The History of the Ancient World: Практическое пособие по английскому языку. Часть 1

М И Н И СТ Е РСТ В О О БРА ЗО В А Н И Я И Н А У К И РО ССИ Й СК О Й Ф Е Д Е РА Ц И И В О РО Н Е Ж СК И Й ГО СУ Д А РСТ В Е Н Н Ы Й У Н И В Е РСИ Т Е Т

The History of the Ancient World Практич еское пособие по английскомуязы ку д лястудентов историч ескогоф акультета (спец иальность 070003 – В семирнаяистория) ч асть 1

В О РО Н Е Ж

2004

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У тв ерж д ено научно-метод ич еским сов етом историч ескогоф акультета (протокол № 10 от24 ию ня2004 год а).

Состав итель Гонч аров аЛ .Ю .

Практич еское пособие под готов лено накаф ед ре странов ед енияи иностранны х язы ков историч ескогоф акультетаВ оронеж ского госуд арств енного унив ерситета. Рекоменд уетсяд лястудентов 1 курсад /оисторич еского ф акультета (спец иальность 070003 – В семирнаяистория).

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Chapter 1

The Late Paleolithic Age (The Upper Paleolithic Era) Read and translate the text: The first racial types identifiable as similar to modern Whites first appeared in parts of Europe, southern Russia and the Near East during the time period 30,000 BC to 15,000 BC, following the end of the last great Ice Age around the year 40,000 BC. The new arrivals are known as Homo Sapiens (or “ wise man” ) in order to differentiate them from the other life forms known as Homo Erectus and Neanderthal man. These first racial types occurred in two main physical forms: the original Mediterraneans (“ Old Europeans” ) who had dark or brown hair and dark eyes; and then what is called the Proto-Nordic or Cro-Magnon racial type – tall, light hair and light eyes. The time period known as the Late Paleolithic era is marked by two main characteristics – the hunter-gatherer stage of early human existence; and the extinction of Neanderthal man (through conflict with the new arrivals). The Proto-Nordics of the Late Paleolithic Age lived in a broad band spanning from modern-day Spain right across Europe all the way to Asia, where skeletal remains have been found. These people wandered from area to area, never settling for long and often being driven on by the elements and sometimes following new lands opened up by the retreating last ice sheets. As a result of the transient nature of these people, they generally traveled in family groups, usually varying between five and twenty individuals. Small numbers of livestock and hunting provided their main means of sustenance.

Material Culture While no great buildings or fixed structures remain from this period, smaller day-to-day artifacts are relatively plentiful. Excavations across Europe and Russia have shown that these early Whites had fire, paint, stone blades and the ability to fashion animal bones into weapons and tools. Sewing needles were also developed during this period. Musical instruments made their first appearance – at sites in southern France, flutes dating back 27,000 years have been found. Coal was also first used as a fuel at about this time and fired ceramics was developed, with statuettes and other fired objects dating from approximately 26,000 BC having been found in the present day Czech Republic. Two significant weapons marked a great improvement on the till then basic spear: the spear thrower and the bow and arrow (which made its first appearance around 9000 BC).

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It was also this period which produced, across Europe, a number of voluptuous female figure forms which have become known as “ primitive Venuses” . It is speculated that these figurines are fertility symbols.

Azilian Art – First Writing? – 7000 BC Perhaps the greatest difficulty of studying people of the Late Paleolithic Age is that they left no written records of their achievements – only paintings on rock walls. One of the best preserved examples is also the most intriguing – the rock painting found in caves of Mes d’Azil in southern France. Here stones were found with what appears to be writing on them – although they have never been deciphered. If they are indeed writing, then they might be the first and the oldest form of written communication in the world.

Earliest Houses – circa 30,000 BC The earliest remains of buildings date from the time of the hunters of the Late Paleolithic period who inhabited the areas now known as the Czech and Slovak republics and southern Russia. To withstand the cold weather, Late Paleolithic hunter groups made clothes from sewn skins. Mammoths – elephantine creatures now extinct – were hunted during this time period and houses were constructed out of mammoth ribs (which were used as roof supports) covered with mammoth hides. There are also traces of Late Paleolithic people having used the limestone caves of Western Europe as shelters. All in all, Late Paleolithic life must have been bare, hard and cruel, with all the energies of the members of society being put almost entirely into survival. The transient nature of society at this time was the primary cause of the lack of any great fixed settlements – this would be a development that would come with the establishment of agriculture, a feature of the time period after 10,000 BC.

