochlos, and Gournia sideropetrawas favored. The upper surface, usually polished or worn smooth, is markedwith a series of small circular 60
For these see Banti, ASAtene3-5, 1941-1943, pp. 40-50. Soles, AJA 83, 1979, pp. 152-154, ills. 1, 2; Poursat, BCH 90, 1966, pp. 514-551, fig. 3; L. Pernier,II palazzo minoico di Festos I, Rome 1935, pp. 195-246; Festos II, p. 572; D. Levi, "Attivitadella Scuola ArcheologicaItaliana di Atene nell'anno 1955,"BdA 1956 (pp. 238-270), pp. 243-253, figs. 2, 6, 15. 62 For these see pp. 234-235 below. 63 A. Dessenne in G. Daux, "Chroniquedes fouilles et decouvertesarcheologiquesen Grece en 1956. Mallia,"BCH 81, 1957 (pp. 687-705), p. 695, figs. 15, 18;see also the Neopalatial altar at Zakros(Platon, Zakros [footnote195 above, p. 195], pp. 96-97). For a discussionof altars at Mallia, see Pelon, Aegaeum2, 1988. 64 Bosanquetand Dawkins, PKU, pp. 138-139, fig. 119A, pl. XXXI:1. 65 Poursat, BCH 90, 1966, pp. 521, 537, figs. 3, 8, 9, 29. 66 For a bibliography,see Soles, AJA 83, 1979, p. 154, note 30; and see the examplescitedby Gesell (Town, Palace and House Cult, p. 162 [index])and S. Hood ("Gamesat Knossos?"in Aux originesde I'Hellenisme,la Creteet la Grece,Hommagea Henri van Effenterre,Paris 1984, pp. 39-41). 61
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ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
depressions.They may be shallow hollows cut in the stone or depressionsof irregularshape and often insignificantdepth formedby the repeatedblows of a hammerstone.They vary in size, with diametersranging from as little as half a centimeterto as much as eight centimeters,and occasionallyone, either inside the ring or set to one side of it, is markedout from the rest by its greatersize and more carefulworking. In one case the hollows are cut so close to each otheras to forma continuousgroove,and in a few othersa single grooveis employed in place of hollows. In the majorityof cases the hollows are placed in a circular or oval ring, but many variationsexist. Occasionallythe line of hollows follows the edge of the stone slab, and the ring takes on the irregularoutline of the stone itself. Often the line of hollows is thee product of the creator'simagination:it may be square, horseshoe-shaped,foot-shaped,oblong, or crescent-shaped.In several,an extra line of hollows is addedto the basic design,either down the center of a circle or square, dividing it into two parts, or as an inner circle within the outer circle or an inner square within the outer square. In others,two rings are placed side by side or sometimesoverlap,forminginterlockingrings. The numberof hollows in the ring varies, with as few recordedas nine or as many as one hundredin cases where the inside of the patternis filled with hollows. Both 12 and 13 are recurringnumbersin a large percentage of them, especiallyat Phaistos,and may be intentional.The dimensionsof the ring vary in proportionto the number of hollows, with some as small as 0.10 m. in diameter and others up to nine times as large. In many of the stones a cavity is locatedinside the ring of hollows. It is usually larger than any of the hollows, measuringfrom 0.06 to 0.40 m. in diameter,and like the ring itself may be round,oval, square,oblong,or crescent-shaped.Occasionally,only the centralcavity is cut, and the surroundinghollows are omittedaltogether.In a few, the cavityis clearlythe result of repeatedgrindingor pounding,and at least two of the kernoi from Myrtos, found with numerous stone pounders and grinding stones, should be identified as grinding stones.67Others of the stones may have had the same primaryfunction. Most remarkableis the uniformityin the placementof these slabs, whatevertheir context. They are usually imbeddedin pavements,either flush or projectingslightly above,and are only rarely set alone as at Gournia II. The position of the slabs in nearly every case is either at an entranceto a room or building or along a passage or street. This categoryincludesthose stonesfoundin the west courtsof Vasilike, Phaistos,and Mallia, which may be consideredcourts of access,and it also includesthose on the steps of the "theatralareas"at Knossosand Phaistos, which should be consideredmonumentalentrancesto the early palaces at these sites. The identificationof these stonesas altars or offeringreceptacleshas long been debated, but the find of two stonesin a clear cult contextat the peak sanctuaryon Mount Juktas, one built into the side of the steppedaltar, the other depositedwith a cache of double axes in a pit a short distancesouth of the altar,68and the examples from tombs, sometimesfound in juxtapositionwith built altars, provideample evidencefor the ritual use of these stones and Warren, Myrtos, p. 231, nos. 167 and 169, pi. 78. Karetsou (footnote 56 above, p. 220), pp. 145-146, fig. 13; and Karetsou, HpaKrLKa 1974, p. 233, 173:B. pi. 67
68
PRECINCT WALLS AND PAVEMENTS
223
should put an end to the debate over their identification.Chapouthierfirst identifiedthem as kernoi,69and his comparisonof the stones with their circularpatternsof shallow hollows to terracottaring vases, to circles of conical cups, and to stone vases of similar shape is still valid. The stones were designedto serve as receptaclesfor offerings,if only token offerings. The identificationas grinding stones of some of the earliest examples, which Warren has describedas the prototypes,suggests that the offeringswere food offerings, perhaps offerings of the very grain that had been groundon the stone. The consistencyof their locationat entrancesand along passages may also indicate, as Chapouthiersuggested,that the offerings were apotropaicin nature. PRECINCT WALLS AND PAVEMENTS Areas outside tombs are often delineated by walls or pavements, and are reserved in this way for some special function. Such areas have been identified at Mochlos III and IV/V/VI, ChrysolakkosI, Myrtos, Pyrgos, Archanes6 and B in the Prepalatialperiod, at ChrysolakkosII in the Old Palace period, and at the Temple Tomb, Agia Triada 5, and Archanes4 in the New Palace period. They are also commonin the Prepalatial period at the tholos tombs in southern Crete and have been identifiedat Agia Triada, Agia Kyriaki, Koumasa,Platanos,ApesokariII, and Kamilari.70 In the case of the house tombs, most of these areas are small, carefully defined, and associatedwith one particular tomb. In the earlier examples the areas are bounded and partly definedby independentwalls. They might be built retaining walls like those at Archanes B and Myrtos, Pyrgos, in which case they rise well overtwo metersin height, or they might be mud brickon a stone socle, like those at Mochlos III, ChrysolakkosI, and many of the tholos tombs, in which case they may have been considerably lower. At Mochlos IV/V/VI the solid rock cliff that towers above the tomb on the east serves a similar function. Seldom continuous, these early walls enclose a given area as a result either of the topography, which forms natural boundaries where the wall leaves off, or of being constructedto one side of an existing wall that delimits the space on the other side. At Mochlos or Myrtos a rectangulararea is createdby the cliff or wall that rises on one side and the terrain that falls away steeply on the other; at ChrysolakkosI and Archanes B, areas are enclosed by walls that flank the existing tomb walls. While the open areas at these early tombs are an integral part of the tomb, they are not yet a structuralpart. Only in the Old and New Palace periods are they integratedstructurallyin such a way that the tomb and open area form a single architecturalunit. Porticos are used in each case to achieve this integration,and at the Temple Tomb and apparentlyAgia Triada 5 the side walls of the tomb are extendedbeforethe tomb to createsmall courts.These open areas are often paved. At ChrysolakkosI and Archanes6 irregularlimestoneslabs are used. At Myrtos sandstone predominates,and at Mochlos IV/V/VI differentcolors and types of stone are combined, apparently intentionally, to create a decorativemosaic. They are early examples of the 69
Chapouthier,BCH 52, 1928, pp. 292-323; see also Pelon, Aegaeum2, 1988, pp. 42-43. Laviosa, ASAtene31-32, 1969-1970, pp. 414-415; Blackmanand Branigan,BSA 77, 1982, pp. 11, 54, fig. 15; Xanthoudides, VTM, pp. 34, 90; Davaras, AcAr 19, 1964, p. 441; Levi, ASAtene23-24, 1961-1962, p. 18, fig. 16; and for a discussionof tholos courts, see Branigan, Tombsof Mesara, pp. 132-136. 70
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ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
Minoan interestin decorativefloor patternsthat was to lead to many variationsin the New Palace period,includingthe limestoneand schist slabs set off with red plasterat the Temple Tomb. In everycase these areas appear to have stoodat the entrancesto tombsor at the end of processionalways. Open areas, often pavedand boundedby precinctwalls, are of coursea commonfeature of Minoan architecture,particularlyin the New Palace period, when they are thought to have servedboth a practicalfunctionaccommodatingdaily activitiesand a ceremonialfunction for games, dances,and other spectacles.71They are known fromother contextsas early as the EM II phase at Vasilike, where the same mosaic effect of differentlycoloredstones may be observed,72and in the MM Ia phase at Knossos, Phaistos, and numerous peak sanctuaries.The courts at Vasilike and Phaistos with their numerous fixed kernoi,73the West Court at Knossoswith its two fixed altars, and the peak sanctuarieswith their openair altars and tripartiteshrines are all sacredareas, and the walls that surroundthem are temenoswalls. The areas in frontof the tombsmust also have been regardedas sacredareas reservedfor ceremonieslinked to funeraryrite. Evans suggestedthat the paved courtof the Temple Tomb servedvarious funeraryrituals, including ring dances and funerarygames, and that the roof terracesto the east and west of the court servedas stands for spectators.74 The areas in frontof othertombsmay have servedsimilar functions,but the areas at Mochlos, Myrtos, Pyrgos, and ArchanesB, each providedwith a paved avenueof approach,suggest that they also served as processionalareas. There is a striking similarity between the entry to Mochlos IV/V/VI with its ascending ramp, raised terrace for accommodating spectators,and corner stand and the Theatral Area at Knossoswhere the same three elements, ascendingramp, flanking stand, and corner bastion, set in the same relative positions, are reproducedon a palatial scale. The similarityin form is explainedby a similarity in function,and it is clear that Evans regardedthe Theatral Area at Knossosnot only as an area for dances and games but also as a processionalway that provideda monumentaland ceremonialentranceto the palace. The huge deposit of pottery uncoveredoutside Archanes B providesa glimpse of the kinds of offerings and libations that were made before the tombsat the end of these processions. ORIGINS OF THE HOUSE TOMB To some extent the origin of the house tomb is to be explained by its very imitation of domesticarchitecture.For even beforethe appearanceof the firsttombsin the EM II phase, it had long been the customof the Minoans to bury their dead in sheltersresemblingthose in which they lived. Throughout most of the Neolithic period, caves were a standardform of habitation, and both caves and rock shelters were used for burials. Thus Pendlebury 71
Graham,Palaces of Crete,pp. 73-83.
72S. Sinos, "Eine Untersuchung der sogennantenPalastanlagevon Vasilike,"AA 1970 (pp. 1-24), p. 5,
fig. 2. 73 For the MM Ia courtat Phaistos,see S. Indelicato,"Lapiazza pubblicae il palazzo nella Creta minoica," Annali della ScuolaNormale Superioredi Pisa 12, 1982 (pp. 445-467), pp. 450-467, pl. VI. 74Evans, PM IV, 1000-1001.
ORIGINSOF THE HOUSETOMB
225
was able to note that in the Lasithi Plain the Neolithic inhabitantsof the Trapeza Cave employed"smallerversionsof their dwelling place for the abodeof the dead,"75in this case the SkaphidiaCave and near-by rock shelters. In one sense the built house tomb is simply a logical extensionof this custom,and when Minoans began to abandoncavesin favorof built houses, they also realizedthe possibilityof buryingtheir dead in built, houselikestructures. The concept of burial in a familiar everyday setting remained unchanged. The transition
between these two types of tombsis illustratedby Tombs VII and I at Mochlos, which are a combinationof the two, consistingof rock shelter or cave in the rear and built house with doorwayin the front. They represent a primitive and transitional type of house like the Magasa rock-shelterhouse, but they also demonstratethe way in which the house tomb, if not the house itself, may have evolvedfrom cave or rock shelter. The transition from one to the other was not made immediately,however. There appears to have been a considerablegap between the widespreadadoptionof built houses in the Final Neolithic and EM I phases and the building of the first house tombsin the EM II phase. This gap might be explained by the continuingoccupationof cavesand the lingering conservatismof burial customs,or it might be that much earlier house tombs, perhaps contemporarywith the earliest tholoi, were located in and around Knossos,where the type is thought to have originated, although the evidence is lacking. These explanations are not wholly satisfactory,however,since both ignorethe continuinguse of cavesand rockshelters for burials alongside the new, built tombs, and both overlookthe momentouscultural and political developmentsof Early BronzeAge Crete. Even if they explain the gap betweenthe adoption of the built house and the introductionof the house tomb, they shed no further light on the origins of the house tomb itself. Ultimately the explanationfor the house tomb should probably be sought in the fundamental changes that were occurring in Minoan society at the time the new type of tomb appeared.At the beginning of the EM II phase, if not before,Minoan societywas being organizedalong increasinglyhierarchicallines.76The largely egalitarianand segmentalsociety of Late Neolithic and EM I Crete, which did not make a distinctionbetween the burials of differentindividualsand thereforehad no need of built tombs, was being replacedby a more complex society,one that made such distinctions and requiredbuilt tombs for its most highly rankedindividuals. 75 76
Pendleburyet al., II, p. 15. Whitelaw, Minoan Society,pp. 337-340; Soles, Problemsin GreekPrehistory,pp. 49-61.
V OFFERINGS AND SHRINES Two kinds of offerings may be distinguishedin the tombs:funeraryofferingsthat accompany the dead;and offeringsof a generally religious nature that may or may not be funerary. Among the funeraryofferings are the numerousobjectsdepositedwith the dead at the time of initial burial, some of which were afterwardsallowed to collect in the tombs or in relatedrooms.Most numerousare the secularobjectsused in daily life, such as the majority of vases depositedin the tombsor the personaleffectsdepositedwith their owners,including weapons, tools, jewelry, seals, and amulets. Although most of the tombs were plundered, there seems to have been a great concentrationof such personalwealth in the house tombs, especially in contrastto the scarcityof effects depositedin other types of graves, and this concentrationis a good indicationthat many of the tombs were used for elite burials. The effectsreportedfrom the Gournia house tombs and from the large tombs on the West Terrace at Mochlos are typical and need no furtherreview here.1It should be noted, however, that such articlesmay be depositedin the tombs for one of two reasons:either becauseof an aversiontowardstheir furtheruse by the living (in which case their presenceneed not indicate a belief in an afterlife),or becausethey are thoughtto be neededby the dead in orderto continuean existencein the afterlife,whether in the tomb or in anotherworld. In this case, amulets that protectedthe possessor in life are providedto protect him in death; tools of one's trade are providedthat the dead may continue his earthly pursuits;weapons may be depositedwith a warrior or hunter so that he may continue to fight; and symbols of rank might be provideda chief or king so that he may rule forever.Thus, objectsof everydaylife would acquirea funeraryfunctionwhich they did not originallypossess. RITUAL OFFERINGS Some articlesthat are not part of the assemblageof everydayobjectsdepositedwith the dead were specially designed for ritual use, and it is their presencein the tombs, as well as the funerary practicesdiscussedin the next chapter, that prove the existence of a belief in an afterlife.A few objectsappearto have been manufacturedsolely for funeraryuse, primarily to hold offeringsto the dead;others serveda religious functionoutside the tombs and were designedto be used as ritual offeringsor ritual implementsin the generalcult. Amongthose designedfor funeraryuse are certain stone and clay vases that held offeringsor constituted offerings in themselves.They include the numerous stone vases of varying shapes (bird'snest bowls, alabastra,cups with straightor hook handles, cylindricalor straight-sidedjars, small pots) that are found predominantlyin tomb contextsor are thought to be too small to have servedany practicalfunctionin everydaylife.2Numerous clay vases, mostlyjugs, such 1Some, identifiableas prestige goods or symbols of authority, are discussedin Chap. VI, pp. 257-258; comparethose from the Mesara discussedby Branigan, TombsofMesara, pp. 56-85. 2 Warren, MSV, p. 166.
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227
as those fromthe lpbo XAaKKOSat Gournes,are also thoughtto have been speciallymanufactured for the dead,3and the fruitstandsdiscussedin ChapterI (pp. 25-26), found mainly in funerary contexts, may also have been designed for use in tombs. Usually these vases are placed directlywith the dead inside the tombs, but occasionallythey are placed outside the walls of the tombs, as they are at Agios Georgios, ArchanesB, Gournia I, and the Mallia Western Ossuary, and the tholos tombs Apesokari I and Vorou A. Many are thought to have containedofferingsof food to sustain the dead in the afterlife,and severalfrom Lendos are reportedto have held remains of animal bones, olive pits, and shells.4Talismans, especially those inscribedwith the "libationformula"that come mainly from tombs (including three fromArchanes6), may have been used in the same way, and it has been suggestedthat they concealmagicalspells also designedto sustainthe dead.5When offeringsof this sort are made to the dead at the time of burial, they are simply part of the funeraryritual.6If they are made long after burial has been completed,as the excavatorssuggestedat PalaikastroII and the Temple Tomb, they may indicate that the dead were worshipped at their tombs. Many excavatorshave concludedthat this was the case, and they have pointedto the small MM III modelfrom Kamilari,which shows offeringsof food and drinkto the deceased,and to the LM III painted sarcophagusfrom Agia Triada as evidencefor a cult of the dead.7 The evidenceis far from conclusive,however,as the discussionbelow and the descriptionof burial proceduresin Chapter VI will show, and both the Kamilari model and the Agia Triada sarcophagusallow differentinterpretations. Among the objectsfrom the tombs that were used as ritual offeringsin the general cult are certain vases and figurines commonlyused in cave and peak sanctuariesand domestic, particularlylater, palace shrines. It might be assumedthat they were used in the same way at the tombs s in these other contexts, especially when they appear in areas outside the tombs or in rooms that were not used for burials, but that they were also used with some special referenceto the dead. The crude conicalvessels that are found in the courtsof both ChrysolakkosI and II, for example, are also found in the MM II sanctuarywest of the palace at Mallia.8 They are generallythought to have been designedto hold small offerings of grain and were presumablyused in the same fashion at the sanctuaryand the Chrysolakkos tombs.The miniatureChamaizijugs, which are found in the tombsat Archanes,Chrysolakkos,Gournes, Palaikastro,and the Necropoledes Pierres Meulieres, are also found in numerous domesticcult contexts, sometimes inscribed ss id with wh hieroglyphics, , and are thought to have been used for offeringsof perfumesor preciousoils in the general cult.9Miniature 96; Zois, IIpo,8A7ara, p. 23. Daux, "Chroniquedes fouilles et decouvertesarcheologiquesen Grece en 1959, Crete,"BCH 84, 1960 (pp. 819-853), p. 844. 5 E. Grumach, "The Minoan Libation Formula-Again," Kadmos7, 1968, pp. 7-26. 6 For a discussionof funeraryritual, see Chap. VI, pp. 247-251. 7 Levi, ASAtene23-24, 1961-1962, pp. 122-148; Pini, Minoischen Graberkunde,pp. 64-65; Hood, The Minoans, pp. 139, 232; Long, The Ayia TriadhaSarcophagus,pp. 45-46; Nilsson, MMR2, pp. 433-443. 8 Poursat, BCH 90, 1966, p. 535, fig. 24. 9 A. Evans, ScriptaMinoa I, Oxford 1909, pp. 12-13; Demargneand Gallet de Santerre,Mallia, Maisons I, p. 14; G. Daux, "Chroniquedes fouilles et decouvertesarcheologiquesen Greceen 1957, Mallia,"BCH 82, 1958 (pp. 822-830), p. 828; Effenterre(under AT 5-5, p. 123), pp. 49-60. 3 Xanthoudides, VTM, p.
