The Handbook of Jungian Psychology: Theory, Practice and Applications

heory, ractice and Applications

dited by Renos K. Papadopoulo

The Handbook HandbookofofJungian Jungian Psychology

Theory, practice and and applications applications Theory, practice

Edited by Renos Re nos K. K. Papadopoulos Papadopoulos Edited by

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Contents Conte n ts

First published published 2006 2006 First Routledge. by Routledge, 27 Church Church Road, Road. Hove, Hove. East East Sussex Sussex BN3 2FA 27 BN3 2FA Simultaneously published published in in the the USA USA and and Canada Canada Simultaneously by Routledge by Routledge 270 NY 10016 10016 270 Madison Avenue. Avenue, New New York. York, NY

Notes on contributors contributors Foreword by by Mario Jacoby Foreword Jacohy Preface Preface

Routledge is is an an imprint imprint of of Taylor Taylor & Francis Group Group & Francis Routledge

vii

xi Xl xiii Xlll

© 2006 2006 selection selection and and editorial editorial matter, matter. Renos RenosK. K.Papadopoulos; Papadopoulos; Copyright Copyright © individual individual chapters. chapters, the the contributors contributors

Introduction Introduction

Cornwall Cornwall Paperback Design Paperback design by by Hybert Hybert Design Paperback cover image: original by Michelle MichellePapadopoulos; Papadopoulos; digital digital cover image: original artwork artwork by enhancement Papadopoulos enhancement by by Olga Olga Papadopoulos All rights reserved. No part of of this book book may may be reproduced or or All rights No part be reprinted reprinted or reproduced utilised in any any form by any any electronic, electronic. mechanical, mechanical. or other means, means. now now utilised in form or or by or other

PART II

The ory Theory

55

1 Jung's epistemology Jung's epistemologyand andmethodology methodology

77

RENOS PAPADOPOULOS RENOS K. K PAPADOPOULOS

known or hereafter hereafter invented, invented. including including photocopying photocopying and and recording. or in in known or recording, or any system. without any information information storage storage or or retrieval retrieval system, without permission permission in writing

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The unconscious:personal personal and and collective collective unconscious: 22 The

33 The Thearchetypes archetypes

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The of Jungian Jungian psychology :: theory. practice. and and applications applications /I The handbook handbook of theory, practice, edited Renos K. K. Papadopoulos. Papadopoulos. edited by by Renos

psychology. psychology. I.I. Papadopoulos. Papadopoulos, Renos Renos K. K.

BF173.H333 BF173.H333 2006 2006 54-dc22 150.19' 150.19'54—dc22

4 The shadow 4 The

ISBN13: ISBN13: 9-78-1-58391-147-2 9-78-1-58391-147-2 ISBN13: ISBN13: 9-78-1-58391-148-0 9-78-1-58391-148-0

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74 74

ANTHONY STEVENS ANTHONY STEVENS

p. p. cm. cm.

Includes and index. index. Includes bibliographical bibliographical references references and (hbk) — - ISBN ISBN 1-58391-148-0 1-58391-148-0 (pbk) (pbk)1. 1.Jungian Jungian ISBN ISBN 1-58391-147-2 1-58391-147-2 (hbk)

54 54

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77 The The self self WAIOHN MAN WARRI•N ("()I MAN

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1153 53

vi Contents Contents vi PART II II PART

Psy c ho thera p y Psychotherapy Transference/countertransference 88 Transference/countertransference

1 75 175

Notes Notes on on contributors contributors

1 77 177

ANDREW SAMUELS SAMUELS ANDREW

Individuation 99 Individuation

1 96 196

MURRAY STEIN STEIN MURRAY

10 Activeimagination imagination 10 Active

215 215

JOAN CHODOROW CHODOROW JOAN

11 Dreams 11 Dreams

244

a past past president president of the the C.G. e.G. Jung Jung Institute Institute of of San San Francisco, specialises in problems of personality and character. He specialises in problems of personality and character. H e is the Terror, Violence and the the editor editor of Terror, author of Integrity in Depth ((1992) 1 992) and Violence and the Impulse to Destroy: Perspectives from Analytical Psychology Impulse Destroy: Perspectives Analytical Psychology (2003). San Francisco Jung Institute Library Library Journal The founding editor of the The founding editor San Francisco Institute Journal of and the of the and the first first US US editor editor of the Journal of Analytical Analytical Psychology, Psychology, he continues as as a senior adviser adviser to to both journals as well as to the Journal of continues well as Jungian Theory Jungian Theory and Practice.

John Beebe, Beebe, M MD, John D,

MARY ANN ANN MATTOON MATTOON MARY

PART III PART III

A p p l i c a ti ons Applications

261

12 Alchemy 12 Alchemy

263 263

STANTON MARLAN STANTON MARLAN

is a training analyst with is with the Association Association of Jungian Analysts, Jungian Analysts, London, London, which which she she represents represents on the the International International Association for Analytical Association Analytical Psychology Psychology (IAAP) ( lAAP) Executive Executive Committee. Committee. She is is a founding She founding member member of ofthe theInternational InternationalNeuro-Psychoanalysis Neuro-Psychoanalysis Society. She She isis currently currently conducting conducting research research into into statutory statutory regulation at Society. at and contributes contributes to The Economist Economist and the University University of of London, London, writes writes for for The the Journal of of professionaljournals, journals,and andisisan an assistant assistanteditor editoron on the the Journal professional Who Owns Owns Psychoanalysis? Her latest latestbook bookisis Who Analytical Psychology. Psychology. Her Analytical

Ann Casement, Casement,FRAI, FRAI, FRSM, FRSM, Ann 13 Religion 13 Religion

296 296

RODERICK MAIN RODERICK MAIN

14 The arts arts 14 The

324 324

CHRISTIAN GAILLARD CHRISTIAN GAILLARD

Index Index

377 377

(2004) (2004)..

PhD, is is an an analyst member of of the the e.G. C.G. Jung Jung Joan Chodorow, analyst and faculty faculty member Joan Chodorow, PhD, Institute of of San Institute San Francisco. Francisco. She She lectures and teaches teaches internationally internationally as wellas as in in the the United United States. States. A A former former president president of the the American American Dance Dance well Dance Therapy Therapy and and Depth Therapy Association, Association,she sheisisthe theauthor author of of Dance Depth Therapy Jung on on andthe the editor editor of of Jung Psychology: The The Moving Moving Imagination Imagination ((1991) Psychology: 1 99 1 ) and Herearly early papers papersappear appearinin AAuthentic Active Imagination Imagination ((1997). Active 1 997). Her u thentic Movement: Essaysby byMary Mary Whitehouse, Janet Adler, Adler, and and Joan Chodorow Mo vement: Essays Whitehouse, Janet Chodorow Imagination: Healing Healing from from and her her forthcoming forthcomingbook book isis AActive ((1999) 1 999) and ctive Imagination: In addition addition to to papers papers and and books in English, English, translations translations in in other Within Within.. In languagesinclude include Bulgarian, Bulgarian,Czech, Czech,Danish, Danish, Dutch, Dutch, French, French, German, languages I lebrew,I ta Italian, Polish, Russian Russian and and Spanish. Ilchrew, l i a n , JJapanese, a panese, KKorean, orea n, Polish,

•

a a training t ra i n il1� analyst ana lyst for for the t he Society S ociet y of ofAnalytical A na lyt ical Psychology British Associat Association Psycho logy aand nd tthe hl' British ion of Psychotherapists Psychot herapist s aand nd is aa full ru l l

Warren Warren(,olman Colman isis

viii Notes Noteson oncontributors contri buto rs viii

member of the the Society Society of of Couple Couple Psychoanalytic Psychoanalytic Psychotherapists. Psychotherapists. He He member lectures, teaches supervises in Russia lectures, teaches and supervises in England, England, Sweden, Sweden, Poland and Russia is in in private practice in St Albans, England. England. He He is is assistant assistant editor editor of of and is Journal of ofAnalytical Analytical Psychology Psychology and published numerous numerous papers papers the Journal and has published on diverse diverse topics, topics, including including several several on the the self. self. is current president doctorate in is current president of of the the IAAP. IAAP. He has aa doctorate in psychology analyst and and former president of of the the French French psychology and and is is aa training training analyst Society of Society of Analytical Analytical Psychology. Psychology. He He is is aa professor professor at at the Ecole National Superieure Paris, lecturer lecturer at the the University University Rene Rene Superieure des des Beaux-Arts Beaux-Arts in in Paris, Descartes the Institut Institut C.G. e.G. Jung Jung in in Paris. Paris. He He founded founded and and Descartesand and at at the directed Cahiers de Culture, was directed the the Cahiers de Psychologie Psychologiede del'Art l'Art et et de de la la Culture, was for a long time co-chief co-chief editor long time editor of of the the Cahiers is Cahiers Jungiens de Psychanalyse, and is now a a member member of of the the international international editorial now editorial team team of of the the Journal Journal of A nalytical Psychology, Psychology, of International Journal for Analytical for Jungian of Harvest: Jungian Harvest: International Studies and and of He has has published published many many articles Studies articles and Anima. He of Anima. and book book chapters. edition 2001) 200 I ) is translated chapters. His His book book Jung translated into Jung (3rd into several several (3rd edition languages; publications include include Le Musee imaginaire imaginaire de languages; other other publications Carl Le Musèe de Carl

Christian Gaillard Christian Gaillard

Gustav Jung 1 998), Les Evidences du la vie vie symbolique symholique (2000) Gustav Jung ((1998), Les Evidences du corps corps et la and muta::ione (2000). and Donne Donne in mutazione (2000). is Jungian analyst analyst practising practising in London. He He is is aa is aa Jungian in London. lecturer psychoanalytic studies Goldsmiths College, College, University University of of lecturer in in psychoanalytic studies at at Goldsmiths London. is co-editor co-editor (with Alister) of and Film: Film: PostPost­ London. He He is (with Ian Ian Alister) of Jung Jung and Jungian Takes Takes on the Moving Moving Image (200 1 ) and Ian Alister) Alister) (2001) and (again (again with with Ian A nalysis ((1988) 1 988) and of Jung the of Contemporary Jungian Analysis and the the author author of Jung and and the heing Postmodern: Realities (2000) Postmodern: The The Interpretation Interpretation of of Realities (2000) and and Human Human being Human: involvement in in filmfilm­ Human: Culture Culture and and the the Soul Soul (2005). (2005). His His current current involvement making Movies Work? Work? Unconscious Unconscious making links links with with his his next nextbook book What What Makes Makes Movies

Christopher Christopher Hauke Hauke

Process Film-maker'.\· Craft. Craji. Process and the Film-maker's Verena Verena Kast Kast is is aa training training Jungian Jungian

analyst and and former former president president of of the the IAAP IAAP analyst and of the the Swiss Swiss Association Association for for Analytical Analytical Psychology. Psychology. She She holds holds aa and of doctorate in psychology psychology from from the the University University of of Zurich. Zurich. She She isis professor professor doctorate in of psychology at the University of Zurich and instructor and training of psychology at the University of Zurich and instructor and training analyst at the e.G. Jung Institute of Zurich. She has published eighteen analyst at the C.G. Jung Institute of Zurich. She has published eighteen - The of Loving, Loving, A A Time Time to to books in German, German, three three of of which which — books in The Nature Nature of and The Creative Leap have been translated into English. Her Mourn Mourn and The Leap — have been translated into English. Her works in Chinese, Chinese, Czech, Greek, Hungarian, Hungarian, works also also appear appear in Czech, Danish, Danish, Dutch, Dutch, Greek, IItalian, talian, Japanese, Lithuanian, Portuguese, Spanish and Swedish. Japanese, Lithuanian, Portuguese, Spanish and Swedish. Joy. Joy, originally Inspiration, 1 99 1 ) isis the Inspiration, and Hope ((1991) the first first of of her her books books to to appear appear originally in English. in English.

Roderick RoderickMain, Main,PhD, PhD,

is lecturer in in psychoanalytic psychoanalytic studies the is aa lecturer studies at at the University on Synchronicity Synchronicity and the Universityof of Essex. Essex.He Heisis the the editor editor of of Jung Jung on Paranormal 1 997) and Synchronicitl' Paranormal ((1997) and the the author author of of The The Rupture Rupture of of Time: Synchronicitv

Notes oon contributors ix Notes n contributors ix

as well well as as of many and Jung's Critique Critique of of Modern Western Western Culture (2004) (2004) as book chapters chapters and and articles articles on onJungian Jungianpsychology psychologyand andreligious religiousstudies. studies.

Stanton MarIan, Marlan, PhD, PhD, Stanton

ABPP, is is a Jungian analyst in private practice and ABPP, and aa training teaching analyst for for the the Inter-Regional Inter-Regional Society Society of of Jungian Jungian training and teaching Analysts. He is president of Analysts. of the the Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Society Society of ofJungian JungianAnalysts, Analysts, and a member member of of the the New New York YorkAssociation Associationfor forAnalytical AnalyticalPsychology. Psychology. He is an anadjunct adjunctclinical clinical professor professor of ofpsychology psychology at atDuquesne Duquesne He is University, and and a diplomate University, diplomate in in both both clinical clinical psychology psychology and and psychopsycho­ analysis from from the American analysis American Board of of Professional Professional Psychology. Psychology. He is aa member the Academy Academy of of Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis and and chairperson chairperson of of its its member of of the Mentoring Committee, Committee, and has also served served on the Board of of Directors Directors of of the American Board for Accreditation Accreditation in in Psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis. He He is is the editor editor The Black the author author of of The of the of Jungian Theory Theory and Practice, the the Journal of (2005) and and the the editor editor of of two two Sun: The Alchemy A lchemy and rt of Darkness Darkness (2005) Sun: The and AArt previous alchemical themes. themes. He has has lectured lectured widely widely in the the previous books books on alchemical United United States, States, Europe Europe and and Asia. Asia. His Hisscholarly scholarly interests interests include include archetypal psychology, psychology, hermetic hermetic philosophy, philosophy, alchemy alchemy and Kabbalah, archetypal Kabbalah, critical philosophy and and Asian Asianreligions. religions. critical theory, theory, continental philosophy

has Mary Mary Ann Ann Mattoon Mattoon has

practised as aa Jungian practised as Jungian analyst analyst in in Minneapolis, Minneapolis, Minnesota since since her her graduation graduation from the C.G. Minnesota e.G. Jung Jung Institute Institute of ofZurich. Zurich. Since psychology at the she has has also also taught Jungian psychology PhD, she Since receiving receiving her her PhD, University innesota and participated in founding founding the the Minnesota M innesota University of of M Minnesota and participated Jung Association. Her publications include include edited volumes of the the Jung Association. Her publications edited volumes proceedings Congresses of the the International International Association Association for for proceedingsof of the the Congresses Analytical Psychology.

Renos is Renos K. K. Papadopoulos, Papadopoulos, PhD, PhD, is

professor analytical psychology professor of analytical psychology at at the University Middlesex University, University of of Essex, Essex, visiting visiting professor professor at at Middlesex University, associate fellow British Psychological Psychological Society analyst of of the the fellow of of the the British Society and and training training analyst Independent ofAnalytical Analytical Psychologists. Psychologists. He He is is consultant consultantclinical clinical Independent Group Group of psychologist Tavistock Clinic Clinic and aatraining trainingsystemic systemic family family psychologistatat the the Tavistock Harvest: International International Journal Journal for for psychotherapist. psychotherapist.He Heisisthe the editor editor of of Harvest: Jungian Academic Subcommittee of the was the the first first chair chair of the Academic Jungian Studies, was IAAP founding member member of of the the International International Association Association for for and aa founding IAAP and Jungian Studies. His publications are in analytical psychology, family Jungian Studies. publications are in analytical psychology, family ttherapy, he rapy , clinical specialist work refugees. As As clinical psychology psychology and and specialist work with refugees. consultant to the United Nations and other organisations he has worked consultant and other organisations w i t h survivors of the the world. world. with survivors of of political political violence violence in in many many parts of

Andrew professor of of analytical analytical psychology psychologyat at the the AndrewSamuels Samuels isis professor

University University of of Fssex. professor of psychoanalytic psychoanalytic studies studies at at Goldsmiths Goldsmiths km:A, visiting visiting professor · o l l ege . lUniversity (College, ! n ive rsit y of professor of of psychology psychology and of London. London, honorary professor ttherapeutic hera pe l l t ic ststudies ud ies at R oehampton University University and training analyst analyst of at Roehampton and training tthe hl' S o c il'l y of' A na l y t i c a l Psychology. I'sydlO logy. Ilis hook s have have been heen translated t ransla t ed Society of Analytical His hooks

xx

Notes Noteson on contributors contri butors into nineteen nineteen languages languages and include Jung Jung and and the Post-Jungians into Post-Jungians ((1985), 1 985),

A Critical The Father: The Father: Contemporary Contemporary Jungian Jungian Perspectives Perspectives ((1985), 1 985), A Critical (with Bani Dictionary of of Jungian Dictionary Jungian Analysis A nalysis (with Bani Shorter Shorter and and Fred Fred Plaut) Plaut) The Plural Plural Psyche: Psyche: Personality, Personality, Morality Morality and and the the Father Father ((1989), ((1986), 1 986), The 1 989), Psychopathology: Contemporary Contemporary Jungian Jungian Perspectives The Psychopathology: Perspectives ((1989), 1 989), The Political Psyche and Politics Politics on on the Couch: Couch: Citizenship Citizenship and the the Political Psyche ((1993) 1 993) and (2001). Internal Life Life (200 1).

iiss a training training analyst analyst at at the the International International School School of Analytical Psychology Analytical Psychology in in Zurich. Zurich. He He is is aafounding foundingmember member of ofthe the InterInter­ Regional Society Society for for Jungian Jungian Analysts Analysts and and the Regional the Chicago Chicago Society Society of Jungian Analysts 200 1 to to 2004. 2004. He He Jungian Analysts and and was was president president of ofthe the IAAP IAAP from from 2001 has written Jung's Treatment has written several several books, books, including including Jung's Treatment of of Christianity Christianity (1983) and Jung's Jung's Map of (1998). ((1985), 1 985), In MidLife MidLife (1 983) and of the Soul (1 998). He He is the editor of of Jungian Jungian Analysis (Open Court) Court) and and aa publisher editor Analysis (Open publisher (Chiron (Chiron Publications), where he he has edited the Chiron Publications), Chiron Clinical Clinical Series. Series.

Foreword Foreword Mario Jacoby

Murray Stein, Stein, PhD, PhD, Murray

is aa member is member of of the the Independent Independent Group Group of of Analytical Analytical Psychologists and and of the the Royal College Psychologists College of of Psychiatrists. Psychiatrists. In In addition addition to to his he has two 963), he two honours honours degrees degrees in in his medical medical degree degree (Oxford (Oxford 11963), experimental psychology psychology (Reading 1955; experimental 1 95 5; Oxford Oxford 1959) 1 959) and aa doctorate doctorate based on research, supervised by the 1 973) based the late late Dr Dr in medicine (Oxford (Oxford 1973) John Bowlby, on attachment attachment behaviour behaviour in Greek Greek orphans. orphans. He He is is the the John Bowlby, rchetype Revisited: Revisited: An An author twelve books, author of twelve books, the the last last of which which isis A Archetype

Anthony Anthony Stevens Stevens

Updated of the Self Self (2002). Updated Natural Natural History of

Why aa new new Handbook Why f Jungian Psychology now, Handbook oof now, nearly nearly half a century after Jung's death? Over the enormous variety of of the years, have we not seen already an enormous publications ideas, by by describing, describing, explaining, explaining, discussing, discussing, publications trying trying to to spread his ideas, praising their novelty. novelty. As As some some of of the the important examples, examples, II praising but also criticising their can f e. G. Jung 939), M.-L. von Franz, can mention mentionJ.J. Jacobi, Jacobi, The The Psychology Psychology oof C.G. Jung (1 (1939), e. G. Jung: Time (1 975), E. oung­ C.G. Jung: His Myth in our Time (1975), E. Humbert, Jung Jung (1983), (1983), Polly Polly Y YoungEisendrath Cambridge Companion Eisendrath and and Terence Terence Dawson Dawson (eds), (eds), The The Cambridge Companion to to Jung (1997), Murray Stein, Jung's of the the Soul Soul (1 998) and the (1 997), Murray Jung's Map of (1998) and so so forth. forth. Yet, by the year 2006 the obviously not not exhausted. exhausted. the theme theme 'Jung' isis obviously On On the the contrary: contrary: this this Handbook is timely timely and more than welcome. welcome. It is written by a number of experienced analysts of of the the second second and and experienced and and well-known well-known Jungian Jungian analysts third the English-speaking English-speaking world. These authors are are third generations, generations, mainly from the experts field. All of of them them have have aa deep deep knowledge knowledge and and respect respect for for experts in their special field. lung's and begin begin their their individual individual chapters chapters by by grounding grounding their their subject subject Jung's work and matter basic findings. findings. After they take off off to to deal deal with with more more matter in in Jung's basic After that that they contemporary not least, least, with with their their own ownexperiences experiences and and contemporary views views and and last, last, but not contributions. important insights insights into into Jung's Jung's original original contributions. Thus Thus the the reader reader can get important ideas adaptations to to the the ideas followed followed by by their practical practical therapeutic applications and adaptations necessities necessities of of the the present present time. time. On Onthe thewhole, whole,itit isis again again evident evident that that the rift and animosity between between Freudian and Jungian analysts analysts have have mellowed mellowed considerably. There is more and more convergence between between the two two main main depth depth psychological approaches, especially especially where wherepractice practiceisisconcerned concerned— - for better better or or worse. worse. It impossible to important themes It is impossible to address address all all important themes that that this this Handbook Handbook intro­ introduces wish to to focus focus on on only only one one theme theme because because II feel feel duces and and discusses. discusses. In In fact, I wish that offers an an original original perspective perspective to to view view the theunderlying underlying principles principles upon upon that it offers which well as, as, ititreflects reflects on on the theindividual individual themes themes which lung's Jung's theory theory is based as well which the other other authors authors in in this this book. book. This This theme theme appears appears in inthe the which get get treated by the 'lung's epistemology lo ng chapter chapter 'Jung's epistemology and methodology', methodology', written written by by the the editor editor of of long the Handbook, the Handbook, Professor Professor Papadopoulos. In hil osophi ca l essay, which which although although isis dense dense and and weighty, weighty,isisthorough thorough In this this pphilosophical and very grappling with, the the author author develops develops the argument that Jung lung and very worth worth grappling espollsed opposing epistemologies, epistemologies, of of which which Jung espoused two two opposing Jung was was not necessarily fully Papadopoulos calls calls these these Jung's .Jun�'s 'Socratic 'Socratic ignorance ig norance and and Gnostic Gnostic aware. aware. Papadopoulos kknowledge'. nllw!l·dgl··.

xii M arioJacoby J acoby xii Mario

What is is meant meant by by'Socratic 'Socratic ignorance'? ignorance'? Every Every college college student student isis probably probably know that I know know nothing'. nothing' . In familiar familiar with with the the famous famous dictum dictum of of Socrates Socrates 'I'I know this this connection, Papadopoulos mentions among among other other examples examples Jung's lung's attitude attitude oversweepingstatements statementsof ofthe the"nothing "nothing but" but" kind, of 'clearly standing against oversweeping kind, especially lung: 'Stereotyped especially when whenitit comes comesto todream dreaminterpretation'. interpretation'. He quotes Jung: interpretation one isis again again and andagain again interpretation of of dream-motifs dream-motifsare areto to be be avoided avoided .. .. .. one obliged, admit to to one's one's ignorance ignorance and andrenouncing renouncing all all obliged, before before each each dream dream to to admit preconceived for something something entirely entirely unexpected' unexpected' (Jung (lung1948, 1 948, preconceived ideas, ideas, to to prepare for Complete Works 8: 543). On hand, Jung lung is often often also also full full of Complete Works 8: par. par. 543). On the the other hand, sweeping here Papadopoulos Papadopoulos speaks speaks of of sweeping statements statementsand and fixed fixed beliefs, beliefs, and and here 'Gnostic knowledge knowledge or Gnostic epistemology'. epistemology'. Thus, Papadopou­ Thus, according according to Papadopoulos, 'the agnostic and and epistemological epistemological openness in lung's los, in lung Jung interchanges with Jung's own Gnosticism which characterised by unshakable belief belief in the own Gnosticism which is is characterised by his his unshakable in the correctness assertions and and general general theories'. theories'. correctness of his own assertions When it comes comes to the the clinical clinical context, context, this this 'Gnostic' 'Gnostic'epistemology epistemology produces produces an attitude in in Jung, lung, which which is is in in complete complete contrast contrast to tohis hisSocratic Socraticopenness. openness. As As an attitude Papadopoulos have been been quite quite Papadopoulos rightly rightly mentions, mentions,lung Jung was was also also known known to have explicitly what specific specific actions and and explicitly prescriptive prescriptive to to his his analysands, telling them what directions take in in their their life. life. There There are are many many examples examples of of this this tendency tendency mainly mainly directions to take in the letters to people people asking him for for advice advice (C.G. Jung: lung: 'Letters', 'Letters', edited edited by byG. G. Adler and A. A. Jaffe). laffe). II think think that thatthe theawareness awareness and anddifferentiation differentiation between between these these opposite opposite epiepi­ stemologies lungian scholars scholars as as well well as as for forevery everyanalyst. analyst. stemologies are are very very crucial crucial for for Jungian Maybe epistemologies have what is is importimport­ Maybe both both epistemologies have something something good good to to offer offer and and what ant us to to be be fully fully aware aware which which one one we we employ at each each given given time. time. On the ant is for us one hand, the the open open spirit spirit of ofSocratic Socratic questioning questioning is is most most useful: useful: Socrates Socrates was was also called a a kind kind of of midwife midwife because, because, by by his his questioning, questioning, he he could could bring bring to tolife, life, also called i.e., to conscious conscious awareness, awareness, unquestioned unquestioned attitudes taken for for i.e., to attitudes which which were were taken granted. On hand, itit isis also also human human to toneed needcertain certainconvictions convictions in in granted. On the other hand, order stand on on aasafe safe enough enough ground. ground. For For most most analysts analysts of ofthe the early early order to to stand generation, pillar of of conviction conviction was was provided provided by by the thecomplete complete identifiidentifi­ generation, such such aa pillar cation lung's ideas. ideas. 'Jung 'lung always always said' said' was was an an understandable understandableexpression expression cation with Jung's of this attitude, attitude, giving giving much much needed needed reassurance. reassurance. of this This is is not so much much needed needed any any more more at at the the present present time, time, as as itit can can be be seen seen by by This not so the authors of of the the chapters chapters of of this this book; book; they they honour honour Jung's lung's legacy legacy not not by by the authors parroting but by by developing developing further the the theory theory and and practice practice of ofanalytical analytical parroting him but psychology is for this this reason reason that that psychology through through their their own own personal personal approaches. approaches. It It is this timely, authoritative and invaluable invaluable contribution contribution to to this Handbook constitutes constitutes aa timely, authoritative and the systematic study the latest latest trends trends in in Jungian lungian psychology. psychology. the systematic study of of the M ario Jacoby, lacoby, PhD PhD Mario Lecturer, supervising analyst at the the Lecturer, training training and and supervising analyst at c. G. Jung Jung Institute Institute and and at at the the International InternationalSchool School C.G. for Analytical Psychology Psychology (ISAP) Zurich for Analytical (ISAP) in in Zurich

Preface Preface Renos Papadopoulos Renos K. Papadopoulos

is the the product product of a great This first Handbook f Jungian Psychology, Psychology, is This book, book, the first Handbook oof deal by many many people people deal of of intellectual intellectual input, input, analytical sensitivity and and sheer labour by over long period of time. time. Coordinating many eminent authors is a rewarding rewarding over a long task although not not always always easy. easy. There There were were many manydifficulties difficulties along the the way way and and the nal production much longer longer than initially initially planned. the fi final production took took much planned. II am grateful to all contributors for for their their persistence, persistence, patience patience and and professionalism. professionalism. Each all the contributors one them worked worked hard all stages stages of the preparation preparation and production of one of them hard at all and production the book. the book. The strength strength of a book of The of this this nature nature depends depends substantially substantially on the adequate adequate representation all possible possible strands of Jungian Jungian psychology, psychology, both both theoretically theoretically representation of of all strands of well as culturally and geographically. ItIt is sincere regret as as well as culturally and geographically. is my my sincere regret that, that, due due to logistical of contributors contributors come come from from logistical and and financial financial considerations, considerations, the the majority of the and the the USA. USA. However, However, in in so so far far as as they they are are leading leading authorities authorities in in their their the UK UK and respective believe that the book book has has suffered suffered in in any anysignificant significant respectivefields, fields,IIdo do not not believe that the way. way. In addition to to the thecontributors, contributors, many many others others have have assisted, assisted, directly directly or or In addition am indebted indebted to tomy my indirectly, indirectly, in in the the final final completion completion of of this this work. work. In In particular, II am colleagues Centre for for Psychoanalytic Psychoanalytic Studies Studies of of the the University University of of Essex, Essex, colleagues at at the the Centre Professors Professors Andrew Andrew Samuels, Samuels, Karl Karl Figlio, Figlio, Bob Bob Hinshelwood, Hinshelwood, Joan Joan Raphael-Leff Raphael-Leff and Dr Roderick Roderick Main, Main, as as well well as as to tomy mycolleagues colleagues at atthe theTavistock Tavistock Clinic, Clinic, and Dr especially Harris. Mario Mario Jacoby Jacoby merits merits especiallyEmilia EmiliaDowling, Dowling,Judith Judith Bell Bell and and Rita Rita Harris. particular agreeing to write the the Foreword; Foreword; despite despite his his many many comcom­ particular thanks thanks for for agreeing to write mitments he generously generously accepted this this additional additional task. task. mitments all all over over the world, he Kate Hawes (publisher), (publisher), Nicola Nicola Ravenscroft Ravenscroft (production (production editor), editor), Claire Claire Kate Hawes Lipscomb Katharine Grummett Grummett (marketing (marketing Lipscomb (senior (senior editorial editorial assistant) assistant) and and Katharine executive), helpful and and encouraging, encouraging, especially especially executive), all all at at Routledge, Routledge, have have been been most most helpful at difficult times. did an an excellent excellent job job as as copy-editor, copy-editor, as as well well as as at difficult times. Christine Christine Firth Firth did I,isa who ably ably compiled compiled the the index. index. Lisa Footitt Footitt who II am Bobbi Whitcombe Whitcombe who am also also indebted indebted to to Bobbi who edited edited Professor Professor Kast's Kast's chapter chapter with Post­ with expert expert competence. competence. Bobbi Bobbi (who (who completed completedthe the MA MA in in Jungian Jungian and and PostJungian udies at the University University of of Essex) Essex) is is aa psychodynamic psychodynamic psychotherapist, psychotherapist, Studies at the Jungian St Ita writer, wri ter. aa teacher tem:her and and aa freelance freelance editor. editor. The the hook book cover cover was was a combined combined prod uct of painting by by The image image 011 on the product of aa painting Midll'lIc and ncemcnt by M ic he I Papadopoulos le Papadopoulos anddigital digitalgraphic graphiccnha enhancement byOlga OlgaPapadopoulos. Papadopoulos,

RenosK.K.Papadopoulos Papadopo u l o s xiv Renos

my very very special special daughters! daughters!II am amgrateful gratefulto t othem themfor fortheir theirskills skillsasaswell wellasasthe thetime, time, my they put put into into this this project. project. effort and dedication they Noel Taylor has has been been indispensable indispensable in his his assistance assistance with with all allcomputer computer Noel patience software and hardware). hardware). His His knowledge, knowledge, efficiency, efficiency, and and patience matters (both software matters are most most appreciated. appr eciated . are always, Nina, Nina, my mywife, wife,has hasbeen beenconstantly constantlysupportive, supportive, encouraging encouraging and and As always, enormously generous. generous. enormously These acknowledgements acknowledgements cannot complete without without mentioning mentioning the the These cannot be be complete support of my special friends at Essex. support of my special friends at Essex.

Introduction Introduction Renos K. Papadopoulos Renos K.

The more The more you you advance advance in in the the understanding understanding of of the the psyche psyche the themore more careful you will have careful have to to be be with with terminology, terminology, because because it it isis historically historically coined and and prejudiced. coined prejudiced. The The more more you you penetrate penetrate the the basic basic problems problems of of psychology the the more psychology more you you approach approach ideas ideas which which are arephilosophically, philosophically, religiously, and religiously, and morally morally prejudiced. prejudiced. Therefore Therefore certain certain things things should should be be utmost care. care. handled with with the the utmost handled par. 116) Complete Works Works 17: (C.G. lung Jung 1935, 1 7: par. 1 1 6) (e.G. 1 935, Complete

Jung spoke these words of Jung of warning warning during during his his famous famous lecture lecture series series at at the the Tavistock Clinic Clinic back back in 1935. 1 93 5 . At At the the same sameclinic, clinic, exactly exactly seventy seventy years years Tavistock later, II am writing aware that his words, far later, writing this Introduction Introduction being being fully fully aware from being being dated, dated, are still from stil l most pertinent today. today. In recent In recent years, years, there has been been an an astonishing astonishing proliferation proliferation of of Jungian Jungian activities on on all fronts: activities fronts: publications publications — - journals, books, books, websites; websites; cultural, cultural, artistic and other artistic other events; events; academic courses and projects; projects; associations, concon­ ferencesand and even even commercial commercial enterprises. enterprises. Moreover, Moreover, the the scope scope of of Jungian ferences work has spread much wider work wider than than its its original original clinical clinical and and cultural cultural spheres spheres to encompass increasingly from organisational organisational and and to increasingly more diverse realms — - from human resource human resource management management to film film criticism criticism and and refugee refugee intervention intervention programmes. All All these these have have created created aa huge huge body of relevant literature that programmes. that needs to to be digested, re-viewed, re-examined and and ultimately deconstructed. needs re-viewed, re-examined In addition, addition, this this needs to be put side In needs to side by side side with Jung's original original work so that an appropriate comparison is undertaken undertaken in in a systhat comparison and re-evaluation re-evaluation is sys­ tematic way. way. This This is is a formidable project, indeed. tematic indeed. The timing timing and conditions for this The this undertaking undertaking seem seem to be be ripe ripe because because this vast volume th is vast volume of Jungian Jungian material material requires requires systematic systematic attention attention soon, soon, before itit grows also, the new oefore grows even even bigger bigger and becomes becomes unmanageable; unmanageable; also, new possible condi­ condibest possible pphenomenon heno me non of of academic academic Jungian Jungian studies studies provides provides the the best for this this kkind It is is important to note that ttions ions for in d of rresearch. e se a rch . It that the the emergence emergence of post-Jungian) studies at at universities is a .IJungian u n�ial1 ((which, whidl, of cou rse, iincludes ncl udes po s t -J u ng i a n ) studies course, until reL'ently recently was Jungian world wh which most t illin tthe hl' .J1I 1l�iall world icll until most wdcol11L' welcome liL'vdopl11L'n development

2 Renos RenosK.K.Papadopoulos Papadopoulos 2

dominated exclusively exclusively by by clinician-analysts. clinician-analysts. Academic Academic Jungian Jungianresearchers researchers dominated not only only can can afford afford the the time, time, energy energy and andfacilities facilities to to subject subject this this material material to to not proper scholarly scholarly scrutiny scrutiny but also have have aa unique unique position position in in so so far faras asthey they proper but also are less less likely likely to tainted by by the the splits splits and and factionalism factionalism that that have have marked marked are to be be tainted the analytical analytical Jungian Jungian community community for foryears. years. the Therefore, this this is is an an opportune opportune time time to toundertake undertakesuch suchaaserious seriousscholarly scholarly Therefore, work in this fi e ld in order to refresh it and prepare it to face thenew new work in this field in order to refresh it and prepare it to face the challenges of our current times. One of the key characteristics of this project challenges of our current times. One of the key characteristics of this project should be be its its systematic systematic nature nature because because the the Jungian Jungian field, field, almost almost mirroring mirroring should Jung's own opus, has been growing 'naturally' ( if not haphazardly) without Jung's own opus, has been growing 'naturally' (if not haphazardly) without following any plan and without any sequential elaboration of each concept following any plan and without any sequential elaboration of each concept and process process that that were were introduced. introduced. and Jung aptly noted that terminology isis 'historically 'historically coined coined and andprejudiced' prejudiced' Jung aptly noted that terminology and, therefore, it is essential that we pause and re-examine not only Jung's and, therefore, it is essential that we pause and re-examine not only Jung's own writings but also all the subsequent Jungian literature in order to own writings but also all the subsequent Jungian literature in order to investigate their historical 'prejudices' as well as all the other infl u ences that investigate their historical 'prejudices' as well as all the other influences that they had been been subjected SUbjected to. was acutely acutely aware not only only the the they had to. Jung Jung was aware that that not formulations of the theories (and their terminology) can be 'prejudiced' but formulations of the theories (and their terminology) can be 'prejudiced' but also the very very conceptualisation conceptualisation of of what what constitutes constitutes the the subject subject matter matteritself, itself, also the i.e., the 'ideas' about the 'basic problems' can themselves be 'philosophi­ i.e., the 'ideas' about the 'basic problems' can themselves be 'philosophically, prejudiced'. In In effect, effect, Jung's Jung's warning warningsuggests suggests cally, religiously, religiously, and and morally morally prejudiced'. the necessity of an essential work that needs to be undertaken well before the necessity of an essential work that needs to be undertaken well before aa clinician scholar even discuss the any concept concept or or clinician or or scholar even begins begins to to discuss the validity validity of of any process. This work should be about exploring the very assumptions that process. This work should be about exploring the very assumptions that theories Without this this fundamental fundamental groundground­ theories and and techniques techniques are are based based upon. upon. Without work, Jung would would warn warn us us that that we we are are likely likely to to accept, accept, unwittingly, unwittingly, aa great great work, Jung many 'prejudiced' not not only only at at the the level level of of logical logical many assumptions assumptions that that can can be be 'prejudiced' formulation also due due to to 'religious' 'religious' and and 'moral' 'moral' prejudices. prejudices. This This means means formulation but but also lackofoftheoretical theoretical accuracy accuracy or or that the dangers dangers are are not not just just about about the thelack that the clinical unsuspectingly, aa framework framework clinical effectiveness effectivenessbut butalso also about about espousing, espousing, unsuspectingly, whose implications are us. Without Without being being fully fully whose origin origin and and implications are unknown unknown to to us. aware the contexts contexts within within which which each each concept concept had had been been developed, developed, it it aware of of the would stray blindly blindly into pathways that into would be be easy easy to to stray into pathways that could could lead lead us us into unexpected unpredictable consequences. consequences. unexpected destinations destinations with with unpredictable Thus, is imperative imperative that re-examination of this growing growing body body of of Thus, it it is that aa re-examination of this Jungian undertaken periodically, based Handbook isis based Jungian work work is is undertaken periodically,and and this this Handbook firmly importance of of this this task. task. In Inits itsextremely extremely firmlyon on the the realisation realisation of of the the importance modest the further further developdevelop­ aspires to to contribute contribute to to the Handbook aspires modest way, way, this this Handbook ment offer an an authoritative authoritative research research into into ment of of this this project project by by attempting attempting to to offer some of this this some central central themes themes of of Jungian Jungian psychology. psychology.Although Althoughno no book book of nature be definitive definitive either content, every every nature can can possibly possibly claim claim to to be either in in scope scope or or content, effort select the most currently currently relevant relevant themes themes and effort has has been been made made to to select the most and to to address possible way and critical critical address them them in in the the best best possible way by by offering offering aa thorough thorough and survey survey of of them. them.

Introduction I ntroduction 33

The uniqueness of of this this Handbook is that that itit has has been been designed designed to provide provide aa comprehensive, systematic and and competent treatment of comprehensive, systematic of some some central central tenets tenets of Jung's Jung's work. work. Such Such an an enormous enormous undertaking undertaking cannot be carried out by by any one one single single author. What What is is required required is is aa group groupof ofspecialists specialists who who are are authorities in in their their own ownspecific specific subject subject matter matter within within Jungian Jungianpsychology, psychology, and this achieve; that that is is this is is precisely precisely what this Handbook has endeavoured to achieve; why the contributors contributors were were selected selected from from the the most mostsignificant significant contemporary contemporary Jungian authors authorsrepresenting, representing, as as far faras as possible, possible, different different schools schools of of thought thought as well well as as different different geographical geographical locations. locations. However, H owever, sadly sadly and unavoidunavoid­ ably, the great majority majority of of them them come come from from the the English-speaking English-speaking world due due to the the difficulties difficulties in in obtaining obtaining reliable reliable and andinexpensive inexpensive translation translation from from other languages. languages. Initially, it was was envisaged envisaged that that the the chapters chapters adhere adhere to a uniform structure Initially, which would would ensure ensure that that each which each topic topic is is treated treated in in the thesame samesystematic systematic manner. manner. Moreover, Moreover, the authors were were encouraged encouraged to write in a style style that that is is accessibletoto aa wide range of readers accessible wide range readers while while at the the same same time time not not being being simplistic. The original uniform structure structure of of each each chapter chapterincluded included the the following: following: •

•

•

•

•

• •

•

•

• •

•

A brief introduction in which the author A author locates locates the topic topic in the the context context the Jungian opus and of the and examines examines its importance importancc and and overall overall relevance. relevance. A systematic investigationof of Jung's Jung's actual A systematic investigation actual positions positions on the the topic, topic, including their their chronological mapping out out major including chronological development, development, mapping major revisions within within Jung's own revisions own writings. writings. A clear outline of the range A clear outline range of of meanings meanings and definitions definitions of the topic. topic. A systematic outline of major innovations, criticisms A systematic innovations, criticisms and and developments developments of the of the topic topic which which have have been been introduced introduced by other other authors authors (during (during Jung's lifetime and after his death). Jung's lifetime his death) . An account account of the current An current status status and and trends trends for forfuture futuredevelopments. developments. An up-to-date relevant bibliography on the subject. An the subject.

Most chapters chapters have have adhered adhered to to this this general general outline outline but, but, inevitably, inevitably, itit is is not not Most possible for every theme to be subjected to this same treatment and, therepossible for every theme to be subjected to there­ fore, several severalchapters chapters have have deviated deviated from from this order, following fore, following a structure structure more appropriate appropriate to to their their subject matter. At the same time, morc subject matter. time, the contribucontribu­ tors, true to the Jungian spirit of authenticity, have brought tors, true the Jungian spirit of authenticity, have brought their their own own individuality into into their their chapters, chapters, thus thus subverting subverting a blanket uniformity. uniformity. Even Even individuality intention of of keeping keeping all all chapters chapters to to the the same same size size had had to to be tthe he ooriginal ri gina l intention allowing for suitable suitable variations. variations. aabandoned, ha n doned, allowing A /latU/hook Handbook isis aa concise book that addresses A concise reference reference book addresses a particular particular subjectand and tthis the /irst first Ham/hook Handbook of of Jungian Jungian psychology. psychology. ItIt is is divided divided sUhje<:t h i s isis the into tthree parts: into h ree pa rts: theory, t heory, psychotherapy psychot herapy and a nd applications. applications. Needless Needless to say, say, not all all tthemes not hemes tthat ha t are a rc covered covered in i n these t hese chapters cha pters can he he categorised categorised neatly into tthese into hese tthree h ree parts. pa rts. Nevertheless, Nevnt hdess, creating n"l'at i n � these t hese categories cate�ories olThrs oflCrs some SOfTIe

4 K. Papadopoulos Papadopoulos 4 Renos K.

systematisation of the rich Jungian opus opus and and also also provides provides an anopportunity opportunity to discuss critically the appropriateness appropriateness of this very classification. classification. This is to discuss done Christian Gaillard Gaillard at at the the beginning beginning of of his his own own chapter chapter on on done ably ably by Christian 'The `The arts'. The on epistemology epistemology and methodology, methodology, in in aasense, sense, concon­ The first chapter on stitutes commentary on very conceptualisation conceptualisation and construction construction of stitutes a commentary on the very Jung's work and, therefore, therefore, it can also also be be read read as as an anintroduction introduction to to the the Handbook. and clinical clinical Handbook. The other chapters use combinations of theoretical and insights to investigate their themes. themes. All All chapters chapters are original not only in the way they treat treat the the material material but but also, also, being being far farmore more than than mere mere review review way they in developing developing original original arguments arguments and and introducing introducing creative creativeideas. ideas. articles, in impossible to repetitions in a book book of of this this It is impossible to avoid overlaps and even repetitions nature. No theme stands on its own. own . Each Each one one of of them them is is interlinked interlinked with with the commendable achievement achievement of the authors that such such the others others and it isis aacommendable overlaps were kept kept to to the the minimum. minimum. Even Even where similar similar topics topicsare arediscussed discussed in more than one one chapter, chapter, the the reader reader has has the the instructive instructive opportunity opportunity to to in more observe differences between was difficult difficult observe the the differences between them. them. The The authors' authors' task was enough to address their their theme theme in this this comprehensive comprehensive manner, even even without being concerned concerned not to encroach onto somebody else's else's area. area. It hoped that this Handbook serve a good good purpose purpose in in It is hoped that this Handbook will will not only serve being reliable reference reference book, stimulate further further research research in this being a reliable book, but also stimulate direction the project project of of periodic periodic systematic systematic re-examination re-examination of of the the direction so that the Jungian and post-Jungian post-Jungian opus opus becomes becomes a reality. reality.

Part Part II

Theory

Chapter Chapter 11

Jung's and Jung's epistemology epistemology and methodology methodology Renos Renos K. K. Papadopoulos

To begin begin with, address the very very inclusion inclusion of with, it it is is important to address of aa chapter chapter of this this Handbook. This clarification is necessary necessary because because lung Jung is this nature nature in this Handbook. This not particularly particularly known contribution either either to epistemology epistemology or known for his contribution or to methodology. of innovations innovations methodology. lung Jung is is widely widely known known mainly mainly for for a number of which not include include his hisepistemological epistemological expertise; expertise; mostly, mostly, these these contricontri­ which do not butions of his his theories theories (i.e., ( i.e., he introduced introduced butions are connected connected with with the content of new the collective collective unconscious unconscious and the archearche­ new theoretical theoretical ideas ideas e.g., e.g., about the types, to psychotherapy psychotherapy (e.g., (e.g., he he advocated advocated types, etc.), etc.), his his particular approach to not to reject reject the symptom symptom but but to to endeavour endeavour to tofind find meaning meaning and and value value in in it), the implications implications of of his his ideas ideas to towider widerexistential existential and and cultural cultural it), and the considerations. are considerations.Epistemology Epistemologyand andmethodology methodologyare arenot not areas areas that that are usually chapter will will argue argue that that ififone one were were to to usually associated associated with with lung. Jung. Yet, this chapter read certain way, way, one one would would find find important importantepistemological epistemological and and read lung Jung in aa certain methodological argued that that these these methodologicalinsights; insights;moreover, moreover,itit will will be be further further argued insights relevance today they can can enrich enrich substantially substantially current current insights are are of relevance today and they debates these fields. fields. debates in these

Diffi culti e s Difficulties

Several f the of Several difficulties difficultiescould couldbebeidentified identifiedininthe theundertaking undertakingoof the task task of discerning o ddo o with with discerninglung's Jung's epistemological epistemologicalcontribution. contribution.The Thefirst firsthas hastto the basic lung did didnot notwrite writeclearly clearlyand andspecifically specifically about aboutepistemepistem­ basic fact that that Jung ology methodology; whenever ology and methodology; whenever he he addressed addressed these these issues issues he he did did so so in passing, something else. else. This means that that his his passing, in in the the context of writing about about something insig h t s on epistemological and methodological methodological matters matters were were interwoven interwoven insights on epistemological into overall psychology and, therefore, therefore, into the very fabric fabric of of his theories theories and his overall would would require require aa special special extraction extraction procedure procedure to to be be brought brought to to light in order to he examined examined in in their their own own right. right. Related Related to to this thisdifficulty difficulty is is another another to he considera t i o n , ii.e., . e . , hy form ulating his insights insights in in his his usual usualidiosyncratic idiosyncratic consideration, by formulating language wh ic h w a s tightly t ig ht l y interconnected i n tercon nected within within his his theories), theories), Jung's lung's language ((which was iimplications m plicat ions for epistemology aare rl' not sily not icea hie either cit her by hy tthe he special ist not l'a easily noticeable specialist

8 Renos Renos K. K. Papadopoulos Papadopoulos 8

epistemologists or majority of ofJungian lungianpsychologists; psychologists; the theformer former epistemologists or by by the majority even look in Jung's lung's writings writings for for this this kind kind of ofinformation, information, and and would not even the focus focus of the the latter latter has has been beenmainly mainlyon onhis hisinnovative innovativecontributions contributions the and practice practice of of psychotherapy. psychotherapy. to the theory and lung's contribution contribution to toepistemology epistemology and and Another difficulty in developing Jung's methodology isis that such an activity activity would would seemingly seemingly contradict contradict Jung's lung's methodology that such own strong views essence of lung is is known known for for own strong views about about the the very essence of his his work. work. Jung being adverse adverse to any suggestion suggestion that that his his theoretical theoretical formulation formulation could could be be being separated from his overall overall psychology. psychology. More More specifically, specifically, he hedetested detested the the separated that his his work work could could be beconsidered considered as asconstituting constitutingany any`free-standing' 'free-standing' idea that philosophical distinct and and independent independent from from its its philosophical statement, statement, abstracted, abstracted, distinct clinical-therapeutic neither a system system nor nor aa general general clinical-therapeutic context: context: 'I'I have have set set up up neither auxiliary concepts concepts to to serve serve me as tools tools theory, but have merely formulated auxiliary as is customary in in every every branch branch of of science' science' (Jung (lung 1952a: 1 952a: par. par.1507). 1 507). sharp distinction distinction between between two two possible possible ways ways Evidently, lung Jung perceived a sharp his work could could be be understood: understood: according according to to the the first first one, one, his his work workwas was that his 'empirical' grounded on observations; and, according according to to `empirical' and and grounded on solid clinical observations; the second speculations and and second one, one, his his work work was a collection of philosophical speculations abstractions unrelated unrelated to the clinical clinical realities. realities. Throughout Throughouthis his life life and andin inhis his writings, Jung lung struggled struggled to to gain gain legitimacy legitimacyfor forhis hiswork workand andendeavoured endeavouredto to condemn position and everyt hing he could could to to concon­ condemn strongly strongly the the latter latter position and did everything vince others to espouse the H owever, this sharp distinction distinction the former position. position. However, presents view, any any philophilo­ presents two two difficulties: difficulties:first, first, according accordingtoto the the latter latter view, sophical relevance that Jung's lung's work work could could have havepossible possiblehad hadwas wasdismissed dismissed as 'philosophical speculation'; this sharp sharp distinction distinction as being `philosophical speculation'; this means that this does not allow for for any any positive positive appreciation appreciation of of anything anything that that could could be be does not considered connected with philosophy. Consequently, Consequently, all all considered even even remotely remotely connected with philosophy. possible as being being possible epistemological epistemological and and methodological insights were tainted as philosophical lung. Second, Second, surely, surely, this this sharp sharp philosophical and and were, were, thus, thus, rejected rejected by by Jung. distinction cannot be definitive, regardless of how it is understood. In In other other words, comprehension and (more so) any presentation presentation of of 'empirical' 'empirical' words, any comprehension and (more 'facts' involves theoretical and and philosophical philosophical assumptions assumptions that that `facts' inevitably involves need on board. board. need to to be taken on This lung's very very perception perception of his work (in ( in terms terms of of this this This means means that that Jung's sharp distinction) prevented prevented him (and others others after after him) him) from from appreciating appreciating any contribution he made which which could could have have been been construed construed as as being being any contribution he made 'philosophical'. ore specifi c ally, throughout, particularly concon­ `philosophical'. M More specifically, throughout, lung Jung was particularly cerned not to venture into anything that he considered that could dilute the not to venture into that he that could dilute the validity of his psychological work and in doing so, in effect, he minimised validity of his psychological work and in doing so, in effect, he minimised the implications of of his his work. work. Moreover, Moreover, the importance importance of of the the epistemological epistemological implications it seems that, even when he was aware of the epistemological impact of his his it seems that, even when he was aware of the epistemological impact of formulations, somehow, lung perceived them as an integral part of his formulations, somehow, Jung perceived them as an integral part of his overall theoretical approach (which, indeed, they were) and, consequently, overall theoretical approach (which, indeed, they were) and, consequently, he not flag flag out out their their importance, importance, in in their their own own right. right. he did did not

epistemologyand andmethodol methodology JJung's u ng's epistemology ogy 99

Accordingly, the main main objectives of this this chapter chapter are to attempt, Accordingly, objectives of attempt, first, first, to to argue that Jung argue lung indeed indeed had had aaremarkable remarkableepistemological epistemological sensitivity sensitivity and and vigilance, second, to delineate vigilance, second, to delineate those those parts of his his work work that that could could convey convey his awareness and and to develop his epistemological epistemological awareness develop them into aa more more coherent coherent formulation, to trace tracehis hisepistemological epistemological development development through through the the formulation, third, to different phases phases of of his his career career and the way this development different development interacted with his wider formulationsand andwith with his his own own life, life, and and finally finally to his wider theoretical theoretical formulations examine the present-day relevance of of his epistemological contribution contribution in in the the light of wider developments developments and current debates debates in in this this field. field. Needless Needless to to say, these these objectives objectives will have to to be be scaled scaled down down considerably considerably in in scope scope in in order single chapter. chapter. order to fit within the space limitations of aa single About e p iste m o l ogy and and methodology m etho d o l ogy About epistemology

Before will be be important important to to develop develop aa working working Before going going any any further, further, itit will understanding of what is meant by epistemology and methodology. As their respective elds are respective fifields are vast vast and there are many technical definitions of both of them, our understanding understanding to to aa working working conception conception them, itit will be useful to limit our of them, them, for the purposes of this chapter. is often often translated translated The Greek Greek logos logos is Epistemology episteme. The Epistemology is the logos logos of episteme. as study, science, science, discipline, discipline, systematic systematic investigation investigation and discourse. discourse. In In as study, Greek, knowledge but, but, not not surprisingly, surprisingly, it has an interesting Greek, episteme means knowledge scientia, does does history meanings; the equivalent, scientia, history and and a wide range of meanings; the Latin equivalent, not rich philosophical philosophical past. past. not seem seem to to share this rich epistamai ephistemi and and epistamai Etymologically, verbs ephistemi is related related to to the verbs episteme is Etymologically, episteme which and 'to 'to know know how', how',respectively. respectively. Both Both which mean mean 'to `to set set or or place upon' and implying some some king of `oververbs upon (epi) 'over­ (epi) implying verbs refer refer to to standing standing over over or or upon seeing' signified by 'standing seeing' activity. activity. Whereas in English to understand is signified epistema is is under', Greek it is by by standing standing over, over, above. above. The The noun noun epistema under', in in Greek it is 'anything monument over (Liddell and and Scott Scott 1869: 1 869: 'anything set set up, up, e.g., aa monument over a grave' (Liddell marking a 575). could be be understood understoodasas the the act act of of marking episteme could 575). Therefore, Therefore, episteme territory was observed observed and and comprehended. comprehended. territory that was in ancient Greek There episteme in There isis long long debate debate about about the the meaning meaning of of episteme philosophy Aristotle) . This This is is mainly mainly in in connection connection to philosophy (mainly (mainly in in Plato and Aristotle). (which isis often often translated translated as as art, art, craft or practice). its techne (which its opposition opposition to to techne to knowledge knowledge of In episteme to In short, short, the the general general trend trend has has been been to to attribute attribute episteme pure t heory and techne to the know-how connected with practice and and know-how connected with practice pure theory and techne to IIpplication. In other words, the predominant tradition has been to equate application. In words, the predominant tradition been to C'l'is(('f1/e technology. This to applied applied technology. techne to to theoretical theoretical knowledge knowledge and and techne episteme to e flect ed somehow poly­ is is rreflected somehowininthe the old old division division between betweenaa university university and and a polyHowever, this Pan-epistemeion and Poly-techneion). However, this sharp technic ( in Greek Poly-techneion). technic ( in Greek Pan-epistemeion and disti nction isis not example, Plato has Socrates Socrates clarifying distinction not always always valid. valid. For example, (techne) of of that t he k nowledge (cpis((,IIIt ) of hea l t h is the medical craft of health is the medical craft (tedme) (epistolic) that the knowledge ' Ithe hl' ph ysicia n (('//(//"/IIidl'.I", \(1)C). III 01 her words. accord i n g So c r a te s I (,5c). In other words, according to Socrates, (Charmide.v, physician .

110 0 Renos Renos K. K. Papadopoulos Papadopou los

applied and and theoretical knowledge are are not not in aa mutually applied theoretical knowledge mutually excluding excluding and and oppositional relationship. oppositional This debate debate is is not unrelated to Jung's This Jung's own own understanding understanding of ofknowledge knowledge and craft in psychology and psychology and psychotherapy. psychotherapy. For example, example, Michael M ichael Whan suggeststhat that Jung's Jung's approach transcends ((1987) 1 987) suggests transcends the the opposition opposition between between as the phronesis as and proposes proposes the the term techne and episteme term phronesis the most approappro­ and techne episteme and priate term priate term that that characterises characterises the the Jungian Jungian approach. approach. Thus, Thus, for for Whan, Whan, Jungian therapeutic practice practice is is not based Jungian based either either on on 'theoretical 'theoretical knowledge' knowledge' or on 'technical or 'technical knowledge' knowledge' but on on an an awareness awareness which which he he terms terms 'ethical 'ethical consciousness'.In In fact, fact, the the ethical consideration has has been proposed as consciousness'. ethical consideration as aa drive in in mental mental health health care, care, in general dominant epistemological epistemological drive general (and not not only in relation to the only the Jungian Jungian approach) approach) and and as assuperseding superseding the the perceived perceived (Crowden 2003). Needless to say, episteme (Crowden and episteme techne and dichotomy between 2003). Needless say, dichotomy between techne Jung would have strongly agreed that an an ethical ethical stance stance cannot cannotbe bedivorced divorced from epistemological and technical from epistemological and technical considerations; considerations; indeed, indeed, on numerous numerous occasions he emphasised occasions emphasised this very point (e.g., (e.g., Jung Jung 1949: 1 949: par. par. 1412, 1 4 1 2, 1934a: 1 934a: par. 315; 3 1 5 ; McFarland McFarland Solomon Solomon and and Twyman Twyman 2003; 2003; von von Franz Franz1975). 1 975). in the the context context of the the Jungian approach approach The reference to episteme vs techne in is indicative is indicative of the complexities complexities involved involved in delineating boundaries boundaries between between these debates, debates, of of course, course, are are not limited only to the the various disciplines; disciplines; these the therapeutic realm. Indeed, the problematic problematic acceptance acceptance of of knowledge knowledge outside the framework of of ethical ethical perspectives perspectives is universal universal and it it affects affects most most areas areas of human proposed the primacy human activity. activity. Characteristically, Characteristically, Levinas Levinas proposed primacy of of ethics and maintained maintained that that no noknowledge knowledgewas waspossible possible without withoutreference reference to to ethical ethical considerations considerations (e.g., (e.g., Bernasconi Bernasconi and and Critchley Critchley 1989; 1 989; Cohen Cohen 1986; 1 986; Levinas This strong strong and close Levinas 1984). 1 984). This close relationship relationship between between knowledge knowledge and ethics makes it imperative to investigate judiciously their boundaries so so that that their can be be understood their interrelationships interrelationships can understood better. better. Indeed, Indeed, without without this this specific understanding, understanding, many specific many dangerous dangerous confusions confusions and andepistemological epistemological errors can can be be committed. committed. For For example, example, this this isis particularly particularly evident evident when when are made made attempts are to understand understand and and deal deal with withthe theeffects effectsofofpolitical politicalviolence violence from from exclusively psychological and psychopathological perspectives exclusively psychological psychopathological perspectives [without [without considering] intrapsychic, interpersonal interpersonal and and external external dimensions considering] intrapsychic, dimensions .. .. . . [and without appreciating] the wider political, historical, appreciating] the wider political, historical, social, social, econecon­ omic, ethical, ethical, spiritual spiritual and and moral moralperspectives. perspectives. (Papadopoulos 2005: 2005: 46) 46) (Papadopoulos Then, Then, often often we we tend tend to to become become 'prone 'proneto toget getconfused confused and andcommit commitmethodomethodo­ logical and epistemological errors, ending up psychologising logical epistemological ending up psychologising the the political political realm realm and and pathologising pathologising human humansuffering' suffering' (Papadopoulos (Papadopoulos2005: 2005:46). 46). t hc epistemology, the ofepistemology, meaningof Returning to workingmeaning ofaaworking developing of the developing to the as epistemology to refer majority of definitions in non-specialist dictionaries refer to epistemology as dictionaries majority of definit ions in non-specialist

11 Jung's m o logy a and n d methodo logy 11 Jung'sepiste epistemology methodology

'the validity' 'the theory theory of knowledge, knowledge, especially especially with with regard regard to to its its methods methods and and validity'

((Oxford Oxford English technical texts texts define define epistemepistem­ English Dictionary). Dictionary). Other, Other, more more technical ology conditions, and ology as as 'the 'the philosophical philosophical inquiry inquiry into into the the nature, nature, conditions, and extent of knowledge' (Sosa (Sosa and and Kim Kim 2000b: 2000b: ix). ix). Essentially, Essentially, epistemology epistemology of human human knowledge' is how we we know know that we we know, know, of of what what constitutes constitutes a is the the study study of of how a valid understanding/explanation/knowledge. A Amore understanding/explanation/knowledge. moregeneral general definition definition that that would would be be that that epistemepistem­ would offer offer aa working working framework framework for for this this chapter chapter would ology systematic investigation investigation of makes us us accept accept (think/feel) (think/feel) ology is is the the systematic of what makes that we know know something, something, of certain territory territory as as that we of what what makes makes us us mark mark aa certain observed comprehended. This means that that epistemology epistemology addresses addresses not not observed and and comprehended. This means only make the the knower knower know know but but also also the the interaction interaction only the the conditions conditions that that make between the known, known, as as well well as as the thecircumstances circumstances within within between the the knower knower and and the which place. which this this interrelationship takes place. Continuing etymological approach to definition, definition, methodology methodology is is Continuing with the etymological approach to the the logos logos of of methodos. methodos. The The Greek Greek word word methodos methodos is is aa composite composite of of meta meta and ( implying development), and odos. odos. Meta Meta means means after after (implying development), and and odos odos is is the the road, road, the route. Therefore, Therefore, methodos following after' after' (Liddell (Liddell the route. methodos literally literally means means 'a 'a following and Scott 1869), 1 869), following set way. way. The The Ox ford and Scott followingaaroad, road, adhering adheringto to aa set Oxford English OED) defines particular procedure procedure for for English Dictionary Dictionary ((OED) defines method method as as 'a 'a particular accomplishing also 'orderliness accomplishingor or approaching approaching something', something', and and also 'orderliness of of thought thought 'a system system of of or behaviour'; hence, hence, methodology methodology (according or behaviour'; (accordingto to OED) OED) is is 'a methods particular field'. field'. This This means means that thatmethodology methodology refers refers to to methods used used in in aa particular the application of the epistemological epistemological premises the application of the premisesthat thataa person person holds holds at at aa given given time. In this chapter, chapter, methodology methodology will will be be used used to to refer refer to to the thespecific specific ways ways In this that Jung used to apply his epistemology, i.e., the ways he followed which that Jung used to apply his epistemology, i.e., the ways he followed which were unconsciously) by his particular particular epistemology epistemology were guided guided (consciously (consciously or or unconsciously) by his (cf. also Dieckmann 1 99 1 ; Penna 2004). In other words, whereas epistem­ (cf. also Dieckmann 1991; Penna 2004). In other words, whereas epistemology would be related to his assumptions about sources of knowledge and ology would be related to his assumptions about sources of knowledge and evidence, methodology would be related to the manner in which Jung evidence, methodology would be related to the manner in which Jung applied these insights in in the the ways ways he he developed developed his his theory theory and and practice. practice. applied these insights Jung's e p i ste m o l og i cal sensitivity s e n si tivity Jung's epistemological

Refore investigating specific epistemological epistemological positions and developdevelop­ Before investigating Jung's Jung's specific positions and ment , it will be appropriate to first establish and emphasise the fact that he he ment, it will be appropriate to first establish and emphasise the fact that a particularly acute epistemological sensitivity. hud had a particularly acute epistemological sensitivity. An excellent excellent example example of this sensitivity sensitivity and and resulting resulting methodology methodology is is An of this offered in Ulysses (Jung (Jung 1932a). 1 932a). The The full ful l title title of ofthe the essay essay is is olThred inJung's Jung's essay essay on on Ulysses " ' Ulysses": aa monologue' monologue' and and ititis, is, indeed, indeed, Jung's Jung'sown ownmonologue, monologue, recordrecord­ "'Ulysses": ing his his own o w n reactions reactions to to James James Joyce's Joyce's novel. novel. Jung Jung first first writes writes about abouthis his ing vi ews on the novel novel and a nd gradually g ra d ua lly becomes hecomes irritated Then, all all of of aa views on the irritated hy by it. it. Then, Iilllhk'l1 he he tturns i s aattention t tcnt ion tto o his his own own irritation i rri t a t io n and and writes: writes: 'Joyce 'Joyce has has sudden urns hhis II r1lllSl'd my nose into into his his own own t he reader's reader's nose Illy ill ill will. wil l. One Om' should shollid never Ill'Vl'r rub rll h the aroused

1 2 Renos RenosK.K.Papadopoulos Papadopoulos 12

stupidity, but but this this is is just Ulysses does' does' (Jung (Jung 1932a: 1 932a: par. par. 167). 1 67). Jung, Jung, at at stupidity, just what what Ulysses this point, point, stops stops writing writing about about his hissubject subject matter matter and andinstead insteadbegins begins to to this observe himself himself and his own own very very reaction;' reaction; l he he continues: continues: 'A 'Atherapist therapistlike like observe and his myself is is always always practising practising therapy therapy — - even even on on himself. himself. Irritation Irritationmeans: means: myself You haven't haven't yet yet seen seen what's what's behind behindit. it.Consequently Consequently we we should should follow follow up up You our irritation irritation and and examine examine whatever whatever it it is is we we discover discover in in our our ill ill temper' temper' our (Jung 1932a: 1 932a: par. par. 168). 1 68). (Jung Although the the analyst analystreader readerof ofJung's Jung'sessay essaywill willaccept acceptthis thisincident incidentas asan an Although ordinary example example of of Jung's Jung's awareness awareness of of his his own own countertransference countertransference to to ordinary Joyce's novel, novel, in in effect, effect, this this is is also also aa clear clear illustration illustration of ofJung's Jung'sepistemoepistemo­ Joyce's logical awareness as Jung Jung attempts attempts to to trace trace back backthe thesource sourceof ofhis his logical awareness in in so so far far as own assumptions, assumptions, knowledge knowledge and feelings. In fact, the the process process of of councoun­ own and feelings. In fact, tertransference is but an an example example of ofan anepistemological epistemological procedure procedure tertransference is nothing nothing but in action, action, during during psychotherapy. psychotherapy. When When the the analyst analyst tries tries to to catch catch himself himself or or in herself and and observes observes where where certain certain feelings, feelings, thoughts or even even words words said said to to herself thoughts or the analysand analysand come come from, from, to to all all intents intents and and purposes, purposes, the theanalyst analystisisperper­ the forming an an epistemological epistemological tracking of course, course, to to attending attending to to forming tracking (in (in addition, addition, of whole lot lot of of other other parameters). parameters). The The attempt attempt to to trace trace back back the the origin origin and and aa whole context of of one's one's own own assumptions assumptions isis the theessence essence of ofthe theepistemological epistemological context procedure and this is what countertransference is about. procedure and this is what countertransference is about. Freud who In this this context, context, it it is is worth worth noting noting that that although although itit was was Freud who first first In 'discovered' the phenomenon of countertransference ( Freud 1 9 1 0), it was `discovered' the phenomenon of countertransference (Freud 1910), it was Jung who emphasised its positive contribution to the therapeutic process Jung who emphasised its positive contribution to the therapeutic process (e.g., 1 9 1 61 1 948). Freud, of his his life, life, considered (e.g., Jung Jung 1916/1948). Freud, for for most most of considered countertrans­ countertransference as an obnoxious interference of the analyst's pure position position as as ference as an obnoxious interference of the analyst's pure observer of the analysand. On the contrary, Jung appreciated that counter­ observer of the analysand. On the contrary, Jung appreciated that countertransference the source source transference is is an an essential essential tool tool through through which which analysts analysts can can trace trace the of their own thoughts, feelings and even actions (verbal and otherwise) in of their own thoughts, feelings and even actions (verbal and otherwise) in relation to their analysands, and it is for these reasons that he recommended relation to their analysands, and it is for these reasons that he recommended that 'the sine is the the analysis analysis of of the the analyst, analyst, what what is is called called the the training training sine qua qua non non is that 'the analysis' (Jung: Memories. Dreams. Re flections (MDR), p. 1 54). Jung pro­ p. 154). Jung proanalysis' (Jung: Memories, Dreams, Reflections (MDR), posed the institution of personal analysis (training analysis) for analysts-in­ posed the institution of personal analysis (training analysis) for analysts-intraining so that that they they become become perfect in order order to to learn learn how how training not not so perfect and and pure pure but but in to learn from their own reactions during the course of their analytical work; to learn from their own reactions during the course of their analytical work; in words, Jung to know know what what in other other words, Jung wanted wanted future future analysts analysts to to know know how how to makes them know. makes them know. This es to epistemological awareness. it This example example testifi testifies to Jung's Jung's epistemological awareness. Moreover, Moreover, it also shows how Jung put into practice this awareness, i .e. , it illustrates his also shows how Jung put into practice this awareness, i.e., it illustrates his resulting resulting methodology. methodology. In essay, Jung follows up up his his epistemological epistemological awareness awareness with with In the the 'Ulysses' 'Ulysses' essay, Jung follows aa systematic investigation of the sources of his 'knOWledge'. Not only does systematic investigation of the sources of his 'knowledge'. Not only does he what is is the the he catch catch himself himselfbeing beingirritated irritatedbut butalso alsohe he tries tries to to find find out out what meaning of this irritation. ' Irritation means: You haven't yet seen what's meaning of this irritation. 'Irritation means: You haven't yet seen what's behind irritation and and examine e xa m i n e behind it. it. Consequently Consequently we we should should follow followup up our our irritation

Jung's epistemology and and methodo methodology 13 J u ng's epistemology l ogy 13

whatever it i t is we discover in our our ill ill temper' temper' (Jung (Jung1932a: 1 932a: par. par. 168). 1 68). Once Once he he becomes consciousof of the the presence of a certain becomes conscious presence of certain way way of ofreacting reacting (i.e., ( i.e., irritation) irritation) he begins begins to to observe observe himself, himself, by by 'practicing 'practicing therapy therapy even even on on himself'. himself'. In this this way, way, therapy therapy becomes becomes almost almost synonymous synonymous with with the the very very epistemological tracking of of one's one'ssources sources of ofknowledge. knowledge. Another example is to be found in his example of of Jung's Jung's epistemological epistemological vigilance vigilance is his views views about the the uses uses and and abuses abusesof ofcase casehistories. histories.With Withincisive incisiveperceptiveperceptive­ ness, ness, he warned that The with the The empirical empirical intellect, intellect, occupying occupying itself itself with the minutiae minutiae of ofcasecase­ histories, histories, involuntarily imports its its own own philosophical philosophical premises premises not not only only into the arrangement arrangement but also also into into the the judgement j udgement of of the the material material and and even even into the apparently apparently objective objective presentation presentation of of data. data. (Jung 1935a: 1 935a: par. 548) 548) This quotation quotation is important because Jung's is very important because it demonstrates demonstrates the the degree of Jung's awareness of the complexities of how the knower knows. Philosophy here is awareness complexities of how is not an abstraction or a school of thought one chooses consciously to adhere abstraction or a school of thought one chooses consciously adhere to. By 'philosophical `philosophical premises' premises',, Jung here refers to the cognitive process process that inevitably orders and structures our perception according to various inevitably orders and Our perception according various ways ways that create `involuntarily' certain premises, assumptions that create 'involuntarily' certain premises, assumptions that colour colour our our understanding and make us understanding us accept that we we have have aa certain certain knowledge knowledge about something -—aapatient, patient,in in this this example. example. Jung Jung stresses stresses that that this this structuring something process happens happens at at least at three at the the very very 'presentation' `presentation' of the process three levels levels — - at (case-) material, material, at at the 'arrangement' `arrangement' and (case-) and at at the the `judgement' 'judgement' of ofit. it. Whereas Whereas itit is evident evident that that our judgements are is are influenced influenced by certain `premises' 'premises' of of ours, it it is not not easily easily acceptable acceptable that that there there is is a certain degree is degree of 'involuntary' interinter­ ference by by some some 'philosophical `philosophical premises' premises' even even in the `apparently ference 'apparently objective objective presentation of presentation of data'. data'. Usually, Usually, people people believe believe that t hat aa `fact' 'fact' is a 'fact' 'fact' and and when when presents the the '`facts' of the the case, that no no aa therapist therapist presents facts' of case, it is is usually usually believed believed that epistemological colouring colouring (of a substantial epistemological substantial degree) degree) is is involved in influencing the presentation. The whole whole tradition tradition of of case-history based on on this the presentation. The case-history isis based this 'objectivity'. ItIt is is remarkable remarkable that that Jung, Jung, at that 'objectivity'. that time, time, was was concerned concerned about the 'objectivity' `objectivity' of of such such innocuous innocuous presentations. This awareness leads Jung the to generalise generalise this this epistemological epistemological process: process: 'What `What is the use of even the most to most accurate and and punctilious work if it is accurate is prejudiced prejudiced by by an an unavowed unavowed assumpassump­ tion? Any Any science science worthy worthy of of the the name must criticize tion? criticize its own own assumptions' assumptions' (Jung par.548 548). Thisstatement statementshows showsthat that Jung Jung extends extends his his epistemo­ epistemo(l ung 11935a: 935a: par. ) . This logicalawareness, awareness,as asititapplies appliesto tothe the analytical analytical situation, situation, to address scientifi scientific logical c method et h od iin n general, general, thus thus anticipating anticipating current current epistemological epistemological approaches approaches m (cf. Ba Bitteson teson1 1979; deShaser Shaser 11982; Keeney 11983; Neil and and Kniskern (cl'. 979; de 982; Keeney 983; Neil Kniskern 1982; 1 982; Selvini-Palazzoli et al. al. 1978; Watzlawick et al. 1974). Scl v i n i - Palazzoli et 1 978; Watzlawick 1 974). These two two exam examples show.lJung's sharp sen sensitivity to the the importance importance of of These ples show ung's sharp s i t i v i t y to epistemologicall'ollsith:rat considerations, notollly onlyi llin psydlOt psychotherapy but aalso in the the cpistcllwlogil:al iolls, Ilot herapy hut lso in

Renos K. K. Papadopoulos Papadopoulos 114 4 Renos



wider scientific scientificenquiry. enquiry.Without Without using using the the word Jung wider word 'epistemology', 'epistemology', lung demonstrateshis his epistemological epistemologicalacumen. acumen.This This can can be be epitomised epitomised by by his demonstrates his statement, in in 11947, that 'all 'all knowledge some kind kind statement, 947, that knowledge is is the the result result of of imposing imposing some of order order upon upon the the reactions reactions of of the the psychic psychic system system as as they of they flow flow into into our our consciousness'(lung (Jung 11947: par. 362). 362). Throughout Throughouthis his life life and and work, work, lung Jung consciousness' 947: par. displayed aa remarkable displayed remarkable awareness awareness of of these these epistemological epistemological processes. processes. an outl outline of h his epistemological development JJung: ung: an ine of i s ep iste m o l o g i cal d eve l o p m ent Early writing writings and work work s and Early

In aa letter In letter to to Freud, Freud, very very early early in intheir theirprofessional professional relationship relationship (on (on 29 29 December 11906), Jung felt felt the December 906), lung the need need to to delineate delineate their their differences differences and and identified fifive points on on which which 'we 'we do do not not see see eye eye to identified ve points to eye' eye' (McGuire (McGuire 1974: 1 974: The first first was was about about the the different different clinical clinical 'material' 'material' Jung 114). 4). The lung was was working working am working working .. .. .. with with ((I with ' I am with uneducated uneducated insane insane patients patients .. .. .. with with Dementia Dementia praecox', as as opposed to Freud's Freud's educated elite of Jung did praecox', opposed to educated elite of Vienna Vienna which which lung did not in the the letter, letter, but but it not mention mention in it is is implicit); implicit); the the third third was was about about their their differences in in experience experience(lung (Jung was was nineteen years younger differences nineteen years younger than than Freud), Freud), and the fourth was about the 'psychoanalytic talent' that Jung and the fourth was about the 'psychoanalytic talent' that lung felt felt that that Freud had more 'both in in quantity Freud had more 'both quantity and and quality'. quality'. As As fifth, fifth, Jung Jung cited cited the the `defect' of of having having not not received received direct direct training training from 'defect' from Freud Freud and and for for the the lack lack of of contact contact with with his his older older master. master. But But itit isis the thesecond second one one that thatneeds needs our our attention. Jung put it simply, epigrammatically and strongly: 'my attention. lung put it simply, epigrammatically and strongly: 'myupbringupbring­ ing, ing, my my milieu, milieu, and and my my scientific scientific premises premises are are in in any any case caseutterly utterlydifferent different from your own' own' (McGuire (McGuire 1974: 1 974: 14). 1 4). Jung lung did did not not elaborate elaborate on on any any of ofthe theissues issues he he stated stated in in his hissecond second point point (either in the same letter or subsequently in other letters) (either in the same letter or subsequently in other letters) and and Freud, Freud, responding on the the New New Years Years day day (1 responding on ( I January lanuary 1907), 1 907), did did not not address address at atall all the differences that Jung identified but, instead, implored him, 'I beg the differences that lung identified but, instead, implored him, 'I beg of of you, deviate too from you, ... . . don't . don't deviate toofar far fromme mewhen whenyou youare arereally reallysosoclose closeto tome' me' (McGuire (McGuire 1974: 1 974: 18). 1 8). In In other other words, words, Freud Freud was was not not prepared prepared to to consider consider their differences, especially at a time when he was too keen to strengthen their differences, especially at a time when he was too keen to strengthen their at aa professional their closeness closeness both both at professional and and at at aa personal personal level. level. Above Above all, all, that that was was aa critical criticaltime timeand andboth bothwere wereneeded neededto towork worktogether togetherto toestablish establishand and legitimise legitimise psychoanalysis. psychoanalysis. As As aaresult, result,these thesedifferences, differences, so soclearly clearlyoutlined outlined by by Jung, lung, were were not not followed followed up up either either by by him him or or Freud Freud again. again. What What did did Jung Jungmean meanby bythese thesedifferences? differences? Why Why was washe hesosodefinitive, definitive, writing writing that that he he was was 'utterly 'utterlydifferent', different', not notjust just'different'? 'different'?Ultimately, Ultimately,what what does does he he mean mean by by 'scientific 'scientific premises', premises', here? here? In In order order to to address address these these questions, questions, itit isisimportant important to tobe bereminded reminded of of Jung's lung'slife lifeand andwork workuntil untilthat thatpoint. point.InInterms termsofofemployment, employment, he hewas wasstill sti ll working working at atthe theBurghOlzli Burgh61zli hospital in in Zurich Zurich and and in in terms terms of ofwriting, writing, the the major majorworks workshe hehad had completed completed were were his his doctoral doctoral dissertation dissertation and andhis hisearlier ear l ie r

15 J Jung's u ng's epistemology ethodo logy 15 epistemologyand andmmethodology

Zofingia Zofingialectures; lectures;by by that that time, time, he he had had also also completed completed most most of ofhis hiswriting writing on on traditional psychiatric issues and had published his first psychoanalytic traditional psychiatric issues and had published his first psychoanalytic paper i n support At the the BurghOlzli Burgh61zli hospital, paper ((in support of of Freud's Freud's theory theory of of hysteria). hysteria). At hospital, in addition to his psychiatric work, Jung was conducting pioneering in addition to his psychiatric work, Jung was conducting pioneering research the Word Word Association Association Test. Test. research in in schizophrenia schizophrenia using using mainly mainly the In so far as he emphasised his differences from Freud (before In so far as he emphasised his differences from Freud (before they they even even met), lung showed how strongly he felt about his own identity, not only as as met), Jung showed how strongly he felt about his own identity, not only aa professional but also in terms of his established position with reference professional but also in terms of his established position with reference to to scientifi c investigation. scientific investigation.What Whatwas wasthis thisposition positionand andininwhat whatway way was was itit related related to to his his epistemological epistemological sensitivity? sensitivity? Zo(ingia Zofingia lectures lectures While student, Jung lung gave gave five five lectures lectures (1896-1899) ( 1 896- 1 899) at at the the While he he was was still still aa student, Zofingia member. In In these these lectures, lectures, he he Zofingia student student society society of of which which he he was was aa member. addressed of science, science, psychology, and the the addressed issues issues such such as as the the nature nature of psychology, religion religion and nature scientific enquiry, from aa thoughtful thoughtful and and philosophical philosophical perper­ nature of of scientific enquiry, all all from spective. of his his understanding understanding of of epistemoepistemo­ spective. These These lectures lectures show show the the depth depth of logical and methodological methodological issues issues and and provide provide the the researcher researcher with with aa unique unique logical and opportunity lung's early earlyphilosophical philosophicaland andscientific scientific premises. premises. The The opportunity to to trace trace Jung's positions similar to to the the ones ones he he held held as as positions he he developed developed here here were were remarkably remarkably similar aa mature mature thinker thinker in in his his later later life, life, so so much much so so that that some some authors authors went went as far as far as claiming that that Jung's lung's 'philosophical 'philosophical attitude' attitude' revealed revealed in in these these lectures lectures as claiming remained his life life (Nagy (Nagy 1991: 1 99 1 : 12). 1 2) . Such Such aa claim claim remained unaltered unaltered till till the the end end of of his would be rather rather far far fetched fetched because because ititignores ignoressome someimportant importantdifferentidifferenti­ would be ations Jung lung made made during duringthe thecourse courseof ofdeveloping developinghis histhought; thought;nevertheless, nevertheless, ations it would accurate to to accept accept that, that, with with regard regard to to his his overall overall philophilo­ it would be be fairly fairly accurate sophical position, the foundation foundation of of most most of of his his subsub­ sophical position, these these lectures lectures laid laid the sequent work. work. Here Here are are some some of of the the basic basic premises premises (relevant (relevant to to this this chapter) chapter) sequent that he he developed developed in in these these lectures. lectures. that First, in in tracing tracing the the 'Border ' Border Zones Zones of of Exact Exact Science', Science', Jung lung rejects rejects the the First, positions of both 'contemporary 'contemporary sceptical sceptical materialist materialist opinion' opinion' (1896-1899: ( 1 896- 1 899: positions of both par. 63) 63) and and metaphysics metaphysicsarguing arguingfor forthe theneed needof ofaathird thirdposition positionininbetween. between. par. At that that time time he he found found vitalism vitalism to to be be that thatthird thirdpossibility. possibility. According According to to At vitalism, life life is is aa vital vitalprinciple principle which which isis distinct distinct from from the the material material realm realm vitalism, of physics physics and and chemistry, chemistry, although although connected connected with with it. it. Throughout, Throughout, Jung Jung of retained this tendency to reject both the mechanistic approach to science as retained this tendency to reject both the mechanistic approach to science as well as the blindly religious approach and always strove to develop a third well as the blindly religious approach and always strove to develop a third principle. His His early early espousal espousal of ofvitalism vitalismwas wasto tobe bereplaced replacedsuccessively successivelyby by principle. other formulas which were never that dissimilar to this initial formulation' other formulas which were never that dissimilar to this initial formulation; however, aall l l of of them them included included aa stance stancewhich which was wasintroduced introduced in inthese thes� however, first time a strong emphasis on the primacy of the lec t u res for t he lectures for the first time a strong emphasis on the primacy of the product either of mech­ as a an independent rea lm. not psychological as psychological as an independent realm, not as a product either of mech"!listic materialism material ism or or of ofabstract abst ractmetaphysics. Illet a ph ysics. anistic

1 1 6 Renos RenosK.K.Papadopoulos Papadopoulos 16

The physical physical phenomena phenomena have have been been studied studied and and threshed threshed out outdown downto to The the last detail. Metaphysical phenomena are virtually a closed book. the last detail. Metaphysical phenomena are virtually a closed book. Surely it it would would be be valuable valuable to to inquire inquire into into properties properties other otherthan thanthose those Surely with which we have long been familiar. with which we have long been familiar. (Jung 1896-1899: 1 896- 1 899: par. par. 65) 65) (Jung Second, related related to to the the above, above, was was Jung's Jung'semphasis emphasis on onthe thepersonal personalexperiexperi­ Second, ence as opposed to 'inductive scientific method' (par. 1 75). ence as opposed to 'inductive scientific method' (par. 175). The only only true true basis basis for forphilosophy philosophyisiswhat whatwe weexperience experienceourselves ourselvesand, and, The through ourselves, of our world around us. Every a priori structure through ourselves, of our world around us. Every a priori structure that converts converts our our experience experience into into an an abstraction abstraction must must inevitably inevitably lead lead us us that to erroneous conclusions [and again] Our philosophy should consist in to erroneous conclusions [and again] Our philosophy should consist in drawing inferences about the unknown . . . on the basis of real experi­ real experidrawing inferences about the unknown . . . on the basis of and not not in in drawing drawing inferences inferences about about the the inner inner world world on on the the basis basis ence, and ence, of the outer, or denying external reality by affirming only the inner of the outer, or denying external reality by affirming only the inner world. world. ((par. par. 175) 1 75) These quotations demonstrate demonstrate Jung's Jung's sharp sharp epistemological epistemological clarity clarity in in These quotations rejecting psychologising the world or or imposing imposing meaning meaning from fromexcluexclu­ rejecting either either psychologising the world sively This fine fine delineation delineation was was another anothercharacteristic characteristic sively external external parameters. parameters. This in his subsequent epistemology. in his subsequent epistemology. Third, it is is in in the the context context of ofthe thesecond second argument argument that thatJung Junginsisted insisted in in Third, it emphasising hallmark of of his his emphasising his his 'empirical' 'empirical' approach, approach, which which was was another another hallmark later philosophy must have an an empirical empirical foundation' foundation' later methodology. methodology. 'All 'All philosophy must have 1 75). H is avowal both the the empirical empirical nature nature of ofhis his enquiry enquiry as as well well ((par. par. 175). His avowal for for both as of the the psychological psychological created as the the primacy primacy of created much much perplexity. perplexity. Yet, Yet, for for Jung Jung these 'The primary primary concern concern of ofempirical empirical these positions positions were were not not contradictory. contradictory. 'The psychology theories of psychologyisis to to supply supply factual factual documentation documentation supporting supporting the the theories of rational psychology' (par. ( par. 114). 1 1 4). rational psychology' The with data data ideally ideally designed designed The new new empirical empirical psychology psychology furnishes furnishes us us with to knowledge of of organic organic life life and and to to deepen deepen our ourviews views of of the the to expand expand our our knowledge world Our body body formed formed of ofmatter, matter, our our soul soul gazing gazing toward toward the the world .. .. .. Our heights, Man lives lives at the heights,are arejoined joinedinto intoaa single singleliving livingorganism organism. .... Man at the boundary boundary between between two two worlds. worlds. (par. 1 42 ) (par. 142) In dual emphasis emphasis of of seemingly seemingly opposing was to to In later later years, years, this this dual opposing methods methods was take seeing himself 'empiricist' as well as 'phe­ take the the form form of of seeing himselfboth both as as an an 'empiricist' as well as aa 'phe1 99 1 ). nomenologist' Brooke 1991). nomenologist' (cf. (cf. Brooke Fourth, epistemological concept Fourth, another another epistemological concept that that Jung Jung first first introduced introduced in in the the Zofingia most important important Zofingialectures lectureswas wasteleology. teleology.This Thisisisone one of of Jung's Jung's most

Jung's epistemology andmmethodology 17 J u ng's episte m o l ogy and ethodology 17

methodological methodological approaches approaches and during during these theselectures lectures (paradoxically) (paradoxically) he he connected connected it it with with causality. causality. Jung Jung understood understoodthis thisconnection connectionas asfollows: follows: he he believed that humans believed that humans are driven driven to enquire enquire after after the the cause cause of ofthings, things, so so much much so so that that he heeven evenspoke spoke about abouta a'causal 'causalinstinct'. instinct'.Inevitably, Inevitably, this this instinct 'leads us, aa priori, priori, away away from from all all externality externality to to the the inwardness inwardness of of transcendent causes' (par. 224); this is is so because transcendent causes' 224); this because 'the chain of of cause cause and and effect is is infinite' infinite' ((par. 1 97) and once one one keeps keeps on on enquiring enquiring after after the thecause cause par. 197) of things things one one will will eventually eventually begin begin to look look for for patterns patterns beyond beyond the thevisible visible and external. external . But But this this kind kind of ofenquiry, enquiry, in in effect, effect, is is about about not notjust justthe theorigin origin . of things thlllgS but but also also about about their theirorder, order,their theirpurpose purposeand andultimately ultimately their their meaning (von Franz 1983: 1 98 3 : xx). xx). 'The The gratification gratification of of the the need need for forcausal causal meaning (von thinking is truth' 1 7 1 ). Behind Behind causality causality there there was was an anobjective objective thinking is truth' (par. ( par. 171). purpose: Radical i.e., those those who who regard the world as Radical subjectivists, subjectivists, i.e., as illusion, illusion, and and multiplicity as a show multiplicity as show of ofglittering glittering nothingness, nothingness, deny deny any anyobjective objective purpose. That That is, purpose. is, they they do do not notacknowledge acknowledge the the existence existence of of any any teleology external external to to man, man, and instead teleology instead claim claim that that we we ourselves ourselves have have projected onto onto the the world, world, out out of our own projected own heads, heads, the the idea idea of of the the purpur­ posefulness of nature. posefulness (par. (pa r. 175) 1 75) This means that Jung, This Jung, even even at atthis thisbeginning beginningstage stageofofhis hisscientific scientific career, career, held the the centrality not only only in relation held centrality of teleology teleology not relation to to human human motivation motivation and enquiry enquiry but also as aa general and general principle principle in nature, at large. large. The final final point point that needs The needs to to be be identified identified from from the the Zofingia Zofingia lectures lectures is is privileging of morality. morality. Following Following Kant's primacy � eging of primacy of of morality, Jung Jung JJung's ung' s privi . . . criticised sCience scienceand and materialism materialismfor for 'poisoning 'poisoning morality' morality' (par. (par. 137) cntlclsed 1 37) and declaredthat that 'no `no truth truth obtained by unethical unethical means means has has the the moral moral right right to declared exist' ((par. are reflected in the the emphatic 1 38). Jung's Jung's strong strong feelings feelings are reflected in emphatic lanlan­ exist' par. 138). guagehe heused usedin in order order to to press press his his point; point; he he went went as as far far as as advocating advocating 'a 'a guage "revolution from above" by forcing morality on on science science. .. . .. for for after all forcing morality "revolution from above" scientistshave havenot not hesitated hesitated to impose their scepticism and moral rootlessscientists scepticism and rootless­ nesson onthe the world' world' ((par. The strong moral foundation ness par. 138). 1 38). The foundation of of epistemology epistemology that Jung Jung established established in in these these lectures lectureswas wasto to remain remain with withhim himtill tillthe theend end of of that his life. Throughout, he was passionate that no production of knowledge his life. Throughout, he was passionate no production of knowledge should be be placed placed above above ethical ethical considerations. considerations. This This relates relates to to the earlier should earlier discussion of the ethical dimensions of epistemology. discussion of the of epistemology. Doctoral Doctoral dissertation dissertation

Asitit isiskknown, for this thisdissertation, dissertation,.lung Jungwrote wrote an an account account and and analysis analysis of of nown, for As hisoh observations of aa I1 5-yea 5-year-old girl ((whom he ggave fidse initials initials S.W.) S.W.) his s e rv a ti o ns 01" r-old girl whom he a ve tthe he t�t1se who, as as aa med medium, seances. In In fact, lelene who, i u m , held held spiritualistic spi ritual ist ic seanccs. fact, this girl was IHelene

1 8 Renos Renos K. K. Papadopoulos Papadopou l o s 18

('Helly') Preiswerk, who was long period period was a relative relative of of Jung's Jung's mother. Over a long investigated, as only the the content content of of of time, Jung investigated, as a participant observer, not only also Helene's Helene's overall overall progress progress from from an aninsecure insecure little little girl girl to to the seances but also self-assertive mature an epistemological epistemological point of of view, view, the a self-assertive mature woman. woman. From an of his his doctoral doctoral dissertation dissertation were were the the following following four. four. main features of of the the first first times times that that Jung, Jung, in inaaprofessional professional context, context, First, this was one of attempted to look for for the the meaning meaning behind behind the the external external formulations formulations of attempted to look verbalisations - the in his was beyond beyond the the verbalisations — thefocus focus of of his hisenquiry enquiry ((in his dissertation) dissertation) was expressed the meaning meaning this this language language had had expressed language language of of the the medium medium and and on the for in her her own own specific specific circumstances circumstances and He did did not notaccept accept for her, in and context. He alleged communications but tried tried to toseek seek the the her alleged communications with with spirits spirits at face value, but meaning Helene in the the context context of ofher her own own development. development. For For meaning they they had had for Helene example, that she she communicated communicated with with certain certain spirits spirits that thatwere were example, he he noted that frivolous and superficial and ung understood understood this as Helene's Helene's need to get get frivolous and superficial and JJung in touch touch with with her her own own childish childish part part which which did did not not have have much much opportunity opportunity in to be be actualised. actualised. Later, Later, he he noted noted that that Helene's Helene's main main 'guide 'guide spirit' spirit' became became to another one who was a serious, mature and devout person; Jung under­ another one who was a serious, mature and devout person; Jung understood this as Helene's need to connect with the ideal personality in her her stood this as Helene's need to connect with the ideal personality in which was in the making. All this shows how J ung was keen not to get which was in the making. All this shows how Jung was keen not to get trapped in the expressed language of the phenomena but to seek the trapped in the expressed language of the phenomena but to seek the meaning language had had for for the the person. person. meaning that that language Second, and closely connected the above, above, is is Jung's J ung'sexpressed expressed Second, and closely connected with with the primacy of the psychological. To put it simply, J ung was not interested primacy of the psychological. To put it simply, Jung was not interested inin whether the spirits spirits existed existed or not but but he he was was interested interested in inthe thepsychological psychological whether the or not meaning and implications of the fact that Helene herself believed thatshe she meaning and implications of the fact that Helene herself believed that was communicating with spirits. This approach was going to become was communicating with spirits. This approach was going to become aa characteristic ung's epistemology. epistemology. Throughout, he emphasised emphasised his his right right characteristic of of JJung's Throughout, he to examine the the psychological psychological meaning the phenomena phenomena he he was was investiinvesti­ to examine meaning of of the gating, of the the phenomena, phenomena, always always believing believing that that he he gating, regardless regardless of of the the nature nature of was not violating violating the the phenomena phenomena themselves. themselves. By By clearly clearly delineating delineating the the was not psychological of these these phenomena, phenomena, Jung Jung gave gave himself himself psychological angle angle and and meaning meaning of the l icence to any field field and and examine examine their their psychological psychological implicaimplica­ the licence to move move into into any tions; later in in his his career career he he was was going going to tofollow followthe thesame sameepistemological epistemological tions; later approach to investigate investigate phenomena could come come under under various various other other approach to phenomena that that could headings, etc. Here, Here, in in his his doctoral doctoral headings, e.g. e.g.,, 'insanity', 'insanity', 'religion', 'religion', 'politics', 'politics', 'art', 'art', etc. dissertation, Jung respecting respecting the nature of of the the phenomena phenomena he hewas wasinvestiinvesti­ dissertation, Jung the nature gating i.e., spiritualistic), spiritualistic), all he was was interested interested in in was was the thepsychological psychological gating ((i.e., all he impact on Helene. Helene. impact they they had had on Third, perhaps Jung's Jung's most most important important theoretical theoretical innovation, innovation, which which was was Third, perhaps also of great great epistemological epistemological value, his understanding understanding that that Helene's Helene \ also of value, was was his communications had aa teleological teleological function function (Haule ( Haule 1984; 1 984: communications with with 'spirits' `spirits' had Papadopoulos 1 980). During During her her mediumistic mediumistic career, career, Helene Helene was Papadopoulos 1980). was contacting contacting different the most most important important `spirits' 'spirits' she she connected connected with with different 'spirits' `spirits' and and one one of of the was of a a person person she she called called `Ivenes'. ' Ivenes'. It Ivenes that Jung said said was that that of It was was about about Ivenes that Jung

epistemologyand andmethodology methodology 19 JJung's u ng's epistemology 19

that she that she was was aa `serious' 'serious' and and `mature 'mature person'. person' . Jung Jung observed observed that that by by `anticipates her her own future and connecting with Ivenes, Helene 'anticipates and embodies embodies in in Ivenes what what she wishes Ivenes wishes to be be in intwenty twentyyears' years'time time— - the theassured, assured, wise, wise, gracious, pious lady' (Jung 1902: gracious, 1 902: par. 116). 1 1 6). This means that Ivenes was for Helene what what Papadopoulos called an 'Anticipated Helene Papadopoulos (1980, ( 1 980, 1984) 1 984) called 'Anticipated Whole Whole Other', other words, words, an an other other personality personality in in her her which which anticipated anticipated her Other', in other own not see see and and own wholeness. wholeness.The Theimportant importantpoint point here here isis that that Jung Jung did not phenomena in in terms of their pathological meanunderstand psychological psychological phenomena mean­ ing only, he also appreciated that that psychological psychological functioning functioning (including ( includingeven even pathological symptoms) symptoms) have have a certain teleological function, they point to pathological teleological function, to was to remain one of the purpose and goal of of one's one's development. development. Teleology was of Jung's most characteristic characteristic elements elements of of his his epistemological epistemological approach. approach. Finally, in his research for his doctoral dissertation Finally, dissertation Jung Jung introduced introduced his his specificmethod method of of participant participant observation which specific which was was to to become become his his characcharac­ teristic Jung sat in in the the teristic approach approach to to methodology. methodology.In In the the same same way way that that Jung spiritualistic seances of Helene's both as a participant participantas as well well as as an an observer, observer, so with the the same same method method in in his hispsychotherapeutic psychotherapeutic practice practice so did he continue with well as as in in other other scientific investigations. This means that as well scientific investigations. that he he always always valued valued was produced and in the that knowledge knowledge was produced by experience experience and the context context of ofinterinter­ what modern modern systemic epistemologists would would call call 'co­ 'coaction with others others — - what systemic epistemologists construction' of of knowledge knowledge (e.g., (e.g., Coulter Coulter 1995; 1 995; Fulford Fulford et et al. al. 2003; 2003; Gergen Gergen and Gergen and and Gergen Gergen 2003; 2003; Glaser Glaser and and Strauss Strauss 1967; 1 967; Davis 1985; 1 985 ; Gergen and Davis Hermans and Hermans-Jansen Hermans-Jansen 1995; 1 995; Sarbin Sarbin 1986; 1 986; Young Young 1997). 1 997). BurghOlzli Burgholzli During ung's period period of of work work atatthe the Burgh61z1ipsychiatric psychiatric hospital hospital During JJung's BurghOlzli (between 900 and 1 909), this centre of pionpion­ (between 11900 and 1909), this famous famous institution institution was was the the centre eering directorship of of Professor Professor Eugen Eugen Bleuler, Bleuler, the the eering research. research. Under Under the directorship originator term `schizophrenia', 'schizophrenia', a talented originator of of the term talented team team of ofinternational international clinicians academic clinicians and and researchers researchers studied studied psychotic psychotic conditions conditions both from academic research clinical perspectives. perspectives. First, we will will examine examine the key key research as as well well as clinical First, we epistemological ung's psychiatric-therapeutic psychiatric-therapeutic work this epistemologicalfeatures featuresof of JJung's work of of this period of his his research research work. period and and then of Continuing his doctoral doctoral dissertation, dissertation, one con­ Continuing on on from from his one of Jung's Jung's main concerns search for the the meaning meaning of ofhis hispatients' patients'verbalisations. verbalisations. cerns became became the the search Again, not accept accept that that what what his hispatients patientssaid saidwas wasmeaningless meaningless Again, he he did did not hecausc to dismiss dismiss what what they they because they they came came from from insane insane people; people; he he did did not want to suid endeavoured to to seek seek the uniqueness of of said as as just just insane insane talk. talk. Instead, Jung endeavoured Iheir patients who whowere were `completely 'completely demented demented their meaning. meaning. Even with chronic patients liand nd given MDR, p. given 10 to saying the craziest things which made no sense at all' ((MDR, p. 1147), 47 ) , .lung they were were saying, saying, 'which 'which 'had ' had hitherto hitherto Jung found found mcaning meaning in in what they hbeen een regarded mca n i n gless' ((MI)R, M O/?, p. 1 47). For example, exam p le, one regarded as as meaningless' p. 147). one patient used a i l ''II am am Socrates' SOLTa l l's' deputy' de p u t y ' and a nd Jung .l u ng found ro und out o u l(by ( hyinvestigating invcstigating used to to w wail

20 Renos RenosK.K.Papadopoulos Papadopo u l os 20



closely circumstances) that 'was intended intended to to mean: mean: closely her her personality personality and and circumstances) that she 'was p. 147). am unjustly unjustly accused accused like like Socrates"' Socrates'" (MDR, 1 47). Sometimes, Sometimes, by (MDR, p. "I am working actively towards developing an of their their language language working actively towards developing an understanding of lung was able to produce produce remarkably remarkably positive positive changes, changes, even 'curing' them, them, Jung like with schizophrenic old that was was hearing hearing aavoice voice whom whom she she like with the schizophrenic old woman that called voice' and ' ''We must must rely rely on that voice"' voice'" called 'God's voice' and lung Jung told her that "`We (MDR, 1 48). By way that thatwas wasoffering offering not not only only p. 148). By relating relating to to her in aa way (MDR, p. validation but also also bestowing bestowing aa certain certain meaning meaning to to the themeaninglessness meaninglessness of of her 'insane' voices, voices, Jung lung was able to to achieve achieve an 'unexpected 'unexpected success' success' in her her 1 48). treatment (MDR, p. 148). treatment (MDR, It is important to to acknowledge acknowledge that that the the emphasis emphasis on on meaning meaning was was not not an an invention was part part of of the the overall overall ethos ethos and and approach approach invention of of lung's, Jung's, but but it was developed Bleuler. Characteristically, Brill (the (the American American psychopsycho­ developed by Bleuler. Characteristically, A.A. Brill analyst who was was also part of of that that research research group groupatatthe theBurghOlzli) Burgh6lzli) wrote wrote the psychiatrists psychiatrists at that that institution institution at at the thetime time'were 'werenot notinterested interested in in that the (Brill 1946: 1 946: 12). 1 2). This does what the patients said, said, but in what what they they meant' meant' (Brill not invalidate Jung's lung's contribution contribution but butititprovides providesits itscontext; context;he hewas wasable able to to connect philosophy to own approach approach and, and, most most importantly, importantly, to to connect this this philosophy to his own develop and reach reach his his unique unique epistemological epistemological positions. positions. develop it further and Word association association experiment Many important important innovations innovations were were introduced introduced at at the theBurghblzli Burgholzli by by the the work work with and applications of the word association experiment; although the with applications the word association experiment; although the concept of 'complex' is considered to be the the most most important importantone, one,nevertheneverthe­ less, there are some some significant significant epistemological epistemological elements elements that that also alsoemerged emerged less, there are from this work and which which contributed to to the the formation formation of ofJung's lung'sdefinition definition of knowing person. person. of aa knowing To begin with, with, the actual actual Word Word Association Association Test Test (WAT) (WAT) was was based on on the psychological school said, was was aa the psychological school of of 'Associationism' 'Associationism' which, which, itit could could said, theory of of knowledge, knowledge, i.e., i.e., an an epistemology. epistemology. More M orespecifically, specific ally, the the essence essence of of Associationism was mental activity activity is is based based on onassociations; associations; i.e., i.e., Associationism was that that our mental our knowledge knowledge and awareness of product of ofvarious various combicombi­ and awareness of things things is is a product nations associations which which we we have have of ofelements elements derived derived from from sense sense nations of associations experiences. ages developed developed and updated updated experiences.Philosophers Philosophersthroughout throughout the the ages different laws of of association association — - from and Aristotle Aristotle to to different theories theories and and laws from Plato and more modern thinkers thinkers and andpsychologists. psychologists. In Inpsychology, psychology,associationism associationism more entered ( 1 705- 1 757), Galton (1822-1911) ( 1 822- 1 9 1 1 ) and Wundt Wundt (1832( 1 832entered via Harvey (1705-1757), 11920). 920). Although examined word AlthoughGalton Galton and and Wundt Wundt examined word association association as as part part of their investigations into into the the field field of ofcognitive cognitive functioning, functioning, itit was wasKraepelin Kraepelin their investigations ((1856-1926), 1 856- 1 926), an earlier superintendent superintendent at at the theBurghEilzli Burgholzli hospital, hospital, who who an earlier developed the actual WAT W AT and and Jung lung eventually eventually was was appointed appointed(by (byBleuler) Bleuler) developed the actual in charge of the the programme programme using using this this research research tool. tool. The The Burghblzli Burgholzli prepre­ in charge occupation AT was was not theoretical theoretical but but applied applied to to abnormal abnormal occupation with with the the W WAT

JJung's u ng's episte m o l ogy and ethodo l ogy 21 epistemology andmmethodology 21

psychology; psychology; they they were were interested interested in in understanding understanding the mechanisms involved in the 'schizophrenic' 'schizophrenic' mind. mind. Bleuler's Bleuler's main main contribution contribution in in renaming renaming in the 'dementia ('schizophrenia') meant that `dementia praecox' praecox' by by introducing a new term (`schizophrenia') this involves an this condition condition does does not not create create aa 'premature deterioration' but itit involves actual personality and and functioning. functioning. The The WAT W AT was was actual split split within the patient's personality used, the way way the the schizophrenic schizophrenic patients patients developed developed their their used, in in effect, effect, to study the perception 'split personality' personality' perception and and knowledge knowledge in in order order to to trace the way the 'split functions. responses to the the stimulus stimulus words words were were analysed analysed according according functions. Their responses to various categories (semantic, and, (semantic, phonetic, phonetic, syntactical and grammatical) and, experimentally, experimentally, itit was was possible possible to to identify identify that that inner split. This was found in terms terms of discerning discerning various various themes themes that that formed coherent wholes in the body of their their responses. responses. More specifically, specifical1y, lung the responses responses that that Jung found found in the certain thoughts with with aa degree degree of ofemotional emotional charge charge certain clusters clusters of of ideas ideas and thoughts formed entities which 'complexes'. lung not invent invent formed distinct distinct entities which he he termed termed 'complexes'. Jung did not this but he he gave gaveititthis thisspecific specific research research definition: definition: 'An 'An emotionally emotionally this term but charged charged complex complex of of ideas ideas becomes becomesso sopredominant predominant in in an an individual and has such influence that such aa profound profound influence that itit forms forms aa large large number number of of constellations constellations .... .. all referring (lung and and Riklin Riklin 1904: 1 904: 82). But such a referring to this complex of ideas' (Jung nucleus, independent perception perception and and nucleus, aa centre centre in oneself that generated an independent knowledge effect, represented represented another within an an knowledgeof of things, things, in in effect, another 'mind' 'mind' within individual. later, individual. As As lung Jung put itit later, We are, ed in regarding the the complex complex as somewhat somewhat aa small small are, therefore, justifi justified secondary mind, which deliberately deliberately (though (though unknown to consciousness) drives which are contrary to to the the conscious conscious inteninten­ drives at at certain intentions which tions of the individual. (lung 1 9 1 1 : par. 1352) 1 3 52) (Jung 1911: Therefore, epistemological perspective, perspective, Jung's lung's theory theory of ofcomplexes complexes Therefore, from an epistemological enabled appreciate that the the knowing knowing subject subject is not aa unified unified entity entity enabled him him to appreciate but the various various complexes complexes that the person. person. Thus, Thus, but itit is is divided divided by by the that grip the the various the complexes complexes created created aa divided divided knowing knowing subject subject according according to to the various thematical complexes formed. that by by graspgrasp­ thematical divisions divisions that that the complexes formed. This means that 1 980), Jung lung ing of psyche's dissociability (Papadopoulos (Papadopoulos 1980), ing the the essential essential nature nature of was to increase increase substantially substantially the the complexity complexity of of his his epistemological epistemological was able able to grasp nature. grasp of human nature. 'my rem ises .... . 'my scientific scientific ppremises

'

IItt is to the the questions questions asked asked above, above, in in connection connection with with is now now possible possible to to return return to JJung's ung's identification identification of his differences from Freud. To be reminded, in of his differences from Freud. To be reminded, in his letter to his older col1 e a g ll e at the end of 1 906, lung identifi e d three his letter to his older colleague at the end of 1906, Jung identified three ddifferences: i fferences: ttheir heir ''upbringing', u phringing', 'milieu' ' m ilieu' and and'scientific sc ie nt i fi c premises'. premises'. By By 'scientific 'scientific pn.'mises', in t he l"IlIl k x t o f t hl' i r rl ' s l K l t iw work , .l ung m ust h a ve mea n t the t he premises', in the context of their respective work, Jung must have meant '

'

,

22 Renos 22 Renos K. K. Papadopoulos Papadopoulos

specificways wayseach eachone oneof ofthem themdefined definedtheir theirsubject subjectmatter matter and and went went about specific investigating it, it, i.e., i.e., their epistemology and methodology. investigating methodology. More M orespecifically, specifically, by 'scientific premises' lung Jung must have referred by 'scientific premises' referred to the the way way they theyanswered answered questions such such as: questions as: what constituted evidence evidence for their their investigations? investigations? How did they know that that they did they had had arrived arrived at at knowing knowing something? something? How How did did they they construe their knowing subjects? subjects? Initially, the the reader reader would would be be puzzled Initially, puzzled to read that that Jung lung even even before before he he had developed and collaboration had developed aa close close relationship relationship and collaboration with with Freud Freud (by (by the the he wrote wrote about about his 'scientific premises' in in a way that conveyed end of 1906), 1 906), he 'scientific premises' a certain conviction conviction that he he had had already already formed formed such such'scientific 'scientific premises' premises' and, moreover, stating that that they and, moreover, stating they were were different different from from those those of of Freud's. Freud's. However, the the same same reader reader would However, would not not be be puzzled puzzled anymore anymore after after reading reading the outline the outline of ofJung's lung'sachievements achievements and andestablished established epistemological epistemological and and methodological positions which methodological which he had already reached by the the end end of of1906. 1 906. Although the correspondence between the the two two men men started only that Although correspondence between that year year and they they did did not not meet ((1906) 1 906) and meet in person person until until aa couple couple of of months months later later ((February February 1907), 1 907), Jung's lung's letter letter (of (ofDecember December 1906) 1 906) conveys with clarity his firm belief firm belief that their their 'scientific 'scientific premises' premises' were were different. different. In short, short, Jung's lung's assertion about about their theirdifferences differences suggests suggests the the following: following: 1 Jung lungwas wasaware awareofofthe therelevance relevanceofofepistemological epistemological and andmethodomethodo­ logical principles principles ((i.e., 'scientific premises') premises') in in analytical analytical theory and logical i.e., 'scientific practice. 2 This Thisawareness awarenesswas wasdeveloped developed well well before before he he met met with with Freud Freud and, and, therefore, itit was therefore, was not not connected connected directly directly with with Freudian Freudian psychopsycho­ analysis. 3 3 The Theusual usualversion versionofoftheir theirprofessional professionalrelationship, relationship, which which both both Jung lung and Freud Freud originated originated and and perpetuated, perpetuated, i.e., that Jung lung started started as a mere disciple disciple of of Freud's Freud's is not accurate as itit is is not not supported supportedby by the evidence that these in this evidence that these observations observations in this chapter chapter provide. provide. This This means that their means their version version of ofevents events must must have have been beendeveloped developed for for other, possibly reasons, related related to the possibly psychological psychological reasons, the dynamics dynamics of of their personal personal relationship. relationship. (Papadopoulos 1980, 1 980, 1984) 1 984) (Papadopoulos Therefore, in in the light Therefore, light of of this this analysis analysis of ofthese these observations, observations, itit would would be be difficult difficult to accept accept the the accuracy accuracy of of Jung's lung's dramatic dramaticassessment assessment which which he he wrote in his his autobiography, autobiography, referring referring to his his break break with with Freud: Freud: wrote When parted from from Freud, Freud, I knew knew that that II was wasplunging plunging into into the the When II parted unknown. unknown. Beyond Beyond Freud, after after all, all , II knew knew nothing; nothing; but but II had hadtaken takenthe the into darkness. darkness. step into (MDR, p. 225) 225)

23 JJung's u ng's epistemo logy and ethodology 23 epistemology andmmethodology

These Thesestrong strongwords words'unknown', 'unknown', 'nothing' 'nothing' and 'darkness' do not correspond with the evidence that lung, even before meeting meeting Freud, Freud, had had established established with the evidence that Jung, even before clear epistemological positions, and, moreover, they contradict his own own clear epistemological positions, and, moreover, they contradict his 1 906. Thus, position that was conveyed succinctly in his letter of December position that was conveyed succinctly in his letter of December 1906. Thus, these that his his these words words can can be be puzzling, puzzling, especially especially ififwe wetake take into into consideration consideration that 1 906) did subsequent subsequent work work (after (after 1906) did not not produce produce substantial deviations deviations from these following years, years, Jung lung introduced, introduced, these epistemological epistemological positions; positions; in in the the following indeed, developments, but of his basic basic indeed, many many important important theoretical developments, but in terms of epistemology epistemologyand and methodology, methodology, he he did did not not deviate deviate much much from from the the founda­ founda1 906. Why, Why, then, then, did Jung lung keep keep to this this false false tions he had laid laid by by 1906. tions that that he version categorical tone nearly version of of events, events, still still writing writing about about them them in in such a categorical half century later? later? Why he keep keep on on perpetuating perpetuating this this myth? myth? In In half aa century Why did did he addition to the the psychological psychological reasons reasons (which (which can be extremely extremely powerful addition to can be powerful and and with lung retained retained this this conviction conviction with long-lasting long-lasting effects), effects),itit isis possible possible that that Jung because or at at least least on on something something becauseitit was was based based on on some some partial partial truth, truth, or paradoxical paradoxical.. One understanding this accept that that Jung's lung's strong strong One way way of understanding this puzzle puzzle is is to to accept words his (alleged) (alleged) total ignorance after after his his break break with with Freud Freud may may words about about his total ignorance refer perspective from own work: work: itit was was refer to to another perspective from which which lung Jung saw his own 980, 11984) 984) that of his his argued argued elsewhere elsewhere (Papadopoulos (Papadopoulos 11980, that during during the the period period of association (lung's 'psychoanalytic 'psychoanalytic period') period') and and after after his his break break association with with Freud Freud (Jung's with Freud (in ( in 1913) 1 9 1 3) there there was was aa disjuncture disj uncture between between Jung's lung's epistemology epistemology with Freud and his own own actual actual theories; theories; it it was was only later that that Jung lung was was able able to to develop develop and his only later theories to his his already already established established epistemepistem­ theories which which fitted fitted more more appropriately appropriately to ology. means that that Jung's lung's epistemology epistemology preceded preceded his his theories. theories. More More ology. This This means specifically, and large, large, Jung lung went went specifically,during duringhis his association associationwith with Freud, Freud, by by and overboard accept and and adopt adopt the theFreudian Freudianversion versionof ofpsychoanalysis psychoanalysis as as overboard to to accept his the fact fact that that he he did did not notfeel feelsatisfied satisfied with with it; it; the the fit fit between between his own, own, despite despite the his Freudian psychoanalysis psychoanalysis was good one. one. his epistemology epistemologyand and the the Freudian was not not aa good lung felt uncomfortable this and and eventually eventually parted parted ways ways from Jung felt uncomfortable about about this from Freud Freud and gradually developed developed his his own own language language that that corresponded corresponded better better with with and gradually his set 'inclinations' 'inclinations' and andepistemological epistemological positions. positions. his already already set Therefore, this version version of of accounting accounting for for the the discrepancy discrepancy between between Jung's lung's Therefore, this 1 906 and and his his categorical categorical assessment assessment (in his autobioautobio­ Ictter December 1906 letter of of December (in his graphy) 'darkness' he he had had stepped stepped into into after after he he left left Freud, Freud, is is graphy) about about the the 'darkness' based distinction between between Jung's lung's epistemology epistemology (which (which was was the the sum sum of of based on on aa distinction his 'scientific foundations of of his his approach, approach, his 'scientific assumptions', assumptions', which which formed formed the the foundations lind which which were, were, in in fact, fact, his his `natural' 'natural' `inclination' 'inclination' as as to to how how he heapproached approached and h i s work work both both theoretically theoretically and and practically) practically) and and his his 'official' 'official' theoretical theoretical his pos i t io ns (which the theories theories that thathe heespoused espousedand andidentified identified positions (which referred referred to to the professionally with). with). Once Once such such a a distinction distinction is is made, made, it it is is then then possible possible to to prokssionally understand the t he contradiction contradiction between between his his letter l et ter of of 1906 1 906 (claiming (claiming that that he he understand hud clear dea r positions, positions. and and they t hey were were different di fferent from from those those of of Freud's) Freud 's) and and his h is had writ ing ill his autobiography a u tohiogra phy (that ( I hal after a fl e r Freud ""'eud he he knew knew nothing). not hing). In I n other ot her writing in his

24 Renos 24 Renos K. K. Papadopoulos Papadopo u l o s



words, Jung Jung was was not not not telling words, telling a truth truth in inhis hisautobiography autobiography — - he was was referring to to his his explicit theoretical formulations referring explicit theoretical formulations which which could identify identify his his professionalpositions, positions,whereas whereasinin his his 11906 letter he he was was referring professional 906 letter referring to his his epistemology. epistemology. A comparable distinction between A between Jung's 'official 'official theoretical theoretical language' language' and his own personal 'inclination' 1 980, and ' inclination' was was made madeelsewhere elsewhere (Papadopoulos (Papadopoulos1980, 2002),where whereJung's Jung's'inclination' 'inclination'was wasarticulated articulated in in more more detail. detail. More 11984, 984, 2002), specifically,ininthose thosestudies, studies,Jung's Jung's official officiallanguage languagewas wasunderstood understood to to be specifically, the result of his professional 'persona', which he felt it was important for the result his professional 'persona', which he felt for him to maintain; in addition (and in contrast), Jung had another perspective him Jung had another perspective on his and which on his work work which which was was his his epistemological epistemological inclination inclination and which was was informed by another problematic that was driving his theoretical informed by another problematic that was driving his theoretical and and professional development. development. That perspective professional perspective (his (his epistemology) epistemology) was was identiidenti­ fied as his 'problematic of the other' which referred to his intense interest in fied as his 'problematic which the dissociability of the the psyche, psyche, i.e., i.e., in in the way various forms the dissociability of forms of of 'other'other­ nesses' were active in one's personality and the ways these 'others' nesses' were active in one's personality ways these 'others' interinter­ related among among themselyes themselvesand andalso alsorelated relatedtoto the the main main body body of the related the personality,to to the personality, the outside outside world world and and totowider widercollective collective structures structures (Papadopoulos 11980, 2002).In In effect, effect, the the first 980, 11984, 984, 2002). fi rst two two studies studies (Papadopoulos (Papadopoulos 1980, 1984) (Papadopoulos 1 980, 1 984) proposed a new proposed new reading reading of Jung Jung which which was was based based on on the the hypothesis hypothesis that the the Jungian Jungian opus opus could could be be appreciated appreciated more more fully fully if if itit were were to to be be seen as as a series seen series of of progressive reformulations reformulations of his his understanding understanding of of the Other. Other. (Papadopoulos 2002: 170) 1 70) (Papadopoulos 2002: It was was argued argued that thatJung's Jung'stheoretical theoretical development development was was based based on on these these progressive reformulations of the Other progressive reformulations Other from animistic his childhood, e.g., animistic external external Other objects [of his e.g. , his 'own' 'own' fire, his 'own' stone, his 'own' fire, his 'own' pebble pebble and and carved carved manikin] manikin] to aa rather rather unsophisticated, global internal internal Other Other (No. personality), and and then then unsophisticated, global (No. 22 personality), from intrapsychic intrapsychic individual individual functions functions (complexes) (complexes) to to more morecollective collective forms forms of ofstructuring structuring principles principles (symbols). (symbols). The TheOther-as-archetype Other-as-archetype represents the pinnacle represents the pinnacle of Jung's theoretical theoretical endeavours endeavours as it it offers offers aa structuring principle principle which is also connected with broader cultural and and societal perspectives. This reformulation reformulationrepresented representedaadialectic dialecticbetween between the the internal internal and andexternal, external,specific/individual specific/individual and andgeneral/collective, general/collective, personal/intrapsychic personal/intrapsychic and andsocietal/symbolic. societal/symbolic. 2002: 170) 1 70) (Papadopoulos2002: (Papadopoulos Not Not only only did did that thatapproach approachoffer offeraanew new'reading' 'reading'of ofJung Jungwhich whichcombined combined almost his personal his a lmost seamlessly scamlessly his personal life life and and preoccupations preoccupations along along with with his

5 JJung's u ng's epistemology epistemologyand andmethodology methodology 225

at

professional n the o f wider wider intellectual intellectual debates debates professional curiosity curiosity and and career career iin the context context of at foundations for understanding of at his his time, time, but but also also it it laid the foundations for an understanding of Jung Jung based epistemological astuteness. words, the the best best possible possible based on on his his epistemological astuteness. In In other other words, way is in in terms terms wayof ofunderstanding understanding the the nature nature of of his his 'problematic 'problematic of of the the other' other' is of forming aa basis basis for forcomprehending comprehending the the dynamics dynamics of of the the knowing knowing of it it forming subject, terms of of epistemology. epistemology. By By endeavouring endeavouring to dissect the the subject, i.e., i.e., in in terms to dissect various various structures structures and and discourses discoursesthat that inform inform aa person person to to reach reach aa knowing knowing position, was, in in fact, fact, developing developing an an epistemological epistemological stance. This position, Jung Jung was, stance. This means when Jung Jung was was referring referring to to his his 'scientific 'scientific premises' premises' he he was was means that that when referring epistemological 'inclination' the referring to to his his epistemological 'inclination'and and his his 'problematic 'problematic of of the other' both of which were developed to a considerable degree before even other' both of which were developed to a considerable degree before even he met Freud, Freud, and and before before he he was was exposed exposed to to Freud's Freud'spsychoanalytic psychoanalytic he had had met theories. Moreover, it was argued that Jung's initial attraction theories. Moreover, it was argued that Jung's initial attraction to to Freud Freud was was based on his assumption that Freud shared the same problematic with him, him, based on his assumption that Freud shared the same problematic with i.e., epistemological premises. premises. Epistemologically Epistemologically speaking, i.e., had had similar similar epistemological speaking, that that was the reason why Jung joined the psychoanalytic movement, hoping to to was the reason why Jung joined the psychoanalytic movement, hoping fi n d a more appropriate theoretical language for his own epistemological find a more appropriate theoretical language for his own epistemological inclinations. he left left inclinations. However, However, when when he he realised realised that that this this was was not not happening, happening, he Freud and endeavoured to develop his own psychology which would be Freud and endeavoured to develop his own psychology which would be more congruent with his already well-developed epistemology. more congruent with his already well-developed epistemology. This reading of of Jung's Jung's differentiation differentiation between bctween his his epistemology epistemology (which (which This reading was more basic) and his theoretical formulations (which developed later in was more basic) and his theoretical formulations (which developed later in his l ife) offers the means to understand the phrase 'Jung before Freud' his life) offers the means to understand the phrase 'Jung before Freud' 1 998; Shamdasani Shamdasani 2003). 2003). which introduced later later (cf. (cf. Taylor Taylor 1998; which was was introduced Although this distinction (between his epistemology and body Although this distinction (between his epistemology and the the main main body of his theories) resolves the puzzle of the discrepancy between Jung's letter of his theories) resolves the puzzle of the discrepancy between Jung's letter 1 906 and his statements statements in in his his autobiography, autobiography, ititstill still leaves leaves something something of of 1906 and his unclear. not fully fully aware of this this distinction? distinction? On the one one hand, hand, unclear. Why Why was was Jung Jung not aware of On the he remarkable clarity clarity about about the theimportance importanceof ofhis hisepistemology epistemology and and he had had aa remarkable on the other other hand, hand, he he seemed seemed to to be be ambivalent ambivalent about about it. it. This This was was perhaps perhaps on the due to his his fear fear that thatififhe hewas wastotoemphasise emphasisetoo toomuch muchthe theepistemological epistemological due to nature of his his theories theories he he could could have have been been considered considered as philosopher and and nature of as aa philosopher thus dismissed for for not notbeing beinga aserious serious 'scientist' -psychologist which which he he thus dismissed `scientist'—psychologist wanted to be seen seen as, as, in in order order to to gain gain respectability respectability for for his his work. work. Another Another wanted to be possibility is Jung may may have have taken taken his his epistemology epistemology for for granted, granted, almost almost possibility is that that Jung as his his 'inclination' 'inclination' and, and, therefore, therefore, as as different different from from (and (and of oflesser lesser importimport­ as ance than) than) the the main main body body of ofhis histheoretical theoretical work; work; according according to to this this perper­ ance spective, Jung not consider consider his his epistemology epistemology of of great importance in in its its spective, Jung did did not great importance own right, right, as as aa free-standing free-standing contribution. contribution. Certainly, Certainly, at at that thattime, time,there therewas was own explicit field field of of epistemology epistemology of of psychotherapy psychotherapy to to assist assist him him in inappreciappreci­ no explicit no ating the signi fica n ce of of his his positions. positions. t he significance ating hnally, returning returning to t he December Decem her 1906 1 906 lletter, e t te r, it is also also important i!11 P ortant to to Finally, to the it is appreciate that hy grouping grou ping all all the t he three t h ree difThrences d ifferences together 'upbring­ appreciate that by together 'upbring' mi lieu' and ing', 'milieu' and 'scientific sc i c J l t i l i c premises', p n' l l 1 i sl's · .lJung ung demonstrated dcmonst rated that, t h a t , even even at at that that ing', '

.

26 Renos 26 RenosK. K.Papadopoulos Papadopoulos



early time, time, he he was was aware aware that the 'scientific premises' are are not unrelated early 'scientific premises' unrelated to one's own personal history (upbringing') one's ('upbringing')as aswell wellas astotothe thewider, wider,collective collective contexts ('milieu'). (milieu). This contexts This is another another important important insight insight that that he he retained retained throughout: one's epistemology is not not an abstract theoretical throughout: epistemology is theoretical construct but is embedded embedded in one's individual is individual and andcollective collective realities. realities. Later writings and work Although Jung's lung's basic basic epistemological epistemological positions positions were were established established by by 1906, 1 906, neverthelessthere thereare are some some additional additional insights insights that that contributed nevertheless contributed to the the development of the final model of development final epistemological epistemological model of his his psychology. psychology. These These include following: include the following: •

• • • •

•

the collective collective dimension of of knowledge knowledge teleology: knowledge knowledge in in the making teleology: an epistemology of of archetypal archetypal teleology. teleology.

of know/edge knowledge collective dimension The dim ension of The collective

During visit to to the United During his his lecturing lecturing visit United States States with with Freud Freud in in September September in one 11909, 909, in one of of his his presentations presentations at atClark ClarkUniversity University (in ( inWorcester, Worcester, Massachusetts), M assachusetts), lJung ung returned to aa piece piece of of research he had conducted conducted with with his student student Dr Emma Emma Ffirst. Furst. He He had had already already published published a paper paper on on the the his subject earlier (lung 1 907) and, again, he he included included material material from from subject two years earlier (Jung 1907) the same same study century study in in his Tavistock Tavistock Lectures Lectures more more than than aa quarter of a century That study offers 1 935b). That offers a clue to the the development development of of Jung's lung's later (Jung (lung 1935b). understanding of of one one of ofhis hismost mostsignificant significant epistemological epistemological insights. insights. Collected Works The study, study, included Works as 'The 'The family family constelconstel­ The included in in lung's Jung's Collected lation' lation' (1909), addressesone one application applicationof of the the WA WAT. ( 1 909), addresses T. lJung ung and Fiirst Furst administered WAT to all all members members of oftwenty-four twenty-four families. families. The The two two administered the the WAT researchers analysed obtained responses responses according according to the theexisting existing researchers analysed the the obtained 'logical-linguistic criteria' criteria' (Jung (lung1909: 1 909: par. par. 1000) 1 000) which which Jung lung had haddeveloped developed logical-linguistic previous modifications modifications (Jung (lung and and Riklin Riklin1904). from previous 1 904). The Thefindings findingsshowed showed the differences differences between and among the the response response patterns patterns of ofindividual individual that the members family were random but occurred in regular and and members of of aa family were not not random but occurred in aa regular predictable fashion; predictable fashion; they showed showed that that statistically, statistically, there there were were remarkable remarkable similarities between of responses responses among among certain certain subgroupsubgroup­ similarities between the the patterns patterns of ings within within families. families. More More specifically, specifically, the results results showed showed that thatchildren's children's ings responses their fathers' fathers' responses were were more more similar similarto to their their mothers' mothers' rather rather than to their associations, and mothers' associations associations were were more more similar similar to to their their associations, and that mothers' than to to their theirsons' sons'associations. associations. daughters' rather than significance of even greater if if one one appreciates appreciates that that The significance of these these results results is even I this t his did not happen happen as as aa result result of] o f]simple simplerepetition repetitionof ofsimilar similarwords wordsby by

JJung's u ng's epistemology ethodology 27 27 epistemologyand andmmethodology

different given habits habits or or family family differentmembers membersof ofthe the family, family,due due to to the given culture family. culture within each family. (Papadopoulos 1 996: 131) 131) (Papadopoulos 1996: As daughter shares shares her mother's mother's way way of of thinking, not not only only As lung Jung put put it, it, 'the daughter ( 1 909: par. 1005); 1 005); in fact, in also in in her her form form of ofexpression' expression' (1909: in her her ideas ideas but also what relevance is of expression', expression', which can what is is of of more more relevance is not not the the shared shared 'form of be of learning, learning, but the the fact fact that that certain certain members members of the the same same be aa product of family thinking'. This This means means that that these these research research family share share the the same same 'way 'way of thinking'. findings findings require require a closer examination. The into which which the the responses responses were were The categories categories of of 'logical-linguistic logical-linguistic criteria' criteria' into grouped included 'relations of the verb to the subject', 'definition', 'con­ grouped included 'relations of the verb to the subject', 'definition', 'contrast', 'simple predicate', predicate', 'predicate 'predicate expressing expressing a personal personal judgment', j udgment', etc. etc. trast', 'simple In other words, these criteria were not addressing superficial similarities; In words, these criteria were not addressing superficial similarities; the results were showing how how frequently frequently each subject subject offered offered a response response the results were showing to the stimulus word that defined it, or was its contrast, etc. This means to the stimulus word that defined it, or was its contrast, etc. This means that the results were showing the pattern of each person's tendency to that the results were showing the of each person's tendency to perceive and structure external stimuli and how they construed logically perceive and structure external stimuli how they construed logically copy and linguistically their and linguistically their perceptions. perceptions. These Theseare are not not ways ways that that one can copy from person; these these are are deeply deeply ingrained ingrained mechanisms mechanisms that that convey convey from another person; one's unique ways of of cognitive cognitive structuring. In In effect, effect, this this research research indicated indicated that within families families there formations that 'organising that within there must must be be certain certain formations that are 'organising structures which are are collectively collectively shared' shared' (Papadopoulos (Papadopoulos 1996: 1 996: 130). 1 30). These These structures which 'shared affect the family members members strucstruc­ `shared unconscious unconscious structures' structures' affect the ways that family ture their perceptions, perceptions, knowledge, knowledge, relationships relationships and and overall overall psychological psychological ture their realities. be termed termed the the Collective Collective Structures Structures of of realities. These These formations formations 'could 'could be Meaning This meaning, meaning, of of course, course, is is not not given given but but is is immanent immanent and and Meaning (CSM). (CSM). This potential' (Papadopoulos 1996: 1 996: 136). 1 36). potential' (Papadopoulos lJung ung was at pains pains to to interpret interpret their theirresearch research findings. findings. In In his his 1909 1 909 paper, paper, was at evidently their findings, findings, he he evidently puzzled puzzled by their was unable to to offer offer any any plausible plausible explanation explanation for for these these phenomena. phenomena. was unable Instead, the context of of aa psychoanalytic psychoanalytic Instead, he he struggled to fit them within the language attributed them them to to the the'determining 'determining influence' influence' of of the the language and and attributed 1 909: par. par. 'emotional environment constellated constellated during infancy' infancy' (Jung (lung 1909: 'emotional environment 11009). 009). (Papadopoulos 1 996: 131) 131) (Papadopoulos 1996: On the basis basis of ofthat thatresearch, research, Jung lungfelt feltjustified justified to toacknowledge acknowledge 'the 'the On the determining influence of the family family background background on on[the [thechildren's] children's] destiny' destiny' determining influence of the 1 009), but at that thattime, time,confined confinedwithin withinhis hispsychoanalytic psychoanalytic ((1909: 1 909: par. par. 1009), but at ttheoretical heore t ical framework, 'background' only only in in terms terms of of framework, he he understood understood that that 'background' par. ''the t he emotional emot ional environment enviro n ment constellated constclla ted during during infancy' infancy' (Jung (lung 1909: 1 909: par. I1009). OOll ) . I In n other ung was wa s able a hle to to identify iden t i fy only only those those elements elements of of other words words,. .lJung tthese lll'se research resea rch findings findings which wh il'h titled fitted within w i t h i n his hisexisting exist ingpsychoanalytic psych oa n a l yt i c

28 Renos Renos K. K. Papadopoulos Papadopoulos 28

theory, but buthe hemust musthave havefelt felt at atodds oddswith withthe theunderlying underlying'causal-reductive' 'causal-reductive' theory, epistemology of of this this piece piece of of psychoanalytic psychoanalytic interpretation. interpretation. As As itit has has been been epistemology shown, Jung lunghad hadalready alreadya awell-developed well-developedteleological teleologicalepistemology. epistemology. shown, This means means that thatthe thefamily familyWAT W ATresearch researchmust musthave haveexposed exposedthe theimpliimpli­ This cations of ofJung's lung'sdistinction distinction between between his his underlying underlying epistemology epistemology and and his his cations 'official' theoretical positions; the latter were were confined confined within within the the Freudian Freudian `official' theoretical positions; the latter psychoanalytic model model and, and, therefore, therefore, were were unable unable to torender renderfully fullyintelligible intelligible psychoanalytic these findings. findings. More M ore specifically, specifically, according according to to Freudian Freudianpsychoanalysis, psychoanalysis, these unconscious interactions interactions between between people to be be based based on on projections projections of of unconscious people had had to one's unconscious unconscious material material onto another's; there there was was no no room room for for 'shared' 'shared' one's onto another's; unconscious structures, structures, as as this this research research suggested. suggested. Still, Still, evidently evidently unconuncon­ unconscious vinced by the causal-reductive causal-reductive interpretation his findings, findings, at the end end of of vinced by the interpretation of of his at the the paper paper Jung lung admits admits the the limitations limitations of ofhis histheory theory(i.e., ( i .e.,psychoanalytic psychoanalytic the theory) and and writes: writes: 'We 'We are are as as yet yet aa long long way way from from general general precepts precepts and and theory) rules' and, most uncharacteristically, he resorts to extolling the virtues of rules' and, most uncharacteristically, he resorts to extolling the virtues of psychoanalysis like a naive and fervent neophyte: 'Only psychoanalyses like psychoanalysis like a naive and fervent neophyte: 'Only psychoanalyses like the one one published published by Professor Freud 909, will us will help help us Jahrbuch, 11909, the by Professor Freud in in our our lahrbuch, out of this difficulty' (lung 1 909: par. 1 0 14). out of this difficulty' (Jung 1909: par. 1014). These importance because because 'By 'By discovering discovering the the These findings findings are are of of tremendous tremendous importance .. .. .. patterns of logico-linguistic structuring within pairs in families, lung, patterns of logico-linguistic structuring within pairs in families, Jung, de f acto, discovered the the intrapsychic intrapsychic interconnection interconnectionwithin withinfamilies familiesas aswell well had discovered facto, had as the various subgroupings or subsystems' within families (Papadopoulos as the various subgroupings or subsystems' within families (Papadopoulos 11996: 996: 1131). 3 1 ) . From epistemological point of view, view, Jung's lung's accidental accidental disdis­ From an an epistemological point of coveries in the family W A T research, in effect, indicate that the knowing coveries in the family WAT research, in effect, indicate that the knowing subject an independent independentbeing being arriving arrivingat atknowledge knowledgeexclusively exclusively on on subject is is not not just just an the basis of his or her own independent experience. In addition, there are the basis of his or her own independent experience. In addition, there are at sources of knowledge: first, and at least least two two more more sources of potential potential knowledge: first, the the interactional interactional and relational patterns of experience; these include the family interactions relational patterns of experience; these include the family interactions and transactions as as well well as the network network of of inter-projections inter-projections of of unconscious unconscious and transactions as the material between members of the same family as well as with the material between members of the same family as well as with the wider wider socio­ sociocultural environment ( including what lung termed 'emotional environ­ cultural environment (including what Jung termed 'emotional environment'), unconscious structures'; structures'; these these are are structures structures ment'), and and second, second, the the 'shared 'shared unconscious that are not projected by one person onto another but, nevertheless, that are not projected by one person onto another but, nevertheless, are are affecting affecting certain certain subgroups subgroups within within families. families.These Thesemust must be be structures structures of of aa 'collective' one's creation creation of of sense sense and the formaforma­ 'collective'nature nature that that contribute contribute to to one's and the tion of knowledge. tion of knowledge' This (of 1909) 1 909) shows shows how how Jung lung almost almost accidentally accidentally stumbled stumbled This paper paper (of across the phenomena of 'shared unconscious structures' which, subse­ across the phenomena of 'shared unconscious structures' which, subsequently, he was to name as 'collective unconscious'. At that time, these quently, he was to name as 'collective unconscious'. At that time, these phenomena exposed the limitations of his theory and the gap between his phenomena exposed the limitations of his theory and the gap between his epistemology and his theories. Nevertheless, as it was noted, although epistemology and his theories. Nevertheless, as it was noted, although .lung did not not work work with with families families again again Jung did did not not pursue pursue this this research, research, and and did [either clinically or in research] one could argue that the phenomena [either clinically or in research] one could argue that the phenomena he he

Jung's and methodology methodology 29 J u ng's eepistemology p i ste m o l ogy and 29

encountered encountered at at this this stage stage of ofhis hislife life never neverleft lefthim, him, instead, instead, they they[must [must have] set him a task task to to find find more more appropriate appropriateways waysof ofcomprehending comprehending them. them. His H is subsequent subsequent development development followed followed that that very very direction direction and and enabled him him to to formulate formulate aaperspective perspective within within which which the theintrapsychic intrapsychic and and collective collective realms realms interrelate interrelatemeaningfully. meaningfully. (Papadopoulos (Papadopoulos 1996: 1 996: 131-132) 1 3 1 - 1 32) The implications implications of of these these findings findings are not not limited limited only only to toJung's .lung'sepistemepistem­ ology; ology; by identifying identifying unconscious unconscious shared structures structures within within families, families, Jung lung could also be be considered considered as aa pioneer pioneer of ofmodern modern family family therapy therapy (Garnett (Garnett 1993; Papadopoulos 1996; Papadopoulos and 1 993; Papadopoulos 1 996; Papadopoulos and Saayman Saayman 1989). 1 989). Teleology: knowledge knowledge in in the making Teleology: making

Like most of of the elements of of his his epistemological position, position, by by no no means, means, did did Jung invent teleology, which which has has a long lung invent teleology, long tradition tradition in inphilosophy philosophy across across cultures and time. cultures time . Jung's .lung's contribution contribution was was that that he helocated located teleology teleology within within a specific context along along with the specific context the other other elements elements of ofhis hisepistemology epistemology and and psychological theories. theories . Teleology refers refersto to the the approach approach that considers in terms Teleology considers phenomena phenomena in terms of telos; telos, their being the goal, end, purpose and fulfilment. their telos; telos, being the goal, end, purpose and fulfilment. As As was was mentioned above, Jung espoused a teleological approach as early mentioned above, lung espoused a teleological approach as early as his his Zofingia lectures. lectures. At At that that time, he discerned discerned teleology teleology not not only only as as a method Zofingia of enquiry enquiry but but also of also as aa process process 'external 'external to man' man' (Jung (lung 1896-1899: 1 896- 1 899: par. 175), as a wider principle in life. Later, in his doctoral dissertation, 1 75), as a wider principle in life. Later, his doctoral dissertation, Jung .lung again employed a teleological approach to understand again employed a teleological approach understand the the spiritualistic spiritualistic phenomena he had observed. He felt that phenomena that Helene's Helene's spiritualistic spiritualistic experiences experiences had a teleological function in that they assisted had a teleological function in that they assistedher herpsychological psychological development and and maturity. development Jung distinguished between two two basic basic methods in approaching .lung distinguished between approaching psychopsycho­ logical phenomena: a 'constructive' or 'synthetic' method and aa 'reductive' logical phenomena: a 'constructive' or 'synthetic' 'reductive' method.He Heidentified identifiedwith withthe the former former and and he con((`causal-reductive') ,causal-reductive') method. con­ sidered the latter to be the hallmark of the Freudian approach. Adopting sidered the latter to be the hallmark Maeder's understanding of of the the 'prospective function of the unconscious' M aeder's understanding 'prospective function unconscious' (Maeder 1913) and Adler's 'anticipatory function ( Maeder 1 9 1 3) and Adler's 'anticipatory function of the the unconscious' unconscious' (Adler 11912), Jung emphasised emphasised the the 'purposive significance' of the uncon(Adler 9 1 2), lung significance' of uncon­ scious:'We 'Weconceive conceivethe theproduct productof of the the unconscious unconscious .. .. .. as an scious: an expression expression orientedto to aa goal goal or or purpose'; purpose'; accordingly, accordingly, he he understood understood that that 'the 'the aim aim of oriented the constructive constructivemethod method. .. . .. is is to elicit product a the elicit from the the unconscious unconscious product meaningthat that relates relates to to the the subject's subject's future attitude' (Jung meaning (lung 1921: 1 92 1 : par. 701). 70 1 ) . In contrast, contrast, he he considered considered that that 'The reductive In reductive method method iiss oriented oriented backback­ wards. . . . . . whether whether in in the the purely purely historical historical sense sense or or in in the the figurative figurative sense senseof of wards complex, factors hackto to something something more more ggeneral and t tracing racin� com plex, ddifferentiated i fferen t ia t ed factor s hack eneral and moreelemen elementary' par. 788). Moreover, he uunderstood more t a ry' ( (Jung .J u ll� 11921: 92 1 : pa r. 7XX ). M oreover. he nderst ood that

30 Renos RenosK.K.Papadopoulos Papadopou los 30

Jung's methodology J u ng's eepistemology p i stemology aand n d meth o d o l ogy 31 31

Reduction has has aadisintegrative disintegrative effect effect on onthe thereal realsignificance significance of ofthe the Reduction unconscious product, since this this is is either either traced traced back back to to its itshistorical historical unconscious product, since antecedents and and thereby thereby annihilated, annihilated, or or integrated integrated once once again again with with the the antecedents same elementary elementary process process from from which whichititarose. arose. same (Jung 1921: 1 92 1 : par. par. 788) 788) (Jung This means means that that in inapproaching approachingpsychological psychological phenomena, phenomena, one onecan caneither either This trace them them back back to to their their 'origin' 'origin'into intoone's one'sown ownhistory history(reductive (reductivemethod) method) trace or endeavour endeavour to to relate relate to to the the purpose purpose and andmeaning meaning they they have have in in terms terms of of or the person's person's goals goals and andfuture futureorientation orientation(constructive (constructivemethod). method).The Theconcon­ the structive method is based based on on teleology, teleology, or or according according to tothe theAristotelian Aristotelian structive method is terminology the 'final causality'. We can understand phenomena not only only terminology – the 'final causality'. We can understand phenomena not in terms of them being effects to previous causes (this would be the in terms of them being effects to previous causes (this would be the Aristotelian 'efficient causality') but also in terms of their purpose and 'final Aristotelian 'efficient causality') but also in terms of their purpose and 'final cause' – their their goal. goal. Jung's Jung's famous famous dicta dicta – neurosis neurosis 'must 'mustbe beunderstood, understood, cause' ultimately, as the suffering of a soul which has not discovered its meaning' ultimately, as the suffering of a soul which has not discovered its meaning' (Jung 1 932b: par. 497) and 'Neurosis is teleologically oriented' (Jung 1 943: (Jung 1932b: par. 497) and 'Neurosis is teleologically oriented' (Jung 1943: par. 54) testify to his committed teleological orientation. But Jung did not par. 54) testify to his committed teleological orientation. But Jung did not limit his teleological understanding to his clinical work. He maintained that limit his teleological understanding to his clinical work. He maintained that science large was was adopting adopting teleological teleological principles principles in in approaching approaching its its science at at large subject matters. For example, he argued that "'function" as conceived by subject matters. For example, he argued that function" as conceived by modern science is is by by no no means means exclusively exclusively aa causal causal concept; concept; itit is is especially especially aa modern science final or "teleological" one' (Jung 1 9 1 7: par. 688). Also, he declared boldly final or "teleological" one' (Jung 1917: par. 688). Also, he declared boldly that ' Life is teleology par excellence; it is a system of directed aims which that 'Life is teleology par excellence; it is a system of directed aims which seek to fulfil themselves. The end of every process is its goal' (J ung 1 934b: seek to fulfil themselves. The end of every process is its goal' (Jung 1934b: par. 798). par. 798). Therefore, use of of teleology teleology could could be be categorised categorised into into the the following following Therefore, Jung's Jung's use four types: four types: �

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therapeutic to psychological psychological and and referring to to his his approach approach to therapeutic teleology teleology referring psychopathological phenomena in the course of analytical therapeutic psychopathological phenomena in the course of analytical therapeutic work; work; methodological tele­ referringto to the the methodological methodological use use of of telemethodological teleology teleology referring ology in scientific investigations, in general; ology in scientific investigations, in general; human beings referringto to the the purposeful purposeful direction direction human human beings human teleology teleology referring have towards psychological development; and have towards psychological development; and natural that teleology teleology is is aa law law referring to to his his understanding understanding that natural teleology teleology referring of life. of life.

could could be be said said that thatthe theproduction productionofo fknowledge knowledge for forJung, lung,especially especially in in therapeutic onn the therapeutic contexts, contexts, involves involves the locating locating of o f oneself oneself o the pathway pathway along along which which teleology teleology is unfolding as as aa lived lived experience. experience. Instead Instead of offocusing focusing on on aa final final outcome outcome and and end end product product or orstate, state,Jung's Jung'steleological teleologicalepistemology epistemology favours favours an approach approach that that accepts, accepts, what what could could be be termed, termed, knowledge in the the making. Accordingly, Accordingly, it is not not surprising surprising that thatJung lungrepeatedly repeatedlyemphasised emphasised the process process of of individuation individuation instead instead of of the the final final product productof ofindividuated individuated state itself. itself. By being connected along with and and within within the the path pathof ofteleology teleology one derives a certain meaning and sense which is real and substantial even even if it is not not definitive definitive and ultimate in in terms terms articulating articulating itself itself in the the format format of ofaa logical and rational explanation and definition. Aware of this finer logical and rational explanation and definition. Aware this finer differentiation, Jung used the differentiation, lung the term term 'finality' 'finality' in inthis thiscontext: context: II use use the word word finality finality intentionally, intentionally, in order to to avoid avoid confusion confusion with with the concept of teleology. By finality, I mean merely the concept of teleology. By finality, I mean merely the the immanent immanent psychologicalstriving strivingfor foraa goal. goal. Instead Instead of 'striving psychological 'striving for a goal' goal' one one could also say 'sense of purpose'. All psychological phenomena could say 'sense of purpose'. All psychological phenomena have have some such such sense sense of purpose inherent in them. some them. (Jung 1916/1948: par. 456) 1 9 1 61 1 948: par. 456) (Jung Jung was evidently concerned that that teleology could imply lung evidently concerned teleology could imply a crude crude expecexpec­ tation of a definitive goal with with an an accompanying accompanying rational rational formulation formulation and, tation definitive goal consequently, chose chose to to introduce introduce 'finality' 'finality' in order to address consequently, address this very idea of knowledge knowledge in in the making. of Therefore, lung Jung developed Therefore, developed further his original understanding understanding of ofteleology teleology and refined psychological and refined it in in the thecontext contextofofhishis psychologicalepistemology, epistemology, which which continues to to receive appropriate attention (e.g., continues receive appropriate (e.g., Home Horne 2002; 2002; Jones Jones 2002; 2002; Nagy 1991; Nagy 1 99 1 ; Rychlak 1968, 1 968, 1973, 1 973, 1984). 1 984).

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All teleological understanding strong implications implications for for All four four types types of of teleological understanding have have strong Jung's epistemological approach in so far as they suggest an impossibility Jung's epistemological approach in so far as they suggest an impossibility of of complete completeknowledge knowledgeininaa definitive definitiveway, way,as asknowledge knowledgeisisrelated relatedtotoaa future future purpose means that, that, in in effect, effect, Jung's lung's epistemological epistemological teletele­ purpose and and goal. goal. This This means oology lo gy locates us. iitt locatesknowledge knowledgeininthe the very very process process of of generating generating itself. itself. Th Thus,

An epistemology epistemologyof of archetypal teleology archetypal teleology An

Having established establishedfirmly firmlythe the teleological teleologicalintention intentionasas the the basis basis of his Having his approach, lung Jung needed needed to to introduce introduce more more elements elementsto to support support itit and and render approach, more applicable, applicable, at at least least to his itit more his therapeutic therapeutic teleology. teleology. His His initial underunder­ standing of of the the collective collective structure structure of of knowledge knowledge formed formed aa good good beginning beginning standing but itit required required further further elaboration. elaboration. ItIt was was not not until until the the introduction introduction of of the the but archetypethat that Jung Jung was was able able to to furnish this elaboration. archetype From an an epistemological point of of view, Jung's theory From epistemological point view, lung's theory of of archetypes archetypes introducesaa complexity complexity that that enriches enriches his his earlier earlier formulations formulations of teleology, introduces teleology, by offering offeringaa bridge bridge between between the the personal personal realm realm and the by the wider wider collective collective More specifically, Jungsuggests suggeststhat that'Archetypes 'Archetypes. ... ststructures. ruct u res. M o re specifica l l y . .lung . . manifest manifest themselveso n only theirability abilityt to organizeimages imagesand andi deas' ideas' (lung (Jung themselves l y t hthrough rough t heir o organi::.l' ' collsciouSIll 440) and 'consciousness as we we know. know,on on. . .. .. the l 1954: lJ.'i 4: papar. r. 440 ) a lld rest s. as the ' SS . . .. rests,

32 Renos RenosK.K.Papadopoulos Papadopou los 32

archetypes' (Jung (Jung 1958: 1 958: par. par. 656). 656). Thus, Thus,epistemologically epistemologically speaking, speaking, one one archetypes' be able able to tocomprehend comprehendjudiciously judiciously the the sources sources of ofone's one'sknowlknowl­ would not be edge unless unless one effect that archetypes have on edge one appreciated the organising effect knowing process, process, on on one's one's very very consciousness. consciousness. the knowing This means means that, in in addition addition to toa areductive reductiveprocess processofofidentifying identifying the the This various contributing elements elements in aa knowing knowing process process i.e., i.e., relating relating to to personal personal various contributing history, interpersonal interpersonal transactions societal influences influences (as (as outlined outlined history, transactions and societal above), the Jungian Jungian approach approach includes includes aa constructive constructive process process that that would would above), into account accountthe thearchetypal archetypalorganising organisinginfluence. influence.Diagrammatically, Diagrammatically, take into that affect affect not not only only the the this could could be represented by by the the dotted-lined dotted-lined arrows arrows that individuals persons A B in Figure Figure 1.1) 1 . 1 ) but but also also their theirinterpersonal interpersonal individuals ((persons A and and B exchanges projections (IE (IE and andUP), U P),as aswell well as aseach each exchanges and and unconscious unconscious mutual projections person's (PH A and and PHB), PHB), and and person's interaction with their own personal history (PHA the socio-cultural influences influences (S-CI). (S-CI). the socio-cultural Figure 1.1 1 . 1 requires requires further clarification. clarification. Instead having one one single single Figure Instead of having archetype cluster of of archetype organising organisingthe the network network of of interactions, interactions, there there is is a cluster archetypes ('Network of ofArchetypal ArchetypalImages') Images')because becausearchetypes archetypesare areclosely closely archetypes ('Network interrelated seldom that only only one, one, single single interrelated among among themselves themselvesand anditit is is seldom archetype activated without archetypes also also participating participating in the the archetype is is activated without other archetypes relational other individuals individuals (Papadopoulos (Papadopoulos1996). 1 996). Moreover, Moreover, relational network with other even its own even in in the the context context of of one one individual, individual, one one archetype archetype does does not not act on its but triggers off off related related archetypes archetypes (in (in aa compensatory compensatory or orsupplementary supplementary but itit triggers way). that mostly, mostly, archetypes archetypes affect affect individuals individuals and and groups groups not not way). This This means means that in isolation isolation but but in inclusters/networks/constellations. clusters/networks/constellations. in There are some some additional additional facets facets of of this this process process that thatFigure Figure1.1 1 . 1 depicts: depicts: There are first, (or archetypal archetypal constellations/networks) constellations/networks) can can affect affect not not only only first, archetypes archetypes (or individuals also all all the the relationships relationships and and interactions interactions individuals individuals have; have; individuals but but also these these include include their their interactions interactions with with their their own own personal personal history, with other individuals as well well as as the the socio-cultural socio-cultural influences influences that are individuals and and groups, groups, as that are exerted although Jung Jung did did not not exerted on on them. them. Second, Second, itit could could be be argued argued that that although emphasise emphasise it it specifically, specifically,ititfollows followsfrom fromhis histheories theoriesthat that one's one's own own personal personal history not have have only only aa one-way, one-way, causal causal influence influence on on the the individual individual history would would not (as the causal-reductive causal-reductive method would dictate); dictate); instead, instead, the the relationship relationship (as the method would individuals past would would be be affected affected by by the the shifting shifting individuals have have with with their their own own past positions perspectives that past. vis-a-vis their their own own past. positions and and perspectives that the the individuals individuals take take vis-it-vis These of various various factors, factors, including, including, of of course, course, the the These changes changes can can be be the the result result of very constellations which, which, by by their their very organising organising influence influence of of the the archetypal constellations very referring to the past past but but to to the thefuture, future,i.e., i.e., the thearchearche­ very nature, nature, are are not not referring to the typal effect is is not not retrogressive retrogressive but butprospective, prospective, with withteleological teleological finality fin ality typal effect ((hence hence the the figure figure are are different different from from all all the the other other the dotted dotted arrows arrows on on the arrows, the archetypal archetypal influence influence is different nature than arrows, denoting denoting that that the is of of aa different nature than the other kinds kinds of ofinteractions interactions— - it it is is an an influence influence which which moves moves constantly constantly the other towards fin ality). In effect, this Jungian approach approach would would towards aa finality). In effect, this means means that that aa Jungian iimply m ply ((however however paradoxical it may sound initially) that 'it is not only the paradoxical it may sound initially) that 'it is not only the

epistemologyand andmmethodology JJung's u ng's epistemology ethodo logy 33 33

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past shapes the the present, present, but but also also the the present present that that shapes shapes the the past' past' past that that shapes in aa reciprocal Papad o poulos 1996: 1 996: 158) 1 58 ) in reciprocal manner. ((Papadopoulos Figure 1 .2 depicts l i near model model of ofcausal causalreductive reductive epistemology. epistemology. Figure 1.2 depicts the linear Accord ing toto tthis h i s model, H and and then t hen C C which which means means that that According model, AA leads leads to to B phl' nomenon B nd ((' is is ca ca uused sed hy H. For phenomenon 13isiscaused causedby byphellOll1ellOn phenomenonA, A,aand by B. '



34 Renos Renos K. K. Papadopoulos Papadopou l o s 34

Jung's epistemology andmmethodology J u ng's episte m o l ogy and ethodo logy 35 35

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example, Jung lung characterised characterised Freud's Freud's understanding understanding of of neurosis neurosis as aslinear: linear: example, one's own childhood (A) causes the formation of one's personality (B) one's own childhood (A) causes the formation of one's personality (B) which then causes the neurotic symptoms (C). The therapeutic direction which then causes the neurotic symptoms (C). The therapeutic direction that this this model model dictates dictates would would be be the the linear linear route routeininreverse: reverse: the thetherapist therapist that would need to go back to find the causes of the symptom (C) by unravelling would need to go back to find the causes of the symptom (C) by unravelling the personality personality (B) ( B ) which out by by exploring exploring the the childhood childhood the which should should be be carried carried out conflicts ( A) . lung accepted the value of causal-reductive epistemology but conflicts (A). Jung accepted the value of causal-reductive epistemology but his argument was that this was not the only model available and certainly his argument was that this was not the only model available and certainly not the best best one one for for understanding understanding complex complex phenomena phenomena in in the the context context of of not the their purposive functions, especially when the archetypal involvement their purposive functions, especially when the archetypal involvement isis also into consideration; consideration; for for those those contexts, contexts, Jung lung felt felt that that itit was was more more also taken taken into appropriate to employ a constructive method that would highlight the appropriate to employ a constructive method that would highlight the function of 'finality': 'When a psychological fact has to be explained, function of 'finality': 'When a psychological fact has to be explained, itit must remembered that psychological data necessitate aa twofold of must be be remembered that psychological data necessitate twofold point point of view, namely that of causality and that of fin a lil y ' (Jung 1 9 1 6/ 1 948: par. (Jung 1916/1948: par. of,finality' and that view, namely that of causality 456), understand the the psyche psyche causally causally is is to to understand understand only only one one half half 456), and and 'To 'To understand of it' (lung 1 9 1 4: par. 398). of it' (Jung 1914: par. 398). This means that that Jung's lung'sunderstanding understanding of ofcomplex complexpsychological psychological phephe­ This means nomena essentially on be termed termed an an 'epistemology 'epistemology of of nomena is is based based essentially on what what could could be finality' also encompass encompass aa linear linear epistemology. epistemology. This This epistemepistem­ finality' which which may may also ology finality would would be be comparable comparable to to what what modern modernsystemic systemic family family ology of of finality therapists or 'systemic' 'systemic' epistemology' epistemology' (cf. (cf. Becvar Becvar and and Becvar Becvar therapists call call 'circular' 'circular' or 2002; 983; Papadopoulos 996, 11998). 998). According this epiepi­ 2002; Keeney Keeney 11983; Papadopoulos 11996, Accordingto to this stemology, Figure 1.2) 1 .2) are are related related not not stemology,the the three three positions positions (A, (A, BB and and C C in in Figure only linear, causal-reductive causal-reductive fashion also in in aa way way that that one oneaffects affects only in in aa linear, fashion but but also the constant interaction interaction (as (as in in Figure Figure 1.3), 1 . 3), in in aa circular circular manner. manner. the other other in in aa constant After that the the pattern pattern of ofmutual mutual influence influence is is After all, all, itit should should not not be be forgotten forgotten that tthe he essence essence of of lung's Jung's alchemical alchemical model, model, where where the the circle circle (mandala) (mandala) was was the the sym bol par excellence of three positions positions of wholeness. wholeness. More More concretely, concretely, the the three par excellence symbol ((A, A, B C) are are in in constant constant interaction interaction among among themselves themselves in as B and and C) in so so far far as tthe he symptom further 'final', 'final', i.e., i.e. , purposive purposive function affects the symptom has has aa further function that that affects the persona l i t y which past. personality which then then affects affects the the way way we we approach approach our our past. A nother important implication of this new new epistemology Another important implication of this epistemology isis that that all all three three pos i t ions ( (A, A , RB and not exist exist in in isolation isolation but but are are also also affected affected by by positions and C) C) do do not , as tthe hl' activation act iva t iol1 of archetypal constellations constellations (again a l ways w i t h the thl' of archetypal (again, as always with

c Figure 1.3 Figure 1.3

archetypes, in in a teleological archetypes, teleological rather than than causal-reductive causal-reductive way). way). This This means means that the the interaction interaction among among the the three three positions positions is is patterned patterned by by the the wider wider archetypal networks networks that that affect affect it. it. The archetypal The therapeutic therapeutic approach approach in in circular circular epistemologiesisisnot notbased basedon on the the attempt attempt to to trace trace 'the 'the cause' epistemologies cause' or 'causes' 'causes' but to connect with the contextual patterns patterns within connect meaningfully with within which they are located. Jung referred to the are located. lung referred to the 'sense 'sense of of purpose' purpose' rather rather than than clear clear explanation when when he he was these relations relations and clarified explanation was addressing addressing these clarified that one cannot analyse, analyse, translate translate or interpret cannot interpret the the archetype archetype or or its its influence influence on on the the person ((in reductive way) way) but but one one has has to relate and connect with it (in person in a reductive ( in aa constructive, purposive and teleological constructive, teleological way): way): Hence the the 'explanation' 'explanation' should should always always be be such such that the Hence the functional functional significance of the archetype remains unimpaired, so that an adequate significance of the archetype remains unimpaired, so that an and meaningful meaningful connection between the conscious and conscious mind and the the archearche­ type is assured. type is (Jung 11940: par. 271) (lung 940: par. 27 1 ) This sentence sentence isis perhaps perhaps the the best description description that Jung This lung offered offered to to describe describe the relationship between the knowing subject/person and the archetype. the relationship between knowing SUbject/person the archetype. First, he he places places 'explanation' 'explanation' in in inverted inverted commas, commas, ensuring ensuringthat that the the reader reader First, does not not confuse the subject and the does confuse this this type of of engagement engagement (between ( between the subject and the archetype) with with the the rational rational process of offering logical explanations. Refer­ Referarchetype) logical explanations. to this this unique unique kind kind of engagement, engagement, many many authors authors have have resorted resorted to the rring in g to between understanding ( Verstehen) Verstehen) and t traditional ra d i t i onal ddistinction i s t inct i o n between and explanation explanation sociall scielKes sciences ((cf. Jaspers von Wright 1971), ((Erk/nren) /:'rk liirl'lI ) i in n socia cr. Jaspe rs 1923/1963; 1 923/ 1 963; von 1 97 1 ), i.e., i,e., ' between cOl11 comprehension/understanding, and logical/rational explanation, bl,tweel1 prehcl1siol1/ullderstand ing, and logical/ra t ional explanation, opted till' for the aand nd opted t hl' former i"orl lll'l (e.g., (q.( Brooke B rookl' 1991; 1 99 1 ; ((iiannoni i ia n n ()ni 2004; 2004; Hillman H i l l m a n 1974; 1 974; . .

