The Inner Kalacakratantra: A Buddhist Tantric View of the Individual

The Inner Kalacakratantra

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The Inner Kalacakratantra A Buddhist Tantric View of the Individual

Vesna A. Wallace

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2OOI

OXJORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Oxford Ne w Yor k Athens Aucklan d Bangko k Bogot a Bueno s Aires Cap e Tow n Chennai Dar es Salaam Delh i Florenc e Hon g Kong Istanbu l Karach i Kolkata Kual a Lumpur Madri d Melbourn e Mexic o Cit y Mumba i Nairob i Pans Shangha i Singapor e Taipe i Toky o Toront o Warsa w and associated companie s i n Berlin Ibada n

Copyright © 2001 by Vesna A. Wallace Published by Oxford Universit y Press, Inc., 198 Madison Avenue , New York , New Yor k 1001 6 Oxford i s a registered trademark o f Oxford Universit y Press All rights reserved. No par t of this publication ma y be reproduced, stored i n a retrieval system, or transmitted, i n any form o r by any means , electronic, mechanical , photocopying , recording , or otherwise, without the prio r permission of Oxford Universit y Press. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a Wallace, Vesn a A. The inne r kalacakratantr a . a Buddhist tantric vie w of the individua l / Vesn a A . Wallace . p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and inde x ISBN 0-19-512211-9 i. Tripioaka . S&trapioaka . Tantra. Kalacakratantra—Criticism, interpretation, etc . 2. Ma n (Buddhism ) 3 . Body , Human—Religious aspects—Buddhism. 4. Tantric Buddhism—Doctrines. I. Title. BQ2I77-W35 200 0 294-3'85—dc2i 00-022893

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2

Printed i n the United State s o f America on acid-fre e paper

Preface

T

he Kalacakratantra an d it s commentarial literature are a rich textua l source for the stud y of diverse but mutually related fields of South Asian studies in general and of South Asia n Buddhism in particular. The work s that belong to the Kalacakra literary corpus warrant careful researc h for several reasons. They expres s the doctri nal and social theories an d the relevan t tantri c practice s that were characteristic of north Indian Buddhism in its final stages. A study of those theorie s and practices reveals the ways in which the Indian tantric Buddhists from the early eleventh century on interprete d an d further developed earlie r Buddhist idea s and thei r practica l ap plications. The Kalacakratantra literatur e also sheds light on the religiou s and social conditions o f eleventh-century Indi a in general an d on the socia l standing and role of Indian tantri c Buddhis m of that era in particular. For these reasons, a main focus o f this book i s on th e Kalacakr a tradition a s an Indian Buddhis t tradition . Althoug h th e Kalacakr a tradition has been a significant component o f Tibetan Buddhism to this day and has produced a large body of tantric literature i n Tibet, fo r a number o f reasons the intende d tas k of this book i s not t o provide a detailed analysi s of the Indo-Tibetan Kalacakra tradition a s a whole. Th e Kalacakra traditio n a s a whole include s a plurality of texts an d interpretativ e per spectives, some of which are not i n agreement wit h each other ; an d i t deals with a n extensive variety of topics, which deserv e separate scholarly analyses. Likewise, the diverse an d comple x historiographical , textual , an d philosophica l problem s sur rounding the Kalacakra literature of both India and Tibet, which should be addressed in great detail, require a collaborative effor t o f scholars who are willing to undertak e such a task. The centra l topi c o f this book is the Kdlacakratantra's vie w of the natur e o f the individual and one's place in the universe and society. Accordingly, a primary theme of the boo k is a textual, historical, and philosophical analysi s of the secon d chapte r of the Kalacakratantra, called the "Chapter on the Individual" (adhyatma'patala), an d its principal commentary, the Vimalaprabhd. However, since the Kalacakra tradition's theory of the human bein g permeates all the chapters of the Kalacakratantra, the sec-

vi

Preface

ond chapter o f the Kalacakratantm is intimately related to the other chapters o f this tantra. For example, the Kalacakratantra' s view of the individua l is inseparable from its view of the univers e as discussed in th e first chapter o f the tantra. Likewise, th e purpose of the Kalacakratantra's presentation of the individual' s psycho-physiology in the "Chapte r on the Individual " becomes clear only when examined i n light o f the tantric yogi c practices described in the third , fourth , and fifth chapters. Therefore , in this book th e topic s of the inne r Kdlacakratantra ar e dealt with i n their relation ship to the large r context o f the Kalacakratantra's theor y and practice . In accordance wit h the Kalacakratantra's theory of nonduality, this book analyzes the Kalacakr a tradition's view of the individua l in terms of the individua l as cosmos, society, gnosis, an d th e pat h o f spiritual transformation. Fo r this reason, th e mai n chapters of this book ar e entitled th e "Gnosti c Body, " the "Cosmi c Body, " the "So cial Body," and th e "Transformativ e Body." Santa Barbara, California V August 1999

. A. W .

Acknowledgments

I

owe a great debt o f gratitude t o th e Fetze r Institute, an d especiall y to th e forme r director o f the researc h program there, Professor Arthur Zajonc, for its generous financial support , which enable d m e to continue th e researc h an d writing that I initially started durin g my graduate studies at the Universit y of California i n Berkeley. My forme r professors and distinguishe d scholar s i n th e Departmen t o f South an d Southeast Asian Studies and in the Department of East Asian Languages an d Liter ature at the Universit y of California, Berkeley , prepared me for this work and facili tated my initial researc h an d writing of this book. I am very grateful t o Ms. Cynthi a Reed, editor at Oxford University Press , who believed i n me and in this project long before i t was finished. I also wish to express my appreciation t o the editor s at Oxford University Press , especiall y t o Mr . Robert Milk s and Mr . Theodore Calderara , fo r their meticulou s work and graciousness. I am also greatly indebted t o Mr . Calvin Smith for his patience an d enduranc e in the painstakin g tas k of proofreading the manuscrip t an d correcting th e awkward expressions to which I as a nonnative English speaker am prone. I thank him fo r all the hours tha t he spent in making an d adjusting th e graphic s i n the book. My sincere gratitude also goes to Mr . Brian Bailey for his professional help i n creating th e graphics for chapter 7 on th e "Cosmi c Body " and t o Mr . David Reigl e for his gen erosity in providing me with copie s of the Sanskri t manuscripts . I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my husband, Alan Wallace, for reading th e manuscrip t an d offerin g hi s usefu l comments , fo r supporting m e i n my work, and bringing light t o the darknes s of my ruminations. Finally , I wish to thank my daughter, Sarah, fo r her endurin g love that inspires all my worthy endeavors .

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Contents

Introduction 3 1 Th 2A

e Broade r Theoretical Framewor k of the Kalacakratantra

6

History of the sod-anga-jiog a of the Kalacakratantra and It s Relation to Other Religious Traditions of India 2 5

3 Th

e Nature of Syncretism in the Kalacakratantra 3

4 Th

e Concep t of Science i n the Kalacakra Tradition 4

5 Th

e Cosmi c Body 5

6

6 Th

e Socia l Body 10

9

7 Th

e Gnosti c Bod y 14

8 Th

e Transformativ e Body 18

Conclusion 21 Notes 21

7

Bibliography 24 Index 26

5

1

5

3 2

1 3

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

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Introduction

nr-ihe Kalacakratantra is an early eleventh-century esoteri c treatise belonging to the 1 clas s of unexcelled yoga-tantras (anuttara-yoga'tantra). T o the best of our knowledge, it was the las t anuttara-yoga-tantra to appear in India. According to the Kalacakra tradition, the extant version of the Kdlacakratantra is an abridged version o f the large r original tantra, called th e Paramadibuddha, tha t was taugh t b y the Buddh a Sakyamuni t o Sucandra , th e kin g of Sambhala an d a n emanation o f Vajrapani, i n the Dhanyakatak a stupa, a notable cente r of Mahayana in th e vicinit y of the present-da y village of AmaravatI in Andhra Pradesh. Upon receiving instruction o n the Paramadibuddhatantra an d returning to Sambhala, King Sucandra wrote it down and propagated it throughout hi s kingdom. His six successors continued t o maintain th e inherite d tradition , an d th e eight h kin g of Sambhala, Manjusr T Yasas , compose d th e abridge d version o f the Paramadibuddhatantra, which i s handed dow n t o u s a s the Sovereig n Abridged Kdlacakratantra (Laghukdlacakratantrardja). I t i s traditionally taught tha t it is composed of 1,030 verses written in the sradghara meter. 1 However, various Sanskrit manuscript s and edition s of the Laghukdlacakratantra contain a somewhat larger number of verses, ranging from i ,037 to 1,04 7 verses. The ter m an "abridge d tantra" (laghu-tantra) ha s a specific meanin g in India n Buddhis t tantri c tradition . It s traditiona l interpretatio n i s give n i n Nadapada's (Naropa) Sekoddesatikd, whic h states that in every yoga, yogim, and other types of tantras, the concise , genera l explanations (uddesa) an d specific explanation s (nirdesa) mak e up a tantric discourse (tantra-samgift'), an d that discourse, which i s an exposition (uddesana) there , i s an entir e abridged tantra.2 The traditio n tells us that Manjusr T Yasas's successor Pundarika, who was an emanation o f Avalokitesvara, compose d a larg e commentary o n th e Kdlacakratantra, called the Stainles s Light (Vimalaprabhd), whic h became the mos t authoritative commentary on th e Kdlacakratantra an d served as the basi s for all subsequent commen tarial literatur e o f that literar y corpus. The plac e o f the Vimalaprabhd i n th e Kala cakra literar y corpu s i s o f grea t importance , fo r i n man y instances , withou t th e Vimalaprabhd, i t would be practically impossible to understand no t onl y the broader 3

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

implications o f the Kalacakratantra's crypti c verses and ofte n grammatically corrupt sentences bu t thei r basi c meanings . I t has been sai d that th e Kalacakratantra i s explicit with regar d t o the tantri c teachings that are often onl y implie d i n the other anuttara-yoga-tantras, bu t thi s explicitnes s i s actually far more characteristic o f th e Vimalaprabhd tha n of the Kalacakratantra itself . According t o Tibetan sources , the dcdrya Cilup a from Orissa , who lived i n th e second hal f of the tent h century, afte r readin g the Kalacakratantra i n the monaster y in Ratnagiri, undertook a journey to Sambhala i n order to receive oral teachings that would illuminate the text . Afte r his return to southern India , he initiall y had thre e students, one o f whom wa s the grea t pandita Pindo, who was originally from Bengal . The dcdrya Pind o becam e a teache r o f Kalacakrapad a the Senior , wh o wa s fro m northern Bengal (Varendra). After returning to eastern India, Kalacakrapada the Senior taught the Kalacakratantra to his disciples, th e most famous of whom was Kalacakrapada the Junior, who built the Kalacakra temple in Nalanda, believing that the propagation of the Kalacakratantra i n Magadha would facilitate its propagation i n all directions. I shall no t discus s here al l the variant s i n the account s give n b y the Tibetan Rwa and 'Bro traditions of the history of the Kalacakratantra in India, for these accounts have already been narrated in other readily available works by other Western scholars and in English translations of the Tibeta n sources. 3 One o f the reference s that seem s significant for establishing the perio d o f th e propagation o f the Kalacakratantra i n Indi a i s the referenc e i n th e Kalacakratantra (Ch. 2, v. 27) an d th e Vimalaprabhd t o th e en d o f the sexagenar y cycle that come s 403 years after the HijrT , or Islamic era (mlecchendra-varsa), o f 622 CE. Likewise, th e same texts asser t that the hundre d an d eighty-second yea r after th e Hijr T er a is the period o f th e elevent h Kalkl , th e kin g Aja , whic h i s corroborated b y th e Kolacakrdnusdriganita^ whic h state s furthe r tha t afte r th e tim e o f Kalki Aja , 22 1 years passed till the end of the sexagenary cycle. Thus, addin g 221 years to 182 , one arrives at the numbe r of 403 years after th e Hijr T era. In light of this, I agree with G. Orofin o in determinin g th e yea r to b e 102 6 CE , relying on th e India n syste m of reckonin g years, i n which 62 3 C E is included i n th e spa n o f 403 years. 5 This i s in contras t t o G. Gronbol d an d D . Schuh , wh o assume d without substantia l evidenc e tha t th e Kalacakra traditio n incorrectl y calculate d th e Hijr T er a a s beginning a t 64 2 C E and thus determined the yea r to be 102 7 CE by adding th e spa n of 403 years to the yea r of 624 CE.6

According t o the Vimalaprabhd commentary , the Paramddibuddhatantra wa s composed of twelve thousand verses , written in the anustubh meter.7 However, we cannot determin e now with certainty whether th e Paramddibuddhatantra eve r existed as a single text o r as a corpus of mutually related writings, since we know fro m th e Vi malaprabha8 tha t th e Sekoddesa, whic h circulate d a s an independen t tex t i n early eleventh-century India , ha s traditionall y bee n considere d t o b e a par t o f th e Paramddibuddhatantra. Nearly two hundred and ten verses from the Adibuddhatantra are cited throughou t th e fiv e chapter s o f the Vimalaprabha; an d som e verses attributed t o the Pararnddibuddhatantra ar e also scattered in other writings related to the Kalacakr a literary corpus, such as the Sekoddesatippam9 an d the Paramdrthasamgraha,10 which cites the vers e from th e Paramddibuddhatantra tha t coincide s wit h th e opening vers e of the Ddkinwajrapaniaratantra.1^ Likewise , some citations fro m the Paramddibuddhatantra ar e

Introduction 5

found i n the commentaria l literature on the Hevajmtantra, specifically—i n th e Hevajrapirddrthatikd12 an d i n the Vajrapadasdrasamgrahapanjikd.13' In additio n to these , ther e ar e other piece s of textual evidenc e foun d i n th e Abridged Kdlacakratantra an d i n the Vimalaprabhd, suc h as the repeate d references to the Hevajratantra, th e Guhyasamdjatantra, th e Cakrasanwaratantra, an d t o th e Manjusrindmasamgiti, whic h th e Vimalaprabhd identifie s a s the sixteent h chapte r of the Mdydjdlatantra. Thes e sugges t tha t th e Paramddibuddhatantra mus t have bee n composed afte r these tantric traditions o f the seventh and eighth centuries wer e already well established. The work s of the eminen t Indian Kdlacakratantra adepts, such as those of Darika, Anupamaraksita, an d Sadhuputra , which ar e preserved in th e differen t version s of the Tibetan Bsta n 'gyur, can be dated to the beginning of the elevent h century . The writings o f the Bengal i author Abhayakaragupta , wh o wa s a contemporar y o f th e Bengali king Ramapala, and the work s of RavisrTjnana from KasmTr , can be traced to the lat e eleventh and earl y twelfth centuries. Likewise, the writing s of the Bengal i author Vibhuticandr a who studied in Magadha, and the work s of the KasmT r autho r Sakyasnbhadra can be dated to the secon d half of the twelft h and the beginnin g of the thirteenth centuries . Some Tibetan authors indicate that although writing on the Kdlacakratantra migh t have ceased i n India with the Turkis h invasions of Bihar and Bengal a t the beginnin g of the thirteent h century , the Kalacakr a tradition di d not completely di e i n Indi a until th e fifteent h century. 14 I n hi s Histor y of Indian Buddhism,15 Taranath a mention s on e o f the las t o f the India n Buddhis t panditas, Va naratna, fro m eastern Bengal, who in 142 6 was the las t Indian pandita to reach Tibet through Nepal . Having reached Tibet, h e taugh t an d cotranslated severa l works of the Kalacakra corpus from Sanskri t int o Tibetan. According t o the Blue Annals, the best of the initiation s and precepts of the Kdlacakratantra came at that time from Vanaratna.16 Thus, i t seems that the doctrin e an d practice of the Kdlacakratantra were promulgated i n India fo r almost five centuries. It is difficult t o determine with certainty the parts of India in which the first authors o f the Kalacakr a traditio n resided . The Tibeta n accounts , however , indicat e that even thoug h th e Kalacakra tradition initiall y may have started i n south India, the Kdlacakratantra's spher e of influence in India wa s confined to Bengal, Magadha (Bihar), and KasmTr , wherefro m i t was transmitted to Nepal, Tibet, an d eventually to Mongolia, where Kalacakra was instituted as the protectiv e deity of the Mongo l nation.

I

The Broade r Theoretical Framework o f th e Kalacakratantra

T

he Kalacakratantra belongs t o th e clas s of the unexcelle d yoga-tantras (anuttarayoga-tantra); and together with its most authoritative Indian commentary, the Vimalaprabha, i t stands as the mos t comprehensiv e an d informativ e tantra of its class. According t o the Kalacakr a tradition itself , th e Kalacakratantra i s the mos t explici t tantra, which impart s it s teachin g b y revealing th e actua l meanings ; wherea s th e other anuttara-yoga-tantras, which are regarded a s secret, or concealed, tantras, con vey their meaning s in an implicit manner . Accordingly, the Vimalaprabha assert s that in every king of tantras (ra/a-tantra)— specifically, i n the metho d tantra s such as the Gu/vyasamojatantra, and in the wisdom tantras suc h a s the Calcrasanwaratantra—th e Buddh a taugh t th e blissfu l stat e tha t arises from sexua l union, bu t concealed it out of his great compassion fo r the sak e of the spiritual maturation o f simple-minded people. For those who seek understandin g of other anuttara-yoga'tantras, th e Kalacakratantr a i s of inestimabl e valu e for i t ex plains the meaning s in detail. 1 In the instance s i n which othe r system s of the anwt tara-^oga-tantras offer onl y scant information , the Kalacakratantra syste m explicates in detail. For example, th e Vimalaprabha point s out that unlike the other tantras of its class, which onl y suggest that the fourth initiation i s like the third, the Kalacakra tradition reveal s in full it s content and implications. 2 The Kalacakr a tradition als o gives the mos t elaborate presentation o f the human psycho-physiology and the individual's natural and social environments an d their relevanc e t o tantric practices . With regard to th e Kdlacakratantra's explici t and elaborat e manne r o f presenting it s topics, th e Vimalaprabha, jus t lik e the Sekoddesa, assert s that i n th e Adibuddhatantra, th e Buddh a illuminate d th e vajra-word b y means o f general exposition s (uddesa), detaile d description s (nirdesa), an d repeate d reference s (fn-atiniraesa). 3 In light of its explicitness, th e Kalacakratantra claim s superiority over al l other tantras i n the following manner: In every king of tantras, the Vajr i conceale d th e vajra-word, an d i n the Adibuddha, he taught it explicitly and in full for the sake of the liberation of living beings. Therefore, Sucandra, the splendi d Adibuddhatantra, a discourse of the suprem e lord of Ji-

6

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kalacakratantra 7 nas, is the higher , mor e comprehensiv e an d complete tantra than the mundane and supramundane [tantras]. 4

According t o the Vimalaprabha commentar y o n thi s verse, the Buddh a Sakyamuni, wh o abide s in th e vajra o f indivisible gnosis, the inconceivabl e mind-rajra , concealed th e supreme , imperishable bliss (paramaksara-sukha) i n thos e yoginT an d yoga tantras, because otherwise the conceite d Buddhis t panditas i n th e lan d o f th e Aryas, who did not wish to listen to the spiritual mentor (guru), woul d read the book and claim that they understood the vfljra-word. Thus, they would not receive the initiation an d would go to hell, due to their self-graspin g (ahani'kdra). I n contrast, h e taught it explicitly in the Adibuddhatantra i n order to mature those who were born i n the lan d of Sambhala and whose minds were free o f self-grasping. On thes e grounds, the Vimalaprabha affirm s tha t the Adibuddhatantra, whic h i s the discours e of the in nate Sahajakaya , i s more comprehensive and higher than the kriyd an d yoga tantras. This is one wa y in which th e Kalacakratantra system substantiates its self-designation a s unexcelled (anuttara). Likewise , interpreting yoga as the union , or absorption, of bliss and emptiness, or of method an d wisdom, this tantric tradition presents itself a s a nondual (advaya) yoga'tantra, which i s ultimately neither a wisdom tantra nor a method tantra. It views its nonduality of wisdom and metho d a s an expression of nondual gnosis , without which Buddhahoo d coul d never occur. 5 The Kalacakr a tradition als o affirms it s unexcelled status by claiming that th e Adibuddhatantra doe s not com e from a succession of transmissions of spiritual mentors, nor i s it established by means of the spiritual mentor's authority (djnd).6 Th e Vimalaprabha state s tha t on e canno t achiev e omniscien t Buddhahoo d an d lordshi p over the thre e worlds by the mer e blessing and authority of a spiritual mentor.7 Th e Adibuddhatantra assert s the sam e in this manner : The perishabl e mind , whic h i s stained b y attachment and other mental afflictions, is the caus e o f transmigratory existence . I t i s pure due t o it s separation fro m thes e [impurities]. It i s pure and stainles s b y nature . None [o f the impurities ] can b e taken out no r throw n int o [th e mind ] b y the au thority of a spiritual mentor. The sublime , imperishable, pure reality (tattva) canno t be given or taken away. A spiritua l mentor i s neither a giver nor a remover o f the pur e reality. In the cas e of those who are devoid of the accumulation o f merit, the omniscient lor d himself [cannot giv e or remove the pure reality]. 8

In ligh t of this, th e Vimalaprabha disparage s the Saiv a tantric tradition , whic h claims tha t it s teachin g regardin g the suprem e Isvar a wh o bring s forth pleasur e (bhukti) an d liberatio n (mukti) i s handed dow n b y a successio n o f teacher s an d through the blessin g of the spiritua l mentor. I t warns against the danger s of following teachings tha t come in this way by deprecating the Saiva tantric teachers on the basis that they have trifling knowledge bu t have become th e spiritual mentors of the childish due t o showing a few limited siddhis. The y requir e trust from thei r deluded followers, who , thinking tha t their spiritual mentor i s liberated, do everything that he commands. They kill, speak falsehood, steal, drink liquor, and so on. In this way,

8

The Inner Kalacakratantra

they perform th e deeds of Maras and do not obtai n the bodil y siddhis b y the blessing and authority of the suprem e Isvara. At death , their bodies are either incinerated by fire or eaten by dogs and birds, and their consciousness does not becom e Siva. 9 According t o the Vimalaprabha, on e cannot teac h th e tantra without knowing first the lis t of the principle s of the Buddh a Dharma (dharma'samgraha) fo r one wh o does no t kno w i t teache s th e evi l path . On e become s a knowe r o f th e dharmasamgraha and a teacher of the three Vehicles—the Vehicles of the Sravakas, Pratyekabuddhas, an d Samyaksambuddhas—onl y b y accomplishing thes e two : (i ) gnosi s (inarm), whic h i s the apprehendin g min d (grdhaka-citta) an d wisdo m (prajna), an d (2) spac e (dkdsa), o r the empt y form (sunya-bimba), whic h is the apprehende d object (grahya) an d metho d (updya).10 The Vimalaprabha entreats those who desire to enter the Vajrayana to completely investigate a potential tantric teacher, and it points to the danger of practicing a distorted Dharm a and going to hell due to honoring a spiritual mentor who lacks th e necessary qualifications.11 The Kalacakratantra provides a list of the qualification s of a vajracarya, wh o must have tantri c pledge s (samaya). Thes e qualifications, according to the Vimalaprabha, ar e of two kinds—external and internal—and must be understood in terms of their definitive and provisional meanings. Likewise, the tantri c teacher i s expected to practice meditatio n on reality, and tha t meditation i s also of two kinds—one which accomplishe s mundane siddhis an d the other whic h accom plishes full an d perfect awakening (samyaksambodhi). H e mus t be free o f greed, no t grasping onto his sons, wife, his own body, or anything else. He must be devoid of all mental affliction s (klesa). H e i s to be patient, no t havin g an y expectations, an d h e must follow the pat h of full an d perfect awakening. The Kalacakratantra asserts that a spiritual mentor wh o has these qualification s is able to provide his disciples with the pat h an d t o remov e their fea r o f death, becaus e a s a "celibate" (brahmacarin), meaning, as one wh o has attained supreme, imperishable bliss (paramdksara-sukha), he is like a t>ajra-rod to the four classes of Maras.12 In contrast to the qualified tantric teacher, a corrupt spiritual mentor is said to be full of conceit, which is of many kinds: conceit in one's own learning, in one's own wealth, seeing others as beneath oneself , and so on. Hi s absence of humility is seen as an indication of his lack of compassion. Likewise, one i s advised to shun a tantric teache r who is overcome by anger, who is devoid of tantric pledges , and who publicly practices the secre t pledges that disgust the world. 13 Similarly, avajracarya wh o is greedy and attached to mundane pleasures, or who i s an uneducated fool , ignoran t o f the tru e path an d no t initiate d int o th e tantra, or who i s fond of liquor or sex, is to b e avoided , for he lead s his disciple s to hell.14 In light of this, the Vimalaprabha point s out that the well-known saying that one should look for the acarya's goo d qualities and never for his faults has been misunderstood in the past and will be in the futur e b y foolish people who have los t th e true path. I t suggests that sayings like this should be understood in terms of both ul timate and conventional truths , that is to say, in terms of their definitive and provisional meanings. In terms of the ultimate truth, an acdrya refers to the Buddha Sakyamuni, t o "th e omnipresen t an d omniscien t vajracarya, wh o practice s (acarati ) th e vajra-word i n order t o benefit sentient being s within the thre e realms. " Thus, th e aforementioned sayin g is to b e understood literall y only when examine d fro m thi s point o f view. Supporting th e Kalacakratantra^ positio n that before honoring a spir-

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kalacakratantra 9

itual mentor one should investigate his faults and his good qualities, the Vimalaprabha cites the following verses from th e Gurupancasika, which support the Kalacakr a tradition's stan d on this issue. An intelligen t discipl e shoul d no t mak e hi m wh o i s devoid o f compassion, wh o is angry, cruel, stubborn, unrestrained , an d self-aggrandizing his spiritual mentor. [A qualified spiritual mentor ] i s steadfast, disciplined , intelligent , patient , sincere , honest, versed i n the tantri c practices o f mantras, compassionate, a knower o f th e sastras, Fully acquainted wit h the te n principles, 15 a knower o f the ar t of drawing mardalas, an dcarya wh o explains mantras, who is propitious and has subdued his senses.16

With regard to th e hierarch y of the vajracaryas, th e Kalacakr a tradition distinguishes the vajracarya wh o is an ordained monk as the highes t type of a vajracarya.11 It state s that ordaine d monks shoul d only mentall y revere the vajracarya wh o i s a householder i n order that they may be free of sloth and pride; but when there i s a t>ajra-holder who is an ordained monk , the n neither the monk s no r th e kin g shoul d honor a spiritual mentor who is a householder. The reaso n for this injunction is based on th e associatio n of the whit e garment, which i s generally worn by householders, with the Barbarian Dharma. The Vimalaprabha explicitl y states that the Buddhist system (bauddha'darsana) i s never associated with the whit e robe. It asserts that in th e land o f ManjusrI, whe n a monk o r a wandering ascetic is expelled fro m a Buddhist monastery due to committing a sin of immediate retribution, he i s allowed to leave the monastery only after he gives back his red robe and puts on a white robe. In light of this, th e autho r o f the Vimalaprabha abhor s th e possibilit y of a householder wh o wears a white robe being a spiritual mentor t o thos e wh o wear the re d robe or of a householder dwelling in a Buddhist monastery. He sees it as an insult to the Buddhist monastic community and as a great defect i n Buddhists' judgment.18 Likewise, it asserts that among men who are worthy of veneration, the vajracarya who is endowed with extrasensory perceptions (abhijna) an d has attained at least the first bodhisattva-bhumi is to be venerated for his knowledge. Such a man, be he an ordained mon k o r a householder, i s said to be equal to te n respectabl e monks. In th e absence of this kind of vajracarya, a monk who is an elder should be venerated for his asceticism by the monks whose ordination was later than his; and he should be venerated by tantric householders, since his initiation was prior to theirs. The third kind of venerable man i s said to be a learned partdita who can illuminat e the doctrin e an d tame the Maras who propound contrary doctrines.19 In contrast, a householder who is devoid of extrasensory perception i s not considere d worthy of veneration.20 Statements suc h a s these revea l the stron g monastic orientation o f the Kalacakr a tradition. With regar d to tantri c disciples , the Kalacakr a tradition distinguishe s thre e kinds of tantric trainees—the superior, the middling , and the inferior . The superior disciple is one who has his mind set on the dee p and profound Dharma that consists of wisdom and compassion, who delights in the te n virtues and has not violate d th e tantric precepts , who i s free o f attachment, wh o does not car e abou t th e mundan e

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

siddhis but desires a sadhana on the mahdmudr&'Siddhi, an d who does not associat e with evil people such as acdryas wh o are greedy householders and ascetic s who live off the temples and monasteries. Such a disciple is considered t o be qualified t o receive the first seven and the othe r fou r highe r initiations in order to meditate o n th e path of emptiness. The middlin g disciple is one who is endowed with mediocre qualities and who seeks a sadhana on th e mundan e siddhis, an d h e i s qualified t o receive only th e first seven initiations i n order to meditate on the mandala, mantras, mudras, and th e like. Lastly, the discipl e of inferior qualities who respects the spiritua l mentor i s said to be qualified to be a lay practitioner, and he may receive the five Buddhist precepts but not the initiations. 21 In ligh t o f this, th e Kalacakratantra classifie s th e Buddhis t community a t large into two groups—Sravakas and Anuttaras—each consisting of four types of Buddhist practitioners. The fou r categorie s of Sravakas are the Buddhis t nuns (bhiksum) an d monks (bhiksu) an d th e grea t female (mahopasikd) an d mal e (mahopasaka) la y disciples. The grou p of Anuttaras include s th e ;yoginJ s an d yogis wh o deligh t i n innat e bliss—that is to say, those who have receive d the highe r initiation s an d who practice the stage of completion—and the female (upasikd) an d male (updsaka) la y tantric practitioners, who have received the first seven initiations and who practice the stage of generation.22 The Kalacakratantra asserts the superio r quality of the Anuttara s on the groun d that there i s no monk or celibate who can equal one who has taken th e tantric vow s and precepts and wh o i s self-empowered b y means of mantras.23 The theoretica l principle s of the Kalacakratantra ar e imbedded in the concep tual context o f Vajrayana a s a whole. Therefore, i n order to understand the concep tual framework of the Kalacakra tradition in India, one needs to examine its own interpretation of Vajrayana. According to the Kalacakra tradition's explanation of the term Vajrayana, th e wor d vajra signifie s liberation (moksa), o r the indivisibl e omniscience that cannot b e destroyed by conceptualization;24 and th e wor d yana is understood a s a vehicle tha t i s of a dual nature. I t i s the mean s by which th e tantri c adept advance s toward liberation an d the ai m toward which the tantri c adep t progresses.25 The Vimalaprabhd als o identifies Vajrayana as Samyaksambuddhayana (the "Vehicle of a Fully Awakened One"), since it cannot b e damaged by the vehicle s of heterodox group s (tirthika), Sravakas , or Pratyekabuddhas. 26 The Kalacakr a traditio n als o interpret s Vajrayan a a s th e syste m o f mantras (mantra-naya) an d th e syste m o f perfection s (paramita-naya).21 A s th e syste m of mantras, it characterize s itself as the syste m that include s ideas pertaining to both mundane (laukika) an d supramundane (lokottara) truths . Teachings pertaining to the mundane trut h ar e said to b e discusse d from th e conventiona l point o f view, an d teachings pertaining to the supramundane truth are said to be discussed from the ultimate point of view. Moreover, the idea s that are taught from th e mundane, or conventional, poin t o f view are said to have a provisional meaning (neyartha); an d th e ideas that are taught fro m th e ultimat e point o f view are said to have th e definitiv e meaning (mtartha.). Likewise , the idea s that ar e discusse d from th e conventiona l point o f view ar e regarded as ideations (kalpand) o f one's ow n mind , which lea d t o the attainment o f mundane siddhis. They are said to be taught for mediocre Vajrayana students who seek nothing more than the accomplishment of mundane siddhis.28 The ideas that ar e imparted from th e ultimate point o f view are considered as clear man-

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kdlacakratantra

11

ifestations, or reflections (pratibhdsa), o f one's own mind, which ar e not o f the natur e of ideations. As such they are believed to lead to the achievemen t o f the supramundane siddhi, calle d th e mahdmudrd-siddhi, o r the attainmen t o f supreme an d imper ishable gnosis (paramaksara-jnana'siddhi); an d the y ar e said to be taught fo r superior Vajrayana students , who aspire to spiritual awakening. Likewise, the Vimalaprabhd view s Vajrayana as a unified syste m that consists of both the caus e and the result . Thus, the syste m of mantras is said to refer to compassion (kanma) an d is characterized as the result. 29 In this tantric system, as in the related systems of the anuttara-yoga-tantras, in addition to the standard Mahayana practices o f developing compassion , th e cultivatio n o f compassion als o entails semina l nonemission. I n thi s regard, compassion i s here als o referred t o a s the gnosi s of sublime bliss (mahd'Sukha-jfidna). Th e syste m of perfections, o n th e othe r hand , refer s to th e wisdo m (prajnd) tha t cognize s the emptines s (sunyatd) o f inherent existence . This wisdom is viewed as the caus e of the aforementione d result . Although th e Kalacakr a traditio n acknowledge s th e Madhyamik a vie w of emptiness as its primary theoretical foundation , i t has its own unique interpretatio n of emptiness, not onl y as a mere negation o f inherent existence (svabhdva), bu t also as the absenc e o f material constituents o f the individual' s body and mind . Hence , this emptiness , which i s also called th e "aspec t o f emptiness" (sunyatdkdra), o r th e "form o f emptiness" (sunyatd-bimba), i s a form tha t i s empty of both inheren t exis tence and physical particles. It is a form that is endowed with all the sign s and symbols of the Buddha . That form o f emptiness, also known as the "empt y form," is also regarded a s th e "animat e emptiness" (ajada-sunyata). Du e t o bein g animate , thi s emptiness is the cause of supreme and immutable bliss (paramdcala-sukha). Th e non duality of the caus e and effec t i s the essentia l teachin g o f this tantra, From that uniqu e view of emptiness stem the Kdlacakratantra's uniqu e goal and path to that goal. The Kdlacakratantra's mos t significant goal is the transformatio n of one's own gross physical bod y into a luminous form devoid o f both gross matter an d the subtl e body of pranas. The transformatio n of one's ow n mind int o the enlight ened min d of immutable bliss occurs in direct dependence upon that material transformation. The actualizatio n of that transformation is believed to be perfect and ful l Buddhahood i n th e for m o f Kalacakra, the Suprem e Primordia l Buddha (paramadibuddha), wh o is the omniscient , innat e Lor d of the Jinas, 30 the tru e nature o f one's own mind and body. Thus, accordin g to this tantric system , the supreme Adibuddha refers not onl y to the Buddha Sakyamuni, who is said to be the first to attain perfect awakening by means of the supreme , imperishable bliss,31 but also to the innat e na ture of the min d of every sentient being . This points to another uniqu e feature of the Kdlacakratantra's theory , namely, the assertion that all sentient beings are Buddhas, which will be discussed in greater detail i n chapter 7 on th e "Gnosti c Body". The Kalacakratantra's vie w of the ultimat e nature o f sentient being s and thei r environmen t a s blissful i s reflected in th e Kolacakratantra's explicit usage of sexual tantric practices on the spiritua l path. The gen eration of sexual bliss without emission of regenerative fluids is regarded in this tantra as the mos t direct method o f generating the mental blis s that refines the min d by diminishing conceptualization s an d thu s make s it fit for the realizatio n of the empt y nature of phenomena. On e who practices the generation of sexual bliss without emis-

12

The Inner Kalacakratantra

sion, whic h i s referred to a s sublime, imperishable bliss, i s considered t o b e lik e a young virgin . Such blis s is believed t o empowe r one' s mind , jus t a s the min d o f a young virgin, who has not experienced sexual bliss with emission, can be empowered by deitie s an d mantras tha t enabl e he r t o se e appearances i n a prognostic mirror . Thus, it is thought tha t the empowerment of the tantric adept' s mind , which enable s him to perceive the thre e worlds as mere appearances i n space, does not com e fro m some external sourc e such as the blessin g or permission of a spiritual mentor, just as a young virgin's ability to see appearances i n a prognostic mirror does not com e fro m the blessin g or permission of a spiritual mentor. To those adherent s o f the Brahmani c tradition wh o claim that man y nonceli bates wh o d o no t practic e sexua l blis s wit h nonemissio n demonstrat e isolator y knowledge (kaivalya-jnana) an d predict the future , th e Kalacakr a tradition respond s that their isolatory knowledge is nothing but a branch of astrology, which i s common to all people an d which enable s on e t o predict the futur e event s b y means of calculations.32 Likewise, i t i s believed i n thi s tantric tradition tha t th e five extrasensory per ceptions (abhijna) canno t arise without the practice of seminal nonemission. I t is said that those Bodhisattvas who have the five extrasensory perception s despite th e fact that they occasionall y practice d sexua l bliss with seminal emission, shoul d b e con sidered celibate, because their semina l emission i s an intentiona l emission , charac terized by the motivation t o reenter transmigrator y existence fo r the sake of helping others. According t o the Vimalaprabha, there are two types of seminal emission—one that is due to the powe r of wholesome an d unwholesome karma, and one that is due to the powe r of controlling th e mind . O f these two types of emission, the first one , which i s characteristic o f ordinar y huma n beings , i s for th e sak e o f wandering i n transmigratory existence, an d the othe r one, whic h i s characteristic of Bodhisattvas, is for the sak e of showing the pat h t o those wh o are driven by karma in the cycl e of transmigration.33

The Classificatio n of the Families in the Kalacakr a Tradition The Kalacakr a tradition, lik e the other tantric tradition s o f the anuttara-yoga class, categorizes th e famil y o f it s principa l deit y int o three , four , five , an d si x familie s (kula). Th e Kalacakr a tradition's classificatio n and interpretatio n o f the Kalacakr a family can be summarized in the followin g manner . In terms of the individual , the classificatio n int o three familie s correspond s t o the classificatio n of the body , speech, an d mind, or the left , right , and central nadirs; and in terms of the universe , the thre e familie s are the thre e realms—the realms of desire, form , an d formlessness . With regard t o ultimat e reality , however, th e thre e families are the thre e bodies of the Buddha—th e Nirmanakaya, Sambhogakaya, and Dharmakaya.34 In terms of the individual, the classification into four families corresponds to th e classification of uterine blood, semen, mind, and gnosis, or to the classification of the body, speech, mind, and gnosis, which accords with the classification of the four drops (bindu) an d with the fou r states of the mind—namely , waking, dreaming, deep sleep, and the fourth state. In terms of the universe, the four families are the familie s of the

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kalacakratantra 1 3

sun, moon, Rahu, and Agni (Ketu) , and i n terms of society, they are the fou r castes . With regard to ultimate reality, the four families are the four bodies of the Buddha — the aforementioned thre e bodies and the Jnanakaya. With regard to the individual , the five families are the five psycho-physical aggregates (skandha), an d in terms of society, they are the four castes and the outcastes . With regard to ultimate reality, they are the five types of the Buddha' s gnosis manifesting as the five Buddhas—Aksobhya, Vairocana, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and Amoghasiddhi.35 In terms of the individual, the six families are the five psycho-physical aggregates and their emptiness ; and i n terms of society, they ar e the fou r caste s and the classes of Dombas and Candalas. With regard to ultimate reality, the si x families are the five aforementioned Buddha s and the Svabhavikakaya. 36

The Madhyamik a Critique o f Other Philosophical System s in the Kalacakratantra Although i t has man y unique features , as will be demonstrate d i n th e subsequen t chapters o f this book, th e Kalacakr a traditio n share s some of its fundamental idea s with other Buddhist systems. The Kalacakratantra summarizes its fundamental philosophical views in this single verse: Identitylessness, th e maturatio n o f karma, the thre e realms , th e si x states o f existence, the originatio n du e to the twelve-limbe d dependence, the Fou r Truths, th e eighteen unique qualitie s o f the Buddha , th e five psycho-physical aggregates , th e three bodies and the Sahajakaya, and animate emptiness . Th e [system ] in which these [tenets] are taught i s the clea r an d definit e instruction o f the Vajn. 37

Positioning itsel f i n th e above-mentione d philosophica l views , it criticizes all other philosophica l systems , including th e Buddhis t schools othe r tha n Madhayamaka. Althoug h th e Kalacakr a tradition' s refutatio n o f th e non-Buddhis t philo sophical system s is based o n th e standar d Madhyamik a arguments, at time s i t use s some new and interestin g examples in its logical analysis of other systems. It regards its critique of certain tenet s of other philosophical system s as a means of leading individuals of different menta l dispositions to some understanding of emptiness, which would be the foundatio n of their attainment o f mundane siddhis. The followin g brief summary of the Kalacakr a tradition's rebuttal o f the dogma s that in one wa y or another contradict th e view of the absence of inherent existence best demonstrates th e degree to whic h th e Kalacakr a tradition follow s th e Madhyamik a mode o f investigation. The Kalacakratantra critique s Visnuis m fo r it s vie w of th e Ved a a s being self existent, eternal, and similar to space. It refutes the notion of the Veda as self-existent and eternal o n the basi s that the wor d "Veda" signifies a referent that is produced by the activit y of the throat , palate, and the like . It further argues that the Ved a is also not identica l wit h the referent , since a word and its referent cannot be identical. If there were such an identity, then when one utters the word "fire," it would burn one's mouth. Likewise, it repudiates the notio n that the Ved a is similar to spac e on th e grounds that it is local i n usage and recited b y the mouth . I t also objects to the no -

14 Th e Inner Kalacakratantra

tion that the Veda is a standard for learned and knowledgeable men, since low castes such as Sudras read and write.38 Furthermore, the Kalacakratantra critiques the Saiv a notion o f Isvara as the creator. The Kalacakratantr a argues that if one assert s Isvara as the creator , one implies that Isvara is one who experiences karma, since i t is never th e cas e that one person eats a salty cake and another person experiences the resul t and dies from thirst . A n agent is never established without karma. And i f he is not a n agent of karma, as Saivas claim, then i t implies that h e i s dependent o n anothe r agent , wh o i s his instigator. This, i t says, contradicts the ver y term "Isvara," which implies independence. Thus , according t o the Kalacakratantra, Isvara has never bee n the creator who bestows th e results of virtue and sin , disregarding the karma of living beings. Likewise, if the cre ator i s devoid of the atom s of the elements , then i n the absenc e o f matter, he does not creat e anything; and i f he i s devoid of the sense-objects , as Saivas say, then tha t creator has neither perceptua l nor inferential means of valid knowledge.39 In light of its view of dependent origination , the Kalacakratantra asserts that th e efficacy o f phenomena i s not cause d by anyone i n the tripl e world but that the origination of all phenomena take s place due to the conjunctio n o f things. Thus, due to the conjunctio n o f a moon-stone with moon-rays , wate r appear s fro m th e moon stone, an d due to the conjunctio n o f an iron-stic k with a lode-stone, th e iro n stick is set in motion, and so on. By means of these an d other examples, it tries to demonstrate that things never occu r by the wil l of the creator. 40 From the vantage point o f identitylessness, the Kalacakratantra critiques the no tion of the Sel f (atman) as being omnipresent and permanent. It argues that the Self cannot b e omnipresent , sinc e i t experience s suffering du e t o separatio n fro m rela tives. If it were omnipresent, it would exist as one an d would not suffe r du e to being separated fro m loved ones. Likewise, if the Self were omnipresent, then one sentient being would experience th e sufferin g o f all sentient beings . Moreover, it argues that one cannot say that there are many Selves, because that would imply that there is no omnipresence o f many Selves. It refutes th e notio n of the permanen t Self , pointin g to it s susceptibility to change, as in the cas e of falling i n love. 41 In light o f its refutation of the Self , the Kafocakratantr a assert s that there i s no one wh o depart s to liberation—ther e i s only a collection o f phenomena i n cessa tion—and yet there i s a departure to liberation. Likewise, there i s bondage for originated phenomena, but ther e i s no on e wh o is bound. Th e stat e o f the Buddh a is identical with existence an d nonexistence, an d it is without inherent existence , devoid o f conceptualizations and matter , an d fre e o f momentariness. Therefore, th e teachings of the Buddha , which are free of the demon s of conceptualizations, cannot be destroyed by the words of gods and nagas, which are accompanied b y demons, just like a wrestler who i s free o f demons cannot be killed by a wrestler who i s possessed by demons.42 The Kalacakratantra refutes the teaching s of Rahman, or the Dharm a of Tajikas, on the basis of their assertion tha t in this life th e individua l experience s th e resul t of actions that he performed earlier in this lifetime, an d that a person who dies experiences pleasure or suffering i n heaven or hell through another human form. It argues that if it is as the Tajika s teach, then one could not annihilat e one's own karma from on e birth t o another, an d consequently, on e could no t escap e transmigratory

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kalacakratantra 1 5

existence o r ente r liberatio n eve n i n th e cours e o f a n immeasurabl e numbe r o f lives.43 It critique s th e doctrin e o f the Materialist s (Carvaka), whic h denie s th e existence of god and the maturatio n o f karma and claims that one experiences only th e amassment of atoms, arguin g that this Materialis t doctrin e destroy s the pat h of liberation fo r people. Th e Kalacakratantra argue s that if, just like the powe r of intoxicating drink , the witnessing mind arises due to configurations of the elements , the n trees would also have consciousness due to the agglomeratio n of the elements . Bu t if inanimate things lack the efficac y of living beings, the n the agglomeratio n o f the elements is inadequate fo r producing consciousness. 44 The Kalacakra tradition also repudiates the Jaina doctrine, specifically , the Jaina assertion of a permanent sou l (jfw) tha t has the siz e of the body , and the Jain a view of the permanenc e o f atoms. The Kalacakratantra argue s that if the sou l would have the siz e of the body , it would perish after the remova l of the arms and legs. Likewise, it argues that atoms are not permanent , sinc e they are liable to change, a s are gross and subtle bodies. The Vimalaprabha critique s the Jaina argument that the substance of the sou l is permanent, a s gold i s permanent, wherea s it s modes ar e impermanent , jus t as th e modes of gold such as earrings are impermanent. The Vimalaprabha reject s this argument as invalid, on the basis that if the substanc e an d its mode were identical, the n there would be no difference between the two; and if they were different, ther e could be no mode without the substance ; no r can one say that they ar e both identical and different, because of their mutual exclusion. Likewise, it refutes the Jaina notion that the thre e world s are permanent o n th e basi s that whatever i s made of atoms never remains permanent. I t also critiques the Jaina view that one soul acquires one body, such that plants an d grains are also living beings. It argue s against this view, stating that if a single soul is in a single body, then when one breaks the ste m of a sugar cane into pieces, there woul d not b e many pieces. But since there are many pieces, then the sou l must have entere d one of those pieces due to its karma. That does not stan d up t o logica l analysis, because a sprout arise s fro m eac h o f the piece s of sugar cane that are replanted in the earth.45 The Kalacakr a tradition also critiques the Vaibhasikas, Sautrantikas, an d Yogacarins a s simple-minded Buddhis t tirthikas who , graspin g onto their ow n dogmati c positions (paksa), gras p onto the dogmati c positions o f others and see the similarity or the contrariet y with this or that dogmatic position of others. The Kalacakratantra refutes th e Vaibhasikas' assertion of the reality of the perso n (pudgala) endowe d with a body at birth as the implicatio n of the inheren t existence of the pudgala. I t argues that the pudgala canno t be one's inheren t nature , because if the pudgala wer e of th e nature of cognition, then it would be impermanent, for the nature of cognition i s impermanent; and if the pudgala were of the natur e of noncognition, then it would be unaware of its happiness an d suffering . It critiques the Sautrantikas for asserting objects by means of conventional trut h and claims that for this reaso n the y conside r th e unknow n ultimat e trut h tha t ha s the Jnanakaya ("Gnosis-body") as nonexistent, lik e the so n of a barren woman. Explaining the basi s for the Kalacakratantra's critiqu e of Sautrantikas, th e Vimalaprabha cites the followin g verse from Aryadeva' s Jnanasarasamuccaya:

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Sautrantikas know this: mental factors (samskdras) ar e not inanimat e (jada), ther e is nothing that proceeds through the three times, and an unimpeded (apratigha) for m does not exist. 46 The Vimalaprabhd argues on the part of the Kalacakratantra that if the unimpeded form, tha t is , the Dharmakaya , does not exist , then the omniscien t on e would not exist either. I t asserts that nirvana is not th e sam e as the extinctio n of a lamp, that is to say, it is not th e sam e as the cessatio n o f all awareness. In the absenc e o f the fou r bodies, ther e woul d not b e Buddhahood wit h a localized body. Without the unim peded body , there woul d be no display s of the extraordinar y powers of all the form s of the Buddha . The Kalacakratantra refute s th e Yogacara' s assertion o f the inheren t realit y of consciousness and its classification of consciousness. I n light of this rejection, the Vimalaprabha ask s the following : If there is no for m of an externa l objec t othe r than consciousness, the n wh y does th e externa l for m o f visual consciousness a s the ap prehender manifes t itself as being of the nature of the apprehended ? It cannot be due to the power of the habitual propensities of spiritual ignorance, as the Yogacarins say, because spiritua l ignorance has the characteristic of the three realms, an d the three realms are mere consciousness. Thus , mer e consciousness i s of the natur e of spiritual ignorance, therefore , spiritual ignorance i s not th e disappearanc e o f consciousness ; but i f the thre e realm s are not mer e consciousness, then the Yogacarins' position has failed. Th e Vimalaprabha als o refute s th e Yogacara' s assertio n tha t self-knowin g awareness arises and ceases in an instant, resortin g to the standar d Madhyamika argument that the origination, cessation, an d duration of phenomena d o not occu r simultaneously, for if they were to exist in a single moment, the n due to the fac t that time i s a moment , birth , ol d age , an d deat h woul d be identical . Moreover , i f con sciousness were to aris e from a consciousness tha t has ceased, then it would be like the originatio n o f a flame from a flame that has ceased, and this makes no sense. But if another consciousness were to arise from a consciousness tha t has not ceased, then it would be lik e the originatio n o f a flame from a flame that has not ceased , whic h means that from originatio n to origination there woul d be a series of consciousness, like a series of flames. In this case, one cannot say that after th e cessatio n o f an earlier consciousness ther e i s an origination o f another consciousness , no r ca n on e say that there is an origination o f another consciousnes s fro m th e earlie r unceased con sciousness, nor fro m th e combinatio n o f the aforementione d tw o manners of origination, because of their mutual contradiction.47 However, the Kalacakratantra indicate s tha t the Madhyamika' s negation o f the inherent existenc e o f consciousness, whic h inspire d som e to sa y that the Buddha' s wisdom is not locate d anywhere , is a danger for those who , devoid of the self-aware gnosis of imperishable bliss, will grasp onto that emptiness and will thus fall into th e trap of a doctrinal view and attain nothing. 48 After refutin g th e precedin g tenet s o f th e India n system s of though t i n th e above-demonstrated ways , i n order t o assur e one o f the pur e motivation behin d its criticisms, the Kalacakratantra states that its assertion of the absenc e of inherent existence is free from mundane concerns an d intended t o be of service to others.49 Likewise, in order to establish one's confidence in the supremacy of the source of its teach-

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kalacakratantra 1 7

ing and to bring one to final conversion, th e Kalacakratantra ends its critique of other philosophical system s with these word s of the Buddh a t o the king Sucandra : I a m Indra , th e spiritua l mento r o f thirty-thre e me n i n heaven , th e universa l monarch (cakravartin) o n the earth , the king of ndgas i n the underworld , revered by serpents. I am the highest , gnosis , the Buddha , th e lor d o f sages, the imperishable , supreme sovereign , th e yogi's vajra^yoga, th e Veda , self-awareness , an d th e purifie r (pavitra). O king, tak e refuge i n me with all your being.50

With regard to the criticism of one's own or other Buddhis t tantric systems, the Kalacakra tradition views this as the majo r cause of committing the sixt h of the four teen roo t downfall s (muldpatti), whic h i s specified i n th e Kalacakratantra (Ch . 3 , v. 102) an d th e Vimalaprabhd a s reviling th e siddhdntas o f th e syste m of perfections within th e mantra-system. The Vimalaprabhd indicate s that criticism of one's own or other Buddhist tantric systems is often an expression of one's own ignorance with regard t o th e relatio n betwee n th e subjec t an d predicat e i n Buddhis t tantras, and as such, it leads the faultfinde r t o hell.51

The Concep t of the Adibuddha in the Kalacakra Tantric System One o f the mos t important concept s i n the Kalacakr a system is that of the Adibuddha. Even though the concept of the Adibuddha is not unique to the Kalacakratantra, it is most emphasized and discussed in the Kalacakra literature. To the best of our knowledge, the earlies t reference to the Adibuddh a i s found in the Mahdydnasutrdlamkdra (Ch. 9 , v. 77), which refute s th e notio n of the Primordia l Buddha on th e ground s that there is no Buddhahood without the accumulations of metit (punya) an d knowledge (jndna). Late r references to the Adibuddha ar e found i n the Manjusrfnamasarngrt i (v. 100) , i n th e commentaria l literatur e o f th e Guhyasamdja corpus , an d i n th e yogim-tantras. The Kalacakr a tradition's interpretatio n o f the Adibuddh a i s primarily based on th e NamasamgTti' s exposition of Vajrasattva, wh o i s Vajradhara. According t o the Kalacakr a tradition, th e Adibuddh a i s called th e Primordia l Buddha because he was the first to obtain Buddhahoo d by means of the imperishabl e bliss characterized by perfect awakening i n a single moment.52 In connection with this interpretation , th e Vimalaprabhd assert s that according to the word s of the Buddha i n the Namosarngft i (v . 85), which praises Vajradhara as one wh o i s free o f mental obscurations, a person who is devoid of merit and knowledge does not i n any way become a Buddha. 53 Suc h a n interpretatio n doe s no t see m t o contradic t th e Mahaydndbhisamaydlamkdra's assertio n that ther e i s no Buddh a wh o ha s bee n en lightened sinc e beginningless time. On the other hand, the Vimalaprabhd interpret s the wor d ddi ("primordial") as meaning "without beginnin g or end," meaning, without th e originatio n an d cessation. 54 This interpretation o f the wor d ddi with regard to th e Buddh a i s reiterated b y Nadapada i n his Sekoddesatikd, whic h furthe r inter prets the Adibuddha's freedom from origination and cessation as omniscience.55 The Kalacakra tradition's interpretation o f the wor d is based on th e NarrMsamgTt! , v. 100, which begins with: "Without beginnin g or end, he is the Buddha, Adibuddha. . . ."56 This interpretation o f the wor d ddi appears to contradict th e aforementione d inter pretation o f the Primordial Buddha. However, analysis of the Kalacakra literature re-

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

veals that when th e Kalacakr a tradition speak s of the Adibuddh a i n the sens e o f a beginningless an d endles s Buddha , i t is referring to the innat e gnosi s that pervades the mind s of all sentient beings and stand s as the basi s of both samsara and nirvana. Whereas, whe n i t speaks of the Adibuddha a s the on e who first attained perfec t enlightenment by means of imperishable bliss, and when i t asserts the necessit y of acquiring merit and knowledge in order to attain perfect Buddhahood, i t is referring to the actual realization of one's own innate gnosis . Thus, one could say that in the Kalacakra tradition, Adibuddh a refer s t o th e ultimat e natur e o f one's own mind an d t o the on e who has realized the innat e nature o f one's ow n mind b y means of purificatory practices. The Kalacakratantra an d the ManjusrTnamasamgTt i The Kalacakr a tradition view s its essential topic , whic h i s the Jnanakaya , or Vajra sattva, a s indivisible fro m tha t of the NamasamgTti , which, accordin g t o the Vimaia prabhd, makes the Jnanakaya of Vajradhara evident. Th e Vimalaprabha remark s that in every king of tantras, the Buddh a described the vajra-word a s the imperishabl e bliss of yogis; an d i n them he designate d tha t wi/ra-wor d a s the Jnanakaya , which i s described b y th e NamasamgTti. 57 Accordingly , th e Kalacakratantra teaches tha t on e should meditat e ever y day on Kalacakra , the progenito r o f all the Buddhas , only after one "has take n apart," or investigated, this uajra-word. 58 The Vimalaprabha comment s tha t the pat h of purification that brings forth th e mahdmudrd'Siddhi wa s written explicitl y i n th e Paramddibuddhatantra onl y afte r th e Buddha mad e th e NamasamgTt i an authoritativ e scripture . Knowing that i n th e future sentient being s will be free o f doubts, th e Buddh a taugh t Vajrapan i the defini tive meaning o f all the tantric systems, in accordance wit h the NamasamgTti. In ligh t of this, it affirms that in order to know the NamasamgTti , one must know the Adibud' dhatantra. I f on e doe s no t kno w th e Namasamgiti, on e wil l b e ignoran t o f th e Jnanakaya of Vajradhara, and not knowing the Jnanakaya of Vajradhara, one will not know th e Mantrayana . Bein g ignorant o f the Mantrayana , on e will be devoid of the path of Vajradhara and remain i n transmigratory existence.59 In verses 12-13 , the Namasamgiti assert s its durability, claiming tha t th e Bud dhas o f the past , present , an d futur e hav e taugh t an d recite d th e Namasamgit i an d that innumerable Buddha s have praise d it. On th e basi s of these verses, the Vimalaprabhd affirms that it is due to Vajrapani requesting the Buddha to teach the NamosamgTti that all the Tathagatas taught th e Mantra Vehicle. 60 This statement ma y clarify just why it is that most Buddhis t tantri c tradition s mentio n Vajrapani as one who both requests th e teaching s an d compile s th e tantras suc h a s the Gufryasamoj a an d th e Adibuddha tantras. Similarly, according t o the Vimalaprabha, th e yoga that is the imperishabl e bliss, the sublim e goal (mahmtha) of the Kalacakratantra, has already been declare d i n th e NamasamgTti by fourteen verse s (28—36 ) i n praise of the mandala o f the vajra-dhatw . The Vimalaprabha remark s that th e full y awakene d one , wh o i s described b y those fourteen verses, is taught i n all the tantras, in accordance with the superior, middling, and inferio r dispositions of sentient beings. 61 In light of its view of the inseparability of the Kalacakratantra and the Namasamgiti,

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kdlacakratantra 1 9

throughout it s five chapters , th e Vimalaprabha altogethe r cite s sixty-five verse s from the Namasamgiti i n orde r t o explai n o r substantiat e th e Kalacakratantra' s views of Buddhahood an d the pat h of actualizing it. Thus, the Kalacakr a tradition's vie w of the omniscient Buddha , who stands at the extreme limit of transmigratory existenc e and i s superior to the Hind u god s such as Hari and Hara, who are born i n the real m of gods within cyclic existence, i s based on th e NamasamgTti's statemen t i n verse 54, which reads: Standing at the far limit of transmigratory existence, having his task accomplished , he rest s on th e shore . Havin g rejecte d isolator y knowledge, h e i s a cleaving sword of wisdom. 62

Likewise, the Kalacakratantra's interpretatio n o f the Jnanakaya as the fully awakened on e who i s imbued with nirvana without remainder (nirupadhi) an d transcend s the realit y o f consciousnes s (vijnana-oTiarrnata ) i s i n ful l accor d wit h tha t o f th e Namasamgfti (vs . 87, 99), according t o which, th e full y awakene d one, being free of all remainders , dwell s in th e pat h o f space , an d transcendin g th e realit y of con sciousness, is a spontaneous nondua l gnosis that i s free o f conceptualization . Furthermore, th e Kalacakratantra's interpretatio n o f enlightene d awarenes s as the mind that, though free of the habitual propensities of karma (karma-vasana), supports transmigrator y happiness an d sufferin g an d terminate s them , i s based on th e Namasamgzti's (v , 96) descriptio n o f the discriminatin g gnosis (pratyaveksaru-jnana) of the Buddh a as the min d that ends happiness an d suffering . Likewise , the Vimalaprabhd suggest s that th e Kalacakratantra' s interpretatio n o f the self-awarenes s tha t knows the natur e of all things has its basis in the Namasamgzti' s (v. 98) characterization of the Buddha' s gnosis as omniscient, fully awake , and wid e awake to itself. 63 The Kalacakra tradition also substantiates its exposition of Jnanakaya as devoid of form (riipa) o n th e basi s of the NamasamgTti' s (v. 73) description o f Vajrasattva a s on e whose hundred eye s and hair are blazing like a vajra; an d i t asserts that i t i s not th e Rupakaya o f the Buddh a tha t i s the subjec t of investigation i n th e Namosamgrt i bu t the Vajradharakay a o f Vajrapani.64 Likewise, it bases its argument that the Buddha' s body i s not a localized (pradesika) bod y on verses 61-63 °f tne Namasamgiti, whic h speak of the Buddh a as a torch o f gnosis that arises instantly in space, and so on.65 At times , th e Kalacakr a tradition offer s a n interpretatio n o f certain passage s from the Namasamgiti that radically differs fro m those found in the commentarial literature on the Namasamgiti. For example, it interprets the Namasamgiti's (v . 45) depiction of the Buddh a as having ten aspect s (dasakara) i n terms of the Vajrakaya that is the existenc e o f ten kind s of phenomena—namely, the body , gnosis, space, wind, fire, water , earth, th e inanimate , th e animate , an d the invisibl e deities of the form less realm.66 Whereas, Manjusrimitra' s Namasamgftiwtti (176 . i. 7) specifies the te n aspects as ten truths—provisional truth, conventional truth, and so on—whose words and meanings the Buddha intends t o teach;67 and Vilasavajra's Ndmasamgititika. (196. 5.5) interpret s th e te n aspect s as the te n type s of grasping onto the Self, 68 on th e grounds that the Buddh a himself should be understood as undesirable mental factors and as their antidotes. Thi s cryptic interpretation makes sense when examined in the light of the Kalacakra tradition's view of enlightened awarenes s as the support of both samsara and nirvana.

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

Similarly, the Kalacakra tradition gives its own interpretation of the Ndmasamgiti's ( - 133 ) descriptio n of the Buddh a as the referen t of the trut h tha t has twelv e aspects, and as one who knows the sixtee n aspects of reality and is fully awakened with twenty aspects. Accordin g t o th e Vimalaprabha, h e i s the referen t of the trut h wit h twelve aspects, because he has attained the twelve bodhisatwa-bhumis due to the cessation of the twelve zodiacs;69 and according t o the NdmasamgTtwrtti (182 . 5. i), he is the referent of the truth with twelve aspects, because he has the twelve sense-bases (dyatana), whic h are his aspects in terms of conventional truth. Although the Kala cakra tradition an d the NdmasamgTtwritti agre e that the sixtee n aspects of reality refer t o the sixtee n types of emptiness—to be discussed in chapter 7 on the "Gnosti c Body"—the Kalacakra tradition offers its own reason for the manifestation of the sixteen aspects: the cessatio n of the sixtee n digits of the moon . With regard to the ful l awakening with twenty aspects, the Kalacakra tradition als o departs from th e interpretation give n in the Namasamgitwrtti (182 . 5. 2). According t o the Vimalaprabha, the Buddh a has spiritual awakening with twenty aspects because he full y know s the five purified psycho-physica l aggregates, the five sense-faculties, the fiv e sense-ob jects, and the five types of consciousness, since they were purified i n the centra l nddl by means o f the six-phase d ^oga. According t o the Namasamgrtivrtt i (182 . 5. 3), o n the other hand, th e twenty aspects are the earlier mentioned sixteen aspects and the four type s of the Buddha' s gnosis. The Kalacakr a tradition also considers its exposition of Kalacakra as consisting of th e fou r families—specifically , th e fou r bodie s of the Buddha—t o accor d com pletely with the Ndmasamgiti's (v . 108) description of the Buddha as the sublime mind (mahd'dtta) o f all the Buddhas , as the desir e of the min d (mano-gati), a s the sublime body (maha-kaya) o f all the Buddhas , and as the speec h (sarasvatf ) o f the Buddhas. 70 Thus, it interprets the sublime mind of all the Buddhas as the Visuddhakaya, the desire o f th e min d a s the Dharmakaya , th e sublim e body o f al l th e Buddha s as th e Nirmanakaya, and the speech of all the Buddha s as the Dharmakaya. Likewise , th e Vimalaprabha suggest s that the Namasarngrtf s (v . 93) characterizatio n of the Buddh a as one who has five faces and five hair-knots is most relevant to the Kalacakr a tradition's presentation o f the Buddh a as one who, due to the classification of the five psycho-physical aggregates and elements, consists of the five families.71 Finally, it asserts that the Namasamglti's (v . 35) description of the Buddha Vajradhara as one who bears the sublim e illusions is taught there i n terms of the Kalacakr a tradition's classifica tions of the si x families and the hundred families. 72 The Ndmasamgiti's presentatio n o f Vajrasattva has also influenced certain form s of Kalacakratantra practice, whose goal is the actualizatio n of Vajrasattva a s he i s described i n th e Ndmasamgiti. Fo r example, verse 11 1 fro m th e Ndmasamglti, whic h states that the sublim e Vajradhara of the Buddh a bears all illusions, is considered t o be a theoretical basi s for the Kalacakratantra practice of the stage of generation, mor e specifically, fo r the practic e o f meditation on th e universa l form (visva-rupa) o f th e empty and blissful Buddh a that has many arms, legs, colors, and shapes. 73 Similarly, the Ndmasamgiti's (vs . 61-62) description o f the self-arise n Vajrasattva as the sublime fire of wisdom and gnosi s that has arisen from spac e and it s (v. 56) characteri zation of the Buddh a as one wh o has abandoned al l thoughts and i s free o f ideation are pointed ou t a s reasons why the Kalacakratantra practice o f the stag e of complev

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kalacakratantra

21

tion is to be practiced i n the for m of meditation tha t is free o f ideation.74 Moreover, the Vimalaprabha indicate s that the Namasamgiti's (v . 53) assertion that the Buddh a is free o f the sens e o f "I" an d "mine " i s the reaso n wh y a t th e stag e of completio n practice one shoul d no t practic e self-identificatio n wit h Vajrasattva but shoul d re sort to ultimate truth.75 The recitatio n o f certain verses from the Ndmasamgiti als o forms an integral part of Kalacakratantra practice. Thus , a t th e en d o f the stag e of generation practice , after the tantric adep t has meditated on the kalacakra'mandala an d on the enlightene d activities of the deities in the mandala, and after he has practiced sddhanas on the yoga of drops (bindu-yoga) an d the subtl e yoga (sufcsma-^yoga), he recites verse 158 from th e Ndmasamglti, wit h whic h h e expresse s his reverenc e fo r the enlightenmen t o f th e Buddha, whose essence is emptiness. B y reciting this verse, he establishes the appro priate attitude with which he i s able to purify his four drops within the fou r calcras by emanating the principal deities within thos e cakras. With regar d to th e Kalacakratantra initiation , th e Kalacakr a tradition' s inter pretation o f the Kalacakratantra's fou r higher initiation s as a symbolical passage from being a lay Buddhist practitioner t o being a wandering ascetic , a monk, an d a Buddha i s justified in the ligh t of the Namasarngiti (vs . 81, 51-52, 94-95), which describes the Buddh a as being a youth, an elder (sthavira), an d an old man, as a leader of the Pratyekabuddhas, an Arhat, a monk, and the progenitor (prajdpati), an d as one who has the grea t vow, great austerity, and so on. Likewise, the receivin g of diadem (patta) an d crow n (mauli) durin g the fou r higher initiation s is explained in terms of the Namasamgiti's (v . 93) description of the Buddh a as an ascetic with a crest of hair and diadem.76

A Brie f Analysis of the Inne r Kalacakratantra The entir e Kalacakratantra i s divided into five main chapters—the chapters o n th e world system (loka-dhatu), th e individua l (adhyatma), initiatio n (abhiseka), sadhana, and gnosis (jnana). Th e subject s of these five chapters delineate th e Kalacakr a tradition's visio n of the gradua l transformation fro m th e macrocosmi c an d microcosmic aspects of provisional reality to ultimate reality, culminating in gnosis. They also represent a unitary reality that manifests as the universe, the individual , the path of purification, an d it s result. The first chapter o f the Kalacakratantra begins with the word s of King Sucandra requesting the teachin g o n th e yoga of the Kalacakratantra fro m th e Buddh a Sakyamuni for the sake of the liberation of human beings who live in the kali'yuga; an d th e last chapter concludes with Sucandra's homage t o Kalacakra, who is the tantra, the presiding deity Vajrasattva, the union of wisdom and method (prajnopaya-yoga), an d the realit y (tattva) wit h sixteen aspects . Each o f the othe r four chapter s als o begins with Sucandra's request for teachings o n the mai n topi c o f the chapter , an d the remaining verses of each chapter contai n the Buddha's response to Sucandra's request. The inne r Kalacakratantra, or the "Chapter on the Individual, " begins with Sucandra's questio n t o th e Buddha : "Ho w ca n th e entir e thre e world s be within th e body?" It continues wit h the Buddha' s summary of how all phenomena i n the world are the thre e modes of the Buddha' s existence tha t are present i n the huma n body,

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all o f which shoul d be known b y means o f the classification s of emptiness. This is followed by a further exposition on the originatio n of the individual' s body, speech, and min d by means of the agglomeratio n of atoms and th e powe r of time. The de tailed description o f the conceptio n an d development of the fetu s i n the wom b indicates th e author' s familiarit y wit h embryology , as taught i n th e earlie r Buddhist writings such a s the Abhidammatasamgaha, Ahdrasutta, an d th e Ayusmannandagarbhdvakrdntinirdesasutra, i n tantric works such as the Vajragarbhatikd an d the Amrtahrdaydstdngaguhyopadesatantra, an d in the Buddhist medical treatises. For example, th e Kalacakratantra's descriptio n o f the condition s necessar y for conception, the char acteristics o f the fetus , an d it s growt h correspon d t o tha t i n th e Ayusrnannandagarbhdvakrdntinirdesasutra.71 Th e vie w of the si x tastes a s arising from th e si x elements i s common t o th e Kalacakratantra an d th e Vajragarbhatikd.78 Likewise , th e Kalacakratantra's statemen t tha t the marrow , bones, and ligaments of the fetu s arise from th e father' s semen, and the skin , blood, and flesh aris e from th e mother' s uterine bloo d correspond s t o a grea t degree wit h th e Amrtahrdaydstdhgaguhyopadesatantra's assertion that the bones , brain, and spinal cord of the fetu s arise from th e father's sperm , and th e muscles , blood, an d viscer a aris e from th e mother' s uterin e blood,79 Similarly , the Kalacakratantra's classificatio n of th e huma n lif e int o te n stages corresponds to that given in earlier works such as the Ayusparyantasiitra80 an d the Nandagarbhdvastha,81 Explaining the functions of each of the elements in the formation of the huma n being and of the condition s i n the mother' s womb , the autho r trie s t o demonstrat e the manne r i n which th e principle s of dependent originatio n (pratitya-samutpdda) apply to the originatio n o f the human psycho-physiology. This firs t sectio n o f the inne r Kalacakratantra continue s wit h a n expositio n of the preciousnes s o f human birt h an d continue s wit h a n explanation o f the way s i n which the four bodies of the Buddh a are present in the body of the individual . It represents the individua l i n the specifi c stages of life within and outsid e th e womb , as the provisiona l manifestations of each of the fou r bodies of the Buddha . It identifies the individua l with the fou r bodies of the Buddh a in accordance wit h the degre e of development of the individual's bodily, verbal, mental, and sexual capacities. It shows further th e manne r i n whic h th e elements , th e psycho-physica l aggregates, th e prdnas, and the mind support each other in the body of the individual; and it explains the relation among the sense-faculties and their corresponding sense-objects in terms of one typ e of element apprehendin g a different typ e of element. Fo r example, th e olfactory sense-faculty , which arises from th e water-element , apprehends taste as its sense-object, whic h arise s from th e fire-element . Explainin g thei r relatio n i n thi s way, the autho r tries to demonstrate tha t al l the constituent s o f the individua l and all his experiences arise due to the union of opposites, often referred to in this tantric system as the "differen t families. " He specifie s th e element s from whic h each o f th e psycho-physical aggregates , the prdnas, and the cakras aris e in order t o demonstrat e the materia l nature o f the transmigrator y body. The secon d sectio n o f the inne r Kdlacakratantra (vs . 27-47) specifie s th e loca tions of the fou r bodies of the Buddh a and of the si x families within the individual' s four cakras. It describes the manne r i n which menta l state s enter th e bod y and th e body enters mental states, and thus they become of the sam e taste. Likewise , it dis-

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kalacakratantra 2

3

cusses the element s o f the bodil y constituents i n terms of wisdom and method, an d it suggest s tha t everythin g pertainin g t o th e bod y an d th e min d o f the individua l comes into existence due to the union of these two. In this way, it provides the reader with a description o f the kdlacakm-mandala. i n terms of the huma n being . I t further depicts th e way s in which th e presenc e of time and th e univers e is to be recognized in one's own body and shows the correspondences between the passage of time in the world and the passag e ofprdnas withi n the body . In this regard, this section als o discusses the differen t function s and location s o f the divers e types of the prcmas in th e body. The thir d sectio n o f the inne r Kalacakratantra (vs . 48-60) begin s with a description o f the current battl e betwee n th e universal monarch (cakravartin) an d th e lord o f the Barbarian s (mleccha) withi n the bod y of the individual , whic h will take place in the lan d of Mecca an d be between th e externa l manifestations of good and evil. I t als o discusse s th e way s i n whic h th e yoga an d yoginT tantras, suc h a s th e Mdydjala an d th e Guhyasamaja, an d th e tantri c familie s o f their deitie s ar e presen t within the individual and included in the kdlacakra'maridala. I n this regard, it furthe r describes the locatio n o f the male and female deities of the kdlacakra'mandala withi n the body of the individua l and identifies them with the nadis and the passage of time in the body. The fourt h section o f the "Chapte r on the Individual " (vs. 61-81) give s a detailed description o f the characteristic s of the unfavorabl e signs of death, beginnin g with description s o f the way s i n whic h on e ca n determin e th e numbe r o f the re maining days of life by examining the flo w o f the pranas in the nadis. For example, if the prana uninterruptedly flow s i n th e lef t nddi fo r a day and a night, the n one ha s one more year to live, and so on. It associates the unfavorable signs of untimely death with the gradual ceasing of the prams' flow in the individua l nadis of the navel-cakra . It als o describes the characteristic s o f timely death, whic h begin s with th e disinte gration of the nadis i n the navel-cakr a and progresses throughout th e bod y throug h the severanc e of the nadis within all the othe r cakras and bodily joints. I t compare s the process of death to the moon and the sun leaving their luna r and solar mansions. The gradua l severance o f the nadis i s said to manifes t for six days in th e acidit y of urine and in the pranas' departure from the sense-faculties. During the other six days, it i s said to manifest in the followin g symptoms: one perceive s the ti p of one's ow n nose as dangling down, one perceives the su n as being black and the ful l moon a s being yellow, and the planets as the spark s of fire, and a black lin e appears belo w one's tongue, and so on. The fift h sectio n o f the inne r Kalacakratantra (vs . 82-106) discusse s the kaia cakri", o r th e momen t o f seminal emission , i n term s o f conventional reality , as a n agent of the creatio n an d annihilatio n o f the individual . It als o points t o th e indi vidual's conceptualization s an d karma tha t i s contained i n th e gum s o f prakrti a s causes of transmigratory suffering an d happiness. It classifies the karm a of human be ings into three kinds: gross, subtle, and subtlest, in accordance wit h the classification of the body , speech, an d mind. I t also distinguishes a karma with regard to the indi vidual's grasping onto the agen t of action. When one thinks, " I am the agent, " thi s is a distinc t karma; whe n on e thinks , "Th e suprem e Isvar a i s the agent, " thi s i s a karma; bu t whe n on e thinks , "Neithe r I no r someon e els e devoi d o f prakrti i s th e

24

The Inner Kalacakmtantra

agent," this is not a karma. It further assert s that it is the min d of the delude d person that creates his own suffering an d happiness an d not th e Bhagava n Kalacakra, who is devoid of the gums and conceptualizations. I n light of this, it affirms tha t the mental state that characterizes the individual's mind at the time of death determines the state o f his next rebirth. The sixth section o f the "Chapter on the Individual" (vs. 107-160) is dedicated to the discussio n of the way s of guarding the bod y from illnes s and untimel y death. It first depicts various tantric yogi c practices an d practices ofprdndydma a s method s of eliminatin g malignan t illnesse s an d preventin g untimel y death . In additio n t o these practices , it also prescribes herbal medication , elixirs , and dietary regulations. It also gives guidance on storing medicinal herbs and spices and preparing their combinations, an d on preparin g and storin g rolls of incenses, unguents , an d fragrances. Additionally, i t discusses ritual tantri c method s o f protecting pregnan t wome n an d infants fro m disease s caused by malevolent spirits, and i t describes the symptom s of such diseases. The las t section o f the inne r Kdlacakratantra (vs . 161-180) discusses the Kolacakratantra's philosophica l view s and those of other Indian Buddhis t and non-Bud dhist systems of thought. After briefly expounding the fundamentals of its own philosophical tenets, the author presents the tenets of other systems , without offering any comment o n them. Upon givin g an overview of the other systems, he engage s in a critique of those tenet s tha t he finds contrary t o the Kdlacakratantra's philosophica l orientation.

2

A History of the sadahga-yoga of th e Kdlacakratantra an d It s Relation t o Other Religious Traditions of Indi a

A

close look at the Kalacakratantra's six-phased yoga reveals its correlation and historical connectio n t o earlie r forms o f the six-phase d 3>oga , foun d i n bot h Hin duism and Buddhism. Moreover, it also reveals the uniqu e character o f the practica l applications an d implication s of the Kalacakratantra' s six-phased yoga. To the bes t of my knowledge, the earliest reference to a six-phased yoga is found in the MaitrayarSya, or Maitn Upanisad, whic h belongs to the branch of the blac k Yajur Veda and i s considered to be the last of the classical Upanisads. The sad-anga-;yoga of the Maitrdyaruya Upanisad, Ch . 6 , v, 18, contains the following six phases: breath-control (f>raria;yarna) , retraction (prat^ahara) , meditative stabilizatio n (dhyana), concentratio n (dharana) , contemplative inquir y (tarka), an d samadhi.1 It is taught in this Upanisad as a method for achievin g unio n wit h th e suprem e Sel f (paramdtman). I f we accep t tha t th e MaitrdyanTya Upanisad predate s Patanjali , w e ca n assum e that thi s six-phase d yoga also predates the eight-phase d ;yog a (astanga-^oga) o f the classica l Yoga system. The fact tha t Patanjali never make s any reference to a six-phased yoga and tha t his Yo gasutra never mentions contemplativ e inquir y (tarka) is not sufficien t evidenc e to regard the six-phase d ;yoga as a later revision of the eight-phase d ;yoga, as Giinter Gronbold suggests. 2 Eve n i f th e sixt h chapte r o f th e Maitrdyaruya Upanisad, whic h incorporates a six-phased ;yoga, is a later interpolation, a s Mircea Eliade speculates,3 the antecedenc e o f the sixth-phase d yoga to th e yoga of Patanjali is still quite plausible. The phras e "for it is said elsewhere," which often occurs at the beginning of the verses of the sixt h chapter, indicate s that the Maitrayaruya Upanisad draw s its yogic elements from the earlier yogic sources. Even though we are unable to determine th e exact source s of the yogi c elements i n th e Maitrdyanya Upanisad, i t i s obvious that different form s of its six-phased ;yoga have very early origins in India. The six-phase d yoga was later modifie d int o diverse forms o f yoga with varying numbers of phases. 25

26

The Inner Kalacakratantra

For example, in one of the earlies t Puranas, the Vdyu Purdna, Ch. 10, v. 76,4 one en counters a five-phased yoga, whose fifth phase i s recollection (smarana), correspond ing in name to the fifth phase of the Kalacakratantra's six-phased yoga. In this Purana as i n th e Kalacakratantra, contemplative inquir y (tarka) i s replaced b y recollection . Considering tha t the Purana s underwent man y revisions afte r th e majorit y of their material was composed during the Gupta reign (c. 32o-c. 500 CE), it is extremely difficult to establish whethe r th e recollectio n phas e of yoga was established first in th e Puranic tradition or in the Buddhis t tradition, specifically , i n the Guhyasamdjatantra, which som e scholars dat e a s early as the fourt h centur y C E an d som e as late a s th e eighth centur y CE. Within later Hindu sources , a six-phased ;yog a is also mentioned in a number of texts belongin g to the Upanisad s of the Yog a class—specifically, i n the Amrtabindu Upanisad—and i n the Saiva Agamas, Saiva tantras, and some Dharma Sutras , wher e there is a slightly different order of phases than that found in the six-phase d yoga in the Maitrdyaniya Upanisad. Fo r example, i n th e Amrtabindu Upanisad, v . 6, th e si x phases of yoga are retraction (pratydharo), meditativ e stabilization (dhydna), breath control (prdnaydma), concentratio n (dhdrana), contemplativ e inquir y (tarka), an d samadhi. This particular sequenc e o f the phase s o f yoga is almost identical t o that of the Kalacakratantra. The differenc e between th e tw o lies in the designatio n of the fifth phas e of yoga as contemplative inquir y (tarka) instea d o f recollection (anusmrti).5 Even though contemplativ e inquir y is not explicitly mentioned amon g the six phases of the Kalacakratantra's six-phase d yoga as a separate member , i t i s not absen t fro m there. Rather, i t i s included within the phas e of meditative stabilizatio n (dhydna), along with wisdom (prajnd), analysi s (vicdra), jo y (rati) , and immutabl e bliss (acalasukha).6 Contemplativ e inquir y as a constituent of the phas e of meditative stabilization i s explained i n th e Vimalaprabhd a s the apprehensio n o f the phenomeno n o f empty form that is being observed or meditated upon during this phase.7 As such, i t is an indispensabl e elemen t i n the practic e o f the Kalacakratantra's six-phase d [yoga . Nevertheless, i t is not give n superiority over all other phases of the six-phase d yoga and their elements as it is in KasmTr Saivism—specifically, i n the Saivagama s and i n the work s o f Abhinavagupt a an d Jayaratha . Abhinavagupt a (975-1025 ) i n hi s Paratrisikavivarana asserts that "among al l the light s of the componen t parts of [yoga," contemplative inquiry (tarka) ha s already been determined in the earlier Mdlimvijaya "to be the brilliant sun by which one gets liberated and liberates others."8 When commenting o n Abhinavagupta' s Tantroloka , Jayarath a (thirteent h century ) i n hi s Tantralokaviveka mention s th e six-phase d yoga that ha s breath contro l (prdnaydma) as its first member and contemplative inquir y (tarka) a s its fifth member and exalts it as the highes t (uttama) phase. 9 Moreover, just as contemplative inquir y is included in the six-phase d yoga of the Kalacakratantra, even though i t is not regarde d as a separate phase, so too ar e meditative posture (asana ) an d restrain t (niyama) implicitl y included in this yoga. The vo/'ra-postur e (vajrdsana) i s often referred to as the postur e in which an adept of the Kalacakratantra does his meditative practice , whereas niyama is included in the observanc e of the Kalacakratantra's ethica l discipline, in the form of restraint fro m indulgin g in the five objects of desire and keepin g the twenty-fiv e tan trie precepts (vrata), whic h ar e deemed prerequisites for the successfu l outcome of the practic e of the six-phase d ;yoga.10 The Vimalaprabhd define s niyama as a Bud-

A History of the sad-ahga-yoga of the Kalacakratantra

27

dha's command (buddhanujna) wit h regard to the twenty-five precepts.11 Since these two prerequisites to th e Kalacakratantra's six-phase d yoga are present i n each phase of the yoga as qualifying conditions , the y ar e not considere d t o b e separate phases. Within later Hindu source s there are also those who speak of a six-phased yoga that doe s not includ e th e phas e o f contemplative inquir y but include s meditativ e posture (asana ) a s the first phase. Fo r example, some Yoga Upanisads—specifically , the Dhyanabindu {Jpanisad, v. 41 and th e Yogacuddmaru Upanisad, v . 2—several texts of the GoraJcs a corpus (c. twelfth century), an d the Netratantra, cited in Ksemaraja's Vimarsini (elevent h century ) commentary on the Siv a Sutra 6, contain the following list of the six phases: posture (asana), breath-control (pramyama), retractio n (pratyahara), meditative stabilizatio n (dhydna), concentratio n (dhdrana) , and samadhi. This for m of th e six-phase d yoga seems to b e later tha n that found in th e Guhyasamajatantra and later incorporated int o the Kalacakratantra. Thus, i t is most likely that the Buddhist six-phased yoga chronologically succeed s the six-phase d yogas containing con templative inquir y (tarka) a s the fift h phase , whic h continue d t o be i n practic e i n later times as well. However, it is more difficult t o determine with certainty whether the Buddhis t six-phase d yoga precedes th e six-phase d yoga o f Kasmir Saivis m that contains meditative posture (asana) as its first phase o r whether i t was contemporaneous with it. If one were to rely only on the extant Saiva texts that refer to the sixthphased yoga having meditative posture as its first member, it would seem that the Buddhist sixth-phased yoga preceded that particular yoga of KasmTr Saivism. Considering the incompletenes s o f textual and historica l information , it i s impossible to recon struct an accurate an d precise history of the six-phase d yoga in India. Therefore, I offer her e onl y a limited comparative tabl e o f the differen t type s of six-phased yogas that wer e cited i n specifi c Saiva , Vaisnava, an d Buddhis t texts. A s table 2.1 . indi cates, not onl y teacher s o f different religiou s traditions but als o various teachers of different school s withi n th e sam e tradition taugh t divers e forms o f the six-phase d yoga, according to their intended goals. Even though these diverse types of the sixphased yoga were couched withi n the differen t theoretica l an d practical framework s of disparate traditions, they all share some commonalities. The mos t salient point of commonality is that each form of the six-phase d yoga is viewed within its own tradition as inducive t o the accomplishmen t o f both limited, or mundane, an d supreme siddhis. There are also certain commonalitie s in th e mor e general interpretations of some phases o f the divers e types of six-phased yoga, despite the clea r divergence i n the manne r i n which particular phases are structured and practiced withi n th e different traditions . Fo r example, in both KasmTr Saivism and Buddhism, the phas e of breath-control (pranayama) involve s bringing the prdnas int o th e centra l nodi; th e phase of retraction (pratyahara) involve s the withdrawa l of the sense s from externa l objects; and meditativ e stabilizatio n (dhydna) implie s meditation o n a divine form , and so on. Their interpretations also coincide to a certain degree with Patanjali's definitions i n the Yog a Sutras. For the variant listing s of the si x members of the saA-ahgayoga within th e differen t school s o f the Hind u an d Buddhist traditions see table 2.1. Within th e India n Buddhis t tradition , teaching s o n th e six-phase d yoga ar e found withi n tw o Buddhis t tantric systems—th e Guhyasamajatantr a an d th e Kala cakratantra. Th e Hevajratantra (Ch . 8 , vs. 21-22) als o mentions a six-phased yoga, but it does not list its members nor does it elaborate on it. Even though the six-phased

28

The Inner Kalacakratantra

TABLE 2.1 Th e Variant s of the Sadanga-yog a The Tark a class of the Sadanga-yog a Maitrdyamya Yog a Upanisads Upanisad, 16:1 8 Amrtandda, 6, etc. prdndydma pratydhdra pratydhdra dhyana dhyana. prdndydma dhdrand

dhdrand

tarka samddhi

tarka samddhi

The Anusmrt i class of the Sadanga-y o Guhyasamdjatantra, 18:14 0 pratydhdra dhyana prdndydma dhdrand anusmrti

samddhi The Asan a class of the Sadanga-yog a Netratantra (Mrtyujit) dsana prdndydma pratydhdra dhyana dhdrand samddhi

Visrtu Samhitd,

30:57-58 prdndydma pratydhdra dhdrand tarka samddhi

dhyana

Tantralokaviveka, 3 prdndydma

dhyana pratydhdra dhdrand tarka samddhi

Kalo£akratantra, 4:116 pratydhdra dhyana prdnaydma dhdrand anusmrti samddhi Goraksa Texts, Goraksasataka, 7, etc. dsana prdnaydma pratydhdra dhdrand dhydna samddhi

yogas of the Kalacakr a and Guhyasamaja systems accord in the name s and in the sequences o f thei r phases , the y diffe r i n thei r conten t an d practica l implications . Among the Indian sources of these two traditions, the majorit y of treatises and com' mentaries on the six-phased yoga belong to the Kalacakra corpus. According t o th e Blue Annals, the six-phase d yoga of the Kalacakratantra wa s initially taught b y Vajradhara i n th e for m o f Avadhutip a t o Anupamaraksit a (c . eleventh-twelft h cen turies), who passed it on t o his friend Sridhara. 12 Two works on the six-phase d yoga are traditionally attributed to Anupamaraksita: the Sadangayoga an d the Sadahgayogandma. The later Indian author Ravisrijnana (eleventh-twelft h centuries)—i n the introductions t o hi s Gunabhararn, a commentar y o n th e Sadangayoga an d t o hi s Sadahgayogatika, a commentary o n th e Sadahgayoganama—gives a brief account o f Anupamaraksita's revelatory experience.13 According t o th e account s recorde d i n the Gunabharara an d th e Sadangayogatikd, Anupamaraksit a studie d Buddhism and other Indian systems of thought. Under th e guidance of Srlkhasarpana, he practice d for twelv e years a meditation o n reality without an object and free o f conceptualizations, but was unable to gain a special insight. Depressed, he fell asleep, during which VajrayoginT appeared to him, instructing him to go to Vikramapura, where he would attain tha t specia l insight . Afte r arrivin g at midnigh t i n Vikramapura—accompa nied by his disciple, the grea t pandita Sridhara—Anupamaraksita received instruc tion o n th e six-phase d yoga directly from the Buddh a i n the for m o f Avadhuta. By

A Histor y of the sad-angO'yoga of the Kalacakratantra 2 9

merely receiving the instruction tha t confirmed, "This is reality," he entered samadhi; and upo n emergin g from hi s samadhi i n the earl y morning, Anupamaraksit a taugh t this knowledge t o Sridhara. With some variations, this story is repeated severa l times in later Tibetan chron icles o f Buddhism an d th e lineag e o f the Kalacakratantra's six-phase d ^oga. 14 Apart from Padm a dkar po, who mistook Vikramapura for Vikramaslla monastery in Bihar, none of the source s specif y th e locatio n o f Vikramapura no r th e plac e fro m whic h Anupamaraksita wen t t o Vikramapura . I t i s likely that th e Vikramapur a to whic h RavisrTjnana refers is VajrayoginT village in contemporary Dacca, located in east-central Bengal, which is also thought t o be the birthplace o f AtTsa.15 This is perhaps th e same Vikramapur a mentioned i n th e inscription s foun d i n nort h India . In th e in scriptions relate d t o the ruler s of the Varma n an d Vikramaditya dynasties of northern India, Vikramapura is mentioned as their capital during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Th e Varma n dynast y ruled easter n Benga l i n th e secon d quarte r o f th e eleventh century , an d thei r Vikramapur a was eventually overtake n b y Vijayasena , the greates t kin g o f the Sen a dynasty , in th e middl e o f the twelft h century . Thus , Ravisnjnana, who , accordin g t o Taranatha' s History of Buddhism in India, lived during the reign of the Sena dynasty, coul d have been referring to that Vikramapura.16 Some inscriptions mention Vikramapura as a capital founded by Vikramaditya VI (c. 1076-1126). His father, Somesvara I, reigned i n Magadha and easter n Bengal , an d he himsel f conquere d centra l Benga l shortly befor e 106 8 CE, afte r defeatin g Vigrahapala III . According t o Taranatha' s History of Buddhism in India, Anupamaraksit a lived during the perio d o f the Bhayapal a and Nayapala kings of the Pal a dynasty. 17 Nayapala, th e fathe r o f the mentione d Vigrahapala III , ascended th e thron e in th e early eleventh centur y and ruled the kingdom that extended o n the west up to Bihar and to the east to central Bengal. Taranatha's informatio n coincide s wit h 'Gos l o tsa ba gzhon nu dpal's assertion in the Blue Annals that Anupamaraksita could not hav e been later thanNaro (956-1040 CE), since Naro cites Anupamaraksita's teachin g i n his Sekkodesatika.16 Thus , whether Ravisnjnan a wa s referring to the Vikramapura of the Palas , Varmans , o r Vikaramadityas , accordin g t o Buddhis t tradition th e Kolacakratantra's six-phased yoga was first disseminated in Bengal. Anupamaraksita's name coul d have been easily related to the well-known Anu pama monaster y (vihara) i n KasmTr , whic h produce d BuddhasrTjnana , Sarvajna sriraksita, an d Sakyasrfbhadra , th e grea t early eleventh-century KasmT r scholars of the Kalacakratantra. His name also could have been related to Anupamapura, the seat of the tw o greatest Buddhis t center s o f learning i n KasmT r during the elevent h an d twelfth centuries—th e monasterie s of Ratnagupta an d Ratnarasmi . I n eithe r case , Anupamaraksita coul d have come t o Bengal from KasmTr . It is clear from the extant Indian an d Tibetan sources that there were several lineages of the Kalacakratantra's six-phase d yoga in India. As these source s indicate, th e most importan t amon g thos e lineage s was that of Anupamaraksita. I n the Gunabharan, RavisrTjnan a give s th e followin g lineage : Anupamaraksita 19—Srfdhara— Bhaskara—RavisrTjnana. Th e sam e lineage, bu t i n an extende d form , i s also give n in th e Blue Annals, th e fifteenth-centur y Tibetan chronicl e o f Buddhism in Tibet, which als o mentions th e famou s lineage s of Indian Buddhis t masters. According t o the Blue Annals, the mos t famous lineag e of the Kalacakratantra's six-phase d ;yoga in

30 Th e Inner Kalacakratantra

India begins with Anupamaraksita and ends with the Bengali mahd-pandita, Vanaratna (1384-1468). Vanaratna received the transmissio n of the six-phase d yoga from th e mahd-siddha Savaripa , one o f the eighty-fou r legendary mahd-siddhas o f India, and h e taught i t extensively i n Tibet during the first half of the fifteent h century. 20 The extended lineag e i s given a s follows: Anupamaraksita—Srldharanandan a (Sadhupu tra)21—Bhaskaradeva—Ravisrljnana (Suryasn)—Dharmakarasanti—Ratnaraksita — Narendrabodhi—Muktipaksa—Sakyaraksita—Sujata—Buddhaghosa—Vanaratna. The exac t same lineage of Indian masters i s also mentioned in Padma dkar po's (sixteent h century ) Dpe med 'tsho'i lugs kyi rnal 'byor yan lag drug pa'i khrid rdo rje'i tshig 'byed.22 Earlier Tibeta n historian s o f Buddhism in Indi a an d Tibe t recorde d a shorte r branch of Anupamaraksita's lineage i n India . In hi s Dpe med 'tsho'i sbyor drug gi br gyudpa, include d i n the Gsang sngags rgyud sde bzhi'i gangs'bum,23 Bu ston offers th e following list for the India n masters following the lineag e of Anupamaraksita: Anu pamaraksita—Sndhara—Bhaskaradeva—Dharmakarasanti—Ravisnjnana— Ratnaraksita—Vibhuticandra. Thi s lin e o f India n Buddhis t master s end s wit h Vibhuticandra (twelfth-thirteent h centuries) . Accordin g t o Padm a ga r dbang, 24 Vibhuticandra received hi s Kalacakratantra initiatio n an d teaching s fro m thre e In dian scholars : Sakyasrlbhadra, th e maha-pandita o f Kasmir, 25 wh o was his principa l spiritual mentor, Vikhyatadeva , and Dharmadasa . In Nepal, he mastere d th e Kdlacakratantra under the guidance of Ratnaraksita, the Newari mahd-pandita, from whom he receive d the teaching s of the six-phase d yoga of the Kalacakratantra i n the tradition o f Anupamaraksita. During his stay in Nepal, Vibhuticandra becam e an exper t in the Kalacakratantra and in the practice of the six-phased yoga. According t o Padma gar dbang, 26 h e wrot e annotation s t o th e Kalacakratantra an d th e Vimalaprabhd, which influenced later Tibetan translators and commentators on the Kalacakratantra. As one of the India n mahd-panditas, Vibhuticandra visite d Tibet thre e times and became fluen t i n th e Tibeta n language . He himsel f translate d hi s Sadangayogandma (Rnal 'byor yan lagdrugpa)27 int o Tibetan. According to the Tibetan six-phased yoga tradition, the Sadangayogandma i s the direc t transmission of the six-phase d yoga practice tha t Vibhuticandr a receive d fro m Savarip a durin g hi s sta y a t Stha m Biha r monastery in Kathmandu, upon which he attained dhdrond, th e fourt h phase of this yoga. In subsequent centuries, this text became one o f the mos t importan t an d authoritative text s fo r the direc t transmission of the Kdlacakratantra's six-phase d yoga in Tibet, especially in the Jonangpa tradition. According t o Taranatha,28 the teach ings on the six-phase d yoga that Savaripa revealed to Vibhuticandra wer e based on the dohas o f Saraha, an d Saraha' s yogi c practice itself wa s based on th e six-phase d yoga. In th e Sbyor ba yan lag drug gi rdzogs rim gyi gnad bsdus pa, Tshong kha pa 29 (four teenth-fifteenth centuries) , followin g his teacher B u ston, cite s the India n lineag e of Anupamaraksit a i n thi s way : Anupamaraksita—Sndhara—Bhaskaradeva — Dharmakarasanti—RavisrTjnana—Ratnaraksita—Vibhuticandra.