4 G.
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OFFERINGS AND SHRINES
"milkjugs", which have been found outside Archanes 3 and on the roof of the Temple Tomb, also served in the cult. Suchjugs, usually no more than 0.08 m. high and provided with rudimentaryhandles at one side, are known from the Snake Room at Knossos,where Evans suggestedthat they were used for feedingsnakes in the cult of the Snake Goddess.'? The ritual offerings also include the various vases containingclay applique offerings, which are found at Chrysolakkos,Palaikastro VII, VIIbis, and Myrtos, Pyrgos, but the majority of which come from other cult contexts.11These vases are mostly open bowls, although a few other shapes, includingjars, cups, and kantharoi,are known, with one or more separatelymodeledclay offeringsattachedto the interiorof the vase. Except for a few late examples, nearly all date to the MM I/II phases, and they are thought to be an expressionof the naturalistictendenciesof the Kamaresstyle.'2 Small quadrupeds,often unidentifiable,are among the most commonofferings, accountingfor five of just over twenty cataloguedvases. Rows of small cellular holes, usually made in a continuousstrandof clay wrapped around the interior of the vase, are found in three examples. Flowers, "doughnuts",and breadlikeloaves are each found in two. A flying dove, numerousminiaturekantharoi, and the most famous, a herdsmanand his herd, are still other types of offerings,all unique, that are found inside these vases. The same type of vase is reportedfrom the peak sanctuariesat Gonies Melebiziou and Juktas,13and all the offerings are paralleled most closely by the votiveminiaturesfound in the peak sanctuaries,often in burnedstrata,where miniaturequadrupeds,pots, breadlikeloaves, doughnuts,and even doveswere dedicatedin the cult.14At a later time saluting votariesare introducedto the repertoireof vase offerings, and in one vase the Goddesswith Upraised Arms appears.15 Various anthropomorphic,zoomorphic,and bell figurinesfound in the tombs may also have servedas ritual offerings.The first type, the anthropomorphic,is the largest and most diversecategory.It may be dividedinto schematicfigurines,includingbothfolded-armfigurines and types indigenousto Crete, and naturalisticfigurinesthat makevaryingattemptsat realistic portrayal.With the exception of several from the Archanes tombs and one from Gournes, the schematic figurines are confinedto the Mesara. They have been much discussed,16 and their function is not clearly understood, although it seems likely that it was not
unlike that of the naturalisticfigurines.These, which are much more commonin the house tombs than the schematicfigurines, may be subdividedinto four distinct types on stylistic and chronologicalgrounds. The earliest and least naturalistic, appearing as early as the 10Evans, PM IV, pp. 139-140, 1014-1015; Gesell, Town, Palace and House Cult, p. 64. " For bibliography,see M. Amouretti,Fouilles executeesa Mallia, le centrepolitique, II, La cryptehypostyle (1957-1962) (Etudes cre'toisesXVIII), Paris 1970, p. 63; K. Foster, Minoan CeramicRelief (SIMA 64), Goteborg1982, pp. 80-107. 12
Zois, Kamares-Stil, pp. 262-263.
13
S.
14
J. Myres, "The Sanctuary-Siteof Petsofa,"BSA 9, 1902-1903 (pp. 356-387), pp. 376-380, pl. XIII.
KaL vr7f7lidEa KEVTpLK7jSKaL avaroX. KpjT7T9>, AcAT pp. 480-488), pp. 484-485, pl. 358:y; Karetsou, HpaKTLKa 1974, pp. 236-237.
Alexiou,<<'ApXaLo-rr71r
22, 1967, B' 2 (1969;
15 G.
Rodenwaldt, "Ein kretisches Votivgefass," in Essays in Aegean Archaeology Presented to Sir Arthur Evans in Honour of his 75th Birthday, S. Casson, ed., Oxford 1927, pp. 100-106, pl. XVII; Pendlebury et al.,
II, pl. XXXII:2.514. 16 C. Renfrew, "The Development and Chronology of the Early Cycladic Figurines," AJA 73, 1969, pp. 1-32; K. Branigan, "CycladicFigurines and Their Derivatives in Crete," BSA 66, 1971, pp. 57-78; Sakellarakis, IIpaKTLKa
1972, pp. 333-349.
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229
EM II phase, is a type with exaggeratedhead and cylindricalbody. It is distinguishedfrom the schematicfigurine by the addition of facial details and often a headdressof indistinct form. At the same time it is relatedto the schematicfigurineby the short, straight arms set perpendicularto the body, which are meant to representfolded arms, as an example from Archanesshows.17The type is found in early domesticcontextsand peak sanctuariesas well as in the tombs at Archanesand Koumasa. It is probablydescendedfrom a Neolithic form with elongatedhead and is relatedto the Petsofa figurinesby the Koumasaexamples,which borrowdetails of dressfrom the Petsofa figurines.18 The Petsofa figurines, named after those from the peak sanctuaryat Petsofa, include types from the entire corpusof peak-sanctuaryfigurines.They are the first successfulnaturalisticfigurinesproducedin Crete.19They range in date fromthe MM Ia throughthe MM III phase and are found in several house tombs, including Archanes 7, Gournes, Chrysolakkos,and Mochlos IV, as well as in the tholoi at Agios Kyrillos and Porti.20The nude Archanes figure is importantbecause of its resemblanceto the schematicfolded-armfigurines. It suggeststhe origins of the type, which is, however,wholly transformedby the addition of Minoan costumes.All the figurinesfromthe peak sanctuarieshave been identifiedas votives offered to a divinity, and the human figurines in particular as portrayalsof the votaries themselves.The type gives rise to the bronze saluting figurine in the Neopalatial period. In the Neopalatial period the art of producingfigurines in a realistic manner is perfected, and naturalistic ivory figurines are found in Chrysolakkosthat match in quality those frompalatial contexts.21At this time it also becomespopularto place the figurinesin a natural setting, and the female figurine on a swing from Agia Triada 5 and the various models from Kamilariare rpresentative of this innovation.Each of the modelswith architectural settings has been interpreted s the representationof a religious scene, that from Agia Triada as an agrarian rite and those from Kamilari as funeral rituals.22Several related but freestandingfigurines are also now often groupedtogetheras if on stage, and the various female figurines with cylindricalskirts from Agia Triada 5 seem to belong to such tableaux. The group has an identicalparallel from a palace shrine at Phaistos.23 Zoomorphicfigurinesare found in the tombs at Archanes(B and 3) and Chrysolakkos, as well as at Koumasa,Platanos,and Porti.24They are less commonthan anthropomorphic figurines and seem to appear at a later date, not until the beginning of the MM phase. 17Sakellarakis,"Epyov1971, p. 242, pl. 290. 18Xanthoudides, VTM, p. 42, pl. XXX; P. Ucko, AnthropomorphicFigurines of PredynasticEgypt and Neolithic Crete (= Royal AnthropologicalInstitute, OccasionalPapers 24), London 1968, pp. 316-319. 19For a description,see Myres (footnote 14 above,p. 228), pp. 361-373. 20 Sakellarakis, 1967, p. 157, pl. 145:a; Hazzidakis, AE7A 4, 1918, p. 54, fig. 3; Demargne, IHpaKTLKa Mallia, NecropolesI, p. 50, pl. LXI; Seager,MochlosII, p. 49, figs. 20, 2AAA 1; Sakellarakis, 1,1968, p. 52, pls. 3, 4; Xanthoudides, VTM, p. 67, pls. VIII, XXXIX:b. 21 Demargne,Mallia, Ne'cropolesI, pp. 57-58, pls. XXIII:a, LXVII:5. 22 Evans, PM IV, pp. 24-27; Delvoye, loc. cit. (under AT 5-7, p. 123 above);and footnote7 above, 227. p. 23 Festos II, pp. 104-118, 582-583; Gesell, Town, Palace and House Cult, p. 127. 24 Sakellarakis,HpaKrTKa 1966, pp. 178, 181, pl. 150:a; Sakellarakis, "Epyov 1971, p. 247; Demargne, Mallia, NecropolesI, p. 50, pls. XI, XXXVI:4, LXI:4; Xanthoudides, VTM, pp. 42, 96, 62, pls. XXX, LI, VII.
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Although the animal is often too rudely modeledto permit identification,the bull and the agrimi (Cretan wild goat) seem to have been especially popular. Miniature figurines,consisting mostly of rudely modeledquadrupedsidentifiableas bulls in some cases, are slightly more commonthan the large figurines,which are more carefullymodeledand occasionally decoratedin paint. Both varieties, including bulls and agrimia, have close parallels in the peak sanctuaries,where the animal figurinesare not all miniaturesby any means.25 Bell figurinesare found at Archanes,where they come fromthree differenttombs (3, 5, and 6) and Vorou A, where a large depositwas foundbeneaththe outer northbuttressof the tholos ring wall. They are also found in domestic contexts in small hoards.26They are manufacturedand used primarilyin the MM I phase with only a small numberappearing in MM II contexts. They show virtually no developmentin shape and little variation in decoration,nearly all of them paintedin verticalor diagonallines, or both, in dark-on-light or light-on-dark.Two interpretationsof the figurines have been offered:one identifying them as votive bells, "sheepbells",largely because of the perforationsat or near the top of the figurinesthat are thoughtto be for suspendinga clapper,and the other identifyingthem as hornedmasks, largely becauseof a painted faiencebell from Poros.27 RITUAL IMPLEMENTS Among the objectsfrom the tombsthat may have servedas ritual implementsin the general cult are doubleaxes, triton shells, variouslibationvessels,offeringtables, palettes,and ritual stone pounders.The double axe has long been recognizedas the pre-eminentsymbol of the Minoan religion. It is a ubiquitous feature of the cult that identifies sacred places of worship and may even have served to representthe deity.28More than twenty examples, several associatedwith the house tombs, have been found in varioustomb contexts.29They are found in the earliest of the house tombs at Mochlos II; one is stampedon the base of an offering table at Mallia in the House of the Dead; others are incised on the walls of the pillar crypt in the Temple Tomb; and others appear in the last of the tombs,paintedon the Agia Triada sarcophagus.They are also found at a numberof tholos tomb annexes, including Platanos Area AB, Agia Triada, Apesokari II, and Kamilari II, and in several later tomb contextsat Pseira, Palaikastro,and Knossosat the Tomb of the Double Axes. Several, includingthe earliest ones from Mochlos, are quite small, and it has been arguedthat they 25 For
the bulls, see those from Maza (N. Platon, ,,
5, 1951[pp.96-160],pp. 110-112,pl. E:2);fortheagrimia,seethosefromPetsofa(Myres[footKpr1rXpov note14 above,p. 228],p. 377, pl. XIII:58). 26 Fora description desidoles-cloches duminoen seeN. Platon,"Nouvelleinterpretation andbibliography,
moyen I," Revue archeologique,ser. 6, 31-32, 1948, pp. 833-846; Nilsson, MMR2, pp. 191-193; Evans, PM I, p. 175; Gesell, Town, Palace and House Cult, p. 17. 27 Platon, op. cit., p. 835, fig. 1.
Tree andPillarCultandIts Mediterranean Relations," JHS 21, 1901(pp.99Evans,"Mycenaean pp. 199-201;Gesell,Town, 204),pp. 107-121;Nilsson,MMR2,chap.VI; Picard,Religionsprehelleniques, 28 A.
Palace and House Cult, p. 62. 29 For descriptionand bibliography,see H. Buchholz,Zur Herkunstder kretischenDoppelaxt:Geschichte und auswdrtigeBeziehungen eines minoischenKultsymbols,Munich 1959, pp. 33-45.
RITUAL IMPLEMENTS
231
servedas amulets ratherthan ritual implements.30One from Mochlos, ca. 0.075 m. long, is rather large for a pendant, however, and a number of small double axes, many as small as the larger Mochlos examples, are found in cult contexts elsewhere, most notably at the PsychroCave, where they were placed in natural stalactiteniches;they have been identified as simulacra serving the same function as large examples. Large examples come from the Area AB at Platanos and the later tombs. Their function is well illustrated on the Agia Triada sarcophagus.They were set up inside or outside tombs, perhaps on wooden poles like those shown on the sarcophagus,and marked off a ritual area where the deity was presentand where libations and other offeringswere made. Triton shells are reportedfrom five of the house tombs:PalaikastroII, Gournes, Palaikastro VII, the House of the Dead at Mallia, and Myrtos, Pyrgos, as well as the tholos Vorou A.31The first of these, from Palaikastro,may be as early as the EM II phase, while most belong to the MM I phase, and those from Myrtos belong to the Neopalatial period. The earliest indicationthat tritonswere used for religiouspurposesis the single large triton paintedwith red ochrefrom a Late Neolithic depositbeneaththe CentralCourt at Phaistos. Its decorationled the excavatorto speculatethat the shell had had some "sacreduse".32At the EM II village of Myrtos several shells were uncoveredthat were thought not to have been collected for food. Two had apparently been collected after the departure of the animal; two more appearedto have been broken at one end in order to serve, in the excavator'sview, as trumpets;and one of these may have been decoratedwith red ochre.33By the time of the first palacestritonsare found in importantcult depositsat Mallia, Phaistos,and Knossos,34and their use as ritual objectsis firmly established.The imitation of tritons in clay begins at this time. The examples from Knossosand Mallia are terracotta,those from Knossos,miniaturespainted with red and white bands, and that from Mallia, life size and painted black. In the Neopalatial period the imitation of tritons in stone begins,35and tritons become especially common in both domesticand funerary contexts. Evans, citing the frequencyof tritons in shrines at this time and using the evidenceof a crystal lentoid from the Idaean Cave that shows a woman standing beside horns of consecrationand holding a triton before her face, concludedthat tritons were used in the general cult as trumpets"for calling down the divinity to altars of offering."36This explanationof the triton appears to 30
K. Branigan, "SomeMinoan Pendants,"Antichitacretesi:Studi in onore di Doro Levi I, Catania 1973 (pp. 93-102), pp. 95-98. 31 Bosanquet,PK I, p. 296; Dawkins, PK III, p. 197; Hazzidakis, AcAr 1,1915, p. 62; Effenterre,Mallia, NecropolesII, p. 95; Cadogan,ArchReportsfor1971-1972, p. 25; Marinatos, AeXr 23, 1930-1931, fig. 20. 32Levi, "Gli scavi a Festos nel 1956 e 1957,"ASAtene 19-20, 1957-1958 (pp. 193-361), p. 341, figs. 192, 201:d. 33N. Shackletonin Warren, Myrtos, pp. 321-322. 34 Poursat, BCH 90, 1966, p. 536, fig. 25; L. Pernier, "Scavidella Missione Italiana a Phaestos 19021903,"MonAnt 14, 1904 (pp. 313-499), p. 409; C. Zervos, L'art de la Crete neolithiqueet minoenne, Paris 1956, pl. 391; Evans, PM I, pp. 221-222, fig. 168; Gesell, Town, Palace and House Cult, pp. 15-16. 35Warren, MSV, p. 91. 36Evans, PM I, p. 581; Evans, PM IV, p. 111.
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have been generallyaccepted,37but the more recentdiscoveryof a stone tritoncarvedin low relief with a cult scenerepresentingMinoan genii, while confirmingthe ritual identification of these objects,suggeststhat they may have had a much simplerfunction.This relief triton servedas a rhyton,38and the brokenends observedin so many real tritons may have been designedsimply to facilitatelibations. Many of the tritons from the tombs were found apart from the burials in these tombs. The triton from PalaikastroII was found in the outer room of the tomb, which was identified assa mortuarychapel by the excavators;that from Mallia al was foundin the House of the Dead, Room III, which was identifiedin the Catalogueabove(p. 175) as a shrinebecauseof its special architecturalfeaturesas well as its portablealtar;and those from Myrtos, Pyrgos were found fallen from the columnar cotomb room abovethe crypt. In these cases the location of the tritons indicatesthat they were being used as ritual objectsas they were in domestic cult, whether as trumpetsor as rhyta, and other tritonsfromthe tombsmay have been similarly used.39 A number of vessels from the tombs are designedespecially for pouring libations. Anthropomorphic,zoomorphic,and compositevessels are the most commonof these, and zoomorphicand compositevesselsare also the most persistent,sincethey are producedfromthe EM I to the LM III phase without apparentinterruption.Compositevessels are the most widespread,and although initially found in funerary contexts in the south of the island, fromthe MM I phase on they are found in both funeraryand domesticcontextsovera large area. Examples are known from the house tombs at Archanesand Gournesand from other early tomb contexts at Koumasa, the Pyrgos and Trapeza Caves, and, later, Kamilari.40 They consist mostly of double vases, although a few triplet vases, including the one from ArchanesB, are also known. In both cases the vases are joined togethereither directlyor by hollow connectingtubes at their sides and by archedhandles placedverticallyabove. From one periodto the next there is a markeddevelopmentin shape, but the basic featuresremain the same. The EM I example from Pyrgos with vases of equal size, both with spherical bodieson low feet with cylindricalspouts,joined by a vertical,prongedhandle,is important in this respect,for it demonstratesthat fromthe inceptionof the shape, only one vase is open and the other is always closed.Only one outlet is provided,so that the contentsof the secondary, closed vase (or vases) must pass through the other vase. The EM II vessels from Koumasawith sphericalbodies on low feet and large cut-away necks are derivedfrom the Pyrgos vase. Now, however, the second false spout is eliminated;the secondaryvase is reduced in size; the connectingtube is developed;and the handle takes on the archedform it maintainsinto the LM III phase. In the MM I phase the same sphericalshape is used, but the main vase is providedwith a wide, open mouth with collaredrim, occasionallyspouted. The decorationof the MM Ia vases is often the same, and those from Koumasa,Trapeza, 37Nilsson, MMR2, pp. 153-154; Picard,Religionsprehelleniques,pp. 133-134; N. Shackletonin Warren, Myrtos,p. 324. 38 C. Baurain and P. Darcque, "Un triton en pierre a Mallia," BCH 107, 1983, pp. 3-73. 39In still other cases, however,the triton may have been used simply as a food offering.See now P. Astrom and D. Reese, "TritonShells in East MediterraneanCults,"JPR 3-4, 1990, pp. 5-14. 40 For bibliographysee Hazzidakis, ACAT 4, 1918, p. 49; also Xanthoudides, VTM, pp. 14, 39, pls. XX, XXVII; Pendleburyet al., I, p. 82, pl. 10; Levi, ASAtene 23-24, 1961-1962, pp. 37-38, fig. 36; Alexiou, Ka-ra-aura,pp. 42-43, pls. 2, 7.
