The magnetocaloric effect and its applications

The Magnetocaloric Eﬀect and its Applications Series in Condensed Matter Physics Series Editors: J M D Coey, D R Till...

Author: A.M. Tishin | Y.I. Spichkin

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The Magnetocaloric Eﬀect and its Applications

Series in Condensed Matter Physics Series Editors: J M D Coey, D R Tilley and D R Vij

Other titles in the series Field Theories in Condensed Matter Physics Sumathi Rao (ed) Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos in Semiconductors K Aoki Permanent Magnetism R Skomski and J M D Coey Modern Magnetooptics and Magnetooptical Materials A K Zvezdin and V A Kotov Theory of Superconductivity A S Alexandrov

Other titles of interest Handbook of Superconducting Materials D Cardwell and D Ginley (eds) Superconductivity of Metals and Cuprates J R Waldram Superﬂuidity and Superconductivity D R Tilley and J Tilley Topics in the Theory of Solid Materials J M Vail

Series in Condensed Matter Physics

The Magnetocaloric Eﬀect and its Applications

A M Tishin Physics Department, M V Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia and

Y I Spichkin Advanced Magnetic Technologies and Consulting Ltd, Moscow, Russia

Institute of Physics Publishing Bristol and Philadelphia

# IOP Publishing Ltd 2003 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. Multiple copying is permitted in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency under the terms of its agreement with Universities UK (UUK). British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 0 7503 0922 9 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data are available

Commissioning Editor: Tom Spicer Production Editor: Simon Laurenson Production Control: Sarah Plenty Cover Design: Victoria Le Billon Marketing: Nicola Newey and Verity Cooke Published by Institute of Physics Publishing, wholly owned by The Institute of Physics, London Institute of Physics Publishing, Dirac House, Temple Back, Bristol BS1 6BE, UK US Oﬃce: Institute of Physics Publishing, The Public Ledger Building, Suite 929, 150 South Independence Mall West, Philadelphia, PA 19106, USA Typeset by Academic þ Technical, Bristol Printed in the UK by MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall

Contents

Preface

ix

Acknowledgments

x

1 Introduction

1

2 Physics and models of magnetocaloric eﬀect 2.1 General thermodynamic approach 2.2 Magnetocaloric eﬀect in the frames of the theory of second-order phase transitions 2.3 Statistical and mean-ﬁeld model of a magnetic material 2.4 Entropy, its change and magnetocaloric eﬀect 2.5 MCE at the ﬁrst-order transitions 2.6 MCE in ferrimagnetic and antiferromagnetic materials 2.7 MCE in the vicinity of magnetic phase transitions 2.8 MCE in inhomogeneous ferromagnets 2.9 MCE in superparamagnetic systems 2.10 Anisotropic and magnetoelastic contributions to the MCE 2.11 Heat capacity 2.12 MCE and elastocaloric eﬀect 2.13 Adiabatic demagnetization

4 4

3 Methods of magnetocaloric properties investigation 3.1 Direct methods 3.1.1 Measurements in changing magnetic ﬁeld 3.1.2 Measurements in static magnetic ﬁeld 3.1.3 Thermoacoustic method 3.2 Indirect methods 3.2.1 Magnetization measurements 3.2.1.1 Isothermal magnetization measurements 3.2.1.2 Adiabatic magnetization measurements

9 10 14 28 32 36 42 44 49 52 58 62 69 69 69 74 77 81 81 81 84 v

vi

Contents 3.2.2 3.2.3

Heat capacity measurements 3.2.2.1 Heat pulse calorimetry Other methods

86 90 94

4

Magnetocaloric eﬀect in 3d metals, alloys and compounds 4.1 Ferromagnetic 3d metals 4.2 Alloys and compounds 4.3 3d thin ﬁlms

96 96 105 123

5

Magnetocaloric eﬀect in oxides 5.1 Garnets 5.1.1 Rare earth iron garnets 5.1.2 Rare earth gallium and aluminium garnets 5.2 Perovskites 5.2.1 Rare earth orthoaluminates 5.2.2 Other RMeO3 perovskites 5.2.3 Manganites and related compounds 5.3 3d oxide compounds 5.4 RXO4 compounds

126 126 126 131 137 137 142 143 168 175

6

Magnetocaloric eﬀect in intermetallic compounds 6.1 Rare earth–nonmagnetic element compounds 6.1.1 Rare earth–aluminium compounds 6.1.2 Rare earth–Cu, Zn, Ga, Rh, Pd, Ag, In 6.2 Rare earth–nickel 6.3 Rare earth–iron 6.3.1 RFe2 , RFe3 and R2 Fe17 compounds 6.3.2 LaFe13 compounds 6.3.3 Other rare earth–iron compounds 6.4 Rare earth–cobalt 6.5 Rare earth–manganese

179 179 179 193 200 211 211 220 225 225 244

7

Magnetocaloric eﬀect in rare earth–metalloid compounds 7.1 Compounds with Sb and As 7.2 Silicides and germanides 7.2.1 Ternary compounds of rare earths with Si and Ge 7.2.2 Magnetocaloric eﬀect in R5 (Si–Ge)4 alloys

247 247 250

Magnetocaloric eﬀect in rare earth metals and alloys 8.1 Rare earth metals

276 277

8

250 258

Contents 8.1.1 8.1.2 8.1.3 8.1.4 8.1.5 8.1.6 8.1.7 8.1.8 8.2

Rare 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 8.2.4

Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Neodimium Theoretically available MCE in heavy rare earth metals earth alloys Tb–Gd alloys Gd–Dy, Gd–Ho and Gd–Er alloys Dy–Y, Tb–Y, Er–La and Er–Pr alloys Tb–Dy alloys

9 Magnetocaloric eﬀect in amorphous materials 9.1 Amorphous alloys based on RE metals 9.2 Amorphous alloys based on transition metals 10 Magnetocaloric eﬀect in the systems with superparamagnetic properties 10.1 Nanocomposite systems 10.2 Molecular cluster systems 11 Application of the magnetocaloric eﬀect and magnetic materials in refrigeration apparatuses 11.1 Passive magnetic regenerators 11.1.1 Rare earth intermetallic compounds in passive regenerators 11.1.2 Rare earth metals and their alloys in passive regenerators 11.2 Magnetic refrigeration 11.2.1 General consideration 11.2.2 Active magnetic regenerator refrigerators 11.2.3 Magnetically augmented regenerators in gas refrigerators 11.2.4 Hybrid magnetic working bodies 11.2.5 Magnetic refrigerators working on the Ericsson cycle 11.2.6 Magnetic refrigerators working on the Carnot cycle 11.3 Working materials for magnetic refrigerators

vii 277 284 294 302 303 306 308 309 316 316 321 322 326 330 330 336

338 338 343

351 351 353 362 365 365 374 387 389 391 393 401

viii

Contents

12 Conclusion

418

Appendix 1

Units used in the book

422

Appendix 2

Magnetic, thermal and physical properties of some metals, alloys, compounds and other materials

428

References

440

Index

463

Preface

This book is devoted to one of the most exciting directions of investigation in the condensed matter physics ﬁeld—the magnetocaloric eﬀect (MCE) and possible applications of this phenomenon in refrigeration technology. For a long time the eﬀect was used as a powerful tool for investigation of magnetic materials, especially in the area of magnetic phase transitions accompanying various spin structure transformations and in low temperature physics to obtain temperatures below 1 K. It is also convenient for theoretical simulation in the framework of various models. Although the magnetocaloric eﬀect, which displays itself in the changing of a magnetic material temperature under magnetization in adiabatic conditions, was discovered a long time ago, in recent years it has attracted the attention of investigators and the amount of papers in this direction increases practically exponentially. First of all this is related to practical application of the MCE and magnetic materials in refrigeration devices and, especially, in magnetic refrigerators, which work on magnetic refrigeration cycles instead of conventional vapour–gas cycles. Recently a series of acting magnetic refrigerator prototypes have been developed and created. The particular importance is that the created prototypes work at room temperature and have signiﬁcant potential to be incorporated into the marketplace. Magnetic refrigerators are characterized by compactness, high eﬀectiveness, low energy consumption and environmental safety. The further development of such devices is related to progress in permanent magnets, which can replace such cumbersome sources of magnetic ﬁelds requiring liquid helium superconducting magnets. It is expected that in the near future the energy product of permanent magnets will at least double. We suggest that the ﬁrst commercially available models of magnetic refrigerators will appear rather sooner in spite of essential competition which they will have to withstand from existing vapour–gas refrigeration technology. One of the most important parts of the magnetic refrigerator is its working body—a magnetic material—which should have high magnetocaloric properties, in particular, high MCE value. The working body in ix

x

Preface

many respects determines the characteristics of the whole refrigeration device. At the present time the energies of many scientiﬁc groups working in the ﬁeld of MCE are directed on searching for the most eﬀective magnetic working body. This is the ﬁeld where the scientiﬁc interests of investigators intersect with practical applications. That is why this book considers in detail the physics of MCE and the experimental and theoretical results obtained to date in this ﬁeld. We also believe that in future the MCE will ﬁnd other, as yet unknown, applications. It should be noted that, as far as we know, this book is the ﬁrst one where the results of long-term investigations of the MCE and related quantities (such as heat capacity, thermal conductivity, etc) and also information on magnetic refrigerators, working principles and designs are summarized. We hope that this book will be useful for a wide circle of scientists and engineers working in the ﬁeld of MCE and magnetic material investigations and magnetic refrigerator development. Unfortunately we were not able to present in the book all of the large amount of selected material and the increasing number of papers issued during the time that the book was in press. A M Tishin Y I Spichkin

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank all colleagues who work, and have worked, at the Physics Department of the M V Lomonosov Moscow State University who jointly conducted studies on magnetic and magnetothermal properties of rare earth metals, alloys and compounds for rather useful collaboration, and especially Professor K P Belova, who was inﬂuential at the beginning of the investigation of the magnetocaloric eﬀect at Moscow State University, and Professor S A Nikitin, who was head of the group where the authors began their magnetocaloric studies. The authors would like to express their gratitude to Professors K A Gschneidner, Jr and V K Pecharsky for helpful discussions, which led to a more deeper understanding of some of the fundamental and applied aspects of the magnetocaloric eﬀect. AMT also thanks Professor K A Gschneidner for much assistance in the collection of literature used in this book and for support of activity in this direction in recent years. The authors thank Dr A O Pecharsky for assistance with experimental investigations and calculation of some properties of magnetic materials discussed in this book. The authors also thank A S Chernishov, M I Ilyn and A S Mishenko for technical assistance during the preparation of illustrations for this book. YIS gratefully acknowledges Advanced Magnetic Technologies and Consulting Ltd for support of his work for recent years.

xi

Chapter 1 Introduction

Investigation of magnetothermal phenomena in magnetic materials is of great importance for solving fundamental problems of magnetism and solid state physics, as well as for technological applications. These phenomena have a strong inﬂuence on such physical values as entropy, heat capacity and thermal conductivity, and reﬂects by itself transformations taking place in spin structure of a magnetic material. This book presents an attempt to give an overview of theoretical and experimental investigations and also technological applications of the phenomena made by the authors with more than 20 years’ experience in this ﬁeld. The book is mainly devoted to the experimental results on the magnetocaloric eﬀect (MCE) and inﬂuence of magnetic ﬁeld on the entropy. MCE, discovered by Warburg in 1881 (Warburg 1881) in iron, displays itself in emitting or absorption of heat by a magnetic material under the action of a magnetic ﬁeld. Under adiabatic conditions a magnetic ﬁeld can cause cooling or heating of the material as a result of variation of its internal energy. It has to be noted that the term MCE can be considered more widely by its application not only to temperature variation of the material, but also to variation of the entropy of its magnetic subsystem under the eﬀect of the magnetic ﬁeld. To illustrate the reasons for the MCE arising, let us consider a system of spins, which is paramagnetic or ferromagnetic near its magnetic ordering temperature. The entropy of such a system can be considered as a sum of two contributions—the entropy related to magnetic ordering and the entropy related to the temperature of the system. Application of a magnetic ﬁeld will order the magnetic moments comprising the system, which are disordered by thermal agitation energy, and, consequently, the entropy depending on the magnetic ordering (the magnetic entropy) will be lowered. If a magnetic ﬁeld is applied under adiabatic conditions when any heat exchange with the surroundings is absent, then the entropy related to the temperature should increase in order to preserve the total entropy of the system constant. Increasing of this entropy implies the system heating up, and an increase in its temperature. The opposite process—adiabatic 1

2

Introduction

removal of the magnetic ﬁeld (demagnetization)—will cause cooling of the magnetic system under consideration. The described temperature change is the manifestation of the MCE. A magnetic material can be roughly presented as consisting of magnetic, lattice and conduction electron subsystems, and these systems contribute to the total entropy of the material (see chapter 2 for details). On the basis of MCE it is possible to create magnetic refrigerators—the machines where magnetic materials are used as working bodies instead of a gas, and magnetization/demagnetization is used instead of compression/ expansion in conventional refrigerators. To realize any cooling process it is necessary to have a system in which entropy depends on temperature and some external parameter. In the case of a gas this parameter is pressure, and in the case of a magnetic material it is a magnetic ﬁeld. Langevin (1905) was the ﬁrst to demonstrate that the changing of a paramagnet magnetization causes in general a reversible temperature change. Debye (1926) and Giauque (1927) proposed to use reversible temperature change in paramagnetic salts to obtain low temperatures by adiabatic demagnetization. The ﬁrst experiments to realize this idea were conducted by Giauque and MacDougall (1933), de Haas et al (1933a–c) and Kurti and Simon (1934). These experiments are considered more thoroughly in section 2.13. The interest in investigation of MCE has increased in recent decades, on the one hand due to the possibility of obtaining information about the magnetic state and magnetic phase transformations in magnetic materials that is hard to obtain by other methods and, on the other hand, because of the prospects of the creation of magnetic cooling machines using magnetic materials as working bodies. Research work on MCE and related magnetothermal properties in various magnetic materials, including 3d and 4f magnetic metals, and their alloys and compounds is carried out in many universities and research centres all over the world. The number of publications devoted to MCE is growing rapidly—in 1999 about 21 articles were published on this theme, in 2000 about 41, and in 2001 there were 91 publications. In 2002 about 10 works on MCE were issued every month. Since the beginning of the MCE investigations about 900 articles directly related to this theme have appeared. Recently Coey (2001), in his review devoted to the application of magnetic materials, noted cost-eﬀective magnetic materials with a large magnetocaloric eﬀect suitable for magnetic refrigerators among ten desirable new practical magnetic materials. The scope of the book embraces materials with magnetic moments of either band or localized nature and various types of magnetic ordering— ferro-, antiferro- and ferrimagnetic and also more complex, such as helicoidal, magnetic structures. The character of MCE, magnetic entropy change and heat capacity behaviour in the materials is reviewed and discussed. Chapter 2 of the book is devoted to the models and approaches, which are usually used for description of the MCE. Among them the thermodynamic

Introduction

3

approach, Landau’s theory of second-order phase transitions and mean ﬁeld approximation are considered. In chapter 3 the reader can ﬁnd information about various experimental apparatus and methods of the MCE measurement and determination, their errors and limitations. In chapters 4–10 the experimental and theoretical data about MCE in diﬀerent classes of magnetic materials are regarded and discussed, among which one can mention 3d transition and rare earth metals, various alloys and compounds on their basis. The emphasis in these chapters is put on understanding the physical nature of the observed magnetocaloric phenomena and their relation with the processes in magnetic subsystems of the materials. A large amount of experimental material is reviewed, systematized and presented in ﬁgures and tables. Chapter 11 is dedicated to the application of the MCE and magnetic materials in refrigeration devices, and also to the operational principles and design of such devices. Both passive (in regenerators of conventional gas cryocoolers) and active (in magnetic refrigerators) applications have been considered. This theme is the second, besides fundamental scientiﬁc interest, reason for high attention paid to the MCE investigations at the present time. Since the time of the ﬁrst adiabatic demagnetization experiments, essential progress has been made in magnetic refrigeration in cryogenic as well as in room-temperature ranges. In May 2002 the Astronautics Corporation of America and Ames Laboratory demonstrated a room-temperature wheel-type magnetic refrigerator with gadolinium as a working body and a permanent magnet. The interest in magnetic refrigerators is related to their energy- and cost-saving potential, high eﬃciency and reliability. Such refrigerators do not need a compressor and can have a long lifetime because of low operational frequency and a minimum number of moving parts. The working bodies of magnetic refrigerators are solid magnetic materials with low toxicity, which can be easily utilized or recycled. Room-temperature magnetic refrigerators are also preferable from the environmental point of view—they do not use volatile liquid refrigerants which have a negative inﬂuence on the Earth’s atmosphere. Magnetic refrigerators and cryocoolers can be used in various ﬁelds such as hydrogen liqueﬁers, high-speed computers and SQUIDs cooling, building air conditioning, cooling systems for vehicles, domestic and plant fridges etc. The recent achievements of the Astronautics Corporation of America and Ames Laboratory in magnetic refrigerator development and design show that an era of wide use of the magnetic cooling devices in life and industry is coming. Various types of magnetic refrigerators and cryocooler designs for diﬀerent temperature ranges are considered and discussed in chapter 11. The aspect of magnetic working materials, including complex magnetic bodies and principles of their development, are also regarded. We hope that with the help of this book a reader will get a comprehensive overview of the physics of the magnetocaloric eﬀect and other related magnetothermal phenomena, and their possible technological applications.

Chapter 2 Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

In this chapter the main terms and conceptions about magnetocaloric eﬀect (MCE) are introduced. The models and approaches usually used for description of MCE, such as thermodynamic and statistic approaches, mean ﬁeld approximation and Landau’s theory of second-order phase transitions, are considered. The main contributions to the MCE and the peculiarities of the MCE near second- and ﬁrst-order magnetic transitions, in antiferromagnets, nonhomogeneous and superparamagnetic systems, are also regarded. Finally attention is paid to such related properties as heat capacity and elastocaloric eﬀect.

2.1

General thermodynamic approach

For the description of magnetothermal eﬀects in magnetic materials the following thermodynamic functions are used: the internal energy U, the free energy F and the Gibbs free energy G. The internal energy U of the system can be represented as a function of the entropy S, the volume V and the magnetic ﬁeld H (Swalin 1962, Bazarov 1964, Vonsovskii 1974): U ¼ UðS; V; HÞ

ð2:1aÞ

or as a function of S, V and magnetic moment M: U ¼ UðS; V; MÞ:

ð2:1bÞ

Correspondingly, the total diﬀerential of U can have the forms dU ¼ T dS p dV M dH

ð2:2aÞ

dU ¼ T dS p dV H dM

ð2:2bÞ

where p is the pressure and T is the absolute temperature. The magnetic ﬁeld H is usually used as an external parameter in the free energy F and Gibbs free energy G. 4

General thermodynamic approach

5

The free energy F, which is a function of T, V and H, is used for systems with constant volume and is deﬁned as (Swalin 1962, Bazarov 1964, Vonsovskii 1974) F ¼ U TS:

ð2:3Þ

Its total diﬀerential has the form dF ¼ S dT p dV M dH:

ð2:4Þ

The Gibbs free energy G is a function of T, p and H and is used for systems under constant pressure (Swalin 1962, Bazarov 1964, Vonsovskii 1974): G ¼ U TS þ pV MH

ð2:5Þ

with the total diﬀerential dG ¼ V dp S dT M dH:

ð2:6Þ

For the free energy F the internal parameters S, p and M (generalized thermodynamic quantities), conjugated to the external variables T, V and H, can be determined by the following equations of state (Swalin 1962, Bazarov 1964, Vonsovskii 1974): @F ð2:7aÞ SðT; H; VÞ ¼ @T H;V @F MðT; H; VÞ ¼ ð2:7bÞ @H V;T @F pðT; V; HÞ ¼ : ð2:7cÞ @V H;T Analogously, for the Gibbs free energy we have the following equations (Swalin 1962, Bazarov 1964, Vonsovskii 1974): @G SðT; H; pÞ ¼ ð2:8aÞ @T H;p @G ð2:8bÞ MðT; H; pÞ ¼ @H T;p @G VðT; H; pÞ ¼ : ð2:8cÞ @p T;H If the magnetic moment M is chosen in G as an external variable instead of the magnetic ﬁeld H, then @G : ð2:8dÞ H¼ @M T;p So-called Maxwell equations can be obtained from equations (2.8a) and (2.8b), equations (2.8a) and (2.8c), and equations (2.8a) and (2.8d) (Kittel 1958,

6

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

Swalin 1962, Bazarov 1964, Vonsovskii 1974): @S @M ¼ @H T;p @T H;p @S @V ¼ @p T;H @T H;p @S @H ¼ : @M T;p @T M;p

ð2:9aÞ ð2:9bÞ ð2:9cÞ

The heat capacity C at constant parameter x is deﬁned as (Swalin 1962, Bazarov 1964) Q ð2:10Þ Cx ¼ dT x where Q is the heat quantity changing the system temperature on dT. Using the second law of thermodynamics (Swalin 1962, Bazarov 1964): Q T and the heat capacity can be represented as @S Cx ¼ T : @T x

ð2:11Þ

dS ¼

ð2:12Þ

The bulk thermal expansion coeﬃcient T ðT; H; pÞ can be deﬁned as (Swalin 1962, Bazarov 1964) 1 @V ð2:13aÞ T ðT; H; pÞ ¼ V @T H;p or, using equation (2.9b), 1 T ðT; H; pÞ ¼ V

@S @p

:

ð2:13bÞ

T;H

The total diﬀerential of the total entropy of the magnetic system expressed as a function of T, H and p can be written as @S @S @S dT þ dH þ dp: ð2:14Þ dS ¼ @T H;p @H T;p @p T;H Using equations (2.9a), (2.12), (2.13b) and (2.14), one can obtain for an adiabatic process (dS ¼ 0) the following equation: CH;p @M dT þ dH T V dp ¼ 0 ð2:15Þ T @T H;p where CH;p is the heat capacity under constant magnetic ﬁeld and pressure.

General thermodynamic approach

7

Under an adiabatic–isobaric process (dp ¼ 0, this process is usually realized in magnetocaloric experiments) the temperature change due to the change of the magnetic ﬁeld (the magnetocaloric eﬀect) can be obtained from equation (2.15) as T @M dH: ð2:16Þ dT ¼ CH;p @T H;p For an adiabatic–isochoric process (dV ¼ 0) the total diﬀerential of VðT; H; pÞ has the form @V dH V1 dp ð2:17Þ dV ¼ T V dT þ @H T;p where is the bulk elastic modulus: 1 1 ¼ V

@V @p

:

ð2:18Þ

T;H

The equation for an adiabatic–isochoric process can be derived from equations (2.15) and (2.17): CH;p @M @V 2 T V dT þ dH ¼ 0: ð2:19Þ T T @T H;p @H T;p Because the second term in the brackets is small and can be neglected (Kuz’min and Tishin 1992), the equation for the magnetocaloric eﬀect has the form T @M @V dH ð2:20Þ T dT ¼ CH;p @T H;p @H T;p where the second term is due to the internal magnetostriction tensions arising from the change in magnetic state of the system keeping the volume constant. Using equation (2.14), the general expression for the magnetocaloric eﬀect dT arising in a magnetic material under isobaric conditions and adiabatic magnetization by a ﬁeld dH can be obtained: ð@S=@HÞT;p dT : ¼ ð@S=@TÞH;p dH

ð2:21Þ

The total diﬀerential of the total entropy considered as a function of T, M and p can be written as @S @S @S dT þ dM þ dp: ð2:22Þ dS ¼ @T M;p @M T;p @p T;M From equations (2.9c), (2.12) and (2.22) one can obtain the expression for the magnetocaloric eﬀect caused by an adiabatic–isobaric change of

8

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

magnetization: dT ¼

T CM;p

@H @T

dM:

ð2:23Þ

M;p

By integration of equations (2.16) or (2.23) the ﬁnite temperature change T ¼ T2 T1 (here T2 and T1 are the ﬁnal and the initial temperatures, respectively) under adiabatic magnetization can be calculated. From equation (2.22) one can derive a general equation connecting dT and dM at isobaric conditions, analogous to equation (2.21): ð@S=@MÞT;p dT ¼ : ð@S=@TÞM;p dH

ð2:24Þ

In this section we consider general thermodynamic equations in which no assumptions were made on the system structure and microscopic interactions inside the system. To obtain more concrete magnetocaloric properties of the system one should know the form of its thermodynamic functions F or G, which requires some model assumptions. F and G can be established using nonequilibrium thermodynamic potential ðT; H; M; p; VÞ, in which the internal parameters M and V or p are regarded as independent variables. To obtain the equilibrium Gibbs free energy G or equilibrium free energy F one should minimize with respect to M and V or M and p: GðT; H; pÞ ¼ min ðT; H; M; p; VÞ

ð2:25aÞ

FðT; H; VÞ ¼ min ðT; H; M; p; VÞ:

ð2:25bÞ

M;V M;p

Then, with the help of the thermodynamic equations (2.7) and (2.8), the equilibrium internal parameters of a system can be obtained. The form of the nonequilibrium potential can be determined by symmetry and/or microscopic consideration. The general equations (2.16) and (2.23) describing the MCE take into account contributions corresponding to various processes occurring under magnetization, including contributions from paraprocesses and magnetocrystalline anisotropy. However, they are usually used for description of the MCE in the region of the paraprocess, which is characterized by a simple relation between M and H. By paraprocess we mean the magnetization in the ﬁeld region, where the processes of domain wall displacement and magnetization vector rotation are completed and the ﬁeld acts against thermal agitation and exchange interactions (in antiferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials) aligning the magnetic moments along its direction. At the same time it is necessary to note that along with the abovementioned contributions the following processes, which could impact on the resulting MCE value, should also be taken in to account: the contribution

Magnetocaloric eﬀect in second-order phase transitions

9

from magnetoelastic energy change, the contribution related to destruction of the magnetic metastable states, the contribution from nonreversible processes etc. There is also some contribution from domain processes, but it is usually negligible. Diﬀerent kinds of metastable processes, which could arise during ﬁrst-order phase transitions, especially simultaneous magnetic and crystal structure transformation processes, have a signiﬁcant inﬂuence on magnetocaloric behaviour in the corresponding temperature range. In this section we consider the magnetocaloric eﬀect in relation to a reversible process of magnetization. Nonreversible magnetothermal eﬀects are caused by such magnetization processes as displacement of domain walls and nonreversible rotation of the saturation magnetization, or to ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transitions. These eﬀects are characterized by a hysteresis in the magnetization cycle. The net magnetic work applied on Þ the magnetic material in this case, proportional to H dM, is dissipated as a heat which leads to the additional rise in temperature. One more source of additional heating is the Foucault (eddy) currents, which are induced in metals during application of the magnetic ﬁeld. Tishin (1988) estimated that the currents can give a remarkable contribution (of about 0.1–0.3 K for rapid change of the ﬁeld from 0 to 60 kOe) only in the low-temperature region. The nonreversible eﬀects can decrease the sample cooling under adiabatic demagnetization.

2.2

Magnetocaloric eﬀect in the frames of the theory of second-order phase transitions

Belov (1961a) adopted the Landau theory of second-order phase transitions (Landau and Lifshitz 1958) to the second-order magnetic phase transitions. In particular, such a transition takes place in a ferromagnet at the Curie point TC . According to Belov’s theory, near the Curie point the potential of a ferromagnet can be expanded in a power series of an order parameter, the latter becoming zero at the Curie point. In magnetic systems the order parameter is the magnetization and, for a single domain, isotropic ferromagnet. In the absence of a magnetic ﬁeld, the expansion takes the form ¼ 0 þ

2 4 I þ I þ 2 4

ð2:26Þ

where 0 is the part of the potential not connected with the magnetization, I is the magnetization (I ¼ M=V), and and are thermodynamic coeﬃcients. In the vicinity of the Curie point, where becomes zero, it can be presented as ¼ ðT TC Þ þ

ð2:27Þ

10

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

The coeﬃcient is positive above TC and negative below TC . Near TC , is not dependent on T: ¼ ðTC Þ. From the condition of potential minimum (@=@I ¼ 0) we can obtain the equilibrium value of spontaneous magnetization Is : ðT TC Þ : ð2:28Þ Is2 ¼ ¼ Substituting Is into equation (2.26) we obtain the equilibrium value of the thermodynamic potential . Taking into account the magnetoelastic interaction, we can write down the potential for a ferromagnet in a magnetic ﬁeld H: 1 ð2:29Þ ¼ 0 þ I 2 þ I 4 þ I 2 p HI: 2 4 2 Minimization of equation (2.29) with respect to I gives the equation describing the magnetization near the Curie point (Belov 1961a): ð þ pÞI þ I 3 ¼ H:

ð2:30Þ

Coeﬃcient describes the magnetoelastic interaction and is related to the Curie temperature displacement under pressure by (following from the condition ð þ pÞ ¼ 0 at TC ) TC ¼ : ð2:31Þ p Using equation (2.30) we can calculate the derivative ð@H=@TÞI and substitute it into equation (2.23), which gives the value of the MCE near the Curie temperature: 1 T 2 dI : ð2:32aÞ dT ¼ 2 CM;p As can be seen from equation (2.32), the temperature change due to the change of magnetization is proportional to the squared magnetization: T ¼ kI 2 , where k is a coeﬃcient of proportionality. Using this result and equation (2.30), one can obtain an equation describing the MCE ﬁeld dependence near the Curie temperature in a ferromagnet (Belov 1961a): þ p H þ 3=2 T ¼ : ð2:32bÞ 1=2 k k T 1=2

2.3

Statistical and mean-ﬁeld model of a magnetic material

The statistical sum (or partition function) of a system can be determined as (Smart 1966, Kittel 1958, 1969) X ^ =ðkB TÞÞ exp½En =ðkB TÞ ¼ Spðexp½H Z¼ n

Statistical and mean-ﬁeld model of a magnetic material

11

^ is the Hamiltonian of the system, En are its eigenvalues and kB is the where H Boltzmann constant. Knowing Z, one can calculate free energy of the system (Smart 1966, Kittel 1958, 1969): F ¼ kB T ln Z

ð2:33Þ

and, using equations (2.7), the internal parameters of the system. If the magnetic system is a paramagnet, the Hamiltonian for one atom has the form ~ ^ ¼ M ^JH H

ð2:34Þ

~ is the vector of magnetic ﬁeld, M ^ J ¼ gJ B J^—the atom magnetic where H moment operator. The partition function for one atom in this case has the form J X mx ð2:35aÞ exp ZJ ðxÞ ¼ J m ¼ J where x is determined as x¼

MJ H kB T

ð2:35bÞ

gJ is the g-factor of the atom, J is the total angular momentum quantum number, m ¼ J; J 1; . . . ; J, and MJ ¼ gB J is the magnetic moment of an atom. Summation of equation (2.35a) gives 2J þ 1 1 x sinh x : ð2:36Þ ZJ ðxÞ ¼ sinh 2J 2J The magnetic free energy (the part of free energy related to the magnetic subsystem of a material) of the system, consisting of N magnetic atoms, has the form FM ¼ kB T lnðZJ ðxÞÞN :

ð2:37Þ

Using this equation we can calculate the magnetic moment of the system by equation (2.7b): M ¼ NMJ BJ ðxÞ where BJ ðxÞ is the Brillouin function: 2J þ 1 2J þ 1 1 x coth x coth : BJ ðxÞ ¼ 2J 2J 2J 2J

ð2:38Þ

ð2:39Þ

For x 1 (this condition is characteristic for the high-temperature region and, in particular, is usually realized near the temperature of transition

12

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

from magnetically ordered to paramagnetic state) BJ ðxÞ can be expanded as BJ ðxÞ ¼

Jþ1 ððJ þ 1Þ2 þ J 2 ÞðJ þ 1Þ 3 x þ x 3J 90J 2

ð2:40Þ

This expansion of paramagnets leads to the Curie law: M¼

CJ H T

ð2:41Þ

where CJ ¼ N2B g2J JðJ þ 1Þ=3kB is the Curie constant. From equation (2.16) one can obtain the MCE of a paramagnet: dT ¼

T 2CH;p CJ

ðM 2 ÞT;p

ð2:42Þ

where ðM 2 ÞT;p ¼ ð@M 2 =@HÞT;p dH is the isothermobaric variation of squared magnetization. The Hamiltonian of an isotropic ferromagnet has the form X X ^¼ ^ i; j H ~ H M ð2:43Þ Iij ðJ^i J^j Þ i>j

i

where Iij is the exchange integral for the interaction between the i and j ions, and Ji is the total angular momentum operator of the ion. In the mean ﬁeld approximation (MFA) equation (2.43) becomes X X ^ i; j H ~ ^¼ nÞ M ð2:44Þ Iex zJðJ^j ~ H i>j

i

where z is the number of nearest-neighbour magnetic ions, J is the quantum number of the total angular momentum, ~ n is the unit vector determining the orientation of the total magnetic moment of the ion, and Iex is the exchange integral (it is supposed in MFA that the exchange interaction for every pair of nearest neighbours has the same value Iex ). In MFA the exchange interaction is replaced by an eﬀective exchange ﬁeld Hm (molecular ﬁeld): Hm ¼ wM

ð2:45Þ

where w is the molecular ﬁeld coeﬃcient, related to the exchange integral. The molecular ﬁeld is added to the external magnetic ﬁeld so equation (2.35b) becomes x¼

MJ ðH þ wMÞ : kB T

ð2:46Þ

The ﬁeld and temperature dependences of spontaneous magnetization Ms can be obtained by a simultaneous solution of equations (2.38) and (2.46). For T > TC and H ¼ 0 the equations have only one stable solution, Ms ¼ 0. For the temperature below TC a stable nonzero solution appears,

Statistical and mean-ﬁeld model of a magnetic material corresponding to the spontaneous magnetic moment: 10ðJ þ 1Þ2 T 2 1 Ms2 ¼ Ms0 TC 3ððJ þ 1Þ2 þ J 2 Þ

13

ð2:47Þ

where Ms0 ¼ NMJ is the spontaneous magnetic moment at T ¼ 0 K. In the paramagnetic region, where x 1, only the ﬁrst term in equation (2.40) may be taken into account and the magnetization equation takes the form of the Curie–Weiss law: M¼

CJ H T TC

ð2:48Þ

where the Curie temperature TC can be expressed as TC ¼

2 NMeff w 2ðJ þ 1Þ ¼ zIex 3kB 3JkB

ð2:49Þ

where Meff ¼ gJ ðJðJ þ 1ÞÞ1=2 B is the eﬀective magnetic moment of an atom. Using equation (2.16), one can obtain for the MCE of a ferromagnet in the paramagnetic region (T > TC ) the equation which has the same form as equation (2.42). For a ferromagnet at T < TC and in a nonzero magnetic ﬁeld, a somewhat more complicated analysis than that yielded to equation (2.42) gives (Kuz’min and Tishin 1992) dT ¼

TC ðM 2 ÞT;p : 2CH;p CJ

ð2:50Þ

Above, the quantum mechanical consideration of the magnetic system was made. In the classical case a magnetic material is regarded as consisting of particles with a magnetic moment , which can have an arbitrary orientation in space. The magnetic moment of such a system is given by the formula (Smart 1966) M ¼ NLðxÞ

ð2:51Þ

where LðxÞ ¼ coth x

1 x

ð2:52Þ

is the Langevin function, H kB T

ð2:53Þ

ðH þ wMÞ kB T

ð2:54Þ

x¼ for paramagnets, and x¼ for ferromagnets.

14

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect For x 1, LðxÞ can be expanded as LðxÞ ¼

x x3 3 45

ð2:55Þ

Equations (2.41), (2.42), (2.48) and (2.50) in this case are valid with the Curie constant N2 3kB

ð2:56Þ

N2 w : 3kB

ð2:57Þ

CJ ¼ and the Curie temperature TC ¼

2.4

Entropy, its change and magnetocaloric eﬀect

Important characteristics of a magnetic material are its total entropy S and the entropy of its magnetic subsystem SM (magnetic entropy). Entropy can be changed by variation of the magnetic ﬁeld, temperature and other thermodynamic parameters. The magnetic entropy and its change are closely related to the MCE value and the magnetic contribution to the heat capacity. The magnetic entropy change is also used to determine the characteristics of magnetic refrigerators, such as the refrigerant capacity and some others (see section 11). The total entropy of a magnetic material can in general, at constant pressure, be presented as (Tishin 1990a) SðH; TÞ ¼ SM ðH; TÞ þ Sl ðH; TÞ þ Se ðH; TÞ

ð2:58Þ

where SM is the magnetic entropy, Sl is the lattice and Se is the electron contributions to the total entropy. This formula is correct for rare earth magnetic materials, but in the case of 3d transition materials, where magnetic 3d-electrons have an itinerant nature, their contribution to the conductivity is comparable with p- and s-electron contributions. Separation of the lattice entropy in this case is possible only if electron–phonon interaction is not taken into account. In general, all three contributions depend on temperature and magnetic ﬁeld and cannot be clearly separated. The situation is especially diﬃcult in the case of the low-temperature region, where the value of electronic heat capacity coeﬃcient, ae , can change a few times under the inﬂuence of a magnetic ﬁeld or in the case of coexisting magnetic, structure and electronic phase transitions. For example, in materials with high values of ae , such as Sc (Ikeda et al 1982), CeB6 and CeCu2 Si2 (Grewe and Steglich 1991), and UBe13 (Stewart 1984), below about 10 K the electronic entropy and electronic heat

Entropy, its change and magnetocaloric eﬀect

15

capacity exhibit strong nonlinear dependences on both temperature and magnetic ﬁeld. However, in the ﬁrst approximation we can believe that lattice and electronic parts of entropy depend only on temperature, and all contributions depending on magnetic ﬁeld (from any changes of magnetic subsystem) are presented in total value of entropy in equation (2.58) by SM ðH; TÞ. The lattice entropy can be represented by the Debye interpolation formula (Gopal 1966): ð T 3 TD =T x3 dx TD =T ð2:59Þ Þ þ 12 Sl ¼ na R 3 lnð1 e TD ex 1 0 where R is the gas constant, TD is the Debye temperature and na is the number of atoms per molecule in a substance. As follows from equation (2.59), Sl decreases when TD increases. The electron entropy can be obtained by the standard relation Se ¼ ae T

ð2:60Þ

where ae is the electronic heat capacity coeﬃcient. Using equation (2.58) and (2.12), one can represent the total heat capacity of a magnetic material in the form 0 þ Cl þ Ce CH ¼ CH

ð2:61Þ

0 CH ,

where Cl and Ce are the magnetic, lattice and electron contributions, respectively. The heat capacity of a magnetic subsystem (magnetic heat capacity) 0 ðT; HÞ can be deﬁned using equation (2.12) as CH @SM ðT; HÞ 0 ð2:62Þ CH ðT; HÞ ¼ T @T H where index H means that the heat capacity is calculated at constant magnetic ﬁeld. It should be noted that the contributions to the total heat capacity from the lattice and conduction electron subsystems act as an additional heat load, reducing the MCE (see equation (2.16)). Using equations (2.37) and (2.7a), one can obtain the expression for the magnetic entropy SM for a system consisting of N magnetic atoms with the quantum number of the total angular momentum of an atom J (Smart 1966): 2 3 2J þ 1 sinh x 6 7 2J xBJ ðxÞ7 ð2:63Þ SM ðT; HÞ ¼ NkB 6 4ln 5: 1 x sinh 2J

16

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

In the case of high temperature and low ﬁeld (x 1) the statistical sum in equation (2.37) can be expanded in a power series of x. This gives the following formula for SM of a paramagnet (Vonsovskii 1974): 1 CJ H 2 ð2:64Þ SM ðT; HÞ ¼ NkB lnð2J þ 1Þ 2 T2 where CJ is the Curie constant, and the formula for SM of a ferromagnet above the Curie temperature is 1 CJ H 2 : ð2:65Þ SM ðT; HÞ ¼ NkB lnð2J þ 1Þ 2 ðT TC Þ2 The maximum magnetic entropy value is reached in a completely disordered state, which is realized, in particular, for conditions T ! 1 and H ¼ 0. According to equations (2.64) and (2.65), the maximum magnetic entropy value per mole of magnetic atoms with the quantum number of the total angular momentum of an atom J is equal to SM ¼ NA kB lnð2J þ 1Þ R lnð2J þ 1Þ

ð2:66Þ

where NA is Avogadro’s number. Consider the total entropy SðH; TÞ change of a magnetic material caused by the change of magnetic ﬁeld and temperature under isobaric condition. According to equations (2.58), (2.12) and our suggestion about the independence of Sl and Se on a magnetic ﬁeld, we can write the total diﬀerential of SðH; TÞ as 0 Cl ðTÞ Ce ðTÞ CH ðH; TÞ @SM ðH; TÞ dH: dT þ dT þ dT þ dSðH; TÞ ¼ T T T @H T ð2:67Þ The last two terms in equation (2.67) represent the total diﬀerential of the magnetic entropy SM : C 0 ðH; TÞ @SM ðH; TÞ dH ð2:68Þ dT þ dSM ðH; TÞ ¼ H T @H T or, using Maxwell equation (2.9a), dSM ðH; TÞ ¼

0 CH ðH; TÞ dT þ T

@MðH; TÞ @T

dH:

ð2:68aÞ

T

As can be seen, dSM consists of two parts, one related to the change of temperature (ﬁeld constant part) and another due to the change of the magnetic ﬁeld (isothermal part). To distinguish them let us denote the ﬁrst part as dSMH and the second as dSMT . The ﬁnite change of the total magnetic entropy under change of T on T ¼ T2 T1 (T2 is the ﬁnal and T1 is the initial temperature of the sample) and H on H ¼ H2 H1 (H2 is the ﬁnal and H1 is the initial

Entropy, its change and magnetocaloric eﬀect

17

magnetic ﬁeld) can be calculated as SM tot ðH; TÞ ¼ SM ðH þ H; T þ TÞ SM ðH; TÞ ð H þ H ð T þ T 0 @MðH; T þ TÞ CH ðH; TÞ ¼ dH þ dT: @T T H T H ð2:69Þ The ﬁnite isothermal magnetic entropy change under change of magnetic ﬁeld (the ﬁrst integral in equation (2.69)) H ¼ H2 H1 can be calculated from the Maxwell relation (2.9a) on the basis of magnetization data and can be deﬁned as ð H2 @SM ðH; TÞ dH SMT ðH; TÞ ¼ SM ðH1 ; TÞ SM ðH2 ; TÞ ¼ @H H1 T ð H2 @MðH; TÞ dH ¼ SðH2 ; TÞ SðH1 ; TÞ ¼ @T H1 H ¼ SðH; TÞ:

ð2:70Þ

It should be noted that SMT is equal to the ﬁnite isothermal change of the total entropy S. This is valid if Sl and Se do not depend on H (this suggestion was made earlier). The second integral in equation (2.69) represents the ﬁnite isoﬁeld change of the magnetic entropy SMH . The contributions SMT and SMH are illustrated by ﬁgure 2.1, where the characteristic temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy SM at the magnetic ﬁeld H1 ¼ 0 and H2 > 0 for a ferromagnetic material under isobaric–adiabatic magnetization process are schematically shown. As is known, the magnetic entropy of ferromagnets or paramagnets decreases in the magnetic ﬁeld, so SM ðTÞ dependence at H 6¼ 0 in ﬁgure 2.1 lies below SM ðTÞ dependence at H ¼ 0. The total entropy change in this process is equal to zero (SðT; HÞ ¼ const) and the initial temperature of the material T varies due to the magnetocaloric eﬀect by the value T. The result of the process can be imagined as a sum of two sequential processes of entropy change: isothermal T ¼ const change of magnetic ﬁeld H1 ! H1 þ H ¼ H2 (process 1 ! 2 in ﬁgure 2.1, corresponding to the isothermal entropy change SMT ) and temperature change (T ! T þ T) under the constant magnetic ﬁeld H ¼ const (process 2 ! 3 in ﬁgure 2.1, corresponding to the isoﬁeld entropy change SMH ). Here T is a ﬁnite value of the magnetocaloric eﬀect caused by the ﬁnite ﬁeld change H ¼ H2 H1 . Both the isothermal and the isoﬁeld parts contribute to a total change of magnetic entropy under adiabatic magnetization (or demagnetization). The increase of the isoﬁeld contribution SMH ðT; HÞ leads to a reduction of the total value of SM tot ðT; HÞ and to an increase of

18

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

Figure 2.1. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy SM at two diﬀerent ﬁelds H1 and H2 (H2 > H1 ) in a ferromagnetic material.

the value of magnetocaloric eﬀect (large distance between points 2 and 3). In this case a total adiabatic change of magnetic entropy, SM tot ðT; HÞ, and isothermal change of magnetic entropy, SMT ðT; HÞ, may diﬀer signiﬁcantly (see Figure 2.1) and cannot be assumed to be equal. Values of SM tot and SMT may be close to each other only at small values of 0 0 =T (i.e. small values of magnetic contribution, CH , to the total value CH of heat capacity and/or high temperatures) and/or small value of T (when points 2 and 3 are close; see Figure 2.1). The value of the MCE (the distance between points 2 and 3 on the T axis) is determined by the value of SMH and the value of SMT inﬂuence T by displacing the initial SM ðTÞ curve. It should be noted above that we consider the equilibrium adiabatic process at which the temperature of electronic, lattice and magnetic subsystems vary simultaneously under magnetic ﬁeld change and the temperature of the magnetic subsystem is permanently equal to the temperature of the lattice. In the room-temperature range the spin–lattice relaxation time in solids is about 1012 s (Kittel 1969) and according to Ahiezer and Pomeranchuk

Entropy, its change and magnetocaloric eﬀect

19

(1944) at 104 K this value is about 1 s. This can be described by the equation, following from equation (2.67), Cl ðTÞ C ðTÞ @SM ðT; HÞ C 0 ðT; HÞ dT þ e dT ¼ dT : ð2:71Þ dH þ H T T @H T T Usually the exact temperature of the lattice is measured in MCE experiments. However, in some special cases under nonequilibrium conditions (for example, due to the absence of possibility of energy exchange between magnetic and electronic and lattice subsystems) the temperatures of electronic and lattice subsystems may diﬀer, which can lead to the hysteresis on the MCE ﬁeld and temperature dependences. From equation (2.71) one can obtain for the adiabatic–isobaric process the expression for the magnitude of MCE: T @SM ðT; HÞ T dS ðT; HÞ dH ¼ dTðT; HÞ ¼ CH ðT; HÞ @H CH ðT; HÞ MT T T @MðT; HÞ dH: ð2:72Þ ¼ CH ðT; HÞ @T H From equation (2.72) it can be concluded that the value of dT is directly proportional to the isothermal change of SM , which can be calculated by Maxwell relation (2.9a), and magnetic entropy change due to a temperature 0 ) in the change aﬀects the MCE indirectly through an additional term (CH total heat capacity. However, the ﬁnite value of the MCE (T) in the isobaric–adiabatic process is determined by isoﬁeld adiabatic change SMH —see Figure 2.1. To reach the maximum MCE value one should provide such conditions at which SM tot should be equal to zero—in this case SMH ¼ SMT . Under such a ‘magnetic adiabatic’ condition the MCE has the value which, according to equation (2.68), can be calculated by the formula T @SM ðT; HÞ dH dTðT; HÞ ¼ 0 CH ðT; HÞ @H T T @MðT; HÞ dH: ð2:73Þ ¼ 0 CH ðT; HÞ @T H 0 It should be noted that in equation (2.73) magnetic heat capacity CH is used instead of total heat capacity CH , which includes lattice and electron contributions, in equation (2.72). Analogous conclusions can be made from the consideration of the case when SðH2 ; TÞ lies above SðH1 ; TÞ for H2 > H1 , as takes place in antiferromagnets. In literature devoted to the MCE, the value of isothermal magnetic entropy change SMT is usually determined and used in various calculations. Because of that, from now on we will omit index T in the symbol of magnetic

20

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

entropy change and will use just SM or dSM , keeping in mind that this is isothermal magnetic entropy change, unless specially stated. The inﬁnitesimal change of magnetic entropy dSM can be written down as dSM ¼

CH dT: T

ð2:74Þ

Integrating equations (2.74) and taking into account that according to the third law of thermodynamics the entropy at T ¼ 0 is assumed to be zero, one can calculate ﬁnite entropy change SðTÞ and magnetic entropy change SM ðTÞ on the basis of data on heat capacity temperature dependences CH ðTÞ: ðT ½CH ðH2 ; TÞ CH ðH1 ; TÞ dT: ð2:75Þ SM ðTÞ ¼ SðTÞ ¼ T 0 It follows from equation (2.75) that large SðTÞ and SM ðTÞ can be expected for the large diﬀerence between heat capacities at H1 and H2 and in the low-temperature region. Applying conditions of extremum and maximum or minimum of a function to equation (2.75), it is possible to determine the position of SM ðTÞ (or SðTÞ) maximum and minimum. According to the results of Pecharsky et al (2001), the maximum in SM ðTÞ is observed for CH ðH1 ; TÞ ¼ CH ðH2 ; TÞ and

@CH ðH2 ; TÞ @CH ðH1 ; TÞ < @T @T

ð2:76aÞ

and the minimum in SM ðTÞ is observed for CH ðH1 ; TÞ ¼ CH ðH2 ; TÞ

and

@CH ðH2 ; TÞ @CH ðH1 ; TÞ > : @T @T

ð2:76bÞ

Conditions (2.76) are illustrated by ﬁgure 2.2(a) and (b), where heat capacity experimental data of ErAgGa at H ¼ 0, 53.2 and 98.5 kOe are shown, together with magnetic entropy change temperature dependences calculated by equation (2.75) (Pecharsky et al 2001). As can be seen from ﬁgure 2.2, for ErAgGa the condition (2.76b) is fulﬁlled and accordingly there is a minimum in SM ðTÞ dependence. The temperature positions of the minima are determined by intersections between the CðTÞ curve at H ¼ 0 and the corresponding CðTÞ curve at H 6¼ 0 (the intersections are marked by bold dots in ﬁgure 2.2(a)). The minima and maxima on SM ðT; HÞ dependence are usually observed near the points of magnetic phase transformations. The adiabatic change of magnetic ﬁeld from H1 to H2 causes not only a ﬁnite change of the magnetic entropy SM , but also the ﬁnite change of sample temperature from T1 to T2 (the magnetocaloric eﬀect T ¼ T2 T1 ). The process is illustrated by ﬁgure 2.3, where the total entropy temperature dependences of a typical ferromagnet at H ¼ 0 and H 6¼ 0 are shown. According to this diagram, the MCE T at the given

Entropy, its change and magnetocaloric eﬀect

21

(a)

(b)

Figure 2.2. Heat capacity (a) and magnetic entropy change temperature dependences (b) of ErAgGa for H ¼ 0; 53.2 and 98.5 kOe. Equation (2.76b) holds at the points in (a). At the corresponding temperatures the minima on SM ðTÞ takes place—see (b) (Pecharsky et al 2001). (Copyright 2001 by the American Physical Society.)

22

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

Figure 2.3. The temperature dependences of the total entropy S(T) of a simple ferromagnet in zero and nonzero magnetic ﬁelds.

temperature T can be determined by the adiabatic condition SðT; H1 Þ ¼ SðT þ T; H2 Þ. Integration of equation (2.72) yields the equation for magnetocaloric eﬀect T: ðH 2 dSM 1 TðT; HÞ ¼ T exp H1 CH ðT; HÞ ðH 2 @MðT; HÞ=@T dH 1 : ð2:77Þ ¼ T exp CH ðT; HÞ H1 Assuming that the heat capacity does not depend on the magnetic ﬁeld, one can simplify equation (2.77) to SM ðT; HÞ TðT; HÞ ¼ T exp 1 : ð2:78Þ CH ðTÞ Equation (2.78) allows some conclusions to be drawn about TðT; HÞ behaviour and its relation to SM . First, T is positive for negative SM and changes its sign at SM ¼ 0. It should be noted that the expression in curly braces increases exponentially with SM absolute value increasing for SM < 0. If SM ðTÞ has a maximum in absolute value, T should also have a maximum. For positive SM (as takes place in antiferromagnets) the expression in curly braces has small negative values for small SM /CH and rapidly decreases with its increasing, reaching the value of 1 for large SM /CH . So, in this case T T and does not depend on SM for large SM /CH . Further simpliﬁcation of equation (2.77) can be done assuming that SM /CH is small, expanding the exponent function. As was noted by Tishin (1997), these suppositions are valid only in the region far from the transition point and/or in relatively weak ﬁelds. The resulting equation has

Entropy, its change and magnetocaloric eﬀect

23

the form T ¼

TSM : CH

ð2:79Þ

From equation (2.77) it can also be seen that the value of T increases with increasing temperature (for the same SM and CH ) and that larger T can be expected for materials with lower total heat capacity. It should be noted that above the Debye temperature TD the lattice contribution to the heat capacity of solids approaches the value of 3R (the DuLong–Petit limit), and this factor can play a role in T increasing in the high-temperature region above TD . The Debye temperature can have an essential inﬂuence on the MCE, which is considered in section 8.1.8. According to the above, the highest MCE value can be reached in ferromagnets and paramagnets with high absolute values of negative SM , and low contribution to the total heat capacity from lattice and conduction electron subsystems. The latter condition can be reached in the low-temperature region, where Ce and Cl approach zero. Note also that the value of the MCE is directly proportional to temperature (see equation (2.77)). Pecharsky et al (2001) analysed the temperature behaviour of T by investigation of equation (2.79) on the extremum and showed that in general the maximum (or minimum) TðTÞ should not coincide with the temperature of the corresponding minimum (or maximum) in SM ðTÞ. The conditions of the maximum TðTÞ are @ T 0 ð2:80aÞ CðT; H2 Þ CðT; H1 Þ and @T CðT; H2 Þ or CðT; H2 Þ CðT; H1 Þ and

@ @T

T CðT; H2 Þ

0:

ð2:80bÞ

This is illustrated in ﬁgure 2.4(a) and (b), where the temperature dependences of T=CðH; TÞ and TðTÞ of ErAgGa are shown (Pecharsky et al 2001). Here @=@TðT=CðH; TÞÞ < 0 at low temperatures and the peak of TðTÞ should be observed for CðT; H2 Þ CðT; H1 Þ, which holds below 10 K (ﬁgure 2.2(a)). TðTÞ maxima in ErAgGa are observed at about 7 K (ﬁgure 2.4(b)), which is lower than the temperatures of SM ðTÞ maxima positions (ﬁgure 2.2(b)). SM for a paramagnet and a ferromagnet above TC can be obtained from equations (2.41), (2.48) and (2.70): SM ¼

1 CJ ðHÞ2 2 T2

ð2:81Þ

SM ¼

1 CJ ðHÞ2 2 ðT TC Þ2

ð2:82Þ

24

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect (a)

(b)

Figure 2.4. The temperature dependences of the T=CðT; HÞ (a) and TðTÞ (b) of ErAgGa in magnetic ﬁelds 53.2 and 98.5 kOe (Pecharsky et al 2001). (Copyright 2001 by the American Physical Society.)

Entropy, its change and magnetocaloric eﬀect

25

where ðHÞ2 ¼ H22 H12 . It is clear from equations (2.81) and (2.82) that large values of SM are expected in magnetic materials with large Meff and in a temperature range close to 0 K for paramagnets, close to TC for ferromagnets. The following expression, describing the ﬁeld dependence of SM in a ferromagnet near TC , was derived by Oesterreicher and Parker (1984) in the frames of MFA: g JH 2=3 SM ¼ 1:07NkB J B : ð2:83Þ kB TC It follows from this equation that T H 2=3 in the vicinity of TC (see equation (2.79) above). Figure 2.5 illustrates the typical behaviour of total entropy SðT; HÞ, magnetic entropy SM ðT; HÞ and magnetic entropy change SM ðT; HÞ in a typical ferromagnet EuS. At high temperatures SM ðT; HÞ approaches its upper limit R lnð2J þ 1Þ—see equation (2.65)—and SM ðT; HÞ has a maximum near TC . The total entropy increase, observed in the hightemperature region, is due to the increase of the lattice and conduction electron entropies. In some experiments there were attempts to take into account eﬀects of magnetocrystalline anisotropy in calculations of magnetic entropy SM . Bennett et al (1993) considered the magnetic entropy of a ferromagnet with an axial anisotropy using the total Hamiltonian of the form X X ^¼ ~ þ a^ H s2zi Þ sj B Iij s^i ^ ð^ si H ð2:84Þ i>j

i

where ^ si is the spin angular momentum operator and the magnetic ﬁeld is directed along the z axis. If a > 0, the preferred directions of the spins are z (uniaxial anisotropy) and for a < 0 the spins lie in the plane perpendicular to the z axis (in-plane anisotropy). The total magnetic moment of the 20 20 20 fcc lattice was calculated by the Monte Carlo method using the Hamiltonian (2.84), and then SM was determined by equation (2.70) for H1 ¼ 0 and H2 ¼ 10 kOe. It was shown that for the case of uniaxial anisotropy, an increase of a led to sharpening and an increase of the SM peak height near TC , but in the rest of the temperature range the curves were almost identical. For in-plane anisotropy, SM essentially increased in the vicinity of TC and decreased above TC in the paramagnetic region, with increasing of a in the absolute value. Druzhinin et al (1975, 1977, 1979) took into account in Hamiltonian (2.43) the single-ion hexagonal magnetocrystalline anisotropy in the form of X d ^6 2 4 6 6 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ aJz þ bJz þ cJz þ ðJþ þ J Þ ð2:85Þ Ha ¼ 2 i

26

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

Figure 2.5. The temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change SM ðT; HÞ (a) induced by a magnetic ﬁeld change H, magnetic entropy SM ðT; HÞ (b) at diﬀerent magnetic ﬁelds H and total entropy SðT; HÞ (c) in a typical ferromagnet EuS (Hashimoto et al 1981). (Reprinted from Hashimoto et al 1981, copyright 1981, with permission from Elsevier.)

Entropy, its change and magnetocaloric eﬀect

27

(here the coeﬃcients a, b, c and d are related to the crystal ﬁeld coeﬃcients Am l (Taylor and Darby 1972)) and calculated the magnetic entropy SM by the Boltzmann equation: X expðEn =kB TÞ expðEn =kB TÞ ln : ð2:86Þ SM ¼ kB N Z Z n The calculations of SM were performed for Tb and Dy for H ¼ 0 (Druzhinin et al 1977). The results show some better agreement with experimental data than calculations made on the basis of isotropic Hamiltonian (2.43) in the framework of the MFA. The partition function, free energy and magnetic entropy of the system consisting of N particles with magnetic moments have in the classical limit the form (McMichael et al 1992) Z1 ¼ 4

SM

sinh x x

F ¼ kB T lnðZ1 ðxÞÞN sinh x ¼ NkB ln 4 x lnðxÞ x sinh x ¼ NkB 1 x coth x þ ln 4 x

ð2:87Þ ð2:88Þ

ð2:89Þ

where x is determined by equations (2.53) and (2.54). As in the quantum case, the magnetic entropy change under magnetization in magnetic ﬁelds from H1 to H2 in the classical limit can be calculated by equation (2.70): ð H2 @M N2 ðHÞ2 SM ¼ dH ¼ ð2:90Þ 6kB T 2 @T H H1 for a paramagnet; and SM ¼

N2 ðHÞ2 6kB ðT TC Þ2

ð2:91Þ

for a ferromagnet at T > TC . A more general consideration yields the following expression for SM caused by a magnetic ﬁeld increase from zero to H in the classical limit: sinh x SM ¼ SM ðT; HÞ SM ðT; 0Þ ¼ NkB 1 x coth x þ ln : ð2:92Þ x The magnetic entropy change caused by the occurrence of the spontaneous magnetization in a ferromagnet below ordering temperature TC in the absence of a magnetic ﬁeld can be described by means of the Landau theory of the second-order phase transitions (Landau 1958). Using equation

28

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

(2.26) for thermodynamic potential , equation (2.28) for equilibrium spontaneous magnetization and equation S ¼ @=@T, one can obtain the following formula for the entropy change (Belov 1961a): SM ¼

2.5

2 ð Þ2 Is ¼ ðT TC Þ: 2 2

ð2:93Þ

MCE at the ﬁrst-order transitions

It was assumed in section 2.4, under consideration of the magnetocaloric eﬀect and the entropy change caused by the magnetic ﬁeld, that the magnetic phase transition is a phase transition of the second-order type. As is known, in the point of the second-order transition the ﬁrst derivatives on temperature or generalized force (pressure, magnetic ﬁeld etc.) of the thermodynamic potential are continuous functions and the second derivatives undergo a discontinuous change ( jump). The entropy and such generalized coordinates of a system as volume and magnetization are the ﬁrst-order derivative of the thermodynamic potentials—see equations (2.8). Because of that there are no jumps in entropy, thermal expansion, or magnetization, and there is no latent heat (Q ¼ TS) in the point of the second-order transition. Such behaviour can be explained by indistinguishability of old and new phases in the second-order transition points. The phases have in the point of the transition the same physical characteristics, which become diﬀerent only far from the transition. However, the parameters determined as the second derivatives of the thermodynamic potential, such as heat capacity, should undergo at the point of the second-order phase transition a ﬁnite discontinuous change—see section 2.11. If a material undergoes the transition of a ﬁrst-order type, then the ﬁrst-order derivatives of the thermodynamic potential changes discontinuously, and such values as entropy, volume and magnetization displays a jump at the point of transition. The heat capacity in the point of the ﬁrst-order transition should be inﬁnite. The analysis of the magnetic entropy change and MCE behaviour at the ﬁrst-order magnetic transition was made by Pecharsky et al (2001). Figure 2.6 shows an S–T diagram of the magnetic system undergoing ﬁrst-order transition at the transition point Tpt ðHÞ, which is displaced in the magnetic ﬁeld (in this case Tpt ðH2 Þ > Tpt ðH1 Þ). The enthalpy of the ﬁrst-order transformation is EðHÞ, which results in discontinuous total entropy change of the value of EðHÞ=Tpt ðHÞ. It is assumed that below Tpt ðH1 Þ and above Tpt ðH2 Þ a magnetic ﬁeld has little eﬀect on the entropy, and its main change takes place between Tsp ðH1 Þ and Tsp ðH2 Þ. The consideration was made for the case H2 > H1 , but analogous results with inverse signs of SM and T can be obtained for the case of H2 < H1 . The total entropy of the system

MCE at the ﬁrst-order transitions

29

Figure 2.6. A schematic S–T diagram of a magnetic material in two magnetic ﬁelds H1 and H2 near the ﬁrst-order transition (Pecharsky et al 2001). (Copyright 2001 by the American Physical Society.)

can be represented as SðT; HÞ ¼

ð Tpt ðHÞ 0

l CH ðT; HÞ dT þ T

ðT

h CH ðT; HÞ EðHÞ dT þ T Tpt ðHÞ Tpt ðHÞ

ð2:94Þ

l h where CH ðT; HÞ and CH ðT; HÞ are the heat capacities of the phases stable below and above Tpt ðHÞ, respectively. Assuming that constant magnetic ﬁeld capacities of these phases are approximately the same, l h ðT; HÞ CH ðT; HÞ ¼ CH ðTÞ, the total and magnetic entropy change CH caused by the magnetic ﬁeld change in the temperature ranges T < Tpt ðH1 Þ, Tpt ðH1 Þ < T < Tpt ðH2 Þ and T > Tpt ðH2 Þ, respectively, can be written down as follows:

SM ðT; HÞ ¼ SðT; HÞ ﬃ

SM ðT; HÞ ¼ SðT; HÞ ﬃ

ðT 0

ðT

ðCH ðT; H2 Þ CH ðT; H1 ÞÞ dT ð2:95aÞ T

ðCH ðT; H2 Þ CH ðT; H1 ÞÞ dT T 0 EðH1 Þ ð2:95bÞ Tpt ðH1 Þ

30

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

SM ðT; HÞ ¼ SðT; HÞ ﬃ

ðT

ðCH ðT; H2 Þ CH ðT; H1 ÞÞ dT T 0 EðH1 Þ EðH2 Þ : ð2:95cÞ Tpt ðH1 Þ Tpt ðH2 Þ

Since EðHÞ=Tpt ðHÞ is a temperature-independent value, then conditions of minimum and maximum SM are also valid in the case of the ﬁrst-order transitions. Because, according to the experimental data (Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1997a, Tishin et al 1999a), in materials with ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transitions the magnetic ﬁeld has small inﬂuence on the heat capacity below Tpt ðH1 Þ and above Tpt ðH2 Þ, it is possible to assume that CH ðT; H1 Þ CH ðT; H2 Þ in these temperature ranges. Based on this simpliﬁcation one can conclude that the magnetic entropy change under ﬁrst-order transition should have approximately constant and large values between Tpt ðH1 Þ and Tpt ðH2 Þ: SM ðT; HÞ ﬃ

EðH1 Þ EðH2 Þ ﬃ Tpt ðH1 Þ Tpt ðH2 Þ

ð2:96Þ

and small values below Tpt ðH1 Þ and above Tpt ðH2 Þ. So, the magnetic entropy change during ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transition is mainly due to enthalpy of the phase transformation. Since the largest magnetic entropy change occurs between Tpt ðH1 Þ and Tpt ðH2 Þ, it is natural to expect the largest MCE values in this interval. One can distinguish two diﬀerent temperature intervals between Tpt ðH1 Þ and Tpt ðH2 Þ, separated by characteristic temperature Tm —see ﬁgure 2.6. If the initial temperature lies in the temperature region from Tpt ðH1 Þ to Tm , then the material cannot reach Tpt ðH2 Þ due to the temperature change caused by the magnetocaloric eﬀect TðHÞ. When the initial temperature is situated between Tm and Tpt ðH2 Þ, the temperature of the material rises up to Tpt ðH2 Þ before the magnetic ﬁeld reaches H2 due to the MCE. According to Pecharsky et al (2001), the further temperature rise (above Tpt ðH2 Þ) will not happen because the heat capacity of the material has inﬁnite value (extremely large, in practice) in the point of the ﬁrst-order transition. The temperature Tm can be deﬁned as the temperature where the total entropy SðTm ; H1 Þ equals the total entropy SðTpt ; H2 Þ. Pecharsky et al (2001) considered the simplest case when the magnetic ﬁeld had an essential eﬀect on the magnetic transition temperature Tpt , but did not aﬀect the heat capacity below Tpt ðH1 Þ and above Tpt ðH2 Þ. In this case the MCE has nonzero values only in the interval from Tpt ðH1 Þ to Tpt ðH2 Þ and can be determined from equations (2.79) and (2.96): TðT; HÞ ¼

T T EðH1 Þ SM ðT; HÞ ﬃ : CH ðH; TÞ CH ðH; TÞ Tpt ðH1 Þ

ð2:97Þ

MCE at the ﬁrst-order transitions

31

Since the value of EðH1 Þ=Tpt ðH1 Þ is constant, then the MCE temperature dependence is determined by the behaviour of T=CH ðH; TÞ. As was concluded by Pecharsky et al (2001) on the basis of experimental data, T=CH should decrease with increasing temperature in the low-temperature range and increase when the temperature exceeds 20–100 K (depending on the value of the Debye temperature). That is why the MCE is expected to rise proportionally between Tpt ðH1 Þ and Tm . In the temperature range from Tm to Tpt ðH2 Þ the MCE is limited by Tpt ðH2 Þ and its value is just the diﬀerence between Tpt ðH2 Þ and initial temperature T: TðT; HÞ ¼ Tpt ðH2 Þ T:

ð2:98Þ

So, above Tm the value of the MCE begins to decrease rapidly with temperature. If the magnetic ﬁeld change or its eﬀect on the magnetic phase transition is small, then it can be assumed that Tm ¼ Tpt ðH1 Þ and equation (2.98) becomes TðT; HÞ ﬃ Tpt ðH2 Þ Tpt ðH1 Þ

ð2:99Þ

indicating that the MCE in this case is determined as just a diﬀerence between the temperatures corresponding to the points of the ﬁrst-order transitions in the ﬁelds H2 and H1 . For ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transitions the magnetic Clausius– Clapeyron equation is valid: dH SM ¼ M dT

ð2:100Þ

where SM ¼ SMð2Þ SMð1Þ and M ¼ M2 M1 are the diﬀerences in magnetic part of the entropy and the magnetic moment between the magnetic states 2 and 1 at the temperature of the transition. Using this equation one can calculate the entropy change (and consequently the MCE) at the transition on the basis of magnetization data and the magnetic phase diagram H–T. Using equations (2.79) and (2.100) it is possible to obtain the formula for the MCE at the ﬁrst-order transition (see, for example, Tishin 1994): T @H M: ð2:101Þ T ¼ CH @T It should be noted that because magnetization changes at the ﬁrst-order transition theoretically by a jump and usually very fast in real materials, the magnetocaloric eﬀect—SM and T—at this transition can achieve essential values, much higher than at the second-order transitions for the same values of magnetization. First-order transitions usually take place at magnetic order–order transitions. The eﬀects of short-range order in paramagnetic state and spin ﬂuctuations, which smear magnetic order–disorder transitions and reduces by this MCE, are absent at the ﬁrst order–order transitions. The order–order magnetic transitions are often accompanied

32

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

by the structural transitions (see sections 5 and 7.2.2), which also enforces the magnetization change and makes it sharper and, consequently, causes the MCE strengthening.

2.6

MCE in ferrimagnetic and antiferromagnetic materials

In ferromagnets the magnetic entropy change caused by positive magnetic ﬁeld change (H > 0) always has a negative sign, and the MCE has a positive sign. Materials with antiferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic structures can display in some ﬁeld and temperature intervals positive SM values for positive H (and, correspondingly, negative MCE). Such behaviour is illustrated by ﬁgure 2.7(a) and (b), where the temperature dependences of the MCE in polycrystalline iron garnets Gd3 Fe5 O12 and Y3 Fe5 O12 induced by H ¼ 16 kOe are shown (Belov et al 1969). One can see that in certain temperature intervals,

Figure 2.7. Temperature dependences of the MCE in polycrystalline rare earth iron garnets Gd3 Fe5 O12 (a) and Y3 Fe5 O12 (b) induced by H ¼ 16 kOe (Belov et al 1972, 1973).

MCE in ferrimagnetic and antiferromagnetic materials

33

negative MCE is observed in Gd3 Fe5 O12 , where ferrimagnetic structures arise below the Curie point. In contrast, in ferromagnetic Y3 Fe5 O12 there is only a positive MCE with a characteristic peak near the Curie temperature. The negative MCE is related to the ferrimagnetic structure of Gd3 Fe5 O12 garnet and peculiarities of its transformation in the magnetic ﬁeld. According to the Ne´el model (Ne´el 1954) ferrimagnetic rare earth iron garnets R3 Fe5 O12 have a magnetic structure consisting of three sublattices. The R3þ ions occupy dodecahedral sites (c-sublattice) and the Fe3þ ions occupy octahedral (a-sublattice) and tetragonal (d-sublattice) sites. The aand d-sublattices are connected by strong antiferromagnetic exchange interactions. The weaker antiferromagnetic interaction occurs between dand c-sublattices and the c–c and a–c interactions are weak and positive (Anderson 1964). Such exchange ﬁeld distribution leads to a strong paraprocess in the c-sublattice in the whole temperature range below the Curie point, TC , which displays itself in a strong temperature and ﬁeld dependence of the c-sublattice magnetic moment. An intensive paraprocess in the a- and d-sublattices is possible only near TC and the total magnetic moments of the d- and a-sublattices have weak ﬁeld and temperature dependence at low temperatures. According to the estimations, made by Belov and Nikitin (1965, 1970a) in the framework of mean ﬁeld approximation (MFA), the values of eﬀective ﬁelds acting in the rare earth (RE) magnetic sublattice (H2 eff ) and in the iron a–d magnetic sublattices (H1 eff ) in iron garnets with heavy rare earths are approximately 3 105 Oe and 1:7 106 Oe, respectively, i.e. H1 eff H2 eff . Due to the diﬀerence in temperature dependences of the c-, a- and d-sublattice magnetizations, the compensation temperature Tcomp , characteristic for ferrimagnets, appears in the garnets containing heavy rare earth ~R is lower metals. Above Tcomp the magnetic moment of the c-sublattice M ~ than the total magnetic moment of the a- and d-sublattices MFe , and below Tcomp the inverse situation takes place. The resultant magnetic moment of ~¼M ~Re þ M ~Fe and is oriented along the ﬁeld the rare earth iron garnet is M ~Fe orientations relative to ~ direction. This leads to a change of the MR and M the ﬁeld at T ¼ Tcomp . This eﬀect was observed by neutron diﬀraction measurements (Bertran et al 1956, Herpin and Meriel 1957, Prince 1957). Consider the MCE in rare earth iron garnets using the MFA model and following the work of Belov and Nikitin (1970a). The MCE can be determined by formula (2.16), which can be written down in vector form: ~ T @M ~: dH ð2:102Þ dT ¼ CH @T The total value of the MCE can be presented as the sum T ¼ TFe þ TR :

ð2:103Þ

Taking into account that in the rare earth garnets j@MR =@Tj j@MFe =@Tj and j@MR =@Hj j@MFe =@Hj below TC , one can conclude that the main

34

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

contribution to the MCE in the low-temperature region far enough from the Curie point is provided by the rare earth c-sublattice and can be presented as follows: I20 @BJ ðx2 Þ ~ I20 ~ ~ H H þ 2B s2 H2 eff ð2:104aÞ T ¼ CH kB T @x2 2n2 where I20 is the magnetization of the RE sublattice at T ¼ 0 K, 2 is the number of the RE atoms in the molecule, s2 is the spin of the RE atom, n is the number of molecules in the unit volume, and BJ is the Brillouin function. The value of the molecular ﬁeld acting on the RE sublattice from ~2 eff is determined by the equation iron a–d sublattice H H2 eff ¼

z21 I21 I1 B I10

ð2:104bÞ

where I21 is the exchange integral describing the interaction between RE and Fe sublattices; z21 is the number of the nearest neighbours of the a–d sublattice to an atom of the RE sublattice; I1 is the magnetization of the a–d sublattices; I10 is I1 at T ¼ 0 K; x2 ¼

I20 2 s H þ B 2 H2 eff : n2 kB T kB T

ð2:104cÞ

Equations (2.104) allow one to explain negative MCE values in iron garnets with heavy rare earths in the low-temperature region—see ﬁgure 2.7. It can be seen from equations (2.104) that if the directions of the external magnetic ~ and the internal molecular ﬁeld H ~2 eff coincide, then T > 0. In this ﬁeld H case the external magnetic ﬁeld increases the magnetic order in the c-sublattice and decreases the magnetic entropy (SM < 0), which leads to ~ and H ~2 eff are aligned in opposite directions, then sample heating. If H ~2 eff and T < 0. The external magnetic ﬁeld acts in this case against H decreases the magnetic order in the c-sublattice. This process is accompanied by the magnetic entropy increase (SM > 0) and a corresponding sample cooling. The paraprocesses of these two types were called ferromagnetic (it causes SM < 0 and T > 0 for H > 0) and antiferromagnetic (it causes SM > 0 and T < 0 for H > 0) ones, respectively (Belov 1968, Belov et al 1968, 1969, 1972). The ferro- and antiferromagnetic paraprocesses can take place in the same magnetic sublattice at various temperature and ﬁeld ranges, but in the rare earth iron garnets the MCE below the Curie point is determined by the paraprocess in the c-sublattice. Near TC the ferromagnetic paraprocess in the iron a–d sublattice overcomes the antiferromagnetic one in the c-sublattice, and the MCE becomes positive at some temperature, reaching a maximum near TC . Near the compensation temperature a sudden change of the MCE sign is observed in the rare earth iron garnets containing heavy rare earths—see the

MCE in ferrimagnetic and antiferromagnetic materials

35

TðTÞ curve for Gd3 Fe5 O12 in ﬁgure 2.7(a), for which the change happens at ~Fe 285 K. The T sign change near Tcomp is related to the change of the M ~ orientation (and, consequently, the H2 eff orientation) relative to the magnetic ﬁeld direction and should be inversely proportional to Tcomp , as follows from equations (2.104). The latter statement was conﬁrmed experimentally in rare earth iron garnets by Belov et al (1969). As was noted by Belov and Nikitin (1970), the existence of T jumps at Tcomp points to a ﬁrst-order character of this magnetic phase transition. Below Tcomp at T 90 K the MCE in Gd3 Fe5 O12 displays an additional maximum which is higher than that near TC —ﬁgure 2.7(a). An increase of the MCE below Tcomp was also observed in the garnets with Ho, Dy and Tb ions (see section 5.1). This behaviour was related to a sharp change of the long-range magnetic order, which took place in the RE sublattice in this temperature range (Belov 1961b, Belov and Nikitin 1970b). The low temperature of this ordering is due to the weakness of the eﬀective ﬁeld acting on the RE sublattice from the a–d iron sublattice. If the magnetic c-sublattice in the garnet is absent, as is the case for R ¼ Y, one can observe a TðTÞ curve with one maximum near the Curie point, caused by the paraprocess in the a–d sublattice (although a- and d-sublattices are connected by negative exchange interaction, the ferromagnetic paraprocess in the d-sublattice prevails in the whole temperature range)—see ﬁgure 2.7(b). Further consideration of the rare earth iron garnets’ magnetothermal properties will be made in section 5.1. The magnetic ﬁeld can decrease the antiferromagnetic order and ﬁnally convert it to the ferromagnetic one. This process is accompanied by ﬁeldinduced MCE (and SM ) sign change. The typical example of such behaviour is shown in ﬁgure 2.8, where ﬁeld dependences of the MCE in Dy are shown. As is known, the helicoidal antiferromagnetic (HAFM) structure arises in Dy between TN ﬃ 180 K and TC ﬃ 90 K (Taylor and Darby 1972, McEwen 1991). HAFM structure can be destroyed by the critical magnetic ﬁeld Hcr , which reaches its maximum value of 11 kOe at TK ¼ 165 K (Bykhover et al 1990). In the ﬁelds above Hcr a ‘fan’ structure arises, in which the magnetic moments in the basal planes form fan-type ordering around the ﬁeld direction. A further increase of the ﬁeld leads to the establishment of complete ferromagnetic ordering at a ﬁeld about 2Hcr (Greenough and Hettiarachchi 1983, Drillat et al 1984, Bagguley and Howe 1986). In the temperature interval from TK to TN the ﬁeld-induced transition fan-HAFM is the second-order phase transition, in which the ﬁeld continuously deforms the HAFM structure until a fan structure is formed. On the ﬁrst stage the process leads to decreasing of the antiferromagnetic order with a corresponding increase of the magnetic entropy. On TðTÞ curves it corresponds to the ﬁeld intervals where T < 0—see the curves for T ¼ 170 and 175 K in ﬁgure 2.8. At a further magnetic ﬁeld, an increasing ferromagnetic paraprocess appears and the MCE changes its sign from negative to positive at some value of the magnetic

36

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

Figure 2.8. MCE dependences in a Dy single crystal on a magnetic ﬁeld directed along the a-axis (the ﬁeld is changed from 0 to H). The numbers near curves are temperatures in kelvins (Tishin 1988, Nikitin et al 1991b). (Reprinted from Nikitin et al 1991b, copyright 1991, with permission from Elsevier.)

ﬁeld—see ﬁgure 2.8. Subsequent magnetization leads to an increase of the ferromagnetic order, and the system behaves just as a ferromagnet with positive MCE caused by positive magnetic ﬁeld change. It should be noted that SM behaviour in a magnetic ﬁeld in such magnetic systems as Dy, which exhibits ﬁrst-order transition at Hcr , can be described by the thermodynamic Clausius–Clapeyron equation (2.100).

2.7

MCE in the vicinity of magnetic phase transitions

Tishin et al (1999a) investigated the magnetic ﬁeld and temperature dependences of T in the vicinity of magnetic phase transitions. The consideration was made on the basis of a reversible closed thermodynamic cycle in the (S; T) coordinates. It was shown that the MCE can be presented by the equation @TðT0 ; HÞ CðT; HÞ ð2:105aÞ TðT0 ; HÞ ¼ T0 CðT; HÞ @T CðT0 ; HÞ

MCE in the vicinity of magnetic phase transitions

37

where CðT; HÞ ¼

CðT0 ; 0Þ CðT; HÞ CðT0 ; 0Þ

ð2:105bÞ

and T0 and T are the initial and ﬁnal temperatures, respectively (T ¼ T0 T). Recalling that at the temperature where the MCE has its maximum or minimum the condition @T=@T ¼ 0 should be fulﬁlled, one can obtain for the peak MCE value: TðH; T0 Þpeak ¼ T0 CðT; HÞ:

ð2:106Þ

From equation (2.106) it is straightforward that the MCE peak value is positive (maximum of the MCE) if CðH; TÞ < 0 and is negative (minimum of the MCE) if CðH; TÞ > 0. Experimental results on the heat capacity of ferromagnets in various magnetic ﬁelds show that CðH; TÞ > 0 at temperatures below and just above the zero magnetic ﬁeld heat capacity peak. CðH; TÞ changes sign and becomes positive at slightly higher temperatures, so the MCE maximum in a ferromagnet should be expected above the temperature corresponding to the zero magnetic ﬁeld heat capacity peak. This is illustrated by ﬁgure 2.9(a), where heat capacity temperature dependences of GdPd at various magnetic ﬁelds are presented. According to the magnetic investigations, the binary intermetallic compound orders ferromagnetically below 38 K (Zimm et al 1992). For small T and/or for relatively high temperatures (T=T0 0) it follows from equation (2.106) that at temperature Tpeak , where the peak MCE occurs, the following condition is satisﬁed: Cð0; Tpeak Þ CðH; TÞ:

ð2:107Þ

So, the heat capacity of the material should be practically independent of the magnetic ﬁeld at the temperature of the MCE peak. The temperature of the MCE peak (maximum or minimum) should be located close to a characteristic temperature Teq , where the values of Cð0; TÞ and CðH; TÞ are equal. It should be noted that where the initial magnetic ﬁeld is not equal to zero, equations (2.105–2.107) are also valid, and in this case the MCE peak temperature must be located close to the temperature where CðH1 ; TÞ and CðH2 ; TÞ are the same. In general case, when the relation T=T0 is not negligible, equation (2.106) can be rewritten as follows: Cð0; Tpeak Þ

T ¼ CðH; TÞ: TM

ð2:108Þ

Since for a ferromagnet the MCE is positive and the T=Tpeak is always larger than 1, the MCE maximum occurs at a temperature higher than Teq . Experimental data show that zero magnetic ﬁeld heat capacity in ferromagnets changes sharply with the temperature immediately above its peak (see, for

38

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect (a)

(b)

Figure 2.9. The heat capacity of polycrystalline GdPd measured at 0, 20, 50 and 75 kOe (a); and the magnetocaloric eﬀect for a magnetic ﬁeld change of 20 kOe, 50 kOe and 100 kOe, determined from the heat capacity data (b) (Tishin et al 1999a). (Copyright 1999 by the American Physical Society.)

MCE in the vicinity of magnetic phase transitions

39

example, ﬁgure 2.9(a)) and, therefore, temperatures Tpeak and Teq are almost equal to each other. For small T (which can take place, for example, for small magnetic ﬁelds), Tpeak approaches Teq , and since ½@MðH; TÞ=@TH has in ferromagnets a maximum at T ! TC when H ! 0, and T=CH ðH; TÞ is weakly dependent on temperature near the transition to the magnetically ordered state, then according to equation (2.72) the position of the MCE maximum in weak ﬁelds also approaches the Curie temperature. From the analysis of equations (2.105) it can be shown that the MCE in a ferromagnet is lowered below and above Teq , and that TðTÞ dependence exhibits a typical caret-like shape with a single maximum for any material which orders ferromagnetically. Such behaviour is illustrated in ﬁgure 2.9(b), where TðTÞ dependences for diﬀerent H for GdPd are shown. It was established experimentally that Teq is almost independent of a magnetic ﬁeld and practically coincides with Tpeak . A simple antiferromagnetic material should display a reverse caret-like behaviour with a single minimum in the MCE for magnetic ﬁelds not strong enough to destroy antiferromagnetism and to ﬂip the magnetic spins to a ﬁeld-induced ferromagnetism. In a more general case, when magnetic order is more complex than simple ferromagnetism or antiferromagnetism, the T temperature behaviour becomes more complicated, exhibiting features corresponding to the positions of characteristic points Teq . As an example, the temperature behaviour of heat capacity and MCE in rare earth metal dysprosium can be considered—ﬁgure 2.10. As is known, upon cooling at H ¼ 0, Dy undergoes a transition from a paramagnet to a helicoidal antiferromagnetic state at about 180 K and then from this state to a ferromagnetic state at about 90 K (Taylor and Darby 1972, McEwen 1991). As one can see from ﬁgure 2.10(a), at H ¼ 1 T there are three characteristic temperatures: Teq1 ¼ 91:9 K due to the shifting of a ﬁrstorder antiferromagnetic–ferromagnetic transition to higher temperature in the magnetic ﬁeld; and Teq2 ¼ 178:8 K and Teq3 ¼ 181:3 K, which appear because of the shift of an antiferromagnetic–paramagnetic transition to a lower temperature in the magnetic ﬁeld. The magnetic ﬁeld of 2 T is high enough to destroy antiferromagnetic structure and induce noncollinear magnetic structure. This process yields Teq1 ¼ 126:9 K at 2 T. Since 2 T is not enough to destroy the noncollinear structure, the upper heat capacity maximum is still shifting to the lower temperature range, which gives Teq2 ¼ 173:9 K and Teq3 ¼ 181:2 K at 2 T. In the ﬁeld of 5 T the noncollinear magnetic structure is completely suppressed and there is only ﬁeld-induced ferromagnetic structure in Dy. So, at 5 T only one characteristic temperature Teq ¼ 181 K remains. All three characteristic temperatures persist on the TðTÞ dependences of Dy, for a magnetic ﬁeld changes from 0 to 1 T and from 0 to 2 T—see ﬁgure 2.10(b). The MCE in these ﬁelds displays one minimum and two maxima, respectively. For the ﬁeld change from 0 to 5 T there is only one maximum on the MCE temperature dependence in

40

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect (a)

(b)

Figure 2.10. The heat capacity temperature dependences of polycrystalline Dy at H ¼ 0, 10, 20 and 50 kOe (a); and the MCE temperature dependences for a magnetic ﬁeld change of 10, 20 and 50 kOe (b) (Tishin et al 1999a). (Copyright 1999 by the American Physical Society.)

MCE in the vicinity of magnetic phase transitions

41

Dy. The experimental results show that in Dy the characteristic temperatures Teq also practically coincide with the corresponding temperatures Tpeak . In the work of Tishin (1998a) the behaviour of magnetic phase transitions under the inﬂuence of the heat evolving due to the MCE was discussed. As characteristic examples the transition paramagnetism (PM)—ferromagnetism (FM) in gadolinium and paramagnetism—antiferromagnetism (AFM) and antiferromagnetism—ferromagnetism in dysprosium were considered. In practice, experimental magnetic and heat experimental measurements are conducted under either isothermal or adiabatic conditions. The former conditions can be easily achieved by static and/or quasi-static magnetic ﬁeld measurements. For example, this is the case for a very slowly increasing ﬁeld in a situation where a material has the possibility of keeping its zero ﬁeld temperature due to heat exchange with the surroundings. On the other hand, under adiabatic conditions, the temperature of the magnetic material being measured could be changed by the MCE. For experimental measurements this situation is often realized, for example, in pulsed ﬁeld studies. According to the data of Levitin et al (1997) the transition between isothermal and quasi-adiabatic circumstances occurs in a range of ﬁelds increasing with rates from 200 to 2 MOe/sec (for situations where the sample is located in liquid nitrogen or helium). As was shown by Dan’kov et al (1997), in a nitrogen gas surrounding a ﬁeld, a sweep rate of about 900 kOe/sec clearly corresponds to the adiabatic condition. If we consider the H–T phase diagram of a magnetic material under atmospheric pressure and isothermal conditions, then the concrete magnetic state is determined by the values of the zero ﬁeld temperature and the applied magnetic ﬁeld. As is known, the magnetic phase transition temperatures are aﬀected by the magnetic ﬁeld—in ferromagnets the Curie temperature shifts in the presence of magnetic ﬁeld towards the high temperature range, and in antiferromagnets the Ne´el temperature shifts in the opposite direction. In the case of adiabatic conditions the initial temperature in a magnetization process can be changed due to the MCE, so determination of the real H–T coordinates also requires taking into account the value of the MCE. Simultaneous action of these two factors (the MCE and the magnetic transition temperatures shift) can make the question about the real magnetic state of the sample quite complicated— for example, if the point corresponding to the magnetic material state can cross the curve of a ﬁrst-order phase transition and/or if the rate of increase of the ﬁeld is too large (for example, 650 MOe/sec as in the report of Nojiri et al 1995). Dan’kov et al (1998) measured the position of TC in diﬀerent magnetic ﬁelds and the MCE in Gd. The value of TC was determined to be 294 K at H ¼ 0 and 339 K at 75 kOe, while the MCE value at 293 K (1 K below TC ) was 15.5 K for H ¼ 75 kOe. Thus, the initial temperature of 293 K shifts in Gd to 308.5 K due to the MCE, which is still lower than TC ¼ 339 K at

42

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

75 kOe. It is possible to assume that, ﬁrst, the value of the MCE in the vicinity of TC is limited by the position of the Curie temperature TC ðHÞ and, second, that under adiabatic conditions Gd cannot change its initial magnetic state. Since the magnetic behaviour of rare earth metal Gd is characteristic ferromagnetic behaviour, these assumptions can be extended to other ferromagnets. The ﬁrst assumption implies that the value of the magnetic transition temperature shift under the action of the magnetic ﬁeld can be regarded as the upper limit of the speciﬁc MCE value per H (T=H). This suggests a very easy and quick experimental method for the searching of magnetic materials with a large MCE. It is necessary only to measure a shift of TC value under the action of a magnetic ﬁeld using a standard experimental method of measuring of initial susceptibility. If this shift of the Curie point has a value larger than 0.6 K/kOe (this is the TC /H value for Gd (Tishin et al 2002)) then it is natural to suppose that the MCE value in this material will be more than in Gd. Thus, it can be concluded that the value of the MCE in the vicinity of the magnetic transition point from the paramagnetic to ferromagnetic state is determined by the behaviour of the phase transition line. An analogous consideration with the same conclusions was made for magnetic phase transitions PM–HAFM and HAFM–FM in Dy on the basis of experimental data on magnetization and MCE (Herz and Kronmu¨ller 1978, Nikitin et al 1991b, Alkhafaji and Ali 1997). Tishin (1998a) concluded that FM or AFM states of a magnetic material could not be changed, under adiabatic magnetization conditions, by the MCE that leads to the additional shift of the initial temperature. The MCE cannot exert any inﬂuence on the initial magnetic phase state, which can be transformed by applying a magnetic ﬁeld. The question about inﬂuence of the MCE on the ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transition was considered by Pecharsky et al (2001)—see section 2.5. It was shown that the value of the MCE near the transition is limited by the position of the transition temperature, which is determined by the magnetic ﬁeld. The heat evolved due to the MCE cannot warm the material above the temperature of transition because the heat capacity at the transition point becomes inﬁnite.

2.8

MCE in inhomogeneous ferromagnets

Belov (1961a) considered spatially inhomogeneous ferromagnets in the framework of the Landau theory of the second-order phase transitions (see section 2.2). It was shown that the inhomogeneity is one of the reasons for the appearance of magnetization ‘tails’ above the Curie temperature. The main idea of Belov’s model was that the local value of the Curie temperature has spatially inhomogeneous distribution Tð~ r Þ.

MCE in inhomogeneous ferromagnets

43

Wagner et al (1996) and Silin et al (1995) used this model for calculation of the mean magnetization hIi as a function of the magnetic ﬁeld and temperature in the region of the magnetic phase transition. The thermodynamic potential (its magnetic part) was chosen in the form ð1 d ð2:109Þ M ðT; MÞ ¼ ds WðsÞ 0 ðT TC ðsÞÞM 2 þ M 4 2 4 0 where s is the parameter responsible for the value of the local Curie temperature, WðsÞ is the distribution function of the s parameter, I is the local magnetization and TC ðsÞ was determined as TC ðsÞ ¼ TC sTC . Using the potential (2.109) the equation for the local magnetization was obtained as H ¼ ðT TC sTC ÞI þ I 3

ð2:110Þ

on the basis of which the mean magnetization was then calculated as ð1 hIi ¼ ds WðsÞIðsÞ: ð2:111Þ 0

With the help of the results of Wagner et al (1996) for hIi, Romanov and Silin (1997) calculated by equation (2.16) (the dependence of heat capacity on H and T was neglected) the temperature and ﬁeld dependences of the MCE in the region of the magnetic phase transition for an inhomogeneous ferromagnet. Because the obtained equations were rather complex, we only show in ﬁgure 2.11 the results of numerical calculations made under assumptions that WðsÞ ¼ 1 and TC , characterizing the distribution of TC values and the length of magnetization tails, is equal to 0.1TC . Figure 2.11 shows the dependence of the quantity T102 =ð2 TC Þ, which is proportional to the MCE, on T=TC , and the strength of the magnetic ﬁeld is characterized by the dimensionless parameter t0 ¼ ½3=ðTC ÞðH=2Þ2=3 . The curves marked 1 were calculated by the simple Landau theory and the curves marked 2 for an inhomogeneous ferromagnet in the framework of the model described above. It was established that near the Curie point TðTÞ dependences for an inhomogeneous ferromagnet were more gradual and the MCE was weaker than for a homogeneous one—see ﬁgure 2.11. In the ﬁrst case the T peak is observed in the temperature region of the magnetization tail and in the second case at the Curie temperature, so the inhomogeneity shifts the temperature of the MCE peak from the Curie temperature. An increase in the magnetic ﬁeld leads to a shift of the MCE maximum to higher temperatures and increases the diﬀerence in the TðTÞ behaviour. Calculations showed that the nature of the WðsÞ function had a minor eﬀect on the TðTÞ behaviour for the case of strong ﬁelds, but had a stronger eﬀect for relatively weak ﬁelds.

44

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

Figure 2.11. Dependence of the dimensionless magnetocaloric eﬀect y ¼ T102 =ð2 TC Þ on reduced temperature T/TC for diﬀerent values of the parameter t0 ¼ ½3=ðTC Þ

ðH=2Þ2=3 characterizing the strength of magnetic ﬁeld: (a) t0 ¼ 0:3; (b) t0 ¼ 1; (c) t0 ¼ 3. Curves 1 correspond to the homogeneous ferromagnet and curves 2 to the inhomogeneous ferromagnet (Romanov and Silin 1997).

2.9

MCE in superparamagnetic systems

The MCE enhancement was observed experimentally in nanocomposite magnetic materials containing nanosize particles or crystallites—see Kokorin et al (1984), McMichael et al (1993b), Shull et al (1993), Shull (1993a,b), Shao et al (1996a,b) and section 10. This eﬀect was discussed in the frameworks of the mean ﬁeld approximation in the classical limit. In the works of McMichael et al (1992) and Shull (1993a,b) a superparamagnetic system was taken to consist of monodispersed and noninteracting magnetic clusters (particles) uniformly dispersed in a nonmagnetic matrix. Each cluster contains a certain number of magnetic atoms. The magnetic entropy change of a classical system due to the change of an external magnetic ﬁeld from zero to H can be calculated by equation (2.92) and

MCE in superparamagnetic systems

45

for weak ﬁelds and high temperatures (x 1) by equation (2.90): SM ¼

N2 H 2 6kB T 2

ð2:112Þ

where N is the number of magnetic moments in the system and is the size of magnetic moment. As is seen from equation (2.112), SM (and consequently the MCE) can be made larger if is made larger and N is simultaneously made smaller (to keep the saturation magnetic moment M0 ¼ N constant), because of the squared dependence of SM on and only a linear dependence on N. For a superparamagnet it can be written (Shull 1993a) as SM ¼

nððN=nÞÞ2 H 2 6kB T2

ð2:113Þ

where n is the number of particles and ðN=nÞ ¼ c is the magnetic moment of the particle. The factor nððN=nÞÞ2 in equation (2.113) may be much larger than N2 in equation (2.112). The optimum value of the particle magnetic moment at given T and H can be obtained from consideration of the function SM =x, where SM is determined by equation (2.92) (McMichael et al (1992)). This function has a maximum at H ð2:114Þ xmax ¼ c 3:5 kB T where SM is given by MH SM ¼ 0:272 0 ð2:115Þ T where M0 ¼ c N. Equation (2.114) determines an optimal particle size at given H and T. For typical values T ¼ 300 K and H ¼ 10–50 kOe it lies in the nanometer range (Chen et al 1994). Integrating the Maxwell relation (2.9a) from zero to H and from T ¼ 0 to T ¼ 1 (where M ¼ 0), one can derive a sum rule: ð1 SM dT ¼ M0 H: ð2:116Þ 0

Equation (2.116) determines the form of the SM (T) curve and implies that for materials with the same saturation magnetic moment M0 , those with higher SM at a particular temperature will have lower SM in the rest of the temperature range (McMichael et al 1992). McMichael et al (1992) calculated the magnetic entropy change caused by the removal of a magnetic ﬁeld of 10 kOe for diﬀerent arrangements of Gd atoms (spin equal to 7/2). For the calculations the mean ﬁeld quantum mechanical expression (see equation (2.63)) was used. The results for systems consisting of individual atoms and of magnetic clusters of various sizes (10, 30 and 100 atoms) are presented in ﬁgure 2.12. The accuracy of

46

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

Figure 2.12. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change induced by the removal of a magnetic ﬁeld of 10 kOe, calculated for systems with diﬀerent arrangements of 7/2 spin atoms (Shull et al 1993). (Reprinted from Shull et al 1993, copyright 1993 with permission from Elsevier.)

the calculations is conﬁrmed by the closeness of the calculated curve for the individual atoms to the experimental one measured on gadolinium gallium garnet (Shull et al 1993). One can see an obvious enhancement of SM at high temperatures in clustered systems. The behaviour of SM (T) dependences is in accordance with the sum rule (2.116). It should be noted that the diﬀerence between the magnetic entropy changes calculated in quantum and classical approaches is determined by the expression (McMichael et al 1992) 0 2 13 gJ B H sinh B 6 g H g H B C7 6 7 2kB T C C7: ð2:117Þ ðSM Þ ¼ NkB 61 J B coth J B þ ln B @ A5 4 gJ B H 2kB T 2kB T 2kB T For example, for H ¼ 50 kOe, gJ ¼ 2 and T ¼ 4:2 K, the value of (SM ) is approximately 0.8 J mol1 K1 . Equation (2.113) was obtained for the case of cluster magnetic moments independent of temperature. In the opposite case, if c ¼ c (T), equation (2.113) becomes (Kokorin et al 1984) n2c H 2 T @c 1 : ð2:118Þ SM ¼ c @T 6kB T 2 The second term in the parentheses in equation (2.118) can have essential value in the vicinity of the Curie point of magnetic cluster material and lead to an additional contribution to SM in this region.

MCE in superparamagnetic systems

47

Chen et al (1994) considered the process of nanocomposite system formation by deposition of magnetic and nonmagnetic particles on a substrate. The possibility of formation of chains, consisting of magnetic particles (clusters) touching each other, in the nonmagnetic matrix was taken into account. These chains increase the eﬀective magnetic cluster size, causing a deviation from the optimum value and a reduction of SM . The number and length of the chains forming in a nanocomposite during the random deposition process was numerically simulated by a simple computer model. On the basis of these data the magnetic entropy change was calculated by the equation TSM X ni 1 sinhðmi xÞ ¼ ð2:119Þ 1 mi x cothðmi xÞ þ ln M0 H n x mi x i where mi is the P number of clusters per chain, ni is the number of mi type chains and n ¼ i ni mi is the total number of clusters. As was shown, the chain formation reduces SM . The value of this reduction depends on the degree of dilution of the nanocomposite by the nonmagnetic particles, which is determined by the ratio of the number of nonmagnetic particles in the composite to the number of magnetic particles. The general dependence is such that for large clusters SM increases with increasing dilution and vice versa for small clusters. The cluster size (and the value of x), corresponding to the maximum magnetic entropy change, increases with increasing dilution. Figure 2.13 illustrates these results. Later Chen et al (1995) took into account the ability of particles to migrate to the substrate during the deposition and considered the inﬂuence of the substrate temperature on the chain formation. To simulate the process of nanocomposite fabrication, Chen et al (1995) used the eventdriven Monte Carlo technique. It was shown that a low substrate temperature

Figure 2.13. Calculated dependence of the reduced magnetic entropy change (the ﬁeld varies from H to 0) on x ¼ c H=kB T at a diﬀerent dilution degree (numbers near the curves) (Chen et al 1994). (Reprinted from Chen et al 1994, copyright 1994, with permission from Elsevier.)

48

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

impedes chain formation, thus leading to larger values of SM for a given value of dilution. Chen et al (1995) also proposed the way to reduce the eﬀect of chain formation, by using unipolar electrostatic charging of the magnetic particles. The calculation results showed that this method could substantially reduce the decrease of SM caused by chain formation. If there is some interaction between particles (dipole and/or exchange interaction) it displays behaviour similar to that of ferromagnets, with an eﬀective interaction temperature TI , analogous to the Curie temperature TC . Mørup et al (1983) called such systems ‘superferromagnets’. Above TI the material is superparamagnetic and below TI long-range order between the clusters occurs. In the superparamagnetic region, SM induced by a ﬁeld change from 0 to H can be obtained, analogous to equation (2.91) (Shull, 1993) by the equation SM ¼

nððN=nÞÞ2 H 2 : 6kB ðT TI Þ2

ð2:120Þ

TI was deﬁned by Mørup and Christiansen (1993) as TI ¼

IM I 2 3kB

ð2:121Þ

where IM is the mean coupling constant. According to Shao et al (1996a), TI should be less than the TC of the particle material since IM and magnetization I have reduced values in this state. Analogous to the superparamagnetic case, the factor n((N/n))2 in equation (2.121) may become much larger than N2 in equation (2.91). The latter is valid for a ferromagnet consisting of single magnetic atoms. This implies that SM above TI in a system with magnetically interacting clusters can become substantially larger than in a simple ferromagnet above TC . The condition of maximum SM (2.114) is also valid in the case of superferromagnet. MFA calculations (Bennett et al. 1992, McMichael et al 1993a,b) show that, at TI and below TI , SM is smaller in clustered systems than in simple ferromagnets. Bennett et al (1992) made calculations in the framework of the Monte Carlo method, which is more correct near the Curie temperature than the MFA. Figure 2.14 shows the theoretical results of SM induced by the removal of a magnetic ﬁeld of 10 kOe. SM was calculated for a ferromagnetic system consisting of individual moments of 8B and for interacting magnetic clusters of 30 and 100 atoms. MFA and Monte Carlo results are in good agreement, although in the MFA an adjustment of the ordering temperature was needed. SM near the ordering temperature in the 100atom cluster system was about 3.6 times lower than in a simple ferromagnet. In the paramagnetic region SM in the clustered system was much larger than that in the ferromagnet, as was predicted by the sum rule (2.116). A broader maximum in the SM curve is observed for the systems with

Anisotropic and magnetoelastic contributions to the MCE

49

Figure 2.14. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change induced by the removal of a magnetic ﬁeld of 10 kOe, calculated by mean-ﬁeld theory (MFT) and the Monte Carlo (MC) method for a ferromagnetic material, and for systems with interacting clusters, which have the same ordering temperature of 108 K (Bennett et al 1992).

larger clusters. Experimental results on the MCE in superparamagnetic systems will be considered in chapter 10.

2.10 Anisotropic and magnetoelastic contributions to the MCE Above we considered the MCE mainly related to the paraprocess. To calculate the magnetocrystalline contribution to the MCE displaying itself in the region of magnetization vector rotation, it is necessary to take into account in the Gibbs energy the anisotropic part, which can be written as X Ki i ð2:122Þ Ga ¼ i

where Ki is the anisotropy constant (it is assumed that it does not depend on magnetic ﬁeld) and is a function of the orientation of the spontaneous magnetization vector. From equation (2.8a) it follows that the inﬁnitesimal anisotropic magnetic entropy change caused by the rotation of the spontaneous magnetization vector in the magnetic ﬁeld can be presented as X @Ki d : ð2:123Þ dSMa ¼ @T H i i The corresponding MCE can be calculated from equation (2.74) as follows: T X @Ki dTa ¼ d : ð2:124Þ @T H i CH i

50

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

For a cubic crystal the energy of magnetocrystalline anisotropy can be presented by the formula X 2 2 Y 2 Ga ðT; HÞ ¼ K1 ðTÞ i j þ K2 ðTÞ i ð2:125Þ i 6¼ j

i

where i are the direction cosines of the spontaneous magnetization vector ~ Is with respect to the crystal axes, and K1 and K2 are the magnetocrystalline anisotropy constants. For a hexagonal crystal the anisotropic part of the Gibbs free energy can be expressed as Ga ¼ K1 sin2 þ K2 sin4 þ K3 sin6 þ K66 sin6 cos 6

ð2:126Þ

where is the angle between the spontaneous magnetization vector ~ Is and the c-axis, is the angle between the basal-plane component of I~s and the a-axis, and Ki are the anisotropy constants. The last term in equation (2.126) describes the basal-plane anisotropy, which is usually small, and can be neglected. Calculations of Sma and Ta on the basis of equations (2.122)–(2.126) were made by Akulov and Kirensky (1940), Ivanovskii (1959), Ivanovskii and Denisov (1966a,b), Pakhomov (1962) and Nikitin et al (1978). The magnetocrystalline contribution to the MCE has the following forms for cubic and hexagonal crystals respectively: X Y T @K1 @K2 ð2:127Þ d 2i 2j þ d 2i dTa ¼ @T H i 6¼ j @T H CH i dTa ¼

T CH

@K1 @T

H

d sin2 þ

@K2 @K3 d sin4 þ d sin6 : @T H @T H ð2:128Þ

Akulov and Kirensky (1940) integrated equation (2.127), taking into account the ﬁrst term in the brackets and considering the value T=CH constant, and obtained the formula for the MCE caused by change of direction cosines on P i 6¼ j 2i 2j : X 2 2 T @K1 Ta ¼ : ð2:129Þ CH @T H i 6¼ j i j To calculate the ﬁeld dependence of Ta it is necessary to calculate the ﬁeld dependence of d i . The equilibrium direction of Is in a magnetic ﬁeld is determined by the minimum of the total energy of a crystal. Using this condition Ivanovski (1959, 1960) calculated the ﬁeld dependence of Ta in cubic and hexagonal crystals, taking into account in the total energy of a crystal the anisotropy and the magnetic ﬁeld energies. The formulae describing the dependence of dTa on H in cubic and hexagonal crystals, respectively,

Anisotropic and magnetoelastic contributions to the MCE

51

have the form

T @K1 4K1 dH Pð Þ 2 ð2:130Þ dTa ¼ CH @T H Is H T @K1 @K2 dH dTa ¼ ðP1 K1 þ P2 K2 Þ þ ðR1 K1 þ R2 K2 Þ @T H @T H Cp Is H2 ð2:131Þ

where P1 ¼ 4 sin2 1 cos2 1 ;

P2 ¼ 8 sin4 1 cos2 1

R1 ¼ 8 sin4 1 cos2 1 ;

R2 ¼ 16 sin6 1 cos2 1 :

Pð Þ is a complex function of Is orientation; 1 is the angle between the hexagonal axis and the magnetic ﬁeld direction. Under derivation of equations (2.130) and (2.131) it was supposed that the anisotropy energy of a cubic crystal contains only a term with K1 and that of a hexagonal crystal—terms with K1 and K2 . To obtain Ta in polycrystals, equations (2.130) and (2.131) were averaged over uniform space distribution of the crystallite axes, which gave the equations for cubic and hexagonal materials (Ivanovskii 1960, Pakhomov 1962): T 16 @K1 1 1 ð2:132Þ K1 Ta ¼ @T CH Is 105 H H0 T 8 64 @K1 Ta ¼ K þ K @T H CH Is 15 1 105 2 64 256 @K2 1 1 ð2:133Þ K þ K þ @T H H H0 105 1 315 2 where H0 is the initial magnetic ﬁeld value in the region of magnetization vector rotation. Pakhomov (1962) took into account, in the anisotropic energy of a cubic crystal, the term with K2 and also included the total energy of the crystal magnetoelastic energy in the form X X Gme ¼ 32 p 100 ð2i i2 13Þ 3p 111 i j i j ð2:134Þ i

i 6¼ j

where p is the linear mechanical strain applied in the direction with the direction cosines i , and 100 and 111 are magnetostriction constants. If the direction of the strain coincides with that of a magnetic ﬁeld then the equation for the MCE in the region of magnetization vector rotation has the form (Pakhomov 1962) T 1 1 ð2:135Þ ðA þ Bp þ Cp2 Þ Tr ¼ CH Is H H0

52

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

where @K1 16 32 @K2 16 16 K þ K þ K þ K A¼ @T H 105 1 1155 2 @T H 1155 1 5005 2 8 @K1 8 @K2 B¼ ð100 111 Þ þ ð 2111 Þ 35 @T H 385 @T H 100 3 @100 16 16 @111 8 8 þ K1 þ K2 3 K1 þ K2 @T 2 @T 105 1155 105 1155 3 @100 8 2 @111 4 16 3 : C¼ @T 2 @T 35 100 5 111 35 100 315 111 Tr consists of two contributions, one of which represents the anisotropic part of the MCE considered above (note that for K2 ¼ 0 and p ¼ 0 equation (2.135) transforms to equation (2.132)) and the strain dependent part with coeﬃcients B and C.