Vocabulary work Read and memorize the following words and expressions, suggest their Russian equivalents:

LIST OF PROPER NAMES The Ice Age Neanderthal man Cro-Magnon man The Near East

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VOCABULARY physical remains (=skeletal remains) cave, n cave paintings to live in caves circa (e.g. circa 20,000 BC) approximately, adv the hunter-gatherer stage of society to wander from area to area (= to lead migratory=transient life) to settle for long to travel in family groups livestock, n means of sustenance fixed structures (fixed=permanent settlements) archaeological sites day-to-day, adj (= everyday) artifact, n excavations, n (e.g. to carry out archaeological excavations) stone blades

animal bones weapons tools sewing needles bow and arrow coal, n fuel, n fired ceramics (=pottery) spear, n statuette, n (=figurine) decipher, v script, n withstand, v (e.g. to withstand the cold weather) mammoths, n mammoth ribs mammoth tusks skin, n (=hide) shelter, n extinct, v (adj) extinction, n

Comprehension check Are the following sentences true or false? Explain why. 1. The appearance of Homo Sapiens precedes that of Neanderthal man. 2. Late Paleolithic people led migratory life. 3. A lot of remains of permanent Late Paleolithic settlements have been found. 4. People’s lifestyle during the Late Paleolithic Age was closely connected with their natural surroundings. 5. People of the Late Paleolithic Age possessed a well-developed writing system. 6. In their everyday life people relied greatly on hunting mammoths. Discuss the following question giving your personal opinions: Does it seem possible to you that any written records left by Late Paleolithic people will ever be found?

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Chapter 2

The Neolithic Age Read and translate the text: As the climate improved with the recession of the last great Ice Age, Late Paleolithic man gradually became more settled and started staying in favorable spots for longer than previously. These first fixed settlements led to a shift from a food gathering society to a food cultivating society, and the appearance of crops and the domestication of animals have become features of their way or life. This change in culture is called the Neolithic Age. A regular and continuous food supply created by the establishment of farming meant that bigger populations could live in settled, more secure, areas, and this marked the first time that the luxury of non-food producing professions within society became possible. This shift from hunter-gatherer to settled agriculturalism occurred in fits and starts all over occupied Europe and the Near East. The earliest farming sites in northern Europe are to be found in Ireland, occurring at approximately the same time as the cultivation of crops in the Mesopotamian River Valley in the Near East. As a general rule, the first Neolithic settlements can be said to have been established around 10,000 BC, and the cultivation of edible plants and the domestication of animals was commonplace all over Europe, the Near and Middle East by 5000 BC.

Europe and the Middle East – Equally Advanced The existence of an original civilization on the continent of Europe which predates the civilizations in the Middle East, has to a large degree been ignored by traditional history writers, particularly those who wrote during the dominant Christian era in Europe. This was largely because of a biblical Judeo-Christian bias which held that all civilization started in the Near East (the biblical Old Testament deals exclusively with events in the Middle East, and conventional wisdom during the Age of the Church held that the Garden of Eden was in the Middle East). However, this is not an accurate reflection of the facts. While it is most certainly true that the great cities and states in the Near and Middle East were towering achievements, in many parts of Europe relatively advanced societies were in existence either before or simultaneously with the Mesopotamian or Egyptian civilizations. There are many huge buildings – called megaliths – and early Neolithic settlements, artifacts and burial sites and even the creation of a form of writing, which show that the inhabitants of Europe were advanced in the evolution of their society and culture.

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This Old European civilization lasted for approximately 3000 years, and then fell before waves of new invaders, the Indo-European or Nordic tribes sweeping in from the area we now know as Russia.

Europe – Organized Farming and Copper Cereal grain farms were established in central Europe by 8000 BC (almost simultaneously with the Mesopotamian “ Fertile Crescent” River Valley crop civilization). Significantly, copper working had been established in the Balkans by the year 5000 BC – some 2000 years before the first civilization in the Mesopotamian River Valley. There are copper mine shafts – some 20 meters deep – still existing in the Balkans which date from before the year 4000 BC. In Neolithic Europe, where food was abundant, rectangular timber houses were constructed. Some had two rooms and even gabled roofs. Remains found in Switzerland show that even on soft, swampy ground, the builders were able to erect houses by first laying down wooden foundations or on piles going deep into the ground. By the year 5000 BC, Neolithic settlements had taken on the form of established villages, towns and in a few cases, even cities, scattered throughout Europe, western and southern Russia. These early Neolithic farmers cultivated cereals, and kept domesticated animals such as pigs, cattle and dogs. Their tools and hunting weapons were mostly made of flint, and their houses of timber. Clothes were made of leather and there is also evidence of weaving. Other small implements were made of antler and bone, and there have been left many examples of fairly sophisticated pottery.

Burial Mounds and Writing The leaders of this early society were buried according to religious rituals which are now unfortunately lost – but the physical graves are a good source of knowledge about their society as a whole. Important leaders were buried in specially constructed narrow mounds called barrows which differed in size thus indicating their social status. The original continental European inhabitants had also developed a form of writing – called Old European linear script – around the year 4000 BC. The exact origins of this language are lost (there is evidence that some or all of it may have come from Indo-European or Nordic invaders who penetrated Europe from their bases in Southern Russia around this time). This language most likely laid the basis for sharp angular writing known as runes.