37 JJung's u ng's epistemology ethodo l ogy 37 epistemologyand andmmethodology

Renos K. 36 K. Papadopoulos Papadopoulos 36 Renos

Then, in the Rauhala 1984; 1 984; Shelburne 1988). 1 988). Then, the same same sentence, sentence, Jung Jung refers refers to to the 'functional of the archetype the 'functional significance' significance' of archetype which which he he wishes wishes remains remains One should should be reminded that Jung .`unimpaired'. unimpaired'. One Jung insisted insisted on on extending extending the the meaning of of 'function' 'function' beyond beyond its usual usual causal causal connotation connotation to to include include the the meaning teleological uses the the word word'significance' 'significance' teleological dimension dimension(see (see above); above); also also he he uses rather than meaning, meaning, evidently, evidently, in order order to to avoid avoid any anyconfusion confusionwith withlogical logical explanation and elaboration. implies immanence, immanence,and and not not a explanation elaboration. Significance Significance implies type of objective Thus, by type objective knowledge. knowledge. Thus, by 'functional 'functional significance' significance' Jung Jung here here must be must be referring referring to the the signification signification that that would would emerge emerge from from the the archetype's engagement engagement and, and, indeed, indeed, relationship relationship with with the network of archetype's of the the 1 .4. interacting interacting subject/s, subject/s, as as it is depicted in Figure 1.4. Although Jung, Jung, in the Although the same same sentence, sentence, addresses addresses only only the the relationship relationship between 'the 'the conscious conscious mind mind and the archetype', as it has been shown, between shown, none

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ooff these o far s both these two two are are isolated isolated and and clearly clearly delineated delineated entities. entities.In Insso far aas both of them relationships, the 'functional 'functional significance' significance' here here them involve involve networks networks of relationships, must emerges from this engagement engagement with must be be referring referring to the meaning that emerges all all these these interrelationships. interrelationships. Evidently, Evidently,this thismcaning meaningwould wouldnot not be be aa type type of meaning that would be bestowed by means of external logical definition meaning that of definition or explanation (cf. Mathers Mathers 2001). 200 1 ). explanation (cf. Finally, clarifies that preferred relationship relationship between between the the archearche­ Finally, Jung clarifies that his preferred type and the 'conscious mind' should be that of a 'meaningful connection' type and the 'conscious mind' should be that of a 'meaningful connection'.. The primary characteristic characteristic Jung gives to the the engagement engagement between between the the The primary Jung gives knowing relationship, knowing subject subject with with the the archetype archetype isisthat that of of aa 'connection', 'connection', a relationship, an 'meaningful ' linkage that is is not not momentary momentary but but endures endures in in an interaction, interaction, a 'meaningful' time deepen this association; association; once this 'meaningful 'meaningful connection' time in in order to deepen is new context is construed is established established then then aa certain certain pathway pathway is created, created, a new and living experience experience begins which could gradually and an active process, aa living could lead gradually to emergence of a new awareness, awareness, a sense of new purpose, thus, thus, aa new new to the emergence knowledge. type of knowlknowl­ knowledge.But But this this knowledge knowledgewould wouldnot not be be of of the the usual usual type edge subject has of of an an object, object, but but aasense sense of ofnewness, newness, of of aa shift shift in in edge that that aa subject position person who who becomes becomes aware aware of of his/her his/her location location within within the the position by by a person network interacting relationships activation of the the network of interacting relationships as as affected affected by by the the activation archetypal purposive direction. direction . archetypal clusters clusters within their purposive By sentence by archetypes, it is is now now By examining examining in in detail detail this this sentence by Jung Jung on archetypes, possible he wants wants to to clearly clearly convey convey is is that that the the possible to to appreciate appreciate that that what what he unique the archetype) archetype) is is not not unique engagement engagement (between (between the the knowing knowing subject subject and and the aa set set of of clearly clearly defined living experience defined logical logical statements statements but but aa living experiencethat that has has aa purpose and finality, finality, beyond beyond causal-reductive causal-reductive and andlinear linearepistemologies. epistemologies. purpose and The grip that that the the archetypal archetypal constellation constellation would would have on on an an individual individual The grip creates shapes and, indeed, creates aa new new context, context, a shift, a new unique pattern pattern that that shapes and, indeed, patterns understanding of of oneself, oneself, one's relationships with others and patterns one's understanding one's sense of identity. This This emerging emerging pattern also connects connects an indi­ one's very very sense of identity. pattern also an individual with the the wider wider socio-cultural socio-cultural ecology ecology (which (which includes includes the the 'Collective 'Collective vidual with 996) as with natural natural Structures Meaning' — Papadopoulos Structures of of Meaning' Papadopoulos 11996) as well well as as with ecology ecology in in a prospective manner. relation to to archetypes archetypes when when he he Jung used frequently frequently the term pattern pattern in in relation was of behaviour'. behaviour'. Comparing Comparing was referring referring to to them them as as connected connected to to 'patterns of the to refer refer to to set set the psychological psychological realm realm with with the the biological, biological, lung Jung used used pattern pattern to combinations that are are triggered triggered off offwhen when aa certain certain instinct instinct is is combinations of behaviours that activated. In In a parallel parallel way, way, he argued argued that that the thearchetype archetype acts acts in in aasimilar similar activated. way it triggers triggers off off thoughts, thoughts, ideas, ideas, images, images, feelings feelings etc . , i.e., series of way as as it etc., i.e., aa series of psychological the biological) biological) elements elements of functioning psychological (in (in parallel parallel to to the of human human functioning (c.g., 1 954: par. in the the biological biological or or (e.g., Jung Jung 1954: par. 398). 398). The The term term pattern pattern (be (be it it in psychological interrelationships as as opposed opposed to to psychological realm) realm) implies implies aa network network of of interrelationships sa l i ty . The Ox/im} English Dictionary regular linear linear cau causality. Oxford English Dictionary defines defines pattern pattern as as 'a 'a regular a nd itit is or d iscerni hle form order in i n which w hich a series series of of things things occur', occur', and is this this or discernible form or or order duster i n t erac t ions that t ha t these t hese diagrams d iagra m s depict. depict . cluster of interactions �



epistemologyand andmmethodology 39 ethodo logy 39 u ng's epistemology JJung's

Papadopoulos K. Papadopoulos Renos K. 38 Renos 38

the which the within which context within new context archetypal patterning Such archetypal Such patterning creates creates a new from differently from feels differently and feels perspectives and individual acquires new perspectives and thinks and arche­ ofarcheintroductionof the introduction with the that with argued that could be argued way, it could before. In this way, before. 'epistemological considered asas'epistemological beconsidered could be epistemology could Jungian epistemology types, the Jungian types, we whatever we Epistemological contextualism contextualism'. Epistemological contextualism'. contextualism asserts asserts that whatever set contexts set different contexts therefore different andtherefore context and its context on its contingent on know is contingent know 1 998; Cohen 1998; 1 978; Cohen Annis1978; (e.g., Annis conditions(e.g., and conditions different epistemic standards standards and 200 1 ). Williams 2001). 2000a; Williams Kim 2000a; and Kim Sosa Sosa and the by the underwent by epistemology underwent Jung'sepistemology that Jung's elaboration that Thus, the further elaboration considera­ new considerathesenew all these ofall consisted of theory, consisted archetypal theory, his archetypal of his introduction introduction of The 1 .4. The to 1.4. 1 . 1 to Figures 1.1 in Figures depicted in and depicted above and outlined above were outlined that were tions that tions ink­ teleological inkincompleteteleological previousincomplete Jung'sprevious pushed Jung's archetypal patterning pushed archetypal articulating assumptions, articulating basicassumptions, oldbasic his old formulating his of formulating ways of new ways lings lings to new that suggests that which suggests finality which archetypal finality of archetypal epistemology of new epistemology them them into aa new context new context create aa new to create of isolated entities interact to systemic systemic patterns patterns instead instead of arise. conditions arise. epistemic conditions new epistemic which new within within which

cons i d erati ons i d er considerations W Wider

systems andsystems archetypesand creatura, archetypes and creatura, Pleroma Pleroma and social and social anthropologist and English anthropologist ( 1 904- 1 980), the Bateson (1904-1980), Gregory Gregory Bateson the English and epistemology and systemic epistemology ofsystemic foundersof thefounders of the one of also one scientist scientist (who (who is is also in epistemology in Jungian epistemology the Jungian of the part of family family therapy) therapy) relied relied heavily heavily on on one one part the examine the toexamine important to be important would be and itit would work, and own work, his own develop his to develop order order to epistemology. ownepistemology. Jung'sown to Jung's relation to significance significance of of this this inter-pollination inter-pollination in in relation Jungian by Jungian only by not only neglected not mostly neglected beenmostly hasbeen part has this part that this is that irony is The The irony himself. Jung by but authors authors but by Jung himself. many Bateson's many of Bateson's one of that one reminded that be reminded to be begin with To To begin with it it is is important important to Jung's; of Jung's; that of creative creative and and innovative innovative projects projects was was remarkably remarkably similar similar to to that follows: as follows: succinctly as he he explained explained itit succinctly include to include inwards to mind inwards of mind concept of the concept psychology expanded Freudian Freudian psychology expanded the - the body — the body within the system within the the whole whole communication communication system the autonomic, autonomic, the the saying amsaying What II am process. What unconscious process. ofunconscious range of vast range the vast and the habitual, habitual, and these changes reduce the scope of ofthese both of expands expands mind mind outwards. outwards. And both of tempered appropriate, tempered becomes appropriate, humility becomes certain humility conscious self. the the conscious self. A A certain bigger. much bigger. something much ofsomething part of being part of being or joy dignity or by by the the dignity joy of 1 -462) 1 972: 46 (Bateson (Bateson 1972: 461-462)

moreover, both hhad respect for for that that 'something much bigger' than immense respect a d immense moreover, about establishing establishing his project 1 987). Bateson went about the individual (cf. Relph 1987). epistem­ Cartesian epistemflaw in the Cartesian epistemological flaw fundamental epistemological observing a fundamental by observing ology and used Jung to it: redress it: to redress ology - the steps — epistemological steps firstepistemological Descartes' first thatDescartes' II think that the separation separation of `mind' from from 'matter' 'matter' and and the cogito premises, bad - established cogito — 'mind' established premises, perhaps lung's believe that Jung's Epistemology, and ultimately ultimately lethal lethal premises, premises, for for Epistemology, and I believe statement of of connection betweenPleroma Pleromaand and Creatura Creatura is is a much much connection between statement healthier first first step. step. Jung's starts from from comparison comparison of epistemology starts lung's epistemology healthier difference — not not from matter. difference process the process studies the So I will Epistemology as the science that studies will define Epistemology So the interaction interaction of of the capacity to respond differences, todifferences, respond to - the of knowing — differences thosedifferences whichthose worldininwhich material world thematerial with the hand, with one hand, on on the one somehow originate, originate,on on the the other. other. We then with an with an concerned then We are concerned somehow interface between Pleroma Pleroma and and Creatura. face between inter (Bateson and Bateson 1 8) 1 987: 18) Bateson 1987: (Bateson -

`Pleroma' and and 'creatura' `creatura' are are not terminology. Jungianterminology. usualJungian theusual ofthe part of not part 'Pleroma' Jung first introduced these two terms in the long long poem Septem lung Septem Sermones Sermones ad ad Mortuos (Seven and 1 9 1 3 and between 1913 wrote between he wrote which he Mortuo.\" (Seven Sermons Sermons for for the Dead) which 1 925; itit in 1925; privately in circulated privately and circulated 9 1 6 (after 11916 (afterhe he broke broke away away from from Freud) and these used these 1 967. Jung hardly used public only in 1967. general public was was published published for for the general formed they formed that they understood that is understood two two terms terms again again after after this this book, although itit is ideas about developed further which he developed building blocks basic building the the basic blocks on on which further his his ideas 1 996; Brewer 1996; 1 990; Brewer Brenner 1990; (cf. Brenner unconscious (cf. collective unconscious the collective archetypes archetypes and the 1 972; Jaffe 1972; 1 966; Jaffe Hubbaek 1966; 1 982; Hubback Hoeller 1982; 1 972; Hoeller Heisig 1972; 1 964; Heisig Fodor Fodor 1964; Papadopoulos 1980; 1 998). 1 995, 1998). 1 992, 1995, Segal 1992, 1 980; Segal Papadopoulos In the the Septem is pleroma is In Septem Sermones, Sermones, Jung Jung wrote wrote that pleroma infinite is infinite Nothingness Nothingness [which] [which]isisthe the same sameas as fullness fullness. . . . .. A A thing thing that is both Therein both qualities .. . .. Therein since it has all qualities qualities, since and and eternal eternal has no qualities, no possess no infinite possess and infinite eternal and the eternal since the cease, since being cease, thinking thinking and and being everything. and everything. nothing and is nothing there is pleroma there the pleroma qualities qualities .. .. . In the (First (First Sermon) change. This This means means that pleroma does not change. all, has all, pleroma has The pleroma changeable, however, What What is is changeable, however,isiscreatura creatura. . .. . The Dis­ Distinctiveness is o n d is t i n c t ive n ess . Distinctiveness i nctive ne ss and dist distinctiveness and nnon-distinctiveness. is creatura. creatura. Disdistinguishes. Therefore man t s essence, i nct i veness isis iits ttinctiveness essence, and and therefore therefore iitt distinguishes. d istinctiveness. is distinctiveness. a t u re is use his iscr i m i n a t es hcca ddiscriminates because his nnature ( I ;irst Sermon Sermon)) -

t he immediately the seeimmediately tosee possibleto is possible statement, itit is brief statement, this brief of this Even Even on on the the basis basis of st r uct u res collective structures for collective - both Jung— and Jung between Bateson similarities similarities between Bateson and both looked looked for k n ow l edge : o wnknowledge; theirown formulate their individuals formulate thatindividuals ways that a ffecl the thc ways h a t affect tthat

40 Renos 40 Renos K. K. Papadopoulos Papadopoulos

I

Bateson commented commented that that Bateson The pleroma pleroma is is the world in The in which which events events are caused caused by by forces forces and and impacts and and in in which which there there are are no no 'distinctions'. 'distinctions'. Or, Or, as I would say, impacts say, no `differences'.InIn the the creatura, creatura, effects effects are are brought about 'differences'. about precisely precisely by by difference.In In fact, fact, this this is is the same old dichotomy difference. dichotomy between between mind and and substance .. .. . I suggest substance suggest that `pleroma' 'pleroma' and and `creatura' 'creatura' are are words words which which we could could usefully usefullyadopt, adopt, and and it is therefore worthwhile to to look we therefore worthwhile look at the the bridges which which exist exist between between these these two two 'worlds'. 'worlds'. It bridges It isis an anoversimplioversimpli­ fication to to say say that the 'hard fication 'hard sciences' sciences' deal deal only only with with the the pleroma pleroma and and the mind deal only with the creatura. There that the sciences sciences of the There is is more more to it than that. to that. 1 972: 456) (Bateson 1972: What is this more about? about? Bateson was interested interested in in understanding understanding the dimensions of mind beyond Bateson was beyond the ordinary and outside the limits the ordinary human human conscious conscious processes processes and outside the limits of of the the human human skin, skin, and observed observed that we we can understand understand the the mind mind also also as as it applies to aa much much wider wider range range of ofthose thosecomplex complex phenomena phenomena called called `systems', including systems consisting of 'systems', of multiple organisms organisms or orsystems systems in some of of the the parts are living and some in which which some living and some are are not, not, or or even even to to systems in living parts. systems in which which there there are no living 1 987: 19) 1 9) (Bateson and Bateson Bateson 1987:

His reference to 'something His reference to 'something bigger' bigger' would would resonate resonate with with the the Jungian Jungian archetypal world which is beyond the individual but also also within within the the person. person. But what then is 'a 'a mind', mind', asks asks Bateson, Bateson, and and adds: adds: if this is a useful make a plural and useful notion, can one one usefully usefully make and speak speak of of `minds' in interactions interactions which are are in turn turn mental? .... . 'minds' which might engage in The definition anchors the notion of of aa mind mind firmly firmly to to the the arrangement arrangement of material material parts. parts. of (Bateson and and Bateson Bateson 1987: 1 987: 18) 1 8) Some of the definition criteria he offers include: include: 'A mind mind is is an an aggregate aggregate of of interacting parts or components. The interaction between parts interacting components. The interaction between parts of of mind mind is is triggered triggered by difference difference .. .. . Mental Mental process process requires requires circular circular (or (or more more comcom­ plex) chains of determination' (Bateson (Bateson and and Bateson Bateson 1987: 1 987: 18-19). 1 8- 1 9) . ple x ) chains Using Using the the cybernetic cybernetic principles principles of o f feedback, feedback, Bateson Bateson understands understands aa system created s y s t e m as c re a t ed by information information that that isis exchanged exchanged by by its its parts parts within within itit and and outside o u t side it, i t . and and defines defines information information as as'the 'thedifference differencewhich whichmake makeaadifferdiffer­ ence'. again 'What do II mean e nce'. Asking Asking aga i n aand n d again again the the question question 'What mean by by "my "my" m i nd'!', he hl' replies: rl'rl il's: mind?', -

41 JJung's u ng's episte m o l ogy and ethodology 41 epistemology andmmethodology

II suggest suggest that the delimitation delimitation of an an individual individual mind mind must must always always that the depend phenomena we wish to understand understand or or explain. explain. depend upon upon what what phenomena we wish Obviously message pathways Obviouslythere thereare are lots lots of of message pathwaysoutside outside the the skin, skin, and and these these and and the the messages messages which whichthey theycarry carry must must be be included included as as part part of of the the mental mental system system whenever whenever they they are relevant. (Bateson 1 972: 458) 458) (Bateson 1972: Bateson Batesongives givesthe theexample exampleofof'a'atree treeand andaaman manand and an an axe' axe' to to show show that that these system of of aacomplete completecircuit circuitwithin withinwhich whichdifferences differences these three three form form aa system take you want want to to explain explain or or understand understand anything anything in in human human take place: place: 'if 'if you behavior, are always always dealing dealing with with total total circuits' circuits' (Bateson (Bateson 1972: 1 972: 459) 459) behavior, you you are which inanimate objects objects which belong to to the the which could could also also include, include, of of course, course, inanimate which belong pleroma 'The elementary elementary cybernetic cybernetic system system with with its its messages messages pleroma (e.g., the axe). 'The in fact, the the simplest simplest unit unit of of mind' mind' (p. (p. 459). 459). Following Following this this in circuit circuit is, is, in in fact, argument, writes: argument, Bateson writes: The suggest a The cybernetic cybernetic epistemology epistemology which which II have have offered offered you you would would suggest a new only in in the the new approach. approach. The The individual individual mind mind isis immanent immanent but but not not only body. also in in pathways pathways and and messages messages outside body. It is immanent also outside the body; and there is is aa larger larger Mind Mind of of which which the the individual individual mind mind is is only only aa and there subsystem. (Bateson 1 972: 461) 46 1 ) (Bateson 1972: This 'larger Mind' M ind' (with (with capital capital M!) M ! ) would would indeed indeed correspond correspond to to the the This 'larger Jungian collective unconscious unconscious and and the the epistemological epistemological implication implication would would Jungian collective be the knowing knowing subject subject is is part part of ofaa wider wider knowledge knowledge pool pool with with which which be that that the the individual is interaction with. So much much so, so, that that Bateson Bateson went went as as far far the individual is in in interaction with. So as person (what (what he he called called a a 'self' 'self' in in inverted inverted commas) commas) 'as 'as aafalse false as defining defining aa person reification improperly delimited this much much larger larger field field of of reificationof of an an improperly delimitedpart part of of this interlocking 1 972: 3331). 3 1 ). This Jung's dictum: dictum: interlocking processes' processes' ((1972: This resonates resonates with with Jung's 'Individuation at-one-ment with the same same time time with with `Individuation isis an an at-one-ment with oneself oneself and and at at the 1 945: par. par. 227). 227). humanity since oneself of humanity' humanity' (Jung (Jung1945: humanity since oneself is is part part of Finally, Bateson Bateson applied applied his hisepistemological epistemological premises premises to tocomprehend comprehend Finally, psychopathological doing, he he commented commented on Jung's own own psychopathologicalstates statesand and in in so so doing, on Jung's Sermones. Jung, mental when he was writing writing the very poem mental state state when he was the very poem Septem Septem Sermones. Jung, many event, wrote at the the time time just just before before writing writing the the many years years after after the the event, wrote that that at poem his 'whole 'whole house house was was filled filled as as if if there there were were aa crowd crowd present, present, crammed crammed poem his p. 216); 2 1 6); Bateson Bateson attributed attributed this this to to Jung's Jung'sepistemoepistemo­ full of spirits' (MDR, p. full of spirits' logical confusion.

I f you your epistemology epistemology confused, confused, you you go go psychotic, psychotic, and and Jung Jungwas was If you get get your go i n g through t h ro ugh an a n epistemological ep is temo log i cal crisis. crisis. So So he he sat sat down down at at his his desk desk and and going picked up li p aa pen pen and and started sta rted to to write. write. When When he he started started to towrite write all all the the picked disa ppea red and and he he wrote wrote this t h is little l i l l Ie hook hook [the [ t he .S'tptem '<-;cpll'l11 Sermones]. Scrmonl'sj . ghosts disappeared ( Bateson Ba t eson I972: 1 972: 455) 455)

42 Renos RenosK.K.Papadopoulos Papadopoulos 42

Right at the the beginning beginning of the poem/book poem/book Jung Jung wrote wrote about about the thedistinction distinction between therefore, itit seems was that that between pleroma pleroma and and creatura creatura and, and, therefore, seems that that it was brought sanity sanityto tohis hisconfused confused'epistemological 'epistemologicalcrisis'. crisis'. differentiation which brought Bateson wrote according to 'the 'the vulgar vulgar jargon jargon of ofpsychiatry' psychiatry' Jung's Jung's Bateson wrote that that according 'epistemological crisis' 'psychotic'(Bateson (Bateson1972: 1 972: 455). 455). This This `epistemological crisis' would would be called 'psychotic' means epistemology is an abstract abstract concept concept but, but, constituting constituting means that that epistemology is not not just just an the very way way one one organises organises one's one's knowledge, knowledge, itit can cancertainly certainly also alsoaffect affect the very one's psychological and should not be be forgotten forgotten that that one's psychological and mental mental state. state. ItIt should of schizophrenia schizophrenia was also based based on on an an Bateson's earlier double-bind double-bind theory of epistemological perspective perspective (Bateson (Bateson 1956). 1 956). epistemological Commenting on idea that thatarchetypes archetypes are are`pleromatic' 'pleromatic' (Jung (Jung Commenting on Jung's Jung's idea 11952b), 952b), Bateson surely true, true, however, however, that that constellations constellations of of Batesonwrote: wrote: 'It 'It is surely ideas seem subjectively subjectively to resemble "forces" when when their their ideational ideational ideas may seem to resemble is unrecognized' unrecognized' (1972: ( 1 972: 455n). that confusion confusion between between character is 455n). This This means means that the archetypal content content that that interacts interacts with with the the individual individual (creatura) (creatura) and andpure pure the archetypal archetypes ( pleroma) can lead to an epistemological crisis. If an individual archetypes (pleroma) can lead to an epistemological crisis. If an individual appropriates in danger danger of oflosing losing disdis­ appropriates pleromatic pleromatic material material he/she he/she isis then then in crimination (and difference), and of ceasing to have awareness that he/she crimination (and difference), and of ceasing to have awareness that he/she isis only of aa wider wider system; system; such such aa misappropriation misappropriation would would only one one interacting interacting part part of not only be illusional but could also be delusional, indeed, as one would not only be illusional but could also be delusional, indeed, as one would identify with the bigger whole, the entire system. Jung referred to this state identify with the bigger whole, the entire system. Jung referred to this state as psychological inflation, when the archetype takes over one's personality. as psychological inflation, when the archetype takes over one's personality. Without the the discrimination discrimination and and differentiation, differentiation, there there is is no no information information and and Without therefore no system; instead, there is the illusion/delusion that there are just therefore no system; instead, there is the illusion/delusion that there are just 'forces' act on on their their own. own. Such Such aa condition condition can canlead leadan anepistemological epistemological `forces' that that act crisis to become even an epistemological breakdown. crisis to become even an epistemological breakdown. As Bateson emphasised, interface between creatura As Bateson emphasised, itit is is the the interface between pleroma pleroma and and creatura that is of of importance, importance, it it is is this this interface, interface, the the interaction interaction that that creates creates aa that is system can utilise utilise difference be activated activated by by the the inforinfor­ system that that can difference in in order order to to be mation that these these differences differences create. both mation that create. Any Any alternatives alternatives are are detrimental detrimental both epistemologically be confused confused epistemologically and and psychologically. psychologically.The The individual individual cannot cannot be with the collective, collective, the archetype cannot cannot substitute substitute the the individual. individual. Here Here with the the archetype lies ung's use use of archetypes that, one hand, hand, they they lies the the unique unique clue clue to to JJung's of archetypes that, on the one can be facilitative facilitative and so far far as as they they can can enrich enrich the theindividual individual can be and healing healing in in so personality to wider wider personality by by expanding expanding its its perspectives perspectivesand and opening openingitit up up to realms, 'being part of something something much much bigger' bigger' (Bateson (Bateson realms, making making it it aware aware of of 'being part of 11972: 972: 462), other hand, hand, they they can can flood flood the the personality personality and and 462),or, or,on on the the other take over it it in in aa way way that thatdifferences differences between between them them and and the the personality personality take over become latter case, case, archetypes archetypes would would have have aa detrimental detrimental become blurred; blurred; in in the the latter effect personality and they would would create create what what could could be be called called aa effect on on the the personality and they pathological state. pathological state. Echoing Bateson exclaimed exclaimed that 'A certain certain humility humility becomes becomes Echoing Jung, Jung, Bateson that 'A aappropriate, p p ro p riate, tempered of being being part p a rt of ofsomething somet h i n g temperedby by the the dignity dignity or or joy joy of m u c h bigger higge r (Bateson ( Bateson 1972: 1 972: 46 462 ). much 4611 462).

epistemology andmethodology methodology 43 JJung's u ng's episte m o l ogy and 43

Jung's Socratic Socratic ignorance ignorance and Gnostic knowledge Jung's knowledge

The The last facet facet of of Jung's Jung's epistemology epistemology that this this chapter chapter will will examine examine is is aa duality of Jung's Jung's own own approach approachto toepistemological epistemological openness. openness. It has been been suggested suggested that one one could could distinguish opposing epistemologies epistemologies which wittingly or or distinguish two two opposing which Jung, Jung, wittingly unwittingly, actually espoused. espoused. The first of of those is closer to what could be called called 'Socratic 'Socratic ignorance', while the second is essentially essentially aa 'Gnostic be epistemology'.. epistemology' (Papadopoulos 1997: 1 997: 298) 298) According former, According to the former,

statements of the 'nothing 'nothing Jung stands clearly against any oversweeping oversweeping statements but' kind, Socratic but' kind, and and in inthe thetrue truespirit spiritofof Socraticignorance ignorance makes makes such such statements as as 'Stereotyped interpretation of of dream-motifs dream-motifsisis to to be statements 'Stereotyped interpretation be avoided Even ifif one one has has great great experience experience in in these these matters, matters, one one is is avoided .. . .. Even again and and again obliged, before each each dream, dream, to to admit again obliged, before admit to one's one's ignorignor­ ance and, and, renouncing all preconceived ideas, to to prepare for something ance preconceived ideas, something entirely 948: para. . .. .. clearly, clearly, dreamdream­ entirely unexpected' unexpected'(Jung (Jung 11948: para. 543) 543)or or '`. interpretation in the the first first place place an anexperience experience which which has has immediate immediate interpretation is in validity for only two persons' (para. validity ( para. 539). 5 39). (Papadopoulos 1997: 1 997: 298) 298) These ung's insistence These are are characteristic characteristic statements statements of of JJung's insistence not not to take anything for to assume assumeany anyprevious previousknowledge knowledge before before examining examining aa for granted, granted, not to phenomenon not to to impose impose pre-packaged pre-packaged theoretical theoretical forfor­ phenomenon in in its its own right, not mulations but, instead, instead, retain retain an anopenness openness to to examine examine the the mulations onto onto a situation but, uniqueness given circumstance. clinical setting, setting, this this meant meant uniqueness of of each each given circumstance. In In the clinical that to expose expose himself himself to the the specificity specificity of each that Jung wanted to each analysand and endeavoured interaction with endeavoured to to grasp grasp the the meaning meaning of of his his interaction with him/her him/her at at that given importing previous why he maintained maintained given time time without without importing previous biases. biases. This This is is why that the context context of of the the analytical analytical interaction, interaction, that the dream has meaning only in the i.e., between between the the analyst analyst and the analysand. i.e., analysand. Socratic two ways. ways. The The first first refers refers to to Socratic ignorance ignorancecan can be be understood understood in in two Socrates' possess any wisdom wisdom but but his his only only wisdom wisdom consisted consisted Socrates' stance stance not not to possess of his of ignorance. An example of this is is presented presented in in his awareness awareness of of his his own own ignorance. Plato's Apo!l)!{V, Apology, where Plato's where Socrates says,

Wel l , aalthough l t h o u gh II do that either either of ofus us knows knows anything anything really really Well, do not suppose that hea u t i fu l and ter ofT forhe heknows knows nothing, nothing, beautiful andgood, good,I Iam amhet better oftthan thanhe heisis for and h i n k s tthat ha t he knows. k nows. II neit her kknow now nor h i n k tthat ha t I know. In In this and tthinks neither nor tthink llatter a t t e r pa rticular, then, t hen, II seem Sl'l' l I l to tn have haw slightly slightly the t he advantage advan tage of of him. him. particular,

44 Renos K. Papado poulos 44 Renos K. Papadopoulos

Thesecond secondway way of ofunderstanding understandingthe theSocratic Socraticignorance ignoranceisisin interms termsof ofthe the The way he he applied applied ititin inhis hisconversations conversations with with others. others. This Thisrefers refers to tohis hisactual actual way method of ofmaking makinguse useof ofhis his'ignorance'. 'ignorance'.Characteristically, Characteristically,Socrates Socratestells tells method Theaetetus: 'You 'You forget, forget, my my friend, friend, that that IIneither neitherknow, know, nor norprofess professtoto Theaetetus: know, anything anythingof ofthese these matters; matters; you youare arethe theperson personwho whoisisin inlabour, labour,I Iam am know, Theaetetus). By asserting asserting his his own own ignorance ignorance of of the barren midwife' (Plato's Theaetetus). By the barren midwife' (Plato's the subject, subject, Socrates Socrates frees frees himself himself and and his his interlocutor interlocutor to toinvestigate investigate and and the explore the the various various underlying underlying assumptions assumptions as aswell well as asdimensions dimensionsof ofthe the explore phenomena they theywere were discussing. discussing. In In other otherwords, words,his histask taskwas wasby byand andlarge large phenomena epistemological in and he he likened likened it it to to that thatofofthe themidwife, midwife,i.e., i.e.,toto epistemological in nature nature and draw out out of ofaaperson, person, to tofacilitate facilitate the the birth birthof ofthe theknowledge knowledge about about aa draw (maia, in in Greek, Greek, certain topic, topic, hence hence his his method method was was termed termed `maieutic' 'maieutic' (maia, certain being a midwife). being a midwife). There are are striking striking similarities similarities between between the the Socratic Socratic maieutics maieutics and and the the There lungian approach which did not elude lung (e.g., lung 1 9 1 3 : par. 5 1 9, 1 943: Jungian approach which did not elude Jung (e.g., Jung 1913: par. 519, 1943: par. 26, 26, 1912: 1 9 1 2: par. par. 437). 437) . In In addition addition totoadopting adoptinga a'Socratic-ignorance' ' Socratic-ignorance' par. approach in his analytical clinical work, lung's insistence that, above above all, all, he he approach in his analytical clinical work, Jung's insistence that, was an 'empiricist' and 'phenomenologist' in his wider researches points to was an 'empiricist' and 'phenomenologist' in his wider researches points to the same epistemological openness. He was very proud to quote a comment the same epistemological openness. He was very proud to quote a comment made about his his empirical empirical approach (on 99 British Medical Medical Journal Journal (on made about approach in in the the British February 1 952), 'a source that would seem to be above suspicion. " Facts February 1952), 'a source that would seem to be above suspicion. "Facts fi r st and theories later is the keynote of lung's work. He is an empiricist first and theories later is the keynote of Jung's work. He is an empiricist fi rst and last." This This view view meets meets with with my my approval' approval' (Jung (lung 1952a: 1 952a: par. par. 1502). 1 502). first and last." Also, distinguishing between an approach that follows blindly set theories Also, distinguishing between an approach that follows blindly set theories as opposed to his own own approach approach that thatused used theoretical theoretical reflection reflection to to bind bind as opposed to his together his empirical findings, lung expressed his epistemological credo as together his empirical findings, Jung expressed his epistemological credo as follows: follows:

Although often been philosopher, II am am an an empiricist empiricist Although II have have often been called called aa philosopher, and adhere as such to the phenomenological standpoint. I trust that itit and adhere as such to the phenomenological standpoint. I trust that does not conflict with the principles of scientific empiricism if one does not conflict with the principles of scientific empiricism if one occasionally makes certain refl e ctions which go beyond a mere accu­ occasionally makes certain reflections which go beyond a mere accumulation classification of of fact fact II believe believe mulation and and classification of experience. experience. As As aa matter matter of that experience is not even possible without reflection, because that experience is not even possible without reflection, because 'experience' could be be `experience'isisaaprocess process of of assimilation assimilation without without which which there there could no understanding. As this statement indicates, I approach psycho­ no understanding. As this statement indicates, I approach psychological philosophical standstand­ logicalmatters mattersfrom fromaa scientific scientificand and not not from from aa philosophical point. In as much as religion has a very important psychologica point. In as much as religion has a very important psychologicall aspect, aspect,I I deal dealwith with itit from from aa purely purely empirical empiricalpoint point of of view, view, that that is, is, II restrict myself to the observation of phenomena and I eschew any restrict myself to the observation of phenomena and I eschew any metaphysical or philosophical considerations. I do not deny the valid­ metaphysical or philosophical considerations. I do not deny the validity o ityof ofthese theseother otherconsiderations considerationsbut butIIcannot cannotclaim claimto to be be competent competentt to apply them correctly. apply them correctly. (lung 93R1 J 940: par. ) (Jung I1938/1940: par. �2)

Jung's and methodology methodology 45 J u ng's epistemology epistemology and 45

ItIt isisnot notdifficult difficult to toidentify identify Jung's lung's'Socratic 'Socraticignorance' ignorance'as a sititcoincides coincideswith with Jung's lung'sown ownway waythat thathe hecharacterised characterisedhimself himselfand andwith withthe theway wayhe hehas hasbeen been characterised characterised by by almost almost all all Jungian lungian authors. authors. What Whathas hasnot notbeen beenexamined examined often often is is Jung's lung'sopposite oppositeepistemological epistemological stance stance that that he healso alsofollowed, followed evidently evidently without without him him being being aware aware of ofits itsantithetical antitheticaldirection; direction; this thiswas wa� termed 'Gnostic epistemology' (Papadopoulos 1997). According te�med 'Gnostic epistemology' (Papadopoulos 1 997). According to to this this epistemology, epistemology, Jung lung was was by by no nomeans meansopen openand andhis hisresearches researchesfollowed followedhis his own ideas about own pre-established pre-established ideas about phenomena phenomena and, and, although although he healways always waved :-vaved the the empiricist empiricist 'Socratic-ignorance' 'Socratic-ignorance' banner, banner, in infact, fact,his hisapproach approachalso also included closed and predetermined epistemologies. mcluded closed and predetermined epistemologies. The The most most striking striking single single quotation quotation that thatbetrays betraysJung's lung'sGnostic Gnosticepistemepistem­ . his . reply to John Freeman's question (in the famous ology is to Face Face ology IS hiS reply to lohn Freeman's question (in the famous Face to interview for BBC BBC Television Television in in 11959) 'Do you you now in God?', int�rview for 959) 'Do now believe believe in God?', to to which Jung replied: to answer. which lung replied: ''Difficult Difficult to answer. II know. know. I don't don't believe. believe. II know' know' (McGuire (McGuire and and Hull Hull1977: 1 977: 414). 4 1 4). Jung 'knew' and no an approach approach to lung 'knew' and no further further explanation explanation was was needed. needed. Such Such an to knowledge was not foreign to Jung and it can be found throughout kn ?:-vledge was not foreign to lung and it can be found throughout his his writings. However, However, in in so so far far as he did did not wntmgs. as he not ever ever admit admit to to it, it, there there are areno noclear clear quotations in which he actually stated his adherence to this type quotations in which he actually stated his adherence to this type of ofepiepi­ stemology. Instead, Instead, his his 'Gnostic can be stemology. 'Gnostic epistemology' epistemology' can be traced traced in in his his arguargu­ ments. For example, in his his Foreword to Father ments. example, in Father Victor Victor White's White's book, book Jung lung ' claims that claims that Psychology, like every every empirical empirical science, science,cannot cannot get get along along without Psy ��ology, like without auxiliary concepts, concepts, hypotheses, hypotheses, and and models. models. But But the theologian as aUXiliary the theologian as well well as the the philosopher apt to to make as philosopher isis apt make the the mistake mistake of taking taking them them for metaphysical postulates. postulates. The The atom atom of of which the physicist speaks is is not not metaphysical physicist speaks an hypostasis, hypostasis, itit is is aa model. model. Similarly Similarlymy myconcept conceptof of archetype archetypeor or of of an psychicenergy energyisisonly onlyan anauxiliary auxiliary idea idea which whichcan can be be exchanged exchangedat at any any psychic time for for aa better better formula. time formula. (Jung 11952c: par. 460) 460) (lung 952c: par. This sounds sounds aa fine expression expression of epistemological openness; however, as as we This openness; however, know,neither neitherlung Jung nor nor any any lungian Jungian author author has know, has ever ever exchanged exchanged the theory of archetypes archetypeswith withaa 'better 'better formula' formula' and and archetypes are not not treaded treaded as of archetypes are modelsbut but very very much much as as actual actual hypostatic hypostatic entities. models entities. thevvery sameparagraph, paragraph,lung Jungstates statescategorically categoricallythat that' In 'Inreality, reality,. ... .. �ry same I In ? .the . . individuation anexpression expressionofofthat that biological biologicalprocess process. .. . .. by which mdlVld�a tlOn I �isan which . everylivmg living thingbecomes becomeswhat whatitit was was destined destined to to become from the every thmg become from the beginning' (Jung 11952c: par.460). 460).There Thereisis no no hypothetical hypothetical openness openness here; here; hegin n i n g' (lung 952c: par. declaresddogmatically that'in 'in reality' reality' this this isis how how itit is. is. Moreover Moreover, with with lJung u ng declares o g mati cal ly that equal pronouncesthat that 'This This process aan n l'lj ual self-assuredness self�assll red ness hehepronounces process naturally nat �r a l l y expressesI. t itself as Illllch much as as psychically as somat somatically' and claims expresses self I ninmman a n as p s y c h i c a l l y as ica l ly' and cla ims '

46 Renos RenosK.K.Papadopoulos Papadopou los 46

thatsuch such an anassertion assertion'is 'isby byno nomeans meansaacase caseofofmystical mysticalspeculations, speculations, but but that of clinical observations and their interpretations through comparison with of clinical observations and their interpretations through comparison with analogous phenomena phenomena in other fields'. fields'. As As if if he he gets getsintoxicated intoxicated by by his his analogous in other own words, in the next paragraph he actually goes as far as professing own words, in the next paragraph he actually goes as far as professing that 'I'Iproceed proceedfrom fromfacts factswhich which everyone everyone is is at atliberty liberty totoverify' verify'(Jung (Jung that 11952c: 952c: par. 46 1 ) . By boasting this kind of objectivity and external verifi­ par. 461). By boasting this kind of objectivity and external verification, Jung Jung unwittingly unwittingly abandons abandons his hisunique uniqueepistemology epistemology of ofpsychic psychic cation, reality and psychological experiential interactions, and is seduced into reality and psychological experiential interactions, and is seduced into adopting positivistic methodologies of the exact sciences which he criticises adopting positivistic methodologies of the exact sciences which he criticises elsewhere as inappropriate for for understanding understanding the theuniqueness uniqueness of ofpsychopsycho­ elsewhere as inappropriate logical phenomena. logical phenomena. At the the same same time, time, such such categorical categorical claims claims not not only only fall fall very very short short of oftheir their At target but also betray Jung's closed system of beliefs. Within the space target but also betray Jung's closed system of beliefs. Within the space of two two paragraphs paragraphs he headvocates advocatesepistemological epistemological openness, openness, accepting accepting his his of theories as working hypotheses and then, he moves to profess his definitive theories as working hypotheses and then, he moves to profess his definitive 'knowledge' of tautological fashion fashion confirm confirm his his `knowledge' of phenomena phenomena which which in in aa tautological theories. It is this kind of epistemology that was termed 'Gnostic epistem­ theories. It is this kind of epistemology that was termed 'Gnostic epistemology' (Papadopoulos ( Papadopoulos 1997); 1 997); it is the the epistemology epistemology that that provides provides readyready­ ology' it is made answers, offers proclamations and views phenomena within a closed made answers, offers proclamations and views phenomena within a closed system of beliefs. system of beliefs. Dehing, internal contradiction contradiction in in Jung's approach', argues argues Dehing, pointing pointing to to 'an 'an internal Jung's approach', that 'the agnostic empiricist every now and then turns into a prophet. Most that 'the agnostic empiricist every now and then turns into a prophet. Most of the time Jung's opinions are formulated as hypotheses, but sometimes of the time Jung's opinions are formulated as hypotheses, but sometimes they become hypostases' Dehing 1990: 1 990: 393). agnostic and and epiepi­ they become hypostases' ((Dehing 393). Thus, Thus, the the agnostic stemological openness in Jung interchanges with Jung's own Gnosticism stemological openness in Jung interchanges with Jung's own Gnosticism which his unshakable unshakable belief belief in in the the correctness correctness of ofhis his own own which is is characterised characterised by by his assertions and general theories, thus, runs in parallel to his own Socratic assertions and general theories, thus, runs in parallel to his own Socratic ignorance. this kind kind of of epistemology epistemology he implies 'that ignorance. When When Jung Jung adopts adopts this he implies 'that certain the initiates' initiates' (Papadopoulos (Papadopoulos1997: 1 997: 298). 298 ) . certain insights insights are are only only available available to to the This o f elitism elitism was was another another characteristic characteristic of the Gnostic Gnostic movement movement This kind kind of of the ((Lee Lee 1987). 1 987). It It has has been been argued argued that that the implications of gnosticism have have not not the detrimental detrimental aspects aspects and and implications of Jung's Jung's gnosticism yet sufficiently appreciated; attitude, these these yet been been sufficiently appreciated;besides besidesan an elitist elitist attitude, include people believe believe something something include aa closed closed system system of of circular circular tautology: tautology: people to whatever they them they they judge according to to be be true true and and whatever they see see around around them judge according to these these beliefs, beliefs,while whileall allthe thetime timethey theyalso alsobelieve believethat thatthey theyare areopen open and and that evidence. This be that their their beliefs beliefs are are based based on on real real evidence. This approach approach cannot cannot be enriched develop further; the enriched by by new new elements elementsand and therefore therefore itit cannot cannot develop further; the initiates and correcorre­ initiatesare areconvinced convincedthat that their their beliefs beliefs are are absolutely absolutely true true and the reality. This closed approach not only is self-fulfilling spond with reality. This closed approach not only is self-fulfilling spond with the but but itit also also promotes promotes fanaticism. fanaticism. ( (Papadopoulos Papadopoulos 1997: 1 997: 299 299))

Jung's and m methodology 47 J u ng's epistemology epistemology and ethodology 47

This This is is not not surprising surprising because because as even Hans Jonas Jonas admitted, admitted, 'In 'In the thegnostic gnostic context . . . "knowledge" has an emphatically religious or supernatural context . . . "knowledge" has an emphatically religious or supernatural meaning meaning and and refers refers to to objects objects which which we we nowadays should should call call those those of of faith faith rather than of reason' (Jonas 1963/1992: 34); further, he also clarifies rather than of reason' (Jonas 1 96311 992: 34); further, he also clarifies that that in in certain certain Gnostic Gnostic authors, authors, 'the "knowledge" "knowledge" is not only only an an instrument instrument of of salvation but itself salvation but itself the very very form form in in which which the thegoal goalofofsalvation, salvation,i.e., i.e., ultimate perfection, is possessed' (p. 35). This confirms that what perfection, is possessed' (p. 35). This confirms that whatJung Jungwas was after was was not not just just an anepistemologically epistemologically open open hypothesis hypothesis but but aa transformatransforma­ tive kind of knowledge that would have far more than syllogistic of knowledge that would have far more than syllogistic functions functions and and characteristics. characteristics. The romantic romantic idea of of the the Gnostic Gnostic rebels rebels who who were were against against the the estabestab­ lishment is only one side of the Gnostic tradition and this is the lishment is only one side Gnostic this is the one one that that has been by Jung has been favoured favoured by Jung and and Jungians. Jungians. Yet, Yet, there there are are other other more more unhelpful sides to Gnosticism unhelpful sides Gnosticism that have not not been been taken taken into into consideration consideration seriously, as yet, by Jungian authors. The critiques of Gnosticism seriously, as yet, by The critiques of Gnosticism that, that, for for example, Eric Voegelin ((1968/2005), Manfred Henningsen (1999) and Philip 1 96812005 ), Manfred ( 1 999) J. Lee (1987) ( 1 987) formulated are totally ignored ignored by by Jungians Jungians who whoseem seementirely entirely satisfied by the Gnostic proclamations to truth that Jung issued. satisfied by the Gnostic proclamations to truth issued. It may be sobering to consider that, for sobering forexample, example, the thepolitical political philosopher philosopherVoegelin Voegelin (1968) characterised both Marx and Hitler as modern ( 1 968) characterised both Marx H itler as modern Gnostics! Gnostics! In the clinical context, the opposite to Jung's In clinical context, Jung's Socratic Socratic ignorance, ignorance, i.e., i.e., his his Gnostic epistemology, epistemology, produces produces the the Jung that, Gnostic that, by by virtue virtue of offeeling feeling justified that he is in touch with that with the the psyche, psyche, knows knows what what is is good good for for his his clients clients and and prescribes specific specificactions actionsfor forthem, them, aa practice practice which which isis totally totally opposite opposite to prescribes his Socratic Socratic openness. openness. For For example, example, Jung Jung was was also his also known known to to have have been been quite explicitly prescriptiveto to his his analysands, quite explicitly prescriptive analysands, telling telling them what what specific specific actions and and directions directions to to take take in in their lives (e.g., Jung, Jung, MDR, MDR, pp. pp. 156f). 1 56f). actions lives (e.g., of cconclusion IInstead n stead of o n c l us i o n

far aass epistemology studies the ways ways w we formulate what and how IIn n sso o far epistemology studies e formulate h o w we we know, itit should should be indispensable for a proper know, indispensable for proper study study of of psychotherapeutic psychotherapeutic approaches.Jung's Jung's ambivalent ambivalent stance stance towards towards philosophy philosophy seems seems to to have have approaches. preventedhim him from from acknowledging fullythe the implications implicationsof of his his own prevented acknowledging fully own epistemologicalsensitivity. sensitivity.This Thischapter chapter has has endeavoured endeavoured (within (within a severely epistemological severely restrictedspace) space)to to present present and and discuss restricted discuss some some of of Jung's Jung's epistemological epistemological positionsthat that can can contribute contribute to to the deeper understanding of the theory and positions practicenot not only only of of analytical psychologybut but also also of other psychotherpractice analytical psychology psychother­ approaches. aapeutic peutic approaches. Jung has has made made aa considerable contribution to the epistemology psylung considerable contribution epistemology of psy­ chologyof oftherapeutic therapeuticinteractions interactionsand andititisisimportant important that that one one appreciates appreciates chology contributionininits its totality totality( (i.e., the way way the the various various parts parts of of itit hhis i s contribution i .e., inin the s t argument interrelate) and not not only only in in terms terms of of iits isolated The la last argument t s iso lated celements. lem e n ts The interrela t e ) and developed, opposing epistemological t hthat a t tthis s temo l og ical h i s cchapter h a pter developed , aabout hout .liting's ung's tIwo wo opposi ng epi .

J Jung's u ng's epistemology etho d o l ogy 49 epistemologyand andmmethodology 49

Renos K. K. Papadopoulos Papadopoulos 48 Renos 48

positions,does doesnot notinvalidate invalidate his his signifi significant contribution.Like Likeall all great great positions, cant contribution. pioneers, Jung Jung succumbed succumbed to to the the intoxication intoxication of of his his own own discoveries discoveries and and itit pioneers, was only only human human that that there there was was also also aa streak streak in in him him that that wanted wanted to to stick stick to was to his own own theories theories and and propagate propagate them them further further with with the the fervour fervour of of aa zealot. zealot. IInn his other words, words,i it important tto appreciate that that there there are are two two Jungs, Jungs, sso other t iis s important o appreciate o to to speak -—the theone onewith withananopen openepistemology epistemologyand and Socratic Socratic ignorance ignorance who speak who was was constructionistand and relational, relational, and and the constructionist the other other Jung Jung who, who, following following Gnostic Gnostic epistemology, was, was, in in fact, fact, essentialist essentialist and and universalist. universalist. epistemology, Further research research in in this this field field isis much much required required in in order order to to locate locate Jung's Jung's Further contribution in in the the context context of of other other investigations investigations in in the the epistemology epistemology of of contribution psychotherapy (e.g., (e.g., Barratt Barratt 1984; psychotherapy 1 986; Clark and and Wright Wright 1986; 1 963; Clark Christou 1963; 1 984; Christou Goldberg 11988; Grfinbaum 11984; Haynal 1993; Knorr 2004; Knorr Hogenson 2004; 1 993; Hogenson 984; Haynal 988; Griinbaum Goldberg Cetina 1981, Mackay 1989; Cetina 1 996; Phillips 1996; 1 995; Phillips Orange 1995; 2004; Orange Mills 2004; 1 989; Mills 1 9 8 1 , 1999; 1 999; Mackay Ricoeur 1970, Rorty 1991; 1 99 1 ). Strenger 1991). 1 982; Strenger Spence 1982; 1 99 1 ; Spence 1 970, 1981; 1 98 1 ; Rorty Ricoeur As Jung Jung himself As himself emphasised, emphasised, itit is is important important to to have have diversity diversity of of views views and not and not only only to to pursue pursue one-sided one-sided perspectives: perspectives: 'No 'No line line of ofresearch research which which assertedthat that its its subject subjectwas was. . .. .. aa "nothing asserted "nothing but" but" has has ever ever made made any any contribution to to knowledge' knowledge' (Jung (Jung 1944: par. 120). 1 20). 1 944: par. contribution Note N o te

Professor byProfessor context, by 1 This remarkable twist is also discussed, in aadifferent different context, This remarkable twist is also discussed, In Handbook. Gaillard in Chapter 14 this ook. Handb of 14 er Chapt rd in Gailla

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The u n co n s c i o u s : personal and c o l lective 5 5 The unconscious: personal and collective 55

Chapter 22 Chapter

'unconscious' thus `unconscious'-— thuscarried carrieda ashared sharedmeaning meaningfor forthe thewhole wholegroup, group,and andone one that became established over many generations of repetition of instruction, that became established over many generations of repetition of instruction, practice practiceand andstorytelling. storytelling.Viewed Viewedininthis thisway, way,we wenote notehow howdevelopment developmentof of the idea that humans could usefully access religious and practical knowl­ the idea that humans could usefully access religious and practical knowledge edgenot not normally normallypresent presentinin the the (conscious) (conscious)mind mindarose aroseboth bothasas an an individual and as a collective experience. Contemporary scholarship individual and as a collective experience. Contemporary scholarship now now emphasises emphasisesthat thatour ourhuman human nature nature as as communal communal beings beingsisis every every bit bit as as important as our biological being and provides a robust means of exam­ important as our biological being and provides a robust means of examining biological or ining phenomena phenomenawhich which has has previously previously relied relied solely solely on on biological or evolutionary explanations (cf. Malik 2000). We shall be returning evolutionary explanations (cf. Malik 2000). We shall be returning to to these these speculations consider Jung's Jung's speculationsabout about the the unconscious unconscious when when we we come come to to consider modern reformulation of the collective unconscious early in the twentieth modern reformulation of the collective unconscious early in the twentieth century. century.

The unconscious unconscious The Personal Pe rso n a l aand n d ccollective o l l e ctive Christopher Hauke Hauke Christopher

The unconscious before we we nam named The uncons c i o us before e d iit t

The idea idea of whether 'collective' 'collective' or or 'personal' does not, The of the the unconscious unconscious — - whether 'personal'— - does not, of course, begin with Jung or Freud. The concept of a mind, or of course, begin with Jung or Freud. The concept of a mind, or spirit spirit or or `will' outside outside of, of, and and beyond, beyond, the 'will' the everyday everyday 'conscious' 'conscious' mentality mentality of of human human beings seems seems -—asasfar far as as we we can can tell to have have existed existed acro across � s cultures cult� r7 s and �n beings tell — - to throughout human history. In other eras, the degree to which throughout human history. In other eras, the degree to w hlch this thIs 'mind' mmd . . resided in in powerful powerful others others such resided such as as gods, gods, animals, animals, elements elements like lIke the the wind wmd and and . rivers, or or aa single God, was much more more than rivers, single God, was emphasised emphasised much than the the modern modern idea Idea that that this this was was an an aspect aspect of ofthe the minds mindsof ofhuman humanbeings beingsthemselves. themselves. The The way way that serious attention was paid to dreams seems to be clear evidence that serious attention was paid to dreams seems to be clear evidence of of humankind's respect for, and humankind's respect for, and interest interest in, in, aa non-conscious non-conscious aspect aspect of of mind. mind. But But we we know know from fromanthropological anthropological investigations investigations that that the theconceptual conceptual between a conscious and an unconscious mind separation separation between a conscious and an unconscious mind (as (as we we divide divide them now), is not necessarily the form of understanding shared by them now), is not necessarily the form of understanding shared by humans humans living living far far from from our ourown owncontemporary contemporary urban, urban,industrialised industrialised lives. lives. For F� r example, Benjamin Paul writes of a case of fugue and mental breakdown example, Benjamin Paul writes of a case of fugue and mental break? own in m . aa Guatemalan the way Guatemalan village village woman woman where where the way that that her her condition condItion was was understood understood was was not not in in terms terms of ofconscious conscious and and unconscious unconscious processes processes but but an an understanding advanced by an expert Shaman who attributed her condition understanding advanced by an expert Shaman who attributed her condition to anger at at her to ancestral ancestral spirits spirits who who were were expressing expressing anger her and and her her husband's husband's mother mother and and father, father, and andallallthe thegrandparents; grandparents;consequently, consequently, what whatwas was required p� na� ce required of ofher her was was not not any anypsychological psychological treatment treatment but butaaform forn:ofofpenance (Paul (Paul 1953/1967: 1 953/1 967: 150-165). 1 50- 1 65). Traditional Traditional practices practices such suchasasinvestigating mvestlgatmg . dreams dreams or oringesting ingesting psychotropic psychotropic drugs drugs in in an aneffort efforttotoachieve achIevepersonal perso� al communion communionwith withdeities deities—- sometimes sometimesexperienced experiencedininanimal animalforms forms—-which whIch would would then thensupply supplythe thepractitioner practitionerwith withspecial special knowledge knowledge to to bring bring back backto to the theworld worldof ofnormal normalconsciousness, consciousness, bear bearclose close comparison comparison totothe theway waythat that C.G. e.G. Jung Jung conceived conceived an an 'unconscious' 'unconscious' that that had had something something to to tell tellus. us. Moreover, Moreover,such suchritual ritualpractices practices— - whether whether by by individual individual Shaman, Shaman,groups group satat religious religious ceremonies, ceremonies, or or as aspart partofofrites ritesofofpassage passage—-were ��reconducted conductedinI nanan agreed context.The Therevelations revelations from spirit world or a gree d social social context. from thetheSpIrIt world or the thc

�

The uncons c i o us jjust ust before Freud and and Jung J ung The unconscious before Freud

Our ideas around the personal personal and andcollective collective unconscious unconscious Our contemporary contemporary ideas around the also have their roots somewhat earlier than Freud and Jung - partly partly in in also have their roots somewhat earlier than Freud and Jung — Enlightenment thinking (although, ironically, the unconscious mind was Enlightenment thinking (although, ironically, the unconscious mind was rejected concept by by Enlightenment) Enlightenment) and notably in in the the German German rejectedas as aa concept and notably Romantic philosophy of Carus, Schopenhauer, von Hartmann and von Romantic philosophy of Carus, Schopenhauer, von Hartmann and von Schelling. Whyte has written of how, 'The general conception of uncon­ Schelling. Whyte has written of how, 'The general conception of unconscious processes was 1 700, topical scious mental mental processes was conceivable conceivable. .. . .. around around 1700, topical around around 11800, 800, and 1 8701 880' (Whyte 1 960: 1 681 69; emphasis emphasis and fashionable fashionable around around 1870-1880' (Whyte 1960: 168-169; suggest that that earlier earlier literature literature such such as as the the plays plays of ofWilliam William in original). II suggest in original). Shakespeare (who died in 1 6 1 6) indicate ideas of inherent conflict between Shakespeare (who died in 1616) indicate ideas of inherent conflict between the known known and and the the unknown unknownaspects aspectsof ofour ourmental mentalprocesses; processes; this this isis seen seen in in the the depiction depiction of of characters characters such such as as Hamlet Hamlet and and King King Lear. Lear. Furthermore, Furthermore, the references from 'she doth doth protest protest too too references from one one character characterto to another another such such as as 'she much' draws draws attention attentiontotoaadefensive defensivepsychological psychologicalstrategy, strategy,suggesting suggesting that that much' Shakespeare and his audience audience held held an an idea idea of ofhuman humanmentality mentalitywhere wherethe the Shakespeare and his subject was was less less aware aware of of him him or or herself, herself, but but such such hidden hidden 'unconscious' 'unconscious' subject processes were were revealed attitude, language languageand andbehaviour. behaviour. processes revealed to to others others through through attitude, Around aacentury centuryafter afterShakespeare, Shakespeare, the theEnlightenment Enlightenment was, was, on on the theone one Around hand, keen keen to to investigate investigate the the human human soul soul and andsosoengendered engendered an anearly early hand, psychology. However, H owever, the the emphasis emphasis on on rationality rationalityand andreason reasonabove aboveallallelse else psychology. tended to to hierarchise hierarchiseaspects aspectsof ofour ourpsychology psychologywhich whichresulted resultedininemotions emotions tended and Irrational' 'irrational'thinking thinking(called (called'superstition' 'superstition'among amongother otherthings) things)being being and displaced as as inferior inferior activities activities of of the the mind. mind. This This meant meant that that the thenotion notionofofan an displaced ' J think, there­ unconscious became devalued if not redundant. Descartes' unconscious became devalued if not redundant. Descartes' `I think, therea m was wasthe thesummation summationofofour ourhuman human'being' 'being'depicted depictedasasconsisting consisting fore II am' fore sole ly of our conscious ra t ional a wa re ness. Where we perhaps noticeaa solely of our conscious rational awareness. Where we perhaps notice precu rsor of t he co n tempora ry u nconscious i n En ligh tenmen t t h i n k i ngisisinin precursor of the contemporary unconscious in Enlightenment thinking curiosi t y a i1o u t . and searrh for. t he origins of human k llowkdge and its its curiosity about, and search for, the origins of human knowledge and '

56 Christopher C h ristopherHauke Hau ke 56

wisdom. From Fromtime timetototime timethis thisinvolved involvedideas ideasabout aboutananancient, ancient,wise wiseearly early wisdom. humanity located in Atlantis or in Egypt or one swept away by Noah's humanity — located in Atlantis or in Egypt or one swept away by Noah's Flood — - leaving on such such original original wisdom wisdom to to the the Flood leaving aa few few wise wise minds minds to to pass pass on present day. This speculation and investigation of the depths of human present day. This speculation and investigation of the depths of human knowledge — - beyond conscious rational rational thinking thinkingofofthe theday day—knowledge beyond and and outside outside conscious also seems to predict an idea of the unconscious. It is as if the hyper­ also seems to predict an idea of the unconscious. It is as if the hyperrationalism that that began began with withthe thescientific scientificEnlightenment Enlightenment engendered engendered aa rationalism compensatory swerve towards everything the rational mind refused to to compensatory swerve towards everything the rational mind refused accommodate. These aspects persisted in the margins of Enlightenment accommodate. These aspects persisted in the margins of Enlightenment thinking ready ready to to re-emerge re-emerge when when there there was was space space for for doubting doubting EnlightEnlight­ thinking enment 'certainties'. They reappeared towards the end of the nineteenth enment 'certainties'. They reappeared towards the end of the nineteenth century in in the the form form of of beliefs beliefs in paranormal, mediumship, mediumship, spirit spirit contact contact century in the the paranormal, and the new psychological ideas of an Unconscious Mind. and the new psychological ideas of an Unconscious Mind. However, it is the the German German Romantics Romantics who who are are the the most mostexplicit explicit writers writers However, it is on the unconscious in the fi ft y years up to the birth of Sigmund Freud on the unconscious in the fifty years up to the birth of Sigmund Freud ( 1 857 - 1 939), e.G. lung (1875-1962) ( 1 875- 1 962) and and of ofcourse, course, Friedrich Friedrich Nietzsche Nietzsche (1857-1939), C.G. Jung ( 1 844- 1 900). The The 'philosophy 'philosophy of of nature' nature' founded foundedby byFriedrich Friedrichvon vonSchelling Schelling (1844-1900). ((1775-1854) 1 775- 1 854) clearly very fundament fundament of ofthe the clearly implied implied the the unconscious unconscious as as 'the 'the very human being being as as rooted rooted in in the the invisible invisible life life of of the the universe universe and and therefore therefore human the true bond bondlinking linkingman manwith withnature' nature'(Ellenberger (Ellenberger1970/1994: 1 97011 994: 204). 204). the true For the eighteenth-century eighteenth-century Romantics, Romantics, attention attentionto tothe theunconscious unconsciousenabled enabled For the us to have have direct direct understanding understanding of of the the universe universe — - and and therefore therefore of of our our us to 'original' selves -—through `original' selves throughdreams, dreams,mystical mysticalecstasy ecstasy and and poetic poetic imagination. imagination. It methods were those used used by by It is is no no coincidence coincidence that that these these aims aims and and methods were among among those humankind earliest times times — - aa fact fact that that comes comes together together quite quite humankind from from the the earliest explicitly lung some some seventy seventy years years later. later. explicitly in in the the psychology psychology of of e.G. C.G. Jung Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) ( 1 788- 1 860) published World as Will and The World as Will Arthur Schopenhauer published The (or Idea) in 1 8 1 9 in which he regarded humankind as being being Representation in 1819 in which he regarded humankind as Idea) (or Representation driven internal forces forces of of which which he he is is barely barely aware: aware: these these were were the driven by by blind, blind, internal the instincts the sexual sexual instincts towards towards conservation conservationand and towards towards reproduction reproduction or or the instinct. For Schopenhauer, Schopenhauer,the theWill Will— - an an analogy analogy of ofthe theunconscious unconscious— - not not instinct. For only thoughts which which are are often often in in conflict conflict with with our our only drives drives many many of of our our thoughts intellect repel unwanted unwanted cognicogni­ intellect (ego-consciousness), (ego-consciousness),but butalso alsocauses causesus us to to repel tions consciousness. The the tions from from consciousness. Thesimilarity similaritytoto later later formulations formulations of of the unconscious Mann. unconscioushave havebeen beenspotted spotted by by many many such such as as the the writer writer Thomas Thomas Mann, who hair" who 'felt 'felt that that Freud's Freud's description descriptionof ofthe theididand and the the ego ego was was "to "to aa hair" Schopenhauer's the intellect intellect translated translated from from Schopenhauer'sdescription descriptionof ofthe the will will and and the metaphysics . ItItwas metaphysicsinto intopsychology' psychology'(Ellenberger (Ellenberger1 994: 1994:209) 209). wasthen thenup up to to Eduard Unconscious ((1869) 1 869) to to Philosophy of of the the Unconscious Eduardvon von Hartmann Hartmann in in his hisbook book Philosophy hring relabel Schopenhauer's 'uncon­ bring together together the the early early ideas, ideas, relabel Schopenhauer's Will Will the the 'unconscious' scious' and and relate relate it it specifically specificallyto tovarious variouspsychological psychologicalphenomena phenomena such such as as as personality, well as personality,perception, perception,association associationof ofideas ideasand and the the emotions emotions as as well i investigating n vest i ga t ing the therole roleof of the the unconscious unconscious in in language, language, religion. religion, history history and and t the he llife i fe of societ y. He also divided the unconscious into threc levels. The of society. He also divided the unconscious into three levels. The

I

The personal and andccollective 57 T h e unconscious: u n c o n s c i o u s : personal o l l ective 57

first first was was an a n absolute, absolute, aakind kindof o fcosmic cosmicunconscious unconsciouswhich whichwas was the thesource sourceof of the 'at work the other other two two forms: forms: aaphysiological physiological unconscious unconscious 'at work in in the theorigin, origin, development, development, and and evolution evolution of ofliving living beings, beings, including including man' man'(Ellenberger (Ellenberger 1994: and aa third, 1 994: 2210); 1 0); and third, more morepsychological, psychological, unconscious unconscious which which provides provides the the ground ground for forconscious consciousmental mentallife. life. The The second second level level just mentioned mentioned corresponds corresponds most most closely closely to to the theformuformu­ lations of of C.G. e.G. Carus Carus(1789-1869) ( 1 789- 1 869) who whowas wasperhaps perhapsthe theclosest closestinfluence influence upon upon Jung's lung's own own formulations formulations of of the the personal personal and andthe thecollective collective unconuncon­ scious. scious. Sounding Sounding very very much much like like Jung lung himself, himself, Carus Carus begins begins his his 1846 1 846 book book Psyche Psyche with with these these words: words: The key to the the knowledge knowledge of of the the nature natureof ofthe thesoul's soul'sconscious consciouslife lifelies lies in the realm of of the the unconscious. unconscious. This This explains explains the the difficulty, difficulty, if not the the impossibility, of of getting gettingaa real real comprehension comprehensionof ofthe thesoul's soul'ssecret secret. ... .. impossibility, But if if this this impossibility is only only apparent, apparent, then But impossibility is then the the first first task task of ofaa science science of the the soul to state of soul is is to state how how the the spirit spirit of ofMan Manisisable able to todescend descend into intothese these depths. depths. (Carus 1846, (Carus 1 846, quoted quoted in in Ellenberger Ellenberger 1994: 1 994: 207) 207)

Carus also also distinguished distinguished three three levels levels of the the unconscious: unconscious: one one that that isis absoabso­ lute and unknowable, the lute the second, second, aa type typeof ofpre-conscious pre-conscious which which influences influences our emotional life through the vital vital organs organs of of the the body. body. Consciousness Consciousness may may affect this this level level of of the the unconscious which is why, Carus believed, affect believed, a person's person's face and and body body can reflect their personality. The third third level face reflect their personality. The level of the unconuncon­ scious corresponds corresponds to the scious the repressed repressedmaterial material—- once onceconscious conscious feelings, feelings, representations and and perceptions representations perceptions that that subsequently subsequently become become unconscious. unconscious. These levels levelsare are clear clear precursors precursors of, of, respectively, respectively, the the psychoid psychoid unconscious, These the collective collectiveunconscious unconscious and and the the personal unconscious (the third the third level) level) in Jung's structure structure of the lung's the psyche. psyche. Carus also also mentions mentions characteristics characteristics of the unconsciousthat that lung Jung was was later later to repeat: unconscious repeat: the the unconscious, unconscious, unlike unlike the strenuous efforts efforts of the conscious conscious mind, uses little energy energy and and thus does not strenuous not `needrest' rest' like likeconsciousness consciousnessdoes. does.ItItisisthe the source source of of healing healingfor for the the mind mind 'need and body, body, and it is through and through the the unconscious unconscious that that we we remain remain in in connection connection with the rest of the world and other individuals. with the rest of the world and other individuals. How different patients gave gave ri rise to a ad different H ow d i fferent patients s e to i fferent `unconscious' for Freud Freud and 'uncons c i o us' for and JJung ung

Freud's formulation formulation of of the the concept concept of of the the unconscious unconsciousarose aroseout out of of his his and and Freud's Breuer's work with young women suffering from hysterical symptoms — Breuer's work with suffering from hysterical symptoms - a diagnosis that was popular in several d iagnosis t ha t was popular several urban centres centres of the new new psychiatry psychiatry such as Vienna, Berlin and especially Paris where Charcot and lanet Janet were such as Vienna. Berlin and especially Paris where Charcot and leading specialists. Thei nn innovation attitude to to these these patients patients and and their their t the he lead ing spccia lists. The o va ti o n ininattitude

symptoms wast Ihe heway wayininwhich whichpsychia psychiatry was replacing replacingt the idea of of orga organic sympt oll1s was t ry was he idea nic

Christopher 58 h ri stopher Hauke Hauke 58 C



59 The n conscious: personal l l ective 59 The uunconscious: personaland andc o collective

causes for mental problems with the idea that that symptoms symptoms were were psychological psychological in origin. Freud developed what his key patient Anna 0. O. origin. Through his work, Freud called the the 'talking 'talking cure'. cure'. Freud had tried called tried pure pure suggestion suggestion and hypnosis but found that encouraging encouraging patients to to say say whatever whatever came into their their minds minds by by aa process of association' enabled make links links backward backward to to the the process of 'free 'free association' enabled him him to make source cause of their their symptoms. Once such causal links were made made and source or cause understood, is, made made conscious, conscious, the the symptoms symptoms went went away away — � thus thus understood, that that is, apparently one arising arising from from some some apparently proving there was was no organic cause but one mechanism approach, the the trautrau­ mechanism of psychological psychological trauma. trauma. According According to this approach, in the matic experience had the unconscious unconscious because because it was was repressed in matic experience had been been repressed unbearable conscious mind, task of ofthe the Freudian Freudianpsychopsycho­ unbearable to to the conscious mind, and and the task analyst was to trace back, discover discover and reconstruct the cause cause like like a sort sort of of archaeologist-detective. archaeologist-detective. However, also wished wished to to establish establish the thescience science of ofpsychoanalysis psychoanalysis as as However, Freud also one of the the exact exact sciences sciences of to this this end end he hecombined combined psychopsycho­ of his his day day and to logical materialistic biological his first first forfor­ logical with with more materialistic biological theories. theories. Thus, Thus, in his mulations 1 896, he claimed that the repression repression of of aa traumatic traumatic mulations around around 1896, he claimed that the specifically the thesexual sexual experience repression of of instinct instinct - specifically experience was was linked linked to the repression instinct. From this this hypothesis hypothesis he he developed developed the idea that that human humanpsychology psychology instinct. � —and, and, eventually, eventually, all all civilised civilised life life �—was wasunderpinned underpinnedby by the the repression of our instinctual instinctual life, life, and and exclusively exclusively of of our our sexual sexual and andaggressive aggressive instincts. instincts. Sexual the psychic psychic energy energy or or lihido Latin for 'desire') 'desire') for libido ((Latin Sexual instinct instinct provided provided the the psyche which, which, in its sublimated form, form, gave gave rise rise to to human humanachievements achievements artistic creativity creativity to to intellectual intellectual curiosity curiosity and andscientific scientific inveninven­ ranging from artistic tiveness. Although his theories theories with the the structural structural model model of of tiveness. Although Freud expanded his ego (partly unconscious unconscious but with with conscious conscious functions functions of ofreality reality testing, testing, ego (partly discriminatory thinking thinking and protection), the unconscious unconscious id (the instincts or discriminatory sexual instinct instinct as the motor of 'the the super-ego, of super-ego, the idea of sexual `the passions') passions') and and the Thanatos (the psychic psychic drive drive the psyche prevailed. the psyche prevailed.Even Evenhis hislast last ideas ideason on Thanatos towards inertia inertia or or Death) Death) in in constant constant tension tension with with Eros (the life preservative towards relatedness) never overrode the the centrality centrality of ofsexuality. sexuality. instinct manifested in relatedness) While Freud was was working working on his theory and method method through through the thetreattreat­ While of young, 'hysterical' Viennese, Viennese, bourgeois women, Carl Carl Jung, lung, nineteen nineteen ment of years abandoned his his desire desire to to be bean anactual actualarchaeologist, archaeologist years his his junior, junior, had abandoned trained as a doctor doctor and andbegan beganworking workingininthe thefamous famousBurghOlzli Burgholzli psychiatric psychiatric hospital linked linked to the University University of Zurich. He He arrived arrived at at aatime timewhen when the the hospital director (who became became his his mentor) mentor) was was Eugene Eugene Bleuler, Bleuler, aapsychiatrist psychiatrist director (who not enlightened towards that not notonly onlywere werepsychiatric psychiatricproblems problems not enlightened towards the idea that necessarily caused by organic disease, but also there was meaning to he necessarily caused by organic disease, but meaning to he found in the utterances and and symptoms symptoms of ofsuch such patients patients despite despite the the way way they t hey seemed baffling sight. There isis another anotherkey keydifference difference between between the the seemed baffling at first sight. e a r ly psychiatric experience of lung and Freud in that the Burghi)lzli early psychiatric experience of Jung and Freud in that the Burgholzli t reat ed many many patients patients suffering suffering from from serious serious psychotic psychotic illness. illness. Psychiatry Psych i a t ry treated t hen, as as so so often orten now, now, was was managed managed by by men men who, w h o, by h y virtue v i r t ue of of their t heir then, �.

education class, were removed from treated. In In education and and class, were far far removed from the patients they treated. Switzerland local dialects, dialects, apart from from their their illness, illness, Switzerlandwith withits its cantons cantons and and local patients patients were were not not easily easily intelligible intelligibleto to their their urban urban upper-class upper-class doctors, doctors, but both lung and and Bleuler Bleuler had had Swiss Swiss countryside countryside backgrounds backgrounds and the both Jung and had the advantage Swiss peasant dialects dialects thus making them them advantage of being familiar with Swiss more accessible to their their accessible to to their their patients even before attending empathically to patients' words. In addition, addition, ititwas wasBleuler Bleuler who who first firstdistinguished distinguished mania mania patients' words. (since manic-depressive illness 'bipolar disorder') disorder') from from (since known known as manic-depressive illness or or 'bipolar dementia praecox praecox — dementia � the early name name for for schizophrenia, schizophrenia, aa term term which which he he the early introduced. lung's work work with with these psychotic patients, in addition to to introduced. It was Jung's others more like Freud's hysterics, that that gave gave him him aa different different insight insight into into the the Freud's hysterics, psyche eventually, a different different conception conception of ofthe the unconscious. unconscious. psyche and, eventually, According to Jung lung (1963/1983), ( 1 963/ 1 983), in Dreams, in his his autobiography autobiography Memories, Memories, Dreams, Reflections, his conceptualising had its its Re flections, his his interest interest in in and and his conceptualising of of the the unconscious unconscious had earliest three sources: sources: his awareness awareness of his his own own personality, personality, his his earliest roots roots in three interest the writings writings of of Friedrich Friedrich Nietzsche. Nietzsche. interest in in psychic psychic phenomena phenomena and in the Since awareness of an inner inner division division which he Since his his childhood, childhood, lung Jung had an awareness came to to call call his his 'No. `No. Il'' personality 'No. 2' 2' personality. personality. The The first first came personality and and his his 'No. expressed of friends, school, school, family family and and social social expressed itself itself in in his his day-to-day day-to-day world of play, while his his No. No. 22personality personality seemed seemed darker, darker, secretive secretive and more more play, while mysterious. source elsewhere elsewhere than mysterious. ItIt seemed seemed to to have have its source than the the world world of an intelligent boy, son son of of aa minister minister in in rural rural Switzerland. Switzerland. This This was was the the intelligent country country boy, side with dreams dreams as as well well as as fears fears and and fantasies, fantasies side of his personality connected with and was this this insight insight that that provided provided him him with with his his first first awareness awareness of the th� and it was unconscious. His mother was a highly intuitive woman, possibly with unconscious. His mother was a highly intuitive woman, possibly with psychic abilities sensitivities, alongside moods abilities and sensitivities, alongside an otherworldlyness and moods that often accompany this temperament. It was she who seems to have that often accompany this temperament. It was seems have influenced the No. 2 personality and, when he was a young student, lung influenced the No. 2 personality and, when he was Jung became became very very interested interestedin in psychic psychicphenomena phenomenato to the the extent extent that that his PhD thesis Using his his cousin cousin Helen Helen Prieswerk Prieswerk as a subject, subject, he he thesis was was in in this area. Using investigated her apparent abilities as a medium � a trend that was highly investigated her apparent abilities medium — a trend was highly prevalent Europe. In In doing doingso, so,he hebecame becameless less convinced convinced of of prevalent at at the time in Europe. her psychic 'powers' and more convinced that the phenomena and knowl­ psychic 'powers' convinced the phenomena and knowledge she displayed in in trance trance— � which her conscious conscious mind mindwas wasunaware unawareofof—� were stemming from her unconscious psyche. Moreover, was not not were stemming from her unconscious psyche. Moreover, this this was material known personally to the subject and so implied some sort of material known personally to the subject and so implied some sort of cultural collective unconscious. reasoned that that unconscious unconscious material material cultural collective unconscious. lung Jung reasoned that emerged from subject, frequently frequently as as dream dream imagery imagery (not (not just just the the that emerged from aa subject, not be accounted for through the ttrance rance speeches, speeches, as with Prieswerk), could could not be accounted for through the s u hj ec t's personal learning or experience; thus, assumed that this may may subject's personal learning or experience; thus, he he assumed that this stem collective, general universal part of the the unconscious unconscious mind, mind, stem from from a collective, general and and universal part of aa collective col lect ive unconscious u nconscious derived h rough aeons of repetition repetition of of human human derived tthrough aeons of I:ult ural imagery imagery and and experience ex periclll:e that, t h a t , despite despite differences d i fferences in in detail, detail, remains remains cultural ttypically ypica l l y human h Ulllall with w i t h recognisable rl'L'( )�ll i sa hk common l'OIlIlIHIIl qualities q u a l i t ies and alld meanings. mean i ngs . Jung .l ung

60 C h ristopher H a u ke 60 Christopher Hauke

developed this this idea idea throughout throughouthis hislife, life, but butatatits itsearlier earlierstage stageitithad hadmuch much developed in common commonwith withideas ideasstemming stemmingfrom fromearly earlyanthropology anthropologysuch suchasasJames lames in Frazer's The Golden Bough ( 1 890- 1 9 1 5) which sought to show similarities Frazer's The Golden Bough (1890-1915) which sought to show similarities between human humancultures culturesand andbehaviours behaviourspreviously previouslyregarded regardedasasbizarre bizarreand and between barely human human by by those thosewho whofirst firstencountered encountered them themthrough throughEuropean European barely colonisation. colonisation. Nietzsche was was always always an an influence influence upon lung as as indeed indeed he hewas wasupon upon Nietzsche upon Jung Freud — - although was not not as as keen keen totoacknowledge acknowledge this. this. Jung lung Freud although Freud Freud was regarded the ego as the 'centre of consciousness', but he also absorbed regarded the ego as the 'centre of consciousness', but he also absorbed Nietzsche's ideas ideas on on the the unconscious unconscious as as the the central central source source for forthe thepsyche psyche as as Nietzsche's a whole, thus utterly relativising the centrality of ego-consciousness. a whole, thus utterly relativising the centrality of ego-consciousness. Nietzsche's emphasis do not not think think thoughts, thoughts, but but Nietzsche's emphasisononthe thefact factthat that 'I' 'I' do 'thoughts think me' and how 'dreaming is a recreation for the brain, which 'thoughts think me' and how 'dreaming is a recreation for the brain, which by day day has has to tosatisfy satisfy the the stern sterndemands demands of ofthought thoughtimposed imposed by byaahigher higher by culture' (Nietzsche 1 878: 24 -27) are both picked up in lung's psychology culture' (Nietzsche 1878: 24 -27) are both picked up in Jung's psychology and his his ideas ideas of ofthe thepersonal personaland andcollective collective unconscious. unconscious. But But once once Jung lung and began his professional life as a psychiatrist at the Burgh6lzli, he sought began his professional life as a psychiatrist at the BurghOlzli, he sought aa more scientific scientific method establish the the concept concept of of the the unconscious unconscious and andits its more method to to establish processes. To this end he used the Word Association Test, first invented by processes. To this end he used the Word Association Test, first invented by Sir Francis Galton, Galton, which which Jung lungdeveloped developedthrough throughextensive extensive research research Sir Francis applying the test to a wide range of psychiatric patients. Initially, lung used applying the test to a wide range of psychiatric patients. Initially, Jung used it as a diagnostic tool but later his experiences of using it helped him it as a diagnostic tool but later his experiences of using it helped him generate further hypotheses on the nature of human mental processing generate further hypotheses on the nature of human mental processing (lung 1 906a, 1906b; 1906b; see see also also Jung lung 1909). 1 909). (Jung 1906a, In quite the reverse direction to the speculative, 'mystical' lung In quite the reverse direction to the speculative, 'mystical' approach approach Jung has often been accused of, his word association experiments were very has often been accused of, his word association experiments were very much in line with quantitative approaches used by psychology experiments much in line with quantitative approaches used by psychology experiments today. Word Association Association Test Test involved involved aa procedure procedure which which Jung lung today. The The Word adapted, with a colleague, to compile a series of stimulus words that were adapted, with a colleague, to compile a series of stimulus words that were read to patients who were required to respond as quickly as possible with read to patients who were required to respond as quickly as possible with the first word that came to mind. Their response word and the time it took the first word that came to mind. Their response word and the time it took to to reply reply were wereall allrecorded. recorded.The The results results were wereanalysed analysedin inan an effort effort to to map map the the emotional blocks that interrupted consciousness in the task. lung hypo­ emotional blocks that interrupted consciousness in the task. Jung hypothesised blocks were were evidence complexes — - his thesisedthat that the the blocks evidence of of complexes hisword word for for uncon­ unconscious knots of affect that distorted rational conscious functioning. scious knots of affect that distorted rational conscious functioning. Here Here was wasexperimental experimentalevidence evidencefor forthe theconcept conceptof ofunconscious unconsciousrepressions repressionsthat that Freud Freudhad had been been developing developingthrough through his his clinical clinicalpractice practicein in Vienna Vienna using usinghis his own ownmethod methodof ofrequiring requiringaapatient patientto to free free associate associatetotothe the first firstthing thing that that came cameinto intotheir theirmind. mind.Analogous Analogousto tothe the links linksmade madein inthe theWord Word Association Association Test, Freud found that his patients' associations could lead Test, Freud found that his patients' associations could lead them them to to aa core core experience, the memory of which had been repressed and kept experience, the memory of which had been repressed and kept from from consciousness. consciousness.However, However,hehelacked lackedthe themore morerobust robust (meaning (meaning quantitative) quantitative) evidence of the linking and blocking of ideas that Word evidence of the linking and blocking of ideas that Word Association Association Tests Tests . .l Jung ung sent a appeared ppea red totopJ'llvide provide. senthis hisfindings findingstotoFreud Freudand and the the two two began began aa

The unconscious: personal and collective 61

T h e u n c onscious: personal a n d c o l l ective

61

collaboration collabor�tionthat thatlasted lastedfrom from1906 1 906until until1912. 1 9 1 2 .Central Centraltotowhat whatthey theyshared shared was the idea of a personal unconscious which, for Jung, had the complexes wa� the I ?ea of a personal unconscious which, for lung, had the complexes as asits Itsmain mamcontent. content. Jung's J ung's difference d ifference becomes b e c o m es apparent apparent

Jung lung began began as as aasupporter supporterofofFreud's Freud'spsychoanalytic psychoanalyticideas ideasand anddefended defended them at conferences and in publications, but he was also an independent th �m at conferences and in publications, but he was also anindependent thinker thmker and and sought sought to todevelop develop what what Freud Freudhad hadstarted, started,tototackle tackleanomalies anomalies and generally expand psychoanalytic theory according to his and generally expan� p�ychoanalytic theory according to hisown ownexperiexperi­ ence, data and ence, new new data and insights. mSlghts. Thus, Thus, in in 1913 1 9 1 3 he he published published 'The 'The theory theory of of psychoanalysis' (lung 1913) 1 9 1 3) in in which which he he expounded expounded Freud's Freud's original original theory theory psyc �oanalysis' (Jung and (as lung Jung sees it) and and its ItS development development (as sees it) and went went on on to to provide provide his his own own . of the theory. It is here that we find some of his most succinct expansion expanSIOn of the theory. It is here that we find some of his most succinct statements n the th� unconscious �nconscious in in aa Freudian Freudian sense. sense. Although Although Jung lung had had statements �on been pondering his idea of a collective unconscious for some time, been po�denng hiS Idea of a collective unconscious for some time, this this text text deals With with the deals the unconscious unconscious before before he he formulated formulated the the two two spheres spheres of of the the personal and the collective unconscious. For this reason, when Jung person �1 and th� co l �ctive unconscious. For this reason, when lung refers refers to the to the 'unconscious' unconscIOus in m the the context context of ofpsychoanalysis, psychoanalysis, he he means means what what he he later refers to as the personal unconscious. later refers to as the personal unconscious. Jung writes writes about about the the way in which Freud's early work on lung way in which Freud's early work on hysteria hysteria and and trauma resulted in trauma resulted in

!

aa cconcept oncept that was to lead far far beyond beyon d the the limits limits of of the the trauma traum a theory. theory. . ThiS This conce concept he called called 'repre 'repression'. As you you know, by 'repression' pt he ssion' . As know, by 'repression' we we mean mean the the � mechanism by which which aa consc conscious content is displa displaced into a echanis� by ious conte nt is ced into a sphere sphere outSid outside consciousness. We call call this this sphere sphere the the uncon unconscious, and e consC IOusness. We scious and we we defi define as the psych psychic element of which which we we are are not ne itit as ic eleme nt of not conscious. consciou � . (Jung par. 2210) (lung 11913: 9 1 3 : par. 1 0)

� lu One �g's inn One oof Jung's innovations occurs soon soon after after this this passag passage. Jung had long ?vations occurs e. lung had long been dissat been dissatisfied withFreud Freud's dogmatic emphasis on the thesexua sexuall instin instinct and isfied With 's dogm atic emph asis on ct and infant ile sexua infantile sexuality asthe the sole sole source source of ofpsych psychic energyor or libido libido.. lung Jung points lit,Y as ic energy points out �e �Latin at tthe out�� that word 'libido 'libido'' is is used used to to mean mean 'hung 'hunger' (analogous to the atm word er' (analo gous to the nutn tlOn mstm nutrition instinct) and also also 'passi 'passionate desire' and — along the lines of ct) and onate desire ' and - along the lines of . phYSIC S where physics whereforces forcesprevio previously seen as separate were now regarded as one usly seen as separate were now regarded as one ::nerg y' but 'energy' but chann channelled into ddifferent forms — Jungpropo proposes that sexuality elled into ifferent forms - lung ses that sexuality . energy, ISisnot ole source notthe the�sole sourceof ofpsych psychic but that 'libido' is a general psychic iC energy, but that 'libido' is a general psych ic eenergy nergy which which may flow in channels serving the sexual, reproductive, nutrimay flow in channels serving the sexual, reproductive, nutri­ . �latevcr instin tion tionor orwwhatever instinct. Thisisiswhat whatisisknow known as his hisgener generalised or genetic ct. This n as alised or genetic . theory theoryofofpsych psychic energyand andmarks marksaa funda fundamental break with Freudian iC energy mental break with Freud ian psych

oa n a l y t ic views psychoanalytic viewsonont he theuunconscious. notes how how neuro neurotics have llcons cious . .l Jung u n g notes tics have exagge ra ted fUfunctions exaggerated that arc over-invested with libido: llct iolls t ha t a rc oVl'r- illVl'stcd with lihido:

62 Christopher C h ristopherHauke H a u ke 62

The uunconscious: personaland andc o collective 63 The n c o n s c i ous: personal l lective 63

The libido is there, there, but itit is is not not visible visible and and isis inaccessible inaccessible to the patient patient himself .. .. . It himself It isis the the task task of ofpsychoanalysis psychoanalysis to search search out out that that hidden hidden where the the libido dwells place where dwells and where the patient himself himself cannot get get at it. it. The The hidden hidden place place isis the the 'non-conscious', 'non-conscious', which which we we may may also also call call the 'unconscious' without attributing attributing totoititany anymystical mysticalsignificance. significance. (lung 1913: 1 9 1 3: par. 255) 255) (Jung Furthermore, explicit in his his rejection rejection of of the theway way Freud Freudstretches stretches Furthermore, lung Jung is explicit sexual sucking: 'this very sexual terminology to encompass infant activities such as sucking: act of sucking sucking could could be conceived conceived just well from standpoint of of the the just as well from the standpoint nutritive that, on onbiological biological grounds, grounds, there therewas wasmore morejustifijustifi­ nutritive function function and that, cation for this this derivation derivation than than for for Freud's Freud'sview' view'(Jung (lung1913: 1 9 1 3: par. par.262). 262). Jung's further on the are to to be found lung's further views views on the unconscious unconscious are found in in this this early early book which, which, despite despite the two two examples examples above, above, clearly clearly aims to defend defend the the psychoanalytic do so so by by offering offering 'improvements'. 'improvements'. Jung lung psychoanalytic view view-- and tries to do describes inten­ describes infantile infantilefantasy fantasyas aspart part of of the the unconscious unconscious sphere sphere -- and intensified case of of neurotics, neurotics, sified in in the the case It never crosses crosses his still not given given up his [the [the neurotic's] neurotic's] mind mind that that he he has still certain he indulges indulges in all all sorts sorts of ofpet pet fantasies, fantasies, certain infantile infantile demands demands .. .. . he of which which he he is is seldom, seldom, if if ever, ever, so so conscious consciousthat that he he knows knows that he has them. Very often often they they exist exist only only as asemotional emotionalexpectations, expectations, hopes, hopes, them. Very prejudices, forth. In In this this case case we wecall callthem themunconscious unconscious prejudices,and and so so forth. fantasies. fantasies. (lung 1 9 1 3 : par. 313) 3 1 3) (Jung 1913: However, seeking to defend defend psychoanalysis psychoanalysis against against its its However, even even while while lung Jung is seeking detractors, he he succeeds succeeds in slipping in his own view which Freud, eventually, eventually, could not tolerate. tolerate. This is is how how he he counters counters the the objection, objection, from from the the famous famous psychiatrist Aschaffenburg, 'that the the so-called so-called unconscious unconscious fanfan­ psychiatrist Gustav Gustav Aschaffenburg, tasies tasies are are merely merely suggested suggestedtotothe thepatient patient and and exist exist only only in in the mind of the unalyst' (Jung (lung 1913: 1 9 1 3 : par. par. 316): 3 1 6) : analyst' only people with no psychological psychological experience experience and no knowledge knowledge of of the the history of psychology one history psychology are are capable capable of making such accusations. No one with the faintest glimmering of of mythology could could possibly possibly fail fail to to see see the the startling parallels between the unconscious fantasies brought to light light by by brought to the psychoanalytic psychoanalytic school mythological ideas. ideas. The objection objection that that school and mythological our knowledge of mythology has been suggested suggested to the patient patient isis our knowledge of mythology has been to the without foundation, because because the the psychoanalytic psychoanalytic school school discovered discovered the the fantasies fi r st and only then became acquainted with their mythology. fantasies first became with their mythology. Mythology, something quite ken of of the t he Mythology, as as we we know, know, is is something quite outside outside the the ken m e d ical man. medical man.

(.l u ng 1913: 1 9 1 3 : par. par. 316) 3 1 6) (Jung

While apparently apparently offering offering aa text text in support While support of ofFreud's Freud'spsychoanalysis, psychoanalysis, Jung is lung is now now seen seen to to make make aaclaim claimfor forthe theauthenticity authenticityofofunconscious unconscious fantasies, not not along along the the lines lines of of Freudian Freudian sexual sexual fantasy fantasy or or trauma, trauma, but in fantasies, the area area -- of the ofall allthings! things! --ofofmythology. mythology. This This isis after after Jung lung has has already already replaced Freud's sexual libido with a generalised energy and and dared replaced generalised psychic psychic energy to question the the significance significance of Freud's Freud's pivotal pivotal emphasis emphasis on on infantile infantile to question sexuality. In In citing citing mythology, mythology, lung Jung may be hinting at the sexuality. the Oedipus Oedipus fantasy fantasy but, in downplaying downplaying the element of of sexual tension in the Oedipus narrative narrative in favour of its status as a myth per se, se, he is departing from psychoanalysis in psychoanalysis in a cloud of dust. Although Although itit excited excited him, him, the the non-scientific, non-scientific, non-biological realm mythological was resisted resisted by Freud Freud and and underemphasised underemphasised in in realm of the mythological favour bio-evolutionary theorising. favour of bio-evolutionary theorising. Now Now his his 'heir apparent', Carl Carl Jung, lung, brings back myth firmly firmly into into the fold of psychoanalytic psychoanalytic theory. theory. In doing so he engineers engineers his his rejection rejection by by the the psychoanalysts for not not adhering to the he psychoanalysts for the party line, line, but, on on the the other otherhand, hand,Jung lunginitiates initiateshis hisown ownperspective perspectivewhich which will come come to be will be known known as asanalytical analytical psychology psychology and and launches launches his his key key concept of of the the collective collective unconscious. unconscious. C onc e i ving of of the the collective c o l l ecti ve unconscious uncons c i ous Conceiving

lung had long long been been dissatisfied dissatisfied with Freudian conception conception of the Jung had with the the Freudian of the unconscious, was able able to formulate formulate his his idea idea of unconscious,but butitit was was not not until until he he was the collective unconscious the collective unconsciousthat thathe hewas wasable able to to provide provide aa model model for for the structure psyche that not not only only put putthe thecollective collective unconscious unconscious on on structure of of the psyche the also clarified clarified the concept concept of of the the personal personal unconscious unconscious along the map, but also distinctly when on the the distinctlylungian Jungian lines. lines.lung Jungreports reportshow how he he had had aa dream when voyage States with Freud Freud in in 1909 1 909 which which began began to to answer answer voyage to to the United States some pressing pressing questions questions that that he had formulated: some formulated: They were: were: On On what what premises premises isis Freudian Freudian psychology founded? To what category does itit belong? belong? What is the relationship relationship of of category of of human thought does its exclusive personalism its almost exclusive personalism to general historical assumptions? (lung 1 9631 1 983: 185) 1 85 ) (Jung 1963/1983: Memories, Dreams, Dreams, Reflections IIn n Memories. Reflections (lung 1 9631 1 983: 1182-183), 82- 1 83), lung details (Jung 1963/1983: Jung details the which, he tells tells us, guiding image which in the the dream which, us, 'became 'became for me a guiding days to come not at at first first suspect' come was was to to be be corroborated corroborated to an extent I could not 1 9631 1 983: 1185). (Jung 85). The descending through the the (Jung 1963/1983: The dream dream involved involved lung Jung descending layers room he he entered enteredhe heidentified identified as asprogressively progressively layers of of a house where each room older kind of of salon salon furnished furnished older in in architectural style. style. The The upper storey had 'a kind with fine old pieces in a rococo style' (.lung 1 9631 1 983: 1 82), below this the the with fine in rococo style' (Jung 1963/1983: 182), next room da t ed from t he fifteen t h or s i xteen t h century: 'The furnishings next room dated from the fifteenth or sixteenth century: 'The furnishings were l : the t he floors floors were were ()I' of red Cl ung 1963/1983: 1 9631 1 983: 182). 1 82). Beyond Beyond were mediaeva mediaeval: red orick' brick' (Jung tthis h is .fJung ung describes descri bes his descent I il'sn' II I into illlo

Hauke 64 CChristopher 64 h ristopher Hauke



5 The and colcollective lective 665 Theunconscious: unconscious:personal personal and

beautifully vaulted vaulted room which ancient. Examaa beautifully which looked looked exceedingly exceedingly ancient. Exam­ ining the the walls, walls,II discovered discoveredlayers layersof ofbrick brickamong amongthe the ordinary ordinary stone stone ining blocks,and and chips chips of of brick brick in in the the mortar. mortar. As As soon as II saw blocks, saw this this II knew knew that the walls dated from Roman times. that walls dated times. (Jung 1963/1983: 1 9631 1 983: 182) 1 82) (lung The final final layer layer of of the the building building is is a cave 'Thickdust dustlay layon on the the floor, floor, and and The cave -—'Thick in the dust were scattered bones and broken pottery, like remains of in the were scattered bones and broken pottery, like remains of a primitive culture' (Jung 11963/1983: Jungreports reportsthis this dream dream in in the the primitive culture' (lung 9631 1 983: 1 183). 83). lung context of discovering how there were aspects of his inner world and his context discovering how there were aspects of his inner his theorising about about the psyche theorising psyche which which he was was finding finding difficult difficult to share share with with Freud. He He was at the time Freud. was struggling struggling at time with with his his questions questions about about Freud's Freud's psychoanalysis and he tells us how Freud produced a personalised psychoanalysis and he tells us Freud produced a personalised interinter­ pretation of the dream, pretation dream, but, for Jung, lung, the the dream dream building building meant something something quite different: something distinct distinct from from Freud's Freud's model quite different: itit suggested suggested something model of of the psyche and the original conception of the psychoanalytic project. the psyche and original conception the psychoanalytic project. In pondering the the question pondering question of the the relationship relationship between between the the personal personal and and impersonal-historical, Jung found that impersonal-historical, J ung found My me the answer. My dream dream was was giving giving me answer. It obviously obviously pointed pointed to the the foundations of of cultural cultural history history— - a history history of ofsuccessive successive layers layers of of concon­ sciousness. My My dream dream thus thus constituted constituted aa kind kind of structural diagram of sciousness. impersonal the human psyche; psyche; it postulated something of an altogether impersonal nature underlying underlying that that psyche. psyche. (Jung 1963/1983: 1 963/ 1 983: 185) 1 85) The The dream dream inspired inspired Jung lung to to return return to toaastudy studyof ofarchaeology, archaeology, myths mythsand andthe the Gnostics in combination with his his study study of the Gnostics which, which, in combination with the fantasies fantasies of of the the of patient Miss led to to the the publication publication of The The Psychology Psychology of M iss Miller, Miller, eventually eventually led arguablylung's Jung's first first text the text of of 1 9 1 21 1 9 1 6/ 1 952) —arguably (Jung 1912/1916/1952) the Unconscious Unconscious (Jung analytical as distinct unalytical psychology psychology as distinct from psychoanalysis. psychoanalysis. Of this book book Jung Jung has has written, written, referring referring to his his time time with with Freud, Freud, -

One One of of my my principal principal aims aims was was totofree freemedical medical psychology psychology from from the the subjective and personalistic bias that characterized its outlook at subjective and personalistic bias characterized its at the the time, time, and and to to make make ititpossible possible to tounderstand understand the the unconscious unconscious as as an an objective objective and andcollective collectivepsyche. psyche. xxiv) 1 956: xxiv) (Jung1956: (Jung Defining Defining the the personal personal and and the the collective c o l l e ctiveunconscious uncons c ious

Once Once Jung Junghad hadbegun begunto toget gettotogrips gripswith withthis thisother, other,objective, objective,cultural culturaland and collective unconscious it became more pressing, and yet easier, define col lect i ve unconscious i t became more pressing, and yet easier, totodefine

what the personal personal unconscious. unconscious. The The collective collective unconscious what he he meant meant by by the unconscious is is certainly the certainlydifferent differentfrom fromFreud's Freud'sconception, conception,but but isis lung's Jung's concept concept of of the personal personalunconscious unconsciousidentical identicalto to Freud's? Freud's? There There are are similarities: similarities: itit holds holds repressed infantile nature and deriving deriving repressedcontents contentsand andmaterial materialoften often of of an an infantile nature and from from the the biographical biographical history history of of the the person. person. lung Jung says says in in his his revision revision of of the the trauma childhood experiences experiences may trauma theory theory of of hysteria, hysteria, that that childhood mayact act as as aa sort sort of of reminiscence reminiscencewhich whichrestricts restrictspsychic psychicenergy energyand andthen thenprovides providesaa form form for for the rather the stage-managing stage-managing of of hysterical hystericalsymptoms symptomsininthe theadult. adult. But But this this is is rather the symptoms; cause different to saying that the childhood experiences different to saying that the childhood experiences cause the symptoms; lung, future Jung, instead, instead, finds finds that that symptoms symptoms have have an an aim aim or or teleology teleology (a (a ''future cause'), and the childhood experience simply provides the by which form cause'), and the childhood experience simply provides the form by which the solve aa crisis crisis in the patient patient attempts attempts to to solve in the the present. present. He He cites cites the the case case of of aa woman who hysterically ran ahead of charging horses in a way that recalled woman who hysterically ran ahead of charging horses in a way that recalled aa childhood coach and horses, but but who who in in fact fact was was unconuncon­ childhood trauma trauma with with aa coach and horses, sciously driven to this hysterical reaction by a difficult current situation sciously driven to this hysterical reaction by a difficult current situation of of wishing wishing to to be be with with her her lover lover who who was was already already married. married. lung Jung concludes concludes that that '`the the cause flict lies cause of of the the pathogenic pathogenic con conflict lies mainly mainly in in the the present present moment' moment' (Jung (Jung italics in original). 11913: 9 1 3 : par. 373; par. 373; italics in original). A more or or less less conventional conventional position position on on the the A greater greater clarification clarification of of lung's Jung's more 1 927 essay 'The structure of the psyche' personal unconscious comes in the personal unconscious comes in the 1927 essay 'The structure of the psyche' 1 927). (lung (Jung 1927). The personal unconscious unconscious consists those contents contents that that The personal consists firstly firstly of of all all those became unconscious either because they lost their intensity and were became unconscious either because they lost their intensity and were ? rgotten or or because because consciousness consciousness was was withdrawn withdrawn from from them them (repres(repres­ fforgotten SIOn), and secondly of contents, some of them sense-impressions, which sion), and secondly of contents, some of them sense-impressions, which never had sufficient intensity to reach consciousness but have somehow never had sufficient intensity to reach consciousness but have somehow entered the the psyche. psyche. entered (lung 1927: par. 321) 32 1 ) 1 927: par. (Jung details the the history history of of the the ( 1 946) details Later, in in 'On 'On the the nature natureof ofthe thepsyche', psyche',Jung lung(1946) Later, concept of the unconscious (including those historical precursors I mention concept of the unconscious (including those historical precursors I mention above) with with the the aim aim of of separating separating out out the theroles roles of ofinstinct instinct on onthe theone onehand, hand above) and will or spirit on the other. Where psyche loses itself in the organi and will or spirit on the other. Where psyche loses itself in the organic� materialof ofthe thebody body—- i.e., i.e. , the the instinctual instinctualsphere sphere—- itit is is so so unconscious unconsciousas astoto material never have access to consciousness and this realm he refers to as the never have access to consciousness and this realm he refers to as the There is is aa continuum continuum between between the the unknown unknown instinct instinct and and the the psychoid. There psychoid. image which which may may become become known known totoconsciousness; consciousness; this this isisaddressed addressed inin image 3 of this book (on the archetypes) in more detail. But here lung's Chapter Chapter 3 of this book (on the archetypes) in more detail. But here isis Jung's later, more developed definition of the unconscious as originally conceived later, more developed definition of the unconscious as originally conceived psychoanalysis: in psychoanalysis: in anextremely extremelyfluid fluid state stateofofaffairs: affairs: depict san the unconscious unconscious depicts defi ned, the So defined, So am not at t he moment o w hut of wh ich I of which I k ll every t h ing everything of which I know, but of which I am not at the moment .

Christopher 66 C 66 h ristopher Hauke H au ke



67 The n c o n s c i o u s : personal l lective 67 The uunconscious: personaland andc ocollective

been and they they are are been in in consciousness consciousness-- they they are are not not repressed repressed or or forgotten forgotten -- and not acquired acquired but not owe their existence to a form of heredity. Jung sum­ but owe their existence to a form of heredity. Jung summarises marises thus:

thinking; everything everythingof ofwhich whichII was was once but have thinking; once conscious conscious but have now now forgotten; everything everythingperceived perceivedbybymy mysenses, senses,but butnot not noted noted by by my forgotten; my conscious mind; mind; everything everything which, which, involuntarily involuntarily and without conscious without paying paying attention to to it, want, and do; attention it, II feel, feel, think, think, remember, remember, want, do; all all the the future future things that that are things are taking taking shape shape in in me me and and will will sometime sometime come come to to consciousness: all all this this isis the the content content of the unconscious. These contents consciousness: all more or less capable, so to speak, of are all less capable, of consciousness, or were once conscious and and may may become become conscious consciousagain againthe the next next moment moment .. .. . To conscious this marginal marginal phenomenon . .. .. there this there also also belong belong the the Freudian Freudianfindings findings we we have have already noted. (Jung 1946: 1 946: par. 382) 382) Jung saw Jung saw the ego ego as as the the centre centre of ofconsciousness, consciousness, but he he also also saw saw the the creativity of of the unconscious in that creativity unconscious in that the the unconscious unconscious may may influence influence our our conscious thinking thinking and that it is often 'truer conscious 'truer and and wiser'. wiser'. The The contents contents of of the the personal unconscious unconscious include include the the complexes and Jung extends personal complexes and extends this idea to to include personifications or dissociated fragments fragments of ofpersonality personalitymost mostclearly clearly seen in in our dreams. dreams. A further important way of seen of understanding the the personal unconscious -- and connected connectedwith withthis thisfragmentation fragmentation--isis Jung's unconscious Jung's concept concept of which may may appear appear in dreams the shadow which dreams or or when when the the patient patient projects projects itit onto another another person. person. 'The Theshadow shadowpersonifies personifies everything everything that that the the subject subject refuses to acknowledge about himself himself and and yet yet is is always always thrusting thrustingitself itselfupon upon him or indirectly him directly directly or indirectly -- for for instance, instance, inferior inferior traits traits of of character character and and 1 939: par. par. 513). 5 1 3). The The shadow shadowisiseveryevery­ other incompatible incompatible tendencies' tendencies' (Jung (Jung 1939: thing thing that is is 'not 'not me', me', and andthis thismight mightinclude includecreative creative qualities qualities that that could could benefit the lost or repressed repressed due to to the the benefit the whole whole personality personality but but have have been been lost social conditions upbringing or social conditions of the subject. subject. For our purposes in tracking a definition definition of the the personal personal unconscious unconscious itit is interesting interesting to note note Jung's Jung's emphasis emphasis that 'the shadow shadow .. .. . .represents represents first first and andforemost foremost the thepersonal personal unconscious, and its content can unconscious, can therefore therefore be be made made conscious conscious without without too too much difficulty' difficulty' (Jung 1 950: par. 1 9) -- aastatement statementwhich whichreinforces reinforces his his much (Jung 1950: par. 19) earlier assertion assertion that, 'The 'The shadow shadow coincides coincides with with the the "personal" "personal" unconuncon­ earlier scious (which (which corresponds corresponds to Freud's conception conception of of the the unconscious)' unconscious)' (Jung (Jung 11939: 939: par. 513). 5 1 3).

My as follows: follows: In addition to to our ourimmediate immediateconsciousconscious­ My thesis, thesis, then, then, is is as In addition ness, which is of a thoroughly personal nature and which we believe ness, which is of a thoroughly personal nature and which we believe to be the only empirical psyche (even if we tack on the personal to be the only empirical psyche (even if we tack on the personal unconscious there exists exists aa second second psychic psychic system unconscious as as an an appendix), appendix), there system of of aa collective, universal, and impersonal nature which is identical in all collective, universal, and impersonal nature which is identical in all indi i � uals . This collective unconscious does not develop individually individuals. : . This collective unconscious does not develop individually but IS inherited. mhented. It It consists consists of of pre-existent pre-existent forms, forms, the the archetypes, archetypes, which which but is can only become conscious secondarily and which give definite form to can only become conscious secondarily and which give definite form to certain certain psychic contents. 1 936: par. 90) (J ung 1936: (Jung par. 90) lung how earlier earlier psychoanalytic psychoanalytic theories and Jung notes notes how theories such such as as those those of of Freud Freud and

� dler also the instincts instincts which which were were similarly similarly Adler also had had an aa priori priori general general base base in in the

Impersonal, fact, he he says, says, the the archetypes archetypes are are impersonal, inherited inherited and and universal. universal. In In fact, analogous the instincts. instincts. analogous to the 1 927 on on Before term 'archetype', 'archetype', Jung J ung lectured lectured in in 1927 Before he he had had settled settled on on the the term 'The the psyche' psyche' where where he he formulates formulates his his idea idea of ofthe thecollective collective `The structure structure of of the unconscious his 1913 1 9 1 3 revision revision of of unconscious with with evidence evidence along along the the lines lines we we read read in in his Freud's psychoanalysis -- namely, namely, the the presence presence of of mythological mythological material material in in Freud's psychoanalysis his patients' images images and and dreams. dreams. The Thecollective collective unconscious unconscious consists consists of of his patients' 'primordial lung concludes concludes that our `primordial images' images' and and 'mythological 'mythological motifs' motifs' and and Jung that our myths, legends and fairy tales tales are are carriers carriers of ofaaprojected projectedunconscious unconscious myths, legends and fairy psyche. way in in which which humans humans have have psyche. lung Jung analogises analogises this this process process to to the the way projected meaningful images images onto the stars stars and and`constellated' 'constellated' them themininforms forms projected meaningful onto the which then named. named. He He disagrees disagrees with with the the functionalist functionalist argument argument that that which are are then early sought to to explain explain natural natural events events by by anthropomorphising anthropomorphising them. them. early man man sought Instead, Jung argues argues that that over over millions millions of of years, years, the the psyche, psyche, like like the the body, body, Instead, Jung has adapted to to physical physical events events in in the the environment environment and and produced produced the the has adapted participation mystique mystique where separation mythological material of aa participation mythological material out of where the the separation of subject su bject and 0 bject is it is is not the physical physical phenomena of and object is not not distinct. distinct. And And it not the phenomena the thunder thunder or or clouds clouds or or earthquakes earthquakes -- that thatremains remains in in the the psyche psyche but but ''the the the (Jung 1927: 1 927: par. par. 331; 3 3 1 ; my my italics). italics). fantasies caused by the affects affects they fantasies caused by the they arouse' arouse' (Jung �odily functions like hunger hu�ger and and sex sex similarly similarly produce produce engrained engrained fantasy fantasy Bodily functions like Images as dangers, sickness Sickness and But, above above all, all, itit isis the the most most images as do do dangers, and death. death. But, ordinary, everyday everyday events, events, 'immediate 'immediate realities realities like like husband, husband wife, wife father, father ordinary, ' mother, child child .. .. . . which which are areeternally eternallyrepeated, repeated, [and] [and] create create the the mightiest �ighties � mother, archetypes of of all, all, whose whose ceaseless ceaseless activity is everywhere everywhere apparent even in in aa archetypes activity is apparent even ra tionalistic age age like l i k e ours' o urs (Jung ( l ung1927: 1 927: par. par.336). 336). rationalistic ' So, the t he collective col lect i ve uunconscious lH:onscious i sisa a record the psyche psyche of of So, recordin, in,and and of, of the h u m a n k i n d going goi ng back hack to t o its i t s remotest rell10test beginnings heginnings just i ust as as we we still still have have humankind _

.

The The collective c o l l ective unconscious uncons c io us itself i ts e l f

lung asserts asserts that thatconsciousness consciousness grows grows out out of ofthe theunconscious unconsciouspsyche psychewhich which Jung is older ol d e r than it it --not notthat thatthe theunconscious unconsciousisismerely merelythe theremnants remnantsof ofolder older is material. In In saying saying this, Jung refers to aa sphere sphere of of the the unconscious unconscious that that he he material. defi nes negatively negat i vc\y against personal unconscious. unconscious. The Thecollective collective unconu ncon ­ defines against the personal i s the the part of of the the psyche psyche that is is not not a personal personal acquisition acquisition and and has has scious is scious 110/ been heen acquired acq u i red through t h ro ugh personal persona l experience. experience. Its contents con tents have ha ve never lI('l"er not

'

,

H a u ke C h ri stopher Hauke 68 Christopher 68

But itit isis ancestral traces traces in in our body body morphology morphology and our 'reptilian brain'. But being, from far far from being, system livingsystem buta aliving heap, but rubbish heap, abandoned rubbish ofabandoned sort of deposit, a sort a dead deposit, life inin individual's life the individual's determine the that determine aptitudes that and aptitudes reactions and of reactions of the which the forms which the forms simply the are simply archetypes are the archetypes invisible ways invisible ways . . .. .. the everything flowseverything instinctflows fountainofofinstinct living fountain the living assume. From the instincts assume. by conditioned by merely conditioned not merely is not unconscious is the unconscious hence the creative; hence that isis creative; that impulse. creative impulse. thecreative ofthe source of very source the very but isis the history, but history, (lung 339) 1 927: par. 339) (Jung 1927: unconscious, personalunconscious, the personal as the individual as the individual for the relevant for While being just just as relevant take collective unconscious the the collective unconsciousis,is, therefore, therefore,even evenmore more important important to to take 'civilised' of'civilised' aspects of psychological aspects thepsychological considers the lung considers when Jung account when into account 'universal' to 'universal' - modernity society society — modernity -—iningeneral. general.Freud Freudhad had linked linked instinct to complex which Oedipus complex of the Oedipus conceived of he conceived psychological phenomena when he his But his expression long mythological expression had aa mythological also also had long before before he he named named it. it. But ego­ theegoexpressthe merelyexpress motiftotomerely myth motif the myth used the emphasis was reductive and used individuals. ofindividuals. classof certainclass ofaacertain dynamicsof familydynamics particularfamily and particular development and recon­ fantasy reconown fantasy his own in his Oedipus in the Oedipus rooting the as rooting far as even went Freud even went as far Totem and father-murdering sons struction struction of of the the father-murdering sonsof of the the primal primal horde horde in in Totem pathologies the pathologies in the specialised in he specialised main he the main in the but in 1 9 1 2- 1 9 1 3), but Taboo Taboo (Freud 1912-1913), the grasp the to grasp wish to we wish when we turn when we turn lung we to Jung is to it is psyche and of of the the individual individual psyche and it general. in general. psyche in significance significance of of the the modern modern psyche has unconscious has collective unconscious thecollective times, the archaictimes, sincearchaic thatsince out that points out lung Jung points various through consciousness in, expression and with, relation its found found its relation with, and expression in, consciousness through various under degenerate under forms degenerate these forms when these But when religion. But and religion. philosophy and forms forms of of philosophy science of restrictions epistemological the and rationalism of pressure the the pressure of rationalism and the epistemological restrictions of science —fewer and fewer fewer and - psyche period— medieval period the medieval of the especially especially since since the the end end of psyche has has fewer get to tends then and expressed be may it which in ways ritual or symbolic symbolic or ritual ways in which it may be expressed and then tends to get psychology personalistic purely A will. it where and as collectively projected projected collectively as and where it will. A purely personalistic psychology cases not most cases 'Since neuroses effect: 'Since this effect: distort this tends tends to deny and distort neuroses are are in in most not arche­ that must we phenomena, social but private concerns, ust private jjust phenomena, we assume that archeconcerns, but social time the time By the 98). By 1 936: par. (Jung 1936: types types are are constellated constellated in in these these cases cases too' too' (Jung par. 98). in 936, 1 doctors London to talk a as given be to essay the writing was he he was writing the essay to be given as a talk to London doctors in 1936, the lung gave Germany in Nazis the of rise the of form the in history history — in the form of the rise of the Nazis in Germany — gave Jung the clearly. too all this see to opportunity opportunity to see this all too clearly.

I

personaland andc o collective 69 l lective 69 unconscious: personal The unconscious:

degree undreamt undreamtof of before before the the [First [First World] World]war, war, and and in in the last last degree . analysis what what isis the the fate the of the summation of nations but aa summation great nations fate of great analYSIS psychic changes in individuals? individuals? psychic (Jung 1936: 97) (lung 1 936: par. 97) More recently, the figure figure of Diana, mass the mass and the Wales, and Princess of Wales, Diana, Princess recently, the More response to her death Jungians as an example the of the example of viewed by Jungians been viewed have been death have se to respon . . collective unconsclOu unconscious seekingan an object object for for its projections and (Haynes and projections (Haynes s seeking collective . Shearer 1998). The view view II express Inter­ The InterPostmodern: The the Postmodern: and the express in Jung and 1 998). The Shearer pretation of Realities (Hauke 2000) is the to seemed to Diana seemed which Diana the way in which 2000) is pretation of Realities (Hauke possess qualities which are are ambivalently valued by our contemporary, our contemporary, ambivalently valued poss �ss qualitie � which human qualities certain in certain marginalised in are marginalised qualities that are c? nsclOusness; human omillant consciousness; �dominant times are still in form in will seek a form collective unconscious and will the collective still present in the times which e�pressed. This is hich they can be expressed. projec­ unconscious projecthrough unconscious achieved through is achieved ,,: tion, as in the back' the 'taking back' of 'taking form of Diana, aa form of Diana, case of the case III the then, as nd then, tlO � , aand . projection through relating by those those queuing at exemplified by - exemplified image— theimage tothe relating to projectIOn her funeral funeral who who sai said, 'It is as if her Virgin the Virgin of the 'knowing' of The 'knowing' her' . The knew her'. if II knew ? , 'It Mary through her image worked in the same way for over a thousand over a thousand same way Image worked in Mary through years. lu Jung claims in in making more far more were far symbols, were such symbols, thatsuch making the point that years. �g claims times than our for functioned for once functioned They once own. They our own. less rationalistic times III less common in con­ connect conto connect power to their power lost their now lost have now psyche but the psyche humans humans and and the but have sciousnessto to its its roots roots in in the psyche's instinctual base base and and thus retain for for psyche's instinctual sciousness humans a link world. (non-human) world. the (non-human) ofthe rest of the rest and the Nature and link to Nature humans In another way, can have have a unconscious can collective unconscious the collective of the contents of the contents way, the In harmful effect on the ego and the personality when, instead of being being of instead when, personality the and ego the on � effec ful har � projected out into ego-consciousness with their overwhelm ego-consciousness theyoverwhelm world, they the world, Illto the prOjected delu­ psychotic deluviewed psychotic lungviewed how Jung was how images. This was owerful aaffects �fects and and images. �powerful sions, and, in and mythological character of his seriously seriously his of character u and" lOns, mythological III fact, the universal and iversal � ? . ill patients patients' words and images collective thecollective ofthe fact of the fact of the convinced him of Images convinced III unconscious. lung Jung first published material along 1912 as 1912 early as as early lines as these lines along these unconscious. 1 963/ (lung 1963/ (Jung 1912/1916/1952). and lung's Jung's own experiences (Jung own experiences reams, and 1 9 1 21 1 9 1 61 1 952). �Dreams, (Jung . - aa type � h active �4-225) wI 983: I194-225) 11983: with active imagination imagination — type of of lucid lucid dreaming where unconscious matenal material arises arises spontaneously spontaneously but ego ego is is still still 'awake' 'awake' enough enough to unconscIOus observe it — provided him him with further evidence. further evidence. - provided observe Is evi d ence for Is there there other other evidence for the the collective c o l l ective unconscious? uncons c i o us?

The analyst Anthony AnthonyStevens Stevens(1995) ( 1 995) notes The Jungian Jungian analyst notes how howinnate innatestructures structures— which fashion for much of which have have been been out out of fashion of the the twentieth twentieth century century due due to to tthe he prevalence prev a lence of behaviourism behaviourism now seem — now seem to feature in many scientific to many scientific . . erspec t lves III og�, psychology psychology and � perspectives in blOl biology, and neuroscience. Niko Tinbergen neuroscience. Niko Tinbergen ffound o und w h a l he he calls calls 'innate ' II1 n a le releasing relea s i n g mechanisms' what in animals especially mechanisms' in animals especially . _

nature the nature ago the years ago twenty years could twenty you could can judge Today Today you you can judge better better than than you reviving is nation whole a how see not we Can involved. forces the of of the forces involved. Can we not see how a whole nation is reviving this mass yes, even symbol, yes, rchaic symbol, n a a an archaic even archaic archaic religious religious forms, forms, and and how how this in aa individual in the individual of the life of the life revolutionising the influencing and is influencing o t i o n is em emotion and revolutionising a to a t oday to a li v c today i s alive n us a n of a n ner? The t a s t rophic m ca catastrophic manner? Themman ofthe the past past iin us is

when o the t he relationship rela t i o n s h i p between bet ween parents when IitI comes comes tto paren ls and their t heir young. y o u ng. John John

Christopher 70 C 70 h risto p h e r Hauke H a u ke



Bowlbytook took this this up up in in his his theory theory of attachment. Noam Chomsky's Bowlby Chomsky's ideas ideas of of 'deep structures' structures' in in the the brain 'deep brain which which give give humans humans the the potential potential for for aa universal grammatical grammatical structure in language universal language despite despite the the vast vast surface surfacedifferdiffer­ ences in human languages, seems corroborated by more and more ences in languages, seems corroborated more and moreevidence. evidence. Sociobiology and and evolutionary psychology both argue Sociobiology argue for for adaptive adaptivepsychic psychic structures produced produced over over millennia structures millennia of evolution evolution which which sound very very much much like what what Jung like Jung meant meant by by the thearchetypes archetypes ofofthe thecollective collectiveunconscious: unconscious: 'specialized learning learning mechanisms mechanisms that that organize experience 'specialized experience into adaptively adaptively meaningful schemas schemas or or frames' frames' (Cosmides 1985, meaningful 1 985, quoted in Walters Walters 1994). 1 994) . In further support of In of Jung's Jung's views, views, Stevens Stevens also also notes how Paul Maclean Maclean demonstratedthat that mammalian mammalianand and reptilian reptilian parts parts of the ((1976) 1 976) demonstrated the human human brain still function in modern human human beings. beings. He He cites cites Michel M ichel Jouvet's Jouvet'ssleep sleep laboratory experiments experimentswhere wherehe he showed showed that that dreams laboratory dreams arise arise from from biobio­ logically ancient ancientparts parts of of the the brain and seem logically seem to have have aa clear clear evolutionary evolutionary adaptive function (Jouvet (Jouvet 1975). 1 975). adaptive function However, the most However, most up-to-date up-to-date investigations investigations into intounconscious unconsciousprocesses processes come from the field and its employment come field of of cognitive cognitive science science and employment of of computer computer modelling and and brain modelling brain imaging imaging to investigate investigate neural neural substrates substrates of of brain brain function. As As Soren Soren Ekstrom writes, 'the 'the speculations by both both Freud function. Ekstrom writes, speculations by Freud and and JJung ung left left the the specific specific synaptic synaptic and and neural neuralmanifestations manifestations ofofunconscious unconscious processes to to be inferred' (Ekstrom 2004: 662). N Now, processes 2004: 662). ow, Lakoff and Johnson in in (1999) have in neuroscience, their book Philosophy in the Flesh ( 1 999) have used studies neuroscience, Philosophy in Flesh their book cognitive linguistics, linguistics,and and neural neural modelling modellingto to conclude conclude that that 'most of cognitive of our our thought is is unconscious, unconscious, not in in the the Freudian Freudiansense sense of ofbeing being repressed, repressed, but but in in sense that itit operates the sense operates beneath beneath the thelevel level of ofcognitive cognitive awareness, awareness, inaccessinaccess­ ible to consciousness consciousness and quickly to be ible and operating operating too quickly be focused focused on' on' (Lakoff (Lakoff 1 999: 10). 1 0). Jung's Jung's conception Johnson 1999: conception of ofthe theunconscious unconscious combined combined and Johnson religion and science, religion science, but he clearly clearly anticipated anticipated the the time time when whenneurological neurological studies further scientific scientific evidence speculations when when he studies would would add further evidence to to his speculations spoke in in England England in 1 93 5 : in 1935: spoke

area unconscious area vast unconscious Consciousness like aa surface surface or or aa skin skin upon aa vast usness isis like Conscio complicated verycomplicated withvery laboratorywith of needaalaboratory weneed extent .. .. . .we unknown extent of unknown our from our apart from apparatus picture of that world apart establish a picture order to establish in order apparatus in our with our same with the same much the very much senses and and apart apart from psyche .. .. .. very from our psyche senses could we could which we in which laboratory in unconscious weought oughtto to have have a laboratory unconscious -—we an in when in an establish by objective methods how how things things really really are are when objective methods establish by unconscious condition. (Jung 1935/1977: 1 93 5/ 1 977: par. 11) I I) that equipment that investigative equipment the investigative Cognitive today seems have the seems to have science today ( 'ogn i t i v e science of years hundred the hundred years of complem ent the would complement knew would he knew which he sought, and which u n g sought, .ll ung that psyche ous unconsci psyche that the unconscious on the philosophical speculation on psychological speculation p h il o so ph i cal and psychological h a d preceded preceded it. it. had

71 The n c o n s c i o u s : personal n d col lective 71 The uunconscious: personalaand collective Conc l ud ing thoughts Concluding

II often ask myself and would Jung Junghave have become become ififthere there and my students, 'What 'What would had been Freud?' Freud?' Would Would he he have have remained remained as marginal marginal and perhaps perhaps had not been forgotten eloquently conceived conceived of the unconscious forgotten like like e.G. C.G. Carus, who so eloquently unconscious before and Freud Freud became became world world before either either of of them? them? The The reason reason that that Jung and famous not) seems seems to lie lie with with the the fact fact that thatpsychoanalysis psychoanalysis famous (and (and Carus did not) and analytical psychology are methods and psychology are methods of of treatment. treatment. With With this this new new method method of treating mental distress, distress, initiated initiated by Freud, Freud, depth depth psychology psychology shifted shifted of treating from to being being an an applied applied psychological psychological theory theory from being being a philosophical theory to that, its methods, methods, could could enlighten enlighten and and change change individuals individuals for the the that, through its better. the method method goes goes even even further further in in so so far faras as analytical analytical better. With e.G. C.G. Jung, the psychology psychologyaddresses addressesnot not only only individual individualconcerns, concerns,but but also also the the way way in which of how the the human human psyche psyche in in general general which these these are are seen seen to to imply a critique of has been affected affected by social social changes changes in the the industrialised industrialised West West since since the the has been Enlightenment. uch like like Nietzsche Nietzsche before emphasises how on Enlightenment. M Much before him, him, Jung emphasises the modern consciousness consciousness has has evolved evolved in in aa specialised specialised way way thus thus the one hand, modern enabling of the world world humans humans have have ever ever seen. seen. On enabling the the greatest greatest manipulation of the however, neglect neglect of the unconscious unconscious has resulted resulted in great the other hand, however, losses that the the creative creative potential potential of ofthe the psyche psyche is, is, at at losses to to humanity humanity in the way that best, an assumption assumption that that progress progress may may be beachieved achieved best, ignored ignored in in favour of an through the application of of conscious conscious rationality alone. alone. At At worst, worst, this this gives gives rise great damage damage arising arising from from neglect neglect of ofthe therelationship relationship between between rise to great humans world and and the the failure failure to to recognise recognise the the projections projections we we place humans and the world upon it. it. Thus, Thus, Jung's Jung's view view of of the the unconscious unconscious offers offers aa way way of of healing healing not not only individual soul, soul, but also also for for the the'soul' 'soul'ofoftwenty-first-century twenty-first-century only for the individual society society in general. This is far from being being aa purely purely sociological sociological project project either, either, because because Jung Jung This is far from always emphasises the importance always emphasises the importance of of the the individual individual and and the development development of their full potential potential in the the process process he he calls calls individuation. individuation. However, However, in aa their full psychology where each and every individual also carries carries their own share share of of psychology where each and every individual also the the universal, universal, collective collective unconscious unconscious psyche, psyche, each each individuating individuating subject subject that fosters of the conscious conscious and and unconscious unconscious psyche psyche contributes contributes fosters the the integration integration of to change in a mass collective sense. In this way II have have linked linked postmodern postmodern to change in a mass collective sense. way philosophical sense that in philosophical and and social critique with Jung's psychology in the sense both the validation of subjective experience is able to stand authentically both the validation of subjective experience is able stand authentically and pluralistically beside beside the claims claims of of the the dominant dominantepistemologies epistemologies that that and pluralistically have 'objectivity' alone alone (Hauke (Hauke 2000). 2000). In another another way, way, the the postpost­ have relied relied on on 'objectivity' Jungian Andrew Samuels Samuels (Samuels (Samuels 1995, 1 995, 2001) 200 1 ) also also uses uses Jungian Jungian perspecperspec­ Jungian Andrew tives discuss the the way way in in which which our our political political behaviour behaviour (including ( including the the tives to to discuss po l i t ics of race and and class) class) may may be be understood understood better better— - and perhaps perhaps politics of gender, gender, race rev i t a l ised out e i r cynicism bypaying paying attention attention to tothe thepsychology psychology of revitalised out of of th their cynicism by tthe he u nconscious . In t h cases use of or aa psychological psychological perspective perspective unconscious. In bo both cases the the use wro n g l y regarded n:ganled in in modern m odern limes t i nK's as as the t h e sole sole province provi nce of ofindividual individual wrongly

72 Christopher C h ristopherHauke H a u ke 72

concerns — - isis being new tool tool of ofcritical criticalsocial socialtheory theory concerns being employed employed as as aa new used analogous to to the the way wayininwhich whichFrankfurt FrankfurtSchool Schooltheorists theoristsonce onceused analogous . Freudianideas. ideas.The Thedifference difference isis that thatmyself myselfand andSamuels Samuelsare arenot notwelding weldmgaa Freudian depth psychology psychology to to social social theory, theory,but butrestoring restoringand andamplifying amplifyinga aconnecconnec­ depth tion already alreadypresent present ininJung's Jung'spsychological psychologicalperspective perspective that thathas hasincluded included tion collective phenomena phenomena and has been been driven driven by by his his need need to to understand unders�and the �he collective and has psychology of ofcollective collective human human behaviour behaviour throughout throughoutthe thecentury centuryinmwhich which psychology he lived. lived. he e.G. Jung Jung isis more more vital vitalnowadays nowadaysthan thanever everbefore beforeasas The psychology of of C.G. The psychology way of thinking about, and acting upon, not only individual issues a a way of thinking about, and acting upon, not only individual issues of mental distress as in psychoanalysis, but also the wider implications of of mental distress as in psychoanalysis, but also the wider implications of psyche in the world. By developing a psychology of the un�onscious that psyche in the world. By developing a psychology of the unconscious that has both both aa personal personal and and aacollective collective aspect, aspect, Jung Junghas hassupplied suppliedthe thetheortheor­ has etical tools which enable psychotherapists and academics in other fields etical tools which enable psychotherapists — and academics in other fields like film, literature, international relations, art and social policy to name like film, literature, international relations, art and social policy to name but aa few few — - to where we we are are but to offer offer fresh fresh perspectives perspectives on on who who we we are, are, and and where heading, at the start of the twenty-first century. heading, at the start of the twenty-first century. Reference s

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he low, a l l reii.' rl'IllTS i n I hl' I l' x l a re 10 I he h a rdhal:k ed i l i o n of The TheCOIII'CII't! (Wlected

he w, all references in the text arc to the ha rd hack edition of

The and ccollective 73 The unconscious: u n co n s c i o u s : personal personal and o l l ective 73

Works Worksof ofC. CG. G. Jung, Jung, ed. Adler, ed. Sir Sir Herbert Herbert Read, Read, Michael Micha el Fordham Fordh amand andGerhard Gerhard Adler trans. R.F.C. R.F.e .Hull, trans. and Kegan Paul. Hull,21 ' 2 1volumes volum es(CW). ( C W) . London: Londo n:Routledge Routledge and Kegan Paul. Jung, C.G. e.G.(1906a) Jung, ( l 906a) 'Psychoanalysis 'Psych oanaly sis and CW 2: pars. and association associ ation experiments', experiments ', in in C W 2: pars. 660-727. 660-727. ( I 906b) 'Assoc (1906b) 'Association, 2: pars. 793-862. iation , dream dream and and hysterical hysterical symptom', sympt om', in in CW C W 2 : pars. 793-8 62. ( 1 909) 'The (1909) The association association method', metho d', in in CW CW 2: 2: pars. pars. 939-998. 939-9 98. (1912/1916/1952) ( 1 9 1 2/ 1 9 1 6/ 1 952) The The Psychology Psychology of of the the Unconscious. Unconscious. CW CW 5. 5. -- (1913) ( 1 9 1 3) 'The 'The theory theory of ofpsychoanalysis', psychoanaly sis', in in CW CW 4: 4: pars. pars. 203-522. 203-5 22. ( 1 927) 'The (1927) The structure structure of of the the psyche', psyche', in in CW CW 8: 8: pars. pars. 283-342. 283-.3 42. - ( 1 935/ 1 977) 'The (1935/1977) 'The Tavistock Lecture Tavistock Lectures: pars. 1-73. Lectures: Lectur e 1', I ', in in CW CW 18: 1 8 : pars. 1 -73. ( 1 936) 'The The concept (1936) concept of ofthe the collective collective unconscious', unconscious ', in in CW C W 9i: 9i: pars. pars. 87-110. 87- 1 1 0 . -- (1939) ( 1 939) 'Conscious, and individuation', 'Cons cious, unconscious unconscious and 9i: indivi duatio n', in in CW CW 9 i : pars. pars. 489-524. 489--5 24. ( 1 946) 'On the (1946) the nature nature of of the the psyche', psyche', in in CW CW 8: 8: pars. pars. 343-442. 343-4 42. (1950) ch. 22 in ( 1 950) 'The shadow', shado w', ch. in Aion. A ion. CW C W 9ii: 9ii: pars. pars. 13-19. 1 3- 1 9. - (1956) ( 1 956) 'Forew 'Foreword edition', ord to the fourth fourth Swiss Swiss editio n', in in CW C W 5: 5: xxiv. xxiv. Jung, C.G. e.G. (1963/1983) ( 1 963/ 1 983) Memories, Memories, Dreams, London: Dreams, Reflections. Reflections. Londo n: Fontana. Fonta na. Lakoff, G. and Johnson, Lakoff, Johns on, M. M. (1999) Mind and ( 1 999) Philosophy Philosophy in in the the Flesh: Flesh: The The Embodied Emhodied Mind and its Challenge Challenge to Western Western Thought. Thought. New York: York: Basic Basic Books. Books . Macle an, P.D. (1976) ( 1 976) 'Senso Maclean, 'Sensory of the ry and perceptive perceptive factors factor s in in emotional emoti onal function function of the triune triune brain' brain',, in R.G. R.G. Genell Genel l and Biological Foundations of and S. S. Gabay Gaba y (eds) (eds) Biological Foundations of PsyPsy­ chiatry,, Volum chiatry Volume e 1. 1 . New York: York: Raven. Raven. M Malik, alik, K. K. (2000) (2000) Man, Man, Beast and Zombie: Cannot Tell Us Zomhie: What What Science Science Can Can and and Cannot Tell Us ahout about Huma Human Nature. n Natur London: and Nicolson/Phoenix. e. Londo n: Weidenfeld Weidenfeld and Nicolson/Phoenix. N ietzsche, F. Nietzsche, F. (1878) ( 1 878) Huma Human, All Too Too Huma Human, n, AI! trans. H. n, trans. H. Zimmern Zimmern and and P.V. P.V. Cohn, Cohn, quoted quoted in in Jung, Jung, CW CW 5: 5: par. par. 27. Paul, B. (1953) ( 1 95 3) 'Mental 'Ment al disorder Paul, B. in culture: a disord er and and self-regulating self-regulating processes processes in cultur e: a Guate malan illustr Guatemalan illustration', ation' , in R. Hunt Personalities and Culture. Hunt (ed.) New (ed.) (1967) ( 1 967) Personalities and Cultur e. New York: York: Natur Natural al History Histo ry Press. Press. Samue Samuels, A. ((1995) ls, A. 1 995) The The Politic Political Psyche. London: Routledge. al Psych e. Londo n: Routl edge. - (2001) (200 1 ) Politic s on Politics on the the Couch Couch:: Citizen Citizenship andthe the Intern Internal Life. London: Profile. ship and al Life. Londo n: Profile . Schop enhauer, A. Schopenhauer, A. (1819/1958) ( 1 8 1 9/ 1 958) The The World World as as Will and Representation, trans.. E. E.F.J. Will and Representation, trans F.J. Payne , two Payne, two volum volumes. Indian Hills, Hills, CO: CO: Falcon's es. Indian Falco n's Wing Wing Press. Press. Steven s, A. 1 995) 'Jungi Stevens, A.((1995) 'Jungian psychology, thebody, body,and andthe the future future'. Journal of an psych ology, the '. Journal of Analy Analytical Psychology, tical Psych 40: 353-3 353-364. ology, 40: 64. Walte rs, S. 1 994) 'Algor Walters, S. ((1994) 'Algorithms and archet archetypes: evolutionary psychology and Carl ithms and ypes: evolut ionary psych ology and Carl Jung's Jung's theory theory of the collective unconscious'. collective uncon Journal of Social Social and and Evolutionary scious '. Journ al oj" Evolutionary System Systems, 287-306. s, 1 17(3): 7(3): 287-3 06. Whyte Whyte, L.L. , L. L. ((1960) 1 960) The The Uncon Unconscious before Freud. New York: York: Basic Basic Books Books.. scious be fore Freud . New --

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Chapter 3 Chapter 3



The archetypes archetypes Stevens Anthony Stevens Anthony

Introduction: the p place Intro d uction: the l a c e of archetypal archetypal theory in in the the opus, iits JJungian ung i an opus, t s iimportance m p ortance and and overall overa l l relevance re l e vance

With his With his theory of of archetypes archetypes operating operating as as components components of ofthe thecollective collective Jung sought to unconscious, lung to define define the living bedrock of of human human psychology. psychology. Virtually alone alone among of the twentieth Virtually among depth depth psychologists psychologists of twentieth century, century, he he theory of rejected of human humanpsychological psychological development, development, tabula rasa rasa theory rejected the the tabula wholeheartedlyembracing embracingthe the notion notion that wholeheartedly that evolutionary evolutionary pressures pressures had had determined the the basic basic structures structures and functions determined functions of the the human human psyche. psyche. Jung lung wrote:

is aa child is newborn child the newborn of the [It is] psyche of the psyche suppose that the mistake to suppose is] aa mistake [It as Insofar it. in y in the sense there is absolutely nothing in it. Insofar as absolutel is there that sense tabula rasa in the by ined predeterm is that the child is born with a differentiated brain that is predetermined by brain ated differenti a the child is born with coming stimuli coming sensory stimuli heredity meets sensory individualized, it meets therefore individualized, and therefore heredity and ones. specific �pecific aptitudes, with but , from outside not with aptitudes any from outside (lung 1 93611 954: par. 136) 1 36) (Jung 1936/1954: The The archetypes archetypes form form the the substrate substrate on onwhich whichthese thesespecific specific aptitudes aptitudes proceed. proceed. There is is no human human experience, experience, nor norwould wouldexperience experience be be possible possible at atall, aiL without the intervention intervention of ofaa subjective subjective aptitude. aptitude. What Whatisisthis thissubjective subjective aptitude? aptitude? Ultimately Ultimately it consists consists of of an an innate innatepsychic psychic structure structurewhich which allows men this kind. kind. Thus the men to have have experiences experiences of this the whole whole nature nature of of man presupposes presupposes woman, both both physically physically and andspiritually. spiritually. His Hissystem system isis tuned from the the start, just as itit isis prepared tuned into into woman woman from start, just prepared for for aaquite quite definite world where where there there is definite world is water, water, light, light, air, air, salt, salt, carbohydrate, carbohydrate. etc. etc. The form form of of the the world world into into which which he he is is born born isis already already inborn inborninin him himas as a virtual virtual image. image. Likewise, Likewise, parents, wife, wife, children, children, birth, and and death death are are inborn v i r t u a l images, images. as as psychic psychic aptitudes. aptit udes. These These aII priori "r;(/r; in horn in in him him as as virtual

The 75 Thearchetypes archetypes 75

categories collective character; categorieshave haveby by nature nature a collective character;they they are are images images of of parents, individual predestipredesti­ parents, wife, wife, and and children children in in general, general, and and are are not not individual nations. therefore, think of of these these images images as lacking lacking in in solid solid nations. We We must, must, therefore, content, unconscious. They only only acquire acquire solidity, solidity, influence, influence, content, hence hence as unconscious. and and eventual consciousness consciousness in in the the encounter with empirical facts, which which touch life. They in aa touch the the unconscious unconscious aptitude aptitude and and quicken quicken itit to to life. They are, are, in sense, the sense, the the deposits deposits of of all all our our ancestral ancestral experience, experience,but but they they are are not not the experiences experiences themselves. (lung 1 928: par. 300) (Jung 1928: par. 300) 'All near and and remote remote `All these these factors, factors, therefore, therefore,that that were were essential essentialto to our our near ancestors inherited ancestors will will also also be be essential essential to to us, us, for for they they are embedded embedded in in the inherited organic (lung 1928/1931: 1 9281 1 93 1 : par. 717). 7 1 7) . organic system' (Jung Apart lung, nearly nearly all all other othertwentieth-century twentieth-century psychologists psychologists and and Apart from Jung, psychoanalysts, sociologists and anthropologists, focused focused on psychoanalysts,as as well well as as sociologists and anthropologists, the individuals differed attempted the myriad myriad ways ways that individuals differed from from one another and attempted to account account for for these these differences differences in terms of of the the cultural cultural and and social social influinflu­ in terms ences course of growing growing up. oppo­ ences they they had had been been subjected subjected to to in in the course up. In opposition view, Jung lung held held that that aatruly trulyscientific scientific psychology psychology must start start sition to this view, from human beings beings had had in in common common before before the the study study of ofindividual individual from what what human differences reaching meaningful meaningful or valid differencescould couldproceed proceedwith with any any hope hope of of reaching or valid conclusions. This inevitably brought him into into conflict conflict with with Sigmund Sigmund Freud. Freud. Whereas Whereas This inevitably brought him Freud insisted that the unconscious mind was entirely personal and Freud insisted that the unconscious mind was entirely personal and peculiar peculiar to the individual individual and and made made up up of ofrepressed repressed wishes wishes and and traumatic traumatic memories, memories, to the lung maintained that that there there existed existed an an additional additional phylogenetic phylogenetic layer layer (the (the Jung maintained 'collective unconscious'), which incorporated the entire psychic potential `collective unconscious'), which incorporated the entire psychic potential of of from the the studies studies Jung lung conducted conducted humankind. Support for for this this notion notion came came from with his colleagues colleagues at the BurghOlzli Burgh61zli Hospital into the the delusions delusions with his at the Hospital in in Zurich Zurich into and able to demon­ hallucinations of schizophrenic patients. They were and hallucinations of schizophrenic patients. They were able to demonstrate that these contained motifs and images that also occurred in myths, strate that these contained motifs and images that also occurred in myths, religions, and fairy tales from all over the world (lung 1 956). lung con­ religions, and fairy tales from the world (Jung 1956). Jung concluded that there must exist a dynamic substratum, common to all human­ cluded that there must exist a dynamic substratum, common to all humanity, the basis basis of of which which each each individual individual builds builds his his or or her her own own experience experience ity, on on the of life, developing a unique array of psychological characteristics. In other other of life, developing a unique array of psychological characteristics. In words, the archetypes the collective unconscious provided the basic of words, the archetypes of the collective unconscious provided the basic themes life on on which which each each individual individual worked worked out out his his or or her her own own themes of of human human life sets of of variations. variations. The archetype is is thus thus Jung's lung's basic basic concept, concept, in in that thatitsitssignificance significance for for The archetype analytical of gravity gravity for for Newtonian Newtonian analytical psychology psychologyisis comparable comparableto to that that of physics, Einsteinian physics, physics, or or natural natural selection selection for for Darwinian Darwinian physics, relativity relativity for for Einsteinian h io l ogy It is one one of of the t he most most important i m por t a n tideas ideastotoemerge emergeininthe thetwentieth twentieth biology. It is cen t ur y possessing possessi n g fa r-reach i n g iimplications m pl i ca t i ons for h tthe he social thc century, far-reaching lOrhot both social and and the .

.

nat ura lsciences. SCil' l I lTS. natural

76 Anthony AnthonyStevens Stevens 76 The chronology chrono l ogyof ofJung's J ung's ideas i d eas concerning conc e rning archetypes: archetypes: The the major m aj o r developments deve l o p m ents and and modifications m od ifi c ations within w i thin the J ung's own own writings w r i tings Jung's

The intuition intuition that that there thereisismore moretotothe thepsyche psychethan thanindividual individualexperience experience The could possibly possibly put there began began in in Jung's Jung's childhood childhood when when it it struck struck him him that that could put there there were were things things in in his his dreams dreams that that came came from from somewhere somewhere beyond beyond himself himself there for example, example, the the very very first first dream dream he he could couldremember, remember, which which occurred occurred for when he he was was 3, 3, of of an an underground underground phallic phallic god god (Jung (Jung 1963: 1 963: 25-26). 25-26). when Jung's researches researches at at the the BurghOlzli Burgholzli Hospital under Eugen Eugen Bleuler, Bleuler, the the Jung's Hospital under great authority on schizophrenia, served to confirm this early childho ?d great authority on schizophrenia, served to confirm this early childhood intuition. He He became became convinced convinced that that some some universal universal structures structures must must exist eXist intuition. which are the mind mind and and the the brain brain of ofall all men men and and women women which are common common to to both both the and that that they they must must underlie underlie all all human humanexperience experience and and behaviour. behaviour. and Jung first referred to these universal structures as 'primordial images' in in Jung first referred to these universal structures as 'primordial images' 11912 9 1 2 -—a aterm he borrowed from Jakob Burckhardt and later, in 1 9 1 7, as term he borrowed from Jakob Burckhardt — and later, in 1917, as '`dominants dominants of the collective collective unconscious'. of the the term term of the unconscious'.His His first first use use of 'archetype' is in his essay 'Instinct and the unconscious' originally published `archetype' is in his essay 'Instinct and the unconscious' originally published in 1919 1 9 1 9 (1929: ( 1 929: par. par. 270). 270). in This change of nomenclature occurred because, because, with with time, time, Jung Jungrecogrecog­ This change of nomenclature occurred nised that the manifestations of the universal dominants were not restricted nised that the manifestations of the universal dominants were not restricted to images but but occurred occurred in in ideas, ideas, feelings feelings and and experiences experiences as as well well as as in in to images characteristic patterns of behaviour. As a result, 'archetype' gradually sup­ characteristic patterns of behaviour. As a result, 'archetype' gradually supplanted 'primordial image' image' in in his his writings, writings, though though for forsome someyears yearshe hetended tended planted 'primordial to use both terms interchangeably. to use both terms interchangeably. This lack of of precision precision laid laid him him open open to tothe thecharge chargeofofLamarckism Lamarckism—This lack namely that, like Freud, he subscribed to the discredited theory of JeanJean­ namely that, like Freud, he subscribed to the discredited theory of Baptiste Lamarck ( 1 7441 829) that experiences acquired by one generation Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) that experiences acquired by one generation could transmitted genetically genetically to to the the next. next. Some Some passages passages written written by by Jung Jung could be be transmitted lend credence to this criticism, as, for example, when he talks of archetypal lend credence to this criticism, as, for example, when he talks of archetypal experiences psyche by by repetition repetition through through experiencesasasbeing being 'engraved' 'engraved' upon upon the the psyche the millennia of human existence. 'Endless repetition has engraved these the millennia of human existence. 'Endless repetition has engraved these experiences the form form of ofimages i�ages filled filled experiencesinto into our our psychic psychic constitution, constitution, not not in in the forms without content, representmg merely content, but at first only as with representing forms without content, with content, but at first only as certain type type of of perception perception and and action' the action' (1936: ( 1 936: par. par. 99; 99; the possibility possibility of of aa certain Jung's italics). J ung's italics). There no difficulty difficulty with with Jung's Jung's statement statement that thatarchetypes archetypes represent represent There is is no possibility of certain types of perception or action, but no con ��m­ only the of certain types of perception or action, but no contemonly the possibility porary along with with the the assertion assertion that thatendless endless repetition repetitIOn porary biologist biologist could could go go along has archetypal experiences experiencesinto into the the psychic psychicconstitution. constitution. In In Jung's Jung's engraved archetypal has engraved defence he used used such such terms terms figuratively figuratively rather defenceititcan can be be argued argued that that he rather than than sl.:icntifically correct the the impression impression that that he he scientificallyand andhehewas waslater laterat at pains pains to to correct t her than inherit­ hclicved believedinin the the inheritance inheritanceof of actual actual experielKes experiencesrarather than in in the the inheritaance n ce oj" he (capacity "(Jl'lIcil ' · to a v e them. to hhave them. of tthe

1

The The archetypes archetypes 77 77

However, was not not until the However, itit was the publication publication of his his essay essay 'The 'The spirit spirit of of psychology' (1947; revised in in C CW as 'On the nature ( 1 947; revised W 88 as nature of ofthe thepsyche', psyche', 1954) 1 9 54) that he he finally finally freed freed himself himself of the the Lamarckian Lamarckian taint, taint, making making aa clear clear distinction between the deeply unconscious and and therefore therefore unknowable unknowable and and irrepresentable to Kant's das Ding-an-sich) irrepresentable archetype-as-such (similar (similar to Ding-an-sich) and the archetypal archetypal images, images, ideas ideas and and behaviours behaviours that thatthe thearchetype-as-such archetype-as-such gives rise to. to. It isis the predisposition to have have certain certain gives rise the archetype-as-such archetype-as-such (the (the predisposition experience) that is experience) is inherited, inherited, not notthe theexperience experienceitself. itself. This This proposition is fully fully in accord accord with with modern modern biological biological usage usage and is is no more more Lamarckian Lamarckian than the the statement statement that that children children are are innately innately disdis­ posed to acquire speech posed speech or to run run on on two twolegs. legs. As As Jung Junghimself himself insisted insisted in in his Foreword to Esther Harding's Woman's Mysteries ((1955), the term his Foreword to Esther Harding's Woman 's Mysteries 1 955), the term archetype archetype is not meant to denote is denote an an inherited inherited idea, idea, but but rather rather an an inherited inherited mode mode of psychic functioning, corresponding to the inborn way psychic functioning, corresponding to way in in which which the the chick emerges emergesfrom from the the egg, egg, the the bird bird builds builds its its nest, nest, a certain kind of chick of wasp stings stings the the motor ganglion wasp ganglion of the the caterpillar, caterpillar, and eels eels find their their way to to the Bermudas. In other way Bermudas. In other words, words, it is aa 'pattern 'pattern of ofbehaviour'. behaviour' . This aspect of the archetype, the purely biological one, is the proper This aspect archetype, purely biological one, is proper concern of concern of scientific scientific psychology. psychology. (Jung 1949: 1 949: par. 1228) 1 228) Such statements statements clearly clearly link link archetypes archetypes with with instincts instincts and and Jung fully Such fully acknowledged this this relationship, relationship, describing describing archetypes archetypes as as the the source acknowledged source of of the instincts, ''for for the archetypes archetypes are are simply simply the the forms forms which which the the instincts instincts assume' assume' par.339). 339).Or Ortotoput put itit another way: ((1927/1931a: 1 927/ 1 93 l a: par. way: 'the archetypes archetypes are the the unconsciousimages imagesof ofthe the instincts instincts themselves themselves. .. . .. they they are patterns unconscious patterns of of instinctual behaviour behaviour ((1936: par. 9 91; Jung's italics). italics). Or Or again: again: 'The 'The primordial 1 936: par. 1 ; Jung's instinctual image might might suitably be described described as the the instinct's instinct's perception perception of of itself, itself, as image as the the self-portrait of the instinct' (1919/1929: self-portrait ( 1 9 1 9/ 1 929: par. 277; 277; Jung's italics). italics). Ultimately, is probable probable that instinct itit is instinct and and archetype archetype share share aa common common irrepresentable, irrepresentable, transcendent source, rather than transcendent than one one being being the the source or version of the other. The link link between between archetypes archetypes and and instincts would go some way to explain The the empirical empirical finding finding that archetypes the archetypes are are experienced experienced as 'numinous' 'numinous' — - to to borrow Rudolf Rudolf Otto's borrow Otto's(1917) ( 1 9 1 7)term term— - possessing awesome power and and energy, energy, as when when the the God God archetype archetype is is activated. activated. Thus Thus the the archetype archetype isis 'a 'a dynamism as dynamism which makes makes itself itself felt felt in in the the numinosity which numinosity and fascinating fascinating power power of the the archetypal image' image' (1947/1954: par. 4414; archetypal ( 1 947/1 954: par. 1 4; Jung's italics). italics). In addition addition to drawing In drawing parallels parallels from from biology biology and and religion, religion, Jung Jung was was fond of of making analogy, comparing comparingthe the form form of an fond mak ing a crystallographic crystallographic analogy, archetype to to the the axial axial system system of a crystal, archetype which,aas it were, structure in in the mother which, s it were, preforms pre forms the the crystalline crysta lline structure mother own. own. This This first first

has no of its its l liquid, i q u id , aalthough l t h o u g h itit has no material m a t e r i a l existence e x i s t e n ce of

78 Anthony 78 Anthony Stevens Stevens



appears according according to to the specific way in in which which the the ions and appears specific way and molecules molecules aggregate.The Thearchetype archetypeininitself itselfisisempty emptyand andpurely purely formal, formal, nothing nothing aggregate. possibility of of representation representation which which is is facultas praeformandi, praeformandi, aa possibility but aa facultas but The representations representations themselves themselvesare are not not inherited, inherited, only priori. The given aa priori. only given the forms, forms, and and in in that respect in every every way way to to the the respect they they correspond correspond in the instincts, which which are are also also determined determined in in form form only. only. The existence of the instincts, existence of instincts can can no no more more be be proved proved than the existence of the archetypes, so instincts long as as they they do do not manifest themselves concretely. With With regard regard to to the the long themselves concretely. definitenessof ofthe theform, form,our our comparison comparison with the crystal is illuminating definiteness inasmuch as as the axial axial system system determines determines only only the the stereometric stereometric structure inasmuch but not the concrete but concrete form of of the the individual individual crystal. crystal. This may be be either either large or or small, small, and it may vary large vary endlessly endlessly by reason of of the the different different size size of its its planes planes or by by the growing growing together of two crystals. crystals. The only thing of that remains constant is is the axial that remains constant axial system, system, or rather, rather, the the invariable invariable geometric proportions proportions underlying it. The same geometric same is is true true of ofthe the archetype. archetype. In principle, principle, itit can can be be named and has an In an invariable invariable nucleus nucleus of of meaning but always alwaysonly only in in principle, principle, never never as as regards its concrete -—but concrete manifesmanifes­ tation. In In the the same same way, way, the the specific specific appearance of of the the mother-image mother-image at at time cannot cannot be deduced from the any given given time the mother mother archetype archetype alone, alone, but depends on innumerable innumerable other other factors. factors. 1 55 ) 1 938/1 954: par. 155) (Jung 1938/1954:

Jung had no n o hesitation hesitation in i n linking linking the the archetypes archetypes to structures structures in i n the the brain: brain: and differentiated, and every man man is is born born with profou ndlydifferentiated, thatisisprofoundly brain that with aa brain every are which ns, functio l this makes him capable of very various mental functions, which are this makes him capable of very various menta lar particu This . . . neither ontologically developed or acquired . . . This particular neither onto logically developed or acquired ted presen ies analog circumstance explains, for example, the remarkable analogies presented able remark circumstance explains, for example, peoples. andpeoples. racesand by separatedraces remotely separated most remotely the most in the unconscious in the unconscious by the 452-4 53) (Jung 1916: 1 9 1 6: pars. 452-453) Hence Hence the extraordinary extraordinary correspondence correspondence of of cultural cultural artefacts artefactsoccurring occurring throughout the world. 'The universal similarity of human the world. 'The universal similarity human brains brains leads leads us us then to admit the existence of a certain psychic function, identical with then to admit the existence of a certain psychic function, identical withitself itself in in all all individuals; individuals; we we call call itit the thecollective collective psyche' psyche' (Jung (Jung 1916: 454). 1 9 1 6: par. par.454). With hindsight, this seems such a reasonable position to adopt With hindsight, this seems such reasonable position adopt that that future will find find it it hard fut ure generations generations will hard to to understand understand why why Jung's Jung'sproposal proposal encountered encountered as much much opposition opposition as it did. did. In In addition addition totothe theentrenched entrenched antagonism of academics wedded to the Standard Social Science antagonism of academics wedded to the Standard Social ScienceModel Model (the ( t he SSSM, SSSM, which which is deeply deeply hostile hostile to the the idea idea that thatbiology biology ororinnate innate structures s t r uc t u res could could have have a part part totoplay playininhuman humanpsychology), psychology),Jung Jungalso also suffered t hehigh h ig h blistering attack from from the the Freudians, Freudians, who, who, usurping usurping the s u ffered a blistering scientific ground, dismissed him him as as a crank and i ro n i cthat that and aa mystic. my s t ic . ItI t isisironic scie n t ific gro u n d , dismissed of the t he new new century, cen t u ry, Jung's J u ng'stheory t heoryof o farchetypes, a rchetypes,first l i rs t a t the t hebeginning begi n n i n g of IlIlW, at now,

The Thearchetypes archetypes 79 79

pr he form of 'primordial images' nearly a hundred years ago, is proposed in. tthe ?posed in . form of 'primordial images' nearly a hundred years ago, is bell1g ehabIlItated by being�rehabilitated by the the new new disciplines disciplines of of evolutionary evolutionary psychology psychology and and evolutIOnary scientific credentials been evolutionarypsychiatry, psychiatry,while while Freud's Freud's scientific credentials have have been 1 995). 1 997; Webster Webster 1995). seriously seriously impugned impugned (Macmillan (Macmillan 1997; To archetypes form usual phenomena phenomena of To sum sum up, up, archetypes form the the basis basis of of all all the the usual of human of our our genetic genetic endowment. endowment. human existence existenceand andwe we inherit inherit them them as as part part of �They he� �are re the the phylogenetic phylogenetic (evolutionary) (evolutionary) foundations foundations on on which which ontogenesis ontogenesis ((individual lI1dIVIdual development) development) proceeds. proceeds. An An individual's individual's entire entire archetypal archetypal inherit­ inheritance akes uP the collective collective unconscious, unconscious, whose authority and psychic psychic ance m makes up the whose authority and . . energy or energy ISisco-ordll1ated co-ordinated by by aa central central nucleus nucleus which whichJung Jung termed termed 'the 'the Self' Self' or 'the `the archetype archetype of of archetypes'. archetypes'. D efinitions, origins and and meanings m e anings Definitions,

archetypal hypothesis Li �� all Like all profound profound ideas, ideas, the the archetypal hypothesis is is not not entirely entirely new. new. Its Its ongll1s k at least as far as Plato and probably further. Jung himself origins. go go ba back at least as far as Plato and probably further. Jung himself � �recognised ecognIsed thIS he described described archetypes archetypes as as 'active 'active living living dispositions, dispositions, this when when he . pre-form and and continually continually influence influence our our Ideas the Platonic Platonic sense, sense, that ideas In in the that pre-form thoughts feelings and actions' (1938/1954: 1 54; italics ( 1 938/ 1 954: par. thoughts and and feelings and actions' par. 154; italics added). added). For For Plato, 'ideas' were �ere pure pure mental mental forms forms originating originating in in the the minds minds of of the the gods gods Plato, 'ideas' before lIfe began, before human human life began, and, and, as as aa consequence, consequence, they they were were supraordinate supraordinate to to the sense sense that that the objective world phenomena. They They were were collective the objective world of of phenomena. collective in in the ??dy th they al characteristics of a thing rather than its specific they �m embody the general � gener . characteristics of a thing rather than its specific eculIantIes. ThIS well as to objects objects and and This applIes appliesto to animals animals and and plants plants as as well as to ppeculiarities. ?e human human fingerprint, fingerprint, for for example, example, isis instantly instantly recognisable recognisable for for Ideas ideas.. . T The what It IS on account of its characteristic confi g uration of contours and what it is on account of its characteristic configuration of contours and horls. Yet Yet every ngerprint has guration unique unique to to its its owner: owner: which which whorls. every fi fingerprint has aa confi configuration :-v IS why those who turn their hands to burglary must remember to wear is why those who turn their hands to burglary must remember to wear gloves if they hope to escape detection and arrest. gloves if they hope to escape detection and arrest. Archetypes similarly universal with with the the individual, individual the the Archetypes similarly combine combine the the universal general with the unique. While they are common to all humanity, the are general with the unique. While they are common to all humanity, they are nevertheless manifested him or or nevertheless manifested in in every everyindividual individualin in aa manner manner peculiar peculiar to to him her. Jung took the term 'archetype' from the Corpus hermeticum, where God . Jung took the term 'archetype' from the Corpus hermeticum, where God IS referred to as TO De divinis divinis (the archetypal archetypal light). light). In In De (jJW� (the TO 'apxerv7rov 'apXETV7fOVv)Loc is referred to as nominihus Dio ysius the Areopagite brings out the essential paradox nominihus Dionysius the Areopagite brings out the essential paradox � between the unIversal and the particular particular by by comparing comparing the the archetype archetype with with between the universal and the an official seal: an official seal:

�

That the the seal seal isis not notentire entire and andthe thesame sameininall allits itsimpressions impressions .. .. .. isis not not That du seal itself . . . but the difference of the substances which share e to t he due to the seal itself ... but the difference of the substances which share identical archetype archetype to to be be m a kes the t he impressions i m pressions of of the t he one, one, entire, e n t ire identical itit makes t. d i fferen different. .14 ) 1 959:34) ( q uoted by hyJacobi ./acohi1959: (quoted ,

80 Anthony Stevens 80 Anthony Stevens

The archetypes 81

T h e archetypes

Jungalso also found found the the term term in in Adversus A dversus haereses haereses by by Irenaeus: I renaeus: 'The 'The creator creator of of Jung the world did not fashion these things directly from himself but copied the world did not fashion these things directly from himself but copied themfrom fromarchetypes archetypes outside outside himself.' himself.' Although AlthoughSt StAugustine Augustinedoes doesnot notuse use them 'ideae principaies, which are the word 'archetype' he nevertheless speaks of which are `ideae principales, the word 'archetype' he nevertheless speaks of themselves not formed . . . but are contained in the divine understanding' themselves not formed . . . but are contained in the divine understanding' (Jung 1934/1954: 1 934/1 954: par. par. 5). 5). (Jung The other important influences on on Jung's Jung'sdevelopment development of ofthe thearchetypal archetypal The other important influences concept were Kant and Schopenhauer. Kant argued that we cannot know concept were Kant and Schopenhauer. Kant argued that we cannot know what we add to or subtract from the real world in the act of perceiving what we add to or subtract from the real world in the act of perceiving it.it. We experience experience the way we we do do because because of the nature nature of of our our We the world world in in the the way of the perceptual apparatus and because of the a priori categories of time and categories of time and a priori perceptual apparatus and because of the space which which condition condition all all our ourperceptions. perceptions. These These given given and andinescapable inescapable space factors function like tinted spectacles which we cannot remove andwhich, which, factors function like tinted spectacles which we cannot remove and as a result, colour every observation that we make. as a result, colour every observation that we make. ThroughoutJung's Jung'swork work there thereare arerecurring recurring references references to Kant's Critique Critique Throughout to Kant's and its assertion that 'there can be no empirical knowledge (�l Pure Reason and its assertion that 'there can be no empirical knowledge of Pure Reason structure of of cognition'. cognition'. that is is not not already already caught caught and and limited limited by by the the aa priori priori structure that a priori structure with the archetypes. Even more Jung equated this structure with the archetypes. Even more Jung equated this a priori influential than Kant was was Schopenhauer, Schopenhauer, who who described described what what he he called called influential than Kant 'prototypes' as 'the 'the original original forms forms of ofall all things'. things'. They They alone, alone, he hemaintained maintained `prototypes' as can be said said to to have have true true being, being, 'because 'because they they always always are, are, but butnever neverbecome become can be nor pass away' (Jarret 1 98 1 ). nor pass away' (Jarret 1981). While these earlier thinkers, Jung Jung was was to to While fully fully acknowledging acknowledging his his debt debt to to these earlier thinkers, conceive mental abstraction abstraction but but as as aadynamic dynamic conceive of of the the archetype archetype as as no no mere mere mental entity, a living living organism, organism, endowed endowed with with generative generative force, existing as entity, a force, existing as aa 'centre' central nervous nervous system system and and actively actively seeking seeking its its own own expresexpres­ `centre' in in the the central sion the psyche psyche and and in in the the world. world. Repeatedly, Repeatedly, Jung Jung stressed stressed that that the the sion in in the archetype an arid, arid, intellectual intellectual concept, concept, but but aa living, living, empirical empirical archetype was was not not an entity, only with with meaningfulness meaningfulness but but also also with with feeling. 'It would would feeling. 'It entity, charged charged not not only he an unpardonable sin of omission', he wrote, 'were we to overlook the he an unpardonable sin of omission', he wrote, 'were we to overlook the .I(Jcling value of the archetype. This is extremely important both theoretically feeling value of the archetype. This is extremely important both theoretically and therapeutically' (1947/1954: ( 1 947/1 954: par. 1 1 ; Jung's italics). Psychology, Psychology, he he and therapeutically' par. 4411; Jung's italics). maintained, is the only science that has to take 'feeling-value' into account. maintained, is the only science that has to take 'feeling-value' into account, for and for feeling feeling 'forms 'forms the the link link between between psychic psychicevents eventson onthe the one one hand, hand, and meaning and life on the other' (Jung 1 96 1 : par. 596). In other words, meaning and life on the other' (Jung 1961: par. 596). In other words, the the archetype living system system of aptitudes' archetypeisis'a'a piece piece of of life', life', 'a 'a living of reactions reactions and and aptitudes' ((1927/1931a: I 9271 1 93 I a: par. par.339) 339)and and'it'it isis connected connectedwith with the the living living individual individual by by the the hri dge of emotion' ( 1 96 1 : par. 589). bridge of emotion' (1961: par. 589). There There isis some somedisagreement disagreementabout about the the etymology etymology of of the the term. term. Archetypc Archetype isisaa G reek word signifying an original or prototype from which copies arc Greek word signifying an original or prototype from which copies arc made. made. Thc i rs t element clcment 'a ' a rchc' The lfirst rche'

signifies 'beginning, causc, primal primal signifies 'beginning, ongln. origin, cause,

po s iti o n of u prclllL' sourcc n d pri nci p le: hbut i l t iit t aalso l so sign i fies ' 'position sourceaand principle,' signifies of aa lcadcr. leader, ssupreme

81

rule and and government' rule government' (in (in other other words words aa kind kind of of'dominant); 'domin ant');the thesecond second element 'type' element what is produced by a blow, 'type' means means 'blow 'blow and and what is produced by a blow the the imprin t of imprint ofaa coin coin . .. .. .form, form,image, image,copy, copy, prototype, prototype, model, model, order, order and and norm' . .. .. in norm' . inthe thefigurative, figurative,modern modernsense, sense,'pattern, 'pattern,underlying underlyingform, form, primordial form' primordial 'underlying' form' (the (the form form for for example example 'underlying' aa number number of of similar human, similar human, animal animalororvegetable vegetablespecimens). specimens). (Schmitt, (Schmitt, quoted quoted by by Jacobi Jacobi 1959: 1 959: 48-49) 48-49)

:

However, van der suggests that that the the Greek 1570C However, van der Hammen Hammen (1981) ( 1 98 1 ) suggests Greek noun noun 7TV7rO� signified mould and and the signified aa mould the idea idea that that itit isis something something 'produced 'produced by by aa blow' blow' isis incorrect. It is of aa 'mould' incorrect. It is this this sense sense of 'mould' or or aa 'matrix' 'matrix' that thatinforms informsGoethe's Goethe's idea the Urbild Urbild or or 'original 'original plan' plan'on onwhich whichhe hebelieved believed all all animals animals and andall all idea of of the plants plants to to be be based. based. Even Even Charles Charles Darwin Darwin felt felt obliged obliged to to use use the the term term archetype in in approximately sense in in The Origin of of Species (1859), ( 1 859), archetype approximately the the same same sense where he argued where he argued that that selection selection occurred occurred through through aaseries series of ofslight slightmodifimodifi­ cations cations to to aa persistent persistent or or stable stable pattern: pattern: -

if we if we suppose suppose that that an an early early progenitor progenitor — - the the archetype archetype as as itit may may be be called — ofall allmammals, mammals, birds, birds, and and reptiles, called - of reptiles, had had its its limbs limbs constructed constructed general pattern pattern .. .. .. we oon n the the existing existing general we can can atatonce once perceive perceive the the plain plain . . significance ofthe the homologous homologous construction construction of of the the limbs SIgnIficance of limbs throughout throughout the class. the class. Parallels and d developments Para l l e l s and e ve l o p m ents

Although the the term term 'archetype' 'archetype' did did not Although not originate originate with with Jung, Jung, the the sense sense in in which itit is is now now current current has which has been been very very largely largely determined determined by by his his usage usage of of it. it. Just how how valuable valuable the the concept concept proves proves to to be can be judged from Just be in in practice practice can be judged from the manner manner in in which the which researchers researchers in in other other disciplines disciplines keep keep rediscovering rediscovering the the hypothesisand and re-announcing re-announcing itit in in their hypothesis their own own terminology. terminology. When When reading reading the ",: work of contemporary contemporary authorities authorities on t�e ork of on anthropology, anthropology, biology biology or or psychopsycho­ . linguistics, oneoften often comes comes across across passages passages which which could could have have been been written written lIngUIStics, one by Jung. Jung. Thus Thus the the French French molecular and Nobel by molecular biologist biologist and Nobel laureate, laureate, Jacques Jacques Monod, wrote wrotein inhis hisbook book Chance Chanceand andNecessity Necessity ((1971): 'Everything comes comes Monod, 1 97 1 ): 'Everything from experience, experience,yet yetnot not from from actual reiterated by by each from actual experience, experience, reiterated each indiindi­ vidual � with each generation, generation, but but instead by vidual ith each instead from from experience experience accumulated accumulated by the entire entire ancestry ancestryof of the the species speciesin in the the course of its the course of its evolution.' evolution. ' Jung Jung expressedexactly exactlythe thesame samenotion notionwhen when he he described describedarchetypes archetypesasas 'the 'the expressed depositsof of all all our our ancestral but they they are deposits ancestral experiences, experiences, but are not not the the experiences experiences themselves'((1928: par. 300). 300). themselves' 1 928: par. Admittedly, some of the earlier earlier discoveries discoveries of of the the archetypal hypothesis Adm i t t ed l y , some of the predated Jung's announcement of the 'primordial image' and and these these were were predatcd Jung's announcement of the 'primordial image' u known to him; others occurred in the course of his lifetime; bUt many have k nown to h i m ; ot hers occu rred i n t h e course of his l i fe t i me; h t many have

death. s surfaced u rl;H;cd ssince i nce hhis i s dea th.

The 83 archetypes 83 The archetypes

Stevens AnthonyStevens 82 Anthony 82

as 'motifs' as discovered numerous 'motifs' had discovered nineteenth-century mythology had Thus, nineteenth-century Thus, Levy­ Lucien anthropologist the and humankind, of myths the in recurring recurring in the myths of humankind, and the anthropologist Lucien Levychar­ collectives charrepresentations collectives certain representations that certain ( 1 857 1 939) maintained Bruhl (1857-1939) Bruhl maintained that Adolf ethnographer The peoples. primitive of psychology the acterised acterised the psychology of primitive peoples. The ethnographer Adolf world the world extensively throughout travelled extensively ( 1 826� 1 905), who Bastian (1826-1905), Bastian who travelled throughout the universal of existence the noted cultures, diverse of folklore the recording recording the folklore of diverse cultures, noted the existence of universal which ideas' which 'elementary ideas' or'elementary thoughts' or 'primordial thoughts' called 'primordial which he themes which themes he called peculiar ideas') ('ethnic forms local in themselves manifested nonetheless nonetheless manifested themselves in local forms (`ethnic ideas') peculiar of field of the field in the while in studying; while be studying; to be happened to he happened people he ofpeople group of the group to the to of recurrence of the recurrence described the ( 1 909) described Mauss(1909) andMauss Hubert and religion, Hubert comparative religion, comparative imagination'. universal beliefs universal beliefs and and doctrines, doctrines, calling calling them them 'categories 'categories of of the the imagination'. of advocate of Levy-Strauss, the Claude Levy-Strauss, of Claude the work is the interest is particular interest Of particular Of work of the advocate infrastructure unconscious infrastructure theunconscious studied the who studied anthropology, who in anthropology, structuralism in structuralism life. culturallife. andcultural political and economic, political social, economic, human social, of human typical of patterns typical the patterns of the of laws universallaws ofuniversal projection of were aa projection life were social life ofsocial forms of all forms Levy-Strauss all For Levy-Strauss For Other psyche. Other the psyche. of the activities of unconscious activities the unconscious regulating the responsible responsible for for regulating ( l 809� 1 882), Darwin (1809-1882), Charles Darwin of Charles instincts' of 'social instincts' the 'social concepts are related concepts related are the postulated 'isomorphs' postulated the `isomorphs' ( l 859� 1 94 1 ) and Bergson (1859-1941) Henri Bergson of Henri 'faculties' of the the 'faculties' and the ( 1 887� 1 967). Kohler (1887-1967). WolfgangKOhler psychologist Wolfgang Gestalt psychologist the Gestalt by by the Mayr's Ernst Mayr's in Ernst exists in archetypes exists Jungian archetypes to Jungian parallel to clear parallel biology, aa clear In biology, In respond to respond plants to 1 974) 'open ((1974) 'open programmes', programmes', which which prepare prepare animals animals and and plants at moult at animals moult furry animals when furry as when environmental changes appropriately to appropriately to environmental changes -- as in put in when put sun when the sun towards the reach upwards onset of the the onset of summer, summer, or or plants plants reach upwards towards neighbours. tall by shade the the shade by tall neighbours. Rutgers of Rutgers both of Tiger, both Lionel Tiger, anthropologists Robin The The anthropologists Robin Fox Fox and and Lionel social human social of human study of University, have University, have applied applied ethological ethological concepts concepts to to the the study such for such responsible for functions responsible basic functions the basic that the maintain that behaviour behaviour and and maintain which 1 972) which Fox1972) and Fox (Tiger and 'biogrammar' (Tiger the `biogrammar' encoded in behaviour are behaviour are encoded in the during ways during appropriateways in appropriate develops in which develops and which with and individual is each each individual is born born with cycle. life cycle. human life the human of the course of the the course cultures different cultures in different children in young children which young with which readiness with amazing readiness The The amazing by considered by parents isis considered their parents of their dialect of or dialect language or the language speak the learn learn to to speak acti­ the actiupon the ( 1 965), to Chomsky (1965), the the psycholinguist, psycholinguist, Noam Noam Chomsky to be be dependent dependent upon nervous central nervous the central within the device' within acquisition device' 'language acquisition innate 'language vation vation of of an an innate languages alllanguages which all upon which structures' upon 'deep structures' system system incorporating incorporatingthe the 'deep proceed. proceed. and theory and archetypal theory of archetypal foundations of empirical foundations the empirical ost important M Most important for for the new the new parallels which applications are its its future future applications are the the parallels which are are apparent apparent in in the habitats), natural habitats), their natural in their animals in sciences sciencesof of ethology ethology(the (the study study of of animals 2002; 1 982, 2002; (Stevens1982, psychiatry(Stevens evolutionarypsychiatry and evolutionary psychology and I:volutionary evolutionary psychology 2000b). 2000a, 2000b). Price 2000a, Stevens Stevens and and Price Lorl:nz, Konrad Lorenz, 1 940s, the late 1940s, he late In In tthe the ethologists, ethologists, Niko Niko Tinbergen Tinbergen and and Konrad species animal species e a c h animal which each with which behaviours with or behaviours repertoire of the repertoire proposed proposed that that the cen t ra l i t s central n its .1' iin pon ill/III/I' u i pped isis dependent isis eq innate rt'/(,lI.1'inK releasing I/I<'c/lllf1i.\'/11 mechanisms equipped dependent uupon �

nervous appropriate when appropriate active when become active tobecome primed to which are primed system which nervous system stimuli —called called 'sign 'sign stimuli' stimuli' —are areencountered encountered in in the environment. When When these are met, the animal the animal released, and the is released, mechanism is innate mechanism the innate stimuli are these stimuli 'pattern of evolution, through evolution, adapted, through which isis adapted, behaviour' which ofbehaviour' responds with a 'pattern to the of Jungian findings with those of ethological findings ofethological Comparison of situation. Comparison the situation. psychology make make itit clear same the same studying the are studying disciplines are both disciplines that both clear that psychology archetypal phenomena, but but from psychology isis Jungian psychology ends: Jungian opposite ends: from opposite archetypal phenomena, focused on their has ethology has while ethology manifestations, while psychic manifestations, introverted psychic their introverted focused examined approaches two approaches expression. The two extroverted behavioural expression. examined their extroverted richly complement complement one one another another in bonding as bonding areas as fundamental areas such fundamental in such richly between parents and children, court­ differences, courtgender differences, and gender desire and sexual desire children, sexual between ship and and individuals and between individuals hostility between and hostility co-operation and mating, co-operation and mating, ship groups, and the development through the course course of the individual through development of the individual groups, 2002). Further Further evidence in support of the of the evidence in 1 982, 2002). (Stevens 1982, cycle (Stevens life cycle human life archetypal hypothesis comes from from cross-cultural studies of human com­ human comcross-cultural studies hypothesis comes archetypal munities throughout Ekman 1 97 1 ; Ekman Eibl-Eibesfeldt 1971; 1 99 1 ; Eibl-Eibesfeldt ( Brown1991; world(Brown the world throughout the munities Fox 1975; Murdock 1945), dreams studies of dreams cross-cultural studies 1 945), from cross-cultural 1 975; Murdock 973; Fox 11973; from and from 1 995) and Stevens 1995) 1 972; Stevens Nordby1972; and Nordby Hall and 1 963; Hall Domhoff1963; Hall and Domhoff ((Hall Booker's (2004) mammoth study of plots myths. and myths. stories and in stories plots in (2004) mammoth Booker's Since the the early 1980s, on psychiatrists on psychologists and psychiatrists evolutionary psychologists 1980s, evolutionary Since both sides presence of the presence announced the and announced detected and have detected Atlantic have the Atlantic sides of the both neuropsychic propensities propensities which which are are virtually indistinguishable from archearche­ neuropsychic types. Gilbert Gilbert (1997) refers to to them as ( 1 988) as Gardner (1988) 'mentalities', Gardner as 'mentalities', them as ( 1 997) refers types. `master programmes' programmes' or 'propensity ( 1 984) borrows Wenegrat (1984) while Wenegrat states' , while 'propensity states', 'master the sociobiological term 'genetically Buss 'genetically transmitted response strategies'. Buss sociobiological term the (1995) refers to 'evolved psychological mechanisms', Nesse Nesse ((1987) to 'pre'pre­ 1 987) to psychological mechanisms', ( 1 995) refers to pared tendencies', and Cosmides and Tooby mental 'multiple mental ( 1 989) to 'multiple Tooby (1989) Cosmides and tendencies', and pared modules'. These These evolved propensities or or modules are held for responsible for held responsible evolved propensities modules'. psychosocial goals and strategies that are shared by all members psychosocial goals and strategies that are shared by all members of the whether theybe be healthy healthy or or ill. 'every Jung, 'every wrote Jung, ' Ultimately', wrote ill. 'Ultimately', pe�i� s, wh eth r they �species, . � individual life is at the same time the eternal life of the species' 1 938/ eternal life of the species' (Jung 1938/ mdlvldual lIfe IS at par. 146). 1 46). 940: par. 11940: The independent discovery or something � or hypothesis — archetypal hypothesis discovery of the archetypal The very like like it it — by by workers in such bears disciplines bears ofdisciplines diversity of rich diversity such aa rich workers in very eloquent testimony testimony to to its original lung's original Although Jung's validity. Although empirical validity. its empirical eloquent insights into into the the existence existenceof of innate innate structures structures in in the the human psyche arose psyche arose insights out of reflection reflection on on his his own own dreams dreams and and experiences experiencesand andout out of of his his study study of of out psychotic patients, patients, abundant abundant corroborative evidence has been been derived derived from from evidence has psychotic careful examination examination of of patterns of behaviour as in themselves in they manifest themselves as they careful diverse human human societies Evolutionary animals. Evolutionary of animals. species of different species societies and different diverse psychiatry exploring the the implications implications of two major systems archetypal systems major archetypal yc hiatry isis exploring ps derived from Chance's Chance's (1988) hedonic and and ([gonic ( 1 9R8) hedonic ved from deri agonic modes, modes, one one concerned with attachment, and 'altruism; c are recei vi n g and ca re g iv in g , care-receiving affiliation, care-giving, tachmen t , affiliation, i t h at w altruism; and one concerned concerned wwith rank, status, discipline, law and and oorder, te rr i tory and rder, territory i scipli ne, law us, d n k , stat i t h ra one �

�

�

-

-

84 Anthony Stevens 84

The 85 The archetypes archetypes 85

possessions (Stevens (Stevens and and Price Price 2000a). 2000a). Broadly, Broadly, �these possessions he�e two social s �ci�l archetypal archet ypal principles. This IS is potentially and Logos Logos prmclples. Eros and systems correspond correspond to to Jung's Jung's Eros systems potentlally a major major contribution contribution to to Jungian Jungianpsychology, psychology, which which has has neglected neglected the the societal ramifications ramifications of of human archetypal propensities, societal propensities, largely largely on on account account anorientation orientation shared shared by by many many of of Jung's introverted introverted psychological psychological type — - an his followers. his conclusion, there do indeed appear appear to In conclusion to be be universal universal forms forms of of instinctive instinctive and social social behaviour, beha�iour, as as well well as as universally universally occurring occurring symbols symbols and and motifs motifs (Jung 1956; Jung and von (Jung 1 956; Jung von Franz Franz1964; 1 964; Stevens Stevens 1998a). 1 998a). These T�ese forms forms have have evolution no less been subject to the essentially essentially biological processes processes of evolutlOn less than th�n the anatomical the anatomical structures structures on whose whose homologous homologous nature Charles Charles Darwin Darwm based his theory. theory.