3

The Natur e of Syncretism i n the Kdlacakratantra

R

eading the Kalacakratantra, one immediatel y notices it s prominent, syncretisti c character, but close examination of this tantra and its commentarial literature reveals that the Kalacakra tradition has preserved a distinctively Buddhist orientation, and that its affiliation wit h non-Buddhist Indian systems is in form rather than con tent. The syncretis m of this tantri c syste m is a self-conscious absorption, or appropriation, of the mode s of expression that are characteristic o f the riva l religious systems of India. This self-conscious syncretism variously permeates several areas of the Kalacakratantra, such as its theoretical system , language, medicine, and cosmology; and it is often inextricabl y relate d t o Buddhist tantric conversionar y efforts. Fo r this reason, the ter m syncretism does not quit e fit this tradition, whose rhetorical strategies and linguisti c divergences, though cleverl y disguised, are firmly rooted in Buddhist doctrine. The Kalacakr a tradition expressly justifies it s adaptive character a s a skillful mean s for leading individuals of diverse mental dispositions to spiritual maturation. Th e Paramddibuddhatantra assert s tha t "on e shoul d teach th e Dharm a i n whatever manner mature s sentient beings." 1 The conversionar y mission of the Kalacakratantra is not th e sol e basis of its syncretistic character. The growin g pluralism within the inner life of Indian Mahayan a communities could have been another contributing factor in the proliferation of syncretism, for the flourishin g o f religious pluralism often makes syncretism a necessity rather tha n jus t a possibility. The pluralis m that i s characteristic o f Indian tantri c Buddhism ca n b e described a s a self-conscious recognition tha t althoug h th e Bud dhist traditio n i s shared by all the member s of a specific Buddhis t community, th e way i t i s interpreted, analyzed , an d experience d differ s withi n tha t community . I t seems that the Kalacakra tradition trie d to find grounds for dialogue with other Buddhist and non-Buddhist system s without ignoring their differences; while at the same time, it was apprehensive abou t losing its own distinct identity . Its ambivalence with regard t o it s own syncretis m is evident throughou t th e Kdlacakratantra an d th e Vi malaprabhd. For example, while refuting th e particular views of the India n non-Buddhist an d the so-calle d Buddhist heterodox schools , th e Kalacakratantra states: 31

32

The Inner Kdlacakratantra Kalacakra impart s instruction on the earth for the sak e of this and other knowledg e of people who have dull, sharp, and other mental dispositions due to the powe r of their karmi c habitual propensities. 2

At th e sam e time, it warns against the danger s of grasping onto one's own dogmatic position o r falling under the influenc e of other teachings b y familiarizing oneself with those teachings i n order to refute them : Since the mind , lik e a crystal, i s colored by the color s of the object s i n it s proxim ity, the yog should no t criticiz e any teaching that belongs t o his own or to another family.3

The Vimalapmbhd justifie s th e Kalacakr a tradition' s syncretism , assertin g that the principl e (niyama) o f the Bhagava n Kalacakra i s that "whatever i s identical t o the word s of the Buddh a either i n terms of conventional or ultimate truth mus t not be criticized."4 In accordance wit h thi s principle, i t cites passages from th e writings of heterodox Buddhis t schools a t times—the Vaibhasikas, for example—in order to substantiate it s theory; an d a t other times , i t vehementl y criticize s other passage s from th e sam e writings that express views contrary t o those o f the Kalacakr a tradition. Likewise, on the one hand, th e Kdlacakratantra asserts that even when one's own mind is pure, one should not creat e discord among intelligent an d unintelligent peo ple, since they are all Buddhas;5 and on the other hand, i t states that one should no t use ferocious mantras to kill living beings but to terrify the host of Maras who are "the authors of the Smrti s and other murderou s heterodox group s (Srthika) wh o are fond of fighting." 6 Th e Vimalaprabha interpret s her e "Maras " a s proponents o f the Vedi c Dharma, and i t affirm s tha t a Bodhisattva should us e ferocious mantras to generat e fear in heterodox groups that their Dharma will be destroyed.7

The Theoretica l Syncretism o f the Kalacakratantra As mentioned earlier , the philosophica l positio n advocate d i n th e Kdlacakratantra and its related literature is that of the Madhyamikas, following the lin e of Nagarjuna. According t o th e Kdlacakratantra, onl y Madhyamika s who assert th e nondualit y of compassion an d emptiness avoid philosophical failure . Thus, adherin g t o the onto logical vie w of the Madhyamika s a s the onl y vali d one , th e Kdlacakratantra refute s the tenet s of all other Buddhis t an d non-Buddhis t systems . Although th e Vimalaprabhd acknowledge s divers e Buddhis t system s suc h a s Vaibhasika , Sautrantika , Yogacara, and Madhyamaka as equally authentic teaching s of the Buddha , it presents the Madhyamaka system as the pinnacle o f the Buddha's teaching, and it claims that the Madhyamika s are the onl y one s wh o ar e qualified t o attai n "th e non-abidin g (apratisthita) nirvana that i s without remainde r (upadhi-rahita), du e to th e cessatio n of causes an d results , an d tha t i s devoid o f the wakin g and dee p slee p state s and i s similar t o th e drea m an d th e fourt h state." 8 I t affirm s th e superiorit y o f the Mad hayamaka school ove r other Buddhis t schools o n the grounds that the Madhyamika treatises, unlike the scripture s of the aforementioned Buddhist schools, elucidat e ul timate reality. 9 The Vimalaprabha interpret s the differences among the four schools of Buddhism

The Nature of Syncretis m in the Kdlacakratantra 3

3

as the Buddha' s response to differen t menta l dispositions of sentient beings, some of whom have the fortune of being closer to enlightenment, while some are further fro m enlightenment. It als o views the differin g teaching s of the fou r Buddhis t schools as the Buddha' s response to the teachings of four differen t non-Buddhis t groups, that is, as his conversionary means. It asserts: Since beginningless time, all sentient being s have been heterodox ( firthika), devote d to th e Dharma s of gods, spirits (Wiuta) , an d asuras, deprived of the pat h o f omniscience, placin g themselve s into one o f the fou r castes , desirin g the pleasure s that are th e rewar d of heaven, an d assertin g [th e existenc e of ] a creato r an d th e Sel f (atman). Amon g them , thos e wh o rely on th e Dharma s o f gods and pretas ar e proponents o f "correct words " (sabda-vadin), Isvara , the Self , an d social discrimination (jdti'Vadin). Thos e who rel y on th e Dharma s of the Barbarian s (mleccha) an d asuras are proponents o f a creator and a soul (jlva) an d are devoid of the propagatio n of social discrimination. 10 Thus, according to th e Kalacakr a tradition, al l followers o f the fou r school s of Buddhism at som e tim e o r another belonge d t o th e heterodo x groups , an d a s they further pursue d the issue s related to the religiou s teachings they followed an d finall y settled with Buddhist answers to those issues, they converted to Buddhism. Thus, the Vaibhasikas are said t o be Buddhis t convert s who previosly followe d th e Barbaria n Dharma. The Sautrantikas are Buddhist converts who previously propagated the the ories of a creator, correct words, Isvara , an d clas s discrimination; and the Yogacarin s are Buddhis t converts who previously held the vie w of the permanen t Self an d th e creator; whereas, the Madhyamika s ar e the convert s who abandoned no t onl y th e aforementioned heterodo x views but als o the dogmati c positions and related meditative practices that are characteristic of the othe r three Buddhist schools. The Vimcdaprabha describe s the manne r o f their conversion to Buddhis m in the followin g

way:

Among thos e Barbarian s (mleccha) ther e ar e two types of grasping—grasping onto the agglomeratio n of atoms and graspin g onto the [trul y existent] person (pudgaia) who has origination. Their belief is: "If a person who has the originatio n an d dwells in the body that consists of the agglomeration of atoms does not exist, then who will take on another body after th e bod y that consists of the agglomeratio n of atoms has perished? Therefore, a spontaneously arisen person (upapdduka-pudgala) doe s exist. By meditating on this, the rewar d of heaven, o r the rewar d of nirvana, comes about . Apart from th e reward of heaven, ther e i s no other nirvana." At th e time when they sought the truth , knowin g th e thought s o f their minds , the Bhagavan who knows reality said: "There is a person who carries the burden , but I do not sa y that he [exists] permanently or impermanently." This is true, since according to the Bhagavan's words, it i s not possibl e to say that a person who i s [a manifestation of] mental ha bitual propensities in the dreamin g state i s permanent o r impermanent. Abandon ing the Dharm a of Barbarians due to this statement o f the Tathagata, they have become the Buddhis t Vaibhasikas. Moreover, some, hearing the highest Dharm a as it was being taugh t to the Bodhisattva s and abandoning the graspin g onto the [truly existent] person, resorted to the pat h o f the Samyaksambuddha . Furthermore, among the Sautrantikas, there is grasping onto the agglomeration of atoms. The belie f of these substantialists (artha-vadin) is : "If the animate and inan imate things tha t inhabi t spac e do not exist , then the tripl e world would not exis t

34 Th e Inner Kdlacakratantra either. I n the absence o f samsdra, there would be nonfavorable or unfavorable states of existence. Likewise, neither Buddhas nor Bodhisattvas would exist, nor would the supreme nirvana exist . One coul d no t se e the Bhagavan' s relics because o f the ab sence o f the substanc e presen t i n the matter. " A t th e tim e whe n the y sough t th e truth in this way, the Bhagavan, knowing the thoughts of their minds, said: "There is the final body [of the Bhagavan ] that consists of the agglomeratio n of atoms an d is endowed with thirty-two characteristics of the Great Man, by means of which th e state of the Samyaksambuddh a and th e sublim e parinirvdna com e int o existence. " This is true because of the appearanc e of the Bhagavan' s relics. Thus havin g hear d of the powe r of the bod y that consists of the agglomeratio n of atoms and abandon ing th e propagatio n o f social discrimination, correc t words , Isvara , an d a creator, they became the Buddhist Sautrantikas. Moreover, some, hearing the instruction on the supramundane Dharma to Bodhisattvas and abandoning th e grasping onto that substance (artha), resorte d t o the path o f the Samyaksambuddha. Among the Yogacarms, there is grasping onto consciousness. The belief of these proponents of consciousness is: "The entir e three worlds are consciousness only. The so-called atom does not exis t because it i s a division that consists of the si x constitutent parts . Just a s in th e dreamin g state th e thing s that are mere appearances of the min d engage in activities even thoug h ther e i s an absence of atomic matter, so too in the waking state a thing appear s by means of an unreal thing, lik e a hair-net or a golden conch appearing to the eye soiled with dark dirt." At the time when they sought th e trut h i n this way , the Bhagavan , knowing the thought s o f their minds, said: "The tripl e world is consciousness only . Apart fro m consciousness , there i s no other samsdra. The cessatio n o f the see d of cyclic existence i s due to th e cessatio n of mundane consciousnes s (laukika-vijiidna). Du e t o that , ther e i s nirvana." Thi s is true. The manifestatio n of suffering an d happiness arise s from th e animat e and no t from the inanimate. So-called sufferin g and happiness are samsdra, and their absenc e is nirvana. Thus, hearing th e Bhagavan' s word s and abandonin g th e theor y of th e creator an d the Self , the y became the Buddhis t Yogacarins. Moreover, some, hearing the instructio n o n the supramundan e Dharma to Bodhisattvas and abandoning the propagation of consciousness, resorted to the pat h of the Samyaksambuddha. 11 It further argue s that just as the Buddha taught different theorie s to the four types of Buddhists, so he taugh t them differen t meditativ e practices that were i n accor dance wit h thei r differin g views . For example, he taugh t meditation on th e imper manence o f a perso n t o th e Pudgalavadins , meditatio n o n th e krtsnas t o th e Arthavadins, meditatio n o n cognitio n onl y (w/napti-rnacra ) t o th e Vijnanavadins , and to the Madhyamikas , he taugh t meditation on the dreamlik e and imperishable gnosis.12 Thus, i n ligh t o f its view of the superiorit y o f the advance d Madhyamik a teachings an d practices, th e Kalacakr a traditio n associate s th e Madhyamika s wit h spiritually matur e Buddhist s who , abandonin g al l dogmati c position s an d relate d meditative practice s o f the other thre e Buddhis t schools , succee d i n reachin g th e highest spiritual goal. Nevertheless, the Kalacakra tradition argues that there is no distinction between the Madhyamika s an d th e heterodo x group s wit h regar d t o th e manne r i n whic h conventional reality appears. It regards the investigatio n of conventionally existent phenomena an d th e notion s of the conventiona l creator, mean s of action, and action a s common to all , Buddhist s an d non-Buddhist s alike. It affirm s tha t th e onl y major differenc e betwee n its philosophical views and thos e of the heterodo x groups

The Nature of Syncretism in the Kalacakratantra 3 5

is in it s understanding of the natur e o f emptiness, whic h i s identitylessness of tw o kinds—personal identitylessness (pudgala-nairdtmya) an d phenomenal identitylessness (dharma-nairdtmya).13 That view of the commonalit y of the Madhyamika' s and the heterodox groups' speculative approache s t o conventiona l realit y facilitated the Kalacakratantra's im port of certain ideas and theoretical model s from other philosophical system s and induced it s theoretical syncretism . By incorporating the idea s characteristic o f other philosophical system s into it s own theoretica l framewor k an d b y attributing con ventional validit y to them , th e Kalacakratantra attempt s t o accomplis h tw o objectives: namely, to provide rational explanations pertaining to human psycho-physiology, and to convert heterodo x groups . Textual study of this tantric tradition reveals the following two goals of the Kalacakr a tradition's theoretical syncretism : the con version of heterodox groups , and th e modelin g of conventional realit y for meditational purposes. For example , the Samkhya' s qualitativ e dualism of consciousness (purusa) an d matter (prakrti ) is adopted by the Kalacakratantra a s a heuristic device for explaining the natur e o f the huma n bein g from th e conventiona l poin t o f view. However, th e Samkhya's concepts of purusa and prakrti, which permeate the theoretical framework of this tantra, are not take n literally from the Samkhya philosophical system. Rather, they are reinterpreted an d adapted t o the Kalacakratantra's ow n unique system. Thus, i n the contex t o f the Kalacakratantra, the twenty-fiv e principles of prakrti are the fiv e aggregate s (skandha), th e five elements (dhdtu), th e twelv e sense-bases (dyatana), intellec t (buddhi), self-graspin g (ahamkara), an d th e min d (manas). Th e prakrti of the huma n being is devoid of inherent natur e (svabhdva), an d from th e ul timate point o f view, it i s luminous. In contrast, i n th e Samkhy a philosophical system, the twenty-fou r principles of prakrti forming th e huma n bein g include the primordial prakrti (mula-prakni), whic h i s an independentl y existen t an d inherentl y generative phenomenon , an d it s twenty-three tempora l subdivisions . Likewise , in the Kalacakratantra, the aggregates , elements, and sense-bases form th e prakrti of th e transmigratory body, 14 and the five elements, intellect, self-grasping , an d the mind form the prakrti of the transmigrator y mind.15 In Samkhya, on the other hand, only the intellect, self-grasping , and the mind form the "inner organ" (antah-karana); an d when combined wit h the sense-facultie s (buddhindriya), facultie s o f action (Jcarmen driya), an d subtle elements (tanmdtra), the y form the subtle body (iinga-sarira), which is separable from th e gros s body and thu s capable of transmigrating through a series of gross bodies which ar e aggregations of the five gross elements . There is also a difference i n terms of the originatio n of the gros s and subtle elements. Accordin g t o Samkhya , the five gross elements are derivatives of the subtle elements beginning with sound, and so forth;16 wherea s in the Kalacakratantra, th e five gross elements are said to give rise to sound and other subtle elements.17 It i s not quit e clea r what i s meant i n th e Kalacakratantra b y the term s buddhi, manas, and ahamkara. The India n commentarial literatur e does not elucidat e thes e points, an d Tibeta n commentarie s understan d the m i n differen t ways . Fo r mKhas grub rje, the eigh t constituents o f the prakrti of the transmigrator y mind ar e eight of the twenty-fiv e principles of prakrti and purusa, as categorized by the Samkhy a philosophical system. mKhas grub rje does not mentio n whethe r or not w e should under-

36

The Inner Kalacakratantra

stand buddhi, manas, and ahamkdra i n the wa y in which Samkhy a interpret s them . He thu s leave s u s with a puzzl e an d roo m fo r speculation . B u ston's annotation s [438], on th e other hand, sugges t that buddhi her e refers to the five sensory faculties (buddhlndriya), tha t manas designates conceptualization (vikalpa), an d that ahamkdra refers t o th e defiled , o r afflicte d min d (klista-manas), referrin g to a subtle feeling of "I." This concept of an afflicted min d is characteristic of the Yogacara' s classification of the min d and not o f the Madhyamika . Bu ston's interpretatio n o f the ter m buddhi definitely differ s fro m that in Samkhya, whic h considers buddhi a part of the "inne r organ" that makes decisions, cognitively and ethically. 18 However, Bu ston's explanations of the term s manas an d ahamkara correspon d i n some ways to th e implica tions of those terms in Samkhya, which regards conceptualization as one of the func tions o f the manas,19 an d interpret s ahamkdra a s a par t o f the "inne r organ " tha t appropriates al l experience s t o itself . The fac t tha t th e Kalacakratantra use s these philosophical terms without clearly explaining their meaning is one more indicatio n of th e author' s consciou s attemp t t o incorporate th e Samkhy a system into it s universal model of conventional reality. 20 Likewise, despite some striking similarities between the Samkhya's and the Kflla cakratantra's interpretations of purusa, there ar e some basic differences wit h regard to the nature of the purusa and its relation to prakrti. In both systems , the purusa refers to consciousness which pervades prakrti but itsel f is neither prakrti nor it s derivative, and whic h i s free o f the thre e properties—namely , sattva, rajas, an d tamos—and is neither bound no r liberate d b y anything. However , whereas in the Samkhy a philosophical system , the purusa is an independentl y existen t reality , a contentless pres ence, or an inactive witness devoid of bliss, in the Kalacakratantra, the purusa is of the nature o f innat e gnosi s (sahaja-jnana), whic h i s blissful omniscience ; an d i t tran scends both samsara and nirvana, and yet is active in supporting both. For th e schematizatio n o f th e abov e mentione d difference s betwee n th e Samkhya's an d Kalacakratantra's interpretation s of purusa and prakrti, see table 3.1. Similarly, the Kalacakratantra's way of understanding the gunas of prakrti does not correspond i n every way to the Samkhya' s interpretation. In some instances, instea d of satwa, rajas, an d tamos, the Kalacakratantra specifies the five sense-objects—smell, sound, form, taste, and touch—as the gunas of prakrti.21 Being subject to originatio n and cessation, they are said to have the characteristics of conceptualizations and bind the individua l to the cycle of existence. I n other instances , th e thre e gunas—sattva, rajas, and tamas—correspond to the moral distinctions amon g sentient beings' mental dispositions tha t ar e induced b y their ow n karma.22 I n yet other instances , th e Kalacakra tradition refer s to the three gunas in ways that are open to multiple inter pretations. Fo r example, whe n i t speak s o f the gross , subtle, an d suprem e natures (prakrti) of the min d as being contained in the thre e gunas, it does not full y explai n the manne r i n which i t understands the thre e gunas in this particular context. The Vimalaprabha suggest s only that in the Kalacakratantra's classification of the natur e of awareness as gross, subtle, and supreme, the gros s nature of the transmigrator y mind, which apprehend s phenomena wit h the gros s sense-faculties, is characterized by the waking state. This state i s said to correspond t o sattva, that i s to say, to the daytime. The subtl e nature of the mind , which apprehend s menta l phenomena tha t are like an illusion, is characterized by the dreamin g state, which is said to correspond to ra-

The Nature of Syncretism in the Kalacakratantra 3 7 TABLE 3.1 Purus a and Prakrt i in Sarnkhya and i n the Kalacakratantra

Samkhya

Kalacakratantra

Purusa contentless presence passive witness devoid of bliss

omniscience active support blissful

Prakrti primordial materiality (mulaprakrti) intellect (buddhi) self-grasping (ahamkdra) mind (manas)

intellect (buddhi) self-grasping (ahamkdra)

the five sense-faculties (buddhindriya) auditory faculty (s'rotra ) tactile faculty (tvac) visual faculty (caksu ) gustatory faculty (rasana) olfactory faculty (ghra.no.)

the si x sense-faculties (indriya ) auditory faculty tactile facult y visual facult y gustatory facult y olfactory facult y mental faculty

the five faculties o f action (karmendriya) speaking (vac) grasping (para) walking (pdda) excreting (pdyu) procreating (upastha)

the five psycho-physical aggregates (skandha.) the form-aggregat e (riipa-skandha) the feeling-aggregat e the discernment-aggregate the aggregat e of mental formations the aggregat e of consciousness

the five subtle elements (tanmatra ) sound (sabda) contact (sparsa) form (riipa) taste (rasa) smell (ganaTia )

the si x sense-objects (visaya) form (riipa) sound (sabda ) smell (ganaria ) taste (rasa) touch (sparfa) mental object (citta )

the five gross elements (mahd-bhuta) space (dkdsa) wind (vdyu) fire (tej'as ) water (ap) earth (prthivl)

the five elements (dhdtu) earth (prthivi) water (ap) fire (tejos ) wind (vdyu) space (dkdsa)

jos, or to twilight. Th e suprem e nature o f the mind , whic h discards al l phenomena, is characterized by the stat e of deep sleep, which i s thought t o correspond t o tamas, or to midnight. If not examine d within its own context and in light o f the Madhya maka vie w o f sattva, rajas, an d tamas, thi s threefol d classificatio n o f th e natur e (prakrti) o f the mind , related to sattva, rajas, an d tamas, may appear identical t o that of non-Buddhist tantric systems, particularly of the nondua l KasmT r Saivism. 23 It is quite plausible tha t the Kalacakratantra introduced tha t type of categorization o f the nature of awareness from Kasml r Saivism as a useful mode l to describ e the conven tional aspect s of the transmigrator y mind.24

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

In light of the fact that the Kalacakr a tradition explicitl y reaches ou t to a nonBuddhist audience, sattva, rajas, and tamas may be interpreted i n accordance wit h th e Sarnkhya philosophy. On th e othe r hand , ther e ar e some interna l indication s tha t for Buddhist s not committe d t o that interpretation , th e name s o f these thre e gurus can simpl y b e take n a s ciphers t o relat e th e thre e humor s i n th e body—phleg m (kapha), bil e (pitta), an d win d (vdyu)—to th e thre e nddls i n th e body— idd o n th e left, pingala on the right, and susumna in the center—and to specific physiological or mental processes o f three kinds, and so on.25 Likewise, i t i s plausible that the Kdlacakratantra's descriptio n o f the fourt h na ture of the min d come s originally from th e Saiv a tantros, for the classificatio n of the four type s of awareness was known in non-Buddhist Indian traditions since the tim e of the Upanisads . Within the contex t o f the Kalacakratantra, the fourt h state of the mind i s a state that supports the thre e aforementione d states . It i s characterized by the emissio n o f regenerative fluids. Comparativ e analysi s of the exposition s o f th e fourth stat e of the min d i n the Kalacakratantra an d i n Saiva tantras reveals striking similarities, and yet it shows some fundamental differences wit h regard to the natur e of that state. The y agre e that the fourt h state of the min d marks the blissfu l stat e of consciousness in which all conceptualizations disappear and any sense of duality vanishes. However, in Saiva tantras,26 the fourt h state of the min d is also a state of selfrealization, a state in which one becomes aware of one's undivided, essential Self, and consequently becomes free o f spiritual ignorance (avidya). I t is a condition by which one rise s t o th e fift h state , o r th e stat e o f liberation , withi n one' s lifetim e (jivanmukti). I n th e Kalacakratantra, o n th e other hand , th e fourt h typ e o f awareness , though nondua l a t the tim e of the emissio n of regenerative fluids, is still tainted with the habitual propensities of spiritual ignorance (avidyd'Vdsand) an d is thus embedded in the cycl e of existence . The aforementione d examples demonstrate some of the ways in which th e Kdlacakratantra endeavors t o simultaneously achiev e both its goals—to offer rational explanations concerning th e individual , and to convert Saivite s and other heterodo x groups adherin g t o th e Samkhya' s worl d view—without compromisin g it s funda mental tenets. Similarly, in order to attract th e Vaisnavas and to illustrate its view of the physical and mental development of the human being, the Kalacakratantra uses the model of th e te n avatdras o f Visnu as an analog y for the te n phase s of human life . B y so doing, it introduces it s own unique interpretation o f Visnu's avatdras. Thus, in th e Kalacakratantra,21 Visnu is also referred to as Visnu Vajradhara, the individual's mindvqjra. H e i s identified here wit h the gandharva being, or the bein g of the intermedi ate state (antar-bhdva), bein g conveived i n the womb and undergoing different stages in the differen t phase s of life insid e an d outsid e the womb . For example, a s a fetus, one assumes the forms of a fish, tortoise, and boar; at birth, one becomes a man-lion; in early childhood, on e i s in the dwarf-stage ; a t the tim e when th e first teeth grow until they fal l out , one i s in the stag e of Rama; in adolescence, on e experiences th e stage of Parasurama; from adolescenc e until the appearanc e of gray hair, one experiences the stag e of Krsna; in old age, one i s in the stag e of a Buddha, and o n the da y of death, on e attains the stag e of Kalkl. Interpreting Visnu's avatdras i n this manner , the Vimalaprabhd caution s agains t adoptin g th e standar d interpretatio n o f th e

The Nature of Syncretism in the Kalacakratantra 3

9

Puranic teachings on the grounds that they are meaningless, lead to hell, and are devised by corrupt Brahmanas in order to deceive simple-minded people.28 This i s one o f many instances i n which the Kalacakratantra tradition contemp tuously disparages the Vaisnava tradition and its teachings. It frequently refers to the Brahmanic teachings, especiall y those o f the Puranas , as false teachings , devoi d of reasoning, creatin g confusio n amon g foolis h people , an d compose d b y corrup t Brahmanic sage s for the sak e of promoting thei r ow n social class. 29 One reaso n for such assertions wa s the overt animosity between the Buddhists and the adherents of the Brahmani c tradition i n the norther n Indi a of the lat e tenth an d eleventh cen turies. Thi s wa s a n er a i n whic h th e influenc e o f th e Purana s an d strengt h o f Brahmanism steadil y increased, and i n whic h orthodo x Brahmani c school s jointly stood i n opposition to Buddhist ideology, posing a threat t o the entir e Buddhist tradition. On e o f many examples of internal evidenc e o f the antagonis m between th e Brahmanic and Buddhist traditions of that time is their contention over the issu e of which Dharm a i s the bes t one. Th e Vimalaprabhd refute s th e Brahmani c claim that the Vedic Dharma is superior to the Buddh a Dharma because it is earlier and innat e (sahaja), wherea s the Buddhis t Dharma is later and fabricated (krtaka). I t argues that just as the earlier and innate ignoranc e i s not better than later knowledge, so too th e fact tha t the Vedi c Dharma is earlier and innate doe s not mea n that it is best. Even though i t is earlier and innate, i t does not illuminat e the path to omniscience, for it is characterized by the darknes s of ignorance. Therefore, the Vimalaprabhd states , the later Buddha Dharma was created in order to destroy the grea t darkness of the Vedic Dharma. Speaking from th e Buddhis t tantric point of view, the Vimalaprabhd argues that th e Buddhis t Dharma i s superior to th e Vedi c Dharma becaus e nirvana comes about only by means of a sddhana o n th e supreme , imperishable gnosis (paramdksarajndna) an d not b y means of the Vedi c Dharma, which consists of nothing but th e habitual propensit y of seminal emission.30 In addition to the aforementioned instance s in which the Kalacakratantra adopt s and redefine s concept s characteristi c o f non-Buddhist systems , i t als o incorporate s non-Buddhist cosmologica l views without reinterpretin g them . Fo r example, i n its classification o f the inferna l realms and it s description of the siz e of Meru, the Kala cakra tradition closel y parallels the Jain a cosmological view; an d it s description of the fou r cosmi c mandalas als o parallels those i n the Puranas. 31 The fact that the conversion o f heterodox groups was one of the motivations behind th e Kdlacakratantra's adoptio n o f specific non-Buddhis t idea s implies that it s teachings pertaining to the Kalacakra worldview were not kept secret from th e public; that is, they were not guarde d as secret teachings intended fo r an initiated elite . Moreover, th e Kalacakr a tradition' s preferenc e for explicitly presenting its specifi c tantric view s is a result of its openly professed conversionary endeavors.

The Syncretis m of Kalacakratantra Practic e There is clear evidence in the Kalacakra literature that even the teachings and practices pertainin g t o th e Kalacakr a initiation wer e accessibl e t o heterodo x groups , whether they were seeking only mundane siddhis or the realization of the supramundane gnosis. With regard to its initiation, th e Kalacakratantra32 assert s that whether

40 Th e Inner Kalacakratantra

one i s a Buddhist , a Saiva, a Brahmana , a naked mendican t (nagna), a sndtaka ( a Brahmana beggar), a kapolf ( a follower of a Saiva sect, who wears a garland of human skulls and eat s and drink s fro m them) , a Jain a mendican t (lupta-kesa) , a hermi t (maum), o r a follower of the left-han d Saktism (kauli), on e will obtain purit y and all virtues by receiving the Kalacakr a initiation . I t substantiate s tha t assertio n o n th e grounds that through initiation into the kdlacakra-mandala, one becomes initiated int o all mandalas, including those o f the deitie s belonging t o those heterodox groups. 33 In it s attempt t o attrac t heterodo x groups , the Kalacakratantra include s i n it s mandala th e deitie s that were equally accepted b y Hindus, Jainas, and Buddhist s as objects of worship and meditation. In this way it introduced it s practical syncretism into th e practic e o f the stag e of generation. However , jus t a s the Kalacakmtantra's theoretical syncretis m often lend s itsel f to both Buddhis t an d non-Buddhist inter pretations, so too can these deities of the heterodox groups be viewed either as nonBuddhist deities or —as the Vimalaprabha34 suggest s —as symbolic representations of the divers e factors of Buddhahood.35 Th e Kalacakr a tradition i s the onl y Buddhist tantric tradition that fully discloses the symboli c representations o f its adopted non Buddhist deities. While the Kalacakratantra incorporates into its mandala the diverse deities that were worshippe d by both Buddhist s and non - Buddhists, th e Vimalaprabha admon ishes th e Buddhis t tantri c yogs wh o see k liberation and wis h to advanc e i n Kalacakratantra practic e b y meditatin g o n th e supramundan e siddhis no t t o perfor m sadhanas o n th e deitie s and mantras of the outsiders . Its rationale for this is that th e deities of the outsider s cause minor misfortunes, and even when the y are meditated upon, the y look for the fault s of the meditato r an d become his enemies. It points to the futilit y o f meditation o n non- Buddhist deities in this manner: Meditated upon , what will they, who are like poor men, give ? When meditated upon , they say: "Hey sadhaka, we will obey your every command." I f the sadhaka says, "Tie the kin g an d brin g hi m here, " then the y refuse , [saying] : "We are incompetent i n this matter." Likewise, th e insignifican t deitie s wh o are meditated upo n refus e [to help] with regard to omniscience. 36

Moreover, textua l stud y of the Kaiacakratantr a shows that receivin g th e cakratantra initiatio n di d no t entai l takin g refug e i n th e Buddha , Dharma , an d Sarigha. It i s clear that non-Buddhist recipient s o f the Kalacakr a initiatio n di d no t have to become Buddhists . However, the fact that the subsequent tantric practice of the stage of generation begins with taking refuge 37 implie s that thos e wishing to engage i n more advanced Kalacakra practices had t o commi t themselves t o the Buddhist path. Study of the fourt h chapter o f the Kalacakratantra, which describe s the practice o f the stage s of generation, suggest s that tha t mod e o f practice wa s introduced partly with the intention of accommodating new converts to this tantric path. Moreover, the Vimalaprabha38 assert s that the Kalacakr a sodhana is to be taught first as a dualistic practice, based on th e differentiatio n between th e visualize d deity as permanent (nitya) an d th e meditato r a s impermanent (anitya), fo r th e sak e o f th e mental purification and conversion of the foolish who have not yet realized that their visualized object is ultimately their own mind. The ter m "foolish" (bala) i s recurrently used in the Kalacakr a literature t o describe the member s of heterodox groups .

The Nature of Syncretism in the Kalacakratantra 4 1

The example s given above demonstrate tw o important facts. The firs t is that the Kalacakra tradition's reconciliatio n o f non-Buddhist views with its own i s primarily achieved throug h it s reinterpretation o f non-Buddhist ideas; and th e secon d fac t is that its conversionary effor t wa s the mos t important facto r in inducing it s theoreti cal and practical syncretism .

The Syncretis m of the Kalacakratantra's Language The Kalacakratantra's aforementione d expression s of syncretism are also reflected in its language . The y induc e th e specifi c types o f lexical an d semantica l syncretis m found in this tantra, which is characterized by a diverse mixture of Buddhist and non Buddhist terms. As we saw earlier, at time s the term s borrowed from non-Buddhis t systems convey the idea s characteristic o f those systems; at other times, they conve y traditional Buddhist ideas; and at yet other times, they designate new Buddhist ideas specific t o this tantric system. The Vimalaprabhd interpret s th e Kalacakratantra's linguisti c divergences a s its way of transcending the class discrimination of the rivaling Hindu groups, which prohibit the Vaisyas, Sudras, and other low classes from studying their scriptures, saying, "Here in the land of mortals, the Vaisyas, Sudras, and others born in degraded wombs, must not stud y the Veda s and must not tak e u p the mendicant' s lif e an d staff." 39 I t also view s th e Kalacakratantra's linguisti c syncretis m a s a wa y o f overcomin g th e alienation create d by conservative Buddhis t ways of institutionalizing th e languag e of the nort h Indian Buddhis t tradition, uphel d b y Buddhists who, "seeing th e arro gance o f the heterodo x panditas who propound th e prope r words, think: 'Just as the chosen deitie s o f th e Brahmanas , Vaisnavas , Saivas , an d others—Brahma , Hari , Hara, an d others—speak Sanskrit, so too our chosen deities, the Buddha s and Bodhisattvas, speak Sanskrit." '40 Another facet o f the Kalacakratantra's lexica l syncretism manifests in the usag e and reinterpretatio n o f Buddhist terms of different Buddhis t schools. Fo r example, the Kalacakratantra frequently employs the Yogacara' s term dlaya-'vijndna (repositor y consciousness) simply to designate vijndna (consciousness). Taking into account th e interpretation o f the Vimalaprabha commentary, which glosses alaya-viinana as vijnana and jiva, the Kalacakratantra's genera l view of the natur e of the mind , and its refutation o f the Yogacara' s classification of the mind , one ma y infer tha t the ter m akryovijnana i n this tantric tradition designate s not th e Yogacara's concept of an ethically neutral repositor y of the habitua l propensities o f karma, but a continuum o f mental consciousness. Thi s particula r typ e of lexica l syncretis m result s fro m the Kolacakratantra's effor t t o convert th e adherent s o f Buddhist schools othe r than Madhyamaka. The Vimalaprabha explicitl y refers to Yogacarins, Sautrantikas, and Vaibhasikas as simple-minded Buddhist heretics (bauddha-Grthika) .41 The Kalacakra tradition's conversionary endeavor s may also be traced t o yet another face t of its lexical syncretism, namely, the usag e of terms originating fro m In dian vernaculars . Fo r example , th e term s chandoha, upachandoha, melapaka, upamelapaka, and others, which designate the names of the specific bodily joints, do not have clea r Sankri t etymologies . Since th e autho r o f the tantra demonstrates his familiarity wit h th e Ayurvedi c medica l treatise s suc h a s th e Caraka an d Susruta

42

The Inner Kalacakratantra

Samhitds, which employ standard Sanskrit terms to designate those bodily parts, it is certain that the usag e of these term s was not accidental . In ligh t o f the precedin g discussions, one ma y draw several conclusions. First , the above-mentione d characteristic s o f th e Kdlacakratantra's pervasiv e syncretism demonstrate th e diversit y of that syncretism. Second, i t is the prevailing reinterpretative aspec t o f the Kdlacakratantra's syncretis m that ensures this tantra's coherenc e and give s it a distinctively Buddhist character. Third , th e differen t feature s o f th e Kdlacakratantra's syncretis m ar e incidental to the variou s immediat e goal s that this tantra attempts to accomplish by resorting to syncretism. As mentioned earlier , there are several reason s for the Kdlacakratantra's syncretism . The first is to enhance and enrich it s presentation o f conventional reality . The secon d i s its expresse d ai m of proselytism. In support of this claim, it is well to remember that during the late tenth and early eleventh centuries , northern India was subjected to frequent raids by th e Muslim chief AmTr of Ghazm an d hi s son Sultan Mahmud , whose force s too k ten s of thousands of slaves and plundered the country's treasures. In the mids t of this brutal invasion, the author of the Kalacakratantra may well have sought to form a united front o f heterodox group s and Buddhists , a new ecumenical movemen t tha t would stand up against this common foe, who exemplified the "Barbarians" (mleccha). Likewise, dangerous times like these often create a world of religious uncertainty that can sometimes be warded off by precarious theoretical an d practical forms of religious affirmations, which may be seen as heretical. The fac t that a conversionary mission is the mos t compelling factor in inducing the Kdlacakratantra's syncretis m brings us to a simple but pertinen t question : Wh y does the Kalacakratantra resort to syncretism in order to fulfill it s conversionary goals? The answe r may be threefold. First, by incorporating heterodo x theorie s and practices, i t makes its own system more accessible to thos e who m i t i s trying to attract . That is, by presenting its own views in terms that the heterodo x group s are steeped in and with which they ar e comfortable, i t makes it s own theory more readil y un derstandable t o them. Second , i t acknowledges aspirations already cherished b y its potential Buddhis t and non-Buddhist followers—suc h a s physical health, mundan e siddhis, immortality , and liberation—and shows them ho w to accomplish thes e aims by mean s o f Kalacakratantra practice . Third , b y mean s o f syncretism , i t trie s t o demonstrate tha t in terms of conventional realit y there is no fundamental difference between the views of the heterodox systems and the Kalacakratantra, and that no theory describes any purported inherent nature of the world . However, this assertion of the essential compatibility between the heterodox an d Kalacakratantra views appears to be contradictory, fo r the Kalacakr a tradition undeniabl y refutes an d reinterpret s others' views concerning th e conventional natur e of phenomena. Thi s dilemma may be a philosophical one which th e Kalacakr a tradition, du e to its adoptive strategies, cannot avoid ; but there may perhaps be a deeper justification that can be discovered through furthe r researc h int o this subject.

4

The Concep t of Science in the Kalacakra Tradition •yrr zhen the issue of science is raised within the context of Indian Buddhist thought, W ther e are no more advanced o r comprehensive matrice s of theory and practice than those presented in the literatur e of the Kalacakra tradition. A textual study of the Indian literar y sources of this tantric tradition reveals that when Brahmani c formal education i n eleventh-century Indi a was exclusively theological an d disdainfu l of technical knowledge, 1 north Indian Buddhist monastic education incorporate d training i n nontheologica l skill s tha t require d knowledg e o f medicine , alchemy , mathematics, artisanship , an d even weaponry. 2 The shar p split between theologica l and scientific education , which impaire d the Brahmani c educational system of that time, was absent in Buddhist monastic education due to the prevailing Buddhist view that theologica l knowledg e and technical an d scientific learning are not onl y compatible bu t complementar y a s well.3 The literatur e of the Kalacakr a tradition wit h its diverse and well-integrated topics and applications o f the divers e fields of knowledge best attest s t o that fact. The integratio n o f diverse fields o f knowledge by this tantric traditio n has its roots in the Buddhis t monastic, educationa l system. The stud y of the five fields of knowledge (panca-vidya)—linguistics, logic , inner science (metaphysic s and philosophy) , medicine, an d creativ e arts—wa s incorpo rated in Buddhist education a t the tim e of the emergenc e o f the Mahayan a Buddhist monastic universities. Mahayana monasteries were the first to offe r educationa l opportunities to both the monasti c an d lay Buddhist communities; and they were the first to provide them wit h religious and secular education as well. This is very significant i n light of the fac t tha t in the India n Buddhist world, educational opportuni ties did not exist apart from monasteries. In early Buddhism, Buddhist education was entirely monastic i n its content and available only to those who entered o r intende d to enter the Buddhis t monastic order. The origin of the Buddhist educational system was closely tie d to the inceptio n of the Buddhist monastic order. The Buddhis t edu cational syste m actually arose from th e need for instructing monastic novices . Eac h novice (sramanera) a t his ordination (pravrajya.) wa s placed unde r two senior monks, one calle d a preceptor (upadhyaya) an d the othe r a personal teacher (acarya). Fro m 43

44 Th e Inner Kalacakratantra

the descriptio n give n in the earl y Buddhist Pali texts (Mahavagga, Ch . i.) , it seems that the upadhydya wa s responsible for instructing the novic e i n Buddhist texts and doctrine, wherea s the acdrya wa s responsible for training the novic e i n the prope r conduct o f a fully ordained monk. After th e novitiat e period was over, a novice aged twenty o r older underwen t a second ordinatio n (upasampadd). A s a fully ordaine d monk (bhiksu), on e received further training to become well versed in Buddhist scriptures and meditation. Tha t period was called nisraya, or "dependence," an d i t could be reduce d t o fiv e year s or extende d fo r a lifetime . Once tha t perio d was over, a trained mon k was allowed to teach younge r monks as an independent acarya. Thus, in early Buddhism the unit of the Buddhis t educational system was a young monk or a group of young monks living under the supervisio n of two elders who were responsible for their entire well-being . Many such group s of students an d teacher s reside d together withi n a single monastic institution . Thi s patter n o f collective lif e an d organization o f education carrie d ove r t o th e educationa l syste m of Mahayana Buddhism where it was further developed. However, unlike the Mahayana texts, the early Buddhist writings4 refer to the creative arts, craftsmanship, scribing, and similar field s of knowledge as vulgar fields of knowledge (tiracchana-vijjd), whic h ar e studied only by lay people. Likewise, in the earl y Buddhist period , th e Buddhist lait y had to seek other educational center s whe n the y neede d nonreligiou s education . Wit h the advent of Mahayana, there wa s greater emphasis on promotin g genera l educatio n for the entir e Buddhis t community. There were two main reasons fo r that shif t i n th e priorities. One reaso n was Mahayana's recognition o f the Buddhis t lay life as a viable way of life i n the pursuit of spiritual awakening, and the othe r reaso n lay in the Bodhisattva idea l and the idea l of perfect enlightenment characterize d by omniscience. Therefore, whereas in early Buddhism attention was given almost exclusively to th e elimination o f spiritual ignorance , Mahayan a Buddhis m wa s concerned wit h th e eradication of every kind of ignorance. As some Mahayana texts attest, a Bodhisattva was encouraged to gain proficiency in all kinds of knowledge in order to attain th e six perfections an d assis t others i n ever y way needed. Th e BodMcaryavatara, fo r instance, declares , "there is nothing tha t th e Childre n o f the Jina should not learn." 5 In thi s regard , in th e Mahayan a Buddhis t tradition , th e stud y of the five fields of knowledge wa s considered necessar y i n bot h pursuits—th e pursui t of one's pragmatic, mundan e end s an d th e pursui t o f spiritua l awakening . I t i s sai d i n th e Mahay dnasutrdlamkdra: An Ary a who does no t underg o trainin g i n the five fields o f knowledge i n no way attains omniscience. He train s in the m i n order t o defeat an d assis t others, an d i n order t o gain knowledge for himself. 6

The tex t further explains that by studying linguistics and logic one is able to defeat opponent s i n debate; by studying medicine, the creativ e arts, and similar disciplines, on e assist s those wh o desir e so ; and b y studying the inne r science , o r Buddhism proper, one gains knowledge for oneself. Likewise, master y of the fiv e field s o f knowledge was considered a s one o f th e characteristics o f Buddhahood itself . In th e Vydkhydyukti^ o r th e Sutravyakydyuk* tyupadesa, Vasubandh u state s tha t Buddha' s teachin g i s called comprehensiv e be cause i t demonstrates hi s proficiency i n every field of knowledge. In tantric litera -

The Concept of Scienc e in the Kalacakra Tradition 4

5

ture, specificall y in the Vajrapanjaratantra, a good vajracarya i s said to be completel y versed in all fields of knowledge. A s I will try to demonstrate throughou t thi s book , the Kalacakr a tradition support s this view of the Buddha' s omniscience a s inclusive of all forms of learning, and it accordingly integrates the divers e branches o f exoteric learning int o it s esoteri c theorie s an d practices . Th e fac t tha t th e entir e Kolacakratantra can be divided into two main parts—one dealing with diverse disciplines pertaining t o th e theoretica l knowledg e o f the worl d and th e othe r pertainin g t o meditation—indicates that the Kalacakra traditio n also agree s with the Mahayan a view that one i s unable to get the firm footing in Buddhist teachings and practice by study an d analysi s alone , withou t th e practic e o f meditation, o r wit h meditatio n alone, withou t study . In thi s way , it concord s wit h th e earlie r Mahayana vie w expressed by the followin g verse from th e Mahdyanasutralarnkdra: Meditation would be useles s if reality could be perceived throug h mere study ; and the teaching would be useless if one could practice meditation without having studied.8

The topic s o f the Kdlacakratantra's first two chapters—called respectively "Th e Universe" an d "Th e Individual"—dea l wit h th e investigatio n o f the univers e a s macrocosm and of the individual as its microcosm. The Kalacakratantra's inquir y into the nature o f the externa l worl d and the individua l as two facets of the phenomena l world—the externa l (bahya) an d interna l (adhyatma)—utilizes knowledg e o f th e various branches o f Buddhist science . Discipline s analogou s t o cosmology , astron omy, astrometry, chronometry, embryology, physiology, psycho-physiology, anatomy, medical therapeutics , pharmacology , alchemy, botany, psychology , an d philosoph y are either directly or indirectly incorporated int o the Kalacakratantra, especially into its first two chapters. Fo r this tantric tradition, those diverse scientific disciplines provide a systematic analysis of the natura l world , provisionally viewed as an objec t of purification, an d humans ' place an d interaction s i n that world . Thoroug h under standing of the structures and functions of conventional reality (sarnvrti-satya) i s considered here indispensabl e fo r the realizatio n of ultimate reality (paramartha'Satya), or Buddhahood . Since the earlies t period of Buddhism, Buddhists' investigatio n of the world has been base d on thei r understanding o f nature a s an orderl y system governed b y discernible causa l laws. This same theoretical basi s of investigation als o permeates th e discussions of the univers e and the individua l i n the Kalacakratantra, An analysi s of this tantra and its related literature indicates that the primary goal of the tantric Buddhist investigatio n o f the natura l worl d i s to discove r the causa l factors operating within the universe as macrocosm an d within th e individua l as microcosm. The sec ondary goal is to demonstrate th e correspondence betwee n the univers e and the in dividual by identifying th e propertie s of the externa l physica l universe i n the bod y of the individual. 9 This goal reflects the Kalacakra tradition's intent that its very presentation o f Buddhist scientifi c truths b e nondual, tha t is , without drawin g an absolute distinction betwee n subject and object. The tertiar y objective of the Buddhist tantric scientific investigation i s to ascertain the properties of the cosmos and the individual a s mer e appearance s invoke d b y th e powe r o f th e individual' s habitua l propensities. Finally , the ultimat e ai m i s to se e things a s they ar e (yatha*bhuta) b y

46

The Inner Kdacakratantra

means of acquiring direc t knowledg e of the natur e o f reality. Seeing thing s a s they are mean s perceivin g th e illusor y nature o f conventional realit y and realizin g th e nonduality of conventional an d ultimate realities. The natur e of this nonduality i s that conventional reality , although manifestin g as the universe , has the for m o f emptiness (simyatd-rupin), an d emptiness has the for m o f conventional realit y (samvrti'rupin).10 The realization of the fundamental nonduality of the conventional an d ultimate realities an d th e contemplativ e pat h t o tha t realizatio n are the chie f topic s o f the other thre e chapter s o f th e Kdlacakratantra, calle d respectivel y the "Initiation, " "Sadhana," and "Gnosis." An analysis of those three chapters indicates that this Buddhist tantri c pat h o f actualizin g Buddhahoo d i s structure d o n tw o theoretica l grounds. One i s a theory that the univers e is contained within th e bod y of the indi vidual as demonstrated b y the divers e disciplines o f Buddhist natural sciences ; an d the secon d i s that the natura l worl d as we experience i t and explai n it through scientific analysi s is already nirvana but need s to b e recognized as such. Thus, i n the context of Buddhist tantric soteriology , the prope r understandin g of the conventiona l worl d that is the objec t of purification, the genuin e practice of the Buddhis t tantric path that is the mean s of purification, an d the authenti c actu alization of Buddhahood, which is the resul t o f that purification, ar e directly con tingent upo n adequat e knowledge of the Buddhis t natural and social sciences . The concep t of science i n the Kdlacakratantra i s indicated by the Sanskri t wor d vidyd, meanin g "knowledge. " Alread y in some of the earl y Buddhist expositions o n vidya, th e ter m signifies mor e than knowledge regarding the Fou r Noble Truths. I n the Nettipakarana,n th e definitio n of vidya include s such concept s a s investigatio n (vicaya), scrutin y or observation (upaparikkhd), an d correct views or theories (sammdditthi). Thus, from early times, Indian Buddhists have recognized the relevance o f rational an d empirica l method s i n thei r studie s o f th e natura l worl d an d huma n thought an d relations . However , jus t a s the Wester n concept s o f religion and phi losophy do not clearl y apply to Buddhism as a whole, so too th e Wester n concep t of science does not directly correspond t o the phenomenon of Buddhist science. There are several critical reasons for that—namely, Buddhist science is characterized by widely known an d use d contemplative an d introspectiv e method s o f scientific investigation,12 its application of extrasensory perception as one of the mean s of scientific verification, th e difficult y o f demonstrating the knowledg e acquired by contemplativ e means, and its goal of progress toward, not unprecedented knowledge, but knowledge previously acquired by Buddha Sakyamuni and other Buddhist contemplatives. Nevertheless, I think the term "science" is justified here for several reasons. First, in Buddhist scienc e ther e ar e working hypotheses tha t ar e tested b y means of experience and that are capable, in principle, of being refuted experientially. Moreover, the con clusions drawn from experience ar e formulated as rational theorie s that are internally consistent an d make intelligible a wide range of phenomena . In light of the Kalacakratantra's classificatio n of reality into the provisiona l and ultimate, this tantric system speaks of two types of science (vidyd),13 Th e firs t type of scientific knowledg e i s knowledg e o f conventiona l reality , whic h i s acquire d b y means o f investigation. A s such , i t i s described a s perishable scientifi c knowledge (ksara-vidyd), sinc e i t i s provisional an d highl y subjective. 14 I t i s subjective i n th e sense that it i s affected by the habitua l propensities of samsdra, which ar e nothin g

The Concept of Science in the Kalacakra Tradition 4 7

other tha n th e measur e o f the habitua l propensitie s o f one's own mind . Scientifi c knowledge of conventional realit y is provisional also due to its being perceptual and conceptual. Th e verificatio n of provisional scientific truth s i s based on th e sensor y perceptions an d on inference based on perceptual experiences; but one's perception s and conceptions o f the world are said to depend o n the power of one's ow n merit, or virtue (puny a).l^ Scientifi c knowledge of conventional realit y is also provisional du e to it s being characterized b y a series of momentary cognitions tha t aris e and ceas e with the arising and ceasing of cognized impermanent phenomena. A transmigratory mind, which observes conventional reality , is momentary because to that mind phenomena appea r to arise, remain, and cease in separate, consecutive moments. Suc h a mind does not perceiv e the unity , or simultaneity, of the momen t o f the phenom ena's arising, remaining, and ceasing.16 Thus, as the mind perceives conventional re ality, it discriminates the moment s as one an d many, and consequently, i t discriminates al l other phenomena a s separate from on e another , sinc e they appea r to arise and cease i n their own separate times. This discriminatory, dualistic manner o f perceiving th e conventiona l worl d as a multiplicity of temporal phenomena i s seen as the mos t prominent characteristi c o f provisional scientifi c knowledge . The Vimaia prabhd asserts that this provisional scientifi c knowledg e i s inconsequential scientifi c knowledge to which th e human mind i s strongly attached.17 The Kalacakr a tradition affirm s tha t that which i s scientific knowledge (vidya) in terms of conventional realit y is ignorance (avidyd) wit h regard to the ultimat e nature of phenomena.18 Ignorance i s a habitual propensity of samsdra, and i t is knowledge accompanied by attachment tha t ofte n manifests in scientific inquir y as an expectation. Sinc e attachmen t give s rise t o aversio n an d aversio n i s of the natur e of delusion, provisional scientific knowledge of conventional realit y is fundamentally a mental affliction , whic h subjectivel y create s al l the world s in every single momen t and perceives the world in a biased manner. I n contrast, knowledge of ultimate reality, or as-it-is-ness, is viewed as ultimate and imperishabl e scientific knowledge, because it is not affecte d b y the habitua l propensities of samsara. It is a nonconceptual , unmediated knowledge, in which the distinction betwee n the perceiver and the perceived no longe r appears . Therefore, this type of scientific knowledge (vidya) i s said to b e devoid of an objec t (analambim).19 I t i s nonperceptual knowledge , because it is not acquire d through th e sense-facultie s or any conventional mean s of scientific investigation, nor is it acquire d even by means of meditation. It is free of momentariness, for it does not discriminat e moments a s one o r many. In this way, it dwells in th e absenc e o f origination an d cessation . Jus t a s samsdra i s the measur e of one's own mind, so too i s ultimate reality the measur e of one's ow n mind. Thus, ultimat e scientific knowledge is nothing othe r than self-knowledge, knowledge of the exten t of one' s ow n mind . However , even thoug h provisiona l scientifi c knowledge o f th e world is regarded as ultimately incorrect, i t is seen as indispensable for gaining eventual knowledge of ultimate reality, which i s omniscience, fo r it facilitates one's un derstanding of impermanence an d emptiness and thereby-indirectly brings about th e eradication of one's afflictive an d cognitive obscurations. Thus, provisional scientific knowledge is seen as an integra l part of ultimate scientific knowledge. A carefu l stud y of the Kalacakr a literature reveals that th e scop e of science i n tantric Buddhis m includes no t onl y a wide range o f natural science s but cognitiv e

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sciences a s well. Those divers e branches o f Buddhist scienc e presen t systematized knowledge of the natur e an d compositio n o f the natura l worl d and humans ' plac e and interactions i n that world. Adequate knowledg e of the Buddhis t scientific disciplines and its practical application in an integrated form on the tantric Buddhist path are viewed as highly relevan t for one's spiritual maturation an d liberation . Fo r that reason, i t i s thought tha t the Kalacakratantra practitioner shoul d acquir e and cultivate such knowledge and it s practical application s for the sak e of liberation an d for the sak e of temporary well-being as well. Thus, withi n the Kalacakr a system, all th e aspects of the natura l world become legitimate fields of Buddhists' scientific investigation, an d knowledg e of the variou s scientific fields becomes a significant component of the Buddhis t Dharma as the bod y of verifiable truths. 20 The Kalacakr a literatur e als o demonstrates the way s in which th e natura l sciences become integrate d with cognitive and social sciences on that Buddhist tantric path. Disciplines classified in the moder n world as history, philosophy, fine arts, and psychology ar e presented i n the Kalacakr a literature alongsid e astronomy, cosmology, physics, medicine, biology, pharmaceutics, and alchemy and are jointly utilized in the varie d modes of Kalacakratantra practice. The integratio n of different science s on this Buddhist tantric path is facilitated b y the earlie r mentioned tantric view of the nondualit y of the individua l and the individual' s environment. Tha t particular view implies that all psycho-physiological processes of the individua l correspond t o the physical and socio-historical processes occurring in the individual's environment. For example , th e passag e of days, seasons , an d year s correspond s t o th e passag e of pranas in the human body; and the individual' s spiritual battle with one's own mental afflictions has its external aspect in the religious war of Kalkl with the king of Barbarians in the lan d o f Mecca, and so forth.21 Thus , on e ma y say that in this tantri c system, the theme s addresse d in the Buddhis t natural sciences ar e analogous to th e themes of modern science . In all of the above-mentione d discipline s of Buddhist tantric science , th e veri fication o f the Buddhis t scientifi c truths appears to b e based on th e followin g fou r means: sensor y perceptions , menta l perceptions , extrasensor y perceptions, an d in ference. Sinc e earlies t times, extrasensor y perceptions hav e bee n regarde d i n th e Buddhist tradition a s a valid means of scientific verification. In its last two chapters, the Kalacakratantra presents rational psychologica l and physiological conditions for bringing abou t extrasensor y perceptions . Th e verificatio n o f Buddhis t scientifi c truths concerning the relative nature of the world, as expressed in natural causal laws, is based on al l the aforementione d mean s o f verification. Correspondingly, knowledge of relative scientific truths is viewed in this tantric system as perceptual and con ceptual an d a s provisional knowledge of the worl d as it appears to th e dualistic , biased mind. The verification of absolute scientific truth regarding the ultimate nature of the world , as expressed in emptiness , i s presented a s a form o f nondualistic con templative perception . Knowledg e of absolut e truth , however , is described a s th e nonconceptual (avikalpita), unmediate d knowledge of all things , i n whic h th e dis tinction between the perceiver and the perceived no longer appears.22 An important , commo n featur e of the aforementione d discipline s of Buddhist tantric science is their individual syncretism that permeates the theorie s and modes of their practical application. The syncretisti c nature of Buddhist tantric science , as

The Concept of Science in the Kalacakra Tradition 4 9

evidenced i n the Kalacakratantra, stems from th e Buddhis t tantric view of the com monality o f the Buddhists ' an d heterodo x groups' (tirthika) teaching s concernin g conventionally existen t phenomena . The Kalacakratantra contends tha t there is no distinction betwee n th e Buddhists and heterodox group s with regard to the manne r in which conventiona l reality appears . That view of the commonalit y o f the Bud dhists' an d heterodox groups ' approaches t o conventiona l realit y justifies th e Bud dhist tantric incorporation o f specific ideas from other Indian religious and scientific systems and resulted in the syncretis m of Buddhist tantric science . B y amalgamating the idea s characteristic o f non-Buddhist systems into its own theoretical framework , the Kalacakra tradition attempts to accomplish tw o objectives: to facilitate its modeling of conventional reality and to convert heterodo x groups . In this way, the Buddhist tantri c proselytizing efforts significantl y contributed t o th e comple x nature of most of the Buddhis t tantri c scientifi c disciplines. However, the syncretis m of Buddhist tantri c medicine appear s less related t o thos e efforts , fo r it stems chiefly fro m the distinctive Buddhis t tantric emphasis on the favorable effects o f physical health on one's spiritua l development . The Kalacakr a traditio n give s great importanc e t o th e preservatio n o f one' s health on the grounds that the achievements o f supernormal abilities and liberation are contingent upo n proper bodily functioning. Since its earliest stages, the Buddhist tradition ha s been concerned with medical knowledge and it s practical applicatio n as supplementary systems of Buddhist learning and religious practice. The favorable effects o f physical health on one's spiritual development ar e already indicated i n th e earliest Buddhist Pali literature. As recorded in the Majjhimanikdya,23 Buddh a Sakyamuni himself saw health as the individual' s finest possession and pointed ou t the difficulty o f reaching enlightenmen t wit h a n impaire d body. For that reason , under standing of the human body and knowledge of maintaining and restoring health hav e been give n soteriologica l significanc e i n al l o f India n Buddhism . However , i t i s within the context of tantric Buddhism that the preservation of one's health becomes of paramount importance . Th e Kalacakratantra give s the followin g reason fo r that: Firstly, a mantrl should preserve the entir e body of the Jina for the sak e of siddhis. I n the absenc e o f the body, neither any siddhi nor supreme bliss is attained i n this life. 24

Consequently, i n the Kalacakr a tradition a s in other relate d tantri c traditions , Buddhist medicine has been regarde d as a major facet of Buddhist Dharma . The earlies t records o f Buddhist theoretica l an d practical approaches t o medicine are already found in the Pal i Tipitaka. Thos e records reveal that the earl y Buddhists' understanding of human anatomy and physiology was generally in accord with that of classical Ayurveda, whose basic contents were already formed and well known throughout the Indian subcontinent. The earl y Buddhist materia medica was also similar to that o f the Ayurveda. Nevertheless, early Buddhist records frequently present the knowledge of illnesses and medicinal substances in a less systematic manner an d on a more popular level than i n the late r Ayurvedi c texts and later Buddhis t medical treatises . Also , th e Ayurvedi c concept o f the pra.ni a s a support of lif e i s only mentioned i n the Buddhist Pali Canon and not yet developed and medically utilized as it is in the Kalacakratantra. By th e tim e o f Mahayan a Buddhis m i n India , a rationa l syste m o f classica l

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Ayurvedic medicine was in general use among Buddhists , and i t strongly influenced the scientifi c framework of later Buddhis t medicine. 25 Severa l medica l treatises — such a s Yogasataka,26 Jwasutra, Avabhesajakalpa, Aryardjandrnavatika, an d Aryamulakosamahausadhdvali21—which th e Buddhis t traditio n ascribe s to a n autho r b y th e name o f Nagarjuna, contain systematized knowledge of selected collection s o f medicinal formulas , discussions o f physiological aspects of diseases, and medica l treat ments that accord with Ayurveda. The discipline s of alchemy an d magic developed alongsid e th e traditiona l an d empirico-rational syste m of Buddhist medicine. Accordin g t o a traditio n n o late r than the sevent h centur y CE , those discipline s were already in practice b y the tim e of Nagarjuna , th e alchemist , whos e nam e i s mentione d b y th e Chines e pilgri m Hsiian-tsang. The Rasamtndkara an d the Kaksaputa28 hav e been traditionally attributed to Nagarjuna, as his writings on alchemy and magic respectively. The Mahayana Buddhist tradition considere d Ayurvedi c medicine, alchemy , and magi c as separate but complementar y branche s o f knowledge. It resorted t o alchemica l preparations , recitation o f mantras, and drawin g of mandalas a s supplementary method s of healing. However, Buddhis t tantri c medica l treatise s and th e Kalacakratantra literatur e integrate classical Ayurvedic medicine , alchemy, an d magic even more strongly into a unique and comprehensive syste m of Buddhist tantric medicine. Th e broa d scop e of th e tantri c medica l system , evidenced i n th e Kalacakra literar y corpus , als o en compasses knowledge of preparing incenses an d perfumes use d for worshipping Buddhas an d Bodhisattva s durin g healin g rites . The Vimalaprabhd indicate s tha t th e Kalacakratantra's instruction s o n preparin g incenses an d perfume s are based on in formation containe d i n specialized treatises on the preparatio n o f perfumes an d in censes (gandha-sastra),29 Thus , the manuals on preparing perfumes and incenses for m a significant supplementary branch of Buddhist tantric medica l literature. As in the earlier Buddhist medical systems, so too in Buddhist tantric medicine , one ma y find distinctions betwee n magico-religiou s treatments an d rationa l thera peutics based on inductio n fro m observation . In Buddhist tantric medicine , th e determination o f a medical treatmen t i s contingent upo n determining the natur e o f a disease. Illnesses induced by malevolent spirit s (bhuta), also known as nonhuman diseases, an d snakebite s ar e commonly treate d b y means o f religious healing rite s and mantras.30 Mantras ar e also implemented a s the protective , o r preventive, method s of counteracting th e evil intentions o f nonhuman entities. 31 Likewise, carrying a precious stone o f the colo r red , which belong s t o th e clas s of the substance s that predominantly aris e from th e fire-element , i s believed t o preven t evi l spirits from en tering one's body, whereas gems that belong to the class of substances that are related to the space-elemen t ar e said to ward off the cas t o f an evil eye.32 The Kalacakratantra mentions diverse types of evils spirits and malicious Siddhas who are to be appeased by building specific mandalas outside a village, or under a tree, in a cemetery, in a temple, or at the confluenc e o f rivers, with offerings o f delicacies, incenses, perfumes , flowers , candles , praises , an d mantras?3 Th e ^aksas , grahas , raksasas, pisacas, sakinis, evil nagas, who delight in human blood, ddkinis, rupikds, vampire-ghouls feeding in cemeteries (kumbhanda), protector s of fields (ksetrapdla), ganapatis, pretas, goblins, the lord s of ddkinis wh o ar e accompanied b y epilepsy, and mali cious Siddhas ar e all considered t o be powerful entities that may cause both illnesse s

TJie Concept of Scienc e in the Kalacakra Tradition 5 1

and grea t well-being. Therefore, worshipin g the m i s seen a s beneficial for th e pa tient's saf e recovery. However, the Kalacakmtantra warns against the pacificatio n of malevolent spirits when the symptoms of irrevocable death appear, which cannot be warded off by gods, men, or nagos.34 It gives two reasons for this caution. 35 The first is that religiou s healing rite s are ineffective i n such a case, and th e secon d reaso n is that this situation may create temptatio n fo r the tantric yogi to perform the rites simply for the sak e of his own material gain, while knowing that the y will be of no ben efit t o the patient . Tantric healing rites also entail the drawing of yantras, the initiatio n o f a patient in a mandala, and ablutions . Fo r example, a yantra consisting o f thirty-four numbers placed within it s respective sections should be shown to a pregnant woman when her womb stiffens a t the time of childbirth.36 Children afflicted by grahas are bathed wit h the five ambrosias (amrta): water, milk, sour milk, ghee, honey, molasses, and fragran t water, that are contained withi n seve n unbaked vessels. 37 At times , certain herba l medications , empowere d by mantras, are administered to thos e possessed by malevolent spirit s in order to alleviate the symptom s of afflic tions. For instance, i n the cas e of a pregnant woman' s sharp uterine pain s caused by malevolent entities , th e pregnan t woma n i s to b e give n pounde d kustha, usfra, 38 kaseru grass, tagara,39 blue water-lilly (kesara), an d a filament of a lotus with cold water, all of which ar e consecrated b y mantras and vajras. 40 Thus, th e boundarie s betwee n magico-religiou s an d empirico-rationa l treat ments become far less noticeable i n Buddhist tantric medicine than in its precedents. In th e tantri c rite s o f healin g th e affliction s cause d b y nonhuma n entities , th e magico-religious and empiricio-rational approache s clearly concur. The empirico-rational approach involves diagnosing a disease based upon the observation of its symptoms and the occasions for their occurrence; i t establishes the causes of affliction an d determines th e treatment accordin g to those causes. For example, unpleasant symp toms such as bodily convulsions, sharp pains in the eyes , a yellowish color of the face , arms, and legs, a distinctively yellow color o f the urine , fever, vomiting, emaciation , and fainting are described as the symptom s characteristic o f a children's diseas e that are caused by the possessio n b y cruel spirits; and this can be treated b y a ritual obla tion o f the chil d i n th e mandala.^1 I n thi s way , the empirico-rationa l approach es sentially underlies the magico-religiou s healing rites. Furthermore, th e treatment s o f other ailment s provoked by the disequilibrium of th e thre e humors—win d (vata), bil e (pitta), an d phleg m (kapha)—external ac tions, poor hygiene, inadequate diet , and other similar factors predominantly follo w an empirico-rational approach . Thus, th e applicatio n of slightly warmed aksobhya i n the mout h i s administered in the cas e of an infection of the mouth ; anointing o f the neck wit h karkotf, 42 fangafr, 43 an d indV f 44 is applied in the cas e of the inflammatio n of th e gland s of the neck , an d s o on. 45 Nevertheless, meditation, visualizatio n of tantric deities, and the recitatio n o f mantras, which ar e the commo n healin g factor s in magico-religiou s healing rituals , often accompan y the administerin g of medicaments i n empirico-rational therapeutics . Fo r example, i n the cas e of the malignan t boils in the throat , one abiding in samadhi annihilate s stron g pains in the following way: whil e practicin g prdndydrna, on e visualize s i n th e heart-cakr a Visvamat a ap pearing as the stainless moon, with her hands i n the wish-granting posture and hold-

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The Inner Kdlacakratantra

ing a lotus, sitting on a lotus-seat in the vajra posture , and having one fac e an d tw o arms.46 Tantric medicina l mantras, mentioned i n th e Kalacakratantm ca n b e classifie d into three main categories: protective mantras, supplicatory mantras such as "omphre Visvamata, eliminate, eliminat e w/ra-like sharp and stingent pains, bring on my forbearance, brin g on swha," 47 and consecratory mantras such as "om ah hum take away, take awa y pains i n the wom b of such and suc h person st>aha." 48 In many instances, one mantra can perform more than one function. Thus, in treatments of malignant diseases that are accompanied b y fever an d pain i n the joints , the mantra "om phre vajra" i s said to simultaneously empower medicinal herbal ingredient s and to protec t the patient' s bodil y calcras.49 The recitatio n o f protective an d supplicatory mantras that induce a physiological chang e b y directly influencin g the patient' s prdnas ma y be regarde d a s an em pirico-rational treatment . Th e Kalacakr a tradition's definitio n o f pram, as the prin cipal deity of a mantra50 and it s view of the individual' s vajras, or capacities, of body, speech, mind, and gnosis as the sourc e (yani) o f mantras51 indicate a close and reciprocal influenc e between the mantras and the individual' s mind and body. In light of this view, one may infer that in the context of Buddhist tantric medicine, th e recitation of mantras i s utilized as a medical treatment o f both the mind 52 an d th e body . Although th e Vimalaprabhd acknowledge s that th e powe r o f mantras , medicina l herbs, gems, and other potent substances arises due to the transformation of the mind of the individua l who empowers them, i t emphasize s that neither mantras no r th e empowered substance s have limitles s powers, since they ar e not empowere d by the mind of the supreme , imperishable gnosis of the Buddha , but by the limite d mind of the tantric yogi.53 As it s rationa l method s o f cure, Buddhis t tantri c medicin e utilize s th e tech niques of hatha-yoga, particularly, the practice s of pranayama and differen t yogic postures (osana) . For instance, i n the Kalacakratantra, the vajra postur e (vo/rasana) 54 is recommended for the elimination of backache, the head-stand posture (sfrsosana) for the cur e of a disease induced by a disorder of phlegm, the vase technique (kumbhaka) of pranayama is recommended for the alleviatio n of abdominal ailments, leprosy, an d similar diseases. In the cas e of leprosy,55 the patien t is advised to practice th e kum bhaka for a period of six months, during which he should not emi t semen during sexual intercourse . Th e Kalacakratantra56 als o caution s tha t on e shoul d practic e prdndyama onl y until heat in the heart or pain i n the hea d occurs . If one continue s to practic e th e prdndydma afte r thos e symptom s occur, th e prdna congeal s i n th e navel-cakra, or i f unrestrained, it cause s death b y violently splitting the wsnfs a an d leaving the body. Sometimes, especiall y in the case s of the malignan t diseases , prdndydma i s recommended as an alternative therapy to the applicatio n o f medicaments. It is chiefly recommended to experience d Buddhist tantric ;yogf s wh o ar e capable o f developing profound meditativ e concentratio n (samddhi) an d who do not alway s have acces s to appropriate medication . Thus , t o yogis sufferin g fro m a malignan t diseas e o f th e throat whic h i s accompanied b y fever, pain s in th e joint s of the arms and legs , an d headache, th e followin g practic e o f pranayama i s recommended: havin g entere d a windowless house, th e yogi shoul d le t his arm s hang down toward the feet , a s far as

The Concept of Science in the Kalacakra Tradition 5 3

the thighs , an d he should practic e the kumbhaka for as long as he does not fal l on th e ground an d for as long as his fever does not diminish. 57 The mos t prevalent empirico-rationa l therapeutic s of Buddhist tantric medicin e encountered i n the Kalacakr a literature ar e dietary therapy, hydrotherapy, massage, and treatment s carrie d ou t b y means o f nasal inhalatio n an d ora l consumptio n o f drugs, fumigation , an d anointing . Fo r example, everythin g bitter , combine d wit h three myrobalan s (katuka),58 i s said to obliterate disorders of phlegm, so goat's milk, combined wit h th e thre e myrobalans , i s recommende d t o thos e sufferin g fro m phlegm-disorders. Sinc e swee t and astringen t substance s ar e believed t o eliminat e bile-disorders, buffalo-cow's mil k is administered t o those suffering fro m suc h an ailment. Camel's mil k i s administered t o thos e sufferin g fro m a disorder o f wind, be cause camel's milk , combined wit h roc k sal t (scdndhava), become s a n alkalin e flui d (ksarambu) tha t removes wind-disorders. Nasal inhalatio n of the aksobhya plan t o r nasal inhalatio n o f water in the mornin g i s prescribed as a cure for a headache.59 In the cas e of boils, pustules, and simila r skin disorders, fumigation with ghee and seasalt wrapped in a cloth an d anointin g wit h the sa p of arka60 are suggested as an effective therapy. 61 In the case of infections of the ear and eye, the application of warm urine i n th e ea r an d o f cold urin e i n th e ey e is recommended. I n th e cas e o f sunstroke, th e ora l ingestio n o f a decoction containin g a n equa l portio n o f dhatri, coriander, an d powde r of tamarind leave s for three nights i s suggested as an effectiv e cure. The curativ e efficac y o f the specifi c taste s tha t characterize divers e nutritional, herbal, an d minera l ingredient s o f medicinal preparation s i s thought t o ste m fro m the element s tha t give rise to the divers e tastes.62 Therefore, consumin g th e appro priate preparations, one supplements the lack of the particular elements i n the body that directly caused a disorder of one o f three humors. The aforementione d type s o f empirico-rationa l treatment s bes t illustrat e th e classical Ayurvedic an d earl y Buddhis t medical heritag e in Buddhist tantric medi cine. The Kalacakratantra's material medico, is also similar to that of Ayurveda and early Buddhist medicine. In addition t o herbal and other remedial substances that are wellknown fro m Ayurved a an d earlie r Buddhis t medica l treatises , th e Kalacakratantra mentions medicina l substances that are not specifie d i n Ayurvedic texts or in earlier Buddhist medical works. It is possible, however, that those medicina l substance s are known in Ayurvedic and earlier Buddhist writings by different names, since the Kolacakmtantra occasionally designates the medicina l herbs by terms that see m to be regional fol k names—suc h as "lion's urine " (sirnhamutra), "son' s hair " (putrakesa)63— instead o f by their generall y accepted names . Indian tantric Buddhists, concerned wit h the preservation of the body, expanded the alread y existent scienc e of rejuvenation and longevity and structured it as an additional branc h o f Buddhist tantri c medicine . Sinc e Buddhis t monasti c school s of the eleventh-centur y Indi a attracte d scholar s fro m other countrie s suc h a s China, Persia, and so forth, one may suspect that tantric Buddhis t methods of rejuvenation were influenced to some degree by Taoist and other methods for the prolongatio n of life. Tantric Buddhist s composed variou s tantric works that deal exclusively with diverse methods of rejuvenation and prolongation of life, which involv e the art s of extracting rejuvenatin g essences an d knowledg e o f performing rituals for longevity. 64

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

In its exposition of Buddhist tantric medicine, the Kalacakratantra indicates the following individual methods of rejuvenation: meditation (dhydna) tha t involves bringing the pranas into the centra l nddi (madhyama), practice s of pranayama, ingestion of the five combine d ambrosia s (amrta),65 ingestio n of life-givin g essence s extracte d from herb s an d foods , an d ingestio n o f elixirs produced b y mean s o f comple x al chemical processes. For example, the kumbhaka, accompanied b y the retention of regenerative fluids in sexual union, mentione d earlier with regard to the eliminatio n of leprosy, is also seen as having a rejuvenating power. It i s said that i f practiced fo r two years, it eradicates old age and it s symptoms. Also, the nasa l inhalation of uterine blood and the hone y of black bees (kesarajika), accompanie d with meditation, is suggested as a six-month therapy for rejuvenation. The Kalacakratantra also discusses intricate procedures for preparing tonics, elixirs, and gold, which ar e also called external elixir s (bdhya-rasdyana) an d ar e regarded by Buddhist tantric tradition as nutrients that induce the attainmen t of a divine body (dwya-deha) tha t is free o f wrinkles and gray hair. Thus, wit h respect to Buddhis t tantric therapeutics , one may draw th e follow ing conclusions. Buddhis t tantric therapeutic s establishes four aims , namely, to prevent an d cur e disease , t o secur e longevity , and t o brin g forth liberation . The first three goals are of a temporal nature. They are not mer e ends i n themselves but an cillary to the actualizatio n of the ultimat e goal, which is enlightenment. In order to actualize it s goals, Buddhist tantri c therapeutic s utiliz e th e syncretize d knowledge and practices of tantric yoga, hatha'yoga, Ayurveda , folk medicine , religious esoteric rites of healing an d exorcism , the scienc e o f distillation, and alchem y into it s distinctive Buddhis t tantric medica l theory and practice. Thus, th e immediat e objective of the syncretism of the Buddhis t tantric medicine is to utilize all available medical knowledge and t o provide all possible means of cure and disease-prevention in order to facilitate one's liberation . However, the syncretis m of the Buddhis t tantric medicine should not b e understood as a reconciliation of disparate views and practices but rathe r as their synthesis. The Kalacakratantra does not attemp t t o reinterpret diverse medical theories and practices; it pragmatically juxtaposes them. The Kalacakratantra's medica l therapeutics res t on severa l theoretical ground s that ar e characteristic o f Buddhist tantric medicine a s a whole. Th e primar y theoretical basis of Kalacakratantra medicin e is tantric Buddhist soteriology that focuse s on the intimate relationship among the mind, body, and liberation. On that foundation rests the Kalacakratantra's principa l medica l theory of the predominan t effect s of pranas on one's mental, physical, and spiritual condition. To that theory the Kalacakratantra adds the theoretica l framework o f the secula r system of Ayurvedic medicine, operating on th e presumptio n that goo d health i s maintained by the equilibrium o f th e thre e humors—wind , phlegm , an d bile . Th e fourt h elemen t o f thi s theoretical context is the principle s of hatha-yoga, which are based on th e vie w of a causal relationship among bodily postures, breathing exercises, and mental and physical health. Finally, the las t theoretical basi s of Buddhist tantric medica l therapeutics is the premises of folk medicine and occult beliefs concerning bewitchmen t an d spirit possession, according to which, spirits can possess and thereby influence an individual's mental and physical states. Likewise, the theoretica l syncretis m of Kalacakratantra medicin e yields a wide

The Concept of Science in the Kalacakra Tradition 5 5

variety of medical treatments . Amon g th e aforementione d medica l treatments, th e tantric yogic practices o f manipulating th e prams and retainin g regenerativ e fluid s are believed t o most directly affect th e accomplishmen t o f medical and soteriological ends. Thus, accordin g to the Kdlacakratantra, the yogic methods of actualizing supernormal powers (siddhi) ar e a part of the Buddhis t tantric medical theory and practice. The tantri c yogic practices of manipulating the flows of the prams an d retaining regenerative fluids during sexual intercourse have a dual purpose: spiritual and medical. When practiced b y yogis endowed with good health, the tantri c yogi c practices induce spiritual powers and liberation. To those facing premature death, that is, death prior to the ag e of one hundred, an d to those sufferin g fro m variou s diseases—such as abdominal ailments, 66 asthma , cough , eye-diseases , poisoning, dysuria , an d lep rosy—they serv e a s preventive an d curativ e therapeutics. Fo r example, when th e signs o f untimel y deat h occur , th e followin g yogic practice s ar e sequentiall y per formed. The first is the obstructio n of the pranas in the lef t an d right nddis; th e nex t phase entails bringing the pranas into the central channe l nddi an d making them circulate there for a day; the third phase involves filling one's arms, legs, and fingers with pranas; and the final phase involves visualizing the Buddhas' six female consorts with their hands in the protection-mwdra and standing within one's own six cakras. In the case of the abdominal and other diseases mentioned previously , one is advised to contract th e win d of apdna fro m belo w the nave l an d th e win d of prdrta fro m above . In this way, those tw o winds colide an d cause a strong digestive fire to arise and spread throughout th e entir e body. It i s said that after a month of practicing this yoga, one averts maladies of the liver , spleen, hemorrhoids, asthma , headache, cough , and so on.67 Lastly, th e syncretis m o f th e Kdlacakratantra's medica l theor y reduce d th e boundaries between magico-religiou s and empirico-rationa l therapeutics. The con currence o f magico-religious and empirico-rationa l treatment s i n individua l cases was invariably used for two purposes: simultaneously to alleviate the symptoms of the disease and to eliminate the caus e of the disease. These multiple aims and means of cure in Kdlacakratantra medicine required the incorporation of different sciences as additional branches of medicine. For example , the earlie r mentioned scienc e o f preparing perfumes an d incenses, the scienc e of extracting elixir s from food s an d herbs , th e scienc e o f alchemy, etc . becam e supplementary fields of medical study. In thi s way, the syncretis m of the Buddhis t tantri c medical theory an d practice broadened th e scop e of Indian Buddhis t medicine a s a whole, an d it extended th e Buddhis t tantric framewor k o f theory an d practice.

5

The Cosmi c Body

The Cosmos , the Individual , and the Cosmos as the Individua l

T

he Kalacakratantra's cosmolog y is structured on several theoretical models . In its interpretation o f th e conventiona l natur e o f th e cosmos , th e Kalacakratantra combines t o some degree the Vaibhasik a atomi c theory, the Samkhy a model of the twenty-five principles of the purusa and prakrti, and Jaina and Puranic cosmographies with it s own measurements o f the cosmo s (loka-dhatu)1 an d it s own theories of th e cosmos's natur e an d relation t o the individual . The Kalacakr a tradition intention ally uses this form of syncretism in order to provide a useful theoretica l mode l of th e Buddhist tantric view of the cosmo s that will accord with its interpretation of the in dividual an d wit h it s model of practice. A s alread y indicated i n chapte r 3 on syncretism, the Kalacakr a tradition itsel f justifies this syncretism in terms of its proselytizing efforts2 an d in terms of the multiplicity and relativity of conventional realities. According to this tantric tradition, knowledge of the constitution o f the cosmo s and of the manner i n which the cosmo s originates and dissolves is pertinent t o one' s spiritual maturation . Th e Vimalapmbha explicitl y state s that i n order t o full y com prehend th e thre e Vehicles , one mus t first know the originatio n an d dissolution of the cosmo s a s taught b y the Vaibhasikas , who assert the tru e existence o f the indi vidual (pudgala) an d o f the cosmos , which consist s of an agglomeratio n of atoms. 3 While supportin g the Madhyamak a view of phenomenal an d personal identityless ness, the Kalacakr a tradition affirm s th e conventiona l existenc e o f the cosmo s an d the individua l an d acknowledge s th e validit y an d usefulnes s o f th e Vaibhasikas ' atomic theor y of the evolutio n an d disintegratio n of the cosmos . Consequently, i t holds that within the context o f the Kalacakra system, one investigates the conven tional natur e of the cosmo s by way of the Vaibhasik a doctrine an d gains a thoroug h knowledge o f the thre e Vehicles, thereb y enhancin g one's understanding of the en tire Buddhist Dharma. Resorting to the Vaibhasika atomic theory, the Kalacakratantra asserts tha t al l inanimat e phenomen a tha t constitut e th e cosmo s originat e fro m atomic particles that evade sensory perception—namely, the atoms of the earth, wa56

The Cosmi c Bod;y 5

7

ter, fire , wind , an d spac e elements , whic h ar e pervade d b y th e spher e o f reality (dharma-dhatu) . 4 Likewise in the case of the individual , the atomic particles of earth, water, fire, wind, and space that form the father's seminal fluid and the mother's uter ine blood eventuall y become th e body of the individual. 5 Thus, th e inanimat e phe nomena i n the individual' s body and environment shar e th e sam e atomic structure and originate in a similar fashion by means of the agglomeratio n of atomic particles, which take s place due to the efficac y o f time. This is one way in which the Kalacakra tradition attempts to demonstrate that the individual and the individual's natural environment ar e identical no t onl y with regard to their ultimat e nature, but also with regard to their conventionally establishe d atomic structure and their manner of origination an d destruction .

The Originatio n an d Dissolution of the Cosmos and the Individual According t o th e Kalacakratantra,6 cycli c existenc e consist s o f th e immeasurabl e Buddha-fields (buddha-ksetra), whic h hav e limitles s qualities, an d o f th e fiv e ele ments. It is characterized by their origination, duration, and destruction. This entire cosmos is said to arise and dissolve because sentient being s are experiencing the re sults of their wholesome and unwholesome actions. The collectiv e karma of sentien t beings produces karmic winds, which mold and dissolve the cosmo s by amassing and disintegrating th e atomi c particles that constitut e th e cosmos . Thus , th e externa l karmic winds (karma-wta) accord with the characteristic qualities of sentient beings ' consciousness (vi/nana-dharma). The karmi c wind that produces the cosmos of a Buddha-field is considered to be of a dual nature, becaus e it produces tw o type s of cosmos: inanimat e an d animate . Like the heavenly constellations (naksatra) , the inanimat e cosmo s of a Buddha-field is stationary; whereas the animat e cosmo s is in motion, jus t as the circl e o f astrological houses (rasi-cakra ) move s in space. At th e tim e of the dissolutio n of the inani mate cosmos, the bodie s of all humans an d other livin g beings composed o f atoms also disintegrate. In this way, the destin y of the inanimat e cosmos , which i s due t o the action s of sentient beings, is also the destin y of the sentien t being s who inhabi t that cosmos . The limitles s karmic winds generate the numerous world-systems of the Buddhafields just as the karmi c winds of the pranas, which invariably accompany a transmigratory consciousness , generat e th e bod y o f a sentien t being . Just a s the interna l karmic winds of living beings induce bodily growth, the externa l karmic winds cause the growt h of inanimate things. 7 There are three types of external karmic winds: the holding (samdharana), churning (manthdna), an d shaping (samsthana) wind . The supportin g wind holds togethe r the atoms of the earth and the other elements in the same way that a rain-wind holds together th e atom s o f rain-water. Followin g that , th e churnin g win d churn s th e atoms to their ver y core unti l the element s becom e solidified. Just as salt crystallizes due to its exposure to the sun, the elements solidif y due to such churning. The churn ing wind makes the element s absor b each other into the agglomorat e in which th e atomic particles of one element becom e a predominant substance , while the atomi c

58

The Inner Kalacakntantra

particles of other elements becom e secondary substances. As in a human bod y so too in the cosmos, with regard to solidity, the atoms of the earth become primary and the other atoms secondary. Likewise , the water, fire, and wind elements become primary in terms of fluidity, heat, an d motility, respectively. In the cas e of space, however, all other atomic particles that are devoid of their own properties become primary.8 Once the agglomeration of the atomic particles of the elements takes place, the great shaping wind moves through th e entire Buddha-fiel d in the form of the ten winds.9 These ten karmi c winds that fashion the inanimat e cosmo s als o shape th e bod y of the in dividual, in which the y circulate and carry the habitua l propensities o f the individual's karma. Therefore, on e ca n sa y that for this tantric tradition , al l karma of sentient beings is stored in the atomic particles of the karmic winds. The Kalacakratantm itself assert s that "one's own karma i s contained i n th e gwna s o f prakrti,"10 whic h i s conventionally established a s physical. It also indicates that the te n karmi c winds , which fashio n th e inanimat e environmen t an d th e bod y o f the individual , them selves arise from th e five elements. The thre e winds of apdna aris e from the gnosis-element, an d the three winds of pram arise fro m th e space-element. Samana arise s from th e wind , uddna arise s fro m th e fire, vydna arise s from th e water , and ndga arises from the earth . These four— kurma, krkara, devadatta, an d dhanamja—arise respectivel y fro m th e wind , fire, water, an d earth.11

In the final analysis, this suggests that the karma of sentient beings, which man ifests in the form of atomic substances, is of a physical nature. In this regard, th e Kalacakmtantra's view of karma conforms to the Jaina theory of karma as subtle clusters of matter that constitute a karmic body. In the Kalacakr a tradition, however, this view of karma does not preclud e th e traditiona l Buddhist view of all actions a s being ultimately mental . Eve n whe n th e Kalacakr a tradition acknowledge s tha t one' s own transmigratory mind (samsara-citta ) i s a conventionally establishe d agen t o f all ac tions an d a fundamental cause of the originatio n an d destructio n o f the entir e cosmos, it specifies tha t the five elements ar e the materia l components o f the transmi gratory mind. It does so pointing t o the fac t that the agen t who is devoid of material substances neither acts nor creates anything.12 Thus, one may infer that karma is material, because th e transmigrator y min d tha t generates i t is itself material. Likewise, all cycli c existence , whic h manifest s due t o sentien t beings ' karma, is material because the karma that creates i t i s itself material. I surmise that this causa l relation ship amon g th e materia l nature o f the transmigrator y mind, karma, and th e envi ronment tha t on e perceive s i s implied i n th e KalacaJcratantra' s assertio n tha t th e cosmos that one perceives i s a mere manifestation of one's own mind . According t o this tantric tradition, a Buddha-field always comes int o existenc e accompanied b y a world-system, just as the originatio n of the individual' s body is always accompanied b y the seventy-tw o thousand nadfs. 13 At th e tim e of the origination of the cosmos , very subtle particles (arm), which ar e imperceptible to the sensefaculties, ar e said t o b e present i n th e for m of atomic particles (paramanu). Thes e atomic particles are of the five types: wind, fire, water, earth, an d space. Under th e influenc e o f time , th e wind-elemen t originate s firs t amon g thes e atomic particles. This origination begin s with the atomi c particles of wind adhering

The Cosmic Body 5

9

to each other. Then, owing to their adherence, a subtle fluttering motion take s place, and this we call "wind." Afte r that, the atom s of fire begin to adhere to one another , and lightning , accompanie d b y wind, comes forth a s fire. Following this, th e atom s of water adhere t o one other, an d rain, accompanied b y the wind and fire, comes into existence a s water. Lastly, the atomi c particle s of the earth-elemen t appear , an d a rainbow called "earth" arises in space. The atom s of space pervade all of the abovementioned elements . Upon the formation o f the five elements, th e seven continents, mountains, and oceans start to arise from the five elements du e to the conjunction o f the supporting, churning, and shaping winds.14 The seven mountains and the seven continents arise from th e earth-element , whic h i s solidity. The seve n ocean s aris e from th e water element, whic h i s fluidity. The fire of the sun , lightning, an d domestic fire originate from th e fire-element , whic h i s heat. The wind-elemen t i s motility, and th e space element i s the domai n that allows for movement an d growth. This is the manne r i n which th e entir e cosmos arises from th e atomi c particles of the five elements in order for sentient being s to experience th e result s of their actions . At th e tim e of the dissolutio n o f the cosmos , th e fire that burns the cosmo s to ashes (kdlagni), kindle d by the wind s of karma, melts the atomi c agglomerate s of the entire cosmos. Its function is comparable to the fire of gnosis (jnandgni), o r the fire of sexual desire (kamagni), whic h incinerate s th e materia l nature of the transmigratory body and consciousness durin g the completion-stag e o f Kalacakratantra practice. It is also worth noting that both fires—kdlagni and kamdgni—are identifie d in this tantric tradition a s two types of deities, namely, Kalagni and CandalT. 15 Their respective locations in the cosmos and the body of the individual are also comparable, since both dwell in the lowe r regions o f the cosmi c and individua l bodies, where they ca n become aroused or ignited. Kalagni dwells in the underworld, and CandalT abides in the navel of the human body. CandalT flames due to the constriction o f the winds of prdna, and i t i s therefore calle d "the fir e o f prdwydma."16 Similarly , kdlagni inflame s when the karmi c winds of the prdnas of the cosmi c body are extinguished. The tim e of the incineratio n o f the cosmo s is characterized not onl y by the destruction of the cosmo s but als o by its origination. At th e tim e of the disintegration of the cosmos , the atomi c particles of the earth-elemen t d o not perish ; they remain due t o thei r cohesio n wit h th e atomi c particle s of the wate r and othe r elements . When th e cosmo s dissolves , a karmic wind draws out th e atom s o f the eart h fro m their agglomerates, separating the individua l atoms from the mass of earth atoms and hurling them int o the mas s of the wate r atoms. Following this, i t draws them ou t of the water-elemen t an d hurls them into the fire-element. Then it draws them out of the fire-elemen t and hurls them int o the wind-element . Lastly , it draws them ou t of the atomic particles of the wind-element an d spreads them one by one into space. Upon th e destruction of the inanimat e cosmos, living beings go to another Buddhafield and to another cosmos, which ar e produced b y their karmic winds, in order to experience th e furthe r results of their actions . The manne r i n whic h th e inanimat e cosmo s originate s an d dissolve s corresponds to the manne r i n which a human being comes into existence an d dies. As in the inanimat e world , the huma n body , due to th e powe r of the te n karmi c winds, arises from th e agglomeration s of atomic particles of the earth , water, fire, wind, and

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

space elements. At the tim e of conception, the father' s semen and mother's uterin e blood, whic h ar e mad e o f the fiv e elements , ar e "devoured " by the consciousnes s which, accompanie d b y subtle pranas, enters the mother's womb . When conceptio n takes place due to the power of time, the seme n and uterine blood within th e womb slowly develop into the bod y of the individual . This occurs due to the spreadin g of pranas. The growin g fetus consumes food comprise d of six flavors—bitter, sour, salty, pungent, sweet , and astringent—an d thes e si x flavors originate fro m th e si x ele ments, sixth being gnosis. Consequently, th e bod y of a fetus becomes a gross physical body , composed o f the agglomerate s of the atomi c particles . The element s of the father' s semen give rise to the marrow , bones, nddis, and sinews of the fetus ; an d the element s of the mother' s uterine bloo d give rise to the skin , blood, an d flesh of the fetus . Thus, al l the element s and psycho-physical aggregate s that constitute the human being come into existence due to the union of the atomic agglomerates of the father's seme n an d mother's uterin e blood. Th e five elements o f the father' s semen and mother's uterin e bloo d facilitat e the growt h o f the fetus , jus t a s they facilitate the growth of a plant's seed in the natural environment. The earth-elemen t supports the semen that has entered th e womb, just as it holds a seed in the ground; and th e water-element makes it sprout from there. The fire-element makes it blossom and digest the six flavors that arise from th e six elements. The wind-elemen t stimulates its growth, an d th e space-elemen t provide s the roo m fo r growth. The earth-elemen t causes the body to become dense, and it gives rise to the bones and nails. The waterelement causes moisture in the body , giving rise to th e seve n kind s of bodily fluids. The fire-element induces the maturation of the fetus and gives rise to blood. The te n principal winds of pranas expand it s skin, and the space-elemen t become s the bodily apertures. On th e basi s of these similarities in atomic natur e o f the inanimat e worl d and the bod y of the individual , the Kalacakr a tradition identifie s the seve n mountains, continents, and oceans with the elements of solidity, softness, and fluidity in the body of th e individual . Tables 5 . i.a- c illustrat e the correspondence s amon g the seve n mountains, continents, and oceans and the specifi c constituents of the human body. After the moment of conception, th e semen and uterine blood grow in the womb for a month. Following this, the te n subtl e nddis aris e within th e hear t o f the fetus . Likewise, within th e navel , there aris e the sixty-fou r nddis tha t carry the dandas i n the bod y and th e twelv e subtle nddis tha t carr y the twelv e internal sola r mansions. Due to the pranas' power of spreading, all the nddis i n the navel gradually expand int o TABLE 5.i.A Th e Har d Earth-element in the Environmen t and i n the Body Seven mountains Th Vajra mountain s th Sita th Drona th Manikara th Nisadha th Mandara th Nilabha th

e har d elements of the body e nail s of the hand s and fee t e bones of the hands e bones of the forearm s e bone s of the uppe r arms e bone s of the leg s e bones of the shanks e uppe r bones

The Cosmic Body 6 1 TABLE 5.1.8 Th e Sof t Earth-elemen t in the Environmen t and i n the Bod y Seven continent s Th

e sof t element s of the body

Jambudvlpa with its twelve sections twelv Raudra fles Kraufica live Kimnara hear Kusa fa Sitabha unn Candra

t

h r t

e joints of the arm s and leg s

e nadis

the region s of the arms , legs, and face. After the secon d month , there are some indications o f arms, legs, and a face. At th e en d of the thir d month, the arms , legs, neck, and the whole head ar e clearly developed. Th e five fingers of each hand and the five toes o f eac h foo t aris e respectivel y fro m th e fiv e elements. 17 Durin g th e fourt h month, subtl e nadis spread into the hands , feet , face, an d neck, an d during the fifth month, thre e hundred an d sixty bones and joints begin to develop withi n th e flesh . At th e completio n of the sixt h month, the fetu s is endowed wit h fles h and blood , and i t begin s t o experienc e pleasur e an d pain . A t th e completio n o f the sevent h month, the bodil y hair, eyebrows , bodily apertures , and remainin g nadis com e int o existence. At th e end of the eighth month, the joints, bones, marrow, tongue, urine, and fece s are full y developed . Th e complet e bod y i s said to consis t o f 20.5 millio n constituents, fo r there are that many modifications of the five elements of the father's semen an d th e mother' s uterin e blood . Durin g th e nint h month, th e fetu s experi ences pain as if it were being baked in a potter's oven. At the completion o f the ninth month, one i s born, being squeezed by the womb and experiencing pain as if one were being crushed b y an anvil an d a hammer. Thus, propelled by the habitua l propensi ties of one's own karma, which ar e carried by the te n internal winds of prdnas, a human being enters the world that is likewise brought into existence b y his own karma, which, again , i s carried by the te n external winds of prams. Thus, th e cosmos and the individua l share a common materia l nature and common causes of origination an d destruction. The y als o originate in similar ways, with their respectiv e component s arisin g in the sam e sequence. Tabl e 5. 2 illustrates th e correspondences between the origination of the specifi c bodily parts and the various parts of the cosmos. 18 A classification of the differen t component s o f the human an d cosmic bodies int o th e sequentiall y arisin g sets of the four , five , six , four, five , an d TABLE 5.1.0 Th e Water-elemen t in the Environmen t and in the Bod y Seven oceans Th Salty ocean urin the ocea n o f wine swea the ocea n o f fresh water saliv the ocea n of milk women' the ocea n o f curd brai the ocea n butte r fat the ocea n of honey seme

e flui d elements of the body e t a s

n n

s milk and men's phlegm

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The Inner Kdlacakratantra

TABLE 5.2 A Classificatio n o f the Huma n and Cosmi c Bodies The bod y of the individua l

The cosmos

The fourfol d firs t se t at conception a transmigrating consciousness the father' s and mother's bliss uterine blood semen

Four heavenly bodies Rahu Kalagni the sun the moon

The fivefold second set the bones bile blood flesh an d ski n marrow

The five inandalas the earth-mandala the water-matidal a the fiK-manjaia the wmd-mawJala the space-mandala

The sixfol d thir d set the visua l sense-facult y the auditor y sense-facult y the gustator y sense-facult y the olfactor y sense-facult y the facult y of action the mental sense-facult y

Six planets Mars Mercury Jupiter Venus Saturn Ketu

The fourfol d fourt h se t the lef t hand the right hand the right foot the lef t foo t

The fou r island s of the Grea t Jambudvipa Purvavideha (easter n island) Small Jambudvipa (souther n island) Godamya (western island) Uttarakuru (norther n island)

The se t of the five fingers and toes a thumb/a big toe a forefinger/a secon d to e a middle finger/a middle toe a ring-finger/ th e fourt h to e a small finger/a small to e

The five external sense-object s smell taste form touch sound

The thre e knuckles of every finger/to e the first knuckle at the ti p of a finger the middle knuckle the las t knuckle

The three gunas sattva rajas tamas

three, as presented in tabl e 5.2 , is used in this tantri c tradition as a model for practicing a sadhana o n th e sequenc e (krama) of th e arisin g of the fiv e tantri c familie s (kula) withi n a larger bodily or cosmic family . Just a s a sequence o f the originatio n o f the divers e parts o f the cosmo s corre sponds to that of the individual , so too does the sequence o f the dissolution of the cosmos accord with that of the individual . In the process of the dissolution of the cosmos, the karmic winds that support the elements sequentiall y withdraw from th e agglomerates of the five elements i n th e fiv e cosmi c discs that mak e up the cosmos . Similarly, i n th e proces s o f dying , the wind s o f prdnas sequentiall y ceas e carryin g th e elements of earth, water, fire, wind, and space within the respective cakras of the navel , heart, throat , lalata, and usnsa.19

The Cosmic Body 6 3 According t o th e Kalacakr a tradition, one' s ow n body, which wa s produced by one's own karma from th e materia l particles of the father' s semen, als o dissolves due to the emissio n o f one's own semen. A t a human's death, semen, whic h consists of the fiv e elements , flowin g ou t o f the dea d bod y initiate s th e disintegratio n o f th e body. Several passage s on thi s topi c in the Kalacakr a literature sugges t that seme n leaves the bod y a t th e tim e o f death due to th e powe r of the individual' s habitual propensities o f semina l emissio n i n sexua l bliss. Th e habitua l propensitie s (cittavasana) o f the min d o f the huma n being , who consume s th e foo d o f the si x flavors that originate from the five elements, themselves consist of the five elements. Therefore, semen, which leave s the body during the experience of sexual bliss and at death, is composed o f the five elements. A t th e tim e of death, th e habitua l propensitie s of the mind, together with semen, upon leaving the dead body, make up the body of the habitual propensities (vasana'sarim) o f the mind . Even thoug h this body of the ha bitual propensities of the mind is made of fine atomic particles, it is similar to a dream body (svapna-sanra), i n th e sens e that i t i s devoid o f perceptible agglomeration s of atoms. The bod y of the habitua l propensities of karma does not ceas e at death. Du e to thi s remainin g bod y of habitual propensities , a transmigratory consciousness ac quires a new gros s body consisting o f atoms. As a transmigratory consciousness forsakes the habitua l propensities o f the forme r gros s body, the habitua l propensities of the new gross body arise in the mind. Consequently, th e adventitiou s psycho-physical aggregate s (dgantuka-skandha) aris e from th e empt y (sunya) psycho-physica l aggregates of the habitual propensities of the mind (citta-vasand'skandha). Likewise , the empty psycho-physical aggregates of the habitual propensities of the mind aris e from the adventitious psycho-physical aggregates. The atomi c particles of the former, dead body do not g o to another world, for after leavin g the earlie r psycho-physical aggregates, a transmigratory consciousness acquire s different atomi c particles. 20 This process of rebirth is said to be the same for other sentient being s of the thre e realms of cyclic existence. The onl y difference i s in the numbe r of the element s that constitute th e bodie s of the divers e classes of gods. Instead of having five elements, the bodies and semen of the gods in the desire-realm, form-realm, and formless realm consist o f four, three , an d on e element , respectively . This i s because gods consume food tha t consists o f five, four, o r one flavor . Fo r example, th e bodie s and seme n of the gods inhabiting th e si x types of desire-realm consist of the agglomeration s o f the elements o f water, fire, wind, and space . The bodie s of these gods are devoid of th e earth-element an d ar e therefore characterize d by lightness. Likewise , their menta l habitual propensitie s ar e devoi d o f smell a s the sense-objec t that arise s fro m th e earth-element. Th e bodie s an d seme n o f the sixtee n type s of gods dwelling in th e form-realm consis t o f the agglomeration s of the atom s of fire, wind, and space ; and their mental habitual propensities are endowed with taste, touch, an d sound as their sense-objects. The bodie s and semen o f the god s inhabiting th e formles s realm con sist o f the space-elemen t alone , an d thei r menta l habitua l propensitie s have onl y sound as their sense-object. 21 Thus, the bodies, mental habitual propensities, and experiences of different sentient beings are closely related to the nature of the elements contained i n the semen with which they undergo birth and death . According t o thi s tantri c system , a habitual propensity of transmigratory existence cannot arise from a single attribute of the element s but only from a n assembly

64 Th e Inner Kalacakratantra

of attributes. In th e cas e o f all sentient being s dwellin g in the thre e realms , durin g sexual bliss and at death, semen—the elements o f which may be the five , four, three , or one in number—leaves the body under th e influence of the habitual propensities . In this way, seminal emission is instrumental in both the birth and death of sentient beings. For the Kalacakr a tradition, th e cycl e of birth and death doe s not tak e plac e in any other way. Thus, on e may say that for this tantric tradition, the entire cosmos , with al l of its inhabitants, manifest s and dissolve s due to th e powe r of the momen t of seminal emission.