Critical Development – Iron Working 1000 BC The introduction of iron working into Western and Northern Europe – around the year 1000 BC – from central Europe and the Near East – ushered in a new era, and it is from approximately this time that the early West Europeans started building hill top forts, which later evolved into castles. These hill top forts are scattered all over Europe, and some remained in use as forts right until the time of early Christianity, some 1600 years later.

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Megaliths – Formidable Achievements In many parts of Europe, the longest lasting remains of this era are the megaliths (“ large stones” ) which may have had some religious or recreational purpose. Massive blocks of stone, and sometimes wood, were moved great distances and erected in chosen areas throughout Europe, from Britain across the continent, some even as far as the Black Sea in Southern Russia. There are four types of megaliths: the menhir, a single standing stone, often of great size; a set of menhirs arranged in a circle; a row of menhirs; and the burial chamber, or chamber tomb, sometimes called a dolmen. The most famous of these megalith sites is Stonehenge in Wiltshire, England, which was built in stages, the first part being erected between 3500 BC and 3000 BC. There have been many different theories about its original use, none of which has been officially accepted. Among the most plausible ones is the theory that it was a place from where stars and planets could be observed and the stones could be used as a calendar to predict solar and lunar eclipses. Another one is that Stonehenge served as a Druid temple where this Celtic religious group performed their mystic rites. Some of the oldest megalithic chamber tombs have been radio carbon dated at 6000 BC – some 3,500 years older than the famous Egyptian pyramids. With the creation of fixed settlements and continuous, albeit slow, technological advances, it became inevitable that these communities would take their next great step: the creation of a system of literacy and law establishing a formal social contract between the individuals making up the communities. The creation of fixed settlements in Europe and the Near East as a result of the farming revolution known as the Neolithic Age laid the basis for the nest great leap in White civilization: the establishment of Old European civilization in central Europe and in the Near East.

Vocabulary work Read and memorize the following words and expressions, suggest their Russian equivalents: LIST OF PROPER NAMES Old Testament The Garden of Eden The Mesopotamian River Valley The Fertile Crescent The Balkans Egypt The Egyptian civilization The Indo-Europeans The Middle East

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VOCABULARY a food gathering society a food cultivating society the domestication of animals farming, n (the cultivation of crops) settled agriculturalism non-food producing professions predate, v (= precede, v) to a large degree (… has to a large degree been ignored) bias, n exclusively, adv (e.g. to deal exclusively with smth) to be in existence simultaneously, adv megalith, n menhir, n tomb, n burial sites (= grave sites) crescent, n (the Fertile Crescent) cereal grain farms cattle-breeders usher, v (e.g. to usher a new era)

tribe, n invader, n flint, n (adj) weaving, n copper working copper mine shafts iron working timber houses implements, n (= tools, instruments) religious rituals (e.g. to bury smb according to religious rituals) a source of knowledge (information) mound, n (=barrow) runes, n (sharp angular writing) linear script evolve, v scatter, v to build in stages barbarians, n savage, n (adj) malicious propaganda radio carbon date, v

Comprehension check Answer the questions: 1. What factors called forth a shift from a food gathering society to a food cultivating society and what were the consequences of this shift? 2. Why have traditional history writes to a large degree ignored the existence of fairly advanced Neolithic societies in Europe? 3. What evidence can prove that the inhabitants of Europe were also quite developed in terms of their society and culture? 4. What are the main differences between the Late Paleolithic and Neolithic lifestyles? 5. Do Neolithic burial sites provide any evidence concerning the stratification of Neolithic society? 6. What effect did the introduction of iron working have upon the process of human development?

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Share your opinions on the following: Neolithic megaliths have always attracted people’s attention and aroused their curiosity. Numerous theories and legends exist as to the process of their construction and possible functions; some of these even attribute megaliths to aliens, visitors from other planets. In your opinion, what is the basis for such contemplations?

Chapter 3

The Old European Civilizations Read and translate the text: As the Neolithic revolution became more widespread and larger fixed settlements began to spring up, it became inevitable that these Old Europeans and Proto-Nordic types would start establishing formal societies. Then so called “ Old European” civilizations came into being, laying much of the groundwork for the later development of Classical Greece and Rome. Although these Old European civilizations were in fact quite distinct from the latter, they are often mistakenly thought as one and the same thing. The crucial difference is however that the Old European civilizations were created by the original continental Europeans while the classical civilizations of Greece and Rome received their impetus from Indo-European or Nordic invasions which had started around 5000 BC. The continental Old European civilizations in the Aegean were the Cretan civilization, centered at Knossos on the island of Crete; the city state of Troy situated adjacent to the Dardanelles in Asia Minor; certain smaller city states on the Greek mainland; and the Etruscans in Italy.