Examples Exam ples

terminological confusion confusion implicit implicit in in Jung's interchangeable use of the The interchangeable use The terminological term 'archetype' and 'primordial term 'primordial image' image' isis apparent apparent when when one one searches searches his hiS . examples of archetypes in action. Thus he describes Collected Works for examples archetypes action. Thus he descnbes Collected Works (e.g., birth, archetypal birth, death, death, separation separation from from parents, parents, initiation, initiation, events (e.g., archetypal events (e.g., mother, marriage, the the union marriage, union of of opposites, opposites, etc.), etc.), archetypal archetypal figures figures (e.g., child, father, trickster, hero, hero, wise wise old man, man, etc.), etc.), archetypal archetypal symbols child, father, God, trickster, (e.g., sun, sun, moon, water, mandala, (e.g., mandala, cross, cross, fish, fish, horse, horse, snake, snak�, etc.) etc.) and an�archearche­ (e.g., the the Apocalypse, Apocalypse, the the Deluge, Deluge, the the CreatlOn, Creation, the night typal motif s (e.g., lllght sea sea typal motifs journey, etc.). etc.). . It is undeniable that all symbols and motifs are part all such such events, events, figures, figures, symbols Jung's in Jung's difficulties in are difficulties there are of the age-old species, but there experience of our species, age-old experience The 'fish'. or 'horse' snake', of use such terms as 'the archetype the snake', 'horse' or 'fish'. The archetype as terms such of use extent w�at extent universal but to what creatures is certainly universal these creatures of these of each of 'image' of of, exl �tence of the existence to the is due to are justified in in concluding concluding that this universality universality is IIrc we justified . to due to It due IS it image? How an innate 'archetype-as-such' rise to to the image? How far is giving rise 'archetype-as-such' giving lin would Jungwould world? Jung outer world? the outer the ubiquitous existence of such creatures in the ubiquitous existence form to form predisposition to is at once innate predisposition an innate once an archetype-as-such is say the archetype-as-such SIIY that the �o appropnately to such an image and a preparation to encounter and respond appropriately image and . 111 examme in he examine does he in the environment. nowhere does But nowhere environment. But creature per per se se in the the creature about comes about image comes and image creature and detail how between creature correspondence between this correspondence how this this how this and possible explanation of how individual. A possible each individual. in each reproduced in is reproduced a nd is Stevens byStevens offeredby beenoffered hasbeen may archetypehas snakearchetype thesnake to the relation to may occur in relation then: and there highly probable, and seems highly ( 1I998a). 998a).That That innate innate factors factors are involved seems . . IsolatIOn 111 isolation reared in primates reared example, primates For example, is evidence to to support this idea. For is evidence hut snakes but encountering snakes first encountering on first fear on from all other animals display fear to display animals tend to a n: p h o hi a s are spider phobias and spider not Snake and mammals. Snake encountering mammals. first encountering when first 1I0t when e n v i ro n ­ urban environliving in people living commonly found by psychiatrists among people in urhan psychiatrists among i. o m m o nly found t h rea t d a n ge ro u s threat const i t u te aa dangerous ures lo n ge r constitute 110 longer res no crea t u s u c h creat w h ere such ments men t s where .

'

(Stevens neglect of these (Stevens and and Price Price 2000a). 2000a). However, However, Jung's Jung's neglect these issues, issues, together together with application of the the archetypal archetypal concept, induces induces a degree degree of with his his loose loose application cognitive dissonance dissonance among his more cognitive more perceptive perceptive readers. readers. The influence of archetypal functioning on the the experience experience The most profound influence of the which archetypes archetypes are held the the individual individual is is the manner in which held to control the human human life life cycle. cycle. Jung Jung postulated postulatedthat that as as we we mature mature we we pass pass through through a programmed sequence sequencewhich whichhe he called called the programmed e. Each stage is is the stages stages of of lif life. Each stage mediated through through aa new new set set of ofarchetypal archetypalimperatives imperativeswhich which seek seek fulfilment fulfilment in both personality personality and andbehaviour behaviour— - being parented, exploring exploring the the environenviron­ ment, peer group, group, meeting meeting the the challenges challenges of puberty and and ment, playing playing in in the peer adolescence, adult group, group, accomplishing accomplishing courtship courtship adolescence, being being initiated initiated into into the adult and marriage, child-rearing, child-rearing, gathering, fighting, participating gathering, hunting and fighting, in religious rituals and ceremonials, assuming the responsibilities of of in religious rituals and ceremonials, assuming the responsibilities advanced maturity, old age and the preparation for death. In addition to advanced maturity, old age and the preparation for death. the Self, the the psychic psychic nucleus nucleus responsible responsible for for co-ordinating co-ordinating this this lifelong lifelong the Self, sequence, which play crucial roles roles in in the the sequence, Jung Jung postulated postulated other structures which psychic of everyone. everyone. These include the psychic development development and and social social adjustment of persona, shadow, shadow, anima and animus. persona, animus.

Arch etypal actualisation actual i sati on and and psychological psyc h o l ogical Archetypal development d e ve l o p m ent

The archetypal units units making making up up the thecollective collective unconscious unconscious possess possess the the The archetypal dynamic property property of ofseeking seeking their their actualisation actualisationininthe thereality realityofoflife life— - that is is to say, say, in the the behaviour behaviour and and personality personality of ofthe theindividual individual as as the thelife life cycle cycle unfolds environment. In his essay essay 'Mind ' Mind and and unfolds within within the the context context of the environment. In his earth' (1927) ( 1 927) Jung wrote: wrote: 'Archetypes 'Archetypes are systems systems of readiness readiness for action, and the same same time time images images and and emotions. emotions. They They are are inherited inherited with with the the and at the brain-structure — - indeed, ( 1 9271 1 93 1 b: par. 53). 53). indeed, they they are its psychic aspect' (1927/1931b: This archetype as common source source of both behabeha­ This conception conception of of the the archetype as the common vioural psychic events was aa contribution contribution ofofgreat greattheoretical theoreticalsignifisignifi­ vioural and psychic cance, move beyond beyond the the quagmires quagmires of ofvitalism vitalism cance, for it enabled psychology to move and epiphenomenalism which hampered the progress of all all and epiphenomenalism which had had hitherto hitherto hampered the progress those explore the the mysterious mysterious relationship relationship between the body those who who sought to explore and the mind. mind. Archetypal determines the degree to which the Archetypal actualisation actualisation determines the over-riding over-riding goal goal of individuation achieved. Actualisation individuation is also spoke of of 'evo'evo­ is achieved. Actualisation (lung (Jung also cation' and and 'constellation') 'constellatio n')of ofan anarchetype archetypeseems seems to toproceed proceedininaccordance cation' accordance with the laws laws of of association association worked worked out by by psychologists psychologists at with the at the end end of of the nineteenth century. century. Two Two of of these these laws laws are particularly apposite: apposite: they the nineteenth they are are th e 1(/ 11' of oj' similarity similarity an the d the the km' 1{I I1' oj' law contiguity. Thus, and for example, example, the of contiguity. the Thus, for m o t her archetype a rc h e ty pe is actualised in in the t he child's child's personal personal psyche psyche through mother is actualised through tthe he ('(}/Iligllil a le ca con/iguit lI.' of rl' l a k l' f w h ose cha ra cterist ics a of aa fem female caretaker whose characteristics re ,\'illlil(/r are similar enough enough

Anthony Stevens 86 Anthony 86 Stevens



The 87 The archetypes archetypes 87

to the innate of the maternal for the the child to innate anticipations anticipations of maternal archetype archetype for child to to perceiveher herand and experience experienceher herasas 'mother'. 'mother'. In In this manner, perceive manner, the mother mother archetype isis activated activated or or 'evoked' archetype 'evoked' in in the the collective collective unconscious unconscious and, as as the attachment attachment relationship relationship develops, develops,isis built built into into the the the personal personal psyche psyche Complexes are are functional functional complex. Complexes of the the child child in in the the form form of of the the mother mother complex. of units which which make make up the units the personal personal unconscious, unconscious, just as as the thecollective collective unconscious is is composed composed of archetypes. unconscious All archetypes archetypes are are actualised actualised in this way: All way: 'The 'The constellated constellated archetype archetype isis always the the primordial primordial image image of of the the need need of the the moment', wrote Jung. always lung.

various infinitely various Although appearinfinitely life must appear of life situations of changin g situations the changing h the Althoug certain exceeds never to our way of thinking, their possible number never exceeds certain number to our way of thinking, their possible repeat patterns natural limits; they fall into more or less typical patterns that repeat typical less natural limits; they fall into more the of e structur al themselves over and over again. The archetypal structure of the archetyp The themselves over and over again. that unconscious corresponds to the average run of events. The changes that of unconscious corresponds to of variations of may befall befall aa man they are variations variable; they infinitely variable; not infinitely are not man are may there­ When . certain typical occurrences which limited in number. When therenumber limited are certain typical occurrences which be will be archetype will fore aa distressing corresponding archetype the corresponding arises, the situation arises, distressing situation fore i.e., us, numino is e constellated in the unconscious. Since this archetype is numinous, i.e., archetyp this Since ious. constellated in the unconsc con­ of conpossesses specificenergy, energy,ititwill willattract attract to to itself the contents of s aa specific possesse hence and ible percept sciousness — conscious ideas that render it perceptible and hence render that ideas us sciousness - conscio capable of of conscious conscious realization. realization. (Jung 1911-1912: 1 9 1 1- 1 9 1 2: par. 450) 450) Because of of its its dynamism may have aa powerful Because dynamism the actualised actualised archetype archetype may powerful impact on the the conscious conscious personality. personality. This This imposes imposes an an ethical ethical responsibility responsibility on the the ego ego and and can, can,ininadverse adversecircumstances circumstancesor orininsusceptible susceptibleindividuals, individuals, mental illness. illness. result in mental

that archetype, that givenarchetype, When to aagiven corresponds to which corresponds occurs which situation occurs When aa situation like which, , appears archetype becomes activated and a compulsiveness appears, which, like iveness archetype becomes act;vated and a compuls else or will, and an instinctual drive, gains its way against all reason and will, or else reason all an instinctual drive, gains . neurosis a say, to is that produces a conflict of pathological dimension, that is to say, a neurosis. on, produces a conflict of pathological dimensi (lung 1936: 1 936: par. 99) 99) (Jung Archetypal actualisationisis thus thus at the Archetypal actualisation the core core of ofJung's lung'sunderstanding understanding of of developmental developmental psychology, psychology, both healthy healthy and and abnormal. abnormal.Psychopathology Psychopathology occurs when archetypal archetypal strategies strategies malfunction malfunction as as aaresult resultofofenvironmental environmental insults at critical stages of insults of of deficiencies deficiencies at of development development (Stevens (Stevens and and Price Price 2000a). 2000a). Some attempts a t te m p ts have have been been made made to to revise revise Jung's lung's position positionon onthe theheredithereditary a ry nature n a t u re of ofarchetypes, a rc het y p es Petteri PetteriPietikainen Pietikainen(1998) ( 1 998)preferring preferringtotoconceive conceiw them t hem as a s 'culturally 'cult ura lIy determined ,il'tL'rm i ned functionary functionary forms' forms' and a n dGeorge ( iL'orgeI llogenson I ogen son ,

((1999) 1 999) as emergent properties the dynamic dynamic developmental developmental system system as 'the 'the emergent properties of of the of These suggestions of brain, brain, environment environment and and narrative'. narrative'. These suggestionswould wouldappear appear to to make semantic confusion arche­ make aa semantic confusion between between the the archetype-as-such archetype-as-such and and the the archetypal behaviours the the archetype-as-such archetype-as-such gives gives rise rise typal ideas, ideas, motifs, motifs, images images and and behaviours to. To accept their definitions would be to offend against Occam's Razor. to. To accept their definitions would be to offend against Occam's Razor. IItt would o the 'general would relegate relegatethe thebrain brainonce oncemore moretto the outdated outdated status status ooff aa 'general purpose processing mechanism' and would erode the hermeneutic elegance purpose processing mechanism' and would erode the hermeneutic elegance of hypothesis (Stevens (Stevens 1998b, 1 998b, 2002). 2002). of lung's Jung's hypothesis The p sycho i d arche type and n us mundus The psychoid archetype and the the uunus mundus

The non­ The archetype archetype possesses possessesaa fundamental fundamental duality: duality: itit is is both both psychic psychic and and nonpsychic, both 'spirit' and 'body', for the archetype is the essential precon­ psychic, both 'spirit' and 'body', for the archetype is the essential precondition all psychophysical psychophysical events: events: dition of all the were the hidden foundations foundations of of the the conscious conscious the archetypes archetypes are are as as it it were the hidden mind, or, to use another comparison, the roots which the psyche has mind, or, to use another comparison, the roots which the psyche has sunk not only in the earth in the narrower sense but in the world in sunk not only in the earth in the narrower sense but in the world in general. (Jung 1 9271 1 93 1 b: par. 53) (Jung 1927/1931b: par. 53) To this non-psychic non-psychic aspect aspect lung gave the term `psychoid' 'psychoid' archetype archetype and and itit To this Jung gave the term represents his boldest contribution to the resolution of the body-mind represents his boldest contribution to the resolution of the body—mind problem. To illustrate what he meant meant by by the the non-psychic non-psychic or or `psychoid' 'psychoid' aspect To illustrate what he aspect of of the archetype, Jung lung drew drew an an analogy analogy with withthe theelectromagnetic electromagnetic spectrum. spectrum. the archetype, The part of of the the spectrum spectrum which which isis visible visible to to us us (i.e., (i.e., the the ultra-violet ultra-violet end) end) The part represents those psychic psychic processes processes of of which which we we are are conscious. conscious. The The invisible invisible represents those infra-red of the the spectrum spectrum corresponds corresponds to tothe theunconscious unconsciousbiological biological infra-red end end of aspect the archetype archetype which which is is identical identical with with 'the 'the physiology physiology of the aspect of of the of the organism and thus thus merges merges with with its its chemical chemical and and physical physical conditions' conditions' (1947/ ( 1 9471 organism and 11954: 954: par. 420). par. 420). lung proceeded to propose not not only only that thatarchetypal archetypal structures structures were were Jung proceeded to propose fundamental to to the the existence existence and and survival survival of of all all living living organisms organisms but but also also fundamental that they they were were continuous continuous with with structures structures controlling controlling the behaviour of of that the behaviour inorganic matter matter as as well. well. The The archetype archetype was was no no mere mere psychic psychic entity 'the inorganic entity but but 'the bridge to to matter matter in ingeneral' general' (1947/1954: ( 1 94711 954: par. par. 420). 420). It It was was this this psychoid psychoid bridge aspect of of the the archetype archetype which which was was to to exercise exercise the the imagination imagination of of the the aspect physicist and Nobel laureate, laureate, Wolfgang Wolfgang Pauli Pauli(1955), ( 1 955), who who believed believed itit made made physicist and Nobel major contribution contribution to to our ourability abilitytotocomprehend comprehend the theprinciples principles on on which which aa major the universe universe has has been been created. created. the I n an an attempt a t tempt to todescribe describe the theunitary unitaryreality realitywhich whichJung lungbelieved believed toto In u nderlie a l l manifest m a n i fest phenomena, ph en o m en a he resurrected the ancient term term unus unus underlie all he resurrected the ancient t h e eternal eterna l ground ground of ofall all empirical L'm piricalbeing. hei n g . Ile l I econceived concei vedarchetypes a rch et ypes 11111111111.1' the ',imam ,

88 Anthony AnthonyStevens Stevens 88

The The archetypes arc hetypes 89 89

to be be the the mediators mediators of of the the unus unus mundus, mundus, responsible responsible for for organising organising ideas ideas and and to images in the psyche and for governing the fundamental principles of matter images in the psyche and for governing the fundamental principles of matter and energy energy in in the thephysical physical world. world. Embracing Embracing Jung's Jung's conception, conception, Pauli Pauli and argued that the archetype could provide the 'missing link' between the argued that the archetype could provide the 'missing link' between the physical events which are the legitimate study of science on the one hand physical events which are the legitimate study of science on the one hand and the the mind mind of ofthe thescientist scientist who who studies studies them them on on the the other. other. Thus, Thus, the the and archetypes which order our perceptions and ideas are themselves the product archetypes which order our perceptions and ideas are themselves the product of an an objective objective order order which which transcends transcends both the human human mind mind and and the the of both the external world. external world. In adopting adopting this this standpoint, standpoint, Pauli Pauli was was reaffirming reaffirming the the position position adopted adopted In by the German astronomer, Johannes Kepler ( 1 5721 630), who ascribed by the German astronomer, Johannes Kepler (1572-1630), who ascribed his delight delight in in scientific scientific discovery process of of 'matching' 'matching' whereby whereby he he his discovery to to aa process linked 'inner ideas', already implanted in his mind by God, with the exter­ linked 'inner ideas', already implanted in his mind by God, with the external events events which which he he perceived perceived through through his his senses. senses. Kepler Kepler actually actuallyreferred referred nal to the 'inner ideas' as 'archetypal' and saw them as the necessary founda­ to the 'inner ideas' as 'archetypal' and saw them as the necessary foundation of of all all knowledge. knowledge. 'For, toknow knowisistotocompare comparethat thatwhich whichisisexternally externally tion Tor, to inner ideas and to judge that it agrees with perceived them.' Our with and to judge that it agrees with them.' Our perceived with inner ideas sensory experiences 'call forth intellectual notions that were already present sensory experiences 'call forth intellectual notions that were already present inwardly; which formerly of inwardly; so so that that which formerly was was hidden hidden in in the the soul, soul, as as under under the the veil of potentiality, now shines therein in actuality' (Kepler 1 6 1 9, quoted by Pauli now shines therein in actuality' (Kepler 1619, quoted by Pauli potentiality, 11955). 955). The the veil veil The parallel parallel between between Kepler's Kepler's 'inner 'inner ideas' ideas' which which lie lie 'under 'under the of potentiality' and Jung's 'primordial images' is clear. of potentiality' and Jung's 'primordial images' is clear. A further significant significant parallel Pauli and and Jung, Jung, working working in in A further parallel drawn drawn by by Pauli collaboration, is between between analytical analytical psychology psychology and and quantum quantum physics. physics. Just Just collaboration, is as enquiry into into the the structure structure and and function function of ofthe thepsyche psyche had had led led him him as Jung's Jung's enquiry to postulate the the existence existence of ofdynamic dynamic `irrepresentables' 'irrepresentables' (archetypes), (archetypes), so so to postulate research quantum physics the postulate postulate of of similar similar research in in quantum physics has has given given rise rise to to the 'irrepresentables' and defying defying all all 'irrepresentables' (elementary (elementary particles) particles) constituting constituting matter matter and space-time space—timedescriptions. descriptions.Could Couldthese thesetwo twoareas areasof of research research be be approaching approaching the more irrepresentirrepresent­ the same same aspects aspects of of reality? reality? 'When 'When the the existence existence of of two two or or more ubles assumed', wrote wrote Jung, Jung, 'there 'thereisisalways alwaysthe thepossibility possibility— - which which we we ables is is assumed', tend - that tend to to overlook overlook — thatititmay maynot notbe beaa question question of of two two or or more more factors factors bu butt of only' (1947/1954: ( 1 947/ 1 954: par. 4 1 7). of one one only' par. 417). Another the end end of of Another eminent eminent physicist, physicist, Werner Werner Heisenberg, Heisenberg, came, came, towards towards the his see the the fundamental fundamental aspects not as as residing residing in in the the his life, life, to to see aspects of of nature nature not particles particles form. form. PerPer­ particles themselves themselvesbut butin in the the 'symmetries' 'symmetries' which which the the particles ceiving Jung's 'arche'arche­ ceiving the the parallel parallel between between Heisenberg's Heisenberg's 'symmetries' 'symmetries' and and Jung's ttypes', ypes the has argued: argued: 'These 'These fundamental fundamental symmetries symmetries the physicist physicist David David Peat Peat has could archetypes of ground of of could be be thought thought of of as as the the archetypes of all all matter matter and and the the ground material material existence. existence. The The elementary elementary particles particles themselves themselves would would be be simply simply the the m a t e rial realization these underlying underlying symmetries' symmetries' (Peat (Peat 1987: 1 987: 94). 94). material realization of of these ',

.JJust u s t aas s tthe h e elementary elemen t a ry pa rt i c l es are a nce tthat hat particles are maintained maintainedby by aa ddance

trall­ tran-

sn: nds t the h l� w o r ld (If a t ll'r. Sso ( l ttoo, oo, is is mind m i n d sustained s u s t a i ned by h y dynamics d y n a m ics that that scends world of m matter,

lie lie beyond beyond both both mind mind and and matter. matter. Beyond Beyond mind mind and and matter matter are are therethere­ fore fore patterns patterns and and symmetries symmetries that that have have aagenerative generative and and animating animating effect. effect. (Peat (Peat 1987: 1 987: 111-112) 1 1 1 - 1 1 2) Evidently, biology must must function function as aa bridge Evidently, biology bridge between between these these two two sets sets of of symmetries, symmetries, and itit is is conceivable conceivable that that this this could couldbe beprovided providedby bysymmetries symmetries within within the structure structure of ofDNA DNAororbybymolecular molecularsymmetries symmetriesresponsible responsible for for neuronal neuronal and and synaptic synaptic events events in in the the brain brain and andcentral centralnervous nervoussystem, system, which which are are being being studied studied by by the themolecular molecularbiologists. biologists. The dance transcending transcending the worlds worlds of of mind mind and and matter matterisisresponsible, responsible, in Jung's in Jung's view, view, for for the thephenomenon phenomenonofof'meaningful 'meaningfulcoincidence', coincidence', which which he called in time called synchronicity: synchronicity: 'a coincidence coincidence in time of two two or or more morecausally causally he unrelated events unrelated events which which have have the the same same or orsimilar similarmeaning' meaning'(1952: ( 1 952:par. par.849) 849)—as when when one dreams of the death of of a distant distant relative relative the the very very same night as she dies. dies. There There can be she be no no causal causal connection connection between between the the two two events, events, yet yet aa personally impressive acausal acausal connection connection is is established established through through their shared perso ?ally impressive meaning. meamng. Synchronicity, Jung Jung believed, believed, isis the the expression expression of of an an acausal acausal orderedness Synchronicity, dependent upon archetypal functioning. Such an acausal archetypal order is apparent in in the properties apparent properties of the the prime prime numbers numbers as well well as as the the discondiscon­ tinuities of of physics, physics, and and it must, tinuities must, ultimately, ultimately, be be responsible responsible for the the meanmean­ ingfulness implicit implicit in in the coincidence ingfulness coincidence of associated associated mental mental and and physical physical events. Jung Jung wrote: wrote: 'I'I have a distinct feeling events. feeling that number is the key to the the mystery, since it is just as much discovered as itit is is invented. invented. It It is a quantity mystery, since it is just as much discovered as as well well as as aa meaning' meaning' (von (von Franz 1974). He understood understood number number to be the as 1 974). He the `most primitive element of order in the human mind' and 'most primitive element of order in the and defined defined number number psychologicallyas as 'an 'an archetype archetype of of order which has become conscious' conscious' (von psychologically Franz 1974: 45). Franz 1 974: 45). In his his eighties eighties Jung Jung began began to work on In on the the first first five five integers, but shortly shortly before his death, he gave his notes to his friend and before his death, his and colleague colleague Marie-Louise Marie-Louise von Franz, Franz, saying: saying:'I'I am am too too old old to be able this now, now, so so II hand hand it von able to write write this over to you' (von Franz 1974: ix). As a result, von Franz undertook over to you' (von 1 974: ix). As a result, von Franz undertook an exhaustive investigation of number archetypes archetypes acting acting as as dynamic dynamic organising organising exhaustive investigation of number principles in both psyche and matter. She published her findings in Number principles in both psyche and She published her findings in Number and Time Time ((1974) and her her work 1 974) and and work represents represents a significant significant extension extension of the archetypal hypothesis hypothesis of of Jung Jung and and Pauli. archetypal Pauli. The parallel between von Franz's search for the The parallel between von Franz's search for the primal primal archetypes archetypes inherent in numbers and Chomsky's search for linguistic inherent in numbers and Chomsky's search for linguistic universals universals has beenexamined examined by by the the physicist physicist Charles Charles Card (1991a, 2000), and he heen (199 l a, 1991b, 1 99 1 b, 2000), reformulated a general archetypal hypothesis as follows: hhas a s reformulated general follows:

y

All mental and physical physical pheJlolllena phenomena aare complementary aspectsof of the the A ll m e n t a l and rc complelllen tar aspects same uunitary, reality. At tthe basis same n i t a ry , ttranscendental ra n sl'l' I H k ' n t a l rea l i t y . At h e hasis

of all (If all physical ph ysica l and a nd

90 Anthony Stevens AnthonyStevens 90



mental phenomena phenomena there there exist forms dynamical forms fundamental dynamical exist certain fundamental mental Any archetypes. Any number archetypes. called number be called may be which may behaviour which of behaviour or patterns of of representation of specificprocess, process,physical physicalorormental, mental,isisaa particular particular representation sp�cific certain of these archetypes numberarchetypes thenumber particular, the In particular, archetypes. In these archetypes. certain provide the basis for expression. Therefore, itit isis symbolic expression. possible symbolic all possible for all provide possible that that a neutral symbolic abstract symbolic from abstract constructed from language constructed neutral language possible representations of the number unified, highly unified, provide highly may provide archetypes may number archetypes representations although not not unique, of all physical and physical mental and all mental descriptions of unique, descriptions although phenomena. phenomena. 2000) (Card 2000) that this general archetypal hypothesis may prove to be to be feels that Card evidently feels founda­ epistemological foundathe epistemological for the physics and for significance for physics highest significance of the highest view. In his most recent publication (2000) Card(2000) publication Card scientific world view. our scientific of our tion of has proposed contem­ of aacontembasis of the basis form the could form theory could archetypal theory proposed that archetypal has philosophy of nature. porary philosophy Since archetypes archetypes precondition preconditionall all existence, existence,they they are are manifest manifest in in the the Since of art, art, science and religion, religion, as well organ­ well as in the organscience and achievements of spiritual achievements isation of organic provides aa thus provides archetype thus The archetype matter. The inorganic matter. organic and inorganic isation all andall sciences and allsciences fromall derivedfrom dataderived ofdata understanding of basis for a common understanding not least least because epistemology for epistemology implications for its implications because of its activities —not human activities se). knowledge per se). of knowledge study of (the study (the by examined by been examined have been theory have archetypal theory potentials of archetypal scientific potentials The scientific Cohen (1975), Routh ( 1 999), Routh Maloney (1999), ( 1 999), Maloney McDowell (1999), ( 1 999), McDowell Hogenson (1999), ( 1 975), Hogenson (1981), Shelborne (1988) integration its integration ( 1 994), its ( 1 988) and Walters (1994), (2000), Shelborne ( 1 98 1 ), Sabini (2000), with sig­ philosophical sigits philosophical ( 1 996), its Gray (1996), by Gray advanced by sociology has been advanced with sociology nificance has been been explored by Nagy for implications for its implications and its ( 1 99 1 ), and Nagy (1991), explored by nificance has religious ( 1 986, Stevens(1986, ( 2005),Stevens MacLennan(2005), byMacLennan outlined by been outlined religious studies have been warfare ofwarfare psychology of the psychology I1 998a) 998a)and and Stevens Stevens and and Price Price (2000b) (2000b) and and for the and terrorism 2004), while while Robertson Robertson (1995) the carried the has carried ( 1 995) has (Stevens 2004), terrorism (Stevens and discussion physical andphysical biological and the biological beyond the hypothesis beyond archetypal hypothesis discussion of the archetypal sciences to to the very very foundations of funda­ so fundais so concept is mathematics. The concept of mathematics. sciences impli­ anditsitsimpliJungiansand handsofofJungians thehands ofthe out of taken out being taken is being mental that it is mental cations are being other in other practitioners in and practitioners theorists and by theorists out by worked out being worked cations are disciplines. Thisisis as as itit should psy­ his psythat his argued that never argued Jung never for Jung be, for should be, disciplines. This chology was definitive theory archetypaltheory ofarchetypal implications of full implications The full final. The definitive or final. realised. be realised. to be yet to have yet have �

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Journal Journal Psychology, 66(3): and Social Psychology, Abnormal and of Abnormal of 66(3): 278-280. 278-280. New York: New ( 1 972) The Individual and his V.J. (1972) Nordby, V.J. e.S. and Hall, Hall, C.S. and Nordby, his Dreams. Dreams. New New York: Library. American American Library. psyche', thepsyche', of the emergence of the emergence and the psychology and ' Evolution, psychology ( 1 999) `Evolution, Hogenson, G. Hogenson, G. (1999) New Fe, New Santa Fe, in Santa Analysts in Jungian Analysts of Jungian Conference of National Conference the National presentation presentation at at the Mexico, October. Mexico, A\can. religions. Paris: des religions. d 'histoire des ( 1 909) Melanges d'histoire M. (1909) Mauss, M. and Mauss, H. and Hubert, H. Hubert, Paris: Alcan. Paul. Kegan Paul. and Kegan Routledge and A rchetype. Symbol. ( 1 959) Complex. Jacobi, J. (1959) Complex, Archetype, Symbol. London: London: Routledge 20 1 . Spring: 201. 'Schopenhauer and ( 1 98 1 ) `Schopenhauer J. (1981) Jarret, Jarret, J. and Jung'. Jung'. Spring: W 5ii. deliverance from for deliverance battle for The battle 1 9 1 2) `The ( 1 9 1 1 1912) c.G. (1911 Jung, C.G. Jung, from the the mother', mother', in in C CW 5ii. . 1 442-52 pars. 7: W C in unconscious', the of structure 1 9 1 6 ) The ((1916) `The structure of the unconscious', in CW 7: pars. 442-521. 263-283 . pars. 263-283. W 8: in C ( 1 9 1 9/ 1 929) 'Instinct (1919/1929) `Instinctand and the the unconscious', unconscious', in CW 8: pars. 283-342. pars. 283-342. 8: pars. CW 8: in CW psyche', in ( 1 9271 1 93 I a ) The (1927/1931a) `The structure structure of of the the psyche', 1 03. 49 103. pars. 49 1 0: pars. CW 10: i n ('14' rt h ' , in Mi n d and I I l)n/ l l)3 I h ) 'Mind (1927/1931h) and ca earth', . 7: C W7: in ('W unconsciolls', in the unconscious', and the ego and the ego hetwccn the re l a t i o n s between 'The relations 1 1 92 H ) 'The ( ' , ( i , (1928) .I ling. CAI. Jung, 40h, :>0: 406. pars 20? pars. --

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The archetypes 93

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The archetypes

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'On the nature nature ooff the 'Foreword to to Harding: Harding: "Woman's "Woman'sMysteries Mysteries" ',, in in CW CW18: 1 8 : par. par.1949. 1 949. -- (1949) ( 1 949) 'Foreword 'Synchronicity: an acausal connecting connecting principle', CW 8: 8: pars. pars. . - (1952) ( 1 952) `Synchronicity: an acausal principle', in in CW 8 1 6-968. 816-968. ' Foreword', in in CW C W 5. 5. London: London: Routledge Routledge and and Kegan Kegan Paul. Paul. ( 1 956) 'Foreword', - (1956) - ( 1 96 1 ) 'Healing the split', in CW CW 18. 1 8. (1961) 'Healing the split', in - -- ( 1 963) Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Reflections. London: London: Routledge Routledge and and Kegan Kegan Paul; Paul; (1963) Memories, Dreams, New York: Random House. New York: Random House. Jung, C.G. e.G. and and von von Franz, Franz,M.-L. M .-L.(eds) (eds) (1964) ( 1 964) Man Man and and his his Symbols. Symhols. London: London: Aldus. Aldus. Jung, Harmonices Mundi, Mundi, Book Book IV. IV. Augsburg. Augsburg. Kepler, J. ( 1 6 1 9) Harmonices Kepler, J. (1619) ( 1 999) ''Relating Relating to to the the mystery: mystery: aabiological biological view view of ofanalytical analytical McDowell, M .J. (1999) McDowell, M.J. psychology'. Quadrant: Journal o f the e. G. Jung Foundation for Analytical psychology'. Quadrant: Journal of the C.G. Jung Foundation for Analytical Psychology, 29( 1 ): 1 2-32. Psychology, 29(1): 12-32. MacLennan, . (2005) theurgy: their their role role in in modern modern MacLennan, B.J B.J. (2005) 'Evolution, 'Evolution,Jung, Jung, and and theurgy: neoplatonism', . F. Finamore Finamore and and R. R. Berchman Berchman (eds) (eds) Plato Redivivus: History History Plato Redivivus: neoplatonism', in in JJ.F. oj" Platonism . New Orleans, LA: University Press of the South. of Platonism. New Orleans, LA: University Press of the South. reud Evaluated: The Completed Completed Arc. and Macmillan, M. ( 1 997) F Cambridge, MA MA and Evaluated: The Arc. Cambridge, Macmillan, M. (1997) Freud London: MIT Press. London: MIT Press. 1 999) 'Darwin new psychiatry'. psychiatry'. San Francisco Jung Jung Maloney, San Francisco Maloney, A. A. ((1999) 'Darwinand and Jung Jung in in aa new 8 : 111-22. 1 -22. Institute Lihrary Journal, 118: Institute Library Journal, Mayr, E. (1974) ( 1 974) 'Behavior ' Behavior programs programs and and evolutionary evolutionary strategies'. strategies'. Am erican American Mayr, E. Scientist, 62(6): 650 659. Scientist, 62(6): 650-659. Monod, J . ( 1 97 1 ) Chance and Necessity. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Monod, J. (1971) Chance and Necessity. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Murdock, G . P. ( 1 945) 'The common denominator of culture', in R. Linton (ed . ) The Murdock, G.P. (1945) 'The common denominator of culture', in R. Linton (ed.) The U niversity Press. Press. Science of Man in the World Crisis. New York: Columbia Columbia University Science of Man in the World Crisis. New York: Nagy, M. ( 1 99 1 ) Philosophical f e. G. Jung. Albany, NY: NY: Issuesininthe the Psychology Psychologyoof C.G. Jung. Albany, Nagy, M. (1991) PhilosophicalIssues State York Press. Press. State University University of of New New York 1 987) 'An evolutionary perspective agora­ Ncsse, . M . ((1987) Nesse,RR.M. 'An evolutionary perspectiveon on panic panic disorder disorder and and agoraphobia'. Ethology and Sociohiology, 8(3): 73-84. 8(3): 73-84. Ethology and Sociobiology, phobia'. Otto, R. ( 1 9 1 7/ 1 950) The f the Oxford: Oxford Oxford University University Press. Press. Ideaoof theHoly. Holy.Oxford: Otto, R. (1917/1950) TheIdea ( 1 95 5 ) 'The influence of archetypal ideas on the scientific theories theories of of Pauli, W. Pauli, W. (1955) 'The influence of archetypal ideas on the scientific Kepler', in e.G. Jung and W . Pauli, The Interpretation oj" Nature and the Psyche. The Interpretation of Nature and the Psyche. Kepler', in C.G. Jung and W. Pauli, Londo n : Routledge and Kegan Paul. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. 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Bantam. 1 998) 'Archetypes as symbolic forms'. Journal f Analytical A nalrliclI/ Pietikainen,P.P. ((1998) 'Archetypes as symbolic forms'. Journal oof " .I'rc/l11/ogl'. 43( 3 ) : 325 343. Psrcho/ogy, 43(3): 325 343. R ohc r l so n , R . ( 1 99 5 ) .fllngilln "' 1"1 '11"1 1'1'1'.1': .lung. (iiidel. lind tht' /li.l'llirr III A rcII . . It obeli son, R. ( 1995 ) Jungian Archetypes: Jung, Glide', and the History of Arche1 1 '/1( '.1' Y o r k Ikadl. M I ': : N il,. , l a , I l a v , types York Reach, MI': Nicolas Ilays

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Chapter 44 Chapter

The hadow 95 95 Thesshadow

The shadow shadow The Ann Casement Ann Casement

One does does not become figures of of light, light, but by One become enlightened enlightened by imagining imagining figures by making the darkness conscious. making conscious. (Jung 1967: (lung 1 967: 265)

IIntroduction ntro d u c t i on

psy­ to psyis one shadow is contributions to The of the the shadow great contributions Jung's great of Jung's one of concept of The concept Freud's chology which he adapted early on in the twentieth century from Freud's from century the twentieth chology which he adapted early psyche. humanpsyche. original division division between between the the light light and and dark sides the human of the sides of original projec­ is activated, usually through projecshadow According to Jung, when the shadow is activated, According to Jung, when own its of and takes on an autonomous life of its own life us affect autonomo tion, it is charged with an affect and takes tion, it is charged st structuralist structurali a as beyond the ego's control. It is possible to depict Jung as a Jung depict to beyond the ego's control. It is possible ed systematis thinker who was not so much interested in creating a highly systematised highly a creating in thinker who was not so much interested interrelation­ metapsychology, but who the interrelationwith the concerned with instead, concerned was, instead, who was, metapsychology, but develop not develop ships between different psychic phenomena. result, he did not a As a. ships between different psychic phenomen about thinking his clear-cut definitions of the latter and this included his thinking about included this and dear-cut definitions of the latter that compensation so that ion compensat Inextricably linked to this concept is of of that is shadow. concept shadow. Inextricably linked to ly conscious a to both individual and collective — compensatory to a consciously tory compensa shadow is shadow both individual and collective held attitude. held attitude. to thought to In to shadow are thought related to problems related analysis, problems Jungian analysis, classical Jungian In aa classical personal personal of realm he the first to need attention. These largely arise from the realm of the from arise largely These be the first to need attention. ofaa aspects of theaspects all the ofall shadow repository of the repository as the of as conceived of be conceived may be which may shadow which one clinician, a As person that are unacceptable or distasteful to them. As a clinician, one them. l distastefu or person that are unacceptable , aggression phenomena which include envy, aggression, envy, shadow include encounters a variety of which a phenomen encounters a variety of shadow hedged ly particular is greed, laziness and jealousy (the latter being one that is particularly hedged that one being latter greed, laziness and jealousy However,ititisis list.However, around exhaustivelist. meansananexhaustive nomeans byno Thisisisby shame).This with shame). around with where instance, is not always negative, for instance, where for shadow negative, important to note that always not is shadow im po rt ant to note that liVl:s tly consequen the more positive side of the individual is repressed and consequently lives and repressed is individual the of t he more positive side rok negative in the shadow. In these instances, the ego plays an essentially negative role essentially an plays ego the instances, these i n t h e shado ll . In ked i l r o projection may be activated by an admired or liked admired an by while a positive shadow activated be may projection while a positive' slwdmr hi'll/(,/" wounded healer I\"OIIlIl/et/ he t outer object, for example, in the analytic setting where the where setting analytic he t in le, m a x e ror p o l l t e r object . — -

'

archetype the archetypeoften oftengets getsconstellated constellatedwith withthe the analyst analyst having havingto to carry carry the analyand's 'healer' projection until the latter can reclaim and own it for him analyand's 'healer' projection until the latter can reclaim and own it for him or or herself. herself. relation­ Many Many aspects aspects of of the the personal personal shadow shadow may may be be traced traced back back to to the the relationship to the parents or parental surrogates and siblings. An individual who ship to the parents or parental surrogates and siblings. An individual who problem with jealousy may have felt excluded from has has aa huge huge shadow shadow problem with jealousy may have felt excluded from the the parental relationship. be an an attractive attractive high-achieving high-achieving parental relationship. Equally, Equally, there there may may be older older sibling sibling to to whom whom the the individual individual has has felt felt unfavourably unfavourably compared compared or or aa spoilt younger sibling who is the centre of attention in the family. spoilt younger sibling who is the centre of attention in the family. such family family dynamics dynamics plays an The The resulting resulting shadow shadow problem problem from from such plays an important part in the individual's life and will often carry over into important part in the individual's life and will often carry over into relationships opposite sex sex where where excessive excessive jealousy relationships with with the the opposite jealousy can can become become aa destructive force. This will infiltrate the individual's other interactions and destructive force. This will infiltrate the individual's other interactions and may cripple their functioning as a wel1-adapted social being. In analysis, may cripple their functioning as a well-adapted social being. In analysis, personal kind will will manifest manifest in in the the transference transference personal shadow shadow problems problems of of this this kind where the patient/analysand may experience the analyst as an excluding where the patient/analysand may experience the analyst as an excluding parent or as a rival either to be competed with or be subservient to. The The parent or as a rival either to be competed with or be subservient to. latter kind of transference can evoke a powerful countertransference on latter kind of transference can evoke a powerful countertransference on the analyst's part in the form of feelings of superiority or of being the all­ the analyst's part in the form of feelings of superiority or of being the allwise wise one. Jung erence/countertransference in Jung gives gives an an example example of of this this kind kind of of tramf transference/countertransference in his diagnosed the having aa his analysis analysis of of aa philosophy philosophy student. student. He He diagnosed the patient patient as as having father xation which seek out male analyst analyst like like her her father father with with father fi fixation which led led her her to to seek out aa male whom intellectually, and, the same same time, time, force force into into aa whom she she could could jostle jostle intellectually, and, at at the superior him into into an an object object of ofadmiration. admiration. Jung Jungwrites writes superior position position making making him that her authentic authentic self self lay lay hidden hidden behind behind her her persona persona of of 'the 'thesupremely supremely that her wise, very grown-up, grown-up, all-understanding all-understanding mother-daughter-beloved' mother-daughter-beloved' (Jung (Jung wise, very 1 953b: 159). 1 59). 1953b: The patient had had experienced experienced the the oedipal oedipal triumph triumph in in winning winning father father The patient from mother mother at at an an early early age age so sothat thatfather fatherbecame becamethe theidealised idealised parent parent from shadow rival. rival. Jung's Jung's evident evident countertransference countertransference and mother mother the the patient's patient's shadow and irritation with with the patient is is an an expression expression of latter. Personal Personal shadow shadow irritation the patient of the the latter. transference/countertransference would in the the transference/countertransference wouldneed needto to be be worked worked through through in early part part of of the the analysis, analysis, but but behind behind this this can canlie lieananarchetypal archetypaloedipal oedipal early collective unconscious. unconscious. The The latter latter is is the the innate, innate, contlict emanating the collective conflict emanating from from the non-personal part part of ofthe thepsyche psyche which which isis the therealm realmofofarchetypal archetypalimagery imagery non-personal that expresses expresses itself itselfsymbolically. symbolically. that Jung points points to to the the fact fact that thatthe thekind kindofofanalysis analysis that thatisisadvocated advocated inin Jung analytical psychology psychology is is nothing nothing other otherthan thanthe thescientific scientificrediscovery rediscovery of ofan an analytical ancient truth truth which which isis the thehealing healing power power ofofcatharsis catharsisororcleansing. cleansing. This This ancient eomes about about as as aa result result ofofthe theanalytic analyticwork workduring duringwhich which the thepatient patient comes begins to to become become aware aware of of their their darker darker side side and and can can confess confess to to it. it. As As Jung Jung begins ex pre sses it: it: The The first lirst beginnings hegi n n ings of o r all a l l analytical a na ly t ical treatment t rea t ment of o f the t he soul soul are arc expresses to he he found ro und in i n its i t sprototype, p ro t o t y pe ,ihe t heconfessional' con fessio n a l '(Jung ( .l u ng1954: 1 9 54:55). 5 5 ) . Through Thro ughthe the to

Ann Casement 96 Ann 96 Casement



The 7 Theshadow shadow 997

le observation of images and feelings that detach themselves invisible observation of images and feeling s that detach themselves from the invisib contents manifest shadow st realmof ofthe theuncons unconscious, repressed andforgott forgotten en shadow contents manife ed and cious, repress realm themselves. According to Jung, the individuating process invariably bly starts s invaria proces uating individ the Jung, to themselves. According which isis experi­ experishadow, off by the patient's becoming conscious of their which , shadow their of us conscio ing becom 's off by the patient not does encedat atfirst firstas asthe theinferio inferior personality made up of everything that does r personality made up of everything that enced gives it tit with with conscio conscious demands. This is a gain, albeit a painful one, as gives as us deman ds. This is a gain, albeit a painful one, fit the person person substan substance. Therehas hastotobe beaa dark dark side side in in order order for for a person person to ce. There the are becomewhole wholeand and by by becom becoming conscious of that they remember remember they are ing conscious of that become human like like everyone else. everyone else. human of collective shadow of there isis also also the the collecti personal shadow there ve shadow Apart from the al shadow person the Apart from from e which history history provide provides many examples. The most notorious example from exampl s many examples. The most notorious which by the the Nazis Nazis collective shadow by the twentieth century was the the project projection of collecti ve shadow ion of was century th the twentie be to be into the the Jews, Jews, who who could could then then be portrayed as inferior or evil beings to beings be portrayed as inferio r or evil into his seen exterminated. As Jung says: 'In Hitler, every German should have seen his have exterminated. As Jung says: 'In Hitler, every Germa n should own shadow shadow,, his his own worst danger' 223). 1 964: 223). (Jung 1964: danger' (Jung own worst own so also varies from one culture culture to another another so shadow The phenomenon of one from varies also shadow of enon phenom The may This that what is acceptable in the United States may not be in Japan. This may Japan. in be that what is acceptable in the United States may vary within within the the same culture at different times in history so that English in English that in in times nt differe at culture same vary � o �� t. society at at one time good manners and social status were paramount. para were one time good manners and social status society es Nowadays that would be considered rather old-fashioned as other priorities pnontl other as Nowadays that would be considered rather old-fashioned such as a more egalitarian society have superseded them. such as a more egalitarian society have superseded archetypal shadow which A further touched on above, above, is is that that of archety pal shadow d on aspect, touche further aspect, A collective ve would emanate from the archetypal or mythological realm of the collecti of would emanate from the archetypal or mythological more A In Jung's thought this would be equated with evil. A more evil. with d unconscious. equate unconscious. In Jung's though t this would be detailed chapter. the chapter. in the undertaken later in be undertaken will be this will of this exploration of detailed exploration Jung's writings on shadow J ung's writings on sh adow

Jung Freud as as the the medical medicalman man who who at at the Jung acknowledged acknowledged Freud the turn turn of ofthe the nineteenth century showed that reason was not the ruler in the human nineteenth century showed that reason was not the ruler in the human psyche psyche but but that that human humannature naturewas wasinstead insteadsteeped steepedininan anabysmal abysmaldarkness. darkness. Since then psychotherapy has explored this darkness in one Since then psychotherapy has explored this darkness in oneway wayor oranother. another. In Memories, Dreams, Dreams, Reflections, Reflections, Jung Jung wrote wrote of ofaapersonal personalencounter encounter In Memories, with with the the shadow shadow in in December December 1913, 1 9 1 3 , while while he he was was going going through throughhis his'creative 'creative illness'. As Ellenberger expresses it: 'the intermediate period from illness'. As Ellenberger expresses it: 'the intermediate period from 1913 1 9 1 3 to to illness ... 1919 creative illness . . aa period period of ofintense intense preoccupation preoccupationwith with 1 9 1 9 was that that of ofaa creative the the mysteries mysteries of of the the human humansoul' soul'(Ellenberger (Ellenberger1970: 1 970: 672). 672). At Atthis thistime, time,hehe had had aadream dreamininwhich whichhe hekilled killedthe theheroic heroicSiegfried Siegfried at at the thebehest behest of ofaa brown-skinned brown-skinned savage. savage. He He was was distraught distraught with with grief griefwhen when he heawoke awokebut but came came to tosee see the the latter latter as as an an aspect aspect of ofthe the 'primitive' 'primitive' shadow shado ll' at atwhose whoseurging urging he hishis heroic, idealised he now now had had totoletletgogoof of heroic, idealisedconscious consciousattitude. a t t i t ud e . An An alternative a l ternat i ve view view of o f this this dream dream could could relate relateSiegfried Siegfried to tothe t hechild c h i ldSabina Sabina Spiclrcin first psychoanalytic Spidrein yearned yearned to to have have with w i t hJung. .l ung.She Shewas washishis first psychoanalytic .

patient parties becoming becoming embroiled embroiled in in powerful powerful patient which which resulted resulted in in both both parties erotic erotictransference/countertransference transference/countertransference enactments. enactments. In In Jung's Jung's writings, writings, shadow shadowfrom fromthe the personal personal unconscious unconsciousisissaid saidto to be be projected same sex, projectedonto onto aa person person of of the the same sex, whereas whereas projections projections onto onto persons persons of ofthe theopposite opposite sex sexare arethought thoughtto to emanate emanate from from the the anima/animus animalanimusand and lead lead to toconfrontation confrontation with with contra-sexuality contra-sexuality and and the the collective collectiveunconscious. unconscious.This This isis touched example from ( 1 956) Symbols touchedon on below below in in an an example from Jung's Jung's (1956) Symbolsof of Trans­ Transformation, formation, an an early early work work frequently frequentlyupdated updatedby byhim. him.Jung Jungtended tendedto to do do aa cut-and-paste the process, process, would would comcom­ cut-and-pastejob job when when he he was was revising, revising, and, and, in in the pletely earliest version this work, work, pletelyrewrite rewritelarge largepassages passagesof oftext. text. In In the the earliest version of of this which was then entitled The Psychology of the Unconscious and published which was then entitled The Psychology of the Unconscious and published in in 11912, 9 1 2, there thereisisno nomention mention of of shadow, shadow, which whichcame came later later in in his his theory, theory, and and the the Transformation, word word used used instead instead was was complex. complex. In In the the later later Symbols Symbols of of Transformation, .lung writes: ' I have frequently observed in the analysis of Jung writes: 'I have frequently observed in the analysis of Americans Americans that that the inferior side of the personality, the "shadow", is represented the inferior side of the personality, the "shadow", is represented by by aa Negro Negro or Indian' (Jung (J ung 1956: 1 956: 183). 1 83). This is in in reference reference to the patient patient whose whose or Indian' This is to the material he was studying in the book, a young American woman, who was material he was studying in the book, a young American woman, who was being treated by .lung's colleague, Theodore Flournoy . .lung thought the being treated by Jung's colleague, Theodore Flournoy. Jung thought the Aztec fi g ure in one of her dreams could not be a shadow aspect of herself Aztec figure in one of her dreams could not be a shadow aspect of herself as as itit was was aa male male figure figure so that itit must must instead instead be be regarded regarded as as aa masculine masculine so that component of her hcr personality. personality. component of It is important to note with with regard regard to to the the above above that that Jung Jung was was aa man man of of It is important to note his time when the kind of thinking he puts forward in connection with his time when the kind of thinking he puts forward in connection with shadow granted. PostPost­ shadow representations representations was was acceptable, acceptable,even even taken taken for for granted. Jungians take a very different approach to this and would not automatic­ Jungians take a very different approach to this and would not automatically black person person in in aa white white person's person's dream dream was was aa shadow ally assume assume that that aa black shadow figure or vice versa. Their thinking has also changed about seeing figure or vice versa. Their thinking has also changed about seeing shadow shadow figures as only associated associated with with persons persons of of the the same same sex. sex. In In other other words, words, figures as not not only male may may be be equally equally aa shadow shadow figure figure for a woman as a female can be aa male for a woman as a female can be for aa man. man. for The book book Jung .lung wrote wrote after after this this was was Psychological Psychological Types Types (published ( published in in The shadow in the 11921). 92 1 ). Although this work contains only three references to Although this work contains only three references to shadow in the index, the the whole whole work that concept. concept. ItIt was, was, in in part, part, inspired inspired index, work centres centres around around that by William James's characterisation of two temperaments: the tough-minded by William James's characterisation of two temperaments: the tough-minded and the the tender-minded, tender-minded, each each of of which which is is the the shadow shadow of of the the other. other. In I n PsyPsy­ and Jung developed developed his his theory theory of of two two attitudes: attitudes: the the extravert extravert chological Types Types Jung chological and the the introvert introvert who who are are equally equally each each other's other's shadow. shadow. The The extravert extravert isis and introvert, orientated to the data supplied by the outer objective world. The orientated to the data supplied by the outer objective world. The introvert, on the other hand, relates to data supplied by the inner subjective world. on the other hand, relates to data supplied by the inner subjective world. introvert and and extravert extravert to to the the four four functions functions of of .lungmarries marries the theconcepts concepts of ofintrovert Jung fhil/k inK, feeling, .keling, .sensation sensation and and intuition intuition and and points points to to how how Darwin, Darwin, as as an an thinking, ex t ra verted thinker, t h i n ker,would wouldhe bcthe t hc shadow shado w of Kant as an introverted thinker. extraverted of Kant as an introverted thinker. In t he same work, .l ung examines t heApollonian Apol lonianand andDionysian Dionysianaesthetic aesthctic In the same work, Jung examines the t hat Nietzsche N it,tzsche applied a ppl ied to to the t il l'ancient a ncicnt Greeks, ( i reek s, who who saw saw the t helatter latterasasbeing heing that

98 Ann Casement Ann Casement 98

conflict between between the two. According to Nietzsche, Nietzsche, the antagonantagon­ caught in aa conflict - the barbarian nature nature ism between them — thedomesticated domesticatedApollonian Apollonian and and the barbarian of the Dionysian Dionysian — - could important new new work, work, could be be bridged bridged only only by by art. art. An important Nietzsche The Whole Whole Self in the the Union Union of ofOpposites Opposites by Lucy Lucy Nietzsche and and lung: Jung: The Huskinson (2004), (2004), demonstrates demonstrates Nietzsche's Nietzsche's enormous enormous contribution contribution to to Huskinson Ubermensch bermensch to .lung's central concepts. concepts. For For instance, instance, she she relates relates Nietzsche's Nietzsche's U Jung's central .lung's of which which are involved involved in confrontation with the shadow. Jung's self; self both of Compare shadow came came to to me me— - the the most most silent, silent, the the Compare Nietzsche's: Nietzsche's:'For For aa shadow of the the Superman Superman came cameto to lightest of all things once came to me! The beauty of me shadow' with with Jung's: .lung's: 'the 'the shadow shadow contains contains the the self. self. Behind Behind the the me as aa shadow' shadow looms up up the the self' self'(Huskinson (Huskinson2004: 2004:103). 1 03). shadow looms The most concerted attempt attempt Jung Jungmade madeto todefine define the the concept concept of of shadow is ion . A summary of what he writes in that that may may be be useful useful here here in Aion. in his his book, book, A in order to orientate orientate the the reader reader towards towards this this central central Jungian Jungian idea. idea. To start start with, with, Jung .lungbriefly briefly touches touches on onthe thedifference difference between between the the personal The contents of the former unconscious and the collective unconscious. The contents the former are are unconscious and the collective unconscious. acquired during the individual's lifetime; whereas those of the latter are acquired during individual's lifetime; whereas those of the latter are from the realm of of the the archetypes. archetypes. The The ones ones that thatare areexperienced experiencedempirically empirically shadow and most frequently, usually most frequently, usually through through projection, projection, are are those those of the shadow anima/animus. the the animalanimus. As been said above, above, in aa classical classical Jungian analysis analysis it is problems to As has been shadow where 'it represents first and foremost foremost the the do with the personal where represents first do with the personal shadow personal unconscious' (lung 1 959a: 1 0) that are initially worked on and personal unconscious' (Jung 1959a: 10) that are initially worked and .lung no one one can can gain gain any anyinsight insightinto intothemselves themselves or oracquire acquire selfself­ Jung says that no knowledge first tackling tackling their their shadoli'. moral shadow. He alludes to this as a moral knowledge without without first and says says that that itit isis aa huge huge challenge challenge to to the the ego-personality ego-personality requiring requiring problem and painstaking work long period period of of time. time. painstaking work over over aa long shadoli' are resistant to being being assimilated assimilated to Some aspects of the are more resistant shadow Some aspects of the consciousness way of of consciousnesssince sincethey theyare are lived lived through through powerful powerful affect affect by by way projection onto another. another. Where Where there there isis complete complete failure failure to to gain gain insight insight into into the phenomenon, the the outer outer world worldbecomes becomes increasingly increasingly impoverished impoverished and and the phenomenon, illusory, extreme cases, cases, the individual is trapped in in an anautistic autistic illusory, and, and, in extreme the individual is trapped condition isolated from the environment. environment. This is because because the the shadow shadow is is condition isolated from the This is heing the outer outer world world becomes becomes aa replica replica of of the the being lived lived through through projection and the person's unknown unknown side. side. In In this this way, way, one one may may speak speak of ofsomeone someone being being afraid afraid of their own shadow. of their own shadow. This severe manifestation archetype' (Jung (lung This more severe manifestation 'when 'when itit appears as an archetype' and represents 1I959a: 0) belongs collective unconscious unconscious and 959a:110) belongsininthe therealm realm of of the the collective aan n encounter encounter with with evil. evil. This results in in aa shattering shattering experience experience for for the the person person This results gazing the face face of of absolute absolute evil. evil. However, H owever, Jung does point point to to the the fact 1�lct gazing into into the Jung does with that the contents contents of of the the personal unconscious or shadow i t h the t he shadow are merged w personal unconscious that the aarchetypal rchetypal contents bring the latter latter into into and bring collective unconscious unconscious and contents of of the the collective consciousness i t h tthem hem when activated. Evil Evil then may may result resu lt is activated. shadow is consciousness wwith when shadow f'rol11 he fusion of a negative ne gat iv e parental pa rental introject i n t roject with with the t he dark darkside sideof of 'the t hese// .1'1'1/ from tthe

The shadow shadow 99 The 99

which results results in the introject becoming infused with archetypal power. This which might be encountered might encountered in analysis analysis through an an archetypal archetypal negative negative father father transference being being con constellated and then projected onto the transference stellated and the analyst, analyst, who who isis consequently experienced experienced as as aa bullying consequently bullying tyrant. The individual who lives lives through through projection is convinced convinced that that it is others who have all the bad qualities qualities and and who who practise practise all all the thevices. vices. Therefore, Therefore, itit isis they who who are are wrong wrong and and they they who they fought against. who must must be fought against. On On the other in shouldering some of the burdens of hand, the individual individual who who succeeds succeeds in shouldering some of the world and seeing that whatever is wrong with the world is not unrelated becomes aa serious serious problem problem to him to themselves themselves becomes him or or herself. herself. As As Jung Jungsays, says, only the the individual individual who who learns learns to to deal with his/her done only his/her own own shadow shadow has has done something real real for for the the world world for no one can see something see straight if they do not not see see themselves. In this Aion, ion, he goes on to talk talk about about the thenecessity necessity for for In this same same work, work, A he goes on to the individual's welfare embodying the shadow welfare of embodying this shadow in in consciousness. consciousness. In In this way, if a feeling way, feeling of inferiority inferiority is conscious conscious there is aa chance chance of ofcorrecting correcting it. If, on the it. the other other hand, hand, ititisisrepressed repressed and and isolated isolated from from consciousness, consciousness, it remains uncorrected uncorrected and and liable liable to erupt in aa moment remains moment of ofunawareness. unawareness. This This explains why why the the most carefully laid plans may explains carefully laid may go go awry awry or orwell-meaning well-meaning intentions may may turn out badly intentions badly as the the mere mere suppression of shadow shadow is is not not the the answer. When the the shadow shadow results When neurosis itit becomes becomes considerably considerably intensified intensified results in neurosis and then becomes becomes a necessity necessity for individual to find a way way for for the the and it then for the individual to find conscious personality personality and and shadow conscious live together. together. Suppression Suppression is is of of little little shadow to to live use reconciliation of the use and and the reconciliation of the the two two poses poses aa major major problem problem both for the individual society at large but itit is is aa problem problem that thatmust mustbe beengaged engaged individual and and for society with if the person is with is to to become become more more than thantwo-dimensional. two-dimensional. Jung equated equated the inferior with shadow is hedged hedged around around Jung inferior function function with shadow as as it it is with great deal deal of of autonomy autonomy and affect affect and has has the the character character of of an an with aa great instinct. four functions: functions: instinct. .lung's Jung's thinking on typology posited that there are four thinking, thinking, feeling, feeling, intuition intuition and and sensation. sensation. In his model, the first two are the rational either end of of aa vertical vertical continuum; continuum; while while the rational functions functions lying lying at at either second ones which are located located at different different ends of of second two two are the non-rational ones a horizontal line. that the the superior superior function function had had line. 'Jung went on to postulate that its its opposing opposing inferior inferior function function in in the the one one at the other end of a vertical spine' (Casement I : 1151). 5 1 ). However, has achieved achieved rational rational (Casement 200 2001: However, the the individual who has orientation expense of not integrating the inferior inferior function orientation at the expense function into their conscious ofthemthem­ conscious personality personality may, may, according according to to Jung, remain as ignorant of selves fourth would would not notcome' come'(Jung (Jung1958a: 1 958a: 166). 1 66). selvesas as an an infant infant because because 'the fourth The here refers refers to the the least least differentiated differentiated function function which The 'fourth' here which is, is, as as a consequence, and brings brings with with ititunconscious, unconscious, consequence,the the least least conscious conscious one one and aarchetypal rchetypa l contents activated . .lung even says says that the the inferior inferior contents when when itit is is activated. Jung even fu nction is he dark side of of the th e personality pe rson a l ity which which is is the door door function is identical identical with with tthe into he uunconscious. nconscious. in to tt he



The sshadow The h adow 101 1 01

1 00 Ann Ann Casement Casement 100

There are various various traps any any individual individual may fall fall into, into, one one of ofwhich which isis There shadow. A person person of of this this kind kind will will always always prefer prefer to to identifying with identifying with the the shadow. make an unfavourable unfavourable impression impression on on others others and andwill will create createobstacles obstacles for for make himself where none exist. exist. However, However, the the opposite opposite way way of ofliving livingcan canequally equally himself where none be aa trap trap— - that is, identification identification with with the the persona, which which is the outer front front be that is, one presents presents to the world. world. If If this this becomes becomes too part of of the the individual's individual's one to the too much much part identity then then the the person person isis condemned condemned to tolive liveaafalse falseself selfidentical identical with with their their identity own inauthentic inauthentic biography. biography. The The temptation temptationtotoidentify identifywith withwhat whatone oneseems seems own to be be is is great great because, because, as as Jung Jung says, says, 'the 'the persona persona isis usually usually rewarded rewarded in in to cash' (Jung (Jung1959b: 1 959b: 123). 1 23). cash' shadow and He writes some length length equating equating the the inferior inferior function function with with shadow He writes at at some says the the individuation individuation process process is is invariably invariably started started by by the theindividual individual says becoming is the the inferior inferior function function that that acts acts shadow. It is becoming conscious conscious of of the the shadow. autonomously towards cannot be be harnessed harnessed and and autonomously towards consciousness consciousnessand and that that cannot controlled. Individuating Individuating may only through through the the realisation realisation of of controlled. may come come about about only shadow which does giving into one's Mr Mr Hyde Hyde side, side, but, but, instead, instead, does not mean giving shadow which of struggling struggling with so that that in in place place of ofaaneurotic neuroticdissociation dissociation of of that that with itit so aspect, there real attempt attempt to tobring bringititinto intoconsciousness. consciousness. Jung Jung was was aspect, there is is aa real impressed by Hyde story story and and made made frequent frequentreference reference to to itit in in impressed by the the Jekyll Jekyll and and Hyde his own writings. writings. his own Neurosis, according according to toJung, Jung,isisan aninner innercleavage cleavage— - aa state state of ofbeing being at atwar war Neurosis, with oneself. What drives individuals individuals to to this this state state isis the thesuspicion suspicion of ofbeing being with oneself. What drives two people in opposition to each other other — - the ego. To and the the ego. shadow and two people in opposition to each the shadow illustrate quotes Faust's Faust's saying saying that that two two souls souls are arehoused housedwithin within illustrate this, this, Jung Jung quotes his breast. his breast. If the individual cannot reconcile these can lead lead to to aa If the individual cannot reconcile these two two aspects aspects then then it it can neurotic split in the personality and Jung says that the healing of this split neurotic split in the personality and Jung says that the healing of this split isis ua religious religious problem. problem. Just Just as as Christian Christian teaching teaching exalts exalts forgiveness forgiveness of of one's one's enemy in an external situation, this needs to be turned inward by the enemy in an external situation, this needs to be turned inward by the individual in learning to live with the enemy within and to call the wolf one's individual in learning to live with the enemy within and to call the wolf one's !libling. seeing this as simple simple as as in in reality reality the the sibling. However, However, Jung Jung warns warns against against seeing this as ucceptance of the shadow-side of human nature verges on the impossible acceptance of the shadow-side of human nature verges on the impossible us this means means coming coming to to terms terms with with what what isisunreasonable, unreasonable, senseless senseless and and as this even evil. even evil. However, the dangers dangers of of not not undertaking undertaking this this supersuper­ However, as as Jung Jung points points out, out, the self human struggle is that a weak ego can identify with the transcendent f if human struggle is that a weak ego can identify with the transcendent sel shadow has not been sufficiently realised. This in turn leads to the the the shadow has not been sufficiently realised. This in turn leads to the inflation of the ego with consequent delusions of omniscience and omni­ inflation of the ego with consequent delusions of omniscience and omnipotence potence —the theultimate ultimateroad road to to madness. madness. Just Just as as the the self may be seen as the Two Essays A nalytical PsyPsy­ inner God-image so Jung ( l 953b) says in Two Essays on on Analytical inner God-image so Jung (1953b) says in chologv that the devil is a variant of the shadow archetype. archetype. shadow chology that the devil is a variant of the .lJung ung saw alchemical symbolism individuating saw in in alchemical symbolisman an analogy analogy with with the the indil'idlillfing process, is, the the way way ininwhich whichindividuals individualsmay maybecome becomethemselves themselves process, that that is, Iundivided, I n d i v ided. dist inct from hl'rs and hl' nigredo, tthe distinct from ot others and whole whole.. .lung Jung equates equates the the nigrc(/o.

first stage of the work in first stage in alchemy, alchemy, with the the encounter encounter with with the the shadow shadow in psychology. This is is the stage psychology. This stage of of melancholy melancholy and and stasis stasis when when everything everything comes to a standstill. comes to standstill. The shadow shadow presents presents a fundamental fundamental contrast the contrast to the conscious personality personality as as a positive conscious positive virtue is usually usually the result result of of aa victory victory over the corresponding vice. Indeed, Indeed, for for Jung the over corresponding vice. the problem problem of of opposites opposites called up up by the shadow shadow plays the decisive decisive role alchemy since called role in alchemy since itit leads leads to the ultimate higher the ultimate union union of of opposites opposites in the the archetypal archetypal hierosgamos hierosgamos or higher marriage. When When the the conflict is brought marriage. conflict is brought into into consciousness consciousness itit leads leads to to the recognition the recognition of an alien alien other other in in oneself. oneself. The The alchemists alchemists named named this this Mercurius, which which they they conceptualised conceptualised as as God, God, daemon, daemon, person, person, thing and Mercurius, psyche as as well well as as soma. soma. In other words, as psyche words, as as the the source source of ofall all opposites. opposites. Jung points points to Christ Jung Christ and and the the infernal infernal or or chthonic chthonic side side of of the the self selfas as autonomous images images and and says says our our psychic psychic conditions conditions are are derived derived from from these these archetypal fi figures in the collective collective unconscious. unconscious. From this standpoint, Jung archetypal gures in points to Christ points Christ as as the thearchetype archetype of ofconsciousness consciousness and Mercurius Mercurius as as the the archetype of the unconscious. archetype unconscious. The alchemical text, the the Chymical Chymical Wedding, The alchemical text, Wedding, written seventeenth­ written by the seventeenthcentury alchemist century alchemist Christian Christian Rosencreutz, Rosencreutz, was was concerned concerned with with the the transtrans­ formationand and union union of of the the royal in it it but formation royal pair pair depicted depicted in but itit was was also also concerned with with the moral development concerned development of the the individual individual undertaking undertaking the the alchemical work. work. This This is is based based on on the union with the shadow alchemical prob­ shadow and the problem opposites that become become con stellated and turn activate activate opposing opposing lem of opposites constellated and in turn archetypal contents contents in in the the collective archetypal results in in collective unconscious. unconscious. This This process process results numinous or awesome experiences. numinous experiences. According Jung, Mercurius Mercurius signifies signifies by very nature the the unconuncon­ According to to Jung, by its its very scious itself itself and and is is also also by nature both scious both active active and and passive. passive. In In alchemy, alchemy, the the active him is is called called Sol or King King and and the the passive passive or or active or or 'ascending' 'ascending' part of him 'descending' light and shadow shadow in in `descending'part partLuna Luna or or Queen. Queen. This This duality duality of light alchemy is is for for Jung also the alchemy the duality duality of ofpsychic psychic life. life. Alchemy Alchemy may may be be seen seen as a subversive as subversive force compensating compensating for the the purified purified imagery imagery of ofmedieval medieval Christianity. similar way, way, it could could be be said said that thatdynamic dynamicpsychology psychology Christianity. In In a similar led lifting of of the the repression repression of of sexuality sexuality of of the the nineteenth nineteenth century. century. led to to the lifting Jung say: 'The 'The arcanum arcanum of ofalchemy alchemy isis one one of ofthose those archetypal archetypal Jung goes goes on to say: ideas fills aa gap gap in in the the Christian Christian view view of of the the world, world, namely, namely, the the ideas that that fills unbridged between good and evil' evil' unbridged gulf between between the the opposites, opposites, in in particular between (Jung 1963: (lung 1 963: 473). The conflict conflict that that ensues ensues from from confrontation confrontationwith with the the shadow both The shadow in in both alchemy or alchemy and and analytical analytical psychology psychologymust must eventually eventuallyresult resultinin aa union or coniunctio, the ('()niunctio, alchemy. It is a struggle the term lung Jung borrows from alchemy. struggle that has to be experienced and abolished by rational rational be lived lived through through and experienced and cannot cannot be abolished means means that itit lives lives in in the the unconscious, unconscious means or or repression, repression, as as the the latter means and. way, isis all all the themore moresubversive subversive to to the theconscious conscious personality. personality : and, in in that way,

The //(/(/ow is yn o nym o us wwith i t h the primi t i ve aspects t he psyche psyche to to The .I'shadow is ssynonymous the primitive aspects of of the '

wh idl reason reasoll means meansnot n o thung. h ing. which

1102 02 Ann Ann Casement Casement



The h adow 103 1 03 Thesshadow

through analysis, coniunctio results results then then what was hidden behind IIf, f, through analysis, aa coniunctio raised to consciousness shadow — the conventional conventional mask — i.e., the the shadow the - i.e., - isis raised consciousness and integratedwith withthe the ego. ego. This This means, means, according accordingtoto lung, Jung, aa move integrated move in the the gives aaperson person body body shadow gives direction of wholeness wholeness as as the the assimilation assimilation of of the the shadow direction as the animal as animal sphere sphere of of instinct instinct emerges emerges into into consciousness. consciousness. This is is the only This only way way that that humans humans can can develop develop as as repression repression leads leads to to As opposed opposed to that oneshadow. As dissociation in in an an attempt to get rid of the shadow. dissociation one­ shadow sided way way of of living, individualshave havetotolearn learnto to live live with with the the shadow sided living, individuals leads shadow leads without it leading to aa series series of disasters. disasters. Recognition Recognition of the shadow to humility and genuine fear of of what what lies in the depths of to humility and genuine fear lies in of humanity. humanity. It It is is ignorance of of this this that that is is the most dangerous thing for humans. ignorance humans. The meanings The m e anings and and definitions d efiniti ons of of shadow s h ad ow Personal shadow

and personal, collective were touched on shadow were Three on above above — personal, collective and Three kinds kinds of shadow and these now be be elaborated elaborated further. further. IItt is archetypal - and these will will now is important important to to archetypal — bear in mind that that these these are are not not three threeentirely entirely discrete discrete entities but but that that there there is a large degree of overlap overlap between between them them as as there is in everything everything in in lung's Jung's is large degree schema. archetypal shadow may be seen at work in the The personal, collective collective and archetypal complex relationship relationship between betweenlung Jung and and Freud. Freud. This, of complex of course, course, does does not not mean that their can be reduced mean their complex complex relationship relationship can reduced to an an interaction interaction of of shadow projections; however, itit would would be be useful useful to to be used for illustration projections; however, illustration purposes. With shadow, the relationship relationship started with with aa purposes. With regard regard to personal shadow, contents as each filled an important shadow each filled important projection of positive positive shadow contents mutual projection gap in the the other's other's work. work. Freud Freud needed needed Jung's lung's work work on on the theWord WordAssociAssoci­ ation ation Test Test to to underwrite underwrite his his theory theory of ofunconscious unconscious contents contents and and Jung lung needed needed Freud's ideas ideas on the the latter latter to tobolster bolsterhis hiswork workon oncomplexes. complexes. In In 1906 1 906 Jung lung wrote wrote that that even even aasuperficial superficial glance glance would would show show how how indebted he was of Freud. Freud. In his indebted he was to the the brilliant brilliant discoveries discoveries of his turn, turn, Freud Freud unreservedly acknowledged the the services rendered to the spread unreservedly acknowledged services rendered spread of ofpsychopsycho­ analysis analysis by the Zurich Zurich School, School, particularly particularly by by Jung lung and andBleuler Bleuler (who (who was was Jung's ,l ung's director director at at the the mental mental hospital hospitalwhere where he heworked). worked). The long long correspondence correspondence between between the the two two men men over over the thenext nextseven seven years years charts the the increasing increasing positive shadow projections between between them in the the form form of growing growing mutual mutual regard, regard, affection affection and and the thesharing sharingofofconfidences confidences and and ideas. i<.leas. This gradually gradually changed changed until until the the final final descent descent into into the thenegative negativeside side of the that grew grew between between the two two and and destroyed destroyed both boththeir theirfriendfriend­ t he shadow that of sh i p and and their their working working collaboration. collaboration. ship T h is splitting sp li t t ing of shadow shadow into 'positive' 'positive' and and 'negative' 'negative'may maybebeclinically c l i nically This insightful i nsigh t ful as itit can can throw t h row light l i g h t on onwhere whereand andhow howan anidealising idealisingtransference tra n s fcrcn cc -

arises ariscs as as well well as as aa demonising dcnHlnisin� one. onc. This This can can he hespecially specially useful useful in i n working work ing

with who often often manifest manifest powerfully powerfully split split transferences transferences with borderline borderline patients patients who in of analysis. analysis. in the course of In 907, lung In 11907, Jung wrote wrote fulsomely fulsomelyabout about Freud's Freud's Gradiva Gradiva claiming claiming that that itit was was magnificent one go. go. Freud Freud reciprocated reciprocated by by saying saying magnificentand and that that he he gulped gulped itit in in one that was very that he he was was the the rich rich man man from from that he he was very much much surprised surprised to to hear hear that whose table lung could glean a few crumbs. whose table Jung glean Later 907 lung his admiration the latter latter Later in in 11907 Jung admitted admitted to to Freud Freud that that his admiration for for the bordered on being a religious crush. However, by 1 9 1 2 relations between bordered on being a religious crush. However, by 1912 relations between the two were were increasingly increasingly fraught eventually wrote lung the two fraught and and Freud Freud eventually wrote to to Jung denying that he was trying to tyrannise him intellectually. denying that he was trying to tyrannise him intellectually. lung Freud's technique technique of of treating treating his his pupils pupils Jung responded responded by by saying saying that that Freud's like patients or sons and daughters was a blunder and was motivated by the like patients or sons and daughters was a blunder and was motivated by the fact that Freud could then remain on top as the father. In 1 9 1 3, Freud fact that Freud could then remain on top as the father. In 1913, Freud finally personal relations which lung finallyproposed proposed that that they they abandon abandon their their personal relations to to which Jung assented saying he never thrust his friendship on anyone. He ended with: assented saying he never thrust his friendship on anyone. He ended with: The ( McGuire 1974: 1 974: 540). 540). `The rest rest is silence' (McGuire The was in in essence essence a shadow The relationship relationship between between the the two thinkers was shadow one one which was to a large extent based on the attraction of opposites. which was to a large extent based on the attraction of opposites. The The latter latter always always carries carriesthe the potential potentialfor for turning turning into into repulsion repulsionso so that that aa positive positive becoming aa negative negative shadow Freud shadow shadow projection projection may may end end up up becoming shadow one. one. In In Freud and lur,g's case there there were were a number number of of shadow components to their inter­ Jung's case shadow components to their interaction: they came came from from different different cultures cultures and and generations; generations; they they functioned functioned action: they in ways with with Freud Freud having having extraverted extraverted feeling feeling as in quite quite disparate disparate ways as his his primary primary function lung introverted introverted intuition. addition, there there was was aa strong strong function and and Jung intuition. In In addition, homo-erotic element to to the the relationship relationshipaccompanied accompaniedby byunresolved unresolvedfather— father­ homo-erotic element son transference feelings. and Jung lung son transference feelings.Freud Freudcalled calledlung Jung his his heir heir apparent apparent and projected disappointed longings longings from his relationship relationship to to his his own own father father projected the the disappointed from his into Freud. Freud. Collective shadow Collective shadow

In his refers to to aa 'collective 'collective shadow shadow figure figure .. .. .. which which .. .. .. isis in in his writings, writings, lung Jung refers part descended descended from from aa numinous numinouscollective collective shadow shadow figure' figure' (Jung (lung1959b: 1 959b: part 262). of aa take-over take-over of oflarge large numbers numbers 262). A A terrifying terrifying example example in in recent recent history history of people by collective shadow is that that of of the the Nazi Nazimovement. movement. Again, Again, this this of people by collective shadow is claim does mean that that the the entire entire Nazi Nazi movement movement can can be be reduced reduced to claim does not not mean to aa psychological level the shadow; shadow; however, is psychological levelof of explanation explanation based based on on the however, it it is instructive to at this this disturbing disturbing phenomenon phenomenon from from the the perspective perspective of of instructive to look look at J ung's theory theory of of the the shadow. shadow. Many Manyfell fell under underthe thespell spell of ofthe theNazi Nazimovemove­ Jung's ment and and Jung's J ung's ambiguous ambiguous relationship relationship to toititover overaaperiod periodof oftime time seems seems to to ment suggest that he was was also also affected. affected. His His actions actionsbetween between 1933 1 933 and and1940 1 940inin suggest that he rela t ion to to the t he Nazis Nazis have have been heen the the subject subject of ofaagreat greatdeal dealofofcontroversy. controversy. relation Somc of t hc main m a i n sources sources for for this t h i s are a rc catalogued cat a l ogucd in in Ann A n n Casement's Cascment's Carl Carl Some of the (ill.I'/iI I' Jung .Il1l1g (200 CWO 1 I ) whl' rl' d different i fll'rc n t viewpo i n t s aare rc cxpressed writcrs such such Gustav ) where viewpoints expressed hy by writers

1 04 Ann AnnCasement Casement 104

as Geoffrey Geoffrey Cocks, Cocks, James James and and Thomas Thomas Kirsch, Kirsch, Micha M icha Neumann Neumann and and as shadow, only the Andrew Samuels. However, as this chapter is about the Andrew Samuels. However, as this chapter is about shadow, critical comments will be highlighted in it. critical comments will be highlighted in it. Jung provoked provoked most most criticism criticism in his role as editor editor of of the the Zentralblatt, Zen tralbla tt, aa Jung in his role as psychotherapy journal published in Germany. An article he wrote for forthe the psychotherapy journal published in Germany. An article he wrote journal on the distinction between Jewish and German science was attacked journal on the distinction between Jewish and German science was attacked by many many people people outside outside Germany Germany as as itit echoed echoed the the claims claims put put forward forward by by by the Nazis to underwrite the N azi regime. A brief reference from it will serve the Nazis to underwrite the Nazi regime. A brief reference from it will serve to make make the the point. point. Jung Jung states states that thatperceptive perceptive people people have have for for aalong longtime time to recognised that science would only benefit from recognising that there is aa recognised that science would only benefit from recognising that there is difference between German and Jewish psychology. The impact of this difference between German and Jewish psychology. The impact of this statement was greater by by the the inclusion inclusion in in the the same same issue issue of of an an statement was made made the the greater article by Matthias Goring full of pro-Nazi rhetoric. In this way, Jung's article by Matthias Goring full of pro-Nazi rhetoric. In this way, Jung's remarks could could be be used used to to underwrite underwrite the the racist racist claims claimsof ofthe theNazi Naziregime. regime. remarks Jung's involvement involvement with the Nazi Nazi movement movement isis well well documented documented inin Jung's with the Cocks' ( 1 997) book Third Reich: Reich: The The Goring Goring Institute, Institute, Cocks' (1997) book Psychotherapy in the Third where the latter holds holds aa middle middle position position between between condemning condemning him him outright outright where the latter while also to his his lack lack of ofjudgement judgement in in making making statements statements like like the the while also pointing pointing to one above. He He stresses stresses what what he he sees sees as as disturbing disturbing ambiguities ambiguities in in Jung's Jung's one above. thought and 'asserts 'asserts that that uncritical uncritical admirers admirers of of Jung Jung have have tried tried to to render render thought and harmless the latter's assertions assertions at at aapolitically politically sensitive sensitive time' time' (Casement (Casement harmless the latter's 200 1 : 107). 1 07). 2001: Cocks statement that claims that Jung was was Cocks disagrees disagreeswith withthe the kind kind of of statement that claims that Jung �es�r?y it.it. purposefully prejudice in order to to destroy purposefully engaging engaging with with the the shadow shadow of of prejudice in order He not only only naively naively ignores the multiplicity multiplicIty of of He asserts asserts that that such such aa judgement judgement not ignores the motives blind eye eye to to motives that that lie lie behind behind any any human human action action but but also also turns turns aa blind Jung's early lack lack of of criticism criticism of Hitler and and the the negative negative effects effects that had. Jung's early of Hitler that had. Jung's attitude also also created created difficulties difficulties between between himself himself and and his his close close Jung's attitude colleague, eventually opted the inner inner colleague,Erich Erich Neumann. Neumann.The The latter latter eventually opted for for the connection Jung over over and and above above their their differences differences as as Jew Jew and and Christian. Christian. connection to to Jung IHowever, lowever, his psychoanalyst Micha Neumann, takes takes aa different different his son, son, the the psychoanalyst Micha Neumann, view, blind spot spot towards towards the the Jews Jews because because of of the the view, claiming claimingthat that Jung Jung had had aa blind complicated because of the complicated father-son father—sonrelationship relationshipwith withFreud Freudbut but also also because of the strong ideology. Neumann Neumann claims claims strong elements elements of of religious religious content content in in the the Nazi Nazi ideology. that lung unconsciously unconsciously identified identified with Nazi symbols, symbols, ideology ideology and and antianti­ that Jung with Nazi semitism soul," to to which which semitism and and 'believed 'believed in in the the positive positive collective collective "Germanic "Germanic soul," he belonged' (Maidenbaum (Maidenbaum and and Martin Martin 1991: 1 99 1 : 276). 276). he felt felt he he belonged' Another to the the above above work, The Another contributor contributor to work, Andrew Andrew Samuels, Samuels, in in his his hook book Thl' Political 1993), says surrounding lung Jung are are going going to to shadows surrounding saysthat that the the shadows Political Psyche Psyche ((1993), llinger i nge r as they want want psychological psychological attention them. Apart Apart from from as they attentionpaid paid to to them. crit icising .lung Zentralblatt, criticising Jungfor for his hispart part in in Nazi-run Nazi-run psychotherapy psychotherapy and and the the Zl'ntralhla((, Sa muels is for instance, instance, Samuels isalso also critical criticalof oftwo two other other aspects aspects in in lung's Jung's approach, approach, for hhis i s aattempt \ tempt to found aa cultural cult ured psychology psychology akin to Nazi Nazi thinking. th i nk i n g . This, This, to found akin to llinked i n k l'd tto o his fa sci nat ion wi t h tthe he qquestion ues tio n of leadersh i p, has its roots roots in in his fascination with of leadership, has its

The The shadow s hadow 105 1 05

German German Romantic Romanticphilosophy philosophywhich, which,when whenactivated, activated,can canunleash unleashpowerful powerful forces forces in the psyche. psyche. 'In Zurich Zurich in in 1946 1 946 Jung lung admitted admitted to to Rabbi RabbiLeo LeoBaeck Baeck that he he had had "slipped "slippedup"' up'" (Casement (Casement2001: 200 1 :114). 1 14).This Thisbrief briefexcursion excursionaway away from the central theme theme of of shadow shadow has has been been introduced introduced to to throw throwsome somelight light on .lung's Jung's complicated complicated relationship relationship to to Nazism. Nazism. Dazzled Dazzled by by the the mythological mythological charisma combined with the world dominance exhorted exhorted by the latter, Jung lung appears to have fallen prey to a shadow power complex. complex. fallen prey Another example example of of the potential of of collective collective shadow shadow is Another the destructive destructive potential portrayed in Joseph loseph Conrad's Conrad's Heart of ofDarkness. Darkness. colonialist, Kurtz, Kurtz, .. . . is confronted with The white white colonialist, with the Colonial Ego's tyrannical control control and exploitation of the Congo tyrannical Congo and and becomes becomes totally totally identified with with it. it. This is a sort identified sort of ofpsychic psychic inflation inflation that that can canovercome overcome anyone who is anyone is exposed exposed to to powerful powerful forces forces in in the the environment, environment, which which can then activate shadow in can activate the the darkest darkest recesses recesses of shadow the individual's individual's in the unconscious. By By enacting enacting rather rather than integrating unconscious. integrating his shadow, shadow, Kurtz unleashed deeply deeply destructive destructive forces forcesboth both in in himself unleashed himself and in the the comcom­ munity he created. created . The Congo Congo was was rendered rendered savage savage by by the the colonialists colonialists who exploited exploited itit and who who who unleashed unleashed evil evil by by the projection projection of their their collective shadoll' shadow onto it. it. collective 44; original italics) (Casement 2003: 2003: 44;

Archetypal shadow shadow The God-image God-image or 'archetype of Deity' The Deity' as as Jung Jung(1958b) ( l 958b) expresses expresses itit in his book Answer Answer to to Job, Job, is is 'an 'an antimony antimony — a totality of of inner inner opposites opposites — - and book this is the this the indispensable indispensable condition condition for for his his tremendous tremendous dynamism, dynamism, his his omniscienceand and omnipotence' omnipotence' (lung (Jung 1958b: 7). In this late work, omniscience 1 958b: 7). work, Jung lung sets sets out to show less than than the the shadow shadow side out show nothing less side of of Deity Deity and and to to demonstrate that the Old Testament Yahweh and Satan that Satan are are two two sides sides of of the the same same God. God. The book was the culmination for Jung The lung of ofmany many years years of of struggle struggle with with this this problem. As As he he reports reports in in Memories, Memories, Dreams, Dreams, Reflections, Reflections, lung ( 1 963/1 983) problem. Jung (1963/1983) dreamt that that he was dreamt was in in the thegloomy gloomy courtyard courtyard of ofthe thebeautiful beautifulmedieval medieval Gymnasium at at Basel. From there he went through the big entrance and saw Gymnasium Basel. From beforehim him the the cathedral cathedralof of Basel Baselwith withthe the sun sun shining shiningon on the the roof roof of before coloured tiles. tiles. This This impressive impressivesight sightwas was topped topped by by God God sitting above the coloured cathedral on on his his throne. throne. Jung cathedral lung thought itit was was beautiful beautiful and and was was filled filled with wonder at at the the perfection wonder perfection and harmony of of the the world. world. Suddenly, Suddenly, unexpectunexpect­ edly, God God dropped dropped a vast faeces on the cathedral and smashed edly, faeces on smashed it to pieces. pieces. This was so so shattering shattering that that .lung Jung woke up. Th is was woke up. For Jung shadow oof For lu n g this this was was the t he revelation revelat ion of tthe he shl/dml' f the ristian God. the Ch Christian God. In In -

.

AnswerIIItoJllh, Job, .IJung AI/slr('r ullg

l'olll.'i udcs that Y a hweh's hharsh a rsh treatment t reat ment of of .lob .Ioh concludes that Yahweh's brought of his his SOil, son, Sa Satan, brought Yahweh hro ught aabout hout tthrough h rough the t hl' initiative i n i t i a t i w or t a n , hrought Y a h weh tto o

Ann Casement Casement 1106 06 Ann

the realisation realisationof ofJob's Job's moral moral superiority superiority in in relation relation to to himself. 'In this the himself. 'In this respect the creature has surpassed the creator' (Jung 1958b: 43). respect the creature has surpassed the creator' (Jung 1 958b: 43). This This situation gives gives rise riseto to the the need need for for real and this situation real reflection reflection and this is is where, where, accordaccord­ ing to Jung, Sophia, or feminine wisdom, steps in. Through 'her' reinforceing to Jung, Sophia, or feminine wisdom, steps in. Through 'her' reinforce­ ment of of the the need decides to to become become man man as as he ment need for for reflection, reflection, Yahweh Yahweh decides he shadow, recogniseshehehas hasdone donewrong. wrong.As Assosooften oftenwith withthe the eruption eruptionof of shadow, recognises there isis the the possibility possibility of of the the attainment attainment of there of the the feminine feminine goal goal of of completecomplete­ ness as as opposed opposed to to the masculine ness masculine one of of perfection. perfection. Jung goes goes on on to to say say that that even even when when God God is incarnated as Jung is incarnated as Christ Christ he he shows shows lack of Only in in the the despairing cry from aa lack of self-reflection. self-reflection. Only despairing cry from the the Cross Cross— - 'My 'My God, my my God, God, why does his hishuman human nature nature attain God, why hast hast thou thouforsaken forsakenme?' me?' — - does attain divinity as as he he drinks drinks to to the divinity the dregs dregs what what he he made made his his servant servant Job Jobsuffer. suffer. According to to Jung, Jung, in in this this supreme moment is is given given the the answer answer to to Job. According supreme moment Job. revolting shadow isis revolting From the human From human point point of of view, view, says says Jung, Yahweh's shadow with his his touchiness and two-faced with touchiness and and suspiciousness suspiciousness and two-faced behaviour behaviour when when he he pointed to to the at the pointed the tree tree of of knowledge knowledge while while at the same same time time forbidding forbidding Adam Adam and Eve and Eve to to eat eat of ofit.it.InInthis thisunconscious unconsciousway, way, states states Jung, Jung, Yahweh Yahweh precipitated the Fall. precipitated Fall.

Major M aj or innovations, innovati ons, criticisms cri ti c i s m s and and developments deve l o p m ents of of the the concept conc e pt of of shadow s h adow

privatio boni boni (i.e., Jung's of the the Christia Christian doctrine of evil evil as as a privatio e of n doctrin criticism of lung's criticism expounds he expounds absence, privation thesis he thethesis ofthe centre of the centre at the lies at good) lies the good) of the n of absence, privatio then how then denied absolute to Job. Job. In existence and how in absolute existence is denied evil is way, evil this way, In this A nswer to in Answer then ce can one speak of good if there is no evil? If the latter has no substance then substan no has latter If evil? no is there if good can one speak of of privation of good, mere privation becomes aa mere evil becomes and evil shadowy and remain shadowy must remain too, must good, too, good good. opposites and good process that needs the opposites energic process an energic as an life as saw life .Tung saw good . Jung . and evil as simply the moral aspects of this natural polarity. polarity natural this of aspects moral the simply and evil as between length It is this central thesis of Jung's that was debated at length between at debated was that Jung's of thesis central It is this by reporte himself White,reporteddby VictorWhite, FatherVictor priest, Father Domin ican priest, English Dominican the English and the himself and Colla­ In God's Shadow: The CollaThe Ann in her book In God's Shadow: her book ( 1 994) in Lammers (1994) Conrad Lammers Ann Conrad other Jung that other fact that the fact boration of Victor White and C. G. Jung. bemoaned the Jung bemoaned G. C. and White Victor of horation an as than theologians saw him him as rather than as an metaphysician rather atheistic metaphysician an atheistic as an theologians saw he White agnostic contrast to this, FatherWhite he in Father felt that in this, he felt t to n contras psychologist. IIn agnostic psychologist. was (lung) he(Jung) was had whathe graspwhat could grasp who could clergy who theclergy ofthe membe rof met aa member finally met had finally trying to say. say. to trying their to their The resolution to find aa resolution years to find several years for several struggled for men struggled two men The two hite W In a letter that White that privatio boni. letter a diverging the privatio honi. In ofthe problem of the problem on the views on d i verging views ./lIl1g G. Jung G. . C 976) 1 ( wrote to Jung, which is reproduced in Gerhard Adler's (1976) (I. wro t e t o lung, whieh is reprodu ced in Gerhard Adler's Christ ian ofChristian stateme nt of Leiters, or aa statement dog m a or is dogma /Jolli is I)ril'illio boni t he privatio t ha t the states that he states 1.1'I/('r.l", he t ha t asserts hand, truth that affects all value-judgements. ,lung, on the other hand, asserts that her t o t ru t h t ha t affects all va l lll.'-j lld�I.' men t s . .l ung, on t he rcl.' l �Ol he t the dogma arises out of (111.istianity's elevation of God to he t he source ofof ' hI. o t iod ( t hl' dogllla a rises Ollt I ll' ( ' h l"l� t i a l l i t y's eleva t ioll o f

I

The 07 Theshadow shadow 1107

ultimate that this this does does not not empirically empirically justify justify theological theological judgejudge­ ultimategood good but but that ment or evil. evil. He He is, is, instead, instead, transcendental transcendental which mentthat that God God is is either either good good or which means meansthat that he he isis beyond beyond human human logic. logic. White White responded respondedhe hecould couldthink think of of no no single singleempirical empirical example example of of evil evil in in which which the the privatio privatiohoni boniisisnot not verified. verified. Jung its inherent inherent Jung contested contestedthis this by by claiming claimingthat that Christianity Christianity gets gets out out of of its dualism by denying the existence of evil. dualism by denying the existence of evil. Jung Jung went wenton on to to say say that that the the privatio privatio boni boni isisan an archetypal archetypal symbolic symbolictruth truth and challenged White to show him how many people have and challenged White to show him how many people have finished finished their their dealings It is is dealingswith withthe thedevil devilso sothat that they they be be can can rid rid of of the the Christian Christian symbol. symbol. It shadow represented in Christianity as Christ the symbolic conflict with the the symbolic conflict with the shadow represented in Christianity as Christ versus the self self in For Jung, Jung, versusSatan Satanthat that points points the the way way to to the the unity unity of of the in God. God. For Satan is Christ's shadow but according to Catholic dogma Christ knew Satan is Christ's shadow but according to Catholic dogma Christ knew everything so could not have a shadow. everything so could not have a shadow. 1 982) summarised view Unconscious, White IIn n his his book, book, God God and and the the Unconscious, White ((1982) summarised his his view by saying that he understood the Jungian concept of the assimilation of the by saying that he understood the Jungian concept of the assimilation of the shadow as signifying the supplying of some absent good in the form of shadow as signifying the supplying of some absent good in the form of consciousness. consciousness. The differences between proved irreconcilable irreconcilable and they The differences betweenthe the two two men men proved and they parted, although they never broke with each other completely. White had parted, although they never broke with each other completely. White had varying He eventually reproached lung for to Job. varying reactions reactions to to Answer Answer to Job. He eventually reproached Jung for publishing it, for it made his own position difficult in his Order and in the publishing it, for it made his own position difficult in his Order and in the wider community. Ann Ann Lammers Lammersgives givesaamore moredetailed detailedaccount account— wider Catholic Catholic community. 's This work In God Shadow. too complex to go into here in her book too complex to go into here — in her book In God's Shadow. This work includes the correspondence cited above between White and Jung. White's includes the correspondence cited above between White and Jung. White's nswer to to final disagreement with with Jung's Jung'sviews views in in A final work work expressed expressed his his strong strong disagreement Answer Job. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, he wrote to lung saying that though he felt their ways Job. he wrote to Jung saying that though he felt their ways must part, part, he he would would never never forget forget nor nor lose lose what what he he owed owed to to Jung's Jung's work work and and must friendship. There continued to be some correspondence between them until friendship. There continued to be some correspondence between them until White died died of ofcancer cancer inin1960. 1 960. White in American American Trickster in In the 1 950s, Paul Radin's (1 956) work the Trickster In the 1950s, Paul Radin's (1956) work on on the Indian mythology served to underwrite lung's concept of collective shadow. Indian mythology served to underwrite Jung's concept of collective shadow. and the collective shadow is synonymous synonymous with Trickster is For Jung, lung, the For the Trickster with collective shadow and the in being being sly, sly, mischievous mischievous and and able able to to change change Mercurius in alchemical figure figure of of Mercurius alchemical shape. In In Radin's Radin's book, book, Jung lungwrote wroteaacommentary commentary called called 'On 'Onthe thepsypsy­ shape. chology of the trickster-figure', in which he says that the trickster haunts chology of the trickster-figure', in which he says that the trickster haunts the mythology, mythology, carnivals carnivals and and picaresque picaresque tales tales of of all all ages ages as as itit isis an anarchearche­ the typal structure. structure. typal Christianity rid rid itself itself of of this this emblem emblem of ofpagan paganwantonness wantonness which which was was Christianity collective subsequently repressed into the unconscious and lived as the subsequently repressed into the unconscious and lived as the collective shadow of ofcivilised civilised human human beings. beings. ItIt would wouldoccasionally occasionallyreappear reappearinindifferdiffer­ shadow as the Italian commedia dell'arte, in alchemy, and in Radin's e n t forms such ent forms such as the Italian commedia dell'arte, in alchemy, and in Radin's in its its pristine pristine form form before before the the shado ll' is is preserved preserved in t rickster cycle cycle where where shadow trickster t heAmerican A mericanIndian. I nd i a n . ach ievemen t of of aa higher higher state stateofofconsciousness consciousness by h ythe achievement _

l o l d only o n l y once once the I h e latter lal ter stage stagl.' has h a sbeen heen h e told T h i s mythological myt hologica l ttale a ll' ccan a l l he This

Ann Casement Casement 1108 08 Ann



achievedso sothat: that:'It 'It was was only only to to be be expected expectedthat that aa good good deal achieved deal of of mockery mockery and contempt contempt should should mingle with this and mingle with this retrospect' retrospect' (Jung (Jung 1959b: 1 959b: 263). 263). A critique critique of of the the way Jungian writers A way Jungian writers have have approached approached the the concept concept of of to be be found found in in aa paper James, aa graduate graduate of of shadow isis to paper written written by by Jocelyne Jocelyne James, shadow the MA MA course the course in Jungian Jungian and and Post-Jungian Post-Jungian Studies Studies at atEssex Essex University, University, England. For For instance, instance, she shetakes takesup upvon vonFranz's Franz's statement statement that that 'the shadow England. simply the whole isis simply whole unconscious' unconscious' (James (James 2000: 2000: pages pages unnumbered). unnumbered). As As James says, says, if if this this is is the the case James case then it could could embrace embrace the whole whole of of human human history, evolution evolution and and culture. culture. Although she demonstrates her awareness of history, James also, also, by by shadow, James the efficacy efficacy of of vagueness vaguenesswith with regard regard to to defining the defining shadow, implication, appears appears to to be be making making a Popperian Popperian point that implication, that ifif something something can can explain everything everythingthen thenitit cannot cannot be subject explain subject to to being being falsified falsified and lies lies outside the realm of being tested empirically. But throughout his outside empirically. But his writings, writings, claim to being being an empiricist empiricist so so that von Franz's Jung lays claim Franz's statement statementwould would seem to to run contrary to Jung's. seem Jung's. James also challenges Jungians (including (including myself) myself) who have James challenges Jungians have written written on on this topic this topic to to produce produce research research that thatwill willcritically critically reflect reflect on on the theclinical clinical She questions questions why why and and tentatively shadow. She application of shadow. tentatively suggests suggests aa number number that analytical may still of possibilities: possibilities: that analytical psychologists psychologists may still be be struggling struggling to to comprehend the concept as itit evokes comprehend evokes aa quagmire quagmire of ofepistemological epistemological probprob­ lems. She also also points points to to a popular book lems. She book on on the the subject, subject, Zweig Zweig and Wolf's Wolf's which emphasises sex and and potency. emphasises sex potency. James's James's Romancing the Shadow, Shadow, which ( 1 997) Romancing (1997) thesis opens the the way way to to the thesis opens the last last section section of of this this chapter, chapter, which which looks looks at at trends for for future future developments. developments.

An An account account of of the the current currentstatus status and a n d trends tre n d s for for future future developments d e ve l o p m ents

is in in constant constant usage usage among among analytical analyticalpsychologists psychologists but butas as term shadow is The term James says in her Jllmes (2000) (2000) says her thesis, thesis, there there isis need need for foraamore moredetailed detaileddifferdiffer­ entiation that the entiation than than von von Franz's Franz's assertion assertion that the term term shadow is simply simply aa shadow is mythological mythological one referring referring to everything everything in aa person person that thatcannot cannotbe benamed. named. One One writer writer who who has has tried tried to to elucidate elucidate this this in in relation relation totothe the'helping 'helping professions' He talks of the charlatan professions' is Adolf Guggenbahl-Craig. Guggenbiihl-Craig. He charlatan shadow shadoll' that may be constellated in an analyst when the need arises that may be constellated in an analyst when the need arises totosay saydifficult difficult things things to to aa patient. patient. At Atthis thispoint, point,the theanalyst analystmay maybecome becomeeither eithersadistic sadistic or or flattering to the patient. Examples of the latter may be the following flattering the patient. Examples of the latter may be the following sorts sorts of orinterpretation: interpretation:extolling extollingthe thepositive positiveaspects aspectsofofthe thearchetype archetypeofofthe thequeen queen to a power-hungry woman or lack of courage may be interpreted as tn a power-hungry woman or lack of courage may be interpreted aspositive posit i ve introversion introversion on on the the part part of ofaapatient. patient. Both Bothinterpretations interpretationsfeed feed the the patient's patient's narcissism as does encouraging a lack of a dutiful response to a nageing ageing l1ar�issism el1�ollraging lack of a dutiful response toan mother tohehe animus. Care Care needs needs to mother'snegative nega t ive animus. rrommother's lIlother as as aaliberation I i herat iol1 from

taken hy the t hl' analyst ana lyst in ill walking wa l k ingthe t hethin t h i nline l i nebetween hetweenenabling enahlingthe t hepatient pa tienttot o tah'n by

The hadow 109 1 09 Thesshadow

value her own own psychic psychic needs needs without without encouraging encouraging narcissism. narcissism. The The valuehis his or or her latter can lead to collusion on the part of the patient so that the serious latter can lead to collusion on the part of the patient so that the serious business businessof of analysis analysisdegenerates degeneratesinto intoits its shadow. shadow. In In this this way, way, The 'The deeper deeper value of psychic development is betrayed' (Guggenbiihl-Craig 1 97 1 : 74). 74). value of psychic development is betrayed' (Guggenbiihl-Craig 1971: aspect of the profession is the abuse of the search Another Another shadow shadow aspect of the profession is the abuse of the search for for meaning. Unfair relative meaning. Unfair or or disloyal disloyal behaviour behaviour towards towards spouse, spouse, friend friend or or relative may unconscious. In In may be be exalted exalted as as self-realisation self-realisationand and the the workings workings of of the the unconscious. promoting h i m or herself as the Great Healer, a n analyst may lay claim to promoting him or herself as the Great Healer, an analyst may lay claim to transcendental knowledge. 'Like a little god the analyst sees everything transcendental knowledge. 'Like a little god the analyst sees everything clearly there is is no no longer longer any anytragedy; tragedy; any anyincomprehensible incomprehensible horror' horror' clearly . . .. .. there (Guggen biihl-Craig 1971: 1 97 1 : 77). 77). (Guggenbuhl-Craig Guggenbiihl-Craig 1 97 1 ) also can Guggenbuhl-Craig( (1971) alsopoints pointstoto the the obvious obvious polarity polarity that that can develop in any relationship of healer/patient where the former is identified develop in any relationship of healer/patient where the former is identified regressed, with with being being all-powerful all-powerfuland and the the latter latter carries carries the the shadow shadow of of the the regressed, fearful child. With society's demand for greater accountability on fearful child. With society's demand for greater accountability on the the part part of practitioners in the 'helping professions', abuses of power are increas­ of practitioners in the 'helping professions', abuses of power are increasingly open. In In this this way, way, instead instead of of analysis analysis holding holding ingly being beingbrought brought out out in in the the open. society has for some time been holding to society's society's shadow, up m � rror to up the the mirror shadow, society has for some time been holding up the shaduw analytic work. work. up the the mIrror mirror to to the shadow in in analytic feature of of Jungian Jungian Even Even though though working working through through the the shadow shadow is is such such aa feature analysis, particularly the classical approach, it is nevertheless widely evident analysis, particularly the classical approach, it is nevertheless widely evident in the analytical psychology world, not least in the destructive splits that in the analytical psychology world, not least in the destructive splits that are such a conspicuous part of Jungian professional organisations around are such a conspicuous part of Jungian professional organisations around the world. In In 1995 1 995 II was was commissioned commissioned by of Analytical A nalytical PsyPsy­ the world. by the the Journal Journal of chology write an an article article on on the the splits splits that that have have been been aa feature feature of of the the chology to to write evolution of of analytical analytical psychology psychology as profession in in the the United United Kingdom. Kingdom. evolution as aa profession In the the 1970s, 1 970s, difficulties difficulties within the Society Society of of Analytical Analytical Psychology Psychology led led to to In within the the formation formation of of what what came came to to be be known known as as the the 'Adler 'Adler Group' Group' and andfinally finally the to aa breakaway breakaway movement. movement. A A middle middle group grouphad hadalso alsobeen beenforming formingover overthe the to previous seven several of its members members tried tried hard hard to to prevent preventthe the previous seven years years and and several of its split that that eventually eventually took took place. place. Kathleen Kathleen Newton, Newton, an an analyst analyst from from this this split middle group, the foresight foresight to point to to 'the 'the disastrous disastrous impact impact that that aa middle group, had had the to point �ave, both both for for the the present present but but also also for for the the future future in in hardening hardening �ould have, split would split defenSIve attitudes and fostering fostering mutually mutually antagonistic antagonistic projections' projections' (Case(Case­ defensive attitudes and ment 1995: 1 995: 335). 335). ment Thomas Kirsch's Kirsch's (2000) (2000) narrative narrative account account of ofthe theworld-wide world-wideJungian Jungian Thomas movement, The also The Jungians: Jungians: A A Comparative Comparative and and Historical HistoricalPerspective, Perspective, also movement, features splits splits in in many many analytical analytical psychology psychology groups. groups. These Thesesplits splits may, may,inin features part, be be seen seen to to be be aadestructive destructive acting-out acting-out of of shadow, although there there are are shadow, although part, clearly many many other other factors factorsinvolved involved — - not, not, by by any anymeans, means, all al\destructive. destructive. clearly is probably probably the the most most shadow is Nevertheless, reflection its own own internal internal shadow Nevertheless, reflection on on its work to tohe hedone donewithin withinthe theanalytical analyti�alpsychology psychology, movement, movement, importan t work important t ooffer orferany anyenlightenment enlightenment to to the the world world at at it is is to to he he able ahle to pa rt i�lI l a rl y if if it particularly in all a l l its i t saspects. aspe�ts. 1 \ ' in la rgl' in in its i t son-going on-goingstruggle st rllggkwith with.s.1'/1111/0 large hadott' .

The hadow 1111 11 Thesshadow

Casement 1110 1 0 Ann Ann Casement Reference Referencess

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Routledge. C. G and C.G White and Victor White ofVictor Collaboration of The Collaboration Shadow: The God's Shadow: ( 1 994) In God's A.e. (1994) Lammers, A.C. Press. Paulist Press. N ew York: Paulist .Iullg. New Jung. Press. H ogarth Press. London: Hogarth ( 1 974) The The FreudIJung FreudlJung Letters. Letters. London: (cd.) (1974) c C J u i re, W. (ed.) M McGuire, Freudialls, .Iungia/lS, Freudians, Shado \\'s: Jungians, Lingering Shadows: ( 1 99 1 ) Ungering A . (1991) M a r t i n , A. n d Martin, Maidenbaum, A. aand M a idenhaum, A. Shamhala. M A : Shambala. Bos t o n , MA: Anli-5"I'milism. Boston, lind Anti-Semitism. and I{ adin, P. P. (1956) ( 1 9 56) The 'I hl' TricA 'rri,.A I"/t'r ,"'llIdl' in ill American Alllail'llll Indian Illdillll Mythologies. Mylhologil's. With Wilh vier AA Study Rodin, Routledge I .on(\on: O l l t lcd�c and a n d Kegan Kc�al1 ( '(/IIII11I'lIll1ril',I' hby I ' Karl A'III'I kertni.i "" '/'t"1I 1'i and IIl1d C.G. ( '. (;. Jung. .JUllg, Lond o n: R l'ommentaries 1Paul. '0 1 1 1 1 .

Samuels, The Political Political Psyche. Psyche. London: Sa �uels, AA.. ((1993) 1 993) The Kegan Paul. Paul. London: Routledge Routledge and and Kegan White, V.. (1982) �e, V ( 1 982) God Unconscious. Dallas, TX: Spring. Spring. Whl God and and the Unconscious. Dallas, TX: Zweig, e. C. and Wolf, S. A ccess the Hidden ZweIg, S. (1997) ( 1 997) Romancing Romancing the the Shadow: Shadow: How How to to Access Power in in your your Dark Dark Side. Side. London: Thorsons; New New York: York: Ballantine. Ballantine. Power London: Thorsons; Reco m m end e d further further reading read ing Recommended

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Berry, 1 982) 'The the shadow shadow in in training', training', in inP. P.Berry, Berry, Berry, P. ((1982) 'The training training of of shadow shadow and the Ech o s Subtle Body: Contributions Contributions to Archetypal Psychology. Psychology. Dallas, TX: Echo's Subtle Body: to an Archetypal Dallas, TX: Spnng. Spring. Bly, ( 1 988) A Little Book Bly, R. R. (1988) Book on on the the Human Human Shadow, Shadow, ed. A Little Booth. New New York: York: ed. W, W. Booth. HarperCollins. -( 1 989) The (1989) Shadow. Lecture The Human Human Shadow. York (audio (audio video). video). New York: Lecture in in New New York York: Sound Horizons.

Brinton P Perera, S. ((1986) �rera, S. 1 986) T he Scapegoat Toward a Mythology of ofShadow Shadow Brinton The Scapegoat Complex: Complex: Toward a Mythology Inner City. City. and Guilt. GUllI. Toronto: Inner Conger, J. J. (1988) Conger, ( 1 988) Jung Reich: The The Body Body as Shadow. Berkeley, Jung and Reich: as Shadow. Berkeley, CA: CA: North North Atlantic Books. Atlantic Books. Dalai, F. A Racist. Racist. Dallas, Spring. Dalal, F . (1988) ( 1 988) Jung: Jung: A Dallas, TX: TX: Spring. De Shong Shong Meador, Meador, B. (1992) De ( 1 992) Uncursing Treasures .from From the the Underworld. Underworld. Uncursing Ihe the Dark: Dark: Treasures Wilmette, IIL: Wilmette, L : Chiron. Edinger, E. f Toronto: I nner City. City. E�inger, E. (1986) ( 1 986) Encounter Encounter with with the the Sel Self Toronto: Inner Eliade, M. M. (1990) Ehade, ( 1 990) The f Shadows Religions, in Apastolos­ The Symbolism Symbolism oof Shadows in in Archaic Archaic Religions, in D. D. ApastolosCappodona (ed.) (ed.) Symbolism, Cappodona York: Crossroad. Symbolism,the theSacred, Sacred,and and the the Arts. Arts. New New York: Crossroad. Fechner, G. G. (1991) Fechner, ( 1 99 1 ) The Alive. Dallas, TX: Spring. Spring. The Shadow Shadow is is Alive. Dallas, TX: Giegerich, W. W. ((1991) f the Giegerich, 1 99 1 ) The The Advent Advent oof the Guest: Guest: Shadow Shadow Integration Integration and and the the Rise Rise of of Psychology. Dallas, Psychology. Spring. Dallas, TX: Spring. Guggenbiihl-Craig, A. A. (1970) Guggenbiihl-Craig, ( 1 970) Must Analysis Fail Fail through through its itsDestructive Destructive Aspect? Aspect? Must Analysis New Spring . New York: York: Spring. (1971) Professions. New York: Spring. Spring. -( 1 97 1 ) Power Power in in the Helping Professions. New York: Henderson, J. J. (1990) Henderson, ( 1 990) Shadow Self Selected Selected Papers Papersin illAnalytical A nalyticalPsychology. Psychology. Shadow and and Self . Wilmette, IIL: WIlmette, L: Chiron. Hillman, JJ.. (1964) Hillman, ( 1 964) Suicide Soul. Dallas, TX: Spring. Spring . Suicide and and the the Soul. Dallas, TX: (1979) -( 1 979) The Ihe Underworld. Underworld. New York: Harper Row. Row. The Dream Dream and the New York: Harper . Hollis, J, J. (1996) HollIS, ( 1 996) Swamplands f the fe in Inner Swamplands oof the Soul: Soul: New New Li Life in Dismal Dismal Places. Places. Toronto: Toronto: Inner City. Johnson, R. (1991) Johnson, ( 1 99 1 ) Owning Side of of the the Owningyour your Own Own Shadow: Shadow: Understanding Understanding the the Dark Dark Side Psyche. New Psyche. HarperCollins. New York: HarperCollins. Mattoon, M.A. M . A . (ed.) (ed. ) (1987) ( 1 987) T he Archetype Split World. World. Proceedings Proceedings The Archetype of of Shadow Shadow in in aa Split of o j the Tenth International International Congress Congress for Analytical Psychology. Psychology. Einsiedeln, the Tenth for Analytical Einsiedeln, . Switzerland: Dalman Daimon Verlag. SwItzerland: Verlag. M . (1983) ( 1 983) People f the The Hope Healing Human Human Evil. Evil. London: Scott Peck, M. People oof the Lie: Lie: The Hope for for Healing London: rrow . A Arrow. Stei n , M. M , (1995) ( 1 99 5 ) JlIng Evil. London: Routledge. Stein, Jung on Evil. London: Routledge. von M . - L. (1991) ( 1 99 1 ) 'The realisation rea l isat ion of of the t he shadow shadow in in dreams', dreams',in inC. e.Zweig Zweigand and von Franz, M.-L. .I.1. . AAbrams h rams ((eds) cd s ) Ml'l'Iillg 5"/UU/0II', N ew York: York : Tarcher/Putnam. Tarcher/PlI t n a m , Meeting thl' the Shadow. New

Shadow il/ 1·;lir l'llI/I',I'. Boston, M A : Sham Sha lllha la, ((1995) 1 99 '1 ) SIll/dil l I , tll/d and /:'I'il Era in kairriales. Boston, MA: ha la.

1112 1 2 Ann Ann Casement Casement

'The evolution evolution of of the the shadow', shadow', in in C. C. Zweig and J. Whitmont, 1 99 1 ) The Zweig and J. Abrams Abrams Whitmont, EE.. ((1991) New York York:: Tarcher/Putnam. (eds) Shadow. New Tarcher/Putnam. Meeting the the Shadow. (eds) Meeting . . Meeting the the Shadow: Shadow: The Hidden Power Zweig, ( 1 99 1 ) Meeting The Hidden POlVer of oj the the Zweig, C. C. and and Abrams, Abrams, J. J. (eds) (1991) New York: York: Tarcher/Putnam. Dark Side of Tarcher/Putnam. Dark Side of Human Human Nature. Nature. New

Chapter 5 Chapter 5

Anima/animus Anima/animus Verena Verena Kast Translation Bobbi Whitcombe Translation edited edited by Bobbi

The to p i c in in the the Jungian J ungian opus o p us The topic

The the individuation individuation process process is the key key concept concept of of Jungian lungian The theory theory of the is the therapy. become more more who we therapy. The The goal goal of individuation individuation is is to become more and and more really really are, are, distinct distinct from from others others and yet in in relationship to others. This process is human is aa series series of ofconfrontational confrontational dialogues between us and the world, the human beings the inner inner world world of of the the beings to to whom whom we we are are related related and and bound bound and the complexes of this process, according to to complexes and and the archetypes. An essential part of lung, man becomes becomes conscious conscious of his anima, anima, and a woman woman of of her her Jung, is is that aa man animus, in order to to differentiate differentiate him him or herself hersel f from it, and not be be dominated dominated by it. The relationship withthe theanima anima— - which in lung's oeuvre is is given given more more relationship with Jung's oeuvre attention than thanthe theanimus animus—- gives gives vitality, vitality, creativity creativity and and flexibility. flexibility. It is greatly greatly to lung's credit credit that that he he continually continually emphasises emphasises that 'female' It is to Jung's that 'female' elements male' elements are in every woman, and and elements exist exist in in every every man, man,just just as as ''male' that these these elements elements also need to to be be acknowledged. acknowledged. Jung's lung's concept concept of of the the also need anima and the the animus animus has has enabled enabled many many individuals individuals to toaccept accept themselves themselves as as they not as as they theyshould shouldbe beaccording accordingtotorigid rigidgender genderstereotypes. stereotypes. they are and not On the other hand, hand, in in describing describing anima anima and and animus, animus, Jung lungisis basically basically using using the established stereotypes of his his time time to to define define what what isis female female and and established gender stereotypes what is male. The concept animus has has become become quite popular because because it concept of anima and animus explains ling in 'inexplicable' fascinations fascinations with other onto onto explains fal falling in love love and 'inexplicable' with an other whom nd ourselves animus, or or both; both; itit explains explains whom we we fi find ourselves projecting projecting anima anima or or animus, 'impossible' also why why we we behave behave sometimes sometimes in aa relationship relationship in in aa `impossible' love, love, and and also way intend to to and and do do not notunderstand understandbecause, because, for for example, example, we we way we we do do not not intend take on the role of an anima that someone is projecting onto us. take role of an anima that someone is projecting onto us. A syste matic exploration e x p l orati onof ofJung's J ung's views views systematic

The discovery discovery of anima The of the the anima In his his aautobiography u tobiogra phy Jung .l ung (1961) ( I % I ) writes wri tes about his his discovery discovery of o fthe the anima. anima. In A I"tl:r Ihe t h e break hrca k with wi t h Freud, ""·clld .ininaavulnerable v u l nerahlephase, phase.he hefelt feltthe thc need n eed to to get get in in After

1 1 4 Verena VerenaKast Kast 114

Anima/animus A n i ma/an i m u s 115 115

touch with with his his fantasies. fantasies. He He visualised visualised aa descent descent beneath beneath the the earth. earth. In In one one touch ofthese these visualisations visualisations he he encountered encountered an an old old man manwith withaawhite whitebeard, beard,who who of explained that thathe hewas wasElijah. Elijah.With Withhim himwas wasSalome, Salome,aabeautiful beautifulyoung younggirl, girl, explained who was was blind. blind. AAstrange strangecouple: couple: Salome Salome and andElijah, Elijah,belonging belongingtogether together who from all all eternity eternity — - and them was was aa black black serpent. serpent. Jung lungexplains explainslater later from and with with them t hat couples couples like like this this— - old man and andyoung younggirl girl— - are are often often found found ininsuch such that old man 'dream wanderings', wanderings', as as ininmythological mythological tales. tales. 'dream lung calls calls Salome Salome an an anima animafigure, figure, Elijah Elijahthe thewise wiseold oldprophet. prophet.He Hefeels feels Jung 'distinctly suspicious' of Salome, and he 'stuck close to Elijah because he 'distinctly suspicious' of Salome, and he 'stuck close to Elijah because he seemed to be the most reasonable of the three' (lung 1 96 1 : l 8 1 ). Out of seemed to be the most reasonable of the three' (Jung 1961: 181). Out of Elijah developed Philemon, an inner figure of great importance for lung for Elijah developed Philemon, an inner figure of great importance for Jung for many years years — - aa kind guide who who 'taught 'taughtme mepsychic psychicobjectivity, objectivity,and and many kind of of inner inner guide the reality of the psyche' (lung 1 961 : 1 83). Nowadays we would call the reality of the psyche' (Jung 1961: 183). Nowadays we would call Philemon an animus figure, a representation of the archetype of the wise Philemon an animus figure, a representation of the archetype of the wise old man. man. Even Even when when Jung lung is is talking talking only only about about the the anima anima figure figure and and the the old wise old prophet, his fantasy can be seen as a personification of the couple, wise old prophet, his fantasy can be seen as a personification of the couple, animus and and anima, anima, being being constellated constellated in in his his psyche. psyche. animus Exploring the idea of the anima further, he later found found himself himself arguing arguing Exploring the idea of the anima further, he later with an inner female voice which told him that what he was writing was with an inner female voice which told him that what he was writing was art not science. He entered into a dialogue with this female voice, which art -- not science. He entered into a dialogue with this female voice, which identified as voice of one of of his his female female patients, patients, but but he heconcluded concluded he he identified as the the voice of one that this female was more than an internalised fi g ure: she spoke for parts parts that this female was more than an internalised figure: she spoke for of his unconscious. This was an important experience of the anima and of his unconscious. This was an important experience of the anima — and through his dialogue with this anima figure, lung developed the technique through his dialogue with this anima figure, Jung developed the technique of active imagination, imagination, which which allows allows us us totoexpress expressunconscious unconscious material material of active and to change it. lung did not always agree with his anima figure he and to change it. Jung did not always agree with his anima figure —- he round her irritating . and he felt suspicious about her. This might be the found her irritating, and he felt suspicious about her. This might be the reason are not not as as enthusiastic enthusiastic as as reason why why his his early early definitions definitions of of the the anima anima are the later ones. the later ones. Jung explains the relationship of this inner inner figure figure to to the thecollective collective Jung explains the relationship of this unconscious by its archetypal nature and calls it an anima figure; he concon­ unconscious by its archetypal nature and calls it an anima figure; he dudes that women must experience an equivalent, the animus, personified cludes that women must experience an equivalent, the animus, personified hy male figure. figure. by aa male Why does the animus, the the soul, soul, and and animus, anima, the Why does he he use use these these Latin Latin terms: terms: anima, spirit? They are words which are more or less interchangeable: the ancient spirit? They are words which are more or less interchangeable: the ancient <(;reeks l reek s and Romans thought that when when someone someone dies which isis the the soul, which and Romans thought that dies the the soul, principle of life, leaves the body but it is also possible to say that the jpiril spirit principle of life, leaves the body — but it is also possible to say that the has . In the history history of of the the humanities humanities there there are arc many many theories theories has departed departed. In the ahout t h e soul and spirit, from the ancient Greeks onwards Concepts . about the soul and spirit, from the ancient Greeks onwards. Concepts of of t the h e sou l and p iri t vary soul and sspirit vary depending depending on on the the view view of of humanity humanity in in the the culture culture cOIH:erned . QQuite u i t e orten, e lo ng ttogether. oget h e r For St concerned. often,anima animaand and animus animus b belong For St AAugustine, u�ust ine, for exam ple, the a n ima or soul is hound to t he hody, w h i le the for example, the anima or soul is hound to the body, while the ahout lInilllus he power � h t , aand nd isis aable hle tto o uunderstand nderstand not onl y about animus has has tthe power of of illsi insight, not only t he sou l a nd t the he hod y hut a lso a hout ( jod . body but also about God. the soul and

Jung's Jung's development of of the the concept concept

In anima and and animus I n 1916 1 9 1 6 Jung lung describes describes anima animus as as aa part partof ofthe thestructure structureofofthe the psyche psyche which which is is complementary complementary to to the the persona persona (Jung (lung 1916/1966: 1 9 1 61 1 966: par. par. 507). 507). Whereas Whereas he he describes describes the the persona persona as as 'a'acompromise compromiseformation formationbetween between external external reality reality and and the the individual', individual', he he explains explains that that 'the 'theanima animawould wouldthus thus be be aa compromise compromise formation formation between between the the individual individual and andthe theunconscious unconscious world, world, that that is, is, the the world world of of historical historical images, images, or "primordial "primordial images"'. images'' ' . So Soaa man man who who behaves behaves in in aa very very masculine masculine way way (his (his persona) persona) would would have have aa very very feminine feminine anima. anima. He in the the Visions Visions Seminar of 1925, 1 925, quoted in in He explains explains this this more more precisely precisely in the glossary in Dreams, Reflections: Reflections: 'The The animus animus and the the anima anima the glossary in Memories, Dreams, should should function function as as aa bridge, bridge, or or aa door, door,leading leadingtotothe theimages imagesofofthe thecolleccollec­ tive unconscious, as as the the persona persona should should be be aa sort of tive unconscious, of bridge bridge to to the the world' world' (Jung 392). The The function function of of animus animus and and anima (l ung 1961: 1 96 1 : 392). anima is is to to make make aaconnecconnec­ tion with the depths of the psyche. tion with the depths of the psyche. The complications start when when lung Jung tries tries to describe the content content of the The complications start describe the anima: anima: If II were were to to attempt attempt to to put put in in aa nutshell nutshell ..... .what If whatititisisthat thatcharacterises characterises the animus animus as as opposed opposed to the to the the anima, anima, II could could only only say say this: this: as as the the anima anima produces moods, the the animus opinions. .. . .. But But in in reality pr �d uces moods, animus produces produces opinions reality the . opinions are not thought out opllllOns are out at at all; all; they they exist exist ready made, and they are held so so positively positively and and with with so so much conviction conviction that the woman held woman never never had the the shadow shadow of a doubt had doubt about about them. them. (Jung 1928/1966: par. 331) (lung 1 928/1 966: par. 33 1 ) This begins begins to to seem seem confusing: confusing:isislung Jung describing describinganima animaand and animus, animus, or or aa This specific stageofofanima animaand and animus, animus, when when the the ego ego complex complexhas has not not yet specifi c stage yet separated either either from from the the mother (moods) or or from separated mother complex complex (moods) from the father father complex(opinions)? (opinions)? In In the the same same section section we we find find the following complex following statement: statement: The animus animus isis the the deposit, deposit, as as it were, The were, of all woman's ancestral experiexperi­ ences of man — and not only that, he isis also also aa creative creative and and procreative procreative ences of man - and not only that, he being. . . . .. He He brings forth something we might might call callthe the .. .. .. spermatic being brings forth something we spermatic word. Just as a man brings forth his work as a complete creationout out of of word. lust as a man brings forth his work as a complete creation his inner feminine nature, so the inner masculine side of a woman his inner feminine nature, so the inner masculine side of a woman bringsforth forth creative creative seeds seedswhich whichhave havethe the power power to to fertilise the brings fertilise the feminineside sideof of man. man. feminine (Jung 11928/1966: par. 336) 336) (lung 928/1 966: par.

.

This statement statement turns turns up constantly This constantly in in feminist feminist discussions discussions as as evidence evidence that Jung's concept of anima and animus sees a man as having th a t l ung's concept of a n i ma a m I a n imu s sees a man having an even even moreinspiring inspiringICmi feminine nature than woman, an iinternal more n i ne nat ure t ha n aa woma n , wwith i t h an n terna l /ifemme mllle .

'



Verena Kast Kast 11 1166 Verena

inspiratrice, but but suggests suggests that that he he actually actually denied denied women women any any natural natural inspiratrice, creativity. Further, Further, we we might might question question whether whether Jung Jung was was unable unable to toaccept accept creativity. the fact fact that that men men are are not notable abletotogive givebirth birthtotoaachild child—- so so he he suggests suggests that that aa the man at at least least has has an an inner inner feminine feminine nature, nature, which which can can bring bring forth forth aa complete complete man creation, without without the the need need for for aa real real woman. woman. Thus Thus we we are are hurled hurled into intothe the creation, midst of of the the gender gender debate. debate. Indeed, I ndeed, the the statement statement could could be be understood understood that that midst way. But But if if we idea that that men men and and women women each each have have both both an an way. we start start with with the the idea anima and and an an animus animus (a(apost-Jungian post-Jungian development development of of the thetheory), theory), this this anima statement takes takes on on aa completely completely different different meaning. meaning. We We are are closer closer to to the the statement ancient Greeks' the spirit spirit inspires inspires the the soul soul and and through through this this ancient Greeks' idea idea that that the interplay things things are are brought brought into into being. being. interplay However, the problem of of gender gender issues, issues, combined combined with with aaslight slightdevaludevalu­ However, the problem ation of of women women and and the the idealisation idealisation of ofthe the anima, anima, isis implicit implicit in in this this concept. concept. ation It seems seems undeniable Jung conflated conflated the the gender gender stereotypes stereotypes of of his his time time It undeniable that that Jung with the notion notion of of anima anima and andanimus animus as asarchetypes. archetypes. with the 1 925, in his essay essay on on marriage, marriage, Jung Jung says, says, 'Every 'Every man man carries carries within within In 1925, In in his him the the eternal eternal image image of woman; not the image image of of this this or or that thatparticular particular him of woman; not the woman, but but aadefinitive definitive feminine feminine image' image' (Jung (Jung 1925/1972: 1 92511 972: par. par. 338). 338). woman, Further, women carry with them the eternal image of the masculine. Here Further, women carry with them the eternal image of the masculine. Here Jung is pointing to the archetypal nature of anima and animus, and he Jung is pointing to the archetypal nature of anima and animus, and he isis talking projection of of these these inner inner figures figures onto onto real real women women and andmen. men. talking about about projection This is the common defi n ition of animus and anima. This is the common definition of animus and anima. In the same same text text Jung Jung also also speaks speaks about about the the projection projection of of anima anima and and In the animus as a matter of fascination and falling in love with another, which is animus as a matter of fascination and falling in love with another, which is sometimes a good basis for a relationship, but more often may arise from sometimes a good basis for a relationship, but more often may arise from deep-seated cause problems problems due due to to deep-seated emotions emotions and and connected connected fantasies, fantasies, and and cause idealisation, lack of fulfilment and disillusion though these are very often idealisation, lack of fulfilment and disillusion — though these are very often experienced can create create the the most most profound profound personal personal experiencedasas 'fate'. 'fate'. The The anima anima can understanding or initiate the best risk ever taken in a person's life (Jung understanding or initiate the best risk ever taken in a person's life (Jung 11934/1976: 9341 1 976: par. 62). The same could be said of the animus. At this point, par. 62). The same could be said of the animus. At this point, Jung is no longer speaking speaking about anima and and animus animus being being the the opposite opposite of of Jung is no longer about anima tthe he persona. pe rsona. IIn n 1927 1 927 in text 'Mind 'Mind and and earth', earth', he heexplores explores the thedevelopment development of of in the the text anima and animus (Jung 1 9271 1 974: pars. 7 1 -76). In puberty, a new arche­ anima and animus (Jung 1927/1974: pars. 71-76). In puberty, a new archetype the anima, anima, type gets gets constellated: constellated: in in aa man man itit is is the the archetype archetype of of the the woman, woman, the and in the woman the archetype of the man, the animus. Anima and animus and in the woman the archetype of the man, the animus. Anima and animus have of the the parents, parents, and and highly highly influenced influenced by by this this have been been hidden hidden by by the the imago imago of imago. is influenced influenced by imagos, the the more more imago. The The more more the the youth youth is by the the parental parental imagos, tthe he choice positive or or negative negative replacement replacement of the choice of of the the beloved beloved will will be be aa positive of the pa rents. This, is aa general general phenomenon. phenomenon. It It seems seems to to be be parents. This, according according to to Jung, Jung, is important to see anima are are based based on on the the parental parental archetype a rchetype important to see that that animus animus and and anima complexes, and and that thatJung Jungsees sees the the change change in in adolescence adolescence not not IIlld t he parental and the parental complexes, oonly n l y as t he experience o f t he sexual drive, but also as a spi r i t u a l ex perience of the sexual drive, but also as a spiritual experience of of as the experience and animus a n im us which w h ich are a rc projected. proieeted . aattraction l l raL·tion governed gOVl'l"Ill'd by hy the t he images images of n i ma and of aanima

Anima/animus Ani ma/an i m u s 117 117

Jung observes observes that there there are are some some patterns patterns in in the theprojection projection process: process: The animus likes likes to project project itself itself upon 'intellectuals' 'intellectuals' and all kinds kinds of of `heroes' (including tenors, artists, and sporting celebrities). The anima 'heroes' ( including tenors, and sporting celebrities). has aa predilection predilection for for everything everything that that isis unconscious, unconscious, dark, dark, equivocal equivocal and unrelated in woman, and also for her vanity, frigidity, unrelated in woman, and also for her vanity, frigidity,helplessness, helplessness, and so forth. forth. (Jung 1946/1971: 1 9461 1 97 1 : par. 521) 521 ) in the the text text 'Concerning 'Concerning the the archetypes archetypes and and the the anima concept', Jung IInn 1936 1 936 in continues the the developmental developmentalpath path and and argues argues that that the young continues young man has to to free himself himself from from the anima fascination 1 936/ free fascination caused caused by by his his mother mother (Jung (Jung1936/ par. 1146). For the first half of life, 46). For life, young people can bear the the loss loss of of 11976: 976: par. the anima, but for for the the second second half half of of life, the loss of the relationship relationship to the anima causes causes 'a diminution diminution of of vitality, vitality, flexibility flexibility and of human kindness' kindness' 1 9361 1 976: par. 147). 1 47). (Jung 1936/1976: is a central For the process process of of individuation, individuation, which which is central part part of ofJungian Jungian theory, it it is necessary to understand understand one's one's anima anima or animus, theory, necessary to animus, in order order to to distinguish the the conscious conscious personality personality from these these archetypal archetypal influences. influences. IIff distinguish they remain remain unconscious, unconscious, they may behave aass autonomous complexes, they complexes, with negative effects. effects.IfIf they they are negative are brought brought into intoconsciousness, consciousness, they they make make creativity possible, possible, adding meaning to life. creativity life. This This differentiation differentiation between between ego ego and anima/animus is what Jung called and anima/animus is called the the 'masterpiece' 'masterpiece' of of analysis analysis (Jung (Jung pars. 661-64). 11934/1976: 9341 1 976: pars. 1 -64). In the same text of 1934, he emphasises emphasises the the idea idea of the the anima and animus In 1 934, he being archetypes: archetypes:'With 'With the the archetype archetype of of the the anima anima we we enter enter the the realm realm of being gods .. . .. everything gods everything that that the theanima animatouches touchesbecomes becomesnuminous numinous— - unconuncon­ ditional, dangerous, dangerous, taboo, taboo, magical' par. 59). ditional, magical' (Jung (Jung 1934/1976: 1 9341 1976: par. 59). And he he describes the the animus animus as as the the archetype archetype of meaning, meaning, the anima as the describes the archearche­ type of life (Jung 1934/1976: 1 9341 1 976: par. 66). 66). type In 1936 Jung defends defends his his concept concept of of animus animus and and anima by reference to In 1 936 Jung reference to the idea idea of of the the syzygy, syzygy, concluding concluding from from the the evidence in many the evidence in many different different mythologiesof of the the divine divine couple, couple, united united by by a sacred mythologies sacred marriage, marriage, that this this motif is is as universal as the motif the existence existence of of men men and andwomen women (Jung (Jung1936/1976: 1 9361 1 976: par. 134). He postulates postulates that that in in the the archetypal union of the par. 1 34). He the syzygy syzygy the archetypal union parents is is expressed, expressed, the the mother mother corresponding corresponding to to the anima. These archeparents arche­ typal images images of of the syzygy, syzygy, or or fantasy-images, fantasy-images, according according to to Jung, are more typal more real than than the apperception of the reality, real reality, and and therefore therefore become become the apperapper­ ception of of the reality, 1 9361 1 976: ception reality, especially especially the reality of of the the parents parents (Jung (Jung1936/1976: pars. 135-136). pars. 1 35 - 1 36). In 11950, in AAion, Jung is is describing describing his his concept concept again again under under the the title title the In 950, in ion, Jung `Syzygyof ofaanima and animus' (Jung n i ma and (J ung 1950/1976: 1 9501 1 976: pars. 20ff.) 20ff. ) . In In this this text text 'Syzygy a utonomy of he decla declares he res t hthat a t iin n tthe he anima anima and the t he animus a n im us figures figu res the the autonomy :

collective is l'xprL'Ssl'd expressed.. 'The 'The projection-m projection-making factor is is tthe tthe he col lect ive uunconscious nconsciolls is a k i n g factor he



1 1 8 Verena Kast 118 Verena Kast

anima, or or rather rather the the unconscious unconscious as as represented represented by by the the anima' anima'(Jung (lung1950/ 1 9501 11976: 976: par. anima and and animus animus can can be be par. 26). 26). This This text text also also makes makes it clear that anima realised through a relation relation to to aapartner partnerof ofthe theopposite opposite sex, sex, because because realised 'only through only in such such aa relation relation do dotheir theirprojections projectionsbecome become operative' operative'(Jung (lung1950/ 1 9501 11976: 976: par. 42). In the same text lung statement, pointing pointing to to the the Jung qualifies this statement, fact that not all the the contents contents of the anima or animus animus are are projected, projected, and and that that many of of them appear in dreams and and can can be be brought brought into into consciousness consciousness only only by the process process of of active active imagination imagination(Jung (lung1950/1976: 1 95011 976: par. par. 39). 39). and animus animus become become conscious, possible, and and the the If anima and conscious, as as far far as isis possible, individual is no longer dominated by them, there will be be fewer fewer illusions in relationships, and aa wider wider range range of ofemotional emotional and and cognitive cognitive experiences experiences will be possible — - and of better better bonding. bonding. These These andwith with that that comes comes the the possibility of developments are any emotional emotional relationship relationship to to an an developments are able able to to take place in any 'other'. realisation of of `other'. Nowadays Nowadays we we would would question question the the notion notion that that the realisation the relationship to to aa partner partner of ofthe the the anima and animus only takes place in aa relationship opposite human beings beings of of the the same same sex sex may may carry carry opposite sex. sex. We We find find today that human the animus. the images of anima or animus. In 1954, 1 954, in Coniunctionis, lung some important important final final In in Mysterium Coniunctionis, Jung makes some remarks about anima and and animus. animus. remarks of 'window on eternity', eternity', immortal immortal as as In so far as the spirit is also a kind of animus uxus divinus, animus rationalis, rationalis, it conveys conveys to to the the soul soul aa certain certain infl influxus divinus,. ... .. and the knowledge knowledge of a higher higher system system of of the the world, world, wherein wherein consists consists precisely supposed animation of the soul. precisely its supposed (lung 1 9541 1 968b: par. 338) 338) (Jung 1954/1968b: And: products of of the the anima anima(dreams, (dreams,fantasies, fantasies,visions, visions,symptoms, symptoms, And: 'If products coincidences) integrated, this this has hasaabeneficial beneficial coincidences) are are assimilated, digested and integrated, effect nourishment of of the the soul' soul' (Jung (lung1954/1968b: I 95411 968b: par. par. effect on the growth and nourishment R3). 83).

And this, his last last book, book, Jung lung stresses stresses the the idea idea that that the the animus animus And again in this, compensates female consciousness, which he identifi es with `eros', 'eros', while the identifies anima identified with 'logos' 'logos' (Jung (lung1954/ 1 9541 anima compensates compensates male consciousness, identified 1I968a: 1 8-227). Here the idea idea of of aamore more 968a:pars. pars. 2218-227). Here he he isis also struggling with the solar consciousness consciousness in more lunar lunar consciousness consciousness in women. women. Let Let in men men and a more us ion, lung us review review for for a moment moment the the background background to to this this idea. idea. In AAion, Jung claims that the anima corresponds corresponds to the mother, mother, the the animus animus to to the the that the to the eros of the logos lung, eros eros means means psychic psychic relatedness, relatedness, while while logos logos logos of the father. For Jung, means objective knowledge knowledge and and intellectual intellectual judgement. j udgement. means differentiation, differentiation, objective The positive positive aspect philosophical or or aspect of the animus expresses expresses .. . . spirit, philosophical rel igious iideas dea s in rticular, or or rather rather the the attitude attitude resulting resulting from from them. them. religious in pa particular, So t he animus also (like ( l i k l' the t he anima) a n im a ) isisaamediator mediatorbetween betweenthe theunconunl'On­ So the ioIlSIll'SS illld is a person i fication of the u nconscious . . scious aand n d consl consciousness and is ;1 personification of the unconscious. ... '

Anima/animus A n i ma/a n i m u s 119 1 19

Just as the to a man's lust the anima anima gives gives relationship relationship and and relatedness relatedness to man's concon­ sciousness, so the animus gives to a woman's consciousness sciousness, so the animus gives to consciousness aa capacity for reflection, reflection, deliberation and self self knowledge. knowledge. (Jung 1950/1976: (lung 1 95011 976: par. 33) 33) A summary A brief brief summary

When lung Jung wrote wrote about about what When what the animus animus and and anima anima have have in in common, common, he about archetypes archetypes that thatfunction function asasmediators mediatorsbetween between concon­ he was writing about sciousness and and the the unconscious, especially by by means sciousness unconscious, especially means of the the imagination. imagination. The The dynamic-creative dynamic-creativeaspect aspectof of the the anima anima and the animus animus archetype archetype is is described. described. The The dynamic-creative dynamic-creative aspect, aspect, however, however, is characteristic of every archetypal constellation. be seen as representing the unconscious at aa given given Anima and animus can be moment. The on the ego is The effect effect of of animus animus and and anima anima on is one one of of fascination fascination and and whichisis also also characdisquieting stimulation — - aa numinous experience experience — - which charac­ teristic situations. teristic of archetypal situations. Animus and anima are Animus are often often discovered discovered in in the the form form of of projections projections onto onto other other persons. persons. Since they represent the central contents of the unconscious, these very dependent dependent on on the person to to whom whom these projections make the projector projector very they are attached. It It is is very very difficult for that that person person not to behave in keeping with with the the projection, projection, leading to stereotypical assumptions about patterns of behaviour such such as as 'the way women are'. Once a projection that that has been cast cast on ust been been taken apart. on you you dissolves, dissolves, you you are are left feeling feeling as as if you have jjust You realise that you you were were not what itit was was all all about about— - that that it was not you as an individual, but rather you as aa carrier carrier of ofanima anima or or animus. animus. an individual, As animus and anima anima are are experienced experienced mainly mainly in in relationships relationships between between As animus men lung did not not introduce introduce the the idea idea of ofarchetypes archetypes men and and women, women, and because Jung earlier, but talked about about the the anima anima and andanimus animuscomplementing complementing the the persona, persona, his be seen seen as as aareflection reflection and andconfirmation confirmation of ofgender gender stereostereo­ his theory theory can be types. other hand, hand, in the the 1930s, 1 930s, itit must must have have been been refreshing refreshing for for types. On On the the other women, get in in touch touch with with women, in in the the context context of the the theory of individuation, to get the the 'male' aspects of their personality. When identifies the individual's individual's anima animaor oranimus animus— - even though he When lung Jung identifies considers to be be archetypes archetypes — - with considers these these at at the same time to with the the principles principles of eros once again again to to produce produce aa gender gender stereotype. stereotype. And And itit eros and and logos, it is easy once anima with with the the male male Greek Greek god godEros. Eros. seems seems slightly slightly strange to identify the anima Another with 'feeling' 'feeling' — - we Another questionable questionable identification identificationisis that that of anima with would 'emotion' nowadays nowadays — - and thinking, 'cognition' 'cognition' would say 'emotion' and animus with thinking, today, because of of the old old gender gender stereotypes stereotypes they imply. today, again because ItIt isis interesting references to the motif of the syzygy, syzygy, and and to interesting to to note the references the rchet ype of he COl/iUl/clio. t h i s conjunction, conjunction, the th e male male female female In this coniuncrio. In the aarchetype of tthe ddichotomy ichotomy is overcome, overcome. and alld aa balance oala nce isis achieved ach ieved between oetween the the feminine fem i n i ne and and

1120 20 Verena Verena Kast Kast

masculine aspects aspectswithin withinthe the psyche. psyche.This This seems seemscrucial crucialto to Jung Jung to allow masculine allow creativity and to engender creativity engender the the process process of ofbecoming becoming oneself. oneself. There is an There an aspect aspect of ofdevelopmental developmental psychology psychology connected connected with with this this concept, which which Jung Jung did not clearly concept, clearly explain. explain. When he found `his' 'his' anima anima in in his imagination, imagination, Jung was suspicious. suspicious. The The earlier earlier definitions definitions of of anima anima and his animus foreground the pathological element. We could conclude that that at at this this time his his anima was was contaminated with his mother complex. There are some definitions the first first human human beings beings definitions where whereJung Jung claims claims that that the the parents are the onto whom whom we we project anima anima and andanimus animus(Jung (Jung1954/1968a: 1 95411 968a: par. par. 226); 226); thus thus anima and animus animus are are influenced influenced by by these these complexes, complexes, which which makes makes them them 'difficult' might be be the the `difficult' or or may even even give give them them a pathological element. This might reason why why Jung, at aa later reason later stage, stage, gives gives aa more more positive positive meaning meaning to to anima anima and animus, separated more more fully from his and animus, having having separated fully from his mother mother and and father father complexes. He He also also argues argues in a more complexes. more psychological psychological way, saying saying that that these these psychic functions functions have have a positive effect effect when when integrated integrated as far as psychic as possible, possible, and a negative negative effect effect when rejected or only only remaining remaining in in projection. projection. Further, when when Jung Jung in in his his later later texts texts refers refers to the the spirit spirit as as the the`window 'window to to eternity', which which is is able able to animate the soul, eternity', soul, this this is is distinct distinct from from individual individual psychology, and the concept becomes becomes a gender-neutral one, psychology, the animus—anima animus-anima concept one, based on the humanities: that is based humanities: that is to say, say, with the realisation realisation of anima and the animus animus human human beings beings are are also also connected connectedtoto the the anima anima mundi mundi and and the possibility of enlightenment enlightenment about the the principle principle of oflife life itself. itself. possibility

The concept in The in practice A develops not A theory develops not only only through people's building and rebuilding it, but

also through daily daily use. use. In In the theuse usetherapists therapists make makeofofthe theJungian Jungiananima— anima­ theory, the thetheory theoryisissometimes sometimessimplified, simplified,or oreven evenfalsified: falsified: anima animaisis animus theory, referred animus as as the the male male aspects aspects of ofaa referred to as the female aspects aspects of a man, animus woman. This is talking talking in in terms terms of ofgender-role gender-role stereotypes, stereotypes, which which disregard disregard the archetypal aspect of the concept. We We also also find find analytic analytic jargon jargon and and bias: bias: the anima, except except in case of anima posession, posession, or perhaps a case of the the the anima, in a case or perhaps anima', is accorded ''free-floating free-floating anima', accorded respect, respect, even even reverence. reverence. The concept concept of of animus other hand hand isis often often used used totominimise minimise aawoman's woman'saccomaccom­ animus on on the other plishments good animus', animus', plishments -—even evenby by women women themselves: themselves:'She `Shejust justhas has a good someone will will say, say, meaning meaningthat that she she has has lost lost a lot someone lot of ofher herfemininity. femininity. The The criticism implied in in the the comment criticism implied comment that aa woman's woman's standpoint standpointisis`animusy' 'animusy' developed so much autonomy autonomy that thatshe she can silence a woman unless she has developed q uest ions the jargon jargon — - which which then naturally naturally suggests suggests her her animus animus again! again! questions W h a t the t he man man sees sees in in the the woman woman as as his his shadow, shadow, which which isis also also the theshadow shadow What often designated designated as as `negative 'negative animus'. animus'. Nor Nor must mustwe we thc patriarchy, pat riarchy, isis often of the forget the t hc confusion confusion about father father complex complex and and animus. a n i m us. Destructivity Dest ruct ivity in in forget which can can be bethe theconsequence con seq u ence of ofmany m a n ydifficult difficu lt womcn (and ( a nd also a lso in i n men), men ) , which women l'olllpkx -l'onstclla t i ons, is ro ngly aattributed t t rihuted to the t hc negative ncga t i ve animus. a n i m us. complex-constellations, is oneil often w wrongly

A n i m a/an i m u s 121 1 21 Anima/animus M aj or innovati ons, criti c i s m s, d e ve l o p m ent Major innovations, criticisms, development

Almost who have published published papers have have something something to to say say Almost all all Jungians Jungians who about wide range of of interests: the process of of about this basic concept. It touches a wide individuation, development of the Self, Self, the infantile origins of of the Self, Self, individuation, the development transference-countertransference fascina­ transference-countertransferenceand and the the analytic analytic relationship, relationship, the fascination mythological symbols us, the the archetypal archetypal basis basis of tion that mythological symbolscan can hold hold for for us, relationships, processes. II will relationships, love love and and separation processes. will therefore therefore mention mention only only a few criticisms and developments. developments. few of of the innovations, criticisms During Jung's lifetime, lifetime, it was not so so much much criticism criticism of of this concept which which led led to to many many different different approaches approachestoto this this part part of of his his work, work, but but rather the working of the the phenomenology phenomenology of of these these archetypal archetypal figures figures in mythomytho­ working out out of logical study of logical material. material. For For example, example, Marie-Louise Marie-Louisevon vonFranz Franz made made aa study fairy fairy tales, tales, showing their relevance to clinical cases, especially especially in in connection connection with individuation process. process. In In her her writings writings she she explored explored how how widewide­ with the the individuation ranging the phenomenology phenomenology of the anima and animus animus is, is, and and she she repeatedly repeatedly emphasised denying the the negative negative emphasised the the positive positive aspect aspect of the animus, without denying one. spirit, courage, courage, truthfulness truthfulness one. The `The animus can personify an enterprising spirit, highest form, form, spiritual spiritual profundity' profundity' (von (von Franz Franz1968: 1 968: 195). 1 95). and, and, in the highest Emma 1 967) in Emma Jung ((1967) in her her book book Animus Animus and and Anima, Anima, which which isis based based on on aa talk she gave in 1931, 1 93 1 , is in is also also dealing very much with the phenomenology, in connection with mythological mythological symbols, symbols, and and some someclinical clinical implications. implications. connection with However, basically aa description description of how how `the 'the modern modern However, this this account account is is basically woman' 'the modern modern man' man' in in the the 1930s 1 930s understands understands or or should should underunder­ woman' and `the stand themselves themselves in theories, and be grateful for this this in relation relation to Jung's new theories, new her text text the the woman, woman, the the feminine feminine and and the the new approach. approach. Even Even when when in in her anima are all mixed up, the the text text imparts imparts an anatmosphere atmosphere of ofchange. change. Esther ( 1 932) wrote about the the implications implications Esther Harding (1932) wrote a remarkable book about of the anima—animus anima-animus theory on women. She shows how anima and animus animus theory on women. shows and are at work in everyday life, in relationships and in fantasies. One are work in everyday life, relationships fantasies. One of the main topics she deals with is the impact the projection anima has has main topics she deals with is projection of the anima upon aa woman woman — - in present-day present-day terminology we could even speak speak about about can free free projective identifi cation — - and identification and she shegives givesadvice adviceas asto to how how a woman can from these projections. She sees it as a cultural problem, that men herself herself from these projections. She sees it as cultural men project onto women, women, and and women women behave behave as as they they are are supposed supposed project their anima onto to behave due to this projection. When When aa woman woman is is able able to to free free herself herself from this projection she takes responsibility for herself: she is a self-aware, self­ this she takes responsibility for herself: she is a self-aware, selfassured book shows shows how how important the the concept concept of of the the anima anima assured woman. woman. This This book was the emancipation emancipation of of women women in in the the1930s. 1 930s. was for for the At later stage, stage, some some took took aa more more questioning questioning approach approach to to this thisconcept. concept. At aa later Hillman 1 985) investigates sort out out Hillman ((1985) investigatesthe theconcept conceptof ofthe the anima, anima, and and tries tries to to sort tthe he different d i fferen t aspects idea. He Hc rejects rej ec ts the the notion notion of ofcontrasexuality .cont rasexu a l i t y aspects of of the idea. and crit icises tthe he dichotomies d ichotolll ies w h i c h aare rc forced forced upon upon the the anima, a n i ma , such such as as and criticises which conscious nconscious. pnsona n i llla . aanima n i llla animus, a n i lll us. because, heca use. if i f it it isis conscious uunconscious, persona aanima,



1 22 Verena Verena Kast Kast 122

seen this and thus thus has has no no right right seen this way, way, the the anima anima is is only only part part of of the the 'tandem', 'tandem', and to exist exist in in herself, herself, which which suggests suggests that if aa man man isis identified identified with with aa very very male male to that if persona, he he has has as as compensation compensation aa strong strong anima. anima. persona, The reason reason the the anima anima isis seen seen as as one one of ofaapair, pair,Hillman Hillmanobserves, observes,isistotobe be The found in in the theconnection connectiontotothe thesyzygy, syzygy,the themale—female male-female divine divine couple. couple. This This found is aa polarity polarity which which is is intrinsic, intrinsic, but but itit leads leads Hillman Hillman to to the theconclusion conclusion that that is anima and and animus animus trigger trigger each each other. other. Soul Soul and and spirit spirit call call for for each each other; other; ifif anima we are in touch touch with with the the anima, anima, we we are are also also in in touch touch with withthe theanimus. animus.He He we are in sees the the psychic psychic experience experience of of the the syzygy syzygy as as psychic-spiritual psychic-spiritual inspiration. inspiration. sees Commenting on on Jung's lung's definition definition of of anima anima as as the thearchetype archetypeof ofthe the'femin'femin­ Commenting ine' (Jung (lung 1949/1976: 1 9491 1 976: par. the archetype archetype of of 'life 'life itself', itself', Hillman Hillman ine' par. 356), 356), and and the ( 1 985) concludes for males males and and (1985) concludes that that these these archetypes archetypes are are equally equally important important for females. He rejects the that an an archetype archetype can can be begender genderspecific. specific. He He females. He rejects the idea idea that also points points to to the the fact fact that thatininclinical clinicalwork workwe we find find images images of ofthe the anima animainin also women, and and also also emotions emotions which which are are connected connected with with the the anima anima in inwomen. women. women, Samuels 1989) argues there isis no nofeminine feminine principle. principle. He Hesuggests suggests Samuels ((1989) argues that that there that differences in in feminine feminine or masculine psychology psychology are are due due to to culture culture and and that differences or masculine society. Samuels both both reject reject the the idea idea of of contrasexuality, contrasexuality, but but society. Hillmann Hillmann and and Samuels accept the the archetypal archetypal aspect aspect of of anima anima and and animus. animus. accept Gordon ( 1 993) claims claims that the anima animafigure figure is is possessed possessed by by both both men men and and Gordon (1993) that the women. She sees difference as the relationship relationship to to the theanima: anima: women. She sees the the difference as being being in in the men it through through projection projection onto onto aa woman, woman, aa woman woman through through men relate relate to to it identification with it. Gordon also points out that the anima is different identification with it. Gordon also points out that the anima is different from woman, and and notes notes the the confusion confusion among among Jung lung and and some some of of his his from the the woman, followers whereby woman and anima are sometimes seen as interchange­ followers whereby woman and anima are sometimes seen as interchangeable. She sees sees in the anima anima an an archetypal, archetypal,cultural culturaland andcollective collectiveinfluence. influence. able. She in the She also makes a distinction between 'mother' and 'anima', saying that She also makes a distinction between 'mother' and 'anima', saying that mother is the elemental character, and anima the transformative character. mother is the elemental character, and anima the transformative character. IHere lere she myths and and fairy fairy she is is referring referring to to Neumann's Neumann's concept, concept, but but also also to to myths tilles, where the anima lures the hero into the world, far away from mother, talcs, where the anima lures the hero into the world, far away from mother, while keep him at home. home. while mother mother tries tries to to keep him at Young-Eisendrath and Wiedemann ( 1 987), in Empow­ Female Authority: EmpowYoung-Eisendrath and Wiedemann (1987), in Female ('rinK Women through Psychotherapy, discuss a model of animus develop­ discuss a model of animus developering Women through Psychotherapy, ment which women be fighting fighting the 'deficit model' ment in in which women may may be be seen seen to to be the 'deficit model' of of femininity and an internalised sense of the inferiority of women. is aa femininity and an internalised sense of the inferiority of women. It It is hook rich in in clinical clinical examples; forward aa model model of of psychopsycho­ hook rich examples; the the authors authors put put forward therapy with women which works with the 'animus complex'. For them, the therapy with women which works with the 'animus complex'. For them, the iinterpersonal n terpersonal relationship is essential for the development of the person­ relationship is essential for the development of the personality. model for for animus-development animus-development in building up up the the female female Self Self is is ality. The The model in building very be done done in in this this area. area. very interesting; interesting;more more research researchcould could and and should should be 1 994) discusses in Jungian Jungian (Giegerich iiegeric h ((1994) discussesthe theposition positionof of the the animus animus theory theory in psych ology. At h e outse\ , he of interest interest in in this this aspect aspect of of the the psychology. At tthe outset, he notes notes aa lack lack of theory. l l' comlllen t s tthat h a t the t h e aanimus n i m u s ha n ega t i ve con n o t a t ion. iin n tthat h a t it it theory. IIle comments hass aa negative connotation, �el'IllS o hhave a w hl'l'n in vl'ntl,d iin n a a mechanical Illecha n ica l way t he opposite opposite of o f the t he seems tto been invented way as as the

Anima/animus Ani ma/an i m u s 123 1 23

anima. His conclusion is that the concept of is born born out of of the animus itself is of the negative negative animus animus and and therefore therefore itit isis questionable questionable whether whether women women are are able to develop develop animus qualities. qualities. He even even doubts doubts whether whether there there is is such such aa thing thing as the the animus, animus, claiming claiming that thatpsychological psychological terms terms must must be bederived derived from the phenomenology phenomenology of the the soul. soul. Giegerich Giegerich connects connects the animus animus with with thinking —and and feels feelsthat that as as a concept thinking concept itit needs needs further further development development in in Jungian psychology. psychology. My own work (Kast (Kast 1984) 1 984) has has been been to to explore explore the the idea idea of ofthe thesyzygy, syzygy, the the anima and animus animus seen seen as as aa couple. couple. Working Working with with people people in in mourning, mourning, II found that acceptance found acceptance of death death is easier easier for those those who who are are aware aware of of the the fantasies underlying their relationships. Such fantasies Such individuals individuals understand understand which which fantasies bound bound them them to their fantasies their partner partner when when their their relationship relationship was was most most vital and which vital which aspects aspects of of their their own own personality personality their theirpartner partnerenlivened. enlivened. These people people feel feel robbed robbed by by their their partner's death, but These but they they are are also also aware aware of what cannot be taken from them in their partner's death. The what cannot be taken from them in their partner's death. The crucial crucial work in mourning is often the laying work laying bare of of the the fantasies fantasies contained in the the relationship. These fantasies, which change in the course of relationship. These fantasies, which change of aa lifetime, lifetime, can can reveal the the meaning meaning of the relationship in terms reveal terms of of an an individual's individual's developdevelop­ ment and life. Underlying these fantasies about the relationship are mytholife. Underlying these fantasies about mytho­ logical images images of of the the sacred logical sacred marriage, marriage, such as as the the unions unions celebrated celebrated by by Shiva and and Shakti, Shakti, or Zeus Shiva Zeus and Hera. Hera. In In my my discussion discussion of the the myths myths of of sacred marriage, marriage, II demonstrate sacred demonstrate how how human human relationships, relationships, depicted depicted in in narratives, dreams, fantasies and literature, mirror narratives, mirror the the relationships relationships of ofsuch such divine couples. couples. II also also postulate postulate the the idea that both divine both men men and and women women possess possess anima and animus, anima animus, and that that anima anima and and animus animus very very often often can can be beexperiexperi­ enced in in unconscious material as as a couple. enced unconscious material couple. This also also has has aa clinical clinical impliimpli­ cation: if there is an relationship, we cation: an imbalance imbalance in in the theanima—animus anima-animus relationship, we can ask what what kind of ask of anima anima figure figure could could be touched touched by by the the relevant relevant animus animus and work work it out through fifigure gure and through imagination. imagination. In the paper 'Animus and anima: In anima: spiritual growth and separation' (Kast ( Kast discuss the the development developmentof of anima anima and and animus, moving from the 11993) 993) I I discuss animus, moving fusion with with mother mother and father representation of fusion father complexes ((Kast Kast 1997) 1 997) to the representation of anima and animus anima animusfigures figures which which are aremuch muchless less influenced influenced by by these these complexes. complexes. Individuation requires requires not not only only the the integration of anima and animus but Individuation also a separation Here one one needs also separation from from one's one's parental parental complexes. complexes. Here needs to separate emotionally emotionally from from one's actual parents separate parents as aswell well as aspsychologically psychologically from one's one's parental complexes. A human resource available to those of us from complexes. A resource available us engaged in in the the difficult difficultprocess processof ofseparation separation is is the the storehouse storehouse of archetypal engaged parental images. images. These These can can aid aid us us in differentiating differentiating ourselves ourselves from from our our own own parental parents. Further Further resources resources that that are crucial crucial to the process separation are parents. process of separation the archetypes archetypes of of anima anima and and animus. animus, which orchestrate the process in a very the orga nic way. h e beginning of a phase of of separation separation (of (of which which there there seem seem organic way. A Att tthe t h father to be many), many). anima a n i ma and a nd animus a n imus figures figures aare re m ixed up to he mixed up wi with father and and mother complexes, obscuringt their identity function. For quite mot her com plexes. t hthus u s obscuring he i r iden t i t y aand nd funct ion . For quite

24 Verena Kast 1124



some time, time, animus animus and anima some anima are are influenced influenced by by individual individual father father and and mother complexes. complexes. But at their core core is is always a spark spark of ofthe themore moreessential, essential, archetypal animus animus and anima figures, lead the ego archetypal figures, which which lead ego complex complex into aa journey of of separation separation from from the the parental parentalcomplexes. complexes. During the the course course of a research project, looking looking at about 600 During research project, 600 dreams, I categories of of anima anima and animus, which show found various categories show the relation to the father and the and mother mother complexes complexes but also also demonstrate demonstrate the the possiblities possiblities of of development into independent anima development anima and and animus animusfigures figures (Kast (Kast1993). 1 993). The categories categories were: were: •

•

•

• •

•

•

• •

•

teachers, politicians politicians (male Authority figures: figures: teachers, (male and female), female), priests priests and and priestesses, kings kings and queens. Such priestesses, Such figures figures closely resembled images images of father and mother. mother. Brother/sister figures figures (with (with an archetypal quality). Brother/sister quality). strangers: nixies, nixies, gypsies, gypsies, travellers travellers from from outer space, Mysterious strangers: space, death gods and goddesses. This included included a subcategory as brother/sister, brother/sister, gods goddesses. This subcategory of or bridegroom. bridegroom. animal bride or Wise old man/woman. Wise often connected connected with with the the archetype of Unknown girl/boy. These figures, figures, often the divine child, seem seem to represent represent developmental developmental stages stages of of the the anima/ animal animus; animus; new configurations of anima/animus are often often first first symbolised symbolised as an an unknown unknown child. child.

In categories with colleagues In my discussion of these different categories colleagues and students, thc impression grew strictly speaking, speaking, only the the mysterious mysterious stranger stranger the impression grew that, strictly ((including animus/ includingwise wiseold old woman/man woman/man and and divine divine child) child) qualified qualified as as an animus/ figure. But some aspect of of the the mysterious mysterious stranger stranger is is always always present present anima figure. in the thc other categories categories as well. well . This recognition has the following following important important implication therapy. implication for therapy. IIff wc authority animus/anima animus/anima figure figure as as deriving deriving strictly strictly from from we interpret an authority tthe he father/mother imago and the the authority authority complex, complex, our our interpretations interpretationswill will he onc-sided, of helping the analysand analysand with with the the one-sided, and we will will fail fail in in our task of problem of separation prohlcm separation from from the the parental parentalcomplexes. complexes. Indeed, Indeed, such such interinter­ pret a t ions may even even confirm confirm the analysand's bonds bonds to to the thefather/mother father/mother pretations c om pl ex hy reinforcing the nothing will will ever ever change. change. By By recogrecog­ complex by reinforcing the idea that nothing n isi ng tthe he dimension dimension of the mysterious mysterious stranger stranger through work work with with fanfan­ nising ta sies and and imagination, imagination, our our interpretations interpretations can can open open up upthe thecomplexes, complexes, tasies shed light light on the the mystery mystery and offer offer some some hope. hope. New New paths paths are are cleared cleared for for shed poten t i a l g r ow t h and development. I am persuaded that the authoritypotential growth and development. I persuaded that the authorityIInim us/a n i ma and a nd a lesscr cxtent brother/sister-animus/anima-animus/anima to to a lesser extent thethe brother/sister-animus/anima l i re figures figures tthat h a t overlap and and may may conceal conceal aa number numberof ofdifferent differentdimensions. d imensions. arc andexperiexperi­ i n t erpreta t io n should should lead lead to t othe t heanalysand's ana lysand'srecognising recog n i s i ngand Thus interpretation t he various dimensions d i mensions aand lld nuances n u a nces contained con t a i ned potentially potent ia l l y within w i t h i n the t he encing the l'ompkx il11agl'. complex image.

Ani ma/an i m u s 125 1 25 Anima/animus

If see in these these images images only only individual individual fathers, fathers, mothers, mothers, sisters sisters and and If we we see brothers, brothers, the unconscious is is reduced reduced to to the status of a family grave. grave. (Natur­ (Naturally, ally, the the basic basic father father and mother complexes complexes have have an an effect effecton on the the image image of of the the mysterious mysterious stranger stranger as well.) well.) But But if if we weare are able able to to entertain entertain aa dimension dimension ambiguity, we ego complex complex to to the the influx influx of ofthe thecollective collective of of ambiguity, we open open the ego unconscious and we may help people discover discover realms realms in in their their psyche psyche that that are not determined by relationships to father, mother mother and siblings. siblings. In the the not determined by relationships to father, process, spirituality. process, we we help help in in the discovery discovery of the individual's spirituality. Daniela universities of Daniela Heisig, Heisig, in in her her thesis thesis at at the universities of Bonn Bonn and and Zurich Zurich in 11994, 994, investigated others investigatedthe thehypotheses hypothesesof ofHillmann, Hillmann,Gordon, Gordon, Kast Kast and others empirically whether the the anima animaisisgender genderspecific. specific. empirically through through her inquiry into whether Her research was done with with dreams dreams from from different different dream dream data banks. banks. Her research was done Heisig Heisigcombined combined two two methods: methods:dream dream interpretation interpretation in in aa group using the method amplification, and aa qualitative-quantitative qualitative-quantitative content content analysis. analysis. method of amplification, The results were compared using using statistical statistical methods. methods. This demonstrated demonstrated The results were compared that archetypal image image of the anima anima can can be be experienced experienced in dreams of of that the archetypal both women. both men and women. The gure of differs from other female female figures The fi figure of the the anima differs figures in in dreams dreams in a number ways: the the characteristics characteristics of the the figure figure can can be be categorised categorised as as number of ways: evincing evincing fascination, fascination, strangeness, strangeness, radical radical fervour, fervour, wisdom, wisdom, bringing bringing about the initiation of transformation, transformation, and helping in in aa dangerous dangerous situation. situation. the initiation and helping These These categories, categories, at at my my suggestion, suggestion, were were identified identifiedand and elaborated. elaborated. So So the anima as as the the mysterious mysterious stranger stranger could could be be subdivided subdivided into into anima anima as asguide, guide, anima and anima anima as asstranger. stranger. The Theresults results were were anima as guide guide to transformation, and published in a book ( Heisig 1 996). published book (Heisig 1996). Ellen the University University of Zurich Zurich also also uses uses Ellen Heinke Heinke (2000) (2000)in in her her thesis thesis at at the statistical methods to attempt to verify the hypothesis that both men statistical methods to attempt verify the hypothesis that both men and woman can experience what is called 'animus'. She She devised devised a questionnaire, questionnaire, starting with lung's own central definitions of the anima and animus. She She starting with Jung's definitions animus. used this questionnaire questionnaire for forsemi-structured semi-structuredinterviews interviewswith withexperts experts—- senior senior and analysts, with with equal equal numbers women and men. men . From these these and junior analysts, numbers of women interviews she formed categories of answers, which have been statistically interviews she formed categories answers, have been statistically results elaborated with NMDS N MOS (nonmetrical (nonmetrical moredimensional moredimensional scaling). scaling). The results are very interesting: I have never seen so many facets of the animus in one one interesting: I never seen so facets publication all collected from our colleagues. The results showed that publication — all collected from our colleagues. The results showed there difference between the average average there is is a difference between lung's Jung's concept concept of the animus and the view of the experts. The animus is not seen as being gender specific, but view experts. animus is not seen as being gender specific, but there are differences differences between what is is expected expected from betweenmen men and and women women as to what the experience of far more more positive positive emotions emotions associated associated with with the experience of it. it. There There are are far 'being animated' animated'isisassociassoci­ the in Jung's lung's account; account; in in particular, particular, 'being the animus animus than than in ated with the the experience experience of of animus. animus. A n ne Springer Spri nger ((2000) 2000) pproposes ro p o ses in rticle to to give give up the the constructs constructs of of Anne in an an aarticle aanima n ima and animus, a n i m us, as as complexes com plexes aand n d also a lso as archetypal a rchetypal structures. s t ruct u res. She S h e found found tthe he concept cOlll:ept was was not lIot helpful, hcl pful. especially l'SfWl'ially in in clinical clin ical work work with w i t hhomosexual homosexual

Verena Kast 1126 26 Verena



Ani ma/a n i m u s 127 1 27 Anima/animus

female patients. patients. Springer Springer views views aa feminine homosexual development development as as a female feminine homosexual successful mode mode of of living, living, an an example example of successful individuation, and not successful successful individuation, not necessarilyasas aa pathological development,even even when when the the animus necessarily pathological development, animus has experienced in in a sexual sexual relationship relationship with a man. Springer not been experienced Springer criticises criticises the contrasexual construct of anima and the contrasexual construct and animus. animus. The Thereactions reactionspublished published in the Journal of of Analytical A nalytical Psychology by Braun and and Wilke Wilke (2001) (2001 ) show in in a very clear way what different views of this concepts there may may be: be: Braun Braun and Wilke Wilke do not want to to give give it up, up, but but to todifferentiate differentiate it. it. However, However, they they do not deny deny that that aahomosexual homosexual development development can can be be aa form formofofsuccessful successful individuation. Hopcke ((1989) has explored explored the the concepts concepts of of anima and animus Hopcke 1 989) has animus in in relarela­ tion to male male homosexuality. homosexuality. He finds that the the variables variables of of sexual sexual identity, identity, such as anatomical gender, such gender, socio-cultural socio-cultural sex-roles sex-roles and sexual sexual orientation, orientation, have become become confused confused in in lungian Jungian psychology. have psychology. He suggests suggests that personal personal experienceand and an an awareness of archetypes archetypes are are important, experience awareness of important, and 'proposes 'proposes that the sexual sexual orientation of of an an individual individual is is determined determined through through aa comcom­ plex interaction interaction of the plex the archetypal archetypal masculine, masculine, the the archetypal archetypal feminine feminine and and the archetypal androgyne' androgyne' (see (see Christopher Christopher 2000). 2000). Current for the C urrent views views and trends for t h e future future

M any of of the the difficulties difficulties and misunderstandings misunderstandings in this this area area have haveresulted resulted Many from individuals referring different definitions definitions from different different stages stages in in from individuals referring to different Jung's own own development development of of this this concept. concept. However, However, perhaps perhaps we we could could agree agree about the the following: foIlowing: Jung Jung never never maintained maintained that that archetypes archetypes are aregender gender specific. animus must must exist exist in persons persons of of both both specific.ItIt foIlows followsthat that anima anima and and animus sexes. Empirical research sexes. Empirical research seems seems to indicate indicate the the same. same. J ung wrote wrote that that the theanimus animuscorresponds corresponds toto'masculine 'masculineconsciousness' consciousness' Jung ((logos) logos) and the anima anima to to 'feminine 'feminineconsciousness' consciousness'(eros). (eros). This Thiseasily easilyleads leads to to the conclusion the very opposite of of men, men, which which was was in in conclusion that that women women are are the very keeping with the prevailing prevailing psychological views of the 1930s. 1 930s. In speaking speaking of of eras as 'making ('ros 'making connections connections and establishing establishing relationships' relationships' and logos logos as 'making distinctions, distinctions, speaking opinions, discerning', discerning', lung's speaking one's one's opinions, Jung's thought to traditional traditionalsex-roles sex-roles(Jung (lung1954/1968a: 1 95411 968a: par. par.218). 2 1 8). conformed to More recently, feminist psychologists have have taken taken the view view that that the making of connections and establishing relationships is is central to to the the role role of ofwomen women to be be valued valued as as such such (Gilligan (Gilligan1982). 1 982). But But we we are are nonetheless nonetheless aware aware that that and to hot h sexes sexes need need the talent both for for relationship relationship and and for fordiscrimination. discrimination. In In both words, it makes makes no sense to assume that autonomy autonomy comes comes naturally naturaIly to to other words, one sex sex any more more than than itit does doestotoassume assumethat thatrelationship relationshipcomes comesmore more one I n addition, n a t u rally to to the t he other. other. In wemust mustsurely surely ask ask whether whether itit makes makes any any add i t ion,we naturally spea k of consciousness m a l e or 'female'. II doubt dOllht this, t h is,and and sense to speak consciousness as as heing being 'male' '

'

s u pport the t he above a hove aargument rgll llll'nt which, w h idl,interestingly, i n teres t ingly, isis corroborated corrohora ted by hy the t he support findings findi ngs of modern Illodern neurobiology 1ll' l I l'P hi o l ot-(y (1)antasio ( I >alllasio1999). 1 l)l)!J ) .

lung that the the anima animacompensates compensates male male consciousness consciousness and Jung did did maintain that the the animus female female consciousness, consciousness, assuming assuming that that the first first occasion occasion in a boy's life girl's life, the father. But But life for for projections projections was was the themother, mother, and and that in the girl's this fundamental misunderstanding, misunderstanding, for fororiginally originaIly— - in most most this arises arises from a fundamental cases cases -—the thegirl, girl,like likethe theboy, boy,bonds bondswith with the the mother. mother. We see see again again how the psychology of men. men. psychologyof of women women isis so so often often based based on on that of In sum, anima anima and and animus animus are are archetypes, archetypes, but they are not not gender gender In sum, but they specific specific-—both bothcan canbe beconstellated constellatedininmen menas as well wellas aswomen, women,and and they they often appear tandem, as as couples. couples. However, However, even even when when we anima appear in tandem, we agree agree that anima and archetypes, there may may be be some some disagreement disagreement about about archearche­ and animus are archetypes, types types themselves. II understand archetypes, archetypes, or archetypal archetypal fields, fields, to ordering or or strucstruc­ to be ordering turing principles, common to all human beings, which allow us to register turing principles, common beings, which allow us to register information emotion — - usually usuaIly in in images images — - as as having having meaningful meaningful information and emotion connections. They also promote meaningful and life-preserving connections. They also meaningful and life-preserving behaviour and action in any given situation. and action in any given situation. II am am not not talking talking about about a static order or structure, but about one which is continually renewing structure, about one which is continually renewing itself in in the sense sense of aa self-organisation self-organisation of the outer outer of the the psyche psycheinin response responseto to the the body body and and the world. stories that are linked linked to to them, them, are are world. The The archetypal archetypal images, images, and and the stories very their narrative narrative core, have aa pronounced pronounced capacity capacity for very stable stable in in their core, but have marginal These archetypal archetypal images images are mediated mediated and and coloured coloured by by marginal variation. These our complexes (lung 1 9571 1 97 1 : par. internalised patterns patterns our complexes (Jung 1957/1971: par. 856), 856), that that is, is, our our internalised of relating, are also also influenced influenced by the the current current social social climate. climate. relating, and are II understand complexes as as generalised, generalised, internalised internalised episodic episodic relationship relationship understand complexes patterns always imply an emotionally emotionaIly toned toned collision coIlision between between aa patterns which which always imply an significant at any any given given time. time. significantother other and and the the ego ego as it is at II would animus as as archetypal archetypal images images and archetypal archetypal would speak of anima and animus experiences male figures figures appear, appear, for for experiencesonly only when when numinous numinous female female or or male example highly charged they produce produce example in in dreams; dreams; they they are are emotionaIly emotionally highly charged and and they an intense feeling feeling that makes possible possible aa sense sense of of transcending transcending everyday everyday life. life. That would correspond correspond with with the thearchetypal archetypalexperience experience as as Jung lungdescribes describes it. it. That would Anima and animus animus regulate regulate relationship relationship in in the the widest widest sense, sense, relationship relationship to a 'thou', to to 'the 'theother', other',above aboveall alllove loverelationships, relationships, erotic erotic and and sexual, sexual, but but also the inner inner world world of of fantasies. fantasies. We We could could also relations between between the the ego ego and the even of even call call them them archetypes archetypesof of relationship relationshipand and bonding. bonding. From From the the point of view psychological development, start with with view of of psychological development,anima animaand and animus animus are are to to start linked to the the parental parental complexes, complexes, and are are obviously obviously coloured coloured by by them. them. The The impulses anima archetypes archetypes lead lead to to an an ageage­ impulses connected connected with with the the animus animus and and anima appropriate separation of ofthe theego-complex ego-complex from from these these complexes, complexes, bringing bringing appropriate separation us closer to the individual individual personality, personality, to to the the Self, Self, and and perhaps perhaps even even to to us closer to the images being in in relationship something like like an Anima Mundi. Mundi. PhePhe­ images of of being relationship to to something an Anima nomenologica lly, aanima n ima and a n im us then then appear appear as as the themysterious, mysterious, fascifasci­ nomenologically, and animus nating and provoke provoke emotionally emotionally an an atmosphere atmosphere of ofmoving moving towards towards nating stranger, stranger, and major changes. cha Ilgcs.