The Configuratio n an d Measurements o f the Cosmos an d the Individua l Since th e entir e cosmo s come s int o existenc e du e t o th e efficac y o f the habitua l propensities of sentient beings ' minds , one ma y regard it as a cosmic replica of sentient beings ' bodies. Thus , th e configuratio n and measurement s o f the cosmo s are seen i n this tantric system as analogous an d correlativ e t o th e structur e an d mea surements of the individual' s body. Likewise, since the cosmo s arises and dissolves as a manifestation o f the individual' s mind, the Kalacakratantra considers the cosmo s as being fundamentally nondual from the individual. Due to their common materia l nature, the cosmo s and the individua l are viewed as mutually pervasive, even i n terms of their conventiona l existence ; an d due to their fundamenta l nonduality, th e cos mos and the individua l inevitably influence each other. In terms of conventional reality , the cosmo s an d the bod y of the individua l are nondual i n th e sens e tha t the y shar e a common natur e (prakrti) consistin g o f th e twenty-four principles (tattva), whic h are the object s of the individual' s (purusa) ex perience. Th e eigh t constituent s o f the primar y nature (prakrti) o f the individual — namely, th e fiv e elements , th e min d (manas) , intellec t (buddhi), an d self-grasping (ahamkdra)—are th e microcosmic correlates of the primary nature of the individual's environment. Likewise , the sixteen modifications (v ikrti) of the primary nature of the individual—specifically, th e five sense-faculties, the fiv e sense-object s i n th e body , the fiv e faculties of action, and the sexua l organ—evolve from the primary nature of the individua l in the same way that the five planets, five external sense objects, and six flavors evolv e from th e primar y nature o f the cosmos . Table 5.3 illustrates the exac t correspondences betwee n th e individua l and th e cosmos in terms of their primar y nature an d it s modifications. In terms of ultimate reality, the cosmo s and the individua l are also of the sam e nature, the natur e of gnosis (jnana), which manifest s in the for m of emptiness (siin;y at&'bimba). Those who are free of the afflictiv e and cognitive obscurations nonduall y perceive the worl d as the for m o f emptiness in a nondual manner ; that is, they perceive th e worl d as an inseparabl e unity of form an d emptiness. On th e other hand , ordinary sentient beings , whose perception i s influenced by the afflictiv e an d cogni tive obscurations , se e the worl d in a dual fashion, as something othe r tha n them selves. They see the world as an ordinary place inhabited b y ordinary sentient beings. But in reality, the entir e cosmos, with Mem i n its center, i s a cosmic body of the Jina, a cosmic imag e or reflection (pratimd) o f the Buddha , having th e natur e o f form. As such, i t is similar to the Nirmanakaya of the Buddha. 22 Therefore, accordin g t o this

The Cosmic Body 6

5

TABLE 5.3 Th e Correspondin g Element s o f the Huma n an d Cosmic Bodie s The individua l Th Eight Pralcrtis Eigh the earth-element th the water-element th the wind-element th the fire-elemen the space-element th

e cosmos

t th

the min d (rnanos) Rah the intellect (buMhi) th the self-graspin g (ahamkam) th Sixteen Vikrtis Sixtee the visua l faculty Mar gustatory faculty Venu olfactory facult y Jupite auditory faculty Ket mental faculty Satur the five sense-objects th the anu s salt the hands ho the fee t swee the larynx bitte the femal e sexua l organ astringen the mal e sexual organ sou

t Pralcrti s e earth-elemen t e water-element e wind-element e fire-elemen t e space-element u e sun e moo n n Vilcrtis s s r u n e five sense-objects y taste t tast e t r t r

tantric system , one should attend to this cosmic image of the Buddha , as one attend s to the statu e of the Buddha , create d fo r the sak e of worship. The immediat e aim of the Kalacakratantra's expositio n of the interrelatednes s o f the individua l and the cosmo s is not t o directly induce th e unmediate d experienc e of their nonduality by eradicating the afflictiv e an d cognitive obscurations , but to facilitate a thorough understandin g o f conventional reality. In thi s tantri c system , a proper understanding of the structur e and functions of conventional reality provides a theoretica l basi s for the realizatio n of ultimate reality . I see two mai n reason s for this. First, conventional realit y is the starting point fro m which a tantric practitioner ventures int o tantri c practices ; an d second , a thoroug h knowledg e o f the way s in which conventiona l realit y operate s facilitate s insigh t int o th e natur e o f conven tional reality , which i s fundamentally not differen t fro m ultimat e reality. Before on e can understand th e nondualit y o f conventional an d ultimate realities, one must first understand tha t a seemingly multiform conventional reality is itself unitary. This, I surmise, is one o f the reason s wh y the Kalacakratantra's initia l two chapters ar e dedicated to discussions of the ways in which th e cosmos and the individual correlate t o and pervade each other. "As i t i s outside s o it i s within th e body " (yathd bahye tatha dehe) i s one o f th e most frequently used phrases in the Kdlacakratantra an d its commentarial literature . This maxim underlies the pervading themes of the Kalacakratantra's chapter s o n th e cosmos an d th e individual . To the phras e "a s it i s outside s o it i s in the body, " th e

66

The Inner Kalacakratantra

Adibuddhatantra add s "as i t i s in th e bod y so i t i s elsewhere" (yatha dehe tathd tra), meaning, in the kalacakra-mariaala. 23 The cosmos, the human body, and the kolacakra-mandala ar e taught here i n terms of conventional trut h a s three mandalas representing the oute r (bahya), inne r (adhyatma), an d alternative (anya), o r sublimated, aspects o f a single reality . Therefore, thes e thre e mandalas ar e sai d to b e th e thre e abodes of the Buddha Kalacakra. Knowledge of how these three conventional aspect s of ultimat e realit y ar e interrelate d i s seen a s soteriologicall y significant, for suc h knowledge provide s an indispensable theoretica l framework for Kalacakratantra practice, which aim s at th e unmediate d experienc e of their fundamenta l unity. It i s for this reason that the Kalacakra literature frequently points out the correlations amon g the arrangement s and measurements of the cosmos , the huma n body , and the fcola cakra-mandala. There is sufficient textua l evidenc e i n the Kalacakra literature to indicat e tha t the Kalacakratantra refers to these three aspects of reality as circular mandalas, not because it considers a circular form to be their true form, but merely as a heuristic model for meditative purposes. In showing the parallels among the cosmos, the human body, and the kdlacakra'mandala, th e Kalacakra tradition uses various paradigms, which reflect th e divers e ways in which this tantric traditio n interpret s the cosmo s as a cosmic body of the individua l and o f enlightened awareness . All th e divers e models of the relation s betwee n th e cosmo s and th e individua l that th e Kalacakr a traditio n provides have a practical purpose: they serv e as devices for furthering one's under standing of the interconnectednes s o f all phenomena an d for training the min d t o perceive the world in a nondual fashion. Moreover, they are the contemplative models with which on e can diminis h th e habitua l propensitie s o f an ordinary, dualistic mind. The configuratio n an d measurement s of the cosmo s as described i n th e Kala cakratantra frequently differ fro m thos e given in the Abhidharmakosa. The Kalacakra tradition departs fro m th e Abhidharmakosa not onl y with regard to the arrangement and siz e of the cosmo s but als o in term s of the unit s of measurements.24 Neverthe less, the Kalacakr a tradition doe s not attemp t t o authenticat e it s own presentation of the arrangemen t an d measurement of the cosmo s over that give n in the Abhidharmakosa. The Vimalaprabhd25 assert s that i n terms of the ultimat e truth, th e cosmo s has no spatial dimensions. The conventionall y establishe d siz e of the cosmos appears differently t o differen t sentien t being s due to th e powe r of their virtu e (punya) an d sin (papa). Th e cosmo s is merely an insubstantial apparition of the mind , like a fivecubits wide cave inhabited b y a Sravaka or a Bodhisattva due to whose powers a universal monarch (cakravartin) an d his army can ente r th e cav e without th e cav e being extended an d without th e universal monarch's arm y being contracted. Similarly, the Kalacakratantra26 itsel f asserts that for the Buddha s and fo r knowledgeable people, the dimension s o f the cosmo s that were taught by the Buddha s are not it s true dimensions, sinc e for the Buddha , one cubit can be many cubits due to the power of the Sahajakaya. It also affirms that the Buddha reveals only the dimensions that corresponds to the perceptions of sentient beings, because if he were to say that the di mensions of the cosmo s which h e taugh t wer e in accordance wit h the inclination s of livin g beings dwelling in th e lan d o f karma (karma-bhumz) , then the god s would call him a nihilist (ndstika). Thus , th e Kalacakr a tradition implicitl y suggests that

The Cosmi c Body 6

7

both Buddhis t accounts o f the configuratio n and siz e o f the cosmos—thos e o f th e Abhi'dharmakosa an d th e Kalacakratantra—are ultimatel y invalid. Nevertheless, i t considers both accounts to be provisionally valid expressions of the Buddha' s skillful means. Justifyin g th e Kalacakratantra's accoun t o f the dimension s of the cosmo s i n terms of skillful means , the Vimalaprabha cite s the followin g verse s from th e Paramo,' dibuddhatantra: A falsehood tha t benefits sentien t beings causes an accumulation of merit. A trut h that harms others brings Avici and other hells. Miserly pretas perceive a homely dwelling as a mountain. Evil-doers perceive a home in the form of a needle-pointed mountain. Siddhas wh o have attained th e siddhi o f the underworl d perceiv e the soli d earth as full o f holes everywhere and visi t the cit y of celestial nymphs (apsaras).21 In a similar manner, the following verse from the abridged Kdlacakratantra28 expresses its view that one's perception o f one's own natural environment i s relative, for it is conditioned by the degre e of one's ow n virtue and sin . Wish-fulfilling trees , quicksilver , suprem e potions , othe r medicina l herbs , an d philosopher's stones, which eliminate all diseases, appeared on the earth along with atoms. However, sentient beings do not see them. They see ordinary grass, trees, water, dust , stones, and copper . Pretas perceive rivers as blazing fires, and me n i n hell perceive spears and other weapons. In thi s wa y the Kalacakr a traditio n interpret s th e disparitie s in th e measurements and arrangement of the cosmos within the two Buddhist traditions as evidence of the diversity of sentient beings' perceptions and experiences of the cosmos , which results from thei r diverse mental dispositions and actions. However, this same interpretative principle is not applied to the divergent measurement s of the cosmos give n in Hindu Siddhantas. The Vimalaprabha denie s even the conventional validit y of the Hindu vie w of the cosmo s as Brahma's egg (brahmdrtda), te n millio n leagues (yojana) in size. In light of its criticism of the Hind u Siddhantas, the Vimalaprabha claim s that the Kalacakratantra establishe s the siz e of the cosmo s using the zodiaca l circle (rasi gola) fo r the calculatio n o f planets i n orde r to abolis h th e Hind u measurement s of the cosmo s for the sak e of the spiritua l maturation of Buddhist sages.29 According to the Kalacakratantra, within every single world-system (loka-dhatu) there i s one grea t world system (cakravala), jus t as on ever y single body of a human being there are bodily hairs and skin. The world-syste m that is of the natur e of karma is i n th e cente r o f a Buddha-field , jus t a s the avadhuti i s in th e cente r o f the bod y among al l the nadls. Th e remainin g world-systems tha t ar e of the natur e of enjoy ment (bhoga) stan d in the same relation to the land of karma (karma-bhumi) a s do the other nadlf s t o th e avadhuti. These land s of enjoyment (bhoga-bhumi) brin g pleasure to the senses , as do the nadts i n the body . They are filled with jewels, as the nddis ar e filled with blood. Vajrasattva, the progenito r of the thre e worlds, dwells in space until the tim e of expansion o f the cosmos . But sentient beings do not witnes s the arisin g of the Buddha as long as they lack the accumulation s of merit and knowledge. During the tim e

68 Th e Inner Kalacakratantra

when sentient beings lac k merit an d knowledge, Vajrasattv a resides i n space, abid ing in the Dharmakaya; and by means of the Jnanakaya, he perceives the entir e Buddha-field a s it trul y is, free o f karma and karmi c winds.30 It i s said that Vajrasattva, together wit h al l other Buddhas, abide s i n a single pure atom (suddhanu), whic h i s not o f the natur e o f an atomi c particl e (paramanu) bu t o f th e twelv e bodhisattvaWmmis.31 Thus, while ordinary sentient beings , endowed wit h afflictiv e an d cogni tive obscurations, hav e atomi c particle s as their material support , the Buddhas , fre e of all obscurations, have the twelv e bodhisatwa-bhumis a s their pure , immaterial support. In other words , that which i s perceived a s an agglomeration of atomic particle s by those wit h menta l obscuration s i s perceived a s pure gnosis by those without ob scurations. Even though th e Kdlacakratantra agrees to some extent with the Abhidharmakosa about the manne r i n which th e cosmo s evolves, its description o f the configuratio n and measurements of the cosmos differs significantly from that of the Abhidharmakosa. According t o the Kalacakra tradition, the cosmos measures twelve hundred thousan d leagues in circumference and four hundred thousand league s in diameter.32 It is composed o f the five mandalas, or the five discs (valaya)—namely, th e earth , water , fire, wind, and space mandalas—just a s the human body is composed of the five elements. These mandalas support one another i n the same sequence i n which the five elements support one another in the body. 33 Although each of the first four mandalas measures fifty thousan d league s in height, they vary in diameter and circumference. The earth mandala, measurin g one thousan d league s in diameter , or three hundre d thousan d leagues in circumference, rests on the water-mandala. The water-mardala , measuring two hundred thousan d league s in diameter, or six hundred thousan d league s in circumference, rest s o n th e fiK-mandala. Th e fire-maruiaia, measuring three hundre d thousand league s in diameter, o r nine hundre d thousan d league s in circumference, rests o n th e wind-mandala . Th e wind-mandala , measurin g fou r hundre d thousan d leagues in diameter, or twelve hundred thousan d league s in circumference, rests on the spher e of space (akasa-dhatu). Thus , spac e is the suppor t of all the mandalas, just as it is the suppor t o f all the element s i n the body. The fou r mandalas tha t rest in space not onl y correspond t o the mandalas of the four elements i n the human body, but they are also the cosmic representations o f particular bodily components. Withi n different contexts , th e Kalacakra tradition draws different correspondence s amon g the fou r mandalas of the cosmi c body and the com ponents of the human body. Here are several illustration s o f the way s in which th e Kalacakra tradition correlates th e fou r cosmi c mandalas with the bodil y parts. Table 5.4. 3 illustrates the identificatio n of the fou r mandalas with all the bodily TABLE 5-4-A Th e Commo n Features of the Fou r Cosmic Mandalas and Bodil y Part s The cosmos Th

e individua l

the earth-mardolo th the water-martWa th the fae-manhla bloo the wind-nutndtjk i ski

e sof t an d hard bodily parts e fluid bodily parts d n

The Cosmic Body 6

9

TABLE 5.4.8 Th e Fou r Cosmic Mandalas and th e Uppe r Bodily Parts The cosmo s Th

e individual

the earth-dis c a

half of the ches t

(50,000 leagues in radius from th e (1 center o f Meru to the oute r limit of the earth-disc)

2 finger breadths )

the water-dis c a

n upper arm

(50,000 leagues in radius from th e (1 outer limit of the earth-disc to th e outer limit of the water-disc)

2 finger breadths)

the fire-dis

forearm

ca

(50,000 leagues in radius from th e (1 outer limi t of the wate r disc to th e outer limit of the fire-disc)

2 finger breadths )

the wind-disc fro

m the wris t to the end of the han d

(50,000 leagues in radius from th e (1 outer limit of the fire-disc to the outer limit of the wind-disc)

2 finger breadths)

parts in terms of their qualitativ e characteristics. Tabl e 5-4. b demonstrates th e cor respondences amon g the fou r mandalas wit h the uppe r parts of the bod y in terms of their measurements; and table 5-4-c illustrates the identificatio n of the fou r mandalas with the fou r bodily cakras, which bea r the characteristic s o f the fou r elements . From the uppermos t mandala downward, each mandala is one hundred thousan d leagues smaller in diameter than the on e that supports it, and each mandala rests in the center of the one beneath it . In each of the first four mandalas there are two types of underworld s (pdtala), eac h measurin g twenty-fiv e thousan d league s i n height . Thus, ther e are altogether eigh t underworlds : seve n hells and the cit y of ndgas. Th e two underworlds contained in the earth-mandala are the City of nagas and the Grave l Water hell (sarkardmbhas), on e half of the cit y of ndgas being inhabited b y asuras, and the other by nagas.34 The tw o hells located i n the water-maruiala are the Sandy Water hell (vdlukdmbhas) and the Mudd y Water hell (pankambhas). The two hot hell s in the fire-mandala ar e the Intense Smoke hel l (tivradhumra) an d the Fire hell (agni). Lastly, th e tw o col d hell s locate d i n th e wind-mariaal a ar e th e Great Sever e hel l (mahdkharavdta) an d the Grea t Darkness hell (mahandhakdra). TABLE 5.4.0 Th e Fou r Cosmic Mandalas and th e Fou r Bodily Cakra s The cosmo s Th the earth-martia/a th the watet'manjala th the fire-maridai the wind-manrlala th

e individua l

a th

e navel-cakra e heart-cakra e throat-cakra e forehead-cakr a

7O

The Inner Kalacakratantra

As indicated i n chapter 3 on syncretism, the Vimalaprabha's accoun t o f the eight underworlds is remarkably similar to that given in the Jaina classic, the Tatwarthadhigamasutra, which i s traditionally ascribe d t o Umasvati , a prolific Jain a autho r o f th e second centur y C E who wa s equally accepted b y both Digambaras and Svetambaras . For example, the corresponding hells enumerated i n the Tattvarthadhigamasutra hav e the followin g sequence an d names : th e Jewel-hue d (ratna), Pebble-hue d (sarkara), Sand-hued (valuka), Mud-hue d (panka), Smoke-hue d (dhuma), Darkness-hue d (tamos), an d the Grea t darkness-hued (mahd-tamas) hells. 35 There are also certain similarities amon g th e hell s mentione d i n th e Vimalaprabhd an d thos e i n th e Tattvarthadhigamasutra wit h regard to the temperature an d sequential increas e i n the size of hells, bu t no t wit h regard to thei r shape an d specific measurements.36 Thus , the Vimalaprabha's classificatio n of the eigh t types of underworld and it s descriptio n of their location clearl y differ fro m thos e i n the Abhidharmakosa.31 It i s interesting tha t i n th e Vimalaprabha's accoun t o f the configuratio n of th e underworld there is no mention o f the Avici hell , eve n though the Adibuddhatantra and the Vimalaprabhd mak e references to Avici i n other contexts. 38 So far, I have not encountered a n explanation fo r this omission in any of the commentaria l literatur e on the Kalacakratantra, The onl y thing the Vimalaprabhd say s about hell i n general is that it i s "a state o f an inferna l being (narakatva), whic h originate s from th e habit ual propensitie s of the si x elements (sad'dhdtU'Vdsand), an d i s like a dream." 39 Bu t this intepretativ e principl e can also be applied to the othe r hell s and the rest of the universe. It is possible that the autho r of the Vimalaprabhd, bein g aware of other Buddhist classifications of hells, writes of Avici in terms of the broader Buddhist context. It i s also possible that Avici and som e of the othe r hell s described i n the Abhidharmakosa and other earlier Buddhist texts are implicitly included her e as subcategories of the variou s hells. Sinc e neither the Vimalaprabha no r th e Kalacakratantr a offers a more detailed descriptio n o f the content s of the hell s an d the natur e o f suffering i n them, it is difficult to determine with certainty the exten t to which the mentioned hells correspond to and differ fro m the hells described in the Abhidharmakosa and th e Tattvorthaihigamaswtra. I t i s clear, however , tha t th e Kalacakr a tradition find s th e Jaina classification of hells to be more applicable to its own schematization of the underworld, consisting of the fou r elemental mandalas than that of the earlie r Buddhist traditions.40 The name s o f the hell s reveal that eac h pair of hells is physically characterized by the elemen t o f the mandaki to which i t belongs. This fundamental fourfold classificatio n of the underworl d is obviously designed to conform closely to th e Kalacakratantra's fourfold classification s of the elementa l mandalas i n the bod y of the individual, th e fou r vajras o f the individual , th e fou r state s o f th e mind , th e fou r castes, four wjra-families , an d th e fou r bodie s of the Buddha . Th e configuratio n of the underworld , beginning wit h the cit y of the ndga s in the eaith-mandaki and end ing with the Great Darkness (mahdndhakdra) hel l in the wind-mandala, is structurally similar to the individual' s body at death. In the dyin g process, the earth-elemen t o f the individual' s body disintegrates first, followed by the respective elements of water, fire, and wind.41 See figure 5.1. Thus, the Kalacakr a tradition depart s from the Abhidharmakosa in terms of both the configuratio n and th e measuremen t o f the cosmos . According t o the Abhidhar makosa, th e cosmo s measure s 3,610,35 0 league s i n circumferenc e an d 1,203,45 0

The Cosmic Body 7

1

FIGURE 5.1 Th e univers e an d it s divisions

leagues i n diameter. 42 Th e huma n worl d i s supporte d b y thre e instea d o f fou r manhlas—the golden eatth-mandala, the water-maridala, and the wind-maniaia that rests i n space . The golde n earth-maridala, which measure s 1,203,450 league s i n diameter and 320,000 leagues in height, rests on the water-marekla, which is, in turn, i ,203,450 leagues in diameter and 800,000 leagues in height. The water-matxiala rests on the wmd-mandala, which is immeasurable in circumference and i ,600,000 leagues in height.43 The accoun t of the configuration of the surface of the earth-mandala in the Kalacakra tradition als o differs fro m tha t o f the Abhidharmakosa. According to the Kala cakra tradition , o n th e surfac e o f th e earth-maridai a ther e ar e seve n continent s (dvipa), includin g Great JambudvTp a (mahd'jambudvipa) a s th e seventh . Further more, there are seven mountains in addition to Mt. Meru, which is in the cente r of the earth-rnaretala ; and ther e ar e seven oceans , with th e water-mardal a a s the seventh.44 The si x continents—Candra, Sitabha, Varaparamakusa, Kimnara, Kraunca, and Raudra—are the land s of enjoyment (bhoga-bhumi), 45 while the sevent h conti nent, whic h i s the earth-mandaia , o r th e Grea t JambudvTpa , i s the lan d o f karma (karma'bhumi), inhabite d b y humans an d animals . O n th e surfac e o f Great JambudvTpa, th e si x oceans—the ocean s o f wine, fresh water , milk, curd, butter, an d honey—surround the si x continents. Th e seventh , th e salt ocean, surround s Great

72

The Inner Kalacakratantra

JambudvTpa,46 and fro m th e cente r o f Mt. Meru , the sal t ocean measure s one hun dred thousan d league s in al l directions. Seventy-tw o thousand river s flo w int o th e oceans,47 an d they correspond t o the seventy-tw o thousand nadis i n the body . Th e seven mountain s tha t surroun d th e seve n continent s i n concentri c circle s ar e Nilabha, Mandara, 48 Nisadha, 49 Manikara , Drona , Slta , an d th e vajra-mountain , Vadavagni, which is situated at the edg e of the salt ocean and the earth-mardala and beneath th e salt ocean . Mt. Mer u is at th e ver y center o f Great JambudvTpa , just as the spin e i s at th e center of the body. It is said to have the shap e of a bindu and is dark green in the cen ter, du e to the natur e of the space-mardala . Meru's four side s have four differen t col ors. I t is blue in the east, red in the south , yellow in the west, and white in the north due to the nature of the elements of wind, fire, earth, and water. In total, i t measures one hundred thousan d league s in height. 50 The heigh t o f its head i s fifty thousan d leagues, and it s neck an d immovable peak are each twenty-fiv e thousand league s in height. Its upper width i s fifty thousand leagues , and it s width on th e surfac e o f the earth-mandala is sixteen thousand leagues . Meru is the spin e and head of the cosmi c body; and as such, it is an external representation o f the individual' s head and spine, expanding from the buttocks up to the shoulders. Accordingly, its measurements correspond to those of the spin e and the hea d of the human body. Table 5.5 illustrates the metrical correspondences bewtee n Mt. Meru and the individual's spine and head, a s presented i n this tantric system . This measuremen t o f Mt . Mer u differ s fro m tha t describe d i n th e Abhidharmakosa, in which the height of Mt. Meru is said to be 1,600,000 leagues. Here again, the Kalacakratantra's measuremen t of Mt. Meru accords with that given in the Jaina commentarial literature on th e Tattvdrthadhigamasutra, i n which Mt. Meru is said t o be one hundred thousan d league s in height, wit h one thousand leagues being below the surfac e of the earth. 51 See figure 5.2. The circl e of astrological houses, togethe r with innumerabl e stellar constellations, revolve s day and nigh t aroun d Mt . Meru' s summit. In the eigh t direction s of Mt. Meru there are eight planets, just as around the spin e there ar e the sense-faculties and faculties of action. Th e su n and Mars are on the right ; Ketu and Saturn are in the front; the moon and Mercury are on the left ; and Venus and Jupiter are on the back. On the top of Mt. Meru there ar e five peaks that penetrate the earth. I n all diTABLE 5.5 Mt . Mer u and th e Huma n Body Mt. Meru Th

e bodily spine and the head

100,000 leagues in height from the 1 earth-marclala t o the to p of the peak botto

cubit in height from th e wais t to th e m of the neck

Mt. Meru' s neck is 25,000 leagues in th height heigh

e nec k i s 6 finger breadths in t

Mt. Meru's head i s 50,000 league s in th height th

e head from th e nec k to the en d of e lalata is 12 finger breadths in height

Mt. Meru' s immovable peak is 25,000 th leagues in height th

e to p of the head from th e lalat a to e usmsa is 6 finger breadths

The Cosmic Body 7 3

FIGURE 5.2 Dimension s of Mt. Meru

rections from Brahma' s abode in the lowe r region of the cente r o f Mt. Meru , ther e are eigh t thousan d league s in width . Al l aroun d Mt . Mer u i s a mountai n rang e (cakravada), whic h measures one thousand league s in breadth. Outsid e that mountain range, in the cavitie s in between the fou r peaks of Mt. Meru that penetrate th e earth, ther e ar e th e alternatin g disc s o f the si x continents with thei r ocean s an d mountains. Each of the si x continents, oceans , and mountains measures roughly 889 leagues in diameter, 52 thus measuring sixteen thousan d league s altogether. Outside all of this, in the eigh t directions of Mt. Meru , Great Jambudvlpa measures twentyfive thousand leagues. Outside Great Jambudvlpa is a disc of salty water, which measures fifty thousand leagues in all directions from th e oute r limit of Great Jambudvlpa to the en d of the water-mandala. In every direction from Brahma' s place in Meru to the oute r limit of the wind-maridala, there are two hundred thousand leagues. 53 In this way, the entire breadth of the cosmo s extends up to four hundre d thousan d league s in diameter, its size corresponding to the siz e of the human body measuring four cubits (hasta). However, when on e include s the space-maridal a i n the breadt h o f the cosmos , then th e

74 Th e Inner Kdlacakratantra

body of the cosmos measure five hundred thousan d league s from th e to p of Mt. Meru up to the end of space. With the reasoning that the cosmos pervades the body of the individual, the human body is said to measure five cubits up to the tips of the hair on the head . This typ e of arrangement o f Great JambudvTp a is not foun d i n th e Abhidharmakosa. The number s and the concentri c layou t of the seve n continent s an d seven oceans correspon d t o thos e mentione d i n the Puranas, 54 as do the shap e an d measurement of Great JambudvTpa.55 Although th e Kalacakra tradition accepts to a large extent th e Puranic representation of the configuration of the cosmos , it criticizes the Puranic account of the origination of the cosmos. With regard to the shapes and sizes of Grea t JambudvTp a an d th e sal t ocean, th e Kalacakr a tradition's accoun t corre sponds to that of the Jaina cosmology. According t o the Tattvarthadhigamasutra, Ch . 3, v. 9, and its earlier mentioned commentarial literature , Great Jambudvlpa has th e shape of a ring with a diameter of one hundred thousand leagues, and it is surrounded by the sal t ocean, whic h i s twice as wide as JambudvTpa.56 Although th e Kalacakratantra's accoun t o f th e configuratio n o f Grea t Jam budvTpa seem s to b e base d on tha t o f the Puranas , i t include s t o som e degree th e model o f th e fou r continent s foun d i n th e Abhidharmakosa an d othe r Buddhis t texts.57 Th e fou r continent s that ar e mentioned i n the Abhidharmakosa an d othe r earlier Buddhist literature are incorporated int o this larger picture of the cosmo s as the fou r island s that are located i n the fou r direction s of Great JambudvTpa . Thei r arrangement i n relation t o Mt. Mer u as depicted in the Kalacakr a literatur e corresponds t o that i n the Abhidharmakosa, but th e measurement s and shape s o f the islands in most cases differ . According t o th e Kalacakr a tradition, ther e ar e fou r island s o n Grea t Jam budvTpa. Each of the fou r island s is of the natur e o f one of the fou r elements—wind, fire, water, and earth. The natur e of each of the mentione d element s influence s th e shapes and colors of the islands. 58 Thus, i n the easter n side of Great Jambudvlpa, in front o f Mt. Meru, there i s the dar k blue Purvavideha, which i s semicircular in form , due to the nature o f the wind-mardala . It measures seven thousand leagues . On th e south o f Great JambudvTpa , t o th e righ t o f Mt. Meru , there i s Small Jambudvlpa, which i s red and triangula r in shape, due to th e natur e o f the fire-element . I t measures eight thousand leagues. 59 On the north of Great JambudvTpa, to the lef t of Mt. Meru, there i s the white Uttarakuru, which i s circular in shape, due to the nature of the water-mariclakj . I t measure s nine thousan d leagues . On th e wes t of Great JambudvTpa, facing the back of Mt. Meru, there is the golde n island Godamya, which is yellow an d quadrangula r in shape, due to the natur e o f the earth-element . I t measures ten thousan d leagues. 60 See figure 5.3. The formatio n of the fou r island s in relation t o Mt . Mer u and the characteris tics of their color s and shape s correspond t o th e fou r side s of the individual' s body, each o f which i s characterized by th e elementa l natur e o f one o f th e fou r bodily numdolas. Table 5.6 demonstrates the way in which the Kalacakra tradition correlates the fou r island s of Great JambudvTp a with the fou r side s of the individual' s body. The color s of the fou r island s correspond t o th e color s of the fou r side s of Mt. Meru. Likewise, their colors and formations on Great JambudvTp a correspond to the four face s o f the Buddh a Kalacakra in the kdlacakra-rnandala. The fou r faces of Kala-

The Cosmic Body 7

FIGURE 5.3 Grea t Jambudvipa

TABLE 5.6 Grea t Jambudvipa an d th e Huma n Body Great Jambudvipa

The individual

Purvavideha: the eastern, semicircula r island having th e nature of the wmd-maniala

The fron t part of the bod y having the natur e o f the wtnd-mandal a

Godamya: th e western , quadrangula r island having the natur e o f the earth-mandala

The bac k of the body having th e nature o f the earth-maridai a

Vttarakum: th e northern, circula r island having th e nature of the water-maruiala

The lef t sid e of the bod y having th e nature o f the water-mandal a

Small Jambudvipa: the southern , triangular island having th e natur e of the fire'Tnandaf a

The righ t side of the body having th e nature o f the fire-manaa! a

5

76

The Inner Kalacakratantra

cakra symboliz e the fou r aspect s i n whic h enlightene d awarenes s manifests itself . Thus, th e fou r island s of Great JambudvTp a and th e correspondin g side s of the hu man body are the geographica l and anatomical representations o f the fou r aspects of the Buddha' s mind. When these phenomena l aspect s of the Buddha' s mind become purified, the y manifest as the fou r bodies of the Buddha . Great JambudvTpa looks like a twelve-spoked wheel, for it is divided into twelve sections (khanda). Eac h of the sections measures twenty-five thousand leagues . In th e center o f the sectio n belongin g t o th e Smal l JambudvTpa there i s the mountai n Kailasa, surrounded by snow mountains. Together wit h the surrounding snow mountains, Kailasa occupies one-third o f that section. Outside that rang e there ar e twelve countries and districts in the twelv e subsections of Small JambudvTpa. 61 In eac h sectio n o f Grea t JambudvTp a ther e i s on e universa l monarc h (ca kravartm), who turns the Wheel of Dharma in his section. Thus, the twelv e sections of Great JambudvTpa have twelve universal monarchs, who are likened to twelve suns that dispel the darkness of ignorance by introducing the Buddhist Dharma. They are twelve i n number i n the sam e sense that one can speak of "twelve suns " due to th e classification o f the twelv e solar mansions. Thus, Great Jambudvlpa , together wit h its twelve sections, i s an earthly reflection of the circl e of solar mansions and o f th e twelve-spoked wheel of cyclic existence . Every eighteen hundre d human years, the universal monarch enter s one section of the earth-mardak, 62 moving progressively from on e section t o another, fro m th e front t o th e bac k o f Meru. He establishe s his Dharma in each sectio n tha t has entered the kali-yuga and thereby introduces the krta-yuga. Thus, the kali-yuga is always in front of him, and th e treta-yuga is behind him. 63 This belief that at different times , the universal monarch, visitin g and teachin g Dharma in th e twelv e sections of Great JambudvTpa, sanctifies each of the section s with his presence, is one of reasons that the Kalacakra tradition identifie s the twelve sections of the Great JambudvTpa as the twelv e group s of cosmic pilgrimage sites— namely, plthas, upaplthas, ksetras, upaksetras, chandohas, upachandohas, melapakas, upamelapakas, vesmas (pilavas), upavesmas (upapikwas), smasanas, upasmasanas. Each of the twelv e groups of sacred pilgrimage sites comprises a specific number of sites. Th e Kalacakra tradition classifie s an d subdivide s the twelv e classes of pilgrimage sites in various ways in order to demonstrate the multipl e models of interpreting the corre spondences between the cosmic body and the human body. One of the Kalacakratantra's goals in outlining th e correspondences and identities amon g the pilgrimage sites and the bodily components o f the individua l is to demonstrate th e pointlessness o f visiting the pilgrimag e sites, for they are already present within one's own body. Visits to the external pilgrimage sites lead neither t o spiritual awakening nor to mundane siddhis. The Vimalaprabha assert s that the pilgrimag e sites such as Jalandhara and oth ers are mentioned onl y for the benefi t of foolish people (bala) wh o wander about th e country.64 Thi s sam e statemen t als o appear s i n Naropa' s Vajrapadasarasamgraha, XVII, 3^ 2.65 In both cases, it suggests that foolish people, who lack understanding of nonduality, do not se e that th e place s of pilgrimage are omnipresent. The entir e cosmos i s a pilgrimage site, as is the individual . The Vimalaprabha state s that according to the Paramadibuddhatantra, due to th e pervasiveness of the earth-element , the externa l pilgrimag e sites are present als o in

The Cosmi c Body 7 7 Tibet, China , and other countries. Accordin g t o the abridge d Kalacakratantra, the y are als o present i n ever y city.66 In thi s way , the Kalacakr a tradition reject s the in herent sacredness of one place or one human bein g over another. It suggests that all regions o f the worl d and al l human bodie s are equally sacred. This vie w o f the hu man body as containing within itself all the pilgrimage sites is not unique to the Kalacakra tradition. I t is also found in other anuttara-yoga'tantras an d i n the literatur e of the Sahajayana . For example, the well-known SahajTya poet, Sarahapada, affirm s i n his Dohakosa that he ha s not see n another place o f pilgrimage as blissful a s his own body.67 With regard to the individual, the Kalacakra literature identifies the twelve categories of pilgrimage sites with the twelv e characteristics of transmigratory existenc e and enlightened existence . In terms of conventional reality, the Kalacakr a tradition identifies the twelv e categories of pilgrimage sites with the twelv e links of dependent origination an d th e twelv e sign s of the zodiac—startin g wit h spiritua l ignoranc e (avidyd) arisin g in Capricorn an d endin g with old ag e and deat h (jard-marana) aris ing in Sagittarius. I n term s of ultimate reality , the Kalacakratantra see s the twelv e categories of pilgrimage sites as the symboli c representations o f both th e twelv e bodhisattva-bhumis—which impede th e arisin g of the twelve links of dependent origination an d th e twelv e zodiacs—whic h ar e the tempora l basi s of the twelv e links of dependent origination . This identification o f the twelv e categories o f pilgrimage sites with th e twelv e bodhisatwa-bhumis i s equall y characteristi c o f othe r anuttara-yoga-tantras—specifically, the Cakrasamvara an d th e Hevajra tantras. However, th e Kalacakr a literatur e gives a more explicit explanation o f this type of identification. The Kalacakr a tradition identifies the twelv e types of pilgrimage sites with the twelv e bodhisattva-bhumis on the groun d that throughout th e thre e times, the element s o f the Buddha' s purified psycho-physical aggregate s and sense-base s assume the for m of deities. These deities then arrive at and leave from these pilgrimage sites, and due to the prams' flow in the bodil y cakras, they arrive at and leav e from thos e cakras. Furthermore, a group of yoginis wh o roa m th e eart h fo r the benefi t of sentien t beings dwells in each of the eigh t directions of Mt. Meru, expanding as far as the en d of the wmd-mandala. These yogims also journey in the cosmi c mandalas of water, fire, wind, an d space , whic h ar e th e seat s of the cosmi c cakras, just as the prams mov e through th e cakra s of the invidivual' s body. Just as the huma n body has six cakras, so too does the body of the cosmos . The si x cakras of the cosmo s are the location s o f the cosmic pilgrimage sites. In the cente r o f the summi t of Mt. Meru, there is the inne r lotus (garbha-padma) o f the Bhagava n Kalacakra, which ha s sixteen petals and con stitutes the bliss-cakra (ananda-cakra) of the cosmi c body. 68 The gnosis-cakra , which has eight spokes, occupies two-thirds of the earth-marelala . The earth-cakr a is in one half o f the salt y ocean, an d th e water-cakr a i s in th e othe r half. Likewise , the firecakra is in one hal f of the fire-mandala, an d th e wind-cakr a is in the other half. Th e space-cakra is in one half of the wind-rrwriclala . In the space-manclal a there are sixteen pilgrimage sites of the smasdna type. Tables 5-7-a-h illustrate the specifi c locations o f the pilgrimag e sites within th e six cosmi c an d si x bodily cakras. They als o demonstrate th e manne r i n whic h th e Kalacakra tradition assert s that the cessatio n o f the twelv e zodiacs and twelv e links

78

The Inner Kalacakratantra

TABLE 5-7- A Location s of the Cosmi c and Bodil y Pilgrimag e Site s Pilgrimage sites 1

four pit has Kamarupa Jalandhara Purnagin Oddiyana

The cosmos

The individual

in the four cardinal directions of the earth -

in the fou r cardinal directions of the cakra of the gnosis-elemen t due to the cessation s of Sagittarius and the twelfth lin k of dependent origination (jara-mararia)

m/xndala

1 The name s o f the fou r pithas correspon d t o thos e give n i n the Hevajratantra, Par t i , Ch. 7 , v. 13. According t o P. Gupta, 1973 , p. 27, the regio n of Kamarupa is marked by the rive r Karatoya and i s placed aroun d th e Gauhat i region of Assam. It was also known under the nam e Pragjyotisa. H H . Wilson i n his translation o f The Visrw Purana A System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition, 2 vols., Delhi : Nag, 1989, vol. i . p. 263, fn. 6 , identifie s Kamarup a as the northeaster n part of Bengal and western portion of Assam. This seems to accord to some degree with Taranatha's account, 1990 , p. 330, which also places Kamarupa in northeastern India . According t o Bu ston [188], Kamarup a i s in eastern Indi a an d has the rive r Lohita in its center, whic h flows north t o south. P. Gupta identifie s Jalandhar a a s Jullundur, the headquarter s o f the sam e district i n Punjab . I n th e Padma Purana, Jalandhara i s mentioned a s the capita l of the grea t daitya kin g Jalandhara. B u ston [188 ] identifies Jalandhara as being northwest o f theGuge region in Tibet; and he places Purna to the north of Oddiyana. Taranatha, 1990 , pp. 91, 121, 274, associates Jalandhar a with the celebrate d kin g Kaniska of the first century CE and places it in northern India . Oddiyana wa s situated o n th e Subhavast u rive r (th e moder n Swa t river) . I t include s th e fou r moder n district s of Pangkora, Bijawar , Swat , and Bunir , and it s capital was Maiigala. According t o Fa-hien , who visited India i n the fift h century CE, it was a part of northern Indi a an d wa s situated north o f the Punja b alon g th e Subhavast u river. It was an important center o f Mahayana Buddhism.

TABLE 5.7.6 Location s of the Cosmi c and Bodil y Pilgrimag e Sites Pilgrimage sites

The cosmo s

The individual

four upapithas Godavari Ramesa Devikotta Malava

in the four intermediate directions of the eart h manckia

in the four intermediate directions of the cakra of the gnosis-element due to the cessation s of Scorpio and the elevent h lin k of dependent origination (jdti)

1

1 Godavari i s the name of the larges t and longest rive r m south India , which rise s from the Western Ghats. According to the Visnu Purana, Book 2, Ch. 2 , vs. 11-12, Godavari flows from th e Sahy a mountains. According to P Gupta , 1973 , p. 73 , there was a famous pilgrimage site at Govardhan-Gangapura on th e righ t bank of the river , about six miles west of Nasik. Th e Markandeya Purana, Ch . 57 , v . 34 , mention s th e rive r Godavar ! i n connectio n wit h a regio n wher e Govardhanapura stood . It i s possible that Ramesa refers t o Rames'vava , a sacred island i n th e Ba y of Bengal. However, accoidin g to B u ston [188], Ramesa i s a synonym for Ramesvara, or Nandesvara, located on th e shor e o f Sri Lanka. Taranatha, 1990 , p. 336, places Ramesvara at the extremit y of the ape x of the triangula r region of the south . Devikotta may be another name for DevTkota, or Devakota, the ancient capital of Kotivarsa in northein Bengal, which is often mentioned m the epigraphi c records of the Palas and Senas of Bengal. Howevet, there were several places in India under this name. H . H. Wilson, 1989 , vol. 2, p. 823, fn. i, identifies Devikota a s a synonym for Soniputra, correspondin g to th e moder n Devicott a i n th e Karnatic . The nam e Devikot a als o designates the capita l o f Munja i n Dekhm on th e banks of the Godavar T and the place in Assam near Goalpara . Malava wa s the countr y of the Malav a tribe s who settle d i n Punja b Th e locatio n o f the exac t territor y that the y occupied is difficult t o determine. Differen t authors locat e them i n different areas . Accoiding t o B. C Law , 1984, p. no, it seem s that th e Malava s eventuall y migrate d southward an d settle d m Rajaputan a a t th e tun e o f Samudragupta. Taranatha, 1990 , pp. 47, 49, 68, places the Malav a country i n western India and associate s it with the citie s of Kosambi and UjjayinT . Cf. the tievajratantra, Part i, Ch. 7 , v. 13, which mentions the following three upapithas; Malava , Sindhu, and Nagara.

The Cosmic Body 7 9 TABLE 5.7.0 Location s o f the Cosmi c an d Bodil y Pilgrimage Sites Pilgrimage sites

The cosmo s

The individua l

fourfcsetras 1 Arbuda MunmunI Odra Karunyapataka

in the fou r cardina l directions of the inne r half of the water-manoal a

in the fou r cardina l directions of the eartlvcakr a due t o the cessation s of Libra and the tenth link of dependent origination (bhava)

four upaksetras2 Trisakuni Karmarapataka Kosala Ladadesa

in the fou r intermediat e directions of the inne r half of the vtater-maryjala

in the fou r intermediat e directions of the earth-cakr a due to the cessation s of Virgo and the ninth link of dependent origination (upadana)

1 B. C. Law, 1984 , p. 304, and P. Gupta, 1973 , p. 251, agree that Arbud a is the mountai n Ab u i n the souther n en d of the Aravalli range in the Siroh i state of Rajputana. Bu ston [188] places Arbuda and MunmunT in eastern India . According to B. C. Law, 1984, p. 178, Odra is the modern Onssa. According to Buston [189], Odra and Karunyapatak a are northwest o f Rajagrha, o n the souther n ban k o f Ganga in the countr y of Asoka Cf. the Hevajratantra, Par t i , Ch. 7 , v. 13: Karunyapataka, Devlkota, and Karmarapataka. 2 Bu ston [188] identifies Karmarapataka as a district of many blacksmiths, a part of Bhagala in eastern India . Bhagala is most likel y a synonym for Bhangala (Bengal), since Taranatha, 1990 , p. 121 , mentions Gauda as its capital. Ladadesa is, according t o Bu ston [188] , a region of Ruka in western India. Kosala was an importan t kingdom i n eastern Decca n a t th e tim e of early Buddhism. In th e Ahguttara Nikdya, 1958 , vol. 1, it is listed among the sixtee n Mahajanapadas of JambudvTpa. The capita l cities of Kosala were SravastT, where th e Buddha reportedly spent muc h time , and Saketa. Cf. the Hevajrataritra, Par t i , Ch. 7 , v. 14: Kulata, Arbuda, GodavarT, and Himadri.

TABLE 5.7.0 Location s of the Cosmi c and Bodil y Pilgrimage Sites Pilgrimage sites Th 1

four chandohas i Kalinga direction Hankela hal Candradvlpa an Lampaka dependen

e cosmo s Th n the fou r cardina l i s of the oute r direction f of the water- mandala du

e individua l n the four cardinal s of the water-cakr a e to the cessation s of Leo d the eight h link of t origination (trsria )

1 Kahng a i s the seacoast , wes t o f the mouth s o f the Ganges , togethe r wit h th e uppe r par t of the Coromande l coast . According to Bu ston [188], Kalinga is in the southwest, sixty leagues from Vajrasana. Hankela wa s also an easter n country. According to B C . Law , 1984, p. 222, it was located west of the rive r Meghna, some forty leagues north of Tamrallpti. Some thin k that it was a coastal countr y between Samatata and Onssa, and some identify it with parts of Backerganj andNoakhah. For different opinion s on its exact location se e B. C. Law, pp. 221-222 According t o Bu ston [189], Hankela i s a district of Bhagala in the east . Candradvlpa was also located i n eastern India . According t o B. C. Law, p 215 , it i s mentioned m the Rampa l grant of Srlcandra as being Riled by the kin g Trailokyacandra in the tenth or eleventh centur y CE. According t o Bu ston [189] , it i s the islan d o f Bhagala. According to S. M. All, 1966 , p. 143, Lampaka was a territorial unit in the northern mountai n zon e of the Indus Basin, associated wit h the uppe r Kabul valley. The regio n i s the sam e as the Lambaga e of the Greek s and modern Lamghan. Cf. the Hevajratantra, Par t i, Ch. 7 , v. 15: Hankela, arising from the salt-ocean, Lampaka, Kanaka , and Saurastra.

8o

The Inner Kalacakratantra

TABLE 5-7.E Location s o f the Cosmi c an d Bodil y Pilgrimage Sites Pilgrimage sites

The cosmo s

The individua l

four upachtmdohas Kaftcl Konkanaka Himalaya Nepala

in the four intermediate directions of the oute r half of the water-matidaJ a

in the fou r intermediate directions of the water-calcr a due to the cessation s of Cancer and the seventh lin k of dependent origination (vedand)

four meldpakas2 Matrgrha Prayaga Kollagiri Grhadevata

in the fou r cardina l directions of the inne r half of the fire-immclai a

in the fou r cardina l directions of the fire-cakra due t o the cessation s of Gemini and the sixt h link of dependent origination (sparsa)

1

1 The cit y of Kanci was an important plac e of pilgrimage in southern Indi a since early times. It has been identifie d as Conjeevaram, the capital of Dravida or Cola on the Palar river, forty-three miles southwest of Madras. I t contains many Saiva, Vaisnava, and Jama temples. It was one of the well-know n centers of Buddhist learning. Bu ston [189 ] mention s Kanci as Dharmaknti's place. According t o Bu ston [188] , Konkanaka was a city in the southwest . Its borders were surrounded by rivers, and i t ha d seven divisions. Konkanaka is most likely Konkana, also mentioned b y Taranatha, 1990 , p. 325, as a region in the sout h of India, in which ther e was a famous Buddhis t shrine Mahabimba . Cf. the Hevajratantra, Par t 1 , Ch. 7 , v. 16: Kalinga, the Isl e of Gold, an d Kokana . 2 I have bee n unabl e to identif y Matrgrh a and Kollagiri. According t o the Chos kyi rnamgrangs , 1986 , pp. 457-458, Grhadevata i s in northwestern China . Prayag a i s modern Allahabad . Th e Mahdbhdrata, 85 . 79-83, mentions i t a s th e holiest place in the worl d Th e earl y Pali texts mention Prayag a as a pilgrimage site (tfrtha ) o r gltat on the rive r Ganges . According t o Huien-stang , thet e wei e onl y a fe w Buddhist establishment s i n Prayag a at th e tim e o f his visit . Th e Henajratantra doe s not lis t any site belonging to th e grou p of mdapakas o r upameldpakas.

of dependent originatio n i s causally related to th e transformatio n o f the si x cosmic and si x bodily cakras into the twelv e bodhisatwa-bhumis, or the twelv e groups of pilgrimage sites. These tables further sugges t that in the contex t o f the Kalacakratantra practice, the sequential attainment o f the twelve bodhisattva-bhumis is an internal pilgrimage to spiritual awakening. A tantric adept undertakes an internal pilgrimage by purifying th e bodil y cakras b y means o f the six-phase d yoga (sad-anga-yoga), which , in turn , purifies th e externa l cakras o f his environment . Thus , one ma y say that i n this tantric system , the pat h o f spiritual awakening is metaphorically seen as the ul timate pilgrimage. See tables 5-7.a-h for the correlations amon g the locations o f pilgrimage sites in the cosmo s and within th e bod y of the individual. According t o the schem a give n above, each of the twelv e categories of pilgrimage sites includes th e fou r pilgrimage sites. Thus, fo r this tantric tradition, ther e ar e altogether forty-eigh t pilgrimag e sites. 69 Th e numbe r o f th e subdivision s o f th e twelve pilgrimage sites and their names as given in the Kalacakra tradition diffe t fro m those given in other Buddhist tantri c systems. 70 This should not com e as a surprise, though, since one encounters variou s numberings even within each of the mentione d Buddhist tantric systems . The Vimalaprabha justifie s these contradictions a s the skillful mean s of liberating those with sharp mental faculties from grasping onto any physical place.71 A closer look at the illustrate d paradigms of the ways in which th e Kalacakra traditio n draw s th e correlation s amon g th e externa l pilgrimag e sites and th e

The Cosmic Body 8 1 TABLE 5-7-F Location s of the Cosmi c and Bodil y Pilgrimage Sites Pilgrimage sites

The cosmo s

The individua l

four upamelapakas1 Saurastra KasmTra Suvarnadvipa Simhala

in the fou r intermediat e directions of the inne r half of the fire-rrwkiii a

in the fou r intermediat e directions of the fire-calcr a due to th e cessation s of Taurus and th e fifth link of dependent origination (si x ayatanas)

four smasanas2 Nagara Mahendrasaila Smdhudesa Kirataka

in the four cardina l directions of the oute r half of the (ae-mandala

in the fou r cardina l directions of the wmd-cakr a due t o the cessation s of Aries and the fourt h lin k of dependent origination (nama-rupa)

1 According t o S. M Ali , 1966 , p. 146 , the Mats^ a Purana identifie s Saurastr a as the regio n occupying the souther n half of the Kathlawa r peninsula. The Visnu Purana also mentions Saurastra as one o f the wester n regions of India. The Buddhist tradition considers it as the birthplac e of Santideva. SuvarnadvTpa could be a synonym for Suvarnabhumi {Lowe r Burm a and Mala y islands), mentioned i n the earl y Pal l text\ specifically , i n th e Majjhima an d Samyutta Ntkayas. Accordin g t o th e Chos kyi mam grangs, 1986 , pp . 457-458, SuvarnadvTpa designates Indonesia. Simhala is another nam e for Ceylon. 2 Mahendrasaila is perhaps Mahendragiri, or Mahendracata, the portio n of the easter n Ghats between the Godavar T and Mahanadl rivers. A portion of the eastern Ghat near Gan]am is still called the Mahendra hill. H. H Wilson , vol. i, p 259 , fn. 2 , specifies Mahendt a as the chai n o f hills that extend s from Oriss a and th e norther n Circa s to Gondwan a near Ganjam. According to Bu ston [189], Mahendrasaila is in the distric t of Dhanyakataka, the famous site of Mahayana Buddhism. According t o P. Gupta, 1973 , p. 17 , the ancien t Smdhudesa wa s to the wes t of the lower Indus. According to Bu ston [189], Smdhudesa designates the regio n in eastern India through which flows the grea t river Smdhu. Kirataka probably tefers to the country of Kiratas, which was in the Himalayas Klrata s were nomadic people according to Megasthenes. According to Ptolemy, they lived in the northern region of Uttarapatha. In the Bhdgavata Purana, II . 4, 18, they are mentioned a s people living outside the Arya n fold. Bu ston [189] only glosses Kirataka as the Kiratadesa . Cf. the Hevajratantra, Par t i, Ch. 7, v. 17: Caritra, Kosala, Vindhya, and Kaumarapaurika.

bodily parts reveals that th e divers e numberings of pilgrimage site s ar e not contra dictory or randomly arrange d bu t complementar y and carefull y designed . They exemplify th e multipl e way s i n whic h thi s tantri c syste m delineate s th e correspon dences it sees. As the given correspondences themselves vary, there are different way s of structurin g an d numbering . The divers e way s o f identifying th e pilgrimag e site s with the component s of the individual' s body have their specifi c role s in the differ ent phase s of the Kalacakratantra practice. For example, identifyin g th e twelv e group s of pilgrimage sites with the twelv e sections of Great JambudvTpa and with the twelv e j oints of the individual' s body, th e Kalacakra tradition attempts to demonstrate a close link among the purification s o f the twelv e bodily joint s and the attainment of the twelv e bodhisattva-bhumis and th e purification o f th e twelv e section s o f Grea t JambudvTpa . A purificatio n o f bodil y joints implies here a cessation of the ordinar y body that is accompanied by afflictiv e and cognitive obscurations. Therefore, as the tantric adept gradually purifies his bod ily joints by means of the Kalacakratantra practice , he also eradicates the obscurations and attain s th e twelv e bodhisattva-bhumis. Th e identificatio n o f the twelv e bodil y joints with the twelv e sections of Great JambudvTpa i s based on the Kalacakratantra's

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TABLE 5.7.0 Location s o f the Cosmi c and Bodil y Pilgrimage Sites Pilgrimage sites four upasmasdnas Marudesa Gahvara Kulata Samala

1

four pilavas/vesmas2 Caritra Harikela Vindhya Kaumarikapuri

The cosmos

The individua l

in the four intermediate directions of the oute r half of the fae-mandala

in the fou r intermediat e directions of the wmd-ca/cr a due to the cessation s of Pisces and the thir d lin k of dependent origination (vijndna)

in the fou r cardina l directions of the inne r half of the wmd-manlala

in the fou r cardina l directions in the space-cakr a due to the cessation s of Aquarius and the second lin k of dependent origination (samskara)

1 Marudesa most likel y refers t o th e distric t of Mam, mentioned i n the Junagarh rock inscription . According t o P. Gupta, 1973 , p. 19 , Maru perhaps denoted th e territor y of Marwar i n Rajasthan. Taranatha, 1990 , p. 253, places Maru in western India. There i s a slight possibility that Gahvar a refer s t o th e mountain s extending fro m Kabu l to Barman , which provide numerous cave habitats. 2 B. C. Law , 1984 , p. 221, identifie s Harikela as an eastern country, on the basi s that th e Kdrpuraman]an mention s i t as such. Some have identifie d i t with Bengal, and som e suggest that i t occupied the part s of Backerganj an d Noakhal i districts. Tibetan translation reads Rana instead of Harikela. According t o Bu ston [189] , Vindhya mountains is a place where Dignaga practiced a sddhana, and Kaumankapuri is a place inhabited only by women.

view of their common relation to the elements of wind, fire, water, and earth,72 Thus, as one purifies the atomic nature of one's own body, one simultaneously purifie s one's own perceptio n o f th e twelv e sections o f Great JambudvTp a a s ordinary, physical places,73 Table 5.8 illustrates the aforementioned correspondences among the twelve pilgrimage sites in the cosmic and individual bodies, which are the phenomenal aspect s of the twelv e bodhisattva-bhumis. TABLE 5.7.1* Location s of the Cosmi c and Bodil y Pilgrimage Sites Pilgrimage sites Th four upapflavas/ i upavesmas1 direction Viraja hal Konka Capricor TripurT o Snhattaka

e cosmo s Th n the fou r intermediat e i s of the inne r direction f of the wind-mandala du

e individua l n the fou r cardina l s in the space-ca/cr a e to the cessation s of n and the first link f dependent origination (avidyd.)

1 Konka may be another nam e for Konkan, which, according to the Mdrkancleya Purdna, 25, lies on th e rive r Venva. P. Gupta, 1973 , p. 16 , refers to Tnpun (Tewar ) as a city in central India. B. C. Law, 1984, p. 196, mentions that the ninth century Ratnapur stone inscriptio n of Jajalladeva of the Ced i speaks of Tnpun as being ruled by one of the Ced i rulers, named Kokalla. According to Bu ston [189] , TripurT is on the Labd a island m the south . Snhattaka coul d be Srihatta in eastern India, or Sylhet, whic h i s identifie d by B. C. Law , p. 261, as the regio n that occupies the lowe r valley of the Surma river and which is surrounded by high hills. According t o Bu ston [189], Snhattak a is in the south o f India, the birthplac e of Arunagapo.

The Cosmi c Body 8

3

TABLE 5.8 Twelv e Cosmic and Bodil y Pilgrimage Sites Twelve pilgrimage sites Th

e cosmo s Th

pithas th

e four island s in the th four cardinal directions arm of the Grea t JambudvTpa

upapithas th

e fou r intermediat e directions of the Great JambudvTpa

ksetras an d upaksetms th

e inne r half of the salt ocean

chandohas an d th upachandohas sal

e oute r half of the t ocean

melapakas an d th upamelapakas fire-mardal

e inne r half of the a

vesmas and upavesmas th

e oute r half of th e

smasdnas an d th upasmasanas wind-mareial

e inne r half of the a

e individual e twelv e joints of the s and leg s

In some other contexts, the Kalacakra tradition classifies the twelve groups of pilgrimage sites into thirty-six subcategories. It presents thirty-six pilgrimage sites as the dwelling place s o f thirty-si x familie s o f yoginis, who ar e th e sublimate d aspect s o f thirty-six socia l classe s (jati) , thirty-si x bodily constituent s o f th e individual , an d thirty-six factor s o f spiritua l awakening (bodhi^paksika-dharnrui). A s tabl e 5. 9 illus trates, the Kalacakr a tradition identifie s these thirty-si x pilgrimage sites with thirty six components o f the cosmo s and the individual . This identification i s taught i n the "Chapter on Initiation," i n the context of tantric yogic practices performed durin g a tantric feas t (gam-cakra), i n which the thirty-six social classes of the Indian society of that time had to be represented.74 It exemplifies one of the ways in which this tantri c tradition identifie s the individua l with his social environment. Thi s particular manner o f identifying th e externa l and interna l pilgrimage sites as the abode s of yoginis is seen as relevant fo r the purificatio n of tantric pledges (samara). It is relevant because the purificatio n o f tantric pledges take s place only whe n the initiat e is cognizant o f the correspondence s give n below and applies them i n viewing his body and his natural and social environments as nondual and equally sacred. Bringing to mind the sublimated aspects of the participants in a tantric feast and viewing the parts of one's own body and th e cosmo s as their pur e abodes, one purifie s one' s ow n vision of the indi vidual, social, and cosmic bodies. By so doing, one transforms one's own body and th e cosmos into the sacred pilgrimage sites and brings forth a certain degree of purification. For the specifi c correlations amon g the pilgrimage sites and the constitutin g elements of the cosmos, individual, and kdlacakra'mandala, which a tantric practitioner must know i n order to purify his vision and attitude toward his natural environmen t and toward his own body, see table 5.9 .

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TABLE 5.9 Pilgrimag e Sites as the Cosmos , Individual, and Kalacakra-mandal a Pilgrimage sites

The cosmo s

The individua l

The Kalacakra-mandal a

four pithas

Kalagni moon sun Rahu Mars Mercury Jupiter Venus Saturn Ketu earth water fire wind the earth-bor n the water-bor n the fire-born the wind-born six taste s smell color sound touch

feces urine blood flesh ear nose eye tongue anus vulva pus phlegm louse worm saliva fat bodily hair hair of the head intestines bile bones marrow liver lungs nadis skin heart lymph the ear-secretio n nasal secretio n the eye-secretion gustatory secretio n uterine secretio n intestinal secretio n penile secretio n armpit secretion

the mansion s of Tara, etc .

six ksetras

eight chandohas

ten melapakas

eight smasanas

a decay of the fou r elements, colors, etc.

the mansion s of Rupavajra, etc .

the mansion s of Carcika, etc., bor n from bhutas

the mansion s of Jambhikasya, etc. , born fro m krodhas

the mansion s of Svanasya, etc., born fro m asuras

There are several other ways in which the Kalacakra tradition identifies th e pil grimage site s with the individual' s body , an d these are equally relevan t to the afore mentioned phas e o f th e Kalacakratantra practice . Th e followin g tw o model s ar e specifically relate d t o the practic e of the unificatio n o f the tantri c pledges (samayamelapaka), o r of the femal e and mal e consorts , during tantri c sexual yoga performed after a tantric feast. Identifyin g th e sacre d pilgrimag e site s with the variou s part s of the mal e an d female bod y durin g sexual tantri c yoga, a tantric practitioner sanctifie s a sexual act, whic h becomes a kind of bliss-generating pilgrimage . This type of identification als o suggests that the blis s and spiritua l benefits resulting fro m a single yogic sexual ac t equal those resulting from visiting te n kind s of pilgrimage sites .

The Cosmi c Body 8

5

TABLE 5.10 Te n Pilgrimag e Sites i n the Femal e and Mal e Bodies Ten pilgrimage site s Th

e individua l

pitha th

e femal e sexua l orga n

upapitha. th

e mal e sexua l orga n

ksetras th

e si x sense-bases (ayatemas) o f a woman

upaksetras th

e si x sense-bases of a man

chandohas th

e eigh t samdna-winds of a woman

upachanodhas th

e eigh t samam-winds of a ma n

meldpakas th

e te n facultie s o f action (karmendriya) of a woman

upamdapakas th

e te n facultie s of action of a man

smosanas a

discharge of secretions from th e nostrils, ears, eyes , mouth, an d anus of a woman

upasmosanas a

discharge of secretions from th e nostrils, ears, eyes , mouth, and anus of a man

Table 5.10 illustrates the manner i n which the Kalacakra tradition classifies te n pilgrimage sites into two main categories—those corresponding to te n part s of the female bod y and thos e correspondin g t o ten part s of the mal e body. Whereas tabl e 5.11 demonstrates the wa y in which eac h ofte n group s of pilgrimage sites is identified wit h the sam e male and female bodily parts. All o f the aforementione d classification s o f the pilgrimag e site s illustrat e th e Kalacakra tradition' s premis e that o n thi s tantri c pat h to spiritua l awakening, one transforms one' s own environment , o r more precisely, one's ow n experience o f th e environment, b y transforming one's own physical constituents .

The Thre e Realms of Cyclic Existenc e as the Individua l The Kalacakratantra's earlie r mentioned principle , whic h states that "as it is outside so it is within the body , and a s it i s within th e bod y so it i s elsewhere," also applies to its view of the interconnectednes s o f human being s with all other sentient beings . The Kalacakratantra suggest s that on e shoul d loo k a t th e tripl e worl d as similar to space an d a s unitary. 75 Th e Kalacakr a traditio n provide s a variety of methods fo r training th e min d t o perceiv e al l sentien t being s a s nondual fro m oneself . These methods ar e considered t o be applicable at any stage of the Kalacakratantra practice, for the y reinforc e the underlyin g premise and objectiv e of all Kalacakratantra practices, which ar e the nondualit y of all phenomena an d it s realization. The Kalacakra tradition points out that al l six states of transmigratory existence are already present withi n every individual. In the Kalacakratantra's view , the origi-

86

The Inner Kalacakratantra TABLE 5.11 Te n Pilgrimag e Sites as Ten Bodil y Parts of Men an d Wome n Ten pilgrimage sites Th

e individua l

pithas

the lef t side s of a woman's an d a man's body

upapnhas

the righ t sides of a woman's an d a man's body

ksetras

the lef t sense-facultie s (indriya) of a woman an d a man

upaksetras

the right sense-facultie s of a woman an d a man

chandohas

the kurma, krkara, devadatta, an d dhanamjaya pranas of a woman an d a man

upachandohas

the samana, uddna, vydna, an d naga pranas of a woman an d a ma n

melapakas

the lef t facultie s of action (karmendriya) of a woman an d a man

upamelapakas

the righ t faculties of action (karmendriya) of a woman an d a man

smasanas

a discharge o f secretions fro m th e left nostril , etc. , of a woman an d a man

upaimasdnas

a discharge of secretions fro m th e right nostril , etc. , of a woman an d a man

nation of a sentient being within a particular state of existence is directly influenced by one or the combination o f the three gunas—sattva, rajas, or tamos. The thre e gums of one's mind are, in turn, the direct result of sentient beings ' karma. Thus, th e existence as a god is caused by the sattva'guna, which, due to wholesome karma, gives rise to the peacefu l state of mind. Existence as a denizen of hell is caused by tamos, which due t o unwholesome karma, gives rise to the violen t stat e of mind. Existence as an animal is caused by rajas, which, due to the mediall y unwholesome karma, gives rise to the passionate state of mind. Finally, existence as a human is characterized by the combination of the three gunas. Similarly, the existences of asuras and pretas are characterized by a combination of two of the three gunas. Since human existence is caused by a combination of the thre e gunas, the individual' s mental states and experience s are often determine d by the prevalenc e of one o f the thre e gunas. Thus, du e t o th e prevalence of sattva, a person experiences happiness; due to the prevalence of rajas, one experiences suffering; an d due the prevalenc e of tamos, one experience s constant suffering. Becaus e the prevalenc e of the thre e gunas tends to alternate throughout one' s lifetime, a n ordinary person may experience the mental states that characterize all six states of existence.76 I n thi s way, the individua l who mentall y experiences differen t states of existence i n a single lifetime already embodies all six states of existence.

The Cosmic Body 8

7

TABLE 5.12 Commonalitie s among Living Beings and th e Huma n Body Living beings inhabiting the cosmo s Th and their origins being stationary beings th the egg'born beings lic

e bodil y constituents and sentient s inhabiting the body

the earth-origi n the wind-origin

e bodily hairs e on the head

the water-origin worms and others born from swea t worm

s and the like in the bod y

the womb-origin those born from wom b and semen bodil

y semen

apparitional beings subtl

the space-element

e living beings, living in th e body and having the for m o f an egg

One o f the Kalacakratantra's method s of training a tantric practitioner to view all sentien t being s as a part o f himself i s patterned o n th e fivefol d classificatio n of sentient beings , wh o hav e fiv e differen t origin s (yoni) o f birth. Th e fou r differen t classes of beings who originate from th e fou r respectiv e sources—namely, the earth , wind, water, and womb, and the self-arisen , or apparitional beings (upapaduka), wh o arise fro m th e elemen t o f space—inhabit both the cosmo s an d th e individual . O n this tantri c pat h of developing a nondual visio n o f the world , one shoul d recognize that one's own body , like th e bod y of the cosmos , i s the birthplac e fo r diverse sentient beings an d i s thereby most intimately connecte d with diverse forms of life. It is a microcosmi c representation o f the cosmo s an d it s inhabitants. Table 5.1 2 exem plifies th e wa y in which the Kalacakr a tradition correlate s th e five types of sentien t beings in the natural environment with the constituents o f the human body and living organisms that inhabit the body. 77 Similarly, to realize the nonduality of oneself and the triple world, one must train oneself to view the three realms of the cosmos—the realms of desire, form, and form lessness—as one' s ow n thre e vajras—namely, th e body , speech , an d min d vajras. Only the n ca n on e understand tha t th e divers e sentient being s withi n th e thre e realms of cyclic existence ar e nondual fro m one' s own mental, verbal , and bodily capacities. Differen t state s o f existence ar e simpl y the cosmi c manifestation s of one' s own body , speech , an d mind , whos e sublimate d aspect s ar e th e body , speech , an d mind mandalas o f the kdhcakra-mandala. Tables 5-i3.a-b illustrate th e specifi c correspondences among th e thre e realms of cyclic existenc e an d th e thre e vajras o f the individua l and thei r location s i n th e bodily cakras, as they ar e explained i n this tantric system. As tables 5.13.3—b demonstrate, the Kalacakra tradition, like other Buddhist systems, classifie s th e thre e realm s o f cyclic existence int o thirty-on e categories . Ac cording t o this tantric system, from amon g thes e thirty-on e categorie s o f cyclic existence, fou r belong t o the formless realm, sixteen t o the real m of form, an d eleven to the desire-realm . Her e again , on e encounter s som e departur e fro m th e Abhidhar-

88

The Inner Kalacakratantra TABLE 5-I3-A Th e Realm s of Formlessness and Form within the Huma n Body The cosmos Th The formles s realm (arupa-dhdtu) The fourfold Saudharmakalpa 4, The spher e o f neither perception no r nonperception 3. The spher e of nothing a t all 2. The spher e o f limitless consciousness 1. The spher e o f limitless space The form-realm (rupa-dhatu) The fourfold Brahmakalpa th 16. Akanistha 15. Sudarsana 14. Atap a 13. Avrha

e individua l The mind-vajra usmsa-cakra

The speech-vajra e lalata-cakra

The fourfold Brahmalokottarakalpa th 12. Brhatphala 11. Punyapravasa 10. Anabhr a 9. Subhakrtsna

e nos e

The fourfold Srfkalpa th 8. Apramanasubha chi 7. ParTttasubha 6. Abhasvara 5. Apramanabha

e are a beneath the nose up to th e n

The fourfold Svetakalpa th 4. Parltiibha 3. Mahabrahmana 2. Brahmapurohita i. Brahmakayika

e throat-cakra

makosa, according t o which, th e realm of form contains seventeen types of existence, and the desire-real m i s comprised o f ten. Th e Kalacakr a tradition omit s the clas s of Sudrsa god s o f the realm-for m and add s asuras a s the elevent h clas s o f beings be longing to the desire-realm. Likewise, the names of the heavens o f the realms of form and formlessnes s differ fro m those i n th e Abhidharmakosa and accor d wit h som e of the name s o f heavens listed in the Jain a Tatwarthddhigamasutra, Ch . 4 , v. 20. According t o the Kalacakra tradition, a t the top of the cosmos, abov e the thirty one type s of cyclic existence, in the cres t o f Mt. Meru's peak, abide s Kalacakra, th e indestructible Vajrakaya . H e i s accompanied b y all the Buddha s and surrounde d b y the guardians of the ten directions. 78 The locatio n of the three realms in the body of the cosmos correspond s t o their location in the body of the individual . Below Meru's usnsa, in the are a of its head, there are the four divisions of Saudharmakalpa, a heavenly abod e of the formles s realm.79 Those who hav e develope d a meditative con centration (samadhi) on the fou r type s of the space-krtsn a are born in the formles s

The Cosmic Body 8

9

TABLE 5.13.3 Th e Real m of Desire within the Huma n Body The cosmo s Th The desire-realm (kama-dhatu) Six types of gods th 6. Paranirmitavasavartin 5. Nirmanarati 4. Tusita 3. Yama 2. Trayastrimsa i. Caturmaharajakayika

e individual The body-vojra e body beneath the throat

Asuras Humans Animals Pretas

Denizens of eight hells

realm. The fou r heavens o f the form-real m are sequentially located i n the region s of Meru's lalata and nose, in the area beneath the nose that extends up to the chin, and in th e regio n o f Meru's throat. On e i s born withi n on e o f the fou r division s of th e form-realm b y developing a meditative concentration o n th e respectiv e wind, fire, water, and earth krtsnas and by the power of ethical discipline (slla). The desire-realm extends fro m th e botto m o f Meru's throat t o the botto m o f the wmd-mandala. Sen tient beings are born as gods of the desire-realm due to the power of generosity (dona) and due to the recitatio n of mantras. The remainin g types of existence i n the real m of desire are those o f asuras, humans, animals , pretas, and denizen s of hells. The ex istence of asuras comes about by the powe r of generosity. Human existence i s due t o the powe r of one's wholesome and unwholesom e actions. Anima l existenc e results from lesse r sins. The existenc e o f pretas is due to the powe r of middling sins, and th e existence o f the denizens of hell comes about through the power of the greatest sins. Tables 5.i4.a-b give a schematic presentatio n o f the lif e span s of the sentien t beings in the cyclic existence, a s taught i n the Kalacakra tradition.80 According t o thi s tantri c tradition , th e lif e span s of all sentient beings ar e related to and measured by the numbe r of their breaths . Within th e si x states of existence, breath s o f the differen t type s of sentient being s have different durations . For example, th e duratio n o f one breat h i n the huma n real m is one sola r day for an in sect, a duration o f thirty human breath s is one breat h fo r a preta, one huma n year is one breath of the gods in the Akanistha heaven, an d a hundred year s in the huma n realm is one breath o f the god s in the formles s realm. Thus, just as the cosmo s is perceived an d experience d differentl y b y differen t sentien t beings—relativ e t o thei r karma and state of existence—so too is time a relative phenomenon, experience d differently b y different sentien t beings. The Kalacakr a traditio n consider s the ag e of one hundre d year s as the ful l lif e span of the individual , which can decrease or increase in accordance wit h the indi -

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TABLE 5.14.A Th e Lif e Spans of Sentient Beings The realm s of formlessness and for m

The duratio n of life

The formles s realm The fourfol d Saudharmakalp a 4. The spher e of neither perceptio n nor nonperception 3. The spher e of nothing at all 2, The spher e of limitless consciousness 1. The spher e of limitless space

four great eons (maha'kalpa) three great eons two great eons one great eon

The form-realm The fourfol d Brahmakalp a 16. Akanistha 15. Sudarsana 14. Atapa 13. Avrha

sixteen eons fifteen eon s fourteen eon s thirteen eons

The fourfol d Brahmalokottarakalp a 12. Brhatphala 11. Punyapravasa 10. Anabhra 9. Subhakrtsna

twelve eons eleven eons ten eons nine eons

The fourfol d Srlkalp a 8. Apramanasubha 7. Panttasubha 6. Abhasvara 5. Apramanabha

eight eons seven eons six eons five eons

The fourfol d Svetakalpa 4. Parttabha 3. Mahabrahmana 2. Brahmapurohita i. Brahmakayika

four eons three eons two eons one eon

vidual's own Icarma. It increases for yogis and ascetic s who, by the powe r of their yoga and meditative concentration, exten d th e duratio n of a single breath fo r up to on e ghatika; and it decreases for evil people due to the powe r of their sins. Thus, th e du ration o f one's lif e i s directly related t o th e duratio n an d numbe r o f one's breaths, which, in turn, is directly related to one's mental states. As the mind becomes more afflicted an d agitated , one's breathing become s faster, breath s becom e shorter , an d thereby one's life becomes shorter. It is in the form of the breaths, minutes (pdrupalas), ghatikds, and sola r days that death take s its course in the body . As these measures of time gradually increase within th e righ t an d lef t nadis, death advance s i n the body, until the prana finally leave s the nodi's , which dissolv e and cause a bodily disintegration. The notion of the full human lif e span being one hundred year s goes back to the early Brahmanic period. In support of this notion, the Vimalaprabha cite s a line from the Aitareya Brahmcma, II. 17.4.19, which states that a person (purusa) ha s a life span of a hundred years. 81 The Vimalaprabha interpret s this statement i n terms of both its

The Cosmic Body 9 1

TABLE 5.14.8 The Lif e Spans of Sentient Beings The real m of desire

The duratio n of life

The desire-real m Six types of gods 6. Paranirrmtavasavartin 5. Nirmanarati 4. Tusita 3. Yama 2. Trayastrimsa i. Caturmaharajakayika

six short eon s five short eons four shor t eons three short eons two short eons one short eon

Asuros Humans

one hundred years

Animals Pretas Denizens o f the eigh t hell s nagas those in the second an d third hells those in the fourth an d fifth hells those in the sixth and seventh hells those in the eighth hel l

one short eon one medium eon (madhyama'kalpa) one extended eon (utkrsta'kalpa) one great eon till the dissolutio n of the cosmos

provisional and definitive meanings. In terms of a provisional meaning, a person has a life span of a hundred years , due to the increas e of the huma n lif e spa n during th e krta'yuga. I n term s of the definitiv e meaning, the wor d "person" (purusa) designate s here ever y solar day and every year. This implies that with regard to the individual, there ar e one hundred sola r days, and with regard to the cosmos, there ar e one hundred years. Thus, on e year in the individual' s environment correspond s to one solar day in the body of the individual , in accordance with the number of the individual's breaths. On the grounds that the individual takes twenty-one thousand and six hundred breaths each solar day, two hundred such solar days in a human bod y are said to equal 4,320,000 years in the environment, which make up four cosmic 3>wgas.82 Thus, with eac h round of 4,320,000 breaths, which the individua l take s in the cours e of two hundred sola r days, a cycle of four cosmi c yugas takes place in th e body . In thi s way, all temporal and physical changes tha t occu r i n the body of the cosmo s have already taken place in the bod y of the individual . A goa l of the Kalacakratantra practice i s to transmute thes e phenomenal bodie s of the cosmo s and th e individua l into th e transcenden t bod y of the Buddh a Kalacakra, into the Vajrasattva , wh o i s the indivisibl e unity of the thre e realms of cyclic existence. The proces s of their transmutation entail s their generatio n i n the for m of the kdlacakra-mandala b y means of the stag e of generation practice an d their dissolution by means of the stage of completion practice . At th e tim e of the transformation of the individual' s body into the transcenden t bod y of Kalacakra, the constituents of the phenomenal body manifest as the constituents of spiritual awakening. Thus , certain bodily components—bodily hair, skin, flesh, blood , water, bones, marrows, and

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the like—manifest as the bodhisattva-bhumis. The four great elements of the ordinar y body—earth, water , fire, and wind—manifes t a s th e fou r brahma-viharas—loving kindness (maitrf) , compassio n (karuna), sympatheti c jo y (mudita), an d equanimit y (upeksd). Th e fiv e ordinar y pshycho-physical aggregates, accompanied b y afflictiv e and cognitive obscurations, manifest as the five types of unobscured psycho-physical aggregates, or the five types of gnosis—the mirror-like gnosis (ddarsa-jnana), th e gno sis o f equality (samatd'jndna), th e discriminatin g gnosis (pratyaveksana-jnana), th e accomplishing gnosi s (krlydnusthdna-jnana), an d th e gnosi s of the spher e o f reality (dharrna'dhatU'jndna). Whe n the bodily constituents becom e free of obscurations and atomic matter , the y manifes t as the empt y form. Althoug h th e empt y form i s endowed wit h aspect s o f fire, earth, water , and th e like , due t o it s immateriality, it is neither a fire, nor i s it solid or liquid. Likewise, although appearing with various colors, i t ha s n o color . I t i s said to appea r lik e an illusor y city.83 The Kalacakratantra states that although th e empt y form i s endowed with all aspects (sarvdkara), "foolis h people are unable to see it anywhere, due to the power of their menta l obscurations , which are sustained by the flow of the pranas in the right and left nodis."84 Thus, eve n though th e entir e univers e is ultimately the omnipresent , empty form, i t is not per ceived a s such by those whose perception is obscured by their materiality .

The Whee l of Time, the Individual , and th e Wheel of Time as the Individua l In this tantric system , the ter m "wheel o f time" (kdla-cakra) designate s the dynami c and nondual nature of a single reality that manifests primarily in two ways—the conventional (sarrwrti) an d the ultimate (paramdrtha). Th e conventional realit y itself appears i n tw o ways—th e individua l (adhydtma) an d th e individual' s environmen t (bahya), th e macrocosmic and microcosmic aspects of that single reality. With regard to the externa l aspect of conventional reality , the ter m "wheel of time" refers to th e passage of days, month, an d years in the cycle of time. The Vimalaprabhd define s time (kola) a s a circle of twelve solar mansions or zodiacs (rasi-cakra). 85 The uni t day-andnight (aho-rdtra) i s also called "time." 86 With regard to the individual, the "wheel of time" denotes a circulation of prams within th e whee l o f the nddls i n th e body . In vie w of the clos e interrelatednes s o f these tw o aspects of conventional reality , the "whee l o f time" also designates a circulation (cakra) of twenty-one thousand and six hundred pairs of inhalations and exhalations, whic h take s place in the cours e of a day-and-night called "time. " Even though the cosmos ultimately neither arises nor ceases, conventionally, th e entire cosmos , with it s three worlds, is said t o aris e and ceas e due t o th e powe r of time. More specifically, thi s i s said to occur due to the unio n o f the tim e of origination an d the tim e of destruction. I t is stated in the Adibuddhatantra: Time brings forth phenomena, and time always destroys phenomena, for time i s the Bhagavan, vajri, wh o has the natur e o f a day and a night.87 In accordanc e with th e classificatio n of the mind , a day is the sun , uterin e blood , and vulva; a night is the moon , semen, an d male sexua l organ. Their union is Kalacakra, th e suprem e bliss

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3

Likewise, th e uni t day-and-nigh t i s interpreted a s "time," an d a circle o f solar mansions (rdsi'Cakra) i s seen a s its "wheel." I n term s of the individual , the uni t dayand-night i s also understood a s "time"; wherea s its "wheel," th e circl e of solar mansions, is understood a s the circl e of twelve nckjZs i n the navel-cakra , which i s the sea t of the transmigrator y mind. This internal circle of twelve zodiacs consists of twentyone thousand an d six hundred pairs of breaths and is characterized by the twelve links of dependent origination . Du e t o th e flo w o f the win d o f prdna throug h th e twelve internal zodiacs , a human bein g comes into existence, dies, and is born again. It is in this sense that the Kalacakra tradition view s time as the sole cause of the originatio n and cessation o f all living beings.89 In al l of cyclic existence, th e unio n of "time" an d it s "wheel" (kdln-cakra-yoga) has nirvana, or the gnosis-elemen t (indna-dhatu), a s its beginning an d th e earth-ele ment as its end. In between are the element s of space, wind, fire, and water, which are pervaded by the gnosis-element , o r nirvana, which itsel f is without attributes . Thus, the "whee l of time" is the nondualit y of the ultimat e and conventional realities . With regard to the ultimat e reality, the "whee l of time" indicates the nondual ity of two facets of a single reality—namely, wisdom (prajnd), o r emptiness (sunyatd), and method (updya), o r compassion (karund). Th e wor d "time" refers to the gnosi s of imperishable bliss (aksara-sukha-jnana), whic h i s a method consisting of compassion; and the word "wheel" designates wisdom consisting of emptiness.90 Their unity is the Buddha Kalacakra. As the purifie d aspect s o f time, emptines s an d compassio n are the ultimat e aspects of the su n and th e moon , o f a day and a night, an d of the dar k and bright lunar fortnight s (paksa). Sixtee n types of emptiness are the purifie d aspect s of the sixteen lunar days (tithi) o f a dark lunar fortnight, an d sixtee n types of compassion ar e the purified aspects of the sixteen lunar days of a bright lunar fortnight.91 Their union is Kalacakra. Tables 5.1 5 an d 5.1 6 illustrat e th e manne r i n whic h th e Kalacakr a traditio n identifies th e sixtee n types of emptiness and compassion with sixteen luna r days. TABLE 5.15 Tempora l Aspects of the Sixtee n Types of Emptiness Sixteen type s of emptiness

Sixteen luna r days

1. The fiv e type s of emptiness (sunyatd) the emptines s of the fiv e aggregates (skandha)

five lunar days of the dar k fortnight, beginning with the first lunar day (pratipad)

2. The five types of great emptines s (mahd'Silnyatd) the emptines s of the five elements (dhatu)

five lunar days of the dar k fortnight, beginning with the sixth lunar day

3. The fiv e type s of the emptines s of th e Ultimate Reality (paramdrtha-sunyatd) the emptines s of the five sense-faculties (mdriya)

five luna r days of the dar k fortnight, beginning with the elevent h lunar day (umd)

The sixteenth emptiness having all Aspects (sodasi sarvdkdrd sunyatd)

in between the en d of the fifteenth lunar day of the dar k fortnight and th e first lunar day of the bright fortnigh t

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TABLE 5.16 Tempora l Aspects o f the Sixtee n Types of Compassio n Sixteen type s of compassion

Sixteen luna r days

Compassion havin g sentient being s as its object (sattvavalambam karuna)

five lunar day s of the brigh t fortnight, beginning with the first lunar fortnight

Compassion havin g phenomena a s its object (dharmavalambani karuna.)

five lunar days of the brigh t fortnight, beginning with the sixth lunar day

Compassion withou t an object (anavalambam karura)

five lunar days of the brigh t fortnight , beginning with the eleventh lunar day

Sixteenth Compassion (sodaS karuna.)

in between the las t day of the brigh t lunar fortnight and th e firs t da y of th e dark lunar fortnight

Resorting t o th e Madhyamaka' s four-poin t analysi s (catus-koti), th e Kalacakr a tradition trie s t o demonstrate tha t from th e ultimat e point of view, the Sahajakay a of the Buddha s is neither compassion—a bright luna r fortnigh t (sukla-paksa)—nor wisdom—a dark luna r fortnigh t (krsna-paksa)—nor i s it both because o f their mu tual contradiction, no r is it without th e both. Thus, the Sahajakaya is neither female nor mal e but neuter (napumsaka). I t is the sixteent h digi t (kola), whic h i s characterized by emptiness an d purifie d throug h the four-poin t analysis. 92 In term s of the Buddha' s min d an d body , "time " refers t o th e Buddha' s mind , which i s the momen t o f supreme, indestructible blis s (paramaksara-sukha), i n whic h the momen t o f perishable bliss , or seminal emission , perishes forever. This moment is the vajra-gnosi s (vajra-jnana). Th e "wheel " indicates the Buddha' s body , which is brought fort h by that supreme blis s and i s comprised o f the aggregate s and element s that are free o f the afflictiv e an d cognitive obscurations . Thi s body, which has all aspects an d th e for m o f a bindu, is the unit y o f the thre e worlds, the objec t of knowledge (jneya).93 Th e Sekoddesatika interptet s it in a similar way, stating tha t the wor d "time" designates "the supreme , imperishable, moment of nonemission" (acyuta-ksana), which i s gnosis; and it s "wheel" is the whee l whose psycho-physical aggregates , elements, and sense-bases are free of obscurations. Tha t very wheel i s a "sublime mandala of the vajra-sphere" (vajra-dhatu-maha-mandab), the Bhagavan' s bod y that consists of wisdom an d method , tha t ha s al l aspect s an d al l sense-faculties an d hold s al l illusions.94 The Kalacakr a tradition also interpret s th e "whee l o f time" a s the unit y of th e Buddha's min d an d body , i n term s of the nondualit y of knowledge (jndna) an d th e object of knowledge (jneya). "Time " is the suprem e indestructible gnosi s (paramaksarajnana), the suprem e bliss, and the caus e of the eradicatio n o f all afflictive an d cogni tive obscurations. It s "wheel" is the tripl e world, which is characterized b y innumerable phenomena and i s the objec t of that knowledge. 95 Similarly, "time " i s a supreme , indestructibl e momen t (paramdksara*ksana) o f seminal nonemission , know n as the fajra-gnosis . This moment of seminal nonemis sion i s sometimes referred to a s the indestructibl e time (aksara'kala), a terminatio n of attachment (raga), o f the tim e of origination (utpdda'kdla), an d o f the tim e of cessation (nirodha-kala). It s "wheel"—the unobscured aggregate s and elements—is th e

The Cosmic Body 9 5 unity of the thre e worlds , which i s the objec t of knowledge that i s free o f obscurations. Tha t ver y "wheel" i s also calle d "th e suprem e mcmdala o f the wjra-sphere " (vajra'dhatu-mahd-mandala), whic h has all aspects, holds all illusions, and is the Buddha's body, which consist s of wisdom and compassion. 96 "Time" is also understood a s an image (murti) of wisdom and compassion, which has the for m of conventional realit y (sanwrti-rupin); an d its "wheel" i s the emptines s (sunyatd) o f that image. 97 As an image , "time" i s revered as an incomparabl e person (purusa)—omnipresent, fre e o f elaborations (nisprapanca), standin g a t th e fa r limit (kuta-stha), an d havin g th e ears , nose , mouth , eyes , body , arms , an d leg s a s it s "wheel." Ye t this Wheel of Time i s neither a purusa nor a prakrti, neither th e min d nor the sound , smell, taste, touch, or form. That Kalacakra is the en d of sentient beings and thei r lord . It i s the holder o f the thre e worlds , the caus e of causes (kdraram kdrdndm), ye t it is not a creator. I t is spiritual knowledge (vidyd), th e highes t stat e of bliss, which i s attainable throug h ;yoga. 98 In terms of the Kalacakratantra practice , th e "whee l of time" refers t o the inte gration o f the cause , result, and metho d of actualizing the unifie d mind, know n a s Kalacakra. The syllabl e kd designates the caus e (kdram), whic h is peace (sdnta). Th e syllable la signifies the absorptio n (laya) o f the unstead y min d (cala-citta), indicate d by the syllable ca, into that peace, which take s place due to the joinin g of the flow s (krama-bandha) o f drops. The joinin g of the flows , whic h i s denoted b y the syllable km, implie s the joinin g of the flow s of the drop s of the body , speech, mind , and gnosis by means of innate bliss.99 Thus, on e can say in conclusion tha t the "whee l o f time" signifie s not onl y th e manifestations o f the cycli c existence an d nirvana but thei r cause s as well. In thi s tantric system , the "whee l o f time" represent s a single, unified realit y that i s called by differen t names : Kalacakra , Vajra-yoga, Adibuddh a ("Primordia l Buddha"), Sa hajakaya ("Innate Body") , Jnanakaya ("Gnosis-body"), Visuddhakaya ("Pure Body"), Sahajananda ("Innat e Bliss") , and the like . When this single reality manifests itself in numerou s phenomena l forms , i t i s called cyclic existence. Accordin g t o th e Vi malaprabha's hermeneutica l explanatio n o f the ter m kdla-cakra, conventional realit y is a provisional meaning (neyartha) o f the ter m "wheel of time," whereas the ultimat e reality is the definitiv e meanin g (mtdrtha) o f the term . The identificatio n of time with the phenomenal and ultimate realities is neither invented b y nor i s unique to the Kalacakr a tradition. It s precursors can be found already i n the Vedas . In the earl y Vedic texts, the wor d "time" designate d both phe nomenal tim e an d suprem e being, th e sourc e o f livin g beings. Fo r example , th e Atharva Veda reads: "The min d is in time, the prdna is in time, and the nam e i s placed in time. . . . Time created living beings. In the beginning, time created Prajapati." 100 Likewise, some of the aforementione d definitions of the ter m kdla-cakra reveal striking similaritie s between th e Kdlacakratantra's interpretatio n o f Kalacakra an d th e early Brahmanic notion of Prajapati. Like the Kalacakratantra, the Brahmana s speak of Prajapati a s "time," which, by means of days and nights , brings forth an d destroys living beings. Like the bod y of Kalacakra, the bod y of Prajapati i s a year, consisting of days and nights, the cosmos, and sentient beings.101 Furthermore, some of the ways in whic h th e Kalacakratantra correlate s specifi c bodil y parts wit h th e digit s o f th e moon an d other tempora l phenomena strikingl y resemble the correlation s give n in

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the Brahmanas. 102 In the Sekoddesa one even encounters a reference to Kalacakra as Prajapati, th e progenitor o f all the Buddhas. 103 Similarly, th e Kalacakratantra's notio n of the "whee l o f time" as manifesting i n the for m o f the temporary , phenomenal world , in whic h i t i s characterized by th e movement o f the sun , and a s the timeless , unitary reality, whose form i s emptiness, shows some similarity to th e Upanisadi c notion of time. The Maitr f Upanisad iden tifies time with the tw o aspects of Brahma—the embodied and formless , temporar y and timeless. The formless , or timeless, aspect of Brahma precedes the su n and is indivisible; but time that is related to the movemen t o f the su n is a temporal aspect of Brahman, which manifests as a year, or Prajapati, by whose efficacy livin g beings originate, grow , and perish. 104 Likewise, the earlie r cited lin e from th e Adibuddhatantra, which state s tha t tim e brings forth phenomen a an d time alway s destroys phenom ena, als o resonates with the following line appearing i n the Mahdbharata an d in the Kurma Purdna, which reads : "Time creates beings, and time destroys people."105 Different passage s in the Mahabhdrata an d i n the Kurma an d Visn u Puranas also speak of tim e a s a conventiona l phenomeno n an d a s th e omnipresent , self-existent , supreme Isvara, who is without beginning and end, who is the Sel f (dtman) o f all.106 In the BhagavodgTta, Krsna speaks of himself as the imperishable time that brings forth the destruction of the worlds. 107 These similarities between the Kalacakratantra's in tepretation of the wheel of time and those of the aforementioned works of the Hind u tradition sugges t that it is likely that these non-Buddhis t interpretation s o f time inspired to some degree the Kalacakratantra's formulatio n of the "whee l o f time."