Crete The island of Crete, situated to the south of Greece, was the home to the Cretan civilization, also known as the Minoan civilization (named after Minos, in legend, the most powerful of the Cretan kings). By the year 3000 BC Crete had contact with the budding Egyptian civilization, and many Cretan religious customs and social habits were taken directly from Egypt. Being an island state, it would be fairly logical that the Cretans would possess welldeveloped seafaring skills. The Cretans were governed by a priest king who had his residence at Knossos. This palace rose several stories high and was the ultimate in luxury at the time. The city of Knossos itself appears to have been destroyed by an earthquake – the result of the titanic volcanic eruption which destroyed the neighbouring island civilization of Santorini. However, enough artifacts have survived. Most of the walls in the palace were of painted plaster, decorated with elaborate frescoes, with the most famous being of a Cretan national sport, “ bull-jumping” – where brave athletes would

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grab a charging bull by the horns and somersault backwards over the length of the bull’s body. Minoan art provides fascinating insights into the nature of the society at the time – men and women dressed for the warm climate, with women bare breasted and men beardless. Ancient Cretans followed the Egyptian artistic convention of painting males with red skins and females with white skins. Flowers, plants, sea creatures and dolphins feature prominently in their art forms indicating that their society was advanced and wealthy enough to concern itself beyond just basic survival activities. One interesting original produced by the Cretan palace of Knossos was a running water sanitation system – the first “ flushing” toilet in the world. The exact date of the collapse of the Cretan civilization is unfortunately not recorded, but it stopped functioning as a cultural unit when the island was invaded by an Indo-European Nordic tribe, the Mycenaeans, around the year 1500 BC. In 1900, a British archaeologist, Sir Arthur Evans, rediscovered Knossos and found baked clay tablets with two types of writing, dating from around 2000 BC. These are called Linear A and Linear B scripts, possibly the oldest identifiable forms of European continental writing (if the “ writing stone” found at the Caves of Mes d’Azil in France is discounted).

The City of Troy Around the year 750 BC, two great epics, the Illiad and the Odyssey, were set down and attributed to the blind poet Homer. The Illiad describes the war between the Greek city states and the city of Troy, while the Odyssey tells of the adventures of an Ionian kind Odysseus, during his return journey home after the war with Troy ended. For many years the city of Troy was thought to exist only in Homer’s poems and was associated with the famous story of the Wooden Horse. The city of Troy was, however, actually discovered in 1870 by an amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann. Instead of discovering just one city, Schliemann unearthed a total of nine cities, all built on top of one another, indicating a whole period of history about which very little is known. The earliest city on the site dates from about 3000 BC and the various cities (called Troy I – IX) were alternatively destroyed by earthquakes, fire or war, as recounted in Homer’s poems. It is difficult to state for sure how much of the wooden horse story is true (where Greek soldiers are supposed to have infiltrated the city of Troy hidden in a trick wooden horse after unsuccessfully having besieged Troy for nearly ten years) but it is likely to have some basis in fact as Troy and many Greek City States were at war with one another around the year 1200 BC. The last Trojan city, number IX, appears to have been a Greek and later a Roman city known as Ilium. As with Crete, the date of the exact end of Troy has also been lost with the passage of time.

The Etruscans The Etruscans were one of the original Mediterranean and Proto-Nordic peoples living in the Italian peninsula. Originally called the Villanovans (after a place

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where they lived), the Etruscans appeared to have penetrated Italy from somewhere north of the Alps and seem to have had close contact with some of the Old European civilizations in the Aegean Sea, as they adopted Greek characters for writing their language. Villanovan grave sites have revealed lots of impressive worked metal armor and personal artifacts, some dating from 1000 BC, the time when iron working first became widespread in Italy. With the advantage provided by iron weapons, the Etruscans quickly subdued other original Mediterranean peoples in Italy, and established a state running from the North in the Po River valley to about a third of the way from the end of the Italian peninsula. Their most notable achievement was, however, the settlement of some towns and concentrated urban areas, one of which was later to become the city state of Rome. With the arrival of new invading Indo-European tribes – in this case the most important being the Latini – the Etruscans were absorbed into the new Roman state, with the last official Etruscan kind being expelled from Rome in 509 BC. After a few hundred years, the assimilation process between the Etruscans and the Indo-European Latini tribe – the Romans – had reached the point where the Romans offered the Etruscans full Roman citizenship by 100 BC. By this time the Etruscan heritage had been completely taken up into the new power which was to dominate the known world in a way not seen before: the Roman Empire.

Vocabulary work Read and memorize the following words and expressions, suggest their Russian equivalents: LIST OF PROPER NAMES The Aegean Crete Troy Asia Minor The Etruscans The Mycenaean culture The Roman Empire Classical Greece Knossos The Latini Homer The Illiad The Odyssey

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VOCABULARY groundwork, n (=foundation, basis) to lay the groundwork impetus, n (an impetus to smth) dominant force, n dominate, v city state, n (Greek City States) seafaring, adj (=nautical, maritime, sea) seafaring skills earthquake, n volcanic eruption, n fresco, n (pl. frescoes) plaster, n (e.g. walls of painted plaster) labyrinth, n (=maze) running water sanitation system (=water sewerage system) priest, n

collapse, n (e.g. the collapse of the civilization) clay, n baked clay tablets epic, n (The Iliad and the Odyssey are epics) amateur, adj (e.g. an amateur artist) besiege, v (e.g. to besiege a fortress) grave sites (=burial sites) armour, n (Am.E: armor) absorb, v (=assimilate, incorporate) (to be absorbed into smth) assimilation, n (an assimilation process) expel, v heritage, n