1 28 Verena VerenaKast Kast 128

Future developments developments Future

do not notthink thinkthat thatsome someviews views of ofthis this subject subject are are right right and and others others are are I[ do wrong. When we look at these concepts from other perspectives, we find wrong. When we look at these concepts from other perspectives, we find different opinions opinions of of them. them. Indeed, Indeed,having havingdifferent differentexperiences experiencesourselves ourselves different with anima anima and and animus, animus, we we may may prefer prefer some some aspects aspects of of the the theory, theory, and and with neglect others. neglect others. We need need more more interviews interviews with with experts, experts, with with Jungian Jungian analysts, analysts, which which We could then then be be analysed analysed in in an an empirical empirical way. way. We We should should find find out out what what the the could concept means means personally personally to the analyst, analyst, and and ininwhich whichclinical clinical key key situsitu­ concept to the ations they they find find the the concept concept of ofuse. use. We We could could explore explore whether whether ititisis more more of ofaa ations clinical concept rather, the the individual's individual's vision vision of ofhumanity, humanity, which which clinical concept or, or, rather, naturally also also has has an an influence influence on on their their clinical clinical theories theories and and work. work. naturally We need need to to do do more more empirical empirical research research to to find find out out whether whether men men and and We women possess anima and animus, animus, whether whether there there are arestatistical statisticaldifferences differences women possess anima and in the the experience experience of of these these specific specific archetypal and in in in archetypal situations situations in in men men and women, in what what situations situations we we find find the the image image of of the the anima anima and andanimus animus women, and and in as couple. as aa couple. [n connection with with animus animus and and anima animawe weare arenecessarily necessarily referring referring aa good good In connection deal to projection. projection. We We should should investigate investigate this this connection connection further. further. Perhaps Perhaps deal to we talk more more about about 'resonance'. 'resonance'. II have have gained gained the the impression impression that that we should should talk very there is is aa resonance resonance between between different different archetypal archetypalfields, fields,especially especially very often often there anima and and animus animus in in people people who who are are in in close close contact contact with with each each other, other, but but anima also in individuals' individuals' relationship relationship with nature, with with art, art, with withintellectual intellectual also in with nature, concepts - and be too too static static to toexplain explain concepts — andthe theconcept concept of of projection projection seems seems to to be In this the interchange. In this respect respect we we will doubt, be be challenged challenged by by the the the interchange. will also, also, no no doubt, findings of neuroscience. neuroscience. findings of Reference Referencess Braun, and Wilke, Wilke, H.-J. H .-J. (2001) (200 1 ) `Bye-bye 'Bye-bye anima'. 32: Analytical Psychology, Psychology, 32: Braun, C C. and anima'. Analytical 53-65. 53-65. (Christopher, 'hristopher, E E.. (2000) (2000) 'Gender 'Gender issues: issues:anima animaand andanimus', animus', in in EE.. Christopher Christopher and and H H.. Thought in World. London: McFarland Solomon (eds) (eds) Jungian London: Free Jungian Thought in the the Modern Modern World. McFarland Solomon Association. Association. Damasio, ( 1 999) The f What What Happens: Happens: Body Body and and Emotion Emotion in in the the The Feeling Feeling oof Damasio, A.R. A.R. (1999) arcourt Brace. Brace. Making ofConsciousness. Consciousness. New New York: York: H Harcourt Making of aIM, Germany: Germany: Lang. Lang. ((iicgerich, i iegerich, W. ( 1 994) Animus-Psychologie. Frankfurt a/M, Animus-Psychologie. Frankfurt W. (1994) ( 1 982) In Dif ferent Voice: Voice: Psychological Psychological Theory Theory and andWoman's Woman 'sDevelDevel(Gilligan, iilligan, C. In aa Different C. (1982) oplllent. Harvard University University Press. Press. Cambridge, MA: MA: Harvard opment. Cambridge, (Gordon, Jordon, R. R . (1993) ( 1 993) Bridges. London: Karnac. Karnac. Bridges. London: IIl larding, a rd i ng, E 1 932) The f all Women. New Longmans, Green. Green . New York: York: Longmans, The Way Way oof all Women. E.. ((1932) IIkillkc, I : . (2000) ( lOOO) 'Das ' Das Animus-Konzept Animus-Konzept C.G. CG. Jungs Jungs aus aus der derSicht SichtAnalytischer A n a l ytische r kink!, E. un puhlish ed I'sycholog i n ncn liund nd Psychologen. Psychologinnen Psychologen. Eine Eine empirische empirische lJntersllchling', Untersuchung', unpublished IIliesis, Ill'sis, II l Iniversily n i vl'I'si l Y Ill' of I.i'lrich. /Oriel).

Anima/animus Ani ma/a n i m u s 129 1 29 Heisig, D. (1996) ( 1 996) Die Anima: Der Der Archetyp Archetyp des des Lebendigen. Lebendigen . Zurich and and Diisseldorf: Dusseldorf: Walter. Hillman, J. J. (1985) ( 1 985) Anima: An Anatomy Notion. Dallas, TX: Spring. A natomy of of a Personified Notion. Spring. Hopcke, R. R . (1989) ( 1 989) Jung, Jungians and and Homosexuality. Homosexuality . Boston, Boston, MA: MA: Shambhala. Shambhala. CG. (1919/1966) ( 1 9 1 91 1 966) The Jung, C.G. 'The structure of the unconscious', in C CW 7: pars. pars. 442-521. W 7: 442-52 1 . -( 1 925/ 1 972) ' Marriageasas (1925/1972) 'Marriage a psychological a psychologicalrelationship', relationship', in in CW C W 17: 1 7: pars. pars. 324-345. (1927/1974) 'Mind and and earth', earth', in in C CW -( 1 927/1 974) ' Mind W 110: 0: pars. 7 1 -76. pars. 71-76. -- (1928/1966) 'The relations relations between betweenthe the ego ego and and the unconscious', ( 1 928/ 1 966) The unconscious', in CW C W 7: 7: pars. 202-406. 202-406. -- (1934/1976) 'Archetypes of of the collective unconscious', in in C CW ( 1 934/ 1 976) 'Archetypes collective unconscious', W 9i: 1 -86. 9i: pars. pars. 1-86. ( 1 935) The (1935) The Tavistock in C Tavistock Lectures', CW Lectures', in pars. 1-415. W 118: 8: pars. 1 -4 1 5. (1936/1976) 'Concerningthe the archetypes archetypesand and the the anima anima concept', concept', in in C -( 1 936/ 1 976) 'Concerning W 9i: CW pars. 111-147. 1 1 1 - 1 47. in CW CW 116: pars. 353-539. -(1946/1971) ( 1 9461 1 97 1 ) 'The The psychology psychology of the transference', transference', in 6: pars. - ( 1 94911 976) The (1949/1976) 'The psychological psychologicalaspects aspectsof ofthe the Kore', Kore', in in CW CW 9i: 9i: pars. pars. 306-383. - (1950/1976) ( 1 950/1 976) A Aion. CW ion. C W 9ii. — — ((1954/1968a) Mysterium Coniunctionis. CW --1 9541 1 968a) Mysterium Coniunctionis. C W 114i. 4i. - (1954/1968b) ( 1 9541 1 968b) Mysterium Mysterium Coniunctionis. CW Coniunctionis. C W 114ii. 4ii. (1957/1971) `Synchronicity:an an acausal acausal connecting connecting principle' principle',, in in CW -( 1 9571 1 9 7 1 ) 'Synchronicity: CW 88:: pars. 8816-968. 1 6-968. (1961) Memories, Dreams, New York: York: Random House. -( 1 96 1 ) Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Reflections. New House. Jung, E. (1967) Animus und und Anima. Anima. Zurich: Zurich: Rascher. lung, ( 1 967) Animus Kast, ( 1 984) Paare: Kast, V. (1984) Wie GOtter Gotter sick Paare: Wie sich in Menschen spiegeln. .Ipiegeln . Stuttgart: Stuttgart: Kreuz, K reuz, trans. ((1986) 1 986) The of Loving: Loving: Patterns of The Nature Nature of ol Human Human Relationship. Relationship. Wilmette, Wilmette, IL: I L: Chiron. (1993) 'Animus and and anima: -( 1 993) 'Animus anima: spiritual spiritual growth growth and separation'. separation'. Harvest, Harvest, 39: 39: 5-15. 51 5. -( 1 997) Father-Daught - (1997) er, Mother-Son: Father—Daughter, Mother—Son:Freeing Freeing Ourselves Ourselvesfrom from the Complexes Complexes that that Bind Bind Us. Us. Shaftesbury: Shaftesbury: Element. Samuels, A. A. ((1989) The Plural Plural Psyche. Psyche. London: Samuels, 1 989) The London: Routledge. Springer, A. A. (2000) Springer, (2000) 'Oberlegungen ' U berlegungen zur weiblichen weiblichen Homosexualitat'. Homosexualitiit'. Analytical Analytical Psychology, 331: 26-38. 1 : 26-38. Psychology, Stein, M M.. (1998) Jung's Map Map of the Soul. Soul. La Stein, ( 1 998) Jung's of the L: Open La Salle, Salle, IIL: Open Court. von Franz, Franz, M.-L. 'The process process of of individuation', individuation', in in C.G. von M . - L . (1968) ( 1 968) The CG. Jung (ed.) Man Man and and his Symbols. Symbols. Garden Garden City, City, NY: NY: Doubleday. Doubleday. his Young-Eisendrath,P.P. and and Wiedemann, Wiedemann, F. F. (1987) uthority: Empowering Empowering Young-Eisendrath, ( 1 987) Female Female A Authority: Womenthrough through Psychotherapy. Psychotherapy. New New York: York: Guilford. Women

Chapter 6 6 Chapter



Psychological types John Beebe Beebe John

n trod uction IIntroduction

clear to to students of lung's Jung's analytical psychology what IItt has not always been clear his famous famous 'types' 'types' are types of. The The commonest commonest assumption assumption has has been been that types of his Jung, they were types of consciousness, people. But for lung, were types of people. they refer to types of by the ego in establishing establishing and assumed by orientations assumed characteristic orientations is, characteristic that is, psychotherapists, Forpsychotherapists, reality. For outer reality. discriminating an individual's inner and outer invalu­ be invalucan be stances can cognitive stances natural cognitive different natural these different ofthese understanding of an understanding able in the clients' theirclients' oftheir strengths of basic strengths the basic supporting the ofsupporting work of daily work the daily able personalities and and of helping its recognise its consciousness to recognise particular consciousness helping aa particular personalities commu­ differences commuindividualdifferences ofindividual understanding of The understanding inherent limitations. The nicated on the basis of this of areas of at areas shame at client's shame reduce a client's can reduce theory can this theory nicated ego weakness weakness and and diminish diminish the client's client's need need to buttress the ego with relative ego strong defences treatment. defences that complicate treatment. Jung's types psyc h o l og i cal types Jung's position on psychological

liver text, Wandlungen Wandlungen und and Symbole del' Symbole der self-defining text, landmark self-defining since his landmark I ': ver since Libido had been Jung's understanding that the the of the movements of the movements been lung's ( 1 9 1 2), itit had l.ihido (1912), already consciousness. He had already analysis tend psyche observable in in analysis tend toward consciousness. psyche observable recognised that consciousness in way in sameway thesame in the uniformly in expressed uniformly not expressed consciousness is not every person. Rather, Jung an consciousness as centred in an conceptualised consciousness lung conceptualised every person. ego basic differentbasic throughdifferent psychethrough thepsyche orient the to orient ability to expressed its ability that expressed eg,o that attinules and functions. IIl/iludl's and Jung studies hisstudies midstofofhis themidst in the view in ofview pointof this point ofthis germ of the germ at the .lung arrived at begin­ Hospital beginMental Hospital Burgh61zli Mental theBurghOlzli at the association, undertaken at on word On word association, with written with subjects', written normalsubjects', ofnormal association of Theassociation In 'The 1 902. In a h out 1902. n i ng about ning subjects the subjects in the in, lung k l lin, I ,'ra nz RR iik Franz Jung describes describes how how the the associations produced in he to he shown to stimulus-words can be shown different stimulus-words 400 different of 400 series of ca l ling out aa series hy calling by Jung research, Jung earliest research, this earliest in this even in But even complexes. But unconscious complexes. hy unconscious IIlfccted Iketed by and He and character'. Ile individual character'. the individual 1�lctor is the principal factor I'l'l'ognised that recognised that 'one principal wro l l' : i n wrote: k l lin R iik

1 31 logical types Psycho Psychological types 131

emerge: types emerge: recognizable types easily recognizable two easily experiments, two our experiments, From From our feeling-toned oftenfeeling-toned subjective, often reactions,subjective, whosereactions, type ininwhose I) A ((1) A type experiences experiences are are used. objective, impersonal (2) (2) A A type type whose whose reactions reactions show show an an objective, impersonal tone. tone. 1 48) 1 973: 148) (lung (Jung 1973: Psychoanalytic the Psychoanalytic to the delivered to lecture delivered 1 9 1 3, in September 1913, as September As As late late as in aa lecture psychopathol­ the psychopatholCongress Congress in in Munich, Munich, lung, Jung, now now turning turning his his attention attention to to the to ogy ogy observed observed in in clinical clinical work, work, still still observed observed two two basic basic types types of of 'relations 'relations to extra­ 'centrifugal' extrawhose 'centrifugal' 'hysteric', whose the 'hysteric', of the that of self), that the self), the the object' object' (and (and the normal', surpasses the feeling that of feeling intensity of version version 'displays 'displays as as aa rule rule an an intensity that surpasses the normal', 'centripetal' of aa 'centripetal' account of on account whom, on in whom, 'schizophrenic', in the 'schizophrenic', of the and and that of 499�500). 11 1 97 1 : 499-500). (.lung1971: all' (Jung at all' reached at is not level is normal level introversion, introversion, 'the 'the normal not reached prob­ the probto complexes of presence beyond dimension another added This This added dimension beyond presence complexes to the other that problem a consciousness, of subjectivity the analysing of lem lem analysing subjectivity of consciousness, a problem that other already had psychology, experimental including sciences, observational observational sciences, including experimental psychology, had already describe to describe adopted to now adopted Jung now term Jung recognised recognisedas as 'the 'the personal personal equation', equation', aa term ). l 30�3 2003: (Shamdasani study of area developing his his developing area 2003: 30-31). Toni Schmid-Guisan and Toni seven years, n the next seven IIn years, with with the help of Hans Schmid-Guisan correspondence The theory. typological his unpack to began lung Wolff, Wolff, Jung began to unpack his typological theory. The correspondence his Schmid-Guisan particularly with with Schmid-Guisan particularlyhelped helpedhim him to to examine examine and and get get past past his intro­ with thinking and extraversion with feeling of equation preliminary preliminary equation of feeling with extraversion and thinking with introbeyond that beyond aware that him aware close associate version. version. His His close associate Toni Toni Wolff Wolff made made him the organised far so which thinking�feeling, and extraversion�introversion extraversion—introversion and thinking—feeling, which so far organised the orientation of axis another was there grounds, rational strictly along psyche psyche along strictly rational grounds, there was another axis of orientation axis 'irrational' axis account, the would need theory would his theory altogether altogether that that his need take take into into account, the 'irrational' the sensation�intuition. (lung of of sensation—intuition. (Junghimself himselfseems seemstoto have have recognised recognised that that the sensation� Wolff'ssensation— and Wolff's axis and thinking�feeling axis originalthinking—feeling his original difference difference between between his rational in aa rational deployed in are deployed functions are offunctions pair of first pair the first axis was intuition intuition axis was that that the is what is merely apprehend latter merely experience, whereas interpret experience, way way to to interpret whereas the the latter apprehend what any use any not use hence do world, and inner world, already already given given to to us us by by the the outer outer or or inner and hence do not time the time By the 1 968.) By Marshall 1968.) see Marshall evaluation: see or evaluation: cognition or of cognition process of optional optional process already had already he had 1 920, he and 1920, 1 9 1 9 and write Psychological he he came came to to write Psychological Types Types in in 1919 consciousness types ofofconsciousness oftypes analysis of of analysis system of sophisticated system envisioned envisioned aa sophisticated think­ extraversion�introversion, thinkdichotomies:extraversion—introversion, maindichotomies: fourmain by four characterised characterised by system this system ing�feeling, ing—feeling,sensation�intuition sensation—intuitionand andrational�irrational. rational—irrational. ItIt was was this all informed all has informed that has and that life and his life ofhis rest of the rest for the defend for to defend continued to he continued that he that types. psychological types. Jung'spsychological on Jung's work on subsequent work subsequent D efini ti o n s Definitions

four functions be four understands there Jung understands Tl'pl's, Jung P.I' .1'ch% gica/ Types, I n Psychological In there to to be functions of of in luilion. and intuition. ing, /i'('/illg .\·cl/.\'{/lion, Ihink names .vensation, which he / ·OI/.\·/'iOU.l'I/('.\·.I', which consciousness, he names thinking, feeling and

Beebe J o h n Beebe 3 2 John 1132



1 33 hological types Psyc Psychological types 133

These terms termsdid did not not originate originate with lung; Jung; rather, they were culled culled from the These history of of psychology, psychology, and and they they carry carry the ghost of earlier meanings placed on history them by by many and philosophers, e.g., Hippocrates' tem­ Hippocrates' four temphilosophers, e.g., physicians and many physicians them peraments: Melancholic, Melancholic, Sanguine, Sanguine, Choleric Choleric and and Phlegmatic. Phlegmatic. lung's Jung's theory peraments: of psychological psychological types resembles resembles in in some some ways ways the the eighteenth-century eighteenth-century faculty of psychology developed developedby bytheorists theoristssuch suchas asChristian Christian von von Wolff Wolff and and Thomas Thomas psychology Reid, according according to to which which the mind consists of capacities, or capacities, powers or various powers of various Reid, willing, which which became became for called faculties. faculties. One One of of these these faculties faculties had had been been willing, called mind. Freud Freud and unconscious mind. Schopenhauerthe the essential essentialattribute attribute of of the the unconscious and Schopenhauer Adler would would develop develop this this theme theme in in their over­ and overwishing and of wishing theories of their theories Adler compensation. Their Their idea idea of the the ego ego was was an agency defend needed to defend agency that needed compensation. itself against against knowing knowing too too much much about the willing willing of the unconscious mind, itself even ifif defences, even as defences, described as be described best be faculties could therefore best and whose faculties those defences defencesenabled enabledthe the psyche psyche to to pursue pursue its its true aims as disguise, as in disguise, aims in those it were. Jung, consistent with his con­ possibilities of conthe possibilities emphasis on the his greater emphasis consistent with lung, sciousness,accepted acceptedthe thewill willas as part part of the and 486), and 1 97 1 : 486), (lung 1971: ego (Jung the ego sciousness, concentrated on on the functions the ego reality any reality to any itself to orient itself needs to orient ego needs concentrated with which need aa we need reasoned, we he reasoned, reality, he understand reality, To understand cope. To which it must cope. with registers reality reality as as real: real: this function of consciousness that registers the called the he called this he consciousness that function function, which which delivers deliversto to us us the sensation something is that something sensation that the sensation sensation function, define Then, he he said, we need need a function to we fine for us what we to de said, we I I ). Then, 1 968: 11). (Jung 1968: are perceiving when we we notice notice that that something is there: there: this he called called the something is perceiving when Next, he understood that we need a function that assigns thinking function. function. Next, a value the called the this isis called named; this and named; perceived and haveperceived we have thatwe thing that the thing value to the feeling. 22 Finally, function of enable to enable function to we require a function that we realised that he realised Finally, he ofjeeling. us been has been that has thing that the thing possibilities of the implications or possibilities the implications divine the to divine us to empirically perceived, perceived, logically logically defined defined and discriminatingly evaluated: this evaluated: this he called the intuitive function. intuitive function. Jung On fourth. On the fourth. than the first three functions than define the first to define easier to found itit easier Jung found one occasion, said, he said, occasion, he Sensation tells us us that a thing is, thing is, the thing what the us what tells us Thinking tells is. Thinking thing is. Sensation tells feeling tells us what it is worth to us. Now what else could there be? worth to us. Now what else could therebe? feeling tells us what One would assume one has aa complete one when one world when the world of the complete picture of worth it is, and what it is something, what knows [original is, and what it is worth [original knows there is something, italics]. italics].

That That ability ability to to get, get, and and to to aa certain certain degree degree to to trust, trust, the the hunch hunch isis what what lung Jung meantby by intuition. this trust this meant intuition. That That he he understood understoodwhat whatitit means means to to trust people to people essentially essentiallyirrational irrational process process of of perception perception isis part part of of lung's Jung's appeal appeal to to themselves to orient themselves to orient intuition to their intuition use their who who are are naturally naturally disposed disposed to to use reality. reality. feeling and lung Jung held held that that feeling and thinking thinking are are rational rational functions, functions,and and that that the sustain the sensation sensationand and intuition intuition are are irrational irrational functions. functions.He He did did not not sustain under­ lung underpassion. Jung faculty faculty psychologists' psychologists' opposition opposition between between reason reason and and passion. we what we (or what affect (or neither affect as neither is, as process, that rational process, feeling' as stood stood ''feeling' as aa rational that is, emotion-based unconscious emotion-based more unconscious of more result of feelings') nor sometime sometime call call ''feelings') nor the the result 'feeling-toned'. are 'feeling-toned'. complexes are our complexes admitted our processes, processes,even even though though he he admitted feeling value assigning of process the took he that clear made lung Rather, Rather, Jung made clear that he took the process of assigning feeling value the as the operation its in rational as ust j was that ego-function an be to to be an ego-function that was just as rational in its operation as (thinking). links logical creating and defining of process process of defining and creating logical links (thinking). basis evidential basis the evidential though itit isis the even though sensation, even recognised that lung Jung also also recognised that sensation, intuitive the as process a irrational as is testing, reality empirical our for for our empirical reality testing, is as irrational a process as the intuitive one one demonstrate will demonstrate, reflection will moment'sreflection As aa moment's us. As to us. delivers our that that delivers our 'hunches' 'hunches' to smell, taste see, hear, we manage choose what rationally choose we we do do not not rationally what we manage to to see, hear, smell, taste 0; or rational as thinking with feeling linking By touch. of sense our with grasp grasp with our sense of touch. By linking feeling with thinking as rational conscious­ ofconsciousfunctions of irrational functions as irrational intuition as with intuition sensation with functions, functions, and and sensation with feeling lumping of habit nineteenth-century the with broke lung ness, ness, Jung broke with the nineteenth-century habit of lumping feeling with sensation with thinking and temperament 'romantic' a marking as intuition intuition as marking a 'romantic' temperament and thinking with sensation in Psycho­ disposition. Rather, 'practical' disposition. unmistakable signs the unmistakable as as the signs of of aa 'practical' Rather, in Psychoof all of for all is consciousness that case the makes convincingly logical Types, he he convincingly makes the case that consciousness is for encountering of processes irrational and rational both of product the us us the product of both rational and irrational processes of encountering reality. assessing reality. and assessing earlier its earlier from its liberated from fully liberated now fully by now was by introversion was of introversion concept The The concept of as ust as j objectivity, and thinking both with writings lung's in confusion confusion in Jung's writings with both thinking and objectivity, just and feeling with association fixed former its from freed was extraversion extraversion was freed from its former fixed association with feeling and that states that lung states Types, Jung Psychological Types, subjectivity. In Psychological subjectivity. his by his object, by the object, craving for distinguished by is distinguished extravert is The extravert The by his his craving for the dependence voluntary his object, the with identification and empathy empathy and identification with the object, his voluntary dependence he as he degree as same degree the same in the object in the object by the influenced by He isis influenced object. He the object. on the on it. assimilate it. to assimilate strives to strives 3 1 7) 1 97 1 : 317) (lung 1971: (Jung contrast, By contrast, By

Ile immediately: addedimmediately: l ie added But and past and have aa past Things have time. Things that isis time. category, and that But there is another category, they have a future. They come from somewhere, they go to somewhere, they have a future. They come from somewhere, they go to somewhere, and where k nowwhere cannotknow you cannot and you from and came from they came where they see where cannotsee you cannot and you they t he y go hunch. call aahunch. Americans call theAmericans w h a tthe get what you get but you to, but go to,

1 3) I %X : 13) (.l ung l%8: (Jung

He object. He the object. vis a vis vis the self-assertion visa his self-assertion by his distinguished by introvert isis distinguished the introvert the influ­ its all repels he object, the on dependence any against ruggles st struggles against any dependence on the object, he repels all its influidea, theidea, on the dependent on he dependent more isis he the more m u c h the So much it. So fears it. even fears and even ences, and ences, of feeling of the feeling him the gi ves him and gives re a l i ty and L'x ll'mal reality from external h i m from shields him which shields which

1 34 John J o h n Beebe Beebe 134

Psychological types 135 Psyc h ol ogical types 1 35

inner freedom freedom — - though for this this with with aa very very noticeable noticeablepower power inner though he he pays pays for psychology. psychology. (Jung 1971: 1 97 1 : 317-318) 3 1 7-3 1 8) (Jung .lung's use use of ofpersonification personification here here — - his reference to the introvert introvert and andthe the Jung's his reference to the extravert — - needs too many many have have extravert needs some some deconstruction. deconstruction. Read Read literally, literally, as as too read him, him, he he seems seems to to be be saying saying that thatintroversion introversion— - 'the 'the inward-turning inward-turning of of read libido' — - and extraversion — - 'the oflibido' libido'—- characterise characterise libido' and extraversion 'the outward-turning outward-turning of d ifferent kinds people. Elsewhere Psychological Types Types he different kinds of of people. Elsewherein in the the book book Psychological implies that all use use both both processes, processes, that there is is an an extravert extravert and and an an implies that we we all that there introvert in in each each of ofus. us. How How this thiscan canbe befinally finallybecomes becomesclear clear when when he he uses uses introvert now famous famous terms adjectives, to define define the way as adjectives, way in in the now the terms not not as as nouns nouns but but as which the the various various functions functions of of consciousness consciousness happen be deployed deployed in in aa which happen to to be particular individual. individual. In turn, he he takes takes up upthe thedescription descriptionofofextraverted extraverted particular In turn, thinking, extraverted feeling, extraverted sensation, extraverted intuition, thinking, extraverted feeling, extraverted sensation, extraverted intuition, introverted thinking, introverted feeling, introverted sensation and intro­ introverted thinking, introverted feeling, introverted sensation and introverted intuition, noting that these 'basic psychological functions seldom or verted intuition, noting that these 'basic psychological functions seldom or never have the same strength or degree of development in the same never have the same strength or degree of development in the same individual' as 'a 'a rule, rule, one one or orthe theother otherfunction functionpredominates, predominates, in in individual' and and that that as both strength and development' (Jung 1 97 1 : 346). The implication, how­ both strength and development' (Jung 1971: 346). The implication, howthat all all eight eight of ofthese these distinct distinct cognitive cognitive processes processes exist, exist, at least to to ever, ever, is is that at least some degree, in every one of us. The origins of what is nowadays called 'the some degree, in every one of us. The origins of what is nowadays called 'the whole-type of personality personality (Geldart (Geldart1998; 1 998;Clark Clark2000; 2000; whole-type eight-function eight-function model' model' of H aas et al. 200 1 ) are therefore Psychological plainly Types. laid out in Psychological Types. Haas et al. 2001) are therefore plainly laid out in What ung means his use of of aa function function comes comes across across in in his introverted use What JJung means by by the the introverted personifi e d notion of someone 'dependent upon the idea'. He explains that personified notion of someone 'dependent upon the idea'. He explains that he primordial image' image' of aa primordial meaning of `to express express the the meaning idea 'to he employs employs the the term term idea ((Jung J ung 1971: 1 97 1 : 437), that is to say, an archetype. An introverted function, 437), that is to say, an archetype. An introverted function, therefore, away from object and and toward toward the the therefore,isis one one that that has has turned turned away from the the object IIl'chetypal 'idea' that the object might be most closely matched to. This archetypal 'idea' that the object might be most closely matched to. This IIl'chetypal archetypal idea, idea, residing residing in in the the inner inner world, world, can can be be understood understood as as aa profound profound tthought, hought, aa value, value, aa metaphorical metaphorical image, image, or a model of reality, depending or a model of reality, depending uupon pon whether is thinking, thinking, feeling, feeling, intuition or sensen­ whether the the introverted introverted function function is intuition or sil l ion. When sation. When an an introverted introverted function function is is used used to to orient orient to to something something external, external, ilit is n tthe h e end is i in endthe thecomparison comparison to to the the archetype, archetype, not not the the stimulating stimulating object object or or sit uation itself, situation itself, that that finally finallycommands commands the the attention attention of of the the function. function. This This can can seem object itself. itself. seem like like aa withdrawal withdrawal from from the the object /II /I"IJI'('r/cd scnsation, as a process, is thus the intensity intensity of of the the as a process, is thus 'guided 'guided by by the Introverted sensation, suojedive sensation excited by the objective stimulus' (lung 1 97 1 : 395) . subjective sensation excited by the objective stimulus' (Jung 1971: 395). ' Tlu ,t means mea n s that the person person strongly strongly identified identified with this function function That that the with the the use use ooff this will will react react immediately immediatelytoto the the internal, internal, bodily bodily sensations sensations caused caused by, by, for for eXll mple. tthe he food t aa meal, example, food serwd servedaat meal,so so that that the the distension distension of of his his stomach, stomach, or or the he meal, his table, t a h le the degree degreeof of pepper pepper in in tthe meal, even even the the audibility audibility of of others others at at his 1 l 1 l l /'l' I ll t e rm i na t i v e of h i s happi ness at a d i nner party m a y lturn u rn out to he hc more may out to determinative of his happiness at a dinner party ,

,

than than the the carefully carefully assembled assembled company that that the the host host or orhostess hostess has has arranged arranged for for the the gathering. gathering. This This is is because because aa dissonance dissonance with with the the archetype archetype of of the the good meal meal has has been beenconstellated constellatedby bythe theexcessive excessive stimulation. stimulation.This Thisprocess process is not usually usually visible. visible. When When someone someone has has been been using using the theintroverted introverted is not sensation sensation function function primarily, primarily, seen from the outside, it looks as though though the the effect effect of of the object did not not penetrate into the the subject subject at at all. all. This This impression impression is is correct correct inasmuch as as a subjective subjective content does, in fact, fact, intervene intervene from from the the unconscious unconscious and and intercept the effect effect of of the the object. The intervention may be be so so abrupt intercept the object. The intervention may that the the individual individual appears appears to to be beshielding shielding himself himself directly directly from from all all objective influences. objective influences. (Jung 1971: (Jung 1 97 1 : 396) 396)

Introverted sensation, of course, can be be just just as as guided guided by by aavisual visual cue: cue: the the films of of Alfred Alfred H Hitchcock, who seems seems to to have have used used this itchcock, who this function function in aa films dominant way, dominant way, dazzle dazzle us with with the the uncanny uncanny power power of ofseemingly seemingly ordinary ordinary images to stimulate images stimulate unexpected, unexpected, archetypal archetypal reactions. reactions. Those who who make abundant Those abundant use use of ofan anintroverted introvertedfunction function— - introverted intuition, say, be perceived intuition, say, or or introverted introverted feeling feeling — - can can nevertheless nevertheless be perceived by by others as depreciating others depreciating the object. object. Jungian Jungian case case studies studies sometimes sometimes seem, seem, when introverted introverted intuition intuition is is taking taking the lead, when lead, to leave the patient behind in in maze of of mythological mythological 'amplifications' 'amplifications'.. The poet Rilke, who seems a maze seems to have known that his was masked masked by a strong known his sensibility sensibility was strong introverted introverted feeling, feeling, is said to to have have written written to to a new mistress, mistress, 'I'I love love you, you, but of course it's none of said of your business'. your business'. A particularly particularly difficult difficult introverted introverted function, function, from from the standpoint of A of perper­ sonal relations, relations, isis intro introverted thinking, because because when when the the object object of introsonal verted thinking, intro­ verted thinking thinkingisis aa person, person, 'this 'this person has aa distinct that he verted person has distinct feeling feeling that he matters only only in in a negative matters negative way'. way'. Often, Often, 'he 'he feels feels himself himself warded warded off off as as something definitely definitelydisturbing' disturbing' (Jung (Jung 1971: The object, something 1 97 1 : 383). 383). The object, when when this this functionisis being being used, used, is is being being avoided avoided because becausethe the person person using using this this function function isis'building 'building up up his his world world of ideas, ideas, and and never never shrinks shrinks from from thinking function thought because it might prove to be aa thought be dangerous, dangerous,subversive, subversive, heretical, or or wounding to to other people's (Jung 1971: 384).The The ideas ideas that that are wounding people's feelings' feelings' (lung 1 97 1 : 384). encountered,however, however,are arearchetypal archetypalideas ideasthat thatmay maybe be out out of common encountered, common circulation,but but which whichcan can be be far far more more profound profound and and appropriate circulation, appropriate to the the actual definition definition of of aa situation situation than the actual the accepted accepted dictates of of conventional conventional extravertedthinking. thinking. These These'new' 'new' thoughts thoughts are, however, very difficult difficult to to extraverted however, very articulate, and the introverted thinking function frequently goes on refining articulate, and function frequently goes on refining whenthe the patience patienceof ofothers others has has been been exhausted: exhausted:ititdoes does not not i its t s cconceptions o ncep t i o n s when when to to stop. stop. kknow now when Introverted intuition, 'with the background /II/I"IJ I'('f"/ed ill /ui/ion, aas s aa function, funct ion, is is concerned concerned 'with background processes of consciousness', and for the person using that fu function in aa prO l:esses or consciousness', and lill' t he person using that ndion in

1136 3 6 John J o h n Beebe Beebe

differentiated way, way, 'unconscious `unconsciousimages imagesacquire acquirethe the dignity dignity of of things' things' (lung (Jung ditTerentiated 1971: 399). This is the one type of consciousness that naturally 'apprehends 1 97 1 : 399). This is the one type of consciousness that naturally 'apprehends inheritedfoundations foundations of of the the uncon­ unconpriori inherited the images imagesarising arisingfrom fromthe the aa priori the scious'. That is, rather than thinking about, experientially comparing, scious'. That is, thinking about, experientially comparing, or feeling the archetype that arises relationto to aa situation, situation, the the introverted feeling the archetype that arises ininrelation introverted intuitive function becomes directly aware of the archetype as an image, image, as as if if intuitive function becomes directly aware of the archetype as an 'seeing' it: introverted intuition is therefore the function responsible for 'seeing' it: introverted intuition is therefore the function responsible for visionary experience, experience,which whichoften oftenseems seems'mystical' 'mystical'to to others. others. visionary by contrast, can only feel the archetypal image of of aa Introvertedffeeling, Introverted eeling, by contrast, can only feel the archetypal image situation. It cannot see it. The hoary Indian story of the three blind men situation. It cannot see it. The hoary Indian story the three blind and the the elephant takes on on more more meaning meaning if if one one considers considersthat that India India is is aa and elephant takes country where introverted feeling seems to predominate in collective country where introverted feeling seems predominate in collective consciousness. Thus, Thus, all all of of the the blind blind men men (there (there are are as as many as six consciousness. six in some some versions, and sometimes they come from a city in which all of versions, and sometimes they come from a city in which all of the the inhabitants are are blind) inhabitants blind) could could be be said said to torepresent represent the theintroverted introvertedfeeling feeling function, literally literally feeling feeling its its way way slowly slowly around around the function, the archetype, archetype, the the elephant elephant in their midst. Necessarily, a thinking definition of that experience in midst. Necessarily, a definition that experience at any any moment will will be be partial partial -—'It's It's aa rope', rope', 'It's It's aasnake', moment snake','It's 'It'sa agreat greatmud mudwall' wall'—ceases until until the the elephant elephant is is felt felt entirely. entirely. It It is is important important never ceases but the process never to realise that when the introverted feeling function is, for example, that when the introverted feeling function is, for example,feeling feeling 'had', itit isis feeling category of 'bad' and 'had', feeling the entire archetypal category and isis not notlikely likely to to quit until until that that archetypal archetypal badness badness is is felt felt through. As As Jung Jung says, says,

clearly be clearly never be can never The - it can guessed— beguessed onlybe canonly feelin g can thisfeeling ofthis depth of The depth back s back shrink it s; acces grasped. It makes people silent and difficult of access; it shrinks of lt difficu and grasped. It makes people silent the fill to order in t like a violet from the brute nature of the object in order to fill the objec the e natur like a violet from the brute es assum or ents judgm depths of the subject. It comes out with negative judgments or assumes ive negat with out s depths of the subject. It come defence. an meansofofdefence. asaameans indifference as profoundindifference ofprofound air of an air 387) (Jung 1971: 1 97 1 : 387) Perhaps we we all all get get into into our ourintroverted introvertedfeeling feelingwhen whenwe weare aredepressed. depressed.The The important important thing thing to to grasp, grasp, ininunderstanding understanding introverted introverted feeling, feeling, isis that that bit as urchetypes can be be fit felt every every bit as much much as as they they can can be be thought thought about, about, archetypes directly directly intuited, intuited, or or experienced experienced somatically. somatically. As Jung puts puts it, it, The The primordial primordial images images are, are, of ofcourse, course, just justasasmuch muchideas ideasasasfeelings. feelings . Fundamental Fundamental ideas, ideas, ideas ideas like like God, God, freedom, freedom, and andimmortality, immortality,are arejust just as as much much feeling-values feeling-values as as they they are aresignificant significantideas. ideas. 388) 387-388) (Jung 1 97 1 :387(lung1971: The The extraverted ext raverted functions, functions, as as Jung Jung has hasalready alreadybeen beenquoted quotedasasinforming in fo rm i n g us, They astotoidentify ide n t i fywith w i t hit.it.They l i S , lend tend so socompletely completely to to merge merge with w i t h the t heobject o hjec tas often orten end end up upwithout wit hout adequate adeq uatedistance distancefrom fromthe t h estimuli st i m u l i that t ha tare a represented presented the feelin feelings hese aare rc the gs that t h a tis,is. /i '1'lillg, tthese ra Sl' of of e\traverted ( ' \ /1"11 1'1'1'/1'1 1 tecling, to them. t hl' ll!. In I n the t hl'case to

Psyc hological types 37 Psychological types 1137

the udices -—ofofothers, the emotions emotions and and prej prejudices others,and andoften often of of society society at at large, large, so so that personality of person strongly strongly identified identified with with this this function function that the the personality of aa person 'appears Her feelings feelings harmonize `appearsadjusted adjustedin in relation relation to to external external conditions. conditions. Her harmonize with 1 97 1 : 356). with objective objectivesituations situations and and general general values' values' (Jung (Jung 1971: 356).The The woman woman led ledby byextraverted extraverted feeling feelingin inher her 'love `lovechoice', choice',Jung Jung tells tellsus, us, will willsee seetotoititthat that 'the no one one else' else' (Jung (lung 1971: 1 97 1 : 356). 356). On the `the"suitable" "suitable" man man is is loved, loved, and and no On the oth and, no type is is more more capable capable of of appreciation appreciation and and sympathy. sympathy. other no type �r ?hand, SImIlarly, Similarly, extraverted extraverted thinking thinking tends tends to to become become enamoured enamoured of of established established ideas, is being being ideas, frequently frequentlyneglecting neglectingthe theduty dutyto to think think freshly freshly about about what what is expressed expressedand andthe thelanguage languagethat thatisis really reallyappropriate appropriatetoto it. it. There There is is no no brake, therefore, against insisting that these ideas should govern everyone's brake, therefore, against insisting that these ideas should govern everyone's behaviour. it, the the person person strongly strongly identified identified with with this this function function behaviour. As As Jung Jung puts puts it, 'el tes . . . an objectively oriented intellectual formula . . . into the ruling `elevates . . . an objectively oriented intellectual formula . . . into the ruling �v� pnncIple not only for himself but for his whole environment'. On the other principle not only for himself but for his whole environment'. On the other hand, this most characteristic function of the Enlightenment period must hand, this most characteristic function of the Enlightenment period must ?have ave guided John Locke in establishing principles of government that many guided John Locke in establishing principles of government that many In West still still believe believe have have universal universal applicability applicability — - as Mozart in in in the the West as well well as as Mozart elaborating musical ideas that everyone soon could follow. elaborating musical ideas that everyone soon could follow. cognitive process, process, seeks seeks 'an of Extraverted Extraverted sensation, sensation, as as aa cognitive `an accumulation accumulation of actual experiences of concrete objects' (Jung 1 97 1 : 363) and the function actual experiences of concrete objects' (Jung 1971: 363) and the function can become, in moment, so reality 'out there' that that itit can become, in the the moment, so riveted riveted on on the the reality 'out there' cannot recognise that other things may also be happening at that same cannot recognise that other things may also be happening at that same time: this is a function perfect for watching a basketball game, but it may time: this is a function perfect for watching a basketball game, but it may not notice that someone is about to say or do something unexpected. not notice that someone is about to say or do something unexpected. become so so engaged engaged with with the the possibilities possibilities of of its its Extraverted intuition can Extraverted intuition can become objects that for the person strongly identified with this function it is 'as if objects that for the person strongly identified with this function, it is 'as if : To use his whole life vanished in the new situation' (Jung 1 97 1 : 368) his whole life vanished in the new situation' (Jung 1971: 368). To use aa metaphor to describe describe what what isis really really an anunmediated, unmediated,instinctive instinctiveprocess, process,this this metaphor to �function unction operates operates like like aa traffic traffic signal, signal, indicating indicating with with its its green green light light when when itit . IS tIme proceed to to develop develop something, something, with with its its red red light light when when it it is is time to is time to to proceed time to stop, and with its yellow light when one must proceed with caution. A stop, and with its yellow light when one must proceed with caution. A significant problem is that people without a similar degree of development significant problem is that people without a similar degree of development of extraverted extraverted intuition intuition may may not not perceive perceive the the presence presence of of any any signal signal at at all all of and thus cannot understand why the person led by such intuitions and thus cannot understand why the person led by such intuitions isis rushing ahead, ahead, stopping, stopping, or or pausing pausing when when he he does. does. And Andextraverted extraverted intuintu­ rushing ition's failure to heed sensation cues can undermine the actualisation of the ition's failure to heed sensation cues can undermine the actualisation of the possibility being being pursued. pursued. possibility In Psychological Jung offered offered the the all-important all-important notion notion of ofaaselecselec­ Psychological Types, Types, Jung In of the the various various functions functions of ofconsciousness consciousness as as the the key keytoto �ifferentiati()n of tive differentiation tive the different dIfferent degrees degrees and andstyles styles of ofconsciousness consciousnessindividual individualpeople peopledisplay. display. the in his 79-page section of definitions at the end of the book , puts i t As he As he puts it in his 79-page section of definitions at the end of the book, differences, the theseparation separation means the the development deVelopment ofofdifferences, Differe n t i a t ion means Differentiation pa rts from from the the whole. whole. In I n this t h i s work work I I employ em ploy the t he concept concept of of of parts of



Psyc h o l ogical types 39 Psychological types 1139

Beebe 1138 38 JJohn o h n Beebe

functions. So . So differentiation chieflywith with respect respect to to the psychological psychological functions iation chiefly different s function other long as a function is still so fused with one or more other functions — more or one with long as a function is still so fused to unable is thinking with feeling, feeling with sensation, etc. — that it is unable to it that etc. , sensation thinking with feeling, feeling with differentiated, operate on on its its own, own, itit is is in in an archaic conditio condition, n, i.e., not differentiated, operate itself. by itself. existing not separated from the whole a special part and existing by and special as not separated from the whole other from apart Undifferentiated thinking is incapable of thinking apart from other thinking of e incapabl is Undifferentiated thinking feelings, s, sensation functions; it is continually mixed up with sensations, feelings, with up mixed lly function s; it is continua sensations with sensations intuitions, just as is mixed up with feeling is undifferentiated feeling as undifferentiated s, just intuition and feeling of and fantasies, as for instance the sexualization (Freud) of feeling and tion sexualiza in and fantasies, as for instance thinking in a neurosis. thinking in a neurosis. (Jung 1971: (lung 1 97 1 : 424-425) As long long as a function is undifferentiated, As undifferentiated, moreover, moreover, it cannot cannot be be deployed deployed in the the conscious conscious manner manner of a directed mental process that is truly under in under the the control of the ego, control ego, and capable capable of of being being applied applied to to tasks tasks and andgoals: goals: since the direction Without differentiation differentiation direction is impossible, impossible, since direction of a function towards towards a goal depends on the elimination function elimination of of anything anything irreleirrele­ vant. Fusion vant. Fusion with with the the irrelevant irrelevant precludes precludes direction; direction; only only aa differdiffer­ capable of being directed. entiated function function is is capable entiated (Jung 1971: 1 97 1 : 425)

(by translation (by English translation These passages hold hold the the key key to why, first English the first in the why, in These passages The the subtitle, 'or, The bore Pyschologische Typen, work the IHI.G. Baynes) Typen, ische Pyscholog of Baynes) .G. understand to understand way to Psychology of Individua Individuation' 1 923). One way 1 92 1 , 1923). (lung 1921, tion' (Jung gy of Psycholo the of the the progressive differentiation entiation r diffe ive is individuation progress the is what Jung meant by tion individua by meant lung what elsewhere puts ititelsewhere he puts as he various psychological functions of consciousness. For, as ofconsciousness. ical functions I'ltrious psycholog ion (q.v.) differentiation ferentiat dif in the Definitions section, 'Individuation is a process of tion Individua ' section, itions n Defi the in 'an is 'an ity'. It having for its of the individua individuall personal personality'. It is development of the development goal the its goal ha ving for psy­ s consciou psyofconscious extension enriching of an enriching consciousness, an ofconsciousness, sphere of the sphere of the extension of chological life' (Jung 1971: 450). 450). : 1 97 1 (lung life' l chologica of development of the development Since i.e., the individuation, i.e., that individuation, believed that also believed lung also Since Jung describe todescribe way to was aa way there was consciousness, process, he felt that there consciousness, is a natural process, psychological ideaofofpsychological hisidea its in all usedhis heused andhe us, and of us, all of unfolding in orderly unfolding ils orderly been have been guidelines have types Theseguidelines guidelines. These developmental guidelines. certain developmental offer certain to offer Iypes to the in interested in the are interested mostly who are those who of those circle of narrow circle the narrow outside the ignored outside mostly ignored the hold they hold the as they theory types, but they they are most importan important,t, as psychological types, of psychological I heory of to starts ity personal key when aa personality starts to psychotherapy when in psychotherapy happens in what happens of what m uch of 10 much k ey to develop. d t ve l op th rou gh aa individuation through Jung start ininindividuation head start get aa head all get we all h a t we believcd tthat .l u ng believed o ur of our out attitudcs natural out of functiontwo function-attitudes least two dirrc ren t iate at least 10 differentiate lendency to nal ural tendency ' mosl t a h t udes t two function-attitudes that most i t t fu nction-a The eight.3 The oreight. total cOJ1l plL'nll'lIt of pot e n t ia l complement total potential cgo-con sciousnes s ofego-consciousness dcvelopm en t of our development i n our naturally ea r ly in d illcl"l'lI t ill I e early 10 differentiate tend to na t ura lly tend ea r l y so early, d eve lop so hl'Y t Becausl' they develop ind ividual. Because will l'lll'h individual. 1 0 1 each sa l l ll' list t ht' some ht' the lIot he will not '

.

.

they innate, although although later 'falsification of result they appear appear to to be be innate, later 'falsification of type' type' as as aa result of uences can individual's typological typological bent bent of environmental environmental infl influences can distort distort the individual's (Benziger 995). Sixteen les can be distinguished distinguished (Benziger 11995). Sixteenpsychological psychologicaltype type profi profiles can be simply simplyon on the the basis basis of of which whichof of the the eight eight function-attitudes function-attitudesturns turns out out to to be be the - the - and the most most differentiated differentiated — the'superior' 'superior' function function — andwhich whichthe thenext nextmost most differentiated differentiated —the the'auxiliary' 'auxiliary' function. lung '[fjor all all the the types types met met with with in in practice, practice, the rule holds holds Jung found found that that '[f]or the rule good besides the the conscious, conscious, primary primary function function there there is is aa relatively relatively good that that besides unconscious, unconscious, auxiliary auxiliary function function which which is is in in every every respect respect different different from from the the nature primary function' function'(Jung (lung1971: 1 97 1 : 405-406). 405-406). Since Since he he also also believed believed nature of of the the primary that only these these functions functions can can appear appear as as auxiliary auxiliary whose whose nature nature isis that 'naturally 'naturally only not opposed dominant function' function' (the (the emphasis emphasis isis mine), mine), feeling, feeling, for for not opposed to to the the dominant instance, as the the second second function function alongside alongside thinking' nor instance, 'can 'can never never act act as thinking' nor sensation with respect respect to to differentiation differentiation sensation alongside alongside intuition. intuition. Rather, Rather, if if with someone's rst, or the rational rational axis axis (i.e., (i.e., is is either either someone's fifirst, or superior, superior, function function is is on on the thinking feeling) then that individual's individual's auxiliary auxiliary function function will will have have to to thinking or or feeling) then that come axis (be (be either either sensation sensation or or intuition). intuition). come from from the the irrational irrational axis A superior thinking paired with with only one of of two two A superior thinking function function will will thus thus be be paired only one possible in the the course course of ofnormal normaltype typedevelopment development — - either possible other other functions functions in either an auxiliary sensation sensation or an auxiliary auxiliary intuition. intuition. Similarly, Similarly, aa superior superior an auxiliary or an sensation irrational axis, axis, will will take take as as its its auxiliary auxiliary aa sensation function, function, being being on on the the irrational function axis, meaning can be be paired paired only only with with function from from the the rational rational axis, meaning that that it it can thinking or feeling. feeling. The The following following possibilities possibilities naturally naturally emerge: emerge: thinking or Superior/A uxiliary SuperiorlAuxiliary

Feeling/Intuition Feeling/Intuition Feeling/Sensation Feeling/Sensation Thinking/Intuition Thinking/Intuition Thinking/Sensation Thinking/Sensation ntuition/Feeling ntuition/Feeling Intuition/Thinking Intuition/Thinking Sensation/Feeling Sensation/Feeling Sensation/Thinking Sensation/Thinking This scheme scheme is the basic basic model model for for the the differentiation differentiation of ofthe the eight eightfunctionfunction­ This is the attitudes into different types of people. Given that each of the leading attitudes into different types of people. Given that each of the leading functions can be either extraverted or introverted (for instance, feeling/ functions can be either extraverted or introverted (for instance, feeling/ intuition could could describe describe the the typology typology of of aa person person with with either either 'introverted 'introverted intuition feeling with auxiliary intuition' or 'extraverted feeling with auxiliary intu­ feeling with auxiliary intuition' or 'extraverted feeling with auxiliary intuition' ), it follows that, typologically speaking, there are at least sixteen ition'), it follows that, typologically speaking, there are at least sixteen kinds of of people. people. kinds Even this d i ffere n t ia t ion does not, unfortunately, unfortunately, clarify clarify the the problem problem of of Even this differentiation does not, t here is is any a n y difference d i fference in in altitude alli/udc between be twccn the thc first fi rst two two functions fu ncti ons in in whether there

an actual act ual individual. individ u a l . Thl' clinician should ware Ithat h a l Jung's .l ung's text lexl has has an The clinician should be he aaware

1 40 John J o h n Beebe Beebe 140

been interpreted interpreted in in two two different different ways ways by by later latercommentators. commentators,Apparently Apparently been seizing on lung's assertion assertion that that the thesecondary secondary function function isis'not 'notantagonistic antagonistic seizing on Jung's 10Wheelwright Wheelwright (1982) ( 1 982) concluded concluded that that the the first first two two to' the the primary primary one, one,Jo to' functions would would have have the the same same attitude attitude with with respect respect to toextraversion extraversion and and functions introversion, Isabel other hand, hand, took took Jung's lung'ssubsub­ introversion. Isabel Briggs Briggs Myers, Myers,on on the the other sequent statement, statement, that that the theauxiliary auxiliary function functionisis'in 'inevery everyrespect respectdifferent different sequent from the the nature nature of of the the primary primary function', function', to to mean mean that that the the auxiliary auxiliary must must from p, Myers 1980: 1 980: differ from the superior superior function attitude (I. Myers Myers and P. differ from the function in in attitude 1 8 �� 2 1 ) , I8--21). It should should be be noted noted that thatJung lungtook tookfor forgranted grantedthat thatmost mostconsciousnesses consciousnesses It are so so undifferentiated undifferentiated that even the the auxiliary auxiliary function function is is rarely rarely more more than than are that even 'relatively unconscious'. unconscious', Too fine aa distinction distinction regarding regarding the the attitude attitude of ofthe the 'relatively Too fine auxiliary would have made made aa great great deal deal of ofsense sense to tohim: him: everything everything auxiliary would not not have besides the function was was still still more more or or less less unconscious unconscious anyway. anyway, He He besides the superior superior function spoke of of aa shadowy shadowy tertiary fourth, Inferior' 'inferior' function function to to spoke tertiary function, function, and and aa fourth, which gave aa special special status, status, as as aasource source ofofproblematic, problematic, 'touchy' 'touchy' which he he gave erior reactions because of its especial especial closeness unconscious, This This inf inferior reactions because of its closeness to to the the unconscious. is 'the function that lags behind in the process of differentiation' junction is 'the function that lags behind in the process of differentiation' function ' (J ung 1971: 1 97 1 : 450), source of of shame, shame, the the inferior inferiorfunction functionisisconceived conceived (Jung 450). Often Often aa source of as as being being carried anima in man, and and the the animus animus in in aawoman, woman, in in of carried by by the the anima in aa man, contrast to the the superior superior function, function, which which isis identified identified with with the the persona. persona, contrast to The inferior function will always always be pole of of the the typological typological axis axis The inferior function will be the the other other pole (whether irrational) on on which which the the superior superior function function falls; falls; so so aa (whether rational rational or or irrational) superior function will will be be plagued plagued by by an an inferior inferior feeling feeling function, function, superior thinking thinking function superior inferior intuition, intuition, superior superior intuition intuition by by inferior inferior sensen� superior sensation sensation by by inferior sation, and superior superior feeling feeling by inferior thinking. thinking, Moreover M oreover (and (and here here there there sation, and by inferior is more agreement agreement in lungian tradition) tradition) if if the the superior superior function function is is is more in the the Jungian introverted, if the the superior superior introverted, the the inferior inferior function function will will be be extraverted; extraverted; and and if function will will be be introverted. introverted, The The axis axis between between the the is is extraverted, extraverted, the the inferior inferior function ssuperior u perior and inferior functions is what I have called the 'spine' of per­ and inferior functions is what I have called the 'spine' of personality, eight possible possible spines, spines, shown Figure 6.1 6, 1 as as vertical vertical sonality. There There are are eight shown in in Figure lines, If one imagines each of these line diagrams as a stick figure rep� lines. If one imagines each of these line diagrams as a stick figure representing a person who is facing the reader, the auxiliary function appears resenting a person who is facing the reader, the auxiliary function appears as which will will be be to to the the reader's reader's left. left. The The different different as the the figure's figure's 'right 'right hand', hand', which ligures that share the same superior function are shown in pairs, as two two ligures that share the same superior function are shown in pairs, as ligures side by side, with identical spines but different auxiliary functions, ligures side by side, with identical spines but different auxiliary functions, making in all. all. making sixteen sixteen standpoints standpoints in These are the famous sixteen people an: These are the famous sixteen 'types' 'types' of of personality personality that that most most people are referring to when they use the term 'psychological types' : they have been been referring to when they use the term 'psychological types': they have t he descrihed have learned learned to to recognise recognise the types' by by those those who who have `MBTI types' describedas as the the 'MBTI and a u x ili a r y functions with the help of the MyersBriggs Type su perior Type superior and auxiliary functions with the help of the Myers-Briggs IIndicator. n d il'atol'. IHowever, l owever, II prefer prefer to t o call them them ''type type profiles', J si ng lJung's ung's rules ru ll's profiles'. lUsing B r i ggs My er s' not ion for type d i fferent iat ion and underst anding I sa hel of1 for type dilierentiation and understanding Isabel Briggs Myers' notion 0 ' ( K. ''good M y ers and and Kirby K i rby 2000), 2(00 ), itit isis clear cll'a r that that the t ill' K , Myers good type t Y Pl' devl'l0pl1H'l1t development'

Psychological types 141 Psych ological types 1 41

differentiation differentiation of aa strong strong natural naturalsuperior superiorand andaccompanying accompanyingauxiliary auxiliary , that is, different , function in every respect is the starting f�nctlOn th at IS different in every respect the starting point point for for further further , , differentiation. dlfferent JatlOn, The other function-attitudes function-attitudes operate operate largely largely out out of ofawareaware­ , ness until and ness untIl and unless unless they they become become conscious conscious in in the the course course of ofdevelopment. development. Innovations, criticisms Innovati ons, cri ti c i s m s and and developments d e ve l o p m ents

Although Although types were were carefully carefully studied studied by many many of ofthe the analysts analystswho whowere were , , trained directly by Jung, tramed �Irectly lung, including including Meier Meier (1959), ( 1 959), Henderson Henderson (1970) ( 1 970) and and Wheelwright the most important �n �ht ((1982), l 98 �), the important development development ofofpsychological psychological Wheel types� wlthm within analytical psychology psychology came came from from Jung's lung'sclose close associate, associate, MarieMarie­ type Louise von Franz LOUIse Franz (1971/1998), ( 1 97 1 1 1 998), who systematically systematically studied the the inferior inferior funcfunc­ tion tion for each each of of the the types. types, She She also also clarified clarified the the relation relation of of the the inferior inferior function to Jung's function lung's transcendent transcendent function, function, pointing out that that ififthe theinferior inferior function is made conscious, then the relation to the the unconscious unconscious changes and and She explained that the ppersonality ers� nality is unified (see also Beebe 1992: 1 992: 1102-109). 02- 1 09), She , !Jung's ung � hierarchy of of first, second and third third functions functionsimplies implies aa relative relative order order in which which the the ffunctions m �nc tions can be differentiated in the course of of a psychotherapy, psychotherapy, , although she mdlcated indicated that once although once the superior superior function function has has been been established established one can can choose choose whether whether to to develop develop the the second second or third function next. one next, No one, howe however (and lung Jung also �er (and also says says this), this), can simply simply take take up up the the inferior inferior one, , function directlyand and develop developit.it.Not Not only only does does itit tend to 'stay functIOn directly 'stay low' low' (E. (E, Osterman, C? sterman: personal communication, 1972), 1 972), it cannot cannot be be approached approachedeffeceffec­ tively until until the the fi first tIvely rst three functions have been been differentiated. differentiated, II pursued pursued this line line of of thought thought by byclarifying clarifying the the archetypal archetypal constraints constraints around the development around de �elop� ent of of the the function-attitudes function-attitudes in in the the course course of ofdevelopdevelop­ , ment about men t ((for for a discussion diSCUSSIOn of my my ideas Ideas about this, this, see see Harris Harris 1996: 1 996: 65-76). 65-76), , Noting that that the Notmg the superiority superiority of the the leading leading function function derives derives from from its its association with with the the hero hero archetype, association archetype, II went on to to identify identify the the archetypal archetypal figuresthat thatcarr� carry the the other other three three functions functions in in the the hierarchy hierarchy that that lung Jung and figures von Franz Franz established, established. Following the evidence dreams and also movies movies in von evidence of dreams which the the auxiliary auxiliary and and tertiary tertiary functions functions are are often often symbolised as an an older older which symbolised as and younger person of of the same with the and younger person same sex, sex, as as the the figure figure identified identified with superior function, function, II have concluded concluded that the auxiliary superior auxiliary function function is is carried by by stable parental parental figure figure(usually (usuallya afather fatherininaa man man and and aa mother in a aa stable mother in woman) and the tertiary function wo �an) and function by by an anunstable unstablechild childfigure, figure, given given to tocycles cycles , of inflation and defl deflation aeternus in of mflatlOn and ation ((puer puer aeternus man, puella in aa man, puella aeterna aeterna in in aa woman).Although Although von von Franz spoke broadly of the fourth, inferior function woman), as 'the 'the door through �hich all all the the figures figures of of the the unconscious unconscious come' come' (1971/ ( 1 97 1 1 as thro �gh which 67), II have have Identified identifiedthe the fourth fourth function, function, experienced experienced bby the ego ego as as a 11998: 998: 67), y the problematicaspect aspectof ofitself, itself,not not with with the the shadow, shadow, but but with prohlematic with the anima and and the IIlhl'r other four aanimus. n i m us , IIt t isis the u nct i o n s , II helieve, four ffunctions, believe, that that constitute constitute the the shadow shadow of tthe firstfo four, shadow accentua accentuated by the the process process of of ddifferentiation of h c lirst ur, aa shadow ted by i fferen t i a t ion tthat hat the lfirst four alallows lows the i rst fo u r to develop dewlop and become become conscious conscious funclion-attitudes.4 funct ion-a t t i t udes,'"'

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Code: Code:E E==extraverted; extraverted;I I==introverte introverted; intuition;S S==sensation; sensation;TT==thinking; thinking;FF==feeling. feeling. Tertiary Tertiaryfunctions functionsare areshown shownininparentheses. parentheses.By Byconvention, convention, d; NN==intuition; the P and J refer thefour fourletter letterMBTI MBTIcodes codeslist listthe theitirrational functionbefore beforethe therational rationalone, one,regardless regardlessofof whichis is the superior and which the auxiliary; the rational function which the superior and which the auxiliary; the P and J refer totowhether the leading fufunction nction is isirrational (perceiving) oror rational (judging). whether the leadingextraverted extraverted i rrational (perceiving) rational (judging).

Figure Figure6.1 6. 1

1144 44 JJohn o h n Beebe Beebe

thinking and Thus, someone with superior extraverted thinking and auxiliary auxiliary introverted introverted sensation will have have introverted introverted thinking and extraverted sensation will extraverted sensation sensation strongly strongly in shadow, in shadow, and when when that that person persondevelops develops tertiary tertiary extraverted extraverted intuition, intuition, introverted will be rejected rejected and become become an aspect of of the the shadow. shadow. introverted intuition will From this perspective, perspective, even shadow: in in the the case case even the the inferior inferior function function has aa shadow: of this individual, individual, who would would have have an an inferior inferior introverted introverted feeling, feeling, carried carried by the anima, anima, aa shadow shadow of ofextraverted extraverted feeling feeling could could be be found. found . In this way, way, I was was able able to to conceptualise conceptualise a first first typology typology of the the shadow shadow In (although 1 993), not long after, after, produced produced her her own own (although Naomi Naomi Quenk Quenk ((1993), not long Ourselves) . According typological model typological model of of the the shadow shadow in in the the book book Beside Beside Ourselves). to the model model of oftypology typologyIIhave havedeveloped developed(Beebe (Beebe2004), 2004),specific specificarchetypes archetypes carry the shadows shadows of of the the first first four fourfunctions: functions: the theOpposing OpposingPersonality Personality carry the (carrying Hero), the Senex Senex or Witch Witch (shadow (shadow of of the the (carrying the the shadow shadow of of the the Hero), Father or Mother), Mother), the the Trickster Trickster (shadow (shadow of the Puer Puer or or Puella), Puella), and and the the Demonic/Daimonic Demonic/Daimonic Personality Personality (shadow (shadow of the Anima/Animus). Figure 6.2 shows model organises organises the the basic basic archetypal archetypal complexes complexes as as partpart­ shows how this model personalities that express themselves themselves through through their their individual individual functionfunction­ personalities that express attitudes. My model implies implies that development development of of all all eight eight function-attitudes function-attitudes will will My involve significant engagement engagement with each each of ofthe thearchetypal archetypalcomplexes, complexes, involve a significant and a differentiation differentiation of each each function out out of ofits its archetypal archetypal manifestation. manifestation. In integrating one's typology, typology, the the issues issues associated associated with with each each archetypal archetypal In integrating complex must faced, exactly exactly as as in in classical classical individuation, individuation, which which has has complex must be faced, been conceived conceived as the progressive integration integration of ofthe thecollective collective unconscious unconscious through engagement engagement with series of of archetypal archetypal figures. figures. Moreover, Moreover, as as through with a series Papadopoulos 1 992 vol. model provides provides a rational rational Papadopoulos ((1992 vol. 2: 2: 6) 6) pointed pointed out, out, the model basis on the the basis basis basis for for analysing archetypal archetypal interactions between individuals on of typology. Recognising Recognising correlations between functions and and complexes complexes in in an individual individual patient can can be be very very helpful helpful to to the thetherapist, therapist,especially especially when when encountering patients. At At such such times times encountering markedly markedly altered altered states states of of mind mind in patients. the often help help to to re-establish re-establish ego strength strength in in the the patient patient by by the therapist can often speaking language of the patient's patient's superior superior function function rather rather than than speaking the the language of the mirroring typological idiom of of the the possessing possessing complex complex (Sandner (Sandner and and mirroring the typological Beebe 995: 3317-344). 1 7-344). An worked with with an an anaana­ Beebe 11995: An account account of of the the way Jung worked lytic whose reality testing was overwhelmed by irruption of o f' lytic patient patient whose reality testing was overwhelmed by an an irruption intuitive religious imagery understanding of oftypotypo­ intuitive religious imagery reveals reveals how how he he used his understanding logy helped her her recover recover her natural natural sensation sensation logy to guide an intervention that helped type orientation (von (von der der Heydt Heydt 1975). 1 975). In In less lessflorid, florid, but butnevertheless nevertheless type orientation thaI demanding, borderline and narcissistic narcissistic conditions, conditions, function-attitudes function-attitudes that demanding, borderline i n shadow for for aa client client can can be be associated associated with with archetypal archetypal defences defences of of the t hl' aare rc in sclr, advances therapy therapy to to understand understandtheir theirprecise precise character charactcr(Beebe ( Ikd1L' self, and and it advances I1998h). INXh ). Ot hn noteworthy nOh:wor t hy contributions co ntrih u tio n s to the the conceptual co nce pt ual and andclinical clin ical elucic 1 u L'l ­ Other tdation l a I il l n of Ilf' the I hI.' theory I hl'l lry of I l f'psychological psychological types t y pcs have ha Vl' been hl.'cn as a s follows: f ollow s : '

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Meier's Meier's (1959) ( 1 959) exposition expoSItion of ofthe thetransference-countertransference transference-countertransference in in terms of a 'rotation' of of the the analyst's analyst's typological typological mandala to to bring bring his his or her orientation into into attunement attunement with with the the analysand's. analysand's. Mann, M ann, Siegler Sicgler and Osmond's Osmond's(1968) ( 1 968) discussion discussion of ofthe the different different relations relations to time time among among the the different different functions functions (sensation, (sensation, in intheir theirview, view,being being present oriented, feeling feeling being oriented, intuition future future oriented, oriented, being past oriented, thinking having a continuous time time line line through past, past, present, present, and and and thinking future). future). Marshall's (1968) ( 1 968) clarification through his his clarificationof of'rational' 'rational' and and 'irrational' through conceptual analysis of the functions (sensation and and intuition intuitionrevealed revealed to to be 'functions 'functions of the given' given' and and thinking thinking and and feeling feeling as 'functions 'functions of be option'). option'). Hillman's (1971/1998) ( 1 97 1 1 1 998) well-drawn between aspects James Hillman's well-drawn distinctions distinctions between aspects of the feeling function the persona, persona, and and his his the feeling function and and affect, affect, the the anima, anima, and and the discussion role of of inferior inferior feeling feeling in in synchronistic synchronistic phenomena. phenomena. discussion of the role William 1 975, 11976, 976, 11977) 977) insistence William Willeford's Willeford's ((1975, insistenceon on the the 'primacy' 'primacy' of feeling hierarchy of functions functions (because (because itit is is the function function that that feeling in in the the hierarchy discriminates affect). discriminates affect). Shapiro and Shapiro and Alexander's Alexander's (1975) ( 1 975) phenomenological phenomenological analysis analysis of the the characteristic extraversion (merger (merger with with the the object) object) and and characteristic 'moves' 'moves' of extraversion iintroversion ntroversion (matching with with the the archetype) archetype) inincreating creatingexperience. experience. Groesbeck's (1976) ( 1 976) examination and examination of the the role role of the analyst's tertiary and inferior functions in the constellation of of the 'wounded 'wounded healer' healer'archetype archetype during analysis. during analysis. Kirsch's ( 1 980) demonstration introverted therapists therapists tend tend to to Kirsch's (1980) demonstration that that introverted interpret dreams on the the subject subject level level and extraverted therapists therapists on on the the object level. object level. Sabini's (1988) ( 1 988) discussion therapist's inferior inferior function. function. discussion of of the therapist's Hill's (1998) ( 1 998) discussion of the the anima. anima. discussion of of the the typology of

All appreciated and extended extended the the therapeutic therapeutic possipo ssi ­ All of these writers have appreciated bilities Jung's typological typological formulations. formulations. bilities of of Jung's Another significant significant line of development development of of the the theory theoryofofpsychological psychological line of types has been in in the the area area of of standardised standardised testing to determine one's type and llevel e vel of 1 940s Jo Wheelwright, Wheelwright, together toget her of type type development. development. Although Although in the 1940s with wife, Jane orace Gray and and later later John JohnBuehler, Buchler. with his wife, Jane Wheelwright, Wheelwright, plus plus H Horace produced first paper-and-pencil paper-and-pencil type type test, test,the theGray-Wheelwrights Gray-Wheelwrights produced the first .Jungian Type Survey Survey (JTS), (.TTS), and and did did pioneering pioneeringresearch research with withthis thisinstrument instrument Jungian Type ((Mattoon M at toon and and Davis Davis1995), 1 995), ititwas wasreally reallythe theMyers-Briggs Myers-Briggs Type Type Indicator Indica tor (M BTl ) developed Briggs Myers her mother mother Katherine K a t herinl" (MBTI) developedby by Isabel Isabel Briggs Myers and and her Briggs, ungian analysts, analysts, that put put standardised standardised type typetesting test i l l ).' Briggs, who who were were not not .TJungian on t he map map internationally. i n t ernationally. The The MBTI, M BTl .developed d eve l o ped ini nearnest ea rnestfrom from19.1.' ) ,).1 .) on the aand n d finally tinal ly licensed l icensed iin n the t he 1960s, I lJ60s, has heeome one of the t he most most popula popula lI has become one of

sychologica l instruments inst ru l1lents in i n the t he English-speaking Engl ish-spea k ing world world and a n disis starting start i n).!totoIn. 1)(' ppsychological

Psychological types 147 Psych o l ogical types 1 47

used in in translation in other used other countries countries (see (see Quenk Quenk 2000 2000 for an up-to-date up-to-date description). It is regularly used by career counsellors counsellors to assess assess the the 'type' of description). of clients looking looking for for work that suits clients suits them them as as well well as as in in human human resource resource and and personnel departments departments all all over over the the world. world. A A Center personnel Center for Applications Applications of of PsychologicalType Type in in Gainesville, Florida maintains Psychological Gainesville, Florida maintains a large large statistical statistical database of test results. database results. In In the the United United States, States, the theAssociation Association for for PsychoPsycho­ logical Type, Type, which has more than 4000 members, hosts conferences sharing logical sharing experience and and research research based based on on the the use use of of the the MBTI, and there are similar experience organisations in other MBTI organisations other countries. There There is also a version of the M BT I test for children, the the M Murphy-Meisgeier Type Indicator Indicator for Children ((MMTIC). children, urphy-Meisgeier Type MMTIC). All All of these paper-and-pencil tests tests involve involve forced choices choices constructed constructed according according to Jung's that we cannot think or take in to .Tung's 'bipolar 'bipolar assumption' assumption' that we cannot think and feel, feel, or in sensation and use intuition, at at the the same same time. time. In In 1980, 1 980, Jungian .Tungian analysts June June Singer and and Mary Loomis Singer Loomis offered offered their their own own test, test,the theSinger-Loomis Singer-Loomis InvenInven­ does not build on this assumption; instead tory of Personality (SLIP), which does instead it assesses the level level of of development development of of each each of the it assesses the the eight eight function-attitudes function-attitudes separately ((Loomis A comparison comparison of test separately Loomis 1982). 1 982). A test findings, findings, undertaken undertaken to to determine the the extent extent of agreement between the the .TTS, JTS, MBTI MBTI and SLIP determine agreement between SLIP was was 1 994. published in 1994. Results found found that the MBTI Results M BTI and and the the JTS .TTS both both indicated indicated extraversionextraversion­ introversion agreement, sensing-intuition sensing-intuition with modermoder­ introversion with substantial agreement, ate agreement, and and thinking-feeling thinking-feeling with with limited limited agreement. agreement. Evidence Evidence ate agreement, was instruments' ability ability to to indicate indicate dominant dominant funcfunc­ was equivocal equivocal for for the instruments' tion. that the the SLIP SLIP measures measures different constructs tion. It appears that constructs than either the BTI or the JTS, JTS, so so that that little little support support was was found found for for Singer Singer and and the M MBTI Loomis' challenge challenge to to Jung's Loomis' .Tung's bipolarity bipolarity assumption. assumption. ((Karesh Karesh et al. 1994: 1 994: 30) 30) The popularity of the MBTI M BTI has has resulted resulted in in aa spate spate of ofpublications, publications, the the The popularity

the Bulletin Journal of of Psychological Type, Type, the Type Bulletin of of Psychological Type, The Type and TypeFace among them. Myers also is Reporter and is responsible for the the terms terms 'judging' 'irra­ `judging' and and 'perceiving' 'perceiving' as as less less loaded loaded synonyms synonymsfor for'rational' 'rational' and 'irrationaI', test itself itself confines confines its descriptors to to the the tional', although although the the test its JJ and PP descriptors characterisation characterisation of the leading extraverted function. Myers also introduced the of 'good 'good type typedevelopment' development' totosuggest suggestaaprogressive progressivedifferendifferen­ the notion of tiation the functions functions according according to the the hierarchy hierarchy of ofsuperior, superior, auxiliary, tiation of the auxiliary, tertiary inferior. In recent recent years, years, aa controversy controversy has developed developed as as to to tertiary and and inferior. whether whether the the third third and fourth functions continue the alternation of attitudes (with extraversion or introversion) introversion) begun first two two funcfunc­ (with respect respect to to extraversion begun by the first ttions. ions. A regularly alternating pattern is espoused by both Grant et al. ( 1 98 3 ) regularly pattern is espoused by both Grant et al. (1983) aand n d Brownsword Brownsword ((1988), 1 988), whereas the M BTI Manual suggests that the whereas the MBTI Manual suggests the auxil iary, tert i a ry and inferior arc all o pp o si t e in attit ude to the dominant. auxiliary, tertiary and inferior are all opposite attitude to the dominant. IImportant m portan t attempts a t tempts to to integrate in tegra te the t he empirical e mpi r i ca l discoveries discoveries of those those who who have he M BTI Ilest l'sl into t he clinical clinica l and ncept ua l ttradition rad i t ion ooff have developed developedt the MliTI into the and co conceptual

1148 48 John John Beebe Beebe



analytical psychology psychologyhave havebeen been made made by by Angelo analytical Angelo Spoto (1995), ( 1 995), John John Giannini (2004) (Beebe 11984). Therehave have also also been been attempts attempts to Giannini (2004) and myself (Beebe 984). There link the the eight eightJungian Jungian function-attitudes function-attitudes and sixteen M MBTI profiles to aa link BTI type profi les to new notion notion of new of temperament temperament (Keirsey (Keirsey and and Bates Bates 1984; 1 984; Berens Berens 1998), 1 998), Sheldon's body body types types (Arraj (Arraj and Arraj Sheldon's Arraj 1988), 1 988), the the DSM-IV DSM-IV personality personality disorders (Ekstrom (Ekstrom 1988), the N Neo-PI Personality F Factors disorders 1 988), the eo-PI `Big-5' 'Big-5' Personality actors (McRae and Costa 1989; Scanlon 1999), and the 'multiple and 1 989; Wiggins Wiggins 1996; 1 996; Scanlon 1 999), and 'multiple intelliintelli­ gences' of cognitive (Gardner 1983; gences' cognitive psychology psychology (Gardner 1 983; K. K. Thompson Thompson 1985; 1 985; Goleman 1995). The types types have have been been linked linked to religious Goleman 1 995). The religious orientation (Ross (Ross and moral moral decision-making 11992) 992) and decision-makingstyles styles(Beebe (Beebe 1992, 1 992, 1998a; 1 998a; Burleson Burleson2001). 200 1 ). Within academic academic psychology, psychology, Kagan Kagan (1994, Within ( 1 994, 1998) 1 998) has has recognised recognised Jung's contributions to to aa theory contributions theory of of temperament temperament but warned warned of of the the problems problems inherent in in trying inherent trying to understand understand these these issues issues without aa grasp grasp of ofinherent inherent physiology as well well as as psychology. psychology. There There have also been attempts attempts to physiology to correlate correlate types with with occult occult traditions traditions of characterology, such as the enneagram Jung's types and astrology. Current C urrent status status and and trends trend s Pla�t �y Plaut published by Type is still aa 'hard 'hard sell' study published analysts. A study many analysts. sell' among many is still Type t �elr m their type in use type revealedthat that less less than than half of Jungian analysts use Jungian analysts 1 972) revealed ((1972) . s Those who do clinIcal than clinical rather than results rather test results on test rely on often rely do often clinical work. 5 Those are analysts are these analysts ofthese observation to to establish Many of diagnosis'. Many 'type diagnosis'. establish the 'type ohservation unethical unaware Psychological Type considers it unethical for Psychological Association for the Association that the unaware that is w� ich is M B!I , which the MBTI, on the to results on their results of their simply on the basis of someone simply type someone to type . m mtervlew in follow-upinterview after leastaafollow-up beatatleast mustbe Theremust ' Indicator'. There only an 'Indicator'. all only after all of, linesof, thelines alongthe proviso along which with aa proviso explained with are explained test are of the test which the results of you s t fi really fits you'.' . if itit really see if indicates, and can see you can this is and you test indicates, the test type the is the type 'this the waythe theway criticised the Nevertheless, Annie Murphy severely criticised hasseverely (2004) has Paul(2004) M urphy Paul Neverthele ss, Annie identities assignidentities toassign M BTI has has been been used by teachers and counsellors to career counsellors and career M BTl

to individuals. individuals. In psychotherapeutic psychotherapeutic circles, circles, sadly, sadly, few few clinicians clinicians can caneven evenrecognise recognisethe the eight eight function-attitudes, function-attitudes, confusing confusing introverted introverted feeling feeling with �ntroverted with introverted intuition, int uition, not not knowing knowing the thedifference difference between between extraverted extraverted and andintroverted mtroverted thinking thin king and and so so on. on. (Sharp's (Sharp's(1987) ( 1 987) book bookisisan anexcellent excellentremedial remedialprimer.) primer. ) Many Ma ny do do not notreally reallyunderstand understandthe thedifference differencebetween between introversion introversion and and extraversion ext raversion as as processes processes in in the the self. self. (This (This is is helpfully helpfully addressed addressed in inLavin's Lavin's (1995) article.)) One One place place type type theory theory has taken limited, but ( 1 (95) article. but promising, promising, hold hold in clinical clinical work is is in in the the area area of ofcouple coupletherapy therapyand andmarriage marriagecounselling. counselling. Therapists Thera pists who who have haveexplained explained the thetypes typesto totheir theirclients clientshave haveoften oftenreported reported that the the results results are arevery very satisfying, satisfying, in in terms terms of ofcreating creating appropriate appropriateexpecexpec­ tations between hetween the the partners partners and and helping helping them them to toadjust adjusttheir theircommunicacommunica­ tion tion styles. styles. There can can he he no no real real advance advance in in the theunderstanding understanding of ofJung's Jung's most I1Illsl subtle s u b l le and and far-reaching fa r-ITaching contribution contrihution to toego egopsychology, psychology, however, howeve r,

Psychological 1 49 Psychologicaltypes types 149

until more analytical analytical psychologists psychologists become become much type-literate until many many more much more more type-literate than they are nowadays. Then we can hope for some interesting research than they are nowadays. Then we can hope for some interesting research that follows up the implications of Jung's theory of psychological types, that follows up the implications of Jung's theory of psychological types, research that can also move our understanding of the actual path of indi­ research that can also move our understanding of the actual path of individuation viduation forward. N o tes Notes 'introversion' were were apparently apparently adapted from Binet's Binet's 1 The The terms terms 'extraversion' 'extraversion' and and 'introversion' adapted from terms (Binet 1903, 1 903, cited cited by by Oliver Oliver Brachfeld Brachfeld terms 'externospection' `externospection' and and 'introspection' 'introspection' (Binet in 1 970: 702�703 ). in Ellenberger Ellenberger 1970: 702-703). 22 Carolyn Carolyn Fay F a y(1996) ( 1 996) has has suggested suggested this this be b ecalled called 'feeling 'feeling value'. value'. 33 'Function', 'Function', strictly, strictly, refers refers to to the thefour fourfunctions functionsofof consciousness— � sensation, sensation, consciousness thinking, � whereas thinking, feeling feeling and and intuition intuition — whereas'attitude' 'attitude' suggests suggeststhe the habitual habitual way way the the attention is directed directed — � whether or introverted introverted — � when psyche acts acts attention is whether extraverted extraverted or when the the psyche or reacts (Jung (lung 1971: 1 97 1 : 4414). 14). In type literature, literature, it it is is common common to to identify identify the the or reacts In the the type extraverted introverted deployment deployment of of aa function function when when specifying specifying it; it; hence hence extraverted and and introverted rather speaking of of four four functions functions and and two two attitudes, attitudes, people people nowadays nowadays speak speak rather than than speaking of eight function-attitudes function-attitudes ((H. H . Thompson 1 996). These eight cognitive cognitive modes modes of eight Thompson 1996). These eight offer total complement complement of of possibilities possibilities for conscious orientation can offer aa total for conscious orientation that that can potentially we individuate. individuate. potentially be be differentiated as we 44 Here, Here, II have have followed followed Myers, Myers, and and not not Wheelwright, Wheelwright, in in finding finding that that the the auxiliary auxiliary function function is is different different in in attitude attitude from from the the superior superior function, function, and and have have asserted asserted that that the attitudes of of the the functions functions alternate alternate in in the the course course of oftheir theirdifferentiation, differentiation, so so the attitudes that if the the first, first, superior, superior, function function is is extraverted, extraverted, the the auxiliary auxiliary function function will will be be that if introverted, tertiary extraverted, extraverted, and and the the inferior inferior introverted. introverted. introverted, the the tertiary 55 Bradway Bradway and and Detloff Detloff (1978) ( 1 978) established established the the incidence incidence of of the the different different psychopsycho­ logical among Jungian Jungian analysts, analysts, and and Bradway Bradway and andWheelwright Wheelwright(1978) ( 1 978) logical types types among studied relation of of the the psychological psychological type analyst to the analysts' analysts' actual actual studied the the relation type of of the the analyst to the analytical to use use typology typology analytical practices, practices, finding, finding,for for instance, instance, that that extraverts extraverts tend tend to more than introverts introverts in in making making connections connections and and interpretations interpretations with with their their more than patients that typology typology is is used used more by San San Francisco Francisco than by London London patients and and that more often often by than by Jungian analysts. analysts.

B i b l i ogra p h y Bibliography Arraj, JJ.. and and Arraj, Arraj , T. T . (1988) ( 1 988) Tracking Tracking the the Elusive Elusive Human, Human, Volume I . Chiloquin, Chiloquin, Arraj, Volume 1. OR: Inner I nner Growth. Growth. OR: Beebe, J. ( 1 984) 'Psychological ' Psychological types in transference, transference, countertransference, countertransference, and and the the Beebe, J. (1984) types in therapeutic interaction', N. Schwartz-Salant Schwartz-Sal ant and M. Stein Stein (eds) Transference/ (eds) Transference! therapeutic interaction', in in N. and M. Countertransference. Wilmette, Wilmette, IL: I L : Chiron. Chiron. Countertran.sference. ( 1 992) Integrity in Depth. College Station, TX: TX: Texas Texas A&M A&M University UniversityPress. Press. - ---- (1992) College Station, ( I 998a) 'Toward Jungian analysis analysis of of character', character', in in A. A. Casement Casement (ed.) (ed.) PostPost­ (1998a) 'Toward aa Jungian Jungian.I' Today. Today. London: London: Routledge. Routledge. Jungians ( 1 !)!)Xh) ''Review R e v i e w of Kalsched's The The Inner Inner World World of of Trauma: Trauma: Archetypal Archetypal (1998b) of Donald Donald Kalsched's Ikjinvl',l' or the tl/I' Personal Personal Spirit'. ....'pirit'. Quadrant, Quadrant, 28(1): 2 X ( I ): 92 96. Defenses 92 96. ( �( )()4 ) ' l l l1dersl al1dil1� consciollsness t h ro ugh t he t heory of psych ological (20114) 'Understanding consciousness through the theory of psychological

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Ellenberger, 1 970) The f the Unconscious: The History History and andEvolution Evolution The Discovery Discovery oof the Unconscious: Ellenberger, H. H. ((1970) of Dynamic Psychiatry. Books. New York: York: Basic Books. of Dynamic Psychiatry. New Fay, e. (1996) ( 1 996) At At the the Threshold Threshold (video e.G. Jung EduEdu­ (video cassette). cassette). Houston, Houston, TX: TX: C.G. Fay, C. cational Center. cational Center. Gardner, H. (1983) ( 1 983) Frames f Mind. New York: York: Basic Books. Frames oof Mind. New Gardner, H. Gcldart, ( 1 998) 'Katharine 'Katharine Downing Downing Myers whole MBTI M BTI type type — - an an Geldart, W. W. (1998) Myers and whole http://tap3x.net/ n Electronic interview'. The Enneagram Enneagram and and the the MBT!: MBTI: A An Electronic Journal Journal http://tap3x.net/ interview'. The E M BTI/journal.html ((February February 1998). 1 998). EMBTI/journal.html f the Soul: Archetypal Archetypal Guides Guides to Fuller Life. Lijl'. 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Psychological types 151 Psych ological types 1 51 San Francisco Hill, G. Hill, G. (1998) ( 1 998) ''Men, Men, the anima, and the the feminine'. feminine'. San Francisco Jung Institute Institute Library Journal, Journal, 117(3): 49-61.. Library 7(3): 49-61 Hillman, 1J.. (1971/1998) 'The feeling feelingfunction', function', in in M M.-L. von Franz and J.J . Hillman, Hillman, ( 1 97 1 1 1 998) 'The .-L. von Hillman, Lectures on on Jung Jung's Lectures 's Typology. Typology. Woodstock, CT: Spring. Spring. Leipzig and and Vienna: Vienna: Franz Jung, CG. ((1912) 1 9 1 2) Wandlungen Jung, C.G. Wandlungenund and Symbole Symbole der der Libido. Libido. Leipzig Deuticke. Zurich: Rascher. (1921) Psychologische Typen. Typen. Zurich: -( 1 92 1 ) Psychologische trans. H.G. (1923) Psychological Types, Types, or, or, The -( 1 923) Psychological The Psychology Psychology of of Individuation, Individuation, trans. H.G. Baynes. Harcourt Brace. Brace. Baynes. 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Stein Laa Salle, IL: Jungian Analysis. Stein (ed.) (ed.) Jungian Loomis, ( 1 982) 'A 'A new new perspective perspective for for Jung's Jung's typology: typology: the theSinger-Loomis Singer-Loomis Loomis, M M.. (1982) of Analytical A nalytical Psychology, Psychology, 27( 1 ): 59-70. IInventory nventory of Journal of 27(1): 59-70. of Personality'. Personality'. Journal McCrae, Costa, P. P. (1989) ( 1 989) 'Reinterpreting 'Reinterpreting the the Myers-Briggs Myers-Briggs Type Indicator McCrae, R. and Costa, Journal oof f from perspective of Five-Factor Model Personality'. Journal from the the perspective of the the Five-Factor Model of of Personality'. Personality, 1 7-40. Personality, 57: 57: 17-40. Journal oof f Mann, M . and and Osmond, Osmond, H. (1968) ( 1 968) 'The The many worlds of time'. Journal Mann, H., Siegler, M. 3( 1 ): 33-56. Analytical Analytical Psychology, Psychology, 113(1): 33-56. Journal of of Analytical Marshall, ( 1 968) The Marshall, I.I. (1968) 'The four functions: functions: aa conceptual conceptual analysis'. analysis'. Journal Psychology, 3( 1 ): 11-32. -32. Psychology, 113(1): Mattoon, and Davis, Davis, M. M. (1995) ( 1 995) 'The TheGray-Wheelwrights Gray-Wheelwrights Jungian Jungian type type survey: survey: Mattoon, M. and of Analytical A nalytical Psychology, Psychology, 40(2): development Journal of 40(2): 205-234. 205-234. development and and history'. history'. Journal Journal Meier, ( 1 959) 'Projection, transference, transference, and the subject-object subject-object relation' Meier, C C. (1959) relation'.. Journal o fA nalytical Psychology, Psychology, 4( 1 ): 221-34. 1 -34. 4(1): of Analytical Palo Myers, ( 1 980) Gifts fering: Understanding Gifts Dif Differing: Understanding Personality Personality Type. Palo Myers, I.I. and and Myers, P. (1980) Alto, Consulting Psychologists Psychologists Press. Press. Alto, CA: Consulting Myers, (2000) Introduction Type Dynamics Dynamics and and Development. Development. Introduction to Type Myers, K. K. and and Kirby, Kirby, L. L. (2000) Palo Consulting Psychologists Psychologists Press. Press. Palo Alto, Alto, CA: Consulting PapadopOUlos, 1 992) Carl Gustav Jung: Critical Assessments. Assessments. London: London: Carl Gustav Jung: Critical Papadopoulos,R. R. (ed.) (ed.) ((1992) R outledge. Routledge. Paul. f Personality. The Cull Cult oof Personality. New New York: York: Free Press. Paul, A.M. A.M. (2004) (2004) The ( 1 972) 'Analytical 'Analytical psychologists psychologists and and psychological psychological types: types: comment comment on on F. (1972) Plaut, Plant, E. re pl ies to mal of Anall ' liCliI Psychology, Psycho logl', 117(2): 7(2): 1137 37 151. 151. Journal of Analytical replies toaa survey' survey'.. .Iou

1 52 John JohnBeebe Beebe 152

Chapter Chapter 7 7

Quenk, N. N. (1993) ( 1 993) Beside Ourselves: Ourselves: Our in Everyday Everyday Life. Life. Palo Palo Our Hidden Personality in Quenk, CA: Consulting ConsultingPsychologists PsychologistsPress. Press. Alto, CA: (2000) Essentials of of Myers-Briggs Myers-Briggs Type Type Indicator Indicator Assessment. Assessmen t. New York: York: Quenk, N. N . (2000) Quenk, John Wiley. Wiley. John e . (1992) ( 1 992) 'The The intuitive intuitive function function and and religious religious orientation'. orientation'. Journal Journal of of Ross, C. Ross, 37( 1 ) : 83-103. 83- 1 03 . Analytical Psychology, Psychology, 37(1): Analytical S abini, M. M . (1988) ( 1 988) 'The The therapist's therapist's inferior inferior function'. function'. Journal Journal of ofAnalytical A nalytical Sabini, Psychology, 3(4): 3(4): 373-394. 373-394. Psychology, Beebe, JJ.. (1995) ( 1 995) 'Psychopathology ' Psychopathology and in M. M. Stein Stein(ed.) (ed.) Sandner, D. and Beebe, and analysis', analysis', in Jungian Analysis. A nalysis. La Salle, Salle, IL: IL:Open Open Court. Court. Jungian (ed.) (1999) ( 1 999) 'The 'The MBTI M BTI and andother otherpersonality personalitytheories: theories:Part Part22— - "The "The Scanlon, S. (ed.) Big Five" Five" and and the the NEO-PI'. NEO-PI'. The The Type Type Reporter, Reporter, 72. Big Shamdasani, S. S. (2003) (2003) Jung and the the Making Making of ofModern Modern Psychology: Psychology: The Dream of oj a Jung and Shamdasani, Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University University Press. Press. Science. Shapiro, K. K. and and Alexander, Alexander, I. I. (1975) ( 1 975) The f Introversion: Introversion: An An Integration In tegration The Experience Experience oof Shapiro, Duke of Phenomenological, Phenomenological, Empirical, Jungian Approaches. Approaches. Durham, Durham, NC: Duke of Empirical, and and Jungian University Press. University Press. Sharp, D. D. (1987) ( 1 987) Personality Personality Types: Types: Jung's Jung 's Model Model of ofTypology. Typology. Toronto: Inner City. City. Sharp, Singer, and Loomis, Loomis, M. Singer-Loomis Inventory In ventory of of Personality: Personality: The Singer-Loomis Singer, J.J. and M. (n.d.) (n.d.) The CA: Consulting Consulting Psychologists Psychologists Press. Press. Experimental (booklet). Palo Alto, CA: Experimental Edition Edition (booklet). ( 1 995) Jung's Typology in in Perspective. Perspective. Wilmette, L : Chiron. Spoto, A. A. (1995) Wilmette, IIL: Jung's Typology Spoto, Thompson, 1 996) Jung's Function-A ttitudes Explained. GA: Watkinsville, GA: Jung's Function-Attitudes Explained. Watkinsville, Thompson, H. H. ((1996) Wormhole. Wormhole. Thompson, 1 98 5 ) 'Cognitive psychology'. San Francisco Jung San Francisco Thompson, K. K. ((1985) 'Cognitive and and analytical analytical psychology'. Institute 5(4): 40-64. 40-64. Institute Library Library Journal, Journal, 5(4): Von 1 975) 'A 1 : 108-110. 1 08 - 1 1 0. Harvest, 221: Von der der Heydt, Heydt, V V.. ((1975) 'A session session with with Jung', Jung', Harvest, von Franz, M .-L. ( 1 97 1 / 1 998) The inferior function', in M .-L. von Franz, M.-L. (1971/1998) The inferior function', in M.-L. von von Franz Franz and and J. J. n Jung's Typology. Woodstock, Hillman, Woodstock, CT: CT: Spring. Lectures oon Jung's Typology. Hillman, Lectures Wheelwright, 1 982) 'Psychological Wheelwright, Saint George Saint George Wheelwright, J.B. J.B. ((1982) 'Psychological types', types', in in J.B. J.B. Wheelwright, and the Dandelion. Dandelion. San e.G. Jung Jung Institute Institute of of San San Francisco. Francisco. San Francisco, Francisco, CA: CA: C.G. and the Wiggins, ( 1 996) The f Personality: Personality: Theoretical Theoretical PerPer­ The Five-Factor Five-Factor Model Model oof Wiggins, J.J. (ed.) (ed.) (1996) Guilford. spectives. New York: York: Guilford. spectives. New 1 975) Toward dynamic concept concept of of Analytical Willeford, Journal of Willeford, W. W. ((1975) 'Toward aa dynamic of feeling'. feeling'. Journal Psychology, 20( 1 ) : 118-40. 8-40 . 20(1): Psychology, . of Analytical Analytical Psychology, Psychology, ((1976) 1 976) 'The Journal of 'The primacy primacyof of feeling feeling(Part (Part I)'. I)'. Journal 221(2): 1 ( 2): 1115-133. 1 5- 1 33 . ((1977) 1 977) The of Analytical Analytical Psychology, Psychology, Journal of 'The primacy primacy of of feeling feeling (Part (Part II)'. II)'. Journal 22( I ): 1-16. 1 - 1 6. 22(1):

The The self Warren Colman Colman

.

SECTION S E C T I O N 1: 1 : JJUNG UNG Introduction Introduction

Since Jung Jung viewed viewed the the self self as as both both the the centre and the totality Since totality of of the the psyche, psyche, it has aa strong it strong claim claim to to be be regarded regarded as as the the central central concept concept of of his his entire entire psychology. The The self self isis the the goal goal towards which the process process of individuation psychology. strives. It It represents and the strives. represents psychic psychic wholeness wholeness and the process process by by which which selfself­ division may be healed. division healed. The psychology of of the self self is is also also the the psychology psychology of ofreligious religious experience. experience. JJung's ung's work on the the self self is at the heart heart of ofhis his investigations investigations into into the the religious religious function of the psyche psyche and the varying ways ways that that this has manifested function manifested in the historical consciousness consciousnessof ofthe the West. West. From From the early historical early 1920s 1 920s onwards, onwards, he drew frequent frequent comparisons comparisons between drew between the self self and and the the divine divine and, and, especially especially in his his later work, emphasised in emphasised that 'the 'the spontaneous spontaneous symbols symbols of of the the self, self, or or of wholeness, wholeness, cannot cannot in in practice practice be be distinguished distinguished from from aa God-image' God-image' (Jung of par. 73). 73). Jung Jung thus regards God-images as symbolic 11951: 95 1 : par. symbolic representations of the self. of Individuality and tthe mediation the Ind i vi d ua l i ty and he m e d iation of t h e opposites opposi t e s

Despite or, or, perhaps, perhaps, because because of of its its importance, the concept concept of of the self Despite importance, the self emerged only gradually in Jung's writings and his first major statements emerged only gradually in Jung's writings his first major statements about it do not about not occur occur until until the the 1928 1 928 version version of of 'The 'The relations relations between between the ego and the unconscious'. If we go back to the 1916 version of this essay we ego and If to the 1 9 1 6 of find Jung using the concept of 'individuality' in the place of what he find Jung using the concept of 'individuality' he later later termed 'the 'the self'. self'. These statements statements illuminate illuminate the intimate link between termed between the self,as as the the essence essence of of individuality, individuality, and and individuation individuation as as the the process by self, process by whichthat that individuality individuality may be realised. realised. In this early model, Jung contrasts which contrasts `the individual' with with 'the 'the collective' collective' in in both t he individual' unconscious both its its conscious conscious and and unconscious forms. Between Betweenthe the individual individual and and the the collective he places places the the persona persona as forms. collective he '

'outward tthe he 'outwa rd aattitude' t t i t ude' tthat hat is is oriented oriented towards towards the the external external world world of of

The 1 55 Theself self 155

Warren Colman 1154 54 Warren C o l man

collectiveconsciousness consciousness and theanima animaasasthe the'inward 'inward attitude', attitude', that that is collective and the is orientedtowards towards the the internal internal world world of the oriented the collective collective unconscious.' unconscious. l He He defines 'individuality'as as 'the 'the innermost innermost core core of ego-consciousness and of of defi nes 'individuality' ego-consciousness and unconsciousalike' alike' (Jung (Jung 1916: par. 507). tthe he unconscious 1 9 1 6: par. 507). It is is thus thus intimately intimately linked linked with the the ego ego (as (as the the centre centre of of consciousness) consciousness)but but also also distinct distinct from from the ego with since itit isis also also at the core of since of the the unconscious. unconscious. psyche at at that time can be tabulated in the JJung's ung's picture of the psyche the following following way, showing showing how how the the individual individual is is placed placed at at the 'mid-point' way, 'mid-point' of ofpsychic psychic life: life: collective consciousness/external consciousness/external reality collective 11 persona persona 11

individual 11T1 anima am rna

1t 1 collective unconscious collective

He writes writes that 'The individual He individual stands, stands, as as itit were, were, between between the the conscious conscious part part psyche and and the unconscious part' 1 9 1 6: par. par. 507). 507). He He of the collective collective psyche part' (Jung (J ung1916: aalso lso emphasises emphasises that the individual individual is made made of of elements elements which are in themthem­ selves collective collectiveand and universal universal but but whose whose particular particular arrangement selves arrangement constitutes constitutes Individuality isis thus thus 'particular ttheir heir uniqueness. uniqueness. Individuality 'particular and universal universal at at once' once' (1916: ( 1 9 1 6: par. 505). 505). These pairs pairs of ofopposites opposites(conscious/unconscious, (conscious/unconscious,individual/collective, individual/collective, particular/universal) are examples whatJung Junglater later came came to to see particular/universal) are examples ofofwhat see as aa The process complexio oppositorum. defining featureof of the the self self as as aa complexio oppositorum. process of defining feature individuation, however, resolves that state of inner conflict and opposition however, resolves state of inner conflict and opposition into into aa coincidentia coinciden tia oppositorum, oppositorum, a union union of ofopposites opposites which which brings brings about about Psychological wholeness. Jung explores this theme further in Types wholeness. Jung explores this theme further in Psychological Types ( ppublished in 1921). There he he speaks speaks of 'the possibility of ublished in 1 92 1 ). There of separating separating out out an an individual individual nucleus' nucleus' from the the opposing opposing functions functionswhich, which, ififunsuccessful, unsuccessful, leads leads to 'the 'the dissolution dissolution of of the the individuality individuality into into pairs pairs of ofopposites' opposites' and and 'disunion oneself' (Jung 1921/1950: par. 174). And, in the ' disunion with firstspecific specific with oneself' (Jung 1 92 1 1 1 950: par. 1 74). And, in thefirst reference to the the self as an entity reference to self as entity distinct distinct from from the the ego, ego, he he writes writes of of 'a'a differentiation of the self from the opposites' as something which brings differentiation o f self from the opposites' as something which brings relief relief (healing) (healing) from from inner innerconflict conflict(1921/1950: ( 1 92 1 1 1 950: par. par. 183). 1 83). It is apparent from Jung's references to Eastern I t is apparent from Jung's references to Easternphilosophy philosophyand andreligion religion at at this t his time time (especially (especially in Psychological Psychological Types) Types) that that his his development development of ofthe the concepts co n cep ts of of the the self selfand andthe theopposites oppositeswere wereheavily heavilyinfluenced influencedby bysimilar similar concepts concepts in in the the Eastern Eastern tradition. tradition.For Forexample, example,Buddhism, Buddhism,Chinese Chinesephilop h i lo­ sophy the Upanishads U panishads all all contain contain clear clear references references to the the 'mediation ' m ed i a t i on of or sophy and and the the lateracknowledged acknowledgedthe t heinfluence i n fl u ence of o fEastern Easternphilosophy p h i l osophy t he opposites'. oppos i l l: s ' . Jung .l u n glater in I I pa l l i s h a d s in i n general genera l and and the t ill' Ilpanishads i n particular pa rticu la r in i n his his choice c h oice of of the the term t er m 'self' ' sel f"'

to to designate designate the the 'supraordinate' `supraordinate' or or 'suprapersonal' `suprapersonal' centre centre of of the the personality personality which of his his whichis,is,atat the the same same time, time, 'the 'the totality totality of of man, man, the the sum sum total total of 1 9381 1 940: par. par. 140). 1 40). conscious contents' (Jung (lung 1938/1940: conscious and and unconscious unconscious contents' M and a l as and e ''Pool Po o l of i fe ' Mandalas andth the of L Life'

The The account accountof of this this period period in in lung's Jung's life life given giveni nin Memories, Memories, Dreams, Dreams, Re flections ((1963) 1 963) shows 'con­ Reflections showshow howmuch muchthese theseideas ideasowed owedtoto his his own own 'confrontation with the the unconscious', unconscious', aa severe severe state state of of inner inner turmoil turmoil and and conflict conflict frontation with into into which which he he was was pitched pitched following followinghis hisbreak breakwith with Freud. Freud. Towards Towards the the end end of period (1916), ( 1 9 1 6), lung mandalas but only gradually gradually of this this period Jung began began painting painting mandalas but only began understand their theirsignificance. significance. began to to understand

9 1 8 and 920, IIbegan During During those those years years between between 11918 and 11920, beganto to understand understand that that the in finding finding the the the goal goal of of psychic psychic development development is is the the self self .. .. .. II knew knew that that in mandala as an an expression expression of what was was for for me me the the mandala as of the the self self II had had attained attained what ultimate. ultimate. (lung 1 963: 222) 222) (Jung 1963: Jung painting mandalas mandalas during during the the 1920s 1 920s but the climax climax of of this this Jung continued continued painting but the development came in a dream of the 'Pool of Life' in 1 927 in which the city development came in a dream of the 'Pool of Life' in 1927 in which the city of Liver-pool' is is represented represented as In this this dream dream Jung lung came came of ''Liver-pool' as aa typical typical mandala. mandala. In to a broad square in the centre of the city where many streets converged. to a broad square in the centre of the city where many streets converged. In the centre centre of of the the square square was was aa round round pool pool and and in in the the middle middle of of itit aa In the small island. On it stood a single tree, a magnolia. It was as though the small island. On it stood a single tree, a magnolia. It was as though the tree stood in the sunlight and was at the same time the source of light. tree stood in the sunlight and was at the same time the source of light. Looking back at the the end end of ofhis his life life Jung Jungcommented: commented: Looking back at The dream dream brought brought with with itit aa sense sense of offinality. finality. II saw saw that that here here the the goal goal The had been revealed. One could not go beyond the centre. The centre had been revealed. One could not go beyond the centre. The centre isis the goal, goal, and and everything everything is is directed directed towards towards that that centre. centre. Through Through this this the dream I understood that the self is the principle and archetype of dream I understood that the self is the principle and archetype of orientation and meaning. Therein lies its healing function . . . The orientation and meaning. Therein lies its healing function . . . The dream depicted depicted the the climax climax of of the the whole whole process process of of development development of of dream consciousness. It satisfi e d me completely, for it gave a total picture of consciousness. It satisfied me completely, for it gave a total picture of my situation. situation. my 1 963: 224) 224) (Jung 1963: (Jung This account account of of Jung's lung'sown ownprofound profoundmystical mysticalexperiences experiences bears bears out out the the This evidence from his p ub l i s h e d writings that the major period of development evidence from his published writings that the major period of development id ea s about a hout the the self self took took place place between hetween 1921 1 92 1 and and 1928. 1 928. The ' Pool of of h i s ideas of his of The 'Pool L i t ;: ' d rea m m u st h a ve hl'l' l l co n t e m poraneous with l u n g's r ev ision o f w h Life' dream must have been contemporaneous with Jung's revision of whata t

Warren Colman 1156 56 Warren Colman



became 'The 'The relations relations between betweenthe the ego ego and and the unconscious' became unconscious' and the the addition of the section addition section on 'Individuation' ' Individuation' (Jung (lung 1928). 1 928). Almost Almost the the entire entire corpus of lung's Jung's subsequent corpus subsequent work work can canbe beseen seenas asthe theworking workingout outofofideas ideas— and experiences whichwere werealready alreadyininplace placeatat that that time. While there is and experiences -—which is considerable development development over over the the next years, there considerable next twenty-five twenty-five years, there is scant scant evidence of of modification modification of of his his basic basic ideas. ideas. Rather Rather Jung's evidence lung's subsequent subsequent work work elaborates in ever ever more more profuse detail the symbolic iconography of elaborates of Western religiousthought thought through through which which the the phenomenology phenomenologyof of the the self self can can be religious be Mysterium Coniunctionis ttraced. raced. Only final work alchemy, Mysterium 1 954) Coniunctionis ((1954) Only in in his his final work on alchemy, (to which I will refer later) is there evidence of a shift in view concerning the (to the relations the self. self. relations between between the the ego ego and the Totality Total i ty and and centre centre

that Two Essays Essays on on Analytical Psychology Psychology that IIt t is 1 928 additions is in in the the 1928 additions to to the the Two we find find the the first first definition definition of of the the self self as as the the 'totality' of we of the the psyche psyche which which recurs, essentially essentially unchanged, unchanged, throughout recurs, throughout his hiswritings: writings: Conscious and and unconscious unconscious. . .. . complement one another another to form Conscious complement one form aa totality which which is is the to this definition totality the self. self. According According to defin ition the the self self is aa quantity that is quantity is supraordinate supraordinate to to the the conscious conscious ego. ego. It It embraces cmbraces not only the conscious but also also the the unconscious unconscious psyche, psyche, and and is is therefore, therefore, so so also are. to speak, aa personality personality which which we also (lung 1 928: par. 274) 274) (Jung 1928: At the the same same time, time, he he continues continues pursuing pursuing the theme theme of of the the self self as as indiindi­ viduality and the the achievement of one's one's own own uniqueness: 'in so so far viduality and achievement of uniqueness: 'in far as as "individuality" "individuality" embraces embraces our our innermost, innermost, last last and andincomparable incomparableuniqueness, uniqueness, it also implies implies becoming one's own own self. self. We We could could therefore therefore translate translate indiindi­ viduation viduation as "coming "coming to to selfhood" selfhood" or or"self-realization"' "self-realization'" (1928: ( 1 928: par. par.266). 266). do with with the the achievement achievement of of aa centre of This process is also seen as having to do the personality personality which which transcends transcends the theopposites; opposites; this thiscentre centreisisalso alsodefined defined as as the self par. 389). self (1928: ( 1 928: par. 389). Echoing the the earlier earlier model model which which places places 'individu'individu­ ality' ality' in in the the centre centre of ofthe the personality, personality, he he refers refers to to transformations transformations which have as their goal the attainment attainment of of the the mid-point mid-point of ofpersonality personality . .. .. [This] [This] centre centre of of personality personality no no longer longercoincides coincides with with the the ego, ego, but but with with aa point point midway midway between betwecn the the conscious conscious and andthe theunconscious. unconscious. This This would be the the point point of ofaanew newequilibrium, equilibrium, aanew newcentering centering of ofthe thetotal total personality, aa virtual virtual centre. centre. personality, (lung 1928: 1 928: pars. 364 364 365) 3(5) (Jung ' Pool the Tool own experiences experiences of of mandalas mandalas such such as a s the ( I car ly this t his refers refers to t o Jung's .l u ng's own Clearly, of or II ,ife' ,i t'c' in in which which the t he total t o t a l figure figure is is organised orga n i sed round round aacentre cen t rewhich w h ichexerts CXl'J'ts ita '

,

The 1 57 Theself self 157

numinous and is is both both defining defining of ofand and defined defined by by the the whole. whole. At At several several numinous 'pull' 'pull' and points self as points in in his his later later writing, writing,lung Jung returns returns to to the the paradox paradox of of the the self as both both totality lchemy (written totality and and centre. centre. In In the the introduction introduction to to Psychology Psychology and and A Alchemy (written in 1 944) he in 1944) he states: states: II call of call this this centre centre 'the 'the self' self' which which should should be be understood understood as as the the totality totality of the psyche. The self is not only the centre, but also the whole circum­ the psyche. The self is not only the centre, but also the whole circumference it is is the the centre centre ference which whichembraces embraces both both conscious conscious and and unconscious; unconscious; it 2 of this totality, just as the ego is the centre of consciousness. of this totality, just as the ego is the centre of consciousness. 2 (.lung 1 944: par. 41) (Jung 1944: par. 41)

Arc h etype and and symbol symbol Archetype

A paradox arises arises from from the the fact fact that that Jung lungincreasingly increasingly refers refers to to the the A further further paradox self the early 1 940s onwards. Notwithstanding that he self as as an an archetype archetype from from the early 1940s onwards. Notwithstanding that he there remains the difficult question of regards regards itit as as the the central central archetype, archetype, there remains the difficult question of how the self can be both the totality of the psyche and one of the archetypal how the self can be both the totality of the psyche and one of the archetypal psyche. 31 This This problem problem can can best best be be approached approached by by contents contents within within the the psyche. considering some of the difficulties inherent in the notion of the self as considering some of the difficulties inherent in the notion of the self as totality. By its very nature, the totality of the self is inexperiencable since totality. By its very nature, the totality of the self is inexperiencable since the of itit isis unconscious unconscious and and therefore therefore unknown unknown to to us. us. Jung lung the greater greater part part of repeatedly this radically radically unknown unknown quality quality of ofthe theunconscious: unconscious: repeatedly insists insists on on this since of consciousness, consciousness, the idea of of the the since everything everything known known isis aa content content of the very very idea unconscious and, since since it it is is unknown, unknown, we we unconscious presupposes presupposes all all that that is is unknown unknown and, cannot have have any any knowledge knowledge of or its its limits. limits. All All that that we we can can say say cannot of its its nature nature or about it is is said said on onthe thebasis basisofofitsitsmanifestations manifestationsininconsciousness. consciousness. With With about it regard the self, self, these these manifestations the form form of of archetypal archetypal symbols regard to to the manifestations take take the symbols which, are the the best best possible possible representation representation of ofan an unknown unknownpsychic psychic which, for for lung, Jung, are fact (lung 1921/1950: 1 92 1 / 1 950: par. 8 1 4). The The self self is is necessarily necessarily represented represented through through fact (Jung par. 814). symbols be represented represented in in any any other other way: way: 'the 'theconscious conscious symbols since since itit cannot cannot be mind can can form form absolutely absolutely no no conception conception of ofthis thistotality, totality,because becauseititincludes includes mind not only the the conscious conscious but but also also the theunconscious unconscious psyche, psyche, which which is, is, as as such, such, not only inconceivable and irrepresentable' (Jung (lung 1942/1948: 1 9421 1 948: par. par. 230). 230). inconceivable and irrepresentable' In other other words, words, Jung lung studies studies the the 'empirical 'empirical manifestations' manifestations' of ofthe theself, self, its its In archetypal symbols, symbols, as means of of gaining gaining 'clues' 'clues' as as to to its its essential essential nature nature archetypal as aa means which, nevertheless, reach. At At the the same same time, time, which, nevertheless,remains remains inherently inherentlyout out of of reach. the nature nature of ofthese these symbols symbols and andthe thenuminous, numinous,mystical mysticalexperiences experienceswith with the which they are are associated associated produce produce aasense senseof ofwholeness wholeness (totality) (totality)which whichisis which they unarguable and self-validating. self-validating. As we have have seen, seen, Jung lung knew knew about about such such unarguable and As we mystical religious religious experiences rst hand; as aa scientist, scientist, however, however, he he was was mystical experiences at at fifirst hand; as at pains pa i n s to to attempt a ttem pttotoanalyse analysethem themobjectively. objectively. The The idea ideathat thatmystical mystical at or a a shift shift in in centre centre from from the the ego ego (which (which is is the the centre centre ex perience is h e result res u l t of experience is tthe and unconunconor consciousness) consciousness ) tto o the the self sci I' (which ( w hich is is the t h e centre cen t re of of conscious co n sc i o ll s and of

1 58 Warren Warren Colman Colman 158

The self 159 T h e self 1 59

scious) is is actually actually one one of of his his most mostbrilliantly brilliantly original original insights, insights, offering offering an an scious) explanation of ofthe thevery very unexplainable unexplainablequality qualityof ofsuch suchexperiences. experiences. explanation Experience and and concept conc e p t Experience

This means means that that there there are are three three levels levels of of argument argument in in Jung's Jung'sdiscussion discussion of of This the self. The fi r st level is that of direct experience. At the end of his final the self. The first level is that of direct experience. At the end of his final work, Jung Jung addresses addresses the the inherent inherent impossibility impossibility of task he he has has underunder­ work, of the the task taken in this respect: taken in this respect: It is is not not worth worth the the effort effort to totry trytotodescribe describe[the] [the] totality totality character character [of [of It experiences of the self] . Anyone who has experienced anything of the experiences of the self]. Anyone who has experienced anything of the sort will will know mean, and and anyone anyone who who has has not not had hadthe theexperiexperi­ sort know what what II mean, ence will not be satisfied by any amount of description. Moreover there ence will not be satisfied by any amount of description. Moreover there are countless descriptions of it in world literature. But I know of no are countless descriptions of it in world literature. But I know of no case in which the bare description conveyed the experience. case in which the bare description conveyed the experience. 1 954: par. 799) 799) (Jung 1954: The second level level is is the thephenomenological phenomenological analysis analysis and and classification classification of of The second symbolic representations of the self. This constitutes the major part of symbolic representations of the self. This constitutes the major part of JJung's ung's work. work. Such Such symbols symbols provide provide experiential experiential indicators what the the self self indicators of of what may be like like as motivators towards towards may be as well well as as acting acting as as powerful powerful attractors attractors and and motivators the of the the individuation individuation process. process. Although Although these these symbols symbols may may indicate indicate the goal goal of totality, frequently have quality of of 'centre' 'centre' and and convey convey the the totality, they they most most frequently have the the quality deeply the personality. personality. deeply satisfying satisfying sense sense of of an an ineffable ineffable and and inviolable inviolable core core to to the Such the `supraordinate 'supraordinate personality' personality' e.g., e.g., king, king, Such symbols symbols include include those those of of the hero, prophet, saviour saviour (Jung (Jung 1921/1950: 1 92 1 1 1 950: par. 790) and and 'the 'thegeometrical geometrical hero, prophet, par. 790) structures the mandala mandala containing containing elements elements of of the the circle circle and and quaternity, quaternity, structures of of the namely and quadratic quadraticfigures figures divided divided into into namely circular circular and and spherical spherical forms forms .. .. .. and four in the the form form of ofaacross' cross'(Jung (Jung1951: 1 95 1 : par. par. 352). 352). The The numinosity numinosity of of four or or in these self is no mere mere concept concept or these symbols symbolsenables enablesJung Jungtoto assert assert that that 'the 'the self is no or logical psychic reality', reality', albeit albeit one one that that'is'isinconceivable inconceivable logical postulate; postulate; itit is is aa psychic except form of of symbols' symbols' (Jung (Jung 1942/1948: 1 9421 1 948: par. 'does not not except in in the the form par. 233) 233) and and 'does allow scientific proof' (Jung 1928: 1 928: par. par. 405). 405). allow of of scientific proof' (Jung The level of argument is is the the point point of ofview view of of abstract, abstract, intellectual intellectual The third third level of argument argument here Jung equally insists the self self is merely aa 'postulate'. 'postulate'. is merely argument and and here Jung equally insists that that the That is, we we may speculate intellectually of the the self self but but its its That is, may speculate intellectuallyabout about the the nature nature of unconscious, t he unconscious, infinite infiniteaspect aspectprecludes precludesus usfrom from any any actual actual definition. definition. In In the 11950 950 definition make this this Jung is is careful careful to to make Psychological Types, Types, Jung definitionadded addedto to Psychological dist inction: 'in o far personality, on o n account account of of its its unconscious unconscious distinction: 'in sso far as as the the total total personality, component, conscious, the self is, rt. component, can can be be only only in in part part conscious, the concept concept of of the the self is, in in pa part, only s tto o that extent a a postulate'. pos t ulat e Thus Thus Jung .l ung empiricaland andi is that extent potentially empirical only potelltially '.

n emphasises he dist i nd ion between between aan experience, between concept and and experiellce, emphasises t the distinction between concept iintellectual n t ellect ual 'objl'l"I i w ' vil'w n d aa phenomenological phenomenologica l 'subjective' 'subjective' one. one. 'objective' view aand

The organising organising principle principle of ofthe thepsyche psyche

Occasionally, in his his later work, Jung Occasionally, and especially especially in Jung refers refers to the the self self as as the the `organizer of the personality' par. 694) 'organizer of personality' (Jung 1958: 1 95 8 : par. 694) or the the 'ordering 'ordering prinprin­ ciple' of of the the collective collective unconscious unconscious (Jung (Jung 1951: 1 95 1 : par. par. 304, 304,1954: 1 954: par. par.373). 3 73). This is also implicit implicit in in his his experience experience of the healing healing function function of of mandalas mandalas with with their geometric geometric structure. structure. This idea exists exists on on the the borders borders of of'experi'experi­ abstraction, itit is ence' and 'concept' 'concept' since since while while it is an abstraction, is made on the the basis basis of of symbolic experience. experience. These These distinctions distinctions will will be be important important in considering the various strands of various of post-Jungian post-Jungian thinking thinking on on the the self. self. The God G od - image i m age -

The distinction concept and and experience is also important The distinction between between concept experience is important in in relation to to the Jung makes the self self and and the 'Godrelation the connection connection Jung makes between between the ' God­ image'. Jung claims that image'. that psychologically psychologically speaking, speaking, God is is an an archetype archetype in in that there has to be an 'imprint' 'imprint' or or 'type' 'type'in inthe thepsyche psyche that thatcorresponds corresponds to to the manifold images of God found the manifold images found throughout throughout world world history history (Jung (Jung1944: 1 944: Jung also par. 15). 1 5) . Nevertheless, Nevertheless, Jung also insists insists that Psychology .. .. .. is is not not in a position to Psychology to make make metaphysical metaphysical statements. statements. It It can only establish can establish that that the thesymbolism symbolismofofpsychic psychicwholeness wholenesscoincides coincides with the the God-image, God-image, but it can never prove that the with the God-image God-image is is God God himself, or or that the self himself, self takes the place place of of God. God. (Jung 1951: par. 308) (lung 1 95 1 : par. Thus, while acknowledging the the experiential experiential and phenomenological Thus, while acknowledging phenomenological identity identity betweenGod-image God-imageand and symbol symbolof of the the self, self, Jung Jung also also maintains maintains a strict between strict , conceptual distinction distinction between between the the self selfand and God God 'as such'. conceptual such . 44 Just as 'the self' Just as 'the self' is only only aa conceptual conceptual name name for a psychological psychological reality reality which which gathers gathers together together is the symbolic symbolic experiences experiencesofofthe thearchetype archetypeand andthe theidea ideaof of the the totality totality to to the which they they refer, refer, so soGod God isis aa conceptual conceptual name name for for aa metaphysical metaphysical reality reality of of which which psychology psychology can can say say nothing. nothing. which The Christian Christian God-image The

While.lung Jung retained retained some some interest interest in in the Eastern religious While religious tradition, from from the mid-1920s onwards, it was the Christian God-image the mid- 1 920s onwards, it was Christian God-image (together (together with alchemy)that that seems seemsto tohave havehad had the the major major hold on his own imagination. alchemy) imagination. 55 As both God and man, according to Jung, Christ serves as a symbol symbol of the As bot h God serves as of conscious conscious and and unconscious unconscious and and the relation between uunity n i t y of between the ego and self. He He isis hot both unique, limited limited and and human human and, and, at the tthe h e self. h unique, the same same time, time, the of tthe i infinite n l i n i t L' uuniversality n iversa l i t y of he Divine. Divine.

1 60 Warren WarrenColman C o l m an 160

From one one point point of ofview, view, Christ Christ represents represents aa totality in that 'anything that that From totality in that 'anything man postulates postulates as as being being aa greater greater totality totality than thanhimself himselfcan canbecome become aa aa man symbol of of the the self' self' (Jung (lung1942/1948: 1 942/ 1 948: par. par. 232). 232). However, H owever, as as an an image image of of symbol totality. perfection, Christ lacks aa dark side and and is is therefore therefore not perfection, Christ lacks dark side not aa complete totality. felt strongly strongly that that good good and andevil evil were were aa pair pair of of opposites opposites that that needed needed to to Jung felt Jung be united in the self, just as much as conscious/unconscious or unique/ be united in the self, just as much as conscious/unconscious or unique/ universal and and that that the the suppression suppressionof ofthe thedark darkside sideof ofthe theself selfin inChristianity Christianity universal had led to the appalling outbreaks of violence and evil of Jung's owntime, time, had led to the appalling outbreaks of violence and evil of Jung's own A ion the first half of the twentieth century. In his later work, especially in the first half of the twentieth century. In his later work, especially in Aion ((1951) 1 95 1 ) and 'Answer to Job' ( 1 952), Jung emphasised this opposition of light and 'Answer to Job' (1952), Jung emphasised this opposition of light and dark, Christ and Anti-Christ, ego-consciousness and archetypal and dark, Christ and Anti-Christ, ego-consciousness and archetypal Shadow as as aa critical critical problem problem of of opposites opposites in in the the Western Western God-image God-image and, and, Shadow pari passu, the self. pari passu, the self. self Ego and self

I n his his earlier earlier work, work, Jung Jung always always emphasises emphasises the the littleness littleness of of the the ego ego in in In relation to the self and the collective unconscious. In 1 928 he uses the vivid relation to the self and the collective unconscious. In 1928 he uses the vivid image conscious personality like aa figure figure on on aa image of of the the conscious personality being being 'pushed 'pushed around around like chess-board by an invisible player' (lung 1 928: par. 250). H e also compares chess-board by an invisible player' (Jung 1928: par. 250). He also compares the relation of of the the ego ego and and the the self self to to the the earth earth revolving revolving round round the the sun sun the relation ((1928: 1 928: par. similar image, image, in in 1940, 1 940, says says that that 'the 'the ego ego stands stands par. 405) 405) and and in in aa similar to the self self as the moved moved to to the the mover' mover' (Jung (Jung1940/1954: 1 940/ 1 954: par. par. 391). 39 1 ). The The self self is is to the as the 'a compendious personality takes the the ego ego into into its its service' service' (par. ( par. `a more more compendious personality that that takes 390) which 'dwarfs 'dwarfs the the ego ego in inscope scopeand andintensity' intensity'(Jung (Jung1946/1954: 1 9461 1 954: 390) and and which par. 430). par. 430). However, self exists the very very beginning, beginning, [it] [it] is is latent, latent, that that However, while while 'the 'the self exists from from the is (Jung 1935/1944: 1 93 5/ 1 944: par. 1 05n.34); individuation is the the process process is unconscious' unconscious' (Jung par. 105n.34); individuation is of bringing this this latent latent self self to to consciousness. consciousness. This This makes makes the the self self seem seem more more of bringing like child struggling struggling to born out out of ofthe thewomb wombofofthe theunconscious. unconscious. like aa child to be be born While to self-realisation, self-realisation, the the ego ego is is also also needed needed as as aa While there there is is an an inherent inherent urge urge to sort 'midwife' and and it it is, is, after after all, all, into into the the world world of of ego-consciousness ego-consciousness that sort of of 'midwife' that the talks about about the the the self self isis born. born. This This leads leads to to aa subtle subtle shift shift in in the the way way Jung Jung talks relation the ego, ego, despite despite its its absurd absurd littleness littleness in in relation between between ego ego and and self self so so that that the the centre of of the the process process of of the face face of of cosmic cosmic infinity, infinity,isisalso also seen seento to be be at at the the centre individuation, the realisation realisation of of the the self. self. This This individuation, its its activity activity being being crucial crucial to to the shift Coniunctionis where where the Mysterium Coniunctionis shill is is most most apparent apparent in in his his final final work, work, Mysterium ego of the the unconscious unconscious coming coming into into being' being' due due ego is is described described as as 'the 'the condition condition of to . . consciousness' consciousness' (Jung (Jung1954: 1 954: par. par. to the the 'the `the world-creating world-creating significance significanceof of. ... 1131). 3 1 ). Referring in India, India, he he now now identifies ident i fies Referringtoto'the 'the identity identity of of God God and and ego' ego' in the than the the self self (1954: ( 1 954: par. 1 3 1 ). JJung ung the personal personal atman atman with with the the ego ego rather rather than par. 131). is seeming contradiction previous writings that he he is aware aware of of the the seeming contradiction with with previous writings and and that now o he he defining defining the he previously previ o usl y defined l ie now appears appears tto the ego ego as as he defined the the self. sell Ile

aargues rgiles tthat hat

The self 161 The self 1 61

[The is an essential essential part of the self, pro toto toto [The ego] ego] is self, and can can be be used used pars pars pro when the is borne in mind. the significance significance of consciousness consciousness is mind. But But when when we we want to to lay lay emphasis emphasis on the the psychic psychic totality it is is better better to to use use the the term term `self'. 'self'. (Jung (lung 1954: 1 954: par. 133) 1 33) This This shift shift may may indicate indicate an an important important development development in in Jung's lung's own ownselfself­ consciousness. Earlier in in life, life, he he had had been aware of the consciousness. Earlier been painfully painfull y aware the split split in in himself between between ego ego and unconscious unconscious and and the theemergence emergence of ofthe therealigned realigned centre of the self self had brought brought with with itit aadeep deepsense sense of ofwholeness, wholeness, which which also also carries the meaning 'healing' and 'holy' (Jung In Memories, carries the meaning of 'healing' (Jung 1935: 1 93 5 : 137). 1 37). In Dreams, Reflections he recalls how, from from the Dreams, Reflections he recalls how, the age age of 12 1 2 or thereabouts, thereabouts, he he had thought the'No. 'No. I1'' personality of thought of ofhimself himself as as two two different different persons persons — - the his everyday everyday outward outward life life and a greater, his greater, more more important important but but very very private private `Other' that he called 'No. 2' (Jung 1963: 50 and passim). Perhaps, 'Other' 2' (lung 1 963: 50 and passim). Perhaps, late in life, he he had achieved life, achieved something something of the greater greater integration integration he had had always always sought between between his his 'No. 'No. 1' and No. 2' personalities and, as a result, I' ' No. 2' personalities and, as a result,his hisego ego felt closer closer to to and more accommodated with felt with the the self. self. As a result, result, the the earlier earlier sharp distinction between ego ego and and self is softened sharp distinction between softened since since the more more indiindi­ viduated the ego, the more indistinguishable it becomes from the viduated more indistinguishable becomes the self. self. Outline O utl i ne summary sum m ary of of range range of of meanings m e a n i ngs

In summary, In summary, Jung's lung's major major definitions definitions of of the the self self include include the the following: following: •

• •• • • • • • • • • • • • •

individua individuality lity

mid-point between conscious and unconscious mid-point between conscious union of opposites union totality of the psyche totality psyche centre of of the psyche centre archetype archetype wholeness wholeness organising principle. organising

POST-JUNGIAN DEVELOPMENTS SSECTION E C T I O N 2: 2: POST-J U N G IA N D E V E L O P M E NTS

Jung's major major focus focus of interest was in in the development of the self in the Jung's interest was development of second half half of of life. life.He Heleft leftititto to others others to to work work out a detailed psychology second psychology of the ego ego and and of the first is aa prethe first half half of of life life in in which which ego ego development development is pre­ dominant feature. This domi nant /Cature. This also also involved involved developing developing more more detailed detailed theories theories relation between ego ego and and self. self. This This task task was was approached approached in very aabout hout tthe he rela t ion hctll'('cn very different ways by of Jung's d i ftl'rl'nt ways hy ttwo wo of .I l1ng's most ll10st important impo rt a n t early early followers, fol l owers, Erich Erich

1162 62 Warren WarrenColman Colman

The 1 63 The self self 163

Neumann M ichael Fordham, each worked worked out their their own own theortheor­ Neumann and and Michael Fordham, who each etical the 1940s 1 940s and and1950s. 1 9 50s. etical models during the

Self axis N eum ann: the ego ego-Self ax i s Neumann: -

IIn n The Origins and History of ofConsciousness Consciousness Neumann (1949/1954) ( 1 949/ 1 954) argues The Origins that ego-consciousness ego-consciousness emerges of oneness oneness which which is is emerges out out of an original state of expressed uroboros (the (the snake snake swallowing swallowing its its tail). tail). The The expressed in in the the image image of the uroboros uroboros represents the original state of of the the Self Selfbefore beforeindividual individual concon­ uroboros represents the original sciousness of primary primary oneness oneness and and non-differentiation. non-differentiation. 66 sciousness has has arisen, arisen, aa state of Neumann the way way the the child child is is held held entirely entirely within within the the Neumann relates relatesthis this to to the 'containing ofmaternal maternalexistence' existence' (1973: ( 1 973: 14), 1 4), suggesting suggesting aa parallel parallel 'containing round of he tween the mother/infant mother/infant relationship relationshipand andthe theego/Self ego/Selfrelationship relationship—- i.e., i.e., between 'the represents the self and the the child child the the ego' ego' (Neumann (Neumann1959: 1 959: 129). 1 29). the mother represents Because fulfils for of the functions functions which which will will Because the the mother mother fulfils for the the child so many of later be carried Self, Neumann suggests suggests that 'the mother, mother, in in the the carried out by the Self, that 'the primal relationship, not only only plays plays the role role of of the the child's child's Self Self but but actually actually is that Self' Self' although although he he also also distinguishes distinguishes between between this 'relatedness-Self' 'relatedness-Self' and and the 'body-Self' (Neumann (Neumann 1973). 1 973). In In this this early early state stateof ofrelatedrelated­ the child's own 'body-Self' ness, ness, the the mother mother stands at once for the child's relationships to its own body, Self, to and to tothe theworld. world.As Asdevelopment developmentproceeds, proceeds,the thechild child to its Self, to the thou and achieves result, the the Self Self is is withdrawn withdrawn from from the the achieves more more autonomy autonomy and, and, as aa result, mother to the person of of the child: child: 'it is is with this formation of of aa unitary unitary Self Self that the human human child child is is truly truly born' born'(1973: ( 1 973: 28). 28). that the

The ego-Self axis: axis: the the Self Selfas as an an unconscious unconscious personality personality The ego-Self Neumann uses the term term 'ego-Self 'ego-Self axis' axis' to to describe describe the the nature nature and and quality of the connection between between ego and Self. One of the difficulties of this term term is is ego Self. of the difficulties of this that it leads to a tendency to think think of of ego ego and and Self Self as separate 'entities', that that is, of the the Self Self as a totality totality becomes becomes eroded eroded and and the theSelf Self comes comes to to is, the notion of he equivalent to the unconscious unconscious or or the the centre centre of ofthe theunconscious. unconscious. he seen seen as equivalent "For 'or example, at one point point Neumann Neumannrefers refers to to'the 'thesystems systemsof ofconsciousness consciousness lind the unconscious and . . . the corresponding centres of the ego and and the the and the unconscious and . . . the corresponding centres of the ego Self' has to to add add aafootnoted footnotedcaveat caveatthat that(usually) (usually)'the 'theSelf Selfisis the the Self' and then has c.:entre of the the unconscious unconscious but but of ofthe theentire entirepsyche' psyche' (Neumann (Neumann 1973: 1 97 3 : centre not not of 47n. 47n .11 ).) . It o t always easy o distinguish between the It iiss certainly certainly nnot easy tto the unconscious unconscious and tthe he self sciI' especially of life, life, when ego-consciousness has especially since, since, at at the the beginning beginning of when ego-consciousness whole sell' self not developed, there distinction to to be be made made since since the the II'IIO/l' not developed, there is is as as yet yet no no distinction is itself. Yet the ego ego emerges emerges out of ofthe the self, sel f. that that is unconscious unconscious of of itself. Yet as as soon soon as the which iitt has emerged e m erged is h u t only only the t he unconu ncon­ from from which is no no longer the whole self but

scious sel l ". So i t is possible possihle to speak spea k of a tension tension of or So as its soon soon as as it part of the self. scious !I(/rl

opposites, understood as as being being between between ego ego opposites, such such opposItIon opposition must must be understood (consciousness) unconscious, not between between ego and and self. self. (consciousness)and and the the unconscious, Many Jungian writers writers fail this point and so continue to speak speak of of fail to to grasp this 'ego/self 'second 'ego/self conflict' conflict' even even when when speaking speaking of of adult adult development development and the 'second half of life' life' individuation individuation process process (e.g., (e.g., Beebe Beebe 1988; 1 988; Samuels Samuels 1985: 1 98 5 : 92; 92; half of Whitmont 1 969: 220). Whitmont 1969: 220). In In all all these these cases, cases, the the Self Self isis being beingthought thought of not as the personality but as aa kind kind of ofpersonipersoni­ the centre centre and and totality of the entire personality fication which the ego is in fication of of the the unconscious unconscious part part of the personality with which conflict. these were were conflicts conflicts between between the conscious conscious (ego) (ego) and conflict. For For Jung these unconscious which, through the operation of the transcendent function unconscious which, through the operation of the transcendent function issued in the achievement of a mid-point between the opposites i.e., the the issued in achievement of a mid-point between the opposites — i.e., self. self is the outcome of this conflict and is self. That That is, is, in in Jung's model, the self outcome of conflict is superordinate Self is seen seen as one party party to to the the conflict, conflict, what what superordinateto to it. it. If the Self superordinate to resolve resolve it? it? superordinate principle principle can can there be to The the metaphorical metaphorical language language of of image and symbol symbol The trouble here is that the is distinguished from the the abstract abstract language language of oftheoretical theoretical speculation speculation is not distinguished oung-Eisendrath and Hall 1991). 1 99 1 ). So (F ordham 1963; 1 963; Y (Fordham Young-Eisendrath So the the fact fact that that the self appears self is separ­ appears in in personified personified form form does does not not actually actually mean mean that the self is aa separate personality that that comes comes into intoconflict conflict with with the theego. ego.When Whenthe theself selfisisreified reified in this way way (by (by equating equating the the symbol symbol with with that that which which isis symbolised), symbolised), the the in this inexpressible an inexpressible mystery mystery of of the the All All is is scaled scaled down down into something more like an internal relationship. internal object relationship. Neumann's model lends itself to to this this through the linkage of Unconscious = Self. Edinger Edinger provides provides aa telling telling and andinfluential influential example example of ofthis this = Mother == Self. kind confusion when when he he argues argues that thatsince since the theself selfincludes includes kind of conceptual confusion everything everything that that we are, the self also also accepts everything everything that that we are are (Edinger 11960: 960: 110) 0) -—rather an unfortunate unfortunate ratherlike likean an ideal ideal mother? mother? This This also also has an tendency to lead towards towards an an idealised idealised view view of of the the Self Self as wholly good, aa Self Self that wise and good good and and knows knows what what isisbest bestfor forus. us.Willeford Willeford(1987: ( 1 987: that is wise 1150ff.), 50ff.), for good for for itself'. itself'. forexample, example,refers refersto to 'the 'the self self that that knows what is good Although clearly are examples examples of something something which 'knows 'knows better' better' Although there there clearly than the ego, ego, this this rather rather begs begs the the question question of of all all the themore moredestructive destructive than the compulsions the self, self, compulsions which which also also afflict afflictthe theego. ego. If If these these do do not belong to the what there to to which which they they can can belong? belong? The The same same problem problem can can be be what else else is is there found in Beebe Beebe ((1988) 1 988) where or Self Self has to to where aa 'self' 'self' separate from either ego or be be proposed proposed in which to place destructive-ambivalent 'trickster' elements of the personality. By Kalsched (1996) ( 1 996) grasps attri­ the personality. By contrast, contrast, Kalsched grasps the the nettle nettle and and attrihutes immensely powerful butes the the immensely powerful malevolent malevolent force force of of the the internal internal 'protector/ persecutor' dark side side of of the the Self, Self, a notion notion fully fully in in accord accord with with Jung's Jung's persecutor' to to the dark picture picture of of aa self self made made up up of of good good and and evil. evil. extreme version tendency to narrow down down Perhaps Perhaps the the most most extreme version of of the the tendency to narrow conceptions self occurs occurs in in an anarticle articleby byWeisstub Weisstub(1997). ( 1 997). Weisstub Weisstub conceptions of of the self ddraws raws aattention ttention to the the tendencies tendencies I have have mentioned mentioned not only only to to regard regard the the l��O sepa ra te from from the t he self sel f but h u t also also to to equate equate the theself selfwith w i t h maternal/ m a t erna l! ego as as separate

1 64 Warren Warren Colman Colman 164

feminine aspects aspects and therefore proposes proposes aa solution solution in inwhich whichthe theself selfmight might feminine and therefore be regarded regarded simply simply as as the the 'feminine' 'feminine' principle principle of of being, being, with with the the ego ego as asthe the be 'masculine' principle principle of doing. Here, Here, the the move move away away from from the the totality totalityhas has 'masculine' of doing. become explicit as McGlashan McGlashan points points out out in inhis hisresponse, response,'The 'Thewhole whole become explicit but, but, as balance and and integrity integrity of of Jung's Jung's creative creative view view of of the the psyche psyche is is thus thus disasdisas­ balance trously impoverished' impoverished' since since Jung's Jung's idea idea of ofaa transcendent transcendentself selfhas hasbeen beendone done trously away with with (McGlashan (McGlashan 1997: 1 997: 454). 454). away

The self 165 The self 1 65

the nature of the the indefinable indefinable and incomprehensible incomprehensible nature the self self are are stressed stressed by by Huskinson (2002) (2002) who, drawing drawing on on the thephilosopher philosopherLevinas, Levinas,describes describesthe the self self from an an experiential experiential point of of view view as as an anoverpowering overpowering and andviolent violent Other that that impresses impresses its permanent permanent supremacy supremacy on on the the ego. ego. This This enables enables her her to encompass such as as Humbert's 'inner voice' encompass experiences experiences such Humbert's (1980) ( 1 980) 'inner voice' and and Redfearn's (1977) ( 1 977) 'inspiring 'inspiring effect' effect' while while also allowing allowing for the the potentially potentially devastating impact that the Self may have, particularly on an devastating impact Self an ego ego that thatisis resistant to the unknown Other. the unknown Other.

The intentional intentional Self Self The As in in most most of of the the controversies controversies that that have have arisen arisen about aboutthe thenature natureofofthe theself, self, As some of the confusions about the Self as a separate personality derive from some of the confusions about the Self as a separate personality derive from Jung. But But although although Jung Jung describes describes the the self self as as aa 'more 'more compendious compendious perper­ Jung. sonality that takes the ego into its service', he nevertheless questioned the sonality that takes the ego into its service', he nevertheless questioned the existence of anything like a personality in the unconscious. (Jung 1 940: par. existence of anything like a personality in the unconscious. (Jung 1940: par. 507; Fordham 1 985: 42). seems to have been been speaking speaking in in aa metameta­ 507; Fordham 1985: 42). Jung Jung seems to have phorical way about the experiential sense which the ego may come to have phorical way about the experiential sense which the ego may come to have of the Self but, again, there has been a tendency to literalise and reify this of the Self but, again, there has been a tendency to literalise and reify this view. Whitmont, for example, while putting the 'intentions' of the self view. Whitmont, for example, while putting the 'intentions' of the self inin inverted and expectations expectations of of inverted commas, commas, nevertheless neverthelessrefers refersto to 'the 'the demands demands and the self' ( 1 969: 220) and its 'emotional value system and goals', over and the self' (1969: 220) and its 'emotional value system and goals', over and above of the the ego, ego, clearly clearly seeing seeing these these as as structural structural elements elements in in the the above those those of personality rather than simply metaphors. personality rather than simply metaphors. At the other other extreme extreme of ofthis thiscontroversy controversy isisYoung-Eisendrath, Young-Eisendrath, who who At the argues that the notion of an archetypal Self refers to an abstract-design argues that the notion of an archetypal Self refers to an abstract-design level analysis (the thinking) and and is is level of of analysis (the 'logical 'logical postulate' postulate' level level of of Jung's Jung's thinking) therefore beyond experience or conscious knowledge/awareness (Young­ therefore beyond experience or conscious knowledge/awareness (YoungEisendrath Hall 1991; 1 99 1 ; Young-Eisendrath 1 997a) . She 'not Eisendrath and and Hall Young-Eisendrath 1997a). She warns warns that that 'not only are there many epistemological errors in assuming that such an only are there many epistemological errors in assuming that such an overarching principle has its own subjectivity, but we may sound as though overarching principle has its own subjectivity, but we may sound as though we the unknowable unknowable in in saying saying that that the theSelf Selfhas hasintentions, intentions,views views we can can know know the and desires' (Young-Eisendrath 1 997a: 1 62). and desires' (Young-Eisendrath 1997a: 162). Nevertheless, readily attested attested and and commonly commonly occurring occurring Nevertheless,one one of of the the most most readily experiences 'inner voice' voice' which which seems seems to experiencesattributed attributed to to the the Self Self isis that that of of the the 'inner to 'know' better than than the the conscious conscious ego ego (Humbert ( H umbert 1980). 1 980). Experiences Experiences of of synsyn­ 'know' better chronicity powerful indication indication of some kind kind of ofgreater greater chronicity can can also also give give aa powerful of some ppurpose urpose and intentional self self is due to to aa and meaning. meaning. The The idea idea of of the the intentional is probably probably due llinking i n k i ng of these deeply deeply convincing convincing inner inner experiences experiences with Jung's more more of these with Jung's ahst raet ideas ideas of self-regulating, homeostatic o abstract of aa self-regulating, homeostatic psyche psyche which which has has an an urge urge tto individuate p images, images, dreams dreams and and even even behaviours behaviours which which act act individuate and and throws throws uup as one-sided consciousness. consciousness. as compensations compensations to to aa one-sided The x t reme limitations ego-consciousness ((in in comparison with the the The eextreme limitations of of ego-consciousness comparison with iinfinite n f i n i t e totality he Scl f ) mean mean that that even even if if there there were were an an intentional i n tent ional totality of of tthe Self) self. he ego l u ld form i t t le or no conception conception or i l . The The implications implicat ions of or form llittle or no of it. ego l'Icould self, tthe

Fordham: F ordha m : primary pri m ary self self and and deintegration d e integration

Fordham, writing writing in in 1963, 1 963, anticipates anticipates some some of ofYoung-Eisendrath's Young-Eisendrath's arguargu­ ments in his proposal that there is a fundamental ments that there is a fundamentalincompatibility incompatibility between between Jung's definition definition of the self self as the the totality totality and and his his alternative alternative definition definition of of the self as an archetype. For Fordham, all experiences of the self the self as archetype. For Fordham, all experiences self must must derive from from the self-as-archetype; is impossible impossible to to experience experience the the totality derive self-as-archetype; itit is since the the totality of the Self is defined by Jung as 'ego + archetypes' of Self defined archetypes' whereas whereas any experience experience of of an an archetypal archetypal reality reality cannot, at the same the same time, time, include include the part that i.e., the the ego. ego. The The totality as such, that is is doing doingthe theexperiencing experiencing — - i.e., such, he he argues, is is therefore therefore not not so much unknowable as inexperiencable, inexperiencable, i.e., i.e., outside argues, experience. In this sense sense the self-as-totality can only only be be aa theory theory the realm of experience. or postulate postulate and it is hypostatised or hypostatised thinking to assert that the self self is a thing which exists exists (Fordham (Fordham 1963: which 1 963 : 22). 22). Fordham's preference Fordham's preference for the totality totality definition definition of of the the self self arises from his own concept concept of the primary self, own self, which he introduced introduced in in 1947, 1 947, to to describe describe the initial initial condition condition of the the self self at at birth. birth. Like Neumann, he took his the Like Neumann, his starting starting point from from the suggestion by Jung that point suggestion by that the the self self has has somehow somehow always always been there, even even though though it only there, only comes comes into into conscious conscious awareness awareness in the the second second half of of life. life. H However, from the the start, start, Fordham took half owever, from took aa radically radically different different approach, concentrating concentrating on on the the direct observation of actual children approach, direct observation children (and later infants) infants) and formulating theoretical hypotheses on on the basis of later theoretical hypotheses of these these observations. observations. Although Fordham Fordham and Neumann both Although both postulated postulated the the existence existence of an an original totality totality of of the the self at at birth, their original their conceptions conceptions of it were were diametricdiametric­ ally opposed. opposed. Fordham's Fordham's conception overturned the the prevailing idea of ally conception overturned prevailing idea of primary union union between betweenmother motherand and infant infant which which formed formed the the basis basis for for primary Neumann's idea idea that that the mother functions as ('is') Neumann's ('is') the the infant's infant's Self. Self. On the the contrary,Fordham Fordham argued arguedthat that the the initial initial condition conditionof of the the infant infant is is aa contrary. psychosomatic integrate integrate --- itit isis the the inf infant, not the the mother, mother, who who is is the the Self. Self. In In psychosomatic ant, not order ro forr tthis primary order h is pri m a r y integrate to come into relationship relationship with the environenviron­ ment ((initially mother) in in the the first first place, place, aa process process of of 'unfolding' 'unfolding' must ment i n i t ia l l y tthe he mother) be i initiated Fordham termed termed 'dein 'deintegration' he n i t iated wwhich h ich hmlham t egra t ion'. .

1 67 The Theself self 167

C o lman Warren Colman 66 Warren 1166

Deintegration was was conceived conceivedas asthe the active activecontribution contribution by the infant in Deintegration bringing about about states states from from which it was pas­ assumed he paspreviously assumed was previously bringing sivelybegan. began.Thus Thus the the idea idea that mother-infant created is created togetherness is mother-infant togetherness sively by the the mother alone is is done focused on is focused attention is with and attention away with done away mother alone by what the the baby baby does does to to help help bring this about. what (Fordham 1971: 1 97 1 : 86) (Fordham Thus, Fordham Fordham consistently consistentlyargued argued in in favour favour of of aa notion of as 'children as of 'children Thus, individuals' (Fordham (Fordham 1969), active autonomous autonomous beings beings who who play aa sigsig­ 1 969), active individuals' nificant role role in in creating in which find they find which they environment in maternal environment the maternal creating the nificant themselves.7? At infant the infant environment the theenvironment tothe relating to ofrelating point of each point At each themselves. deintegrates in in 'readiness' 'readiness' for experience experience which which isisthen, then, in in turn, turn, reintegrated deintegrates into an increasingly complex and and differentiated differentiated self. self. Fordham Fordham proposes that that increasingly complex into the process process of of deintegration/reintegration deintegration/reintegration leads leads to to the the formation of of an inner the world composed composed of ego ego and and archetypes archetypes which which together together make up the totality world which, 'part-self' which, or 'part-self' 'deintegrate' or itself aa `deintegrate' archetype is itself Each archetype self. Each of the self. however partakes partakes of with endowed with is endowed deintegrate is 'A deintegrate self: `A the self: ofthe qualities of of the qualities however typical thetypical regardsthe He regards 54). He 1 98 5 : 54). (Fordham1985: self' (Fordham the self' and is continuous with the individuation process processof of the the second second half half of of life life as as one in ego the ego which the in which individuation of the deintegrating self: these `experiences of the self' are aware becomes aware are becomes deintegrating self: these 'experiences of themselves the outcome of processes of deintegration and reintegration deintegration and reintegration processes themselves the outcome through which the the ego ego comes comes into into aa deeper relation to to the total of self of total self deeper relation through which which it is a part. part. which it Pluralism m ulti p l i c i ty and multiplicity P l ural i s m and and rigidity and increasing rigidity anincreasing death, an Jung's death, following Jung's so following decade or so the decade In the In dogmatism seems to have set in among many of his close followers, parti­ in among many of his close followers, partiseems cularly deified. 8s anddeified. reifiedand becamereified Selfbecame theSelf ideaofofthe theidea thatthe so that Zurich so cularly in Zurich This was one of the factors leading to a counter-reaction spearheaded by was one of the factors leading to a counter-reaction spearheaded by James shifting multiple,shifting themultiple, emphasised the Hillman emphasised 1 970s. Hillman early 1970s. the early in the Hillman in Jllmes Hillman integration, onintegration, emphasis on the emphasis against the over against personality over of personality fluid nature of li nd fluid and unity and order — all functions typically attributed to the self. self the self Since the to the self. Since typically and order - all is so heavily associated with synthesis, it is conceptually antithetical to an to an conceptually synthesis, heavily emphasis 1 98 1 : ( Hillman 1981: complication' (Hillman particularising, complication' 'elaboration, particularising, on `elaboration, emphasis on 129). been thereforebeen hastherefore selfhas theself ofthe roleof centralrole the central psychology, the Hillman's psychology, 1 29). In Hillman's replaced with an an emphasis imaginal ofimaginal deepening of the deepening (anima), the soul (anima), on soul emphasis on re pl ace d with experience. integ­ termsofofinteginterms notin seen not is seen personality is wholeness of the personality experience. The wholeness ration to aa state inclusiveness the inclusiveness -- the termsofof butininterms unitybut ofunity state of leading to ra t i o n leading development ( 1 3) ( 1 997:113) Adams(1997: AsAdams multiplicity.As embracemultiplicity. capacitytotoembrace of aa capacity development of ' i nthis puts i t , in p u t s it, hut individuation but notindividuation analysis isi snot purposeofofanalysis thepurpose respect,the t h i srespect, t ion ' . n i m alion aI I'lima Samuels, pluralism isis 'ant i-h ierarchical' pluralism an 'anti-hierarchical' of an pe rspect i ve of own perspective h i s own from his Samuels, from ' h ierarchical 'position also elevation posit ion privi kgt�d 'hierarchical' to aa privileged sel f to t he self or the tion of ht' L'ieva of tthe nit ical ()I' a lso critical -

suggests an place he its place in intraditional traditional Jungian Jungian parlance. parlance. In In its he suggests an ad adhoc hochierarchy hierarchy among version one 'only is self the of pre-eminence the which in in which the pre-eminence of the self is 'only one version among many many as function as its function possible possibleversions'. versions'.From Fromthis thispoint pointof of view view the the self self 'in 'in its for competes . . . psyche of luminosities and scintillae the of "containcr" "container" of the scintillae and luminosities of psyche . . . competes for Samuels 1 3). Samuels 1 989: 13). (Samuels 1989: themselves' (Samuels contents themselves' those contents importance importance with with those archetypes other among self-as-archetype the of thinking be only can can only be thinking of the self-as-archetype among other archetypes here: here: from from the the point point of of view view of of the the totality, totality, the the self self is, is, by by definition, definition,the the totality totality of of so the the 'scintillae `scintillaeand and luminosities'. luminosities'.Alternatively, Alternatively,ititmay maybe bethat that he he is is not not so is merely how self but much much thinking thinkingabout about the the actual actual nature nature of of the the self but merely how itit is parlance'. 'Jungian thought thoughtabout about in in 'Jungian parlance'. analysts other analysts While While not not necessarily necessarily accepting accepting Samuels' Samuels' pluralism, pluralism, many many other example, For identity. and self of nature multiple shifting, the recognise recognise the shifting, multiple nature of self and identity. For example, 1 987) maintains Willeford Willeford ((1987) maintains aa view view of of the the self self as as neither neither fixed fixed nor nor stable stable and and Redfearn organisation. as much as disorganisation in itself manifesting manifesting itself in disorganisation as much as organisation. Redfearn between ' I ' -feeling between the`I'-feeling in the shifts in to shifts attention to detailed attention 1 985) has ((1985) has also also paid paid detailed proposes he which for selves' 'many the personality, the of parts different different parts of the personality, the `many selves' for which he proposes of suspicious of is suspicious he is pluralists, he 'sub-personality'. Like the the generic generic term term `sub-personality'. Like the the pluralists, Not-I' ' shadow the for looking always symmetry, and harmony order, order, harmony and symmetry, always looking for the shadow 'Not-I' For all elements elements of of the the self self which which have have been been left left out. out. '`For all stages stages of of development development profound more and complex more includes which mandala a is there there is a mandala which includes more complex and more profound 1 27). 1 985: 127). (Redfearn 1985: opposites' opposites' (Redfearn self of self s ense of vs. sense self vs. obje ctive self vis m : objective Constructi Constructivism:

Samuels' and Samuels' psychology and imaginal psychology ( 1 98 1 ) imaginal H illman's (1981) Constructivism, Constructivism, like like Hillman's thought uenced by 1 989) pluralism, ((1989) pluralism, isis strongly strongly infl influenced by postmodern postmodern trends trends of of thought structures essentialist structures and essentialist narratives' and existence of the existence which which question question the of 'grand `grand narratives' emphasises Constructivismemphasises experience.Constructivism livedexperience. oflived immediacy of the immediacy of the outside outside of world the world of the sense of our sense which our from which meaning-making from of meaning-making process of active process the active the always butisisalways given but notgiven selfisis not theself andthe world and the world emerges: the emerges: the reality reality of of both both the ( Harre context (Harrê relational context and relational self-constructed within self-constructed withinaa particular particular social social and 1 980). Varela1980). and Varela 1 979; Maturana 1979; Maturana and separately been separately has been perspective has constructivist perspective the constructivist psychology, the Jungian psychology, In Jungian In the inthe Young-Eisendrath in PollyYoung-Eisendrath and Polly England and in England Zinkin in Louis Zinkin developed by developed by Louis self objective self substantive, objective ofaasubstantive, idea of the idea critique the them critique ofthem Both of States. Both United States. United lived inlived arises in this arises how this and how self and of self sense of the sense on the emphasis on an emphasis of an favour of in favour in existence intoexistence comesinto onlycomes selfonly 'theself that 'the agree that them agree experience. Both experience. Both of of them not aa therefore not is therefore self is The self 6). The 1 99 1 : 6). (Zinkin1991: others'(Zinkin with others' interaction with through interaction through that context that 'within aacontext acquired 'within be acquired to be something which but something given but given which has has to Hall and Hall (Young-Eisendrath and persons' (Young-Eisendrath other persons' language and incl udes culture, includes culture, language and other x i i) . 1 99 I : xii). 1991: whom ofwhom each of Fordham, each and Fordham, Neumann and c ha l l enges hoth view challenges This view This both Neumann in unfolds in which unfolds lifewhich oflife s t a r tof t he start a t the sel f at priori self an a(/ priori of an e x istence of t he existence assume the assume

sci I'asasa apre-given theself ofthe idea of t hl' idea i n the Z i n kin h l l'Zink developml'1l 1 . For or development. cou rse of t he course pre-given the

1 68 Warren WarrenColman Col man 168

The self 169 The self 1 69

entity is is aa reification. reification. He H e is is therefore therefore more more interested interested in in that that aspect aspect of of entity lung's thought thought which which sees sees the the self self as as aa goal to be be achieved achieved (through (through indiindi­ Jung's rather than thanas asthe thesource sourcefrom fromwhich whichego-consciousness ego-consciousnessarises. arises. viduation) rather In this this respect, respect, Young-Eisendrath Young-Eisendrath is is less less radical radical than than Zinkin, Zinkin, who whoseems seems In at to have have been been interested interested only in the experiential aspect of the self and not at to all in in the the abstract, abstract, intellectual intellectual 'postulate' 'postulate' level. level. Eisendrath Eisendrath uses uses the the term term all 'self' in in both both senses. senses. In In the theexperiential experiential sense, sense, the the self, self, for for her, her, isisinterinter­ 'self' changeable with with 'individual 'individual subjectivity'. subjectivity' . However, However, in in the the 'logical ' logical postulate' postulate' changeable 'predisposition .. .. .. to form form aa coherent coherent image image sense, the self is sense, the self is an an archetypal archetypal 'predisposition . theimage imageofofthe theindividual individualembodied embodiedsubject subject around aroundwhich which an anego ego . .. the .. complex will predisposition can defined in terms of of four four complex will form' form'.. This This predisposition can be be defined in terms 'invariants of subjectivity': subjectivity' : coherence, coherence, continuity, sense of of agency agency and and 'invariants of continuity, aa sense affective relational patterns. Since these features exist in all cultures affective relational patterns. Since these features exist in all cultures everywhere archetypal. This This is is aa very v�ry everywhere they they may may justifiably justifiably be be regarded regarded as as archetypal. abstract view in which 'the Self' is being thought about as a category l I ke abstract view in which 'the Self' is being thought about as a category like ''the the body' body' or or'the ' theeye'. eye' .ItI is t isnon-essentialist non-essentialistbecause becausethe theprinciples principlesunderunder­ lying the organisation of self at the 'design' 'design' level level are are not not thought thought to to lying the organisation of the the self at the principle of have any substantive existence. The archetypal Self is only a principle have any substantive existence. The archetypal Self is only a transcendent be possible possible to to 'experience' 'experience' itit transcendent coherence coherence —ititwould would no no more more be than to experience our DNA. This is not to close the door on sense of of the the than to experience our DNA. This is not to close the door on aasense numinous: Y oung-Eisendrath also refers to transcendent coherence as ' that numinous: Young-Eisendrath also refers to transcendent coherence as 'that unity life that is not not personal personal and and may may be be called called God, God, Tao, Tao,Buddha Buddha unity of of life that is N ature, a central organising principle (of the universe) or other names' Nature, a central organising principle (of the universe) or other names' ((Young-Eisendrath 1 997b: 54). Young-Eisendrath 1997b: 54). �

Blueprint and incarnation incarnation Blueprint and Although self, priori self, Although the the constructivist constructivist viewpoint viewpoint rejects rejectsthe the notion notion of of an an aa priori Young-Eisendrath's position is is not not in in all all respects respects opposed opposed to to the the notion notionof ofaa Young-Eisendrath's position 'blueprint' for development development since the concept concept of of aa pre­ pre'blueprint' for since this this isis implied implied in in the Since no one would argue with the proposition that the self disposition. Since no one would argue with the proposition that the self disposition. depends particular context context for for its its realisation, realisation, the the contrast contrastwith withessenessen­ depends on on aa particular tialist although tialist viewpoints viewpoints isis not not as as great great as as might might be bethought. thought. Furthermore, Furthermore, although her is on on the the self-as-archetype, self-as-archetype, she she also also suggests suggests the the self self is is 'a 'a her main main emphasis emphasis is gat hering of (multiple) subjectivities', subjectivities', that its realisation realisation involves involves the the gathering of (multiple) that its inelusion 'I' — aa nod in the the direction direction of of self self as as inclusion of of 'Not-I' `Not-I' elements elements into into the the 'I' nod in totality. But once in this this way, way, it it must must presumably presumably totality. But once the the self self is is thought thought about about in act include archetype of subjectivity but predispositions to to act all predispositions include not not only only the the archetype of subjectivity but all aand n d perceive perceive in he in any any universally universally occurring occurring manner. manner. This, This, again, again, narrows narrows tthe gap wee n Young-Eisendrath's constructivism and and the the biologically biologically based based gap bet between Young-Eisendrath's constructivism esse n t i a l ism of Stevens (1982). ( 1 982). essentialism of Anthony Anthony Stevens For ve ns, the he Self is morc h a n aa metaphor: metaphor: For Ste Stevens, the link link between between tthe Selfand and DNA DNA is more tthan tthe he human it u t es aan n (a/ priori ro gra m me of development developmen t for priori pprogramme human genome genome const constitutes ''the t ill' total rchet y pal Systl'llI whatJung .l ungtermed t ermed the t he Self' Self' ((Stevens St evens I1982: l)X 2 : 76►. 7(1 ) . '19 total aarchetypal system what �

Where concentrateson on the Where Young-Eisendrath Y oung-Eisendrath concentrates the predisposition predisposition for subsub­ jectivity, Stevens looks at the total range of of predispositions predispositions for for human human living, living, drawing particularly on on Waddington's Waddington'stheory theoryof ofepigenesis epigenesis as as developed developed by by Bowlby — the occurrence of universal patterns of development. Bowlby � the occurrence of universal patterns development . In In terms terms of Fordham's Fordham's distinction, distinction, Young-Eisendrath Young-Eisendrath takes takes the the'self-as-archetype' 'self-as-archetype' position while Stevens takes the 'self-as-totality' position but both of while Stevens takes the 'self-as-totality' position but of them them are interested in demonstrably universal features which can thereby are interested demonstrably universal features which thereby be be attributed to attributed tothe thecollective collectiveSelf. Self. This kind of 'blueprint', though, This kind of collective 'blueprint', though,isis very very different from the notion as constituting an individual blueprint in i n which the individuation individuation of the Self as process is is seen seen as as the the 'incarnation' 'incarnation' of process of inherent inherent potential. The The danger danger of ofthis this is that that it can can lead lead either to a form of of determinism or notion of view is or else to the notion of an intentional intentional self. self. In In this this respect respect Stevens Stevens is is very very different different from from YoungYoung­ Eisendrath, speaking speaking of of the the self as 'an Eisendrath, ' an invisible invisible guide guide or or mentor' mentor' which which 'never stops prompting prompting and andadvising' advising'(Stevens (Stevens 1982: 1 982: 66 66 and and 142). 1 42). The fundamental The fundamental difference difference between between constructivist and and essentialist essentialist views views culture of the self concerns the issue of whether the self self is created created (through (through culture and context) or disco discovered (as the the realisation of a priori vered (as and context) or priori potential). potential). Attempt­ Attempting to reunite ing reunite this this typical typical pair pair of ofJungian Jungianopposites, opposites, Colman Colman (1999) ( 1 999) has has pointed out out that the self that is 'made' cannot just be any pointed but must be any self self but must be one that is in accord one accord with with the the innate innate characteristics characteristics of ofthe the individual individual which which act as limiting limiting factors on the range act range of of potential potential realisations realisations available. available.While While the number of possible realisations is is unknown, unknown, and perhaps the perhaps unknowable, unknowable, itit cannot be be infinite. infinite. The The self selfisisnot not aa blank blank slate. slate. Thus, Thus, 'context' 'context' is is not only cannot cultural but also cultural also biological. biological. At At both both the thecollective collective level level and and the the individual individual level, we wemust must conclude conclude that that the self is is discovered discovered through through the process of its level, own creation. creation. own

Current C urrent status status and future developments d evel o p m ents

Since the the midmid-1990s therehas hasbeen beenaa spate spate of of articles articles inin the the Journal Since 1 990s there Journal of of Analytical Psychology Psychology and Analytical and elsewhere, elsewhere, reviewing reviewinglung's Jung's theory theory of archetypes in the the light in light of of current current developments developments in in related related fields fields of of science science such such as as evolutionary biology, biology, neuroscience, cognitive science science and and physics physics (Tresan (Tresan evolutionary neuroscience, cognitive Hogenson 11998, 2001; Saunders and Skar 11996; 996; Hogenson 998, 200 1 ; Saunders Skar 2001; 200 1 ; McDowell McDowell 1999, 1 999, 2001). The specifi specific application of of some some of of these ideas to the 200 I ). The c application the self self has already already been explored explored by by Salman Salman ((1999) and Colman Colman (2000) (2000)and and itit is is likely been 1 999) and likely that future thinking thinking on on the will take take them further. futurc t he Self will At the the risk risk of oversimplification, the common common thread in these At oversimplification, the these new ideas theeexplanation of complex complex behaviour behaviour as the emergent properties iinvolves n volves the x planat ion of of sel self-organising systems. This This means, means, as Hogenson says, that of f-orga n ising ddynamic y n a m ic systcms. that it it is is no longer longer necessa necessary or viable viable to to claim no ry or claim that t h a t the the archetypes archctypcs 'exist' 'exist' somesome­ where,asas sOllie some kkind of structural Salman to a where, i nd of st ruct ural eentity. n t i t y . Sa l m a n ddraws raws aattention t te n t i o n to

The 1 71 Theself self 171

Warren Colman 117070 Warren Colman

commentof of Jung's Jung's made made in in 1957 him thinking comment 1 957 which which shows shows him thinking very very much much along these lines: `So far I have found no stable or definite centre in the the along these lines: 'So far I have found no stable or definite centre in unconscious and I don't believe such a centre exists' (Serrano 1966: unconscious and I don't believe such a centre exists' (Serrano 1 966: 50; 50; quoted in in Salman Salman 11999: 73).Zinkin Zinkin(1(1987) hasalso alsopointed pointedout out that that Jung Jung quoted 999: 73). 987) has did not believe in the absolute existence of individual entities: 'the 'the ambidid believe in existence of individual entities: ambi­ guity and confusion we have struggled with in the self results from Jung's guity and confusion we have struggled with in results neverseeing seeingititas as aa fixed fixedentity entitywith with aa constant constant boundary and never and definite definite size size or as having an inside or an outside' (Zinkin 1987: 124). Instead, or as having inside an outside' (Zinkin 1 987: 1 24). Instead, Zinkin, Zinkin, drawing on on the the example that, 'movement drawing example of the hologram hologram concludes concludes that, 'movement is primary and the appearance of forms as they emerge from the primary and of forms as they emerge from the movement movement is secondary' secondary' (1987: is ( 1 987: 124). 1 24). This puts puts the emphasis on the self as the continuous process of This of the psyche in which archetypal forms appear as emergent properties in which archetypal forms appear as emergent properties (including ( including archetypal images imagesof of the the self). archetypal self). This view view does does away with with several several of of the the paradoxical difficulties which have dogged theoretical understanding paradoxical difficulties which have dogged understanding of ofthe the self to to date. date. For example, there is now no contradiction between self between the self self as an organising an organising principle principle (archetype) (archetype) and and the the self self as as the the totality totality since since there there isis no need to distinguish between the organisation/system and that no need to distinguish between the organisation/system that which which is organising it. The self is rather the self-organisation of the is organising it. self is the self-organisation of the totality totality of psychic functioning. functioning. This, This, in in turn, includes psychic includes the capacity to to create create meaning meaning and pattern, enabling us to organise elements of our experience enabling us to organise elements of our experience into into archearche­ typal and behaviour. The 'centrality' typal imagery imagery and behaviour. The 'centrality' of the the self self in in the the psyche psyche is is merely metaphorical way way of referring referring to to its its importance, merely a metaphorical importance, as in the the phrase phrase 'of central central importance'. importance'. There There is is no need need to to posit posit aa 'directing 'directing centre' centre' (as (as Neumann does) does) to explain explain the the existence existence of meaning, meaning, purpose and and order order in in psychic life. The The idea idea of a 'directing centre' is an example of what Daniel psychic life. 'directing centre' is an example of what Daniel Dennett calls 'the 'the Cartesian Dennett (1991) ( 1 99 1 ) calls Cartesian Theatre'. Theatre'. By By this this Dennett Dennett means means the the 'homuncular fantasy' fantasy' of ofsome some kind kind of of'Central 'CentralMeaner' Meaner'who whoisisthe thesubject subject of or consciousness. consciousness. This is the the self self which which 'does 'does not not exist', exist',as asJung Jungwell wellknew knew and and as as the the Buddhists, Buddhists, with with their their concept concept of of'no-self', 'no-self',have havebeen beenteaching teachingfor for centuries. cen t uries. It It is is no no coincidence coincidence that that Young-Eisendrath, Young-Eisendrath, who who isis so so critical critical of of the t he notion notion of ofaasubstantive substantiveSelf Selfwith withits itsown ownintentionality, intentionality, isisaapractising practising Buddhist. Buddhist. but The The self self is is therefore therefore not aa structure structure in in the the psyche psyche (Gordon (Gordon 1985), 1 985), but rather rather the the structure structure of of the the psyche, psyche, not not aafixed fixed structure structure but butone onewhich which isis ever ever fluid fluid and and changing changing yet yet maintains maintains its its continuity continuity by bymeans meansofofselfselr­ organisation. organisation. This This opens opens the the way way for forthe thekind kindofofmultiplicity multiplicityso sovalued valued by hy the the pluralists pluralists without without foreclosing foreclosing on on some some kind kindofofinherent inherentarchetypal arc hety pa l organisation - itit isisjust orga nisation justthat thatthe thearchetype archetype isis no no longer longer seen seen as as aa priori prio,., but hut as asconstellated co ns t e l l a ted through throughthe theprocess processofofself-organisation self-organisation(Saunders ( Saundersand a nd S k a r2001). 2(0 1 ).10) 0 Skar Similarly, S i m i la rly, there t here is is no no longer longer the the same same difficulty difficulty over 'parts' 'parts'and and'wholes' 'wh o h:� ' since .� inl'e an a n emergent emergent property pro pe rt y of o f the the self self is i s not not in in any a n y sense sense aa 'part' ' pa rt 'ofo rit.it .SoSo ' gi vesrise the I hl' fact ra c t that t h a ithe t h eself sel lgives risetotoimages i m a gesofo ritsi t sown ownprocess processthrough throughsell sl'l l

reflexive does reflexiveactIvity activity doesnot notmean meanthat thatthe the source sourceof of such such images images isis an an 'archetype' argues. `archetype'which whichcan canbe beonly onlyaa part-self, part-self, as as Fordham Fordham argues. This t to suggest that, in the future, some single uncontested theory ThisisisnO not . to suggest that, in the future, some single uncontested theory of � will self is merely of the the sel self willfinally finallyemerge. emerge.Nor Normust must we weforget forget that that the the self is not not merely aa theoretical also an an overwhelming overwhelming experience experience of theoretical matter matter but but also of the the mysterium mysterium tremendu t isis not mystery to tremendum. not aa problem problem to to be be solved solved but but aa mystery to be be explored. explored. In In ": . !It so the core core of of our our individuality individuality as well as what so far far as as Itit IS is the as well as the the totality totality of of what makes has an an irreducible irreducible element element of uniqueness. For this makes us us human, human, itit has of uniqueness. For this rreason, �ason, each each investigator investigator will will experience experience and and conceptualise conceptualise itit differently differently and and dlffere Jung's 'subjective 'subjective confession' confession' will or �t aspects different aspects of of Jung's will assume assume greater greater or lesser lesserI.mportance. importance.Continuing Continuing theoretical theoreticaldiversity diversityisisnot not merely merelyaa sign sign of of confUSIOn indication of health and and vitality. vitality. confusionand and muddle muddle but but an an indication of health N otes Notes inner personality p�rsonal ity is is the the way way one one behaves behaves in in relation relation to to one's one'sinner innerpsychic psychic 1 The 'The inner . characteristic face towards processes; processes;Itit ISis the the Inner inner attItude, attitude, the the characteristic face that that is is turned turned towards . II. call he unconscious outer attitude, attitude, the the outward outward face, face, the the persona; persona; the the unconscious. call the the outer �the mn er attitude, the mward face I call the anima' (Jung, 1 92 1 1 1 950: par. 803). inner . attitude, the inward face I call the anima' (Jung, 1921/1950: par. 803). 22 This ThiS in m turn tu �n refers refers to to aasaying sayingabout aboutGod Godasas'a'acircle circlewhose whosecentre centreisiseverywhere everywhere and the circumference Circumference nowhere' nowhere' ((CW C W 6: par. 79 1 and n. 74). The paradox is and the 6: par. 791 and n. 74). The paradox is beautifully by the the seventeenth-century seventeenth-century Polish Polish mystic, mystic, Angelus Angelus Silesius, Silesius, beautifully expressed expressed by quoted ung in ion ((1951): 1 95 1 ): quoted by by JJung in A Aion God is is my my centre centre when when II close close him him in in God And my my circumference circumference when melt in in him him And when II melt 3 This This issue issue is is examined examined in in depth depthby byFordham Fordham(1985). ( 1 985). 3 4 cf. cf. 'the 'theself selfcan canbe bedistinguished distinguished only onlyconceptually conceptually from from what whathas hasalways alwaysbeen been 4 778). as '"God" "'God"but butnot notpractically' practically'(Jung (Jung1954: 1 954:par. par.778). referred to referred to as Psychology and 5 In In Psychology West (CW ( C W I I ), 475 pages are devoted to 5 and Religion: Religion: East East and and West 11), 475 pages are devoted to Western (Judeo-Christian) (Judeo-Christian) religion religion while 35 pages the East. East. If If Western while 1135 pages are are devoted devoted to to the the 300-odd 300-?�d pages one includes mcl �des the pages of A ion (CW ( C W 9ii) o f Aion 9ii) which which is is entirely entirely concerned concerned with with one GnostiCism and and Christianity, Chnstlanity, the the proportions proportionsare areeven evenmore morestriking. striking. Gnosticism 6 Neumann and other, mainly 'classical' Jungians, capitalise 'Self' distinguishitit 6 Neumann and other, mainly 'classical' Jungians, capitalise 'Self' totodistinguish from its ItS ordinary ordmary usage usage (as (as in in `me, 'me, myself') myself') which which is is more more to to do do with withthe theego. ego. from However, the the editors editors of of the the English English translation Collected Works decided against However, translation Collected Works decided against . capitalisatIOn and, and,in mthis thiSchapter, chapter,I Ihave havetried triedtotofollow followtheir theirusage usageexcept exceptwhen when capitalisation dlscussmg those those authors authors who who specifically specifically refer 'Self' with with aa capital capital 'S'. discussing refer to to 'Self' I nhis hiSlater laterwork, work,on onthe thebasis basisof ofobservational observationalinfant i nfantresearch, research, Fordham Fordhamcame came 77 In to question question that thatthere thereever everisisan anearly earlystage stageofof mother-infant union unionas assuch. such. to mother—infant � athcr,. states state s of o � union union do do occur occu� but butthey theyare aretransient transientstates states in in an anongoing ongoing Rather, . I hythnlH': oscillatIOn of demtegratlOn and reintegration. rhythmic oscillation of deintegration and reintegration. Asan anexample exampleof ofrigid rigid dogmatism, dogmatism, von von Franz Franzisis reported reportedto tohave have said said that that Jung's J ung's 8X As p sy c h()l ogy was was 'final 'final and and fixed fixed at at his his death, death, and and no nosubsequent subsequentinterpretation interpretationof of psychology t heo ry could co uld or orshould should be beeither eithersuperimposed superimposed upon upon or orincorporated incorporatedwithin within it' it' theory ( Ba l r 2004: 2004: 770, 770, n. n. 69). (9 ) . As A san a nexample exampleofof deifyingthe theself, self,see seeEdinger Edinger(1987, ( 1 987, (Bair deifying I (Nfl) who secms t o t a k e rel igious doc t ri n e a s a n a lmost l i t eral na rra t i vc of 1996) who seems to take religious doctrine as an almost literal narrative of I l ld i v i d l l a t io n in inwhich w h idlthe t heterms tl'l'l11S'c. (;oil' ;od ' alld 'Sell" a rc i n t crL'iWllgea hlL'. A t t i nK's. individuation and 'Self' are interchangeable. At times,

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1172 72 Warren WarrenColman Colman

he seems almost tto deify Jung Jung himself, suggestingthat that 'lung 'Jung is the new he seems almost o deify h imself, suggesting new Aion' Aion' (Edinger, 1 996: 192). 1 92). (Edinger, 1996: 9 Stevens ((1982) 1 982) goes equate the the genome genome with with God, God, obscuring obscuring the the 9 Stevens goesso so far far as as to equate distinction between between the the god-image god-image and and God Himself. distinction H imself. 'The The eternal eternal quality quality uniuni­ versally expression of the miraculous durability versally attributed attributed to Him', he says 'is an expression of the archetype archetype of archetypes, archetypes, the human genome'. genome'. 10 McDowell McDowell (200 (2001) takesaa contrary contrary view, view, arguing arguing that the 10 1 ) takes the principles principles of of selfself­ organisation are 'pre-existing'. 'pre-existing'. organisation are

Humbert, ( 1 980) The self and and narcissism'. narcissism'. Journal of Analytical Analytical Psychology, Psychology, Humbert, E. E. (1980) 'The self Journal of 25(3): 237-246. 237-246. 25(3): of Analytical Psychology, Huskinson, (2002) The Huskinson, L L.. (2002) 'The Self Self as as aa violent violentOther'. Other'. Journal Journal of 47(3): 47(3): 437-458. 437-458. W 77: : pars. 1. lung, ( 1 9 1 6) The Jung, e.G. C.G. (1916) 'The structure structure of of the the unconscious', unconscious', in in C CW pars. 442-52 442-521. -( 1 92 11 1 950) Psychological W 6. (1921/1950) Psychological Types. Types. C CW 6. -( 1 928) The (1928) 'The relations relations between betweenthe the ego ego and and the the unconscious', unconscious',in in CW CW 7: 7: pars. pars. 202-406. 202-406.