Time i n the Cosmo s and in the Individual According t o this tantric tradition , tim e in the human realm is externally measured according to the movement of planets and internally according to the number of the individual's breaths.108 The arrangement and movement o f the planets in the sky influence th e bod y of the individua l and correlate to the arrangemen t an d flow of the nadis i n the body . Thus, i n accordance wit h the sun' s passage s (sarnkrdnti) throug h the twelv e solar mansions, twelv e very subtle nadis originate in the navel , which is the seat of the transmigratory mind.109 Likewise, the sun's passing through the twelve signs o f the zodia c i n th e cours e o f a year correlates with the prana's dail y passin g through the twelv e petals, the interna l sign s of the zodiac , in the navel-cakra. 110 The manner in which the sun passes through the twelve zodiacs also corresponds to the manner i n which th e prana flows within the twelv e nadis of the navel . For example, one sola r passage occurs in th e cours e of eighteen hundre d dandas, jus t as a passage o f prana withi n a singl e peta l occur s i n th e cours e o f eightee n hundre d breaths. Likewise, within a single solar passage, the passing of the five mandalas takes place, just as within th e peta l of a single passage ofprdna, ther e are five localities — the west, north, south, east, and center—where the respective mandalas of earth, water, fire, wind, and spac e flow. Similarly, every single mandala within a solar passage passes in the course of three hundred and sixty dandas, just as a single passage of prana from on e nodi t o anothe r take s plac e i n three hundred an d sixt y exhalations. Th e cosmic mandalas of space and the other elements pass through the uneven solar mansions,111 just as in the body, the mandalas of space and the other elements flo w in th e

The Cosmi c Body 9 7 left nostril . The cosmi c mandalas o f earth an d th e other element s pas s through th e even solar mansions,1l2 in the same manner in which the bodily mandalas of the earth and the other elements flow in the right nostril. Furthermore, jus t as in the north, the moo n govern s Aries, Gemini, Leo, Libra, Sagittarius, and Aquarius, so the ele ment o f semen (bodhidtta-dhdtu) govern s the lef t nodi " in the bod y of the individual . Likewise, in the south , th e su n governs Taurus, Cancer, Virgo , Scorpio, an d Capri corn, jus t as the elemen t of uterine bloo d (rajo'dhatu) govern s the righ t nodi i n th e body.113 The sun and the moon in the sky and their manifestations in the body of the individual—semen an d uterin e blood—ar e equall y se t i n motio n b y th e powe r of prams. Just as the karmi c winds of pranas bring these constituent s of the cosmo s and the individua l int o manifestation , s o they kee p the m i n motio n unti l th e karmi c winds of pranas become exhausted an d deser t the m at th e tim e o f dissolution an d death. According t o thi s tantri c tradition , th e twelv e links of dependent originatio n arise due to the efficac y o f the sola r passages through the twelv e zodiacs and due t o the passing of the luna r fortnights (paksa) an d lunar days (tithi). I n this way, the daily coursing of the su n and th e moo n i n th e cosmi c body and th e dail y passing of th e prana in the righ t and lef t nadis within th e individual' s body perpetuate cyclic existence in the world and in the body. Therefore, both the external and internal circles of zodiacs are the temporal causes of transmigratory existence and the temporal manifestations o f the twelv e links of dependent origination . For this reason , the twelv e phases of the stag e of completion (sampanna-krama) practic e of the Kalacakratantra directly relate to the eradication of the twelv e internal an d external zodiacs. In terms of ultimate reality, however, the interna l an d external circles of zodiacs are the tempora l manifestations of the vajras o f the individual' s mind, speech, body, and gnosis, and of the fou r bodies of the Buddha , which are characterized by the cessation of the twelv e links of dependent origination . Therefore, i n the cours e of the Kalacakratantra practice, one starts to sublimate the twelv e signs of the zodia c by visualizing them a s the twelv e gates of the kalacakra'mandala, a s the bod y of the Bud dha Kalacakra, and as his twelve faces.114 The interna l circle of zodiacs within the navel-calcra, which correspond s to th e external circle of zodiacs and gives rise to the twelv e link s of dependent origination in the body , is of the natur e of causes and effects . Therefore , time, or transmigratory existence, ceases when these causes and effects cease. There are several ways in which the Kalacakr a tradition interprets the twelv e zodiacs and twelve links of dependent origination i n terms of causes and effects. Table 5.17 illustrates the manne r i n which this tantri c syste m explains th e interdependenc e o f the twelv e links of dependent origination an d o f the twelv e zodiacs, starting from Capricorn , th e mont h o f conception i n th e womb . Capricorn i s always considered as the mont h of conception , because after conception , th e prana begins to move from th e nodi of Capricorn int o the navel-cakr a of the fetus . Table 5.17 also illustrates th e cycle of existence (samsara-cakra), in which men tal afflictio n give s rise to karma, karma gives rise to suffering , an d sufferin g give s rise to mental affliction. Thus , each link of dependent originatio n is a cause and a result of another link . For this tantric tradition , th e ver y cycle of existence can be seen as

98 The Inner Kalacakratantra TABLE 5.17 Twelv e Zodiacs an d Link s of Dependent Origination Twelve zodiacs

Twelve link s of dependent originatio n

Causes an d effect s

Capricorn

spiritual ignorance (avidya)

mental afflictio n (kksa)

Aquarius

karmic formations (samskdm)

karma

Pisces

consciousness (vijnana)

suffering (duhkha)

Aries

the mmd'and-bod y (nama-rupa)

mental afflictio n

Taurus

six sense base s (sad'Hyatana)

karma

Gemini

sensory contac t (sparsa)

suffering

Cancer

feeling (vedand)

mental affliction

Leo

craving (trsria )

karma

Virgo

grasping onto existence (upadana)

suffering

Libra

becoming (bhava)

mental afflictio n

Scorpio

birth (jati)

karma

Sagittarius

old age and deat h (jara-maram)

suffering

a cause and the entir e worl d as its result. There ar e no othe r sentien t being s apart from thi s cycle of transmigratory existence, which consists of causes and effects . Du e to th e relatio n between th e caus e an d effec t an d the cycl e o f existence, this phe nomenal whee l of time ceases when thes e causes and effect s cease . The Kalacakr a tradition's classificatio n of the twelv e links of dependent orig ination into three categories—mental affliction, karma, and suffering—goes bac k to th e earlie r work s o f Abhidharm a an d Mahayana. 115 However , th e specifi c links of dependent originatio n that it includes in those three categorie s differ fro m the classification s o f th e earlie r Buddhis t systems . Fo r example , i n Nagarjuna' s Pratitysamutpadahrdayakarika,116 spiritua l ignoranc e (avidya), cravin g (trsnd), an d grasping ont o existenc e (upadana) belon g t o th e categor y o f menta l afflictions ; karmic formations (samskdra) an d becoming (bhava) belon g to the categor y of karma; and the remaining seven belong to the categor y of suffering. Table 5.18 illustrates yet another manner i n which th e Kalacakr a tradition relates the twelv e links of dependent originatio n t o the twelv e zodiacs and twelv e lunar months . I n thi s particula r scheme , th e thre e aforementione d aspect s o f th e twelve links of dependent originatio n are reduced t o two—caus e and effect . Thus , the first five links of dependent origination , which correspon d t o the first five zodiacs and luna r months, ar e interpreted as the causa l phenomena; an d the remaining seven are viewed as the resultant phenomena, characterize d by suffering.117 This particular manner o f classifying th e twelv e links of dependent originatio n int o th e tw o categories seems to be specific to the Kalacakr a tradition. Due to the power of this cycle of time within the body and outside the body, the twelve links of dependent originatio n constantly revolv e in the sequence of creation and destruction. Th e respectiv e links of dependent originatio n aris e and ceas e no t only when th e su n enters a zodiac and when th e da y of a new lunar month begins ,

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TABLE 5.18 Twelv e Zodiacs, Lunar Months, and Links of Dependen t Origination Twelve zodiac s

Twelve luna r months

Capricorn

beginning of Magha

Aquarius

beginning o f Phalguna

Pisces

beginning o f Caitr a

Aries

beginning o f Vaisakha

Taurus

beginning o f Jyestha

Gemini

beginning o f Asadha

Cancer

beginning o f Sravana

Leo

beginning o f Bhadrapada

Virgo

beginning o f Asvini

Libra

beginning of Karttika

Scorpio

beginning o f Margasirsa

Sagittarius

beginning o f Pusya

Twelve links o f dependent origination spiritual ignorance cause karmic formation s cause consciousness cause mind-and-body cause six sense bases cause sensory contact effect feelings effect craving effect grasping onto existenc e effect becoming effect birth effect old age and deat h effect

but also with the comin g and passing of every lunar day. For example, spiritual ignorance arise s on th e firs t luna r day of the mont h o f Pusya (in th e sig n of Sagittarius) during the brigh t lunar fortnight (sukla-paksa). Karmi c formations arise on th e sec ond day, and so on. During the brigh t lunar fortnight, the twelv e links of dependent origination aris e i n th e sequenc e o f creation. However , when spiritua l ignorance arises on the first lunar day of the dark lunar fortnight (krsr\a-paksa), the n the twelfth link arises on the secon d day , and so on. Thus, durin g the dar k lunar fortnight, th e twelve links of dependent originatio n arise i n th e sequenc e of destruction. As during the mont h o f Pusya, the twelv e links of dependent originatio n arise first in th e sequence of creation an d then in the sequenc e of destruction; an d this is due to th e classification o n the brigh t and dark lunar fortnights. Therefore, within the follow ing month o f Magha, they arise first in the sequence of destruction, starting with the second link , th e karmi c formations , and endin g wit h spiritua l ignoranc e a s th e twelfth. The sequence s of their arising alternate with each lunar month. I n this way, due to th e efficac y o f the brigh t an d dark lunar fortnights, a full cycl e of origination and destruction takes place in a single lunar month. Thus, a cycle of the twelve links of dependent originatio n of a solar year contains the twenty-fou r shorter cycles of dependent origination of the twelve lunar months. When the twelve links of a solar cycle of dependent origination are added to the twenty-fou r links of a lunar cycle of de-

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pendent origination , they make up thirty-six links of dependent origination , whic h correspond to the thirty-six padas ("stations") o f the sun and the moon in the sky and of the seme n and uterine blood i n the bod y of the individual . Likewise, if one mul tiplies the twenty-fou r lunar cycles of dependent origination by the twelv e links of a single solar cycle of dependent origination, one gets the number that corresponds t o the two hundred and eighty-eight padas of the sun and the moon, which ar e obtained by the multiplicatio n o f their thirty-si x padas b y the eigh t watche s of the da y (prahara). Similarly, every single day, the eigh t watches of the da y and th e fou r junctures (sandhya) o f the day make up together th e twelve links of dependent origination , th e twelve microcosmic zodiacs . In the body of the individual , each of these twelve links has eighteen hundre d flow s of pram, just as outside the body , each link of dependen t origination has eighteen hundred dandas i n the course of a lunar month. In this way, just as one sola r year consists of three hundred an d sixty days, so one luna r cycle of dependent originatio n consists of three hundred an d sixty daily cycles of dependent origination. Likewise , every tw o link s of dependent originatio n mak e u p a season (rtu), consistin g of two months, whic h ha s thirty-six hundred flows of prams i n th e body and thirty-six hundred dandas outside th e body. In this way, the si x seasons of a year also make up the twelv e links of dependent origination. 118 Thus, in the cosmic body and in the body of the individual , the multiple shorter cycles of dependent originatio n make up the successivel y larger cycles of dependen t origination, i n accordance wit h the divisio n of a solar year into th e smalle r units of time. This implies that each cycle of dependent origination , whic h comprise s progressively smaller cycles of dependent origination , arise s in dependence upo n other cycles of dependent originatio n an d i s therefore itself empty of inherent existence . This implie s further that even withi n on e lifetime , th e individua l is nothing othe r than the embodiment of the multiple cycles of dependent origination . Likewise, this analysis of time in terms of the successivel y smaller cycles of dependent originatio n suggests tha t tim e itsel f i s not a n inherentl y existen t phenomenon , sinc e ther e i s nothing withi n th e cycl e of time tha t ca n be established a s its ontological basis . In this manner , th e Kalacakratantra support s th e Nagarjuna' s positio n o n time , pre sented i n the nineteent h chapter o f the Mi^arnadhyamakakarika, whic h argue s that time is not an independent, inherentl y existen t phenomenon bu t a dependent se t of temporal relations. This analysis also suggests that the individua l is merely a cycle of transmigration (samsara'cakra), a wheel of time manifesting in human form. The Kalacakra tradition affirms tha t apart from thi s phenomenal whee l of time, there i s no other sentient be ing.119 This assertion reminds one of Nagarjuna's Bodhicittavivarana, v. 60, which states that there is no other sentien t bein g apart from the twelve-spoked wheel, which rolls along th e path of cyclic existence.120 This i s a way in which th e Kalacakr a tradition analyzes the emptines s of the inheren t existenc e of the phenomena existin g in time. By means of such analysis, it tries to demonstrate tha t since it is a wheel of time, th e body of the individua l and personal identitylessness (pudgala-nairatmya) ar e mutually pervasive and nondual . Thi s is one o f the Kalacakratantra's uniqu e ways of interpreting the earl y Madhyamaka's reconciliation o f the traditiona l Buddhis t theory o f the twelve-limbed dependen t originatio n wit h th e doctrin e o f emptiness, a s found i n

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1

TABLE 5.19 Unit s of Time and the Individua l Time

The individua l

360 solar days (21,600 ghatikas)

360 nadis of the 36 0 joints

30 lunar days (tithi)

30 nadis of the 3 0 joints of the fingers

15 lunar days of a bright fortnigh t (sukla.'paksa)

15 nadis of the 1 5 joints of the finger s o f the lef t hand, starting with the smal l finger and ending with the thumb, due to the classification o f space and other elements

15 lunar days of a dark fortnigh t (krsna-paksa)

15 nadis of the 1 5 joints of the finger s o f the right hand, starting with the thumb and ending with the little finger, due to the classification o f the earth and other elements

16 digits (kulu) o f the moo n the firs t the second the third the fourt h the fifth the sixth the seventh the eighth the ninth the tenth the eleventh the twelft h the thirteenth the fourteent h the fifteent h the sixteenth

1 6 bodily constituents fine hair long hair skin skin blood blood flesh flesh nadis nadis bones bones marrow marrow semen semen

Nagarjuna's Midarnadhyamakakarika121 an d Pratityasamutpadahrdayakarika. Identify ing phenomenal existenc e wit h emptiness , th e Kalacakr a tradition als o affirms th e old Mahayana assertion state d i n th e Prajndpdramitahrdayasutra tha t form i s emptiness and emptines s is form. The Kalacakr a traditio n present s th e huma n bod y as a wheel of time in a variety of ways. Table 5.19 demonstrates the manner i n which this tantric tradition identifies the sola r and lunar days and the digit s (kola) of the moo n with the specifi c nadis of the individual' s body. Tables 5-2o.a-b illustrate the manner i n which thi s tantric system sees the nadis of the si x bodily cakras a s the inne r supports , or seats, of the whee l of time. The whee l of time that is embodied i n the individua l is stirred by the te n winds ofprdnas i n sixteen hundred an d twent y bodily nadis, called "the nadis o f the whee l of time." As table 5.21 indicates, th e nadis of the whee l of time are one hundred an d sixty-two nadis, which are of ten kinds due to the circulation o f the ten kinds of pranas in each nodi". 122 These nadis of the wheel of time bring death to ordinary people, for in the cours e

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

TABLE 5-2O.A Location s of the Inne r Pada s of the Moo n an d Constellation s Fourteen padas of the moo n the pada consisting of 5 ghatikas the pada consisting of 4 ghatikas the pada consisting of 3 ghatikas the pada consisting of 2 ghatikas the pada consisting of i ghatikas the pada consisting of 2 ghatikas the pada consisting of 3 ghatikas the pada consisting of 4 ghatikas the pada consisting of 5 ghatikas nothing Constellations twenty-eight constellations nothing

The lalata in the first, second, and third nadis in the fourt h nadl in the fifth nadl in the sixt h nadl in the sevent h and eighth nddls in the ninth nadl in the tent h nadl in the elevent h nadl in the twelfth , thirteenth , an d fourteenth nadis in the fifteent h an d sixteenth nadls The throat-cafcr a in twenty-eight nddls in the remainin g 4 nadls

of time the y becom e disturbe d by the element s o f phlegm (kapha), bil e (pitta) , an d wind (fata). 123 However, they are said to give bliss to those yogis who meditate upon them a s the nadls o f the Buddh a Kalacakra—the deities of the kdlacakra-mandala— and who protect the m in the bod y by means of the six-phase d yoga (sad-anga-yoga). Since the transmigrator y wheel of time is nondual fro m th e bod y of the cosmo s and th e bod y of the individual , it i s of the natur e o f the element s an d thei r modifi cations. Fo r example, Capricorn i s of the natur e o f the space-element an d th e ag gregate of consciousness (vijnana-skandha): Aquariu s is of the natur e o f the wind-element and the aggregate of mental factors (samskara'skandha); Pisce s is of the natur e of the fire-elemen t and the aggregat e of feelings (vedand-skandha); Arie s i s of the na TABLE 5.20.8 Location s of the Inne r Days, Ghatikas, and Digits of the Moo n Days of the week Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday the da y of Ketu's and Rahu's passing through kulikd

The Heart-calcr a in the easter n nadl in the southeastern nadl in the souther n nadl in the southwester n nadl in the wester n nadl in the northwestern nadl in the northern nadl in the northeastern nadl

Ghatikas 60 ghatikas nothing

The navel-cakra in 6 0 nddls in the remainin g 4 nddls

Digits o f the Moo n 16 digits of the brigh t lunar fortnight 16 digits of the dar k lunar fortnight

The secret-cakra in 32 nadis

The Cosmic Body 10 3 TABLE 5.21 Inne r Conveyers of the Whee l of Time Nadis of the Whee l o f Time (kdla'Cakra) 162 nddis of the six cakras i. 4 nadis in the usnlsa, which carry the 4 junctures of the day 2.16 nadis in the lalata, which carry 16 lunar days 3. 32 nadis i n the throat-cakra , which carry 28 constellations an d 4 dandas 4. 8 nadis of the.heart-cakra, which carr y the 8 watches of the day 5. 64 nadis of the navel-cakra , which carry 54 dandas 6. 32 nadis of the secre t cakra, which carry 32 elements 7. 6 other nddis laland, rasand, avadhuti, and th e thre e nddis carryin g feces, urine, and semen

ture of the water-elemen t and th e aggregat e of discernment (sarnjrui'skandha); Tau rus i s of the natur e o f the earth-elemen t an d th e aggregat e of form (rupa-skandha); Gemini i s of the natur e o f the gnosis-elemen t an d th e aggregat e of gnosis (jnana skandha); an d th e remainin g six zodiacs, beginning with Cancer, ar e of the sam e nature as the aforementione d six but i n reverse order.124 Likewise, the classificatio n of the unit s of time is due to the efficac y o f the si x elements. Fo r example, a s in the cas e o f the aforementione d si x solar mansions, th e classification of six months i s due to the classificatio n of the si x elements, the si x seasons alternating in accordance wit h the nature of the six elements. Among three seasons of six months, the first season i s characterized b y sattva, the secon d b y rajas, an d the thir d by tamas.125 Similarly, the followin g threefold classification in which a lunar fortnigh t i s of the natur e o f sattva, a lunar month is of the natur e of rajas, an d a season is of the natur e of tamas, is due t o the classificatio n of the thre e gunas.126 Thus, i n term s o f conventional reality , wherever ther e i s corporeality ther e is time, for everything material , which i s characterized b y the originatio n an d cessation, i s temporary. Therefore, a goal of Kdlacakratantra practic e is to transfor m this corporeal wheel of time into the transcenden t whee l of time, which i s devoid of matter and free o f origination an d cessation. Whe n the locall y embodied and temporary wheel of time becomes the omnipresen t and everlasting wheel of time, it is called the Buddha Kalacakra, the unit y of emptiness and bliss. The actualizatio n of the transcenden t whee l of time is charaterized by the trans formation o f the twelv e zodiacs into the twelv e bodhisattva-bhumis. Likewise, at th e time of this transformation, the thirty-tw o digits of the moon manifes t as the thirty two marks of a Great Man (mahd-purusa). Similarly , the moon becomes the supreme mind (maha-cz'tta ) o f th e Buddha , an d th e las t o f it s sixtee n digit s becomes th e supreme emptines s (maha-sunyata), th e suprem e body (maha-kaya) o f the Buddha . This sixteent h digi t of the moon, o r the suprem e emptiness, comes at the en d of the bright lunar fortnight, which is passion, or attachment (raga) ; and it comes at the beginning of the dark lunar fortnight, which is dispassion, or detachment (araga) . Thus, the suprem e emptiness of enlightened awarenes s is the cessatio n of the phenomena l aspects of the brigh t and dark lunar fortnights. It is the heart of all the Tathagatas in the sam e way that persona l identitylessnes s is the hear t o f dependent origination . This is the manne r i n which th e Kalacakr a tradition explains , in terms of the cessa-

IO4 Th e Inner Kalacakratantra

tion of phenomenal tim e an d it s causes, it s definition o f Buddhahood as the min d that has emptiness as its form (sunyata'bimba'dtta) an d transcends both attachmen t and detachment. Likewise , by transforming the atomi c natur e of the five elements that constitute th e internal moon, sun, and Rahu into the nature of gnosis, one transforms thes e heavenl y bodie s withi n onesel f an d outsid e onesel f int o th e differen t types o f gnosis , o r int o th e aggregate s tha t ar e fre e o f obscuration s (niravarana,' skandha). Th e moo n i n the sky, or semen in the body , becomes th e Buddha' s mirrorlike gnosis (adarsa'jnana), th e unobscure d form-aggregate (rupa'skandha), o r Vairocana. The su n in the sky, or uterine blood in the body, becomes the gnosis of equality (samata-jnana), th e unobscured aggregate of feeling, or Ratnasambhava. Rahu i n th e sky, or consciousness in the body , becomes th e discriminatin g gnosis (pratyaveksanajnana), th e unobscure d aggregat e of discernment, o r Amitabha. The unificatio n of these three in the win d of pram becomes th e accomplishin g gnosi s (krtydnusthanajnana), th e unobscure d aggregat e of mental formations , o r Amoghasiddhi . Whe n consciousness become s endowed with all the component s o f these fou r members , it transforms int o the gnosi s of the spher e of reality (dharrm-dhatu-jfiana), th e unob scured aggregate of consciousness, o r Aksobhya. Thus, due to the purificatio n of afflictive and cognitive obscurations, which ar e stored i n subtle atomi c particles, th e phenomenal whee l of time, which i s characterized by the twelv e limbs of dependen t origination, manifests as the transcenden t whee l of time, which i s characterized by the twelv e bodhisattva-bhumis. This transcendent whee l of time knows itself to be devoid of the past and future , and yet it sees the pas t and future. 127 Perceivin g that time is empty of inherent existence, i t knows itself to be of empty nature (sunya-svabhava).

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5

Appendix Table A.I outline s ye t anothe r wa y of seeing th e correspondence s amon g th e te n pilgrimage sites and the human limbs, joints, and nails.1 TABLE A. i Pilgrimag e Sites in the Huma n Body Pilgrimage sites Th pitha th upapitha th ksetras th upaksetras th chandohas th upachandohas th melapakas th upamelapakas th smasanas th upasmasdnas th

e individua l e lef t ar m e righ t ar m e joint of the lef t upper arm and the joint of the lef t thig h e join t of the righ t upper arm and the joint of the righ t thigh e joint o f the lef t forear m and th e joint of the lef t kne e e joint of the righ t forearm and the joint of the right kne e e joint s of the lef t hand and the lef t foo t e joints of the right hand and the right foo t e nail s o f the lef t finger s and toes e nail s of the righ t fingers an d toes

In the schema presented in table A.2 , th e twenty-fou r pilgrimag e sites , grouped int o ten mai n categorie s and subdivide d int o the group s o f two and four , correspond t o the joints in the bod y o f the individual. 2 TABLE A.2 Pilgrimag e Sites and th e Bodil y Joints Pilgrimage sites Th two ksetras tw two upaksetras tw two chandohas tw two upachandohas tw two meldpakas tw two upameldpakas tw two smasanas tw two upasmasdnas tw four mahdsmasanas th four upamahdsmasdnas th

e individua l o joints of the uppe r arms o joints of the thigh s o joints of the lowe r arms o joints of the knee s o joints of the wrist o joints of the fee t o joints of the palm s of the hand s o joints of the sole s of the fee t e joint s of the tw o thumbs e joint s of the tw o big toe s

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Table A-3 illustrates th e Kalacakr a tradition' s interpretation of different heavenly lights in terms of the nadis in the bod y of the individua l an d in terms of the differ ent type s of gnosis (jnana). TABLE A-3 Heavenl y Light s and th e Nadi s i n the Bod y The universe

The individua l

The white light in the north Rahu the moon Mercury Venus Ketu rain water

the lef t nadi (lalana)

The red light in the south Kalagm the sun Mars Jupiter Saturn lightening fire

the re d nadi (rasana)

The yellow light in the west dim stars bright star s rainbow earth of two types: soi l an d stone

the yello w nadi o f the flow of feces uddna-prdna ndga~prana krkara'prdna

The green light above

prdna in the nadi o f consciousness (vijndna-nddi )

The blue light below

apana i n th e nadi o f gnosis (jnana-nadi)

The black light in the east

samdna'prdna vydna'prdna kicrma-prdna devadatta'prdria dhanamjaya-prdrja

The Cosmi c Body 10

7

Table A-4 shows the manner in which the Kalacakra tradition sees the correspondences among the te n planets an d the individual' s bodily apertures . TABLE A.4 Planet s and th e Bodil y Apertures Ten planets Te

n bodily apertures

Moon th Sun th Kalagni th Rahu th Mars th Mercury th Jupiter th Venus th Saturn th Ketu th

e aperture of the anu s e urinary aperture e apertur e for semen e apertur e of the mout h e apertur e of the righ t eye e apertur e of the lef t eye e apertur e o f the right nostril e apertur e of the lef t nostri l e apertur e of the righ t ear e apertur e of the lef t ea r

Table A-5 demonstrates the Kalacakra tradition's interpretatio n of stellar constellation s as macrocosmic correlates o f the individual' s teeth. TABLE A.5 Constellation s and th e Individual' s Teeth Constellations Th

e individual

28 constellations (naksatra), Abhiji t 3 constellation, an d 4 darida constellation s located a t the fou r corners of the salaka constellation s

2 teet h

Table A.5 a illustrate s the Kalacakr a tradition's identificatio n of the meteorologica l phenomena wit h the bod y of the individual. TABLE A.5A Meteorologica l Phenomena within the Huma n Body Meteorological phenomen a Th ram saliv clouds intestine thunder heartbea rainbow excremen

e individual a

s t an d intestinal rumbling t

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

In table A.6 th e thre e realms of transmigratory existence ar e seen as corresponding to the thre e type s of bodily extremities. TABLE A.6 Th e Thre e Realms and th e Bodil y Extremitie s The universe Th heavenly world th the worl d of mortals th the underworl d th

e individua l e head and the throat e arm s e leg s

The correspondence s betwee n tim e i n th e individual' s body and tim e outsid e th e body are the following: i fortnight = 90 0 breaths 24 fortnights of a year = 21,60 0 breaths, making up a solar day i perio d (yuga-samaya)3 = 5,400 breath s four periods of a year = 21,60 0 breaths/a solar day i tim e (kflla ) = 7,20 0 breaths three times of a year = 21,60 0 breaths/a solar day 1 half a year = 10,80 0 breaths 2 halves of a year = 21,60 0 breaths/a solar day i da y and a night (ahoratra) = 6 0 breaths 360 days and nights of a year = 21,60 0 breaths/a solar day i lagna = 5 breaths 4,320 lagnas of a year = 21,60 0 breaths/a sola r day

6

The Socia l Body

The Individua l and Societ y

T

he Kalacakratantra's views of the individual' s place i n society and of the individ ual as society are closely interrelated. These provide a sociological framework for the traditiona l interpretation o f the Kalacakratantra's history , and for its eschatology and soteriology . The Kalacakr a tradition's interpretatio n o f social relations an d it s sharp criticism of caste divisions and social bias have multiple goals and practical applications. Som e o f them ar e unique to the Kalacakr a tradition, an d some are characteristic of all Indian Buddhis t systems. From its very inception, India n Buddhism prided itsel f on it s inclusiveness of all social classes and ethni c groups. Throughou t its history, it criticized the Brahmanica l views of the divin e origin of the fou r castes (vanna) an d th e hereditar y nature o f their moral and spiritua l qualities. I t censure d the Brahmanica l insistenc e o n the preservation o f the hierarchy o f the cast e system and the Brahmani c position o n the soteriologica l implication s o f one's socia l status and relations. 1 Even though India n Buddhist communities at times fell short o f Buddhist social ideals, Buddhist scriptures continually emphasize d the provisional nature of social differences, th e lac k o f any inherent , mora l qualities of any socia l class or ethnic group, and the equa l qualifications of all social classes for venturing onto th e Buddhist path of spiritual maturation and awakening . Buddhist scriptures often refer to the populace as the intende d audienc e of Buddhist teachings . The earl y Pali literature depicts Buddh a Sakyamun i as turning th e Wheel of Dharma for the benefi t and happines s o f the multitude s of people (bahujana-hita, bahu-jana'sukha); an d later Mahayana works portray the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas a s those wh o teac h th e Dharm a fo r the well-bein g of all sentient being s (sarva-sattvdrtha). Amon g th e renowne d mal e and female Arhats, Bodhisattvas , and Siddhas, man y ar e sai d t o hav e bee n bor n int o familie s o f barbers , fishermen , cowherds, hunters, courtesans, and outcasts. In one of the earliest Buddhist texts, the Suttanipata, the Buddh a teaches tha t human beings cannot b e divided into differen t species a s are animals an d plants . Rather , thei r difference s are determined onl y by 109

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

convention. Divers e social classes (jati) exis t by mere designation. Since there i s no real differenc e amon g socia l classes , one canno t spea k o f the fou r castes. 2 Conse quently, the moral superiority of the individua l does not li e in the caste, clan, or family into which one is born but in the individual' s spiritual achievements—specifi cally, i n freedo m fro m menta l affliction s (klesa) an d i n ethica l conduc t (sila). According t o the Vasettha Sutta, the Buddh a Sakyamuni stated th e following: I do not cal l a man a Brahmin because of his mother o r because of his breeding. Just because a ma n i s entitled t o b e called "Sir, " it doe s no t mea n tha t he i s free fro m habit and attachment. He who is free from attachment and he who is free from grasping is the person I call a Brahmin. When all the chain s ar e shattered, whe n ther e is no mor e agitation, an d a man has freed himself an d throw n of f his shackles—that is the perso n I call a Brahmin.3

According t o the Theragatha , the Buddh a said similar words to SunTta , an outcast, who was said to be revered by Indra and Brahma afte r attainin g Arhatship . By austerity, by living the religiou s life, by self-restraint and self-taming, by this one becomes a Brahmana; this is the suprem e state o f being a Brahmana.4

The Majjhimanikayatthakatha distinguishe s two types of sons of a noble family — one wh o i s a son of a noble famil y b y birth (jdti-kula'putta), referrin g to on e wh o is born int o th e famil y o f an uppe r social class, and th e othe r wh o i s a son of a nobl e family b y conduct (acdra-kula-putta), referrin g to a Buddhist monk. Thus, th e early Buddhists attempted t o transcend clas s discrimination in their communitie s by creating a socially integrated, monasti c community . In the earl y Buddhist canonical texts , the term s gotra and kula, meaning "family, clan, or lineage," have often been use d as synonyms for a Buddhist spiritual family or lineage. I n th e contex t o f Mahayana, the ter m kula, remained a general ter m designating a community of Mahayana practitioners, and the ter m gotra assumed an additional, technica l meaning , specifyin g one' s spiritual disposition o r inclination . Indian Buddhist tantras, on the other hand, conflated and expanded the meanings of these tw o terms beyond thei r meanings in the Mahayan a scriptures. The differenc e in the interpretation s o f these tw o terms is explained by the fac t tha t different the oretical and practical implications were attributed to the notion of a spiritual family or lineage by different Buddhist traditions an d schools. Even though th e interpreta tive difference s ar e obvious, they ar e historically related i n the sens e that th e late r interpretations ar e formulated on the basi s of the earlie r ones. In earl y Buddhism, the Pal i terms gotta and kula primarily signified a Buddhist monastic communit y of the spiritua l heirs of the Buddh a and secondarily a Buddhist lay community. A monastic community unified through social integration and shared beliefs, spiritual goals, and practices was seen as an ideal type of family. According t o the Mahdvagga o f the Anguttara Nikaya (XIX . 14), the Buddha taught that those who left home for homelessness in the Buddhis t Dharma and monastic discipline (vinaya) renounced thei r former lineages (nama-gotta) an d became members of the integrated, Buddhist monastic family . The tex t expresse s this point a s follows:

The Socia l Body 11 1 Monks, jus t a s grea t rivers—namely , Ganga , Yamuna , AciravatI, Sarabhu , an d Mahl—descending into the great ocean, los e their former names and are called th e great ocean , so, monks , thes e fou r castes—Ksatriyas , Brahmanas , Vaisyas , an d Sudras—having gone fro m home t o homelessness in the Dharm a and monastic discipline, which ar e taught by the Tathagata , renounc e thei r former lineages an d are called th e wanderin g ascetic s (samana) belongin g t o the so n of Sakyas.5

Likewise, in the Aggann a Sutta of the Digha Nikaya (III . 84. 9), the Buddh a asserts that a monk wh o has firmly rooted an d unshakable fait h in the Tathagat a ca n truly call himself "a Son of the Bhagavan , who is born of his mouth, born of Dharma, generated by Dharma, and who is an heir of Dharma, since the Tathagata is the Body of Dharma." This formula i s undoubtedly modeled on the exampl e of the Brahmani c claim to the mora l and spiritua l superiority of the Brahmi n caste, cited by the Buddha i n the Madhurd Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya, which reads: "Master Kaccana, th e Brahmanas say thus: ' . . .Brahmanas alon e ar e th e son s o f Brahma, the offsprin g o f Brahma, born of his mouth, born of Brahma, created by Brahma, heirs of Brahma.'"6 Early Pali texts indicate that even a person who has not ye t become a Streamenterer bu t i s endowed wit h th e condition s conduciv e t o stream-entr y becomes of the lineag e (gotta-bhu ) o f Aryas, thereby surpassin g the inferio r lineag e of ordinary people (puthuj-jana) , 7 Even though he i s lacking experientia l insigh t (dassana) an d full confidenc e (saddha) i n th e Buddha' s teachings, b y becoming disillusione d with the worl d of desires and b y aspiring for nibbdna, a person becomes of the lineag e of Aryas and thereby becomes capable of clearly discerning the first Noble Truth.8 Thus, according to th e earl y Buddhist scriptures , a Buddhist spiritual family include s tw o main categorie s o f individuals: (i) thos e endowe d with spiritua l accomplishment s such as experiential insight into the Fou r Noble Truths and freedom from mental afflictions, an d (2 ) thos e showin g potential for attaining those accomplishments . These earl y Buddhist notion s o f a spiritua l family ar e th e precursor s to late r Mahayana theorie s o f the Buddha-family . Some India n Mahayan a author s continued to advocate a social integration o f the Buddhis t spiritual family, an d to some degree, they extended thi s social ideal to Buddhis t lay communities as well. Following the example of the earlie r Suttanipata, they denied any significant differences among social classes and explained social class as mere designation (sarnjna-matram), or convention (vyavahara). Reinterpretin g th e Vedi c Purusasukta in their rejectio n of the traditional Brahmani c interpretations of the origi n of the fou r castes , the y claimed that in this world there is only one , universa l social group (sdrndnya-jati), sinc e hu man being s d o no t diffe r amon g themselve s a s do differen t specie s o f animals an d plants.9 The Sdrdulakarndvaddna assert s the unit y of all social classes, declaring: "this all is one, an d one i s this all." 10 It tries to demonstrate that the Brahmani c accoun t of the originatio n o f the fou r socia l classes from th e fou r differen t part s of Brahma's body does not justif y socia l discrimination bu t proves instea d tha t al l the members of Indian society are of the same class and value by birth, since they all originate from the same source. The tex t argues this point, stating: "Since Brahma is one, therefor e his progeny belongs only to one social class (jatt)." 11 It supports this argument by affirming that i f all the member s of one socia l class originated fro m th e sam e part of the Brahma' s body, then:

ii2

The Inner Kalacakratantra Your sister would be your wife, and that is not appropriat e fo r a Brahmana . If this world was first generated by Brahma himself, then a Brahman! is a Brahmana's sister, a Ksatriya is a Ksatriya' s sister, a Vaisya i s a Vaisya's [sister] , and a Sudra i s a Sudra's [sister] . A siste r i s not suitabl e t o b e a wife, i f she i s generated b y Brahma. Sentien t being s are no t generate d b y Brahm a bu t ar e generate d b y thei r menta l affliction s an d karma.12

Asvaghosa, a renowned Mahayana scholar and poet belonging to approximately the sam e period as the SdrduJkarmvadana, pose s a similar argument in his Vajrasuci. Basing his argument s on th e authorit y of the Veda s and Smrtis , Asvaghosa argue s that neithe r th e sou l (jwa ) no r th e bod y make u p a Brahmana . The sou l is not a Brahmana because the god s Surya, Soma, an d Indr a were once animals. I f the bod y were a Brahmana , the n Ksatriyas , Vaisyas , an d Sudras , wh o ar e bor n fro m th e Brahma's body would also be Brahmanas. Asvaghosa argue s along th e sam e lines as the Suttanipata tha t human being s are not o f different classes , or species, just as the four sons of the sam e father cannot be of different race s and just as fruits o f the sam e tree cannot be of different species. 13 He states this i n the followin g manner: Some fruit s o f an udumbara o r a panasa [tree ] gro w on th e branches , som e o n th e trunk, som e at the branching parts of the stem , and some on the edges . There is no difference amon g the m as, "this is a Brahamana fruit, thi s is a Ksatriya fruit, this is a Vaisya fruit, and thi s is a Sudra fruit, " because the y have grown on the sam e tree. In the sam e way, there is no differenc e among human being s as well, because the y have originated fro m th e sam e Man (jjurusa). 14

Like the Sardulakamdvadana, Asvaghosa' s Vajrasuci point s to the followin g faul t of the Brahmani c postulation o f the origi n of class division: If a Brahmana i s born from th e mout h [of Brahma], wherefrom i s a BrahmanI born? If she is born from th e sam e mouth, alas, then you are having intercourse wit h your sisters! Thus, you do not conside r wha t is appropriate o r inappropriate sexua l inter course, and this is extremely repugnan t t o the world. 15

Although th e Mahayana tradition advocated the equality of all social classes and their solidarity, the ne w Mahayana idea l of a Buddhist spiritual family becam e that of the Mahayan a monasti c an d la y communities. Only thos e wh o ascended t o th e Mahayana Vehicl e (mahayane drudha) b y generatin g th e spiri t of awakening (bod' hicitta) ar e referre d t o a s the son s and daughter s of the nobl e famil y (kula-putra o r kula-duhitr). Likewise , the epithet s Jinaputra (" a son o f the Jina" ) an d Sugatasut a ("a child of the Sugata" ) apply to those who, in the word s of Nagarjuna, "drin k th e elixir of emptiness for themselves and others" and "who burnt the fue l o f mental afflictions wit h th e cognitiv e fir e o f emptines s (sunyata-jnandgni) ," 16 Th e spiri t of awakening (bodhicitta), "th e see d o f all the qualitie s of the Buddhas," 17 becam e a necessary qualification for spiritual birth int o the famil y o f the perfectl y awakened Buddha (samyaksambuddha'kula) , 18 Citing th e Ratnakarandasutra i n his Siksasamuccaya, Santidev a assert s that eve n a n ordinar y person (prthag'jana) ma y be a Bod hisattva.19 He substantiates thi s assettio n o n the basi s of the vie w expressed in th e

The Social Body 11

3

Vimalakirtinirdesa tha t the spiri t of awakening can aris e even i n a person whose belief in the tru e existence of the personality (satkaya-drsti) i s as massive as Mt. Sumeru. Thus, a prerequisite for the arisin g of the spiri t of awakening is not one' s philosoph ical orientation, bu t one's ability to be inspired and incited to generate the spiri t of awakening. A s the Dharmadasakasutra point s out , this particular abilit y i s the bodhisattva-gotra, or one's predilection for the Bodhisattva path.20 While som e Mahayana authors differentiated fiv e type s of gotras,21 others identifie d gotr a with the dharmadhatu and argue d against its divisibility, affirming it s beginningless an d endles s existence i n all sentient being s without exception. 22 However , according t o th e Kolacakratantra, it i s one wh o retain s his seme n (bodhidtta) b y the powe r of meditative concentration (samadhi) tha t become s a Bodhisattv a bor n int o th e famil y o f th e Jinas.23 The Vimalaprabha comment s tha t by being born into the famil y o f the Jina in thi s way , one increase s the lineag e of the Sugatas . For this ver y reason , Maras , Raksasas, an d other demon s stea l the emitte d seme n fro m thos e wh o ar e not well concentrated an d devour it on a daily basis. The holder s o f the Kalacakr a tradition i n Indi a furthe r develope d the earlie r Buddhist precursory notions of a socially integrated and inherentl y unifie d spiritua l family and attributed t o them new practical applications an d soteriological implica tions. Th e vajra-famil y emerge d a s a ne w mode l o f an idea l spiritua l family. Th e phrase "vajra-family, " whic h ma y be interprete d her e a s an "indestructibl e or indivisible family" (th e wor d "vajra" meanin g "indestructible , indivisible") , has diverse connotations and implications. First , it denotes a community of individuals initiated into the same Vajrayana tradition, a community that is indivisible and indestructible by virtue of its spiritual, social, and ethnic integration. As will be demonstrated later , in the contex t o f the Kdlacakratantra tradition , the emergenc e of this kind of vajrafamily has socio-political and soteriological significance. Second, the 'Vajra-family " designates the family of Bodhisattvas who by means of tantric practices have become vajra-sons (vajra-putra), bor n int o the famil y o f Vajrasattva, or Kalacakra, and wh o are endowed with an insignifican t degree of obscurations (amrana) regardin g their spirit of awakening (bodhidtta).24 The aforementione d argument s o f th e earlie r Buddhis t system s agains t Brahmanic social discrimination were also incorporated int o the social theory of the Buddhist tantras. There i s no doubt tha t those arguments circulated amon g the In dian Buddhis t communities for centuries, since the y als o reoccur i n th e Kalacakra tradition. Eve n though th e Kalacakr a tradition reiterate s those arguments , settin g them i n the contex t o f Buddhist tantric socia l theory and practice, it gives them a uniquely tantric application , which wil l be discussed later in this chapter. Th e following passage from th e Vimalaprabha illustrate s the Kalacakr a tradition's criticism of the Brahmani c social theory and demonstrates the stron g influence o f the earlier Buddhist social critiques on this tantric system. They say here that Brahma's mout h is the sourc e of Brahmanas, becaus e the y originated from there. Likewise, his two arms are the birthplace o f Ksatriyas... his two thighs are the birthplac e of Vaisyas, an d hi s tw o fee t ar e th e birthplac e o f Sudras. Thus, there are four castes. The fifth class of Candalas immediately follows these four. What is their birthplace? Tha t much Brahmanas do not know . Moreover, i s it true , as they say , that Brahmanas ar e born fro m th e Brahma' s head ? Hence, I ask: "Ar e

ii4 The Inner Kalacakratantra Brahmanls also born fro m there ? If they are, then they are their sisters, because they originated fro m the sam e source. Furthermore, d o Ksatriyas and others have marital relations wit h thei r sisters ? Why? If that happens , the n th e Barbarians ' (mleccha) Dharma become s prevalent . Whe n th e Barbarians ' Dharm a become s prevalent , then there is an end of social classes. Due to the destructio n o f social classes, there is hell. . .. It has been furthe r investigate d tha t i f there i s a single creato r o f living beings, then why are there four castes ? Just as four son s of one fathe r ar e not o f different castes , s o is this true o f castes. I f the differenc e is due t o th e divisio n o f th e Brahma's head an d othe r bodil y parts , that i s not logicall y possible . Why ? Just as there i s no difference between th e udumbara fruits growing at the lowest level, in the middle o r at th e top , s o is that th e cas e fo r castes. Sinc e one canno t perceive an y distinction [amon g castes] in terms of the classification of the white, red, yellow, and black color s nor in term s of the elements , sense-faculties , happiness, suffering , knowledge, sacre d scriptures, and th e like , therefor e i t has been establishe d tha t a caste i s impermanent.25 This passage from th e Vimalaprabhd parallel s a passage from th e Paramarthaseva, which is also traditionally attributed t o Pundarik a and include d i n th e literar y cor pus of the Kalacakra tradition. According to the Paramarthaseva, people are born into different socia l classes due to the natur e of their karma and not du e to their origination fro m th e particula r parts of Brahma's body. The followin g passag e o f the sam e text refute s th e Brahmanica l characterization of social classes in terms of their col ors and thei r inheren t predilections for their inherite d function s i n society , which were standardized by the author s of the India n Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras. Just as the fruit s of an udumbara tree, growing from th e lowes t level, middle, and top , are of the sam e form, ingredients, texture, an d taste, so the regions of [the Brahma's ] mouth an d other parts are the same . Whoever i s born from his mouth i s not brigh t like moon-rays. Whoever is born fro m his arm s is not lik e the risin g sun. One wh o i s born from hi s thigh s i s not lik e yellow paint. Whoeve r i s born fro m hi s feet i s not lik e very dark eye-coloring . All Twice-born ar e not the class of knowledge, nor are they the princely class. Those born fro m th e Ksatriy a cast e ar e not [necessarily ] heroes. All Vaisya s ar e not en dowed with wealth. Sudras are not th e greates t workers in the world. The state s of happiness an d sufferin g ar e due to th e classificatio n of the elements . According t o the scripture s and reasoning, a s people are born du e to their accumu lations of virtue and sin , they experienc e th e world i n the sam e manner. Th e fou r castes of people originate i n this manner. 26 Like their predecessors, the holders of the Kalacakra tradition viewed conceited attachment to one's own caste and family as impediments to spiritual maturation and the actualization of Buddhahood. The literature of the Kalacakra tradition frequently warns against social and mora l discrimination, which is perpetuated by attachment to one' s own caste and it s regulations. By means of the differen t type s of analysis, i t tries to demonstrate the insubstantialit y of the reasons traditionally given in support of socia l discrimination . T o demonstrate th e untenabilit y o f social discrimination , the Kalacakratantra a t times uses a type of analysis that is similar to the one frequentl y

The Social Body 11

5

applied in Buddhist refutations of the independen t existenc e of a personal identity . The following vers e exemplifies one such method: There are earth, water, fire, wind, space, gums, mind (manas), intellect (buddhi), self grasping (ahamkdra), an d vital breath. There are the sense objects, form and the like , the sense-faculties , the eye, and so on; and there are the five faculties of action (karmendriya). Amon g thes e phenomen a tha t pervad e th e bodie s o f animals an d hu mans, whic h i s of the highes t caste, an d whic h i s of the lowest? 27

The Kalacakr a tradition often calls attention to the detrimenta l effects of social discrimination for one's progress on this tan trie path. It also views the absence of conceited attachmen t t o one' s socia l statu s and lineag e a s a prerequisite for receiving Buddhist tantric teaching s an d engaging in Buddhist tantric practices. The Vimalaprabhd confirm s th e assertio n o f th e earlie r Guhyasamajatantra tha t no t a singl e Tathagata between Dlpamkara and Sakyamuni taught the Mantrayana, because people during that era were not suitabl e to receive the teaching s o n the grea t secrets of Mantrayana.28 It interpret s thi s statemen t o f the Guhyasamajatantra i n term s of its own social theory, affirmin g tha t during that era, people i n the lan d o f Aryans were unsuitable for tantric teachings due to their prejudice concerning the four castes. Th e Kalacakra traditio n see s this sam e social prejudic e as the reaso n tha t th e Buddh a Sakyamuni did not initially teach the Paramddibuddhatantra t o the people of the lan d of Aryans but t o Sucandra, a king of Sambhala an d an emanation o f Vajrapani, wh o took i t with him t o Sambhala , wher e it was preserved for centuries before it was revealed to the peopl e of India. This Buddhis t tantri c syste m closely links the negativ e soteriologica l implications o f social prejudice to it s negative socio-political implications. Its eschatological teachings relate the demise of the "Barbarian Dharma, " or Islam, to the social and spiritual unificatio n o f th e vajra-family . I t see s a causa l relationshi p betwee n th e resurgence of the Barbaria n Dharma with the reoccurrence o f social segregation. According t o th e Vimalaprabha, th e Buddh a prophesie d i n th e Paramddibuddhatantra that Yasas , th e eight h kin g of Sambhala i n th e lin e o f Sucandra, a n emanatio n of Manjusri, will unite al l social classes into a single clan (kalka) b y means of initiation into the Kdlacakratantra. He foretold the following: Due to making the four castes into a single clan within the vo/ra-family and not making them into Brahma's family , Vagml Yasas, who has a vajra-family, wil l be Kalki.29

The ter m kalka, meaning, a "clan," is interpreted by the Vimalapmbhd a s a unification of the castes and noncastes, o r outcasts.30 Since tha t cla n will belong to King Yasas, he wil l be called kalki, meaning, "one who has a clan"; and his lineage (gotra) will be the lineag e of kalki.31 His son Pundarlka, who will write a commentary on th e abridged version of the Paramddibitddhatantra, will be the second kalki. He will be succeeded by twenty-three other kalkis, after whos e reign, Manjusri Yasa s will reappear as Raudra Cakr T and engage i n a fierce battle with a vicious kin g of the Barbarians. He wil l eliminat e th e Barbaria n Dharm a b y convertin g Barbarian s t o hi s ow n Dharma, thereby incorporatin g the m int o his vajra-family. A t tha t time , all human families will be fulfilled i n terms of the thre e pursuits of a human life : Dharma, pleasure (kdma), an d wealth (anha). Hi s two sons, Brahma and Suresa, who will rule the

116 Th e Inner Kdlacakratantra

northern an d souther n section s o f Small JambudvTpa , wil l als o practic e Dharma . However, upo n hi s departur e to th e stat e o f bliss, he wil l be succeede d b y his so n Brahma, and class segregation will reoccur within Brahma' s lineage. Consequently , many division s i n th e lineag e o f Brahma an d i n other lineage s will appear i n th e northern par t of the earth, and at the end of the kali-yuga, the Barbarian Dharma will be propagate d onc e agai n i n al l the region s o f the earth . Afte r eightee n hundre d years, the Barbaria n Dharma will be destroyed again, and the Buddhis t Dharma will prevail for another eightee n thousan d years. 32 This accoun t o f the Buddha's prophecy concerning th e role of Buddhist kalkis in the eliminatio n o f social segregation and th e subsequen t eradication o f the Barbar ian Dharma is a Buddhist response to the Puranic teachings, which identify th e Buddha and Kalkl as the ninth and tenth avataras of Visnu. The Vimalaprabha, urges the reader to consider the Puranas as nonsensical treatises, composed by corrupt sages for the sak e of establishing their own social class. 33 It asserts the historica l precedenc e of thes e Buddhis t prophecie s ove r thos e i n th e Purana s o n th e groun d tha t th e Puranic prophecies were composed by corrupt Brahmanas at the time of the Buddha's appearance and are not contained in the earlier Vedic texts. Sarcastically reiterating the Puranic interpretation of the Buddha' s identit y and his association with those of low social strata, it tries to demonstrate th e supremac y of Buddhist social ethics. I t is worth citing here the Vimalaprabhd's ful l account o f the Puranic interpretation o f the Buddha, since it also sheds some light on the centuries-long conflict between Hindu and Buddhist social and ethical theories . This Bhagavan Buddha i s the nint h avatara [o f Visnu], called Vasudeva; and Kalk l is the tenth . In the kali-yuga, the Buddh a will vitiate the sacrificial laws by means of a great , delusiv e deception . H e wil l abolish th e militar y laws , ancestral rites , th e propagation o f castes, killing , lying, stealing, sexua l misconduct, abusiv e language , slander, idl e talk , avarice , malice , fals e views , har m t o al l sentien t beings , th e dwelling o f one's own lineage, the dutie s of a Ksatriya, the instruction s o f the grea t sage Vyasa, the Bhdrata, th e teaching s o f the Gita, and th e teaching s o f the Vedas , which yiel d the frui t o f heaven. Thus, having abolishe d them , he wil l teach a perverted Dharm a t o Sudra s an d othe r lo w classes. Fo r example, Bodhisattva s mus t bring t o completion thes e te n perfections : th e perfectio n o f generosity, th e perfec tion of ethical discipline, th e perfectio n o f patience, the perfectio n o f zeal, the per fection o f meditation, th e perfectio n o f wisdom, th e perfectio n o f skillfu l mean s (upaya-paramita), th e perfectio n o f aspiration (prandhi-pdramitd), th e perfectio n of powers (bala'paramita), an d the perfection of gnosis (jnana~paramita). The y must cultivate th e spiri t of loving kindness toward al l sentient beings and the spiri t of compassion. The y must benefit all sentient beings, and they must not engag e in ten un wholesome actions—namely , killing , lying , stealing , sexua l misconduct , abusiv e language, slander, idl e talk, avarice , malice , and false views. After bringin g th e Sudra s an d othe r low classes t o understanding b y means of these perverted teaching s and shaving them, he will make them monks wearin g red robes. Becaus e thos e wh o formerly stoo d i n the arm y of Danava were not kille d i n battle by Vasudeva , and becaus e the y mus t go to hel l due to offendin g the Brahmanas, Visnu created thi s illusion o f the Buddh a s o that Sudras an d other low classes, who stand on the sid e of former demons, ma y go to hell.34

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The Vimalaprabhd als o object s t o th e Purani c interpretatio n o f Kalk l a s th e tenth avatara o f Visnu, wh o wil l be bor n a s a Brahmana, kil l th e Barbarians , and make the earth full of Brahmanas. It once again asserts that Kalki, who is none other than Manjusr i bor n int o the Ksatriy a famil y o f Sakyas, wil l make al l castes into a single caste, because in the past , thirty million Brahmana s i n the lan d of Sambhala demonstrated thei r inclinatio n toward the Vajrayana . I t als o bases its objection t o the Purani c interpretation o f Kalki on the readin g of the Kdlacakratantra (Ch . i , v. 26), which prophesie s bot h the appearanc e o f the kin g Yasas in Sambhala si x hundred years after th e yea r of the Buddha' s teaching o f the Paramadibuddhatantra an d the introductio n o f the Barbaria n Dharm a int o the lan d o f Mecca eigh t hundre d years afte r hi s appearance . Th e Vimalaprabhd argue s that i f Kalki i s a so n o f th e Brahmana Yasas , then he canno t be called Kalki , sinc e without a clan (kalka), h e cannot be one who has a clan (kalkf), just as without wealth, one cannot be a wealthy man. It also refutes the Purani c prophecy of Kalki killing the Barbarian s with his arrows made of darbha grass , claiming that kalkl Yasa s will not kil l them bu t wil l only eradicate their Dharma . Seein g th e extrem e wickednes s of Barbarians, he wil l emanate suprem e horse s b y mean s o f his "samadh i o n suprem e horses " (paramasvasamadhi) an d will thus melt the mind s of Barbarians an d establish them in his own Dharma. The Vimalaprabhd explain s the statemen t of the Kdlacakratantra (Ch . i , v. 161), which affirm s tha t kalkl Yasas will destroy the Barbarian s by way of the Kala cakratantra's proselytizing efforts. I t interprets this as the Kalocakratantra' s method of attracting th e evi l sages to thi s tantri c path , an d i t substantiates thi s proselytizing method on the basis that "spiritual awakening is not possible when the spirit of doubt arises first." 35 The aforementione d eschatologica l passages express the Kalacakr a tradition' s view of social segregation as causally related to the declin e o f Buddhism and the rise of Islam in India. They point t o social unification as a social condition necessar y for securing the mundan e an d spiritual prosperity of the country . These passages reflect legitimate concerns o f Buddhist communities in northern India during the tenth and eleventh centuries , which were provoked by the constant threa t of Sultan Mahmud's invasions and th e increasin g dominance of the Islami c faith . Th e word s o f Sultan Mahmud's secretary, Al-'Utbi, which indicat e tha t Isla m or death wa s the onl y alternative that Sulta n Mahmud placed before his people,36 attest to the political and religious crisis faced by Indian Buddhists of that period. The Kalacakr a tradition expresses the concern that due to the similarity between the Vedic and Barbarian Dharmas with regard to killing, future generation s of Brahmanical communities may well convert t o Islam, unless they join their Buddhist compatriots in the wjjra-family. Th e Vimalaprabhd's accoun t o f Manjusrl Yasas' s teaching o f the Kolacakratantr a to thirty five million Brahmanic sages in Sambhala attest s to that concern. According t o th e Vimalaprabhd, th e kin g Yasas was aware that Brahmanas in Sambhala were originally from differen t countrie s wit h contrar y custom s regardin g eatin g meat , drinkin g liquor, an d the like . Therefore, h e deemed i t necessary to unite the m int o a single wjra-family b y initiating them int o the kalacakra-rnancWa , which h e constructe d i n a sandalwood grove, south of the village of Kalapa. Before leading them into the kaiacakra-manlala and giving them tantric precepts, th e king Yasas provided the m wit h

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the followin g socio-politica l and soteriologica l reasons for consolidating the m int o the unifie d vajra-family : I must lea d you here into this mandala palac e o f the Bhagava n Kalacakra and giv e you mundan e (laukika) an d supramundan e (bkottara ) initiations . Moreover , yo u must eat, drink, and have marital relations with your vajra-family a s I command you . If you do not obe y my command, the n leave my nine hundred an d sixty million villages and go wherever you please. Otherwise, afte r eight hundred year s have passed, your descendants wil l engage in the Barbarians ' Dharma an d will teach the Barbarians' Dharma i n the ninety-six great countries o f Sambhala and eleswhere. With the mantra of the Barbarians ' deity , Vismillah , strikin g animals o n thei r necks with a cleaver, the y will eat the fles h of the animal s killed with the mantra of their own deity an d condem n th e eatin g o f th e fles h o f animal s tha t die d du e t o thei r ow n karma. . . . Ther e i s n o differenc e betwee n th e Barbarians ' Dharm a an d Vedi c Dharma wit h respec t t o killing . Therefore, th e descendant s o f your family, seein g the vigor of those Barbarian s and the manifestation of their deity Mara in battle, will become Barbarian s i n the future , afte r eigh t hundred year s have passed . Once the y join those Barbarian races, all the inhabitant s o f the nine hundred an d sixty million villages, the fou r caste s an d other social classes , will become Barbarians. . . . Thus, regarding th e Vedi c Dharm a a s authoritative , the y wil l adop t th e Barbarians ' Dharma. Fo r this reason, I have give n you precepts (niyama) so that the Barbarians ' Dharma ma y not ente r [here ] i n the future. 37

On th e basis of these passages, one may surmise that in the context o f the Kala cakra tradition, the vo/ra-famil y represents a society that cannot b e destroyed by foreign enemies and their religion, but i s able to preserve its distinct identit y because it is founded on th e religiou s theories an d practice s that radically differ fro m thos e of its adversary. Accordin g t o this tantric system, the reaso n wh y Buddhist teaching s have not yet disappeared is that the Tathagata, being free o f social prejudice, did no t dispense them to just some individuals on the basis of their high social class and hold them bac k from other s due to their low class. Rather, he taught the divers e systems of the Buddhist Dharma for the benefit of all, in accordance with their inclinations. 38 In light of the earlier mentioned concerns , th e Kalacakra tradition admonishes Buddhist practitioners not to admire the Vaisnava and Saiva Dharmas, on the ground that these Dharmas, characterized by the arroganc e of class prejudice (jati'vada) an d the absenc e of compassion fo r all sentient beings, produc e a false sense of self-identity (mithyahamkara) , 39 A false sense of self-identity implies here a sense of self-identity that is based on one's social status, and determined by one's own caste, its duties, and lineage. The Kalacakr a tradition, like other related Buddhist tantric traditions, distinguishes this false sense of self-identity from th e vali d sense of self-identity tha t the tantri c practitione r establishe s on his path o f actualizing Buddhahood. For example, a t th e tim e o f th e self-empowermen t on th e stag e o f generation (utpattikrama), th e tantri c adep t appropriate s his tru e self-identit y b y identifyin g himsel f with the body, speech, and mind of all the Tathagatas, with the vajra of gnosis (jndna) and emptines s (sunyatd), an d wit h th e purifie d dharma-dhatu. Appropriatin g this self-identity, h e maintain s i t i n al l of his activities. 40 Not onl y doe s he establis h this self-identity for himself, but he also regards all other beings as endowed with the same identity. Thus, on e ma y infer tha t in this tantri c system , a valid sense of per-

The Social Body 11 9 sonal identity empower s the individua l in his spiritual endeavors, thereb y yielding a profound sens e o f nonduality wit h al l livin g beings. This sens e of nonduality wit h one's natural and social environment, i n turn, facilitates religious and social unification, thereb y empowerin g the entir e societ y an d enablin g i t t o endur e i n perilous times. A fals e sens e o f personal identity , o n th e contrary , separate s the individua l from hi s natural and social environments an d disempowers both the individua l and the society. Consequenctly, a society that is disempowered by social and religious segregation is unable to endure in times of danger. The autho r o f the Vimalaprabhd declare s that his reason for elaborately describing th e characteristic s o f the kdlacakra'mandala i n th e abridge d Kdlacakratantra, a s they were taught b y Manjusri i n the Adibuddhatantra, i s to eliminat e th e self-grasp ing (ahamkdra) o f the sage s wh o propoun d clas s discrimination (jati-vadm). 41 Th e bearers o f the Kalacakr a tradition i n Indi a considere d clas s prejudice as most inti mately related t o th e Hind u doctrine s of a personal god and creato r (Isvara ) an d of an independent , inherentl y existen t Sel f (dtman). The y als o saw class prejudice as creating th e linguisti c bias of extolling th e excellenc e o f the Sanskri t languag e and showing disdai n fo r vernacula r languages. 42 The y wer e fully awar e of the way s i n which the Kdlacakratantra's theoretical , practical, and linguistic features contradicted the cultural , religious, and socia l norms o f the mainstrea m Brahmanica l tradition . The Kalacakr a literature interpret s thos e feature s not onl y in terms of their conver sionary activit y an d th e Kdlacakratantra soteriolog y but als o i n term s of the Kdki' cakratantra's socia l theory . I t explain s th e grammatica l inaccuracies an d lexica l syncretism of the Sanskri t languag e of the Kdlacakratantra a s a: (i) skillfu l mean s of eradicating the conceit of those attached t o their social class, knowledge, and proper words, and (2 ) skillful mean s of making the Buddhis t tantric teachings accessibl e to a diverse audience, whic h speak s different language s and dialects. The Vimalaprabhd affirms tha t individuals who are overcome b y a false sens e of self-identity grasp onto the "single , parochial Sanskrit language" an d teach, as attested by the Mahdbhdrata, 6, i, 84, that a single word well-pronounced yield s one's desire s in heaven. 43 I t accuses the Brahmani c sages of writing the Dharma s of the BhagavadgTta, Siddhantas , and Purana s in the Sanskri t language out of greed for material things. It asserts that Brahmanas wrote these scriptures in Sanskrit in order to prevent the Vaisyas , Sudras, and othe r lo w social classes from readin g thei r scripture s and gainin g knowledge of their Dharm a an d variou s sciences . Th e Vimalaprabhd state s furthe r tha t th e Brahmanic author o f these scripture s knew that i f lower classes were to gain knowledge, the y woul d sto p reverin g the Brahmana s fo r their specia l qualities. 44 I t con trasts the selfis h motivatio n o f the conceited Brahmanic sage s to the altruisti c motivation o f th e Buddha s an d Bodhisattvas , wh o ar e fre e o f graspin g ont o socia l discrimination and linguistic bias. The Buddha s and Bodhisattvas do not exclusively use the Sanskri t languag e to teach and redact th e Buddhis t teachings, fo r they als o resort t o th e "omniscien t language " (sarvajna-bhasd), usin g the expression s of vernaculars and languages of different countries. 45 Relying on the meaning of the teach ings, they us e different vernacular s an d differen t grammar s in order to brin g other s to spiritual awakening. Although this characterization o f the Buddhas' universal language is also found in the writing s of Mahayana,46 it is most emphasized in the Buddhist tantras.

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The Paramadibuddhatantra also advocates the usage of a lexically syncretized language that would benefit people of all social classes, ethnic groups, and menta l dis positions. According t o the Paramadibuddhatantra, the Buddha himself expressed this sentiment i n the following words: When one understands th e meanin g fro m regiona l words , what is the us e of technical terms? On th e earth, a jewel is called by different name s from countr y t o country, but there is no differenc e in the jewe l itself. Likewise, the variou s redactors o f my pure Dharma us e diverse terms i n accordance with the disposition s of sentient beings.47

In this tantric tradition, as in other related tantric systems, every stage of tantric practice i s either directl y or indirectly related t o its social theories. Eatin g the flesh of an animal that died due to natural causes or an accident, drinkin g liquor, and engaging in sexual relations with the member s of all social classes were prohibited for members of the Brahman a caste. The Kalacakratantra literature, however, ofte n presents thes e practice s a s tantric pledge s (samaya), whic h ar e designed t o counterac t grasping onto one's ow n social clas s and tradition. 48 The followin g verse from th e Paramadibuddhatantra demonstrate s thi s point : The Vajr l who perceives reality has prescribed food, drink, and unsuitable sexual intercourse i n order t o destroy attachment to one's own lineage. 49

This an d other explicit passages from th e Kalacakratantra literature specify tha t the eradication of attachment t o one's own social and spiritual lineage is a reason behind certai n practice s o f tantric pledges , and the y als o explain similar but les s explicit passages in other anuttara-yoga-tantras. The tantri c pledge s of all the anuttara yoga-tantras equall y involv e th e transgressio n o f socia l convention s an d cultura l boundaries in orde r to cultivat e a perception o f one's ow n social environment i n a nondual fashion. For example, one reads in the Hevajratantra tha t a person who has joined the vajra-famil y throug h initiatio n shoul d eat all kinds of meat, associate with all kinds of people, and keep the compan y of all kinds of women. One wh o engages in tantric yoga should interac t with all social groups and consider them as a unified, single caste, becaus e he draw s no distinction s amon g the variou s social classes. He may touch men of low castes and outcasts—Dombas, Candalas, Carmaras, Haddikas, Brahmanas, Ksatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras—a s readily as his own body. The tantri c yogis wh o hav e mastere d yoga shoul d neithe r favo r no r despis e other beings. 50 Likewise, th e Candamahdmsanatantra, whic h belong s t o th e literar y corpus of th e Guhyasamajatantra, admonishe s th e tantri c practitione r neve r t o thin k i n term s of edible and inedibl e food, suitabl e and unsuitable work, appropriate and inappropriate peopl e for sexual relations, nor thin k i n term s of sin an d virtue , or heaven an d liberation.51 The uniqu e approac h o f the Kalacakr a tradition t o these tantric prac tices is not i n its rendering of their soteriological importance but in placing them i n its own historical contex t an d givin g them historica l and politica l significance . Its distinctiveness with regard to these tantri c practices also lies in its interpretation of these practice s i n term s of mundane conventio n (loka'Vyavahara) an d i n term s of

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supramundane gnosis (lokottara-jnana), whic h may elucidate the observances of tantric pledges in other related tantras. The Kalacakratantra literature reveals that a vajracarya wa s expected to teach the required tantric pledges to tantric beginners only in terms of the mundane, conven tional truth , accordin g t o th e differin g custom s o f their ow n countrie s an d socia l groups. Just as certain practices with regard to eating, drinking, and sexual relations were prohibited i n one region an d for one socia l class and were allowed in another region or for another social class, so would the specifi c tantric pledges differ fro m on e tantric beginner to another. Fo r example, the Vimalaprabha inform s us that in accordance wit h the custom s of different countries , tantric beginners in specific countrie s should eat beef, horse meat, dog meat, elephant meat, pork, or even human flesh, and so on. Similarly, one should follow the custom s of one's own country and social class with regar d t o drinkin g liquor , a s i n specifi c countries , liquo r i s prescribe d t o Brahmanas, Sudras, or to the member s of all social classes. The sam e principle i s applied to one's sexual relations. In certain countries, when a husband dies , the mothe r becomes her son's wife; brother an d sister may marry; one may marry a maternal uncle; member s o f caste s ar e allowe d t o hav e sexua l relation s wit h outcasts ; o r Brahmanas ma y have sexual relations with low-caste courtesans. 52 The tantri c beginne r is advised to eat, drink, and have sexual relations according to the customs of his own country until he attains the mantra-siddhi o r the gnosissiddhi an d thereby becomes a tantric yog. The Kalacakr a tradition offer s severa l reasons why the tantri c beginne r should not transgres s the custom s of his country and social group for as long as he lack s the above-mentione d siddhis. First , i f the tantri c beginner, who has not attaine d those siddhis, eats the fles h of an animal that is a tutelary deity of his family an d thereb y offend s tha t deity and cause s it t o bring misfor tune t o his family, he will be unable to protect his family fro m calamity . Similarly, i f the tantri c beginner violates the customs of his country by eating the fles h of animals that are the tutelary deities of other families, and by having sexual relations with prohibited castes and outcasts, the people he offend s wil l harass him, since he lacks the siddhis an d realization s of a yogi. Furthermore, as in other related tantri c systems, so too in this tantric tradition, the tantric practitioner must be able to consume the substances o f tantric pledge s with a nonconceptual min d (nirvikalpa-citta); otherwise , they wil l not giv e him th e samaya-siddhi, b y means of which inedibl e poison can be transformed int o edible food, fou l smellin g feces ca n become sweet smelling, and so on. If the tantric beginner lack s the sarrurya-sidcihi , he will poison himself. Therefore, a 'vajracarya i s not t o giv e the precept s pertaining t o th e consumptio n o f these substances to thos e i n the communit y who do not meditat e on deities and mantras, for they will die as a result of eating the poisonou s substances. The Vimalaprabha warns that one' s pollutio n cause d by impure pledges may give rise to a disregard for th e world, out of which one may commit suicide and go to hell. In light of these dangers, the Kalacakratantra criticize s th e Saiv a traditio n fo r leading peopl e t o hel l b y in structing them to eat semen an d uterine bloo d i n order to attain the bliss of Siva.53 Therefore, in the Kalacakra tantric system, the substances that are generally regarded as impure and poisonous are not to be prescribed by a vajrdcarya to beginners but only to ^ogis, who are not ordinar y sentient beings (prakrta-satwa) an d who by the power of thei r mantras and meditativ e concentration ar e able to transmut e thes e poison s

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into ambrosias (amrta). B y the powe r of his mind , an extraordinar y yogi transforms liquor into milk, deadly poisons into elixirs of life (rasayana), th e bone s of an animal into flowers, teeth into pearls, urine into musk, uterine bloo d int o benzoin (sihlaka), semen into camphor, fece s into fragrant unguent, and so on. When these substance s are purified an d transformed into ambrosias, they do not harm the yogi's body but in duce great powers and facilitate the attainmen t o f Buddhahood. Fo r example, purified liquor , which represent s innate bliss (sahajananda), facilitate s the attainmen t of that bliss. The fiv e type s of meat symbolize the five sense-faculties; an d when purified, they facilitate the purification of the senses . The five ambrosias (amrta)—purified feces, semen, urine, uterine blood, and marrow—represent the five Buddhas, and their ritual consumption facilitate s the attainment o f the five types of gnosis, because by consuming the five ambrosias, one worships the five Buddhas.54 However, if these substances are not transformed into ambrosias and properly understood, they will not bring forth the qualities of Buddhahood t o the person who consumes them. Accord ing to the Vimalaprabha, thes e substances are also not to be given to conceited schol ars, "th e hypocrite s wh o crav e afte r th e propertie s o f th e Buddhis t temple s an d monasteries an d teac h th e meanin g of Buddhist tantras incorrectly." 55 Becaus e th e minds of the conceited scholar s are evil, even when the defile d substances are transformed int o ambrosias , they retai n thei r harmfu l qualities . However, onc e a tantri c adep t attain s th e mantra'siddhi o r th e gnosis-siddh i (jruma-siddhi), h e i s allowed to ea t an d drin k an d hav e sexua l relations not jus t according t o the custom s of his country an d social class but just as he pleases, because he has transcended the distinction betwee n the allowed and prohibited, the suitable and unsuitable, and no one is able to object or harass him.56 The supramundane gnosis (lokottara-jnana), whic h h e actualizes , does not gras p onto the edibl e and inedi ble, since for it, the edibl e and inedibl e onl y fill the bell y and are not gate s to liberation. Therefore, a tantric yogi is able to transform the nature of other substances int o himself. The aforementione d Kalacakr a tradition' s justificatio n for conforming t o th e customs of one's own country and family indicate s that one should behave i n accor dance wit h those custom s not out of attachement t o them or due to conceit in one' s own social clas s but fo r the sak e o f protecting onesel f an d one' s family . A s the ear lier-cited vers e from th e Pammadibuddhatantra attests , freedo m from attachmen t t o one's own caste an d family is posited i n this tantric syste m not onl y as a moral qualification fo r joining the unifie d vajra-family bu t als o as one o f the mai n goal s of th e Kalacakratantra practice. Thi s ha s both sociological an d soteriologica l significance . As indicate d earlier , the sociologica l efficac y o f detachment fro m one' s socia l class and family i s that it provides an indispensable condition fo r social and ethnic unifi cation an d th e resultan t prosperit y of society. The soteriologica l efficac y o f detachment fro m one' s spiritua l lineage an d famil y relation s i s that i t remove s obstacles , which, accordin g t o th e Pammadibuddhatantra, "Mar a create s i n form s o f the Bud dhas, Bodhisattvas , fathers , mothers , daughters , sisters, sons, brothers , an d chose n wives."57 This form of detachment i s also soteriologically significant in the sense that it enables one t o engage in the muc h commended ac t of generosity, namely, the offering o f sensual love (kama-dana). Offerin g one's ow n courtesan, wife , daughter , o r other femal e relativ e as a gif t o f sensual love t o Buddhis t tantric yogis o f all socia l

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classes, who see k the attainmen t o f mundane siddhis an d th e experienc e o f the im mutable bliss, is praised as a supreme act o f generosity. This form o f generosity is regarded a s the highes t for m o f generosity for several reasons. First , it provide s Buddhist yogs with an actual consort (karma-mudra) an d enables them t o attain various mundane siddhis, by means of which they can protect themselve s and others from en emies, malicious spirits, and othe r dangers . In time s of imminent foreig n invasion, mundane siddhis such as pacification, dominance, immobilizing , bewildering, and th e like may have had a special appeal for the India n Buddhist s of that period. Likewise, detachmen t t o one' s ow n famil y an d socia l class , expresse d i n th e kama-dana, becomes a gift o f Buddhahood t o others. A t th e sam e time, it becomes a gift of Buddhahood t o oneself, for it is said that one wh o gladly offers his wife as a gift of sensual love t o other s i s promised to swiftl y attai n th e te n perfection s (pdramita) in this ver y life . On the othe r hand, one who is attached to his wife goe s to hell. 58 The soteriologica l efficacy o f the gif t of sensual love seems to exceed that of all other forms of generosity, since it increases the donor' s stores of merit (punya) an d knowl edge (jnana) mor e than any other form of generosity. The Kdlacakratantra tells us that the Buddha s themselves resorted t o thi s for m o f generosity for the sak e of spiritual awakening. Long ago , fo r th e sak e o f Buddhahood , th e Buddha s gav e thei r land , elephants , horses, chariots , an d numerou s golde n objects . The y gav e eve n thei r ow n heads , blood, an d flesh. Because th e desire d Buddhahoo d di d not com e about , the y gav e the gif t o f sensual lov e (Jcama-dana) . This secret offerin g o f men bring s forth Bud dhahood in the famil y o f the progenito r o f Jinas.59

It also points to the salvifi c power of the meritorious nature of the kdma-ddna i n the followin g manner : Hatred an d othe r faults of the bes t o f men an d god s are due to attachment, due t o love for their chosen wives and others. For the sak e of uprooting that [attachment], the son s of all the Jina s have given he r i n the gif t o f sensual love. Therefore, rejoic ing i n generosit y bring s fort h th e rewar d o f immutable bliss . This produce d accu mulation o f merit i s a kinsman t o the thre e worlds who always removes the peoples ' fear of hell.60

The Vimalaprabhd als o affirms th e absolut e necessity of the kama-dana i n pursuing spiritual awakening on the tantric path, stating that within the system of mantras (mantra'naya), i t is impossible to attain th e mahdmudrd'siddhi withou t the gif t o f sensual love. 61 Fo r this reason , upo n receivin g th e initiation , th e initiate , whethe r a householder o r a monk, pledges to give one-sixth of all his possessions, including his consort, t o his spiritual mentor (guru) s o that he may not succum b to attachment t o his property and family. Giving one-sixth of a consort mean t offerin g one's own consort to the spiritual mentor for five days each month. According to the Paramodibuddhatantra,62 prior to the two higher initiation s (uttardbhiseka), th e secret and wisdom initiations, a householder wh o seek s liberation i s expected t o offe r te n attractiv e (rupin) consort s (mudrd) t o his spiritual mentor, namely, a sister's daughter, a daughter, a sister, the mother , th e mother-in-law , the maternal uncle's wife, th e wif e of the father's brother , a sister of the father , a sister of the mother , an d hi s own wife . Th e ten offere d consort s represen t the te n Vidyas , beginning with Tara and ending with

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DharmdhatubhaginT, who are the purifie d aspect s of women belonging t o ten socia l groups — specifically, SudrT, KsatrinT, BrahminI, VaisyT, Dombl, Kaivartl (fisherman' s wife), Natika (a dancer), Rajaki ( a washerwoman), Carmakari (the wife of a leather maker), and Candall. They are also the manifestations of the ten perfections (paramha), ten magica l powers (vasita), te n bodhisattva-bhumis, and te n power s (bala). Thus , by offering th e ten consorts to his spiritual mentor, a householder symbolically offers t o others the aforementioned spiritual achievements, which are the sublimated aspects of a unified society, and he himself becomes qualified to obtain them. A householder who, bein g protective o f his family , refuse s t o offe r the m t o hi s spiritua l mentor i s considered unqualifie d t o receiv e th e tw o higher initiations . Whe n a householde r refuses t o offer suc h consorts, the spiritua l mentor initiates Buddhist monks (bhiksu) and wandering ascetics (sramanera) int o the kdlacakra-mandala with other consorts of the lowe r social classes, SudrT and Candall. This indicates that monks an d wandering ascetics who wished to engage in the Kalacakratantra practices depended o n th e householder's generosit y in this way, in order to acquir e a consort wh o would be of good family , pleasin g manners , o r attractive appearance . Sinc e thi s generosit y was not alway s available, those who depended o n the generosity of the householder ha d to b e free o f social and othe r relate d biase s in order t o engag e in th e tantric , yogic practices. Just as the offerin g o f one's own consort i s considered soteriologically significant sinc e it provides one wit h an accumulatio n of merit (punya'Sambhara), s o is the respectfu l acceptance o f the consort s o f all social classes regarded a s soteriologically significant. Respect fo r the consor t involve s not onl y a disregard for the con sort's social status but also the nonemissio n o f semen during the sexua l act, which is viewed as a form of celibacy (brahmacarya) . Respect for the consor t i s a requirement for th e accumulatio n o f ethical disciplin e (sila'Sambhdra) , which, together wit h th e accumulation of merit, provides the basi s for the accumulatio n of knowledge (jnanasambhdra). Accordin g t o thi s tantri c tradition , complet e an d perfec t Buddhahoo d (samyaksambuddhatva) doe s not tak e place , except b y means o f these thre e type s of accumulation.63 The passag e from th e Paramddibuddhatantra tha t clearl y indicates tha t monk s and wandering ascetics are to be given the two higher initiations is supported by passages from th e Vimalaprabha, describin g the ritual offering o f a consort t o monks and wandering ascetics; but this seems to contradict the statement of Dlpamkara Srijnana (AtTsa) i n his Bodhipathapradlpa, whic h asserts the following: A celibate (brahmacarin) shoul d no t receive the secret an d wisdom initiations, since it is specifically prohibited i n the Adibuddha, th e suprem e tantra, If a celibat e practice s wha t i s prohibited upo n receivin g thos e initiations , the n a downfall from observing th e austerit y wil l occur. An asceti c will fall into a great sin and into an unfavorable stat e of existence, and men wil l never hav e the si c

Nowhere i n th e abridge d Kalacakratantra no r i n th e Vimalaprabha i s there any clear referenc e to th e statemen t i n the Adibuddhatantra tha t prohibits monks fro m receiving the two higher initiations . One passage in the Vimalaprabha. indicates only

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that a tantric initiat e ha d to tak e th e followin g vow (pranidhana) prio r to receiving the first seven Kalacakratantra initiations : "Fo r the sak e of the accumulatio n of ethical discipline (sila-sarnbhara), wit h regar d t o sexua l intercours e betwee n th e caste s and outcasts , I will clearly observe the vo w (sanwara) o f celibacy in the unio n wit h a lotus." 65 In the literatur e of this tantric tradition , celibacy is often interpreted no t as abstinence fro m engagin g in sexual tantric practice , but a s the practic e of retaining sexual fluids durin g sexual tantric practices . In th e tantri c feas t (gana-cakra) followin g the initiation , a woman of any caste and age, whether sh e was lovely or filthy, crippled or facially deformed, had to be worshipped by means o f sexual yoga for the sak e of spiritual awakening. The Kalacakr a tradition als o acknowledges that in order to carry out this tantric precept , on e must be a Bodhisattva wit h a compassionate heart , fre e o f all menta l affliction s an d at tachments, an d not involve d i n social conflicts. 66 Thus, o n the one hand, the Buddhist tantric yogis' impartialit y and lack of social prejudice had t o be developed out of practical necessity; and on the othe r hand, they ha d to be cultivated as expressions of compassion and wisdom by means of which one perceives all phenomena a s being of the sam e essence (sama-rasa), th e essenc e o f gnosis (jnana). Acceptin g wome n of despised social classes and professions and women who were socially rejected due to physical deformities as their rightfu l consort s and partners in their spiritual pursuits, Buddhist yogis mad e it possible for the mos t disempowere d and disdaine d members of Indian society to partake in Buddhist tantric practices and to pursue their own spiritual goals. At th e sam e time, their lack of social prejudice and impartiality to external appearances was seen as an indication o f their spiritual maturity, which qualifie d them for receiving the most advanced tantri c teachings and for engaging in the most advanced tantri c practices. The gatherin g o f a garia-cakra reveals yet another wa y in which th e Kalacakr a tradition envisioned a socially integrated vajra-family. The participants in the tantri c feast wer e either th e actua l or symbolic representatives of thirty-six social classes of India,67 whom a tantric practitioner ha d to view as one's own immediate family an d as manifestation s o f enlightene d awareness . Th e coupl e representin g th e lowes t Domba class had t o be perceived a s one's ow n mother an d father . The representa tives of the fou r main social classes became one's own brothers and sisters. The classes of braziers, flute-dancers, jewelers , well-diggers, weavers, liquor-makers, goldsmiths, and garland-makers became one's own sons and daughters; and all the remaining social group s became one' s ow n grandchildren. 68 This fajra-famil y o f the gana-cakra symbolizes no t onl y a well-integrated human famil y o r societ y but als o the unifie d nature of ultimate reality. As in the Cakrasamvaratantra, so too in this tantric system, the assembl y of thirty-six social classes represents thirty-si x pure families o f yoginis, who symbolize the thirty-seven factors of spiritual awakening (bodhi-paksika-dharma) . 69 This identification of thirty-six social classes with the factor s o f spiritual awakening implies that the entir e societ y is to be viewed on this tantric pat h a s the socia l body of the Buddha . The Vimalaprabhd assert s that apart fro m thes e familie s o f yoginis, there ar e n o other pur e families.70 The Kalacakratantra's identificatio n o f thirty-six social classes with the pur e families of yoginis explains why the acceptanc e o f qualified consort s of all social groups is interpreted her e a s a worship of the thirty-si x families of yoginis of

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the kMacakra-mandala. I t also explains why tantric practitioners, by engaging in sexual yoga with representative s o f the thirty-si x socia l classes, satisf y th e yogmis be longing to the thirty-si x families of the kdlacakra-mandala wit h sexual bliss. It i s said that when th e tantri c practitione r please s the ^oginf s i n thi s way , they protec t hi m from adversitie s by giving him th e mundan e siddhis. This form of worshiping the yogirus als o facilitate s th e yogis' attainmen t o f th e supramundan e siddhi. Embracin g qualified tantric consorts of all social classes with a proper attitude, the ;yogT s embrac e the represente d factor s o f spiritual awakening an d empowe r themselve s t o attai n them swiftly . The seatin g arrangemen t of the participant s of the tantri c feast reveal s yet an other wa y in which thi s tantri c traditio n i n India advocate d socia l integratio n an d envisioned th e mjra-family . Th e seat s of the representative s o f the thirty-si x social classes were arranged in accordanc e wit h th e place s of the thirty-si x families o f yo' gims in the kalacakra-manlala. The coupl e of the Domba class, which makes the gno sis-cakra and represents the Sahajakay a of the Buddh a and the gnosis-fajr a o f the in dividual, wa s seate d i n th e cente r o f th e huma n kdlacakra-mandala. I n th e fou r cardinal directions, around the Domba couple, were seated the representatives of the four main castes. The Sudra caste was in the east, the Ksatriya caste was in the south, the Brahman a caste was in the north, and the Vaisya caste was in the west . The sec ond circle of the gana-cakra, or the mind-cakra , which symbolizes the Dharmakay a of the Buddh a and the mind-vajra of the individual , includes the representatives of the following eight social classes: the class of braziers in the east, the class of flute-dancers in the south , the clas s of jewelers in the north , the clas s of well-diggers in the west, the class of weavers in the southeast, th e class of liquor-makers in the southwest, th e class of goldsmiths in th e northeast , an d th e clas s of garland-makers in the north west. The thir d circle , o r the speech-calcra , which symbolize s the Sambhogakay a of the Buddh a and the speech-vajr a o f the individual , includes an additional eight social classes: namely, the class of butchers in the east, the class of potters in the south east, the clas s of pillow-makers in the south , the clas s of courtesans in the southwest , the clas s of tailors in th e west , the clas s of fishermen in th e northwest , th e clas s of actors i n the north , and the clas s of washermen i n the northeast. Th e fourt h circle, or the body-cakra , which symbolize s the Nirmanakay a of the Buddh a and the bodyvajra o f the individual , consists of yet another eight social classes: the clas s of blacksmiths in the east , the clas s of lac-makers in the south , the clas s of scabbard-makers in the west, the class of oil-pressers in the north, the class of flute-makers in the southeast, the clas s of carpenters i n the southwest , th e clas s of cobblers in the northwest , and the clas s of barbers in the northeast . Finally , outside the body-cafera , i n the circle that represents a cemetery, which was always outside the town , ar e the represen tatives of the followin g outcasts and ethnic groups: Barbarians (mleccha) i n the east , Haddas, the sweepers , in the south , Matariga s in the west , Tapins in the north, Varvaras i n th e southeast , Pukkasa s in th e southwest , Bhillas i n th e northwest , an d Sabaras in the northeast. 71 Thus, th e entir e assembl y at the tantri c feas t represent s a unifie d society , th e vajra-famil y tha t consiste d o f th e divers e social an d ethni c groups that constituted India n society at that time. This mjra-family of the gana-cakra also represents the individual , whose unified capacities, or vajras o f the body , speech, mind, and gnosi s are understood as the interna l gana-cakra, or vajra-family. Likewise ,

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FIGURE 6. i Th e ganacakra-mardala

it symbolize s th e enlightene d uajra-family , o r th e mutua l pervasivenes s o f the fou r bodies of the Buddha . I n this manner, th e Kalacakr a tradition expresse s its view of the indivisibilit y of the vo/ra-famil y i n all its aspects: the individual , social, and ultimate. See figure 6.1 . As in the gana-cakra, so too in the kalacakra-manlala, the Domb a couple is identified wit h th e presidin g deitie s (adh.ide.vata) locate d a t th e cente r o f the mandala, whose nature i s the pure and omniscient gnosi s that emits and pervades all other in habitants o f the mandala. In this way, the social class that was generally treated as the lowest in the mundan e real m becomes here a symbol of the suprem e in the spiritual realm. The clas s whose living areas were restricted t o the outskirt s of towns an d villages is placed at the ver y center o f the gam-calcr a and th e kalacakra-mandala.72 By identifying the Buddh a Kalacakra with the Domb a class, the Kdlacakratantra conveys several messages. On th e one hand, if the Domba class pervades all other social classes, then not a single social class can claim to be pure and unmixed. On th e other hand, if the Domb a clas s is stainless, enlightene d awareness , which generate s all the Jinas, then even th e lowes t social class is ultimately pure, as are all the other