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and Gournes are painted with verticalwhite lines on black. In the Neopalatial period contemporaryshapes are adoptedfor the two parts of the vase, and the main part is commonly closedby a flat lid with a large centralhole or a numberof small perforations,or both. This part of the vase is still usually spouted, however, so that the vessel is still a pouring vessel, and the strainerservedto strain or purify the liquid enteringthe vessel. The findspotof the example fromArchanesin the depositagainstthe outer west wall of Tomb B, its similarityto kernoi from Koumasaand Mallia,41and the double-axe cut-outs on its stand suggest that such vases were used in the general cult at least as early as the MM I phase. The findspotof the Kamilarivases in the annex of the tomb, away from any burials, and the plastic dovesattachedto the Kamilariexamplessuggestthe continueduse of these vases as ritual implementsin the tombs. Like the composite vessels, zoomorphic vessels are found in both domestic cult and funerarycontexts.During the Prepalatialperiodthey are especiallypopularin the Mesara, but a few examples also come from tomb contexts elsewhere, includingArchanes 5 and B, Mallia, Mochlos XI, and Myrtos, Pyrgos.42 The earliest vessels are mostly in the form of birds modeledin various poses with varyingdegreesof naturalism.This shape is especially popularin the Prepalatialperiodand is not producedin such numbersagain until the end of the LM III phase. Other animal shapes also appear in the Prepalatial period, including pigs, tortoises,and beetle, and even some plant forms are produced,none of which reappears after the close of this period. In the MM Ia phase the bull rhyton, representingthe entire body of the animal, is introduced,and it is this shape that becomespopularthroughout the following Protopalatialand Neopalatial periods and replacesthe earlier, more experimentalshapes. Most of the examples, regardlessof shape or date, have two openings, one in the back for receivingliquids and anotherin front, usually in the head of the animal, for pouring the liquid out. As a result, they may be considereda form of rhyton. The ritual use of the vessels in the form of both bird and bull is establishedby their appearancein domesticcult contexts as early as the MM I phase,43and it is likely that the earlier vases were used in the same fashion. Nine anthropomorphicvessels are known, each in the shape of a female figure with handle on the back.The vase is usually providedwith two openings,one in the head and the other at the breastsor in a juglike spout at the shoulder.Unlike the compositeand zoomorphic vessels, these vases are strictly a Prepalatial form, appearingfirst in the EM II phase with the examples from Myrtos and Koumasa(Her.Mus. 4137, 4138) and continuinginto the EM III phase with examples from Agios Myronos, Koumasa (Her.Mus. 4993), Mallia, Mochlos XIII (Her.Mus. 5499), and Trapeza.44With the exception of the Myrtos 41
Xanthoudides, VTM,, pp. 34-35, pl. I; Effenterre,Mallia,M Ncropoles II, p. 79, pi. XXXII. 1904, p. 753, fig. 46 (Agia Triada 5); Sakellarakis,"Epyov1967, p. 116, pl. 118 (Agios Kyrillos); Xanthoudides, VTM, pp. 40-41, 44, 95-96, pls. XX, XXVIII, XXX, LI (Koumasa and Platanos);S. Alexiou, "New Light on Minoan Dating: Early Minoan Tombs at Lebena,"IllustratedLondon News, 6 August 1960, pp. 225-227, figs. 14, 15 (Lendos);Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, p. 24, pl. XI. 43 For the bird vessels, see that from the House of the Monolithic Pillars at Knossos(Evans,PM I, fig. 107); for the bull rhyta, see those from Phaistos (Levi [footnote19 above,p. 209], p. 322, fig. 19); see also E. Miller, ZoomorphicVasesin the Bronze Age Aegean, diss. New York University, 1984, chaps. III, V. 44For bibliography, see Pini, Minoischen Grdberkunde,p. 25; S. Alexiou,
esS KpIT?1v1?, npaKrLKac 1969 (pp. 238-240), repLAA-XXoyrlaPXalOT?71Tw
p. 239, pl. 273; P. Warren, "The
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example, all these are from funerarycontexts.Two varietiesare represented,one in which the figure carriesa small jug and possessesropelikearms, and an EM III variety in which the breastsare piercedand the hands, incisedor modeledin clay, are placed beneaththem. While the EM II figure from Myrtos servedprimarily as a cult idol rather than a vase, it clearly belongs to this class of vessels, as Warren has shown, and is importantfor several reasons. Its carefullymodeledand paintedjug identifiesthe spouts on the sides of the vases from Koumasa,Trapeza, and Agios Myronos as schematicallymodeledjugs, and its ropelike arms, which hold the jug, suggest that the ropelike attachmentson the other vases are also arms, not snakes as often suggested.45The Myrtos vase also confirms the religious identificationof the shape, for it was found fallen from an altar in a small shrine. The vase apparentlyrepresentsthe Minoan Snake or Household Goddess.46 Finally, a numberof other vessels rarely found in tombs may also be identifiedas libation vases. A ring vase is attestedfromArea A at Koumasa.The shape is rare until the end of the Bronze Age in Crete, although another EM II example is known from the Metaxa Collection,probablyalso from a Mesara tomb.47Two rhyta of standardtype are reported, includingthe fragmentof a conical rhyton from Chrysolakkos,which probablybelongs to the last phase of use of the tomb,and another,pear shaped,in stonefromArchanes3.48 Both belong to the Neopalatial period,when such vessels are often found in tombsand in domestic cult contexts.Libationjugs fromthe House of the Dead at Mallia, Room 1, and fromthe external altar at ApesokariI may perhaps also be recognized.49They are distinguishedby their ovoid bodies with long conical bases and prominentside spouts and resemblethe canonical form of libation jug popular in the Neopalatial period.50Another vase with perforatedlid from the South Building at Agia Triada anticipatesthe later compositevessels with similar lids.51 In addition to the fixed stone kernoi or offering tables that form an integral part of many tomb altars, portableoffering tables of terracottaare associatedwith several tombs. They are found in MM I contextsat Mallia in the House of the Dead and at Porti, as well as in the South Building at Agia Triada and in a Neopalatial context at Archanes 3. An early, slightly atypical example may also be identified at ChrysolakkosI in an EM III/ MM Ia context.52All have a flat surface with a raised, decoratedborder along the edge Beginningsof Minoan Religion,"in Antichitacretesi(footnote30 above,p. 231), pp. 137-147; Miller, op. cit., pp. 379-385. 45 Evans, PM IV, p. 163; cf. Pendleburyet al. (I, pp. 94-95), who suggestedthat the potters themselves were uncertainwhether to representarms or snakes. 46 Evans, PM II, pp. 258-259; Evans, PM IV, p. 163; Demargne, Melanges G. Glotz I, pp. 305-314; Picard, Religions prehelleniques,pp. 110-111, 205; Zois, "Epevva,p. 722; Warren, Myrtos, p. 210; Gesell, Town, Palace and House Cult, p. 7. 47Xanthoudides, VTM, p. 41, pl. XXIX; Zois, "Epevva,p. 720, pl. 34. 48 Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, p. 62, pls. XXIV, LXIX; Sakellarakis,HpaKTrKa1966, p. 183, pl. 152. 49 Effenterre, Mallia, Necropoles II, p. 93, pl. XXXV; Schorgendorfer,Forschungenauf Kreta, p. 22, pl. 22:2. 50 For these, see Nilsson, MMR2, p. 149, fig. 57. 51 Banti, ASAtene 13-14, 1930-1931, p. 232, pl. XVII. 52 Effenterre, Mallia, Necropoles II, p. 95, pls. XI, XXV; Xanthoudides, VTM, p. 63, pl. XXXVII (Porti); Sakellarakis, lpaKTrKa1967, p. 157, pl. 147:a (Archanes3); Demargne,Mallia, NecropolesI, p. 46, pl. LIX:1 (Chrysolakkos);Banti, ASAtene 13-14, 1930-1931, p. 218, fig. 123 (South Building).
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and, with the exception of the Chrysolakkostable, are either circularor rectangularwith roundedcornersand belongto a distinctclass of offeringtable. Those from Mallia and Agia Triada belong to a type popular in the Protopalatialperiod, Type A, which consists of a rectangulartray with or without feet. Those without feet are often embeddedin floors and providedwith a circular depressionnear the center of the tray.53The table with feet from Mallia is importantfor the double axe stamped on its base, which identifies it as a ritual table for use in the generalcult. The tables from Porti and Archanes3 belongto a class with circulartray and feet, Type B, with or without centraldepression,which is commonin the Neopalatial period and is often referredto as the tripod altar.54Tables in shrines at Gournia and Chamaizi, belonging to Types A and B respectively,demonstratethat both types begin as early as the MM Ia phase. The rounded,oblongfeet of these tables appearto be an early feature,used in the case of Chamaizibeforethe introductionof the canonicalthree feet found in the Porti table and all the Neopalatial examples of this type.55Types A and B are both used in the Protopalatialperiod,but the rectangulartables are almost completelysupplanted by the circulartables in the Neopalatial period. While these tables servedas offering tables like those found in domesticcult contextsor peak sanctuaries,differenttypes may have been used for differenttypes of offerings.Those with circulardepressionsin the trays, for example, may have been used for burnt offerings, since traces of fire are sometimes observedaround the depressions.56Others, such as that from Agia Triada, which has the appearanceof a shallow tub, or that from ChrysolakkosI, which has a spoutedstone parallel from Phaistos,may have been used for liquid offerings.Still others,especiallythose with flat surfacesand feet, may have been used simply for solid offerings.It is most unlikely that any would have been used in the tombs as portable hearths, as they were also sometimes used in domesticcontexts. Palettes, which are found in the tombs on Mochlos (II, V, XI, XX/XXI), in Palaikastro II, and at many of the Mesara tholoi,57have also been identifiedas a type of offering table. The standardshape, best illustrated by the Mesara examples, consists of a rectangular limestoneslab with flat upper surfacemarkedwith a groovedborderaroundthe edges and slightly convex underside.The one from Palaikastrois oval, and three from Mochlos have four low feet. The palettesvary in size, the largerexamplescomingfrom Mochlos (the largest measuring0.28 by 0.31 m.) and miniatureexamplesfromAgia Triada A and Palaikastro (the latter measuring0.05 by 0.09 m.). The tomb palettes date largely to the Prepalatial period;severalfrom Mochlos (II, XI) and Koumasabelongto EM II contextsand the one from Palaikastroto an EM III context. Others from the Mesara are not later than the 53 See that from the West Shrine Complex at Phaistos (Pernier [footnote61 above,p. 221], p. 230, figs. 106 and 107); Gesell, Town, Palace and House Cult, p. 15. 54 For the Neopalatial examples, see Nilsson, MMR2, pp. 123-124; Gesell, Town, Palace and House Cult, p. 33. Gournia, p. 48, pl. XI:24; S. Xanthoudides, ?
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MM I phase. No palettes have been reported from domestic contexts in the Prepalatial period,whereas afterthis periodthey seem to be foundonly in such contexts.The earliestof these are two from the West Shrine Complex of the early palace at Phaistos;in the Neopalatial periodthey becomequite common.58 n he Phaistos shrine, argued that the palettes served a te in Xanthoudides, citing those ritual purposeand, on the basis of the footedMochlos examplesand the absenceof any sign of grinding or color on the palettes, suggestedthat they served as offering tables.59At the same time that these palettes are found in tombs on Crete, however, similar palettes are foundin Cycladicgraves,often accompaniedby small pestles and occasionallywith tracesof coloringmatter on their upper surfaces.The Cycladicpalettes were clearly being used for grindingcolorpowders.The later palettes found in domesticcontextson Crete, at least two with coloringmateriallocatednear by, were probablybeing used for this purpose too, and the Prepalatialexamples from tombs may also have been used in this way.60 Another somewhat enigmatic object is the stone pestle found outside Mochlos XXII (M XXlT-3, p. 85 above). It is one of severalfrom the Mochlos tombsbut is unusual in that it shows no signs of use and appearsto have been carefullyshaped.It is identicalin shape to the clay pestles from Koumasa and Platanos that Xanthoudides identified as ritual "phalloi".61A similar stone pestle is reported from the EM II shrine at Myrtos; it also showed no traces of use and was thereforethought to have served some ritual function.62 Other pestlesare reportedfromthe ProtopalatialWest ShrineComplexat Phaistos,together with stone palettes in these roomsand tracesof red coloringmatter. TOMB SHRINES In many cases ritual objects, including offerings and cult implements, are found mixed togetherwith the skeletal material and funeraryobjectsin the tomb, and it is possible that they were used the burial chamberitself63or depoited with the burials after their use elsewhere,either outside or in anotherpart of the tomb. At the same time, these objectsare sometimes associatedwith rooms that were free of burials or other areas apparently reservedfor ritual purposes. More than 30 small shrinesor specialplacesof offeringhave been identifiedat Mochlos and Gournia and at sites featured in the Catalogue of House Tombs on the basis of distinctivearchitecturaldetails or associatedfinds. Most fall into one of two broadcategories, consisting either of separate rooms reservedfor ritual activities, usually inside the tombs Pernier (footnote61 above,p. 221), pp. 223, 234-235, figs. 101,112; and for bibliography,see Deshayes and Dessenne (footnote21 above, p. 210), pp. 62-63, notes 1, 2; P. Warren in Sackettand Popham, PK VI, p. 306. 59 Xanthoudides,VTM, p. 16; see also Demargne and Gallet de Santerre(Mallia, Maisons I, pp. 96-97), who regardthem as cult furniture,and Pini, Minoischen Graberkunde,p. 27, note 318. 60 C. Tsountas, , 'ApX'E# 1898 (pp. 137-212), p. 185; Evans, PM II, p. 44; Banti, ASAtene 13-14, 1930-1931, p. 187; Deshayes and Dessenne (footnote21 above, p. 210), p. 63; P. Warren in Sackett and Popham,PK VI, p. 306, note 97; Gesell, Town, Palace and House Cult, p. 64. 61 Xanthoudides,VTM, pp. 41-42, 97. 62 Warren,Myrtos, p. 253, no. 179. 63 For rites occurring among the burials in rock shelters and tholoi, see Alexiou, KplrrXpov 5, 1951, 287-291. pp. 58
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of hypaethral areas marked off by walls, pavements, or altars placed outside the tombs. Most, if not all, cemeteriesappear to have containedat least one shrine. It is usually associated with one particulartomb, whether locatedoutside and adjacentto the tomb or inside one of its rooms;occasionallytwo shrines are associatedwith the same tomb, one in each location,as at Mochlos IV/V/VI, ChrysolakkosI and II, ArchanesB, Myrtos, Pyrgos,and the numerous tholos tombs where internal and external ritual areas exist side by side. In some cases one ritual place appearsto have servedtwo or moretombs,as at Gournia,where the altar is placedbetween Tombs I and II, or at Koumasain the Mesara, where the paved court adjacentto Tholoi E and B apparentlyservicedall the tombs in the cemetery.All the tomb shrines, even those associatedwith only one particular tomb, may have served in a similar fashion as communalshrines.64The lepos AaKKOS, at Gournes,the South Building at Agia Triada, and Building 4 at Archanesare unusual in that they are isolated,freestanding structuresthat servedexclusively as shrines;they are primaryexamples of shrines used by large numbersof people, probablyby entire communities,and in this respectthey may well be typical of all tomb shrines. Shrines dated to the EM II/III phases have been tentativelyidentifiedwithin tombs at Mochlos and Palaikastro.Dawkins identifiedthe outer roomof Tomb II at Palaikastroas a "mortuarychapel for offerings."65No burialswere foundhere, and the large numberof EM II vases, as well as a fragmentof a triton shell and a clay boat, emphasizesthe ritual nature of the deposit. MM I vases in the room suggestedthat it may have been used as a chapel for offeringseven after the building ceasedto be used as a burial place. On the other hand, since the walls on the south and west sides of the room were largely destroyed,it is possible that burials that had been made in the roomwere lost along with the walls. Seagersuggestedthat Mochlos IV also servedas a "mortuarychapel"in front of the main burial chamberin VI and that the outer part of the compartmentalways remainedopen for offerings even after the inner part was used for burials.66Seager might have made the same suggestionfor the empty north room of Mochlos I, which also providedaccessto the burials in the south room of the compartment.In both cases, the roomsthat may have servedas chapels are decorated with colorful orthostates,but the evidence for such identificationsis otherwise negative, since no ritual objectsor offerings were found in either place. Seager'ssuggestionthat the large CompartmentIII was designedfor "funeralrites of some sort"67is morelikely, since it not only was free of burials but also containeda small cave to its east and apparentlylacked a roof. Contemporaryparallels for interior shrines are to be found in the settlement at Myrtos (Room 92) and perhaps in the antechambersof some Mesara tholoi, particularly Agia Kyriaki (Room 2) and Lebena II (Room A), where low benchessimilar to that in the Myrtos shrine are also located.68 The ritual areas in the early tombs that may be identified with the most certainty, however, are hypaethral. At Mochlos they include CompartmentIII in Tomb Complex I/II/III and the approachto Tomb Complex IV/V/VI with its raised terraceand corner See Branigan,Foundationsof Palatial Crete,pp. 93-94. Dawkins, PK III, pp. 197-198. 66 Seager, Mochlos II, pp. 44-45. 67 Seager, MochlosII, p. 37. 68 Warren, Myrtos, pp. 85-87; Blackmanand Branigan,BSA 77, 1982, pp. 54-55. 64 65
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altar. In southern Crete at Agia Kyriaki,Agia Triada, and Koumasa,and slightly later at Platanos,they consistof irregularspacesmarkedoff by precinctwalls and at Koumasaand Platanos by paved courtsas well. All these areas are identifiedas ritual areas by the objects found there as well as by their structuralfeatures.At Mochlos IV/V/VI these objectsinclude fragmentsof stone vases found on the corneraltar, probablyplaced as offerings,and later pottery depositsnoted by Seager against the side of the raised terrace.69At Agia Kyriaki they include fragmentsof bowls uncoveredat various points in front of the precinct wall and a depositof potteryin a pit by a flagstonealtar in frontof the tomb;at Agia Triada they include conicalcups and other vases placed against the precinctwall; at Koumasathey include the clay "phalloi"or pestles and anthropomorphicand zoomorphicvases found northwestof the wall; and at Platanos they include large double axes and miniaturevases. The West Court at Vasilike with its fixed stone kernoi suggests that open-air spaces were reservedfor ritual use in domesticcontextstoo at this time. Shrines becomeincreasinglycommonat the beginningof the MM I phase. They have been identifiedat many of the MM I tombs describedaboveand at all the later ones. Their appearancein growing numbers at tombs is part of a general proliferationof shrines that marksthe opening of the Middle BronzeAge in Crete;it is paralleledby the appearanceof shrinesacrossthe island in caves,on mountaintops, and in certaindomesticcontexts,culminating in the palacesand villas of the Old Palace period. It is part of a widespreadreligious fervor that may have had its roots in the political developmentsof the period. There are many parallelsbetweenthe shrines,not only in their offeringsand cult implements,but also in the built structuresthat distinguishthe shrines. The tomb shrineshave particularlyclose parallels with the peak sanctuariesand with the shrines in countryvillas and later in the palaces themselves.Like them they might take several forms, the most distinctivebeing a pillar cryptor columnarshrine, a bench shrine, or an altar-kernoscomplex. Pillar crypts,similar in plan and architecturaldetail to domesticcrypts,as notedabove, have been discoveredat Myrtos, Pyrgos, Archanes B, Apesokari I, and probably other MM Ia tholos tombs,70and later at Agia Triada 5 and the Temple Tomb. The earliest of the tomb pillar crypts appear to be contemporarywith the first of the domesticcrypts,the Basement of the Monolithic Pillars at Knossos.71They antedatethe palace crypts by 150 years, however, and because they are so prevalentwhen the crypt first appears,they may well have served as the prototypesfor the crypts of importanthouses, villas, and palaces. From the startboth tomb and domesticcryptsprobablyservedas places of offering,perhaps for libations, and so the assemblageof material from the crypt at Knossos, with its large quantitiesof pottery,includingthe Dove Vase, and its shallow floor pit, parallelsthe material from Myrtos with its dove rhyton and "foundation"deposit. Stone vases and conical cups, sometimesinvertedlike those at Agios Kyrillos or in the western beam chase at Archanes, are as commonin these crypts as they are in domesticcryptsand also point to the 69
Seager, MochlosII, p. 40. Such as ApesokariII, Agios Kyrillos,and even Kamilari,all of which have antechambersvery similar to those of ApesokariI, although the pillars themselvesare missing. 71 A. Evans, "The Palace of Knossos,"BSA 9, 1902-1903 (pp. 1-153), pp. 17-19; Evans, PM I, pp. 145146; Platon, Kp7TrXpov8, 1954, p. 439; Gesell, Town, Palace and House Cult, p. 96. 70
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similarity of ritual practices.The tomb crypts appear to have been reservedprimarily for ritual use, and in most cases burials were not allowed to accumulate here, at least not initially, but were placed in adjacentburial chambers or ossuaries. At Myrtos, Pyrgos, where the cryptitself was used as a final burial place, it may have been so used only because the ossuarieswere full (in Phases III and IV). In some cases the adjacentroomsof the tomb crypts may also have been used in the same way as those of the domesticcrypts. The anthropomorphicconcretionand altar in the outer room at ApesokariI and the male idols in the outer roomsat Agios Kyrillosand ArchanesB suggestthat these spaces,which servedas foyers, also served as outer ritual rooms, perhaps as Platon has suggestedfor rites preparatory to entering the crypt itself. The large numbers of cups and jugs frequently found stacked together in the antechambersof the tholos annexes may identify these rooms as sacristieslike those which Platon believes to have been attachedto domesticcrypts. Where upper-storyrooms existed above the crypts, the finds demonstratethat they also served as places of offering, perhaps in each case as columnar sanctuaries.These include the large deposit in the Myrtos crypt of some 300 vases, tritons, and stone vases, all fallen from the floor above;the offertoryvases and horns of consecrationfrom the upper floor above the outer pillar crypt of the Temple Tomb, as well as the column base and frescos;the frescos from the room above the Archanescrypt;and the objectsapparentlyfallen from the upper roomsat Agia Triada 5, includingfemale figurinesand ritual vases exactlyparalleledby the assemblageof objectsin a palace shrine at Phaistos, Room 10. Other shrines have been identifiedin rooms at ChrysolakkosI and II, Archanes3, and the House of the Dead at Mallia. The whole east wing of ChrysolakkosI appears to have served as a ritual area, left free of burials, which could accommodatesizable numbers of people. Thus it was providedwith numerous benches, lining virtually every wall of every room, fixed altars and kernoi, and a stucco table, perhaps serving for offerings, and contained a numberof small conicalvessels thoughtto have been designedfor makingofferings of grain. Room III in the House of the Dead has also been identifiedas a shrine becauseof its architecturalfeatures and finds. While burials were located in the eastern half of the room, the western half was left open for ritual purposes, and a clay offering table with a double axe stamped on its base, together with a large triton shell, was uncoveredin this section.The roomsto the north, I and II, may also have servedfor ritual ceremoniesat some point in the use of the tomb, since they are easily reachedfrom III, and a libation vase, as well as a number of stone vases, was found here. A major shrine has been identified at ChrysolakkosII in the room with the stucco altar, which was apparentlyused for pouring libations,and it has been suggestedthat others may have existed elsewhereinside the tomb. At Archanes 3 it seems likely that one or more of the rooms in the upper floor served as ritual areas. Fragmentsof plaster tripodofferingtables, as well as animal figurines,including at least one agrimi, were scatteredin the upper stratum of the tomb, where they are thought to have fallen from the upper floor. All these interior shrines with their benches, altars, and offering tables have contemporaryparallels in domesticarchitecture,already in the MM Ia phase at Chamaizi (Room 4), probablyone of the first countryvillas, and in
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importanthouses at Gournia (Aa, Room 4) and perhaps Koumasa;72parallels are more common,however,with later palatial shrines. Still other shrines or places of offering have been noted outside ChrysolakkosI and II, Agios Georgios, Gournia II, PalaikastroVIII, and several MM Ia tholos tombs. At Agios Georgiosand ApesokariI they consistof niches in the outer walls, the one at Agios Georgios built onto and projectingfrom the wall, and that at Apesokarirecessedin the wall. Vases, thoughtto have held offeringsof food, had been depositedin the niche at Agios Georgios.At Chrysolakkosthe terracesof both the earlier and later tombswere also used as ritual areas, and conical offeringvessels like those in the east wing of ChrysolakkosI were placed there in considerablenumbers.The areas in front of ChrysolakkosI and Kamilariwere flanked by precinctwalls, in the same fashion as those at earliertombs.Altars, standingunattached and separatefrom the tombs, were located in these areas at ChrysolakkosI and Kamilari and in front of ApesokariI. Both those at ApesokariI and Kamilariare securelyidentified by offeringsof stone and clay vases, severalof which were inverted.Other altars built onto tombs have been identifiedat Gournia II, ApesokariII, and perhaps PalaikastroVIII. In addition, an altar may have stood outside the Tomb of the Painted Sarcophagusat Agia Triada, if the tomb presentedon the sarcophagusis indeed one and the same.73The best parallels for these external shrines with their altars, terraces,and precinctwalls are found not in domesticcontexts, but in the peak sanctuariesthat flourishedat places like Gonies, Juktas, Petsofa,or Traostalosat the same time as the tomb shrines.74 Severalbuildings that containedno burials have been discoveredin the midst of cemeteries and appear,like the peak sanctuaries,to have been devotedwholly to ritual use. They at Gournes,the South Buildingat Agia Triada, ArchanesBuilding includethe epos AaiKKos of the small outbuildingsat Koumasa.Each was used as a depository some 4, and perhaps for offeringsor ritual equipment, if not for other purposesas well. The Gournesbuilding, which containedhundredsof miniaturevases, was used exclusivelyas a depositoryfor offerings and was comparedby its excavatorto shrines found beside the Protodynastictombs of Egypt. Some of the structuresbuilt outsidethe tholoi at Koumasa,where anthropomorphic and zoomorphicrhyta and other vases were found, were identified by their excavatoras storerooms"forthe gifts madeby the living to the dead"and may have been used in the same way as the building at Gournes. The South Building, which containeda numberof stacked vessels, bowls and conical cups, and several ritual vessels, including a libation vase and a libation tray, and Archanes4, which containedscoresof conicalcups, some invertedon the terraceof the building, were also clearly used as places of offeringand places where equipment used in makingthe offeringmight be stored.The two buildingsaccommodatedvisitors to the cemeteriesin other ways too. The South Building,providedwith benchesand interior doorways,permittedmovementfrom room to room, and Archanes4, providedwith a kitchen for the preparationof food, including meat and grain, could also accommodatesmall 72 Xanthoudides (footnote 55 above, p. 235); Soles, AJA 83, 1979, pp. 152-154; Xanthoudides, VTM, pp. 49-50. 73 For this possibility,see Long, The Ayia TriadhaSarcophagus,pp. 49-50. 74 See B. Rutkowski, "Minoan Peak Sanctuaries:The Topography and Architecture,"Aegaeum2, 1988, pp. 71-98.