2.11

Heat capacity

The heat capacity Cx at constant parameter x is deﬁned by equations (2.10) and (2.12). Let us ﬁrst consider a nonmagnetic material. In this case there are two principal heat capacities—Cp (at constant pressure) and CV (at constant volume) (Swalin 1962, Bazarov 1964): Q @S ¼T ð2:136aÞ Cp ¼ dT p @T p Q @S ¼T : ð2:136bÞ Cp ¼ dT V @T V As one can see from equation (2.2), heat capacity at constant volume can also be calculated as CV ¼

dU : dT

ð2:137Þ

With the help of thermodynamic relations it can be shown that the diﬀerence between Cp (which is usually measured in experiment) and CV is determined by the equation @P @V : ð2:138Þ Cp CV ¼ T @T V @T p For solids it is more convenient to present equation (2.138) in the form where the diﬀerence is expressed through the coeﬃcient of thermal expansion T

Heat capacity

53

and isothermal compressibility (Swalin 1962, Kittel 1986): Cp CV ¼

92T VT:

ð2:139Þ

This diﬀerence is small in most solids (about 5% at room temperature) and it rapidly decreases as the temperature is lowered. It should be noted that in ideal gas Cp CV ¼ R, where R is the gas constant. From the statistical theory point of view the heat capacity of a system consisting of N particles can be calculated from equations (2.7a), (2.12) and (2.33) (Swalin 1962, Kittel 1986) as 2 @ ðT ln ZÞ ð2:140Þ CV ¼ kB NT @T 2 V where Z is a partition function of the system. In the general case the total heat capacity of a matter can be presented as a sum of three contributions (see equation (2.61)), namely lattice Cl , electronic Ce and magnetic CH contributions. In the framework of Debye’s model the mole lattice heat capacity of a solid body (with one atom in a molecule) at constant volume Cl can be presented as (Swalin 1962, Kittel 1986) 3 ð T =T 3 D 4T x dx TD =T ð2:141Þ Cl ¼ 9na R TD 0 ex 1 eTD =T 1 where TD is the Debye temperature and na is a number of atoms in a molecular of a substance. Equation (2.141) describes quite well experimental temperature heat capacity behaviour of a variety of substances. At high temperature (T TD ) equation (2.141) becomes 1 TD 2 þ ð2:142Þ Cl ¼ 3nR 1 20 T and at low temperatures (T < 0:1TD ) it follows from equation (2.141) that 3 124 T na R : ð2:143Þ Cl ¼ 5 TD As one can see from equation (2.142), at high temperatures Cl approaches the value of 3nR (the DuLong–Petit limit). For estimation of the heat capacity of alloys and compounds it is possible to use the law of Neumann and Kopp, according to which the molar heat capacity of a compound Ax By can be presented as CAx By ¼ xCA þ yCB , where CA and CB are the molar heat capacities of the constituent elements (Swalin 1962). Above room temperature the lattice heat capacity at constant pressure can be represented by the empirical equation (Swalin 1962) Cp ¼ a þ bT þ cT 2

ð2:144Þ

54

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

where a, b and c are empirical coeﬃcients. For example, for Ag, a ¼ 21:31 J/ mol K, b ¼ 8:54 103 J/mol K and c ¼ 1:51 105 J/mol K (Swalin 1962). It should be noted that there are some diﬃculties in describing experimental data by Debye’s model, in particular the observed temperature dependence of TD , which should be constant. The main deﬁciency of Debye’s model is related to neglecting the dispersive character of the solid medium, which is related to discreteness of atomic arrangements in the crystal. These eﬀects are taken into account in the more accurate Born– von Karman model. The electronic heat capacity is related to the conduction electron subsystem and displays itself in metals at low temperatures. Taking into account Fermi–Dirac statistics of electrons in metals and their band energetic structure, one can obtain the expression for electronic heat capacity (Chikazumi 1964, Gopal 1966, Kittel 1986): Ce ¼ ae T

ð2:145aÞ

ae ¼ 23 2 k2B VNðEF Þ

ð2:145bÞ

where coeﬃcient ae is deﬁned as

where N(EF ) is the electron density of states at the Fermi level EF and V is the molar volume. For the model of free electrons (Gopal 1966), 43 me k2B 3NV 2 1=3 J 1=3 ¼ 1:36 104 V 2=3 ne ð2:145cÞ ae ¼ mol K 3h2 where me is the mass of an electron, h is Plank’s constant and ne is the number of free electrons per atom. Kittel (1986) presented the values of ae calculated by the free electrons model: for Cu and Ag they are 0.505 and 0.645 mJ/ mol K2 , respectively. The experimental values of ae were determined to be 0.69–0.92 mJ/mol K2 for Cu (Estermann et al 1952, Corak et al 1955), 0.61–0.68 mJ/mol K2 for Ag (Rayne 1954, Corak et al 1955), 6.7 mJ/ mol K2 (Parkinson et al 1951), 0.85–1.46 mJ/mol K2 (Kok and Keesom 1937), 3.0–3.64 mJ/mol K2 (Horowitz et al 1952, Clement and Quinell 1952), 13.8 mJ/mol K2 for Mn (Guthrie et al 1955), 5.0 mJ/mol K2 for Fe (Duyckaerts 1939a), 5.0 mJ/mol K2 for Co (Duyckaerts 1939b), 7.6 mJ/ mol K2 for Ni (Busey et al 1952), 10.9 mJ/mol K2 for Gd (Oesterreicher and Parker 1984), 77 mJ/mol K2 for ErCo2 (Giguere et al 1999a), 36.5 mJ/ mol K2 for YCo2 and 37 mJ/mol K2 for HoCo2 (Hilschler et al 1988), 10.6 mJ/mol K2 for LaAl2 and 4.8 mJ/mol K2 for LaNi2 (von Ranke et al 1998a) and 30.6 mJ/mol K2 for Pr0:7 Ca0:3 MnO3 (Smolyaninova et al 2000). Using, for example, experimental values of ae for Cu and Fe, it is possible to estimate the electronic heat capacity for these metals, which are, at 300 K, 0.2–0.28 J/mol K and 1.5 J/mol K, respectively. These values are much less than the lattice heat capacity, which can be calculated by equation (2.148): 1% for Cu and 7% for Fe. However, because Cl T 3 and

Heat capacity

55

Ce T, in the low-temperature region Ce becomes greater than Cl at some temperatures. Equation (2.145a) is valid for T TF , where TF is the Fermi temperature. For T > TF , the electronic heat capacity Ce approaches the limit of 32 R. It should be noted that the typical value of TF for gas of free electrons in metals is about 105 K. For a magnetic substance the heat capacities related to a magnetic subsystem can be introduced by analogy with Cp and CV : Q @S ¼T ð2:146aÞ CH ¼ dT H @T H Q @S ¼T ð2:146bÞ CM ¼ dT M @T M where CH and CM are the heat capacities at constant magnetic ﬁeld and magnetization (magnetic moment), respectively. The diﬀerence between CH and CM is described by the following equation: @H @M CH CM ¼ T ð2:147Þ @T M @T H which is analogous to equation (2.138). It should be noted that there is a correspondence between the variables P and V and H and –M, respectively. As shown by Kohlhaas et al (1966), the inﬂuence of magnetic ﬁeld on the heat capacity can be determined by means of the relation T @T 1 ð2:148Þ CH ðT; HÞ ¼ CH ðT0 ; 0Þ T0 @T where T ¼ T T0 is the MCE caused by the magnetic ﬁeld change. Using equation (2.148), the MCE and zero-ﬁeld heat capacity data, one could determine the heat capacity in a magnetic ﬁeld. However, this formula cannot be used for real calculations because the (H; T) coordinates of a point of calculation of the derivation of the MCE are unknown. The ideal magnetic order (in which, for example, in a ferromagnet all spins are aligned strictly parallel to each other) can exist only in the absence of thermal agitation. At a ﬁnite temperature spins decline from their ideal directions, which can be described as an excitation of spin waves. The spin waves can be quantized into magnons and the magnetic excitations can be considered with the help of statistical methods. For ferromagnets the heat capacity CM related to the excitation of spin waves (the spin wave heat capacity) can at low temperatures be expressed as (Kittel 1986, Gopal 1966) kB T 3=2 ð2:149Þ CM ¼ cf NkB 2Iex S

56

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

where cf is a constant deﬁned by a crystal structure type (lattice constant), Iex is the exchange integral, S is the spin of the magnetic atom, and N is the number of the magnetic atoms. So, at low temperatures magnetic contribution to the total heat capacity in ferro- and ferrimagnets is proportional to T 3=2 . For antiferromagnets, the spin wave speciﬁc heat is described by the equation (Gopal 1966) kB T 3 ð2:150Þ CM ¼ ca NkB 2Iex S where ca is the lattice constant. It follows from equation (2.150) that the magnetic contribution to the speciﬁc heat in antiferromagnets obeys the T 3 law at low temperatures. The dependence (2.150) is fulﬁlled in the threedimensional case, for the case of a two-dimensional antiferromagnet CM T 2 (Ahiezer et al 1967). In the framework of mean ﬁeld approximation the internal energy UM related to the magnetic subsystem in the absence of an external magnetic ﬁeld can be calculated as ð Is 1 ð2:151Þ UM ¼ Hm dI ¼ wIs2 2 0 where Hm is a molecular ﬁeld and w is a molecular ﬁeld coeﬃcient. Magnetic contribution to the heat capacity in a molecular ﬁeld approximation follows from equations (2.137) and (2.151) (Chikazumi 1964): 1 dI 2 CM ¼ w s : 2 dT

ð2:152Þ

Mean ﬁeld calculations show that CM steadily increases from CM ¼ 0 at T ¼ 0 K to the maximum value at the Curie temperature TC . At T ¼ TC there is a discontinuous drop to zero value of CM in the temperature range above TC . The magnetic phase transition in mean ﬁeld approximation is the second-order phase transition. According to the mean ﬁeld approximation, the heat capacity change at T ¼ TC , CM , can be presented as (Foldeaki et al 1995) CM ¼ NkB T

5ðJ þ 1Þ J 2 þ ðJ þ 1Þ2

ð2:153Þ

where N is the number of magnetic atoms. From equation (2.153) it follows that CM rapidly increases with J increasing, approaching the upper limit of 5NkB /2 (for example, the CM maximum value amounts to 128 J/kg K for Gd) (Foldeaki et al 1995). According to the Landau theory of the second-order phase transitions (Landau 1958) the magnetic entropy changes due to the occurrence of the spontaneous magnetization below TC in the absence of a magnetic ﬁeld can be expressed by formula (2.87). The corresponding change in magnetic

Heat capacity

57

heat capacity can be calculated by equation (2.12) and has the form (Belov 1961a) CM ¼ T

@Is2 ð Þ2 ¼T : @T 2

ð2:154Þ

The experimental behaviour of CM in ferromagnetic materials near TC has essential deviations from that predicted by mean ﬁeld approximation. Among them, the heat capacity ‘tails’ above TC and the maximum values of CM at TC much higher than theoretical should be mentioned. Statistical models give better results in the description of the CM behaviour near the transition from paramagnetic to magnetically ordered state. These models involve the calculation of the partition function (see equation (2.32)) on the basis of Heisenberg or Ising magnetic Hamiltonians. For example, in the framework of the two-dimensional Ising lattice the temperature dependence of CM in the vicinity of TC has a logarithmic character. Another heat capacity anomaly displaying itself in the low-temperature region is related to the Schottky eﬀect. Let us suggest that the energy spectrum of a system includes two energy levels separated by the energy E. At the temperature T E=kB both energy levels are nearly equally populated, and for T E=kB the upper level is almost empty. At T E=kB the transitions from lower to upper level will take place in considerable amounts, which will give rise to the internal energy of the system and, consequently, will lead to the appearance of the heat capacity maximum. This peculiarity is superimposed on the other contributions to the heat capacity (lattice, electronic etc.). In the general case of a system consisting of N particles with energy levels E1 , E2 , . . . , Em with degeneracies g1 , g2 , . . . , gm , the Schottky heat capacity CSh can be calculated by the equation analogous to equation (2.140) (Gopal 1966): d 2 ðNkB T ln zÞ dT 2

ð2:155Þ

E gm exp m : kB T

ð2:155aÞ

CSh ¼ T with z¼

X m

For temperatures above the Schottky heat capacity maximum, CSh (T) behaves like T 2 , which allows separation of this contribution from the others. The Schottky eﬀect can be observed in magnetic materials. A magnetic atom with a total angular momentum quantum number J has 2J þ 1 possible momentum orientations. In the presence of magnetic or any other eﬀective ﬁeld this degeneracy is removed and the atom has 2J þ 1 discrete energy levels. Magnetic dipole and exchange interactions and crystalline electric

58

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

ﬁeld eﬀects can cause such energy splitting in solids with a magnetic ion energy level separation of about 1 K. For paramagnets the splitting is caused by an external magnetic ﬁeld. Paramagnetic salt -NiSO4 :6H2 O exhibits a heat capacity maximum of

6.3 J/mol K, related to the Schottky eﬀect, at about 3 K (Stout and Hadley 1964). The experimental results in this compound have good agreement with theoretical calculations. It should be noted that the Shottky heat capacity peak could arise not only due to the eﬀects related to the electronic system of the atom. Energy splitting (and connected with it the Schottky eﬀect) analogous to that described above can take place for atomic nuclei if they are magnetic. In this case the splitting can be caused by the eﬀective ﬁeld of interaction between electrons of an atom and the nucleus and by crystalline ﬁeld eﬀects. Because the nuclear moments are small compared with the electronic moments, the nuclear Schottky anomalies are positioned at much lower temperatures (in the region of 102 K) than electronic anomalies (in the region 1–10 K). For example, in holmium, the nuclear Schottky heat capacity peak of 7 J/mol K was observed at about 0.03 K (Lounasmaa 1962).

2.12

MCE and elastocaloric eﬀect

An elastocaloric eﬀect (ECE) can be determined as a heat emission or absorption at a constant magnetic ﬁeld (in a simple case at zero ﬁeld) and changing external pressure p (Tishin 1998b). If a pressure change takes place under adiabatic conditions then the ECE (like MCE) manifests itself as heating or cooling of a magnetic material by a temperature TECE ðp; TÞ. In the case of ECE, equation (2.14) for adiabatic processes and constant H takes the form CH;p @V dT dp ¼ 0 ð2:156Þ T @T H;p where V is the volume. Thus, for the ECE we can write (Tishin, 1998b) T @V dTECE ¼ dp: ð2:157Þ CH;p @T H;p The general form of this formula is close to the thermodynamic equation for a temperature change of a gas in a reversible adiabatic expansion process. Because each real gas has a positive value for ð@V=@TÞp , the gases may cool down under adiabatic expansion (dT < 0 at dp < 0). Using the bulk thermal expansion coeﬃcient, T ðT; H; pÞ, equation (2.157) can be transformed into dTECE ¼

T VT dp: CH;p

ð2:158Þ

MCE and elastocaloric eﬀect

59

The sign of the ECE is determined by the coeﬃcient T . In regular solids the value of T is positive and lies in the range 103 –106 K1 . A negative value of T occurs, for example, in water at temperatures up to 4 8C. In accordance with equation (2.158), it means that in this temperature interval water should cool down under adiabatic stress. For example, this eﬀect, in principle, could lead to freezing of water in micropores of road surfaces under quick pressing of this water (at temperature close to zero) by vehicle tyres. As is clear from equation (2.157) the ECE value is proportional to the temperature derivative of the volume, and to the pressure change. Thus, a non-zero value of the ECE could be found in any materials for which ð@V=@TÞp 6¼ 0 (with the exception of a case when T ¼ 0). From this point of view, the ECE could have a non-zero value in materials without any magnetic structure. This is the ﬁrst and main diﬀerence between the ECE and the MCE. The second distinction is the sign of the ECE. The volume of most materials increases with increasing temperature ðð@V=@TÞp > 0Þ. Thus, under pressure (dp > 0) the sign of the ECE should be positive in most cases, in accordance with equation (2.157). It is well known that nonmagnetic solids without electronic or magnetic phase transitions have an almost constant value of ð@V=@TÞp in the temperature region above the Debye temperature TD . Therefore, at T > TD the value of the dTECE is proportional to the temperature T. Obviously, the ECE will have a small absolute value in temperature regions, where ð@V=@TÞp is close to zero. In accordance with equation (2.158), an irregular behaviour of the ECE could be found in the vicinity of temperatures where marked changes of T (T) and CH;p (T) take place. Near phase transition the ECE could change its sign, for example, from negative to positive, which could result from the variation of the sign of the coeﬃcient T (T) (Tishin 1998b). Up to the present, the ECE has not been widely studied in diﬀerent materials. However, simpliﬁed thermodynamic equations for the ECE in the case of a steel bar have been obtained by Sychev (1986). It was shown that in ﬁrst approximation the value of the ECE in the bar does not depend on its length and cross section. However, in a steel wire an ECE value of 0.16 K was reached under a rapidly applied stress up to 2 108 Pa (Sychev 1986). An experimental investigation of the ECE has been made in the work of Annaorazov et al (1996). The heat generation measurements in Fe49 Rh51 were conducted under pulsed linear stress applied to the ingot by a couple of hawsers that were attached via two holes to the sample. It was shown that at the temperature corresponding to the AFM–FM phase transition, TAFMFM 315 K, the cooling of the ingot was about 5 K under a tensile stress of 5:29 108 Pa (Annaorazov et al 1996). However, the nature of the negative sign of the ECE has not been explained. The duration of the stress pulses (adiabaticity of the process) and total accuracy of these

60

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

measurements are unknown. The results of the work of Annaorazov et al (1996) have mostly a fundamental meaning because the compound Fe49 Rh51 cannot be used in any commercial applications due to the extremely high price of Rh. So, the search for other compounds with a large elastocaloric eﬀect is a signiﬁcant task. From this point of view, lanthanide metals and compounds are of great interest. In rare earth metals the coeﬃcient T (T) has a large value in the vicinity of structural or magnetic phase transitions. In holmium the phase transition from the ferromagnetic conical phase to the antiferromagnetic spiral structure occurs at about 19 K. The speciﬁc volume change, dV/V, at this transition is equal to 2:2 104 in a temperature interval of 0.5 K (Steinitz et al 1987). The atomic volume of La changes by 0.5% and 4% at the transitions from dhcp to fcc and from fcc to bcc structures, respectively. The thermal expansion coeﬃcients of Eu and Yb are three times larger than in other rare earth elements (Taylor and Darby 1972). The fcc crystalline form of Sm transforms to dhcp by applying 7 108 Pa at room temperature. This structure transformation is accompanied by a volume decrease of about 8% (Jayaraman 1991). The thermodynamic data for structural transitions of lanthanide metals are summarized in table 9.2 of the report of Jayaraman (1991). Thus, the rare earth elements could be considered as a favourable basis for creating materials with large ECE values (Tishin 1998b). Let us estimate the ECE value in rare earth metals gadolinium and holmium in the vicinity of magnetic phase transitions. According to the experimental data of Dan’kov et al (1998) the transition from the paramagnetic to the ferromagnetic phase occurs in Gd at TC ¼ 294 K. Below the spin reorientation temperature, TSR ¼ 227 K, the easy magnetization vector departs from the [0001] crystallographic axis. The temperature dependence of the atomic volume in Gd has been studied by Finkel et al (1971) and Finkel (1978). Near these magnetic phase transitions the value of the bulk thermal expansion coeﬃcient is close to zero. Thus, the ECE value at the Curie point TC , as well as around TSR , should be approximately equal to zero. (It is necessary to note that the MCE reaches its maximum value at the Curie point of Gd.) At the same time, the gadolinium has a negative value of T (T) (and, therefore, a negative ECE value) in the temperature region between TC and TSR . Based on the data of Finkel et al (1971), Finkel (1978) and Dan’kov et al (1998), it is possible to estimate that at T ¼ 285 K and dp ¼ 108 Pa the value of the ECE is negative and approximately close to 0.61 K (Tishin 1998b). Thus, the estimated dTECE value of Gd has the same order as the ECE value of Fe49 Rh51 , dTECE 1:7 K, at pressure 108 Pa (Annaorazov et al 1996). The experimental data concerning the heat capacity and bulk thermal expansion at the ferromagnetic–antiferromagnetic phase transition at about 19.5 K in holmium can be found in the reports of Lounasmaa and Sundstrom (1966), Steinitz et al (1987), Stewart and Collocott (1989) and

MCE and elastocaloric eﬀect

61

White (1989). However, experimental values of the heat capacity presented by Lounasmaa and Sundstrom (1966), Stewart and Collocott (1989) and White (1989) are diﬀerent at this phase transition. Taking CH;p 14 J/ mol K and T ðTÞ 4:4 104 K1 , we could obtain a value of the ECE close to 1:1 102 or 1.2 K at pressure values of 9:8 105 Pa ( 10 bar) and 108 Pa ( 1 kbar), respectively (Tishin 1998b). The pressure 108 Pa could be compared with a pressure generated by the weight of a middleweight man acting on a magnetic material with a cross section about of 7–8 mm2 . However, it is necessary to note that, according to data of the work of Baazov and Manjavidze (1983), this pressure is close to the value of

1:7 108 Pa (17 kg/mm2 ) which determines a breaking point of the rare earth metals under tensile strain. In these estimations we neglected any inﬂuence of pressure on the values of T (T) and CH;p . Actually, due to the eﬀect of pressure on the elastic and magnetic properties of the rare earth metals (see Jayaraman 1991), the ECE values calculated above should be considered as a ﬁrst approximation only. In rare earth elements the shifts of magnetic phase transition temperatures reach a few Kelvin under a pressure of 5 108 Pa (Jayaraman 1991). However, at present, experimental information about the values of T (T) and CH;p at diﬀerent pressures is unavailable, and therefore more accurate calculations of the ECE are impossible. As shown above, in accordance with thermodynamics a heat generation and/or absorption in magnets can arise at dp ¼ 0 (MCE) as well as at dH ¼ 0 (ECE). We have estimated the value of the ECE for the magnetic phase transitions in Gd and Ho. However, it is possible to reach a large value of the ECE and MCE in cases where magnetic and structural phase transitions coexist. For example, the crystal structure of Dy transforms at about 90 K from the P63 /mmc to the Cmcm type. This transition involves large changes of the interatomic distances and accompanies the transition from HAFM to FM magnetic structures (Taylor and Darby 1972). If in an adiabatic process the pressure and the magnetic ﬁeld change simultaneously, the total heat evolution can be written down as (Tishin 1998b) T @I @V dH dT : ð2:159Þ dT ¼ dTMCE þ dTECE ¼ CH;p @T H;p @T H;p The MCE and ECE can have positive as well as negative signs. So, the general behaviour of the temperature dependences of the MECE could be complicated. The nature of the ECE is close to that of the MCE in the adiabatic–isochoric process, which was considered by Kuz’min and Tishin (1992). The inﬂuence of pressure on the entropy and temperature of magnetic systems with structural and magnetic ﬁrst-order transitions was considered by Mu¨ller et al (1998) and Stra¨ssle et al (2000a,b). They called this eﬀect the ‘barocaloric eﬀect’. In systems with a structural phase transition, the point

62

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

symmetry change is observed which can be induced by temperature change or, for example, by the change of such external parameters as pressure. The point symmetry change leads to the change of a local crystalline electric ﬁeld, which causes lifting of the ð2J þ 1Þ degeneracy of an anisotropic ion (such as, for example, rare earth ions). Due to this eﬀect, in one structural phase an ion can have a nondegenerate ground state and in the other a degenerate one (such as a spin system in an external magnetic ﬁeld and without it), which causes the system entropy diﬀerence in these two phases. The pressure can induce the structural transition and, consequently, the entropy change. The processes described can lead to the temperature change under adiabatic pressuring. Another manifestation of the barocaloric eﬀect can be observed near the magnetic ﬁrst-order transition. Here the pressure can cause the magnetic transition temperature shift—the same as is observed in the magnetic ﬁeld (see ﬁgure 2.6) and with the same entropy change. The nature of the temperature change in the adiabatic process in this case is not diﬀerent from that caused by the magnetic entropy change and considered in section 2.5. Currently, in various magnetic refrigerator designs only the MCE is utilized. The eﬀects related to crystal lattice expansion or contraction are neglected. However, it is possible to propose, for example, a design of magnetic cryocooler in which a working body is aﬀected by both a magnetic ﬁeld and by a contraction or expansion due to the magnetostriction (Tishin and Kuz’min 1991, Tishin 1997).

2.13

Adiabatic demagnetization

Although the magnetocaloric eﬀect was discovered in iron (Warburg 1881), historically the main part of experiments on the MCE and magnetic cooling was made at an early stage of the investigations on various paramagnetic salts. This is related to the possibility of achieving temperatures below 1 K with the help of adiabatic demagnetization of these compounds. This question was elucidated in detail in the books and reviews of Garrett (1954), Ambler and Hudson (1955), de Klerk (1955), Vonsovskii (1974), Kittel (1986) etc; here we will only mention it brieﬂy. The method of achieving temperatures below 1 K with the help of demagnetization of the paramagnetic salts was proposed by Debye (1926) and Giauque (1927). The process of magnetic cooling can be illustrated by ﬁgure 2.15, where the total entropy temperature dependences for a paramagnet in zero and nonzero magnetic ﬁelds are shown, and fulﬁlled in two stages. On the ﬁrst isothermal magnetization stage at the initial temperature T1 the magnetic ﬁeld increases isothermally and the system entropy decreases from S1 to S2 (the isotherm a ! b), owing to a decrease of the magnetic entropy (the entropy related to the temperature of the system remains

Adiabatic demagnetization

63

Figure 2.15. The total entropy temperature dependences of a paramagnet in zero (H1 ¼ 0) and nonzero (H2 6¼ 0) magnetic ﬁelds.

constant). At this time the heat Q ¼ T1 (S2 S1 Þ ¼ T1 S is removed from the system in the reversible process. On the second adiabatic demagnetization stage the magnetic ﬁeld is turned oﬀ adiabatically, so that the total entropy remains constant, but the magnetic entropy increases and the entropy determined by the system temperature correspondingly decreases. This means that the system is cooled and passes to the state with new temperature T2 (the adiabat b ! c on ﬁgure 2.15) and the magnetocaloric eﬀect is T ¼ T2 T1 . It should be noted that the entropies related to the lattice and electronic subsystems are very low in the temperature range where the adiabatic demagnetization of the paramagnetic salts is used, and the entropy of the material is mainly determined by the magnetic entropy. In this case, under adiabatic demagnetization the following condition is valid: SM (H1 ,T1 Þ SM (H2 ,T2 ), where SM (H,T) is deﬁned by equation (2.64) and H1 , T1 and H2 , T2 are initial and ﬁnal values of the magnetic ﬁeld and temperature. Then from this condition it follows that the ﬁnal temperature under adiabatic demagnetization of a paramagnetic matter in the lowtemperature region (where lattice and electronic contributions to the total entropies are negligible) can be deﬁned by the relation (Kittel 1969, 1986, Vonsovskii 1974) T2 ¼ T 1

H2 : H1

ð2:160Þ

In real paramagnetic materials there are several factors acting on the magnetic ion, which cause its energy levels to split even in zero external magnetic ﬁeld—among them the magnetic dipole–dipole and exchange

64

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

interactions between the ion magnetic moments, electrostatic ﬁelds of the ligands (the crystal ﬁeld) and interaction of the ion electronic magnetic moment with ion nuclear magnetic moment (hyperﬁne splitting) should be mentioned (Ambler and Hudson 1955, Vonsovskii 1974). The inﬂuence of these factors can be taken into account by consideration of the eﬀective magnetic ﬁeld, so that H2 in equation (2.160) will never be equal to zero. This eﬀective magnetic ﬁeld determines the lower temperature limit, which can be reached by the adiabatic demagnetization and which is about 102 – 103 K (Ambler and Hudson 1955, Vonsovskii 1974, Kittel 1986). The ﬁrst experiments on the adiabatic demagnetization were made by Giauque and MacDougall (1933), de Haas et al (1933a–c) and Kurti and Simon (1934). Giauque and MacDougall (1933) used in their experiments 61 g of gadolinium sulfate (Gd2 (SO4 )2 :8H2 O) and reached the minimal temperature of 0.25 K from the initial temperature of 1.5 K with a magnetic ﬁeld change of 8 kOe. De Haas et al (1933a–c) conducted the experiments with cerium ﬂuoride (CeF3 ), dysprosium ethylsulfate (Dy(C2 H5 SO4 )3 :9H2 O) and cerium ethylsulfate (Ce(C2 H5 SO4 )3 :9H2 O). The lowest temperature achieved was 0.08 K for the last compound (183 mg, the initial temperature 1.35 K, the magnetic ﬁeld change from 27.6 kOe down to 0.85 kOe). Kurti and Simon (1934) used manganese ammonium sulfate (MnSO4 (NH4 )2 SO4 : 6H2 O) and reached 0.1 K from the initial temperature 1 K with the magnetic ﬁeld change of 6 kOe. The temperature below 1 K in these experiments was determined with the help of magnetic susceptibility measurements and the Curie law extrapolation. In the experiments of de Haas et al (1933a–c) the susceptibility was measured by the force-balance method. This method requires the presence of a magnetic ﬁeld, which is why the ﬁnal external ﬁeld was not equal to zero, and which reduced the value of the adiabatic temperature change. In the works of Giauque and MacDougall (1933) and Kurti and Simon (1934) the magnetic susceptibility was measured by the inductance method. A typical apparatus for experiments on adiabatic demagnetization of the paramagnetic salts is analogous to the apparatus shown in ﬁgure 3.14, which is intended for the measurements of the heat capacity temperature dependences. The sample of a paramagnetic salt (1) is in this case secured on a holder with low thermal conductivity in a vacuum chamber (4) (for example, suspended on nylon threads). The sample can be in the form of a single crystal, powder or pressed powder. The vacuum chamber is placed into a cryostat (5) ﬁlled with liquid helium, whose temperature is lowered down to 1 K by pumping oﬀ the vapour. The electric heater (2), leads (3), thermometer (6) and adiabatic shield (7) in the adiabatic demagnetization apparatus are absent. The heat Q ¼ T1 (S2 S1 Þ ¼ T1 S, evolved in the sample under magnetization, is taken oﬀ to the liquid helium with the help of a heat-exchanging gas (gaseous helium at 102 –103 torr), which ﬁlls the vacuum chamber at this stage of the process. After ﬁnishing of the

Adiabatic demagnetization

65

magnetization heat take-oﬀ, the heat-exchanging gas is pumped out and the sample is demagnetized adiabatically. It is possible to say that the process described of heat exchanging is fulﬁlled with the help of a ‘gas heat (thermal) switch’. The heat exchange can also be realized via a metallic heat conductor connecting the sample and liquid helium bath. The heat contact in this case can be disconnected mechanically or by a superconducting thermal switch (Heer and Daunt 1949, Collins and Zimmerman 1953). The operational principle of the last device is based on the fact that the heat conductivity of a superconductor in the low-temperature range in the normal state is much higher than in the superconducting one. The superconducting heat switch itself consists of a piece of superconducting wire and is turned on by application of a magnetic ﬁeld with a value above the threshold one. It is also possible to cool down other substances with the help of the paramagnetic salts. Kurti and Simon (1934) used mechanical contact between the salt and the cooling substance, cadmium. They pressed out a tablet consisting of equal volumes of cadmium and manganese ammonium sulfate. Kurti et al (1936) proposed to provide the thermal contact between the paramagnetic salt and the cooling substance with the help of liquid helium. In this method a capsule with the salt and the cooling substance is ﬁlled with a helium gas at room temperature under high pressure and then soldered. Then the capsule is cooled, helium is condensed, and the salt and the substance become covered by liquid helium, which provides thermal contact between them. Daunt and Heer (1949) proposed a method of magnetic cooling, in which the process of adiabatic demagnetization was fulﬁlled cyclically. Essentially, it was a magnetic refrigerator working on the Carnot thermodynamic cycle. Magnetic refrigerators are regarded in detail in chapter 11 and those working on the Carnot cycle in section 11.2.6. A schematic drawing of the method of Daunt and Heer (1949) is presented in ﬁgure 11.19. In this method a magnetic working body (paramagnetic salt) is cyclically magnetized and demagnetized with appropriate switching of the thermal switches, connecting by turns the working body to the cooling substance (heat source) and to the liquid helium bath (heat reservoir). The working cycle of such a cooling apparatus is described in detail in section 11.2.6. The method of Daunt and Heer (1949) was realized in the works of Heer et al (1953, 1954), where the construction of the magnetic refrigerator operating below 1 K was presented. The authors used the superconducting thermal switches with Pb links, 15 g of paramagnetic iron ammonium alum as a working body and 15 g of chrome alum as the refrigerated heat reservoir (Heer et al 1954). The maximum magnetic ﬁeld was 7 kOe, the operational cycle was 2 min, and the temperature of heat reservoir (helium bath) was 1 K. In the experiments a minimal no-load temperature of 0.2 K was achieved and the refrigeration capacity was 1:2 105 W at 0.3 K.

66

Physics and models of magnetocaloric effect

Darby et al (1951) developed a two-stage adiabatic demagnetization apparatus. In the upper (ﬁrst) temperature stage iron ammonium alum and in the low (second) temperature stage dilute mixed crystals of potassium aluminum alum and potassium chrome alum (5%) were used. The salts were compressed into two cylinders of diameter 16 mm and length 5.7 cm and of diameter 9 mm and length 2.3 cm in the ﬁrst and the second stages, respectively. Between the stages there was the superconducting thermal switch with its lead wire. The cylinders were suspended in a thin germanium silver frame on an axial cotton thread. The frame was inserted into the vacuum helium cryostat. The process of cooling was as follows: ﬁrst the temperature in the cryostat was reduced to 1 K and both stages were magnetized; the heat of magnetization was removed with the help of helium exchange gas. Then the helium gas was pumped away and the ﬁrst stage was demagnetized by turning on the thermal switch. As a result the heat from the magnetized second stage was transferred to the ﬁrst stage. On the ﬁnal stage the thermal switch was turned oﬀ and the second stage was demagnetized. The temperature was determined by susceptibility, which was measured by the inductance method. With the magnetic ﬁeld of 4.2 kOe, Darby et al (1951) achieved a temperature of 0.003 K in the second stage. On the ﬁrst stage the lowest temperature was 0.25 K. A three-stage adiabatic demagnetization apparatus was used in the works of Peshkov (1964, 1965). It included the high-temperature stage with 60 g of iron ammonium alum, the second stage with 24 g single crystal plates of cerium magnesium nitrate, and the low-temperature stage with 14.1 g of cerium manganese nitrate. The stages were connected by the superconducting (tin) thermal switches. The cooling was accomplished from 0.3 K (obtained by pumping oﬀ liquid He3 ) with a magnetic ﬁeld of 11 kOe. The lowest achieved temperature measured by the inductance method was 0.0032 K. As was noted above, the lowest temperature which can be reached by the adiabatic demagnetization of a paramagnetic salt is determined by interactions between the magnetic moments of ions and other internal interactions. In order to take these interactions into account, equation (2.160) can be rewritten in the form (Kurti 1960) qﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃ 2 H22 þ Hint ð2:161Þ T2 ¼ T1 H1 where Hint is the ﬁeld characterizing the energy of the above-mentioned interactions. The value of this ﬁeld for a diluted paramagnetic substance with dipole interaction between the magnetic moments can be estimated with the help of (Kurti 1960, Vonsovskii 1974) ð2:162Þ Hint ð10rÞ3

Adiabatic demagnetization

67

where is the magnetic moment of the interacting particles and r is the distance between the particles (it is of the order of an atomic dimension, 108 cm). Hint can be reduced in two ways. The ﬁrst is the dilution of magnetic atoms, which increases the distance between them. However, this method also decreases the value of the magnetic entropy change per unit of the substance quantity and, consequently, reduces the value of the heat which the substance can absorb (TSM ), or its refrigeration capacity. The other method of decreasing Hint is based on decreasing . It can be done if instead of the Bohr magneton (B 9:27 1021 erg/G), which should be used in equation (2.162) in the case of adiabatic demagnetization of the paramagnetic salts, where the magnetic moment of an ion forming by its electronic shells is involved, so one can use a smaller magnetic moment. This can be the nuclear magnetic moment, which is 1000 times smaller than the magnetic moment of an ion (nuclear magneton n 5:05 1024 erg/G). Using such a ‘nuclear’ paramagnet it is possible to achieve temperatures 1000 times lower than with an ‘electronic’ paramagnet. However, there are two main diﬃculties in application of the nuclear adiabatic demagnetization. The ﬁrst follows from the requirement that the energy of the magnetic moment in the magnetic ﬁeld should be at least an order of magnitude of the thermal agitation energy at the temperature of the adiabatic demagnetization process realization (i.e. H kB T). Only in this case will the magnetic ﬁeld be able to cause essential entropy change. For the nuclear paramagnet it means that enormously high magnetic ﬁelds should be used if the initial temperature is 1 K (H kB T/n 107 T). That is why to have the possibility of applying the magnetic ﬁelds achievable in a laboratory ( 100 kOe) the preliminary cooling down to at least 102 K is needed (Simon 1939). The second diﬃculty is related to slow heat exchange between the nuclear magnetic spin system and the crystal lattice, which in dielectrics in the low-temperature range (at 102 K) can take about a week (Vonsovskii 1974). In metals the heat transfer is realized via conduction electrons, and thermal relaxation times in the temperature interval 0.01–1 K are much smaller—from the order of seconds to about minutes (Simon 1939, Bloembergen 1949, Kurti et al 1956). The idea of using nuclear paramagnets in the adiabatic demagnetization was proposed by Gorter (1934) and Kurti and Simon (1935). The ﬁrst experiment on the nuclear demagnetization was carried out by Hatton and Rolling (1949) on the crystal of calcium ﬂuoride. The initial temperature was 1.2 K and the magnetic ﬁeld was changed from 4 kOe to 0.5 kOe. The ﬁnal temperature measured by the strength of the nuclear resonance signal was 0.17 K. Further nuclear demagnetization cooling experiments were conducted on copper by Kurti et al (1956), Hobden and Kurti (1959) and Kurti (1960). A typical specimen used in these experiments represented a bundle of ﬁne insulated copper wires ( 35 cm long), with the lower end serving as the nuclear cooling stage and the upper end embedded into the

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chrome potassium alum, which was used as a high-temperature electronic stage. So the copper wires acted both as the thermal link and the nuclear stage. The specimen was surrounded by a thermal shield maintained at 0.35 K with the help of a He3 cryostat. The temperature on both stages was determined from the magnetic susceptibility measurements made by the inductance method. The initial temperature of 0.012 K was obtained by means of the electronic stage. The nuclear demagnetization was carried out from the magnetic ﬁeld with a value up to 30.4 kOe. The lowest temperature reached in the experiments was 1:2 106 K. The value of Hint in the copper nuclear system was determined to be 3.1 Oe (Hobden and Kurti 1959). Such are the general features of the adiabatic demagnetization experiments, where the magnetocaloric eﬀect ﬁrst found practical application. More detailed consideration of this question can be found in the books and reviews mentioned at the beginning of this section.

Chapter 3 Methods of magnetocaloric properties investigation

Methods of MCE measurements can be divided into two main groups: direct and indirect techniques. In the direct methods the material is subjected to a magnetic ﬁeld change and its temperature change is directly measured by some technique. In the indirect methods the MCE and magnetic entropy change is determined on the basis of heat capacity and/or magnetization data.

3.1 3.1.1

Direct methods Measurements in changing magnetic ﬁeld

In direct methods the initial sample temperature Ti (Hi ) and the ﬁnal one Tf (Hf ) at the end of the magnetization is measured, and the MCE at Ti is determined as the diﬀerence between Tf and Ti . The ﬁeld application to or removal from the sample is usually accomplished using pulsed or ramped magnetic ﬁelds changing with a rate of about 10 kOe/s. The method of direct measurements of the material temperature change during the application or removal of a magnetic ﬁeld by an electromagnet (switch-on technique) was proposed by Weiss and Forer (1926). Clark and Callen (1969), using this method, made the ﬁrst measurements in strong magnetic ﬁelds (up to 110 kOe) on yttrium iron garnet. The temperature of the sample, in the works of Weiss and Forer (1926) and Clark and Callen (1969), was measured by a thermocouple. Green et al (1988) used the switch-on technique for MCE measurements in a superconducting solenoid. Their apparatus employed a superconducting solenoid 12.13 cm in diameter, 25.4 cm long and 8.54 cm bore, which could produce a ﬁeld up to 70 kOe. The temperature was measured, after achieving the maximum ﬁeld value, by ﬁve thermocouples placed on the sample, which took 10 s. The overall measurement process duration was about 40 s, together 69

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Figure 3.1. Schematic drawing of the insert for MCE measurements using a diﬀerential thermocouple: (1) insulating Plexiglas tube; (2) copper ring; (3) diﬀerential thermocouple for T measurements; (4) copper screen; (5) thermocouple measuring the average sample temperature T; (6) the sample (Kuhrt et al 1985).

with the ﬁeld rise time of about 30 s. This method was used to measure MCE in rare earth metals at temperatures above 180 K. Kuhrt et al (1985) proposed a diﬀerential thermocouple, which gave more accurate results for the MCE measurement. Its schematic drawing is shown in ﬁgure 3.1, where the diﬀerential thermocouple (3) measures the temperature diﬀerence between a massive copper body (2), (4) and the sample (6), which is the MCE value. The average sample temperature is measured by thermocouple (5). However, it was found that it is better to place the thermocouple inside the specimen (for example, into a drilled hole) because of the temperature gradient between its inner part and the surface (Kuhrt et al (1985)). Borovikov et al (1981) measured the MCE in siderite FeCO3 using pulsed magnetic ﬁelds. The sample had a parallelepiped form and linear dimensions of several millimeters. The pulsed ﬁeld produced by a compact solenoid had a maximum value of 270 kOe, a pulse duration of 2 ms, and a working space 5.5 mm in diameter and 20 mm long. The MCE was measured by a thermocouple or by a magneto-optical technique, allowing instant temperature measurement (Litvinenko et al 1973). The latter method is based on the observation of the absorption band series at a wavelength of 24 000 cm1 and can be used for sample temperature measurements above 21 K with an accuracy of 0.5 K.

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Figure 3.2. Schematic drawing of the insert for MCE measurements in pulsed magnetic ﬁelds: (1) thermocouple working junction; (2) collet; (3) insert frame; (4) sample; (5) thermocouple (Ponomarev 1983).

Ponomarev (1983, 1986) made a further development of the pulsed-ﬁeld method. He measured the MCE in polycrystalline gadolinium in pulsed ﬁelds up to 80 kOe (the total pulse length was 0.5 s) in the temperature range 80–350 K. The schematic drawing of the insert used in the measurements is shown in ﬁgure 3.2. The MCE was measured by a copper–constantan diﬀerential thermocouple (5) made of strips 20 mm thick and 1 mm wide. Its working junction, 60 mm thick, made of tin (1) was placed inside the sample (4) consisting of two pieces 15 mm long and with total diameter of 6 mm, and chucked at the sample centre by a collet (2). The solenoid used had a length of 200 mm and a bore diameter of 50 mm. It was shown that, for the given pulse duration, sample dimensions and thermocouple conﬁguration any errors due to the heat exchange between the sample, thermocouple and environment can be neglected. The sample temperature change during measurement due to Foucault currents was estimated to be 103 K. The apparatus sensitivity to the temperature change caused by the MCE was 0.1 K. Let us consider more thoroughly the pulsed ﬁeld apparatus, as described by Dan’kov et al (1997). Figures 3.3 and 3.4 show the principal scheme of the apparatus and the scheme of its low temperature part, respectively. To measure the changes of the sample temperature caused by the MCE a diﬀerential copper–constantan thermocouple made of small diameter wires (0.05 mm) was used. Application of such a small-mass thermocouple

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Figure 3.3. Experimental pulsed-ﬁeld apparatus principal scheme: (1) operation block; (2) high voltage source; (3) rectiﬁer; (4) discharge block; (5) measurement block; (6) integrator; (7) microvoltmeter; (8) memory oscilloscope; (9) heat feeding block; (10) thermocouple signal ampliﬁer; (11) compensation block; C, battery of capacitors; CCT, copper– constantan thermocouple; L, pulse solenoid; RB , ballast resistor (Dan’kov et al 1997).

(typical weight of the sample was about 1 g) provided a negligible heat load, which signiﬁcantly reduced the heat leaks through the electrical wires. Similarly as was done by Ponomarev (1983), the sample of Gd was shaped as a parallelepiped (with dimensions 4 4 10 mm) and cut into two equal parts along the long axis. The thermocouple was placed between the parts in the centre of the sample. The sample was not insulated by a vacuum layer. According to the experimental tests, during the period of time required by the magnetic ﬁeld to reach its maximum value (0.08 s) the heat exchange with the environment lowers the sample temperature by less than 2%. The low-temperature insert of the apparatus (ﬁgure 3.4) was assembled from thin-walled tubes made of nonmagnetic stainless steel. The sample temperature was regulated by simultaneous work of the electric heater (3) (ﬁgure 3.4) controlled by a feeding block (ﬁgure 3.3) and cooled by ﬂowing of nitrogen or helium gas through the insert. Discharge of the capacity battery C created the magnetic ﬁeld inside the solenoid L. The battery had a total capacity of 0.035 F and was charged up to 1000 V, which provided total pulse duration of 0.2 s. The discharge block (4) included a thyristor driven by a starting signal from the control desk (1) (ﬁgure 3.3), which was used as a power switch for the battery discharge. Simultaneously with discharging the battery, the starting signal triggered

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73

Figure 3.4. Schematic drawing of the low-temperature part of the experimental pulsedﬁeld apparatus (liquid nitrogen cryostat): (2) sample heater; (3) ﬁeld measuring coil; (4) vacuum-tight feed through connector; (5) sample holder; (6) sample inside the holder; (7) electrical wiring; L, pulsed solenoid (Dan’kov et al 1997).

the pulse memory oscilloscope (8). The signal from the thermocouple was fed into one channel of the oscilloscope. Into the second channel was fed the signal from the measuring coil (3) (ﬁgure 3.4) integrated in the integrator (6) (ﬁgure 3.3). This technique allowed determination of the sample temperature change due to the change of the magnetic ﬁeld, i.e. the MCE at a given ﬁeld and temperature. The measurement block (5) (ﬁgure 3.3) was used to achieve communications between other apparatus blocks. It was found that during the measurements a parasitic signal might be induced in the thermocouple wiring. To prevent the inﬂuence of this

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Methods of magnetocaloric properties investigation

interference, which can decrease the accuracy of the measurement, a compensation scheme (11) (ﬁgure 3.3) was employed. In this scheme a signal from the measuring coil (3) (ﬁgure 3.4) was added as a compensation signal to the signal from the thermocouple. Such a scheme almost completely excluded the inﬂuence of the interferences on the experimental results. The solenoid L had a bore diameter of 23 mm and was wound from copper wire with a diameter of 1.3 mm. It was cooled directly by liquid nitrogen, which made it possible to obtain a maximum magnetic ﬁeld value of 80 kOe. Tests show that the solenoid possessed a small ﬁeld inhomogeneity: the axial inhomogeneity was less than 5% within the range of 1 cm from the solenoid centre, and the radial inhomogeneity was one order of magnitude smaller. Dan’kov et al (1997) considered various sources of random, and systematic errors arose during the measurement process. It was concluded that the pulse ﬁeld apparatus enabled measurement of the magnetocaloric eﬀect with an accuracy of 8–15%, depending on the MCE value and the temperature range. 3.1.2

Measurements in static magnetic ﬁeld

A superconducting solenoid can produce magnetic ﬁelds with high intensity (at least up to 100 kOe). When the ﬁeld is produced by a nonsuperconducting electromagnet (typical maximum values of the ﬁeld intensity up to 20 kOe) the ﬁeld rising time in a switch-on technique has a maximum value of about a few seconds. However, for a superconducting solenoid it can reach the value of several minutes. During the ﬁeld rise a dissipation of the heat released in the sample due to the MCE can occur. According to the estimation made by Tishin (1988) the ﬁeld rising time must not be greater than 10 s for temperatures above 30 K. In the temperature region 10–20 K this time must be several times smaller because of the increase of the heat leakage through the thermocouple. Because of these limitations the MCE measurements by a switch-on technique are diﬃcult and even impossible in the case of the use of a superconducting solenoid. To overcome the diﬃculties related to the ﬁeld rising time a method was proposed in which the sample was brought quickly into the static magnetic ﬁeld of a superconducting solenoid (Nikitin et al 1985a, 1985b, Tishin 1988, Gopal et al 1997). The measurement is done in the following sequence. Initially the sample is placed outside the solenoid. When the ﬁeld in the solenoid has reached the required value, the sample is rapidly (at about 1 s) brought inside the solenoid. After the sample is ﬁxed at the centre of the solenoid, its temperature is measured. Figure 3.5 shows the scheme of the experimental apparatus, allowing the MCE measurements in the temperature range from 4.2 to 300 K in ﬁelds up to 66 kOe (Tishin 1988). The sample holder (15) made of Teﬂon with the

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75

Figure 3.5. The scheme of the experimental apparatus for MCE measurements in a superconducting solenoid: (1) ferrite permanent magnet; (2) coil; (3) cooling system; (4) SmCo5 permanent magnet; (5) coil; (6) rod; (7) Teﬂon gasket; (8) ﬂange; (9) leads; (10) heater connecter; (11) evacuated tube; (12) electric heater; (13), (14) vacuum jackets; (15) sample holder; (16) sample; (17) superconducting solenoid (Tishin 1988).

sample (16) was ﬁxed at the end of the rod (6). A mica gasket was glued on the bottom of the holder in order to minimize the heat leakage between the sample and the holder. The rod with the holder was placed into a tube (11) evacuated to a pressure of 1 Pa in order to provide adiabatic conditions for the measurements. Vacuum jackets (13) and (14) were used to prevent helium evaporation caused by sample heating by the electric heater (12).

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The heater was connected to the temperature control block through a connector (10). The superconducting solenoid created magnetic ﬁelds up to 66 kOe. The whole apparatus was placed into helium cryostat. A permanent SmCo5 magnet (4) and the special coil (5) were used to prevent the sample from being pulled into the solenoid (the pulling force is the product of the ﬁeld gradient and the sample magnetic moment). The coil (5) was also used to return the sample to its initial position. The sample is ﬁxed in the upper position (out of the solenoid) by a ferrite permanent magnet (1). Then the magnetic ﬁeld of the ferrite magnet is compensated by a coil (2) and the sample begins to move in the lower position (inside the solenoid). A Teﬂon gasket (7) on a ﬂange (8) ﬁxes the sample at the centre of the solenoid. At this time the copper washer on the rod closes the contacts on the gasket (7), leading to the turning oﬀ of the coil (5). Coils (2) and (5) were water-cooled. Tishin (1988) made an estimation of the accuracy of the MCE determination for the apparatus described above. The main sources of the errors are: heat losses in the contact between thermocouple and the sample, the losses through the thermocouple contacting leads and heat emission losses, and heating by eddy currents. It was shown that eddy currents could cause a noticeable value (above 0.1 K) in the temperature region below 10 K. The total error in the MCE measurement was estimated to be about 10%. Gopal et al (1997) reported about the apparatus for automated MCE measurements, which operated in an analogous way to that described above. The apparatus is capable of measuring the MCE in the temperature range from 10 to 325 K in applied magnetic ﬁelds up to 90 kOe. As the host platform for the MCE measurement insert, a commercially available Quantum Design Physical Property Measurement System including magnet system with a temperature-controlled bore was used. The sample in the insert (about 3–10 g weight) was moved in and out of the superconducting solenoid by a pneumatic linear actuator. The compressed air feed to the actuator, guiding direction and speed of its movement, was controlled by two solenoid valves. The speed of the sample movement was about 60 cm/s, which provided a magnetic ﬁeld rising rate of 90 kOe/s. The measuring chamber was evacuated to 104 torr during measurements. To measure temperature and its change caused by the MCE, a low magnetic ﬁeld dependence resistance temperature device (Cernox) was used. It exhibited magnetic-ﬁeld-induced errors of less than 0.3% at 5 K. The errors become negligibly small at temperatures above 30 K in magnetic ﬁelds up to 100 kOe. A thermal response time of the temperature sensor was 135 ms at 273 K and 1.5 ms at 4.2 K. The device had a very small size in comparison with that of the sample. In order to prevent self heating, the sensor was excited by a precision low-level programmable a.c. source with amplitude in the range 10–100 mA and amplitude stability better than 50 ppm/h. To detect voltage on the device, a lock-in ampliﬁer was

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77

employed. The measured voltage was converted to the corresponding resistance value and the temperature was calculated using the sensor’s Chebyshev calibration coeﬃcients. The sensor leads were directed axially to the magnetic ﬁeld in order to minimize errors related to stray induction by the changing magnetic ﬁeld. The lock-in ampliﬁer time constant ranged between 30 and 100 ms to further suppress this interference. It was shown that the heating caused by eddy currents induced during sample motion in and out of the magnetic ﬁeld was about 1 K. This eﬀect was taken into account using the fact that the MCE changes its sign at ﬁeld reversal and the eddy current contribution does not. The apparatus worked automatically under the control of the PCcompatible computer. The tests made on Gd and Ho showed that the results obtained on the MCE temperature dependence agree well with the literature data. 3.1.3

Thermoacoustic method

This technique proposed by Gopal et al (1995) can be attributed to the noncontact methods of the MCE measurements. It should be noted that this method is also an indirect method because the MCE T in the given magnetic ﬁeld H is calculated on the basis of the obtained experimental values. However, the measured value is the response of the sample under investigation arising in the alternating magnetic ﬁeld due to the MCE. That is why this method is considered in this section. Figure 3.6 shows the scheme of the experimental apparatus. The measuring cell with the sample under investigation is placed between the

Figure 3.6. The scheme of the experimental apparatus used in the thermoacoustic method: (1) thermometer; (2) temperature control system; (3) preampliﬁer; (4) lock-in ampliﬁer; (5) ﬁeld modulation unit (Gopal et al 1995).

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Figure 3.7. The schematic drawing of the measuring cell and microphone probe used in the thermoacoustic method: (A) the cell; (B) the sample holder; (C) the microphone probe (Gopal et al 1995).

pole faces of an electromagnet capable of producing magnetic ﬁelds up to 4.5 kOe. The ﬁeld modulation coils on the electromagnet poles produce an a.c. magnetic ﬁeld parallel to the d.c. ﬁeld of the magnet. The coils were fed by an a.c. current of 1 A and a square waveform from the ﬁeld modulation unit (class C ampliﬁer) (5). The signal to the ﬁeld modulation unit was received from the TTL reference output of a lock-in ampliﬁer. The value of the a.c. ﬁeld was up to 250 Oe and its frequency was 4 Hz. The cell was surrounded by a temperature-controlling ﬂuid jacket providing control stability of 1 K. The cell temperature was measured by a thermistor placed on its wall. The sample with dimensions of about 12 mm 4 mm 0.5 mm was placed inside the measuring cell made of thin-wall brass tubing of 9 mm diameter and 40 mm length (see ﬁgure 3.7). The sample holder was made of Teﬂon and was set inside the cell. The cell was closed but had an oriﬁce with 1.5 mm diameter for a microphone probe duct, which connected the probe with the cell. The microphone probe consisted of a capacitive-type pressure-response microphone, and a preampliﬁer was placed outside the magnetic ﬁeld area in order to minimize the stray induced by the magnetic ﬁeld. The system measuring cell–microphone probe was gas tight and ﬁlled by a gas. An a.c. magnetic ﬁeld caused the inﬁnitesimal periodic temperature changes T induced in the sample due to the MCE. These temperature variations cause periodic heating of the neighbouring gas layer, which begins to expand and contract, producing thermoacoustic waves within the

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79

measuring cell. The waves are propagated through the duct and are received by the microphone probe. Then the signal is ampliﬁed by the preampliﬁer (3) and detected by the lock-in ampliﬁer (4). As shown by Gopal et al (1995) the voltage v from the microphone probe is proportional to the temperature change T: T ¼ Csys v

ð3:1Þ

where Csys is the calibration constant. The system was calibrated using Gd. The calibration was made on the basis of equation (2.16) and known data for Gd magnetization and heat capacity. The measurable quantity in this method is T=H in the corresponding d.c. magnetic ﬁeld H, where H is an amplitude of the a.c. magnetic ﬁeld cases inﬁnitesimal periodic temperature changes T induced in the sample due to the MCE. As follows from the mean ﬁeld model (see equations 2.42 and 2.50), at a given temperature the MCE is a linear function of the square magnetization I 2 . On the basis of independent magnetization measurements one can convert measured T=H into T=I 2 for I Is and obtain the slope of the total magnetocaloric eﬀect T dependence on magnetization I 2 for the given magnetic ﬁeld H. Knowing this value it is possible to determine T at any desired magnetization, i.e T(I 2 ) dependence, and then convert it into T(H) dependence. The method was ﬁrst proved using a.c. excitation of a 10 chip resistor placed in the measuring cell. It was shown that at 25 8C the system is capable of detecting input power levels of 320 mW. The dependence of the response microphone voltage on the input power is linear up to 130 mW, i.e. in the range of about 3 orders of magnitude. It was also veriﬁed that the signal from a magnetic sample is due to the MCE. The contributions to the output signal from eddy currents, hysteresis losses and magnetostriction vibrations were found to be negligible. Gopal et al (1995) made measurements of the MCE for Gd and Gd91:8 Dy8:2 and Gd89:9 Er10:1 alloys. Figure 3.8(a) shows experimental temperature dependences of the temperature change T caused by an a.c. magnetic ﬁeld of 200 Oe at external magnetic ﬁelds of 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4 and 4.5 kOe in Gd, measured by the thermoacoustic method in the region of the Curie temperature. The TðTÞ behaviour is consistent with equation (2.16). The lower values of T for higher H are related to @M=@T decreasing with magnetic ﬁeld increasing. Figure 3.8(b) represents the T(T) dependences at diﬀerent magnetic ﬁelds determined on the basis of the magnetization data and T data from ﬁgure 3.8(a). It should be noted that an alternating magnetic ﬁeld was also used to direct measurements of the MCE by Fischer et al (1991). In this work the alternating modulation magnetic ﬁeld with a frequency of 0.05 Hz and an amplitude of 600 Oe was superimposed on the direct ﬁeld, in which the measurement was conducted. The corresponding alternating temperature

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Figure 3.8. Temperature dependences of: (a) the temperature change T caused by the a.c. ﬁeld of 200 Oe at diﬀerent external magnetic ﬁelds H in gadolinium; and (b) the magnetocaloric eﬀect T at the diﬀerent magnetic ﬁelds determined on the basis of T=H data (Gopal et al 1995).

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81

signal with an amplitude proportional to the MCE was measured directly by a resistor thermometer. The MCE was extracted from the measured signal by Fourier analysis.

3.2

Indirect methods

3.2.1 3.2.1.1

Magnetization measurements Isothermal magnetization measurements

Experimental data on magnetization isotherms I(H) can be used to calculate magnetic entropy change SM by means of equation (2.70): ð H2 @I dH ð3:2aÞ SM ¼ H1 @T H or, if the ﬁeld is varied from 0 to H, ðH @I dH: SM ¼ @T H 0

ð3:2bÞ

Equations (3.2) can be integrated numerically in the desired range of temperatures and magnetic ﬁelds on the basis of the set of experimental magnetization isotherms I(H) at diﬀerent temperatures T1 , T2 , . . . . The derivative @I=@T can also be calculated numerically. McMichael et al (1993b) proposed the following simple formula for numerical calculations of SM : jS M j ¼

X i

1 ðI Ii þ 1 Þ Hi : Ti þ 1 Ti i

ð3:3Þ

Numerical calculations of SM in rare earth metals on the basis of magnetization isotherms were made by McMichael et al (1993b), Foldeaki et al (1995), Dan’kov et al (1996), Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1999a) and other authors. Strictly speaking, equation (3.2) can be used for calculations of the magnetic entropy change from the magnetization data only for systems of second-order magnetic phase transitions, because at the ﬁrst-order transition the derivative @M=@T becomes inﬁnite. The magnetic entropy change related to the ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transition can be determined using the Clapeyron–Clausius equation (2.100). However, the inﬁnite @M=@T can arise only in ideal ﬁrst-order phase transitions and in real materials it is usually ﬁnite, which allows the use of equation (3.2) in this case. However, it is necessary to use caution when using equation (3.2) for the ﬁrst-order transition, because in some cases the obtained SM values can be overestimated. The discussion about the possibility of using equation (3.2) in the materials displaying a ﬁrst-order magnetic transition can be found in

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the works of Giguere et al (1999c), Sun et al (2000a), Gschneidner et al (2000c) and Wada et al (2001). To calculate the value T of the MCE from experimental data on magnetization and heat capacity, equation (2.16) can also be used (Tishin 1997): ðH ð TðHÞ T @IðH; TÞ dT ¼ dH ð3:4Þ TðT; HÞ ¼ @T TðH ¼ 0Þ 0 CH; p H where TðT; HÞ ¼ TðHÞ TðH ¼ 0Þ. It is important to note that because T is permanently changing during magnetic ﬁeld action and Cp;H can strongly depend on H, in a general case neither T nor Cp; H can be moved out of the integral in equation (3.4). In an experiment the ﬁeld usually changes from H ¼ 0 to H. In the case where the values of the magnetic ﬁeld are changed from a value of H1 to the H2 , these values should be taken as the limits of the integration in equation (3.4). With the help of the integration by parts it is possible to present equation (3.4) in the form (Foldeaki 1995, 1997a) H0 ð ð H0 T @I T H @I 0 dH ¼ dH CH; p 0 @T H 0 0 CH; p @T H 0 ð H ð H0 d T @I 0 dH: ð3:5Þ dH dH CH; p @H H 0 0 0 If the value T/Cp;H varies with H much more slowly than the derivative ð@I=@TÞH which can be assumed in the region of magnetic phase transitions, then the second integral in equation (3.5) is negligible and the MCE can be calculated as T SM ðT; HÞ TðT; HÞ ¼ ð3:6Þ Cp;H ðT; HÞ (see also equation (2.79)). According to Foldeaki et al (1997a) both SM and Cp;H should be introduced in equation (3.6) at the same ﬁeld and temperature values. The heat capacity in the given magnetic ﬁeld H can be determined on the basis of the zero ﬁeld heat capacity measured experimentally, and equation (2.12) allows calculation of the heat capacity change caused by the magnetic ﬁeld from SM data as @SM Cp ¼ Cp ðHÞ Cp ð0Þ ¼ T ð3:7Þ @T p where SM ¼ SM ðHÞ SM ð0Þ. As was pointed out by Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1999a), equation (3.6) is valid only under assumption that heat capacity does not depend on magnetic ﬁeld, i.e. Cp ð0; TÞ ¼ Cp ðH; TÞ. According to estimations of Foldeaki et al (1995), an error in the values of SM calculated numerically from the magnetization data measured with

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83

the accuracy of less than 0.5% in the ﬁelds up to 60 kOe is 7.5%. Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1999a) thoroughly analysed the errors in SM determined by the method described above. It was assumed that SM was calculated using the trapezoidal rule as nX 1 H ð3:8Þ I1 þ 2 Ik þ In : SM ðTav Þ ¼ 2T k¼2 It was assumed that the magnetization on each isotherm is measured at the n ﬁeld points situated on the curve with step H ¼ H=ðn 1Þ, where H is the value of magnetic ﬁeld changing. In equation (3.8), T ¼ Tu Tl is the temperature diﬀerence between the two isotherms measured at Tu and Tl , Tav ¼ ðTu þ Tl Þ=2—an average temperature for which SM is calculated, Ik ¼ ½IðTu Þk IðTl Þk is the diﬀerence in the magnetizations on the isotherms measured at Tu and Tl at each magnetic ﬁeld point from 1 to n. The errors arising from inaccuracies related to magnetization, magnetic ﬁeld and temperature measurements were taken into account. The following equation was obtained for the total error in SM (Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1999a): n1 X 1 jHj I1 þ 2 Ik þ In jSM ðTav ; HÞj ¼ 2jTj k¼2 n1 X þ jI1 jH1 þ 2 ðjIk jIk Þ þ jIn j k¼2

þ 2jSM ðTav ; HÞjðTu þ Tl Þ

ð3:9Þ

where T are errors in the temperature measurements, Ik ¼ ½IðTu Þk þ IðTl Þk is the sum of errors in the magnetization measured at Tu and Tl in the magnetic ﬁeld Hk , and Hk ¼ ½HðTu Þk þ HðTl Þk is the sum of errors in the magnetic ﬁeld at the temperatures Tu and Tl . The ﬁrst term in equation (3.9) represents the contribution related to the magnetization inaccuracies, the second term relates to the ﬁeld inaccuracies, and the third term relates to the temperature inaccuracies. Analysis of equation (3.9) shows that the total error in the magnetic entropy increases as T and H decrease. It should be noted that these values cannot be made too large because then equation (3.8) becomes invalid. Figure 3.9 shows SM (T) dependences (for H ¼ 50 kOe) calculated by equation (3.8) on the basis of experimental magnetization data for polycrystalline ErAl2 and single crystal Gd (the ﬁeld was directed along the [0001] axis), and also temperature dependences of the corresponding total error jSM ðTÞj estimated by equation (3.9). The measurements were done in the region of the Curie points with temperature steps T of 2 K below and

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Methods of magnetocaloric properties investigation

Figure 3.9. Magnetic entropy change SM ðTÞ at H ¼ 50 kOe in ErAl2 and Gd calculated on the basis of magnetization data by equation (3.8)—the open circles and solid triangles. The dotted lines are the margins of the total error calculated by equation (3.9) (Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1999a).

above TC , 1 K near TC for ErAl2 , and 5 K in the whole temperature range for Gd. The magnetic ﬁeld step H was 1 kOe for ErAl2 and 2 kOe for Gd. The accuracy of the magnetization measurements was assumed to be 0.5% and for the magnetic ﬁeld 0.1%. The temperature accuracy was calculated as T ¼ 0:1 K þ 0:001T. Figure 3.10 shows temperature dependences of relative total error in SM and the contributions from diﬀerent inaccuracies according to equation (3.9) for ErAl2 and Gd. As can be seen, a twofold increase of H in Gd compared with ErAl2 causes a twofold reduction of the corresponding magnetic ﬁeld contribution to the total error. The twofold reduction of T in ErAl2 (the temperature region from 15 to 20 K) gave a step-like increase in the contributions from magnetization and temperature errors. The relative error also depends on the value H—it is low for lower H provided H is constant. The total relative error in SM essentially increased below the Curie temperature due to the increase in the magnetization contribution. The errors from magnetic ﬁeld and temperature were small and temperature dependent. The total relative error near the Curie temperature was about 25% in ErAl2 and Gd and rapidly deteriorated in a low-temperature region. 3.2.1.2

Adiabatic magnetization measurements

Levitin et al (1997) proposed another method for MCE determination from magnetization measurements. The method is based on comparison of the magnetization ﬁeld dependences measured under isothermal and adiabatic

Indirect methods

85

Figure 3.10. Temperature dependence of the total relative error in SM (full line) in ErAl2 and Gd calculated using equation (3.9) and (1) the magnetic (contribution from the ﬁrst term in equation (3.9)), (2) the temperature (contribution from the third term in equation (3.9)) and (3) the magnetic ﬁeld (contribution from the second term in equation (3.9)) errors (Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1999a).

conditions. Due to the MCE the initial temperature of ferro- and paramagnets increases during adiabatic magnetization. Because of that the adiabatic magnetization curve measured at some initial temperature will intersect the isothermal magnetization curves obtained at higher temperatures. The intersection points ðT; HÞ determine the ﬁeld dependence of the sample temperature under adiabatic magnetization, i.e. TðHÞ. The adiabatic magnetization conditions can be provided by the pulse magnetization measurements. It was established that the adiabatic magnetization took place for a ﬁeld rising rate of about 104 kOe/s and higher for the samples with dimensions of several mm. A decrease of the rate to 10– 100 kOe/s leads to a practically isothermal magnetization process. Levitin et al (1997) demonstrated the capability of this method on paramagnetic single crystal Gd3 Ga5 O12 . The magnetization measurements were made in pulsed ﬁelds up to 400 kOe with a ﬁeld rising rate of 2–150 MOe/s. Figure 3.11 shows an experimental magnetization curve measured at an initial temperature of 4.2 K (thick line) at the ﬁeld rising rate of 50 MOe/s, together with isothermal magnetization curves (thin lines) calculated in the frameworks of mean ﬁeld approximation (it was shown that there was good coincidence between theoretical and experimental isothermal curves in Gd3 Ga5 O12 ). As predicted, intersections between the adiabatic and isothermal curves are observed. The TðHÞ curve obtained by this method for Gd3 Ga5 O12 gave T ¼ 46 K for H ¼ 400 kOe and an initial temperature of 4.2 K.

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Methods of magnetocaloric properties investigation

Figure 3.11. Adiabatic magnetization curve (thick line) measured in Gd3 Ga5 O12 single crystal in a pulsed magnetic ﬁeld at an initial temperature of 4.2 K with the average ﬁeld rising rate of 50 MOe/s. Thin lines represent isotherm magnetization curves calculated in the frameworks of mean-ﬁeld approximation starting from 5 K (the top curve) with temperature steps of 5 K (Levitin et al 1997). (Reprinted from Levitin et al 1997, copyright 1997, with permission from Elsevier.)

3.2.2

Heat capacity measurements

The MCE and the magnetic entropy change can be determined from the heat capacity temperature dependences measured in diﬀerent magnetic ﬁelds. This method was used by Brown (1976) and Gschneidner and co-workers (see, for example, Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1996, 1999a). It allows a complete set of parameters required for magnetic refrigerator design to be obtained: heat capacity, total entropy and magnetic entropy change, MCE ﬁeld and temperature dependences. The total entropy of a material in a magnetic ﬁeld SðT; HÞ can be calculated if the experimental dependence of its heat capacity CðT; HÞ is known on the basis of the equation following from equation (2.12): ðT CðT; HÞ dT þ S0 ð3:10Þ SðT; HÞ ¼ T 0 where S0 is the entropy at T ¼ 0 K (zero temperature entropy), which is usually assumed to be zero (Foldeaki et al 1997a, Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1999a). It should be noted that real measurements are always started not from 0 K but from some temperature T1 . The contribution to S below T1 can be

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87

presented as CðT1 ; HÞ because for T ! 0 heat capacity approaches zero and temperature change between 0 K and T1 is equal to T1 . Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1999a) proposed the following equation for the entropy calculation from heat capacity data: nX 1 CðTi ; HÞ CðTi þ 1 ; HÞ ðTi 1 Ti Þ þ SðT; HÞ ¼ 0:5 CðT1 ; HÞ þ Ti Ti þ 1 i¼1 ð3:11Þ where n is the number of measured heat capacity data points between T1 and T, C(T1 ; H) is the contribution in S from the heat capacity data below the temperature of the beginning of the experiment T1 . On the basis of equation (3.11), Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1999a) obtained the following equation for the errors in the total entropy calculated from the heat capacity: SðH; TÞ ﬃ 0:5 CðT1 ; HÞ þ

n 1 X CðTi ; HÞ i¼1

Ti

CðTi þ 1 ; HÞ ðTi þ 1 Ti Þ þ ð3:12Þ Ti þ 1

where CðT; HÞ is the uncertainty in the measured heat capacity value. The errors in temperature were not taken into account in equation (3.12) because in the method of heat capacity measurements used by Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1999a) (adiabatic heat pulse calorimeter—see section 3.2.2.1) their contribution to the total error did not exceed a few percent. The error in heat capacity in the method using an adiabatic heat pulse calorimeter was 0.5% in the major temperature interval except at the lowest temperature and above 300 K. The estimated relative error in total entropy for Gd and ErAl2 measured in a zero magnetic ﬁeld and in 50 kOe was about 0.5%, except below 10 K, where it reached several percent. From the calculated total entropy temperature dependences in zero magnetic ﬁeld Sð0; TÞ (or any other initial ﬁeld) and in ﬁnal magnetic ﬁeld SðH; TÞ, the isothermal magnetic entropy change SM ðH; TÞ can be determined (see equation (2.70)) at any temperature T as SM ðH; TÞ ¼ SðH; TÞ ¼ SðH; TÞ Sð0; TÞ

ð3:13Þ

and adiabatic temperature change caused by the magnetic ﬁeld change, i.e. magnetocaloric eﬀect, can be obtained as TðH; TÞ ¼ TðS; HÞ TðS; 0Þ

ð3:14Þ

where TðS; HÞ and TðS; 0Þ are the temperatures in the ﬁeld H and H ¼ 0 at constant total entropy S. The method of SM ðH; TÞ and TðH; TÞ determination from SðH; TÞ curves is illustrated by ﬁgure 2.3. Zero temperature entropy S0 can aﬀect the determined SM and T values giving additional

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Methods of magnetocaloric properties investigation

error. Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1999a) showed that S0 has no eﬀect on SM and its inﬂuence on T is negligibly small. The error in SM ðH; TÞ determined from SðH; TÞ curves is determined as the sum of errors in SðT; HÞ (Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1996, 1999a): jSM ðH; TÞj ¼ Sð0; TÞ þ SðH; TÞ:

ð3:15Þ

The error in TðH; TÞ was presented (Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1996, 1999a) as dTðS; HÞ dTðS; 0Þ SðH; TÞ þ Sð0; TÞ jTðH; TÞj ¼ dS dS ¼ SðH; TÞ

T T þ Sð0; TÞ : CðH; TÞ Cð0; TÞ

ð3:16Þ

It can be seen from equation (3.16) that the error in T is directly proportional to SðT; HÞ and T/C and inversely proportional to dS=dT. In a ferromagnetic material the error in T increases above TC because of heat capacity decreasing. Figure 3.12 shows the TðTÞ for H ¼ 50 kOe in Gd and ErAl2 , determined from the heat capacity measurements together with the errors estimated on the basis of equation (3.16). It is seen that the error becomes larger for higher temperatures. The error will strongly

Figure 3.12. MCE temperature dependences for H ¼ 50 kOe in ErAl2 (open circles) and Gd (solid triangles) determined on the basis of the heat capacity measurements. The solid lines show the margins of the error in T calculated by equation (3.16) (Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1999a).

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Figure 3.13. T(T) dependences of high-purity polycrystalline Gd measured directly by pulsed and quasistatic techniques (solid symbols) and those determined from the heat capacity (open symbols) for H ¼ 20 kOe (Dan’kov et al 1998). (Copyright 1998 by the American Physical Society.)

depend on the inﬂuence of the magnetic ﬁeld on the heat capacity. If this inﬂuence is small (which usually takes place far from the magnetic phase transitions) the error can be considerable. Figure 3.13 shows the MCE temperature dependences measured on high-purity polycrystalline Gd by the direct method in pulsed and quasistatic (switch-on technique) ﬁelds and determined from the heat capacity data for a magnetic ﬁeld change from 0 to 20 kOe. Quite good agreement can be seen between the results obtained by these three methods, especially in the temperature range from 220 to 330 K. The SM (T) curves of Gd and ErAl2 determined for H ¼ 50 kOe from the magnetization measurements are also in good accordance with those calculated from the heat capacity data (Dan’kov et al 1998, Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1999a).

90 3.2.2.1

Methods of magnetocaloric properties investigation Heat pulse calorimetry

In this widely used method a heat pulse introduces into an adiabatically isolated sample the amount of heat Q at the initial temperature Ti . As a result the sample temperature changes on the value of T ¼ Tf Ti , where Tf is the ﬁnal temperature of the sample. The heat capacity at the temperature Ti can be calculated (see the heat capacity deﬁnition equation (2.10)) as Q : ð3:17Þ T Figure 3.14 shows a schematic drawing of the vacuum calorimeter by which this method is realized. The calorimeter includes the sample (1) over which the electric heater (2) is wound. The sample is suspended by the leads (3) in the vacuum tight chamber (4), which is put in a cryostat (5). Vacuum in the camera provides thermal isolation of the sample. During the measurement process a known amount of heat Q is introduced into the sample by passing a known current for a deﬁnite time interval, and the temperature change is measured by a thermometer (6). The sample initial temperature is also measured by the thermometer (6). To prevent heat transfer by radiation, which is signiﬁcant at temperatures above about 20 K, an adiabatic shield (7) is Cﬃ

Figure 3.14. Schematic drawing of the vacuum heat pulse calorimeter: (1) sample; (2) electric heater; (3) leads; (4) vacuum-tight chamber; (5) cryostat; (6) thermometer; (7) adiabatic shield; (8) heat switch.

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used. It contains a separate heater in order to follow the temperature of the sample (1) precisely, which makes a temperature gradient and thus heat exchange between the sample and the shield minimal. To provide cooling down to the lowest temperatures a heat switch (8) is used. It connects the sample inside the chamber (4) with the liquid gas in the cryostat during cooling. It should be noted that the real measurements always take place in semiadiabatic conditions, where some heat exchange between the sample and the surroundings occurs. Consider, as an example, design and operation of the automatic heat pulse calorimeter proposed by Pecharsky et al (1997b). This apparatus works in the temperature range from 3 to 350 K and in magnetic ﬁelds from 0 to 100 kOe. An insert with the calorimeter and a low-temperature liquid helium pot is put into a cryostat, including a 120 kOe superconducting magnet with a room temperature vacuum-insulated 2.5 cm gap inside the magnet bore. The electronic hardware includes current sources, voltmeters and cryocontroller, and is guided by an IBM PC-compatible desktop computer with an IEEE-488 general-purpose interface board. The whole system is pumped by a high-speed vacuum pumping system capable of attaining a vacuum level of about 107 torr in order to obtain thermal insulation of the sample. The sample is placed inside the sample holder made of lowoxygen pure copper, for which the design is shown in ﬁgure 3.15. The sample (7) is clamped by the holding screw (6) on the top plate (4). Between the sample and the plate the mixture (3) of Apiezon-X grease and ﬁne silver powder is

Figure 3.15. Design of the sample holder: its back (a) and three-dimensional (b) views. (1) Cernox temperature sensor; (2) heater; (3) mixture of Apiezon-N grease and silver powder; (4) top plate; (5) sample holder frame; (6) holding screw; (7) sample; (8) heat switch; (9) temperature sensor holding clamp (Pecharsky et al 1997b).

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placed, which improves the thermal contact between them. A Cernox temperature sensor (1) in a copper clamp (9) is ﬁxed by GE 7031 varnish. The sensor is characterized by low magnetic ﬁeld dependence, fast response time and high accuracy. As a heater (2) a 350- thin ﬁlm strain gauge is used. It is held in place by silver epoxy. A short copper wire (8) of 0.5 mm diameter is a part of mechanical heat switch. Besides the wire (8) it includes a modiﬁed alligator clamp constantly thermally shorted to the low-temperature helium pot above the sample holder. The sample holder is suspended on four nylon threads inside a massive copper frame, which is attached to the bottom of the helium pot. These three parts form the removable insert placed inside the room-temperature vacuum-insulated gap in the superconducting magnet bore. The insert is pumped by the vacuum system. Three concentric copper adiabatic shields (the inner shield contains a heater) provide for the sample conditions very close to adiabatic. The calorimeter was calibrated using a high-purity copper sample, because its heat capacity is well known with an accuracy of 0.5%. The calibration allowed the heat capacity of the empty calorimeter to be obtained (sample holder and addenda), which were further subtracted from the measured total heat capacity in order to obtain the heat capacity of the sample under investigation. Figure 3.16 illustrates the characteristic temperature–time dependence observed during a measurement in the calorimeter described above. Because the conditions inside the calorimeter were semiadiabatic (some

Figure 3.16. The characteristic temperature–time dependence observed during a measurement in the heat pulse calorimeter of Pecharsky et al (1997b).

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heat exchange between the sample and surroundings existed) the temperature varied during the measurement. Pecharsky et al (1997b) distinguished four time periods in the measurement: ‘foredrift’ is the time just preceding the heat pulse (up to t0 ); the ‘heat pulse period’ is when the heater is switched on, and starts at t0 (t ¼ 0) and ends at tp ; ‘the relaxation period’ begins at tp and ends at t1 when the heat Q introduced in the heat pulse period is distributed inside the calorimeter; and ‘afterdrift’ starts from t1 when the calorimeter again reaches the state of thermal equilibrium. The temperature rise T caused by introduction of the heat Q is calculated as T ¼ T20 T10 , where T02 and T10 are before- and after-pulse temperatures determined at median time tm ¼ ðt0 þ t1 Þ=2 by extrapolation of the observed linear temperature time dependences. It is supposed that heat capacity is measured at the median temperature Tm ¼ ðT20 T10 Þ=2. Thermal equilibrium of the calorimeter is considered to be reached when the calorimeter time dependence becomes linear with constant slope, i.e. the derivative dT=dt ¼ const. In general, dT=dt is described by the linear function of time: dT=dt ¼ a þ bt. The formal criterion of the equilibrium was chosen as b 0 then jbj 2 b, where b is the uncertainty in b. The measurement was made in the following sequence. On the ﬁrst stage the presence of the equilibrium state in the foredrift is established on the basis of 10 consecutive temperature readouts and the equilibrium criterion described above. When thermal equilibrium is achieved the heater is switched on automatically for a deﬁnite time, introducing a known value of the heat Q. After the heat pulse it is necessary to detect the beginning of the afterdrift. It was supposed to begin when after-pulse values of dT=dt began to fall within the interval determined as a 2ða þ b tÞ, where a and b are the uncertainties in a and b coeﬃcients of dT=dtðtÞ dependence determined in the foredrift. If the afterdrift criterion is satisﬁed, 10 more temperature readouts are taken (the ﬁrst reading corresponds to t1 ) and the measurement is ﬁnished. The particular feature of the apparatus under consideration is the method of adiabatic shield temperature controlling. Usually a special temperature sensor (or several sensors) is placed on the shield. The temperature data from the sensor are used by the control circuit to maintain the shield temperature equal to the median temperature of the calorimeter or to its temperature before the heat pulse. In such a method the power of the shield heater is determined by the readings from the temperature sensor on the shield and does not display the real heat transfer between the calorimeter and the surroundings. In the apparatus of Pecharsky et al (1997b) there is no temperature sensors on the adiabatic shield. The heat transfer state is determined from the measured T(t) dependence. If the heat transfer is absent, the sample temperature does not change and the T(t) curve slope is equal to zero. The slope diﬀers from zero if the heat transfer is present—it is positive if the sample warms up and it is negative when the sample cools down. In the case

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Methods of magnetocaloric properties investigation

of zero slope no shield heater adjustment is necessary. In the case of sample heating or cooling data collection, software changes the heater power in order to minimize the heat transfer. The errors in the considered heat pulse calorimeter arise from the errors related to heat and temperature measurements. Because the electronic equipment used in the apparatus allow highly precise determination of the input heat (estimation showed that the uncertainty in Q is no more than 0.1%), the main source of errors is the measurement of the temperature of the calorimeter. It was shown that the total error in heat capacity is generally of the order of 0.5% except at the lowest temperatures and in the temperature range above 300 K (Pecharsky et al 1997b, Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1999a). 3.2.3

Other methods

Bready and Seyfert (1988) investigated entropy changes in EuS caused by a magnetic ﬁeld with the help of a system consisting of a temperature control circuit and thermal resistor. The temperature control circuit, including a carbon thermometer, electric heater and electronic system, allowed the sample temperature constant to be maintained independently of the magnetic ﬁeld variation. Magnetic ﬁelds up to 30 kOe were created by the superconducting solenoid. A brass thermal resistor linked the sample holder to a liquid helium bath. The heat ﬂux dQ=dt, ﬂowing through the thermal resistor, determined the sample temperature. At constant magnetic ﬁeld the ﬂux is determined by the heat power W0 , generated by the sample heater. When the magnetic ﬁeld is changed, additional heat Qmagn is released in the sample due to the magnetocaloric eﬀect and the electronic circuit increases or decreases the heater power Wx in order to keep the temperature of the sample constant. The process described can be represented by the following system of equations: dQðTÞ ¼ W0 ; dt

dQmagn dQðTÞ : ¼ Wx þ dt dt

ð3:18Þ

On the basis of this system it is possible to obtain the following equation after integration: ð H2 ð dQmagn dt ¼ ðWx W0 Þ dt ð3:19Þ TS ¼ T½SðH2 Þ SðH1 Þ ¼ dt H1 where H2 ¼ Hðt2 Þ and H1 ¼ Hðt1 Þ. Measuring W0 and Wx and integrating these values over time it is possible to determine the entropy change induced by the magnetic ﬁeld change, mainly related to the magnetic entropy change. Abramovich et al (2001) proposed to determine MCE from measurements of thermal expansion and magnetostriction in adiabatic and isothermal

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regimes. Under adiabatic conditions of the forced magnetostriction measurements, the temperature change generated by the MCE causes a corresponding additional change of the sample dimensions. The total sample dimension change is a sum of this additional thermal expansion change and the magnetostriction. In general, the change of relative elongation of the sample ¼ l=l caused by the change of magnetic ﬁeld H and temperature T can be written as @ @ dH þ dT: ð3:20Þ d ¼ dH T dT H From equation (3.20) the following equation which is allowed to determine the MCE can be obtained: dT 1 d d ð3:21Þ ¼ dH l dH ad dH H where l ¼ ðd=dTÞH is the linear thermal expansion coeﬃcient, ðd=dHÞad and ðd=dHÞT are adiabatic and isothermal forced magnetostrictions, respectively. Using equation (3.21) and experimental data on l and on the magnetostriction measured in adiabatic and isothermal conditions, Abramovich et al (2001) obtained T(T) dependence for Sm0:6 Sr0:4 MnO3 . However possible errors and limitations which could arise during utilization of this method are unknown.

Chapter 4 Magnetocaloric effect in 3d metals, alloys and compounds

3d metals were the ﬁrst objects in which the MCE was investigated. Contributions to the MCE related to magnetic crystalline anisotropy were studied for the ﬁrst time in Ni and Co. The Curie temperatures of magnetic 3d metals Fe, Co and Ni lie in the high-temperature region and the MCE near room temperature and below is not large. However, the magnetocaloric properties of alloys and compounds based on 3d metals have attracted much attention in recent times. This is due to various crystal and magnetic phases and corresponding phase transformations existing in some of them, and high magnetic entropy change values related to these transformations. In this section we consider the magnetocaloric properties of 3d metals (including thin Ni ﬁlms), alloys and compounds based on 3d metals.

4.1

Ferromagnetic 3d metals

3d metals Fe, Co and Ni have high Curie temperatures: 1043, 1394 and 636 K (Bozorth 1978). For the ﬁrst time the MCE maximum in the vicinity of the Curie temperature was observed in Ni by Weiss and Piccard (1918). This and further investigations of the MCE made in Fe, Co and Ni in the ﬁelds up to 30 kOe showed that the magnetocaloric eﬀect near TC was well described by equation (2.16) and is governed by the paraprocess (Weiss and Piccard 1918, Weiss and Forrer 1924, 1926, Potter 1934, Hirschler and Rocker 1966, Kohlhaas et al 1966, Kohlhaas 1967, Rocker and Kohlhaas 1967). Weiss and Forrer (1926) showed experimentally that TðI 2 Þ dependences in ferromagnets are linear in the paraprocess region in accordance with equations (2.42) and (2.50). Extrapolating the linear part of TðI 2 Þ to the I 2 axis, Weiss and Forer (1926) determined a value of spontaneous magnetization Is2 at various temperatures. This method was used to determine Is ðTÞ dependence in Fe, Ni and Co by Weiss and Forrer (1926), 96

Ferromagnetic 3d metals

97

Table 4.1. Parameters of 3d ferromagnets used in theoretical calculations, the results of the calculations of the maximum possible values of the MCE (Tmax ) at TC and the values of the magnetic ﬁeld Hmax (the ﬁeld varies from 0 to Hmax ), in which the MCE diﬀers from Tmax by at most 1% (Tishin 1990a). 3d ferromagnet

J

TC (K)

TD (K)

Tmax (K)

Hmax (104 kOe)

Fe Ni Co

1.4 0.3045 0.95

1043 631 1403

420 385 375

350 84 348

6 2.9 6.5

Potter (1934) and Rocker and Kohlhaas (1967). Belov (1961a,b) observed in Ni in the temperature range from 618 to 627 K the linear dependence of H=T 1=2 on T predicted by the Landau theory (see equation (2.32b)). It is known that the mean ﬁeld approximation satisfactorily describes the temperature dependence of the spontaneous magnetization in 3d ferromagnets. Based on this, Tishin (1990a) used the MFA to determine the MCE in Fe, Co and Ni. First, by means of equations (2.58)–(2.60) and (2.63), the temperature dependences of the total entropy of a material in zero and nonzero magnetic ﬁelds were calculated and then TðTÞ dependences were obtained by the method described in section 3.2.2 (see equation (3.14)). In the calculations gJ ¼ 2 was used and the values of J were determined from comparison of the experimental temperature dependences of the spontaneous magnetization in the vicinity of the Curie temperature with the results of calculations made by MFA. Table 4.1 shows the values of J, TC and Debye temperature TD used in the calculations. The results of TðTÞ theoretical calculations for Fe, Co and Ni made by Tishin (1990a), together with experimental curves of Weiss and Forrer (1924), Potter (1934) and Kohlhaas (1967), are presented in ﬁgures 4.1–4.3. It is seen that they are in good agreement. In Fe the MCE near the Curie temperature for H ¼ 60 kOe is 9.5 K. According to the measurements of Hirschler and Rocker (1966) and Kohlhaas (1967) near the Curie temperature T in Ni is 1.8 K and 5.1 K in Fe for H ¼ 30 kOe and in Co T 3:3 for H ¼ 21.6 kOe (this corresponds to T=H of 0.06, 0.17 and 0.153 K/kOe, respectively). In Gd and Tb, having the largest MCE values among rare earth metals, the MCE is about 12 and 10.5 K in the same ﬁeld, respectively (Brown 1976, Nikitin et al 1985a,b). So, the values of magnetocaloric eﬀect in 3d ferromagnets in strong magnetic ﬁelds have magnitudes comparable with those observed in rare earth metals. This result can be easily understood by taking into account that in accordance with equation (2.16) the value of MCE is directly proportional to the value of initial temperature T. Thus in the high-temperature region it is natural to expect elevated MCE values even for the magnetic materials with medium values of magnetic moments.

98

Magnetocaloric effect in 3d metals, alloys and compounds

Figure 4.1. Theoretical (——) and experimental (– – – –) MCE temperature dependence for various magnetic ﬁeld changes H (speciﬁed near the curves) in Fe (Potter 1934, Tishin 1990a). (Reprinted from Tishin 1990a, copyright 1990, with permission from Elsevier.)

The calculated MCE ﬁeld dependences in Fe, Co and Ni in the vicinity of the Curie temperature are shown in ﬁgure 4.4. The linear MCE increase with the ﬁeld is observed only in weak magnetic ﬁelds. The obtained dependences describe well the MCE experimental values (see ﬁgure 4.4). The calculated MCE temperature dependences induced by the magnetic ﬁelds of 6 103 kOe are presented in ﬁgure 4.5. Unlike rare earth metals, in 3d ferromagnets in this ﬁeld the MCE maximum is quite sharp. The MCE in Fe and Co exceeds that of Ni by several times. Tishin (1990a) also calculated the maximum possible MCE ðTmax Þ in Fe, Co and Ni at the Curie temperature using equation (2.79). The maximum possible SM value was determined by equation (2.66) for the corresponding J value and the heat capacity was assumed to be equal to the DuLong–Petit limit 3R. The values of Hmax ðTC Þ in which the MCE is diﬀerent from Tmax by at most 1% were calculated in the framework of MFA. The results are shown in table 4.1. Tmax in Fe and Co is larger than in rare earth metals (see table 8.3). Hashimoto et al (1981) made analogous mean ﬁeld calculations of MCE at low magnetic ﬁeld. They were found to be in good agreement with experimental results for Ni obtained by Weiss and Forrer (1926). According to their measurements in Ni, T 1.3 K at TC ¼ 628 K and H ¼ 17.8 kOe. Noakes and Arrott (1973) studied the MCE of a nickel single crystal in the

Ferromagnetic 3d metals

99

Figure 4.2. Theoretical (——) and experimental (– – – –) MCE temperature dependence for various magnetic ﬁeld changes H (speciﬁed near the curves) in Ni (Weiss and Forrer 1924, Tishin 1990a). (Reprinted from Tishin 1990a, copyright 1990, with permission from Elsevier.)

vicinity of TC in weak ﬁelds up to 900 Oe. They found for H ¼ 900 Oe the maximum MCE value of 0.15 K. Akulov and Kirensky (1940) investigated the MCE caused by the process of saturation magnetization vector rotation in Ni single crystal. The crystal was magnetized in the (110) plane and the spontaneous magnetization vector orientation in this plane was determined by an angle ’ from [100] direction. The direction cosines i of the spontaneous magnetization vector in this case have the form 1 1 ¼ pﬃﬃﬃ sin ’; 2

1 2 ¼ pﬃﬃﬃ sin ’; 2

3 ¼ cos ’:

ð4:1Þ

Using equations (2.136), (4.1) and the temperature dependence of anisotropy constant K1 in the form K1 ¼ K10 expðaT 2 Þ

ð4:2Þ

where K10 and a are constants, Akulov and Kirensky (1940) obtained the following equation for the angle dependence of the MCE under the given

100

Magnetocaloric effect in 3d metals, alloys and compounds

Figure 4.3. Theoretical (——) and experimental (– – – –) MCE temperature dependence for various magnetic ﬁeld changes H (speciﬁed near the curves) in Co (Kohlhaas 1967, Tishin 1990a). (Reprinted from Tishin 1990a, copyright 1990, with permission from Elsevier.)

Figure 4.4. Theoretical MCE dependences on the magnetic ﬁeld (the magnetic ﬁeld is changed from 0 to H) at TC for Fe (1), Co (2) and Ni (3) (Tishin 1990a). Experimental values are taken from Weiss and Piccard (1918), Potter (1934) and Kohlhaas (1967). (Reprinted from Tishin 1990a, copyright 1990, with permission from Elsevier.)

Ferromagnetic 3d metals

101

Figure 4.5. Theoretical MCE temperature dependences calculated for H ¼ 6 103 kOe in Fe (1), Co (2) and Ni (3) (Tishin 1990a). (Reprinted from Tishin 1990a, copyright 1990, with permission from Elsevier.)

conditions: Ta ¼

4aK10 2 T ð1 34 sin2 ’Þ sin2 ’: CH

ð4:3Þ

Figure 4.6 shows experimental MCE dependence on the angle ’ obtained in Ni single crystal magnetized by rotation of the magnetization vector in the (110) plane (circles), together with the theoretical curve (solid line) calculated by equation (4.3) (the values of K10 , a and CH were determined experimentally in separate measurements). As can be seen the experimental MCE values display periodical dependence on the spontaneous magnetization vector direction, which is well described by theoretical dependence (4.3). Analogous measurements were made by Ivanovskii and Denisov (1966a,b) on Co single crystal. In this case the angle ’ was an angle between a hexagonal axis and a spontaneous magnetization vector. The observed periodical MCE dependence on ’ was explained by the formula derived on the basis of equation (2.135). The MCE magnetic ﬁeld dependence in Co polycrystal in the region of magnetization vector rotation was studied by Ivanovskii (1959). The measurements were made in the temperature interval from 78 to 812 K in the following way: First the initial magnetic ﬁeld H0 was imposed on the sample. The value of H0 was reduced for higher temperatures because magnetocrystalline anisotropy decreased with temperature. When the temperature of the sample relaxed to the temperature of its surroundings the magnetic ﬁeld changed

102

Magnetocaloric effect in 3d metals, alloys and compounds

Figure 4.6. Experimental MCE dependence on the angle ’ obtained in Ni single crystal magnetized by rotation of the magnetization vector in (110) plane (k) and the theoretical curve (——) calculated by equation (4.3) (Akulov and Kirensky 1940).

from H0 to H. The MCE dependences obtained for Co polycrystal in this way at diﬀerent temperatures are shown in ﬁgure 4.7. Experiments showed that below 500 K the MCE caused by magnetic ﬁeld increase had a negative sign and above 600 K it is positive. It was shown that the T sign change took place near 565 K. In the interval between 500 and 600 K, ﬁrst sample cooling was observed in low ﬁelds, and heating in more intensive ﬁelds (see the curve for 542 K in ﬁgure 4.7). The obtained results were interpreted on the basis of equation (2.140). The results were corrected on the value of the

Figure 4.7. MCE ﬁeld dependences obtained for Co polycrystal at diﬀerent temperatures (Ivanovskii 1959).

Ferromagnetic 3d metals

103

MCE of the paraprocess, which is described by equation (2.16) and can have some contribution to the MCE, especially in the high-temperature region. The observed behaviour was related to sign change of the value in brackets in equation (2.140), which in turn was explained by the temperature behaviour of the anisotropy constant K1 in Co: near 535 K, K1 changed its sign from positive in the low-temperature region to negative at higher temperatures. Pakhomov (1962), with the help of equation (2.142), estimated the inﬂuence of mechanical strain on the MCE in the region of spontaneous magnetization vector rotation in Fe and Ni, using experimentally determined data on anisotropy and magnetostriction constants. It was shown that the strain-dependent part in the MCE under strains in the limit of elasticity ð5 kg/mm2 for Fe and 9 kg/mm2 for Ni) is about 13% of the anisotropic part in Fe and about 100% of the anisotropic part in Ni. Kohlhaas et al (1966) used equation (2.155) to obtain the heat capacity of Fe in a magnetic ﬁeld from the data on zero-ﬁeld heat capacity. As can be seen from ﬁgure 4.8, where the experimental results and the results of calculations are shown, the CH;p ðTÞ curve near the Curie temperature becomes smooth and the heat capacity maximum becomes signiﬁcantly lower in the

Figure 4.8. Heat capacity temperature dependences of Fe in zero magnetic ﬁeld (curve 1: experimental data) and H ¼ 30 kOe (curve 2: ——, result of calculations; k, experimental data) (Kohlhaas et al 1966).

104

Magnetocaloric effect in 3d metals, alloys and compounds

Figure 4.9. Thermal conductivity temperature dependences for some metals (Lienhard et al 2002).

magnetic ﬁeld. Analogous behaviour was observed in Ni, Co and Fe–Si alloys (Hirschler and Rocker 1966, Rocker and Kohlhaas 1967, Korn and Kohlhaas 1969). The numerical heat capacity data for Fe, Ni and some other metals are presented in table A2.1 in appendix 2. The data about thermal conductivity of various metals including Fe and Ni can be found in the book by Lienhard et al (2002); some of them are presented in table A2.1 in appendix 2. Figure 4.9 shows temperature dependences of the thermal conductivity for various metals. As can be seen, in most cases it increases with temperature decreasing in the interval from high temperatures down to liquid nitrogen temperature. The highest thermal conductivity values are observed in high conductivity metals— silver and copper—which are nonmagnetic. In general, thermal conductivity of nonmagnetic metals can be presented as a sum of electronic and phonon (lattice) contributions (Hume-Rothery 1961, Kittel 1986). In the case of a pure electron heat conduction mechanism, the thermal conductivity at not very low temperatures obeys the Wiedemann–Franz law, which states that (Hume-Rothery 1961, Kittel 1986) ¼ L0 T

ð4:4Þ

Alloys and compounds

105

where is the thermal conductivity, T is the temperature, is the electrical conductivity and L0 is a constant (Lorentz number). From the pure electron heat conduction model it follows that L0 is equal to 2:45 108 V2 /K2 . Using equation (4.4) it is possible to estimate the thermal conductivity of a metal, knowing its electrical conductivity. At low temperatures the electronic thermal conductivity of a pure metal has two contributions, one of which is proportional to T (related to electron scattering on various structural defects) and another to T 2 (related to electron scattering on phonons) (Hume-Rothery 1961). Such temperature dependence of the contributions causes the appearance of a maximum on the thermal conductivity temperature dependence of a metal in the low-temperature range, which was observed experimentally, for example, in Cu at 18 K by Berman and MacDonald (1952). In magnetic metals the additional magnon mechanism can also make a contribution to the thermal conductivity and make it dependent on the magnetic ﬁeld.

4.2

Alloys and compounds

Hashimoto et al (1981) investigated MCE in ferromagnetic Cr3 Te4 experimentally and theoretically with the help of MFA. Figure 4.10 shows experimental and theoretical MCE temperature dependences in Cr3 Te4 for H ¼ 20 kOe. One can see a fairly good agreement between the calculations and experiment. At TC ¼ 316 K the MCE in Cr3 Te4 reaches a value of about 1.1 K for H ¼ 20 kOe. The peak values of SM in ferromagnets MnAs, MnP and CrTe near TC are presented in table 4.2. MFA was also successfully

Figure 4.10. The MCE temperature dependence in Cr3 Te4 for H ¼ 20 kOe. Open circles are the experimental points and the solid curve is the MFA calculations (Hashimoto et al 1981). (Reprinted from Hashimoto et al 1981, copyright 1981, with permission from Elsevier.)

310 283 262 230 220 210 203 298

333 [1]

298 [3] 313 [4, 5]

MnAs0:95 Sb0:05 MnAs0:9 Sb0:1 MnAs0:85 Sb0:15 MnAs0:75 Sb0:25 MnAs0:7 Sb0:3 MnAs0:6 Sb0:4 Mn0:95 V0:05 As MnP

CrTe

Mn5 Ge3 Fe0:49 Rh0:51 (quenched)

[7] [7] [15] [15] [15] [15] [8] [1]

318 [1] 312 [2]

Tpt (K)

MnAs

Substance

5.5 [8]

13 [7] 5 [7]

1.7 [3] 12.9 [4] 4.6 [4]

– – – –

– – – – – –

– –

T (K)

50 20 – – – – – – 250 – – – – 20 19.5 6.5

– –

H (kOe)

Peak MCE

26 25

2.2 – – – – – 66.2 70.8

– – – – – –

– –

T=H 102 (K/kOe)

2.9 [1] 11.4 [1] 1.7 [1] 6.8 [1] – 22 [5] 16 [5]

–

30 [7] 30 [7] 30 [15] 26 [15] 27 [15] 14 [15]

2.9 [1] 11.4 [1] 32 [7]

SM (J/kg K)

50 50 50 50 50 50 – 10 80 10 80 – 19.5 6.5

10 80 50

H (kOe)

29 14.3 17 8.5 – 112.8 246.2

–

60 60 60 52 54 28

29 14.3 64

SM =H 102 (J/kg K kOe)

Peak SM

Table 4.2. Peak values of the magnetocaloric eﬀect T and magnetic entropy change SM near the temperature of the magnetic phase transition Tpt induced by a magnetic ﬁeld change H and T=H and SM =H values for 3d metal-based compounds and alloys. (Tpt is TC for MnAs, MnP, CrTe, Mn5 Ge3 , MnFeP1 x Asx , Fe0:9666 Si0:0334 , Mn5 x Fex Six (x ¼ 3–5), Mn5 Ge3 x Sbx (x ¼ 0–0.3); TN for Mn0:95 V0:05 As, Mn0:228 Cu0:772 ; TAFMFM for Fe0:49 Rh0:51 , Mn1:95 Cr0:05 Sb; noncollinear AFM–collinear AFM for Mn5 Si3 ; martensitic– austenitic transition for Ni0:515 Mn0:227 Ga0:258 , Ni0:501 Mn0:207 Ga0:296 , Ni0:526 Mn0:231 Ga0:243 , Ni0:53 Mn0:22 Ga0:25 ). References are in square brackets.

106 Magnetocaloric effect in 3d metals, alloys and compounds

–

287 [9]

308 [9]

332 [9]

MnFeP0:5 As0:5

MnFeP0:45 As0:55

MnFeP0:35 As0:65

297 [13]

220 [9]

Ni0:526 Mn0:231 Ga0:243

Ni0:53 Mn0:22 Ga0:25

Mn5 Si3

66 [9]

1013 [14]

219 [12]

Ni0:501 Mn0:207 Ga0:296

Fe0:9666 Si0:0334

197 [11]

Ni0:515 Mn0:227 Ga0:258

94 [10]

–

244 [9]

MnFeP0:55 As0:45

Mn0:228 Cu0:772

–

212 [9]

MnFeP0:65 As0:35

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

168 [9]

MnFeP0:75 As0:25

[4] [4] [6] [6]

5

0.14

3.8 1.2 8.5 2.5 –

315.6 [6]

342 [4, 5]

Fe0:49 Rh0:51 (annealed) Fe0:49 Rh0:51

–

30

–

–

–

–

13.8

–

–

–

–

–

19.5 6.5 25 3 –

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

16.7

1

19.5 18.5 34 83.3 –

– 50 10

4 [9] 1 [9]

20 10 –

50

8 50

6 [12] 6 [12] 18 [13]

9

4.1 [11]

1.1 [9] 2.5 [9]

50 20 50 20 50 20 50 20 50 20 50 20 –

19.5 6.5 –

27 [9] 11 [9] 33 [9] 12 [9] 24 [9] 20 [9] 20 [9] 16 [9] 18 [9] 14 [9] 15 [9] 11 [9] –

6.5 [5] 2 [5] –

8 10

–

5.5 25

36

75 12

46

–

54 55 66 60 48 100 40 80 36 70 30 55

33.3 30.8 –

Alloys and compounds 107

310 [16]

363 [16]

298 [17]

304 [17]

307 [17]

312 [17]

198 [9]

Mn1 Fe4 Si3

Fe5 Si3

Mn5 Ge3

Mn5 Ge2:9 Sb0:1

Mn5 Ge2:8 Sb0:2

Mn5 Ge2:7 Sb0:3

Mn1:95 Cr0:05 Sb –

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

T (K)

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

H (kOe)

Peak MCE

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

T=H 102 (K/kOe)

50 20 50 20

7 [9] 5.7 [9]

50 20

50 20

50 20

50 20

50 20 50 20

H (kOe)

5.6 2.9

6.2 [17] 3.3 [17]

6.6 [17] 3.4 [17]

9.3 [17] 3.8 [17]

2.7 [16] 1 [16]

1.7 [16] 0.5 [16] 4 [16] 2 [16]

SM (J/kg K)

14 28.5

11.2 14.5

12.4 16.5

13.2 17

18.6 19

5.4 5

3.4 2.5 8 10

SM =H 102 (J/kg K kOe)

Peak SM

1. Hashimoto et al (1981); 2. Adachi (1961); 3. Hashimoto et al (1982); 4. Nikitin et al (1990); 5. Annaorazov et al (1992); 6. Annaorazov et al (1996); 7. Wada and Tanabe (2001); 8. Selte et al (1977); 9. Tegus et al (2002b); 10. Znamenskii and Fakidov (1962); 11. Hu et al (2000a); 12. Hu et al (2001d); 13. Hu et al (2001c); 14. Hirschler and Rocker (1966); 15. Wada et al (2002); 16. Songlin et al (2002b); 17. Songlin et al (2002a).

250[16]

Tpt (K)

Mn2 Fe3 Si3

Substance

Table 4.2. Continued.

108 Magnetocaloric effect in 3d metals, alloys and compounds

Alloys and compounds

109

used by Hashimoto et al (1982) to describe the MCE in ferromagnetic compound Mn5 Ge3 , which had T 1:7 K for H ¼ 20 kOe at TC ¼ 298 K. The MCE at the ﬁrst-order order–order transition (for example, from ferrimagnetic (FI) or ferromagnetic to antiferromagnetic (AFM) state) was studied in FeRh (Fe concentration of 0.48–0.50) (Ponomarev 1972, Nikitin et al 1990, Annaorazov et al 1992), Mn2 x Crx Sb ðx ¼ 0.03–0.16), Mn3 Ge2 , CrS1:17 , Li0:1 Mn0:9 Se, Mn0:95 V0:05 As, Mn5 Si3 and Mn1:95 Cr0:05 Sb (Flippen and Darnell 1963, Selte et al 1977, Baranov et al 1992, Engelhardt et al 1999, Tegus et al 2002b). In Fe–Rh alloys the AFM–FM phase transition happens near room temperature within the concentration range 47–53% of Rh (Kouvel and Hartelius 1962, Zaharov et al 1964). The ﬁrst direct MCE measurements of quenched and annealed Fe0:49 Rh0:51 alloys in magnetic ﬁelds up to 19.5 kOe were made in the works of Nikitin et al (1990), Annaorazov et al (1991) and Annaorazov et al (1992) with participation of one of the authors of this book. The samples prepared by induction melting were homogeneously annealed at 1300 K in vacuum for 72 h. After annealing, one of the samples was quenched in water from 1300 to 278 K. In the region of AFM–FM transition at about 310 K the magnetic ﬁeld induced the transition from the AFM state to the ferromagnetic one. The maximum MCE reached 12.9 K in the quenched sample and 3.8 K in the annealed sample in a ﬁeld of 19.5 kOe near the temperature of the ﬁrst-order transition of 313 and 342 K, respectively (the Curie temperature of the alloy obtained from initial permeability measurements was 633 K)—see ﬁgure 4.11. It should be noted that the MCE induced under application of a magnetic ﬁeld was negative. On the basis of the experimental MCE values it is possible to determine the value of the MCE per kOe ðT=HÞ: for the quenched sample it is 0.662 K/kOe and 0.708 K/kOe for H ¼ 19.5 and 6.5 kOe; and for the annealed sample it is 0.195 K/kOe and 0.185 K/kOe for H ¼ 19.5 and 6.5 kOe, respectively. The values of T=H in the quenched Fe0:49 Rh0:51 sample are the highest found so far among the magnetocaloric materials in the room-temperature range. It should also be mentioned that such high T=H values were obtained in the ﬁelds that can be created by permanent magnets. However, as was noted by Annaorazov et al (1996) there is the inﬂuence of thermomagnetic cycling caused by repeatable induction of the transition by a magnetic ﬁeld on the parameters of AFM–FM transition, which manifests itself in an irreversible decrease of the MCE value. The authors related this behaviour to the appearance of the part of the sample stable in the FM or AMF phase, which did not contribute to the MCE under further magnetic cycling. The magnetic entropy change in Fe0:49 Rh0:51 was determined on the basis of the heat capacity and magnetocaloric eﬀect data. Figure 4.12 shows the entropy change temperature dependences for H ¼ 6.5 and 19.5 kOe in the annealed and quenched Fe0:49 Rh0:51 alloy. As one can see, the entropy change in the quenched sample reaches about 22 J/kg K in the ﬁeld of 19.5 kOe—this corresponds to

110

Magnetocaloric effect in 3d metals, alloys and compounds

Figure 4.11. MCE temperature dependences for quenched (a) and annealed (b) samples of Fe0:49 Rh0:51 induced by a magnetic ﬁeld: (1) H ¼ 6:5 kOe, (2) 12.5 kOe, (3) 17 kOe, (4) 19.5 kOe (Nikitin et al 1990, Annaorazov et al 1992). (Reprinted from Annaorazov et al 1992, copyright 1992, with permission from Elsevier.)

SM =H ¼ 1.128 J/kg K kOe, which is much higher than that in Gd and is at the level of Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 and LaFeSi alloys—see tables 8.2, 7.2 and 6.4. The even higher value of SM =H ¼ 2.462 J/kg K kOe was obtained for H ¼ 6.5 kOe for the quenched sample. Annaorazov et al (1996) demonstrated the higher value of T=H ¼ 0.833 K/kOe in Fe0:49 Rh0:51 alloy for H ¼ 3 kOe and TAFMFM ¼ 315.6 K. It should be noted that the properties of Fe–Rh alloys are sensitive to thermal treatment and composition. Based on the fact that the value of the magnetic phase transition of the alloy investigated by Annaorazov et al (1996) is diﬀerent from that obtained in the works of Nikitin et al (1990), Annaorazov et al (1991) and Annaorazov et al (1992), it is possible to suggest that the thermal treatment and the exact composition of the sample studied by Annaorazov et al (1996) are not the same as in the earlier works.

Alloys and compounds

111

Figure 4.12. Magnetic entropy change temperature dependences in the annealed (a) and quenched (b) Fe0:49 Rh0:51 samples induced by H ¼ 6:5 kOe (1) and 19.5 kOe (2) (Nikitin et al 1990, Annaorazov et al 1992). (Reprinted from Annaorazov et al 1992, copyright 1992, with permission from Elsevier.)

Annaorazov et al (1996) conducted the analysis of various contributions to the magnetic entropy change under the transition on the basis of the model of the ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transition proposed by Kittel (1960). They concluded that the change of the electronic part of the entropy (11.82 J/kg K) gave the major contribution and that the contribution from the change of the lattice entropy is much lower (0.76 J/kg K). According to the results of Annaorazov et al (1996) the change in electronic structure (the change in Fermi surface topology) is the determining factor of the transition. According to Ibarra and Algarabel (1994) the Fe–Rh alloy is characterized by large crystal lattice volume change (0.82%) at the ﬁrstorder transition. Using the data about crystal lattice volume change and dTC =dP ¼ 3.08 K/kbar from the work of Bean and Rodbell (1962) for dP=dT, Tishin et al (2002) calculated with the help of equation (6.3) the

112

Magnetocaloric effect in 3d metals, alloys and compounds

lattice entropy change in Fe0:49 Rh0:51 at the transition. The value of change was determined to be 27 J/kg K, which is close to the experimentally obtained value of 21 J/kg K for H ¼ 19.5 kOe. It was concluded that high magnetocaloric properties of Fe0:49 Rh0:51 are determined by the strong coupling of magnetic and lattice systems and essential change of crystal lattice dimensions at the ﬁrst-order transition. Ponomarev (1972) measured magnetization of Fe0:48 Rh0:52 in pulsed ﬁelds up to 300 kOe in the temperature range from 77 to 320 K (saturation magnetization at 77 K was determined to be 128 emu/g). He constructed the magnetic phase diagram Hcr ðTÞ (here Hcr ðTÞ is the ﬁeld of the AFM structure destruction) and determined speciﬁc magnetization change ð ¼ M=m, where m is a mass) under the transition. On the basis of these data and the Clausius–Clapeyron equation (2.100) the magnetic entropy change SM at the transition temperature TAFMFM ¼ 333 K was calculated to be 18.3 J/kg K. Then the magnetocaloric eﬀect T 200 K was determined with the help of equation (2.79). Tishin et al (2002) also estimated the magnetic entropy change under ﬁrst-order AFM–FM transition in Fe0:49 Rh0:51 alloy using equation (2.100) and magnetic phase diagram data from the work of Ibarra and Algarabel (1994), and obtained the value of 12.9 J/kg K. Analogous calculations of the entropy change S on the basis of magnetization measurements were made by Baranov et al (1992) for Mn1:9 Cr0:1 Sb and by Flippen and Darnell (1963) for Fe0:5 Rh0:5 , Mn2 x Crx Sb, Mn3 Ge2 , CrS1:17 and Li0:1 Mn0:9 Se. Engelhardt et al (1999) constructed a magnetic phase diagram of the Mn2 x Crx Sb ðx ¼ 0.10, 0.05, 0.03) system and also determined the entropy change of the ﬁrst-order transition from heat capacity measurements in various magnetic ﬁelds. The results are summarized in table 4.3. Direct MCE measurements in Mn1:90 Cr0:10 Sb made by Baranov et al (1992) gave a maximum value of T ¼ 2:7 K for H ¼ 60 kOe at T 245 in the vicinity of the magnetic transition point. Theoretical estimations of Engelhardt et al (1999) showed that the main contribution into S in Mn2 x Crx Sb had magnetic nature. They also revealed a maximum on the entropy change concentration dependence at about x ¼ 0.10 ðTs about 250 K). Bouchaud et al (1966) measured IðHÞ dependences for Mn3 GaC compound and constructed its magnetic phase diagram. This compound has perovskite-type crystal structure, orders ferromagnetically below TC ¼ 246 K, and displays ferromagnetic–antiferromagnetic ﬁrst-order transition at about 150 K. Magnetic entropy change at the ﬁrst-order transition determined by the Clausius–Clapeyron equation (2.100) on the basis of the data of Bouchaud et al (1966) is presented in table 4.3. Magnetothermal properties of the systems based on MnAs and MnP were investigated by Selte et al (1977), Krokoszinski et al (1982), Kuhrt et al (1985) and Wada and Tanabe (2001). These compounds order

Alloys and compounds

113

Table 4.3. Change of the speciﬁc magnetization () and the entropy change (S), and temperature derivative (@Hcr =@T) of the critical ﬁeld at the ﬁrst-order transition Ts (at TC for MnAs) in magnetic materials based on 3d metals.

Substance

TC (K)

Mn1:97 Cr0:03 Sb 551 Mn1:95 Cr0:05 Sb 547 Mn1:90 Cr0:10 Sb 524 Mn1:84 Cr0:16 Sb Mn3 Ge2 CrS1:17 Fe0:5 Rh0:5 Fe0:48 Rh0:52 Fe0:49 Rh0:51 Li0:10 Mn0:9 0Se MnAs Mn3 GaC

633 312 246

Ts (K) 127 154 211 212 305 298 264 373 164 160 355 333 308.2 72 – 150

(emu/g) 39.6 32.8 24.3 26 13.7 3.5 1.85 117 104 102 26.4 95 85

@Hcr =@T (kOe/K) 1.08 1.8 1.97 2.5 2.43 2.8 2.6 2.33 2.08 2.29 0.925 1.75 0.74 5.3 2.57 3.3

S (J/kg K)

Ref.

4.28 3.6 6.5 5.25 5.9 5.69 6.8 3.19 0.72 0.42 10.8 18.3 12.9 14 24.2 28.5

[1] [2] [1] [2] [1] [2] [3] [1] [1] [1] [1] [4] [7,8] [1] [5] [6]

1. Flippen and Darnell (1963); 2. Engelhardt et al (1999); 3. Baranov et al (1992); 4. Ponomarev (1972); 5. de Blois and Rodbell (1963); 6. Bouchaud et al (1966); 7. Tishin et al (2002); 8. Annaorazov et al (1992).

ferromagnetically below the Curie temperature, which is 298 K for MnP (saturation magnetic moment ms is 1.2 mB per atom Mn) and 312 K ðms ¼ 3.4 and meff ¼ 4.95 mB per atom Mn) for MnAs (Adachi 1961). The transition from paramagnetic to ferromagnetic state in MnAs is ﬁrst-order transition accompanied by crystallographic structure change from MnP (orthorhombic) type to NiAs (hexagonal) type (Selte et al 1977). Such transition was explained by Kittel (1960) and Bean and Rodbell (1962) by the strong dependence of exchange interaction on the interatomic distance and inversion of the exchange parameter sign due to the crystal lattice deformation. Figure 4.13 shows the temperature dependence of the magnetic moment in a ﬁeld of 4 kOe and T for H ¼ 6.5 kOe in the MnAs compound measured by Kuhrt et al (1985). The temperature hysteresis characteristic for the magnetic ﬁrst-order transition is observed on the TðTÞ curve. The experimental magnetic entropy change for MnAs and MnP determined by Hashimoto et al (1982) for H ¼ 10 and 80 kOe are shown in table 4.2, and SM of the ﬁrst-order magnetic transition at TC in MnAs estimated by the Clausius–Clapeyron equation (2.100) from the magnetization data of de Blois and Rodbell (1963) are shown in table 4.3.

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Figure 4.13. Temperature dependences of the magnetic moment in the ﬁeld of 4 kOe and MCE (H ¼ 6.5 kOe) in MnAs compound (Kuhrt et al 1985).

Schu¨nemann et al (1992), from the heat capacity measurements, determined the magnetic entropy jump in MnAs at TC to be 4.1 J/mol K (31.6 J/kg K). Zieba et al (1982) obtained that TC in MnAs increases in magnetic ﬁeld at the rate of 0.4 K/kOe. Based on these data in the works of Wada and Tanabe (2001) and Wada et al (2002) it was suggested that the MCE data of Kuhrt et al (1985) are underestimated and the MCE in this compound should be higher. They determined SM ðTÞ dependences for various H from magnetization measurements and TðTÞ curves on the basis of SM ðTÞ and heat capacity data. According to the magnetization measurements of Wada et al (2002) above 320 K in MnAs there is a sharp metamagnetic ﬁeld-induced transition from the paramagnetic to the ferromagnetic state on MðHÞ curves. The maximum magnetic entropy change in MnAs near TC has high values (the absolute value about 32 J/kg K for H ¼ 50 kOe), SM ðTÞ is rather wide and its width increases linearly with magnetic ﬁeld change (for H ¼ 50 kOe the full width of SM ðTÞ at half maximum is 20 K) (Wada and Tanabe 2001, Wada et al 2002). This is typical for ﬁrst-order transition behaviour. Analogous ﬁeld dependence demonstrated TðTÞ curves (for H ¼ 50 kOe the full width of TðTÞ at half maximum was 13 K). The peak T value for H ¼ 50 kOe in MnAs was 13 K. The obtained peak T and SM correspond to rather high T/H and SM =H values—see table 4.2—which are comparable with those in the Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 system. It should be noted that the maximum absolute SM value in MnAs was weakly sensitive to the H value, the latter mainly determined from SM ðTÞ curve width.

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Figure 4.14. Heat capacity temperature dependence for MnAs (Krokoszinski et al 1982).

Figure 4.14 shows the heat capacity temperature dependence of MnAs measured by Krokoszinski et al (1982). The anomaly observed in the paramagnetic region at Tt 390 K is related to the crystal structure transition from an MnP-type structure to an NiAs-type one (high-temperature region). The heat capacity temperature behaviour of the system MnAs1 x Px ðx ¼ 0.03–0.13), where arsenic is substituted by phosphorus, was studied by Krokoszinski et al (1982). First-order phase transition at TC persists for x up to 0.03, and for higher phosphorus concentration there are three anomalies on CðTÞ—see ﬁgure 4.15. The high-temperature anomaly at Tt is the structural transition analogous to that observed in

Figure 4.15. Heat capacity temperature dependences for the MnAs1 x Px system: (1) x ¼ 0.04; (2) 0.085; (3) 0.09; (4) 0.11; (5) 0.13 (Krokoszinski et al 1982).