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classes that are permeated by it. This is one o f the way s in which the Kalacakr a tradition reinforce s it s position that all social classes are fundamentally of equal value and ultimately undifferentiated. Another reason for the Kdlacakratantra's identifica tion of Kalacakra and Visvamata with the Domb a class perhaps can be inferred fro m other anuttara-yoga'tantras, which als o identify thei r central deitie s with this particular class of outcasts. Fo r example, i t i s stated i n th e literatur e o f the Hevajratantra that Hevajra's consort Bhagavat I is called Dombi on the grounds that she is intangible, that is to say, outside the real m o f sensory experience. 73 It is very likely that th e Kalacakra tradition adopte d thi s idea of identifying the Domb a caste as its principal deity from th e earlie r Buddhist tantras, as it adopted many other similar ideas as well. A simila r apotheosi s o f Dombi als o characterizes the Buddhis t Sahajayana , whic h was contemporary with the Kalacakra tradition i n India. For instance, tw o Old Bengali songs (carydpada) o f Kanhapada (ca . th e elevent h centur y CE ) are addresse d t o Dombi, the goddess Nairatmya,74 who lives in the cottage outsid e the city—meaning, outside th e worl d of the sense-faculties—an d onl y touches th e Brahmana s and the shaven-headed bu t does not revea l herself to them.75 The unificatio n of all social classes into one famil y by means of a tantric initia tion i s not uniqu e t o th e Kalacakratantra an d other Buddhist tantric systems of the anuttara'yoga class . It is also characteristic o f some tantric Saiv a sects as well. For instance, Ramanuja i n his Sribhasya (II . 2. 35-37) criticizes the sec t o f the Kapalika s for their claim that even individuals belonging to the lowest classes can immediately attain th e statu s of a Brahmana and the highest stage of life (dsrama) b y means of initiatory rites. Similarly, a passage in the Kuldrtywatantra read s that the differentiatio n between th e Sudrahoo d o f a Sudra and the Brahmanahoo d o f a Brahmana has van ished for those who have received tantric initiation , sinc e those who are consecrate d by initiation d o not discriminat e amon g socia l classes. 76 The sam e text als o asserts that i n th e circl e o f worshi p (pujd-cakra), al l ar e equa l t o Siva. 77 However , th e Kuldrnavatantra and other Saiva sources give clear indications that the transcendence of social barriers within th e Saiv a traditio n too k plac e only i n a ritual context and did not extend to the everyday life. The denial an d reevaluation of social classes were valid only i n that circle during a secret gathering . Outsid e a secret gathering , eac h would resume his or her own social status and its prescribed rules of conduct an d duties. The Kularnavatantra indicate s tha t even th e differin g duration s of studentshi p in tantric Saivism were prescribed to the initiates accordin g to their social class. This does not seem to have been th e case in the Kalacakra tradition. Nowher e i n the literature of the Kalacakratantra corpus can one find indication s tha t the denial of class barriers was limited to the ritua l context. Th e Pammadibuddhatantra doe s stat e that certain kinds of individuals—namely, a householder wh o lives off a monastery, a servant, wh o is under the rul e of someone else, a ploughman, who kills sentient beings by ploughing the ground , a trader of weapons, a person who sells the Dharma , an d a mentally dul l person—are not suitabl e for the rol e o f a vajracarya. 78 However , thi s assertion does not refe r t o the incompatibilit y of their socia l class for the positio n of a vajrdcarya bu t t o th e incompatibilit y of their lifestyle s wit h th e responsibilitie s of the vajrdcdrya an d to their inadequat e mora l and mental capacities for that spiritual role. The Vimalaprabhd explicitl y states tha t suc h type s of activities ro b on e o f his duty (dharma) o f a vajrdcdrya.19 Th e Kalacakr a tradition differentiates vajracdryas a s

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superior, middling, and inferio r not o n the basi s of their social classes but accordin g to their religious status. Fo r example, an ordained vajracarya i s considered t o be superior; a vajracarya wh o lives as a wandering ascetic (§ramand) i s regarded as middling; and a vajrdcarya wh o is a householder is regarded as an inferior vajracarya, wh o should not b e honored b y an ordained vajrdcarya.80 Thi s type of classification reveals that the Kalacakr a tradition retaine d a strong, monastic orientation, whic h was characteristic of the earlier forms of Buddhism and which engendered a certain religious hierarchy. This often counteracte d clas s discrimination i n Buddhis t communities by giving higher honor and status to a monk of a lower social class than to a householder of a higher caste. The Kalacakr a tradition also classifies tantri c disciples as superior, middling, and inferior. Again, it does not make the classification on the basis of their social class and lineage but o n th e basi s of the spiritua l goals that they seek. Those intent on practicing the Dharma that consists of compassion and emptiness and seeking the supramundan e siddhi ar e regarded as superior disciples, who are eligible to receive al l eleven initiations . Thos e who desir e the mundan e siddhis ar e regarded as middling disciples , wh o ar e eligibl e t o receiv e onl y th e firs t seve n initiations . Whereas those who desire none of the siddhis but respect a spiritual mentor are characterized as inferior disciples, who do not qualif y for tantric initiations and are eligible to receive only the teaching s o n the five ethical precepts. 81 In th e contex t of the Kdlacakratantra, th e Buddh a Kalacakra, who i s identified with Domba , is portrayed as the progenito r of the fou r castes : Brahmana, Ksatriya, Vaisya, an d Sudra . Th e fou r caste s originat e fro m th e fou r mouth s o f Kalacakra, which belon g to his four faces , which , in turn, symboliz e th e fou r aspect s in whic h enlightened awarenes s manifests in th e world—namely : th e meditative , peaceful , passionate, and wrathful aspects. 82 This interpretation of the four castes as the social manifestations of the fou r differen t expression s of enlightened awarenes s affirms th e Kdlacakratantra's vie w of the fundamenta l equality of all castes. It ca n b e construed as a Buddhist tantric counterpart of the Vedic Purusasukta, which affirms th e mout h of th e Primordia l Man (purusa) a s the birthplac e o f the cast e o f Brahmanas only . Thus, b y presenting the fou r caste s a s the way s in which ultimat e reality manifests itself in a human society, the Kalacakr a tradition suggest s that on this tantric path , one mus t reinterpret one's habituate d vie w of one's own social environment in order t o realiz e the nondualit y o f all the aspect s of phenomenal existence . Likewise , if one analyze s this interpretation o f the origi n and manifestatio n of the fou r castes in terms of the standar d Hindu view of the role s of the fou r castes in Indian society, other implication s o f this interpretatio n becom e clearer . When on e examines th e Kdlacakratantra's explanatio n o f th e fou r caste s i n ligh t o f th e expositio n o f th e Baudhdyanadharmasutra (I . 18 . 2-5)—whic h ascribe s the dutie s of preservation of the Vedi c tradition, protection of people and their properties, protection of domestic animals, and service to the other three caste s to the respective duties of the fou r castes, respectively 83—it suggests that th e socia l functions of the fou r above-men tioned aspect s of enlightened awarenes s are to preserve spiritual learning and to secure the physical and material well-being of the individua l and society. However, unlike the Hindu treatises that prescribe to the caste of Brahmanas the duty of preserving only the Vedic tradition, the Kalacakra tradition views Kalacakra as a depository and guardian of diverse religious systems. According t o the Kalacakra

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tradition, enlightene d awarenes s manifests not onl y as the socia l forms o f the Buddha but also as the religiou s body of the Buddha , which incorporates diverse Hind u and Buddhist systems of thought an d practice- Different religious systems and school s are also said to arise from th e four mouths of Kalacakra as their ultimate source. The Jnanakaya of Kalacakra, assuming the variou s forms of transmission, teaches diverse treatises, includin g th e Vedas . Thus, th e Buddh a Kalacakr a teaches th e Rg-Veda from hi s western mouth, th e Yajur-Veda fro m hi s northern mouth, the Sama-Ved a from hi s southern mouth , an d th e Atharva-Veda fro m hi s eastern mouth . H e als o teaches othe r religiou s systems with those same mouths. For example, he teache s the tantra of spirits (bhuta-tantra) an d th e Buddhis t yogdnuviddha, Madhyamaka , and the systems of Sthaviras with his western mouth. He teaches th e Hind u kaulatantras an d th e Buddhis t wisdom-tantra s (prajna-tantra) , th e Yogacar a an d Sarvastivada systems with his eastern mouth. With his northern mouth, he teache s the Hind u Siddhanta , the Buddhis t action-tantra (kriyd-tantra), an d the system s of the Vaibhasika s an d Mahasamghikas . Wit h hi s souther n mouth , h e teache s th e Dharma of Visnu, the Buddhis t yoga-tantm, Sutranta, and the syste m of SamitTyas.84 Thus, th e divers e religious systems are simply the manifestation s of different aspect s of the Buddha' s unifie d mind , o r integrated wisdom, takin g th e for m o f a religiou s body in accordance wit h the menta l disposition s of different people . This vie w of Kalacakra as the singl e source of the divers e religious systems implies the inherent value of the differen t religiou s traditions, and more importantly it provides a justification for the theoretical syncretism of the Kalacakratantra as its conversionary method. I t suggests that becoming a member of the wjra-famil y doe s no t involve completel y abandonin g one' s prio r religiou s tradition, bu t entail s onl y a hermeneutical shift with regard to the authoritative scriptures of that tradition. This ascription serves as a conceptual basis for the reinterpretation of non-Buddhist ideas that on e frequentl y encounters i n th e literatur e of the Kalacakratantra. I t als o explains th e Kalacakr a tradition's argument , alread y mentioned i n th e chapte r o n syncretism, that there is no distinction betwee n Buddhists and non-Buddhists wit h regard to the manne r i n which a conventional realit y appears; rather, th e onl y difference betwee n them i s in th e Buddhists ' understanding o f personal (pudgala) an d phenomenal (bhdva) identitylessnes s (nairdtmya),85 One exampl e o f th e Kalacakr a tradition' s reinterpretatio n o f non-Buddhis t teachings is related to the Kdlacakratantra's assertio n tha t the practice of offering th e kdma'ddna wa s also taught i n the Vedant a but that evil Brahmanas concealed i t for their ow n selfish reasons . The Kdlacakratantra reject s the traditiona l Brahmani c interpretation o f Vedic sacrifice an d interpret s i t in terms of the tantri c yog a of gnosis (jnana-yoga) i n the followin g manner: At the tim e of sacrifice, approac h the lord s of bulls, rhinoceroses, horses , and ele phants as the bodil y sense-objects an d sense-faculties . When your knif e i s purified, there is a cessation of those sense-objects an d sense-facultie s i n the ^og a of gnosis . The drin k o f th e initiated , whic h i s mixe d wit h bloo d an d somavalli, is i n th e cowhide. The necta r of semen (soma), gon e from the ti p [of sexual organ ] t o uterin e blood in vulva, i s of the natur e of the all-pervadin g bliss . Brahma i s the body , Hara is speech, and Hari i s the min d of living beings. They are three Vedas. The y are three letters, th e syllabl e aum. They are the moon , sun, an d

The Social Body 13

1

fire, or three nddis; and they are the [three ] gurus. An additiona l member of the fam ily (kaula) withi n the body , present i n the sense-object s an d gums, i s of the natur e of th e soun d (nada.) o f the fire-pries t (atharvan). Withi n that [body] , th e andhata, which is devoid of the sense-object s and gums, is the indestructible . In old times, Brahma told this secret to yogis in the Vedanta. The sages whose knowledge became lost in the cours e of time taught here the killin g of living beings. Humans' engagement i n that [sacrificia l killing ] for the sak e of heaven brings about a miserable hell as its result. Charcoal moistened here by the flow of milk nowhere becomes of the colo r of soma. People who are deceived by the words of the Vedas , which are incorrect and devoid of pledges (samara), guard their wives day and nigh t for the sak e of acquiring sons for themselves . Supposedly, a son gives an offerin g t o a father wh o has departed t o the worl d of the dead . Therefore, th e evi l Brahmanas concealed this gift o f sensual love (kdma-dana), whic h brings forth th e resul t of immutable bliss.86 I believe i t i s on th e basi s of this an d simila r interpretations o f the meanin g of the Vedi c traditio n an d Vedic sacrificia l rite s that the Kalacakratantra can attribut e the authorship of the Vedas to the Buddha Kalacakra withou t contradicting its main Buddhist principles . Thi s view of the origi n o f different religiou s systems explains i n part the previousl y discussed syncretism of the Kalacakratantra; an d i t is yet another way i n which thi s tantra advocates religiou s integratio n b y means o f conversion t o the Kalacakra tradition . In additio n t o it s social and religious aspects, the vajra-famil y reveal s itself also in its temporal and cosmic aspects. For the Kalacakratantra, the fou r yugas ("ages") of the worl d and th e si x types of cyclic existenc e (gati) ar e the particula r modes o f the four expression s of enlightened awareness . As such, the y ar e the tempora l an d cos mic correlates of the fou r castes. The social , religious, and temporal structure s of the conventional worl d ar e th e divers e an d mutuall y pervasiv e manifestation s o f th e same vajra-family , whic h manifest s itsel f i n thi s worl d a s a society , expresse s itself through th e religiou s systems of that society , and transform s it s social and religious aspects du e to it s own temporal power . Its social, religious, and tempora l manifesta tions are a display of its powers and enlightened activitie s that create an d destroy the phenomenal world . It is said that Kalacakra generates th e six types of cyclic existence from hi s fou r mouths . Likewise , he paralyzes , bewilders, pacifies , improves , domi nates, atttacts , destroys, and expel s this world by means o f the sam e four mouths. 87 Finally, one could sa y that Kalacakra's social, religious, and temporal bodies bear th e inseparable an d mutually pervasive features of the conventiona l and ultimate reali ties. Table 6 . i illustrate s the Kdlacakratantra's presentatio n o f the interrelationshi p among th e fou r mouths , o r aspects, of Kalacakra, the fou r castes , th e fou r group s of religious systems, the fou r yugas of the world , and th e si x types of cyclic existence . In conclusion, on e ma y say that it is chiefly on th e basi s of the aforementione d perspectives o n th e commonalit y o f the fundamenta l natur e an d sourc e o f differen t social classe s and religiou s systems that th e Kalacakratantra oppose s social discrimination an d reject s th e mainstrea m Brahmanica l interpretatio n o f the Hind u scrip tures. I t regards social discriminatio n an d th e interpretatio n o f scriptures that supports suc h discriminatio n a s detrimental t o bot h th e socio-political , material , and

132

The Inner Kalacakratantra

TABLE 6.1 Th e Manifol d Manifestations of the Fou r Aspects o f Kalacakra Western mouth of the yello w face

Northern mouth of the white fac e

Southern mouth of the re d face

Their Mental Aspects meditative

peaceful

passionate

Their Mental Powers paralyzing and bewildering

pacification an d prosperity

dominance and attraction

killing and expelling

Ksatriya

Sudra

Buddhist: Samitiya Sutranta yogd'tantras

Buddhist: Sarvastivada Yogacara wisdom-tantros (prajnd'tantra)

Hindu: Sama-Veda Vaisnava

Hindu: Atharva-Veda kauh'tantras

dvapara'yuga

kali'yuga

Their Social Manifestation s Vaiiiya Brahman

a

Their Religious Manifestation s Buddhist: Buddhist: Vaibhasika Sthavira Madhyamaka Mahasamghika action-tuntras yoganuviddha (kriyd-tantra) Hindu: Rg-Veda spirit-tantras (bhuta-umtra)

Hindu: Yajur-Veda Siddhanta

Their Temporal Manifestation s krta-yuga treta-yuga

Six Types of Cyclic Existence as Their Manifestation s animals denizen s of hells and god asuras

s and pretas

Eastern mouth of the dar k blue face athful

humans

spiritual welfar e o f society an d t o th e psychologica l an d physica l well-being of th e individual. Th e Kalacakratantra warn s agains t th e harm s o f the perniciou s Hind u practices tha t involv e suicid e an d other hurtfu l activitie s that resul t fro m graspin g onto social discrimination in the followin g manner : He wh o has a caste a s his standard, o king, has the Ved a a s his authority. He wh o has the Ved a as his authority, has sacrifice as his standard on the earth . H e who has a sacrifice a s his standard, has the slayin g of various animals and people as his sanc tion. Fo r him who has killing as his sanction, a sin causing the fea r o f death wil l be a measure.88 The monk , th e wanderin g ascetic, th e nake d mendicant , th e shaven-heade d one , and one wit h clotte d hair , who delight i n supreme bliss, and th e learne d on e who delights in listening and reading—they all, deprived of the path, create hardship by grasping onto the creator and the Self, by continually grasping here onto themselves and others , ont o their son s and wives , onto allowe d an d prohibite d food , an d by grasping onto delight i n [discriminating between] the nobl e and ignoble family and onto th e worth y and unworth y vessel [of receiving the teaching] .

The Social Body 13 3 Abandoning the entir e Buddha-field , which yield s the fruit of immutable bliss and has a body, speech, mind , and passion, the evil-minded seeks another lor d in a field, in a place of pilgrimage, and i n other place s by means of hundreds of vows and precepts, by means of fasting and jumping from cliffs. Attached to the pleasures of senseobjects, [on e seek s anothe r lord ] i n battl e an d i n th e eclipse d sun , b y mean s o f killings in fire and by means of numerous weapons. Long ago, Maras invented al l this in order to drink the blood of those wh o had died due to fasting in places of pilgrimage for the sake of heaven, or those who were killed in a battle, wh o died for the sak e of the liberatio n o f a bull an d th e sun , who died for th e sak e of their hom e an d wealth, or who died in the dut y of a Brahmana.89

The Kalacakratantra's view of all the objects of one's experience as inherently pure in nature and its underlying premise that everything within the provisional and ultimate realms of experience i s a part of the nondua l realit y (advaya-tattva) i s also characteristic of other anuttara-yoga-tantras. The Hevajmtantra expresse s it in these words: Whatever thing s there are , mobile and immobile , grass, shrubs, and creepers, they are regarded as the suprem e reality having the natur e that i s one's own nature.90 The Innat e (sahaja) is the entir e world. It is called own-form (sva-rupa). One's ownform itsel f is nirvana when th e min d i s in it s purified form. 91

Even though the notion that diverse religious systems and their tenets originate from a single, omniscient gnosis (jnana) i s suggested in other anuttara-yoga-tantras, it is developed a t greate r lengt h an d explicate d i n mor e detai l in th e India n literary sources of the Kalacakra tradition tha n in any other anuttara-yoga-tantra. One of the characteristics tha t is specific to th e Kalacakr a tradition i s its unique interpretatio n of the nature and origination o f society and the social classes, which directly pertains to it s soteriological path s an d goals . Likewise, the socio-political reason s for social and religious integration tha t the Kalacakra tradition offers seem to be unique to this Buddhist tantri c traditio n and its socio-political climate .

The Individua l as a Society For the Kalacakr a tradition, th e individua l is not merel y a member of the vajra-fam ily or the societ y but i s the wijra-famil y an d th e societ y itself. The individua l is the microcosmic manifestation o f the socia l and religious bodies of the Buddh a in both their phenomenal and ultimate aspects . Th e Kalacakra tradition interpret s th e indi vidual as the embodimen t of its society in various ways. While doin g so, it utilizes a conventional classificatio n and characterization o f the socia l classes of India at that time and reinterprets them i n the ligh t of its broader theory of the natur e an d com position o f the individual . It does so by addressing the following issues: (i) the tran scendent an d immanen t aspect s of a society, (2) th e way s in which a society manifests and functions within the individual, (3) the interrelatedness of the transcenden t and individual aspects of a society, and (4 ) their soteriologica l relevance an d practical applications o n the individual' s path o f purification.

134 Th e Inner Kalacakmtantra TABLE 6. 2 Caste s as the Individual' s Vajras an d th e Kaya s of the Buddh a The fou r castes and their color s Vaisya Brahman a Ksatriy yellow whit e re The individua l gnosis body gnosis-vajra body-vo/'r Kalacakra Jnanakaya Nirmanakay

a Sudr d blac

, semen speech a speech-vajr a Sambhogakay

a k

, uterine blood consciousnes a mind-vajr a Dharmakay

s

a a

The Kalacakratantra indirectl y correlates th e fou r caste s wit h th e fou r vajras o f the individual' s body, speech, min d an d gnosis and with the fou r bodies of the Buddha b y also interpreting Kalacakra's four face s an d thei r color s a s the symboli c representations o f the fou r vajras o f the individua l and th e Kalacakra' s fou r bodies . I n this way, it explains the fou r castes as the fou r social manifestations of the capacitie s of the individual' s body, speech, mind, and gnosis and as the socia l manifestations of the fou r bodies of the Buddha . Table 6.2 illustrates the manne r i n which th e Kalacakr a tradition classifie s an d identifies th e fou r caste s with their immanen t aspect s manifesting in the individua l and with their ultimat e aspect s manifesting in the fou r bodies of the Buddha . The Kalacakr a tradition als o identifie s th e earlie r mentione d thirty-si x socia l classes of Indian societ y with th e thirty-si x constituents o f the individual , namely: the si x element s (dhdtu), th e si x sense-facultie s (indriya), th e si x sense-object s (visaya), th e si x psycho-physica l aggregates (skandha), includin g th e aggregat e of gnosis as the sixth , the si x faculties of action (karmendriya), an d th e si x activities of the faculties of action. I t is the father's semen and mother's uterine blood, represented in the kalacakra-mandala by the white and red faces of Kalacakra, that give rise to th e six familie s o f the si x elements. Amon g thes e si x families, th e thre e families o f th e water, wind, and space elements are ascertained as the father's family, since they arise from semen and become th e body , speech, an d mind of a male. The thre e families of the earth , fire , an d gnosis elements ar e ascertained as the mother' s families , for they arise from uterin e blood an d become th e body, speech, an d mind o f a female. These six families o f the si x elements aris e within th e individua l at th e tim e of the origination o f the elemen t o f gnosis, at the ag e of twelve within th e femal e bod y and a t the ag e of sixteen within the mal e body. They ar e the si x families from which evolv e the si x sense-faculties (indriya), si x sense-objects (visaya), si x aggregates (skandha), six faculties of action (karmendriya), an d si x activities of the facultie s of action (fcar mendriya'kriyd) . 9Z Each o f thes e si x familie s i s comprised o f differen t bodil y con stituents representing six different socia l classes. The individual' s body, speech, an d mind develop and function only when the bodily constituents that belong to the father's an d mother's familie s embrace each other. Du e to their union , the y become of mixed social classes and become mutually indivisible. Thus, jus t as the thirty-si x social classes in India n societ y have developed fro m intermarriage s of the fou r caste s and outcasts, s o the aforementione d thirty-six members of the individual' s body de-

The Soda! Body 13 5 velop from the integration o f the six elements. The mutual interdependence an d pervasiveness of these thirty-si x members of the bodil y wjjra-famil y correspon d t o th e interdependence an d pervasivenes s of the member s of the social an d enlightene d vajra-families. The inne r yogi c practices by means of which th e tantri c adept unifie s his inter nal thirty-si x socia l group s int o a singl e wjra-famil y correspon d t o th e externa l tantric practice s by means of which th e externa l vo/ra-famil y socially and spiritually unifies itself. The mutua l pervasiveness of the diverse components o f the individual' s body, speech, and mind and the powers that result from thi s pervasiveness are the internal manifestations of the characteristic s o f the sociall y unified vajra-family. The six classes, which give rise to the thirty-six social classes, evolve due to thei r intermingling and ar e specified i n this tantric system as the si x main families (kula): Brahamana, Ksatriya, Viasya, Sudra, Domba, and Candala . I n term s of the individ ual, thes e si x families ar e th e earlier-mentione d si x elements; an d i n term s o f en lightened awareness , they are the si x Buddha families: namely, the familie s of Vairocana, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, Amoghasiddhi, Aksobhya, and Vajrasattva. These six Buddha familie s ar e also present within th e individual' s six cakras an d si x nodis. This exposition of the origination of the thirty-six social classes from the mutual pervasiveness of the si x families, which, i n turn, originate from a single source, is yet an other wa y in which th e Kalackar a tradition subtantiate s it s theories o f social equality an d th e nondualit y o f th e differen t aspect s o f th e phenomena l an d ultimat e realities. Just as the previously discussed unity of the four castes is symbolicaly represented in the kdlacakra-mandala b y the fou r faces of the Buddha , so the unit y of these six social classes is depicted by the si x faces o f the Buddha . The tw o lowest social classes, Domba and Candala, are said to originate fro m the additional tw o faces of Kalacakra, the uppe r and lowe r faces. In terms of enlightened awareness, three o f the si x families—the Vaisya, Ksatriya, and Candal a familie s o f Vairocana, Ratnasambhava, an d Vajrasattva—belong t o the body , speech, an d mind of the wisdo m aspect of enlightened awareness . Whereas th e othe r three—th e Brahmana, Sudra, and Domba families of Amitabha, Amoghasiddhi , an d Aksobhya—belong to the body , speech, an d mind of the compassion aspect of the sam e awareness. Owing to their mutual pervasiveness, they form a n indivisibl e and therefore indestructible unitary reality, which is the ultimat e vajra-family. Thi s ultimate m/ra-family i s the idea l family that brings about th e well-bein g of the world , for i t i s the indestructibl e union (•vajra^oga) o f wisdom and compassion . There ar e different way s in which the Kalacakra tradition describes the ultimate vajra-family, o r the spirituall y awakened "vajra-society, whic h manifest s as the socia l and th e individua l huma n bod y o f the Buddha . Table s 6-3-a- f illustrat e how th e Kalacakra tradition i n India interpreted the ^ajra-family , comprisin g thirty-six differ ent socia l groups, as it manifests in the human being, society, kalacakra'mandala, an d Buddha Kalacakra. With regard to the si x elements within th e individua l and the member s of the gana-cakra, the femal e members of Ratnasambhava's famil y embrac e the mal e members o f Amitabha's family , wherea s th e femal e member s of Amitabha's famil y em brace th e mal e members of Ratnasambhava's family . Likewise , the femal e members

TABLE 6.3.A Th e Famil y of Vairocana

The individua l

Color e

Kalacakra- Tast mcmdala Symbo

l

Social class

the formaggregate (rupa-skandha)

Vairocana yello

w salty wheel

Vaisya

the earth-element (pnhivi-dhatu)

Locana yello

w salty wheel

Vaisyi

skin

Viskambhi yello

w salty wheel

garland-maker

smell

Oandhavajra yello

w salty wheel

female garland-make r

the anu s

Stambhaka yello

w salty wheel

scabbard-maker

talking

Stambhl yello

w salty wheel

female scabbard-make r

The nodi of excrement The yello w navel-cakra

TABLE 6.3.6 Th e Famil y of Ratnasambhava

The individual

Color e

Kalacakra- Tast maryjala Symbo

l

Social class

the aggregat e of feeling (vedana~ skandha)

Ratnasambhava re

d hot jewel

Ksatriya

the fire-element (tejo-dhdtu)

Pandara re

d hot jewel

Ksatrim

an eye

Ksitigarbha re

d hot jewel

liquor-maker

taste

Rasavajra re

d hot jewel

female liquor-make r

the hands

Jambhaka re

d hot jewel

lac-maker

walking

Jambhl re

d hot jewel

female lac-make r

The nodi o f uterine blood The re d throat-cofcr a

136

TABLE 6.3.0 Th e Famil y of Amitabha

The individua l

Color Taste Symbol

Kalacakramcmdala

Social class

the aggregat e of discernment (samjna-skandha)

Amitabha

white sweet lotus

Brahmana

the water-elemen t (toyd'dhatu)

MamakT

white sweet lotus

Brahmanl

the tongu e

Lokesvara

white sweet lotus

goldsmith

form

Rupavajra

white sweet lotus

female goldsmit h

the feet

Manaka

white sweet lotus

oilman

taking

Manmi

white sweet lotus

oilwoman

The nodi o f semen The whit e laldta-cakra

TABLE 6.3.0 Th e Family of the Amoghasiddh i

The individua l

Color Taste Symbol

Kalacakramandala

Social class

the aggregat e of mental formation s (samskdra'skandha)

Amoghasiddhi

black bitter sword

Sudra

the wind-element (vayu-dhatu)

Tara

black bitter sword

Sudrl

the nos e

Khagarbha

black bitter sword

weaver

touch

Sparsavajra

black bitter sword

female weaver

the speech-faculty

Atibala

black bitter sword

blacksmith

the flo w o f feces

Atibala/Anantavirya

black bitter sword

female blacksmit h

The nod i of urine The blac k heart-coJcra

137

TABLE 6.3.E Th e Famil y of Aksobhy a

The individua l

Color Taste Symbol

Kalacakramari&ala

the aggregat e of consciousness (vijndna'skandha)

Aksobhya

the space-element (akdsa'dhdtu)

Vaj radhatvlsvarl

green astringent

Social clas s Domba

vajra

green astringent

Dombl

vajra

green astringent

the ear

Vajrapani

a mental objec t (dharma'dhatu)

Dharmadhatu vaj ra

the vulva

Usnlsa

jeweler

vajra

green astringent

female jeweler

vajra

green astringent

dancer

vajra

emission of seme n

Raudraksi

green astringent

female dance r

vajra

The nad i of consciousness (vijndna) The dar k green usnfsa-cokr a

TABLE 6.3.? Th e Famil y of Vajrasattva Color Taste Symbol

Kalacakra-

Social classes

The individua l

mandala

the aggregat e of gnosis (jmni'skandha)

Vajrasattva

blue sour cleaver

Candala

the gnosis-element (jndna-dhdtu)

Visvamata

blue sour cleaver

Candali

the min d

Samantabhadra

blue sour cleaver

brazier

sound

Sabdavajra

blue sour cleaver

female brazie r

the mal e sexual organ

Sumbharaja

blue sour cleaver

washerman

the flo w of urine

Atinlla

blue sour cleaver The nadi o f gnosis (jndna) The blue secret-cakra

138

washerwoman

The Social Body 13

9

of Amoghasiddhi's family embrace the mal e members of Vairocana's family ; and th e female members of Vairocana's famil y embrace the male members of Amoghasiddhi's family. Similarly, the femal e members of Aksobhya's family embrace the mal e members of Vajrasattva's family ; an d th e femal e members of Vajrasattva's famil y embrac e the male members of Aksobhya's family.93 Du e to their mutual embracing, or pervasion, the families belonging to the Buddha Kalacakra (father, compassion) and thos e belonging t o his consort Visvamata (mother , wisdom) become mutually indivisible. Thus, even with regard to ultimate reality, one may say that the body of the Buddha arises from th e mutua l pervasion, or unification, of the differen t factor s constitutin g Buddhahood. The nondual , absolut e reality , which i s devoid of conceptualizatio n and atomic matter , i s said to have all colors an d all aspects. This implies that in social terms, ultimate reality reveals itself in every individual, in every social group, and in their functions in society. On th e groun d that th e thirty-si x social classe s are present i n al l th e gurus of prakrti, the Kalacakra tradition sees the social body as nondual from the cosmic body. It even classifie s th e differen t type s of soil with which on e constructs th e kalacakramandala in terms of social classes, according to their colors, smells, and tastes. For example, white, red, yellow, and black soil represent the respective Brahmana, Ksatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra castes, and green soil represents the Domb a outcast. 94 Thus, one may infe r that i n term s of conventional reality, the materia l body of the kalacakramandala itsel f is symbolically made of the mixtur e of castes and outcasts . I n this respect, i t is also a symbolic representation o f the sociall y integrated society . Likewise, the body of the Buddha Kalacakra visually depicted as the kdlacakra-mandala metaphor ically consist s o f a mixture of social classes. The whit e soi l o f the Brahman a cast e symbolizes the purity of the Buddha's body; the red soil of the Ksatriy a caste indicates the purit y of his speech ; th e yello w soil of the Vaisy a caste represent s the purit y of gnosis; the blac k soi l of the Sudr a caste represents the purit y of the Buddha' s mind; and th e gree n soi l of the Domb a clas s in th e cente r o f the mandala symbolize s th e source of these four types of purity.95 As in the gana-cakra, so in the kalacakra-martdala, the class of disdained outcasts is ironically indicated a s the source of all aspects of the individual's purification. Similarly , since the thirty-si x families of the ;yoginf s of th e kdlacakra-mandala represen t thirty-si x social classes, the yoginis ar e also said to be of mixed breed due to the efficac y o f the gunas of their prakrti.96 The thirty-si x social classes that form the social body manifest as the diverse colors, smells, and tastes of the bodie s of the individua l and the cosmos . Like the thre e previously mentioned bodie s o f the individual , society, and enlightene d awareness, the body of the cosmos is a cosmic manifestation of the vajra-family . The five mandalas of the cosmos and the lotus in the center o f Mt. Meru are the cosmic representation s of the si x social classes. Thus, the space -manhla on which this world-system rests is of the Domb a class, the wind-mandaki i s of the Sudr a caste, the water-maridaJ a is of th e Brahmana caste , th e fire-mandala i s of the Ksatriy a caste , th e earth-mandala i s of the Vaisy a caste, and th e lotu s in the cente r o f Sumeru is of the Candal a class. Th e nature of the si x families of the cosmo s corresponds t o the natur e of the si x families of the si x elements i n the body of the individual . Likewise, their arrangement i n th e cosmic body corresponds to their arrangement i n the individual' s body. In this way, the cosmi c and individua l bodies ar e the macrocosmi c an d microcosmi c features of

140

The Inner Kcdacakraumtra

TABLE 6-4-A Th e Indivual , Cosmic , and Sublimate d Aspect s of Social Classe s

The individual

Kalacakrama.nyia.la

Cosmos

Social class

The fou r elements and the fou r psycho-physica l aggregates

Four Vidyas and four Buddha s

The god s of the Brahma-world (bralimanda)

Four castes 1 Sudras (four types ) Ksatriyas (four types ) Vaisyas (three types ) Brahmanas (seven types )

The si x sense-object s and the si x sense-faculties

Six Vajras and Si x Bodhisattvas

Six types of gods dwelling in th e desire-realm

Six social group s braziers liquor-makers goldsmiths garland-makers weavers jewelers

The five faculties of action an d their activitie s

Ten male and female krodhas

The huma n world

Ten social groups lac-makers scabbard-makers oil-pressers blacksmiths shoe-makers carpenters barbers flute-makers well-diggers

The gnosi s and mind mandahs The gnosis and mind-wijras of the individu a

flute-dancers

The Visuddhakay a and the Dharmakay a 1 The Vimalatrrabhd commentar y on th e Kakicakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 131, lists the followin g four types of Ksatriyas: footsoidiers, horsemen, elephant-riders , and charioteers . It specifies the thre e types of the Vaisy a caste as merchants (vanij), writers (kaya-stha), an d physicians (vaidya); an d it enumerates th e following seven types of the Brahman a caste: four types belonging t o th e branche s (sakha) o f th e Rg-Veda , Yajur-Veda , Sama-Veda , an d Atharva-Veda, forest-dweller s (vanaprastha), ascetics (yati), an d liberate d one s (rnukta).

the socia l body . Lik e other vo/ra-families , th e macrocosmi c wjjra-famil y arise s as a unitary cosmic body due to the unification of the six families. Thus, one may say that every body , o r every aspect of the rajra-family—whethe r individual , social , cosmi c or spiritual—stems from the union of the diverse classes that it embodies. I n this way, the Kalacakr a traditio n indirectly refutes th e disparagin g vie w expressed b y the au thoritative, legal treatises of the Hindu tradition toward som e mixed social classes i n India. Another way in which th e Kalacakr a traditio n explains th e nondualit y o f the phenomenal aspects of the Buddha' s socia l and cosmic bodies with the bod y o f the individual i s demonstrated b y tables 6-4.a-b.

The Social Body 14 1 TABLE 6.4.6 Th e Individual , Cosmic, an d Sublimate d Aspects o f Social Classe s The individual Eight nadis Eigh

Eight fingers and Eigh toes eigh

Kalacakramanjala t male and female pretas

t nagos and t praccmdas

Cosmos Socia The worl d of pretas Eigh

The underworl d Eigh (patala) groups

l classes t socia l group s butchers potters pillow-makers prostitutes sewers fishermen actors washermen t lowest social 1

barbarians sweepers Matangas Tapms Varvaras Pukkasas Bhillas Sabaras

The speec h an d body mcmdalas The speec h an d body vajras o f the individua l The Sambhogakaya and the Nirmanakaya 1 Matangas is another name for Candalas, the outcasts. Varvara s are members of one of the non-Aryan tribes in India. Bhillas are members of a wild tribe living in the Vmdhya hills, in the forests of Malawa, Mewar, Khandesha, and Deccan . Sabaras are the member s of a mountain tribe in south India .

In addition t o the alread y mentioned aspect s of the wjjra-family , th e vajra-fam ily also manifests in a temporal form. Specifically, it manifests as the "whee l of time," consisting of the diverse families of the diverse units of time. Likewise, the thre e years of the centra l nodi, during which a tantric ^ogf practices th e ;yog a of nadis on the stage of completion (sampatti-krama) b y joining the righ t and lef t nadis in the madhyamd, are also viewed in this tantric traditio n a s a wjra-family. Si x families of this tempo ral vajra-family ar e the si x periods of three years, each of which consist s of one hun dred an d eight y days . Its thirty-six familie s ar e th e thirty-si x month s o f the thre e years.97 Thus, th e unificatio n of the differen t units of time and the yogi c practice of unifying th e nadis correspond t o social unification. In this way, the Kalacakr a tradition indicates tha t in order to actualize the ultimate unification , or the ultimate rajrafamily, which is the state of nonduality, one must first conventionally understan d th e ways in which th e differen t phenomena l aspect s of the f ajra-family ar e already unified; and then by means o f tantric yoga, one mus t consolidate th e conventiona l «Jjra-families int o the singl e ultimate wjra-family, calle d Kalacakra, or gnosis (jnana). In conclusion, on e may say that in this tantric tradition, the interrelatedness and mutual pervasivenes s o f the variou s components o f the individual' s mind an d bod y represent th e social and ethnic integration o f a socially and ethnically mixed societ y

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through intermarriages . Likewise, the mutua l pervasiveness of the min d and body of the Buddh a an d th e interdependenc e of the thirty-seve n factor s of awakening rep resent th e ultimat e unit y of the society , whic h i s characterized b y the interdepen dence and pervasiveness of its thirty-six social classes. Similarly, the mutual relations and influences o f the individual , the cosmos , and tim e parallel those in the society . Thus, the organizatio n and functions of the differen t member s of the socia l body are nondual fro m th e structur e an d functions of the differen t member s of the bodie s of the individual , the cosmos , an d enlightene d awareness . By identifying Indian soci ety with th e individual , th e cosmos , time , an d ultimat e realit y in th e above-illus trated ways , the Kalacakr a tradition demonstrate s it s vision o f the idea l society and its potential, and i t provides it s rationale fo r that vision. Just as the transformatio n and unification of the various components of one's own mind and body on this tantri c path transform one's experience o f one's natura l environment , so it transforms one's experience o f one's social environment. Likewise , in this tantri c tradition , th e unifi cation of all the phenomena l an d ultimat e aspects o f the fo/Ya-family , whic h abol ishes all dualities, is nothing other than the stat e of self-knowing: the stat e o f knowing oneself a s the cosmos , society , individual, an d enlightene d awareness ; and tha t self-knowledge i s what i s meant b y omniscience (sarva-jnatd) i n the traditio n o f th e Kalacakratantra.

7

The Gnostic Body

The Kdlacakratantra a s a Buddhist Gnostic Syste m

T

he twentieth-centur y discoveries of the Na g Hammad i Codice s (Uppe r Egypt, 1945), and the Manichean text s of Inner Asia (Taklamakan desert, 1902-1914) have given rise to the contemporary view of gnosticism as a world religion rather than a mere heretical formulation of Christianity. This new awareness o f the temporal and geographical, a s well a s th e theoretica l an d practica l diversit y of gnosticism , ha s aroused great interest in that tradition amon g contemporary scholars of religions. At present, there i s a wide range of translations of gnostic texts and secondary literature on gnosticism. Fairly recent endeavors of Buddhist scholars in preparing new editions and de finitive translations of Indo-Tibetan Buddhist tantras are bringing to light diverse and intriguing aspects of tan trie Buddhism. Some Buddhis t tantras, especially the tantras of the anuttara-yoga class , show a strong affinit y wit h the gnosti c view s of the indi vidual and the universe and striking similarities with practices of various non-Indian gnostic groups. Likewise, due to their strong emphasis o n the soteriologica l signifi cance o f realizing gnosis (jnana), th e unmediate d knowledge of absolute reality, th e anuttara-yoga-tantras can justifiabl y b e considered as religious treatises of a Buddhist gnostic traditio n i n India . Th e interpretatio n o f gnosi s a s intuitiv e knowledge , knowledge or a vision of oneself a s a spiritual reality, and the vie w of the univers e as the macrocos m o f that realit y are foun d equall y in Jewis h and Christia n form s of gnosticism, i n easter n Manicheism , an d i n th e anuttara-yoga'tantras. Similarly , the view of gnosis as distinct fro m reflective knowledge, namely, wisdom that is acquired through stud y and investigation , i s common t o th e aforementione d gnosti c traditions. I will attempt to demonstrate here tha t the Kalacakra traditio n i n India is an authentic gnostic tradition of Indian Buddhism and that gnosticism manifeste d itsel f in a greate r variet y o f form s an d localitie s tha n man y scholar s hav e originall y thought. While using the ter m "gnosticism" as a typological category, I am fully aware that 143

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this term i s a modern construc t tha t does not accuratel y define all of the tradition s and source s regularly classified a s "gnostic." The ter m "gnosticism" has ofte n bee n used as an umbrella term for various systems of belief an d multilayere d traditions of thought tha t wer e held togethe r b y gnosis. One o f the mos t renowne d scholar s of gnosticism, Hans Jonas, asserts that we can speak of gnostic schools, sects, and cults, of gnostic writings and teachings, o f gnostic myths and speculations in the sense that they share the followin g commo n features: ( i) the emphasi s on gnosis as the mean s for attainin g liberatio n o r as the for m o f liberation itself , an d (2 ) th e clai m t o th e possession o f gnosis.1 This broa d typologica l definition of gnosticism can mos t certainly be applied to the branc h o f tantric Buddhis m that is represented i n the Kolacakratantra and other anuttara'yoga-tantras. In th e Kalacakratantra, gnosis (jndna), whic h i s considered th e ultimat e reality, is the most crucial concept. As in other gnostic traditions, the main focus of the Kolacakratantra is on gnosis as the source of the individual' s aspiration for enlightenment , as the means leading to the fulfillmen t o f that aspiration, and as the fulfillment o f that aspiration. When thi s source of aspiration for spiritual awakening is brought forth , or mad e full y conscious , i t liberate s one fro m cycli c existence. Bu t whe n i t i s no t brought forth, o r remains unconscious , it destroys the individua l an d keeps hi m i n cyclic existence. Therefore , i t is said that gnosis is the source of both cyclic existence and nirvana. In this regard, the Kalacakratantra fully accords with the writings of other gnostic systems, which als o see gnosis as the sourc e of sublime power, the groun d of all being , an d th e potentia l fo r liberation or destruction, existin g in a latent stat e within the psych e of all people. The Gospel of Thomas expresse s it in this way: If you bring fort h wha t i s within you, what yo u bring forth wil l save you. If you d o not brin g forth what i s within you , what yo u do not brin g forth wil l destroy you. 2

Likewise, th e Kdlacakratantra's interpretatio n o f gnosis as the ultimat e support of th e conceptua l min d i n whic h i t expresse s itself b y means of thought resonate s with the followin g passage from th e Na g Hammadi text Trimorphic Protennoia: I a m perception an d knowledge , utterin g a Voice by means o f Thought. [I ] am th e real Voice. I cry out i n everyone, an d they kno w that the see d dwells within.3

Or in the poem that is included in the longe r version of the Apochryphon o f John, the Reveale r says the following : And I entered i n th e mids t o f their prison, tha t is , th e priso n o f their body. And I said, "You who hear, wake up from the heavy sleep!" And h e wept and poured fort h heavy tears, and then wiped them away and said, "Who i s it that is calling my name? And fro m wher e does this hope come , since I am in the chain s o f the prison?" 4

The Kalacakr a tradition's interpretatio n o f the presenc e o f pure and transcen dent gnosi s within ever y sentient bein g and withi n all things a s their nature , eve n when no t bein g yet realize d a s such, als o accords with interpretation s of gnosis in other gnosti c texts. Fo r example, in the Gospel of Thomas, Jesus says to his disciples who mistake salvation, or "Kingdom," for a future event , tha t the Kingdo m is inside them an d als o outside of them. H e say s further: "Wha t you look forwar d t o ha s already come, but you do not recogniz e it."5

The Gnostic Body 14

5

Furthermore, i n th e sam e way that som e Christian gnosti c text s identif y Jesu s the teache r simpl y with "knowledge of the truth," 6 so the Kalacakr a tradition iden tifies th e Buddh a Kalacakra with both knowledge (jndna) an d truth (tattva). Fo r the Kalacakra tradition as well as all other gnostic traditions, knowledge of the truth can be actualize d only b y looking within , fo r one's ow n gnosi s i s ultimately one's ow n teacher. Th e Kdlacakratantra expresse s this in the following manner: What mothe r o r father, wha t preciou s son s o r daughters o f yours, what brothe r o r sister, wha t wife , wha t maste r o r grou p o f friends, having abandone d th e pat h of truth, can remov e [your ] fear o f death?. . . 7

The Christian gnostic text the Testimony of Truth asserts that the gnosti c is a disciple of his own mind, "the fathe r of the truth." 8 Therefore, gnosi s is nothing other than self-knowledge, insight into the depths of one's own being. As for all other gnostic traditions, so too for the Kalacakra tradition, the individual who lacks this knowledge i s driven by impulses that he doe s not comprehend . On e suffer s du e t o igno rance regarding one's own divine nature. Therefore, ignorance of oneself i s a form of self-destruction. T o know oneself , one mus t first understand th e element s o f one's own natural environment and of one's own body. For this very reason, th e first two chapters of the Kdlacakratantra focus on the exposition of the elemental nature of the cosmos and the individua l and on the manne r o f their origination an d destruction . In this respect, the Kdlacakratantra also shows a great affinity wit h other gnostic writings. The followin g passage from th e Christia n gnosti c text the Dialogu e of the Savior perfectly accords with the Kalacakra tradition's way of understanding onesel f and th e world in which one live s in terms of conventional reality. . . . If one does not [understand ] ho w the fire came t o be, he will burn in it, becaus e he doe s not kno w hi s root. If one doe s no t first understand th e water , he doe s no t know anything. . . . If one does not understand ho w the wind that blows came to be, he will run with it . If one does not understan d ho w the body that he wears came t o be, he will perish wit h it . ... Whoeve r does no t understan d ho w he came wil l not understand ho w he will go. . . ?

Just a s i n th e contex t o f Christian gnosticism , whoever achieve s gnosi s is n o longer a Christian, bu t a Christ, s o for the Kalacakr a tradition, whoeve r actualize s gnosis i s no longe r a mer e tantri c Buddhist , bu t th e Buddh a Kalacakra . I n othe r words, in these gnostic traditions, one becomes the transcendent realit y that one perceives at th e tim e of spiritual transformation. Havin g perceived onesel f in this way, one perceive s and know s all thing s i n th e sam e way. Likewise, just as in th e Kolacakratantra, so too in some Christian gnosti c systems, the realization of gnosis entail s the transcendenc e o f all differentiations, or dualities, for it is the fina l integratio n of the knowe r and th e known . On e read s in the Gospel of Thomas: When you make th e tw o one, an d whe n yo u make th e insid e lik e the outsid e and the outsid e lik e th e inside , and th e abov e lik e th e below , and when yo u make th e male and the female one and the sam e . . . then you will enter [the Kingdom]. 10

The Kalacakratantra speak s of this nondual perceptio n o f the worl d in term s of seeing all things as being of the "sam e taste" (sama-rasa), th e tast e o f gnosis.

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There are many other "gnostic " feature s characterizing the Kalacakra tradition and other Buddhist tantric systems in India that ar e also characteristic o f other ancient gnostic systems. Some of their common, gnosti c characteristics ar e the follow ing: (i) an affinity for the nonliteral significance of language and for the usage of symbolic language, (2) the assertion that the ultimate is essentially indescribable but can be imagined as androgynous, a dyad consisting of masculine and feminine elements, the Father and Mother, (3) the claim to the possession of esoteric teachings that are not intende d for the general public bu t only for those who have proven themselves to be spiritually mature and qualified for receiving initiation, and (4) a subversive attitude with regard to the social hierarchy and the deconstruction o f established, cultural norms, which ca n be escaped through ritua l enactments.11 A certai n ambivalence wit h regar d to th e physica l body i s equally found i n variou s Nag Hammad i texts, i n the Kalacakratantra, an d i n other anuttara-yoga-tantras. On th e on e hand, these texts spea k of the physica l body as a "prison" an d a source of suffering du e t o its weakness and impermanence ; an d on th e other hand, the y presen t th e huma n body a s a domain i n which th e convergenc e o f the tw o realms—the utterl y pure, transcendent real m an d th e impure , material realm—takes place. Just as the Kala cakratantra sees the huma n body as a microcosmic image of the externa l world and spiritual reality and the univers e as the bod y of the Buddh a Kalacakra, so some Jewish and Christian gnosti c group s saw the huma n anatomy as a kind of a map of reality and the universe as a divine body. For example, according to Hippolytus, Nassenes interpreted th e biblica l description of the Garde n o f Eden and it s four river s as the brain and the fou r senses , whereas Simonians interprete d th e Garde n a s the womb, Eden as the placenta , an d the rive r that flows out of Eden as the navel , which i s divided int o four channels—tw o arteries and tw o veins. Simila r allegorical interpretation o f the huma n bod y and anatomica l interpretatio n o f the environmen t ar e characteristic of many Buddhist and non-Buddhist tantras. Likewise, for many gnostic systems , as for the Kalacakratantra tradition, a goal i s not onl y t o transfor m th e mind but also to transform the bod y itself. There are also some commonalities regarding the method s of achieving gnosis. Even thoug h mos t of the gnosti c texts discovered at Nag Hammadi do not explai n methods fo r realizing gnosis, the fe w texts that describe the practic e o f meditation and tona l recitations a s the mean s o f accessing inner gnosi s show correspondence s with the Kalacakra tradition and all other tantric systems. The "Final Document" o f the conference on gnosticism that was held in Messina, Italy, in 196 6 proposes a working definition of gnosticism, according to which, not ever y gnosis is Gnosticism, bu t only tha t which involve s i n this perspective th e idea of the divin e consubstantialit y o f the spar k that i s in need of being awakene d and re-integrated . Thi s gnosi s o f Gnosticis m involve s th e divin e identit y o f th e knouier (th e Gnostic), th e known (th e divin e substanc e o f one's transcendent self) , and the means by which one knows that gnosi s a s an implici t divin e facult y i s to b e awakened an d actualized. This gnosis is a revelation traditio n of a different type from the Biblica l and Islamic revelation tradition. 12 As th e aforementione d parallel s suggest , an d a s th e res t o f this chapte r wil l demonstrate, the above-give n definition of the gnosi s of gnosticism can easil y be ap-

The Gnostic Body 14

7

plied to the Kalacakratantra, even thoug h th e Kalacakra tradition doe s not cal l itself "gnostic." Nowhere i n the Kalacakra literature can one find explicit references to the tradition a s a Buddhist gnosticism and to it s adherents a s gnostics, but thi s does no t mean that this tantric tradition did not recognize its gnostic orientation. A s the early Buddhist Pali sources indicate, the earlies t disciples o f the Buddh a never referred to themselves as Buddhists (bauddha) but as disciples (savaka), monk s (bhikhu), novice s (samanera), mendicant s (paribdjjaka), an d s o on. Th e absenc e o f their self-designa tion as Buddhists by no means excludes their Buddhist self-identification. Moreover, one encounter s i n th e Vimalaprabhd a t leas t on e implici t referenc e t o th e Kolacakratantra as a gnostic system. Defining the Kalacakra tradition as the Vajrayana tradition tha t consist s o f th e system s o f mantras (mantra-naya) an d o f perfection s (paramitd-naya), th e Vimalaprabha interpret s mantra as gnosis in the followin g manner: "Mantr a i s gnosis because it protects th e mind." )3 In this way, the Vimalaprabha implicitly defines th e Kalacakratantra a s a gnostic system (jnana-rurya) . The absenc e o f the explici t self-designatio n "gnostic" i s characteristic o f most gnostic writings. Scholars o f gnosticism point ou t that in all original gnostic writings of differen t gnosti c traditions , the self-designatio n gnostikos nowher e appears . I t i s only i n th e work s of the earl y Christian heresiologists , specifically , Irenaeus , Hip polytus, and Epiphanius , tha t we read reports of the self-designatio n gnostikos. Th e contemporary America n schola r o f gnosticism Michael A. Williams asserts: "to th e extent tha t 'gnostic' was employed as a self-designation, it ordinarily, or perhaps always, denoted a quality rather tha n a sectarian or socio-traditional identity." 14 This also seems to be the manne r i n which th e Kalacakr a tradition i n Indi a understoo d its gnostic character . Some scholar s o f gnosticism, seeing the obviou s similarities between Buddhist and Judeo-Christia n gnosticism , have considere d th e possibilit y of Buddhist influ ence on gnostic communities i n Alexandria, where Buddhist missionaries had bee n proselytizing for generations a t th e tim e when trad e route s between th e Greco-Ro man worl d and Asi a were opening u p an d gnosticism flourishe d (8-20 0 CE). 15 Edward Conze also points to the possible influences of Buddhism on the Christian gnostic communitie s i n Sout h India , whos e authoritativ e scriptur e wa s th e Gospel of Thomas.16 However, for the tim e being, the lac k of conclusive evidence leaves us uncertain as to whether their commonalities ar e due to mutual influence s or whether they ar e expressions of the sam e issue s taking different form s a t differen t time s and in various regions. Likewise, the Kalacakratantra's evident gnosti c orientation an d affinit y wit h non Buddhist gnostic traditions led some German scholar s to suggest that Manicheism influenced the Kalacakr a tradition i n Indi a an d eve n tantri c Buddhis m as a whole.17 Their suggestions are not sufficientl y substantiated , however, and need further , thor ough investigation of all the relevant sources and a judicious and balanced treatmen t of th e difficul t issue s pertaining t o th e questio n o f the origin s and historica l devel opment o f the Kalacakr a tradition and Manicheism . The Manichea n text s do inform u s that after engagin g in missionary activities in the Persia n kingdom of the Sassanians , i n 240 or 241, Mani visited India and the adjacent regions, known toda y as Beluchistan, where he converted a Buddhist king, the Turan Shah. In the Kephalaia, 184 . 12 , Mani claim s that during his visit to the Indus

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valley, h e "move d th e whol e lan d o f India." 18 However , ther e i s no evidenc e tha t Manichean communities lasted in India for a long period of time or that Manicheism exerted a noticeable influenc e on Buddhism. On the contrary, Manichean texts , such as the Cologne Mani Codex, indicate that already in its earliest phase in the Parthia n East Iran, where Buddhism was well established, Mani's disciples made an attempt t o adopt Mahayan a Buddhist ideas . Hans Klimkei t points out that as one look s first at the Parthian an d then at the Sogdian and Turkish literature of Manicheism, one can observe th e increasin g adaptatio n of Eastern Manicheism to Buddhism. I n different areas o f th e world , Manicheis m freel y adopte d differen t symbols , myths, an d lan guages o f th e coexistin g tradition s i n thos e areas . Fo r example , th e Chines e Manichean sourc e th e Hymnscroll frequentl y speaks of the divin e spar k in man, or gnosis, as the "Buddha nature." As Mani claimed that the knowledge that he received from Go d embrace s al l wisdo m containe d i n earlie r religiou s traditions , th e Manichean churc h wa s allowed to embrac e al l earlier religious communities. Man i and his missionaries thought tha t it was necessary to appropriate symbols and ideas from othe r religiou s traditions i n order to ensure the proliferation of Manicheism in the world. Consequently, th e Manichean syncretis m systematically integrated itself into ne w cultural domains. Like the Kalacakr a tradition, it was self-consciously absorbent an d did not resor t to just disorganized and scattered cultural borrowings and reinterpretations. There i s a striking similarity between Manicheism an d the Kalacakra tradition wit h regard to their use of syncretism as a form of proselytism. In this regard, both traditions claimed their ow n universality and supremacy over other religious systems, on th e ground s that othe r system s are parochially tied t o particular places and cultures. Likewise, these two gnostic systems equally see the present stat e of the individua l as characterized by a mixture of good and evil , of gnosis and mat ter, which ar e in constant opposition to each other, with the individua l as their battlefield. The secon d chapter of the Kalacakratantra depicts the individua l as a battlefield, in which the war that will be waged between th e CakrI and the Barbarian s i n the lan d o f Mecca is already taking place within th e bod y of the individual . In that internal battlefield, Kalkl, who is the individual' s correct knowledge (samyag-jnana), with his army's four divisions 19—the four Immeasurables—wages battle with the vicious king of the Barbarians , Krnamati, who i s the evi l within one' s own body, th e path o f nonvirtue (akusala'patha). Krnamati' s fourfol d army , whic h consist s o f th e four classes of Maras in the body , is led by the genera l Asvatthama, wh o is one's own spiritual ignorance (avidya), Kalkl' s victory in this battle is the attainment o f the pat h of liberation (moksa-marga), an d within th e bod y the destructio n o f Asvatthama i s the eradication of the fear of cyclic existence. The establishe d lineages of Kalki's sons Brahma and Suresa are the pure Buddhas, who have become th e nature of one's psycho-physical aggregates, elements, an d sense-bases. 20 Similarly, the Kephalaia warns that there ar e many powers in the body, who are its magnates that cree p and walk in the body , wounding and destroying each other ; however , the Min d o f Light i n th e body acts like a soldier, releasing the bod y from sin s and generating a new body and a new sense of self.21 Just like the gnosi s of the Kalacakratantra, the Manichean Min d of Light functions as the protecto r o f the bod y and mind . The Kephalaia expresse s it in this way:

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9

Look, then, at how much th e strengt h an d diligence o f the Min d o f Light is upon all th e watchtower s of the body . He stand s before his camp. He shut s all the rea sonings of the bod y from th e attraction s of sin. H e limits them, scatters them, removes them by his will.22

Thus, i n the Kalacakra tradition and in Manicheism, the soteriological struggles in the external world are constantly being enacted i n exact mimesis within one's own body. The power s in the world and within the individua l are interrelated an d analogous. The analog y between the microcosm and macrocosm plays an important role in both traditions . Similarly, the liberatio n o f the min d involve s its freedom fro m their matter, which fetters the mind to sin. Therefore, th e holders of both traditions were equally concerned wit h their bodie s as with their minds . These an d other similarities between the Kdlacakratantra an d eastern Maniche ism do not constitut e sufficien t evidenc e for determining that the tw o traditions directly influence d each other . Rather, the y sugges t tha t thei r commonalitie s coul d have resulted from their independent reinterpretations of earlier Mahayana Buddhist concepts, which Manicheism liberally appropriated. To determin e th e specific , gnosti c orientatio n o f the Kalacakr a tradition, we must first understand th e way s in which thi s tantric syste m interprets gnosis and its functions an d delineates the practice s for actualizing it.

The Individual , Gnosis, and the Individua l as Gnosis As in the case of other anuttara-yoga-tantras, the Kalacakra tradition's interpretatio n of gnosis has an earlier precedent in the Mahayana's interpretation of the perfectio n of wisdom—specifically, i n the literatur e of the Prajndpdramitd corpus . The interna l evidence, however, indicates that it s closest precedent i s the ManjusrindmasamgTti's presentation o f the omniscien t an d innatel y pur e gnosis ( jndna). Th e Manjusrinamasamgiti and the Kdlacakratantra are intimately related in terms of their exposition s of the Jnanakaya. The Manjusrlndmasamgiti wa s traditionally included in the literary corpus of the Kalacakr a tradition. Its close connection t o th e Kalacakr a tradition is indicated by the Vimalaprabhd itself , which state s that the Kdlacakratantra "is embraced by the Ndmasamgiti, whic h clarifie s th e Jnanakaya , Vajradhara."23 I t assert s that the Tathagata, having extracted th e essenc e of the Bhagava n Vajradhara fro m all three Vehicles, illuminates the sublime , imperishable gnosis in the NamasamgTti. In thi s way , the Vimalaprabhd suggest s that th e essenc e o f the Vajrayan a teaching s lies at the heart of all Buddhist teachings. It also states that the Jnanakaya, which "is described by one hundred and sixty-two verses in the NdmasamgTti," i s "called the vajra-word in every king of tantras (tarUra-raja)"24—specifically, i n the Mdydjdla an d i n the Samdjd, whic h it oddly classifies a s the kriyd an d yoga-tantras.25 The ManjuMna masamgiti itself also hints a t it s affiliation wit h the Mdydjalatantra.26 The Vimalaprabhd frequentl y cite s such verses from th e Manjusrlndmasamgiti i n order t o suppor t an d elucidat e th e Kdlacakratantra's theor y o f gnosi s an d th e Jnanakaya. As the followin g analysis of the Kalacakr a tradition' s discussion of gnosis will demonstrate, the Kalacakr a tradition's explanations of gnosis in terms of ultimate reality coincide a t almost every point with the Majnusrmamasamgfti' s presen -

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tation of gnosis as the gnostic being (jnana-sattva), Vajrasattva , who is endowed with sublime bliss (mahd-sukha); a s Vajradhara, who i s self-arisen from spac e an d there fore simila r to space, eternal and nondual, wh o is thusness (tathatd), th e completely auspicious (samantabhadra), grea t mind o f the Buddhas , realit y (tattva); an d a s th e Adibuddha, wh o is without beginning o r end, th e sublim e breath (maha-svasa), es tablished withi n th e mind s o f al l sentien t beings , an d s o on. Likewise , both th e ManjusrmdmasamgTti an d the Adibuddhatantra make almost identical references to the Jnankaya as "the beginningles s and endless Buddha, Adibuddha," a s "the five-syllable grea t emptines s (maha-sunya) an d th e six-syllabl e drop-emptines s (bindusunya),"27 an d the like.

Gnosis as the All-Pervadin g Mind and as the Four Bodies of the Buddh a There ar e man y way s i n whic h gnosi s i s referred t o an d explaine d i n th e India n sources of the Kalacakratantra tradition. It is primarily interpreted as the min d (citta) that brings forth immutable bliss as the desired result, and as the min d that is the result itself , namely, the min d o f immutable bliss. 28 Thus, gnosis i s seen as the unit y (ekatva) o f two aspects of the mind , which are the caus e and result of spiritual awakening. Fro m that vantage point, gnosi s is also referred t o a s the suprem e and inde structible vajra-yoga consistin g of wisdom (prajna) an d method (updya), o r emptines s (sunyata) an d compassio n (kanma). Emptiness , whic h i s it s reflection , o r for m (bimbo), is the cause ; and compassion, which is indestructible bliss, is the result. Gnosis is the nondua l yoga of these two . As such, it is identified a s the unifie d min d that is free o f momentariness an d an y causal relation (niranvaya), an d lack s an inheren t existence (svabhava).Z9 I t is free o f momentariness i n the sens e that for gnosis there is no origination, duration, or cessation of any phenomenon, althoug h b y its efficac y all worlds and everythin g i n them aris e and cease. 30 It i s free o f causal relations i n the sens e tha t i t transcend s al l conceptual classifications . The Adibuddhatantra de scribes it in the followin g way: It has passed beyon d [th e designations: ] "It exists " an d "I t doe s no t exist. " It i s the cessation of existence an d non-existence . I t i s nondual. It i s the vajra-yog a tha t is non-differentiated fro m emptiness an d compassion . I t i s the suprem e bliss . It ha s transcende d th e realit y o f atoms. I t i s devoid o f empty dharmas. I t i s free o f eternity an d annihilation . It i s the vajra'yoga tha t is without causa l relations. 31

In the Kalacakr a literature, gnosis of the indivisible , supreme, and imperishabl e (aksara) blis s is given different name s in accordance with its qualities and functions. Thus, i t is called the "vajra," an d one who has it is refered to as a vajn ("on e who has a vajra"). Vajra i s characterized as indestructible (aksara) sinc e it i s imperishable an d does not g o anywhere. Therefore, i n the literar y corpus of the Kalacakratantra, th e word "imperishable" always designates supreme, imperishable bliss and gnosis of that bliss. Gnosis i s also called a mantra due t o its function o f protecting the mind . Likewise, i t i s called "spiritua l knowledge" (vidya) o f the individua l and th e "perfectio n

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of wisdom" (prajnd'paramitd). I t is termed the "th e grea t seal" (maha-mudrd), fo r it is believed tha t ther e i s nothing beyond it . Similarly , it i s referred t o a s the dharma dhatu, the Sahajakay a ("Th e Innat e Body"), the Jnanakaya ("Gnosis-body") , or the Visuddhakaya ("Pur e Body") . It i s identified as the couple , Vajrasattv a and Mata , which evade s the dependentl y arise n sense-faculties because i t has transcended th e reality of atoms (pararndnu-dharmata) an d because i t is like a dream or an imag e in a prognostic mirror . I t i s of th e natur e o f th e aggregate s (skandha) an d sense-base s (ayatana), whic h are free of obscurations (avarana) an d have become of the same taste (sama-rasa). O n that ground, they are called "supreme and indestructible" (paramak' sara). The supreme , indestructible is designated as the lette r a, the Samyaksambud dha, Vajrasattva, the androgynou s state, the Bhagava n Kalacakra. 32 Gnosis i s the mind , radiant b y nature an d devoi d of the impuritie s of habitual propensities (vdsana) o f transmigratory existence. Thi s pure mind i s not character ized by any form, for it i s devoid of atomic particles , nor i s it characterized by formlessness, for its "form" is emptiness.33 Thus, being devoid of both form an d formless ness, it is like a reflection in a prognostic mirror. Gnosis transcends the dualit y of subject and object, for it is simultaneously both knowledge (jnana) an d the objec t o f knowledge (jneya). A s the subjec t and the ob ject o f knowledge , i t i s fre e o f conceptualization s (vikalpa) an d atomi c matte r (pammanu'dravya). Althoug h gnosis is free o f conceptualizations, it i s not devoi d of mentation (tintana ) becaus e unlik e th e stat e o f dee p sleep , i t i s self-awar e (sva samvedya) ,34 Bu t it s self-awarenes s does no t preclud e th e fac t tha t gnosi s i s th e knowledge of the absenc e o f the inheren t existence of all phenomena. Moreover, it is precisely the self-awarenes s an d natural luminosity of the Tathagata' s gnosis that enable the Tathagat a t o teach Dharma i n accordance wit h the menta l disposition s of sentient beings . This self-awareness of the Tathagat a i s not affecte d b y the sense faculties, s o it i s partless, all-pervasive, free o f obscurations, and awar e of the natur e of all dharmas, which ar e themselves unconscious du e to lacking self-awareness. Th e independence o f self-awareness from the sense-facultie s implies that one does not requre a physical body in order to remove mental obscurations and experience the self awareness of the gnosi s of sublime, imperishabl e blis s due to the unificatio n o f one's own mind with the appearance s (pmtibhasa) o f that mind. According t o this tantric system, gnosis can becom e self-aware through th e min d alone, due to the efficac y of the adventitious (dgantuka), habitua l propensities of the mind (dtta-vasand]. Th e adventitious, habitua l propensitie s o f the min d ar e the so-calle d psycho-physical aggregates, elements, and sense-bases. Under their influence , feelings of happiness and suffering ente r the mind. Experiences in the dreaming state attest to the fact that the mind can become self-awar e i n the absenc e o f a physical body in the dream . In th e dreaming state, a dream body, which consists of the habitual propensities of the mind and i s devoid of agglomerations of atoms, suffers injur y or experiences great pleasure, and consequently, feelings of suffering or pleasure enter the mind of the dreamer , and self-awareness as knowledge of one's own suffering o r happiness take s place. Bu t this all occurs without the dreamer's actual body experiencing injury or pleasure. The Vi malaprabha refer s t o thi s abilit y of the min d a s a "grea t miracle, " which eve n th e learned cannot fathom. It comments that if this limited knowledge is difficult t o grasp for th e learned , then how muc h more difficult i t is for foolish people to understand

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"the completely auspicious (samantabhadra) gnosi s of sublime, imperishable bliss, the yogi's self-awareness, which arises from th e habitua l propensities that are free o f obscurations an d whic h transcend s th e habitua l propensitie s of transmigratory exis tence." To those who may assert that the mind' s ability for self-awareness entails the presence of a physical body, claiming that dreaming, waking, and deep sleep arise in dependence upo n th e inhalation s an d exhalation s i n th e body , the Vimalaprabha poses the followin g questions and arguments: If the dreaming state does not aris e in the mind without inhalations and exhalations , then how is it possible that without inhalation s and exhalations, th e appearanc e of the min d occur s up to one watch of the day in the unconsciou s stat e of death? How is it possible that the body , which i s being led to the cit y of Yama by the messenger s of Yama, in accordanc e wit h th e injunctio n o f king Yama , comes int o existence ? How i s it that king Yama also appears in th e cit y of Yama; and ho w i s it that Yama examines the sin s and virtues of the bod y that has been brought? Upon examinin g [the sin s an d virtues] , he says : "Because th e lif e o f this on e ha s no t ye t bee n ex hausted, swiftl y tak e thi s person t o th e worl d o f mortals s o that his body may no t perish! This is the task of Yama's messengers. In accordance wit h their task, the messengers of Yama throw that body into the worl d of mortals. Once it is thrown there , then due to the power of the habitual propensities of the mind, the inhalation s an d exhalations o f that body reoccur. Afterwards , due to th e efficac y o f a different habitual propensity, the waking state occurs. After the mind's awakening int o the waking state, tha t [person ] inform s his relatives abou t kin g Yama. Therefore, withou t the bod y an d without th e inhalation s an d exhalations , th e adventitious , habitua l propensities o f the min d aris e due to the powe r of rebirths, an d the y ar e not inher ent to sentient beings. . . . Thus, due to the power of the habitual propensities of the mind an d not du e to acquiring a body of atoms, the gnosi s of wisdom (prajnd'jndna) becomes self-awareness. 35

As the las t line of this passage indicates , i n this tantric tradition, the Buddha' s self-awareness i s also understood as the gnosi s (jnana), o r awareness, of his ow n wisdom (prajfia) tha t perceives the empt y nature of all phenomena . The Vimalaprabha als o criticizes those who argue that becaus e during the experience o f sexual bliss in a dream, it is the dreamer' s physical body that emit s semen and not th e drea m body, the self-awarenes s of the min d arises due to the capacit y of the physical body and not du e to the capacit y of the mind . It rebuts their argument by asserting that even formles s beings, whose bodies are composed of the space-element alone , als o emit semen (whic h consists of the space-element ) under the influ ence of the habitua l propensities of their minds . It argues that if the emissio n of semen could not occu r without a physical body, then formles s being s would not emi t semen, and thus would not b e subject to the cycl e of transmigration. Since formles s beings are subject to the cycl e of transmigration, they must experience the gnosi s of bliss and seminal emission, and thus, seminal emission must arise due to the capac ity of the min d and not th e physical body.36 For this tantric system , gnosis is Buddhahood, the ultimat e reality (paramdrtha) of the Buddhas , thusness (tathata), which is directly perceived37 and whose nature is supreme, immutabl e bliss. That reality is a life-principle, or a sublime prana (mahdprana), which pervades the entir e universe , manifesting itself i n different forms . A s

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such, it is said to be present within the hear t of every sentient being.38 As a sublime prdna, it is recognized as the sourc e of all utterances, even though i t is unutterable itself.' As the pervade r of everything, gnosis is recognized as the sixt h element, the el ement o f gnosis (jndna'dhdtu), o r dharma-dhatu, whic h exist s i n th e othe r fiv e ele ments—earth, water, fire, wind, and space—an d i s also their beginning (ddi). Th e Kalacakra traditio n view s th e gnosis-elemen t a s th e birthplac e (yoni) o f al l phe nomena on the groun d that it is primordially unoriginated. Thi s view has its precedent i n the Mahayan a view of the dharma-dhatu, as presented i n the Mahdydndbhidharmasutra, which reads: The beginningles s dhatu is the commo n basis of all phenomena. Because i t exists, there is every state o f existence and th e attainmen t of nirvana as well.39

The aforementione d explanatio n o f the gnosis-elemen t in the Kalacakr a tradition indicates that the wor d dhatu i n the compound s jndna-dhdtu an d dhamna-dhatu is understoo d i n thre e ways—a s th e ingredient , a s th e cause , an d a s th e locus ; whereas, in the Mahdydnabhidharmasutra, th e wor d dhatu seems to be understood i n just two ways—as the locus and as the cause. The gnosis-elemen t a s the component of phenomenal existenc e ha s two aspects : atempora l an d temporal . Althoug h th e gnosis-element a s the beginningles s source of phenomenal existenc e i s atemporal, it appears as temporal when i t arises in the impermanen t body of the individual . In its temporal appearance, th e gnosis-element, like the othe r five elements, originates in the bod y fro m on e o f the si x flavors—specifically from th e sou r flavor, provided b y the embryo's nourishment throug h the mother's food an d drink.40 From that temporal gnosis-element withi n th e bod y arise sexual bliss, which i s a phenomenal aspec t of gnosis, the individual' s menta l facult y (mano-indriya), an d soun d (sabda). Thes e three are identified with the gnosis-element fro m which the y originate. As the men tal faculty , th e gnosis-elemen t apprehend s th e dharma-dhdtu, whic h arises from th e space-element (dkdsa'dhdtu); an d a s sound, it i s apprehended b y the auditor y sensefaculty, whic h als o arises from th e space-element. 41 I n ligh t o f this, on e ma y infe r that within th e body of the individual , the gnosis-element , being the apprehendin g subject (grdhaka) o f the space-elemen t an d th e apprehende d objec t (grahya ) o f th e space-element, bears th e characteristic s of the space-element . Thus, being lik e th e space-element, gnosi s is indestructible an d eternal . However , one doe s not experience one's own gnosis-element as such until one's own "gnosis merges with the for m of emptiness (sunyatd'bimba)," meaning , until the mind as the apprehendin g subjec t (grdhaka) merge s into the appearance of the mind as the apprehended objec t (grahya) and "become s o f th e sam e tast e (sama-rasa)—imperishabl e an d eternal." 42 Th e merging of gnosis into space , which i s an empt y dharma fro m whic h al l phenomen a arise just as a sprout arises from a seed,43 is understood here as emptiness. This awareness of the ultimat e absence of the originatio n and cessation of all phenomena i s the appearance of one's own mind. It is gnosis, the indestructibl e bliss. Thus, whe n one' s own gnosis merges into its own appearance, which is nothing other than the absence of the originatio n an d cessation o f all phenomena, i t becomes of the sam e taste, due not t o a causal, or generative, relatio n wit h regard to its own reflection, but due to being unified i n the appearanc e o f one's ow n mind.44

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The Vimalaprabha interpret s the Kalacakratantra's characterizatio n of gnosis as eternal (sasvata) i n terms of its freedom from obscurations (niravarana).45 I n this way, it points t o th e lac k of contradiction o f this characterization of gnosis with the ear lier quoted statement from th e Adibuddhatantra, which defines gnosis as "free of eternity (sasvata) an d annihilatio n (uccheda)" i n terms of eluding any categorization. Gnosis also transcends all classifications with regard to its grounding, for it does not abid e in nirvana or samsara. A closer look at the Kalacakratantra's interpretatio n of gnosis reveals that for this tantri c tradition , gnosi s is not grounde d i n either on e of these tw o because in it s empty aspect, it is devoid of nirvana and i n it s blissful aspect, it transcends samsara. This interpetation of the manner in which gnosis abide s neither i n nirvana nor i n samsara i s also expressed by the followin g verse from th e Sekoddesa, whic h states : Its for m (bimba) i s devoid o f nirvana, and indestructibl e [bliss ] transcends samsara . The unio n o f thes e two , whic h i s devoi d o f eternalis m (sasvata) an d nihilis m (uccheda), i s nondual and withou t parallel. 46

The sam e text explains further tha t thi s interpretation doe s not impl y that th e form o f emptines s (sunyata-bimba) enter s samsara an d indestructibl e blis s enter s nirvana. Instead, these two aspects of gnosis are "mutually embraced and peaceful, th e supreme state of androgyny."47 Although gnosi s itself is not grounde d in samsara or nirvana, it is called samsara when it manifests as the universe with its atoms, stars, planets, mountains, rivers, sentient beings, and so forth; and it is called nirvana when it appears as complete knowledge (parijndna) o f cyclic existence. Th e complet e knowledg e of cyclic existence is the perceptio n o f the thre e realms—th e desire, form, an d formless realms—as they are within the three times: past, present, and future. 48 This vie w of gnosis as the omnipresen t min d of the Buddha , which simultane ously transcends th e cycl e of transmigration and i s immanent within it , is similar to panentheism, th e vie w that th e finite universe lies within God, wh o i s unbounded and infinite . However , the Kalacakr a traditio n goe s beyond panentheis m b y interpreting gnosis not only as being immanent within the inanimat e universe and within every sentient being, but also as manifested i n the for m of the phenomenal existence . It asserts that the thre e realm s of cyclic existence are the for m (rupa) o f Vajrasattva because gnosis dwells with great bliss within the nature o f all things.49 Likewise, the Vimalaprabha assert s that "conventional reality has the form of emptiness and emptiness has the for m of conventional reality," 50 since gnosis is free o f atoms and yet it is found in emptiness. This conviction that the entire cosmos is a manifestation of gnosis underlies the Kalacakratantra's theor y of the cosmo s as the macrocosmi c aspect of the individua l and its presence within th e body of the individual. One ma y ask here: I f gnosis is the sourc e and ontologica l realit y of everything, what are the implication s for Buddhist claims about identitylessness (nairatmya) an d emptiness (sunyata)! Th e Kdlacakratantra indirectly addresses this question in a number of ways, which wil l be indicate d later . Primarily, though, it addresse s this question by identifying gnosis with the blissfu l aspect of the mind , which i s nondual fro m the emptines s of inherent existenc e o f that mind , and i t thereby evades reiflcation. It assert s that ther e i s neither a Buddha nor enlightenment , sinc e "the entir e uni-

The Gnostic Bod} 15 5 verse is empty, devoid of reality and of the natur e of the appearance s o f things."51 In this way, the Kdlacakratantra's theor y o f gnosis as the realit y that transcends al l con ceptual constructs, includin g those of existence and nonexistence, i n no way contradicts th e Madhyamak a theme s o f identitylessnes s an d emptiness . Th e Vimalaprabhd explicitl y states that gnosis lacks inherent existenc e sinc e gnosi s is endowed with all aspects (sarvdkdra), jus t as it lacks shape and yet it gives rise to all manner s of shapes.52 Likewise, as in the Manjusrindmasamgiti, so in this tantric system , gnosis is interpreted a s the awarenes s that transcends th e realit y of consciousness (vijnana,' dharmatd), whic h i s ascertained b y the Yogacar a school.53 According t o thi s tantri c system , gnosis i s not onl y th e ontologica l realit y of everything ther e is, but i t is also "the suprem e goal" (mahartha) t o be realized by th e tantric adept. I t i s the Buddh a Kalacakra, 54 who i s seen a s both "the sel f (atman) o f one's own body, speech, mind, an d passion"55 and as "the supreme , immutabl e blis s characterized b y perfect awakenin g i n a single moment " (eka-ksanibhisambodhi),56 Perfect awakenin g i n a single moment i s interpreted her e as the min d that is free of momentary phenomena (ksaria-dharma) and is designated as "the lac k of inherent existence" (nihsvabhdva) .51 It i s gnosis called "reality " (tattva ) that is devoid o f one o r many moments. 58 As supreme, immutable bliss, gnosis is also the means by which the tantri c adep t realizes that goal. The tantri c adept attains perfect awakening in a single moment by bringing fort h 21,60 0 moment s o f supreme, immutabl e bliss . Fo r thi s reason , th e Kalacakra literature also defines gnosis as "the pat h of the Jina" 59 and as "the pat h of liberation, which, embraced by wisdom, or emptiness, i s one's own mind that has entered innat e bliss." 60 Furthermore, th e Kalacakr a traditio n present s gnosis not onl y a s the goa l to be attained an d as the path to that goal, but also as the discourse of the Kdlacakratantra and a s it s origina l teacher . Suc h a n interpretatio n o f gnosi s remind s on e o f Dignaga's explanatio n o f the perfectio n o f wisdom (prajnd'pdramitd), give n i n th e Prajndpdramitdpinddrtha. Accordin g t o Dignaga, the perfectio n of wisdom is nondual knowledge, the Tathagata, the text of the Prajndpdramitd sutras, and the path toward that nondual knowledge.61 The Kalacakra tradition's identification of gnosis with the perfection o f wisdo m indicate s tha t it s presentatio n o f gnosi s a s th e enlightene d teacher an d teaching is most intimatel y relate d to th e aforementione d Mahayana' s interpretation o f the perfectio n o f wisdom. In this tantric system , gnosis is described not onl y in terms of the min d but also in terms of the body . The Vimalaprabhd assert s that apart fro m th e body , there is no other Buddh a wh o i s the pervade r (vydpaka) an d th e bestowe r of liberation. The el ements of the body that are free of obscurations (nirdvarana) ar e the bestowers of Buddhahood an d liberation. 62 For this and other related tantric systems, due to the menta l disposition s of sentient beings , gnosis , the blis s of ultimate reality , manifests in sentien t being s bor n from a wom b a s th e fou r type s o f bliss—namely , blis s (dnanda), suprem e blis s (paramdrumda), extraordinar y bliss (viramdnanda), an d innat e bliss (sahajdnanda),63 Each o f these fou r type s of bliss has fou r aspects : a bodily, verbal, mental, an d gnos tic aspect . Fo r this reason , gnosi s manifests with sixtee n aspect s of bliss altogether . These sixtee n aspect s o f gnosis ar e none othe r tha n th e body , speech, mind , an d

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gnosis o f th e fou r bodie s o f th e Buddha : namely , th e Sahajakaya , Dharmakaya , Sambhogakaya, and Nirmanakaya. The sixtee n aspects of bliss are said to appea r i n these four bodies according t o the superior aspirations (adhimukti) o f sentient beings. Thus, th e aspec t in which thi s unified an d indivisible reality, named gnosis, will appear to the individua l is determined b y the individual' s own dispositions an d degree of spiritual maturation. Althoug h th e fou r bodie s of the Buddh a manifest and func tion in different ways , they ar e of the sam e nature and ar e mutually pervasive. The Kalacakr a tradition' s theor y o f the manifestatio n o f the sixtee n aspect s of gnosis in terms of both conventional (samvrti'Satya) an d ultimate realities (paramanhasatya) i s schematically presented i n table 7.1. The sixtee n facet s of the four bodies of the Buddha (listed in the second colum n of the following table) arise when the sixteen types of bliss that characterize the body of the individua l cease. Thus, th e sixtee n type s of bliss of the individua l are the im pure, o r perishable , aspect s o f the sixtee n facet s of the sublime , imperishable blis s (mahaksara-sukha) o f the Sahajakaya . The y become purifie d du e to th e cessatio n of bodily semen having sixtee n parts, which are the internal sixteen digits of the moon . Due to the purification of semen, one becomes the Buddh a Kalacakra, whom the Vimalaprabha characterizes i n this respect as "the stainless light o f the vajra-moon, " using the word s of the Manjusrinamasamgiti's eulog y of the gnosti c being , ManjusrT. 64 The Vimalaprabhd indicate s that this classification of the gnostic vajra o f the Buddha , which has sixteen types of bliss, has its precedent i n the Ndrnasamgiti's characteriza tion of Manjusrl as one who "knows the reality with sixteen aspects."65 However, as indicated i n th e introductor y chapter , th e NamasamgTtivrtti (182 . 5 . 2 ) interpret s these sixtee n aspect s of reality not i n terms of bliss but i n terms of emptiness. With regard to the spiritually awakened ones, the sixteen facets of the fou r bodies of the Buddh a are seen as the fou r types of unions (;yoga) , due to the classificatio n of the fou r bodies of the Buddha . I n terms of ordinary human beings , the aforementioned sixtee n types of bliss are also characterized as the fou r yogas—the yogas of th e body, speech, mind , an d gnosis—i n accordanc e wit h th e classificatio n o f the wak ing, dreaming, sleeping, and the fourt h state of the mind. 66 In order to understand th e Kalacakr a tradition's concep t of gnosis in terms of ultimate reality, one needs to look first at its most unmediated aspects and functions as expressed i n the fou r bodies of the Buddha . Emphasizin g the indestructibilit y o f the four bodie s of the Buddha , the Kalacakr a tradition ofte n depicts them as the fou r vajras—specifically, a s the gnosis-wjra , th e mind-vo/ra , speech-vajra, an d th e bodyvajra. Th e Kalacakratantra demarcates th e fou r vajras i n the followin g way: The body-vajr a of the Jina, which has all aspects, i s inconceivable in terms of senseobjects an d sense-faculties. The speech-wy'r a accomplishes Dharm a by means of utterances i n th e heart s of all sentient beings . Th e mind-vo/r a of the VajrT , whic h is the natur e of the mind s of sentient beings, i s present throughout th e entir e earth. That which, lik e a pure gem, apprehend s phenomen a is the gnosis-vajra. 67

On th e premis e that gnosis i s constantly presen t i n ever y sentient bein g bor n from the womb, the Kalacakratantra asserts that those four vajras ar e perpetually present i n all such sentient beings, but not i n a fully manifeste d form. Their presence i n every individual is attested b y one's capacities of the body , speech, mind, an d gnosis,

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TABLE 7.1 Th e Sixtee n Aspects (sodasakara) o f Gnosis (jnana) The sixtee n aspect s o f gnosis in terms of conventional realit y

The sixtee n aspects of gnosis in terms of the ultimat e reality

The Fou r Types of Bliss (arumda) the blis s of the min d (tittdnanda) the blis s of the bod y (teyarumda) the blis s of speech (vdg-dnanda) the blis s of gnosis ( jnandnanda)

The Fou r Aspects of the Sahajakay a the Sahaja-Bod y (sahaja'hdya) the Sahaja-Min d (sahaja-citta) the Sahaja-Speec h (sahaja-vdc) the Sahaja-Gnosi s (sahaja-jnana)

The Fou r Types o f Supreme Blis s (paramananda) the suprem e bliss of the body (kdya-paramdnanda) the suprem e bliss of the min d (citta'paramancmda) the suprem e bliss of speec h (vdc-paramdnanda) the suprem e bliss of gnosis (jnana'paramdnanda)

The Fou r Aspects of the Dharmakaya

The Fou r Types o f Extraordinary Bliss (viramdnanda) the extraordinar y bliss of the bod y (kdya'viramdnanda) the extraordinar y bliss of the min d (citta-vimmananda) the extraordinar y bliss of speech (vag'Viramdnanda) the extraordinar y bliss of gnosis

The Fou r Aspects of the Sambhogakay a

The Fou r Types of Innate Bliss (sahajdnanda) the innat e blis s of the bod y (kdya'Sahajdnanda) the innat e blis s of the min d (atta-sahajdnanda) the innat e bliss of speech (vdC'sahajdnanda) the innat e blis s of gnosis (jndnasahajdnanda)

The Fou r Aspects o f the Nirmanakay a

the Dharma-bod y (dharma'kdya) the Dharma-mm d (dharma'dtta) the Dharma-speec h (dharma-vdc) the Dharma-gnosi s (dharma-jnana)

the Sambhoga-bod y (sambhoga-kdya) the Sambhoga-mm d (sambhoga-citta) the Sambhoga-speec h (sambhoga-
the Nirmana-body (mrmdm-kaya) the Nirmana-mind (nirmaria-citto ) the Nirmana-speech (nirmdna-vdc) the Nirmana-gnosis (nirmaria-jnana )

in the fou r states of the mind—waking , dreaming , dee p sleep, and the fourt h state , the stat e of sexual bliss—and in the classificatio n o f the fou r limb s of the individual . Within th e ordinar y huma n being , th e fou r vajras ar e locate d withi n th e fou r re spective cakras in the navel, heart, throat, and forehead. The fou r vajras ar e the seats of the twelv e link s o f dependent origination (pratityasamutpdda). Thus , spiritual ignorance (avidya), karmi c formation s (samskara), an d consciousnes s (vijnana) ar e i n the gnosis-wjjra . The mind-and-bod y (nama-rupa), si x sense-bases (sad-ayatana), an d sensory contacts (sparsa) ar e in the body-vo/ra . Feeling (vedana), cravin g (trsra), and grasping ont o existence (upadana) ar e in the speech-vajra . Becomin g (bhava), birt h

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(jati), agin g (jara), and death (marana) ar e in the mind-fajra . I n this way, the twelv e links of dependent originatio n ar e the twelve impure aspects of the four vajras. When the twelve links of dependent origination , th e bodily prams, and uterine blood cease , that i s to say , when the y become th e twelv e facet s o f perfect awakening , the fou r vajras o f the individua l manifes t a s the fou r purifie d vajras, o r th e fou r bodies , o f the Buddh a Kalacakra . I n thi s regard , th e Vimalaprabha resort s agai n t o th e Manjusnnamasamgiti's, descriptio n o f Majnusri, b y characterizing the Buddh a Kala cakra as "the wjra-sun , the supreme light." 68 These twelve aspects of the individual' s and the Buddha' s four vajras ar e considered t o be the twelv e conventional aspect s of the supreme , indestructible bliss of sentient being s and Buddhas. 69 On th e basi s of the belie f that the gnosti c vajra generate s sexual bliss, it is considered a s the "progenitor " o f the twelv e links of dependent origination . Thi s view of the gnosis-vajr a a s the fundamenta l cause of the twelv e links of dependent origi nation indicates that all other vajras o f the individual's body are simply different man ifestations o f a single gnosis-ffljra , whic h has the twelv e link s of dependent origination as its twelve phenomenal aspects. 70 This fourfold classificatio n of the gnosis-vajr a corresponds t o th e Kalacakr a tradition' s identificatio n o f the Jnanakay a wit h th e other three bodies of the Buddha . Furthermore, it is also believed that the efficac y o f the fou r drops (bindu) gener ates the twelv e links of dependent origination . Th e fou r drop s are physical compos ites of the siz e of a small seed, which consist o f red and white drops of the seme n an d uterine blood . The y are pervaded b y very subtle pranas and locate d withi n th e fou r earlier-mentioned cakras. Each o f the fou r bindus has its own specific capacitie s tha t may manifest differently, dependin g o n whethe r o r not the y are affected b y the ha bitual propensitie s of spiritual ignorance (avidya-vasana). Fo r example, th e dro p i n the lalata has the capacity to bring forth appearances t o the mind. When this drop is affected b y the habitual propensitie s of spiritual ignorance, i t brings forth impure appearances o f phenomena t o th e mind , an d i t produces th e wakin g state when mos t of the prams converge i n the lalata. When this drop becomes purified , it manifests as nonconceptual gnosis . The dro p at the throat-cakr a has the capacit y t o bring forth verbal expression. When this drop is affected b y the habitual propensities of spiritual ignorance, i t brings forth improper speech, an d it produces th e dreaming state whe n most of the prams converge in the throat-cakra . When this drop becomes purified, it brings forth th e Buddha' s all-faceted speech . Similarly , the dro p a t th e heart-ca/cr a has a dual capacity. In its impure form, thi s drop induces confusion, and i t produces the stat e of deep slee p when mos t o f the pranas converg e i n the heart-cakra . Whe n purified, i t manifests as the nonconceptual mind. Finally, the drop at the navel-cakra has the capacity to bring forth innate bliss. In its impure aspect, this drop brings forth the experienc e o f sexual bliss when mos t o f the pranas converge i n the navel-cakra . When this drop is purified, i t induces the supreme , immutable bliss of nirvana. The fou r bodie s of the Buddha , which ar e latently present withi n th e individ ual, are located withi n the six cakras of the individual' s body due to the gunas of those cakras. Thus, th e Sahajakaya , which i s free o f ideation an d i s similar to a prognosti c mirror, is in the secre t cakra, in the wsnisa , and in the navel-cakra , whic h aris e fro m the element s o f gnosis, space, and earth, respectively. The Dharmakay a is located in the heart-cakra , which arise s from th e wind-element . Th e Sambhogakay a is in th e

The Gnostic Body 15

9

TABLE 7. 2 Th e Fou r Kay as of the Buddh a i n the Bod y of the Individua l Sahajakaya

Dharmakaya

Sambhogakaya Nirmanakay

the secret-calcr a the navel-calcr a the forehead-cakr a

the heart-calcra th

e throat-cakr a th

the gnosis-elemen t the space-elemen t the earth-element

the wind-element th

e fire-elemen

the gnosis-vajr a spiritual ignoranc e (avidyd)

the mind-vajra th e speech-vajr a becoming (bhava) feelin g (vedand)

karmic formations (samskam)

birth (jati )

consciousness (vijnana)

aging (jara ) an d graspin death (marana)

craving (trsna ) g (upadana)

a

e forehead-cakr a

t th

e water-elemen t

the body-vajr a mind and body (nama-rupa) six sense-bases (dyatana) contact (sparsa)

throat-cakra, whic h arises from th e fire-element . Th e Nirmanakay a is in th e lalata, which arise s from th e water-element. 71 Tabl e 7.2 . illustrates th e manne r i n whic h the Kalacakr a tradition delineate s th e fou r bodie s of the Buddh a with regard to th e body of the individual . The four vajros that are present within the bodily cakras manifest as the four bodies o f th e Buddh a onl y a t th e attainmen t o f ful l an d perfec t awakening (samyaksambodhi). Whe n th e individua l reache s ful l an d perfec t enlightenment , th e indi vidual's gnosis-vajr a that ha s bee n purifie d b y th e liberatio n throug h emptines s (sunyatd'vimoksa) become s th e Sahajakaya . Th e individual' s mind-vajr a tha t ha s been purifie d b y the liberatio n throug h signlessnes s (animitta-vimoksa) manifest s as the Dharmakaya . The individual' s speech-vajra tha t ha s been purifie d b y the liberation through desirelessness (aprarnhita-vimoksa) appear s a s the Sambhogakaya . Th e individual's body-vajra tha t has been purified b y liberation throug h non-composite ness (anabhisamskara-vimoksa ) manifests as the Nirmanakaya. 72 It i s interesting t o not e th e Kalacakr a tradition's interpretatio n o f the phras e "liberation through non-compositeness." A textual study of the literature of the Kalacakra traditio n i n India reveal s that i n the contex t of this tantri c system , the ter m "non-compositeness" refer s to both freedom from th e accumulatio n o f karma and t o freedom fro m atomi c matter . I n al l othe r anuttara-jioga-tantros , however , i t i s explained chiefl y i n term s of the Buddha' s freedom from th e accumulatio n o f karma. For the Kalacakra tradition, th e eradicatio n o f the fine atomic particle s that consti tute th e transmigrator y mind an d body—whic h are the materia l repositorie s of afflictive an d cognitiv e obscuration s an d th e interna l object s o f one's actions—in cludes the eradicatio n o f all karma. The Kalacakr a tradition's interpretatio n o f the fou r bodies of the Buddh a as the four purifie d vajra s ha s a direct bearing on it s classification of the fou r gates of liberation (vimoksa-mukha) a s opposed t o th e mor e commo n classificatio n of the thre e gates of liberation, which is characteristic o f Mahayana literature in general. In terms