-((1935) 1 935) Analytical The Tavistock Tavistock Lectures. Analytical Psychology: Psychology: Its Its Theory and and Practice. The Referencess Reference Adams, ( 1 997) The archetypal school', in P. P. Young-Eisendrath Young-Eisendrath and and T. T. Adams, M.V. M.V. (1997) 'The archetypal school', in Cambridge: Cambridge Dawson (eds) The Camhridge Companion to Jung. Cambridge: Cambridge The Cambridge Companion to Jung. Dawson (eds) University Press. University Press. Biography. London: Little, Little, Brown. Brown. Bair, (2004) Jung: Jung: A Biography. Bair, D. (2004) in treatment',in and treatment', Beebe, J. ((1988) ambivalence towards towards the self: self: its its nature nature and Primary ambivalence 1 988) ' 'Primary Beebe, J.

Analysis. in Analysis. The Borderline Borderline Personality in (eds) The Stein (eds) N.. Schwartz-Salant and M M.. Stein Schwartz-Sal ant and N Wilmette, IL: I L : Chiron. Wilmette, self'. Harvest, 'Creation and discovery: finding and and making making the the self'. discovery: finding ( 1 999) 'Creation Colman, W. (1999)

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1 74 Warren Warren Colman Colman 174 Salman, S. S. (1999) ( 1 999) 'Dissociation 'Dissociation and a n d the the Self Selfin i nthe themagical magicalpre-Oedipal pre-Oedipal field'. fie ld'. Salman, Journal of ofAnalytical A nalytical Psychology, Psychology, 44(1): 44(1 ) : 69-86. 69-86. Journal Samuels, A. A. (1985) ( 1985) Jung Jung and and the the Post-Jungians. London: Routledge Routledge and and Kegan Kegan Paul. Paul. Samuels, ( 1 989) The Plural Psyche. Psyche. London: Routledge. Routledge. (1989) Saunders, P. P. and and Skar, Skar,P.P.(2001) (2001 'Archetypes, ) 'Archetypes,complexes complexesand andself-organisation'. self-organisation' . Saunders, Journal of ofAnalytical Analytical Psychology, Psychology, 46(2): 305-323. 305-323. Journal Serrano, M. M. (1966) ( 1966) C.G. C G. Jung andHerman Herman Hesse: Hesse: A A Record Recordof ofTwo TwoFriendships. Friendships. New New Jung and Serrano, York: Schocken. Schocken. York: Stevens, A. A. (1982) ( 1 982) Archetype: A rchetype: A History of of the the Self. Self. London: Routledge. Routledge. A Natural Natural History Stevens, D.L. (1996) ( 1 996) 'Jungian 'Jungian metapsychology metapsychology and and neurobiological neurobiological theory'. theory'. Journal Tresan, D.L. 4 1 (3): 399-436. 399-436. of Analytical Analytical Psychology, Psychology, 41(3): of Weisstub, E. E. (1997) ( 1 997) 'Self 'Self as as the the feminine feminine principle'. principle'. Journal Journal of ofAnalytical A nalytical Psychology, Psychology, Weisstub, 42(3): 425-452. 425-452. 42(3): Symbolic Quest: Quest: Basic Basic Concepts Concepts of of Analytical A nalytical PsyPsy­ Whitmont, E.C. 1 969) The The Symbolic Whitmont, E.C. ((1969) chology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Princeton University University Press. Press. chology. ( 1 987) Feeling, Feeling, Imagination l Transformations Transformations of of the the Willeford, W. Imaginationand and the the Sel Self Willeford, W. (1987) Mother-Infant Relationship. I L : Northwestern Northwestern University University Press. Press. Evanston, IL: Mother—Infant Relationship. Evanston, of Analytical A nalytical PsyPsy­ Young-Eisendrath, l 997a) The analysis'. Journal Journal of Young-Eisendrath,P.P.( (1997a) 'The self self in in analysis'. 1 ) : 157-166. 1 57 - 1 66. chology, 42(1): chology, 42( ( 1 997b) Gender Desire: Uncursing Un cursing Pandora. Station, TX: TX: Texas Texas College Station, Gender and and Desire: Pandora. College (1997b) U n iversity Press. Press. A&M University 's Self-Psychology: Self-Psychology: A A Constructivist Constructivist Young-Eisendrath, ( 1 99 1 ) Jung Jung's Young-Eisendrath,P.P. and and Hall, Hall, J. (1991) London and New York: Guilford. Per�pective. Perspective. London and New York: Guilford. Zinkin, ( 1 987) 'The psychology',in inH. H. Zinkin, Zinkin. Zinkin, L. (1987) 'The hologram hologram as a model for for analytical analytical psychology', R. Gordon Haynes (eds) (eds) (1988) ( 1 988) The of Dialogue Dialogue in in the the Analytic A nalytic The Place Place of Gordon and and J.J. Haynes R. Setting: The Selected Selected Papers Louis Zinkin. and Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA: PA: London and Setting: The Papers of of Louis Zinkin. London Jessica Kingsley. Jessica Kingsley. -- ((1991) 1 99 1 ) 'Your you make make it', it', unpublished unpublished paper paper for for 'Your self: self: did did you you find it it or did you discussion the Analytic Analytic Group Group of of the the Society Society of ofAnalytical AnalyticalPsychology, Psychology. discussion atat the 4 November. 4 November. �-

��

Part Part II II

Psychotherapy

Chapter Chapter 88

Transference/countertransference Transference/countertransference Andrew Samuels Samuels

S o m e general general issues i s s ue s Some

In utobiographical Study, wrote this: this: In his his A Autobiographical Study, Sigmund Sigmund Freud wrote One an experience experience which showed me in One day day I had an in the crudest light what II had long suspected. It related related to to one one of ofmy my most most acquiescent acquiescent patients, patients, with most marmar­ with whom whom hypnosis hypnosis had had enabled enabled me me to to bring bring about about the most vellous was engaged engaged in in relieving relieving of of her her suffering suffering by by vellous results, results, and whom II was tracing back her attacks of pain to their their origins. origins. As As she woke up on one occasion my neck. neck. The unexpected entrance occasion she she threw threw her her arms arms around around my entrance of a servant servant relieved relieved us painful discussion, discussion, but time us of a painful but from from that time onwards between us onwards there there was was aa tacit understanding between us that that the hypnotic treatment attri­ treatment should should be be discontinued. discontinued. II was was modest modest enough enough not not to attribute the event event to my own irresistible irresistible personal personal attraction, attraction, and I felt that II had now now grasped grasped the the nature nature of of the the mysterious mysterious element element that was at that was work exclude it, all events events to to work behind behind hypnotism. hypnotism.In In order order to to exclude it, or or at all isolate necessary to abandon abandon hypnotism. hypnotism. isolate it, it, it was necessary ((Freud Freud 1925: 1 925: 27) As we know, know, Freud Freud initially initially thought thought he he had had been been experienced experienced as the As we as the woman's fi rst boyfriend in adolescence first adolescence and and subsequently subsequentlycame cameto to think think that that what 'transferred' onto him was was aa feeling feeling for for the the first first love love what was was being being 'transferred' onto him object(s) vignette, there there is is object(s) in in the the client's client's childhood. childhood. In this autobiographical vignette, much which to speculate speculate from from today's vantage vantage point, point, not not least least upon upon much on on which what of the the 'painful 'painful discussion' discussion' between between hypnotist and subject subject what the content of might been. The The roots roots of of psychoanalysis psychoanalysis do lie in in hypnotism hypnotism and and might have have been. do lie worries being too much 'suggestion' 'suggestion' at play play in in clinical clinical work, work, worries about about there there being too much leading and 'blank 'blankscreen' screen' ways ways leading to to the the establishment establishment of of 'neutral', 'neutral', 'abstinent' 'abstinent' and of this aetiology; aetiology; thence there there is is an an ongoing ongoing professional professional of working working stem stem from this den i a l of played by by suggestion in psychotherapeutic treatment treatment(e.g., (e.g. , denial of the the part part played M !lore and Fine !-'inc 1990: 1 990: 196--197). 1 96 - 1 97). Contemporary relational approaches to to Moore Contemporary relational psychoa nalysis m ig h t aallow l low for ho u t Freud's a hout his his psychoanalysis might fordouhts doubts aabout Freud's own douhts doubts about

1 78 Andrew A n d rewSamuels Sam uels 178

'irresistible personal the therapist's therapist's role role in in the theconcon­ `irresistible personalattraction'. attraction'. By By now, now, the struction of the client's transference is a much theorised phenomenon. struction of the client's transference is a much theorised phenomenon. II bring in these these up-to-the minute minute considerations considerations as as an an illustration illustrationof ofmy mybelief belief bring ( Samuels 11980, 980, 11989) 989) that exciting and fulfilling way study the the (Samuels that an an exciting and fulfilling way to study evolution of of theory theory in in depth depth psychology psychology is is to to begin begin with with the themost mostconcon­ evolution flictual and disputed contemporary contemporary issues issues and and work work backwards, backwards,as asititwere. were. flictual and disputed is no no mere mere play play of ofwords words to tostate statethat thatthe thevery verytheme themeofoftransferencetransference­ It is countertransference excites most extreme extreme transferences transferences and and countercounter­ countertransference excites the the most transferences. This in psychotherapy psychotherapy generally generally and and Jungian Jungian analysis analysis transferences. This is is true true in special case trend. Intense Intense anxiety anxiety may even be seen seen as as aa special case illustration illustration of the trend. surrounds the the question question of whether Jung did not not have have an an adequate adequate surrounds of whether Jung did did or or did conception of of transference. transference. Sometimes, Sometimes, he he can can be be understood understood as asdismissing dismissing conception its importance: importance: transference in spite spite of of its transferenceisisaa 'hindrance' 'hindrance'and and 'you 'you cure cure in 18: 678-679). other times, such transference and not because of it' ( C W 1 8: 678-679). At other times, such (CW transference and not because of it' as the moment moment when reassure Freud of his his orthodoxy orthodoxy ((CW C W 116: 6: as the when he he sought sought to to reassure Freud of par. 358), 358), he is very very keen keen to stand up up and and be be counted counted as as aareputable reputable par. he is to stand psychoanalyst idea of of psychoanalystwho whohas has fully fully understood understoodthe the centrality centrality of of the the idea transference and omega omega of of analysis'; analysis'; Freud Freud apparently apparently told told transferenceas as the the 'alpha 'alpha and him that he he had had 'grasped 'graspedthe themain mainthing' thing'(see ( seePerry Perry1997: 1 997: 141-163; 1 4 1 - 1 63;Samuels Samuels him that 11985: 985: 1182-183 82 - 1 83 for full discussion discussion of of this this ambivalence ambivalence of of Jung's). Jung's). Of Of for aa full course, known about about the the course, many many spiritual spiritual directors directors and and doctors doctors had had long long known risks amatory feelings feelings in the course course of of their their risks of of exciting exciting and and responding responding to to amatory in the work and, like like Freud Freud in in his his early early years years of ofpractice, practice, tended tended to to regard regard the the work and, phenomenon Freud may may well well have want to to phenomenon as as aa danger. danger. Freud have been been the the first first to to want know not seem seem to to have have been been know why why such such processes processes occurred occurredand and he he does does not particularly them — - in of the the 'transference 'transference particularly frightened frightened of of them in fact, fact, with with his his idea idea of neurosis' he made made it it possible possible for for therapists therapists to to transform transformwhat whathad hadbeen beenseen seen neurosis' he primarily problem into into the the very very thing thing that that made made depth depthwork workpossible. possible. primarily as as aa problem Nevertheless, penumbra of of transference-as-danger transference-as-danger remains remains with with Nevertheless,the the penumbra psychotherapy we find find even even broad-minded broad-minded psychoanalytic psychoanalytic commentacommenta­ psychotherapy and and we tors (e.g., Symington Symington 11986: 986: 1112) 1 2) claiming the painful painful and and tors (e.g., claimingthat thatitit is is only only the difficult negative, no no need need to to transfer transfer difficult things things that that get get transferred; transferred; if if it it is is not not negative, it. the Jungian Jungian it. As As we we will will see see below, below, nothing nothing could could be be more more different different from from the tradition with regard regard to to transference. transference. tradition with The key role role played played by by transference-countertransference transference-countertransference dynamics dynamics and and The key understandings psychotherapy practice practice reflects reflects a recognition by by practipract i ­ understandings in in psychotherapy a recognition tioners are not not ordinary ordinary about about the the psypsy­ tioners that that there there are are many many things things that that are chotherapy ordinary features features are, are, even even today, today, in in chotherapy relationship. relationship. But But the the not not ordinary spite sophisticated shifts shifts in theory and and practice, practice, often often boiled boiled spite of of huge huge and and sophisticated in theory down to the the apparently apparently inevitable inevitable tendency tendency of ofclients clients to toexperience experience their thei r down to therapists figures, along along Freudian Freudian lines. lines. Hence Hence the the emotional em o t io na l therapists as as parental parental figures, states child parent paren t relarela ­ states associated associated with with transference transference reflect reflectthose those of of the the child i O l l s hi p dependency, de pe n d ency,fear fearofofabandonment, abandonment,jealousy jealousyof ofsiblings, siblings, incestuous ince s t uo l l � ttionship desil'l' n d so ung's insight, i n sigh t , often cited by u n gi a n s, that t ha t transference t ransJ'crencl' is I� desire aand so on on.. .lJung's often cited by .IJungians,

Transference/countertransference T ra nsferen ce/cou ntertra n sfe r e n c e 179 1 79

a natural, natural, multifaceted multifaceted phenomenon phenomenon that that isiswidespread widespread in in culture cultureisisoverover­ looked. there is is much looked. In In the the Jungian Jungian therapeutic therapeutic tradition, tradition, there much more more to to transference transference than its its infantile infantile or or regressive regressive version version (see (see Kirsch 1995: 1 995: 1701 70209) and it would be a feature of of much Jungian Jungian analysis analysis that that what whatlook looklike like `parental projections' 'parental projections' would would be be closely iinterrogated nterrogated by therapist therapist and and client client to to make sure it was not aa clichêd cliched understanding at at work. work. The reason why infantile transferences do so often seem to be in play has to do do with with the the nature nature of ofwhat whatFreud Freud(e.g., (e.g.,1900: 1 900: 4-5) 4-5) called called 'primary 'primary process',, meaning process' meaning the typical typical ways ways in in which which the theunconscious unconsciousfunctions, functions, overlooking the the rules rules of space, overlooking space, place place and and time. time. The The therapeutic therapeutic space space becomes the the site site of of nursing, nursing, the the therapeutic relationship the place for repair becomes of a nursing experience experience that did not not work work out outwell, well, and andpresent-day present-daytime time isis overlooked in in favour of overlooked It is is claimed claimed that that the of the thevery the time time of very act act of infancy. infancy. It of asking for help help will will constellate or bring bring into into being being aa regressive, regressive, infantile infantile transference —but but critics critics of of this view transference view (well (well summarised summarised in in Totton Totton2000: 2000: have pointed pointed out out that the 1134-166) 34- 1 66) have the social social structure structure of of the the therapy therapy relarela­ tionship, tionship, rather than than its its assumed assumed morphological morphological similarity similarity to to childhood, childhood, isis also at work; also work; not notall allseemingly seemingly infantile infantile transferences transferences are are infantile, infantile, many many have to do with what have what is is felt felt about about and andprojected projectedonto ontopsychological psychologicalexperts experts and mental health health professionals professionals (Hauke ( Hauke 1996; 1 996; Papadopoulos Papadopoulos1998). 1 998). Thinking about about what whatlies lies beyond beyond childhood childhoodwhen whenititcomes comes to to transferencetransference­ countertransference,Jung Jungwas was perhaps perhaps the the first countertransference, first therapist therapist to to understand understand that what the in the therapist, that the client client sees sees and and experiences experiences in therapist, whether whether as aa positive or negative feature, is connected, via projection, projection, with with the the client's client's own own self or or personality personality jjust as itit is, is, as as aa whole, whole, rather rather than in its self ust as its infantile aspects. Hence, an an admiring or Hence, or idealising idealising (in ( in aa positive positive way) way) transference transference projection projection will lead lead to to the will the client client appearing appearing to to discover discover in in the the therapist therapist aspects aspects of of personality -—wisdom, wisdom,tolerance, tolerance,sensuality, sensuality,imagination, imagination, intellect personality intellect -- that that do not belong to, or do belong to, or do do not not only only belong belong to, to, the thetherapist. therapist. Here, Here, Freud's Freud's `modesty' isis also also needed. needed. Post-Freudian Post-Freudian theorising theorising about about the the self and self 'modesty' psychology (e.g., (e.g.,Kohut Kohut 1971) has taught taught us that idealisations psychology 1 97 1 ) has idealisations are not not only only negative and and defensive features of psychic negative defensive features psychic life. life. Idealisations Idealisations are ways ways in in which someone someone discovers discoverssomething somethingabout about him him or herself herself but but in in a projected which form, so so that that another form, another person person carries carries these these qualities. qualities. The The projection projection has has been been necessary because the client is not yet ready to own their own strength and necessary because the client is not yet ready to own their own strength and beauty. Maybe this is because they are caught in self-sabotage, or maybe they beauty. caught in or maybe they have had had experiences in life life that either have experiences in either contradict contradict their their more more positive positive features, or or make make it impossible impossible to to claim claim them. them. Now, whether the problem is features, self-sabotageor or life life experiences experiencessuch suchasasbeing beingborn borninto into aa poor family and self-sabotage hence not not having having received received much much education, education, a client client can quite easily hence easily start to experiencethe the therapist therapist as as preternaturally preternaturally wise. often, something experience wise. Equally Equally often, different happens happens and and images images are are projected projected onto the therapist which different which make the seem to to be be aa critical, critical, distant, distant, undermining and (socially) superth e ttherapist herapist seem (socially) super­ cilious iindividual. cilious nd i vid u a l .

1 80 Andrew And rew Samuels Sam u e l s 180

Transference/countertransference Transference/countertransference 1181 81

A ll of of this this is is transference transference and unrecog­ and both the unrealised gold and the unrecogAll of aa life life will find their concrete form form in in the thelived lived experience experience of ofthe the nised shit of shit is is meant meant educatively educatively because because of ofthe theneed need transference. The reference to to shit recall that, that, in intransference transference projections, projections, the the client client will will often often or orusually usually to recall encounter material from from his his or orher herown ownshadow shadow— - 'the thing aa person person has has no no encounter material 'the thing ( C W16: 1 6: par. par.470) 470) — - but, in Jung's Jung'swords words(CW wish to be', in but, according according to to the notion notion the shadow, shadow, actually actually is. is. In In the theexample example just justgiven, given, what whatififthe thecritical, critical, of the undermining and and supercilious supercilious personification personification is is aa part partof ofthe theclient's client's distant, undermining shadow? uch more needs to be be done done on onthe thelinkages linkagesbetween between shadow? M Much more work work needs shadow and transference transference because because of a possible possible confusion confusion in in which which 'bad 'bad shadow objects' and 'shadow ' shadow projections' projections' get getconflated, conflated, especially especially in in the the writings writings objects' and work work of ofthose those Jungian Jungian analysts analystswho whohave haveidentified identified very veryclosely closely with with psychoanalysis objects but but none none psychoanalysis (wherein (whereinthere thereisis aa huge huge literature literature on on bad objects on the the shadow). shadow). For For example, example, positive positive aspects aspects of aa person's person's selfhood selfhood can can reside to do do with with supersuper­ reside in in their their shadow shadow as well as as negative aspects. aspects. This This has to ego if I might Freudian concept concept to to amplify amplify aa Jungian Jungian ego functioning functioning ((if might bring in a Freudian one). Say a person has has had had an anhyper-religious hyper-religious upbringing upbringingininwhich whichall alllights lights one). m ust be hid under bushels and it is just not 'done' 'done' to tocelebrate celebrate oneself. oneself. This must person up with with ordinary ordinaryand andrealistic realisticself-esteem self-esteeminintheir theirshadow shadow—person will grow up the transference transference projection and the projection will will be be the the first first step step in in the breaking of the flowering and rounding out out of of the the personality personality of of shadow's iron grip on the flowering that individual. that individual. In so so far far as as there thereisisa ageneric genericJungian Jungiantradition traditionininconnection connection with with In transference following tensions exist within it. transference and and countertransference, countertransference, the following First, tension between between an anunderstanding understanding ofoftransferencetransference­ there is aa tension First, there place in in any countertransfernce any limited place countertransferncethat thatgives givesititan an important important but but limited consideration of the the therapeutic therapeutic process process as as aa whole, whole, and and one one that that considers considers consideration of everything takes place place in in therapy therapy asasconnected connectedwith withtransferencetransference­ that takes everything that countertransference Proponents of of the the latter latter view view countertransferenceand and subsumed subsumed into into it. it. Proponents (everything transference-countertransference) argue th e (everything isis transference-countertransference) arguethat, that,due due to to the pec i a l features the ubiquity ubiquity of oftransference transference sspecial features of of the the therapy therapy set-up set-up and and also the as already noted, there is is no no relationship relationship possible possible in in psychotherapy psychotherapy without without as already noted, there an i mportation of of features features from from outside outside that that relationship. relationship. Those Those who who an importation ddisagree i sag ree point that, ififeverything everything were were to to be beconsidered considered transferencetransference­ point out out that, co untertransference, there be little little point point in inhaving havingsuch suchspecialised speci ali sed countertransference, there would would be tterminology e rm i n ology atat all. We could could simply simply refer refer to to'interactional 'interactional dialectic' dialectic' all. We Wor d h ham a m 11979: 979: 208) Hobson 1985). 1 985). Terms Terms like like transt ra ns ­ ( Ford 208)or or'conversation' 'conversation' ((Hobson terence countertransference would would be be reserved reserved specifically specifically for for highly h i gh l y ference or or countertransference neuro t ic, borderline psychotic phenomena phenomena in in therapy. therapy. neurotic, borderline or or psychotic My own view is that it is necessary to state explicitly t rans­ My own view is that it is necessary to state explicitly what what is is not not transthe therapy relationship; this provides a sensible basis fill terence in ference in the therapy relationship; this provides a sensible basis for is transferential in the general sense of having hec delineating w h a t delineating what is transferential in the general sense of having beenl I two pe rs on therapy therapy relationship relationship from from the th e subjectivity t he two-person s u hject ivit y of iimported m ported into the III ie l l \ . So, a g a i n in my opinion, i t rema i n s necessa ry to men t ion t hl' ' rl'a tthe ill' d client. So, again in my opinion, it remains necessary to mention the 'reall -

relationship' or 'treatment relationship' or ' treatment alliance' alliance' and and to to distinguish distinguish these these from from the the transference-countertransference dynamics of the therapy relationship relationship while while allowing for massive overlap overlap and influencing of one kind of relationship by of relationship by the other. Jung Jung insisted insisted that thattherapy therapyrests restsupon upona adialectical dialecticalrelationship relationship—i.e., one i.e., one comprised comprised of a dialogue, dialogue, important important and and transforming transforming for for both both persons and involving equality of of the the participants, persons and involving aa hypothetical hypothetical equality participants, in the the sense of of spiritually spiritually equal equal in in the the eyes eyes of of God God (and, I would add, potentially sense potentially equal as equal as citizens citizens within within the the state). state). This This has has greatly greatly deepened deepened our our understanding of the real relationship understanding relationship and the the treatment treatment alliance. alliance. Jung is is a profound precursor precursor to contemporary contemporary psychoanalytic psychoanalytic and other interest in the relational Jung's crucial was to the relational base base of of psychotherapy. psychotherapy. Jung's crucial contribution contribution was stress that that both stress both therapist therapist and client client are are involved involved in in the the process process as as individualsand and that both individuals both have have conscious conscious and and unconscious unconscious reasons reasons and and motives for for being he raises questions that motives being there. there. Implicitly, I mplicitly, he raises the complex complex questions have increasingly become explicit explicit in in contemporary have increasingly become contemporary theorising theorising about the the clinical process process of of psychotherapy: psychotherapy: what what does does the the therapist do to clinical to evoke evoke the the transference?And And what what in in the therapist contributes transference? contributes even even to to aa usable usable (i.e., ( i.e., non-neurotic) countertransference non-neurotic) countertransference response response to the the client's client's transference? transference? The second second tension The tension is is over as opposed over the presence presence of archetypal, archetypal, as opposed to personal, in transference-countertransference personal, factors in transference-coun tertransference material. material. The The discusdiscus­ sions point quickly quickly become sions on on this point theological. ItIt is is said said that all become theological. all transtrans­ ference personal, in ference must must be be personal, in the the sense sense that that only only personal personal expressions expressions of of inner world content content are are possible possible — inner world - i.e., i.e., the thecollective collective unconscious unconscious is is indivisible indivisible from from the personal personal unconscious unconscious (Williams (Williams 1963). 1 963). While While intelintel­ lectually lectually impressive, impressive,this this position position may may also also be be a debating device. device. For what what is usually meant by archetypal archetypal transference is usually meant by transference is that that the the transference transference does does not emanate from from aapersonal not emanate personalexperience experience — - for for example, example, of ofparenting. parenting. Rather, Rather, the the content content that that is onto the the therapist is of a more is transferred transferred onto therapist is more general, general, 'typical' 'typical' kind. kind. So So the the wise wise (or (or stupid) stupid) therapist therapist may may be be more more accurately accurately understood understoodas as aa transference image to to do with transference image with the the typical, typical, perennial, perennial, structuring structuring features features ((its sine qua qua non) non) of its sine of the the healing situation, situation, and regressive, personal and not a regressive, personal theme theme in in the client. client. Certainly, Certainly, for for there there to be an experience of an experience of aa wise wise or stupid stupid therapist therapist there there have have to to be be persons persons involved. claim the involved. But But to to claim the whole whole thing thing as 'personal' 'personal' is is really really aapolitical political move move given given the the ideological ideologicalwars wars that that have have taken taken place place in Jungian Jungian psypsy­ chology chology and and analysis since since (and before) Jung's Jung's death death (see (see Samuels Samuels 1985 1 98 5 for an reliable and and provocative an account both reliable provocative of of the the division division of of post-Jungian post-Jungian analytical analytical psychology psychology into into three three schools: schools: Classical, Classical, Developmental Developmental and and Archetypal; Archetypal;see see Young-Eisendrat Young-Eisendrath andDawson Dawson 11997: 89-222 for for an h and 997: 89-222 an extended extended illustration illustration of of what what these these schools schools mean mean in in terms terms of of actual actual anaana­ lyt ical aand n d therapeutic practice). practice). lytical To say that all To all transferences transferences are truly truly personal personal was was aa mighty mighty fusillade fusillade in in such aa war. war. On On the other hand, it needs to be borne such the o ther hand, needs to borne in mind that many many example, ddreams of tthe aapparently ppa re n t l y aarchetypal rchet ypa l transferences, t ranslCrences, for example, reams of h e ttherapist herapist in in

1182 82 Andrew And rewSamuels Samuels



guise as as aa god-like figure or or as the acme an impressive impressive guise god-like figure acme of ofmasculinity masculinity or or femininity may may be be additionally additionally understood understood as as having personal roots in femininity in the the presence or or absent absent virtues virtues of parental figures presence figures in childhood. childhood. Working Working the the field between between personal personal and archetypal field archetypal transference transference requires requires very very intricate intricate interpretative strategies, strategies, aa capacity capacity in in the the therapist to stay and flexible flexible interpretative stay with with confusion and an excess competing ideas, ideas, and and an acceptance by by all all that confusion excess of competing there tension here here that that resists resists closure. closure. there is a tension concerns whether whether transference transference isis better better understood understood as a The The third tension concerns cul-de-sac or or blind blind alley cul-de-sac alley that it may may be be necessary necessary to explore explore before before turning turning back, having having mapped mapped all all its its nooks back, nooks and crannies crannies and and feeling feeling able able to disdis­ regard it as aa highway highway for for future futuredevelopment development— - or whether going going into into the the the road) road) to transferenceas as comprehensively comprehensivelyasaspossible possibleis isa aroad road (or (or the transference further personality integration and and individuation. further personality integration individuation. Of course, course, these these two two positions are are often often overlapping overlappingand and itit may may be be necessary to work work on aa positions necessary to issue for for some some time, time, understanding understanding itit as as something something that has ttransference ransference issue has to to be 'cleared `cleared', as itit were, were, and and also as tending be ', as tending to promote promote growth growth and anddeveldevel­ opment. One One could could express express this this tension tension in in terms termsof ofthe thedifference differencebetween between 'ghosts' and and `ancestors'. 'ancestors' . You You cannot cannot ignore ignore the the ghosts ghosts of ofthe the past past but, but,once once encountered and and noted, noted, ghosts may not be encountered ghosts may be as as much much use use in in the theestablishestablish­ ment of ment of aa life-enhancing life-enhancing and firm-enough firm-enough identity as ancestors ancestors would would be. be. Transference-driven explorations explorations of the past or Transference-driven or of of the the unconscious unconscious situation situation in the client client in in the the present present may may play play aa part partininconverting converting ghosts ghosts into into in the ancestors, transforming transformingour our cul-de-sac cul-de-sacinto into aa highway pointing in in the ancestors, highway pointing the direction of of psychic psychic richnesses richnesses in the future. future. tension concerns concerns whether whether transference transferenceisis truly truly aa natural The natural The fourth fourth tension phenomenon (as (as Jung claimed) phenomenon claimed) or more something something induced by by the the therathera­ p e u tic situation. the latter latter viewpoint, viewpoint, there cultural and and even even aa peutic situation. In In the there is is a cultural political transference. To my mind, mind, this this latter, latter, more more socially socially political aspect aspect to to transference. To my sensitive the sensitive understanding understandingof of transference transferenceisisaa necessary necessaryone one and and has has the added advantage that it does does not not ininany anyway wayvitiate vitiatethe theeffectiveness effectiveness of of added advantage that it analysis as as an essential component of healing. ttransference ransference analysis essential component healing. But But we we have to to he and accept accept that that whatever whatever we we do doinfluences influences everything everything that he honest here and goes on on in goes in our our clinical clinical settings. settings. If the the client client is is required required to to attend attend for for analysis four or five analysis four five times times per week, week, it is disingenuous disingenuous to claim claim that that the the requirement itself do with with the the often often far fargreater greater requirement itselfhas hasnothing nothingatat all all to to do intensity transference feeling feeling experienced experienced by such clients clients compared compared to to intensity of transference by such the experience experience of clients clients in once once weekly weekly therapy. therapy. Those Those who who advocate advocate the intensive analysis of of the the transference transference might might bear bear in in mind mind that their intensive analysis their advoadvo­ cacy helps helps to bring bring the the transference transference into into being being as as aaphenomenon phenomenonorigiorigi­ cacy of1 n a tin g in the the therapist. therapist. Extra Extra sessions sessions may not not be be bringing bringing out out features features 0 nating tthe h e transference-countertransference t ra n sl'crence-countertransference that less intensive therapy fai l s to that less intensive therapy fails to h r i n g out; t hey m i g h t be putting something in that is very far from hei ng is very far from being a; 1 something in bring out they might n a t u ra l additive. add i t i ve. There There has has been heen little littlediscussion discussion in inpsychotherapy psychotherapygenergener­ natural a l ly of of these t hl'Sl' considerations. cons idera t i on s . ally

Transfe ren ce/co u ntertransference 183 1 83 Transference/countertransference

The fif fifth The th tension concerns the interweave between transference projection projection tension concerns and how the the therapist therapist handles handles that that interweave. interweave. Let us say that that and 'reality' and how the the client client feels feelsthat that the thetherapist therapist does does not not like like him. him. The The therapist therapist is is aware aware of of this search as he he might, might, he he cannot cannotfind find this fecling feeling on on the the part part of the client but, search such may be be such dislike dislike of of the the client client in in himself. himself. It It is is aa transference. transference. (The therapist therapist may wrong this and and his his self-analysis self-analysis deficient deficient but but let let us us give give him the benefit wrong about about this of the sake sake of of the the discussion.) discussion.) So of the the doubt for the moment and for the So itit is is a transference. of therapeutic therapeutic transference. What What is is our our therapist to do? There are a number of strategies be open to to naming namingthe thefeeling feeling strategies he he might might follow. follow. The The therapist may be but to taking taking this this very very much much further, further, aa state stateof ofconstructive constructive indifference indifference but not not to (constructive to go go into into the the (constructive because because the the therapist's therapist's theoretical position is that to transference transference would be a cul-de-sac, cul-de-sac, as described above), above), a deliberate decision on of the therapist. therapist. Or Or the the therapist therapist might might recognise recognise that the client on the part of has this feeling, accept it without contradicting it but be thinking in terms of of has this feeling, accept it without contradicting exploring and interpreting the feeling (e.g., as a projection) at a later stage. exploring and feeling (e.g., as a projection) at stage. Plaut 1 956) referred Plaut ((1956) referredto tothis thisas as'incarnating Incarnating the the archetypal archetypal image' image' and and had in mind the therapist therapist would would neither neither confirm confirm nor nor deny deny the the feeling feeling in in mind that that the himself, nor explain the mechanisms of transference or projection, nor himself, nor explain the mechanisms of transference or projection, amplify references to amplify the the material material by educating the client via references to the the ambivalence ambivalence of mythological mythological father figures figures to to son son figures figures (Chronos, (Chronos, Uranos, Zeus, Laius, Pharoah, The next next possibility possibility would would be be to to work work in in the theknowledge knowledge Pharoah, Herod). The that feeling exists allow for its its influence influence on aspects of of the the that this feeling exists and and allow on all aspects therapeutic relationship. For For example, example, if if the the clinical clinical material material is is somewhat somewhat therapeutic relationship. thin, due to to the the client's client's reluctance reluctance to put put forth forth sensitive sensitive and and thin, this this may be due precious he feels feels does not like like him. precious things things to one whom he The possibility isis that the therapist therapist will will want work with with this this The last last possibility that the want to to work transference as deeply deeply as as seems seems possible possible and be alert alert to to transferencefor for as as long long and and as and be related therapist may may have have long long desired desired such such related transferences. transferences.In In fact, fact, the the therapist material believing, along 1 934) and material to emerge, believing, along with with James Strachey ((1934) and many contemporary post-Jungian post-Jungian analysts, analysts, that thatthese thesehere-and-now here-and-nowtransferences transferences are the clinician. There are many many things things to to consider consider here. here. Some Some are gold gold dust dust for the have from being being aa mutative mutative (i.e., ( i.e., change change inducing) inducing) techtech­ have alleged alleged that, that, far far from nique, nique, here-and-now here-and-now transference transference interpretations interpretations have become an an addiction, aa sign sign of of hopeless hopeless narcissistic narcissistic preoccupation the therapist therapist preoccupationon on the the part part of the ((Peters Peters 1991). 1 99 1 ). Mockingly, me' interinter­ Mockingly,references referencesare aremade madeto to 'you 'you mean me' pretations ( N . Coltart, Coltart, personal personal communication communication1993). 1 993). My My own own position positionisis pretations (N. to its merits. merits. Sometimes, Sometimes, when the clients refer to a to try to judge judge each case on its work place superior like them, they do mean mean their their boss. boss. At At workplace superior who who does does not not like them, they other times, a here-and-now here-and-now interpretation the boss boss is is aadisguised disguised other times, interpretation that that the referent is valid. valid. In In both both cases, cases, one one hopes hopes that that there there is is some some referent for for the the therapist therapist is e x p l o ra t io n of the the client's client'slifelong lifelongand andpresent-day present-daypsychological psychological exploration experiences and other other experiencesof of social social superiority superiorityand and inferiority inferiorityinin the the work work and set t i n gs h u t , so it i t is is argued, argued, the the incorporation incorporationof ofthe thefigure figure of ofthe the analyst analyst will will settings hut, m a k e the t h e dialogue d i a logue much more earthy and and full fu l l of oflife. l i fe. make

Andrew 1184 84 And rew Samuels Sam u e l s

conception of transference JJung's ung's conception transference and and countertransference c ountertransferenc e

Jung's overall position was was that the lung's overall position the therapeutic therapeutic relationship relationship must must be bc distinguished from from aa medical medical or or technical technical procedure procedure and and that therapy distinguished therapy will will take of therapist therapist take a different course course according according to to the particular combination of and client. Hence Hence it not surprising surprising that that Jung's lung's attitude attitudetototransference transference and client. it is not varied so so much. much. As As we we saw, saw, on on the the one one hand, hand, it is varied is the the central central feature feature of therapy and, and, on the therapy the other, other, little little more more than than an aneroticised eroticised hindrance hindrance to to therapy. lung Jung shows when it it comes therapy. shows greater greater consistency consistency when comes to to countercounter­ transference recognised as the pioneers pioneers of of aageneral general transference and and has has been been recognised as one one of the movement in in psychotherapy psychotherapy to to regard regard the emotional, movement emotional, fantasy and bodily bodily states of the therapist as being being of importance importance for for a deeper understanding of states the Up until until the the1950s, 1 950s, psychoanalysis, psychoanalysis, following following Freud, the client's situation. Up tended to regard countertransference as invariably neurotic, an an activation activation of of the the analyst's infantile conflicts and an obstacle to his functioning analyst's infantile conflicts and an obstacle his functioning (Freud (Freud Tothe the contrary, contrary, lung Jung wrote wrote in in 11929 that 'You 'You can exert 11910, 9 10, 11913). 9 1 3) . To 929 that exert no influence influence .. .. .. The Thepatient patientinfluences influences[the [the influence unless unless you you are subject to influence analyst] unconsciously .. .. . One of analyst] unconsciously of the best best known known symptoms symptoms of ofthis this kind kindisis par. 163). the countertransference countertransference evoked C W 116: 6: par. 1 63). In evoked by by the transference' ((CW sum, sum, Jung as 'a 'a highly lung regarded regarded countertransference countertransference as highly important organ organ of of information' for an information' an analyst analyst (par. ( par. 163). 1 63). Jung lung accepted accepted that thatsome somecountercounter­ transferences 'psychic infection' the transferenceswere werenot not so so benign, benign, referring referring to to 'psychic infection' and and the pars. 358, dangers identifying with C W 116: 6: pars. 358, 365). 365). dangers of identifying with the the patient ((CW Contemporary post-Jungian Contemporary post-l ungian analytical analytical psychology psychology has has assiduously assiduously pursued this this interest as usable pursued interest of Jung's lung's in in countertransference countertransference as usable in in the the service For surveys surveys of ofthis thissee seeSamuels Samuels(1989: ( 1 989: service of the client's development. For 1 47- 1 59) and especially especially the the outstandingly outstandingly comprehensive comprehensive review review by by 147-159) Sedgwick Letme me give give aa flavour flavour of such thinking by Sedgwick ((1994). 1 994). Let by outlining outlining my my own position, which which owes owes much much to toDieckmann Dieckmann(1974), ( 1 974), Fordham Fordham(1978), ( 1 978), own position, ( 1 970) and and Schwartz-Salant Schwartz-Salant (1984). ( 1 984) . Plaut (1970) We can state that that there there are are numerous numerous countertransferences countertransferences that that are are not not We primarily neuroticon on the the part part of primarily neurotic of the the therapist therapist without without ruling ruling out out the the existence of omnipresent neurotic even in in such such usable usable countercounter­ existence of an an omnipresent neurotic 'bit', even or transferences . My there are two two rather rather different different sorts sort s of transferences. My thinking thinking isis that that there cli nically usable seen as as comcom­ clinically usable countertransference, countertransference,though thoughboth both may may be seen munications from the the client, client, who who is is therefore an ally ally in the munications from therefore an the work work in in this this respec t. respect. after aa session session with with aa particular particularclient, client,IIfeel feeldepressed depressed(this ( th i smay may Suppose, after occurrence or part of ofaa series). series). Now Now II may mayknow knowfrom frommy myown own be a single occurrence read i ng of myself that am not notactually actuallydepressed depressed and andcertainly certainly not not reading of myself that II am serio usly depressed. depressed state i n isi s aa seriously depressed. II may may conclude conclude that that the the depressed state II am in result of of my my close close contact contact with with this particular particular client. client. It may may he he that t h a t the t hl' result cl ient is is feeling t'celing ddepressed e p ressed right her of u s was aware of it. i t . IInn client right now now and and neit neither of us

T ransfe rence/cou ntertransfe rence 185 1 85 Transference/countertransference

this depression. II call this instance, instance, my my depression depression isis aa reflection reflection of of his his or or her her depression. this depression) an example example of of 'reflective 'reflective countertranscountertrans­ this phenomenon (my depression) ference'. ference '. BBut u t there possibility. My My experience experience of of becoming becoming a depressed depressed there is another possibility. person or person may may stem stem from from the the presence presence and and operation operation of of such such aa 'person' or personification client's psyche. psyche. The client client may may have have experienced experienced aa personification in in the the client's parent depressed, and my my reaction reaction precisely precisely embodies embodies the the client's client's emoemo­ parent as depressed, tionally tionally experienced experienced parent. parent. II have have become become part part of the client's inner world. II emphasise attempting any kind of of factual factual emphasise'inner' 'inner' here here because becauseI I am am not not attempting any kind reconstruction Sometimes there is reconstruction that that would discover a depressed parent. Sometimes no such. Indeed, Indeed, the the depressed depressed parental parental image image may may be besymbolic symbolic no person person as such. of the client's client's psyche psyche— - the project of aa depressive theme active in the the client client may project his past, onto onto the the historical historical figures figures his current, current, present-day present-day depression depression onto onto the past, of his parents. parents. This entire entire state of of affairs affairs II have have come come to to call call 'embodied 'embodied of his countertransference' distinguish itit from from reflective reflective countertransference. countertransference' and II distinguish countertransference. In model, considerable considerable emphasis emphasis is laid on the the distinction distinction between, between, In this model, is laid on the one one hand, hand, my myreflecting reflecting of of the the here-and-now here-and-now state of of my my client, client, on the feeling the other other feelingwhat what he he or or she she is is unconscious unconscious of of at at the the moment, moment, and, and, on the hand, my embodiment embodiment of an entity, entity, theme theme or or person person of ofaalong-standing long-standing hand, my inner However, one that, experiexperi­ inner world world nature. nature. However, one problem problem for the analyst is that, entially, two states states may may seem seem similar similar and and perhaps perhaps many many usable usable entially, the the two countertransferences are both reflective and embodied. countertransferences are both reflective and embodied. Though is just just one one model model among among many, many, II think think many many Jungian lungian Though this this is analysts and therapists who have considered countertransference have analysts and therapists who have considered countertransference have become aware that what has been termed 'the countertransference revolu­ become aware that what has been termed 'the countertransference revolution', in which which practitioners practitioners are are legitimised legitimised in in regarding regarding their their own own subsub­ tion', in jective states as somehow linked to the client's, may have gone too far. jective states as somehow linked to the client's, may have gone too far. Perhaps we have become a bit too glib and facile in connection with usable Perhaps we have become a bit too glib and facile in connection with usable countertransference and our state of of countertransferencecommunications communications and ourwish wishtotobebeinin aa state readiness to work with our countertransferences. Maybe we have pulled readiness to work with our countertransferences. Maybe we have pulled aa com­ power some clients clients by by understanding understanding our our depression depression as power ploy ploy on on some as aa communication depression, and problems as well. well. (I (I munication of of their their depression, and there there are are other problems drew list of ofthe theproblems problems with with understanding understanding countertransference countertransference as drew up up a list 'an organ of ofinformation' information'ininSamuels Samuels1993: 1 993: 45-46.) 45-46.) an important organ A l c h e m y as as a metaphor m etap h or for for the th e therapeutic therapeutic process process Alchemy

It would be be mistaken mistaken to to take take Jung lungas aspreoccupied preoccupied with with the therelational relational It would dimension the exclusion exclusion of of an an internal internal exploration exploration of of the the dimension of of therapy therapy to to the unconscious of both persons involved. involved. Rather, particular unconscious on on the the part part of both persons Rather, lung's Jung's particular contribution be to to have have found found ways ways of ofcombining combining the the 'one-person 'one-person contribution may may be psychology' Freud in in which which making making the the unconscious unconscious conscious conscious is the psychology' of of Freud is the main t h ing and a n d later, l ater,two-person two-personpsychologies psychologieswhich, which,in i ndiverse diverseways, ways, stress stress main thing i m porta nce of or the t he relational rela t ional dimension d i mension of o r psychotherapy. ps yc h ot h era py . Jung .l ung chose chose aa tthe ill' importance

Andrew 1186 86 And rew Samuels Sam u e l s

metaphor by which which to to manage metaphor manage this combination combination of the the interpersonal interpersonal and intrapsychic aspects aspects of of therapy and his the intrapsychic his choice has baffled baffled many outside outside the Jungian professional community. Why choose alchemy, alchemy, of of all all things, things, as the the root metaphor the metaphor for for the the healing healing process process of ofpsychotherapy? psychotherapy? Why Why did he he make his his most most important important book book on the take the make the transference transference take the form form of of an an elaborated and expansive elaborated expansive commentary commentary on on aasixteenth-century sixteenth-century alchemical alchemical the Rosarium Philosophorum? ttract, ract, the Jung thought that Jung that alchemy, alchemy, if if regarded regarded metaphorically, metaphorically, was a precursor precursor of the modern modern study study of of the the unconscious unconscious and and therapeutic therapeutic concern concern for the the transformation of personality. transformation personality. The The alchemists alchemists projected projected their their internal internal processesinto into what what they they were were doing doing and and what processes what they they were were doing doing was was as as according to to Jung. Alchemy, much psychological as scientific, scientific, according Alchemy, in in its its heyday heyday between 1400 and 1700, was aa subversive subversive and and often often underground underground current between 1 400 and 1 700, was current in in culture and, and, in this culture this sense, sense, had a similar similar relationship relationship to Christianity Christianity to to the the one psychoanalysis developed in in relation to Victorian psychoanalysis developed Victorian bourgeois bourgeois morality. morality. Alchemists had had two aims. aims. First, to Alchemists to create create something something valuable valuable out out of ofbase base elements in themselves of little little value. value. This This is sometimes expressed as 'gold', clements themselves of expressed as or 'the 'the philosopher's philosopher's stone'. stone'. Second, Second, to convert convert base base matter matter into into spirit, spirit, freeing the the soul from freeing from its its material material prison. prison. The Theconnections connectionsbetween between these these aims and the typical to Jung to be aims typical aims aims of therapy seemed seemed to be clear. clear. And And the the interpersonal or or relational relational factor factorwas was also also present present in in the thealchemical alchemical process. process. The alchemist, usually usually represented figure, worked The alchemist, represented as as aa male figure, worked in in relation to another person person (sometimes (sometimes real, real, sometimes sometimes an an imaginary imaginary figure), figure), called called the soror mystica, the mystica, mystical is to say, say, the the alchemist alchemist needed needed an an mystical sister. sister. That That is with whom whom to relate relate to get get his his work done at at all. all. There There would would be no 'other' with therapist may be be therapist without without the the client. client. The The alchemist's alchemist'suse useof of an an 'other' 'other' may called the 'mirror compared with what what Lacan Lacan (1949/1977) ( 1 949/ 1 977) called 'mirror stage' stage'of ofdeveldevel­ opment and to an to Winnicott's Winnicott's emphasis emphasis (1967) ( 1 967) on the mother's mother's reflection reflection to an of his or her own worth. (See (See Papadopoulos Papadopoulos 1984, 1 984, 2002 2002 for a groundground­ infant of breaking review review of 'the Other' Other' in inJungian Jungianpsychology.) psychology.) hreaking of the the theme theme of 'the Putting these perspectives perspectives together, see how howalchemy alchemy does does Putting these together, one one can see manage to straddle straddle the the divide dividebetween between intrapsychic intrapsychic and andinterpersonal interpersonal manage dimensions many of of the the key keyterms termsof ofalchemy alchemy dimensions of therapeutic process process and many find resonance in therapists who lind who feel feel comfortable with with such such aa wide wide deploydeploy­ alchem ical mcnt example, the vas or sealed alchemical ment of one particular metaphor. metaphor. For example, vessel containing aspects aspects of of the the frame frame within within which wh ich vessel puts puts one one in in mind of the containing important alchemical alchemical symbolic symbolic t hcrapy is constructed. constructed. The coniunctio, coniunctio, an important therapy sexual intercourse intercourse between and aawoman, woman, refers refers metameta­ i m a ge of sexual image between aa man man and phorically to the the deep deep and andpervasive pervasive intermingling intermingling of ofthe the two twopersonalities personalit ies phorically p ic t s in in involved in therapy. At the the same same time, time, the the image image of of the the conium'fio involved coniunctio de depicts 01 d ramatic form form the the movements movements between between parts parts of ofthe theunconscious unconsciouspsyches psyc he s of dramatic hot h therapist t h e ra pist and and client client (Figure ( Figure8.1). 8 . 1 ). both various stages stages of of the the alchemical alchemical process process suggest suggest to t o aa therapist t herapistaspects aspcd s The various t he therapeutic t herape u t ic process: process: /i'r/l/('//fafio. somet h i ng is is brewing b re win g up l i p as as of the frrmeniatio, when when something

T ransferen ce/cou ntertransference 187 1 87 Transference/countertransference

Figure Figure B. 8.11

the 'chemical' reactions reactions of the the therapy therapy process process get get under under way, way, involving involving the 'chemical' changes participants; nigredo, realisa­ changes in in both both participants; nigredo, aa darkening darkening of of mood and aa realisation the problems problems ahead, ahead, often often taking taking the the form form in in therapy therapy of ofaadepresdepres­ tion of of the sion after its its commencement; commencement; mortificatio sion occurring soon after mortificatio — something something must must die in the client ( i.e., change, wither away, shift) and probably in the the die in the client (i.e., change, wither away, shift) and probably in therapist as well before any healing or change is possible. This is but therapist as well before any healing or change is possible. This is but aa partial the parallels, parallels, intended whet the reader's appetite. For a a partial list list of of the intended to to whet the reader's appetite. ((For fuller treatment of the topic of alchemy see Samuels 1 989: 1 751 93; fuller treatment of the topic of alchemy see Samuels 1989: 175-193; Schwartz-Salant 995; and 12 by Stanton Marian Marlan in in this thisvolume.) volume.) Schwartz-Salant 11995; and Chapter Chapter 12 by Stanton The explicitly sexual nature of the illustrations to the Rosarium The explicitly sexual nature of the illustrations to the Rosarium may may puzzle to speak, speak, within within the the puzzle many many readers readerswho whohave havenot not grown grown up, up, so so to Jungian Sexuality, intercourse, Jungian world. Sexuality, intercourse, anatomy, anatomy, are all all intended intended to to be taken as for aspects aspects of ofpsychological psychological development. development. Hence Hence eros and and as metaphors for psychological in psychological transformation transformation are are connected. connected. But But what what does does 'eros' 'eros' mean mean in Jungian psychology and important Jungian psychology and why why is is an an understanding of the the term so important for understanding of of Jungian Jungian attitudes attitudes to to transference transference and and countercounter­ for an understanding transference? Rather Jung uses uses `eros' 'eros' in in aavariety varietyof ofways. ways. Sometimes Sometimes he he Rather like Freud, Jung equates with sexuality sexuality or eroticism ((CW C W 7: 1 6-43, written written as as equates eros eros with or eroticism 7: pars. pars. 16-43, relatively 1 943). More writes of of eros eros as as an anarchetypal archetypal relativelylate late as as 1943). More often, often, he he writes principle of psychological psychological functioning functioning — - connectedness, connectedness, relatedness, har­ principle of relatedness, harmony named for for Eros Eros the the lover lover of ofPsyche Psyche and and son son of ofAphrodite. Aphrodite. mony and and named Sometimes as aa 'feminine' 'feminine' principle principle and and Sometimes the the principle principle of of eros eros is is referred referred to to as tthis h i s implies implies aa complementary complementary relationship relationship with with aa 'masculine' 'masculine' principle, principle, os thethe word. rationality.logic, logic,intellect, intellect,achievement). achievement). Jung's Jung's use use of of log logos word, rationality, ''masculine' 'feminine' is is of of course course problematic problematic and and this this becomes becomes mascu l ine' and and 'feminine' ma rked when he assigns assigns eros to females fema ics more h a n to to males. ma les. Setting Set t i ng that t ha t marked when he eros to more tthan -

1188 88 Andrew And rewSamuels Sam uels

T ransference/countertransference 189 1 89 Transference/countertransference

I

fiery argument argument on on one side for a moment fiery moment (but (but see see Rowland Rowland2002; 2002; Samuels Samuels 92-122 fordiscussion discussionofofthe thematter), matter),the thepoint point for for us us here 11989: 989: 921 22 for here is that

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transference countertransference dynamicsand and understandings cannot be trans ference-countertrans ference dynamics understandings cannot be insulatedffrom eros. Later, Later, in in a section insulated rom eros. section on on sexual sexual misconduct, misconduct, I raise raise the the -

question of therapeutic work being conducted in reaction and and over-reaction over-reaction to a fear to fear of of committing committing sexual sexual misconduct misconduct so that there there is is aadeficit deficit of oferos eros therein, rather than therein, than the the better-known better-known problem problem of ofthere therebeing beingan anexcess. excess.

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Once we we heed heed Jung's Jung's dictum dictum that that the therapist is 'in' Once 'in' the the therapy therapyas as much much as as the client client is, is, it is possible to to begin the is possible begin to theorise about about what what this this might mightmean. mean. Jungian analysis and therapy has functioned for many many years years as a laboratory laboratory in which which the practitioner's role has in has been been scrutinised scrutinised more thoroughly thoroughly than than in other in other schools schools of ofdepth-psychological depth-psychological therapy. therapy. As As mentioned mentioned earlier, earlier, therapy is is more therapy more than than aarelational relational process. process. Each Each participant participant has has inside inside unconscious—consciousdynamic dynamic or or relationship. This themselves a ceaseless ceaseless unconscious-conscious This means that in aa consideration means consideration of of the the therapeutic therapeutic process process one has at at least least three important relations the interactive three relations to to consider consider — - the interactive one, one, and and the the two two internal ones. Critically, Critically, all three are are going going on on simultaneously. simultaneously. all three Being therapy also also emphasises emphasises the woundedness woundedness of of the the therapist. therapist. Being 'in' 'in' the therapy When of 'the 'the wound wound healer', healer', there thereisismore moreinvolved involved When referring referring to to the idea of than the than the ordinary ordinary idea idea that that therapists therapists are are damaged damaged persons persons who who have have hecome unconscious reasons become therapists therapists for for good good unconscious reasons of of their their own. own. The The idea idea of the wounded healer implies implies that the the therapist therapist must must be be wounded, wounded, recognise recognise that, and and do dosomething something constructive constructive stemming stemming from from those those wounds wounds in in that, relation to the the client. client. Although Although the notion notion is is present present in in Jung, Jung, the the contemcontem­ relation writer who who has has best best expressed expressed this this phenomenon phenomenon is is the thepsychoanalyst psychoanalyst porary writer l I a rold Searles Searles (1975) ( 1 975) in his seminal seminal paper 'The patient as as therapist therapist to tohis his liarold in his analyst'. analyst'. Searles Searlesreminds remindsususthat that healing healingor or helping helpingothers othersisis aa part part of men tal health. Hence, when client, the the therapist therapist will will be be mental health. Hence, when working working with with a client, aware that the aware the client client needs needs opportunities opportunities to to help help or orheal healthe thetherapist therapist— wi thout such such opportunities, opportunities, a crucial crucial part of of the the client's client's potential potential cannot cannot without deVelop. wounded so so as as to to provide provide aapractice practice develop. The The therapist therapist cannot cannot 'play' wounded opportunity for for healing healing on the the part part of ofthe the client; client; he he or or she she really really has has to to be be wou nded. And, And, logically logically as well well as psychologically, psychologically, the has to to be be wounded. the therapist has opcn to t o the t he possibility possibility of ofreally really being being healed healed by by the the client clientwhich which may maymean mean open that the the client's client's perceptions, perceptions, far farfrom frombeing being 'transference 'transference accepting at depth that project ions', may be accurate. In In that that earlier earlier example example about about the the client client who who projections', feels his may not not reach reach an an insight insight about ahout feels his therapist therapist hates hates him, him, the therapist may h a t e within w i t h i n him him towards towards the the client client that that may maytruly trulybe bepresent presentwithout w i thout the hate himself whom the e1ient of in his his personal personal history h i st ory or or in in IIsking himself asking client reminds him of h i s present pn'senl circumstances, l' i rclI msta nccs, or is that t h a i he h eenvies en vies in i n the t heclient. clie n t . his or what iti t is

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Jung the synthesis synthesis of the relational relational and and internal internal Jung presented presented his his ideas ideas on on the of the dimensions of therapy in the form of a diagram and many Jungian analysts, dimensions of therapy in the form of a diagram and many Jungian analysts, including refined his (see Figure Figure 8.2). 8.2). including myself, myself, have have refined his diagram diagram (see Arrow and client, client, Arrow 1I indicates the the conscious connection connection between therapist therapist and where social linkages where we we can can see see the the treatment treatment alliance alliance and and the the social linkages that that make therapy that Jung's Jung's insistence insistence that that analysis analysis be be carried carried out out therapy possible. possible. II think think that face-to-face, face-to-face,whether whethertaken takenliterally literallyor or more more metaphorically metaphoricallyas as aa kind kind of humane than at at first first humane principle, principle, means means this this arrow arrow is is much much more more important than seems that seems to to be be the the case. case. This This is is the the locale locale for for confrontation confrontation with with the the other that was the heart heart of ofany anytherapeutic therapeutic encounter, encounter, was mentioned mentioned earlier earlier and and sits sits at at the whether think it it is is an an important important tenet tenet of of whether in in aa consulting consultingroom roomor or not. not. II think Jungian addition to the the members members of of the the Jungian analysis analysisand and therapy therapy that, that, in in addition nuclear client can also be be the the therapist's therapist'sally, ally, enemy, enemy, supervisor, supervisor, nuclear family, family, the the client can also therapist, fellow citizen, occasion, soul soul mate. mate. therapist, fellow citizen, master/mistress master/mistress and, and, on occasion, Arrows transference projections from from the the unconscious unconscious of of Arrows 22 and and 33 refer to transference therapist client onto onto the theconsciously consciously perceived perceived figure of the other. other. The The therapist and client therapist her wounded wounded parts parts onto onto the the client. client. The The client client therapist projects projects his his or or her projects her healthy/healer healthy/healer parts parts onto onto the thetherapist. therapist. These Thesebenign benign projects his his or or her projections be the the way way that that therapist therapist and and client client come come to to projectionsseem seemto to me me to to be recognise and client. client. Without Without these these projections, projections, recognise each each other other qua qua therapist therapist and would not be the the heightening heightening of of relational relational tension tension that that makes makes the the there there would not be ttherapeutic hcra peu t ic encounter some difficult difficult to define way way different different from from an an encounter in in some to define ord inary relationship. rel a t ionship. ordinary

1190 90 Andrew And rewSamuels Sam uels

Transference/countertransference 1 91 Transference/countertransference 191

But what what happens happens in in arrows arrows 22 and and 3 But 3 rests rests to aa great great extent extent on on what what happens in in arrows arrows 44 and 5. the therapist's connection 5. Arrow 44 signifies signifies the connection to happens his or her personal his personal wounds. wounds. This This should should not be be limited limited to to whatever whatever has has gone on in the analyst's gone analyst's personal analysis analysis (though it is is significant significant that, as noted, it was Jung who 4: Freud (1912) ( 1 9 1 2) noted, who was was the the first first to to call call(in (in1913 1 9 1 3 — CW 4: par. 536) 536) for compulsory training analyses, analyses, now aa feature feature of ofalmost almostevery every psychotherapy training training in in some some form form or or other). other). Rather, we psychotherapy we are referring referring to the therapist's whole apperception of of his or her her life. life. Arrow 55 is is intended intended to to refer to to the client's client's gradual gradual understanding of his or her potential to refer to be be other other than a client. needs to to get client. The client client needs get in touch, over time, time, with with his his or her her healthy/healer parts, not only to be able to project them onto the therapist healthy/healer parts, not only to be able them therapist as part of of an an idealising idealising transference. transference. For there is also the important issue issue I mentioned earlier — helping and healing others as part of mental health. mentioned - helping and healing others as of mental health. Arrow 66 indicates Arrow indicates the theunderlying underlyingunconscious unconsciousconnections connections between between therapist and client; client; this this is is the the level level of ofrelationship relationshipwhose whose existence existence makes makes the idea that that countertransference countertransference is is usable usable in in the theclient's client'sservice servicepossible possible in in the first place. (See (See the discussion about this, this, above.) above.) -

Some connection S o m e specific spec ifi c issues i s s u e s in c onnecti on with with transferencetransference­ countertransference c o u ntertransference In the remainder remainder of ofthe the chapter, chapter,1I focus focuson onsome somespecific specific issues. issues. These These are: are: •

•

•

• • • • •

•

•

how transference-countertransference dynamics sexual how transference-countertransference dynamicscan can lead lead to sexual misconduct on of therapists therapists misconduct on the part of transference and countertransference transference countertransference in in supervision supervision illness in in the the transference illness transference and, in particular, particular, the the countertransference countertransference power issues issues in connection connection with with transference transference and andcountertransference countertransference power with reference to to transcultural situations with special special reference situations transpersonal aspects aspects of of transference-countertransference. transference-countertransference.

In the section section on alchemy, alchemy, II included In included the the woodcut woodcut from from the the Rosarium Rosarium that 1110st which the the therapeutic therapeutic relationship relationshipisis most graphically illustrates the way in which ua kind kind of of marriage marriage with with many many features features in in common common with with such such an an intense intense and and ull-encompassing saying that Jungian Jungian analysts analysts all-encompassing relationship. relationship. It It goes goes without saying and therapists do not not intend intend their their deployment deployment of ofsuch such an an image image to to be be taken taken as offering offering anything other than than aametaphorical, metaphorical, as asopposed opposedtotoconcrete, concrete, as the nature nature of oftherapeutic therapeutic work. work. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, in in Jungian Jungian anaana­ comment on the l ysis and therapy, as as well well as in in other other approaches approaches to topsychotherapy, psychotherapy,incomincom­ lysis oj" petence and inexperience in handling and and understanding understanding processes processes of petence and inexperience in handling t ra n s f erence and countertransference do lIIiSCOI/­ transference and countertransference do sometimes sometimes lead lead to to s('xuol sexual misconduct the part part of ofthe thetherapist. therapist.This Thisphenomenon phenomenon must musthe beexpressed expressed in III duct on the sllch aa way ' sexualmisconduct misconduct on o n the part of the beca llse, no IIll such way 'sexual the therapist' therapist' because, mat ter how how willing wi l l i ng the client client might he be to t o enter entl'r into i n t oaasexual sex ualrelationship relat ionsh i p matter

with now understood that, despite despite rationalisations to with the the therapist, therapist, it it is is by now the all marriages, it is the responsibility the effect effect that that there there are transferences in all of in aa continent continent way. way. of the the therapist therapist to conduct the therapy in That earlier, there is a problem problem which which is the mirror mirror image image That said, as I hinted earlier, of of sexual sexual misconduct misconduct when when the the therapeutic therapeutic relationship relationship is is overly overly deprived deprived of of some 'erotic' content content — - meaning some kind kind of 'erotic' meaning something something in in the the areas areas of warmth, intimacy, than overt overtsexual sexual expression. expression. We We must must intimacy, intensity intensity and and trust rather than learn recognise erotic deficit deficit in as well well as erotic excess excess (and the the learn to recognise in therapy as same in families families as as well, well, see see Samuels Samuels 2001: 200 1 : 101-121). 1 0 1 - 1 2 1 ). It is is same will will be be true in therefore considerations of transference transference and countertrans­ therefore desirable desirable that that considerations and countertransference psychological explorations 'sexual ference continue continue to to incorporate psychological explorations of of the 'sexual chemistry' chemistry' or or lack lack of itit of of the the participants. participants. Post-Jungian writers (e.g., (e.g., Rutter Rutter 11989), 989), have among have been been explicit explicit in in raising raising these issues issues because because of a tendency among Jungian generations (now greatly reduced the point point Jungian analysts analysts of earlier generations (now greatly reduced to the where more serious serious than any other other school school of of where the the problem problemisis no no more than in in any psychotherapy) to ignore the pitfalls and and dangers dangers of of rendering rendering concrete concrete what what needed level. It was no accident that among among the the needed to to stay on the metaphorical level. earliest features of the transference noted by Freud, it was the sexual and earliest features of the transference noted by it was the sexual and loving caused the the greatest greatest difficulties difficulties whether whether of of management management loving aspects aspects that that caused or understanding. No No discussion discussion of oftransference-countertransference transference-countertransference should should overlook this segment of the theme and, given the relationship between overlook this segment theme and, given the relationship between sexual is sexual misconduct misconduct and and professional professional ethics, ethics, itit has has become become clear clear that that there there is an ethical aspect to work that involves an understanding of or working with an ethical aspect to work that involves an understanding of or working with transference-countertransference (see Solomon Solomon 2000). 2000). transference-countertransference dynamics (see M oving on, specific topic Moving on, the second specific topic II would would like like to to address address is how the transference-countertransference be transference-countertransferencedynamics dynamicsofofthe thetherapy therapy couple couple may may be addressed of course, course, would would be be for for the the supervisee supervisee addressed in in supervision. supervision. One One way, way, of simply material to to the the supersuper­ simply to to present present the transference-countertransference material visor, her understandings understandings to to those those already already developed developed visor, who who would would add add his or her by Another way, way, which which II think think represents represents the the state stateof ofthe thefield field at at by the the worker. Another the time, is is for for the the supervisor supervisor and and supervisee supervisee to to accept accept that that what what is is the present present time, happening in their their relationship relationship parallels parallels what what is is happening happening in in the the therapeutic therapeutic happening in relationship. relationship. Sometimes parallel parallel process process takes takes the the form form of of aa straight parallel between transference developed the between the the transference developedby by the the supervisee superviseeinin relation relation to to the supervisor the countertransference countertransference of ofthe the supervisor supervisor to to the the supervisee. supervisee. At At supervisor and and the other times, the situation situation will will be much much more more fluid fluid and and the the relational relational and and other times, intrapsychic and supersuper­ intrapsychic themes, feelings, images images passing passing between supervisor supervisor and visee what it it visee will willhave have to to be be scanned scanned in in more more general general terms terms so so as as to to elucidate elucidate what is reflect in terms of of the the transference-countertransference transference-countertransference dynamics dynamics of of is they they reflect in terms the 'officia l' case. case. the 'official' The theory behind behind this this approach approach to to supervision supervision is is that, that, when when one one affecaffec­ The theory tively rged relationship relationship is is present present within within another anotheraffectively affectively charged charged tively cha charged relat ionshi p ((for ustration of of relationship for whatever whatever reason, reason, supervision supervision being being but but one one ill illustration Ithe he genera t here will wi I I he be aan n overflow of tent and dyna mics generalI phenomenon), phenomenon), there of con content and dynamics

Transfe ren ce/countertransference 193 1 93 Transference/countertransference

1192 92 Andrew And rewSamuels Samuels

of one into into another. another. This has led led to to the thephenomenon phenomenon in in Jungian Jungian and and other professional professional circles of of case case discussion discussion groups groups in inwhich whichtransferencetransference­ countertransference case under under discussion discussion are are countertransferencedynamics dynamicspertaining pertainingto to aa case recognised the case case recognised and and elucidated by reference reference to to what is happening happening within the discussion 97 5 for full account account of of the the discussion group group itself. itself. (See (SeeMattinson Mattinson 11975 for aa full 'reflection process' `reflection process' in supervision.) Regarding next specific specific aspect aspect of of transference transference and and countertransfercountertransfer­ Regarding the next ence, the idea idea that thatthere thereare aregenuine genuinerisks risksinvolved involved in in ence, II would like to float the even physical working and even working with with this this material material in in terms terms of the psychological and ofthe the individuals individuals involved. involved. Here, thinking particularly particularly of ofillness illness Here, II am thinking health of in the countertransference countertransference and of the vulnerability of the therapist. Later, Later, II will power of of the the therapist. therapist. Though Thoughmany manyexperienced experienced pracprac­ will discuss discuss the the power titioners about this thisaspect aspectofoftransference-countertransference, transference-countertransference, not not titioners know about much has been been written written about its its role role in in the theproduction productionofofillness. illness. TheraThera­ much has peutic exceedingly stressful both are are peutic work work is exceedingly stressfulfor for both both participants participants and and both subjected the usual usual range range of ofstress-related, stress-related, psychogenic psychogenic and and psychosopsychoso­ subjected to the matic illnesses, illnesses, ranging and the theskeleton skeleton ranging from from disorders of the musculature and (the back' so so many manytherapists therapists suffer suffer from) from) to toheart heartdisease, disease, arthritis arthritis (the 'bad back' and some cancers. cancers . Not nearly nearly enough enough research research has has been been done done into into and,, maybe, some this topic but, but, in in the the intense intense states states of ofmutual mutualpersecution persecution and and mutual mutual this topic longing that that can can arise arise within within the thetransference-countertransference transference-countertransference relationrelation­ longing sship h ip there there may may lie lie some some seeds seeds of of illness. illness. Recognising Recognising this this phenomenon phenomenon and and working it through may offer very valuable experiences for therapist and working through may offer very valuable experiences for therapist and client. Clients are by definition vulnerable; let us not not forget forget the thevulnerability vulnerability of the therapist in in which which the permeability of of his or or her her ego ego boundaries boundaries that that permitted the transference transference projection to penetrate also contributes to a real projection a real and sometimes awful suffering caused by the projection . and sometimes awful suffering caused by the projection. reference to transcultural transcultural The fourth fourth specific specific issue with reference power, with The issue was was power, generally, psychotherapygenerally, inpsychotherapy manyin and many trainings, and analytical trainings, Most analytical uations. Most sit situations. an is an power is fact, power power. In fact, sufficient attention pay sufficient not pay do not attention to questions of power. uhiquitous element in therapy (and (and sexual sexual misconduct misconduct may may additionally additionally be be ubiquitous element the ofthe transference of the transference from the deriving from power deriving ofpower abuse of understood as as an abuse understood client). the liberally liberally minded minded people people who who tend tend to to become become client). It is tempting, for the m i nd s unconsciousminds andunconscious conscious and theconscious inthe that,in idea that, the idea at the herapists, to balk at ttherapists, he can he power can this power exceedingly powerful, are exceedingly they are clients, they their clients, of their powerful, that that this 'Terrihk being'Terrible frombeing far from experienced experienced as as malign malign as as well well as as benign, benign, and that, far M ot hers' or 'Archetypal 'Archetypal Fathers' in in the the transference, transference, they they are are closer closer to to Mothers' h ierarchy . social hierarchy. ofsocial arbiters of n g experienced hei being experienced as as torturers, torturers, jailers jailers or or cruel arbiters whcn terms, when succinct terms, ( i nsuccinct therapy (in t o therapy element to transcultural element When When there there iiss a transcultural the ra pis t ) the therapist), to the cultural/ethnic background different cultural/ethnic is from a different i e n t is he cl tthe client background to tthese hese power dynamics intersect with transference-countertransference transference-countertransference issues iSSUL" in transferred in be transferred might be what might hewiklcringly complicated ill in a bewilderingly complicated manner. manner. For what a from a t herapy from receiving therapy group, receiving he else tthe case of of aa person from aa minority ethnic group, persoll t he majority major i t y ethnic e t h n i c group gro u p in in aa locale, loca le, is is the t heformer's fonner's entire e n t i re person or of the .

experience t is not aa experienceof ofliving livingunder underthe thesway swayof of the the majority majorityculture. culture.I It is not personal 'group transference' transference' but but the theexperiences experiences personal transference, transference, more more of a 'group will also also have been highly personal, maybe will maybe involving involving prejudice, prejudice, discriminadiscrimina­ tion humiliation. How How could could such suchexperiences experiences not not lead, lead, in insome somecases, cases, tion and humiliation. to the expectation expectation of aa repeat repeat performance performance in in therapy? therapy? Nor Nor are are these these to the transferences sense of of being being perennial perennial and and typical typical transferences'archetypal', 'archetypal',inin the the sense because transferences (and the theconcomitant concomitantcountertransferences countertransferences because such such transferences involving the therther­ involving unconscious unconsciousand and conscious conscious assumptions assumptionson on the the part part of the apist about aa member member of of such-and-such such-and-such an ethnic ethnic or or national national group) group) apist about originate social organisation and the the time-bound time-bound political political arrangements arrangements originate in in social within society. within a society. The specific aspect of of transference-countertransference transference-countertransference II wanted to to The last specific discuss was was the the transpersonal discuss ways to approach approach transpersonal aspect. aspect. There There are are many many ways this topic which, which, until until recently, recently, with the rise rise of of aa transpersonal transpersonal strand strand this topic with the within humanistic and integrative integrative psychotherapy, was a field field in in which which the the within humanistic Jungian presence was overwhelming. overwhelming. The of relational relational energy energy in in Jungian presence The intensity of a transference-countertransference transference-countertransference situation situationdoes does give give the the participants aa sense involved in in an ordinary ordinary relarela­ sense of of accessing accessing something something beyond beyond what what is involved tionship. Clearly, one has to to conceptualise conceptualise this this with with great great caution caution lest lest one one be be seduced into an infl a ted assessment of what therapy is capable of. seduced into an inflated assessment of what therapy is capable of. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, there there isisundoubtedly undoubtedly aa relational relational dimension dimension that that adheres to the transference-countertransference dynamic that is 'larger' than in an ordinary ordinary transference-countertransference dynamic that is personal relationship. Some, including myself, would argue that this isis personal relationship. Some, including myself, would argue that this indeed to the the divine. divine. More More sceptical sceptical indeed aa simulacrum and a reprise of a relation to and rationalist readers may find this of view view off-putting this point of off-putting but but numerous writers 1 995) have writers (e.g., (e.g., Ulanov Ulanov 1995) have offered offered their their own own narratives narratives of of how how the therapy conversation moves, seemingly of its own volition, in transpersonal transpersonal conversation moves, and 'spiritual' directions directions when when the the intensity intensity of ofthe thetransference-countertransference-counter­ and 'spiritual' transference resisted. What interesting is the transference dynamic dynamic isis not not unduly unduly resisted. What is interesting is that the same phenomena— - transference-countertransference transference-countertransference dynamics dynamics— same clinical phenomena origins and roots and forwards lead lead backwards backwards to origins forwards to to an an enhanced practical spirituality in therapy. therapy. The The alchemists alchemists did did spirituality accessible accessible by by both both participants in illustrations their their work work in in aa laboratorium laboratorium and and contemporary pictures and illustrations show cell recognisable If the the alchemist alchemist is show us us aa room room or cell recognisableas asaamodern modern 'lab' lab'.. If is a medical then one onecan cansee seethe theclients clientsreceiving receiving medical alchemist alchemist (or (or 'iatrochemist'), iatrochemise), then or waiting to receive receive their their treatments. But the the alchemists alchemists also also prayed prayed for for the success anotherroom room— - an oratorium success of of their their work in another oratorium and and written above the door they posted the words Deo concedente - God willing. Deo concedente God willing. Mention divine intervention intervention leads leads to to the thefollowing followingconcluding concluding Mention of of divine tthought: hought: in in our concern concern for for the the less less obvious obvious aspects aspects of of the the analytical analytical relarela­ ttionship, iollsh ip, referred referred to as as transference-countertransference, transference-countertransference, and and clearly clearly the province he analyst to exaggerate exaggerate province of of tthe analyst as as an an expert, we should be careful not not to tthe he importance i mpor t a nce of of aa technical technical approach. appro ac h . An Anexaggeratedly exaggeratedly professional professional —

aaltitude l l i l lldL' not only o n ly misses misses the t he humanity h l l ma n i t y of of the t he analytical a n al y t ical encounter enco ullter but hut also a lso

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T ransferen ce/cou ntertransference 1195 95 Transference/countertransference

leads hubris or inflation inflation on the part of of the the analyst analyst that that can can leads to to a state of hubris on the injure she or or he he believes believes in. in. injure the work that she

References Dieckmann, ( 1 974) The countertransference', in Adler Dieckmann, H H.. (1974) 'The constellation constellation of of the countertransference', in G. Adler Analysis. New Putnam's Sons. Sons. (ed.) Success New York: York: G.P. G.P. Putnam's (ed.) Success and and Failure Failure in Analysis. Psychotherapy: A A Study Study in inAnalytical AnalyticalPsychology. Psychology. Fordham, M . (1978) ( 1 978) Jungian Jungian Psychotherapy: Fordham, M. Chichester: John Wiley. Wiley. Chichester: John ..--- (1979) ( 1 979) `The The self ofAnalytical Ana�vtical Psychology, Psychology, Journal of self as as an an imaginative imaginative construct' construct'.. Journal 24( 1 ) : 18-30. 1 8-30. 24(1): Freud, S. (1900) ( 1 900) The Edition 4 5. London: London: 4 and 5. The Interpretation Interpretation of' of Dreams. Dreams. Standard Edition

Hogarth Press. Hogarth Press. .( 1 9 10) 'The Thefuture futureprospects prospects of ofpsycho-analytic psycho-analytic therapy', in in Standard Edition 88.. -- (1910) London: Hogarth Hogarth Press. Press. ( 1 9 1 2) 'Recommendations 'Recommendations to to physicians physicians practising practising psycho-analysis', psycho-analysis', in in (1912) Standard Edition 112. 2. London: Press. London: Hogarth Press. Standard Edition 2. . - (1913) ( 1 9 1 3) The The disposition disposition to to obsessional obsessional neurosis', neurosis', in Standard Edition Edition 112. in Standard London: Press. London: Hogarth Press. ((1925) 1 925) An Autobiographical Study, London: Hogarth 20. London: An Autobiographical Study, in in Standard Standard Edition Edition 20. Press. H auke, C. (1996) ( 1 996) The child: development, development, archetype, archetype, and analytic analytic practice'. practice'. San Hauke, The child: Francisco 5( 1 ): 117-38. 7-·38. Francisco Jung Jung Institute Institute Library Library Journal, Journal, 115(1): f Feeling: oj' Psychotherapy. Psychotherapy. London Hobson, R. R. (1985) ( 1 985) Forms London and New Forms oof Feeling: The The Heart Heart of York: Tavistock. K i rsch, J. ( 1 995) Transference', Stein (ed.) (ed.) Jungian A nalysis. La Salle, IL: I L: Jungian Analysis. La Salle, Kirsch, J. (1995) 'Transference', in in M M.. Stein Open Court. f the I n ternational Universities Universities K ohut, H. H. (1971) ( 1 9 7 1 ) The New York: International Kohut, The Analysis Analysis oof the Self: Self. New Press. Press. Lacan, J. (1949/1977) ( 1 949/ 1 977) The the II as as Lawn, J. 'The mirror mirror stage stage as as formative formative of of the the function function of of the revealed psychoanalytic experience', Sheridan. London: London: trans. A. Sheridan. revealed in in psychoanalytic experience', in in Ecrits, Ecrits, trans. Tavistock. Reflection Process Casework Supervision. Supervision. London: Mattinson, ( 1 975) The The Reflection Process in Casework Mattinson, J.J. (1975) Institute of of Marital Marital Studies. Studies. and Fine, Fine, B. B. (eds) (eds) (1990) ( 1 990) Psychoanalytic Concepts. New Moore, New Psychoanalytic Terms Terms and and Concepts. Moore, 8 B.. and Haven, Yale University U niversity Press. Press. I laven, CT CT and London: Yale Papadopoulos, 1 984) 'Jung the concept of the Other', in in R. R. Papadopoulos Papadopoulos Papadopoulos, R. R. ((1984) lung and the and G. G. Saayman Saayman (eds) (eds) Jung in Modern Modern Perspective. Perspective. London: Wildwood. ((1998) 1 99R) 'Jungian Casement (ed.) (ed . ) Po.l l­ Post`Jungian perspectives perspectivesininnew newcontexts', contexts',in in A. A. Casement JI/Ilgiat/.l· Today: Key Papers Contemporary Analytical Psychology. and Jungians Today: Papers in Contemporary Psychology. London and New Routledge. New York: York: Routledge. ((2002) 2002 ) The subjugates the familiar familiar other'. `The other other other: other: when when the exotic exotic other subjugates J/II//'I/al 0(Analytical Analytical Psychology, Psychology, 47(2): 1 63- 1 88. Journal of 47(2): 163-188. C. (1997) ( 1 997) Transference', Young-Eisendrath and Dawson (eds) (cds) 'IThe II . Perry, l'erry, C. 'Transference', in in P. P. Young-Eisendrath and T. T. Dawson '(/II/hrh��(' (('ompanion '/llI/flat/ion to (Cambridge University Press. Cambridge: Cambridge Cambridge University to Jung. Jung. Cambridge: I{ . (19911 ( 1 99 1 ) T ra n s feren ce as A .I'.wII'illlioll.l' .1 5 : 56 67 . Pl'll'rs, Free Associations, 35: 56 67. Peters, R. 'Transference as aa fetish'. fetish'. Free

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Plaut, A. (1956) ( 1956) 'The transference in with Plaut, A. 'The transference in analytical analytical psychology', psychology', in in M M.. Fordham with others (eds) (eds) ((1974) Techniquein in Jungian Jungian Analysis. Analysis. London: others 1 974) Technique London: Heinemann. Plaut, A A.. ((1970) `Comment:on onnot not incarnating incarnating the the archetype', archetype', in in M. Plaut, 1970) 'Comment: M. Fordham Fordham with with others (eds) others (eds) ((1974) 1 974) Technique nalysis. London: Techniquein in Jungian Jungian A Analysis. London: Heinemann. Rowland, S. (2002) Jung: Rowland, Feminist Revision. Revision. Cambridge: Jung: A Feminist Cambridge: Polity. Rutter, P. (1989) Rutter, ( 1 989) Sex Forbidden Zone. Unwin. Sex in the Forbidden Zone. London: London: Unwin. Samuels, 1 980) 'Fragmentary 1 5-225. Samuels, A. A. ((1980) 'Fragmentary vision: vision:aacentral central training training aim'. aim'. Spring: Spring: 2215-225. —( (1985) 1 985) Jung Post-Jungians. London Jung and the Post-Jungians. London and Boston, MA: Routledge and Kegan Kegan Paul. (1989) ( 1 989) The The Plural Plural Psyche: Psyche: Personality. Personality, Morality Morality and and the the Father. Father. London London and New York: Routledge. New Routledge . (1993) ( 1 993) The New York: York: Routledge. Routledge. The Political Political Psyche. Psyche. London and New (2001) (200 I ) Politics Couch: Citizenship and the Internal Life. Life. London: Profile; Politics on the Couch: London: Profile; New York: York: Other Press. New Press. Schwartz-Salant, ( 1 984) 'Archetypal underlying sexual acting-out in in the the Schwartz-Salant, N. N. (1984) 'Archetypal factors underlying transference/countertransference M. Stein Stein transference/countertransferenceprocess'. process'.ininN. N. Schwartz-Salant Schwartz-Salant and and M. (eds) Trans Transferencelcountertransference. ference/countertramj'erence. Wilmette, (eds) Wilmette, IL: IL: Chiron. ( 1 995) 'Introduction', ' Introduction', in N. N. Schwartz-Salant Schwartz-Salant (ed .) e. G. Jung on Alchemy. A lchemy. (1995) (ed.) C.G. Jung on London: NJ: Princeton Princeton University University Press. Press . London: Routledge; Princeton, NJ: Searles, 1 975) The patient as therapist therapist to to his his analyst', analyst', in inH. H.Searles Searles(1979) ( 1 979) Searles, H. H. ((1975) The patient Col/ected on Countertransference Countertransference and Related Subjects. Subjects. N ew York: York: Collected Papers Papers on and Related New International Universities Universities Press. Press. Sedgwick, 1 994) The Wounded Healer: Countertransf'erence ffrom rom aa Jungian Jungian Sedgwick, D. D. ((1994) The Wounded Healer: Countertransference New York: York: Routledge. Routledge. Per.lpective. Perspective. London London and New Solomon, (2000) The E. Christopher Christopher and and H. H. Solomon Solomon (eds) (eds) Solomon, H. H. (2000) 'The ethical ethical self', self', in E. Jungian Thought in Modern World. World. London: Association. Jungian Thought in the Modern London: Free Association. Strachey, ( 1 934) `The The nature of of the thetherapeutic therapeutic action actionofofpsychoanalysis'. psychoanalysis'. Strachey, J.J. (1934) International of Psycho-Analysis, Psycho-A nalysis, 115: 5 : 1127-159. 27- 1 59. International Journal of Symington, ( 1 986) The Analytic Experience: Experience: Lectures Lectures from the Tavistock. Tavistock. Symington, N. N. (1986) The Analytic from the London: Association. London: Free Association. Totton, (2000) Psychotherapy Sage. Totton, N. (2000) Psychotherapy and and Politics. Politics. London: London: Sage. Ulanov, ( 1 995) 'Spiritual Stein (ed.) (ed . ) Jungian Ulanov, A. A. (1995) `Spiritualaspects aspectsof of clinical clinicalwork', work', in in M M.. Stein Jungian Salle, IIL: L: Open Court. Analysis. Analysis. La La Salle, Williams, 1 963) The indivisibility of the personal personal and and collective collective unconscious', unconscious', Williams, M. M. ((1963) 'The indivisibility in M. Fordham Fordham with with others others (eds) (eds) (1973) ( 1 973) A nalytical Psychology: Modern in M. Analytical Psychology: A A Modern Science. London: Science. London: Heinemann. Winnicott, D. (1967) ( 1 967) ''Mirror Mirror role role of of mother mother and and family family in in child child development', development', in in D. D. Winnicott, D. Winnicott ( 1 97 1 ) Playing Winnicott (1971) Playing and and Reality. Reality. London: London: Tavistock. Cambridge Companion Companion to to Young-Eisendrath, Dawson, T. (eds) (eds) (1997) ( 1 997) The Young-Eisendrath, P. P. and and Dawson, The Cambridge Jung. University Press. Press. Jung. Cambridge: Cambridge: Cambridge University _. -

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Chapter 99 Chapter

Individuation Individuation Murray Stein Stein Murray

n troducti o n IIntroduction

leitmotiv, likeaaleitmotiv, writings, like Jung'swritings, through Jung's sounds through The theme of individuation sounds from the time time of his break with Freud and psychoanalysis onward without and psychoanalysis from pause to his death. psycho­ majorpsychohis major perhaps his is perhaps it is considered, it things considered, All things death. All pause logical idea, idea, aa sort sort of backbone backbone for the rest of the corpus. the corpus. logical book little book published little anonymously published esoteric, anonymously his esoteric, in his n troducing the term in IIntroducing in 1915, Septem Sermones Sermones ad ad Mortuos Mortuos ((Seven Sermonsto to the the Dead) Dead) in 1 9 1 5, Jung Seven Sermons Septem deepened and and expanded in begun in also begun work, also revised work, much revised the much in the expanded the idea in deepened Two Essays Essays on on Analytical Analytical Psychology Psychology ((CW 7) and in the period, Two the C W 7) same period, the same Psychological Types summary work of the the early early period, period, Psychological he 6). Later he C W 6). Types ((CW summary work added to the and archetypes and ofarchetypes studies of his studies in his notion in the notion substance to further substance added further especially clinically individuationclinically detailed individuation He detailed alchemy. He especially in his researches on alchemy. Dream Analysis, in an d Visions and Analysis, Visions seminars (Analytical Psychology, Dream his seminars in his (A nalytical Psychology, Nietzsche's an played an also played It also case studies. It several case in several as in well as aswell 'Zarathustra')as N ietzsche's 'Zarathustra') important role culture. and culture. religion and on religion writings on many writings his many in his role in Individuation was taken taken up up as aa central Jung's ofJung's all of nearly all by nearly theme by central theme Individuation was important students. Major contributions were made to the theory by important students. Major contributions were made to the theory by Fordham (1969), Neumann by Neumann and by children, and who studied individuation in children, ( 1 969), who (1955), who saw individuation each stages,each majorstages, threemajor in three unfolding in as unfolding individuation as ( 1 955), who containing several sub-phases. Hillman, a Jungian deconstructionist, has containing several sub-phases. H illman, a Jungian deconstructionist, has vigorously and general and ingeneral developmentin psychologicaldevelopment ofpsychological notionof the notion attacked the vigorously attacked individuation but nothing but are nothing ideas are such ideas that such view that holding aa view particular, holding individuation in particular, fantasies used to construct modern psychological myths. More recently. fa ntasies used to construct modern psychological myths. M orerecently, Jacoby i n d ividu­ ofindividutheoryof thetheory to the differentiation to and differentiation refinement and added refinement has added J m;o by has ation by introducing data from modern infant research. Samuels intro­ hasintroa t io n by introducing data from modern infant research. Samuelshas duced deba lL' Thedebate involvement. The andinvolvement. consciousness and politicalconsciousness ofpolitical feature of the feature d uced the goes �oes on. on. 1I nn th the following pages, pages, II present present a distillation J ungiall t heJungiann ofthe synthesisof andsynthesis distillation and e following tradition on the central theme of individuation, situating this particular t ra d i t io n on the central theme of individuation, situating t h is pa r t ic ul a rdisd is­ cussion wo r k i n F t heworking howthe s h o win ghow andshowing psychotherapy and of psychotherapy setting of clinical setting in the th eclinical clission in Jungian pral·til·l'. ideaini npractice. developmen t a lidea t h isdevelopmental l isethis mayuse ps yc hot h c ra p i s tmay J lI n�ianpsychotherapist

97 d ividuatio n 1197 I nIndividuation

When WhenJungian Jungian psychotherapists psychotherapists face face patients patients for for the the first first time, time, they they try try to to confession of confession size sizethem themup. up.One Onelistens listensto tothat that first first outpouring outpouring of of narrative, narrative, of suffer­ true sufferlike true sound like this sound Does this tone. Does or or complaint, complaint, with with an an ear ear cocked cocked to to tone. this s this thought? IIs cranky in feeling or blocked in person blocked this person ing, ing, or or is is this in feeling or cranky in thought? much too much shoulder too she shoulder someone someonewho whoblames blamesothers otherstoo too much, much, or or does does she active? Too active? passive? Too too passive? responsibility responsibility for for what what goes goes wrong? wrong? Is Is this this person person too therapists narrative, therapists first narrative, innocent first most innocent Within Within the the texture texture of of even even the the most fragility, entitlement, will will often often spot spot fragility, entitlement, emotional emotionalvulnerability vulnerabilityand andaa host host emotional own therapist's the In attitudes. and telling feelings of of other other telling feelings and attitudes. In the therapist's own emotional demand raging demand responses responses to to this this narrative, narrative, too, too, one one may may detect detect the the pull pull of of aa raging too creates that away pushing the opposite the or help, for for help, or the opposite — the pushing away that creates too great great aa therapeutic long a throughout indeed and sessions, first the In distance. distance. In the first sessions, and indeed throughout a long therapeutic their how their assessment of mental assessment evolving mental treatment, treatment, therapists therapists spin spin an an evolving of how themselves find they stage particular the at life with on carrying are patients patients are carrying on with life at the particular stage they find themselves and ones, and new ones, open new accounts, open old accounts, their old settle their to settle attempt to they attempt in in now, now, as as they stories. their elaborate elaborate their stories. psychological development, of psychological Jungian Jungian psychotherapists psychotherapists hold hold aa notion notion of development, of of psycho­ of psycholevels the about questions ourselves ask we and life', of 'stages `stages of life', and we ask ourselves questions about the levels of people the people by the offered by narratives offered logical logical development development demonstrated demonstrated in in the the narratives wonder we match, good a show discourse person's a Does us. to come who who come to us. Does a person's discourse show a good match, we wonder The attitudes? The psychological attitudes? and psychological age and chronological age between chronological instance, between for for instance, psychological of degree or level person's a of impression clinical full full clinical impression of a person's level or degree of psychological in formulate in to formulate observation to much observation development development takes takes many many sessions sessions and and much Individu­ individuation. achieved their of estimate an is It detail. and depth depth and detail. It is an estimate of their achieved individuation. Individupsychological fullpsychological forfull potentialfor person'spotential indicateaaperson's toindicate used to term used is aa term ation ation is Jung's of Jung's features the of some describe will I following, the In development. development. In the following, I will describe some of the features of for­ simplest its In potential. human the of estimate and vision complex complex vision and estimate of the human potential. In its simplest forconscious­ evolved and wholeness for capacity the is individuation mula, mula, individuation is the capacity for wholeness and evolved consciousin individuation in promoteindividuation topromote and to increase and to increase is to analysis is of analysis aim of ness. The ness. The aim patients. patients. individuation achieved individuation onachieved reflections on unspokenreflections therapist's unspoken Jungian therapist's The Jungian The and diagnosis a formulating of context general the within place take take place within the general context of formulating a diagnosis and patient's the is What development. psychological patient's a of assessment assessment of a patient's psychological development. What is the patient's there Is there role? Is illness play physical illness functioning? Does everyday functioning? level of level of everyday Does physical play aa role? promi­ feature considerations these Sometimes psychopathology? serious serious psychopathology? Sometimes these considerations feature promiall. atall. role at significant role nosignificant play no they play cases they othercases in other treatment; in the treatment; in the nently in nently the of business the is treatment guiding for importance their Determining Determining their importance for guiding treatment is the business of the con­ remain aa conconcerns remain these concerns while these even while psychotherapy, even of psychotherapy, sessions of early sessions early perspective clinical the from diagnosis as just And throughout. sideration sideration throughout. And just as diagnosis from the clinical perspective Disorders MentalDisorders ofMental Manual of Statistical Manual Diagnostic and standard Diagnostic the standard of the of and Statistical and Association and Psychiatric Association AmericanPsychiatric theAmerican by the devised by was devised this was ( DS M - I V : this (DSM-IV: evolv­ andevolvongoingand anongoing 2000)isisan revisedinin2000) edition,revised fo urthedition, i t sfourth i n its now in iti t isis now other, anyother, like any psychotherapist, like Jungianpsychotherapist, the whiehthe consideration which i n � consideration ing Jungian character variolls character t h e various anxiety. the depression, anxiety, majordepression, asmajor terms as s llch terms in such m a k es in makes

1198 98 Murray M u rray Stein Stei n



disorders, not not tto disorders, o mention mention addictions, addictions, relationship relationship and adjustment adjustment probprob­ lems, etc. etc. -—so so also also the the evaluation evaluation of individuation lems, individuation is is an an evolving evolving propro­ cedure and and ongoing estimation. It It is not cedure ongoing estimation. not always always so so clear clear exactly exactly where where a particular patient patient stands stands on on the particular the road road to to individuation individuation even even after after concon­ siderable time time has has been been spent siderable spent in in therapy, therapy, but but the theexperienced experienced Jungian Jungian psychotherapist will will have have aa strong strong sense sense of of the general general picture after even a psychotherapist few sessions. few This question question of of how how far far aa person This person has come come on the the road road toward toward indiindi­ viduation is is different different from from the usual types of viduation of diagnostic question raised raised in in psychologicalassessment, assessment,although althoughthey theyare arenot not unrelated, unrelated, as as II will will try try to psychological show in in the following pages. In In considering considering individuation, individuation, one has in mind show following pages. something more more encompassing something encompassing than only only cognitive cognitive development, development, behabeha­ vioural adjustment, adjustment,moral moral attainment, attainment,or or the the presence or absence vioural presence or absence of psychopathologicalfeatures. features.These Theseare areimportant important markers markers in in the psychopathological the comcom­ plexity that that constitutes individuation, but but they are not plexity constitutes individuation, not exhaustive. exhaustive. There There are other are other features features that that are are also alsodeterminative. determinative. The The assessment assessment of of individuation describes describes a person's conscious conscious and and unconscious unconscious assumptions assumptions and attitudes: and attitudes: about the the basis basis and and sources sources of ofidentity identity and andsense senseof ofselfself­ worth, about the worth, the quality quality and meaning meaning of of relationships relationships to other other people people and to the the world world at at large, large, about about the the energy energy (or (or the the absence absence of of it) it) poured poured into into personal striving striving and and ambition, personal ambition, about the the objects objects of of desire desire and and passions passions about the focus of that lead a person person into into the the highways highways and byways byways of life, life, about life's meaning. meaning. What What the the Jungian Jungian therapist life's therapist is looking looking for for in in making making an an assessment of of individuation individuation is is how aa person's assessment person's chronological chronological age age matches matches up with with the the level level of ofdevelopment development in in these theseconscious conscious and andunconscious unconscious assumptions and attitudes. To take the assumptions and attitudes. To the full full inventory inventory of of them them is is aalarge large aand nd complex study, which which includes includes transferential and countertransferential countertransferential sources sources of information. Of Of course, cultural factors factors must must also also be beconsidered considered in making a reasonably fair and accurate assessment of aa person's in making a reasonably fair and accurate assessment person's individuation. Jung himself, himself, who could could be be considered considered (Papadopoulos (Papadopoulos1992, 1 992, vol. vol. 2: 2: 97 97 to be the first important full lifespan theorist, wrote about two major 98) lJH) be the first important full lifespan theorist, wrote about two major stages of life, life, the first half half of of life life and and the the second. second. Each Eachstage stagehas hasits itstypical typical developmental developmental tasks, tasks, sequences sequences and crises. crises. A later later Jungian Jungian theorist, theorist, Erich Erich Neumann, conceptualised conceptualised the the lifelong lifelong development development of ofpersonality personalityas asfalling falling into three three major major eras eras or orphases. phases. Neumann's Neumann's paradigm, paradigm, which which does does not not contradict Jung's, Jung's, adds addsaauseful useful degree degree of offurther furtherdifferentiation differentiation to tothe thefirst first half of of life, life, and and Neumann's Neumann's model model isiswidely widely used used by byJungian Jungianpsychopsycho­ today. therapists today. Within Within the the linguistic linguistic universe universe of ofanalytical analytical psychology, psychology, the thelifelong lifelong development deVelopment of of personality personality is is called called individuation. individuation. Briefly Briefly stated, stated, individuindivid u­ ation i n n a tely at ion refers refers to to the theprocess process of ofbecoming becoming the the personality personality that thatone oneinnately fio/(,II/ia/(I' from from the t he beginning hcgi n n i n g of oflife. life. The Thcsequence sequenceofofdevelopmental developmen t a l is potentia//v is stages stages in in almost a l most every every individual's ind ivid l l a l 's life life has h a s common common features, fea t u res, hazards ha/.a rds and and

I Individuation n d ividuation 199 1 99

breakdowns. psychotherapist has has aa keen keen awareness awareness of of how how this this breakdowns. The The Jungian Jungian psychotherapist developmental reach developmentalsequence sequenceunfolds unfoldsideally ideallyand andhow howitit so so often often fails fails to to reach its destination due due to to genetic, genetic, circumstantial, circumstantial, social cultural its proper proper destination social and and cultural obstacles. differences between obstacles. There There are are also also some some important important differences between the the genders genders to to be considered. considered. be In summary, then, the patient patient arriving arriving for for Jungian Jungian psychotherapy psychotherapy is is In summary, then, the intuitively mind of of the thepsychotherapist, psychotherapist, intuitivelyand and clinically clinicallyassessed assessedinin the the mind generally and abnormal abnormal mental mental generallyagainst againstthe the DSM-IV DSM-IV standards standards of of normal normal and and psychological states specifically against perspectives of the and psychological states and and specifically against the the perspectives of the individuation in the the Jungian literature (see (see individuation process process as as this this has has been been outlined outlined in Jungian literature the Most likely likely this the bibliography bibliography for for aa selection selection of of key key works works on on this this topic). topic). Most this assessment is ititdiscussed discussed assessmentnever neverbecomes becomesapparent apparenttoto the the patient, patient, nor nor is explicitly. guide interpretations, interpretations, to to explicitly. ItIt is, is, however, however, used used by by the the therapist therapist to to guide make establish and maintain the the structure structure of of therapy. therapy. make interventions, interventions, and and to to establish and maintain M uch of therapist's style style in in aa specific specific case Much of the the therapist's case depends depends on on this this assessment assessment of of where of individuation. individuation. where the the patient patient stands stands on on the road of In the following following pages will survey three main main stages stages of of the the indiindi­ In the pages II will survey the the three viduation major crises crises periods, and its its ultimate ultimate goal. goal. The The viduation process, process, its its two two major periods, and efforts therapy are are fundamentally fundamentally geared geared toward toward promoting promoting and and efforts made made in in therapy facilitating, unblocking and and restarting, restarting, the the individuation individuation process process facilitating, or or toward toward unblocking in patients. The The three three stages stages of of individuation individuation are, are, first, first, the the containment/ containment! in patients. nurturance i.e., the the maternal, maternal, or or in in Neumann's Neumann's terminology terminology the the matrimatri­ nurturance ((i.e., archal) usting (i.e., ( i .e., the paternal, or, or, again again in in archal) stage, stage, second, second, the the adapting/adj adapting/adjusting the paternal, Neumann's terminology, the third, the the centring/ centring/ Neumann's terminology, the patriarchal) patriarchal) stage, stage, and and third, integrating in Neumann's Neumann's terminology, terminology, the the individual) individual) stage. stage. (These (These can can be be integrating ((in coordinated with Erik Erikson's seven stages of psychological development, coordinated with Erik Erikson's seven stages of psychological development, first 1 950.) The two major major crises crises of of individuation individuation fall fall in in the the first published published in in 1950.) The two transitions between these stages, the first in adolescence and early adult­ transitions between these stages, the first in adolescence and early adulthood and the the second second at at midlife. midlife. These three stages should thought of of not not as asdiscrete discrete and andentirely entirely These three stages should be be thought separate rooms that are inhabited for a period of time and then left behind separate rooms that are inhabited for a period of time and then left behind when one enters the next chamber, or as a specifi c number of miles on life's when one enters the next chamber, or as a specific number of miles on life's journey never to be trodden again once passed through. Rather, they indi­ journey never to be trodden again once passed through. Rather, they indicate emphases emphases and cate and predominant predominant attitudes attitudesduring duringthe the major major eras eras of of aa person's life. They are stages of growth and development that shade person's life. They are stages of growth and development that shade gradually from the next, next, and and features features of of each each continue, gradually from one one into into the continue, but but in in aa less predominant way, as a person makes the passage through a whole less predominant way, as a person makes the passage through a whole lifetime. rst stage the second second to to early early and and middle middle lifetime. The The fifirst stage refers refers to to childhood, childhood, the adulthood, and the third to middle and late adulthood and old age. This adulthood, and the third to middle and late adulthood and old age. This view of the lifeline is a tool for psychotherapy, useful if applied with a deft view of the lifeline is a tool for psychotherapy, useful if applied with a deft touch but damaging if handled too concretely and with blunt force. It touch but damaging if handled too concretely and with blunt force. It isis aa perspective that gives the psychotherapist a a way way of of understanding understanding perspective that gives the Jungian Jungian psychotherapist the ps ycholo i cal qua lities and some of the troubling deficits of the patients patients g the psychological qualities and some of the troubling deficits of the fo r treatment. t rea t m ent who come for .

I n d ividuation

200 Murray Stein

200

The containment/nurturance stage of nd i v i d u ation f iindividuation The conta inme nt/nu rturance stage o

Like other mammals, humans start terrestrial life in aa mater maternal womb.. This This nal womb Like other mamm als, huma ns start terrestrial life in of body space, bathedininamnio amniotic fluid and kept warm by the surrounding body of nding surrou the by tic fluid and kept warm space, bathed h throug the mother, is the archetypal nurturing environment. Passively fed through fed ely Passiv . nment the mothe r, is the archetypal nurtur ing enviro for the umbilical cord, the foetus is required to make little effort to care for care to effort little make the umbili cal cord, the foetus is requir ed to itself. For postnatal life, the mother's womb symbolises psychological the psychological lises the itself. For postnatal life, the mothe r's womb symbo environmentneeded neededfor forthe thefirst firststage stageof ofaa person person's life. ItIt is is a protected protected life. 's enviro nment relativ ely space, an enclosure in which the vulnerable young can grow relatively grow can young able space, an enclosure in which the vulner undisturbed by by toxic toxic intrusi intrusions from the surrounding world. humans, human s, For . world nding surrou ons from the undisturbed time of time this type of of shielded environment is suitable for lengthy period of y length a for le shielded enviro nment is suitab this type other after birth. This This is true especially for infants, for unlike many other many unlike s, infant is true especi ally for after birth. ejected mammals, human offspring, because of their large head are ejected size, are head size, mamm als, human offspring, because of their large inde­ from the mother's womb long before they are prepared to function inden functio ed prepar are they from the mothe r's womb long before al extern pendently of of aa nurturing container. Human neonates require an external an e requir tes neona n Huma nurtur ing container. pende ntly nurturing environment of extended duration, until their bodies and minds minds and bodies their on, durati nurturing environment of extended they are prepared to cope with the physical and social worlds which they into which world s into are prepared to cope with the physic al and social have been delivered. have been delive red. we Especially in modern developed cultures, this first stage of which we life, which oflife, Espec ially in moder n develo ped cultur es, this first stage ays, casually refer refer to to as as childhood, lasts a long time. For most people nowadays, nowad people most For time. long a childh ood, lasts casual ly the containment/nurturance stage extends through much of educational the educational of the the contai nment/nurturance stage extends throug h school, aryschool, experience, from infancy and the years of primary and secondary second and ry prima of years the experience, from infancy and these Durin gthese through university studies and further professional training. training. During through univer sity studies and further profes sional lly logica years, aa person, even if physically and to some extent psychologically psycho extent some to and ally physic person, even if years, to prepared to assume some of the roles of adulthood, isisnot equippedto fullyequipped notfully prepared to assume some of the roles of adulth ood, viable deal with the demands of social life and is usually not econo micall yviable noteconomically deal with the demands of social life and is usuall y s parent on as an adult member of society. This period of dependence on parents dence depen of period This . society as an adult member of tradi ­ In tradiand parental institutions may last for thirty years or more. In or more. and parental institu tions may last for thirty years adulth ood tional cultures, on the other hand, where initiation into adulthood rituals into initiat ion rituals t io n a l cultur es, on the other hand, where of stage of occur at around the age of 12 or 13, the containment/nurturance nment /nurturance stage occur at aroun d the age of 1 2 or 1 3, the contai pubert y. ofpuberty. individuation/development is typically terminated at the onsetof the onset individ uation/development is typica lly terminated physic al thephysical By that age, a person is considered ready and able tototake upthe takeup By that age, a person is considered ready and able all and cultural tasks required of young adults in the group. There ititisisan group . There lind cultur al tasks required of young adults in the model ourmodern'll abruptt and dramatic change of attitude and social identity; i nour identit y;in ahrup and drama tic change of attitud e and social cultures, the change is gradual and takes place over decades. decades. cultures, the change is gradual and takes place over The quality ofofthe containment/nurturance stage is defined, symbo lically defined,symbolically is stage rance /nurtu nment contai the The quality s oci a lly speaking, as maternal. The containing environment is constructed nment is constr uctedsocially spea k ing, as matern al. The contai ning enviro iell h ingred and psychologically on the model of a womb, in that the basic ingredients , in that the basic lind psycho logica lly on the mode l of a womb t ha i care of s needed for survival — food, shelter, highly structured settings of care that structured setting needed fo r surviv al - food, shelter , highly I hl' t ;\ . are screened and protected — are provided by family and society. At the society ed b y family and I I re screened and protected - are provid l'lll a w or emotional level, nurturance is delivered (ideally) in the form of warm form the ( ideally ) c m o t io n a l level, nurturance is delivered lv. l iona t i d support and encouragement. Young children are loved unconditionally. uncon n are loved su pport a n d encou ragem ent. Young childre ll' a y t i l rea f o appreciated for being rather than doing. The harsh aspects of reality are s The harsh aspect a pp recia t ed for being rather than doing . I" I I l doting O d g n i l i m s screened out. Children are held, caressed and comforted by smiling, by rted ed o u l . C h i l d ren a rc held, caressed and comfo scrcen

201

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parents for their well-being. The parentswho whostand standguard guard over overthem themand and look look out out for their well-being. The most mostthat that isis asked asked of of the the young young isis aa cooperative cooperativeand and willing willingattitude. attitude.For For the therest, rest,adult adultsupervision supervisionand andprotection protection prevail. prevail. Not Not much much isis demanded demanded of of young youngpeople peopleatatthis thisstage stageininthe the way wayof ofcontributing contributing to to the the general general welfare welfare of group. They They remain remain dependent nourished by of the the family family or or group. dependent and and are are nourished by parents parentsand and other other adults. adults. Naturally contain­ Naturallythe the degree degreeof ofrichness richnessof ofthe the matrix matrix in in this this stage stage of of containment mentisis highly highlydependent dependentupon uponthe theattitudes attitudesand and resources resourcesthat thathappen happen to to be caregivers. It also crucially crucially dependent their be available availableto to the the adult adult caregivers. It is is also dependent on on their emotional nstead of emotionalstability stabilityand and maturity. maturity. IInstead of screening screeningharsh harshreality realityout out of of the amplify threats and the protected protected environment, environment,anxious anxious parents parents may may amplify threats and worrisome serious worrisome aspects aspects of of reality. reality. Absence Absenceof of adequate adequate containment containment and and serious breaches this stage stage breachesinin the the walls walls of of protection protection surrounding surrounding the the person person at at this generally groundwork for for later later psychopathology, psychopathology, such such as as generallyput put down down the the groundwork anxiety addition, the the frightfright­ anxiety disorders disorders and and various various character character disorders. disorders. In In addition, ened to replace replace the the absent absent or or breached breached outer outer ened or or threatened threatened child, child, in in order order to protective shield, develops primitive and massive defences of the self, which protective shield, develops primitive and massive defences of the self, which also cut the the person person off off from from important important developments developments also have have the the capacity capacity to to cut and relationships later in life. and relationships later in life. Under best conditions, conditions, the the quality quality and and degree degree of ofcontainment containment Under the the best gradually changes as a person passes through the sub-phases of childhood. gradually changes as a person passes through the sub-phases of childhood. At first there is maximal nurturance and containment. The kind of attenatten­ At first there is maximal nurturance and containment. The kind of tion given to the newborn baby, who can do practically nothing for itself, tion given to the newborn baby, who can do practically nothing for itself, modulates to a less intense level of care as the child grows older. Later the modulates to a less intense level of care as the child grows older. Later the parents will place further limits on the amount and kind of nurturance they parents will place further limits on the amount and kind of nurturance they provide, and the the degree degree of of containment containment is is eased. eased. Expectations Expectations for for aarelative relative provide, and amount of autonomy, independence and self-control are introduced at amount of autonomy, independence and self-control are introduced at many points along the way, as the child is able to respond positively to many points along the way, as the child is able to respond positively to these changes. these shifts shifts are met by by aa willingness willingness on the part part of of these changes. Normally Normally these are met on the the child to cooperate if the onset of these new conditions corresponds to the child to cooperate if the onset of these new conditions corresponds to growing abilities abilities (cognitive, (cognitive, emotional, motor). As As the the individual individual proceeds proceeds growing emotional, motor). through the usual sub-phases of childhood development, the nurturing through the usual sub-phases of childhood development, the nurturing container evolves evolves in in order order to to meet meet the the new new needs needs that that appear appear and and to toreduce reduce container what would become an intrusive type of overprotective care in many areas. what would become an intrusive type of overprotective care in many areas. By the end of this stage of individuation, people experience only a mini­ By the end of this stage of individuation, people experience only a minimum of nurturing and containment from the environment and are able to mum of nurturing and containment from the environment and are able to do for themselves what others have done for them earlier. do for themselves what others have done for them earlier. The first first and and primary primary nurturing nurturing figure figure is, is, of ofcourse, course, the the mother. mother. From From The pregnancy onwards, the mother represents as well as symbolises the nur­ pregnancy onwards, the mother represents as well as symbolises the nurtu ring container itself. Nurturing and containing can be referred to as the turing container itself. Nurturing and containing can be referred to as the mothering fu nction, whether this is delivered by the actual biological mothering function, whether this is delivered by the actual biological mot her. by by mother mothersurrogates, surrogates, by byfathers, fathers,teachers, teachers,ororinstitutions. institutions.SymSym­ mother, bol ica l l y spea k i ng, they are all ' the mother' if they approach the individual bolically speaking, they are all the mother' if they approach the individual n u rt ur i ng containing c o n t a i n i n gmode. mode. inin aanurturing, .

202 Murray Ste i n M u rray Stein 202

Nurturing, while it grows breast­ like breastmothering like of mothering concrete acts of of concrete grows out of while it Nurturing, feeding, isis not not only only physical, physical, and and to a large extent it takes on other features other features feeding, as the and cognitive and emotional, cognitive on emotional, place on takes place Feeding takes grows. Feeding child grows. the child as levels. Nurturing Nurturing is an attitude. Symbolically expressed been expressed has been Symbolically it has spiritual levels. by mother figures time immemorial. The Great Goddesses world of world Goddesses of immemorial. The since time figures since by religions -—fifigures suchas as Demeter Demeter (Greek), (Greek), Isis Virgin the Virgin (Egyptian), the Isis (Egyptian), gures such religions feeders, identified as nurturers, feeders, - are identified few— only aafew name only Mary (Christian) to name containers and and comforters. The role role of the Goddesses M otherGoddesses GreatMother the Great comforters. The containers extends far beyond the biological although functions, although feeding functions, physical feeding and physical biological and extends it it is rooted for church, for The church, feeding. The literalfeeding. ofliteral rituals of and rituals gestures and the gestures in the rooted in example, isis a classic nurturing, containing 'chil­ its 'chilfeeds its institution that feeds containing institution classic nurturing, example, is mission is primary mission Its primary food. Its of food. spiritual type of heaven, a spiritual of heaven, dren' the bread of although sometimes has done so and has has sometimes itit has materially, although people materially, feed people not to feed dedicated itself to to the the material material improvement the poor. Yet meal its main meal Yet its improvement of the dedicated is a symbolic rep­ typically reparetypically institutions are Nurturing institutions one. Nurturing spiritual one. symbolic and spiritual is resented by mother images. referred arereferred ships are as ships such as Similarly, containers such images. Similarly, resented institutions nurturinginstitutions or nurturing mothers or actual mothers This does not mean that actual to as 'she'. This like the the church fatherly, markedfatherly, havemarked alsohave notalso do not navy do the navy of the ships of church or ships like when the emphasis falls on nurturing, but when aspects, but patriarchal functions and aspects, is individuation is ofindividuation stage of this stage Therefore this mother. Therefore the mother. images hark back to the he images tthe referred to to as the mother 'in living 'in as living seen as are seen it are within it people within and people stage, and mother stage, referred the mother'. actual theactual by the performed by function is performed containing/nurturing function Whether Whether the containing/nurturing is: attitude is: underlying attitude the underlying institution, the an institution, by an or by mother, by another person, or This sustainers. This helpers, sustainers. providers,helpers, areproviders, N urturersare you'. Nurturers help you'. to help 'I am here to corre­ inspires aa correorinspires creates or turn,creates in turn, nurturer, in the nurturer, of the part of attitude on the part attitude chil­ conjure chilNurturersconjure nurturance. Nurturers of nurturance. recipient of the recipient sponding sponding attitude attitude in the attitudeisis recipient's attitude The recipient's nurturers. The themselves to nurturers. attach themselves children attach dren, and children may attitude may perceived nurturer. This attitude dependence upon the perceived radical dependence of radical one of life, itit isis oflife, years of first years the first unconscious. In largely unconscious. conscious or largely quite conscious be quite he In the taken simply taken containment are simply definitely unconscious. definitely unconscious.Nurturance Nurturance and and containment for granted struggk oftenstruggle Recipientsoften child.Recipients youngchild. theyoung andthe infant and the infant by the granted by real the real profound the realising how caregivers, not mightily against their their caregivers, not realising how profound mightily against run n i n g and running mother and child pushing away from its mother dependence actually dependence actually is. is. A A child level, that t ha i i l unconsciouslevel, anunconscious at an assumes, at simply assumes, traffic simply into traffic impulsively out into impulsively will be safe, safe, cared cared for, for, protected, protected, and and aatt the end and held and fed, held day fed, the day o f the end of will be comforted. child. young child, the young unchallenged in the is unchallenged entitlement is of entitlement degree of comforted. This degree and mildly mildly attractive and find ititattractive even find may even who may adult, who nurturing adult, the nurturing and the and bon d i ng goodbonding. ofaagood arising out of dependency arising t . The dependency freely gives amusing, freely amusing, gives iit. I h l' a b o u t the anxiety about much anxiety too much for too desired, for be desired, is to be be t ween infant between infant and mother is well. augurwell. not augur would not life would oflife stage of early stage this early a t this world at psycho the psycho serves the individuation serves of individuation containment/nurturance phase of The containment/nurturance c h i ld t hechild egoini nthe incipientego anincipient protecting an and protecting p u rpose of of supporting and logica l purpose logical wllh consciousnl.'ss mill ofconsciousness cent re of t h e centre as the conceive of as we conceive which we complex, which q.!O complex, Till.' ego The

203 n d ivid uation 203 IIndividuation

anxiety about certain certain executive executivefunctions functionsand and some some measure measure of of innate innate anxiety reality, reality, comes comes into into being being gradually gradually over over the the course course of of early early childhood. childhood. Its experience. There earliest earliest beginnings beginnings lie lie already already in in the the intrauterine experience. There the ego of bit of tiny bit stimuli, aa tiny reaction to awareness and of awareness point of is is barely barely aa point and of of reaction to stimuli, birth, With birth, separate separate consciousness consciousnessininthe thedarkness darkness of of the the mother's mother's body. body. With by responds by ego responds infant's ego the infant's dramatically enlarged, is dramatically the the ego's ego's world world is enlarged, and and the registering registeringand and reacting reacting to to sights, sights, tastes, tastes, and and touching touching as as well well as as to to sounds to and to face and smells. Very and and smells. Very quickly quickly aa baby baby is is able able to to recognise its its mother's mother's face mother however, infant level, however, psychological level, profound psychological respond. respond. At At aa profound infant and and mother separateness isis ego's separateness The ego's fusion. The psychological fusion. ofpsychological state of remain remain joined joined in a state as is as severely severelylimited. limited.This This unconscious unconscious identification identification isismutual. mutual. The The mother mother is identification typeofofidentification thistype termed this lungtermed infant. Jung the infant. as the it as deeply deeply tied tied into into it psychophy­ unconscious psychophyanunconscious denotes an that denotes phrase that mystique, aa phrase participation participation mystique, Levy­ byLevy( introduced by anthropology (introduced originally from anthropology comes originally sical sical bond bond and comes the to the happens to union happens 1 9 1 0). What Bruhl Bruhl 1910). What happens happensto to one one person person in in this union this infant, this the infant, For the other. other. They They feel feel each each other's other's pain, pain, hunger hunger and and joy. joy. For of sense of into aa sense develop into will develop eventually will and eventually empathy and later empathy of later basis of forms forms the the basis the of the conscience. It also creates part inner conscience. responsibility responsibility for for others others and and an inner part of children. female children. forfemale especially for identity,especially egoidentity, laterego for later foundation foundation for begin to begin able to is able ego is the ego development, the cognitive development, and cognitive motor and further motor With With further muscles. overmuscles. control over some control exert some to exert exercising exercising its its cxecutive executive functions functions and and to whole the whole Soon the follows. Soon speech follows. and speech coordinated and become coordinated legs become and legs Arms Arms and of Garden of veritable Garden a veritable learning, a and learning, world world becomes becomes aa vast vast theatre theatre of of play play and with and with vigorously and itself vigorously asserts itself child asserts healthy child The healthy explore. The to explore. Eden Eden to reality Serious reality environment. Serious protected environment. and protected safe and perceived safe this perceived in this abandon abandon in con­ and nurturing a unit, parental the of oversight the to left is testing testing is left to the oversight of the parental unit, a nurturing and contested are paradise this of boundaries The above. hovering presence taining taining presence hovering above. The boundaries of this paradise are tested and physically and autonomy physically more autonomy and more more and exerts more child exerts the child as the enough as soon soon enough hand. in hand go consciousness increasing and Disobedience emotionally. emotionally. Disobedience and increasing consciousness go hand in hand. parental between child erected between Psychological Psychologicalboundaries boundaries begin begin to to be be erected child and and parental and self and between differences the of aware becomes child the and guardian, guardian, and the child becomes aware of the differences between self of level basic a however, stage, this Throughout them. exploits and other other and exploits them. Throughout this stage, however, a basic level of environ­ nurturing and child between remains identification unconscious unconscious identification remains between child and nurturing environchild's the child's of the reign. lung mystique continues ment. ment. Participation mystique continues to to reign. Jung thought thought of it: of it: ctive e refl and psyche parental the in contained largely as psyche psyche as largely contained in the parental psyche and reflective of their of attitude psychological the in involved deeply so are 'Children 'Children are so deeply involved in the psychological attitude of their in disturbances in nervousdisturbances thenervous mostofofthe thatmost wonder that no wonder is no it is parents parents that that it the in atmosphere psychic disturbed a to back traced be can childhood childhood can be traced back to a disturbed psychic atmosphere in the not does not personality does individual personality true individual child's true The child's 80). The homc' 7: par. ( C W 117: home' (CW par. 80). birth, second of sort a in psyche parents' the lcaves t i until emergc emerge until it leaves the parents' psyche in a sort of second birth, aa entity. separate entity. truly separate more truly becomes aa more it becomes when it ego when the ego for the psychological birth psychological birth for enormous parents enormous gives parents young gives the young psyc ho logical containment Th i s psychological This containment of of the transmission conscioustransmission theconscious through the only through not only he i r children infl uence over influence over ttheir children,, not and i m por t a n t ly and m o re importantly b u t more t ra i n ing, but nd training, h i ng aand ra d i t i o n , teac 1 111 l i re, ttradition, of 1..'culture, ()I' teaching

IIndividuation n d ividuation 205 205

Murray 204 M 204 u rray Stein Stei n

deeply through through unconscious unconscious communication communicationoof attitude and structure. deeply f attitude structure. Via unconscious, a kind of programming of the child's inner the unconscious, of psychological psychological programming world takes takes place, place, for for good good or or ill. ill. It is is not what the parent says, world says, but but what what the parent parent is is and does, the does, that has has the the greatest greatest impact impact on the the shape shape of of the the child's inner inner world. child's world. The family family is the the child's child's adaptive adaptive environment, environment, and and much of this much this world's world's emotional emotional tone tone enters enters the the child's child's inner inner world world by by introjection. The testing and The and challenging challenging of of physical physical and andpsychological psychological boundaries boundaries continues throughout the continues the first first stage stage of ofindividuation. individuation. Adolescence, Adolescence, which which for most of of us falls falls within this this stage, stage, is is aa transitional transitionaltime timewhen whenphysically, physically, psychologically, a person is is ready ready to leave leave the nurturing/ nurturing/ and to some extent psychologically, containing environment environmentand and enter enter the the next containing next stage stage of ofindividuation. individuation. In In however, this is modern developed developed societies, societies, however, is complicated complicated by by educational educational that often and training training requirements requirements that often prolong prolong the containment containment stage stage to aa significant extent. extent. An An adolescent adolescent of of 15 significant 1 5 or even even 18 1 8 isis nowhere nowhere near near being being able able to take take on on the thetasks tasksand andresponsibilities responsibilities of of adulthood adulthood in in modern modern societies. This This prolongation prolongation of the first societies. first stage stage of of individuation individuation creates creates the the specific problems problems and and attitudes specific attitudes so so characteristic characteristic of of adolescents adolescents in in these these countries: impatience, feelings of of inferiority, inferiority, being margincountries: impatience, rebelliousness, rebelliousness, feelings margin­ yet alised, and frustration. frustration. Ready Ready to leave the world world of of childhood childhood but but not not yet alised, and leave the prepared for the tasks prepared tasks of of adulthood, adulthood, they they are aretruly trulybetwixt betwixtand andbetween. between. The adult personae personae that that initiation initiation rituals rituals provide provide in in traditional traditionalsocieties societies are are withheld from adolescents in modern modern cultures, withheld adolescents in cultures, and the the dependent dependent state state of of childhood is artificially artificially prolonged beyond its its natural natural physical physical and and childhood is prolonged far far beyond psychological timeframe. timeframe.Schools Schoolsand and colleges collegesare are the the holding psychological holding pens and and containers devised by modern cultures for adolescents adolescents and and post-adolescents post-adolescents who need need to have have more more time time to to mature mature and andtotobecome becomeacculturated acculturatedand and who successful adaptation the demands demands of of work work and andfamily family that thatare arc ready for successful adaptation to the shortly to to fall fall upon upon them. them. shortly The The adapting/adjusting ad apting/adjusting stage of of individuation ind ivid uation

While centre of the first While the mother occupies occupies the symbolic symbolic centre first stage stage of of indiindi­ viduation, the father assumes assumes this this position position in in the thesecond second stage. stage. This This viduation, the father transformation t ransformation comes comes about not by usurpation usurpation but but gradually gradually and and through t h rough psychological necessity.The The father father is is needed psychological necessity. needed by the the growing growing ego ego totogain ga i n nurturing containment containment offered offered by by the the mother mother and andto toinstil inst i l freedom from the nurturing t he rigor rigor of of functioning functioning and performance performance demanded to the t he the demanded for for adaptation to world. The father father introduces introduces anxiety anxiety to to the the ego, ego, but butideally ideally in in amounts amoun tsthat t ha i c a n he he mastered mastered by byincreasing increasing competence. competence. can Aga i n it is is necessary necessary to understand understand the terms terms 'father' 'father' and and 'patriarchal' patri a rc h . d Again ( Ne u m a n n ) symbolically symholically and metaphorically rather than literally l i tera l ly and and (Neumann) and metaphorically rather than he first first stage stage of of individuation individuation isis characterised cha racterised by hy s oc io lo gical ly. Where sociologically. Where tthe l'on l a i n l11l' n t and a n d nurtlirillICC n ll rt u ra nce ( (the t he (Garden ,a rden of Eden), the t he second second stage sla gl' is 1\ containment of Eden), '

'

governed governed by by the the law of consequences consequences for for actions taken (the reality principle) and by the constant demand for performance and achievement achievement in in the the wider wider and by the constant demand for performance and world, In the second stage of individuation, the person is exposed world. In second stage individuation, the person is exposed to to aa world in which standards of performance are paramount and consequences world in which standards of performance are paramount and consequences for forcefully and implacably drawn. drawn. A A person person who who isis living living for behaviour behaviour are are forcefully and implacably fully in this type of environment of expectation and conditional regard has fully in this type of environment of expectation and conditional regard has entered the 'father world'. It is no longer a world in which unconditional entered the 'father world'. It is no longer a world in which unconditional love rather one one in in which which strict strict and and even even harsh harsh conditions conditions love isis the the norm, norm, but but rather are imposed upon the distribution of all rewards, including love and and are imposed upon the distribution of all rewards, including love positive regard, This is not the world as ideal but the world as real. The ego positive regard. This is not the world as ideal but the world as real. The ego isis required to become realistic about itself and about the world at large. required to become realistic about itself and about the world at large. This fitness and competition. This means fitness In truth, the reality reality principle principle is is typically typically introduced introduced into the life life of of In truth, the into the children children long long before before they they leave leave the the containment containment stage, stage, but but there, there, ideally, ideally, it it is introduced in are moderate moderate and and therefore therefore tolerable tolerable to to the the is introduced in doses doses that that are young vulnerable ego. ego. The The containing containing environment environment provides provides aa propro­ young and and vulnerable tective potentially damaging damaging aspects aspects of of tective screen screen that that removes removes the the harsh harsh and and potentially reality. demands for for performance performance and and achievement achievement should be reality. The The demands should not not be brought bear too too forcefully forcefully or too soon soon in in life. life. If If this this does does happen, happen, the the brought to to bear or too child's be crushed crushed or or convulsed convulsed with with anxiety. anxiety. Against Against severe severe threats threats child's ego ego can can be such as these, these, the the psyche psyche will will erect erect primitive primitive defences defences to guard against against such as to guard annihilation, the other other hand, hand, ififtoo toofew few demands demands for forachievement achievement and and annihilation. On On the performance of Eden, Eden, and and ifif conseconse­ performanceare are introduced introduced into into aa child's child's Garden Garden of quences are not not drawn, drawn, the the ego ego does does not notbecome becomeaccustomed accustomed quences for for behaviour behaviour are to dealing with with stress stress and and tension. tension. ItIt remains remains underdeveloped, underdeveloped, and and hence hence to dealing will later for for the the demands demands and and expectations expectations characteristic characteristic of of will be be unprepared unprepared later the next stage stage of of individuation. individuation. A moderate amount amount of of frustration frustration and and the next A moderate tension, the right right times times and and in in the the right right amounts, amounts, isis growth growth tension, dosed dosed out out at at the promoting the ego. ego. Jung lung believed believed that that the the ego egodevelops develops through through promoting for for the 'collisions introduced the the notion notion that `collisionswith withthe theenvironment', environment', and and Fordham Fordham introduced the Both the ego ego develops develops through through cycles cycles of de-integration and re-integration. Both notions feature feature the the element element of of optimal optimal frustration. Typically the the demand demand for for some some measure measure of of control control and andperformance performance begins training and and weaning. weaning. This This begins already in the first years years of of life life with toilet training may be introduced and subtly, subtly, but but the the timing timing coincides coincides with with the the may be introduced slowly and child's ability ability totomake makethe thenecessary necessary adjustments. adjustments, Demands for for performperform­ ance up with with schooling schooling and andgradually graduallyincrease increase ininseriousness seriousness and and ance pick up consequence as secondary school. consequence as aa child child passes passesout out of of primary primary school into secondary The father f�lther becomes becomes a more important figure, figure, symbolically symbolically speaking, speaking, after after The the early years of childhood childhood have have passed. passed. By By the the time time aa child childreaches reaches high high the early years environment induces induces a good good bit bit of of anxiety, anxiety, school and college, the adaptive environment lind the the young person person becomes hecomes aware of of and responsive responsive to the demands of and of a le s s forgiving forgi ving world. world . Consequences Conseq uences become become more more life life shaping shaping and and deterdeter­ less l 1 1 i n a t ive of action a C l i on and a n d behaviour. heh a v i o u r . In In some some countries, co u n t ries, the t h e academic academ ic tests test s minative

Ste i n M u rray Stein 206 Murray 206

Grades career. Grades entire career. person's entire decisive for a person's are decisive 1 3 are of13 age of the age around the taken around all almost all consequences for almost life-changing consequences have life-changing performance have academic performance and academic realisa­ therealisacomesthe therecomes awareness there thisawareness ofthis pressure of the pressure under the children, children, and under onc that one container that nurturing container be the nurturing will not continue to be world will the world that the tion that child. young child. knew as knew as an infant and aa young second the second decisive passage The decisive passage from from the the first first stage stage of of individuation individuation into the early of early ages of the ages between the typically between time, typically oftime, period of over a period place over takes takes place This societies. This modernsocieties. most modern in most (ages 12-21) 1 2-2 1 ) in adulthood (ages early adulthood puberty and early prolong who prolong people who exceptional cases, may be earlier in exceptional cases, and and it is later for people par­ Schools are parstudies. Schools postgraduate studies. and postgraduate education into graduate and their education their adaptive patriarchal adaptive environments and partially patriarchal tially matriarchal tially matriarchal holding environments (For school. (For life beyond school. for life person for ones. Their job ones. job is gradually to prepare aa person and school and ignore school may ignore They may some people, people, of course, course, this this does not happen. They com­ real comof real degree of any degree reach any they reach before they programmes before itsprogrammes ofits out of drop out drop or students or perpetual students as perpetual lives, as their lives, all their school all petence, petence, or they may stay in school the of the role of archetypal role schools play teachers.) teachers.) As As bridging bridging institutions, institutions, schools play the archetypal the leave the child leave thechild helpthe to help is to job itit is whose job child, whose growing child, to aagrowing parent to paternal parent and over are nurturing for appropriate years the when container family family container when the years appropriate for nurturing over and role the role is the This is world. This larger world. the larger in the life in adult life of adult demands of the demands to the adapt adapt to age and of age come of who come men who young men the young for the cultures for fathers play in traditional cultures play Mothers play level. Mothers new level. at aanew structure at social structure the social into the introduced into be introduced need to need to be responsibilities largerresponsibilities andlarger newand givennew aregiven who are daughters, who for daughters, role for similar role aa similar modern In modern age. In of age. come of they come as they womanhood as of womanhood skills of the skills taught the and and taught daughters. and daughters. sons and between sons sort between this sort distinction of societies societies there there isis no no distinction of this of life of foraa life preparing for of preparing idea of school with the idea Nowadays both genders go to school expected areexpected gendersare bothgenders addition, both In addition, home. In the home. outside the work work in the world outside to accept The child-rearing. The and child-rearing. house-holding and of house-holding responsibilities of the responsibilities accept the to to aa present to often present still often while still men, while women and men, between women division division of labour between life. modern life. in modern degree, degree, has been considerably blurred in to (childhood)to stage(childhood) containment stage the containment passage from the of the passage The completion of course, ofcourse, is, of (adulthood) is, individuation (adulthood) adapting/adjusting stage h e adapting/adjusting tthe stage of individuation psychological largestpsychological Thelargest turmoil.The emotional turmoil. and emotional crisis and with crisis ught with fra fraught discus sed lungdiscussed whatJung passage isis what this passage making this of making way of obstacle obstacle lying lying in in the way incest theincest that the Freud that Disagreeing with Freud wish. Disagreeing incest wish. the incest of the rubric of nder the rubric u under family closest family one's closest wish wish was was concretely concretely a wish wish to have sexual relations with one's inter p reted it lung interpreted members, members, especially especiallythe the contrasexual contrasexualmother mother and and father, Jung Thl' life . The oflife. stage of containment stage the containment in the stay in to stay child, to remain a child, s the wish to remain aas Edell ofEden Garden of in aa Garden live in n cest wish iincest wish isis the the wish wish never never to to grow grow up, up, to live vehell l with vehem announces with he announces when he attitude when forever. forever. Peter Peter Pan Pan speaks for this attitude fro r l l transition from the transition refuses the and refuses up!' and grow up!' never grow I'll never I 'll never grow ence, ence. ''Ell grow up, up, I'll req u i rl'd W h a t isi srequired adult. What reality-oriented adult. toreality-oriented fantasy to of fantasy full of playful playful boy boy full appea ralll"l' th e appearance is the child is psydlOlogically psychologically to to overcome overcome this this desire desire to remain a child t hl' of the o u t of one out p ushes one that pushes energy that and energy ambition and of ambition s u rge of heroi c , a surge t he heroic, of of the world real world the real by the offered by cha ll e nges offered excit ing challenges t heexciting meet the t o meet Fden to i t y of secur security of Eden

207 n d ividuation 207 IIndividuation

that kills wish) incest wish) the incest (i.e., the dragon (i.e., the dragon kills the The hero is the archetypal energy that life. inlife. forward in going forward ofgoing sake of the sake i.e., the soul), for the princess ((i.e., frees the princess and frees abundance life with an abundance real life ofreal challenges of thechallenges up the takes up and takes The hero asks for and hero confidence that that many fi find unrealistic and almost death defying. The hero death defying. nd unrealistic of confidence shows the the confidence, confidence, call callititbravado, bravado, to face the meet the and meet father and face up to the father shows hero identification with inner identification challenges challengesof of the the patriarchal patriarchal world. world. An inner with a hero the towards the regression and towards regression pull towards figure figure frees frees the the ego ego from from the pull and towards meet energises it comfortable comfortable earlier earlier dependency dependencyon on the the 'mother' 'mother' and energises it to meet to comes to person comes reality. When a person challenges of adaptation to reality. the the tasks and challenges fantasy, than fantasy, rewards than finer rewards and finer greater and offers greater reality offers conclusion that reality the the conclusion stage firststage thefirst fromthe passedfrom haspassed personhas thatperson mastered, that be mastered, can be reality can and that reality second. the second. of individuation to the psychological, worldofof wholeworld thewhole as the understood as be understood Reality Reality must must be psychological, in individual in facing an individual challenges facing economic challenges physical, physical, social, social, cultural cultural and economic reality means life, life, many many of which which lie lie beyond beyond anyone's anyone's control. To deal with reality and without and from without themselves from presentthemselves that present issues that the issues all the to all faces up to that one faces ambition, sexuality, ambition, weather, sexuality, the weather, - love within within — loveand anddeath, death, jobs jobs and career, the to tendencies to weaknesses and tendencies its weaknesses with its body with other people's expectations, the body so and so illness, the consequences succumb succumb to illness, consequences of of smoking smoking or alcohol abuse, and filled world filled participates in aa world lives and participates one lives recognising that one means recognising It means on. on. It is control is and control mastery and ofmastery area of one's area that one's with with uncertainty uncertainty and hazard, and that problems the problems attacks the joyfully attacks even joyfully gladly and even seriously seriously limited. limited. The The hero hero gladly confidence that posed posed by by reality with the confidence that whatever dangers may may lurk, there solution, the problem has Every problem them. Every some way must must be be some way to surmount them. has a solution, enough soon enough hero hero believes. believes.As As the the ego ego sets sets forth forth on on the hero's journey, it soon of taxes, of world of work and taxes, discovers discovers that that in in this this stage stage one one comes comes into into a world family and family relationships and long-term relationships of long-term policies, of insurance policies, pension pension plans and insurance often of often responsibilities, responsibilities,of of success successand andfailure failureas asjudged judged by by others, others, and and of faced, be faced, must be what must is what This is intractable problems with no clear-cut solution. This adapted indi­ of indistage of second stage the second during the in during invested in and invested adapted and adjusted to, and Eden. of Eden. life outside viduation. viduation. This This is life outside the Garden of psychological earlypsychological because ofofearly thisbecause from this away from shrink away Many Many people people shrink severely handicap their capacities so severely traumas that so capacities to to cope cope with with anxiety anxiety that that themselves to never bring themselves they they can can never to face face reality reality fully. fully. Moreover, Moreover, there there is is a defences ego'sdefences theego's and the reality, and harsh reality, facing harsh resistance to facing natural natural enough resistance allowed areallowed and are long, and so long, delay so and delay push it away. Some people procrastinate procrastinate and circumstances, or and circumstances, environments and nurturing environments extended nurturing byextended so by to to do so or by embarrassing becomes embarrassing self-deception, that itit becomes subterfuge and self-deception, trickery trickery and and subterfuge pro­ delay proThis delay life. This in life. later in transition later this transition face this impossible to nearly impossible und and nearly to face puella or child' 'eternal the i.e., ( aeternus puer the call ungians l what duces duces what Jungians (i.e., the 'eternal child' or puella or reason or one reason female version) the female tII'lerna, (nitwit:, for for the version) neurotic neurotic character character type. type. For For one ego the or scene, the on arrived never has hero the people, these in u/lother another in these people, the hero has never arrived on the scene, or the ego (con­ dependency (conand dependency energy, and its energy, and its figure and hero figure a hero iden t ified with a not identified ha hass not or real ts, ronmen envi g n i n i a t n o c and g n ri u t r u n on ) s u o i nconsc u or NciollS scious or unconscious) on nurturing and containing environments, real or



208 M M urray u r ray Ste in Stein 208

into adulthood adulthoodand andeven evenold oldage. age.The Theincest incest imaginary, has been prolonged into wish goes goes unchallenged unchallenged to serious degree, degree, and the threatening threatening father father wish to any serious and the fearsome. The psyche of looms too large and fearsome. psyche stagnates stagnates as as aa result. result. A A sort of invalidism takes the person, person, fearing fearing exposure, exposure, challenge, challenge, and and the the invalidism takes hold, hold, as the normal problems of life, shies shies away falls back. The The ego ego normal problems of coping with life, away and and falls remains 'in 'in the the mother', mother',symbolically symbolicallyspeaking, speaking, sometimes sometimeseven evenliterally literally remains acting out by by never never leaving leaving home. home. In In these these cases, cases, one one wonders wondersififthere there is is acting this out any individuation beyond first stage. stage. These These people people tend tend to to remain remain any individuation beyond the the first childish harmless, but they they also also contribute contribute childish throughout throughout life. life. They They may may be harmless, little. potentials; they they are are not not actualised. actualised. little. Their Their potentials potentials remain remain just just that, potentials; They always just write the the great great novel novel but but can can never never bring bring They are always just about about to write themselves putting real real words words on on real real paper. paper. themselvesto to the the point point of of putting Many of the the character character disorders disorders described Diagnostic and Many describedinin the the Diagnostic Statistical of Mental Mental Disorders Disorders would would correspond failure to correspond to the failure Statistical Manual of separate successfully enough of childhood. childhood. The The separate successfully enough from from the the containing world of borderline personality disorder, disorder, for for example, example, seems seems to relate relate to toremaining remaining borderline personality stuck love-hate relationship that is is typical typical of ofchildren children stuck in aa love—hate relationship with with the the mother mother that in years: now succumbs to fusion fusion states states of of dependency dependency in their early years: now aa person succumbs upon maternal others, she attacks attacks them them and tries tries to to separate separate upon maternal others, now now he he or or she from them with with violent disdain. This This is is aa person person who who from them violent gestures gestures of of hatred hatred and and disdain. has managed to accomplish accomplish the transition transition process process from from stage stage one to has not managed two is repeating repeating the the drama drama of ofseparation separation from from the themother motherendlessly endlessly two and is with significant maternal entire lifetime. lifetime. The The narnar­ with significant maternal others others throughout throughout an an entire cissistic personality derives from being stuck stuck in in the the containcontain­ cissistic personality disorder disorder also also derives from being ment that aa driven driven need need and and demand demand persists persists that that ment stage stage of of individuation, individuation, in in that significant but offer offer adoration adoration and and mirroring. mirroring. People People significantothers others do do nothing nothing but with narcissistic personality adored baby baby with narcissistic personalitydisorders disorderslong longto to remain remain the the adored forever, audiences who never utter utter aa critical critical word word forever, performing performing for for enthralled enthralled audiences who never or render a judgement on their their brilliant brilliant performance. performance. Their Their lives lives are are full full of of open wounds and and suffering suffering because because the the world world outside outside of of the thecontained contained open wounds space is not set up up to to accommodate accommodate their their needs needs to to be beseen seen and and space of of childhood childhood is not set ttotally ot ally admired. admired. Psychotherapy, and practised, practised, lends lends itself itself to the Psychotherapy,as asitit is is usually usually set set up up and to the impression it is is primarily primarily aanurturing/containing nurturing/containing environment environment remiremi­ impression that that it niscent the containment containment stage stage of ofdevelopment. development. The The therapist therapisttypically typically niscent of of the accepts supports a a patient, patient, withholds withholds judgement, judgement, and and offers offers more more or or accepts and and supports less mirroring. Many Many people people who who enter enter less unconditional unconditional positive positive regard regard and and mirroring. ttherapy, herapy. it must be be said, said, come come in in so so beaten beaten and and bruised bruised by by the theslings slings and and it must aarrows rrows of reality that they need need aa respite, respite, at least for time, in in order order of harsh harsh reality that they at least for aa time, tto o recover recover their self-worth. If If they they are are deeply deeply damaged damaged their sense sense of of balance balance and and self-worth. from early childhood abuse and trauma, they will repeat the s truggl es of of from early childhood abuse and trauma, they will repeat the struggles psychological hirt h and development in the therapeutic relat ionship. fusing psychological birth and development in the therapeutic relationship, fusing with he therapist t herapist as as infant inf�\I1t with with mother, mother. then then struggling st rugg li n gto tofree freethemselves the l l l se i ves with tthe frolll t he t herapist in t he way of t he horderi ine who ca nnot make this this from the therapist in the way of the borderline who cannot make

IIndividuation n d ivid uation 209 209

endless amounts amounts of of adoration adoration and mirroring from the transition, or desiring endless all-embracing and and accepting accepting mother-like mother-like therapist. therapist. In In these cases, it it is the all-embracing these cases, therapist's main main task to therapist's to help help these these people people gradually gradually make make the the transition transition from the mother world from world to to the the father father world. world. In Insmall small doses, doses, the thetherapist therapist administers, unconsciously, deliberately accidentally, the administers, consciously consciously or unconsciously, deliberately or accidentally, collisionswith withreality realitythat that strengthen strengthenthe the patient's patient's ego ego and and can can help help to collisions prepare it for the prepare the world world of of adult adult functioning functioning ififthese these breaches breaches are handled handled sensitively. changes to to sensitively.From From nurturing/containing nurturing/containing mother, mother, the the therapist changes another kind of of person, person, aa symbolic symbolic father, who helps the patient bridge to to the world of the of achievement, achievement, work, work, struggle, struggle, competition competition and and interpersonal interpersonal competence. T h e centring/integrating c e n tri n g/ i n tegrati ng stage stage of The of individuation i n d i vi d uati on

The most significant and interesting contribution of The significant and of Jungian Jungian psychology psychology to to development is is what what it says the idea of of psychological psychological development says about the the part part of oflife life that follows the second stage stage of individuation. individuation. This This is is where where most other that follows the second psychoanalytic psychoanalytic theories theories stop. stop. What What is is still still left left to to do, do, they they might might ask, ask, after a person has successfully passed over over from from the the attitude of person successfully passed of dependency upon nurturing environments in in the the first first stage stage of ofpsychological psychological development development and and has taken taken up the like an an adult adult in a world has the responsibility responsibility of living living like world of of other other adults the second second stage? stage? Is Is there there anything anything more more beyond beyond the the psychopsycho­ adults in the logically adaptation and logicallyadvanced advancedstage stageof of entering enteringthe the father father world world of of adaptation adjustment and being being willing willing and able to cope with reality? reality? For the Jungian psychotherapist because in fact many many people people enter enter psychotherapistthe the answer answer isis 'yes', 'yes', because in fact Jungian the second second half half of of life life looking looking for for something something more more than than Jungian therapy in the fine-tuning further elimination elimination of of fine-tuningof of their their patriarchal patriarchal attitudes attitudes and and the further residues often successful successful adults who who have have residues of of childish childish complexes. complexes. They They are often held families, succeeded held jobs, jobs, raised raised families, succeeded in in reaching reaching many many of of their goals, and now is at this this point point that that Jungian Jungian now wonder wonderifif this this isis all all there there isis to to life. life. It It is reflection second half of of life life becomes becomes reflectionon on the the individuation individuation process process in in the second relevant. phase of ofpsychological psychological development development described described classicclassic­ relevant. This This is the phase ally study in in the the process process of of individuation' individuation' (in (in ally by by Jung Jung in in such such works works as as 'A study CW C W 9i), search for for 9i), when when mandala mandala symbolism, the religious function and the search individual meaning meaning become become important. individual The this stage stage of of life, life, if if all all has hasgone gonerelatively relatively well well in earlier earlier The task task in this phases, become a responsible responsible member community and phases, isis not not to become member of the the community and a relatively self-sufficient personality relatively independent independent and self-sufficient personality (this has been achieved in become aa centred centred and and whole whole individual individual in the the second second stage), stage), but but rather to become who transcendent as as well well as as the the immediate immediate concrete concrete realities realities who is is related related to the transcendent of existence. For this, this, another another level level of ofdevelopment development is is called called for. for. of human human existence. The first separation was from the mother, initially from her body (the The first separation was from the mother, initially from her body (the first hirt h ). t hen from her nurturing parental psyche (a second birth). first birth), then from parental psyche (a second birth). At that point the psychological individual forth into the the world. world. Now Now that the psychological individual stepped stepped forth

Ste i n M u r ray Stein 1 0 Murray 2 210

primary the primary away the puts away ego puts the ego when the birth, when passage, a third birth, there is another passage, con­ for concalls for which calls achievement of adaptation, which importance importance given given to to the achievement the of the (the world of collective (the thecollective ofthe expectations of andexpectations standards and formity to the standards The individual. The an individual. becoming an of becoming journey of the journey embarks upon the 'fathers') `fathers') and and embarks stage of conformity, is often entered, paradoxically enough, second stage, stage, a stage the of the rebellion, undergirded adolescent rebellion, of adolescent violent acts of by by violent undergirded by by the energy of with containerwith parental container the parental of the adolescent breaks archetype. The hero archetype. The adolescent breaks out of into entered into usually entered is usually hand, is other hand, force. The determined force. The third stage, on the other middle the middle in the person in depressed and questioning attitude, as a person with a rather rather depressed and slowly and enters slowly and enters conformity and of conformity trappings of the trappings shed the begins to shed life begins of life and whole and as aa whole anew as becoming born process of becoming often often painfully painfully into into aa process born anew of consequence of the consequence as the is entered as stage is Sometimes this stage integrated individual. Sometimes synchroni­ Generally synchroniassumptions. Generally collective assumptions. fixed collective shattersfixed that shatters loss that tragic tragic loss 8: par. par. 827), 827), plays an C W 8: coincidence' ((CW 'meaningful coincidence' ned by city, city, defi defined by lung Jung as as 'meaningful of individuation process of ongoing process the ongoing in the and in into and role in the entry into important role stage. third stage. the third in in the aban­ gradually abanmeans gradually integrating means and integrating centring and stage of centring Entering Entering the the stage and persona and collective definitions previous collective doning doning the previous definitions of of identity identity and persona emerges from within. assuming an image of self that emerges within. Of course this does not disappear not disappear collective reality leaving collective mean mean leaving reality behind. behind. Social Social reality reality does not its to its adapting to and adapting with it and coping with concern, but coping horizon or concern, ego's horizon from from the ego's emphasis, and emphasis, interest and of interest shift of less energy. demands demands absorb absorb less energy. There There isis a shift with do with to do less to have less living that dimensions of reaching out toward toward reaching out to to dimensions of living that have crucially more crucially becomes more life becomes Spiritual life meaning. Spiritual with meaning. do with survival survival and and more to do individualised. and individualised. important important and individu­ ofindividustage of second stage the second in the established in is established that is identity that uch of the identity M Much parental stereotypes, also from parental collective images is derived from collective ation ation is images and and stereotypes, structure stage is a structure second stage models. The models. The persona persona assumed assumed by by the ego in the second elements that of elements set of socially constructed set society and offered offered by by society and made of aa socially indi­ ofindistage of second stage the second in the Personality in individual. Personality the individual. suit the less suit more more or less useful for highly useful is highly persona is This persona construction. This social construction. largely a is largely viduation viduation is a social the stage, the third stage, the third In the expectations. In and expectations. imperatives and cultural imperatives adapting adapting to cultural to begins to it, begins with it, identified with largely identified and largely persona and ego, ego, which which has taken on this persona social thesocial andthe selfand innerself trueinner between aa true distinction between create aa distinction draw draw away and create psychological twopsychological thesetwo betweenthese lightbetween thelight Asthe dominant. As been dominant. has been self sell that has of kind of choice enters widens, an structures structures widens, an element of of choice enters with with respect respect to to what kind and unique and more unique i s more new person is become. This new person person one one iiss and is going to become. construction. social construction. less aa social individual, less individual, one anyone, one or anyone, anything, or become anything, now become can now one can that mean not does This This does not mean that one structure underlying an that is truth to the wants Rather, imagine. can or be wants to or can imagine. Rather, the truth is that an underlying structure t ran­ its trandenote its to denote (capitalised to Self(capitalised theSelf lungthe calledbybyJung psyche called t he psyche of the new a in play into comes ego) the from difference and essential scendence scendence and essential difference from the ego) — comes into play in a new w extnnal y b held formerly position dominant the over takes and y a way and takes over the dominant position formerly held by external persona . socialpersona. t hesocial andthe 'father' and the 'father' by the and by voice of reality and the voice of reality by the u t hority, by aauthority,

21 1 n d ivid uation 211 IIndividuation

The ego ego now to answer to an inner obedience to obedience call to and call demand and inner demand answer to begins to now begins The auth­ from authderived from from the the psyche, rather than primarily to an one derived outer one an outer psyche, rather from of emerges from orities in in society. The new new structure structure that emerges from the inner world of society. The orities remem­ inspirations, rememintuitions, inspirations, images, intuitions, dream images, of dream form of the the psyche, psyche, in in the form meaning, personal meaning, toward personal impulse toward strong impulse fantasies and a strong bered bered ambitions, ambitions, fantasies survive to survive live and to replaces the persona. Working to live gradually destroys and replaces for, living for, worth living is worth nd something that sufficient; one is is no no longer sufficient; one must must now fi find that is fact, itit In fact, individual. In the individual. fit the to fit tailor-made to new direction must be tailor-made and this new individuating constructively individuating andconstructively deeply and is deeply who is individual who the individual of the grows grows out of in the second life. oflife. half of second half in is psychotherapy is development, psychotherapy ofdevelopment, stage of this stage For someone entering upon this the quite quite different different from from what what it is is for people people who who have have not not made it through the mature, or mature, developed or how developed matter how everyone, no While everyone, stages. While two stages. first first two no matter development— stagesofofdevelopment earlierstages the earlier from the elements from residual elements shows shows some some residual narcissistic features, borderline and some some borderline and narcissistic features, some some degree degree of participation childishness and lingering childishness some lingering environment, some the environment, mystique with with others and the in issues in defensiveness puerile puerile qualities qualities and defensiveness —these theseare arenot not the the paramount paramount issues is, centralis, Whatisiscentral individuation. What ofindividuation. stage of third stage the third in the therapy with a person in the formed in the persona formed identification with first, first, separating separating from from the the identification with the the persona integrity innerintegrity ofinner point of second second stage, stage, and and then finding a personal centre, a point intimations collective culture of collective stereotypes of of the stereotypes that is free of culture and based on intimations inner the inner integration of the of integration degree of is aa degree for is aimed for What is aimed Self. What of of the Self. in balance in vital balance allows for striking a vital which allows Self, which opposites opposites inherent inherent in the Self, s of one's everyday everyday life. life. lung Jung speak speaks of integrating integrating the the shadow shadow and and relating relating in in aa animus. or animus. new new conscious conscious way way to to the anima or psychotherapy of Transference Transferenceisis fundamentally fundamentallydifferent, different,too, too, in in the the psychotherapy individu­ ofindividustage of third stage the third further the pursuing further entering or people people who who are are entering or pursuing as related to unconsciously related or unconsciously consciously or not consciously is not therapist is The therapist ation. ation. The to as seen typically seen therapist isis typically the therapist Instead, the father. Instead, guiding father. or guiding nurturing nurturing mother or indi­ achieved indihas achieved who has someone who as someone figure, as wisdom figure, as aawisdom not) as ruly or (t (truly or not) is projection This Self. the to personally relates viduality and wholeness and the Self. is the that content unconscious the is this because therapist the upon cast cast upon the therapist because this the unconscious content that the this at this world at somewhere in for, somewhere model for, find a model patient patient needs needs and and must find in the world and for, look People therapist. the of feet the at lands job That life. of IItage stage life. That job feet of People look for, and their in their growth in further growth their further for their need for they need models they the models find, the seem seem to to find, required now is what is wholeness psychological of image an and therapists. therapists, and an image of psychological wholeness is what is now required by the psyche. psyche. by inner an inner arrived at an have arrived figure is wisdom A A wisdom figure is someone someone who who isis seen seen to to have some­ necessarily not is It there. found resource the of out lives and re t cen centre and lives out of the resource found there. It is not necessarily somein person in is aa person problems. It is concrete problems. life's concrete answers to life's the answers one one who who has all the relatively remain to able is who opposites, the of containment sec we whom whom we see containment of the opposites, who is able to remain relatively situations, tension-ridden situations, and tension-ridden splitting and most splitting even the in even bala nced in nd balanced n t act aand iintact the most detach­ also detachbut also others but with others connection with of connection attitude of e ve n attitude a i n t a i n s an even who who m maintains l i ves andlives Selfand theSelf found the has found who has person who preferences. IItt is a person e nt from ego preferences. Ill ment _

Stei n M u rray Stein 1 2 Murray 2212

in relation relation tto that inner inner reality reality rather rather than seeking seeking approval approval from from others others oorr o that in being possessed possessedby bydesire desireand and attachment attachment to egoistic goals. Most importimport­ egoistic goals. being antly, itit is aa person distinctive freedom and aa distinctive spontaneity, freedom shows spontaneity, who shows person who antly, personality. This This person person is is vivid vivid and displays a sense based uniqueness based of uniqueness sense of personality. upon having made many clear life. in life. choices in individual choices clear individual upon This image image isiswhat what isis found found in in the transference projection. Much of it is, transference projection. This of course, course, aa projection projection based based on on unconscious unconscious patterns patterns that are emerging in emerging in of the field fieldbetween betweenpatient patientand andtherapist. therapist.One Onecan canthink thinkofofititas as aa sort sort of the idealising transference, transference,but but one one that that is is grounded grounded in in the archetype of the Self idealising rather than in the images. father images. or father unconscious mother or the unconscious rather The goal goal of this this third stage of individuation is the inner pieces of pieces union of inner union The of the psyche that were divided and split off by earlier developmental psyche that were divided and split off by earlier developmental of demands and processes. In this stage of integration, a strong to arises to need arises strong need processes. In demands join the opposites of persona (good person) and shadow (bad person), join the opposites of persona (good person) and shadow (bad person), of masculine masculine and and feminine, feminine, of of child child and and adult, adult, of right brain brain and brain, left brain, and left of thinking and feeling, of introversion and extraversion. All of the underunder­ extraversion. All introversion feeling, valued pieces pieces of of potential from separated from earlier separated were earlier development that were potential development valued consciousness and repressed in the course of the first two stages indi­ of indistages of consciousness and repressed in the course of the first viduation, so so that that one grow an an ego and enter the relation to the enter into relation ego and could grow one could viduation, world of reality In integration. In forintegration. back for come back now come way, now adaptive way, an adaptive reality in an world those first two stages type, psychological type, certain psychological becomes aa certain typically becomes one typically stages one one identifies with one one gender adopts a preference, one adopts gender preference, one gender gender and one identifies with and culture and wider culture and wider family and by family offered by those offered among those from among certain persona from identifies with it. it. In In the centring/integrating stage, on on the other one hand, one other hand, centring/integrating stage, identifies with reaches back and picks into them into weaves them and weaves pieces and denied pieces ordenied lost or the lost picks up the reaches back the fabric of the whole. is human is is human that is little) that very little) (or very nothing (or end, nothing whole. In the end, foreign feels less too feels it too Self, it the Self, approximates the ego approximates the ego as the Self. And as foreign to the Self. alienated from all of complexities of profoundcomplexities theprofound from the and from humanity and of humanity all of alienated from reality. and within and complexity within ofcomplexity accepting of moreaccepting becomes more onebecomes short, one reality. In short, without. without. Conclusion Conc l us i on

Individuation extent someextent Tosome individualism. To with individualism. confused with sometimes confused is sometimes I ndividuation is these two concepts much fact much in fact is in individuation is meaning, but individuation overlap in meaning, concepts overlap broader Individualism ego.Individualism theego. onlythe emphasisingonly limitedtotoemphasising notlimited thatititisisnot in that broader in often ends the ofthe importance of the importance on the centred on narcissism, centred ofnarcissism, kind of being aa kind up being ends up ego and exaggera anexaggerabean judgedtotobe correctlyjudged Thusititisiscorrectly needs. Thus andneeds. rights and its rights and its tion hand, other hand, the other Individuation, on the selfishness. Individuation, healthyselfishness. andhealthy normal and of normal tion of includes not docsnot butititdoes selfishness, but andselfishness, developmentand egodevelopment ofego amountof large amount incl udes a large leave off with and polarities and thepolarities integrate the andintegrate include and toinclude on to goes on It goes with this. It leave ofT complexities within and and without. without. IItt does 01 importance of theimportance ignore the not ignore does not complexities within altruism centrallyini nitsi t � elementscentrally theseelements includesthese ratherincludes butrather relationship,but and relationship, alt ruism and programme. that It i n that interest in social interest broad social and broad self-regard and b o t h self-regard fosters both I I fosters programme. It

13 divid uation 2 I nIndividuation 213

focuses focuseson on the the Self Self(not (not the the ego), ego), which which isis common commonto to all all humanity. humanity. The The individuation of stage third the from arises that individuality individuality that arises from the third stage of individuationisismade madeup up of of aa unique unique collection collection of of common common human human elements elements embodied embodied in in one one particular particular important more important made more or made others or from others life, life,and and this this one one life life isis not not cut cut off off from in experiment one as affirmed simply is It planet. the on life other any than than any other life on the planet. It is simply affirmed as one experiment in common the in position precise its of because unique is that life human human life that is unique because of its precise position in the common matrix. matrix. i b l i ography B Bibliography Individuation. ofIndividuation. Process of the Process in the Study in Case Study A Case 1 96 1 ) The Adler, Adler, G. G. ((1961) The Living Living Symbol: Symbol: A Stewart. McClelland and Toronto: Toronto: McClelland and Stewart. American American Psychiatric Psychiatric Association Association (APA) (APA) (2000) (2000) Diagnostic Diagnostic and andStatistical StatisticalManual Manualof of APA. D S M - I V-TR) . Washington, revised ((DSM-1V-TR). Disorders, 4th Mental Mental Disorders, 4th edn edn revised Washington, DC: DC: APA. U niversity A&M University Texas A&M 1 992) Integrity Beebe, Beebe, J.J. ((1992) Integrity in in Depth. Depth. College College Station, Station, TX: TX: Texas Press. Press. the ofthe Individuation and rchetype: Individuation 1 972) Ego Edinger, Edinger, E. E. ((1972) Ego and and A Archetype: and the the Religious Religious Function Function of Sons. Putnam's .P. G York: Psyche. Psyche. New New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. ( 1 950) Childhood . H . (1950) Erikson, Erikson, E E.H. Childhoodand andSociety. Society. New New York: York: Norton. Norton. Stoughton. ( 1 969) Children M . (1969) Fordham, Fordham, M. Children as as Individuals. Individuals. London: London: Hodder Hodder and and Stoughton. University Wesleyan University ( 1 967) Thresholds Henderson, Henderson, J. J. (1967) Thresholdsof ofInitiation. Initiation. Middletown, Middletown, CT: CT: Wesleyan Press. Press. Colophon. ( 1 977) Revisioning Hillman, Hillman, J. J. (1977) Revisioning Psychology. Psychology. New New York York:: Colophon. Stoughton. and Stoughton. Hodder and Individuation. London: of' Individuation. Way of ( 1 967) The Jacobi, Jacobi, J. J. (1967) The Way London: Hodder Press. Sigo Press. CA: Sigo Monica, CA: Paradise. Santa ( 1 98 5 ) The M . (1985) Jacoby, Jacoby, M. The Longing Longing filY for Paradise. Santa Monica, Research. ant Inf Contemporary and Psychotherapy (2000) Jungian (2000) Jungian Psychotherapy and Contemporary Infant Research. London: London: Routledge. Routledge. Princeton NJ: Princeton Essays on ( 1 966) TlI'o e.G. (1966) Jung, Jung, C.G. Two Essays on Analytical Analytical Psychology. Psychology. Princeton, Princeton, NJ: Press. niversity Press. U University Press. University Press. Princeton University N J : Princeton Trans/cmnation. Princeton, ( 1 967) Symhols - (1967) Symbols of of Transformation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton, in CW CW 9i: 1 968) 'A — ((1968) 'A study study in in the the process process of of individuation', individuation', in 9i: 290-354. 290-354. Princeton, Press. U niversity Press. Princeton University NJ: Princeton NJ: W. 1 928 - 1 930, ed. in 1928-1930, Given in Seminar Given the Seminar of the Analysis: Notes ( 1 984) Dream - (1984) Dream Analysis: Notes of ed. W. Press. U niversityPress. Princeton University NJ: Princeton Princeton, NJ: McGuire. Princeton, McGuire. 1 934- 1 939, ed. in 1934-1939, Given in Seminar Given the Seminar ofthe Notes of Zarathustra: Notes Niet::.sche's Zarathustra: ( 1 98 8 ) Nietsche's (1988) ed. Press. U niversityPress. PrincetonUniversity NJ:Princeton Princeton, NJ: Jarrett. Princeton, J . L. Jarrett. J.L. W. ed. W. 1 925, ed. in 1925, Given in Seminar Given the Seminar Psychology: Notes Analytical Psychology: ( 1 989) Analytical (1989) Notes of of the Press. UniversityPress. Princeton University N J : Princeton Princeton, NJ: McGuire. Princeton, McGuire. Douglas. e. Douglas. ed. C. 1 930-1 934, ed. in 1930-1934, Given in Seminar Given the Seminar of the Visions: Notes ( 1 997) Visions: (1997) Notes of Press. University Press. Princeton University NJ: Princeton Princeton, NJ: Princeton, Routledge. London: Routledge. Trauma. London: of Trauma. World of Inner World The Inner ( 1 996) The D. (1996) K alsched, D. Kalsched, A.A. York: A.A. New York: Clare. New L.A. Clare. trans. L.A. Think, trans. Natives Think, HolV Natives ( 1 9 1 0/1 925) How L. (1910/1925) I .cvy- Rruhl, L. Lèvy-Bruhl, Inferieures). societes Inferieures). les societes dans les mentalesdans Fonctionsmentales Les Fonctions title Les French title (original French K nopf (original Knopf R o utledge London: Routledge Consciousness. London: HistoryofofConsciousness. and History Origins and The Origins ( 1 954) The F. (1954) NClimann, F. Neumann, Pa u l. Kcgan Paul. and Kegan and and Routledge and London: Routledge A rchetype. London: an Archetype. ofan Anal)'si.\· of Mother: Analysis Ureat Mother: nit' Great ( 1 ( 5 5 ) The (1955) Pa u l . Kcga n Paul. Kegan --

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four volumes. C.G. Jung: Critical Papadopoulos, . K . (ed.) ( 1 992) c. G. lung: Critical Assessments, A ssessments, four volumes. Papadopoulos,RR.K. (ed.) (1992) London and Routledge. London and New New York: York: Routledge. London: Routledge. Samuels, ( 1 993) The The Political Political Psyche. Psyche. London: Samuels, A. A. (1993) Wilmette, IL: Schwartz-Salant, N. (1989) ( 1 989) The I L : Chiron. Chiron. The Borderline Borderline Personality. Personality. Wilmette, Schwartz-Salant, N. Midlife. Dallas, Spring. Stein, ( 1 983) In Dallas, TX: Spring. In Midlife. Stein, M. (1983) La Salle, IL: Map of of the the Soul. I L : Open Open Court. Court. ( l 998a) lung's Jung's Map Soul. La — (1998a) College Station, TX: Texas ( l 998b) Trans formation: Emergence Texas Transformation: Emergenceof of the the Self. Self. College (1998b) U niversity Press. Press. A&M University von Franz, M.-L. M .-L. (1964) ( 1 964) 'The The process M .-L. von process of of individuation', individuation', in in e.G. C.G. lung Jung and M.-L. Franz, his Symbols. Symbols. Garden N Y : Doubleday. Doubleday. Garden City, City, NY: Franz, Man Man and and his Dallas, TX: Spring. ( 1 977) Individuation Tales. Dallas, Individuationin in Fairy Fairy Tales. (1977)

Active imagination Joan Joan Chodorow

IIntroduction ntro d uc t i o n

To importance and and overall overall relevance relevance of of active imagination in To introduce the importance the of no better better source source than Jung Jung himself. himself. IIn n a the Jungian Jungian opus, opus, II can think of beautifully reflects on the the significance significance of of active active beautifully written written passage, passage, he he reflects imagination the same same time time conveys conveys a bit bit of ofits its magic: magic: imagination and at the My fundamental views views and and ideas ideas derive derive from fromthese theseexperiences. experiences. My most fundamental First made the the observations observations and only then hammer out out my my First I made and only then did did I hammer views. guides the crayon crayon or brush, brush, the the views. And And so so itit is is with with the the hand that guides foot that executes the dance-step, with the eye and the ear, with the foot that executes the dance-step, with the eye and the ear, with the word thought: a dark dark impulse impulse is is the the ultimate ultimate arbiter arbiter of the the word and and the thought: pattern, an unconscious 'a priori' precipitates itself into plastic form. pattern, unconscious 'a priori' precipitates itself into plastic form. (lung 1 947: par. 402) (Jung 1947: To again, his his 'most 'mostfundamental fundamentalviews views and and ideas ideas derive derive from from these these To say it again, experiences' . Most the basic basic concepts concepts of ofanalytical analytical psychology psychology come come experiences'. Most of of the from experiences with obser­ from Jung's experiences with active active imagination. imagination. First, First, he he 'made the observations' only then did he he 'hammer 'hammer out' out' his his views. views. For For example, example, the vations' and and only shadow, syzygy (anima animus), persona, persona, ego, ego, the the Self, Self, all all of ofthese these shadow, the syzygy (anima and animus), are at the the same same time time they they are areinner innerfigures figures and andinner innerevents events are concepts, concepts, but at that personify certain certain structures structures and functions functions of of the thepsyche. psyche. Affect, Affect, that personify archetype, concepts — - but archetype, complex, complex, libido libido —these theseare are words words and and concepts but in in the deepest palpable human humanexperiences. experiences. deepest sense sense they they are palpable Jung referred to active active imagination imagination as his his 'analytical 'analytical method method of ofpsychopsycho­ Jung referred therapy' ( 1 97 5 : 222). curiosity therapy' (1975: 222). The The process process involves involves turning turning attention attention and curiosity toward inner world world of ofthe theimagination imaginationand andexpressing expressingititsymbolically, symbolically, toward the inner all self-reflective, psychological of view. view. The The many many all the the while seeking a self-reflective, psychological point point of creative active imagination imagination include include visions the mind's mind's eye, eye, creative forms forms of of active visions in in the hypnagogic only as as visual visual impressions, impressions, but also also hypnagogic images imagesthat that float float up up not only uuditory images, motor images images and and other othersomatosensory somatosensory impressions; impressions; auditory images, dialogue fig ures ; expressing or all all dialogue with with inner figures; expressing the the imagination imagination through through any or

2216 1 6 Joan Joan Chodorow C h o d o row

of the arts, the the symbolic symbolic enactment enactment of Sandplay, Sandplay, and many many others. others. Active Active imagination may include work with the dynamics of the therapeutic imagination may include work with dynamics of the therapeutic relarela­ tionship, that is, tionship, is, the the transference transference as as active active imagination imagination(Jung (lung1916/1958: 1 9 1 61 1 958: par. 186; par. 1 86; Davidson Davidson 1966). 1 966). Finally, Finally, the the scholarly scholarly process process of ofsymbolic symbolic amplification (lung's (Jung's method method of dream interpretation) is based on the same amplification natural process process of of parallel parallel association association as as active active imagination imagination(Jung (lung1947: 1 947: par. 404). par. 404). Active imagination imagination opens opens to to and and draws from the Active the depths depths of ofthe the unconuncon­ scious. At At the same time, forms are are shaped shaped by by the particular scious. time, its expressive expressive forms tastes, talents talents and inclinations tastes, inclinations of of each individual, individual, which in turn turn have have been been influenced by by the the cultural cultural atmosphere atmosphere (Henderson influenced ( Henderson 1962: 1 962: 8-9). 8-9).Every Everycreative creative process requires requires such such aa relationship relationship of the conscious process conscious and the the unconscious. unconscious. From this From this perspective, perspective, active active imagination imagination and creative creative imagination imagination are are basically the the same same process. process. Both Both involve involve the the expression expression and and transformation basically through 'ritual', 'ritual', 'rhythmic of the emotions emotions through 'rhythmic harmony', harmony', 'reason' and 'rela'rela­ tionship' (L.H. The main main difference has to to do with tionship' ( L . H . Stewart Stewart 1987: 1 987: 138). 1 38 ) . The difference has with intent. Creative imagination isis turned turned toward toward the creation of intent. Creative imagination of the the cultural cultural forms (religion, (religion, art, philosophy, philosophy, society), society), while while active imagination is is turned turned toward the re-creation re-creation of of the the personality. personality. In Jung's life isis paradox, paradox, so so it is seems natural that his In lung's view, view, life seems natural his important important presented in in paradoxical ways. On one hand, ideas are presented hand, active active imagination imagination isis a meditative procedure and/or andlor expressive expressive process, done by by the the process, meant meant to be done patient alone, away from the analyst. analyst. On On the the other other hand, hand,by bylinking linkingactive active imagination symbolic method interpretation and and to to work work imagination to his symbolic method of dream interpretation with the dynamics with dynamics of the transference, transference, he seems seems to be laying laying the the groundground­ work for aa comprehensive comprehensive analytical method of of psychotherapy. psychotherapy. Aligned by the the image-producing image-producing function function of ofthe the psyche psyche Aligned with with and shaped by ((the the imagination), Jung's lung's active active imagination imagination is is based based on onan aninherent inherentpsychic psychic fu nction, and the same same time time it it is is aamethod methodof ofself-healing self-healing that that can can be be function, and at the taught. Active imaginationisis not not so so much much a technique taught. Active imagination technique as it is is aa natural natural event: things which which actually actually happen, not propoundpropound­ event: 'I'I write about things happen, and am not ing methods of treatment' treatment' (Jung (lung 1928: 1 928: par. par. 369). 369). ing Whether we we are are conscious conscious of of itit or not, Whether not, the the autonomous autonomous activity activity of ofthe thc archetypal It is is expressed expressed through through play, play, archetypal imagination imagination goes goes on on all all the time. It 01" dreams, fantasies, fantasies, and imagination as well well as the the age-old age-old forms forms of dreams, and active imagination creative lung, fantasy fantasy is is an an creative imagination imaginationthat that shape shape human human culture. culture. For For Jung, in tegrative function, mother of ofall allpossibilities, possibilities, where where like like all all psychopsycho­ integrative function, 'the mother logical opposites, outer worlds worlds are are joined joined together together in in living logical opposites, the the inner inner and outer l iv i n ); (lung 1921: 1 92 1 : par. par. 78). 78). union' (Jung Every good all creative creative work work are are the theoffspring offspring of ofthe theimagiima);i­ Every good idea and all n a t i o n , and have have their their source source in in what what one one isis pleased pleased to tocall call infantile i n fa n t i il' nation, fantasy. 1:l Iltasy. Not the the artist artist alone, alone, but butevery everycreative creative individual individual whatsoever whats(lcVl'1 owes aall l l that is is greatest greatest in in his his life life to to fantasy. fa n ta sy. The The dynamic d y n a m ic principle principle of 01 owes

Active magination 217 21 7 Active iimagination

fantasy fantasy is play, play, aa characteristic characteristic also also of of the the child, child, and and as as such such it appears inconsistent inconsistent with with the principle principle of of serious serious work. work. But But without this playing with we with fantasy fantasy no no creative creative work work has has ever ever yet yet come come to to birth. birth. The debt we owe of imagination imagination is is incalculable. incalculable. owe to to the play of (lung 1 92 1 : par. 93) (Jung 1921: par. 93) lung ahead of of his his time. time. His Hisearly early recognition recognition of of the the creative, creative, Jung was was far ahead integrative, fantasy anticipated anticipated future future develdevel­ integrative, healing healing function function of of play play and fantasy opments psychotherapy (Samuels (Samuels 1985: 1 985: 91 1 ) . SimiSimi­ opments in in psychoanalysis and and psychotherapy 9-11). larly, neuroscientists affirm interwoven relationship larly, contemporary contemporary neuroscientists affirm the the interwoven relationship of body, imagination and and consciousness, consciousness, as as well well as as the the multisensory multisensory body, emotion, emotion, imagination nature of the image (Damasio 1 999; Pert 1 997). nature of the image (Damasio 1999; Pert 1997). II turn now now to toaachronological chronological study study of ofJung's lung'sexperiences experiences and and ideas, ideas, based on his writings. based his writings.