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Magnetocaloric effect in 3d metals, alloys and compounds

MnAs. Anomaly at the Ne´el-type temperature TN corresponds to the transition from paramagnetic to magnetically ordered state. The anomaly between TN and Tt is related to high spin–low spin transition, at which the magnetic moment of the Mn atom is changed from a high value above the transition temperature Thl to the low value below Thl . Based on the heat capacity data, Krokoszinski et al (1982) constructed phase diagram temperature– concentration for the MnAs1 x Px system. The inﬂuence of substitution of Mn by V, Cr, Fe and Co in MnAs (the concentration of substituted metal was up to 10%) on its magnetic properties was studied by Selte et al (1977). It was established that the ﬁrst-order magnetic transition from paramagnetic to ferromagnetic state analogous to that observed in MnAs persisted in the Mn1 x Fex As system for x < 0:3 and in the Mn1 x Vx As system for x < 0:05. For higher x the systems ordered from paramagnetic to helimagnetic state below the ordering temperature TN . It should be noted that the transition at TN was not accompanied by the structural transition—the crystal structure was MnPtype for paramagnetic and magnetically ordered states. However, in the Mn1 x Vx As system with x > 0:05 a strong magnetic ﬁeld induced a magneto-structural transition to ferromagnetic NiAs-type state (in the Mn1 x Fex As system under such magnetic transition, change of crystal structure type was not observed). Figure 4.16 shows the MCE temperature dependence for Mn0:95 V0:05 As induced by the magnetic ﬁeld change of

Figure 4.16. Temperature dependence of the MCE induced in Mn0:95 V0:05 As by a magnetic ﬁeld change of 210 kOe (Selte et al 1977). (Reprinted from Selte et al 1977, copyright 1977, with permission from Elsevier.)

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Figure 4.17. The temperature dependences of SM in MnAs1 x Sbx compounds for H ¼ 50 kOe (Wada et al 2002).

210 kOe. In this composition two magnetic transitions exist, from paramagnetic state to ferromagnetic at TC ¼ 220 K and from ferromagnetic to helicoidal state at TN ¼ 203 K. The maximum MCE of about 5.5 K is observed near TN . Wada and Tanabe (2001) and Wada et al (2002) investigated magnetic entropy change in the MnAs1 x Sbx system ð0 x 0:4Þ on the basis of magnetization measurements. They found that temperature hysteresis observed in MnAs (see ﬁgure 4.13) disappeared for x 0.05 and the MðTÞ curve became smoother under substitution of Sb. The ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transition disappears for x > 0.1. In this concentration range NiAstype crystal structure is stable and no structural transition was observed. However, some features of the ﬁrst-order transition (such as metamagnetic transition above the Curie temperature and rather sharp magnetization changing with temperature near TC ) remain for x up to 0.3. These properties are reﬂected on the magnetic entropy change and its dependence on temperature, which is shown in ﬁgure 4.17 for H ¼ 50 kOe. For x up to 0.3 the SM ðTÞ curves are quite similar and have asymmetric form, while for x ¼ 0.4 the SM ðTÞ curve changes and becomes symmetrical, which is typical for the second-order magnetic phase transitions. The SM and SM =H values also decrease above x ¼ 0.3 (see table 4.2), although they remain rather large—on the level of those in Gd (see table 8.2). Tegus et al (2002a,b) reported results about investigation of the magnetic and magnetocaloric properties of the MnFeP1 x Asx ðx ¼ 0.25, 0.35, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55 and 0.65) system. The Curie temperatures were found to be between 168 K for x ¼ 0.25 and 332 K for x ¼ 0.65. According to magnetization measurements the alloys with x > 0.25 in this system undergo under heating a sharp temperature-induced transition from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic state. Magnetization isotherm measurements

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Magnetocaloric effect in 3d metals, alloys and compounds

made in MnFeP0:45 As0:55 above TC showed the presence of the ﬁeld-induced magnetic phase transition from paramagnetic to ferromagnetic state with ﬁeld hysteresis typical for the ﬁrst-order transitions. However, the ﬁrstorder transitions at TC in the MnFeP1 x Asx system are not accompanied by crystal structure transitions. Magnetization measurements made by Zach et al (1990) on MnFeP0:5 As0:5 showed that it was ordered ferromagnetically below 270 K. Between 270 and 310 K some disordered magnetic phase exists, which can be transformed to ferromagnetic by a magnetic ﬁeld through ﬁrst-order transition. Above 310 K the magnetization curves had paramagnetic character. X-ray studies showed that a and c lattice parameters changed at TC stepwise, although the unit cell remained almost unchanged ðc increased and a decreased). It can be concluded that the magnetic phase transition near TC for the composition around x ¼ 0.5 has ﬁrst-order character. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change in this system determined from magnetization data are shown in ﬁgure 4.18. First-order magnetic phase transitions with rapid magnetization change in their vicinity causes large SM values in the MnFeP1 x Asx system. The maximum peak absolute SM value of 33 J/kg K for H ¼ 50 kOe was observed for x ¼ 0.35. For the alloy with x ¼ 0:45, SM ¼ 20 J/kg K for the magnetic ﬁeld change of 20 kOe, which can be obtained with the help of a permanent magnet. In previously reported MnFeP0:45 As0:55 (Tegus et al 2002a) the

Figure 4.18. Temperature dependence of magnetic entropy change in MnFeP1 x Asx compounds for H ¼ 20 kOe () and 50 kOe (k) (Tegus et al 2002b). (Reprinted from Tegus et al 2002b, copyright 2002, with permission from Elsevier.)

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absolute maximum value of SM near the magnetic ordering temperature in MnFeP0:45 As0:55 for H ¼ 50 kOe was about 18 J/kg K, which is more than two times higher than that measured by the authors in Gd (about 8 J/kg K for H ¼ 50 kOe). It should be noted that the saturation magnetic moment in MnFeP0:45 As0:55 is about two times lower than in Gd (3.9 mB per formula unit in MnFeP0:45 As0:55 versus 7.55 mB in Gd) (Tegus et al 2002a). SM ðTÞ curves in the MnFeP1 x Asx system are rather wide (for example, full width at half maximum for the compound with x ¼ 0.45 is about 25 K for H ¼ 50 kOe) and increase with H increasing as it usually is in the materials with the ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transition. The observed high absolute SM =H values for H ¼ 20 kOe should be noted (see table 4.2)—they are in some cases higher than the values observed in Gd5 (Si– Ge)4 compounds (table 7.2). The MCE in ferromagnetic Ni–Mn alloys (66–83% of Ni) characterized by partial atomic disorder in the crystalline structure was studied by Okazaki et al (1993). The order degree was changed by annealing of the sample. The MCE peak was observed in the Curie temperature region and had a maximum value of about 0.5 K for H ¼ 6.4 kOe in the ordered Mn0:17 Ni0:83 alloy—see ﬁgure 4.19. Linear TðI 2 ) dependence was observed in these alloys, which allowed determination of Is ðTÞ curves. Sucksmith et al (1953) and Znamenskii and Fakidov (1962) studied the MCE in alloys of copper with nickel and manganese, respectively. Sucksmith et al (1953) established linear behaviour of T on I 2 in Ni0:725 Cu0:275 near the Curie temperature of about 368 K. Znamenskii and Fakidov (1962) investigated the MCE in Mn0:228 Cu0:772 alloy with fcc crystal structure. According

Figure 4.19. Temperature dependences of the MCE in the Mn0:17 Ni0:83 alloy induced by the magnetic ﬁeld change: H ¼ 624 Oe (1); 2412 Oe (2); 6393 Oe (3) (Okazaki et al 1993).

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Magnetocaloric effect in 3d metals, alloys and compounds

Figure 4.20. The MCE temperature and magnetic ﬁeld dependences for Mn0:228 Cu0:772 alloy: H ¼ 13.8 kOe (1); 13.1 kOe (2); 11.25 kOe (3); 9.25 kOe (4); 7 kOe (5); 5.5 kOe (6); 4.15 kOe (7); 2.8 kOe (8); 1.3 kOe (9). The insert shows MCE magnetic ﬁeld dependence at diﬀerent temperatures (Znamenskii and Fakidov 1962).

to the magnetic measurements at the temperature of 94 K, this alloy exhibited the transition from paramagnetic to antiferromagnetic state. Paramagnetic Curie temperature is positive and has a value of 153 K, and the eﬀective magnetic moment of the Mn atom is 3.75 mB . The critical magnetic ﬁeld of antiferromagnetic state destruction is about 4 kOe at 56 K. The MCE has its maximum near the ordering temperature (see ﬁgure 4.20) with the value of 0.14 K for H ¼ 13.8 kOe. Under cooling below about 88 K for H less than the critical ﬁeld the negative MCE is observed, which can be related to an antiferromagnetic-type paraprocess. The insert in ﬁgure 4.20 shows TðHÞ dependences at various temperatures. Hu et al (2000a, 2001c,d) and Tegus et al (2002b) determined the magnetic entropy change in nonstoichiometric Heusler alloys Ni0:515 Mn0:227 Ga0:258 , Ni0:501 Mn0:207 Ga0:296 , Ni0:526 Mn0:231 Ga0:243 and Ni0:53 Mn0:22 Ga0:25 (the last three compositions were single crystals). These alloys ﬁrst order ferromagnetically (the Curie temperatures were 351, 342, 345 and 329 K for Ni0:515 Mn0:227 Ga0:258 , Ni0:501 Mn0:207 Ga0:296 , Ni0:526 Mn0:231 Ga0:243 and Ni0:53 Mn0:22 Ga0:25 , respectively), and then at lower temperatures undergo ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transition corresponding to the reversible structural transition from the high-temperature cubic austenite phase to the lowtemperature tetragonal martensite phase. The transition is accompanied by a considerable magnetization jump, which causes essential magnetic entropy

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change. The nonstoichiometric composition was chosen in order to get the temperature of the ﬁrst-order transition close to the room-temperature range. The transition to martensitic phase causes distortion of the crystal lattice structure, leading to increasing of the magnetocrystalline anisotropy and hardening of the magnetic saturation process. Because of that, magnetization in the martensitic phase in the low-ﬁeld range becomes lower than that in austenitic phase. The ﬁeld of MðHÞ curves corresponding to the phases intersects at some ﬁeld above which the magnetization in the martensitic phase is higher than in the austenitic one (the saturation magnetization of the martensitic phase is higher than that in the austenitic phase by up to 20%). Such behaviour was observed, in particular, in Ni0:501 Mn0:207 Ga0:296 (the temperature of martensitic–austenitic transition measured under heating of 219 K), where the magnetic entropy change was determined from magnetization measured along the [001] axis. The intersection ﬁeld was about 8 kOe. Below this ﬁeld SM was positive with a peak value of 6 J=kg K for H ¼ 8 kOe at about 219 K (this corresponds to SM =H ¼ 0.75 J/kg K kOe, which is higher than that in Gd and is on the level of Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 compounds (see tables 7.2 and 8.2)). With further H increasing SM decreases, then becomes negative and increases in absolute value reaching 6 J/kg K for H ¼ 50 kOe. Analogous behaviour was observed in an Ni0:526 Mn0:231 Ga0:243 single crystal with a martensitic–austenitic transition temperature of 297 K (measured under heating), magnetization of which was also measured along the [001] axis. The intersection ﬁeld in this sample was low (2.3 kOe) and positive magnetic entropy change observed in the ﬁelds below 4.5 kOe was also not high. The peak SM value was 18 J/ kg K for H ¼ 50 kOe at 300 K. It was found that the absolute SM value increased linearly with magnetic ﬁeld at the rate of about 0.4 J/kg K kOe, which is a rather high value. Polycrystalline Ni0:515 Mn0:227 Ga0:258 alloy exhibited transition from austenitic to martensitic crystal structure at 187 K under cooling and reverse transition at 197 K under heating. The maximum value of SM near the martensitic–austenitic transition determined from magnetization is about 4.1 J/kg K for H ¼ 9 kOe at 197 K (this corresponds to SM =H ¼ 0.46 J/kg K kOe). Tegus et al (2002b) determined magnetic entropy change in Ni0:53 Mn0:22 Ga0:25 not only near the austenitic–martensitic transition (220 K measured on heating), but also near the Curie point. It was found that the peak absolute value of SM near TC is essentially lower than near the austenitic–martensitic transition: 2.5 J/kg K and 1 J/kg K, respectively, for H ¼ 10 kOe. Besides, these values have opposite sign in this ﬁeld range: SM is negative near TC and positive near the austenitic– martensitic transition. An advantage of the investigated alloys from the point of view of their possible application in a working body of magnetic refrigerators is that one can attribute their weak magnetic ﬁeld hysteretic properties (although the martensitic–austenitic transition temperature hysteresis is large—more than 10 K)—the materials are magnetically soft. However,

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Magnetocaloric effect in 3d metals, alloys and compounds

it should be noted that the peaks on the SM ðTÞ curves corresponding to the martensitic–austenitic transition in the alloys are rather narrow—for example, in Ni0:515 Mn0:227 Ga0:258 alloy full width at half maximum is about 3 K. The MCE in Fe0:9666 Si0:0334 was measured directly by Hirschler and Rocker (1966). The MCE maximum of about 5 K was observed near the temperature 1013 K for H ¼ 30 kOe (for Fe the MCE maximum value is about 5.1 K near 1042 K). Magnetic entropy change in compounds Mn5 Ge3 x Sbx and Mn5 x Fex Si3 with Mn5 Si3 -type crystal structure was investigated by Songlin et al (2002a,b) and Tegus et al (2002b). According to magnetic studies, Mn5 Si3 exhibits two ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transitions—one at 66 K (between noncollinear and collinear antiferromagnetic states) and another at 99 K (from magnetically ordered to paramagnetic state) (Kappel et al 1976). The anomaly (positive peak) on the SM ðTÞ curve was found only near the low-temperature transition (Tegus et al 2002b, Songlin et al 2002a,b). Its value increased with H increasing, which was related to destruction by the ﬁeld of the magnetic structure consisting of antiferromagnetically coupled Mn spins in various crystallographic sites (i.e. antiferromagnetic-type paraprocess). The positive SM peak value (see table 4.2) was not too high in this compound. With further temperature increase, SM in Mn5 Si3 becomes positive. In contrast to Mn5 Si3 , Fe5 Si3 has ferromagnetic ordering with a Curie temperature of 363 K. The Mn5 x Fex Si3 system with x ¼ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 was investigated by Songlin et al (2002b). It was found that compositions with x ¼ 1 and 2 are antiferromagnets and that with x ¼ 4 is a ferromagnet. In the compounds with x ¼ 3, 4 and 5, SM ðTÞ dependence revealed maxima near the magnetic ordering temperatures. The maximum peak absolute SM value in the Mn5 x Fex Si3 system was observed for x ¼ 4. The system Mn5 Ge3 x Sbx ðx ¼ 0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3) was ferromagnetic with soft magnetic properties (Songlin et al 2002a). Its SM ðTÞ curves revealed the usual ferromagnetic-type maxima near TC , with the absolute peak value decreasing and the Sb content increasing. As one can see from table 4.2, the magnetic entropy change in Mn5 Ge3 x Sbx is essentially higher than in the Mn5 x Fex Six system. Positive magnetic entropy change was observed by Tegus et al (2002b) in Mn1:95 Cr0:05 Sb. According to magnetic measurements under heating at 198 K, a ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transition accompanied by rapid and essential increasing of magnetization occurs, which was suggested by the authors to be an AFM to FM transition. On MðHÞ curves below the transition point, jumps at critical ﬁelds typical for destruction of AFM structure were observed. The maximum SM values near the transition temperature were 7 and 5.7 J/kg K for H ¼ 20 and 50 kOe, respectively. The positive SM values and SM increasing with magnetic ﬁeld change increasing the

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123

authors explained by the same reason as in Mn5 Si3 . The SM ðTÞ curves were rather wide (the full width at half maximum of about 21 K for H ¼ 50 kOe) and their width increased for higher H. The compound is also characterized by high SM =H in low ﬁelds (see table 4.2). The SM temperature dependences for alloy systems Ni2 (Mn1 x Mx ÞSn with M = V and Nb ðx ¼ 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4) and Mn3 y z Cry AlC1 þ z ( y and z ¼ 0.16, 0.08, 0, z ¼ 0.1, and y ¼ 0, 0.06, 0.15, 0.26) have been determined by Maeda et al (1983) on the basis of magnetization measurements. It was established that the Curie temperature of the alloys linearly decreased from room temperature down to about 200 K as x or ð y þ zÞ increased. In the Curie temperature region a peak usual for ferromagnets was observed on SM ðTÞ curves. For Ni2 (Mn1 x Vx ÞSn alloys the peak SM induced by H ¼ 14 kOe had an absolute value of 13 kJ/m3 K for x ¼ 0.1 ðTC 300 K) and decreased down to 7 kJ/m3 K for x ¼ 0.4 ðTC 170 K). According to the measurements made by the authors on Gd, the absolute SM value was about 30 kJ/m3 K for H ¼ 14 kOe, which is about two times higher than that for the alloy with x ¼ 0.1. The ﬁeld change of 70 kOe caused absolute magnetic entropy change of about 36 kJ/m3 K in Ni2 (Mn0:8 V0:2 ÞSn alloy. In Mn3 y z Cry AlC1 þ z alloys the maximum absolute peak value induced by H ¼ 14 kOe was about 14 kJ/m3 K for x ¼ 0 and y ¼ 0.1 ðTC 270 K), and decreased with increasing of x or y. Pe´rez et al (1998) studied the heat capacity and the MCE of the distorted triangular crystal lattice antiferromagnet RbMnBr3 in order to determine its magnetic phase diagram. The Ne´el temperature obtained from the heat capacity peak is 8.54 K. The value of T=H measured in the basal plane at 3 K and in magnetic ﬁeld of 40 kOe was about 2:3 102 K/kOe, and decreased to 0:6 102 K/kOe at 6.4 K.

4.3

3d thin ﬁlms

Babkin and Urinov (1987, 1989) investigated the MCE induced by a magnetic ﬁeld in thin ﬁlms on the basis of 3d metals. The MCE caused by the uniform rotation of the spontaneous magnetization vector in thin ﬁlms was considered in the work of Babkin and Urinov (1989). The magnetic free energy of the ﬁlm was presented in the form FM ¼ K sin2 IH cosð Þ

ð4:5Þ

where K is the ﬁlm anisotropy constant including the form anisotropy and induced magnetic anisotropy, and are the angles between the surface ~ and ~ and the H I vectors, respectively. The value of the MCE was determined with the help of equations (2.7a) and (2.21) and the expression for the equilibrium magnetic free energy obtained from equation (4.5). As a result the following formula for the

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Magnetocaloric effect in 3d metals, alloys and compounds

Figure 4.21. The MCE dependence on the angle between the ﬁlm surface and the magnetic ﬁeld H: (a) theoretical calculations by equation (4.5) for H ¼ 4I and K ¼ 2I 2 ; (b) experimental data for the polycrystalline Ni ﬁlm, H ¼ 3.4 kOe (Babkin and Urinov 1989).

MCE was derived (Babkin and Urinov 1989): T T K sin2 2 @K @I I K ¼ H S CH IH½2K cos 2 þ IH cosð Þ @T @T T @I cosð Þ : CH @H

ð4:6Þ

The ﬁrst term in equation (4.6) gives a positive or negative contribution to the MCE depending on the relation between IðTÞ and KðTÞ. If the anisotropy is absent ðK ¼ 0, = 0), equation (4.6) transforms into equation (2.16). If the ﬁlm anisotropy is determined only by the form anisotropy ðK ¼ 2I 2 Þ the ﬁrst term in equation (4.6) is always negative. The results of calculations made by equation (4.5) for the case of H ¼ 4I and K ¼ 2I 2 are shown in ﬁgure 4.21(a). Experimental MCE measurements were done on polycrystalline ferromagnetic Ni and single crystalline ferromagnetic -Fe2 O3 ﬁlms with thickness of 0.15–0.30 mm. As a temperature-sensitive element a vanadium dioxide 0.1–0.5 mm thick ﬁlm was used (its resistance decreased drastically under heating near 330 K). The experimental results for the Ni ﬁlm for H ¼ 3.4 kOe are shown in ﬁgure 4.21(b) (analogous, although some more complex, behaviour was observed for the -Fe2 O3 ﬁlm). With increasing magnetic ﬁeld the MCE maximum near the hard magnetization axis ð = 0) disappeared. The proposed theory contradicted the experimental results obtained in the region of the hard axis direction (the negative MCE). The authors connected such behaviour with the presence of defects and surface anisotropy in the ﬁlms violating the condition of uniform rotation of the magnetization vector. In conclusion, in this chapter we have considered the MCE and related properties of 3d metals, their alloys and compounds. The MCE in Fe, Co and Ni near TC is rather high, which can be related to their high Curie

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temperatures. In spite of the itinerant nature of 3d magnetism, the MCE in 3d metals and compounds in the region of a paraprocess can be successfully described by MFA. The contribution to the MCE from the magnetization vector rotation in Ni and Co was low compared with the contribution from the paraprocess. Among the alloys and compounds on the basis of 3d metals the highest MCE and magnetic entropy change values were found experimentally in those with ﬁrst-order magnetic transition. It can be the transition from magnetically ordered to paramagnetic state, between various magnetic structures, or the transition related to change of crystal structure, such as martensitic–austenitic transition in nonstoichiometric Heusler Ni2 MnGa alloys. This is related to a sharp change of magnetization near the ﬁrst-order transition. Experimental data show that as a rule the materials with large magnetoelastic interaction display essential MCE. It should be noted that the main amount of results on 3d compounds with high MCE properties appeared in recent times and this class of materials can be recognized as promising for MCE practical applications.

Chapter 5 Magnetocaloric effect in oxides Magnetothermal and magnetocaloric properties were investigated in various oxide compounds: garnets, orthoaluminates, vanadites, manganites and ferrites. Rare earth iron garnets (R3 Fe5 O12 Þ and various ferrites can have several diﬀerent magnetic sublattices with antiferromagnetic or more complex noncollinear ordering and exhibit various magnetic transitions and transformations typical for ferrimagnets, in particular such as compensation points. The transformations of their magnetic structure by temperature and magnetic ﬁeld should be reﬂected on magnetocaloric properties. Gallium and aluminium rare earth garnets (R3 Ga5 O12 and R3 Al5 O12 Þ are characterized by low magnetic ordering temperatures (usually several K) and are paramagnetic in the rest of the temperature interval. Analogous behaviour displays orthoaluminates (RAlO3 Þ and vanadites (RVO4 Þ. Due to the presence of rare earth ions the abovementioned oxide compounds can have an essential magnetic entropy change. The orthoaluminates and vanadites also have a higher percentage content of RE ion per mole in comparison with garnets, which can provide higher speciﬁc MCE per mole and cm3 —an important parameter for practical applications. Perovskite-type manganites (RMnO3 Þ with various dopants and related compounds attract the attention of investigators because of their interesting and complex magnetic and electrical properties, such as colossal magnetoresistance eﬀect, charge and orbital ordering and electronic phase separation. Such compounds can reveal ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transitions with a sharp change of magnetization and, because of that, high magnetocaloric properties. This circumstance, together with the ability to change in wide range the magnetic phase transition temperatures by variation of their composition (Curie temperatures of some compositions lie in room temperature range), makes the manganites attractive for applications in magnetic refrigerators.

5.1 5.1.1

Garnets Rare earth iron garnets

The MCE in polycrystalline rare earth garnets R3 Fe5 O12 (R ¼ Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Y) was studied by Belov et al (1968, 1969, 1970, 126

Garnets

127

Figure 5.1. The MCE temperature dependences in R3 Fe5 O12 for H ¼ 16 kOe (Belov et al 1969).

1971, 1972, 1973), Clark and Callen (1969), Clark and Alben (1970), Belov and Nikitin (1970a,b), and Kamilov et al (1975). The temperature dependences of MCE induced by the magnetic ﬁeld change of 16 kOe in polycrystalline R3 Fe5 O12 (R ¼ Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Y) are shown in ﬁgure 5.1 (Belov et al 1969). As one can see for Y3 Fe5 O12 the MCE is positive in the whole temperature range and has a maximum near the Curie temperature. For the garnets containing rare earth elements the MCE displays more complicated temperature behaviour. The MCE also has a positive maximum near TC , but with cooling it becomes negative. Then at some temperature a jump occurs, which reverts the MCE to positive values. At further cooling, the MCE continues to increase (see the curves for R ¼ Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho in ﬁgure 5.1). The observed behaviour is related to transformation of the ferromagnetic structure of garnets and antiferromagnetic- and ferromagnetic-type paraprocesses in RE and iron magnetic sublattices. It was considered in section 2.6 for Gd3 Fe5 O12 as an example. The inﬂuence of the replacement of Fe in the garnets by nonmagnetic Ga ions was studied by Belov et al (1972). The results of the MCE measurements in a system of Gd3 Gax Fe5 x O12 (0 x 1:5) alloys are presented in

128

Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

Figure 5.2. The MCE temperature dependences in Gd3 Gax Fe5 x O12 ð0 x 1:5Þ for H ¼ 16 kOe (Belov et al 1972).

ﬁgure 5.2. As one can see for x ¼ 0.15 and 0.3 the Curie temperature decreases and compensation temperature increases. Simultaneously, the maximum MCE value near the Curie point decreases and the MCE does not reach its maximum in the low-temperature region (it has a maximum at about 90 K in Gd3 Fe5 O12 Þ. The former eﬀect is observed for all investigated compositions and can be explained by decreasing of eﬀective ﬁeld H2eff acting from an a–d iron sublattice on an RE c-sublattice due to dilution of Fe ions by nonmagnetic Ga ions. This decrease causes increasing of the RE sublattice paraprocess and the MCE in the low-temperature region and a shift of the low-temperature MCE peak to lower temperatures. Relative values and orientations of iron a- and d-sublattices, and the RE c-sublattice in the rare earth iron garnets in external magnetic ﬁeld H below the compensation point, are shown in the left lower corner in ﬁgure 5.2. A ferromagnetic-type paraprocess is observed in c- and a-sublattices and an antiferromagnetic-type paraprocess in the iron d-sublattice. In R2 Fe5 O12 garnets, iron a- and d-sublattices in the low-temperature region are coupled via strong antiferromagnetic exchange interactions and the paraprocess in these magnetic sublattices is small. So, the MCE in the rare earth iron garnets below the compensation point is governed by a ferromagnetic-type paraprocess in the RE c-sublattice. The observed decreasing of the maximum MCE value at the Curie point for x up to 0.4 in Gd3 Gax Fe5 x O12 is the consequence of weakening of the

Garnets

129

d-sublattice due to dilution by the nonmagnetic element. For composition with x greater than 0.4 the compensation point is absent (Curie and compensation temperatures merge at about x ¼ 0.4)—the magnetic moment of the c-sublattice is higher than the total magnetic moment of the iron sublattices in the whole investigated temperature range. The MCE in these compositions is mainly determined by a ferromagnetic-type paraprocess in c- and a-sublattices. Belov et al (1973) investigated the inﬂuence of iron sublattices on the MCE in the system (Y3 x=2 Nax=2 ÞFe5 x Gex O12 ðx ¼ 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5), where iron in the d-sublattice is substituted by nonmagnetic Ge. In this alloy system, the magnetic RE c-sublattice is absent and magnetic properties of the material are governed by iron a- and d-sublattices. For x < 1, the magnetic moment of the d-sublattice is higher than that of the a-sublattice because the quantity of magnetic ions in the d-sublattice in this case is higher. For x ¼ 1, the magnetic moments of the d- and a-sublattices are equal to each other and the total spontaneous magnetic moment of the material is zero because a- and d-sublattices are coupled antiferromagnetically. For x from 1 to 2 the magnetic moment of the a-sublattice is higher than that of the d-sublattice. Finally, for x from 2 to 3 the intersublattice a–d exchange is essentially weakened and the antiferromagnetic exchange interactions inside the a-sublattice prevail, which causes antiferromagnetic ordering of the a-sublattice. Magnetocaloric eﬀect temperature dependences measured by Belov et al (1973) (shown in ﬁgure 5.3) conﬁrm this picture. For x ¼ 0 there is only one large MCE peak near the Curie temperature, which is

Figure 5.3. Temperature dependences of the MCE induced by 16 kOe in (Y3 x=2 Nax=2 )Fe5 x Gex O12 : (1) x ¼ 0; (2) 0.5; (3) 1; (4) 1.5; (5) 2; (6) 2.5 (Belov et al 1973).

130

Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

related to a strong ferromagnetic-type paraprocess in the d-sublattice prevailing antiferromagnetic-type paraprocess in the a-sublattice. Substitution of Ge reduces the value of the MCE peak and the Curie temperature due to decreasing of the magnetic ion quantity in the d-sublattice and weakening of the a–d exchange interaction. The latter factor causes increasing of the antiferromagnetic-type paraprocess in the a-sublattice. For composition with x ¼ 1, where a spontaneous total magnetic moment is equal to zero, the MCE is vanishingly small. For x in the range from 1 to 2 the MCE increases, which can be explained by a ferromagnetic-type paraprocess in the a-sublattice (the magnetic moment of the a-sublattice is directed now along the magnetic ﬁeld direction, and the d-sublattice is essentially weakened, its magnetic moment is small and directed opposite to the magnetic ﬁeld). For the composition with x ¼ 2.5, the a-sublattice is ordered antiferromagnetically and the MCE again approaches zero. The MCE measurement near the Curie point (548 K) on Y3 Fe5 O12 single crystal was made by Kamilov et al (1975). The peak MCE value for H ¼ 15 kOe was determined to be about 0.38 K. Belov et al (1970) studied the ﬁeld dependences of the MCE near the compensation point Tcomp in R3 Fe5 O12 (R ¼ Gd, Dy and Ho). As was shown in a series of works, in ferrimagnets in some temperature and ﬁeld intervals ðHc1 < H < Hc2 Þ a noncollinear magnetic structure can appear as a result of competition between the external magnetic ﬁeld and the negative intersublattice exchange interactions (Tiablikov 1956, Pahomov and Gusev 1964, and Clark and Callen 1968). Hc1 and Hc2 can achieve essential values but near Tcomp they should abruptly decrease. The noncollinear magnetic structure in ferrimagnets is characterized by practically temperature independent total magnetic moment ð@M=@T ¼ 0Þ which, according to equation (2.16), leads to dT=dH ¼ 0. Consequently, the TðHÞ dependence should have the following form in the noncollinear ferromagnetic phase: an increase of T with H for H < Hc1 with subsequent saturation for H > Hc1 . Such saturation behaviour was observed in R3 Fe5 O12 (R ¼ Gd, Dy and Ho) near Tcomp by Belov et al (1970). For R ¼ Dy and Ho some ﬁeld dependence persisted in saturation ﬁeld region, which was related by the authors to the anisotropy of rare earth ions. Analogous MCE behaviour was observed by Clark and Callen (1969) and Clark and Alben (1970) in polycrystalline Yb3 Fe5 O12 , Yb0:9 Y2:1 Fe5 O12 and Gd0:6 Y2:4 Fe5 O12 in the temperature region below 30 K and in high magnetic ﬁelds (up to 110 kOe). Figure 5.4 presents an H–T diagram measured in the low-temperature range for Yb3 Fe5 O12 , which shows the change in the sample temperature as a function of an applied magnetic ﬁeld in adiabatic conditions. For example, for an initial temperature of 21 K the sample cools down to 16 K ðT ¼ 5 K) for magnetic ﬁelds up to 61 kOe. For the ﬁelds above this value no additional cooling occurs and the sample temperature remains almost constant (the saturation state). The solid line in ﬁgure 5.4

Garnets

131

Figure 5.4. H–T diagram measured on Yb3 Fe5 O12 in the low-temperature region (Clark and Alben 1970).

marks the boundary between collinear and noncollinear magnetic phases. The cooling rate in the collinear phase in Yb3 Fe5 O12 is about 0.1 K/kOe. Dilution of Yb3þ ions by Y caused the collinear–noncollinear transition to move to lower temperatures and higher ﬁelds, so that no phase boundary was observed in Yb0:9 Y2:1 Fe5 O12 for H < 110 kOe. In diluted gadolinium iron garnet Gd0:6 Y2:4 Fe5 O12 the phase boundary was detected for the ﬁelds below 110 kOe with the phase boundary ﬁeld at 0 K of about 55 kOe. 5.1.2

Rare earth gallium and aluminium garnets

In a series of works the magnetothermal properties of gadolinium gallium garnet Gd3 Ga5 O12 (GGG), dysprosium gallium garnet Dy3 Ga5 O12 (DGG), dysprosium aluminium garnet Dy3 Al5 O12 (DAG) and Er-doped yttrium aluminium garnet were studied (Ball et al 1963, Onn et al 1967, Fisher et al 1973, Filippi et al 1977, Barclay and Steyert 1982a, Daudin et al 1982a,b, Numazawa et al 1983, Antyukhov et al 1984, Hashimoto 1986, Li et al 1986, Dai et al 1988, Kimura et al 1988, Kuz’min and Tishin 1993a,b, Kushino et al 2001, 2002). According to Dai et al (1988) the magnetic susceptibility measurements on GGG shows that it is characterized by a paramagnetic Curie temperature of 2.3 K, which implies antiferromagnetic ordering. However, speciﬁc heat

132

Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

results indicate no evidence of long-range magnetic order down to 0.35 K and a broad Schottky-type anomaly at about 0.8 K (Onn et al 1967, Fisher et al 1973, Daudin et al 1982b, Dai et al 1988). Dai et al (1988) proposed the model describing magnetic and magnetothermal properties of GGG without involving magnetic ordering. It was supposed that the ground state of the Gd3þ ion in GGG is not a pure 8 S7=2 state, but is mixed with the excited 6 P7=2 state. Because of that, the g-factor is 1.992 and the ground state splits by crystal ﬁeld into four Kramer doublets. The energy levels of the Gd3þ and their magnetic ﬁeld dependence were determined by ﬁtting the theoretically calculated magnetization to the experimental one. Then using these data, the internal magnetic energy was calculated and by equation (2.144) the magnetic heat capacity was obtained. The total heat capacity was calculated by summing the magnetic and lattice theoretical contributions. The obtained heat capacity temperature dependences were in good agreement with those measured experimentally on a sintered GGG sample by Dai et al (1988) and on a GGG single crystal by Fisher et al (1973) and Daudin et al (1982b) in the temperature interval from 0.2 to 50 K. The experimental CðTÞ curves measured on the sintered sample coincide with an accuracy of 5% with the heat capacity measured on single crystal samples. Figure 5.5 shows the total entropy temperature dependences of GGG in diﬀerent magnetic ﬁelds obtained by Dai et al (1988) from the experimental heat capacity data. The broken curve in ﬁgure 5.5 shows the lattice entropy contribution and the dash-and-dot straight line marks the expected saturation entropy for the system of Gd3þ ions with J ¼ 7/2: 3R lnð2ð7=2Þ þ 1Þ ¼ 6:24R. Analogous SðTÞ curves were obtained by Daudin et al (1982a) on single crystal GGG.

Figure 5.5. Total entropy temperature dependences for diﬀerent magnetic ﬁelds for Gd3 Ga5 O12 : (1) H ¼ 0 kOe; (2) 25 kOe; (3) 90 kOe. The broken curve shows the lattice entropy contribution and the dash-and-dot straight line marks the expected saturation entropy for the system of Gd3þ ions (Dai et al 1988).

Garnets

133

Figure 5.6. SM temperature dependences in DAG and GGG induced by the magnetic ﬁeld change H ¼ 40, 60 and 80 kOe (Hashimoto 1986).

According to the results obtained by Landau et al (1971) and Li et al (1986), Dy3 Al5 O12 is antiferromagnet with a Ne´el temperature TN of 2.54 K, a paramagnetic Curie temperature of –1.1 K and an eﬀective magnetic moment meff ¼ 5.25 mB . Measurements on dilute samples of Dy3þ in Y3 Al5 O12 and Lu3 Al5 O12 showed that dysprosium ions can be characterized by S ¼ 1/2 and gJ 17:7 (Ball et al 1963). Heat capacity measurements revealed a sharp peak (with the height of 44.1 J/mol K) on CðTÞ dependence of DAG at 2.49 K (Ball et al 1963). Dy3 Ga5 O12 displays antiferromagnetic properties with TN ¼ 0.373 K, and an average paramagnetic Curie temperature and eﬀective magnetic moment of 0.26 K and 0.373 mB , respectively (Filippi et al 1977, Kimura et al 1988). The maximum value of the g-factor of 8.5 for the [110] direction and the minimum value of 8.0 for the [111] direction were obtained for DGG single crystal by Kimura et al (1988). In DGG and DAG, the population of all energy levels except ground Kramer doublets of the Dy ions in the low-temperature region (below 20 K) can be neglected since the energy of the excited state is larger than the thermal agitation energy due to the crystal ﬁeld splitting. Therefore, the total angular momentum quantum number for Dy ions in the garnets is J ¼ 1/2. However, they are characterized by an essentially higher than Gd3þ ion in GGG g-factor values. Figure 5.6 illustrates the SM increase in GGG in comparison with DAG in the low-temperature region caused by the eﬀect of crystal ﬁeld splitting. Hashimoto (1986), by means of MFA, studied the inﬂuence of g-factor and J quantum number values on the SM ðTÞ curves. The calculations were made for an antiferromagnetic system with TN ¼ 1 K for gJ ¼ 2 (J varied) and J ¼ 1/2 (gJ varied) and for H ¼ 60 kOe. The results of calculations are presented in ﬁgure 5.7(a,b). As one can see, the value of the magnetic entropy change increased with J and gJ increasing. For J ¼ 7/2 and gJ ¼ 2

134

Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

Figure 5.7. Calculated SM ðTÞ curves for an antiferromagnet with TN ¼ 1 K induced by removal of the ﬁeld of 60 kOe: (a) gJ ¼ 2, J being varied; (b) J ¼ 1/2, gJ being varied. The broken curve presents the data for GGG (Hashimoto 1986).

the Hashimoto (1986) value is smaller than that for J ¼ 1/2 and gJ 10 in the temperature region above 20 K. This means that GGG is more eﬀective for magnetic cooling below 20 K, and DGG and DAG is more eﬀective above 20 K. Kimura et al (1988) investigated the MCE and magnetic entropy change in DGG single crystal. SM was determined from magnetization measurements and the MCE was measured by a direct method. Figure 5.8 shows the experimental SM ðTÞ curves obtained for diﬀerent H when the ﬁeld was applied along the [111] direction. The solid lines are results of MFA calculations for J ¼ 1/2 and gJ ¼ 13. From experimental SM ðTÞ dependences and the lattice entropy determined on the basis of heat capacity

Garnets

135

Figure 5.8. The magnetic entropy change temperature dependences for DGG single crystal determined for various H with a magnetic ﬁeld applied along the [111] direction: 30 kOe ([); 40 kOe (5); 50 kOe (h); 60 kOe (S) and 70 kOe (k) (Kimura et al 1988).

data in zero magnetic ﬁeld, the total entropy temperature dependences were calculated. The latter allow TðTÞ curves to be obtained by the method described in section 3.2.2, which are represented by solid lines in ﬁgure 5.9 together with directly measured points. As one can see, the peak T values are observed at about 12–14 K and are 12 and 9 K for H ¼ 50 and 30 kOe, corresponding to T=H ¼ 0.24 and 0.3 K/kOe, which are high values (such T=H values were observed in the Gd5 (Si-Ge)4 system—see table 7.2). Earlier, similar TðTÞ curves for DGG were obtained by Tomokiyo et al (1985) from the heat capacity measurements. The magnetic entropy change in DGG is also high—near 12 K, where a T peak at H ¼ 30 kOe is observed, SM =H 0:27 J/mol K kOe for H ¼ 30 kOe (see ﬁgure 5.8).

Figure 5.9. MCE temperature dependences for DGG single crystal for a magnetic ﬁeld applied along the [111] direction (Kimura et al 1988).

136

Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

Kushino et al (2001, 2002) investigated heat capacity, magnetization and magnetic entropy of erbium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet ((Er0:317 Y0:683 Þ3 Al5 O12 ) single crystal. This compound was prepared in order to obtain the material suitable for use as a magnetic refrigerant below 1 K. In the garnets discussed above (GGG, DGG and DAG) the interaction between RE ions lifts the ground-state degeneracy at low temperatures, decreasing magnetic entropy change and increasing the temperature where the garnets can be eﬀectively used as refrigerants. Dilution of Er by Y in (Er0:317 Y0:683 Þ3 Al5 O12 should weaken such interactions. From magnetization and heat capacity measurements it was conﬁrmed that the ground state of Er3þ ion in the considered compound is a doublet (as in the case of DAG and DGG) and g ¼ 6.46. Magnetic entropy temperature dependences in various magnetic ﬁelds were constructed on the basis of magnetization and heat capacity data. It was established that for H ¼ 0 the magnetic entropy per RE ion decreased below 2 K, reaching half the hightemperature value of R ln 2 at about 160 mK. Based on these data the authors suggested that the operational temperature of (Er0:317 Y0:683 Þ3 Al5 O12 can be around 100 mK. The magnetic entropy change for the material determined from magnetization was about 6.1 J/K mol per R ion for H ¼ 55 kOe at 4 K (this was the minimum temperature at which SM values were reported by the authors). The thermal conductivity of GGG was investigated by Slack and Oliver (1971) and Numazawa et al (1983, 1996). According to their data it has a maximum at about 20 K. Numazawa et al (1983) studied single crystals and polycrystals. The highest maximum thermal conductivity value revealed the single crystal with a low density of dislocation, 5 W/cm K. An increase of the dislocation density caused some decrease of the maximum thermal conductivity value. In polycrystalline samples much lower maximum values of the thermal conductivity were observed by Numazawa et al (1983)—about 0.5 W/cm K. The results of Slack and Oliver (1971) obtained on a single crystal were almost the same as that of Numazawa et al (1983). For comparison with GGG, Slack and Oliver (1971) and Numazawa et al (1983) gave the thermal conductivity temperature dependence of Cu, which also has a round maximum at 20 K with the value of 15 W/cm K. Numazawa et al (1996) also presented thermal conductivity data for DGG in the temperature range from 2 to 10 K. The curve displays a round maximum at 4.5 K with the value of 0.3 W/cm K. The thermal conductivity of Dy3 Al5 O12 single crystal along the [111] axis was measured by Kimura et al (1997b) in the temperature interval from 8 to 20 K. The maximum with the value of 1.5 W/cm K was found at 11 K. Some numerical values of the thermal conductivity of GGG, DGG and DAG are presented in table A2.1 in appendix 2. The heat capacity of DGG and GGG was investigated by Onn et al (1967), Fisher et al (1973), Filippi et al (1977), Daudin et al (1982b),

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137

Figure 5.10. Heat capacity temperature dependences for GGG (Fisher et al 1973, Schiﬀer et al 1994), DGG (Filippi et al 1977) and (Dy0:5 Gd0:5 )3 Ga5 O12 (Numazawa et al 1996).

Tomokiyo et al (1985), Dai et al (1988), Schiﬀer et al (1994) and Numazawa et al (1996). DGG displays a sharp -type heat capacity anomaly (with a height of about 3R) at TN ¼ 0.35 K. Tomokiyo et al (1985) measured the heat capacity of DGG in the ﬁelds up to 49.1 kOe. GGG shows a broad maximum near 0.8 K. According to the data of Schiﬀer et al (1994) this peak corresponds to the formation of antiferromagnetic short-range order. Application of the magnetic ﬁeld causes the appearance of another peak in the low-temperature region, whose position for H ¼ 9 kOe is about 0.4 K. The authors related this peak with a new low-temperature antiferromagnetic phase existing in the ﬁeld of 10 kOe. Figure 5.10 shows heat capacity temperature dependences for GGG and DGG from Fisher et al (1973), Filippi et al (1977) and Schiﬀer et al (1994), and for (Dy0:5 Gd0:5 Þ3 Ga5 O12 single crystal measured by Numazawa et al (1996). Dai et al (1988) measured the heat capacity of sintered GGG in the temperature range from 1 to 300 K. The heat capacity minimum of 0.92 J/mol K was found at 10 K. With further heating the heat capacity increased, reaching 376.34 J/mol K at 300 K.

5.2 5.2.1

Perovskites Rare earth orthoaluminates

Rare earth orthoaluminates (REOAs) RAlO3 have an orthorhombically distorted perovskite-type structure (Geller and Bala 1956). REOAs with R ¼ Gd, Dy, Er display an antiferromagnetic order below the Ne´el temperature TN and paramagnetic behaviour above TN (Schuchert et al 1969, Blazey

2.86

Dy0:9 Er0:1 AlO3

6.88 (b-axes)

1.5

1.0

4.58

4.4

6.62 (b-axis)

4.35 (c-axis)

eff (mB )

Tp (K)

0.07 (H ¼ 50 kOe, exp.)

0.19 (H ¼ 50 kOe, exp.)

0.1 (H ¼ 50 kOe, calc.)

0.055 (H ¼ 50 kOe, exp., b-axis)

0.06 (H ¼ 50 kOe, exp., b-axis)

0.19 (H ¼ 50 kOe, calc.)

0.12 (H ¼ 60 kOe, calc.) 0.16 (H ¼ 50 kOe, exp.)

0.075 (H ¼ 60 kOe, calc.)

0.19 (H ¼ 60 kOe, calc.) 0.16 (H ¼ 50 kOe, exp.)

0.43 (H ¼ 60 kOe, calc.)

SM (J/cm3 :K) (T ¼ 20 K)

10

6, 8, 9

6, 7

3–6

1, 2

Ref.

1. Blazey et al (1971); 2. Kuz’min and Tishin (1991); 3. Schuchert et al (1969); 4. Kolmakova et al (1990); 5. Kuz’min and Tishin (1993b); 6. Kimura et al (1997a); 7. Kimura et al (1995); 8. Sivardie`re and Quezel-Ambrunaz (1971); 9. Bonville et al (1980); 10. Tishin and Bozkova (1997).

0.6

ErAlO3

12

3.52

DyAlO3

HoAlO3

3.875

TN (K)

GdAlO3

Compound

SM (J/cm3 :K) (T ¼ 5 K)

Table 5.1. Magnetic parameters and the magnetic entropy change determined along easy magnetization directions in RAlO3 (R ¼ Gd, Dy, Ho and Er) and in Dy0:9 Er0:1 AlO3 .

138 Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

Perovskites

139

et al 1971, Sivardie`re and Quezel-Ambrunaz 1971, Bonville et al 1980, Kolmakova et al 1990, Kimura et al 1995). DyAlO3 and ErAlO3 are characterized by a substantial magnetic anisotropy (for DyAlO3 meff ¼ 6.88 mB along the b-axis ([010]) and 0.8 mB along the c-axis ([001])) and GdAlO3 is almost magnetically isotropic. According to Kimura et al (1995, 1997a,b) magnetization in DyAlO3 and ErAlO3 decreased, with temperature increasing for all crystal axes. The same behaviour was observed in HoAlO3 along the a- and b-axes, but along c-axes its magnetization remained almost constant. It should be noted that, for HoAlO3 , inverse magnetic susceptibility did not obey the Curie–Weiss law and its TN was established by a small peak on magnetization temperature dependence (Kimura 1995). The easy magnetization axes in DyAlO3 and ErAlO3 are the b- and c-axis, respectively (see Kuz’min and Tishin 1991). Magnetic characteristics of RAlO3 compounds with R ¼ Gd, Dy, Ho and Er are summarized in table 5.1. Kuz’min and Tishin (1991, 1993a,b) calculated the magnetic entropy change SM induced by a magnetic ﬁeld in GdAlO3 and DyAlO3 using the MFA ðJ was taken to be 7/2 and 1/2, for Gd and Dy perovskites, respectively). The results are presented in ﬁgure 5.11. Kimura et al (1995, 1997a,b) determined SM for RAlO3 (R ¼ Dy, Ho, Er) on the basis of the magnetization measurements along various crystal axes. The obtained experimental SM results are presented in ﬁgure 5.12(a). One can see a substantial dependence of SM ðTÞ character on the direction of a measurement. The experimental results for DyAlO3 and ErAlO3 along the easy axes are in good agreement with the calculations of Kuz’min and Tishin (1991). Kimura et al (1995) compared SM induced by a magnetic ﬁeld of 50 kOe aligned along the easy magnetization direction in ErAlO3 and DyAlO3 with that in Dy3 Al5 O12 and Gd3 Al5 O12 (the easy directions are c- and baxes in ErAlO3 and DyAlO3 , respectively, and the [111] axis in Dy3 Al5 O12 and Gd3 Al5 O12 ) (see ﬁgure 5.12(b)). It is evident that SM for ErAlO3 and DyAlO3 is superior to that of Dy3 Al5 O12 and Gd3 Al5 O12 . This is in agreement with the conclusion that ErAlO3 and DyAlO3 are promising materials for magnetic refrigeration below 20 K, made by Kuz’min and Tishin (1991) on the basis of theoretical calculations. Tishin and Bozkova (1997) in the frames of MFA calculated the SM ðTÞ dependences for diﬀerent H in Dy0:9 Er0:1 AlO3 along the b-axis—see ﬁgure 5.13. The experimental and theoretical SM values for RAlO3 (R ¼ Gd, Dy, Ho and Er) and Dy0:9 Er0:1 AlO3 at 5 and 20 K are summarized in table 5.1. Thermal conductivity of DyAlO3 , HoAlO3 and ErAlO3 single crystals along the c-axis was measured by Kimura et al (1997b) in the temperature interval from 4.2 to 25 K. As was noted by Kimura et al (1997b), all of them have thermal conductivity higher than Dy3 Al5 O12 , which is used in magnetic refrigerators. The maximum thermal conductivity values were observed in ErAlO3 ð12 W/cm K at 18 K). DyAlO3 are characterized by lower thermal conductivity (maximum of 4 W/cm K at 11 K) and

140

Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

Figure 5.11. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change SM induced by a magnetic ﬁeld in (a) GdAlO3 and (b) DyAlO3 with H along the b-axis [010]. The dashed lines are the same for Dy3 Al5 O12 with H along the [111] direction (Kuz’min and Tishin 1991, 1993b).

Perovskites

141

Figure 5.12. (a) Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change SM induced by various H in (1) DyAlO3 , (2) HoAlO3 and (3) ErAlO3 single crystals. The magnetic ﬁeld was applied along the a-axis (l (H ¼ 30 kOe); T (H ¼ 40 kOe); g (H ¼ 50 kOe)), the b-axis (k (H ¼ 30 kOe); S (H ¼ 40 kOe); h (H ¼ 50 kOe)), and the c-axis ([ (H ¼ 30 kOe); ] (H ¼ 40 kOe); 5 (H ¼ 50 kOe)). The SM was calculated from experimental magnetization data. (b) Comparison of SM temperature dependences in DyAlO3 (T) measured along the b-axis and in ErAlO3 (l) along the caxis with that in Gd3 Ga5 O12 ([) and Dy3 Ga5 O12 (S) measured along the [111] direction for H ¼ 50 kOe (Kimura et al 1997a).

142

Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

Figure 5.13. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change SM in Dy0:9 Er0:1 AlO3 (Tishin and Bozkova 1997).

HoAlO3 has 1.8 W/cm K at 14 K (Kimura et al 1997b). Schnelle et al (2001) measured the thermal conductivity of LaAlO3 single crystal along the [110] axis. Some numerical values of the thermal conductivity of ErAlO3 , DyAlO3 and LaAlO3 are presented in table A2.1 in appendix 2. 5.2.2

Other RMeO3 perovskites

The heat capacity of rare earth orthoferrites RFeO3 (R ¼ Yb, Er and Tm) was studied by Moldover et al (1971) and Saito et al (2001). The magnetic ordering in the orthoferrites takes place below about 600 K, where the Fe sublattice orders antiferromagnetically. The RE sublattice orders in the liquid helium temperature range. Under cooling many orthoferrites display spin reorientation transition and compensation points. ErFeO3 and TmFeO3 undergo spin reorientation transitions near 90 K and compensation points at about 45 and 20 K, respectively (see Saito et al 2001). According to the data of Saito et al (2001), heat capacity temperature dependences of ErFeO3 and TmFeO3 reveal the anomalies corresponding to the spin reorientation transitions at about 90 K and show no peculiarities at the compensation temperatures. In ErFeO3 a heat capacity peak was found near 3.6 K, which was attributed by the authors to ordering in the RE sublattice. In YbFeO3 , a spin-reorientation anomaly (peak) was observed on heat capacity temperature dependence at 7 K by Moldover et al (1971). The heat capacity of neodymium gallate NdGaO3 was studied experimentally and theoretically in the works of Bartolome´ et al (1994) and Luis

Perovskites

143

et al (1998). According to the magnetic measurements, this compound reveals under cooling a transition from the paramagnetic to the antiferromagnetic state at TN ¼ 1 K (Luis et al 1998). The experimental heat capacity temperature dependence displays a sharp -type anomaly at 0.97 K (Bartolome´ et al 1994). The experimental heat capacity and magnetization data were described by Luis et al (1998) in the framework of the Ising model on the simple tetragonal lattice in the quasi-two-dimensional regime in supposition that intralayer exchange is strong and antiferromagnetic, and that the interlayer exchange is an order of magnitude weaker and ferromagnetic. Thermal conductivity of Sr1 x Cax RuO3 ðx ¼ 0, 0.25, 0.5, 1) single crystals was studied by Shepard et al (1998). SrRuO3 is a ferromagnet with TC ¼ 160 K, and CaRuO3 remains paramagnetic down to 30 mK (Shepard et al 1998). The thermal conductivity temperature dependences were measured up to 250 K. At 250 K the maximum thermal conductivity value has CaRuO3 ð0.085 W/cm K) and the minimum has Sr0:75 Ca0:25 RuO3 ð0.01 W/cm K), which is close to the value for LaMnO3 (about 0.012 W/ cm K) obtained by Cohn et al (1997). Thermal conductivities of SrRuO3 and CaRuO3 have a maximum of about 60 K (peak values 0.13 and 0.075 W/cm K, respectively) and decrease with heating. 5.2.3

Manganites and related compounds

Doped perovskite-type manganese oxides La1 x Ax MnO3 (manganites), where A is a divalent metal such as Ca, Ba, Sr, attract the attention of researchers due to their unusual magnetic and electric properties (see reviews by Nagaev 1996, Gorkov 1998, Coey et al 1999). In particular, the doped manganites with a dopant concentration of about 0.15–0.4 undergo a transition from the paramagnetic isolator state to the ferromagnetic state with high conductivity. This causes a so-called colossal magnetoresistance eﬀect, which can also be induced by application of a magnetic ﬁeld (Ju and Sohn 1977, Jin et al 1994, Schiﬀer et al 1995, Nagaev 1996, Coey et al 1999, Tokura and Tomioka 1999). The Curie temperatures of the manganites lie in the room-temperature range. Among other interesting eﬀects phase separation, charge and orbital ordering should be mentioned. Analogous properties are observed in the manganites with other rare earth metals instead of La. In general, the doped manganites can be represented by the formula R1 x Ax MnO3 , where R is an R3þ rare earth ion. In the extreme compounds RMnO3 and AMnO3 the Mn ions are trivalent Mn3þ with four electrons in 3d shell (3d4 Þ or tetravalent Mn4þ with three 3d electrons (3d3 Þ. An ideal perovskite ABO3 has a cubic structure. The crystal lattice of real perovskite-type compounds is distorted due to cation size mismatch and the Jahn–Teller eﬀect. Such distorted structures are usually

144

Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

orthorhombic. In LaMnO3 the Mn3þ ions having four electrons in the 3d shell are located in the centre of octahedrons formed of O2 anions. The crystal ﬁeld of the ligands determines the following structure of 3d shells of the ions: three electrons in the low-lying t2g states ðt32g Þ and one electron in higher-lying eg states ðe1g Þ for Mn3þ ions and t32g conﬁguration for Mn4þ ions. The t2g electrons are mainly localized and have minor hybridization with 2p electrons of oxygen. They form local 3/2 spins. The eg electrons in the extreme compounds RMnO3 and AMnO3 are strongly hybridized with the 2p oxygen states and are also localized, causing isolating properties of the extreme compounds. The magnetic ordering in the compounds is antiferromagnetic (LaMnO3 undergoes a transition from paramagnetic to antiferromagnetic state at 141 K (Matsumoto 1970)) and is realized by the superexchange Mn–O–Mn interaction. In doped mixed-valence compounds 2þ 3þ 4þ (R3þ 1 x Ax Þ(Mn1 x Mnx ÞO3 holes are created in the eg states and eg electrons become itinerant and mobile, providing high conduction properties of such materials. The ferromagnetic interaction between localized t32g spins in such states is mediated via eg electrons and can be described in terms of the so-called double exchange interactions model (Zener 1951, De Gennes 1960). The eg electrons can easily hop between Mn ions through the oxygen orbitals, with the condition that the Hund rule requiring high spin state should not be violated. In this case the eg electrons energetically prefer to align the spins in their vicinity, providing ferromagnetic ordering in the material. If Mn spins are ordered ferromagnetically the eg electrons hop between Mn ions with minimum scattering and their kinetic energy is optimal. The lack of long-range magnetic order or antiferromagnetic ordering in the Mn subsystem or bending of Mn–O–Mn bonds reduces the mobility of eg electrons and the system can become insulating. The large magnetoresistive eﬀect is observed near the Curie temperature since the localized Mn spins can easily be aligned here by an external magnetic ﬁeld. The considered mechanism shows interrelation between electric and magnetic properties in the manganites, which allows a change of resistivity of the materials by changing their magnetic ordering. It was found that the optimum divalent element concentration for the colossal magnetoresistance eﬀect in R1 x Ax MnO3 manganites is x ¼ 0.33 and x > 0.5. No long-range ferromagnetic order is observed (see Nagaev 1996, Coey et al 1999, Moreo et al 1999). However, the double exchange model discussed above cannot explain all experimentally observed phenomena in the manganites related to colossal magnetoresistance and magnetic behaviour. The shortcomings of the double exchange model were discussed by Millis et al (1995) and Edwards et al (1999). There are other important interactions, which are not taken into account in the double exchange model: crystal lattice–electron interactions, superexchange interactions (negative and positive) between Mn ions, exchange and Coloumb repulsion interactions between eg electrons

Perovskites

145

etc. The listed interactions compete with the ferromagnetic double exchange interaction, leading to formation of various electronic phases and to high sensitivity of magnetic and other properties of the materials to a magnetic ﬁeld. Among other important eﬀects found in the doped manganites, charge ordering and phase separation should be mentioned (Goodenough 1955, Mizokawa and Fujimori 1977, Nagaev 1996). The models of charge ordering and phase separation can be used to explain colossal magnetoresistance in the doped manganites. Yunoki et al (1998) made a computational analysis of the double exchange model using the Monte Carlo technique and obtained a phase diagram of temperature–concentration, which is consistent with experimental data. It was shown that the ground state of a system with double exchange interaction is not homogeneous, but consists of two phases with diﬀerent electron densities—the phenomenon called phase separation. It was shown by Gorkov and Sokol (1987) that such phases can exist in the form of a ‘foggy’ state with the dimension of ‘droplets’ determined by Coulomb energy. The droplets with high electron concentration are ferromagnetic and highly conductive (Nagaev 1996). Under low concentration of the charge carriers, the ferromagnetic droplets are separated by an antiferromagnetic isolator matrix and the material is an isolator at T ¼ 0. Increasing of the charge carriers concentration, as a result of doping or the ordering action of an external magnetic ﬁeld, causes increasing of the droplets volume, their overlapping and the appearance of a high conductive state in the material. Various experimental data show that in the doped manganites, on the concentration and temperature borders of the ferromagnetic phase, there are nonhomogeneous states with high electron concentration ferromagnetic clusters. As an example, the elastic neutron scattering experiments on antiferromagnetic La1 x Ax MnO3 with x ¼ 0.05 and 0.08 can be mentioned (Hennion et al 1998). According to interpretation of the obtained results, metallic ferromagnetic droplets with dimensions of less than 10 A˚ exist in the antiferromagnetic matrix of these materials. The charge-ordered state can arise in some doped manganites when x is a rational fraction, such as 1/8, 1/3, 1/2 etc. In this state the mobile d electrons are localized on certain manganese ions (because the interelectronic Coulomb interaction overcomes the kinetic energy of the electrons) and Mn3þ and Mn4þ ions show a real space ordering commensurate with the crystal lattice. The localization of the d electrons leads to weakening of the ferromagnetic double exchange interaction. As a result, antiferromagnetic superexchange interaction between Mn ions becomes dominant and antiferromagnetic ordering arises in the material. The transition to the charge ordered state is accompanied by the ﬁrst-order transition from the metallic ferromagnetic state to the insulating antiferromagnetic state (for x ¼ 0.5 the AFM state in most manganites is of the so-called CE type). The characteristic feature of the charge-ordered state in the manganites is the possibility

146

Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

of its magnetic ﬁeld-induced destruction (melting) with transition from AFM insulating to FM metal state. The charge-ordered behaviour was found experimentally in Pr0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3 , Nd0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3 and Pr0:63 Ca0:37 MnO3 (Kuwahara et al 1995, Tomioka et al 1995, Tokura et al 1996, Raychaudhuri et al 2001). The doped manganites display strong coupling between magnetic and structural subsystems. Anomalous thermal expansion and discontinuous volume variation was observed in (NdSm)1=2 Sr1=2 MnO3 , La0:75 Ca0:25 MnO3 , La0:6 Y0:07 Ca0:33 MnO3 and La0:875 Sr0:125 MnO3 compounds at the Curie temperature (Radaelli et al 1995, Ibarra et al 1995, 2000, Argyriou et al 1996, Dai et al 1996, Kuwahara et al 1996). Discontinuous lattice parameter change is accompanied by sharp change in magnetization due to the variation in interatomic distance and Mn–O–Mn bond angles (Radaelli et al 1995, Ibarra et al 1995). Asamitsu et al (1995) observed structural (orthorhombic–rhombohedral) transition in La0:83 Sr0:17 MnO3 driven by a magnetic ﬁeld. The electronic and crystal lattice transformations in the doped manganites described above have an essential inﬂuence on the magnetization and the rate of its variation under magnetic ﬁeld and temperature-induced transitions. Mira et al (1999) studied the magnetic transitions at the Curie temperature in the compound system La2=3 (Ca1 x Srx Þ1=3 MnO3 . The type of the transition was established on the basis of H=MðM 2 Þ plots and the criterion proposed by Banerjee (1964), according to which the slope of H=MðM 2 Þ isotherms should be positive for second-order transitions and can be negative for some temperatures in the case of second-order transitions. It was found that in La2=3 Ca1=3 MnO3 the magnetic phase transition is of ﬁrst-order type and changes to second-order under substitution of Sr at x ¼ 0.05–0.15. In La2=3 Sr1=3 MnO3 the transition is of ﬁrst-order type. It was also established by Mira et al (2001) that in this concentration range the crystal structure changes from an orthorhombic type to a rhombohedral one. The magnetization change under the transitions described above is rather sharp, which should cause essential values of magnetic entropy change and, possibly, magnetocaloric eﬀect. Because of that a vast quantity of experimental work was devoted to investigation of the magnetic entropy change in the manganites with substitution of rare earth metal and Mn by various elements. It should be noted that in spite of theoretical and experimental investigations of the nature of the magnetic phase transitions in manganites, data are not yet clear. The main quantity of the experimental investigations was made on the system prepared on the basis of an LaMnO3 compound. Morelli et al (1996) was the ﬁrst to measure the magnetic entropy change in the doped manganites. The investigations were conducted on 2.4 mm thick polycrystalline ﬁlms of La0:67 A0:33 MnO3 (A ¼ Ca, Ba or Sr), which displayed an FM–PM transition at 250, 300 and 350 K, respectively. The ﬁlms were fabricated by a

Perovskites

147

metal-organic deposition technique. The SM ðTÞ dependences were calculated on the basis of magnetization data. Near the Curie temperatures, wide maxima of SM were observed with the following values (for H ¼ 50 kOe applied parallel to the ﬁlm plane): 2 J/kg K for A ¼ Ca, 1.4 J/kg K for Ba, and 1.5 J/kg K for Sr. The maximum SM =H value of 0.04 J/kg K kOe observed by Morelli et al (1996) for A ¼ Ca was not high. Larger SM values were observed later in ceramic bulk (La–Ca)MnO3 samples. As a rule SM was determined from magnetization measurements. First Zhang et al (1996) obtained the SM peak value of 2.75 J/kg K for H ¼ 30 kOe in ceramic La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO (this corresponds to SM =H ¼ 9.2 J/kg K kOe) near TC ¼ 260 K. Substitution of La by Y in this composition reduced TC (to 230 K) and saturation magnetization, which caused the reduction of the SM absolute value (see table 5.2). The reduction in the magnetization and TC were attributed by the authors to a decrease of the ferromagnetic coupling due to the contraction of the crystal lattice under substitution. Several times higher SM =H value equal to 36.7 J/kg K kOe ðH ¼ 15 kOe) was found in polycrystalline La0:8 Ca0:2 MnO3 ðTC ¼ 230 K) by Guo et al (1997a). With Ca concentration increasing, the absolute value of SM =H decreased. The SM ðTÞ curves for La0:8 Ca0:2 MnO3 and La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO3 display relatively narrow peaks near TC (see ﬁgure 5.14)—for La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO3 , full width at half maximum was about 15 K for H ¼ 15 kOe. In La0:55 Ca0:45 MnO3 the SM maximum was broader and lower, which is consistent with a less sharp change of the magnetization at TC in this sample compared with lower Ca content compositions. Further investigations of the MCE in Ca-doped ceramic La manganites were made by Bohigas et al (1998, 2000), Sun et al (2000b) and Xu et al (2001, 2002). The results are listed in table 5.2, where all available data on the MCE in manganites and related compounds are summarized. The SM was determined from magnetization and T in La0:6 Ca0:4 MnO3 (Bohigas et al 2000) was obtained from heat capacity measurements. The data of Xu et al (2002) show highly absolute SM =H values for La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO3 and La0:67 Sr0:33 MnO3 (66 and 54 J/kg K kOe) for low magnetic ﬁeld change values (0.5 kOe). At higher H the absolute value of SM =H in La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO3 became much lower (17 J/kg K kOe for H ¼ 20 kOe). Such behaviour can be related to essential smoothing of the magnetization change near the Curie temperature in high magnetic ﬁelds. Bohigas et al (2000) measured temperature dependences of magnetization of La0:6 Ca0:4 MnO3 in low ﬁeld (50 Oe) in two diﬀerent conditions. The ﬁrst one was cooled in the presence of the ﬁeld from the paramagnetic temperatures down to 4.2 K (ﬁeld cooled (FC) regime). In the second regime the sample was ﬁrst cooled from the paramagnetic region down to 4.2 K without external ﬁeld and then warmed in the ﬁeld (zero ﬁeld cooled (ZFC) regime). Below the Curie temperature (260 K) the sample revealed

1.75 5

258 265

267

263 42 87 103 35 60 77 90

La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO3 (60 nm) La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO3 (500 nm)

La2=3 Ca1=3 MnO3

La0:6 Ca0:4 MnO3 La0:65 Ca0:35 Ti0:4 Mn0:6 O3 La0:65 Ca0:35 Ti0:2 Mn0:8 O3 La0:65 Ca0:35 Ti0:1 Mn0:9 O3 La0:83 Li0:1 Ti0:4 Mn0:6 O3 La0:85 Li0:15 Ti0:3 Mn0:7 O3 La0:917 Li0:05 Ti0:2 Mn0:8 O3 La0:958 Li0:025 Ti0:1 Mn0:9 O3 30 60 70 30 43 60 64

2 4.7

177 224

La0:75 Ca0:25 MnO3 (120 nm) La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO3 (300 nm) 62 83

5.5 4.3 2.0

230 257 234

La0:8 Ca0:2 MnO3 La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO3 La0:55 Ca0:45 MnO3

5.0 0.6 0.9 1.3 0.9 1.1 1.7 2.0

6.4

2.75 1.55

260 230

La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO La0:6 Y0:07 Ca0:33 MnO

2

250

TC (K)

jSM j (J/kg K)

La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO3

Compound

Is (emu/g)

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

30

10 10

15 15

15 15 15

30 30

50

H (kOe)

16.6 2 3 4.3 3 3.7 5.7 6.7

21.3

17.5 50

13.3 31.3

36.7 28.7 13.3

9.2 5.2

4

jSM j=H 102 (J/kg K kOe)

– – – – – – – –

–

– –

– –

– – –

– –

–

T (K)

– – – – – – – –

–

– –

– –

– – –

– –

–

H (kOe)

– – – – – – – –

–

– –

– –

– – –

– –

–

T=H 102 (K/kOe)

6

5

24

4

3

2

1

Ref.

Table 5.2. The Curie temperature TC , saturation magnetization Is at 4.2 K, the absolute value of the magnetic entropy change jSM j induced by the magnetic ﬁeld change H, jSM j=H, the magnetocaloric eﬀect T induced by H for manganites and related compounds. The values for Gd is given for comparison.

148 Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

2.7 2.3

230 280 330 335 345

260 275 287 300 337 360 375

275

368 345

272

180

180

La2=3 Ca1=3 MnO3 La2=3 (Ca0:95 Sr0:05 )1=3 MnO3 La2=3 (Ca0:85 Sr0:15 )1=3 MnO3 La2=3 (Ca0:75 Sr0:25 )1=3 MnO3 La2=3 (Ca0:5 Sr0:5 )1=3 MnO3 La2=3 (Ca0:25 Sr0:75 )1=3 MnO3 La2=3 Sr1=3 MnO3

La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO3

La0:67 Sr0:33 MnO3 La0:67 Ba0:33 MnO3

La0:54 Ca0:32 MnO3

La0:55 Er0:05 Ca0:4 MnO3 (solid state method) La0:55 Er0:05 Ca0:4 MnO3 (sol-gel method)

2.9

3.4 0.33 0.27 0.12

3.7 3.3 1.9 1.85 1.7 1.65 1.6

4.8 1.5 2.9 2.8 1.5

5.0 2.5

La0:75 Ca0:25 MnO3 La0:75 Ca0:125 Sr0:125 MnO3 La0:75 Ca0:1 Sr0:15 MnO3 La0:75 Ca0:075 Sr0:175 MnO3 La0:75 Sr0:25 MnO3

100

260

La0:6 Ca0:4 MnO3

1.7 0.95 0.45

260 200 120

La0:65 Nd0:05 Ca0:3 MnO3 La0:65 Nd0:05 Ca0:3 Mn0:9 Cr0:1 O3 La0:65 Nd0:05 Ca0:3 Mn0:9 Fe0:1 O3

18

18

9

20 0.5 0.5 0.5

10 10 10 10 10 10 10

15 15 15 15 15

30 10

10 10 10

12.8

15

32

17 66 54 24

37 33 19 18.5 17 16.5 16

32 10 19.3 18.7 10

16.6 25

17 9.5 4.5

–

–

–

– – – –

– – – – – – –

– – – – –

2.1 1.1

– – –

–

–

–

– – – –

– – – – – – –

– – – – –

30 10

– – –

–

–

–

– – – –

– – – – – – –

– – – – –

7 11

– – –

9

25

23

26

8

7

28

Perovskites 149

295 300

196.5

243.5

La0:75 Sr0:075 Ca0:175 MnO3 La0:75 Sr0:1 Ca0:15 MnO3

La0:87 Sr0:13 MnO3

La0:84 Sr0:16 MnO3

La0:5 Gd0:2 Sr0:3 MnO3

270.5

325 270 220 190

296

La2=3 (Ca,Pb)1=3 MnO3

La0:65 Y0:05 Sr0:3 MnO3 La0:6 Y0:1 Sr0:3 MnO3 La0:55 Y0:15 Sr0:3 MnO3 La0:5 Y0:2 Sr0:3 MnO3

256 247 233 224 213

TC (K)

La0:7 Ca0:3 MnO3 La0:65 Nd0:05 Ca0:3 MnO3 La0:60 Nd0:10 Ca0:3 MnO3 La0:55 Nd0:15 Ca0:3 MnO3 La0:50 Nd0:20 Ca0:3 MnO3

Compound

Table 5.2. Continued. Is (emu/g)

– –

8.8 1.6

4.9 4.3 3.4 4

2.9 4.2 7.5 2.7 4.2 7.9

7.5 2

1.38 1.68 1.95 2.15 2.31

jSM j (J/kg K)

80 10

60 60 60 60

15 30 80 15 30 80

– –

70 10

10 10 10 10 10

H (kOe)

11 16

8.2 7.2 5.7 6.7

19.3 14 9.4 18 14 9.9

– –

10.7 20

13.8 16.8 19.5 21.5 23.1

jSM j=H 102 (J/kg K kOe)

– –

– 1.8 1.3 1.4

– – – – – –

0.78 0.49

5.7 2.5

– – – – –

T (K)

– –

– 60 60 60

– – – – – –

14 14

70 20

– – – – –

H (kOe)

– –

– 3 2.2 2.3

– – – – – –

5.6 3.5

8.1 12.5

– – – – –

T=H 102 (K/kOe)

30

12

11

10

33

27

Ref.

150 Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

328

193 220 343 334 193 220 343 334 230

283

338

344

214 278 306 306

295

260(TC ) 243(TC ) 205(TC ) 161(TCO )

La0:67 Sr0:33 Mn0:9 Cr0:1 O3

La0:925 Na0:075 MnO3 La0:9 Na0:1 MnO3 La0:835 Na0:165 MnO3 La0:8 Na0:2 MnO3 La0:898 Na0:072 Mn0:971 O3:00 La0:880 Na0:099 Mn0:977 O3:00 La0:834 Na0:163 Mn1:000 O2:99 La0:799 Na0:199 Mn1:000 O2:97 La0:893 K0:070 Mn0:965 O3:00

La0:877 K0:096 Mn0:974 O3:00

La0:813 K0:160 Mn0:987 O3:00

La0:796 K0:196 Mn0:993 O3:00

La0:95 Ag0:05 MnO3 La0:80 Ag0:20 MnO3 La0:75 Ag0:25 MnO3 La0:70 Ag0:30 MnO3

La0:78 Ag0:22 MnO3 (ﬁlm)

Pr0:7 Sr0:3 MnO3 Pr0:6 Sr0:4 MnO3 Pr0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3

10 10 10 10 10

1.75 1.97 2.63 7.1

10 10 10 10

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 15 10 15 10 15 10 15 10

50 10

2.22

1.1 3.4 1.5 1.3

1.3 1.5 2.1 1.9 1.32 1.53 2.11 1.96 1.19 0.78 1.47 1.10 2.11 1.53 2.19 1.55

5 1.4

17.5 19.7 26.3 71

22.2

11 34 15 13

13 15 21 19 13.2 15.3 21.1 19.6 7.9 7.8 9.8 11 14.1 15.3 14.6 15.5

10 14

– – – –

–

– – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– –

– – – –

–

– – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– –

– – – –

–

– – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– –

18

31

17

14, 15, 16

13

Perovskites 151

240(TC ) 155(TCO )

110

90 127 131

171

246 211

Nd0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3

Sm0:6 Sr0:4 MnO3

Nd0:299 Tb0:251 Sr0:45 MnO3 Nd0:153 Eu0:397 Sr0:45 MnO3 Sm0:55 Sr0:45 MnO3

La1:6 Ca1:4 Mn2 O7

La1:4 Ca1:6 Mn2 O7 La1:2 Y0:2 Ca1:6 Mn2 O7

Nd0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3

(Pr0:3 Nd0:7 )0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3

(Pr0:5 Nd0:5 )0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3

215(TC ) 164(TCO ) 225(TC ) 168(TCO ) 243(TC ) 175(TCO ) 268(TC ) 183(TCO )

TC (K)

(Pr0:7 Nd0:3 )0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3

Compound

Table 5.2. Continued. Is (emu/g)

– – –

–

2.75 2.1

3.8

0.9 2.8 0.4

– 6.8 – 7.9 – 6.5 – 7.3

jSM j (J/kg K)

20 20

15

– – –

–

10 10 2.5

– 10 – 10 – 10 – 10

H (kOe)

13.75 10.5

25.3

– – –

–

9 28 16

– 68 – 79 – 65 – 73

jSM j=H 102 (J/kg K kOe)

– –

–

1.4 1.4 2.0

4.6

– – –

– – – – – – – –

T (K)

– –

–

14 14 14

8.4

– – –

– – – – – – – –

H (kOe)

– –

–

10 10 14.3

54.8

– – –

– – – – – – – –

T=H 102 (K/kOe)

29

22

21

20

32

19

Ref.

152 Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

240 250 253 255 252

La0:8 Sr0:2 CoO3 La0:7 Sr0:3 CoO3 La0:6 Sr0:4 CoO3 La0:55 Sr0:45 CoO3 La0:5 Sr0:5 CoO3 29 18

0.56 0.79 0.94 1.04 0.87

0.07 0.15 0.65 1.2 1.45 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5

15 15 15 15 15 4.1 5.6 6.9 7.7 6.4

0.46 1 4.3 8 9.7 – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – 35

34

1. Morelli et al (1996); 2. Zhang et al (1996); 3. Guo et al (1997a); 4. Guo et al (1997b); 5. Sun et al (2000b); 6. Bohigas et al (1998); 7. Bohigas et al (2000); 8. Guo et al (1998); 9. Gu et al (1998); 10. Zhang et al (2000a); 11. Szewczyk et al (2000); 12. Bose et al (1998); 13. Sun et al (2001); 14. Zhong et al (1998a); 15. Zhong et al (1998b); 16. Zhong et al (1999); 17. Tang et al (2000); 18. Chen et al (2000); 19. Chen and Du (2001); 20. Abramovich et al (2001); 21. Chernyshov et al (2001); 22. Zhou et al (1999); 23. Xu et al (2002); 24. Hueso et al (2002); 25. Xu et al (2001); 26. Mira et al (2002); 27. Wang et al (2001a); 28. Wang et al (2001b); 29. Himcinschi et al (2001); 30. Sun et al (2002a); 31. Wang et al (2002a); 32. Sande et al (2001); 33. Sun et al (2002b); 34. Chaudhary et al (1999); 35. Luong et al (2002).

235

La0:95 Sr0:05 CoO3 La0:85 Sr0:15 CoO3 La0:8 Sr0:2 CoO3 La0:7 Sr0:3 CoO3 La0:6 Sr0:4 CoO3

Perovskites 153

154

Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

Figure 5.14. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change SM for H ¼ 15 kOe in La1 x Cax MnO3 : (a) x ¼ 0.2 and Gd; (b) x ¼ 0.33 and 0.45 (Guo et al 1997a). (Copyright 1997 by the American Physical Society.)

temperature ZFC–FC hysteresis, which is typical for spin freezing in spin glass systems or for such systems as superparamagnets in the blocking state. Such behaviour was also observed in oxygen-depleted R0:67 Sr0:33 MnO (R ¼ Nd, Pr) (Nagaev 1996), La0:8 Ca0:2 MnO2:96 (Ju and Sohn 1997), R0:55 Ba0:45 MnO3 (R ¼ La, Nd, Sm, Gd; 0:37) (Troyanchuk et al 2000) and in (LaBa)MnO3 (Ju et al 2000). It was related to the existence in the sample of the phase separation state discussed above with small ferromagnetic regions (droplets) imbedded in a nonferromagnetic (for example, antiferromagnetic) surrounding.

Perovskites

155

Figure 5.15. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change SM for H ¼ 15 kOe in La0:75 Ca0:25 MnO3 samples with diﬀerent grain sizes (Guo et al 1997b).

The inﬂuence of grain size on the magnetocaloric properties of the manganites was studied by Guo et al (1997b) and Hueso et al (2002). Usually the grain size in ceramic manganites lies in the range of several microns. Diﬀerent TC values (177 and 224 K, respectively) were found by Guo et al (1997b) for ceramic La0:75 Ca0:25 MnO3 samples with grain sizes of 120 and 300 nm. The lowering of TC was accompanied by a broadening of the magnetic phase transition in the MðTÞ curve. This leads to the broadening of the SM peak and its decrease in the sample with 120 nm grain size—see ﬁgure 5.15. Analogous results were obtained by Hueso et al (2002) on La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO3 samples with grain sizes from 60 to 500 nm—Curie temperature, saturation magnetization and the maximum magnetic entropy change increased with the grain size increasing. The latter value increased: for H ¼ 10 kOe |SM | reached 5 J/kg K, which corresponded to |SM |/H ¼ 0.5 J/kg K kOe. Hueso et al (2002) explained the observed dependence of magnetic and magnetocaloric properties on the grain size by the presence of a ‘dead’ magnetically disordered layer on the grains’ surface. With grain size decreasing, the role of this layer in formation of the magnetic properties of the sample increases. On the basis of magnetization measurements and Arrot plot behaviour near the Curie temperature, the authors concluded that with grain size increasing the magnetic phase transition at TC gets the features of the ﬁrst-order transition with sharp changing of magnetization. In the sample with the small grains, the magnetic phase transition is of second-order with smooth magnetization variation and, consequently, lower magnetic entropy change values. It should be noted that the magnetoresistance follows the same dependence on the grain size as SM (Hueso et al 2002). The magnetocaloric properties of (La–Ca)MnO3 manganites in which La, Ca and Mn were substituted by various elements were studied by Guo et al

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(1998), Bohigas et al (1998, 1999), Zhang et al (2000a), Wang (2001a,b), Mira et al (2002) and Sun et al (2002b). According to magnetic studies by Mira et al (1999), in a manganite system La2=3 (Ca1 x Srx Þ1=3 MnO3 there is a change of magnetic phase transition type from ﬁrst-order in La2=3 Ca1=3 MnO3 to second-order in La2=3 Sr1=3 MnO3 , which takes place between x ¼ 0.05 and 0.15 and is accompanied by transformation of crystal structure type from orthorhombic to rhombohedral, respectively. The nature of the magnetic phase transition type changing was related by Mira et al (2002) with modiﬁcation of magnetic coupling due to the lack of the Jahn–Teller eﬀect in rhombohedral structure, thus explaining the steep decrease (by a factor of two) of the peak absolute values of SM in the La2=3 (Ca1 x Srx Þ1=3 MnO3 system experimentally observed in the range of x between 0.05 and 0.15. Analogous behaviour was observed earlier by Guo et al (1998) in La0:75 Ca0:25x Srx MnO3 compounds, where crystal structure transition from orthorhombic to rhombohedral type takes place at about x ¼ 0.12–0.15 with increasing of Sr content. Guo et al (1998) related lower jSM j values in La0:75 Ca0:25x Srx MnO3 compared with Ca-doped La manganites with weaker magnetoelastic coupling in the Sr-doped La manganites. They concluded that, for obtaining large jSM j in a ﬁxed crystal structure, La in the manganites should be substituted by ions with smaller ionic radius (the ionic radius of Ca is 1.06 A˚, and that of Sr is 1.27 A˚), because smaller internal pressure created by such ions can provide larger magnetoelastic eﬀects (e.g. thermal expansion) and, consequently, sharper changing of magnetization near the Curie temperature. The temperature dependence of electrical resistivity was also measured at H ¼ 0 for the sample with x ¼ 0.125. It was found that a ferromagnetic metal to paramagnetic insulator transition happened at the Curie temperature ð280 K), where the magnetic entropy peak is observed. Gu et al (1998) and Wang et al (2001a) investigated the magnetic entropy change in (La–Ca)MnO3 compounds in which La was substituted by RE elements. In the work of Gu et al (1998) two La0:55 Er0:05 Ca0:4 MnO3 samples were prepared by diﬀerent methods—the solid-state reaction and sol–gel method. Scanning electron microscopy studies showed that in the samples prepared by solid-state reaction the grains were connected loosely and were structurally inhomogeneous. The sol–gel method gave more compact samples with bigger (1–5 mm) grains. The peak values of jSM j near the Curie point of 180 K were not essentially diﬀerent: 2.7 and 2.3 J=kg K for the solid state and sol–gel samples, respectively, for H ¼ 18 kOe. The authors also measured electrical resistivity and found ferromagnetic metal–paramagnetic insulator transition at TC in these compounds. In the La0:7x Ndx Ca0:3 MnO3 system the Curie temperature decreased and jSM j increased with Nd concentration increasing (Wang et al 2001a)— see table 5.2. The authors related this to weakening of ferromagnetic interactions due to distortion of Mn–O bond length and Mn–O–Mn bond angle and interaction between Mn and Nd magnetic subsystems.

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Figure 5.16. Magnetic entropy change temperature dependences of La0:65 Ca0:35 Ti1 x . Mnx O3 for H ¼ 30 kOe (Bohigas et al 1998).

Heat capacity and magnetic entropy, and adiabatic temperature change and temperature dependences, were determined in La2=3 (Ca,Pb)1=3 MnO3 single crystal by Sun et al (2002b). The magnetic ﬁeld was applied in the a–b plane. The MCE was calculated on the basis of the zero ﬁeld heat capacity data and SM ðTÞ by equation (2.79). The obtained peak SM and T values are presented in table 5.2. SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves in this compound are rather wide—their full width at half maximum is about 35 K for H ¼ 40 kOe. Ceramic La manganites with substitution of La by Li and Mn by Ti were investigated by Bohigas et al (1998, 1999). They display ferromagnetic ordering below the Curie temperature with diﬀerent saturation magnetization, which can be changed in a wide range by changing the concentration of the doping element and oxygen stoichiometry. The SM temperature dependences calculated from magnetization data for La0:65 Ca0:35 Ti1 x Mnx O3 and La0:5 þ x þ y Li0:5 3y Ti1 3x Mn3x O3 are shown in ﬁgures 5.16 and 5.17. The peak jSM j values for all studied samples are lower than that observed in (LaCa)MnO3 compounds with the analogous concentration of Ca (see table 5.2), although SM ðTÞ curves in the compounds were essentially wider than in (La–Ca)MnO3 : the full width at half maximum for La0:958 Li0:026 Ti0:1 Mn0:9 O3 is 70 K and for La0:65 Ca0:35 Ti0:1 Mn0:9 O3 is 150 K in comparison with 30 K for La0:6 Ca0:4 MnO3 ðH ¼ 30 kOe). A wide SM ðTÞ curve was also found for La0:65 Nd0:05 Ca0:3 Mn0:9 Cr0:1 O3 (the full width at half maximum here is 110 K for H ¼ 10 kOe) by Wang et al

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Figure 5.17. Magnetic entropy change temperature dependences of La0:5 þ x þ y Li0:5 3y . Ti1 3x Mn3x O3 for H ¼ 30 kOe (Bohigas et al 1998).

(2001b), who studied the ceramic La0:65 Nd0:05 Ca0:3 Mn0:9 B0:1 O3 system with B ¼ Mn, Cr, Fe. The composition La0:65 Nd0:05 Ca0:3 MnO3 was characterized by essentially narrower SM ðTÞ dependence (the full width at half maximum 50 K for H ¼ 10 kOe). The peak jSM j values and TC in the system decreased with the substitution of Mn by other elements—see table 5.2. The authors related this eﬀect with strengthening of AFM superexchange and weakening of FM double exchange interactions in the material due to decreasing of movable 3d electrons under substitution of Mn by Cr or Fe. The sharpness of the magnetic phase transition in the system decreased with the addition of Cr and Fe and the magnetization change in La0:65 Nd0:05 Ca0:3 Mn0:9 Fe0:1 O3 was characterized by maximum smoothness in comparison with the other two compositions. Zhou et al (1999) studied magnetic entropy change in ceramic La1:6 Ca1:4 Mn2 O7 , which the authors called a layered variant of La0:8 Ca0:2 MnO3 . It has layered a Sr3 Ti2 O7 -type perovskite crystal structure and the same ratio of Mn3þ and Mn4þ ions as La0:8 Ca0:2 MnO3 . The magnetic entropy change of La1:6 Ca1:4 Mn2 O7 was calculated from the magnetization and its peak absolute value was found to be 3.8 J/kg K for H ¼ 15 kOe at 166 K ðTC ¼ 171 K), which is lower than that in La0:8 Ca0:2 MnO3 (5.3 J/ kg K according to the measurements of Zhou et al (1999)), but comparable with the value in Gd. The SM ðTÞ curve of La1:6 Ca1:4 Mn2 O7 is also broader than that for La0:8 Ca0:2 MnO3 —its full width at half maximum is about 40 K for H ¼ 15 kOe. Himcinschi et al (2001) studied another two

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compounds with Sr3 Ti2 O7 -type crystal structure: La1:4 Ca1:6 Mn2 O7 and La1:2 Yb0:2 Ca1:6 Mn2 O7 . Curie temperature and jSM j peak values in these compounds decreased with adding of Yb, which was related to structural distortions induced by smaller-than-lanthanum Yb3þ ions resulting in weaker Mn–Mn ferromagnetic exchange interactions. The values of jSM j=H for La2=3 Sr1=3 MnO3 compound measured by various authors lie in the wide interval from 0.1 to 0.54 J/kg K kOe (see table 5.2), which complicates their comparison with jSM j=H values for La2=3 Ca1=3 MnO3 . However, if the comparison is made inside the group of materials presented in the same work the general tendency is that jSM j=H values are higher in La2=3 Ca1=3 MnO3 than in La2=3 Sr1=3 MnO3 . This is consistent with the result of Mira et al (1999) about the secondorder character of the magnetic transition at TC in La2=3 Sr1=3 MnO3 . However, in the (La-Sr)MnO3 system, colossal magnetoresistance eﬀect, charge ordering and structural orthorhombic–rhombohedral crystal phase transition take place (Amaitsu et al 1995, Gorkov 1998, Coey et al 1999, Moreo et al 1999) and the values of magnetic entropy change are also rather high. The magnetic entropy change in the La1 x Srx MnO3 system with x ¼ 0.13 and 0.16 was determined by Szewczyk et al (2000)—see table 5.2. The authors also made theoretical calculations of the entropy change in the framework of mean ﬁeld approximation and obtained good agreement between experimental and calculated SM ðTÞ curves, especially for H 50 kOe. The MCE behaviour in La0:7x Yx Sr0:3 MnO3 ceramics ðx ¼ 0, 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.10) was investigated by Bose et al (1998). In accordance with the authors’ idea, if La is substituted by a nonmagnetic trivalent element, this does not change the balance of valances in the manganites and that is why the magnetization of such compositions can remain constant. However, the magnetic transition temperature can change due to the change of interatomic distances if the ionic radius of the doped element is diﬀerent from that of La, and the corresponding violation of the AFM and FM interactions balance. The experimental SM ðTÞ (calculated from magnetization) and TðTÞ (measured directly) curves are shown in ﬁgure 5.18. As one can see, Y substitution essentially changes TC and has only a minor inﬂuence on the magnetic entropy change. However, it should be noted that according to the results of Zhang et al (1996), jSM j in Y-substituted La0:6 Y0:07 Ca0:33 MnO is essentially lower than in the initial La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO —see table 5.2. The SM ðHÞ curves in the La0:7 x Yx Sr0:3 MnO3 system reveal a tendency to saturation in the highﬁeld region. Higher magnetic entropy change was observed by Sun et al (2002a) in Gd-doped La0:5 Gd0:2 Sr0:3 MnO3 . The authors reported this with the introduction of an additional career of magnetic moments—Gd in the material. The peak absolute SM value in this material showed near TC

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Figure 5.18. The temperature dependences of jSM j and T induced by H ¼ 60 kOe in the La0:7 x Yx Sr0:3 MnO3 system (Bose et al 1998).

almost linear dependence on magnetic ﬁeld up to 80 kOe with no saturation. Besides, the SM ðTÞ curve in this compound was rather wide—for H ¼ 10 kOe its full width at half maximum was 30 K. La0:67 Sr0:33 Mn0:9 Cr0:1 O3 compound, where Mn was substituted by Cr, was studied by Sun et al (2001). The maximum value of jSM j ¼ 5.8 J/kg K was found for H ¼ 60 kOe near TC . On high-ﬁeld SM ðTÞ curves a second shoulder maximum on about 10 K higher than the maximum corresponding to the Curie temperature was observed. Zhong et al (1998a,b, 1999) substituted La in the manganites by monovalent alkali metals K and Na. The results obtained for magnetic entropy change in these systems are shown in ﬁgure 5.19 and table 5.2. The doping causes Curie temperature increase accompanied by an increase of the jSM j peak value. However, the jSM j values are lower than that in (LaCa)MnO3 compounds.

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Figure 5.19. The temperature dependence of jSM j induced by H ¼ 10 kOe in (a) La1 x Nax MnO3 and (b) La1 x Kx MnO3 systems (Zhong et al 1998b). (Reprinted from Zhong et al 1998b, copyright 1988 by Springer Verlag.)

The ceramic system La1 x Agx MnO3 ðx ¼ 0.05, 0.20, 0.25, 030) also showed TC increase with adding of Agþ ions, which was reported by Tang et al (2000) with enhancement of the double exchange interactions due to increasing of Mn4þ ions concentration. The SM ðTÞ curves for La1 x Agx MnO3 obtained from the magnetization measurements are shown in ﬁgure 5.20. The peak value of jSM j for La0:8 Ag0:2 MnO3

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Figure 5.20. The temperature dependence of jSM j induced by H ¼ 10 kOe in the La1 x Agx MnO3 system (Tang et al 2000). (Reprinted from Tang et al 2000, copyright 2000, with permission from Elsevier.)

ðTC ¼ 278 K) is higher than that for Gd and is at the level of SM values observed in the (LaCa)MnO3 system. Magnetization measurements showed that the La1 x Agx MnO3 compounds investigated are magnetically soft near room temperature with a coercive force value below 10 Oe. A high SM value was obtained on La0:78 Ag0:22 MnO3 ﬁlm with giant magnetoresistance properties (Wang et al 2002a). The magnetic entropy change under charge-ordering transition accompanied by transition from the ferromagnetic to the antiferromagnetic state was investigated in polycrystalline Pr0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3 and (Pr1 x Ndx Þ0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3 ðx ¼ 0, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7 and 1) compounds by Chen et al (2000), Chen and Du (2001) and Sande et al (2001). The IðTÞ curves for the compounds Pr1 x Srx MnO3 ðx ¼ 0.3, 0.4, 0.5) measured by Chen et al (2000) are shown in ﬁgure 5.21. Two of them (for x ¼ 0.3 and 0.4) display typical ferromagnetic behaviour. The Pr0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3 compound ﬁrst orders ferromagnetically at about 205 K, but then at TCO ¼ 161 K turns into a charge-ordered antiferromagnetic state, which is accompanied by an abrupt decrease of magnetization. Near the Curie temperature, all the samples reveal negative SM peaks. In Pr0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3 near 161 K, an additional positive peak is observed (see ﬁgure 5.22) at which SM ¼ 7.1 J/kg K for H ¼ 10 kOe. This is about three times higher than the SM peak value near TC and corresponds to the high value of SM =H ¼ 0.71 J/kg K kOe. This peak can be related to a sharp magnetization change near 161 K caused by ﬁeld-induced collapse of the antiferromagnetic charge-ordered state. It is necessary to note that the charge ordering transition in Pr0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3 is accompanied by an abrupt change of lattice parameters in orthorhombic crystal structure (Knizek 1992), which can give an additional change in magnetization.

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Figure 5.21. The temperature dependence of the magnetization for the Pr1 x Srx MnO3 system in the magnetic ﬁeld of 5 kOe (Chen et al 2000).

An analogous large positive SM was observed at charge-ordering transitions in the ceramic system (Pr1 x Ndx Þ0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3 ðx ¼ 0, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 1) (Chen and Du 2001). These oxides undergo the transition paramagnetism–ferromagnetism at the Curie temperatures lying in the range of 205 K ðx ¼ 0Þ to 268 K ðx ¼ 1Þ—see table 5.2. The charge-ordering transition occurs in the lower temperature range at TCO , ranging from 161 K ðx ¼ 0Þ to 183 K ðx ¼ 1Þ. The magnetic entropy changes at the charge-ordering transitions are listed in table 5.2. As one can see its mean value is about 7 J/kg K. Magnetization on ﬁeld dependences measured by Chen and Du (2001) showed that the magnetic ﬁeld of metamagnetic transition corresponding to destruction of the antiferromagnetic charge-ordered state in

Figure 5.22. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change SM induced by H ¼ 10 kOe in Pr1 x Srx MnO3 (Chen et al 2000).

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the ﬁeld is about 2–4 kOe (the maximum value of 4 kOe was in (Pr0:5 Nd0:5 Þ0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3 Þ; just below TCO . The Pr0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3 compound was also studied by Sande et al (2001). The values obtained of TC , TCO and magnetic entropy change at the charge-ordering transition were somewhat lower than those of Chen and Du (2001). It was also found out that SM monotonically increased with the ﬁeld up to 10 kOe near TCO in this compound. It should be noted that SM ðTÞ peaks near TCO for the investigated compounds were rather narrow—about 10 K for H ¼ 10 kOe. In the Pr0:63 Ca0:37 MnO3 compound at H ¼ 0 the charge ordering takes place at TCO 235 K, then the material orders antiferromagnetically at TN 170 K, and ﬁnally a transition to the AFM canting state with small ferromagnetic component occurs at about 30 K (Raychaudhuri et al 2001). Application of the magnetic ﬁeld causes the appearance below TCO of a mixed state consisting of charge-ordered insulating and ferromagnetic metallic phases. Heat capacity measurements were made on Pr0:63 Ca0:73 MnO3 single crystal in a zero magnetic ﬁeld and 80 kOe by Raychaudhuri et al (2001). The heat capacity anomalies were observed near TCO and TN . A sharp heat capacity peak was found at TCO for H ¼ 0. It persisted in 80 kOe but shifted to lower temperatures with a rate of 0.1 K/kOe. On the basis of the heat capacity data, the temperature dependence of a total entropy was determined with jumps at TCO of 1.8 J=mol K for H ¼ 0 and 1.5 J/mol K for H ¼ 80 kOe. This implies that the ferromagnetic state has lower entropy than the charge-ordered one. Ceramic lanthanum cobaltate La1 x Srx CoO3 with perovskite structure and Sr concentration from 0.05 to 0.40 was investigated by Chaudhary et al (1999). According to the magnetization measurements, the La1 x Srx CoO3 system displays spin-glass-like behaviour for x < 0.2 and cluster-glass-like behaviour with short-range ferromagnetic ordering for x > 0.2 (Itoh et al 1994). The Curie temperature in this system was found to be nearly independent of Sr concentration (within 2.5 K) and equals about 235 K. The samples revealed typical ferromagnetic SM ðTÞ curves with a peak near TC . The peak absolute SM values were small for 0:2 < x and increase up to 1.45 J/kg K for H ¼ 15 kOe in La0:6 Sr0:4 CoO3 . The system La1 x Srx CoO3 with higher Sr concentration ð0:2 < x < 0:5Þ was studied by Luong et al (2002). X-ray measurements showed that the crystal structure of the compounds for x ¼ 0.20–0.45 is rhombohedral and is cubic for x ¼ 0.5. This crystal structure transformation was accompanied by magnetization and magnetic entropy change decrease in La0:5 Sr0:5 CoO3 . The absolute SM =H values obtained by Luong et al (2002) was close to those of Chaudhary et al (1999), although the Curie temperature was changed from 240 to 255 K. The adiabatic temperature change in the doped manganites was determined by Bose et al (1998), Bohigas et al (2000), Zhang et al (2000a), Abramovich et al (2001), Chernyshov et al (2001) and Sun et al (2002b).

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Figure 5.23. Magnetocaloric eﬀect of Sm0:55 Sr0:45 MnO3 as a function of temperature: H ¼ 5 kOe (k), 10 kOe (h) and 14 kOe (S). Data are collected on the heated sample (open symbols) and the cooled sample (closed symbols) (Chernishov et al 2001).

Figure 5.23 shows temperature dependences of T for Sm0:55 Sr0:45 MnO3 measured by Chernishov et al (2001) near TC by a direct method for H ¼ 5, 10 and 14 kOe. One can see some temperature hysteresis of T, characteristic of ﬁrst-order transitions, for the curves measured under cooling and under heating. Direct MCE measurements were also made by Bose et al (1998) and Zhang et al (2000a). One can see from table 5.2 that excluding the value of T=H ¼ 0.548 K/kOe of Abramovich et al (2001), which is obviously overestimated because of uncertainties of the MCE determination method (it was obtained indirectly on the basis of thermal expansion and magnetostriction measurements—see section 3), the values of T=H in the investigated manganites lie in the interval from 0.023 to 0.143 K/kOe, which is essentially lower than in Gd where T=H ¼ 0.195–0.29 K/kOe (see table 8.2). At the same time SM =H in the manganites reach substantial values (in units of J/kg K kOe)—at the level of those in Gd. So high magnetic entropy change in the manganites does not provide high adiabatic temperature change. This circumstance was discussed by Pecharsky and Gschneidner (2001b) on the basis of equation (2.79). It was shown that low T in the manganites is related to their high heat capacity (which is about two times higher than in Gd), because in accordance with equation (2.79) T is inversely proportional to the heat capacity. Heat capacity of the Ca-, Sr- and Ba-doped manganites was studied by Tanaka and Mitsuhashi (1984), Coey et al (1995), Ramirez et al (1996), Woodﬁeld et al (1997), Chivelder et al (1998), Bohigas et al (2000), Hlopkin et al (2000) and Raychaudhuri et al (2001). Low temperature heat capacity

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measurements (in the temperature range up to 20 K) on R0:7 A0:3 MnO3 (R ¼ Y, La; A ¼ Sr, Ba, Ca), Nd0:7 Ba0:3 MnO3 and La1 x Srx MnO3 þ were undertaken by Coey et al (1995) and Woodﬁeld et al (1997). It was shown that the heat capacity of ferromagnetic R0:7 A0:3 MnO3 (R ¼ Y, La; A ¼ Sr, Ba, Ca) obeyed the temperature dependence C ¼ ae T þ bT 3 . For Nd0:7 Ba0:3 MnO3 the heat capacity exhibited the Schottky-type anomaly in the low-temperature region. Woodﬁeld et al (1997) revealed in LaMnO3 in CðTÞ dependence in the low-temperature region term proportional to T 2 , which is typical of spin-wave excitations in a layered antiferromagnet. Ferromagnetic sample La0:7 Mn0:3 MnO3 had the heat capacity term C T 3=2 typical of ferromagnetic spin waves. However, Hlopkin et al (2000) did not ﬁnd in LaMnO3 , La0:8 Sr0:2 MnO3 and La0:7 Sr0:3 MnO3 heat capacity terms proportional to T 3=2 or T 2 . The low-temperature heat capacity of the ferromagnetic insulator La0:9 Ca0:1 MnO3 , ferromagnetic metal La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO3 and antiferromagnetic insulator La0:38 Ca0:62 MnO3 was studied by Chivelder et al (1998). In the ﬁrst sample there was no electronic heat capacity term and the experimental data were best ﬁtted by the expression C ¼ aT 3 þ bT 5 þ cT 3=2 . For La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO3 the experimental data could be approximated by electronic and lattice heat capacity terms. The La0:38 Ca0:62 MnO3 low-temperature speciﬁc heat data were ﬁtted by T 3 and T 2 terms. Tanaka and Mitsuhashi (1984) found in CðTÞ dependence of La0:8 Ca0:2 MnO3 an anomaly, related to the Curie temperature, at 206 K. Chivelder et al (1998) measured CðTÞ dependences for La0:9 Ca0:1 MnO3 , La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO3 and La0:38 Ca0:62 MnO3 in the temperature range from 50 to 300 K in a zero magnetic ﬁeld. The CðTÞ curve of La0:9 Ca0:1 MnO3 did not show a well-deﬁned heat capacity anomaly near the Curie temperature (180 K) and had a peak value of 73.5 J/mol K ð317 J/kg K). Such behaviour was also observed for the sample with this composition by Ramirez et al (1996). The authors related it to a wide magnetic ordering transition in this composition. In La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO3 a sharp anomaly was found on the CðTÞ curve near the Curie temperature at 263 K (the peak value of 195 J/mol K ð930 J/kg K)). A well deﬁned but rather wide peak on the CðTÞ curve was also observed in La0:38 Ca0:62 MnO3 at 270 K (the peak value of 142 J/mol K ð785 J/kg K)). The zero ﬁeld CðTÞ dependences for temperatures up to 400 K were measured for ceramic LaMnO3 , La0:8 Sr0:2 MnO3 and La0:7 Sr0:3 MnO3 by Hlopkin et al (2000). The heat capacity anomalies (peaks) in these samples were observed at the magnetic phase transitions from paramagnetic to magnetically ordered states (AFM for LaMnO3 and FM for La0:8 Sr0:2 MnO3 and La0:7 Sr0:3 MnO3 Þ. The peak heat capacity values for La0:8 Sr0:2 MnO3 (at 296 K) and La0:7 Sr0:3 MnO3 (at 345 K) were 605 J/kg K and 660 J/kg K, respectively. Bohigas et al (2000) measured heat capacity temperature dependence on La0:6 Ca0:4 MnO3 in the temperature range up to 300 K and in the ﬁelds up to 30 kOe. The CðTÞ curve displayed an anomaly typical for second-order transitions in a zero

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Figure 5.24. Temperature dependences of the thermal conductivity of La1 x Cax MnO3 polycrystals (Cohn et al 1997). (Copyright 1997 by the American Physical Society.)

ﬁeld at 260 K (the anomaly peak value was 640 J/kg K). In magnetic ﬁeld the anomaly became smoother and for H ¼ 30 kOe the peak heat capacity value near TC was 570 J/kg K. In connection with the analysis of Pecharsky and Gschneidner (2001b) it should be mentioned that, in Gd, zero ﬁeld peak heat capacity near TC is 382 J/kg K and drops to 268 J/kg K in a magnetic ﬁeld of 50 kOe (see ﬁgure 8.1). The thermal conductivity of polycrystalline La1 x Cax MnO3 compounds ðx ¼ 0, 0.1, 0.15, 0.3, 0.65) was studied by Cohn et al (1997) and Visser et al (1997). The values of thermal conductivity of these materials were rather low. At 300 K the thermal conductivity of LaMnO3 is 0.01 W/cm K and monotonically decreases with cooling. Figure 5.24 shows temperature dependences of the thermal conductivity of La1 x Cax MnO3 polycrystals measured by Cohn et al (1997). Addition of Ca caused an increase of the thermal conductivity values. As one can see above TC (255 K) in La0:7 Ca0:3 MnO3 , the thermal conductivity decreases with cooling, and below TC it increases, reaching a maximum of 0.035 W/ cm K at about 30 K. Analogous behaviour of the thermal conductivity for La0:7 Ca0:3 MnO3 was found by Visser et al (1997). Charge-ordering transition was observed at TCO ¼ 275 K in La0:35 Ca0:65 MnO3 . In this sample the thermal conductivity decrease was observed in the whole temperature range with an anomaly corresponding to TCO and a rapid decrease below 30 K (Cohn et al 1997). However, no anomalies at TC ¼ 170 K were observed on the thermal conductivity temperature dependence of La0:9 Ca0:1 MnO3 , which almost linearly decreased with cooling from the value of 1.2 W/cm K at 350 K (Visser et al 1997). Visser et al (1997) also measured the temperature dependences of thermal conductivity on La0:6 Pb0:4 MnO3 and La0:2 Nd0:4 Pb0:4 MnO3 single crystals. They displayed behaviour analogous with that of La0:7 Ca0:3 MnO3 . At 350 K the thermal

168

Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

conductivity of La0:6 Pb0:4 MnO3 and La0:2 Nd0:4 Pb0:4 MnO3 was 0.025 W/ cm K and 0.01 W/cm K, respectively. With cooling the thermal conductivity ﬁrst decreased and then below TC (350 K for La0:6 Pb0:4 MnO3 and 270 K for La0:2 Nd0:4 Pb0:4 MnO3 Þ it increased, reaching the maximum values of 0.05 W/cm K for La0:6 Pb0:4 MnO3 at 40 K and 0.01 W/cm K for La0:2 Nd0:4 Pb0:4 MnO3 at 170 K. Similar thermal conductivity temperature dependences were observed in La0:83 Sr0:17 MnO3 and Pr0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3 polycrystals by Cohn et al (1997). The maximum thermal conductivity below TC (275 K for La0:83 Sr0:17 MnO3 and 265 K for Pr0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3 Þ in La0:83 Sr0:17 MnO3 was found to be 0.04 W/cm K (at 120 K) and in Pr0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3 was 0.028 W/cm K (at 160 K). At 300 K both compounds displayed the thermal conductivity of 0.022 W/cm K. The inﬂuence of a magnetic ﬁeld on the thermal conductivity was studied for La0:2 Nd0:4 Pb0:4 MnO3 , La0:83 Sr0:17 MnO3 and Pr0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3 (Cohn et al 1997, Visser et al 1997). It was found that application of a magnetic ﬁeld caused an increase in thermal conductivity. Near TC in La0:2 Nd0:4 Pb0:4 MnO3 thermal conductivity increased from a zero-ﬁeld value of 0.0075 W/cm K to 0.01 W/cm K. Some numerical values of LaMnO3 and La0:7 Ca0:3 MnO3 thermal conductivity are presented in table A2.1 in appendix 2.

5.3

3d oxide compounds

The MCE in manganese spinel ferrites–chromites MnFe2 x Crx O4 (0 x 1:6) was measured by Belov et al (1974)—see ﬁgure 5.25. The samples with x ¼ 0 and 0.125 display a typical ferromagnetic behaviour in the whole investigated temperature range, with a maximum of T near the Curie point. The maximum MCE value in MnFe2 O4 is T 0:48 K for H ¼ 16 kOe near TC 570 K. For the samples with x > 0.125 the MCE changed its sign in the low-temperature region. This change corresponds to the speciﬁc compensation point, arising due to noncollinear Fe3þ and Cr3þ ions’ spin alignment in the octahedral B-sublattice characterized by local slant angles. Due to the temperature dependence of the local slant angles the total magnetic moment of the B-sublattice can become equal to the total magnetic moment of the tetrahedral A-sublattice. Such a compensation point is diﬃcult to disclose from magnetization measurements, but it is clearly seen on the TðTÞ curves. For example, this compensation point is observed in the sample with x ¼ 1.085, where the total magnetic moment of the A-sublattice is higher than that of B-sublattice in the low-temperature region, and is directed along the magnetic ﬁeld causing a ferromagnetic paraprocess in A-sublattice. Above 150 K the B-sublattice becomes stronger and is aligned along the ﬁeld direction. Such change of the sublattice magnetization directions is accompanied by the MCE sign change—see ﬁgure 5.25—and is conﬁrmed by the magnetization measurements. The

3d oxide compounds

169

Figure 5.25. Temperature dependence of the MCE in MnFe2 x Crx O4 induced by H ¼ 16 kOe (Belov et al 1974).

negative sign of the MCE in the temperature interval from 150 to 300 K is explained by the more intensive antiferromagnetic paraprocess in the A-sublattice than the ferromagnetic paraprocess in the B-sublattice in this temperature range. At about 305 K the antiferromagnetic and ferromagnetic contributions to the MCE become equal to each other, but above 305 K and near the Curie temperature the ferromagnetic contribution prevails. The fuzziness of the MCE maximum near TC in the sample with x ¼ 1.085 is related to the weakness of the intersublattice exchange interaction caused by substitution of Fe3þ ions in the B-sublattice by Cr3þ ions. Nikolaev et al (1966) found a change of sign of the MCE in the nickel– chromite NiFeCrO4 at the magnetic compensation point ðTcomp ¼ 333 K). The observed eﬀect can be explained on the basis of antiferromagnetic and ferromagnetic paraprocess conception (see section 2.6). The MCE in the spinel Li2 Fe5 Cr5 O16 was measured by Belov et al (1968). A sign change of the MCE was also observed at the compensation point in this compound—see ﬁgure 5.26. In the low-temperature region the MCE was not high and decreased with temperature decreasing, which was diﬀerent from the low-temperature MCE in Gd3 Fe5 O12 —see ﬁgures 5.1 and 5.2. Such behaviour

170

Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

Figure 5.26. The temperature dependence of the MCE induced by H ¼ 16 kOe in the spinel Li2 Fe5 Cr5 O16 (Belov et al 1968).

was related to the low intensity of the paraprocess in the A- and B-sublattices due to the strong intersublattice exchange interactions. Sucksmith et al (1953) used experimental magnetocaloric data to obtain the Is ðTÞ curve of the mixed magnesium–zinc ferrite MgOZnO:2Fe2 O3 from T on I 2 dependences. Belov et al (1977), Zhilyakov et al (1993, 1994) and Naiden and Zhilyakov (1997), investigated the MCE in hexagonal ferrites. The MCE in polycrystalline BaFe12 x Cox Tix O19 (CoTi–M structure x ¼ 0–3) and BaCa2 x Znx Fe16 O27 (CoZn–W structure x ¼ 0–3) was measured below the Curie temperature in the temperature range from 150 to 500 K (Zhilyakov et al 1993, 1994). In these ferrimagnets, warming causes a set of spin-reorientation transitions—from easy cone to easy plane (at T1 Þ, from easy plane to easy cone ðT2 Þ and from easy cone to easy axis ðT3 Þ. Which magnetic state (easy plane, easy cone or easy axis) will be realized in the hexagonal ferrite sample is determined by the ratio of the magnetic anisotropy constant of diﬀerent orders. Temperatures T1 , T2 and T3 depend on x and for BaCo0:62 Zn1:38 Fe16 O27 are 115, 220 and 260 K, and for BaCo0:7 Zn1:3 Fe16 O27 are 120, 250 and 300 K, respectively. Diﬀerential thermal analysis of the CoZn–W ferrite at H ¼ 0 showed that there was a peak of about 0.1 K near 310 K, where the spin-reorientation transition from easy plane to easy cone takes place. In the presence of a magnetic ﬁeld in CoTi–M (x ¼ 1.2) and CoZn–W (x ¼ 1.0) ferrites, the maxima at the spin-reorientation transitions and sign changes of the MCE from negative to positive at 300 K and from positive to negative at 420 K with warming were observed. The maximum absolute value of the

3d oxide compounds

171

Figure 5.27. Temperature dependence of the MCE in the textured CoZn–W hexaferrite with x ¼ 1.3 for various H: (1) 2 kOe; (2) 8 kOe; (3) 12 kOe (Zhilyakov et al 1994).

negative MCE was about 0.2 K at T 150 K in CoZn–W ferrite and the value of the positive MCE was about 0.1 K at T 340 K in CoTi–M (x ¼ 1.2) for H ¼ 7 kOe. The MCE temperature behaviour was reported by the authors with competition between the anisotropy constants determining the magnetocrystalline anisotropy along the hexagonal axis. Results of Zhilyakov et al (1993, 1994) show that the absolute values of the MCE in the polycrystalline hexagonal ferrites are small in the temperature range from 150 to 450 K. Much higher MCE values were induced in the basal plane textured samples of CoZn–W hexaferrites ð0 x 2:0Þ by the magnetic ﬁeld directed along the hard magnetization axis (Zhilyakov et al 1994). For the samples with x ¼ 1.1–1.5 the ﬁrst-order spin-reorientation transitions are observed in the presence of a magnetic ﬁeld in the temperature interval between T1 and T3 . Figure 5.27 shows the MCE near such a transition at T2 ¼ 250 K in the textured CoZn–W hexaferrite for the ﬁeld aligned perpendicular to the texture plane. When H ¼ 2 kOe, which is lower than the critical ﬁeld of the transition (about 9 kOe), the absolute MCE value has a weak peak near 250 K. For H ¼ 12 kOe this MCE peak is much higher and pronounced and is shifted towards the low-temperature region. The peak absolute value of the MCE for H ¼ 12 kOe is comparable with the MCE value in rare earth materials (see section 8). The estimations made by the authors showed that the main contribution to the MCE at T ¼ T2 is related to the ﬁeld-induced spin-reorientation transitions. Naiden and Zhiliakov (1997) calculated the MCE in a CoZn–W (x ¼ 1.38) hexaferrite single crystal for a magnetic ﬁeld directed along the hexagonal axis and in the basal plane. The calculations were made on the

172

Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

basis of the formula TDB T @I cosð Þ dH dT ¼ CH HIA CH @T

ð5:1Þ

where A, B and D are the values related to magnetocrystalline anisotropy constants K1 , K2 and K3 , is the angle between magnetization and the caxis, is the angle between the magnetic ﬁeld direction and the c-axis. The ﬁrst term in square brackets in equation (5.1) corresponds to the anisotropic part of the MCE and the second term is related to the MCE of the paraprocess. Experimental data on temperature dependences of magnetization, anisotropy constants and heat capacity, as well as previously determined equilibrium values of , were used in the calculations. Peaks of negative (approximately 0.65 K) and positive (1.5 K) MCE were presented on the calculated TðTÞ dependences for the ﬁeld applied along the c-axis and in the basal plane ðH ¼ 8 kOe) at 210 and 230 K, respectively ðT2 for this compound is 220 K). According to the Naiden–Zhiliakov data, these temperatures correspond to the most intensive transformation of the magnetic phase diagram of the investigated compound by a magnetic ﬁeld. The hexagonal ferrite with Cox W structure and composition 3þ BaCo1:65 Fe2þ 0:35 Fe16 O27 was investigated by Belov et al (1977) in the temperature range from 200 to 800 K. This compound is characterized by the dependence of the orientation of the magnetic moments on temperature. At room-temperature, spins lie in the basal plane and the c-axis is the hard magnetization axis. With temperature increasing, spins turn from the basal plane towards the c-axis, forming a cone of easy magnetization axes. In the high-temperature region the c-axis becomes the easy magnetization axis. There are two maxima on the TðTÞ curve measured in the basal plane for H ¼ 10 kOe: the ﬁrst at about 400 K ðT 0.05 K) and the second at 0.16 K near the Curie temperature (750 K). The ﬁrst anomaly corresponds to the second-order transition–spin reorientation from the basal plane to the c-axis. On the TðTÞ curve measured along the c-axis there is an MCE sign change near this temperature. 3þ Belov et al (1977) considered the MCE in BaCo1:65 Fe2þ 0:35 Fe16 O27 ~ related to the rotation of the spontaneous magnetization vector Is by the magnetic ﬁeld H in strong magnetic ﬁelds. This contribution to the total MCE ðTr Þ can be calculated by integration of equation (2.135) from 0 (the angle between the c-axis and I~s Þ to H (the angle between the c-axis and the magnetic ﬁeld) and has the form T @K1 @K2 ðsin2 H sin2 0 Þ þ ðsin4 H sin4 0 Þ Tr ¼ @T CH @T @K3 ðsin6 H sin6 0 Þ : ð5:2Þ þ @T

3d oxide compounds

173

Figure 5.28. Calculated dependences of T r (a) and experimental dependence of the MCE 3þ (b) in BaCo1:65 Fe2þ 0:35 Fe16 O27 on the angle between the c-axis and magnetic ﬁeld at diﬀerent temperatures: (a) curve 1 (296.7 K), 2 (329.5 K), 3 (398 K), 4 (438 K), 5 (545 K), 6 (637 K); (b) curve 1 (291.8 K), 2 (343.2 K), 3 (368 K), 4 (387 K), 5 (452 K), 6 (545 K), 7 (641.5 K) (Belov et al 1977).