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of the fou r gates of liberation, the Kdlacakratantra view s the fou r bodie s of the Buddha a s the fou r immediat e manifestations o f the Buddha' s fourfold perfec t awakening: namely (i) perfect awakening in a single moment (ekaksambhisambodhi), (2 ) perfect awakening with five aspects (pancakarabhisambodhi), (3 ) perfect awakening with twenty aspects (wrnsatyakdrdbhisarnbodhi), an d (4) perfect awakening with the net of illusions (mdydjaldbhisambodhi). 1. Perfect awakening in a single moment refer s here t o enlightenment attaine d in a single moment o f supreme, immutable bliss. It i s the spiritua l awakening that arises from blis s and that , i n turn, generates immutable bliss. Thus, i t i s "of the na ture of bliss and no t o f some other karma,"'13 Th e momen t o f supreme, immutable bliss is the momen t afte r whic h there is no origination, duration, or cessation of any phenomena. Th e momen t o f perfect awakening in a single moment o f bliss (sukhakscma) signifie s a n absence o f all moments, and that moment o f bliss is the mean s by which th e te n power s (dasa-bala) o f enlightened awarenes s descend t o eart h fro m space. The purifie d aggregate s that ar e produced b y that momen t o f bliss, in turn , generate tha t bliss. Thus, fro m th e Sahajakaya , whic h i s the gnosi s of innate bliss , arises th e Dharmakaya ; from th e Dharmakay a arises the Sambhogakaya ; fro m th e Sambhogakaya arise s the Nirmanakaya; an d from th e Nirmanakaya arise s the Sahajakaya.74 This innat e bliss , o r gnosis, is like a seed from whic h first arise the roots , then the branches and flowers, and lastly the fruits, which, in turn, produce the seed. This interpretatio n o f the arisin g of the fou r bodie s of the Buddh a i n dependenc e upon each other implies that even the four bodies of the Buddha, like everything else in the world, do not aris e of their own nature. Their mutuall y dependent arisin g further implie s their absence o f inherent existence . The Sekoddesatlka's interpretatio n o f perfect awakening in a single moment suggests that the perfec t awakening in a single moment i s analogous to the experienc e of the single moment of bliss characterizing the consciousness that desires a birth and that has become of the sam e taste (sama-rasa ) as the mother's an d father's drops that are in the mother's secre t cakra. It also indicates that in terms of the body belonging to the consciousness that i s in the mother's womb, the perfect awakening in a single moment i s analogous to the bod y that, lik e a red fish, has only one aspect, meaning, one bod y without limbs . In term s of enlightened awareness , the Sekoddesatika de scribes the perfect awakening in a single moment as a nonemitted (acyuta) dro p that is of the natur e of the pur e gnosis and consciousnes s (sucUha-jfwna-wjnana) , a
The Gnosti c Body 16 1 ulties, Maras, and five types of spiritual ignorance. They are the mutuall y indivisible vajras tha t have all the aspects . According t o th e Sekoddesatlka, th e perfec t awakenin g with th e five aspects is analogous to the five types of knowledge that are of the nature of the habitual propensities (vasana) o f the for m an d other aggregates (skandha), whic h the fetu s acquires, having the indicatio n of the five limbs, like a tortoise. With regard t o the enlight ened awareness , i t interpret s th e perfec t awakenin g wit h five aspects a s the Dhar makaya, th e vajra-yoga o f th e mind , a sublim e bein g (mah&'Sattva) tha t ha s th e supreme, imperishable bliss due to being enlightened with five aspects. The charac teristics of the five types of gnosis are of the natur e of the wisdo m and method of the elements and psycho-physical aggregates due to the cessatio n of the five mandalas.76 The Kalacakr a tradition define s thes e five types o f gnosis i n a number of ways. In its eulogy t o gnosis with five aspects, the Adibuddhatantra describe s each aspect in terms of supramundane truth with the following five verses. With regard to the mir ror-like gnosis, or the purifie d form-aggregate, i t says : This collectio n o f phenomena i n space , whic h i s devoid o f the for m o f ideation (kaipana), i s seen like a prognostic image (pratisena) i n the mirro r of a young maiden. With regard to the gnosis of equality, or the purified aggregat e of feeling, i t states: Having become identical to all phenomena, it abides as a single, indestructible phenomenon. Arisen fro m th e imperishabl e gnosis, i t i s neither nihilism no r eternalism. With regard t o th e discriminatin g gnosis, o r the purifie d aggregat e of discernment, it says : Letters, having all designations, have their origin in the famil y of the lette r a. Having reached the sublime, imperishable state, they are neither the designation nor the designated. As for the accomplishin g gnosis, or the purifie d aggregate of mental formations , it states: Among non-originated dharmas, which are devoid of mental formations (samskara), there i s neither spiritua l awakening nor Buddhahood , neither a sentient bein g nor life. Lastly, with regard to the gnosi s of the dharma-dhatu, or the purifie d aggregate o f consciousness, it says: The dharmas that have transcended the reality of consciousness, that are purified i n gnosis, transparent an d luminous by nature, are present on the pat h of the dharmadhatu.11 In term s o f the relatio n of the five types of gnosis to cyclic existence, th e cakratantra characterizes them in the followin g manner : That i n which the for m o f birth reaches it s culmination is called the sublim e form. That i n which th e sufferin g o f transmigratory existence reaches it s culmination is called the sublime feeling. That in which a discernment of transmigratory existence

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The Inner Kalacakratantra reaches it s culmination i s th e sublime , vajra discernment . That i n whic h th e ex pansion of transmigratory existence reaches its culmination is called the vajra men tal formation . That in which waking and other states reach their culmination is called consciousness. That i n which the existenc e of spiritual ignoranc e reaches its culmination is the Sage's gnosis. . . ,78

According t o thi s tantri c tradition , thes e fiv e aspect s o f gnosis, enterin g th e earth an d other elements, becom e th e Nirmanakayas , by means of which th e singl e Buddha Kalacakra displays his supernatural power (rddhi) amon g the humans, asuras, and god s that liv e within th e desir e realm. Eve n thoug h th e Buddh a i s free o f obscurations (dvarana) an d mental affliction s (klesa), h e enters th e human realm by descending into a woman's womb and taking on the five psycho-physical aggregates and birth for the sak e of bringing ordinary people (prdkrta-jana) t o spiritual maturation. He leads those who have acquire d nonvirtue and are devoid of precepts to the real ization o f th e impermanenc e o f al l composit e phenomena . B y takin g birth , h e demonstrates tha t even th e Nirmanakayas of the Buddhas , which ar e essentially the Vajrakaya, ar e of an impermanen t nature . I n thi s way , he seek s to liberat e ordinary people fro m constant concern for their own bodies, which are , in comparison t o th e Vajrakaya, lik e the pit h of a plantain tree . Th e Kalacakratantra assert s that the illu sion (mdya) o f th e Buddha' s emanations, whic h ha s immeasurabl e qualities , i s inconceivable eve n t o the Buddha s themselves. Tha t illusion, seeing itself within th e three worlds, divided in accordance wit h the diverse mental states of sentient beings, enters th e individua l minds of the Buddhas , gods, and men . I t take s on thei r originated nature. However, it does not trul y arise in the mass of atoms due to the absenc e of a previous body, and therefor e i t is not trul y subject to origination an d cessation . Its origination give s a false impression , like the reflectio n of the sk y in water. 79 Th e Buddha is an appearance o f the mind s of virtuous beings, since i n reality, he neither originates nor ceases. His body and speech that appear to sentient being s are like the body and speech tha t appear in a dream. The Vimalaprabha liken s the appearanc e of the Buddha to the dream experience of a student who , asking his teacher abou t some dubious subject , receive s clarificatio n from th e teacher , while i n realit y there i s no actual teache r i n the dream , but merel y an appearanc e o f the habitua l propensitie s of the student' s mind. 80 Thus, whe n th e Nirmanakaya appears to the individual , in reality, i t has neither arisen from somewher e other than one's own mind no r wil l i t cease in some place other than one's own mind. The Vimalaprabha contest s the vie w of those who asser t that the Nirmanakay a of the Buddh a i s his Rupakaya, in the sens e of a material body, and argu e that i f the Buddha doe s no t becom e embodie d (riipin), the n non e o f his activitie s o n eart h would com e int o existence no r woul d his bodily constituents arise , which ar e worshipped a s relics by the inhabitant s o f the thre e worlds . It refute s thi s vie w of th e Buddha as becoming trul y embodied with th e followin g arguments: Furthermore, if the Bhagavan became embodied here, then due to being a Rupakaya, while dwelling in one place, he woul d be unable to perform activitie s that benefi t sentient beings as numerous as the dust of the immeasurable mountain ranges within

The Gnostic Body 16 3 the [limitless ] world system s and a s the [grain s of] san d o f the rive r Ganges. Th e words of the simple-minde d people are : "Upon goin g to a single world system by means of his Rupakaya and performing action s that benefit sentient beings dwellin g there, he goes to another worl d system, and after that, he goes elsewhere." This does not stan d logically . Why? Because world systems do not have a measure with regard to th e divisio n o f directions. Repeatedl y goin g by means of the Rupakay a [in th e form of ] limitless sentient being s to world systems that are located i n the te n directions, he would not b e able to benefit sentient being s even i n the course of limitless eons.81

Likewise, the Vimalaprabha reject s the belie f that the Buddh a attracts sentien t beings who dwell in the worl d systems of innumerable Buddha-field s by the power of his meditation an d mantra, places them in front of himself and teaches them Dharma, establishes them on the Buddhist path, and sends them back to their world systems . It rebuts this notion o n the basis that the Buddha cannot simultaneously abide with a body of atoms in the presence o f limitless sentient beings who dwell in the numerous world systems that are present throughout space . It asserts: According t o the word s of simple-minded people, by means of his Rupakaya, he en gages i n activitie s tha t benefi t sentien t being s dwellin g i n th e tripl e chiliocos m within a single Buddha-field. When this statemen t i s investigated logicall y and i n terms of ultimate truth , i t is [found to be] meaningless, just like the word s of Isvara, which are established by means of authority (ajna) and are devoid of verifying cog nition (pramdna) an d logic . Accordin g t o th e receive d Agamas , Isvara is a partless creator of all. Not takin g into consideration the effect , h e creates and destroys the world for the sak e of play, as it pleases him. In the sam e way, because of this hetero doxy, the Bhagava n Rupakaya, who brings about th e benefi t of all sentient beings , is established by means of authority. Thus, due to the absenc e of wisdom among Buddhist heterodox group s (tirthika), ther e i s nothing special even abou t their panditas. Therefore, thes e words that ar e uncritical (panksa) ar e not th e word s of the Bha gavan. . . . According t o the Bhagavan' s words , the Buddh a who is investigated in the Namasamgzt! is not th e Rupakaya . Why? Since he has arisen in space, he i s selfarisen (svayambhu), ha s al l aspect s (sarvdkara) an d i s without aspect s (nirdkdra), holds th e fou r bindus, transcends th e stat e o f having parts and i s partless, holds th e tens o f millions [moments] o f the fourt h bliss , i s detachment an d suprem e attach ment, is free of possessiveness (mamawa) an d self-grasping (aham-kdratva), generate s the meaning s o f all mantras, is the suprem e bindu, indestructible, the sublim e emptiness (mahd-sunyatd) o f the five indestructibles, 82 i s the indestructibilit y of the spac e bindu, an d i s similar to space . Thus , th e Bhagavan Buddh a explaine d th e Vajra dharakaya of Vajrapani i n terms of both truths b y means of one hundre d an d sixtytwo verses of the Namasamgiti, beginning with: "Now, the gloriou s Vajradhara" and ending with : "Homag e t o you , the Jnanakaya. " . . . Thus, accordin g t o th e Bha gavan's words , th e Bhagava n i s no t th e Rupakaya , becaus e h e i s th e assembl y (scandja) o f al l th e Buddhas . I f th e Rupakaya s wer e th e Buddhas , the n th e [Rupakayas] would not com e togethe r i n the for m o f atoms. Even afte r hearin g th e Bhagavan's words in this manner an d investigating the dee p and profound Dharma that was taught by the Bhagavan, sentient beings do not understand it. Not testing a spiritual mentor for the sak e of Buddhahood, the y do not honor him. Great fools, overcome by greed, think: "In this life , ou r putrid bodies are the bodie s of the Buddha."83

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Thus, for the sak e of eradicating the self-graspin g (aham-kara) o f the Sravaka s in heaven, an d for the sak e of helping them understand tha t the stat e of a god is one of grea t suffering , th e physicall y nonembodied Tathagat a display s his supernatura l power among the m b y means of his Sambhogakayas. By means of his Dharmakayas, he reveal s his supernatural power among th e Bodhisattvas , Subhuti , Maitreya, and others who abide in the realizatio n of emptiness, for the sak e of establishing the m i n the highest , perfec t awakening by teaching the m about the fou r bodie s of the Bud dha.84 3. Perfect awakenin g with twenty aspects is not explicitl y described in the Kola cakratantra o r th e Vimalap/rabha. Nevertheless , ManjusrTmitra' s Namasamgitivrtti,85 commenting o n v . 13 3 o f th e Manjumndmasamgiti, tha t i s cited i n th e Vimala prabhd, enumerate s th e twent y aspect s o f the Buddha' s mind. 86 Accordin g t o th e Namasamgitivrtti, th e twent y aspect s o f perfect awakenin g includ e th e sixteenfol d knowledge of the sixtee n type s of emptiness and the first four of the aforementione d five types of the Buddha' s gnosis. According t o th e Sekoddesatikd, th e perfec t awakening with twenty aspect s should be known a s being due to the cessatio n o f the five sense-faculties, th e five sense-objects, the five faculties of action (karmendriya), an d the activities of the five faculties of action that are with obscurations. The sam e tex t also indicates that the perfect awakening with twenty aspects is analogous to the classification of the habitual propensitie s o f the fou r elements, eart h and the like , and to the bod y of the fetu s tha t has twent y fingers. In terms of enlightened awareness , it explains the perfec t awakenin g with twenty aspects as the vajra-yoga o f speech of the Sambhogakaya an d a s a Bodhisattv a wh o assist s other Bodhisattva s an d teache s Dharma b y means of the utterance s o f all sentient being s due to being enlightene d with twenty aspects. 87 4. According to the Vimalaprabha, perfec t awakenin g with the net of illusions refers t o the Buddha' s Nirmanakaya, which manifest s in innumerable forms, lik e an endless net of illusions, and knows the reality that has sixteen aspects.88 The Sekoddesatikd describe s it in a similar fashion but adds that the perfect awakening with th e net o f illusions is the bodily vajra'joga, a pledge being (samaya-sattva) wh o is the fore most assistant to sentient beings due to his knowledge o f the reality with sixteen aspects. Fo r Nadapada, this typ e of awakening is due t o th e cessatio n o f the drop s of the sixtee n type s of bodil y blis s (kaydnanda). H e als o see s i t a s analogou s t o th e knowledge o f the limitles s phenomena tha t ar e like a net o f illusions, which i s acquired by being born from th e womb. 89 Just as the Buddha' s mind i s characterized by the fou r type s of spiritual awakening, s o are the four bodies of the Buddh a characterized by the fou r different type s of knowledge and their functions. The Sahajakay a is characterized by omniscience (sar vajnata) o n th e groun d that it sees everything. Th e Dharmakay a is characterized by knowledge o f the aspect s o f the pat h (margdkdra'jnata), becaus e i t i s saturated b y supreme, immutable bliss. The Sambhogakay a i s characterized by knowledge of th e path (mdrga-jfiatd), fo r it simultaneously teaches th e mundan e (laukika) an d supramundane (lokottara) Dharmas , using the differen t mode s of expression of countles s sentient beings. Finally, the Nirmanakaya is characterized by knowledge of all aspects (sarvakdra,'jnatd), sinc e i t simultaneousl y spreads its power s and manifestation s b y means of limitless Nirmanakayas.90

The Gnostic Body 16

5

Each o f these fou r bodie s of the Buddh a represents a particular typ e of unio n (yoga). Fo r example, the Sahajakaya represents the union of purity and gnosis; therefore, i t i s also calle d the pur e yoga (suddha-yoga). Th e Dharmakay a i s the unio n of the Dharm a an d th e mind ; hence , i t i s also referre d t o a s th e dharma-yoga. Th e Sambhogakaya is the unio n o f speech and enjoyment, for that reason, i t is also identified a s the mantra-yoga; and th e Nirmanakay a is the unio n of the bod y and it s emanation, therefore , it is also designated as the form-;yog a (sarnsthana-yoga),91 Thi s perspective on th e fou r bodie s o f the Buddh a a s the fou r type s of yogas explicate s th e Kalacakra tradition's definitio n of gnosis as the vajra-yoga. A s allude d earlier, these four type s of yogas, which purif y Kalacakra , are th e fou r gate s of liberation (moksa): a liberatio n throug h emptines s (sunyata-vimoksa), a liberation throug h signlessness (animitta-'vimoksa), a liberation through wishlessnes s (apranihita-vimoksa), an d a liberation throug h non-compositenes s (anabhisamskdra-
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well-being. Du e t o freedo m from th e stat e o f deep sleep , the Dharmakay a i s never saturated by darkness. It is of the natur e of both wisdom and compassion due to th e distinction between gnosis (jndna) an d consciousness (vijfiana.). Gnosi s is understood in this contex t a s the apprehendin g min d (grdhaka-citta), th e min d tha t i s the sub ject; and consciousness i s taken to mean the apprehended (grahya) knowledg e of others' minds, minds that are objects of knowledge (jneya). Gnosis , o r the apprehendin g mind, i s wisdom (prajna) becaus e it i s devoid of ideation (kalpand); an d th e appre hended mind—namely , enlightene d awarenes s a s i t manifest s a s th e world—i s method (updya), whic h i s conceptually fabricate d (parikalpha) an d ha s th e charac teristic of compassion. Likewise , the Sambhogakay a i s the min d tha t i s free o f th e dreaming state, which i s invariably produced by prams. It is also of the natur e of wisdom an d compassion . B y means o f th e divin e ey e (divya-caksu), it s divin e con sciousness (divya,'Vijnana) perceive s past and future form s like transparent reflections in a mirror; and by means of the divin e ear, it apprehends sound s that arise in thos e transparent form s as echoes. It knows past and future times , as well as certain event s that have happene d o r will happen. Th e Sambhogakay a become s th e Nirmanakaya for spirituall y mature sentien t beings . The Nirmanakay a is the min d tha t i s free of the wakin g state, an d therefor e i t i s not characterize d by false notion s arisin g from conceptualization. It also consists of wisdom and compassion. Even though it is one, it becomes many, because sentient being s see its various emanations. Ultimately , the unity of one an d man y Nirmanakayas is the unit y of wisdom and compassion , eve n though conventionall y ther e i s an obvious contradiction i n the concep t of one and many Nirmanakayas. The illusio n of the Buddha' s emanations, whic h hav e immea surable qualities, is said to be inconceivable eve n to the Buddha s themselves. 93 Table 7.3 . illustrate s the Kalacakr a tradition's characterizatio n of the fou r bod ies of the Buddh a as the fou r type s of spiritual awakening and th e fou r facet s of th e Buddha's mind . As was indicated earlier, thes e four bodies of the Buddh a collectivel y and individually are understood t o be nothing other than the four differen t manifestation s of the Jnanakay a ("Gnosis-body") . Th e Kalacakr a tradition's characterizatio n o f th e Jnanakaya i s based on th e Manjusrinamasamgiti's characterizatio n o f Manjusri, wh o is identifie d ther e wit h th e Jnanakaya . Likewise , as th e mai n topi c o f th e Kolacakratantra's discourse , the Jnanakay a i s referred to a s the "wj'ra-word " that i s also taught i n othe r "king s o f tantras"—specifically, i n th e method-tantra s suc h a s th e Guhyasamaja, an d i n th e wisdom-tantra s such a s the Cakrasarrwara.94 Thus, i n thi s tantric system, the Jnanakaya is the unit y of the speaker , who is the Adibuddha, an d his teaching, th e vo/ra-word . In the Kalacakratantra, the Jnanakaya is discussed in terms of both conventiona l and ultimate realities. In terms of ultimate reality, it is taught i n the abov e way as the four bodie s o f the Buddha , o r a s the clea r ligh t o f the min d (citta'pratibhasa), ap pearing in space and being directly perceived through th e yogic practices o f unifying the lef t an d righ t nadis i n the madhyama. I n term s of conventional reality , it i s presented a s the bod y that i s mentally fabricate d by the yogi' s own min d a s being en dowed with form , various colors, and other attributes . With regar d t o th e impur e manifestation s o f th e fou r bodie s o f th e Buddh a within the individual , the Kalacakra tradition correlate s the fou r bodies of the Bud-

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TABLE 7.3 Th e Fou r Kayas of the Buddh a a s the Fou r Aspects o f Enlightenmen t Sahajakaya

Dharmakaya

Sambhogakaya

Nirmanakaya

the gnosis'vajr a

the mmd-vajr a

the speech-vajr a

the body-vajr a

purified m liberation through emptiness (sunyatd'Vimoksa)

purified i n liberation through signlessness (animitta'Vimoksa)

purified i n liberation through desirelessness (apmnhita'
purified i n liberation through noncompositeness (anafc/iisarnskara-i>tmoksa)

perfect awakenin g in a single momen t (eka-ksanabhisambodhi)

perfect awakenin g with five aspects (pancdkarabhisam' bodhi)

perfect awakenin g with twenty aspect s (vimsatydkdrdbhisambodhi)

perfect awakenin g with th e net o f illusions (mdyd'jaldbhisambodh)

omniscience (sarvakara-jnata)

knowledge of th e aspects of the path (mdrgdkdrd'jnata)

knowledge of th e path (tnarga-jnata)

knowledge of all aspects (sarvakara-jnata)

the purifie d yog a

the dharma-yoga

the mantra-yog a

the form-yog a

the absenc e o f the fourth stat e

the absenc e o f the deep sleep state

the absenc e of the dreaming stat e

the absenc e o f the waking stat e

m the navel-cakra

in the heart-cakra

in the throat-cakra

in the laiat a

dha wit h th e fou r stage s of development o f a fetus i n th e wom b and wit h th e fou r phases o f one's lif e outsid e th e womb . Thus , a t th e momen t o f conception, con sciousness, gnosis, semen, and uterine blood constitute th e impure , or obscured, phenomenal aspect o f the Sahajakaya . Th e fetu s consistin g o f the psycho-physica l aggregates an d element s correspond s t o th e Dharmakaya . Th e fetu s a t th e stag e of developing the sense-base s (ayatana) correspond s to the Sambhogakaya ; and the fetus that at the time of birth is completely endowed with arms, legs, hair, and the othe r bodily parts corresponds to the Nirmanakaya. 95 With regard to the individual who is outside the womb, a newborn infant, whose prams first begin t o flow from th e navel-cakra , corresponds t o the Sahajakaya . Th e newborn child , though , correspond s t o th e Sahajakay a onl y fo r the perio d o f sixty breaths durin g which th e infant' s pranas flo w i n the centra l naaY . The child , i n th e phase o f life i n whic h it s limbs begin t o mov e du e t o th e circulatio n o f prams, i n which it s first teeth begin to grow and its indistinct speec h arises , corresponds t o the Dharmakaya. Fro m the time that the child's first teeth fall out until the age of eight, when it s new teeth grow and it s speech become s clear, th e chil d correspond s t o th e Sambhogakaya. Lastly, in the phas e of life from the growt h of new teeth until death , the individua l represents the impur e aspect o f the Nirmanakaya. 96 This categorization o f the fou r bodie s o f the Buddh a a s the individua l i n th e fou r phase s o f life is based o n th e Kalacakr a tradition' s vie w o f the manne r i n whic h th e individual' s pranas, speech, an d mind interact. Even thoug h th e Kalacakr a tradition ofte n speak s of gnosis as the ultimat e na ture of all sentient beings and of the fou r bodies of the Buddh a as present i n the body of every individual, the Vimalaprabha emphasizes that this does not impl y that all sen-

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tient beings are already Nirmanakayas of the Buddha . It criticizes those who mistakenly conclude that the bodies of sentient being s are the Buddha's Nirmanakayas simply because al l the king s of tantras (tantra-roja) identif y the five psycho-physical ag gregates wit h th e five Buddhas , th e bodil y elements wit h th e consort s o f the five Buddhas, and so on. It argues that if sentient being s within the thre e realms of cyclic existence ar e already Nirmanakayas of the Buddha , the n this implies that they hav e previously become Samyaksambuddhas . However, the fac t that sentient being s lac k the power s and qualities of the Buddh a and ar e still subject to the origination , ces sation, an d all the other suffering s of transmigratory existence indicate s that they are not perfectl y awakene d bu t deepl y entrenched i n samsara. It also argues that if sentient being s hav e alread y attaine d Buddhahood , the n th e practice s o f generosity, meditation, reflection , listening t o Dharma teaching s an d the lik e would be useless. This, i t says, "has no t bee n seen, heard , inferred , or predicted b y the Tathagata." 97 Likewise, i t claim s tha t th e Kalacakratantra's identificatio n o f th e bodil y compo nents—specifically, th e mal e and female sexual organs, feces, urine , uterin e blood , and semen—wit h th e five Buddhas does no t impl y that thes e impur e bodily con stituents ar e actuall y the fiv e Buddhas . Suc h identification , i t says , i s to b e under stood i n terms of the languag e of tantric pledges (samaya-bhasd) an d not i n terms of definitive language, which employ s words that explicitly designate their referents. It also argues that a localized (pradesika) bod y of the individua l cannot be taken as the all-pervasive body of the Buddha . The Kalacakratantra's fourfol d categorizatio n of the Buddha' s body has its precedent i n the earlie r MahSyan a classification of the Buddha' s bod y into the Svabha vikakaya ("Essentia l Body") , Dharmakaya , Sambhogakaya , an d Nirmanakaya. Th e Kalacakratantra itself never mentions th e Svabhavikakaya; i t mentions onl y the Sahajakaya, th e Visuddhakay a ("Pur e Body") , an d th e Jnanakay a a s synonymous . However, th e Vimalaprabha comment s tha t i n th e syste m o f perfections, whic h has the characteristi c o f the cause , the min d of gnosis (jnana-citta) i s designated as the "Svabhavikakay a o f the perfectio n o f wisdom (prajndpdramita)," o r as the "Pra jnaparamitakaya" ("Body of the Perfectio n of Wisdom").98 Whereas in the syste m of mantras, whic h ha s th e characteristi c o f the result , i t i s called "innat e bliss " (sa hajananda), o r the "Sahajakaya." 99 For this reason, th e term s "Svabhavikakaya" an d "Sahajakaya" ar e sometimes used interchangeably i n the commentaria l literatur e of the Kalacakra tradition.100 The Vimalaprabha, cites the Abhisamaydlamkara (Ch . i , v. 18), to support this view of the close relation between th e Svabhavikakay a an d the Sahajakaya ; and it suggests that its classification of the fou r bodies of the Buddh a has precedents i n the interpre tations of some Mahayana authors. The cite d verse from the Abhisamaydhmkdra reads : The Dharmakaya , whic h i s wit h activity , i s sai d t o b e o f fou r kinds : th e Svabhavikakaya, together with th e Sambhogakaya , and the Nirmanakaya. 101

The Kalacakr a traditio n interpret s th e Sahajakay a similarl y t o som e India n Mahayana authors ' interpretatio n o f the Abhisamaydlamkdra's readin g of the Svabha vikakaya. 102 Just as in the Abhisamaydlamkara, the Svabhavikakay a is just another way o f characterizin g th e essentia l natur e (svabhdva, prakrti) o f undefile d Buddh a dharmas, s o in th e Kalacakratantra, th e Sahajakay a i s the definin g essence o f Bud-

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dhahood, whic h i s indivisible from th e Dharmakaya . Furthermore, jus t a s in th e Abhisamaydlamkara, th e Svabhavikakay a designates the emptines s of the Buddha' s nonconceptual mind , characterized by the freedo m fro m defilements (nirdsrava) an d the purit y of all aspects (sarvdkdrd visuddhi),103 s o according to th e Kalacakr a tradition, the min d tha t i s devoid o f the habitua l propensitie s o f transmigratory existenc e i s called Buddhahood . Likewise , th e Bhagava n state d i n th e Prajnaparamita, "Tha t mind, which i s the mind , i s not th e mind. " That very mind that is devoid of the ha bitual propensitie s o f transmigrator y existenc e i s luminou s b y natur e (prakrtiprabhasvara). Therefore, Mar a is the min d tha t has impuritie s (mala), and th e Bud dha i s the min d that is without impurities (amak). 104

In another place , the Vimalaprabha asserts : That which i s taught i n terms of ultimate realit y for the sak e of attaining the supramundane mahamudrd'Siddhi, whic h i s endowed wit h th e bes t o f all forms, is the lu minosity (pratibhasa) o f the yogis ' own mind, which can be directly perceived, whic h is devoid o f the characteristic s o f the ideatio n of one's own mind , which shine s i n the sk y and i s similar to the reflectio n i n a young maiden's mirror. 105

Thus, wit h respec t t o th e essentia l purit y o f th e Buddha' s mind , th e Afe hisamaydlamkdra's intetpretation s o f th e Svabhavikakay a accor d wit h th e Kala cakra tradition' s interpretatio n o f the Sahajakaya . There ar e also other point s of agreement betwee n th e Madhyamik a interpretatio n o f th e Abhisamaydlamkdra's presentation of the Svabhavikakaya and the Kalacakra tradition's interpretation of the Sahajakaya . For example , reference s t o th e Svabhavikakay a an d th e Saha jakaya as the mirrorlik e gnosis (ddarsa'jndna) ar e found in both Buddhajnanapada's (eighth century ) Samcayagdthdpanjikd commentar y on the Abhisamaydlamkara an d in th e Vimalaprabha.106 Likewise , identifications of the Svabhavikakay a an d th e Sahajakaya with a Samantabhadra, pur e luminosity, the dharma'dhdtu, whic h i s ultimately th e sol e bod y o f th e Buddha , ar e encountere d i n bot h Dharmamitra' s Prasputapadd (lat e eighth-early nint h century) and in the Kdlacakratantra an d th e Vimalaprabha.107 Furthermore, th e Vimalaprabha define s the Dharmakay a and th e Svabhavika kaya in the followin g way: [The body ] that i s neither impermanent nor permanent, neithe r singl e nor has th e characteristic o f many, neither substanc e (dravya) no r non-substanc e (adravya), i s the Dharmakaya , which i s without basis (nirasraya). [The body ] that i s indivisible from emptines s an d compassion , fre e o f attachment and non-attachment , tha t i s neithe r wisdo m no r method , i s th e additiona l Svabhavikakaya.108

This description of the Dharmakay a and the Svabhavikakay a suggests that th e Dharmakaya characterizes here enlightened awareness , which transcends the reality of atoms and yet exists in terms of emptiness, and which lacks a basis for superimpositions such as permanence and impermanence, existence and non-existence. Whereas the Svabhavikakay a represent s th e empt y natur e o f th e enlightene d awareness ,

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which ultimatel y i s neither th e apprehendin g min d no r th e apprehende d mind . Thus, th e Svabhavikakaya does not designate here some independent componen t of Buddhahood, but the essentia l nature of all the aspect s of the enlightene d mind . I n this respect, the Kalacakra tradition's interpretation o f the fourth body accords with the Madhyamik a interpretation of the Svabhavikakaya, On the basis of textual evidence, on e could infer that in the Kdlacakratantra tra dition, whic h claim s to consis t of both the syste m of perfections an d th e syste m of mantras, the Prajnaparamitakaya , o r the Sahajakaya , represents the unity of the two aspects o f the Buddha' s mind—namely , th e empt y natur e o f the Buddha' s mind , which i s the cause , and the blissfu l aspec t o f the Buddha' s mind, which is the result . On th e ground s that the empt y and blissful nature s of the Buddha' s mind are essentially nondual , th e Kalacakr a tradition attend s t o the m a s a single fact, a s a for m (bimbo) o f emptiness an d compassion . Mor e tha n th e literatur e o f Mahayana, th e Kalacakra tradition, i n addition t o emptiness, strongly emphasizes the blissful aspec t of Buddhahood, whic h i s seen a s ultimately nondual fro m emptiness . On e read s i n the Adibuddhatantra: "thi s Vajrasattv a is the foundatio n o f the blis s of all Buddhas due to the union o f the body, speech, and mind."109 It is in this regard that the Kalacakra tradition's interpetatio n of the blissfu l aspec t o f Buddhahood an d th e way s of achieving i t diverge from th e Mahayana' s interpretation o f the Svabhavikakay a an d consequently fro m Mahayana form s of practice. Thus, i n the Kalacakra tradition, th e Sahajakaya designate s the tw o aspects o f the essentia l natur e o f the Buddha' s mind: emptiness an d bliss . Considering tha t for this tantri c system , those tw o aspects are nondual fro m each other and indivisible from all other bodies of the Buddha, one may further infe r that ultimately there is only one body of the Buddha , the Gnostic Body. The primar y purpose of the Kalacakmtantra's classificatio n of the fou r bodie s of the Buddh a is to provide a model for Kalacakratantra practice tha t will accord wit h its goal. In thi s tantri c system, the fourfol d classificatio n of the Buddha' s body outlines the essentia l component s o f spiritual awakening, which ar e meticulously correlated t o th e contemplative' s psycho-physica l constituent s an d thei r functions . Thus, th e Sahajakay a i s a representation o f both the basi s of purification, whic h is the individual' s psycho-physica l constituent s an d thei r functions , an d th e resul t of purification, which i s the component s o f Buddhahood an d their activities . This concept o f the Sahajakay a is common t o all anuttara-^oga-tantras. The Vi malaprabha denie s that the realizatio n of the Sahajakaya , or Jnanakaya, is ever found among Sravakas , Pratyekabuddhas , an d Vijnanavadins , fo r th e Sahajakay a i s fre e from al l residues (upadhi) an d transcend s th e realit y of consciousness (vijnana-d/iar TTMta).110 This claim not onl y supports the Kalacakratantra's openl y stated affiliatio n with the philosophical views of the Madhyamikas, 111 but i t also indirectly expresses the Kalacakr a tradition's interpretatio n o f other anuttara-yoga'tantras a s being based on the Madhyamik a philosophy. Gnosis and Mental Affliction s The Kalacakr a tradition's theor y of the Jnanakaya is most intimately connected with the Kalacakratantra's vie w that "sentien t being s ar e Buddha s an d tha t ther e i s not some other great Buddha in the universe apart from sentient beings."112 It is by means

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of sentient beings' prayers and their eliminatio n o f conceptualizations (vikalpa) tha t cyclic existence ceases. 113 As indicated earlier , this view of gnosis as innately presen t in all sentient being s was already expressed in the Manjusrindmasamgiti, whic h affirm s it in the following manner: Present within the minds o f all beings, h e attained equality with their minds. Glad dening th e mind s o f all sentient beings, h e i s the joy of the mind s of all sentient beings.1"

This vie w of sentient being s i s not uniqu e t o th e Kalacakratantra, a s it i s also found in the earlier anuttara-yoga-tantras. For example, one reads in the Hevajratantra that the Buddha cannot be found elsewhere in some other world-system (loka'dhdtu), for th e min d itself is the perfec t Buddha. It asserts that all species of sentient beings, from god s to worms , are innately endowe d wit h a blissful nature. 115 Likewise , in the roo t tantra of the Samvara literar y corpus, the Laksdbhidhdna, i t i s stated tha t Vajrasattva, th e sublim e bliss, i s within th e sel f o f sentient beings. 116 Similarly, in the roo t tantra o f th e Yamdntaka literature , th e Yogdnuwddhatantra, cite d i n th e Vimalaprabhd, state s tha t a unique , principal deit y abide s i n th e sel f o f the thre e worlds with the natur e o f innate bliss. 117 The vie w that the Buddha' s mind is present i n all sentient being s has its earliest precursor in the early Buddhist notion of the innate luminosity, or purity, of the mind. The Ahguttara Nikdya, I . 10 , expresses this view in the followin g manner : "Monks, the min d i s luminous (prabhassara), bu t i t i s contaminated b y adventitiou s defile ments." It s later precursors can be traced to the Madhyamik a view of the min d and the talhdgata-garbha theory . One read s in th e Bodhicarydvatdra (Ch . 9 , v. 103 ) tha t sentient being s are by nature liberated. The Panjikd commentar y interpets this statement i n ligh t of the Madhyamak a view of the absenc e o f inherent existence o f th e transmigratory mind and o f nirvana. It assert s that natural nirvana (prdkria-nirvana), which i s characterized b y the absenc e o f inherent existence , i s always present i n the stream s of consciousness o f all sentient beings. 118 According t o th e Tathagatagarbhasutra, whic h identifie s al l sentien t being s wit h th e embry o (garbha ) o f th e Tathagata, th e Buddh a sees with his divine eye that all sentient being s are endowed with th e Buddha' s knowledg e (buddha-jnana), Buddha' s eye s (buddha-caksu), an d Buddha's body (buddha-kdya).119 Likewise , the "Satvimatsahasra-sarvadharma-samuc caya" chapte r of the Saddharmalanltdvatdrasutra assert s tha t the tathdgata'garbha, which i s inherently pur e clear light and primordial purity itself, is present within th e bodies o f all sentien t beings , covered ove r by the psycho-physica l aggregates, elements, and sense-bases.120 Statements simila r to these can also be found throughou t the Ratnagotravibhdga an d other writings of the tathdgata-garbha tradition . This identification o f all sentient being s with the essenc e o f the Buddh a is also characteristi c of some other Mahayana texts . For example, the Mahayanasutrdlamkara state s that all embodied beings are the embryos of Tathagatahood.121 Likewise, according to the Mahdparinirvanasutra, th e essenc e o f the Buddh a (buddha'dhatu) i s found within al l sentient beings. 122 This vie w o f al l sentien t being s a s bein g endowe d wit h th e embry o o f th e Tathagata ha s lent itsel f to tw o different interpretations . On e i s that th e tathdgata' garbha refers only to sentient beings ' potential for spiritual awakening; and th e othe r

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is that th e presenc e o f the tathagata-garbha i n ever y sentien t bein g implie s tha t al l sentient beings are fundamentally enlightened bu t need t o recognize it. As in the case of other anuttara-yoga-tantras,123 the Kalacakratantra's view of sentient beings as Buddhas largel y accord s wit h the secon d interpretation . Th e Kalacakratantra explains that enlightene d awarenes s is innately present within an ordinary individual's body in the followin g way: Just as space does not disappea r [from a jar] when water is poured into the jar, in th e same way, the sky-vajri" , who i s the pervade r of the univers e and devoid of sense-objects, is within th e body. 124

Even though enlightene d awareness is innate to each individual , it is not actualized as long as one does not ascertai n one's innate gnosis as such. However, the ascertainment o f one's own gnosis as enlightened awarenes s entails the absenc e of afflictive an d cognitiv e obscurations , whic h imped e one' s self-recognition . Thei r absence is conditioned by the pat h of purification tha t aim s at manifesting this self awareness of gnosis. The Kalacakratantra assert s that du e to th e powe r of unwholesome actions , a sinful perso n does not se e that the wish-fulfillin g ge m is present i n his own mind; but when purification takes place, that person becomes the Lord of Jinas Qinendra) an d has no use for some other Jina. 125 Thus, even though sentient beings are innately Buddhas, they are not manifestl y Buddhas, and their spiritual awakening needs to manifest a s a nondual gnosis that is directly aware of its own blissful and empty nature. That nondual gnosis is the min d that i s essentially pur e an d unfettere d b y th e obscuration s o f menta l affliction s (klesavarana), eve n if it is veiled by them. Therefore, that nondual gnosis is effectiv e in the eliminatio n of mental afflictions. Th e min d of a sentient being that supports the habitua l propensitie s o f karma (karma-vasana) an d bring s about sufferin g an d happiness is the omnipresent mind that transcends transmigratory suffering and happiness and that canno t b e destroyed by conceptualizations (vikalpa), Like the texts of the tathagata-garbha tradition, the Kalacakra tradition offers explicit reason s why one's innat e gnosis , although underlying mental afflictions , re mains untainte d b y them . However , it s explanation s diffe r fro m thos e o f th e tathdgata-garbha tradition in several ways. According to the Ratnagotravibhdga, the innately pure mind remains untainted by mental affliction s becaus e mental afflictions that obscur e the min d are adventitious (dgantuka) an d ar e not connecte d wit h th e mind, whereas the purifying elements present in the mind are innate to the mind and are indivisible from it. 126 Likewise, according to another tex t of the tathagata^garbha tradition, the Srimaladevi, the momentar y mind (ksaraka*citta), whethe r i t is wholesome (kusala) o r unwholesome (akusala), remains unaffected b y mental afflictions be cause those afflictions neithe r touch th e mind nor are touched by the mind. 127 In contrast, a text of the Kalacakra corpus, the Sekoddesa, explains the relationship between the menta l afflictions an d the mind in the followin g way: An adventitiou s stain i s not i n the min d nor is it prior to the mind . It does not arise without th e min d no r does it stay immutable in the mind. If it were only adventitious, then the min d woul d be formerly stainless . If it i s prior to the mind , then from wher e has it originated?

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If it is arisen without the mind , the n it i s like a sky-flower. I f it i s always present i n the mind, the n it could neve r vanish. Just a s the impurit y o f copper disappear s due to th e prepare d mixtures , it s natura l property, which remain s i n the stainless state, does no t vanish . So a stain of the min d disappear s due to the yoga of emptiness, bu t it s state o f gnosis, which remain s in the stainles s state, doe s not vanish. 128

Even though th e Sekoddesa agree s that human being s are already endowed with the immutable bliss that characterizes Buddhahood, it stresses the necessity for mental purification in this way: Just as one must completely refin e iro n tha t is melted b y intense fire , even though a precious substanc e i s already present i n one par t o f the iron , i n th e sam e way, one must completely refin e the mind that is heated by the fire of desire, even though immutable blis s is already present i n one part [o f the mind]. 129

The Vimalaprabha assert s that habitual propensities of the min d arise and cease due to the same cause, the power of the individual' s rebirths . If the habitual propen sities were inherent t o th e mind , the n sentient being s could never reac h Buddhahood, becaus e Buddhahoo d come s abou t du e t o th e eradicatio n o f th e habitua l propensities of transmigratory existence. If one examines transmigratory existence i n various ways , one finds that samsara i s nothing othe r than the degre e of one's ow n habitual propensitie s of the mind . A habitual propensit y of samsara is the momen t (ksana) o f bliss that is characterized by the emissio n of semen, and s o it is perishable. A habitual propensity of nirvana is the momen t o f bliss that is characterized by nonemission of semen, and therefor e it is imperishable.130 The perfectio n of wisdom is the inconceivabl e gnosis of the Buddh a because it consists of both attachment (rdga) an d aversion (viraga). Whe n sentient being s start thinking, attachmen t t o desirable things and aversion to disagreeable things begi n to arise . These two, attachment an d aversion , are the menta l causes of transmigratory existence. However, when gnosis, which is free of thinking, becomes actualized, there i s no longe r an y attachmen t t o desirabl e thing s o r aversio n t o undesirable things. Th e absenc e o f both results in freedo m fro m transmigrator y existence, an d freedom fro m transmigrator y existence results in full an d perfect awakening.131 The Kdlacakratantra itsel f offers only an implicit explanation. It s repeated assertion tha t the natur e of gnosis is free o f the element s of earth, water , fire, wind, and semen and their modification s implies that gnosis is free of mental afflictions, whic h arise fro m thos e elements . Moreover , th e Kalacakratantra's fundamenta l ide a tha t mental afflictions , lackin g inheren t existence , ar e ultimatel y unrea l implie s tha t mental afflictions exis t only from the perspective of the dualistic mind in which they arise. However, they neither exis t nor no t exis t in relation t o innatel y pure gnosis, which i s beyond every perspective. This seems to be supported by the Vimalaprabha, which maintain s tha t "th e nirvani c mind , which ha s transcende d samsar a and is present i n every body, is neither boun d nor liberate d by anything."132 It further asserts that "the vajri, th e purifie d mind , i s the [mind ] that does not hav e th e two — eternal existence an d non-existence, o r annihilation."133

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Furthermore, accordin g t o th e tatkdgata-garbha traditio n an d othe r India n Mahayana schools, menta l affliction s aris e from th e habitual propensities of spiritual ignorance (avidyd-vasana), whic h manifest s as erroneous views . Thus, thes e tradi tions se e spiritual ignorance a s the primar y cause of mental afflictions , an d the y see the erroneou s views that arise from that ignorance a s the indirec t cause of mental afflictions.134 Fo r example, for Vijnanavadins, th e direc t caus e of mental affliction s i s the vie w of objedification (visaya-drsti), an d fo r Madhyamikas, i t i s any vie w that stands as a dogmatic position (paksa). Th e Kalacakr a tradition, however, does no t explicitly speak of any particular view as the immediat e cause of mental afflictions . Although th e Kalacakratantra often implie s that applying any view contrary to that of identitylessness (nairatmya) o r emptiness (sunyata) i s detrimental t o one's liberation, i t clearly stresses the natur e an d functio n o f prams a s the immediat e cause of mental afflictions an d their elimination. 135 In the Kalacakratantra system, mental afflictions ar e also referred to as impurities (kalusa) an d ar e described as the perturbations or deformations (vikdra) o f the mind, which are most intimately connected with the psycho-physiological constitution an d processes of the individual. 136 Accordin g to the Kalacakratantra, the prdnas ar e closely related to the menta l states of an individual and are thus at the basi s of both samsara and nirvana. Prdnas give rise to men tal afflictions b y conveying the si x elements throug h the nddis i n the body. However, it is due to the efficac y o f the si x elements that constitute the prdnas—namely, gno sis, air, wind, fire, water, and earth—that avarice (mdtsarya), hatre d (dvesa), jealousy (irsyd), attachmen t (rdga), prid e (mono) , and confusion (moha) respectivel y arise.137 Thus, th e sam e gnosis-element, whic h i s identified a s the caus e of the Sahajakaya , which i s present i n the individual' s secret cakra, also functions as the direc t cause of the thre e kind s of the apdna wind , which give rise to avarice. According t o th e Kalacakratantra, a s long a s a sentien t bein g remain s i n th e mother's womb , the prdnas stay motionless in the navel-cokra , and mental affliction s do not arise. With the first breath at the time of birth, the prdnas begin to move, car rying th e five elements an d thereb y menta l affliction s alon g wit h them . Th e first breath, whic h begin s i n th e centra l nddi, i s said t o b e devoi d o f the thre e gums ; whereas the secon d breat h take s place either i n the lef t o r or the righ t nddi tha t carries the ten mandalas, due to the power of the satwa-guna; the third breath takes place due to the power of rajas, the fourth breath due to the power of tamos, and so on. Each of these breaths that are of the nature of sattra, raj'as, and tamos become the five kinds due to the classification of the gunas of the five sense-objects. Then, due to the three fold classificatio n of the body , speech, an d mind , they becom e forty-five. Then , due to the furthe r classificatio n of the tw o feet and and two arms, they become on e hun dred an d eight y breaths; an d afterward , due t o th e natur e o f wisdom and method , they, multiplied by two, become thre e hundre d an d sixty breaths.138 In this way, the prdnas sustain mental afflictions and consequently perpetuate th e cycle of rebirth. When the proras are purified, that is, when the si x elements consti tuting the prdnas ar e transformed into pure gnosis, they obliterate al l causes of mental affliction s an d secur e th e blis s of liberation. Likewise , when al l the bodil y con stituents—consisting o f the element s an d manifestin g with th e nature s o f sottfo , rajas, an d tamos—becom e purifie d fro m th e afflictiv e an d cognitiv e obscurations , they manifest as the te n bodhisattva-bhumis an d bring about Buddhahood . Thus , th e

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bodily hair an d th e hai r o f the hea d becom e th e first bodhisattva-bhumi, Pramudita , the skin and flesh become Vimala, the two types of blood manifest as Prabhakaff, sweat and urin e a s ArcismatT, th e bone s an d marro w as Sudurjaya, th e nodf s an d prams as Abhimukhl, the gnosis- f ajra an d th e elemen t o f passion (raga-dhatu) a s Durangama, the mind-vajr a a s Acala , th e uterin e bloo d a s SadhumatT , an d seme n a s Dhar mamegha. In light of this view, the Vimalaprabha asserts that apart from the body, there is no othe r Buddh a who i s the pervade r (vyapaka) an d bestower of liberation.139 Being the direc t cause s of mental affliction s an d th e immediat e causes of their elimination, the bodil y prams are said to be supported by volition (cetana). 140 Volition i s understood here a s the min d (citta), whic h unde r the influenc e o f sattva, rajas, and tamas, has the waking, dreaming, and sleeping states. That mind is comprised of the five elements (dhdtu), th e menta l facult y (manas), intellec t (buddhi), an d self grasping (ahamkara). Hence , i n thi s tantri c system , volition, bein g th e transmigratory mind, is both a mental and a physical phenomenon. This transmigratory mind is further supporte d by innate gnosis, which i s free o f the fiv e elements an d thereb y free of conceptualizations and mental afflictions. Bein g free of conceptualizations and mental afflictions , gnosi s is beyond happines s an d suffering , an d ye t i t i s active i n bringing about the eradicatio n of happiness and suffering. 141 Thi s is yet another way in which th e Kalacakr a tradition attempts to explain why omnipresent gnosi s cannot b e defile d b y mental affliction s despit e being covere d b y them. One ma y infer here that innately pure gnosis, being the ultimate and indirect support of prams, also functions as the ultimate factor in sustaining and eliminating mental afflictions. This understanding o f the relationshi p betwee n th e innatel y pur e gnosis and menta l afflictions underpin s th e Kalacakratantra's vie w of gnosis as the primar y basis of both sarnsdra an d nirvana. Furthermore, spiritual ignorance (avidyd) i s explained in the Kalacakra tradition simply a s a modificatio n (pratyaya) o f th e elements , whic h ar e containe d i n th e mother's bloo d an d th e father' s semen and ar e grasped by consciousness a t th e mo ment of conception.142 The ver y idea that spiritual ignorance neve r arises in the absence o f the element s precludes the rol e of spiritual ignorance a s the direc t cause of mental afflictions . Bu t the Vimalaprabha. does, on th e othe r hand, define spiritual ignorance a s a mental affliction , whic h consist s of attachment, hatred , an d delusion , and i t presents it as a primary cause of these mental afflictions . I t describes it as a habitual propensity of beginningless attachment, bu t because attachment i s perishable, it give s ris e to aversio n (virago), or hatred (dvesa), whic h is of the natur e of confu sion (murccha), o r delusion (moha). The Vimalaprabha define s thes e and other menta l obscuration s as mental stains, which are nothing other than the mind of Mara.143 On the ground that both the innately pure gnosis and afflictiv e an d cognitive obscuration s are present i n the bod y of the individual , the Kalacakratantra assert s that both minds—the mind o f Maras, which causes fear an d agitation , and th e blissfu l min d of the Buddhas—ar e present in the hearts of sentient beings.144 Whereas gnosis aspires and incites one to venture for liberatio n from cycli c existence, th e min d of Mara is said to b e forever devoid of such aspiration and venturing.145 Thus, it is due to the presence of both minds in the hearts of sentient being s that the thre e realm s of cyclic existence endlessly revolve by th e powe r of the Buddh a within. Likewise , when th e Buddh a crushe s the fou r

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Maras, it is one's ow n innately pure gnosis that crushes the interna l Maras, who are the habitua l propensities of one's ow n body, speech, mind , an d spiritua l ignoranc e and who are not som e external entities. 146 The min d o f Mara and th e min d of the Buddha do not exis t simultaneously in the bod y of the individual . The momen t i n which the mind of Mara arises is the momen t that is devoid of Buddhahood, because the min d is obscured; and th e momen t i n which Buddhahoo d arise s is the momen t that i s devoid o f Mara because of the absenc e o f obscurations. I t i s on thi s ground that th e Vimalaprabhd assert s that Buddhahoo d doe s not preced e the Buddha' s de struction of Maras nor does the eradicatio n of Maras precede Buddhahood.147 If Buddhahood wer e to precede the destruction of Maras as external entities, then the Buddha's assault on Maras would imply his lack of freedom fro m obscurations . Bu t if the destruction of Maras were to precede Buddhahood, then it would be unclear why ordinary sentient being s were unable to destroy Maras at any time. According to this tantric system, the spiritual ignorance of those who delight i n mundane pleasure s arises due to the word s of the interna l Devaputr a Mara . When one refuses t o conform to the word s of Devaputra Mara by not manifestin g spiritual ignorance, th e habitual propensities of one's own mind become Vajrasattva . Therefore, lik e Maras , Vajrasattva, wh o i s the mind , i s one's own self-imposed (sw-Jcrta ) experience. The for m of Vajrasattva is a mantra because it is by means of mantras that one guards one's own mind from Maras. That which begets all of the interna l Mara s is said to be a moment of perishable bliss, which is called here "Cupid" (kama-deva). Eliminatin g one's inner Cupid by actualizing the moment of supreme, imperishable bliss, one destroys Maras, which hav e the form of one's own afflictive an d cognitive obscurations.148 However, it is said that out of compassion for others, one intentionall y does not destro y all of one's afflictiv e obscurations, but retains just a trace o f them "tha t are of the natur e o f the activities (kriyd) fo r the benefi t of sentient beings, " in order to show that path o f liberation t o others.149

Gnosis and Karma Even though th e Kalacakr a tradition's philosophical explanatio n o f karma is akin t o the Madhyamika view of karma, as being caused by mental afflictions an d thereby being of the natur e of mental afflictions, 150 it s explanation o f karma in terms of human physiology takes on another slant. According t o the Kalacakra tradition, karma originates from the same elements from which mental afflictions arise . Thus, one can say here tha t karma i s of the natur e o f mental afflictions , becaus e the y both originat e from a common source . Since karma originates from th e si x elements, i t i s characterized by origination an d cessation and therefore by conceptualization. In this way, karma induces and perpetuates th e dualistic mind in relation t o which menta l afflic tions arise . For the eliminatio n o f both menta l affliction s an d karma, purification takes place by melting away the fine atomic particles of the bodil y pranas, which in duce a dualistic vision of reality and carry the habitual propensities of karma. It is due to th e dissolution o f the atomi c structure of one's bod y and min d tha t th e tantri c adept realize s the emptines s of all phenomena, whic h transcends th e materialit y of atoms, and thereb y becomes free o f karma.

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Moreover, i n terms of conventional reality, the agen t (kartr) of karma is identified here a s consciousness, o r innate bliss, which appropriates th e element s i n th e mother's womb . Eventually, when th e body is formed, the six sense-faculties and th e faculties o f action become it s means o f action. However, that very consciousness is also recognized here a s the agen t of the eliminatio n o f karma, which a t th e tim e of death graduall y leaves the five elements withi n th e navel , heart , throat , forehead , and crown-cakra. 151 In terms of ultimate reality , the agen t o f karma is not a n agen t but a "a sky-pervader, a vajn i n th e sky , free o f sense-objects," the Sahajakay a with out physica l constituents. 152 Thus , i n term s o f conventional reality , gnosis is th e source, originator, and destroye r of karma; and i n terms of ultimate reality, it is none of the above , since the min d of gnosis is neither a derivative of the five elements no r does it perceive itself or anything els e as an agent. 153

Gnosis an d Sexua l Bliss In th e Kalacakr a traditio n suprem e imperishabl e blis s i s define d a s tranquillit y (santa), whic h pervades the element s o f every sentient being' s mind and body and of the entir e inanimate world. Thus, the bod y o f every sentient being i s the abod e of immutable bliss 154 and contain s th e fou r bodie s of the Buddha . I n being s wh o are bound t o transmigrator y existence, th e blissfu l natur e o f the Buddha' s min d mani fests i n th e for m o f sexual bliss, in which th e mind , fo r a brief time, becomes non dual an d fre e o f conceptualization. However , since th e experienc e o f sexual bliss is mutable, it creates habitual propensities of mutable sexual desire (kdma-vasand) an d induces the furthe r emergence o f that desire. In this way, it reinforces mental afflic tions b y binding th e experience r to sensual pleasures. For that very reason, mutable bliss is viewed in the Kalacakra tradition as being characterized by transmigratory existence. Nevertheless, th e Kalacakr a tradition stresse s the importanc e o f not avoidin g sensual bliss but implementin g i t on th e path as a condition tha t generates mental joy, which i n turn brings forth the subtl e mind that counteracts conceptualization s and directly perceives the empt y nature o f phenomena. Thus, by refining th e mind , innate blis s secures freedom from cyclic existence. The Sekoddesa affirm s th e refinin g power of bliss in the followin g manner : Just as copper, refine d by chemical solutions, does not becom e copper again, so the mind, refine d b y bliss, does not ente r suffering again. 155

Due to the purifyin g powe r of bliss, the experienc e o f innate blis s is regarded as an indispensable condition fo r attaining Buddhahood. Th e Kdlacakratantra speaks of its soteriological significance in this way: For one wh o abandons that [momen t of bliss] — which i s the caus e o f the Buddhas , by means of which the Lord s of Jinas have originated and come out of the wom b by the efficac y o f days, and by means of which Siddhas, not emittin g semen, have pulsation (spanda) an d non-pulsatio n (nihspanda) — and wh o meditate s o n anothe r empty Buddhahoo d devoi d o f immutable bliss, he wil l not experienc e innat e bliss for ten s of mdlions of eons.156

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Likewise, with regard to th e soteriologica l efficacy o f sexual bliss, one read s in the Vimalaprabhd: Bliss that is produced b y two sexual organs is the realit y (tattwi) that brings fort h th e result of Buddhahood. Me n ar e the aspect s of Vajradhara, and women ar e the vajrawomen.157

Since sexual bliss cannot arise without passion (raga), th e inducemen t and nurturing o f passion ar e viewe d as central component s o f the Kalacakratantra pat h t o spiritual awakening. One read s in the Vimalaprabhd: Sin i s due t o th e eliminatio n o f passion, o n accoun t o f which, hatre d towar d th e most love d on e arises . Due to hatred there i s delusion; an d o n account of this, th e mind alway s becomes stupifie d du e to the descen t of one's own vajra. 158

The Sekoddesa als o speaks of the absenc e of passion as sin. It states : There i s no greate r sin than dispassion (virago), an d there is no greater virtu e tha n bliss. Therefore, o king, th e min d shoul d alway s dwell in imperishable bliss. 159

Passion here means sexual desire (kdrna). A s indicated in chapter 5 on the "Cos mic Body, " the Kalacakratantra identifie s sexua l desire with gnosi s and it s fire with the fir e of gnosis.160 The fire of sexual desire incinerates th e impuritie s of the mind . Therefore, i n this tantric system, to eliminate passion means to prevent virtu e from arising. The tantri c adep t retain s passion b y retaining seme n durin g sexual union, whereas th e emissio n of semen result s i n dispassion , or aversion , an d subsequen t mental afflictions . I t impedes the emergenc e of imperishable bliss and creates a condition fo r the furthe r emergence of repeated desire for transitory bliss and al l its un favorable consequences . The Sekoddesa caution s agains t the deadl y power of seminal emission in thes e words: It has bee n know n tha t emissio n arouse s dispassion , an d dispassio n arouse s suffer ing. Due to suffering th e men' s elements ar e destroyed, and due to that destructio n there is death. Due to death there is rebirth, an d due to rebirth ther e are repeated death s an d seminal emissions. Thus, the rebirt h o f sentient beings is due to the arisin g of dispassion and not du e to anything else. 161 Whether seminal emission occurs occasionally or frequently, th e consequence s of seminal emission are equally detrimental with regard to one's liberation from cycli c existence. The Vimalaprabhd expresse s it in these words: A lion , wh o feeds on deer , occasionall y engage s i n th e pleasur e o f sexual union a t the en d of the year . A pigeon, who feeds on gravel, constantly engage s i n the plea sure of sexual union . But jus t as neither on e [o f them] has suprem e bliss , due t o emittin g seme n eithe r once o r at al l times, so too a n asceti c an d a lustful ma n d o not hav e i t becaus e of emission i n sleep an d in the waking state .

The Gnostic Bod^ 17 9 Just as a sleeping man wh o is bitten by a snake does not live , so too a n ascetic i s ruined by the vulv a of a base woman, due to not retainin g his semen.162

The Kalacakratantra als o asserts the advers e affects o f the habitua l propensitie s of seminal emission on one's ability to actualize imperishable bliss, for perishable bliss is as antithetical t o imperishable bliss as poison i s to ambrosia. It asserts that imperishable bliss does not aris e from th e mind that is not purifie d from the perishable bliss of seminal emission, just as grapes do not com e from the nimba tree and lotus flowers do not blossom from the udumbara tree.163 Whereas the passion that is characterized by seminal emission brings destruction, or death, the passion that is characterized by nonemission become s the suprem e and imperishabl e moment o f bliss, by means of which sentient being s are liberated. In this regard, it is said that th e Buddha s guard the bliss , presen t i n their hearts, whic h sentien t beings release. 164 For this reason , the tantri c yogi must learn to retain hi s semen for the sak e of the sddhana o n imperishable bliss, which is taught a s a meditation o n blis s through sexua l union withou t seminal emission. I t i s by means o f such a sadhana tha t on e i s able to eliminate th e habitual propensitie s o f th e perishabl e blis s o f semina l emission . One's habitua l propensity fo r semina l emissio n (cyuti-vasana) i s said t o b e a n adventitiou s stai n (dgantuka-mala), whic h ha s characterized th e mind s of sentient being s since begin ningless time, 165 an d i t i s said to b e a cause of transmigratory existence. However , just as sexual union create s a condition fo r the arisin g of the habitua l propensity of seminal emission , s o too doe s i t creat e a condition fo r the arisin g of the habitua l propensity of seminal retention. 166 In ligh t of this, the Kalacakratantra liken s the transformative powe r of sexual union with regard to semen to the powe r of fire with regard to mercury. It states: Fire i s an enem y o f mercury. The cohesivenes s (bandha) o f mercury never occur s without fire. When it is not cohesive, it does not produce gold. Without gold, it does not giv e pleasure to alchemists . Likewise , the cohesivenes s o f men's seme n (bodhicitta) neve r occur s without unio n wit h a woman. If it i s not cohesive , i t does no t transmute th e body ; and th e non-transmute d bod y does not giv e supreme bliss.167

Thus, just as mercury, which escapes due to its contact with fire, can also be made cohesive by that fire, so too semen, which escapes due to sexual contact, can be made cohesive by that contact. Likewise , just as cohesive mercur y is exceptionally poten t in purifying ordinar y metal and transforming it into gold, so too cohesive seme n has the powe r to purif y one' s psycho-physica l aggregates from obscurations . Therefore , in thi s tantri c tradition , meditatio n o n a deity during sexual union, includin g th e union with an actual consort (karma-mudra), i n which th e yogi's semen becomes motionless, i s considered t o b e analogou s to th e processe s of calcination (jarana) an d trituration (svedana) o f mercury. Just as the proces s of making mercury cohesive i s of two kinds—one involving the trituratio n and the other involving calcination—so too th e proces s o f making one' s ow n seme n cohesiv e an d motionles s ha s tw o aspects—dispassion (virago) fo r a consort an d passio n (rdga) fo r a consort. I t consist s of passion an d dispassion , because th e yogi focuses hi s min d o n a deity and o n th e personal identitylessness of himself and his consort, which induce s dispassion, while engaged in sexual union with a consort, whic h induce s passion. Likewise, just as the

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twofold proces s of making mercury cohesive an d thermostabl e induce s the differen t states of mercury, from vaporous t o motionless,168 due to its different powers of con suming metals, s o too, th e habitua l practice o f this twofold process of making one's own seme n cohesiv e induce s different state s of semen, fro m soft , moderate , excessive, to the mos t excessive, due to meditation o n the impermanenc e o f the individ ual, different krtsnas, and du e to th e destructio n of the inanimat e (jada) aggregates , elements, an d sense-bases. 169 Although th e Kahcakratantra identifies sexua l bliss with th e blissfu l natur e of gnosis, the experienc e o f sexual bliss is seen onl y as a facsimile o f the manifestatio n of self-aware gnosis, because, while experiencing that bliss in sexual union, one is unable to ascertain it as gnosis. Similarly, although th e nonconceptual stat e of the mind that is induced by sexual bliss is identical t o th e direc t realizatio n of emptiness, th e experience o f that stat e i s only a facsimile o f the realizatio n of emptiness, because, while being in that state o f nonconceptuality, on e i s unable to ascertai n i t a s such. Nevertheless, th e experienc e o f the facsimiles o f the manifestatio n of gnosis and o f the realizatio n of emptiness can facilitat e the actual manifestation o f gnosis and th e realization of emptiness. When th e experienc e o f the facsimile s of immutable bliss and emptiness is utilized as the essence out of which a tantric adept mentally create s mandalas an d thei r deitie s i n th e stag e o f generation , i t diminishe s th e habitua l propensities tha t impe l on e t o gras p onto ordinar y experience s a s truly existent . When the experienc e o f mutable bliss is implemented i n thi s way , it induce s one' s mental perception of the world as a mere illusion, and consequently, diminishe s one's attachment t o the world. Thus, i n th e Kalacakr a tradition , th e transformatio n o f mutable bliss into immutable bliss is contingent upo n one's motivation and one's mode of engaging in sexual practices. Those who engage in sexual practices merely for the pleasur e o f mutable bliss or while grasping onto such concepts a s the Sel f (dtman) an d creator are said to be incapable o f actualizing imperishable bliss. Thus, one may conclude that it is not th e nature of gnosis itself that sustains and eliminates one' s mental obscuration s bu t one' s mod e of experiencing it. As long as one's experience o f gnosis as innate blis s i s mutable, th e cycl e of transmigration i s perpetuated. Whe n one' s experienc e o f innate blis s become s immutable , Buddha hood i s realized. The mod e of one's experience of innate blis s directly depends upo n the presenc e o r absence o f mental obscurations, an d the presenc e of those obscurations proceed s fro m the fusio n of consciousness and matter . The Kdlacakratantra's view that one's gross, physical body is a mere hindrance t o Buddhahood is supported by the earlier-mentione d theor y that mental afflictions an d karma arise from th e el ements tha t for m th e human body. From the premise that one's psycho-physical factors are the source of one's men tal obscuration s arise s the necessit y of transforming the ordinar y physical nature of one's body and mind. The Kalacakratantra considers that transformation a s the mos t direct means leading to the state in which one's own body, speech, and the mind of immutable bliss become mutuall y pervasive and unified . The resul t of that transformation is none other than the actualization of the four bodies of the Buddha, the fou r aspects of gnosis and bliss . Within the contex t of Kalacakratantra soteriology, to actualize the fou r bodies of

The Gnostic Body 18 1 the Buddha means to bring one's own gnosis into conscious experience . On e reaso n for thi s is that the presence of the gnosi s of imperishable bliss in sentient being s does not impl y that i t i s fully manifest in their experience. Whe n nondual gnosi s become s fully manifest, an ordinary sentient being becomes the Bhagavan Kalacakra, who, according to the Vimalaprabha, "i s praised by the Jinas in all the tantras as Vajrasattva, the wor d evam."170 The Kalacakr a tradition's interpretation o f Vajrasattva, whic h is based o n th e definitio n given in th e Adibuddhatantra, i s almost identical t o that of the Hevajratantra. I t states: Gnosis that i s entirely indivisibl e (abhedya) i s called th e "vajra." A bein g (sattva ) who i s the unit y of the thre e worlds is called "Vajrasattva." 171 Likewise, according t o th e Vimalaprabha, th e wor d evam designates Vajrasattva in this way: the lette r e denotes th e space-element , whic h i s the vajra thron e occu pied by syllable varn, which denote s th e body , speech, mind , and gnosis. 172 In ligh t of these interpretations of Buddhahood, one may say in conclusion tha t in this tantric system, the actualizatio n of the innat e gnosi s of imperishable bliss involves the realization of the unitar y nature of all forms of existence, which manifests in the fou r aspects that are, like space, all-pervading an d empty of inherent existence.

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The Transformative Body

The Pat h of Actualizing Gnosis, the Individual , and the Path as the Individua l

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he Kdlacakratantra's theor y of the nature of gnosis, prdnas, spiritual ignorance, and mental afflictions , a s well as the relationship among them, provides the rationale for the Kdlacakratantra practices for eliminating mental afflictions and actualizing the four bodies of the Buddha. Among the Kdlacakratantra's multifacete d approach to th e eradication of mental afflictions , severa l are especially significant. First, the pat h of eliminating mental affliction s i s the pat h o f sublimating the afflictiv e natur e of mental affliction s int o th e peacefu l an d pur e nature o f the enlightene d being s who are the pure aspects of the elements from which mental afflictions arise . Second, the path of sublimating mental affliction s i n the Kalacakr a tradition is the pat h of recognizing the ultimate nature of one's own mental afflictions, which is gnosis. This path is comprised of two methods. One i s a conceptual method of familiarizing oneself with th e ultimate nature of one's own mind by means of autosuggestion, specifically by means of generating oneself i n the for m o f the deitie s of the kalacakm-maridala. Th e othe r method i s a nonconceptual metho d o f spontaneous an d direc t recognition o f gnosis as the ultimat e nature of one's ow n mind. The first method, whic h i s characteristic of the stag e of generation (utpatti'krama), i s contrived and based on one's faith in th e innately pure nature of one's own mind, and i t uses primarily one's powers of imagination. Eve n though i t is characterized by freedom fro m graspin g onto one's own ordinary psycho-physical aggregates, or one's self-identity as an ordinary being, it is still characterized by holding onto the imagined self-identity. The second method, whic h is characteristic of the stag e of completion (sampatti'krama), draw s upon the experi ence of imperishable bliss an d th e direc t perception o f the innatel y pure nature of one's own mind, which i s devoid of grasping onto an y identity. Thus, on the pat h of sublimating mental afflictions, th e Kalacakratantra adept starts the purificator y practices using one typ e of conceptualization in order to eliminat e anothe r typ e of conceptualization, and conclude s wit h th e eradicatio n o f all conceptualization. In thi s 182

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tantric traditio n then , mental affliction s ar e nothing other than conceptualization s that obstruct the unmediated perception o f the empty and blissful nature of one's own mind. In the anuttara-yoga-tantras other than the Kalacakratantra, the primar y goal of the pat h o f sublimatin g menta l affliction s i s the purificatio n of thei r immediat e causes, beginning with the prdnas. In those tantras, the purifie d prdnas eventually become a purified materia l substance of the min d of clear light, and one's pure illusory body arises fro m thi s substance. In the Kalacakratantra, on the other hand, the pri mary goal of sublimating mental affliction s i s the complet e eradicatio n of all present and future prdnas. It is upon such complete eradicatio n tha t the bod y of empty form, called "the for m of emptiness" (sunyatd-bimba), an d the mind of immutable bliss arise. Since the cessatio n o f the circulatio n of the prcmas induces the actualizatio n of Buddhahood in the for m o f Kalacakra, Buddhahood is characterized here a s the "wind less state " (avata) tha t on e attain s b y mean s o f wind . Similarly , th e nonabidin g nirvana (apratisthita-nir'vdna) o f the Buddh a i s also explained i n terms of the absenc e of the win d of the prdnas.l Th e eradicatio n o f the prdnas i s characterized by two conditions of the mind . First, due to the destructio n o f the prdnas, one's dualisti c mind becomes unified, and it becomes both the apprehending subject and the apprehende d object. I n this way, one's own mind becomes a form of emptiness (sunyatd-bimba), i n which conceptualizations cannot arise. Second, th e destruction of the prdnas and the elements that they carr y eradicates the five psycho-physical aggregates and, i n their absence, imperishabl e bliss arises. Thus, i n the contex t o f the Kalacakratantra, by completely extinguishing one' s own psycho-physiological constitution and processes, one extinguishes the sourc e of one's ow n cycle o f rebirth an d attain s th e stat e o f the eterna l manifestatio n o f th e gnosis o f supreme, immutabl e bliss . Fro m th e premis e that one' s ordinar y psychophysical factors, which are composed of atomic particles, are the sourc e of one's mental obscurations, arise s the necessit y of transforming the ordinary , physical nature of one's body and mind into their blissful nature. The Kalacakra tradition considers that process of transformation a s the mos t direct means t o the stat e of the mutua l pervasiveness and unification of one's own body, speech, an d the min d of immutable bliss. The divers e aspects of this tantri c pat h of actualizing the gnosi s of immutable bliss are closely related t o the previousl y described views of the Kalacakr a tradition on the way s in which th e fou r bodie s of the Buddh a are present within th e individ ual an d o n th e manner s i n whic h thei r power s manifest in the bodily , verbal, and mental capacitie s of the huma n being . I n light o f the Kalacakr a tradition's identifi cation of the individua l with th e fou r bodie s of the Buddha , the path of actualizing the gnosi s of immutable bliss can b e seen a s the pat h of bringing forth the tru e nature of one's own bodily, verbal, and mental capacities. Th e pat h of actualizing the four bodies of the Buddh a is the path of the purificatio n of the previously mentioned four bodily drop s from the habitual propensities of spiritual ignorance, which are sustained b y prdnas. Therefore, i n the Kalacakr a tradition, th e pat h of actualizing the fourfold mind of the Buddh a is inseparable from the path of the sublimation, or transformation, of the prdnas and nddis i n the body. In that regard, the phenomenal form s of th e fou r bodie s o f the Buddh a an d th e manner s i n whic h the y manifes t within every individual are most intimately related through thei r commo n causa l relation-

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ship to the prdnas. Their interrelatio n i s even more clearly demonstrated i n the cakratantra's multifaceted, practica l approach to the actualizatio n of the fou r bodies of the Buddha . With regard to this, one may say that in this tantric system , the transformative body of the pat h o f actualizing blissful gnosi s is the pat h of the mind' s self-discover y through th e eliminatio n o f its inessential ingredient s wit h which th e min d falsel y identifies itself. Thus, th e transformativ e body of the Kdlacakratantra path i s nothing else than the gnostic body revealing itself in the process of elimination until there is nothing lef t t o be identified with, until the basi s for self-affirmation, o r self-identifi cation, ceases and nondual self-awareness arises . As in other related tantri c systems, here too, th e transformativ e path of actualizing the gnosi s of immutable bliss consists of the thre e mai n stages of practice: th e initiation (abhiseka), th e stag e of generation, an d the stag e of completion. However, the content s of these thre e mai n stages of Kalacakratdntra practic e differ fro m thos e in th e othe r anuttam-yoga-tantras, since th e for m o f Buddhahood tha t i s sought i n this tantric traditio n differ s fro m thos e i n the othe r relate d tantras. In this tantric tradition, the actualization of the four bodies of the Buddha as the four aspect s o f the Jnanakay a i s instantaneous, bu t th e pat h o f purifying the fou r drops, which are the inne r supports of the four types of the Jnanakaya, is gradual. The process of sublimating the fou r drops is characterized by the Kalacakratantra's uniqu e path consisting of three types of accumulations: the accumulation s of merit (punya), ethical discipline (sila), an d knowledge (jndna). Fo r this tantric system, the accumulation of merit results in the attainmen t o f the first seven bodhisatwa-bhumis, and th e accumulation of ethical disciplin e leads to the attainmen t of the eighth , ninth , an d tenth bodhisattva'bhiimis. The accumulatio n o f ethical disciplin e i s defined her e a s meditation on reality (tattva),2 an d it is said to result from observing th e tantric vows (vrata) and pledges (niyama), especiall y those related to the practices with a consort. Lastly, the accumulatio n of knowledge results in the attainmen t o f the elevent h and twelfth bodhisattva'bhumis, which are characterized by the actualizatio n of the gnosis of imperishable bliss and by the unificatio n of one's ow n mind and body. Consisting of not tw o but three types of accumulations, this tantric path i s closely related to th e yogic practice s tha t are specifi c to the anuttard'yoga-tantras and to the relevan t schema o f the twelv e bodhisattva-bhumis. Likewise, this entire tantric path of spiritual transformation i s seen a s being of two kinds, mundane and supramundane, due to the differin g qualitie s of tantric disciples. Thus, the stag e of initiation i s said to be of two kinds: mundane (laukika) an d unexcelled (anuttara). Th e mundan e initiation s are those tha t involve the genera tion of bliss by means of sexual union wit h an actual consort (karma-mudra). Du e to their involvmen t with union wit h an actual consort, these mundan e initiations are considered ineffectiv e i n bringing forth nondual gnosis , without whic h ther e i s no Buddhahood; and their inefficac y i s explained as follows. If in the union of the tantri c couple, th e bliss of the male consort that has arisen due to the female consort is the gnosis of the femal e consort, then the blis s of the femal e consort tha t has arisen due to the male consort i s the gnosis of the male consort. In that case, there are two types of gnosis between the tw o consorts, which means that there is an absence of nonduality. Accordingly, the Vimalaprabha assert s that the mundan e initiation s ar e taught

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not fo r the sak e of bringing abou t th e experienc e o f nonduality bu t fo r convertin g people t o this tantri c path. 3 The unexcelle d initiations , o n the other hand , do not involve th e unio n o f two sexual organs but ar e practiced b y means of the mahamu.' (ira-consort, or the empty form consort, an d these initation s d o give rise to the non dual gnosis of imperishable bliss . Similarly, the stag e of generation, i n which on e meditates on the sexua l union of oneself an d a n imagine d consort (jnana-mudrd) i s regarded as a mundane sadhana, for i t brings about only mundane results , such as the perishable experience of innat e bliss and the mundan e siddhis. The stag e of completion, o n the othe r hand, i n which one meditates by means of the mahamw
The Transformativ e Body of the Pat h of Initiation This tantric path of the accumulation o f merit, ethical discipline , and knowledge begins with the sevenfol d initiation int o the kalacakra-mandala, an d this i s seen as the first step in enabling th e individual' s four vajras t o eventually arise as the fou r bodies of the Buddha . It ends with two sets of the fou r highe r initiations , intende d fo r th e advanced Buddhis t practitioners. The first seven initiations authorize the initiat e to engage in the meditation s on mantras, mudrds, and mandalas tha t will facilitate the elimination o f mental affliction s an d th e consequen t accumulatio n o f merit. Ac cording to the Kalacakra tradition, they are given for the sake of converting sentien t beings to this body of the pat h an d for providing the initiat e with an understanding of this tantric path. The four higher initiations authorize the initiate to engage in the meditation o n emptiness that has the bes t of all aspects, which facilitates the accu mulation of knowledge;4 and the four highest initiations authorize the initiat e to become a tantric master , a vajrdcdrya. The initia l method o f manifesting the fou r bodies of the Buddh a is characterized by the initiate's entrance int o the kdlacakra-manhla through the four gateways of the mardala-palace, whic h symboliz e th e fou r gate s of liberation correspondin g t o th e four bodies of the Buddha , and by the initiate' s visualization of his own psycho-physical constituents i n the for m of deities. This visualization during the stage s of initiation of one's entire psycho-physica l makeup in the for m o f deities is unique to Kolacakratantra practice . i. The first two initiations, the Water (udaka) an d Crown (mukuta) initiations , are designed to induc e the initia l eradication of the obscuration s of the dro p in th e lalata cakra by sublimating the initiate' s elements and psycho-physical aggregates, respectively. Thus , thes e tw o initiations , durin g whic h th e initiat e i s led int o th e mandala throug h th e norther n gate , ar e said to facilitat e the transformatio n o f th e initiate's bod y and the eventua l actualization of the five Tathagatas. Thus, thi s ini tial purification of the dro p in the lalata is believed t o empower the initiat e t o actualize the Nirmanakay a of the Buddha. 5

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The othe r tw o initiations, th e Crown-pendan t (patta) an d th e Vajra-and-Bel l (vajra'ghantd) initiations , ar e designed to purify th e drop in the throat-cakr a by purifying the righ t and left nadis. In doing so, these two initiations, which ar e performed at the souther n gate of the kalacakra'mandala, ar e said to facilitate the purificatio n of the initiate' s speech-fajra an d the actualizatio n of the Sambhogakaya . The Crown pendant initiatio n i s said to empower the initiat e to attain th e te n power s that are for the sak e of attaining th e te n perfections; whereas the Vajra-and-Bell initiation i s said to empower the initiat e t o attain imperishabl e bliss by purifying th e seme n and uterine blood, 6 Likewise, the Vajra-Conduc t (vajra-vrata) an d Name (nama) initiations , whic h are performed at the easter n gate of the kalacakra-mandala, are designed to facilitate the purificatio n of the dro p at the heart-cakra, which i s the mind-vajra , an d the actualization of the Dharmakaya . The Vajra-Conduc t initiatio n i s said to induc e th e initial sublimation of the sense-faculties and their objects and to empower the initi ate to attain th e divine eye (divya-caksu) an d other divin e faculties. The Nam e initiation i s believed to purif y th e facultie s of action (karmendriya) an d thei r activitie s and to empower the initiat e t o attain th e fou r Immeasurable s (brahma-vihara)} Lastly, the Permission (anujna) initiation , which is performed at the western gate of th e kalacakra'mandala, i s designed t o remov e the defilement s of the dro p at th e navel-cakra and to facilitate the actualization of the Jnanakaya. It is said to empower the initiat e to set the Wheel of Dharma in motion . In this tantric system, the initiat e who has undertaken thi s initial purification of the body, speech, mind, and gnosis by means of the seven initiations i s considered authorized to practice the sadhanas for the sak e of the mundan e siddhis (laukika-siddhi) .8 While receiving these seven initiations, the initiate takes the twenty-five tantric vows (vrata) an d the pledge s to avoid the fourtee n root downfalls (middpatti). I n this manner, he increases his store of merit.9 The power of merit that the initiat e accumulates by mean s of the firs t seve n initiation s i s considered effectiv e i n facilitatin g the at tainment o f the first seven bodhisatwa-bhimis, either in this lif e or in a future rebirth . If the initiat e visualizes the kalacakra-mandala while he is being initiated int o it, then he accumulates enough meri t to empower him to attain master y over the seve n bodhisattva-bhumis in his present life. But, if the initiat e who is free o f the te n nonvirtue s dies, he attains mastery over the seve n bodhisattva-bhumis i n the next life. 10 2. The tw o higher initiations, the Vase (kumbha) an d Secret (guhya) initiations , are designed to increase the initiate' s ethica l disciplin e that qualifies him to eventually attai n permanen t master y ove r th e othe r tw o bodhisattva-bhumis, Acal a an d Sadhumatl. I n term s of the sexua l yoga of Kalacakratantra practice , attainin g Acal a ("Immovable") entail s th e immovability , or nonemission, o f semen; an d attainin g Sadhumatl ("Good" ) entail s th e attainmen t o f the min d o f sublime bliss (mahasukha'dtta) durin g sexual intercourse.11 Likewise, the othe r two higher initiations , the Wisdo m and Gnosis initiations , ar e believed to facilitate the attainmen t o f the tenth bodhisattva-bhumi, Dharmamegha, which i s described in this traditio n a s "th e rain of sublime bliss that brings forth one's own well-being and the well-being of others," "the stat e o f ManjusrT tha t removes the fea r o f cyclic existence."12 These empowerments are said to be effective due to the powe r of the ethica l disciplin e tha t the initiat e accumulated durin g the two earlier higher initiations .

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The four higher initiations ar e believed to empower the initiate to attain the remaining bodfasattva-bhumis b y further purifyin g th e habitua l propensities of the previously accumulated impurities. In the course of these four higher initiations , the initiate engage s i n sexua l union wit h a n actua l consor t (karma-mudra), experience s sexual bliss, and at the same time meditates on emptiness. At the same time, the ini tiate identifies himself with the Buddha' s four vajras—the vajras o f the body , speech, mind, an d gnosis , respectively. Thus, i n th e Vas e initiation , th e initiat e identifie s himself with the body-
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this manner, the Gnosis initiation facilitates the purification of the drop in the navelcakra and empowers th e initiate to attain the Jnanakaya. Thus, on e may say that i n the fou r highe r initiations , i t is the initiate' s experience o f the fou r type s of bliss13 and emptines s that induces the furthe r purification of the fou r drops . In th e Vas e initiation, i t i s the experienc e o f sexual bliss induced by the imagine d caressing of the bod y and breasts of the consort ; i n the Secre t initi ation, i t i s the experienc e o f sexual bliss induced b y the imagine d sexual union; i n the Wisdo m initiation , i t i s the experienc e o f sexual bliss induce d b y the pulsatio n (spanda) o f the ti p of the sexua l organ; and i n the Gnosi s initiation , i t is the experi ence of sexual bliss induced b y nonpulsation (nihspanda) tha t is caused by passion for the mahamudrd consort . I n light of this, the four higher initiations themselves can be classified int o th e tw o types of path. The first two higher initiation s can be charac terized as the mundane, or conceptual, path, and the other two as the supramundane, or nonconceptual path . The fou r type s of blissful experience s then ar e seen a s th e means b y which thes e fou r initiation s contribut e t o th e remova l o f the habitua l propensities of former mental obscurations an d counteract their furthe r emergence. The initiate' s progres s through th e eleve n initiation s i s seen i n th e Kalacakra tradition as a symbolic representation of one's spiritual progress on the Buddhist path from a lay person t o a monastic novice , t o a fully ordaine d monk , an d finally, to a Buddha. This symbolic progression is considered t o b e related t o the initiate' s em powerment to eventually attain the twelv e bodhisattva-bhumis. Thus, on e who is initiated i n the first seven initiations i s referred to as a "lay Buddhist" (upasaka), fo r he is predicted to attai n th e first seven bodhisatwa-bhumis. One wh o i s initiated i n th e higher Vase initiation is referred to as a "novice" (sramanera), a "Buddha's son" (buddha-putra), o r a "youth," since he i s predicted t o attain the eight h bodhisattva-bhumi. Similarly, on e who is initiated in the higher Secret initiation is referred to as a "fully ordained monk" (bhiksu), "a n elder" (sthavira), o r "a crown-prince (yuva-raja) o f th e Buddha," for he is predicted to attain the ninth bodhisattva-bhumi. One wh o is initiated i n the highe r Wisdom and Gnosis initiation s is referred to as a "Buddha," or "a teacher of the Dharma," since he is predicted to attain the tenth bodhisattoa-bhumi.14 The fou r highes t initiation s empowe r the initiat e to attain the remainin g two bodhisttava-bhumis. This analogy of the progression through the eleven initiations to the progression from a Buddhist la y life t o Buddhahoo d i s one o f many interna l indications of th e Kalacakra tradition' s stron g monasti c orientation . Thi s analog y i s similar t o th e Sekoddesa's analog y of the four higher initiations to the four stages of life—childhood, adulthood, old age, and Buddhahood . However , the Sekoddesa draw s its analogy on the basis of the experienc e of the fou r types of bliss during the four higher initiations, whereas the Kalacakratantra's analogy is based on the predicted attainment o f the bodhisatwa-bhumis. Therefore, i n the Sekkodesa, one who is initiated i n the highe r Vase initiation i s called a "child" (bala), sinc e h e attain s sexual bliss merely by touchin g the consort. One who is initiated in the higher Secre t initiation is called an "adult" (praudha), fo r he experiences his bliss due to the imagine d sexual union. One wh o is initiated i n th e highe r Wisdom initiatio n i s called a n "ol d person " (vrddha), fo r he experiences bliss caused by bodhidtta touching th e ti p of his sexual organ. Lastly, one who i s initiated i n th e highe r Gnosi s initiatio n i s called "th e progenito r o f all Pro-

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tectors," "Vajrasattva," "a great being" (maha'Sattva), "Bodhisattva, " "the nondual, " "the indestructible, " "the fourfol d vajra-yoga," "Kalacakra, " and s o on, sinc e his experience of bliss is caused by his passion fo r the maha-mudra consort.15 The fou r highes t initiation s (uttarottardbhiseka) hav e th e sam e names as th e four highe r initiations. They ar e said to induc e the furthe r purificatio n of the fou r drops from thei r obscurations . In the fou r highes t initiations , the initiat e i s given ten consorts , representing the te n powers (sakti), o r ten perfections. As in the earlier Vase initiation, here to o th e initiat e experiences sexual bliss by arousing sexual desire due to mentally gazing and caressing the breast s of a consort who i s chosen fro m amon g th e ten . Du e t o th e arouse d desire, a drop of bodhidtta descend s from his usrusa into the laldta and gives rise to bliss (ananda). Durin g the other thre e highest initiations , due to th e imagine d sexual union with the remainin g nine of the te n consort s an d du e to th e retentio n o f semen, h e sequentiall y experience s supreme blis s (paramananda), extraordinar y bliss (viramdnanda), an d innat e blis s (sahajdnanda). A s in the four higher initiations, which came earlier, here too the experience of the fou r type s of bliss is accompanied by meditation on emptiness . Due to this, the experienc e is believed to further facilitat e th e transformatio n of the vo jras of the body , speech, mind, and gnosi s into th e fou r bodie s of the Buddha. 16 As with the precedin g path of the fou r highe r initiations, due to the experienc e of the four type s o f bliss, this fourfol d pat h o f initiation ha s bot h aspects : mundane an d supramundane. In this way, the fou r highest initiations are the preliminary practices for th e stag e of completion. In the fou r highe r an d th e fou r highes t initiations, the experienc e o f the fou r types of bliss becomes the mean s of purifying one's own mental obscurations and facilitating the nondual vision of reality. As indicated earlier, the experience of sexual bliss is thought to exert its purifying power only when it is accompanied by both th e retention o f semen an d meditatio n on emptiness . The followin g verse s from th e Adibuddhatantra expres s this in the followin g manner: In the union with an actual consort (karma-mudra) an d in desiring a gnosis-consort (jnana-mudrd), thos e who firmly hold the vows should guard their semen (bodhidtta), the grea t bliss. Upon placing one's own sexual organ into the vulva, one should not emi t bodhidtta. Rather, on e shoul d meditate o n the entir e thre e world s as the body of the Buddha . Due solely to that guarded [bodhidtta], Buddhahood, which is completely filled with the accumulatio n of ethical disciplin e and i s fully endowe d with merit and knowledge, comes about in this lifetime. The Samyaksambuddhas, who have attaine d the ten perfections, abide in the thre e times. By means of this [guarded bodhidtta], al l Samyaksambuddhas turn the Whee l of Dharma. There is no greater gnosis than this, which is the lor d of the thre e world s and i s not devoid of emptiness an d compassio n for the sak e of accomplishing it s own well-being and the well-bein g of others.17

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Thus, already in the stag e of initiation, one's own gnosis that manifests as both sexual bliss, or passion, characterized by seminal nonemission, an d a s the cognitio n of emptiness, or dispassion, acts as the mean s for actualizing the gnosi s of imperishable bliss.

The Transformativ e Bod y of the Pat h of the Stag e of Generation The secon d phase o f the transformativ e body of the path of actualizing the fou r bodies of the Buddh a is the stag e of generation (utpatti-krama). I t consist s o f four mai n phases of practice, whic h ar e classified a s the fou r type s of sadhanas: 1. th e generatio n o f the body , or th e suprem e king of mandalas (mandalardjdgri), whic h is specified as the "phas e o f worship" (sevdn(ga), 2. th e generatio n o f the speech , o r th e suprem e king o f actions (karmardjdgri), whic h i s specified as the "auxiliar y sadhana" (upasddhana), 3. th e yoga of the drop s (bindu-yoga), whic h i s characterized b y the gener ation o f the drop s of semen an d i s specified a s a "sadhana," 4. an d th e subtl e yoga (suksma-yoga), whic h i s characterized by the arisin g of bliss and i s specified a s the "sublim e sadhana" (mahd-sddhana) .ls This fourfold classificatio n of the stag e of generation correspond s to the fourfol d classification o f the Buddha' s bodies, and i t delineates the bod y of the path which is made up of progressively more subtle forms o f tantric practice . The first two types of sadhana, which involv e meditation o n th e fourfol d kdlacakra-mandala an d al l its indwelling deities, are based on intricate mental imagery , which canno t be maintaine d without adequat e meditativ e quiescenc e (samatha). Moreover , th e symboli c implications of the menta l imager y sustained by meditative quiescence facilitat e the con templative's insigh t (vipasyand) int o th e empt y and blissfu l natur e o f that imagery and its referents. Investigating the impermanent nature of the imagined deities of the kdlacakra-mandala, an d thereb y realizin g his own impermanenc e an d th e imperma nence of all sentient being s abidin g within th e tripl e world, the tantri c contempla tive realizes that nothing i n the kdlacakra-mandala o r in the thre e world s is of enduring essence. Therefore , on the stag e of generation, th e path of the purification of the four drops is uniquely characterized by the simultaneou s development o f quiescenc e and insight. This path is complemented by the practice of the meditator' s self-iden tification wit h the visualized deities, or the cultivation of divine pride, which is necessarily based on som e conceptual understandin g of the emptines s of inherent existence of the deitie s with whom the contemplativ e identifie s himself. The visua l formation of the kdlacakra-mandala i s called "th e suprem e sovereign mandala" because it corresponds to the generation o f the four bodies of the Buddha. 19 When this mentall y created , supreme , sovereign mandala i s conceived a s the visual representation o f the pur e aspects of the contemplative' s ow n gnosis, mind, speech , and body , it act s a s the purifyin g agen t o f the meditator' s four drops . The transfor mative power of the visualize d kdlacakra-mandala i s believed to li e i n it s efficac y t o partially eradicate the obscuration s o f conventional realit y (sartwrty'dvarana), b y allowing ultimate reality to manifest itself through th e generate d mandala. However , as indicated earlier, its purifying efficac y i s believed to be contingent upo n th e con -

The Transformative Body 19

1

templative's own understanding o f emptiness. Th e Kdlacakmtantra assert s that on e should engage in meditation o n the kalacakra'mandaki onl y after on e has understood that "the entir e world is empty," that ultimately "there is neither a Buddha nor spiritual awakening."20 The transformativ e power of this practice is also said to lie in th e contemplative's understandin g tha t the entir e kalacakra-manhla, which is a mere illusion (m&ya) an d an ideatio n (kalpana), i s nothing other tha n the manifestatio n of one's own mind. Accordingly , th e contemplativ e mus t understan d tha t i n order t o free hi s mind fro m ideation , h e mus t eventually leav e behind thi s for m o f practice and, in order to transform his mind int o th e actua l Kalacakra, the unit y of bliss and emptiness, he mus t engage in nonconceptual meditation . I n light o f this, the Kala cakratantra states : Because th e entir e sddhana o f a vajn i s an illusion , o king , on e shoul d mak e one' s own mind fre e o f impurities; one shoul d mak e i t the lor d o f the mandala.21

On the grounds that the visualized kdlacakra-martdala i s a mere mental construc t that arises nondually with the meditator's own mind, one may say further that in this stage o f practice th e transformativ e agen t o f the meditator' s fou r drop s i s his ow n mind. i. In the first phase of the stag e of generation, the metho d o f purifying th e fou r drops i s characterized b y th e visualizatio n of the kalacakra'Tnandala. an d it s diverse classes of deities, who represent th e enlightene d aspect s of the meditator' s body and of the cosmi c body. As in th e cas e of many Buddhist Mahayana meditational prac tices, here too, the confession o f sins, rejoicing in virtue, taking refuge, an d arousing the spiri t of awakening (bodhicitta) preced e the practic e of meditative visualization. The pat h of the actualizatio n of the fou r bodie s of the Buddh a on th e stag e of generation involve s meditativ e practice s durin g whic h th e tantri c adep t imagina tively dies as an ordinary person and arises as the Buddha Kalacakra. For that reason, the stage of generation begin s with a meditation in which the tantric adept mentally casts off his transmigratory psycho-physical aggregate s in order to obtain th e supramundane aggregate s (lokottara'skandha). I n this phase of practice, prior to visualizing the kdlacakra'tnandala a s the sublimate d aspect o f his ow n body and o f the cosmi c body, the tantri c adep t imaginativel y dissolves the atomi c structure of his own body and the body of the universe. In order to relinquish his habituated sens e of self-identity and establish hi s new identity, the meditato r mentall y disintegrates his body in the sam e manner tha t the bod y dissolves by itself during the dyin g process. By meditating o n th e water-element , he eliminate s first the fire-element; then whe n th e earth-element has lost its solidity due to the absence of fire and it becomes liquid, he dries i t u p b y meditating o n th e wind-element , whic h h e disperse s afterward int o space. After that, he meditates o n the space-elemen t a s the reflectio n of emptiness, or as empty form, whic h transcend s th e realit y of atoms.22 This manner of settling one's own mind on empt y form an d establishin g it as one's tru e identity is a prerequisite for adequate meditative practice of generating oneself in the form of the deities of the kdlacakra-rnandala. Whereas the first phase of the stag e of generation i s analogous to the stage of dying and th e dissolutio n of the cosmos , the secon d phas e o f the stag e of generation is analogous to conception in the womb and to the formation of the cosmos. It entails

19 2 The Inner Kalacakratantra

the menta l generation o f the fou r division s of the lalacakra-mandala a s the mother' s body and as the cosmi c body. In this phase of practice, the tantri c practitioner visualizes first the mmd'mandala, at the center of which i s gnosis, which has the for m of a lotus within the tetrahedra l source of wisdom (prajna-dharmodaya). I n this way, he symbolically generates the Dharmakay a and the Jnanakaya of the Buddha , the sublimated aspects of the win d and eart h mandalas o f the univers e and o f the mother' s forehead an d navel cakras. After mentally generating the mmd-mandala, th e tantri c contemplative visualize s the speech-mandal a encircling th e mind-mandala. B y visualizing the speech-mandala , he generates the Sambhogakay a of the Buddha , the sublimated aspec t of the fire-mmiai a o f the univers e and o f the mother' s throat-ca/cra . He furthe r visualizes th e body-mandala encirclin g the speech-mareiala , an d i n thi s way, he generates the Nirmanakaya of the Buddha , the sublimate d aspect of the water-marKiala of the cosmic body and of the mother's heart-cakra. Visualizing these four mandalas of the gnosis, mind, speech, and body, together with their individual sets of four gates , portals, and th e like , the tantri c yogi mentally generates th e sublimated universe and the mother's body, as well as his transformed environment, in which he will arise as the Buddh a Kalacakra in the nex t phase of the stag e of generation prac tice. (Se e figure 8.1.) The followin g verse s from th e Adibuddhatantra indicat e the manne r in which a tantric adep t should understand tha t th e mandalas tha t he generate s as the purifie d aspects of the mother' s body and the cosmo s are the symboli c representations of the Buddhahood into which he will arise as the Suddhakaya : The mandalas o f the mind , speech , an d bod y correspond t o th e Buddha , Dharma , and sublim e Sangha . Th e fou r wjra-line s correspon d t o th e fou r divin e abiding s (brahma-vihara). A quandrangula r [for m withi n th e mandala] entirel y correspond s t o the fou r appli cations of mindfulness (smrtyupasthana) , 23 and th e twelv e gate s correspond t o th e cessation o f the twelv e link s [o f dependent origination] . Likewise, the exquisit e portals correspond t o the twelv e bhumis, and the crematio n grounds i n the eigh t direction s correspon d t o the Noble Eightfold Path. The sixtee n pillar s are [sixteenfold ] emptiness, an d th e uppe r floor s correspon d t o the elements. The crest s correspond to the eight liberations, to the eight corporeal s (riifim),24 an d to the eigh t qualities. 25 The fac e an d th e side s [o f the gates ] accor d wit h th e classificatio n of the mind , speech, and body. The five pure colors correspond to the five: ethical discipline (a!a) , and the like . The thre e fences in the manfalas o f the mind , speech , and body correspond to th e three Vehicles, to the five faculties of faith, and the like, and to the five powers (bala) of faith, and s o on . The pavilion s i n th e thre e man}alas correspon d t o th e samddhis an d dhdrans. Th e variegated jeweled strips of fabric correspond t o al l of the te n perfections .