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gatheringsof people. It is possible, as Branigan has argued,75that the funerary ritual involved some sort of banquet in honor of the deceased,as in Mycenaean Greece, but it may also be that these tomb shrines simply providedfacilities for the preparationof offerings, includingofferingsof food and drink, as well as areas for storing objectsneededin making the offering and areas for depositingit. Shrines in domesticcontexts providedfacilities for such multiple activitiesbeginning in the EM II phase. Two important conclusionsmay be drawn about the tomb shrines. The first is that many, perhaps all, belonged to the general cult and were not necessarily erected for the worship of the dead. Pillar crypts,bench shrines, courtyardswith precinctwalls, and altars with fixed kernoi are structuresthat are commonlyused as places of worship. The ritual equipmentfound in the tombsand in the tombshrinesis also characteristic.Each elementdouble axe, triton, offering table, anthropomorphicand zoomorphic rhyta, and libation vessel-is a regular featurein the cult assemblageof Minoan religion. In addition,many of the offerings in the tombs, especially those located in the shrines, apart from the burials, should be identifiedas offeringsto a deity. Bowls with plastic appliques, anthropomorphic figurines, small bulls, or agrimia are offerings that are customarilymade to the deity in other locations.Occasionally,a particulardeity might be representedin the tomb as a cult idol, whether in the shape of a concretionas at Apesokari I, an anthropomorphicor dove rhyton, or in a more naturalistic fashion, as in some of the female figurines from Agia Triada 5. The Temple Tomb discoveredby Evans and the doubletomb of Minos described by Diodorus (4.79) as half sepulchre,half sanctuaryhave a long traditionin Crete. Minoan religion involvedsome conceptof an afterlife,and its deity played some role in this concept; accordingly,the tombwas consideredan appropriatelocationfor worship, and shrinesdedicated to the deity became a commonadjunctto tombs. Such shrines, while not differing in essentialsfrom those in other locations,may have been used for a slightly differentpurpose, and the ritual carriedout in these shrines, while apparentlysimilar to that practicedelsewhere, may have been directedto a different end. At the tomb it would be appropriateto invokethe deity as a guardianof the dead. Of course,it is possiblethat the dead themselves might also be invokedat their tombs using the equipmentof the general cult. The second conclusionis also to be drawn from the connectionbetween tomb shrines and other shrines. While the parallels between the two are sometimescontemporary,often the tomb shrines appear to have precededlater examples by many centuries.This may also be true to some extent of certain ritual objectsused in the tombs, as Gesell has noted in her review of Minoan cult: birds, double axes, and perhaps horns of consecration;76 but it is especially striking in the architecturalfeatures of the shrines. The altar-kernoscomplexes at ChrysolakkosI and Gournia II are the first examples of a type that is to become very common,but it is significantthat it reappearsin the immediatelysucceedingperiod in the monumental ChrysolakkosII and is then incorporatedas a major shrine in the second palace at Mallia. The pillar crypt also appears in tombs long before it appears as a major shrine in the palaces at Knossos, Mallia, and Phaistos. The very ancient shrine outside 75 Branigan, Tombsof Mesara, pp. 99-102. 76
Gesell, Town, Palace and House Cult, p. 8.
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Mochlos IV/V/VI is also curiously replicatedon a much grander scale in the Theatral Area at Knossos.The explanationfor this transferralof tomb cult to palace cult, and for the parallels observedbetween tomb shrines and those elsewhere, is not that Minoan cult was basically chthonic in nature. Cult symbols are too varied and cult locations, including mountaintops, are too diverseto suggest anythingother than a rich and pervasivereligious systemthat encompassedmany areas of human concern.The explanationis probablyto be foundinsteadin the statusof those who were buriedin these tombs.The tombsin the North Cemetery at Gournia and on the West Terrace at Mochlos have been identified as elite burial places, and many of the other Prepalatial house tombs may have servedin this way too. In the palatial periods there is a direct link between tomb and palace cult becausethe tombs are elite tombs, or, to use Effenterre's expression, "tombesseigneuriales".77The shrines at the Temple Tomb, Agia Triada 5, Archanes 3 and B, Myrtos, Pyrgos, and ChrysolakkosII and III, all burial places of an elite class, servedthe special interestsof this classjust as surely as did the shrines in the villas and palaces from which they ruled. In the Prepalatialperiodthe predecessorsof this elite, who should probablybe identifiedas chiefs who ruled over small geographicalareas and actually monopolizedritual or religious responsibilities,also made use of religion to legitimize and consolidatetheir authority.78It is no coincidencethat at the very time when this elite was expanding and consolidatingits power in the MM Ia phase, shrinesproliferatedthroughoutCretein many locations.These shrines played an "integrativerole", as Cherry and Bintliff have observed,79and helped unify a society that was being organized hierarchically.The individuals buried in these tombswere the very ones who were bringingaboutthe unificationof the island in a number of highly centralizedpalatial polities, and "religioussanctions"and the "manipulationof ideological symbolism"were among the more importantmeans they employedto achieve their goals. Effenterre,Palais de Mallia, p. 247. E. Service,Primitive Social Organization,New York 1962, pp. 143-177; M. Fried, The Evolutionof Political Society,New York 1967, pp. 137-141; Soles, Problemsin GreekPrehistory,pp. 49-61. 79 J. Bintliff, Natural Environmentand Human Settlementin PrehistoricGreece (British Archaeological ReportsSupplementarySeries 28), Oxford 1977, pp. 635-641; J. Cherry,"The Emergenceof the State in the PrehistoricAegean,"PCPS 30, 1984 (pp. 18-48), pp. 34-35. 77 78
VI BURIALS AND SOCIAL RANKING The house tombs are collectivetombs. They were used for repeatedburials for severalgenerationsand often for hundredsof years. Most of the tombson Mochlos appearto have been used in both the EM II and EM III phases of the Prepalatialperiod,perhapsfor as many as 850 years,1and most of those at Gournia in both the MM Ia and Ib phases, some 350 years. The prolongeduse of these buildings, which must have required frequent repairs to their mud-brickwalls and roofs,is typical of other house tombs,and only after long periodsof use were old tombs abandonedand new tombs constructedto accommodatenew burials. BURIAL DEPOSITS The burial depositsuncoveredin the tombs are the result, then, of many years of repeated use, and three differenttypes of burial deposits are found as a result, often within one and re the same tomb. Usually the burials are disturbed,the skeletal remains fragmentaryand mixed indiscriminatelyin such a way that it is no longer possible to identify individuals. Sometimesthe principalbones, mainly skulls, are gatheredup and placed either at one side of the tomb or in special containers, carefully stored away. At other times undisturbed burials, still articulatedand usually contracted,are found on the floor of the tomb or inside larnakes. These three apparently separate types of deposits have caused some confusion. Many archaeologists,emphasizingthe disarrayand fragmentarynatureof the burials,refer to the tombs as "ossuaries","bonehouses",or o0rcoO7Kal, suggestingthat the tombs were used for secondaryburialsand that the primaryburials and the decompositionof the corpses occurredelsewhere. Such were the views of the early archaeologistsat Palaikastro, who noted that the burial remains belongedto "bodiesskeletonisedby previous intermentelsewhere,"of Seager at Mochlos, who believedthat the "bonesbelongedto secondaryburials ratherthan to original interments,"and more recentlyof Sakellarakisat Archanes,who has suggestedthat the skulls in Tomb 6 were depositedthere after havingbeen transferredfrom anothercemetery.2Burial is thoughtof as a "two-stageprocess",as Braniganhas put it, first in a "mortuaryhouse",later in a "bonerepository".3Although burial did indeed involve a two-stage process in the sense that the bones were relocatedafter the flesh had decayed, there is little evidence for the view that primary burials were made outside the tomb in anotherlocationand that the bones were later removedto the house tombs. Primaryburials have been found in situ in severalof the tombs and indicateanotherprocedure. The numberof still articulatedprimaryburials is admittedlysmall in proportionto the total number of individuals representedby the skeletal material as a whole. Twenty-six have been noted and briefly describedin the house tombs recordedhere. These include one 1 By P. Warren's extended chronology("Problemsof Chronologyin Crete and the Aegean in the Third and Earlier SecondMillennium B.C.,"AJA 84, 1980, pp. 487-499). 2 Bosanquet,PK I, p. 292; Seager,Mochlos II, p. 15; Sakellarakis,Archaeology20, 1967, p. 176. 3 Branigan, Foundationsof Palatial Crete, pp. 155-158; see also Hutchinson (PrehistoricCrete, p. 228), who suggeststhe same procedure.
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each fromArchanes3, 7, and 19, ChrysolakkosII, PalaikastroVII, and ZakrosA, two each from Archanes 5 and 18 and the northernof the Eastern Ossuaries at Mallia, three each from PalaikastroV and VI and ZakrosB, and five from ArchanesB. In addition,an undisclosed numberof undisturbedburials is reportedfrom Agios Georgios,in the south section of the west room,fromArchanes5, depositedin stratain the easterncompartment,fromArchanes B, in the lower stratumin the north additionof the tomb, and from Myrtos, Pyrgos, in the burial strata of the main chamber.All these burials, except for that outside Palaikastro VII, appearto have been contracted.Where the informationhas been reported,11 of 17 are orientedwith head to the east, and 7 of 9 are placedon their left side. Most of the burials lay directlyon the pavedor earth floorsof the tombs,and in only a few cases do they seem to have been placedon speciallypreparedsurfaces.At PalaikastroVI, where the burial was no longer complete,a special pebble flooringhad been prepared;at Chrysolakkosthe burial is reportedto have been placedon a stickygreen clay;and at Archanesthe numeroussea shells found with several of the burials may have providedspecial beddings. In addition, many primaryburialswere placedinside larnakesand pithoi fromthe MM Ia phase on. Only five have been preservedstill articulated,those from Archanes 5 and 18 and Zakros A and B, which accountfor four of the six cases in which the burialsare not orientedtowardsthe east, but the numberof additionallarnakesand pithoi preservedin the tombs,empty or containing fragmentaryremains, suggests that the practicewas common.Often burials, whether placedon the flooror in larnakes,appearto have been separatedfromthe rest of the tombby secondarydividingwalls. Such is the case at ZakrosB and Myrtos, where flimsy walls were thrown up aroundthe burials, and at Archanes3 and Mochlos IV, where more substantial walls blockedthe burials at the rear of the compartments. The evidencefrom the tholos tombs is similar. Here too most of the burials are badly disturbed,but a small numberof undisturbedburials has been reported.These includethe articulatedlimbs of one skeleton in the Agia Triada A annex, Room G, another in the southwest room of the Agios Kyrillos annex, and at least one from the upper stratum of Archanes E, two each from the Apesokari annex, Room C, and the Gypsades tholos at Knossos,and as many as seven from ArchanesF.4 All are contractedand rest either on the floorsof the tombs or in larnakes.Those resting on the floor lie on their left side with head oriented to the east, while those in larnakes are oriented in all directions.A number of extended inhumations are also reported somewhat tentatively from Vorou and from the Lendostholoi,5but they appear to be exceptional. In both house tomb and tholos, the same building clearly servedas mortuaryhouse and as ossuary. In the house tombs, primary burials and the secondarystorage of bones were usually made within one and the same room. At the same time, in several cases one room within a tomb seems to have been intendedfor the initial laying-outof the deador prothesis, just as other rooms seem to have been designedas ossuaries.Such appearsto have been the case at PalaikastroVI and Mochlos IV/VI, where the outer roomsmay have been reserved Stefani, ASAtene 13-14, 1930-1931, p. 151; Sakellarakis,AAA 1, 1958, p. 52, fig. 2; Schorgendorfer, Forschungenauf Kreta, p. 18; S. Hood, "Archaeologyin Greece, 1957," ArchReportsfor 1957 (pp. 3-25), p. 23. 5 Marinatos, AEAr 13, 1930-1931, pp. 150-151; G. Daux, "Chroniquesdes fouilles et decouvertesarcheologiquesen Grece en 1958, Crete,"BCH 83, 1959 (pp. 731-754), p. 742. 4
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for the prothesis, and at Myrtos, Pyrgos, where the pillar crypt served this function. At PalaikastroVI one burial lay in situ in the outer room while two more lay with a large numberof disturbedburials and skulls in the inner room;at Mochlos IV/V/VI the remains of a burial are reportedin the northernpart of CompartmentIV, while many skulls were put away in the inner chamberVI; and at Myrtos, Pyrgos,the articulatedburials lay on the floorin the crypt,while dozensof skulls were packedso tightly into adjacentrooms"thatthe flesh had to have rottedbefore they were put in."6The use of differentrooms for different stages of burial may have been more commonthan the evidencesuggests. So, for example, roomsthat are found empty, such as the north room of Mochlos I or Room 2 of Archanes6, or with the remains of only one burial, such as the outer east room of Gournes, while the rest of the tomb is packed full of skeletal material, may also have been reserved for the prothesis. In the one case, the skeleton has been removedand the room cleared for future use, while in the other the cleaning has not yet taken place.7 Disturbed burials are the rule. They are reportedin all the house tombs where burials are describedand also in the other collectivetombsof the period.The disturbanceis usually explained by the presumedtransferralof the bones from primaryburial elsewherebut may be due to other factorsas well. In the Kyparissirock shelter,where tracesof fire and animal bones were mixed with the human remains,it was suggestedthat the disarrayof the skeletal materialwas due to funeral rituals that took place inside the cave. In the Zakrostombsthe excavatornoted that most of the burials were locatedat the sides of the rooms,and in Room B of Tomb A it was clear that these remainshad been swept to the sides of the roomin order to provide space for the larnax burial in the center. A similar practicemay be noted in at least two Mesara tholoi, at Kamilari and KoumasaE. In the latter the excavatornoted that the bones had been swept up and heaped togetherin the northwestpart of the tholos, as if the tomb had been "tidiedup ready for new interments."8Repeated use of the tombs over many years, then, may also account for the confusion of skeletal material. As each new burial was made, previous burials were removedto make room. The repeated and prolongeduse of the tombsalso necessitatedperiodiccleanings,without which the tombswould quickly have becomefilled as the floor level was continuallyraised,and they could not have been used for as long a periodas they were. These cleaningsalso help accountfor the confusion and fragmentarynature of the remains. an, d probablyas a part of an extendedfuneral ritual, most bones During the cleanings, were thrown out, often including principal bones, while skulls were retained and placed elsewhere within the tomb. It is unclear if the skulls were always saved, but the care taken with those that were suggests that this may have been the practice. Sometimesthe skulls were simply put on the earth floorto one side of the room, as at Mochlos I, where they were stacked in a pile in one corner, or they might be deposited in pits in the floor, whether natural cavities like those in Mochlos II and VI or artificiallydug like that in Gournia I. Beginningin the EM III/MMIa phases, variouscontainerswere employed.They might be Cadogan,ArchReportsfor 1977-1978, p. 74. Branigan has suggested that empty rooms in the tholos annexes may have served a similar function (Branigan, Tombsof Mesara, pp. 94-95; Blackmanand Branigan,BSA 77, 1982, p. 52). 8 Xanthoudides, VTM, pp. 7, 34; Levi, ASAtene23-24, 1961-1962, pp. 24-32, figs. 21-27. 6
7
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small or large vases of any shape. If small, only a single skull would be depositedinside, as in so many cases at Archanes 6, but if a large vase was used, the skull might be deposited togetherwith some of the principal bones, as at PalaikastroVII, or severalskulls might be deposited,as at Archanes 19, where the remainsof three individualswere found inside one large vase and the remains of animal, chicken, and fish bones, as well as sea shells, small vases, and other grave goods were found with the skulls in other vases. The most popular containersfromthe MM Ia phase on, however,were pithoi and larnakes.These were found to containskeletalmaterialat the House of the Dead at Mallia, ZakrosA, the Tomb of the Painted Sarcophagusat Agia Triada, and at Archanes,where virtuallyeverytomb seemsto have employedthem as storage containers.Pithos and larnax fragmentsfrom other tombs suggest that such practicewas widespread.The number of skulls storedwithin pithoi and larnakesmight range from only one or two to ten or more. In one case at Archanes 18, 17 skulls were found in and arounda brokenlarnax, many of which were once storedinside it. Like the tombs, the larnakes seem to have been used for repeatedburials, and the skulls stored in the larnakes often seem to have belonged to earlier burials in the same larnax. Thus at ZakrosA and in severalof the tombs at Archanes,bones of earlierintermentswere occasionallypushed to one side of the larnax to make room for a new occupant.As more burials were made in the larnax, only the skulls of previousburials would be retained,and eventuallyeven some of these might have to be placed elsewherein the tomb. In the tomb at Agia Triada, for example, it was suggestedthat the painted larnax was used repeatedlyfor primaryburials and that the skulls from these burials were placed in the unpaintedlarnax in the cist below floor level. In additionto the cornersof rooms or pits in the floor, pots, pithoi, and larnakes,specially constructedenclosuresand occasionallyspecial roomswere also used for the storageof skulls and principal bones. They include the walled crypt hidden beneath the floor of the room west of the pillar crypt in ArchanesB, where the remainsof 13 individualshad been placedin a single sarcophagus.Barrierswere erectedacrossthe west roomsof Archanes3 to close off the burial remains, and the walls erected between the pillars and the south and west walls of the pillar crypt in the Temple Tomb were designedto containall the previous burials in the tomb as well as various building debris. Special rooms designed primarily as ossuaries have also been noted at Mochlos (CompartmentV), Myrtos, Pyrgos, Palaikastro III (Rooms 3 and 4), and Archanes 5 and 6. In several of these cases the ossuary rooms were additionsto the original tombs and appear to have been addedto store earlier burials from these tombsand permit their furtheruse. Eventuallythey might themselvesbe used for primaryburials;for example,two articulatedburialswere foundin situ in the eastern compartmentof Archanes5. The other collective tombs of the period, especially the tholos tombs, appear to have been used in the same fashion. Here too periodiccleaningsinvolvedthe selectivecollection and retentionof skulls and principalbones. At Platanos B and KoumasaB skulls had been heaped togetherat distinctpoints along the ring walls of the tholoi.9At Agia Triada A they lined the ring wall of the tholos and were also collectedin Rooms F and G of the annex.'0 9
Xanthoudides, VTM, pp. 7, 92. 10Stefani,ASAtene 13-14, 1930-1931, 151, fig. 5. p.