In the compound studied, the constant K3 turns to zero above 200 K and K2 above 430 K, which simpliﬁes calculations by equation (5.2). The results of calculations made on the basis of the experimental K1 ðTÞ, K2 ðTÞ and 0 ðTÞ dependences in the temperature range above 290 K are shown in ﬁgure 5.28(a). There is an oscillation of the T with H changing. Curve 1 corresponds to 296.7 K, where the magnetic moments lie in the basal plane ð0 ¼ 0Þ. T for this temperature is negative for all H and has

174

Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

maximum absolute value when the ﬁeld is directed along hard magnetization c-axis ðH ¼ 0Þ and minimum absolute value when the ﬁeld is directed in the basal plane ðH ¼ 0Þ. Curve 3 (398 K) corresponds to the case when the spins are aligned along the c-axis (now the easy magnetization axis) and T here is positive for all H . At 545 K (curve 5) the constant K2 becomes zero and @K1 =@T 0, which implies independence of T on H . The results of the experimental measurements are shown in ﬁgure 5.28(b). As one can see they conform in general to the calculated TðH Þ curves. The observed shift of the curves upwards is related to the presence of the contribution from the magnetocaloric eﬀect caused by the paraprocess (this contribution increases with temperature). Druzhinin et al (1979) calculated the dependences TðTÞ for various values of the angle formed by the ﬁeld and the threefold axis in corundum (Al2 O3 Þ with 0.13% of V3þ . The calculations were made allowing for uniaxial magnetic anisotropy and uniaxial g-tensor anisotropy on the basis of a spin Hamiltonian with the parameters known from the experiment. The sign and the value of the MCE were shown to depend on the angle between the ﬁeld and the threefold axis. The single crystal Al2 O3 –V3þ revolved rapidly in the magnetic ﬁeld of 93.4 kOe display oscillations of the MCE in the temperature range from 0 to 8 K—see ﬁgure 5.29. Litvinenko et al (1973) and Borovikov et al (1981) explored the MCE in an antiferromagnetic ðTN ¼ 32 K) single crystal siderite FeCO3 in a pulsed

Figure 5.29. The MCE temperature dependences in Al2 O3 –V3þ for H ¼ 93.4 kOe and diﬀerent values of the angle between the magnetic ﬁeld and the threefold crystal axis (Druzhinin et al 1979).

RXO4 compounds

175

magnetic ﬁeld of 300 kOe. The sample displayed essential ﬁeld hysteresis at the metamagnetic transition from the antiferromagnetic to ferromagnetic state. The value of the MCE at 4.2 K in a ﬁeld of 300 kOe was 24 K. Some features of phase transitions in antiferromagnets under adiabatic conditions were studied theoretically by Borovikov et al (1981), and it was shown that adiabaticity could be violated in some cases. This eﬀect can lead to nonstationary phenomena.

5.4

RXO4 compounds

Rare earth compounds RXO4 (where X ¼ V, As, P, and R is the rare earth ion) have tetragonal zircon-type crystal structure. Some of them display a low-temperature crystallographic transition caused by the cooperative Jahn–Teller eﬀect, which gives an additional contribution to the entropy change. A magnetic ﬁeld can also inﬂuence this transition. DyVO4 exhibits a crystallographic transition at 14.3 K and an antiferromagnetic one at 3 K. Figure 5.30 shows temperature dependences of the total entropy in DyVO4 in various magnetic ﬁelds determined from the heat capacity data of Daudin et al (1982a). The shoulders near 3 and 15 K in the entropy curve corresponding to H ¼ 0 are related to antiferromagnetic and structural phase transitions, respectively. Kimura et al (1998) studied magnetization of single crystals of Dy1 x Gdx VO4 ðx ¼ 0, 0.25, 0.5 and 1) in the temperature range from 3 to

Figure 5.30. Temperature dependences of the total entropy in DyVO4 for various values of the external magnetic ﬁeld (Daudin et al 1982a). (Reprinted from Daudin et al 1982a, copyright 1982, with permission from Elsevier.)

176

Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

20 K. X-ray measurements conﬁrmed that all crystals had zircon-type tetragonal structure. It was found that the easy magnetization axis is the a-axis, and the crystals are paramagnetic in the investigated temperature range. On the IðTÞ curve measured in 50 kOe along the c-axis for DyVO4 the peak corresponding to the Jahn–Teller crystallographic transition was observed at 14 K. For other investigated crystals this peak was not found. The inverse d.c. magnetic susceptibility of the samples with x ¼ 0.5 and 1 obeyed the Curie–Weiss law and that of DyVO4 and Dy0:75 Gd0:25 VO4 had deviations due to the Jahn–Teller eﬀect. In particular, the positive paramagnetic Curie temperatures were found for the latter samples (for others they were negative). The anisotropy of the crystals was weakened by adding Gd. Figure 5.31 shows magnetic entropy change temperature dependences for the investigated crystals calculated from the magnetization measurements. One can see the anomalies related to the Jahn–Teller eﬀect at 14 K

Figure 5.31. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change in Dy1 x Gdx VO4 single crystals induced by H ¼ 50 kOe: (a) x ¼ 0 (k) and x ¼ 0.25 (S); (b) x ¼ 0.5 (h) and x ¼ 1 (5). The open symbols correspond to the measurements along the c-axis and the solid symbols correspond to those along the a-axis (Kimura et al 1998).

RXO4 compounds

177

in DyVO4 and at about 8 K at Dy0:75 Gd0:25 VO4 . The absolute values of SM in Dy0:75 Gd0:25 VO4 are superior to those in DyAlO3 , Dy3 Al5 O12 and Gd3 Ga5 O12 . It should also be noted that, in Dy0:75 Gd0:25 VO4 single crystal, Jahn–Teller stresses are small and cannot cause crystal cracking. Kimura et al (1998) also measured the thermal conductivity of DyVO4 and GdVO4 single crystals along the c-axis in the temperature range from 5 K to 28 K. In both compounds the thermal conductivity had a general trend to decrease with cooling, although GdVO4 had essentially larger thermal conductivity values than DyVO4 . Some numerical values of the thermal conductivity of GdVO4 and DyVO4 are presented in table A2.1 in appendix 2. In the work of Fischer et al (1991) the results of temperature change in magnetic ﬁeld GdVO4 at the initial temperature of 1.1 K were cited. According to them the MCE for H ¼ 23 kOe is negative and has the maximum absolute value of about 0.7 K. In high magnetic ﬁelds the eﬀect called ‘crossover’ is observed in RVO4 compounds (Kazei et al 1998, 2000, 2001). Crossover consists of crossing of the magnetic ion ground energy level by a higher energy level in a magnetic ﬁeld due to the Zeeman eﬀect. It is accompanied by a sharp increase of the magnetization and a peak in diﬀerential magnetic susceptibility dI/dH. The susceptibility peaks related to the crossover were observed experimentally in YbPO4 (at 2500 kOe at 4.2 K) and PrVO4 (at 450 kOe in the temperature range below 24 K) (Kazei et al 1998, 2000, 2001). The magnetocaloric eﬀect in YbPO4 and PrVO4 related to the crossover was calculated by Kazei et al (1998, 2000, 2001). TðHÞ dependences were determined by equation (2.16) and magnetization calculated using numerical diagonalizations of the system Hamiltonian. The results of calculations for PrVO4 for the case when the magnetic ﬁeld is directed along the [001] axis are presented in ﬁgure 5.32, where adiabatic magnetization and TðHÞ curves for temperatures below 24 K are shown. As one can see near the ﬁeld corresponding to the crossover, there are magnetization jumps and maximal temperature change. The form and depth of the minimum in TðHÞ curves depends on the initial sample temperature. The maximum absolute temperature change related to the crossover (about 20 K) is observed for the initial temperature of 22 K. The TðHÞ curve calculated for YbPO4 magnetized along the [001] crystallographic direction for the initial temperature of 4.2 K shows that the sample is ﬁrst heated by about 25 K, and then near the crossover ﬁeld is cooled by 25 K with subsequent heating. Experimental investigation of the TðHÞ curve can give information about the crystal ﬁeld, since it determines the energy structure of the rare earth ion and TðHÞ behaviour. To summarize, in this section we have considered magnetocaloric properties of various oxides. Rare earth garnets and ferrites do not display an essential magnetocaloric eﬀect. However, the MCE studies in this case allow us to get information about magnetic structure transformations and magnetic phase transitions, which is diﬃcult or even impossible to obtain

178

Magnetocaloric effect in oxides

Figure 5.32. Calculated adiabatic magnetization and temperature ﬁeld dependences in PrVO4 (a magnetic ﬁeld is directed along the [001] axis) for diﬀerent initial temperatures: (1) 4.2 K; (2) 10 K; (3) 22 K; (4) 24 K (Kazei et al 2000).

by other methods. Substituting magnetic ions by various elements, investigators determine the details of magnetic structure and magnetic interactions in these compounds on the basis of the MCE data. Gallium and aluminium rare earth garnets, rare earth orthoaluminates and vanadites reveal essential magnetic entropy and adiabatic temperature change in the low-temperature range. Because of that they can be considered as appropriate materials for magnetic cryocoolers. Such interesting eﬀects as the crossover observed in high magnetic ﬁelds in rare earth vanadites, accompanied by magnetocaloric eﬀect, should also be mentioned. The doped perovskite-type manganites are characterized by essential magnetic entropy change near the Curie temperatures (insulator–conductor transition) and especially near ﬁrst-order FM– AFM transition at the transition to the charge-ordered state. However, the adiabatic temperature change in these compounds is not high. According to consideration of Pecharsky and Gschneidner (2001b) this experimentally observed fact is related to high heat capacity in the manganites. This can make diﬃcult their application in magnetic cooling devices.

Chapter 6 Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

In this chapter we consider intermetallic magnetic compounds containing rare earth elements. Among them, two large groups of the materials where the magnetocaloric properties were studied can be singled out—alloys and compounds between rare earth and nonmagnetic elements and those between rare earth and 3d metal elements. In the ﬁrst group RE ions are the only carriers of the magnetic moment (to this group the compounds R–Ni can also be attributed because Ni in them does not have a magnetic moment). These materials can display not only ferromagnetic but also more complex types of magnetic ordering, in particular due to the crystalline ﬁeld eﬀects. In RE–Fe compounds there are two magnetic sublattices, Fe and RE, ordered ferrimagnetically, and they exhibit magnetic behaviour analogous to that observed in rare earth iron garnets. The magnetic moment of Co in RE–Co compounds has an itinerant nature and according to the existing models is induced by a molecular ﬁeld acting from an RE sublattice. The transition to magnetically ordered state in some of these materials is of the ﬁrst order. There is also a metamagnetic transition induced by an external magnetic ﬁeld related to the itinerant behaviour of the Co moment. Because of that it is possible to expect essential values of the magnetocaloric eﬀect in RE–Co compounds.

6.1 6.1.1

Rare earth–nonmagnetic element compounds Rare earth–aluminium compounds

RAl2 compounds have the cubic Laves phase (Cu2 Mg-type) structure and display magnetic phase transition from the paramagnetic to the ferromagnetic state at the Curie temperature TC (Taylor and Darby 1972). Magnetocaloric properties of RAl2 series are the most thoroughly studied among the rare earth–nonmagnetic element compounds. 179

180

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

Figure 6.1. Temperature dependences of SM induced by H ¼ 50 kOe in RAl2 alloys: (A) ErAl2 ; (B) HoAl2 ; (C) (Dy0:5 Ho0:5 )Al2 ; (D) DyAl2 ; (E) (Gd0:1 Dy0:9 )Al2 (Hashimoto 1991).

Hashimoto et al (1986) and Hashimoto (1991) measured the heat capacity and the magnetization of the RAl2 compounds with R ¼ Er, Ho and Dy, and of (Gd0:1 Dy0:9 )Al2 and (Dy0:5 Ho0:5 )Al2 . The SM ðTÞ curves determined from the magnetization data are shown in ﬁgure 6.1. The analogous peaks were observed on SM ðTÞ curves near TC in other RAl2 compounds investigated. Gschneidner et al (1994a,b, 1996a,b) determined the magnetic entropy SM in RAl2 compounds on the basis of the magnetic heat capacity data and the formula obtained on the basis of equation (2.62): ðT 0 CH ðTÞ dT ð6:1Þ SM ðH; TÞ ¼ T 0 0 is the magnetic heat capacity contribution to the total heat capawhere CH city, which approaches zero at temperatures far from the temperature of transition from paramagnetic to magnetically-ordered state. The prorated zero-ﬁeld heat capacities of LaAl2 and LuAl2 were used to evaluate the lattice contributions needed for CM determination of the (Dy1 x Erx )Al2 system. The magnetic entropy change SM , induced by ﬁeld change H, was obtained from the heat capacity measurements at various magnetic ﬁelds (see section 3.2.2). The experimental data on SM , SM and T in various polycrystalline RAl2 alloys are presented in table 6.1. The majority of the results on rare earth–nonmagnetic element alloys was summarized in the reports of Gschneidner et al (1996a,b). The amount of the magnetic entropy SM utilized in the magnetic ordering process (see table 6.1) was determined on the basis of the values of the theoretically available maximum entropy

167

–

63.9

– –

13.6

22 – – –

167

105 108

63.3

55.9 28.6 31

13

11.7 11 25 50

Compound

GdAl2

TbAl2

DyAl2

HoAl2

ErAl2

ErAl2:20 HoAl2:24 DyAl2:22

Tmax (K)

TC (K)

9 – – –

14.2

– 4.6

9.18 3.6

5.2 2.1 – 4.4 2.2 1

T (K)

50 – – –

75

– 20

75 20

75 20 – 50 20 14

H (kOe)

MCE peak

1.8 – – –

18.93

– 23

12.24 1.8

6.93 10.5 – 8.8 11 7.1

T=H (102 ) (K/kOe)

– – –

21.8

– –

20.6

–

15.3

Experimental value (J/molR K)

SM

– – –

94.6

– –

89.4

–

91.4

% of theoretical value 7.6 4.2 14 7.5 11.4 5.5 3.1 18.5 9.7 18.9 28.8 25.6 12.8 36.15 22.6 34.3 27.3 22.2 19.3

SM (J/kg K) 50 20 50 20 50 20 10 50 20 50 50 50 20 50 20 50 50 50 50

H (kOe) 15.2 21 28 37.5 22.8 27.6 31 37 48.5 37.8 57.6 51.3 64.1 72.3 113 68.6 54.6 44.4 38.6

SM = H 102 (J/kg K kOe)

SM peak

7 7 7

1, 2 5, 6

6 23

1, 2 5, 6

23

1 2, 3 4

Ref.

Table 6.1. The Curie temperatures (TC ), temperature of the maximum in the TðTÞ curves (Tmax ), magnetic entropy SM , peak magnetic entropy change SM near the Curie temperature induced by the magnetic ﬁeld change H, peak MCE value T at T ¼ Tmax induced by H, T=H and SM =H of polycrystalline RE–nonmagnetic element alloys. The values of SM are in J/mol K per RE atom (J/molR K).

Rare earth–nonmagnetic element compounds 181

140

54.4 45.5 39.3 37.8 46 32

24

16.3 3 5.5;

(Ho0:5 Dy0:5 )Al2:25 (Gd0:06 Er0:94 )Al2 (Gd0:14 Er0:86 )Al2

(Tb0:4 Gd0:6 )Al2

(Dy0:85 Er0:15 )Al2 (Dy0:70 Er0:30 )Al2 (Dy0:55 Er0:45 )Al2 (Dy0:50 Er0:50 )Al2

(Dy0:25 Er0:75 )Al2

(Dy0:10 Er0:90 )Al2 ErAlGa Er3 AlC

Er3 AlC0:1

2.8

34 13 40

Compound

(Dy0:40 Er0:60 )Al2

TC (K)

Table 6.1. Continued.

9

17.7 6 5 4.5

24.4

55.7 47.5 40.8 38.2 – 31.6

–

– 30 25

Tmax (K)

6

11 8.5 13.1 10.4 12.8 14.6

9.59 9.83 10.5 10.5 – 10.4

– 13 8.8 4.5 –

T (K)

75.3

75 50 75 75.3 75.3 98.5

75 75 75 75 – 75

– 80 70 30 –

H (kOe)

MCE peak

8

14.67 17 17.46 13.81 17 14.82

12.79 13.11 14 14 – 13.86

–

–

–

T=H (102 ) (K/kOe)

–

21.4 – –

21.6

21 21.3 20.7 21.0 – 21

–

– – –

Experimental value, (J/molR K)

SM

–

92.8 – –

93.7

91.1 92.4 89.8 91.1 – 91.1

–

– – –

% of theoretical value

–

– – –

21.8

10.5 5.3 – – – – 21.9 22.3

16.9 – –

SM (J/kg K)

–

– – –

50

50 20 – – – – 50 50

50 – –

H (kOe)

–

– – –

43.6

21 26.5 – – – – 43.8 44.6

33.8 – –

SM = H 102 (J/kg K kOe)

SM peak

1, 2 1, 2 1, 2 1, 2 6 1, 2, 10 1, 2, 10 1, 2 11, 12 2, 12 13 12

4

7 8 9

Ref.

182 Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

– 273 260

281 279.2 281

38

18(TN ) 323

19.93 20 7.8(TN ) 9.2(TN ) 270

295 191

Gd3 Al2

GdPd

Gd3 Pd4 Gd7 Pd3

GdRh

TmCu TmAg GdZn

Gd0:70 Zn0:30 Gd3 In

295 210 200

9 10 270

–

– 328

7 7.3 10.6 3 9 7.3 2

8 9.6 9.2 11.6 – 4.6 7 2.4 8.7 5.2 – 8.5 3.4 – 80 80 100 20 75 100 20

75.3 98.5 75.3 98.5 – 55 100 20 70 30 – 50 20 – 8.75 9.13 10.6 15 12 7.3 10

10.62 9.75 12.22 11.78 – 8.36 7 12 12.43 7.47 – 17 17 –

– –

– – –

17.4

16.41 –

– – – – – – 13.8

–

– –

– – –

100

95 –

– – – – – – 78.9

–

15 15.5 11.2 3.4 9.4 2.7 0.8

1.3 6.4 2.6 –

– – 3.6 – 7.2 2.3 –

–

80 80 100 20 75 100 20

98.5 50 20 –

– – 11 – 100 20 –

–

18.75 19.4 11.2 17 12.53 2.7 4

1.31 12.8 13 –

– – 32.7 – 7.2 11.6 –

–

20 21

17 18 19 19 20

16 22

2, 9

10 14 15

12

12

1. Gschneidner et al (1996b); 2. Gschneidner et al (1996a); 3. Dan’kov et al (2000); 4. Wang et al (2000); 5. von Ranke et al (1998a); 6. Hashimoto et al (1986); 7. Sahashi et al (1987); 8. Johanson et al (1988); 9. Zimm et al (1992); 10. Korte et al (1998a); 11. Sill and Esau (1984); 12. Pecharsky et al (1996); 13. Tokai et al (1992a); 14. Nikitin et al (1989a); 15. Pecharsky et al (1999); 16. Tanoue et al (1992); 17. Azhar et al (1985); 18. Buschow et al (1975); 19. Rawat and Das (2001a); 20. Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1999b); 21. Ilyn et al (2000); 22 Canepa et al (2002); 23. Ilyn et al (2001).

7

Er3 AlC0:5

38

9

Er3 AlC0:25

Rare earth–nonmagnetic element compounds 183

184

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds Table 6.2. Maximum value of the magnetic entropy and total angular momentum SM in RE metals.

Element

J

SM (J/mol K)

SM (J/kg K)

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

0 5/2 4 9/2 4 5/2 0 7/2 6 15/2 8 15/2 6 7/2 0

0 14.9 16.2 19.2 18.3 19.2 0 17.3 21.3 23.1 23.6 23.1 21.3 17.3 0

0 106.34 114.96 133.11 126.28 127.69 0 110.02 134.02 142.15 143.09 138.11 126.09 99.98 0

related to the R ion, calculated by means of equation (2.66) using J for the corresponding RE element (see table 6.2). As one can see from tables 6.1 and 6.2, the experimental SM is about 10–20% lower than the theoretical value. The residuary part of the magnetic entropy is related to magnetic spin ﬂuctuations above TC (Gschneidner et al 1996b). The values of T in table 6.1 are taken at the temperature Tmax corresponding to the maximum at the temperature dependence of the MCE. The Curie temperatures were determined from a.c. susceptibility and magnetization measurements. The SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves for GdAl2 were obtained by Dan’kov et al (2000) from heat capacity, magnetization and direct pulse-ﬁeld measurements. The results of the diﬀerent methods are in good agreement with each other—see ﬁgure 6.2. The magnetic ﬁeld dependence of the MCE eﬀect value at TC showed behaviour typical of ferromagnets—a rapid increase for low ﬁelds and more moderate and almost linear increase for the ﬁelds higher than 20 kOe. SM and T for RAl2 (R ¼ Tb, Dy, Er and Ho) were deﬁned from heat capacity, magnetization and by a direct method by von Ranke et al (1998a), Wang et al (2000) and Ilyn et al (2001). The peak SM and T values near the Curie temperatures for these compounds are presented in table 6.1. HoAl2 has high magnetocaloric properties, but its SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves are rather narrow—full width at half maximum about 15 K for H ¼ 20 K. Von Ranke et al (1998a) considered theoretically the MCE in DyAl2 and ErAl2 , using a Hamiltonian consisting of contributions from a crystalline

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185

Figure 6.2. Temperature dependences of (a) SM and (b) T in GdAl2 determined by diﬀerent experimental methods (Dan’kov et al 2000).

electric ﬁeld acting on the anisotropic Dy ion and exchange interactions. The latter were regarded in the framework of one-dimensional mean ﬁeld approximation. The crystalline ﬁeld parameters from inelastic neutron scattering were used in the calculations. The calculated SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ dependences were in good agreement with the experimental ones obtained from the heat capacity measurements. Analogous calculations were made for

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Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

RAl2 with R ¼ Pr, Nd, Tb, Ho, Tm, and for Dy1 x Erx Al2 ð0:15 < x < 0:5Þ compounds (von Ranke et al 2001b, Lima et al 2002). The calculation for the RAl2 compound SM ðTÞ curves display typical ferromagnetic behaviour near TC with the following peak SM values for H ¼ 50 kOe: 21.6 J/kg K for PrAl2 ðSM maximum near 34 K), 11.1 J=kg K for NdAl2 ðSM maximum near 63 K), 16.4 J/kg K for TbAl2 , 29.7 J/kg K for HoAl2 and 31.4 J/kg K for TmAl2 ðSM maximum near 9 K). The peak SM values for TbAl2 and HoAl2 are consistent with those obtained earlier experimentally—see table 6.1. Lima et al (2002) determined TðTÞ for Dy1 x Erx Al2 ð0:15 < x < 0:5Þ on the basis of the calculated total entropy in various magnetic ﬁelds. The results of calculations agree with experimental measurements obtained by Gschneidner et al (1996b)—they reproduce a peak near TC and low-temperature anomalies (lower maxima) in the alloys with x ¼ 0.3 and 0.5. The latter were related by the authors to crystal ﬁeld eﬀects. Further theoretical consideration of DyAl2 magnetocaloric properties were made in the work of von Ranke et al (2000a), where two-dimensional and three-dimensional mean ﬁeld approximations with the exchangeZeeman term in the Hamiltonian, including three components of the magnetization vector, were used to describe the magnetic interactions. This allowed magnetization and SM ﬁeld and temperature dependences to be obtained along the [100], [110] and [111] crystal axes in DyAl2 . The calculated magnetization ﬁeld dependences for diﬀerent crystallographic axes and T ¼ 4.2 K are shown in ﬁgure 6.3. As one can see they display diﬀerent behaviours. For [100] (the easy axis in DyAl2 ), the magnetic saturation is achieved in the low-ﬁeld region and the [110] curve displays a steady increase in the whole temperature range. On the [110] curve, the jump in magnetization is

Figure 6.3. Magnetization ﬁeld dependences for DyAl2 at 4.2 K. Solid lines show results of calculations. Experimental points are represented by squares for the [100] direction of the magnetic ﬁeld, by triangles for the [110] direction and by circles for the [111] direction (von Ranke et al 2000a). (Copyright 2000 by the American Physical Society.)

Rare earth–nonmagnetic element compounds

187

observed at 58 kOe, which corresponds to the ﬁrst-order transition when Dy magnetic moments are aligned in the [110] direction. The experimental measurements are in good accord with the theoretically calculated IðHÞ curves. Correspondingly, there were two diﬀerent magnetic entropy behaviours. If magnetization is made along the [100] and [110] axes the magnetic entropy decreases under application of the magnetic ﬁeld in all temperature intervals in the manner usual for ferromagnets. For [111] directions in the low-temperature region, positive values of SM values were observed—see ﬁgure 6.4. For H ¼ 20 kOe the temperature where SM changes its sign is 40.7 K. It is worth noting that there is an inﬂection at about 40 K on the experimental SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves measured on polycrystalline DyAl2 for H ¼ 20 kOe in the work of von Ranke et al (1998a). Sahashi et al (1987) measured the heat capacity temperature dependences for Al-rich ErAl2:20 , HoAl2:24 , DyAl2:22 and Ho0:5 Dy0:5 Al2:25 high-density sintered compounds. To prepare the samples the metallurgical powder route was used. From the ingots of arc-melted RAl2 (R ¼ Dy, Ho, Er and Ho0:5 Er0:5 ), 3 mm sized powder was ball milled in ethanol. The milled powder was pressed under 103 kg/cm2 and then sintered in an argon atmosphere for 1.5 h at 1105 8C. According to X-ray analysis the samples have speciﬁc structure: the Laves phase RAl2 is surrounded by the RAl3 phase with cubic Cu3 Au structure. The Curie temperatures of the ErAl2:20 , HoAl2:24 , (Ho0:5 Dy0:5 )Al2:25 and DyAl2:22 alloys prepared by this method

Figure 6.4. Calculated SM temperature dependences for DyAl2 magnetized along the [111] axis for (A) H ¼ 10 kOe, (B) 20 kOe and (C) 50 kOe (von Ranke et al 2000a). (Copyright 2000 by the American Physical Society.)

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Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

Figure 6.5. The zero-ﬁeld head capacity temperature dependences of the (Dy1 x Erx )Al2 alloys (Gschneidner et al 1996b).

were obtained from CðTÞ curves and are somewhat lower than that in the corresponding stoichiometric compounds—see table 6.1. The maxima on SM ðTÞ curves in the sintered compounds were broader than in the corresponding RAl2 compounds. The heat capacity measurements of (Dy1 x Erx )Al2 alloys made by Gschneidner et al (1994a,b, 1996a,b) for x from 0.6 to 1.0 revealed a sharp peak below 14 K—see ﬁgure 6.5. Its position on the temperature scale remained almost constant and its height decreased with increasing Dy content. For x from 0 to 0.75 the heat capacity showed a broad -type anomaly at the Curie temperature. For x ¼ 0.6, 0.75 and 0.9 both anomalies were observed. The low-temperature peak was related by the authors to the Schottky anomaly caused by the splitting of the ground states of the RE ions with L 6¼ 0 by the crystalline electric ﬁeld. Earlier, Inoue et al (1977) found the Schottky anomaly at about 23 K in the heat capacity of ErAl2 . Figure 6.6 shows the temperature dependences of the MCE in the (Dy1 x Erx )Al2 alloy system determined from the heat capacity data. The curves have caret-like character with broad maxima, which can be due to the possible spin-reorientation transitions. The maximum MCE is observed in ErAl2 and the lowest in DyAl2 . According to the magnetization measurements, the hysteresis in (Dy0:5 Er0:5 )Al2 alloy was about 340 Oe at 2 K and

Rare earth–nonmagnetic element compounds

189

Figure 6.6. Temperature dependences of the MCE induced by H ¼ 75 kOe for the (Dy1 x Erx )Al2 alloy system (Gschneidner et al 1996b).

vanished at 17 K (Gschneidner et al 1994b). The low-temperature anomalies in the TðTÞ curves in the (Dy1 x Erx )Al2 alloy system were related by the authors to the eﬀects of the crystalline ﬁeld. An analogous low-temperature anomaly in calculated SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves of HoNi2 was found by von Ranke et al (2001a). They explained it by a high density of states on the two lowest energy levels that exist in this compound at low temperatures—see section 6.2. Zimm et al (1992) studied the heat capacity and measured directly the MCE in (Gd0:14 Er0:86 )Al2 alloy (see table 6.1). The TðTÞ curves obtained for various magnetic ﬁelds had broad maxima at Tmax 25 K, although the magnetic susceptibility measurements give TC 40 K. The authors related the broad T maximum with random distribution of Er and Gd atoms on the RE sites, which leads to the local magnetic environment changing. The heat capacity of Gd0:06 Er0:94 Al2 alloy was measured by

190

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

Johanson et al (1988). The Curie temperature and the MCE deﬁned from the obtained data were 13 K for H ¼ 80 kOe. Bauer et al (1986) measured thermal conductivity of RAl2 , where R ¼ Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Gd, Tb, Ho, Er, Tm and Lu, in the temperature range from 4.2 to 395 K. Among the compounds with nonmagnetic elements Y, La and Lu the thermal conductivity revealed a maximum in the lowtemperature range in LaAl2 (with a height of 0.22 W/cm K at 20 K). The thermal conductivity of YAl2 and LuAl2 monotonically (although nonlinearly) decreased from room temperature values of 0.23 and 0.22 W/ cm K, respectively, down to 0.026 and 0.018 W/cm K at 10 K, respectively. LaLu2 has a lower room-temperature thermal conductivity, 0.165 W/cm K. CeAl2 (antiferromagnet with TN ¼ 3.8 K (Barbara et al 1977)) has almost linear temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity, which decreases from the room-temperature value 0.12 W/cm K to 0.01 W/cm K at 10 K. Analogous thermal conductivity temperature dependence is observed for SmAl2 . NdAl2 and PrAl2 display thermal conductivity maxima ð0.11 W/cm K at 22 K and 0.12 W/cm K at 14 K, respectively) at low temperatures in the magnetically-ordered state ðTC ¼ 65 K for NdAl2 and 33 K for PrAl2 (Taylor and Darby 1972)). At room temperature the thermal conductivity of NdAl2 and PrAl2 is 0.17 W/cm K. The thermal conductivity of RAl2 compounds with heavy rare earth elements has a general trend to decrease with temperature with change of the curvature of the curve near TC (Bauer et al 1986). The thermal conductivity of ErAl2 was also studied by Zimm et al (1988a), whose data was quite diﬀerent from that of Bauer et al (1986). According to Bauer et al (1986) the thermal conductivity of ErAl2 at 170 K is 0.15 W/cm K and monotonically decreased down to liquid helium temperature ð0.04 W/cm K at 25 K). Zimm et al (1988a) reported the higher values ð0.3 W/cm K at 170 K) and more complex temperature behaviour—near TC (at 12 K) the temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity reveals a wide minimum, with a minimal value of about 0.07 W/cm K with a subsequent rise at lower temperatures. Application of a magnetic ﬁeld of 70 kOe caused an increase in the thermal conductivity near TC —from a minimal value of 0.07 W/cm K up to 0.11 W/cm K (Zimm et al 1988a). Below TC the magnetic ﬁeld decreased the thermal conductivity and above TC its inﬂuence on the thermal conductivity was weak. Some numerical values of the thermal conductivity of RAl2 compounds are presented in table A2.1 in appendix 2. Summarizing the data presented in table 6.1 for RAl2 , one should note that these compounds are characterized by essential magnetic entropy change (the absolute values of SM =H lie in the interval from 0.21 J/ kg K kOe ((Tb0:4 Gd0:6 )Al2 ) to 113 J/kg K kOe (ErAl2 ) and magnetocaloric eﬀect (maximum T=H value is 0.23 K/kOe in HoAl2 ). At the same time the width of the SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves can be large—for

Rare earth–nonmagnetic element compounds

191

Figure 6.7. Magnetization isotherms for Gd3 Al2 at diﬀerent temperatures (Pecharsky et al 1999).

example, in DyAl2 the full width of TðTÞ dependence at the half maximum is 65 K for H ¼ 75 kOe (see ﬁgure 6.6). The MCE in Gd3 Al2 was studied by Nikitin et al (1989a) and Pecharsky et al (1999). The direct measurements of Nikitin et al (1989a) made near the Curie point, determined from the Arrott plots to be 279.2 K, gave a peak value of the MCE of 4.6 K for H ¼ 55 kOe. Heat capacity, magnetization and MCE of Gd3 Al2 were measured by Pecharsky et al (1999) by pulse ﬁeld and switch-on direct methods. The -type anomaly on the heat capacity temperature dependence corresponding to the Curie point was found at 281 K. Magnetization on ﬁeld dependences for Gd3 Al2 at various temperatures are shown in ﬁgure 6.7. They have ferromagnetic character Gd3 Al2 below the Curie point. However, the saturation magnetic moment per Gd atom in the temperature range down to about 60 K was two-thirds of that for the case where the magnetic moments are ordered ferromagnetically. This indicates probable ferrimagnetic structure below the Curie temperature. The crystal structure of Gd3 Al2 is complex, with three nonequivalent crystallographic sites. It is possible that part of the magnetic moments in diﬀerent sites is ordered antiferromagnetically. Below 60 K in the ﬁelds of about 25 kOe a metamagnetic transition takes place, which leads to the saturation magnetization value corresponding to the fully ferromagnetically aligned Gd magnetic moments. The magnetic structure changes are reﬂected on the

192

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

Figure 6.8. Temperature dependences of (a) SM and (b) T in Gd3 Al2 measured by diﬀerent methods (Pecharsky et al 1999).

SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves—see ﬁgure 6.8, where one can see two peaks, corresponding to the magnetic ordering at TC and to the low-temperature ﬁeld-induced metamagnetic transition. The total magnetic entropy deﬁned by equation (2.66) is distributed in Gd3 Al2 between two magnetic transitions,

Rare earth–nonmagnetic element compounds

193

which reduces the possible peak values of SM . However, the presence of two separate magnetic phase transitions gives noticeable SM and T in the temperature range between 100 and 250 K. Pecharsky et al (1996) and Gschneidner et al (1996a,b) investigated the heat capacity of the carbide alloys Er3 AlCx (x ¼ 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1). Er3 AlC has an antiperovskite-type crystal structure and, according to the measurements of Tokai et al (1992a), orders magnetically at 2.8 K showing a -type heat capacity anomaly. An analogous anomaly was observed by Pecharski et al (1996) at 3.1 K. The a.c. susceptibility measurements of Pecharsky et al (1996) revealed in the Er3 AlC alloy a negative paramagnetic Curie temperature (1.6 K), which was regarded as evidence of antiferromagnetic ordering. As proposed by the latter authors, this antiferromagnetic order transforms to a ferromagnetic one by a magnetic ﬁeld of about 24.6 kOe. For the other carbide phases two heat capacity maxima were found, one at about 3 K and another one at approximately 8 K. X-ray diﬀraction studies made by Pecharsky et al (1996) on Er3 AlCx (x ¼ 0.1, 0.25, 0.5) showed that these compounds contain two phases, Er3 AlC and Er2 Al. The hightemperature heat capacity maximum in Er3 AlCx was attributed by the authors to the antiferromagnetic ordering of Er2 Al (6 K). The MCE of Er3 AlCx (x ¼ 0.1, 0.25, 0.5), determined from heat capacity data, displays a wide maximum due to the presence of two phases with slightly diﬀerent magnetic-ordering temperatures. One can see from table 6.1 a gradual decrease of the MCE in Er3 AlCx with increasing x. This was related by the authors to a reduction of Er3 AlC phase content and an increase of the amount of the antiferromagnetic Er2 Al phase. 6.1.2

Rare earth–Cu, Zn, Ga, Rh, Pd, Ag, In

According to the data of Sill and Esau (1984), an ErAgGa compound with CeCu2 -type crystal structure orders ferromagnetically at about 3 K. The zero ﬁeld heat capacity temperature dependences display two overlapping maxima at about 3 and 5 K (Pecharsky et al 1996). The a.c. susceptibility measurements showed considerable frequency dependence below 8 K, which was explained by Pecharsky et al (1996) by the existence of a spin-glass state. The additional maximum in the temperature dependence CðTÞ measured in zero ﬁeld was related to the Schottky anomaly caused by the crystalline electric ﬁeld splitting of low-lying energy levels of Er ions. The TðTÞ curves of ErAgGa obtained from heat capacity show a broad maximum at about 6 K with peak MCE value of 11.2 K for H ¼ 98.5 kOe. Tanoue et al (1992) investigated the heat capacity, magnetic susceptibility and magnetization of the Gd3 Pd4 compound that has the rhombohedral Pu3 Pd4 -type structure. It was found that at 18 K in Gd3 Pd4 the magnetic phase transition from paramagnetic to antiferromagnetic state took place. At about 6 K the compound displays another transition of ferromagnetic

194

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

nature. The antiferromagnetic transition shows on the CðTÞ curve as a maximum. In the presence of a magnetic ﬁeld up to 98.5 kOe an additional heat capacity peak at about 13 K developed, which was attributed to a spin-reorientation transition. The magnetic entropy SM calculated from the heat capacity measurements was equal to 16.41 J/mol Gd K, which is in good agreement with theoretical data on Gd (see table 6.2). The temperature dependences of SM of Gd3 Pd4 determined from the heat capacity for H up to 98.5 kOe have a maximum at about 20 K. Zimm et al (1992) measured directly TðTÞ curves for GdPd. This compound has the orthorhombic CrBtype structure and orders ferromagnetically below TC ¼ 38 K. The TðTÞ curves obtained for various magnetic ﬁeld change have sharp peaks near the Curie temperatures. Another compound studied with Pd is ferromagnetic Gd7 Pd3 with Th7 Fe3 -type crystal structure and TC ¼ 323 K (Canepa et al 2002). SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves for this compound were calculated on the basis of the heat capacity data. The peak T and SM values of the listed Gd–Pd compounds are presented in table 6.1. As one can see, T=H in Gd7 Pd3 is rather high: 17 K/kOe retains this value in high ﬁelds. The heat capacity of ferromagnetic intermetallic compound GdRh with CsCl-type crystal structure was studied by Buschow et al (1975) and Azhar et al (1985). Curie temperature values of 19.93 and 20 K were deﬁned from the temperature dependences of the heat capacity by Buschow et al (1975) and Azhar et al (1985), respectively. From magnetization measurements TC ¼ 24 K was found (Buschow et al 1975). The volumetric peak heat capacity value at TC was found by Buschow et al (1975) to be 0.9 J=cm3 K. The magnetic entropy SM , determined from the heat capacity data, was obtained to be 17.4 J/mol K, very close to the theoretical value for Gd (see table 6.2). Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1999b) measured heat capacity, and determined magnetocaloric properties of the GdZn compound and Gd0:75 Zn0:25 and Gd0:70 Zn0:30 alloys. GdZn compound has cubic CsCl-type crystal structure and is ferromagnetic with a Curie temperature of 270 K. Its heat capacity temperature dependence displays a -type anomaly at 268 K. The SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves determined from the magnetic and heat capacity measurements has caret-type peaks near TC ðSM and T peak values are presented in table 6.1). Eutectic compositions Gd0:75 Zn0:25 and Gd0:70 Zn0:30 contain two phases (Gd and GdZn) and have two -anomalies at about 270 and 292 K, corresponding to the Curie temperatures of GdZn and Gd. Gd0:75 Zn0:25 reveals a constant SM in the temperature interval from 270 to 293 K and its T increases almost linearly over this temperature interval. In Gd0:70 Zn0:30 alloy the linear decrease of SM and increase of T is observed between 270 and 293 K. Below 270 K and above 293 K, SM and T decrease and increase as in a simple ferromagnet. Rawat and Das (2001a) measured heat capacity in TmCu and TmAg compounds. These compounds crystallize in CsCl-type cubic structure.

Rare earth–nonmagnetic element compounds

195

TmCu exhibits ﬁrst-order transition from a paramagnetic to an antiferromagnetic state at 7.7 K. TmAg orders antiferromagnetically at 9.5 K and the transition is a second-order transition. The ﬁrst-order character of the magnetic phase transition in TmCu is related to strong quadrupolar interactions in this compound. The CðTÞ curves show corresponding anomalies at the transition temperatures—a sharp ﬁrst-order character anomaly at 7.8 K in TmCu and a -type anomaly at 9.2 K in TmAg. The SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ dependences for TmCu obtained from heat capacity are shown in ﬁgure 6.9. Around 10 K there is a maximum on SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves corresponding to the magnetic ordering transition. Below 7 K, SM becomes positive and T becomes negative, which can be related to the prevailing of an antiferromagnetic-type paraprocess in this temperature region. TmAg reveal analogous SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ dependences, which are typical for antiferromagnets. It should be noted that the values of SM and T maxima in TmCu and TmAg were not essentially diﬀerent in spite of the diﬀerent character of magnetic ordering transitions in these compounds. The ﬁeld dependence of SM and T in the paramagnetic region was found to be proportional to H 2 (see equations (2.81), (2.82)). Do¨rr et al (1999) investigated heat capacity temperature dependences CðTÞ in orthorhombic DyCu2 single crystal and their transformations under the inﬂuence of the magnetic ﬁeld up to 40 kOe applied along the a-axis. This compound is characterized by strong magnetic anisotropy, and several magnetic phases (commensurate and incommensurate) appear in it below the transition from paramagnetic to antiferromagnetic state at 26.5 K. The anomalies corresponding to these transitions were found on CðTÞ curves in diﬀerent magnetic ﬁelds. The heat capacity of Erx Ag1 x (x ¼ 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7) and (PrNd)Ag systems with cubic CsCl-type crystal structure was investigated by Biwa et al (1996) and Yagi et al (1997). These alloys order antiferromagnetically below 30 K and are characterized by essential volumetric peak heat capacity values. The heat capacity peak value for NdAg is 1.5 J/cm3 K (TN ¼ 22 K), for PrAg is 1 J/cm3 K (at 10 K) and ErAg is 0.7 J/cm3 K (at 15 K) (for comparison, the volumetric heat capacity peak value in GdRh is 0.9 J/cm3 K at 24 K). The observed high magnetic contributions to the heat capacity in the (PrNd)Ag system were explained by the authors by high degeneracy of RE ion ground states. The Schottky anomaly was responsible for the essential heat capacity above TN in PrAg. Biwa et al (1996) and Yagi et al (1997) also investigated thermal conductivity of Erx Ag1 x and (PrNd)Ag systems in the temperature range below 20 K. It was found that the thermal conductivity monotonically decreased with cooling in the temperature range under investigation. The values of the thermal conductivity of Erx Ag1 x and (PrNd)Ag alloys lie in the range from 0.01 to 0.1 W/K cm, which is higher than that of Er3 Ni. Some numerical values of the thermal conductivity obtained by Biwa et al (1996) and Yagi et al (1997) are presented in table A2.1 in appendix 2.

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Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

Figure 6.9. (a) TðTÞ and (b) SM ðTÞ curves for TmCu for diﬀerent values of the magnetic ﬁeld change H (Rawat and Das 2001a).

The heat capacity of RGa2 (R ¼ Pr, Nd, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er) compounds and the Dy1 x Hox Ga2 (0 < x < 1) system was investigated by Yagi et al (1998) for the temperature region below 20 K. RGa2 compounds have hexagonal AlB2 -type crystal structure with alternate R and Ga atomic

Rare earth–nonmagnetic element compounds

197

layers. It was found that DyGa2 displayed a pair of sharp peaks at 6.5 and 9 K with high values of volumetric heat capacity (1.45 and 1 J/K cm3 ). Two peaks with high volumetric heat capacity values were also observed in HoGa2 (0.6 and 0.5 J/K cm3 at 7 and 8.1 K, respectively). The authors related the peaks with magnetic ordering and magnetic structure transformations. The peak volumetric heat capacity values of ErGa2 , PrGa2 and NdGa2 at the Ne´el temperatures of transition from paramagnetic to magnetically-ordered state (7 K, 7 K and 9 K) lay below 0.4 J/K cm3 . The heat capacity of GdGa2 monotonically increased with temperature in the investigated temperature range, consistent with its Ne´el temperature value of 22 K. TbGa2 revealed the heat capacity peak of about 0.7 J/K cm3 at the Ne´el temperature of 17 K. In Dy1 x Hox Ga2 the double-peak CðTÞ curve structure characteristic for DyGa2 and HoGa2 compounds is suppressed for x > 0.2 and a broad plateau on the CðTÞ curves appears in the magnetically ordered state (all Dy1 x Hox Ga2 alloys were ordered below 10 K). The magnetic entropy calculated from the heat capacity data for DyGa2 and HoGa2 compounds reached the values of R ln 5:9 and R ln 6:1 J/mol R K, respectively, at the Ne´el temperatures. This result points to the six-fold degeneracy of the ground state of RE ions in these compounds above TN . The observed large heat capacity in DyGa2 and HoGa2 was related by the authors to lifting of this degeneracy upon the antiferromagnetic transition. Yagi et al (1998) also measured thermal conductivity of the DyGa2 , which was found to increase from about 4 103 W/K cm at 5 K up to 1:1 102 W/K cm at 20 K. In connection with high heat capacity values in DyGa2 , HoGa2 and Dy1 x Hox Ga2 compounds, Yagi et al (1998) pointed to their possible use in low-temperature (below 10 K) regenerators. Aoki et al (2000) undertook a systematic study of HoGa2 single crystal in the magnetic ﬁelds up to 80 kOe applied along the [100] crystallographic axis. The magnetic structure of this compound is complex and determined by competition between RKKI-type exchange interactions and uniaxial magnetic anisotropy acting on the RE ion. With temperature decreasing, HoGa2 undergoes a transition from paramagnetic to antiferromagnetic phase I2 at TN ¼ 7.6 K and then to a second magnetic phase I0 at Tt ¼ 6.5 K (Aoki et al 2000). According to the neutron scattering experiments, phase I0 is a simple collinear antiferromagnetic phase. Between TN and Tt phases, I0 and I2 coexist. The easy magnetization axis in HoGa2 is [100]. Magnetization isotherm IðHÞ measured at 2 K display two magnetization jumps, at 20 and 26 kOe, indicating the presence of the intermediate magnetic phase I1 and ﬁnal transition to the ferromagnetic state. The heat capacity temperature dependences in HoGa2 were measured in diﬀerent magnetic ﬁelds directed along the [100] axis. On the zero ﬁeld CðTÞ curve, besides anomalies at TN (inﬂection at 8.3 K) and Tt (sharp maximum at 6.6 K), an additional anomaly (wide maximum) was observed at 0.27 K. The latter was not inﬂuenced by the magnetic ﬁeld and was attributed to

198

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

the nuclear Schottky contribution. Taking into account this Schottky contribution, the electronic ðTÞ and lattice ðT 3 Þ heat capacity contributions, the authors singled out the magnetic heat capacity contribution, which had T 2:8 temperature dependence. The obtained exponent (2.8) is close to 3, which is typical of the spin wave excitations in a three-dimensional antiferromagnet (see section 2.11). The magnetic entropy calculated from the magnetic heat capacity temperature dependence was 13 J/mol K at TN , which is lower than that for the Ho3þ ion (see table 6.2). At Tt a rapid increase on the SM ðTÞ curve was observed, indicating a ﬁrst-order character of this transition. The SM ðTÞ curves calculated for nonzero magnetic ﬁelds lie above the zero ﬁeld curve for the ﬁelds lower than 30 kOe for temperatures 6 K. According to the magnetic phase diagram of HoGa2 , this implies that magnetic entropy rises under application of the magnetic ﬁeld in phases I1 and I2 . The MCE of the HoGa2 single crystal was measured by Aoki et al (2000) directly, and magnetic entropy change SM was calculated on the basis of these data by integration of the equation CH; p dT @S ¼ ð6:2Þ T @H T dH S following from equation (2.14). The dT=dH and SM ﬁeld dependences obtained at 3.5 and 1.5 K are shown in ﬁgure 6.10. As one can see, there are anomalies at the ﬁelds corresponding to the transitions between diﬀerent

Figure 6.10. Magnetic ﬁeld dependences of dT/dH and SM at 1.5 and 3.5 K in HoGa2 single crystal for the magnetic ﬁeld directed along the [100] axis (Aoki et al 2000). (Copyright 2000 by the American Physical Society.)

Rare earth–nonmagnetic element compounds

199

Figure 6.11. Temperature dependences (a) SM and (b) T induced by diﬀerent H in Gd2 In (Ilyn et al 2001).

200

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

magnetic phases. Above 26 kOe, where the ferromagnetic state arises, dT=dH becomes positive. Magnetic entropy temperature dependence was also calculated with the help of a crystalline electric ﬁeld model and was shown to be in reasonable agreement with the experiment. Ilyn et al (2000, 2001) investigated heat capacity, magnetic entropy change and magnetocaloric eﬀect in Gd2 In, which has a hexagonal Ni2 Intype crystal structure. According to the previous magnetization measurements this compound orders ferromagnetically below 109 K (from paramagnetic state) and then antiferromagnetically below 99.5 K (Gamari-Seale et al 1979, McAlister 1984, Jee et al 1996). It undergoes metamagnetic transition from antiferromagnetic to ferromagnetic structure in magnetic ﬁelds. McAlister (1984) suggested that antiferromagnetic structure is a spiral structure with an axis along the crystal c-axis. Magnetization measurements made by Ilyn et al (2000, 2001) showed that TC ¼ 191 K and TN ¼ 91 K. The critical ﬁeld of metamagnetic transition reached its maximum of 8.4 kOe at 4.2 K and became zero at TN . The heat capacity temperature dependence revealed two distinct anomalies—at TC and TN with the shape typical of second-order transitions. From the magnetization data the SM temperature dependences were obtained—see ﬁgure 6.11(a). SM ðTÞ curves display two anomalies— at TC and TN and below TN , SM became positive for ﬁelds less than 40 kOe, which can be related to the antiferromagnetic-type paraprocess in this temperature range. Analogous behaviour showed the MCE, determined from the heat capacity data—see ﬁgure 6.11(b). The values of SM and T are presented in table 6.1.

6.2

Rare earth–nickel

In this section we consider the magnetothermal properties of R3 Ni, RNi, RNi2 and RNi5 compounds and some alloys based on them. According to the magnetic investigations, Ni in these compounds does not have a magnetic moment (Taylor and Darby 1972, Kirchmayer and Poldy 1978). The heat capacity of RNi (R ¼ Gd, Ho, Er) was measured by Sato et al (1990), Hashimoto et al (1990, 1992) and Zimm et al (1992). GdNi is a simple ferromagnet, while in HoNi and ErNi a noncollinear magnetic structure due to crystalline ﬁeld eﬀects arises. Heat capacity anomalies typical of ferromagnets were revealed at the Curie temperature TC : 70 K for GdNi and 10 K for ErNi. The heat capacity temperature dependence of HoNi displayed an anomaly at the temperature of the spin-reorientation transition equal to 13 K ðTC ¼ 37 K from the magnetic susceptibility measurements of Sato et al (1982)). The magnetic entropy in ErNi, determined by Sato et al (1990) from the heat capacity temperature dependences and equation (6.1) in the temperature interval from 0 to 15 K, was equal to 15 J/mol K. This is lower than the value calculated by equation (2.66) for the Er3þ ionic

Rare earth–nickel

201

Figure 6.12. Heat capacity temperature dependences of ErNi, Er0:9 Yb0:1 Ni and Pb (Hashimoto et al 1992).

state (see table 6.2). The authors attributed this diﬀerence to the crystalline ﬁeld splitting of the Er ion ground state. The magnetic entropy due to the crystalline ﬁeld eﬀect was calculated by Sato et al (1990) on the basis of the point charge model to be 11 J/mol K at 15 K. The heat capacity temperature dependences of ErNi and Er0:9 Yb0:1 Ni measured by Hashimoto et al (1992) are presented in ﬁgure 6.12. Addition of Yb reduces the Curie temperature to about 4 K and increases the value of the heat capacity peak. The CðTÞ curve for the lead metal is given for comparison—this material is usually used as a material for regenerators in cryocoolers. The question of using magnetic materials in regenerators in the low-temperature range will be discussed in section 11.1. Zimm et al (1992) measured the temperature dependences of the MCE in GdNi directly. A relatively sharp peak (with a height of 7.5 K for H ¼ 70 kOe) was observed near TC . Gschneidner et al (1996b) determined the MCE in GdNi from the heat capacity. The peak value of 7.4 K was found near TC for H ¼ 70 kOe, which is in good agreement with the value of Zimm et al (1992). The heat capacity of the Laves phase compounds RNi2 (R ¼ Pr, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er) and (RR0 )Ni2 alloys was studied by Tomokiyo et al (1986), Yayama et al (1987), Hashimoto et al (1990, 1992), Melero et al (1995), Gschneidner et al (1996a) and Ranke et al (1998a). The Curie temperatures of these materials lie in the temperature range below 40 K (except GdNi2 Þ— see table 6.3. Melero et al (1995) measured the heat capacity of PrNi2 , GdNi2 and ErNi2 in the temperature range from 2 to 300 K. The GdNi2 compound revealed -type anomaly at 75.3 K with the magnetic entropy of the transition corresponding to J ¼ 7/2 of the Gd ion. PrNi2 did not demonstrate magnetic ordering down to 4 K. ErNi2 showed a magnetic ordering

–

13

HoNi2

6 6.6

– – 21

20

DyNi2

ErNi2

38

37

TbNi2

– – 8

74

– 75

10 75

ErNi GdNi2

70

70

Tmax (K)

GdNi

Compound

TC (K)

– 13.8† – – 8 10.4†

11 8.1† – – 8.5 4

7.5 7.4 – 5.9 3.2 5.8 3.1†

T (K)

– 50 – – 50 50

75.3 50 – – 50 20

70 70 – 70 30 70 50

H (kOe)

MCE peak

– 27.6 – – 16 20.8

14.6 16.2 – – 17 20

10.7 10.6 – 8.4 10.7 8.3 6.2

T=H 102 (K/kOe)

– – 14.9 – – –

12.1 – 14.5

15 – – – –

–

Experimental value (J/molR K)

SM

– – 64.6 – –

56.3 – 62.9

65 – – – –

–

% of theoretical value

24.2 20.4 21.8†

– – – – 12.8† 14 – 25.3† – 25 21.4 10.7 28 22.3 30.8†

–

SM (J/kg K)

50 50 50

– – – – 50 70 – 50 – 50 50 20 70 50 50

–

H (kOe)

– – – – 25.6 20 – 50.6 – 50 42.8 53.5 40 44.6 61.6 – 48.4 40.8 43.6

–

SM = H 102 (J/kg K kOe)

SM peak

5 7 4 6 7 4

5 6 4 6 7 8

3 1 2 4

1, 2

Ref.

Table 6.3. The Curie temperatures (TC ), temperature of the maximum in the TðTÞ curves (Tmax ), magnetic entropy SM , peak magnetic entropy change SM near the Curie temperature induced by the magnetic ﬁeld change H, peak MCE value T at T ¼ Tmax induced by H, T=H and SM =H of polycrystalline RE–Ni alloys. The values of SM are in J/mol K per RE atom (J/molR K).

202 Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

93.5

11 (TN ) 6.5 (TN ) 7 (TN ) 29 5.6 (TN ) 11 (Tl ) 21 (Th ) 9 (Tl ) 32 (Th ) 13 (Tl ) 37 (Th ) 16 (Tl ) 47 (Th ) 23 (Tl ) 58 (Th ) 30.5

9.5 28

20 36 20 42 28 59 30 28 96 80

22

– – – 31 8 16

– –

5.3 5.2 4.0 4.4 3.2 4.1 10.6 7.6 6.7 2.9

50 50 50 50 50 50 90 50 90 50

50

75.3 – – – 75.3 50 50

10.8 – – – 6.3 6 6.8 6.2

–

–

10.6 10.4 8 8.8 6.4 8.2 11.8 15.2 7.4 5.8

12.4

14.3 – – – 8.3 12 13.6

–

–

– –

–

–

–

– –

–

–

– – – 65.2 – –

63.8 66.8

–

–

4.5 5.3 6.6 15 – –

14.7 15.3

12.9 13.3 8.9 11.4 7.4 10.7 26.6 20.3 14.2 6.7

14.5

– – – – 21.7 18.3

– –

50 50 50 50 50 50 90 50 90 50

50

– – – – 50 50

– –

15.7 13.4

25.8 26.6 17.8 22.8 14.8 21.4

29

– – – – 43.4 36.6

– –

13

6 6 9 10 10 10 6, 9 11, 12 11 12 11 12 11 12 11 12 11 12 13

1. Zimm et al (1992); 2. Gschneidner et al (1996b); 3. Sato et al (1990); 4. Von Ranke et al (2001a); 5. Foldeaki et al (1998a); 6. Gschneidner et al (1996a); 7. Tomokiyo et al (1986); 8. Von Ranke et al (1998a); 9. Gschneidner et al (1994b); 10. Gschneidner et al (1995); 11. Korte et al (1998a); 12. Korte et al (1998b); 13. Canepa et al (1999). † Theoretical values.

GdNiIn

GdNiGa

GdNiAl

(Gd0:7 Er0:3 )NiAl

(Gd0:54 Er0:46 )NiAl

(Gd0:4 Er0:6 )NiAl

Pr3 Ni Nd3 Ni Er3 Ni DyNiAl ErNiAl (Gd0:2 Er0:8 )NiAl

(Dy0:26 Er0:74 )Ni2 (Gd0:10 Dy0:90 )Ni2

Rare earth–nickel 203

204

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

Figure 6.13. SM (T) curves for diﬀerent H for DyNi2 , HoNi2 and ErNi2 (Tomokiyo et al 1986).

anomaly at 6.5 K. The magnetic contribution to the heat capacity was obtained by subtraction of the lattice heat capacity calculated on the basis of experimental LuNi2 and LaNi2 heat capacities. It was shown that PrNi2 and ErNi2 made an essential contribution to the heat capacity related to crystalline ﬁeld eﬀects. The heat capacity measurements allowed Gschneidner et al (1996a) to determine the magnetic entropy SM in compounds TbNi2 , DyNi2 and ErNi2 —see table 6.3. As one can see from tables 6.2 and 6.3, in the Nibased compounds approximately 60% of the theoretically available magnetic entropy is utilized in the magnetic ordering process, while in the Al-based compounds (RAl2 Þ this value is about 90%. The authors attributed this diﬀerence to the crystalline ﬁeld eﬀects. The results on SM of Tomokiyo et al (1986) are shown in ﬁgure 6.13. The SM ðTÞ curves for DyNi2 and ErNi2 were evaluated from heat capacity, and that of HoNi2 was obtained from the magnetization data. Foldeaki et al (1998a) obtained SM ðTÞ curves for GdNi2 and DyNi2 from magnetization measurements. The peak SM ðTÞ values at T ¼ TC were obtained to be 28 J/kg K for DyNi2 and 14 J/kg K for GdNi2 at H ¼ 70 kOe. It is seen that SM in DyNi2 is two times larger than in GdNi2 . The low ﬁeld (100 Oe) temperature dependence of the magnetic susceptibility in DyNi2 showed irreversible behaviour—there was a substantial hysteresis for the ﬁeld-cooled and zero-ﬁeld-cooled curves. The Arrot plots of the DyNi2 compound did not display linear sections in the temperature range from 5 to 50 K ðTC for DyNi2 is 37 K). The authors related this behaviour to the complex nature of a magnetic transition at the Curie temperature and a noncollinear magnetic structure below TC due to the presence of crystalline ﬁeld eﬀects. The irreversible magnetic behaviour was not observed in GdNi2 . The temperature dependences of T for GdNi2 were obtained by a direct method by Zimm et al (1992) and for TbNi2 from magnetization by

Rare earth–nickel

205

Gschneidner et al (1994b). MCE peaks were observed near TC and the maximum T values are presented in table 6.3. Yayama et al (1987) measured heat capacity temperature dependences of Er0:5 Dy0:5 Ni2 and Er0:75 Dy0:25 Ni2 alloys in various magnetic ﬁelds. It was found that the Curie temperature linearly decreased with a decrease in Er concentration (for Er0:5 Dy0:5 Ni2 , TC 13.5 K and for Er0:75 Dy0:25 Ni2 , TC 10.5 K) and heat capacity had a -type anomaly near TC . On the basis of the heat capacity data, SðTÞ curves for these compounds were constructed. Tishin et al (1990g) by means of MFA calculated the ﬁeld dependences of magnetic entropy change SM ðHÞ (the magnetic ﬁeld varied from 0 to H with a maximum magnetic ﬁeld of 100 kOe) at T ¼ TC for GdNi, GdNi2 and GdNi5 (as in GdNi and GdNi2 , nickel in GdNi5 is nonmagnetic). The nonlinear character of SM ðHÞ curves was found for H to be less than 50 kOe. At H ¼ 100 kOe the value of SM was found to be about 12.5 J/ kg K for GdNi, 6.2 J/kg K for GdNi2 and 2.9 J/kg K for GdNi5 . Theoretical consideration of the MCE in RNi2 (R ¼ Pr, Nd, Gd, Tb, Ho, Er) single crystals was made by von Ranke et al (2001a). The calculations of the magnetic entropy SM ðTÞ for the magnetic ﬁeld applied along the easy magnetization axis ([111] crystal axis for TbNi2 and [001] for others) were carried out using a Hamiltonian, taking into account the contributions from the crystalline electric ﬁeld acting on the R ion and exchange interactions. The latter were regarded in the framework of three-dimensional mean ﬁeld approximation. The total entropy was determined as a sum of magnetic, lattice and electronic contributions. The calculations were fulﬁlled on the basis of the proper model parameters found in the literature. From the obtained SðTÞ curves at diﬀerent magnetic ﬁelds the TðTÞ and SM ðTÞ curves were determined in the way described in section 3.2.2. The resultant curves are shown in ﬁgure 6.14. All the considered compounds are ferromagnets except PrNi2 , which is paramagnetic in all temperature ranges. PrNi5 displays a wide smooth maximum at about 18 K due to the Schottky anomaly related to the crystalline electric ﬁeld splitting of Pr ion energy levels. Other investigated RNi2 compounds had a caret-like maximum on TðTÞ and SM ðTÞ curves typical of ferromagnets. The theoretical results for ErNi2 were compared with experimental data and good agreement was obtained in both magnetic entropy change and the MCE. The experimental TðTÞ and SM ðTÞ curves do not have sharp peaks, because the magnetic short range order eﬀects above the Curie temperature smooth the magnetic order transition. There is a low-temperature anomaly (additional peak at 1.5) on TðTÞ and SM ðTÞ curves of HoNi2 . The authors showed that it arises due to the high density of states at the two lowest levels at low temperatures in HoNi2 . Analogous calculations were made by von Ranke et al (1998a) for polycrystalline DyNi2 . In this case one-dimensional mean ﬁeld approximation was used. The crystalline ﬁeld parameters necessary for calculations were

206

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

Figure 6.14. Calculated temperature dependences of (a) SM and (b) T for RNi2 compounds for H ¼ 50 kOe. The magnetic ﬁeld is supposed to be applied along the easy magnetization axis (von Ranke et al 2001a). (Copyright 2001 by the American Physical Society.)

determined by ﬁtting of the experimental zero-ﬁeld magnetic heat capacity temperature dependence to the theoretical one. This method provided good accordance between theoretical and experimental TðTÞ and SM ðTÞ curves. It should be noted that RNi2 compounds are characterized by rather high magnetic entropy change and magnetocaloric eﬀect values. According to table 6.3, for example, the experimental absolute value of SM =H is 0.535 J/kg K kOe and T=H is 0.2 K/kOe in DyNi2 for H ¼ 20 kOe, which is on the level of these parameters in Gd.

Rare earth–nickel

207

Figure 6.15. Experimental (l) and theoretical (– – – –) temperature dependences of the SM induced by the magnetic ﬁeld change H ¼ 70 kOe in polycrystalline PrNi5 (von Ranke et al 1998b). (Copyright 1998 by the American Physical Society.)

An interesting magnetocaloric behaviour reveals PrNi5 . This compound, with a hexagonal crystal structure, is paramagnetic in the whole temperature range, and that is why its magnetic entropy should decrease under application of the magnetic ﬁeld. However, in the temperature range below about 14 K von Ranke et al (1998b) found a region of positive SM on the SM ðTÞ curve—see ﬁgure 6.15. The experimental SM values were obtained from the heat capacity measurements. The results were explained by the authors by crossover (see section 5.4) of lowest ÿ4 and ÿ1 energy levels of the Pr3þ ion caused by the eﬀect of the magnetic ﬁeld. The calculations of the magnetization and magnetic entropy were conducted in a way analogous to that discussed above for RNi2 with Hamiltonian containing contributions from the crystalline electric ﬁeld of hexagonal symmetry and the exchange interactions. The SM ðTÞ curve calculated using the crystalline ﬁeld parameters obtained from experimental inelastic neutron scattering measurements is shown in ﬁgure 6.15 by the broken line. One can see good agreement between the calculated and experimental curves. The magnetic entropy increase under intersection of the energy levels in crossover was reported by the authors, with an increase of the density of states and the number of available states of the magnetic system at this moment. The calculations showed that the crossover should take place at the magnetic ﬁeld of 16 kOe at 0.3 K if the magnetic ﬁeld is applied along the easy magnetization crystallographic a-axis. The heat capacity of R3 Ni (R ¼ Pr, Nd, Er) was investigated by Sahashi et al (1990), Hashimoto et al (1992), Tokai et al (1992), Hershberg et al (1994), Gschneidner et al (1995, 1997b) and Pecharsky et al (1997a). It was found that these compounds have substantial heat capacity values in the

208

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

low-temperature region that make them useful for application in lowtemperature regenerators. The R3 Ni compounds investigated order antiferromagnetically and their ordering temperatures determined from CðTÞ curves are listed in table 6.3. The total heat capacity peak at the ordering temperature is of the -type. Especial attention was paid by investigators for Er3 Ni, because of its high heat capacity in the low-temperature region and the possibility of its application in low-temperature regenerators working in cryocoolers below 10 K—see section 11.1. This compound, according to magnetization measurements, undergoes a transition from the paramagnetic to the antiferromagnetic state at TN ¼ 7.7 K (Buschow 1968, 1977). The volumetric heat capacity temperature dependence of Er3 Ni has a broad maximum (the maximum value about 0.4 J/cm3 K) near 7 K (the heat capacity of Pb at this temperature is about 0.02 J/cm3 K), and above 15 K its heat capacity becomes comparable with that of Pb (Sahashi et al 1990, Hashimoto et al 1992, Gschneidner et al 1995). Above TN in Er3 Ni there is an additional Schottky heat capacity maximum that is superimposed on the magnetic ordering peak and which provides a wide heat capacity maximum below 10 K. These properties make Er3 Ni suitable for low-temperature regenerator applications. A broad heat capacity peak was also observed in Pr3 Ni. Nd3 Ni revealed the sharp heat capacity peak with a height of about 0.7 J/cm3 K. The magnetic entropy of the R3 Ni compounds determined by Gschneidner et al (1995) from the heat capacity data are listed in table 6.3. They are in good agreement with the SM value expected for a ground-state doublet of the Er ions (J ¼ 1/2): R ln 2 ¼ 5.77 J/mol K. This conﬁrms the presence of strong crystalline ﬁeld eﬀects in the R3 Ni (R ¼ Pr, Nd, Er) compounds. Heat capacity temperature dependences of the polycrystalline alloys Er6 Ni2 Sn, Er6 Ni2 Pb and Er6 Ni2 (Sn0:75 Ga0:25 Þ display two maxima at 8 and 18 K (Gschneidner et al 1995). The value of heat capacity in these alloys was higher than in Pb below 18 K and higher than in Er3 Ni between 9 and 18 K. X-ray measurements showed that the samples consisted mainly of two phases, Er6 Ni2 X and Er3 Ni. The magnetic measurements revealed that Er6 Ni2 X phases ordered ferrimagnetically at about 18 K. So the hightemperature heat capacity peak can be connected to the Er6 Ni2 X phase and the low-temperature one to Er3 Ni. The inﬂuence of heat treatment on the heat capacity of the alloys was also studied by Gschneidner et al (1995). It was shown that the annealing at 700 K could essentially increase the height of the high-temperature heat capacity peak. The inﬂuence of the addition of Ti on the Er3 Ni heat capacity properties was investigated by Pecharsky et al (1997a). It was shown that in as-cast alloys the eﬀect of substitution of Ni by Ti (alloys Er3 Ni0:98 Ti0:02 and Er3 Ni0:90 Ti0:10 were considered) was minimal with a slight increase of magnetic ordering temperature and slight decrease of the heat capacity peak at

Rare earth–nickel

209

the ordering temperature. The addition of Ti allowed partly amorphous alloys to be obtained by the method of melt spinning. Although the heat capacity peak in the amorphous samples was lower than that in the as-cast alloys, its mechanical properties were much better for application in regenerators—the obtained foils were quite ﬂexible. Korte et al (1998a,b) undertook a complex study of the magnetic properties, heat capacity and MCE in (Gd1 x Erx ÞNiAl pseudo-ternary alloys ðx ¼ 0, 0.30, 0.46, 0.50, 0.55, 0.60, 0.80, 1.00). All these alloys have the ZrNiAl-type crystalline structure. From the speciﬁc heat and magnetic susceptibility measurements it was shown that ErNiAl orders antiferromagnetically at 6 K. The heat capacity temperature dependences of the other alloys revealed a series of peaks (for example, (Gd0:54 Er0:46 ÞNiAl at T ¼ 23, 28 and 58 K). The authors related the low-temperature heat capacity anomalies to antiferromagnetic transitions and the upper anomalies to ferromagnetic ordering. Magnetic susceptibility measurements conﬁrmed these suppositions. The lowest ðTl Þ and highest ðTh Þ magnetic ordering temperatures determined from the heat capacity measurements (for (Gd0:2 Er0:8 )NiAl alloy from the a.c. susceptibility data) are shown in table 6.3. The SM ðTÞ curves (measured for H ¼ 50 kOe) of ErNiAl and (Gd0:2 Er0:8 ÞNiAl have single peaks near the antiferromagnetic ordering temperatures. In Gdreach alloys a broad maximum due to the remaining contribution from the low-temperature antiferromagnetic ordering process was observed. The MCE temperature dependences display analogous behaviour—see ﬁgure 6.16. (Gd0:54 Er0:46 ÞNiAl has a wide temperature range with almost ﬂat (‘table-like’) SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ behaviour. The authors related this to the existence of multiple-ordering processes with entropy changes comparable in magnitude to both AFM and FM transitions. Analogous SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves were observed for the alloys with x ¼ 0.3 and 0. The full width of the TðTÞ curve at half maximum in GdNiAl is about 65 K for H ¼ 50 kOe. Comparison of the maximum values of SM and T for (Gd0:54 Er0:46 ÞNiAl, (Dy0:25 Er0:75 )Al2 and (Dy0:40 Er0:60 )Al2 alloys showed that although the values of SM in these three materials are comparable, the TðTmax Þ value is larger in the (RR0 )Al2 alloys. This is connected to the large contribution of lattice heat capacity in RNiAl compounds. The MCE and magnetic entropy changes in GdNiGa and GdNiIn intermetallic compounds were determined from the heat capacity data by Canepa et al (1999). These two compounds order ferromagnetically at 30.5 K (GdNiGa) and 93.5 K (GdNiIn). The peak of SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ dependences (sharp in GdNiGa and wide and rounded in GdNiIn) was observed near the Curie temperature. The peak values of SM and T are shown in table 6.3. Long et al (1995a) studied heat capacity temperature dependences of RNiGe (R ¼ Gd, Dy, Er) compounds in the temperature range from 2 to 40 K. These compounds have orthorhombic TiNiSi-type crystal structure

210

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

Figure 6.16. Temperature dependences of the MCE induced by H ¼ 50 kOe in the (Gd1 x Erx )NiAl alloy system (Korte et al 1998a).

and are antiferromagnetic below 20 K. As in RNi compounds, Ni here is nonmagnetic. The heat capacity displayed -type peaks near TN , which were found to be 3.3, 7.4 and 10.7 K for R ¼ Er, Dy and Gd, respectively. The heat capacity peak value of about 17 J/mol K was observed in ErNiGe, which had the smallest TN among the investigated compounds. The magnetic heat capacity was obtained by subtracting the lattice heat capacity. In ErNiGe and DyNiGe compounds the large magnetic heat capacity was also observed above TN , which was reported by the authors with crystal ﬁeld eﬀects. The Schottky-type maximum was observed in ErNiGe near 30 K. The thermal conductivity of polycrystalline Er3 Ni, ErNi, ErNi2 and DyNi2 was investigated by Hashimoto et al (1990) and Ogawa et al (1991). The thermal conductivity of these compounds has a general trend to decrease

Rare earth–iron

211

with decreasing temperature and changed in the temperature interval between 3 and 50 K in the range from 0.03 to 0.08 W/K cm. Near the transition from paramagnetic to magnetically ordered state there are slight anomalies on the temperature dependences of thermal conductivities of these compounds. Some numerical values of the thermal conductivity for Er3 Ni, ErNi, ErNi2 and DyNi2 are presented in table A2.1 in appendix 2.

6.3 6.3.1

Rare earth–iron RFe2 , RFe3 and R2 Fe17 compounds

Nikitin et al (1973, 1975) measured the MCE in the intermetallic compounds RFe2 (R ¼ Tb, Er, Y), RFe3 (R ¼ Ho, Y) and Tbx Y1 x Fe2 (x ¼ 0, 0.2, 0.33, 0.45, 0.8, 1.0) alloys by a direct method in the temperature interval from 80 to 700 K. YFe2 and YFe3 have only one magnetic sublattice and display TðTÞ behaviour typical of a simple ferromagnet with one maximum near the Curie temperature TC . ErFe2 and HoFe3 are ferrimagnets with two magnetic sublattices and compensation temperature Tcomp of 490 and 389 K, respectively. Their TðTÞ have a form analogous to that observed in gadolinium iron garnet: with increasing temperature the MCE suddenly changes its sign from positive to negative near Tcomp : compare ﬁgure 5.1 (for example, the curve for Gd3 Fe5 O12 Þ and ﬁgure 6.17, where TðTÞ curves for YFe3 and

Figure 6.17. Temperature dependences of the MCE induced by H ¼ 15.8 kOe in YFe3 (k) and HoFe3 () (Nikitin et al 1973).

TC (K)

535 567 535 570 596 610 670 695 575 307

303 303 264 263

306

320

198

273

Compound

YFe3 HoFe3 YFe2 Tb0:2 Y0:8 Fe2 Tb0:33 Y0:67 Fe2 Tb0:45 Y0:55 Fe2 Tb0:8 Y0:2 Fe2 TbFe2 ErFe2 Y2 Fe17 (as cast)

Y2 Fe17 (annealed) Y2 Fe17 (quenched) Lu2 Fe17 (annealed) Lu2 Fe17 (quenched)

Y2 Fe17:1 (quenched)

Nd2 Fe17

LaðFe0:98 Co0:02 )11:7 Al1:3

LaðFe0:94 Co0:06 )11:83 Al1:17

–

–

325

320

303 303 263 262

305

Tmax (K)

–

1.9 2.6 0.94 2.7 0.6 3.1 1.4 4 2 –

1.4 0.55 1.25 0.7 0.4 0.25 0.5 0.75 0.2 2.35

T (K)

–

50 50 20 50 20 50 20 50 20 –

15.8 15.8 15.8 15.8 15.8 15.8 15.8 15.8 15.8 20

H (kOe)

–

–

8

6.2

3.8 5.2 4.7 5.4

8.9 3.5 7.9 4.4 2.5 1.6 3.2 4.7 1.3 11.8

T=H 10 (K/kOe)

MCE peak 2

– – – – – – – – – 5 3.8 3.2 4 1.5 4.1 1 5.1 2.4 6 3 10.6 5.9 9.5 4.8

SM (J/kg K) – – – – – – – – – 50 20 50 50 20 50 20 50 20 50 20 50 20 50 20

H (kOe) – – – – – – – – – 10 19 6.4 8 7.5 8.2 5 10.2 12 12 15 21.2 29.5 19 24

SM =H 102 (J/kg K kOe)

SM peak

8

7

6

5

5 5 5 5

1, 2 2, 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 5

Ref.

Table 6.4. The Curie temperatures (TC ), temperature of the maximum in the TðTÞ curves (Tmax ), magnetic entropy SM , peak magnetic entropy change SM near the Curie temperature induced by the magnetic ﬁeld change H, peak MCE value T at T ¼ Tmax induced by H, T=H and SM =H of polycrystalline RE–Fe alloys.

212 Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

–

195 188 183

184 –

247 208

208 195

188 188

184 274

274 291

LaFe11:4 Si1:6

LaFe11:44 Si1:56

LaFe11:57 Si1:43 LaFe11:7 Si1:3

LaFe11:2 Co0:7 Si1:1

LaFe11:44 Si1:56 H1:0 LaFe11:57 Si1:43 H1:3

6.2 6.9

8.1 –

8.7 6.5 7.5 4.0

–

– – –

–

20 20

20 –

50 20 20 14

–

– – –

–

–

–

31 34.5

40.5 21.8

17.4 32.5 37.5 28.6

–

– – –

–

–

–

9.0 4.5 2.6 3.8 0.2 1.8 0.9 7.8 3.8 6.5 3.7 5.9 3.2 1 5.85 19.4 14.3 10.5 14 23 20 24 29 25 23 28 20.3 12.2 19 24

50 20 6 20 6 20 10 50 10 50 50 50 20 5 50 50 20 10 20 50 20 20 50 20 10 20 50 20 20 20

18 22.5 43.3 19 3.3 9 9 15.6 38 13 7.4 11.8 16 20 11.7 38.8 71.5 105 70 46 100 120 58 125 230 140 40.6 61 95 120 16 16

16 12

16 11

16 16

10

15 15 9 15

14

13

8

1. Kirchmayer and Poldy (1978); 2. Nikitin et al (1973); 3. Taylor and Darby (1972); 4. Nikitin et al (1975); 5. Ivtchenko (1998); 6. Dankov et al (2000); 7. Hu et al (2000b); 8. Hu et al (2001a); 9. Zhang et al (2000b); 10. Hu et al (2001b); 11. Hu et al (2003); 12. Hu et al (2002a); 13. Hu et al (2001e); 14. Hu et al (2002b); 15. Wen et al (2002); 16. Fujieda et al (2002).

– –

– – –

–

–

–

195 248 245

127 (TAF )

181 (TN )

–

–

LaFe10:2 Si2:8 LaFe10:4 Si2:6 LaFe10:6 Si2:4

LaFe11:375 Al1:625

186 (TN )

LaFe11:44 Al1:56

127 (TAF )

303

LaðFe0:92 Co0:08 )11:83 Al1:17

Rare earth–iron 213

214

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

HoFe3 are shown. This MCE sign change is related to change of RE (and Fe) sublattice magnetic moment direction relative to the external magnetic ﬁeld. Below Tcomp the RE moment is directed along the magnetic ﬁeld vector and above Tcomp the reverse situation takes place. Since the paraprocess in RE magnetic sublattice in the low-temperature range is higher than that in the Fe sublattice, and it has antiferromagnetic character above Tcomp , there is a temperature range with negative MCE on the TðTÞ curve above Tcomp . The estimations made from MCE and Curie point data by means of MFA (Nikitin and Bisliev 1974) showed that the eﬀective ﬁeld H2eff acting in the RE sublattice is about 1:6 106 Oe in ErFe2 and about 106 Oe in HoFe3 (Nikitin et al 1973). This is considerably higher than H2eff in rare earth iron garnets (3 105 Oe) and leads to a weaker paraprocess in the RE magnetic sublattice as compared with the garnets and to the MCE temperature behaviour analogous with that observed in the Li2 Fe5 Cr5 O16 spinel below Tcomp (see ﬁgure 5.26)—without the MCE peak in the low-temperature region. In Tbx Y1 x Fe2 alloys the compensation behaviour of the MCE was observed for x ¼ 0.33 and 0.45. For the other compounds only one maximum near TC was observed in the TðTÞ curves. The peak values of MCE near TC for the RFe2 and RFe3 compounds and Tbx Y1 x Fe2 alloys investigated by Nikitin et al (1973, 1975) are presented in table 6.4. The maximum MCE peak values in the system Tbx Y1 x Fe2 were observed in YFe2 and this decreased with Tb concentration increasing. The minimum MCE peak value among Tbx Y1 x Fe2 alloys was found when x ¼ 0.5 (see table 6.4), where Tcomp coincided with TC . Jin et al (1991) studied the MCE in as-cast Rx Ce2 x Fe17 (R ¼ Y or Pr and x ¼ 0–2) by a direct method at room temperature. The Curie temperature of Y2 Fe17 is 320 K (Nikitin et al 1991a), and that of Ce2 Fe17 and Pr2 Fe17 are 270 and 278 K, respectively (Kirchmayr and Poldy 1978). The maxima of the measured (in arbitrary units) MCE for H ¼ 8 kOe were observed at x ¼ 1.2 in the Yx Ce2 x Fe17 system and x ¼ 1.3 in the Prx Ce2 x Fe17 system. This implies that the samples with such compositions have TC near room temperature. Annealing of the samples at 800–1000 8C for several hours had no eﬀect on T in Yx Ce2 x Fe17 alloys and led to its doubling for x ¼ 1.3 in Prx Ce2 x Fe17 alloys. It is stated that the MCE value obtained in the annealed Pr1:3 Ce1:7 Fe17 is one-half of the peak MCE value in Gd, used by the authors as a calibrating material. The strong heat treatment inﬂuence on the MCE properties of the Prx Ce2 x Fe17 system is related to the peculiarities of the Pr–Fe phase diagram, according to which the annealing is necessary to form the Pr2 Fe17 phase. Ivtchenko (1998) studied the MCE properties of stoichiometric Y2 Fe17 and Lu2 Fe17 compounds, nonstoichiometric Y16:9 Fe2 and Y17:1 Fe2 compositions and the eﬀect of heat treatment on them. The magnetic entropy change, MCE, heat capacity and magnetization were measured on as-cast samples, annealed at 940 8C for 15 days, and slowly cooled down to room temperature

Rare earth–iron

215

and annealed and quenched in water at 0 8C. R2 Fe17 compounds (with R being a heavy rare earth from Tb to Lu or Y) have a hexagonal Th2 Ni17 -type structure. According to the neutronographic data, Y2 Fe17 has a collinear ferromagnetic structure, magnetic moments of Fe ions being parallel to the basal plane (Givord and Lemaire 1974). Investigations of the magnetic properties of Y2 Fe17 also revealed typically ferromagnetic behaviour with a Curie temperature lying between 302.5 and 324 K (Strnat et al 1966, Pszczola and Krop 1986, Andreenko et al 1991, Nikitin et al 1991a). The heat capacity measurements were made by Ivtchenko (1998) on three Y2 Fe17 samples: as-cast (sample Y2 Fe17 N 1), annealed at 940 8C for 15 days and slowly cooled down to room temperature (sample Y2 Fe17 N 2) and annealed at 940 8C for 15 days and quenched in water at 0 8C (sample Y2 Fe17 N 3). It should be noted that as-cast Y2 Fe17 was found to contain two crystalline phases: hexagonal with Th2 Ni17 -type structure and rhombohedral with Th2 Zn17 -type structure, and the samples Y2 Fe17 N 2 and N 3 had the main crystal phase with hexagonal Th2 Ni17 -type structure. The zero ﬁeld heat capacity temperature dependences of these three samples are shown in ﬁgure 6.18. They demonstrate behaviour typical of ferromagnets with a

Figure 6.18. Zero-ﬁeld heat capacity temperature dependences for as-cast Y2 Fe17 (sample N 1), Y2 Fe17 annealed at 940 8C for 15 days and slowly cooled down to room temperature (sample N 2), and Y2 Fe17 annealed at 940 8C for 15 days and quenched in water at 0 8C (sample N 3) (Ivtchenko 1998).

216

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

Figure 6.19. Temperature dependences of the MCE induced by H ¼ 20 kOe in the ascast Y2 Fe17 (sample N 1) determined from heat capacity measurements (curve 1) and by a direct method (curve 2) (Ivtchenko 1998).

heat capacity maximum at 291 K for the as-cast sample and 294 K for sample N 2. The quenched sample N 3 displayed two heat capacity maxima, at 273 and 295 K. It is interesting that they disappeared after the sample was held in normal conditions for two months and in this case only one maximum, at 291 K, was observed. Figure 6.19 shows temperature dependences of the MCE induced by H ¼ 20 kOe in the as-cast Y2 Fe17 determined from heat capacity measurements and by a direct method. The TðTÞ curves display a maximum near the Curie temperature (at 305 K). There is also a region of negative T values between about 115 and 200 K on both curves. Analogous behaviour (with a positive SM region) had SM ðTÞ curves. The presence of this region can be related to the existence of some kind of noncollinear or antiferromagnetic structure in this temperature range due to mechanical strains in the sample. Earlier, a new magnetic phase in Y2 Fe17 under hydrostatic pressure was indicated by Nikitin et al (1991a) on the basis of magnetic measurements. There were also anomalies (inﬂections) on the temperature dependences of a.c. magnetic susceptibility of the as-cast Y2 Fe17 sample at about 120 K. The positive region of SM between 115 and 200 K in the ascast Y2 Fe17 disappeared for H above 30 kOe, although the nonmonotonic

Rare earth–iron

217

character of the SM ðTÞ curve in this temperature range was preserved up to H ¼ 50 kOe. On the TðTÞ and SM ðTÞ curves of the annealed Y2 Fe17 samples the anomalies described above were not observed. The heat treatment also decreased the peak SM value in Y2 Fe17 samples, although it had a minor inﬂuence on the Curie temperature. The Curie temperatures (determined from the heat capacity measurements) of the nonstoichiometric Y16:9 Fe2 and Y17:1 Fe2 compositions were almost the same as in the investigated Y2 Fe17 samples. The inﬂuence of violation of stoichiometry on the heat capacity, magnetic entropy and the MCE in Y2 Fe17 was not signiﬁcant. Neutronographic investigations of the magnetic structures of R2 F17 compounds made by Givord and Lemaire (1974) led to the conclusion that when the rare earth ion radius is small enough (e.g. Ce4þ , Tm3þ , Lu3þ ) helimagnetic phases can occur. At low temperatures the stated compounds show transitions either to a fun or to a collinear ferrimagnetic order. In particular, a neutronographic study of Lu2 Fe17 showed that at TN ¼ 270 K this compound displayed a transition from paramagnetic to helicoidal antiferromagnetic structure, which at 210 K transformed into a fun structure (Gignoux et al 1979). The maximum critical ﬁeld in the range of temperatures from 210 to TN was 2 kOe at 200 K. However, the heat capacity measurements of Ivtchenko (1998) on Lu2 Fe17 did not reveal any anomalies at 210 K—only a weakly pronounced anomaly at 264 K related to the transition from paramagnetic to magnetically ordered state was observed. There were also no negative T or positive SM temperature ranges on the TðTÞ or SM ðTÞ curves determined from the heat capacity for positive H ¼ 20 kOe, which had typical ferromagnetic behaviour with a maximum near the magnetic transition point. The results of measurements made on the samples annealed and quenched by the scheme described above for Y2 Fe17 are presented in table 6.4. Figure 6.20 summarizes the results on SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ dependences for H ¼ 20 kOe obtained near the magnetic ordering transitions for Y2 Fe17 and Lu2 Fe17 compounds by Ivtchenko (1998). The heat capacity and MCE in Nd2 Fe17 were investigated by Dan’kov et al (2000). The zero-ﬁeld heat capacity temperature dependence has a type anomaly near 320 K. The SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves determined from the heat capacity show typical ferromagnet maxima near the Curie temperature. The peak values of SM and T are shown in table 6.4. Magnetic entropy and heat capacity of CeðFe1 x Cox Þ2 ðx ¼ 0–0.3Þ alloys were studied by Wada et al (1993). The Laves-phase compound CeFe2 is an example of a system which is intermediate between localized and itinerant ferromagnetism. The magnetic measurements showed that CeFe2 is a ferromagnet with TC ¼ 230 K and the magnetic moment per iron atom of about 1.15 mB , which is lower than for other RFe2 compounds (Deportes et al 1981). The paramagnetic iron moment in CeFe2 was found

Figure 6.20. Temperature dependences of (a) SM and (b) T induced by H ¼ 20 kOe in the as-cast Y2 Fe17 (sample N 1), Y2 Fe17 annealed at 940 8C for 15 days and slowly cooled down to room temperature (sample N 2), Y2 Fe17 quenched after annealing in water at 0 8C (sample N 3), quenched after the annealing nonstoichiometric Y17:1 Fe2 (sample N 5), annealed and quenched after annealing Lu2 Fe17 —samples N 8 and N 9, respectively determined from the heat capacity measurements. The curve marked by () in (b) is measured by a direct method (Ivtchenko 1998).

218 Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

Rare earth–iron

219

from inelastic neutron scattering experiments to be 0.5 mB at 300 K (Lindley et al 1988). Such a small magnetic moment in CeFe2 was attributed to substantial hybridization of the iron 3d states with the 4f band states of Ce (Eriksson et al 1988). The substitution of a small amount of Co (0.04 < x < 0.3) to CeFe2 caused the appearance of an antiferromagnetic phase at the temperature of AFM–FM phase transition TAFMFM . Lattice parameter and electrical resistivity temperature dependence measurements showed that the transition at TAFMFM was ﬁrst-order. Magnetization on magnetic ﬁeld measurements made on the alloys with x ¼ 0.1 and 0.2 at 4.2 K in the ﬁelds up to 250 kOe revealed a metamagnetic transition at about 80 kOe with a considerable ﬁeld hysteresis. The compounds with x ¼ 0 and x 0:3 had typical ferromagnetic behaviour. Heat capacity temperature dependence measurements carried out on CeFe2 , CeðFe0:9 Co0:1 Þ2 , CeðFe0:8 Co0:2 Þ2 and CeðFe0:7 Co0:3 Þ2 found anomalies at the Curie temperatures of 227, 180, 162, and 156 K, respectively. In the CeðFe0:9 Co0:1 Þ2 alloy an additional sharp heat capacity peak was observed at TAFMFM ¼ 80 K. A less pronounced heat capacity anomaly at TAFMFM ¼ 68 K was also found in CeðFe0:8 Co0:2 Þ2 . Wada et al (1993) calculated the temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy SM of the CeðFe1 x Cox Þ2 system for x ¼ 0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 using equation (6.1) and the heat capacity data. The data on paramagnetic CeCo2 were used to evaluate the lattice and electronic contributions to the heat capacity near the transition from the paramagnetic to the ferromagnetic state. For CeFe2 , SM started to increase at temperatures above 100 K and above TC it reached a saturation value of 2.5 J/mol K. The same result (but with a saturation SM value of about 1 J/mol K) was obtained for x ¼ 0.3. According to equation (2.66), which is valid for systems with localized magnetic moments, the magnetic entropy for a system including two iron atoms ðJ ¼ 1=2Þ should be equal to 11.5 J/mol K. This value is inconsistent with that observed for CeFe2 of 2.5 J/mol K, which points to the intermediate character of magnetism in CeFe2 . More complicated behaviour was shown by the SM ðTÞ curves of the samples with x ¼ 0.1 and 0.2. At T ¼ TAFMFM an entropy jump SAFMFM ðSAFMFM ¼ 1.2 and 0.8 for x ¼ 0.1 and 0.2, respectively) was observed with a subsequent gradual rise to the saturation SM values of 2.3 J/mol K for x ¼ 0.1 and 1.5 J/mol K for x ¼ 0.2 above the Curie temperature. Because it is diﬃcult to separate the magnetic entropy contribution in the compositions with x ¼ 0.1 and 0.2 at the AFM–FM magnetic phase transition in the usual way, the magnetic entropy change at the SAFMFM transition was considered by the authors as consisting of the following three contributions: the entropy change due to a diﬀerence in the degree of magnetic order in antiferromagnetic and ferromagnetic states, the lattice entropy change and the electronic entropy change. It was shown that the ﬁrst two contributions in the alloys under consideration were close to zero.

220

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

The main contribution to the entropy jump at the AFM–FM transition was due to the electronic entropy change, which arose from the diﬀerence between the values of the electronic heat capacity coeﬃcient ae in ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic states (see equation (2.60)): 50 and 36.6 mJ/mol K2 , respectively for x ¼ 0.1. 6.3.2

LaFe13 compounds

Among RM13 (R ¼ rare earth element, M ¼ 3d transition metal Fe, Co, Ni) binary compounds with cubic NaZn13 -type crystal structure there is only one stable composition, LaCo13 , which has a Curie temperature of 1318 K (Buschow 1977). Although the compounds LaFe13 or LaNi13 do not exist, a small amount of Al or Si can stabilize the structure forming the pseudobinary compounds LaðM1 x M0x Þ13 (M ¼ Fe, Ni; M0 ¼ Si, Al) (Kripyakevich et al 1968). Magnetic investigations of these systems were made by Palstra et al (1983, 1985), Helmhold et al (1986), Tang et al (1994), Fujita and Fukamichi (1999) and Fujita et al (1999). According to the results obtained, the Curie temperatures of the alloys lie near room temperature or below it. LaðFex Al1 x Þ13 alloys with NaZn13 -type crystal structure exist for 0:46 x 0:92 and exhibit mictomagnetic, ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic ordering with variation of x. For iron concentration 0:62 x 0:86 the ground magnetic state in the LaðFex Al1 x Þ13 system is ferromagnetic and for 0:88 x 0:92 it is antiferromagnetic. Hu et al (2000b, 2001a) found that partial substitution of Fe by Co in this concentration range completely destroys antiferromagnetic ordering and the alloys are ordered ferromagnetically. Fujita and Fukamichi (1999) and Fujita et al (1999) stated that LaðFex Si1 x Þ13 alloys are ferromagnetic in the concentration range 0:81 x 0:89. They display behaviour similar to that observed in Invar and itinerant electron magnetic compounds. In particular, the saturation magnetic moment increased with increasing Fe concentration and the Curie temperature decreased. In the alloys with x ¼ 0.86 and 0.88 ðTC ¼ 207 and 195 K, respectively) a metamagnetic transition in the paramagnetic temperature region was observed, which the authors identiﬁed as the ﬁrst-order transition from the paramagnetic to the ferromagnetic state. X-ray investigations showed a discontinuous crystalline lattice volume decrease of about 1.2% at the transition from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic state at the Curie temperature in the alloy with x ¼ 0.88. Large lattice volume change induced by a magnetic ﬁeld was observed from thermal expansion measurements in both alloys investigated (in the ﬁeld of 90 kOe it was 0.9% in LaðFe0:86 Si0:14 Þ13 and 1.5% in LaðFe0:88 Si0:12 Þ13 Þ. The authors attributed the observed eﬀects to ﬁrst-order transitions with an itinerant electron nature, analogous to that in compounds based on LuCo2 and YCo2 Laves phases.

Rare earth–iron

221

The magnetic entropy change in LaðFe0:98 Co0:02 Þ11:7 Al1:3 and LaðFe1 x Cox Þ11:83 Al1:17 ðx ¼ 0.06, 0.08Þ was determined by Hu et al (2000b, 2001a) from the magnetization measurements. It was found that the alloys have a cubic NaZn13 -type crystal structure with a small amount of -Fe phase in LaðFe0:98 Co0:02 Þ11:7 Al1:3 . The Curie temperature of LaðFe0:98 Co0:02 Þ11:7 Al1:3 was 198 K and that of LaðFe0:94 Co0:06 Þ11:83 Al1:17 and LaðFe0:92 Co0:08 Þ11:83 Al1:17 was 273 and 303 K, respectively. The magnetization on magnetic ﬁeld measurements showed below the Curie temperature typical soft ferromagnetic behaviour with a maximum coercive force of about 20 Oe at 5 K. SM ðTÞ curves for the investigated alloys also demonstrated behaviour characteristic of ferromagnets with a maximum near TC . Qualitative agreement was shown between SM ðTÞ curves calculated by mean ﬁeld approximation and the experimental curves of LaðFe1 x Cox Þ11:83 Al1:17 alloys. SM ðHÞ curves in LaðFe1 x Cox Þ11:83 Al1:17 had the same form as in Gd without saturation up to 50 kOe. The maximum values of SM induced by H ¼ 50 kOe were 10.6 J/kg K in LaðFe0:98 Co0:02 Þ11:7 Al1:3 , 9.5 J/kg K in LaðFe0:94 Co0:06 Þ11:83 Al1:17 and 9.0 J/ kg K in LaðFe0:92 Co0:08 Þ11:83 Al1:17 , which is at the level of SM values in Gd (see table 8.2). The observed high SM values in the alloys investigated were related by the authors to their high saturation magnetization—about 2.0 mB /atom Fe, Co. It should be noted that in LaðFe0:98 Co0:02 Þ11:7 Al1:3 a rapid magnetization on temperature change near TC was observed. The alloys with higher Al content—LaFe11:44 Al1:56 and LaFe11:375 Al1:625 —revealed two successive magnetic phase transitions under cooling (Hu et al 2001e, 2002b). The ﬁrst, from the paramagnetic to the antiferromagnetic state, took place at TN (186 K for LaFe11:44 Al1:56 and 181 K for LaFe11:375 Al1:625 Þ and then at TAF (127 and 140 K, respectively) the ﬁrstorder transition to the ferromagnetic state occurs. The transition at TAF is accompanied by temperature hysteresis of magnetization and a large jump of the lattice parameter. Between TN and TAFMFM , the AFM state can be converted to the FM state by application of a magnetic ﬁeld. This transition is accompanied by ﬁeld hysteresis which, however, does not persist down to zero ﬁeld. The SM ðTÞ curve displays two peaks, at TN and TAF . The peak at TAF was asymmetrical and its width essentially increased with increasing H as it is usually observed for ﬁrst-order transitions. The magnetic entropy change is much higher in absolute value at TAF than at TN for low H—see table 6.4. However, it rapidly increases in the latter case and two maxima merge at the high-ﬁeld region forming a wide tablelike SM ðTÞ curve. This eﬀect is especially pronounced in LaFe11:375 Al1:625 , where the full width of the SM ðTÞ curve at half maximum is about 60 K for H ¼ 40 kOe. The alloys are also characterized by high magnetic entropy change related to the ﬁrst-order transition. LaFe13 x Six alloys with x ¼ 2.4–2.8 exhibited second-order magnetic phase transition from paramagnetic to ferromagnetic state at the Curie

222

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

temperature (Zhang et al 2000b, Hu et al 2001b, Wen et al 2002). However, the magnetic entropy change values in these alloys were rather high (see table 6.4), especially for low H. The SM ðTÞ dependences in the alloys had the symmetrical form typical of ferromagnets and the peak on the SM ðTÞ curve was quite wide (the maximum full width at half maximum of 90 K for H ¼ 50 kOe was observed in the alloy with x ¼ 2.8). In the work of Hu et al (2001b) the comparison was made between LaFe11:4 Si1:6 and LaFe10:4 Si2:6 alloys, which, as was shown, are characterized by essentially diﬀerent magnetic behaviour. X-ray diﬀraction studies showed that both alloys have cubic NaZn13 -type crystal structure with small (about 8 wt%) admixture of -Fe. The temperature dependence of the lattice parameter in LaFe11:4 Si1:6 demonstrates a sharp decrease (from 11.52 to 11.48 A˚, which is about 0.35%) at the transition from the ferromagnetic to the paramagnetic state ðTC ¼ 208 K) under heating (the crystal structure type remains unchanged). No such behaviour was observed in LaFe10:4 Si2:6 —only a small and slow change of the lattice parameter with rather shallow minimum at TC ¼ 243 K. It should be noted that the obtained lattice parameter change corresponds to the relative volume change V=V of about 1%, which is greater than that in the alloy Gd5 (Si1:8 Ge2:2 ), exhibiting structural phase transition at the Curie temperature and corresponding high SM , where V=V is about 0.4% (Morellon et al 1998). The magnetization on temperature curves measured in 10 kOe was also strictly diﬀerent in these alloys—a sharp change of magnetization in LaFe11:4 Si1:6 near TC , typical for ﬁrst-order transition, and the smooth magnetization change in LaFe10:4 Si2:6 , characteristic of the second-order transition. However the ﬁeld hysteresis in both alloys was very small in the whole temperature region with a maximum coercive force of 18 Oe in LaFe11:4 Si1:6 at 5 K. The temperature hysteresis on MðTÞ curves was also not found. The MðHÞ curves in LaFe11:4 Si1:6 above TC demonstrated a bend, which was attributed to the metamagnetic transition between paramagnetic and ferromagnetic states. The saturation magnetization of LaFe11:4 Si1:6 and LaFe10:4 Si2:6 alloys was found to be 2.1 and 1.9 mB /Fe. The SM ðTÞ curves of the investigated alloys obtained from the magnetization measurements were of ferromagnetic type with peaks near the Curie points—see ﬁgure 6.21 (however, as one can see, SM ðTÞ curves for LaFe11:4 Si1:6 demonstrated asymmetrical behaviour with a high-temperature shoulder typical of the ﬁrst-order transitions). The peak values of SM were essentially diﬀerent: 14.3 J/kg K for H ¼ 20 kOe and 19.4 J/kg K for H ¼ 50 kOe (this is about two times higher than in Gd) in LaFe11:4 Si1:6 in comparison with only 2 J/kg K for H ¼ 20 kOe in LaFe10:4 Si2:6 . Higher peak SM values were obtained in the compound with lower Si content—LaFe11:7 Si1:3 (Hu et al 2003). This alloy under heating undergoes ﬁrst-order ferromagnetic to paramagnetic transition at 188 K. A temperature hysteresis of about 3 K typical of the ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transition

Rare earth–iron

223

Figure 6.21. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change in LaFe11:4 Si1:6 and LaFe10:4 Si2:6 induced by diﬀerent H (Hu et al 2001b).

was observed on the MðTÞ curve measured in 100 Oe. As in LaFe11:4 Si1:6 , an abrupt lattice parameter change of about 0.6% was observed in LaFe11:7 Si1:3 at the Curie temperature. As one can see from table 6.4, SM =H values in LaFe13 x Six alloys with ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transitions essentially decrease for higher H. At temperatures below TC , the MðHÞ isotherms display a characteristic ferromagnetic behaviour. Above TC a sharp change of the magnetization with a hysteresis appears above a critical ﬁeld, which means that a ﬁeldinduced ﬁrst-order metamagnetic phase transition from the paramagnetic to the ferromagnetic state takes place in the paramagnetic region. The critical ﬁelds of the transition were about 7 kOe just above TC and increased with increasing temperature. However, the width of the hysteresis loop decreased at higher temperatures and magnetic hysteresis did not extend to zero ﬁelds in the whole temperature range. Figure 6.22 shows SM ðTÞ curves for LaFe11:7 Si1:3 calculated from magnetization. The peak SM value for H ¼ 50 kOe is 29 J/kg K, which is higher than in LaFe11:4 Si1:6 . The ﬁeld-induced metamagnetic transition from the paramagnetic to the ferromagnetic state above TC results in a signiﬁcant broadening of the SM peak to a higher temperature region with increasing ﬁeld—see ﬁgure 6.22. Besides the magnetic entropy change the MCE temperature dependence in LaFe11:7 Si1:3 was also measured by a direct method for H ¼ 14 kOe—see ﬁgure 6.23. The peak T value for this H reached 4 K. The observed temperature hysteresis (3 K) of T in the heating and cooling process is in agreement with the hysteresis on the MðTÞ curves. Analogous results were obtained by Fujieda et al (2002) on the LaFe13 x Six system with x ¼ 1.3, 1.43, 1.56 and 1.6—see table 6.4. Here magnetic entropy change was determined from magnetization data, and the adiabatic temperature change was determined on the basis of the heat capacity and SM data. The TðTÞ curves had the same asymmetrical

224

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

Figure 6.22. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change in LaFe11:7 Si1:3 induced by diﬀerent H (Hu et al 2003).

character as SM ðTÞ curves. It should be noted that, in the LaFe13 x Six alloys with low Si content, not only high SM values but also high T values were found. For LaFe11:7 Si1:3 direct MCE measurements for H ¼ 14 kOe gave T=H ¼ 0.286 K/kOe (Hu et al 2003) (the highest value for Gd is 0.29 K/kOe—see table 8.2). Fujieda et al (2002) found even higher T=H value for this composition—0.405 k/kOe.

Figure 6.23. Temperature dependences of the MCE in LaFe11:7 Si1:3 for H ¼ 14 kOe measured under cooling and under heating (Hu et al 2003).

Rare earth–cobalt

225

Fujieda et al (2002) also determined magnetocaloric properties of hydrogenated LaFe13 x Six alloys—LaFe11:44 Si1:56 H1:0 and LaFe11:57 Si1:43 H1:3 . They were prepared in order to increase the Curie temperatures of the corresponding initial alloys. Introduction of hydrogen led to a signiﬁcant increase of TC with preservation of high magnetocaloric parameters—see table 6.4. The magnetic entropy change in LaFe11:2 Co0:7 Si1:1 was determined from magnetization by Hu et al (2002a). Cobalt was introduced into the alloy in order to increase the Curie temperature with preservation of ﬁrstorder character of the magnetic phase transition in silicon-doped LaFe13 . As in the silicon-containing alloys discussed above, at the Curie temperature of LaFe11:2 Co0:7 Si1:1 ðTC ¼ 274 K) the lattice parameter drops sharply while the crystal structure remains of cubic NaZn13 -type. The lattice parameter in the ferromagnetic state was bigger than in the paramagnetic one and its change under transition was 0.43%. The peak on the SM ðTÞ curve near the Curie temperature had the same form as in LaFe11:4 Si1:6 with a slightly higher absolute value of 20.3 J/kg K for H ¼ 50 kOe. 6.3.3

Other rare earth–iron compounds

The heat capacity of ErFe4 Al8 and YFe4 Al8 compounds was investigated by Hagmusa et al (1999). RFe4 Al8 compounds have a tetragonal ThMn12 -type crystal structure. According to magnetization studies, Fe sublattice orders antiferromagnetically in the temperature range 135–200 K. At the same time rare earth sublattice orders in low-temperature range. Heat capacity measurements of ErFe4 Al8 and YFe4 Al8 of Hagmusa et al (1999) did not reveal anomalies at the temperatures corresponding to the ordering of iron sublattice. However, a sharp heat capacity maximum was found out in ErFe4 Al8 at the temperature of 5.5 K, which was related by the authors with ordering of Er magnetic moments. The magnetic heat capacity contribution was obtained by subtracting of YFe4 Al8 heat capacity data from that of ErFe4 Al8 with correction for the mass diﬀerence. On the basis of the magnetic heat capacity the magnetic entropy temperature dependence of ErFe4 Al8 was determined. It was established that the magnetic transition at 5.5 K was characterized by the magnetic entropy change of R ln 2. This is in agreement with the energy structure of Er ion in this compound, according to which the ground state is a doublet. The magnetic entropy at 100 K reached the value close to the theoretical magnetic entropy value of Er.

6.4

Rare earth–cobalt

The intermetallic compounds RCo2 (where R ¼ heavy rare earth Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho and Er) have C15-type cubic Laves-phase crystal structure and exhibit a transition from paramagnetic to ferrimagnetic (FIM) state. The type of

226

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

magnetic PM–FIM transition changes from second-order for GdCo2 ðTC ¼ 400 K) and TbCo2 (230 K) to ﬁrst-order for DyCo2 (140 K), HoCo2 (75 K) and ErCo2 (32 K) (Bloch et al 1971, Voiron and Bloch 1971, Kamarad et al 1995, Duc and Goto 1999). The magnetic properties of the RCo2 intermetallic compounds are well described by the s–d model in which the coexistence of rare earth localized spins and itinerant 3d electrons is assumed (Bloch and Lemaire 1970, Inoue and Shimizu 1982). According to this model the rare earth ions have localized magnetic moments and the 3d magnetic moment of Co is induced by the molecular ﬁeld produced by the rare earth magnetic sublattice ordered ferromagnetically below the Curie temperature. Bloch et al (1975) explained the ﬁrst- and second-order transitions in the RCo2 compounds with the help of an s–d model and an expansion of the magnetic free energy as a power series of the d-electron magnetization. It was shown by Bloch et al (1975) that below 200 K the transition at TC is of ﬁrst-order type and above this border point it is of second-order type. Dilution of the rare earth element in HoCo2 compounds by Y led to a change from the ﬁrst-order transition to the second-order type (Pillmayr et al 1987). According to Gratz (1983), HoCo2 displays two magnetic–crystallographic transformations upon cooling: a cubic to tetragonal transition at 82.5 K (magnetic phase transition from paramagnetic to ferromagnetic state), and a tetragonal to orthorhombic transition at 18 K (spin-reorientation transition). Generally, R–Co compounds demonstrate so-called itinerant electron metamagnetic behaviour—under the inﬂuence of a magnetic ﬁeld a transition between nonmagnetic or low magnetic moment state and high magnetic moment state occurs (Duc and Goto 1999). The metamagnetic transition is related to the itinerant nature of the Co magnetic moment and the splitting of the majority and minority 3d subbands of Co in the magnetic ﬁeld. In RCo2 compounds with nonmagnetic R ions, such as exchange-enhanced Pauli paramagnets YCo2 and LuCo2 , the ﬁeld of metamagnetic transition reaches high values (about 700 kOe) (Buschow 1977, Kirchmayer and Poldy 1978). However, in the compounds with magnetic R ions the 3d band splitting necessary for the formation of a Co magnetic moment can be provided by a molecular ﬁeld acting from the R magnetic sublattice. The external magnetic ﬁeld in this case can induce the metamagnetic transition at much lower magnetic ﬁelds by assisting the formation of a Co moment. Application of the magnetic ﬁeld can lead in the RCo2 compounds to a change of the order of the magnetic phase transition from ﬁrst to second (Gratz et al 1993). Hybridization of 5d and 3d electrons is responsible for ferrimagnetic ordering of 3d and 4f magnetic moments in RCo2 compounds containing heavy rare earth ions (Duc and Goto 1999). At the temperature of the ﬁrst-order transition from a paramagnetically to a magnetically ordered state, magnetic instability in RCo2 compounds can lead to a sudden

Rare earth–cobalt

227

change of magnetization and resistivity, large spontaneous magnetostriction (V=V 0.4%), a large change of the electronic heat capacity constant, enhanced magnetic susceptibility and ﬂuctuations of the spin density (Duc and Goto 1999). Results of investigations of the heat capacity of RCo2 intermetallic compounds were published in the works of Voiron et al (1974), Pillmayr et al (1987), Hilscher et al (1988), Imai et al (1995), Giguere et al (1999a) and Wada et al (2001). Voiron et al (1974) calculated magnetic heat capacity as the diﬀerence between the total heat capacity and the lattice plus electronic contributions. It was found that experimental values of the magnetic entropy of TbCo2 and HoCo2 compounds at T ¼ 200 K, which were 22 and 24 J=mol K, respectively, were very close to the theoretical values for free rare earth ions (see table 6.2). Voiron et al (1974) concluded that the Co moment in these compounds is not permanent but is induced by exchange interactions with rare earths. The heat capacity of ErCo2 as a function of temperature was measured by Imai et al (1995). A sharp anomaly associated with a ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transition was found at 32 K. The magnetic contribution to the heat capacity, obtained by subtraction of the LuCo2 heat capacity from the ErCo2 experimental data, still persisted above TC . This was explained by an interaction of the RE magnetic ions with a crystalline electric ﬁeld. The temperature dependence of the magnetic entropy SM ðTÞ, calculated on the basis of the heat capacity data, displayed a discontinuous increase (of about 9 J/mol K) at the Curie point, and at high temperatures (above 150 K) it reached its saturation value which is close to the value of 23.1 J=mol K calculated by equation (2.66) for Er ions (J ¼ 15/2—see table 6.2). The latter fact indicates that the Co magnetic moments make a small contribution to the total SM . The magnetic entropy discontinuity at TC was explained by the authors by the change of the Er ion ground-state degeneracy from a singlet in the magnetically-ordered state to a quadruplet in the paramagnetic state. According to the estimation of Wada et al (1999), such change should yield the entropy change of 11.5 J/mol K. The sharp heat capacity peak in ErCo2 (at 32.2 K in zero ﬁeld with a maximum value of 1794 J/mol K) shifted to the high-temperature region in the presence of the magnetic ﬁeld at a rate of 0.2 K/kOe (Wada et al 1999). The heat capacity peak height decreased but its sharpness persisted up to the ﬁeld of 80 kOe. Wada et al (1999) explained the observed heat capacity peak ﬁeld behaviour in polycrystalline ErCo2 by strong magnetic anisotropy in this compound aligning the magnetization along the [111] easy direction and its cubic crystalline structure. The heat capacity temperature dependences in various ﬁelds analogous to that obtained by Wada et al (1999) were observed in ErCo2 by Giguere et al (1999a). The ﬁrst direct investigation of the magnetocaloric eﬀect in RCo2 compounds was conducted by Nikitin and Tishin (1991), who measured

228

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

Figure 6.24. Temperature dependences of the MCE in HoCo2 induced by a magnetic ﬁeld change H ¼ 60 kOe (l), 40 kOe (SÞ, 20 kOe (k) and 5 kOe (h) (Nikitin and Tishin 1991). (Reprinted from Nikitin and Tishin 1991, copyright 1991, with permission from Elsevier.)