The Transformative Body 19

FIGURE 8.1 Th e bod y of the seed-syllables

The pearl-garland s and the half [pearl-garlands] correspond t o the eightee n uniqu e qualities [o f the Buddha ] (dvenkd'dha.rma). Bakull flowers correspond t o th e [ten ] powers.26 The balconie s correspond t o virtues. [Balconies] fille d wit h th e sound s o f bells an d th e lik e correspon d t o liberatio n through emptiness , an d s o on. Thei r stat e o f being ful l o f victory-banners corre sponds t o th e [four ] base s of supernatural powers (rddhi'pada), an d thei r glistenin g with mirrors corresponds to the [four ] exertion s (prahdna). The vibratio n of their yak-tai l whisk corresponds t o the [seven ] limbs of enlightenment, an d thei r decorative garland s correspond t o th e nin e division s [o f the Bud dha's teaching]. The corner s that are adorned wit h variegated vajras correspon d t o the fou r mean s o f assembly (samgraha). Their being studded with the fou r jewel s of [the Fou r Noble] Truths at the junctures between th e gate s and crests and alway s bein g surrounded by five great circles [symbolizes] th e five extrasensory perceptions (abhijnd).

3

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The Inner Kalacakratantra They are surrounded by the vajra-chai n o f the constituent s of enlightenment (bod' hyanga) o f one wh o knows all aspects, by a single wall of bliss, and b y the light-ray s of the gnosis-vfl/ra . The ever-rise n moo n an d su n ar e i n accordanc e wit h th e divisio n o f wisdom an d method. Th e pur e mind , speech , an d bod y ar e th e Whee l o f Dharma, th e grea t pitcher, drum, tree of spiritual awakening, its wish-fulfilling jewels , and the like. This is a mandala of splendid Kalacakra , which i s the dharma'dhatu.21

After purifying one's own perception and conception of the environment in this way, the tantric practitioner enters the next phase of the stage of generation, in which he imagine s himself as an enlightened bein g arising in a pure environment. There fore, thi s phase o f the stag e of generation i s analogous to th e individual' s development i n the mother' s womb and to the originatio n of cosmic time. At thi s phase of practice, the tantri c yogi generates th e bod y of the Buddh a Kalacakra as the subli mated form of the universe and of his own body by visualizing Kalacakra standing on the discs of the sun, moon, and Rahu and emanating the five rays of light. This phase of visualization is analogous to th e momen t o f conception i n the womb . Thus, th e sun, moon, and Rahu represent the purified aspects of the mother's uterine blood, the father's semen , and th e meditator' s consciousness, which ar e joined in th e purifie d mother's body that wa s generated earlie r as the fou r mandalas. The five ray s of light symbolize the five types of gnosis, the purified aspects of the meditator' s psycho-physical aggregates. The nex t phas e of visualization, which i s analogous to th e thir d mont h i n th e womb, represents the sublimation of the three links of dependent origination. In that phase, th e meditato r visualize s th e Buddh a Kalacakra standing i n th e dlidha pos ture,28 which symbolizes the flow of the promas in the meditator's right nddi an d their retraction i n his left nodi. With his feet, th e Buddh a Kalacakra crushes the hearts of Rudra and Mara, the meditator's mental defilements. Here the tantric contemplative visualizes Kalacakra in union with Visvamata, the personifie d representation o f the perfection o f wisdom, or gnosis, who i s standing i n the pratyalidha posture, 29 whic h symbolizes the flow of the prdnas i n the contemplative' s lef t nodi an d their retractio n in his right nodi. By visualizing Kalacakra and Visvamata, the tantric adept mentally generates the tw o aspects of the Buddha' s mind: bliss and emptiness . According t o the Vimalaprabhd, Kalacakr a represents innat e blis s (sahajananda), o r supreme, imperishable bliss (aksara-sukha); an d Visvamata represents the gnosis of the emptiness that has all aspects (sarvakdra'Sunyata-jfidna), whic h perceives the thre e times and is "purified b y the eliminatio n o f the obscuration s of conceptualizations (vikalpa) an d the blis s of seminal flow (cyavana'sukha)."30 Thei r sexual union within the pericarp of the lotu s of the mandala. symbolizes the union of these two aspects of the Buddha' s mind. The presenc e of these two deities in the heart of the kdlacakra-mandala i s to remind the meditato r that gnosis , characterized by bliss and emptiness, is the ultimate nature o f all other deitie s in th e mandala, that i s to say , of all other aspects of Buddhahood an d o f the meditator' s own psycho-physical constituents. I n othe r words , all other deitie s in th e mandala ar e to b e understood a s the emanation s of the tw o principal deities. For example, Visvamata, who is the perfectio n of wisdom, becomes VajradhatvTsvarT for the sake of destroying ordinary hatred (prdkrta'dvesa) an d bring-

The Transformative Body 19

5

ing forth sublime hatred (maha-dvesa), whic h is the absenc e of hatred. Sh e becomes Locana for the sak e of destroying ordinary delusion. Due to her sublime compassion, she becomes MamakT for the sak e of destroying ordinary pride, Pandara for the sak e of destroying ordinary attachment, an d Tarafor the sake of eradicating ordinary envy, and so on. Likewise, Vajrasattva becomes Vairocana for the sak e of illuminating th e minds of deluded people, Amitabha for the sake of those afflicted by attachment, Rat nasambhava for the sake of generosity toward suffering beings, Amoghasiddhi for the sake of removing obstacles, and so on.31 In this way, unified bliss and emptiness, symbolized here b y the tw o principal deities in sexual union, fre e th e min d from it s obscurations by sublimating the element s that give rise to mental obscurations . At times , the tw o principal deities are also identified with the contemplative' s aggregate of gnosis (jnana-skandha) an d th e elemen t o f gnosis (inana-dhatu), respectively; and at other times, they are both referred to as the element of gnosis that gives rise to the individual' s mental sense-facult y (mano-indriya). Fo r this reason, the y are also called "the gnosti c deities " (jnarui'devata).32 The subsequen t phases of the visualizatio n of the deitie s accompanying Kala cakra and Visvamata are viewed as analogous to the furthe r developmen t of the fetu s in the womb and to the sublimation o f the remaining link s of dependent origination. Thus, th e tantri c adep t furthe r visualize s the tw o principal deitie s surrounded by the eight goddesses who stand on the eigh t petals of the lotu s and represent eigh t perfections. A s he visualize s the othe r deitie s of the mind-mardala—th e four Buddha s and their consorts , th e Vidyas , the deitie s with a tree an d a pitcher (sataru-sakalasa), th e male and female Bodhisattvas, and the fiv e male and female wrathful deities (krodhendm)—the tantri c adep t generates the sublimate d aspects of his elements, sense-bases (ayatana), an d other bodily constituents. The generation of the four Buddhas and their consorts and the male and female wrathful deities within the mind-mandala is said to be analogous to the fourth month in the womb and to the sublimation of the fourth link of dependent origination. 33 Whereas the generatio n o f the male Bodhisattvas is seen as analogous to the fift h mont h i n the womb and to the sublimation of the fift h link of dependent originatio n or the si x sense-faculties. The generatio n o f their fe male consorts is analogous t o the sixth month in the womb and to the sublimatio n of the sixt h link of dependent origination . In th e schem a o f the fourfol d kalacakra-rrwrndala, th e gnosti c couple, Kalacakra and Visvamata , who ar e th e meditator' s sublimated gnosis-aggregate and element , represent the Sahajakaya of the Buddha ; all other deitie s of the mind-mandala represent th e Dharmakay a o f the Buddha . The sequentia l visualization of the deitie s of the gnosi s and mind-maricialas illustrates the Kalacakr a tradition's vie w of the Dhar makaya arising from th e Sahajakay a as analogous to the arisin g of the sense-facultie s and their objects from th e elements . Accordingly, the Kalacakra tradition views the mental generation o f the mind-mandala a s the sublimatio n o f the meditator' s con ceptual an d perceptual types of awareness. Every deity in the kalacakra-mandala corresponds to the specifi c component o f the huma n bod y or to its functions. Table 8.1 illustrates th e manne r i n which th e Kalacakr a traditio n identifie s the si x Buddhas and their consort s with the si x elements, an d the si x male and female Bodhisattva s with the twelv e sense-bases that arise from th e six elements, respectively. 34 Upon generating this mind-manlala, the contemplative generate s the goddesses

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TABLE 8.1 Buddha s and Bodhisattva s within the Huma n Body Six male buddhas and bodhisattvas

Six female buddhas and bodhisattvas

Amoghasiddhi = th e wind-element Vaigarbha = th e nos e Ratnasambhava = th e fire-elemen t Ksitigarbha = th e eye Vairocana = th e earth-element Sarvamvaranaviskambhl = th e body Armtabha = th e water-element LokesVara = th e tongue Kalacakra = th e gnosis-element Samantabhadra = the mind Aksobhya = th e space-element Vajrapani = th e ear

Tara = th e wind element Sparsavajra = touc h Pandara = th e fire element Rasavajra = tast e Locana = th e earth-element Gandhavajra = smel l Mamaki = th e water-element Rupavajra = for m Visvamata = th e gnosis-element Sabdavajra = soun d DharmadhatvTsvarT = th e space-elemen t Dharmadhatuvajra = a mental object

of the nadis o f time (Icala-noi ) within th e speech-rnancjala , i n addition t o the eigh t goddesses (clew) and their attendin g sixty-fou r yoginis as standing on the eigh t petal s of the speech-mandala. Th e visualizatio n of the eigh t principal goddesse s and thei r retinue o f yoginis o f the speech-marnial a i s analogous t o th e sevent h month i n th e womb and to the sublimatio n o f the sevent h link of dependent origination. B y visualizing th e goddesse s o f th e speech-marekki , th e tantri c adep t generate s th e Sambhogakaya of the Buddha. 35 After visualizing the speech-marciaia, the meditator visualize s the diverse classes of deities of the body-mandala: namely , the nairtyas, suryadevas, nagas, and pracandds. Visualizing the twelv e nairtyas, th e tantri c practitione r generate s the sublimate d aspects of the twelve main nadis of his body; and visualizing the twelve lotuses on which they ar e standing, h e generate s th e twelv e purified aspects of the cakras within th e twelve joints of his arms and legs , which ar e called th e action-calcra s (karma-cakra) and the activity-cakras (kriyd'Cakra). Similarly , mentally creating th e suryadevas, th e contemplative generate s th e purifie d aspect s of the nadis o f his hands, feet , crowncakra, and anus. The generatio n of these two classes of deities, nairtyas and suryadevas, is viewed as analogous to the eight h mont h in the wom b and to the sublimatio n of the eighth lin k of dependent origination . Visualizing the te n nagas and ten pracandds within th e body-mandala , th e yogi generates th e sublimate d nadis o f his te n finger s and te n toes . Thi s visualizatio n is said to be analogou s t o th e nint h month i n th e womb and t o the sublimatio n of the nint h link of dependent origination . Visualizing th e deitie s o f the body-mandala i n thi s way , the contemplativ e generate s th e Nirmanakaya of the Buddha . Just as all of the aforementione d deities of the fou r mandalas symbolize the purified aspects of the fou r bodies of the Buddh a that are latently present i n the bod y of the fetus , s o do they symboliz e the purifie d aspects of the fou r bodies o f the Buddh a that are latent in the body of the individua l born from th e womb. The deitie s of the gnosis and min d mandalas symboliz e the fou r bodie s o f the Buddh a latentl y presen t in th e bod y of a young child; an d th e deitie s of the speec h an d bod y mandalas symbolize the actualize d aspects of the fou r bodies of the Buddh a that are present i n th e

The Transformative Body 19

7

TABLE 8.2.A Th e Gnosi s and Min d Mandalas within the Individual Gnosis-mandala Sahajakaya Sahajakay Kalacakra consciousnes Visvamata gnosi divyas seme satarusakalasds uterin

s

a

s n e blood

Mind-matidala Dharmakaya Sambhogakay a Nirmanakay Buddhas aggregate s Bodhisattva s sense-base s krodhas arm

vidyas element

s leg

a s

s

hair, etc .

body o f th e individual. 36 Thus , b y mentall y generatin g th e deitie s o f th e fou r mandalas, the tantri c adept imaginativel y transmutes his entire life , from th e tim e of conception until death, into the stat e of Buddhahood . Tables 8.2.3— b sho w th e correspondence s amon g th e deitie s o f th e fourfol d mandala, the fou r bodie s of the Buddha , and one's bodil y constituents. The Kalacakr a traditio n see s this entir e phas e o f the generatio n o f the bod y of Kalacakra a s the fourfol d kalacakra-mandala a s a meditatio n o n perfec t awakenin g with fiv e aspect s (pancakdra'Sambodhi); an d i t consider s th e followin g phas e o f up' asadhana to be a meditation o n perfect awakening with twent y aspects. 37 2. The upasadhana phas e o f the stag e of generation practic e involve s a sddhana on th e enlightene d activitie s o f the deitie s of the kalacakra-maridala, that is, the ac tivities o f the fou r bodie s of the Buddha . I n this phase o f practice, th e tantri c con templative imaginativel y awaken s hi s consciousness , whic h ha s falle n int o stupo r and i s unaware of its true nature, an d he stimulate s it to engage i n enlightened ac tivities. For example, he imagine s the female consorts of the fou r Buddhas, who symbolize the fou r Immeasurables , the pure aspects of the fou r bodily elements, a s standTABLE 8.2.B Th e Speec h and Bod y Mandalas within th e Individua l Speech-matidala devis flo yogmis

Sahajakaya Sahajakay

Dharmakaya Sambhogakay suryaAevas contractio n naga of the limb s th and teet indistinct distinc speech speec

a w o f prams from th e navel-calcr a Body-mandala a Nirmanakay a s growt h of pracanias fallin g o f th e e firs t firs t teeth , h and growt h of t th e new h teeth , and the perio d until death

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ing in his four cakras an d sexuall y inciting th e Buddh a Kalacakra, that is , his ow n mind'vajra, wit h these songs: I am Locana, the mother of the world, present in the yogi's seminal emission. O Kalacakra, arise with the natur e of my mandala and desir e me. I am Mamakl, a sister, present i n the yogis ' spiritual maturation. O Kalacakra , arise with the natur e o f my mandala and desir e me. I a m Pandara, a daughter, presen t i n an y man amon g th e yogis . O Kalacakra , aris e with th e natur e o f my mandala and desir e me. I am Tarinl, a wife, present i n the yogis ' purity. O Kalacakra, arise with th e natur e of my mandala an d desir e me. Protector of the world , whose intentio n i s the deliveranc e o f the world , upon perceiving the empt y mandala, expand the mandalas o f the body , speech , and mind. 38

Hearing thei r songs , one's own mind—the Buddha Kalacakra who is absorbed in emptiness—awakes, perceives that the entire world is like an illusion, and engages in activities for the benefit of all sentient beings. 39 This arousing of one's own awareness to engage in enlightened activitie s is closely related to the mutua l union o f the kdlacakra'mandala's femal e an d mal e deities, which ar e the wisdo m and metho d as pects, or the min d an d body aspects, of the Buddha . Th e sexua l union of the mal e and female deities, who belong to different families , is pertinent t o the Kalacakra tradition's view of the way s in which the mutual pervasion of the four bodies of the Buddha give s rise to thei r enlightene d activities . For example, the unio n o f the deitie s comprising the Sahajakay a and th e body-wjr a give s rise to Kalacakra's body, just as their phenomenal aspect s give rise to the body of the fetus. Likewise, the mutual pervasion of the deities representing the Dharmakaya and the speech-w/ra is for the sake of teaching the Dharma, just as their phenomenal aspects within the body of the individual give rise to the prattling of a child. The union of the deities symbolizing the Sambhogakaya and the mind-fajr a act s for the well-being of all sentient beings . The union o f the deitie s who comprise the Nirmanakay a an d th e gnosis-vajra i s said t o bring about the liberatio n of sentient beings , just as their phenomenal aspect s in the body of the individua l give rise to the capacity for sexual bliss at the ag e of sixteen.40 Upon generating the kalacakra-mandala and all its deities in this way, the tantri c adept perform s a self-empowerment . He firs t purifie s hi s bodil y and menta l con stituents by invoking th e deitie s that represen t the vajras o f the enlightene d body , speech, an d mind, and he request s the initiatio n fro m th e goddes s who belongs to the mandalas o f the body , speech, an d mind . This imagined initiation i s said to further purify th e contemplative's cakras and facilitate the actualization of the four bodies of the Buddha , Thus, th e eigh t divyds purif y hi s eight-spoked heart-cakra and facilitate its transmutation into the Dharmakaya of the Buddha. The fou r Buddhas and their consorts, who are collectively multiplied by two due to being classified in terms of body and mind , purif y th e sixteen-spoke d lalata an d facilitat e its transmutatio n into the Sahajakaya. The si x Bodhisattvas, their consorts , an d the fou r krodhas, who become thirty-two when multiplied by two due to being classified in terms of wisdom and method, purif y th e thirty-tw o spoked throat-cakra and facilitate its transforma-

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tion int o th e Sambhogakaya . Similarly , th e sixty-fou r yogims purif y th e sixty-fou r spoked navel-ca/cra and facilitate its transformation into the Nirmanakaya. All othe r cakras i n th e joint s of the contemplative' s arm s and legs , all th e nddls i n th e body , and th e psycho-physica l aggregate s are purifie d b y other deitie s o f the kalacakramandala.41 Upon imagining himself being initiated an d purified i n this manner, th e tantric adept identifies himself with the body, speech, mind, and gnosis of all the Buddhas in order to further diminish his grasping onto his ordinary psycho-physical aggregates. The tw o aforementioned phase s of the stag e of generation, th e sevahga and upasadhana, constitute th e Kdlacakratantra's deity-)iog a (devatd'yoga), whic h is believed to give mundane siddhis. Therefore, in this tantric system, a sadhana on the kalacakra' mandala i s referred to a s "a mundane sadhana" (laukika-sadhana). I n ligh t o f the fac t that meditation o n th e kdlacakra-mandala i s a conceptual meditatio n tha t involve s mental visualizatio n and imagination , th e Vimalaprabhd speak s of the first two types of sddhanas o f the stag e of generation a s the sadhanas i n which th e objec t of meditation lacks duration, for it is characterized b y origination and cessation. The kalacakramandala as the objec t of a sadhana is understood t o lack duration in the sens e that in the moment i n which th e tantric contemplative concentrates o n the principal deity in the center o f the mandala, he is no longer aware of the other deities in the mandala. Likewise, when th e yog concentrates on th e blu e face o f Kalacakra, he i s not cog nizant of Kalacakra's red, white, and yellow faces, and so on. Since meditation o n th e kdlacakra-mandala i s characterized by limited and momentar y cognition, i t is considered ineffectiv e i n directl y inducing th e stat e o f nonconceptual an d imperishabl e gnosis. From this vantage point, th e Vimalaprabhd speak s of the sadhana s of the stage of generation a s inferior sddhanas, which ar e designed for spiritually less mature practitioners. I t comments i n this regard: The Bhagavan , who knows reality , upo n resorting t o conventional truth in accordance with the powe r o f sentient beings ' inclinations , taugh t thi s truth a s dependently originated gnosis—whic h is the domain o f the dependently originate d sense faculties and i s limited an d capabl e o f limited functions—t o simple-minde d peopl e who are lacking i n courage, who do not see k ultimat e reality , whose mind s are intimidated b y deep an d profound gnosis , who ar e satisfied wit h sadhanas for pacification and other such acts , who are attached to the pleasure s of sense-objects an d delight i n th e sadhana s fo r mundan e siddhis , alchemy, eye-ointment , pills , an d th e magic daggers. 42

On th e one hand, the Vimalaprabhd acknowledge s that there ar e inconceivabl e powers i n thi s limited , conceptual meditation , alon g with th e mantras , gems, pills, magical daggers, alchemical substances , and similar objects that are of limited func tions. O n th e other hand, i t affirms tha t the mundan e knowledg e and mundane sid dhis that one acquires through th e practice of conceptual meditatio n cannot perform the limitless functions of supramundane omniscience and the supramundane siddhi.43 The limite d knowledge and mundane siddhis d o not brin g about the omniscient lan guage or supernatura l power s (rddhi), becaus e the y ar e not fre e o f mental obscura tions. Therefore, th e yogi who practices conceptual meditatio n i s thought to be unable to bring about the well-being of all limitless sentient beings in the way that the

2oo Th e Inner Kalacakratantm

Jnanakaya, which is free of coneptualizations, is able to do. Since the imagine d kolacakra'mandala is a reflection of the contemplative's own mind, which is shrouded with obscurations, the n th e kalacakra-mandala i s also a manifestation of the contempla tive's mental obscurations. The Vimalaprabha explain s this in the following manner: When a phenomenon (dharma) tha t is with obscuration s i s made manifest, th e yogi does not becom e omniscient; when a phenomenon that i s free o f obscurations becomes manifest , th e yogi becomes omniscient . The omniscien t on e has the divin e eye and ear , knowledge o f others' minds, recollectio n of former lives, omnipresent, supernatural powers , th e destructio n o f defilement s (asrava), te n powers , twelv e bhumis, and th e like . H e wh o meditates o n th e mardala-cakra, o n th e othe r hand, does no t becom e Vajrasattv a wh o has ten powers , but destroying his path to omni science and bein g overcome b y false self-grasping, he thinks: "I am Vajrasattva wh o has ten powers." 44

This assertion no t onl y reveals the Vimalaprabhd's vie w of the stag e of generation practice a s inferior to tha t of the stag e of completion, bu t i t als o suggests that the stag e of generation ca n be detrimental to the realizatio n of the ultimat e goal of Kdlacakratantra practice . Furthe r analysis of the tex t indicate s that this is the Kala cakra tradition's reaction t o some people's belief that due to the power of the sadhana using the mandala, the contemplative' s psycho-physica l aggregate s will actually become transformed into the aspects of the mandala and will thereby directly cause Buddhahood. Therefore , the Vimalaprabha als o asserts that the contemplative cannot be come a Buddha by the powe r of the generatio n stage practice alone an d without th e accumulation o f merit and knowledge , just as a pauper who i s devoid of merit can not become a king by merely imagining that he is the king. 45 Although i t denies th e efficacy o f the sadhana o n th e kalacakra'mandala fo r eliminating al l of one's menta l obscurations, it never denies that it has certain purificatory powers, if practiced with the understanding tha t the imagined deities are not ultimate truth and that one's own impure body is not manifestl y the pur e body of the deity. The deity-;yog a of the stag e of generation i s followed b y two yogic practices: th e yoga of drops (bindu-yoga) an d th e subtl e yoga (suksma-yoga). Th e yoga of drops and the subtl e yoga are designed to facilitate the purificatio n of the fou r drops by inducing a n experienc e o f the fou r type s of bliss. The yoga of drops directly induces th e emergence of the drops of semen, and the subtl e yoga induces the attainmen t of bliss caused by the flow of semen. The Adibuddhatantra define s these tw o types of yogas in this manner : That which makes th e ambrosi a that is of the natur e o f semen flow in the for m of a drop and that holds the fou r drops is called th e "[yog a of drops. " That which, transcendin g an y partition, i s partless an d hold s th e highes t point of the fou r dhyanas i s called th e "subtl e yoga," becaus e i t transcend s [seminal ] emis sion.46

The practic e of the tw o yogas involves a sadhana on sexual bliss with a consor t who in this stage of practice i s commonly an imagined consort, als o called a "gnosisconsort" (jnana-rnMcJra) . Accordin g t o th e Vimalaprabha, a n actua l consor t i s prescribed fo r simple-minded practitioners , a n imagine d consor t fo r mediall y mature

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yogis, and the mahdmiuira consort, who is implemented in the stag e of completion, is prescribed for superior ;yogTs.47 3. In the yoga of drops, during union wit h a consort, th e contemplativ e visualizes himself as Vajradhara and meditates on th e thre e world s as being a reflection of the Buddha . No t emittin g semen, h e generate s heat , calle d "candali," i n his navelcakra. Upon generating candali, the contemplativ e imagine s that i n th e lef t nad f of his navel-cakra , i t incinerate s th e fiv e mandalas o f the pranas, which ar e th e phe nomenal aspect s of the five Tathagatas, and that in the righ t nodi of the sam e cakra, it incinerates th e pranas of the sense-facultie s and their objects , which ar e the phe nomenal aspect s of the consort s of the five Tathagatas. The incineratio n o f the con sorts of the five Tathagatas implie s here th e cessatio n o f activity of the sense-faculties, because the min d apprehend s th e dharma-dhdtu. Whe n candali incinerate s th e consorts of the five Tathagatas, semen begins to flow in the for m of a drop. The dro p of semen (bodhicitta) flow s to the to p of the head, and from there it sequentially flow s into the throat , heart , navel, and secret cakras, bringing forth the experienc e of the four type s of bliss: bliss (ananda), suprem e bliss (paramananda), extraordinar y bliss (viramananda), an d innat e bliss (sahajarumda), respectively . When a drop of bodhicitta descends into the throa t an d melts there , it becomes the purifie d drop o f speech (vag-bindu); whe n i t melt s i n th e heart , i t become s the purifie d dro p o f the min d (dtta-bindu); whe n it melts in the navel, it becomes the purified drop of gnosis (jnanabindu); an d when it melts in the secret-cakra, it becomes the purified drop of the body (kdya-bindu), 4. In the practice of subtle yoga, the drop of purified bodhicitta that descends int o the secre t cakra durin g the practic e o f the yoga of drops, now sequentiall y ascends into the navel , heart, throat, an d usnsa, bringing forth the experienc e of the afore mentioned fou r types of bliss, which melt the atomi c nature of the fou r drops and facilitate their transformation into the four bodies of the Buddha. 48 Thus, i n the practice of these las t two ^ogas, the pat h o f the sublimatio n of the fou r drop s is the pat h of the generatio n o f sexual bliss, and th e agen t of sublimation is that very bliss. It is said that as the tantri c adep t purifies the drops of the body , speech, and mind in this manner, h e als o purifies th e desire , form, an d formles s realms , which h e previously imagined a s th e reflectio n o f th e Buddha . Mentall y retractin g th e purifie d thre e realms with the ligh t rays of his gnosis, or sexual bliss characterized by seminal nonemission, th e tantri c contemplativ e bring s fort h th e gnosi s o f th e thre e time s (trikalya-jnana).49

The Transformativ e Body of the Pat h of the Stag e of Completio n The deity -sddhana of the stag e of generation i s viewed in this tantric system as characterized by ideation o r imagination (kalpana). A s such, it is considered to induce directly th e attainmen t o f mundane siddhis an d onl y indirectl y to induc e th e attainment o f spiritua l awakenin g a s th e supramundan e siddhi (lokottara'siddhi) o r th e mahdmudrd'siddhi. Th e precedin g practice s o f the yoga of drops and th e subtl e yoga mark a transitiona l proces s fro m th e stag e o f generatio n an d it s conceptualized sadhana to the stage of completion an d its nonconceptualized sddhanas. The practic e

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of the stag e of completion i s seen as the mos t pertinent t o the attainmen t o f spiritual awakening, for it i s free o f ideation and i s uncontrived. It i s free o f ideation becaus e it entail s meditatio n o n th e for m o f emptiness (sunyata-bimba), o r empt y form, i n which one does not imagin e the deity's bodily form. Thus, due to the absence of the yogi's imagination o f the bodily form, there is no appearance of empty form; and sinc e the tantri c yogi meditate s on th e empt y form, i t cannot be said that there i s an absence o f appearance o f empty form. I n this regard, the meditatio n on empt y form is meditation on the nonduality of existence and nonexistence an d on cyclic existence as devoid of inherent existence. In light of this, the Vimalaprabhd characterize s meditation o n empt y form a s a nonlocal, o r nonlimited (apradesika), meditatio n since it is devoid of all mundane conventions. I t also interprets this form o f meditation a s a tantric implementatio n o f the Madhyamik a doctrine. 50 Therefore, i t i s considered here inappropriate for one who wishes to attain th e supramundan e siddhi t o imagine the empt y form—which i s the universa l form tha t ha s all aspects and holds all illusions—in terms of limited shapes, colors, symbols, and th e like . In contras t t o th e sadhana on the kdlacakra'mandala, du e to the absenc e of all conceptualizations, meditation o n empty form i s not characterize d by the origination or cessation but by the absence of everything. Jus t a s it exclude s th e visualizatio n o f Kalacakra an d othe r deities, s o does i t exclud e one' s self-identificatio n wit h Kalacakra. 51 Du e t o thes e characteristics, meditatio n on empty form is called the "sadhana of supramundane reality" (lokottara'tattva'Sadhana), th e "gnosis-sodhana, " or the "sadhana on the for m of emptiness" (sunyatd-bimba'sadhana).5 2 Contrary to the sadhana on the kdlacakm-mandala, the gnosis-sadhana of the stage of completion i s believed t o lea d to achieving th e mahdmudrd'Siddhi. Th e mahamu dra i s understood here as the perfectio n of wisdom, characterized by the absenc e of inherent existenc e o f all phenomena , th e sourc e of all phenomen a (dharmodaya), which is the Buddha-field , the place of joy (rati-sthdna), an d the place of birth (janma sthdna). I t is not a field of the transmigrator y beings' attachment an d aversion, nor is it an outle t o f the ordinar y bodily constituents, becaus e it i s the min d of imperishable time (aksara'kdla), fre e of origination and cessation, embraced by the body that is fre e o f obscuration s a s it s whee l (cakra). I t i s said that whoeve r frequentl y an d steadily meditates o n thi s sublim e emptiness, "the mothe r o f innate bliss , who i s a measure of the manifestatio n of one's ow n min d an d i s devoid of ideation wit h re gard t o al l phenomena, an d whoeve r embrace s her, i s called th e omniscien t Bha gavan who has attaine d th e mahdmudrd'Siddhi."53 Thus , b y practicing a sadhana o n the mahdmudra, on e practices a sadhana on th e ultimat e nature of one's own mind; whereas by practicing th e sadhana o n th e kdlacakm-mandala, on e meditate s o n th e conventional natur e of one's own mind. These defining characteristics of conceptual and nonconceptua l type s of meditative practices ar e the mos t crucial factor in determining their soteriological efficacy wit h regard to their ability to provide one with the adequat e accumulation s o f meri t an d knowledge . Th e Kalacakr a traditio n strongly affirm s tha t just a s the accumulatio n o f merit does not tak e plac e withou t service t o sentien t beings , s o the accumulatio n of knowledge does no t tak e plac e without meditation o n supreme, imperishable gnosis. The practice o f the stag e of completion entail s abandoning conceptua l medita tion, a s well as sexual practices wit h th e actua l an d imagine d consorts. Th e unio n

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with either one of these two consorts i s believed to induc e perishable bliss only, th e bliss characterized by pulsation (spanda). I n contrast, union with the mahdmudrd con sort, or the "empt y form-consort, wh o i s of the natur e o f a prognostic mirror and is not imagined," 54 is believed to induc e supreme, imperishable bliss that is devoid of puslation (nihspanda).55 The gnosis-sodhan a is divided into four mai n phases: worship (sevd), th e auxiliary sddhana (upasddhana), th e sddhana, an d th e suprem e sddhana (mahd'Sddhana). This four-phased sddhana describe s the six-phase d yoga (sad-ahga-yoga) o f the Kolacakratantra, which consist s of the followin g six phases: retraction (pratydhdra), med itative stabilization (dhydna), prdndydma, retentio n (dhdrana), recollectio n (anusmrti), and concentration (samadhi). The first two phases of the six-phase d yoga, retraction an d meditative stabilization, constitut e th e worshi p phase o f the gnosis-sodTwrui . They ar e als o called th e "tenfold yoga," since by means of these tw o phases, the contemplativ e mentall y apprehends the te n signs, including smoke, and so on. The subsequen t phases of prdnd' ydma and retentio n constitut e the upasddhana, whic h i s characterized by perception of the subtl e pranic body. The recollectio n phas e constitutes the sddhana stage and is characterized b y the experienc e o f the thre e imperishabl e moment s of bliss within the secret, navel, and heart calcras. Finally, the concentration phase of the six-phased yoga constitutes the mahd'Sddhana, whic h i s characterized by the unit y of gnosis and its object and i s accompanied b y imperishable mental bliss. 56 These four categorie s of the six-phase d yoga are said to correspond t o th e body , speech, mind , and gnosis vajras o f the Buddha , or to his four faces in the kdlacakra-mandala, for they bring forth the manifestatio n of the fou r bodies of the Buddha . On the stage of completion, the path of the purification of the four drops is characterized b y meditation o n th e fou r drops . The fina l purificatio n of the fou r drop s takes place in the fina l phase of the six-phase d yoga. Since the practice of the si x yogas is believed to bring about the purificatio n o f the si x aggregates—the aggregates of gnosis, consciousness, feeling , menta l formations , discernment, an d the body—i t is interprete d i n thi s tantric traditio n as the wa y of actualizing the si x Tathagatas: namely, Vajrasattva , Aksobhya, Amoghasiddhi , Ratnasambhava , Amitabha , an d Vairocana.

The Six-Phase d Yoga The Kdlacakratantra's sad-anga-yoga begin s with th e manifestatio n of the mentall y nonconstructed appearance s of one's own mind, that is to say, the nighttime and daytime signs, and ends with the manifestatio n o f one's universal form (visva-bimba). I n this way, the whol e process of the sod-anga-yog a is a meditative proces s of bringing into manifestatio n the successivel y more subtle and mor e encompassin g aspects of one's own mind. i. Th e yoga o f retraction (pratydhdra) involve s the meditativ e practice o f retracting th e prdnas fro m th e righ t and lef t nddis an d bringing them into the centra l nddi. In this phase of practice, the contemplativ e stabilize s his mind by concentrat ing on the apertur e of the centra l nddi i n the laldta, having the eye s opened wit h an upward gaz e called the gaz e of the ferociou s deity, UsnisacakrT. As a result of that,

204 Th e Inner Kalacakratantra

the pram s ceas e to flo w i n th e lef t an d righ t nadis an d begi n to flo w i n the centra l nodi. The cessatio n o f the pram's flow within the lef t an d right nadis severs the con nections between th e five sense-faculties an d their objects. Consequently , th e five sense-faculties an d thei r object s become inactive , meaning , th e si x types of con sciousness cease to engage with thei r correspondin g objects , and bodily craving for material things diminishes. This disregard for the pleasures of the body, speech, mind, and sexual bliss is what is meant here by worship. As the ordinary sense-faculties disengage, th e extraordinar y sense-facultie s arise . Du e t o that , th e te n sequentia l signs—the signs of smoke, a mirage, fire-flies, a lamp, a flame, the moon, the sun, th e supreme form, an d a drop—spontaneously appear; but thes e image s are none othe r than appearances of one's own mind. As the contemplative's mind becomes more stabilized, the te n signs appear more vividly, and the contemplative' s perception of external appearances diminishes . Wisdo m an d gnosis become the apprehending mind, and the te n signs , which ar e like an imag e i n a prognostic mirror , become the ap prehended objects . Thus, gnosi s apprehends itsel f in the sam e way that the ey e sees its own reflection in a mirror. This entering of the apprehendin g mind (grahalca-citta) into the apprehended min d (grahya-citta) constitute s it s nonengagement wit h external objects. The first four sign s appear during the practic e of retraction a t nighttime o r in a dark and closed space. Their appearance indicates that the prams within the nadis in the intermediate directions of the heart-cakra have entered the madhyama. The other six signs appear during the practice of retraction-^oga during the daytime and in open space.57 A drop appears as the tenth sign with the form of the Buddh a i n its center. This Buddha is the Nirmanakaya, which i s devoid of sense-objects due to its freedom from matter and ideation (kalpand). Afterward , the yogi hears a sound that is not produced by any impact (andhata-dhvani), whic h is the Sambhogakaya . The appearanc e of the first four o f the si x daytime signs indicates that the pranas within the nadis i n the cardina l directions of the heart-calcra have entered the central nddl; an d the appearance of the las t two signs indicates that the wind s of prana and apana hav e been dissolved. Due to the spontaneit y of this arising of the te n signs , the purifie d aggregate of gnosis (inana'skandha) i s considered to be uncontrived or nonconceptualized (avikalpita).58 The yoga of retraction is said to induce the state of Kalacakra and lead to the attainment o f th e bod y o f Kalacakr a b y purifyin g th e aggregat e of gnosi s (jftana skandha). I n terms of mundane results, such a yoga can accomplis h a siddhi b y which all one's words come true. This occurs due to the inactivit y of the ordinary sense-faculties, which empower s the contemplative's speec h with mantras. 2. The yoga of meditative stabilization (dhyana) refer s her e t o a meditative absorption o n th e all-pervadin g form (viSva-bimba), whic h i s also practiced wit h th e gaze of Usnlsacakri. It is designed to unif y the five sense-faculties and thei r objects. Due t o th e tenfol d classificatio n of the sense-facultie s and thei r objects as the ap prehending subject s and the apprehended objects , meditative stabilization is considered here to be of ten kinds. It is also interpreted as a mind that has become unified with empt y form a s its meditative object an d i s characterized by the fiv e factor s of wisdom (prajna), investigatio n (tarka), analysi s (vicara), jo y (rati) , an d immutabl e

The Transformative Bod y 20 5 bliss (acala-swicha). According t o the Vimalapmbhd, wisdo m here means observing the empty form; investigatio n means apprehending it s existence; analysis implies ascertainment o f that empt y form; jo y means absorptio n int o th e empt y form; an d im mutable bliss is the facto r that unifies the min d wit h empty form.59 Durin g the ini tial practic e o f the yoga o f meditative stabilization , the te n signs , whic h appeare d earlier during the retraction phase, spontaneously reappear. During the daytime yoga, the tantri c yogi gaze s a t th e cloudles s sky either durin g the mornin g o r afternoon , with his back turned t o the sun , until a shining, blac k lin e appear s in the cente r of the drop. Within the centra l nodi, the body of the Buddha, which is the entire thre e worlds, appears. It looks clear like the su n in water, and it has all aspects and colors. It is identified a s one's own mind that is free o f the sense-object s and no t a s someone else's mind , becaus e i t lack s knowledg e o f other beings ' minds . Thus , i n th e six phased yoga, one first perceives the appearanc e o f one's own mind with the physical eye (mdmsa-caksu) o f the Buddha , and at the culminatio n of the yoga, one perceives the mind s of others with the divin e eye of the Buddha . The yoga of meditative stabilization i s said to induc e the stat e o f Aksobhya, for it purifies th e aggregat e of consciousness (wjnana-skaruiha), an d t o induc e the actu alization of the five kinds of extrasensory perception (abhijnd). I n terms of mundane results, it is believed to induc e the experienc e of mental and physical well-being. 3. The yoga of prdndydma i s thought to be effective i n unifying th e te n right and left mandalas by bringing the prams into the centra l nddi. For this reason, it is said t o be of ten kinds . In th e practic e of this yoga, the contemplativ e stabilize s the prams within his navel-cakra by concentrating o n the center of that cakra, which is regarded as the sea t of the dro p associated wit h the fourt h state of the min d (tunya). I n this phase o f th e yoga, th e tantri c adep t practice s th e gaze o f th e ferociou s bein g Vighnantaka, directin g his gaze towar d the laldta. Durin g inhalation, th e contem plative apprehend s th e arise n form o f the Kalacakra' s Sambhogakaya an d bring s it from his nostril into the navel, where Kalacakra and his consort merge with the drop. As the Sambhogakay a descends into the navel an d merges into th e drop there, th e drop disappears, but Kalacakra and his consort remain in the navel-cakra. During exhalation, Kalacakr a an d Visvamat a ris e abov e the leve l of the dro p that has reappeared an d ascen d alon g th e centra l nodi. When the y ascen d durin g piiraka,60 th e tantric adept concentrates first on th e lowe r aperture of the madhyamd, wherefro m Kalacakra is brought into the navel; during recaka,61 he brings it down into the lower cakra. Practicin g i n thi s way , the tantri c contemplativ e bring s the prdnas int o th e navel-cakra and stabilizes them there. A s a result of this, the externa l breath ceases, and the contemplativ e engage s in the practice of kumbhaka.62 After perceiving th e Sambhogakaya, by means of kumbhaka, in the drop of the navel-cakra, he unifie s th e wind of the prdna tha t flow s abov e the nave l with the win d of the apana tha t flow s below the navel until a circle of the ray s of light appears surrounded by his own body. After th e contemplativ e stabilize s his mind on that drop in the navel-cakra, the abdominal heat (canddli) arises , melts the drop at the top of the usnsa, and induces the experience of the previousl y mentioned fou r type s of bliss. When the dro p reaches the throat-cakra , th e tantri c adept experience s blis s (anaruia); when i t reaches th e heart-cakra, h e experience s th e sublim e blis s (mahananda) ; whe n i t reache s th e

206 Th e Inner Kalacakratantra

navel-cakra, h e experience s th e extraordinar y blis s (viramdnanda)-, an d whe n i t reaches th e secret-cakra , he experience s the innat e blis s (sahajdnanda). B y melting the fou r drops , the candali melt s the afflictiv e an d cognitive obscurations . The yoga ofprdndydma i s said to induc e the stat e o f Amoghasiddhi, fo r it purifies the aggregat e of mental formations (samskara-skand'ha); and in terms of mundane benefits, i t is believed to purif y th e righ t and lef t nddis b y conveying the prams into the centra l nodi, an d i t make s the tantri c adep t worth y of being praise d by Bodhisattvas. 4. The yoga of retentio n (dhdrarid) i s also considered t o b e o f ten kind s due t o the tenfol d classification of the prana's leaving from an d arriving to the cakras of th e navel, heart , throat, laldta, and usrSsa, The yoga of retention entail s the unificatio n of th e wind s of prdna an d apana i n th e navel-cakr a an d th e practic e o f the gaz e of Vighnantaka. The unificatio n of these tw o winds is accompanied b y the manifestation of Kalacakra and his consort. I n the subsequent stages of this yoga, the contem plative continue s thi s practic e b y sequentially concentratin g o n th e cakras o f th e heart, throat, laldta, and usrusa, which are associated with the element s of water, fire , wind, and space, respectively. As a result of this practice, the fou r element s sequen tially dissolve into one another , an d th e yogi experiences th e fou r type s of bliss. As the contemplative' s concentratio n gradually moves from th e navel-calcr a to the upper cakras, he experience s the fou r type s of ascending bliss ; and as his concentratio n shifts fro m th e usrpsa t o th e lowe r cakras, he experience s the fou r type s of descending bliss. After experiencing thes e type s of bliss, due t o th e cessatio n o f the prana' s movements, the contemplative's min d becomes unified, and he apprehends th e for m of emptiness (sunyatd'bimba), th e spontaneousl y arisen appearance of Kalacakra and Visvamata. The yoga of retention is said to induc e the stat e of Ratnasambhava, since i t purifies th e aggregat e of feeling (vedand-skandha). Du e t o th e powe r of this yoga, it is said that the tantric adept attains the te n powers (bala) an d is purified of Maras and mental afflictions, du e to unifying hi s mind and destroying the flow of prdna. 5. The yoga of recollection (anusmrti) implie s here th e unio n o f the min d with empty form, th e stat e o f freedom from al l conceptualizations.63 In the yoga of recollection, th e contemplativ e perceive s i n his navel-cakra th e for m o f Kalacakra and Visvamata as innumerable ray s of light consistin g o f five colors. The yoga of recollection i s said to induc e the stat e of Amitabha, since i t purifies th e aggregat e of discernment (samjnd'skandha). I n terms of immediate results, it is said to induce the re alization of the for m of gnosis (jnana-bimba), o r the empt y form. Due to the power of that form, one i s purified t o the poin t tha t on e appear s as a stainless disc of light. 6. The ;yog a of samddhi i s also classified int o ten kinds, due to the cessatio n of the ten wind s of prdna.64 I t i s said to induc e the stat e of Vairocana, since i t purifies th e aggregate of form (rufja-skandha) . Accordin g to the Vimalaprabhd, th e contemplativ e who becomes purified by the ;yog a of samddhi attain s th e Sahajakay a within a period of three year s and three fortnights. 65 In th e samddhi phase , the objec t o f gnosis (jneya) an d gnosi s (jndna) itsel f become unifie d an d giv e ris e t o supreme , imperishabl e bliss . Fo r tha t reason , th e samddhi tha t is practiced here i s defined as "a meditative concentration on the for m of gnosis (jnana-bimba)." 66 I t is also interpreted a s the imperishabl e bliss that arises

The Transformative Body 20

7

from th e unio n o f the apprehende d objec t (grdhya) an d th e apprehendin g subjec t (grdhaka).67 This sixth phase o f yoga is characterized by the simultaneou s stacking of red and white drops in inverted order within the individua l cakras and by the resultant experience o f the 21,60 0 moments of immutable bliss. In this phase of the yoga, the tantri c adept stack s 3,600 white drops of bodhicitta, starting at the ti p of the sexual orga n and endin g a t th e usrusa; an d h e stack s the sam e number o f red drops of bodhicitta, beginning a t the lalata and endin g a t th e ti p o f the sexua l organ. As th e bliss courses through the si x cakras during the 3,60 0 moments, it manifests two bod' hisattva-bhumis within each of the si x cakras, due t o th e destructio n of prdnas. This stacking of 3,600 drop s within th e si x cakras brings about th e experienc e o f 21,600 moments of immutable bliss. By the efficac y o f these moment s o f immutable bliss, 21,600 karmic prams cease; and consequently, 21,60 0 material elements of the yogi's body transfor m int o a body having th e aspec t o f emptiness (sunyatdkara). Accord ingly, the materia l aspects of the fou r drop s also vanish, together with a cessation of the state s of the min d of waking, dreaming, deep sleep, and th e fourt h state; for the drops are the support s of bodhicitta, which i s this fourfold min d of transmigratory beings. Due to the meltin g of the materia l nature of the fou r drops , which i s their obscuration (avarana), pur e gnosis , o r th e self-awarenes s o f imperishable bliss , arises , and i t becomes of four kinds , corresponding to th e fou r bodie s of the Buddha . Th e manner i n which imperishabl e bliss transforms the element s of the bod y is likened to the manner in which a stainless jewel transforms stone and other elementary substances int o a gem by merely touching them , withou t shatterin g them. 68 It i s said that from th e momen t tha t one's materia l natur e become s transforme d into empty form, it s earth aspect is not perceive d as solid, its water aspect is not perceive d as liquid, it s fire aspect i s not fiery, nor doe s its wind aspect mov e anywhere. Because of the absenc e of matter, it has an empty aspect, the aspec t of space. Likewise, although endowed with colors , i t i s colorless, du e t o th e absenc e o f matter; an d thoug h en dowed with all aspects, it is invisible to the foolish. 69 As one's ow n body transforms into empty form, one's mind pervades space and abides in the gnosi s of the mind s of others; the bod y pervades the mind , an d speech pervade s the body. In this way, the four mutually pervading aspect s o f the Buddh a becom e actualized a s the fou r bodie s of the Buddh a that dwell in al l sentient being s who ar e born fro m th e womb . It is said tha t fro m tha t poin t on , bein g compelle d b y supreme compassion, th e Sud dhakaya of the Buddh a enters the real m of karma (karma-bhumi) fo r the sak e of liberating sentient beings , is conceived i n the womb, teaches Dharma, an d creates th e limitless illusions of his Nirmanakaya.70 One may conclude here that within the methodological framework o f the Kalacakra system, meditative concentration (samadhi) i s given special attention i n every stage of practice. It is in meditative concentration tha t the tantri c adep t finally attains the supramundane psycho-physical aggregates and supreme, imperishable bliss. As in the stag e of generation, s o too i n the stag e of completion, meditativ e concen tration i s characterized by the unio n o f quiescence (samatha), o r bliss, an d insigh t (vipasyana), o r gnosis of that bliss. The pat h o f actualizin g the fou r bodie s o f th e Buddh a i n al l stage s o f Kola' cakratantra practice—initiation, generation, an d completion—is the pat h o f utilizing one's own bliss and gnosis in order to completely and permanently manifes t these

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two aspects of one's ow n mind. Thus, in this tantri c tradition , th e innat e purity and blissfulness o f one's own mind is the transformativ e agent, the transformativ e means as the body of the path, and the transformed bod y of Buddhahood. That is to say, the empty and blissful gnosis is both the agent that actualizes gnosis and the object, th e ac tualized gnosis itself. This perspective on th e gnosi s of imperishable bliss as the caus e and resul t o f Buddhahoo d i s based o n th e previousl y discussed view of th e Kolacakratantra on gnosi s as the essentia l nature (tattva) an d th e suppor t (adhara) o f all phenomena. For as soon a s gnosis is asserted to be the groun d of reality, it inevitabl y plays a central role in the soteriolog y of the Kalacakratantra. The rol e of gnosis in th e Kdlacakratantra's soteriolog y parallels the salvifi c rol e of the tathdgata-garbha in the tathagata-garbha tradition. For example, one reads in th e Srimdlasutra tha t th e tathagata^garbha i s th e suppor t (adhdra) o f al l conditione d (samskrta) an d unconditione d (asarnskrta) phenomena ; and "i f the tathagata'garbha would not exist , there woul d be neither aversio n t o sufferin g no r longing , earnest ness, an d aspiration fo r nirvana.'^1 This and other previously discussed parallels between th e tathdgata-garbha traditio n an d the Kalacakratantra traditio n poin t t o th e influences of the earlie r Mahayana interpretations o f the inheren t purit y of the min d and its role in the path of the individual' s spiritual awakening on the formulations of gnosis in the Kalacakra tradition an d other tantric systems of the anuttara-yoga class. As demonstrate d earlier , i n Kalacakratantra practice , th e proces s o f bringin g forth the pure and blissful nature of gnosis starts with inducing many moments of immutable bliss, or the blis s of seminal nonemission, and ends with the actualizatio n of a single momen t of supreme, immutabl e bliss. Thus, the min d of bliss that is characterized by nonemission purifie s itself from it s adventitious defilements by means of its own bliss; and due to the absenc e of defilements, it cognizes itself as such. It is in light of this vie w of the nondualit y of gnosis and bliss , of the caus e and effec t o f spiritual awakening, tha t th e Kalacakr a system identifie s supreme , imperishable bliss as th e gnostic yoga (jnana-yoga), a unique peace. 72 Therefore, i n th e contex t o f the Kolacakratantra, the multifacete d process o f actualizing the gnosi s of imperishable bliss, or Kalacakra, is seen as the nondua l transformativ e body of the pat h of gnosis. This transformative body , which i s characterized b y the nondualit y o f the basis , agent, means, an d resul t of transformation i s Kalacakra, the nondua l tantra of the whee l of time.

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9

Appendix Table B. I illustrate s the Kalacakratantra's fourfol d classificatio n of the deitie s of th e kalacakra-mardala. TABLE B.I Deitie s of the Kalacakra-mandal a as the Fou r Bodies of the Buddh a Gnosts-mandala

Mmd-mandala

Speech-mandala

Body-mandala

Sahajakaya

Dharmakaya

Sambhogakaya

Nirmanakaya

Kalacakra & Visvamata

Buddhas: Amoghasiddhi Ratnasambhava Amitabha Vairocana

Devls: Carcika Khagapatigamana, or Vaisnavl Sukaff, o r Varahl §anmukhl, or KaumarT Vajrahasta, o r Amdrl Abdhivaktra, or Brahmani Raudri MahalaksmT

Nairtyas: Danuka, o r Nairtya Gala, or Vayu Yama Pavaka Sanmukha Yaksa Sakra BrahmiS Rudra Samudra Ganapati Visnu

Divyas: Dhuma MarTci Khadyota Pradlpa Pitadlpta Svetadlpta Krsnadlpta Sasikala

Vidyas; Tara Pandara Mamaki Locana

Sixtj'four Yoginfs : Bhlma Ugra Kaladamstra Jvaladanalamukha Vayuvega Pracanda Raudraksl Sthulanasa

Suryadevds: MarTci BhrkutI Srnkhala Cunda Raudreksana Atinila

Satarusakalasds: goddesses wit h wish-fulfilling tree s and pitchers filled with feces, urine, blood, an d marro w

Sri Maya Kirti LaksmI Suparamavijaya Snjaya SrijayantI SrTcakrT Kankall Kalamatrl Prakup itavadana Kalajihva Karall

Nlladanda Acala AnantavTrya Takkiraja Sumbha Usnlsa Ndgas: Padma Karkotaka Vasuki Sankhapala Kuhka Ananta Taksaka Mahabja Jaya Vi] aya

(continued)

2 jo

The Inner Kalacakratantra

TABLE B.I (continued ) Gnosis-mandala

Mind-mandala

Speech-mandala

Body-mandala

Kmdhendras: Anbala Jambhaka Stambhaka Manaka UsnTsa

Kali Ghora Virupa Padma Anaiiga KumarT Mrgapatigamana Ratnamala Sunetra Klma Bhadra Vajrabha Vajragatra KanakavatI UrvasI Citralekha Rambha Ahalya Sutara Savitrl Padmanetra Jalajavati Buddhi VagTsvarT GayatrT Vidyut Smrti GaurT Ganga Nitya Turita Totals Laksmana Pingala Krsna Sveta Candralekha Sasadharadhavana Hamsavarna Dhrti Padmesa Taranetra Vimalasasadhara

Pmcandas: Svanavakatra Sukarasya Vyaghravaktra Jambhukasya Kakavaktra Grdhravaktra Khagapativadana Ulukavaktra Vajraksl Atinlla

Krodhims: Stambhakl Mam Jambhakl AnantavTryS

The Transformative Body 21 1

TABLE B.I (continued ) Gnosis-mandala Mmd-mandal

a

Bodhisattvas: Vajrapani Khagarbha Ksitigarbha Lokesvara Viskambhl Samantabhadra Vajras: Sabdavajra Sparsavajra Rupavajra Rasavajra Gandhavajra Dharmadhatuvajra Pujadevh: Gandha Mala Dhupa Dlpa Lasya Hasya Vadya Nrtya Glta Kama Naivedya Amrtaphala

Speech-mandala Body-mandal Icchds: Vidveseccha Stobhaneccha Paustikeccha Stambhaneccha Maraneccha Utpadaneccha Vadyeccha Bhusaneccha Bhojaneccha Gandheccha Aiisukeccha Maithuneccha Kanduyaneccha Vadanagatakaphotsarj aneccha Maleccha Nrtyeccha Asaneccha Plavaneccha Majjaneccha Samtapeccha Bandhaneccha Mrduvacaneccha Sosaneccha Uccataneccha Sparseccha Akrsteccha Bandheccha Sarviingaksodhaneccha Mutravitsravaneccha Vaflcaneccha Bahukalaheccha Ucchistabhakteccha Samgrameccha Ahibandheccha Darakakrosaneccha

PratTcchas

a

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Table B. 2 demonstrates th e manne r in which th e Kalacakr a tradition identifie s the thirty-seven yogims of th e kalacakra-mandala a s the sublimate d aspect s o f the bodil y constituents. TABLE B.2 Yogmi s of the Kalacakra-mandal a and th e Bodil y Constituents Vidyas Locana Pandara Mamakl Tara

Bodily constituent s the lef t an d right sides of the back , an d the femal e and male sexual organs

Visvamdtd

the spin e (Icu i

Vajrds Sabdavajra SparSavajra Rupavajra Gandhavajra Rasavajra Dharmadhatuvajra

the joints of the right upper arm and the right hip, the si x sense-bases (ayatana) o f me n the joints of the lef t uppe r arm and th e left hip , the si x sense-bases (ayatana) o f women

Devis Carcika VaisnavT MahesvarT MahalaksmI Brahmaru AmdrT VarahT Kauman Siiryadevds an d Krodhinis Atmlla Atibala VajraSrnkhala Mam Cunda Stambhl Maria Jambhl BhrkutI Raudraksi

Pracandds Svanasya Kakasya Vyaghrasya UlQkasya JambukiSsya Garudasya Sukarasya Grdhrasya

the joint s of the righ t lower arm and the right knee , the eigh t samana-winds of men the joint s of the lef t lowe r arm and th e left knee , the eigh t samana-wmds of women

the joints of the right hand an d the right foot, the men' s base of the tongue , the two hands and feet, th e righ t and lef t nddis o f the anus , and th e nadis of urine and fece s the joints of the lef t hand and the lef t foot, the women' s base of the tongue , th e two hands an d feet , the righ t and lef t the nadis of the anus , and th e ruidis of urine and fece s the nail s of the righ t and lef t fingers , the eight bodily apertures

The Transformative Body 21

3

Tables 6. 3 illustrates th e Kalacakr a tradition' s identificatio n o f the aforementione d thirty-seven yogims wit h th e thirty-seve n factor s o f spiritua l awakenin g (bodhipaksika-dharma). O n this tan trie path of sublimation, th e bodily constituents that are represented b y the following thirty-seven yogims become transformed into the thirty seven factor s of spiritual awakening. Thus , onc e the purificatio n take s place , thes e bodily constituents are said to bear th e characteristic s o f the Dharmakaya. 1 TABLE 8.3 Yogim s of the Kalacakra-mandal a and th e Factor s o f Enlightenmen t Yogmis

Factors

Vidyas

The four applications of mindfulness (smrtyupaspthana) the mindfulnes s of body (kayanusmrtyupasthdna) the mindfulnes s of feeling (vedandnusmrtyupasthdna) the mindfulnes s of the min d (cittdnusmrtyupasthdna) the mindfulnes s of dharmas (dharmdnusmrtyupasthdna.)

Locana Pandara Mamakl Tara Visvamdta and Vajrds Visvamata, or Rupavajr a Sabdavajra Sparsavajra Rupavajra Gandhavajra Rasavajra Dharmadhatu vaj ra Devis Carcika Vaisnavl Mahesvarl Mahalaksml

Devfs Brahmam Aindrl VarahT Kaumari

The seven limbs of enlightenment (sambodhyanga) equanimity (upeksdsambodhyanga) mindfulness (smrtisambodhyanga) the investigatio n of Dharma (dharmapravicayasambodhycmga) enthusiasm (viryasambodhyanga) love ((jritisarnfaodfi^ariga ) repose (prasmbdhisambodhyahga) meditative concentratio n (samadhisambodhyariga) The four abandonments (prahdna) the abandonment o f nonansen nonvirtues (anutpanndndm pdpdndm prahdna) the abandonmen t o f arisen nonvirtues (utpanndndm pdpdndm prahdim) a generation o f virtues as the abandon ment o f nonansen nonvirtues (kusalotpddana) a transformation into Buddhahoo d a s the abandonmen t o f arisen nonvirtues (buddhatvaparindmand) The four bases of extraordinary powers (rddhipdda) the basi s of the extraordinar y power of aspiration (chandharddhpdda) the basi s of the extraordinar y power of enthusiasm (viryarddhipdda') the basi s of the extraordinar y power of the min d (cittarddhipdda) the basi s of the extraordinar y power of analysis (mimdmsarddhipdda) (continued)

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TABLE 8.3 (continued ) Yogitus

Factors

Suryadevas and Krodhiras Atmila Atibala Vajrasrnkhala Mam

The five powers the powe r of faith (sraddhabala) the powe r of enthusiasm (wryabala) the powe r of mindfulness (smrtibala) the powe r of meditative concentration (samadhibala) the powe r of wisdom (prcqndbala)

Cunda Suryadvds and Krodfunfs StambhT MarTcI Jambhl Bhrkuti RaudraksT Pracandos Svanasya Kakasya Vyaghrasya Ulukasya Jambukasya Garudasya Sukarasya

The five faculties (indriya) the facult y of faith (sraddhendnya) the facult y o f enthusiasm (vnyendriya) the facult y o f mindfulness (smrtlndriya) the facult y of meditative concentratio n (samadhindriya) the facult y of wisdom (prajnendriya) The eightfold noble path (ostaryanga-marga) the righ t view (samyagdrsti) the right though t (samyaksamkalpa) the righ t speech (samyagvdc) the right action (samyakkarmanta) the righ t livelihoo d (samyagdjiva) the righ t effort (samyagvyama) the righ t concentration (samyaksamadhi)

Table 6. 4 illustrate s the manne r i n whic h th e Kalacakr a traditio n identifie s th e universe with the fetus. This form of identification i s characteristic of the stag e of the generation practice , i n which one visualize s the originatio n o f the univers e a s the mother's body . TABLE 8.4 Th e Univers e an d the Fetus The universe

The fetu s

the wind-mandala the firs-manMa the water-rrwidala the earth-trumdal a Mt. Meru sun, moon, an d Rahu

the laldta the throat-cakra the heart-cakra the navel'Cafcr a from th e navel-cokr a to the secre t cakra the nodl s carrying feces, urine, and seme n

Conclusion

have seen that the Kalacakratantra incorporates several literary genres, for its W variou s parts display the distinctive features of tantric yogic, gnostic, prophetic, and medical literature. Its inclusion o f different genre s can be seen as yet another expression of a Buddhist tantric interpretatio n o f a tantra as an expansion . As a prophetic literar y work, the Kalacakratantra show s features tha t ar e characteristic of prophetic literature in general. As we have seen in chapter 6 on the "So cial Body," the Kdlacakratantra's eschatologica l prophecies serve as a political justifi cation for tantric practices that def y th e prescribe d norms of social conduct. Thei r function als o lie s i n supportin g an d legitimizin g the powe r o f a futur e universa l monarch (cakravartin). The Kalacakratantra's prophecies are concerned wit h both religious an d sociopolitica l legitimations . Sinc e thei r audienc e consist s no t onl y of monastic an d la y Buddhist communities but als o of all other religious and political communities existing in India at that time, their religious and political functions are not entirel y separated. Like other Buddhis t tantric an d gnostic literar y works, the Kalacakratantra en gages in the reformulation o f some common Indian Buddhist tenets . However, its reformulation canno t b e accused of having no boundaries. In fact, on e can clearly see that i n al l o f the anuttara-^oga-tantro s ther e i s some consensus wit h regar d t o th e boundaries of tantric reformulation. For example, in all such tantras, the radical break with th e conventiona l rule s o f monasti c celibacy , whic h i s expresse d in tantri c hermeneutics and i n tantric yogi c practices, i s seen as ascetic for as long as one's en gagement in sexual tantric practices complies with the give n guidelines for practice. The reformulation of common Mahayana Buddhist tenets i n the Kalacakratantra is base d o n exegesis . Accordingly, exegetica l issue s form th e basi s fo r th e Kola' cakratantra's refutatio n of certain Mahayana interpretation s o f Buddhist teachings. Like gnostic and tantric texts of other religious traditions, the Kalacakratantra resort s to historica l realism , pointing t o th e proximit y of the earlies t holders an d practitioners o f this tantric tradition t o Buddha Sakyamuni as evidence o f the validit y of its reformulation of the conventional interpretation s of Buddha's teachings. We have 215

2i6 Conclusion also see n tha t th e Kalacakratantra's reformulatio n that undermine s conventiona l readings threatene d t o reshap e socia l relations. Th e describe d fragilit y an d imper manence o f the huma n body , which is a psychophysiological map of society, suggests the fragility of society and the impermanence of the existing social order. Escape from the constraint s o f society i s indispensable for achieving th e spiritua l unification of society, which reflect s th e unit y of enlightened awareness . The gcma-cakm is a ritual community, in which ritua l imagery is dominated b y gnosis. Entry into such a community ensures protection fro m negative forces that abide inside and outside the in dividual. It is the initia l birth int o the Buddha' s spiritual family tha t is protected b y gnosis, which is invoked through initiation consistin g of outer and inner offering s t o external an d internal deities . The yogi c practices of the Kalacakratantm are a form of inner sacrifice , i n whic h regenerative fluids , sometime s calle d soma, are the inne r offerin g t o th e deitie s dwelling within one's own body. Likewise, in this rite of inner sacrifice, canddli, or th e fire of gnosis, is a purifying fire to which al l of one's imperfection s are offered. Bein g the inne r sacrifice , i t is the mos t powerfu l an d expedien t means to spiritua l realization. The cosmo s i s a universal sacrifice , in which the negativ e karma of all sentient beings inhabiting th e univers e is offered t o the purifyin g kalagni, the fire that incinerates the univers e at th e en d of time. Similarly to a Vedic sacrifice, thes e sacrifice s lead th e fragmentatio n o f the individua l and universe , respectively, back t o Kala cakra, als o referred to a s Prajapati. Thus, th e practice s o f the Kdlacakraratantra ca n be see n a s forms o f a sacrificial reconstructio n o f Kalacakra, which provid e a blueprint for tracing the ultimat e source of all existence.

Notes

Introduction 1. Thi s numbe r o f verse s i s give n i n th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n th e cakratantra, Ch, i . v. 9. The sradghard mete r consists of four line s (pada) o f twenty-one sylla bles each . 2. Se e Sekoddesatikd ofNadapada , 1941 , pp. 4-5: uddesa-nirdesaudvdv eva tantm-samgitih. tatroddesand-samgitihsamasta-laghu-tantram. 3. Fo r more detailed informatio n on the Tibetan historical accounts of the history of the Kalacakratantra i n India , se e G. N. Roerich , tr., Blue Annals, 1988 , pp. 753-766. For a wellsystematized presentation o f the Tibeta n accounts , see John Newman, "A Brief History of the Kalachakra," in The Wheel of Time: The Kdachakra in Context, 1985 , pp. 51-84. See also Gi acomella Orofino, Sekoddesa, 1994 , pp. 15—24 . 4. The Kalacakrdnusdriganita, or the Kdlacakraganitopadesa, Nationa l Archive s in Kathmandu, no. 15 2 VI, 22, Mf. 622/22. According t o the Kalacakrdnusariganta, the Kalacakra era (dhruvaka) correspond s t o th e nineteent h yea r o f the Jupite r cycle , which , accordin g t o G . Orofino, fall s forty-one years before th e en d o f the sexagenar y cycle. On thi s basis, Orofino , 1994, p . 16 , presume s that th e astronomica l er a o f the Kdlacakratantra's laghu-karana corre sponds to 805 C E of the Gregoria n calendar . 5. Se e G. Orofino, 1994 , p. 1 5 and fn. 27 . 6. G . Gronbold, 1991, p. 393; D. Schuh, 1973, p. 20. 7. Th e anustubh meter consists of the fou r line s (pada) o f eight syllables each. 8. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 99, citing v. 86 fro m the Sekoddesa, states that th e vers e was taught by the Bhagavan in the Sekoddesa i n the root tantra (mula'tantra). Likewise , the Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 107, asserts the same , citing verses 51-52(7. 9. Th e Sekoddesatippani o f Sadhuputra , Asiati c Societ y o f Bengal , Calcutta , MS . #10744, folio ib/3~5. Tib . 10. Paramdrthasamgrahandmasekoddesatika o f Naropa, 1941 , pp. 3-4 . 11. Th e Arya-ddkini'vajrapanjara'mahdtantrardjakalpa-ndma o f the unknown author is extant only in Tibetan translation, Derg e edition, rgyud #419 . G. Orofino , 1994 , p. 14 , points out that accordin g to Bu ston's Tantra Catalogue, it is associated with the literar y corpus of the Hevajratantra. However , this is not th e cas e according to the Nyingm a edition o f the sDe-dge bKa'-'gyur/bsTan-'gyur. 217

2i8 Note s to Pages 5-9 12. Th e Hevajrapinddrthatikd o f VajragarbhadasabhumTsvara, Nationa l Archives , Katmandu, C 128 , Mf., C 12/6 . 13. Se e th e Vajrapadasarasamgrahapanjika, o f Nadapada (Naropa) , Peking ed . of The Tibetan Tripitaka, #2070 , p. 148 , 4b/i. 14. Se e G. Orofino, 1994 , p. 23, and J. Newman, "Outer Wheel of Time," 1987^. 112. 15. Tdrandtha's History of Buddhism in India, 1990 , p. 440 . 16. Blue Annals, p. 797. i. The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kalacakratantra 1. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 234, and 1986 , Ch. i, p. 19. 2. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 19. 3. Ibid . Sekoddesa, 1994 , vs. 3-6 . 4. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 243. 5. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 18. 6. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 19. 7. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 8. Th e Adibuddhatantra, cite d i n the Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127 . 9. Ibid . 10. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , vs. 238-240, and the Vimalaprabhd. 11. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v, 2. 12. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 2. 13. Asvaghosa' s Gurupancasikd an d th e Ddkdrrnvayoginitantra giv e similar characterizations of a bad spiritual mentor. 14. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 3, and th e Vimalaprabhd. 15. A lis t o f th e te n principles , which i s given i n th e las t chapte r o f th e Vajrahrda' ydlamkdratantra, include s the ten inner and ten outer principles. Th e ten inner principles are : two rituals of warding off danger, the secre t an d wisdom empowerments, the ritua l of separating the enemie s for m thei r protectors , th e offerin g cak e (ball} an d vajra-recitation , th e ritua l of wrathfu l accomplishment , blessin g the images , and establishin g mandalas. Th e te n oute r principles are: the mandala, meditative concentration (samddhi), mudrd, standing posture, sitting posture, recitation, fire ritual, applying activities, and conclusion. Fo r the explanatio n of the te n oute r principles, se e Prasantamitra's Mdydjalatantrapanjikd. 16. Th e Gurupancasikd, als o known a s the Gurusevddharmapancds.adgdthd, traditionall y ascribed to Asvaghosa, vs. 7-9, cite d in the Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 3. The Sanskri t versio n of the Gurupancdsikd wa s published in the Journal Asiatique, Paris, 1929 , vol. 215: 255-263. 17. Th e Acdryapariksd, cite d i n th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 3: Due to his complete knowledge (parijndna) o f the ten truths (dasa-tattva), amon g th e three, a full y ordaine d mon k (bhiksu) i s superior (uttama). A wonderin g asceti c (srdmanera) i s said to be middling (madhyama); an d a householder (grhostha ) is inferior (adhama) t o the two . Cf. the Gurupancdsikd, vs . 4-5 . 18. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 3. 19. Cf . the Vajramdld'guhyasamdja'Vydkhyd'tantra, whic h also distinguishes three types of vajrdcdryas, assertin g that the bes t vajrdcdrya i s a fully ordaine d monk, th e middlin g vajrdcdrya is a Buddhist novice, an d the lowes t one i s a householder wh o took tantri c vows.

Notes to Pages 9-18 21 9 20. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kdlacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 4. 21. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 3 , v. 4, and th e Vimalaprabha. 22. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 214. See also Bu ston's annotations [201]. 23. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 216. 24. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 3 , v. 2, and Ch . 2 . v. !3-

25. Ibid . 26. Ibid . 27. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch , 2 . v. 13. 28. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 3 , v. 4. 29. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kdlacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 43. 30. Se e the Kdlacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , v. 4, and the Vimalaprabha, commentary . 31. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kdlacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 18. 32. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 127. 33. Ibid . 34. Cf . the Hevajratantra, par t 2, Ch. 4 , vs. 97-99, and the Guhyasamdjatantra, Ch . 18 , v. 3 6. 35. Cf . the Hevajratantra, par t i, Ch. 5 , vs. 2-7, and part 2, Ch. 11 , vs. 5-7, 36. Fo r the sixfol d classificatio n in the Hevajratantra, se e Snellgrove, Hevajra Tantra: A Critical Study, 1976 , p. 38 . 37. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. i. 38. Se e the Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 2 , vs. 166-167, and the Vimalaprabha commentary. 39. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 2 , vs. 168-169, and the Vimalaprabha commentary . 40. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 170. 41. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 171. 42. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 172. 43. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 174, and the Vimalaprabha commentary . 44. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 175. 45. Th e Kalacalcratantra , Ch. 3 , v. 176, and the Vimalaprabha commentary. 46. Th e Jnanasdrasamuccaya, cite d i n th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n th e Kala cakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 173. 47. Se e the Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 173, and th e Vimalaprabha commentary. 48. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 200. 49. Se e the Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 178. 50. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 179. 51. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kdlacakratantra, Ch . i , v. i. 52. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 18 . 53. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 127. 54. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary o n the Kdlacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 18. 55. Sekoddesatikd ofNadapdda, 1941 , p. 7, states: "The word "adi" means without beginning or end (ddi-sabdo 'nddinidhdnarthah). Th e Buddh a means one who perceives all true phenomena (aviparitdn sarva-dharmdn buddhavdn iti buddhah); an d thi s Buddh a is promordial, the Primordial Buddha . H e i s devoid o f originatio n an d cessation , meaning , h e i s omniscient (utpdddvyaya-rahitah savajna ity arthah)." 56. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n th e Kdlacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 1 8 and th e Sekoddesatikd, 1941 , p. 7 , cite this line from th e Manjusrindmasamgiti i n order to substantiate their interpretation of the Adibuddha. 57. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 234. 58. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 234. 59. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kdlacakratantra, Ch . i , v. 2. 60. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kdlacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 19.

220 Note s t o Pages 18-26 61. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. I, v. i. 62. Th e Ndmasamgiti, v. 54: samsdrapdrakotisthah krtakrtyah sthak sthitah kaivalyajndnanisthyutah prajndsastro viddranah. 63. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 127. 64. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i,v . i,andCh.5,v. 127. 65. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 127. 66. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch, i . v. 5, and the Vimalaprabha commentary. 67. Th e NamasamgTtivrtti, 176 . i . 7 , 176 . 2 . 8 , Taisho , 2532 , fro m th e Peking Tibetan Tripitaka, vol . 74 , pp. 171 . i. 1-184. 4- 8 - For the complet e lis t of the te n truths , see Ronald Davidson, 1981 , p. 24, fn. 69 . 68. Th e Arya'ndmasamgTti'tikd'mantrdrthdvalokinT'ndma, 196 . 5 . 5. , 197 . 2 . i , Taish o 2533, from th e Pekin g Tibetan Tripitaka, vol . 47 , pp. 184 . 4. 8-226. 2. i. 69. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 114. 70. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . i, v. i. 71. Ibid . 72. Ibid . 73. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 133. 74. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 51, Ch. 5 . v. 127, and th e Vimalaprabha commentary. 75. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 76. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 105, and the Vimalaprabha commentary . 77. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch , 2 , v . 5; th e Ayusmannandagarbhdvaltrdntinirdesandmama' trdydnasutra, Pekin g ed. of the Tibetan Tripitaka, vol . 23 , #760. 78. Se e Bu ston's annotation [315] on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch , 2 . v. 8. 79. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 8. For the Amrtahrdaydstangaguhyopadesatantra's asser tion, see the Encyclopaedia of Tibetan Medicine, vol . 2 , 1994, p. 17 . 80. Th e Ayusparyantasiitra, Pekin g ed. of the Tibetan Tripitaka, vol . 39 , #973. 81. Th e Nandagarbhavasthd (Tib . dga' bomngalgnas), cited in Bu ston's annotation [313] on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 4. 2. A History of the sad-anga-yoga of the Kalacakratantra and Its Relation to Other Religious Traditions of India 1. Th e Maitrdyanya Upanisad, Ch , 6 . v. 18: tathd tatprayogakalpahprdndydmahpratydhdro dhydnam dhdrand tarkah samddhih sadangd ity ucyate. 2. Se e Giinte r Gronbold , The Yog a of Six Limbs: An Introduction to the History of Sadangayoga, 1996 , p. n. 3. Se e Mircea Eliade, Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, 1969 , p. 125 . 4. Th e Vdyu Purana, Ch. 10 , v. 76 reads: prdndydmas tatha dhydnam pratydhdro 'tha dhdrand smaranam caiva yoge 'smin pancadharmdh praklrtitah. 5. A six-phased ;yoga that contains contemplative inquiry (tarka) a s the fifth phase is also mentioned in the Daksasmrti, Ch. 7 , v. 3; the Atrismrti, Ch. 9. , v. 6; the Mrgendrdgama, Ch . 7 , v. 5; Abhinavagupta's Tantrdloka, Ch. 4 , v. 15, etc . 6. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 116. 7. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 116.

Notes to Pages 26-30 22 1 8. Se e Abhinavagupta, A Trident of Wisdom, tr. by Jaideva Singh, 1988 , p. 196 . 9. Se e N. Rastogi , The Krama Tantricism of Kashmir, 1996 , pp. 59-60. Cf. th e Maliruvijayottaratantra, Ch. 17 , v. 16, 1922 , p. 114 , which reads : "contemplative inquir y is the highes t phase of yoga" (tarko yogdhgam uttaram). 10. Fo r the explanatio n o f niyama i n the contex t o f the Kdlacakratantra, see the Vimala prabhd, 1986, Ch. i , p. 117, the Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 3, vs. 70, 138, and 147 , together wit h th e Vimalaprabha commentary . 11. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 70. 12. G . N. Roerich, tr., Blue Annals, 1988 , p. 764. 13. Th e Sadangayogatikd wa s translate d int o Tibeta n b y Vibhuticandr a an d include d in th e Pekin g editio n o f the Tibeta n Bsta n 'gyur, vol . 47 , #2084 : 238.2.5.-242.4.2 . I t ha s been translate d int o Germa n b y Giinter Gronbold , 1969 . Se e als o th e Gunabharanndmasadangayoga'tippan, hal f of which wa s initially translated into Tibetan by Vibhuticandra an d is included in the Pekin g edition o f the Tibetan Bstan 'gyur, vol . 47, #2103: 283.1.5-294.4.8. 14. Roerich , Blue Annals, p. 764; Taranatha's History of Buddhism in India, 1990, pp. 307 308; Padm a dkar po's 'Brug pa'i chos 'byung an d Dpe med 'tsho'i lugs kyi rnal 'byor yan lag drug pa'i khrid rdo rje'i tshig 'byed i n th e Collected Work s of Padma dkar po, vols. 2 (kha) an d 1 7 (tsa) ; and B u ston's Sbyor ba yan lag drug gi sngon 'gro'i rim pa in the Collecte d Works of Bu ston, pt. 3 (ga), 1965 , p. 348 . 15. Severa l Tibetan author s such as Nag tsho, Sum pa, and others mention Vikramapura in Benga l as the birthplac e o f AtTsa. They speak o f Vikramapura as a prosperous city with a large population. For more details see Alaka Chattopadhyaya, Atfsa and Tibet, 1996 , pp. 57 66. 16. Taranatha' s Histor y of Buddhism in India, 1990 , p. 316. 17. Ibid. , pp. 307-308. 18. Se e Roerich, tr., Blue Annals, 1988, p. 764 . 19. Anupamaraksita' s Sodangayoga is preserved in Tibetan translations an d include d i n the Tibetan Tripitaka, Pekin g editio n o f the Tibeta n Bstan 'gyur (Vibhuticandra' s and Gnya l Lotsaba Mi myam zang po's translation), vol . 47, # 2083:234.2.4.-2$?>.2.5; (Dpan g Lo tsa ba Dpal Idan bio gros brtan pa's translation), vol. 47, #2102:274.3.7.-2S3.1.5. 20. Roerich , tr. , Blue Annals, p. 800 . 21. Severa l works belonging to the Kalacakr a corpus are ascribed to Sridharanandana, known als o a s Sadhuputra. See th e Derg e edition o f Tibetan Bsta n 'gyur, rgyud section : th e Sekoddes"at!ppanf, #1352 , the Srikdlacakrasadhanandma, #1356 , and th e Sfikdlacakramandalavidhi, # 1359 . 22. Collected Work s of Padma dkar po, vol. 1 7 (tsa) , 1974 , p. 213 . 23. Collected Work s ofBu ston, vol. 1 6 (ma), 1965, p. 4. 24. Padm a ga r dbang' s Zab chos sbas pa mig 'byed kyi chos bskor las pan che sha <wa dbang phyung gi snyan rgyud rdo rje sum gyi bla ma rgyud pa'i rnam that dad pa'i rnga chen, 24 a . For th e full reference , see Cyrus Stearns, "Th e Lif e an d Tibeta n Legac y of the India n Mahd'pandita Vibhuticandra," Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 19.1 , 1996 , pp. 129 , fn. 9 , and 169 . 25. Sakyasnbhadr a wrote several commentarial works on the Kdlacakratantra, which are preserved in Tibetan. The Derg e edition of the Tibetan Bstan 'gyur, rgyud section , contains th e following works : the Snkdlacakra-gananopadesa'ndma, #1384 , th e Suryacandragrahanaganita, #1385, and the Pancagraha'prthaggananopadesa-ndma, #1386 . 26. Padm a ga r dbang' s Zab chos sbas pa mig 'byed kyi chos bskor las pan che sha wa dbang phyug gi snyan rgyud rdo rje sum gyi bla ma rgyud pa'i rnam thar dad pa'i rnga chen, 243. 27. Th e Sodangayoganam a is preserved in the Tibeta n translation. Se e the Tibetan Tripitaka, vol. 47, #2091, 258.4.2—258.5.1.

222 Note s t o Pages 30-39 28. Taranatha , Rdo rje'i rnal 'byor gyi 'khrid yig mthong ba don Idan gyi lhan thabs 'od brgya 'bar, 707.5-6 , 456 . Se e Stearns , "Th e Lif e an d Tibeta n Legac y o f the India n mahd-pandita Vibhuticandra," Journal of the International Associatio n of Buddhist Studie s 19.1 , 1996 , p. 139 . For a biographical sketch of Savaripa, see ibid., pp. 139-141, fn. 46 . 29. Tshon g kha pa, Collected Works, vol. 17 , 1976 , pp. 49-50. 3. The Nature of Syncretism in the Kalacakratantra 1. Th e Paramddibuddhatantra, cite d in the Vimalaprabha, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 24. 2. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 177, lines a-b. 3. Ibid. , lines c-d. Thi s analogy of the mind's impressionability t o that of a crystal is most likely borrowe d from th e Yogimsamcaratantra, Ch. n , v. 2, which i s cited i n a different con text in the Vimalaprabha, commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 47: yena yena hi bhdvena manah samyujyate nrndm tena tanmanyatdm ydti visvarupo mardr yathd. 4. Th e 5. Th e 6. Th e 7. Th e 8. Th e

Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 176. Kalacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 66. Kalacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 86. Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 86. Vimalaprabha commentary on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 127.

9. Ibid. 10. Ibid, n. Ibid. 12. Ibid. 13. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 161, and the Vimalaprabha. 14. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 85, and th e Vimalaprabha. 15. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 86, and th e Vimalaprabha. 16. Th e Sdmkhyakdrikd, vs . 22, 28. 17. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 83, and th e Vimalaprabha. 18. Se e Sdmkhyakdrikd, v . 23. 19. Accordin g t o Samkhya , th e function s o f the min d (manas) are : analyse s and conceptualization (vikalpa), an d decisio n and determination (samkalpa). 20. On e ca n encounter a similar procedur e in the Bhagavad Gfta' s exposition of the uni versal validity of the Krsna doctrine, where it often use s its terms with overlapping meanings. Cf. Edgerton's essay (Ch . 10) , accompanying his translation to The Bhagavad Gita, 1972, p. 179 . 21. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , vs. 83, 85. 22. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 93. 23. Se e M . Dyczkowski , tr. , The Aphorisms of Siva: The Siva Sutra with Bhdskara's Com.' mentary, the Vdrttika, 1992 , Ch. i , v. n. 24. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 86, and th e Vimalaprabha. 25. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , vs. 61, 65, 86. 26. Se e Dyczkowski , tr. , The Aphorisms of Siva, pp. 43, 138 , 140; ]. Singh, tr., The Yoga of Delight, Wonder, and Astonishment: A Translation of the VijUdna-Bhairava, 1991 , pp. 71 , 79-80. 27. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 7, and th e Vimalaprabha. 28. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentar y on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 8. 29. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentary on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 30. Ibid . 31. Fo r further informatio n on the Kalacakratantra cosmology, see chapter 5 on the "Cos mic Body."

Notes to Pages 39-49 22 3 32. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 169. 33. Se e the Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 169. 34. Se e the Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , vs. 167-168. 35. Ibid . 36. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 37. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 5. 38. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 48. 39. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 40. 40. Ibid. , p. 34. 41. Se e the Vimalaprabhd commentar y on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 173. 4. The Concept of Science in the Kdlacakra Tradition 1. Se e Romila Thapar, A History of India, vol. i, 1966 , 253-254. 2. Verse s 128-147 °f the first chapter o f the Kalacakratantra giv e a detailed instructio n on building the differen t type s of weapons that should be used by the Kalkl's army in the final battle with the Barbarian s in the lan d of Mecca. 3. Thi s view of theological knowledg e and scientific learning as complementary is dominant in the Vajrayana, whereas in the writings of Mahayana they are simply compatible rather than complementary . 4. Se e th e Samannaphalasutta o f the Dlghanikdya, Thus Have I Heard, 1987 , pp. 68-91. 5. Bodhicarydvatdra, 1995 , Ch. 5 , v. 100. 6. Th e Mahdydnasutraiamkdra, 1970 , Ch. u, v. 60. 7. Se e E . Obermiller, The Jewelry of Scripture by Bu-ston, 1987, p. 29 . 8. Th e Mahdydnasutrdlarnkdra, Ch . 12 , v. 3. 9. Thi s is not unique to the Kalacakratantra. The earlie r medical treatises of Ayurveda— the Susrutasamhitd (firs t to second centuries CE) and the Carakasamhitd (c . fourth century CE)— assert that the five elements that are present in the body—earth, water, fire, wind, and space— form th e entir e universe. 10. Se e the Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, 1986, p. 43. n. The Nettipakarana, 1962 , [76] . 12. I f one wer e to ask, "How i s introspection scientifi c in the contex t of Buddhism?" an answer would be tha t jus t a s physical phenomena ar e t o b e scientificall y studied for as far as possible b y means o f direct observation, similarly , it i s true for the first-perso n menta l phenomena. Introspectio n i s widely recognized in Buddhism as the sol e means of observing one's own conscious states. 13. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 14. Ibid . 15. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 192. 16. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 44. 17. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 88. 18. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 96. 19. Ibid . 20. Alread y in the earl y Buddhist Pali literature, the Buddhis t Dhamma wa s referred to as the verifiabl e teaching , a s the Dhamm a tha t involve s one' s "comin g an d seeing " (ehipassika). 21. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , vs. 48-50. 22. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 96, with the Vimalaprabhd commentary . 23. Th e Discourse s ofGotama Buddha: Middle Collection, 1992, "With Magandiya," "Major Discours e on the Destructio n o f Craving."

224 Note s to Pages 49-52 24. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 107, lines a-b. 25. Fo r more information see Kenneth G . Zysk , Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India, 1991, and th e Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, 1963 , vol. i , p. 447. 26. Accordin g t o the Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, 1963 , p. 478, some Indian manuscript s ascribe the Yogosatflk a t o Vararuci instead o f Nagarjuna. 27. Thes e five Buddhist medical treatises are included among the twenty-two Ayurvedic works tha t ar e incorporate d i n th e Tibeta n Tengyur, wher e the y ar e ascribed t o Nagarjuna, Apart from th e Yogasataka , the Sanskri t original s o f the othe r four treatises ar e lost. 28. Accordin g t o the Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, 1963 , vol. i , p. 478, an alternative at tribution o f the Kaksaputa, o r the Kacchaputa, i s to Nityanathasiddha. 29. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentar y on th e Kdlacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. 2 , v. 141. 30. Cf . Santideva , Siksdsamuccaya, 1961 , pp . 77-78 , wher e Santidev a advise s Bod hisattvas to counteract disease s with the recitatio n o f mantras, along with th e usag e of medications an d water and the offering s o f flowers t o the imag e of the Buddha . 31. Cf . Maurice Walshe, tr . Thus I Have Heard: The Long Discourses of the Buddha: Digha Nikdya: "AtaruJti^ a Sutta: The Atanata Protective Verses," 1987, pp. 471-478; the Vinayapitaka, vol. 4, 1879-1883. Cf. Santideva, Si'ksasamucca;ya , 77, where the author cites the mantras that are set fort h i n the Trisamayardja a s the mantras to be used for the protectio n o f Bodhisattvas against the Mara s and other evi l entities . 32. Se e the Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 187, and the Vimalaprabha. 33. Kaiacakratantra , Ch. 2 , vs. 154-160. 34. Accordin g t o the Kalacakratantra , Ch. 2 , v. 153, the symptom s of irrevocable death are the following: the entire bod y becomes white, very subtle boils appear, the neck i s bent together wit h the body , blood drip s into the mouth , sexua l organ, or the rectum . 35. Th e Kalacakratantr a Ch . 2, vs. 152-153. 36. Se e the Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 146, and the Vimalaprabha. 37. Se e the Kaiacakratantra , Ch. 2 , v. 159, and th e Vimalaprabha. 38. Th e fragran t root o f Andropogon Muricatus. 39. Valeriana jatamansi. 40. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 149, and the Vimalaprabha. 41. Th e Kalacakratantra , Ch. 2 , v. 152. 42. Th e nam e o f a medicinal plan t wit h a bitter root. 43. Methonia Superba. 44. Cucurra' s Colocynthis, a wild bitter gourd . 45. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 2 , vs. 124, 126-127 . 46. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 128. 47. Ibid. , v. 130, reads: omphre Visvamdte vajrakantakdn ndsaya ndsaya mama sdntim kuru kuru svdhd. 48. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kaiacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 149 reads: om ah hum amukdyd garbhasulam hara hara svdhd. 49. Se e the Kdlacakratantra Ch . 2 , v. 129, with the Vimalaprabha commentary . 50. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 109. 51. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 56. 52. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3, v. i. 53. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 54. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 112, describes th e vajra postur e i n the followin g way: "The vajra postur e entails th e lef t le g on th e righ t thigh , and the righ t le g on th e lef t thigh . Those two legs have th e vo/'ra-connectio n with th e arm s being on the top . Th e righ t foot i s held by the lef t hand , an d th e lef t foot is held by the righ t hand."

Notes to Pages 52 -58 22

5

55. Th e Sanskri t wor d kustharoga, or "leprosy," is a general ter m for the eightee n types of leprosy . Neithe r th e Kalacakratantra no r th e Vimalaprabhd specifie s whethe r th e ter m kustharoga here refer s to al l of the eightee n type s of leprosy or to a specific typ e of leprosy. 56. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2, v. 122. 57. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v, 128, and the Vimalaprabhd. 58. Thre e katukas ar e three spices: black and long peppers and dry ginger. 59. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 124. 60. Arka i s a tropical and subtropica l milky plant tha t grows in the dry , plain areas. It is also known a s Calotropis gigantea, linn., or the milk y weed plant. 61. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 114. 62. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 186, and the Vimalaprabha. 63. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 135. 64. Se e the Ayuspariraksdndma, whic h is preserved in Tibetan translatio n unde r the ti tle Tshe bsgrub pa'i gdams ngag ces bya ba and i s included in the Tantr a commentary (rgyud 'grei ) section of the Tengyur (Pekin g edition of the Tibetan Tripitaka, edite d by D. T. Suzuki, vol. 69, no. 3236 , Tokyo-Kyoto : Tibetan Tripitaka Research Foundation , 1955-1961) ; the Ayuhsadhana, which is existent only in Tibetan translation unde r the title Tshe sgrub pa'i thabs and occurs in the Tantra commentary section of the Tengyur (Pekin g edition of the Tibetan Tripitaka, edited by D. T. Suzuki, vol. 86, no. 4863 , Tokyo-Kyoto : Tibetan Tripitaka Research Foundation, 1955-61) ; the Ayurbuddhdnusmrti, whic h i s also extant onl y in it s Tibetan translatio n under the titl e 'Phags pa sngas rgyas rjes su dran pa and i s included in th e Tantr a commentary section of the Tengyur (P . Cordier, ed. Catalogue du Fonds Tibetain, vol. 2, p. 371 , no. 4) ; th e Ayurvardhanwidhi whic h is attributed to Candragomin is preserved only in Tibetan translation under the titl e Tshe 'phel ba'i cho ga in the Tantr a commentary section o f the Tengyur (To/iolcu Teikoku-Daigaku Hobun-gakubu Tibei'Daizokyo-So-Mokuroku. Senda i 1932 , no. 3666) . 65. Accordin g t o th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 125, and th e Vimalaprabhd, th e fiv e in ternal amrtas—feces, urine, semen, blood, and marrow—when combined with the equal portions o f the five external amrtas—sulfur, necta r from blac k bees, talk, quicksilver, and three myrobalans—soaked for seven days, dried on the heat, and ingested with ghee and honey every day for up to six months, have a life-giving power because they release energy, acid, oil, and salt. 66. Accordin g to the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 111, and the Vimalaprabhd, th e maladies of liver, spleen, and hemorrhoids ar e considered abdominal ailments . 67. Se e the Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n the Kaiacakratantra, Ch. 2, v. n. 5. The Cosmic Body 1. I n its most restricted meaning, the Sanskri t term loka-dhdtu designates a single worldsphere, but its meaning als o extends to the variabl y numbered set s of the world-spheres . 2. Se e the Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 2. 3. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 4 4. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 4, and the Vimalaprabhd. 5. Se e The Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 4 , Ch. 2 , v. 3, and the Vimalaprabhd. 6. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 63. 7. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 165, and th e Vimalaprabhd. 8. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch, 5 . v. 167, and th e Vimalaprabhd. 9. Th e te n wind s are: prdna, apdna, udana, samdna, vydna, ndga, kurma, krkara, devadatta, and dhanamjaya. 10. Th e Kakcalcratantra , Ch. 2 , v. 85. 11. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 24.