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Containerswere also used to store the skeletal remains,whether small vases as at Vorou A, Room AA 1,11or more often pithoi and larnakes. These are reportedfrom a number of tholoi, includingArchanesF and E, Drakones, Gypsades, Kamilari, Porti, Siva, and especially Vorou, where the annex Rooms AA 1 and 2 of Tholos A were packed with two layers of pithoi and larnakes stackedon top of each other. Small, roughly built enclosures were also used for bone deposits,such as that built to one side of Room AA 2 at Vorou A,12 and certain rooms of the annexes often seem to have been designatedfor this purpose. At Porti, Room y, which was packedwith disturbedbones,was identifiedas an ossuary,and at ApesokariII, the large rectangularroom addedto the south of the original four-roomannex was also identifiedas an ossuary.13Although mainly intendedfor secondarybone deposits, here too the ossuariesmay haveaccommodateda primaryburial at some point in their use; thus in the Apesokari II ossuary a small larnax belonging to an infant burial was found intact and apparentlyin its original position. SKULL RETENTION AND FUNERARY RITUAL In additionto indicatingthat the house tombswere used for primaryburials, the articulated burials reportedfrom these tombs are importantfor informationthey provideconcerning funerary ritual, particularlyat the time of initial interment.One in particular,an undisturbedinfant burial reportedfromArchanes19 underneatha large stonein the cornerof the tomb, was accompaniedby a depositof animal and fish bones, indicatingthat food offerings accompaniedthe initial intermentof the deceased.Food remainsreportedin disturbedcontexts in other tombs at other sites, as well as the arrayof food remainsthat Sakellarakishas identifiedin practicallyall the Archanestombs,includingvariousanimalbones,chicken,and fish bones, may then also belong to such offeringsmade to the deceased.They need not be thoughtof only in termsof some funeraryrepastheld by mournersat the tomb.14 Two articulatedburials reportedin the house tombs representan intermediatestage in the burial process between the initial interment of the corpse and the sweeping up and disposal of the skeletal remains and provide further informationregardingfunerary procedures.One burial at PalaikastroV and anotherat ArchanesB were found in situ with articulatedlimbs but with their skulls removed,at Archanesleaving a displacedlowerjaw. In the Palaikastroburial the skull removedmay have been one of those placed in the adjacent room; at Archanesthe skull seems to have been placed at the feet of the skeleton. In both cases the skulls were intentionallyremovedat a time when the bodies had decayed sufficiently to permit the separation. In both cases the primary burials, the removal, and the secondarydepositionof the skulls occurredin one and the same tomb. At a still later time, after the gatheringof the skulls, or in some cases perhapsduringtheir removal,the remaining bones of the skeletonswould have been displaced.A similar procedureappears to have been followed in the tholoi. So at Vorou A an articulatedburial found beneath a large spouted tub in Room AA 2 was apparently complete except for its missing skull. As at 11Marinatos, AeAT 13, 1930-1931, p. 150. 12Marinatos, AcAT 13, 1930-1931, fig. 15.
13Xanthoudides, VTM, pp. 56-57; Davaras, AeAr 19, 1964, p. 441. 14As Braniganhas suggestedfor the tholos tombs (Branigan, Tombsof Mesara, pp. 93, 102).
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PalaikastroV and ArchanesB it had been removedafter the decompositionof the flesh, and a skull thoughtto belong to the burial was found near by, outsidethe tub.'5 The gathering and redepositionof skulls so graphically illustratedin these examples were accompaniedby still another offering of food, in this case if not also in the first, togetherwith the offeringof conicalcups. Many of the vases used for the final depositof skulls at Archanes,particularlyin Tomb 19, also held the remainsof foodpackedside by side with skulls. Still other vases in the upper stratum of Archanes 19, which were depositedat the same time as those that stored skulls, held only food supplies. In these cases the offerings were made when the skulls were finally deposited,but unless the offerings were actually placed with the skulls, as these were, it is not always possibleto recognizethe offeringas a secondaryofferingmade in conjunctionwith the removalof the skull. The offeringof conical cups at this stage of the funerary ritual is much more easily recognized,and several examples of such offerings have been cited. Perhaps the best are the cups placed with the articulatedbut decapitatedburial in ArchanesB, one cup placedby the displacedlowerjaw, another inverted by the skull at the feet of the skeleton. Other cups are reported,often invertedalongsidethe skull or actually attachedto them, in Archanes5, 8, and 19, in each case after the skull had been separatedfrom its skeleton and depositedin its final resting place. At Gournia II two cups, one on its side and perhaps originally inverted,were also found embeddedin the fragmentaryskull in the west room of the tomb. At PalaikastroVII conicalcups, which constitutedthe majorityof the pottery,were often found invertedby the skulls they accompanied.Because of the intentionaldepositionof cups in these cases, their presenceby skulls in other tombs, which might otherwisebe consideredpart of the normal assemblage of vases deposited with the dead, acquires special significance.At Gournes, where a cup was reportedby each of the skulls, at Palaikastro,where such cups are reported and in everyhouse tombwhere to have been especiallycommonamong all the cemeteries,'16 these cups appear, they should be identified,at least in part, as the remains of secondary offeringsplacedby relocatedskulls. Most of the cups date to the EM III and MM I phases, when the shape has begun to appear in some quantity, but the choice of the particularshape is neverthelesssignificant, since such cups now begin to be used in cult contexts,not only at tombaltars such as those at Kamilari and ApesokariI, invertedin both cases, and Gournia II but also in peak sanctuaries. The use of such cups for offeringsbecomesincreasinglycommonat a later time when they are identifiedas "votivecups"by Evans and are found in several cult contexts, most notably at the Spring Chamberby the Caravanseraiat Knossos,in the upper shrine at the PsychroCave, and in the pillar cryptat GypsadesHouse B, where some 200 were rangedin rows to one side of the pillar.17 In each of these cases the cups were invertedand often held the remainsof carbonizedfood offerings.It may be inferredthat the conicalcups placedby 15 Marinatos, AcAT 13, 1930-1931, pp. 150-151.
16 Bosanquetand Dawkins, PK II, p. 303; Dawkins and Bosanquet,PK IV, p. 269. 17 Evans, PM II, pp. 134-135, fig. 68; Evans, "The Palace of Knossos,"BSA 7, 1900-1901 (pp. 1-120), pp. 98, 76, pl. VI; M. Wiener, "Creteand the Cyclades in LM I: The Tale of the Conical Cups," in The Minoan Thalassocracy,Myth and Reality, R. Hagg and N. Marinatos, edd., Stockholm1984, (pp. 17-26), p. 20 with additional bibliography; and see now C. Gills, Minoan Conical Cups: Form, Function and Sig-
nificance (SIMA 89), G6teborg1990, pp. 25-125.
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249
the skulls also containedfood or perhaps liquid offeringsand that the shape itself endowed the offeringwith a special sanctity. The use of these cups in the funeralritual is paralleledby the initial depositionof vases with food offerings as well as other objectswith the dead at the original interment.If the function of the original deposit was to equip the dead with objectsto sustain him in the afterlife,the secondaryoffering of conicalcups probablyserveda similar purpose.The two offerings,one made considerablyafter the other, however, suggest that life after death also involvedtwo stages,firstperhapsa periodof limbowhich lastedas long as the bodyremained intact and during which time the dead remainedon earth and lived in the tomb, and later withethe dn decompositionof the flesh and the removalof the skull a release from earthly existenceand an afterlifein anotherworld. In this casethe initial offeringsof fooddepositedwith the dead and placedagainsttombwalls, duringor after initial interment,sustainedthe dead while he residedin the tomb, and the personalpossessionsand other objectsof trade that he requiredin life were laid by his side to satisfy his earthly needs so long as he remainedon earth. Such a conceptof the afterlifeexplains the natureof the house tomb in many civilizations where it appears.18The dead is thought to live on in the tomb, if only for a few years after death, and tombsthat resemblethe house in which the dead lived in life are requiredto insure furtherthe continuityof his existenceduringthe periodof limbo.The small terracotta model from Kamilari I, which Levi believes to depict a cult of the dead, with two small figuresworshipingfour larger figures in front of their tomb,19may representa scene of just such food offeringsmade to the deadwhile they still inhabitthe tomb.The mere representation of the offeringmay have possesseda potentforcethat assuredthe offering,not unlikethe homeopathicmagic that similar models in Egyptian tombs possessed.Such offerings were requiredonly temporarily,however,and afterthe decompositionof the fleshand the removal of the skull, neither offeringsnor personalpossessions,nor even a resting place in the tomb were required.Possessions,earlierofferings,and the bonesthemselvesmight be swept aside, sometimes removedor sometimes stored away, without fear of harming or provokingthe dead. The apparentdisregardfor the dead, contrastingso sharplywith the initial care with which they were laid out, has also been notedby Braniganin the case of the Mesara tholoi20 and does not indicate a lack of belief in an afterlife but only that the dead were no longer thoughtto residein the tomb.At this time and as part of the rite involvingthe removalof the skull, a second food offering was placed by the removedskull to providesome final sustenance, perhaps for the journey of the soul to its new abode. The cup that held this offering was often invertedto fix the offering in the earth. Astrom has noted that the inversionmay "beexplainedas a naturalact, consistingof pouringout a liquid and leavingthe emptyvessel upside down at the same place."But by being left there, it becomesa "memorialof the act" and when repeated"infuneraryor sacredcontexts,it may becomea ritual."21 Other rituals in additionto the offeringof foodand conicalcups almostcertainlyaccompanied the burial of the dead. In the case of the Mesara tholoi, rituals such as farewell 18
19 20 21
For a surveyof house tombs, see Grinsell, Barrow,Pyramidand Tomb,pp. 9-16. Levi, ASAtene23-24, 1961-1962, pp. 123-127; see also Branigan, Tombsof Mesara, pp. 116-118. Branigan, Tombsof Mesara, pp. 109-111. P. Astr6m, "InvertedVases in Old World Religion,"JPI 1, 1987 (pp. 7-16), p. 13.
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BURIALS AND SOCIAL RANKING
toasts,libationsto the dead,banquetsin their honor,fumigationsand the laying out of clean floorsin the tombs,ritual dancing,and bull games have all been suggestedas possibilities.22 While the evidencefor some of these rites at the Mesara tombsis betterthan it is for others, with the exceptionof Archanesthere is little evidencefor any of them at the house tombs.At Archanes, where the two types of tombs, one characteristicof the Mesara, the other of centraland eastern Crete, come together,burial customspeculiar to the Mesara must have been practiced,and Building 4 in particularseemsto offer some evidenceof the toastingand banquetingthat may have been practicedin the Mesara. Regional or culturaldifferencesin burial customsshouldbe expected,however,particularlyduringthe Prepalatialperiod,and it may be that burial in the Mesara involved certain rites that were not practicedin the northernand easternparts of the island. Whateverdifferencesin burial customsthere may have been between these two areas, the similaritieswere neverthelessconsiderable,based as they were on the same belief in a two-phase existenceafter death. In addition,the altars and shrineslocatedat so many of the house tombs, as well as the Mesara tholoi, have been identifiedas those of a Minoan deity, and the ritual vases and implementsfound in both types of tomb have been associatedwith the general cult. It has been suggestedthat the shrinesplayed a particularrole in the funerary ritual as suitablelocationsfor invokingthe deity on behalf of the dead.There is perhaps no way to reconstructthe exact manner in which these shrines were used; the altars and ritual equipmentsuggestonly that the deity was invokedat somepoint in the funeraryritual and receivedofferingsand libations.It seems likely, however,that each stageof burial might be accompaniedby its own ritual at the tomb shrine, and some evidenceof this is perhapsto be found in the paintedsceneson the Agia Triada sarcophagus.Largelyowing to Charlotte Long's detailed study of the sarcophagus,23these scenes are now recognizedwith near unanimity as funeraryscenes, although differencesin interpretationof details may still occur. The sceneswere paintedin the Mycenaeanera, probablyduringthe LM IIIa phase before the final destructionof Knossoswhen frescoswere still being made in Crete, and the main dangerin using them to explain earlier Minoan funeraryritual is, of course,that they may depictMycenaeanfuneraryproceduresor at least proceduresthat belongto a time long after those performedbefore the house tombs. Nevertheless, the sarcophagussat inside a very ancienttype of Minoan tomb, the house tomb, and the attributesof the deity depictedon the sarcophagusbelong to a very ancient Minoan deity, the very one who was apparentlyworshippedcenturiesearlier at the house tombs. Becauseof the conservativenatureof funerary ritual in the Bronze Age, it is possible that the rites depictedare similar to those that took place in the Neopalatial periodin frontof Agia Triada 5, ArchanesB, or the Temple Tomb, all of which were still in use in the LM IIIa phase, and beforeothertombseven earlier.Long has interpretedboth scenesas apparentlyunrelatedofferingsperformedin the courseof the funeraryritual, but once the twofoldnatureof the burial customspracticedat boththe house tombsand the Mesara tholoi is recognized,then the two sceneson the sarcophagusbegin to make sense as a coherentunit that depictstwo differentphases of the funeraryritual. Initial offeringsmade on the front of the sarcophagus(coursingbulls, a boat) are made to the dead 22
23
Branigan, Tombs of Mesara, pp. 99-103, 132-138. Long, The Ayia Triadha Sarcophagus.
POPULATIONUNIT
251
at the time of initial intermentwhen he is still presentin this world and standsin frontof the tomb. At this time it was apparentlyalso the customto make offeringsto the deity, perhaps invokedas a guardianof the dead. On the sarcophagusthese are liquid libations made at the tomb altar. At a later time, shown on the reverse side of te sarcophagus,the dead is no longer depicted,not becausethe tomb is no longer shown, as Long suggests,but becausethe dead is no longer present. Perhaps now his skull has been relocated,his skeletondispersed, and his soul releasedfrom its earthly bonds.At this time furtherofferingswere made to the deity, perhapsofferingsof thanksgivingpaid in tributeto the deity'slife-giving powers. On the sarcophagusthese includethe offeringof first fruits and a libation,the sacrificeof a bull, and dancingaccompaniedby the triumphalflute. The doubleofferingmadeto the deceased, for which there is tangible evidence in the tombs, is accompaniedon the evidence of the sarcophagusby a double offeringmade to the deity at the tomb shrine. The actual offerings may have variedfromregionto regionor tombto tomband fromone time to another,but the consecutivetwofold characterof the offering would not vary, rootedas it was in the actual burial practiceand in the Minoan conceptof the afterlife. POPULATION UNIT Althoughit is sometimesassumedthat the house tombswere communaltombsused by clans or perhaps entire communitiesin the same manner as the Mesara tholoi,24the multiple skeletal remains found in the tombs indicate only that they were collectivetombs. They do not readily indicate what unit of population, community,clan, fraternity,or family, used them. If it were possible to establish the actual total of burials ever made in any one tomb and the exact length of time it was used, it might be possible to establish exactly what population unit used the tombs, but such informationis difficultto obtain for two reasons. First, the skeletal remains are always incompleteand fragmentarybecause of the periodic cleaning of the tombs in antiquity or because of later plunderingand destruction.In addition, the length of time a tomb was used is not necessarilythe same as the length of time the pottery found in it was used. Use of the tomb may have been discontinuous, and the depositionof potteryof one phase indicatesonly that burials were made duringsome part of that phase, not necessarilythe whole of it. Nevertheless, in spite of these difficulties,estimates of both the original numberof burials made in Minoan tombs and the length of time the tombs remainedin use have been made. At least three methods have been employed to estimate the total number of burials in any one tomb. One, employedin estimatingthe burial populationof tholos tombs in particular, counts the number of daggers and seals in the tombs. On the assumptionthat these belongto maturemen or heads of families, representingon averageone of everyfive burials, it then multiplies this number by five to obtain an estimate of the total burials.25This method requires several dubious assumptions,but its chief drawbackis that daggers and seals are amongthe least likely objectsto survivethe repeatedcleaningor partial plundering of a tomb, and any estimate based on this method alone will fall considerablyshort of the 24
Branigan, Foundationsof Palatial Crete, p. 159; Cadogan and Hankey (see bibliographyfor No. 27, Myrtos, Pyrgos, p. 176 above). 25 Whitelaw, Minoan Society,p. 343, note 16.
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BURIALS AND SOCIAL RANKING
mark. Another method estimates the original number of burials on the basis of the total mass of skeletal material in the tomb. Basically it constitutesa rough guess and tends to exaggeratethe numberof dead becausethe heaps of bone appear to be so great. Using this method,the excavatorof ZakrosA estimatedthat "upto 600"burialshad been placedin the tomb, but a closerexaminationof the skeletalmaterialand the survivalof only 45 skulls (of an estimated600 individuals)in the relativelyshort periodof use indicatethat considerably fewer burials were made in the tomb.26A third methoduses the numberof skulls preserved in the tomb to estimatethe original total of burials. In view of the care that Minoans took to preserve the skull, relocating it within the tomb after the removal of other bones, this method is much more likely to arrive at a figure approachingthat of the original burial population. It will still fall short of that figure, however, since some skulls will have been crushedand destroyedduringthe prolongeduse of the tomb, and the survivingnumberwill representonly some fractionof the original. This fractionwill be close to the original total in tombs that were used for a relativelyshort time or where some care was taken to protect and preservethe skulls, but it will be short of the total in tombs used for many hundredsof years without special containersfor storingskulls. Skull counts are currently available for ten house tombs. Thirty are reported from Mochlos I and 24 from Gournia III, both of which were used in the EM IIa phase;201 are reportedfrom Archanes6, which was used from the EM II to the MM Ia phase, perhaps with some interruption;181 are reportedfrom Archanes 19; 15 from PalaikastroVI; 97 from PalaikastroVII; 45 from Zakros A and 20 from Zakros B, all of which were used in boththe MM Ia and MM Ib phases; 161 are reportedfromArchanes18, which was used in the MM Ia, MM Ib, and MM II phases; and, finally, 65 are reported from Myrtos, Pyrgos, which was used from the EM III phase into the LM I phase. Since the pottery phase or phases associatedwith the skulls in any one of these tombsprovidesa certaintime frame for the use of the tomb but does not indicatethat it was used continuouslyduringthe whole extent of that phase, the estimatedtime that the tomb remainedin use shoulddepend in part on two variables:the quantityof potteryin the tomb and the numberand the chronologicalspan of the potteryphases represented.The greaterthe amountof potterydeposited in the tomb, the longer it is likely to have been used, and the fewer phases representedand the shortertheir chronologicalspan, the more likely it is that the tomb was used continuously. The problemis compounded,however,by the possibleoverlappingof certainpottery phases and by uncertaintyas to the exact chronologicalspan of some of them. In the following table, Figure 81, estimatesof the numberof burialsmadein each tombper 100 years are computedfor both the extendedchronologyproposedby Warren and for the shorter,more traditionalchronology,in both cases on the assumptionthat the MM Ia phase began 100 years earlier and lasted 100 years longer in central Crete than in eastern Crete and on the assumptionthat the MM Ib phase continuedto the end of the Protopalatialperiod everywhere outsidethe palaces.An estimateof the populationunit using each tomb is then calculated on the basis of Bintliffs proposal that a typical nuclear family of five individuals would contribute20 burials to a collectivetomb each century.27 26See 27
p. 198 above.
Bintliff (footnote79 above,p. 242), pp. 635-641.