TðT; HÞ dependences of HoCo2 . The TðT; HÞ curves are shown in ﬁgure 6.24. The asymmetrical form of the MCE temperature proﬁle is consistent with the sharp character of the ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transition. The estimation of SM made by Nikitin and Tishin (1991) on the basis of heat capacity data of Voiron et al (1974) gave the value of 6.4 J/mol K at T ¼ 82 K and H ¼ 60 kOe. The temperature range of negative MCE should be noted below about 75 K for H ¼ 5 kOe. The MCE ﬁeld dependences measured in the temperature interval from 81 to 120 K were not saturated in the ﬁelds up to 60 kOe—see ﬁgure 6.25. Later, the magnetic entropy change and MCE temperature and ﬁeld dependences in RCo2 (R ¼ Tb, Dy, Ho, Er) compounds were determined on

Rare earth–cobalt

229

Figure 6.25. Field dependences of the MCE in HoCo2 (Nikitin and Tishin 1991). (Reprinted from Nikitin and Tishin 1991, copyright 1991, with permission from Elsevier.)

the basis of magnetization and heat capacity measurements by Foldeaki et al (1998a), Giguere et al (1999a), Wada (1999, 2001), Wang et al (2001c, 2002b,c), Duc and Kim Anh (2002), Duc et al (2002), Gomes et al (2002) and Tishin et al (2002). Foldeaki et al (1998a) measured the magnetization of RCo2 (R ¼ Dy, Ho, Er) compounds and on the basis of these data calculated the magnetic entropy change SM induced by a ﬁeld change of 70 kOe. Maxima were observed near the Curie point and the maximum values of SM were about 14.5 J/kg K (at T 140 K) for DyCo2 , about 22 J/kg K (at T 85 K) for HoCo2 and about 28 J/kg K (at T 42 K) for ErCo2 . It should be noted that the maxima on SM ðTÞ curves in the investigated compounds had a rather symmetrical form. Two ErCo2 samples were studied: ‘good’ and ‘wrong’. The ﬁrst, according to X-ray diﬀraction analysis, was a homogeneous one. The second had some distortions in crystalline structure and contained an oxide. The wrong ErCo2 sample displayed SM values 30% smaller than the good one. The Arrott plots of both wrong and good ErCo2 constructed near

230

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

the magnetic phase transition temperature did not show linear ranges predicted by the Landau second-order transitions theory. The Arrott plot of the wrong ErCo2 showed a behaviour analogous to that observed in Dy–Zr nanocomposites. According to the authors, this indicates a multiphase nanosize crystalline structure in the wrong ErCo2 .

Figure 6.26. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change (a) and MCE (b) in TbCo2 (Tishin et al 2002).

Rare earth–cobalt

231

Tishin et al (2002) undertook a comprehensive study of magnetic properties, heat capacity and the MCE of polycrystalline RCo2 (R ¼ Tb, Dy, Ho, Er). It was found that the heat capacity temperature dependence of TbCo2 has a (typical for ferromagnets) -type anomaly near the Curie temperature, and DyCo2 , HoCo2 and ErCo2 display a sharp -function like peaks at TC . The variation of the heat capacity as a function of the applied magnetic ﬁeld clearly showed that TbCo2 undergoes a second-order magnetic phase transition—the -type peak observed in zero ﬁeld changed to a rounded bump under application of the ﬁeld. For DyCo2 , HoCo2 and ErCo2 the heat capacity peak changed in the magnetic ﬁeld from the -type form to a reasonably sharp but somewhat broader and greatly diminished peak for H < 20 kOe, and to a rounded broad peak for H > 20 kOe. This can imply that application of the magnetic ﬁeld higher than 20 kOe change the order of the magnetic phase transition from ﬁrst to second. The zero ﬁeld CðTÞ curve of HoCo2 displayed an additional small maximum at about 18 K, where the spin reorientation transition occurred. Application of the magnetic ﬁeld washed this peak away and in 100 kOe it completely disappeared. The SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves of TbCo2 obtained by Tishin et al (2002) from heat capacity had a symmetric shape typical for ferromagnets with a maximum near the Curie temperature and an absence of any other peculiarities—see ﬁgure 6.26. Those of DyCo2 , HoCo2 and ErCo2 demonstrated quite diﬀerent behaviour—they had an asymmetrical ‘half-dome’ shape, similar to the ‘skyscraper’ shape observed in Gd5 (Six Ge1 x Þ4 compounds at the ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transition (Gschneidner and Pecharsky 1999). The SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves for HoCo2 , ErCo2 and DyCo2 are shown in ﬁgures 6.27, 6.28 and 6.29. As one can see, a temperature range of negative MCE values in HoCo2 is below about 80 K, as already observed from the direct measurements (see ﬁgure 6.24). This range was not observed in DyCo2 and ErCo2 . Near 18 K (magnetic spinreorientation transition) in HoCo2 , SM and MCE change their signs and negative MCE (and positive SM Þ typical for the antiferromagnetic-type paraprocess in antiferromagnets and ferrimagnets are observed below this temperature. Giguere et al (1999a), Wada et al (1999, 2001), Duc and Kim Anh (2002), Duc et al (2002) and Gomes et al (2002) obtained SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves for ErCo2 , HoCo2 and TbCo2 analogous to those of Tishin et al (2002). The peak values of SM and T in TbCo2 were substantially smaller than in other investigated RCo2 (R ¼ Dy, Ho, Er) compounds (see table 6.5), which can be related to the second-order character of the magnetic transition in this compound. In DyCo2 , however, Wang et al (2001c, 2002b,c) and Duc et al (2002) obtained a rather symmetrical SM ðTÞ peak near TC . Wang et al (2001c) prepared melt-spun and annealed DyCo2 alloy samples. Both samples had MgCu2 -type crystal structure and their Curie temperatures were almost the same, although the magnetization change with temperature

232

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

Figure 6.27. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change (a) and MCE (b) in HoCo2 (Tishin et al 2002).

near TC was much sharper in the annealed sample. The latter circumstance provided the absolute peak SM value in the annealed sample about two times higher than that in the melt-spun sample. As one can see from table 6.5, RCo2 compounds with the ﬁrst-order magnetic transition are characterized by essential values of SM =H and

Figure 6.28. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change (a) and MCE (b) in ErCo2 (Tishin et al 2002).

Rare earth–cobalt 233

Figure 6.29. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change (a) and MCE (b) in DyCo2 (Tishin et al 2002).

234 Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

33.6

142 141 142 35

45 40 33

36

DyCo2

Annealed Melt-spun ErCo2

141

227 138

TbCo2

140

235

231

Compound

Tmax (K)

TC (K)

10.8 7.2 3.2 – 12.5 8 14.4 10

9.6 6.3 4.4

5 3.4 1.9

T (K)

100 50 20 – 80 20 140 70

100 50 20

100 50 20

H (kOe)

MCE peak

10.8 14.4 16 – 15.6 40 10.3 14.3

9.6 12.6 22

5 6.8 9.5

T=H 10 (K/kOe)

2

H (kOe) 100 50 20 50 10 100 50 20 70 50 20 10 10 10 100 50 20 70 80 20 140 35 50

SM (J/kg K) 68† 48† 26† 6.5 2.6 183† 12.7 10.2 14 11 9 5.8 5.9 2.8 360† 31.7 28.4 29 49.1 35.1 38 32 38

68‡ 96‡ 130‡ 13 26 183‡ 25.4 51 20 22 45 58 59 28 360‡ 63.4 142 41.4 61.3 175.3 27.1 91.4 76

SM =H 102 (J/kg K kOe)

SM peak

9

4

2 3

1

10, 11 12

2 9

1

9

1

Ref.

Table 6.5. The Curie temperatures (TC ), temperature of the maximum in the TðTÞ curves (Tmax ), magnetic entropy SM , peak magnetic entropy change SM near the Curie temperature induced by the magnetic ﬁeld change H, peak MCE value T at T ¼ Tmax induced by H, T=H and SM =H of polycrystalline RE–Co alloys.

Rare earth–cobalt 235

82.5

HoCo2

16

– – – – – – – – – – – –

19

13

142 152 162 167 168 142 160 169 203 225 248 298

Er(Co0:9 Ni0:1 )2

DyCo2 Dy(Co0:99 Si0:01 )2 Dy(Co0:97 Si0:03 )2 Dy(Co0:95 Si0:05 )2 Dy(Co0:93 Si0:07 )2 DyCo2 Dy0:95 Gd0:05 Co2 Dy0:9 Gd0:1 Co2 Dy0:8 Gd0:2 Co2 Dy0:7 Gd0:3 Co2 Dy0:6 Gd0:4 Co2 Dy0:45 Gd0:55 Co2

20

80

84

Tmax (K)

Er(Co0:95 Ni0:05 )2

75

TC (K)

Compound

Table 6.5. Continued.

9 6.2 9.5 6.5 – – – – – – – – – – – –

10 8.5 4 – 5.2 3.2

T (K)

50 30 50 30 – – – – – – – – – – – –

100 50 20 – 60 20

H (kOe)

MCE peak

18 20.7 19 21.7 – – – – – – – – – – – –

10 17 20 – 8.7 16

T=H 102 ) (K/kOe) H (kOe) 100 50 20 70 – – 40 30 50 30 50 30 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

SM (J/kg K) 225† 20 11 22 – – 22.5 13 36.8 33 29.8 22.8 5.8 4.1 3.3 3.3 2.6 5.8 3.2 2.8 2.1 1.8 1.5 1

225‡ 40 55 31.4 – – 56.3 43.3 73.6 110 59.6 76 58 41 33 33 26 58 32 28 21 18 15 10

SM =H 102 (J/kg K kOe)

SM peak

11

10

6

6

9

2 5

1

Ref.

236 Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

100

70

37

10

45

15.5

GdCoAl

TbCoAl

DyCoAl

HoCoAl

(Gd0:5 Dy0:25 Er0:25 )CoAl

Nd7 Co6 Al7

16.5

–

–

–

–

–

– – – – 25

2.7

–

–

–

–

– – – – 8.8 5.3 –

50

–

–

–

–

– – – – 80 40 –

5.4

–

–

–

–

– – – – 11 13.3 –

6 6 6 6.11 9 9 10.4 4.9 10.5 5.3 16.3 9.2 21.5 12.5 14 6.3 4.6

60 60 60 47.5 80 40 50 20 50 20 50 20 50 20 50 20 50

10 10 10 12.9 11.3 22.5 20.8 24.5 21 26.5 32.6 46 43 62.5 28 31.5 9.3 8

7

7

7

7

7

9 9 9 13 3

1. Tishin et al (2002); 2. Foldeaki et al (1998a); 3. Wada et al (1999); 4. Giguere et al (1999a); 5. Nikitin and Tishin (1991); 6. Wada et al (2001); 7. Zhang et al (2001a); 8. Canepa et al (2000); 9. Duc et al (2002); 10. Wang et al (2002b); 11. Wang et al (2002c); 12. Wang et al (2001c); 13. Gomes et al (2002). † In mJ/cm3 K. ‡ In mJ/cm3 K kOe.

306 301 301 200 24

Gd0:4 Tb0:6 Co2 Gd0:65 Lu0:35 Co2 Gd0:65 Y0:35 Co2 Tb0:8 Er0:2 Co2 Er0:8 Y0:2 Co2

Rare earth–cobalt 237

238

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

T=H. It should be noted that the maximum SM =H and T=H values are observed in low magnetic ﬁelds and essentially increased with H increasing. This is related to changing of the magnetic transition order from ﬁrst to second under the action of the magnetic ﬁeld, which is also reﬂected on the heat capacity (see above). Tishin et al (2002) also estimated possible contributions to the magnetic entropy change at the ﬁrst-order transitions in DyCo2 and ErCo2 . It was supposed that the entropy change consists of three main parts: SFMPM , related to paraprocess, which can be described by equation (2.83); SFO , which is the jump of the magnetic entropy caused by the ﬁrst-order transition, which can be calculated using the Clausius–Clapeyron equation (2.100); and lattice entropy change SLFO , which is related to the lattice dimension change at the transition. The latter contribution was also estimated from the corresponding Clausius–Clapeyron equation, which in this case had the form dP SLFO ¼ V dT

ð6:3Þ

where V is the crystal lattice volume change at the transition. It was supposed that the point at the phase equilibrium curve on the T–P diagram moves with pressure in a way analogous to the magnetic transition point TC , so the value of ðdTC =dPÞ1 was used as dP=dT. The values of dTC =dP and magnetic moment change M were taken from literature and from experimental measurements, respectively, and the value of V was calculated from the literature data on spontaneous volume magnetostriction of the compounds. The calculated contributions are shown in table 6.6. Gadolinium and Gd5 Si2 Ge2 are also present in table 6.6 for comparison as examples of the system with second-order and ﬁrst-order transitions (concerning the Gd5 (SiGe)4 system and its unique properties, see section 7.2.2). To get upper limit of SLFO in Gd the value of V=V ¼ 0:01 was used. As one can see from table 6.6, SFMPM almost coincides with the experimental value of SM in Gd. In a relatively weak magnetic ﬁeld change of 20 kOe the value of SFMPM is lower than experimental SM values in Gd5 Si2 Ge2 , DyCo2 , HoCo2 and ErCo2 . For Gd5 Si2 Ge2 , SFMPM is signiﬁcantly lower than experimental values even for H ¼ 100 kOe, where SFMPM ¼ 14.1 J/kg K and experimental SM ¼ 23.7 J/kg K. This is not true for DyCo2 , HoCo2 and ErCo2 compounds, where this contribution is close to the experimental values already known for H ¼ 50 kOe. Due to the absence of the magnetization jump at the second-order transition the contribution SFO is equal to zero. At the same time in Gd5 Si2 Ge2 , HoCo2 and ErCo2 the values of SFO are very close to the experimental SM values (especially in Gd5 Si2 Ge2 ). In DyCo2 the estimated SFO is about an order of magnitude less than experimentally observed SM .

5.4 [1]

5.8

SM (J/kg K) T ¼ TC (experimental)

SFMPM (J/kg K) T ¼ TC

<0.1

SLFO (J/kg K) T ¼ TC , H ¼ 0

<5 1.8

11.7

12.7

50

11

2.1 [6] 0.8 [9] 2.1 [10]

0.13 [6] 0.22 [7] 0.2 [8]

<1.4

6.4

10.2

20

DyCo2

9.1

30

17

20

50

45

0.65 [9]

0.3 [6, 11]

9.1

11

20

HoCo2

30

33 22

28.1

31.7

50

81

0.4 [9]

0.35 [6] 0.3 [12] 0.36 [13]

15.2

28.4

20

ErCo2

1. Dan’kov et al (1998); 2. Tishin et al (1999b); 3. Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1997d); 4. Pecharsky and Gschneidner (2001a); 5. Morellon et al (1998); 6. Minakata et al (1976); 7. Kamarad et al (1995); 8. Duc et al (1992a); 9. Jayaraman (1991); 10. Leontiev (1988); 11. Duc et al (1992b); 12. Lee and Pourarian (1976); 13. Petrich (1969).

15.4

3.46 [5]

V=V (%)

1.5 [2]

15.1

86 [3, 4]

8.9

19.5 [3, 4]

50

dTC /dP (K/kbar)

19.1

4.8

16 [3, 4]

20

0.4 [5]

0

0 [1]

10.7

10.5 [1]

50

Gd5 (Si2 Ge2 )

<0.01

SFO (J/kg K) H ¼ Hcr

I (emu/g)

20

H (kOe)

Gd

Table 6.6. Experimental magnetic entropy change SM , and calculated contributions to the magnetic entropy change: SFMPM , related with paraprocess; SFO , which is the jump of the magnetic entropy caused by the ﬁrst-order transition; and lattice entropy change SLFO , which is related to the lattice dimensions change at the transition, magnetization change I and relative volume change V=V at the transition and the shift of the Curie temperature under pressure dTC /dP in RCo2 compounds, Gd and Gd5 (Si2 Ge2 ) (Tishin et al 2002). References are shown in brackets.

Rare earth–cobalt 239

240

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

It was shown by Tishin et al (2002) that the values of SLFO and SFO in Gd5 Si2 Ge2 are close to each other. Because according to the work of Morellon et al (1998) the ﬁrst-order transition volume change in this compound has almost the same value in nonzero magnetic ﬁelds as in zero magnetic ﬁelds, it can be suggested that SLFO obtained from the zero-ﬁeld volume change data will preserve its value in higher magnetic ﬁelds. However, experimentally observed SM ¼ 23.7 J/kg K induced by H ¼ 100 kOe in Gd5 Si2 Ge2 cannot be explained without consideration of the contribution from the paraprocess SFMPM . Because of insuﬃciency of literature data on the magnetostriction it was impossible to determine nonzero-ﬁeld SLFO in RCo2 compounds. Due to the large diﬀerence of the literature data on zero-ﬁeld magnetostriction and dTC =dP in RCo2 compounds, SLFO was estimated using average values of available data. It should be noted that in DyCo2 the estimated value of SLFO ¼ 11 J/kg K is close to the experimental SM values for H ¼ 20 and 50 kOe. The abnormally large value of SLFO calculated for ErCo2 and HoCo2 can be related to erroneous values of dTC /dP, especially taking into account a signiﬁcant scattering of the published experimental data. Based on the data presented in table 6.6 the authors made the conclusion that, as in Gd5 Si2 Ge2 , the compounds RCo2 (R ¼ Dy, Ho, Er) also had rather large values of SLFO in zero magnetic ﬁelds. At least in DyCo2 this value is close to that in Gd5 Si2 Ge2 , but it is about an order of magnitude higher than SFO , which is not observed in Gd5 Si2 Ge2 . The analysis of the calculated contributions to the entropy change and its experimental values showed that in low magnetic ﬁelds the main contribution to the magnetic entropy change comes from the lattice dimension change related to the ﬁrst-order transition. However, in the investigated RCo2 compounds the lattice contribution is suppressed in strong magnetic ﬁelds because a large change of volume, which is observed in a zero magnetic ﬁeld at the ﬁrstorder transition, disappears in a higher magnetic ﬁeld. In the case of Gd5 Si2 Ge2 this suppression has not happened, and the lattice contribution preserves its value even in a strong magnetic ﬁeld, and that is why Gd5 Si2 Ge2 exhibits more advanced magnetocaloric properties (in particular, much higher SM —see section 7.2.2). The inﬂuence of substitution of Co in ErCo2 by Ni (Er(Co1 x Nix Þ2 system) on the heat capacity and MCE was studied by Wada et al (2001). Under substitution the Curie temperature decreased from 32 K for ErCo2 to 13 K for Er(Co0:9 Ni0:1 Þ2 . The heat capacity peak retained its ﬁrst-order sharpness for x ¼ 0.05 and was essentially reduced and broadened for x ¼ 0.1. It should be noted that the heat capacity peak in the sample with x ¼ 0.1 was consistent with two superimposed peaks—a sharp peak near 12.4 K and a broad one centred at 13.5 K. The authors interpreted the observed eﬀect by separation of the magnetic ordering temperatures of Er and Co magnetic subsystems—Er moments ordered at higher temperature

Rare earth–cobalt

241

Figure 6.30. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy in Er(Co1 x Nix )2 alloys (Wada et al 2001). (Reprinted from Wada et al 2001, copyright 2001, with permission from Elsevier.)

than Co moments. From magnetization measurements it was shown that Ni concentration x ¼ 0.05 is the critical concentration for the ﬁrst-order transition—it disappears in the samples with higher x. From the experimental heat capacity data Wada et al (2001) determined magnetic entropy temperature dependences in the Er(Co1 x Nix Þ2 system, using the heat capacity of LuCo2 as a nonmagnetic contribution—see ﬁgure 6.30. As one can see, in all investigated alloys large magnetic entropy is realized at the Curie temperature in spite of the change of magnetic transition order from ﬁrst to second with Ni substitution. The magnetic entropy reached about 15 J/mol K just above TC , which was about 65% of the theoretical value for Er (see table 6.2). The authors related the observed SM ðTÞ behaviour and the MCE properties described below with preservation of Er ions’ magnetic state under Ni substitution. The temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change SM were determined from the magnetization data. The MCE was obtained combining SM ðTÞ curves with total entropy temperature dependences calculated from the heat capacity. The resultant SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves are shown in ﬁgure 6.31. It can be seen that for the compositions containing Ni the forms of SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ have the features typical for second-order magnetic phase transitions—in particular, more symmetry and width of the peaks near TC . However, the absolute peak values of SM and T were not suﬃciently changed in comparison to that in ErCo2 with ﬁrst-order transition—in particular, in ErðCo0:95 Ni0:05 Þ2 the peak SM value is almost the same as in ErCo2 . The analogous disappearance of the ﬁrst-order transition under substitution of Co by Si was observed by Wang et al (2002b) in the Dy(Co1 x Six Þ2 system for x > 0.05. Si substitution caused an increase of the Curie temperature and decrease of the absolute peak SM values in the system—

242

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

Figure 6.31. The temperature dependences of (a) SM and (b) T in Er(Co1 x Nix )2 (Wada et al 2001). (Reprinted from Wada et al 2001, copyright 2001, with permission from Elsevier.)

see table 6.5. The authors related the appearance of the second-order magnetic phase transition in the Si-substituted compositions to the stabilization of the Co moment and the absence of metamagnetism in 3d electron subsystems. In a number of works an inﬂuence of substitution of the R element in RCo2 compounds on their magnetocaloric properties was studied. In the work of Wang et al (2002c), Dy in the DyCo2 compound was substituted

Rare earth–cobalt

243

by Gd. For all Gd-containing alloys Dy1 x Gdx Co2 (0:05 x 0:55), the transition at TC was of second order with low values of SM (see table 6.5), although for compositions with x ¼ 0.05 and 0.1 the Curie temperature was below 200 K, determined by Bloch et al (1975) as the upper limit for the ﬁrst-order transition in the framework of the s–d model. Low absolute peak SM values were also observed in the Gd- and Tb-based RCo2 alloys with the second-order transition at TC : Gd0:4 Tb0:6 Co2 , Gd0:65 Lu0:35 Co2 , Gd0:65 Y0:35 Co2 and Tb0:8 Er0:2 Co2 (Duc et al 2002, Gomes et al 2002). Wada et al (1999) measured the heat capacity of Er0:8 Y0:2 Co2 alloy and on the basis of these data investigated the inﬂuence of Y addition to the MCE in ErCo2 . A sharp heat capacity peak was observed at TC (about 24 K) in the magnetic ﬁelds up to 40 kOe. In 80 kOe the peak became rounded. The obtained SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves were similar to that in ErCo2 and preserved ﬁrst-order transition features; however, the maximum SM and T values were 20–30% lower than in ErCo2 . De Oliveira et al (2002) theoretically considered the magnetocaloric eﬀect in the Er1 x Yx Co2 system in the framework of the model, where the localized 4f spins of the RE element are coupled by exchange interaction with 3d itinerant electrons and also experience the eﬀect of crystalline electric ﬁeld. The results of calculations were in good agreement with the experimental data of Wada et al (1999). It was also established that the main contribution to SM in the Er1 x Yx Co2 system comes from RE magnetic moments and the electronic magnetic entropy is small. Pillmayr et al (1987) and Hilscher et al (1988) investigated the heat capacity of the (Rx Y1 x )Co2 (R ¼ Ho, Dy) alloy systems. The sharp peak at TC in HoCo2 was rounded and decreased with the addition of more than 40% of Y, and its position was shifted to the low-temperature range. However, for x > 0.6 the sharpness of the heat capacity peak at TC remained pointing to the ﬁrst-order character of this transition in the (Ho-Y)Co2 system in this concentration range. The peak corresponding to the lowtemperature spin-reorientation transition was moved to higher temperatures with x decreasing and merged with the Curie temperature peak at x 0.45. The magnetic ordering entropy SM determined from these measurements dropped for x < 0.2, and for x 0.2 it attained the theoretical values for Ho and Dy (see table 6.2). The magnetic entropy associated with the magnetic moment of Co (for S ¼ 1/2 it is equal to 5.76 J/mol K) was not observed above TC in either alloy system. This was attributed to the itinerant character of the Co magnetic moment (Pillmayr et al 1987). According to the authors’ opinion the magnetic entropy decrease observed for x < 0.2 may point to an instability of the RE magnetic moment in this concentration range ( Pillmayr et al 1987 and Hilscher et al 1988). Zhang et al (2001a) determined the magnetic entropy change in ternary RCoAl compounds (R ¼ Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho) from magnetization. These compounds crystallize in a hexagonal MgZn2 structure. General ferromagnet behaviour, with the SM maximum near the Curie temperature, was obtained

244

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

for all investigated RCoAl compounds and (Gd0:5 Dy0:25 Er0:25 )CoAl alloy except for GdCoAl, where the table-like form of the SM ðTÞ curve was observed. The plateau was positioned in the temperature range from 70 to 105 K. Earlier analogous SM ðTÞ curves with plateaus were observed in the (GdEr)NiAl system—see section 6.2. In DyCoAl the authors observed at 5 K an essential ﬁeld hysteresis of magnetization with a coercive force of about 1 kOe. In order to decrease the anisotropy and keep the Curie temperature constant, Zhang et al (2001a) fabricated (Gd0:5 Dy0:25 Er0:25 ÞCoAl, where Er was used to cancel anisotropy of Dy, since Stevens’ coeﬃcients of these elements have opposite signs. It was found that peak SM in (Gd0:5 Dy0:25 Er0:25 )CoAl was much lower than in DyCoAl, but the coercive force was essentially decreased—to about 150 Oe at 5 K. The Curie temperatures and peak SM values for the investigated RCoAl compounds are presented in table 6.5. The heat capacity of the ternary Nd7 Co6 Al7 intermetallic compound was investigated by Canepa et al (2000). This compound has tetragonal Pr7 Co6 Al7 -type crystal structure and was not studied before. According to magnetization measurements it orders magnetically below 16 K with the formation of some type of noncollinear magnetic structure. The coercive force was determined to be 80 Oe at 5 K. The zero-ﬁeld heat capacity revealed a -type anomaly at 15.5 K, which under application of the magnetic ﬁeld became less pronounced and disappeared in 50 kOe. This behaviour points to the ferromagnetic character of the magnetic ordering in Nd7 Co6 Al7 . The SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ dependences also revealed ferromagnetic-type behaviour with a maximum near the temperature of magnetic ordering. However, the observed SM and T peak values were lower than in the other RE compounds—see table 6.5. The heat capacity of the Er3 Co compound, which below TC ¼ 13 K exhibited a noncollinear magnetic structure, was measured by Saito et al (1995). Above TC a large magnetic contribution to the heat capacity was found. It was related to a crystalline electric ﬁeld eﬀect (Schottkytype) anomaly and was interpreted in the framework of the point-charge model. The thermal conductivity of ErCo2 was studied by Ogawa et al (1991). As for Er3 Ni, ErNi, ErNi2 and DyNi2 , it decreased with decreasing temperature with a slight anomaly near TC . Some numerical values of the thermal conductivity for ErCo2 are presented in table A2.1 in appendix 2.

6.5

Rare earth–manganese

The heat capacity of Laves-phase compounds RMn2 (R ¼ Y, Gd, Er) was measured by Okamoto et al (1987). These compounds display various magnetic ordering and behaviour. YMn2 is an itinerant antiferromagnet

Rare earth–manganese

245

with a Ne´el temperature of 100 K. The heat capacity temperature dependence displayed a symmetric anomaly typical for ﬁrst-order transitions. The magnetic entropy temperature dependence was determined from the magnetic heat capacity obtained by subtracting lattice and electronic contributions from the total heat capacity. The magnetic entropy associated with the transition at TN was about 3.9 J/mol K, which is much smaller than the theoretical value for J ¼ 3/2 corresponding to the magnetic moment of Mn in this compound. This is related to the itinerant nature of the Mn magnetic moment. In GdMn2 the Mn subsystem is ordered antiferromagnetically and Gd moments are in a canted state. The heat capacity temperature dependence measured by Okamoto et al (1987) revealed a sharp symmetric peak at 110 K (Ne´el temperature). The magnetic entropy below 50 K was about 9 J/mol K, which is much less than the theoretical value for Gd. ErMn2 is a simple ferromagnet and its heat capacity displays a -type anomaly at the Curie temperature of 15 K. The essential magnetic heat capacity contribution observed above TC was related to crystalline ﬁeld eﬀects. Although there is no research devoted to determination of the magnetic entropy change or MCE in RMn2 compounds, two of them, namely GdMn2 and TbMn2 , seem to be promising from the point of view of high magnetocaloric properties. In these compounds the Mn magnetic moment is unstable and plays an essential role in forming the magnetic properties of the compounds. The transition to a magnetically ordered state in these compounds, which takes place at 109 K for GdMn2 and 54 K for TbMn2 , is accompanied by essential spontaneous lattice expansion—in TbMn2 , V=V at the transition reaches 1.4% (Labroo et al 1990, Marquina et al 1995). Tishin et al (2002) estimated the lattice entropy change SLFO arising due to the lattice dimension change at the transition with the help of equation (6.3) and available literature data. It was obtained that, for TbMn2 , SLFO is 94 J/kg K and for GdMn2 it is 20.5 J/kg K, which is higher than in Gd5 Si2 Ge2 (see table 6.6), the compound with a huge magnetocaloric eﬀect. The shift of the transition point in magnetic ﬁeld in TbMn2 , estimated by Tishin et al (2002) on the basis of results of Marquina et al (1995), also has a high value of 0.5 K/kOe. Duong et al (2000) and Hagmusa et al (2000) undertook investigations of heat capacity in RMn4 Al8 (R ¼ Y, Nd, Gd, Dy, Er), which has tetragonal ThMn12 -type crystal structure. Magnetization measurements showed that there is antiferromagnetic interaction between rare earth magnetic moments. In RMn4 Al8 (R ¼ Nd, Dy, Er) compounds the heat capacity temperature dependences did not display any anomalies related to magnetic ordering down to 1.5 K. The zero-ﬁeld heat capacity temperature dependence of GdMn4 Al8 had an anomaly typical for Schottky anomaly. From behaviour of the anomaly in the magnetic ﬁeld it was concluded that it is related to short-range antiferromagnetic correlations between Gd magnetic

246

Magnetocaloric effect in intermetallic compounds

moments. The magnetic entropy of GdMn4 Al8 became temperature independent above 20 K with the value close to the theoretical one of Gd. Finally, based on the consideration made above we can make the following conclusions about magnetocaloric properties of the intermetallic compounds containing RE and 3d metals: RAl2 and RNi2 compounds, where the RE ion is the only carrier of the magnetic moment, are characterized by high magnetic entropy change and adiabatic temperature change— the maximum SM =H and T=H values of 0.723 J/kg K kOe and 0.189 K/kOe were observed in ErAl2 . It should also be noted that a large amount of the magnetic entropy—about 90% of theoretical value—is utilized in the magnetic ordering process in RAl2 compounds. The SM and T temperature behaviour in RAl2 and RNi2 compounds was successfully described in the framework of the model based on mean ﬁeld approximation and taking into account crystalline ﬁeld eﬀects. The compounds with RE and nonmagnetic elements of Ni usually have low magnetic ordering temperatures, which determines their possible magnetocaloric applications in the low-temperature range. Some of the compounds are characterized by essential magnetic and crystalline electric ﬁeld eﬀect contributions to the heat capacity near magnetic ordering temperatures below 20 K. Such compounds, among which GdRh, Er-Ag, RGa2 , ErNi and Er3 Ni should be mentioned, can be used in passive magnetic regenerators instead of Pb. (Gd-Er)NiAl alloys showed multiple magnetic transitions providing wide table-like SM and T temperature dependences. In the most investigated R–Fe compounds the magnetocaloric properties were not high. However, this was not the case for LaFe13 x Ax , where A ¼ Si or Al and x is below 1.6, and where ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transition to the magnetically ordered state is observed. Due to the ﬁrst-order type of the transition these alloys display essential SM and T—maximum SM =H and T=H of 2.3 J/kg K kOe and 0.405 K/kOe were found in LaFe11:7 Si1:3 with TC ¼ 188 K. High magnetocaloric properties were also demonstrated by RCo2 compounds with R ¼ Dy, Ho and Er, where the ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transition at TC is also observed. The magnetic phase transitions in the LaFe13 x Ax alloys and RCo2 compounds is accompanied by essential lattice parameter change. In HoCo2 , even change of crystal structure type from cubic to tetragonal at TC is observed. It was shown by Tishin et al (2002) that in the RCo2 (R ¼ Dy, Ho, Er) the main contribution to SM is related to the lattice dimension change at the transition. Based on the data about large magnetovolume eﬀect in TbMn2 , Tishin et al (2002) assumed this compound to have essential magnetocaloric properties. However, it should be noted that high SM =H and T=H values in LaFe13 x Ax and RCo2 decreased in higher magnetic ﬁeld. This can be related to change of the magnetic transition order from ﬁrst to second in high magnetic ﬁelds.

Chapter 7 Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth–metalloid compounds

Rare earth–metalloid compounds display various types of magnetic ordering and magnetic transitions. The most interesting compounds among this group of magnetic materials are the silicides and geramanides. In particular, RMn2 Ge2 (R ¼ La, Gd, Tb, Dy) compounds have layered crystal structure, two magnetic sublattices (Mn and R) ordering at diﬀerent temperatures and strong dependence of exchange interactions on interatomic distance. All these factors determine complex magnetic structures of the compounds with multiple magnetic phase transitions, including ﬁrst-order transitions. In recent years attention of investigators was attracted to the system (RR0 )5 (Si–Ge)4 . This is related to unusual magnetic properties discovered in Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 compounds. In a certain concentration range in this system the compounds undergo magnetic ﬁrst-order transition accompanied by reversible structural transition and essential change in lattice parameters and magnetic properties. This eﬀect causes high magnetocaloric properties of Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 and increased interest for these compounds.

7.1

Compounds with Sb and As

Heat capacity, magnetization and MCE of the Gd4 (Bix Sb1 x )3 (x ¼ 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1) system was studied by Niu et al (2001) in the temperature interval from 3.5 K up to 350 K. The obtained alloys had anti-Th3 P4 -type crystal structure and were ferromagnets with Curie temperatures increased with x increasing from 264 K (Gd4 Sb3 ) to 332 K (Gd4 Bi3 )—see table 7.1. The zero-ﬁeld heat capacities of the investigated materials exhibited -type peaks near the Curie temperatures, which broadened with application of the magnetic ﬁeld and shifted to the higher-temperature region. The magnetic entropy change and MCE temperature dependences were calculated from the heat capacity. They showed caret-type peaks typical for ferromagnets near the Curie temperatures and were lower than those in 247

PrCo2 Si2 Pr0:8 La0:2 Co2 Si2

31 (TN ) 26 (TN )

90 (TN ) 118 17 (TN )

23

PrCu0:76 Ge2

HoTiGe GdFeSi GdPd2 Si

17 (TN )

Gd4 (Bi0:25 Sb0:75 )3 Gd4 (Bi0:5 Sb0:5 )3 Gd4 (Bi0:75 Sb0:25 )3 Gd4 Bi3 DyMn2 Ge2

CeCu0:86 Ge2

272 289 306 332 40

Gd4 Sb3

32 (TN )

264

Compound

GdRu2 Ge2

TC (K)

25 19

– 130 17

23

17

278 270 285 298 314 337 45 (plateau) 42 –

Tmax (K)

4.4 12 3.1 1.2 1.3

–

4.5 1.25 5.8 1.8

80 20 80 20 – 90 80 20 80 80

20 –

5 –

100 20 100 100 100 100 50

H (kOe)

10.5 3.2 10.9 10.8 10.9 11.8 6.3

T (K)

MCE peak

4.9 15 15.5 1.5 1.63

–

5.6 6.3 7.3 9

25 –

10.5 16 10.9 10.8 10.9 11.8 12.6

T=H 102 (K/kOe)

4 22.4 21.9 4.5 – –

–

50 90 80 20 – –

–

20 40 20 –

100 20 100 100 100 100 50

81† 30† 80† 75† 72† 65† 12 9.6 5 1.7 –

H (kOe)

SM (J/kg K)

8 24.9 27.4 22.5 – –

–

47.9 12.5 8.5 –

81‡ 150‡ 80‡ 75‡ 72‡ 65‡ 24

SM =H 102 (J/kg K kOe)

SM peak

6 6

11 4 5

3

3

10

1 1 1 1 2

1

Ref.

Table 7.1. The Curie temperatures (TC ), temperature of the maximum in the TðTÞ curves (Tmax ), magnetic entropy SM , peak magnetic entropy change SM near the Curie temperature induced by the magnetic ﬁeld change H, peak MCE value T at T ¼ Tmax induced by H, T=H and SM =H in rare earth–metalloid compounds.

248 Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth–metalloid compounds

32 (FM–PM)

NdMn2 Si2

8.5 1 8.2 0.6

– 80 10 60 20

– 10.6 10 13.7 3

– 13.1 0.82 –

8.8 80 10 –

50 16.4 8.2 –

17.7

9

8

7

1. Niu et al (2001); 2. Wada et al (2000); 3. Rawat and Das (2001c); 4. Napoletano et al (2000); 5. Rawat and Das (2001b); 6. Das and Rawat (2000); 7. Majumdar et al (2000); 8. Sampathkumaran (2000); 9. Nikitin et al (1987); 10. Tegus et al (2002c); 11. Tegus et al (2001). † In mJ/cm3 K. ‡ In mJ/cm3 K kOe.

22

17 (TN ) 32

–

23 (TN )

Tb2 PdSi3 (along the [1010] axis) Gd2 Pd2 Si3

Compounds with Sb and As 249

250

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth–metalloid compounds

Gd. The latter was explained by reduction of the Gd content in the alloys. However the saturation magnetic moment in the alloys at 5 K was about 7.3 mB per Gd atom. The absolute values of the MCE increased and SM decreased with an increase of Bi concentration—see table 7.1. The heat capacity of Erx Dy1 x Sb pseudobinary compounds was measured in the temperature interval from 2 to 40 K by Long et al (1995b). The heat capacity peaks were found at the magnetic ordering transitions at 3.6, 4.1, 4.9, 7.6 and 9.4 K for x ¼ 1, 0.8, 0.6, 0.2 and 1, respectively. The maximum heat capacity peak value of about 200 J/mol K was observed for DySb and the minimum value (12.3 J/mol K) in Er0:6 Dy0:4 Sb. The value of the heat capacity peak in the compound with minimal ordering temperature (ErSb) was about 60 J/mol K. From the heat capacity data the temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy for the alloys were calculated. The magnetic entropy change associated with transition to the magnetically ordered state was determined to be about R ln 2 for all investigated alloys. This was related by the authors to the doublet ground state of the rare earth ions due to the splitting in crystalline electric ﬁeld. Above the magnetic transition point the magnetic entropy continued to increase up to 40 K. The maximum magnetic entropy value decreased with increasing Dy concentration. The magnetic entropy change temperature dependences were theoretically calculated in YbAs by von Ranke et al (2000b). This compound is antiferromagnetic with the Ne´el temperature of 0.49 K and is characterized by strong quadrupolar interactions. The calculations were made for paramagnetic temperature region. In the model Hamiltonian the single-ion crystalline ﬁeld energy, quadrupolar interaction energy and Zeeman energy were taken into account. The exchange interactions were neglected because of low magnetic ordering temperature. In the compound under investigation the energy levels of Yb ion are split by the crystalline electric ﬁeld by the following scheme: ground state ÿ6 (doublet), ÿ8 (quartet) and ÿ7 (doublet). In the frameworks of the proposed model it was shown that the ÿ8 level is split by the quadrupolar interaction into two doublets and the magnetic ﬁeld removes all degeneracy. The magnetic entropy change SM calculations showed that it is negative for temperatures below 30 K. In the temperature range between 30 and 84 K, SM was positive for H lower than 23.5 kOe. The temperature interval of positive SM was narrowed as the value of H increased. The SM anomalous behaviour was related to the quadrupolar interaction and disappeared if it was not taken into account.

7.2 7.2.1

Silicides and germanides Ternary compounds of rare earths with Si and Ge

Let us consider ﬁrst ternary germanides containing rare earth elements. Wada et al (1996, 2000) investigated the heat capacity of RMn2 Ge2

Silicides and germanides

251

(R ¼ La, Gd, Tb, Dy) compounds in the temperature interval from 4.2 K to 300 K. RMn2 Ge2 compounds crystallize in the tetragonal ThCr2 Si2 structure, in which R–Ge–Mn–Ge–R layers are stacked along the crystalline c-axis. According to the magnetic studies, both Mn and R atoms in these compounds possess magnetic moments. The Mn sublattice in the compounds can be ordered ferromagnetically or antiferromagnetically. The Mn magnetic moments lie in the c-plane and have ferromagnetic ordering inside it. The interlayer Mn–Mn interaction is sensitive to the interlayer distance and can be antiferromagnetic or ferromagnetic depending on that distance. So, the type of magnetic ordering in the Mn sublattice depends on the size of the R ion. LaMn2 Ge2 is a ferromagnet (TC ¼ 306 K) and YMn2 Ge2 is antiferromagnet (Szytula 1992, Narasimhan et al 1975). If R is a heavy rare earth element, the compounds undergo hightemperature magnetic transition from paramagnetic to antiferromagnetic state in the Mn sublattice at the Ne´el temperature TN of 350–450 K (Szytula 1992, Narasimhan et al 1975) and the R sublattice remains disordered. The R sublattice orders ferromagnetically at the second lowtemperature magnetic phase transition. Below the second magnetic phase transition temperature the ferrimagnetic state arises at which all Mn magnetic moments are aligned antiparallel to the R moments. In GdMn2 Ge2 and TbMn2 Ge2 the second magnetic phase transition is ﬁrst-order and takes place at 96 K and 95 K, respectively. DyMn2 Ge2 displays double transitions at T1 ¼ 40 K and T2 ¼ 36 K. Neutron diﬀraction studies showed that below T2 the compound has the ferrimagnetic structure and above T1 the antiferromagnetic structure with disordered Dy moments arose (Kobayashi et al 1991, Venturini et al 1992). Between T1 and T2 an intermediate mixed phase existed. DyMn2 Ge2 is also characterized by strong magnetocrystalline anisotropy in the ferrimagnetic phase with the easy c-axis. The heat capacity of LaMn2 Ge2 did not show anomalies in the investigated temperature range from 4.2 to 300 K (Wada et al 1996). GdMn2 Ge2 and TbMn2 Ge2 displayed sharp ﬁrst-order character heat capacity peaks at 95 K and 96 K, respectively. The magnetic heat capacity was extracted from the measured heat capacity by subtraction of electronic and lattice contributions. The electronic contribution was calculated by equation (2.60) with ae ¼ 14 mJ/K2 obtained for LaMn2 Ge2 . As the lattice contribution the heat capacity of paramagnetic LaFe2 Ge2 was taken. From the magnetic heat capacity the temperature dependences of magnetic entropy in the investigated RMn2 Ge2 compounds were determined. In LaMn2 Ge2 the magnetic entropy appeared above 50 K and reached 20 J/mol K at 300 K, which is comparable with theoretical value for two magnetic ions with J ¼ 1 (18.3 J/mol K) calculated by equation (2.66). In GdMn2 Ge2 at 95 K a magnetic entropy jump of 3.3 J/mol K was observed and just above the transition the magnetic entropy was about 15.2 J/mol K, close to the theoretical value of Gd (see table 6.2). In TbMn2 Ge2 the jump was of

252

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth–metalloid compounds

7 J=mol K and the entropy just above the low-temperature transition was about 12 J/mol K, which is essentially smaller than the theoretical value for Tb. The results on magnetic entropy were analysed with the help of MFA including crystalline ﬁeld eﬀects. Good accordance between the calculated and the experimental SM ðTÞ dependences was obtained. It was shown that the entropy jumps could be completely ascribed to the R sublattice. The observed diﬀerence between the magnetic entropy values in GdMn2 Ge2 and TbMn2 Ge2 just above the transition was related by the authors to the essential temperature dependence of the Tb sublattice magnetic entropy above the transition temperature due to the crystalline ﬁeld eﬀects acting on anisotropic Tb ions. Wada et al (2000) made heat capacity and magnetization measurements on poly- and single crystals of DyMn2 Ge2 . The heat capacity temperature dependences of polycrystalline DyMn2 Ge2 revealed in zero ﬁeld two sharp peaks corresponding to T1 and T2 , at 40.3 and 37.0 K. Under application of the ﬁeld of 40 kOe the low-temperature peak remained almost unchanged and at the same temperature, while the high-temperature peak was signiﬁcantly broadened and shifted in the high-temperature region. The total entropy zero-ﬁeld and in-ﬁeld temperature dependences were calculated from the heat capacity data. The entropy jump associated with two successive transitions at T1 and T2 was determined to be about 9 J/mol K, which is 36% of the theoretical full entropy of Dy. The magnetization measurements along the easy c-axis in DyMn2 Ge2 showed the ﬁeld-induced metamagnetic transition from the antiferromagnetic state to the intermediate state just above T1 with a critical ﬁeld of about 15 kOe at 45 K. With rising temperature, the critical ﬁeld increased to the values above 50 kOe at 60 K. Just below T2 the magnetization on ﬁeld curves demonstrated ferromagnetic behaviour. The magnetization temperature dependences displayed behaviour characteristic of ﬁrst-order magnetic transition at the temperature of transition from the intermediate phase to the antiferromagnetic phase. It should be noted that the sharpness of the transition persisted even in high magnetic ﬁelds up to 40 kOe. The rate of the transition displacement in the ﬁeld was about 0.3 K/kOe. From the obtained magnetization data the magnetic entropy change SM temperature dependences were calculated, which are shown in ﬁgure 7.1. As one can see above 40 K, SM shows a wide plateau up to 60 K for H ¼ 50 kOe. Its height weakly depends on the magnetic ﬁeld. The authors related such behaviour to the ﬁrst-order nature of the transition at T1 , which preserves its character in high magnetic ﬁeld. The positive SM near about 35 K was explained by disordering of ferrimagnetic structure by the magnetic ﬁeld (i.e. by the antiferromagnetic-type paraprocess, which was discussed earlier—see section 2.6). Analogous temperature behaviour was obtained for the MCE, which was calculated using zero-ﬁeld entropy (determined from the zero-ﬁeld heat capacity) and in-ﬁeld entropy (determined from

Silicides and germanides

253

Figure 7.1. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change SM induced by diﬀerent H in DyMn2 Ge2 (Wada et al 2000). (Reprinted from Wada et al 2000, copyright 2000, with permission from Elsevier.)

zero-ﬁeld entropy and SM ) by the method described in section 3.2.2. The MCE value above 40 K was about 6.3 K for H ¼ 50 kOe—see table 7.1. The zero-ﬁeld heat capacity temperature dependence of GdRu2 Ge2 revealed two peaks at 32 and 29 K (Tegus et al 2002c). Magnetization measurements showed that the compound orders antiferromagnetically below 32 K and undergoes in the AFM state a ﬁeld-induced magnetic transition to the ferromagnetic state in relatively low magnetic ﬁelds (the critical ﬁeld of the transition was 10 kOe at 5 K). SM ðTÞ curves obtained from magnetization measurements showed a negative maximum near 32 K and a positive region below about 20 K related to the antiferromagnetictype paraprocess. Absolute peak values of SM in GdRu2 Ge2 near TN are presented in table 7.1. The heat capacity and MCE of nonstoichiometric CeCu0:86 Ge2 and PrCu0:76 Ge2 compounds with CeNiSi2 -type crystal structure were studied by Rawat and Das (2001c). The heat capacity temperature dependence of CeCu0:86 Ge2 reveals a pronounced peak at 15 K, which is related to magnetic ordering and shifts by the magnetic ﬁeld to the high-temperature region. It should be noted that according to the magnetic measurements this compound is antiferromagnetic with a Ne´el temperature of 15 K, although its paramagnetic Curie temperature is positive (7 K). At about 4 K there is

254

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth–metalloid compounds

an additional small heat capacity anomaly, which shifts by the magnetic ﬁeld to lower temperatures and was related by the authors to antiferromagnetic ordering. The heat capacity of PrCu0:76 Ge2 revealed a peak near 23 K and a knee at 16 K, shifted by the magnetic ﬁeld to higher temperatures. The TðHÞ curves showed that the rate of the MCE changing with ﬁeld for CeCu0:86 Ge2 and PrCu0:76 Ge2 compounds is not higher than 0.1 K/kOe for ﬁelds up to 20 kOe and decreased with increasing H. The peak values of the MCE in CeCu0:86 Ge2 and PrCu0:76 Ge2 are presented in table 7.1. The MCE temperature dependences for CeCu0:86 Ge2 and PrCu0:76 Ge2 in diﬀerent magnetic ﬁelds were determined from the heat capacity data. For PrCu0:76 Ge2 the MCE was positive in all investigated temperature ranges (4.2–40 K) and in all magnetic ﬁelds with a ferromagnetic-type maximum near 23 K and a knee near 16 K. For CeCu0:86 Ge2 the MCE is positive with a maximum near 23 K for the magnetic ﬁeld change higher than 10 kOe. In lower ﬁeld the negative MCE was observed in the temperature range below about 15 K with negative minima at about 14 K. The authors related this behaviour to metamagnetic transition occurring at about 8 kOe, which was also observed on magnetization isotherms and in magnetoresistance measurements. Tegus et al (2001) investigated magnetic properties of HoTiGe, which has a layered CeFeSi-type tetragonal structure with a sequence of R–Ge–Ti2 –Ge– R layers along the c-axis. The competitive FM and AFM interactions between R ions in this compound provide its complex magnetic structure with ferromagnetic ordering inside R layers and antiferromagnetic interaction between them. At TN ¼ 90 K the compound turns to the antiferromagnetic state, which can be destroyed by an external magnetic ﬁeld. The critical ﬁeld of the AFM state destruction increases with decreasing temperature and is about 50 kOe for 5 K. The existence of an AFM structure leads to the appearance of the positive SM below 80 K for H ¼ 50 kOe and 100 K for H ¼ 20 kOe. The peak of negative SM (with a rather low absolute SM value) is observed in this compound above TN —at 102 K for H ¼ 20 kOe and 91 K for H ¼ 50 kOe. Napoletano et al (2000) studied magnetic properties, heat capacity and magnetocaloric eﬀect in ternary equiatomic compound GdFeSi, which has a Cu2 Sb-type structure. It is ferromagnetic and orders at the Curie temperature of 118 K. Magnetization measurements showed that there is no contribution from iron atoms to the total magnetic moment in this compound and saturation magnetization moment at 5 K in the ﬁeld of 90 kOe is 6.62 mB . The zero-ﬁeld heat capacity temperature dependence demonstrated -type anomaly near TC , which was not observed in the ﬁeld of 90 kOe. On the temperature dependence of SM and T the wide asymmetric maximum was found with a shoulder in the low-temperature region. The maximum SM and T values were 5.4 J/mol K and 4.5 K for H ¼ 90 kOe, respectively.

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Figure 7.2. Temperature dependences of (a) T and (b) SM in GdPd2 Si for various H (Rawat and Das 2001b).

The MCE, heat capacity and resistivity of GdPd2 Si were investigated by Rawat and Das (2001b). This compound crystallizes in orthorhombic crystal structure. According to the data of Gignoux et al (1984) it is antiferromagnetic with a Ne´el temperature of 13.5 K, although its positive paramagnetic Curie temperature (14 K) points to the presence of ferromagnetic interactions and possible noncollinear magnetic ordering. The zero ﬁeld heat capacity temperature dependence displays two peaks, at 17 K and at 13 K. Both peaks are shifted to low temperatures under application of the magnetic ﬁeld, which points to their antiferromagnetic nature, and disappeared at 80 kOe. On the basis of the heat capacity and ﬁeld dependence the authors concluded that between 13 K and 17 K a magnetic amplitude-modulated structure exists. Figure 7.2 shows the temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change and the MCE determined from the heat capacity. One can see two anomalies, near 17 K and 13 K. Besides there is a temperature region of negative T (positive SM ) near 12 K for the curves corresponding to H ¼ 10 kOe, which disappears for higher H. The authors related this behaviour to the occurrence of metamagnetic transition from antiferromagnetic to ferromagnetic structure above 10 kOe. This conclusion was veriﬁed by the ﬁeld dependence of the MCE peak value, which has a characteristic bend at 10 kOe. The heat capacity and resistivity of PrCo2 Si2 and Pr0:8 La0:2 Co2 Si2 were measured by Das and Rawat (2000). From the heat capacity data the MCE temperature dependences were determined. PrCo2 Si2 has a complex crystal

256

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth–metalloid compounds

structure consisting of layers of Pr, Co and Si, analogous to that of RMn2 Ge2 discussed above. The only magnetic element in this compound is Pr and three magnetic phase transitions occur under cooling: paramagetism–modulated magnetic structure at 30 K with change in propagation vector direction at 17 K; and the modulated magnetic structure–layered antiferromagnetic structure (ferromagnetically ordered layers coupled antiferromagnetically) at 9 K. -type anomalies were observed on the heat capacity temperature dependences of PrCo2 Si2 near these temperatures. For Pr0:8 La0:2 Co2 Si2 there were two heat capacity anomalies, at 9 K and 26 K. The MCE of PrCo2 Si2 was negative for H up to 80 kOe in all investigated temperature (up to 40 K) ranges with three anomalies near magnetic transition temperatures. However the peak absolute values of the MCE were shifted from the transition temperatures to the low-temperature region at a value of about 5 K. The MCE in Pr0:8 La0:2 Co2 Si2 was negative for H ¼ 20 kOe down to 12 K and then became positive. For H ¼ 80 kOe the temperature range of negative MCE in Pr0:8 La0:2 Co2 Si2 was situated from about 26 K down to 12 K. The authors established correlation between the temperature dependence of MCE and the change of resistivity under magnetic ﬁeld (magnetoresistive eﬀect). The magnetoresistive eﬀect and MCE temperature dependences were quite diﬀerent for PrCo2 Si2 and analogous for Pr0:8 La0:2 Co2 Si2 . The authors explained this by diﬀerent mechanisms of the magnetoresistive eﬀect in PrCo2 Si2 and Pr0:8 La0:2 Co2 Si2 . In the authors’ opinion, in the ﬁrst case it is related to change of carrier’s (conduction electrons) concentration (it does not aﬀect the MCE) and in the second case the resistivity is determined by the scattering of electrons on the magnetic moments. The latter mechanism is directly related to the inﬂuence of the magnetic ﬁeld on magnetic subsystem entropy and, consequently, with the magnetocaloric eﬀect. The ﬁrst direct MCE measurement in a rare earth silicide was made on a NdMn2 Si2 compound by Nikitin et al (1987) in the temperature range from 4.2 K to 60 K. This compound has a tetragonal crystal structure with ferromagnetic layers stacked along the tetragonal axis and containing Mn, R and Si atoms in the following sequence: R–Si–Mn–Si–R (it is analogous to the structure of RMn2 Ge2 compounds discussed above). According to the previous neutron diﬀraction data, this compound has a magnetic phase transition temperature of 32 K, above which Mn magnetic moments are ordered antiferromagnetically and below are ordered ferromagnetically along the tetragonal axis (Siek et al 1981). The Nd sublattice did not reveal the magnetic ordering above 1.8 K. On the basis of the magnetization measurements Nikitin et al (1987) made a conclusion that just above 32 K the magnetic ﬁeld above 10 kOe converts the antiferromagnetic structure to the ferromagnetic one through the metamagnetic ﬁrst-order transition. The MCE temperature dependences are shown in ﬁgure 7.3. Near 32 K (denoted as 1 on the ﬁgure) the MCE maximum with the form typical for

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Figure 7.3. Temperature dependences of the MCE in NdMn2 Si2 for diﬀerent H. 1 ¼ 32 K (Nikitin et al 1987).

ﬁrst-order transitions is observed. The region of negative MCE below 32 K corresponding to H above 40 kOe was related by the authors to arising of noncollinear magnetic structure in these ﬁelds. Majumdar et al (2000) investigated magnetization and determined SM in single crystalline Tb2 PdSi3 . This compound has a hexagonal AlB2 -type

258

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth–metalloid compounds

crystal structure and revealed a magnetic phase transition from the paramagnetic state to the antiferromagnetic state at the Ne´el temperature of 23 K. The magnetization measurements were performed along [0001] and [1010] crystallographic axes. They showed that the compound was easily magnetized along the [1010] axis and hardly magnetized along the [0001] axis. The SM temperature dependence displayed a wide maximum at about 30 K (with a peak SM value of 8.8 J/kg K at 25 K for H ¼ 50 kOe) if the magnetic ﬁeld is directed along the [1010] axis. For magnetic ﬁeld directed along the [0001] axis the magnetic entropy change was small and negative in the temperature range investigated (from 4.2 to 50 K). It should be noted that the paramagnetic Curie temperature is positive (23 K) in the ﬁrst case and negative (30 K) in the second case. This implies that magnetic coupling along the [1010] axis is of ferromagnetic character and along the [0001] axis is antiferromagnetic. The heat capacity and magnetization of the Gd2 PdSi3 compound were investigated by Sampathkumaran et al (2000). This compound is antiferromagnetic with a Ne´el temperature of 21 K and has a hexagonal AlB2 -type crystal structure. The zero-ﬁeld heat capacity had a rounded peak at about 18 K, which under application of the magnetic ﬁeld shifted to the low-temperature range (with a rate of 0.23 K/kOe) and disappeared in the ﬁeld of 80 kOe. The SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves displayed positive wide maxima near TN . However, for H of 5 kOe and 10 kOe the temperature region of positive SM (and negative T) existed just below 13 K, which can be related to an antiferromagnetic-type paraprocess in the magnetic structure of the compound. The peak values of SM and T near TN are shown in table 7.1. 7.2.2

Magnetocaloric eﬀect in R5 (Si–Ge)4 alloys

The R5 (Si–Ge)4 alloy system has attracted considerable attention in recent years because of a large magnetic entropy change and other unusual magnetic and structural phenomena observed in this system (see Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1997a–c, 1998, Gschneidner et al 2000a, Gschneidner and Pecharsky 2002). Especially high magnetocaloric properties were found in Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 alloys. It was shown by Morellon et al (1998) and Choe et al (2000) that structural and magnetic properties in this system are strongly interrelated. According to earlier structure investigations of Smith et al (1967), Holtzberg et al (1967) and Iglesias and Steinﬁnk (1972) Gd5 Si4 and Gd5 Ge4 at room temperature have Sm5 Ge4 -type orthorhombic crystal structure. This structure can be considered as a sequence of Ge, Sm and mixed Ge–Sm layers stacked along the crystal b-axis in the following order: Ge, Sm, Ge–Sm, Sm, Ge . Holtzberg et al (1967) reported the existence of the solid solution with an orthorhombic structure in the Gd5 Six Ge4 x system for x ¼ 0–0.8 and x ¼ 2–4 and an intermediate phase with unidentiﬁed crystal structure for x ¼ 1.2–2.

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More thorough crystallographic studies of the Gd5 Six Ge4 x system were performed by Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1997d) and Choe et al (2000). It was established that the intermediate phase exists for x ¼ 0.96–2 and has a monoclinic crystal structure at room temperature; a homogeneous Gd5 Ge4 -based solid solution extends from x ¼ 0 to 0.8 and a second homogeneous Gd5 Si4 -based solid solution extends from x ¼ 2 to 4. The crystal structure of the Gd5 Six Ge4 x system was shown to be built from equivalent layers (slabs) that are inﬁnite in the ac crystal plane and are stacked along the b-axis (Choe et al 2000). Essential diﬀerence was revealed between Gd5 Si4 and Gd5 Ge4 compounds. In the former, the slabs at room temperature are connected with each other along the b-axis by covalent-like bonds between pairs of Si atoms. In Gd5 Ge4 such bonds between Ge atoms are absent at room temperature. The monoclinic phase (x ¼ 0.96–2) is a case intermediate between Gd5 Si4 and Gd5 Ge4 compounds: only one half of the covalent-like bonds between the slabs through the metalloid (Si or Ge) atoms is preserved when compared with the Gd5 Si4 compound. Thus, the monoclinic phase is composed from alternating strongly and weakly interacting slabs. This description is illustrated by the magnetic and crystallographic phase diagram shown in ﬁgure 7.4, where O-1 is the orthorhombic Gd5 Si4 -type phase with covalent bonds present between all slabs, M is the

Figure 7.4. The magnetic and crystallographic phase diagram of the Gd5 Six Ge4 x alloy system: O-1, orthorhombic Gd5 Si4 -type crystal structure; O-2, orthorhombic Gd5 Ge4 type crystal structure; M, monoclinic crystal structure (Gschneidner and Pecharsky 2002).

Figure 7.5. Temperature dependences of (a) the MCE and (b) magnetic entropy change SM for the Gd5 (Six Ge1 x )4 alloys induced by H ¼ 50 kOe (Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1998, Gschneidner et al 1999).

260 Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth–metalloid compounds

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261

monoclinic Gd5 Si2 Ge2 -type phase with one half of the covalent bonds formed between the slabs, and O-2 is the orthorhombic Sm5 Ge4 -type phase without bonds between the slabs. From magnetic and crystallographic studies it was found that magnetic phase transitions in the monoclinic and the Gd5 Ge4 -type orthorhombic phase are accompanied by crystal structure changes (Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1997a–d, Morellon et al 1998, Choe et al 2000). Under cooling, the monoclinic phase orders ferromagnetically at the Curie temperature with the simultaneous change of crystal structure from monoclinic to orthorhombic Gd5 Si4 -type. Thus, additional covalent bonds are created between the slabs. A similar process takes place under magnetic ordering for Gd5 Ge4 -type solid solutions (x ¼ 0–0.8) where orthorhombic Sm5 Ge4 -type phase without interslab bonding changes to orthorhombic Gd5 Si4 -type phase. The ferromagnetic ordering in this case happens through an intermediate ferri- or antiferromagnetic state (see ﬁgure 7.4). The ferromagnetic ordering for both the monoclinic Gd5 Si2 Ge2 -type and orthorhombic Gd5 Ge4 -type phases occurs via ﬁrstorder magnetic phase transitions accompanied by a sharp change of the magnetization, which leads to high magnetic entropy and MCE values. The alloys with orthorhombic Gd5 Si4 -type crystal structure (x ¼ 2–4) display second-order magnetic phase transition at the Curie temperature with much lower magnetic entropy change. This behaviour is illustrated by ﬁgure 7.5, where the temperature dependences of the MCE and magnetic entropy change for the Gd5 Six Ge4 x system determined from the heat capacity measurements are shown. The maximum magnetic entropy change (68.5 J/K kg for H ¼ 50 kOe at 143 K) was found in Gd5 Si1 Ge3 alloy. Peak SM and MCE values for the Gd5 Six Ge4 x alloy system are presented in table 7.2. One can see that magnetic entropy change in the alloys with monoclinic room temperature structure is much higher than in Gd in spite of considerable dilution of the magnetic Gd by nonmagnetic Ge and Si. It is worth noting that even when the magnetic entropy change in Gd5 Si2 Ge2 and Gd is compared on a per mole of atoms basis, which is a proper way of comparing diﬀerent classes of materials as shown by Pecharsky and Gschneidner (2001b), the resulting magnetic entropy change in the former remains larger than that in the latter. The structural–magnetic phase transition in the Gd5 Six Ge4 x alloy system described above can be induced not only by changing temperature, but also by changing the magnetic ﬁeld or pressure (Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1997a,c, Morellon et al 1998). Figure 7.6 shows the magnetization isotherms measured near TC for the Gd5 Si2 Ge2 alloy, where the crystallographic phase transition from the monoclinic to the orthorhombic structure also takes place (Choe et al 2000). One can see the magnetic ﬁeld hysteresis typical for the ﬁrst-order transitions induced by the magnetic ﬁeld. It should be noted that the magnetization returns to zero after the magnetic ﬁeld is brought back to zero and no remanent magnetization is observed.

323 [1] 306 [1] 276 [1]

246 [1]

140 [1]

121 [1] 135 [1] 68 [1] 128 [1] 40 [1] 127 [1] 20 [1] 125 [1]

Gd5 Si3 Ge1 Gd5 Si2:06 Ge1:94 Gd5 Si2 Ge2

Gd5 Si1:72 Ge2:28

Gd5 Si1 Ge3

Gd5 Si0:8 Ge3:2

Gd5 Ge4

Gd5 Si0:15 Ge3:85

Gd5 Si0:33 Ge3:67

336 [1] 345.7 [8]

Gd5 Si4

TC TN TC TN TC TN TC TN

TC , TN (K)

Compound (K)

32

45

70 [4]

235 [4]

280 [3] 274 [3]

T Tmax

7.5 [4]

9.2 [4]

14.8 [4]

9.2 [1]

11.8 [1]

18.8 [4]

8.6 [1] 8 [1] 15 [3] 7.4 [3]

8.8 [1]

T (K)

50

50

50

50

50

50

50 50 50 20

50

H (kOe)

MCE peak

15

18.4

29.6

18.4

23.6

37.6

17.2 16 30 37

17.6

T=H 102 (K/kOe)

40 [5]

74 [4] 80 [6] –

339 [2] 340 [8] 340 [8] – 281 [2] 276 [3] 276 [3] 275 [6] 242 [5] 256 [6] 143 [5] 149 [6] –

S Tmax (K)

26 [5]

43 [4] 15 [6] –

9 [2] 8.2 [8] 4.2 [8] – 9.5 [2] 18.5 [3] 14 [3] 20 [6] 39 [5] 33 [6] 68.5 [5] 59 [6] –

SM (J/kg K)

50

50 50 –

50 50 20 – 50 50 20 50 50 50 50 50 –

H (kOe)

SM peak

52

86 30 –

18 16.4 21 – 19 37 70 40 78 66 137 118 –

SM =H 102 (J/ kg K kOe)

T Table 7.2. Magnetic ordering temperatures TN or TC , temperature of the maximum in the TðTÞ curves (Tmax ), temperature of the maximum in S S T the SM ðTÞ curves (Tmax ) and maximum values of SM (at T ¼ Tmax ) and T (at T ¼ Tmax ) induced by a magnetic ﬁeld change H and T=H and SM =H for R5 (Si-Ge)4 alloys. References are shown in brackets.

262 Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth–metalloid compounds

279.9 [8]

296.3 [8]

311.1 [8]

318 [8]

Gd2:5 Tb2:5 Si4

Gd3 Tb2 Si4

Gd3:5 Tb1:5 Si4

Gd4 Tb1 Si4

225 [12]

225.1 [9]

223.2 [8]

72 [7] 56 [7] 50 [7] 46 [7]

Dy5 Si2:5 Ge1:5 Dy5 Si2 Ge2 Dy5 Si1 Ge3 Dy5 Ge4

Tb5 Si4

75 [7]

133 [7]

Dy5 Si3:5 Ge0:5

Dy5 Si3 Ge1

137 [7]

Dy5 Si4

304 [8] 304 [8] –

–

– – 225 [9] 225 [9] 225 [9] – – – –

– – – –

135 [7] 135 [7] 135 [7] –

–

8 [8] 4 [8] –

–

– – 11.2 [9] 9 [9] 6.6 [9] – – – –

– – – –

8.8 [7] 4.8 [7] 2.3 [7] –

–

50 20 –

–

– – 100 75 50 – – – –

– – – –

100 50 10 –

–

16 20 –

–

– – 11.2 12 13.2 – – – –

– – – –

8.8 9.6 23 –

–

140 [7] 135 [7] 135 [7] 135 [7] 135 [7] 65 [7] 65 [7] 60 [7] 55 [7] 50 [7] 50 [7] 50 [7] 230 [8] 227 [8] 220 [9] 220 [9] 220 [9] 225 [12] 225 [12] 225 [12] 285 [8] 285 [8] 300 [8] 300 [8] 305 [8] 305 [8] 315 [8] 315 [8]

12.6 [7] 3.6 [7] 17.4 [7] 11 [7] 4.5 [7] 33 [7] 9 [7] 7 [7] 7.5 [7] 6 [7] 6.8 [7] 0.4 [7] 9 [8] 4.5 [8] 16.4 [9] 13.2 [9] 9.8 [9] 17.2 [12] 9.8 5.2 8 [8] 4 [8] 8.9 [8] 4.1 [8] 9.5 [8] 4.5 [8] 8.2 [8] 4 [8]

50 10 100 50 10 50 10 50 50 50 50 10 50 20 100 75 50 120 50 20 50 20 50 20 50 20 50 20

25.2 36 17.4 22 45 66 90 14 15 12 13.6 4 18 22.5 16.4 17.6 19.6 14.3 19.6 26 16 20 17.8 20.5 19 22.5 16.4 20

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209.6 [9]

Tb5 Si3 Ge1

Tb5 Ge4

Tb5 Si2 Ge2

333.6 [8]

Gd4:5 Tb0:5 Si4

95 [12] TN

76 [14]

116 [13]

110 [10] 110 [12]

100.1 [9]

215 [13]

TC , TN (K)

Compound

Table 7.2. Continued

210 210 210 210 – – 110 110 110 115 – – – – – – – – – – –

–

(K)

[9] [9] [9] [9]

[9] [9] [9] [9]

T Tmax

10.4 [9] 8.4 [9] 5.8 [9] 2.4 [9] – – 10.4 [9] 8 [9] 5.4 [9] 2.2 [9] – – – – – – – – – – –

–

T (K)

100 75 50 20 – – 100 75 50 20 – – – – – – – – – – –

–

H (kOe)

MCE peak

10.4 11.2 11.6 12 – – 10.4 10.7 10.8 11 – – – – – – – – – – –

–

T=H 102 (K/kOe) (K)

328 [8] 328 [8] 210 [9] 210 [9] 210 [9] 210 [9] 213 [13] 213 [13] 110 [9] 110 [9] 105 [9] 102 [9] 100 [10] 102 [12] 102 [12] 102 [12] 100 [13] 100 [13] 75 [14] 75 [14] 85 [12] 100 [12] 100 [12]

S Tmax

8.2 [8] 4.1 [8] 14.8 [9] 12 [9] 8.4 [9] 3.8 [9] 10.5 [13] 6.7 24.8 [9] 20.2 [9] 15 [9] 5.5 [9] 22.5 [10] 36.4 [12] 21.8 [12] 10.4 [12] 20.3 [13] 12.8 [13] 19.5 [14] 5.5 [14] 13.1 3.7 1

SM (J/kg K) 50 20 100 75 50 20 90 50 100 75 50 20 50 120 50 20 90 50 50 10 120 50 20

H (kOe)

SM peak

16.4 20.5 14.8 16 16.8 19 11.7 13.4 24.8 26.9 30 27.5 45 30.3 43.6 52 22.6 25.6 39 55 10.9 7.4 5

SM =H 102 (J/ kg K kOe)

264 Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth–metalloid compounds

303.9 [8]

316.3 [8]

Gd4:25 Pr0:75 Si4

Gd4:5 Pr0:5 Si4

–

–

– – –

– – –

–

–

– – –

– – –

–

–

– – –

– – –

–

–

– – –

– – –

– – – 115 – – 310 308 304 300 290 284 [8] [8] [8] [8] [8] [8]

[10]

8.3 [11] 6.4 [11] 5.6 [11] 6 [10] 4.2 [11] 6.4 [11] 6.1 [8] 3 [8] 7.5 [8] 3.6 [8] 8 [8] 4 [8]

50 50 50 50 50 50 50 20 50 20 50 20

16.6 12.8 11.2 12 8.4 12.8 12.2 15 15 18 16 20

1. Gschneidner and Pecharsky (2000a); 2. Gschneidner et al (1999); 3. Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1997c); 4. Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1998); 5. Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1997a); 6. Vinh et al (1999); 7. Ivtchenko et al (2000); 8. Spichkin et al (2001a); 9. Huang et al (2002); 10. Thuy et al (2000a); 11. Gschneidner et al (2000a); 12. Morellon et al (2001); 13. Thuy et al (2002); 14. Tegus et al (2002d).

Nd5 Si1 Ge3 Nd5 Ge4 Gd4 Pr1 Si4

71 [11] 124 [11] 65 [11] 110 [10] 61 [11] 55 [11] 291.5 [8]

Nd5 Si4 Nd5 Si3 Ge1 Nd5 Si2 Ge2

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266

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth–metalloid compounds

Figure 7.6. Magnetic ﬁeld dependences of the speciﬁc magnetization of Gd5 Si2 Ge2 alloy near the Curie temperature (Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1997c). (Copyright 1997 by the American Physical Society.)

This feature points to a reversible character of the structural transition, at which the structure of the alloy returns to the initial state after switching oﬀ the magnetic ﬁeld. Analogous behaviour was observed by Morellon et al (1998) during measurements of the magnetic ﬁeld dependences of the forced volume magnetostriction in Gd5 Si1:8 Ge2:2 . A characteristic feature of the structural–magnetic transition in Gd5 Si2 Ge2 is the preservation of its ﬁrst-order character even in high magnetic ﬁelds. This can be seen from the behaviour of the heat capacity as a function of temperature during the transitions in various magnetic ﬁelds as illustrated in ﬁgure 7.7. No rounding, typical for second-order transitions, is observed in the magnetic ﬁeld of 100 kOe. This feature is one of the reasons for high magnetic entropy change values in the monoclinic Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 alloys.

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Figure 7.7. Heat capacity temperature dependences in various magnetic ﬁelds for Gd5 Si2 Ge2 alloy (Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1997c). (Copyright 1997 by the American Physical Society.)

Vihn et al (1999) studied the magnetic entropy change in Gd5 Six Ge4 x (x ¼ 0.33, 1.01, 1.72, 2, 3) on the basis of magnetization measurements. Two methods of magnetization measurement were used—pulse ﬁeld (with pulse duration of 15 ms) and SQUID magnetometer. The SM ðTÞ curves obtained by both methods were quite consistent and the peak SM values were of the same order as obtained earlier by Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1997a,c). However it was noted that MðHÞ curves obtained by diﬀerent methods were quite diﬀerent near the temperature of the magnetic phase transition: the curves measured by the SQUID magnetometer showed more complex behaviour, more pronounced hysteresis and higher magnetization than the curves measured by pulse magnetometer. In the regions far away from the transition, the correspondence between the curves was much better. The authors related the observed discrepancy to additional heat generated in the samples due to the magnetocaloric eﬀect in the pulse

268

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth–metalloid compounds

magnetization measurements, which is especially high near the magnetic phase transition. The MCE in R5 (Si–Ge)4 alloys with rare earth elements other than Gd, such as Nd, Pr, Tb and Dy, was studied by Gschneidner et al (2000a), Thuy et al (2000a,b), Ivtchenko et al (2000), Spichkin et al (2001a) and Huang et al (2002). The results on the Dy5 (Six Ge1 x )4 alloy system were reported by Ivtchenko et al (2000) and Gschneidner et al (2000a). According to X-ray data, the crystallographic sequence of phases in this system at room temperature is analogous to that in Gd5 (Six Ge1 x )4 . A solid solution of Si in Dy5 Ge4 with orthorhombic Sm5 Ge4 -type crystal phase exists for x ¼ 0–0.62 and the solid solution of Ge in Dy5 Si4 of analogous crystal type is stable for x ¼ 0.82–1. For x ¼ 0.67–0.78 the intermediate monoclinic Gd5 Si2 Ge2 type phase exists. The magnetic ordering temperatures in the system are lower than in Gd5 (Six Ge1 x )4 alloys: they rise from 46 K for Dy5 Ge4 to 137 K for Dy5 Si4 with a sharp jump at x 0:8 (where the transition from the monoclinic to the orthorhombic phase takes place). The paramagnetic Curie temperatures of all alloys were positive, pointing to the ferromagnetic nature of the magnetic ordering. Figure 7.8 shows temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change for H ¼ 50 kOe for the investigated alloys determined from magnetization. SM ðTÞ curves for the alloys with x 0:62 display a caret-like form typical of ferromagnets with peaks near the

Figure 7.8. Temperature dependences of SM for Dy5 (Six Ge1 x )4 alloys for H ¼ 50 kOe (Ivtchenko et al 2000).

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magnetic transition temperatures. The alloy Dy5 Si3 Ge1 belonging to a monoclinic phase region showed a SM peak much higher than in other alloys investigated in this system (about 33 J/kg K), which points to the ﬁrst-order character of the transition analogous to that observed in the monoclinic Gd5 (Six Ge1 x )4 alloys. The related Gd-based alloy, Gd5 Si0:33 Ge3:67 , which has the same ordering temperature shows a peak SM value 28% higher than that of Dy5 Si3 Ge1 (Gschneidner et al 2000a). SM behaviour in the Dy5 Ge4 -based solid solution alloys demonstrated a positive peak in the low-temperature region in addition to a negative peak at the magnetic phase transition. This behaviour can be taken as an indication of noncollinear magnetic structure in these alloys. SM and MCE peak values for the investigated Dy5 (Six Ge1 x )4 alloys are shown in table 7.2. MCE properties of the (Tb–Gd)5 (Si–Ge)4 alloy system were studied by Spichkin et al (2001a), Huang et al (2002) and Thuy et al (2000a). Spichkin et al (2001) reported the results on the alloys Gdx Tb5 x Si4 (x ¼ 0, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5), where Tb is substituted by Gd. From x-ray diﬀraction measurements, it was established that all alloys had an orthorhombic crystal structure identical to pure Gd5 Si4 . The lattice parameters increased almost linearly with increasing gadolinium concentration (Gd has metallic radii of 1.801 A˚ and Tb of 1.783 A˚) with no discontinuities, indicating that a continuous solid solution formed over the whole range of the concentration. The magnetization measurements showed that the system is ferromagnetic below the Curie temperature, which varied from 345.7 K (Gd5 Si4 ) to 223.2 K (Tb5 Si4 )—see table 7.2. The MðTÞ and CðTÞ curves displayed behaviour typical of second-order magnetic phase transitions near TC . The character of a.c. magnetic susceptibility temperature dependences (existence of additional anomalies just below the Curie temperature peak) for the alloys with x ¼ 2.5–4.0 pointed towards the possible existence of a noncollinear spin structure just below the temperature of transition from the paramagnetic to the magnetically ordered state. However no similar anomalies were found in MðTÞ dependences measured in the magnetic ﬁeld of 5 kOe, which can be explained by a complete destruction of the noncollinearity by a magnetic ﬁeld of 5 kOe or less. The temperature dependences of the a.c. magnetic susceptibility and heat capacity of Tb5 Si4 displayed additional anomaly (maximum) at 85 K. Small peaks in a.c. magnetic susceptibility versus temperature curves were also found for the alloys with x ¼ 2.5–4.5 at the temperatures corresponding to the low-temperature anomalies seen on MðTÞ curves measured in 5 kOe. The authors related these anomalies to spin-reorientation transformations occurring in the alloys with x ¼ 0– 4.5 in the temperature region below 100 K, and they believe that they are somehow connected to ferromagnetic or noncollinear ordering of the lanthanide magnetic moments located in diﬀerent lattice sites. The maximum coercive force of 600 Oe at 5 K was observed in the investigated

270

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth–metalloid compounds

Figure 7.9. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change in Gdx Tb5 x Si4 alloys for H ¼ 50 kOe (Spichkin et al 2001a).

alloy system in Tb5 Si4 . At higher temperatures the coercive force rapidly decreased and became negligible near the Curie temperature. It should also be noted that the MðHÞ curves of the alloys containing Tb ions were not saturated at 5 K even in a magnetic ﬁeld of 90 kOe due to considerable magnetocrystalline anisotropy of Tb ions. The observed linear dependence of the paramagnetic Curie temperature in the investigated alloys on the de Gennes factor pointed to the RKKY character of exchange interaction between the magnetic ions. The temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change in the investigated Gdx Tb5 x Si4 alloys determined from the magnetization measurements are shown in ﬁgure 7.9. As one can see, there are relatively narrow peaks of SM near the Curie temperatures. Although the dependence of the peak SM values on gadolinium concentration has irregular character, the general trend is a decrease of peak SM values from Tb5 Si4 to Gd5 Si4 . This behaviour is expected since the theoretical magnetic entropy of Tb is greater than that of Gd (see table 6.2). The SM values for Gdx Tb5 x Si4 alloys are presented in table 7.2. The MCE value for Gd3:5 Tb1:5 Si4 is obtained from the heat capacity data. The Tb5 Six Ge4 x alloy system was studied by Morellon et al (2001), Huang et al (2002), Tegus et al (2002d) and Thuy et al (2000a, 2002). X-ray measurements made by Huang et al (2002) for Tb5 Six Ge4 x alloys with x ¼ 2, 3 and 4 revealed that Tb5 Si3 Ge1 had an orthorhombic Gd5 Si4 -type crystal structure and Tb5 Ge2 Si2 had a monoclinic Gd5 Si2 Ge2 -type crystal structure at room temperature. Magnetization measurements showed that

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all three alloys order ferromagnetically. Substitution of Si by Ge led to the Curie temperature decrease from 225.1 K (Tb5 Si4 ) to 100.1 K (Tb5 Si2 Ge2 ). The heat capacity anomalies at TC and their behaviour in a magnetic ﬁeld demonstrated second-order character for Tb5 Si4 and Tb5 Si3 Ge1 and ﬁrstorder character for Tb5 Si2 Ge2 , analogous to that in Gd5 Si2 Ge2 . The lowtemperature anomaly on CðTÞ observed earlier in Tb5 Si4 at 85 K by Spichkin et al (2001a) was also found in Tb5 Si3 Ge1 at 80 K and in Tb5 Si2 Ge2 at 74 K. Figure 7.10 shows SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ dependences determined from the heat capacity measurements. The maximum peak SM and T values among the investigated Tb5 Six Ge4 x alloys occurs for Tb5 Si2 Ge2 alloy. One can see additional anomalies at about 75 K. The peak SM and T values for the Tb5 Six Ge4 x alloy system are presented in table 7.2. Thuy et al (2000a) calculated the magnetic entropy change for Tb5 Si2 Ge2 from the magnetization data obtained by pulse magnetometer. The SM peak value near TC for H ¼ 50 kOe was determined to be 22.5 J/kg K, which is higher than the value of 15 J/kg K obtained by Huang et al (2002). However, static magnetization measurements of Thuy et al (2002) gave the peak absolute SM value in Tb5 Si2 Ge2 of 12.8 J/kg K for H ¼ 50 kOe. Quite diﬀerent results on Tb5 Si2 Ge2 were obtained by Tegus et al (2002d). The Curie temperature of Tb5 Si2 Ge2 in this case was determined to be 76 K and the peak absolute SM value near this temperature was 19.5 J/kg K. It should be noted that Thuy et al (2002) and Tegus et al (2002d) observed in Tb5 Si2 Ge2 the metamagnetic ﬁeld-induced transition analogous to that found out in Gd5 Si2 Ge2 (Thuy et al (2002) also reported about the metamagnetic transition in Tb5 Si3 Ge1 ). At the same time in the earlier measurements of Morellon et al (2001) no such behaviour in Tb5 Si2 Ge2 was revealed, although the peak absolute SM value was also high: 21.8 J/kg K for H ¼ 50 kOe. Morellon et al (2001) also determined SM ðTÞ curves for Tb5 Ge4 , which displayed two peaks—one at the Ne´el temperature TN ¼ 95 K and other at about 60 K. Both peaks had approximately equal height and the latter was related to transformation of the magnetic structure. Magnetocaloric properties of R5 (Si–Ge)4 alloy systems with light rare earth elements Pr and Nd were investigated by Spichkin et al (2001a), Gschneidner et al (2000a) and Thuy et al (2000a,b). It should be noted that Nd5 Ge4 has an orthorhombic Sm5 Ge4 -type crystal structure but Nd5 Si4 and Pr5 Si4 belong to the tetragonal Zr5 Si4 -type crystal structure (Smith et al 1967, Gschneidner et al 2000a). X-ray analysis of the Nd5 Six Ge4 x system at room temperature showed that replacement of a quarter of Si atoms by Ge (Nd5 Si3 Ge) stabilized the orthorhombic Gd5 Si4 type structure. Increasing the content of Ge led to the appearance of the monoclinic Gd5 Si2 Ge2 -type structure at the Nd5 Si2 Ge2 composition. In the Nd5 Si1 Ge3 alloy both the monoclinic and orthorhombic phases coexist. The magnetization measurements revealed positive paramagnetic

272

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth–metalloid compounds

Figure 7.10. Temperature dependences of (a) the magnetic entropy change and (b) the MCE for Tb5 Si2 Ge2 alloy (Huang et al 2002).

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Curie temperatures, pointing to a ferromagnetic character of the magnetic ordering in Nd5 Six Ge4 x alloy system. However, as noted by Gschneidner et al (2000a), earlier neutron scattering studies by Schobinger–Papamantellos and Niggli (1981) pointed to a canted ferrimagnetic structure of Nd5 Ge4 . The peak magnetic entropy change SM values for the investigated alloys for H ¼ 50 kOe are presented in table 7.2. They are not especially high, even for the Nd5 Si2 Ge2 composition with a monoclinic crystal structure. The obtained SM value for Nd5 Si2 Ge2 was rather typical for a material with a second-order magnetic phase transition. The Curie temperature in the Nd5 Six Ge4 x alloy system has a general trend to increase from 55 K (Nd5 Ge4 ) to 71 K (Nd5 Si4 ). The Curie temperature of Nd5 Si3 Ge1 was about 50 K higher than that of the other alloys. The authors related this to the orthorhombic Gd5 Si4 -type crystal structure of Nd5 Si3 Ge1 alloy, where all metalloid–metalloid bonds between the slabs exist. Such magnetic ordering temperature increase in comparison of the monoclinic crystal phase was also observed in the Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 alloy system. Thuy et al (2000a,b) calculated SM ðTÞ dependence near TC in Nd5 Si2 Ge2 from magnetization data obtained by pulse magnetometer. The obtained peak SM value in Nd5 Si2 Ge2 is consistent with that of Gschneidner et al (2000a). The inﬂuence of Pr addition on the MCE properties of the Gd5 Si4 compound was studied by Spichkin et al (2001a). From X-ray analysis it was found that Gdx Pr5 x Si4 alloys with x ¼ 4, 4.25 and 4.5 had an orthorhombic crystal structure of Gd5 Si4 -type. The magnetization measurements showed that the alloys have ferromagnetic-type behaviour just below the Curie temperature. An additional anomaly was found in the temperature region below 100 K on MðTÞ curves measured in 5 kOe. For x ¼ 4 and 4.25 the anomaly manifested itself as a decrease of the magnetization, which for higher gadolinium concentration (x ¼ 4.5) was transformed into an increase of the magnetization on cooling. The authors related the anomalies to complex ordering on diﬀerent magnetic lanthanide sublattices (there are three nonequivalent crystallographic positions occupied by lanthanide atoms in Gd5 Si4 -type compounds (Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1997d, Iglesias and Steinﬁnk 1972), which changes due to the change of average interatomic distances upon substitution of Gd by Pr. The coercive force in Gdx Pr5 x Si4 alloys for T ¼ 5 K was small (maximum value of 110 Oe in Gd4 Pr1 Si4 ) and disappeared at higher temperatures. As in the Gdx Tb5 x Si4 alloy system, the linear dependence of the paramagnetic Curie temperature on the de Gennes factor was observed for Gdx Pr5 x Si4 alloys. Figure 7.11 shows the temperature dependences of SM induced by H ¼ 50 kOe calculated from magnetization data. As one can see, the magnetic entropy change peak is observed near the Curie temperatures and its absolute value increased with increasing gadolinium concentration. It should be noted that the Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 alloys, which display the giant magnetocaloric eﬀect, were prepared from high-purity components: at least

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Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth–metalloid compounds

Figure 7.11. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change in the Gdx Pr5 x Si4 alloy system for H ¼ 50 kOe (Spichkin et al 2001a).

99.8 at% Gd and at least 99.99 at% Si and Ge. The eﬀect of substituting small amounts (up to 0.6 at%) of Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Ga, Al and C on SM and MCE in Gd5 Si2 Ge2 was investigated by Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1997b). It was found that the substitutions by Fe, Co, Ni and Cu (arc melted alloys) led to a Curie temperature increase with simultaneous |SM | reduction. The maximum value of |SM | found for Gd5 Si1:985 Ge1:985 Ni0:03 was jSM j 12:4 J/kg K for H ¼ 50 kOe at T 296 K. This was related by the authors to the loss of the ﬁrst-order nature of the magnetic phase transition, which was conﬁrmed by magnetization measurements. The addition of carbon and aluminium acted similarly to Fe, Co, Ni and Cu, leading to the destruction of the ﬁrst-order transition and the disappearance of the giant MCE. Addition of Ga in an amount of 0.33 at% preserved the ﬁrst-order nature of the magnetic phase transition in Gd5 Si2 Ge2 and increased its temperature from about 276 K to about 286 K. The SM value for Gd5 Si1:985 Ge1:985 Ga0:03 was 17.6 J/kg K at T 286 K and the maximum T value was about 14.8 K at T 292 K for H ¼ 50 kOe, which is almost the same as in Gd5 Si2 Ge2 alloy. The substitution of 0.67 at% Ga shifted the magnetic ordering temperature to higher temperatures to about 300 K, but led to the loss of the high MCE (the maximum value of |SM | was about 9.5 J/kg K at T 300 K). The results of the investigations showed that impurities have strong eﬀect on the magnetocaloric properties of the Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 alloy system. Recently a process was proposed by Gschneidner et al (2000b) to allow the preparation of large quantities of Gd5 Si2 Ge2 -type alloys from commercial

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purity (95–98 at% pure) gadolinium. Excellent magnetocaloric properties are preserved despite the presence of numerous impurities in the starting metal. The main feature of the process is holding the alloy in a liquid state at 1800 8C for 1 h in a suitable refractory container in a dynamic vacuum of 106 torr or better. This time is long enough for C and O, present in the melt, to react and form CO and/or CO2 , which are then pumped-oﬀ from the liquid. This process results in a considerable reduction of carbon content in the alloy. ‘Self-puriﬁcation’ cannot be achieved during arc melting where the process lasts for a few minutes in an argon atmosphere and both C and O remain in the product. The absolute peak value of the magnetic entropy change near the Curie temperature in the Gd5 Si2 Ge2 prepared from commercial gadolinium using the process described above was 17 J/kg K for H ¼ 50 kOe in comparison with 7 J/kg K for the sample with identical stoichiometry prepared by arc melting using components with identical purity. In conclusion, in this section we have considered magnetocaloric properties of rare earth–metalloid compounds. In general these compounds (except the (RR0 )5 (Si–Ge)4 system) are not characterized by high magnetocaloric properties. However, such compounds as DyMn2 Ge2 , NdMn2 Si2 , GdPd2 Si, Gd2 Pd2 Si3 and GdFeSi demonstrated large absolute SM =H and T=H values. (RR0 )5 (Si–Ge)4 compounds have outstanding magnetocaloric properties. The most investigated system is Gd5 Six Ge4 x . According to magnetic and structural studies the compositions with x ¼ 0.96–2 exhibit ﬁrst-order transition to magnetically ordered state with simultaneous structural transition from monoclinic to orthorhombic structure. This transition is reversible, can be induced by external magnetic ﬁelds and is accompanied by sharp change in the compounds’ magnetization. The sharp character of the magnetic phase transition persists even in high magnetic ﬁeld (at least up to 100 kOe), which is not observed in other compounds with ﬁrst-order transition. The described transition provides especially high magnetic entropy change and MCE in these compounds: SM =H ¼ 1.37 J/kg K kOe in Gd5 Si1 Ge3 (TC ¼ 140 K) and T=H ¼ 0.376 K/kOe in Gd5 Si1:72 Ge2:28 (TC ¼ 246 K) for H ¼ 50 kOe. Higher SM =H values were observed in La(Fe-Si)13 alloys in low ﬁelds, but they rapidly decreased with H increasing. Gd5 Si2 Ge2 compound with TC ¼ 276 K, which makes it suitable for applications near room temperature, also has SM =H and T=H values higher than in Gd. High magnetocaloric properties observed in the compounds with R ¼ Dy and Tb can also be related to the magnetostuctural transition at TC . Taking into account that, by changing composition in (RR0 )5 (Si–Ge)4 compounds, the Curie temperature can be tuned in a wide range while retaining the magnetocaloric properties, these compounds should be recognized as the most promising materials for magnetic cooling devices.

Chapter 8 Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

The rare earth metals and their alloys were the second objects after 3d metals where magnetocaloric properties were intensively investigated. This is related to the existence of diﬀerent magnetic structures and transitions in these materials, the high values of their magnetization and the localized nature of the rare earth ion magnetic moment. The latter makes rare earth metals and alloys a convenient model object for magnetic investigations. A large variety of magnetic structures are provided by oscillating indirect exchange interactions between localized 4f magnetic moments mediated in the rare earth metals via conduction electrons. Alloying of diﬀerent rare earth elements allows us to vary magnetic transition temperatures, types of magnetic phase and magnetic transitions. The heavy rare earth metals (REM) Gd–Lu (except Yb) and Y have hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystalline structures. In the magnetically ordered state they display complex magnetic structures (Taylor and Darby 1972). In Tb, Dy and Ho a helicoidal antiferromagnetic (HAFM) structure occurs in a certain temperature interval from TC to TN . In the HAFM state, the magnetic moments within the same basal plane order ferromagnetically and are turned by some angle with respect to those in the neighbouring basal plane. The axis of such an antiferromagnetic spiral coincides with the six-fold crystallographic c-axis. The HAFM structure can be transformed by a ﬁeld-induced transition into the fan and then ferromagnetic state if the magnetic ﬁeld exceeds some critical value Hcr . In the magnetic phase diagram Hcr ðTÞ one can mark out the temperature TK , which corresponds to the maximum value of Hcr (where @Hcr =@T ¼ 0). Below TK the transition at H ¼ Hcr is of ﬁrst-order and above TK it has a second-order character. The ﬁrst-order transition is accompanied by ‘jumps’ and some ﬁeld hysteresis in the magnetization on ﬁeld (IðHÞ) curves at H ¼ Hcr . Below TC a ferromagnetic basal-plane phase was observed in Tb and Dy and in Ho an HAFM structure with a ferromagnetic component along the c-axis was found. 276

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277

A more complicated magnetic structure was found in erbium. In the temperature range between TN ¼ 85 K and TCY ¼ 53 K a longitudinal spin wave along the c-axis occurs. Below TCY the structure changed to a cycloid in which the spin wave was superimposed on a basal plane spiral structure. Below TC ¼ 18 K the c-axis component ordered ferromagnetically and the basal planes retained the spiral ordering, forming a ferromagnetic cone (conical phase) (Cable et al 1965, Habenshuss et al 1974, Atoji 1974). Thulium, below TN ¼ 56 K, displays an antiferromagnetic longitudinal spin wave phase. Below 32 K it turns into a ferromagnetic-type structure composed of four basal-plane layers with magnetic moments aligned parallel to the c-axis, followed by three layers with moments aligned antiparallel (Brun et al 1970). Neodymium has a double-hcp crystalline structure with two crystallographically inequivalent (hexagonal and cubic) sites and a complicated antiferromagnetic structure. The magnetic moments on the hexagonal sites order at TN ¼ 19.2 K and on the cubic sites below 7.8 K (Johansson et al 1970).

8.1 8.1.1

Rare earth metals Gadolinium

Neutron diﬀraction studies made by Cable and Wollan (1968) showed that Gd exhibits ferromagnetic ordering from liquid helium temperatures up to the Curie temperature TC ¼ 293 K. The easy magnetization axis is directed along the c-axis from TC down to the spin-reorientation temperature TSR 230 K, below which the spontaneous magnetization vector departs from the c-axis and the easy cone arises. The MCE in Gd is studied the most thoroughly in comparison with other magnetic materials—see for example, Brown (1976), Nikitin et al (1978), Hashimoto et al (1981), Maeda et al (1983), Tishin (1990b,c), Burkhanov et al (1991), Dan’kov et al (1992, 1996, 1998), Foldeaki et al (1995) and Gschneidner and Pecharsky (1997). Because gadolinium often serves as some standard of the magnetocaloric eﬀect, and MCE in new materials is usually compared with it, we decided to present its magnetocaloric properties in detail—see ﬁgures 8.1–8.4. In ﬁgure 8.1 the temperature dependences of heat capacity of Gd single crystal in diﬀerent magnetic ﬁelds up to 100 kOe are shown. The -type anomaly observed on the zero-ﬁeld CðTÞ curve (maximum at 291 K, inﬂection point at 294 K) corresponds to the second-order transition from paramagnetic to ferromagnetic state. The magnetic ﬁeld had a pronounced eﬀect on the anomaly—it was considerably broadened and shifted to higher temperatures with increasing magnetic ﬁeld, which is typical for ferromagnets. Near the

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Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

Figure 8.1. The heat capacity temperature dependences of the Gd single crystal in various magnetic ﬁelds applied along the [0001] crystal axis. The insert shows the temperature range near the spin-reorientation transition (Dan’kov et al 1998). (Copyright 1998 by the American Physical Society.)

temperature of the spin-reorientation transition at 220–225 K a small anomaly was observed, which was wiped out by the magnetic ﬁeld of 20 kOe. The MCE temperature dependences of polycrystalline Gd near TC determined by Gschneidner and Pecharsky (1997) from heat capacity measurements are shown in ﬁgure 8.2. They demonstrate typical ferromagnetic behaviour with a wide symmetric maximum near the Curie temperature. The full width of the TðTÞ curve at half maximum is about 78 K for H ¼ 20 kOe. The MCE ﬁeld dependence near TC is nonlinear and the rate of MCE change with ﬁeld decreases in high ﬁeld region—see ﬁgure 8.3. However, the MCE ﬁeld dependence in Gd in the ferromagnetic state at 90 K is almost linear up to 100 kOe. Nikitin et al (1978) found an additional small MCE anomaly in a Gd single crystal near the spin-reorientation temperature for H aligned along c- and a-crystal axes and studied the dependence of the MCE in Gd single crystal on the magnetic ﬁeld orientation. The analysis was made on the

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279

Figure 8.2. The MCE temperature dependences for Gd for diﬀerent H (Gschneidner and Pecharsky 1997).

basis of equation (5.2), which was considered as a contribution SA, to the MCE related to variation of the ~ Is direction from the initial position determined by the angle 0 (relative to the c-axis) to the ﬁnal angle H . The anisotropy constants Ki can also depend on H, which leads to a magnetic entropy change SA;H : 2 2 @ K1 @ K2 2 sin H þ sin4 H SA;H ¼ @H @T p @H @T p 2 @ K3 ð8:1Þ þ sin6 H H: @H @T p The total magnetic entropy change related to the process of magnetization vector rotation is determined as SA ¼ SA;H þ SA; and causes the anisotropic contribution to the MCE (Nikitin et al 1978): TA ¼ TA; þ TA;H ¼

T ðSA; þ SA;H Þ Cp

ð8:2Þ

where T A, is the contribution from the rotation of I~s against a magnetic anisotropy force and TA;H is the contribution from the variation of the anisotropy constants in the applied ﬁeld. The total MCE was obtained as a

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Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

Figure 8.3. The MCE ﬁeld dependences in Gd at T ¼ TC and T ¼ 90 K (k, direct measurements in pulsed ﬁelds; S, direct measurements by switch-on method and g, indirect determination from the heat capacity (Pecharsky and Gschneidner 1996, Dan’kov et al 1997).

sum of the MCE caused by a paraprocess (calculated by equation (2.16)) and TA . The calculated TðTÞ curve was in good agreement with the experimental one. The TA values were determined from the experimental TðHÞ dependences measured at various T as the intercepts on the T axis by the extrapolation of the linear high-ﬁeld part of the TðHÞ curves. It was shown that near TC the main contribution to TA gave the second term in equation (8.2). Below 230 K, the TA value is determined by the ﬁrst term. As follows from equations (5.2) and (8.1), in this case TA ¼ 0 for H ¼ 0 . This allowed determination of the temperature dependence of the 0 (Nikitin et al 1978), which was in good accordance with data obtained by other authors. Good agreement was found between the experimental data on MCE and SM in Gd and those calculated by MFA (Maeda et al 1983; Tishin 1990a–c).

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281

Figures 8.4(a) and (b) present various contributions to the entropy of Gd in zero magnetic ﬁeld and in a ﬁeld of 70 kOe, calculated by equations (2.59), (2.60), (2.63) by Tishin (1990a). The MCE in Gd for H ¼ 70 kOe determined by the method described in section 4.1 is shown in ﬁgure 8.4c (curve 1). This ﬁgure also presents experimental values of the MCE in Gd (curve 2) obtained by Brown (1976). It can be seen that the results of the calculations describe the experimental data rather well. The values of gJ , J, TC , TN and TD used in the MFA calculations are presented in table 8.1. Figure 8.4d presents the theoretical and experimental SM curves for polycrystalline Gd. The values of SM determined from the results of magnetization and MCE measurements are quite close. The maximum SM and MCE values near the Curie temperature in Gd obtained by various authors are collected in table 8.2. The heat capacity of polycrystalline Gd was measured by Griﬀel et al (1954) and Lounasmaa and Sundstro¨m (1966), and on single-crystal samples near TC by Lanchester et al (1980) and Glorieux et al (1995). Dan’kov et al (1998) measured the heat capacity and magnetic ﬁeld dependences of polycrystalline and single-crystal gadolinium. Three samples were studied: a low-purity (commercial, 93.1 at% pure) polycrystal, a highpurity polycrystal and a high-purity single crystal. As was noted earlier by Gschneidner (1993a) the magnetic properties of RE metals are critically dependent on their purity. In all samples a pronounced -type anomaly was observed near TC on the temperature dependence of the zero-ﬁeld heat capacity. The signiﬁcant reduction of the purity in the commercial Gd sample caused a signiﬁcant reduction of the maximum of the -type anomaly (10% as compared with high-purity samples) and its temperature (5%). An excess heat capacity in the commercial sample appeared in the temperature range between 70 and 286 K and above 300 K. The authors related these features to straining of the crystal lattice and weakening of the exchange interactions due to the interstitial impurities (such as carbon) dissolved in Gd. The interstitial impurities also had a distinct eﬀect on the MCE measured in pulsed ﬁelds: the MCE value in the commercially pure Gd was about two times lower than in the high-purity samples (the maximum of T was about 3.2 K at 288 K for H ¼ 20 kOe in the commercial Gd). Earlier heat capacity measurements on polycrystalline Gd made by Lounasmaa and Sundstro¨m (1966) revealed a distinct heat capacity maximum with a height of 300 mJ/mole K at about 3 K, which was related to the presence of Gd2 O3 oxide. Data about the thermal conductivity of Gd and other heavy rare earth metals can be found in the works of Arajs and Colvin (1964), Powell and Jolliﬀe (1965), Aliev and Volkenshtein (1965a), Gallo (1965), Nellis and Legvold (1969), Beaudry and Gschneidner (1978) and Gschneidner (1993b). Figure 8.5 shows thermal dependences of thermal conductivity measured on Gd single crystals along c- and a-axes (Nellis and Legvold 1969). As one can

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Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

Figure 8.4. Temperature dependences of the calculated MCE and entropy in Gd: (a) H ¼ 0; (b) H ¼ 70 kOe: (1) total entropy; (2) lattice entropy; (3) magnetic entropy; (4) electronic entropy. (c) Experimental (curve 1) and calculated (curve 2) dependences of MCE in Gd for H ¼ 70 kOe. (d) Temperature dependence of magnetic entropy SM in Gd for H ¼ 60 kOe (curves 1, 2); H ¼ 10 kOe (curves 3, 4, 5); H ¼ 5 kOe (curves 6, 7) (calculated values: curves 1, 5 and 7; experimental values obtained from magnetization and MCE data: curves 2, 3, 6, and 4) (Tishin et al 1990a). (Reprinted from Tishin et al 1990a, copyright 1990, with permission from Elsevier.)

Rare earth metals 283

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Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

Table 8.1. Parameters of RE elements used in theoretical MFA calculations by Tishin (1990a). Rare earth metal Parameter

Gd

gJ J TC (K) TN (K) TD (K)

2 3.5 293 – 184

Tb 1.5 6 – 230 177

Dy 1.33 7.5 – 178 179

Ho 1.25 8 – 133 194

Er 1.2 7.5 – 85 192

Tm 1.7 6 – 60 190

see, in the paramagnetic region thermal conductivity along the c-axis is higher than that in basal plane. Analogous behaviour was observed in Dy, Er and Tm (Boys and Legvold 1968, Edwards and Legvold 1968). Thermal conductivity of heavy rare earths is rather low and initially decreased with decreasing temperature from the high-temperature region. As was suggested in a number of works, besides electrons magnons and phonons take a part in forming the thermal conductivity of the heavy rare earth metals. In contrast, in nonmagnetic Lu, the thermal conductivity along the c-axis is in good accordance with the value given by the electron heat conduction mechanism (Boys and Legvold 1968). The values of thermal conductivities in Gd and other heavy rare earth metal single and polycrystals are presented in table A2.1 in appendix 2. 8.1.2

Terbium

Terbium displays HAFM ordering in the temperature interval from TN ¼ 230 K to TC ¼ 220.6 K, which is characterized by weak critical ﬁelds: maximum Hcr ¼ 190 Oe at TK ¼ 228.5 K (Bykhover et al 1990). In ﬁelds above Hcr the HAFM structure in Tb and Dy is destroyed and a ‘fan’ structure arises (in the given temperature interval), in which the magnetic moments in the basal planes form fan-type ordering around the ﬁeld direction. Further increase of the ﬁeld leads to complete ferromagnetic ordering at a ﬁeld of about 2Hcr (Greenough and Hettiarachchi 1983, Drillat et al 1984, Bagguley and Howe 1986). When the HAFM structure is destroyed by a magnetic ﬁeld, an MCE arises because the entropies of the two phases (HAFM and fan or FM) are not equal. The MCE at the ﬁrst-order transition at H ¼ Hcr applied in the basal plane of Dy and Tbx Y1 x alloys was considered by Nikitin et al (1977a,b, 1979a, 1991b) and Nikitin and Andreenko (1981). It was shown that the transition is caused by changes in several energies, namely the energy of exchange interaction between the basal planes, the magnetoelastic

292 [1] 294 [7]

230 [13]

180 [13]

Gd

Tb

Dy

Element

TC , TN (K)

296 [2] 296 [2] 296 [3] 292 [4] 294 [5] 293 [6] 295 [7] 296 [7] 294 [8] 227 [14] 231 [15] 233 [15] 231 [15] 230 [16] 230 [16] 180 [20] 179 [15] 177.5 [21]

T Tmax (K)

11.2 [2] 5.6 [2] 18.8 [3] 10.8 [4] 4.8 [5] 14 [6] 5.8 [7] 19.5 [7] (||c) 2.8 [8] (||a, ||c) 0.23(||b) [14] 5 [15] 10.5 [15] 10 (||b) [15] 60 (bas. plane) [16] 43 (bas. plane) [16] 2.2 [20] 8.6 [15] 7.7 (||a) [21]

T (K) 50 20 100 50 20 70 20 100 10 0.4 20 60 60 350 150 20 60 60

H (kOe)

Peak MCE

22.4 28 18.8 21.6 24 20 29 19.5 28 57.5 25 17.5 16.7 17.1 28.7 11 14.3 12.8

T=H 102 (K/kOe)

– 230 [17] 230 [18] 232 [19] 232 [19] – – 178 [18] 168 [21] 180 [22]

294 [9] 292 [9] 295 [10] 295 [11]

S Tmax (K)

11.1 [9] 3.5 [9] 3.2 [10] 4.9 [11] (||c) 3 [6] 4.2 [12] 8.8 [5] 13.7 [5] – 3.8 [17] (||a) 15.7 [18] 20 [19] 9 [19] – – 14.2 [18] 13.5 [21] 29 (||a) [22]

SM (J/kg K) 60 10 10 12 10 15 40 80 – 12 60.2 75 20 – – 60.2 60 100

18.5 35 32 41 30 28 22 17.1 – 31.5 26 26.7 45 – – 23.6 22.6 29

H SM =H 102 (kOe) (J/kg K kOe)

Peak SM

T Table 8.2. Magnetic ordering temperatures TN or TC , temperature of the maximum in the TðTÞ curves (Tmax ), temperature of the maximum in S S T the SM ðTÞ curves (Tmax ) and maximum values of SM (at T ¼ Tmax ) and T (at T ¼ Tmax ) induced by a magnetic ﬁeld change H and and T=H and SM =H for heavy rare earth metals. References are shown in brackets.

Rare earth metals 285

85 [27]

56 [29]

Er

Tm

132 [25] 136 [26] 85 [25] 86 [28] 58 [15] 58 [30]

182 [24]

178 [21] 182 [22] 182 [22] 180 [23]

T Tmax (K)

6.5 (||b) [21] 19.5(||a) [22] 2.9(||a) [22] 12 [23] 2.2 [23] 9 [24] 2.2 [24] 4.6 [25] 6.1 [26] 3.2 [25] 4.7 [28] 3 [15] 3.1 [30]

T (K) 60 100 20 70 20 50 20 60 70 60 75 60.2 70

H (kOe)

Peak MCE

10.8 19.5 14.5 17.1 11 18 11 7.7 8.7 5.3 6.3 5 4.4

T=H 102 (K/kOe)

130 [18] – 85 [18] – – –

–

180 [22] – – –

S Tmax (K)

1.8 [18] – 1.2 [18] – – –

–

3 (||a) [22] – – –

SM (J/kg K)

60.2 – 60.2 – – –

–

20 – – –

-

3 – 2 – –

–

15 – – –

H SM =H 102 (kOe) (J/kg K kOe)

Peak SM

1. Nikitin et al (1991d); 2. Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1996); 3. Gschneidner and Pecharsky (1997); 4. Benford and Brown (1981); 5. Hashimoto et al (1981); 6. Brown (1976); 7. Dan’kov et al (1998); 8. Nikitin et al (1978); 9. Tishin et al (1990b); 10. Foldeaki et al (1995); 11. Dan’kov et al (1992); 12. Guo et al (1997a); 13. Bykhover et al (1990); 14. Nikitin et al (1989b); 15. Tishin (1988); 16. Druzhinin et al (1977); 17. Dan’kov et al (1996); 18. Nikitin and Tishin (1988); 19. Chernyshov et al (2002a); 20. Hudgins and Pavlovic (1965); 21. Nikitin et al (1991b); 22. Chernyshov et al (2002b); 23. Benford (1979); 24. Gschneidner and Pecharsky (2000b); 25. Tishin and Martinenko (1995); 26. Green et al (1988); 27. Milton and Scott (1967); 28. Zimm et al (1988b); 29. Brun et al (1970); 30. Zimm et al (1989).

134 [1]

Ho

Dy

Element

TC , TN (K)

Table 8.2. Continued.

286 Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

Rare earth metals

287

Figure 8.5. Thermal conductivity temperature dependences in Gd single crystal (Nellis and Legvold 1969). (Copyright 1969 by the American Physical Society.)

energy, the Zeeman energy and the in-plane anisotropy energy. The ﬁrst three contributions were shown to dominate. Nikitin et al (1989b) studied the MCE of Tb by a direct method in the temperature interval from TC to TN in magnetic ﬁelds up to 400 Oe applied along the easy magnetization direction (b-axis)—see ﬁgure 8.6. Between 220.5 and 223.4 K the MCE is small and positive in weak ﬁelds and sharply increases above Hcr . For temperatures from 223.4 to 226 K the MCE is negative for H < 350 Oe. The negative MCE is typical for antiferromagnets, in which the external ﬁeld reduces the magnetic order, thus increasing the magnetic entropy (antiferromagnetic-type paraprocess). In the case of Tb the external ﬁeld transforms the HAFM structure into the lower-symmetry fan structure. The magnetic phase diagram Hcr ðTÞ constructed on the basis of TðHÞ curves (the magnetic ﬁeld was changed from 0 to H) is in good agreement with that obtained from the magnetization measurements. Hcr was deﬁned as the ﬁeld of the maximum increase of T. Figure 8.7 shows the temperature dependences of the MCE in a single crystal of Tb induced by ﬁelds applied along the b-axis (Tishin 1988). The MCE maximum in Tb is observed near TN and is caused by a paraprocess, which is known to be strongest near the temperature of the transition to a magnetically ordered state. Due to the complete destruction of the HAFM structure no MCE anomalies were observed near TC for H 10 kOe. The same results were obtained for measurements in the ﬁeld applied along the a-axis (hard axis in Tb), which implies a small magnetic anisotropy of Tb in the basal plane in the temperature range near magnetic phase transitions. Calculations of the MCE in Tb, made by Tishin (1990a) on the basis of the MFA, have shown satisfactory agreement with the experimental data near TN : for H ¼ 20 kOe the calculation leads to T ¼ 6 K, while the experimental value is 5 K—see ﬁgure 8.8. The insert in ﬁgure 8.8 shows the calculated MCE in strong magnetic ﬁelds. It is seen that for H > 2000 kOe the

288

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

Figure 8.6. Temperature dependences of the MCE in Tb single crystal for the magnetic ﬁeld applied along the b-axis: H ¼ ð1Þ 200 Oe; (2) 250 Oe; (3) 300 Oe; (4) 350 Oe; (5) 400 Oe (Nikitin et al 1989b).

Rare earth metals

289

Figure 8.7. Temperature dependences of the MCE in a Tb single crystal for the magnetic ﬁeld applied along the b-axis: H ¼ ð1Þ 60 kOe; (2) 50 kOe; (3) 40 kOe; (4) 30 kOe; (5) 20 kOe; (6) 10 kOe; (7) 2.5 kOe. Temperature dependences of the heat capacity of a Tb single crystal at: (1) zero ﬁeld; H ¼ 60.2 kOe are shown in the insert (Tishin 1988, Nikitin et al 1985a).

maximum in the TðTÞ curve disappears and for T > TN the MCE practically does not change. There is disagreement of these results with the MCE value calculated earlier by Druzhinin et al (1979) in the framework of MFA (the shape of the TðTÞ curves was quite similar): T ¼ 120 K for Tb at T ¼ TN and H ¼ 1500 kOe. According to Tishin (1990a), at T ¼ TN the MCE value of 120 K can be reached only in a ﬁeld of 2250 kOe, while for H ¼ 1500 kOe the MCE amounts to 98 K. Druzhinin et al (1977) determined the MCE in a Tb single crystal in ﬁelds up to 350 kOe from the experimental adiabatic dependences of the magnetization in the basal plane measured by the pulse method. The MCE was calculated by integration of equation (2.23): ð I T 1 @H dI 1 ð8:3Þ T ¼ T Ti ¼ Ti exp Is ðTi Þ CM @T I where I and T are magnetization and ﬁnal temperature and Is (Ti ) and Ti are the initial magnetization and temperature. A sharp MCE maximum with a value of 60 K was observed at T = 230 K for H ¼ 350 kOe.

290

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

Figure 8.8. Temperature dependences of the MCE in Tb for diﬀerent H: ——, calculations, – – – –, experiment (Tishin 1990a). (Reprinted from Tishin 1990a, copyright 1990, with permission from Elsevier.)

The temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change SM in Tb was evaluated from magnetization measurements by Dan’kov et al (1996) and on the basis of heat capacity and MCE data by Nikitin et al (1985a). In the latter case, the results of zero-ﬁeld heat capacity measurements made by Jennings et al (1957) and equation (2.79) were used for the SM ðTÞ calculation (the ﬁeld dependence of the heat capacity was not taken into account). Later, SM for the heavy rare earths was calculated more exactly by Tishin (1994) (see ﬁgure 8.9), who took into account the ﬁeld dependence of the heat capacity. The heat capacity of Tb in the presence of a magnetic ﬁeld was calculated by Nikitin et al (1985a) and Tishin (1988) on the basis of the

Rare earth metals

291

Figure 8.9. Temperature dependences of SM in Tb, Dy, Ho and Er induced by H ¼ 60.2 kOe (Tishin 1994).

zero-ﬁeld measurements of Jennings et al (1957) and MCE data with the help of equation (2.12). The results for H ¼ 60.2 kOe are shown in the insert in ﬁgure 8.7. Direct heat capacity measurements in the magnetic ﬁelds up to 75 kOe on the Tb single crystal were made by Chernishov et al (2002a). Figure 8.10 shows heat capacity temperature dependences of Tb single crystal in diﬀerent magnetic ﬁelds applied along the crystallographic a-axis. In the magnetic

Figure 8.10. Temperature dependences of the heat capacity of Tb single crystal in diﬀerent magnetic ﬁelds applied along the a-axis near the magnetic phase transitions (Chernyshov et al 2002a).