JJUNG'S U N G ' S VI EWS ON MAG I N AT I O N VIEWS ON ACTIVE ACTIVE IIMAGINATION lung's views oon n active o fall three Jung's views active imagination imagination seem seem tto fall in in a natural way into three overlapping look at at some some early early influences influences and ideas overlapping periods of time. time. First, II look that seeds of his his future future method method during during 1902-1914. 1 902- 1 9 1 4. Next Next come come the the that contain seeds years 'creative illness' illness' (Ellenberger ( Ellenberger 1970: 1 970: 672-673) 672-673) and and experiments experiments years of of his 'creative take up up his his basic basic with 1 9 1 2- 1 9 1 9. In the third third section, section, II take with self-healing self-healing around around 1912-1919. In the ideas modifications during 1916-1961. 1 9 1 6-- I 96 1 . ideas as as well well as as certain certain developments and and modifications With sections, it seems natural wonder whether whether there there might might be be aa With three three sections, it seems natural to to wonder 'missing If so, so, the roots of of active active imagination imagination in in childhood childhood come come to to `missingfourth'. fourth'. If the roots mind. reminded of of the theyoung youngchild's child'simaginary imaginarycompanion companion (Cwik (Cwik mind. I'm reminded 11995), 995), the the many many ways wayscreative creative fantasy fantasy guides guides the 'invisible 'invisible friend' friend' and the development infancy on (C.T. Stewart Stewart 2001). 200 1 ). Although Although Jung's lung's childchild­ development from from infancy on (C.T. hood not presented presented in in aaseparate separatesection, section,his hisdiscovery discovery of ofactive active imagiimagi­ hood is not nation is completely completely interwoven interwoven with with his his re-discovery re-discovery of ofsymbolic symbolic play. play. nation is Initial infl uenc e s and ideas id eas Initial influences

( 1 9 0 2 - 11914) 9 1 4) (1902 -

lung's first published published work work is is his his medical medical dissertation dissertation (1902). ( 1 902). ItIt includes includes Jung's first detailed of seances in which a detailed descriptions descriptions of a series of in which a young medium opens herself inner figures figures and and embodies embodies them. them. Although Although the thefollowing following herself to to inner description twelve to fourteen years years before before he he disdis­ description was was written written perhaps perhaps twelve to fourteen covered lung's observation observation and andanalysis analysis of ofthe theseances seances covered active active imagination, imagination, Jung's led understand that that there there are are many many ways ways to to express express the the inner inner world world led him him to to understand of thc imagination, imagination, including including bodily bodily movement. movement. of the (Gradually i radually gestures gestures began began to to accompany accompanythe the words, words, and andthese thesefinally finally led led up to 'attitudes 'att itudes passionnelles' passionnelles' and whole dramatic dramatic scenes Her up to and whole scenes . . .. .. Her

2218 1 8 Joan Joan Chodorow C h o d o row

movements were were free free and and of a noble grace, movements grace, mirroring mirroring most most beautifully beautifully her changing emotions. (Jung 1902: (lung 1 902: par. 40) The nature of The of the the image image

From the beginning and throughout throughout his his long long life, life, Jung lung recognised recognised that that the the word 'image' word 'image' is not not limited limited to to visual visual impressions. impressions. He He cites cites Charcot Charcot who who differentiates auditory images, visual images and motor differentiates motor images images(Jung (Jung1902: 1 902: par. 86, and motor images par. 86, note 35). 35). Auditory, Auditory, visual visual and images appear again again in the Miss fantasies of M iss Miller M iller (Miller in Jung lung 1912: 1 9 1 2: 447-462). 447-462). A A few few years years later laterin in his first first paper on his on active active imagination, imagination, Jung speaks speaks of of 'visual 'visual types' types' who who experience the the unconscious unconscious as as fantasy experience fantasy pictures, pictures, and and 'audio-verbal 'audio-verbal types' types' who are more likely likely to hear hear inner innervoices voices (Jung (Jung1916/1958: 1 9 1 61 1 958: par. par. 170). 1 70). Twelve Twelve years later, later, in in his seminar on on dream dream interpretation he made the to fourteen years his seminar comment: 'Anyone 'Anyone with with a motor imagination comment: imagination could make make aa very very beautiful beautiful dance out of dance of that that motif' motif'(1928-1930: ( 1 928- 1 930: 474). 474). Complexes and and the the nature nature of emotion Complexes

Jung recognised recognised early the significance significance of the emotions. Whereas Whereas Freud Freud early on the emphasised the drives drives as as sources sources of of human human motivation, motivation, Jung Jung held held to the emphasised the the primacy emotions. His His word word association association studies studies measuring measuring physiophysio­ primacy of the emotions. logical psychic disturbance disturbance corroborated Freud's logical changes changes around around psychic corroborated both Freud's !;Uncept the repression repression mechanism, mechanism, and concept of of the the emoemo­ concept of the and Jung's concept tionally tionally toned complex complex (Jung 1904-1909). 1 904- 1 909) . The link to to affect affect isis that thatevery every complex is is organised organised around around an emotional complex emotional core. core. As As early early as as 1907, 1 907, Jung Jung proposed a theory that that the the emotions emotions are are at at the the foundation foundationof ofthe thepsyche: psyche: proposed 'The affectivity. Thought and action action are are The essential basis of our personality is affectivity. .. . .. only only symptoms symptoms of of affectivity' affectivity' (Jung (lung 1907: 1 907: par. par. 78). 78). Here Here Jung Jung suggests suggests are not not only only at atthe thecore coreof ofour ourmost mosttroublesome troublesomecomplexes: complexes: that emotions are primal sources sources also also of of the the higher higher functions. functions. they are primal

Two kinds kinds of thinking In 1912, I t) 1 2, Jung differentiated differentiated fantasy thinking and and directed directed thinking: thinking: Whereas directed an altogether altogether conscious conscious phenomenon, phenomenon,the the Whereas directed thinking is an same cannot said of of fantasy fantasy thinking. thinking. Much M uch of itit belongs belongs to to same cannot be be said sphere, but as as least least as as much much goes goes on on in in the thehalf-shadow, half-shadow. the conscious sphere, en t i rely in in the the unconscious, unconscious, and and can can therefore therefore be beinferred inferred only only or entirely indirectly. i nd i reet I y. ( .l U ll g 1912: I 9 1 2: par. pa r. 39) N) (Jung

Active magi n ation 219 21 9 Active iimagination

IIn n this the activity activity of of this early passage, passage, lung Jung links links fantasy fantasy thinking mainly mainly to the the the unconscious unconscious whereas whereas directed directed thinking thinking is is linked linked entirely entirely to to the activity of of consciousness. consciousness. In In later later writings, writings, Jung Jung speculated speculated about about the unconscious thoughts 'lieclose close beside, beside, above, above, or or below below consciousness, consciousness, thoughts and insights that lie separated nearest "threshold" "threshold" and and yet yet apparently apparently unatunat­ separated from from us us by by the nearest tainable' (lung 1947: 1 947: par. 362). Here Here Jung lung recognises recognises not only only fantasy fantasy tainable' (Jung par. 362). thinking, directed thinking as an unconscious unconscious function that comes comes thinking, but also directed to consciousness through link between between Jung's lung's two two kinds kinds to consciousness through its its products. products. The link of active imagination imagination is that that active active imagination imagination requires requires an an of thinking thinking and active ongoing the life life ongoing dialectical dialectical relationship relationshipbetween betweenthese thesetwo two streams streams of of the instinct. instinct.

Symbolic Symbolic amplification amplification Jung's 1 9 1 2 book the break break with with Freud Freud begins begins Jung's 1912 book about about the libido libido that led to the with two kinds kinds of thinking. thinking. Most Most of of the the book, book, however, however, is is with his his essay essay on on two devoted amplification of a series series of of vivid, vivid, creative creative fantasies fantasies that devoted to to Jung's amplification came culturally developed developed young young American American woman. woman. AAdistinguished distinguished came to aa culturally journalist lecturer, Miss Miss Miller M iller wrote wrote an an article article about about her herfantasies. fantasies. journalist and lecturer, With clarity, intelligence and a gift for self-reflective exploration, she With clarity, intelligence and a gift for self-reflective exploration, she analysed the origin of her own sub-conscious images, tracing them back to analysed the origin of her own sub-conscious images, tracing them back to certain impressions of life that had settled in her mind. In addition, she certain impressions of life that had settled in her mind. In addition, she amplified the images images with with new new information information she she gathered gathered from from amplified some some of of the ancient and contemporary cultural resources. Having never met her, Jung ancient and contemporary cultural resources. Having never met her, Jung worked entirely from her article and from his own imagination and ideas, worked entirely from her article and from his own imagination and ideas, drawing symbolic parallels parallels to to her her hynagogic hynagogic fantasies, fantasies, associations associations drawing further further symbolic and amplifications. In aa 1925 1 925 seminar, he he reflects reflects on absorbed he he was was and amplifications. on how absorbed in in hindsight hindsight he he recognises recognises the degree to which which he in her her fantasy images and in projected his own own wounded wounded feminine feminine nature nature (Jung (lung 1925: 1 92 5 : 27-28; 27-28; projected onto onto her, his Shamdasani 1990). 1 990). In another early early formulation, formulation, Jung Jungdistinguished distinguished retrospective retrospective underunder­ In another standing prospective understanding understanding (Jung 1 9 1 4: par. 39 1 ) . RetroRetro­ standing from from prospective (Jung 1914: par. 391). spective past as as spective understanding understanding uses uses aa reductive reductive method. method. It It is oriented oriented to to the past it seeks a causal, causal, scientific scientific point of of view. view. By By contrast, contrast, prospective prospective underunder­ it seeks standing constructive method. is oriented oriented toward toward the the future, future, standing uses uses aa constructive method. It It is inviting valuing subjectivity. subjectivity. 'The constructive constructive standpoint standpoint inviting speculation speculation and and valuing asks of this this present present psyche, psyche, aa bridge bridge can can be be built built into into its its own own asks how, how, out out of future' (lung 1914: 1 9 1 4: par. par. 399). 399). Jung Jung never never denied denied the the importance importance of of reconrecon­ future' (Jung strueting the past, but but made made the the comment: comment: `To 'To understand understand the the psyche psyche structing the past, causally is understand only only one one half half of of it' it' (Jung (lung1914: 1 9 1 4: par. par. 398). 398). Both Both causally is to to understand ways are essential: essential: 'The 'The psyche psyche at at any any given given moment moment is is on on ways of of understanding understanding are the hand the the result result and and culmination culmination of has been been and and on on the the the one one hand of all all that that has ot her a symbolic symho lic expression expression of l l that is to he' he' (Jung (.lung 1914: 1 9 1 4: par. 405). 40) ). From other of aall that is

220 Joan C h od orow Joan Chodorow 220



221 magi n at i o n 221 Active Active iimagination

understand the the beginning, beginning, the the passion passion to to understand the meaning meaning of the symbol was an the essential part part of active imagination. of active essential Confrontation with uncons c i o us th e unconscious with the Confrontation

9 1 9) 1 9 1 2 - 11919) ((1912 -

Jung's book book Symbols Symbols of of Trans Transformation proposed aa broader, broader, more 1 9 1 2) proposed formation ((1912) lung's inclusiveconcept conceptofoflibido libidothan than Freud Freud could could accept accept and and with its with its inclusive publication, their their friendship friendship and and collaboration came to an Following end. Following an end. publication, the break with Freud, Jung fearful with fearful disoriented, with and disoriented, uncertain and became uncertain lung became the discover todiscover Seekingto him.Seeking overwhelmhim. tooverwhelm threatenedto that threatened and lethargic moods that the cause cause of his inner crisis, life, entire life, his entire of his details of the details crisis, he went over all the the twice, with with particular particular attention attention to early But he could find no find no memories. But early memories. twice, situation desperate situation with aa desperate faced with Finally, faced relief. Finally, no relief. rational explanation and no turn decision to turn conscious decision the conscious made the he made do, he else to do, knowing what else and not knowing his attention attention toward and to the of the impulses of and impulses images and the images by the guided by be guided to be his unconscious. In In the following passage, lung Jung tells tells the the story of was he was how he of how following passage, unconscious. led to recapitulate play of childhood, process the process how the childhood, and how symbolic play recapitulate the symbolic led took him complexes. deepestcomplexes. hisdeepest ofhis oneof ofone core of emotional core the emotional to the him to

four-sided stone, aa four-sided of a red stone, gravel gravel on on the the shore. shore. Suddenly Suddenly II caught caught sight of stone fragment of stone was aa fragment high. It was half high. pyramid pyramid about about an an inch inch and and aa half - aa water— thewater ofthe actionof the action by the shape by this shape polished into this which which had had been been polished it in pure pure product product of chance. chance. II knew knew at at once: once: this this was was the the altar! altar! II placed placed it in the the middle middle under under the the dome, dome, and and as as II did did so, so, II recalled recalledthe the underground underground phallus phallus of my childhood dream. 73 - 1 74) 1 96 1 1 1 965: 1173-174) (lung (Jung 1961/1965: the schoolboy, the as aa schoolboy, years as his years to his While While lung's Jung's building building game game took took him him back back to he when childhood early to back further still him took recalled he dream dream he recalled took him still further back to early childhood when he under­ an in God phallic cannibalistic, a about nightmare terrifying a had had a terrifying nightmare about a cannibalistic, phallic God in an underboy little boy the little when the time when troubled time temple. The ground ground temple. The dream dream came came around around aa troubled with Overwhelmed death. and funerals with Jesus Lord associate to began began to associate Lord Jesus with funerals and death. Overwhelmed with free feel free notfeel did not he did and he prayers and his prayers in his fears, fears, he he could could no no longer longer find find comfort comfort in the nightmare, his after Long ruminations. anxious his about anyone tell to to tell anyone about his anxious ruminations. Long after his nightmare, the spoke anyone 'Whenever mind: to come to continued God-image terrifying terrifying God-image continued to come to mind: 'Whenever anyone spoke underground his underground of his emphatically about too too emphatically about Lord Lord lesus Jesus . . .. .. II would would think think of my without my me accorded been had which revelation frightful a counterpart, counterpart, a frightful revelation which had been accorded me without 1 3). 1 96 1 1 1 965: 13). (lung 1961/1965: seeking seeking it' (Jung extraordinarily sophisticated lung's Jung's extraordinarily sophisticated childhood childhood dream dream haunted haunted him him for 1 - 1 5). Through 1 96 1 1 1 965: 111-15). (lung 1961/1965: forgotten (Jung years, years, but but was was then then buried buried and and forgotten Through under­ the the process process of of symbolic symbolic play, play, he he remembered remembered and and gained gained aa mature mature underreflected aa traumareflected early trauma his early as his j ust as that just see that to see remarkable to is remarkable It is it. It of it. standing standing of within from within directed from was directed he was so, he family atmosphere, the family religious religious problem problem in in the atmosphere, so, to way to offered aa way psychology that of psychology school of develop aa school discover and to to discover and develop that offered of meaning of the meaning on the Reflecting on attitude. Reflecting religious attitude. with aa religious psyche with the psyche approach approach the memoirs: his memoirs: in his wrote in he wrote nightmare, he his his childhood childhood nightmare,

The first thing that came to the memory from surface was a childhood memory the surface perhaps my tenth or eleventh year. At that time I had a spell playing ofplaying that time I had a spell of passionately with building blocks. II distinctly distinctly recalled recalled how how II had built passionately little houses and castles, castles, using using bottles bottles to form the sides of the gates and vaults. Somewhat Somewhatlater later II had for mud for with mud stones, with ordinary stones, used ordinary had used vaults. my time. To my These structures mortar. mortar. These structures had had fascinated fascinated me me for for aa long time. astonishment,this this memory memorywas was accompanied accompaniedbybyaa good good deal deal of astonishment, The things. The these things. in these life in still life is still 'there is myself, 'there to myself, said to 'Aha,' II said emotion. `Aha,' emotion. small boy is still around, and But lack. But life which I lack. creative life possesses aa creative and possesses impossible seemed impossible man itit seemed grown man as aa grown For as how can I make my way to itT it?' For back present back the present from the distance from the distance bridge the to bridge able to be able should be to me that II should that with that contact with re-establish contact to re-establish wanted to Yet if II wanted year. Yet eleventh year. my eleventh to my period, that more that once more uponce take up and take it and to it choice but to return to period, I had no choice child's life with his his childish childish games. games. This This moment moment was was a turning point in point in of sense of with aasense and with resistances and endless resistances afterendless only after in only gave in my fate, but II gave that realize that to realize experience to humiliatingexperience painfully humiliating was aa painfully resignation. For For itit was there was nothing to games. childish games. playchildish except play doneexcept be done to be Nevertheless, them gathering them stones, gathering suitable stones, Nevertheless, II began accumulating suitable started And IIstarted water. And the water. from the partly from and partly shore and lake shore from the lake partly from partly still was still church was The church village. The whole village. castle, a whole b u ild i ng : cottages, building: cottages, aa castle, missing, so II made a square top on top hexagonal drum on building with aa hexagonal square building m iss i n g, so of it, to hesitated to but II hesitated requires an altar, but also requires church also A church dome. A and aa dome. it, and build t h a t. h u i ld that. Preoccupied t a s k , II t h i s task, approach this how I could approach uestion o the qq uestion w i t h the Preoccu pied with off how

fears. thefears. replacedthe pressurereplaced innerpressure ofinner kind of new kind However, aa new returned. However, energy energy returned.

t h l' or the o u t of s t ones out pick i n g stones a y , picking u s u a l Olll' as usual a k l' as h e Ilake long tthe wa l k ing aalong was walking one d(lay,

d reams and dreams visions and fantasies, visions offantasies, se ri es of long series to aa long hen, to h i mself, tthen, lI It' le opened opened himself,

my beyond my far beyond problems far of problems talked of Who talked then? Who me then? spoke to Who Who spoke to me the laid the Below together, knowledge? knowledge?Who Who brought brought the the Above Above and and Below together, and and laid life with my life of my half of second half the second fill the to fill was to that was everything that for everything foundation foundation for with above from above both from came both who came guest who alien guest that alien stormiest stormiest passion? passion? Who Who but but that below? from below? and from the of the secrets of the secrets into the initiated into was initiated dream II was childhood dream this childhood Through Through this many and many earth, and the earth, in the burial in of burial kind of was aa kind then was happened then What happened earth. earth. What that itit know that Today II know again. Today came out years years were were to to pass pass before before II came out again. into light into of light possible amount greatest possible the greatest bring the to bring order to happened happened in in order amount of that at that beginnings at unconscious beginnings its unconscious had its life had intellectual life My intellectual the the darkness. darkness. My time. time. 1 5) 1 96 1 1 1 965: 15) (lung (Jung 1961/1965: his and his subsided and fears subsided lung's fears nightmare, Jung's childhood nightmare, retrieving his fter retrieving A After his childhood



222 Joan 222 Joan Chodorow C h o d o row

Active magi nation 223 223 Active iimagination

that flowed flowed in an incessant stream and preoccupied him for years. He wrote them carefully as them (Jung (lung them down as carefully as possible. possible. He He also also drew drew and painted them 11961/1965: 96 1 1 1 965: 1 170-199, 70- 1 99, 11925: 925: 40-64 88-99, 1912/forthcoming). 1 9 1 2/forthcoming) . 40-64 and 88-99, IIn n 1916, 1 9 1 6, Jung lung brought brought forth forth some some of of the the first first fruits fruits of ofhis hisongoing ongoing confrontation unconscious. Seven Seven Sermons Sermons to to the the Dead is is not a confrontation with with the unconscious. professional an example example of of Jung's lung's own own active active imagiimagi­ professional paper, paper, rather rather itit is an It reads reads as as if if an an ancient ancient Gnostic Gnostic teacher teacher speaks speaks through through Jung's lung's pen. pen. nation. It This passionate, rhythmic, rhythmic, paradoxical the seeds seeds that that This passionate, paradoxical work work contains contains the developed analytical psychology. psychology. At first, it it was was developed eventually eventuallyinto into lung's Jung's analytical At first, published that he heoccasionally occasionally gave gave to to friends. friends. published anonymously anonymously as as a booklet that Toward of his his life, he consented to have it published as as an an appendix appendix Toward the end of to his memoirs memoirs (Jung (lung 1961/1965: 1 96 1 1 1 965: 378-390). 1 9 1 6 he also wrote wrote 'The 'The to his 378-390). In In 1916 he also transcendent ( 1 9 1 61 1 957, 1916/1958), 1 9 1 61 1 958), aa significant significant and original original transcendent function' (1916/1957, work that remained remained unpublished unpublished for for many many years. years. Written Written with with the the rushing rushing raw presents aa multidimensional multidimensional introduction introduction to to raw energy energy of a first draft, itit presents his his new method. Before ideas on active active imagination, imagination, there is aa touching touching Before returning returning to to his his ideas story about Jung lung as father, reported reported by by Franz, Franz, his his third-born third-born child child and and only only son. Franz was born in 1 908, so he was only 4 or 5 years old when lung son. was in 1908, he was only 4 or 5 years old when Jung began shore of the the lake lake by by the thefamily family began playing playing his his building building game game on on the the shore home. Many years years later when when Franz Franz Jung lung was was himself himself an an elder, elder, Swiss Swiss home. Many analyst Oppikofer asked asked him him whether whether he heremembered remembered anything anything analyst Renate Oppikofer about the years of of his father's 'Confrontation 'Confrontation with with the the unconscious'. unconscious'. Franz Franz replied not remember remember much. much. But But replied that he was quite quite young back then and did not he remember aa time time when when he and his his father father often often played played aa building building he did remember game the building building game game was a game together together by by the the side side of of the the lake. lake. For Franz, the simple e .G . Jung lung died died in in simple memory memory of of father father and and son playing together. together. When C.G. 11961 96 1 and the first first time time -and Franz Franz read read his his father's father's memoirs, memoirs, he he realised realised -- for the the game was only about father father and and son son atatplay play(Renate (RenateOppikofer, Oppikofer, the game was not only personal 1 995). II am grateful for her permission to tell tell this personal communication, 1995). story because it light of story because it offers offers aa privileged privileged insight insightinto into lung Jung as as father. father. In light th is story, it seems seems especially especially fitting lung's interest interest in in building building this fitting that that Franz Jung's never end, as as he he became became aagifted gifted architect. architect. never came came to an end,

To extent that I managed managed to translate the emotions emotions into To the extent into images images -that is to say, say, to find find the images images which which were were concealed concealedininthe theemotion emotion -II was n was inwardly inwardly calmed calmed and and reassured. reassured. Had I left those images images hidden hidden iin the succeeded in i n that that the emotions, emotions, I might have succeeded in splitting splitting them them off off but in case would inexorably inexorably have neurosis and so so been been case II would have fallen fallen into into a neurosis ultimately result of of my my experiment experiment II ultimately destroyed destroyed by by them them anyhow. anyhow. As a result learned be, from the the therapeutic therapeutic point of of view, view, to to learned how how helpful helpful itit can can be, fi nd the particular particular images images which which lie lie behind behind emotions. emotions. find (lung 1 96 1 1 1 965: 177) 1 77) (Jung 1961/1965: IItt is is in in the the transformation transformation from from affect affect to to image image that that active active imagination imagination aligns aligns itself itself with with the the natural natural healing healing function function of of the the imagination. imagination. In In place of raw that express express raw affect, affect, the imagination creates symbolic images and stories that the in aa way way that that may may be bemore morebearable. bearable. This This completely completely the mood or emotion in natural process occurs in symbolic play children and it in the spontaneous symbolic play of children guides continuing process process of ofpsychological psychological development. development. Certain Certain guides the continuing meditative well as active active imagination, similar meditative traditions traditions as well imagination, seem seem to foster a similar kind development. It involves a shift from a state state of of being being flooded flooded kind of inner development. by affect, toward aa new new symbolic symbolic perspective. perspective. Jung lung describes describes the the developdevelop­ by affect, ment of such a new point of view in his 'Commentary on The Secret ment such view in his 'Commentary The Secret of of the

Golden Golden Flower': What lower level level had led led to to the the wildest wildest conflicts conflicts and panicky What on a lower and to panicky outbursts of of emotions, emotions, from from the the higher higherlevel level of of personality personality now now looked looked like the valley valley seen seen from mountain top. top. This This does does not not like aa storm in the from the mountain mean of its its reality, reality, but instead instead of being in it mean that the storm is robbed of one is above it. But But since since in in aa psychic psychic sense, sense, we we are both both valley valley and and one is mountain, might seem seem a vain vain illusion illusion to to deem deem oneself oneself beyond what is is mountain, itit might human. One certainly does feel feel the the affect affect and and is is shaken shaken and tormented by it, yet yet at at the thesame same time time one oneisisaware awareofofa ahigher higherconsciousness consciousness by it, looking on which prevents one from from becoming becoming identical identical with with the the affect. affect. (lung 1 929: par. 1 7) (Jung 1929: par. 17)

Attitudes toward fantasy JJung's ung's iideas deas on m ag i nati o n on active active iimagination

( 1 9 1 6 - 11961) 96 1 ) (1916 -

Emotions .lJung ung never never changed changed his his early early views views about about the thesignificance significance of ofthe theemotions. e m oti ons But o ve r the the years years his his interest interest shifted shifted gradually gradually from from affect affect toward toward his his Rut over of archetype. The The shift shift may may well well have have begun begun in i n the t hemidst midst deVeloping developing theory of pe ri m e nts in possihle to to (If ()I' his his ex experiments in self-healing self-healingwhen whenhe he realised realised itit was was possible ' ttranslate' ra nsla te ' his his own own troublesome t roublesome emotions emot ions and and moods moodsinto i n t osymbolic symholicimages. images . .

Ever of thinking' thinking' (1912), ( 1 9 1 2), Jung lung remained remained Ever since since his his early early essay essay on on 'Two 'Two kinds of engaged nature of offantasy fantasythinking, thinking, directed directed engaged with with questions questions about about the nature thinking the dynamic dynamic relationship relationship between between them. them. Over Over the years, years, he he thinking and and the described passive attitudes fantasy: 'It 'It all all depends depends described also also active active and and passive attitudes toward fantasy: on the attitude attitude the the patient patienttakes takestoward towardhis hisfantasies' fantasies'(Jung (lung1913/1955: 1 9 1 31 1 955: on the par. 4 1 7). par. 417). Whereas Whereas passive passivefantasy fantasynot not infrequently infrequentlybears bearsaa morbid morbid stamp stamp or or at

least race of abnormality, a bnormality. active act i ve fantasy t�l I1 t asy is or the t he least shows shows some some ttrace is one of

224 Joan 224 Joan Chodorow Chodorow

highest forms forms of of psychic psychic actIvity. activity.For For here here the conscious and the highest conscious and the unconscious personality of the subject flow together into a common unconscious personality of the subject flow together into common product in which which both are are united. united. (Jung 1921: (lung 1 92 1 : par. 714) 7 1 4) As Jung active fantasy, fantasy, itit sounds very As lung defines defines active very close close to aa dialectical dialectical relarela­ tionship between fantasy thinking and directed tionship between fantasy directed thinking. thinking. Each Each potentiates potentiates the other. Such the Such a union union of ofconscious conscious and and unconscious unconscious is is essential essential in in play, play, creativity and active imagination. creativity Starting points points of active imagination Starting

Active imagination imagination usually begins begins with a conflicted, depressed or disturbed Active conflicted, depressed state of mind. state mind. 'In 'In the the intensity intensity of ofthe theemotional emotional disturbance disturbanceitself itselflies lies the the value, the energy energy .. .. .. to to remedy remedy the the state of reduced adaptation' adaptation' (Jung value, (lung1916/ 1 9 1 61 par. 1166). The idea idea isis to to begin with the the raw material of 11958: 958: par. 66) . The begin with of the the unconuncon­ scious, example, affect, affect, image, image, impulse. impulse. Everyone Everyone gets gets at at itit in in his his or her scious, for example, own way. have the the capacity to open own way. Some Some have capacity to open directly directly to the the inner inner world world Others may may turn toward the of visual visual and auditory images. images. Others the inner inner world world of of bodily felt sensations, bodily sensations, movement movement impulses impulses and and psychosomatic psychosomatic symptoms. symptoms. Some painting or or other otherpicture picture Some choose choose (or (or are are chosen chosen by) by) a poster, photo, painting or concentrate on it it until until itit comes comes alive. alive. With With others, others, the the inner inner or object and concentrate voice less distinctly. distinctly. People People attend inwardly inwardly in in different different voice is is heard, heard, more or less ways to discover ways discover their their own points of of departure. departure. Take the unconscious unconscious in one of of its its handiest handiest forms, forms, say say aaspontaneous spontaneous fantasy, a dream, dream, an irrational irrational mood, mood, an an affect, affect, or orsomething something of ofthe the fantasy, operate with with it. it. Give Give itit your your special special attention, attention,concentrate concentrateon on kind, and operate it, and observe observe the the alterations. alterations. (lung 1 95 5 : par. 49) 49) (Jung 1955: He must must make make the emotional emotional state state the basis basis or or starting starting point point of ofthe the He must make make himself himself as as conscious conscious as as possible possible of ofthe themood mood procedure. He must is iin, n , sinking himself he is himself in in itit without without reserve reserve and and noting noting down on paper a ll the fantasies fantasies and other associations associations that come up. up. Fantasy Fantasy must must he be all allowed freest possible possible play, play, yet yet not not in such a manner that allowed the freest that itit leaves leaves of its its object, object, namely namely the the affect affect .. .. .. The The whole whole procedure procedure is is aa the orbit of ki n d of enrichment enrichment and and clarification clarification of of the the affect. affect. kind (lung 1916/1958: 1 9 1 61 1 958: par. 167) 1 (7) (Jung

Stages of active imagination imagination Stages met h od has two parts. The first tirst part is i s le/finK (he unconscious unconscious tome COIII(' up. 1111. The method letting the T hl second sel'llfld pa rt is is coming collling ((I (t "''''.1 with II 'i'" the ,11(' unconscious. utlcol/.I'ciou.I'. The process process is i� The to terntv part '

Active agination 225 225 Activei m imagination

sequential stages fluctuate back sequential by by nature, nature, yet there may be times when the stages and both may may occur occur simultaneously. simultaneously. For For example, example, itit is is possible possible to to and forth, or both open unconscious and give free fantasy, while while at the the same same open to to the unconscious and give free rein rein to fantasy, time an active, active, self-reflective self-reflective point of of view. view. Since Since everyone everyone is is time maintaining an unique, ways to the process. process. Sometimes Sometimes a single single unique, there there are are many many ways to approach the years: 'It ' I t has has experience experienceincludes includesboth bothstages. stages.Other Other times, times, itit takes takes many many years: taken forty-five years to distill distill within within the the vessel vessel of of my my scientific scientific taken me virtually forty-five work was the the work the the things things II experienced experiencedand and wrote wrote down down at at that that time time .. . . ItIt was prima lifetime's work' work' (Jung (lung1961/1965: 1 96 1 1 1 965: 199). 1 99). prima materia materia for for a lifetime's Closely identical with them are two two tenten­ Closely related related to to the the stages, stages, but but not identical dencies natural part of of the the process. process. One One is is the the aesthetic aesthetic denciesthat that arise arise as as aa natural tendency elaboration. The The other otherisisthe thescientific scientific tendency tendency tendency toward toward artistic elaboration. toward intellectual understanding. toward intellectual It seems possible It hardly hardly seems possible for for the the one one to to exist exist without without the the other, other, though though it it sometimes in practice: practice: the thecreative creative urge urgeseizes seizes possession possession sometimes does does happen in of the object object at the the cost cost of of its its meaning, meaning, or or the the urge urge to to understand understand of the overrides form . The The unconscious unconscious contents contents overrides the the necessity necessity of of giving giving itit form. want to be be seen seen clearly, clearly, which which can only only be be done done by by giving giving want first first of all to them be judged only only when when everything everything they have to say is them shape, shape, and to be tangibly present. (lung 1 9 1 61 1 95 8 : par. 1 79) (Jung 1916/1958: par. 179)

Forms Forms of of active imagination In 1 9 1 6, Jung lung had had not notyet yetdeveloped developed his histheory theoryofofpsychological psychological types. types. In 1916, H owever, as he studied the ways spontaneous fantasies arise, he seemed to However, as he studied the ways spontaneous fantasies arise, he seemed to describe a typology of the senses. 'Visual types should concentrate on the describe a typology of the senses. 'Visual types should concentrate on the expectation inner image image will will be Audio verbal verbal types types expectation that that an an inner be produced produced .. .. .. Audio usually hear inner words, perhaps mere fragments of apparently meaning­ usually hear inner words, perhaps mere fragments of apparently meaningless (lung 1916/1958: 1 9 1 61 1 958: par. 1 70). There are those those less sentences sentences to to begin begin with' with' (Jung par. 170). There are also whose 'hands have the knack of giving expression to the unconscious' also whose have the knack of giving expression to the unconscious' as well as those who who are are able able to to 'express 'express the the unconscious unconscious by by means means of of as well as those bodily movement' (lung 1 9 1 61 1 958: par. 1 7 1 ). In addition to developing the bodily movement' (Jung 1916/1958: par. 171). In addition to developing the capacity produce visual, visual, auditory and motor motor fantasies, fantasies, Jung lung advised advised the the capacity to to produce auditory and reader to note everything down in writing, as well as to make drawings. In reader to note everything down in writing, as well as to make drawings. In this writing and work with with plastic plastic this earliest earliest paper paper he he spoke spoke also also of of automatic automatic writing and work materials. materials. lung described the the powerful powerful therapeutic therapeutic effect effect of of his his building building game game in in his his Jung described 11925 925 seminar his memoirs. memoirs. Although Although 'building 'building game' game' and and seminarand and again again in in his 'symbolic are not notspecifically specifically named named in in his hisessays essays on onactive activeimaginaimagina­ 'symbolic play' play' are ttion, ion. it it seems seems obvious obvious that terms such such as as ritual, ritual. dramatic dramatic enactment, enactment, and and that terms symbolic em brace many many forms forms of ofsymbolic s ymbo li cexpression. ex pression. symbolic enactment embrace

226 Joan Chodorow Chodorow 226 Joan

Although lung other names names to to describe describe them, them, Jung used many synonyms and other the actual expressive expressive forms not change change much much over over forms of active imagination imagination did not the years. years. The described in 1 9 1 6 appear The same same forms forms lung Jung described in 1916 appear and reappear in later writings. And they begin begin to draw, draw, to to paint, paint, or orto toshape shapetheir theirimages imagesplasplas­ And so they tically, or two two tically, and women sometimes do weaving. weaving. II have even had one or women figures. Of course, they can also also women who danced their unconscious figures. be expressed in writing. (lung 1 935: par. 400) 400) (Jung 1935:

II therefore therefore took up aa dream-image dream-image or an an association association of of the the patient's, patient's, and, with this as a point of of departure, set set him him the the task task of ofelaborating elaborating or or developing according developing his his theme theme by by giving giving free free rein rein to to his fantasy. This, according to individual individual taste talent, could could be be done done in in any any number number of ofways, ways, taste and talent, dramatic, dialectic, dialectic, visual, acoustic, or in the form form of of dancing, dancing, painting, painting, drawing, or modeling. modeling. (lung 1 947: par. 400) 400) (Jung 1947:

Active iimagination Active magi nation 227 227

more difficul difficult casesitit is is far far more necessary to strengthen more t cases necessary to strengthen and concon­ solidate the the ego ego than than to understand solidate understand and and assimilate assimilate the products products of ofthe the unconscious. unconscIOus. (lung 1 9331 1 950: par. 621) 62 1 ) (Jung 1933/1950:

The The analyst lung's writings on active imagination the Jung's writings on active imagination include include his his ideas ideas on on the the role role of the analyst, descriptions of worked. He He was was non-directive non-directive in analyst, and and descriptions of how how he worked. in the sense distrusted dogmatic dogmatic ideas and and preferred preferred to to ask ask open-ended open-ended sense that that he distrusted questions. At the same time he engaged through all of the age-old cultural questions. At engaged all of the age-old cultural forms. In addition to creative formulation through the arts and the scien­ forms. In to creative the arts and the scientifi c passion to understand, lung engaged through two kinds of relationship tific passion to understand, Jung two kinds of relationship each separately, separately, the the —intrapsychic intrapsychicand andinterpersonal. interpersonal.Although Although II touch on each practice analysis involves involves an integrative process process of blending blending and and practice of of analysis an integrative interweaving, self­ interweaving, drawing drawing from the rich resources of human culture culture from aa selfrefl ective, psychological of view. view. reflective, psychological point of The The arts

Late in life, life, Jung lung speculated speculated about about musical musical composition composition as as active active Late in imagination: A musical musical configuration possible provided were configuration might might also also be be possible provided that itit were really have never never met met aa case case of of really composed composed and and written written down. down. Though II have this rt of of Fugue would Art this kind, kind, Bach's A would seem seem to offer an example, just as the representation of archetypes is is aa basic basic feature feature of ofWagner's Wagner's the representation of the archetypes music. (lung 1 955: par. 754) 754) (Jung 1955:

When the vivid vivid When appreciating appreciating the the expressive expressivemovements movementsof ofthe the body, body, or the colours shapes that bring a painting painting to to life, life, or orwhen when using using poetic poetic colours and and shapes that bring metaphor describe any events, it obvious that Jung's lung's metaphor to to describe any number number of of events, it is obvious aesthetic affirmed and amplified amplified that of of his patients. patients. aesthetic imagination imagination mirrored, mirrored, affirmed Involved both mentor mentor and and as ashighly highlydifferentiated differentiated witness, witness, Jung's lung's Involved as as both intention much about the creation creation of art, as as itit was was `the 'the living living intention was was not not as as much effect patient himself' himself' (1931: ( 1 93 1 : par. par. 104). 1 04). effect upon upon the patient Understanding

Dangers hlntasy images are not in in themselves themselves pathological, pathological, but but identification identification with with Fantasy them be problematic. problematic. them can be The characteristic feature pathological reaction reaction is, is, above above all, all, The characteristic feature of of a pathological identification of inflation inflation and and identification with with the the archetype. archetype. This This produces produces aa sort of possession out in in aa torrent torrent possession by by the the emergent emergent contents, contents, so so that that they pour out which therapy can can stop. stop. Identification Identification can, can, in infavourable favourable cases, cascs, which no no therapy sometimes more or or less less harmless harmless inflation. inflation. But But in inall allcases, cases. sometimes pass pass off off as as a more identification unconscious brings brings aa weakening weakening of ofconsciousconscious­ identification with with the the unconscious ness, hercin Iics not 'make' 'make'an anidentification, identifica tion, ness, and and herein lies the the danger. danger. You You do not you 'identifyyourself', yourself',but butyou youexperience experience your youridentity idcntity with wit h the t hc you do do not identify archet ype in unconscious way and so so are arc possessed posscssed by hy it. it. Il knee l encc in in archetype in an an unconscious

For lung, the the contents contents that thatemerge emerge in inactive activeimagination imagination require require underunder­ For Jung, standing, not require require interpretation: interpretation: 'Image ' Image and and meaning meaning are are standing, but but they do not identical, shape, so so the the latter latterbecomes becomes clear. clear. Actually, Actually, identical, and and as the first takes shape, the pattern needs needs no interpretation; interpretation; it portrays portrays its its own own meaning' meaning' (Jung (lung the pattern 11947: 947: par. is method of of symbolic symbolic amplification amplific ation is aligned with the the par. 402). 402). H His nat ural process process of parallel parallel association, association, inviting inviting exploration exploration of of questions questions natural around origins, meaning and purpose. around origins, Encounter dialogue with with the th e gods gods Encounter and and dialogue In ner-dirccted relationship relationship seeks seeks direct direct experience experience of the Self. Self. In In the the deepest deepest Inner-directed of the sense, hc analyst analyst brings brings conscious conscious and and unconscious unconscious together together through through sense, tthe ongoing certain analysands analysands to to ongoing intrapsychic intrapsychic work work.. In In addition, addition, Jung Jung taught certain

Active m ag i n ati o n 229 229 Active iimagination

228 Joan Chodorow C h o d o row 228 Joan

open to, engage engage with, and differentiate differentiate from from the the ongoing ongoingstream streamof ofvisions visions in mind's eye eye and and inner inner voices. voices. in the mind's Relationship Although active imagination is usually relation­ usually done alone, the therapeutic relationship serves as container of of this this process. process. The The analyst analyst 'mediates 'mediates the the ship serves as aa container transcendent function for for the the patient' patient'(Jung (lung1916/1958: 1 9 1 61 1 958: par. par. 146), 1 46), serving serving at at various times mentor, scholar and participant-witness. participant-witness. Toward the the end end various times as as mentor, of his life, life, Jung made made aa brief brief but butsignificant significant addition addition to to his his 1916 1 9 1 6 essay, essay, linking active transference enactments that may may emerge emerge or or linking active imagination imagination to transference crupt analytic hour. Here Here he he points points toward toward an anenlargement enlargement of ofactive active erupt in the analytic imagination include work with with the the dynamics dynamics of of the the transference. transference. imagination to include will have demanding sacrifices sacrifices In most cases a long conflict will have to be borne, demanding from sides. Such Such a rapprochement rapprochement could just as as well well take take place place from both sides. between analyst, the role role of of the thedevil's devil'sadvocate advocate easily easily between patient patient and and analyst, falling the latter. latter. falling to to the (lung 1 9 1 6/1 958: par. 186) 1 86) (Jung 1916/1958:

D E F I N ITIONS DEFINITIONS

IItt iiss not t o define define active imagination imagination because because Jung Jungused used many many not a simple thing to different of the terms terms are are clear, clear, while while others others are are different names to describe it. Some of Ilfluid, uid, embracing meaning. At rst he called called it the the trantran­ embracingmore morethan than one one meaning. At fi first sl:cndent ( 1 9 1 6/ 1 957, 1916/1958). 1 9 1 6/ 1 958). Then least nineteen nineteen years, years, scendent function (1916/1957, Then for for at least .lung his associates associates used used a variety variety of of names names to to describe describe the the method. method . Jung and his Somc particular form, form, for for example, example, 'the 'the picture picture Some names names referred referred to to a particular mcthod about drawing drawing or or painting painting symbolic symbolic pictures. pictures. Other Other names names method'' is about poin tcd to meditative meditative procedures, pointed procedures, ways ways to to open open toward toward the inner world of hhypnagogic y p nagogic images, and images, for for example, example, 'active 'active fantasy', fantasy', 'active phantasying' and 'visioning'. Further names include include technique descent, technique technique of 'visioning'. technique of the descent, iintroversion, n t rovcrsion, introspection, differentiation and exercises. exercises. It It introspection, technique technique of differentiation was not until until 1935 1 935 that Jung Jung used used the the term term 'active 'active imagination' imagination' for forthe thefirst first was ttime imc in when he delivered delivered the London . in public, when the Tavistock Lectures in London. .lJung's ung's transcendent tran scendent function function is is aa dynamic, dynamic, multifaceted multifaceted concept concept that that CIH.:om passes me t hod function and process. process. It It includes includes also also the the final final result result encompasses method, function and ,

((Dehing Dehing 1993). 1 9( 3 ) . The whole function'. It It is is aaprocess process whole process process is is called called the the 'transcendent 'transcendent function'. and aa method met h od at at the thesame same time. time. The Theproduction productionof ofunconscious unconscious comCOI1l­ pensa tions is a spontaneous proCl'SS; t h e conscious realization is the conscious realization is aa pensations is a spontaneous process; IIlI'fh(lt/. The funct ion is ca l led ' t ra n scenden t ' hel:a u se i t facili tates t he called 'transcendent' because it facilitates the method. The function is

transition psychic condition the transition from from one one psychic conditionto to another another by by means means of the mutual confrontation of of opposites. opposites. (Jung 1 93911 954: par. 780) (Jung 1939/1954: par. 780) While 'transcendent function' method, function function and and While the the term 'transcendent function' refers refers to to method, more, alone. Even Even so, so, ititisis more, active active imagination generally refers to the method alone. clear 'active imagination' imagination' is analytical method clear the the term term 'active is an analytical method (active (active imagina­ imagination) underlying image-producing image-producing function tion) based on the underlying function of of the the psyche. psyche. Both the of the imagination are are dynamic, dynamic, the transcendent function and the function of creative, transform the theliving living creative, complex, complex, integrative integrative functions functions that that shape and transform symbol . For Hannah (1953), ( 1 953), the transcendent transcendent function of symbol. For Barbara Hannah function is is one of Jung's early ideas ideas that that was was incorporated incorporated gradually gradually into into his hisdeveloping developing Jung's early concept unity, the the Self. Self. concept of the archetype of unity, ( \ 948: 56), 56), active active imagination definite attitude For Gerhard Adler Adler (1948: imagination is is 'a definite toward of the the unconscious, unconscious, whereby whereby we toward the contents of we seek seek to isolate them and observe their their autonomous autonomous development'. development'. For Barbara Barbara Hannah Hannah and thus observe ((1953: 1 953: 38), 38),active activeimagination imagination can can be called called 'a `a scientific scientificform formof of meditation'. meditation'. For Rix Rix Weaver: Weaver: One discoveries was autonomous creative creative activity activity of of the the One of Jung's discoveries was the autonomous unconscious, which revealed revealed itself unconscious, an activity which itself as as having having what might be termed myth-forming propensity. that this this tendency tendency termed a myth-forming propensity. He He then found that could be used used analytically, analytically, and he named named the the process process active active could be and he imagination. (Weaver 1 9731 1 99 1 : 2) (Weaver 1973/1991: For Andrew Samuels Samuels (1985: ( 1 985: 112), 2) , 'active channel for for For Andrew 'active imagination imagination isis a channel "messages" the unconscious unconscious by any means; means; for for example, example, by by media media "messages" from from the by any such or writing'. writing'. For ForVerena VerenaKast Kast(1991: ( 1 99 1 : 161), 1 6 1 ), active active such as painting, modelling or imagination process by by which which aa strong strongbut butflexible flexible ego egocomplex complex imagination is is 'the process allows (complexes, dreams, allows intangible intangible unconscious unconscious material (complexes, dreams, and images) to be painting, poetry, song'. For For be expressed expressedin in aa tangible tangible product product such such as as painting, poetry, or song'. Murray pillars of Murray Stein Stein (2000), (2000),active activeimagination imaginationisisone oneof of the the 'four 'four pillars analytical Sam Naifeh Naifeh (personal ( personal communication, communication, 2000), 2000), analytical psychology'. psychology'. For Sam 'active defines analysis'. `active imagination imagination defines

JJUNGIANS U N G IA N S A N D POST-JUNGIANS POST.J U N G I A N S O N ACTIVE AND ON IIMAGINATION MAG I NA T I O N

Sinl:e s based n aa natural, natural, creative creative healing healing Since Jung's Jung's active active imagination imaginationi is based oon prol:ess, inevitably, made its way into the the cultural cultural collective collective where it process, itit has, inevitably, is l i ve, wel l , fru i t fu l and u lt iplying. IIn n addition t he Jungian J ungian literature, literature, is aalive, well, fruitful and m multiplying. addition to to the tthere hen: is gro w i ng body hody of of literature I i terat u rc in in the the expressive ex pressive arts a rt s therapies therapies and and is the growing

Joan CChodorow h o d o row 3 0 Joan 2230



resurgenceof ofattention attention to to and development development of of the vast world literature on resurgence meditative and and contemplative contemplative traditions. meditative Among Jungian Jungian authors, authors, II look at four of Joseph innovations: Joseph major innovations: the major of the Among Henderson's concept concept of of the the cultural cultural unconscious, unconscious, Louis Louis Stewart's Stewart's theory theory of Henderson's affect and and archetype, archetype, Dorothy Dorothy Davidson's transference imagina­ active imaginatransference as active affect tion and Dora Kalff's Sandplay. Sandplay. tion The abundance abundance of imagination presents significant developments in active imagination of significant The an embarrassment of riches. riches. A A section section of of aa chapter, chapter, or even a full chapter or an more, cannot cannot do justice justice to generations who have have made and colleagues who of colleagues generations of more, continue to make significant contributions. make significant continue Criticisms by by Michael MichaelFordham Fordham and Elie Elie Humbert bring this section to a Criticisms close. and d developments e ve l o p m e nts n novati o n s and IInnovations Cultural unconscious unconscious Cultural

Joseph Henderson introduced the concept in unconscious in cultural unconscious the cultural of the concept of Henderson introduced Joseph 1962. A mediating layer between the personal and primordial unconscious, unconscious, 1 962. A mediating layer between the personal and the cultural is a latent function. mir­ potential isis mirinherent potential As inherent function. As unconscious is cultural unconscious the rored by certain powerful influences from the environment family, (via family, rored by certain powerful influences from the environment (via the cultural zeitgeist), the education and and the the zeitgeist), and awakened and unconscious is awakened cultural unconscious education activated. Such does not necessarily an as an come as necessarily come experience does educational experience Such an educational inspiration (though it may originate that way) but is built up through inspiration (though is built up through way) originate many to cultural of principles, of moral principles, ofmoral taste, of canons of taste, cultural canons exposures to many exposures social custom, and of certain uponcertain built upon is built symbolism. And it is religious symbolism. of religious social custom, influences from the the family family life life in in which which an an important these ofthese important part of influences from canons have Accordingly generations. Accordingly previousgenerations. fromprevious on from passed on been passed have been much of at personal at not personal is not unconscious' is 'personal unconscious' called 'personal been called of what has been all but through transmitted through pattern transmitted culture pattern collective culture thecollective partofofthe that part but that our environment before we ego forego validity for its validity affirm its to affirm able to were able we were environment before consciousness. consciousness. 8-9) 1 962: 8-9) (Henderson 1962: Four are social are andsocial philosophic and religious, philosophic aesthetic, religious, theaesthetic, attitudes, the cultural attitudes, hlUr cultural organised attitude. psychological attitude. self-reflectivepsychological central,self-reflective fifthcentral, around aafifth organised around Characterising the four 'the describes 'the hedescribes attitudes, he cultural attitudes, traditional cultural four traditional ( h a ract erising the ethical attitude. philosophical attitude, ofaa philosophical logic of the logic of a social attitude, the consistency of et hical consistency the irrationality sensuous irrationality thesensuous attitude .. .. .. the religious attitude ofaa religious nature of t ra n s ce ndent nature t he transcendent ()I' 49). 1 984:49). (Henderson1984: attitude' (Henderson aes th e tic attitude' he aesthetic of tthe As a t t i t udes c u l t ural attitudes the cultural spirit, the of the spirit, life of t he life experience the to experience ways to i n t ri nsic ways As intrinsic may imagi n a t ion . t heimagination. ofthe cat ego ries of orcategories forms or i n t rinsic forms as intrinsic also as understood also he understood lI1ay he '

231 magi nation 231 Active Active i imagination

Affect Affect and and archetype archetype

extends 1 985- 1 986) theoretical Louis Louis Stewart's Stewart's ((1985-1986) theoretical contribution contribution reframes reframes and and extends certain understanding differentiated more deeper, a offering ideas, Jungian certain Jungian ideas, offering a deeper, more differentiated understanding with work with imagination. From active imagination. and active psyche and the psyche of the of of both both the the nature nature of From work libido of affects as interest and joy understand to came Stewart children, children, Stewart came to understand joy and interest as affects of libido, th� of the functions of higher functions the higher the the life life instinct. instinct. His His hypothesis hypothesisisisthat that all all of of the attitudes cultural symbolic the and functions ego the including psyche psyche — including the ego functions and the symbolic cultural attitudes — the transform and modulate they as interest and joy from evolved have have evolved from joy and interest as they modulate and transform the so, affects affects of ofcrisis crisisand and survival. survival. Just Just as as Joy Joy energises energises play play and and imagination, imagination, so, affects crisis The exploration. and curiosity energises Interest affect the the affect Interest energises curiosity and exploration. The crisis affects psychological! process ofofpsychological/ natural process the natural then, then, provide provide prima prima materia materia for for the symbolic symbolic development. development. express that express be that might be dynamisms might universal dynamisms See �ing toto identify Seeking identify what what the the universal proposes Stewart development, its shape time same the at and lf s pnmal the the primal self � and at the same time shape its development, Stewart proposes mnemonic of mnemonic kind of as aa kind Relationship, as and Relationship, Reason and the the terms terms Ritual, Ritual, Rhythm, Rhythm, Reason Art, Religion, of respectively, elements, irreducible the are These device. device. 'These are the irreducible elements, respectively, of Religion, Art, Imagination, of Categories the are these . . . And Society. and Philosophy Philosophy and Society. And . . . these are the Categories of Imagination, Aesthetic, the Aesthetic, Religious, the the Religious, Attitudes, the Cultural Attitudes, Henderson's Cultural as Henderson's pear as and and ap appear . under­ His under1 38 - 1 39). His 1 987: 138-139). Stewart 1987: (L.H . Stewart Social' (L.H. the Social' Philosophic and the the Philosophic and the � ing tan archetypal the and energy psychic of sources primal as affects of standing of affects as primal sources of psychic energy and the archetypal � . sense deepest sense, the deepest In the perspective. In useful perspective. and useful elegant and an elegant provides an Imag1l1atlOn, imagination, provides attitud� psychological attitude self-reflective, psychological central,self-reflective, thecentral, is the imagination is active active imagination (dia­ religious (diathereligious culture: the human culture: of human resources of creative resources the creative from the drawing drawing. from ue philosophic/ the arts), (expressive aesthetic the lo within), god the wlth logue with the god within), the aesthetic (expressive arts), the philosophic/ � . (work social (work the social symbols) and c (understanding SCientifi scientific (understanding the the meaning meaning of of the the symbols) and the transference). mutual transference). the mutual of the with with dynamics dynamics of related closely related in closely brothers in two brothers of two archetype involves Affect Affect and and archetype involves aa tale tale of Symbolic elds. Charles fi fields. Charles Stewart Stewart makes makesan an outstanding outstanding contribution contribution in in The The Symbolic 200 1 ) . Stewart 2001). Development (C.T. MotivatesDevelopment Fantasy Motivates Creative Fantasy Hmt: Creative rn.petus: How IImpetus: (C.T. Stewart development symbolicdevelopment andsymbolic psychological and looks atatpsychological study looks systematic study HIS systematic His of perspectives of the perspectives from the adolescence from and adolescence childhood and infancy, childhood throughout infancy, throughout issues corresponding and disturbances c stage-specifi development, ormal normal development, stage-specific disturbances and corresponding issues ? investi­ he investistage, he each stage, of each fantasies of typical fantasies the typical Identifying the psychotherapy. Identifying 111 psychotherapy. in healing. and healing. development and shape development that shape symbols that the symbols gates the gates cross-cultural oncross-cultural ( 1 992) on Ward(1992) Karlyn Ward include Karlyn contributions include Further contributions Further body, on body, 1 ) on (200 Greene Anita imagery, and affect usic, exploration of of music, exploration affect and imagery, Anita Greene (2001) � . of psyche of the psyche in the sources in on sources work on own work my own conSCIOusness, and a�d consciousness, m1l1d and mind and my 2000). 1 99 1 , 2000). (Chodorow 1991, expressive movement expressive movement (Chodorow imagination active imagination of active form of as aa form Transference as Transference

to trying to was trying she was as she id ea as i m port a n t idea her important Da vidso n came Doro t h y Davidson Dorothy came to to her heing herself'being coun tertransference reactions. cert a i n countertransference u nderstand certain understand reactions. As As she she fel la therself

Active imagination Active i magination 233 233

2 3 2 Joan Joan C h o d o row Chodorow 232

pulled 'willy-nilly' into a drama drama not notof ofher herchoosing, choosing,she shewas wasled ledeventually eventually much of of analysis analysis may involve involve enactment 'hitherto to see that much enactment of of a patient's 'hitherto unconscious ( 1 966: 1135). 35). As begins to understand understand the the unconscious drama' drama' (1966: As the the analyst analyst begins symbolic nature of of the the vital vital emerging emerging dramatic dramatic enactment, enactment, something something may may symbolic shift. The patient patient does does not not need needpre-mature pre-mature interpretation, interpretation, rather rather the the shift. The empathic understanding understanding of ofthe the subtle subtle and andcomcom­ patient needs the analyst's empathic plex dynamics emotional atmosphere atmosphere between of plex dynamics in in the emotional between them. them. This This kind of relationship at pre-verbal level level is ofwhich which true true interpretainterpreta­ relationship at a pre-verbal is 'the 'the soil out of grow' (Davidson (Davidson 1966: 1 966: 143). 1 43). 'It 'It is is in in this this sense sense that thatIIthink thinka asuccessful successful tions grow' analysis can be thought of of as a lived-through active imagination' (Davidson 11966: 966: 135). 1 3 5). Recognising significance of transference transference as as active active imagination, imagination, Recognising the the significance Andrew Samuels ((1985) 1 985) looks ofDavidson Davidson (1966) ( 1 966) and and Andrew Samuels looks at at the contribution of also Schwartz-Salant ((1982), 1 982), coining 'medial practitioners' practitioners' to to also Schwartz-Salant coiningthe the term term 'medial describe bridge the the describe analytical analytical psychologists psychologists whose whose work work radiates radiates a 'desire to bridge has grown grown up up between between the theclassical-symbolic-synthetic classical-symbolic-synthetic approach divide that has and that ofofinteractional interactionaldialectic' dialectic' (Samuels (Samuels 1985: 1 98 5 : 204). 204). Continuing Continuing and that developments in this area include the contributions contributions of ofNorah NorahMoore M oore(1975, ( 1 975. 11986) 986) and 1 985). Building the association association and Sheila Sheila Powell Powell ((1985). Buildingon onthe the idea idea that the process is 1 969; Charlton is the basic element element in in all all analytic technique (Zinkin 1969; 11986), 986), Joe (200 1 ) makes splendid contribution contribution as ashe hedevelops develops Joe Cambray Cambray (2001) makes aa splendid symbolic enactment and symbolic amplification, with special attention to symbolic enactment symbolic amplification, with special to the inner experience of the analyst and the therapeutic relationship. the inner experience of the analyst and the therapeutic relationship.

Sandplay Sandplay Dora Kalff, aa Swiss Swiss analyst analyst who who worked worked with with children, children, had her training training Dora Kalff, had her analysis with Jung and completed studies at the Jung Institute, Zurich in analysis with Jung completed studies at Institute, Zurich in 11955. 955. When Jung encouraged her to develop a method of symbolic play for When Jung encouraged her to develop a method of symbolic play for child therapy, she she travelled travelled to to London London to tostudy studyMargaret MargaretLowenfeld's Lowenfeld's child therapy, 'World Technique' (Lowenfeld 1 939, 1 979). Jung knew about Lowenfeld's 'World Technique' (Lowenfeld 1939, 1979). Jung knew about Lowenfeld's work from a a 1937 1 937 congress congress in Paris and and itit seems seems natural natural to toimagine imagine he he work from in Paris recognised healing recognised in in Lowenfeld's Lowenfeld's technique technique his his own own early discovery of the healing fu nction of symbolic play. Lowenfeld developed developed her technique from from the the function of symbolic play. Lowenfeld her technique sa n d box, floor and other other building buildinggames games children children have haveplayed playedeverywhere, everywhere. sandbox, from of aa shallow shallow tray tray filled filled with with sand sand and a nd from earliest earliest times. times. Materials Materials consist of aa collection collection of of miniature miniature human, human, animal animaland andmythic mythicfigures, figures. of hundreds of houses. and other otherimages, images,everything everything houses, vehicles, vehicles, castles, castles, shells, shells, stones, stones, trees trees and needed create aa miniature miniature world. world. Adapting Adapting Lowenfeld's Lowenfeld's technique technique to to needed to to create J.1 u ngian Kalff, more more import import ungiananalysis, analysis,Kalff Kalffcoined coinedthe theterm term Sandplay. Sandplay. For For Kalff, aant n t than than verbal verbal interpretation interpretation is is creating creating an an atmosphere atmosphere she she called called 'a 'a free frl'l' aand nd sheltered sheltered space' space' (1980: ( 1 980: 29). 29). IIn n addition addition to to showing showing the the process process of of Sandplay Sand play in in aamarvellous ma rvel loll� d oc u lllen t a ry film f i l m made A m ma n (1972) ( 1 972) aand n d wri ting aa hook, hoo k , Kahl Kalil documentary made hy by Peter Amman writing

presentedher her work work throughout throughout Europe, Europe, the the United ((1980) 1 980) presented United States States and and Japan. In Japan, In 1982, 1 982, the the International International Society Society of ofSandplay Sandplay Therapists Therapists (ISST) ( ISST) was formed and in was in the the years years that thatfollowed, followed, affiliate affiliate groups groups were were formed formed in in many parts of many of the the world. world. An excellent excellent historical historical review, review, with aa comprehensive comprehensive English English language language bibliographythrough through1 1994, canbe befound foundinin the the book book Sand bibliography 994, can play: Past, Sandplay: Present and Future Future (Mitchell Present 1 994). An impressive impressive body (Mitchell and and Friedman 1994). body of literature continues to evolve evolve through the the beautifully beautifully written and illustrated illustrated Journal of Sandplay (www.sandplayusa.org) as Journal Sandplay Therapy Therapy (www.sandplayusa.org) as well well as as other other publications.

Further developments developments of of active active imagination Marie-Louisevon von Franz Franz ((1980) was the the first first to to suggest Marie-Louise 1 980) was suggest a subdivision subdivision of Jung's two stages Jung's stages of of active imagination. She proposed: empty the mind; let let of expression; expression; reaction by by the the ego, ego, a fantasy image arise; give it some form of ethical confrontation; confrontation; and and take take it into ethical into life, life, live live it. it. Others Others have have proposed proposed slightly different different fourfold fourfold stages slightly stages (Dallett 1982; 1 982; Johnson 1986). 1 986). Considering these similar similar yet yet at at the same time unique perspectives these perspectives on active imagination seems to to point point toward a natural seems natural dynamic dynamic process that that invites invites each person to discover their own way. discover way. Jungian Jungian contributions contributionstoto the the healing power of of the healing power the arts arts offer offer rich rich resources.Anthony Anthony Stevens Stevens( (1986) tellsthe the story story of Withymead, resources. 1 986) tells Withymead, aa therapeutic therapeutic community community in in the the United United Kingdom. Kingdom. A video video by by Carolyn Carolyn Grant Grant Fay (1996) ( 1 996) shows to active active imagination. imagination. Essays Essays shows her her multifaceted multifaceted approach approach to on music as way to to express express the the emotions emotions and and the the imagination imagination include include on music as a way Patricia ( 1 997), Margaret Margaret Tilly Tilly (1982), ( 1 982), Karlyn Karlyn Ward Ward (1992) ( 1 992) and and Patricia Skar Skar (1997), Patricia ( 1 992). Alfred shell-shocked veteran of of the the Patricia Warming (1992). Alfred Wolfsohn, Wolfsohn, a shell-shocked First original contribution using using the voice as therapy First World World War, made an original Joseph Henderson Henderson and Dyane ((Newham Newham 1992). 1 992). Joseph Dyane Sherwood Sherwood (2003) (2003) relate aa series of of illuminated illuminated alchemical alchemical paintings paintings to creative life and series creative development in life analysis. analysis. Studies by by Jungian Jungian authors on the Studies the therapeutic therapeutic value value of of art art include include Joseph Joseph Henderson 1 973), Edith Wallace (1975), ( 1 975), Joy Schaverien Schaverien (1992), Henderson ((1973), Edith Wallace ( 1 992), Mary M ary Dougherty 1 998), Richard Stein ((1992), 1 992), Kate (200 1 ) and many many Dougherty ((1998), Richard Stein Kate Donohue (2001) others. Lowinsky's gift active imagination imagination is shaped by by the the others. Naomi Naomi Lowinsky's gift to to active is shaped rhythm of poetry poetry (1999). ( 1 999). John John Allan Allan (1988) ( 1 988) and and rhythm and and rhythmic harmony of Helmut 1 993) are enact­ Helmut Barz Barz ((1993) are among among those those who who use use drama drama and dramatic enactment significant contributions M cNiff, ment as as active active imagination. imagination. The significant contributions of Shaun McNiff, lin therapist who who works works from fromaaJungian Jungianperspective, perspective, include include his his develdevel­ an art therapist upmen research (McNiff (McNiff 1998). 1 998). opmentt of art-based research Act ive imagination separated from from its its affective affective origins origins Active imaginationcannot cannot be be separated expressed other and and somatosensory somatosensory expressedthrough through visual. visual, auditory, auditory, motor motor and other imn�es. ry Watkins ( 1 976). Robert Robert Bosnak Bosnak(1986), ( 1 986). Robin Robinvan vanLOben Loben Sels Sels images. Ma Mary Watkins (1976),

234 Joan Joan Chodorow C h o d o row 234

McRae (1997), ( 1 997), Ruth Fry (1974) ( 1 974) and and Jeanne JeanneAchterberg Achterberg(1985) ( 1 985) (2003), Carol Carol McRae Ruth Fry as well well as as Robert Robert Assagioli Assagioli (1965) ( 1 965) are are among among those those who who have have made made sigsig­ as nificant contributions contributions toward toward experiencing experiencing and and understanding understanding the the imaginal imaginal nificant landscape and inhabitants. A A beautifully beautifully written written study study by by Mary Mary Lynn Lynn landscape and its inhabitants. Kittelson (1996) ( 1 996) approaches realm of of auditory auditory imagery imagery from from multiple multiple Kittelson approaches the the realm perspectives. The are all all about about perspectives. The writings writings and and teachings teachings of of Marion Marion Woodman Woodman are psyche's home the body body and and the the healing healing of of early early trauma. trauma. Anita AnitaGreene's Greene's psyche's home in in the significant contributions include 'Embodied ' Embodied active active imagination' imagination' (2003). (2003). significant contributions include Amy Mindell's Mindell's Process Process Oriented Oriented Psychotherapy Psychotherapy can understood as as aa Amy can be be understood development of active imagination imagination applied applied in in diverse diverse fields fields of of study study development of active ( Mindell 1985). 1 985). (Mindell As far far back back as as 1916, 1 9 1 6, Jung Jung and andhis hisassociates associates understood understood bodily bodily movemove­ As ment as as aa natural natural way way to toexpress express and and transform transformunconscious unconscious contents. contents. In In ment Tina Keller Keller describes describes her her first first experience experience of o f this in i n an an the following passage, Tina analytic hour hour with with Toni Toni Wolff Wolff in in Zurich, Zurich, perhaps perhaps around around1924: 1 924: analytic When II was was in in analysis analysis with with Miss Miss Toni Toni Wolff, Wolff, II often oftenhad hadthe thefeeling feeling When that something something in in me me hidden hidden deep deep inside inside wanted wanted to to express express itself; itself; but but II that also knew knew that that this this 'something' 'something' had had no nowords. words.As Aswe wewere werelooking lookingfor for also another means of expression, I suddenly had the idea: ' I could dance it.' another means of expression, I suddenly had the idea: 'I could dance it.' Miss Wolff encouraged me to try. The body sensation I felt was Miss Wolff encouraged me to try. The body sensation I felt was oppression, the image came was inside inside a a stone stone and and had had to torelease release oppression, the image came that that II was myself from it to emerge as a separate, self-standing individual. The myself from it to emerge as a separate, self-standing individual. The movements that grew out of the body sensations had the goal of my movements that grew out of the body sensations had the goal of my liberation from the stone just as the image had. I t took a good deal of liberation from the stone just as the image had. It took a good deal of the hour. After a painful effort I stood there, liberated. This very the hour. After a painful effort I stood there, liberated. This very freeing the hours hours in in which which we we only only freeing event event was was much much more more potent potent than than the talked. This was a 'psychodrama' of an inner happening or that which talked. This was a 'psychodrama' of an inner happening or that which Jung named 'active 'active imagination'. imagination'. Only Only here here it it was was the the body body that that Jung had had named took the active part. took the active part. (Keller 1 972: 22, R. Oppikofer) Oppikofer) (Keller 1972: 22, translated translated by by R. In the 1950s, 1 950s, pioneer therapist Mary Mary Starks Starks Whitehouse Whitehouse developed developed In the pioneer dance dance therapist dance movement as active imagination and today it is a branch of dance dance dance movement as active imagination and today it is a branch of therapy as well as a form of active imagination in analysis (Whitehouse therapy as well as a form of active imagination in analysis (Whitehouse 11954 954 1979; 1 979; Chodorow 1 974- 1 99 1 ). The process involves involves a mover, aa witwit­ Chodorow 1974-1991). The process a mover, Wyman­ ness. and the dynamics of their relationship (J. Adler 1 9721 994; ness, and the dynamics of their relationship (J. Adler 1972-1994; WymanM cG i n t y 1998, 1 998, 2002). n addition being aa valuable valuable form form of ofactive active imagii magi ­ McGinty 2002). IIn addition to to being nnation a t io n in in analysis, analysis. the the mover—witness mover-witness relationship powerful tool tool for for relationship offers offers aa powerful dialectic of expressive movement is part part of ofevery every depth dept h studying studying the the dialectic of expressive movement that that is Woodman (1982), ( l 9X2). Greene G reenl' psychologica l relationship. psychological relationship. Jungian Jungian analysts analysts Woodman ((2003), �()In ). Wyma n-McGinty ((2002), 2002 ). Spitzer (2005 ). Lorent/ Lorent/ Wyman-McGinty Spitzer (2003). (2003), Gerson Gerson (2005), ((1998), 1 l)l)X). as 1 996). Adorisio 2005 ). St romsted ((2001) 200 I ) and hers as well wellas as Fay Fay ((1996), Adorisio ((2005), Stromsted and ot others

co n t i n ue aa process proccss of t ive developmcn t. A puhlica t ion entitled l' n t i t kd continue ol crca creative development. A quarterly quarterly publication

Active Active imagination i magi nation 235 235

A A Moving Journal: Ongoing Ongoing Expressions Expressions of ofAuthentic A uthentic Movement Movement (www.mo­ (www.movingjournal.org vingjoumal.org)) reports on on many manyaspects aspects of ofthis thisevolving evolvingwork. work.

Arts in psychotherapy All the creative All creative art therapies therapies can trace their roots roots to to Jung's Jung's early earlycontricontri­ bution. bution. Art therapy, therapy, music music therapy, therapy, dance dance therapy, therapy, drama therapy therapy and and poetry therapy emerged emerged in the United United States States as as separate separate professions professions in in the the and 11970s. Both similar similar to to and distinct from drama 11960s 960s and 970s. Both drama therapy, therapy,psychopsycho­ drama is based mainly on the contribution of of Jacob Jacob Moreno. Moreno. Each Each field field has its own professional with formal standards its professional association(s), association(s), with standards of ofprofessional professional books and jourpreparation and ethical ethical practice; practice; each offers offers conferences, conferences, books jour­ designed to meet the needs of clinicians, researchers and educators. nal(s) designed educators. In In recent decades, decades, many many of the recent the most most vital vital developments developments are are global, global, with with associations, graduate-level graduate-level training training programmes, programmes, and publications in many associations, parts of parts of the the world. world. Professional Professional education education is is usually usually grounded grounded in in studies studies and practice of a particular form, form, yet all of of the the arts arts interweave interweave in a natural way with with each way each other, other, as as well well as as with with verbal verbal psychotherapy. psychotherapy. The InterInter­ national Expressive Arts Therapy Association national Expressive Arts Association (IEATA) (l EATA) founded in in 1994 1 994 does not specialise, does specialise, rather it is based based on an integrative integrative approach to to the the arts. arts. Hillman raises and reflects Hillman reflects on the the question: q uestion: What actually actually goes goes on on when when aa patient begins begins to dance, dance, to choreograph What or paint or paint his his or her her state state of of soul, soul, to to speak speak aloud aloud freely freely in aa dramatic dramatic tirade or a poetic poetic soliloquy, to sculpt it it in in clay clay or or lay lay it it out out in in aacollage collage that is being presented, .. . .. II want wanttotoask askabout aboutthe the'it''it' that is being presented,expressed, expressed, shown, or or formed formed by means means of these these various various arts. arts. Clearly, the 'it' is shown, Clearly, the is an an emotion, an emotionally tinged state state of soul. emotion, emotionally tinged ((Hillman H illman 1960/1992: 1 9601 1 992: x) What else else isis there there besides besidesthe theart art product, product, the the patient, patient, and the emotion? What Since art art therapy activates activates imagination imagination and and allows IImagination. magination. Since allows it to to materialize -—that thatis, is,enter enter the the world world via via the emotions of materialize of the the patient patient— therapy by by means means of the arts must take all other kinds. therapy take precedence precedence over all ((Hillman Hillman 1960/1992: 1 9601 1 992: xiv) C ri ti c i s m s Criticisms

IIn n aa 1956 1 956 article n 1958, 1 958, Fordham t o differentiate differentiate between between article and and again again iin Fordham tried to

active imagination imagination and imaginative activity. activity. He did not present II\;tivc present Jung's Jung's view view of iimaginative activity as as the the matrix matrix out of or magi native activity of which which play, play, dreams, dreams, fantasy, fantasy, active imagination imagination and and creative lIetive creative imagination imagination emerge, emerge, rather, rather, Fordham Fordham pr ese n t ed hhis i s own perspective: ''Imaginative Imaginative activity is usually presented own transferential perspective: rel ated to pa tient thinks t h i n k s is is required req uired of of him him or or isis somewhere somewherc an related to what what the the patient

Active magination 237 237 Active i imagination

2236 3 6 Joan Joan Chodorow C h o d o row

different n the different forms forms ooff the the imagination imagination will will be be prominent prominent iin the work work of of different different individuals. individuals. Given of the the psyche, psyche, itit seems seems inevitable inevitable that that analysis analysis invites invites Given the the nature nature of the the religious religious imagination, imagination, imagination imagination of of the the mysteries mysteries expressed expressed as as visions visions in eye, inner voices and develops toward toward in the the mind's mind's eye, inner voices and intrapsychic intrapsychic work work that that develops an gods within. within. an ongoing ongoing dialogue dialogue with with the the god god or gods Similarly, Similarly, analysis analysis invites invites the the aesthetic aesthetic imagination, imagination, imagination imagination of of beauty beauty expressed rhythmic harmony. harmony. Fantasies be expressedthrough through rhythm rhythm and and rhythmic Fantasies may may be expressed painting, sculpting, SCUlpting, dance, dance, music, music, dramatic dramatic expressed through through drawing, drawing, painting, enactment, Sandplay, as well as as tapestries, tapestries, stories stories and and many many enactment, poetry poetry and and Sandplay, as well other forms, according to individual nature and preferences. other forms, according to individual nature and preferences. We the philosophic, philosophic, scientific, scientific, scholarly We engage engage also also through through the scholarly imagination. imagination. Jung's method of symbolic amplification is built upon the natural natural process process Jung's method of symbolic amplification is built upon the of parallel association that draws in part from the rich resources of human of parallel association that draws in part from the rich resources of human knowledge including child development, animal studies, cultural history, knowledge including child development, animal studies, cultural history, explor­ ?I ythology and analysis, scholarly mythology and more. more. In analysis, scholarly imagination imagination isis all all about about explorIing �g an � understanding the symbol in its personal, cultural and archetypal and understanding the symbol in its personal, cultural and archetypal dImenSIOns. dimensions. Analysis by and and interwoven interwoven with with the the social social imagination, imagination, Analysis is is contained contained by the imagination the imagination and work with the the relationship, empathic imagination of" of relationship, empathic imagination and work with dynamics of the transference and countertransference. Jung referred to dynamics of the transference and countertransference. Jung referred to ? sference as active imagination when he wrote: 'The inner dialogue the tra the transference as active imagination when he wrote: 'The inner dialogue could as well well take takeplace placebetween between patient patientand andanalyst' analyst'(1916/1958: ( 1 9 1 6/ 1 958: could Just just as par. 186). 1 86). Finally, analysis leads, leads, inevitably, inevitably, toward toward the thecentral, central,self-reflective self-reflective Finally, analysis which is a quintessence of the other four. By By ps chological imagination, psychological imagination, which is a quintessence of the other four. � the natural natural way way to to create create and andre-create re-create the the qumtessence, quintessence,I I mean mean that that the personality is through through the the symbolic symbolic cultural culturalattitudes attitudes(religious, (religious,aesthetic, aesthetic, personality is philosophical, social), shaped shaped by by the the age-old age-old value value inscribed inscribed at at the theDelphic Delphic philosophical, social), Thyself Oracle: Oracle: Know Thyself:

attempt to interest, fascinate, attempt fascinate, or otherwise otherwise manipulate the analyst's analyst's affects' affects' 78).Due Dueto to the the transference, transference,'so 'so long long as as aa person is a ((Fordham Fordham 11958: 958: 78). person is patient we we should should refer patient refer to active active imagination imagination only only in aa qualified qualified sense' sense' 80). As As II understand and understand Fordham, Fordham, active active imagination imagination an d ((Fordham Fordham 1958: 1 958: 80). transferential material material are are seldom seldom compatible. compatible. Based Based on on his his ideas, ideas, Fordham Fordham transferential evaluated the the products products of active imagination described in in a number of evaluated of early essays by by analyst analyst colleagues colleaguesand andconcluded concludedthat that many, many, if if not most of essays of the the works presented, were examples works presented, were examples of imaginative imaginative activity, activity, not not active active imagination. imagination. Elie Humbert Humbert (1971) essay of an an entirely different nature, Elie ( 1 97 1 ) offered a critical essay raising essential essential questions questions about about the curious fate raising fate of of active active imagination: imagination: The form of The of psychological psychological work called active imagination imagination occupied a place in Jung's life considerable place life and in in the the lives lives of of most most of ofhis his students. students. Today this seems to be no longer the case. The method method is is little little used and and is presented presented only only occasionally in terms terms which which render render it either banal or is occasionally in or esoteric. Can Can it be, one may esoteric. may ask, ask, that that the theschool schoolof ofpsychology psychology which which calls itself itself Jungian Jungian is is in this way calls way manifesting manifesting a profound profound resistance resistance to to the unconscious? unconscious? the ((Humbert H umbert 1971: 1 97 1 : 101) 101)

CURRENT C U R R E N T STATUS STAT U S AND A N D FUTURE F U T U R E DEVELOPMENT D E V E LO P M E N T

For those those who who seek seek aa comprehensive comprehensive analytical analytical method of o fpsychotherapy, psychotherapy, active imagination offers offers aa way way to to hold hold and and honor and active imagination and imagine imagine and think think about all all the the ways ways different different analysts analysts and analysands analysands do their their work. work. II am am reminded reminded that it it may may be be human human nature natureto totravel travellong longdistances distancesseeking seeking the the Bluebird Happiness, only only to discover that it Bl uebird of Happiness, it is is found found in in one's one's own ownback back yard. yard. Active is more or Active imagination imagination is more than than aaspecific specific meditative meditative procedure procedure or expressive technique. In In the expressive technique. the deepest deepest sense, sense, itit isisthe thecentral, central,self-reflective self-reflective psychological psychological attitude that draws draws from from all all of ofthe the symbolic symbolic cultural cultural attitudes attitudes described described by by Joseph Joseph Henderson Henderson (1984): ( 1 984): the the religious, religious, the the aesthetic, aesthetic, the the scientific/philosophic and the social: social: scientific/philosophic and the I can imagine a group of 01" of future future analysts analysts teaching teaching aa new new appreciation appreciation of old cultural ill cultural attitudes attitudes not not because because they set out to do do this this on on purpose purpose in any missionarizing missionarizing spirit but but because because this this teaching teaching would would be be an aninevitinev it­ ahle result result of of their their way way of of working working with with their their patients. patients. able 14) 1 %2: 14) (Henderson (Henderson 1962: 1I nn aanalysis, we arc are eng engaged with all all of 01 "the t he i n t ri nsic categories ca tegories of a ged with of the the intrinsic nal ys is, we imagination. illla�ination. Depending ( )epend in� on on tastes taslcs and and talents, t:t\ents,inclinations incl inationsand andtypology, typolo�.y ,

Ac knowl e d g e m ent Acknowledgement

� aterial . in this chapter chapter was was compiled compiled and presented fifirst rst as of aa Material in this and presented as part part of A ctive Imagination: Healing fforthcoming orthcommg book book by Joan Chodorow Chodorow entitled entitled Active Imagination: Healing fO r the the Carolyn Carolyn and and Ernest ErnestFay FaySeries Series in in Analytical Analytical Psychology, Psychology, If(�m Within Within for from . edIted by by David DaVId Rosen, Rosen, published published by by Texas Texas A&M A&M University University Press. Press. edited .

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39 Active imagination 2239

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Active magi n ation 241 241 Activei imagination

Joan C Chodorow 240 joan 240 h od orow Baynes. H.G. Baynes. Jung, CG. C.G. (1916/1925/1961) 'Theseven sevensermons sermonstotothe the dead', dead', trans. H.G. ( 1 9 1 61 1 9251 1 96 1 ) The Jung, New York: Random York: New Memories, Dreams, Reflections. . Appendix V,in in CG. C.G. Jung, Jung, Memories, Dreams, Reflections x V, Appendi House/Vintage, 1 965. Vintage, 1965. Housel Zurich: (booklet), trans. A.R. Pope. Pope. Zurich: , trans. The Transcendent Function (booklet) - (1916/1957) Transcendent Function ( 1 9 1 6/ 1 957) The .Institute . privately printed printed for for the the Students Students'' Associat Association, C.G. Jung Institute. ion, e.G. privately 8, 'Prefator 'Prefatory note' and pars. y note' CW 8, ', in 'The transcend transcendent function', in CW ent function (1916/1958) ( 1 9 1 6/ 1 958) The 975. 1 Press, ty 131-193. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975. Universi n Princeto 1 3 1 - 1 93 . Princeton, Press, U niversity Press, 6. Princeton Princeton,, NJ: Princeton Princeto n University Psychological Types. C CW W 6. gical Types. ( 1 92 1 ) Psycholo --- - (1921) 9 7 1 1 1 974. 11971/1974. ed. W. 1 925, ed. Given in Seminar Given Analytical Psychology: Noteson on the the Seminar in 1925, gy: Notes (1925) l Psycholo ( 1 925) Analytica 989. 1 Press, ty McGuire. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989. Universi Princeton McGuire . Princeton, the ofthe figures of thefigures andthe egoand theego - (1928) betweenthe differentiationbetween techniqueofofdifferentiation 'Thetechnique ( 1 928)'The Press, y Universit n pars. 341-373. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, Princeto CW7: unconscious', in C W 7: pars. 3 4 1 -373. Princeto n, ous', in unconsci 953/1 9661 1 975. 11953/1966/1975. ed. W. McGuire . W. McGuire. Seminar, ed. Dream Analysis: Analysis:Notes Notesof of the the Seminar, 1 928- 1 930) Dream - ((1928-1930) 984. 1 Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984. Press, ty Universi n Princeto n, Princeto 3: pars. CW W 113: in C Flower', in The Secret Secret of the Golden Golden Flower', ---(1929) on The 'Commentary on ( 1 929) 'Commentary 976. 1 Press, ty 17-45. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976. Universi 1 7-45. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Princeton, 2. Princeton, and 2. ed. e. C. Douglas, Douglas, vols 1I and The Visions Seminars,, ed. - (1930-1934) Visions Seminars ( 1 930- 1 934) The -NJ: Princeton 1 997. Press, 1997. Universit y Press, Princeton University NJ: NJ: Princeton, NJ: 66- 1 1 3. Princeton, - (1931) 'The aims 1 6: pars. 66-113. C W 16: psychotherapy', in CW of psychotherapy', aims of ( 1 9 3 1 ) The 975. 1 ns correctio with Princeton University Press, 2nd edn 1966, 3rd printing with corrections 1975. printing 966, 1 Princeton University Press, 626. 525 - 626. 9i: pars. 525tion', in CW 9i: 'A study study in in the the process process of of individua individuation', 1 93311 950) 'A ((1933/1950) 1 968. edn 1968. 2nd edn Princeton, Press, 2nd University Press, Princeton University n, NJ: Princeton Princeto NJ: Princeton, NJ: pars. 1-415. 1 - 4 1 5. Princeton, CW 118: 8: pars. ', in - (1935) 'The Tavistock Lectures', in CW Tavistock Lectures ( 1 935) The Princeton University Press, 1976. University Press, 1 976. Greal the Great The Tibetan of the Book of Tihetan Book tary on -- (1939/1954) 'Psychological commentary on The ogical commen ( 1 93911 954) 'Psychol Press. y Universit n Princeto pars. 759-830 759-830.. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Princeton, NJ: Liberation', I I : pars. in CW 11: Uheration', in

1958. 1 958. NJ: Princeton, NJ: 343-442 . Princeton, 8: pars. 343-442. C W 8: (1947) 'On the the nature of the psyche', psyche', in CW ( 1 947) 'On Princeton University University Press. Press. University Princeton, Princeton University n, NJ: Princeton 1 4. Princeto CW 14. (1955) Coniunctionis. CW Mysterium Coniunctionis. ( 1 955) Mysterium Press, 1974. 1 974. Housel Random House/ York: Random New York: Reflections. New Dreams, Reflections. (1961/1965) Memories, Dreams, ( 1 96 1 1 1 965) Memories, Vintage. Vintage. Universi ty Princeton University NJ: Princeton Princeton, NJ: 1 951-1 96 1 . Princeton, Two, 1951-1961. (1975) Volume Two, ( 1 975) Letters, Volume Press. Press. JOI/Il hyJoan Introducedby andIntroduced Selected and Essays Selected Key Essays Imagination: Key (1997) A ctive Imagination: on Active Jung on ( 1 997) Jung Chodorow. Routledg e. London: Routledge. ( 'I/llt/orow . London: Press. Sigo Press. CA: Sigo Monica, CA: Kalif, Sandplay . Santa Monica, ( 1 980) Sandplay. D. (1980) K a lil', 1). A&M Texas A&M TX: Texas College Station, Station, TX: College Hope. Joy, Inspiration, and Hope. on, Kast, ( 1 99 1 ) Joy, Inspirati V. (1991) K a s t . V. University Press. Press. niversity lJ .Jill/g. G. Jung. gen ananCC. inneren Wachstu Wachstums: meinenerinnerun erinnerungen us meinen ms: AAus Keller, Wege inneren ( 1 972) Wege K e l ler. T. (1972) Verlag. FrIenbach, Bircher-Benner Verlag. Switzerl and: Bircher-Benner Frlenbaeh. Switzerland: ']0111 and Toni J u n g and CG. Jung (1982) of active active imagination: analysis with with C.G. imagination: analysis ' Beginnings of ( 1 982) 'Beginnings 294. 279 294. Spring: ) . (ed Hillman Wolff, 1915 1928', in J. Hillman (ed.) J. 928'. 1 5 1 9 1 Wolff. \ 11 1. 111 11 in Studiert i magi n a tion '. in ac t i ve imagination', in active study in M oon": aastudy the Moon": to the J o u rn e y to Kirsch, ( 1 955) " 'Journey .I . (1955) K i rsch . J. scheI'. a R Zurich: Rascher. Zurich: . I I. 6' Jung, Volume Volume psychologie ( .Il1l/g, .
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Chapter 11 Chapter 11

Dreams Dreams

D reams 245 245 Dreams

In fantasy, that that is, is, aa daydream. daydream. In common common speech, speech, dream dream can can mean mean wish wish or or fantasy, II am images and other contents that come come am using using the the term term to mean only the images during during sleep.

Mary Ann Ann Mattoon H i story of dream interpretation History dream interpretation

The dream The dream is is a a little little hidden hidden door door in in the the innermost innermost and most secret of the and secret recesses recesses of the soul. soul . . G . Jung (C.G. lung 1933: 1 933: par. par. 304) 304) (e

Is aa dream Is dream a door to to the the soul, soul, or or is is it, it, as as we we often often hear, hear, 'only 'only aa dream'? dream"? Sometimes the the 'only a dream' statement Sometimes statement is is an an effort effort at atconsoling consolingthe theperson person who has who has had aa disturbing disturbing dream; dream; on on other other occasions occasions itit is is aaway way of ofsaying saying dream has h as no no bearing bearing on onreality. reality. Increasingly, I ncreasingly, however, however, many many people people that aa dream appreciate their night dreams as being not so 'only'; 'only'; rather, rather, dreams dreamsare arevital vital in their their lives. lives. After considering the importance After considering the importance of dreams in in Jungian Jungian psychotherapy psychotherapy look at the and the history history of of their their role, role, we we will will look the methods methods of of working working on aa dream. Then dream. Then we we will will approach approach the theinterpretation: interpretation :amplifying, amplifying, seeking seeking its its meaning and exploring exploring validation of of the the interpretation. interpretation. Importance I m p ortance of of dreams dre a m s in inJungian J ungian psychotherapy p sychotherapy

Dreams Dreams are are aa major major thoroughfare thoroughfare to tothe theunconscious unconscious psyche, psyche, which which isis vastly If we we do do not pay vastly larger larger than consciousness. consciousness. If pay attention attention to tothem, them,we we limit limit our our knowledge knowledge of of the the psyche psyche to to the therelatively relatively small small segment segment that thatisis conscious, conscious, while missing missing an opportunity opportunity to toexpand expandconsciousness. consciousness. One are ignored is that the One reason reason dreams dreams are ignored is the dream dream often often isis not notreadily readily understood. understood. Jung advised advised that we we carry each dream around, turn turn ititover over and a n d over, over, look look at atititfrom fromevery everyperspective. perspective. Often Often itit is is helpful helpful to totell tell ititto toaa t rust rusted friend, or or to a therapist. An ed friend, An insight insight may may result, result, or or the the dreamer dreamer may may puzzle for years years about about this this nocturnal nocturnalvisitor. visitor. puzzle Another A not her major major reason reason that thatsome somepeople people ignore ignore (or (oravoid) avoid) their theirdreams dreams isis their assumption assumption that thatdreams dreamsdeliver deliverunpleasant unpleasantmessages. messages.Sometimes Sometimesthis this assumption is borne borne out. out. Often, Often, however, however, dreams dreams point point out outour ourstrengths strcngt hs hel p us us to tosolve solveproblems problemsof ofliving. livi ng. a mi help and

Is dreams a new new idea? idea? By By no no means. means. For For millennia, millennia, people people Is attending attending to to dreams have by their their dreams. dreams. For Forexample, example, generally generally known known — - at have been been informed informed by at least of Jewish Jewish and and Christian Christian backgrounds backgrounds — - are of least to to persons persons of are the the dreams dreams of Pharaoh in the the Old Old Testament. Testament. In In Genesis Genesis 41, 4 1 , dreams dreams of ofemaciated emaciated cows cows Pharaoh in and blighted grain grain were were interpreted interpreted as as warnings warnings of ofimpending impending famine. famine. and blighted Similarly, I ) an angel appeared to to Joseph Joseph Similarly, in in the the New New Testament Testament (Matthew (Matthew 1) in telling him unborn child child was was conceived by in aa dream, dream, telling him that that Mary's unborn by the the Holy Spirit. Pharaohs were were the the ancient ancient Egyptians Egyptians and and Spirit. Even Even earlier earlier than than the Pharaohs Babylonians, Jewish interpreters interpreters almost almost certainly certainly owed owed the Babylonians, to to whom whom the Jewish rudiments the Egyptians Egyptians and and Babylonians. Babylonians. rudiments of of their knowledge of of dreams to the Dreams important to us humans humans that, that, ifif deprived deprived of of them them (by (by Dreams are are so so important to us being begins), we likely to to hallucinate. hallucinate. being awakened awakened whenever whenever aa dream dream begins), we are are likely Since Since hallucinations, hallucinations, like like dreams, dreams, are are unconscious unconscious contents, contents, itit appears appears that bring such such contents contents into into consciousness, consciousness, and and uses uses the psyche needs the psyche needs to to bring hallucinations is blocked. blocked. hallucinations when when the the dream dream route is Some to their their dreams. dreams. Some people people feel feel that that they they have have no no choice choice about about attending attending to As as they they know, know, they they do do not notdream. dream.However, However,dream dreamresearchers researchers are are As far far as reasonably now that that everyone everyone dreams: dreams: probably probably at at least least once once in in each each reasonably sure sure now sleep four or or more more times times in in aa night. night. sleep period period of of ninety ninety minutes minutes or or more, more, and and four Thus, dream it it is is almost almost Thus, when when we we have have the the impression impressionthat that we we do do not not dream certain instead, we we are are not not remembering remembering our our dreams. dreams. When When aa person person certain that, that, instead, attempts to remember remember dreams dreams and andwrites writesdown downwhatever whateverfragments fragmentsbecome become attempts to available, have found found that that the the effort effort to toremember remember isis nearly nearly always always available, II have successful: enough to to have have plenty plenty of of dream dream successful:not not every everynight, night, but but often often enough material to reflect reflect on. Do all all dreams dreams have have meaning? meaning? We but many many Do We cannot cannot prove prove that that they they do, do, but individuals record or or tell tell their their dreams; dreams; to tothem themititseems seems selfself­ individuals spontaneously spontaneously record evident that that dreams dreams have have meaning. meaning. Moreover, Moreover, psychotherapists psychotherapists and and other other evident workers have found found meaning meaning in in nearly nearly all all of ofthose thosestudied. studied. workers with with dreams dreams have Failure find a a dream's dream's meaning meaning is is probably probably our our lack, lack, not not the the dream's. dream's. Failure to to find Concrete indications indications that that dreams dreams have have meaning meaning are are found found in in their theirhaving having Concrete helped philosophers scientists, such as Friedrich Friedrich August August Kekule Kekule and and helped philosophers and and scientists, such as R ene Descartes, Descartes, to to make make major major discoveries. discoveries. Kekule Kekule deduced deduced from from aa dream dream Rene image the structure of of the the benzene benzene ring, ring, which which is is aa crucial crucial phenomenon phenomenon in in image the structure organic chemistry; chemistry; Descartes Descartes had had three three dreams dreams which which turned turnedhis hislife life toward toward organic ph il o s op hy. In In literature literature we we find find Robert Robert Louis Louis Stevenson Stevenson dreaming dreaming the the plot plot philosophy. o f Dr. f)r. Jekyll .Iek J 'lI ([fld after years years of of searching searching for for a a story story that that would would of and Mr. Mr. Hyde Hide after describe thc dOllhk being he i ng (good ( good and and evil) evil ) of or humans. humans. describe the double

246 Mary 246 Mary Ann Ann Mattoon M attoon

Present-day people peopleof of many many cultures cultures attach attach importance importance to to dreams. dreams. For Present-day instance, the the Senoi Senoi people people of of Malaya Malaya (now instance, (now Malaysia) Malaysia) are said to to discuss discuss their dreams dreams daily. their daily. It seems seems probable probable that that prehistoric prehistoric peoples peoples also also were were impressed by by their dreams. impressed Dreams Dre a m s in in Jung's J ung's opus o p us

Jung broke away Jung away from Freud Freud in in 1913 1 9 1 3 as as aa result result of oftheoretical theoretical disagreedisagree­ ments between between them them and, and, no doubt, ments doubt, personality personality clashes. clashes. Before Before the the break, break, Jung had accepted many of Freud's Jung accepted many Freud's ideas, ideas, including including that of of the the dream's dream's manifest and and latent contents: manifest contents: the dream dream text text and and its itsunderlying underlyingmeaning. meaning. After the break, Jung became more forthright After forthright in in developing developing his his own own ideas: ideas: regarding dreams dreams as as well well as as many many other other areas. regarding areas. For example, example, instead instead of continuing to accept Freud's notion continuing notion that thatthe themanifest manifestdream dreamisisaadisguise, disguise, Jung stated repeatedly repeatedly that the the dream dream means means what what itit says. says. with Freud is Jung's frequent statement that Another major disagreement with that dream images images are symbols, symbols, not signs. signs. A sign sign is is aa one-to-one one-to-one designation, designation, such as Freud's view such view that the the image image of of aa church church steeple steeple represents represents aa penis. penis. mana and, ultimately, Jung found the image as pointing to the the creative creative mana ultimately, not quite determinable. Dream images images arise from aa variety variety of of sources sources including including physical stimuli, physical stimuli, repressed repressed complexes, complexes, memories, memories, everyday everydayexperiences, experiences, subliminal perceptions, perceptions, even even telepathy telepathy and and anticipation of subliminal of future future psychic psychic contents. Unlike contents. Unlike Freud's Freud's view view that thatdream dreamimages imagesare arerepressed repressedconscious conscious material, material, Jung insisted insisted that some of of the material never never had been been present in consciousness. Altogether, the images consciousness. Altogether, images constitute the dream dream language. language. The elements of the dream language, although although they they are are not notsigns, signs, still still can can he relatively be relatively fixed fixed symbols: symbols: typical motifs typical motifs such as as falling, falling, flying, flying, being being persecuted persecuted by by dangerous dangerous animals animals or hostile hostile people, people, being being insufficiently insufficiently or absurdly absurdly clothed clothed in in public being in in a hurry or public places, places, being or lost lost in in aamilling millingcrowd, crowd, fighting fighting with with useless weapons, weapons, running running hard and useless and getting getting nowhere. nowhere. al. 1964: 1 964: 53) 53) (Jung et al. Filch clement contributes contributes to the I �ach clement the translation translation of ofthe thedream dreamlanguage. language. A study of of Jung's Jung's dream dream theories theories reveals that virtually virtually all all the the innovations innovations are arc enrichment enrichment rather rather than thanchanges. changes. There Thereisismodification, modification,development development and lind aa process process of ofmaking making the thetheories theoriesmore moreexplicit. explicit. Si nce Freud's (1900) ( 1 900) Interpretation Dreams and Jung's Jung's writings writings from from Since Interpretation of of Dreams 1912 I I) 1 2 on, on, many many people people have have been led to to look look to todreams dreamsfor forinformation information ahout their theirunconscious unconsciouspsyches. psyches. Indeed, Indeed, dreams dreamsprovide provide— - for for those those who who about want it it ready ready accesstotothis want access thisimportant importantresource. resource. I n addition addit ion to to Freud's Freud 's and and Jung's Jung'sapproaches approaches to to dreams d rea ms are a rcothers. ot hers. In ' A I I rl'd Adkr, a l t hough the t h i rd of t he big t h ree of psychoana lysis. made Alfred Adler, although the third of the big three of psychoanalysis, made

Dreams 247 Dreams 247

little Other depth depthpsychologists psychologists have shared shared little contribution contribution to dream theory. Other concepts Jung. Examples Examples are concepts with with both both Freud Freud and Jung. are Erich Erich Fromm, Fromm, with his his 'forgotten Fromm's `forgotten language' language' of of dreams, dreams, and and Thomas Thomas French's French's and Erika Fromm's focal conflict conflict theory. focal The existential-phenomenological approach not hypothesise hypothesise The existential-phenomenological approach does does not unconscious other unconsciousmental mental contents, contents, but but is is compatible compatible with with Jung's Jung's ideas in other ways. school is is Medard Medard Boss. Boss. Others Others who who are are ways. The The major major theorist theorist of this school well as well well as Fritz Fritz Perls. Perls. well known known are are Leopold Leopold Caligor Caligor and and Rollo Rollo May, as Jung's interpretation is, view, the broadest and most most Jung's method method of of interpretation is, in my view, flexible, virtually all all flexible,hence hencecovers coversthe thewidest widestrange rangeof ofdreams dreams and and appeals appeals to virtually dreamers. subsumes virtually theories that are dreamers. Indeed, Indeed, this this method method subsumes virtually all all the the theories that are compatible with with it. compatible How How to work on a dream

Even meaning, how do we we discover discover Even if if we we are are convinced convinced that that dreams have meaning, the meaning of a particular dream? There is a process for figuring it the meaning of a particular dream? There is it out; the dreamer process independently, dreamer can can follow follow the the process independently,with withaa trusted trusted friend friend or a group, with the the help help of of aa therapist therapist who who has has training training and and experience experience in group, or or with dream work. The have papcr and pencil pencil readily readily The first first step step in in working working with with aa dream dream is is to to have paper and available for writing the dream immediately after wakening and as available for writing the dream immediately after wakening and as completely as possible. It is helpful to repeat the dream to yourself while completely as possible. It is helpful to repeat the dream to yourself while you still in the half-waking half-waking state, you are are still state, even even before before stirring stirring to to reach reach for for the writing before writing writing the writing materials. materials. To To get get up up and and move around before the dream dream is deal of of it. it. to risk forgetting a great deal In addition to to writing writing the the dream, dream, you you may may draw draw or or paint paintit. it. Since Since many many In addition dreams form of ofstories, stories, there there may may be bemultiple multiple scenes. scenes. Drawing Drawing dreams take take the form even dream more more vivid, vivid, to fix it it in in your your even one one scene scene can can help help to to make make the the dream to fix mind. or paint paint aa dream, dream, itit is is not notnecessary, necessary, and and perhaps perhaps not not even even mind. To To draw draw or desirable, artist. desirable, to to be a trained artist. After writing the the dream, dream, jot jot down downreflections reflections (facts, (facts, thoughts thoughts and and After writing feelings) mind in connection connection with with the the dream dream images. images. Write Write feelings)that that come come to to mind first add later later those those that that come come only only with with extra extra first those those that that come come readily, readily, but but add effort. example, many your brother brother effort. For For example, many thoughts thoughts may may come come to to you you about your Tom, whom you you see see frequently, frequently, but image of of your your long-dead long-dead Aunt Aunt Tom, whom but an image Nellie requires memory. Some Some dreamers dreamers find find iti t Nellie requires some some digging digging into into your memory. helpful o write i n one column, facts, facts, thoughts thoughts and and feelings feelings about about helpful tto write the the dream dream in it it in another. The image of Tom may may remind remind you you of ofexperiences experiences you you had had with with him, him, The image of Tom how treated you, attitudes he he had/has had/has and and what what he he is is doing doing now. now. Aunt Aunt how he he treated you, attitudes Nellie's id e of mother or or your your father, father, may may Nellie's sside of the the family, family, whether whetherthat that of of your your mother be t he poor relations, relat ions. for fo r instance, instance, or orthey theymay mayhave haveheld heldbeliefs beliefs that thatwere were he the d i fferent from /;I I11 ily's way way of looking at the t he world. worl d . different from your your family's

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D reams 249 249 Dreams

Nearly all all dreams Nearly dreams have have human human figures. figures. Many Many have have also alsoanimals, animals, inanimate objects and scenes. Indeed, the setting of a dream is a factor inanimate objects and scenes. Indeed, the setting of a factor in in its interpretation. interpretation. The setting its setting may be marked marked by by its its vagueness, vagueness, but but often often it is quite For example, example, if if the the dream dream takes takes place it quite specific. specific. For place in aa particular particular forest, you you may may recall recall what what were were the the occasions occasions of of your your visits visits to to that forest, forest, with what companions, what events occurred there and what you with you felt felt about about each of these memories. memories. Or the vaguely imaged forest could be each be reminiscent reminiscent ( 1 973) A nother Part of the the of a literary literary work, work, such such as as Lillian Lillian Hellman's Hellman's (1973) Another Part of Forest. All these thoughts and feelings about images in the All these facts, facts, thoughts feelings about images in the dream dream are are known to Jungians associations. They known lungians as personal associations. readily availavail­ They are usually readily able to the able the adult adult dreamer. dreamer. The The dreams dreamsof ofchildren, children, however, however, often often reflect reflect ttheir heir parents' problems problems and, thus, thus, are are illuminated illuminated by by the the parents' parents'associassoci­ ations. All are included included in in the the broader term, ations. All such such associations associations are term, 'individual 'individual amplifications'.. amplifications' Personal associations are not to to be be confused confused with with Fee associations, which free associations, Freud advocated. advocated . Free Free association means associations to associations. associations. Such Such a practice tends to take the the attention attention away away from from the the dream dream images. images. Hence, Hence, the the interpretation is likely likely to be be distorted. distorted. Jung lung advocated advocated staying staying close close to to the the image, image, 'circumambulating' it. In addition to the the associations associations that occur occur to the the dreamer, dreamer, aa therapist therapist In addition often help the the client/dreamer client/dreamer to to recall recall additional additionalindividual individual amplifiamplifi­ often can help cations: the dreamer's dreamer's life life that that are are connected connected with with the the dream dream cations: events events in in the images. example, aa middle-aged of images. For example, middle-aged woman woman dreamed dreamed during during the the month of May that that she visited her mother. who who was IVas crabby crahhy and and inhospitable. inhospitahle. The May she visited her mother, dreamer mentioned that she she had had been been unaccountably unaccountably depressed depressed for for dreamer had had mentioned severed Knowing that mother was was dead, dead, the the several days days before before the the dream. dream. Knowing that the mother therapist death occurred. occurred. The The dreamer dreamer replied, replied, 'Last ' Last therapist asked asked when when the the death summer'. When both therapist therapist and and client client consulted consulted their their notes, notes, they they found found summer'. When that the the dream dream occurred occurred almost almost exactly exactly on on the the anniversary anniversary of ofthe the mother's mother's death. dreamer recalled recalled that one of of her her children children had had been been very very ill ill at at death. The dreamer aabout bout the the same same time. time. Although she she had felt felt very very sad sad about about the the death, death. she she had not not been been free free to to experience experience it it fully; fully; the the dream dream helped helped her herto toexperience experience and express express her her grief. grief. In addition to personal personal associations, associations, there there is other information information about about the the In d rea m images images that does does not not stem stemfrom fromyour yourindividual individualexperience; experience; this this dream information comes lore of ofhumanity. humanity. Examples Examples are: are: myths, myths. information comes from from the the lore of preliterate preliterate cultures. cultures. The The dream dream forest, forest . religious observances and practices of exa mple, may may be reminiscent reminiscent o forest where where the the goddess goddess Artemis Artemis for example, for off aa forest roamed . Such Such contents are are from from the thecollective collective unconscious unconscious and and are arcknown knowll roamed. as o/"("//('( .I'P(// parallels. p(//"{/llels. Children's dreams, dreams, according ung and to to some some '/ u according to to lJung l i t her dream d ream researchers, re se arc h ers have have an an especially especially large large proportion proportionof ofarchetypal a rche ty pa l other pa ral lels. Dreams Drea m s w i t h archetypal archetypal parallels the images images are a rc known k nown as as parallels. with parallels to to the archet I//"dlt'f ipa/ 1 '//0/ (fre(//, tln'll/I/.\". .

Many ultures and and individuals individuals experience experience archetypal archetypal dreams dreams as asespecially especially Many ccultures numinous big dreams, numinous (awe-inspiring). (awe-inspiring).Thus, Thus,they theyare are considered consideredtoto be be big which which may may carry carry aa message messagefor forthe thecommunity communityat at large, large,rather rather than than for for the the individual individual alone. Personal associations and archetypal parallels parallels together together comprise comprise Personal associations and archetypal amplifications. dream with with only aa few few images, images, the Even for for aa dream the number of amplifications. Even amplifications uite large. continue amplificationscan can be be qquite large. Consequently, Consequently, itit isis important important to to continue to write down all such information. to write down all such information. With amplifications ininhand, other major major kind kind of of With the the amplifications hand,we weturn turn to to the the other information that is needed: what was going on in your life, outer and inner, information that is needed: what was going on in your life, outer and inner, before information consists consists primarily primarily of of events events before the the dream dream came came to to you. you. This This information and experiences that are emotionally significant to you, but their signifi­ and experiences that emotionally significant you, but their significance cance may may not not have been immediately immediately apparent. apparent. Begin Begin with with the the day day or two before the dream, but consider also a longer time segment: perhaps the before the dream, consider also a longer time segment: perhaps the duration ongoing event, event, of aa difficulty difficulty you duration of an ongoing you were were having, having, or or of a decision the process process of making. For For example, example, you you may may have have decision you you were were in in the been family, considering been experiencing experiencing conflict conflictinin your your family, considering changing changing jobs jobs or wishing inner emotional climate. At wishing for for aa vacation. vacation. Also Also important is your inner the time of of the the dream, dream, were were you yougenerally generally happy? happy?Anxious? Anxious?Depressed? Depressed? All All these feelings comprise conscious situation situation — these events, events, experiences experiences and and feelings comprise your your conscious what in your your life. life. what is is going on in But of dreams dreams preceding preceding the series of But each each dream dream is is one one among among many. many. The The series one may be be helpful helpful in in understanding understanding it. it. The The series series may may one under under consideration consideration may be the dreams dreams you you can can remember, remember, or all those those that that were were be composed composed of of all all the or all especially benefit more by considering considering aa especiallyvivid. vivid. Usually, Usually, however, however, you you benefit more by smaller umber of example, the dreams during during aa prolonged, prolonged, smaller nnumber of dreams: dreams: for for example, the dreams difficult several dreams dreams in which which aa particular particular image image difficult life life situation. situation. Or Or several you are are in in psychotherapy, psychotherapy, the the series series could all the the dreams dreams appears. appears. If If you could be be all since the therapy, therapy, those those since since aa crucial crucial time time in in the the therapy, therapy, since the the beginning beginning of of the or those that that occur occur between between two two successive successive therapy or those therapy sessions. sessions. The The dreams dreams of of one night can can be be considered considered aa series, series, but but they they often often are areso soclosely closely linked linked one night that they can can be be treated treated as as one one dream. dream. that they Recurring dreams — - repetitions essentially the the same same dream dream— - form form aa Recurring dreams repetitions of of essentially special dream series. series. The The recurrence recurrence ordinarily ordinarily means means that the the special kind kind of dream the recurring recurring dream dream ceases ceases to to recur recur dream especially important. dream is especially important. Usually the when has been been interpreted interpreted correctly. correctly. when it it has There is aa name name for forall allthe theinformation informationgathered gatheredasasamplifications, amplifications, There is conscious dream series. series. That name is is the the dream context. conscious situation situation and and dream That name What do do we we do do with with so somuch muchmaterial? material? We Welook lookfor forinterconnections interconnections What among facts: common to aa particular particular problem, problem, among all all these these facts: common themes themes that that point point to complex question on which the the dream dream may may be becommenting. commenting. For For complex or or question on which example, man's dream dream depicted depicted three three human human figures: figures: a a young young woman woman he he example, aa man's had married, aa friend friend who who was was in in the the process process of of divorce divorce and and the the had once once nearly nearly married, wedd ing ceremony. ceremony. The The common common performed the the dreamer's dreamer' s wedding minister minister who who performed -

250 Mary 250 Mary Ann Ann Mattoon Mattoon



theme is is marriage. marriage. The The question question may be how to deal with the conflict theme conflict in his marriage. The The underlying underlying complex complex could could be be his his fear fear of being an inadequate marriage. husband, a failure. husband, failure. Approaching an an inte interpretation Approaching rpretati on With so much material, even even with interconnections interconnections identified, identified, we are still a considerable distance distance from from interpretation. However, considerable However, there there are are useful useful guideguide­ lines by by which which to to approach approach that goal. lines goal. The first first guideline guideline ----that that of avoiding avoiding assumptions may seem laughable assumptions — - may The to the novice to novice dream interpreter, who may may have have no no assumptions assumptions to to avoid. avoid. Yet many many people people have have heard heard of Freud's assumptions Yet assumptions (with (with or without without his his name) that that every dream reveals reveals aa sexual conflict and and provides provides aa wish­ wishname) every dream sexual conflict fulfilment. Making Making such such an an assumption is likely to distort the fulfilment. assumption is likely to the process process of dream interpretation. interpretation. Jung insisted insisted that that the meaning dream meaning of a dream cannot be known in advance of known of the the amplification amplification and interpretation interpretation process. process. A popular assumption assumption is that that the the dream dream predicts predicts the the future. future. Occasionally Occasionally it does (as did it did Pharaoh's Pharaoh's dreams, dreams, mentioned mentioned earlier). earlier). More More often often dreams dreams are oriented oriented to the the here-and-now. here-and-now. They They describe describe the current current view view of the the unconscious psychetoward toward aa plan, plan, behaviour unconscious psyche behaviour or attitude attitude of of the the dreamer. dreamer. In urging In urging the avoidance avoidance of assumptions, assumptions, Jung Jung insisted insisted that the the dream dream means what it says; it is not a disguise. (His view contrasts with means what says; is not a disguise. (His view contrasts with Freud's Freud's that the the 'manifest' 'manifest' content content — - the dream dream text text known known to tothe thedreamer dreamer—disguises the `latent' content, the unconscious wish of the dreamer.) disguises the 'latent' content, unconscious wish the dreamer. ) An An example of the dream's meaning what it says is the dream of example the says of aa woman woman that that she was trying, to get get her hands clean. Since the the term 'dirty trying, unsuccessfully, unsuccessfully, to clean. Since hands' is a metaphor for unethical behaviour, it seems likely that hands' is a metaphor for unethical behaviour, it seems likely thatthe thedream dream was jjudging adversely the ethics of some of her behaviour. udging adversely of some of her behaviour. Although the dream means what it says, says, it it speaks speaks through through the the language language of of symbols. symhols. 'Symbol' does does not not mean, mean, here, here, the the items items in in aa 'dream 'dreamdictionary', dictionary', which gives gives a fixed meaning for which fixed meaning fbr each dream dream image. image. One One such such dictionary dictionary states sta tes that that the the image image of ofaalamp lampfilled filled with with oil oil 'denotes 'denotesbusiness businessactivity activitywith with gratifying results'. Such a statement statement is is arbitrary; arbitrary; using using itit would would impoverish impoverish or even even distort distort the the dream dream analysis. analysis. Jung .l ung insists insists that that aa symbol symbol isis the thebest bestpossible possibleformulation formulationof ofaarelatively relatively unknown content. Thus, Thus, the meaning u n k nown psychic psychic content. meaning of the the lamp lamp image image can can be be discovered with knowledge discovered only only with knowledge of the context of of the the dream dream in in which which the the image i mage appears, including including interconnections among among images. images. With With this this knowlknowl­ edge, ed ge, the lamp lamp can can denote, denote, for forexample: example: illumination; illumination; aauseful usefulobject objectfrom from an and/or or aa reminder iln earlier earl ie r era; era; aa decorative decorative object; object; and/or reminder of ofaaparticular partic ular person, pe rson , place place or or time time in in the the dreamer's dreamer's life. life. An An interpretation interpretationisisaaconjecture con ject ure about of such such an a n image. image. " hollt the t he meaning mea nin g of A l t hough aa given Although gi vcn dream drea lll image ill lage usually u s ua lly has has aaunique u ni q u emeaning mea n i ngfor foreach each

dreamer, d rl'a J11l'r, sometimes sOIlll' l i llles II he Ill' image 11l1Ol )'(l' has has aarelatively rela t i vely fixed lixed meaning. l11ea n i ng. Such Such aa

D reams 251 251 Dreams

meaning meaning pertains pertains when when there there isis aa general general cultural cultural meaning meaningand and no no contra­ contradictory dictory personal personal significance. significance.For For example, example, aa dream dream image image of aa baptismal baptismal ceremony could ceremony as aa relatively relatively fixed fixed symbol symbol of of spiritual spiritual cleansing. cleansing. could be be taken as Although is only only Although that that is its established meaning meaning in in a Christian subculture, itit is relatively this relativelyfixed fixedbecause becausebaptism baptismpredates predates Christianity. Christianity. In In addition, addition, this interpretation interpretation might might not not be applicable applicable to to an an individual dreamer dreamer who who has has no no religious not recognise recognise baptism. religious affiliation, affiliation,or or one one that that does not Much Much as as we we may may want want guidance guidance from from our our dreams, dreams, usually the the dream dream does not dreamer what do. To To be be sure, sure, if if the the dream dream depicts depicts the the not tell tell the the dreamer what to to do. dreamer dreamer in in aa dangerous dangerous situation, situation, it may seem to to call call for for action action to to avoid avoid the the danger. danger. Nevertheless, Nevertheless,the thedream dream does does not not direct direct an an action action to to avoid danger, but various avenues avenues may may be be possible. possible. Thus, Thus, the the dream dream describes describes the the but various situation unconscious 'sees' 'sees' it and and leaves leaves decisions decisions to dreamer's situation as as the unconscious to the dreamer's consciousness. consciousness. The guideline in trans­ The most most important important guideline in an an interpretation interpretation isis that that it it is aa translation the dream dream language, language, which which can can be be likened likened to to an an extinct extinct language language lation of of the that has been been rediscovered. rediscovered. The The ancient ancient Egyptian Egyptian language language serves serves as that has as a model. word in model. Before Before itit was was deciphered, deciphered,no no one one knew knew what what aa particular particular word that language means means in in English. English. When When modern modern scholars scholars discovered discovered writing writing that language in ancient Egyptian, Egyptian, they they used the entire entire context context and and the the usage usage of ofeach each in ancient used the character identify letters letters and and words, words, then then translated translated texts. texts. Similarly, Similarly, in in character to to identify interpreting we consult context and and the the various various ways ways an an image image interpreting dreams, dreams, we consult the the context is get clues clues as as to to the the meaning meaning of ofeach each image image and and the the entire entire text. text. is used, used, to to get What d o e s the the dream d ream mean? m ean? What does

A can have have different different meanings, meanings, depending depending on on its its focus: focus: subjective A dream dream can subjective or or ohjective. you dream about Cousin John, whom you have not seen seen in in objective. When When you dream about Cousin John, whom you have not ten years, is the dream telling you something about your cousin? Possibly, ten years, is the dream telling you something about your cousin? Possibly, but not probably. probably. Because Because Cousin part of of your your daily daily life, life, it it is is but not Cousin John John is is not not part more likely that the dream is telling you about a part of yourself that more likely that the dream is telling you about a part of yourself that is reminiscent of called such such a a message message a a subjective is reminiscent of Cousin Cousin John. John. Jung Jung called subjective interpretation. interpretation. Used relation to to dreams, dreams, subjective subjective does carry connotations connotations of of Used in in relation does not not carry insubstantial or illusory. Rather, this description calls attention to qualities insubstantial or illusory. Rather, this description calls attention to qualities and attitudes that that the the dreamer dreamer shares shares with with the thedream dream figure. figure. Thus, Thus, these these and attitudes images often depict parts of the dreamer's personality, for example, images often depict parts of the dreamer's personality, for example, aa shadow quality: quality: unacknowledged, unacknowledged, often often negative negative to to the the dreamer. dreamer. shadow The subjective subjective approach understand in in relation relation to to human human The approach is is easiest easiest to to understand ligures in but the the concept concept applies applies also also to tonon-human non-humanfigures, figures,even even figures in dreams, dreams, but inanimate ones. ones. Gestalt Gestalt therapy therapy has has made made use use of ofthis this concept concept in in its its method method inanimate of the the dreamer's d reamer' s acting acti n g out out each each image image in in the thedream. dream . of But what what if i f you you dream d ream about ahout your your spouse, spouse, who who isis part partof ofyour yourdaily dailylife? life? But The dream d realll interpretation i n terprel a t ioll may Illay give g ive you you some some insight i nsigh t regarding re ga rd i ng the thespouse spou se Tlw

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feeling situation between is an an or the feeling between the two of you. you. Such an interpretation is objective one. Objective in that Objective in this this situation situation does does not mean unbiased. It means, rather, that dream provides provides aaview, view, from fromthe thedreamer's dreamer'sunconscious, unconscious,ofof theobject object the dream the —actual person, person, animal, animal, place place or thing, thing, and and the the dreamer's dreamer's relationship relationship to to an actual that object. that object. to make make aa subjective subjective interpretation, interpretation, when when an an How does does one know when to objective subjective interpretation interpretation is is indicated, indicated, generally, generally, if if the the objective one? one? A A subjective dream figure depicts someone someone (or something) something) not highly highly significant significant to to the the dream figure dreamer waking life: life: a remote remote relative, relative, aa long-lost long-lost acquaintance, acquaintance,aacelecele­ dreamer in waking brity, historical figure is unknown unknown to to the the dreamer dreamer or or brity, aa historical figure or or aa person who is imaginary. imaginary. A subjective interpretation seemed appropriate, for example, example, to to aa dream dream A subjective interpretation seemed appropriate, for nephew had died. The of 45-year-old unmarried her nephew had died. of aa 45—year-old unmarried woman: woman: that that her The dream context included the the boy boy was was the only son of her her only only brother context included the facts facts that that the the only son of brother and that the the nephew nephew and and the the dreamer dreamer were were not not emotionally emotionally close. close. As As the the and that carrier of the family surname, he seemed to personify the family tradition. carrier of the family surname, he seemed to personify the family tradition. Since conform too too much much to tofamily familyexpectations, expectations, the the Since the the dreamer dreamer tended tended to to conform image of the death of the boy indicated the possible death of her tendency image of the death of the boy indicated the possible death of her tendency to be tradition-bound. tradition-bound. to be An objective interpretation likely to be needed needed if if the the dream dream figure figure is is An objective interpretation is is likely to be someone who plays a large role in the dreamer's waking life: a spouse, someone who plays a large role in the dreamer's waking life: a spouse, sexual partner, family family member, member, close close friend, friend, employer, employer, co-worker co-workeroror—- in in sexual partner, tthe he dream dream of of aa psychotherapist psychotherapist or orother otherprofessional professionalperson person—- aaclient. client. A that seemed seemed to to call call for for an an objective objective interpretation interpretation was was one one of of aa A dream dream that young man who who recently recently had made made friends friends with with aa certain certain young young woman woman young man and was quite quite enamoured enamoured of dreamed that new friend was and was of her. her. He He dreamed that his his new friend was and his his therapist therapist concluded concluded that that the the dream dream was was sexually sexually promiscuous. promiscuous. He He and telling something about the young young woman. woman. Thus, Thus, his hisunconscious unconscious telling him him something about the perception was different different from from his his conscious conscious view, view, so so that that he he decided decided perception of of her her was to move cautiously cautiously in relationship. Later, Later, he he learned learned that that she she was was to move in the relationship. iindeed ndeed promiscuous. promiscuous. In deciding between objective and subjective interpretation, interpretation, it is is In deciding between an an objective and a subjective iimportant m portant to to notice notice whether whether the the figure figure is is depicted depicted photographically, photographically, that thatis, is, k nown to the the dreamer dreamer in in waking waking life. l ife. If If so, so, the the figure figure usually usually should should be be as as known considered picture is is markedly markedly unlike unlike the the actual actual considered objectively. objectively.If If the the dream dream picture pl the dissimilar dissimilar qualities qualities are are likely likely to to be be (subjective) (subjective) attributes attributes of ofthe the person, ' rson , the dd reamer. rca mer. !\. an A distorted distorted image image of of someone someone close close to to the the dreamer dreamer may may still still point point to to an hje c t ive interpretation. example is 22-year-old woman's dream that that oobjective interpretation. An An example is aa 22-year-old woman's dream /II'/" /I/O (her was 1 1 '11.1" one (hc witches wilches in her mother one of' of the in Shakespeare's Shakespeare's Macbeth. Macbeth. The The dreamer's dreamer's associat ion to w i t c h was was 'demonic 'demonic power'. power'. In In understanding understanding this t h i s image image association to aa witch oobjectively, hj l c tivc ly we t he actual actual mother mother was was totally tota lly we need need not not conclude conclude that that the dl'nlOn il". R a t hn, the t ill' dreamer dreamer became hecame aaware wa re Ithat h a l her hl'!" mother m ot her was was keeping keeping demonic. Rather, '

,

Dreams 253 Dreams 253

her (the daughter) emotionally emotionally and and financially financially dependent, hence under the the mother's power. power. Her Her hold hold was was so so powerful powerful that thatthe thedaughter daughterexperienced experienced her the daughter daughter may may have have had a tooher mother as aa witch. witch. Alternatively, Alternatively, the too­ positive view view of of her her mother mother and lacked awareness positive awareness that the negative mother is always present. Distinguishing between between subjective Distinguishing subjective and objective objective meanings meanings isis especially especially important for for therapists important therapists in in working working with with their their own own dreams. dreams. We We must must consider: which a client client appears appears concern concern the therapist's therapist's consider: does does aa dream dream in which psyche—subjectiveor or the the client's client's psyche-objective? psyche—objective?To Toanswer answer this this question, question, psyche-subjective we follow follow the the same same guidelines guidelinesas as for for any any other dream. Regardless we Regardless of the answer II arrive arrive at, it rarely that it is answer it is is extremely extremely rarely is wise wise to tell a client about about my my dream. In my experience, experience, dreams clients are are infrequent infrequent but but important. important. In my dreams about clients The fact fact that II dream The dream about about aa client client means means that that he he or or she she has hastouched touched something Thus, the the dream dream may maywell wellprovide provide(subjectively) (subjectively) aa new new something in in me. Thus, insight into into my or give me a clue insight my own psychology, psychology, or give me clue about about the the client: client: an an unrevealed problem, problem, or (objectively) giveme me aa hint hint about conducting unrevealed (objectively) give conducting the the therapy. therapy. Dreams often often have The young Dreams have both subjective subjective and objective objective meaning. meaning. The man's dream dream of ofhis his new new woman woman friend, friend, for forexample, example, could couldkeep keepits itsobjective objective meaning still say say something something about about his his psyche. psyche. One One such such subjective SUbjective meaning and and still possibility tendency to to promiscuity. promiscuity. possibility isis that that he he had aa tendency Indeed, subjective and objective objective meanings are often often difficult difficult to to disdis­ Indeed, the subjective tinguish, dream figures figures that that have have psychological psychological tinguish, because the psyche chooses dream meaning example, aa woman woman chooses husband a meaning to to the the dreamer. dreamer. For example, chooses as as aa husband man in some some way way her her inner inner image image of ofmen. men. Therefore, Therefore, when when man who matches in she husband, the the dream dream figure figure may may personify personify the inner inner she dreams dreams of her husband, masculine masculine as as well well as as the the actual actual husband. Ideally, considered separately. same Ideally, each each dream dream image image should should be considered separately. In the same dream, be subjective, subjective, another objective. objective. In practice, practice, howhow­ dream, one image may be ever, few images images is likely likely to be be primarily primarily subsub­ ever, aa dream containing only a few jective jective or or objective. objective. A A similar similar rubric rubric pertains pertains to to the the dimensions dimensions II am am about about to discuss: reductive/constructive to discuss: reductive/constructive and compensatory/non-compensatory. Whether dream can can have have different different Whether subjective subjective or or objective objective (or (or both), both), a dream directions dreamer: reductive reductive or or constructive. constructive. A A reductive directions of of impact impact on the dreamer: interpretation why we we have have a particular particular problem; problem; a interpretationisis likely likelyto to tell tell us us why constructive possibility of of psychopsycho­ constructive interpretation interpretation points points to to a solution or aa possibility logical logical development. 'Andrew', successful businessman depressed and anxious, `Andrew', aa successful businessman who who was was depressed and anxious, dreamed visiting the woman who he Ims was visiting the town town where where he he grew grew up. up. A A woman who had had dreamed that that he l ed flex(-door said to to her herhusband, husband, lilived ne.vt-door10tohis hisfamily family ((ininaapoor poor neighbourhood) neighbourhood) said ''Andrew And/"ell' docsn '( ('01111' '. The reminded Andrew of his doesn't come here here per.\' very often often'. The dream dream reminded '

hum hie origins, his anxiety. anxiety. It It humble origins, evidently evidentlycommenting commentingononthe theroots roots of of his

poin tcd t to o tthe he fact ha t he ad ceased o pay the vulnerable vulnerable pointed fact tthat he hhad ceased tto pay attention attention to the



254 M Mary 254 ary Ann Mattoon Mattoon

part of of himself, himself, the part part that thathad hadexperienced experienced economic economic insecurity. insecurity. Such Such aa dream interpretation interpretation is is reductive. reductive. Reductive, roots, means means leading leading back: back: for fordreams, dreams,desigdesig­ Reductive, from from its its Latin roots, root causes, causes, seeking to answer the question why in the sense sense of what nating root caused dream? Such Such causes be unpleasant, unpleasant, repressed repressed contents contents caused the dream? causes tend tend to be ((pleasant pleasant contents contents usually usually are are not not repressed): repressed): events, events, impulses impulses or or complexes complexes and other shadow shadow material. material. Freud's Freud's approach approach to to dream dreaminterpretation interpretationwas was almost entirely entirely reductive. reductive. Just as some dreams point to unpleasant, unpleasant, repressed repressed origins, other dreams are constructive in their intent. intent. They seek seek to answer answer the the question question 'What 'What are constructive in their for?' That is, 'To what what purpose?' purpose?' The The answer answer is is usually one of of strengthening attitudes and qualities that are healthy healthy and worth worth preserving, preserving, or or pointing to to aa previously previously overlooked overlooked possibility in the dreamer. Jung tended to possibility in the dreamer. Jung tended to emphasise the constructive approach dream interpretation interpretation while while not not emphasise the constructive approach to dream excluding the reductive. reductive. excluding A another dream dream of of Andrew, Andrew, constructive interpretation A constructive interpretation seems seems apt apt for another which seemed his depression was related related to to his his neglect neglect of ofhis his which seemed to to indicate that his non-business Many Jungians believe believe that the the psychological psychological basis basis non-business interests. interests. ((Many depression is psychic energy. ) He he was at of depression is a damming of psychic energy.) He dreamed dreamed that that he

D reams 255 255 Dreams

as Zurich analyst analyst Marie-Louise Marie-Louise von Franz has has said, said, 'The 'Theunconscious unconscious as Zurich von Franz doesn't telling you already know'. know' . doesn't waste waste much much spit telling you what you already Con firming the about Confirming the conscious conscious attitude attitude is is aa dream o off a student who was about to take a crucial examination. Knowing that that she she had had prepared prepared well, well, she she was confident — - consciously. consciously.Nevertheless, Nevertheless, she she was was vaguely vaguely anxious, anxious, presumably presumably harbouring doubt doubt— - unconsciously. unconsciously. In In her dream she she was walking walking across across the seemed to confirm confirm her her conscious conscious stage graduation robe. robe. The stage in her graduation The image seemed attitude and deal deal with with her her unconscious unconscious fear fear by by assuring assuring her her of of her her ability ability to to pass get her her degree. degree. pass the exam and get Opposing of an an employer employer who often often Opposing the the conscious conscious attitude attitude was was a dream of praised work of of aa particular particular employee. employee. The The employer employer dreamed dreamed that that praised the the work

his employee was balcony in in the theoffice office where where they they both both his employee was above above him, him, on on a balcony worked; his worked; he he had had to to look look up up to to talk talk with with her. her. In In reflecting reflecting on on the the dream dream and his feelings feelings about about the employee, employee, the the employer/dreamer employer/dreamer realised realised that that his attitude toward her was, in effect, one of looking down on her. His praise of of her her toward was, effect, one looking her. His praise evidently had been a defence against acknowledging his condescending evidently had been a defence against acknowledging his condescending attitude. A can challenge challenge the conscious conscious attitude by by exaggerating exaggerating it. For For A dream can example, met his boss, boss, Mr Mr Todd, Todd, whose whose example,aa young young man man dreamed dreamed that that he he met

an

art sale sale and andpaid paidaahigh high price price for foraapainting paintingthat thathe heliked likedvery verymuch; much; he he art considered it well worth in indicating indicating worth the price. The dream was constructive in

ailments of conversation. conversation. The The dreamer dreamer comforted comforted him, him, then then ailments became a subject of re flected that Todd 's ailments ailments were were due to to smoking. smoking. Coming reflected that Mr Todd's Coming after after a

that he he had had high high energy energy for for artistic artistic or or other other creative creative ventures. ventures. Thus, Thus, it it that pointed to new new (or (or renewed) renewed) possibilities possibilities in in his his life. life.

controversy arisen between between the two two men, the the dream dream seemed seemed to be be controversy that that had arisen telling young employee was angrier angrier than than he he realised, realised, as as telling the the young employeethat that he he was expressed to be be ill ill and and accusing accusing him (in (in expressed in in his his fantasy fantasy of of 'wishing' 'wishing' Mr Todd to that the ailments ailments were due to t o smoking) smoking) of of being being at a t fault fault for for his h i s illness. illness. Many dreams compensate compensate the the conscious conscious attitude attitude by by confirming confirming and and Many dreams contradicting, both partially. partially. That That is, is, they they modify modify it. it. An An example example is a man's man's dream wolf and missed. missed. The - in dream in in which which he he shot shot at a wolf The wolf — in metaphorical metaphorical terms an indiscriminate pursuer pursuer of ofwomen women — - seemed seemedto to embody embody aa predatory predatory attitude in the dreamer. dreamer. By By aiming aiming at at the the animal, animal, the thedreamer dreamerexpressed expressed his his desire the wolf wolf in in himself. himself. By By missing, missing, perhaps perhaps deliberately, deliberately, he he desire to eliminate the expressed his personality personality to to live. live. expressed aa conflicting conflicting desire: desire: for for the the wolf wolf side side of his Thus, modified the conscious attitude he wanted wanted to to Thus, the dream modified the man's conscious attitude that he destroy wolf. destroy the inner wolf. With all the the possibilities possibilities that that compensation compensation covers, covers, how how can can there there be be With all dreams non-compensatory? Some are traumatic dreams that are non-compensatory? traumatic dreams: dreams: those those that that re-tell, horrifying experiences, experiences, such scenes or or re-tell, often often many times, horrifying such as as battle scenes severe becomes unbearably intense, the the severe accidents. accidents. When When the the dream dream ends or becomes dreamer emo­ dreamer is is likely likely to to awaken, awaken, perspiring perspiring and and with with heart pounding, an emotional response similar similar to to that thatwhich whichaccompanied accompaniedthe theactual actualexperience. experience. tional response There usually no no interpretation interpretation possible possible for traumatic dream. dream. A A There is is usually for aa traumatic friend can only only listen listen empathically empathically and offer offer emotional emotional supsup­ friend or or therapist can port. Such dreams to recur recur until until the the emotional emotional impact impact of of the the trauma trauma port. Such dreams tend tend to has i m i n ishcd . Indeed, I ndeed , they seem be the psyche's p syche' s way of has ddiminished. seem to to he of discharging discharging thc the

What do dreams dre a m s have have in incommon? c o m m on? What do

Objective/subjective, that we we Objective/subjective,reductive/constructive. reductive/constructive.IsIsthere thereany any one one rule that can apply to all all dreams? dreams? Yes Yes, in in that that nearly nearly all all dreams dreams can can can apply Yes and and no. Yes, that relatively relatively few few dreams he viewed as he viewed as compensatory. compensatory. No, No, in that dreams are are non­ non-

(1.ompensatory. ·(IIII,,('nsatory. That the dream dream isis compensatory compensatory— - compensates compensates aaconscious consciousattitude attitude—That means by way way of of the the dream, dream,the theunconscious unconsciouspsyche psyche provides provides inforinfor­ means that, by Illlltion that is is needed needed by by consciousness. consciousness. Such need could could be be almost almost mation that Such aa need IInything mental life, most likely likely is answer to aa question question the the anything in in mental life, but but most is an an answer dreamer has been asking, awareness of an attitude attitude that thatneeds needschanging, changing, or oraa l'oillplex has been been constellated (activated). complex that that has Docs of what what the the Does compensation compensation mean mean that that the the dream says the opposite of dreamer has in in mind? mind? Possibly, Possibly, but butnot notnecessarily. necessarily.Sometimes Sometimescompensacompensa­ dreamer has tion even confirms is aa valid valid one. one. tion even confirms the the conscious conscious attitude attitude and and tells you you that that itit is Such co n fi rm a t ion may compensatory to uncertainty about the t he Such confirmation may be be compensatory to your uncertainty aattitude l t i t ude you hold. hold. Alternatively, Al t ernat i vely , the the dream dream says says that you you are arc partly pa rtly right, righ t . hbut u t .. .. . . On O nother o t heroccasions, occasions,by hyexaggerating e xa ggera t i ng the t he conscious conscious attitude a t t i t ude or o rby hy

opposing i t . the t he dream d ream says that t ha t you you are a re totally totally off off the t h e mark. mark . In I n each each case, casc, opposing it,

2256 5 6 Mary M a ry Ann Ann Mattoon M attoon



emotion; telling telling the the dream after emotion; after each each recurrence recurrence probably probably lessens lessens the the dream's emotional charge. dream's Other non-compensatory dreams reflect reflect extra-sensory extra-sensory perception perception (ESP). (ESP). Other non-compensatory dreams Its occurrence occurrence in in waking although the Its waking life life is well established established empirically, empirically, although relevant data data are are not widely known. It can relevant widely known. can occur occur also also in in dreams. dreams. A telepathic dream, dream, one of two forms of A of ESP ESP dreams, brings brings aa message message of of an event at the time the event occurs. For example, example, a woman woman dreamed dreamed that that her mother mother was was calling calling to to her. her. A A few her few hours later, the the dreamer dreamer received received aa phone call telling her of her at about the phone call telling her her mother's death — - at the time time that that the the dream had occurred. dream occurred. Precognitive ((prophetic) dreams seem seem to involve Precognitive prophetic) dreams involve ESP ESP in advance advance of of the the event. An example from literature appears in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar. event. An example from literature appears Shakespeare's Caesar's wife, wife, Calpurnia, Calpurnia, calls calls out out in her Caesar's her sleep, sleep, 'Help, ' Help, ho! ho! They They murder murder Caesar.' Caesar was assassinated the following day. Similarly, many people following report having had dreams anticipating the assassination of of President John F. Kennedy. F. Kennedy. Prophetic dreams dreams are are assumed assumed in in popular opinion to Prophetic to be be more more common common than (in my experience) they actually are. To qualify as prophetic, a dream ( in my experience) they actually are. To qualify as must depict, ahead of the same same happening. happening. In order to must depict, of an event, event, essentially essentially the to know that aa dream know dream is is prophetic, prophetic, itit would would have have to to be be recorded recordedcarefully carefully and and subsequent eventsmonitored. monitored. IfIf this this recording recording isis not not done and subsequent events and the the prepre­ dicted event dicted event fails fails to occur, the the dreamer dreamer is is likely likely not not to to notice notice the thediscrepdiscrep­ ancy. Or the dreamer may ancy. may remember remember the dream dream erroneously, erroneously, conforming conforming it it to the the subsequent subsequent happening. happening. Some dreams that anticipate are not Some dreams anticipate developments developments are not prophetic. prophetic. Rather Rather prospective. Such Such dreams reflect an expectable expectable result result of factors that reflect an they are prospective. exist exist at the time of the dream. An example example is a young man's dream dream that that he was motorcycle very veryfast fast and and took ooff II'I/S riding his motorcycle ff, flying; he was was about to to crash, crash, when w h e n he awoke. Some Some weeks weeks later, he actually actually crashed crashed his his motorcycle. motorcycle. The The crash crash was was less less aa fulfilment fulfilment of prophecy prophecy than than an anexpectable expectable result result of ofthe the reckless, grandiose attitude attitude reflected in his dream. Conceivably, rel:kless. grandiose reflected in Conceivably, the the outout­ come his job, failing t'llIlle could could have have been been aa metaphorical metaphorical crash: crash: losing losing his failing at at business, husi ness, love or gambling, gambling, or orbecoming becomingdepressed. depressed . Nightmares, Nightlllares. if they they are are not notre-enactments re-enactments of oftraumatic traumaticdreams, dreams, often often seem seem to he predictive but probably probably are are prospective. prospective. The The fear fear accompanying accompanying the I he nightmare n i �h t ma re draws attention and urges urges the the dreamer dreamer to look look at at the the images images symbolically. s y m h o l i ca lly.

Hypothesising H ypothe s i s i n g and and verifying verify i n g an an interpretation i n t erpretati o n

D reams 257 257 Dreams

have themselves from is their their have had had to restrain themselves from jumping jumping to a conclusion. Now Now is opportunity discover what may mean. mean. opportunity to discover what the dream may Let apply our our knowledge knowledge to actual dream. dream. A A young young married married Let us us apply to an actual woman,'Margaret', Dan in in aawedding wedding ceremony. ceremony. woman,`Margaree, dreamed: dreamed: II was married to Dan

Afterward 't be my husband. husband. He He wouldn't wouldn 't live live with with me. me. Afterward he he wouldn wouldn't Margaret's younger man, man, was was very very Margaret's associations associationswere werethat that'Dan', 'Dan', aa younger attractive sexual fantasies fantasies about him. him. Marriage, Marriage, she attractive to to her; her; she she had had sexual said, lifetime commitment. festive event said, is is aa lifetime commitment. A A wedding wedding is is aa festive event in in which which the bride bride is is the the central central figure. figure. Finally, Finally, she she associated associated her her observation observation that that for for aa married live together means not to to have have sexual sexual relations. relations. married couple couple not not to live The Margaret was was not not getting getting along along well well The conscious conscious situation situation was was that that Margaret with who often often was was highly highly critical M argaret's with her her actual actual husband, husband, Fred, who critical of of Margaret's lack orderliness. They evening before lack of of orderliness. They had had spent spent the the evening before the the dream dream with with aa group friends, including including Dan; Dan; he had had ignored ignored her. her. She She found found herself herself in in group of of friends, an angry mood the day day after after the the dream. dream. an angry The (largely objective) objective) began The interpretation interpretation (largely began with with the the image image of of Margaret's Margaret's being It can can be be translated translated as as her herwish wish to to consummate consummate her her being married married to to Dan. It sexual instead of to to Fred. Fred. sexual fantasies fantasiesand, and,perhaps, perhaps,to to be be married married to to Dan instead Dan's going through through the the wedding wedding ceremony ceremony and and then then refusing refusing to to live live with with Dan's going her confirmed her feeling that he was dallying with her and rejecting her. her confirmed her feeling that he was dallying with her and rejecting her. The timing of the dream, following the unhappy evening, helped M argaret The timing of the dream, following the unhappy evening, helped Margaret to realise how she was, her disappointed disappointed hope hope of of aa relationship relationship to realise how angry angry she was, from from her with the actual Dan. Taken subjectively, the dream revealed Margaret's with the actual Dan. Taken subjectively, the dream revealed Margaret's severe self-criticism. (Because her associations were sparse, no interconnec­ severe self-criticism. (Because her associations were sparse, no interconnections were required.) required . ) tions were When a n interpretation has been forged, o we fy it? First, we we When an interpretation has been forged, how how ddo we veri verify it? First, look for the dreamer's response to the interpretation. Margaret was not look for the dreamer's response to the interpretation. Margaret was not enthusiastic she was receptive. Thus, in an an enthusiastic but but she was receptive. Thus, itit 'clicked' 'clicked' with with her, her, albeit albeit in understated way. understated way. Whether or not not itit clicks clicks with with the the dreamer, dreamer, sometimes sometimes the the interpretation interpretationisis Whether or verified by subsequent events. As M argaret's analyst I noticed marked verified by subsequent events. As Margaret's analyst I noticed aa marked change in her attitude toward her problems. Instead of blaming her change in her attitude toward her problems. Instead of blaming her husband and children children for for all all her her negative negative emotions, emotions, she she began began to to see see that that husband and her expectations were were excessive; excessive; frequent disappointments were were virtually virtually her expectations frequent disappointments inevitable. result helped helped to confirm the the dream dream interpretation. interpretation. inevitable. A A therapeutic therapeutic result to confirm It 'acted for' the the dreamer. dreamer. Even when the interpretation seems seems to be supported supported by by the the dreamer's dreamer's Even when the interpretation to be response, itit may may be be incomplete incomplete or or slightly slightly off off the the mark. mark. We We can can discover discover response, this by by checking checking to to see see that that the the setting setting and andthe themajor majorimages imageshave havebeen been this t aken into into account. account. If If the the wedding wedding had had taken taken place place on on top top of of aa mountain, mountain, taken for exa m p le another dimension would would have have been been added. added. for example, another dimension What happens happens when when an an interpretation interpretationisisincorrect? incorrect?The Thedreamer's dreamer'spsyche psyche What is likely l i kely tto o reject reject it, it, either either by by an animmediate, immediate. negative negative ego ego response response (`That (That is docsn't fit') f i t ' ) or or by hy aa subsequent suhsequent dream. dream. An An example e x am ple of of both hoth avenues a ven ues of of doesn't .

Now that I ha l we we know k now various various guidelines guideli nes for for approaching approaching an a n interpretation, i n terprel a t ion,we we can l'u n venture w n l u l"l' to 1 0 hypothesise h l'/I/It/wsi.\·(' one. II have have found fo und in i n my my work work with w i t hclients dients that, that. for I 'm many n Hl n y of of them, t hem, this this is is aa great g reat moment. 11l01llen t . They They are a rcusually usua lly intuitive i n t u i t i w and a nd

2 5 8 Mary MaryAnn Ann Mattoon M attoon 258 rejection followed woman dreamer's dreamer's male maleanalyst. analyst. rejection followed an an interpretation interpretation by aa woman interpreted a previous previous dream dream as as meaning meaning that thatthe thedreamer dreamershould should He had interpreted break off her her relationship relationship with with her herlover. lover. The Thedreamer dreamerobjected objected(verbally) (verbally)to to break off It became became evident evident that that her herunconscious unconscious was was even even more more the interpretation. It dissatisfied; she had surgery, surgery, which which proved proved dissatisfied; she had had aa subsequent subsequent dream dream that that she had to he injurious injurious to her. The The surgeon surgeon was was the agent agent of of attempted attempted cure cure and and to be to her. unnecessary the analyst analyst had had been been ininhis hisinterpretation. interpretation. unnecessaryinjury, injury,just just as as the Analyst dreamer concluded analyst's interpretation interpretation of the the Analyst and and dreamer concluded that that the analyst's previous damaging the the dreamer. dreamer. previous dream dream had had cut cut out something healthy, thus damaging When rejection of When such such aa rejection of the the initial initial interpretation interpretation occurs, it it is important to again. When When aa valid valid interpretation interpretationisisreached, reached, to review the the context context and and try again. it usually goes goes unremarked unremarked by by subsequent subsequent dreams. dreams. it usually In summary, the steps steps in in dream dream interpretation interpretation are areas asfollows: follows: In Record the dream dream immediately immediately after after waking. waking. Record the Write personal associations associations and and (where (where known) known) the the archetypal archetypal Write the personal parallels to each dream dream image. image. parallels to each 33 Write Write conscioussituation: situation:the theevents eventsand andfeelings feelingssurrounding surrounding the the thetheconscious dream. dream. 4 what interconnections interconnections there there may may be be among among the the amplifications amplifications Consider what 4 Consider and between them them and and the the conscious conscious situation. situation. and between Reviewthe theguidelines guidelinesfor forapproaching approachingthe thedream: dream:avoid avoidassumptions; assumptions; S5 Review the dream means means what what it it says; says; itit speaks speaks the the language language of ofsymbols; symbols; itit the dream does tell the the dreamer what to to do; do; interpretation interpretation is is translation translationof ofthe the does not not tell dreamer what dream language. dream language. 66 Characterise Characteriseeach eachdream dreamimage imageasassubjective subjective or orobjective, objective, reductive reductive or or constructive, or non-compensatory. non-compensatory. constructive, compensatory compensatory or Identifythe theproblem problemoror complexwith withwhich whichthe thedream dreamisisconcerned. concerned . 77 Identify complex Hypothesisean aninterpretation; interpretation;verify verify itit by bythe thedreamer's dreamer's response response or or H 8 Hypothesise subsequent events. subsequent events.

2

Are all these these steps steps necessary? necessary? Yes Yes, they they are are all all needed needed for for Are all Yes and and no. no. Yes, ma ximum accuracy No, because because an an adequate adequate interpretainterpreta­ maximum accuracy in in interpretation. interpretation. No, ttion i o n often often can can be be reached reached without without strict strict adherence adherence to all the the steps. steps. The The to all lat ter choice choice often to be be made, made, at atleast leastininpsychotherapy, psychotherapy, because because latter often has has to iincluding n cl u d i ng them interpretation to be them all all can can require require several several hours hours for for an an interpretation to he

reached reached.. Thus, is useful useful to to know know these these steps steps as as it it helps helps in in shortening shortening the the process. process . Thus, itit is (One )ne help help is is an a n increasing increasing acquaintance acquaintance with with one's one's dream dream history. history. Such S uch ves us on the the context context of of each each new new dream. d ream . acq ua i n t ance gigives acquaintance usaa head head start start on we may may see see patterns patternsemerging: e me rgi ng : recurring recu rring IIndeed, ndeed , as d reams accumulate accumu l a te we as dreams fi�lIres l ings, fl'l'l i ngs tthat ha t reflect nte rp e rson a l or i n ner conflicts con llit:ls in i n our our figures or or sel settings, feelings reflect iinterpersonal or inner wa k i ng Ilives, i Vl'S, 01' l' Plll i l l l l i ng story. story. waking or l'Vl'1l even aa continuing

Dreams D reams 259 259

Another factor, helpful when when we we work work with with dreams Another factor, especially especially helpful dreams in psypsy­ chotherapy, that much chotherapy, isis that much of the the non-dream non-dream information information brought brought to aa session isis useful useful in in dream session dream interpretation. interpretation. In I n many many therapies, therapies, the the client client routinely tells tells the the therapist therapist what what has has been routinely been going going on in in the the client's client's life. life. Consequently, when a dream is introduced, some Consequently, some of of the the conscious conscious situation situation is already already on the is the table. table. Indeed, Indeed, in in my my experience experience as as an an analyst, analyst, the theclient client and I tend to turn turn to tothe thedreams dreamswhen when we we have have aa sense sense of what aspect of of the client's life life is is the focus for that client's that session. session. Thus, steps in dream dream interpretation interpretation are are taken takenwith withvarying varying frequency, frequency, Thus, steps aided or hindered by by intuitive intuitive leaps. leaps. The The possibility possibility of of error error is is considerable, considerable, but, as we have seen, seen, errors can be revealed by the dreamer's response response and and subsequent events. events. Our dreams can help help us us by by increasing increasing our our consciousness consciousness of of the the otherwise otherwise hidden parts of hidden of our our psyches. psyches. Simply Simply paying paying attention attention to todreams dreamsincreases increases consciousness to to some some extent. extent. Working Working through the consciousness the interpretation interpretation process process increasesitit aa great great deal increases deal more. more. Thus Thus we we are are aided aided in in understanding understanding ourour­ selves, our our motives and purposes; for further selves, motives and purposes; enriched enriched with with possibilities possibilities for further development, and and strengthened in our ability development, strengthened in ability to to make make valid valid decisions. decisions. Many rich­ Many people people find find that that understanding their dreams adds depth and richness to to their their lives lives . . .. .. and that working ness working -- and and playing playing --with withdreams dreams isis simply simply fun. Reco m m end e d reading read ing Recommended Freud, S. (1901) ( 1 90 I ) On Freud, S. On Dreams. Dreams. Standard Standard Edition Edition 5: 5: 633-686. 633-686. Mattoon, M .A. (1984) ( 1 984) UnderstandinK Spring. Mattoon, M.A. Understanding Dreams. Dreams. Dallas, Dallas, TX: Spring. Noone, Holman, D. D. (1972) ( 1 972) In Search of of the the Dream Dream People. People. New New York: Noone, R. R. and Holman, In Search William William Morrow. Whitmont, E.C and Perera, Perera, S. S. (1989) ( 1 989) Dreams: London and Whitmont, E.C. Dreams: AA Portal Portal to to the the Source. Source. London New New York: York: Routledge. Woods, Greenhouse, H.B. H . B . ((1974) 1 974) The Woods, R.L. R.L. and Greenhouse, The New New World World of of Dreams. Dreams. New New York: Macmillan. Macmillan.

Reference s References Freud, 1 900) The Standard Edition Edition 44 and 5 . London: Freud, S. S. ((1900) The Interpretation Interpretation of of Dreams. Dreams. Standard and 5. H ogarth Press. Press. Hogarth Hellman, 1 973) The of the New Hellman, L. L. ((1973) The Little Little Foxes Foxes and and Another Another Part Part of the Forest: Forest: Two Two Plays. Plays. New York York:: Viking. Jung, ( 1 933) The 0: pars. Jung, CG. C.G. (1933) 'The meaning meaning of of psychology psychologyfor formodern modernman', man', in in CW pars. CW 110: 276 332. 276 332. ( 1 964) Man .lung, Franz, M.-L. M .-L. et et al. al. (eds) (eds) (1964) Jung, CG. C.G. and von Franz, London: Man and and his his Symbols. Symbols. London: A ldus. Aldus.

Part I I I

Applications

Chapter 12 Chapter 12

Alchemy Stanton Stanton Marian

Intro d u ction Introduction

lung few if if any any before before him had had imagined. imagined. Jung considered alchemy in a way that that few Alchemy relegated to the status of an historical historical Alchemy for for the the most most part part had been relegated anachronism hidden away away within within the theconfines confines of ofan anesoteric esotericoccultism. occultism. anachronism or hidden To the contemporary contemporary mind, mind, alchemists alchemists were were viewed viewed as odd, reclusive reclusive and strange their laboratories laboratories hopelessly hopelessly trying change lead strange old old men men in their trying to to change lead into gold. precursor to to the the gold. Their practice practice was was seen seen as as nonsense, nonsense, or, or, at best, as a precursor modern science of of chemistry. chemistry. lung began his reflections reflections with similar attitude attitude as as he he describes describes in in Jung began with aa similar Memories, Reflections ((1963). 1 963). There when he first first There he he notes notes that that when Memories, Dreams, Dreams, Reflections desired become more more closely closely acquainted acquainted with with alchemical alchemical texts, texts, he he desired to to become procured classic volume uriferae Volumina Volumina Duo 1 593): Artis A Auriferae Duo ((1593): procured the classic volume Artis II let untouched for for nearly nearly two two years. years. Occasionally Occasionally II let this this book book lie almost untouched would pictures and each time time II would would think, Lord, would look look at the pictures and each think, 'Good Lord, what nonsense! This what nonsense! This stuff is is impossible impossible to to understand'. (lung 1 963: 204) (Jung 1963: However, his inquiry inquiry grew grew deeper, deeper, Jung lung concluded concluded that that the thealchemists alchemists However, as as his were were speaking speaking in in symbols symbols about about the the human soul and were working as much with The gold gold that that with the imagination as with the literal materials of their art. The they common or vulgar vulgar gold an they were were trying trying to to produce produce was was not not the common gold but an aurum vulgi or (lung 1963). 1 963). philosophicum, a philosophical gold (Jung or aurum philosophicum, aurum non non vulgi They They were were concerned concernedwith withboth both the the creation creation of of the the higher higher man man and and the perfection 1 952 interview interview at the the Eranos Eranos Conference, Conference, Jung lung perfection of of nature. nature. In aa 1952 stated: stated: The not physical physical The alchemical alchemical operations operations were were real, real, only this reality was not but psychological. Alchemy both but psychological. Alchemy represents represents the the projection projection of of aa drama drama both cosmic laboratory terms. terms. The had two cosmic and and spiritual spiritual in in laboratory The opus opus magnum magnum had aims: and the the salvation salvation of ofthe the cosmos. cosmos. aims: the the rescue rescue of of the the human human soul and (lung, uoted in in McGuire M cGuire and and Hull H u ll1977: 1 977: 228) 228) (Jung, qquoted

264 Stanton Marian 264 Marian



Alchemy 265 Alchemy 265

This move move brought alchemy into the realm of This alchemy into of contemporary contemporary thought thought and and was the beginning of a sustained was sustained psychology psychology of of alchemy. alchemy. as aa psychological and To see alchemy in this this way way — - as and symbolic symbolicart art— - was a major breakthrough breakthrough for for Jung major lung and and aa key key to tounlocking unlockingits itsmysteries. mysteries. The The exploration and and development exploration development of this insight led Jung lung eventually eventually to see see in in alchemy aa fundamental fundamental source, source, background, background, and confirmation alchemy confirmation of of his his psypsy­ chology of the unconscious. unconscious. The impact of alchemy on his continuing work chology was so so great was great that: that: 'A good good third third of ofJung's lung's writings writings are are directly directly or tantan­ gentially concerned with alchemy, proportionately far more than he wrote gentially concerned with alchemy, proportionately far more he wrote about typology, typology, association association experiments, experiments, eastern eastern wisdom, or parapsycholparapsychol­ oogy' gy' (Hillman ( Hillman 1980: 1 980: 30, 30, n. 3). 3). As As Schwartz-Salant Schwartz-Salant (1995) ( 1 995) has noted: noted: `C.G. 'c.G. Jung, perhaps more than any Jung, perhaps more any other other modern modern researcher researcher of of alchemy, alchemy, is is responsible for for resurrecting resurrectingthis this body body of thought as responsible as aa respectable respectable field field of of study' (Schwartz-Salant (Schwartz-Salant 1995: 1 995: 2). 2). writings on on a alchemy JJung's ung's writings lchemy

publication of of lung's Jung's Collected Works did not follow The English English publication follow the order of his his original original writings writings or or presentations. presentations. Some Some individual individual volumes volumes have have been arranged as collections of papers periods and and not heen arranged as collections of papers from from different different periods not necessarilyin in terms terms of of the the unfolding unfolding of his ideas necessarily ideas or the the importance importance of ofhis his work Editorial notes to to each each volume volume help help to toplace placehis hisoriginal originalwritings writings work.. Editorial hack into chronological hack chronological order. order. Although Although the the historical historical unfolding unfolding of ofhis his ideas can can be be traced Dreams. Reflections Reflections ideas traced in in his autobiography autobiography Memories. Memories, Dreams, should be be noted that I u ng 1963), 1 963), itit should that Jung's Jung's reflections reflections on on alchemy alchemy are are not not ((Jung simply theoretical ideas might best best simply systematic. systematic. The The development development of of lung's Jung's theoretical he mosaic of ofdiscovery, discovery, elaboration elaborationand andsynthesis synthesis—- of ofhis his be considered as aa mosaic ongoing unconscious and of its its connection connection with with ongoing exploration explorationof of the the unconscious and of alchemical thought. akhemical thought. As noted, Jung's lung's work work on onalchemy alchemy constitutes constitutes aaconsiderable considerable field field of of As resea rch. The those volumes volumes of research. The most most obvious obvious resources resources are are to to be be found in those hhis is (Collected 'ol/ected Works dedicated specifically to alchemy. These include include Ps y­ dedicated specifically to alchemy. Psychology and lind Alchemy A lchemy (vol. 1 2), A lchemical Studies 1 3) and his magnum (vol. 12), Alchemical Studies (vol. (vol. 13) opus, M),sterium Mysterium Coniunctionis opus, Coniunctionis (vol. (vol. 14). 14). In these major major works, works, In addition to these can be found in A important alchemical alchemical reflections reflections can ion (vol. (vol. 9ii) he Aion 9ii) and and in in T The "Practice /'tIcticc of of Psychotherapy Psychotherapy (vol. 1 6). The paper in in this this volume volume (vol. 16). The important paper rela t ed to alchemy alchemy is is 'The 'The psychology psychology of of the the transference' transference' (1946). ( 1 946). Jung Jung related notes that t ha t this this essay essay can also also serve serve as an an introduction introduction to to his his more more comcom­ notes prl'1H:nsive account Coniunctionis. In SYl l lholic prehensive account in in M),sterium Mysterium Coniunctionis. In addition addition Thc The Symbolic I,i/e !.iii' (vol. ( vo l. 18) I X ) contains a few short reflections: reflections: ''Foreword Foreword to to aa catalogue catalogue on on a lchemy' (1946), ( 1 946), ''Faust Faust and andalchemy' alchemy'(1949) ( 1 949) and and'Alchemy 'Alchemy and andpsychology' psych o l o g y alchemy' (1950). ( I I» ) ( ) ) . This This last last piece piece was written initially initially for nc j cloJlcdia Hebraic(' I/e/ll'lli('(l was written for the the E Encyclopedia is aa short short synopsis synopsis of ofthe t he alchemical a lchemical work work that t hat isis more morefully fu l ly elaborated dabora kd and is in ill P.stcho/ogy " .I I 'c!lrJlogl' am/ allll Alchemy. A lch('I1/ I ' . A n ot her short s y n o ps is is is also a l so detailed d e t a i led in i l l an all Another short synopsis .

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interview Speaking: Interviews Interviews and and Encounters Encounters C.G.G.lung Jung Speaking: interviewwith withlung Jungin in C. (McGuire H ul l 1977). 1 977). The interview interview was was conducted Mircea Eliade E liade (McGuire and and Hull conducted by Mircea at conference in 1 952 for Combat and and is at the Eranos conference in 1952 for inclusion inclusion in in the thejournal journal Combat reproduced corrections and explanatory explanatory notes notes reproduced in in the above-noted text with corrections by synopses give overview of by lung. Jung. The The above above two synopses give lung's Jung's short short but but mature overview of the process. the alchemical alchemical process. Beyond autobiography Memories, Dreams, Memories, Dreams, Beyond these these materials materials lung's Jung's autobiography 1 963) contains Re flections ((1963) contains his his recollections recollections of of his his discovery discovery and and elaboration elaboration Reflections of alchemy. These considerable number of of of alchemy. These reflections reflectionsare are amplified amplified in in a considerable letters Volumes I1 and and 2. 2. These letters are letters reproduced reproduced in in C. C.G. G.lung Jung Letters, Letters, Volumes aa small small treasure treasure trove trove of of correspondence correspondence with with such such figures figures as as H.G. H . G . Baynes, Baynes, Karl Kerenyi, Hermann Hesse, Erich Neumann, Victor White, M aud Karl Kerenyi, Hermann Hesse, Erich Neumann, Victor White, Maud Oakes, lohn Trinick and others. In addition there are also a collection Oakes, John Trinick and others. there also a collection of unpublished seminar notes containing fifteen lectures unpublished seminar notes containing fifteen lecturesfrom from the the winter winter of November 1 940 to February 1 94 1 , which were compiled by Barbara November 1940 to February 1941, which were compiled Barbara H annah with the help of a number of others including Marie-Louise von Hannah help of a number of others including Marie-Louise von Franz, Toni Wolff Wolff and and Jung lung himself. himself. These These notes, notes, though though reproduced, reproduced, have have not been made made available available to to the the public public and andwere were generally generally restricted restricted to to not been seminar for researching researching Jung's alchemialchemi­ seminar members members and and analysts. analysts. Other tools for 9) and cal General Index (vol. 119) and the the General General Bibliography Bibliography (vol. cal work work include include the the General (vol. index contains two sub-indices sub-indices that The index (vol. 20) 20) of of the the Collected Collected Works. Works. The focus Renaissance collections it focus on on Renaissance collections of of alchemical alchemical texts textsand and their their authors; authors; it also alchemical themes and symbolic symbolic references references that locate these these also contains contains alchemical themes and that locate ideas images in in Jung's Jung's overall overall alchemical alchemical writings. writings. In addition, the the ideas and and images In addition, bstracts of ofthe the Collected CollectedWorks Worksof ofC. C.G. G. student researcher may The AAbstracts student or or researcher may find find The 1 976) to synopses of of all of of Jung's lung's collected collected lung to be be of of value, value, as as it it contains synopses Jung ((1976) works. works. Resource s beyond Jung's J ung's writings Resources

Beyond number of ofJung's Jung'sfollowers fol lowers have have Beyond Jung's Jung's own own works noted above, aa number written helps the reader reader to to enter enter the the complexity complexity written about about alchemy in a way that helps of his work with greater ease. ease. Both Marie-Louise Marie-Louise von Edward of his von Franz Franz and Edward Edinger in their their works works on on alchemy. alchemy. SpeciSpeci­ Edinger have have explicitly explicitly stated stated this this goal goal in fi cally, von lchemy: An Symbolism and PsyPsy­ Alchemy: An Introduction Introduction to to the Symbolism fically, von Franz's Franz's A chology 1 980) and lchemical AActive ctive Imagination 1 979) serve serve as as good Alchemical Imagination ((1979) chology ((1980) and A natomy of ofthe Psyche ((1985), 1 985), as well as introductory texts, as as does does Edinger's Edinger's A Anatomy introductory texts, his detailed studies studies which lung's most most difficult difficult his other other detailed which guide guide readers readers through through Jung's ofthe theConiunctio: Coniunctio: Alchemical A lchemical Image Image of ofIndividuation Individuation works: The Mystery of works: The ((1994), 1 (94), The 1 995) and ion Lectures: Aion Lectures: Exploring the and The A The Mysterium Mysterium Lectures Lectures ((1995) C. G. ion ((1996a). 1 996a). In Nathan Schwartz-Salant Schwartz-Salant has has .";cl{ in C'. In addition, addition, Nathan Self in G.lung's Jung's A Aion compi led aa work entitled lung A lchemy ((1995) 1 995) which, which, along along with with aa compiled work entitled Jung on Alchemy sscholarly ch o l a rl y introduction, contains carefully carefully selected selected passages passages from Jung's introduction, contains from Jung's

work s. major works.