253
POPULATION UNIT Tomb
Date
Skull PotteryPhase Date Count Traditional/Extended
MochlosI GourniaIII Archanes6 Archanes18 Archanes19 ZakrosA ZakrosB PalaikastroVI PalaikastroVII Myrtos,Pyrgos
30 EM IIa EM IIa 24 EM II-MM Ia 201 95 MM Ia? 181 MM Ia/Ib 45 MM Ia/Ib 20 MM Ia/Ib MM Ia/Ib 15 97 MM Ia/Ib 65 EM III-LM I
2600-2400/2900-2600 2600-2400/2900-2600 2600-1900/2900-1900 2150-1900 2150-1700 2050-1700 2050-1700 2050-1700 2050-1700 2200-1500/2300-1500
MaximumLength Burialsper of Use 100 Years
Population Unit
200-300 years 200-300 700-1000 250 450 350 350 350 350 700-800
0.5-0.75 0.4-0.6 1-1.45 1.9 2 0.65 0.3 0.2 1.4 0.4-0.45
10-15 8-12 20-29 38 40 13 6 4 28 8-9
FIG.81. Estimatedpopulationmaking use of the tombs
The population estimates in this table indicate that the tombs were not by any means communalgraves, but neither were they used by nuclear units. The tombs that might be expectedto providethe most reliable estimateson the basis of the criteriadiscussedabove, Archanes18 and 19, which appearto be intact, indicatethe largestpopulationunit, 1.8 to 2 nuclearfamilies;they shouldbe regardedas morereliableindicatorsthan tombswith markedly smaller populationunits, such as ZakrosB or PalaikastroVI, where many skulls were probablylost. In addition, the population units at Archanes 6 and PalaikastroVII, 1.4 to 1.45, are probablyboth underestimated.Only three-fourthsof PalaikastroVII was excavated, and furtherexcavationwould uncovera larger numberof skulls;it is not specifically reportedthat Archanes6 was used in the EM III phase, and a gap decreasingits length of use by 150 years would increase the number of burials calculatedper 100 years. In both cases, then, the actual population unit might well approachthat indicatedby Archanes 18 and 19. The conclusionto be drawn from these data is that a population unit somewhat larger than a nuclear family used these tombs. If it were twice as large and consistedof ten individuals,it might be identifiedas an extendedfamily or perhapsa fraternalorganization such as a priestdomor warriorelite. It might be addedthat the small size of the tombs (with the exception of ChrysolakkosII) and the presence of other types of graves or additional tombs in the vicinity also indicate that only some segment of the communitywas buried in any one tomb. An analysis of the skeletalmaterialin the tombscould providea solutionto the identity of the populationunit. A family unit could be identifiedif a "natural"population,that is, a populationwith normal age and sex expectationsrepresentativeof the populationat large, were representedin the skeletal material;whereas a fraternity (or sorority),which is restrictiveby nature, would be identifiableif a significantdeviationfrom normal age and sex distributionswere representedin the skeletalmaterial.Unfortunately,few skeletalanalyses have been completed.The most extensivepublishedto date is the study of the skeletalmaterial from Zakros, where a natural population is representedwith the exceptionof infants, five years old and under, who are missing from the remains. This study may be compromised, however, by the combinationof skeletal material from two different tombs, and
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while it seems unlikely, it is at least theoreticallypossiblethat the combinationhas obscured some deviationin the material.All males in the skeletal materialmay have come from one tomb, and all females from the other. Another study has been reportedfrom Archanes:19 individuals ranging from 5 to 45 years old were identified, including six males and five females. Again, however, the report combines skeletons from different tombs (as well as Anemospelia).28The skeletal materialfrom Myrtos, Pyrgos is being studiedcarefullyand, while still unpublished,is reportedto consistpredominantly,perhapsexclusively,of males, with those buried in the pillar crypt accompaniedby their weapons. The evidencemight appear to be inconclusive,then, were it not for the frequentreportsof infant burials in the tombs. They are reportedspecificallyfrom Archanes3, 6, 18, and 19, where 33 of the 181 skulls countedbelongedto infants or young individuals,the House of the Dead at Mallia, PalaikastroVII, and the Temple Tomb; many morehave probablygone unreported.Infant burials would seem to be the norm, and since fraternitiesdo not normally initiate infants into their ranks, and because infant burials suggest a hereditaryrelationship with adult burials in the same tomb,the tombsshouldbe identifiedas family tombs.The sheernumber of tombs on Mochlos, 24 house tombs representingonly some portionof the original number of tombs, most of them in use at the same time, also points to the family as the unit of burial, at least on Mochlos, since the communitycouldnot accommodate24 fraternitiesand the settlementarea could probablynot have accommodatedmany more than 300 individuals, or about ten individualsper tomb, each used by an extendedfamily.29 The multiplicationof tombs at sites such as Gournia, Archanes, Mallia, and Palaikastrofrom only one or two tombsin the EM II phase to five or six by the end of the Prepalatial periodis also significant.It is the natureof a ruling elite in a chiefdomor monarchyto raise the status of every memberof its family abovethat of ordinaryfamilies;consequently, as the elie family proliferateswith the t passage of time, its lineage grows.30At some point one tomb, which may have been designedfor the foundingelite family, even though repeatedly cleaned, will not be able to accommodatethe extended family of the elite, which has grown into several different families, all claiming descent from the original founder,each ranked accordingto its proximity to the main line, and each requiring burial in a house tomb. The growth of the elite lineage, then, will require the building of multiple tombs at some point. Multiple tombs will not appear only at sites that fall into decline, such as Mochlos, which appearsto have been severelydepopulatedin the MM Ia phase and where only two large or elite tombs were ever built, or at sites founded late in the Prepalatial period, such as Myrtos, Pyrgos, and Gournes, which are probablyboth founded as small country villas by individuals representingoffshoots of a larger elite lineage located elsewhere. Whereverthe elite lineage prospersand the passageof time permits,however,multiple tombswill appear. In the MM Ib phase the elite lineage at Mallia, now a royal lineage, decidedto consolidatethese multiple tombsinto a single monumentalstructure,Chrysolakkos II, which could accommodateall the families in the royal lineage. In this respectMallia 28
Sakellarakis,"Epyov1986, pp. 136-137. Whitelaw, Minoan Society,pp. 337-339. 30 Service (footnote78 above, p. 242), pp. 139-140; idem, The Originsof the State and Civilization,New York 1975, pp. 78-80. 29
SOCIALRANKING
255
differs from other sites such as Gournia, Palaikastro,and Zakros,where the elite was content to continue using earlier and multiple tombs;Mallia probablydiffers from these sites too, however,in that it alone had becomea truly palatial centerby the MM Ib phase. If the royal tombsof other palatial centersin the MM Ib phase were discovered,it mightbe found that they too housedthe entire royal lineage in a single monumentalstructure. SOCIAL RANKING By way of conclusionit may be helpful to reiterateone of the main theses of this book. Many of the house tombs, especially those in the northern and eastern part of Crete, have been identifiedas the tombsof a ruling elite, probablyconsistingof chiefsand their familiesin the Prepalatial period, and probably consisting of kings and a landed nobility in the palatial periods.The identificationof the tombsas elite tombs,whether chieflyor royal, explains the origins of the house tomb in the EM II phase, when Minoan society was being organized along hierarchicallines; it explains the continuinguse of the tombslong after other formsof burial were introducedfor the masses of the population;it explains the presenceof shrines at the tombs as religion becamean importanttool by which these priest-chiefs(later priestkings?) consolidatedtheir power; and it explains the multiplicationof tombs towards the end of the Prepalatial period as chiefly lineages grew. The identification,then, providesa single, unifying explanationfor many aspectsof these tombs, as no other single explanation can, and is also consistentwith anthropologicaltheoryconcerningprimitivesocial organization and the emergenceof state society. This identificationhas been suggested by a number of different factors, the foremost being the use of different types of graves at a given site for different burials, with those belongingto the elite always more elaborateand more costly and often placed in a different location than those of the population at large.31This distinctionis particularlyevident at Mochlos, Gournia, and Mallia, cemeteriesthat have been extensivelyexcavated,where the contrasts are pronounced:at Mochlos, between the tombs on the West Terrace and the much smallertombson the South Slope;at Gournia,betweenthe tombsin the North Cemetery and the simple inhumations and later pithos burials at Sphoungaras (and perhaps Pachyammos);at Mallia, between the tombs in the Necropole des Pierres Meulieres and Chrysolakkosand the rock-creviceand pithos burials along the coast. It may also be notedat Zakros in the contrastbetween the built tombs at Pezoules Kephalas and the many rock sheltersin the Gorge of the Dead. At Archanesthe contrastis complicatedsomewhatby the presenceof a differentcultureburyingits dead in a differenttype of tomb,the tholos (which may also have been used by an extendedfamily unit); but even here numerousinhumations were made directly in the ground outside the built tombs, particularlyin the area south of Tholos r and to the west of Tombs 18 and 19. Were other cemeteriesat large population centersexcavatedas extensivelyas these sites, the same sort of patternshouldhave emerged. Further excavationat Palaikastro,for example, should be expectedto uncoverinhumations 31
For the methodologyinvolvedin determiningsocial ranking from funerarydata, see Soles, Problemsin GreekPrehistory,pp. 49-61; J. Brown, "The Searchfor Rank in PrehistoricBurials,"in The Archaeologyof Death, New Directions in Archaeology,R. Chapman, I. Kinnes, and K. Randsborg,edd., Cambridge1981 (pp. 25-37), pp. 27-30.
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BURIALS AND SOCIAL RANKING
and pithos burials like those at Sphoungarasand Mallia. At smaller, more isolated sites, such as the countryvillas, where only a single house tomb might be used to bury the occupants, a simpler form of burial will also be found for their dependents.In additionto the burialsinside the tombsat Myrtos, Pyrgosand Gournes,directinhumationsare reportedin areas outside and adjacentto the built tombs. Once the house tombs are introduced,the distinctionbetween differenttypes of graves persists through all phases of the Prepalatial and Protopalatialperiods. The distinction begins to fade only when chambertombs are introducedat the end of the Protopalatialperiodand the house tomb is supplantedby a new burial method.It does not fade completely,however,and tombs such as the Temple Tomb at Knossosand Tomb 5 at Agia Triada reflectthe earliertradition. Burial in a house tomb also involves a much more complex treatmentof the deceased than burial in a lesser form of grave. This is true at the initial time of burial, when it appears that the deceasedwas laid out in a special part of the tomb for the prothesis, and subsequently,when the skull was removed,with the offeringof a conicalcup, and redeposited with special care elsewhere in the tomb, all happening,it might be added,with accompanying ritual carriedon at the shrine of the tomb. Burials thrown in the rock crevicesat Mallia, or inhumed directly in the earth at Sphoungarasor Archanes, or squeezed into pithoi at Mallia, Sphoungaras,and Pachyammoswere made with considerablyless effort, requiredno secondarytreatment,and permittedthe skull to decaywith the rest of the body. A prothesisor lying in state, with or without gold-studdedfunerarytrappings,is usually a mark of high rank within the community;skull retentionmay also be indicativeof a special status.32While there are many uses to which skulls might be put, some suggestinga complete disregardfor the dead, their careful retention in the house tombs suggests a certain reverenceand may also representa formof ancestorworship.A chieflylineage, stemmingas it does from the founderof a community,is commonlyelevatedalong with the founderto a semidivinestatus within the community,and the chiefly line, often become a priestly line, Ancestorworshipis a commonlyintercedes"withits ancestralgods in favorof the society."33 commonfeature of chiefdoms.The skulls from Gournia Tomb III, which were carefully redepositedwith the addition of new offerings in the Gournia Tomb I pit 400 years after their initial interment,probablybelongedto Gournia'sfoundersand were treatedwith such care for exactly that reason.The buildersof ArchanesB may also have locateda pillar crypt over a much earlier tomb (7) and carefullyopened a window into that tomb from the crypt becausethey believedthat it belongedto Archanes'founders.All skulls retainedin the house tombsbelongedto membersof an elite class who may have been veneratedat their tombs.A parallel for this kind of skull retentionis found in the Myrtos shrine, Room 89, where the skull of an adult male in his twenties or thirtieswas "deliberatelysituatednear the tripartite structurewith centralhearth"with offeringsplacednear by.34It may well be the remainsof a chief or even founderof the communitywho was veneratedin the communityshrine.35 F. Henschen, The Human Skull, A CulturalHistory, London 1965, pp. 60-63 and Grinsell, Barrow, Pyramidand Tomb,pp. 23-25, with furtherbibliographycited there. 33 Service, Origins of the State (footnote 30 above, p. 254), p. 78; Fried (footnote 78 above, p. 242), 137-141. pp. 34 Warren, Myrtos, p. 83. 35 Somepossibleethnographicparallelsmay be found in societiesthat temporarilyremovedskulls and other 32
SOCIAL RANKING
257
In additionto differencesin the types of gravesand in the treatmentof the deceasedat the time of initial burial and subsequently,there are also considerabledifferencesin the grave goodsfoundin the housetombsand thosefoundwith otherburials.In spite of the factthat the tombs have nearly all been plundered, sufficientgrave goods remain to suggest that these differenceswere both quantitative and qualitative. Although many of the same kinds of objects(pottery,stonevases,jewelry, weapons,seals) are foundin all graves,thereis always a greater concentrationof such objects in the house tombs. The concentrationof wealth is particularlyevidentat Gournia and Mochlos, where none of the burial depositsat Sphoungaras or on the South Slope contains the same mass of wealth as that accumulatedin the North Cemeteryor West Terracetombs.With the introductionof pithos burial at the end of the Prepalatialperiodthe contrastbecomeseven greater,sincefew pithoi containany findsat all.36 In addition, many of the grave goods from the house tombs should be regarded as prestige goods that an elite would have collectedto display its power and status. These includesilvervases,objectsof ivory,and gold and silverjewelry, which are foundin manyof the tombs. They also include finer potterywares, which, althoughnot made exclusivelyfor the elite, were widely used by them, particularlyfor gift exchangeswith other elite groups.The cache of incised pyxides from Gournia III, some reburiedin Gournia I, or the polychrome kantharoifrom Gournia I, all of which were the productsof highly skilled master potters, have few, if any, parallels in the rathercommonplacepotteryfrom Sphoungaras.Similarly, the fine Kamares-stylepotteryfoundin the tombsof the Necropoledes Pierres Meulieres or Chrysolakkoshas no equivalentin the potteryfromthe rock-creviceburialsalongthe coast.37 A few of the grave goodsmay also be identifiedas actual symbolsof authority.Diadems shouldbe recognizedas such becauseof early parallelsin the Prepalatialperiodin Troy and the Near East and later parallels in the Shaft Graves at Mycenae and in Crete itself. They may have had a funeraryuse in the prothesis,as in the AlapaHiiyuk burial,38but early parallels fromTroy and the Cycladesfoundin domesticcontexts,as well as later representations in Minoan art, indicatethat they were also worn by the living. Only two of approximately 15 examples from Mochlos were found outside the large tombs on the West Terrace, and, although they were not long enough to be considereddiadems by Seager, coming from Tomb XIX, which was ratherrich in its gravegoods,they may well have belongedto a family relatedto the chiefly lineage. Other diademsare reportedfrom Chrysolakkos,from several of the tombsat Archanes,and fromAgia Triada 5; they are associatedonly with burials in built tombs at these sites and never with the burials in simpler graves. In addition to diadems, gold and stone scepter-headswere also deposited with the burials in the house tombs.The early examples are more difficultto identifythan the diadems,but they too have contemporaryparallels in Troy and the Near East and somewhat later in the Old Palace bones from the tomb to venerate them at religious ceremoniesand afterwardsreturnedthem. See Grinsell, Barrow,Pyramidand Tomb,p. 26 with bibliographycited there. 36 Hall (Sphoungaras,p. 66) reports,"Fromthe total numberof 150 pithoi found [at Sphoungaras]only 15 provedto containanything else beside the skeleton." 37 Effenterre,Palais de Mallia, p. 237. 38 H. Ko?ay,Ausgrabungenvon Alaca Hoyuik,ein Vorberichtiiber die im Auftrageder TiirkischenGesichtskommissionim Sommer 1936 durchgefuiihrten Forschungen und Entdeckungen,Ankara 1944, p. 80, colorplate.
258
BURIALS AND SOCIAL RANKING
period in Crete.39The gold sheathing from Gournia Tomb VII identifiedby Hawes as a "wandof office"and the identical sheathing found in Gournia Tomb III (PI. 6) may have served as scepter-heads,although it is perhaps their context more than anything else that suggeststhis identification.A similar but shallowergold sheathingwith four pendentleaves from Mochlos Tomb V was identifiedby Seageras "thetip to a staff or sceptre,as its shape precludesany idea that it could be used for personal adornment"and may offer a parallel for the Gournia sheathings.40Still another gold objectfrom the Aigina Treasure, perhaps from Chrysolakkos,has been comparedto a stone panther mace from the first palace at Mallia and identifiedas the "modelof a ceremonialaxe-head."41In the Neopalatial period the mace appears to have been standardizedin the shape of a stone hammer,and one was found in Agia Triada 5 with severalparallelsin the palacesand in at least one countryvilla of that time. Many differentfeatures,then, point to the identificationof the house tombsas tombsof a ruling elite. In the palatial periods these tombs, along with the palaces and villas themselves, provideprimary evidenceof Cretan hierarchicalsocial structure;in the Prepalatial periodthey providethe best evidencefor the chiefdomsthat characterizedMinoan societyin centraland eastern Crete from the EM II phase on. It would seem that certainareas of the Mesara had reachedthe same stage of social developmentby this time,42and the interaction betweenthese chiefdomsfromtwo differentculturesand differentparts of the island, which may not have been always peaceful,lay behindthe palatial organizationof the island at the beginningof the Middle BronzeAge. 39 For the diadems and scepter-headsat Troy, see C. Blegen, Troy and the Trojans, New York 1963, pp. 76-77, figs. 24-26. 40 Seager,Mochlos II, p. 43, fig. 41:V.k. 41 Higgins, The Aegina Treasure,pp. 29-30, figs. 25, 26. 42 K. Branigan,"EarlyMinoan Society:The Evidenceof the Mesara Tholoi Reviewed,"in Aux originesde 1'Hellenisme,la Creteet la Grece,Hommagea Henri van Effenterre,Paris 1984, pp. 29-37. It is noteworthy that, althoughthe Mesara tombsexhibit many of the featuresused here to identifysocial ranking,none can be identifiedas a chieflytomb as long as it is also identifiedas a communaltombused by the entireclan. Although recognizing"thetracesof societiesled by village chiefs"in the remainsof some tholoi, Branigancan argueonly that some of the largerand richertholoi were built "bythe clans fromwhich the village chiefswere drawn."If, on the other hand, the tholoi should prove to be family tombs, as Whitelaw has argued (Minoan Society, pp. 336-343), then some might also be identifiedas chiefly tombs.At sites like Koumasa,Platanos,and Porti, where small rectangulartombs were located between the larger tholoi (and Koumasa F), it is of course the smaller and poorerrectangulartombs that would belong to the general population.