292

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

ﬁelds less than 5 kOe the curves display two maxima near TN and TC (the corresponding maxima on the zero-ﬁeld curve were at 228.9 K and 221.6 K). With increasing magnetic ﬁeld, the low-temperature maximum shifted to the higher-temperature region and the high-temperature maximum shifted to the low-temperature region as one could expect for TC and TN , respectively. For the ﬁelds higher than 5 kOe only one maximum was observed, which was suppressed in higher magnetic ﬁelds. From the heat capacity data the magnetic entropy change was determined—its temperature dependences for diﬀerent H are shown in ﬁgure 8.11(a). As one can see, in strong magnetic

Figure 8.11. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change in Tb single crystal (magnetic ﬁeld was applied along the a-axis): (a) determined from heat capacity measurements; (b) determined from the magnetization data (Chernyshov et al 2002a).

Rare earth metals

293

Figure 8.12. The magnetic phase diagram of the Tb single crystal constructed on the basis of magnetic and heat capacity measurements. The magnetic ﬁeld was applied in the basal plane (Chernyshov et al 2002a).

ﬁelds only one maximum presents on SM ðTÞ curves as in ferromagnets, because of complete suppression of the HAFM structure. Figure 8.11(b) shows SM ðTÞ dependences for H ¼ 5–10 kOe calculated from magnetization data. Chernyshov et al (2002a) singled out contributions in SM related to the paraprocess and HAFM–FM magnetic phase transition. According to the estimations made with the help of a magnetic phase diagram, magnetization data and the Clausius–Clapeyron equation (2.100), at 225 K the main contribution to SM for H ¼ 10 kOe gives the paraprocess (5 J/kg K) and the HAFM–FM transition (0.5 J/kg K) only. Figure 8.12 represents the magnetic phase diagram of Tb single crystal obtained from magnetic and heat capacity measurements for a magnetic ﬁeld applied in the basal plane. Besides FM, HAFM and paramagnetic phases the measurements allowed the fan magnetic phase and another distorted HAFM phase to be revealed—this latter structure should be close to the fan. The thermal conductivity of Tb was studied by Powell and Jolliﬀe (1965), Aliev and Volkenshtein (1965a), Gallo (1965), Nellis and Legvold (1969) and Gschneidner (1993b). Temperature dependences of this quantity measured on Tb single crystal displayed essential anisotropy—the curve measured along the a-axis lay below the c-axis curve in the whole temperature range (Nellis and Legvold 1969). The thermal conductivity of Tb ﬁrst decreased in the paramagnetic temperature range with decreasing temperature, displayed anomalies at magnetic phase transitions, and then

294

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

increased reaching maximum values at about 20 K (Nellis and Legvold 1969). With further cooling the thermal conductivity sharply decreased. In general features the temperature dependence of thermal conductivity in Tb was analogous to that observed in Gd (see ﬁgure 8.5). Numerical values of Tb thermal conductivity are presented in table A2.1 in appendix 2. 8.1.3

Dysprosium

The HAFM structure arises in Dy between TN ﬃ 180 K and TC ﬃ 85 K. Dy is characterized by much higher critical ﬁelds than Tb: the maximum Hcr value is about 11 kOe at TK ¼ 165 K (Bykhover et al 1990). At TC the structural transition hexagonal–close-packed–orthorhombic structure occurs under magnetic transition from HAFM to FM phase (Darnell 1963). Hudgins and Pavlovic (1965) performed detailed studies of the ﬁeld and temperature dependences of the MCE in polycrystalline Dy in the ﬁelds up to 20 kOe and in the temperature interval from 77 to 320 K. The T(H,T) curves were discussed in connection with the magnetic structure transformation. Later Tishin (1988) and Nikitin et al (1985a) studied the MCE in polycrystalline Dy in ﬁelds up to 60 kOe. Investigations of the MCE by a direct method and magnetization of a Dy single crystal along the easy crystal a-axis were made by Nikitin et al (1979a) in magnetic ﬁelds up to 13 kOe. It was found that a ﬁeld-induced HAFM–FM transition at Hcr causes a positive MCE (T > 0) within the temperature interval from 85 to 160 K. A change of sign of the MCE was found to take place at TK , where Hcr had its maximum and @Hcr =@T ¼ 0. According to the Clausius–Clapeyron equation (2.100) SM , and consequently T, should be equal to zero at this temperature. It was concluded that TK is a tricritical point in the magnetic phase diagram Hcr ðTÞ of Dy, where the ﬁrst-order transition lines turn into a second-order transition line. The MCE in Dy was also studied by a direct method by Benford (1979), Nikitin et al (1988a, 1991b) and Gschneidner and Pecharsky (2000b). Figure 8.13 shows temperature dependences of the MCE in a Dy single crystal measured with the ﬁeld applied along the a- and b-axes (Tishin 1988; Nikitin et al 1991b). The MCE maximum observed for H applied along the a-axis at T ¼ 177.5 K is associated with the HAFM–PM phase transition. The sharp increase of the MCE near T 90 K corresponds to the FM–HAFM transition. For the temperature range above 90 K and below TK (165 K) the MCE for H ¼ 10 kOe is positive. Above TK , in the region up to 178 K the MCE is negative. This behaviour can be understood on the basis of the Clausius–Clapeyron equation (2.100), equation (2.79) relating T and SM and the magnetic H–T phase diagram of Dy (see, for example, ﬁgure 8.16). The magnetic ﬁeld of 10 kOe is high enough to destroy the HAFM structure on the main part of the interval of its existence, and to cause the MCE corresponding to this process. Below TK ,

Rare earth metals

295

Figure 8.13. (a) Temperature dependences of T in a Dy single crystal in a magnetic ﬁeld applied along the a-axis: H ¼ ð1Þ 60 kOe; (2) 50 kOe; (3) 40 kOe; (4) 30 kOe; (5) 20 kOe; (6) 10 kOe. (b) Temperature dependences of T in a Dy single crystal in a magnetic ﬁeld applied along the b-axis: H ¼ ð1Þ 60 kOe; (2) 50 kOe; (3) 40 kOe; (4) 30 kOe; (5) 20 kOe; (6) 10 kOe (Nikitin et al 1991b). (Reprinted from Nikitin et al 1991b, copyright 1991, with permission from Elsevier.)

296

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

dHcr =dT > 0, which according to equation (2.100) corresponds to negative SM and positive T. At T ¼ TK , dHcr =dT is equal to zero and, consequently, T should also be equal to zero, as observed in experiment. Above TK , dHcr =dT < 0 and T should be negative. However, here the transition is of the second-order. A substantial change of the TðTÞ behaviour is observed when the ﬁeld is increased. The broad plateaux in the temperature interval from 90 to 135 K and H < 20 kOe are due to the destruction of the HAFM structure by ﬁelds H > Hcr . In stronger ﬁelds the plateaux gradually disappear and an additional MCE maximum appears around 155–165 K, the temperature of the maximum position increasing as the ﬁeld is increased. The minimum in high ﬁelds corresponds to the tricritical point TK ¼ 165 K. The general character of the MCE behaviour in ﬁelds applied along the b-axis is similar to that measured along the a-axis. The diﬀerence in MCE along aand b-axes at low temperatures was explained by Nikitin et al (1991b) by a contribution from the change of magnetic basal-plane anisotropy energy. Gschneidner and Pecharsky (2000b) determined the MCE temperature dependences in polycrystalline ultra-pure Dy prepared by solid-state electrolysis on the basis of the heat capacity data. The peak value of the MCE near TN for H ¼ 20 kOe was 2.1 K, which is two times higher than the value obtained by Nikitin et al (1991b) on single crystal Dy. The MCE peak value of 2.5 K for H ¼ 20 kOe was obtained on polycrystalline Dy by Benford (1979) by a direct method. Tishin (1998) and Nikitin et al (1991b) also measured the ﬁeld dependence of the MCE in Dy for a magnetic ﬁeld applied along the a-axis. The negative MCE ﬁeld regions were observed in the temperature range corresponding to the existence of the HAFM structure above TK —see ﬁgure 2.8. They are related to the antiferromagnetic-type paraprocess under transformation of HAFM structure by a magnetic ﬁeld and were discussed in section 2.6. Below TK there are jumps at the ﬁelds corresponding to Hcr , which are related to the destruction of the HAFM structure by the ﬁeld-induced ﬁrstorder metamagnetic transition. Data on the magnetic entropy of Dy have been presented by Nikitin et al (1985a, 1991b,c), Nikitin and Tishin (1988), Foldeaki et al (1995) and Chenishov et al (2002b). Figure 8.9 shows the SM ðTÞ curve for Dy for H ¼ 60.2 kOe calculated on the basis of heat capacity and MCE data. The temperature dependence of the magnetic entropy SM ð0; TÞ of a highpurity Dy single crystal was determined by Nikitin et al (1991c) on the basis of heat capacity measurements by integration of equation (2.12). The saturation high-temperature SM value obtained in this way equals 23 J/mol K, which is in good agreement with the theoretical value from table 6.2. Foldeaki et al (1995) determined the temperature and ﬁeld dependences of SM in polycrystalline Dy from the magnetization measurements. A positive magnetic entropy change was observed on the SM ðHÞ curve at T ¼ 174 K at low

Rare earth metals

297

Figure 8.14. Temperature dependences of the heat capacity of Dy single crystal in various magnetic ﬁelds applied along the crystal a-axis (Chernyshov et al 2002b).

ﬁelds (below 1.5 kOe). The peak MCE and SM values obtained experimentally in Dy by various methods are presented in table 8.2. The heat capacity of Dy was measured by Griﬀel et al (1956), Lounasmaa and Sundstro¨m (1966), Ramji Rao and Narayama Mytry (1978), Nikitin et al (1991c), Pecharsky et al (1996), Gschneidner et al (1997a) and Chernyshov et al (2002b). Maxima on the CðTÞ curve were observed near TN and TC . It was shown that the value of the maximum near the HAFM–PM transition was in good agreement with that calculated with the help of MFA (Nikitin et al 1991c). Nikitin and Tishin (1987) using equation (2.155) and MCE data calculated the heat capacity of Dy in magnetic ﬁelds up to 60 kOe from the zero-ﬁeld heat capacity measurements of Griﬀel et al (1956). In the ﬁeld of 20 kOe, an additional maximum in the CðTÞ curve appeared near 160 K, which was related by the authors to the occurrence of the fan structure. It disappeared in high magnetic ﬁeld in accordance with the fan structure transformation into the ferromagnetic one. Chernyshov et al (2002b,c) undertook investigations of magnetization, heat capacity, and magnetocaloric eﬀect of high-purity Dy single crystal. Heat capacity temperature dependences measured in various magnetic ﬁelds applied along the crystal a-axis are shown in ﬁgure 8.14. The sharp maximum at 90 K corresponds to the ﬁrst-order transition at TC and the second anomaly at 180 K is due to the transition from paramagnetic to HAFM structure at TN . The magnetic ﬁeld caused a decrease of sharp peak amplitude and its disappearance in the ﬁeld of 20 kOe. Chernyshov et al (2002b,c) determined the magnetic entropy change and MCE in Dy from the magnetization and heat capacity measurements and also measured the MCE directly in the ﬁelds up to 14 kOe. Figure 8.15 shows TðHÞ

298

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

Figure 8.15. Magnetic ﬁeld dependences of the MCE in Dy single crystal (magnetic ﬁeld is applied along the a-axis) at diﬀerent temperatures (Chernyshov et al 2002b).

dependences measured directly on a Dy single crystal for the ﬁeld applied along the a-axis in the temperature range corresponding to the HAFM state above TC . As one can see there are two jumps on the curves—one in low ﬁelds, corresponding to the destruction of the HAFM structure, and the other in higher ﬁelds. It was found that the low-ﬁeld jump is characterized by temperature hysteresis displaying itself in the measurements made under heating and cooling, as should be expected for the ﬁrst-order ﬁeld-induced metamagnetic transition from HAFM to FM state. This hysteresis was not observed for the high-ﬁeld jumps and the MCE was practically completely reversible in this ﬁeld region, which allowed the authors to make a conclusion about the second-order nature of this transition. The high-ﬁeld peculiarity was explained by an eﬀect of commensurability between the magnetic helicoidal structure and crystal structure that takes place at 113.7 K, where the helicoid’s turn angle is equal 308 (Wilkinson et al 1961, Greenough et al 1981). In order to describe the observed anomaly Chernyshov et al (2002b) used an expansion of the Landau–Ginsburg functional (Izyumov 1984) by the order parameters in the vicinity of the commensurability point. On the basis of this, the dependence of magnetization on magnetic ﬁeld was determined and then by equation (2.16) the ﬁeld dependence of the MCE near the commensurability point was determined. The results of calculations were in accordance with experiment, revealing anomalies related to commensurability.

Rare earth metals

299

Figure 8.16. The magnetic phase diagram of high-purity Dy single crystal constructed from T(H) curves measured directly for the ﬁeld applied along the a-axis (Chernishov et al 2002c).

Figure 8.16 shows a magnetic phase H–T diagram of the high-purity Dy single crystal constructed on the basis of TðHÞ curves measured directly with the magnetic ﬁeld applied along the a-axis. It is similar to the diagrams obtained previously (Wilkinson et al 1961, Nikitin et al 1979a) with respect to the major magnetic phases (PM, HAFM, FM and fan), but also have some additional features. One of them is a sharp increase of the HAFM–FM transition ﬁeld (the ﬁrst critical ﬁeld corresponding to the low-ﬁeld jump in ﬁgure 8.15) in the vicinity of the Curie temperature between 90 and 92 K. Chernishov et al (2002c) related it to the coexistence of HAFM and FM phases just above TC . In the temperature region from 110 to 125 K in magnetic ﬁelds between 5 and 6 kOe there is an additional line associated with the second critical ﬁeld (the high-ﬁeld jump in ﬁgure 8.15) and explained by the authors by the commensurate eﬀects. Another feature is the phase boundary line in the temperature interval from 179 to 182 K (the fourth critical ﬁeld) corresponding to the anomalies in TðHÞ curves found in this region. It was assumed that this is due to an intermediate ‘vortex’ state that according to the literature data may exist at these temperatures. Magnetic entropy change temperature dependences determined for Dy single crystal for various H by Chernyshov et al (2002b) for diﬀerent

300

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

Figure 8.17. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change in Dy single crystal (magnetic ﬁeld is applied along the a-axis) for diﬀerent H: (a) up to 15 kOe (determined from magnetization); (b) in the range from 20 to 100 kOe (determined from heat capacity) (Chernyshov et al 2002b).

temperatures from magnetization and heat capacity data are shown in ﬁgure 8.17. In general features they are analogous to the TðTÞ curves with the temperature regions of positive SM corresponding to the regions of negative T (see ﬁgure 8.13). From the Clausius–Clapeyron equation (2.100),

Rare earth metals

301

on the basis of the magnetization data and constructed magnetic phase diagram, the authors estimated the magnetic entropy change related to the HAFM–FM magnetic phase transition at TN as 3.6 J/kg K. Almost the same value (3.4 J/kg K) had the lattice entropy change associated with the ﬁrst-order structural phase transition and corresponding volume change, which was determined from the Clausius–Clapeyron equation in the form of equation (6.3). The value of the volume change V in equation (6.3) was taken from the volume magnetostriction measurements and dT=dp was taken as the shift of TC under pressure from the work of Nikitin et al (1991b). The obtained values are in quite good agreement with experimentally observed magnetic entropy change at TC . The MCE temperature dependences determined from the heat capacity measurements were analogous to that measured by a direct method (ﬁgure 8.13), although the peak values near TN in the former case were higher than obtained directly—see table 8.2. In the paramagnetic region just above TN , Chernyshov et al (2002b) observed signiﬁcantly higher (about two times) values of the MCE in the investigated high-purity Dy single crystal than that reported previously (Nikitin et al 1979a). The diﬀerence disappeared in the high-temperature region. The observed eﬀect was related by the authors to the existence of clusters with short-range AFM order in the paramagnetic region above TN . The suppression of internal AFM structure of such clusters by a magnetic ﬁeld should give negative MCE on the initial stage of the magnetization process due to the antiferromagnetic-type paraprocess, lowering the total MCE in the paramagnetic region. At higher temperatures the clusters will be destroyed and the eﬀect will disappear. Higher MCE in the high-purity single crystal can be related to the existence of the clusters in a narrower temperature interval in this case. Another interesting thermal eﬀect was observed at the ﬁrst-order transition at TC in ultra-pure Dy obtained by a method of solid-state electrolysis (Pecharsky et al 1996, Gschneidner et al 1997a). This eﬀect was superheating, i.e. cooling of the sample as a result of adding heat. It was revealed during the measurement of the heat capacity in the heat pulse calorimeter described in section 3.2.2.1. It was explained by the magnetic phase transformation causing by application of heat, at which the temperature of the material drops. The thermal conductivity of Dy was investigated by Powell and Jolliﬀe (1965), Colvin and Arajs (1964), Gallo (1965), Boys and Legvold (1968) and Gschneidner (1993b). The values of thermal conductivity measured along the c-axis in Dy single crystal are higher than that measured along the a-axis in the paramagnetic range and the situation changes to the opposite in the magnetically ordered state (Boys and Legvold 1968). With cooling from the paramagnetic range the thermal conductivity ﬁrst decreases and below TN starts to increase, reaching maximum value at 25 K. Further cooling causes rapid decrease of the thermal conductivity. At the temperatures of

302

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

Figure 8.18. Temperature dependences of the MCE in polycrystalline Ho for various H: (1) 60.2 kOe; (2) 50.2 kOe; (3) 40.3 kOe; (4) 30.1 kOe; (5) 20.1 kOe (Nikitin et al 1985a; Tishin 1988).

the magnetic phase transition (TC and TN ) there are anomalies on the thermal conductivity. Colvin and Arajs (1964) measured temperature dependences of the thermal conductivity of Dy polycrystal in the temperature range from 5 to 305 K. Numerical values of Dy thermal conductivity are presented in table A2.1 in appendix 2. 8.1.4

Holmium

Direct measurements of the MCE in polycrystalline Ho were made by Nikitin et al (1985a)—see ﬁgure 8.18, where the MCE temperature dependences for various H are shown. MCE maxima are observed at TC ¼ 20 K (T ¼ 4.6 K for H ¼ 60.2 kOe) and at TN ¼ 132 K (T ¼ 4.5 K for H ¼ 60.2 kOe). The MCE is large in the temperature interval from 20 to 132 K with T ¼ 3.2–4.6 K for H ¼ 60.2 kOe. Small MCE maxima are observed in the region of 70–90 K for H ¼ 30.1–60.2 kOe. They are due to a complex temperature dependence of the critical ﬁeld Hcr , which destroys the HAFM structure. Green et al (1988) found an MCE maximum in Ho near 136 K with a value of 6.1 K for H ¼ 70 kOe. Jayasuria et al (1985) and Lounasmaa and Sundstro¨m (1966) measured the heat capacity of Ho. Nikitin and Tishin (1987), on the basis of zero-ﬁeld heat capacity of Jayasuria et al (1985) and measured MCE data, calculated CðH; TÞ curves of Ho by equation (2.155)—see ﬁgure 8.19. For H ¼ 20 kOe, which is higher than Hcr , a broad maximum appears in the CðH; TÞ curve in the temperature range from 90 to 130 K. As the ﬁeld is increased up to 60 kOe, this maximum disappears and only a plateau remains on the CðH; TÞ curve. The authors related this maximum to the

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Figure 8.19. Temperature dependences of the heat capacity of Ho in various magnetic ﬁelds: H ¼ ð1Þ 0; (2) 20 kOe, (3) 60 kOe (Nikitin and Tishin 1987).

tricritical point on the magnetic phase diagram Hcr ðTÞ. Figure 8.9 shows the SM ðTÞ for Ho calculated by Tishin (1994) on the basis of the heat capacity and MCE data. It is seen that sharp SM maximum occurs near TN . The thermal conductivity of Ho was studied by Aliev and Volkenshtein (1965b), Powell and Jolliﬀe (1965), Nellis and Legvold (1969) and Gschneidner (1993b). The thermal conductivity of Ho single crystal measured along the caxis is higher than that measured along the a-axis in the whole temperature range from 300 K to 5 K (Nellis and Legvold 1969). With temperature decreasing from the paramagnetic range the thermal conductivity decreases and then from 110 K begins to rise, reaching a maximum value at about 50 K and decreasing with further cooling. The anomalies corresponding to the magnetic ordering temperatures were observed near the magnetic ordering temperatures on the thermal conductivity temperature dependences (Nellis and Legvold 1969). Numerical values of the Ho thermal conductivity are presented in table A2.1 in appendix 2. 8.1.5

Erbium

Nikitin et al (1985a) measured the MCE in polycrystalline Er by a direct method—see ﬁgure 8.20. The obtained TðTÞ dependences revealed a maximum near the AFM–PM transition point TN . For H ¼ 60.2 kOe the maximum MCE value at TN was 3.2 K. An extra maximum, which was attributed to the destruction of the AFM structure by a magnetic ﬁeld, was observed at 35 K. The maximum value T ¼ 3.8 K at this temperature exceeds that near TN obtained for the same H value. As well as Ho, Er shows a substantial MCE (about 3 K for H ¼ 60.2 kOe) over a wide temperature interval from 30 to 85 K. Analogous TðTÞ curves were

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Figure 8.20. Temperature dependences of the MCE in polycrystalline Er for various H: (1) 60.2 kOe; (2) 50.2 kOe; (3) 40.3 kOe; (4) 30.1 kOe; (5) 20.1 kOe (Nikitin et al 1985a; Tishin 1988).

obtained by Zimm et al (1988b) for polycrystalline Er. It was established that for H ¼ 75 kOe the high-temperature (near TN ) and low-temperature MCE maxima become almost equal and amount to 4.7 K. Zimm et al (1988b) found that below 20 K a magnetization—demagnetization cycle causes sample heating. This was explained by a fairly large magnetic hysteresis observed in this temperature range. The SM ðTÞ curve of Er for H ¼ 60.2 kOe is presented in ﬁgure 8.9. The SM maximum near TN has a value of 1.2 J/mol K, while the low temperature maximum is much higher with SM ¼ 2.5 J/mol K. The heat capacity of Er was studied by Skochdopole et al (1955), Dreyfus et al (1961), Krusius et al (1974), Hill et al (1984), Schmitzer et al (1987), Pecharsky et al (1993) and Gschneidner et al (1997a). The temperature dependence of the zero-ﬁeld heat capacity of Er measured by Zimm et al (1988b) displayed a large step at 84 K corresponding to the AFM ordering along the c-axis. The sharp peak near 20 K was related to the ﬁrst-order transition to a conical magnetic structure, and the broad shoulder from 30 to 80 K corresponded to the ordering in the basal plane. A magnetic ﬁeld of 10 kOe wiped out the peak at 20 K but had only a small eﬀect on the high-temperature anomaly. The heat capacity of ultra-pure erbium prepared by solid state electrolysis measured by Gschneidner et al (1997a) is presented in ﬁgure 8.21. The observed anomalies are related to magnetic phase transformations: paramagnetism—c-axis modulated ferromagnetic spin structure at TN ¼ 84 K, the modulated structure—the cycloid at TCY ¼ 52 K and ﬁrst-order transition from the cycloid to the conical phase at TC ¼ 19 K. The peculiarity near 25 K is related to the spin–slip transition between diﬀerent commensurate AFM structures. The superheating (cooling under adding heat to the material) and supercooling (warming under removing heat from the material) eﬀects were observed in ultra-pure Er by Gschneidner et al (1997a). Earlier superheating

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Figure 8.21. Temperature dependence of the zero-ﬁeld heat capacity of ultra-pure polycrystalline Er (Gschneidner et al 1997a). (Copyright 1997 by the American Physical Society.)

was observed in ultra-pure Dy (Pecharsky et al 1996). A distinctive feature of the eﬀects in Er was several successive temperature changes (four under heating and two under cooling) in comparison with only one temperature drop under superheating eﬀect in Dy. The authors explained this behaviour by the passing of Er through several intermediate metastable magnetic states under the transition at TC . These states arise due to the complex magnetic structure of Er. In ordinary (not ultra-pure) samples of Er and Dy the eﬀects of supercooling and superheating were not observed. This was related by the authors to stresses introduced into a material by impurities and interaction with the magnetoelastic strain arising at the transition, which is one of its main driving forces. Such impurity stresses can slow down the magnetic phase transformation at the transition. Zero ﬁeld heat capacity of high-purity polycrystalline Er was thoroughly investigated by Pecharsky et al (1993) in the temperature interval 1.5–80 K. Besides the peaks at 19 K (conical phase transition) and 51.4 K (AFM ordering in the basal plane), additional anomalies at 25.1, 27.5, 42 and 48.9 K were revealed. The authors explained them by the spin–slip transitions between diﬀerent commensurate AFM structures (Gibbs et al 1986, Bohr 1991).

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The data about the thermal conductivity of Er are presented in the works of Aliev and Volkenshtein (1965b), Powell and Jolliﬀe (1965), Boys and Legvold (1968) and Gschneidner (1993b). According to the investigations of Boys and Legvold (1968) on Er single crystal, the thermal conductivity is higher along the c-axis than that along the b-axis in the paramagnetic region, and below 70 K the c-axis values become smaller than the b-axis values. The thermal conductivity measured along the b-axis monotonically decreases with temperature decreasing from 300 K down to 5 K with small anomalies at the magnetic transition temperatures. Magnetic transitions have a more pronounced eﬀect on the thermal conductivities measured along the b-axis, and also tend to decrease with cooling. However, at 18 K in this case a thermal conductivity maximum of 0.085 W/cm K is observed (Boys and Legvold 1968). Numerical values of the Er thermal conductivity are presented in table A2.1 in appendix 2. 8.1.6

Thulium

Figure 8.22 shows the temperature dependences of polycrystalline Tm measured directly by Nikitin et al (1985a). Near TN ¼ 58 K the MCE maximum with a value of 1.5 K for H ¼ 60.2 kOe is observed. At lower

Figure 8.22. Temperature dependences of the MCE in polycrystalline Tm for various H: (1) 60.2 kOe; (2) 50.2 kOe; (3) 40.3 kOe; (4) 30.1 kOe; (5) 20.1 kOe (Nikitin et al 1985a; Tishin 1988).

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Figure 8.23. Temperature dependence of the heat capacity of polycrystalline thulium: zero ﬁeld (l) and in a magnetic ﬁeld of 30 kOe (SÞ (Zimm et al 1989). (Reprinted from Zimm et al 1989, copyright 1989, with permission from Elsevier.)

temperatures the MCE becomes negative, which may be due to the deformation of the AFM structure by the magnetic ﬁeld and which is accompanied by a magnetic entropy increase. Analogous TðTÞ curves were obtained by Zimm et al (1989), although the maximum T values in corresponding magnetic ﬁelds were somewhat higher. The temperature dependence of the zero-ﬁeld heat capacity of Tm measured by Zimm et al (1989) showed a large step near TN —see ﬁgure 8.23. Application of 30 kOe did not have any noticeable inﬂuence on the CðTÞ curve except rounding of the step at TN . Thermal conductivity of Tm was reported in the works of Aliev and Volkenshtein (1965c), Edwards and Legvold (1968) and Gschneidner (1993b). The measurements made by Edwards and Legvold (1968) on Tm single crystal revealed essential anisotropy of the thermal conductivity in the paramagnetic region: at 300 K it was 0.24 W/cm K for the c-axis direction and 0.14 W/cm K for the b-axis direction. With cooling, the thermal conductivity of Tm decreased, reaching a minimum value of 0.09 W/cm K near TN for the measurements along the b-axis and 0.1 W/cm K at 38 K for the measurements along the c-axis, then increased displaying a maximum (0.25 W/cm K for the b-axis and 0.21 for the c-axis) at 12 K and decreased with further cooling (Edwards and Legvold 1968). The thermal conductivity values measured along the b-axis became higher than that measured along the c-axis below 40 K. Numerical

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values of the Tm thermal conductivity are presented in table A2.1 in appendix 2. 8.1.7

Neodimium

Zimm et al (1990) measured directly the MCE in polycrystalline Nd in the temperature range from 5 to 35 K and in ﬁelds up to 70 kOe—ﬁgure 8.24. Two maxima were found on the temperature dependence of the MCE in Nd. The one near 20 K corresponds to magnetic ordering at the hexagonal sites, and the other, near 8 K, corresponds to ordering at the cubic sites. It should be noted that the latter maximum was much higher (T 2:5 K at 10 K for H ¼ 70 kOe) than the former (T 22 K for H ¼ 70 kOe). The authors related this diﬀerence to a large magnetocrystalline anisotropy because of which only the basal-plane component (the magnetic moments in the hexagonal sites order in the basal plane) of the external magnetic ﬁeld in a crystallite can contribute to the magnetic ordering near TN . The relatively weak MCE in Nd (as compared with the heavy RE metals) was explained by the antiferromagnetic structure and crystalline ﬁeld eﬀects. The latter factor reduces the maximum available magnetic entropy from R ln 10 (J ¼ 9/2) in the absence of crystal ﬁeld splitting to the value of R ln 2 (J ¼ 1/2). The heat capacity of Nd was investigated by Lounasmaa and Sundstro¨m (1967), Forgan et al (1979), Zimm et al (1990) and Pecharsky et al (1997a). Lounasmaa and Sundstro¨m (1967) found two maxima on the zero ﬁeld CðTÞ curve at about 8 K and 19 K corresponding to the magnetic phase transitions described above. Analogous results were obtained by Zimm et al

Figure 8.24. Temperature dependences of the MCE in polycrystalline Nd for diﬀerent H: (1) 70 kOe; (2) 50 kOe; (3) 30 kOe; (4) 10 kOe (Zimm et al 1990).

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(1990). Forgan et al (1979) made heat capacity measurements on an electrotransport puriﬁed Nd sample, which revealed two sets of sharp peaks—two peaks at about 5 K (where there was only a shoulder on the CðTÞ curves of Lounasmaa and Sundstro¨m (1967)) and three peaks in the temperature range from 7 K to 8 K. Essential volumetric heat capacity at low temperatures makes this material a possible candidate for application in passive magnetic regenerators in this temperature range—see section 11.1. The room temperature value of thermal conductivity of polycrystalline Nd (0.165 W/cm K) is presented in the works of Powell and Jolliﬀe (1965) and Gschneidner (1993b). 8.1.8

Theoretically available MCE in heavy rare earth metals

Here the results of theoretical calculation of the MCE values in very high magnetic ﬁelds made by Tishin (1990a, 1998c) will be presented and discussed. Such a calculation is necessary for deeper understanding of the mechanisms of the magnetic ordering process in high magnetic ﬁelds and for identiﬁcation of the ways of searching for materials with high magnetocaloric eﬀects. Furthermore, modern experimental investigations in high magnetic ﬁelds up to 5 MOe and more are no longer something exotic. Since the MCE value in such ﬁelds can be extremely high, the possibility of its inﬂuence on the obtained experimental results needs to be accounted for. Tishin (1990a, 1998c) made a computer simulation analysis of the MCE in rare earth metals and rare earth based materials based on the mean ﬁeld approximation (MFA). The developed analysis was applied to calculate peak values of the MCE in rare earth metals (Tishin 1990a). The inﬂuence of such main thermodynamic parameters as magnetic ﬁeld, temperature, magnetic ordering temperature and Debye temperature on the MCE in RE metals was investigated and the possible mechanisms of magnetic entropy change in the ﬁeld region corresponding to the paraprocess were discussed. It was also shown that the Debye temperature has an essential inﬂuence on the MCE value in rare earth metals in a wide temperature range. The calculations were made in the framework of approach described in section 2.4 (equations (2.58)–(2.63)) and section 3.2.2 with parameters of RE metals listed in table 8.3. The magnetic ﬁelds were assumed to signiﬁcantly exceed the critical magnetic ﬁelds necessary to destroy the antiferromagnetic state in rare earth metals and, therefore, all calculations were performed for the magnetic phase transition from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic state. The results of the numerical simulation should agree quite well with the experimental data for the heavy lanthanides only for large magnetic ﬁelds, i.e. for ﬁelds in which the contribution of the AFM–FM phase transition to the magnetic entropy is rather small. Consideration was made of the temperature interval from 10 K to 1000 K and in magnetic ﬁelds up to 40 MOe. The energy spectrum can become extremely distorted in such high

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max Table 8.3. Values of the maximum possible magnetic entropy change SM , calculated theor values of the magnetic entropy change SM for H ¼ 6 103 and 104 kOe and maximum possible values of the magnetocaloric eﬀect Tmax , values of the Hmax , in which the MCE is diﬀerent from Tmax by at most 1% and the experiexp near Tord in heavy rare mental maximum magnetic entropy change SM earth metals (Tishin 1990a).

Rare earth metal Parameter exp SM (J/mol K) exp SM (J/mol K) (H ¼ 60 kOe)

Gd

17.3 2.1 (H ¼ 70 kOe) theor (J/mol K) (H ¼ 6 103 kOe) 15.8 SM theor SM (J/mol K) (H ¼ 104 kOe) 16.8 235 Tmax (K) Hmax (104 ) kOe 2.2 Tord (K) 293

Tb 21.3 2.4

Dy 23.1 2.3

Ho 23.6 1.8

Er 23.1 1.2

Tm 21.3 –

19.4 21.4 22.3 22.6 21.0 20.6 22.5 23.1 22.7 21.0 254 231 191 135 100 2.8 2.6 2.4 1.6 1.0 230 178 135 85 60

magnetic ﬁelds. Therefore, this naturally may aﬀect the real ﬁeld dependence of the magnetic entropy, SM , and T. Phenomena like crossover are considered by the author to yield staircase-like TðHÞ and SM ðHÞ curves. But it was supposed that its contribution to the total value of the overall MCE and the entropy should be relatively small. The calculations reveal the fact that if the temperature is high (near 1000 K), the MCE and magnetic entropy continue to change even in the highest considered magnetic ﬁelds, while near the temperature of the phase transition to the paramagnetic state the value of the magnetic entropy saturates in a ﬁeld of about 10 MOe. In high ﬁelds (H > 10 MOe), the magnetic entropy practically equals zero up to the point T TC , i.e. there is no magnetic contribution to the entropy. This result leads to the following conclusion: in ﬁelds higher than 1 MOe the magnetic moments of the rare earth ions must be nearly completely aligned in a wide range of temperatures up to the Curie temperature. The calculations made by Tishin (1990a, 1998c) showed that the general behaviour of the MCE as a function of temperature is signiﬁcantly transformed under the inﬂuence of a magnetic ﬁeld. Anomalies in TðTÞ curves are observed in magnetic ﬁelds up to 40 MOe, but the MCE continue to increase with temperature for T > TC , when H > 5 MOe. This behaviour is characteristic for all investigated RE metals. Figure 8.25 presents the temperature dependence of the maximum MCE for heavy lanthanides in the ﬁeld of 6 MOe. Gadolinium has the minimum MCE at all considered temperatures. Tishin’s (1998c) analysis led to the conclusion that at low temperatures the maximum MCE value (of heavy lanthanides) is determined by the Debye temperature, TD (i.e. by the value

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Figure 8.25. Calculated temperature dependences of the MCE in heavy rare earth metals Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er and Tm induced by H ¼ 6 MOe (Tishin 1990a). (Reprinted from Tishin 1990a, copyright 1990, with permission from Elsevier.)

of lattice heat capacity). When the temperature exceeds 230 K the maximum MCE in all REM follows the total angular moments, J, and/or the eﬀective magnetic moment, meff . The calculations show that Tb has the largest MCE in ﬁelds up to 2 MOe, while Er has the lowest. In higher ﬁelds Ho has the maximum value of MCE, and Gd the minimum. Furthermore, in high ﬁelds (although not in the saturation ﬁelds) the MCE is deﬁned not only by the magnetic entropy, but also by a number of other parameters associated with the magnetic and crystal structures of the lanthanides. Figure 8.26 shows ﬁeld dependences of the magnetic entropy in the vicinity of the transition from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic state. As one

Figure 8.26. Calculated ﬁeld dependences of the magnetic entropy near the transition from magnetically ordered to paramagnetic state in heavy rare earth metals (Tishin 1998c).

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Figure 8.27. Calculated ﬁeld dependences of the MCE and the magnetic entropy change in Gd at T ¼ TC (Tishin 1998c).

can see, the curves can be arranged in order of increasing Curie temperatures of the RE metals, except Gd. The calculations also revealed that the MCE in RE metals continued to increase even when the entropy became almost equal to zero. Figure 8.27 presents the ﬁeld dependence of the MCE and the magnetic entropy change (in percentage of the corresponding total value) at T ¼ TC in gadolinium. It is seen that although SM ¼ 0 already at H ¼ 10 MOe, the MCE continues to increase well above this ﬁeld. Calculations of the MCE value in the heavy RE metals as a function of the magnetic ﬁeld at T ¼ Tord (here Tord ¼ TC for Gd and TN for the others RE metals), which are shown in ﬁgure 8.28, give satisfactory agreement with

Figure 8.28. Calculated magnetic ﬁeld dependences of the MCE in the heavy rare earth metals at Tord : Tb (——); Dy (– – – –); Gd ( ); Ho (– –); Er (– –); Tm (– - –). Experimental values for H ¼ 60 kOe from the works of Brown (1976), Nikitin et al (1985a), Nikitin and Tishin (1988) and Tishin (1988) are given by symbols: Gd (T), Tb (g), Dy (h), Ho (l), Er (k), Tm (SÞ (Tishin 1990a). (Reprinted from Tishin 1990a, copyright 1990, with permission from Elsevier.)

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Figure 8.29. Calculated magnetic ﬁeld dependences of the magnetic entropy change at Tord for the heavy rare earth metals: Er (——), Ho ( ), Dy (– –); Tm (– – –), Tb (– –), Gd (– - –) (Tishin 1990a). (Reprinted from Tishin 1990a, copyright 1990, with permission from Elsevier.)

the experimental data for H ¼ 60 kOe only for Gd, Tb and Dy (Tishin 1990a). This result is quite clear, since in Ho, Er and Tm the HAFM structure persists in much higher ﬁelds than in Tb and Dy. It follows from the experimental data that the behaviour of the TðTÞ curves is strongly inﬂuenced by these structures in ﬁelds up to 60 kOe. One can suppose that in ﬁelds much higher than Hcr the MFA should describe the MCE quite well. The results of MFA calculations of SM (T,H) in the heavy RE metals at T ¼ Tord are shown in ﬁgure 8.29. One can see that a considerable rise in SM is observed only in ﬁelds below 2 MOe, whereas in ﬁelds of about 6 MOe the values of SM diﬀer only slightly from their maximum values max SM , which can be stated as maximum possible entropy SM determined max , the by equation (2.66) and listed in table 6.2. Table 8.3 presents SM values of SM calculated for H ¼ 6 MOe and 10 MOe, and maximum experimental SM values for H ¼ 60 kOe near Tord (Brown 1976, Nikitin and Tishin 1988, Tishin 1988). Table 8.3 also shows the maximum possible values of the magnetocaloric eﬀect (Tmax ) at T ¼ Tord , calculated by equation (2.79) on the max values and the calculated values of the ﬁelds Hmax (Tord ), in basis of SM which the MCE is diﬀerent from Tmax by at most 1%. As one can see, an initial temperature rise of 100 K leads the MCE to increase by a factor 1.5–2. Such behaviour of Tmax corresponds to the functional dependence T T, as follows from equation (2.79), since the factor (SM =Cp;H ) tends to a constant when H tends to inﬁnity. The analysis made by Tishin (1990a) shows that the Tmax value in the series of heavy RE metals is directly proportional to the product gJ JTord —see ﬁgure 8.30.

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Figure 8.30. Dependence of maximum value of the magnetocaloric eﬀect (T max ) in rare earth metals at T ¼ Tord on the product gJ JTord (Tishin 1990a). (Reprinted from Tishin 1990a, copyright 1990, with permission from Elsevier.)

From the classic point of view, the change of SM value is usually related to the rotation of the magnetic moment vectors under the inﬂuence of the magnetic ﬁeld (i.e. the SM decreases with increasing magnetization in a magnetic material). It has been experimentally established that the value of SM measured in 60 kOe in rare earth metals and their alloys in the vicinity of their magnetic phase transition totals approximately from 8 to 10% of max (Tishin 1988). It should be noted that in rare earth intermetallic SM compounds the change of magnetic entropy can reach much higher values, max for H up to 100 kOe at low temperatures close to about 90% of SM (Gschneidner et al 1996b). The magnetization of Gd at the Curie point practically does not change in 100 to 300 kOe (Ponamorev 1986). The MCE value measured in 100 kOe in Gd equals 19 K (Dan’kov et al 1998). But the calculations show that Tmax in Gd is expected to be 234 K at T ¼ TC (Tishin 1990a, 1998c). Thus, it appears that for most of the sample’s temperature increase one should take into account a paraprocesses (occurring in the region where the sample already has single domain structure and the atomic magnetic moments are mostly aligned parallel to the ﬁeld). According to Tishin (1998c), the magnetic entropy (and consequently the sample temperature) continues to change even in the region of the high ﬁeld paraprocess, just because of the fact that the probability of atomic magnetic moment deﬂection from the ﬁeld direction (due to the heat spin ﬂuctuations) remains non-zero even in high magnetic ﬁelds. It is possible

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that the values of SM , which have been observed in rare earth intermetallic compounds by Gschneidner et al (1994b), are large due to suppression of spin heat ﬂuctuations in the low-temperature region in these compounds. Besides MCE in the high-ﬁeld region, Tishin (1998c) conducted numerical consideration of the inﬂuence of the Debye temperature on the MCE values. This question has not been suﬃciently studied yet, either numerically or experimentally. To investigate the impact of the Debye temperature on the MCE one needs to take into account the eﬀect of the temperature on the lattice entropy (it is worth noting that the concept of total entropy as a sum of diﬀerent parts can be used without restrictions only for magnetic materials with localized magnetic moment, like RE elements). The entropy of a solid body is known to increase signiﬁcantly when the Debye temperature decreases. For instance, it is easy to show that at 300 K a decrease of the Debye temperature from 184 K (Gd) to 50 K leads to a lattice entropy (Sl ) increase of about 33 J/mol K (70%). When the Debye temperature increases from 184 K to 500 K this leads to an Sl change of only approximately 23 J/mol K (50%). max is determined by The maximum possible magnetic entropy change SM equation (2.66). So, on one hand the maximum MCE is limited by the total quantum number and the temperature of measurement. On the other hand, in general the MCE can vary due to the change of magnetic, lattice and electronic contributions to the heat capacity. The electronic part of the heat capacity gives a constant contribution to the heat capacity and does not change the MCE if T ¼ const. The character of magnetic contributions to the heat capacity change (generally the magnetic contribution decreases in a magnetic ﬁeld in ferromagnets) under exposure of a ﬁeld is quite complicated and can be predicted only in general terms. The inﬂuence of the Debye temperature value on the MCE was investigated for two rare earth metals, Gd (Tord ¼ 293 K) and Tm (Tord ¼ 60 K). The results are shown in ﬁgure 8.31. In Gd the change of TD from 184 K (TD value for Gd) to 20 K leads to the MCE decrease only by 0.07 K for H ¼ 20 kOe, and TD increase from 184 K up to 500 K causes the MCE increase by 0.45 K. So, in this case the Debye temperature change in wide range has only little impact on the MCE value. A contrary situation is observed in Tm. Here the TD change from 190 K (TD value for Tm) to 500 K increases the MCE peak value for H ¼ 100 kOe from 6.4 K up to 12.6 K. In this case the change of TD essentially changes the MCE. However, the problem of which ways to change the Debye temperature in real magnetic materials still remains quite insuﬃciently investigated. From the qualitative point of view, the Debye temperature can be treated as the rigidity of the crystal lattice. The rigidity of a lattice can be changed in several ways. For instance, one may change the fabrication process by making it amorphous or by other processing means. The Debye temperature can also be signiﬁcantly aﬀected by addition of diﬀerent elements to magnetic compounds. For example, additions of C, N or B are known to lead to a unit

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Figure 8.31. Calculated temperature dependences of the MCE (a) in Gd for H ¼ 20 kOe and (b) in Tm for H ¼ 100 kOe for diﬀerent values of TD : (a) (1) TD ¼ 20 K; (2) 184 K (Gd), (3) 500 K; (b) (1) TD ¼ 20 K, (2) 100 K, (3) 190 K (Tm), (4) 300 K, (5) 500 K. In calculations the following parameters were used: (a) for Gd gJ ¼ 2, J ¼ 7/2, Tord ¼ 293 K; (b) for Tm gJ ¼ 1.7, J ¼ 6, Tord ¼ 60 K (Tishin 1998c).

cell volume increase (swelling) of a magnetic material. However, this can also aﬀect the MCE itself.

8.2 8.2.1

Rare earth alloys Tb–Gd alloys

Tbx Gd1 x alloys with x < 0.94 are strongly anisotropic easy-plane ferromagnets with a hard magnetization axis along the crystal c-axis (Nikitin et al 1980). These alloys display a spin-reorientation transition with the appearance of a magnetization component along the hard axis below some temperature. The MCE and magnetic entropy change in the alloys was investigated by Nikitin et al (1979b, 1980, 1981, 1988b), Gschneidner and

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317

Pecharsky (2000b), Long et al (1994) and Xiyan et al (2001). Nikitin et al (1979b, 1980, 1981, 1988b) used a direct method of the MCE measured, Gschneidner and Pecharsky (2000b) determined it from heat capacity measurements and Long et al (1994) and Xiyan et al (2001) calculated SM ðTÞ curves from magnetization. The temperature dependences of the MCE measured in Tbx Gd1 x alloys in ﬁelds applied in the basal plane (easy plane) have maxima near the Curie point (Nikitin et al 1981). An analogous picture was observed on polycrystalline Tb–Gd samples by Gschneidner and Pecharsky (2000b) and Long et al (1994). The measured MCE values are given in table 8.4. The measurements along the hard c-axis revealed more complex MCE behaviour. The temperature dependence of the MCE in Tb0:2 Gd0:8 alloy is shown in ﬁgure 8.32 (curves 1 and 2). A maximum of the positive MCE can be observed near TC ¼ 282 K, as in the case of H directed along the baxis. However as the sample is cooled down, a sign change of the MCE takes place below TC , where it becomes negative. The sign inversion temperature shifts towards lower temperatures in higher ﬁelds. Near TC the MCE behaviour is correlated to the temperature dependences of the magnetization—see ﬁgure 8.32 and equation (2.16). For H ¼ 60 kOe the speciﬁc magnetization ðTÞ curve (curve 3) has a form usually observed for ferromagnets and the MCE displays a maximum. For H ¼ 10 kOe there is a maximum in the ðTÞ dependence. The maximum appears due to the ordering of the magnetic moments in the basal plane in ﬁelds, which are not high enough to orient them along the c-axis below TC . The maximum in the TðTÞ curve for H ¼ 10 kOe is observed at the temperature where @=@T is negative and its absolute value has a maximum (see curves 2 and 4 in ﬁgure 8.32). The negative MCE corresponds to positive @=@T. Nikitin et al (1988b) considered the reasons for the appearance of a negative MCE in Tb–Gd alloys in the low-temperature range in ﬁelds applied along the hard axis. The total MCE was presented as consisting of three contributions: T @Is @K1 @ITb @IGd 2 H cos þ ðsin 1Þ þ IRR I þ I T @T @T Gd @T Tb CH; p @T 2 ð8:4Þ ðcos ðTb Gd Þ 1Þ ; where is the angle between the total spontaneous magnetization vector I~s and the c-axis, K1 is the anisotropy constant, IRR is the integral of the indirect exchange interaction between the Tb and Gd magnetic moments, ITb and IGd are the magnetizations of the Tb and Gd sublattices, respectively, and Tb and Gd are the angles between the sublattice magnetization vectors I~Tb and ~ IGd and the c-axis. The ﬁrst term, calculated by equation (2.16), is due to the variation of exchange interaction inside the Tb and Gd sublattices

253 [1]

271 [1] 282 [1]

280 [4]

272 284 283 267 231 223 160 194 230 268 125 168 220 – –

Gd0:3 Tb0:7

Gd0:6 Tb0:4 Gd0:8 Tb0:2

Gd0:74 Tb0:26

Gd0:6 Tb0:4 Gd0:8 Tb0:2 Gd0:74 Tb0:26 Gd0:75 Tb0:20 Nd0:05 Gd0:25 Tb0:70 Nd0:05 Gd0:25 Tb0:60 Nd0:15 Gd0:2 Ho0:8 Gd0:4 Ho0:6 Gd0:6 Ho0:4 Gd0:8 Ho0:2 Gd0:2 Er0:8 Gd0:4 Er0:6 Gd0:6 Er0:4 Gd0:69 Er0:31 Gd0:84 Er0:16

[5] [5] [17] [17] [17] [17] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6]

TC , TN (K)

Element

252 252 270 281 282 282 280 275 – – – – – – 160 194 230 268 125 168 220 – –

[6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6] [6]

[2] [1] [2] [1] [2] [2] [4] [4]

T Tmax (K)

9.1(||b) [2] 0.4(||c) [1] 8 (||b) [2] 2.2(||b) [1] 7.2(||c) [2] 0.9(||c) [3] 19 [4] 5.6 [4] – – – – – – 7 [6] 9 [6] 9.5 [6] 10 [6] 4 [6] 7 [6] 8 [6] – –

T (K) 60 12 60 8 60 9.1 100 20 – – – – – – 60.2 60.2 60.2 60.2 60.2 60.2 60.2 – –

H (kOe)

Peak MCE

15.2 3.3 13.3 27.5 12 9.9 19 28 – – – – – – 11.6 15 15.8 16.6 6.6 11.6 13.3 – –

T=H 102 (K/kOe)

280 275 265 278 – – – – – – – 265 – – – 232 260

– –

–

[8] [7]

[7]

[4] [4] [5] [5]

S Tmax (K)

17.8 [4] 6 [4] 2.6 [5] 2.5 [5] 2.62 [17] 3.07 [17] 4.64 [17] 1.26 [17] – – – 3.8 [7] – – – 15.8 [8] 3.5 [7]

– –

–

SM (J/kg K)

100 20 10 10 10 10 10 10 – – – 10 – – – 90 10

– –

–

17.8 30 26 25 26.2 30.7 46.4 12.6 – – – 38 – – – 17.6 35

– –

–

H SM =H 102 (kOe) (J/kg K kOe)

Peak SM

T Table 8.4. Magnetic ordering temperatures TN or TC , temperature of the maximum in the TðTÞ curves (Tmax ), temperature of the maximum in S S T the SM ðTÞ curves (Tmax ) and maximum values of SM (at T ¼ Tmax ) and T (at T ¼ Tmax ) induced by a magnetic ﬁeld change H and T=H and SM =H for heavy rare earth alloys. References are shown in brackets.

318 Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

65.4 [16] 49.2 [16] 42.8 [16] 38.7 [16]

176 [10] 205 [10] 135 [13]

52 [10]

55 [12] 50 [12] 176 [12] 205 [12] 129 [13] 45 [14] 44 [14] 194 [15] 207 [15] 218 [15] 65 [16] 50 [16] 45 [16] 40 [16]

–

– –

– – –

–

– –

0.3(||b) [12] 0.04(||c) [12] 5.6(||b) [12] 7(||b) [12] 3.7(||a) [13] 5.4 [14] 0.8 [14] 0.7 [15] 1.7 [15] 2.1 [15] 3.3 [16] 4 [16] 3.1 [16] 2.9 [16]

–

– –

– – –

–

– –

60 60 60 60 60 70 10 13 13 13 50 50 50 50

–

– –

– – –

–

– –

0.5 0.07 9.3 11.7 6.2 7.7 8 5.4 13.1 16.2 6.6 8 6.2 5.8

–

– –

– – –

–

– –

– – – – – – 40 [16]

173 [12] – – –

274 [8] 208 [9] 204 [9] 248 [9] 242 [9] 254 [10] 264 [10] 280 [9] 280 [9] 276 [10] 235 [11] 235 [11] 165 [11] 165 [11] –

– – – – – – 0.59 [16]

0.9(||b) [12] – – –

14 [8] 16 [9] 2.8 [9] 10.4 [9] 2 [9] 4.6 [10] 4.6 [10] 14 [9] 3.6 [9] 4.6 [10] 14.2 [11] 5 [11] 12 [11] 3.8 [11] –

– – – – – – 50

60 – – –

90 70 10 70 10 16 16 70 10 16 80 20 80 20 –

– – – – – – 1.18

1.5 – – –

15.6 22.9 28 14.9 20 28.7 28.7 20 36 28.7 17.8 25 15 19 –

1. Nikitin et al (1981); 2. Nikitin et al (1988b); 3. Nikitin et al (1980); 4. Gschneidner and Pecharsky (2000b); 5. Long et al (1994); 6. Nikitin et al (1985b); 7. Tishin (1990d); 8. Smaili and Chahine (1996); 9. Smaili and Chahine (1997); 10. Nikitin (1989); 11. Dai et al (2000); 12. Nikitin and Tishin (1989); 13. Tishin (1988); 14. Zimm (1994); 15. Nikitin et al (1989c); 16. Wu et al (2002); 17. Xiyan et al (2001).

Tb0:25 Dy0:75 Tb0:5 Dy0:5 Tb0:75 Dy0:25 Er0:9 Pr0:1 Er0:8 Pr0:2 Er0:75 Pr0:25 Er0:7 Pr0:3

Tb0:63 Y0:37 Tb0:865 Y0:135 Dy0:7 Y0:3 Er0:8 La0:2

Tb0:1 Y0:9

165 [11]

Gd0:35 Dy0:35 Nd0:3

– – –

Gd0:7 Dy0:3 Gd0:8 Dy0:2 Gd0:88 Dy0:12

– 235 [11]

–

Gd0:51 Dy0:49

Gd0:9 Dy0:1 Gd0:5 Dy0:5

– –

Gd0:9 Er0:1 Gd0:3 Dy0:7

Rare earth alloys 319

320

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

Figure 8.32. Temperature dependences of the MCE in Tb0:2 Gd0:8 single crystal measured in the ﬁeld applied along the crystal c-axis for H ¼ 60 kOe (curve 1) and 10 kOe (curve 2). Curves 3 and 4 are the speciﬁc magnetization measured in the ﬁelds of 60 kOe and 10 kOe, respectively (Nikitin et al 1988b).

(H cos is the projection of the ﬁeld on the magnetization vector I~s ), i.e. the paraprocess. The second term in equation (8.4) is related to the rotation of ~ Is from the basal plane to the c-axis against anisotropy forces. The last term describes the variation of the exchange interaction between Tb and Gd magnetic sublattices, which leads to a change of the angle between I~Tb and I~Gd and the formation of a noncollinear magnetic structure. The calculations by equation (8.4) conducted for the Tb0:2 Gd0:8 alloy on the basis of experimental data showed that for H ¼ 60 kOe the anisotropy contribution to the MCE (the second term in equation (8.4)) is negative and its absolute value increases up to the temperature of the spin-reorientation transition near 223 K (where a magnetization component along the c-axis appears) and then remains constant (with a value of approximately 4 K). The contribution from the paraprocess is positive in all temperature ranges and has essential values near the Curie temperature. At T ¼ 223 K it reaches a value of about 4.3 K. The last term in equation (8.4) is small and

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321

negative below 223 K. The experimentally measured negative MCE below the temperature of the spin-reorientation transition 223 K for H ¼ 60 kOe was in good accordance with the total MCE calculated as a sum of the three contributions considered (Nikitin et al 1988b). Addition of Nd to Tb26 Gd74 alloy decreased its Curie temperature and increased its magnetic entropy change (Xiyan et al 2001). The alloy Gd0:25 Tb0:70 Nd0:05 (TC ¼ 231 K) revealed highest among other rare earth alloys absolute value of SM =H—see table 8.4. However, the SM ðTÞ curve of this material is rather narrow—its full width at half maximum is about 5 K. 8.2.2

Gd–Dy, Gd–Ho and Gd–Er alloys

Magnetization studies of Fujii et al (1976) showed that in the Gd–Ho alloy system a PM–FM transition at the Curie temperature TC takes place if the concentration of Gd exceeds 75 at%. If the Gd concentration is not higher than 75 wt% there are two magnetic phase transitions: PM–HAFM at TN and HAFM–FM at TC . According to direct measurements made on polycrystalline Gdx Ho1 x alloys by Nikitin et al (1985b) the magnetic structure changes are reﬂected on the TðTÞ curves. In Gd0:8 Ho0:2 a maximum in the TðTÞ curve was found caused by the PM–FM transition. In the alloys with higher Ho concentrations, besides a high-temperature maximum related to the transition at TN , the peculiarities due to the existence of HAFM were observed at lower temperatures. In Gd0:2 Ho0:8 a broad MCE plateau occurs in the temperature interval from 40 to 140 K (for H ¼ 20 kOe), which is associated to the HAFM–FM transition. For H ¼ 60 kOe (this ﬁeld is higher than the critical ﬁeld of HAFM structure destruction) this plateau turned to a lowtemperature shoulder on the maximum near TN . On the alloys with x ¼ 0.4 and 0.6 the bends associated with the HAFM structure transformation by magnetic ﬁeld were observed in the low-temperature region. Tishin et al (1990d) determined SM ðTÞ curves for the Gd0:8 Ho0:2 alloy on the basis of magnetization measurements. The SM maximum was found near TC for H ¼ 10 kOe. More complicated magnetic structures display Gd–Er alloys (Fujii et al 1976, Millhouse and Koehler 1970, Bozorth 1967). Below TN , AFM structures arise if the Er concentration exceeds 30 at%, but they are not simple helicoidal: as in Er, spin oscillations along the crystal c-axis take place. The complex magnetic structures cause the appearance of maxima in the TðTÞ curves at TN and TC , where a transition from AFM to a ferromagnetic spiral-type structure occurs (Nikitin et al 1985b). The latter maximum is observed in magnetic ﬁelds lower than the critical ﬁeld. In the Gd0:8 Er0:2 alloy there is one MCE maximum, which is due to the PM–FM transition, and for the others investigated alloys additional maxima at low

322

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

temperatures due to an AFM–ferromagnetic spiral transition exist. The magnetic entropy change temperature dependences were calculated from the magnetization data for Gd0:84 Er0:16 alloy by Tishin (1990d) and for Gd0:9 Er0:1 and Gd0:69 Er0:31 alloys by Smaili and Chahine (1996) near the transition from paramagnetic to magnetically ordered state, where they revealed maxima. The peak MCE and SM values for Gd–Ho and Gd–Er alloys are presented in table 8.4. Nikitin et al (1985b) noted that the value of MCE at the transition from paramagnetic to AFM structure TN is proportional to TN (see equation (2.16)), which in turn depends in rare earth metals and their alloys on the de Gennes factor as TN G2=3 (here G ¼ ðgJ 1Þ2 JðJ þ 1Þ). This implies that T(TN ) should be proportional to G2=3 . Such dependence was found in Gd–Ho and Gd–Er alloys. The magnetic entropy change SM for Gd–Dy and (GdDy)1 x Ndx alloys was calculated by Burhanov et al (1991), Smaili and Chahine (1997) and Dai et al (2000) from the magnetization data. Maxima of SM were observed near the temperatures of transition from the paramagnetic to the magnetically ordered state. Burhanov et al (1991) revealed almost constant and close to Gd value of the peak SM in the Gdx Dy1 x alloy system, although the Curie temperature decreased with increasing of Dy content. Dai et al (2000) investigated substitution of GdDy by the light rare earth metal Nd. The Curie temperature decreased with addition of Nd so as the peak magnetic entropy change value. The peak values of SM determined near TC in the investigated alloys are presented in table 8.4. 8.2.3

Dy–Y, Tb–Y, Er–La and Er–Pr alloys

Child et al (1965) and Koehler et al (1963) established from neutron diﬀraction measurements that heavy rare earth metal–yttrium alloys order at TN from a paramagnetic to an antiferromagnetic structure of the same type that exists in the corresponding pure RE metal. According to magnetization measurements the HAFM structure exists in Tbx Y1 x alloys in the temperature range from liquid helium temperature up to TN for x ¼ 0.1–0.63 and for x 0.835 the FM state arises at low temperatures below TC (TC < TN ) (Nikitin 1989). The easy and hard magnetization directions in Tbx Y1 x alloys are crystal b- and c-axes, respectively. Nikitin et al (1977a,b), Nikitin (1978), Nikitin and Andreenko (1981) and Nikitin and Tishin (1989) made direct MCE measurements in Tbx Y1 x alloys in the magnetic ﬁelds up to 60 kOe. A tricritical point TK was found on the magnetic phase diagram Hcr ðTÞ of the alloys in which FM, HAFM and PM phases arose under change of temperature. The TðTÞ dependences of such alloys were analogous to those in dysprosium (see section 8.1.3). Below TK the TðHÞ curves displayed jumps at the critical values of the magnetic ﬁeld Hcr . Nikitin (1989) considered the

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323

contributions to the MCE arising at the ﬁeld-induced HAFM–FM transition at H ¼ Hcr in Tb0:865 Y0:135 . The MCE at the transition was found from Cp;H TðHcr Þ @GFM @GHAFM ¼ SHAFM SFM ¼ ð8:5Þ @T p @T T p where GFM and GHAFM are the Gibbs energy in the FM and HAFM states, respectively. The Gibbs energy in the corresponding magnetic state was presented as G ¼ Fex þ Eme þ EAb HI

ð8:6Þ

where Fex is the free energy of the exchange interaction between the basal planes, Eme is the energy of the magnetoelastic interaction, EA is the basal plane anisotropy energy, and I is the magnetization. From equations (8.5) and (8.6) it is possible to calculate the MCE due to the ﬁeld-induced HAFM–FM transition at H ¼ Hcr : T @Fex @Eme @EAb @I þ þ Hcr ð8:7Þ TðHcr Þ @T @T @T Cp;H @T where denotes the change of the corresponding parameter across the transition (I ¼ IFM IHAFM ). The calculations conducted on the basis of experimental data on magnetostriction, anisotropy and magnetization showed that, for T ¼ 137 and K > TC in Tb0:835 Y0:135 , the main contribution to T(Hcr ) comes from interplane exchange and magnetoelastic energy changes. The last contribution is due to the giant magnetostriction arising at the ﬁeld-induced HAFM–FM transition. As the temperature increases, the role of this contribution decreases and the negative exchange and positive Zeeman contributions become prevalent. Near the tricritical temperature TK ¼ 190 K these contributions compensate each other and T(Hcr Þ ¼ 0. Experimental TðHÞ dependences conﬁrms the results of calculations: for temperatures below 190 K, T is almost zero in the low-ﬁeld region, then a positive jump occurs at H ¼ Hcr with subsequent T increase due to the paraprocess, and at T ¼ 190 K the jump disappears. For temperatures above 190 K, T is negative in the low-ﬁeld region where the antiferromagnetic-type paraprocess prevails. Similar TðHÞ behaviour is observed in Dy, which has an analogous sequence of the magnetic phase transitions and magnetic phases (see ﬁgure 2.8). Let us consider the role of various contributions in equation (8.7) on the value of the magnetocaloric eﬀect arising at the ﬁeld-induced ﬁrst-order metamagnetic transition. According to experimental investigations in rare earth metals and their alloys, @I=@T is usually negative, the magnetoelastic and magnetic and anisotropy terms are positive, and the exchange contribution term can be negative or positive (Nikitin 1989, Bykhover et al 1990, Tishin 1994). For materials with a magnetic phase H–T diagram with tricritical

324

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

point TK (as in Dy and Tb) the sign of the exchange contribution (the ﬁrst term in equation (8.7)) is positive for T < TK and negative for T > TK . Another situation is realized for materials where the tricritical point is absent (as in some Tb–Y alloys)—the exchange contribution here is negative. So, as one can see from equation (8.7) the conditions to get large T at the transition are large increasing with temperature of the exchange, magnetoelastic and anisotropic energies jumps and negative sign of @I=@T. The temperature dependence of the MCE in Tb0:1 Y0:9 alloy, which has only one HAFM phase below the ordering temperature TN , was measured by Nikitin and Tishin (1989) and shows a maximum near TN . Under further cooling the MCE became negative and monotonically increased in absolute value, remaining negative down to the lowest temperature investigated, 4.2 K. When the ﬁeld was applied along the hard c-axis the positive MCE maximum near TN became broader, and in the negative MCE temperature region a minimum at T ¼ 30 K with T ¼ 0.17 K at H ¼ 60 kOe occurred. The observed form of the TðTÞ curve measured along the caxis was related to transformations of the alloy magnetic structure, which takes place not only in the case of magnetization along the easy b-axis, but also for magnetization along the hard c-axis. A ferromagnetic spiral seems to appear for the case that H is applied along the c-axis, in which the magnetization has a ferromagnetic component along the c-axis and its basal plane component remains helicoidal. The temperature dependences of the MCE in Tb0:63 Y0:37 alloy for H applied along the b-axis are shown in ﬁgure 8.33. For H < 22 kOe the MCE changes sign from positive to negative under cooling at low temperatures and displays a minimum with a value of 0.6 K at T ¼ 168 K and H ¼ 15 kOe. For magnetic ﬁeld changes higher than 22 kOe, a negative MCE is not observed. This behaviour can be related by the complicated temperature dependence of the MCE contribution arising from the destruction of the HAFM structure (see the magnetic phase diagram Hcr ðTÞ in the inset in ﬁgure 8.33). Near TN the MCE is mainly controlled by the paraprocess and has a rather sharp maximum. The authors explained the negative MCE in Tb0:1 Y0:9 and Tb0:63 Y0:37 alloys by the ﬁeld-induced distortion of the HAFM structure, which reduces, on the ﬁrst stage, the magnetic ordering and increases the magnetic entropy. The MCE maximum values near TN in the Tbx Y1 x alloy system are shown in table 8.4. The presented maximum SM value for Tb0:63 Y0:37 was calculated by Nikitin and Tishin (1989) with the help of equation (2.79) on the basis of MCE and heat capacity data. The ﬁeld and temperature MCE dependences in Dy0:7 Y0:3 single crystal were investigated by Tishin (1988) in the ﬁelds applied along the easy magnetization a-axis. The MCE measurements made by a direct method for H ¼ 20–50 kOe revealed two maxima: at T ¼ 7 K and at the transition from paramagnetic to magnetically ordered state at TN ¼ 135 K, which were

Rare earth alloys

325

Figure 8.33. Temperature dependences of the MCE in Tb0:63 Y0:37 alloy induced by a ﬁeld applied along the crystal b-axis: H ¼ ð1Þ 15 kOe; (2) 20 kOe; (3) 25 kOe; (4) 35 kOe; (5) 45 kOe; (6) 60 kOe. The insert shows the magnetic phase diagram Hcr (T) of the alloy (Nikitin and Tishin 1989).

explained by the complicated magnetic phase diagram Hcr ðTÞ of the alloy. For H 20 kOe, the temperature dependence of the MCE displays one maximum near TN . Negative MCE was observed in the temperature interval from 90 to 110 K for H < 25 kOe. By analogy with Dy, this was related to the formation of a fan structure under the eﬀect of the magnetic ﬁeld. The TðHÞ curves are similar to those for Dy and provide evidence that the HAFM–FM transition is of ﬁrst-order in the temperature interval from 4.2

326

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

to 110 K. In the region from 65 to 135 K this transition occurs via an intermediate fan structure. For temperatures from 65 K to 110 K the HAFM–fan transition is of ﬁrst-order and above 110 K the transition is of second-order, where no jumps were observed in TðHÞ dependences. At the tricritical point TK , which is equal to 110 K, the MCE due to the destruction of the HAFM structure is equal to zero and because of this a minimum in the TðTÞ curve near this temperature was observed. Zimm (1994) measured the temperature dependences of the heat capacity and the MCE (by a direct method) of the polycrystalline Er0:8 La0:2 alloy in the magnetic ﬁelds up to 70 kOe. Only one maximum and one anomaly, typical for ferromagnets, were observed in the TðTÞ and CðTÞ curves, respectively. Ferromagnetic ordering in Er0:8 La0:2 was also established from magnetization measurements. The maximum T value obtained in the Er0:8 La0:2 alloy was somewhat larger than that in Er (see tables 8.4 and 8.2). The heat capacity data allowed calculation of the magnetic entropy value with the help of equation (6.1), which was found to be 111 J/kg K when the integration was made up to 100 K. The obtained value corresponds to J ¼ 7.8, which is close to J ¼ 15/2 for Er. The heat capacity and MCE of Er1 x Prx alloys for x up to 0.5 were investigated by Gschneidner et al (2000d,e) and Wu et al (2002). Pure Er has four anomalies on the heat capacity on the temperature curve (see ﬁgure 8.21 and section 8.1.5)—near 84 K (TN ), near 52 K (TCY ), near 25 K (related to the commensurate AFM structure transformation) and 19 K (TC ). With addition of Pr to Er, TN decreased and TC increased with shifting of corresponding heat capacity anomalies. The peak at 25 K disappeared at x ¼ 0.05 and the 52 K peak was rapidly lowered and also disappeared at x 0:07. With further increase of x, the double peak structure on CðTÞ merged into one peak for x > 0.3. The volumetric heat capacity temperature dependences for the Er1 x Prx system are shown in ﬁgure 8.34 for x ¼ 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.25 and 0.3. Increasing the Pr concentration beyond x ¼ 0.3 caused lowering of the heat capacity peak with its simultaneous shifting to the lower temperatures. On the basis of the heat capacity data Wu et al (2002) determined the MCE temperature dependences—see ﬁgure 8.35. As one can see there are anomalies on TðTÞ curves corresponding to the temperatures of magnetic phase transitions. The high temperature anomaly in the investigated Er1 x Prx alloys is displayed as a peak and the low-temperature anomaly as a jump, which is characteristic for the ﬁrst-order transitions. 8.2.4

Tb–Dy alloys

The MCE in the system of polycrystalline alloys Tbx Dy1 x with x ¼ 0.25, 0.5 and 0.75 was measured directly by Nikitin et al (1989c) in the ﬁelds up to 60 kOe. The TðTÞ curves for H ¼ 13 kOe (the maximum critical ﬁeld Hcr for Dy is about 10 kOe (Nikitin et al 1991b)) in the alloys with

Rare earth alloys

327

Figure 8.34. Temperature dependences of the zero-ﬁeld volumetric heat capacity of Er and Er–Pr alloys (Wu et al 2002).

x 0:5 have two maxima with a minimum between them corresponding to the tricritical temperature TK , and resemble those for Gd–Ho alloys with high Ho content. For Tb0:5 Dy0:5 alloy the value of the high temperature maximum at 207 K (T ¼ 1.7 K), corresponding to the transition to the magnetically ordered state from a paramagnetic one, was higher than the low temperature maximum at 175 K (T ¼ 1.1 K). For the alloy with x ¼ 0.25 both maxima were of approximately the same height. The authors related the observed low and high temperature MCE maxima to the FM–HAFM and FM–PM transitions, respectively. It should be noted that the magnetization ﬁeld and temperature dependences in Tb0:5 Dy0:5 single crystal measured by Bykhover et al (1990) were typical for a material with HAFM structure. The MCE minimum due to the tricritical point was observed at T ¼ 190 K for Tb0:25 Dy0:75 and at T ¼ 200 K for Tb0:5 Dy0:5 for H ¼ 13 kOe. A negative MCE appeared in Tb0:25 Dy0:75 near 190 K and was related by the authors to the formation of a fan structure. For higher H the low temperature MCE maximum disappeared. So, as one can see from this chapter, the magnetocaloric properties of rare earth metals and their compounds have been investigated rather well.

328

Magnetocaloric effect in rare earth metals and alloys

Figure 8.35. Temperature dependences of the MCE in Er and Er–Pr alloys induced by H ¼ 50 kOe (Wu et al 2002).

The main amount of the obtained results concerns heavy rare earth metals and alloys. Among investigated heavy rare earth metals, Gd and Tb have the highest values of T=H and SM =H. Because Gd also has the Curie temperature of 294 K and wide TðTÞ and SM ðTÞ curves, it can be considered as the most promising material for magnetic refrigeration near room temperature. Gd- and Tb-based alloys have rather high magnetocaloric properties and their magnetic ordering temperature can be adjusted in a wide temperature range. The rare earth metals and their alloys display various magnetic phases and phase transitions, displaying themselves in anomalies on magnetocaloric and magnetic entropy change temperature and ﬁeld dependences. In the region of ferromagnetic phase existence the magnetocaloric eﬀect in the rare earth metals and alloys is well described by the mean-ﬁeld approximation. In Tb, Dy and the alloys based on these materials the ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transition can be induced by temperature and the magnetic ﬁeld changing. In Dy the ﬁrst-order magnetic transition from HAFM to FM structure is accompanied by structural transition, as it takes place in

Rare earth alloys

329

monoclinic Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 compounds at TC , and by corresponding jumps on TðTÞ and SM ðTÞ curves, although they are not too high—about 1.6 K for H ¼ 10 kOe and SM ¼ 3.1 J/kg K for H ¼ 20 kOe, respectively. The estimations made on the basis of the Clausius–Clapeyron equations showed that such SM can be explained by the lattice entropy change associated with ﬁrst-order structural phase transition and corresponding volume change. According to the thermodynamic consideration, the MCE at the ﬁeldinduced ﬁrst-order metamagnetic transition related to destruction of the HAFM structure can be presented as consisting of four contributions—the change of interplane exchange, magnetoelastic, anisotropy and magnetic energies under the transition. It should be noted that the changes themselves are not important, but their derivatives of temperature are. For the Tb–Y system it was shown that the main contributions for the MCE near TN (HAFM–FM transition) come from the interplane exchange and magnetoelastic contributions arising because of the giant magnetostriction accompanying the transition. With increasing temperature, the role of the magnetoelastic contribution decreased. This result points to the important role of the magnetoelastic interactions in the formation of the MCE under the ﬁrstorder ﬁeld-induced metamagnetic transitions.

Chapter 9 Magnetocaloric effect in amorphous materials

In this chapter the magnetocaloric properties of amorphous materials are considered. The general feature of amorphous alloys is a broadness of magnetic transition from paramagnetic to magnetically ordered state, which is mostly related to ﬂuctuation of the exchange interactions and crystalline electric ﬁeld due to the structural disorder of these materials. The composition inhomogeneities and the possible presence of diﬀerent crystalline phases can also contribute to this eﬀect. The magnetic transition broadness leads to lower magnetic entropy change, magnetocaloric eﬀect and heat capacity anomaly at the transition temperature because these values are directly proportional to the derivative of magnetization on temperature @M=@T—see equations (2.9a), (2.16) and (2.161).

9.1

Amorphous alloys based on RE metals

The magnetization, heat capacity and magnetocaloric eﬀect and magnetic entropy change on the basis of these data in amorphous R0:7 M0:3 x M0x alloys (where R ¼ Gd, Dy, Er, Ho, Tb; M, M0 ¼ Ni, Fe, Co, Cu) were studied by Liu et al (1996a,b) and Foldeaki et al (1997b, 1998b). The alloys were prepared by melt spinning in the form of thin (30–40 mm) ribbons and their amorphism was conﬁrmed by X-ray diﬀraction analysis. Magnetic and Mo¨ssbauer measurements showed that below the Curie temperature the investigated alloys were ordered ferromagnetically for R ¼ Gd and displayed complex noncollinear magnetic structures for anisotropic R ions. The magnetic moment of the 3d ions was small or did not exist, so the magnetothermal properties were determined mainly by the R magnetic subsystem. The coercivity near the Curie temperature was negligible even in the alloys with anisotropic R ions, although magnetic saturation was not achieved in these alloys in high magnetic ﬁelds. The latter is related to the continuing transformation of the noncollinear magnetic structures 330

Amorphous alloys based on RE metals

331

formed by highly anisotropic RE ions. The Curie temperatures of the alloys, obtained from magnetization measurements, are presented in table 9.1. The zero-ﬁeld heat capacity temperature dependences measured for the Gd0:7 Ni0:3 , Er0:7 Fe0:3 and Gd0:65 Co0:35 alloys revealed the absence of sharp discontinuity at TC in these materials—no -type anomaly typical for ferromagnets was observed (Liu et al 1996a). Liu et al (1996a) modelled the heat capacity temperature dependence in amorphous materials on the basis of mean ﬁeld approximation. It was supposed that an amorphous material could be presented as a number of clusters of atoms ordered ferromagnetically and having diﬀerent magnetic ordering temperatures distributed around the Curie temperature of the material in accordance with Gaussian distribution. The consideration made for the Gd0:7 Ni0:3 alloy showed that the sharp heat capacity anomaly at TC obtained for zero magnetic ordering temperature standard deviation decreased and broadened with the deviation increasing. The anomaly completely disappeared for the deviation of 50 K (the Curie temperature in amorphous Gd0:7 Ni0:3 alloy is 130 K). The heat capacity ﬁeld dependence calculated for the deviation of 50 K for Gd0:7 Ni0:3 alloy was in reasonably good agreement with experiment. Figure 9.1 shows SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ curves for Gd0:7 Ni0:3 , Er0:7 Fe0:3 and Gd0:65 Co0:35 alloys determined from the heat capacity measurements. One can see that the curves have broad maxima near TC typical for broad magnetic phase transitions in amorphous materials. For example, the full width of the TðTÞ curve at half maximum for Gd0:65 Co0:35 for H ¼ 80 kOe is about 125 K. Further investigations of the magnetothermal properties of amorphous R–M alloys were made by Liu et al (1996b) and Foldeaki et al (1997b) on R0:7 Fex Ni0:3 x (R ¼ Gd, Dy) and Gd0:7 Cu0:3 melt-spun ribbons. It was found that the addition of Fe led to an increase of TC from 130 to 300 K for Gd0:7 Fex Ni0:3 x alloys and from 35 to 110 K for Dy0:7 Fex Ni0:3 x alloys for x varied from 0 to 1. Gd-based alloys showed zero hysteresis in the whole temperature range, and in Dy-based alloys the coercive force decreased with increasing temperature and became zero near TC . Dy0:7 Ni0:3 alloy displayed the behaviour characteristic for spin glasses: under cooling in relatively low magnetic ﬁelds (up to 10 kOe) its magnetization increased near TC , but then in the low-temperature range it decreased. The magnetic entropy change temperature dependences in the amorphous alloys were determined by Liu et al (1996b) and Foldeaki et al (1997b) from the magnetization data. Broad maxima were observed in the SM ðTÞ curves near TC for both the Gd- and the Dy-based alloys, although for Gd the peak was sharper than for Dy-containing alloys. SM peak values for R0:7 Fex Ni0:3 x (R ¼ Gd, Dy; x ¼ 0, 0.12) and Gd0:7 Cu0:3 alloys are presented in table 9.1. The substitution of Ni by Fe led to broadening of the SM maximum with a simultaneous reduction of its value in comparison with the initial alloy: 31% in Gd0:7 Fe0:12 Ni0:18 and 12% for Dy0:7 Fe0:12 Ni0:18

TC (K)

297 [1] 98.3 [1] 35 [2]

129.6 [2]

41 [1]

180 [2]

154.1 [1] 189.4 [1] 63.2 [1] 120 [4]

237 [5]

Element

Gd0:7 Fe0:3 Dy0:7 Fe0:3 Er0:7 Fe0:3

Gd0:7 Ni0:3

Dy0:7 Ni0:3

Gd0:65 Co0:35

Gd0:7 Cu0:3 Gd0:7 Fe0:12 Ni0:18 Dy0:7 Fe0:12 Ni0:18 NdFeAl

Fe0:9 Zr0:1

–

210 [2] 210 [2] – – – –

40 [2] 35 [2] 125 [2] 125 [2] 130 [3] 35 [3]

– –

T Tmax (K)

–

2.8 [2] 2.1 [2] – – – –

– – 3.7 [2] 2 [2] 3.3 [2] 1.8 [2] 6 [3] 3.5 [3]

T (K)

–

80 40 – – – –

– – 80 40 80 40 70 70

H (kOe)

Peak MCE

–

3.5 5.25 – – – –

– – 4.63 5 4.13 4.5 8.57 5

T=H 102 (K/kOe)

232 [5] 227 [5]

287.5 [1] 107.5 [1] 35 [2] 35 [2] 129.6 [1] 129.6 [1] 130 [3] 48 [3] 45.5 [1] 48 [3] 200 [2] 200 [2] 144.4 [1] 170 [1] 70 [1] 110 [4]

S Tmax (K)

1.5 [1] 0.94 [1] 12.2 [2] 6.7 [2] 11.5 [1] 2.45 [1] 11 [3] 10 [3] 10.7 [1] 6.2 [3] 3.6 [2] 2.6 [2] 8.19 [1] 7.71 [1] 9.48 [1] 5.65 [4] 2.98 [4] 10.5 [5] 50 [5]

SM (J/kg K) 10 10 80 40 70 10 70 70 70 40 80 40 70 70 70 50 20 14 70

H (kOe)

Peak SM

14.29 15.29 15.5 4.5 6.5 11.7 11 13.54 11.3 14.9 75† 71.4†

15 9.4 15.25 16.75 16.43 24.5

SM =H 102 (J/kg K kOe)

T Table 9.1. Magnetic ordering temperatures TN or TC , temperature of the maximum in the TðTÞ curves (Tmax ), temperature of the maximum in S S T the SM ðTÞ curves (Tmax ) and maximum values of SM (at T ¼ Tmax ) and T (at T ¼ Tmax ) induced by a magnetic ﬁeld change H and T=H and SM =H for amorphous alloys. References are shown in brackets.

332 Magnetocaloric effect in amorphous materials

288 [5] 286 [5] 303 [5] 315 [5] 310 [5] 315 [5] 645 [6] 32 [7]

Fe0:873 Ni0:027 Zr0:1 Fe0:855 Al0:045 Zr0:1 Fe0:855 Si0:045 Zr0:1 Fe0:855 Ga0:045 Zr0:1 Fe0:855 Ge0:045 Zr0:1 Fe0:855 Sn0:045 Zr0:1 Fe0:05 Co0:7 Si0:15 B0:1 Pd40 Ni22:5 Fe17:5 P20

– – – – – – 645 [6] –

– – – – – – – – 0.11 [6] –

– – – – – – – – 10 –

– – – – – – – – 1.1 –

– – 272 [5] 276 [5] 292 [5] 300 [5] 298 [5] 307 [5] – 94 [7]

247 [5] 263 [5]

14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 – 50

11 [5] 11.5 [5] 12 [5] 12.5 [5] 12.5 [5] 12.5 [5] 12.5 [5] 12.5 [5] – 0.58 [7] 85.7† 89.3† 89.3† 89.3† 89.3† 89.3† – 1.16

78.6† 82.1†

1. Foldeaki et al (1997b); 2. Liu et al (1996a); 3. Liu et al (1996b); 4. Si et al (2001a); 5. Maeda et al (1983); 6. Belova and Stoliarov (1984); 7. Shen et al (2002). In mJ/cm3 K. † In mJ/cm3 K kOe.

255 [5] 275 [5]

Fe0:891 Ni0:009 Zr0:1 Fe0:882 Ni0:018 Zr0:1

Amorphous alloys based on RE metals 333

334

Magnetocaloric effect in amorphous materials

Figure 9.1. Temperature dependences of (a) the magnetic entropy change SM and (b) the MCE (b) induced by H ¼ 80 kOe in (1) Gd0:7 Ni0:3 , (2) Er0:7 Fe0:3 and (3) Gd0:65 Co0:35 amorphous alloys (Liu et al 1996a).

for H ¼ 70 kOe. In the Dy0:7 Ni0:3 alloy below 10 K, positive SM was induced by the application of a magnetic ﬁeld, which can be related to the existence of a spin-glass-type state in this temperature interval. The SM peak broadening was explained by Liu et al (1996b) by the additional concentration ﬂuctuations and further broadening of the exchange integral distribution arising from the substitution of Fe for part of Ni. Liu et al (1996b) estimated the MCE in Gd0:7 Ni0:3 alloy on the basis of the zeroﬁeld heat capacity and SM data calculated from magnetization. It was larger than that calculated by Liu et al (1996a) from the heat capacity measurements—see table 9.1. Foldeaki et al (1998b) studied the inﬂuence of mechanical processing on the magnetocaloric properties of amorphous Gd0:7 Ni0:3 alloy. The heat capacity and magnetization of four samples were studied: as-cast ribbon fabricated by melt spinning, the powder obtained by grinding the ribbon, the amorphous powder mixed with silver powder, and the pellet coldpressed from this mixture. The magnetic entropy change was determined from the heat capacity data. It was shown that mechanical treatment had an essential inﬂuence on the height and position of the peak on the SM ðTÞ curve. The ribbon had the highest temperature of the peak position and highest peak SM . Grinding essentially (by a factor of 1.5) reduced SM and shifted the peak to the low-temperature region. For the ground powder the temperature of the peak was about 95 K (in the ribbon it was 130 K). Addition of silver restored the magnetic entropy change value almost to the initial value, although the transition temperature remained lower.

Amorphous alloys based on RE metals

335

Pressing the silver and ground powder mixture into a pellet again reduced the SM peak value. The observed dependence of the magnetic entropy change on the mechanical treatment was related by the authors to the formation of Gd oxide and partial recrystallization during grinding. The authors concluded that the silver-bound pellet could not be considered as representative of the ribbon from which it was made in the investigations of the magnetocaloric properties. The magnetic entropy change in amorphous melt-spun ribbon NdFeAl was calculated from magnetization by Si et al (2001a,b). This alloy displayed ferromagnetic properties with a Curie temperature of 120 K. The SM maximum near TC was rather sharp, with an absolute peak value of 5.65 J=kg K for H ¼ 70 kOe. Although in the low-temperature region the alloy displayed hard magnetic properties near TC , the coercive force was negligibly small. The amorphous sample was subjected to annealing well above crystallization temperature. The annealing caused the SM maximum reduction by about 50% (Si et al 2001b). Magnetic entropy change of the melt-spun Gdx Ag1 x (x ¼ 0.5, 0.7, 0.75, 0.77, 0.8, 1) alloy ribbons was calculated from magnetization by Fuerst et al (1994). It was established by x-ray diﬀraction and electron microscopy analysis that the alloys are the systems containing small crystalline particles in amorphous matrix. The Gd ribbon consisted of hexagonal Gd grains 500 nm in size. With the increasing Ag content, the amount of an amorphous Gd–Ag component increased. Gd0:755 Ag0:255 ribbon contained Gd grains with a diameter of 10 nm embedded in an amorphous matrix with composition Gd0:5 Ag0:5 . This picture was preserved up to x ¼ 0.7. In the Gd0:5 Ag0:5 sample, crystalline GdAg grains (with a mean diameter of about 10 nm) but no gadolinium grains were found. The Gd ribbon displayed a |SM | maximum with a height of 2.5 J/kg K near 290 K for H ¼ 9 kOe, which is lower than that of bulk Gd determined by the authors as 3 J/ kg K. For the alloys with 0:7 x 0:8 two broad maxima were observed on the SM ðTÞ curve, one near 280 K, and another in the temperature interval from 100 to 120 K. Their heights were 1.25, 0.75 and 0.1 J/kg K for the high-temperature maximum and 0.25, 0.6 and 0.9 J/kg K for the low-temperature maximum for x ¼ 0.8, 0.775, 0.7 and H ¼ 9 kOe, respectively. The authors related the high-temperature maximum to Gd grains, and the low-temperature one to the Gd0:5 Ag0:5 amorphous matrix. The heights of maxima were changed in accordance with the change of the corresponding magnetic components (Gd and Gd0:5 Ag0:5 ). At the same time their position on the temperature axis was almost constant. Analogous behaviour was observed in amorphous Dy70 Zr30 and Dy30 Zr70 ribbon alloys prepared by melt spinning (Giguere et al 1999a). These alloys were considered by the authors as consisting of randomly distributed magnetic clusters (Dy) in a nonmagnetic matrix (Zr). The alloys displayed one SM maximum (SM was calculated from magnetization) near 120 K, the temperature of

336

Magnetocaloric effect in amorphous materials

clusters’ magnetic moment freezing. For Dy70 Zr30 the maximum height was about 11.5 J/kg K and for Dy30 Zr70 about 4 J/kg K for H ¼ 70 kOe. The peak SM value decrease approximately corresponded to the decrease of Dy content. The bulk amorphous alloy Pd40 Ni22:5 Fe17:5 P20 is ordered ferromagnetically from the superparamagnetic state at about 32 K in zero-ﬁeld and with further cooling turns to the spin-glass state at about 25 K (Shen et al 2002). However, the magnetic entropy change temperature dependences calculated from magnetization data revealed maxima at higher temperatures—at about 50 K for H ¼ 5 kOe and 80 K for H ¼ 50 kOe. In the spin-glass state the positive SM is observed for low ﬁelds. Magnetization measurements showed that in the spin-glass state the magnetization is directly proportional to the magnetic ﬁeld and temperature. According to equation (2.70) this leads to the square-ﬁeld dependence of SM , which was observed in amorphous alloy Pd40 Ni22:5 Fe17:5 P20 experimentally (Shen et al 2002). It should be noted that such ﬁeld dependence was observed also in the superparamagnetic region (see equation (2.81)). The magnetic heat capacity and magnetization temperature dependences of Gdx Co1 x (0:16 x 0:25) amorphous alloys were studied theoretically by means of MFA by Aly (2001). These alloys are ferrimagnetic with compensation point for x > 0.16, and have high Curie temperatures (for x ¼ 0.16 TC ¼ 868 K and for x ¼ 0.25, TC ¼ 740 K). The calculated CðTÞ dependences revealed -type anomaly near TC . It was shown that the main contribution to the heat capacity comes from the Co sublattice.

9.2

Amorphous alloys based on transition metals

Magnetocaloric properties of the alloys of this type were studied by Maeda et al (1983) and Belova and Stoliarov (1984). Maeda et al (1983) studied the magnetic properties of amorphous (Fe1 x Nix )0:9 Zr0:1 (x ¼ 0, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03) and (Fe0:95 M0:05 )0:9 Zr0:1 (M= Al, Si, Ga, Ge, Sn) alloys, prepared by melt-spinning and piston anvil-quenching techniques, in the magnetic ﬁelds up to 70 kOe. The SM ðTÞ curves, obtained on the basis of these data, showed a behaviour usual for amorphous ferromagnets with a broad maximum near the Curie temperature TC . The maximum SM values and TC are presented in table 9.1. The values of TC and SM increased with increasing x. Replacement of the M element in the (Fe0:95 M0:05 )Zr0:1 alloys had a small inﬂuence on the absolute peak SM value. Belova and Stoliarov (1984) measured the MCE in a melt-spun ferromagnetic amorphous Fe0:05 Co0:7 Si0:15 B0:10 ribbon by a direct method. In the TðTÞ curve a maximum with a value of T ¼ 0.11 K was observed near TC ¼ 645 K for H ¼ 10 kOe. In the temperature range from 390 to 465 K an additional T anomaly consisting of a maximum at about 410 K

Amorphous alloys based on transition metals

337

and a minimum at about 440 K was found. It was related by the authors to the temperature dependence of the local magnetic anisotropy constant. In conclusion, the investigated amorphous alloys revealed wide maxima on adiabatic temperature and magnetic entropy change temperature dependences near the transitions to a magnetically ordered state. This is related to the smeared character of the magnetic transitions in these materials due to structural and concentration heterogeneities close to the amorphous state. The spin-glass state in amorphous materials was characterized by positive SM , obviously because of the antiferromagnetic-type paraprocess. Although absolute peak magnetic entropy change values in the amorphous alloys are not small (maximum SM =H value is about 16.75 J/kg K kOe for Er0:7 Fe0:3 for H ¼ 40 kOe), the MCE is rather small.

Chapter 10 Magnetocaloric effect in the systems with superparamagnetic properties

As shown in section 2.9, in the systems consisting of superparamagnetic particles, a value of the MCE should be higher than in regular paramagnets. Here we present the results of experimental investigations of the magnetocaloric properties of the superparamagnetic systems containing magnetic particles of nanometer sizes and molecular clusters.

10.1

Nanocomposite systems

One of the methods of obtaining superparamagnetic materials is rapid cooling of a corresponding melt, which is also used to produce amorphous materials. Shao et al (1996a,b) prepared nanocomposite ribbons of Gd0:85 Tb0:15 , Gd0:85 Y0:15 and Gd0:75 Zr0:25 alloys by a copper-sheathed rolling technique, which brieﬂy consists of the following steps. The arc-melted and homogenized alloys were resolidiﬁed into amorphous particles about 20 nm in diameter by melt-spinning. These particles were then milled within a sealed agate bowl containing agate balls. By this method powder particles ﬁner than mesh size 360 nm were obtained. As shown by X-ray analyses, the milling led to the formation of nanocrystallites of 10–20 nm size within the original amorphous particles, although part of them remained amorphous. The powder was then packed into an annealed copper tube, sealed at both ends and rolled into the copper-sheathed nanocomposite ribbon. The powder density in the ribbon was about 80% of that of the corresponding bulk alloy. On the samples prepared in this way the heat capacity, magnetic entropy change and magnetocaloric eﬀect (directly) were measured. Heat capacity measurements made on the ribbons in the temperature range from 280 to 310 K revealed its increase in all three samples with a maximum mean value of 57.9% for Gd0:85 Y0:15 . On the other hand, the Curie temperature in the ribbons was reduced. Shao et al (1996a) related these experimental results to the large amount of interface atoms arranged 338

Nanocomposite systems

339

Figure 10.1. Temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change induced by H ¼ 10 kOe in Gd0:85 Y0:15 alloy in bulk and nanosized states (Shao et al 1996a).

in disorder, which changed the interatomic distances and lowered the number of nearest neighbours. Figure 10.1 shows temperature dependences of the magnetic entropy change of the nanopowder ribbon Gd0:85 Y0:15 sample and bulk alloy with the same composition. The ribbon was considered to be in a superparamagnetic state (the Curie temperature of the bulk alloy is 240 K). As one can see, SM in the ribbon is higher than in bulk material in the temperature interval under consideration, which is typical for superparamagnets. The TðTÞ curves of this alloy revealed analogous behaviour. At the same time no enhancement in the MCE was observed in the investigated nanopowder Gd0:85 Tb0:15 and Gd0:75 Zn0:25 ribbons in comparison with the corresponding bulk materials. Much attention was paid by the investigators to the magnetocaloric properties of the nanocomposite compound Gd3 Ga5 x Fex O12 (x < 2.5), which is also known as gadolinium gallium iron garnet (GGIG) (McMichael et al 1993b, Shull et al 1993, Shull 1993a 1993b). Substitution of a few Fe atoms to gallium atoms in gadolinium gallium garnet (GGG) Gd3 Ga5 O12 did not change its crystal structure. However, the magnetic properties of GGG were changed considerably (McMichael et al 1993a,b, Numazawa et al 1996). Pure GGG is a simple paramagnet in the temperature range above 0.8 K. Addition of Fe leads to superparamagnetic behaviour for 0 x 2:5 and ferrimagnetic behaviour for x 2.5. Shull et al (1993) supposed that the formation of magnetic nanosized clusters is due to the Gd–Gd interactions of the superexchange type via Fe atoms. Ferromagnetic resonance and Mo¨ssbauer spectroscopy data conﬁrmed that GGIG contained magnetic nanosized clusters. Figure 10.2 presents experimental temperature dependences of SM caused by the removal of 9 kOe determined from the magnetization data

340

Magnetocaloric effect in the systems

Figure 10.2. Temperature dependences of SM caused by removal of a magnetic ﬁeld of 9 kOe in Gd3 Ga5 x Fex O12 ð0 x 5Þ (McMichael et al 1993b).

for GGIG with x ¼ 0, 1, 1.75, 2.5, 5. An obvious increase of SM in the hightemperature region can be seen with increasing of the iron content. This behaviour is in qualitative agreement with theoretical results calculated for diﬀerent sizes of magnetic clusters (see ﬁgure 2.12) under the assumption that increasing of iron concentration causes increasing of the mean cluster size. Extrapolation shows that samples with smaller x have larger SM values below 6 K. Intersections of SM ðTÞ curves for x 6¼ 0 with that of GGG occur at higher temperatures for higher x, which is also in accordance with theoretical predictions. Experimental results for H ¼ 50 kOe showed that the addition of iron to GGG did not cause such strong magnetic entropy changes as for H ¼ 9 kOe, but the enhancement was still signiﬁcant for temperatures above 9 K. Shull et al (1993) also found out that in the sample with x ¼ 1.75 no hysteresis losses were observed. The enhancement of the magnetic entropy change in the superparamagnetic system consisting of iron oxide and iron nitride nanograins (with diameter of 10–35 nm) in a silver matrix was found by Yamamoto et al (2000a,b). The samples were prepared by the inert gas condensation technique, in which metallic iron and silver is coevaporated in an ultrahigh vacuum chamber ﬁlled with static helium gas. The oxide and nitride nanoparticles were formed by further heat treatment in an oxygen or NH3 atmosphere. The content of iron in the samples was up to 40%. It was established that for the superparamagnetic iron oxide nanograin system (it was supposed that the oxide was ferrimagnetic -Fe2 O3 ) the gain in SM in comparison with paramagnetic iron ammonium alum was about two orders of magnitude. A magnetic entropy change almost one order of magnitude larger than in the

Nanocomposite systems

341

iron oxide system was found in the superparamagnetic samples containing iron nitride ( 0 -Fe4 N and "-Fe3 N) nanograins. SM ﬁeld and temperature dependence in the iron-oxide-containing material was satisfactorily described by a Langevin superparamagnetic model for high temperatures and low ﬁelds. For high ﬁelds and low temperatures the deviation from the Langevin behaviour was observed, which was related by the authors to the inﬂuence of exchange coupling between nanograins and magnetocrystalline anisotropy in the nanograins. A number of studies are devoted to the investigation of the magnetocaloric properties of the systems of interacting superparamagnetic particles (which Mørup et al (1983) called superferromagnets). Pedersen et al (1997) studied a system consisting of particles of metastable iron–mercury alloy in a Hg matrix (Fe content was 0.5 wt%). From Mo¨ssbauer and magnetization measurements it was established that the particles magnetically interact with each other, which led to the establishing of a magnetically ordered state below about 100–150 K. SM temperature dependences were calculated from magnetization measurements. For H ¼ 10 kOe the absolute value of SM was about 2:1 103 J/kg K and almost temperature independent in the temperature interval from 130 K to 200 K. For H ¼ 1 kOe on the SM ðTÞ curve there was a broad maximum near 140 K with one order of magnitude lower height of 2:5 104 J/kg K. The estimations made by the authors showed that SM in the investigated system is much higher than in the case of an ordinary paramagnetic with the same Fe content: SM ¼ 1 105 J/kg K for H ¼ 10 kOe at 130 K. In the case of superparamagnetic material without interactions between particles the calculations gave SM ¼ 2:1 105 J/kg K for at 130 K and 1:4 103 J/kg K at 200 K for H ¼ 10 kOe. For H ¼ 1 kOe, SM absolute values of the superparamagnet with noninteracting particles was about an order of magnitude lower than those experimentally obtained in the investigated Fe–Hg system. McMichael et al (1993a,b) determined (from magnetization measurements) SM ðTÞ curves for rapidly solidiﬁed Nd0:14 (Fe1 x Alx )0:8 B0:06 alloys (x ¼ 0, 0.1, 0.2) for H ¼ 9 kOe in the temperature range 290–500 K. Xray analyses showed that the material, produced in the form of melt-spun ribbons, was structurally amorphous. The obtained SM ðTÞ curves are shown in ﬁgure 10.3. As one can see, near the Curie temperatures (410, 405 and 360 K for x ¼ 0, 0.1, 0.2, respectively, as determined from diﬀerential scanning calorimetry) there are broad peaks on the SM ðTÞ curves. The obtained results were interpreted by the authors in the framework of mean ﬁeld calculations made for superferromagnets—see ﬁgure 2.14 and related discussion in section 2.9. The experimental SM ðTÞ curve for the alloy with x ¼ 0.2 was shown to be in good agreement with that calculated for cluster magnetic moments of about 20 mB , which corresponds to about 10 atoms of Fe. The conclusion was made that the magnetic structure of the alloy can be regarded as consisting of regions with local concentration

342

Magnetocaloric effect in the systems

Figure 10.3. Temperature dependences of SM for H ¼ 9 kOe in rapidly solidiﬁed Nd0:14 (Fe1 x Alx )0:8 B0:06 alloys (McMichael et al 1993a). (Reprinted from McMichael et al 1993a, copyright 1993, with permission from Elsevier.)

ﬂuctuations, rather than an assembly of distinct nanometre-sized magnetic particles dispersed in a nonmagnetic matrix. The magnetocaloric properties of the investigated alloys display the behaviour predicted for superferromagnet nanocomposites. Cu-based water-quenched alloys Cu0:783 Ni0:13 Fe0:087 and Cu0:63 Ni0:22 Fe0:15 were investigated by Kokorin et al (1984). It was established that the alloys were inhomogeneous solid solutions consisting of a nonmagnetic matrix with low concentration of Fe and Ni, and ferromagnetic inclusions rich in Fe and Ni with mean dimension of 3–5 nm, randomly dispersed in the matrix. Subsequent annealing of the samples at 773–973 K led to an increase of the size of the inclusions. Also the number of inclusions and the concentration of Ni and Fe in the inclusions increased after annealing. Magnetic susceptibility measurements made on Cu0:783 Ni0:13 Fe0:087 alloy showed that at about 77 K for the as-quenched state and at about 300 K for the annealed state the alloy displayed a transition to a spinglass-like state due to the interactions between the magnetic clusters (Kokorin and Perekos 1978). However, at this transition no MCE maximum was observed. The MCE maximum was found at higher temperatures corresponding to the superparamagnetic state of the alloy. It was attributed to the establishment of ferromagnetic order inside the inclusions according to the second term in equation (2.118). The maximum MCE value was T 102 K for H ¼ 15 kOe at T 750 K for the annealed alloy. The temperature of the T maximum corresponds to the Curie temperature of the magnetic particles in the material, which equals 628 K for the as-quenched state and 740 K for the annealed state. Cu0:63 Ni0:22 Fe0:15 with higher magnetic component concentration was characterized by stronger interactions between the magnetic inclusions. It

Molecular cluster systems

343

displays superferromagnetic-type behaviour with ordering temperature TI (see equations (2.120) and (2.121)), which is close to the Curie temperature of the inclusions in the material. The MCE maximum of 0.015 K for H ¼ 15 kOe was observed near 700 K where the magnetic susceptibility anomaly was also found (Kokorin et al 1984).

10.2 Molecular cluster systems Examples of other systems displaying superparamagnetic properties are materials on the basis of molecular clusters. In the past two decades molecular chemistry has provided a diverse variety of magnetic clusters with nanometre range sizes and a high value of total spin (S ¼ 10–14) and consequently the magnetic moment of the cluster. The molecular clusters are the objects with internal magnetic ordering, crystal structure and well-deﬁned and uniform size and shape and in principle can be regarded as a single domain with nano-sized (few nm) magnetic particles. Their magnetic properties were studied and reviewed in a number of works—see Caneschi et al (1988, 1991), Sessoli et al (1993), Delfs et al (1993), Goldberg et al (1993), Abbati et al (1998), Blake et al (1994), Dobrovitski et al (1996), Dobrovitski and Zvezdin (1997), Zvezdin et al (1998) and Mukhin et al (1998). There are many molecular clusters containing 3d transition metal atoms with a total ground state spin equal to 10 and higher. The total spin of the cluster is the result of internal magnetic ordering (usually antiferromagnetic in character with incomplete compensation) due to the superexchange interactions between 3d atoms via ligand ions. The total spin ground state 10 was established from magnetic measurements in the ‘Fe8 ’ cluster, whose formula is [(tacn)6 Fe8 O2 (OH12 )]8þ , where tacn is the organic ligand triazacyclononane (Wieghardt et al 1984, Delfs et al 1993). It arises from antiferromagnetic ordering of the eight iron spins (S ¼ 5/2 each). Sangregorio et al (1997) obtained from a.c. susceptibility measurements the magnetic moment of Fe8 cluster to be 20 mB . This is in agreement with S ¼ 10 and g ¼ 2, established earlier from electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) measurements (Barra et al 1996). Another example of a molecular cluster with the total spin S ¼ 10 is dodecanuclear manganese cluster (‘Mn12 ac’) of formula [Mn12 O12 (CH3 COO)16 (H2 O)4 ]2CH3 COOH:4H2 O, which is investigated the most completely (Caneschi et al 1991, Sessoli et al 1993, Lis 1980). The Mn12 ac cluster comprises four tetrahedrally coordinated Mn(IV) ions with S ¼ 3/2 in the centre and eight Mn(III) ions with S ¼ 2 in an external ring (Sessoli et al 1993). Mn(III) and Mn(IV) spins are coupled antiferromagnetically. The high spin ground state is combined with a strong easy axis anisotropy. Magnetic d.c. and a.c. susceptibility measurements revealed for Mn12 ac the behaviour characteristic for superparamagnets and conﬁrmed

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Magnetocaloric effect in the systems

ground state with S ¼ 10 and g 1:9 (Caneschi et al 1991, Sessoli et al 1993). The magnetic moment of the cluster has essential temperature dependence reaching maximum value 21 mB in the temperature range of about 15– 40 K and rapidly decreasing in the low-temperature region (Caneschi et al 1991, Sessoli et al 1993, Hennion et al 1997). The paramagnetic Curie temperature of Mn12 ac was found to be very low, 0.05 K (Novak et al 1995), suggesting negligible interactions between the clusters. The quantum tunnelling of magnetization exhibiting itself in the ﬁeld hysteresis of pure molecular origin and steps in magnetization on the hysteresis loop was observed in Mn12 ac below 3 K (Novak et al 1995, Hernandes et al 1997). Molecular clusters comprising six manganese (Mn2þ ) ions and six nitronyl–nitroxide radicals NITPh ([Mn(hfac)2 NITPh]6 , where hfac ¼ hexaﬂuoroacetylacetonate) were synthesized and investigated by Caneschi et al (1988). From magnetization and EPR measurements it was established that their spin ground state is S ¼ 12 with g ¼ 2. It arises from antiferromagnetic coupling of Mn2þ ions (S ¼ 5/2) and NITPh radicals (S ¼ 1/2). The cluster magnetic moment changes with temperature, having a maximum value in the temperature range of about 10–50 K and decreasing with increasing temperature and below 10 K. The room-temperature magnetic moment is signiﬁcantly higher than one can expect for uncorrelated Mn ions and radical spins. In a hexanuclear Mn(III) cluster NaMn6 ([NaMn6 (OMe)12 (dbm)6 ]þ , dbm ¼ dibenzoylmethane) the ground state with S ¼ 12 and g ¼ 2 is formed due to the ferromagnetic interactions between the Mn ions (Abbati et al 1998). ‘Mn10 ’ molecular clusters ([Mn10 O4 (biphen)4 X12 ]4 , X ¼ Cl , Br , biphen ¼ 2,20 -biphenoxide) were studied by Goldberg et al (1993 1995). Six Mn(II) and four Mn(III) ions in this mixed valence complex are ordered antiferromagnetically. The magnetic moment of the cluster at T ¼ 4.2 K was 27.1 mB for X ¼ Cl and 28.3 mB for X ¼ Br, which corresponds to S ¼ 14 with g ¼ 2 ground state. With temperature increasing the steady decrease of the magnetic moment is observed (for 20% at 40 K as compared with 4.2 K) with no decrease in the low-temperature region (which is in contrast to the Mn12 cluster). Theoretical calculations of the electronic structure of Mnx (x ¼ 2–8) and (MnO)x (x 9) clusters were made by Pederson et al (1998) and Nayak and Jena (1998a,b). The equilibrium conﬁgurations and ground states of the clusters were established. It was found that (MnO)x clusters can have internal ferromagnetic ordering with total magnetic moments of 4–5 mB per MnO unit. In particular, the (MnO)8 cluster can have a ground state with the total moment of 40 mB . The ground states of Mn4 , Mn5 , Mn6 , Mn7 , and Mn8 clusters are ferromagnetic with moments 20, 23, 26, 29 and 32 mB , respectively. From the brief review presented here one can see that there are many nanosized magnetic molecules with high magnetic moments (much higher than have 4f transition metal atoms), which can exhibit superparamagnetic

Molecular cluster systems

345

Figure 10.4. The calculated SM (T) curves for H ¼ 50 kOe for S ¼ 10, 12, 14, 20, 50 and 100. The insert shows SM (S) curves for T ¼ 4.2, 10, 20 and 40 K (Spichkin et al 2001b).

properties. In the systems containing molecular clusters one can expect enhancement of the magnetocaloric properties, as it should be observed in superparamagnets. Magnetocaloric properties of the superparamagnetic systems containing molecular clusters with high spins were considered in the work of Spichkin et al (2001b). The calculations of temperature, ﬁeld and spin value dependences of the magnetic entropy change SM were made in the classical limit on the basis of equation (2.92) on the assumption that the cluster systems under investigation are superparamagnetic and isotropic in the whole temperature range. Figure 10.4 shows the temperature dependences of magnetic entropy change SM ðTÞ caused by the magnetic ﬁeld change H ¼ 50 kOe for S ¼ 10, 12, 14 20, 50, 100. The magnetic moment of the cluster was determined as ¼ gS with g ¼ 2. The insert in ﬁgure 10.4 shows SM on S dependences for H ¼ 50 kOe and T ¼ 4.2, 10 20 and 40 K. There is a considerable increase of SM with increase of S, which for T ¼ 4.2 K and S ¼ 100 reaches the value of about 39 J/K mol. However the saturation on SM ðSÞ dependences is not observed even for T ¼ 4.2 K and S ¼ 100.

346

Magnetocaloric effect in the systems

Figure 10.5. The calculated SM (T) curves for H ¼ 10 kOe for the system consisting of molecular clusters with S ¼ 10 and SM (T) dependences taken from literature for gadolinium gallium garnet (GGG) (Barclay and Steyert 1982a, Daudin et al 1982a, Shull et al 1993), gadolinium gallium iron garnet (GGIG) Gd3 Ga3:25 Fe1:75 O12 (McMichael et al 1993b, Shull et al 1993), orthoaluminates ErAlO3 (Kimura et al 1997a,b) and Dy0:9 Er0:1 AlO3 (Tishin and Bozhkova 1997). The curve for ErAlO3 was obtained by linear interpolation of data from (Kimura et al 1997a,b, Spichkin et al 2001b).

Figure 10.5 compares known SM ðTÞ experimental data for gadolinium gallium garnet (GGG) (Barclay and Steyert 1982a, Daudin et al 1982a, Shull et al 1993), gadolinium gallium iron garnet (GGIG) Gd3 Ga3:25 Fe1:75 O12 (McMichael et al 1993b, Shull et al 1993), erbium orthoaluminate ErAlO3 (Kimura et al 1997a,b) and calculated data for Dy0:9 Er0:1 AlO3 (Tishin and Bozhkova 1997) with SM ðTÞ dependences calculated for S ¼ 10 and 14 for H ¼ 10 kOe. As one can see, SM in J/mol K units for the systems of superparamagnetic clusters exceeds that in known oxide compounds in the low-temperature region and is much higher in the liquid helium temperature range. In real magnetic clusters there is some temperature dependence of its magnetic moment (Caneschi et al 1991, Sessoli et al 1993, Goldberg et al 1993, 1995, Hennion et al 1997). Figure 10.6 shows the SM ðTÞ dependences

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347

Figure 10.6. The calculated SM (T) curves for the Mn10 cluster with temperature dependent magnetic moment for H ¼ 10, 30, 50, 70 and 100 kOe. For H ¼ 50 kOe the result for the temperature independent magnetic moment of 28 mB is also shown (——) (Spichkin et al 2001b).

calculated for the Mn10 cluster (maximum cluster magnetic moment is 28 mB and S ¼ 14) for H ¼ 10, 30, 50, 70, and 100 kOe using experimental data on its ðTÞ dependence (Hennion et al 1997, Novak et al 1995). For H ¼ 50 kOe the curve calculated for constant cluster magnetic moment ¼ 28 mB is also shown (solid line). As one can see, the magnetic moment decrease does not have essential inﬂuence on the magnetocaloric properties of Mn10 . In the Mn12 cluster an essential decrease of is observed below 15 K, which should cause a corresponding decrease of SM . As shown by Zhang et al (2001b) the magnetic anisotropy has an essential eﬀect on the cluster system magnetocaloric properties. The authors made investigations of Fe8 molecular crystal and determined temperature dependences of SM in the ﬁelds up to 30 kOe. Since the crystal cell parameters

348

Magnetocaloric effect in the systems

are rather large (the minimal value is 10.609 A˚), the interaction between clusters in the crystals was recognized as negligible. However, the crystal had noticeable magnetic anisotropy, with an anisotropy ﬁeld of about 50 kOe. Magnetization measurements showed that MðHÞ curves of the crystal in the low-temperature region had the form typical for soft magnetic materials if the ﬁeld was aligned along the easy magnetization axis, and were hard to saturate for the ﬁeld directed along the hard axis. The obtained SM ðTÞ curve measured along the easy axis revealed a maximum with a height of 5 J/kg K at about 7.5 K for H ¼ 30 kOe. For the hard axis the maximum was much lower (1.8 J/kg K) and positioned at about 10 K. Comparison of the obtained results with the theoretical SM ðTÞ curve for an isotropic cluster system showed that SM of the latter is much higher in the temperature range below 7.5 K and lower above this temperature. The observed eﬀects were related by the authors to the inﬂuence of the anisotropy on the crystal magnetization temperature dependences. The anisotropy complicates population of low-spin states with increasing temperature, which provides more steady decreasing of magnetization in the same applied magnetic ﬁeld in the case of an anisotropic system, also clearly observed in the experiment. The lowering of the magnetic entropy change in the anisotropic system in this case is explained by lower @M=@T in the lowtemperature range. It should be noted that experimental magnetization and SM temperature and ﬁeld dependences in Fe8 molecular crystal were fairly well explained in the frames of the statistical model, with the Hamiltonian taking into account anisotropy and Zeeman energies. Torres et al (2000) carried out theoretical calculations and experimental measurements of magnetic entropy change in the systems containing Mn12 and Fe8 molecular clusters with spin S ¼ 10. The studied samples consisted of small crystallites with an average length of 10 mm (Mn12 ) and 2 mm (Fe8 ) embedded in an epoxy under the inﬂuence of the magnetic ﬁeld of 50 kOe for 24 h. ZFC–FC magnetization measurements made in the ﬁeld of 100 Oe revealed the blocking temperatures of 3 K for the Mn12 sample and 0.9 K for the Fe8 sample. The blocking temperature corresponds to the transition under cooling from the superparamagnetic state to the blocking state, where the magnetic moments of the particles stabilize in a deﬁnite direction due to the impossibility of thermal agitation energy overcoming the potential barrier created by the magnetic anisotropy energy of the superparamagnetic particle. The experimental SM ðTÞ curve for the Mn12 for H ¼ 30 kOe calculated from magnetization revealed a sharp maximum with a height of about 27 J/kg K near the blocking temperature of 3 K. With increasing temperature, SM rapidly decreased, reaching about 5 J/kg K at 4 K and remaining almost constant with further heating. Theoretical calculations of SM ðTÞ curves were carried out from theoretically determined M(T,H) dependences by equation (2.70). The total magnetic moment M was calculated as M ¼ Mþ M , where Mþ was the magnetic moment of the molecules

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349

whose magnetic moments were directed along the positive easy axis in the presence of the magnetic ﬁeld, and M was the magnetic moment of the molecules with the opposite moment orientation. Mþ and M were determined from the following diﬀerential equations: dMþ ¼ ÿþ Mþ þ ÿ M dt dM ¼ ÿ M þ ÿþ Mþ dt where

U ðHÞ ÿ ¼ v exp kB T

ð10:1aÞ ð10:1bÞ

ð10:1cÞ

is the rate of the transition between the two possible directions of the molecular magnetic moment, V is the volume of a molecular, and U ðHÞ is the magnetic anisotropy barrier height. In the expression for the magnetic anisotropy barrier the eﬀect of quantum tunnelling of the magnetic moment across the barrier was taken into account. The variation of M in the magnetic ﬁeld was calculated as ðM Meq Þ dM ¼ ÿ r dH

ð10:2Þ

where r ¼ dH=dt is the sweeping rate of the applied magnetic ﬁeld, ÿ ¼ ÿþ ÿ , and Meq is the equilibrium magnetic moment deﬁned as Meq ðHÞ ¼

ÿ ÿþ M ÿ þ ÿþ s

ð10:3Þ

where Ms is the saturation magnetic moment of the sample. Fitting of the experimental SM ðTÞ curve for Mn12 using the model described above gave good results for the ﬁeld sweeping rate r ¼ 7 103 Hz. Theoretical calculations showed that the value of the ﬁeld sweeping rate had an essential inﬂuence on the form of SM ðTÞ curves. With increasing r the position of the SM maximum shifted to the higher temperature range became wider and its height decreased: for Mn12 clusters the absolute value of SM maximum was reduced from 21 J/kg K for r ¼ 0.01 Hz (the peak position 3.7 K) down to 13 J/kg K for r ¼ 100 Hz (the peak position 7 K). The heat capacity of Mn12 and Fe8 clusters was studied by Novak et al (1995), Fominaya et al (1997 1999) and Gomes et al (2001). Gomes et al (2001) measured CðTÞ dependences of Mn12 and Fe8 below 3 K, where both cluster systems are in a blocked state. It was shown that the heat capacity could be regarded as consisting of four contributions: lattice contribution Cl , crystalline ﬁeld contribution Ccf , hyperﬁne contribution Chf and dipolar contribution Cdip . Chf related to the nuclear magnetic

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Magnetocaloric effect in the systems

moment is negligible for Fe8 and strong for Mn12 below 1 K due to the manganese nuclear moment of 5/2. Ccf is due to the crystal ﬁeld eﬀects and increases with increasing temperature, especially rapidly for Fe8 . Dipolar contribution arises in a molecular cluster system because of essential dipole–dipole interaction between their high magnetic moments. For Fe8 , experiment shows an essential decrease of the heat capacity below 1.3 K due to the establishing of the blocking state. However, non-negligible heat capacity was observed even in this state where thermally activated spinreorientation is absent. This was explained by the authors by eﬀects of quantum tunnelling of the cluster magnetic moments across the magnetic anisotropy energy barrier. An analogous picture was observed for the Mn12 cluster. In the low-temperature region below 0.5 K the heat capacity started again to increase, which was related to the role of the Chf contribution. The ﬁeld dependence of the heat capacity of Mn12 single crystals at temperatures below 8.8 K was measured by Fominaya et al (1997, 1999). Above 3.5 K a pattern of peaks appeared at the magnetic ﬁelds of 4, 8 and 12 kOe. This was related by the authors to quantum tunnelling of the molecular spins through the magnetic anisotropy barrier due to crossing of spin-up and spin-down energetic levels of diﬀerent magnetic quantum numbers under the eﬀect of the magnetic ﬁeld. The zero-ﬁeld heat capacity of 20 mg Mn12 single crystal was found to monotonically increase from the value of 5 108 J/K at 3.2 K up to 3 107 J/K at 8.8 K. These results were in good agreement with those obtained by Novak et al (1995) on Mn12 powder. The Debye temperature of Mn12 was determined from the experimental data to be 41 K. So, according to considerations presented in this chapter, the superparamagnetic systems display enhanced magnetocaloric properties in comparison with ordinary paramagnetic systems, which was predicted theoretically (see section 2.9). This eﬀect is observed not only in the systems consisting of small magnetic particles, but also in magnetic molecular cluster systems. As shown in the work of Spichkin et al (2001b), the isotropic molecular cluster systems can have superior properties as the working bodies of magnetic cooling devices for the low-temperature range in comparison with systems traditionally used for these purposes, materials as garnets and orthoaluminates. It should be noted that a patent for this application of the cluster materials has been taken out by Advanced Magnetic Technologies and Consulting Ltd. (Gubin et al 2001). However, the anisotropy eﬀects in the molecular crystals can essentially aﬀect their magnetocaloric properties.