Comprehension check Answer the questions: 1. What is the crucial difference between the Old European civilizations and the classical civilizations of Ancient Greece and Rome? 2. How did it happen that many ancient Cretan religious customs and social habits were similar to those in Egypt? 3. What is known about the system of government and the nature of society in ancient Crete? 4. When and why did the Cretan civilization collapse? 5. What important archaeological discoveries were made in Crete in 1900? 6. Why was the city of Troy for some time considered to be just a legend? How did the legend proved to be true? 7. What helped the Etruscans to conquer the original inhabitants of the Italian peninsula? What heritage have they left? Express your point of view: It is widely known that Heinrich Schliemann, the discoverer of ancient Troy, was an amateur archaeologist who devoted all his life and money to make his childhood dream of finding the city of Troy come true. However, due to his nonprofessional actions, a lot of valuable data was lost for science forever. In your opinion, should he be remembered as the finder or destroyer of Troy?

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Chapter 4

The Near East Read and translate the text:

Origins of Sumer The region between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers is commonly called the Fertile Crescent – because of the closeness of fresh water supplies. However, the term Fertile Crescent is a misnomer. The region was, contrary to popular myth, never ideal farming territory. Rainfall in this area has always been sparse, and large parts of this region are in fact arid desert. In spite of this, by the year 5000 BC, first settlements were established in the Tigris and Euphrates river basin. These settlements gradually developed into the chief cities of the region. This territory lies in the modern day country of Iraq. These original inhabitants were conquered by a new tribe, the Sumerians, around 3250 BC. These people gave their name to the region: Sumer. In the centuries that followed, the country grew rich and powerful. Art and agriculture, crafts, religious and ethical thought flourished.

Sumerian Culture The Sumerian language became the prevailing speech of the land and their system of writing, the Sumerian script, where pictures were used to represent objects, set the standard for all written languages of the time. Although initially being very basic – a stick drawing of a fish would represent a fish and so on – this written language laid the basis for all pictographical languages, including the later Egyptian and Sanskrit forms. Writing was done on clay tablets with impressions being made by wedge shaped instruments. This pictographical writing eventually developed symbols for abstract concepts such as “ love” , “ go” , and so on. The Sumerian script dominated all writing forms for at least 4000 years until the Greek script became pre-eminent. From the very beginning of their settlement in the Tigris and Euphrates basin the Sumerians possessed metal working facilities (they were particularly good at copper working) and wheeled vehicles, a significant breakthrough of the time. It is presumed that the wheel originally developed from the potter’s wheel, which the Sumerians naturally also possessed. The most characteristic feature of Sumerian architecture is the construction of the great step pyramids, called Ziggurats (the most famous of which is the Ziggurat at the Sumerian city of Ur, built in 2100 BC) which served as temples and community centers, many of which are still standing today. Sumerian religion had four leading deities, the creating gods called: An, the god of heaven; Ki, the goddess of earth; Enlil, the god of air; and Enki, the god of water. There were three sky deities: Nanna, the good of the moon; Utu, the sun god;

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and Inanna, the queen of heaven. Inanna was also the godded of love, procreation and war. The Sumerians also had a reasonably advanced mathematical system with tables for multiplication, division and even square and cube roots. They also possessed a knowledge of geometry. The most famous surviving piece of literature is the “ Epic of Gilgamesh” , a fictional story of an old king of the city state Erech who sets off in search of immortality. It also includes a chapter dealing with a flood on the earth, and is clearly the origin of the Christian and Jewish Old Testament story of Noah and the Biblical flood.

Babylon and Hammurabi Around the year 2000 BC the region was invaded by an Indo-European people, the Amorites. The chaos caused by the Amorite invasion lasted until 1763 BC, when a strong and capable king arose and united the inhabitants. From this time the city of Babylon was built, and the region became known as Babylonia. The first king of Babylon – the one who managed to end the chaos and unite all the tribes into a nation – was named Hammurabi. Kind Hammurabi has become most famous for his Code of Laws, dating from 1750 BC, which is widely but incorrectly held to be the first written legal code in the world (it was the second, the first being the code drawn up by the earlier Sumerians). Hammurabi’s Code of Laws was engraved in stone stelas and set up in the great cities of the region. The 282 laws cover such things as offenses against other people and property; disputes concerning land, trade, fees, professional services and family. Some of the punishments would be considered harsh by modern standards, but on the whole the laws present a picture of a well-ordered society which lived by recognized standards and offered protection to all its citizens. To this day the Code is regarded as the father of the all legal codes of the world.