226 Note s to Pages 58-70 12. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , vs. 85-86, and th e Vimalaprabhd. 13. Th e Kalacakraumtra, Ch. 5 , v. 168, and the Vimalaprabhd. 14. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 4. 15. Th e nam e Candall is etymologically derived from th e adjectiv e canda, meaning "violent," "hot," "passionate," "angry, " etc. All thes e adjective s can als o be applied t o Kalagm . 16. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 125, and th e Vimalaprabhd. 17. Accordin g t o the Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 26, the thumb or big toe arises from th e earth-element , th e forefinge r arise s from th e water-element , the middl e finger arises from th e fire-element , th e ring-finge r arises from th e wind-element , and the little finger from th e space-element . 18. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 236, and th e Vimalaprabha. 19. Th e prdnas sto p carryin g the earth-elemen t i n the navel , th e water-elemen t in th e heart, the fire-element in the throat, the wind-element in the laldta, and the space-element i n the usnisa. 20. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 21. Ibid . 22. Se e the Vimalaprabhd commentar y on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 184. 23. Th e Adibuddhatantra, cited in the Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 53. 24. Fo r example, wit h regard to linea r measurements , th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 13 and the Vimalaprabhd stat e that eight subtl e (suksma ) atom s (anu), place d i n line, mak e on e atom; eight atoms make up the ti p of a human hair, and so on. Whereas th e Abhidharmakosa, 85d-88a, states that seven paramdnus mak e one atom (anu); an d seven atoms make one gold dust mote (loha-ro/as) . According t o the same Kalacakratantra text, eigh t lic e make up a measurement of one barley kernel, but i n the AWudTwmakosa , it is said that seven lic e make up a measurement o f one barle y kernel . Likewise , the Kalacakratantra state s tha t tw o thousan d dhanus ("bow" ) mak e u p th e measuremen t o f one krosa , and fou r krosa s make up on e yojana ("league"). Whereas th e Abhidharmakosa state s that five hundred dhanus mak e one krosa, and eight krosas make one yojana. Cf . the Sdrdulakarndvaddna an d th e Lalitavistara, Ch. 12 , whic h state that one thousan d dhanus mak e one krosa , and fou r krosa s make one yojana. 25. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 10. 26. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 69. 27. Th e Paramddibuddhatantra, cite d i n th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n th e Kala cakratantra, Ch. i , v. 10. 28. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 129. 29. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 10. 30. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 166. 31. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 166. 32. Se e the Abhidharmakosa, Ch . 3 , vs. 47-483, and th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 10. 33. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 18 , padas c-d, which describe s th e element s i n th e body, reads: The suppor t of earth is water; the suppor t of water is fire; the suppor t of fire is wind; and the support of wind is space. O king, the support, which i n turn needs to be supported, arises in this manner. 34. Se e the Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 10. 35. Se e the Tattvart/iasutra , Ch. 3, v. i. 36. I n both traditions, the third and fourth hells are characterized as extremely cold hells, whereas the fifth hel l is characterized as a ver y hot hell . Differen t commentarie s on the

Notes to Pages 70-72 22 7 Tattvdrthasutra give different measurement s of the hells. According t o Siddhasenagani's Svopajnabhasyatika, belonging t o th e Svetambar a sect , fro m th e uppermos t hell downward , their widths ar e a s follows : i , 2.5 , 4, 5 , 6 , an d 7 raj/u s ("rope") , respectively. Their height s ar e 180,000, 132,000 , 128,000 , 120,000 , 118,000 , 116,000 , an d 108,00 0 leagues . According t o Pujapada Devanandi's commentary, the Sarvarthasiddhi, belonging to the Digambara sect, their heights ar e 180,000, 32,000, 28,000 , 24,000 , 20,000 , 16,000 , and 8,000 leagues, respectively. In the Jaina tradition, th e shap e o f hells i s quadrangular, thus corresponding i n shape to th e hells describe d i n th e Abhidharmakosa. Fo r a more detaile d descriptio n o f the hells , se e th e Tattvarthasutm: That Which Is , Umasvati, 1994 , pp. 69-73. 37. Accordin g t o the Abhidharmakosa, Ch. 3 , vs. 58-59, th e hot an d cold hells are not located withi n the mandalas a s they are in the Kalacakr a tradition. The ho t hell s are below the Jambudvlpa island, under the layer s of white clay and mud, in between the surfac e of the earth and the golden earth-maridak. The eight hot hells are located one beneath th e other and are quadrangula r in shape . Startin g fro m th e to p downward , they ar e SamjTva , Kalasutra , Samghata, Raurava, Maharaurava, Tapana , Pratapana , an d th e Avic i hell. Eac h o f the first seven hot hells measures five thousand league s in width and height. Avici is the largest of the hot hells, measuring twenty thousand leagues in width. Its upper surface measures twenty thousand leagues, and it s bottom surface i s forty thousand leagues . The eigh t cold hells are located next t o th e eigh t hot hell s below JambudvTpa. Their name s are: Arbuda, Nirarbuda, Atata, Hahava, Huhuva, Utpala, Padma, and Mahapadma. 38. Se e th e Adibuddhatantra cite d i n th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n th e Kala cakratantra, Ch. i , v. 10, and the Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 9439. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra , Ch. 2 , v. 94. 40. I n som e of the anuttara-yoga-tantras suc h a s the Hevajratantra, Par t I , Ch. 6 , v . 22, Part II, Ch. 2 , v. 12, one finds the names of the Avici and Raurava hells corresponding to thos e mentioned i n the Abhidharmakosa. 41. Fo r the descriptio n o f the disintegratio n o f the element s in the body of the individ ual a t th e tim e of death, se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 106, an d th e Vimalaprabhd com mentary. 42. Cf . the Visuddhimagga, Ch . 7 : 40—41, which gives the same measurement for the circumference o f this world-system (cakravdla) an d th e measurement o f 1,203,45 0 league s for breadth an d width. 43. Th e Abhidharrnakosabriasja , Ch. 3 , vs. 45~48a. 44. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . i , v. 16 , and th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on th e Kaia cakratantra, Ch. i, vs. n, 16. 45. Th e bhoga'bhumi is a land in which on e enjoys the result s of one's actions performed in previous lives and does not accumulat e ne w karma. The ter m bhoga-bhumi appears also i n the Visnu Purdna, Book 2, Ch. 3 , v. 22, where it designates all other countries of Jambudvlpa, except the Bharatavarsa , which i s said to be the lan d of karma (karma-bhumj). 46. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , vs. 11, 16. 47. Th e compariso n o f rivers to bodily veins occur s alread y in the Upanisads . See th e Chandogya Ufwnis.od , Ch . 6 , vs. 332-333. 48. Accordin g t o th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . i , v . n, Meru here doe s not refe r to Mandara , which is in some cases implied by the wor d Meru. Cf. Kirfel's Kosmographie der Inder, 1920 , p. 129 , which indicate s that in early Jaina cosmological texts, Mandar a i s anothe r nam e fo r Mt . Mer u an d th e nam e o f variou s mountain s i n Brahmamcal literature . 49. Tibeta n translatio n and some Sanskrit mss . read Nisata. 50. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 10.

228 Note s to Pages 72 -8 0 51. The Tattvdnhasiitra: That Which Is, 1994 , p. 75 . 52. Mor e precisely, each of the si x continents, oceans, an d mountain s measures 888.89 leagues in diameter. 53. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i, vs. 18-19, an^ cne Vimalaprabha. 54. Th e seven continents listed in the Visnu Purana, Book 2, Ch. 2, v. 5, as Jambu, Plaksa, Salmali, Kusa , Kraunca , Saka , an d Puskar a ar e als o foun d i n th e Bhdgavata, Garuda, Markandeya, and other Puranas. The seve n oceans mentioned i n the Visnu Purana, Book 2, Ch. 2 , v. 6 are the salt y ocean and th e ocean s o f sugar cane, o f wine, of clarified butter , o f curd, of milk, and of fresh water . According t o S. M. Ali, 1966 , 27, although th e notio n of the seve n continents and seven oceans i s very old, it appears for the first time i n the Rdmdyana an d th e Mahabharata, 6.11.4. 55. Fo r example, the Visnu. Purana, Book 2 , Ch. 3 , v. 28, mentions on e hundre d thou sand league s as the measur e of JambudvTpa's diameter. 56. Cf . the Abhidharmakosabhasja, Ch . 3, vs. 510-520, which state s that the salt y ocean measures 322,000 league s in diameter. 57. Th e Abhidharmakosa, Ch . 3 , vs . 4817-490 , mention s onl y fou r continents : Jam budvlpa, Purvavideha , Godamya , an d Uttarakuru . I t describe s JambudvTp a a s having th e shape o f a trapezoid whose three sides measure 2,00 0 league s and whos e short sid e measures three and a half leagues. 58. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 17, and the Vimalaprabha. 59. Accordin g to the Tibetan commentator Mkha s grub rje it is 25,000 league s long from the sout h t o th e north . Se e J. Newman, 1987 , p . 581. Cf. th e Sumangalavildsirii, II , 423, i n which Jambudvip a i s said to b e ten thousan d league s in size , and th e Abhidharmakosabhdsya, Ch. 3 , vs. 53b~55d, in which thre e sides of JambudvTpa are 2,000 league s long, and one sid e is three an d a half leagues long . 60. Cf . th e Abhidharmakosabhdsya, Ch . 3 , vs . 53b-55d, wher e Purvavideh a i s also described as semicircular but a s having two sides of 2,000 league s and on e sid e of 350 leagues in length. Uttarakuru i s quadrangular an d extend s 2,00 0 league s on eac h side , thus measurin g 8,000 leagues in circumference; and Godamya i s round like the moo n an d i s 7,500 leagues in circumference. 61. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. i,vs . 150-151. 62. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 24, and the Vimalaprabha. 63. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , vs. 22-23, ar >d the Vimalaprabha. 64. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 165. 65. Se e Snellgrove, th e Hevajra Tantra: A Critical Study, 1959, p. 69, fn. 2. 66. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 165. 67. Saraha , Dohdkosa, edited b y Bagchi, v. 25, line d. 68. Withi n the eigh t oute r petal s of the lotu s there are eight Vajradakinis ; an d within the inne r eigh t petals there are skull-cups (kapdla) fille d wit h ambrosia. Outside th e lotus , in each of the eigh t directions , th e earth-maridai a extends fo r twenty-five thousand leagues . 69. Cf . the Hevajratantra, Par t i, Ch. 7 , vs. 12-18, which lists only twenty-four pilgrimage sites. Cf. the commentarie s on the Hevajratantra, th e Netravibhahga, Ch. 17 , 3360-4230:, and the Padmira, Ch. 15 , i42a-ig^b, which specif y thirty-tw o pilgrimage sites. 70. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , vs. 162-166, gives different lists of the pilgrimage sites in the body of the individual. The given lists have these numberings: thirty-six, sixty-four, and twenty-four. The Adibuddhatantra, cited in the Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5, v. 35, mentions forty-eight sites. The Hevajratantra, part i,Ch. 7, vs. 12-18, names twenty-four pilgrimage sites, whereas, its commentaries, Dhar maklrti's Netravibhanga (XVII. 365^7 7-3660 i), Saroruha's Padmini (XV . i65b 1-2), and Vajragarbha's Hevajrapinddrthatikd (XV . 61^3-4), speak of thirty-two places, corresponding to the thirty-two nddis i n the body.

Notes to Pages 80-95 32 9 71. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentar y on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 35. 72. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 10, and the Vimalaprabha. 73. Th e Kalacakr a traditio n offer s severa l other model s of identifyin g pilgrimag e sites with the bodily joints. These ar e illustrated in the appendix . 74. Th e Kalacakratantra Ch. 3, vs. 162-165, an^ the Vimalaprabha. 75. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 61. 76. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 93, and th e Vimalaprabha. 77. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 34, and the Vimalaprabha. Cf. the AWiidharma/cosa , Ch, 3 , v. 8c-d, where the following four origins are mentioned: th e egg , womb, moisture, and appantional beings (upapdduka). 78. Accordin g t o th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . i , v. 21, Sakra i s in th e east , Agni i s in th e southeast, Yama is in the south , Danu is in the southwest , Varuna is in the west , Vayu is in th e northwest, Yaksa is in the north, Hara is in the northeast , Brahma is in the uppe r region, and Visnu is below. 79. I n th e Jain a cosmology , Saudharma i s the firs t o f twelve heaven s belo w th e nin e Graiveyaka heavens that ar e on the neck o f the cosmic man. The Jaina notion o f Saudharma corresponds to the Kdlacakratantra's notio n of Saudharma only in name but not i n terms of its location i n the universe or in any other respect . 80. Accordin g to the Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 15, the measurement of the mediu m eon (madhyama'kalpa) i s the shortes t eo n (adhama-kalpa) multi plied hundred times . The duratio n of an extended eo n (utkrita-kalpa) i s a medium eon multiplied by one hundred . 81. Th e Vimalaprabha o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 25: satdyur vai purusah satendriyah. 82. The y ar e also said to equal 4,320,000 breaths of a god of the Akanistha heaven. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 150 and th e Vimalaprabha. Thi s numbe r of the year s of the fou r yugas corresponds t o the numbe r given in the Visnu Purdna and in the Manusmrti . 83. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 120. 84. Ibid . 85. Th e Vimalaprabha o n the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 20. 86. Th e Vimalaprabha o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 2. 87. Cf . th e Satapatha Brahmana, X.4.3.I , whic h state s tha t a yea r i s he, referrin g t o Prajapati, o r Time, who by means of a day and a night destroy s the lif e of mortal beings. Likewise, one reads in the Cakrasamvaratantra that a day is called the "Bhagavan Vajrl," and a night is called "wisdom. " 88. Cite d in the Vimalaprabha o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 2. 89. Th e Vimalaprabha o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 2. 90. Th e Vimalaprabha, 1986 , Ch. i, p. n. 91. Th e Vimalaprabha, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 21. 92. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch, 5 , v. 89, and th e Vimalaprabha. 93. Th e Vimalaprabha, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 17 ; Ch. 5, v. 127. 94. Nadapada , Sekoddesatika, Carelli , 1941 , p. 3. 95. Th e Adibuddhatantra, cite d i n the Vimalaprabha, 1986 , Ch . i , p . n. The Adibuddhatantra, cited in the Vimalaprabha, 1986 , Ch. i , p; the Vimalaprabha o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 96. Th e Vimalaprabha o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 97. Th e Adibuddhatantra, cited i n the Vimalaprabha, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 8. 98. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , vs. 244-245. 99. Th e Adibuddhatantra, cite d i n the Vimalaprabha, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 17 . 100. Se e the Atharva Veda, XIX. 53. i-io; XIX. 54. 1-5. The Brhat-samhitd, I. 7. reads: Some say that time is a cause (karana), som e say it is the inheren t natur e (svabhava), and yet others say it is a sacrificial ritual (karma)."

230 Note s to Pages 95-101 101. Se e the Satapalha Brdhmana, IV. 2. 4. n, X. 4. 1.7 , X. 4. 3. i, III. 2. 2. 4, etc. 102. Cf . the Satapatha Brdhmana, X. 4. i. 17 , where two of each of the hair , skin, blood, flat, sinews, bones, and marrow of Prajapati ar e identified with the sixtee n digits of the moon , with the table illustrating the sam e type of identification, given later i n this chapter . 103. Se e the Sekoddesa, 1994 , vs. 22-23. 104. Th e Mait n Upanisad, VI . 14-16 , Se e als o th e Taittiriya Upanisad, III . i , whic h speaks of time as Brahma, the Mahdndrdyana Upanisad, X L 14, in which time is identified with Narayana. 105. Th e Mahdbhdrata, Adiparvan , I . 248-250, and th e Kilrma Purdna, II . 3. 16 : Kdlah srjati bhutani kdlah samharate prajdh. Cf . th e Vayu Purdna, 32. 29-30. 106. Se e the Visnu Pwrara, I. 2. 25., I. 72. 1-7. 107. Se e the Bhagavadgita, Ch. to , vs. 30, 33, Ch. 11 , v. 32, 108. Fo r example, six breaths, o r six pairs of inhalations an d exhalations , make up on e panpala, o r liptd. Thre e hundred an d sixt y breaths mak e up sixty pdrdpalas, o r one ghatikd, o r danda (twenty-fou r minutes) . Twenty-one thousan d an d si x hundred breath s mak e u p sixty ghatikds, or one solar day (dina). Thus, 7,776,000 breaths make up three hundred and sixty solar days, or a year; and 77,760,00 0 breaths mak e up a human lif e spa n of one hundred years. See the Kdlacakratantra, Ch. i , v. 24 and the Vimalaprabhd. 109. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 9. 110. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 38, and the Vimalaprabhd. in. Aries and the like. 112. Tauru s and the like . 113. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch, 2 , v. 40, and the Vimalaprabhd. 114. Accordin g t o the Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 2, one visualizes the Kalacakra' s body as consisting o f the twelv e zodiacs. Likewise, each o f his tw o feet consists of the si x zodiacs, each of his three throats consists of four zodiacs, each of his four faces consists of three zodiacs , each of his six shoulders consists of two zodiacs, his twelve upper arms consist of twelve lunar months, makin g up the twelve zodiacs, and each of his twentyfour hand s consist s o f a hal f o f a zodiac . I n th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 44, Capricorn, Aquarius , and Pisce s are the black , red, and white faces, respectively, due t o th e classificatio n of the tamos, rajas, an d saliva of the mind-vajra. Aries , Taurus, and Gemini ar e the red , white, and black faces, respectively , due to the classification of the rajas, saliva, and tama s of the speech-wjra . Cancer, Leo , and Virgo are the white , black, and re d faces du e t o th e classificatio n of the sattva, tamas, and rajas o f the body-vo/ra . Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius are the yellow , red, and white faces, respectively , due to the classifi cationof th e tamas , rajas, an d saliva of the gnosis-vajra . 115. Th e AWiidharmalcosa , th e Dasabhumikasuira, Nagarjuna's Praiiiyasamuipddahrdayakdrikd, etc . 116. Ch . Lindtner , Nagarjuniana, 1982 , p. 171 . 117. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch. i, vs. 114-115, and the Vimalaprabhd. I n the schema that is presented in the Vimalaprabhd, ther e seems to be a discrepancy in the correlation amon g the solar months, o r zodiacs, and luna r months, unles s in this case , the luna r months ar e intentionally calculate d i n a differen t way . See als o th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n th e Kalacakratantra, Ch, 5 . v. 127. 118. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 137, and the Vimalaprabhd. 119. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n th e Kalocakratantra , Ch . 5 , v. 127 , cites v . 170 from the "Chapte r on Gnosis, " from the tantra-rdja, but it does not specif y whic h tantra-rdja. The vers e is not fro m th e Laghukdlacakratantra, th e Guhjiasamojatantra , o r the Hevajratantra. 120. Lindtner' s Nagarjuniana, p . 203 . 121. Th e Mttlamadhyamakakdrikd, Ch . 24 , vs. 18—19 .

Notes to Pages loi-ui 23 1 122. Th e sixtee n hundred an d twenty nadis of the wheel of time m the body correspond to the tota l number of sixteen hundre d an d twenty deities of the kakcakra-rnardak . Of these sixteen hundred an d twenty deities, eight hundred an d ten are male deities, who are days, and eight hundred an d ten are female deities, who are nights. Each group of eight hundred and te n deities has eight hundred an d ten dandas an d thirteen and a half constellations. Se e the Kolacakratantra, Ch. 2 , vs. 57-59, and the Vimalaprabha. 123. Accordin g t o the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 59, four nadis of the usnfs a and sixtee n nadfs o f the heart-cakr a become disturbe d by phlegm (kapha); thirty-tw o nadis in the throat cakra and eight nadis in the hear t become disturbed by bile (pitta); and sixty-four nadis in th e navel and secret cafcro s become disturbed by the wind . 124. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 190, and th e Vimalaprabha. 125. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 139, and the Vimalaprabha. 126. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 138. 127. I n light of this, the Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 92, describes emptiness, which is here referred to as the "wheel, " in this way: "It is deep (gambhira) because of the absenc e of the pas t and future , an d i t is profound (uddra) becaus e of perceiving the past and future." Appendix 1. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 166, and the Vimalaprabha. The Vimalaprabha offer s another alternative t o thi s model by correlating th e joint s of both upper arms to the ksetras and the joints of both thighs to the upaksetras, an d so on. 2. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 47, and th e Vimalaprabha. 3. Spring , rain y season, autumn, and winter. 6. The Social Body 1. Fo r example, according to the Manusmrti, I. 98, Brahmana is the eternal, physical form of Dharma, fit to become one with Brahman . 2. Th e Vdsettha Sutt a o f The Suttanipata, translated b y Saddhatissa , 1985 , vs . 14-1 8 (607-611); the Sdrdulakarndvaddna o f the Divydvadana, 1970 , XXXIII, pp. 625-630. 3. Th e Vdsettha Sutta of The Suttanipata, vs . 27, 28, 36, 39 . 4. Th e Thera and Then-gdthd, Dvadasanipato , 1966 , v. 631, p. 64. 5. Th e Mahdvagga o f the Anguttara Nikdya, XIX . 14. 6. Th e Majjhima Nikdya, II. 84. 4. 7. Th e Puggalapannati, 1969 , I.io , p , 19 ; th e Visuddhimagga, 1950 , IV . 74; th e Majjhi' manikdya, III . 256. 8. Th e Puggalapannati, 1969 , pp . 4-5 , fn . 5 an d th e Puggalapannatyatthakathd. Th e Atthasdlini, III. 109, p. 43: "Does a gotra-bhu first see nirvana? Just as when a man wh o has arrived to the king's presence with some task and has seen the king on the elephant's bac k leaving toward the road was asked: 'Have you seen a king?', since he has not accomplishe d the task that ought to be accomplished, h e answers: 'I have not see n him,' in the sam e way, upon seen nirvana, one says : 'Even though I have seen nirvana, it i s not a seeing, because of the absenc e of the eradicatio n of mental afflictions , whic h i s a task to be accomplished. " 9. Th e Sdrdulakarndvaddna, XXXIII , p . 625 : "Ther e i s only on e universa l caste i n th e world an d no t separat e [castes] (ekaivajdtir 'smin lake sdmdnyd na prthagvidhd)." Th e Vajrasuci of Asvaghosa, 195 0 (Asvaghosa) , vs. 22—30 . The Paramarthaseva , cite d i n B u ston's annota tions t o the Kalacakratantr a and the Vimalaprabhd, Ch . 2 , v. 167. 10. Th e Sdrdulakdrndvaddna o f the Divydvadana, XXXIII , p . 625 : ekaivajdtir 'smin lake sdmdnyd na prthagvidhd, an d p . 630: eka m idarn sarvam idam ekam.

232 Note s to Pages 111-113 11. Th e Divydvadanam, 1959 , p. 325 . 12. The Divyavaddna: A Collection of Early Buddhist Legends, 1970 , p. 636 . 13. Th e Vajrasuci ofAsvaghosa, 1950 , pp. 1-3, 9. 14. Ibid. , p. 9. 15. Ibid . 16. Th e Bodhicittavivaram, vs. 103, 90, in C. Lindtner, Nagarjuniana: Studies in the Writings and Philosophy ofNdgdrjuna, 1982 , pp. 211 , 215. 17. Th e Gandavyuha, cited i n Santideva's Siksasamuccaya, 1961 , Ch. i. pp. 6-7: " O son the noble family (kula-putra), th e spirit of awakening is a seed (bija) o f all the qualities (dharrna) of the Buddha . It is a field (ksetra), sinc e it makes the pur e qualities (sukla-dharma) o f the en tire world grow. It is soil (dharani), sinc e i t supports the entire world. It is the father (pitr), sinc e it protects bodhisattvas. . .. It i s Vaisravana, since i t eradicates all poverty. It i s a king of wishfulfilling gem s (cintamani-rajan), sinc e i t accomplishe s al l goals . I t i s a lotter y vas e (bhadraghata), since it fulfills al l expectations. I t i s power (sakti) fo r the victor y over the enemy , mental affliction s (klesa). I t i s Dharma, sinc e i t completel y eradicate s th e fundamenta l menta l engagement (yoniso'manaskdra). I t i s a sword (khadga), sinc e i t makes the head s o f mental afflictions fall. It is an ax (kuthdra), sinc e it completely cuts off the tree of suffering. I t is a weapon (praharana), sinc e i t defends from al l misfortunes. It i s a fish-hoo k (badisa), sinc e i t pulls out those wh o live in the water s of samsara. It is a whirl-wind (wta-mardalf), sinc e i t scatters th e grass of all obscurations (dvarana) an d hindrance s (nvarana). I t i s a summary (uddana), sinc e it compiles al l of the aspiration s an d conduct s o f a bodhisatwa. I t i s a shrine of the world s of gods, men, and asuras. Thus, o son of the noble family, the spirit of awakening is endowed with these an d other immeasurable , diverse good qualities. " 18. Th e Ratnolkadharani, cited in Santideva's Siksasamuccaya, 1961 , Ch. i. , p. 5: Those who generate the spirit of awakening are engaged in the virtues of great sages (rsi). Those who engage in the virtues of great sages are born (anujata) int o the Buddha-family fo r life . 19. Th e Siksasamuccaya, Ch . i , p. 7 : "Furthermore, ho w can one know that [th e state ment:] 'the spirit of awakening arises even i n th e cas e o f an ordinar y person' i s not a mere phrase? Becaus e i t ha s bee n demonstrate d i n man y sutras . . .. I t i s know n fro m th e Ratnakdrandasutra tha t eve n a n ordinar y perso n i s a bodhisatwa (prthagjano 'pi bodhisattvo iti jndyate)." 20. Th e Dharmadasakasiitra, cited i n the Siksasamuccaya, Ch. i , p. 8: "Here, o son of the noble family , one who has not yet generated th e spirit of awakening but being aroused, taught, and instigated , wil l generate th e spiri t of awakening with regard to the supreme , full awaken ing, dwells in the bodhisattva-gotra. This is the first cause for the generatio n o f bodhicitta." 21. Th e Mahdvyutpatti (Buddhist Terminological Dictionary), 1995 , Ch . 58 , 1260-1265 , p. 100 , enumerate s th e followin g five gotras : th e srdvakaydndbhisamaya'gotra, pratyekabuddhaydna-gotra, tathdgataydna-gotra, aniyata-gotra, an d agotra . Th e Saddharmalankavatdrasutra, 1963, Ch. 2 , 63.2-5, pp. 27-28, also mentions thes e five gotras and describes their character istics. The Maria^onasutraiamfcara , 1970 , Ch. 3 , distinguishes ( i) the inheren t (prakrtyd) an d acquired (paripusta) gotras, one being the support and the other being the supported ; (2) true and unreal gotras, one being the cause and the other being the result; (3) the definite (niyata) and indefinite (aniyata) gotras, one that cannot be destroyed by conditions an d the other that can b e destroyed; and (4 ) agotra, which i s devoid of the characteristic s o f nirvana. 22. Th e Abhisamaydlamkdra, 1992,1 , 38-39: Gotra is the basis of the uniquenes s of disciples, of the practic e o f the ultimat e truth, of knowledge an d effortles s activity .

Notes to Pages 113-120 23 3 A division of gotra is inappropriate du e to the indivisibilit y of the dharma-dhdtu. But its division is mentioned due to the differentiatio n of its attributed characteristics . Likewise, Haribhadra i n the Abhisamiyalamkaraloka equate s th e gotr a with the dharma-dhatu and states that the gotra, which exist s in every individual, is the beginningless outflow of dharmata. See also the Ratnakuta (cited in the Gser-phreng, I . 246b4~5), and the Ratnagotravibhaga E. H. Johnston, ed. and tr. 23. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 83, and the Vimalaprabha. 24. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 166, and the Vimalaprabha. 25. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 167 . Se e also th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 162. 26. Th e Paramarthaseva , cited i n Bu ston's annotation to the Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra , Ch. 2 , v. 167. 27. Th e Kalacakratantra , Ch. 5 , v. 200, pada a-c . 28. Th e Vimalaprabha. commentar y o n th e Kalacakratantra , 1986 , Ch. i , p. 19 . Cf. th e GMh^asamajatantra, 1965 , p. 116 . 29. Th e Adibuddhatantra cite d i n the Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i, p. 24. 30. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 31. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i, pp. 22, 24. 32. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , vs. 159-169. 33. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 34. Ibid . 35. Ibid . 36. Se e R. C. Majmudar , The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Struggle for Em pire, 1966, pp. 499-500. 37. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , pp. 24-28. 38. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , p. 41. 39. Ibid . 40. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4, v. 100, and the Vimalaprabha commentary . During the process of empowering his own body, mind, and speech, the tantric adept appropriates his true identity b y reciting the following: "Orn, I consist of the natur e of the body, speech, an d min d of all th e Tathagatas " (omsarva-tathagata-kaya-tJac-citta-svabhavatmak o 'ham) ; "Om, I consis t of th e natur e o f th e vajra o f gnosi s an d emptiness " (o m sunyatd'jnana'Vajra'Svabhavatmako 'ham); an d "Orn , I consis t o f th e purifie d spher e o f reality" (o m visuddha-dharma-dhatw-svabhdvdtmako 'ham). 41. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 36. 42. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 43. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , v. i, p. 40. 44. Ibid . 45. Ibid. , p. 34. 46. Cf . th e Vydkhydyukti, cite d i n E . Obermiller, Th e Jewelry of the Scripture By Bu-ston, 1987, p. 28, which state s tha t the wor d of the Buddh a is fit for all the form s of verbal expression, becaus e i t accommodate s itsel f to th e form s an d characte r o f every kind o f grammar (sarva~sabddnupravistasarva'Vyakarana'sarvdkdra-laksandnuprawstdt). 47. Th e Paramddibuddhatantra, cite d i n th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n th e Kala cakratantra, 1986, Ch. i, pp. 24-25. 48. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentary o n the Kalacakratantra , 1986 , Ch. i , pp. I5~r6 . 49. Ibid. , p. 16 . 50. Th e Hevajratantra, 1976 , Par t 2, Ch. 3 , vs. 46-48, Ch. n, v. 8; Part i , Ch. 6 , v. 4.

234

Notes to Pages 120-129

51. Th e Candamaharos_anatantra, 1974, Ch. 7, pp. 32, 79. Cf. the Guhyasamajatantra, Ch . 5, vs. 2-3, 6-7 . 52. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 127. 53. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 3 , v. 83. 54. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 98, together with the Vimalaprabha. 55. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 127. 56. Ibid . 57. Th e Paramadibuddhatantra, cite d i n th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n th e Kak cakratantra, 1986, Ch. i , p. 7. 58. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 221. 59. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 208. 60. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 118. 61. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 198. 62. Th e Paramadibuddhatantra, cite d i n th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n th e Kak cakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 119. 63. Th e Vimalaprabh a commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 98. 64. Se e the Bodhipathapradipa ofDlpamkara Sryftana , 1995 , vs. 63-65, p. 98. 65. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 86. 66. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 3 , v. 138, and th e Vimalaprabha. 67. Th e Brhaddharma Purana, II. 13-14, also mentions thirty-si x mixed castes in India . 68. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 3 , vs. 125-127, and the Vimalaprabha. 69. Se e Ibid., vs. 157-168, and the Vimalaprabha. 70. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 3 , v. 154. 71. Accordin g t o th e Vedavydsasmrti, amon g others, th e cobbler s (carmakara), Bhillas , washermen (rajaka), dancer s an d actors (natas), an d Candalas, which are included in the Kalacakratantra's gana-cakra, are listed as outcasts (antyaja). Se e Kane, The History ofDharmasastra, vol. i, part i , p. 71. 72. Domba s and Candalas ar e used interchangeably i n th e Vimalaprabha. Accordin g t o Albiruni's (102 0 CE) report from hi s travels in India, Dombas and Candala s wer e considere d as a single social class and were distinguished only by their occupations . 73. Se e the Hevajratantra, Par t i , Ch. 5 , v. 18, and th e Yogaratnamala. 74. I n the Hevajratantra, Nairatmya , or the Bhagavarl, the principal female deity is identified a s Dombi. 75. Fo r the translatio n of Kanha's songs, se e Sh. Bh . Dasgupta, Obscure Religious Cults, 1962, pp. 96-106. 76. Th e Kuldrnavatantra, Ch. 14 , v. 91. 77. Ibid. , Ch. 8 , v. 101. 78. Th e Paramadibuddhatantra, cite d i n th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n th e Kak cakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 3. 79. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 105. 80. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 3, cites the Acdryaparfksa, whic h states : Owing to the complete knowledge of ten principles, among the three, a monk is superior, a so-called wanderin g ascetic i s middling, an d a householder i s inferior t o these two. 81. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 3 , v. 4, and the Vimalaprabha. The five ethical precept s refer to the first five Buddhist precepts common fo r all Buddhists, lay and monastic, namely, abstinence from killing, from stealing , from sexua l misconduct, fro m false speech , an d from taking intoxicants .

Notes t o Pages 129-14 7 23 5 82. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5, vs. 50-51. 83. Se e also R. Lingat, The Classical Law of India, 1973 , p. 30 . 84. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 156, Ch. 5 , vs. 48-49, 52. 85. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 161, and th e Vimalaprabha. 86. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4, vs. 201-204. 87. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , vs. 129-130. 88. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 211. 89. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , vs. 217-219. 90. Th e Hevajratantra, Par t 2, Ch. 8 , v. 45. 91. Ibid. , Ch. 2 , v. 44. 92. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. i , vs. 1-2. 93. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 47, and the Vimalaprabha. 94. Accordin g to th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 7, and th e Vimalaprabha, the whit e soi l of the Brahman a class has a divine smell, the re d soil of the Ksatriy a class has a lotus-scent and a hot taste , the yellow soi l of the Vaisya class has a pungent smell an d a sweet an d saline taste , the blac k soil of the Sudr a class has a putrid smel l and a sour taste, and the gree n soil of the Domba class incorporate s all colors, smells, an d tastes . 95. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 43, and the Vimalaprabha. 96. Fo r the classificatio n o f the yoginls of the kalacakra-mandala i n terms of social groups , see the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , vs. 144—147 . 97. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 51, and the Vimalaprabha. 7. The Gnostic Body 1. Han s Jonas, The Gnostic Religion: The Message of the Alien God and the Beginnings of Christianity, 1963 , p. 32. 2. Th e Gospel of Thomas, 45 . 30-33, cited i n Elain e Pagels , The Gnostic Gospels, 1979 , p. 126 . 3. Th e Trimorphic Protennoia, 36. 12-16 , cited i n Pagels, The Gnostic Gospels, p. 55. 4. Th e Apocryphon of John, I I 31, 3-9, cite d Michael A. Williams , Rethinking "Gnosticism": An Argument for Dismantling a Dubious Category, 1996 , p. 121 . 5. Th e Gospel of Thomas, 42 . 7-51, cited in Pagels, The Gnostic Gospels, p. 128 . 6. Boo k of Thomas the Contender, 138 . 13 , cited in ibid. , p. 131 . 7. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 196. 8. The Testimony of Truth, 44 . 2 , 43. 26 , cited i n Pagels , The Gnostic Gospels, p. 132 . 9. Th e Dialogue of the Savior, 134 . 1-2 , i n Nag Hammad i Library 234 , cite d i n Pagels , The Gnostic Gospels, p. 126 . 10. Th e Gospel of Thomas, 37 . 20-35, cited in ibid., p. 129 . 11. Fo r example, i n the Adversus Haereses, 1.24.4-5, Irenaeus accuses Basilideans of eating meat that was offered t o idols , of treating all sorts o f behavior a s morally neutral , an d of resorting to magic, incantations and other occult practices. 12. Ug o Bianchi , ed. , Le Origin ! Delia Gnosticismo: Colloquio de Messina, 13-1 8 Aprile 1966, Studies in the Histor y o f Religions (Supplement s to Numen), vol. 12 , 1970 , p. 27. 13. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary o n th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v . 13 , Ch . 3 , v . i : mantram jndnam iti manastranabhutatvdt. Cf. the Guhyasamdjatantra, 1965 , vs. 69cd-7oab. 14. Williams , Rethinking "Gnosticism," p . 41. 15. Pagels , The Gnostic Gospels, p. xxi . 16. Se e E. Conze, "Buddhism and Gnosis," 1996. 17. Helmu t Hoffmann, "Kalacakra Studie s I : Manicheism, Christianity and Isla m in th e Kalacakratantra," Central Asiatic journal (13:52-73,1969). H. Hoffmann, Tibet: A Handbook, 1975.

236 Note s to Pages 148-153 18. Se e HanS'Joachim Klimkeit, Gnosis on the Silk Road: Gnostic Texts from Central Asia, 1993. P- 319. Th e army' s four divisions are: the elephants , horses , chariots, an d footmen . 20. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , vs. 48-50 and the Vimalaprabha. 21. Se e th e Kephalaia, 70 , 175 . 6-14 , 38 , 96 . 13-27 , 96 . 27-97 . 22 > cite d i n Jaso n Beduhn, "Metabolis m o f Salvation: Th e Manichea n Body i n Ascesis an d Ritual, " 1995 , pp. 203, 206-207. 22. Th e Kephalaia, 38, 100 . 1-6, cited in ibid., p. 207. 23. Th e Vimalaprabha, 1986 , Ch . i , pp. 18 , 19 : vajradharajndnakdyasdksibhutayd ndmasamgitydUhgitam iti. 24. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 234. 25. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , vs. 51-52, whic h indicates that the mal e and female deities of the Mayajalatantra an d th e Samdjatantra ar e included in the kalacakra-mandak . It also categorizes the Mdydjdlatantra a s being of three kind s and th e Samdjatantra a s being of six kinds. 26. Th e Manjusrindrnasamgiti, vs . 7, 13. 27. Th e Manjusrindmasamgiti, v . 144 , lin e b: pancdksaro mahdsunyo bindusunyah sadaksarah. Ronal d Davidson' s editio n o f the Manjusnndmasamgtti incorrectl y reads the "on e hundred syllable " (satdksarah) instea d o f the "si x syllable" (sadaksarah). The Adibuddhatantra, cited i n the Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, 1986, Ch. i , p. 33: pancaksaram mahdsunyam bindusunyam sadaksaram. 28. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n th e Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch . i , p . 42 : istdrthaphaladah phalam aksarasukham jndnacittam. 29. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n th e Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 44. Cf. th e Manjusrindmasamgiti, v . 100, where the Adibuddh a i s said to be without partiality (niranvaya). Ronald Davidso n translates th e ter m niranvaya as "without causa l connection" on the basis of the explanation o f the term in commentaries on this verse of the ManjusrindmasamgTti an d th e Tibetan translatio n o f it a s "causeless" (rgyu med). 30. Ibid . 31. Th e Adibuddhatantra, cited i n the Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra,

1986, Ch. i , p. 44. 32. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 33. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 43. 34. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n th e Kalacakratantra , Ch. 5 , v. 127 , support s thi s view o f gnosis as self-aware with vers e 15 5 of the Man/MsrfnamasamgTti , whic h describe s Vajrasattva as self-knowing (atma-wd) and knowing others (para-vid). Cf . the Hevajratantra, Par t i, Ch . 8 , v . 46 , whic h characterize s th e suprem e blis s (maha-swkha ) a s self-awar e (sva samvedya), an d v . 51, line a, which states : "Self-awareness is this gnosis , which i s beyond th e scope o f words." The Yogaratnamdld, 1976 , p. 129 , commenting o n thi s line fro m th e Heva jratantra, explains that self-awareness implies that gnosis cannot be described by someone else, but tha t i t is to be known by oneself. 35. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 36. Ibid . 37. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 43. 38. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kdiacakratantra , Ch. 4 , v. 55. 39. Thi s i s a translatio n o f the Sanskri t tex t cite d i n Matsumot o Shiro's article, "Th e Doctrine o f Tathagata-garbha i s not Buddhist, " in Pruning the Bodhi Tree; The Storm over Critical Buddhism, 1997 , p. 171 : anddikdliko dhdtuh sarvadharmasamdsrayah tasmin sati gatih sarva nirvanadhigamo 'pi ca.

Notes to Pages 153-158 23 7 40. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2, v. 3, and the Vimalaprabha. 41. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 20, and the Vimalaprabha. 42. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 3-c: sunye jnanam vimisram bhavati samarasam cdksaram sdsvatam ca. 43. Accordin g t o the Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127, a sprout does not aris e from a nonperished see d nor does it arise from a perished seed . Likewise, it neither arises from abandonin g it s own nature, nor from th e unconscious element, nor fro m the absenc e of annihilation. 44. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 127. 45. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 3. 46. Th e Sekoddesa, 1994 , v. 148. 47. Ibid. , v. 151, line b. 48. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 106. 49. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 2, and th e Vimalaprabha. 50. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n th e Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch . i , p . 43 : atah samvrtih sunyatdrupin sunyatd sanwrtirupin. 51. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 6, lines a-b. 52. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 47. 53. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . i , p . 43 . Cf . Th e Manjusrindmasamgiti, v. 99, line a: vijnanadharmataGto jnanam advayarupadhrk. 54. Th e Paramadibuddha cite d i n the Vimalaprabha, 1986 , Ch. i , pp. 17 , 32, 43. 55. Th e Paramadibuddha cite d i n the Vimalaprabha, Ch . i , p. 32: kdyavdkcittardgdtmd vo jrasattvo adhidevatd. Cf . th e Manjusrindmasamgiti, v. 166 , line a: Foremost a s the inheren t natur e of all phenomena, h e maintain s the inheren t na ture of all phenomena. 56. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n th e Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 17 : paramo.' dibuddhah ekaksanapancdkdravimsatydkdramdyajdldbhisambodhilaksano 'ksarasukhah paramah. 57. Ibid. , Ch. i , p. 44: yadd ksanadharmarahitam cittam nihsvabhdvam ity ucyate. 58. Ibid. , Ch. i , p. 45: ekdnekaksanarahitam jnanam tattvam ity ucyate jinaih. 59. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 223. 60. Ibid. , Ch. 4 , v. 228. 61. Th e Prajndpdramitapinddrtha (Tangyur , mdo, vol. 14) , v. i: prajndpdramitd jnanam advayam sa tathdgatah sddhyatdddrthyayogena tdcchabdyam granthamdrgayoh. The Sanskri t version of the vers e is taken fro m Th . Stcherbatsk y an d E. Obermiller, eds., Abhisamaydlamkdra'Prajndpdramitd'Upadesa'Sdstra: The Work ofBodhisattva Maitreya, Bibliothec a Indo-Buddhica Series, vol. 99, 1992: vi. 62. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 65. 63. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 45. 64. Th e Manjusrindmasamgiti, v . 109: vajrendu-vimala-prabha. 65. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentar y on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. r24. The cite d description of ManjusrT a s one wh o knows the realit y with sixteen aspects (sodasdkdra-tattvavid) i s given in v. 133 of the Manjusrindmasamgiti. 66. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 3 , vs. 123-124, and the Vimalaprabha. 67. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 99. 68. Th e Manjusrindmasamgiti, v . 109: vajra-suryo mahdlokah. 69. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 124. 70. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 56.

238 Note s to Pages 159-169 71. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 27, and th e Vimalaprabha. 72. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 45. 73. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 62. 74. Ibid. , Ch. 5 , vs. 56-57. 75. Nadapada , Sekoddesatikd, 1941 , pp. 6-7 . 76. Ibid . 77. Th e Adibuddhatantra, cited in the Vimalaprabha. commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 78. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 5 , vs. 102-103. 79. Ibid. , Ch. 5 , v. 98. 80. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 81. Ibid . 82. Th e five indestructibles (pancdksara) refe r to the five Buddhas. 83. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 127. 84. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch , 5 , vs. 60-61. The Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 92 and th e cite d Adibuddhatantra. 85. Se e the Ndmasamgitivrtti, Peking ed. of the Tibetan Tripitaka 1956 , ed. by D. T. Suzuki, vol. 74 , pp. 171.1.1-184.4.8 . Th e sixtee n type s of emptiness are liste d i n th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kdlacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 21, as the emptiness of the five aggregates (skandha), which is classified unde r the categor y of sunyatd; th e emptines s of the five elements (dhdtu), whic h i s classified unde r the categor y of mahdsunyatd; th e emptines s of the five sensefaculties, whic h i s classified unde r the categor y of paramdrthasunyatd; an d a s emptiness having all aspects (sarvdkdra), whic h i s the sixteent h emptiness . 86. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 114. Verse 13 3 of the Manjusrindmasamgiti speak s of the omniscient Buddha knowing the reality with twelve aspects, the reality with sixteen aspects, and the reality with twenty aspects . 87. Nadapada , Sekoddesatikd, 1941 , pp. 6-7 . 88. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kdlacakratantra, 1986 , Ch, i , p. 45. 89. Nadapada , Sekoddesatikd, 1941 , pp. 6-7. 90. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kdlacakratantra, 1986 , Ch, i , p. 45. 91. Ibid . 92. Nadapada , Sekoddesatlka, 1941 , pp. 5-6 . 93. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kdlacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 46; the Kolacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 98. 94. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 234. 95. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra , Ch. 4 , v, 97; Ch. 2 , v. 15. 96. Th e Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 2 , vs. 14-16 with the Vimalaprabha commentary . The Vi malaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra , Ch. 4 , v. 97. 97. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kdlacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 127. 98. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kdlacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 43. 99. Ibid . 100. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 46; Ch. 3, p. 80; Ch. 4 , p. 149 . 101. Th e Abhisamaydlamkdraprajnapdramitopadefasdstra, 1992 , Ch. i , v. 18. 102. Fo r the excellent discussion on the YogScara's and Abhidharma's interpretation s of the Svabhavikakay a of the Ab/iisama^alornkara , see John Makransky' s Buddhahood Embodied: Sources of Controversy in India and Tibet, 1997 . 103. Th e Abhisama;ya!amkara, Ch. 8 , v. i. 104. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 23: buddhatvam ndma samsaravdsandrahitam tittam/ tatha ca bhagavdn aha prajndpdramitdyam asti tac citam

Notes t o Pages 169-173 23 9 yac citam acittam itil prakrtiprabhdsvaram tad eva samsdravdsandrahitam ato mdrah samalam attorn buddho vigatamalam cittam. 105. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, 1986, Ch. i, p. 42. 106. Se e Makransky , Buddhahood Embodied, p . 261 . The Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 39. 107. Se e Makransky, Buddhahood Embodied, p . 266 . 108. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 149. 109. Ibid. , Ch. i, p. 35. no. Ibid. , Ch. i, p. 39. in. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 2 , v. 1 73 with the Vimalaprabha. commentary. 112. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 66, line a: sattvd buddhd na buddhas W apara iha mahdn vidyate lokadhdtau. 1 13. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 5 , v. 66. 114. Th e Manjusrinatnosarngfti , v . 138: saroasatt
240 Note s to Pages 173-17 8 130. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5, v. 127. 131. Ibid . 132. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 91. 133. Ibid . 134. Cf . Siksasamuccaya, 1961 , p. 12 : "Thus, whe n there i s a spiritual ignorance, attachment, hatred, an d delusion arise with regard to the sense-objects. " A similar view is also held by the Sarvastivad a school. E.g. , the Abhidharmakosa, 1988 , vol. 2 , p. 402, reads : "All defile ments accompany ignorance an d are activated through ignorance. " On the other hand, i n the earliest Buddhist literature, one invariabl y encounters cravin g (tanhd) an d spiritual ignoranc e as the direc t and primary causes of mental afflictions . 135. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 44. 136. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 3 , v . 2 reads : rdgadvesamohamdnersydmdtsdryasamijhah kalusam. Cf. The Boo k of Analysis: Vibhanga, 1969, 232, 249 : "Defilement s ar e named thi s way because the y make th e bod y an d mind t o be afflicted and suffer" ; th e Abhidharamkosa, 1991 , vol. 3, p. 113: "Mental affliction s (klesa) ar e secondary mental afflictions (upakksa) becaus e they defile th e mind. " 137. Th e Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. 2 , v. 23, and the Vimalaprabhd. 138. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 143, and th e Vimalaprabhd, 139. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 65. 140. Th e Kalacalwatantra, Ch. 2 , v. 19, and the Vimalaprabhd. 141. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 19. 142. Ibid . 143. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 76; Ch. i , p. 23. 144. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 68. 145. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 67. 146. Accordin g t o the Vimalaprabhd o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch, 5. v. 127, the obscura tions of the bod y are the Skandh a Mara ; the obscuration s of the min d ar e the Mrty u Mara; the obscurations of speech ar e the Klesa Mara; and the prevalence of spiritual ignorance with regard to the world is the Devaputr a Mara. 147. Th e Vimalaprabha o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch, 5 . v. 127. 148. Ibid. : "Due t o th e cessatio n (nirodha) o f the habitua l propensit y of the perishabl e [moment], there i s a cessation o f attachment, hatred , delusion , anger, and spiritual ignorance. Likewise, there is a sequential cessation o f the twelv e limbs [of dependent origination] . Du e to the cessation of the twelve limbs, there is a cessation of the cycle of existence ( bhava'cakra). Due to th e cessatio n o f the cycl e of existence, there is Buddhahood, whic h i s free o f obscurations." 149. Ibid . 150. SeeNagarjuna' s Sunyatdsaptatikdrikd, v . 37, inC. Lindtner, Nagarjuniana, 1982 , p. 51. 151. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 2 , v. 82. 152. Ibid. , Ch. 2 , v. 83, and the Vimalaprabhd. 153. Se e ibid., Ch. 2 , vs. 86-88, and the Vimalaprabhd. 154. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v . 219, lin e d: tasmad esah svakdyah samasukho nilayo raksanyah parasya. 155. Th e Sekoddesa, 1994 , v. 134. 156. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 70. 157. S o far, I have been unabl e to identif y th e origina l source of this verse cited i n th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 124. It is possible that it is taken from the Adibuddhatantra. 158. Th e Vimalaprabhd o n the Kalacakratantra, 1976 , Ch. i , p. 4. Cf. the Hevajratantra, 1976, Part 2, Ch. 2 , v. 50, which states that jus t as those wh o are burnt by fire treat th e bur n

Notes to Pages 178-181 24 1 with fire, so too thos e who are burnt b y the fire of passion cur e themselves b y the fire of passion. 159. Th e Sekoddesa, v, 135. 160. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. no, an d the Vimalaprabha. 161. Th e Sekoddesa , vs. 139-140. 162. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i, pp. 5-6 . 163. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 71: The grap e does not com e fro m th e rumb a tree, nor ambrosi a from poison , no r a lotus from the udumbara tree, no r th e blis s of nirvana from space , no r virtu e from th e power of non-virtue, no r siddhis fro m harmin g livin g beings, nor heaven fro m sacrificing animals, nor the supreme state of Siva from restraining the sense-faculties, no r the omniscien t languag e fro m th e Vedas , nor th e indestructible , immovabl e blis s from th e min d that is not purifie d fro m th e perishabl e [bliss] . 164. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 199, line c. 165. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 166. Cf . the Hevajratantra, Par t 2 , Ch. 2 : 51, which states : "The world is bound b y passion, an d i t i s also released by passion. " 167. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 224. Cf. the Paramdrthasevd, cite d b y Bu ston [311] , which reads : Fire and mercur y are always enemies. Without fire there is no cohesiveness o f mercury. Because i t i s non-cohesive, i t does not transmut e metals . Becaus e metals ar e not transmuted , the y d o not becom e gold . Because they hav e no t becom e gold , a substance i s not improved . Due to th e lo w quality of a substance, ther e i s a lack of enjoyment i n it. ... " 168. Accordin g t o the Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kalacakratantra , Ch. 5 , v. 127, there are five states of mercury: vapor (dhuma), titi-citi [sound] , the jum p of a frog, tremor , and motionlessness. 169. Ibid . 170. Ibid . Cf. the Vajrasekharamahaguhyayogatantra, Pekin g ed., no. 113 , vol. 5, 4.3.7-8, which interpret s th e meanin g o f Vajrasattva in this way: "Gnosis of supreme spiritual awakening i s called 'vajra.' H e wh o arise s from th e gnosis-vajr a i s called 'Vajrasattva.' " Accordin g to Nadapada's Sekodd&satTka, 1941 , p. 73, the ter m vajra i n the compoun d Vajrasattv a refers to the indivisibl e (abhedya), empt y form (sunya-bimba), an d the ter m sattva designates him "wh o is called th e unit y of the rupa-kdya, speech , an d min d i n the desire-real m (kdma-dhdtu), etc. " r 71. Thi s verse from th e fifth chapter o f the Adibuddhatantra i s cited i n the Vimalaprabha commentary o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. Cf. the Hevajratantra , Part i , Ch. i , v. 4: Vajra i s said to b e indivisibl e (abhedya), an d a being (sattva ) is the unit y (ekata) o f the thre e worlds. By means of this wisdom, it is known a s Vajrasattva. The Yogaratnamaia , commenting o n this verse, identifie s th e vajr a wit h emptiness, an d i t in terprets a being (sattva ) a s a phenomenon consistin g o f the five psycho-physical aggregates . 172. Th e Vzmalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i,pp . 16-17. Cf. the Yogaratnamai a commentary o n the Hevajratantra , 1976 , Part i , Ch. i , v. i, pp. 10 3 — 104, which interpret s the word evam in two ways: (i) as the union of the two sexual organs, the letter e designating the femal e sexual organ (Wwga) , and th e syllab e vam denoting th e mal e sexual organ (vajra) ; (2 ) an d as the unit y of two elements, two mudras, and tw o cakras, the lette r e being the earth-element , th e karma-mudrd, an d the nirmdna-cakra, and the syllabl e vam being the water-element, th e dharma-mudrd, an d the dharma-cakra.

242 Note s to Pages 183-189 8. The Transformative Body 1. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4, v. 115. 2. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. i. 3. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , vs. 111-112, and the Vimalaprabhd. 4. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 5 and the Vimalaprabha. 5. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3, v. 96, the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , vs. 99-100, and the Vimalaprabha. Accordin g to the Vimalaprabha commentar y o n th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3, v. 97, in other related tantras, such as the Guhyasamdjatantra, th e first five initiations ar e designed t o purify th e five psycho-physical aggregates, respectively. 6. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 96. 7. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , vs. 96-97, 99-100, and the Vimalaprabhd. 8. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , vs. 96-97, 99, and th e Vimalaprabhd. Cf . the Sekoddesa, vs. 10—14 . 9. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , vs. 13-14 mentions th e followin g twenty-five vows: ( i) the avoidanc e o f killing (himsd), lyin g (asatya), adulter y (para-stri), stealin g (para-dhana), an d drinking liquo r (madya-pdna); (2 ) th e avoidanc e o f gamblin g (dyuta), unwholesome foo d (savadya-bhojya), negativ e speec h (kuvacana-pathana), an d th e religiou s teaching s o f th e "demons" (Hindus) , an d flsuras (Barbarians); (3) th e avoidanc e o f five types o f killing: th e killings of cows (go), children (bala), wome n (stn) , men (nara), an d th e Buddha , the teache r of thirteen men (tri'dasa-nara-guru), an d the avoidance of harm (droha) t o the five: friends (mitra), master s (prabhu), Buddha s (tri'dasa-nara-guru), th e Buddhis t community , an d spiritua l mentors (visvasin); (4 ) an d avoidance o f attachment to the object s of the five sense-faculties. According t o the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3, vs. 101-102, and the Vimalaprabhd, th e fourteen root downfalls are : ( i ) causing mental grie f t o one' s ow n spiritual mentor b y engaging i n the te n nonvirtues, (2 ) transgressing the spiritual mentor's injunctions , even behind th e spiritual mentor's back, (3 ) ange r toward one's ow n [fajra ] brothers , regardles s of their age or seniority, (4 ) abandoning lovin g kindness i n four degrees: minimally, medially, strongly, and excessively, (5) releasing one's semen, (6 ) reviling the siddhdntas, or the system of perfections (pdramita-naya), (7) giving a secret offerin g o f sublime bliss to a n immatur e person, that is , to a person estab lished on the path of the Sravakas, (8) causing injury to the body by cutting it, etc., (9 ) aver sion toward th e "pur e Dharma," that is , toward the Dharm a o f emptiness, (10 ) a false lovin g kindness, ( n ) a contrive d ideatio n (kalpand) wit h regar d t o th e realit y (tattva) o f th e Tathagatas, which give s bliss and i s devoid o f name and the othe r attributes , (12 ) offending a pure being, such as a yogim, (13) abandoning th e received tantric pledges (samaya) durin g the tantric feast, and (14 ) aversion (jugupsa) towar d women. 10. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 100, and th e Vimalaprabhd. n. Ibid . 12. Th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n the Kalacakratantra, 1994 , Ch, 3 , v. 100. 13. Blis s (dnanda), suprem e bliss (paramananda), specia l bliss (viramdnanda), an d innat e bliss (sahajdnanda). 14. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 105, and the Vimalaprabhd. Cf . the Manjusrindmasamgiti, v. 81: trailokyaikakumdrdngah sthaviro vrddhah prajapatih dvdtrimsadaksanadharah kantas trailokyasundarah. 15. Th e Sekoddesa, 1994 , vs. 11—23 . 16. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3, vs. 118-124, and the Vimalaprabhd. 17. Th e Adibuddhatantra, quote d i n th e Vimalaprabhd commentar y o n th e Kolacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 120.

Notes t o Pages 190-203 24 3 18. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 100, Ch. 5, v. 13. 19. Ibid. , Ch. 4, v. no . 20. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 6, lines a-b: sunyam bhavad vihinam sakalajagad idam vasturupasvabhavam tasmdd buddho na bodhih parahitakaruna cammittapratijnd. 21. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 48. 22. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 8, and th e Vimalaprabha. 23. Th e mindfulnes s o f the body , feelings , mind , and mental objects . 24. Accordin g to Bu ston [16], the eight corporeals are the four that consist of earth, water, fire, and wind, and the fou r that consist of form, smell, taste , and touch. 25. Accordin g to Bu ston [16], the eight qualities are great and small external forms, large and small, blue, yellow , red, an d white. 26. Accordin g to Bu ston [16] , the te n power s are: life an d so on. 27. Th e Adibuddhatantra, cited in the Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 9. 28. Th e alidha postur e i s a standing posture i n which the righ t le g is stretched forwar d and th e lef t leg is retracted. 29. Th e pratyalidha posture is a standing posture in which the lef t leg is stretched forward and the righ t leg is retracted. 30. Th e Vimalaprabha commentar y on the Kdlacakrarantra, Ch. 4 , vs. 106, 14 . 31. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , vs. 90-91, and the Vimalaprabha. 32. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 54. 33. Se e the Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra , Ch. 4 , v. 18. 34. Ibid. , v. 20. 35. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 96, and the Vimalaprabha. 36. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4, vs. 97-98, and the Vimalaprabha. 37. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 51. 38. Th e Adibuddhatantra, cite d in the Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 49. 39. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 51. 40. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , vs. 98-99, and the Vimalaprabha. 41. Ibid. , vs. 101-106, and the Vimalaprabha. 42. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 43. I t affirms tha t a so-called whit e meditation, which is characterized by peace, induce s pacification an d make s poison nontoxic; an d a black meditation , which i s characterize d b y wrath, induce s killing an d transports poison in the body , etc. 44. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127. 45. Ibid . 46. Th e Adibuddhatantra, cite d in the Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4, v. no . 47. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 110. 48. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. r 11, and th e Vimalaprabha. 49. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4, v. in. 50. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 64. 51. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch, 5 , v. 127. 52. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 120. 53. Ibid . 54. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, 1986 , Ch. i , p. 21.

244 Note s to Pages 203-213 55. Th e Adibuddhatantra, cited i n the Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 127, states: After leavin g the karma-mudrd an d th e conceptualize d (vikalpita) jndna-mudra, on e should meditate o n the mahd-mudrd b y means of the supreme , imperishable yoga. 56. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 120, and the Vimalaprabha. 57. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 115, asserts that the Buddha taught i n the Samajatantra tha t the ten sign s appear during the nighttime yoga, and in the Ndmasamglti tha t they arise during the daytime yoga. 58. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 115, and the Vimalaprabha. 59. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 117. 60. Puraka designates closing of the right nostril and inhalation throug h th e lef t nostril . 61. Recaka designates the closing of the left nostril and exhalation through the right nostril. 62. Kumbhaka i s a breathing techniqu e i n whic h on e hold s th e breat h b y closing th e mouth an d nostrils . 63. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 118. 64. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 116, and the Vimalaprabha. 65. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 119. 66. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 117, and the Vimalaprabha. 67. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 119. 68. Se e the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 4 , v. 133, and th e Vimalaprabha. 69. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 119, and th e Vimalaprabha. 70. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch. 5 , v. 193: etesdm muktihetoh sasutajinapatih karmabhumydm pravisya garbhddhanam hi krtvd paramakarunayd bodhim utpddayitvd mdraklesdn nipdtya ksititalanilaye dharmacakram pravrttya kra>a nirmdnamdydm punar api bhagavdn suddhakdyah sa eva. 71. Th e Srimaldsutra, Ch . 3 : tasmdd bhagavams tathdgatgarbho nisraya ddhdrah pratisthd sarnbaddhdndm avinirbhdgdndm amuktajndndm asamskrtdndm dhramandm/ asambaddhdndm api bhagavan vinirbhdgcdharmanam muktajndndndm samskrtdndm dharmdndm nisraya ddhdrah pratisthd tathdgatagarbha itij tathdgatagarbhas ced bhagavan na sydn na sydd duhkhe pi nirvin na nirvdnecchd prdrthand prandhir veti vistarah. 72. Th e Kalacakratantra, Ch . 4 , v. 120, and the Vimalaprabha. Appendix i. Th e Vimalaprabha commentary o n the Kalacakratantra, Ch . 3 , v. 168.

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Index

KCT: Kalacakmtantra Abhidharmakosa, cosmography of, 70-71, 72,74 Abhinavagupta, on contemplative inquiry , 26 Abhisamayalamkdra, o n Svabhavikakaya, 168-169 Accumulations, thre e types of, in KCT, 184 Adibuddha, concep t of , in Kalacakra system, n, 17-18 Adibuddhatantra, 19 2 intended audience of, 7 manner o f Buddha's teaching in , 6 and Namosamgfti , 1 8 Aggregates, psycho-physical, as five families, !3

Alchemy, i n Mahayana an d tantric Buddhism, 50 Anupamaraksita, and earl y history of KCT, 28-30 Anuttara-yoga-tantras and gnosticism, 14 3 and KCT, 6, 7 and Sahajakaya , 17 0 sublimating mental affliction s in , 18 3 view of sentient beings in , 17 1 Arlsa, on two higher initiations , 12 4 Avici, omissio n of, from accoun t o f underworlds in Vimdaprabhd, 7 0 Awakening in Christian gnosticis m and Kalacakra tradition, 14 5

fourfold perfect , 160-164 , J 6? full an d perfect , 159 in KCT, 11, 20 Awareness, enlightene d four aspect s of, 12 9 four expression s of , 13 1 manifestation of , as social and religious body of Buddha, 13 0 Ayurveda and early Buddhist medicine, 49-50 in Mahayana an d tantric Buddhism, 50 in medicine o f KCT, 5 4 Barbarians and battle betwee n Cakri an d Barbarians, 23, 48 , 115-116, 14 8 and contributin g cause s of syncretism of KCT, 42 Dharma of , 115-117, 11 8 grasping of, 33 prophecy regardin g subduing of, 23, 11 7 Bengal, as first place o f dissemination o f sixphased yoga of KCT, 2 9 Bliss emphasis on, i n Kalacakra tradition , 170 four type s and sixtee n aspect s of, 155!57 four type s of, 188 , 18 9 and gnosis , 15 5 and perfect awakening, 16 0 sexual, in tantric pat h o f KCT, 177-18 1

261

262

Index

Bliss (continued) transformation o f mutable int o immutable, 18 0 Bodhisattva-bhumis, attainment of , 80 Bodies, four actualization of, 183, 207-208 and fou r phases of fetus an d life , 16 7 sixteen aspect s of, 156-157 Body ambivalence toward , in gnostic traditions , 146 classification o f human an d cosmic , 62 correspondence betwee n world and, 60 61 corresponding elements o f human an d cosmic, 64-65 cosmic and individual , as macrocosm an d microcosm, 139-14 0 dissolution of, at death, 6 3 gnostic interpretation s of, 146 as hindrance t o Buddhahood, 18 0 individual Buddhas and Bodhisattvas within, 19 6 correlation o f four island s with fou r sides of, 74-76 corresponding element s o f cosmic and , 65 dimensions of , 74 origination of , 58 and mental states , 22 presence o f time and universe in, 23 transformation of, in KCT, 1 1 transformative, 184-18 5 mundane and supramundane forms of, 185 of path of initiation, 185-19 0 of path o f stage of completion, 201 207 of path o f stage of generation, 190-20 1 Brahmanic tradition, criticism s of, 12, i r i112. See also Hindu traditio n Breath-control, i n Buddhism and Kasmir Saivism, 27 Buddha(s) actualization of four bodies of, 180-181 all sentient being s as, in KCT, 1 1 as avatara of Visnu, 11 6 five, 1 3 five types of gnosis of, 160—16 2 four bodies of, 12, 13 , 156-160, 164-170

as four aspects of enlightenment, 16 7 in individual, 22 mutually dependent arisin g of, 160 within six cakras, 158-159 illusion of emanations of, 162-164 interpretation of , in KCT, 20 KCT's vie w on omniscience of , 44-45 manner o f teaching of , 163 Puranic interpretation of , in Vimalaprabhd, 11 6 skillful mean s of , 67 three mode s of existence of , 21-22 universal language of, 119 Buddha-fields, an d cosmograph y of KCT, 57 , 58 Buddhahood, achievement of , 7, 174-175 and achievin g form o f Kalacakra, 1 1 and arisin g of five types of gnosis, 10 4 pervasion of factors constituting, 13 9 and thre e types of accumulation, 12 4 view of, in KCT, 19 , 103-104 Buddhism early audience o f teachings of, 109 innate purit y of mind in , 17 1 medicine in , 49 monastic natur e of educational syste m of, 43-44 spiritual family in , 110-111 Indian empiricism in, 38, 46 possible influence of, on Judeo-Chris tian gnosticism, 147 social inclusivenes s of, 10 9 Mahayana Buddha-family in , 11i-i 13 collective lif e of , 44 denial of social distinctions in , 111112 and educatio n o f laity, 44 equality of all social classes in, 11 2 fourfold categorizatio n o f Buddha's body in, 16 8 Indian, 31 perfection of wisdom in, and gnosis, 155 Buddhist communitie s classification of , in KCT, 1 0 and educatio n o f lay Buddhists, 43

Index 26 Buddhist schools, four. Se e also individual school names four non-Buddhist group s and, 33-34 KCT vie w of, as conversionary means , 32-33 Bu ston, 35-36 Cakras four, 22 , 15 8 six, 77-82 Carvaka, critique of materialism of, in KCT , 15 Caste. Se e Social classes Clan (kalka), 11 5 Class. Se e Social classes Compassion as result of Vajrayana, i n Vimdaprabha, n temporal aspects of sixteen types of, 94 Consciousness, i n Yogacara and KCT , 1 6 Consorts impartiality of tantric practitione r regarding, 12 5 offering of , to spiritual mentor, 123-124 Cosmography, variations between, in KCT, Abhidharmakosa, and Jaina tradition, 87-88. See also Hindu tradition ; Jaina tradition; under Kalacakratantra; Cosmos. See also Universe as body of Jina, 64-65 configuration an d measurement of , in KCT and Abhidharmakos'a, 66-68, 70-71 conventional natur e o f size an d configuration of , 66-67 dissolution of, 59 and individual, 56-57, 57-64, 66 as manifestation of gnosis, 154 origination of , 58-59 two types of, 57 as universal sacrifice, 21 6 Cyclic existenc e and cause and effect , 9 8 manifestation of wheel of time as, 95 material nature of, 58 mental causes of, 17 3 Day-and-night, 92, 93 Death, 23 , 24

3

Deities generation of, in KCT practice, 191-19 8 of Kalacakra-mandala, 209-21 1 Deity-^oga, of stage of generation, 190-20 0 Dependent originatio n cessation of , and transformatio n of cosmic and bodil y cakras, 77, 80 classification o f twelve links of, into cause and effect , 9 8 and fou r vajras, 15 7 and originatio n of all phenomena, 1 4 and origination o f human psychophysiology, 22 and pilgrimag e sites and sign s of zodiac, 77 sequential arising of twelve links of, 9899 thirty-six links of, 99-100 three categories of, in KCT, Mahayana Buddhism, and Abhidharma, 98 and time , in body of individual, 10 0 and twelve zodiacs, 97-100 Dharma-dhatu, 15 1 as Mahayana preceden t fo r gnosis of KCT, 15 3 Dhdtu, three understanding s of , i n KCT, 15 3 Disciple. See Tantric traine e Divine pride, 190 Dogmatism, warnings against, in KCT, 32 Domba class, in gana-cakra and kalacakramandala, 126-12 9 Dreaming state, and self-awareness, 151 J 52 Drops, fou r capacities of, 15 8 and generatio n o f links of dependent origination, 15 8 purification of , 18 9

Earth-mandak, configuration of, in KC T and Abhidharmakos'a , 71 Education Buddhist monastic system of, 43—44 theological an d scientific, in India, 43 Elements and arising of ten karmi c winds, 58 and body of individual, 22-23 and conception , 59—6 0 in environment an d body, 60-61 humoral disorders and, 53

264

Index

Elements (continued) manifestation of , as four Immeasurables , 91-92 as material components o f transmigratory mind, 58 and menta l afflictions , 17 4 and origination o f cosmos, 58-59 relation of , to bodies, habitua l propensities, an d experience s of sentient beings, 63-64 Embryology, familiarity with, in KCT, 22 Empiricism. See under Buddhism , India n Empowerment, o f Tantric adept's mind , 12 . See also Initiatio n Emptiness and form , 10 1 temporal aspects of sixteen type s of, 93 of time, 10 0 understanding of , in KCT, 34-35 unique interpretatio n of , in KCT, 11 Empty form, 92 , 202 Environment identity of individual and, 57 transformation of , through Kalacakra practice, 8 5 Extrasensory perceptio n conditions fo r bringing about, in KCT, 48 seminal nonemission and , 12 Families Buddha, i n KCT an d Ndmasamgiti, 2 0 of deities, classification of , in KCT, 12-13 six, 135-14 0 Family, monastic communit y as ideal, in early Buddhism, iio-ui Fetus, 167 , 174 , 214 development of , 22, 60-61 Fire, in dissolution o f cosmos, body, and mind, 59 Flavors, six, and elements i n gestation of fetus, 6 0 Four Immeasurables, 92, 18 6 Gana-cakra, 135 , 139 , 216 seating arrangement an d symbolis m of, 126-127 sexual yoga in, 12 5 Generosity, an d offerin g o f sensual love (kdma-ddna), 122-12 4

Gnosis as agent an d object o f gnosis, 208 as all-pervading mind an d fou r bodies of Buddha, 150-157 atomic particles as, 68 as bliss, 15 5 as Buddhahood, ultimate reality, and thusness, 15 2 as crucial concept of KCT, 14 4 as discourse and teacher , 15 5 earlier precursors to KCT's interpretatio n of, 14 9 five types of, 10 4 and gnosis element a s pervader of everything, 15 3 and identitylessness , 154-15 5 and individual, 149-150 innate, a s support of transmigratory mind , 175 as innately presen t i n all sentient beings, 171 interpretation of , in KCT, 150-156 and karma, 175 -176 manifestation of, in KCT practice , 91-92 and mental afflictions , 170-17 6 methods of achieving, 14 6 as mind o f Buddha, 15 4 as nature of cosmos and individual , 64 and possibility of self-awareness through mind alone , 151-15 2 presence of , within ever y sentient being , in KCT an d Gospel of Thomas, 144 as pure mind, 15 1 as self-knowledge, 145 and sexual bliss, 177-181 sixteen aspects of, in terms of conventional and ultimate reality, 157 as sole means of attaining nirvana, 39 as source of cyclic existence an d nirvana, in KCT, 14 4 as supreme goal of KCT practice , 15 5 and tathagata'garbha, 20 8 in terms of body, 155-157 transformation o f nature o f five elements into nature of , 104 as ultimate reality, 15 5 untainted, i n Kalacakra tradition an d tathagata'garbha tradition , 17 2

Index 26 5 Gnosticism common characteristic s of , 146 definition an d usag e of term, 144 , 14 6 interpretations o f body and environmen t in, 14 6 and self-designation a s gnostic, 14 7 in various traditions, 14 3 as world religion, 14 3 Gospel of Thomas, 144, 14 5 Grasping, differen t kind s of, according t o Vimalaprabhd, 3 3 Great Jambudvipa configuration of , 71-77 four island s of, 74-76 in KCT, Puranas , and Jaina cosmology, 74 twelve sections of , as twelve groups of cosmic pilgrimage sites, 76 Great seal (maha-mudra), 15 1 Gunas alternate understanding s of , in KCT, 3 8 in KCT and Samkhya tradition, 3 6 and origination o f sentient beings , 8586 Habitual propensities body of, at death, 63 and cycli c existence, 17 3 Hatha-yoga, i n tantric medicin e an d KCT , 52,54 Hindu tradition . See also Brahmanic tradition alternative interpretation s o f scriptures of, i n KCT, 13 1 and originatio n o f castes, 12 9 cosmography of , 67 Puranas and Buddh a and Kalk i a s avatdras of Visnu, 116-11 7 cosmography of, and KC T cosmography, 56 disparagement of, in KCT, 3 9 Human being , lif e cycl e of cosmos and, 59 60 Human, lif e spa n of , 89—91 Human life , te n phase s of, in KCT, 22 , 38 Humoral disorders, dietary therapies for , 53 Humors, 51 and death o f individual, 101-102 relation of gunas to, 3 8

Identity, personal, valid and invalid sense s of, 118-11 9 Identitylessness, tw o type s of, 35 Ignorance, spiritua l (avidya), 174-17 5 Illness, guarding body from, 2 4 Individual chapter on , in KCT, 21-24 , 45~46 classification o f families i n term s of, 1 2 common nature , origination, an d destruction of cosmos and, 61-62 configuration an d measuremen t of cosmos and, 64 and cosmos , interrelatednes s of, 65 criteria of moral superiority of, in Buddhism, n o emphasis on health of, in Kalacakra tradition, 4 9 identity o f environment and , 57 as internal facet of phenomenal world , 45 intertwined destin y of inanimate cosmo s and, 57 as microcosm, 45, 46, 13 3 origination of , 22, 85-86 and social environment, 8 3 as society, 133-142 as ua/'ra-family, 13 3 as wheel o f time i n human form, 10 0 Initiation, KCT , 21 , 185-190 Buddhist path an d path of, 188 higher, 186-18 9 highest, 18 9 lower, 185-186 mundane an d unexcelled , 184—18 5 open natur e of, 39—40 qualifications for receiving different level s of, 9-10 and refug e i n three jewels, 40 Insight, 190 , 207 Islam, dominance of , in India, 11 7 Jaina traditio n cosmography and cosmolog y of, 39, 56, 74 theory o f karma in Kalacakra and, 5 8 Jnanakaya, 151 , 168, 18 6 four manifestation s of, 16 6 interpretation of , in KCT, 1 9 in KCT an d Namasamgfti, 149 , 15 0 Kalacakra, Buddha, 103 , 151 , 155 , 15 8 abode of , 66, 77 , 88

266

Index

Kalacakra, Buddha (continued) becoming, 18 1 four faces of, 74 , 76 , 12 9 manifold manifestation s of four aspects of, I31 as originator of Buddhism, Vedas, and other systems, 130-132 as progenitor of four castes, 12 9 similarities between Prajapati and, 95-96 transformation o f human body into body of, 91-92 as unity of wisdom and method , 9 3 Kalacakra, etymological meaning of term, in terms of practice, 9 5 Kdlacakra'Tnandala, 185 , 190-199 initiation into , as initiation into all mandalas, 40 material body of, 13 9 syncretism in deities of, 40 in terms of human being, 23 two principal deities of, 194-195 visualization of, 191-193 Kalacakra practice, 10 3 freedom fro m attachment t o caste and family in , 122-12 3 goal of, 91-92 syncretism of, 39-41 visualization in, 191-197 Kdlacakratantra and absenc e of self, 1 4 arguments against social and moral discrimination in , 114-115 as Buddhist gnostic system, 143-149 classification of Buddhist community in , 10 conversionary efforts of , 31, 49 conversionary method of , 38, 13 0 correspondences an d mutual pervasion of cosmos and individual in, 6566 cosmography of, 67 cosmology of, relative to Abhidharma an d Jaina cosmologies, 7 4 dating of, 3, 4 dating of Indian commentaria l literatur e on, 5 esoteric nature of teachings of, 146 explicit teachings of, 4, 6- 7 explicit usage of sexual tantric practices in, ir-r2

genesis and history of, in India, 3-5, 2830 goal of practice of, 1 1 importance of knowledge of Buddhist natural and social sciences in, 46 inner, brief analysis and overview of, 2124, 45-46 integration of exoteric and esoteri c in, 45 integration of natural, cognitive, an d social sciences in, 48 literary genres incorporated in , 215 medicinal substances in, 53 methods of rejuvenation in , 54 objectives of syncretism in, 49 philosophical views of, n, 13 , 24, 32, 170 practice of, 184-185 reformulation an d refutation of Mahayana Buddhist tenets in , 215 refutations o f schools other than Madhyamaka in, 13-17 relevance of , for other anuttara-yoga' tantras, 6 requirements for giving or receiving teachings of , 8-10 superiority of, over other tantras , 6- 7 theoretical basi s of investigation in, 45 theoretical syncretis m of, 32-39 traditional earl y history of, 28-30 as unexcelled (anuttara), 7 unique interpretation o f reconciliation of dependent originatio n an d emptiness in, 100-101 and universa l model of conventiona l reality, 35-36 use of Buddhist and non-Buddhis t term s in, 41—4 2 Vajrayana context of, 10 variant measurement o f cosmos in, 66-68 yogic practices of, 216 Kalacakra traditio n adaptive character of , 31 classification of families in, 12-1 3 definition o f gnosis in, 15 5 development o f and spher e of influence of, in India , 5 gnostic characteristics of , 145-146 life of, in India, 5 monastic orientation of , 9, 129 , 188 open nature of teachings of , 39 and other Indian systems, 31—39

Index 26 7 possible influence of Manicheism on , 147-149 as state-of-the-art theor y an d practice of its day, 43 understanding o f Madhyamikas in, 33 35 Kalkl, 11 5 — 117, 14 8 Kdma'ddna, 122-12 4 necessity of, on tantri c path , 12 3 in Vedanta, 13 0 Karma and dissolution of cosmos, 5 9 and gnosis , 17 5 — 176 and gunas ofprakrti, 5 8 physical nature of , in Kalacakra and Jaina traditions, 58 in terms of conventional an d ultimat e reality, 17 6 three kinds of, in KCT, 23-2 4 Karmic winds, types and function s of, 57—

5? Kasnur Saivism nature of mind in KCT and , 37 six-phased yoga in, 26, 27 Knowledge conventional nature of, in KCT, 48 role of, in gaining ultimate knowledge, 47 five fields of, necessity o f learning, 44-45 and ignorance regardin g conventional and ultimate reality, 47 and merit , 1 8 scientific, 4 7 technical, i n early Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism, 43-44 theoretical, necessit y of both meditatio n and, 45 ultimate, as self-knowledge, 47 and verificatio n of Buddhist scientific truths, 48 Language anomalies of, in KCT, 119—12 0 gnostic features of, in KCT, 14 6 syncretism in, of KCT, 41-42 of tantric pledge s and definitiv e language, 168 universal, 11 9 vernacular, and clas s prejudice, 11 9

Liberation three or four gate s of, 159-160 through non-compositeness , 15 9 Madhyamaka, four-point analysi s of, 94 and KCT' s theor y o f gnosis, 155 and meditatio n on empt y form as implementation o f doctrine of , 202 as philosophical positio n o f KCT, n, 13 , 32, 169-17 0 and Svabhavikakaya, 169-17 0 view of, in KCT, 33-35 Magic, in Mahayana Buddhism and tantri c Buddhism, 50-51 Mandalas. See also Earth-mandala; Kdlacakra-mandala cosmic, 68-71 of Kalacakra-mandala, 195-197 , 209-211 Manicheism, 147-14 9 Manjusrinamasamgiti. See Ndmasamgiti Manjusri Yasas , 3, 117-118 Mantra Bodhisattva's use of ferocious, 3 2 in Buddhist tantric medicine , 51-52 gnosis as, 150-151 Mantra-yoga, 16 5 Mara, and mental afflictions , 175-17 6 Mecca, an d battle between universa l monarch an d lor d of Barbarians, 23 Medicine Buddhist tantric, 49-55 aims of therapeutics of , 54 dietary therapies of , in KCT, 5 3 empirico-rational an d magico-religious elements in , 51 hatha-yoga in , 5 2 herbal medications an d healing in , 51 mantras in, 51, 52 rejuvenation and longevity in, 53-54 and role of spirits and Siddhas i n illness, 50—5 1 role of tantric yogi c practices in , 55 as synthesis of all available medical knowledge, 54 early Buddhist, 49 folk, i n medicine o f Kalacakratantra, 54 of KC T magico-religious and empirico-rational therapeutics in , 55

268

Index

Medicine (continued) of KCT (continued) syncretism of, 54-55 theoretical basi s of, 54 as major facet of Buddhist Dharma, 49 and relation between physica l health and spiritual development, 4 9 Meditation. See also Stage o f completion; Stage of generatio n conceptual an d nonconceptual, 20 2 conceptual, i n stage of generation, 199200 different kind s of, taught b y Buddha, 34 on four drops, 203 as means o f accessing inner gnosis , 146 Meditative concentration , importance of , in Kalacakra system, 207 Meditative stabilization, in Buddhism and Kasmir Saivism, 27 Mental affliction s causes of, 173-174 and gnosis, 170-176 KCT approach t o elimination of , 182185 Merit accumulation of, in lower initiations, 18 6 and conventionall y establishe d siz e of cosmos, 66, 67 and knowledge , 1 8 and perceptions an d conceptions of world, 47 Meru, 72-77, 88-89 Mind Adibuddha as , 1 1 of Buddha, 130 , 17 0 as composed o f five elements, 17 5 fourth stat e of , in KCT an d Saiv a tantras, 38 and mental afflictions , 172-17 3 nature of , 1 1 as pure, in early and Mahayan a Buddhism, 17 1 purity and blissfulnes s of, 208 as source of suffering, 2 4 state of, at death, a s determinant o f next rebirth, 24 transformation of , in KCT, 1 1 transmigratory, 47, 58 as volition, 17 5 Monasticism, and Vajrdcdryas, 9

Monastics, takin g of two higher KC T initiations by, 124-125 Nadis in body, and heavenl y lights, 106 and circulatio n of winds, 10 1 and death of ordinary people, 101-10 2 unification of , and socia l unification , 141 Nag Hammadi Codices, 14 3 Ndmosamgfti, 14 9 and gnosis , 171 and KCT, 18-21 Natural world in KCT, 45 as legitimate field of scientific investigation i n Kalacakra system, 48 as nirvana, 46 Nonduality in anuttara-yoga'tantras an d Hevajratantra, 133 of body and cosmos , 64 of body and natural and social environment, 8 3 of body of individual and persona l identitylessness, to o in Buddhist tantric science , 45-46 of cause and effect , 1 1 in Christian gnosticis m and Kalacakra tradition, 14 5 of conventional an d ultimate reality, 92 of emptiness and bliss , 17 0 of individual and physical environment , 48,92 methods of realizing, in KCT, 87 and min d as subject and object , 18 3 of phenomenal an d ultimat e realities, 13 5 of self and natura l an d socia l environments, 118-119 of self and others , 85 , 87 of social, individual, and cosmi c bodies, and enlightened awareness, 141-142 of subject and object , 15 1 of three realms and three vajras, 8 7 of wheel of time and bod y of cosmos an d individual, 10 2 of wisdom and method , o r emptiness an d compassion, 93 Omniscience, vie w of, in KCT, 14 2

Index 26 9 Panentheism, and interpretatio n o f gnosis in KCT, 15 4 Paramddibuddhatantra date of composition of , 5 and KCT, 3 as single text or corpus, 4—5 Path, of actualizing gnosis, 182-18 5 Perception relative natur e of , 66, 67 of world by enlightened beings, 6 4 Perfection o f wisdom, 155 , 168 , 169 Pervasion, o f components of mind and body , 141-142 Pilgrimage sites in cosmos and body, 76-85 as cosmos, individual, and Icalacakra mandala, 84 different classification s of, in KCT, 81-83 diverse numberings of, in KCT an d other Buddhist tantric systems, 80-81 in female and male bodies, 85, 86 in human body, 105 omnipresence of , 76-77 twelve categories of , and twelv e characteristics o f transmigratory existence, 7 7 Planets and bodily apertures, 10 7 position of , relative t o Meru, in KCT, 7 2 Pluralism, in Indian tantri c Buddhism, 31 Poison, purificatio n of, in tantric practice , 122 Posture, yogic in Buddhist tantric medicine , 5 2 in KCT, 2 6 Prajapati, 21 6 Prakrti and common natur e o f cosmos an d body of individual , 6 4 according t o KCT and Samkhya, 35—3 7 Prdnas. See also Karmic winds of body, 2 3 eradication of , 183 in fetus an d newborn , 167 , 17 4 incineration of, in stage o f generation, 201 and mental afflictions , 174-17 5 progression of , through cakros , 206 retraction of , 203 -20 4 Prandyama, 52—53 , 205—206

Prophecy, inKCT , 115-117, 215 Proselytism, in KCT, 42, 117 , 148 Puranas. See under Hind u traditio n Pure vision, of self and cosmos , 8 3 Purusa, in KCT and Samkhya, 36-3 7 Purusasukta, 129 Quiescence, 207 Rahman, critiqu e of teachings of, in KCT , 14-15 Reality conventional as form o f emptiness, 15 4 importance o f understanding structure s and function s of , 45 in KCT and heterodox systems , 42, 49 knowledge of , as subjective and provisional, 46-47 modeling of, for meditational purposes , 35 need t o understand, i n Kalacakra tradition and Christian gnosticism, 145 as provisional meanin g o f wheel of time, 95 role of understanding of , 65 same appearance of , for Buddhists an d non-Buddhists, 13 0 and syncretis m o f KCT, 3 5 ultimate as definitive meaning o f wheel of time, 95 in KCT, 14 6 three conventiona l aspects of, 66 Realms, thre e within huma n body , 87-89 thirty-one categorie s of, 87-88 as Vajrasattva, 15 4 Rebirth, for different kind s o f sentient beings, 63 Refuge, takin g of , and Kalacakra practice, 40 Restraint, i n KCT, 26-2 7 Retraction, in Buddhism and Kasrrur Saivism, 27 Sacrifice, 21 6 Sddhana, gnosis, 202-207. Sahajakaya, 94 , 126 , 15 1

270

Index

Sahajakaya (continued) Adibuddhatantra a s discourse of, 7 four facets of, 165-166 and Svabhavikakaya, 168-169 as union o f empty nature an d blissfu l aspects of Buddha's mind, 17 0 Saiva tradition , 121 . See also Kasmir Saivism class prejudice in, 11 8 critique of, in KCT, 1 4 tantra in, 12 8 Sakyamuni, Buddha as avatara of Visnu, 11 6 as originator of KCT, 3 Sambhala, 3, 115-117 Same taste , 145-146 , 15 3 Samkhya and cosmolog y of KCT, 5 6 dualism of, as heuristic i n KCT, 35 and KCT, 35-3 8 Samsara. See Cyclic existenc e Sangha. See Buddhist communitie s Sautrantika tradition critique of, in KCT, 15-1 6 grasping of , 33-34 Science Buddhist tantri c goals of, 45-46 means of verification in, 48 syncretistic nature of, 48-49 Buddhist differences betwee n Western and , 46 two types of scientific knowledge in , 46-47 cognitive, in KCT, 47-48 in Kalacakra tradition, 43-55 Seed-syllable, body of, 19 3 Sekoddesatikd, awakenin g in, 160 , 16 2 Self (atman), critiqu e of , in KCT, 1 4 Self-empowerment, i n stage of generation , 198—199 Self-grasping, an d clas s prejudice, 119 Self-identity, i n KCT practice, 118-11 9 Semen as analogous to mercury, 179-180 becoming cohesive an d motionless, 179 180 emission of , 23 at birth and death of sentient beings, 64

and manifestatio n and dissolutio n of individual and cosmos, 64 negative effects of, 178-179 two type s of, 1 2 nonemission of , 124 , 125 , 18 6 retention of, and rejuvenation, 54 Sensual love , gift of . See kdma-dana Sentient beings as Buddhas, 170, 17 2 different type s of, 63-64 life span s of, 89-91 Sexual desire, fire of , 178 Sexual practice, tantric , 124-12 5 Six-phased yoga chronology o f various forms of, in India, 2 7 Indian lineage s of, 29—30 of KCT, an d othe r forms o f six-phased yoga, 25-28 in KCT, Guhyasamdjatantra, an d Hevajratantra, 27-2 8 origin of recollection phas e of, 26 and protection o f nadis, 10 2 purification o f internal an d externa l cakras by means of, 80 six phases of, 203-207 variants of, 28 Skillful mean s linguistic anomalies in KCT as , 119 and pilgrimag e sites of different systems, 80-81 Social body . See Social classes Social classe s and Buddhist opposition t o class discrimination, 109-11 0 caste distinctions, and tantric pledges, 120 classification of , in KCT, 133-14 2 and class prejudice in Vaisnava and Saiv a traditions, 11 8 conventional natur e of, in Buddhism, 109—110 detachment from , an d family, 123-12 4 and detrimenta l effects o f social discrimination, 115 , 131-133 as four kayos o f Buddha and fou r vajras, 134 individual, cosmic, and sublimated aspects of, 140 , 14 1 karma as determinant of , 11 4

Index 27 1 and macrocosmic an d microcosmic features of social body, 139-140 and opposition t o social discrimination, inKCT, 131-132 origination of , according t o KCT, 135 purity of, 127-128 refutation o f distinctions of , in Kalacakr a tradition, 113-11 4 and result s of social segregation, in KCT, 116, 11 7 and societ y as social body of Buddha, 12 5 thirty-six, of Indian society , 134 and two types of sons of noble family , n o unification of , in Buddhist and nonBuddhist tantra, 128 unique interpretation o f origin of, in KCT, 13 3 view of equality of, in KCT, 12 9 Spirit of awakening, as qualification for entry into family of Buddha, 112113 Sridhara, and traditiona l origin of KCT, 28 — 29 Stage o f completion, 91 , 141 , 182 , 185 , 201-207 and fir e o f sexual desire, 59 in KCT, 20—21 superiority of, to stage of generation, 20 0 twelve phases of, and twelv e internal an d external zodiacs , 97 Stage of generation, 91 , 182 , 185 , 190-20 1 four main phases of practice of , 19 0 inKCT, 20-21 and self-identity, 118-11 9 syncretism i n practice of , 40 Sucandra, 3 , 11 5 Supernormal powers, as part of Buddhist tantric medicine , 55 Svabhavikakaya, 168-170 Syncretism of Buddhist tantric medicine , 4 9 and conversionar y effort o f KCT, 4 1 in cosmology and cosmography of KCT, 56-57 in Indian Buddhis t medicine and Buddhist tantric framewor k o f theory and practice, 5 5 justification for , of KCT, 13 0 in KCT, 31-42 of KCT medicine, 54-5 5

lexical, inKCT , 119-120 in Manicheism and Kalacakra tradition, 148 two goals of, in KCT, 35 Tantra abridged (laghu-tantra), 3 Buddhist, gnostics features of, 146 sexual practice in , 178—17 9 Tantras, Buddhis t arguments against social discriminatio n in, 11 3 — 115 recent scholarshi p on, 14 3 Tantric disciples , three level s of, 129 Tantric pledges as antidote t o grasping onto class and tradition, 12 0 of anuttara-yoga-tantras, 120-12 2 and conventio n an d custom , 120—12 2 and external and internal pilgrimag e sites, 83 practice o f unification of, 84 Tantric practice , an d transgressio n of cultural customs and prohibitions , 120—122, 215 Tantric teacher . See Vajrdcarya Tantric trainee, 9-1 1 Tantric yogi, purification of impure substances by power of mind, 121 122 Tastes, six, arisin g of, from si x elements, 2 2 Tathagata'garbha, 20 8 Tathagatagarbhasutra, 171-17 2 Tattvarthddhigamasutra, descriptio n of underworlds in, 7 0 Testimony of Truth, 145 Tibetan commentaria l literatur e on KCT, 35-36 Time in body of individual and cosmos , 91 as Buddha's mind , 9 4 in cosmos and in individual, 96-104 as dependent se t of temporal relations, 100 as gnosis, 94 in Hindu traditio n prior to KCT, 96 as image of wisdom and compassion , 95 indestructible, seminal nonemission as, 94 inside an d outside individual' s body, 108

272

Index

Time (continued) internal an d external measurement s of, 96 as phenomenal an d ultimate reality prior to KCT, 95 power of, and creation and dissolution of cosmos, 92-93 and prdnas, 23 referent o f term, 9 4 as relative to type of sentient being , 89 as sole cause of origination an d cessatio n of all living beings, 9 3 units of, 92, 93, 101 , 103 in Upanisads, Puranas, and KCT, 9 6 Truth, ultimate , an d nonduality o f perceiver and perceived, 48 Underworlds, classifications and descriptions of , 69-70 Universal monarc h (cakravartin), 23 , 76, 215 Universe. See also Cosmo s Buddhist understanding o f orderly nature of, 4 5 classification o f families i n terms of, 1213 and fetus, 21 4 as macrocosm o f individual, 45 Upanisads, six-phase d yogas in , 25-28 Vaibhasika tradition critique of, in KCT, 15 and KCT cosmography an d cosmology, 56-57 Vaisnava tradition adoption i n KCT of ten avatdras of , 38 39 class prejudice in, 11 8 critique of, i n KCT, 13 — 14, 3 9 disparagement of, in KCT, 3 9 Vajrdcdrya, 8-9 , 128-12 9 Vajra-family, 135—14 2 arising of macrocosmic, 14 0 becoming a member of , 130 conventional an d ultimate, 141 cosmic manifestation of, 139 creation of , in Sambhala, 11 8 of gana-cakra, 125-126 as ideal family, 113 , 13 5 indivisibility of, 12 7

in Kalacakra tradition, 11 8 manifestations of , 13 1 temporal and cosmic aspect s of, 131 temporal manifestatio n of , as wheel of time, 14 1 thirty-six members of bodily, 134-135 unification o f all phenomenal an d ultimate aspects of , 14 2 Vajros, fou r and fou r higher initiations , 18 7 location of , in body, 157 manifestation of , as four bodie s of Buddha, 15 9 zodiacs as manifestations of, 97 Vajrasattva, 67-68, 154 , 17 5 gnosis as, 15 1 in Ndmasamgiti an d KCT, 20-21 Vajrayana, interpretation s of , in KCT, 10 ii Vajra-yoga, gnosi s as, 16 5 Vase technique, 52 , 54 Vedic Dharma, superiority of Buddhist Dharma to, i n Vimalaprabhd, 3 9 Vedic tradition, an d KCT's interpretation of Vedic sacrifice, 130-131 Verification, i n Kalacakra system, 48 Vibhuticandra, influence of, on Kalacakra tradition i n Tibet, 3 0 Vidyd, a s science i n Kalacakra tradition , 4 6 Vikramapura, likely location of , 29 Vimalaprabhd, importanc e of , for understanding KCT , 3-4 Visualization, 185 , 19 0 Visuddhakaya, 151 , 16 8 VisVamata, 194-19 5 Volition, 17 5 Wheel of time, 92-96 as nonduality of ultimate an d conventional realities , 93 as single reality, 92 transformation o f phenomenal whee l of time into transcendent, 10 3 as unity of Buddha's mind and body , 94 Winds, rol e of, in gestation o f fetus, 6 0 World. See also Natural world as external fac e of phenomenal world , 45 as unitary and nondua l wit h body of individual, 85-87 as unity of form and emptiness , 64

Index 27 Yantras, role of, in Buddhist tantric healin g rites, 51 Yoga. See also Six-phased yoga; Hatha ^oga of drops, 200-201 four types of, 16 5 of meditative stabilization, 204—205 of fyrandyama, 205-20 6 of recollection, 20 6 of retention, 20 6 of samadhi, 206-207 sexual, and thirty-six social classes, 125126 subtle, 200-201 Yogacara tradition, 15 , 16 , 34 Yogic practice, a s inner sacrifice , 21 6 Yoginfs and bodily constituents, 21 2

3

in cosmic mandalas, 77 external and interna l pilgrimage sites as abodes of, 83 and factors of enlightenment, 213-21 4 families of, 125-126 thirty-six families of , 13 9 Zodiacs dependent originatio n an d twelve lunar months and , 98-100 and elements and psycho-physical aggregates, 102-10 3 internal circle of, 97 sublimation of signs of, in KCT practice , 97 transformation of , into twelve bodhsattvabhiimis, 103