Chapter 11 Application of the magnetocaloric effect and magnetic materials in refrigeration apparatuses

In this chapter we discuss the application of magnetic materials in refrigeration devices. The magnetic materials can be used in this ﬁeld by two ways. As known, magnetic materials make additional contributions to the heat capacity related to the magnetic subsystem, which is especially large near the magnetic phase transition points. That is why the magnetic materials with the low ordering temperatures can provide high heat capacity in the low-temperature region where lattice and electronic heat capacities approach zero. This circumstance allows the use of such materials in passive magnetic regenerators—the devices serving to expand a conventional refrigerator temperature span. The described application of magnetic materials can be called ‘passive’ because here they only adsorb and desorb heat at diﬀerent stages of the refrigerator cycle, do not produce heat themselves and operate without application of a magnetic ﬁeld. In this way magnetic materials are used now in cryocoolers, essentially increasing their eﬀectiveness. But more interesting and perspective application is related to the magnetocaloric eﬀect inherent in magnetic materials. We mean the use of magnetic materials in magnetic refrigeration devices as working bodies, as a ‘heart’ of these devices. Such an application can be called ‘active’ (here a magnetic material produces heat under magnetization) and will be considered in detail in this chapter. It is worth noting, however, that in some cases both ‘passive’ and ‘active’ properties of a magnetic material are used simultaneously—for example, in so-called magnetically augmented regenerators, which are also discussed below.

11.1 Passive magnetic regenerators A regenerator is a thermal device, which transfers heat between the parts of the regenerative thermodynamical refrigeration cycle of opposite directions 351

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Application of the magnetocaloric effect

(from hot sink to cold load and from cold load to hot sink). When a hightemperature and high-pressured refrigerant gas (heat transfer ﬂuid) passes through the regenerator it absorbs heat from the gas and when a lowtemperature and low-pressured gas passes through the regenerator it returns heat to the gas. The regenerator serves to expand a refrigerator temperature span, since the temperature span produced by an adiabatic process itself is insuﬃcient to achieve the desired temperature decrease, and to increase refrigerator eﬃciency. In regenerators working above 50 K (the upper stage of two-stage Giﬀord–McMahon cryocoolers) stainless steel or bronze are usually used. Lead is the conventional material for the lower-temperature regenerators. In the temperature region below 15 K the heat capacity of conventional low-temperature stage regenerators in cryogenic refrigerators essentially decreases, since the lead volumetric heat capacity decreases and the regenerator eﬃciency is directly proportional to the heat capacity of the regenerator material. This happens because the lattice heat capacity of a solid is proportional to T 3 and the electronic heat capacity in metals is proportional to T (see section 2.11) and both these contributions approaches zero in the low-temperature range. In cryocoolers utilizing helium gas this leads to a rapid decrease of refrigerator eﬃciency, because below 15 K the volumetric heat capacity (the heat capacity per unit volume) of compressed helium rapidly increases. A possible way to overcome this diﬃculty is to use in the regenerators the magnetic materials with low magnetic ordering temperatures instead of conventionally used lead. The maximum magnetic entropy change under transition from magnetically ordered to completely disordered (paramagnetic) state can be obtained from equation (2.66). According to equation (2.12) this entropy change should give additional magnetic contribution to the total heat capacity, which can play the main role in the low-temperature range where other contributions approaches zero. The amount of this magnetic contribution near the magnetic transition temperature can be regarded roughly as directly proportional to the value determined by equation (2.66). Buschow et al (1975) suggested the rare earth compounds for use in low-temperature regenerators, based on the fact that in these materials the low magnetic ordering temperatures at which magnetic heat capacity peak occurs can be combined with high volumetric magnetic heat capacity in the phase transition temperature region. The latter is related to the oscillating nature of the exchange interaction in rare earth metals and their compounds, which does not necessarily require dilution of the magnetic ions (this reduces volumetric magnetic heat capacity) in order to achieve low ordering temperatures. Hashimoto et al (1990) formulated the following requirements for magnetic materials with high magnetic heat capacity suitable for use in low-temperature magnetic regenerators: (1) the density of the magnetic ions in the material must be high; (2) the magnetic ions must have high

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353

angular momentum quantum number; (3) the magnetic ordering temperature of the material must be low (in the range from 4 to 15 K) and be controllable. One more important parameter of the material for regenerators is its thermal conductivity. The material in regenerators is used in the form of particles, wires or plates. It is necessary to establish thermal equilibrium throughout the material during the cycle of the refrigerator. Otherwise only part of the material will participate in the heat exchange and the eﬀectiveness of the regenerator will be reduced. The penetration depth of heat Ld in the material is determined as the length from the surface of the material to the place inside the material where the temperature reduces by e times from the temperature on the surface and can be described by the equation (Hashimoto et al 1990) Ld ¼

k C

1=2 ð11:1Þ

where is the operation frequency of the regenerator (frequency of the alternating heat transfer ﬂuid blow through the regenerator), k is thermal conductivity, is the density and C is the volumetric heat capacity of the material. To achieve thermal equilibrium inside the magnetic material the dimension of the particles of magnetic material should be less than Ld . Thermal conductivity values of some metals, alloys, compounds and other materials are presented in table A2.1 in appendix 2. 11.1.1

Rare earth intermetallic compounds in passive regenerators

Bushow et al (1975) proposed a Gdx Er1 x Rh system for use in lowtemperature regenerators. The magnetic ordering temperatures in this system lie between TN ¼ 3.2 K for ErRh and TC ¼ 24 K for GdRh. The peak values of the heat capacity in ErRh and GdRh are on the level of about 0.9 J/K cm3 , which is higher than the heat capacity of Pb. Later RE–Ni and RE–Co intermetallic compounds was reported by Hashimoto and coworkers as suitable for application in the regenerators instead of Pb below 15 K (Yayama et al 1987, Sahashi et al 1990, Hashimoto et al 1990, 1992, Ke et al 1994, Long et al 1995c, Tsukagoshi et al 1996). Volumetric heat capacity temperature dependences of Er3 Ni, ErNi, ErNi2 , Er3 Co, Er(Ni1 x Cox )2 , (Er–Yb)Ni, Er(Ni–Co), Er1 x Dyx Ni2 and RNiGe (R ¼ Gd, Dy, Er) compounds were investigated by Hashimoto and coworkers from the point of view of application in the regenerators. Figure 11.1 shows the heat capacity temperature dependences for some of the RE–Ni alloys (see also ﬁgure 6.12). As one can see the magnetic phase transition in the compounds provides volumetric heat capacity below 15 K much higher than that in Pb, although it is not higher than the volumetric heat capacity of compressed He (5 atm).

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Application of the magnetocaloric effect

Figure 11.1. Temperature dependences of the volumetric heat capacity of Er3 Ni, ErNi, ErNi2 and ErNi0:9 Co0:1 compounds. For comparison the heat capacities of Pb and compressed He (5 atm) are also shown (Ke et al 1994).

According to estimations of McMahon and Giﬀord (1960), for eﬀective work of the regenerator operating in a refrigerator using a gas as a heat transfer ﬂuid, its material should have a volumetric heat capacity 3–5 times higher than that of the working gas. To verify eﬀectiveness of the magnetic materials for use in the regenerators, Kuriyama et al (1990) partly replaced lead in the second (low-temperature) stage regenerator in a two-stage Giﬀord–McMahon (G-M) cryocooler by Er3 Ni. The regenerator contained of 141.2 g of Er3 Ni grains (0.1–0.3 mm in length) and 190.5 g of Pb spheres (0.2–0.3 mm in diameter). The second stage maximum expansion volume of the cryocooler was 25.4 cm3 and the ﬁrst stage temperature maintained at 30–40 K. To compare the characteristics of the Er3 Ni-containing regenerator, the Pb regenerator ﬁlled with 383.2 g of Pb spheres with diameter of 0.2– 0.3 mm was used. At the cryocooler reciprocating (rotational) speed (cryocooler motor cycle speed) of 18 rpm the minimal no-load temperature was 4.5 K for the Er3 Ni-containing regenerator and 6.28 K for the Pb

Passive magnetic regenerators

355

Figure 11.2. Dependence of the second stage refrigeration capacity of the Giﬀord– MacMahon cryocooler on the second stage temperature for Pb and Er3 Ni as materials in the second stage regenerators (– – – –, reciprocating speed of the cryocooler 60 rpm; ——, 24 rpm) (Hashimoto et al 1992, Kuriyama et al 1990).

regenerator. The optimized refrigeration capacity at reciprocating speed (which was 36 rpm) at 8 K was 1.2 W and 2.4 W for the Pb- and Er3 Ni-containing regenerators, respectively. Figure 11.2 shows the second stage refrigeration capacity of the G-M cryocooler as a function of the second stage temperature for regenerators containing Pb and Er3 Ni as a regenerator material. One can clearly see the advantage of the magnetic material, which can provide a lower second stage temperature and higher refrigeration capacity than Pb. Li et al (1990) measured, on the special test apparatus constructed for studying the thermal performance of cryogenic regenerators, the eﬃciency of the regenerators with Pb, Er3 Ni and Er0:5 Dy0:5 Ni2 compounds in the temperature range from 4.2 to 35 K. It was shown that the eﬃciency of the magnetic materials is essentially higher than Pb below 15 K. Er3 Ni has a broad heat capacity maximum near 7 K, which besides magnetic ordering process is related to the Schottky anomaly above the Ne´el temperature (see section 6.2). Above 15 K the volumetric heat capacity of Er3 Ni becomes comparable with that of Pb. These features make this material eﬀective for application in low-temperature regenerators. It should be noted that Hershberg et al (1994) found an essential variability in the heat capacity data of Er3 Ni reported by various authors, in particular in the size of the heat capacity maximum. However, below 5 K the heat capacity of Er3 Ni rapidly decreases, which does not allow good refrigeration capacity to be obtained in a G-M cryocooler at liquid helium temperature using Er3 Ni in the second stage regenerator.

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Application of the magnetocaloric effect

In the second stage regenerator in a G-M cryocooler the temperature of the hot end is usually about 30 K. At the same time the heat capacity peaks of the rare earth intermetallic magnetic materials with ordering temperatures below 15 K are rather narrow (about a few degrees at half maximum). Therefore it is impossible to cover the whole regenerator working temperature range from 30 K down to 4.2 K by one magnetic material. It was proposed to use a layered (hybrid) regenerator consisting of several layers of magnetic materials with magnetic ordering temperatures changing from high value (hot end of the regenerator) to low value (cold end of the regenerator) in accordance with temperature gradient in the regenerator (Hashimoto 1991, Hashimoto et al 1992). Various layered regenerators were tried in the second stage of two-stage G-M cryocoolers. Ke et al (1994) used a hybrid second stage regenerator consisting of 240 g of Er3 Ni sphere particles with diameters from 0.2 to 0.5 mm (hot end) and of 250 g of ErNi0:9 Co0:1 smashed particles with sizes from 0.2 to 0.5 mm (cold end). The regenerator was 200 mm in length and 35 mm in diameter and was placed in the G-M cryocooler of RD210 type manufactured by Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd. The minimal no-load temperature achieved was 2.7 K with no load put on the ﬁrst expansion stage and cryocooler rotational speed of 48 rpm. The refrigeration capacity was almost the same for this hybrid regenerator and the regenerator completely consisting of Er3 Ni below 3.2 K, but at 4.2 K the refrigeration capacity was increased by 15.9% (0.95 W) in the hybrid regenerator. Employing the hybrid regenerator also allowed the refrigerator to be used with a ﬁrststage load (0.4 W at 35 K), which was impossible with the Er3 Ni regenerator. Hashimoto et al (1994) and Kuriyama et al (1994) investigated characteristics of G-M cryocoolers with the hybrid second stage double-layer regenerators consisting of Er3 Co or Er3 Ni at the hot end plus Er0:9 Yb0:1 Ni at the cold end (the ratio of the cold and hot magnetic components was 50 : 50). The maximum refrigeration capacity of 1.05 W at 4.2 K (the minimal no-load temperature was 3.05 K) was achieved for the Er3 Co þ Er0:9 Yb0:1 Ni second stage regenerator with a hot end temperature of 30 K, a cryocooler reciprocating speed of 36 rpm, and the second stage maximum expansion volume of 25.7 cm3 (Hashimoto et al 1994, Kuriyama et al 1994). The regenerator comprised 257 g of Er3 Co and 294 g of Er0:9 Yb0:1 Ni. For the regenerator with only Er3 Ni (542 g) the refrigeration capacity at the same conditions was 0.85 W and minimal no-load temperature was 3.2 K. At the same time the regenerator consisting of 283 g Er3 Ni and 258 g Er0:9 Yb0:1 Ni displayed a refrigeration power of 0.85 W at 4.2 K and minimal no-load temperature of 3 K. Although the ratio of Er3 Co and Er0:9 Yb0:1 Ni in the experimentally tested regenerator was 50 : 50, computer simulation showed that the optimum ratio providing maximum regenerator eﬃciency was about 60 :40 and also conﬁrmed more eﬃciency of the Er3 Co þ Er0:9 Yb0:1 Ni regenerator than the Er3 Ni þ Er0:9 Yb0:1 Ni.

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Takashi et al (1997) achieved a refrigeration capacity of 2.2 W at 4.2 K (the rotational speed was 42 rpm and the ﬁrst stage temperature was 50 K with a heat load of 25 W) with the G-M cryocooler employing in the second stage the hybrid regenerator comprising Er3 Ni and ErNi0:9 Co0:1 . Such large refrigeration capacity was reached by increasing the second stage expansion volume up to 90.5 cm3 and by application of mesh screens in the second stage regenerator. The regenerator (of inner diameter 55.1 mm) was divided by length into three equal parts by rectiﬁable meshes placed between felt mats. Two of the parts were ﬁlled with Er3 Ni and one (at the cold end) with ErNi0:9 Co0:1 . This was done to prevent ﬂowing of helium gas to one side of the regenerator, which deteriorates the characteristics of the cryocooler, and in particular increases the minimal no-load temperature. Satoh et al (1996) used the hybrid regenerator composed of spherical particles of Pb (diameter 0.5–0.6 mm) at the hot end and ErNi0:9 Co0:1 (diameter 0.2–0.3 mm) at the cold end with 500 g of each material. Besides using the hybrid regenerator, the intake/exhaust valve timing of the G-M cryocooler was also optimized in order to obtain maximum refrigeration capacity. The maximum refrigeration capacity of such a G-M cryocooler was 1.5 W at 4.2 K at the ﬁrst stage temperature of 48.5 K (ﬁrst stage heat load 40 W), a reciprocating speed of 60 rpm and a second stage maximum expansion volume of 37.7 cm3 . Triple-layer hybrid regenerators in the second stage of a two-stage G-M cryocooler were tested by Tsukagoshi et al (1996) and Hashimoto et al (1995). Tsukagoshi et al (1996) showed that a triple-layer regenerator composed of 25% Er0:75 Gd0:25 Ni (hot end) þ 25% Er3 Co (middle) þ 50% Er0:9 Yb0:1 Ni (cold end) provided superior cryocooler characteristics over a double-layer 50% Er0:9 Yb0:1 Ni þ 50% Er3 Co regenerator. For a rotational speed of 36 rpm and a second stage maximum expansion volume of 25.7 cm3 , the refrigeration capacity of 1.05 W and 1.17 W was achieved at 4.2 K for the double-layer and triple-layer refrigerators, respectively. The double-layer regenerator comprised 283 g Er0:9 Yb0:1 Ni and 275 g Er3 Co, and the triple-layer one 279 g Er0:9 Yb0:1 Ni, 138 g Er3 Co and 137 g Er0:75 Gd0:25 Ni. It should be noted that the heat capacity of Er0:75 Gd0:25 Ni did not reveal maximum up to 30 K (maximum investigated temperature) but monotonically increased to about 0.85 J/K cm3 at 30 K. In the work of Hashimoto et al (1995), a triple-layer regenerator consisting of 50% Er3 Co (hot end) þ 30% Er0:9 Yb0:1 Ni (middle) þ 20% ErNi0:8 Co0:2 (cold end) revealed somewhat better properties in comparison with the double-layer 50% Er0:9 Yb0:1 Ni þ 50% Er3 Co regenerator. The refrigeration capacity of the G–M cryocooler with the triple-layer regenerator was 1.11 W at 4.2 K (minimal no-load temperature 3.1 K) with the ﬁrst stage temperature of 30 K and rotational speed of 36 rpm. At the same time, in the case of the single-layer regenerator with Er3 Ni the refrigeration capacity at 4.2 K was 0.6 W (minimal no-load temperature 3.2 K) at the same conditions.

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Application of the magnetocaloric effect

Hashimoto et al (1995) did not give information about the weight of the magnetic materials in the regenerator and the second stage expansion volume. Multi-layer regenerators including HoSb with a high volumetric heat capacity peak were studied by Nakane et al (1999). The heat capacity measurements of HoSb and DySb showed that these compounds have high and sharp heat capacity peaks with a height of 2.7 and 2 J/K cm3 at 5 and 9 K, respectively. According to Hashimoto et al (1998), in a multi-layered regenerator increasing the number of layers causes an increase in the volume of the partition between the layers, which reduces the regenerator eﬀectiveness. Because of that the authors suggested using on the cold end a synthetic material in which two diﬀerent materials are packed into one layer. This material was composed of HoSb and HoCu2 . Computer simulation of the regenerator eﬀectiveness, which was estimated on the enthalpy basis (Seshake et al 1992), showed that the four-layer (Pb–Er3 Ni–HoCu2 – HoSb) and triple-layer (Pb–Er3 Ni–synthetic material (HoCu2 þ HoSb)) regenerator conﬁgurations have almost the same eﬀectivenesses. In the experiments the particles of HoCu2 had spherical form with diameters between 0.18 and 0.35 mm. HoSb particles were not spherical and were prepared from an arc-melted ingot, which was crushed and sifted through a sieve with a mesh having dimensions between 0.149 and 0.355 mm. Three triple-layer hybrid regenerators were tested: 58% Pb þ 17% Er3 Ni þ 25% HoCu2 , 58% Pb þ 17% Er3 Ni þ 25% HoSb and 58% Pb þ 17% Er3 Ni þ 25% synthetic material (13% (109.2 g) HoCu2 þ 12% (130 g) HoSb), where Pb was on the hot end. Pb and Er3 Ni were in the form of spherical particles with diameters from 0.2 to 0.3 mm and 0.18 to 0.35 mm, respectively. The materials were placed in the second stage of a G-M cryocooler. The temperature of the cold end of the ﬁrst stage regenerator was ﬁxed at 45 K (with 10 W of refrigeration capacity) and the reciprocating speed was 74 rpm. The cryocooler with the regenerator with HoCu2 at the cold end demonstrated the highest cooling characteristics: its no-load minimal temperature was 2.4 K and refrigeration capacity at 10 K was 7.4 W. The no-load minimal temperature for regenerators with HoSb and the synthetic material was 3 K and at 10 K they displayed 4 and 5 W of refrigeration capacity, respectively. All three refrigerator conﬁgurations studied had small diﬀerences in the refrigeration capacity on the second stage temperature behaviour below 6 K (at 6 K the refrigeration capacity was 2.3 K), although this parameter was somewhat higher for the Pb– Er3 Ni–HoCu2 conﬁguration. However, the authors noted that because HoSb particles were not spherical, their packed volume decreased by 10% and this could decrease the refrigeration capacity achieved in the regenerators with this material. Among other intermetallic compounds suitable for low-temperature regenerators RNiGe (R ¼ Gd, Dy, Er), Er6 Ni2 Sn and Er6 Ni2 Pb, Er–Ag,

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(Pr1 x Ndx )Ag, RGa2 (R ¼ Dy, Ho) and Dy1 x Hox Ga2 should be mentioned (Long et al 1995c, Gschneidner et al 1995, 1997b, Biwa et al 1996, Yagi et al 1997, 1998). Their heat capacity and magnetic properties were considered in chapter 6. The peak heat capacity values and temperatures corresponding to the peaks in the intermetallic compounds suitable for use in regenerators are summarized in table 11.1. It should be noted that the intermetallic compounds have inherently poor mechanical properties—in particular, they are quite brittle. Because of this it is impossible to produce these materials in complex form, such as wires, sheets and so on. The best form in which intermetallic compounds can be used in the regenerators is small spherical particles. The dimensions of such particles are determined by requirements of thermal equilibrium inside the regenerator material during the refrigeration cycle, which is related to the thermal conductivity of the material—see equation (11.1). According to Hashimoto et al (1990) thermal conductivity of ErNi2 , DyNi2 and ErCo2 is about 4 103 W/cm K at 4.2 K and about 4 102 W/cm K at 77 K; the latter is an order of magnitude lower than thermal conductivity of Pb (note that with temperature decreasing, Pb thermal conductivity increases). Estimations of Hashimoto et al (1990) showed that the penetration depth of ErNi2 at 4.2 K is 800 mm for typical operation frequency of 1 Hz. Lead is usually used in regenerators in the form of balls with diameters of 100–400 mm. In accordance with the result of Hashimoto et al (1990), the same particle dimension is appropriate for rare earth intermetallic compounds. Such a range of the particle dimensions can give high packing density and uniformity of the regenerator material cross section in order to provide complete utilization of the regenerator volume and uniform heat transfer ﬂuid pressure drop. The simplest way to prepare such particles is to crush or grind the material and then to sieve it in order to obtain powder with the desired particle diameter. However, such material is highly susceptible to breakdown and fragmentation in use, with the formation of highly abrasive dust, which can quickly wear the seals and moving parts in the refrigerator, resulting in shortening its longevity. Besides, the dust can ﬁll interstitial space between the particles and impede gas ﬂow, increasing the pressure drop across the regenerator. The production process is characterized by low yield and the particles have irregular non-spherical shapes leading to low packing density, which causes a decrease of the regenerator eﬃciency and further destruction of the particles. More suitable powders consisting of spherical intermetallic compound particles can be produced by gas or centrifugal atomization processes (Aprigliano et al 1992, Hershberg et al 1994, Osborne et al 1994). However, the particles with diameters larger than 100 mm fabricated by gas atomization are characterized by prominent internal porosity and the essential fraction of the material is in the form of ﬂakes or broken spheres, which reduces

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Table 11.1. The values of magnetic phase transition temperatures (TC , TN , or other), peak values of the volumetric heat capacity Cpeak and corresponding temperatures of the peak position Tpeak . References are shown in brackets. Compound

Tpt (K)

Tpeak (K)

Cpeak (J/K cm3 )

GdRh Er3 Ni

24 [1] 5 [2]

Nd3 Ni ErNi2 Er0:8 Dy0:2 Ni2 Er0:4 Dy0:6 Ni2 DyNi2 HoNi2 Er0:5 Ho0:5 Ni2 ErNi Er0:9 Yb0:1 Ni ErNi0:9 Co0:1 ErNi0:8 Co0:2 Er3 Co ErNiGe Er6 Ni2 Sn Er6 Ni2 Pb HoSb DySb HoCu2 Er0:5 Ag0:5 Er0:6 Ag0:4 Er0:7 Ag0:3 PrAg Pr0:9 Nd0:1 Ag Pr0:8 Nd0:2 Ag Pr0:5 Nd0:5 Ag Pr0:2 Nd0:8 Ag NdAg DyGa2

– 6.2 [5] – – 20.55 [5] – – – – – – – 3.3 [8] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

20 [1] 7 [3] 7.5 [4] 6.5 [10] 6 [5] 9 [5] 14 [5] 21 [5] 12.5 [3] 9.5 [3] 11 [3] 9 [3] 7 [6] 6 [7] 13 [7] 3 [8] 17.5 [9] 17.5 [10] 5 [11] 10 [11] 9 [11] 16 [12] 16 [12] 16 [12] 10 [13] 11 [13] 10.5 [13] 12 [13] 17 [13] 22 [13] 6.5 [14] 9 [14] 7 [14] 8.1 [14] 17.5 [14] 7.2 [14] 8 [14] 10 [14]

0.93 [1] 0.35 [3] 0.4 [4] 0.64 [10] 0.35 [5] 0.43 [5] 0.62 [5] 0.82 [5] 0.7 [3] 0.54 [3] 0.62 [3] 0.82 [3] 0.65 [6] 0.75 [7] 0.5 [7] 0.52 [8] 0.86 [9] 0.8 [10] 2.5 [11] 2.1 [11] 0.4 [11] 0.7 [12] 0.7 [12] 0.65 [12] 1.08 [13] 1.2 [13] 1.05 [13] 1.3 [13] 0.9 [13] 1.45 [13] 1.45 [14] 1 [14] 0.6 [14] 0.5 [14] 0.65 [14] 0.28 [14] 0.38 [14] 0.35 [14]

HoGa2

–

TbGa2 PrGa2 NdGa2 Dy0:5 Ho0:5 Ga2

– – – –

1. Buschow et al (1975); 2. Buschow (1968); 3. Hashimoto et al (1992); 4. Pecharsky et al (1997a); 5. Hashimoto et al (1990); 6. Satoh et al (1996); 7. Hashimoto et al (1995); 8. Long et al (1995a); 9. Gschneidner et al (1997b); 10. Gschneidner et al (1995); 11. Nakane et al (1999); 12. Biwa et al (1996); 13. Yagi et al (1997); 14. Yagi et al (1998).

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the yield of the ﬁnal product. Er3 Ni powder was successfully produced by the centrifugal atomization process with a rotating quench bath (CA/RQB) (Osborne et al 1994, Hershberg et al 1994). In this process the molten alloy is poured on to a rapidly rotating refractory disk to produce spherical material droplets, which are then quenched in a concentric bath containing liquid quenchant rotating in the same direction as the disk but at a lower speed. The typical yield of Er3 Ni powder with particle dimensions between 150 and 355 mm in CA/RQB process was 30–40% (Osborne et al 1994). Scanning electron microscopy and cross-sectional optical micrographs showed that the obtained Er3 Ni particles were mostly spherical and essentially void free. It should be noted that the cost of fabrication of spherical intermetallic particles is high, which is mainly related to the expensive and sophisticated equipment required for the manufacturing process. Pecharsky et al (1997a) tried to make amorphous Er3 Ni by rapid solidiﬁcation with the help of the melt-spin method in order to improve its mechanical properties and possibly produce it in the form of sheets or ribbons. This attempt failed even at high cooling rates of about 106 K/s. Better results were achieved with alloys Er3 (Ni0:98 Ti0:02 ) and Er3 (Ni0:9 Ti0:1 ) which were made partly or probably completely amorphous and were quite ﬂexible. However the heat capacity maximum at 7 K characteristic for Er3 Ni and observed in crystalline Er3 (Ni0:98 Ti0:02 ) and Er3 (Ni0:9 Ti0:1 ) disappeared in the amorphous state. At the same time the heat capacity of the amorphous alloys below 10 K was on the level of that in gas atomized commercial Nd. The Cryofuel System Group from the University of Victoria (Canada) suggested the technology of fabrication of the monolithic regenerators comprising the particles of brittle intermetallic compounds obtained by crushing or grinding (Merida and Barclay 1998, Williamson 2001, Wysokinski et al 2002). The technology reduces the manufacturing cost of the regenerators and provides their structural integrity, eliminating the problems related to the abrasive dust described above. It consists of bonding the particles in a monolithic but porous regenerator bed with the help of a diluted epoxy mixture, which prevents the particles from moving during the cryocooler operation and excludes their fractioning. Because a small amount of epoxy is used, the particles are coated by thin epoxy layer of a sub-micron range (Wysokinski et al 2002), which does not deteriorate thermal exchange between the magnetic material of particles and the heat transfer gas. The conducted experiments conﬁrmed that the characteristics of the G-M cryocoolers using monolithic regenerators did not degrade with time and the regenerators preserved their integrity. The experiments were made on the triple-layer regenerators consisting of Pb (spheres) þ Er3 Ni (spheres) þ ErNi0:9 Co0:1 (grains). According to Merida and Barclay (1998), a G-M cryocooler with such a monolithic regenerator preserved its characteristics after 10 days of continuous operation, which corresponded

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Application of the magnetocaloric effect

to 109 cycles. Consider the results reported recently by Wysokinski et al 2002. The second stage regenerator in this work comprised 98.913 g of 0.3 mm in diameter Pb spheres, 183.689 g of 0.3 mm diameter Er3 Ni spheres and 58.946 g of ErNi0:9 Co0:1 grains with dimensions from 0.15 to 0.35 mm. The second stage expansion volume of the G-M cryocooler was 11.1 cm3 , the regenerator volume was 56.1 cm3 , its porosity was 36% and the total surface area was 0.67 m2 . The total amount of epoxy used in the regenerator fabrication was 0.85 g. It was diluted in acetone and poured through the regenerator, which was then blown oﬀ with nitrogen gas. The procedure was repeated 10 times and then the epoxy was cured. The experimental studies showed that using epoxy in the regenerator not only does not deteriorate the cryocooler characteristics, but also even improved some of them (the comparison was made with a conventional regenerator of the same composition), which was related to increasing the roughness of the epoxy-coated particles’ surface and a corresponding increase of the heat transfer area. With the monolithic regenerator the minimal no-load second stage temperature of 4.2 K was achieved at the rotational speed of 90 rpm (the ﬁrst stage no-load temperature was 34 K) with a standard commercial Leybold regenerator at the ﬁrst stage. The observed higher gas ﬂow pressure drop across the monolithic regenerator was explained by the reduction of the ﬂow channel sizes due to the presence of epoxy coating. 11.1.2

Rare earth metals and their alloys in passive regenerators

Another material, which is used in low-temperature stage regenerators, is light rare earth metal neodymium. It has two magnetic phase transitions, at 7.8 and 19.2 K (Johansson et al 1970), with corresponding heat capacity maximums. The advantage of Nd is in its metallic nature with ductile mechanical properties inherent to the metallic state. This allows production of sound Nd spheres, wires, foils or even more complex articles in order to provide high eﬃciency heat exchange in the regenerators. Figure 11.3 shows the volumetric heat capacity temperature dependence of gas atomized commercial Nd (99% pure) measured by Pecharsky et al (1997a). As one can see Nd is superior to Pb below 15 K. Osborne et al (1994) prepared ellipsoidal Nd particles with average sizes between 180 and 355 mm by the centrifugal atomization process. The regenerator consisting of Nd perforated disks for use in a G-M refrigerator was fabricated by Chafe et al (1997). Such a construction should have a lower dead volume (a space in the regenerator occupied by the refrigerant gas) and pressure drop in comparison with regenerators ﬁlled with spheres of the working material. The disks were produced by means of the process analogous to that used to produce multi-ﬁlamentary superconducting wires. The holes in the disks had a mean equivalent diameter of 0.05 mm and occupied about 10% of the cross-sectional area. Each disk was 1 mm thick and weighed about 2.75 g. The test hybrid regenerator consisted

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363

Figure 11.3. Temperature dependences of volumetric heat capacities of Nd, Er3 Ni and Pb in the low-temperature range (Pecharsky et al 1997a).

of a Pb spheres layer (occupying about 60% of the whole length of the regenerator, with a mass of 256 g) on the hot end and of 48 Nd disks set perpendicular to the gas ﬂow on the cold end. The neighbouring disks were separated from each other by circular pieces of spun polyester cloth. A twostage G-M refrigerator equipped with a second stage Nd regenerator as described showed 1 W of refrigeration capacity at 5.5 K and reached a minimal no-load operating temperature of about 4 K. These characteristics were somewhat worse than that using an all-Nd-sphere regenerator. The pressure drop was also higher than for the packed sphere regenerator. Later Chafe and Green (1998) proposed another construction of the Nd-based regenerator. The hybrid regenerator again consisted of Pb sphere and Nd parts. The Nd part was made up of a stack of sections of coiled Nd ribbons 0.32 cm wide. On the ribbon surface, small ridges providing spacing between ribbon sheets in the coiled sections were embossed during the preparation process. Two ribbons, one 0.025 cm thick with a 0.005 cm spacing ridge and another 0.018 cm thick with a 0.0025 cm spacing ridge, were prepared and used in the regenerator. Better results were achieved on the 0.025 cm ribbon. The regenerator with this ribbon had lower pressure drop in comparison with the all-sphere regenerator. It also provided higher cooling power (1 W at 4.75 K) and lower minimal no-load temperature (about 3 K) in a twostage G-M refrigerator than the all-sphere regenerator. Gschneidner et al (2000d,e), based on the results of the heat capacity measurements (see section 8.2.3), proposed to use Er0:73 Pr0:27 and Er0:5 Pr0:5

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Application of the magnetocaloric effect

Figure 11.4. Temperature dependences of the volumetric heat capacities of Er0:73 Pr0:27 , Er0:5 Pr0:5 and Er0:968 O0:027 N0:003 C0:002 (Gschneidner et al 2000d).

alloys in the low-temperature regenerators working above 10 K. Figure 11.4 shows the volumetric heat capacity of these alloys along with that of lead. As one can see, below 40 K the heat capacity of the alloys is higher than that of lead. For the temperature range from 40 to 85 K, Gschneidner et al (2000d,e) suggested the interstitial alloy Er0:968 O0:027 N0:003 C0:002 , which is just Er purchased from a commercial vendor. The thermal conductivity of Er0:968 O0:027 N0:003 C0:002 and Er–Pr alloys was determined to be an order of magnitude lower than that of Pb. The authors also pointed to good mechanical properties of the alloys, in particular their ductility and strength. This allows them to be used in various forms (wires, sheets, etc.) in regenerators. The other advantage is low oxidation capability of the alloys in comparison with light rare earths (such as Nd). To produce ﬁne rare earth metal powders, gas and centrifugal atomization processes are used (Osborne et al 1994, Hershberg et al 1994). The neodymium powder with particle sizes of 180–355 mm was produced by the centrifugal atomization process with a rotating quench bath (CA/RQB) by Osborne et al (1994). Some degradation of the initial material purity during the process was observed, which was reﬂected in changing the Nd heat capacity temperature dependence as compared with pure Nd. Miller et al (2000) prepared Gd, Er and Er0:73 Pr0:27 powders using the plasma rotating electrode process (PREP). In this method a round bar of the necessary material rotates about its longitudinal axis and is melted by a plasma torch. The material is centrifugally ejected from the bar and solidiﬁed in the form of spherical particles. The heat capacity measured on the

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365

produced Er0:73 Pr0:27 powder with particle sizes of 100–250 mm was almost the same as on the initial material. This points to low contamination of the material during the process. Wong and Seuntjens (1996) proposed a method of production of ﬁne rare earth wires in order to fabricate wire cloth screens for utilization in the regenerators. In this method a rare earth metal or alloy ingot is put inside the copper jacket with an Nb barrier between the ingot and the jacket. This assembly is then extruded and the obtained extruded rod processed to ﬁnal wire size by a standard wire drawing technology. Wires of Gd, Dy and Gd0:6 Dy0:4 alloy with diameters of 254–817 mm were obtained.

11.2 Magnetic refrigeration 11.2.1

General consideration

In general, a magnetic refrigerator should include the following main parts: magnetic working body, magnetization system, hot and cold heat exchangers, and heat transfer ﬂuid with a system providing its ﬂow. The heat transfer ﬂuid carries out coupling between the magnetic working material and heat exchangers and can be a gas or liquid depending on the working temperature range. The general operational principle of a refrigerator is as follows: the working material (refrigerant) absorbs heat at the low-temperature load (cold heat exchanger) and discharges heat at the high temperature sink (hot heat exchanger). As a result of cyclic repetition of this process the load is cooled. In magnetic refrigerators the working material is a magnetic material, which changes its temperature and entropy under the action of a magnetic ﬁeld. For magnetic refrigeration a nonregenerative Carnot cycle and also magnetic type regenerative Brayton, Ericsson and AMR (active magnetic regenerator) cycles can be used (Barclay 1994). Figure 11.5 illustrates the main thermodynamic cycles used for magnetic refrigeration. A Carnot cycle with a temperature span from Tcold to Thot is shown in ﬁgure 11.5 by the rectangle ABCD in the total entropy–temperature (S–T) diagram. The heat Qc , absorbed from the cooling load (at temperature Tcold ) during one cycle of refrigeration, equals Tcold SM , where SM ¼ S2 S1 . Increasing the temperature span beyond a certain optimal value leads to a signiﬁcant loss of eﬃciency as point C in ﬁgure 11.5 tends to point G and the cycle becomes narrow. The temperature span of the Carnot cycle for a given Tcold and H is limited by the distance AG in ﬁgure 11.5 (i.e. by the MCE at T ¼ Tcold and the ﬁeld change from 0 to H), when Q becomes zero. The lattice entropy of solids strongly increases above 20 K, which leads to a decrease of the Carnot cycle area (see rectangle abcd in ﬁgure 11.5). That is why applications of Carnot-type refrigerators are restricted to the temperature region below 20 K.

366

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

Figure 11.5. S–T diagram of thermodynamic cycles used for magnetic refrigeration. Two isoﬁeld S(T) curves are shown: for H ¼ 0 and H 6¼ 0 (Kuz’min and Tishin 1993a). (Reprinted from Kuz’min and Tishin 1993a, with permission from Elsevier.)

Magnetic refrigerators operating at higher temperatures have to employ other thermodynamic cycles, including processes at constant magnetic ﬁeld. These cycles allow use of the area between the SðT; H ¼ 0Þ and SðT; H 6¼ 0Þ curves in the S–T diagram more fully. The rectangles AFCE and AGCH present the Ericsson and Brayton cycles, respectively. The two cycles diﬀer in the way the ﬁeld change is accomplished—isothermally in the Ericsson cycle and adiabatically in the Brayton cycle. Realization of isoﬁeld processes in both of these cycles requires heat regeneration. As noted in section 11.1, a regenerator is a thermal device serving to transfer heat between diﬀerent parts of a regenerative thermodynamical refrigeration cycle, which allows the temperature span of the refrigeration device to increase. This is especially important in the case of magnetic refrigerators because the adiabatic temperature change (i.e. the magnetocaloric eﬀect) in these devices is much less than in refrigerators utilizing gas as a refrigerant. Every magnetic refrigerator working on a regenerative cycle should include a regenerator in some form. Thermal energy in the magnetic regenerative cycles is absorbed by the regenerator during the high-ﬁeld hot sink–cold load ﬂow period (CE and GC lines in ﬁgure 11.5 for Ericsson and Brayton cycles, respectively) and returned to the heat transfer ﬂuid during the lowﬁeld cold load–hot sink ﬂow period (AF and HA lines in ﬁgure 11.5 for Ericsson and Brayton cycles, respectively). A magnetic regenerative refrigeration cycle can be presented as consisting of the following main parts: magnetization and heat transfer in the hot heat exchanger, regeneration with temperature dropping from Thot to Tcold , demagnetization and heat transfer in the cold heat exchanger, regeneration with temperature increasing from Tcold to Thot .

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367

Let us introduce some concepts necessary for consideration of magnetic refrigeration cycles. According to the ﬁrst law of thermodynamics, in the ideal refrigeration cycle the heat Qh rejected at hot sink (at temperature Thot ) is related to heat Qc absorbed from the cooling load (at temperature Tcold ) and the work Wi consumed to accomplish this process as follows: Qc ¼ Qh W i :

ð11:2Þ

Qc , Qh and the input work Wi are related to refrigeration capacity (cooling power) Q_ c , heat rejection at hot sink Q_ h and work rate in refrigerator W_ i as Q_ c ¼ Qc

ð11:3aÞ

Q_ h ¼ Qh

ð11:3bÞ

W_ i ¼ Wi

ð11:3cÞ

where is the operational frequency of the refrigerator. For isothermal reversible heat transfer the corresponding entropy changes at hot (Sh ) and cold (Sc ) ends can be determined by the equations Qh Thot Q Sc ¼ c : Tcold Sh ¼

ð11:4aÞ ð11:4bÞ

The second law of thermodynamics requires that Sh þ Sc 0 from which one can obtain

W i ¼ Qc

Thot 1 : Tcold

ð11:5Þ

ð11:6Þ

The ratio refrigeration capacity (Q_ c )/power input (W_ ) (or heat lifted/work done) is called the coeﬃcient of performance (COP) and in the case of an ideal cycle the COP is the Carnot value (see equation (11.6)) COPCarnot ¼

Tcold : Thot Tcold

ð11:7Þ

The eﬃciency of a refrigerator is the ratio of its actual coeﬃcient of performance to the Carnot coeﬃcient of performance. It can also be determined as the ratio of Carnot (ideal) power input to actual input power required. Magnetic regenerative refrigeration cycles were considered by Barclay (1991) and Cross et al (1987). Figure 11.6 illustrates the ideal magnetic Ericsson cycle, in which magnetic ﬁeld is changed isothermally. The energy transfer to and from the magnetic material in low- and high-ﬁeld stages of the cycle should be balanced in order to satisfy the law of energy conservation. This requirement implies the equality of areas S1 ABS01 and S2 DCS02 ,

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Figure 11.6. S–T diagram of ideal magnetic Ericsson refrigeration cycle.

which are the heat QR absorbed and returned by the regenerator at the highand low-ﬁeld stages of the cycle, respectively. One more consequence follows from the conservation energy requirement: the entropy change (the distance between SðTÞ curves for H ¼ 0 and H 6¼ 0) in the cycle should be constant, i.e. S2 S1 ¼ S20 S10 ¼ SM ¼ const. and SðT; H ¼ 0Þ and SðT; H 6¼ 0Þ are parallel. In this case the second law constraint (equation (11.5)) is fulﬁlled and the cycle is executed with maximum Carnot eﬃciency. Qc and Qh are determined by areas S1 ADS2 and S01 BCS02 areas in ﬁgure 11.6, respectively. The input work Wi is presented by the area ABCD. For an ideal Ericsson cycle the requirement SM ¼ const. provides optimal performing conditions. In real magnetic materials SM has maximum value near the temperature of the magnetic phase transition (at which the material is used in magnetic refrigerators) and is decreased in the temperature region above and below the transition temperature. Cross et al (1987) regarded the inﬂuence of SM ðTÞ dependence of such form on the eﬀectiveness of the Ericsson magnetic cycle. It was shown that such a nonideal SM ðTÞ curve would result in extra work required for cycle accomplishing and reduction of the refrigeration capacity (if Sh ¼ Sc ) in comparison with the ideal SM ¼ const. case. It was also demonstrated that the Ericsson cycle is more eﬀective with steeper SðTÞ curves (with the condition of the same SM value), i.e. with lower heat capacity of the magnetic material. It

Magnetic refrigeration

369

Figure 11.7. S–T diagram of ideal magnetic Brayton refrigeration cycle.

should be noted that such material should also provide a higher magnetocaloric eﬀect—see equation (2.16). An ideal magnetic Brayton refrigeration cycle is shown in ﬁgure 11.7. In this cycle magnetization is accomplished adiabatically, in contrast to the Ericsson cycle. Consider the operation of the cycle starting from point C in ﬁgure 11.7, when the magnetic working material is at temperature Thot . Adiabatic magnetization causes a rise in the temperature by the value of the magnetocaloric eﬀect T, so the temperature of the material becomes Thot þ T (line C ! B in ﬁgure 11.7). Then the magnetized material is set in thermal contact with the hot heat exchanger and is cooled back to the temperature Thot (line B ! E). Further cooling from Thot down to Tcold is accomplished with the help of a regenerator (line E ! A), which absorbs the heat QR determined by the area S1 AES01 . After that the adiabatic demagnetization changes the magnetic material temperature from Tcold to Tcold T (line A ! D) with subsequent warming back to Tcold (line D ! F) as a result of interaction with the cold heat exchanger. Finally the regenerator returns to the magnetic material heat QR (line F ! C and area S2 FCS02 ) and the cycle loop is closed in the point C. Qc , Qh and Wi in the Brayton cycle are represented by areas S1 DFS2 , S01 EBS02 and ABCD, respectively. If segments AE and CF are equal to zero, there is no regeneration (QR ¼ 0) and we have a nonregenerative Brayton cycle. It should be noted that the Brayton cycle is characterized by less refrigeration capacity and larger heat rejection in comparison with the Ericsson cycle. Cross et al (1987) pointed out that the diﬀerences between real Ericsson and Bryton

370

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

cycles are small because of deviation from true isothermal and adiabatic magnetization in real processes. The response of these cycles to deviation of the working magnetic material SM ðTÞ dependence from requirements for the ideal cycle (SM ¼ const.) is equivalent. The inﬂuence of the real SM ðTÞ dependence on the parameters of the Ericsson and Brayton magnetic refrigeration cycles was also regarded by Dai (1992), Yan and Chen (1989), Chen and Yan (1991 1994). There is one more magnetic refrigeration cycle—the active magnetic regenerator (AMR) refrigeration cycle, which is based on the Brayton cycle. In the AMR cycle the magnetic material serves not only as a refrigerant but also as a regenerator. This cycle will be considered more thoroughly below. In real magnetic regenerative refrigerators there are a number of irreversible processes occurring as a part of the refrigeration cycle, which produce additional entropy and reduces by this the eﬀectiveness of the refrigerators. The eﬀectiveness of the magnetic refrigerators was considered by Barclay (1984a,b 1991) Cross et al (1987) and Reid et al (1994). The rate of work in a real thermodynamic magnetic cycle can be presented as (Tolman and Fine 1948, Barclay 1984a,b, Barclay and Sarangi 1984) ð Thot Thot S_ irr dT T T hot cold _ ð11:8Þ 1 þ W_ ¼ Qc ð Thot Tcold dT Tcold

where S_ irr ¼ S_ ht þ S_ vd þ S_ ac

ð11:9Þ

is the total entropy generation rate due to irreversible processes in the regenerator, S_ vd ¼

Vf P Thot

ð11:10Þ

is the entropy generation rate due to viscous dissipation of the ﬂow energy, P is the pressure drop across the regenerator and Vf is the average volume ﬂow rate, S_ ac ¼

kA ðThot Tcold Þ2 Thot Tcold L

ð11:11Þ

is the entropy generation rate due to axial thermal conduction and gas dispersion along the regenerator, k is the eﬀective thermal conductivity of the regenerator material, L is the regenerator length, A is the regenerator cross-sectional area, Q_ T S_ ht ¼ R 2 SF T

ð11:12Þ

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371

is the entropy generation rate due to ﬁnite heat transfer between the heat transfer ﬂuid and the magnetic material, Q_ R is the heat transfer rate in the regenerator, TSF is the mean temperature diﬀerence between the magnetic solid and the heat transfer ﬂuid, which can be represented as TSF ¼

Thot Tcold : Ntu þ 1

ð11:13Þ

Ntu is the number of heat transfer units describing the regenerator and deﬁned as Ntu ¼

kAc m_ Cf

ð11:14Þ

where Ac is the heat transfer area, m_ Cf is the thermal mass ﬂow rate of the heat transfer ﬂuid, and Cf is the ﬂuid heat capacity. Among the abovementioned contributions to S_ irr , the process due to the ﬁnite heat transfer in the regenerator is the main one. Another factor that can give essential contribution to the irreversibility in the regenerator is its ﬁnite thermal mass. As shown, the irreversibilities in the regenerator determine the general eﬃciency of the magnetic cooling device (Barclay 1984b, 1991). Indeed, as one can see from consideration of the S–T diagrams of the magnetic regenerative refrigeration cycles (ﬁgures 11.6 and 11.7), the heat transferred in the regenerator during the cycle, which is equal to 2QR , is much higher than Qc or Qh . That is why even relatively small irreversibility in the regenerator can give a heat ﬂow comparable with the cooling power Q_ c , resulting in very low eﬀectiveness of the whole refrigerator. Barclay (1984b) determined the eﬃciency of the magnetic refrigerator, suggesting that the irreversibilities in the regenerator related to the ﬁnite heat transfer and thermal mass are the main mechanisms reducing the eﬃciency of the refrigerator. Two temperature regions requiring regeneration were considered: from 20 to 150 K and from 150 to 300 K. It was assumed that in the ﬁrst case the heat capacity of the regenerator material can be regarded as a constant and in the second case it is proportional to T. On the basis of equations (11.8), (11.9) and (11.12) the following expressions for the reverse eﬃciency were obtained (Barclay 1984a,b) 1 2ðThot Tcold TR Þ ¼1þ ðNtu þ 1ÞðTcold TR Þ

ð11:15Þ

for the temperature range from 150 to 300 K, and 2 2 1 2½Thot Tcold TR ðThot Tcold Þ ¼1þ 2 ðNtu þ 1ÞfTcold ½Tcold ðTcold TR Þg

ð11:16Þ

for the temperature range from 20 to 150 K. In equations (11.15) and (11.16) Tcold is the MCE at the cold end and TR is the thermal defect arising due to the ﬁnite thermal mass of the regenerator (for example, TR is the

372

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

diﬀerence between the real temperature reached in the high ﬁeld regenerative part of the cycle cooling the magnetic material and Tcold ). Estimations made on the basis of equations (11.15) and (11.16) for Ntu ¼ 200, TR ¼ 3 K and Tcold ¼ 10 K gave an eﬃciency of 52% in the temperature range from 20 to 150 K and 85% in the temperature range from 150 to 300 K. It should be noted that modern cryocoolers have eﬃciencies up to 50% (Walker and Bingham 1993). Among other sources considered of irreversibility in the magnetic refrigerators’ hot and cold heat exchangers with heat transfer were: pressure drop and longitudinal heat conduction; ﬂuid pump ineﬃciency; the magnetization system and the process of magnetization; friction; seal leakage and various heat leaks (Barclay 1984b, 1991). The magnetization process can include irreversibilities due to the energy exchange between magnetic and crystal lattice subsystems of the magnetic material, losses for magnetic hysteresis and eddy currents induced in conductive magnetic materials by changing magnetic ﬁeld, and parasitic heating in the magnet related to magnetic ﬂux changes because of motion of the nonuniform magnetic material in the magnetic ﬁeld. The lattice and magnetic subsystems in the magnetic material are strongly coupled with a spin–lattice relaxation time of the order of milliseconds for the rare earth based materials, which is much lower than periods of cycles used in magnetic refrigerators (0.1 Hz to several Hz) (Barclay 1991). A magnetic material is usually used in the refrigerators near Curie temperature, where the eﬀects of magnetocrystalline anisotropy and magnetic hysteresis are small. The eﬀects of eddy currents in the magnetic material and parasitic heating in the magnet can be minimized by careful design and use of a constant stream of the magnetic material in the magnet (wheel design of the refrigerator, which will be considered below). Magnetization/demagnetization of the magnetic material in magnetic refrigeration cycles is an analogue of compression/expansion in gas refrigeration cycles. It was shown by Barclay (1991) that these processes have approximately equal eﬃciency. Heat exchanging in hot and cold heat exchangers is much more eﬃcient in the case of magnetic refrigerators because the rate of work produced by irreversible heat transfer is directly proportional to the temperature diﬀerence between the heat transfer ﬂuid and the cooling bath at the start of heat exchange, i.e. adiabatic temperature change in compression or magnetization, which is much lower in the case of a magnetic material. Especially this concerns the hot heat exchanger. So, it was shown that all of the considered irreversibilities are essentially smaller than that related to the regeneration process and that the magnetic refrigerator is superior to or at least not worse than refrigerators with conventional gas cycles by these parameters. Besides, most of these irreversibilities can be eliminated by careful design. According to considerations of Barclay (1984b 1991), the Ntu of the regenerator in magnetic refrigerators should be 10–20 times higher than in gas refrigerators. Ntu ¼ 500 is required to provide an eﬃciency of 60% of

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373

Carnot for the magnetic refrigerator operating in the temperature range between 20 and 300 K (Ntu ¼ 200 gives ¼ 38% for this temperature range). Ntu ¼ 500 is equivalent to the requirement of 25 000 m1 of speciﬁc area for the operational frequency of 0.5 Hz, which can be achieved for particles of 240 mm diameter in the regenerator (Barclay 1991). Decreasing the particle diameter increases the speciﬁc area, but also increases the pressure drop in the regenerator, to overcome which an additional ﬂuid pump work is required. Various possible designs of regenerators and their eﬃciencies were considered by Barclay and Sarangi (1984) on the basis of equations (11.8)– (11.14). The geometries of the regarded regenerators are presented in ﬁgure 11.8. They are: (a) tube channels in a solid block; (b) a stack of perforated plates arranged perpendicular to the heat transfer ﬂuid direction; (c) a stack of solid plates arranged parallel to the heat transfer ﬂuid direction; and (d) a packed bed of spherical particles (loose packed or sintered). The regenerators were characterized by the following geometrical parameters: L, overall length; a, height; b, width; t, plate thickness; s, plate spacing; and d, hole or particle diameter. The overall porosity (the total void fraction) was chosen to be 0.4 for all cases under consideration (this value is typical for a randomly packed bed of spherical particles). The following dimensional constraints were used under calculations: 0.01 mm d 1 mm for tube

Figure 11.8. Possible geometries of regenerators, which can be used in magnetic refrigerators: (a) tube channels in a solid block; (b) a stack of perforated plates arranged perpendicular to the heat transfer ﬂuid direction; (c) a stack of solid plates arranged parallel to the heat transfer ﬂuid direction; (d) a packed bed of spherical particles (loose packed or sintered) (Barclay and Sarangi 1984).

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Application of the magnetocaloric effect

channels in the solid block; 0.01 mm d 1 mm, 0.01 mm t 1 mm and 0.2 s=t 0.6 for the stack of perforated plates; 0.01 mm t 1 mm for the stack of solid plates; 0.01 mm d 1 mm for the packed bed of spherical particles; 0.3 L=a 30 for all designs. The result of calculations for an operational frequency of 1 Hz showed that the highest eﬃciency of 0.936 (t ¼ 0.5 mm, s=t ¼ 0.2, L=a ¼ 1.5) had the perforated plate geometry. Almost the same eﬃciencies had the tube channels in a solid block ( ¼ 0.895 for d ¼ 0.126 mm and L=a ¼ 5.99) and the stack of solid plates ( ¼ 0.902 for t ¼ 0.126 and L=a ¼ 5.99) geometries. Packed beds were characterized by some smaller eﬃciency: ¼ 0.823 for d ¼ 0.316 mm and L=a ¼ 3 for loose packed particles and ¼ 0.82 for d ¼ 0.398 mm and L=a ¼ 3.78 for sintered particles. As one can see, the optimum aspect ratio of hole and particle diameters can be quite diﬀerent. It was also established that lower operational frequencies led to higher eﬃciency, which can be related to increasing the eﬀective amount of magnetic material. 11.2.2

Active magnetic regenerator refrigerators

In active magnetic regenerator (AMR) refrigerators magnetic material serves not only as a refrigerant providing temperature change as a result of adiabatic magnetization or demagnetization, but also as a regenerator for heat transfer ﬂuid (van Geuns 1968, Steyert 1978a, Barclay and Steyert 1982b). One of the ﬁrst constructions of magnetic refrigerator using AMR principle was suggested by van Geuns (1968). Figure 11.9(a) illustrates a schematic of an AMR refrigerator. A typical AMR refrigerator should include the following parts: a magnet, a regenerator bed with magnetic material, hot and cold heat exchangers, and a displacer or other device providing heat transfer ﬂuid ﬂow back and forth through the regenerator bed. An AMR cycle consists of two adiabatic steps (magnetization/demagnetization) and two isoﬁeld steps (corresponding to the heat transfer ﬂuid ﬂow through the regenerator). Consider the case when the heat capacity of the regenerator is inﬁnite, so the heat capacity of the heat transfer ﬂuid is much less than that of the regenerator, and that is why a temperature proﬁle inside the regenerator in a steady regime does not change over the heat transfer ﬂuid ﬂow period. A simpliﬁed shape of the temperature proﬁle inside the regenerator bed is shown in ﬁgure 11.9(b). At the ﬁrst step of the cycle there is no ﬂuid ﬂow in the refrigerator, the displacer is in the rightmost position (heat transfer ﬂuid is in the cold head exchanger at the temperature Tcold ) and the magnetic material is adiabatically magnetized, which causes a rise of its temperature on the value of the magnetocaloric eﬀect (Tcold at the cold end and Thot at the hot end). Then on the second step (warm blow step) the heat transfer ﬂuid is forced by the displacer to pass through the regenerator from cold to hot heat exchanger at the constant magnetic ﬁeld. This process corresponds to the upper line in ﬁgure 11.9(b). The ﬂuid enters the regenerator at the temperature of Tcold and since the regenerator bed temperature rises

Magnetic refrigeration

375

Figure 11.9. (a) Schematic drawing of AMR refrigerator: (1) magnet; (2) regenerator bed with magnetic material; (3) cold heat exchanger; (4) hot heat exchanger; (5) displacer. (b) Simpliﬁed temperature proﬁles inside the regenerator bed in AMRR: ——, solid magnetic material, ——, heat transfer ﬂuid.

going from cold to hot end, the ﬂuid temperature rises too, exiting the bed at the temperature Thot þ Thot , higher than the temperature of the hot heat exchanger Thot (it is assumed that there is an inﬁnite heat transfer between the ﬂuid and the solid magnetic material of the regenerator). Passing through the hot exchanger, the ﬂuid temperature decreases to Thot and the heat is rejected in the hot exchanger with a rate Q_ h ¼ m_ f Cf Thot

ð11:17Þ

376

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

where m_ f is the heat transfer ﬂuid mass ﬂow rate and Cf is the ﬂuid heat capacity. On the third step the displacer is in the left-most position, the ﬂuid ﬂow is stopped and the regenerator bed is adiabatically demagnetized. Then on the ﬁnal fourth step (cold blow step) the heat transfer ﬂuid ﬂow proceeds from the hot to the cold end—this process corresponds to the lower line in ﬁgure 11.9(b). The ﬂuid enters the regenerator at the temperature Thot , which is decreased at the regenerator exit down to the temperature of Tcold Tcold , lower than Tcold , due to the heat exchange between the regenerator material and the ﬂuid in the bed. Passing through the cold heat exchanger the ﬂuid absorbs heat with the rate Q_ c , which determines the heat refrigeration capacity of the refrigerator Q_ c ¼ m_ f Cf Tcold :

ð11:18Þ

Repetition of the cycle causes cooling at the cold end and warming at the hot end, because the heat is taken at the cold end and rejected at the hot one. Cross et al (1987) and Reid et al (1994) considered an ideal AMR refrigeration cycle in which only reversible entropy ﬂow from cold to hot end exists and there is no entropy production. This implies the condition of inﬁnity of the thermal mass of the regenerator, an inﬁnite heat transfer rate between the solid magnetic material and heat transfer ﬂuid in the regenerator, and constancy of the ﬂuid heat capacity over the refrigerator working temperature range. In this case one can write from equations (11.17) and (11.18) and from the requirement of conservation of the entropy ﬂow following from the second law of thermodynamics m_ C Thot T S Q_ h : ¼ f f ¼ hot _ _ Qc mf Cf Tcold Tcold S

ð11:19Þ

Under the condition of the conservation of the ﬂuid mass in the cycle it follows from equation (11.19) that, in an ideal AMR cycle with no entropy production, the following relation between the adiabatic temperature changes (MCE) Tcold and Thot and absolute temperatures Tcold and Thot at the cold and hot ends of the regenerator should be fulﬁlled Thot T ¼ hot : Tcold Tcold

ð11:20Þ

Cross et al (1987) stated that the condition determined by equation (11.20) sets the optimum MCE on the temperature (TðTÞ) proﬁle not only at the cold and hot ends of the regenerator but also inside the regenerator, because there is a constant entropy ﬂux in the regenerator in the reversible case. It is clear from equation (11.20) that the optimum TðTÞ proﬁle is linear dependence of T on T. According to Cross et al (1987) in the nonideal cycle the eﬀect of the uniform generation of the entropy

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377

Figure 11.10. S–T diagram of the AMR refrigeration cycle.

throughout the regenerator can be taken into account by adding extra terms to Tcold Tcold ðnonidealÞ ¼ Tcold þ TSF þ Tw

ð11:21Þ

where TSF is the temperature diﬀerence between solid and ﬂuid due to ﬁnite heat transfer and Tw is the temperature change of the magnetic material related to its ﬁnite thermal mass. So the entropy production in the real nonideal AMR cycle should cause the change of T on T dependence slope. Cross et al (1987) showed, on the basis of equation (11.20), that SM in the AMR cycle should be directly proportional to T. So in the simple case of SðTÞ dependences in the form of straight lines, the AMR cycle in S–T coordinates can have the shape shown by ﬁgure 11.10. According to Barclay (1991) and DeGregoria et al (1992) the elements of magnetic material is the AMR refrigerator working in the regime described above follow nonregenerative Brayton cycles, which are connected by the heat transfer ﬂuid (see ﬁgure 11.10). The elements can also follow Carnot, Ericsson or some intermediate cycles if the work regime is changed—for example, if the magnetization/ demagnetization stage is conducted under heat ﬂow. Taussing et al (1986) assumed that the AMR cycle can be considered as consisting of a series of cascaded cycle refrigerators presented by the elements of the active magnetic regenerator. Such a scheme should provide constant entropy ﬂow through the regenerator necessary for suggesting that equation (11.20) is valid inside

378

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

the regenerator. However, Hall et al (1996) later showed that such a cascaded approach is incorrect. There arguments were as follows. Each solid element of the regenerator does not directly pump heat to the next-neighbour solid element, but all elements are accepting or rejecting heat to the heat transfer ﬂuid at the same time and are coupled indirectly through the ﬂuid. So the adjacent solid elements execute overlapping cycles, which is essentially diﬀerent from the situation in the cascaded systems. Based on these point of view Hall et al (1996) also argued that the requirement of equation (11.20) should not be satisﬁed inside the regenerator, although it is still applicable at the boundaries of the regenerator. This implies that a linear TðTÞ proﬁle is not strictly required inside the regenerator bed for a reversible cycle, and furthermore there is no unique proﬁle satisfying the zero entropy production criterion and there is an inﬁnite number of such proﬁles. Based on the fact that the area inside thermodynamic cycle is equal to the work input in the cycle and is also proportional to the magnetocaloric eﬀect, Hall et al (1996) gave another constraint on the TðTÞ proﬁle form in addition to the boundary conditions (11.20) ð _ ð11:22Þ Wi ¼ f ðTðTÞÞ dT where function f (TðTÞ) depends on the magnetic material properties and peculiarities of the heat transfer process between the magnetic material and the ﬂuid. Hall et al (1996) also considered the constraints imposed on the spatial distribution of the magnetocaloric eﬀect (TðrÞ) inside the regenerator bed. It was shown that deviation of the TðrÞ from the near-linear temperature proﬁle in ordinary regenerators should be small because the magnetic work input weakly changes the energy of the system and is evenly distributed inside the regenerator. Entropy generation in the regenerator due to the ﬁnite heat transfer between the solid and the ﬂuid was shown to be minimized if the exponent n in the general temperature proﬁle TðrÞ ¼ arn (a is a constant) inside the regenerator is less than unity. Another constraint for the TðrÞ proﬁle was obtained from an analysis of relation between the input magnetic work and heat ﬂow between the solid and the ﬂuid in real regenerator and has the form dT > 1: dT

ð11:23Þ

Equation (11.23) states that for the acceptable TðrÞ dependence the MCE should not decrease by more than one degree per degree. For modelling of the operation of AMR refrigerators with the packed regenerator bed the equations following from consideration of the energy conservation relations over the element of the regenerator assuming the absence of axial heat conduction are used (DeGregoria 1992, Matsumoto

Magnetic refrigeration

379

and Hashimoto 1990) @Tf ¼ Ntu ðTb Tf Þ @t @Tb Ntu ¼ ðTf Tb Þ @t

L

ð11:24Þ ð11:25Þ

where Ntu is the number of heat transfer units (see equation (11.14)), L is the regenerator bed length, Tb and Tf are the temperatures of the regenerator bed and the ﬂuid, x and t are axial position and time, is the heat capacity ratio of the ﬂuid to bed ¼

mb Cb ðH; TÞ m_ f Cf f

ð11:26Þ

mb is the bed mass, Cb (H,T) is the bed heat capacity and f is the time period of the ﬂuid ﬂow (blow period). As one can see this model is one-dimensional and allows temperature proﬁles to be obtained inside the regenerator along the axial direction. Equations (11.24) and (11.25) are solved numerically, in particular, by ﬁnite diﬀerence method. DeGregoria (1992) assumed the inﬁnite regenerator bed mass, which allowed elimination of time dependence and essentially simpliﬁes the calculations. It should be noted that there are three possible AMR operating regimes, diﬀering in the ratio of the thermal mass (product of mass on the heat capacity) values of the magnetic material and heat transfer ﬂuid. Considered above was the case where the thermal mass of the regenerator magnetic material is higher than that of the ﬂuid. It is realized, in particular, for the case of helium as a heat transfer ﬂuid at relatively high temperatures (above 20 K). Another limiting case is when the thermal mass of the ﬂuid is much higher than that of the regenerator. In this case the ﬂuid serves as a regenerator for the magnetic material in the bed, and the AMR device becomes a magnetic refrigerator in which the magnetic material just executes a regenerative magnetic cycle (for example, Ericsson or Brayton cycles). Such a regime was used in the AMR refrigerator operating in the temperature range from 4.7 to 1.8 K with GGG as a working material and 4 He at 30 atm as a heat transfer ﬂuid. The heat capacity of the liquid helium in this device is several times higher than that of the magnetic material. Numerical calculations showed that such a refrigerator should have a cooling power of 100 W with an eﬃciency of 40–50% of Carnot. In the intermediate region between these two limit cases, where thermal masses of the magnetic material and the ﬂuid are comparable, and which can be realized for helium as a heat transfer ﬂuid in the temperature region between 4 and 20 K, the analysis of AMR refrigerator work is the most complicated. The practical designs of the AMR refrigerators can be divided into two groups. In the ﬁrst group the heat transfer ﬂuid ﬂow is accomplished in a reciprocating manner with the help of the displacer, and in the second the

380

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

heat transfer ﬂuid ﬂow is realized in a steady regime by a pump. The reciprocating apparatus of the ﬁrst type were considered and tested, for example, in the works of Zimm et al (1995 1996), Johnson and Zimm (1996), Kral and Zimm (1999), DeGregoria et al (1992) and Wang et al (1995). Zimm et al (1995 1996) proposed an AMR refrigerator design in which two regenerator beds with magnetic materials were moved in a reciprocating manner in a superconducting magnet, provided magnetization/demagnetization of the magnetic material and the heat transfer ﬂuid ﬂow was produced by the displacer. The regenerator was designed to work between 10 and 3.5 K. The hot heat exchanger was cooled by a conventional G-M cryocooler operating at about 10 K. The overall design and schematic diagram of the AMR refrigerator are shown in ﬁgure 11.11. The magnetic ﬁeld of 30 kOe was created by the Nb3 Sn superconductiong solenoid conductively cooled by another G-M cryocooler to about 10 K. Two packed beds ﬁlled with ErNi (Curie temperature of about 10 K) particles were used as the active magnetic regenerators. The beds were made of G-10 glass–epoxy composite carrier and had a length of 8 cm and cross-section of 35 cm2 with the porosity of the ErNi material being 0.4. The design of the bed assembly is shown in ﬁgure 11.12. Heat transfer ﬂuid (helium gas in this case) is brought to the bed by two passages (inlet and outlet), one of which bypasses the other bed (see ﬁgure 11.12). This design made it possible to take the cold heat exchanger out of the magnetic ﬁeld region. A room temperature drive reciprocated the bed assembly so that the beds were alternately placed inside the bore of the superconducting magnet. When one bed was inserted into the magnetic ﬁeld the other bed was extracted from the ﬁeld. Such a scheme allows one to cancel the magnetic forces, recover the magnetic work and reduce magnetic ﬂux changes in the magnet, resulting in more eﬃcient operation of the device. The necessary ﬂuid ﬂow was provided by a bellows displacer moving by a room temperature actuator. The helium gas pressure was chosen to be no more than 0.3 atm. At such pressure in the working temperature range, the heat capacity of the magnetic material was much higher than that of the heat transfer ﬂuid. A bellows displacer forced helium gas to ﬂow through the regenerator in forward and back directions. The working cycle in this device is analogous to that described above in connection with ﬁgure 11.9. The hot heat exchanger consisted of two parts connected by a thermal bus. The gas ﬂow between the moving beds and stationary heat exchangers was provided with the help of ﬂexible metal bellows. The whole system was surrounded by a thermal shield connected to the upper stage of the G-M cryocooler and placed in turn to a vacuum vessel. Modelling calculations predicted the device to have a cooling power of 1.6 W at 3.5 K for a helium ﬂow of 1.3 g/sec and a helium pressure of 0.15 atm with a COP of about 30% of Carnot, and 3.2 W cooling power at 4.4 K with a COP of 52% of Carnot for a helium pressure of 0.3 atm (Zimm et al 1995). It was also shown that the cooling power should

Magnetic refrigeration

381

Figure 11.11. Reciprocating AMR refrigerator working between 3.5 and 10 K: (a) overall design; (b) schematic diagram explaining operational principle of the device (Kral and Zimm 1999, Zimm et al 1995).

382

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

Figure 11.12. The regenerator bed assembly design for the AMR refrigerator operating between (a) 3.5 and 10 K and (b) its schematic diagram (a magnetic material is contained in the shaded region) (Zimm et al 1995, Johnson and Zimm 1996).

linearly depend on mass ﬂow rate and should be relatively insensitive to the hot sink temperature. These predictions of the model were conﬁrmed by experimental measurements on the refrigerator with this design made by Kral and Zimm (1999) for hot sink temperatures in the range of 9–13 K. The device was tested at diﬀerent magnetic ﬁelds from 10 to 22.5 kOe, helium pressure of 0.5 atm and operating periods of 16 and 24 sec. The minimal no-load temperature of about 4.2 K was achieved for the magnetic ﬁeld of 22.5 kOe and the cooling power in this case reached 1 W at about 6 K. An AMR refrigerator of the same design with a liquid nitrogen bath as the hot heat sink and helium as the heat transfer ﬂuid was developed and tested by Zimm et al (1996). Here the magnetic ﬁeld of 70 kOe was produced by an NbTi solenoid working at persistent mode and immersed into liquid helium in an annular dewar. 2 kg of 150 mm GdNi2 particles (Curie temperature 75 K) in each of two regenerator beds was used as a refrigerant. According to Zimm et al (1996), in the no-load regime the temperature span from 82 K at the hot end down to 44 K in the cold heat exchanger was achieved. The cooling power of 2 W at 56 K and a maximum cooling power of 25 W at 76 K were obtained for a 81 K hot heat exchanger.

Magnetic refrigeration

383

DeGregoria et al (1992), Zimm and DeGregoria (1993) and Wang et al (1995) used designs analogous to that described above, but a somewhat diﬀerent design of the reciprocating AMR refrigerator, where two regenerator beds were ﬁxed but the superconducting solenoid moved in order to alternately magnetize and demagnetize magnetic material in the beds. In the refrigerator of DeGregoria et al (1992), a magnetic ﬁeld up to 70 kOe was created by NbTi superconducting solenoid. The regenerator bed had a length of about 9 cm with a cross section of 2.84 cm2 and was ﬁlled with ground and sieved Erx Gd1 x Al2 with particle sizes between 20 and 40 mm and porosity of 0.44. The period of the total refrigeration cycle was 10 s and a gas ﬂow during testing was changed up to 0.59 g/s. For a magnetic ﬁeld of 10 kOe, gas ﬂow of 0.59 g/s and hot heat exchanger temperature of 19.25 K, a minimal noload temperature of 9 K was achieved. GdNi2 in the form of particles with dimensions between 10 mm and 20 mm was also employed in the refrigerator. In this case the operational period was 2.5 s and the hot heat capacity temperature was 77 K. The no-load temperature span for the magnetic ﬁeld of 50 kOe was found to be 44 K (33 K was the cold heat exchanger temperature). An example of the AMR refrigerator in which the heat transfer ﬂuid ﬂow is realized in steady manner is a rotary (wheel) AMR refrigerator (Steyert 1978a,b, Barclay 1991). It is schematically shown in ﬁgure 11.13. It consists of a rotating ring ﬁlled with porous magnetic regenerator material adapted for presumably radial heat transfer ﬂuid ﬂow with corresponding drive motor, a heat transfer ﬂuid loop with hot and cold heat exchangers, a pump providing the ﬂuid ﬂow, and a magnet for magnetizing the part of the ring which is in the high-ﬁeld region. Due to the ring rotation the magnetic material at the given element of the ring periodically magnetizes and demagnetizes adiabatically, which causes its heating and cooling due to the magnetocaloric eﬀect. With the hot and cold head exchangers arrangement shown in ﬁgure 11.13 the inner part of the ring will be at the

Figure 11.13. Schematic diagram of a rotary AMR refrigerator (Hall and Barclay 1998).

384

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

temperature Tcold and the outer part at the temperature Thot , and the magnetic material serves not only as a refrigerant but also as a regenerator for the heat transfer ﬂuid. So this apparatus works like AMR refrigerator in which the magnetic material segments in the ring execute the AMR refrigeration cycle, thus providing continuous refrigeration. The advantage of AMR refrigerators with steady unidirectional heat transfer ﬂuid ﬂow consists of the absence in this device of so-called dead volume inherent in the AMR refrigerators with reciprocating ﬂuid ﬂow. In the latter devices some amount of the heat transfer ﬂuid is always in the connection lines between diﬀerent parts of the refrigerator and never ﬂows through the full loop, which reduces the eﬃciency of the refrigerator. It also should be noted that there is also steady magnetic material mass ﬂow inside the magnet in the rotary AMR refrigerator. This solves problems related to changing of the magnetic ﬁeld ﬂux in the magnet if the magnetic material is periodically inserted and extracted from the magnet. The rotary AMR refrigerator is also characterized by low eddy current generation (Hall and Barclay 1998). The optimal operation of the rotary AMR refrigerators is determined by both magnetic material mass ﬂow through the magnet and the heat transfer ﬂuid ﬂow through the magnetic regenerator (wheel) (Barclay 1991). The eﬃciency of the rotary AMR refrigerator was considered by Hall and Barclay (1998). It was shown that with the most optimistic assumptions about the refrigerator components performances an eﬃciency of 60% could be achieved for the temperature span from 100 to 300 K. A design for a rotary AMR air conditioner was proposed by Waynert et al (1994). Another example of the AMR refrigerator with unidirectional heat transfer ﬂuid ﬂow is a reciprocating AMR refrigerator apparatus proposed by Lawton et al (1999). In this device two magnetic beds conduct reciprocating motion in a magnet as it takes place in the refrigerators of Zimm et al (1995, 1996) considered above. However, in contrast to the regarded designs, ﬂow of the heat transfer ﬂuid here is provided by a pump in one direction, which eliminates ineﬀectiveness related to dead volume. On the basis of the design proposed by Lawton et al (1999) a near-room temperature reciprocating AMR refrigerator was constructed and tested by Zimm et al (1998). The principle of its functioning is illustrated by ﬁgure 11.14. The beds are by turns moved in and out of the room-temperature bore of the superconducting NbTi solenoid immersed in liquid helium in a dewar and working in the persistent mode. Water was used as a heat transfer ﬂuid. The working cycle of the device started with cooling of water by blowing it through the demagnetized bed located inside the magnetic area (this bed is in the bottom position in ﬁgure 11.14). Then the water was passed through the cold heat exchanger, picking up the thermal load from the cooling object. After this the water was blown through the magnetized bed located in the magnetic ﬁeld area, where it absorbed the heat evolved in the magnetic material of the magnetized bed due to the MCE. Next the water passed

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Figure 11.14. Design of the near-room-temperature reciprocating AMR refrigerator (Zimm et al 1998, Gschneidner et al 2001).

through the hot heat exchanger, giving up the heat absorbed from the magnetized bed. The cycle was ﬁnished by removing the magnetized bed from the magnet and replacing it by the demagnetized one. During the movement of the beds the water ﬂow was stopped. Then the upper bed was set in the position out of the solenoid and above it, the heat ﬂow circuit from the pump to the cold heat exchanger (in ﬁgure 11.14 it is connected to the lower bed) was switched to the upper bed by a switching valve of special design, and the cycle was repeated with the same heat transfer ﬂuid ﬂow direction in the refrigerator (although in the regenerator beds the ﬂow direction was reversed). The superconducting solenoid produced a ﬁeld up to 50 kOe. Each regenerative bed was composed of 1.5 kg of Gd

386

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

spheres with diameter between 150 and 300 mm made by the plasma-rotating electrode process. The device operated with a total cycle time of 6 s (0.17 Hz) and a ﬂuid ﬂow rate time of 2 s in one direction. The process of the bed insertion into the magnet took 1 s and the maximum net magnetic force was about 2500 N. The heat capacity of water used as a heat transfer ﬂuid and trapped in the regenerator beds (porosity of 0.36) was close to the gadolinium heat capacity, which implied that the device operated in the regime intermediate between limit cases, when the heat transfer ﬂuid serves as a regenerator and when the magnetic material serves as a regenerator. However, it was experimentally shown that the ﬂow rate up to 3 l/min did not essentially change the temperature proﬁle inside the regenerator. Essential changes of the temperature proﬁle during the water blow period corresponding to the intermediate regime were observed for a ﬂow rate of 6 l/min. The observed decrease of the cooling power of the device in the high ﬂow rate range, which led to the appearance of a maximum on cooling power on ﬂow rate dependence, was explained by this eﬀect. For a magnetic ﬁeld of 50 kOe, such a maximum corresponded to a ﬂow rate of about 4.5 l/min. The cooling power of 600 W was reached by the near-room temperature reciprocating AMR refrigerator for a temperature span of 10 K, a magnetic ﬁeld of 50 kOe and a ﬂow rate of 5 l/min. The eﬃciency of the device was less than 50% of Carnot. The cooling power and eﬃciency decreased with temperature span increasing, which was related by the authors to gadolinium magnetocaloric properties. When the seal friction in the elastomer seals around the magnetocaloric beds was subtracted, the maximum eﬃciency was 60% of Carnot. The maximum achieved temperature span was 38 K with a cooling power of 120 W. For a magnetic ﬁeld of 15 kOe (this value can be produced by a NdFeB permanent magnet), a ﬂow rate of 4 l/min, and a cooling power of 180 W, an eﬃciency of 20% was obtained for the temperature span of 16 K (Gschneidner et al 1999). An important part of a magnetic refrigerator is a magnetic system for magnetization/demagnetization of the refrigerant. At present, superconducting magnets cooling with liquid helium are used in magnetic refrigerators. It is unacceptable for such applications as domestic refrigerators, automotive conditioners, etc. and inconvenient for other applications. Using permanent magnets can solve this problem. However, it is diﬃcult to achieve a magnetic ﬁeld higher than 15 kOe even with the magnetic material having the highest values of maximum energy production at present, NdFeB. This reduces the value of the magnetocaloric eﬀect which can be achieved in the refrigeration device and its cooling power and eﬃciency. Lee and Jiles (2000) proposed new permanent magnet design. The design was based on a hollow cylindrical permanent magnet array consisting of permanent magnet segments in which magnetization vectors were arranged according to the rotation theorem of Halbach (1980). It was shown that in order to increase magnetic ﬁeld

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inside the magnet gap the following modiﬁcations of the basic design should be made: the cylindrical form of the magnet cross section should be changed to an ellipsoidal one (the maximum magnetic ﬂux density should occur at an ellipticity of 2), magnetic ﬂux concentrators should be included in the array close to the magnet air gap (FeVCo was proposed for that) and the magnet should be surrounded by a soft iron magnetic shell to provide a ﬂux return path. According to calculations, such a design can provide a magnetic ﬁeld of about 30 kOe in 23.5 mm2 15:2 mm pole gap for NdFeB with 12 kOe remanence. 11.2.3

Magnetically augmented regenerators in gas refrigerators

As shown in section 11.1, using magnetic materials with high magnetic heat capacity in the low-temperature region in passive regenerators of gas cryocoolers allows one to essentially increase performances of such devices. Jeong and Smith (1994) proposed to magnetize and demagnetize the magnetic material in the regenerator in coordination with diﬀerent stages of the gas cycle in order to match heat capacities of the regenerator material and heat transfer ﬂuid (helium gas). Magnetic material in this case ideally does not change its temperature during the cycle, magnetic work is not done, and the only result of using such a scheme is the enhancement of the regeneration within a conventional gas cycle. It was shown that such a design, called a magnetically augmented regenerator and proposed to be applied in G-M cryocoolers, can increase their eﬃciency. The modelling was made for gadolinium gallium garnet as a low-temperature stage regenerator material. Later Smith and Nellis (1995) suggested using magnetic material in the gas cycle not only for regeneration of a gas but also as a refrigerant, so that there are two working substances in such devices—gas and the magnetic material. Such devices were regarded by Smith and Nellis (1995), Nellis and Smith (1996) and Yayama et al (2000). Consider the principle of operation of G-M cryocooler with a magnetically augmented regenerator following Yayama et al (2000). The schematic diagram of the device is shown in ﬁgure 11.15. It comprises a compressor, two valves V1 and V2 , a regenerator with magnetic material, a magnet and a displacer (piston). A and B here denote high-pressure and low-pressure spaces, respectively. At the ﬁrst stage a piston is at the bottom and high-pressure helium gas (heat transfer ﬂuid) is introduced into the space A and the regenerator through the open valve V1 . Then the magnetic material in the regenerator is demagnetized adiabatically so that its temperature decreases. At the third stage the helium gas is forced out of space A to space B through the regenerator by the piston (it is now in the top position), which causes helium gas cooling due to heat exchange between the regenerator and the gas. The process is performed under isobaric conditions with open valve V1 . After that the valve V1 is closed and the valve V2 is opened, reducing the pressure in the space B and causing expansion of the

388

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

Figure 11.15. Schematic diagram of the G–M cryocooler with magnetically augmented regenerator (Yayama et al 2000).

helium gas, and removing heat from the cold load at the cold heat exchanger. At the ﬁfth stage the magnetic material in the regenerator is adiabatically magnetized with its temperature increasing. At the ﬁnal stage the displacer is moved back to the bottom and the helium gas is moved from space B to space A through the heat exchanger and hot regenerator. By this process the heat taken from the heat exchanger and the magnetic regenerator is transferred by the helium gas to the hot sink. So, one can see that in this cycle the magnetic material in the regenerator is used simultaneously as a regenerator for heat transfer ﬂuid in the gas refrigeration process and as a refrigerant in the magnetic refrigeration process. It should be noted that in real G–M cryocoolers the displacer and regenerator are incorporated in one unit. The device operation modelling made by Yayama et al (2000) for a regenerator of 2.8 cm diameter and 8.5 cm length ﬁlled with spherical ErNi particles with a diameter of 250 mm, high pressure of 20 atm and low pressure of 8 atm, helium ﬂow rate 2 g/s and temperature span of the device between 4 and 30 K. The maximum cooling power of the device was determined to be 0.36 W at 4 K for a magnetic ﬁeld of 50 kOe. For magnetic ﬁelds below 5 kOe, a cooling capacity of 0.31 W was obtained for the optimum magnetic ﬁeld change between 2.2 and 4.2 kOe. Calculations of Nellis and Smith (1996) showed that a cooling capacity of 1.4 W at 4.2 K

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can be achieved in the device using gadolinium gallium garnet as a magnetic material and operating with a hot sink at 12 K, low and high pressures of 3 and 6 atm, an operational frequency of 83 mHz and a magnetic ﬁeld change between 10 and 40 kOe. 11.2.4

Hybrid magnetic working bodies

To provide eﬀective operation of the magnetic refrigerator the magnetic material used as a working body in regenerative cycles should satisfy special requirements superimposed on SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ dependences in a wide temperature range. In the case of the Ericsson and Brayton cycles it is the requirement about constancy of the magnetic entropy change (SM ðTÞ ¼ const.) between Tcold and Thot , and in the case of an AMR cycle they are conditions (11.20), (11.22) and (11.23). At the same time SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ dependences of magnetic materials are characterized by peaks near magnetic phase transition temperatures and rapid decrease of SM and T values when moving away from these temperatures. It is very diﬃcult to fabricate the single phase material with necessary SM ðTÞ and TðTÞ dependences. As was shown by Reid et al (1994), mixing of the particles of diﬀerent magnetic materials may cause an essential entropy generation in such a composite working body during the refrigeration cycle. It is related to the diﬀerence between the temperatures of the adjacent particles of the diﬀerent materials, since they exhibited diﬀerent magnetic entropy change and magnetocaloric eﬀect in a given magnetic ﬁeld. Hashimoto et al (1987) suggested using complex (hybrid) magnetic material comprising layers of diﬀerent magnetic materials in necessary proportion and arranged in necessary order determined by their magnetic ordering temperatures. The hybrid material consisting of layers of ErAl2:15 , HoAl2:15 and (Ho0:5 Dy0:5 )Al2:15 (their Curie temperatures lie in the interval from 10 to 50 K) in a molar ratio of 0.312 : 0.198 : 0.490 was prepared in order to obtain constant SM in the temperature range from 10 to 50 K. Experimental measurements conﬁrmed almost constant SM behaviour in the required temperature range. Tishin (1990d–f ) and Burkhanov et al (1991) for the ﬁrst time considered complex magnetic bodies on the basis of rare earth alloys Gd–Tb, Gd–Dy and Tb–Dy in order to obtain maximum refrigerant capacity—this question will be considered later, in section 11.3. The problem of determination of the required prorate of the diﬀerent magnetic materials in the hybrid material was considered by Dai (1992) and Smaı¨ li and Chahine (1996 1997 1998). Dai (1992), based on the requirement of minimal heat release on the regenerative parts of the Ericsson cycle (this automatically implies SM ¼ const. in the temperature interval of the cycle), considered the case of the magnetic working body consisting of Gd and Tb and suitable for the temperature interval from 240 to 300 K.

390

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

For H ¼ 20 and 80 kOe the materials with 0.726 : 274 and 0.740 : 0.260 of Gd : Tb were found to be optimal for Ericsson cycle. Smaı¨ li and Chahine (1996, 1997) regarded the hybrid magnetic material for an Ericsson cycle consisting of layers of n magnetic materials in the y1 :y2 : . . . :yn proportions with diﬀerent magnetic transition temperatures T01 , T02 , . . . , T0n appropriately arranged in the required temperature range from Tcold to Thot . The magnetic entropy change of the material was presented as SM ¼

n X

yj SMj

ð11:27Þ

j ¼1

where SMj is the magnetic entropy change of the jth material. The requirement SM ¼ const. can be in this case written as n X

yi ½SMj ðT0i þ 1 Þ SMj ðT0i Þ ¼ 0:

ð11:28Þ

j ¼1

Pn By combination of equation (11.28) with the condition j ¼ 1 yi ¼ 1, the following equations set was obtained: 2 32 3 2 3 11 12 1n y1 0 6 7 6 7 6 y 21 22 2n 2 6 76 7 ¼ 6 0 7 7 ð11:29Þ 4 ij 54 5 4 5 n1 nn 1 nn yn 1 where ij are determined in this case as SMj ðT0i þ 1 Þ SMj ðT0i Þ ij ¼ 1

if i n 1; if i ¼ n:

ð11:30Þ

The numerical solution of equation set (11.29) gives optimum values of yi . By this method, a two-layered hybrid magnetic working body comprising Gd0:9 Er0:1 and Gd0:69 Er0:31 alloys for the temperature range from 225 to 280 K and magnetic working bodies consisting of up to ﬁve layers of Gd1 x Dyx alloys (x ¼ 0, 0.12, 0.28, 0.49, 0.70) for the temperature range from 200 to 300 K were optimized. Experimental data for SM for (Gd0:9 Er0:1 )0:56 (Gd0:69 Er0:31 )0:44 material conﬁrmed the results of calculations—SM was constant in the required temperature range. This method was also applied by Smaı¨ li and Chahine (1998) for optimization of the composition of the magnetic working body for an AMR refrigerator. In this case instead of constraint SM ¼ const. suitable for the an Ericsson magnetic cycle, the following equation reﬂecting adiabatic magnetization operational conditions in the AMR cycle was used: SðH ¼ 0; TÞ ¼ SðH 6¼ 0; T þ TÞ

ð11:31Þ

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where S is the total entropy. Correspondingly S should be used in equation (11.27) instead of SM and equations (11.30) become ij ¼ Sj ðH; T0i þ 1 þ TðT0i þ 1 ÞÞ Sj ðH; T0i þ TðT0i ÞÞ Sj ð0; T0i þ 1 Þ þ Sj ð0; T0i Þ:

ð11:32Þ

Using the method described, Smaı¨ li and Chahine (1998) optimized the hybrid magnetic working material consisting of Gd–Dy alloys to the desired TðTÞ proﬁle. This allowed them to calculate the parameters of an AMR refrigerator with diﬀerent TðTÞ proﬁles inside the regenerator. The desired proﬁles were described by a function T ð11:33Þ f ðTÞ ¼ kT Thot Thot where kT is a constant and is an exponent ( 0). The constant kT was determined by iteration procedure on the basis of given , properties of the magnetic material and equations (11.27), (11.29) and (11.32). The proﬁles with from 0 to 3 were used in the calculations. It was shown that there is no unique TðTÞ proﬁle for a reversible AMR cycle. Any monotone increasing proﬁle was recognized to be suitable, but the proﬁles with 1 2 provided the maximum values of cooling power and COP. 11.2.5

Magnetic refrigerators working on the Ericsson cycle

One example of such a device is a magnetic refrigerator working near room temperature proposed by Brown (1976). Its schematic drawing and operational principle are shown in ﬁgure 11.16. The regenerator consists of a vertical column with ﬂuid (0.4 dm3 , 80% water and 20% alcohol), so that the ﬂuid serves in this case as a regenerator for the magnetic material (refrigerant). The magnetic working material immersed in the regenerator consists of 1 mol of 1 mm thick Gd plates, separated by screen wire to allow the regeneration ﬂuid to pass through in the vertical direction. The working material is held stationary in a water-cooled electromagnet while the tube containing the ﬂuid oscillates up and down. The cold end hot heat exchangers are on the bottom and on the top of the column (they are denoted as load and cooling loop, respectively, in ﬁgure 11.16). The ﬁrst stage (ﬁgure 11.16(a)) is isothermal magnetization, with the working material in the upper position in the magnetic ﬁeld of the electromagnet. During this stage the magnetic material rejects heat by the hot heat exchanger. Then, at a constant ﬁeld of 70 kOe, the magnetic material is moved downwards (ﬁgure 11.16(b)). The ﬁeld is then switched oﬀ and the magnetic material absorbs heat from the load at the temperature of the cold end of the device due to the magnetocaloric eﬀect (Fig 11.16(c)). At the last stage the working material passes back through the regenerator

392

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

Figure 11.16. Magnetic regenerator proposed by Brown (1976). A solid circle indicates that the magnetic ﬁeld is switched on, and a broken circle that the ﬁeld is switched oﬀ (Brown 1976).

column (ﬁgure 11.16(d)). Then the cycle is repeated. If initially the regenerator ﬂuid was at room temperature, after about 50 cycles the temperature at the top reached þ46 8C and the temperature at the bottom reached 1 8C. The temperature gradient in this device is maintained in the regenerator column. In spite of the essential temperature span, the device was characterized by low cooling power. The main shortcoming of the device was the destruction of the temperature gradient in the regenerator under movement of the magnetic material through the column. Matsumoto et al (1988) proposed an Ericsson magnetic refrigerator working in the temperature range from 20 to 77 K with lead as a regenerator. The magnetization/demagnetization in the device was performed by charging and discharging of the superconducting magnet, creating the ﬁeld of 50 kOe. The operational principle of the device shown in ﬁgure 11.17 is analogous to that considered above to the refrigerator of Brown (1976) except that here the magnetic material (refrigerant) is ﬁxed and the regenerator is moved (its moving stroke was 40 cm) up and down with respect to the magnetic material during the cycle. Helium gas was used as a heat transfer ﬂuid to maintain the temperature of the hot end of the device. Figure 11.18 shows the overall design of the refrigerator without the driving motor. Two pieces of sintered

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Figure 11.17. Operational principle of the Ericsson magnetic refrigerator with lead regenerator: (A) magnetization, (B) isoﬁeld cooling, (C) demagnetization, (D) isoﬁeld heating (Matsumoto et al 1988).

DyAl2:2 with dimensions of 20 80 7 mm were used as a magnetic working body. The regenerator consisted of hard lead (an alloy of lead and antimony) and had a volume of 377 cm3 and a length of 49 cm. The heat transfer surfaces of the magnetic material and the regenerator were machined in order to provide better heat exchange. The magnetic material was pressed to the regenerator by a spring. The total cycle consists of 65 s for both isoﬁeld heating and cooling, 90 s for heat absorption, 80 s for heat rejection, and 45 s for magnet charge and discharge. The regenerator of the device with an initial temperature of 51 K after 11 cycles had a temperature of 58.7 K at the hot end and 50.3 K at the cold end. 11.2.6

Magnetic refrigerators working on the Carnot cycle

Below 15–20 K the nonregenerative Carnot cycle can be eﬀective for use in magnetic refrigerators. This cycle is represented by rectangle ABCD in the S–T diagram in ﬁgure 11.5. It consists of two adiabatic processes (magnetization and demagnetization) and two isothermal processes (magnetization and demagnetization). In the ideal Carnot cycle the heat Qc absorbed from the cooling load (at temperature Tcold ) and the heat Qh rejected at the hot

394

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

Figure 11.18. Overall design of the Ericsson magnetic refrigerator with lead regenerator: (1) driving rod; (2) hot heat exchanger; (3) regenerator; (4) magnetic working body; (5) holder spring; (6) regenerator guide; (7) can; (8) vacuum; (9) 77 K shield; (10) resistor thermometer; (11) magnetic material holder; (12) magnet (Matsumoto et al 1988).

sink (at temperature Thot ) can be represented as Tcold SM and Thot SM , respectively, where SM ¼ S2 S1 . A Carnot-type refrigeration device was proposed in the work of Daunt and Heer (1949) and can be represented in general by the schematic diagram shown in ﬁgure 11.19. It comprises a magnetic working body (working material), two thermal switches and a magnet. The cycle starts at the point B in ﬁgure 11.5, where the working material is in contact with the heat reservoir, and the upper thermal switch is closed and the lower one is open. During isothermal magnetization (line BC in ﬁgure 11.5) the temperature of the working material is higher than the temperature of the heat reservoir Thot and the heat Qh is released to the reservoir. At the next step—adiabatic demagnetization—the magnetic ﬁeld is partially removed with both upper and lower heat switches open. As a result of this process (line CD in ﬁgure 11.5) the temperature of the working material decreases. In the subsequent isothermal demagnetization (line DA in ﬁgure 11.5) the magnetic ﬁeld is reduced to zero, and the lower heat switch is closed and the upper switch

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Figure 11.19. Schematic diagram of magnetic Carnot-type refrigerator (Daunt and Heer 1949, Steyert 1978a).

is open. In this process the temperature of the working material is lower than the heat source temperature and the heat Qc is absorbed from the heat source. The cycle is completed by adiabatic magnetization (line AB in ﬁgure 11.5) with both heat switches open, leading to the working material heating back to the initial point A. Carnot-type magnetic refrigerators can be divided into two main groups—with moving and with stationary magnetic working material. In the former case the magnetic material magnetizes and demagnetizes by insertion and removal from a magnet, and in the latter case these processes are conducted by switching a magnet on and oﬀ or by moving it with respect to the material. A reciprocating magnetic refrigerator with moving magnetic material was proposed in the works of Delpuech et al (1981) and Beranger et al (1982). A schematic drawing of the apparatus is shown in ﬁgure 11.20. For operation it is immersed in a liquid helium bath, which serves as the hot reservoir. The heat source is a bath of superﬂuid He II. It can be cooled with the help of an auxiliary refrigerator. The superconducting magnet (9) creates the ﬁeld of 50 kOe. Correcting superconducting magnet (11) was used to obtain the necessary magnetic ﬁeld proﬁle. Under operation two identical magnetic working elements (10) are moved periodically up and down with the help of a bar (8). In the position shown in ﬁgure 11.20 the upper magnetic element is magnetized in the magnet in thermal contact with the liquid helium bath at 4.2 K. Then it is moved down and demagnetized in the middle He II bath (heat

396

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

Figure 11.20. Schematic drawing of the reciprocating double action magnetic refrigerator: (1) expansion valve; (2) level gauge; (3) copper wall; (4) He II bath; (5) refrigerator bath (saturated He II); (6) insulator; (7) bearing; (8) magnetic bar; (9) superconducting magnet; (10) magnetic working elements; (11) correcting superconducting magnet (Delpuech et al 1981). (Reprinted from Delpuech et al 1981, copyright 1981, with permission from Elsevier.)

source). Simultaneously the lower magnetic element is magnetized in the second superconducting magnet. Guide bearings (7) together with an isolator (6) isolate the middle bath from the 4.2 K liquid helium bath. The copper wall (3) provides thermal contact of the middle bath with the auxiliary refrigerator bath (5). In the reciprocating moving process described, the magnetic working elements are alternately put in contact with a 4.2 K heat reservoir and the lowtemperature heat source. The authors used HoPO4 , Gd2 (SO4 )3 and gadolinium gallium garnet (GGG) as working bodies (Delpuech et al 1981, Beranger et al 1982). For HoPO4 the temperature limit of 1.98 K was achieved and the useful cooling power at 2.1 K was 0.12 W for an operational frequency of 0.3 Hz. With Gd2 (SO4 )3 as the working body the minimal temperature was 1.67 K with 0.36 W useful cooling power at 2.1 K. The apparatus with two GGG single crystals 2 cm long and 2.4 cm in diameter gave a minimal temperature of 1.38 K (operational frequency of 0.8 Hz), a useful cooling power of 1.2 W at 1.8 K (0.95 Hz) and an eﬃciency of 45%. A rotary Carnot-type magnetic refrigerator conﬁguration was proposed by Hakuraku and Ogata (1986a). In their construction 12 GGG elements

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with dimensions of 1:2 1:4 7:5 cm were arranged around a rotor outer circumference. The ceramic rotor with 10 cm diameter and 10 cm length was surrounded by a housing (thermal insulator) made of glass ceramics. The housing had windows open in order to provide thermal contact with liquid 4.2 K helium and the low-temperature cooling chamber. The housing–rotor unit was surrounded by a superconducting magnet and the whole construction was embedded in liquid helium at 4.2 K. The rotor was rotated by a room-temperature driving motor. Under rotation the GGG elements were magnetized and demagnetized, executing a Carnot refrigeration cycle. Such a device showed 1.79 W useful cooling power at 1.8 K with an eﬃciency of 34% at a rotational speed of 24 rpm and a magnetic ﬁeld of 30 kOe. Steyert (1978b) considered wheel construction of a Carnot-type refrigerator analogous to that regarded in section 11.2.2. The Carnot magnetic refrigeration cycle in this case was provided by appropriate conﬁguration of the magnetic ﬁeld. A possible construction of a Carnot-type magnetic refrigerator working below 20 K on a rotating principle and utilizing the strong anisotropy of a DyAlO3 single crystal was proposed by Kuz’min and Tishin (1991)—see ﬁgure 11.21. DyAlO3 has eff ¼ 6.88 mB along the [010] direction (b-axis) and eff ¼ 0.8 mB along the [001] direction (c-axis) (Kolmakova et al 1990). The working material, having the shape of a cylinder cut along the [100] direction (a-axis), rotates from the b-axis to the c-axis. The rotation of the single crystal with a volume of 10 cm3 requires about 75 J. The rotation causes magnetization/ demagnetization and, consequently, cooling/heating due to the MCE necessary for executing the magnetic refrigeration cycle. The device allows use of a superconducting solenoid operating in a persistent mode for producing the ﬁeld. The advantages of this design are its simplicity and the possibility of miniaturization. Another group of magnetic Carnot-type refrigerators is the devices with stationary magnetic working body and switching magnetic ﬁeld. The ﬁrst device of this type was proposed by Daunt and Heer (1949) and realized in the works of Heer et al (1953, 1954). These apparatuses were the ﬁrst

Figure 11.21. Construction of a magnetic refrigerator using DyAlO3 as a working body. The axis of rotation is parallel to the crystal a-axis (Kuz’min and Tishin 1991).

398

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

Figure 11.22. Schematic drawing of Carnot-type magnetic refrigerator with stationary magnetic working body and thermal siphon-type heat switches (Hakuraku and Ogata 1985).

models of magnetic refrigerators. Their design and characteristics were considered in section 2.13. The key elements in the Carnot-type refrigerators with stationary magnetic working body are the heat switches. In the refrigerators of Heer et al (1953, 1954), superconducting heat switches were used. Magnetic refrigerators with thermal siphon-type heat switches were proposed by Nakagome et al (1984), Numazawa et al (1984), and Hakuraku and Ogata (1985, 1986b). Figure 11.22 illustrates a possible design of a magnetic refrigerator with such heat switches. The operational principle of the heat switches is based on the diﬀerences in heat transfer rates in diﬀerent heat transfer modes: condensation, boiling, convection and conduction. The heat exchange with hot heat reservoir (liquid helium) and cold heat source is conducted in the refrigerator through separate surfaces of the magnetic working material. The upper surface of the magnetic material is exposed to liquid helium and the lower surface to the gaseous helium. The side surface of the material is thermally insulated. When the magnetic material is heated in a magnetization process to a temperature higher than liquid helium temperature, heat is transferred from the material to the liquid by boiling and to the gas by conduction. However, the boiling heat transfer rate is about two orders of magnitude higher than the conductive one. So it can be considered that the upper heat switch is closed and the lower heat switch is open. When the magnetic material is cooled during demagnetization below the saturated temperature of the gas, condensation happens on the lower surface of the magnetic material. Heat is transferred in this case from the magnetic material to the gas through condensation heat transfer and to the liquid helium by conduction. Because the condensation heat transfer rate is

Magnetic refrigeration

399

Figure 11.23. Schematic drawing of Carnot-type rotating magnetic refrigerator (Hakuraku and Ogata 1986b). (Reprinted from Hakuraku and Ogata 1986b, copyright 1986, with permission from Elsevier.)

about 20 times higher than the conductive heat transfer rate, the situation implies a closed low temperature heat switch and an open high temperature switch. The magnetization and demagnetization in the device shown in ﬁgure 11.22 are accomplished by switching on and oﬀ the superconducting magnet. An experimental device with construction based on the schematic drawing in ﬁgure 11.22, working in the temperature interval 1.8–4.2 K with GGG as a working body, a magnetic ﬁeld of 30 kOe and an operational frequency 0.3 Hz, showed useful cooling power of 0.6 W at 1.8 K (Hakuraku and Ogata 1985). Another method of the magnetic ﬁeld changing was proposed by Hakuraku and Ogata (1986c) in the construction shown in ﬁgure 11.23. Here eight GGG cylinders, 5 cm in diameter and 1.6 cm long, are placed around the static disc at equal intervals. As in the device in ﬁgure 11.22 the upper surface of the cylinders serves for heat transfer to the hot reservoir and the lower surface serves as a lower temperature heat transfer surface. The heat switches in this device work as described above. Three pairs of superconducting Helmholtz coils working in the persistent mode are placed around the GGG cylinders on the rotating drum. Under rotation of the drum the magnetic ﬁeld applied to the magnetic working elements varies

400

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

and the elements are alternately magnetized and demagnetized. The heat switches in this device work automatically as described above and the magnetic material executes the Carnot cycle. For a magnetic ﬁeld of 29.4 kOe and an operational frequency of 0.2 Hz, the minimum temperature of 1.9 K and the useful cooling power of 1.5 W at 2.1 K were achieved in the device. Heat switches of another design were proposed by Kashani et al (1995, 1996) for the Carnot-type magnetic refrigerator working in the temperature interval from about 2 to 10 K with GGG as a magnetic working body. The heat switches in this case are two matching surfaces separated by a narrow gap. When the gap is ﬁlled with helium the switch is on and when the gap is empty the switch is oﬀ. Helium is delivered to and extracted from the switch with the help of an activated carbon pump. Its operational principle is based on the capability of carbon to absorb helium under cooling and to desorb it under heating. In order to provide suﬃcient thermal conductivity in the low-temperature heat switch, liquid superﬂuid helium was used, and in the high-temperature heat switch, gaseous helium was used. The refrigeration device operating by the principle described in the temperature interval from 9.6 to 1.8 K provided 30 mW of cooling for 150 s with an eﬃciency of 25% for a magnetic ﬁeld of 65 kOe (Kashani et al 1996). Be´zaguet et al (1994) proposed a magnetic refrigerator with a static 10.1 kg single crystal GGG working body operating a quasi-Carnot cycle between 1.8 and 4.5 K. The working body was magnetized and demagnetized by a pulsed-ﬁeld 35 kOe superconducting magnet. Thermal switching to the hot reservoir and heat source were provided by ﬂushing of the working body by liquid helium from 4.5 and 1.8 K liquid helium baths. During adiabatic magnetization/demagnetization the magnetic material was thermally isolated with the help of mechanically actuated valves. According to estimations the device can provide cooling power of about 25 W. The construction of the Carnot-type magnetic refrigerator working at 20 K with a mechanical upper heat switch was proposed by Ohira et al (1997). A cylindrical shaped GGG single crystal of 4 cm diameter and 10 cm height was used as a working body and a Giﬀord–McMahon refrigerator was used as a hot reservoir. The heat switch was made of high thermal conductivity copper and placed near the upper surface of the magnetic working material. At isothermal magnetization, the heat switch mechanically contacts the magnetic material, making thermal connection between the material and the hot reservoir. Such a refrigerator gave a cooling power of 0.21 W at 20 K with a cycle frequency of 0.002 Hz and magnetic ﬁeld of 80 kOe. Mechanical thermal switches were also considered by Seyfert (1990). One of them was a mechanical shutter covering the upper (warm) surface of the magnetic working material and thermally isolating it from the hot reservoir. Another was a sliding bar alternately connecting the magnetic working material with the hot reservoir or cold heat source at the relevant parts of the Carnot cycle.

Working materials for magnetic refrigerators

401

11.3 Working materials for magnetic refrigerators For magnetic refrigerators working with a Carnot cycle below 20 K, oxides with low magnetic ordering temperatures such as R3 Ga5 O12 and RAlO3 were proposed (Barclay and Steyert 1982a, Hashimoto 1986, Kuz’min and Tishin 1991, 1993b). Barclay and Steyert (1982a) showed that among various gadolinium oxide compounds the gadolinium gallium garnet is the most suitable one as a working material for magnetic refrigerators in the temperature range between 2 and 20 K. As was discussed in section 5.1.2, Kimura et al (1988) obtained TðTÞ curves for dysprosium gallium garnet Dy3 Ga5 O12 (DGG)—see ﬁgure 5.9. Although this compound is antiferromagnet with a Ne´el temperature of 0.373 K, maxima on TðTÞ curves were observed at higher temperatures—for H ¼ 50 kOe at about 14 K. T=H values in this compound were rather high—about 0.24 K/kOe for H ¼ 50 kOe. Kuz’min and Tishin (1991, 1993b) and Kimura et al (1995) have devoted their investigations to rare earth orthoaluminates with perovskite structure. From the MFA calculations made by Kuz’min and Tishin (1991) it was shown that DyAlO3 and GdAlO3 are the most advantageous compounds among the orthoaluminates. The results of calculations are illustrated by ﬁgure 11.24, where the dependence of the ﬁeld change on the temperature of a hot sink Thot in the Carnot cycle (the temperature of the cold load Tcold was supposed to be 4.2 K) for DyAlO3 and GdAlO3 are presented. The borderline between the region where DyAlO3 is more eﬀective than GdAlO3 and vice versa is almost exactly a straight line. As one can see, DyAlO3 is more eﬃcient in weak and moderate ﬁelds, while GdAlO3 is better within the strong-ﬁeld region. Magnetization measurements of

Figure 11.24. The dependence of the ﬁeld change on the temperature of a hot sink Thot in the Carnot cycle (the temperature of the cold load Tcold is supposed to be 4.2 K) for DyAlO3 and GdAlO3 (Kuz’min and Tishin 1991).

402

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

Kimura et al (1995) showed that ErAlO3 single crystal was a promising material for temperatures below 20 K. According to theoretical calculations made by Tishin and Bozkova (1997) some success can also be expected from the Dyx Er1 x AlO3 orthoaluminates. Daudin et al (1982a) suggested a solid solution between DyVO4 and Gd3 Ga5 O12 as a working material for use in an Ericsson cycle in the lowtemperature range. Tomokiyo et al (1985) proposed Dy3 Ga5 O12 to be used in an Ericsson cycle below 20 K. Brown (1976) suggested using gadolinium as a working material in a magnetic refrigerator working near room temperature (see section 11.2.5). Later gadolinium was usually used in experimental magnetic refrigerators working near room temperature because of its high magnetocaloric properties (T and SM ), its metallic nature making it easily machinable. The possibility of using rare earth metals and some of their alloys as working bodies in magnetic refrigerators was investigated in the works of Tishin (1990a,d–f), Burkhanov et al (1991), Nikitin and Tishin (1988). A magnetic material suitable for application for the purposes of magnetic refrigeration ﬁrst of all should have high T and SM values in available magnetic ﬁelds. One should remember that TðHÞ and SM ðHÞ dependences usually have nonlinear character and the MCE growth in high ﬁelds is lower than in low ﬁelds (see, for example, ﬁgure 8.3). So increasing of the magnetic ﬁeld strength cannot give a proportional increasing of the MCE. The form of TðTÞ and SM ðTÞ curves also can have essential meaning. For application in Ericsson and Brayton magnetic refrigeration cycles, a magnetic working material should have a magnetic entropy change SM constant in the cycle temperature span. In most cases it is better for the material to have wide TðTÞ and SM ðTÞ dependences. Wood and Potter (1985) proposed a quantitative criterion of eﬃciency of the working material called maximum refrigerant capacity (SM Tcyc )max , where Tcyc ¼ Thot Tcold is the operating temperature range of a cycle. The higher the (SM Tcyc )max value, the more eﬀective the material is for the given H. This value also determines Thot and Tcold for which the material can be most eﬀective. (SM Tcyc )max corresponds to a cycle area in the S–T plane (i.e. to the net work in the cycle) that is maximized for a given material. SM is supposed to be constant over the cycle. However, in real cycles this condition is usually violated due to various irreversible processes. According to Wood and Potter (1985), the value of the refrigerant capacity that might be realized in a real cycle in magnetic refrigerators is about half of the computed maximum refrigerant capacity value deﬁned above. To optimize refrigerator performance and cost by choosing the proper magnetic ﬁeld value it is more convenient to use the speciﬁc maximum refrigerant capacity (SM Tcyc )max =H corresponding to a ﬁeld change from 0 to H. According to the temperature dependence of SM (see ﬁgure 8.8) the heavy rare earth metals are eﬃcient within certain narrow temperature intervals. Tishin (1990e,f) determined the refrigerant capacities of the rare

Working materials for magnetic refrigerators

403

Figure 11.25. Magnetic ﬁeld dependence of the speciﬁc refrigerant capacity in Dy, Ho, Er and Tb (Tishin 1990f).

earth metals in the temperature interval from 20 to 300 K for H ¼ 60 kOe. It was established that Ho is the most suitable for cycles from 20 to 135 K, where its maximum refrigerant capacity reaches 129 J/mol (or 6.88 J/cm3 ). Er is good enough for the range from 20 to 85 K with (SM Tcyc )max ¼ 72 J/mol (or 3.9 J/cm3 ). For Dy the maximum refrigerant capacity is 82.4 J/ mol (or 4.35 J/cm3 ) in the temperature interval from 100 to 190 K. Gd had (SM Tcyc )max ¼ 51.8 J/mol (or 2.59 J/cm3 ) for temperatures from 185 to 300 K. Tishin (1990f ) also considered dependences of (SM Tcyc )max =H on H for Tb, Er, Ho and Dy—see ﬁgure 11.25. It was shown that Dy is the most promising material among them for H < 45 kOe—its (SM Tcyc )max =H reached a maximum value of about 2 J/mol kOe for H 11 kOe. The speciﬁc refrigerant capacity of Ho increased with ﬁeld almost linearly, exceeding the value of Dy for H > 45 kOe. A comparison of the refrigerant capacity of AFM rare earth metals and alloys with the results of Wood and Potter (1985) made by Tishin (1990e,f) showed that the materials where AFM structure was destroyed by a relatively small magnetic ﬁeld were often more advantageous as magnetic working bodies for refrigerators than ferromagnets. The refrigerant capacity of Gd–Tb, Gd–Dy, Gd–Er and Gd–Ho alloys with high Gd concentration was investigated in the works of Tishin (1990a,d–f) and Nikitin and Tishin (1988). Figure 11.26 shows calculated ﬁeld dependences of the speciﬁc maximum refrigerant capacity for Gd–Tb

404

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

Figure 11.26. Magnetic ﬁeld dependences of the speciﬁc maximum refrigerant capacity (SM Tcyc )max /H for Tbx Gd1 x alloys: (2) x ¼ 0; (3) 0.1; (4) 0.2; (5) 0.3. Curve (1) represents heat transferred by Gd from load per cycle of refrigeration (Tishin 1990a). (Reprinted from Tishin 1990a, copyright 1990, with permission from Elsevier.)

alloys (Tishin 1990a). SM ðTÞ curves for these alloys were determined with the help of MFA (Gd–Tb alloys with Gd content higher than 6 at% are ordered ferromagnetically). As can be seen, with increasing Tb content, the speciﬁc maximum refrigerant capacity increases with the ﬁeld. For H 10 kOe a sharp increase in the refrigerant capacity is observed. Analysis of the data led to the conclusions that Gd–Tb alloys are more eﬀective as magnetic refrigerants near room temperature than pure Gd, and that Gd and its alloys with Tb have high speciﬁc refrigerant capacity over a wide range of ﬁelds from 10 to 60 kOe, which enables relatively weak ﬁelds to be used in magnetic refrigerators with these working bodies. Figure 11.27 shows the maximum refrigerant capacity of Gd–Tb, Gd– Dy, Gd–Er and Gd–Ho alloys for H ¼ 60 kOe as a function of Gd content. These binary alloys with high Gd content have Curie temperatures close to room temperature. Their SM ðTÞ curves were measured and calculated on the basis of MFA. As one can see from ﬁgure 11.27, Gd–Dy alloys have the maximum refrigerant capacity in the room-temperature region—79.2/mol for the temperature interval from 110 to 300 K (Nikitin and Tishin 1988). At the same time in the low-temperature region Gd–Ho alloys have high refrigerant capacity values. For Thot ¼ 300 K, Tcold ¼ 20 K and H ¼ 60 kOe a maximum refrigeration capacity of 60.5 J=mol is shown by Gd0:8 Ho0:2 alloy. According to the obtained data this alloy can be recommended for use as a working material for a magnetic refrigerator operating from 20 K to room temperature.