INDEX AFTERLIFE 226, 241, 249, 250, 251 Agia Eirene 13 Agia Kyriaki 2021, 219, 220, 223, 237, 238 Agia Photia 12, 27 Agia Triada 116, cemetery 36, 116, 230, 235, 238, sarcophagus2032, 125, 126, 127, 227, 231, 250251 Neopalatial villa 116 South Building 116-119, 204, 216, 221,234, 237, 240 Tholos A 116, 119, 244, 246 Tholos B 116, 120, 122, 125 Tomb 5 115, 120-125, 208, 209, 217, 218, 223, 229, 23342,238, 239, 241, 242, 250, 256, 257, 258 Tomb of the Painted Sarcophagus115, 125-127, 202, 240, 246 Agios Andoni 27 Agios Georgios vii, 115, 127-129, 204, 210, 227, 240, 244 Agios Kyrillos 229, 23342,238, 239, 244 Agios Myronos 233, 234 Agios Onouphrios 16, 34 Agrimi. See Zoomorphicfigurine Aigina Treasure 258 Alabastron226 Alaca Hiiyiik 257 Altar 19-20, 56-57, 143, 165, 166, 169, 219-223, 232, 234, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 248, 250. See also Bench Amulet 22, 27, 38, 226 Anemospelia2032,254 Animal bones. See Skeletalremains Anthropomorphicfigurine 57, 123, 124, 125, 141, 148, 228,229, 239, 241 Anthropomorphicvessel 91, 232-234, 238, 240, 241 Apesokari,Tomb I 19-20, 187, 217, 218, 219, 220, 227, 234, 238, 239, 240, 244, 248 Tomb II 223, 230, 23870,240, 247 Archanesvii, 129 Building 4 131,132,139-142,145,223,237,240 Building 17 131, 145-146 Phourni (Archanescemetery) 129-131, 206, 207, 227, 228, 229, 230, 232, 246, 247, 250, 254, 255,257
Tomb A 131 Tomb B 115, 131, 132-135, 136, 139, 142, 143, 144, 208, 209, 215, 217, 218, 223, 224, 227, 229, 232, 233, 237, 238, 239, 242, 244, 246, 247, 248, 250, 256 Tomb F 131, 136, 137, 144, 244, 247, 255 Tomb A 131 Tomb E 131, 14365,244, 247 Tomb 3 115, 131, 132, 136-139, 144, 205, 208, 209, 210, 212, 214, 215, 217, 228, 229, 230, 234, 235,239, 242, 244, 246, 254 Tomb 5 131, 136-139, 145, 204, 210, 230, 233, 244, 246, 248 Tomb 6 114,131,132, 13533,142-143,144,145, 149, 204, 210, 223, 227, 230, 243, 245, 246, 252,253,254 Tomb 7 131,132, 134,13533,143-144, 204,229, 244 Tomb 8 115, 131, 144-145, 204, 248 Tomb 11 131 Tomb 12 115, 131, 145 Tomb 18 115, 131, 146-147, 205, 244, 246, 252, 253,254, 255 Tomb 19 115, 131, 147-148, 202, 208, 244, 246, 247,248,252,253, 254, 255 Tomb 24 146 Architecture, agglutinative 205-207, organic 210211. See also Altar; Bench; Column; Doorway; Floor; Pavement; Pillar; Roof; Steps; Wall; Window Asbestos214 Asterousiamountains 155 Awl 34 BAKING PLATE 93
Banti, Luisa 26, 119, 125 Basin 92, 93, 218 Baurain, Claude 162105 Bead 9, 16, 62, 76 Beam socket 134, 215, 21637,218 Becker,Marshall 195, 201 Bell figurine 137, 139, 143, 228, 230 "Bell vases"141 Bench 7, 47, 119, 133-134, 144, 145, 165, 166, 169, 178, 216, 219, 220, 221, 237, 238, shrine 238, 241
260
INDEX
Bin 165, 216 Bintliff, John 242, 252 Boat 182, 237, 250 Bone 38. See also Ivory Bosanquet,Robert C. 169, 180, 185, 187, 188, 189, 243 Bothros.See Pit Bowl 11, 33, 96, 157, 182169,187, 192, 226, 228, 238, 240, 241 Branigan,Keith vi, 241,243,2457, 24714,249,25842 Bronze 8, 12, 16, 21, 27, 34, 40, 43, 58, 61, 62, 123, 140,169, 213 Bull. See Zoomorphicfigurine Burial. See Intramural;Pit burial; Skeletalremains But and ben 55, 188, 204
188, 198, 219, 223, 238, 240, 248, 249, "eggcup" 96, 104120, 160, Vapheio 11-12, 187
Cupboard.See Niche Cyclades 16, 42, 187, 236, 257 Cyprus 2021 DAGGER.See Knife
Davaras, Costis vii, 2, 4, 8, 1321,15, 16, 17, 28, 31, 34, 41, 60,104,158,159,162107 Dawkins, RichardM. 180, 182, 183, 187, 188, 202, 237 Day, P. M. 187180 Debla 202, 203, 206, 211 Deity 230, 231,241,250,251. See also Goddess,Minoan Demargne, Pierre 162105-107, 163, 169, 171, 172,
CADOGAN, GERALDvii, 178
Cape Phaneromenis158 Casella. See Larnax Cave 48-49, 100,112, 114,195, 224, 225,237, 238, 245, sanctuary 227. See also Idaean; Psychro; Pyrgos;Skaphidia;Skoteino;Trapeza Cavity 54, 58, 245. See also Pit Ceiling. See Roof Chamaizi 18, 158, 235, 239 Chamaizijug. See Jug Chambertomb vi, 3, 115, 148, 153, 256 Chapel. See Shrine Chapouthier,Fernand219, 223 Charbonneaux,Jean 173, 176 Cherry,John 242 Chrysolakkos.See Mallia Cist 218, 246 Cist grave 42, 175, 176, 202 Colonnade139, 141, 168, 170, 221 Column 121, 139, 218 Columnar room 153, 232, 238, 239. See also Pillar crypt Compositevessel 135, 148, 232, 233 Conical offeringvessel 166, 227, 239, 240 Cookingpot 141 Corbeledmasonry 131, 133, 215 Courtyard.See Pavement Crypt. See Pillar crypt Cult idol 220, 234, 239, 241 Cup 8, 10-12, 21, 22, 23, 61, 8286,91, 92, 96, 119, 129, 143, 149, 157, 178, 184, 187, 191,195, 198, 226, 228, 239, conical20, 22, 23, 24, 96, 122, 135, 138, 139, 141,144-145, 146, 148, 170, 176, 184,
215, 23659 Dia 148 Diadem 43, 62, 12412,257 Diodorus Siculus 241 Dish 50, 51, 119 Disk 165, 169 Door, wooden 53; lockingsystem 153-154, 170,213; threshold 20, 53, 54, 68, 70, 81, 125, 136, 137, 165, 168, 175, 183,212 Door pivot 20, 108, 169, 213 Door slab 46, 53, 56, 213-214 Doorway 8, 17, 20, 21, 30, 31, 35, 39, 46, 47, 48, 53, 54, 55-56, 64, 65, 68, 69, 70, 73, 75-76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 87, 88, 89, 90, 95, 98, 112, 125, 127, 134, 137, 139, 140, 142, 144, 146, 159, 160, 165, 168, 169, 172, 175, 178, 182, 183, 184, 192, 203, 206, 211-213,214 Flanking piers or spur walls 53, 68, 81, 89, 90, 160, 212-213 Double axe 154, 176, 219, 222, 230, 231, 233, 235, 238,239,241 Dove rhyton 178, 241. See also Zoomorphicvessel Dove Vase 238 Drakones 119, 247 Duckworth,W. L. H. 185, 189, 192, 193 EFFENTERRE, HENRI VAN 162106, 107, 173, 175, 176,
242, and Micheline 162105 "Eggcup".See Cup Egypt 84, 141, 151, 153, 240, 249. See also Tiy Elenes, Amariou206, 211 Elite burial. See Ranking EM phases. See Prepalatialperiod
261
INDEX Entrancefrom above 8, 30, 35, 39, 88, 95, 127, 134, 136, 137, 142, 146, 157, 159, 170, 173, 191, 197, 200, 205,213 Evans, Arthur vi, 26, 124, 151, 155, 217, 224, 231, 241, 248
Gournia, Sphoungaras 1-3, 10, 34, 3748,255, 256, 257 Deposits A and B 1, 3 Rock Shelter I 2, 13, 34, 38 Gypsades.See Knossos
FIGURINE.See Anthropomorphic figurine; Bell figu-
116 HALBHERR,FEDERIGO
rine; Zoomorphicfigurine Finger ring 84 Fixed kernos20, 163, 165, 166, 169, 178, 219, 221223,224, 234, 238, 239, 241 Floor 7, 8, 21, 30, 35, 36, 47, 48, 54, 56, 64, 65, 68, 69, 70, 76, 77, 80, 81, 90, 91, 95, 98, 103, 108, 110, 134, 137, 140, 141,142, 169, 170, 172, 175, 188, 198, 200, 211, 214, 216, 244, upper 140,141, 209, 21638,217, 218, 239 Fresco 127, 134, 175, 216, 217, 239, 250. See also Plaster Fruitstand8, 13, 22, 25-26, 38, 71, 91, 96, 145, 148, 227
Hall, Edith 1, 12, 27, 39, 194 Hawes, Charles H. 184 Hawes, Harriet Boyd v, vi, 1, 2, 3, 7, 9, 12, 21, 22, 23,34,36,38, 39, 40, 257 Hazzidakis, Joseph 148 Hearth 165, 216, 235 Higgins, ReynoldA. 162107 Hittite. See Inkstand Hood, Sinclair 5951,60, 162107,2021 Horns of consecration154, 221, 231, 239, 241 House tomb v-vi, 2, 39, 42, 114-116, 153, 243, 249, 250 Grave goods 200, 257 Origins 114, 224-225, 230, 255 Plans 202-205 See also Architecture;architecturalfeatures: Altar, Bench, Doorway, Floor, Roof, Steps, Walls, Window; Chamber tomb; Ossuary; and individual tombs Hutchinson, RichardW. 162107,243
GALLET DE SANTERRE, HUBERT 23659
Gaming table. See Kernos Gesell, Geraldine C. 241 Goblet 13, 26, 82, 110, 182 Goddess, Minoan 91, 169, 228, 234. See also Deity Gold 16, 34, 40, 50, 58, 59, 62, 71, 76, 82, 84, 86, 124,256,257,258 Gonies Melebiziou 228, 240 Gournes, Pediados 10, 11, 25, 3647, 115, 148-151, 157, 187176,204, 210, 229, 231, 232, 245, 248, 254, 256 iepo XhaKKoS7, 148, 151, 202, 227, 228, 237, 240 Gournia 62, 96, 104, 114, 115, 194, 202, 205, 206, 207, 209,217,221,235, 236, 240, 243, 254, 255 Gournia, North Cemetery v, 1-3, 207, 226, 242, 255,257 Building IV 34-36, 202 Rock SheltersV and VI 2, 3, 31, 36-38 Tomb I 3-17, 20, 31, 36, 70, 100, 115, 151, 157, 180, 204, 207, 208, 209, 213, 216, 227, 237, 245,256, 257 TombII 3, 17-28, 36, 115, 163, 165, 172, 204, 210, 212, 213, 219, 220, 222, 237, 240, 241, 248 Tomb III 2, 28-34, 36, 38, 114, 180, 204, 205, 211,252, 253, 256, 257 Tombs VII and VIII 34, 39-40, 115, 204, 257
IDA, MOUNT116
Idaean Cave 231 Incense burner 123, 125 Inkstand,Hittite 124 Intramuralburial 2, 39 Isopata 21536
Ivory 1, 9, 17, 34, 59, 60, 229, 257 JAR59, 60, 92, 96, 104, 123, 184, 221, 226, 228 Jewelry 1, 58, 59, 60, 71, 82, 86, 124, 162107,226, 257. See also Amulet; Bead; Diadem; Finger ring Jones, R. E. 187180 Jug 8, 10, 22, 24-25, 26-27, 34, 38, 5848,59, 8285, 85, 91, 92, 93-94, 96, 104120, 129, 187, 188, 226,
234, beaked 169, Chamaizi 25, 187176,227, milk 141,146, 180, 182169,228 Juktas (Mount) 2032,129, 220, 221, 222, 228, 240 KAIRATOS RIVER
Kalathiana205
151
262
INDEX
Kamilari 140-141, 21323,219, 220, 223, 227, 229, 232, 233, 23870,240, 245, 247, 248, 249 Kantharos8, 9-10, 228 Kato Zakros.See Zakros Katsamba21746,21951 Kenna, Victor E. G. 27 Kephala 21536 Kernos20,135, 147, 157,233. See also Fixed kernos Knife 40, 58, 61, 123, 140, 251, 257 Knossos 18, 23, 25, 33, 34, 38, 92, 114, 124, 149, 151, 153, 171144,215, 216, 217, 220, 221, 224, 225, 248, 250 Basementof the Monolithic Pillars 23343,238 Gypsades 151, 244, 247, 248 High Priest's House 153 Palace 208, 218, 222, 224, 228, 231, 241, 242; Hieroglyphic Deposit 27; Room of the Olive Press 22 SoutheastHouse 218 Temple Tomb 115, 125, 151-155, 208, 209, 213, 215, 217, 218, 223, 224, 227, 228, 230, 238, 239, 241,250, 254, 256 Tomb of the Double Axes 230 Koumasa13, 15, 27, 33, 85, 122, 123, 155-156, 193, 229, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 240, 245, 246 Tomb r 114, 155-158, 202, 223, 25842.See also Pottery,Koumasastyle Kouroupakis,Iannis 411 Kyparissi245 LAMP26, 96, 169
Larnax 2, 8, 23, 40, 115, 126, 134, 135, 137, 138, 142, 143, 145, 146, 147, 148-149, 179, 184, 195, 198, 200, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247. See also Agia Triada, sarcophagus Lasithi Plain 225 Lebena. See Lendos Lendos 13, 2021, 227, 23342,237, 244 Levi, Doro 231, 249 Libation formula227 Libation table 221; vessel 176, 221, 230, 232-234, 239, 240, 241. See also Rhyton "Lid".See Fruitstand Limestone.See Sideropetra Linares viii, 114, 158-160 LM III phase. See Mycenaeanperiod Lockingsystem. See Door Long, CharlotteR. 121, 125, 12517,250, 251 Loom weight 141
MACEHEAD.See Scepter-head
MacGillivray,J. A. 187180 MacKenzie, Duncan 21-22 Magasa 202, 204 Mallia 9, 10, 11, 25, 91, 160-163, 171144,217, 221, 228, 229, 233, 254, 255, 256; palace 171, 219, 222; shrines 2046, 221, 227, 231, 241 ChrysolakkosI 20, 163-166, 216, 219, 220, 221, 223, 227,234, 235, 237, 239, 240, 241 ChrysolakkosII 20, 115, 163, 166-171, 205, 208, 209, 210, 215, 217, 219, 220, 221, 223, 227, 237, 239, 240, 241, 242, 244, 253, 254, 257, 258 ChrysolakkosIII 115, 171, 208, 242 L'Ilot du Christ 9, 160 Necropole des Pierres Meulieres 219, 221, 227, 255,257; EasternOssuaries 115, 172,204,244; House of the Dead 115, 173-176, 205, 216, 230, 231,232, 234, 239, 246, 254 Western Ossuary 114, 172-173, 202, 227 House A 217 House B 205 House 0 204, 205 Marathokephalo,13, 33 Matz, Friedrich 162107 Maza 230 Mesara 13, 34, 84, 114, 131, 155, 193, 2261, 228, 233,234, 235,237,245, 249-250, 251, 258 Milk jug. See Jug Miniature vase 8, 10, 151, 186-187, 226, 227, 238, 240 MM Ia phase. See Prepalatialperiod MM Ib/II phase. See Old Palace period MM III phase. See Neopalatial period Mochlos 15, 16, 207, 221; cemeteryv, 41-42, 129, 157, 202,207, 231,236, 243, 254, 255,257 Mochlos, South Slope 63,208,209,210, 214; East of 108; Terrace 1 106-107; Terrace 2 105;Terrace 3 97-98; Terrace 4 94; Terrace 5 80, 87, 95; Terrace 6 72-73, 95; Terrace 7 64, 79, 108 Tomb VII 42, 98, 100, 104, 114, 202, 205, 225 Tomb VIII, 42, 98, 100, 104 Tomb IX 72, 79-84, 114, 204, 205, 208, 213 Tomb X 72, 79-84, 114, 204, 205, 208, 211, 214 Tomb XI 94-97, 114, 202, 211, 233, 235 Tomb XII 42, 213 Tomb XIII 87-88, 94, 114, 202, 211, 233 Tomb XIV 42, 98, 100, 105121
Tomb XV 80, 87, 88, 91, 92, 93, 114, 202, 211 Tomb XVI 80, 87, 88-92, 93, 94, 114, 204, 208
INDEX Tomb XVII 80, 87, 88-91, 92, 93-94, 114, 204 Tomb XVIII 42, 100,105-106 Tomb XIX 64-65, 71, 114 TombXX/XXI 42, 72, 73-76, 80, 81-82, 90, 114,204,205,209,211,214,235 Tomb XXII 72, 73, 76-77, 80, 82, 85-86, 114, 202, 211,236 Tomb XXIII 64, 65, 68, 71-72, 79, 80, 114, 204, 205,209, 212, 213, 214 Tomb A 42, 64, 68, 69, 71, 77, 79, 114, 204, 205, 211,212 Tomb B 42, 64, 69-71, 98, 114, 202, 207, 213 Tomb F 42, 72-73, 77, 82, 83, 84-85, 94, 211, 214 Tomb A 42, 98, 100, 103-104, 204, 207 Tomb E 42, 98, 100, 103-104 Tomb Z 42, 107-108, 114, 202, 207 Tomb H 42, 108-110,114, 202 Tomb 0 42, 110, 114 Tomb 1 42, 112, 114, 202, 205,225 Tomb K 42, 112-113, 114, 202 Mochlos, West Terrace 42-43, 75, 87, 88, 98, 204, 208, 213-214, 220, 224, 226, 242 Tomb Complex I/II/III 38, 42, 43-51, 73, 80, 114, 202, 204, 205, 206, 210, 211, 213, 223, 225,230, 235, 237, 245, 252, 253 Tomb Complex IV/V/VI 20, 51-62, 80, 81, 89, 114, 178, 204, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 219, 223, 224, 229, 235, 237, 238, 242, 244, 245,246, 258 Model 141-142, 227, 229, 249. See also Boat Mud brick.See Walls Muhly, Polymnia 23556 Mycenae 17, 124, 257 Mycenaean period (LM III) 22,115,116,122,131, 133, 135, 148, 155, 160, 173, 175, 176, 179, 184, 202, 227, 232,241,250 Myrtos (Fornou Koriphi, settlement)51, 60, 71, 85, 93, 97, 108, 110, 180, 206, 211, 212, 215, 21639, 220, 222, 234, 237,256 Myrtos, Pyrgosvii, 10,115,176-179,208,209,217, 218, 219, 221, 223, 224, 228, 231, 232, 233, 237, 238, 239,242, 244, 245,246, 252,253, 254, 256 NEOLITHIC 202, 204, 224-225, 229, 231
Neopalatial (New Palace) period 1, 41, 83, 92, 115, 116, 122, 124, 125, 131,135, 139, 141,142, 155, 208, 209, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 223, 224, 233, 234, 235,258
263
MM III phase 49, 55, 59, 60, 73, 82, 115, 123, 166, 171,214, 227, 229, 231 LM I phase 123, 146, 154, 155, 162, 178, 193, 250 Necropole des Pierres Meulieres. See Mallia Niche 47, 80-81, 119, 127, 129, 218, 231, 240 Nilsson, Martin P. 124 Nirou Chani 2032 OBSIDIAN.See Stone tool, chipped
Offering 8, 57, 59, 129, 141, 151, 155-156, 158, 166, 169, 173, 179, 182-183, 211, 219, 220, 221, 224, 226-230, 231, 238, 240, 241, 247, 248, 249, 250,251 Offeringtable 20,141,176, 219,221, 222,230, 234, 235, 236, 239, 241. See also Kernos Offertoryvase. See Libationvessel Old Palace period (Protopalatial:MM IB/II) v-vi, 3, 9, 10, 12, 21-22, 23, 24, 27, 40, 115, 119, 131, 139, 142, 146, 147, 148, 149, 160, 163, 166, 170, 171,178, 179, 188, 191,194, 195, 198, 204, 205, 208, 216, 217, 220, 221, 223, 227, 228, 230, 233, 235, 236, 238,243,252,254, 255, 256, 257 Ossuary vi, 60, 126, 146, 178, 179, 239, 243-246. See also Mallia, EasternOssuaries;Mallia, Western Ossuary PACHYAMMOS 85, 13533, 195, 255, 256
Palaikastro 11, 12, 23, 24, 92, 157, 169, 179, 194, 208, 227,230, 237,243, 248, 254, 255 Tomb I 114, 179-180 Tomb II 114, 179, 180-183, 204, 227, 231, 232, 235,237 Tomb III 179, 183-184, 210, 246 Tomb IV 115, 179, 184 Tomb V 115, 179, 184-187, 205, 244, 247, 248 Tomb VI 115, 179, 188, 204, 244, 245, 252, 253 Tomb VII 115, 179, 188-191,205,228,231,244, 246, 248, 252,253,254 Tomb VIIbis 179, 191-192, 228 Tomb VIII 115, 179, 192-193, 219, 220, 240 Palette 230, 235-236. See also Offering table Paribeni, Roberto 120, 124, 125 Patema 179, 185, 187, 188, 193 Pavement437, 48, 56-57,68,95,103,119,132,139, 143, 144, 145, 146, 153, 156, 163, 165, 168, 178, 193, 215,216, 223-224, 237, 238, 240, 244 Peak sanctuary 114, 211, 220, 221, 222, 224, 227, 228,229,230,235,239,240,248. See also Gonies; Juktas; Petsofa;Traostalos
INDEX
264
Pelon, Olivier 169 Pendlebury,John vi, 18, 25, 26, 124, 154, 206, 224225, 23445 Peronikolis,Markos vii, 4, 3951 Pestle. See Phallus; Stone tool, ground Petsofa 179, 185, 229, 23025,240 Pezoules Kephalas 195, 255 Phaistos 20, 27, 116, 123, 171144,20919, 216, 217, 221, 222, 224, 229, 231, 23343,235, 236, 239, 241 Phallus 85, 193, 236, 238 Picard, Charles 162107,173, 176 Pier. See Doorway; Flanking pier Pierpont,Gery de 162, 169 Pillar 178, 209, 217-219 Pillar crypt 121, 122-124, 132, 134, 135, 143, 153, 154, 155, 179, 215, 218-219, 232, 238, 239, 241,245, 256 Pit 4, 8-9, 47-48, 49-50, 129, 146, 148, 157, 222, 238, 245, 246. See also Gournes, p'osXdLKKOS Pit burial 1,2, 41, 42, 131 Pithos 2, 22, 77, 82, 83, 84-85, 141, 246, 247 Pithos burial 1-2, 23, 41, 82, 115, 138, 142, 147, 162, 175, 176, 194, 198, 207, 244, 255, 256, 257 Pivot cap. See Door, doorpivot Plaster7, 77, 119, 134, 136, 141,164, 165, 166, 168, 169, 175, 188, 214-215, 219, 220, 221, 224. See also Fresco;Stucco Platanos, 27, 85, 115, 119, 193, 2021, 214, 223, 229, 230, 231, 23342,236, 238, 246, 25842 Platform 19, 20, 56-57 Platon, Nicholas vi, vii, 125, 127, 129, 195, 198, 21747,218, 239, 252 Poliochni20817 Popham, Mervyn R. 155 Poros 230 Porti 115, 193-194, 202, 211, 229, 234, 235, 247, 25842 Portico.See Colonnade Pottery:Agios Onouphriosware 148 Barbotineware 119; figurine 123, 125 Brown-blackburnishedware 13, 5849,71, 85, 91, 96, 104120, 110
EM II dark-on-light38 EM III white-on-dark 1, 11, 58, 61, 82, 85, 91, 92, 96, 104120, 106122, 184
Fast wheel 12, 23, 24 Finger pinching 10 Gray burnishedware 13, 31, 33, 38, 58, 157, 180 Kamaresstyle 9-10, 11-12, 21-22, 40, 147, 194, 257 Koumasastyle 25, 49, 50, 58, 60, 82, 157