The Assyrian Empire Babylon was then invaded by new waves of Indo-Europeans and Indo-Aryans. The Kassites and Hittites conquered large areas of the region by 1595 BC. Under Kassite rule, which lasted another 450 years, Babylonia once again became a power of considerable importance. The Kassites were the first people to use the chariot as a weapon of war, a skill later taken on by virtually every other nation in the Near East and Europe. Horse riding itself originated with the Indo-Aryan tribes who populated modern day Iran. The next large empire in the region was established by the originally IndoAryan Assyrians (the word Assyrian is a corruption of the word Aryan) who, from their base in modern day Syria, captured Babylon in 910 BC. In 722, the Assyrians captured Palestine and by 671 BC their empire extended as far as the Nile delta. The Assyrians, like the Hittites, had mastered the art of iron working and iron weapons (a skill which had come down from the Indo-Aryan north and had spread with the Indo-Aryan invasions). As such, they had a massive advantage over their opponents.

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The Assyrian kind of this time, Ashurbanipul, was a cultured man and reputedly had a library – probably mostly looted from the Sumerians and Babylonians – of some 22,000 clay tablets at their capital city of Khorsabad. The Assyrian empire was the first to build a system of national roads and also the first to develop a postal system. The Assyrians also without doubt had the first coherent administrative system and served as a role model for many later civilizations. By the middle of the 7th century BC the Assyrian empire was on the decline, weakened by a steady dissolution of their original racial homogeneity through increasing mixing with the ever growing numbers of Semites in the region. Eventually a combination of neighbouring Indo-European tribes (Persians, Medeans and Scythians) overthrew by then the mostly mixed race Assyrians and in 612 BC their capital, Nineveh, was destroyed.

Vocabulary work Read and memorize the following words and expressions, suggest their Russian equivalents: LIST OF PROPER NAMES Sumer Ziggurat, n (= a step pyramid) The Tigris The Euphrates The Nile Noah The Biblical flood Babylon The Law Code of Hammurabi The Assyrian Empire The Indo-Aryans The Semites The Persians The Scythians Nineveh VOCABULARY water supply misnomer, n arid desert contrary to … (e.g. contrary to popular myth)

multiply, v multiplication, n divide, v division, n square root

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basin, n (e.g. the Tigris river basin) crafts, n thought, n (e.g. religious thought; ethical thought; political thought) flourish, v (=prosper) wedge shaped, adj wheeled vehicles the potter’s wheel law code (The Law Code of Hammurabi) irrigate, v irrigation, n deity, n (= god, goddess) predominant, adj (=preeminent)

cube root immortal, adj immortality, n chaos, n chariot, n horse riding, n advantage, n to have an advantage over smb cultured, adj (e.g. a cultured man) postal system homogeneous, adj homogeneity, n

Comprehension check Are the following statements about the text true or false? Say why. 1. The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is called the Fertile Crescent because it is ideal for farming. 2. The Sumerians were the first inhabitants of the region. 3. The Sumerian pictographical writings could endure fire and rain. 4. The development of the wheel had a strong impact upon people’s lifestyle. 5. Ziggurats had a considerable significance for the Sumerian society. 6. The story of the Biblical flood is deeply rooted in pre-Christian times. 7. Since the beginning of the Sumerian civilization, Babylon was its most important center. 8. Hammurabi’s Code of Laws is a valuable source of knowledge as to the nature of the Sumerian society. 9. Iron working played an important role in the course of Indo-Aryan invasions. 10. The chariot was a more effective weapon of war than anything that had existed before. 11. The famous library of King Ashurbanipul was collected in his lifetime. 12. One of the reasons that led to the decline of the Assyrian empire was the process of racial mixing.

Discuss these questions using your general knowledge: What is the difference between a pictographical and alphabetic form of writing? Why and how in the course of history was this transition made?

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Chapter 5

The Indo-European Invasions Read and translate the text: Most modern day Whites are to the greatest part, either direct or part descendants of a great wave of White peoples who swept into Europe from about 5000 BC till around 500 BC – these peoples had their original heartland in the region known today as central and southern Russia (hence Whites are often today called Caucasians – after the Caucasus mountains which are situated in the southern reaches of the country). It is still unknown precisely what caused these Indo-European peoples to start migrating. Recent research indicates that the flooding of the Black Sea Basin from the Mediterranean – established as a factual occurrence around 5600 BC – was the probable cause of the first great movements. Meltwaters from the retreating ice sheets at the end of the Pleistocene caused the world’s oceans to rise by almost 100 meters. In 5600 BC, the rising waters of the Mediterranean Sea burst through the narrow neck of the Bosporus, destroying the civilization ringing the fertile Black Sea Basin. It is this catastrophe which triggered the great Indo-European migrations and spawned the Biblical legend of the flood, familiar to the adherents of the Christian faith. With the aid of the horse, the first Indo-Europeans moved in all directions, disrupting the slow but steady pace of development everywhere they went. Large numbers settled in northern Europe, staying there till they later began again to move south; others moved off to the Middle and Near East; while others ventured west, crossing into Britain and Spain.