266 Stanton Marlan Marian 266 Stanton

Many M any Jungian lungian analysts analysts have have written written on on and/or and/orreferenced referenced Jung's lung's work work with important with important insights insights that lend lend themselves themselves to to understanding understanding Jung's lung's alchemical book alchemical project. project. Andrew Andrew Samuels Samuelshas has dedicated dedicated aa chapter chapter of his book The 989) to lung's involvement involvement The Plural Psyche (1 (1989) to helping helping others understand Jung's with alchemy and to showing showing its relevance relevance for current current analytical analytical theory theory and and ( 1 987- 1 988) article 'Alchemy: 'Alchemy: lung clinical olt's (1987-1988) clinical application. application. David David H Holt's Jung and reference guide the the historians of science' in the historians of science' in Harvest Harvest provides provides aa reference guide to the historical interest in Jung's lung's work work in in historical literature literaturefor for those those who who have have an an interest relation to the the history history of ofscience science and and to toscientific scientific ideas. ideas. Holt Holt has hasresearched researched periodical concerned the important important journal the journal Ambix, Ambix, a periodical concerned with with the the history history of chemistry and alchemy, which contains many many responses responses to Jung's lung's chemistry and alchemy, which contains alchemical 1 996) has her alchemical writings. writings. Beverley BeverleyZabriskie Zabriskie((1996) has also also addressed addressed in in her work issue of of the the relationship relationship of ofJung's lung'salchemy alchemy to tomodern modernscience, science, work the issue particularly importance of alchemy alchemy for for current current particularly physics. physics. The The continuing continuing importance Jungian Jungian thinkers thinkers has has been been addressed addressed by by me me in in my my edited edited book book Fire Fire in the range of 5;tone: The Alchemy A lchemy of 1 997), which Stone: The of Desire Desire ((1997), whichbrings brings together together aa range essays by analysts and scholars who who have have been been inspired inspired by by the the essays by lungian Jungian analysts and scholars continuing alchemical metaphor their own work. work. ConCon­ continuing vitality vitality of of the the alchemical metaphor in in their taining essays by by Hillman, Hillman, Kugler, Kugler, Berry, Berry, Kalsched, Kalsched, Corbett, Corbett, Schenk, Schenk, taining essays Churchill and myself, myself, this the range range this collection collection can can serve serve as as introductory to the of the the alchemical alchemical metaphor. metaphor. Finally, Finally, Murray MurrayStein Stein(1992) ( 1 992) has has of application of Meaning produced aa series series of ten audiotapes audiotapes entitled entitled Understanding produced of ten Understanding the Meaning 's Metaphor (It' A lchemy: lung Metaphor of of the the Transformative Transformative Process, Process, and Joseph of Alchemy: Jung's and Joseph Henderson has recorded recorded a videotape on the the alchemical alchemical text, Splendor Solis, Henderson with his commentary and and discussion. discussion. with his Beyond references mentioned Beyond the the references mentionedabove, above, which which survey survey the the breadth breadth of akhemy's number of of Jungian lungian thinkers thinkers who who have have alchemy's application, application, there there are are a number made to the the psychology psychology of of alchemy alchemy and and who who have haveaddressed addressed made contributions to and elaborated specific specific alchemical way has has alchemical themes. themes. Each Each in in his his or her own way been originally begun begun by Jung lung himself. himself. It It would would be be been carrying carrying on on the work originally impossible present overview overview to include include and and elaborelabor­ impossible within within the the scope scope of the present aate l e every every source lung's theory theory source or or contribution contribution from those who have applied Jung's alchemy. However, However, a number number of ofthese thesecontributors contributors— - including including MarieMarie­ to alchemy. Louise Franz, Edward Edward Edinger, Edinger, James lames Hillman, Hillman, Nathan NathanSchwartzSchwartz­ Louise von von Franz, , Paul Salant Sii lant, Paul Kugler, Kugler,Stanton Stanton Marlan, Marlan, leffrey Jeffrey Raff, Raff, Walter Walter Odajnyk, Hayao K i , Wolfgang - have Kaawa wai, WolfgangGiegerich Giegerichand andYasuhiro Yasuhiro Tanaka Tanaka — have been been chosen chosen to represent ideas reflect aa wide wide range range of ofperspectives perspectives from from classical classical represent ideas that that reflect appl ication to contemporary contemporary revisionist revisionist themes. themes. The The work work of ofthese these writers writers application will ttherefore herefore be text. Many M any others others who who will be more more fully fully elaborated elaborated later later in in the text. have contributions are simply noted can he hc have made made important important contributions are simply noted below below and and can pu rsued by readers readers interested interested in the the particular particularthemes themes of oftheir theirwritings. writings. pursued M ichacl Fordham Fordham (1960) ( 1 960) reflected reflected on the relationship relationsh ip of ofanalytical a n a l y t ical Michael on the psych ology to t heory, alchemy, a lchemy, theology t heology and mysticism. mysticism. In In 1967 1 967 Aniela An icla psychology to theory, .IJan a lfl'&puhl ished aa reIlL i l ''The n ll uen ce of lche my on he work work of The iinfluence 'l·t ioll Oon published reflection of aalchemy on tthe .

A l c h e my 267 267 Alchemy

CG. and Robert Robert Grinnel's Grinnel's (1973) ( 1 973) book lchemy in Modern C.G. lung' Jung',, and book A Alchemy in a Modern clinical case case and and followed followed its its archetypal archetypal Woman Woman applied applied alchemy alchemy to to a clinical dynamics. ( 1 973) in 'lung and Marx' M arx' concon­ dynamics. In In the the same same year year David David Holt (1973) in 'Jung tinued the reflection reflection on the importance importance of of alchemy alchemy for for understanding understanding tinued the on the theory. Henderson (1978) ( 1 978) wrote the 'Practical 'Practical application application of of theory. Joe Joe Henderson wrote on on the alchemical alchemical theory', theory', which which reflects reflectson on Solomon Solomon Trismosin's Trismosin's Splendor Splendor Solis and considers if in in theory or practice we are 'always seeking to heal the split 1 978: 25 1 ), and 2003 he and and between (Henderson 1978: between Spirit Spirit and and Matter' (Henderson 251), and in 2003 formation of Psyche: The The Symbolic Symbolic Dyane Transformation of the Psyche: Dyane Sherwood Sherwood published published Trans Newman (1981) ( 1 98 1 ) in A lchemy of Alchemy of the the Splendor Splendor Solis. Solis. K.D. K.D. Newman in 'The 'The riddle riddle of the Vas Bene Clausum' Clausum' amplified amplified the the closed closed container container 'giving 'giving Vas Bene the idea idea of the particular the practical practical application application it it has has for foranalytical analytical psypsy­ particular attention attention to the 1 98 1 : 239). ( 1 98 1 ) applied chotherapy' (Newman 1981: chotherapy' (Newman 239). Patrick Patrick McGoveran (1981) applied an alchemical alchemical model model to to a therapeutic milieu with psychotic borderline patients. Mario 1 984) in Transference Mario lacoby Jacoby ((1984) in his his book book The The Analytic Encounter: Transference and Human Human Relationship Relationship wrote the application application of alchemy alchemy to wrote about about the to the analytic situation, focusing focusing specifically specifically on transference and erotic love. love. analytic situation, on transference and erotic Barbara 1 989) in Barbara Stevens Sullivan ((1989) in her her book Psychotherapy Grounded in the transference, as lean Feminine Feminine Principle Principle reflected reflected on on alchemy alchemy and and the transference, as did Jean Kirsch 1 995) in paper 'Transference' 'Transference' — - both adding adding important importantreflecreflec­ Kirsch ((1995) in her paper tion the nature nature of ofthe thedialectical d ialectical relationship. relationship. Sullivan's Sullivan's particular particular concon­ tion on the tribution to revise revise the the masculine and and feminine feminine principles principles and to to offer offer aa tribution was to ( 1 999) pubpub­ renewed renewed understanding understanding of of the the coniunctio. coniunctio. Finally, Finally, Irene Irene Gad (1999) lished introductory article article on the the continuing continuing importance importance of ofalchemy alchemy lished an an introductory entitled soul'. entitled 'Alchemy: 'Alchemy: the the language language of the soul'. Before going any further into the development ideas about Before going any further into development of of lung's Jung's ideas alchemy it is important to turn to the origin of his reflections. alchemy it is turn to the origin of his reflections.

Jung's i scovery of al chemy Jung's ddiscovery alchemy

IIt t is o say precisely where f an is is difficult difficult tto say precisely wherethe theongm originoof an idea idea lies, lies, but but iitt is beyond that Jung's lung'sengagement engagement with with alchemy alchemy was was fundamental fundamental for for beyond doubt that the best description of the development development of his his mature psychological psychological theory. theory. The best Jung's early encounter with alchemy alchemy and and his his subsequent subsequent unfolding unfolding ideas ideas Jung's early about n flections. ' IIn comes from about it comes from his his autobiography, autobiography, Memories, Memories, Dreams, Dreams, Re Reflections) this i t is i s evident evident that that the therole roleofo fhis hisinner innerlife life—- his his images, images, dreams, dreams, this work work it visions synchronistic experiences experiences — - was importance. visions and and synchronistic was of of paramount importance. These scientific work, 'fiery These experiences experiences were were the the prima prima materia materia of of his scientific work, the 'fiery magma' of which which the the goal goal of of the the work work was was to tobe becrystallised crystallised and and magma' out out of incorporated contemporary picture picture of of the the world. world. incorporated into into aa contemporary Like Goethe's classic classic epic, epic, Jung lung opened opened himself himself to Like the the figure figure of of Faust Faust in Goethe's tthe he unconscious, out of of which which aa radically radically new new way way of ofseeing seeing emerged. emerged. This This unconscious, out not come easily easily and and required req uired an intense i n tense confrontation con frontation with w i t h the t he vision vision did did not

268 Stanton 268 Stanton Marian M a rian

unconscious, great uncertainty uncertainty and unconscious,which whichinitiated initiatedhim himinto into aa period period of great isolation. come to to terms terms with with his his experiences, experiences, Jung lung began began to isolation. In In order to come felt corresponded corresponded to the whole draw mandalas (circular (circular drawings) which he felt whole of his psyche psyche actively actively at work. He He did did not not know knowwhere where the theprocess process was was at work. going, felt the the need need to abandon abandon himself himself to it. it. Over Over time, time, aa sense sense of of going, but but felt direction centre that that seemed seemed to have have direction direction and and direction emerged, emerged,aapath path to to a centre aim, lead to to aa central central and and deeper deeper structure structure of ofthe the personality. personality. The The aim, and to lead existential postulate aa existential recognition recognition and and articulation of this centre led lung Jung to postulate 1 963), structure of the psyche psyche superordinate of the the ego (lung superordinate to the position of (Jung 1963), which which he he called called the the Sell Self: A number of Jung's lung's dreams dreams in in the the 1920s 1 920s anticipated anticipated the receipt receipt of aa A number Taoist alchemical manuscript which later served served to confirm confirm his his vision of of the Setf of psychic psychic life. life. In 1928, 1 928, lung received a letter from Richard Richard Jung received Self as the goal of Wilhelm asking if he commentary on on aaChinese Chinese Wilhelm he would write a psychological commentary This was Jung's of the the Golden Golden Flower. Flower. This lung's first first alchemical treatise, The Secret Secret of alchemical treatise, The real contact with with alchemy, alchemy, and the the text text gave gave further further support support real and important contact work stirred stirred Jung l ung to to become become to his developing developing idea Self: This This work to his idea of of the the Sell more acquainted with with alchemical alchemical texts, study of ofWestern Western more acquainted texts, and and he began aa study alchemy Latin treatise, rtis Auriferae A urijerae The A Ards alchemy and and soon soon obtained obtained an an important important Latin treatise, The Volumina 1 593 ), containing of classical classical tracts tracts on onalchemy. alchemy. containing a number of Volumina Duo Duo ((1593), that time, time, he he remembered remembered his his crucial crucial and and now nowclassic classic dream dream from from Around that 11926. 926. At passed through some some gates gates to aa manor manor At the the end end of this this dream, dream, he passed house entered its its courtyard. courtyard. When When he reached reached the the middle middle of of the the house and and entered courtyard, the gates gates flew flew shut. umped down down from from aa horse-drawn horse-drawn courtyard, the shut. A A peasant peasant jjumped wagon proclaimed, 'Now we we are are caught caught in in the theseventeenth seventeenth century' century' wagon and proclaimed, (l ung 1963: 1 963: 203). 203) . lung connected this dream to to alchemy, alchemy, which which had had (Jung Jung connected this dream reached its height in that century, and concluded that he was meant to reached its height in century, concluded he was meant to study alchemy from the ground up. This process of study absorbed l ung study alchemy from the ground This process of study absorbed Jung virt ually for rest of his his life. life. For aa long long while while before before he he found found his his way way virtually for the the rest ahout in this labyrinth , and while studying another sixteenth-century text, about in this labyrinth, and while studying another sixteenth-century text, the Philosophorum, he noticed expressions expressions that were were used used again again Rosarium Philosophorum, the Rosarium lind again. He attempted to decipher them, creating a lexicon of cross­ and again. He attempted to decipher them, creating a lexicon of crossreferences of an an unknown unknownlanguage. language. references as as if if he he were were trying trying to solve the riddle of These studies convinced convinced lung the parallels parallels between between alchemy alchemy and and These studies Jung of the ana lytical psychology. described this recognition in Memories. Dreams. analytical psychology. He He described Memories, Dreams, Rejlect ions: Reflections: II had had very very soon soon seen seen that thatanalytical analytical psychology psychology coincided coincided in in aa most most curious The experiences experiences of of the alchemists alchemists were, were, in aa curious way with alchemy. The sense, This was, was, of sense, my my experiences, experiences,and and their their world world was was my my world. world. This cou rse, aa momentous momentous discovery: discovery: II had stumbled stumbled upon upon the the historical h i s t orical course, counterpart of my my psychology psychology of ofthe theunconscious. unconscious. The Thepossibility possibility of ofaa counterpart of compa rison with with alchemy, alchemy, and and the the uninterrupted u n in te rru pt ed intellectual i n tel lect ual chain chain comparison back to Gnosticism, ( i nost icism, gave ga ve substance to my m y psychology. psychology. When I1 pored pored back to

A l c h e m y 269 269 Alchemy

over texts everything everything fell fell into into place: place: the the fantasy-images, fantasy-images, the the over these these old texts empirical conclusions II empirical material material II had gathered in my practice, and the conclusions had drawn from from it. II now now began began to tounderstand understand what what these these psychic psychic had drawn contents historical perspective. perspective. My contents meant when seen in historical My understanding · of their typical typical character, character, which which had had already already begun begun with with my my investiinvesti­ gation deepened. The images and the nature nature gation of myths, was deepened. The primordial images of the archetype archetype took aa central central place place in in my my researches, researches, and and itit became became of the clear me that that without without history history there there can can be be no nopsychology, psychology, and and clear to to me certainly psychology of the unconscious. unconscious. certainly no psychology (lung 1 963: 205-206) (Jung 1963: For Jung lung aa psychology psychology of of consciousness consciousness could could be content content with with material material from personal life patient but, but, as as soon soon as as the theprocesses processes went went from the the personal life of the patient deeper unconscious, something something else else was needed. Working deeper and involved the unconscious, with unconscious often required unusual unusual decisions decisions and the the interpretainterpreta­ with the unconscious tion dreams. For Jung lung this this called called for a source source in addition addition to to personal personal tion of dreams. memories contact with with the the 'objective 'objective psyche', psyche', Jung's l ung's memories and and associations associations and a contact term for psychic reality that goes beyond the limits of seeing psyche as term psychic reality goes beyond the limits of seeing psyche as Anatomy of the simply a subjective phenomenon. Edinger's ( 1 985) work simply a subjective phenomenon. Edinger's (1985) work Anatomy of with Psyche: Psyche: Alchemical Symholism Symbolism in in Psychotherapy is is explicitly explicitly concerned concerned with this point, and it is one of the reasons why alchemical images are so this point, and it is one of the reasons why alchemical images are so valuable, valuable, in in so so far as they give us us an objective objective basis basis from from which which to to interpret dreams other unconscious unconscious material. material. dreams and and other As l ung deepened deepened his his reflections, refle ctions, he realise that that engaging engaging the the As Jung he came to realise unconscious psychic change. study of of alchemy alchemy unconsciouscould could bring bring about about psychic change. His His study brought an understanding understanding of of the the unconscious unconscious as as aa process, process, and and he he brought him him to an began clarify his view that psyche can be be transformed transformed in in aa positive positive began to to clarify his view that the psyche way between the ego and the the contents contents of of the the unconscious. unconscious. way by by the the contact between the ego This development can an individual's individual's dreams dreams and and This process process of of development can be be seen seen in in an fantasies, leaves its mark on on our ourcollective collective lives lives in the the various various fantasies,and and itit leaves its mark religious study religious systems systems and and their their changing changing symbolic structures. structures. Through aa study of of these these collective collective transformation transformation processes processesand and through through an an understanding of alchemical alchemical symbolism, ung arrived concept of of his his psypsy­ symbolism,lJung arrived at at the central concept chology: individuation process. process. chology: the individuation A vital part of of Jung's lung's work work soon soon began began to to address address aaconcern concern with with the the A vital individual's relationship of ofpsychology psychology and and religion. religion. individual's worldview worldview and and thus the relationship He 1 937) and He published published these these inquiries inquiries in in his his work work Psychology and Religion ((1937) and in 1 942). lung the second second essay essay in in in aa 'direct 'direct offshoot', offshoot', Parace/sica Paracelsica ((1942). Jung notes notes that that the that book, 'Paracelsus ' Paracelsus as as aa spiritual spiritual phenomenon', phenomenon', is is of ofparticular particular importimport­ that book, ance. was through through this this work work on on Paracelsus Paracelsus that that Jung lung was was finally finally led ance. It It was led to to discuss form of of religious religious philosophy' philosophy' (Jung (lung 1962: 1 962: 209). 209). He He discuss 'alchemy 'alchemy as as aa form ttook ook this A lchemy ((1944) 1 944) and had this up up in in his his Psychology Psychology and and Alchemy and thus thus felt felt he he had reached he ground that underlay underlay his his own own experiences experiences of the years years 19131 9 1 3reached tthe ground that of the h a t the t he process process he had passed passed through t h rough corresponded co r respon d ed to to an an 11917. 9 1 7 . IIle l l' noted noted tthat



2 70 Stanton Stanton Marian Marian 270

alchemical (lung 1963: 1 963: 209). continuation of ofthese these alchemical transformation transformation (Jung 209). IItt was was a continuation thoughts opened Jung lung further to the the questions questions of of religion religion and to his his thoughts that opened ongoing relationship relationship to Christianity. Christianity. ongoing For Jung lung the the Christian Christian message message was was of ofcentral central importance importancefor forWestern Western humankind, it needed needed to be be seen seen in aa new new light light and and in in accord accord with with the the humankind, but it spirit times, otherwise otherwise it would have no practical practical effect effect on human human spirit of the times, wholeness. and alchemy alchemy and and wholeness. He He found many parallels between Christianity and demonstrated a relationship between between the the text text the dogma dogma of the Trinity and the of the the Mass M ass with with the the visions visions of ofZosimos Zosimos of ofPanopolis, Pan opolis, aathird-century third-century alchemist. Jung's lung's attempt attempt to to bring bringanalytical analytical psychology psychology into into Gnostic and alchemist. relation relation with with Christianity Christianityultimately ultimatelyled ledtoto the the question question of of Christ Christ as aa psychological and Alchemy, A lchemy, lung ( 1 944) demonstrated Jung (1944) demonstrated psychological figure. figure. In In Psychology and a parallel between or 'stone'. 'stone'. between Christ Christ and and the alchemist's alchemist's notion notion of the 'lapis' or In of these reflections, reflections, he important vision vision of ofaagreenish/ greenish/ In the midst of he had had an important gold body of Christ. Christ. He felt that the the image image pointed to aa central central archetypal archetypal gold symbol expression of life spirit man and and symbol and and was was the expression of the the life spirit present present in in both man inorganic image both are brought brought together together in in what what amounts amounts inorganic nature. nature. In this image to an an alchemical alchemical vision vision of Christ. Christ. Here Here the the Christ Christ image image is is also also the the filius ,filius the anthropos whose whose roots he he saw saw in in the the Jewish lewish tradition, tradition, on on macro cosmi, cosmi, the the one hand, and the Egyptian Horus myth, on the other. This image was the one the Egyptian Horus myth, on the other. This image was felt animate the the whole whole cosmos cosmos and and was was fundamental fundamental as as an anarchetypal archetypal felt to animate integration of spirit with matter, a conjunction that he felt was not not integration of spirit with matter, a conjunction that he felt was adequately accomplished accomplished in in Christianity Christianity (Jung (lung1963). 1 963). In alchemical view, In the the alchemical view,Christianity Christianityhas has saved savedhumankind humankind but but not not nature. lung had critiqued critiqued Christianity Christianity for for neglecting neglecting the body and and 'the 'thefeminine' feminine' Jung and, in in so so doing, doing, ultimately ultimately devaluing devaluing 'nature'. 'nature'. Murray Murray Stein Stein takes takes up up and, an extensive exploration book, lung's Treatment of oj Jung's Treatment an extensive explorationof of this this issue issue in in his his book, Christianity 1 985). As Christianity ((1985). As noted noted earlier, earlier, the the alchemist's alchemist's dream dream was was to to save tthe he world world in opus magnum magnum had had two two aims: aims: the the rescue rescue of of the the in its totality. Its opus human soul and and the the salvation salvation of ofthe thecosmos. cosmos. Alchemy Alchemy with with its its emphasis emphasis on on matter compensated for lack in Christianity Christianity and held held out out the the matter thus thus compensated for the the lack possibility development of of the the religious religious psyche. psyche. possibility of the further development ion, lung ( 1 95 1 ) furthered furthered his research, research, concerned concerned now with with the the In Jung (1951) In A Aion, relationship Christ figure figure to psychology psychology and structure of of the the relationship of of the the Christ and to the structure Self. 'interplay between between conscious conscious and andunconscious unconscious Self. Here, Here, he focused focused on the 'interplay l i fe .. .. . with the impact of of the greater greater personality, personality, the inner man, upon upon the the life every individual' 1 963: 22 1 ) . lung at the the beginning beginning of of of every individual' (lung (Jung 1963: 221). Jung noted noted that at of the anthropos anthropos took took possession possession of of the t he tthe he Christian Christian era, the ancient idea of people that this this archetype archetype was was then then concretised concretised in in the the Christ Christ image. image. people and and that The image image of own son son stood stood opposed opposed to to the thedeified deified Augustus, Augustus, ruler ruler of God's God's own t h e secular secular world, world, and and represented represented hope hope and and expectations expectations that t h a t trant rall­ of the times. In l ung's aim aim was was to to sn:nded of the the times. In addition, addition, Jung's scended the oppressive ::eitKeist zeitgeist of dcmonstra t e the fu l l extent extent to to which which his h i spsychology psychology corresponded corresponded to to demonstrate the full aalchemy khcmy or . lIle I e wanted wan ted to t o discover, discover. side side by side side with wit h rel igioll� religious or viLT vice versa versa.

Alchemy A l c h e my 271 271 questions, the work work questions, what what special problems of psychotherapy were treated in the of the alchemists. alchemists. lung Jung reflected reflected on on his his earlier earlierdemonstration demonstration that that the the coniunctio coniunctio in in alchemy corresponded to the the transference transference (1963: ( 1 963: 212). 2 1 2) . This had already already been been taken taken A lchemy ((1944) 1 944) and up up in in Psychology Psychology and and Alchemy and more more particularly particularly in in his his essay essay 'The 1 946). In `The psychology psychology of of the the transference' transference' ((1946). In this this essay essay lung Jung established parallels parallels between between the the alchemical alchemicalprocess processas as seen seen in in the the illustrations illustrations of the Rosarium Philosophorum, and the psychological psychological problem of of the the opposites, opposites, Rosarium Philosophorum, fuller treatment these problems transference transferenceand and the the coniunctio. coniunctio. A A fuller treatment of these problems was was taken up in lung's l 955� 1 956). In Jung's final work, work, Mysterium Coniunctionis ((1955-1956). In this work followed his of representing representing the whole whole range of of work he followed his original original intention of alchemy alchemy', and as an 'alchemical 'alchemical basis alchemy as as aa kind of 'psychology of alchemy', for psychology' (Jung (lung 1963: 1 963: 221). 22 1 ). for depth psychology' In of the the alchemical alchemical process: process: In C. C.G. G.lung Jung Speaking, Speaking, lung Jung offered a synopsis of This is difficult difficult and strewn strewn with with obstacles; obstacles; the the alchemical alchemical opus opus is is This work is dangerous. beginning you dangerous. Right Right at the beginning you meet meet the the 'dragon,' the chthonic spirit, 'devil' or, as as the the alchemists alchemists called called it, it, the the 'blackness,' 'blackness,' the the spirit, the the 'devil' nigredo. suffering. 'Matter' suffers right up up nigredo, and this encounter produces suffering. 'Matter' suffers to the final disappearance of of the the blackness; blackness; in in psychological terms, terms, the soul of melancholy, melancholy, locked locked in a struggle struggle with soul finds finds itself itself in in the the throes of the 'shadow.' The mystery of the 'shadow.' The mystery mystery of of the the coniunctio, coniunctio, the the central central mystery of alchemy, synthesis of the opposites, opposites, the the assimiassimi­ alchemy, aims aims precisely preciselyat at the the synthesis lation blackness, the language lation of the blackness, the integration integration of the devil devil .. .. . In the language of the alchemist, alchemist, matter suffers suffers until until the nigredo nigredo disappears, disappears, when when the 'dawn' announced by 'peacock's tail' `dawn' (aurora) (aurora) will will be be announced by the the 'peacock's tail' (cauda (cauda pavonis) new day will will break, pavonis) and and a new break, the the leukosis leukosis or or albedo. albedo. But But in in this sense of state state of 'whiteness' 'whiteness' one does does not live live in in the true sense of the the word, word, it is a sort order to to make make itit come come alive alive it must must have have sort of abstract, ideal state. In order 'blood,' alchemists call `blood,' it must have what the alchemists call the rubedo, rubedo, the the 'redness' of life. experience of being can transform this this ideal ideal state state life. Only Only the total experience of the fully human human mode mode of ofexistence. existence. Blood Blood alone alone can can the albedo albedo into into a fully reanimate glorious state of consciousness consciousness in t race of of reanimate aa glorious in which which the the last trace blackness blackness is is dissolved, dissolved, in in which which the the devil devil no no longer longer has has an an autonomous autonomous existence of the psyche. Then the opus opus existencebut but rejoins rejoins the the profound profound unity of magnum finished: the is completed integrated [sic] magnum is is finished: the human soul is [sic].. (lung, and Hull H ul l 1977: 1 977: 228-229) 228�229) (Jung, quoted quoted in McGuire and At conclusion of lung's imagination imagination was was captured captured by the the At the conclusion of his work, Jung's ideas metaphors of of alchemy, alchemy, with with its itsdragons, dragons, suffering suffering matter, matter, ideas and and metaphors peacock's red and and green green lions, lions, kings kings and and peacock's tail, tail, alembics alembics and and athanors; athanors; its its red 4queens, 11eens. fishes' inverted philosophical philosophical trees, trees, salamanders salamanders and fishes' eyes eyes and and inverted hermaphrodites; its black suns suns and and white white earth, earth,and andits itsmetals metals— � lead, silver ilnd its colours -- black, white, yellow yel Jowand andred; red:and andits itsdistillations disti llationsand and and gold: gold; its

272 StantonMarian Marian 272 Stanton



coagulations, and and rich coagulations, rich array of of Latin Latin terms. terms. All All became became the thebest bestpossible possible expression of of aa psychic mystery as as yet unknown expression psychic mystery unknown which which enunciated enunciated and amplified his his maturing vision of amplified of the the parallels parallels between between alchemy alchemy and and his his own own psychology saw as projected psychology of of the the unconscious. unconscious. All All this this and far more, Jung saw by alchemists into was to bring bring about about unity unity from from by the alchemists into matter. matter. Their effort was the disparate parts of of the the psyche, psyche, creating creating a 'chemical 'chemical wedding'. This Jung saw task of ofalchemy: alchemy: to to unify unify the the disparate disparate elements elements of of the the saw as as the moral task soul, both personal personal and ultimately ultimately cosmic, cosmic, and to create create the the goal, goaL soul, and thus to the lapis or or philosopher's philosopher's stone. stone. Likewise, Likewise, Jung's Jung's psychology psychology works works with with the lapis the conflicts about the the conflicts and and dissociation dissociation of psychic psychic life lifeand and attempts attempts to bring about mysterious he called called Wholeness. Wholeness. mysterious 'unification' he Coniunctionis ((1955-1956), 1 95 5- 1 956), Jung that Finally, Mysterium Coniunctionis Finally, with with his his Mysterium Jung noted that his place in reality and established established on its its his psychology psychology was was at at last last 'given 'given its place historical foundations' foundations' (Jung (Jung 1962: 1 962: 221). 22 1 ). Thus Thus his his task task was wasfinished. finished. He Hefelt fel t he bounds of o fscientific scientific understanding, the the transcendental, transcendentaL he had reached 'the bounds the nature of ofthe thearchetype archetype per perse, se,concerning concerningwhich whichno nofurther furtherscientific scientific statement can be be made' made' (1962: ( 1 962: 221). 22 1 ). C l assical development d e v e l o p m ent of ofJung's J ung's ideas i d eas Classical

The power of of the above above sentiment sentiment and and of ofJung's Jung'sstudies studiesstrongly stronglyinfluenced influenced his close followers, followers, Marie-Louise 1 9 1 5- 1 988) in Europe and his close Marie-Louisevon von Franz Franz ((1915-1988) in Europe Edward 1 922 - 1 998) in States. Both von von Franz Franz and and Edward Edinger Edinger ((1922-1998) in the the United United States. Edinger work to to be befundamental fundamentaland andviewed viewedthemselves themselves pripri­ Edinger held held Jung's Jung's work marily as elaborators of of his his ideas, ideas, and as as commentators commentators who who gave gave students students marily casier rather humble humble self-assessments self-assessments easier access access to to the the work of the master. These rather do not not adequately adequately represent represent the extent extent to to which which their their own own contributions contributions havc cxtended and to the the field field of ofanalytical analyticalpsychology psychology and and have extended and contributed to es pcc ially to understanding of ofalchemy. alchemy. especially to our understanding Von has been been considered considered to be be the the primary primarydeveloper developer of ofJung's Jung's Von Franz has alchem ical legacy. followers of Jung lung alchemical legacy. She She 'became 'became world world renowned renowned among followers and after aftcr his death was was an eloquent eloquent spokesperson spokesperson for for his his ideas' ideas' (T.B. (T.B. Kirsch Kirsch 2000: I ) . Von Von Franz Franz met met Jung Jung when when she she was was 18 1 8 years yearsold oldinin1933, 1 933, just j ust 2000: III). aaround ro u n d the thc time time Jung's lung's interest interest in in alchemy alchemy was was catalysing. catalysing. He He analysed analysed her h er in exchange for translations of of texts texts from from Greek Greek and and Latin. Latin. in exchange for her her work work on translations and eventually eventually published published what what was was in ill SShe h e continued continued aass a close collaborator and l ' ssc ncc the h e Mysterium Coniunctionis called A lIrow Mysterium Coniunctionis called The The Aurora essence thethird third part part of of tthe 1 966) . The urora is account of of and and commentary commentary on on an all (Omsurgens ·oll.\·/Irgl'lIs ((1966). is an account The A Aurora thirteenth century. century. The The text text has ha� aalchemical lchcm ica l tcxt text that that dated dated roughly from the thirteenth becn ri bcd to Aq uinas, though though its its authorship authorshipisi s disputed. dispu ted . Jung .l U ll).' been asc ascribed to Thomas Thomas Aquinas, tcxt as as exemplary cxcmplary ()I' of medieval t tempt to come tlo p ch osc this t h is text chose medievalChristianity's Christianity's aattempt terms i t h aalchemical lchemica l phi los( )phy and lchem il"al terms w with philosophy andasasan an instanec instanceof of the the aalchemical VOIl Franz's I ; ran z 's (1966) of tthe h c opposites. oppos i t l·�. Von ( 1 966) commentary com m c nt a ry shows shows how how problem problem ()I' .Jung's l l I n � ' s analytical a n a lyt ica l psychology pSVl"hl lll lp\ may 1 1 1 1 1 \ be Iw used lIsed as asaakey keytot()unlock lIn lockthe t hemeaning, mea n i l l).'of 01

Alchemy 273 Alchemy 273 this of this difficult difficult and and very very psychological psychological text, text, and and how how the the traditional traditional practice of alchemy is is best best understood as alchemy as aa symbolic symbolic process. process. Von Franz extended Von extended her work on on alchemy alchemy through through lectures lectures to students students at at the Jung Institute Institute in in Zurich Zurich in in 1959. 1 959. These lectures were Una were transcribed by Una Thomas, member of the seminar, seminar, and published published in 1980 1 980 under the the title title Thomas, a member A lchemy: An Symbolism and the Psychology. Psychology. The Alchemy: An Introduction Introduction to to the Symbolism The book was difficult study was designed designedto to be be an an introduction introduction to Jung's more difficult study and is a 'practical what the the alchemists alchemists were were really really looking looking for for— - emoemo­ `practical account account of what tional wholeness' (von Franz Franz 1980). 1 980). The The text text contains contains lectures lectures tional balance and wholeness' on Greek and and Arabic Arabic alchemy alchemy as well well as on on later later European European alchemy alchemy on old Greek The AAurora urora Consurgens. Consurgens. In giving her and and The In giving her course course and and publishing publishing this this book von Franz hoped hoped to to enable enable students students to to read read Jung Jungwith withmore morecomprecompre­ von Franz hension. dark and anddifficult difficulthis hisalchemical alchemical writings writingswere were hension. She recognised how dark and that even even many of of his his closest students could could not not follow follow his his work work in in this this area. Nevertheless, she Her lectures lectures area. Nevertheless, she stressed stressed the the importance importance of this work. Her continued January and February of 1969, 1 969, and and her her book book continued in in Zurich Zurich in in January and February A lchemical Active 979. In Alchemical Active Imagination Imagination was was published published in in 11979. In addition addition to to a short history Dorn, an analchemist alchemist history of alchemy, alchemy, von von Franz Franz concentrated concentrated on Gerhard Gerhard Dorn, and physician who lived probably probably in the the sixteenth sixteenth century. century. Following Following his and physician who lived work as a whole, and staying staying close to the original, original, she she showed the similarity similarity between of active imagination, between the the alchemist's alchemist's practice practice and and Jung's technique of both of which promote aa dialogue dialogue with with the the unconscious. unconscious. both of Von last direct direct work on on alchemy alchemy is an historical introduction introduction and and Von Franz's last psychological Arabic alchemical alchemical text, text, Hall psychological commentary commentary on an Arabic Hall ar-Rumuz, ar-Rumuz, or or Clearing of Symbols Symbols Clearing of of Enigmas, Enigmas, alternatively alternatively translated translated The The Explanation Explanation of ((1999). 1 999). The M uhammad ibn ibn Umail Umail (`Senior'), (,Senior'), lived lived in the the tenth tenth The author, author, Muhammad of the text, century century AD. AD. Two non-professional non-professional translators translators did the translation of and interpretation was In order to avoid avoid and von von Franz's interpretation was based based on on this this draft. draft. In premature discussion, Theodor Abt Abt discussion, the the work work has been printed privately by Theodor with not be be quoted quoted or orreviewed reviewed until until aa rectified rectified and with the the provision provision that that it not more accomplished. Abt possession of a valuvalu­ more complete complete translation translation is accomplished. Abt is in possession able presumably will pub­ able collection collection of of Arabic Arabic manuscripts manuscripts that that presumably will also also be be pubCorpus A lchemicum A rabicum: lished. The first of these has been entitled lished. The first of these has been entitled Corpus Alchemicum Arabicum: Book Symbols Kitab ar-Rumuz, aa text text attriattri­ Book of of the the Explanation Explanation of the Symbols Kitab Hall ar-Rumuz, buted to M uhammad ibn Umail. This first volume of the Arabic corpus was buted Muhammad ibn Umail. This first volume of co-edited by Wilferd Madelung in 2003. These texts represent the missing co-edited by Wilferd 2003. represent the missing link mystical branch branch of ofalchemy, alchemy, connecting connecting Gnostic-Hermetic Gnostic-Hermetic link within within the mystical Greek alchemy to the mystical Latin alchemy of Europe. Greek alchemy mystical Latin alchemy of Europe. In von Franz Franz before before her her death death acted acted as as aa collaborator, collaborator, In the the above above work, work, von translator creative developer developer of Jung's Jung's alchemical alchemical work. work. She She contricontri­ translator and creative butcd alchemy, the dialogue of alchemy with Christianity, buted to to the the history history of of alchemy, the dialogue of alchemy with Christianity, lind importance of a symbolic symbolic and psychological approach. She also also and the the importance of a and psychological approach. She furthcred the alchemical alchemical problem of of the the opposites opposites and and furthered our our thinking about the O Ul" understanding undcrstandin� of unified field which the the our of the the lJnus Unus Mum/us, Mundus, the the unified field upon upon which

Alchemy 275 l c h e m y 275 A

M a rian Stanton Marlan 274 Stanton 274

opposites rely. rely. These These themes themes are are further further elaborated elaborated in her book Psyche and syn­ time, synnumber, time, reflections on number, together reflections n it, Matter (1992). ( 1 992). IIn Matter it, she brings together contemporary psychology, contemporary depthpsychology, between depth relationship between the relationship chronicity, and the chronicity, of view of lung's view to Jung's contributed to also contributed She has also theory. She physics and physics and quantum quantum theory. alchemy as importance of alchemy the importance understanding of Christianity and Christianity and an an understanding of the as aa (Wagner interview(Wagner aninterview In an myth. In Christian myth. the Christian religious religious contribution contribution to to the on work on own work her own and her 977), when 11977), whenasked asked what what the the main main value value was was of of lung's Jung's and alchemy, she alchemy, she stated that: civilization needs Christian the Christian that the think that civilization needsa amyth mythtotolive live. . . . .. And And I think one-sided becomeone-sided andbecome degenerated and has degenerated lived, has have lived, we have which we on which myth, on Western ourWestern myth. IfIfour complete myth. the complete is the alchemy is insufficient. II think alchemy and insufficient. the accepting the byaccepting be by would be survival, it would possibility of survival, civilization civilization has has a possibility the ofthe continuation of alchemical myth, alchemical myth, which which is is a richer completion completion and continuation including notincluding in not deficient in myth isisdeficient Christian myth TheChristian Christian Christian myth myth .. .. .. The it's Virgin Mary, (Catholicism has feminine. (Catholicism the feminine. enough of the enough has the the Virgin Mary, but it's feminine). darkfeminine). thedark include the not include does not feminine; it does purified feminine; only only the purified Christianity treats matter as dead the ofthe problem of the problem face the not face does not and does dead and faces opposites,faces theopposites, problemofofthe theproblem facesthe . Alchemyfaces evilAlchemy opposites opposites ofof evil. feminine. thefeminine. ofthe problem of the problem faces the and faces of matter, and the problem of 1 5- \(i ) 1 998- 1 999: 15-16) Wagner1998-1999: in Wagner quoted in (Marie-Louise von (Marie-Louise von Franz, quoted lung"s of Jung's follower of pre-eminent follower the pre-eminent be the to be considered to be considered can be If von von Franz can in Edingerin Edward Edinger for Edward few would in in Europe, few would argue against the same status for and tapes and books, tapes lectures, books, 'in lectures, years, 'in forty years, than forty more than he United States. For more tthe work. lung's work, of Jung's essence of distilled the essence masterfully presented videos, videos, he he masterfully presented and and distilled psychology" individual psychology' and individual collective and both collective relevance for uminating its ill illuminating its relevance for both topics. of topics, range of wide range 8). Though 1 999: 118). Sharp 1999: ((Sharp Though Edinger Edinger wrote wrote on on aa wide Apocalypse theApocalypse Bible, the TheBible, Philosophy, The Greek Philosophy, Faust, Greek induding including Moby Moby Dick, Faust, image, 22 like God image, the God and alchemy. foralchemy. passionfor specialpassion hadaaspecial he had Franz, he like von Franz, and the InstitulL' York Institute New York 1 968), the issue of first issue the first In (spring 1968), the New In the of Quadrant Quadrant (spring ' Psyc ho entitled 'PsychoEdinger entitled by Edinger lectures by of lectures series of spring series final spring n nounced its final aannounced or precis of following issue the following and the. alchemy', and herapy and ttherapy and alchemy', issue contained contained aa precis IX Quadrant, 22:: 18 psychological process' ((Quadrant, lectures, 'Alchemy i nger's lectures, Ed Edinger's 'Alchemy as a psychological 1 97()� late 1970s the late in the Angeles in Los Angeles hese lectures, 2). T 222). These lectures, given given in in New New York York and Los Journal Quadrant: in published serially were , s 0 8 9 1 early and the C . ( , oj the of and early I 980s, were serially published in Quadrant: hi� collected for his later collected were later P.lycho logy , 33 and were A nalytical Psychology, /l)r Analytical i'll/me/ation for .Iullg Jung Foundation Psychothel"il/J in m is ol h m Sy l ca i m e h lc A Psyche: the oj hook AlIlItOIllY hook Anatomy of the Psyche: Alchemical Symbolism in PsychotherapyI ' sel cc ll:d seven selected o nseven focused on Edinger focused book, Edinger his book, lectures and t hese lectures n these 1 ')X5). IIn ((1985). and his lchemical a e h t of stages typical the organise to used he which images, images, which he used to organise the typical stages of the alchemical nd seplll"iltill aand l11ortijico tio,.veparatio suhlilllo tio , mortilicatio, cOllgulatio, sublimatio, solutio, coagulatio, process: process: clilcinlitio, caleinatio, solutio, 4) 1 9X5: 1 ( hlinger ions. images/operat hese t on g in s lI oc f "(//Iillll/·fill. By /omit/tic/ie. By focusing these images/operations, Edinger (1985: 141 )l1� i( t opera hese t f o bKh lchemy" a f o chaos he t ' o t order hring o t telllpts iit . attempts to bring to 'the chaos of alchemy'. Each of these operations sysll: m . These symholsystem. ela bora tesymbol a nelaborate ofan cen t re of thecentre be the t o be iillll1 d to is cL'lItr;iI These central is found ­

.

symbols of of transformation transformation 'provide basic categories by which which to to understand understand categories by symbols life of of the psyche, psyche, and they illustrate almost experiences ofexperiences rangeof ful l range thefull almost the the life 54). 1 999:54). Robertson1999: cf. Robertson 1 5; cf. 1 985: 15; (Edinger1985: individuation' (Edinger constitute individuation' that constitute In his work, Edinger Jung's discovery psyche' the psyche' of the discovery of the 'reality of views lung's Edinger views pseudo­ or pseudopre- or alchemy and other preunderstanding alchemy to understanding approach to new approach as as a new are thought are systems of these systems Edinger, these sciences sciencessuch such as as astrology. astrology. For For Edinger, of thought and illustrate patterns and expressions expressions of of aa phenomenology phenomenology that that can can serve serve to to illustrate images archetypal images serve as archetypal they serve regularities regularities of the objective psyche. As such they presenting as presenting lung as himself and Jung considers himself Edinger considers What Edinger of transformation. What philosophical constructs ororphilosophical 'theoretical constructs than'theoretical are psychic rather than facts rather psychic facts are preface). 1 985: preface). ( Edinger 1985: speculations' (Edinger psychother­ of psychotherproblems of concerned with Edinger Edinger was was also also concerned with the practical problems apy. His goal was to become familiar enough with archetypal to and to images and archetypal images apy. can we can that we analysis that have sufficient sufficient enough enough knowledge knowledge drawn drawn from personal analysis the anatomy of the 'objective as psyche, as the psyche, discover discover an an anatomy anatomy of the as 'objective as the the anatomy too psychological theories are often too ( 1 985: preface). body' (1985: preface). He He contends that psychological in set in are set things are deep, things goes deep, analysis goes whenanalysis thatwhen and that inadequate, and narrow and inadequate, therapist both therapist for both easy for is easy mysterious and which are motion motion which are mysterious and profound. profound. It is and Edinger: to Edinger: According to way. According their way. lose their and patient to lose images itsimages that its is that psychotherapy is valuable for psychotherapy What makes alchemy so valuable in undergoes one that transformation of experiences the concretize concretize the experiences of transformation that one undergoes in anatomy of anatomy whole, alchemy provides a kind of psychotherapy. psychotherapy. Taken as a whole, images will of individuation. individuation. Its images will be be most most meaningful meaningful . . .. .. to those who unconscious. the unconscious. of the experience of personal experience have have had a personal 1 985: 2) Edinger 1985: ((Edinger the with the equated with be equated can be alchemy can of alchemy work of the work l ung, the For him, as as for Jung, For him, individual's exceeds any individual's corpus exceeds alchemical corpus the alchemical individuation individuation process, process, but the con­ was conalchemy was Edinger, alchemy for Edinger, end, for process process in in richness richness and and scope. scope. In In the end, like religious attitude; and like required aa religious sidered sidered to to be be a sacred sacred work, work, one that required the of the development of as aadevelopment alchemy as in alchemy work in lung's work saw Jung's von Franz, he he saw von Franz, Christian Christian myth. continued with aa alchemy continued on alchemy work on Edinger's Edinger's examination examinationof of lung's Jung's work Anatomy of of While the it. While explicating it. carefully devoted number devoted to explicating the Anatomy number of texts carefully sym­ processes and alchemical processes overall look at alchemical 1 985) isis an lhe an overall and the symthe Psyche Psyche ((1985) on focus on reflections focus further reflections Edinger's further process, Edinger's individuation process, bolism bolism of the individuation access to further access give us further a r t icu l ar works pparticular works of of lung Jung in in order to give to and help in Coniunctio: of Coniunctio: Mystery of published The 1 994 he ndersta nding them. u The Mystery understanding them. In In 1994 he published to introduction to an introduction both an contains both Individuation . It l chelllical Image A It contains Alchemical Image of of Individuation. inter­ psychological interthepsychological on the essay on Coniuncfionis and Jung's and an essay Mysterium Coniunctionis Jung's MystcriulII as presented as first presented he Rosarium t ion of preta pictures. These These essays essays were were first Rosarium pictures. pretation of tthe October 1 9-20 October Francisco during 19-20 of San Francisco ung Institute of e C.G. t u res at lec lectures at th the C.G. lJung lung, from Jung, different stance from somewhat different t a kes a somewhat Ed in ger takes h is work I)X4. IIn n tthis I1984. work,. Edinger

276 Stanton Marian Marian 276 Stanton

suggesting pictures of the suggesting other other ways waysto to look look at at the pictures the Rosarium. Rosarium. He He does not oppose Jung's interpretations interpretations but but suggests suggests that the the images images have have multiple multiple oppose Jung's facets, which they they can can be be seen. seen. facets, meanings meanings and contexts in which course he he gave gave 1 995, he In 1995, he published published The The Mysterium Lectures based on a course to members of the Jung J ung Society Society of of Los Los Angeles Angeles during during 1986-1987. 1 986- 1 987. In In this this text he leads his readers Jung's most most difficult difficult work. work. He He follows follows his readers through Jung's fundamental metaphor of of the the anatomy anatomyof ofthe thepsyche, psyche, suggesting suggesting that that this this isis a book book of of facts facts described described in 'images'. 'images'. He He selects selects the major major images images throughthrough­ them with with amplificatory amplificatory material material and and out the the Mysterium out Mysterium and elaborates them commentary. the capacity capacity to to take takedifficult difficult symbolic symbolic material material commentary. Edinger Edinger had the and to translate translate ititinto intoclear, clear, contemporarypsychological psychological statements, statements, and to contemporary making it possible to integrate integrate the the material material into into our ourcurrent currentpsychological psychological making worldview. In 1996 1 996 Edinger of Jung's J ung's difficult difficult work in The In Edinger continued continued his his elaboration of C. G. A ion. Here again A ion Lectures: Aion Lectures: Exploring Exploringthe the Sell Self in in C. G. lung's Jung's Aion. Here he again worked through JJung's ung's text, suggesting suggesting that the reader not approach it with that approach it with a linear linear attitude. attitude. He He stressed stressed that Jung's Jung's way way of of thinking thinking and and writing writing is is better understood as presentational and as a kind of 'cluster thinking', better understood as presentational and as kind of 'cluster thinking', likening dream presents presents itself. itself. A ion examines likening itit to the way a dream Aion examines the the notion notion of the God image image of ofChristianity Christianity and and Jung's J ung'scomplex complex reflections reflections on on the the the God archetype of of the Self. Self. These concerns are amplified n umber of of his his other other amplified in in a number commentaries beyond the the scope scope of ofalchemy alchemy proper. proper. commentaries and books beyond

Alchemy 277 Alchemy 277

continuing reflections. reflections. What What followed followed was was aa series continuing series of papers: papers: 'Silver ' Silver and and the white the white earth', parts parts 1I and and22(Hillman ( H illman1980, 1 980,1981a), 1 98 I a) , 'Alchemical 'Alchemical blue blue and the the unio unio mentalis' mentalis' ((1981b), 1 98 1 b), 'The imagination of air and the the collapse collapse of of and The imagination alchemy' 1 98 I c), 'Salt: chapter on onalchemical alchemicalpsychology' psychology'(1981d), ( 1 98 I d), alchemy' ((1981c), 'Salt: a chapter 'Notes supremacy: the alchemy of of racism' racism' (1986), (1 986), The Theyellowing yellowing `Notes on on white supremacy: of the ( 1 989a), Concerning A lchemical Images the work' (1989a), Concerning the the Stone: Stone: Alchemical Images of of the Goal ((1990), 1 990), 'The ( 1 997) and recently 'The azure vault: 'The seduction seduction of black' (1997) and most recently the experience (2004), paper on on the caelum as experience (2004),aa revision revisionand and elaboration elaboration of his paper alchemical alchemical texts these alchemical blue. blue. Like Like alchemical texts themselves, themselves,the the content content of these papers is ed narrative, is complex complex and and difficult difficult to to summarise summarise in in any unifi unified narrative, but if there them, it it is is in in his his turn turn to to the the nuances nuances there are are any any themes themes that that run through them, of language language and and image, image, the the importance importance of of the the imagination imagination and and attention to alchemical as an an organising organisingfocus focus for forreflection. reflection. In In alchemical aesthetics, aesthetics, and and to colour as addition, Hillman H illman continues to revise revise and add to to this this ongoing ongoing reflection reflection and is that integrates integrates and and expands expands his his vision. vision. is in in the the process process of of preparing preparing a book that For Hillman Hillman images images speak speak more more directly directly when when their theirmetaphysical metaphysicalcoverings coverings can aside, then the the can be set aside, level collective consciousness the level of of collective consciousnesscan canbe be peeled peeledaway, away, so so that that the material images stand out: out: material may speak more phenomenally. Then pagan images metals, minerals, stars, plants, plants, charms, charms, animals, animals, vessels, vessels, fires, fires, metals, planets, planets, minerals, and specific specific locales. locales. ((Hillman H illman 2003: 2003: 102) 1 02)

IInnovations, n n ovati o n s , criti c i s m and a n d developments d e ve l o p m e n ts criticism

Franz and and Edinger Edingerwere were major majorclassical classical disciples disciples of of Jung's J ung's work, work, If von Franz .lames Hillman is From one one James Hillman is aa major major critic critic and and innovator in his own right. From perspective ung's thoughts, thoughts, but but from from perspective Hillman Hillman fundamentally fundamentally revised revised .lJung's another he he returns returns to to its its radical radical essence, essence, carrying its its implications implications to aa new new level. attempts to to present present his hisalchemical alchemicalreflections reflections were were level. His His first first organised attempts iin n lectures lectures given in 1966. 1 966. He states states that that he he had had been been given at at the the Zurich Zurich Institute in drawn 'obscure poetic poetic language language and and strange strange images, images, and and by by its its drawn by alchemy's 'obscure amazing the The Secret Secret of the amazing insights insights especially especiallyininJung's Jung'sintroduction introductionto to The (lotden [in his his essay essay on] on] "The "The philosophical philosophical tree"' tree'" (Hillman ( Hillman Golden Flower Flower and and [in 20OJ : 101). 1 0 1 ). Later, 1 968, while while at the University University of of Chicago Chicago Hillman H illman 2003: Later, in in 1968, at the continued his lectures and 'expanded 'expanded [his] [his] library research and collection collection of of dreams with alchemical alchemical motifs' (Hillman ( Hillman 2003: 2003: 101). 1 0 1 ). These These lectures lectures were were dreams with given an old old wooden wooden chemistry chemistry hall hall and andentitled entitled 'Analytic 'Analytic work work given in in an alchemical these lectures lectures was was 'to 'to exhibit exhibit aabackback­ alchemical opus'. opus'. His His approach approach in these ro u n d to analytical analytical work that that isis metaphorical, metaphorical, even even preposterous preposterous and and so, so, g ground 2003: 102). 1 02). This theme had had Icss less cncumbered encumbered by by clinical clinical literalism' literalism' (Hillman 2003: Hillman's papers paperson onalchemical alchemical themes themes beginning beginning in inhis his1970 1 97() run through t h ro ugh Hillman's run publica t ion 'On sencx consciousness'. consciousness'. In In 1978 1 97R Hillman H i ll m a n published published 'The 'Thl' publication On senex

ttherapeutic herape u t ic value a lchem ical language' ich set t s stage st age for for his his value of of alchemical language' wh which set iits

For Hillman Hillman these these alchemical alchemical images J ung's images have have been been obscured obscured by by both Jung's psychology by its its association association with with Christian Christian metaphysics. metaphysics. He psychologyas as well well as as by explained International Congress Congress in in Rome Rome in in1977, 1 977, explained this this awareness awareness to to the International noting that 'while Jung J ung reclaimed reclaimed alchemy alchemy for for the thepsyche, psyche, he he also also claimed claimed itit that 'while for psychology' (Hillman 02) and ' liberation of of alchemy alchemy for his psychology' (Hillman 2003: 2003: 1102) and that that its 'liberation from the former former traps traps (mysticism, (mysticism, charlatanism, charlatanism, and pre- or or pseudopseudo­ from the and prescience) symbols and science)entangled entangleditit in in his his system system of of opposites opposites and and Christian Christian symbols thought' (Hillman ( Hillman 2003: 2003: 102). 1 02). JJung's ung's metapsychology and his his reliance reliance on Christian Christian imagery imagery led Hillman Hillman to make a distinction distinction between between an 'alchemy of 'alchemy of of to make an 'alchemy of spirit' spirit' and an 'alchemy soul', he notes notes that that the the transformation transformation of ofthe thepsyche psyche can can be be distindistin­ soul', and and he guished Christian idea idea of redemption. redemption. He He states states that that when when we we guished from from the the Christian make make this this distinction, then the other qualities qualities refer the subtle subtle changes changes in in color, color, heat, heat, bodily forms and other to the practice of of therapy therapy for forreflecting reflecting to the psyche's processes, useful to to the tthe h e changes psyche without linking linking these these changes to aa changes going going on on in the psyche pprogressive ro g re s s i ve program or redemptive redemptive vision. vision. program or ((Hillman H illman 2003: 2003: 103) 1 (3 )

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short, alchemy's alchemy's curious curious images images and sayings sayings are valuable valuable not not so so much much In short, because alchemy stages of of individuation individuation and and its its because alchemy isis aa grand grand narrative of the stages opposites, nor for for its its reflection reflection on the the Christian Christian process process of of conjunction of opposites, redemption, but 'rather because because of ofalchemy's alchemy's myriad, myriad, cryptic, cryptic, arcane, arcane, redemption, but 'rather paradoxical, and mainly mainly conflicting conflicting texts texts [which] [which] reveal reveal the the psyche psyche phephe­ paradoxical, ( Hillman 203: 203 : 103). 1 03). nomenally' (Hillman For H illman, alchemy alchemy needs needs to to be be encountered encountered with with the the'least 'leastpossible possible For Hillman, of metaphysics' (2003: (2003: 103). 1 03). He Edinger intrusion of He saw saw Jung, Jung, von von Franz and Edinger informed consciously consciously or unconsciously unconsciously by aa metaphysical metaphysical attitude attitude and and as informed attempted examine alchemy scholarly manner manner in order order to to find find attempted to to examine alchemy in in a scholarly objective meaning. the other other hand, hand,sees seeshimself himselfas asemphasising emphasising the the objective meaning. He, He, on the ofalchemy alchemy as as metaphorical metaphorical substances substances and andarchetypal archetypalprinciples. principles. 'matters' of alchemical language and and images images finding finding those those qualities qualities He seeks to activate alchemical of human life life which which act on on the thevery very substance substance of ofpersonality. personality. The work of ofsoul-making soul-making requires requires corrosive corrosive acids, acids, heavy heavy earth, earth, The work ascending sweating kings, kings, dogs, dogs, and andbitches, bitches,stenches, stenches, ascending birds; birds; there are sweating urine, and blood . . . I know that II am am not not composed composed of of sulfur sulfur and salt, salt, urine, buried in horse dung, putrefying putrefying or or congealing, congealing, turning turning white white or orgreen green or yellow, yellow, encircled serpent, rising on wings. wings. And yet yet II encircled by by aa tail-biting serpent, am! II cannot cannot take take any any of of this this literally, literally, even even if if itit isisall allaccurate, accurate. am! descriptively true. (Hillman 1978: 1 978: 37 37 and 39) 39) For Hillman, such such passages passages resonate resonate with with the the complex complex experiences experiences of the the For Hillman, sou l . While While Jung, Edinger worked worked to develop develop and extend extend aa soul. Jung, von von Franz and Edinger ''psychology psychology of alchemy', alchemy' , Hillman makes makes aa critical critical and and innovative innovative move move and and st y l ist ic shift. is less less to to extend extend aapsychology psychology of ofalchemy alchemy than than stylistic shift. His intention is to develop de vel op an alchemical alchemical way of psychologising psychologising and restore an an alchemialchemi­ and to restore cal way of of imagining. imagining. As As noted, noted, this thisalchemical alchemicalpsychology psychology focuses focuses on on cal way iimages ma ges and highly sensitive one hand, hand, he he doesn't doesn't and is is highly sensitive to to language. language. On On the the one wa n t to reduce reduce alchemical alchemical metaphors metaphors to to generalised generalised abstractions, abstractions, while while on on want the ot her hand, he wants to re-materialise our concepts, 'giving them body. other he wants to re-materialise our concepts, 'giving body, sense ( ibid. : 39). 39). sense and and weight' (ibid.: The a l che mical writings writings of of Kugler Kugler and andmyself myself(Marian) ( Marian)reflect reflect classical, classical. The alchemical aarchetypal rchetypal and postmodern influences. Kugler, picking up on Hillman's and postmodern influences. Kugler, picking up on Hillman's aattention t t e n t ion to language and poetic metaphors Dream and the to language and his his poetic metaphors in in The The Dream and the (Underworld I/lt/('fl1 'IIrld ((1979), 1 979), engages these metaphors through a careful attention engages these metaphors through a careful attention to l inguistics in lchemy of Discourse: An A n Archetypal A rchetyp(/I to linguistics in his his own own book book The The A Alchemy of Discourse: Approach 1 983). In this text he integrates Jung's early rese a rc h Approach (0 to Language ((1983). In this text he integrates Jung's early research iin n his his word association experiments with with his later later focus focus on on the the psychology psychology or lchem y. He l i e analyses analyses the language plays plays in in the the alchemical alchemical process process of of of aalchemy. the role role language dclitera l ising mmatter, a t ter. ask in g what is actually involved in in the the deliteralising deli tera l ising of deliteralising, asking what is actually involved of sui1st a nce and otes tlhat h a t the t he process process is is similar to that t hat of ofmoving moving from from an all substance and nnotes

Alchemy 279 Alchemy 2 79

objective to aa subjective objective to subjective level level of of interpretation interpretation (Kugler, (Kugler, personal personal comcom­ munication, 13 March 2001). This movement from matter to soul munication, 1 3 200 1 ) . This movement from matter soul is is made made possible by by the inherent polysemy possible polysemy of sound patterns, which which have have multiple multiple objects of reference, and allow interpretation to move back objects of reference, and allow interpretation to move back and forth forth between their their implicit implicit meanings. meanings.For For Kugler Kugler the the acoustic between acoustic image image is is the the crucial intersection between external external and and internal, between crucial intersection between between the literal literal and and were working working on on the soul in the metaphoric. 'While the alchemists alchemists were in matter matter they were were simultaneously simultaneouslyworking workingon on the the "matters" "matters" of their they their soul' soul' (ibid.). ( ibid.). Alchemy thus thus works works through Alchemy through the the inherent inherent polysemy polysemy of of the the phonetic phonetic patterns. IIn patterns. n his book Kugler Kugler demonstrates how through the acquisition acquisition of language we we are are separated language separated from the the external external material material world world of ofreference reference and initiated initiated into into aa shared shared archetypal archetypal system system of ofmeaning meaning relations. relations. The The acquisitionof of language languageenabled enabledman mantoto take take 'matters' out of acquisition 'matters' out of life life and and transform them them into transform into imagination. imagination. Shifting Shifting the the linguistic linguistic mode mode from from semantic to to phonetic transforms the the material material of the semantic phonetic consideration consideration transforms the 'day 'day world' (objects into the insubstantial world' (objects of reference) reference) into insubstantial poetic images images of the the 'night world' world'(image ( image— � meanings). meanings). Likewise infl influenced byHillman, Hillman, II have have edited edited two two books books on the subject, Likewise uenced by subject, Fire in in the Stone: and Fire Salt and the Salt the Alchemical A lchemical Soul Soul ((Marian Marian 1995) 1 995) and Stone: The The The inspiration inspiration for for the the first book was Hillman's Alchemy of Desire ((1997). A lchemy of 1 997). The first book essay 'Salt: 'Salt: aa chapter chapter in alchemical The goal of ((1981d) 1 98 1 d) essay alchemical psychology'. psychology'. The of the the work was an exercise in reflection reflection on on the the image of of salt, salt, which which has has had had a place work exercise in the history and in alchemy. In this work a range of in history of depth psychology psychology and alchemy. In this work of in the genres of of depth depth psychology were explored, explored, including including aa Freudian, aa Jungian genres psychology were Jungian Hillmanian and a H illmanian approach to to the the subject. subject. The intention was not so much to juxtapose perspectives perspectivesininorder orderto to fifind the right right or or best best approach, approach, but to juxtapose nd the particular genius of author. While appreciate the particular of each author. While this is true, the flavour of this this approach approach draws draws heavily heavily from fromthe thephenomenological/postmodern phenomenological/postmodern and archetypal perspectives in its sensitivity to aa variety variety of of perspectives and and in its attempt in attempt to to 'restore 'restore psychology psychology to to the the widest, widest, richest, richest, and and deepest deepest volume, so so that itit resonates volume, resonates with with the the soul' soul' (Hillman ( Hillman1989b: 1 989b: 26). 26). A A second second was edited 1 997b), Fire in the Stone: The The Alchemy A lchemy of Desire, was edited book book (Marian (Marlan 1997b), inspired by the continuing vitality inspired vitality of of the the alchemical alchemical metaphor. metaphor. In I nmy myessay, essay, 'Fire in the 'Fire the stone: stone: an an inquiry inquiry into intothe thealchemy alchemy of ofsoul-making' soul-making' (Marlan ( Marian 997a),the the focus focus isis on the 1I997a), the psyche's psyche's intentionality intentionality and and its its complexity, complexity, emphasising its its often often conflicting conflicting and and multiple multiple intentionalities and reflecting emphasising reflecting on Hillman's (1983) on ( 1 983) question 'What does does soul soul want?' want?' My My reflections reflections on this this question lead lead to to the question the metaphor metaphor of of the the 'alchemy 'alchemy of ofdesire', desire', which which probprob­ lematises of subjectivity and shifts the concern to a lematises any any simple simple understanding understanding of broader The essay essay seeks broader view view of of the the dynamism of the soul. The seeks to look again again at at the danger of of essentialism essentialism in psychological theory. the sours soul's complexity and the danger IIt t brings brings to to bear bear the thereflections reflections of of Hillman H illman and and Derrida, Derrida, showing showing aa rela t ionship between of relationship between their approaches, in so far as they share the medium of fid ional space Der ri da fictional spaceand and articulate articulate aa postmodern voice. Both Hillman and and Derrida

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revise our revise our understanding of fiction fiction and destabilise destabilise aa literal literal understanding of psychological theory. theory. The complexity complexity of adequately understood the of the the soul soul is is not adequately understood by by any of the forms logocentrism but wider field field of of psyche psyche (Hillman) ( Hillman) or forms of logocentrism but belong to aa wider signs fast boundaries boundaries of of the the ego ego are are signs (Derrida) (Derrida).. In In this this field, field, the the hard and fast progressively loosened. ect on goal of of both both progressively loosened.The Theessay essaygoes goeson on to to refl reflect on the goal depth psychology psychology and opus of ofalchemy. alchemy. The The inquiry inquiry follows follows postpost­ depth and the opus modern and and archetypal archetypal sensibilities sensibilities along the the lines lines of of Hillman's Hillman's revisioning revisioning traditional concepts opens a notion of of the traditional concepts of of telos telos and and the the goal, goal, and and opens fictional alchemy of desire desire is enacted, enacted, where where we we can can fictional space space in in which which an an alchemy 'speak play of ofdesire, desire, of of aa `speak meaningfully meaningfully of of aa multiplicity multiplicity of intentions in the play dialectic desire in which . . . . .complex complexintentionalities intentionalities encounter encounter one one dialectic of of desire in which another'. The The alchemy alchemy of of desire desire is is 'a'asubtle subtlefield field of oftraces, traces,exchanges, exchanges, and and fictional develop an ear to the the soul's sours desire' desire' fictional enactments' enactments' from from which which 'we we can develop (( M arian 11997a: 997a: 114). 4). This eld of articulates aa shared shared psychopsycho­ Marian This fifield of desire desire then articulates logical archetypal psychology. psychology . logical space space opened opened by by postmodernism and archetypal Schwartz-Salant's Relationship ((1998) 1 998) is Schwartz-Salant's The The Mystery Mystery of of the Human Relationship is both both a theoretical theoretical and and clinical clinical contribution contribution to to the theJungian Jungianliterature. literature.His Hisreflecreflec­ tions bear on the the philosophical philosophical foundation foundation of ofJungian Jungiananalysis analysis as as well well as as on on its clinical human relationships relationships in in its clinical practice, practice, on on transference transference and and beyond to human �cncral. Schwartz-Salant ((personal personal communication, 2000) notes Jung general. Schwartz-Salant communication, 2000) notes that Jung cm ployed alchemical amplify his theory theory of ofindividuation individuation employed alchemical symbolism symbolism to to amplify process, with alchemical alchemical imagery view of of process, and and dealt dealt with imageryfrom from the the point point of view projection. requires a number number of of philosophical philosophical and and projection. Projection Projection as as an an idea requires mctapsychological which are for granted grantedininclassical classical metapsychological presuppositions presuppositions which are taken for analysts Franz and and Edinger. Edinger. Going Goingbeyond beyondthese theseassumptions assumptions analysts such such as as von Franz rc qu ires aa fundamental ontology and and itit isis this this requires fundamental shift in metapsychology if not ontology k i n ti of shift shift that that Schwartz-Salant Schwartz-Sal ant intends about. Rather Rather than than kind intends to to bring about. bcg i n n ing with individuals relating to one one another another beginning with the the idea idea of of two separate individuals hc cmp hasises an 'intermediate realm' realm' between between people people in in relationships relationships as he emphasises an 'intermediate as wdl giving attention the field field between between subject subject as as object, object, mind mind and and well as as giving attention to the Ill a t t c r, psychic psychic body. is contribution focus on deepen our matter, body. H His contribution here here is is to to focus on and deepen uunderstanding nd c rsta n ding of of this this field field as something more than than an an inter-subjective inter-subjective event event as something liS o ftcn described described in incontemporary contemporarypsychoanalysis psychoanalysis(Schwartz-Salant. (Schwartz-Salan!. as itit isis often pcrson a l communication, communication, 2000). 2000). personal ItIt is n his the causal causal relatedness relatedness is iin his cmphasis emphasis on on the the experiential experiential rather rather than than the hc alchemist alchcmist and work, and and in in an anencouragement encouragement of the the of tthe of and his his or or her work, l'n �agemen t with and those those of ofpatients patients that thatSchwartzSchwartz­ engagement with one's one's 'mad 'mad parts' parts' and ee ls he Jung (Schwartz-Salant, (Schwartz-Salant, personal personal communicacommunica­ S a l alant n t ffeels Sa he gocs goes beyond beyond Jung ttion, io n , 2000). lOOO ). lHe i e summarises his contribution as follows. He starts by noting notin� summarises his contribution as follows. He starts by tthat hllt Jung .l ung employed employed alchemical alchemical symbolism to amplify his theory of indi­ symbolism to amplify his theory of individ ua t ion a nd t h a t , i n thc process, he dealt with alchemical imagery from the vidual ion and that, in the process, he dealt with alchemical imagery from the poi n t of view o f projection, othcr i n words, from t h c point of vicw t h a t reilied point of view of projection, in other words, from the point of view that reified tthe ilt' subject sllb ject object ohjt'l·t dichotomy. d ichotomy. Schwa rt/-Sa l a n t aargues rgues tthat ha t this t h is dualistic d ua l ist ic Salatil Schwartz -

framework does not adequately capture capture the the complexity complexity of of original original alchemialchemi­ cal imagery because this imagery is cal is the the 'residue "residueof ofcenturies centuriesof ofexperiences experiences fit into into an "inside-outside'" "inside-outside"' structure. that do not always, always, or even primarily, fit structure. To this end, he he developed the thc idea idca of of the the interactive interactive field, field, and and in in so so doing doing he he brings 'correspondence theory, theory, archetypal archetypal theory brings to bear 'correspondence theory and subtle subtle body theory' (Schwartz-Salant, personal communication, 2000). In In addition, he (Schwartz-Salant, personal communication, 2000). he draws on the phenomenologists Edmund Husserl and Maurice draws the phenomenologists Edmund H usserl and Maurice MerleauMerleau­ Ponty as well well as as Jean Jean Gebser Gebser and and Henry Henry Corbin, Corbin, who have all all contributed contributed to understanding this realm (ibid.). understanding ( ibid.). For For these these thinkers our our traditional traditional Cartesian Cartesian understanding of understanding of an an observing observing ego ego stands stands in in the theway way of ofaa deeper deeper experiential experiential awareness of of what the awareness the alchemists alchemists were were speaking speaking about. about. Schwartz-Salant Schwartz-Salant wants to capture wants capture this this experience, experience, which goes beyond a rational rational discursive discursive approach and approach and requires requires aa kind kindof of`aperspectival 'aperspectival consciousness' consciousness' (ibid.). ( ibid.). Schwartz-Salant's continuing continuing refl reflection on the the human relationship Schwartz-Salant's ection on relationship led led him to reimagine the model transference found found in in Jung's 'Psychology him reimagine the model of transference 'Psychology of the transference' transference'.. He was also the first one to analyse the analyse all twenty pictures of the interpretation the interpretation of which which translates translates well well to his his field field Rosarium, the the Rosarium, approach. Schwartz-Salant's work opened the door for approach. Schwartz-Salant's work for aa comparative comparative psypsy­ choanalytic refl reflection showing how, how, for for instance, choanalytic ection showing instance, what Kleinian Kleinian analysts analysts call the phenomphenom­ call projective projective identification identification can can be be seen seen more more profoundly as the enology of the field in aa consciousness enology field manifesting manifesting in consciousness attuned to to projection projection and causality (Schwartz-Salant, (Schwartz-Salant, personal personal communication, communication, 2000). 2000). This This and causality shows field is primary and and how how projective projective identification identification could could be be shows how how the field seen of alchemical imagery. imagery. He notes that that from from this this perspective perspective one one seen as as part part of can Jung was was working working on on the thesame sameissues issues as as Melanie Melanie Klein Klein was, was, can see see that Jung both 1 946. Beyond Beyond this, this, he he has has used used alchemical alchemical texts texts to understand understand both in 1946. transformations field. Rather Rather than than seeing seeing the the field field as an an intersubintersub­ transformations in in the the field. jective (Self-psychologists, Ogden, approaches, etc.), etc.), jective product (Self-psychologists, Ogden, interpersonal approaches, he like an an actual actual field field in in physics, physics, i.e., i.e., something something with its own own propro­ he saw saw it like cesses. 'interactive'. cesses.That That is is why why he he used used the term 'interactive'. In in reimagining reimagining human human relationships, relationships, transference transference In the above ways and in and encouraging an an experiential experiential entry entry into into the theabove-described above-described field, field, and in encouraging Schwartz-Salant Zabriskie (personal (personal communication, communication, Schwartz-Salant goes goes beyond beyond Jung. Zabriskie 2000) way but like like Schwartz-Salant Schwartz-Salant writes study of 2000) in in her her own own way writes that that her her study alchemy antecedents in Egyptian Egyptian mythology mythology have have informed informed her her alchemy and and its antecedents 'understanding psyche as a process process capable trans­ `understandingand and approach approach to to the psyche capable of transformation and of of its its images images in the dynamic interrelationships to each other other and the psychic psychic "field" "field" constellated constellated around within an individual' individual' and to the around and within ((ibid.). ibid . ) . Zabriskie Zabriskie is is also also concerned concerned with with the the relationship relationship of this this field field to to the issues the most most compelling compelling vector vector issues of of contemporary contemporary physics, physics, and and writes that the and amplification of alchemical world themes and and amplification of the the alchemical world has has come come from from the the ''themes models 2000). She models of of modern modern physics' (Zabriskie, personal communication, 2000). statcs states that that shc she came came to to this this through studying the relationships between between Jung Jung aand nd tthe he Nobel N ohel physicist physicist Wolfgang Wolfgang Pauli. Pauli. This This interest interest led ledto to her her paper paper "Jung 'Jung

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and Pauli: Pauli: a subtle subtle asymmetry' asymmetry' (1995a) ( l 995a) and introduction in A tom and to to her introduction Atom and Archetype: PaulilJung Letters, 1932-1958 A rchetype: The The Pauli/Jung 1 932-1958 (200 1 ). Zabriskie's other (2001). Zabriskie's other interest following lung's the alchemist's alchemist's hypothesis hypothesis of of the the interest was was in following Jung's study of the and wrote wroteaareview review of of relation between psychic psychic and and the material dimension and von Franz's Franz's (1992) ( 1 992) essay in Psyche 'The matter of psyche' Psyche and and Matter Matter called called 'The matter of psyche' (Zabriskie 1996a). 1 996a). In interested in the the clinical clinical and and cultural cultural (Zabriskie In addition she is interested contextualisation of alchemical alchemical imagery as in her 'Exiles and orphans: orphans: Jung, lung, contextualisation of Paracelsus healing images of alchemy' (1995b) ( 1 995b ) and 'Fermentation 'Fermentation Paracelsus and and the healing in alchemical practice' 1 996b). In latter paper, paper, she shequestioned questionedwhy why in alchemical practice' ((1996b). In this latter Jung inserted the eleventh eleventh engraving engraving of of an an edition edition of the Rosarium Rosarium between between tthe he fifth and sixth sixth images images and speculated speculated on the the philosophical philosophical and and clinical clinical values of this (Zabriskie, (Zabriskie, personal personal communication, communication,2000). 2000). values The question of of Jung's Jung's relationship relationship to tocontemporary contemporaryclinical clinical psychopsycho­ The question analysis had earlier been brought brought up upby byAndrew AndrewSamuels Samuels(1989). ( 1 989). ItIt was was his his concern to present Jung lung as as aa credible credible thinker thinker in in the the mainstream mainstream of ofanalytic analytic discourse reliable base base for forfurther furthercontributions contributions to toanalysis analysis discourse and and as as aa reliable 1 989: 1175). 75). For understanding (Samuels 1989: For Samuels Samuels this this concern concern requires some understanding of or why gave so so much much intellectual intellectual effort effort to to aasubject subjectconsidered considered by by why Jung gave many be pejoratively pejoratively mystical mystical if if not not absurd. absurd. Samuels Samuels counters counters this this many to be jjudgement Udgement by pointing out that that alchemy alchemy provides provides important if if not not central central by pointing metaphors for psychological psychological activity its imagery imagery is is well well suited suited activity and that its to capture the the almost almost impossible impossible essence essence of analysis analysis or or any any other otherdeep deep hhuman uman condition; the play play between interpersonal relatedness relatedness on on the the one one hand and imaginal, imaginal, intrapsychic activity other. activity on on the other. (Samuels 1 989: 176) 1 76) (Samuels 1989: Sam uels goes explore the the fecundity fecundity of ofalchemical alchemical metaphors metaphors as as aa Samuels goes on on to explore uunique n iq ue way of of imagining imagining psychological psychological processes processes and their their clinical clinical appliappli­ ca t ion. To accomplish accomplish this he, like many other Jungians, lungians, reflects reflects on lung's cation. on Jung's ((1946) 1 1)46) paper, Psychology of paper, ''Psychology of the the transference' transference'and and he he elaborates elaborates how how itit iiss tthat ha t Jung .lung found round iin n the obscure obscure images f the Philosop!Jorum aan n images oof the Rosarium Rosarium Philosophorum im portant analogue analogue of ofthe the archetypal archetypallevel level of ofexperience. experience. While While Jung l ungspoke spoke important ho u t the here the archetypal archetypal conceptions conceptions of ofthe thetransference, transference, Samuels Samuels also also here aabout noted he also also spoke spoke of of its its personal personal aspects. aspects. Thus him, Jung .l ung both both noted that he Thus for him, l'o nt rihuted something something new field that had not not been been picked picked up up before hefore contributed new to to the field as well as contributing ideas ideas that that were were later later to tobecome become standard standardcontemcontem­ as well porary themes of of psychoanalysis. psychoanalysis. In lung's original original understanding understanding of of the t Il l' porary themes In Jung's Ot he rness of Self to the ego ego he also also anticipated anticipated the vision of Laca n . Otherness of the the Self to the the vision of Latin. A na l ysts have extent to t o which which they they feel feel JJung u ng Analysts have often often been been split split over over the the extent sho uld he understood in in the the tradition traditionof ofpsychoanalysis. psychoanalysis. Jeffrey Jcffrey Raff R a fTis is one one should be understood who rat her place plaee Jung l u ng in in the the context c on tex t of ofaa larger la rge r spiritual s pir i t ualperspective. pe rs pec t i ve who would would rather R a fT in in his his book hook .Ill11g A ldll'lIIi('(l/ II/Iaginalion lOOO) picks lip, Raft ./wi,e lind am/ IIII' the Alchemical Imagination ((2000) picks up, "(,Ill'WS ll'nds t the hl' lclassical ion of l 1 n g aand nd von h·a nl. l Ile ll'sees Sl'l'S renews and and l'x extends tradition of.IJung on Franz. ' Iassil' a f t radit .

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alchemy as as an an expression of a long alchemy expression of long esoteric esoteric spiritual spiritual tradition tradition of of which which Jung's work is lung's is aa contemporary contemporary expression. expression. Raff finds finds three major major comcom­ ponents of Jung's ponents lung's work important in in extending extending this tradition of of 'Jungian 'Jungian spirituality'. These are 'the transcendent spirituality ' . These transcendent function, function, active active imagination, and and inter­ the self' (Raff, 2000). He He is is not so the (Raff, personal personal communication, communication, 2000). so much much interested in in psychological interpretationas as in in 'developing 'developing aa model model for inner ested psychological interpretation inner exploration and and transformation'; and this this is exploration transformation'; and is what, what, he he feels, feels, primarily primarily connects tradition (Raff, (Raff, ibid.). ibid.). connects him him to to the von Franz tradition Like Hillman, Like Hillman, but with with very very different different conclusions, conclusions, Raff Raff puts puts special special emphasis on on the the imagination and the emphasis imagination and the nature nature of of alchemy alchemy as an an imaginal imaginal experience;and and also also like like Hillman, Hillman, he links imagination to the experience; the Sufi Sufi concept concept of an intermediate intermediate realm. realm. He He also also emphasises emphasises the the nature nature and anddevelopment development of inner figures may be be worked figures that that personify the unconscious and may worked with with in in active imagination. imagination. Working Working with with these active these figures figures for for him him moves moves psyche psyche toward the the manifestation of the the Self, goal of Jung's toward manifestation of Self, the classical classical goal J ung's indiindi­ viduation process. process. Up Up to this viduation this point point Raff Raffisisa a'very 'verymainstream mainstreamclassical classical analyst though he analyst he [Ralf] [Raff] emphasizes emphasizes the the inner inner figures figures more than than isis usual usual and also places an extreme importance on active imagination' imagination' (Raff, (Raff, ibid.). ibid.). Where Raff Raff departs departs from from JJung Where ung is in stating that Jung J ung did did not notappreciate appreciate Coniunctio, which which is is a what what the the alchemist alchemistDorn Dorn spoke spokeabout aboutas as aa third third Coniunctio, union work stopped stopped with with his his interinter­ union with with the the unus unus mundus. mundus. For Raff, Jung's work pretation Coniunctio, which which isis the the corporal corporal union union and 'which pretation of the second second Coniunctio, he interprets as point at at which which the theSelf Selfcomes comes fully fully alive alive within within the the he interprets as the point psyche more powerfully' powerfully' (Raff, (Raff, ibid.). ibid.). psyche and and begins begins to function more Raff ung did not go far enough enough 'because 'because of of his his bias bias that that all all Raff believes believes that that JJung is Coniunctio is contained contained within within the the psyche' psyche' (Raff, (Raff,ibid.). ibid.). For For him him the the third third Coniunctio occurs person, goes goes beyond beyond occurs when when the the manifested manifested Self, Self, or or the the 'individuated' person, of the the spirit spirit (Raff, (Raff, ibid.). ibid.). the transpsychic world of the psyche psyche to face the transpsychic Though Jung lung intuited what what he he considered considered to to be be aa metaphysical metaphysical realm, realm, he he always metaphysician and and remained remained an anempiricist. empiricist. always claimed claimed not not to be aa metaphysician Raff, the other other hand, hand,following following the theSufi Sufialchemists, alchemists, argues argues that that Raff, on on the alchemy transpsychic world, Gnostic alchemy isis really really about about the the transpsychic world, the the world world of the Gnostic imagination. to access access these these spiritual spiritual dimensions dimensions one must go go imagination. For For him him to one must beyond to enter enter what whathe he considers considers the the psychoid psychoid beyond ordinary active imagination to realm. and spiritual spiritual beings beings manifest as realm. In In this this state, state, body and spirit are one and psychoidal important of ofthese these figures figures he calls psychoidal figures figures (Raff, (Raff, ibid.). ibid.). The The most important the personification of of God. God. This This the Self Self of of the the psychoid psychoid or or 'the ally', which is a personification figure the figure isis individually individually experienced experiencedasastranscendental transcendentaland andnot not part part of the psyche. alchemy of psyche. For For Raff, Raff, the the alchemy of the the psychoid psychoid isis about about the the 'interaction 'interaction of hhuman uman awareness awareness and and feeling feelingwith with spiritual spiritual entities entitiesthat that have have taken taken on on form form iin n thc psychoid world' (Raff, (Raff, ibid.). ibid.). the psychoid In coniunctio as as union union of self and ally, In his his book, book, he he talks talks about about the the third coniunctio and inclusion of transpsychic transpsychic forces worldview. On and the inclusion forcesas as part part of our worldview. On a personal e sta tes that personal note, note, hhe states that to his knowledge, knowledge, no no one one has has written written about about the

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ally in in this way the third third coniunctio. ally way nor studied studied the feels that he coniunctio. Hence, Hence, he he feels that he differs from from others others in in emphasising emphasising the the spiritual spiritual nature nature of Jung's work and differs in putting in putting less less emphasis emphasis on on clinical clinical work work or orpsychological psychological interpretation, interpretation, Raff extends include the psychoid psychoid world as as the the place place where where extends his his model model to include spiritual entities manifest For Raff, Raff, in inthe thehigher higherstates states spiritual entities manifest and and take take on form. For development the divine worlds worlds come come together together and one can can of development the human human and divine imagine Western equivalent equivalent to to enlightenment. enlightenment. imagine in this the Western Walter Odajnyk (1993) ( 1 993) also also takes takes up up the theme theme of the the spiritual importance of Jung's alchemical alchemical work work in in his his book, Gathering Gathering the the Light: Light: A A Psychology Psychology oj of Meditation. Odajnyk's focus is on the importance of of the meditative tradition, tradition, which feels has notice in in serious serious psychological psychological which he feels has not been given adequate notice reflections. psychological contributions reflections. Thus Thus he he turns turns to to the the East and to the psychological that Jung has has made made to to our ourunderstanding understanding and andappreciation appreciation of ofEastern Eastern that Jung religious his book, book, he he 'sought 'sought to todemondemon­ religious thought thought and practice. practice. Throughout his necessary, to contribution to toan an strate and, where necessary, to apply and extend, Jung's contribution understanding of of psychology psychology of of meditation' meditation' (Odajnyk (Odajnyk1993: 1 993: 166). 1 66). Odajnyk Jung's commentary commentary on Secret of of the the Golden Golden Odajnyk returns returns to to Jung's on The The Secret Flower and thus also also to to the the relationship relationship between between meditation meditation and and alchemy. alchemy. /<'lower that while while Western alchemy alchemy is is more more differentiated differentiated in in its its description description He notes that t he earlier stages of development, the Eastern Eastern tradition traditionisismore moredeveloped developed of the in its description of of its final goals. To develop this insight, Odajnyk Odajnyk takes takes up up Jung's discussion of the coniunctio, as described Coniunctionis, described in in Mysterium Coniunctionis, aand n d compares it to to the the goal goal of ofpsycho-spiritual psycho-spiritual transformation transformation in in meditamedita­ tion. Odajnyk states states that Jung had had the the tendency tendency to to lump lump together together many many tion. Odajnyk that Jung iimages mage s relating of the alchemical alchemical process while for him there are a rc relating to the goal of many distinctions between between these images which which may further differd iffer­ may refer to a further goal. In addition, addition, there there do do not not seem seem to to be beWestern Western equiequi­ centiation n t i a t ion of the goal. valc n t s to certain certain descriptions descriptions found in in Eastern Eastern alchemy. alchemy. Jung Jung concludes concludes valents tthat hat psychic psychic wholeness wholeness will empirically, but for for Odajnyk Odajnyk will never never be be attained empirically, fu rt hcr acquaintance with Eastern Eastern alchemy alchemy and and meditation meditationpractices practicesraises raises further tthe hc possibility possi b i l i t y of of the actual actual psychological psychological experience experience of ofthese these higher highergoals goals as as ttaking a k i ng pplace l a ce in inwhat what he hehas hastermed termed 'the 'the meditation meditation complex'. complex'. An additional H l I 1 p lili ca t io n of in Harold Harold Coward's Coward's (1995) ( 1 995) book, boo k , amplification of this this theme theme isis taken taken up in .Iullg A tls t ern Thought, Thought, which going far fa r .lung tllld and Eastern which also also critiqued critiqued Jung Jung for for not going ( 1 995: 142) 1 42 ) raises question 'if 'if there there can can be bemystical mystical cnough Co wa rd (1995: enough.. Coward raises the the question cx pcricnce without individual ego?' ego?' experience without an individual hll' Odaj n y k (1993), ( 1 993), this meditation complex is a new new way way of of seeing seeing the thc For Odajnyk nnew c w ps yc ho l og i ca l and i t iiss this perspective that t ha t forms forms aa psychological and energetic energetic field, field, and and it �ro u n d for new new ways ways of of interpreting interpreting Jung's ideas. ideas. In [n addition, add i tion, this t h i s perper­ ground from Jung's l u ng s idea idea of orthe t hc Sspective t se l f to lends iitself to the the consideration consideration that that apart from IX'l,t i vc lends ).til a I of I ll' wholeness, wholcncss, we ca n now aalso lso reconsider reconsider the t h e idea idea of or self-realisation sel f-real isa tion and and goal can '

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l'n l ightcn lllen i . Besides Besides hhis i s compa rison of he Eastcrn Westcrn notions notion, enlightenment. comparison of tthe Eastern and Western

Ill' t hl' /co/thine/it) 'IIIIillll("/ill a nd his introduction i n t rod uct ion of ofthe t he meditation med i t a t ioncomplex, com plex,Odajnyk Odajnyk's' s of the and aSSl'SSlI1l'nt ( 'lea ry 's work work isis noteworthy. notewort hy. Cleary ( 'lea ry (1991) ( I l)l) I ) ni I iq Itied I l'd assessment of Tholllas Thomas Cleary's critiqued

and Jung's translation of of The The Secret Secret of the Golden Flower and both Wilhelm's Wilhelm's translation Golden Flower commentary of of it it (see (see Cleary Cleary 1991; 1 99 1 ; Odajnyk Odaj nyk 1993: 1 993: 191-212). 1 9 1 -2 1 2) . The theme of Taoist Taoist alchemy alchemy iis s also also addressed addressed iin n my m y paper, paper, 'The 'The The theme metaphor light and and renewal renewal in in Taoist Taoist alchemy alchemy and and Jungian Jungian analysis' analysis' metaphor of light ((Marlan Marian 1998). 1 998). 44 In this this work, I noted noted that that light light and and renewal renewal are important if not in both both Taoist Taoistalchemy alchemy and and Jungian Jungiananalysis, analysis, not fundamental metaphors metaphors in and the use of of this metaphor metaphor is is traced traced in in the the classical classical alchemical work, The The metaphor Secret of of the Golden Golden Flower, mentioned mentioned above. above. In focusing on the metaphor of light traditions, the therelationship relationshipbetween between analysis analysis light and renewal in the two traditions, and spiritual discipline discipline is is made between the is addressed addressed and and a comparison is images light around' and and 'the 'theemergence emergence of of the the spiritual spiritual images of of 'turning 'turning the the light embryo', well as further reflection reflection on unity of opposites opposites or the embryo', as as well as further on the the unity or the coniunctio, Taoist alchemy alchemy and Jungian J ungian analysis. analysis. themes important important to both Taoist coniunctio, themes This of light light was was aa continuation continuation This reflection reflection on on the the theme of the metaphor metaphor of of issues of light light and and its its deconstruction deconstruction issues raised raised in in the the paper paper 'The metaphor of in alchemical vision' vision' (Marlan ( Marian 2000), 2000), 55 in in which which the interrelationship interrelationship in Jung's alchemical of light consciousness and their privileged privileged place in light and consciousness in the development of Western conclusion that thatconsciousness consciousness Western metaphysics metaphysics is is considered considered with the conclusion and vision vision also have a shadow shadow which which has has been been challenged challenged in Jungian Jungian and and archetypal Eastern thought, thought, and andalchemy. alchemy. archetypal psychology, psychology, postmodern postmodern theory, Eastern A of light light and and its its relation relation with with darkness darknessisisessential essential for for A new new understanding of the consciousness in time. the development development of consciousness in our time. Reflection Reflection on on this this theme theme is is deepened deepened in in The 'The black sun: the alchemy and art of of darkness' darkness' (Marlan ( Marian 2005). 2005). 66 The The Black Black Sun, Sun, Sol Sol Niger, Niger, is is considered here archetypal phenomenon phenomenon having having two two poles poles and and multiple multiple differdiffer­ here as as an archetypal entiations. end the non-self non-self can seen in its its most most literal literal form, form, entiations. At At one one end can be seen locked mortification of the flesh, flesh, while and mortification while its its other pole locked into into the the nigredo nigredo and opens the dark dark shine shine of ofsacred sacred illumination. illumination. opens the the soul soul to the Continued reflection reflection of by of alchemy alchemy and and Eastern Eastern thought thought is also also taken up by Japanese Kawai (1996) ( 1 996) in Buddhism of PsychoPsycho­ Buddhism and and the the Art of Japanese analyst analyst Hayao Kawai therapy. book, Professor Professor Kawai Kawai compares compares the the classic classic series series of of Ox Ox In this book, therapy. In 1 996: Herding Rosarium Philosophorum Philosophorum ((1996: Herding pictures pictures with with illustrations illustrations from the Rosarium 52). both sets sets of ofpictures pictures illustrate illustrate the the individuation individuation process process 52). He He notes notes that both but while there there are are 'mysterious 'mysterious similarities' similarities' between between them, them, he also also sees sees but while important differences. For comparing these these images images amounts to to concon­ important differences. For him comparing trasting Western styles styles of of consciousness. consciousness. He agrees with with the trasting Eastern and Western He agrees conclusion M arvin Spiegelman Spiegelman ((1985) 1 985) who conclusion of of Marvin who analyses analyses the the same same sets sets of images. West, there there is is aa tendency tendency to to emphasise emphasise a images. Kawai Kawai notes notes that that in the West, linear, there is aa linear, developmental developmental goal-oriented goal-orientedtendency tendencywhile whileinin the the East East there leaning Like­ leaning toward toward seeing seeing the the process process as as circular, circular, archetypal archetypal and and infinite. infinite Likewise wise in in the the West West emphasis emphasis isis placed placed on on the the individual individual person person while while the the East East tends nature. These These styles styles of of consciousness consciousness are tends to to focus on nature. are important important with rega rd to how how we see both the the individuation individuation and andalchemical alchemical processes. processes. It It isis regard possible o view view these processes processes from either either style st yle of ofconsciousness. con sciou s ness . possible tto

286 Stanton Stanton M Marlan 286 arian

Kawai isis masterful masterful at at resisting resisting the the temptation temptation to simply Kawai simply fall fall into either either perspective concluding that when working with a patient it is necessary perspective concluding that when working with a patient necessary to be able able to to see see from from both both orientations, orientations, with with and and without stages. be stages. For Kawai, it is important to carry and accept the paradox. In this it is important to carry accept the paradox. In this way, way, the human human person and and nature can work person work in in harmony. harmony. In In concluding, concluding, Kawai, Kawai, himself, himself, ends with with such such aa paradox. paradox. He on the the question question of whether or not ends He reflects reflects on whether or is possible to integrate itit is integrate two two orientations, orientations, linear/circular, linear/circular, developmental/ developmentall archetypal, male male and and female, female, East East and and West, West, and and concludes that it is both archetypal, concludes that both possible and and impossible impossible (Kawai (Kawai 11996: Oneisistempted temptedto to say say that that his possible 996: 1141). 4 1 ). One his orientation isis typically typically Eastern, Eastern,and and perhaps perhaps comes comes more more out out of the orientation the recognition of of the the female female principle principle than than of of the the West's West's demands demands for either/or recognition logos. But But II believe this would fall back back into what logos. believe this would simply simply fall what Kawai Kawai decondecon­ structs. His His acute structs. acute observation observation about the the role role of ofcontemporary contemporary Japanese lapanese women in in traditional society women society is a case in point. point. The The soul's soul'salchemy alchemy refuses refuses to rigidify to rigidify into traditional traditional categories. categories. Wolfgang Giegerich's Giegerich's book book The The Soul Soul's Life Wolfgang 's Logical Lif e ((1998/2001) 1 998/200 1 ) contains contains an important an important critical critical view view of of Jung's lung's approach approach totoalchemy. alchemy. Giegerich Giegerich elaborates both what elaborates what he he feels feels were were Jung's lung's contributions contributions and andwhere wherehe hefeels feels Jung did not lung not go gofar farenough enough(Giegerich, (Giegerich,personal personalcommunication, communication,2000). 2000). Reflecting on his his position, Giegerich acknowledges Jung's R eflecting on lung's accomplishment accomplishment in the discovery as a basis for his in discovery of alchemy alchemy as his depth depth psychology. psychology. He He notes notes that as a model that using using alchemy alchemy as model had had important important and andinterrelated interrelated methodomethodo­ logical advancements. logical Given this appreciation for for Jung's lung'scontribution, contribution,Giegerich Giegerichisisnevertheless nevertheless critical I:ritical about some some dimensions dimensions of of Jung's lung'salchemical alchemical conceptions. conceptions. For For Giegerich, as noted, but but in in aa way way different different from from others othersbefore beforehim, him, Jung lungdid did not go only as as a topic or go far far enough. enough. Alchemy Alchemy entered entered Jung's lung's psychology psychology only content: I:ontent: while while trying to hold the the structure structure of ofpsychology psychology itself itself down down in in the the total total incompatible character of of aa modern incompatible character modern science science (the (the neutral neutralempirical empirical observer standpoint). Its observer standpoint). Its semantic semantic content content was not not allowed allowed to to come come home to to (affect, (affect, infect) infect) the the logical logical or or syntactical syntactical form formof ofpsychology. psychology. (Giegerich, personal communication, communication,2000) 2000) What What Giegerich Giegerich critiques critiques is is that that Jung's lung'sscientific/modernist scientific/modernistmetapsychology metapsychology seems seems to remain remain the the same, same, maintaining maintaining aasubject/object sUbject/object split, split, while while at atthe the same slime time ti me making making an an object object of ofalchemical alchemical ideas ideas that that themselves themselves do do not notlit fit into inlo these t hese categories. Then Then Jung lungwould wouldreduce reducealchemical alchemical processes processes to to events events 'in' i n the I heunconscious unconscious or orthe theinterior interiorofofthe thepersonality. personality.Giegerich Giegerichnotes: notes: '

'

the t he individual, individ u a l , the personality, the inner, and 'the 'the unconscious' unconscious' are a rc our our names na mes for the t he 'bottle' 'bottle' in inwhich which the themercurial mercurial 'substance' 'substa nce' had had totostay stay firmly firmly enclosed for for Jung. J u ng. (( 2(00 ) ( iiegerich, i iegerich. personal communication, cOlll n l ll n iCa l i on.20011)

Alchemy 287 Alchemy 287

Giegerich that 'because 'because Mercurius Mercurius Giegerichcontinues continueshis his reflection reflectionby by noting noting that remained enclosed in the above way "it" had to stay a substance, an object, object, remained enclosed in the above way "it" had to stay a substance, an and entity' and could not be true to its own nature as a spirit (something and entity' and could not be true to its own nature as a spirit (something intangible the intangible and and unrepresentable). unrepresentable).This This interpretation interpretation sets sets the the stage stage for for the The Soul 's Logical Life: fundamental thrust of Giegerich's emphasis in The Soul's Logical Life: fundamental thrust of Giegerich's emphasis in namely, 'images' as as namely,when whenlung, Jung,and and Hillman Hillmanfor for that that matter, matter, stick stick to to 'images' fundamental, they are in fact objectifying the spirit of alchemy. The image fundamental, they are in fact objectifying the spirit of alchemy. The image itself realising itself becomes becomes objectified, objectified,while whilethe thetrue true spirit spirit of of alchemy alchemy aims aims at at realising the logical life of the soul, which is conceptual, subtle, non-positive, the logical life of the soul, which is conceptual, subtle, non-positive, intan­ intangible. gible.Throughout Throughout Giegerich's Giegerich's critique critique he he juxtaposes juxtaposes images imagesand and aa 'pictorial 'pictorial form which valorises with what what he he form of of thinking' thinking' which valorises perception perception and and imagination, imagination, with considers true aim aim of of alchemy alchemy which which is to achieve achieve the considersto to be be the the true is to the level level of of dialectical logical expression in his his text text cited cited dialecticalthought thought and and logical expression as as he he details details it it in above. Giegerich when hold the the image image as above. For For Giegerich when lung Jung opts opts to to hold as fundamental fundamental he he steps steps over over the the goal goal of of alchemy alchemy to to release release the the spirit spirit from from its its container container and and ignore sublation' or or death death that thatthe thealchemical alchemicalprocess process requires. requires. In In ignore the the 'self 'self sublation' doing he skips skips 'over 'over the the successive successive psychological psychological development of several several doing so so he development of centuries' (Giegerich, personal personal communication, communication, 2000). 2000). centuries' (Giegerich, lung pronounced his his psychology psychology of of the the unconscious unconscious to to be be the the immediimmedi­ Jung pronounced ate successor and redemptor of of alchemy. alchemy. In In this this way way he he could could declare declare ate successor and redemptor the previous image-oriented image-oriented ((pictorial) pictorial) mode thinking, long long overover­ the previous mode of of thinking, come history of of the the soul, soul, to to still still be be 'the' 'the' psychological psychological mode mode and and come by by the the history decry later development development into which alchemy alchemy had dissolved as decry the the later into which had dissolved as aa mere rationalism, intellectualization, intellectualization, i.e., 'ego'. Jung lung excluded excluded mere rationalism, i.e., mere mere 'ego'. from his psychological psychological reception telos of of from his reception of of alchemy alchemythe the fact fact that that the the telos alchemy been the the overcoming overcoming of of itself. itself. He He froze froze it, it, and and psychology psychology alchemy had had been along with it, it, in in an an earlier earlier phase. phase. along with (Giegerich, personal communication, communication, 2000) 2000) (Giegerich, personal In short, for for Giegerich, Giegerich, the the task task of of alchemy alchemy was was to to deconstruct deconstruct itself, itself, or or at at In short, least, in to surpass surpass itself itself as as a of the the historical historical expression expression least, in his his terms, terms, to a movement movement of of the the soul. soul. Here Here aaHegelian Hegeliandialectical dialectical understanding understandingof ofhistory historyinfluences influences of Giegerich. Finally, for him, him, Jung lung did did not notgive give enough enough emphasis emphasis to to the the active active Giegerich. Finally, for dimensions of of consciousness consciousness as constituting the the reality reality of of the the psyche. psyche. That That dimensions as constituting is, alchemy alchemy was active human human project, project, which which meant meant that that the theobserver observer is, was an an active of the the alchemical alchemical process process was passive. He He notes notes that that even even the the activity activity of was not not passive. of 'registering, 'registering, recording, recording, maybe dream or or fantasy fantasy images images of maybe painting, painting, the the dream received and thinking about about them them as as aa text' text' (ibid.) (ibid.) there there was was still still the the received and in in thinking tendency to relate to to this this text text as as aafinished finished 'product' 'product'delivered delivered by by the thepropro­ tendency to relate d ucing 'nature'. 'nature'. 'But ' Butconsciousness consciousnesshad hadto torefrain refrainfrom fromentering enteringthe theprocess process ducing of the the production production of ofimages imagesthemselves'. themselves'. Giegerich Giegerich qualified qualified this this statement statement of to note note the the 'exception' 'exception' of ofactive activeimagination, imagination, though thougheven evenin inthis thisinstance instance to ''what what is is to to become become active active and and enter enter the the production production process process is is not not the t he

288 Stanton 288 Stanton Marian Marian

reflecting mind, but but the empirical ego'. ego'. In short the refl ecting mind, the mythos mythos of ofJungian Jungian work, work, psychological and alchemical, is that the 'natural process of the production psychological and alchemical, is that the 'natural production of images images was was not not to be interfered with'. For For Giegerich, Giegerich, this this was was the the vestige vestige of fundamental naturalism left in Jung's psychology and in the fundamental naturalism left Jung's psychology in the end end 'was 'was contrary to to the contrary the spirit spirit of ofalchemy' alchemy' (ibid.). ( ibid.). Finally, Finally, one one might might say say that that Giegerich's reading reading is is both both Hegelian Giegerich's Hegelian and deconstructive. deconstructive. He notes that that in in Jung: 'we have the curious Jung: 'we have curious spectacle spectacle .. .. . of of aa singular singular dedication dedication to to and and propagation of alchemy propagation alchemy "and" "and" its its simultaneous simultaneous repression. repression. His His advanceadvance­ ment of alchemy as a psychological psychological paradigm paradigm was was "in itself" the ment alchemy as the substance substance of what it was was intrinsically about' (ibid.). ( ibid.). Giegerich's ideas ideas have have begun begun to influence other JJungians. Giegerich's influence other ungians. A case in point is the work of is of Yasuhiro Yasuhiro Tanaka, Tanaka, aaJapanese Japanese analyst. analyst. Tanaka Tanaka(2000) (2000) has has written a paper written paper entitled entitled 'The 'The alchemical alchemical images images and and logic logic in in analytical analytical psychology'. He He picks picks up up on Giegerich's psychology'. Giegerich's critique critique of 'images' 'images' and and the the limilimi­ tations of an tations an 'imaginal 'imaginal psychology'. psychology'. For For him, him, ififwe weremain remainone-sidedly one-sidedly falll into the trap of dependent on such a perspective 'then we fal of remaining remaining on on the horizon of rather than depth psychology' of surface-psychology surface-psychology rather psychology' (Tanaka, (Tanaka, personal communication, communication, 2000). 2000). For Tanaka Tanaka as as for forGiegerich Giegerich 'we 'we psychologists psychologists living living after Jung, Jung, have have to to address the alchemical address alchemical logic logic in analytical analytical psychology'. psychology'. His His assessment assessment of Jung that while while Jung lung on on aapersonal personallevel level perceived perceived the the logical, logical, parapara­ Jung is that doxical and dialectic dialectic dimension dimension of alchemy, alchemy, he could not not `interiorize 'interiorize it it doxical he could enough' adequately apply apply it to his his psychology psychology as theory. Thus, Thus, for for enough' or adequately as a theory. Tanaka, our our work work now now is is 'not 'notto tofashion fashionthe thebridge bridgebetween between alchemy alchemy and and our clinical clinical practice' practice' but to to examine examine the the theoretical theoretical limitations limitations of Jung's Jung's psychology: Alchemy his [Jung's] [lung's] historical background but but also also his his Alchemy was was not not only his logical thc logical background background in the sense sense that that for Jung it was was none other than the theoria for sublating thcoria sublating his his own own experience experience in to to his his psychology. psychology. (Tanaka, personal communication, communication, 2000) 2000)

This then means means it was was Jung's lung's theory that could could dispel dispel the massa confirsa confusa aand n d it it is is to to this this that thatwe we must must now now give give our our attention. attention. C urrent status status and and trends trend s for for future future development d eve l o p m ent Current

.l u ng's psychological Jung's psychological reflections on alchemy helped to forge aa number number of ofhis his fu n d a m e n tal concepts. i s idea psychic reality, reality, the centrality of the the fundamental concepts. HHis idea ooff psychic the centrality a n: h ct ype individuation, individuation, active Self as as aasuperordinate s uperordi nate archetype, active imagination, imagination, the the Self st rllct lire and a n d the the religious religious nature natureof ofpsychic psychic life life were were all all developed devcloped and/or a nd/or structure dee pened through t h ro ugh his his engagement engagement with with alchemy. alchemy. He Helinked linkcdhis hisexperiences e x peri e nces deepened w i t h those t hose of of the t he alchemists alchem ists and, a nd , its as noted, not ed, alchemy alc he m y became hecame both hot h the t h l' with h ist nril'al cou .l ung thus t h us brought hro ught n terpa rt aand n d conforlllat ion of his h i s thought. t hought . Jung historical counterpart confiumation ,

A l c h e m y 289 289 Alchemy

alchemy obscurity and the realm realm of ofmodern modern psychology. psychology. In In alchemy out out of obscurity and into the addition ttoo the the basic basic theoretical theoretical ideas ideas noted noted above, above, alchemy alchemy provided Jung Jung and Jungian psychology with a rich and psychology with rich metaphoric metaphoric language language with which which to to describe the the complex complex transactions transactions of of the the unconscious and the transformadescribe unconscious and transforma­ tions tions of analytical work. The prima confusa became disorgan­ prima materia materia and massa confusa became an an image image of the disorganand massa ised ised beginnings beginnings of of analytical analytical work, work, the the vas vas hermeticum, hermeticum, the the container container and sealed sealed vessel vesselof of the the analytical analytical relationships. relationships. In In this this vessel vessel the the matters matters of psyche cooked, coagulated, coagulated, distilled distilled and transformed. transformed. psyche could could be be heated up, cooked, These confusions and and These psychological psychological alchemical alchemical processes processesworked workedon on the the confusions splits the personality personality seeking seeking to heal heal them them through throughunifications, unifications, the the splits of the Coniufl(�·tio sacred marriage marriage which which eventually Coniunctio and and the sacred eventuallycould could result result in in a stabilised sense sense of wholeness, In this this way way the the wholeness, the the Self, Self, or or philosopher's philosopher's stone. In metaphors of alchemy alchemy lend lend themselves themselves to to the the newly newly developed psychology psychology of of metaphors of the of alchemy alchemy became became the colours colours of of analytical analytical the unconscious, unconscious, the colours of psychology, psychological light. psychology, as as alchemy alchemy could could now be seen in aa psychological Jung Jung expressed expressed his his ideas ideas in in aa non-dogmatic non-dogmatic and and tentative tentative way. way. He He thought thought of himself as physician and and empirical empirical scientist scientist who who was was discovering discovering and and as a physician documenting objective facts of of psychic psychic reality. reality. Classical Classical analysts analysts such such documenting the objective as Franz (1980) ( 1 980) and and Edinger Edinger (1985) ( 1 985) epitomise epitomise this attitude. attitude. Edinger Edinger as von Franz ((1985: 1 985: xix) has stated that what Jung presents are 'psychic facts rather than xix) has stated that are 'psychic rather than theoretical speculations'. Jung did did in in fact fact reject reject theoretical constructs constructs or philosophical speculations'. metaphysical claims thinkers such such aa rejection rejection of of claims but but for many contemporary contemporary thinkers the metaphysical implications one's thought thought is is considered considered naive. naive. Even Even the metaphysical implications of of one's empirical ontological or at at least least theoretical theoretical empirical science sciencecan can be be seen seen to to carry carry ontological implications. free of of philosophical philosophical assumpassump­ implications. Although Although science science claims claims to to be free tions, has been been challenged challenged by by many many philosophers philosophers of ofscience science as as tions, this position has well hermeneutic tradition. Science, Science, too, has ontological ontological comcom­ well in in the the larger hermeneutic mitments often remain remain unacknowledged. unacknowledged. What What we we see see is not not simply simply aa mitments that often given; of what what is is seen. seen. Jung J ung knew knew given; perspective perspectiveand and context context are are always always part of this, instances did not not apply applyititto tohis hisown owntheory theory(Giegerich (Giegerich1998/ 1 998/ this, but in most instances 200 1 ). Classical his time, time, 2001). Classicalanalysts analystshave haveoften oftenheld held that that Jung Jung was was ahead ahead of his and our job is is to to understand understand him, him, amplify amplify his his ideas ideas and and apply apply them them to to new new areas of research research and and practice; practice; but but for others the implications in his his thought are vestiges critiqued. vestiges of of metaphysical metaphysicalattitudes attitudes that that must be seen and critiqued. One such of projection. projection. Jung Jung relied relied on on this this concept conceptas as such idea was his notion of basic his understanding understanding of of the therelationship relationshipbetween between psychology psychology and and basic for for his alchemy. number of of analysts analysts projection projection as as aatheory theoryisisproblematic problematic alchemy. For For a number and best aa limited limited concept concept by by which which to to understand understandpsychological psychological transtrans­ and at best actions relationships. Schwartz-Salant ( 1 995) noted Schwartz-Salant (1995) going beyond beyond actions and and relationships. noted that going tthe hc theory t hcory of projection projection would would seem seem to require a fundamental fundamental shift shift in in to require mctapsychology projection theory, theory, meta psychologyififnot not ontology. ontology. In explicit response to projection Schwartz-Sa l a n t ( (1998) 1 998 ) has Schwartz-Salant hasemphasised emphasiseda ashift shiftininfocus focustoto the the idea idea of of a 'psychic ha t extends beyond hcyo n d the t h e analytical assumptions that t h a t form form the t he 'psychic field field'' tthat

290 Stanton 290 StantonMarian Marian



basis of the the idea idea of projection. projection. In so doing he echoes a contemporary ethos basis psychic life lifefrom fromoutside outsideaa traditional traditional Cartesian Cartesian and Kantian that imagines imagines psychic paradigm. Hillman's H illman's innovations, noted above, above, propose propose aaradical radicalrevision revisionof of'classi'classi­ cal' and 'clinical' 'clinical' paradigms. For For him him these these approaches approachesare arefilled filled with with prepre­ suppositions that lead to suppositions to reductive reductive and and literalised literalised renderings renderings of of alchemy's alchemy's powerful imagistic imagistic potential. potential. The interpretation interpretation of powerful of alchemy alchemy in in this this reductive reductive way leads leads to what he calls way calls a 'psychology 'psychology of of alchemy'. alchemy'. The The problem problem is is that that our current notions of psychology psychology are limited to do do justice j ustice to to the the are far far too limited images and and processes. processes. Hillman Hillman calls calls for for a total reviimport of alchemical alchemical images revi­ sioning of psychology sioning psychology and the the development development of ofan analchemical alchemicalpsychology, psychology, placing the the non-reducible non-reducible language language of of alchemy alchemy first first as as aa marker to note placing note its its irreducible quality quality as as a realm of irreducible of language, language, imagination imagination and and soul. soul. Kugler ((1983) likewiseemphasised emphasisedthe thecontribution contribution of of language language for for a Kugler 1 983) likewise paradigm shift, paradigm shift, but while while Hillman H illman might might be be said said to toemphasise emphasise aaphenomphenom­ enological attitude attitude toward toward the place enological place of of soul, soul , Kugler Kugler also alsoemphasises emphasises the the formal structures of of linguistics linguistics and and phonetic phonetic patterns. patterns.Samuels Samuels(1989) ( 1 989) also also moves toward toward a new moves new vision vision of ofthe theplural pluralpsyche, psyche, and andOdajnyk Odajnyk(1993) ( 1 993) contributes the the notion of contributes ofthe themedication-complex medication-complex as as an anenergetic energetic field. field. Marian describesthe the field field as as an 'alchemy M arian (1997a) ( l 997a) describes 'alchemy of of desire' desire' and andcalls calls attention to to Jacques Jacques Derrida's Derrida's idea idea of of`difference', 'differance', which which Derrida Derrida states states is is 'neither word nor aa concept' concept' but but aa playful playful way way to to imagine imagine aa field field of of 'neither aa word indeterminacy. 1 998) brings and psychopsycho­ indeterminacy. Giegerich Giegerich ((1998) brings to to bear philosophical and logical criticism criticism and and inspired inspired by Hegel logical Hegel introduces introduces a new new understanding understanding of of (2000) followed followed Giegerich Giegerich in in pushing pushingus us the 'logical life of the soul'. soul' . Tanaka Tanaka(2000) toward importance of of theory theory to to dispel dispel our our theoretical theoretical confusion. confusion. toward the importance Focusing on 'field approach' and and linking linking all all the the above above thinkers thinkers to to this this Focusing on a 'field notion in no no way way is is an an attempt attempt to tosuggest suggest that thatthey theyare areall allsaying sayingthe thesame same tthing. h in g . It I t is is rather rather to to note note that that in intheir theirown ownway, way, and andfrom fromwithin within their their own frames of reference, reference, they responding to the limitations limitations of of aa own frames they all all are are responding to the (('artesian/Kantian a r tesi a n/Kantian paradigm paradigm and and are are struggling struggling with with aa new new way way of ofseeing seeing and imagining imagi n i n g a path path beyond beyond the theclassical classical paradigm. paradigm. IIn n add addition that remain it i o n to aa critique critique of of the the metaphysical metaphysical remnants remnants that remain iinn .lJung's u ng's thought, thought, the the issue issue of of Jung's J ung's relationship relationship and andperhaps perhapsdependence dependence on on (Christianity 'hrist i a n i t y iiss a current current issue. issue. While While classical classical analysts analysts are critical critical of of the th e llimitation i m i t a t ion of the present-day presen t-day Christian model, model, for for many many itit is is something something that that needs to be needs t o achieve achieve aa more moreadequate adequatereflection reflection of o fpsychic psychic b e developed deve lo ped to rea l i t y . Others Ot hers have have turned turned to to Egyptian Egyptian (Abt, ( Abt,Zabriskie), Zabriskie), Greek, Greek, pagan paga n reality. ( I llillnian) i llma n ) or t a l ((Odajnyk, Odajnyk, Marian, Marian , Kawii) Kawii ) and Sufi Sufi (Hillman, ( H illman, Ralf) R a il) (I or orien oriental traditions t ra d i t ions to to understand understand alchemy. a l chem y. l -'i nally, an issue issue for for current cu rrent reflection reflection is is the the developing develo p i ng ideas ideas about a bout the t ill' Finally, '

goal ( 1 99.1 and ) a nd Ralf R a(201)(1) lT ( 2000) �oa l ()I' of aalchemy lchemy aand n d analysis. analysis. As As noted, noted,Odajnyk Odajnyk(1993) what Jung .l ung felt kit to to be bethe thepossible possi blc see the the potential poten tial of of going going beyond beyond what both hot h see �oals of of the t he individuation individ uat ion processes processes as as Jung .l ung imagined i lllaginl'd it. i t . Odajnyk Oda j n y kspeaks spea k sof01 goals

Alchemy 291 Alchemy 291

the experience of R aff of ofthe the the actual experience of self-realisation self-realisation and and enlightenment, enlightenment, and and Raff inclusion of a transpsychic union of of self self and ally. ally. third third Coniunctio Coniunctio and and the inclusion Hillman possibilities as far Hillman would would still still see see these these extensions extensions and and possibilities as not going far enough. reimagining of goal enough. What What Hillman Hillman calls calls for for is is aa reimagining of the the idea idea of the goal itself. literalism and itself. For For him him all all of of the the above above would would fall fall into into a spiritual literalism and his of the the spiritualisation spiritualisation of ofalchemy alchemy way way of of thinking thinking breaks with the tradition of and with heroic heroic notions notions of attainment. attainment. For him him the the goal goal isis the thepsychopsycho­ and with logical logical cure cure of of 'me' 'me' which means going beyond the desire for improvement. This (differences aside) of Giegerich, Giegerich, who who This critique resonates (differences aside) with with the work of sees essential for soul. To what extent and sees the the negation negation of of the the 'me' 'me' as essential for the the soul. the way in which which these these critiques critiques differ differ from surpassing of the the ego ego the way from the surpassing implied the more more spiritualised spiritualised approaches matter for for continued continued implied in in the approaches isis aa matter debate reflection. debate and reflection. As As can can be be seen seen from from the the above above there there are many who extend, extend, apply and/or revise many complementarities complementarities and and differences, differences, but but revise Jung's Jung's work. work. There are many in alchemy remains an essential inspiration in all all the the vitality vitality of of Jung's Jung's work work on alchemy to contemporary analysts. analysts. Many M any issues issues remain remain to tobe bedeveloped, developed,deepened deepened and dialogued. In the end end perhaps perhaps the the 'true' 'true'meaning meaning of ofalchemy alchemy will will and dialogued. In the remain elusive as the philosopher's philosopher's stone stone itself. itself. remain as elusive N otes Notes the limitations limitations of of 1 Psychoanalytic Psychoanalyticscholar scholarSonu Sonu Shamdasani Shamdasanihas has pointed pointed out out the relying Reflections, because liberties, but relying on on Memories. Memories, Dreams. Dreams, Reflections, because of of its its editorial editorial liberties, but he still individual paragraphs accurate though though thoroughly thoroughly recast recast still suggests suggests that that individual paragraphs are are accurate ((personal personal communication, communication, 25 25 September September 2000). 2000) . For aa bibliography bibliography of of Edinger's Edinger's work work see Psychological -59. 22 For 39: 58 58-59. Psychological Perspectives, Perspectives, 39: 33 Quadrant summer, 1978) 1 978) 2( 1 ): Introduction 1 978) 3(1): 3 ( 1 ): Quadrant ((summer, 2(1): Introduction and and Calcinatio; Calcinatio; (winter, (winter, 1978) Solutio; 1 979) 4: spring. 1980) 1 980) 5: 5: Suhlimatio; 1 982) Solutio; (summer. (summer, 1979) 4: Coagulatio; Coagulatio; ((spring, Sublimatio; (spring, (spring, 1982) 8: 1 98 1 ) 6: 1 98 1 ) 7: 8: Coniunctio; (spring, 1981) 6: Mortificatio; (fall, 1981) 7: Separatio; Separatio; (spring, (spring, Coniunctio; (spring, Mortflcatio; (fall, 11982) 982) 8: 8: Coniunctio. Coniunctio. 4 was first First International International Conference Conference on on Jungian Jungian This paper paper was first presented presented at at The The First 4 This Chinese Culture, Culture. Guangzhou. China. December December 1998. 1 998. Proceedings Proceedings Psychology Psychology and and Chinese Guangzhou, China, published 200 1 ). Quadrant (summer. (summer, 2001). published in in Quadrant 55 This This paper paper was was first first presented presented at at the the Inter-Regional Inter-Regional Society Society of ofJungian J ungian Analysts Analysts and later published published in in R. R. Brooke Brooke (ed.) (ed.) (2000) (2000) Pathways the Jungian Jungian World. World. and later Pathways into into the London and New New York: York: Routledge. Routledge. London and 66 Paper Paper presented presented at the the symposium: symposium: Psychology Psychology at the Threshold: Threshold: An InterInter­ at the national Symposium of of Archetypal Archetypal Psychology, Psychology, 31 3 1 August-4 August-4 September September 2000. 2000. national Symposium Audio available from True Recordings. Recordings. Sounds True Audio tape tape available from Sounds

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Keynote a s experience'. caelum as the caelum vault: the (2004) The -(2004) 'The azure vault: address aatt the Barcelona. Psychology, Barcelona. Analytical Psychology, forAnalytical Congress for Sixteenth Sixteenth International Congress ( 1 973) 'Jung Holt, Spring: 52-66. Holt, D. D. (1973) 'Jung and and Marx'. Marx'. Spring: 1. science' . Harvest, of science'. ung and 1 987 - 1 988) 'Alchemy: ((1987-1988) -Harvest, 33: 33: 40-6 40-61. 'Alchemy: JJung and the historians of Relationships. Human Relationships. and Human Tran4erence and nalytic Encounter: ( 1 984) The Jacoby, The A Analytic Encounter: Transference Jacoby, M M.. (1984) City. Inner City. Toronto: Toronto: Inner 1 967) The Jaffe, Spring: 7-26. 7-26. Jaffe, A. A. ((1967) 'The influence influenceof ofalchemy alchemyon onthe thework workof of C.G. C.G. Jung'. Jung'. Spring: ( 1 92 1 ) Psychological Jung, Psychological Types. Types. CW CW 6. Jung, e.G. C.G. (1921) ( 1 928) The -CW 77:: pars. (1928) 'The relations relations between betweenthe theego ego and and the the unconscious', unconscious', in in CW 202-406. 202-406. 3 : pars. W 113: Flower', in Golden Flower', the Golden ( 1 929) 'Commentary -in C CW The Secret Secret oj" of the (1929) 'Commentaryon on The 7-45. 117-45. 1. ( 1 937) Psychology -Psychology and and Religion. Religion. CW CW 111. (1937) 1 89. 3 : 189. W 113: ( 1 942) 'Paracelsus -CW (1942) 'Paracelsus as as aa spiritual spiritual phenomenon', phenomenon', in in C 2. W 112. lchemy. C ( 1 944) Psychology -Psychology and and A Alchemy. CW (1944) 353-539. 1 6: pars. 353-539. C W 16: n CW transference', iin ( 1 946) 'Psychology -(1946) 'Psychology ooff the the transference', ion. CW ( 1 95 1 ) A -Aion. CW 9ii. 9ii. (1951) 2. W 112. lchemy C ( 1 953) Psychology -Psychology and and A Alchemy CW (1953) 4. W 114. ( 1 955- 1 956) Mysterium -Mysterium Coniunctionis. Coniunctionis. C CW (1955-1956) 1. W 111. ( 1 958) Psychology -Psychologyand and Religion: Religion: West Westand andEast. East. C CW (1958) 0: pars. W 110: Flying Saucers', ( 1 959) ''Flying CW pars. 589-824 589-824.. (1959) Saucers', in in C Reflections. New ( 1 963) Memories, -New York: York: Pantheon. Memories, Dreams, Dreams, Reflections. (1963) 9. ( 1 979) General -General Bibliography. Bibliography. CW CW 119. (1979) W 20. ( 1 979) General - (1979) General Index. Index. C CW Psychotherapy. College of Psychotherapy. ( 1 996) Buddhism Kawai, College Station, Station, TX: Buddhismand and the the Art Art of Kawai, H. H. (1996) Press. U niversity Press. Texas Texas A&M University Analysis, 2nd ( 1 995) Transference', Kirsch, 2nd edn. edn. La Jungian Analysis, Kirsch, J.J. (1995) 'Transference',in in M. M. Stein Stein (ed.) (ed.) Jungian Salle, Salle, IL: IL: Open Open Court. Court. Perspective. HistoricalPerspective. andHistorical Comparative and A Comparative Jungial1.l·: A (2000) The Kirsch, The Jungians: Kirsch, T.B. T.B. (2000) Routledge. PA: Routledge. London London and Philadelphia, PA: Language. rchetypal Approach lchemy of ( 1 983) The Kugler, The A Alchemy of Discourse: Discourse: An An A Archetypal Approach to to Language. Kugler, P. P. (1983) Press. University Press. Bucknell University Lewisburgh, Lewisburgh, PA: PA: Bucknell func­ milieu funcformilieu model for alchemical model an alchemical of an application of ( 1 98 1 ) 'An McGoveran, McGoveran, P. P. (1981) 'An application Psychology, 26(3): Analytical Psychology, oj" Analytical tioning'. 26(3): 249-267. 249-267. Journal of tioning'. Journal and Interviews and Speaking: Interviews Jung Speaking: G. Jung ( 1 977) C (eds) (1977) R . F.e. (eds) Hull, R.F.C. i re, W. McCiu C.G. McGuire, W. and and Hull, Press. University Press. Princeton University NJ: Princeton I I . Princeton, !�·I1t·tlllIIl('/'.I', Bollingen Series Series XCV XCVII. Princeton, NJ: Encounters., Bollingen ( ed.) Marian (ed.) S. Marlan in S. soul', in alchemical soul', the alchemical and the salt and ntroduction to 1 99 5 ) 'I'Introduction S. ((1995) a ri a n , S. M Marian, to salt Spring. ('T: Spring. .<"'0111. Woodstock, tlllt! Iltt' Stilt Woodstock, CT: Salt (1101 the .·l AlIdll'lIIiml c hemical .Soul.



294 Stanton Stanton Marian 294 Marian



Marian, S. in the stone: an inquiry Marlan, S. ((1997a) 1 997a) ''Fire Fire in inquiry into into the the alchemy alchemy of ofsoul-making', soul-making', in S. S. Marlan Marian (ed.) Fire in in the the Stone. Stone. Wilmette, Wilmette, IIL: Chiron. in (ed.) Fire L : Chi ron. (1997b) Fire in the Stone: The Desire. Wilmette, . .Wilmette, IL: IL: Chiron. ( 1 997b) Fire The Alchemy A lchemy of Desire. - ((1999) 'A review review of of AA Dictionary of Imagery by by Lyndy Lyndy Abraham' Abraham'.. 1 999) 'A of Alchemical A lchemical Imagery Harvest, 45(2). 45(2). Harvest, (2000a) 'The metaphor (2000a) The metaphor of light light and and its itsdeconstruction deconstruction in in Jung's Jung'salchemical alchemical vision', in in R. Pathways into into the the Jungian Jungian World. London and New vision', R. Brooke Brooke (ed.) (ed.) Pathways World. London New York: Routledge. York: (2000b) The 'The black black sun: sun: archetypal archetypal image image of of the the non-self', unpublished - (2000b) unpublished paper presented at at the International presented International Symposium Symposium of ofArchetypal ArchetypalPsychology. Psychology. 'The metaphor -- (2001) (200 1 ) The metaphor of light light and and renewal renewal in in Taoist Taoist alchemy alchemy and and Jungian Jungian analysis'. Quadrant, Quadrant, summer. analysis'. (2005) The The Black Black Sun: Sun: The The A Alchemy and Art Art of of Darkness. Darkness. College College Station, Station, TX: ..- (2005) lchemy and Texas A&M University Press. Texas Meier, e.A. C.A. (ed.) Atom and Archetype: The Pauli/Jung PaulilJung Letters, Meier, (ed.) (2000) (2000) A tom and A rchetype: The Letters, 1932-1958. 1 932-1 958. Princeton, NJ: Princeton, NJ: Princeton University University Press. Press. Newman, K.D. K.D. (1981) 'The riddle riddle of the Vas Bene Clausum'. Journal Newman, ( 1 98 1 ) The Bene Clausum'. of Analytical A nalytical Journal of Psychology, 116(3): 229-243. P.lychology, 6(3): 229-243. Odajnyk, V.W. Gathering the the Light: Light: A Odajnyk, V.W. (1993) ( 1 993) Gathering A Psychology P.lychology of Meditation. Meditation. Boston, MA and London: MA London: Shambhala. Shambhala. Raff, J. (2000) York Beach, Raff, (2000) Jung and and the the Alchemical A lchemical Imagination. Imagination. York Beach, ME: ME: NicolasNicolas­ Hays. Raff, God: Finding your your Personal R a ff, J. and Vocatura, Vocatura, L.B. L.B. (2002) (2002) Healing the Wounded Wounded God: Guide to Individuation Guide Individuation and Beyond. Beyond. York Beach, Beach, ME: Nicolas-Hays. Nicolas-Hays. Edward F. Edinger'. Psychological Robertson, R. (1999) ( 1 999) 'A guide to the writings of Edward Psychological Perspective, 39(summer): 39(summer): 47-62. Perspective, The Plural Plural Psyche: Psyche: Personality, Personality, Morality and and the Father. London Samuels, A. (1989) ( 1 989) The and New New York: York: Routledge. Routledge. Schwartz-Salant, N. (1993) Schwartz-Salant, N. ( 1 993) 'Jung, madness madness and andsexuality: sexuality: reflections reflections on on psychotic psychotic transference t ransference and countertransference', in M. M. Stein Stein (ed.) Mad Parts of ofSane Sane People People Mad Parts in Analysis. Analysis. Wilmette, Wilmette, IL: I L : Chiron. Chiron. (1995) 'Introduction to Jung ( 1 995) 'Introduction Jung on on alchemy', alchemy', in in N. N .Schwartz-Salant Schwartz-Salant(ed.) (ed.) Jung Oil Jung on Alchemy. Alchemy. London: Routledge. Routledge. (1998) ( 1 998) The The Mystery Mystery of of the the Human Human Relationship: Relationship: Alchemy A lchemy and and the the TransTrans­ formation limnation of of Self. Self. London and and New New York: York: Routledge. Routledge. Sharp, D. 'Tribute for for E. Edinger'. D. (1999) ( 1 999) Tribute Edinger'. Psychological Perspectives, 39(summer): 39(summcr): 17 17 18. I R. Spiegelman, and Miyuki, M.. (1985) Spicgelman , JJ.M. . M . and Miyuki, M ( 1 985) Buddhism Buddhism and and Jungian Jungian Psychology. Psycholog l'. Phoenix, Phocnix, AZ: Falcon Falcon Press. Press. Stein, S t c i n , M. M. (1985) ( 1 9R 5 ) Jung's Jung's Treatment Treatment of ofChristianity: Christianity: The ThePsychotherapy Psychotherapyof ofaaReligious ReligiollS Tradition. '/'1'IIc/ition. Wilmette, IL: Chiron. Chiron. (1992) the Meaning Meaning of Alchemy: ( 1 99 2 ) Understanding Understanding the A lchemy: Jung's Jung 's Metaphor Metaphor of 0/ TransfOrmative '1hmsfimlllltive Process (audiotape). Chicago, Chicago, IL: I L : C.G. CG. Jung JungInstitute I nstituteof ofChicago. Chicago. Sullivan, ( 1 9R9) Psychotherapy Grounded Grounded in the the Feminine Feminine Principle. Prin c ip le . Wilmette, Wilmct ll'. SlIlIivan, B.S. ItS. (1989) II.: ronn . I I . : Chi ( ·hiro I'nnaka, 'The aalchemical images and and logic in ('lI n a k a , Y. Y . (2(100) (2000) 'Thc ll-hcmical imagcs i n analytical a n a l ytical psychology', psychology', in in I I . K wai K aawa i ((ed.) cd . ) Lectures 1,/'('(1/1'/'.\' on 01/ Psychotherapy 1'.I' l'd/ol//(,/,,,/' I' Volume Volllllle 3: Psychotherapy i'.I' I'c/wt/wrap l ' and lIlIIl Images IIIIII,�/'.I' Tokyo: Tokyo: Inwananti-Shoten I nwana llli-Sholl'n

Alchemy 295 Alchemy 295

von M .-L. (1966) ( 1 966) A urora Consurgens. Consurgens. New von Franz, Franz, M.-L. Aurora New York: York: Pantheon. ((1979) 1 979) A lchemical AActive ctive Imagination. Alchemical Imagination. Dallas, Dallas, TX: TX: Spring. ( 1 980) AAlchemy: lchemy: AAn n Introduction the Symbolism Symbolism and and the the Psychology. Psychology . (1980) Introductionto to the Toronto: Toronto: Inner City. ((1992) 1 992) Psyche Psycheand and Matter. Matter. Boston, Boston, MA: MA: Shambhala. -( 1 999) Muhammad 's Hall ar-Rumuz ('Clearing ( , Clearing of of Enigmas'): Enigmas') : (1999) Muhammadibn ibn Umai/ Umail's Hall ar-Rumuz Historical and Psychological Psychological Comment, Comment, by Historical Introduction Introduction and by Dr Dr Theodore Theodore Abt, Abt, printed printed at AG. CH-8132 CH-8 1 32 Egg/Switzerland. Egg/Switzerland. at Fotorotar Fotorotar AG. Wagner, ( 1 998- 1 999) 'A conversation with with Marie-Louise Marie-Louise von Franz'. Wagner, S. S. (1998-1999) 'A conversation von Franz'. Psychological 2 -42. Psychological Perspectives, Perspectives, 38(winter): 38(winter): 112-42. Life, ofLife, Book of Chinese Book A Chinese Flower: A Golden Flower: ( 1 93 1 1 1 962) The Wilhelm, Wilhelm, R R.. (1931/1962) The Secret Secret of of the the Golden e.G. by C.G. commentary by and commentary foreword and with aa foreword Wilhelm with R. Wilhelm explained by R. trans. trans. and explained Jung. Brace and World. World . Jung. New New York: York: Harcourt, Brace Zabriskie, l 995a) 'Jung nalytical Zabriskie, B.D. B.D. ((1995a) 'Jung and and Pauli: Pauli: aa subtle subtle asymmetry' asymmetry'.. Journal Journal of of A Analytical Psychology, 3 1 -553. Psychology, 40: 40: 5531-553. ( l 995b) 'Exiles orphans: Jung, Jung, Paracelsus, Paracelsus, and healing images images of (1995b) 'Exiles and and orphans: and the the healing of alchemy'. 1 and alchemy'. Quadrant, Quadrant, 26( 26(1 and 2). -( l 996a) The psyche' . San 4(4). (1996a) 'The matter matter of psyche'. San Francisco Francisco Library Library Journal, Journal, 114(4). ( l 996b) 'Fermentation (1996b) 'Fermentation in in alchemical alchemicalpractice', practice',inin M.A. M.A. Mattoon Mattoon (cd.) (ed.) ProProceedings Congress for A nalytical Psychology, Psychology, Zurich Zurich ceedings of of the the Thirteenth Thirteenth International International Congress for Analytical 11995. 995. Einsiedeln, Verlag. Einsiedeln, Switzerland: Switzerland: Daimon Daimon Verlag. -( 1 999) ''Review Review of the Stone: Stone: The The Alchemy A lchemy of Desire, ed. Marlan'. (1999) of Fire Fire in in the of Desire, ed. S. S. Marian'. Roundtahle Review, 6(3) Roundtable Review, 6(3),, Jan/Feb. (200 1 ) 'Jung Pauli: a meeting of rare minds', minds', Introduction Introduction in in C.A. e.A. Meier Meier (2001) 'Jung and and Pauli: a meeting of rare (cd.) tom and A rchetype: The The PaulilJung Pauli/Jung Letters, Letters, 1932-1958. 1932 - 1 958. Princeton, NJ: (ed.) A Atom and Archetype: Princeton, NJ: Princeton U niversity Press. Press. Princeton University

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Chapter 13 Chapter 13



Religion 297 Religion 297

Religion Roderick Main Roderick

IIntroduction n trod uction

Religion isis aa topic Religion topic of central central importance importance for understanding understanding not only only the the personal and and professional developmentof of Carl Carl Gustav Gustav Jung Jung but also personal professional development also the the psychology and and its contemporary status in history of analytical psychology in relation relation to to psychoanalysis, the academy and psychoanalysis, and culture culture generally. generally. Jung's personal personal interest interest in religion religion began began in his his earliest earliest years years and concon­ tinued until his death at the age of 86 (Jung 1963: 21-103, 320-393). His His tinued at the age of 86 (lung 1 963: 2 1 - 1 03, 320-393). father and many many of ofhis his other otherimmediate immediaterelatives relatives and andancestors ancestorswere wereclergyclergy­ 1 963: 58). o reover, he period and andlocation, location,latelate­ men men (lung (Jung 1963: 58). M Moreover, he grew grew up in a period nineteenth-century Europe, where where there there was was widely widely perceived perceived at the the time time to to he to the the rise rise of ofscience science and andsecularisation. secularisation. he an especial crisis in religion, due to With this background, it is hardly hardly surprising surprising that that one one of ofthe the facets facets of of Jung's Jung's mat ure identity should out to to be be as as aareligious religious thinker thinker (Homans ( H omans 1979/ 1 9791 mature should turn out 11995: 995: 161). 1 6 1 ). Writings specifically of Jung's Jung's output. output. specificallyon on religion religion occupy occupy aa large large portion portion of Volume 11 of the the Collected Works, Volume I I of Works, Psychology Religion: West West and East Eas/ Psychology and Religion: (1928 dedicated to to the topic, and copious further ( I nS 1954), 1 (54), is is explicitly dedicated further material can he be found found among amongmiscellaneous miscellaneousarticles articles(e.g., (e.g.,1928/1931, 1 9281 1 93 1 , 1939c, 1 939c, 1944 1 944 11957, 957, 1945/1948, 1 94511 948, 11961), 96 1 ), letters ( 1 973, 1976; 1 976; McGuire McGuire 1974), 1 974), interviews interviews letters (1973, McGuire and H Hull 1 978) and seminar notes (Jung (Jung 1925, 1 925, 1928-1930, 1 928- 1 930, 1930 1 930 (( M cGuire and ull 1978) 1934, Furthermore,asasan an 'Editorial 'Editorial Note' Note' to to 1 ')34, 11932, 932, 11934-1939, 934- 1 939, 1 1939a). 939a). Furthermore, Volume I I points out (Jung (lung 1928-1954: 1 928- 1 954: v), v), several several other other volumes volumes of ofthe the V olume 11 (Wlected ( 'II//(,("/I'd Works Works could equally be b e designated designated as a s concerned concerned with with religion. religion. could equally notably nota bly Aion A ion (1951 ( 1 95 1 a) and Psychology andAlchemy A lchemy (1944b). ( 1 944b ) . Indeed, all JJung's ung's Psychology and nu merous writings on mythology, Gnosticism, alchemy and Eastern thought numerous arc inext ricably bound boundup upwith with the thetopic topic of ofreligion. Then, Then, in in addition additionto toJung's Jung's are inextricably own writings, writings, there there is aa huge psychology and and huge secondary secondary literature literature on analytical analytical psychology i\ bibliographic study study published publishedin in 1973 1 973 already already included included 442 442 items items religion. A ( I lcisig 1 97 3 ) . N owadays, a comprehensive comprehensive list list might mightrun runinto intofive fivefigures. figure s (I leisig 1973). Nowadays, .f ung's psychology ps yc ho logy of of religion reli gio n has has had hada asignificant significantinfluence infl uenceininseveral severa l Jung's a ll'as. It I I has has contributed con t ributed to to religious rl'l igious thought t h ough t itself, i t self. as : I S ttheologians, heologians, religious rl'i igioll .., areas. .

adherents, adherents, academic academic students students of of religion, religion, New New Agers Agers and and numerous numerous others for on for whom whom religion religion remains an issue of importance have variously drawn on or dialogued with same time, time, the the religious religious aspect or dialogued with lung's Jung's ideas. ideas. At At the same aspect of analytical wholesale rejection analytical psychology psychologyhas has provided provided grounds grounds for its wholesale rejection by 1 9 1 41 1 993: 1118-128) 1 8- 1 28 ) and Freud Freud ((1914/1993: and many many subsequent subsequent psychoanalysts, psychoanalysts, with with far­ farreaching of analytical analytical psychology psychology within reaching implications implicationsfor for the the status status of within the depth psychological and psychotherapeutic traditions. Similarly, the relarela­ depth psychological and psychotherapeutic traditions. Similarly, tionship religion has affected affected the receprecep­ tionship between between analytical psychology and religion tion Jungian thought thought within within the the academy. academy. While While there there is is interest interest in in tion of Jungian studying psychology within departments of of religious religious studies studies studying analytical analytical psychology within departments (Ulanov 1 997), David in most most other other disciplines disciplines the the (Ulanov 1997), David Tacey Tacey has has noted noted that that in 'fundamentally ungian thought `fundamentallyreligious' religious'nature natureof ofJJungian thought 'sticks 'sticks in in the the throat throat of ( l 997b: 315-316; 3 1 5-3 1 6; see see the has led led to to its itsfirm firmexclusion exclusion (1997b: the secular secular academy' and has also 1 997a; Main . In general, as James Heisig Heisig writes, writes, 'so also Tacey Tacey 1997a; Main 2003) 2003). In general, as James central has central and and decisive decisiveisis the the religious religiousaspect aspectof ofJung's Jung's thought thought that that it has become sympathy with with or or alienation alienation from from become the the typical typical turning turning point point for sympathy 1 979: 9). 9). lung's life work' work' (Heisig ( Heisig 1979: Jung's life JJung's ung's p o s i t i ons o n re l ig i o n : a hrono logical and and positions on religion: ac chronological d e ve l o p m ental account developmental

At almost all all periods periods of of his his life, life, Jung's Jung's actual actual positions positions on on religion religion were were At almost complex, with seemingly opposed or disparate currents of interest flowing complex, with seemingly opposed or disparate currents of interest flowing into out of of one one another. another. However, H owever, aa chronological chronological survey survey of of his his work work into and and out on religion discloses some broadly identifiable phases. In his early years, we on religion discloses some broadly identifiable phases. In his early years, we see him awakening to the problem of the relationship between traditional see him awakening to the problem of the relationship between traditional religion secular modernity modernity and and coming coming to to value valuepersonal personalreligious religious religion and and secular experience over institutionally sanctioned belief. After an unsatisfying experience over institutionally sanctioned belief. After an unsatisfying attempt to explain explain religious religious phenomena phenomena reductively reductively in in psychiatric psychiatric and and psypsy­ attempt to choanalytic terms, he began increasingly to emphasise the positive, pro­ choanalytic terms, he began increasingly to emphasise the positive, prospective years, this this strengthened strengthened into into the the spective function function of of religion. religion. In In his mature years, conviction the psyche psyche is naturally and religion religion of of some form is conviction that that the naturally religious and therefore this general general therefore aa psychic psychic necessity. necessity. In In his his later later years, he moved from this a specific analysis of Christianity concern with the value of of religion religion per se to to a specific analysis of Christianity as dominant religious religious tradition in in Western Western culture, culture, and he he provided provided as the dominant recommendations might be helped helped to recommendations for for how how this this tradition tradition might to transform for the light light of ofdepth depthpsychological psychological insights. insights. the better in the

Early 1 8 75- 1 900) Early years years ((1875-1900) Jung's father, like like many many of of his his other otherclose close relatives relatives and and ancestors, ancestors, was was aa Jung's father, 1 963: 58). 58). According According to to this this pastor in the the Swiss Swiss Reformed Reformed Church Church (Jung (lung 1963: pastor in form of Protestantism, Protestantism, at at least least as asoriginally originally developed developed by by Ulrich Ulrich Zwingli Zwingli form of ((1484 1 4S4 1531), 1 53 1 ), religious systems of belief are arc much much less less religious institutions institutions and and systems of belief

298 Roderick 298 Roderick Main Main

important than than an inner, important inner, personal personal orientation orientation towards towards the the transcendent transcendent (Tambiah 1990: 4). H However, as Jung 1 990: 4). owever, as Jung perceived perceived it, it, his his father fatherprecisely precisely (Tambiah lacked this this kind kind of personal, personal, experiential orientation, and lacked experiential orientation, and consequently consequently had lost his lost his faith faith under under the the impact impact of ofpost-Enlightenment post-Enlightenment rationalism rationalism and materialism (Jung (Jung 1963: His mother, mother, meanwhile, 1 963: 1113). 1 3) . His meanwhile, though outwardly outwardly materialism also a conventional also conventional Protestant, Protestant, had aa disposition disposition towards towards 'spiritualistic' 'spiritualistic' experiences, as as had had both both of 1 963: 65-69, 65-69,120; 1 20; Jaffe Jaffe 1984: 1 984: experiences, of her parents parents (Jung (Jung 1963: 40). Jung (1963: the influence 40). ( 1 963: 110) 1 1 0) acknowledges acknowledges the influence of this this domestic domestic 'sur'sur­ rounding atmosphere' on his rounding his developing developing ideas ideas about about religion. religion. In Memories, Memories, Dreams, Dreams, Reflections Jung recounts several Reflections ((1963), 1 963), Jung several childchild­ In that greatly influenced his attitudes towards hood experiences experiences that influenced his towards religion. religion. He He describes how how the the terror terror he experienced, aged aged 3 3 or 4, at the the sight sight of of aa blackblack­ describes robed Jesuit priest constituted his robed his 'first 'first conscious conscious trauma' trauma'(1963: ( 1 963: 25-26). 25-26). Recalling the the effect effecton on him, him, at at around the Recalling the same same time, of of aa dream dream of ofaa huge. huge. man-eatingphallus phallusinin an an underground chamber and and how man-eating underground chamber how this this image image coalesced with with his his image image of of Jesus, Jesus, he he claims claims that that 'My coalesced ' M y intellectual intellectual life life had its its unconscious beginnings at that time' (1963: 26-30). Most dramatically, unconscious beginnings at that ( 1 963: M ost dramatically, he he recounts his unsuccessful attempt, at the age of unsuccessful attempt, of 11, I I , to to resist resist aa vision vision he he had had of God defecating defecating on on Basel Basel Cathedral Cathedral and andhis his experience experience of ofbliss bliss and and grace grace when he finally admitted the fantasy into consciousness (1963: 52-58). finally fantasy into consciousness ( 1 963: 52-58).Such Such vivid personal experiences vivid experiences contrasted sharply sharply with with his his divinity divinity classes classes which which he found 'unspeakably ( 1 963: 43), 43), his his unsatisfactory unsatisfactory theological theological disdis­ 'unspeakably dull' dull' (1963: cussions with his father (1963: 59-60) and his ( 1 963: 59-60) his disappointment disappointment at atfirst first comcom­ cussions with munion ( 1 963: 70-72). Together, Together, these these experiences experiences and and impressions impressions gave gave munion (1963: JJung ung aa deeply deeply negative negative image image of of conventional conventional religion, religion, including including of of Jesus Jesus (1963: 25, 28, 28, 73-74). 73-74). They stimulated his ( 1 963: 25, his earliest earliest theological theological reflections reflections on the problem of of evil, the notions of of grace grace and submission submission to to God's God'swill, will, and and above ahove all the importance importance of ofpersonal personal experience experience as as opposed opposed to toconventional conventional faith 52-60). They also fa i th (1963: ( 1 963: 52-60). also disposed disposed him him later later to tobecome becomeinterested interested in in the the then then very very prevalent prevalent phenomenon phenomenon of ofspiritualism, spiritualism, which which promised promised experiential proof proof of of the the reality reality and and post-mortem post-mortemsurvival survivalof ofthe thesoul soul(1963: ( 1 963: 119 1 1 9 121). 1 2 1 ). Jung's .lung's views views on religion religion during during his his student student days days (1895-1900) ( 1 895- 1 900) can can he he examined exami ned in the posthumously posthumously published published student studentlectures lectures he hedelivered delivered to to his his fraternity, the Zofingia Zofingia Society Society (1896-1899). ( 1 896- 1 899). Most of of his his remarks remarks in inthese these lectures suggest that that he t he lectures suggest he is is attempting attempting to todefend defend religion religion against against the perceived threat of of scientific scientific materialism and secularisation. secularisation. Thus, Thus,he heargues arg u e � that t ha t immaterial immaterial phenomena phenomena exist exist and and can can manifest manifest both both materially materially and and immaterially (Jung 1896-1899: pars. 57, 57, 65-66); 65-66); that morality i m m a teria lly (Jung 1 896- 1 899: pars. morality cannot cannot be he divorced from 68, 138); 1 38); that matter matter is is animated animated by hy aalife l i fe force forcL' from science science (pars. ( pars. 68, that t ha t is is unconscious, unconscious, intelligent intelligent and beyond beyond space space and and time time (pars. ( pa rs. 95 9599): I)I) }; and that t ha t this this vitalistic vitalistic viewpoint viewpoint is is proven by hy the data of of spiritualism spi rit ualism (pars ( pa rs 112 1 1 2 134). 1 34 ) . He He berates hera tes contemporary contemporary representatives representa t i ves of of religion rel igion for forsucSliL" l' l I lllhin/o! to to rationalism ra t i ona l l slll and a nddenying tll-n yingmystery mystery(pars. ( pa rs.138 1 3X142): 1 42 );suggests sllggeststhat t ha I cumbing

Religion 299 Religion 299

the knowledge (the 'causal instinct') instinct') leads leads to religion religion (par. ( par. 191); 1 9 1 ); the drive drive to to knowledge (the 'causal and view of and champions champions aa view of Jesus Jesus as as aa mysterious mysterious god-man god-man who, who, contrary contrary to ( 1 822the view of the German German protestant protestant theologian theologian Albrecht Albrecht Ritschl Ritschl (1822the view of the rationally explained pars. 284-29 1 ) . In anti­ 11889), 889), cannot cannot be be rationally explained( (pars. 284-291). In this this antiEnlightenment the Middle M iddle Ages Ages and and Enlightenment spirit, spirit, he he even even advocates advocatesaa return return to to the rejection ( par. 290). 290). rejection of of secular secular modernity modernity (par.

Early 1 90 1 - 1 9 1 2) Early professional professionallife life((1901-1912) Over next few few years, years, Jung's Jung's professional professional commitments commitments as medical Over the the next as aa medical practitioner researcher served anti-modernist spirit. spirit. He practitioner and and researcher served to to temper temper this this anti-modernist adopted Freudian psychoanalytic psychoanalytic approach approach to to adopted first first aa psychiatric psychiatric and and then then aa Freudian religious religious attitude began to to reassert reassert religious phenomena, phenomena, before before his his own own religious attitude began itself. itself. Jung's first professional the Jung's first professional publication publication was was his his doctoral doctoral dissertation dissertation 'On 'On the ( 1 902). A case case psychology so-called occult occult phenomena' phenomena' (1902). psychology and and pathology pathology of so-called study mediumistic girl girl observed observed during during aaseries seriesof ofspiritualistic spiritualisticseances, seances, study of of aa mediumistic this clearly emerges preoccupations of his childhood an'd this work work clearly emergesout out of of the the preoccupations of his childhood and student years. However, However, Jung's own religious religious interests interests and and views views have have been been student years. Jung's own almost wholly displaced displaced by the aim aim of ofpresenting presenting himself himself as as aaresponsible responsible almost wholly by the research Indeed, there there is is very very little little discussion discussion of of research scientist scientist and and psychiatrist. psychiatrist. Indeed, religion work until until the the publication publication of of 'The The significance significance of the religion in in Jung's Jung's work of the ( 1 9091 1 949). By time this this was was father in the the destiny destiny of of the the individual' individual' (1909/1949). father in By the the time written Jung had become deeply involved with Freud and the psycho­ written Jung had become deeply involved with Freud and the psychoanalytic Jung's paper, paper, where where it it touches touches on on religion, religion, presents presents analytic movement, movement, and and Jung's aa wholly Freudian interpretation. The relationship of humans to is wholly Freudian interpretation. The relationship of humans to God God is seen as a sublimation of the relationship of children to their father, with the seen as a sublimation of the relationship of children to their father, with the need reinforce this this sublimation sublimation by by means meansof ofthe thesevere severecompulsive compulsive pracprac­ need to to reinforce tices of ceremonials (Jung 1 9091 1 949: pars. 738 n. 2 1 , 74 1 n. 22; cf. Freud tices of ceremonials (Jung 1909/1949: pars. 738 n. 21, 741 n. 22; cf. Freud 11907/1990). 9071 1 990). However, period of of collaboration collaboration with with However,towards towardsthe the end end of of the the period Freud, Jung's interest in religion gradually gained in prominence again and Freud, Jung's interest in religion gradually gained in prominence again and began to manifest characteristics distinct from and contrary to the Freudian began to manifest characteristics distinct from and contrary to the Freudian outlook. These head with with the the publication publication of ofJung's Jung'sfirst first These developments developments came came to to aa head major work in the psychology of religion, his lengthy study of the trans­ major work in the psychology of religion, his lengthy study of the transformations symbols of libido, The Psychology of of the the Unconscious Unconscious formations and and symbols of the the libido, The Psychology ( 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 1 2), later heavily revised revised as Symbols of Transformation 1911(1911-1912), later heavily as Symbols of Transformation ((191111912/1952). 9 1 21 1 952). The original text still largely operates with Freudian presup­ The original text still largely operates with Freudian presuppositions and emphases. Religious Religious phenomena seen as projections of of positions and emphases. phenomena are are seen as projections unfulfilled, incestuous wishes. We are told that 'God is to be considered as unfulfilled, incestuous wishes. We are told that 'God is to be considered as the representative of certain sum sum of ofenergy energy (libido)'; (libido) ' ; that that 'the 'thereligious religious the representative of aa certain instinct feeds feeds upon incestuous libido 191 1instinct upon the the incestuous libido of of the the infantile infantile period' period' (Jung (Jung 19111 9 1 2 : par. I I I ); and the symbolic symbolic acts acts and and concepts concepts into into which which the the 1912: par. 111); and that that the i nl:est wish wish is is transformed transformed 'cheat 'cheat men' men' into intoremaining remaininginfantile infantile( (par. pa r. 352). .1 52). incest

Religion Religion 301 301

300 Roderick RoderickMain Main 300

Psychoanalysis isis superior religion because, because, rather than keeping keeping the the Psychoanalysis superior to to religion rather than personality in an infantile infantile state, state, it it helps helps the the personality personality to to mature mature and and personality in an 695). States States lung: 'I think think belief belief should should be be replaced replaced by by adapt to to reality reality (par. ( par. 695). adapt Jung: 'I of the symbol, symbol, but but still still remain remain understanding; then we would keep the beauty of understanding; free from from the the depressing depressing results results of of submission submission to to belief. belief. This This would would be bethe the free psychoanalytic cure for belief belief and and disbelief' disbelief' (par. ( par.356; 356;original originalemphasis). emphasis). psychoanalytic cure for H owever, lung positive, if if somewhat somewhat patronising, patronising, attitude attitude However, Jung maintained aa positive, toward religion. religion. He He acknowledges acknowledges that religious myth 'was and and is is the the toward that the the religious myth 'was ( 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 1 2: par. par.353) 353) bridge to to all all the the greatest greatest achievements achievements of of humanity' humanity'(1911-1912: bridge and argues argues that, that, in inthe thestruggle struggleagainst againstincestuous incestuouslongings, longings,'The 'Thereligious religious and projection offers much more more effectual effectual help help [than [than "suppressing "suppressing and and projection offers aa much forgetting"]. In In this this one one keeps keeps the the conflict conflict in in sight sight .. .. .. and and gives gives it it over over to to aa forgetting"]. personality standing one's self, self, the the Divinity' Divinity' (par. ( par. 117). 1 1 7). More More personality standing outside outside of of one's importantly, however, however, lung never fully fully agreed Freud's conception conception of of importantly, Jung never agreed with with Freud's libido as as only only sexuality sexuality (McGuire ( McGuire 1974: 1 974: 4-5) and now now he heargues arguesexplicitly explicitly libido 4-5) and 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 1 2: pars. pars. 219-236). 2 1 9-236). for aa broader broader definition definition as as psychic psychic energy energy (Jung (lung 1911-1912: for One implication of of this this is is that, that, in incertain certaincircumstances, circumstances, 'The Thesexuality sexuality of of One implication the unconscious unconscious is what it it seems seems to to be; be; it is merely par. 635; 635: merely aa symbol symbol'' ((par. the is not not what original emphasis); libido can be be 'de-sexualized' 'de-sexualized' (par. ( par. 672). 672).Hence, Hence,even even original emphasis); libido can when religion is, is, as acknowledged it be, aa neurotic neurotic symptom, symptom, itit when religion as Jung Jung acknowledged it could could be, need not always be For Jung, l ung, neurosis neurosisresulted resulted neurotic symptom. For sexual neurotic need not always be aa sexual from an imbalance imbalance in in libido libido in in his his sense sense of ofpsychic psychic energy energy (pars. ( pars. 230-236). 230-236). from an Such imbalance may religious in there can can also, also, Jung Jung Such an an imbalance may be be religious in form form but but there implies, be forms of libido that are religious but not imbalanced and hence implies, be forms of libido that are religious but not imbalanced and hence not neurotic. neurotic. not More specifically, lJung, ung, unlike Freud, considered considered that that the theregression regression More specifically, unlike Freud, involved in neurosis can often have a positive aspect inasmuch as the the involved in neurosis can often have a positive aspect inasmuch as libido can activate a stratum of the unconscious capable of regressed regressed libido can activate a stratum of the unconscious capable of producing symbols that constitute a transformation of the libido into forms producing symbols that constitute a transformation of the libido into forms useful further psychic psychic development development (1911-1912: ( 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 1 2: par. par. 250). 250). These These symsym­ useful for for further bols, often religious in character, are a 'remnant of ancient humanity and bols, often religious in character, are a 'remnant of ancient humanity and tthe he centuries-old past in all people' ( par. 29 1 ) , 'associations of elements and centuries-old past in all people' (par. 291), 'associations of elements and aanalogies na l ogies ..... .which which formerly formerly constituted constituted the the archaic archaic idea idea of of the the world' world' (par. ( pa r . (675) 7 5 ) ini brief, n brief,what whatJung lung would later designate a s archetypes o f the would later designate as archetypes of the a� collective unconscious. Thus, where Freud interpreted religious symbols collective unconscious. Thus, where Freud interpreted religious symbols as expressions of repressed sexual wishes having their origin in an infant i k' expressions of repressed sexual wishes having their origin in an infantile il past, .lung considered that they could often be attempts of the psyche t past, Jung considered that they could often be attempts of the psyche to te gra t e consciousness with the unconscious i n response t o present a l ld in integrate consciousness with the unconscious in response to present and anticipated life. Jung lung is is clearly clearly moving moving towards towards his 1m anticipated future future conditions conditions of of life. later position that it is not the presence of religious symbols but t hell later position that it is not the presence of religious symbols but their absence failure to to respect respect and andrecognise recognise their theirprospective prospective nature nat l i re absence and and the the failure tthat ha t constitute co n s t i t u t e neurosis neurosis (1963: ( 1 961: 173 1 73 178, 1 78, 190 1 90 191). 1 ( 1 ). IIn n other ot her ways, ways, too, ( 0 0 , Psycho/0Kr 1'.\· l 'cllolog.l' ot' tile Unconscious Unconscious sign a l led .IJung's u ng\ signalled of the hll' example, w h i l e Freud ""'eud emphasised empha sised the ( he ddivergence i vergence from l x a m p le while 'l' lId For from h Freud. '

,

importance importance of of the the father-imago father-imago for forreligious religious symbolism, symbolism, Jung Jungconcluded concluded from his study that that 'the 'the part partof ofthe thelibido libidowhich whicherects erects religious religious structures structures is is in the last analysis analysis fixed in the mother' (1911-1912: ( 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 1 2: par. par. 691). 69 1 ). Again, Again, Jung's lung's manner of differed from from Freud's. Rather manner of working with symbols diffcred Rather than than always always interpret reductively -—'this 'thisisis the the symbol for the interpret symbols symbols reductively symbol substituted substituted for the mother and that that for forthe thepenis' penis'—- Jung lungsuggested suggested that thatsymbols symbols sometimes sometimes and that their have `no 'no fixed fixed significance' significance' and their multiplicity multiplicity of of meanings meanings should should be explored explored (par. ( par. 339). 339). This approach later later developed developed into his his method method of of amplification. amplifi cation. Towards aa mature psychology of religion religion ((1913-1937) Towards psychology of 1 9 13- 1 93 7)

The publication publication of The The Psychology led to a final The Psychology of the Unconscious Unconscious led final break between Jung and Freud, between .lung Freud, both both personally personally and andprofessionally. professionally. In Inthe thefollowfollow­ ing period of ing of psychic psychic disorientation, his his romantically romantically dubbed dubbed 'Confronta'Confronta­ tion with the Unconscious', Unconscious', Jung .lung came came to feel feel both that he he lacked lacked aa myth myth and that the contemporary form of the Christian myth was and the contemporary form of the Christian myth was inadequate inadequate However, out of ((1963: 1 963: 1194-195). 94- 1 95). However, of a vivid series of personal experiences experiences that he underwent he underwent at this this time time — - dreams, dreams, visions, visions, guided guided fantasies fantasies and parapara­ normal events (1963: togetherwith with the the support he ( 1 963: 194-225) 1 94-225 ) —together he drew drew both both normal directly and and indirectly directly indirectly from from William William James's .lames's and Theodore Theodore Flournoy's Flo urnoy's non-psychoanalytic approaches approaches to the non-psychoanalytic the psychology psychology of of religion religion (Shamdasani (Shamdasani Jung began began to to forge 11995: 995: 1126-127), 26- 1 27 ), Jung forge the outlines outlines of of aanew new psychological psychological understanding. He He first first framed framed this this new new understanding understandinginin the the form form of a understanding. pseudonymous and and privately privately circulated circulated 'Gnostic' 'Gnostic' myth myth Septem pseudonymous Septem Sermones Sermones ad ad commentators have noted, this 1 9 1 6 ). As several several commentators this text text prefigures prefigures in Mortuos ((1916). poetic form form most most of the poetic the ideas ideas of of Jung's l ung's mature maturepsychological psychological model model (e.g., (e.g., Heisig 11972). addition,lJung began at at this 972). InIn addition, ung began this time time to to paint paint mandalas mandalas Heisig (circular images images usually usually divided divided into into qquadrants) (circular uadrants) and to to develop develop his his notion notion of the self as as the centre of of of psychic psychic totality totality (1963: ( 1 963: 220-222). The major from his his period The major work work that that marks marks Jung's .lung's emergence emergence from period of of encounter with with the the unconscious, Psychological Types Types ((1921), 1 92 1 ), demonstrates encounter unconscious, Psychological demonstrates mature consolidation consolidation of both both the the conceptual conceptual and andthe themethodological methodological aa mature insights he he had had begun begun to to adumbrate adumbrate in in Psychology Psychology of of the Unconscious. Unconscious. The insights The notions of the notions the collective collective unconscious unconscious and and archetypes, archetypes, the the psychological psychological value of symbols, value symbols, the method method of ofamplification, amplification, and and the theepistemological epistemological principle of of according according primary primary reality principle reality to to psychic psychic phenomena phenomena all allreceive receive forceful expression expression in in this this work work ((1921: pars. 77-78, 77-78, 746-754, 1 92 1 : pars. 746-754, 814-829, 8 1 4-829, 842, 842, forceful 851 and passim passim). H5 1 and ) . Especially developmental account Especiallysignificant significantfor for aa developmental account of Jung's psychology of of religion religion are are his his beginning beginning references referencesto to the the notion notion of Ju ng's psychology the himself; his paralleling paralleling of the GodGod­ the God-image God-image as as distinct distinct from from God himself; image not not with with the unconscious image unconscious but with the the entire entire subject, subject, conscious conscious and and unconsciousaalike; and his hisappeal appeal to to the the consensus unconscious like; and consensusgentium gentium as as proof proof of the the psychological( (though not metaphysical) psychological t ho ugh not metaphysical) truth of ofGod-images God-images (1921: ( 1 92 1 : pars. pars. -

302 Roderick 302 Roderick Main Main



62, 4412-413). In this 62, 1 2-4 1 3) . In this work, work, Jung lung also also several several times times uses uses the phrase phrase 'the 'the religious function' function' (pars. (pars. 231 religious 23 1 n. 14, 1 4, 411, 4 1 1 , 529), 529), a notion to to which which he he appeals appeals at key points in his at his later later accounts accountsof ofreligion religion (e.g., (e.g., 1938/1940: 1 93 8/ 1 940: par. 3, 3, 1944b: 1 944b: par. 14). Above all, all, lung Jung focuses focuses in in this this work work on on the notion of par. 1 4) . Above of opposites opposites and their reconciliation wholeness. As As M Murray and reconciliation under a guiding principle of wholeness. urray Stein ((1985) points out, out, this this notion allows Stein 1 985) points allows Jung lung to to characterise characterise modern modern secular culture culture as as one-sided secular one-sided for failing failing to to acknowledge acknowledge its its opposite, opposite, i.e., i.e., religion, and and likewise to characterise religion, likewise to characterise traditional Christianity Christianity as as one-sided one-sided extraversion, feeling feeling and and intuition above their for valuing extraversion, their opposites, opposites, introintro­ version, thinking thinking and sensation, version, sensation, and and therefore therefore tending tending to todevalue devaluemysticmystic­ ism, speculative speculative philosophy philosophy and and science (Stein 11985: 97-98). Central Central to ism, science (Stein 985: 97-98). Jung's later later project project of of transforming transforming Christianity Christianity will will be be the therecommendarecommenda­ tion that itit acknowledges tion acknowledges and attempts attempts to tointegrate integratewhat whathas hasbeen beenexcluded excluded by its perceived by perceived one-sidedness. one-sidedness. Between the the years years 11921 and 1937, Jung's psychology Between 92 1 and 1 937, lung's psychology of of religion religion underunder­ went few few substantial in terms terms of theory went substantial developments developments in theory or ormethodology; methodology; however, what what did did change change was was the the nature and however, and scope scope of ofhis hisapplication. application. These years saw the growth of of his his interest interest in in alchemy alchemy (Jung (lung1929), 1 929), Eastern Eastern thought (1929, thought ( 1 929, 1930, 1 930, 1932, 1 932, 1935/1953, 1 935/ 1 953, 1936b), 1 936b), paganism paganism (1936a) ( l 936a) and and secular alternatives alternatives to to religion An important role secular religion ((1934-1939). 1 934- 1 939). An role in in this this was was played by the seminars that Jung played seminars in analytical psychology psychology that lung began to hold hold in in 1925 and by by the Eranos 1 925 and Eranos Conferences Conferences that were were instituted instituted in in 1933 1 933 and and at at which lung Jung was a regular regular speaker speaker until until 1951 1 9 5 1 (Hayman (Hayman 1999: 1 999: 315-316, 3 1 5-3 1 6, 415 415 416). 4 1 6). IIn n some some of o f Jung's lung's writings writings of o f this this period, period, one one can can detect detect an an as asyet yet incomplete move towards equating images of God with images of illl.;o mplete move towards equating images of with images of self. self. When When Jung Jung does does eventually eventually make make this this move, move, itit will will have havemomentous momentous consequences for for his his psychology consequences psychology of religion, religion, for it it will will provide provide him him with with grounds for expecting expecting of the God-image the same same kind kind of oftotality totalitythrough through union of of the the opposites opposites of ofgood goodand andevil, evil,masculine masculineand andfeminine, feminine,and andspirit spirit and and body body as as his his clinical clinical work work and and comparative comparative research research led led him, him, at at aa psychological level, to to expect of psychological level, of images images of of the the self. self.