MM I dark-on-light22, 24-25, 40 MM I white-on-dark11-12, 22, 23, 82, 85, 91 Myrtos ware 182 Paring 34, 85 Pellets 10 Polychromedecoration8, 9-10, 12, 22, 50, 92106, 96,257 Red ware 13, 71, 91, 106122 Trickle decoration25, 84-85 Vasilike ware 11, 50, 58, 59, 60, 92, 93, 96, 110, 158, 180, 182169.For shapes, see Baking plate; Basin; Bowl; Conical offering vessel; Cup; Fruitstand; Goblet; Jar; Jug; Kantharos; Lamp; Libation vessel; Loom weight; Miniature vase; Pithos; Pyxis; Rhyton; Ring vase; Teapot; Tripod cooking pot; Tumbler; Vase; Vat; Zoomorphicvessel Precinct wall 116, 121-122, 156, 162-163, 163165, 172, 173, 175, 193, 223-224, 237, 238, 240 Prepalatialperiod (EM I-MM Ia) v-vi, 2, 3, 6, 41, 63, 92, 116, 141, 146, 160, 163, 202-206, 211, 220, 221, 223, 233, 236, 242, 250, 254, 255,256, 257,258 EM I phase 13, 25, 180, 187, 195, 216, 225, 232 EM II phase 1, 2, 3, 9, 13, 25, 26, 31, 38, 41, 49, 96, 50,55,58,59,71,73,76,81,82,91,92,93, 104, 106, 110, 114, 116, 122, 131, 143, 148, 155, 157, 158, 160, 162, 173, 179, 180, 182, 202, 204, 206, 214, 216, 220, 224, 225, 229, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 241, 243, 252, 253,254, 255, 258 EM III phase 1, 11, 15, 24, 25, 41, 50, 59, 71, 73, 76, 82, 91, 92, 94, 96, 104, 106, 131, 155, 158, 162, 166, 178, 179, 184, 214, 216, 233, 234, 235,237,243, 245,248, 252, 253 MM Ia phase 1, 3, 9, 11, 13, 15, 23, 25, 26, 31, 36,41, 50,82,83,91,92,94,96,104,114,115, 116, 119, 129, 131, 135, 142, 143, 145, 146, 148, 149, 155, 158, 162, 163, 166, 170, 173, 175, 176, 178, 179, 184, 186, 187, 188, 191, 193, 194, 195, 198, 201, 202, 205, 207, 214, 216, 220, 224, 229, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 242, 243, 245, 246, 248, 252, 253, 254 Prothesis244, 245, 256 Protopalatialperiod.See Old Palace period Pseira 10, 92, 216, 230 PsychroCave 220, 231, 248 Pyrgos 232 Pyxis 8, 13, 31-34, 38, 50, 122, 157, 176, 180, 187, 257
INDEX QUERN.See Stone tools, ground
RANKING 3, 41, 115, 160-162, 225, 226, 242, 251, 253-258 Renaudin, Louis 163, 172 Renfrew, Colin 187 Rhyton 91, 96, 123, 138, 178, 220, 232, 233, 234 Ring vase 223, 234 Ritual implement230-236 Rock shelter 1, 2, 31, 36-38, 41, 42, 98, 100, 105106,112, 114,195,202,205,224,225,23663,245 Rock-creviceburial 162, 255, 256, 257 Roof 30, 42, 48-49, 68, 70, 73, 76, 81, 95, 98, 112, 133, 139, 147, 170, 198, 216 Roofing material 5229, 63, 156, 157, 170, 193, 213-216. See also Entrancefrom above SAKELLARAKIS,IANNIS 13533, 136, 139, 141, 146,
147,217,243,247 Iannis and Effie vii, 131 Sandstone(masonry) 164, 165, 171, 175, 178, 221, 223 Sandstoneconglomerate(masonry) 110 Sarantari179, 184 Sarcophagus.See Larnax Scepter-head34, 40, 124, 257-258 Schachermeyr,Fritz 162107 Schist (masonry) 46, 48, 50, 53-54, 65, 68, 76, 81, 87, 112, 138, 155, 168, 170, 215,216, 224 Seager, Richard B. v, vi, 1, 26, 41-42, 437, 46, 47, 48, 49, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 62, 63, 64, 65, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 104, 105, 106, 108, 194, 206, 213,214, 237,238, 243, 258 Seals 1, 9, 15-16, 21, 27, 34, 59, 60, 86, 124, 147, 160,226,251 Shackleton,N. J. 23237 Shaft graves 131 Shaw, Joseph 165113,168, 170 Shell 8, 50, 51, 138, 143, 144, 145, 147, 148, 227, 231, 244, 246. See also Triton shell "Sheepbell".See Bell figurines;"Bell vases" Shrine 3, 36, 59, 114, 119, 124, 125, 141, 151, 155, 166, 168, 169, 170, 175, 178-179, 182-183, 218, 219, 224, 227, 231, 232, 234, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 250, 251, 255, 256 Sideropetra2, 20, 46, 48, 53, 54, 57, 65, 76, 77, 80, 87,89,100,105,108,110,112,113,163,208,221 Limestone(masonry)17, 143, 168, 171, 175, 215, 223, 224; conglomerate162
265
Silver 8, 9, 16, 50, 58, 60, 257 Siteia. See Agios Georgios Siva 28, 2021, 247 SkaphidiaCave 225 Skeletalremains 8, 12, 21, 31, 37, 40, 49, 50, 57, 59, 81-82, 104, 106, 110, 122, 126, 129, 134, 135, 137, 138, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 149, 154, 155, 157, 158, 160, 166, 170, 172, 173, 175, 176, 178, 179, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 191,192, 193, 194, 198, 200, 201,236, 243-247, 251, 252, 253-254 Animal bones and teeth 135, 137, 138, 141, 143, 145, 147, 148, 149, 227,245, 246, 247, 248 Articulatedremains 57, 135, 137, 138, 144, 146, 147, 148, 170, 172, 179, 185, 188, 191, 198, 200, 243,244, 245, 246, 248 Bird bones 147, 148, 246, 247 Fish bones 147, 148, 246, 247 Infant burials 137, 147, 148, 154, 175, 191, 201, 247,253, 254 Skulls 8, 12, 21, 22, 23, 31, 37, 49, 122, 126, 135, 137, 138, 142, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 154, 170, 172, 173, 179, 182, 186, 188, 191, 192, 198, 200, 243,245-249, 252, 253, 256 SkoteinoCave 220 Snake Goddess.See Goddess,Minoan Soles, Jeffrey S. vii, 3, 411, 43, 64, 72 Sphoungaras.See Gournia Spoutedbowl. See Bowl Staircase.See Steps Stavromenos13533 Steps 19, 20, 43, 48, 56, 81, 134,136, 153, 159, 170, 178, 216, 218, 220, 222 Stone tool, chipped 84, 141, 148, ground 20, 71, 85, 141, 163,222, 223, 230, 236, 258 Stone vase 1, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, 21, 25, 26-27, 49, 50, 56-57, 58, 5951,60, 61, 62, 71-72, 81, 82, 83, 84, 92, 93, 96-97, 104, 147, 157, 160, 173, 179, 180, 219, 223, 226, 238, 239, 240, 257 Stone weight 97 Stou Kouse 205 Stubbings,Frank H. 124 Stucco216-217. See also Plaster Stylobate 121 Symbolsof authority.See Diadem; Scepter-head TA HELLENIKA 179, 181, 183, 188 TaflbKos 7rep'ioXos 198
Teapot 58, 5951,60-61, 71, 182169 Temple Tomb. See Knossos Terrace. See Pavement
266
INDEX
Tholos tomb 114, 131, 132-134, 135, 14365, 155, 157, 170, 194, 202, 213, 215, 218, 219, 220, 223, 231, 23663, 239, 240, 244, 245, 246, 247, 249250, 251, 25842.See also individualtombsArchanes F and E; Drakones; Gypsades; Kamilari; Knossos;Porti;Siva;Vorou Threshold. See Door Tiy, wife of AmenophisIII 124 Tourtouli. See Agios Georgios Traostalos240 Trapdoor.See Entry from above Trapeza Cave 25, 225, 232, 233, 234 Tripod cookingpot 40, 141 Triton shell 179, 182, 230, 231, 232, 237, 239, 241 Troy 16, 257 Tub 235, 247-248 Tumbler 12, 188 Tweezers 8, 12, 21, 27-28 Tylissos 25, 1218,205 VAPHEIO CUP.See Cup Vase with applique offering 192, 228, 241 Vasilike 23, 92, 18780, 194-195,204,205,206,212, 215,216, 221,222, 224, 238 Vat 141 Vorou 13533,227, 231, 244, 247 Votive. See Offering WALBERG,GISELA23, 14985, 184173, 198
Wall 207-210, ashlar masonry 122, 136, 139, 155, 158, 159, 171, 192, 208, blocking54, 89-90, 118, 131, 133, 138, 244, 246, buttressing 18, 19, 88, 173, foundation 7, 8, 54, 55, 68, 139, 144, 149, 209, 210, mud-brick7, 8, 17, 18, 19, 36, 68, 69, 70-71, 76, 87, 88, 90, 95, 98, 108, 112, 113, 121, 125, 142, 164, 192, 198, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 214, 217, 21848,223, 243, stepped 100, 104
Capping stones 164-165, 216 Cornerstones 19, 35, 53, 65, 69, 149, 173, 200, 211 Dado 132, 168, 170, 171, 208 Dowel holes 168, 171 "Dry-stone"masonry 149, 180, 207 Roundedcorner 18, 100-103, 104 Setback6, 7, 17, 18, 55, 119, 129, 142, 143, 149, 162, 163,210 Upright base slabs 46, 47, 48, 51, 55, 65, 73, 75, 77, 80, 81, 82, 87, 88, 89, 110, 116, 132, 168, 170, 171, 197, 200, 208, 20817, 210, 237. See also descriptionsunder individualtombs. "Wandof office".See Scepter-head Warren, Peter 5028,162107,182, 243, 256 Weapon 226, 254, 257. See also Knife Weight 97 Whitelaw, Todd M. 25442 Wilson, David 38 Window 134, 139, 143, 256 XANTHOUDIDES,STEPHANOSvi, 15,26, 27,119, 155,
156, 158, 193, 194, 236, 240, 245, 247 -rlpoIAOras. See Walls, "dry-stone"masonry ZAKROS 10, 25, 124, 195, 219, 22163,255, Tomb A 195-198, 200, 201,204, 211,214, 244, 245, 246, 252, 253, Tomb B 198-201, 202, 244, 245, 252, 253 Zois,Antonis A. 10,12,119,123,149,151,158,170 Zoomorphicfigurine 123-124, 145, 146, 148, 228, 229, 230, 239, 241 Zoomorphicvessel 96, 122, 138, 178, 232, 233, 238, 240, 241
MAP AND PLANS
7 5
3 1314 0
1 2 3 4
8
50km.
a
a II
Gournia Mochlos Agia Triada Agios Georgios
5 6 7 8
Archanes Gournes Knossos Koumasa
9 10 11 12
Linares Mallia Myrtos, Pyrgos Palaikastro
13 14 15 16
Platanos Porti Vasilike Zakros
Map of Crete with distributionof house tombs
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NAX
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The SphoungarasCemeteryat Gournia (Hall, Sphoungaras,pl. XV)
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The North Cemeteryat Gournia (author, 1980)
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PLATES
Gournia from north. The Acropolis in the center and the North Cemetery to the right
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Gournia Tombs I and II from southeast
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G 1-7, G 1-6. Rim fragments(Ag.Nik.Mus. P.71.2, P.71.1)
G 1-8. Rim fragment (Ag.Nik.M
PLATE 5
I
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ED
I
G 1-13. Pyxis (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4405)
G 1-14. Pyxis (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4408)
I
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G 1-15. Fruitstand (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4402)
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PLATE 6
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Gournia Tomb I: Pit Deposit
I
I G 1-20. Jar and lid (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4399, 4406)
G 1-18. Bowl (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4403)
G 1-19. Bowl, side B
G 1-19. Bowl, side A (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4409)
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PLATE 7
a. View from west
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Gournia Tomb II
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PLATE 8
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PLATE 10
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G 11-6. Jug, handle view
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Gournia Tomb II
PLATE 11
.
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G 11-8.Fruitstand,top view (Ag.Nik.Mus.4383+ 4389)
G II-14. Jar (Univ.Mus. MS 4158)
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G II-9. Pedestal (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4388)
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G 11-16. Amulet found outside the tomb (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4368)
Gournia Tomb II
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PLATE 12
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G III-2. Pyxis (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4400)
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G 11I-3.Pyxis (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4397) Gournia Tomb III
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G III-9. Awl (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4690) G III-8. Two fragmentsof sheet m Gournia Tomb III
PLATE 15
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r.~?
b. Gournia Rock Shelter V from east c.ouria ockShlt
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PLATE 16
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a. Mochlos West Terrace, steps, from south
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b. Mochlos Tomb Complex I/II/III, CompartmentIII cave in rear, from south
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a. Entrance,from west
Mochlos Tomb Complex I/II/III:
Compartment I
c. Door piers from northwest c. Door piers from northwest
d. North entrancewith stonejambs, from wes
d. North entrancewith stonejambs, from wes
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c. East wall from west
1
d. Floor cavity from above Mochlos Tomb Complex I/II/III:
Compartment II
PLATE 19
M I-1. Stonepyxis lid fromCompartmentI, top view (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4365)
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M I-1. Stone pyxis from CompartmentI (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4364)
a. CompartmentIII from south
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b. CompartmentIII cave from southwest
Mochlos Tomb Complex I/II/III
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
M U-2. Cowrie shells from CompartmentII (Ag.Nik.Mus.)
9
10
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c. CompartmentIV, entrance,from south
d. CompartmentIV, west wall from northeas
PLATE 21 ..
a. Compartment VI fromabove
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b. Compartment VI, northeastcornerof room fromsouthwest
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Mochlos Tomb Complex IV/V/VI
PLATE 22
Mochlos Tomb Complex IV/V/VI
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b. Basestepof approach,fromsouth
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PLATE 23
M VI-5, M VI-6. Dagger and scraper from CompartmentVI (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4371, 4370)
4
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a. Teapot (M VI-1) from CompartmentVI in situ (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4376)
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b. Teapot (M VI-2) and cup (M VI-3) fragmentsfrom CompartmentVI (Ag.Nik.Mus.)
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t A.4
M VI-4. Bowl from CompartmentVI (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4375) M IV/V/VI-3. Diadem (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4363) and ring fragments (Ag.Nik.Mus. 3115), from steps
i .I'li
2
..
3
'
4
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' s'
5
. ,
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6
:.'I
'
7
8
9
10
Mochlos Tomb Complex IV/V/VI
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,
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-
2*.'~~~~~~~~~~' NSA'?. '-:'.L ,~:,, .':~.,~,r%--..i~;".'' :': :.?~ I~~~~~~~~~~~*I .:,,..". :r...:.'',...;:i?.,,;.:'.:'::;. ..-..-_-
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,
V
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.4 ?..,,
,,
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a. Mochlos South Slope Terrace 7 from east
b. Saddle quern and pestle found near Tomb XVI
*.v
4
46c.
^~'Aw'
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.*o
"a'
5.re -? -*:*...
X . f c. Mochlos Tomb XIX from south
'.*'.t.'^'
a ..
T . Xc' R.-
d. Mochlos Tomb XIX from southwest
PLATE 25
M XXIII-1. Bowl (Ag.Nik.Mus. 6866) : -?
a.M;...-.
4-
. '".-.
...
T.
.
a. Mochlos Tomb XXIII from south
K
t(-4
L.
', ': ~
]=.'r -
ji~
MohlosTomb .InnerCdoorway Afe to
b. Inner doorway to Mochios Tomb A from east
~]d~.~~
c.-'.
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?
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',er
-
,.
p~~g
:
-4 ..
?1
4a. A M
i
i:'
:?r
r'??"
.. ?*M:; '*' ???q ??:1:?*j ;;jr?
a. Mochlos Tomb A from east
c. Mochlos Tomb B from south
b. Mochlos Tomb A, lower room with saddle quern and rubber,from above
c.
i: Y
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I
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tJrr .k?rb
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-?ILSC :-,?? ?2 ==?? * ;rE? cc., ..1,
:??? : ???'^ st' )???_ ;?2.? ..* c "-L'. ;;
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..pt ,, *-csuF,-.?,''
a. Mochlos Tombs XIII and XX/XXI from southeast
,
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-y
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18
l
TS
l
',_
;.
. .
ast
b. Mochlos Tomb XX/XXI from southe
.
... .
c. Mochlos
.
?
.
.
.i.~ .
Tomb XXII
astMochlos
uT
from south
To
PLATE 28 . ~ ',~
- .._
....
.,Tomb ?a.Moch ' Tm Moho a.
/
.'
-:' .: .~-:
.., .'...
.
,,
from east '7r.
r ."f-J :
"
.""
~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~:,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ a. MochlsTmrmes
b. Mochlos Tomb F from above
-i~~~~~~~~~~~~.
s;,iS **
*-
,
,, ''
' '-
i *'.
I. '.'
a. Mochlos Tombs IX and X from south
b. Moc wall
_.
.~.
-1
.
,. .~,
-
-~.3
.
.
'Z.E~
7 , . ._..K;r
.
-
c. Mochlos Tomb IX from west
M X-1. Jar from Mochlos Tomb X (Ag.Nik.Mus. 10364)
M r-1. Pithos fragmentsfrom Mochlos Tomb
M IX-1. Bowl from Mochlos Tomb IX (Ag.Nik.Mus. 6861)
, a' ' Xe8
i_ U
U M XXII-1, M XXII-3. Jug and pestle from Mochlos Tomb XXII (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4379, 4372)
M XXII-2. Jug from Mochlos Tom
PLATE 32
.
"^
-
:x
a. Mochlos Tomb XIII, north wall, from south
U U U M XIII-1. Cup from Mochlos Tomb XIII (Ag.Nik.Mus. 4378)
b. Mochlos Tomb XVI from southwest
M XVI-1. Goblet from Mochlos Tomb XVI (Ag.Nik.Mus. 6860) M c. Mochlos Tomb XVI from west
PLATE 33 .
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'~r .... '?
i~'
:'
,,.
."t~
s
b. Mochlos Tomb
XVII from ': ....
'?,
southwest
.,
*-".'x,','
a. Mochlos Tomb XV from southwest
M XVII-1. Jug fragmentsfrom Mochlos Tomb XVII (Ag.Nik.Mus.)
4
5
6
7
8
9
1(
M XV-1. Basin fragmentsfrom Mochlos Tomb XV
(Ag.Nik.Mus.7278 A, B)
MXV-. Teapot fragmentsfrom Mochos Tomb XV (Ag.Nik.Mus.) M XV-2. Teapot fragmentsfrom Mochlos Tomb XV (Ag.Nik.Mus.)
.)r ...
* t
a. Mochlos Tomb XI from west
k:jW r? ?c? ??r?
4rc
?LZ
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,'
:LC dYTiLlhStE
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c i,i - . I-K. -
-I.
b. Mochlos Tomb VII from southwest
;"? 1EY1-*
..?1DC."i;,;i?E ????0. ?-a u
?ei?,
'r P?2
.?' 1 i,
i
-?;.
*. '- i. 1 -r ^^
c. Mochlos Tomb VII from south
???'1
?
hi~~~~~~~~~~~~ :9.:?'4#Ps?1
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v.
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.
VI
a.. '
Tom VIII 4-s-
*c 4o V
a. Mochlos Tomb VIII from south
b. Mochlos Tomb A from southeast
.-m*-
.
^ y.~~~i I
;-
. I
-vpa`
iad
;i;zc 1?
1 ;:-..' ..c,??? ;r II
c. Mochlos Tomb XVIII from south d. Mochlos Tomb Z from east
,%: ?b-
'.
:;' *'
,>-
o,KX
?~~~~~~~~~ .
~~?ZFJp
a. Mochlos Tomb H from south
.
~~... ...
-
-
b. Mochlos Tomb H from west
-oxr?
?";~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' ~ ~-:~~~ ~ ~~~~~.....:.. ~ ~~ ??~? '?';~ \t~ .a.? ~ d )*~~'. .h T.omb I. fr.o sout ,. .S'
'
d~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
*V:
-
-1..4.. . .1
Ia
' I.
L
P
U a. Mud-brick fragmentsfrom Mochlos Tomb Z
a-.
.,L~~ ..__...... __.?
M Z-1. Pivot ston
.e,
M 0-1. Goblet from Mochlos Tomb 0 (Siteia Mus.)
PLATE 38
3. '3
.. '
'*%
r. . ?r~S~'icu~ ~ii
E :e
.
A
:?
o%~..
' :~ ~'-', ' :*L J ""i ,~~~~ ~~' e ' ? ?i"'1..~_.:. ~"'" ~..:' ~:'" '?L~~~...;. '..'"'..,,' .~~~~~~~~~~~?:I"?,
' 1' '
'"" co rne "~:~.,~i
'.
b. KoumasaTomb F, southeast corner
,:'a a. Linares from east
-...4w
?'1,.
.
..
b. Mallia, Necropole des Pierres Meulieres,
.--.. .
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.
.
.
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.
k
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,
.
s ,,.
.I
c. Mallia, Necropole des Pierres Meuli northwest
-- .'WAI A.'--- '
A-
a. PalaikastroTomb VII from northwest
c. ZachrosTomb A, Room r from north
.7
b. ZachrosTomb A from northeast .. -;.+'.4 s >.>it> ;. _ . .