Northern and Central Europe The largest Indo-European invasion of Europe was carried out by four main groups: the Celts, the Germans, the Balts and the Slavs. By 600 BC the Britanni Celts had occupied much of what is today known as western Europe – France, parts of the Low Countries (Belgium, Holland), Britain and Spain. The very names Brittany (in France) and Britain itself are derived from this group. The word Celt itself is derived from the word Keltoi, the name given to the invaders by the Greek writer Herodotus. To the Romans, the Celts were known as Galli, or Gauls; and in the British Isles as Britanni. These western European Celts were later to be overrun by the descendants of other Indo-European tribes who had invaded Italy and had become the Romans. The Germani Indo-European tribes initially settled in what is today Denmark and southern Scandinavia around the year 000 BC, but soon thereafter started moving south, closer to central Europe, later giving their name to Germany.

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The Balts occupied the northern coast of the continent (giving their name to the Baltic Sea) and the Scandinavian countries (dominating them, with the notable exception of Finland). Of all the European peoples who settled in Europe around 2000 BC, a group which became known as the Slavs settled the closest to the ancestral homeland in southern Russia. The land they settled – today known as the Ukraine and Byelorussia – was ideal for cereal farming and this encouraged the settlers to turn to agriculture rather than war or conquest. Originally, the Slavs were a virtually pure IndoEuropean people, and only later were certain elements of the Slavic population mixed to a small degree with Mongolian conquerors, creating a number of mixed-race peoples who quite incorrectly have become to be regarded as “ typically Slavic” .

Indo-European Invaders in Southern Europe A tribe of Indo-Europeans called the Latini penetrated as far as Italy, taking control of that peninsula and mixing with the existing original European populations in Italy, and creating what was later to become the world’s greatest empire – Rome. The Latini gave their name to the language they carried with them – Latin. In an act of irony, Roman military power was to later overwhelm their distant Indo-European cousins, the Celts in France and Britain, but was in turn to be overrun by the descendants of the Indo-European Germans. The Greek mainland fell before an invasion of Indo-Europeans called the Mycenae – this tribe were the first to establish the basis upon which the classical Grecian age was to be built, albeit only after yet another wave of Nordic invaders: the Dorics. The period from the rime of the Dorian invasion (1100 BC) to about 750 BC, is known to historians as the Homeric Age, because little is known about it except from the writings of the poet Homer, in his epic poems the Illiad and the Odyssey. Homeric age man was apparently warlike, brave and desirous of hardship. The economies of the time were essentially agricultural systems with a government made up of tribal kings and advisors drawn from important noble families. It was at about this time that the city state, or polis, was started. Each city had an elevated fortified site, known as acropolis – where the city’s important inhabitants could take refuge or gather to worship their gods. In time, the place directly below the acropolis developed a residential and trading area known as the asty. The asty and the acropolis combined under one central jurisdictive rule, and this unit became known as the polis. The very word politics is derived from the Greek word, polis.

Celtic Heritage The Indo-European tribes may have had a common root, but this did not stop them fighting with each other as much as with anybody else, with each tribe being headed by a king and further divided by class into Druids (priests), warrior nobles, and commoners. The Roman Conquest of south-eastern Europe, France and Britain effectively destroyed the Celtic heritage. The Celts were not as literate as the Romans and thus had less of the organizational skills or abilities of their conquerors.

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However, the Celts were the inventors of chain link armor, iron horse shoes and were the first to make seamless iron tires for their chariots. Another important Celtic innovation is soap. The Celtic art style is marked by a preference for stylized plant motifs, usually of Greek origin, and fantastic animals, derived from the Scythians and other Russian steppe Indo-Europeans. Almost all of the original Indo-Europeans worshiped the sun, and the sun wheel image – the swastika – dominated many designs. The modern Celtic Cross, regarded today as a Christian symbol, has been directly copied from its original IndoEuropean root and is originally a very pagan symbol. Today, Celtic as a language, has survived at only the extreme ends of the area occupied by the Celts – Wales, Scotland and a few areas in Ireland.

The Original Indo-European religion The chief characteristics of this original religion and its array of gods were: - The world itself was the product of the great world-tree, Yggdrasil, which reached through all time and space. Yaggdrasil was however always under attack from an evil serpent, Nidhogg. The fountain of Mimir, source of hidden wisdom, lay under one of the roots of the tree; - Worship of any of these gods was usually conducted in the open – often near holy trees or within arrangements of stones, with the Indo-Europeans using and building even more megalith sites in Europe for this purpose; - Odin (called Woden by the Anglo-Saxons and Wodan or Woutan by the Germans) was the kind of the gods. His two black ravens, Huggin (“ Thought” ) and Munnin (“ Memory” ), flew all over the world to report on the doings of men and gods alike; - Odin’s court was in the great citadel of Valhalla, where all brave warriors went after dying in battle. When Odin himself took to travel he used his eight-footed steed, Sleipner; armed himself with his spear, Gungnir, and his most precious jewel, the ring called Draupner; - Odin was also the god of wisdom, poetry and magic, and he sacrificed an eye for the privilege of drinking from Mimir, the fountain of wisdom. Odin had three wives; - Thor was the eldest son of Odin and the strongest of the gods. He had a magic hammer, which he threw with the aid of iron gloves and which always returned to him; - Frei was the son of the fertility god Njord. Frei was the god of fruitfulness, prosperity, and peace, and the giver of sunlight and rain. He wakened the earth from the long sleep of winter, and prayers for a good harvest were addressed to him. Frei was the patron god of Sweden; his chief shrine was at Uppsala. His sister was Freya; - Freya was the goddess of love, fertility and beauty, sometimes identified as the goddess of battle and death. Blond, blue-eyed, and beautiful, Freya traveled of a golden-bristled boar or in a chariot drawn by cats;