Working materials for magnetic refrigerators

405

Figure 11.27. Dependence of maximum refrigerant capacity on Gd content (H ¼ 60 kOe) for: (1) Gdx Ho1 x ; (2) Gdx Tb1 x ; (3) Gdx Dy1 x and (4) Gdx Er1 x alloys (Nikitin and Tishin 1988).

Tishin (1990d–f) and Burkhanov et al (1991) also considered complex magnetic working bodies on the basis of rare earth metals and their alloys. It was shown that for a complex working material made of Gd0:9 Tb0:1 and Gd0:4 Tb0:6 in the ratio of 0.78 :0.22 the value SM ¼ 0.3 J/mol K for H ¼ 10 kOe can be achieved in the temperature interval from 255 to 295 K. Burkhanov et al (1991) studied Gd–Dy alloys experimentally and found that a complex working body consisting of 59% Gd and 41% Gd0:9 Dy0:1 is a promising refrigerant for the room-temperature region. This material has the eﬀective Curie temperature below room temperature and SM ¼ 0.8 J/mol K at 10 8C for H ¼ 16 kOe. Ternary working bodies consisting of Gd–Tb and Tb–Dy alloys and rare earth metals Ho and Dy for the temperature interval from 20 to 300 K were considered by Tishin (1990e,f). It was shown that the best result can be achieved with Ho, Tb0:5 Dy0:5 and Gd0:6 Tb0:4 , each of them working in the intervals 20–135, 135–215 and 215–300 K, respectively. For this working body (SM Tcyc )max ¼ 269 J/mol for H ¼ 60 kOe. Gschneidner and Pecharsky (2000a, 2001) suggested a new parameter for characterization of magnetocaloric properties and determination of suitability of magnetic material for working bodies in magnetic refrigerators, which takes into account not only the value of magnetocaloric eﬀect (T and SM ) but also the width of TðTÞ and SM ðTÞ curves. The parameter

406

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

was called the relative cooling power (RCP) and was determined as a product of T or SM peak value and the full width at half maximum ( TFWHM ) of the TðTÞ or SM ðTÞ curves. So the relative cooling power (RCP) based on the magnetic entropy change has the form RCPðSÞ ¼ SM ðmaxÞ TFWHM

ð11:34Þ

and the RCP based on the adiabatic temperature change has the form RCPðTÞ ¼ TðmaxÞ TFWHM :

ð11:35Þ

According to Gschneidner and Pecharsky (2000a) RCPðSÞ gives a value close to 4/3 times the refrigerant capacity discussed above in the same temperature range. Parameter RCPðTÞ has no physical meaning (its dimension is K2 ). RCP allows easy comparison of diﬀerent magnetic materials from the point of view of application for magnetic refrigeration—larger RCP points to better magnetocaloric material. Because RCP increases with magnetic ﬁeld change H increasing, it is convenient to use normalized RCP– RCPðSÞ=H and RCPðTÞ=H. In some cases RCP can give a more correct result than the refrigerant capacity. For example, if the SM ðTÞ curve has very gently sloping shoulders then it is impossible to calculate the refrigerant capacity, which is just the maximal square under the SM ðTÞ curve, because this parameter is just increasing with increasing temperature interval and does not reveal a maximum. Gschneidner and Pecharsky (2000a, 2001) considered the available experimental results on MCE by means of RCP. It was shown that among rare earth metals Gd has the best RCP values: its RCPðSÞ lies between 2 and 14 J/cm3 and the RCPðTÞ lies between 240 and 2000 K2 for H of 20 to 100 kOe (RCPðSÞ=H ¼ 111 mJ/cm3 kOe and RCPðTÞ=H ¼ 16.12 K2 /kOe for H ¼ 60 kOe). Tb and Dy are also characterized by essential RCP values (RCPðTÞ for Tb is 620 K2 and for Dy is 820 K2 for H ¼ 70 kOe), which make them suitable for using in the temperature ranges 210–250 K and 160–200 K, respectively (Gschneidner and Pecharsky 2001). For Gd1 x Dyx alloys, the RCPðSÞ for H ¼ 70 kOe was determined to be 11, 8, 11 and 8 J/cm3 for x ¼ 0.12, 0.28, 0.49 and 0.7, respectively (RCPðSÞ=H ¼ 157 mJ/cm3 kOe for x ¼ 0.12). High RCP was also found by Gschneidner and Pecharsky (2000a, 2001) in GdNiIn, GdZn, Fe–Rh, RAl2 and RCo2 compounds, (Gd1 x Erx )NiAl phases, lanthanum–manganese perovskites and gadolinium silicides (system Gd5 Si4 – Gd5 Ge4 ). GdNiIn with TC ¼ 94 K has RCPðSÞ=H ¼ 118 mJ/cm3 kOe (H ¼ 90 kOe) and RCPðTÞ=H ¼ 7.14 K2 /kOe. GdZn with higher Curie temperature (TC ¼ 270 K) has RCPðSÞ=H ¼ 112 mJ/cm3 kOe (H ¼ 100 kOe) and RCPðTÞ=H ¼ 11.13 K2 /kOe (H ¼ 100 kOe). Alloys Fe–Rh with ﬁrst-order magnetic transition somewhat above room temperature revealed high magnetocaloric properties but they strongly depended on heat treatment, and the magnetic behaviour of these alloys was irreversible. For

Working materials for magnetic refrigerators

407

quenched Fe0:49 Rh0:51 RCPðTÞ=H ¼ 4.62 K2 /kOe and for annealed Fe0:49 Rh0:51 this value is 1.95 K2 /kOe (H ¼ 19.5 kOe). Annaorazov et al (1992) determined the speciﬁc refrigerant capacity of Fe0:49 Rh0:51 . Rather high values were obtained: for H ¼ 19.5 kOe (SM Tcyc )max =H ¼ 6.41 J/ kg kOe ¼ 44.49 mJ/cm3 kOe for the annealed sample in the temperature range from 309 to 347.7 K and 13.52 J/kg kOe (93.83 mJ/cm3 kOe) for the quenched sample in the temperature range 295 to 312.2 K. In the RAl2 system the highest RCP was found in HoAl2 (RCPðSÞ=H ¼ 101 mJ/cm3 kOe for H ¼ 40 kOe) and (Dy0:4 Er0:6 )Al2 (RCPðSÞ=H ¼ 107 mJ/cm3 kOe for H ¼ 50 kOe and RCPðTÞ=H ¼ 6.88 K2 /kOe for H ¼ 100 kOe). In GdAl2 with TC ¼ 167 K, RCP was lower: RCPðSÞ=H ¼ 89.5 mJ/cm3 kOe and RCPðTÞ=H ¼ 6.84 K2 /kOe for H ¼ 50 kOe. For RCo2 (R ¼ Er, Ho, Dy) compounds with ﬁrst-order transition to magnetically ordered state the highest RCPðSÞ=H ¼ 83.1 mJ/ cm3 kOe (H ¼ 70 kOe) was observed in HoCo2 (TC ¼ 82 K) and the highest RCPðTÞ=H ¼ 2.11 K2 /kOe (H ¼ 70 kOe) for ErCo2 (TC ¼ 35 K). The alloys (Gd1 x Erx )NiAl have multiple magnetic phase transitions. This provides almost ﬂat SM ðTÞ behaviour in a wide temperature range (see ﬁgure 6.16). The highest RCP in this row of materials exhibits (Gd0:54 Er0:46 )NiAl (the upper magnetic ordering temperature 37 K, RCPðSÞ=H ¼ 93.7 mJ/cm3 kOe and RCPðTÞ=H ¼ 4.98 K2 /kOe) and (Gd0:4 Er0:6 )NiAl (the upper magnetic ordering temperature 32 K, RCPðTÞ= H ¼ 9.29 K2 /kOe and RCPðSÞ=H ¼ 85.5 mJ/cm3 kOe). High RCP values were also found in manganites. For example, normalized RCPðSÞ is 57.9 mJ/cm3 kOe for La0:925 Na0:075 MnO3 (H ¼ 10 kOe, TC ¼ 193 K) and 28.3 mJ/cm3 kOe for La0:8 Ca0:2 MnO3 (H ¼ 15 kOe, TC ¼ 230 K). The latter compound is characterized by the highest |SM |/H value among the manganites (in J/kg K kOe, see table 5.2). Using various dopants it is possible to change magnetic ordering temperatures of the manganites in a wide range. Gd5 (Six Ge1 x )4 compounds display high magnetocaloric properties in the whole concentration region. In high temperature orthorhombic region (0:5 < x 1Þ Gd5 Si4 has RCPðSÞ=H ¼ 88.8 mJ/cm3 kOe and RCPðTÞ= H ¼ 10.92 K2 /kOe (H ¼ 50 kOe, TC ¼ 336 K) and Gd5 Si2:06 Ge1:94 has and RCPðTÞ=H ¼ 9.6 K2 /kOe RCPðSÞ=H ¼ 95.9 mJ/cm3 kOe (H ¼ 50 kOe, TC ¼ 306 K). In monoclinic concentration region (0:24 x 0:5) the highest RCP values were found in Gd5 Si1:5 Ge2:5 (TC ¼ 217 K): RCPðSÞ=H ¼ 103 mJ/cm3 kOe and RCPðTÞ=H ¼ 9.9 K2 / kOe (H ¼ 50 kOe). High RCP values also have Gd5 Si2 Ge2 compound because of its Curie temperature suitable for use in the room-temperature region. In the low-temperature orthorhombic phase the maximum RCP was observed in Gd5 Si0:33 Ge3:67 with TC ¼ 68 K RCPðSÞ=H ¼ 120.5 mJ/ cm3 kOe for H ¼ 50 kOe. The magnetocaloric parameters of the regarded metals, alloys and compounds allowing conclusions to be made about their applicability for magnetic refrigeration are summarized in table 11.2.

180 [8]

Dy

GdNiIn

93.5 [11]

231 [4]

Tb

Gd

14 [1] 12 [1] 294 [2]

Dy3 Ga5 O12

Material

Tpt or Tmax (K)

–

1.6 [3] (84.1) [3]

1.1 [3] (56.9) [3]

– – 0.86 [3] (43.2) [3]

ðSM Tcyc Þmax H (J/mol kOe) (mJ/cm3 kOe) – 270 (1.54) [4] – – (3.24) [5] 64.5 [5] – – (2.72) [4] – – (2.2) [7] 42.43 [7] (1.93) [9] 36.73 [9] – (1.39) [4] 51.92 [11]

SM H (mJ/mol K kOe) (mJ/cm3 K kOe)

– – – (118) [4]

– – (111) [4] – – – – – – (62.4) [4] – – –

RCPðSÞ H (J/mol kOe) (mJ/cm3 kOe)

0.24 [1] 0.3 [1] 0.207 [4] – 0.29 [2] – – – – – 0.149 [4] 0.25 [6] – – 0.143 [6] – – 0.074 [4]

T H (K/kOe) 171 250 7 – 9.9 – – – – – 6.45 10.82 – – 7.9 – – 7.9

104 (kOe1 )

Teff

3.36 3.75 16.12 [4] – – – – – – – 8.91 [4] – – – – – 11.71 [10] 7.14 [4]

RCPðTÞ H (K2 /kOe)

50 30 60 60 20 12 12 60 60 12 70 20 75 75 60 60 70 90

H (kOe)

Table 11.2. Parameters of the materials with high magnetocaloric properties: a temperature of magnetic phase transition Tpt or maximum Tmax in SM ðTÞ or TðTÞ curves, speciﬁc maximum refrigerant capacity ((SM Tcyc )max =H), maximal SM =H and T=H values, speciﬁc relative cooling power based on the magnetic entropy change (RCPðSÞ=H) and on the adiabatic temperature change (RCPðTÞ=H), and eﬀective MCE value Teff . For Dy3 Ga5 O12 the value of SM =H at the temperature of 12 K corresponding to the maximum on TðTÞ curve is presented. References are shown in brackets.

408 Application of the magnetocaloric effect

–

–

167 [4]

30 3 [4]

GdAl2

HoAl2

37 [17]

32 [17]

(Gd0:54 Er0:46 )NiAl

(Gd0:4 Er0:6 )NiAl

193 [20]

–

82 [4]

HoCo2

La0:925 Na0:075 MnO3

–

35 [18]

ErCo2

–

–

–

–

31.6 [4]

(Dy0:4 Er0:6 )Al2

(44.49) [14] 1.04 [14]

313 [13, 14]

Fe0:49 Rh0:51 (quenched)

–

270 [12]

GdZn

– (1.9) [4] 72.2 [17] (0.827) [10] 30.2 [20]

(2.04) [4] 63.9 [17]

(0.86) [4] 24.76 [12] 37.85 [12] (11.48) [14] 183.72 [14] (25.06) [14] 401 [14] (0.85) [4] 32.11 [15] 44.4 [15] (3.9) [4] – 112.3 [16] 140.3 [16] (2.56) [4] 97.8 [17] – (4.5) [4] 118 [19] (3.2) [4] 88.8 [19]

(57.9) [10]

(85.5) [4]

(93.7) [4]

(101) [4] – – – (107) [4] – – (77) [4] – (83.1) [4]

(112) [4] – – (212.46) 3.4 (175.1) 6.4 (89.5) [4]

3.93 – 5.56 21.15 – 22.62 – 4.55 6.29 – 50 – 76.67 – – 39.56 48.29 – – – 10.37 – – 24.05 – 63.13 –

0.106 [4] – 0.15 [12] 0.662 [14] – 0.708 [14] – 0.076 [4] 0.105 [15] – 0.15 [4] – 0.23 [16] – – 0.125 [4] 0.169 [4] – – – 0.085 [4] – – 0.089 [4] – 0.202 [4] –

– – – – – – 6.88 2.11 – – – 1.44 – – 4.98 – 9.29 –

[4]

[4]

[4]

[4] [4]

11.13 [4] – – 6.62 – 4.04 – 6.84 [4]

100 100 20 19.5 19.5 6.5 6.5 50 50 20 40 80 50 20 50 50 100 70 70 70 70 60 50 50 100 100 50 10 10

Working materials for magnetic refrigerators 409

Tpt or Tmax (K)

230 [21]

336 [4]

306 [4]

276 [4]

217 [4] 68 [10]

323 [25]

212 [26]

287 [26]

332 [26]

318 [27]

Material

La0:8 Ca0:2 MnO3

Gd5 Si4

Gd5 Si2:06 Ge1:94

Gd5 Si2 Ge2

Gd5 Si1:5 Ge2:5 Gd5 Si0:33 Ge3:67

Gd7 Pd3

MnFeP0:65 As0:35

MnFeP0:5 As0:5

MnFeP0:35 As0:65

MnAs

Table 11.2. Continued.

–

–

–

–

–

– –

–

–

–

–

ðSM Tcyc Þmax H (J/mol kOe) (mJ/cm3 kOe) (2.18) [10] 81.3 [21] (1.23) [4] 161.8 [22] (1.41) [4] 187.2 [22] (2.8) [4] 365.4 [23] 691.4 [23] (4.46) [4] (5.74) [4] 913.3 [24] (1.13) [25] 181.8 [25] 103.7 [26] (4.5) [26] 65.5 [26] (2.7) [26] 51.1 [26] (2.1) [26] 83.1 [28] (4.1) [28]

SM H (mJ/mol K kOe) (mJ/cm3 K kOe)

1.46 (63.4) 1.842 (76.7) 1.35 (54.4) 1.44 (70.5)

(30)

(103) [4] (121) [4]

(67.2) [4]

(95.9) [4]

(88.8) [4]

(28.3) [10]

RCPðSÞ H (J/mol kOe) (mJ/cm3 kOe)

– – – – – – 0.26 [28] –

0.3 [4] – – 0.31 [4] 0.224 [4] – 0.17 [25]

– – 0.176 [4] – 0.16 [4]

T H (K/kOe)

Teff

– – – – – – 8.18 –

10.87 – – 14.29 17.5 – 5.26

– – 0.0524 – 5.23

104 (kOe1 )

– – – – – – 6.35 –

6.3 [4] – – 9.9 [4] 4.04 [4] – –

– – 10.92 [4] – 9.6 [4]

RCPðTÞ H (K2 /kOe)

50 50 20 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

15 15 50 50 50

H (kOe)

410 Application of the magnetocaloric effect

297 [30]

219 [31]

208 [32]

188 [33]

291 [34]

Ni0:526 Mn0:231 Ga0:243

Ni0:501 Mn0:207 Ga0:296

LaFe11:4 Si1:6

LaFe11:7 Si1:3

LaFe11:57 Si1:43 H1:3

–

–

–

–

–

–

77.7 [29] (3.6) [29] 94.3 [30] (2.9) [30] 222.5 [31] (6.1) [31] 318.4 [32] (2.82) 586.7 [32] (5.19) 480.8 [33] (4.22) 1036.1 [33] (9.1) – 992.5 [34] (8.72)

1.15 (53.3) 0.141 (4.4) 0.359 (9.1) 7.9 (70) 7.1 (62.9) 10.63 (93.2) 10.67 (93.6) – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.286 [33] 0.345 [34] –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – 15.2 11.86 –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1.46 – –

50 50 50 50 8 8 50 50 20 20 50 50 20 20 14 20 20

1. Kimura et al (1988); 2. Dan’kov et al (1998); 3. Tishin (1990f); 4. Gschneidner and Pecharsky (2001); 5. Dan’kov et al (1992); 6. Tishin (1988); 7. Chernyshov et al (2002a); 8. Bykhover et al (1990); 9. Nikitin et al (1991b); 10. Gschneidner and Pecharsky (2000a); 11. Canepa et al (1999); 12. Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1999b); 13. Nikitin et al (1990); 14. Annaorazov et al (1992); 15. Dan’kov et al (2000); 16. Ilyn et al (2001); 17. Korte et al (1998a); 18. Tishin et al (2002); 19. Foldeaki et al (1998a); 20. Zhong et al (1998a); 21. Guo et al (1997a); 22. Gschneidner et al (1999); 23. Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1997c); 24. Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1998); 25. Canepa et al (2002); 26. Tegus et al (2002b); 27. Hashimoto et al (1981); 28. Wada and Tanabe (2001); 29. Wada et al (2002); 30. Hu et al (2001c); 31. Hu et al (2001d); 32. Hu et al (2001b); 33. Hu et al (2002a); 34. Fujieda et al (2002).

220 [29]

MnAs0:7 Sb0:3

Working materials for magnetic refrigerators 411

412

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

Among compounds with high magnetocaloric properties investigated recently Gd7 Pd3 , MnFeP1 x Asx , MnAs1 x Sbx , Ni2 MnGa and La(M1 x M0x )13 (M ¼ Fe, Ni; M0 ¼ Si, Al) compounds should be mentioned. Gd7 Pd3 has high Curie temperature (323 K) and relatively high magnetic entropy change, although its adiabatic temperature change is not too large—see table 11.2. Tegus et al (2002b) determined the refrigerant capacity of MnFeP1 x Asx (x ¼ 0.25–0.65) for the temperature span from TC 25 K to TC þ 25 K. The maximum value of the speciﬁc refrigerant capacity of 1.92 J/mol kOe (for H ¼ 50 kOe) was found in MnFeP0:65 As0:35 . The speciﬁc magnetic entropy change in this system is also high—in MnFeP0:65 As0:35 this parameter is 103.7 mJ/mol K kOe. In accordance with magnetic measurements, another promising system is MnAs1 x Sbx . MnAs displays the best magnetocaloric properties in this system, but the others compounds also have high magnetocaloric properties up to x ¼ 0.3. Nonstoichiometric Heusler alloys Ni0:515 Mn0:227 Ga0:258 , Ni0:501 Mn0:207 Ga0:296 , Ni0:526 Mn0:231 Ga0:243 and Ni0:53 Mn0:22 Ga0:25 reveal essential speciﬁc magnetic entropy change values near the ﬁrst-order structural transition from the high-temperature austenite to the low-temperature martensite phase. Especially high magnetic entropy change is observed in low magnetic ﬁelds. However, the peak on the SM ðTÞ curve in these compounds is narrow (full width at half maximum about 1.5 K), which leads to low RCP values. Among La(M1 x M0x )13 (M ¼ Fe, Ni; M0 ¼ Si, Al) compounds LaFe13 x Six with low Si content (x 1:6), which display ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transition at TC , show the highest magnetocaloric properties. The speciﬁc magnetic entropy change in these compounds is large in low magnetic ﬁelds and rapidly decreases with the ﬁeld increasing. However, speciﬁc RCPðSÞ remains high because of increasing of TFWHM of the maximum on the SM ðTÞ curve with the magnetic ﬁeld increasing—see data for LaFe11:7 Si1:3 in table 11.2. T=H in LaFe11:7 Si1:3 is also high—direct measurement in the ﬁeld of 14 kOe gave the value of 0.286 K/kOe, which is on the level of that observed in the Gd5 (Si–Ge)5 system. However, the peak on TðTÞ curve in LaFe11:7 Si1:3 is narrow ( TFWHM 5 K for H ¼ 14 kOe). Because of that, the speciﬁc RCPðTÞ is not high—about 1.46 K2 /kOe. Pecharsky and Gschneidner (2001b) showed that in deciding which magnetic material is more suitable for application in magnetic refrigerators from the point of view of their magnetic entropy change, it is necessary to use the values of SM calculated per unit of volume. That is because high magnetic ﬁeld can be created by permanent magnets (and other magnets too) in rather small volume, and the higher the volumetric magnetic entropy change the more eﬀective is the material for magnetic cooling under the same conditions. Because of that, the values in the table 11.2 characterizing magnetic entropy change are given also per cm3 . As one can see, the highest SM =H, RCPðSÞ and T=H are observed in Fe0:49 Rh0:51

Working materials for magnetic refrigerators

413

alloy, which, however, displays essential magnetic irreversibility and is expensive. The nonstoichiometric Heusler alloys, LaFe13 x Six compounds with low Si content (x 1:6) and monoclinic Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 compounds also have high SM =H values. The LaFe13 x Six and Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 compounds are characterized by large speciﬁc RCPðSÞ. The Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 compounds also have essential RCPðTÞ, which cannot be said about LaFe13 x Six compounds where the peak on TðTÞ is rather narrow. Gadolinium has the highest speciﬁc RCPðTÞ value (16.12 K2 /kOe), which together with large speciﬁc RCPðSÞ (111 mJ/cm3 kOe), Curie temperature and metallic properties makes it one of the most suitable materials for using in magnetic refrigerators working in the room-temperature range. As follows from equation (2.16), the value of the magnetocaloric eﬀect T is directly proportional to temperature. In order to obtain a parameter capable of characterizing the magnetocaloric eﬀect irrespective of initial temperature, Tishin et al (2002) proposed an eﬀective MCE value Teff Teff ¼

T TH

ð11:36Þ

which is also shown in table 11.2. According to equation (2.79) this parameter should be high for materials with high SM =HCH values. The latter can occur not only in the case of large SM =H but also when CH is small. Such a situation can be realized in the low-temperature region, where electronic and lattice contribution to the heat capacities approaches zero for materials with low magnetic heat capacity (or if it is suppressed by a magnetic ﬁeld). As one can see, the highest Teff value among the materials presented in table 11.2 is observed in Dy3 Ga5 O12 , which should be recognized as one of the best known of today’s materials by this parameter. The next are HoAl2 (7:77 103 kOe1 ) and (Gd0:4 Er0:6 )NiAl (6:31 103 kOe1 ). For other materials presented in table 11.2, Teff is less than 5 103 kOe1 . High Teff in Dy3 Ga5 O12 can be related to large SM =H values (SM =H 0:27 J/mol K kOe for H ¼ 30 kOe at 12 K) and low heat capacity near the temperature where T maximum occurs. Magnetization measurements showed that this compound is an antiferromagnet with TN of 2.54 K (Landau et al 1971, Li et al 1986). However, Tomokiyo et al (1985), from the heat capacity measurements, and later Kimura et al (1988) from direct measurements, found a maximum on TðTÞ curves at higher temperatures—for H ¼ 50 kOe at about 14 K (see ﬁgure 5.9). No maximum was observed on SM ðTÞ curves of Dy3 Ga5 O12 —the magnetic entropy change absolute value monotonically increased with temperature decreasing down to 4.2 K (see ﬁgure 5.8). According to the measurements made by Tomokiyo et al (1985) the zeroﬁeld heat capacity of Dy3 Ga5 O12 revealed a sharp maximum at TN , a minimum at about 4 K and then a broad Schottky-type maximum at about 15 K. In magnetic ﬁelds higher than 30 kOe the heat capacity monotonically

414

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

increased up to 20 K. The lattice heat capacity contribution in this region was low and the main heat capacity comes from the magnetic subsystem. For H ¼ 30 kOe the MCE maximum is observed at about 12 K. The heat capacity at this temperature and magnetic ﬁeld is about 17 J/mol K (in comparison: the heat capacity of Gd near TC , where T maximum is observed, is about 40 J/mol K in the ﬁeld of 50 kOe) and SM is about 8 J/mol K. It follows from equation (2.79) that the peak T value should be 5.7 K, which is close to that observed experimentally (9 K). So, the parameter Teff allows us to determine a material where SM =H is high and heat capacity is low, which is very desirable for magnetic refrigerant materials and, in such a way, should be as high as possible for the materials most suitable for magnetic refrigeration. Tishin et al (2002) made an analysis of the dependence of the MCE properties on the shift of temperature of the magnetic phase transition (Tpt =H) in a row of magnetic materials with high MCE including Gd and materials with ﬁrst-order magnetic phase transitions. It was established that the dependence of normalized RCPðSÞ on Tpt =H was linear—see ﬁgure 11.28. The obtained regularity shows that the materials with high Tpt =H should have large RCP. This criterion can be used for easy searching of the magnetocaloric materials appropriate for using in eﬀective magnetic refrigerators—it is only necessary to measure the shift of magnetic phase transition temperature in the magnetic ﬁeld. This conclusion was also obtained on the basis of consideration of the magnetocaloric eﬀect inﬂuence on the magnetic state of a magnetic material made in section 2.7. It was pointed out that advanced magnetic materials capable of making a new step in solving the problem of construction of commercially available magnetic refrigerators should have values of the magnetic ordering shift of 0.8–1 K/kOe or higher in the magnetic ﬁelds of 30–50 kOe (Tishin et al 2002). It is necessary to note that for application of a material in magnetic refrigerators not only the magnetocaloric parameters discussed above are important. The cost of initial materials and fabrication of the ﬁnal working body, thermoconductivity, long-term stability, toxicity, mechanical durability and some other factors also have to be taken into account. For example, despite Fe–Rh alloys having the highest known value of the MCE near room temperature and in the range of ﬁelds up to 20 kOe among magnetocaloric materials, these alloys cannot be widely used in magnetic refrigerators because of high cost of Rh and should be considered only as a solid physical demonstration of the capabilities of magnetic refrigeration materials and a guiding line in development of new magnetic refrigerants. In this chapter we have considered the application of magnetic materials in refrigerators and cryocoolers. The passive regenerators of the cryocoolers are the devices where the materials with high magnetic heat capacity and low magnetic ordering temperatures are used. Numerous experimental investigations made in this ﬁeld allowed determination of the materials most suitable

Working materials for magnetic refrigerators

415

Figure 11.28. The dependence of the normalized relative cooling power on the shift of the magnetic transition temperature in a magnetic ﬁeld of 50 kOe (in the case of Fe0:49 Rh0:51 the data for H ¼ 20 kOe were used) (Tishin et al 2002).

for this purpose. Among them such typical representatives as intermetallic compounds Er3 Ni, ErNi2 , ErNi0:9 Co0:1 , rare earth metal Nd, interstitial alloy based on Er and Er–Pr alloys should be mentioned. It was also shown that the hybrid regenerators consisting of layers of the magnetic materials could be eﬀective. Various forms of magnetic materials such as wires, perforated plates, foils and spherical particles were tried in the regenerators. Spherical particles have essential advantages in comparison with others and is the only possible form in the case of intermetallic compounds because of their mechanical properties. It was shown that passive magnetic regenerators considerably increase the eﬀectiveness of the conventional gas cycle cryocoolers, such as the Giﬀord–McMahon cryocooler. We also considered magnetic thermodynamic refrigeration cycles, such as Carnot, and regenerator Bryton, Ericsson and active magnetic regenerator (AMR) cycles, and operational principles of magnetic refrigerators. The devices working on the Carnot cycle are eﬀective in the low-temperature range (below 20 K), where regeneration is not needed. For higher

416

Application of the magnetocaloric effect

Figure 11.29. A magnetic refrigerator using a permanent magnet working in the roomtemperature range, designed by Astronautics Corporation of America using magnetocaloric material characterized by Ames Laboratory (by the courtesy of Astronautics Corporation of America (USA)).

temperatures the regenerator cycles are suitable. Theoretical estimations showed that the critical part in the magnetic regenerator cooling devices is a regenerator, which determines the eﬀectiveness of the whole device. From this point of view the best design is active magnetic regenerator refrigerator (AMRR) where the magnetic working body can also fulﬁl the functions of a regenerator. Two main designs of AMRR were proposed: reciprocating and wheel-type. The latter design has considerable advantages. In May 2002 Astronautics Corporation of America together with Ames Laboratory presented a magnetic refrigerator working in the roomtemperature range. It is composed of a wheel that turns through the ﬁeld of a permanent magnet—this part of the device is shown in ﬁgure 11.29. The wheel is packed with spherical particles of gadolinium that act as the refrigerant in the AMR cycle. The heat transfer is via water that is pumped through the wheel and heat exchangers. This and other achievements made in the ﬁeld of magnetic refrigeration design shows that a magnetic refrigerator is not only a theoretical construction but already has been realized in practice. The potential advantages of magnetic refrigerators discussed in this chapter can make them competitive with traditional refrigerators working on gas-vapour cycles. The question about an eﬀective working body is one of the key questions in the development of magnetic refrigerators along with their optimal design. At present there is a considerable amount of magnetic materials displaying high magnetocaloric properties in a wide temperature range. Rare earth metals have an advantage related to their metallic nature: they are easily machinable. Rare earth metal gadolinium is characterized by one of the best magnetocaloric parameter sets and is often used in experimental

Working materials for magnetic refrigerators

417

magnetic refrigerators working near room temperature. The Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 and La(Fe–Si)13 systems should be regarded as the most promising of those. The compounds belonging to these systems display high magnetic entropy and adiabatic temperature change and their magnetic ordering temperatures can be tuned in a wide range. At the same time, such intermetallic compounds with ﬁrst-order transition as Fe–Rh, MnAs and MnFe(As–P) can be considered as a beautiful fundamental demonstration of future prospects of increasing MCE and magnetic entropy change values. However, it should be noted that searching and development of new eﬀective magnetocaloric materials, as before, remains an actual and important task.

Chapter 12 Conclusion

In this book we have considered an interesting phenomenon, which has important fundamental and practical applications—the magnetocaloric eﬀect (MCE), displaying itself in changing magnetic entropy and temperature of a magnetic material under application of a magnetic ﬁeld. We have discussed theoretical approaches to the MCE, methods of its investigation, currently available experimental results on magnetocaloric phenomena in a numerous number of materials, and the application of magnetic materials in conventional and magnetic refrigeration devices. A general thermodynamic approach, Landau theory of second-order phase transitions and mean ﬁeld approximation (MFA) are usually used for description of the MCE. These models allowed us to establish a set of important regularities and to fulﬁl calculations of the MCE in various magnetic materials, which were later conﬁrmed by experimental measurements. In particular, positive magnetic entropy change under application of the magnetic ﬁeld observed in some magnetic materials with antiferromagnetic, ferromagnetic or more complex noncollinear magnetic structures (in simple collinear spin structures such as ferromagnets it is always negative) can be explained using MFA by the disordering action of the magnetic ﬁeld on these spin structures (antiferromagnetic-type paraprocess). Recently the authors of this book, by means of the thermodynamic approach, considered the contributions to the magnetic entropy change arising under magnetization and established the condition necessary to achieve the highest MCE (this question is discussed in section 2.4). Thermodynamic consideration of the magnetocaloric eﬀect at the ﬁrst- and secondorder magnetic transitions were made in the works of Tishin (1998a) and Tishin et al (1999a, 2002) and Pecharsky et al (2001). It was shown that the value of the magnetic transition temperature shift under the action of the magnetic ﬁeld can be regarded as the upper limit of the speciﬁc MCE value per H (T=H) (Tishin 1998a, Tishin et al 2002). This gives a new criterion for searching materials with high MCE properties—they should have essential magnetic transition temperature shift in the magnetic ﬁeld. It should be noted that this indication can be easily established 418

Conclusion

419

experimentally. In the recent works of von Ranke et al (1998a,b 2000a, 2001a) the MCE in intermetallic compounds RAl2 , RNi2 (R ¼ rare earth element) and PrNi5 was determined with the help of quantum-mechanical calculations taking into account crystal ﬁeld eﬀects. Experimental methods of the MCE determination can be divided into direct and indirect. The former are based on the direct measurement of adiabatic temperature change in a magnetic material induced by applying (or removing) a magnetic ﬁeld. In the latter methods the magnetic entropy and adiabatic temperature changes can be calculated indirectly, in particular, from the heat capacity or magnetization temperature and ﬁeld dependences. The reliability of determination of the MCE properties on the basis of the heat capacity measurements was determined in a number of works (for example, by Dan’kov et al 1988). The magnetic entropy change can be calculated from the magnetization data on the basis of Maxwell equation (2.9a). As argued by Gschneidner et al (2000c), this method should give correct results even near the ﬁrst-order transitions. However, in some cases, the results of direct and indirect measurements can have certain diﬀerence and this problem needs further detailed consideration. Today there is a considerable amount of experimental investigation of the MCE in various magnetic materials with diﬀerent types of magnetic ordering and magnetic phase transitions, the main part being undertaken in order to ﬁnd a material with high magnetocaloric properties suitable for application in magnetic refrigerators. However, the MCE is also a sensitive tool allowing study of magnetic phase transformations occurring under the action of temperature and magnetic ﬁeld and determination of magnetic interactions in the material under investigation. For these purposes the MCE was successfully used for rare earth metals and their alloys, where the MCE anomalies were found at the Curie, Ne´el, tricritical points and ﬁeld-induced metamagnetic transitions. Chernishov et al (2002a–c) using MCE and heat capacity measurements found new peculiarities in the magnetic phase diagrams of Tb and Dy. In high purity Dy essential (up to two times) increasing of the MCE (in comparison with previously reported results) in the paramagnetic region near the Ne´el temperature related to the existence of clusters with short-range antiferromagnetic order was suggested (Chernishov et al 2002c). A set of ﬁne peculiarities in the magnetic behaviour of rare earth garnets was revealed by the MCE (see section 5.1.1). Interactions between various magnetic sublattices in the garnets were also determined from the MCE measurements. From the practical point of view the magnetocaloric materials should have large adiabatic temperature and magnetic entropy changes (SM and T). As shown by Pecharsky and Gschneidner (2001b), these two parameters do not have direct relationship: if a material has a large heat capacity this leads in accordance with equation (2.79) to a reduced MCE even for high magnetic entropy change. Such a situation is observed, for example, in doped

420

Conclusion

perovskite-type manganese oxides considered in section 5.2.3. Among the materials with high magnetocaloric properties one should ﬁrst of all mention Fe0:49 Rh0:51 alloy, which in its quenched state reveals the highest values of the MCE among the magnetic materials investigated to date (Annaorazov et al 1992). However, this alloy cannot be used in practice because of its essential magnetic irreversibility and high cost. It (its magnetocaloric characteristics) can only serve as some kind of reference point in the development of new perspective magnetocaloric materials. Other materials with high magnetocaloric properties, which makes them in principle suitable for use in magnetic refrigerators, are heavy rare earth metals and some of their alloys, intermetallic compounds RCo2 , RAl2 , La(Fe–Si)13 , Gd5 (Si– Ge)4 system, MnAs and MnFeP1 x Asx system. Among them La(Fe–Si)13 and Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 systems should be marked out. La(Fe–Si)13 alloys with low Si content and ﬁrst-order magnetic transition at TC have high SM =H, T=H and relative cooling power (RCP) values. Recently it was shown that by introduction of hydrogen the Curie temperature of the alloys can be increased up to room temperature values with preservation of their high magnetocaloric characteristics (the alloy LaFe11:57 Si1:43 H1:3 — see table 11.2) (Fujieda et al 2002). The Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 system is also characterized by considerable values of magnetocaloric parameters SM =H, T=H and RCP in a wide temperature range. The magnetic ordering temperatures in this system can be tuned from liquid nitrogen up to room temperatures. This system and its magnetocaloric properties are thoroughly studied in the works of Gschneidner and Pecharsky and the technology of preparation of these compounds is rather well developed. It should be noted that high MCE is observed in the materials with ﬁrst-order temperature or ﬁeld-induced magnetic phase transition, where magnetization is changed sharply, which leads to essential SM values. If such materials have not large heat capacity, T values are also high. Frequently the ﬁrstorder magnetic phase transition is accompanied by essential magnetovolume eﬀects (magnetostriction, thermal expansion, etc.), or even by crystal structure change, as takes place, for example, in MnAs, Gd5 (Si–Ge)4 and Dy. The magnetovolume eﬀects in such materials give essential contribution to the magnetic entropy change. However the character of magnetoelastic, magnetic anisotropy and exchange energy change inﬂuence on the MCE value under the ﬁrst-order transitions is not investigated in detail and requires further studies. Besides high magnetocaloric properties, the materials suitable for use in magnetic refrigerators should also have low toxicity, suﬃcient thermoconductivity, long term stability and mechanical durability, and low cost. The price of materials consists not only of the cost of initial materials but also of the preparation process cost. This determines the importance of development of eﬀective and cheap technological processes of material preparation. Some elements apparently can never be used in the magnetocaloric materials suitable

Conclusion

421

for wide practical applications because of their high price. Among them are ruthenium, palladium, osmium, iridium, platinum, silver, gold and rhodium (which forms half of the Fe0:49 Rh0:51 alloy mentioned above). Such elements as beryllium, cadmium, mercury, tallium, lead and arsenic are toxic and their presence may complicate the practical use of materials based on them. On the basis of the analysis of the magnetocaloric materials existing at present, it is natural to expect that Fe or Co will be widely used in future in the alloys and compounds with high magnetocaloric properties suitable for practical applications. Development of eﬀective design is very important in the creation of magnetic refrigeration devices along with the question of magnetic working bodies. It was shown that below 20 K the Carnot magnetic refrigeration cycle is eﬀective and for higher temperatures regenerator cycles should be used. Among the latter the most suitable is an active magnetic regenerator (AMR) refrigeration cycle. In May 2002 Astronautics Corporation of America together with Ames Laboratory presented the wheel-type magnetic refrigerator working in the room-temperature range on the AMR cycle. The magnetic refrigeration devices have a set of advantages in comparison with conventional gas-vapour cycle refrigerators, among which are high eﬃciency and reliability, energy and cost-saving potential. Room-temperature magnetic refrigerators are also environmentally friendly, because they do not use toxic and volatile liquid refrigerants with negative inﬂuence on the Earth’s atmosphere. Recent achievements in this ﬁeld give hope that the magnetic refrigeration technology will ﬁnd practical application in industry and life. For example, in spite of the high price of the ﬁrst magnetic refrigerator prototype working near room temperature, it can be used in such applications as extraction of water from air in a desert by a condensation method (Pecharsky 2002). Solar-generated electricity can be used in this case as a power source for the refrigerator. In conclusion, we should say that in this book we tried to give, as far as possible, a comprehensive and clear presentation of the MCE problem, which is rapidly developing at the present time. We hope that our book will help investigators and engineers working in the ﬁeld of MCE and its practical applications.

Appendix 1 Units used in the book

In this appendix we will consider units used in our book and conversion relations between them. More detailed information about this question can be found in the following references: Smith (1970), Vigoureux (1971), Brown (1984), Jiles (1998). The International System of Units (SI) is based on seven base units: metre (length), kilogram (mass), second (time), ampere (electric current), kelvin (thermodynamic temperature), mole (amount of substance), and candela (luminous intensity). Other SI units, including units for magnetism, are derived units and can be expressed in terms of base units using mathematical operations of multiplication and division. In scientiﬁc literature, Gaussian and CGS (centimetre-gram-second) unit systems are often used. The CGS system has three base units: centimetre (length), gram (mass), and second (time). However new deﬁnitions are needed in this case for units of electricity and magnetism. It is necessary, in particular, to introduce a unit of electric charge, which can be done in two ways—on the basis of Coulomb’s law describing the force of interaction between two static electric charges, or with the help of the law of force between currents (moving charges) ﬂowing in parallel wires. In the ﬁrst case we deal with the electrostatic unit (e.s.u.) subsystem, and in the second with the electromagnetic unit (e.m.u.) subsystem. In the e.m.u. system the unit of charge is called abcoulomb and in the e.s.u. system it is called statcoulomb, and they are related as abcoulomb/statcoulomb ¼ c, where c is the speed of light in free space (see table A1.3). An analogous relation is valid for current units in e.m.u. and e.s.u. systems—abampere and statampere, respectively. In the Gaussian system for charge, current, electric ﬁeld intensity and other primarily electric quantities, the e.s.u. subsystem is used; and for magnetic ﬁeld, magnetic induction, magnetization, magnetic moment and other primarily magnetic quantities, the e.m.u sub~, magnetic ﬁeld system is used. The relations between magnetic induction B ~ ~ (magnetic ﬁeld strength) H , magnetization M and magnetic polarization (intensity of magnetization) J~ and magnetic susceptibility in isotropic ~, energy of magnetic medium, together with relations for magnetic moment m 422

423

Units used in the book Table A1.1. Relations between various magnetic values in Gaussian and SI systems. Quantity

Gaussian

SI (Sommerfeld)

SI (Kennelly)

Magnetic induction ðBÞ Magnetization ðMÞ Magnetic polarization ðJÞ Torque on the moment (~ ) Energy of the moment ðEÞ

~¼ H ~ þ 4M ~ B ~ ¼ H ~ M ~ J~ ¼ M ~ ~H ~ ¼m ~ E ¼ ~ mH

~ ¼ 0 ðH ~þM ~Þ B ~ ~ ¼ S H M ~ J~ ¼ 0 M ~ ~B ~ ¼m ~ E ¼ ~ mB

~ þ J~ ~ ¼ 0 H B ~ ¼ J~=0 M ~ J~ ¼ K H ~ ~H ~ ¼m ~ E ¼ ~ mH

moment (in free space) E and torque on the moment (in free space) ~ in the Gaussian system, are presented in table A1.1. Magnetization M and magnetic polarization J, which are the magnetic moment of a unit volume, are identical in the Gaussian system. As one can see from table A1.1, in free ~¼ H ~. space in the Gaussian system B In the SI system in the relations between B, H, M and J the quantity 0 appears, which is called the permeability of free space and is deﬁned as 0 ¼ 4 107 H=m

ðN=A2 or Wb=AmÞ:

ðA1:1Þ

It is related to permittivity of free space "0 as 0 "0 ¼ c2

ðA1:2Þ

where c is the speed of light in free space. In contrast to the Gaussian system, ~ even in free space—see table A1.1. Using the SI ~ ¼ 0 H in the SI system B system the relationship between B, H, M and J can be presented in two ways according to the Sommerfeld and Kennelly conventions. These two treatments diﬀer in deﬁnition of the magnetic moment of a current loop. In the Sommerfeld convention the moment is deﬁned as a production of the current on the loop square and in the Kennelly convention this quantity is additionally multiplied by 0 . Accordingly, there are diﬀerent formulae for the energy of the magnetic moment and torque on the moment in the magnetic ﬁeld in free space (see table A1.1). Magnetic moment per unit volume has various names in Sommerfeld and Kennelly conventions (magnetization and magnetic polarization, respectively) and is measured in diﬀerent units—see table A1.2. According to Jiles (1998), the Sommerfeld convention was accepted for magnetism measurements by the International Union for Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) and was adopted by the magnetism community. Magnetic volume susceptibilities S and K are also measured in diﬀerent units in Sommerfeld and Kennelly conventions. Table A1.2 presents base, some derived and magnetic and electric units in Gaussian and SI systems and corresponding conversion factors. Some physical constants, which are useful in thermal and magnetic investigations, are shown in table A1.3.

SI metre (m) kilogram (kg) second (s) ampere (A) kelvin (K) mole (mol) kg/m3 newton (N) ¼ m kg s2 pascal (Pa) ¼ N/m2 joule (J) ¼ Nm watt (W) ¼ J/s Nm W/m2 J/(kg K) J/(mol K) W/(m K) J/(mol K) coulomb (C) ¼ A s volt (V) ¼ W/A V/m farad (F) ¼ C/V ohm () henry (H) ¼ Wb/A weber (Wb) ¼ V s tesla (T) ¼ Wb/m2 A/m

Quantity

Length Mass Time Electric current Thermodynamic temperature Amount of substance Density, mass density Force Pressure, stress Energy, work, quantity of heat Power Moment of force Heat ﬂux density Speciﬁc heat capacity, speciﬁc entropy Molar heat capacity, molar entropy Thermal conductivity Molar heat capacity, molar entropy Electric charge, quantity of electricity Electric potential diﬀerence, electromotive force Electric ﬁeld strength Capacitance Electric resistance Inductance Magnetic ﬂux Magnetic induction (magnetic ﬂux density) Magnetic ﬁeld (magnetic ﬁeld strength)

centimetre (cm) gram (g) second (s) esu – – g/cm3 dyne (dyn) ¼ cm g s2 dyn/cm2 erg (erg) ¼ dyn cm erg/s dyn cm – – – – – esu esu esu/cm cm s/cm s2 /cm maxwell (Mx) ¼ G cm2 gauss (G) oersted (Oe)

Gaussian

Table A1.2. Magnetic and electric units in Gaussian and SI systems and corresponding conversion factors.

1 m ¼ 102 cm 1 kg ¼ 103 g 1s¼1s 1 A ¼ 0.1c esu – – 1 kg/m3 ¼ 103 g/cm3 1 N ¼ 105 dyn 1 Pa ¼ 10 dyn/cm2 1 J ¼ 107 erg 1 W ¼ 107 erg/s 1 N m ¼ 107 dyn cm – – – – – 1 C ¼ 0.1c esu 1 V ¼ 108 c1 esu 1 V/m ¼ 106 c1 esu/cm 1 F ¼ 109 c2 cm 1 =109 c2 s/cm 1 H ¼ 109 c2 s2 /cm 1 Wb ¼ 108 Mx 1 T ¼ 104 G 1 A/m ¼ 4 103 Oe

Conversion factor

424 Appendix 1

A/m T ¼ Wb/m2 A m2 (Sommerfeld) Wb m (Kennelly) (A m2 )/kg dimensionless emu/g dimensionless

emu/cm3 G emu ¼ G cm3 ¼ erg/G

1 A/m ¼ 103 emu/cm3 1 T ¼ 104 /4 emu/cm3 1 A m2 =103 emu 1 Wb m ¼ 103 emu 1 (A m2 )/kg ¼ 1 emu/g 1(SI) ¼ 1/4 (Gaussian)

esu and emu denote corresponding units in e.s.u. and e.m.u. subsystems; c is the speed of light in free space (29979245800 cm/s).

Mass magnetization (magnetic moment per unit mass) Volume magnetic susceptibility ( ¼ M=H)

Magnetization (volume magnetization) Magnetic polarization (intensity of magnetization) Magnetic moment

Units used in the book 425

SI 299792458 m/s 1:05457266ð63Þ 1034 Js 6:0221367ð36Þ 1023 mol1 1:6605402ð10Þ 1027 kg 8.314510(70) J/(mol K) 1:380658ð12Þ 1023 J/K 1:60217733ð49Þ 1019 C 9:2740154ð31Þ 1024 J/T 0:529177249ð24Þ 1010 m 4107 H/m (N/A2 ) 1/0 c2 ¼ 8:854187817 1012 F/m

Quantity

Speed of light in free space ðcÞ Plank constant ( h ¼ h=2) Avogadro’s number (NA ) Atomic mass constant, m (C12 )/12 (mu ) Molar gas constant ðRÞ Boltzmann constant (kB ) Elementary charge ðeÞ Bohr magneton (B ) Bohr radius (a0 ) Permeability of vacuum (0 ) Permittivity of vacuum ("0 )

Table A1.3. Some physical constants.

29979245800 cm/s 1:05457266ð63Þ 1027 ergs – 1:6605402ð10Þ 1024 g 8:314510ð70Þ 107 erg/(mol K) 1:380658ð12Þ 1016 erg/K 4:8032068ð14Þ 1010 esu 9:2740154ð31Þ 1021 erg/G 0:529177249ð24Þ 108 cm – –

Gaussian

426 Appendix 1

Units used in the book

427

Let us now consider the units which are used in this book for the speciﬁc heat capacity and magnetic entropy change. In the literature concerning magnetocaloric eﬀect the following units can be found: J/kg K, J/cm3 K, J=mol K, J/g-at K and J/mol(atoms)K. J/kg K and J/mol K are the units of speciﬁc heat capacity and entropy and molar heat capacity and entropy, respectively, in the SI system. They are related between themselves and with J/cm3 K as follows: 1 J=mol K ¼ ð103 =Mm Þ J=kg K

ðA1:3Þ

1 J=cm3 K ¼ ð103 =Þ J=kg K

ðA1:4Þ

3

where is the density (g/cm ) and Mm is the molar mass, which can be calculated for the matter with, for example, the molecular formula Ax By Cz as Mm ¼ xAA þ yAB þ zAC

ðA1:5Þ

where AA , AB and AC are atomic weights of the corresponding atoms. As follows from equations (A1.3) and (A1.4) 1 J=mol K ¼ ð=Mm Þ J=cm3 K

ðA1:6Þ

The unit J/g-at K is related to J/mol K as 1 J=g-at K ¼ na J=mol K:

ðA1:7Þ

where na is a total number of atoms in the molecule. If a molecule contains only one atom, as in pure metals Fe, Co, Gd, etc., then 1 J/g-at K ¼ 1 J/ mol K. The units J/g-at K and J/mol(atoms) K are equal. The unit 1 mJ used in some tables in this book is equal to 103 J. Sometimes one more unit called ‘calorie’ is used in the literature as a measure of heat. According to NIST Special Publication 330 (2001) several calories are in use: a calorie labelled ‘at 15 8C’ (1 cal15 ¼ 4.1855 J); a calorie labelled ‘IT’ (International table) (1 calIT ¼ 4.1868); and a calorie labelled ‘thermochemical’ (1 calth ¼ 4.184 J).

Appendix 2 Magnetic, thermal and physical properties of some metals, alloys, compounds and other materials

Table A2.1 presents magnetic, thermal and physical properties of some metals, alloys, compounds and other materials. The data about magnetic parameters of rare earth metals, their alloys and compounds with rare earth elements can also be found in the books and reviews of Taylor and Darby (1972), Wallace (1973), Buschow (1977), Kirchmayer and Poldy (1978), Pfranger et al (1982), Kirchmayer and Poldy (1982) and Gschneidner (1993b).

428

1394 [1] –

636 [1]

–

Co

Ni

Al

–

–

1043 [1] –

Fe

TN (K)

TC (K)

Substance

0 (mB )

–

54.39 (288 K) [1] 57.5 (0 K) [1]

169 (293 K) [1] 170 (0 K) [1]

–

0.604 [1]

1.714 [1]

217.75 (293 K) [1] 2.218 [1] 221.89 (0 K) [1]

Is (emu/g)

–

–

–

–

eff (mB )

428 [64]

450 [64]

445 [64]

470 [64]

TD (K)

2.707 [3]

8.90 [1]

8.78 [1]

7.874 [1]

(g/cm3 )

24.4 (293 K) [3]

31.8 (700 K) [70] 39.5 (TC ) [4] 33.8 (573 K) [4] 26.1 (293 K) [3] 26 (300 K) [70] 23 (200 K) [70] 15 (100 K) [70] 4 (50 K) [70]

–

77 (TC ) [2] 76 (TC ) [4] 44 (923 K) [4] 25 (295 K) [3]

C (J/kg.K) (J/mol.K)

2.4 (373 K) [3] 2.37 (293K) [3] 2.42 (173 K) [3] 3.02 (103 K) [3]

0.83 (373 K) [3] 0.91 (293 K) [3] 1.14 (173 K) [3] 1.56 (103 K) [3]

–

0.72 (373 K) [3] 0.8 (293 K) [3] 0.98 (173 K) [3] 1.32 (103 K) [3]

(J/cm.K)

Table A2.1. Curie temperature TC , Ne´el temperature TN , saturation magnetization Is , saturation magnetic moment per atom 0 at 0 K, eﬀective magnetic moment eff per magnetic atom, Debye temperaure TD , density , heat capacity C (heat capacity at TC means peak value of the heat capacity near TC ) in zero magnetic ﬁeld and thermal conductivity for some metals, alloys, compounds and other materials. References are shown in brackets.

Magnetic, thermal and physical properties 429

–

–

293.4 [7] –

Ag

Pb

Gd

–

–

–

–

Cu

TN (K)

TC (K)

Substance

Table A2.1. Continued.

–

–

–

–

Is (emu/g)

7.98 [7]

–

–

–

0 (mB )

7.63 [7]

–

–

–

eff (mB )

169 [7]

105 [64]

225 [64]

343 [64]

TD (K)

7.8 [7]

11.373 [3]

10.524 [3]

8.954 [3]

(g/cm3 )

0.34 (373 K) [3] 0.35 (293 K) [3] 0.37 (173 K) [3] 0.4 (103 K) [3] 0.45 (50 K) [5] 5 (6 K) [5]

4.22 (373 K) [3] 4.27 (293 K) [3] 4.31 (173 K) [3] 4.49 (103 K) [3] 10.5 (20 K) [25] 2.5 (3 K) [25]

3.91 (373 K) [3] 3.98 (293 K) [3] 4.2 (173 K) [3] 4.83 (103 K) [3] 5 (80 K) [65] 50 (18 K) [65] 11 (3.5 K) [65]

(J/cm.K)

37.1 (298 K) [7] 0.105 (298 K) [7] 30 (350 K) [8] 0.091 (291 K) [9] 60 (TC ) [8] 0.11 (310 K c ) [10] 4 (20 K) [8] 0.106 (310 K a ) [10]

0 (5 K) [6] 2.6 (10K) [6] 13.9 (25K) [6] 26.9 (293K) [3]

25.5 (293 K) [3]

24.4 (293 K) [3]

C (J/kg.K) (J/mol.K)

430 Appendix 2

89 [7]

20 [7]

Dy

Ho

132 [7]

179 [7]

219.5 [7] 230.0 [7]

Tb

–

–

–

10.34 [7]

10.33 [7]

9.34 [7]

11.2 [7]

10.83 [7]

9.77 [7]

175 [7]

192 [7]

169.6 [7]

8.795 [7]

8.551 [7]

0.162 (298 K) [7] 27.2 (298 K) [7] 0.106 (291 K) [9] 26 (150 K) [15] 0.22 (300 K c ) [10] 69 (TN ) [15] 39 (100 K) [15] 0.14 (300 K a ) [10] 0.16 (100 K c ) [10] 0.128 (100 K a ) [10] 0.184 (50 K c ) [10] 0.152 (50 K a ) [10]

0.107 (298 K) [7] 27.7 (298 K) [7] 0.19 (300 K) [13] 81.3 (TN ) [12] 40.6 (100 K) [12] 0.104 (291 K) [9] 0.117(300 K c ) [14] 203 (TC ) [12] 32.5 (70 K) [12] 0.102(300 K a ) [14] 0.95 (100 K c ) [14] 0.102 (100 K a ) [14] 0.133 (25 K c ) [14] 0.165 (25 K a ) [14]

0.111 (298 K) [7] 8.23 (hcp) [7] 28.9 (298 K) [7] 0.103 (291 K) [9] 8.219 79.5 (TN ) [11] 48 (200 K) [11] 0.16 (300 K c ) [10] (ortho) [7] 0.095 (300 K a ) [10] 0.175 (100 K c ) [10] 0.124 (100 K a ) [10] 0.294 (20 K c ) [10] 0.2 (20 K a ) [10]

0.134 (100 K c ) [10] 0.15 (100 K a ) [10] 0.175 (20 K c ) [10] 0.181 (35 K a ) [10]

Magnetic, thermal and physical properties 431

TC (K)

20 [7]

32 [7]

–

–

–

Substance

Er

Tm

Nd

Yb

Lu

Table A2.1. Continued.

–

–

Is (emu/g)

–

– –

–

19.9 (hex. sites); – 7.5 (cub. sites) [7]

58 [7]

85 [7]

TN (K)

–

–

2.2 [7]

7.14 [7]

9.1 [7]

0 (mB )

–

–

3.45 [7]

7.61 [7]

9.9 [7]

eff (mB )

183.2 [7]

109 [7]

163 [7]

179 [7]

177 [7]

TD (K)

9.841 [7]

6.903 [7]

7.008 [7]

9.321 [7]

9.066 [7]

(g/cm3 )

(J/cm.K)

26.8 (298 K) [7]

26.7 (298 K) [7]

27.4 (298 K) [7] 12.8 (25 K) [19] 3.5 (5 K) [19]

27 (298 K) [7] 27 (70 K) [17] 42.2 (TN ) [17] 10 (20 K) [17]

0.164 (298 K) [7] 0.23 (300 K c ) [14] 0.14 (300 K a ) [14] 0.28 (100 K c ) [14] 0.16 (100 K a ) [14]

0.385 (298 K) [7]

0.165 (298 K) [7] 0.165 (291 K) [9]

0.169 (298 K) [7] 0.24 (300 K c ) [18] 0.14 (300 K a ) [18] 0.203 (100 K c ) [18] 0.115 (100 K a ) [18] 0.21 (12 K c ) [18] 0.25 (12 K a ) [18]

0.145 (298 K) [7] 28.1 (298 K) [7] 24.5 (100 K) [16] 0.138 (291 K) [9] 35.5 (TN ) [16] 0.185 (300 K c ) [14] 2.5 (10 K) [16] 0125 (300 K a ) [14] 0.152 (100 K c ) [14] 0.105 (100 K b ) [14] 0.07 (10 K b;c ) [14]

C (J/kg.K) (J/mol.K)

432 Appendix 2

–

–

–

–

–

–

Gd3 Ga5 O12

Dy3 Ga5 O12

Dy3 Al5 O12

LaAlO3

DyAlO3

ErAlO3

0.6 [33]

3.52 [32]

–

2.54 [30]

0.373 [26]

–

312 [20] –

MnAs

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

3.4 [20]

748 [73]

–

–

–

–

4.35 (c-axis) [34] –

6.88 (b-axis) [22] –

–

5.25 ([111]) [22]

4.15 ([111]) [27]

4.58 [22]

4.95 [20]

0.6 (70 K, sca ) [24] 5 (20 K, sca ) [25] 1.2 (3 K, sca ) [25] 0.5 (30 K) [25] 0.07 (4.5 K) [25]

–

105.8 (298 K) [73]

–

–

7.701c

7.953c

8 (25 K) [31] 12 (18 K) [31] 2.5 (4.2 K) [31] (c-axis)

1.5 (20 K) [31] 4 (11 K) [31] 1.3 (4.2 K) [31] (c-axis)

0.136 (300 K) [73] 0.44 (77 K) [73] ([110])

1.2 (4 K) [35] 0.6 (20 K) [31] 44.1 (TN ) [35] 1.5 (11 K) [31] 1.7 (1.5 K) [35]

11 (12 K) [28] 0.18 (10 K) [29] 0.8 (2 K) [26] 0.3 (4.5 K) [29] 25 (TN ) [26] 0.07 (2 K) [29] 0.7 (0.1 K) [26]

376.34 (300 K) [23] 157.52 (100 K) [23] 0.92 (10 K) [23] 9.71 (2 K) [23]

55 (450 K) [21] 580 (TC ) [21] 55 (200 K) [21]

–

–

7.327c

7.095c

6.18 [71]

Magnetic, thermal and physical properties 433

–

–

La0:67 Ca0:33 MnO3 263 [38] –

2.5 [39]

3 [40]

–

–

–

33 [41]

GdVO4

DyVO4

CeAl2

PrAl2

–

3.8 [66]

–

255 [37] –

La0:7 Ca0:3 MnO3

–

–

–

–

136 [36]

–

LaMnO3

Is (emu/g)

TN (K)

TC (K)

Substance

Table A2.1. Continued.

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

0 (mB )

–

–

8.6 (a-axis) 7.0 (c-axis) [40]

7.9 (a-axis) 7.0 (c-axis) [40]

–

–

–

eff (mB )

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

TD (K)

(J/cm.K)

–

–

–

–

5.72c

4.933c 5.009c

120 (300 K) [38] 190 (TC ) [38] 45 (100 K) [38] 14 (50 K) [38]

–

0.17 (295 K) [43] 0.08 (100 K) [43] 0.12 (14 K) [43]

0.12 (295 K) [43] 0.01 (10 K) [43]

0.4 (28 K) [40] 0.15 (5 K) [40]

10 (15 K) [40] 0.9 (5 K) [40]

–

0.012 (300 K) [37] 0.026 (100 K) [37] 0.035 (30 K) [37]

120 (350 K) [36] 0.01 (300 K) [37] 92 (200 K) [36] (0.0085) (100 K) [37] 82 (TN ) [36] (0.005) (20 K) [37] 18 (50 K) [36]

C (J/kg.K) (J/mol.K)

5.474c

–

–

(g/cm3 )

434 Appendix 2

–

–

–

–

170 [41] – 167 [42]

114 [41] –

58 [41] – 63.9 [67]

27 [41]

14.5 [41] – 13.6 [42]

–

–

GdAl2

TbAl2

DyAl2

HoAl2

ErAl2

TmAl2

PrAg

14 [46]

–

–

–

–

–

123 [41] –

SmAl2

–

–

–

65 [41]

NdAl2

–

–

7.6 [41]

7.86 [41]

9.1 [41]

8.1 [41]

7.0 [41]

–

2.5 [41]

3.44 [41]

–

9.87 [41]

10.8 [68]

9.7 [41] 10.65 [67]

9.82 [41]

7.92 [41]

–

3.1 [41]

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

35 (80 K) [67] 7 (20 K) [67] 36 (TC ) [67]

6.209c

7.928c

0.22 (295 K) [43] 0.01 (10 K) [43]

0.19 (295 K) [43] 0.15 (170 K) [43] 0.02 (10 K) [43] 0.3 (170 K) [44] 0.07 (12 K) [44]

0.18 (295 K) [43] 0.02 (10 K) [43]

0.16 (295 K) [41] 0.03 (10 K) [43]

0.15 (295 K) [43] 0.03 (10 K) [43]

0.095 (295 K) [43] 0.022 (10 K) [43]

0.15 (295 K) [43] 0.014 (10 K) [43]

0.17 (295 K) [43] 0.09 (100 K) [43] 0.11 (22 K) [43]

23.5 (25 K) [45] 0.06 (17 K) [45] 9.4 (12.5 K) [45] 0.012 (3.5 K) [45] 31.4 (10 K) [45] 3.1 (5 K) [45]

–

15 (35 K) [68] 26 (TC ) [68] 9 (10 K) [68]

6.097c

6.312c

35 (80 K) [67] 42 (TC ) [67] 3 (10 K) [67]

–

5.967c

5.811c

74 (350 K) [69] 74 (TC ) [69] 5 (25 K) [69]

–

5.419c 5.693c

–

5.143c

Magnetic, thermal and physical properties 435

TC (K)

–

–

–

–

12 [50]

6 [42]

Substance

NdAg

ErAg

DyGa2

Er3 Ni

ErNi

ErNi2

Table A2.1. Continued.

–

–

7.7 [50]

11 [48]

21 [41]

22 [41]

TN (K)

–

–

–

–

–

–

Is (emu/g)

6.9 [50]

8.1 [50]

7.1 [50]

–

–

–

0 (mB )

9.55 [50]

9.8 [50]

9.85 [50]

9.1 [74]

9.22 [41]

3.64 [41]

eff (mB )

–

–

–

–

–

–

TD (K)

7.5 (20 K) [49] 0.011 (20 K) [49] 37.4 (9 K) [49] 0.004 (5 K) [49] 54.2 (6.5 K) [49] 0.8d (25 K) [51] 0.02 (50 K) [52] 0.3d (10 K) [51] 0.003 (5 K) [52] 0.43d (TN ) [51] 0.25d (5 K) [51] 16.4 (30 K) [53] 0.07 (50 K) [52] 0.03 (7 K) [52] 7 (15 K) [52] 14.1 (TC ) [53] 4.7 (5 K) [53] 58 (250 K) [54] 0.05 (50 K) [52] 55 (100 K) [54] 0.003 (3 K) [52] 8.3 (20 K) [54] 1.4 (TC ) [54]

8.076c

9.29c

9.632c

10.446c

0.075 (11 K) [45] 0.03 (2 K) [45]

9 (25 K) [47] 10 (16 K) [47] 1 (5 K) [47]

10.083c

(J/cm.K)

21.6 (25 K) [45] 0.1 (15 K) [45] 46.4 (TN ) [45] 0.04 (4 K) [45] 6.2 (10 K) [45]

C (J/kg.K) (J/mol.K)

8.158c

(g/cm3 )

436 Appendix 2

345.7 [58]

–

276 [61] –

225.1 [63]

100.1 [63]

Gd5 Si4

Gd5 Ge4

Gd5 Si2 Ge2

Tb5 Si4

Tb5 Si2 Ge2

–

–

15 [60]

–

–

35 [56]

ErCo2

–

20 [42]

DyNi2

–

–

125 (272.8 K, 55 kOe) [62]

–

–

–

–

8.92 [76]

–

7.36 [75]

2.02 [60]

10.21 [63] 9.1 [76]0

10.27 [63]

–

8.1 [60]

7.85 [58]

9.84 [56]

7b [57]

7.52 [58]

10.5 [50]

8.8 [50]

–

–

–

–

213.7 [59]

207 [72]

–

252 (300 K) [63] 414 (TC ) [63] 207 (100 K) [63] 117 (50 K) [63] 252 (300 K) [63] 550 (TC ) [63] 126 (50 K) [63]

7.773c

243 (350 K) [62] 828 (TC ) [62] 198 (100 K) [62] 90 (50 K) [62]

–

7.206c

7.52

c

8.047c

–

–

–

–

–

242.6 (350 K) [59] 386.4 (TC ) [59] 242.6 (200 K) [59] 175.2 (100 K) [59]

6.97c [58]

0.05 (50 K) [52] 0.015 (6 K) [52]

0.03 (50 K) [52] 55 (60 K) [56] 1427 (TC ) [56] 0.06 (3.5 K) [52] 27.5 (30 K) [56]

19 (35 K) [55] 12 (25 K) [55] 25 (TC ) [55] 7 (10 K) [55]

10.388c

10.151c

Magnetic, thermal and physical properties 437

–

–

–

–

Bronze (25% Sn) –

–

–

–

–

–

Stainless steel AISI 316 SUS304

Al2 O3 (poly crystalline)

Al2 O3 (single crystal (sapphire))

Cardboard

Glass wool

Acrylic (Plexiglas) –

–

–

–

–

–

Brass (30% Zn)

TN (K)

TC (K)

Substance

Table A2.1. Continued.

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Is (emu/g)

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

0 (mB )

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

eff (mB )

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

TD (K)

1.18 [3]

0.064–0.16 [3]

0.79 [3]

3.98 [3]

3.9 [3]

8 [3]

8.666 [3]

8.522 [3]

(g/cm3 )

–

–

–

(725) (273 K) [3] (940) (400 K) [3]

(725) (273 K) [3] 73.9 (273 K) [3] (940) (400 K) [3] 95.8 (400 K) [3]

(460) (295 K) [3]

(343) (295 K) [3]

(385) (295 K) [3]

C (J/kg.K) (J/mol.K)

1.4.103 (318 K) [3]

4.104 (293 K) [3]

1.4.103 (273– 293 K) [3]

0.52 (273 K) [3] 0.32 (400 K) [3]

0.4 (273 K) [3] 0.26 (400 K) [3]

0.12 (173 K) [3] 0.135 (293 K) [3] 0.005 (10 K) [47]

0.26 (293 K) [3]

0.73 (103 K) 0.89 (173 K) 1.09 (293 K) 1.33 (373 K) [3]

(J/cm.K)

438 Appendix 2

–

–

–

–

–

Polyamide (nylon – 6,6)

–

–

–

–

–

Polyimide

Polystyrene (expanded)

Polytetraﬂuoro- – ethylene (Teﬂon)

–

Polyethylene (HDPE)

Rubber (hard)

Oak

Wool (sheep)

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

0.145 [3]

0.6 [3]

1.2 [3]

2.2 [3]

0.013–0.03 [3]

1.43 [3]

0.96 [3]

1.12 [3]

1.2 [3]

3.5.103 [3]

3.3.103 [3]

2.5.103 (273– 322 K) [3]

2.2.103 (297– 328 K) [3]

–

5.104 (293 K) [3]

(2390) (293 K) [3] (1–4).103 (293 K) [3]

(2010) (273 K) [3] 1.5.103 (273 K) [3]

–

3.5.104 (277– 328 K) [3] (1050) (293 K) [3] 2.5.103 (293 K) [3] 2.5.103 (100 K) [52] 6.104 (5 K) [52]

(1130) [3]

(2260) [3]

(1470) (273–322 K) [3]

–

a b c sc ¼ single crystal. Per formula unit. Density, determined from crystallographic data: calculated or taken from JCPDS (Joint Committee Powder Diﬀracd tion Standard) PDF-2 data base. In J/cm3 .K. 1. Bozorth (1978); 2. Kohlhaas et al (1966); 3. Lienhard and Lienhard (2002); 4. Hirschler and Rocker (1966); 5. Hashimoto et al (1990); 6. Pecharsky et al (1997a); 7. Gschneidner (1993b); 8. Dan’kov et al (1998); 9. Powell and Jolliﬀe (1965); 10. Nellis and Legvold (1969); 11. Chernishov et al (2002a); 12. Chernishov et al (2002b). 13. Colvin and Arajs (1964); 14. Boys and Legvold (1968); 15. Jayasuria et al (1985); 16. Gschneidner et al (1997a); 17. Zimm et al (1989); 18. Edwards and Legvold (1968); 19. Pecharsky et al (1997a); 20. Adachi (1961); 21. Krokoszinski et al (1982); 22. Kuz’min and Tishin (1991); 23. Dai et al (1988); 24. Slack and Oliver (1971); 25. Numazawa et al (1983); 26. Filippi et al (1977); 27. Kimura et al (1988); 28. Tomokiyo et al (1985); 29. Numazawa et al (1996); 30. Landau et al (1971); 31. Kimura et al (1997b); 32. Schuchert et al (1969); 33. Sivardie`re and Quezel-Ambrunaz (1971); 34. Bonville et al (1980); 35. Ball et al (1963); 36. Hlopkin et al (2000); 37. Cohn et al (1997); 38. Chivelder et al (1998); 39. Fischer et al (1991); 40. Kimura et al (1998); 41. Taylor and Darby (1972); 42. Gschneidner et al (1996a); 43. Bauer et al (1986); 44. Zimm et al (1988a); 45. Yagi et al (1997); 46. Brun et al (1974); 47. Biwa et al (1996); 48. Gignoux et al (1991); 49. Yagi et al (1998); 50. Buschow (1977); 51. Gschneidner et al (1995); 52. Ogawa et al (1991); 53. Hashimoto et al (1992); 54. Melero et al (1995); 55. Tomokiyo et al (1986); 56. Tishin et al (2002); 57. Chikazumi (1964); 58. Spichkin et al (2001a); 59. Serdyuk et al (1985); 60. Holtzberg et al (1967); 61. Gschneidner and Pecharsky (2000a); 62. Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1997e); 63. Huang et al (2002); 64. Kittel (1986); 65. Berman and MacDonald (1952); 66. Barbara et al (1977); 67. Gschneidner et al (1996b); 68. Hashimoto et al (1986); 69. Dan’kov et al (2000); 70. Gopal (1966); 71. Babichev (1991); 72. Giguere et al (1999a); 73. Schnelle et al (2001); 74. Baranov et al (1988); 75. Pecharsky and Gschneidner (1998); 76. Thuy et al (2002).

–

–

–

–

Epoxy (bisphenol – A (EP), cast)

Magnetic, thermal and physical properties 439

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Index

adiabatic conditions, 1, 41 adiabatic demagnetization, 62 nuclear, 67 adiabatic heat-pulse calorimeter, 87, 90 adiabaticisobaric process, 7, 17, 19 adiabaticisochoric process, 7, 61 adiabatic magnetization, 7,8 adiabatic shield, 90, 93 alloy Dy-Y, 322, 324 Er-La, 322, 326 Er-Pr, 322, 326, 327, 328, 363365, 414 Fe-Rh, 105, 109112, 406, 407, 412, 414, 417, 420, 421 Fe-Si, 104, 122 Gd-Dy, 79, 321, 322, 389, 390, 403406 Gd-Dy-Nd, 322 Gd-Er, 79, 321, 322, 390, 403405 Gd-Ho, 321, 322, 327, 403405 Gd-Lu, 276 Gd-Tb, 389, 403405 Gd-Tb-Nd, 321 Heusler, 120, 125, 412, 413 metastable Fe-Hg, 341 Mn-Cu, 119 Ni-Mn, 199 Ni-Cu, 119 Tb-Dy, 326, 327, 389 Tb-Gd, 316, 317, 320 Tb-Y, 284, 322325, 329 water-quenched, 342 amplitude modulated spin structure, 255 amorphous, 209 Er3 Ni, 361, 362

Er3 ðNi0:98 Ti0:02 Þ, 361 Er3 ðNi0:9 Ti0:1 Þ, 361 Fe-M-Zr (M ¼ Al, Ga, Ge, Sn), 336 (Fe-Ni)0:9 Zr0:1 , 336 (Gd-Co), 336 material, 330 melt-spun ribbon, 335, 336, 341, 342 Pd-Ni-Fe-P, 336 R0:7 Mn0:3 x M0x (R ¼ Gd, Dy, Er, Ho, Tb; (M0 ¼ Ni, Fe, Co, Cu), 330, 331, 334, 337 anisotropy constant, 99, 103, 123, 170172, 279, 317 form, 124 in-plane, 25 magnetocrystalline, 8, 25, 121, 139, 171, 195, 227, 251, 270, 287, 308, 341, 347, 348 single-ion, 25 uniaxial, 25, 174, 197 antiferromagnet, 19, 22, 32, 56 helicoidal (HAFM), 35, 39, 61, 217, 276, 284, 287, 293, 294, 296299, 302, 313, 321, 323, 324, 326329 itinerant, 244 spiral structure, 60 surface, 124 two-dimensional, 56 antiferromagnetic canting state, 164 antiferromagnetic layered spin structure, 256 anvil-quenching technique, 336 Arrott plot, 155, 191, 204, 229, 230 atomic volume, 60

463

464

Index

Avogadro’s number, 16 austenitic phase, 120, 121, 412 band structure, 54 barocaloric eﬀect, 62 blocking state of superparamagnet, 154, 348350 blocking temperature, 348 blow period, 379 Bornvon Karman model, 54 Brillouin function, 11, 34 cadmium, 65 calcium ﬂuoride, 67 canted spin structure, 245, 273 caret-type maximum on heat capacity temperature dependence, 188, 194, 205 on SM ðTÞ dependence, 268 centrifugal atomization process, 359, 361, 362, 364 cerium ethylsulfate ðCeðC2 H5 SO4 Þ3 :9H2 OÞ, 64 cerium ﬂuoride (CeF3 ), 64 cerium manganese nitride, 66 charge ordering, 143, 145, 159, 162164, 167 chrome alum, 65 chrome potassium alum, 68 ClausiusClapeyron equation, 31, 36, 81, 112, 113, 238, 293, 294, 300, 301, 329 cluster glass, 164 coeﬃcient of performance (COP), 367, 380, 391 of thermal expansion, 6, 52, 5961, 94, 95 Steven’s, 244 thermodynamic, 9 coercive force, 162, 221, 222, 244, 269, 270, 273, 330, 331, 335 commensurability eﬀect (point), 298, 299 commensurate spin structure (phase), 195, 304, 305, 326 compensation temperature (point), 33, 128, 129, 142, 168, 169, 211, 214, 336 compounds CrS1:17 , 109, 112

CrTe, 105 Cr3 Te4 , 105 DySb, 358 (Er-Dy)Sb, 250 Fe5 Si3 , 122 Gd4 (Bi-Sb)3 , 247 Gd2 ðSO4 Þ3 ; 396 HoSb, 358 HoPO4 , 396 LaFeSi, 110 Li0:1 Mn0:9 Se, 109, 112 mixed-valence, 144 MnAs, 105, 112117, 412, 417, 420, 421 MnAs1 x Px , 115, 116 MnAs1 x Px , 117 MnAs1 x Sbx , 412 Mn2 x Crx Sb, 109, 112, 122 Mn1:9 Cr0:1 Sb, 112 Mn1:95 Cr0:05 Sb, 109 Mn3 y z Cry AlC1 þ z , 123 Mn1 x Fex As, 116 Mn5 x Fex Si3 , 122 MnFeP1 x Asx , 117119, 412, 417, 420, 421 Mn3 GaC, 112 Mn5 Ge3 , 109 Mn3 Ge2 , 109, 112 Mn5 Ge3 x Sbx 122 MnP, 105, 112, 113, 115 Mn5 Si3 , 109, 122, 123 Mn1 x Vx As, 116 Mn0:95 V0:05 As, 109 NiAs, 113, 116, 117 Ni2 (Mn1 x Mx )Sn (M ¼ V, Nb), 123 Ni2 MnGa, 412 RbMnBr3 , 123 YbAs, 250 compressibility (isothermal), 53 constant anisotropy, 49 Boltzmann, 11 gas, 15, 53 Planck’s, 54 conductivity axial, 370, 372, 378 electrical, 105

Index thermal, 104, 105, 136, 139, 143, 167, 177, 190, 195, 210, 244, 281, 284, 287, 293, 294, 301303, 306, 307, 309, 353, 359, 364, 370, 429 conical spin structure, 277, 304, 305 cooling power, 367, 371, 380, 382, 386, 388, 391, 397, 399 normalized relative (RCP), 406 relative (RCP), 406, 412415, 420 useful, 397, 399 covalent-like bonds, 259, 261 Coulomb’s law, 422 critical ﬁeld, 223, 276, 294, 299, 302, 309, 321, 322, 326 crystal ﬁeld splitting, 133 crystal structure anti-Th3 P4 -type, 247 antiperovskite-type, 193 bcc, 60 CeCu2 -type, 193 CeNiSi2 -type, 253 CsCl-type, 194, 195 Cu3 Au-type, 187 Cu2 Mg-type, 179 Cu2 Sb-type, 254 cubic, 50, 51, 164 cubic NaZn13 -type, 220, 221 double hcp (dhcp), 60, 277 fcc, 60, 119 hexagonal, 50, 113 hexagonal AlB2 -type, 196, 257, 258 hexagonal close-packed (hcp), 276, 294 hexagonal MgZn2 -type, 243 hexagonal Ni2 In-type, 200 hexagonal Th2 Ni17 -type, 215 Laves phase, 179, 201, 225 layered, 247, 254 MgCu2 -type, 231 monoclinic, 259, 261, 266, 268, 269, 271, 273, 275 monoclinic Gd5 Si4 -type, 261 monoclinic Gd5 Si2 Ge2 -type, 261, 268, 270, 271 orthorhombic, 113, 146, 156, 162, 194, 255, 258, 268, 269, 271, 273, 275, 294 orthorhombic Gd5 Ge4 -type, 261

465

orthorhombic Gd5 Si4 -type, 261, 270, 271, 273 orthorhombic Sm5 Ge4 -type, 261, 268, 271, 273 orthorhombic TiNiSi-type, 209 perovskite-type, 112, 137 rhombohedral, 146, 156, 164, 193 rhombohedral Th2 Zn17 -type, 215 Sr3 T2 O7 -type, 158 tetragonal, 256 tetragonal CeFeSi-type, 254 tetragonal Pr7 Co6 Al7 -type, 244 tetragonal ThMn12 -type, 225, 245 tetragonal ThCr2 Si2 -type, 251 tetragonal zircon-type, 175, 176 tetragonal Zr5 Si4 , 271 Th7 Fe3 -type, 194 transition 9, 115, 116, 118, 175, 226, 294 ZrNiAl-type, 209 crystal structure change, 113, 115 crystallite, 44 crystallization temperature, 335 Curie: constant, 12, 14, 16 law, 12 local temperature, 43 point (temperature), 9, 13,14 cluster, 347, 348 with short-range magnetic order, 301 clustered system, 46 convention: Kennelly, 423 Sommerfeld, 423 corundum, 174 crossover, 177, 207, 309 cryostat, 76, 9092 cryocooler, 352 GiﬀordMcMahon, 352, 354358, 361, 380, 387, 388, 400, 414 magnetic, 62 crystalline electric ﬁeld, 57, 58, 61, 64, 179, 144, 210, 184186, 188, 189, 193, 198, 204, 205, 207, 227, 244246, 250, 250, 252, 254, 308, 330, 419 coeﬃcient, 27 CurieWeiss law, 13, 139, 176

466

Index

Co, 96104 Cu, 104, 105, 136 cycloid (spin structure), 277, 304 dead volume, 362 in AMR refrigerator, 384 Debye interpolation formula, 15 temperature, 15, 23, 31, 53, 59, 97, 309, 310, 315, 350, 429 Debye’s model, 53, 54 de Gennes factor, 270, 273, 322 degeneracy, 57 diﬀerential thermal analysis, 170, 341 dislocations, 136 displacer, 374376, 380, 387, 388 domain wall, 8 DulongPetit limit, 23, 53, 98, dysprosium ethylsulfate ðDyðC2 H5 SO4 Þ3 :9H2 OÞ, 64 Dy, 39, 41, 42, 61, 284, 291, 295, 294, 296302, 310313, 322325, 326, 403406, 419 high-purity, 297, 299, 301 ultra-pure, 296, 297, 301, 305 eddy (Foucault) currents, 9, 71, 76, 77, 372, 384 eﬀective exchange ﬁeld, 12 eigenvalues, 11 elastic modulus, 7 elastocaloric eﬀect, 5861 electrical resistivity, 156, 219, 255, 256 electron density of states, 54, 205, 207 electronic microscopy, 335 electronic paramagnetic resonance (EPR), 343, 344 electrons itinerant, 144, 179, 220, 226, 243, 243, 245 3d, 242 5d, 226 4f, 226, 243 energy anisotropy, 287, 296, 323, 324, 329, 348, 349, 420

exchange interaction, 284, 323, 324, 329, 420 free, 4 Gibbs free, 4, 323 internal, 4, 56 magnetic free, 11, 123, 132 magnetoelastic, 9, 284, 323, 324, 329, 420 single-ion crystalline ﬁeld, 250 thermal agitation, 1, 67, 133 Zeeman, 287, 323, 348 enthalpy, 28, 29, 358 entropy, 1, 4, 14 electronic, 14, 15, 63, 111, 219, 220, 243, 315 magnetic, 1, 14, 16, 34, 35, 63, 156, 180, 181, 227, 243, 246, 250, 296, 307, 315 lattice, 14, 15, 63, 111, 132, 134, 219, 329, 365 total, 14 volumetric magnetic, 412 exchange: antiferromagnetic interactions, 33 double interactions, 144, 145, 158, 161 ﬁeld, 33 indirect interactions, 317 integral, 12, 34, 56 integral distribution, 334 interactions, 12, 35, 47, 57, 63, 113, 113, 130, 144, 169, 185, 205, 227, 247, 281, 352 oscillating indirect, 276 parameter, 113 RKKI-type interactions, 197, 270 expansion volume maximum, 356, 357 eutectic composition, 194 Er, 277, 284, 291, 303, 304, 305, 306, 310313, 326, 328, 364, 403 high-purity, 305 ultra-pure, 304 Eu, 60 EuS, 26, 94 fan magnetic (spin) structure, 35, 217, 276, 284, 287, 293, 297, 299, 326, 327

Index FC (ﬁeld cooled) magnetization measurement, 147, 204, 348 FermiDirac statistics, 54 Fermi level, 54 Fermi surface, 111 ferrimagnet, 32 ferromagnet, 9 inhomogeneous, 42, 43 easy-plane, 316 ferromagnetic resonance, 339 ferromagnetic spiral-type (spin structure), 321, 322, 324 ferrites, 126 ﬁeld-induced ferromagnet, 39 metamagnetic transition, 114, 117, 118, 163, 175, 179, 192, 200, 219, 220, 222, 223, 226, 252, 254256, 271, 296, 298, 419 ﬁlm Ni, 124 -Fe2 O3 , 124 Foucault (eddy) currents, 9, 71, 76, 77, 372, 384 free electron model, 54 gas, 55 Fe, 96101, 103 gadolinium sulfate ðGd2 ðSO4 Þ2 :8H2 OÞ, 64 garnets 32, 126, 419 aluminium rare earth ðR3 Al5 O12 Þ, 126, 131, 401 Dy3 Al5 O12 , 133, 177 (Dy-Gd)3 Ga5 O12 , 137 dysprosium aluminium (DAG, Dy3 Al5 O12 ), 133, 134, 136, 139, 140, 401 dysprosium gallium (DGG, Dy3 Ga5 O12 ), 131, 133137, 177, 402, 413 (Er-Y)3 Al5 O12 , 131, 136 gadolinium gallium (GGG, Gd3 Ga5 O12 ), 46, 85, 86, 131134, 136, 137, 211, 346, 387, 389, 396, 397, 399402

467

gadolinium gallium iron (GGIG, Gd3 Gax Fe5 x O12 ), 127, 128, 346 gadolinium iron (Gd3 Fe5 O12 ), 32, 34, 35, 127, 128, 169, 211 gallium rare earth (R3 Ga5 O12 ), 126, 131 rare earth iron (R2 Fe5 O12 , R ¼ Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Y), 33, 126128, 130, 214 Lu3 Al5 O12 , 133 Yb3 Fe5 O12 , 130, 131 (Yb-Y)3 Fe5 O12 , 130, 131 Y3 Al5 O12 , 133 Y3 Fe5 O12 , 127, 130 gas atomization process, 359, 364 Gaussian distribution, 331 generalized coordinates, 28 thermodynamic quantities, 5 germanides, 247, 250 CeCu0:86 Ge2 , 253 Gd5 Ge4 , 258, 259 GdRu2 Ge2 , 253 HoTiGe, 254 LaFe2 Ge2 , 251 PrCu0:76 Ge2 , 253, 254 RMn2 Ge2 (R ¼ La, Y, Gd, Tb, Dy), 247, 251, 256 RNiGe (R ¼ Gd, Dy, Er), 358 Tb5 Ge4 , 271 g-factor, 11, 132 GiﬀordMcMahon cryocooler, 352, 354358, 361, 380, 387, 388, 400, 414 Gd, 41, 42, 56, 60, 61, 72, 77, 79, 80, 8385, 8789, 97, 110, 123, 117, 119, 121, 158, 162, 194, 206, 214, 221, 222, 224, 238, 250, 251, 261, 269, 275, 277281, 283, 287, 294, 310316, 328, 364, 385, 386, 389391, 402404, 406, 413, 414, 416 Gd2 O3 , 281, 335 Hamiltonian, 11, 12, 25, 205, 207, 250, 348 Heisenberg, 57 Ising, 57

468

Index

heat capacity, 6, 52, 86, 103 crystalline ﬁeld (contribution), 349, 350 dipolar (contribution), 349, 350 electronic, 14, 15, 53, 54, 166, 219, 227, 245, 251, 351, 352, 413 hyperﬁne (contribution), 349, 350 lattice, 15, 53, 166, 198, 209, 219, 227, 245, 251, 311, 349, 351, 352, 413 magnetic, 15, 53, 56, 352 molar, 53 spin wave, 55, 56 Schottky nuclear (contribution), 198 volumetric, 194, 195, 197, 208, 309, 326, 352355, 358, 362364 -type anomaly, 137, 143, 188, 191, 193195, 201, 205, 208, 210, 217, 231, 244, 245, 247, 254, 256, 277, 281, 336 heat exchanger, 365, 369 heat transfer ﬂuid, 352, 359, 365 Heusler alloy, 120, 125, 412, 413 hexagonal axis, 101 hexagonal ferrites, 170, 171 BaFe12 x Cox Tix O19 , 170 BaCa2 x Znx Fe16 O27 , 170 BaCo1:65 Fe0:35 2þ Fe16 3þ O27 , 172 CoZn-W, 171 Cox W, 172 Ho, 58, 60, 61, 77, 284, 291, 301, 302, 310313, 403, 405 Hund rule, 144 hybridization, 144, 219, 226 hydrogen, 225 hydrogenated, 225 hyperﬁne splitting, 64 hysteresis, 9 loop, 223 loss, 340 magnetic ﬁeld, 121, 175, 219, 221223, 244, 261, 276, 344, 372 temperature, 19, 113, 117, 165, 221223, 298 ZFC-FC temperature, 154 interactions antiferromagnetic exchange, 33 dipole, 47, 57, 63, 66, 350

double exchange, 144, 145, 158, 161 exchange, 12, 35, 47, 57, 63, 113, 113, 130, 144, 169, 185, 205, 227, 247, 281, 352 indirect exchange, 317 magnetoelastic, 10, 125, 156 oscillating indirect exchange, 276 quadrupolar, 195, 250 RKKI-type exchange, 197, 270 superexchange, 144, 145, 158, 339, 343 intermetallic compounds, 37, 179, 314, 315, 353 Ce2 Fe17 , 214 Ce(Fe-Co)2 , 217, 219 DyCu2 , 195 Dy(Co-Si)2 , 242 (Dy-Gd)Co2 , 243 (Dy-Er)Al2 , 180, 186, 188, 189, 209, 407 (Dy-Ho)Ga2 , 196, 197, 359 ErAg, 195, 246, 358 Er2 Al, 193 ErAl2 , 8385, 8789 Er3 AlCx , 193 ErAgGa, 193 Er3 Co, 244, 353, 356, 357 Er(Co-Ni)2 , 240242, 353 Er(Ni-Co), 353, 354, 356, 357, 361, 362, 414 ErNi, 353, 354, 380, 388 (Er-Gd)Ni, 357 (Er-Y)Ni, 201 (Er-Yb)Ni, 353, 356, 357 ErNi2 , 353, 354, 359 (Er-Dy)Ni2 , 205, 353, 355 Er3 Ni, 195, 244, 353356, 358 Er3 (Ni-Ti), 208 Er6 Ni2 Sn, 208, 358 Er6 Ni2 Pb, 208, 358 Gd3 Al2 , 191, 192 (Gd-Er)Al2 , 189, 209, 383 (Gd-Er)NiAl, 209, 210, 244, 246, 406, 407, 413 (Gd-Dy)Al2 , 180 (Gd-Dy-Er)CoAl, 244 (Gd-R)Co2 (R ¼ Tb, Lu, Y), 243 Gd2 In, 199, 200

Index GdNiGa, 209 GdNiIn, 209, 406 Gd3 Pd4 , 193, 194 GdPd, 194 Gd7 Pd3 , 194, 412 GdRh, 194, 195, 246 (Gd-Er)Rh, 353 GdZn, 194, 406 HoCu2 , 359 HoNi2 , 189 Ho0:5 Dy0:5 Al2:25 , 187 LaCo2 , 220 LaCo13 , 220 LaFe13 , 220 La(Fe-Co)11:83 Al1:17 , 221 LaðFe0:98 Co0:02 Þ11:7 Al1:3 , 221 LaFe11:44 Si1:56 H1:0 , 225 LaFe11:57 Si1:43 H1:3 , 225 LaFe11:2 Co0:7 Si1:1 , 225 La(M1 x M0x )13 (M ¼ Fe, Ni; M0 ¼ Si, Al), 220225, 246, 275, 412, 413, 417, 420 LuCo2 , 226, 227, 241 Lu2 Fe17 , 214, 217, 218 Nd7 Co6 Al7 , 244 Nd2 Fe17 , 217 (Pr-Nd)Ag, 195, 359 Pr2 Fe17 , 214 PrNi5 , 205, 207, 419 RAg (R ¼ Pr, Nd, Er), 195 RAl2 (R ¼ Y, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Gd, Tb, Ho, Er, Dy, Tm, La, Lu), 179, 180, 184, 185, 187, 188, 190, 246, 406, 407, 413, 419, 420 RAl2:2 (R ¼ Er, Ho, Dy), 187, 393 RAl2:15 (R ¼ Er, Ho, Ho-Dy), 389 RAl3 , 187 RCo2 (R ¼ Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er), 225232, 242244, 246, 359, 406, 407, 420 (R-Y)Co2 (R ¼ Er, Ho, Dy), 243 RCoAl (R ¼ Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho), 243, 344 RGa2 (R ¼ Pr, Nd, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er), 196, 197, 198, 246, 359 RFe2 (R ¼ Tb, Er, Y), 211, 214 RFe3 (R ¼ Ho, Y), 211, 214 RFe4 Al8 (R ¼ Y, Er), 225

469

(R-Ce)2 Fe17 (R ¼ Y, Pr), 214 RMn2 (R ¼ Y, Gd, Tb, Er), 244, 245 RMn4 Al8 (R ¼ Y, Nd, Gd, Dy, Er), 245, 246 RNi (R ¼ Gd, Ho, Er), 200, 201, 205, 210, 211, 244, 246, 353, 354 RNi2 (R ¼ Pr, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Lu, La), 189, 201, 204207, 210, 211, 244, 246, 353, 354, 359, 382, 383, 414, 419 RNi5 , 200, 205 R3 Ni (R ¼ Pr, Nd, Er), 200, 207, 208, 210, 211, 246, 361, 362, 414 RNiGe (R ¼ Gd, Dy, Er), 209, 210, 353 Tb0:8 Er0:2 Co2 , 243 (Tb-Gd)Al2 , 190 (Tb-Y)Fe2 , 211, 214 TmAg, 194, 195 TmCu, 194196 YCo2 , 220, 226 Y2 Fe17 , 214218 Invar compounds, 220 ionic radius, 156 iron, 96101, 103 -Fe, 221, 222 iron ammonium alum, 66, 340 irreversible process (in a refrigeration cycle), 370 irreversibility (in a regenerator), 371 Ising model, 143 lattice, 57 isobaric conditions, 7, 8 isothermal process, 393, 394 itinerant electrons, 144, 179, 220, 226, 243, 243, 245 itinerant magnetism, 217 interstitial impurities, 281 JahnTeller eﬀect, 143, 156, 175177 Kramer doublets, 132, 133 Landau theory of second order phase transitions, 9, 27, 42, 56, 97, 230, 418 LandauGinsburg functional, 298 Langevin function, 13

470

Index

lanthanum cobaltate (La1 x Srx CoO3 ), 164 latent heat, 28 Laves phase, 179, 201, 217, 220, 225, 244 lead (Pd), 65, 201, 208, 246, 352, 353355, 357, 358, 359, 361, 362364 localized magnetism, 217, 226 lock-in ampliﬁer, 7679 longitudinal spin wave (structure), 277 Lorentz number, 105 La, 60 Lu, 284 magnetic clusters, 44, 48 commensurate phases, 195 cryocooler, 62 eﬀective ﬁeld, 64 ﬁeld strength, 422 critical ﬁeld, 35, 120, 122 incommensurate phases, 195 induction, 422 moment, 4, 11, 13, 45, 276, 311, 422, 42 phase diagram (H–T), 41, 112, 123, 276, 287, 294, 299, 301, 303, 322324 polarization, 422, 423 refrigerators, 14, 62, 65, 139, 365, 366 spin ﬂuctuations, 184 susceptibility, 422, 423 working body, 65, 365, 389, 390, 391, 405 magnetic entropy change, 16, 1720, 49, 81 magnetic moment, 4, 11 atomic, 11 eﬀective, 13, 311, 429 localized, 276 nuclear, 349 saturation magnetic, 45 spontaneous, 13 magnetic phase separation, 126 magnetic working body, 65, 365 hybrid (complex) 389, 390, 391, 405 magnetism itinerant, 217 localized, 217, 226

magnetization 9, 422, 423 axis, 139, (176, 348 (easy)), (172, 348 (hard)) mean, 43 remanent, 261 saturation, 9, 222, 429 speciﬁc, 112, 261 spontaneous, 10, 12, 49, 56, 101 cycle, 9 magnetization axis, 139 easy, 176, 348 hard, 172, 348 magnetocaloric eﬀect (MCE), 1 anisotropic (contribution), 49, 50, 172, 279, 320 eﬀective, 413 giant, 273 of paraprocess, 8, 172, 279 speciﬁc, 42, 126 magnetoelastic coupling, 156 eﬀect, 156 strain, 305 magneton Bohr, 67 nuclear, 67 magnetoresistance eﬀect 155, 254, 256 colossal, 126, 143, 145, 154, 159 magnetostructural transition, 275 magnetostriction, 7, 62, 94, 95, 240 constants, 51, 103 forced volume, 262 giant, 323, 329 spontaneous, 27, 226 spontaneous volume, 238, 301 volume, 301 magnetovolume eﬀect, 9, 246, 420 nonreversible, 9 magnons, 55 magnon mechanism of thermal conductivity, 105, 284 manganese ammonium sulfate ðMnSO4 ðNH4 Þ2 SO4 Þ, 64, 65 manganese spinel ferrites chromites ðMnFe2 x Crx O4 Þ, 168, 169 manganites, 126, 143 LaMnO3 , 144, 146, 166

Index La0:67 A0:33 MnO3 (A ¼ Ca, Ba, Sr), 143, 146 (La-Ag)MnO3 , 161, 162 (La-Ca)Mn2 O7 , 158, 159 (La-Ca)MnO3 , 147, 154159, 162, 166, 167, 407 La0:75 Ca0:25 MnO3 , 146 La2=3 Ca1=3 MnO3 , 146, 156, 159 (La-Ca-Pd)MnO3 , 157 (La-Ca-Ti)MnO3 , 157 La2=3 ðCa1 x Srx Þ1=3 MnO3 , 146, 156 (La-Er-Ca)MnO3 , 156 (La-Gd-Sr)MnO3 , 159 (La-K)MnO3 , 161 (La-Na)MnO3 , 161, 407 (La-Nd-Ca)MnO3 , 156, 158 (La-Nd-Ca)(Mn-Cr)O3 , 157, 158 (La-Nd-Pb)MnO3 , 167, 168 (La-Pb)MnO3 , 167, 168 (La-Sr)MnO3 , 146, 147, 159, 166 (La-Sr)(Mn-Cr)O3 , 160, 168 (La-Y-Ca)MnO3 , 159 (La-Y-Sr)MnO3 , 159, 160 (La-Yb-Ca)Mn2 O7 , 159 La0:875 Sr0:125 MnO3 , 143 La2=3 Sr1=3 MnO3 , 146, 156, 159 La0:06 Y0:07 Ca0:33 MnO3 , 146 Nd0:7 Ba0:3 MnO3 , 166 Nd0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3 , 146 ðNdSmÞ1=2 Sr1=2 MnO3 , 146 Pr0:63 Ca0:37 MnO3 , 146, 164 Pr0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3 , 146, 162, 164, 168 (Pr-Nd)0:5 Sr0:5 MnO3 , 162 (R-Sr)MnO3 (R ¼ Nd, Pr), 154 (Sm-Sr)MnO3 , 95, 165 Sm0:6 Sr0:4 MnO3 , 95 martensite phase, 120, 121, 412 martensiticaustenitic transition, 121, 125 Maxwell equations, 5, 17 mean ﬁeld, 45 mean ﬁeld approximation (MFA), 10, 12, 25, 33, 44, 48, 49, 56, 57, 79, 85, 97, 98, 105, 125, 133, 134, 139, 159, 185, 186, 205, 214, 221, 246, 252, 280, 281, 287, 289, 297, 309, 313, 328, 331, 336, 401, 404, 418 three-dimensional, 186, 205

471

mechanical strain, 103 melt spinning, 334, 336, 338, 361 mesh screen, 357 metals 3d transition, 14, 9698, 123, 125 heavy rare earth, 33, 60, 81, 97, 98 lanthanide, 60 metamagnetic transition, 114, 117, 118, 163, 175, 179, 192, 200, 219, 220, 222, 223, 226, 252, 254256, 271, 296, 298, 419 metamagnetism, 242 metastable process, 9 methods (of magnetic susceptibility measurement) force-balance, 64 inductance, 64, 66 methods (of MCE measurement) adiabatic magnetization, 85 direct, 69 heat capacity measurements, 86 indirect, 69, 77, 81 magneto-optical, 70 magnetization and thermal expansion measurement, 94 non-contact, 77 pulsed magnetic ﬁeld, 69, 7073, 89 ramped magnetic ﬁeld, 69 switch-on technique, 69, 89 thermoacoustic, 77, 78 mictomagnetic ordering, 220 minimal no-load temperature, 356358, 362, 363, 382, 383 mixed magnesium-zinc ferrite MgOZnO:2Fe2 O3 , 170 modulated spin structure, 256, 304 molar mass, 427 ratio, 389 volume, 54 mole, 16 molecular ﬁeld, 12, 34, 56, 226 molecular cluster, 338, 343, 345 Fe8 , 343, 347350 Mnx (x ¼ 28), 344 Mn10 , 344, 347 Mn12 , 343, 347350 MnOx (x 9), 344

472

Index

molecular cluster (continued ) NaMn6 , 344 system, 350 Monte-Carlo method, 25, 47, 48, 49, 145 Mo¨ssbauer spectroscopy, 330, 339, 341 nanocomposite, 44 compound, 339, 340 Dy-Zr, 230 ribbons, 338, 339 system, 47, 338, 340 nanocrystallite, 338 nanograins, 340, 341 nanopowder ribbon, 339 nanosize crystal structure, 230 particles, 44 Nee´l model, 33 temperature, 41 neodymium gallate (NdGaO3 ), 142 Neumann and Kopp law, 53 neutron scattering (diﬀraction), 33, 145, 185, 197, 207, 217, 251, 256, 273, 277, 322 nickelchromite (NiFeCrO4 ), 169 no-load regime (of refrigerator), 382 no-load temperature, minimal, 356358 noncollinear spin structure, 269 nuclear resonance, 67 nuclear magnetic moment, 349 number of heat transfer units, 371373, 379 Nd, 277, 308, 309, 361, 362, 364, 414 Ni, 96104 operational frequency (of refrigerator), 353, 359, 367, 389, 396 orbital ordering, 126, 143 orthoaluminates (REOA, RAlO3 , R ¼ rare earth), 126, 137, 139, 401, 402 GdAlO3 , 139, 401 DyAlO3 , 139, 141, 142, 177, 397, 401 (Dy-Er)AlO3 , 139, 142, 346, 401 ErAlO3 , 139, 141, 142, 346, 401 HoAlO3 , 139, 141, 142 LaAlO3 , 142

orthoferrites (RFeO3 , R ¼ Yb, Er, Tm), 142 ErFeO3 , 142 TmFeO3 , 142 oscillating spin structure, 321 oxide compounds, 126 packing density (of regenerator), 359 paramagnet nuclear, 67 electronic, 67 paramagnetic salt, 62, 64, 65 paramagnetic state, 12 paramagnetism, exchange-enhanced Pauli, 226 paraprocess, 8, 33, 96, 103, 238, 240, 293, 309, 314, 320, 323, 324 antiferromagnetic-type, 34, 122, 127130, 169, 195, 200, 214, 231, 252, 253, 258, 287, 296, 301, 323, 418 ferromagnetic-type, 34, 35, 127130, 168, 169 high-ﬁeld, 314 partition function, 10, 11, 53, 57 penetration depth, 353, 359 permanent magnet, 109 permeability of free space, 423 permittivity of free space, 423 perovskites, 137 perovskites RMeO3 , 142 CaRuO3 , 143 rare earth orthoferrites (RFeO3 , R ¼ Yb, Er, Tm), 142 neodymium gallate (NdGaO3 ), 142 (Sr-Ca)RuO3 , 143 SrRuO3 , 143 phase separation, 143, 145, 154 phonons, 105, 284 plasma-rotating electrode process, 386 Plexiglas, 70, 75 point charge model, 201, 244 porosity, 362, 380 internal, 359 overall, 373 potassium chrome alum, 66 pressure drop (in a regenerator), 370, 372

Index Pb (lead), 65, 201, 208, 246, 352, 353355, 357, 358, 359, 361, 362364 quantum tunnelling (of magnetization), 344, 349, 315 quasi-adiabatic, 41 refrigerator AMR, 374, 375, 377, 379384, 390, 391, 416 eﬃciency, 352, 367, 370374, 384, 386, 396, 397 magnetic, 14, 62, 65, 139, 365, 366 no-load regime, 382 operation frequency, 353 reciprocating AMR, 380, 381, 383385 rotary (wheel) AMR, 383, 384, 421 rotary Carnot, 396, 399 refrigerant capacity, 14, 357, 367, 406 maximum, 402, 404 speciﬁc, 412 speciﬁc maximum, 402404 refrigeration: capacity, 355357, 363 power, 356 regenerator, 208, 351, 352 dead volume, 384 double-layer, 356 eﬃciency, 356 four-layer, 358 GiﬀordMcMahon (G-M), 362, 363 irreversibility, 371 Laybold, 362 layered (hybrid), 356, 357, 414 magnetically augmented, 351, 387, 388 material Er0:968 O0:027 N0:003 C0:002 , 364 monolithic, 361 multi-layer, 358 packing density, 359 passive magnetic, 309, 351 pressure drop, 370, 372 second-stage, 355, 356 temperature span, 351, 352, 366, 382, 386, 388, 392 thermal mass, 376, 377 triple-layer hybrid, 357, 358

473

refrigeration thermodynamical cycle active magnetic regenerator (AMR), 365, 370, 376, 377, 391, 415 gas, 372 irreversible, 370, 371 magnetic-type regenerative Brayton, 365, 366, 369, 370, 377, 379, 389, 402, 415 magnetic-type regenerative Ericsson, 365370, 377, 379, 389392, 415 nonregenerative Carnot, 365, 377, 393, 397, 400, 401, 415, 421 regenerative, 351 rotational speed, 356 scanning electron microscopy, 156, 361 Schottky anomaly, 58, 132, 166, 188, 193, 195, 205, 208, 210, 244, 245, 355, 413 eﬀect, 57, 58 heat capacity contribution, 198 s-d model, 226, 243 second law of thermodynamics, 6 semiadiabatic conditions, 91, 92 short-range order, 31 siderite (FeCO3 ), 70, 174 silicides, 247, 250 Dy5 Si4 , 268 Dy5 Si3 Ge1 , 269 GdFeSi, 254, 259, 275 Gd2 PdSi3 , 258 GdPd, 255 Gd2 Pd2 Si3 , 275 Gd5 Si0:33 Ge3:67 , 269 Gd5 Si1Ge3 , 261, 275 Gd5 Si1:8 Ge2:2 , 222, 266 Gd5 Si1:72 Ge2:28 , 275 Gd5 Si2 Ge2 , 238, 240, 261, 266, 271, 274, 275, 407 Gd5 Si1:985 Ge1:985 Ni0:03 , 274 Gd5 Si1:985 Ge1:985 Ga0:03 , 274 Gd5 Si4 , 258, 407 (Gd-Pr)5 Si4 , 273 (Gd-Tb)5 Si4 , 270 NdMn2 Si2 , 256, 257, 275 PrCo2 Si2 , 255, 256 Pr0:8 La0:2 Co2 Si2 , 255, 256 ðRR0 Þ5 (Si-Ge)4 , 247, 275

474

Index

silicides (continued ) R5 (Si-Ge)4 (R ¼ Nd, Pr, Gd, Tb, Dy), 110, 114, 119, 121, 135, 231, 247, 258261, 268, 269, 271, 273275, 329, 407, 412, 413, 417, 420 Tb2 PdSi3 , 257 Tb5 Si4 , 270, 271 Tb5 (Si-Ge)4 , 270272 (Tb-Gd)5 (Si-Ge)4 , 269, 270 skyscraper shape of SM ðTÞ, TðTÞ curves, 231 sol-gel method, 156 solid state reaction, 156 speciﬁc MCE, 42, 126 spinel Li2 Fe5 Cr5 O16 , 169, 170, 214 spin angular momentum, 25 spin ﬂuctuations, 184 spin glass, 154, 164, 193, 331, 334, 336, 337, 342 spinlattice relaxation time, 18, 372 spin reorientation transition, 142, 170172, 188, 194, 200, 226, 231, 243, 269, 277, 278, 316, 320, 321 spin–slip transition, 304, 305 spin structure amplitude modulated, 255 antiferromagnetic helicoidal (HAFM), 35, 39, 61, 217, 276, 284, 287, 293, 294, 296299, 302, 313, 321, 323, 324, 326329 antiferromagnetic layered, 256 canting, 164 commensurate, 195, 304, 305, 326 conical, 277, 304, 305, 60 cycloid, 277, 304 fan, 35, 217, 276, 284, 287, 293, 297, 299, 326, 327 ferromagnetic spiral-type, 321, 322, 324 incommensurate, 195 longitudinal spin wave, 277 modulated, 256, 304 noncollinear, 269 oscillating, 321 spiral, 200 vortex, 299 spin waves, 55, 166, 198

staircase-like MCE and SM temperature dependences, 310 statistical sum, 10 stoichiometry violation, 217 structural disorder, 330 heterogeneities, 337 transition, 31, 6062, 146, 222, 247, 261, 266, 275, 301, 328, 329 sum rule, 45, 46, 48 supercooling, 304, 305 superexchange (interactions), 144, 145, 158, 339, 343 superferromagnet, 48, 154 superheating, 301, 304, 305 superparamagnetic behaviour, 339 Langevin model, 341 particle, 338, 348 state, 336, 348 system, 44, 338, 340, 345, 346, 350 superparamagnet, 45, 339, 341345 Si, 104 Sm, 60 SmCo5 , 75, 76 table-like SM ðTÞ dependence behaviour, 209, 221, 244, 246 Teﬂon, 74, 75, 78 thermal conductivity, 104, 105, 136, 139, 143, 167, 177, 190, 195, 210, 244, 281, 284, 287, 293, 294, 301303, 306, 307, 309, 353, 359, 364, 370, 429 thermal expansion, 146, 156, 220, 245 thermal mass, 371, 379 thermal mass ﬂow rate, 371, 376 thermal (heat) switch gas, 65, 90, 91 superconducting, 65, 66, 398 thermal siphon-type, 398 thermal shield, 68 thermocouple 6972 diﬀerential, 70, 71, 72 thermodynamic potential, 28 total angular momentum operator, 12 total surface area, 362 transitions charge-ordering, 162164, 167

Index crystal structure 9, 115, 116, 118, 175, 226, 294 magnetic ﬁrst order, 9, 28, 81, 109, 111113, 115122, 125, 126, 146, 155, 156, 165, 179, 187, 195, 198, 219223, 225228, 231, 232, 238, 241243, 245247, 251, 252, 256, 261, 266, 269, 271, 274276, 284, 294, 298, 304, 323, 325, 326, 328, 406, 407, 412, 414, 418, 420 magnetic orderorder, 31, 56 magnetic second order, 9, 81, 117, 146, 155, 159, 166, 195, 200, 221, 226, 231, 238, 241243, 246, 261, 266, 269, 271, 273, 276, 277, 294, 296, 298, 326, 418 magnetostructural, 275 martensiticaustenitic, 121, 125 metamagnetic ﬁeld-induced, 114, 117, 118, 163, 175, 179, 192, 200, 219, 220, 222, 223, 226, 252, 254256, 271, 296, 298, 419 orthorhombicrhombohedral crystal phase, 159 reversible structure, 120 spin reorientation, 142, 170172, 188, 194, 200, 226, 231, 243, 269, 277, 278, 316, 320, 321 spinslip, 304, 305 structural, 31, 6062, 146, 222, 247, 261, 266, 275, 301, 328, 329 tricritical point, 294, 296, 303, 322, 323, 326, 327, 419 Tb, 97, 252, 269, 284, 287294, 310313, 328, 403, 404, 406, 419

475

Tm, 277, 284, 306308, 310316 units, 422 unit system CGS, 422 e.m.u. (subsystem), 422 e.s.u. (subsystem), 422 Gaussian, 422, 423 SI, 422, 413 vanadites (RVO4 ),126, 177 DyVO4 , 175177, 402 (Dy-Gd)VO4 , 175, 177 GdVO4 , 177 PrVO4 , 177, 178 vortex (spin structure), 299 wire Gd, 365 Gd0:6 Dy0:4 , 365 Dy, 365 x-ray, 176, 187, 193, 208, 220, 222, 229, 268, 269, 270, 271, 273, 330, 335, 341 yttrium (Y), 226 yttrium iron garnet, 69 Y2 Fe5 O12 , 32 Yb, 60, 159, 276 YbPO4 , 177 Zeeman eﬀect, 177 ZFC (zero ﬁeld cooled) magnetization measurement, 147, 204, 348