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- Frigg or Frigga, was the goddess of the sky and wife of Odin, the chief of the gods. She was worshipped as the protector of married love and housewives. A bunch of keys was her symbol; - Tiu was the god of war and battles. He is represented as having only one hand, with some stories having it because he can only give victory to one side, or because it was bitten off by the wolf Fernis; - Hel was the goddess of the dead. She dwelt beneath one of three roots of the sacred ash tree Yggdrasil and was the daughter of Loki, the spirit of mischief or evil. Odin condemned Hel into the underworld and placed her in charge there, never to emerge again; - Loki was a giant who represented evil and possessed great knowledge and cunning. Loki and Hel, goddess of the underworld, would lead the forces of evil against the gods, in the final battle between good and evil, the “ Ragnarok” , or end of days; - The Valkyries were a band of warrior-maidens, who were sometimes portrayed as Odin’s own daughters. They helped Odin choose which warriors deserved to go to Valhalla after dying in battle. At Valhalla, the warriors would spend their time fighting or feasting until “ Ragnarok” .

Five Days of the Week Named after Northern Gods The old Indo-European gods and beliefs are very deeply rooted amongst the White people to this very day. Hel, the name of the goddess of the underworld was, for example, plagiarized directly by Christianity. Others were kept in various forms, as in the names of five of the seven days of the modern week. Tuesday is named after Tiu, the god of war – this day is still called Tisdag in Sweden and Tirsdag in Denmark. Wednesday is named after Wodan – Odin himself (Wodansday). In Sweden and Denmark this day is called Onsdag. Thursday is directly named after Thor’s name (Thorsday) while his mother, Frigg, is remembered in the day called Friday (Frigg’s day). Baldur, god of the sun and light, is remembered in Sunday. While the name of the day “ Saturday” is not derived from Northern Gods, it is however drawn from the equally pagan and equally Indo-European pre-Christian Roman celebration of Saturnalia. Only the day “ Monday” , or Day of the Moon, does not have a pre-Christian origin.

Vocabulary work Read and memorize the following words and expressions, suggest their Russian equivalents: LIST OF PROPER NAMES The Bosporus The Caucasus mountains

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The Caucasians The Celts The Balts The Slavs Celtic Baltic Slavic Herodotus The Dorics The Dorian invasion The Roman Conquest

VOCABULARY catastrophe, n trigger, n (e.g. to pull the trigger) trigger, v (to trigger the migration) adherent, n (e.g. an adherent of the Christian faith) pace, n (e.g. pace of development) heartland, n (e.g. Moscow region is the heartland of Russia) to arrive in waves derive, v (to derive from smth/smb) (e.g. The word “ Britain” is derived from the Britanni Celts) penetrate, v in an act of irony descendant, n ancestor, n city-state, n (=polis) fortify, v fortification, n fortified, adj (e.g a fortified settlement) acropolis, n (=a fortified site in Greek city states) inhabit, v inhabitant, n

refuge, n refugee, n to take refuge worship, v (e.g. to worship gods) asty, n virtually, adv pure, adj hammer, n The tripartite social structure of the IndoEuropeans: priests, warriors and commoners. chain link armor (=chain mail) horse shoe, n style, n stylize, v stylized, adj motif, n swastika, n (=the Indo-European sun wheel image) pagan, adj paganism, n underworld, n (the Lord of the Underworld) array of gods serpent, n (=a huge snake) raven, n fertility, n (=fruitfulness)

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Comprehension check Answer the questions: 1. Is it known for sure why the Indo-European peoples left their ancestral homeland and started their invasions? 2. What heritage did the original Indo-European tribes leave in the world’s geography, culture and linguistics? 3. What important socio-political phenomenon made its appearance in Greece in the times of the Indo-European Dorian invasion? 4. What are the characteristic features if the original Indo-European religion? Does it have any connection with Christianity? Discuss the following: In the course of their migration, the Indo-European tribes settled a huge territory – Europe, the Middle East, Asia, penetrating as far as China and Japan. How did the scientists manage to ascertain that their original heartland – ancestral homeland – was located in the region known today as southern Europe and Russia? What data might they have had to collect and analyze to make such a conclusion?

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