'Psychology and religion' religion' (1937) 'Psychology and ( 1 93 7)

Jung's .l ung's main main dedicated dedicated statement statementof ofhis hispsychology psychologyof ofreligion religionisiscontained contained in in the the three three Terry Terry Lectures Lectures on on 'Psychology 'Psychology and andreligion' religion'that thathehedelivered deliveredatat Yale in 1937 These not not only University in 1 937 (Jung (lung 1938/1940). 1 938/ 1 940). These only sum sum up up his his Yale University thinking on this this subject subject so so far far but butalso alsolook lookforward forwardto tohow howhe hewill willdevelop develop t h i n ki ng on it in in subsequent subsequent works. works. Accordingly, Accordingly, I shall shall focus focus on on this this work work at atslightly sligh tly greater grea t e r length, length, outlining outlining first first the theepistemological epistemological and andmethodological m e t h odologica l assumptions II ss u l 1l p t i o ns it articulates, articulates, then then the the psychological psychological concepts concepts at a t work work in i n it, it. and finally how Jung .l ung understands u nderstandsreligion rel igion and a n dapplies a pplieshis h i spsychological psyc ho log ica l finally how t ha t understanding. I I nd n s t a nd i ng . concepts within that

Religion 303 Religion 303

lung's basic assumption assumption is is of the the primacy primacy of of psychic psychic reality: reality: 'the Jung's most most basic only existence of which we have immediate immediate knowledge knowledge is psychic' psychic' only form form of existence ((1938/1940: 1 938/1 940: par. 6) . From par.1 16). Fromthis, this,ititfollows followsthat thatwe wecannot cannotknow know God God or or any other the psychopsycho­ other metaphysical metaphysical realities realities in in themselves themselvesbut but can can know only the logical logical experiences experiencesand andimages imageswe wehave haveof ofthem. them. This Thisprovides provides the the grounds grounds for Inasmuch as for lung's Jung's claimed claimed empirical empirical approach approach to to religion: religion: ''Inasmuch as religion religion has has aa very psychological aspect, with it it from from a a purely purely empirical empirical very important important psychological aspect, II deal deal with point point of of view, view, that that is, is, II restrict restrict myself myself to to the the observation observation of of phenomena phenomena and and II eschew or metaphysical metaphysical considerations' considerations'(1938/1940: ( 1 938/ 1 940: par. par. eschew any any philosophical philosophical or 2). is 'psychologically 'psychologically 2). A A religious religious idea, idea, such such as as the the motif motif of of the the virgin virgin birth, birth, is true exists'; what what gives gives such an idea idea objectivity objectivity is that itit isis true inasmuch inasmuch as as it it exists'; such an is that 4). 'shared society — - by `shared by by a society by aa consensus consensusgentium' gentium' (par. (par. 4). Among understanding Among the the psychological psychological notions notions that that contribute contribute to to Jung's Jung's understanding of religion are the following. following. The The human human personality personality consists consists of of both both of religion are the consciousness the unconscious unconscious (1938/1940: ( J 9381 1 940: par. 66). The The unconscious unconscious is is consciousness and and the par. 66). not also collective collective or i.e . , it contains nonnon­ not only personal personal but also or transpersonal, i.e., personal, complexes (archetypes) (archetypes) ((pars. pars. 21-22, 2 1 -22, 88). 88). While While the the personal, autonomous autonomous complexes centre consciousness isis the the psyche psyche as as aa whole, whole, centre of of consciousness the ego, ego, the the centre centre of of the consciousness archetype of the self self (par. ( par. consciousnessand and unconscious unconscious together, together, is is the the archetype 67). no easy easy matter matter 67). However, However, realisation realisation of of psychic psychic totality totality (the (the self) self) is is no ((par. par. 68), 68), for it involves involves recognising for it recognising and and living living with with everything everything about about oneself oneself that one has has no no wish wish to to be, be, all allone's one'spersonally personallyand andsocially socially unacceptable unacceptable that one traits and tendencies, tendencies, one's 'shadow' (pars. ( pars. 130-132). 1 30- 1 32). A A particularly particularly useful useful traits and one's 'shadow' resource one's unconscious unconscious is is provided provided by by dreams, dreams, resource for for gaining gaining insight insight into into one's for exactly the the underground undergroundprocesses processes of ofthe the psyche' psyche' (par. ( par.37). 37). for these these 'mirror 'mirror exactly For lung, aa dream dream is is not, not, as as itit is is for for Freud, Freud, 'a'acrafty craftydevice device to to lead lead us us astray' astray' For Jung, but 'a natural natural occurrence' occurrence' that that should should be be taken taken 'for 'for what what it it is' is' (par. ( par. 41). 41 ). but 'a Dreams other forms forms of o ffantasy fantasy can canpersonify personify unconscious unconscious states states and and Dreams and and other processes. is inferior inferior and and unacceptable, unacceptable, one's one's processes. The The aspect aspect of of one's one's psyche psyche that that is 'shadow', often personified personified as negative figure. figure. The aspect that that helps helps `shadow', is is often as aa negative The aspect consciousness to the the unconscious unconscious is is often often personified personified as as aa contracontra­ consciousness to to relate relate to sexual image, 'anima' and and in in aa woman's woman's sexual image, referred referredto to in in aa man's man's case case as as the the 'anima' case 'animus' (pars. ( pars. 47-48). 47-48). The The aspect aspect that thatrepresents represents the the potential potential case as as the the 'animus' for psychic psychic wholeness wholeness is is personified by images images of of the the self self (par. ( par. 140). 1 40). So So long long for personified by as these these archetypal archetypal tendencies tendencies remain unconscious, they are likely likely to to be be as remain unconscious, they are projected onto people, situations situations and and organisations organisations in in the the external external world, world, projected onto people, resulting in in unrealistic unrealistic hostilities, hostilities, attachments attachments and and idealisations idealisations (par. ( par.140). 1 40). resulting An important important psychological psychological task, equivalent to to the the increasing increasing of ofconcon­ An task, equivalent sciousness, these projections ( par. 141). 1 4 1 ) . However, However, this this is is not not sciousness, is is to to withdraw withdraw these projections (par. a task that can ever be finally accomplished, for the archetypes will con­ a task that can ever be finally accomplished, for the archetypes will continually generate generate affectively affectively compelling compelling images images and and experiences. experiences. Among Among tinually these will be the religious symbols generated by what lung designates asthe the these will be the religious symbols generated by what Jung designates as religious function ( par. 3). The ongoing process of projecting, withdrawing religious function (par. 3). The ongoing process of projecting, withdrawing project ions and symbolising results in continual continual transformations transformations of of projections and symbolising results in

304 Roderick Rode r i c kMain Main 304

Religion Religion 305 305

consciousness. Ultimately, for Jung, Jung, these these transformations transformationsare aregoverned governedby by consciousness. Ultimately, for the process of the psyche's development towards ever-greater completeness the process of the psyche's development towards ever-greater completeness through the the integration integration of ofconsciousness consciousness and and the the unconscious. unconscious. This This isis the the through process lung calls individuation, the goal of which is ever-increasing process Jung calls individuation, the goal of which is ever-increasing realisation of of the the self. self. Among Among the the symbols symbols of ofthe theself, self, Jung lungspecially specially draws draws realisation a ttention to to mandalas mandalas and and other otherquaternity quaternitysymbols. symbols. attention state of ofreligion religion that thatJung lunganalyses analysesby bymeans meansof ofthese thesepsychological psychological The state concepts and and processes processes is is characterised characterised as as one one in in which which there thereisisaasevere severe loss loss concepts of faith faith (1938/1940: ( 1 9381 1 940: par. 1 48), one God's death death and anddisappeardisappear­ of par. 148), one marked marked by by God's ance (par. ( par. 149) 1 49) and and by by the the Church's Church's loss loss of of authority authority (par. ( par. 34). 34). Various Various ance a ttempts to to reorient reorientin inthis thiscondition conditionhave havebeen beenattempted attempted—- e.g., e.g., materialmaterial­ attempts (Freud), or oratheistic atheisticiconoclasm iconoclasm(Nietzsche) (N ietzsche)— - but but Jung l ung ism, psychologism (Freud), par. 142). 1 42). lung's own starting starting point point is is to to rejects all rejects all of of these these as as inadequate inadequate ((par. Jung's own assert the the naturalness naturalness and and importance importanceofofimmediate immediatereligious religiousexperience. experience.He He assert provides aa broad broad definition definition of of religion religion as as 'a'acareful carefulconsideration consideration and and provides observation of certain dynamic dynamic factors factors that that are areconceived conceived as as "powers "powers' " observation of certain (( par. ) , aas s 'the peculiar to t oaaconsciousness consciousness which which has hasbeen been changed changed par. 88), 'the attitude attitude peculiar by experience experience of 9), and and as as 'a 'a relationship relationship to to the the (par. 9), numinosum'' (par. by of the the numinosUln highest or most powerful powerful value, value, be be it it positive positive or or negative' negative' (par. (par. 137). 1 37). highest or most Religious are secondary secondary to t o this: this: 'Creeds 'Creedsare arecodified codified and and Religious beliefs beliefs and and dogmas dogmas are dogmatized of original original religious religious experience' experience' ((par. par. 10). 1 0). Jung's Jung's interinter­ dogmatized forms forms of pretation of the the problem problem facing facing modern modern religions religions is is that that their their symbols symbols and and pretation of myths lost their their connection connection to to experience experience and and hence hence are are no no longer longer myths have have lost capable of evoking evoking aa living living response response in in the the psyches psyches of of adherents. adherents. Since Since the the capable of psyche religious function cannot be be ignored ignored without without damage damage to to psyche has has aa religious function that that cannot psychic as 'probably 'probably all all psychic health, health, Jung Jung champions champions aa 'psychological 'psychological approach' approach' as is left left us' us' (par. ( par. 148). 1 48). For For instance, instance, he he argues argues that that 'Revelation 'Revelation is is an an Ithat h a l is "unveiling" depths of of the the human human soul soul first first and and foremost, foremost, aa "laying "laying "unveiling" of of the the depths hare"; hence it it is is an an essentially essentially psychological psychological event' event' (par. ( par. 127). 1 27). According According bare"; hence 1to 0 his his psychological psychological model illustrated by his case case study study in in 'Psy'Psy­ model and and as as illustrated by his lO l ogy and religion', such such revelation revelation takes takes place place above above all all through through the tIll' d chology and religion', other forms forms of of unconscious unconscious fantasy. fantasy. In In making making this thi� med i um of medium of dreams dreams and and other poi n l , .lung i s not not unconcerned unconcerned with with traditional traditional forms forms of ofreligion. religion. Indeed. In d eed point, Jung is he religious rituals rituals as as ways ways of ofmedimed i · he acknowledges acknowledges the the value value of of traditional traditional religious aating l ing between between consciousness consciousness and unconscious and compares the [ Ill' and the the unconscious and compares slrengl hs and weaknesses of Catholicism and and Protestantism Protestantism in inthis thisrespect rc s pec t strengths and weaknesses of Catholicism ((pars. pa rs. 75 75 80). XO) . However, H owever, his main concern concern is with the the many many people people for till his main is with whom hese ttraditional raditional resources resources no longer work. work. whom Ithese no longer .lJung's ung's lectures lectures on ' Psychology and and religion' religion' introduce, introduce, mainly mainly through throu gh on 'Psychology tthe he ccase a se study, is going play aa major major role ro le inin his 11I� study, one one of of the the themes themes that that is going to to play su bseq uent writ i ng ininthis notion that that images i mages of o r God ( i ud subsequent writing this area. area. This This isis the the notion undergo ra ns fo rma t ion and are currently currently undergoing un de rgo i ng one one such such maim l1lajul undergo ttransformation and are reco g ni sed aand nd understood. u nderst ood . Thus, t Ill' ttransformation, ransformation, which which needs needs to to be he recognised Thus, the -

.

ty and mandala symbols symbols experienced experienced hy t he dreamer d rl'a mL'l" in in I l 1 l 1 p \ lIuall'rni (maternity and mandala by the .

examples spontaneously express express aa view examples spontaneously view of of divinity divinity that thatdiffers differs markedly markedly from the traditional traditional Trinity Trinity through throughaccording accordingaaplace placetotoevil, evil,the thefeminine feminine and the the body. body. The The mandala mandala presents presents an an image image of of totality totality rather rather than thanperper­ fection, and it is an image is the human being fection, image at whose whose centre centre is being rather than than aa god (1938/1940: pars. 1136-139). argues that this is not an ( 1 9381 1 940: pars. 36 - 1 39). JJung ung argues an idiosyncratic idiosyncratic product from the mind mind of of his his dreamer but 'the 'the continuation continuation of ofaa process process of of spiritual development development which which began began in in the the early early Middle M iddleAges Ages [with [with alchemy], alchemy], , and perhaps perhaps even even further furtherback back[with [with Gnosticism]' Gnosticism] (par. (par.159). 1 59). Transforming religion/Christianity religion/Christianity (f (1938-1961) Transforming 938- f 96 f)

Over the next twenty twenty or or so so years, years, Jung Jungcontinued continuedtotoreflect reflectpsychologically psychologically on the Eastern spiritual traditions traditions of of India, I ndia, Tibet, Tibet, China Chinaand andJapan lapan(1939b, ( 1 939b, 304-311, 11939/1954, 9391 1 954, 11943, 943, 11944a, 944a, 11950, 950, 11963: 963: 304-3 1 1 , 348). However, while while in in India I ndia in 1938 he had aa dream in 1 938 he dream in in which which he he was was seeking seeking the Holy H oly Grail, Grail, aa prepre­ religious symbol, symbol, and and thereafter the focus eminent Western Western religious focus of his his attention increasingly turned turned to Western increasingly Western culture culture and and in in particular particularChristianity Christianity(1963: ( 1 963: 3311-313). 1 1 -3 1 3 ). IIn n 'Transformation 'Transformation symbolism symbolism in in the theMass' M ass'(1942/1954), ( 1 9421 1 954), originally originally delivered as as an an Eranos lecture in 1941, delivered 1 94 1 , lJung ung attempts to to elucidate elucidate the the central central symbol of of the the Christian symbol Christian Mass, M ass, when when the bread and and wine wine are are transformed transformed into the body and blood into blood of ofChrist. Christ. He He draws draws detailed detailed parallels parallels between the phases of of this this rite and the process of individuation, individuation, for both, phases the psychological psychological process he argues, wine/ego-consciousness) he argues, unite unite the the temporal temporalworld world(bread (breadand and wine/ego-consciousness) with the eternal (Christ/the self). with self) . Even more more radically, radically,lJung Even ung aat t this this time time further further pursued pursued his his idea idea that that because the the God-image God-image (as distinct from God because God himself, himself, who who is is unknowable) unknowable) is is psychic fact, fact, itit is is both both open to aa psychic to psychological psychological investigation investigation and subject subject to to change, indeed indeed is is currently change, currently undergoing undergoing aa major major transformation. transformation. This This is is especiallyevident evident in in his hisessay, essay,'A 'Apsychological psychological approach approach to the especially the dogma dogma of ofthe the Trinity' (1942/1948), worked up up from an Trinity' ( 1 9421 1 948), worked an Eranos Eranos lecture lecture delivered delivered extemextem­ poraneously in 1940. Basing his hisargument argument on on the the premise premise that that 'one can never poraneously 1 940. Basing distinguish empirically between between a symbol of the self and and aa God-image' God-image' (1942/ distinguish ( 1 942/ pars. 23 231, 289), Jung Jung finds finds parallels parallels between betweenthe the images imagesof of God God in 11948: 948: pars. 1 , 289), Christian dogma dogma and development of Christian and stages stages of of development of human human consciousness. He H e sees the doctrine doctrine of the Trinity as referring the referring to both both 'a' aprocess process of ofunconscious unconscious maturation taking taking place within the individual' and 'a maturation place within 'a process process of of conscious conscious realisation continuing continuing over over the the centuries'; centuries'; more more generally, generally,itit refers refers to to 'the 'the realisation progressive whole' (pars. (pars. 287-289). 287-289) . progressivetransformation transformationof of .. .. .. the psyche as a whole' Each of of the the figures figures of of the the Trinity has its correlate. God the Each its psychological psychological correlate. Father state of ofundifferentiated undifferentiated identification identification with the the Father correlates correlates with with a state unconscious: unconscious: 'the 'the earlier state of still aa child child, .. . of consciousness when one was still passive, unreflecting unreflectingcondition, condition, . . .. .. without IIa passive, without intellectual intellectual or moral moral judgejud �� ment' ((par. par. 270). 270).God God the the Son correlates with a state in which consciousness men!'

�

306 Roderick RoderickMain Main 306

differentiates from from the the unconscious: unconscious: itit consists consists in in 'conscious 'consciousdifferentiation differentiation differentiates from the the father father [and [and requires] requires] aa certain certain amount amount of ofknowledge knowledge of ofone's one's own own from individuality, which be acquired acquired without without moral moraldiscrimination' discrimination' individuality, which cannot cannot be 1 ) . God Holy Ghost Ghost correlates correlateswith withaastate statein inwhich whichdifferentiated differentiated (( par. par. 27 271). God the the Holy ego-consciousness begins reconnect with with the the unconscious: unconscious: ititinvolves involves ego-consciousness begins to to reconnect ' recognition of the unconscious' unconscious' and and the the relinquishing relinquishing of of both both 'childish 'childish 'recognition of the dependence' on on itit and and 'exclusive 'exclusive independence' independence' from from itit (par. ( par.273). 273). dependence' Besides this in this this Besides this psychological psychologicaltranslation, translation,Jung's Jung's radical radical proposal proposal in essay is the notion notion of of the the Trinity Trinity be be expanded expanded to to become become aa quaternity, quaternity, essay is that that the which would include the person of of Lucifer, Lucifer, 'the 'the Prince Prince of ofthis this world' world' which would include the fourth fourth person ( 1 9421 1 948: par. as psychological psychological completeness, completeness, symbolised symbolised as (1942/1948: par. 290). 290). Just Just as realisation of self, requires the shadow shadow and and inferior inferior function function be be realisation of the the self, requires that that the acknowledged, so need to to acknowledge acknowledge evil an aspect aspect of of the the acknowledged, so there there isis aa need evil as as an God-image. Regarding gure of Jung on on the the one one hand handdesigdesig­ God-image. Regarding the the fi figure of Christ, Christ, Jung nates him him as an image image of self but the other other hand hand argues argues that that he he is is an an nates as an of the the self but on on the unsatisfactory image of of the the self self because because he he is is one-sidedly one-sidedly good, good, masculine masculine unsatisfactory image and spiritual. spiritual . An An adequate adeq uate symbol symbol of of the the self self also also needs needs to to encompass encompass in in and and Alchemy A lchemy its totality totality evil, evil, the feminine, and Psychology and its the feminine, and the the body. body. In In Psychology ((1944b), I 944b ), JJung ung considers considers some some alchemical alchemical counterparts the image image of of counterparts to to the Christ which, he argues, were of the the Christ which, he argues, were spontaneous spontaneousattempts attemptson on the the part part of medieval mind to compensate compensate for for this this one-sidedness. one-sidedness. medieval mind to The problem of of Christ's Christ's one-sidedness one-sidedness as as an an image image of of the the self self is is also also one one The problem of the major themes of A ion ( 1 95 1 a). In this work, Jung attempts to trace of the major themes of Aion (1951a). In this work, Jung attempts to trace the of symbolism symbolism relating relating to to Christ Christ have have changed changed over over the the the way way the the patterns patterns of course of the previous two thousand years. He makes extensive use or course of the previous two thousand years. He makes extensive use of supposed parallels (synchronicities) between the phases of the Christian supposed parallels (synchronicities) between the phases of the Christian aeon and the the astrological astrological Age Age of of Pisces. Pisces. In In particular, particular, he he relates relates the the two two aeon and fishes of the astrological sign to the two 'Sons of God' , Christ and Anti­ fishes of the astrological sign to the two 'Sons of God', Christ and Antichrist. spring equinox sh into other, so so the thL' christ. As As the the spring equinox moved moved from from one one fi fish into the the other, archetypal symbolism associated with Christ began to give way to that archetypal symbolism associated with Christ began to give way to that frol l l assOI.:iated Antichrist, and and human humanconsciousness consciousness changed changed from associated with with the the Antichrist, he ing preoccupied with spiritual transcendence to being more centred Oil being preoccupied with spiritual transcendence to being more centred on hhumanity um a n i t y and the earth. Jung's insistence on the equal reality of Anti c h r ist and the earth. Jung's insistence on the equal reality of Antichrist and Christ, of evil and good, also led him to criticise the Catholic doctrim' and Christ, of evil and good, also led him to criticise the Catholic doctrine ooff tthe h e pril'afio substance of of its its own own but but according to to which which evil evil has has no no substance privatio honi, honi, according consists of the absence or privation of good. Jung considered that t hi� consists of the absence or privation of good. Jung considered that this doct rine hoth trivialises the reality o f evil and fails adequately to represe llt doctrine both trivialises the reality of evil and fails adequately to represent or O l ll' tthe he psychological reality of moral judgement, where the assertion psychological reality of moral judgement, where the assertion of one member of a pair of opposites (good) entails the eq ual assertion of the ot h(,1 member of a pair of opposites (good) entails the equal assertion of the of het memher the pair pair (evil). (evil). member of of the The prohlems of good of the the transformation tran sform a t i o n of of the t he God ( ,od The problems of good and and evil evil and and of imag e and its para l lels in t h e development of h u m a n con scio usness ro ulld image and its parallels in the development of human consciousness found il ttheir he i r most persona I a nd mo s t coni rovcrsial expression in .l ung's A n s w l 'l tlo ' Jung's 'Answer most personal and most controversial expression in .IJob' oh ' (1952a: ( 1 9<; 2 a ; sec a lso B i s h o p 20m ) . I n I h is wor k , which h e desni bL's a � ' 01 In this work, which he describes as 'a see also Bishop 2002).

Religion R e l i g i o n 307 3 07

purely reaction', Jung purely subjective subjective reaction', Jung explores explores 'God's 'God's tragic tragic contradictoriness' contradictoriness' (1963: 243) as as a being ( 1 963: 243) being in in whom whom 'Insight ' Insightexisted existed along along with withobtuseness, obtuseness, loving-kindness loving-kindness along with cruelty, cruelty, creative creative power power along along with withdestructivedestructive­ ness' par. 560). This contradictory nature is ness' (1952a: ( 1 952a: par. 560). This is expressed expressed in the the Old Old Testament in the amorality Testament in amorality of of Yahweh's Yahweh's treatment treatment of of his his faithful faithful servant servant Job, whose he allows allows Satan Satan to devastate for the whose life life he the sake sake of of aa wager. wager. Jung Jung suggests that Yahweh than Job and suggests that Yahweh has less moral consciousness consciousness than and actually actually Aion, ion, Jung traces needs humanity in order order to to become become more more conscious. conscious. As As in in A various phases the idea of God from the time phases of the development development of the time of of the the writing of of the the Book writing Book of Job Job to to the the present present day. day. He He suggests suggests that that God's God's experiencewith with Job Job prompted prompted God to incarnate experience incarnate as as Christ. Christ. However, However, while while God in in the the person person of ofChrist Christ succeeded succeeded in incarnating incarnating his his good good side, side, his his evil evil side continued continued to be projected onto his side his creatures. Hence, the contemporary need for for a fuller need fuller realisation realisation of of the the unconscious unconscious through through acceptance acceptance and and side as as well wellas asthe thegood. good. ItIt is is for for this this reason reason that that Jung integration of of the evil evil side was so so interested in the was the spontaneous spontaneousemergence emergence of ofGod-images God-images (especially (especially mandalas) that that add to mandalas) to traditional traditional trinitarian trinitarian thought thought with with its its emphases emphases on good, masculinity and the on masculinity and the spirit spirit the the 'missing 'missing fourth' fourth' element element of ofevil, evil, femininityand and the the body. femininity body. Regarding Regarding the feminine feminine aspect aspect of God, God, Jung Jung suggests that that the emergence suggests emergence of this symbol symbol into into consciousness consciousness signals signals a union of opposites opposites in in the Godhead, a divine (hieros gamos) gamos) por­ porunion divine marriage marriage (hieros tending that 'God tending ' God desires desires to to rejuvenate rejuvenate himself' himself' (1952a: ( 1 952a: par. 624). 624). In Jung's Jung's account of of the the history of the Judaeo-Christian account Judaeo-Christian tradition, occasions occasions of this emergenceare are the the idea idea of of Sophia Sophia (Wisdom), (Wisdom), 'a coeternal and more emergence more or or less less hypostatized pneuma pneuma of feminine nature that hypostatized feminine nature that existed existed before before the Creation', Creation', in the the Book the Marriage in Book of Proverbs Proverbs (par. ( par. 609); 609); the Marriage of the Lamb Lamb (i.e., ( i .e., of of Christ with with his his Church) Church) in in the Book of Revelation (par. and, in Jung's Christ ( par. 726); 726); and, lifetime,the the papal papal promulgation promulgationinin 11950 of the the dogma lifetime, 950 of dogma of the the bodily bodily assumption of of Mary into Heaven assumption Heaven (pars. ( pars. 733, 733, 748-755). 748-755). As mentioned mentioned earlier, earlier, Jung's Jung's writings As writings on religion are inextricably inextricably bound up with with his his writings up writings on alchemy, alchemy, and the the above above themes themes of ofreconciling reconciling opposites and and attending to spontaneous opposites spontaneous psychic psychic images images of of wholeness wholeness are central to to Jung's late Mysterium Coniunctionis Coniunctionis central late alchemical alchemical works, especially especially Mysterium Jung also also deploys his theory ((1955-1956). 1 955- 1 956). Jung deploys his theory of religion religion in attempting attempting to understand current current social phenomena such as totalitarianism, which understand which he saw saw as aa form that could as form of of `massmindedness' 'massmindedness' that could be be counterbalanced counterbalanced only by by religion (J (Jung and the widespread sightings religion ung 11957), 957), and sightings of of flying flying saucers, which he saw as as aa nascent nascent salvation salvation myth compensating for the failure of traditional saw religions to to meet meet contemporary contemporary needs for religions for psychic psychic wholeness wholeness (Jung (Jung 1958). 1 958). M e anings and efinitions Meanings and d definitions

Most of the the terms terms involved in Jung's psychology M ost of psychology of of religion religion have necessarily already been provided with basic definitions in the the preceding preceding section, section, already heen provided with basic definitions

308 Roderick Main M a i n 308 Roderick

Religion 309 Religion 309

especially religion'. However, H owever, itit may may especially in in the the subsection subsection on 'Psychology and religion'. be helpful to elaborate elaborate on on aafew few of ofthese these definitions definitions as aswell well as as to to make makesome some more general points.

Religion In crucial respects, Jung's lung's psychology psychology of ofreligion, religion, indeed indeedhis hispsychological psychological In model as whole, emerged emerged out his attempt attempt to to resolve resolve the the tension tension he he model as a whole, out of his experienced religion and secular secular modernity modernity (Homans ( H omans experienced between between traditional traditional religion 11979/1995; 979/ 1 995; Main 1 - 1 1 4) . H ow Jung lung understood understood religion religion therefore therefore Main 2004: 2004:991-114). How will understand psychology, psychology, as as well well as as the the will have have influenced influenced how how he he came came to understand other way way around. if we look at the the actual actual definitions definitions of around. This is apparent if religion lung provides, which all all put put the the accent accenton onexperience experience rather rather religion that that Jung than belief, belief, ritual or or organisation organisation(e.g., (e.g., Jung lung1938/1940: 1 938/ 1 940: pars. pars. 8, 8, 9,9,137). 1 37 ) . The emphasis o n direct direct religious religious experience experience i is s nnot o t only, only, as a s one one might might The emphasis on expect, prioritising of of the the psychological psychological dimension. dimension. It It also also reflects reflects the the expect, a prioritising emphasis personal orientation orientation towards towards the the transcendent transcendent within within the the emphasis on on a personal religious tradition lung's upbringing upbringing (Swiss (Swiss Reformed Reformed Protestantism) Protestantism) religious tradition of Jung's however experience of this tradition tradition may mayhave have however unsatisfactory unsatisfactory lung's Jung's own experience been. Of course, refer to to traditions traditions been. course, lung Jung does does also also use use the the term term 'religion' to refer identifiable beliefs, practices institutions -- whether whether mainmain­ identifiableby by their their beliefs, practices and and institutions stream current traditions traditions such such as as Christianity Christianity and andBuddhism, Buddhism, defunct defunct stream current traditions such such as Mithraism, M ithraism, or orlittle-known little-known indigenous indigenous traditions traditionssuch suchas as that of of the the Pueblo Pueblo Indians. Indians. However, H owever, he he isis always always quick quick to toestablish establish that that these and organisational organisationaldimensions dimensions of ofreligious religious traditions traditions these doctrinal, doctrinal, ritual and have their taproot in the dimension of experience. This emphasis on have their taproot in the dimension of experience. This emphasis on experience arguably biases lung's and subsequent analytical psychologists' experience arguably biases Jung's subsequent analytical psychologists' d iscussions of also helps helps account account for forJung's lung'slifelong lifelonginterest interestinin discussions of religion. religion. It also spiritualistic in these these too toothe theaccent accentisison onexperience experience(e.g., (e.g., spiritualistic phenomena, for in Ju ng 1896-1899, 1 896- 1 899, 1902, 1 902, 1920/1948, 1 920/ 1 948, 1926, 1 926, 1934, 1 934, 1963; 1 963; see see also also Charet Charet1993; 1 993: Jung M ain 1997). 1 997). Main In addition to tothe thespecifically specifically psychological psychological concepts concepts of ofpsychic psychicreality, reality, In tthe he collective col lective unconscious, unconscious, archetypes, self, two two archetypes,individuation individuationand and the the self, ssignificant i gn i ficant notions development of lung's thinking thinking about about notions governing governing the the development of Jung's rreligion e l igio n arc religious function the numinous. numinous. The The former former signals signab arc the the religious function and the 01 .lung's increasing increasing sense the importance, importance, naturalness naturalness and and necessity necessity of Jung's sense of the rreligion. e l i gi o n. He the dream dream material material presented presented in in 'Psychology 'Psychology and and He states states that the meant to 'demonstrate 'demonstrate the theexistence existence of ofan anauthentic authenticreligious reli gi o u s religion' religion' is is meant funct ion in i n the psyche' psyche' (1938/1940: ( 1 93811 940: par. lchell/Y, hl' function par. 3). 3). In In Psychulogy Psychology and A Alchemy, he IIasserts sserts tthat h a t 'the 'the soul soul possesses possesses by by nature nature aareligious religious function' function'(1944h: ( 1 944h: par. pa I" 114). 4 ) . At least two two major major studies studies of of Jung's lung's psychology psychology of of religion rel igion have h a ve At least inwrpol"ated phrase 'religious religio us function' fu nct ion' in in their theirtitles t i t les(Edinger ( Ed in ger1971, 1 97 \ ; incorporated the phrase (Corbett 'orhet t 1996). 1 996). Il Ileisig, eisig, while t i o n in g that Jung J u ng does does not not seem seem totouse liset the i l l' while cau cautioning phrase as much l11uch more l110re than t h a n 'a'a means I11ca nsof oflOcusing lill"using attention a t tent ion on on the t hepositive posi t i Vl' phrase as '

role of religion religion in inpsychic psychicwell-being' well-being' (Heisig ( H eisig 1979: 1 979: 158), 1 58), nevertheless nevertheless role of provides an an admirable of what what is implied by this. He provides admirable clarification clarification of implied by H e shows shows that lung intends intends the the phrase phrase to todesignate designate the thepsyche's psyche's tendency, tendency, indeed indeed that Jung necessity, unconditional orientation; necessity,to to have have an an absolute absolute and and unconditional orientation; the the basis basis of this tendency in the releasing of archaic instincts (i.e., ( i.e., archetypes) by means of fantasy; nature of ofthis this process process as as essentially essentially one one of of symbol formation, formation, fantasy; the nature whereby the collective collective unconscious; unconscious; and and whereby consciousness consciousness is is compensated compensated by the the distinction between activity and adherence adherence between this this natural natural and spontaneous activity to religious religious dogmas (Heisig (Heisig 1979: 1 979: 35-36). 35 -36). The theologian The concept concept of the numinous was introduced by the German theologian and of religion religion Rudolf RudolfOtto Otto(1917/1950). ( 1 9 1 7/ 1 950). Jung lung quickly quickly adopted adopted itit and historian of to designate the particular emotional emotional quality quality of ofarchetypal archetypal experiences, experiences, and and it become one of of the the most most widely widely used used terms terms in in Jungian lungian writing writing it has now become even even when when the the religious religious dimension dimension isis not not being being directly directlyaddressed. addressed. For For Otto, the non-rational aspect aspect of the holy. holy. He He more more fully fully the concept concept refers refers to to the non-rational ascinans (terrifying describes mysterium tremendum tremendumet et f fascinans (terrifying and describesthis thisas as the the mysterium fascinating emotional apprehension apprehension of as fascinating mystery). mystery).ItIt implies implies an an emotional of God as wholly awesome, overpowering, fascinating. For Jung, lung, wholly other, other, awesome, overpowering, urgent urgent and and fascinating. the term carries carries most connotations, but there there are are also also important important the term most of these connotations, differences. lung writes writes that that itit is is 'psychologically 'psychologically differences. For For example, in one place Jung quite unthinkable for God to be be simply simply the "wholly "wholly other," for for aa "wholly "wholly quite unthinkable other" never be one of of the the soul's soul's deepest deepest and and closest closest intimacies intimacies other" could never 6). Again, Again, as as Leon Leon which ( 1 944b: par. I I , n. which isis precisely preciselywhat what God God is' is' (1944b: par. 11, n. 6). Schlamm 1 994) has emphasises that appropriate Schlamm ((1994) has noted, noted, while while Otto Otto emphasises that the appropriate response numinous experience experience is is unqualified unqualified submission, submission, Jung l ung response to to numinous consistently consciousness should should be be maintained, maintained, since since consistently urges urges that that consciousness individuation the conjunction conjunction between between consciousness consciousness and and individuation requires requires that the the unconscious should should devalue devalue neither neither(Schlamm (Schlamm 1994: 1 994: 26-27). 26-27). the numinous numinous unconscious Another equate the numinous numinous and the the Another difference differenceisisthat that lung Jung tended tended to to equate holy, the holy holy involves involves a uniting uniting of of the the numinous numinous with with holy, whereas whereas for for Otto the rational experience of of the the divine divine (Schlamm (Schlamm 1994: 1 994: 28). 28). rational experience

God Central apprecmtmg lung's term 'God' 'God' isishis hisdistinction distinction Central to to appreciating Jung's use use of of the term between images. lung between the the archetype archetype in in itself itself and and archetypal images. Jung writes writes of God as ( 1 944b: par. 1 5) and the archetype archetype of the the God-image God-image as an archetype (1944b: par. 15) and of the ((pars. pars. 11, I I , 14). 1 4). The former, former, as as with with all all archetypes, archetypes, is is unknowable unknowable in in itself itself and lung therefore therefore generally generally declines par. 15). 1 5) . Jung's .lung's main main and Jung declines to to discuss discuss itit ((par. concern God-image, the ways ways in which which the the God-archetype God-archetype has has concern is is with with the the God-image, manifested experience, conditioned by manifested itself itself in in actual actual experience, conditioned as as this inevitably is by particular the West,' West,' he he writes, writes, particular personal, personal, social social and and cultural cultural contexts. contexts. 'In 'In the ' the dogmatic figure figure of East, the archetype archetype is is filled filled out out with with the the dogmatic of Christ; Christ; in in the the East, with Hiranyagarbha, the Buddha, and on' (par. ( par. with Purusha, Purusha, the the Atman, Atman, Hiranyagarbha, the Buddha, and so on'

3310 1 0 Roderick Roderick Main Main

20). For For Jung, 20). lung, none of of these these archetypal archetypal figures figures can adequately adequately express express the indefiniteness of of the the God-archetype. Hence, indefiniteness Hence, he he says: says: II have found myself myself obliged obliged to give give the the corresponding corresponding archetype archetype the the psychologicalname nameof ofthe the 'self' 'self' — term on the psychological - aa term the one one hand handdefinite definite enough to convey the essence of human human wholeness and on the enough convey the essence of wholeness and the other other hand indefinite indefinite enough to express the indescribable indescribable and indeterminable nature of of this this wholeness. wholeness. (Jung 1944b: (lung I 944b: par. 20) 20)

As mentioned mentioned in in the the previous previous section, section, lung's Jung's equation of As of the the archetype archetype of of with the God-archetype, and the self with and hence hence of ofarchetypal archetypal images images of ofthe theself self with God-images, God-images, enables enables him him to to apply to the God-image all with all the insights insights he has gleaned has gleaned from his his psychological psychological work concerning concerning images images of of the the self. self. Both kinds kinds of images images are are able able to to transform, spontaneously do transform Both transform in in the direction the direction of of more more inclusive inclusive wholeness wholeness and, and, specifically, specifically, prompt prompt an an encounter with with neglected qualities such such as as the encounter neglected qualities the shadow/evil, shadowlevil, the the anima/ animal feminine and and the instinctual/matter. The equation feminine instinctual/matter. The equation also also underpins underpins Jung's lung's ecumenical,not not to to say ecumenical, say perennialist, perennialist, viewpoint viewpoint 'that God God has hasexpressed expressed in many many languages languages and and appeared in diverse himself in diverse forms and that that all all these these statements are are ttrue' par. 18; statements rue ' ((1944b: I 944b: par. 1 8; original original emphasis). emphasis). Developments, Deve l o p m ents, criticisms, criti c i s m s , innovations innovations The secondary literature literature on Jung's lung's psychology psychology of of religion religion is is so so vast vast that that only a few and innovations can be only few notable notable developments, developments, criticisms criticisms and be menmen­ tioned here. here. Indeed, Indeed, the the connections connectionsbetween between Jung's lung'sgeneral generalpsychological psychological theory are so intimate that probably of theory and his his psychology psychology of religion religion are probably all all of the significant and modifications to the former significant challenges challenges and former have have implications implications for the latter. latter. A considerable considerable amount of of work work has has been been done donesimply simplyexpounding expounding and and clarifying Jung's ideas on religion. darifying lung's religion. Mostly M ostly this this has hasbeen beendone donefrom fromwithin wit h i l l the ranks ranks of ofpractising practising Jungians, lungians, especially especially those those of of aa primarily primarily 'classical' 'classica l' orientation, orientation, such such as as Aniela AnielaJaffe laffe(1970/1975, ( 1 970/ 1 975, 1989), 1 989), Marie-Louise M arie-Louise von VOII Franz and Edward J<'r'anz (1975) ( 1 975) and Edward Edinger Edinger(1973, ( 1 973, 1984, 1 984, 1992). 1 992). Edinger in in particular particu lar was a forthright concern forthright and andpersistent persistentchampion championofofJung's lung'sargument argument concernins' illV the transformation tra nsformation of of the the God-image God-image from from Trinity Trinity to t oquaternity, quaternity,even eVL'1I characterising cha racterising Jung's lung's contribution contributionas as'the 'thenew newdispensation' dispensation'(Edinger ( Edinger1984). I l)X4 ) Other prolific prolific advocates advocates of of Jung's lung's psychology psychology of ofreligion religion include include John Johll Dourley, Dou rley, a Catholic Catholic priest priest whose whose theology theology has hasbeen beendeeply deeplyaffected a ffected by h� Jung's approach (Dourley .l u n g ' s psychological psychological approach ( Dourley 1981, 1 98 1 , 1984, 1 984, 1995) 1 99 5 ) and and Ann Anll Il lJimmy, Jungian analyst as as well ass a professor l u n () v, aa Ju ngian analyst well a professor in i n aa graduate grad uateschool school of of religion theological seminary, seminary, who who generally ge n e ra lly presents prese n t s aa happy ha ppyblend hlelld rel i gion and a nd aa theological of 1 1)7 1 ,1997, 1 1)1)7, 1999). 1 1)99 ). of theology thL'ology and a nd Jungian J u ngianpsychology psydlOlogy(Ulanov ( L J la nov1971,

Re l igion 311 31 1 Religion

An An illuminating illuminating perspective perspective on on the the overall overall intention intention of of lung's Jung's psychology psychology of Murray Stein Stein (1985). ( 1 985). He He reviews reviews various of religion religion has has been been provided provided by Murray prevalent prevalentinterpretations interpretationsofoflung's Jung'swork workon on religion: religion:that that lung Jung was was an an empirical scientist who turned his attention to religion; a hermeneutical empirical scientist who turned his attention to religion; a hermeneutical revitalist disclose to to modern modern consciousness consciousness the the underlying underlying revitalist concerned concerned to to disclose meaning of ancient religious traditions; a doctor of souls concerned so meaning of ancient religious traditions; a doctor of souls concerned not not so much with religious traditions as with the individuals who were suffering much with religious traditions as with the individuals who were suffering because could because they they had had identified identified themselves themselveswith with religious religioustraditions traditions that that could no longer serve their psychological and spiritual needs; or a modern no longer serve their psychological and spiritual needs; or a modern man man attempting resolve the tension between between his his dual dual commitments commitments to to traditradi­ attempting to to resolve the tension tional religion and secular secular modernity modernity (Stein (Stein 1985: 1 985: 4-17). 4- 1 7). He Hesuggests, suggests, tional religion however, however, that that lung's Jung's relationship to to Christianity was more more fundamentally fundamentally aa therapeutic Stein, Jung perceived the therapeutic one. one. According According to to Stein, Jung perceived the Christianity Christianity of his time, be ailing. ailing. His H is copious copious time, especially especiallyas as represented representedby by his his father, father, to to be writings this ailing ailing writingson on Christianity Christianitycan canbe beseen seenas as an an attempt attempt to to treat this patient. patient. Specifically, Specifically,ininthe the way way lung Jung writes writes about about religion, religion, we we can can see see at at work the various various phases phases of of his his therapeutic therapeutic technique: technique: anamnesis anamnesis and his­ work the and historical ion), psychological (e.g., in in torical reconstruction reconstruction (e.g., (e.g., in in A Aion), psychological interpretation interpretation (e.g., the the Mass) Mass) and, and, most most interestingly, interestingly, use the essays essays on on the the Trinity Trinity and and the use of of the the transference (e.g., in Job'). transference and and countertransference countertransference relationship relationship (e.g., in 'Answer 'Answer to Job'). lung's psychology of religion has has attracted attracted criticism criticism at at several several levels. levels. Jung's psychology of religion Mostly, have found found problems problems with with his hisgeneral generalpsychological psychological theory, theory, Mostly, critics critics have including underlying epistemological epistemological assumptions its methodology methodology including its its underlying assumptions and and its (e.g., 1 952, 1960; 1 960; Heisig 1 979; Nagy 1 99 1 ; Palmer 1 997). Other (e.g., White White 1952, Heisig 1979; Nagy 1991; Palmer 1997). Other areas areas of understanding of of actual actual religions, religions, for for example example of concern concern have have been been Jung's Jung's understanding of Catholic doctrine doctrine (White (White 1952, 1 952, 1960) 1 960) or of Eastern Eastern traditions traditions (Clarke (Clarke of Catholic or of 11994); 994); the biases stemming stemming from from his his socio-cultural socio-cultural conditioning, conditioning, for for the biases example monotheistic emphasis Hillman 1971, 1 97 1 , 11975) 975) and his patripatri­ example his his monotheistic emphasis ((Hillman and his archal assumptions (Goldenberg (Goldenberg 1982; 1 982; Wehr Wehr 1987); 1 987); and and the thepsychological psychological archal assumptions and social motivations motivations of ofhis his approach approach(Freud (Freud1914; 1 9 14;Homans Homans1979/1995; 1 979/ 1 995; and social Noll 1 994, 1997). 1 997). Noll 1994, In Jung's lung's lifetime, lifetime, critical critical discussion discussion of of his his psychology psychology of of religion religion was was In already plentiful. During During his his last last twenty twenty years, years, when when he he was was most mostactively actively already plentiful. engaged model, Jung lung corresponded corresponded and and engaged in in refining refining and and applying applying his his mature mature model, sometimes publicly with many many theologians theologians (1939c, ( 1 939c, 1973, 1 973, 1976). 1 976). sometimes publicly debated debated with Several of ideas. Among them Several of these these subsequently subsequently wrote wrotebooks books about about lung's Jung's ideas. Among them were both Protestants Protestants (Frischknecht (Frischknecht 1945; 1 945; Schaer Schaer 1951) 1 95 1 ) and and Catholics Catholics were both (White 1952, 1 952, 1960; 1 960; Hostie 1 957; Goldbrunner 1 964). Undoubtedly the most most (White Hostie 1957; Goldbrunner 1964). Undoubtedly the important of of the the theological theological commentators commentators was was the the Dominican Dominican Father Father important who enjoyed enjoyed aa close, close, ififsometimes sometimes strained, strained, friendship friendship with with Victor White, Victor White, who between 1945 1 945 and White's death death in in 1960. 1 960. Together Together they they aspired aspired 'to 'to .lung between Jung and White's integrate the the findings findings of ofpsychology psychology into into the theecclesiastical ecclesiastical doctrine' doctrine' (Jung (lung integrate and the Unconscious Unconscious (1952) ( 1 952) and 1 971: 385). 1973: 385).White's White's two two books, books, God and and Soul and l'.I 'ycl/l' (1960), ( 1 960), the the former former with with aa foreword foreword by byJung lung(1952b), ( l 952b), evince evince aa and l'srche

3312 1 2 Roderick Rode rick Main Main

deep and sympathetic appreciation of of Jung's lung's psychology psychology of of religion religion and the the possibilities Catholic theology. theology. However, H owever, a fundamental fundamental possibilities for for relating relating itit to Catholic tension remained between and Jung's lung's tension remained between White's White's metaphysical metaphysical view view of of God and psychological view. of view. This This emerged especially especially in in discussions discussions of the problem problem of evil, misunderstand the doctrine of the the evil, where where White White considered considered lung Jung to to misunderstand the doctrine privatio boni, privatio boni, the the notion notion of the concept concept of of God God as as Summum Summum Bonum, Bonum, and and the opposites (see Charet 1990; 1 990; Cunningham Cunningham 1992; 1 992; Lammers Lammers 1994). 1 994). A similar dissatisfaction with Jung's lung's psychological psychological view view of of God God underlies underlies the lewish philosopher theologian Martin Martin Buber's Buber's criticisms criticisms of ofJung. lung. the Jewish philosopher and theologian Buber charged denying the the validity validity of offaith, faith, and and charged lung Jung with being a Gnostic, denying preaching religion of of pure pure psychic psychic immanence' immanence' (1953: ( 1 95 3 : 83-84). 8 3-84) . Jung's lung's preaching 'the religion (( 1I952c) defend his approach approach had had little little 952c)attempts attemptstotorebut rebut the the charge charge and and defend effect. this debate, debate, Whitmont Whitmont(1973) ( 1 973) argues argues effect. Among Among later later commentators on this Buber and and Jung lung were were largely largely talking talking at at cross-purposes, cross-purposes, and andhe hesuggests suggests that Buber that present present Jungians lungians might might avoid avoid repeating repeating such such misunderstandings misunderstandings by by explicitly psychological insights religion in in terms terms explicitly formulating formulating their their psychological insights into religion 'symbolic perception', perception', acknowledging acknowledging both the the non-psychic non-psychic referent referent of of of 'symbolic religious such statements statements unavoidably unavoidably involve involve the the religious statements statements and and that such psyche (Whitmont psyche (Whitmont 1973). 1 973). An especially especially thorough, balanced account account of ofthe thedevelopdevelop­ thorough, thoughtful and balanced been ment of Jung's .lung's thinking think ing specifically specifically about about the the God-image God-image has has been ment of provided by Heisig Heisig (1979: ( 1 979: 17-100). 1 7- 1 00). Based Based on this this account, account,Heisig Heisigincisively incisively evaluates and criticises criticises the of Jung's lung's writings writings the style, style, methodology methodology and theory of on religion religion (1979: ( 1 979: 103-145). 1 03 - 1 45). He notes notes that that Jung's lung'sdeliberately deliberately ambiguous ambiguous style serves 'the preservation preservation of ofthe therichness richnessof ofthe thepsyche psyche serves aa double double purpose: 'the and the the signaling signaling of of an an intellectual intellectual task task that thatremains remainsever everhalf-done' half-done'(1979: ( 1 97lJ: 1109). (9 ) . However, of 'objective 'objective amplification' amplification' (gathering ( gathering pripri­ However, lung's Jung's method method of m a ry data, searching for in the the light light of of mary data, searching for parallels, parallels, and and interpreting interpreting the the data data in tthe he parallels) parallels) fails its aspiration aspiration to be be scientific, scientific, though though it it may may he he fails in in its ttherapeutically herapeutically effective effective ((1979: 1 979: 1140-142). 40- 1 42). Heisig all the the Heisig details details how almost all cen t ra l tenets of of Jung's lung's theory theory are areboth bothempirically empiricallyand andlogically logicallyquestionquestion­ central aable. ble . .lung's notion of ofimages images is is ambiguous; ambiguous; he he fails fails to todistinguish distinguishbetween between Jung's notion tthe he origin orig i n and function function of of projection; projection; his his arguments arguments in support of of the t h l' in support hhypothesis ypot hesis of the collective collective unconscious unconscious do adequately eliminate eliminate the t il l' do not adequately of archetypes archelype� 10ssi hi l i t ies of of cryptomnesia cryptomnesia and and telepathy; telepathy; and his treatment of Jpossibilities con tla tes their functions as as logical logical universals, universals, epistemic epistemic preconditions preconditions and a nd conflates 1 979: 1130-139). 30- 1 39). Nevertheless, 10 gaingain­ hermeneutic hermeneutic principles principles ((1979: Nevertheless, not wishing to say t he 'brilliance 'brilliance and and wide-ranging wide-ranging appeal' lung's theory, theory, H e i s i ).' say the appeal' of of Jung's Heisig suggests it should should be be viewed viewed as as 'a 'a metaphorical metaphorical model, model, subject subject to to the t he suggests that that it I.canons ' anons of aa hermeneutical hermeneutical critique critique but but not nottotothe theverification verificationprocedures p roced u rl'� rl'q u i red of of a theory theory in in the thenatural naturalsciences' sciences'(1979: ( 1 979:144). 1 44 ) . required This is a more open and posi tive conclusion t h a t he one onereached re a e hed by hv This is more open and positive conclusion thann the ' M ichael Palmer ( 1 997) i n his l ucid ex posi t ion and cri t i q u e of (-'reud s and Michael Palmer (1997) in his lucid exposition and critique of Freud's and J u nl(S theories I'l'a h l \∎ o f religion. re l i g i o l l . Palmer Pa l m l.' r finds l i n d s Jung's .I u llg'sdefinition dcli ll i t i o l lof o rpsychic .Jung's t heo ril.' s of p SYl' h il'realif

Religion 313 Religion 313

tautological, becomes impossible o think of o f an an experience experience that that is is tautological, since since iitt becomes impossibletto not psychic psychic ((1997: 1 997: 1169-170). 69- 1 70). He He questions questionslung's Jung's appeals appeals to to the the consensus consensus gentium as evidence for God-archetype on double grounds grounds that that gentium as evidence for the the God-archetype on the double does not not imply innateness and, in any case, there is no universal universality does consensus exists, atheism atheism having having existed existed even even within within traditional traditional consensus that that God exists, cultures some forms forms of ofHinduism Hinduism (1997: ( 1 997: 181-184). 1 8 1 - 1 84). cultures such such as Buddhism and some Palmer approach vulnerable vulnerable to tothe thecharge chargeof ofsubjectivism, subjectivism, Palmer considers considers lung's Jung's approach since provides no no objective objective means means for for deciding deciding whether whether something something isis since itit provides psychically 1 997: 1191-192). 9 1 - 1 92) . He psychically effective effectiveoror archetypal archetypal ((1997: He suggests suggests that that the parallel constitutes Jung's lung's chief chief evidence evidence for for archetypes archetypes is is parallel imagery imagery that constitutes equally better explained explained by by other other theories, theories, including including alternative alternative equally well well or or better psychoanalytic inferences about realm outout­ psychoanalytic theories, theories, which which do do not make inferences about a realm side possible experience experience ((1997: 1 997: 176-180). 1 76- 1 80). He questions whether, whether, in in side our possible He questions lung's of individuation, individuation, aa religious religious outlook outlook really really isisnecesneces­ Jung's understanding of sary fulfilment of the self self (1997: ( 1 997 : 192). 1 92). He sary for the fulfilment He notes notes the the impossibility impossibility of recognising of recognising genuine genuine revelation, revelation, ifif all all that that is is revealed revealed must must take take the form of structures already latent latent in in the the psyche psyche (1997: ( 1 997: 191). 1 9 1 ). In the end, Palmer Palmer agrees agrees with Buber that that Jung lung fails fails to to deal deal effectively effectively with the charge that with White and Buber he psychologising God. he is is psychologising God. lung's Jung's theory has so of God's God'simmanence immanenceas asan anexclusively exclusively psychic psychic so radicalized radicalized the notion of reality questionable whether whether anything anything has has been been left left reality that that it becomes . . .. questionable of God at at all, all, and and thus thus whether whetheranything anythingdistinctive distinctive is is meant meant when when we we speak of religion. religion. speak of (Palmer 1 997: 196) 1 96) (Palmer 1997: lung's on religion religion has has also alsobeen beencriticised, criticised, most most conspicuously conspicuously by by Jung's work on Richard Noll ( 1 994, 1 997), for its perceived covert aspiration to make Richard Noll (1994, 1997), for perceived covert aspiration make analytical new form form of ofreligion. religion. Specifically, Specifically, Noll Noll analytical psychology psychology itself itself into into a new charges that lung secretly but deliberately established analytical psychology charges that Jung secretly but deliberately as religious cult, cult, with with its its own ownjealously jealously guarded guarded initiation initiation structure structure as aa religious ((1994: 1 994: 2291-292) 9 1 -292) and lung himself himself as the the paradigmatically paradigmatically enlightened enlightened and with Jung cult leader or 'exemplary 'exemplary prophet' ( 1 994: 284). forum organised organised to to cult leader prophet' (1994: 284). In In a forum reconsider whether analytical analytical psychology psychology is a religion, religion, the the reconsider the the question of whether three - the ( 1 999), the three participants participants — the psychiatrist psychiatrist Anthony Anthony Storr Storr (1999), the scholar scholar of religion ( 1 999a, 1999b), 1 999b), and historian of ofpsychology psychology Sonu Sonu religion Robert Robert Segal (1999a, and the historian Shamdasani 1 999) -—all H owever, Shamdasani, Shamdasani, Shamdasani ((1999) allconcluded concludedthat that itit is is not. However, who who elsewhere elsewhere thoroughly thoroughly discredits discredits Noll's Noll's central central argument (Shamdasani 11998), 998), draws of his his psychology psychology as 'religion in drawsattention attention to to lung's Jung's description of in of being being born]' born]' (1999). ( 1 999). statu nascendi nascendi [in [in aa state of Interestingly, innovation of lung's psypsy­ Interestingly,some someof ofthe the major major attempts attempts at at innovation of Jung's chology but actually actually celebrated celebrated its status status chology of of religion religion have have not not just just conceded but as religion. James lames Hillman, H illman, for for example, example, has has argued argued that that the thereligious religious as a religion. ddimension i me nsi o n of na l y t i c a l or, or, as as he he prefers, prefers, archetypal archetypal psychology psychology is is so so ofaanalytical

Roderick Main 3314 1 4 Roderick Main



fundamental that that we we should should speak speak not not of a psychology fundamental psychology of religion religion but of aa 'religion 'religion of of psychology'. psychology' . 'Psychology 'Psychology as religion,' religion,' he he writes, writes, 'implies 'implies imagining all all psychological psychologicalevents eventsasaseffects effectsof ofGods Gods in in the the soul, imagining soul, and all all activitiesto to do do with with soul, soul, such such as as therapy, activities therapy, to be be operations operations of of ritual ritual in in relation to these Gods' (Hillman 227). As As his his use use of of the the plural plural 'Gods' 'Gods' relation ( H illman 1975: 1 975: 227). suggests, Hillman Hillman ((1971, has also also presented suggests, 1 97 1 , 11975) 975) has presented a radical radical challenge challenge to to conception of the God-image. JJung's ung's monotheistic monotheistic conception God-image. Arguing that that the the charchar­ acter of Jung's Jung's central central psychological psychological concept concept of ofthe theself selfnarrowly narrowlyreflects reflects his his Western, Christian, Christian, Protestant Protestant background, background, Hillman Hillman proposes proposes a model of Western, the psyche the psyche without aa single single dominant dominant centre centre — - a 'polytheistic' 'polytheistic' model model (cf. (cf. Miller 11974). Miller 974). In spite of of Jung's Jung'stheologically theologically radical radical suggestion suggestion that that the thefeminine feminine In spite should be be included in the should included in the God-image, God-image, his his theory theory has has been been assailed assailed by by feminist critics, critics, even even ones ones who are feminist are otherwise otherwise relatively relatively sympathetic sympathetic to to analytical psychology, for perpetuating analytical psychology, for perpetuating aa decidedly decidedly androcentric androcentric underunder­ standing of the the feminine feminine (see, (see, e.g., Goldenberg Goldenberg 1982). 1 982). Demaris Wehr has has therefore invoked insights from feminist theology, therefore invoked insights from feminist theology, with with its its sensitivity sensitivity to to how images of the the feminine feminine have have been been patriarchally patriarchally inscribed, in an attempt how images to to make make Jung's Jung's psychology psychology more acceptable acceptable to and and liberating liberating for forwomen women ( Wehr 11987; cf.UUlanov In doing doing so, so, she she embraces embraces B Buber's (Wehr 987; cf. lanov 11971). 97 1 ). In uber's claim that .lJung's ung's psychology psychology is is aa religion religion of ofpsychic psychic immanence immanence (Wehr (Wehr1987: 1 987: 78-79, 78-79, J ung's (5). Among theologians, theologians, Buber Buber (1953: ( 1 95 3 : 119) 1 1 9) himself himself considered considered Jung's 95). feminine in God-image to be be aa Gnostic Gnostic formulation, formulation, iinclusion n c l usion of of the the feminine in the God-image and Christian theologians theologians have have also also generally generally been suspicious of it as as and Christian been suspicious of it n b i bl ical and pagan (see (see Heisig Heisig 1973: 1 973: 119-120). 1 1 9- 1 20). White, at least least initially, initially, u unhiblical a ccep ted that the the opposites opposites of ofmasculine masculine and and feminine feminine were were both both contained contained accepted in as the the archetype archetype of human wholeness, but he baulked at equating i ll the self as wholeness, but th is archetype with God or or with with the theGod-image God-image(see (seeLammers Lammers1994: 1 994: 220 220 this 22 I ) . M ostly, however, theologians seem to have have been been less less preoccupied with with 221). Mostly, .IJung's u n�·s inclusion inclusion of of the feminine in the God-image than with his inclusion of evil evil ((see see Lammers 1994: 1 994: 2215-226; 1 5-226; Heisig 1973: 1 973: 2219-221). 1 9-22 1 ). Howard H oward Philp Philpisis IIamong l110llg those who have have questioned questioned whether, whether, if both evil evil and and the thefeminine feminine are a re to to he be added added to to the the Trinity, Trinity, Jung Jung should should not not speak speak of ofaaquinary q uinaryrather rather tthan h a n aa quaternity q uaternity (see (see Jung J ung 1944-1957: 1 944- 1 957: par. par.1601). 1 60 1 ) . The view view that that Jung's J ung's psychology psychology of of religion religion reduces reduces religion religion to to psypsy­ The chology, cllO lo�y whether this this is is conceived as a positive or aa negative negative thing, thing, has has been been d w ll en ged by Aziz in a study study of of Jung's Jung's late late theory theory of ofsynchronicity synchronicity challenged by Robert Aziz cvc nts (Jung b, 1952d; Aziz 1990; ( .I l1 n � 1951 1 95 1 b, 1 9 52d; Aziz 1 990; see also Main M ain 2004). 2004). Synchronistic Synchronisticevents i n d i cat e that that meanings meanings experienced experienced psychically psychically can also also non-projectively non-projectively be hc indicate l'x peril'nced outwardly. ung's best-known best-known example, example, the appearance a p pea rance and and experienced outwardly. In In JJung's beh a v i o u r of a real real scarab scarab beetle beetle at at Jung's Jung'sconsulting consulting room roOI11window wi ndowjust j llst behaviour wlll' n his h i s patient pa t ie n t was was recounting recount i ng a dream dream in in which w h i c h she she had h a d been beengiven given aa when costly l'ost l y je we l in the form form of of aa scarab sca rahdemonstrated demonst ra t ed that t ha tthe t hearchetypal a rchet y p a l jewel in the meaning 1 Ill'l I n i l l g expressing e x pressi n g iitself l se l f iin n Ithe I ll'
.

RReligion e l igi o n 315 315

but involve the external, external, natural world world (Jung (Jung 1952d: 1 952d: pars. 843, 843, but also could involve 845). reason to suppose suppose that that the the archetypal archetypal 845). Neither, Neither,then, then, isis there there any any reason meaning is only internal internal and subsub­ meaning expressed expressedininaa person's person's image image of of God God is jective. meaning too could could express express itself outwardly, jective. That That meaning outwardly, neither caused by nor an individual individual psyche psyche (Aziz (Aziz 1990: 1 990: 179-180). 1 79- 1 80). nor projected projected from an C urrent status status and and likely l i ke l y future future developments developm ents Current

Jung's of religion continues to engage engage actively actively with many of of the the Jung's psychology of areas issues mentioned importance in the the areas and and issues mentioned above. above. Areas Areas of particular importance near include the ongoing challenges challenges from gender studies near future are likely to include ((Meckel Meckel 1990; 1 990; Capps 1 997; Tacey 1997c; 1 997c; Rowland 2002), 2002), postmodernism Capps 1997; ((Hauke Hauke 2000) 2000) and m u lticulturalism (Adams (Adams 1996); 1 996); increasing to and multiculturalism increasing attention attention to interfaith the relationship relationship between between religion religion and and science science (Main ( Main interfaith dialogue and the 2004: 1 - 1 43); and burgeoning of of both both religious religious fundamentalism fundamentalism (R. (R. 2004: 991-143); and the burgeoning Brooke and Williams Williams 2002; 2002; Beebe Beebe 2003) 2003) and and alternative alternative Brooke 2000; 2000; Zoja Zoja and spirituality 200 1 ; Main 2004: 2004: 144-174). 1 44- 1 74). spirituality (Tacey 2001; Analytical psychology will will undoubtedly continue to to engage engage with with the the major major undoubtedly continue traditional religions, religions, both both Western Western(Ryce-Menuhin (Ryce-Menuhin1994; 1 994; Spiegelman Spiegelman 1994) 1 994) and Eastern (Coward 1 985; Meckel and Moore 1 992; Clarke 1 994; Ritsema and Eastern (Coward 1985; Meckel and Moore 1992; Clarke 1994; Ritsema and Karcher 1994). 1 994). Advances Advances in in religious religious studies studies since since the the mid-1960s mid- 1 960s have have and Karcher made available a much richer and more sophisticated understanding of these made available a much richer and more sophisticated understanding of these traditions ( for an an overview overview with with bibliographies, bibliographies, see see Hinnells Hinnells 1998), 1 998), so so that that traditions (for almost of Jung's J ung's specific specific analyses analyses could benefit from Parti­ almost all all of could benefit from updating. updating. Particularly interesting developments occur as as analytical analytical psychology psychology cularly interesting developments could could occur becomes traditional religions religions in in becomes more more widely widely international international and and encounters traditional other their familiar familiar European European and and North N orth American American contexts. contexts. For For other than their example, seems to to be be experiencing experiencing aa period period example, analytical analytical psychology currently seems of Latin America America (Kirsch (Kirsch 2000: 2000: 194-201). 1 94-20 1 ). This may result result in in of rapid rapid growth in Latin some American Christianity, Christianity, which which not not some productive productive interactions interactions with with Latin American only than Christianity Christianity anywhere anywhere else else in the the world world only numbers numbers more more adherents than but also in in some somecases casesisisalready alreadyinterestingly interestinglymingled mingled with withindigenous indigenous but also religious 1 997: 88-89). religious traditions traditions (Walls 1997: 88-89). There There could also be some interesting interesting engagements Orthodox Christianity Christianity— - aa tradition tradition surprisingly surprisingly engagements with with Eastern Eastern Orthodox neglected (Papadopoulos 2002). 2002). neglected by by Jung Jung (Papadopoulos The relationship between between religion religion and science remains topical subject subject The relationship and science remains aa topical within studies and the the history history of ofscience science (Barbour (Barbour 1998; 1 998; within theology, religious studies Segal 999c; JJ. . Brooke 1 998). It It was was also also aa lifelong lifelong concern concern for for Segal 11999c; Brooke and and Cantor Cantor 1998). JJung ung and and played played aasignificant significant role role ininshaping shapinghis hispsychological psychologicaltheories theories ((Main Main 2004). 2004). Contemporary Contemporary work work on on analytical analytical psychology psychology continues continues to to explore relationship, together together with with its its extension extension in in the therelationship relationship explore the the relationship, between and secularity, secularity, both bothcontextually contextually(Homans ( Homans1979/1995; 1 9791 1 995; between religion religion and Main 2004: 2004: 65 - 1 1 4) and and theoretically theoretically (Mansfield ( Mansfield 1995). 1 995). Precisely Precisely because because 65-114) a n a l y t ical psychology psychology is of tensions tensions between between the the claims claims of analytical is largely largely aa product product of of

3316 1 6 Roderick RoderickMain Main

Religion 317 Religion 317

religion and and science, it arguably religion science, it arguably embeds embeds important insights insights about about both both domains, as well well as about about how how they they may may productively productively coexist coexist and and interact interact ((Main Main 2003). 2003). One area that has has so so far farnot notbeen beenvery veryfully fullyaddressed addressed by byanalytical analytical One area psychology religious fundamentalism, interest are are psychology isis religious fundamentalism,though though signs signs of interest heginning appear (R. (R. Brooke Brooke 2000; 2000; Zoja Zojaand andWilliams Williams2002; 2002;Beebe Beebe beginning to to appear 2(03). and subsequent subsequent analytical analytical 2003). The The neglect neglect probably probably stems stems from from Jung's and psychologists' prioritising experiential dimension dimension of religion over its psychologists' prioritising of the experiential social dimensions. However, However, religious fundamentalism is is social and organisational dimensions. such influential social phenomenon that that aaculturally culturallyengaged engagedanalytical analytical such an influential psychology ignore it. it. Moreover, Moreover, because becauseanalytical analytical psychology can can scarcely scarcely afford afford to ignore psychology psychological orientations that that seriously seriously psychology is is one one of the few few depth depth psychological advocates a religious attitude, it it may may usefully usefully have readier access than other psychological approaches world of ofreligious religious fundamentalists fundamentalists psychological approaches to to the thought world ((Main Main 2003). 2003). There understandably has more work on on the therelationship relationship There understandably has been been much much more hetween of contemporary contemporary alternaalterna­ between analytical analytical psychology psychology and and various forms of ttive ive spirituality, for these generally and generally share share Jung's experiential orientation and freq uently have directly influenced influenced by thought. The The relarela­ frequently have been been directly by Jungian Jungian thought. tionship New Age Age spirituality spirituality is is particularly particularly complex complex and and ambivalent. ambivalent. tionship to New On the the one one hand, hand, there therehas hasbeen beenan aneager eagerassociation associationbetween betweenanalytical analytical psychology United States. States. For the the psychologyand and the the New New Age, Age, especially especiallyinin the the United ttremendous remendous popularity popularity of ofNew New Age Age ideas ideas seems seems to to provide provide Jungian Jungianthought thought with visible social significance, significance, while respectability of of with while the the greater greater cultural respectability Jungian thought thought seems seems to to provide provideNew New Age Age ideas ideas with with intellectual intellectual endorseendorse­ has ment ( R . Brooke Brooke 1997: 1 997: 286). hand, analytical analytical psychology psychology has ment (R. 286). On On the the other hand, shown considerable hostility New Age Age Movement, M ovement, with with frefre­ shown considerable hostility towards towards the New qquent ue n t accusations accusations of ofsuperficiality superficiality and and commercialism commercialism (see, (see, e.g., e.g., YoungYoung­ Eisendrath Miller 2000: 2000: 2, 4, 147, 1 47, 176). 1 76). A A richer richer and and more morebalanced balanced Fisendrath and Miller relationship emerge as in-depth studies studies begin to to appear appear(Tacey (Tacey 1999, 1 999, relationship may emerge 200 I; M a i n 2002, 2004: 2004: 144-174). 1 44- 1 74). 2001; Main JJungian ungian thought thought has has also also been been related related to to other other forms forms of ofnon-institutional, non-institutiona l . detra d itionalised and and implicit implicit spirituality. spirituality.Bani BaniShorter Shorter(1996) ( 1 996)has hasexamined examined detraditionalised socially how the psychological psychological experience personal as as well well as associally how the experience of of ritual, ritual, personal promote perception perception of the the sacred. sacred . Ann Ann Casement Casement has ha� sanct ioned , can sanctioned, can promote idcnt i licd 'the common thread' running running through through her heredited edited collection collection of 01 identified the common post-J ungian essays, none of which is explicitly about religion, as 'a concerti post-Jungian essays, none of which is about religion, as 'a concerti wi cxperiences and theorization of ofthem' thcm'(Casement (CaSeJ1ll'lll u m i n ou s experiences and the Jungian theorization witt hh nnuminous I1998: llllX: II II ).). Andrew Samuels has attempted to distinguish a whole range of 01 Andrew Samuels has attempted to distinguish a whole range spi r it u al i t ie s 'social spirituality, dcmocratic sp iritu a lit y craft spi ri t ua l i l V spirit ualities 'social spirituality, democratic spirituality, craft spirituality, profa ne spi ri t ua l i t y and spiri t ua l soc i a li ty ' t h a t could help con ncct spi n l ll profane spirituality and spiritual sociality' that could help connect spirit ti "ality, I i t y , psychotherapy, psychot hcrapy, and and politics polit ics (Samuels ( Salll lll'is 2001: 200 1 : 122 I n 134). 1 34 ) . Polly Pol ly Young YOlllIV bscndra t h and a nd Melvin M l'ivin Miller M i ller (2000) ( 20( )O ) have have edited l'd ill'd aa set set of of essays essays that a l ll'llIpl Fisendrath that attenipi Ito I I articulate arl kula k ita form 1 '01'1 1 1of 0 1 'inatine' " 1 1 1 0 1 1 1111"orI 'skeptical' l l' 'skl'pl ll'u l ' spiri t ua l 111;11 i l Y t ilat places pl:Il'l'sneillict IIcil lwl spirituality ,

,

gods (as (as in in theism) gods theism) nor humankind humankind (as (as in humanism) humanism) at the centre centre of of the the universe. to the the book bookwrite write from froman anexplicitly explicitly universe. About About half the contributors to Jungian perspective. The emphasis emphasis on experience in Jung's psychology Jungian perspective. The experience in psychology of religion relation­ religion is is also also largely largely responsible responsible for for the the continued continued interest interest in its relationship mysticism (Schlamm (Schlamm 2000), 2000), transpersonal transpersonal psychology psychology (Schlamm (Schlamm ship to mysticism 200 1 ) and (Sandner and and Wong Wong1997; 1 997; Smith Smith1997). 1 997). 2001) and shamanism (Sandner That psychology of religion religion can remain remain in in productive productive dialogue dialogue That Jung's psychology with spirituality is is testimony to to how how with such such a variety of forms of religion and spirituality deeply insightfully it has has penetrated penetrated into intothis thisperennially perenniallysignificant significant deeply and and insightfully area of human human experience. experience. Precisely how the dialogues continue continue will will depend depend on developments within fields of both religion religion and and analytical analytical psypsy­ on developments within the the fields of both chology. field is likely likely to remain remain static. static. chology. Neither Neither field Reference s References

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(1917/1950) ( 1 9 1 71 1 950) The Ho�v, trans. Harvey. Oxford: Oxford: Oxford Oxford Otto, R. The Idea Idea 0/ of the the Holy, trans. J. Harvey. U niversity Press. University Palmer, M. (1997) ( 1 997) Freud on Religion. Religion . London and New New York: Routledge. Palmer, M. Freud and and Jung Jung on Papadopoulos, (2002) The when the the exotic exotic other other subjugates subjugates the the Papadopoulos, R. R. (2002) 'The other other: when familiar of Analytical Analytical Psychology, Psychology, 47: 1 63 - 1 88 . familiar other'. other'. Journal Journal of 47: 163-188. Ritsema, Karcher, S. (trans.) (trans.) ((1994) 1 994) II Ching: Ritsema, R. R. and Karcher, Ching: The The Classic Classic Chinese Chinese Oracle Oracle of of Change. Change. Shaftesbury: Shaftesbury: Element. Rowland, S. (2002) (2002) Jung: A Feminist Feminist Revision. Revision. Cambridge: Polity. Rowland, S. Jung: A Cambridge: Polity. Ryce-Menuhin, (ed . ) (1994) ( 1 994) Jung the Monotheisms: Monotheisms: Judaism, Christianity and Ryce-Menuhin, J. J. (ed.) Jung and and the Judaism, Christianity and /.1' /11/11. London New York: York: Routledge. Routledge. London and New Islam. SamLlcls, I ) Politics Couch: Citizenship Citi::enship and e. London: Samuels, A. A. (200 (2001) Politics on on the the Couch: and the the Internal Internal Lif Life. London: Profilc. Profile. Sand ner, D. nd Wong, Wong, S. S. (eds) (eds) (1997) ( 1 997) The Heritage: The The Influence Influence of Sandner, D. aand The Sacred Sacred Heritage: of S/IIIIIIlI/li.\'/II Al1l1ll'1ical Psychology. Psychology. London New York: York : Routledge. Routledge. Shamanism (1/1 on Analytical London and New



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Schaer, H H.. (1951) Schaer, ( 1 9 5 1 ) Religion Cure o f Souls Souls in in Jung's Jung's Psychology. Psychology. London: Religion and and the the Cure of Routledge and Kegan Paul. Routledge Schlamm, L. (1994) ( 1 994) The meeting-point between between analytical analytical psychology psychology and and Schlamm, L. 'The holy: a meeting-point religion', l. Ryce-Menuhin and the theMonotheisms: Monotheisms: Judaism, .Judaism, religion', in in J. Ryce-Menuhin (ed.) (ed.) Jung Jung and Christianity New York: York: Routledge. Routledge. Christianity and and Islam. Islam. London London and New -- (2000) mystical experience experience and inflation'. Harvest: (2000) 'e.G. `C.G. lung, Jung, mystical and inflation'. Harvest: Journal Journal fiJI' for Jungian Studies, 46(2): Jungian 1 08- 1 28 . 46(2): 108-128. (200 1 ) 'Ken Wilber's Wilber's spectrum spectrum model: model: identifying identifying alternative alternative soteriological soteriological — (2001) perspectives'. 1 ( 1 ) : 19-39. 1 9-39. perspectives'. Religion, Religion, 331(1): Segal, ( I 999a) 'Comments Storr's and Shamdasani's Shamdasani's articles'. articles'. Journal Segal, R R.. (1999a) 'Comments on on Storr's Journal oj of Analytical Psychology, 44(4): 6 1 -562, Analytical Psychology, 44(4): 5561-562. ((1999b) l 999b) 'Rationalist romantic approaches approaches to religion religion and and modernity'. modernity'. 'Rationalist and and romantic .fournal ofAnalytical A nalytical Psychology, Psychology, 44(4): Journal of 44(4): 547-560. ( l 999c) Theorizing MA: University University of of Massachusetts Massachusetts - (1999c) Theorizingabout about Myth. Myth. Amherst, Amherst, MA: Press. Shamdasani, S. (1995) ( 1 995) 'Memories, ofArchetype A rchetype 'Memories, dreams, omissions'. Spring: Spring: .fournal Journal of and Culture, Culture, 57: 1 1 5- 1 37, and 57: 115-137. ((1998) 1 998) Cult Fictions: C.G. e. G. Jung Jung and andthe theFounding Foundingof ofAnalytical AnalyticalPsychology. Psychology. Cult Fictions: London and New New York: York: Routledge. Routledge. ((1999) 1 999) 'In statu nascendi'. nascendi'. Journal Journalof ofAnalytical Analytical Psychology, Psychology, 44(4): 'In statu 44(4): 539-546. Shorter, B. B . (1996) ( 1 996) Susceptible the Sacred: Sacred: The The Psychological PsychologicalExperience Experience of ofRitual. Ritual. Susceptible to to the London and New New York: York: Routledge. Routledge. London Smith, M. (1997) ( 1 997) Jung and Shamanism Shamanism in inDialogue: Dialogue: Retrieving Retrievingthe theSoullRetrieving Soul/Retrieving Smith, M. Jung and the New York: Paulist Press. Press. the Sacred. Sacred. New Spiegelman, . M . (1994) ( 1 994) Catholicism Psychology. Las Vegas, AZ: New New Spiegelman, lJ.M. Catholicism and and Jungian Jungian Psychology. Fakon. Falcon. S t e i n , M. M. (1985) ( 1 985) .fung's Treatment of ofChristianity.. Christianity: The The Psychology Psychology of of aa Religious Religiolls Stein, Jung's Treatment Tradition. L : Chiron. Tradition. Wilmette, Wilmette, IIL: Sto rr, A. (1999) ( 1 999) 'lung's ofAnalytical AnalytiCli/ Storr, 'Jung's search search for a substitute for a lost faith'. Journal Journal of Psy(,hology, 44(4): 5531-538. 3 1 -538. Psychology, 44(4): Tacey, ( 1 997a) 'lung the academy: academy: devotions devotions and resistances'. resistances' . .fourna/ ill 'I'acey, D. D. (1997a) 'Jung in in the Journal o/ A flafvtical Psychology, P,lychology, 42(2): Analytical 42(2): 269-283. (( 1I9l)7b) of Analytical Analytical Psychology, Psychology, 42(2): 1 3- 3 1 (, 997b)'Reply 'Replyto to responses'. responses'. Journal Journal of 42(2): 3313-316. (( 1I9l)7c) Spirituality and and Social Social Change. Change. London and and New New 997c) Remaking Remaking Men: Men: .Jung, Jung, Spirituality Y o r k : Routledge. Routledge. York: (( 11999) 999) 'Why (ed . ) Therapy III/ 'Whylung Jungwould would doubt doubt the New Age', in S. Greenberg (ed.) Therapy on thl' ( 'ou('h: A A Shrinking Shrinking Future. Press. the ('ouch: Future. London: Camden Press. ((2001) 200 1 ) .fung the New New Age. Age. Hove, and Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA: PA: Brunner Brunner Jung and and the Hove, UK and R o u t led ge. Routledge. Ta m h i a h , S. ( 1 990) Magic, Scope of 0/ Rationaliir Ratiol/o/it l ' Tambiah, S. (1990) Magic, Science, Science, Religion, Religion,and and the the Scope (Cambridge: am hrid ge: Cambridge University University Press. Press. II J1lalanov, n ov, A. 1 97 1 ) The Psychology and and in in Christian Christiall Theology Thl 'lI/lIgl ' A. ((1971) The Feminine Feminine in in Jungian Jungian Psychology II': Niztnston, v a n s t o n , I L: n iversity Press. Press. 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London: Hodder and von Franz, C.G. Jung: His His Myth Myth in our Time. von Franz, M.-L. M .-L. (1975) ( 1 975) e. G. Jung: Time. London: Stoughton. A New New Handbook Handbook of Hinnells (ed.) (ed.) (1998) ( 1 998) A of Living Walls, 1 997) 'Christianity', Walls, A. A. ((1997) 'Christianity', in J. Hinnells Religions. Penguin. Religions. London: Penguin. Wehr, ( 1 987) Jung and Feminism: Feminism: Liberating Liberating Archetypes. Archetypes. Boston, A : Beacon. Wehr, D. (1987) Jung and Boston, M MA: White, 1 952) God Unconscious. London: Collins. Collins. White, V. V. ((1952) God and and the the Unconscious. ( 1 960) Soul Psyche: An An Enquiry Enquiry into into the the Relationship Relationship of ofPsychotherapy Psychotherapy and and (1960) Soul and and Psyche: Religion. Collins. Religion. London: Collins. Whitmont, 1 973) 'Prefatory ' . Spring: An Whitmont, E. E. ((1973) 'Prefatoryremarks remarkstotolung's Jung's "Reply "Reply to to Buber'' Buber"'. Spring: An Annual rchetypal Psychology Thought: 1188-195. 88- 1 95. Annual of of A Archetypal Psychology and and Jungian Jungian Thought: Young-Eisendrath, iller, M (eds) (2000) (2000) The Mature Young-Eisendrath,P.P.and and M Miller, M.. (eds) The Psychology Psychology of of Mature Spirituality: Integrity, Wisdom, Wisdom, Transcendence. Transcendence. London Philadelphia, PA: PA: Spirituality: Integrity, London and Philadelphia, Routledge Routledge.. Zoja, and Williams, Williams, D. D. (2002) (2002) Jungian Reflections on 1: A A Global Global Jungian Reflections on September September 111: Zoja, L. and Nightmare. Nightmare. Einsiedeln, Einsiedeln, Switzerland: Switzerland: Daimon. --

Chapter 14 Chapter 14

The 325 Thearts arts 325

The arts arts Christian Gaillard Christian Translated from from the the French by Laura Laura Winn Translated French by

One can can only make poetry One with the anti-poetic; with anti-poetic; one can can only make music one with the anti-musical. with (Charles Ferdinand Ferdinand Ramuz to (Charles to Igor IgorStravinsky) Stravinsky)

THE T H E ARTS: SECTION S E C T I O N ONE ONE in the the This chapter was This chapter was assigned assignedby by the the editor editor ooff this this Handbook Handbook to to be in ''Applications' A pplications' part of of Jungian Jungian psychology. psychology. I would like like to claim claim from from the the start that Jung's relationship relationship to the arts is is not in in fact fact an 'application' 'application' of of his his analytical relationship was was for for Jung, Jung, and and analytical psychology. psychology. On On the contrary, this relationship is ttoday o d ay for us, us, aa propitious propitious occasion occasion to to question, question, stimulate stimulate and and renew renew his his is tthought hought at each each stage stage of of its its development, development, and and is is thus thus one oneof ofthe theessential essential to fou ndations of of his his clinical clinical practice foundations practice and his conception of the relationship to he unconscious. unconscious. tthe hlllowing the evolution of Jung's relationship relationship to the the arts arb Following the history history and and evolution nH.'a ns rereading rereading his through the the dynamic dynamic of ofits itsdevelopment development as as means his work work through iinspired n s p i red by most intimate intimate provocations provocations he he felt felt right right from frolll by the nurture and most his childhood experiences. experiences. This This implies implies revisiting revisiting his his successive successive and a nd h i s first l i rst childhood onl'n unexpected encounters that marked marked each each step s t ep of of' often unexpected encounters with with the the works works of art that his life l i fe and a nd his his own own work, work, and and that that made made him him keep keep his hisdistance distance from frolll his "" l' u d i an psychoanalysis. psychoanalysis. Thus Thus we we can can discover discover and anddevelop developprogressively, progressivcl y . Freudian a t the at I h l' rhythm r hyt h m of ofhis his work work on o nthe thecultural culturaldiversity diversitythat thatprecedes precedes or orstir sur m u n d s us, LIS, his h i s own own position posi t i o n on o ndecisive decisive questions q u est i o n s such s u c h as assexuality, sexuality, incest. i l1l'L·SI . rounds d i n ica l transference t ra n s IC re nce and and countcrtransference. countertransference. And we we will will he be retracing r e t rac i nl,! I hl' clinical or the t h e ups lipS and and downs dow l l s Ill'rso n a l deba tes .IJung unl,! enl,!aged personal debates engagedwith withthe theprogress progress or a n d setbacks set backs ofocontemporary f con l l' l l l pma rycreation, crea t i o n ,while whilehe hesought, so u g h t , at a tfirst f i rst through t h ro u g h and '

1 0 recognise rccog n i se his h i s own own place p l ; ln' I na l and a n d error, crro r, then t hcn with w i l h increasing i l llTl'a s i n l,!confidence, confidencc, to trial a n d to 10 shoulder s h o u ldl'l' his h i s own O W I I responsibilities I l sp" l l s i h i l i l il's in in the I hc heritage h c r i l a l,!c and a l l d destiny dcsl i n y of ( I f out (llll and civilisation l'i v i l i sa l i o n and a nd culture l' I J i l u rr '

We will We finally his will see seehow howJung's Jung's encounters, encounters, practice practice and and finally his analysis analysis of of the arts arts in in their diverse diverse forms forms were werean an opportunity opportunity to reconsider and deepen his his research of such such research research research as as aa clinician clinician and and a psychologist. The importance of was is fully fully developed developed in his his last last writings. writings. was made made apparent gradually, and is The most explicit explicit writings as they they were were The analysis analysis of of his his most writings on on the the arts as developed 1 930s will essential, most developed during during the the 1930s willallow allowus us to to draw draw out the essential, nodal steadfast characteristics characteristics of his thinking on the the subject, subject, through through nodal and steadfast the of contemporary contemporary the similarities similarities and and differences differences with with the the other other great trends of psychoanalysis. psychoanalysis. The The focus focus will will be be placed placed on on the the presentation presentation and and analysis of the work work of ofPicasso Picasso (Jung (Jung 1932a, 1 932a, his his texts texts on on James James Joyce's Joyce's Ulysses Ulysses and and the 11932b). 932b). These circles, as rather rather Thesetexts textshave have been been considered, considered, even even in in Jungian circles, weak .lung's thinking; thinking; we, we, however, however, will will see see how how weak aspects aspects and and moments in Jung's these heart of of Jung's J ung's analysis analysis of of the the processes processes of these texts texts bring bring us us to to the heart creation, the heart heart of ofhis his conception conception and and practice practice of of the the creation, and and from there to the unconscious. unconscIOus. We his encounters, before before and after after the the 1930s, 1 930s, We will will then then consider consider in in turn his with the arts of Antiquity and of the Orient, iconography and the literature with the of the Orient, iconography and the literature of alchemy, the modern modern era era and and contemporary contemporarycreation. creation. alchemy, Christian Christian art, art, and the Finally, research on on Finally, we we will will explore explore some some of of the the main themes of current research the their development development in the Jungian and and post-Jungian post-Jungian movement. movement. the arts and their The heart heart of of the the debate d e bate

We Jung's 'autobiography' 'autobiography' ((Memories, Memories, Dreams, Dreams, Reflections, Reflections, We discover discover in in Jung's 11963) 963) that of his his father's father's that the the presbytery presbytery where where he he lived lived as as aa child child on on account account of pastoral works of of art art (Gaillard (Gaillard 2003b). 2003b). Among Among the the pastoral functions contained old works paintings most impressed impressed him, of paintings in in this this house, house, the the one one that most him, to to the point of passing of a work work by by Guido Guido passing many many long long hours hours contemplating it, was a copy of Reni, the Louvre Louvre (Jung (Jung 1963: 1 963: 16). 1 6). Reni, whose whose original original is at the This large painting (2.2m high by 1.45m 1 .45m wide) wide) is the This large painting (2.2m is entitled entitled David David with with the Head Goliath . It portrays the the biblical biblical David David as as aayouth, youth,full-length, full-length, Head of Goliath. It portrays facing decapitated head of the the giant giant Goliath Goliath by by facing the the spectator, spectator, holding holding the the decapitated the characteristic of hero the hair. hair. The peculiar characteristic of this this canvas canvas is is that that although although the hero is of the two, evidently victorious over the giant, is represented represented as as the the stronger stronger of at vulnerable in his his young young age. age. at the same time he is paradoxically fragile and vulnerable Even family name of of the the young young Carl Carl Gustav Gustav— - the Even without without invoking the family word jung German means means 'young' 'young' — - or evoking the the later later debates debates and and jung in in German or evoking battles mentor Freud, Freud, nineteen nineteen years years his his elder, elder, one one can can only only be be battles with with his his mentor struck by this this evidence evidence whose whose significance significance we will explore: explore: David is not not struck by we will David is M oses. No than Guido Guido Reni Reni isisMichelangelo. M ichelangelo. Moses. No more more than IItt is i s possible possible that that there there exists exists between between these these figures, figures, David David and and Moses, Moses, Reni Michelangelo, the same disparity as between between Jung Freud, at at Reni and and Michelangelo, the same disparity as Jung and and Freud, Icast their respective respective relationships with the the arts, arts, and anddefinitively definitively in in their their least in in their relationships with respcct ive conce p t s and and practices practices of ofpsychoanalysis. psychoanalysis. respective concepts

3326 26 C h ri stian Gaillard G a i l la rd Christian

The 327 Thearts arts 327

Ulysses Moses Ulysses and Moses The David of Guido Reni Reni is is presented presented as as aa cousin cousin Ulysses, Ulysses, the the clever clever and skilled hero, hero, or anti-hero, in Homer skilled H omer and and in inJoyce's Joyce'snovel novelwhich which Jung Jung made made his subject when 1 932 one essays on the arts. This This his subject when he he wrote wrote in in 1932 one of his his main essays essay and fruitfulness fruitfulness the the way wayhe hestruggles struggleswith with essay reveals reveals with with great great tension and the culture culture and traditions that formed formed us, us, with with our our heritage, heritage, and and equally equally the with of our our contemporary contemporary world. world. with the disturbing progression of IIndeed ndeed Jung Jung will will write write of of Joyce's Joyce's Ulysses: In its destruction of the criteria of beauty and meaning meaning that that have have held held hes wonders. till today, today, Ulysses accomplis our conventional conventional till accomplishes wonders. It insults all our feelings, of sense sense and content, itit feelings, itit brutally brutally disappoints disappoints our expectations of thumbs its nose at at all all synthesis. synthesis. (Jung 1932a: 1 932a: par. 177) 1 77 ) H further clarifies: clarifies: Hee further

Everythingabusive abusivewe wecan cansay say about about Ulysses witness to its Everything Ulysses bears bears witness to its peculiar abuse springs springs from from the resentment resentment of the the peculiar quality, quality, for for our our abuse unmodern man man who who does does not notwish wish to to see see what what the thegods godshave havegraciously graciously veiled only modern modern man man who who has hassucceeded succeeded in in veiled from from sight sight [for] [for] itit is only creating an art in reverse, a backside of art that that makes makes no no attempt attemptto tohe be ingratiating, that tells tells us us just just where where we we get off, speaking speaking with with the the same same rebellious itself disturbingly disturbingly felt felt in those those rebellious contrariness contrarinessthat that had had made itself precursors of the moderns moderns (not (not forgetting forgettingHOlderlin) H 61derlin) who who had hadalready already precursors sta rted to topple topple the the old old ideals. ideals. started (Jung 1932a: 1 932a: pars. 177-178) 1 77- 1 711 ) When that we we have have inherited, inherited, often often the the When we read read Joyce we we see see that that the ideals that most dear to us, us, have have been been given given a good good going going over. over. And Jung Jung ends ends up up by by following himself rejoicing rejoicing in in aadeconstructive deconstructiveprocess process following in Joyce's footsteps, himself that is thllt violent as as deliberately deliberately violent. violent. is as deliberate and violent Moreover, attack the the figure figure of ofMoses. Moses. The Theconstantly consta ntly Moreover, he he begins begins to to attack IIccelerating writing soon soon escalates escalates from from decondecon­ accelerating movement movement of of thought thought and writing t ruc t ion to revolt, revolt, an an essentially essentially enthusiastic enthusiastic revolt, revolt, and and from from there thereagain aga i n sstruction an open tto o lin makes him declare: declare: 'ideals are not not beacons beacon s on Oil open denunciation denunciation that makes ideals are mou n t a in peaks, peaks, but but taskmasters taskmasters and and jailers, jailers, aa sort sort of ofmetaphysical metaphysical police police mountain origina lly th o ugh t up Sinai by by the the tyrannical tyrannical demagogue demagogue Moses M oses and and originally thought up on Sinai tthereafter herea fter foisted man kind by aa clever clever ruse' ruse' (par. ( par. 182). 1 112 ). foisted upon upon mankind e x t raord i n a r i l y denunciatory denunciatory and and violent. violen t . Extraordinarily E x t raord i n a r i l y remark is is extraordinarily The remark because n sstark t a r k contrast co n t ra s t to t o the t he image image that t ha t is is willingly willingly m a d e (If lIn�. because iitt is is iin made of .lJung, rl prl' sl' n t cd as wisl' old old man n l i l n who who seeks seeks perfect pl'rfel'l self-control, s e l f c o n t ro l and a l ld oftcn often represented as a wise '

-

.

achieves synthesis in of the the masters masters achieves harmony, harmony, integration integration and and synthesis in the manner of of the arts arts who who through through their theirstatements, statements, writings writings and and attitudes attitudes — - think Moses, so at San-Pietro-in-Vincoli San-Pietro-in-Vincoli about Michelangelo's Moses, so admired by Freud, Freud, at about least virtually virtually —devote devotethemselves themselvestotoproving provingthat thatsuch such an an ideal ideal is is at least possible. that his his writings writings on on the the arts artsreveal reveal an an unexpected, unexpected, possible. It must be noted that unforeseen, decidedly disturbing Jung. unforeseen, and decidedly This because we we might well well have of the the This is is worth noting because have here here a concept of unconscious the unconscious in actuality, actuality, unconscious in in action, indeed a relationship to the that highly contrasts contrasts not not only only with with the thepromise promise— - often often oriental oriental — - of of that highly wisdom salvation, but also also with with the the most mostwidely widely prevalent prevalent psychopsycho­ wisdom and and salvation, analytical those that find find their their source, source, their their life life force and analytical theories theories of of art, art, those their this subject. subject. their perspective perspective from from the the founding founding texts texts of of Freud on this

The and the the insurrection insurrection The good, good, the the beautiful beautiful and In ( 1 932a) text, curiously curiously there is is no no reference reference to to Freud's Freud'sessay essay— In Jung's (1932a) 1914 — - on violence of his treattreat­ written written in 1914 on Michelangelo's Michelangelo's Moses. Moses. But But the the violence of his the effects effects of of art, art, frankly frankly iconoclastic, iconoclastic, places places Jung almost ment ment of the Jung in almost diametric opposition to to aa conception conception of ofthe the creative creative processes processes that that wishes wishes to see ideal aim for for impulses, impulses, an an aim aim which which Freud Freud will will see in in them a particularly ideal call 'sublimation' . Without citing citing directly, directly, Jung Jung assails, assails, deconstructs deconstructs and and call 'sublimation'. definitively and sublimation. sublimation. He He definitivelydenounces denouncesthe theFreudian Freudian concept concept of of art art and proceeds regarding Moses M oses himself himself and the the entire entire edifice edifice proceeds in in the same manner regarding of feelings, feelings, thoughts practices established established in in his his name. name. thoughts and practices those who who want want to to listen, listen, he he states states On universe of Ulysses and and for those On the the universe of Ulysses even explicitly: even more explicitly: Even evil and destructive elements far Even though though the the evil and destructive elements predominate, predominate, they they are are far more valuable than the 'good' that has come down to us from the past more valuable than the 'good' that has come down to us from the past and proves in reality to be aa ruthless ruthless tyrant, tyrant, an an illusory illusory system system of and proves in reality to be prejudices that robs life of its richness, emasculates it, and enforces prejudices that life of its richness, emasculates it, enforces aa moral compulsion which in the end is unendurable. moral which the end is unendurable. (Jung 1 932a: par. 182) 1 82) (Jung 1932a: Jung art so soclosely closely — - this exile, struggling as best best he he Jung follows follows Joyce's art this Joyce Joyce in exile, can detach himself himselffrom from his hisexcessively excessively Catholic Catholic Irish Irish origins origins — - that his his can to detach own rises up in rebellion, rebellion, and and writes writes in in such such an an enflamed enflamed style style that thatwe we own pen rises arc above all all the concept of are made made to to question question the the kind kind of art, art, and above of the the arts arts towards undercurrent is is not not the the towards which which this this movement movement can can take take him. him. For For the undercurrent Freudian lesson on wish wish fulfilment fulfilment ((Wunscherfullung) Wunscherfullung) and and the sublimation Freudian lesson of of impulses, impulses, but but quite quite the the opposite: opposite: itit is is his his attention attention and and passionate, passionate, if if not not terrifying raction to the most most astounding astounding and andmanifestly manifestly disturbing disturbing terrifyingatt attraction to the ff cl'l s oof f art. least. eeffects art. Certain Certain works works of of art, art, at least.

The arts 329 T h e arts 329

3 28 Christian C h ristian Gaillard G a i l l a rd 328

change of of scale scale A change It is is worth worth bearing bearing in in mind mind that that Jung Jungdoes does not notrefer refer to tothe theclassic classic authors authors It and artists. artists. The The quotations q uotations in his text are clear clear testimonies testimonies to to and in his text on on Ulysses are Meistre's ApprenAppren­ this. If If he he cites cites Goethe, referring to this. Goethe, itit is is not not in in referring to Wilhelm Meistre'.s. t icesh ip or or to to his his Iphigenia, Iphigenia, but but to to Faust Faust II. This This in in turn turn brings brings him him to to recall, recall. ticeship during his his reflections reflections on most acutely acutely disturbing disturbing later later events events of ofour ourart art during on the the most Thus Spoke Spoke ZaraZa/"{/­ history, Nietzsche's Nietzsche's most provocative imprecations history, most provocative imprecations in in Thus and Ecce Ecce Homo, Homo, texts texts that that we we know know Jung Jung had had been been familiar familiar with with for for thustra and long time, time, since since his his school school years years in inBasel Basel(Gaillard (Gaillard1996/2001). 1 996/200 1 ). He Heevokes evokes aa long in quick quick succession succession the the effects, effects, during our collective collective history, history, of ofthe the 'perverse 'perverse in during our change of of style style under khnaton' that, that, he hereminds remindsus, us,paves pavesthe theway way for forthe the change under IIkhnaton' first monotheism; 'the inane inane lamb lamb symbolism symbolism of ofearly early Christians' Christians'which which first monotheism; the the 'the passage from is inscribed inscribed in the Roman Roman Empire Empire to to the theestablishment establishment of of is in the the passage from the Christian State; State; the the 'doleful 'doleful Pre-Raphaelite Pre-Raphaelite figures' figures' that thatare arenevertheless nevertheless a Christian real precursors precursors of beauty that that had had not not yet yet been been represented, represented, and and real of aa corporeal corporeal beauty 'late Baroque art, art, strangling strangling itself itself in in its its own own convolutions' convolutions' in in its itsown own way way 'late Baroque anticipating the surpassing surpassing of of medieval medieval dogmatism dogmatism by by the thescientific scientific spirit. sp i ri t anticipating the From here, here, Jung Jung finally finally evokes were taken in the the paintings paintings of From evokes the the risks risks that that were taken in Tiepolo, or closer closer to to us, us, Van Van Gogh Gogh (par. ( par.175). 1 75). With Withthese theseexamples, examples, he he Tiepolo, or argues the formal formal innovations i nnovations of of the the artists, artists, as asdevastating devastating as asthey they argues that that the might seem for for previously previously practised practised modes modes of of representation, representation, cannot cannot he be might seem reduced the consequence consequence of of difficulties difficulties they they had had experienced experienced in in their their reduced to to the personal lives. personal lives. All these completely different art movement movement than than that thaI All these works works come come from from aa completely different art wh ich Michelangelo M ichelangelo authoritatively established in i n the the marble marbleof o fhis hisMasc.\ Mo,\(',\ which authoritatively established at San-Pietro-in-Vincoli. Here question of of sublimation, sublimation, aaconcept concepl at San-Pietro-in-Vincoli. Here it it is is not not aa question tthat hat Freud Freud elaborated elaborated in in his his admiration admiration for for this this work. work. And And we we find find ouro u r· selves fro l H completely different different scale. scale. The The attention attention manifestly manifestly shifts shifts from selves on on aa completely the celebration of an exemplary exemplary Moses, M oses, who each of of us us ideally ideally could co l l i d the celebration of an who each hecollle, o tthe h e crisis crisis that could affect affect an ll'orld, or least, aa culture. (,lIllllft' or aatt least, an entire entire world, become, tto that could .

contemptuous, sad, despairing, despairing, and and bitter. bitter. It contemptuous, sad, I t plays plays on on the thereader's reader'ssymsym­ pathies' (par. 165). He adds: 'Yes, I admit I feel I have been made aa fool foo l pathies' 1 65). 'Yes, admit I feel 1 have been made of'. 'Joyce 'Joyce has has aroused aroused my m yill i l lwill' will' (par. (par.167). 1 67). This is his reaction as aa clinician. clinician. Or more more exactly, exactly, and for for the the moment, moment, as a psychopathologist. In his first reading, Jung tries to face the torturous, his first tries face torturous, evocation of a Ulysses, the evocation chaotic and apparently senseless torrent that is Ulysses, chaotic senseless torrent chain of such destabilising events, by bringing what he sees and of such destabilising what he sees and reads reads back back practice. 'I am aa psychiatrist, to the the familiar familiar phenomena of his his clinical clinical practice. psychiatrist, he he writes, and that implies a professional prejudice with regard to all maniwrites, and implies a professional prejudice with regard all mani­ festations festations of the psyche' psyche' (par. ( par. 172). 1 72). He He expands: expands: must therefore warn the the reader: the the tragicomedies tragicomedies of of the the average average man, man, the cold shadow-side the dull grey of spiritual the shadow-side of life, life, the spiritual nihilism nihilism are my daily bread. bread. To me they they are are a tune ground out on on aa street street organ, organ, stale stale daily and without without charm charm .. .. . . But Butthat thatisisnot notthe thehalf halfofofit it—- there there is is also also the the symptomatology! It is all too familiar, symptomatology! familiar, those those interminable interminable ramblings ramblings of of the insane the insane who who have have only only aafragmentary fragmentaryconsciousness consciousness and and subsesubse­ quently suffer suffer from from a complete complete lack lack of of judgment judgment and and an atrophy of quently of all all their their values. (Jung 1932a: pars. 172-173) (Jung 1 932a: pars. 1 72- 1 73 ) 1I

Thus 'Even the layman Thus layman would would have have no n o difficulty difficulty in in tracing tracing the the analogies analogies and the the schizophrenic schizophrenic mentality'. mentality', And the the case case seems seems between Ulysses and between Ulysses closed: 'The 'The resemblance indeed so so suspicious suspicious that that an an indignant reader closed: resemblance isis indeed might easily easily fling fling the the book might book aside aside with with the thediagnosis diagnosis "schizophrenia"' "schizophrenia'" ((par. par. 173). 1 73). However, Jung Jung concludes concludes that that such However, such a diagnostic, diagnostic, clearly clearly very tempting even today, today, when when dealing dealing with with our doubts even doubts and and debates, debates, our ourdisagreements disagreements and resentments when confronted confronted with with aa large proportion of and resentments when of the the contemcontem­ porary arts, cannot porary cannot be bejustified justified under underthese thesecircumstances. circumstances. He arrives arrives at this He this conclusion conclusion for at at least least three three reasons reasons — - all all three are are present but but unequally in this which will will bring bring us us propresent unequally developed developed in this text text — - which pro­ gressivelyto toenlarge enlarge the the field fieldof ofour our examination examination of his his writings writings on on the arts. gressively

Resistance Resistance We a n get We ccan get

used to to it. it. But But not notwithout withoutreticence, reticence,uneasiness, uneasiness, even even fear. fe a r. We We used III list q uestion, especially cspecially today, the sense sense — - or in the the way way the I I H' must question, today, the or nonsense nonsense -- in aarts rls a rc progressing, progressing, with such dang e ro u s d a lll; l �'l' (humpy are with troubling troubling doubt doubt in, in, and and such dangerous to widely shared reputedly sound sound values. values . the most most widely shared and and reputedly lo the .lJung u n g poses poses tthese hese same uestions. IInitially n itially with a t i o n : 'Nothing ' N o t h i ng come con l l'�, same qquestions. with irrit irritation: to the reader', reader', he he states states bad-temperedly had ll'l 11 pe red ly on o n the the subject su bject of o f///vsses l Ih.l'.I'(,,\ right rl g h l to Illeet meet the i rst pages h a I he I ll' devotes I l l' v o l l's to 1 0 this I h i s strange s l range and a nd unclassifiable u nc l a ssi l i a h lc novel, nove l . fro lll tthe he lfirst from pages tthat ''everything h( l ( l � (' vny l h i ng lturns u rn s aaway w a y fro l l l hhim, i l l l , il'a v i n g hhim i m ga ping aafter fl e r it. i t . The T h l' hoof, From leaving gaping is l wa y s up l i p and a n d away, a w a y . diy,iitistivil dl .. .. : t I I � l ll'd with w i l h itself i l se l f., ironic, i ro n i c sardonic, s a rd o n ic , virulent. v i r l l i l' l l l , is aalways --

Some characteristics characteristics and and manifest effects of Some of these these works works

First, Jung Jung notes notes that that in the work of Joyce, is true true for many First, Joyce, and the same same is many comparable examples examples today, today, a specific comparable specific characteristic characteristic of schizophrenia schizophrenia is missing: missing:the thestereotype. stereotype.He Hepoints pointsout out that that

,

-

.

may be be Ulysses Ulysses may

anything, but but it is anything, is certainly certainly not monotonous monotonous in the the

sense senseof of'being beingrepetitious repetitious. . .. .. The The presentation presentation is is consistent consistent and and

flowing,everything everythingisisininmotion motion and and nothing is fixed. The whole whole book is nowing, fixed. The borne aalong a subterranean current of horne long oon n a of life life that that shows shows singleness singleness ooff

Christian Gaillard 3330 30 C h ristian Gai l lard



The 31 Thearts arts 3331

aim and and rigorous both these these being being unmistakable unmistakable proof proof of aim rigorous selectivity, selectivity, both the existence existence of of aa unified unified personal personal will will and directed intention. the intention. (Jung 1932a: (lung 1 932a: par. 173) 1 73 ) Off course course we we will will have have to to re-examine this 'subterranean 'subterranean current O re-examine this current of o f life', life', which here appears almost surreptitiously like a metaphor in the text. which here appears almost surreptitiously like a metaphor text. We We will see seethat that itit is is in in fact fact at the heart will heart and and core core of of Jung's Jung's concept concept of art, art. because of of its its central central importance importance in because in his his practice practice of ofthe theunconscious. unconscious.We Wewill will discuss all all its 'collective' impersonal, or transpersonal discuss 'collective' dimensions: dimensions: impersonal, transpersonal and and therefore transgenerational, transgenerational, even even transhistorical, transhistorical, if if not transcultural; therefore transcultural; we we will also also consider consider the the curious curious scale scale of of such such aa reality, reality, as well as what Jung will well calls its its 'final intentions'. calls But let let us look But look for for the the moment moment at ata asecond seconddecisive decisive characteristic characteristic of Joyce's Ulysses, Ulysses, a characteristic characteristic that that according to Jung Joyce's J ung is shared with those works that are formally works formally comparable through the the upheavals upheavals they they induce induce in in the generally acceptedcriteria criteriaof of sense senseand and beauty, beauty, pushing pushing us us to the the generally accepted the painful, unsupportable limits painful, limits of ofnonsense: nonsense: They are drastic drastic purgatives purgatives whose whose full full effect effect would would be be dissipated dissipatedififthey they did not meet meet with with an an equally equally strong strong and and obstinate obstinate resistance. resistance. They They are are a kind of ofpsychological psychological specific specific which is of of use use only only where where the the hardest hardcst and toughest material must must be be dealt dealt with. with. (Jung 1932a: 1 932a: par. 179) 1 7lJ )

le writes writes of purgatives and psychological Il lc psychological specifics. specifics. Which is to say that that the the consideration of our our resistance to these works and and to what wnsideration of resistance to these works what itit entails entails isis decisive on art. This dedsive for his his reflections reflections on This is is eminently eminently the the consideration consideration of ofan all analyst, for what is at stake here is our resistance to a reality that we would for what is at stake here is our resistance to a reality that we would prefer prerer to know nothing about, to to an anunconscious unconscious that that functions functions at atits itsown OWl! pace, with its own rhythm and timescale, strength and substance, and and timescale, strength and substance, andwhich which claims its its dues. dues . Jung .l ung points points out out that that in in fact factthese these works works of ofart, art,openly openlynegative, negative, appal appa l en tly insensitive, and mercifully objective, attack our profusion ently insensitive, and mercifully objective, our profusionofoffeelings, fcel ings. our O l l l' sentimental sent imcntal state. state. This This isis the thepositively positively destructive destructive effect effect that that works worb such as these tend to create. He writes in 1932, when memories of as thcse tend to create. He writes in 1 932, when memories ofthe thc First Fi lst World War War were were still still fresh fresh in in the the minds mindsof ofmany: many: there therc is is a good good deal deal of ofevidence evidence to to show show that thatwe weactually actuallyare arcinvolved involwd inI I I a sentimentality scntimcntality hoax hoax of of gigantic gigantic proportions. proportions. Think Thinkof orthe thclamentable lamcn ta hll' role rolc of of popular popular sentiment sentiment in in wartime! wartime! Think Think of ofour ourso-called so-callcd human' huma l l l tarianism! The psychiat psychiatrist knowsonly only too too well ta rianism! The rist knows wcll how how each cach of o f us II� becomes hccomcs the thc helpless helplcss but hut not not pitiable pitiahlcvictim victim of ofhis hisown ownsentiments. scnt imcnts. ( .I l I n g 1932a: I 'n2a : par. pa r.18.1) I H·I ) (Jung

Jung's prepara­ Jung's conclusion, conclusion, almost almost Joyce-like, Joyce-like,ininthe the light light ooff the the German German preparations exact same same time tions at at that that exact time for for events events even even more more dreadful dreadful than than anything anything that and the the world world had had yet yetexperienced, experienced, arrives arrives like like aa bombshell: bombshell: that Europe Europe and 'Sentimentality 1 84). `Sentimentalityisisthe thesuperstructure superstructureerected erectedupon upon brutality' brutality' (par. (par. 184).

Another Another angle angle The decisive characteristic although their their effect effect is is The third third decisive characteristic of of these these works, works, although fairly difficult to gauge for the psychologist, and even for the psycho­ fairly difficult to gauge for the psychologist, and even for the psychoanalyst, they elude elude and and even even radically radically opposes opposes all all psychobiographipsychobiographi­ analyst, is is that that they cal par. 186). 1 86). cal analysis analysis ((par. Certainly, on each each Certainly,the theauthor author James JamesJoyce Joycecan canbe be found found in in the the book, book, on page and even in each character of his 'novel'. But, Jung writes, page and even in each character of his 'novel'. But, Jung writes, the embraces them all appears appears nowhere. nowhere. It It betrays betrays itself itself by by the ego ego that that embraces them all nothing, no judgment, judgment, no no sympathy, sympathy, and and not not even even with with aa single single nothing, by by no anthropomorphism. The ego ego of of the the creator creator of of these these figures figures is anthropomorphism. The is not not to to be be found. is as as though though itit had haddissolved dissolved into into the thecountless countless figures figures of of found. It It is

Ulysses. (Jung 1 932a: par. 1 88 ) (Jung 1932a: par. 188) SSo o through his encounters encounters with interrogation of the arts, arts, we w e see see that that through his with and and interrogation of the Jung has turned turned his his back back on on the theconcepts concepts of of'wish 'wish fulfilment' fulfilment' and and subsub­ Jung has limation Freud's 'The 'The Moses M oses of of Michelangelo' Michelangelo' and has limation as as they they appear appear in in Freud's and has taken the opposite opposite view. view. Moreover, Moreover, he he has has irrevocably irrevocably excluded excluded from from his his taken the approach the tool tool of ofpsychobiography, psychobiography, which which has has been been and and remains remains the the approach the most largely practised method of ofresearch research in in the thepsychoanalysis psychoanalysis of ofart artsince since most largely practised method Freud's Vinci and Memory of ofhis his Childhood Childhood ((published published in in Freud's Leonardo Leonardo da du Vinci and aa Memory 11910). 9 1 0). This work of of art art in in Thismethod method consists consists of of looking looking for for the the meaning meaning of of aa work the author's experiences experiences from from childhood, childhood, if ifpossible possible right right from from the thecradle. cradle. the author's This method of of psychoanalysis psychoanalysis of cannot be be applied applied to to Joyce's Joyce's text text This method of art art cannot because, notes, the the work work itself itself cannot cannot be begrasped. grasped . because, as as Jung Jung notes, And yet yet in in 1932 1 932 Jung Jung must must have have known known James James Joyce, Joyce, or or at at least least have have And heard about the author's trials and tribulations at the close of the 1 9 1 0s heard about the author's trials and tribulations at the close of the 1910s when he was in Zurich. Joyce's sponsor Edith McCormick, John D. when he was in Zurich. Joyce's sponsor Edith McCormick, John D. Rockefeller's daughter and a close supporter o f the Jungian circles, had Rockefeller's daughter and a close supporter of the Jungian circles, had suddenly decided cut the the financial financial support support she she had had given given Joyce Joyce until until suddenly decided to to cut then. Joyce may have even suspected at the time that Jung was not com­ then. Joyce may have even suspected at the time that Jung was not completely innocent innocent with with regards regards to to his his sponsor's sponsor'sdecision decision (Salza (Salza 1987: 1 987: 1891 89pletely 1 90, n. n. 77 and and 191, 1 9 1 , n. n. 11; 1 1 ; Ellmann Ellmann 1959: 1 959: 714-715). 7 14-7 1 5) . We We also also know know that that in in 190, 11934, 934, two years after the publication of the essay on Ulysses, Joyce sought two years after the publication of the essay on Ulysses, Joyce sought out Jung Jung to treat treat his his daughter daughter Lucy. Lucy. At At first first she she was was treated treated with with some some out a ppa rcn t success, but Jung did not truly believe in her recovery. It finally apparent success, but Jung did not truly believe in her recovery. It finally



333 The aarts The rts 333

3332 3 2 Christian C h ristian Gaillard Gail lard

transpired that the treatment had had been been to to no no avail, avail, most most notably notably due due to to the the fact that the ties between the daughter and her father fact between the father had had never never really really been been broken (Salza n. 77 and 191, (Salza 1987: 1 987: 1189-190, 89- 1 90, n. 1 9 1 , n.n.11; I I ;Ellmann Ellmann1959: 1 959: 684). 684). But search in vain for for the the slightest slightest reference reference to Joyce's Joyce's life life in in But we we could search Jung has no use lung's use for it. it. He He is is in in no no way way tempted tempted to to Ulysses. lung Jung's text text on on Ulysses. indulge 'wild analysis' analysis' of James lames Joyce, loyce, neither neither in this text text nor, nor, more more indulge in in a 'wild generally, he makes makes in in the the psychoanalysis psychoanalysis of ofart. art generally, in in any other advancement he . : Nor does he, he, at at any any other othermoment, moment, stop stop totopaint paintthe the'psychological' 'psychological Nor does portrait of of Ulysses, Ulysses, the rather the the anti-hero, anti-hero, of of this this book. book . the hero, hero, or rather This is obviously obviously not focus of Jung's lung's approach approach to the the arts. arts. The The This is not the the focus analysis of aa work any moment moment serve serve as a pretext pretext for him analysis work of art does not at any to become the author's clinician clinician or or the the characters' characters' psychologist. psychologist. He He does does not work at at this thisscale. scale. The Thefocus focusisiscollective: collective: Who, Ulysses? Doubtless the Who, then, is Ulysses? Doubtless he he is is a symbol symbol of what makes up the totality, the oneness, oneness, of all all the single single appearances appearances in in Ulysses as a whole Mr. M rs. Bloom, Bloom, and the the rest, rest, including including Mr. Mr. Joyce. loyce. Mr. Bloom, Stephen, Mrs. � o �d conglomerate soul colourless conglomerate merecolourless not aamere is not who is being who imagine aa being Try to imagine antagol11stlc and antagonistic ill-assorted and ofill-assorted number of composed of of an indefinite number an indefinite composed street-processIOns. houses,street-processions, also ofofhouses, individual souls, souls, but consists consists also individual several Dublin],several throughDublin], flows through that flows river that churches, the the Liffey Liffey [the river churches, possesses yet possesses and yet - and sea— thesea waytotothe itsway onits noteon crumpled note and aa crumpled brothels, and a perceiving perceiving and and registering registeringconsciousness! consciousness! (lung 1 932a: par. 198) 1 9X ) (Jung 1932a: and every every one of o f us u s in i n aa pretty pretty strange strange ((/I;'sses 11 1'.1'.1'('.1' looks looksaatt our our world and each and ; y, From elsewhere, w; elsewhere, from various angles angles and and viewpoints. viewpoints. And And so so itit makes makes way. liS look at ourselves ourselves and our our ordinary ordinary lives lives from from another another angle, angle, plural plural and and us look Ill ultiplied. The angle is definitively definitively plural, lacking in in lenience lenience that th �lt iti t multiplied. plural, and so lacking Jung writes, 'wants to t.:1I1l implacably objective. to be b e an an eye eye of ot the t il l' Ulysses, lung can he he implacably objective. Ulysses, moon, t.:onsciousness detached the moon, a consciousness detached from from the the object, object, in in thrall thrall neither to the gods t o sensuality, sensuality, and bound bound neither neither by b y love love nor nor by b y hate, hate, neither neither by by gods nor to wnvidion y prejudice' prejudice' ((par. par. 186). 1 86). He conviction nor nor bby He dared dared to

take step that that leads leads to to the thedetachment detachment of ofconsciousness consciousness from from the the take the step ohjet.:t; e has freed himself from attachment, entanglement, entanglement, and and deludel l! object; hhe si(�n, t.:an therefore therefore turn turn homeward. homeward. He He gives gives us more more than t h an a; t sion, and and can su oj edive expression the creative creative genius genius is 1\ subjective expressionof of personal personal opinion, opinion, for for the Ilev'er many, and he he speaks speaks in in stillness stillness to to the t he souls souls of orthe t i ll' never one one out but many, 1l1 u l tit ude, w h o se meaning es t i ny he he embodies emood ies no no less less than t h a n the the multitude, whose meaning and and ddestiny aartist's rt ist's own. own. ') \1 1 ((pa pa r.r. )19

Dreams and creation Dreams

Jung approaches and analyses lung analyses the arts arts in in the the same same manner manner as as dreams. dreams. The The dream is dream is in fact fact far far from frombeing being only only'disguised 'disguisedwish wish fulfilment', fulfilment', such such as as Freud viewed it. gives to dream, the the littlest littlest dream, dream, Freud viewed it. The The attention attention lung Jung gives to a dream, does not not lead suspicionas as to to the the distortions distortions due due to to any does lead him him to exercise exercise suspicion any practice of censorship. He is inspired by the the surprise experienced on waking, experienced on waking, when we when we discover discover ourselves ourselves at grips grips with withunexpected unexpected representations, representations, reactions whose consistency and insistence insistence we reactions and emotions whose we cannot deny, deny, and that and that are are evidently evidently manifestations manifestations of our our current current preoccupations, preoccupations, be be they somehow distant, we would would prefer they close close or or somehow distant, even even though though we prefer to know know nothing about them. nothing them. A of art art even even more more so. so. But But this this A dream dream of course is enigmatic, enigmatic, and and a work of enigma is is often often the best possible expression of of something something that that we we could could not enigma possible expression express inter­ express or or experience experienceininany any other other way. way. In In this this sense sense aa dream is an interrogation, provocation . It It provokes provokes us us to to think think and and react react in inthe theface face of ofits its rogation, a provocation. presentations and representations. We are not only presentations only surprised but often often also also perplexedand and stunned, stunned, unless unless we we can can accept accept the the imposed perplexed imposed confrontation. confrontation. Jung's text text on on Ulyss('s Ulysses testifies lung's yet testifiesto to this this confrontation confrontation and and to to the brutal yet crucial self-questioning self-questioning that that can can be be arrived at through crucial through interpretive interpretive work. work . `A great great work work of art', Jung 'A lung wrote wrote as as early early as as1930, 1 930, is obviousness it it does does not not explain explain itself itself is like like aa dream; dream; for all all its apparent obviousness and 'this is is the the and is always always ambiguous. ambiguous. A A dream dream never says says 'you 'you ought' or 'this truth'. It It presents presents an an image image in in much much the the same same way way nature nature allows allows a plant plant to grow, grow, and it is up to up to to us us to todraw drawconclusions. conclusions. (lung 1 930: par. 161) 161) (Jung 1930: Here bewilderment. But of the the organic, organic, natural natural Here there there is is bewilderment. But let let us us take take note of metaphor growing and blooming. Like Like that that of of the the subterranean subterranean metaphor of the plant growing current, frequent metaphor in lJung's ung's universe. universe. It brings brings our attenatten­ current, this this is is a frequent tion to a movement of expression expression and and development development that that is is at at work, work, and that could observed and studied in order order to to pinpoint pinpointits itsdifferent different moments, moments, could be be observed steps, perhaps even steps, even laws. laws. Here of the the question question of of the the arts arts and, and, more moreradically, radically, Here we we are are at at the heart of of the unconscious itself. This is also the heart of a reversal of point ofview, view, of the itself. heart of a reversal of point of of a revolution, at at once once epistemological epistemological and and clinical, clinical, that that Jung lung implemented implemented in and practice practice of of the the unconscious, unconscious, in psychoanalysis psychoanalysis through through his own concept and or precisely the the unconscious. unconscious. or more precisely the relationship to the

Experience animation Experience of of plural plural animation !Freud -'reud had not the the master master of of his his own own house' house' had already already taught that that the ego 'is not ((Freud /'" reud 1917: 1 9 1 7 : 143): 1 43 ) : itit is questioned questioned and and deprived deprived of all all pretensions pretensions to to

3 3 4 Christian C h ristian Gaillard Gail lard 334

The The arts arts 335 335

mastery, common common conceptions, conceptions, ideal ideal representations representations and values, be be they they mastery, and values, inherited or or constructed. constructed . Freud Freud was was actually actually the the first first to to have have talked talked about about inherited regression, dramatisation dramatisation and and symbolisation symbolisation in relation relation to to dream dream work, work, regression, starting with Traumdeulung. But But Jung, Jung, having having conducted conducted his his own own starting with his his Traumdeutung. research in Zurich even before meeting Freud, undermines the foundations research in Zurich even before meeting Freud, undermines the foundations of the the Freudian Freudianlesson lesson using usinghis hisown ownauto-clinical auto-clinicaland andclinical clinicalexperience, experience, of and threatens the edifice that Freud so patiently and, it must besaid, said, so so and threatens the edifice that Freud so patiently and, it must be jealously constructed (Gaillard 2003a). jealously constructed (Gaillard 2003a). Following Jung and the the path path he heopened openedtotopsychoanalysis, psychoanalysis, the theunconuncon­ Following Jung and scious is no longer approached only through the effects of the repression of scious is no longer approached only through the effects of the repression of sexuality, above all infantile sexuality, or primal repression. The uncon­ sexuality, above all infantile sexuality, or primal repression. The unconscious is is received, most importantly importantly practised practised from fromaaposition position scious received, observed observed and and most of surprise that implies accommodation, accompaniment and finally of surprise that implies accommodation, accompaniment and finally confrontation. For the unconscious precedes consciousness, is initial and in confrontation. For the unconscious precedes consciousness, is initial and in constant renewal, highly autonomous and radically autochthonous, which constant renewal, highly autonomous and radically autochthonous, which is to t o say, say, whatever whatever we we do, do, it it lives lives its its own own life life on on its its own own means means and andterms. terms. is Jung shows that the unconscious is thus endowed with its own means of Jung shows that the unconscious is thus endowed with its own means of expression. It is work in progress that advances at its own pace and has its expression. It is work in progress that advances at its own pace and has its or own timescale, which individual's past, past, from from one one stage stage of own timescale, which can can encompass encompass an an individual's life to another, or a transgenerational period, or in a wider dimension even life to another, or a transgenerational period, or in a wider dimension even aa cultural era (Gaillard (Gaillard 2001, 200 1 , 2003a). 2003a). Therefore Therefore the work of of aa Jungian Jungian psypsy­ cultural era the work choanalyst will concentrate on becoming-conscious, at all these levels, rather at all these levels, rather conscious, choanalyst will concentrate on becoming than only on on why why and andhow howsome someimpulses impulsesand andrepresentations representationsbecome beconll' than only unconscious repression in in each each individual's individual's personal personal history. history. unconscious through through repression This practice of of the the relationship relationship to to the the unconscious, unconscious, through through This concept concept and and practice work of art or a dream, is naturally dynamic and dialectic. The opening 01 a The opening of dialectic. and dynamic a work of art or a dream, is naturally tthis hi s angle, underpinned by by aa power power struggle, struggle, involves involves everything everything from from the t he angle, underpinned ro v isory negotiation our ordinary ordinary neuroses, neuroses, to to irrepressible irrepressible outbursts, outb urs t s p provisory negotiation of of our most notably those those of of psychosis. psychosis. The The ego ego defends defends itself. itself. It It struggles struggles as as best hest most notably itit can. of course course it it tries tries to to get get the the upper upper hand, hand,as aswe we were were able able to to sec sec in ill can. And And of l u ng s text text when, when, grappling grappling with with Joyce's Joyce's overwhelming overwhelming and and unacceptable unacce pta hle Jung's novel, reduce this this work work to to the the expression expression of ofaawell-known well - k no w l I novel, he he tries tries at at first first to to reduce pa t h ology, schizophrenia. schizophrenia. pathology, But taste for for the t he Rut frequenting frequenting such such works works of of art art can can also also mean mean acquiring acquiring aa taste dehat es they o reover, as as this this text text shows, shows, one one can can passionately pa ss iona l r l v debates they provoke. provoke. M Moreover, qquestion uest ion what and found found in in such such aa work work of ofart. art. One Onecan canacquire acq u i re aa what is is sought sought and this plurality, uncanny, that that seems seems impersonal i m perso l l a l ttaste a s t e for for this plurality, live, live, disturbing disturbing and and uncanny, w h i le out proportion with with the the ego's ego's guidelines, guidelines, criteria criteria and and ideals, idea l s , but hilt while out of of proportion tthat ha t turns t u rn s out out to tobe berich richand andanimated animatedbybyunpredictable unpredictablelife-forces, l i fe-forces,never nl'n'l x pe rienc ed , when t self here nd front rrolll the t hI' previously previously eexperienced, when itit expresses expressesi itself hereand and now, now, aand Imost llOst d i s t a n t , foreign foreign parts parts of of ourselves o u rselves demands demands to t o he he realised. rea l i sed . distant, The a t i o n s h i p to work of or art a r t can c a n be heexperienced e x periellced by hy the t i ll' um 11111 The rel relationship to such such aa work lateral nd unitlimensional u n i d i lllens i o l l a l q,\ O aas s aa menace n d aa d a n ger, like l i k e that t ha t of ( I I oII lateral aand ego menace aand danger, Imerciless I I l'!"l'i less i n s l l lTl'l·t ioll JIltit l l I t IIit ("a l l aalso lso lead lead to to the t he evidence evidelll'l' and a nd experience l'x pnil'lHT of 01 insurrection. can -

,

.

'

plural animation, animation, situated situated and and deployed deployed in i n opposition opposition to to Moses' Moses' monolithic monolithic erection, Moses that Freud erection, Michelangelo's M ichelangelo's Moses Freud so so greatly greatly admired, admired, but butnevernever­ theless leading to to a development that we theless leading we can learn learn to to welcome, welcome, in the form form it chooses chooses to take take and and with withour ourintervention. intervention. Processes and structures structures

It remains remains that that we we must must ask askourselves ourselves where where are are we we going going with with this thisline line and and how are we to progress. progress. A study study of of the the further further developments developments of ofthis this text text on on Joyce's Ulysses, Ulysses, combined with that that of another combined with another text text Jung Jung wrote wrote aa few few Joyce's months later on months on Picasso's Picasso's work, work, inspired inspired by by aaretrospective retrospective exhibition exhibition in in Zurich the same year, will show us the way (Jung 1932b). year, will us the way (Jung 1 932b). We saw saw that that in We in the the essay essay on on Joyce's Joyce's book book Jung Jung wrote wrote at at first first with with irritation, almost with aggression. It is only after a full-blown debate almost with aggression. It is only after a full-blown debate where where the psychopathologist tried to to impose impose himself himself that that Jung Jung came came to tochange changehis his stance and be driven, almost in spite of himself, to the point of becoming stance and in spite of himself, to the point of becoming engaged in in an enthusiastic engaged enthusiastic or frenzied frenzied reading, reading, almost almost prophetic prophetic at at times, times, where the main themes of his psychoanalysis of art were outlined where the main themes his psychoanalysis of were outlined and progressively became more assertive. progressively assertive. In this text Jung tried, in in fact, fact, to to express express as best best as as he he could could and and without without too much accent on theory the tension that that comes comes to to exist exist in such a work of of between the supposedly most assured values of art between of our our cultural cultural heritage heritage and and the disconcerting strangenessof of the the unconscious unconsciouswork work that, that, below the disconcerting strangeness below or perhaps beyond beyond all all personal perhaps personal psychology, psychology, takes these values, values, puts them to to the test, test, and harms them. the them. The style style of of the The the text text on on Picasso's Picasso's work work is is more more compact compact and and better better controlled. Here Here Jung Jung does not let controlled. let himself himself be carried away or seduced. seduced. He He progresseswith with the the reserve, experienceand and fastidious fastidiousattention attention oof progresses reserve, experience f an analyst and psychologist who surprises but who has analyst psychologist who surprises and questions himself, himself, but seen worse worseand and isis very verycareful carefulnot not to to be be led led astray astray by the movement movement of what seen he observes. observes. So So his his thinking on the he the arts artsbecomes becomesmore moreprecise, precise, endowed endowed with decidedly decidedly more more theoretical theoretical expression, expression, in in order to with to achieve achieve clarity. clarity. The current current dialectics between the The the ego ego and and the theunconscious unconscious

Jung evidently evidently remembers remembershis his annoyed annoyed and and irritated Jung irritated initial initial reactions reactions to Joyce's novel novelwhen when he he writes, writes, this this time time of Picasso's paintings, Joyce's Picasso's paintings, nothing nothing comes comes to to meet meet the the beholder, beholder, everything everything turns turns away away from him; him; even occasiona l touch even an an occasional touch of beauty beauty seems seems only only like like an aninexcusable inexcusable delay al .. .. . an obscurity, delayin in withdraw withdrawal which has has nothing nothing to to obscurity, however, however, which conceal, conceal,but but spreads spreads like like aa cold fog fog over over desolate desolate moors; moors; the the whole whole thing thing quite quite pointless, pointless, like like aa spectacle spectaclethat that can can do do without without a spectator. spectator. (Jung 11932b: par. 209) (lung 932b: par. 209)

h e arts TThe 337 arts 337

Christian G a i l l a rd h ri stian Gaillard 36 C 3336

In both cases, he approaches and tries central the central understand the to understand tries to approaches and when he cases, when In tenets of of Picasso's Picasso's work work or or of Joyce's the thing that him strikes him that strikes writing, the Joyce's writing, tenets immediatelyisisthe the unfair unfair lot lot given given to to the the reader reader or spectator. spectator. immediately that suffers, the ego ego that So he he concludes that itit is so, severely so, and severely suffers, and clearly the is clearly concludes that So because itit is is left left on on the sidelines, rejected, and and mistreated mistreated by by the the work work of sidelines, rejected, hecause art. The ego is through notably through mastery, notably predilection for mastery, its predilection of its deprived of is deprived art. thought, and Jung being despite being dismissed, despite aredismissed, efforts are its efforts how its emphasises how Jung emphasises thought, benevolent, normally normally equitable equitable and and open must This must comprehension. This to comprehension. open to henevolent, accepted, indeed indeed be accepted. in this this manner on the befalls thatbefalls fate that the fate ofthe observation of the observation insists in IIff Jung insists the ego in these circumstances, it is novel Joyce's novel reflections on Joyce's his reflections because his is because the and Picasso's paintings give give him him the the opportunity to inform more us more inform us opportunity to Picasso's paintings and explicitly, as methodologically methodologicallyas as possible, possible, and and then then as as theoretically as as theoretically plicitly, as ex possible but in his own way, of in. engaged in, himselfengaged findshimself hefinds that he debate that of the debate possible art. aass do we, we, when confronted with such works of art. unconscious, the unconscious, andthe So So we we are are brought brought to the relationship between the ego and a question that belongs to what is classically called in psychoanalysis a q uestion that belongs to what is classically called in psychoanalysis 'metapsychology'. But But Jung Jung does not metapsychologist. themetapsychologist. playthe toplay like to not like 'metapsychology'. on this subject is elaborated only in response I i s reflection IHis dis­ hisdisto his response to in only elaborated reflection on this subject coveries and and encounters, encounters, and and at the pace that debatesthat thedebates ofthe rhythm of and rhythm pace and coveries such forsuch opportunityfor hey incite. His clinical practice provides the everyday opportunity tthey encounters, but his in the arts even andeven privileged and oftenprivileged areoften arts are discoveries in his discoveries encounters, decisive, decisive. This is advances. workadvances. Picasso's work and Picasso's Joyce's and ofJoyce's analysis of J ung's analysis way Jung's the way is the However, after his his long to reactions to negative reactions manifestly negative hismanifestly ofhis account of long account I l owever, after Ii/y,v,ves thepaintings paintingsof of Picasso, Picasso, his his stance changes. The focll� central focus The central ( 1(1',1',1'(,,1' ororthe soon and observation and precise observation andprecise formal and objective, formal the objective, become the to become soon shifts to description explo rat io n tentative exploration the tentative and the works, and these works, by these d escrip t i o n of the form taken by of the an world, an other world, an other different world, an decidedly different A decidedly present. A they present. world they t he world elsewhere. What can can we we know know and and say of ; 1 sake of the sake for the world for say about this world e ls ew here . What understanding? theoretical understanding? com plete theoretical more complete At III conscio lls to the conscious to the refractory to ego, and refractory foreign to the ego, lirst this world, foreign A t first the t he extent da l k . s odark, as so Jung as appeared to Jung unconscious, appeared the unconscious, i t the call it we call t h a t we extent that gloomy, III disastrolls in and disastrous despairing and fragmented, disrupted, chaotic, despairing �loomy, cold, fragmented, the t he almost III sel'in tosee temptedto wastempted h ewas that he expression, that its expression, o fits autonomy of crazy autonomy a l most crazy it wel l , toowell, onlytoo knewonly heknew thathe realitythat ofaareality avatarof new avatar than aa new ot h e r than nothing other i t nothing schizophrenia. ofschizophrenia. t hat of that III' ofIns rhythm of the rhythm in the But we see tthat still progresses in reflection still ensuing reflection his ensuing h a t his Wi l l I" l Iewrites itselL Ile wri t in g itself. t h ewriting ofthe debate with rhythm of the rhythm i s the which is work, which t h i s work, wi th this dCl' l ll',1 thedeepest i n the is "'cuhist" cubist" in t h a t is about q uasi-visual mode that in a quasi-visual l Ill'ss('s in .loyce's Illesses IIbout Joyce's cOIll!,ln immensely complo, animmensely into an real i t y into of reality sense picture of t he picture resolves the heca use it resolves sense because —

o h jl'l'I I V I I ∎\ '' a hst ractobjectivit melancholyofofabstract painting t hemelancholy note isis the dominant note whose dominant pa i n t ing whose I i iI' pa intings,the Picasso ' spaintings, linesininPicasso's (par, fragmentedlines thefragmented t hat the noks that .l ung notes 1 74 ), Jung ( pi l I' , 174). t lin a� they soon as as soon alm os l as disaP l war almost t hat disappear internal colour aand nd form that l'oli isions of l'ololll' intl'l'IIal collisions

the with the wrong with and wrong right and f beauty appear, appear, oppose opposethe the ideals idealsoof beauty and and ooff right some leaves some primitiveness which leaves quasi-Neolithic primitiveness evidence evidence of of aa grotesque, quasi-Neolithic outpouring of indifferent indifferentand andfrightens frightensothers othersbybyits its brutality brutality or or the the outpouring of 2 1 2) . and 212). 208 and ( pars. 208 Dionysian Dionysian evocations evocations drawn drawn from from Antiquity Antiquity (pars. the o the respective relationships s here, It It iis here, in in Jung Jung and and Freud's Freud's respective relationships tto the arts, arts, that that the of practices of respective practices and respective difference between most most radical radical difference between their their concepts concepts and uncon­ the unconapproaches the Freud approaches While Freud apparent. While the the unconscious unconscious isis made made apparent. infan­ of infanall, of - repression repression — scious scious through through repression repression of of sexuality sexuality and and above above all, the - for seen — have seen we have repression, as primal repression, tile tile sexuality, sexuality, and and of of primal as we for Jung Jung the from consciousness, from of aa consciousness, renewed origin constantly renewed unconscious unconscious isis the the constantly origin of an is an disengages; it and disengages; off and breaks off provisory breaks and provisory partially and which which itit only only partially it is - we impersonal — highly impersonal and highly present and always present original original state state always we find find here, here, in in aa earlier—_ evokedearlier life'evoked currentofoflife' 'subterranean current the 'subterranean mode, the more more elaborate elaborate mode, and moment and every moment at every lives at our lives of our course of common course most common the most occupy the can occupy that that can always return we can ways: we unforeseeable ways: often unforeseeable and often unexpected and in in the the most most unexpected can always return manner, deliberate manner, moredeliberate in aamore unexpectedly or state, unexpectedly re-evoke this and and re-evoke this state, or in in involved in ourselves involved are ourselves we are when we or when especially especially when when we we encounter encounter the the arts arts or process. a creative process. the from the that, from libido that, the libido conception of Jung's conception of Jung's source of the source This This is is the of the entitled Wandlungen publication publication of of his his book book entitled Wandlungenund and Symbole Symboleder der Lihi(fo Libido in in sexuality. ofsexuality. theory of Freudian theory the Freudian 9 1 1 - 1 9 1 2, places 11911-1912, placeshim him in in opposition opposition to to the differentiated in differentiated specification in its specification despite its ( 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 1 2), despite J ung (1911-1912), According According to to Jung show potentially show can potentially libido can the libido object, the choice of every choice in every thus in impulses impulses and and thus of object, always it always sensorial as polymorphous, elementary animated, polymorphous, itself itself as as animated, elementary and and sensorial as it experienced areexperienced thatare pulsations that archaic pulsations most archaic and most organic and the organic was, was, through through the body. in the body. As aa childhood. As to childhood. constantly to looks constantly strength, looks his strength, is his this is Freud, Freud, and and this as transference, as oftransference, conditions of the conditions in the relive in and relive find and clinician, clinician, he he seeks seeks to to find marked, that marked, moments that the moments possible, the emotionally as circumstantially circumstantially and and emotionally as possible, one inone on, in there on, from there and from childhood, and earliest childhood, from earliest us from deformed us formed formed and and deformed the of the theory of the theory produce the to produce sets out he sets Then he lives or stage stage of of our our lives or another. another. Then out to psycho­ His psychosexuality. His oursexuality. ofour course of the course in the passed in all passed have all we have that we 'stages' 'stages' that the is the This is movement. This retrospective movement. same retrospective the same in the inscribed in is inscribed analysis analysis of of art art is or more or explicative, more his explicative, and his psychobiography and for psychobiography predilection for his predilection source source of of his past, the past, in the happened in have happened might have what might of what ypothetical, reconstructions less �hypothetical, less reconstructions of as his Childhood, and hisChildhood, ofhis Memory of and aa Memory Vinci and Leonardo da text Leonardo hiS text as his da Vinci and his show. San-Pietro-in-Vincoli show. at San-Pietro-in-Vincoli analysis analysis of Moses at reflections, theoreticalreflections, and practiceand clinicalpractice his part,ininhis his part, for his Jung, for Jung, clinical theoretical that present developing A present. the of man a more be to himself shows shows himself to be more a man of the present. A developing present that and childhood earliest of shackles inherited its from liberate to seeks he he seeks to liberate from its inherited shackles of earliest childhood, and llow. ; f to tries he potentiality current and tensions whose importantly more more importantly whose tensions and current potentiality he tries to follow. are we are that we art that of art psychoanalysis of the psychoanalysis We see We see this this clearly clearly in in the the two two texts texts on on the method Jung's of dimension different a reveals them of Each with. dealing dealing with. Each of them reveals a different dimension of Jung's method

t hough t . and thought. and

3 3 8 Christian C h ri stian Gaillard G a i l l ard 338

From the From the focus focus on on countertransference countertransferenceto to the the introduction introduction of of 'functions' `functions' In his his study study of of Joyce's Joyce's Ulysses, only accepted accepted the the shock shock and and Jung not only Ulysses, Jung In destabilisation he felt when when encountering encountering this this work, work, but butalso alsoexplicitly explicitly destabilisation he felt expressed their own own movement, movement, could could have have expressed these these reactions reactions that, that, if if left to their easily have reject this those that that are are similar similar to to it. it. easily have led led him him to to reject this work work and and all those His attention attention was was deliberately deliberately placed placed on the the vivid vivid and andviolent violentcountercounter­ His transference that seized and animated him, him, mobilising mobilising the the reactions reactions of ofhis his transference that seized both as as someone someone from from the theupper uppermiddle middleclass classtrained trainedininclassical classical thoughts both humanities, psychiatrist quick quick to torecognise recognise and andqualify qualify without without humanities, and and as aa psychiatrist complaisance in the the complaisance the disorders of psychopathology. Simultaneously and in same countertransferential manner he he mobilised mobilised the the reactions reactions of ofhis hisfeelfeel­ same countertransferential ings, most negative. negative. Feelings Feelingsof ofself-defence, self-defence, self-preservation self-preservation ings, including the most and rejection, rejection, all the the more more virulent virulent since since the the menace menace that thathe hethen thenperceived perceived threatened only his his personal culture culture and and his his hereditary hereditary culture, culture, but butalso also threatened not only his most most intimate intimate values, values, his his predilection predilection for for and and his hisengagements engagements in in his eq uilibrium and ideally ideally peaceful, peaceful, harmonious harmonious happiness. happiness. equilibrium Further, act of of writing, writing, Jung Jung is is brought brought to to state statemore more and andmore more Further, in the act or precisely that side of precisely that Joyce's Joyce's work work decidedly decidedlydoes doesnot not place place him him on on the side tthinking hinking and feeling, feeling, but rather rather on on the theside sideof ofthe theexercise exercise of ofperception, perception, or or more his literary artistic perusals, perusals, the the common common more exactly exactly sensation, sensation, which which his literary and and artistic expectations his intellectual intellectual training, and his his moral moral and andaesthetic aestheticvalues values expectations of of his training, and had as good good as as failed failed to to acquaint acquaint him him with. with. had as ( I 932a) writes writes that that Joyce Joyce Inspired his own own reactions reactions as as aa reader, reader, Jung Jung(1932a) Inspired by by his presents case of ofvisceral visceral thinking thinking with with severe severe restriction restriction of ofcerebral cerebra l presents 'a 'a case ill activity its confinement confinement to the perceptual perceptual processes' processes' (par. ( par. 166). 1 66). And And in activity and and its to the such way that that in in reading reading this this author author 'one 'oneisisdriven driventotounqualified unqualified such aa way admiration for Joyce's Joyce's feats feats in in the the sensory sensory sphere: sphere: what what he hesees, sees, hears, hea rs, admiration for tastes. well as as outwardly, outwardly, is is beyond beyond measure measure tastes, smells, smells, touches, touches, inwardly inwardly as as well astonishing' ( ibid.). astonishing' (ibid.). So now Jung is just of this this work work as as he he is is reticent reticent and and irritated irritall'd So now Jung is just as as admiring admiring of hy it. But how can he negotiate such ambivalence and progress like lhe the by it. But how can he negotiate such ambivalence and progress like nnovel o ve l itself'? He progresses and deepens h i s exploration and his reflect iolt itself? He progresses and deepens his exploration and his reflection hecause his intuition intuition that that guides guides him. him. He He isis entreated, entreated, having having made made because itit is is his roOIll ror his immediate countertransferential reactions in order to be III0 Il' room for his immediate countertransferential reactions in order to he more aware or them, to go beyond and thwart them. This will allow him t o l ocak aware of them, to go beyond and thwart them. This will allow him to locale and perhaps even even accept accept to to explore explore the the unfamiliar unfamiliar regions, regions, registers, registers, and altd and perhaps Illodalities of experience of himself, others, and th e worl d . modalities experience of himself, others, and the world. he text h rough the t he hid bid he he T h i s exercise This exerciseof of intuition intuition manifests manifests itself itselfi nin tthe text tthrough ma kes ror the importance of the work despite k nowing the impacl l ha makes for the importance of the work despite knowing the impact thatl itit hhad, a d . and and still s t i l l has, has. on on the t he course course of ofcontemporary contempora ry literature litera t ure (par. ( pa r. 181) IXI ) And. more i mlllediately. because it is his had temper t h a t i ncites him III And, more immediately, because it is his bad temper that incites him to tthink h i n k ((par. pa r. 168). 1 (IX ) . Above A hoVL' all, a l l . because IX'l"
The arts 339 T h e arts 339

shadows, waltmg waitingfor for the the sense sense such such aa text text can can bring shadows, bring tto o the the reader, reader, for for following as as best best as as he he can can this this Ulysses whatever Ithaca he might find while following (par. 191). 1 9 1 ). Here, the Here, the Jungian Jungian reader reader will will have have evidently evidently recognised recognised the the Jung's Jung's psychology of of the the 'functions psychology 'functions that that orientate orientate the theconsciousness': consciousness': thinking, thinking, feeling, sensation sensation and and intuition. This psychology had been outlined by Jung feeling, Jung early as 1916, and it is to be found already as early 1 9 1 6, and already highly highly developed developed in one one of of his his 1 92 1 . So we early, cardinal cardinal works entitled Psychological Types, published in 1921. Why does does Jung Jung not cite this book? Why does does he not cite can be surprised. surprised. Why himself? Why, Why, in in his his text text on Joyce, Joyce, does he not recall, himself? recall, even in passing, this theory of 'functions' 'functions' which which was was one one of of the the ways ways he he used used to to develop develop his his own own 'meta psychology'? `metapsychology'? Jung has other things to do than to to resort resort to to invoking invoking or or evoking evoking theory, theory, even his his own. own. He He does even does not care to to brandish, brandish, or oreven even simply simply mention, mention, his his methodologicaland and theoretical theoretical acquisitions. acquisitions.Jung Junggoes goes back back to to work, methodological work, remobilises and and reworks his his thought at each remobilises each stage, stage, even even if he has to remodel and reformulate and reformulate his his most most established established acquisitions acquisitions in in sometimes sometimes rather rather markedly different modes. Actually, this this is is one one of ofthe the constant constantdifficulties difficulties in in reading Jung's written works and and also also in in teaching teaching his his analytical analytical psychology, psychology, notably in in university. university. Jung truly works on his his texts texts and and on on himself himself in in the the present. present. We We must must then then determine, determine, locate locate and renew these these acquisitions acquisitions and tools, in the progression of his rst consequence his texts. texts. The The fi first consequence of of this this isis that that concerning concerning his his approach approach to the nothing is more foreign freq uent in the arts nothing foreign to to him him than the temptation, so frequent psychoanalysis, 'applied psychoanalysis'. psychoanalysis'. psychoanalysis, to to proceed to 'applied A for those those who who follow follow him, him, the the A second second consequence consequence isis that that for Jung, Jung, and and for tension manifests itself, itself, notably notably through through our ourcountertransferential countertransferential tension that manifests reactions between the reactions when when faced facedwith withaa work work of of art art or or a patient, between the ego ego that that suffers bring suffers and and defends defends itself itself and and the unconscious that menaces, does not bring him, of the first first 'topography' 'topography' might mighthave haveliked, liked, to todeal dealdirectly directly him, as as the the Freud of with the opposition with opposition between between 'impulses 'impulses of of self-preservation' self-preservation' and and 'sexual 'sexual impulses', identified by clinically found impulses', such such as as they they can can be identified by theory and clinically found in one's life story, possible from as early early as as childhood. childhood. one's life story, if possible Jung's approach approach takes takes another another turn. turn. It Jung's It offers offers another hold hold on on this this tenten­ sion and contradiction, sion contradiction, derived derived from from the theperceptively perceptively and andtheoretically theoretically different relations between between the ego and the the different dialectic dialecticand and dynamic dynamic of of the the relations the ego unconscious, of his his concept concept unconscious, more more immediately immediately present. present. This This is is the the source of and his practice practice of the involvement involvement of orientate our and his of the the 'functions' 'functions' that that orientate consciousness. consciousness. In case of his his debate debate with with Joyce, Joyce, we we see see Jung Jung progress. progress. Initially Initially he he In the the case experiences the heights of misguided thought shocked by its own reasoning, experiences the heights of misguided thought categories reactions of feeling feeling that finds its its categoriesand and expectations, expectations,the the hurt hurt reactions that finds appre ci ate d , accepted and acclaimed values usurped, and thus seeks its own appreciated, accepted and thus seeks its own mea ns ooff evaluation. evaluation. Then Then sensation sensation is is mobilised, mobilised, progressing progressing through through means

340 Christian 340 C h ristian Gaillard Gail lard



The 341 Thearts arts 341

sometimes the the most most elementary elementary of tastes, tastes, touch, scents, bringing him finally sometimes to play off the senses against sense. to senses sense. and guided IInspired nspired and guided by Joyce's Joyce's writing, writing, which which comes comes to toprogressively progressively modify his own, and also by his clinical practice and the anterior modify his own, and also his clinical practice anterior acquisiacquisi­ tions of his analytical Jung rejoins tions analytical psychology, psychology, Jung rejoins one of of the the most most manifest manifest and most most disturbing disturbing themes themes of ofmodernity modernity-- or postmodernity - which, and which, not not without clashes clashes with or violence against against our cultural without cultural heritage, heritage, seeks seeks to to make make feeling live live through through sensation. feeling Images down down below Images

A displacement displacement of of the the central central focus focus of of the the attention given A given to a work of of art art and the accompaniment accompaniment itit requires requires can can hardly hardly be be self-motivated, self-motivated, even even taking taking into consideration aa sufficiently sufficiently Jungian clinical clinical practice practice of of the the relationship relationship to the unconscious. unconscious. A way must be found to to execute execute the passage from one function to another function another through through an anaxial axialmobilisation mobilisation of ofsensation. sensation.These Thesetexts texts on Joyce and Picasso Picasso show show how. how. Our reader will Our will have have understood understood that the the psychoanalysis psychoanalysis of art art comcom­ mitted to following in in Jung's footsteps mitted footsteps cannot cannot become become yet yet another another applied applied psychoanalysis.But But an an assiduous assiduous reader reader of Jung's psychoanalysis. Jung's writings writings and and Jungian Jungian literature could be tempted all the same to ask what role in Jung's Jung's approach approach will be be played played by by the the complementary, complementary, compensatory and even will even contradictory movements not not only between movements between thought and and feeling, feeling, between between intuition intuition and and sensation, but but also sensation, also between between an extraverted extraverted attitude attitude and and an anintroverted introverted attitude. These These movements are another another axis axis of ofJung's Jung'sreflection reflection and and theory theory on to the world and and to our on our our everyday everyday relationships relationships to the exterior exterior world our interior interior world. Jung l u n g does does not not call call up uphis hisconcepts conceptsofofcomplementarity, complementarity,compensation compensation and contradiction contradiction in in these these texts, texts, any any more morethan thanhe heexplicitly explicitlyuses useshis hispsypsy­ chology of functions. it. functions. He does not think think about about his his approach. approach.He Heobserves observes it. Ile And what does ohserves himself. himself. And does he h e see? see? That That at a tpage page135 1 35of o fJoyce's Joyce \ l i e observes enormous wrestled and and stuck stuck with enormous novel, novel, after after having having defended, defended, wrestled with it, it. he Ill' suddenly Suddenly, but not s u d d e n l y fell fell asleep. asleep. Suddenly, not without without having havinglocated locatedthe theprecise prec i se moment momen t when this incident incident occurred occurred and and sleep sleep interrupted interrupted his his debate debate with wi t h the t he work work in in question: question: in i n his his text text he h epainstakingly painstakingly indicates indicates the the page page where wherl' this event took place. place. Furthermore, Furthermore, he he cites cites in in aa footnote, footnote, the thesentence sen tence that that contained 'the narcotic narcotic that thatswitched switchedoff offmy m yconsciousness, consciousness, activating ac t iva t ing a (/ still still l'o n t a i ned 'the .

unconscious III/('ol/.l·cious train of ot'thought thoughtwhich which consciousness consciousness would would only only have have disturbed' distilI'lli'd '

I( pa par. r. 165, 1 65, n. n . 5; 5; the the emphasis emphasis isismine). mine). What Whatdoes doesthis t h i ssentence sen tencesay'? say" IiI t describes describes 'a man m a n supple supple in i ncombat: combat: stonehorned, stonehorned. stonebearded, st o ne hea rd ed. heart hea rt of 01 stone. s t onc, .. ., . . that thatstone s toneeffigy effigy in infrozen frozen music, m usic. horned horned and a n d terrible, terri hie. of orthe t he human lim11 divine, d i vine. that t h a t eternal eternal symbol s y mho l of ofwisdom w i sdom and a n d prophecy'. prophec y 'llw TIll' h U l l l a n form figure l i � l I I'c is is immediately immcd i a t c l y recognisable: rccognisahlc: iti t isis Moses! M oses! The TheMoses, M oses .Jung .l u n gspecifies specilksinI I I Ihe salllt' note, noll" who ' w h orefused rd'lI st'd to t o he I ll'cowed l' o we d by by the t he might m i g h t of 0 1 'Egypt'. I ': gypt ' , t ill' same

And And from from here hereon onJung's Jung's text texton on Ulysses, Ulysses, which whichhe hehad had announced announced in in the the subheading monologue', becomes text with with two two voices. voices. The The subheading as as 'a 'a monologue', becomes in in fact fact aa text first the pages, pages, his his initial initial irritated irritated first voice voice still still expresses, expresses,ininthe thetop top of of the reactions. the left left hand, hand, reactions. From From this this footnote footnote onwards, onwards, written written as as if if with with the comes self, in depths of of his his comes from from afar afar the the second second voice, voice, from from his his distant distant self, in the the depths sleep, oses. who sleep, presenting presenting the the emblematic emblematicfigure figureof of M Moses, who isis decidedly decidedly at at the the heart heart of of his his ambivalence ambivalence towards towards Ulysses. Ulysses. Jung's Jung's contradictory contradictory debate debatewith withthis thiswork, work,and and with with an an entire entire part part of of contemporary will of sudden contemporary art, art, will of course course continue. continue. But But from from here here on, on, after after sudden appearance figure of Moses in his reading reading of of Joyce, Joyce, the the form form of of the the appearance of of the the figure of Moses in his debate can now now follow follow closely closely on on Joyce's Joyce's heels, heels, underunder­ debate will will change. change. Jung Jung can stand accompany him in his his revolt revolt and and his his revolution revolution against against traditradi­ stand and and accompany him in tional morals and and aesthetics. aesthetics. For For Joyce Joyce these these were were Thomist Thomist tional thoughts, thoughts, morals Aristotelian to leave leave Vienna Vienna after after Aristotelian and and Irish-Catholic; Irish-Catholic;for for Jung, Jung, who who had had to having as Joyce Joyce was was in in exile exile from Dublin -. having left left the the religion religion of of his his fathers fathers -- as from Dublin they the heart heart of of his his debate debate with with Freudian Freudian psychopsycho­ they were were the the values values at at the analysis, Freud himself, himself, where tall figure figure of M oses appeared appeared analysis, and and with with Freud where the the tall of Moses more more clearly. clearly. more and more At the risk risk of of seeming seeming Lacanian, Lacanian, it it must must be be noted noted and andemphasised emphasised here here At the that the backdrop backdrop of of Jung's Jung's debate debate with with Joyce's Joyce's Ulysses that the Ulysses is is composed composed of of Freud's avowed admiration admiration of of Michelangelo's M ichelangelo's Moses. how can Freud's avowed Moses. Moreover Moreover -- how can it not have have been been seen seen or or heard heard as as so, so, even even if if Jung Jung apparently apparently does does not not say say it not anything 's name of Joyce anything about about it? it?-- Freud Freud's name in in German, German, and and that that of Joyce in in English English are they overlap, overlap, one one being being able able to to are so so closely closely related related by by their their meanings meanings that that they hide other; they they can can be be superimposed, superimposed, or or even even brought brought to to signify signify each each hide the the other; other. In such such aa way way that that Jung's Jung's debate debate with with Joyce Joyce is is revealed revealed to to be be also also aa other. In debate with Freud, Freud, Freudian Freudian psychoanalysis psychoanalysis and most notably notably with with the the debate with and most Freudian psychoanalysis of art. Freudian psychoanalysis of art. But he struggles struggles and debates with with it it as as aa psychoanalyst. psychoanalyst. In In his his own own way, way, But he and debates of course. This This manner manner is is patently patently and and voluntarily voluntarilyfigurative. figurative. The The figure figure of of of course. allows him him to to advance. advance. Moses Moses embodies embodies Jung's Jung's debate debate with with Ulysses Ulysses and and allows Especially when here on on Especially when one one examines examines the the succession succession of of images images that that from from here come to support, contain, contain, and and feed feed Jung's Jung's thought. thought. come to support, Ulysses appeared appeared to to him him as as 'infernally 'infernally Jung (1932a) ( 1 932a) initially Jung initially wrote wrote that that Ulysses nugatory', like like 'a 'a brilliant brilliant and and hellish hellish monster-birth' monster-birth' (par. (par. 165). 1 65). Then Then he he nugatory', noted that this this 'novel' 'novel' can canbe be read read backwards backwards for foreach each phrase phrase presents presents itself itself noted that as aa whole, whole, self-contained, self-contained, and and even even stopping stopping mid-sentence mid-sentence 'the 'the first first half half as still makes sense enough live by least seems seems to'. He continues continues still makes sense enough to to live by itself, itself, or or at at least to'. He this sensorial sensorial metaphor, or rather rather lets lets itit live live its its own own life: life: 'The 'The whole whole work work this metaphor, or has the character of a worm cut in half, that can grow a new head or a new has the character of a worm cut in half, that can grow a new head or a new tail as required' ( par. 1 65). Then he adds: tail as required' (par. 165). Then he adds:

',

There we we have have it, it, the thecold-blooded cold-blooded unrelatedness unrelatedness of of his his mind mindwhich which There seems to come from the saurian in him or from still lower regions seems to come from the saurian in him or from still lower regions

342 Christian 342 C h ristian Gaillard Gail lard

conversation in and conversation and with with one's one'sown ownintestines intestines— - aa man of of stone, he with the horns of the of stone, stone, the the stony stonybeard, beard,the thepetrified petrifiedintestines, intestines, Moses, Moses, turning his his back back with turning with stony stony unconcern unconcern on the the flesh-pots flesh-pots and gods gods of Egypt, of Egypt, and also also on on the the reader, reader, thereby thereby outraging outraging his his feelings feelings of of good will. good will. (Jung 1932a: (lung 1 932a: par. 168) 1 68 ) Finally, the Finally, inexpressiblyrich rich and and myriad-faceted language unfolds unfolds itself in inexpressibly myriad-faceted language itself in passages that that creep passages creep along along tapeworm tapeworm fashion, fashion , terribly terribly boring boring and and monotonous, but the monotonous, the very very boredom and monotony monotony of of itit attain attainan anepic epic grandeur that that makes makes the the book book aa Mahabharata Mahabharata of the world's grandeur world's futility futility and squalor. squalor. ((par. par. 194) 1 94) Thus Joyce's writing provokes these these images images of of a hell hell of of stone, stone, monsters monsters and and saurians, of of solitary are returned saurians, solitary worms, worms, which which are returned to to and and adjusted adjusted over over and over, over, centring centring around the the figure figure of of the the terrible terrible stone stone prophet. prophet. These These images lead him to the close recognition of images of the art art of ofaawriter writerto tosmell, smell,taste, taste, listen, look, feel, feel, and and so so to write , look, listen write and and compose compose his his 'novel', 'novel ' , to to create create an an unprecedented work work without without equal, unprecedented equal, and a truly truly initiatory initiatory impact. impact. Through Through this of images images that that are this succession succession of are at at first first opaque, opaque,cumbersome, cumbersome, inopporinoppor­ tune, frankly archaic and and always tune, frankly deranging, deranging, clearly clearly archaic always intimately intimately tied tied to to Joyce's writing, writing, the progressive progressive understanding and then then the theintelligence intelligence of of tthe he work which Jung Jung failed failed to to perceive perceive at at first, first, rise rise up up and andgain gainsubstance substanceas as he h e writes. writes. This This process process of trial trial and and error, error,a afigurative, figurative,prospective prospective and and quasiquasi­ visionary though initially initially nocturnal and v is io n a ry approach — - though and always always weighed weighed down dowll by hy sensation se nsat ion --shows showsJung's Jung'smethod method to tobe beininstark starkcontrast contrastwith with the thl' retrospective reconstruction Freud Freud undertook undertook in in front of ret ro spec t ive reconstruction of the Moses aatt SanSall­ Pietro-in-Vincoli. Jung deliberately deliberatelyallows allows himself himselfto to dream; dream; this is Piet ro-in- Vincoli. Jung is the t hl' starting starting point point of of his his thought thought as ashe hemethodically methodically seeks seeks and and finds finds in in the t ill' images from the the darkness darkness of of his i mages tthat h a t emerge emerge from his night, night, his his own own mode mode or of progressively progress ively controlled objectivity. objectivity. This strange strange way way of ofproceeding, proceeding, uncanny, uncanny, deliberately deliberately dramatised d ramatised and and inevitably adventurous, underminesthe the Freudian Freudian lesson lesson and and opens inevitably advent u rous, undermines opcns up up another II lIot her direction d i rect ion for for psychoanalysis. psychoanalysis. Admittedly, Admittedly, this this might might seems secms unsurunsll l ­ prising to ask of prising to t o the the clinician c l i n i ci a n accustomed accustomed to o f theory theory only only orientation orientation and and support in in the the best best possible possible relationship rela t ionship to to the t he work work of ofunconscious, u nconsciolls, but hut

might lIli!{ht seriously scriously disorientate disorientate the intellectual i ntellectual who worries worries about a bout the t he archi a rdll fixture I cd u rc of of his his understanding. understand ing. Especially Especial l y because beca use Jungian J ungian thought, thought.'analyti'anal )1 1 1 cal l'al psychology' psychology' as a s practised pract ised by b yJung .l u ngand andhis h i follower's, s followcrs,isi sitself i l sd fnecessarily nlTl'ssa ll lv influenced I Illlul'nl'cd by this t h is way way of ofproceeding. procl'l'd ing.

The rts 343 343 Theaarts

The development of Jung's thought thought was was manifestly manifestly and and deliberately deliberately The development of Jung's figurative figurativeand and dramatised, dramatised, notably notably in in his his encounters encounters with with the the arts. arts. And this is ourselves, following his lead. is the the way way we we think ourselves,

Figures presences Figures and and presences Jung's Picasso's work work will will allow allow us us to to draw draw out outmore moreprecisely precisely his his Jung's essay essay on on Picasso's approach I n this this essay, essay, Jung Jung shows shows the same same approach in in his his relationship relationship to to the the arts. In initially he expressed expressed regard­ initially negative negative bewilderment bewilderment over over the the paintings paintings that that he regarding is also also concerned. concerned. ing Joyce. Joyce. But But here he is H is concern clinician. For For what what does does he he observe observe in in 1932 1 932 in the His concern is is that that of a clinician. continuing continuing work work of of Picasso? Picasso?That That the the dominant dominant colour colour in the first period period of of Picasso's Zurich, is Picasso's paintings, paintings, such such as as they they were were exposed exposedat at Kunsthaus Kunsthaus in in Zurich, blue. is approaching. approaching. blue. A A midnight midnight blue, blue, in fact. Night is So least for if not not the the So there there is is plenty plenty to to be be concerned concerned about. about. At At least for the the artist, artist, if analyst through his his own own practice practice knows knows full full well well that that once oncewe we allow allow analyst who who through the experiences and representations that of our our darkest darkest the experiences and the the representations that come come out out of interior emerge, we losing our light as as well well as as our our bearings bearings interior regions regions to to emerge, we risk risk losing our light and perspectives. An also knows knows that that this this process, process, once once we we go go along along and perspectives. An analyst analyst also with and accept accept it, it, can can happen happen over over sometimes sometimes a a very very long long time, time, at at an an with it it and extremely pace. extremely slow pace. But observation and and reflection reflection continue. continue. Jung Jung(1932b) ( 1 932b ) emphasises emphasises But Jung's Jung's observation that this blue blue strangely strangely resembles resembles 'the Tuat-blue of of the the Egyptian Egyptian underunder­ that this 'the Tuat-blue world' ( par. 2 1 0), and that disturbing figures present themselves the world' (par. 210), and that disturbing figures present themselves in in the painter's work. First, we see a clearly distraught woman who seems to look painter's work. First, we see a clearly distraught woman who seems to look at us, her her child child in in her her arms; arms; then then a a young young prostitute, prostitute, apparently apparently tubercular tubercular at us, and syphilitic. Soon both figures give way to a multitude of 'fragments, and syphilitic. Soon both figures give way to a multitude of 'fragments, fractures, disorganized units' ( par. fractures, discarded discarded remnants, remnants, debris, debris, shreds, shreds, and and disorganized units' (par. 2210), 1 0) , and finally the tragic figure of the Harlequin appears. He is sometimes and finally the tragic figure of the Harlequin appears. He is sometimes represented full, but but forcibly forcibly in in pieces, pieces, sometimes sometimes merely merely suggested suggested here here represented in in full, and there, from one painting to another, by the bottle of wine or the lute and there, from one painting to another, by the bottle of wine or the lute that are his exclusive possessions, or still more erratically by the 'bright that are his exclusive possessions, or still more erratically by the 'bright lozenges of costume' (par. ( par. 212). 2 1 2). lozenges of his his jester's jester's costume' This frightens lung. H e wonders how is possible possible not not to to see see here, here, as as in in This frightens Jung. He wonders how itit is Joyce's novel, the all too familiar ruptures of which schizophrenics are so Joyce's novel, the all too familiar ruptures of which schizophrenics are so commonly victims. chosen to to commonly victims. What What will will become become of of Picasso, Picasso, he he who who has has chosen frequent so many literally deconstructed figures and forms, such hopelessly frequent so many literally deconstructed figures and forms, such hopelessly and ruin? ruin? fatal debris and Will Jung's approach become psychobiographical, psychobiographical, contrary contrary to to what what we we Will Jung's approach become have seen up until now? Indeed not. For he does not at any time in this text have seen up until now? Indeed not. For he does not at any time in this text make the the smallest smallest allusion allusion to the artist's artist's life, life, to to his hischildhood childhood trials trials and and make to the tribulations, or to his his adventures adventures of of the the moment, moment, notably notably that that of ofmeeting meeting tribulations, or to young Marie-Therese M a rie -T h erese Walter. he paid paid no no attention attention totoJoyce's .Joyce'slife l i fe young Walter. Just Just as as he

344 Christian C h ristian Gaillard G a i l lard 344



The 345 The arts arts 345

throughout critique of his his novel. novel. Jung's Jung's observations observations and and interpretainterpreta­ throughout the critique tions go in in this this direction. direction. tions do not go On the On the contrary, contrary, what what attracts attracts and and maintains maintains his his attention attention is is the the dynamics seen through through its its manifest manifest and and actual actualexpressions, expressions, dynamics of the work as seen especially e knows of especially the the figures figurespresented presentedand and represented. represented. HHe knows the the virtue of images images when when one one finds finds oneself oneself in in such such aa universe, universe, so so dark, dark, cold, lugubrious and primitive as to risk risk mortal mortal decomposition. decomposition. He He even even learned learned for forhis his own own guidance (cf. Reflections, ch. I I ) and as a therapist to (cf. Memories, Memories, Dreams, Reflections, ch. V VII) allow images including images such as these, that that they they can can be be images to to take form, including the foundation foundation of aa method method that thathelps helps totocontain containoverly overlydangerous, dangerous, the menacing face them them and and menacing scissions scissions(par. (par. 207), 207), while while allowing allowingthe the ego ego to face hetter what itit isis dealing dealing with. with. better understand what Following 'feeling tone complexes' complexes' and imago.I', imagos, Following his his first first observations observations on on 'feeling this attention given given to the dramatic dramatic figuration figuration of the the relationship relationship to to the the this attention to the unconscious propose concepts concepts that thatare arethemselves themselvesfigurative, figurative, unconscious leads leads Jung to propose d ramatisedand andeven even— - surprisingly forconcepts concepts— - gendered. These These concepts concepts dramatised surprisingly for themselves like like so many many of present themselves and the the self present of shadow, shadow, anima, anima, animus, animus, and other; they give the the clinician, clinician, or need be be the the they serve serve to to give or if need figures of the the other; gures of fi analysand, a concrete, concrete, sensitive sensitive hold diverse states and stages stages of of the hold on the diverse confrontation with with the the unconscious unconscious (Gaillard (Gaillard 2003a). 2003a). In these essays essays on thc arts, arts, Jung Jung rarely rarely mentions mentions these these concepts concepts of of his his In on the analytical psychology. He does not state them, but he does use them, They analytical psychology. He does but he does use them. They hecome scrutiny in his his exploration exploration and and attempts attempts at atanalysing analysing become methods methods of scrutiny tthe he works of art that that have have imposed imposed themselves themselves on him at at various various points points of of his life and work. Moreover, as we will see further on, this way of thinking, his life Moreover, as we will on, this way of thinking, fullest sense, sense, characterises characterises each stage stage of ofhis his develdevel­ which which is is imaging imaging in the fullest opment, and and also also provides provides the the basis basis for forthe theuse useJungian Jungianclinicians cliniciansstill still make make d rawn, painted, sculpted or modelled images in the course of drawn, painted, sculpted or modelled images in the course of aa of psychoanalysis. be found found in in psychoanalysis. More More generally, generally, this this way way of of thinking thinking can can also be mllny therapy. many contemporary contemporary methods methods of art therapy. We between art and therapy, therapy, We will will come come back back to to this intimate interaction between hut for for the t he moment let us Jung's relationship relationship to to the thearts. arts. We We must must but us return return to Jung's understand means in his his clinical clinical practice practice and then in in his his theory theory to to understand what it means IIccompany figures and and form form and andcan ca n accompany the figures and presences presences that that can take shape and ('ven have voice, once once we they are and, and, ififneed need be, be, take take even have a voice, we accept accept them them as they pllrt i n their t heir expression expression and and possible possible evolution. evolution. part in This attention given initially autochthonous autochthonous personification of initially This attention given to to the the person!fication ex pre ss io n s of he unconscious fanta s y or work work of ofart, arl . expressions of tthe unconscious work work in in aa dream, dream, fantasy IIlld even in i n psychoanalytical psychoanalytical theory, theory, evidently evidently proceeds proceeds from from the thc personal pe rsona l and even eexperience x pe r ience of he analyst the same same time t ime from from a; 1 oft the analyst inin this this matter, matter, and and at the lconstant on s ta n t hid hid for for the t he spontaneous spontaneouscompetence competence of ofthe t heunconscious unconscioustotoexpress eXprl'S\ it sl'lf asa Chomsky, s ( ho m s ky,after afterJung, .l ung,will w i l l show. show itself hlrt her, if i f one one wants wan t s to to advance advance in in this this mode, mode, one one must m ust first f i rst learn lea rn to to see Sl'l' Further, .

'

'

.

tthings h i ll�s in ill perspective, pL'l"spect iw, which rnin� in pract ice to t o consider considl'r aa which l'ntails entails ka learning in practice

painting, a sculpture, sculpture, or or any any work work of ofart art— - or a dream dream for for that thatmatter— matter- not as but as as aa moment as a punctual, punctual, isolated event to be individually interpreted, but in a process in process whose remains uncertain, uncertain, but butwhose whosemanifestations manifestations whose end end remains demand to be considered and accompanied accompanicd at at the thc rhythm, rhythm, sometimes sometimes slow, slow, of their transformations.

Sharing work in in progress progress Sharing work This within a series precede This consideration consideration of of aa work work of art, art, within series of of works works that precede and follow follow it, it, is one of of the the important important lessons lessons to to be be learnt learnt from fromthese these texts texts on the arts. arts, We We see see that that the the Jungian Jungian approach approachisisclearly clearly distinguished distinguished from from the psychoanalysis of the contrary, contrary, following following Freud's Freud's the types types of psychoanalysis of art art that, on the first more contemporary contemporary interest first works works on on slips slips of of the the tongue, tongue, and the more interest of Lacanian interpretation of the the key key signifiers signifiers of an entire entire Lacanian analysts analysts for for the the interpretation life's isolate the the event, event, or or even even the the incident, incident, as as if if it it could could life's work, work, and tend to isolate make sense sense in and of make ofitself. itself. As of such such work work in in progress, progress, Jung lung when when As for the often uncertain outcome of faced as we we have have seen, seen, shows shows faced with with loyce's Joyce's Ulysses Ulysses and Picasso's paintings, as concern. is concern such a concern. HHis concernisis real. real. He He wonders wondershow how far far we we can can go go in in such descent most archaic archaic and and dangerously dangerously fragmented fragmented part of descent towards towards the the most part of ourselves, what price. price, ourselves, and and at what Which say that that here, here, the thepreoccupation preoccupation of of the the psychoanalyst psychoanalyst is is Which isis to say ethical. psychoanalysis of that of ofan anengaged engaged observer observer who who ethical. lung's Jung's psychoanalysis of art art is that feels to, and and even even in inhis hisrole roleasasclinician clinicianresponsible responsible for, for, feels that that he he is party to, what manifestly produced him. Jung's lung's capacity capacity to seize seize the what is is manifestly produced so so close close to to him. central process at quite a different different scale scale from of aa lone lone central themes themes of of aa process at quite from that that of individual — - the tribulationsof ofhis hisown ownlife life— - now has theartist artist in in the the trials trials and tribulations the arts. the full full impact of his analysis of the arts. As Picasso's painting painting progresses, progresses, we see lung, while while As his his article on Picasso's see that that Jung, firmly experience as psychoanalyst, firmly anchored anchored in in his experience as psychopathologist psychopathologist and and psychoanalyst, again hell, the again evokes evokes the the descent descent into into hell, the nekyia, nekyia, structurally structurally similar similar to to the versions or even even Nietzsche. Nietzsche. By By combining combining his reading of of versions in in Homer, Homer, Goethe or Ulysses of Picasso's Picasso's paintings, paintings, he he now now restates restates with with increasing increasing Ulysses with with that of insistence merciless destruction ancient worlds, worlds, insistence the the necessity necessity of of aa merciless destruction of the ancient their convictions and aesthetics, when another dynamic seeks to be tried out out in contradictions of the moment. moment. His H is considerations considerations of the price price of aa in the contradictions process doubly specified. specified. process of becoming are doubly He shows that only the clash clash of of opposites opposites can can give give birth to to aa revival, revival, He shows that only which we must must activate activate willingly, willingly, or at at least least with with necessary necessary concon­ which is is why why we sciousness, primitive, crudely archaic, archaic, elementarily elementarily bestial bestial underunder­ sciousness, our our most most primitive, hclly with the the always always somewhat somewhat disembodied disembodied heights of of the the belly in in its its tension with mind and Joyce loyce certainly certainly knows knows how how to toapply applythis! this! Jung lungalso alsoemphasises emphasises mind -- and that or totality totality which which seeks seeks to to be be tried tried out outwill will not notbe beachieved achieved by by that the unity or all idea l . perfectly perfectly balanced the effect effect of an ideal, balanced individual, individual,but but can can only only be be the of aa

346 Christian Ch ristian Gaillard G a i l lard 346

consciousness, shared the diversity diversity of of different, multiple consciousness, shared by by many, many, towards the world in in movement. movement. the world Here we we re-encounter re-encounter the the widening widening of ofscope scope of ofJungian Jungianpsychoanalysis psychoanalysis Here with respect respect to to the the question question of ofthe theunconscious. unconscious. Indeed I ndeed ifif Jung lung allows allows with himself comparisons those between between the the manifest manifest themes themes of ofJoyce's loyce's himself comparisons like like those novel or Picasso's painting the one one hand, hand, and and on on the theother otherthe thefigures figures novel or Picasso's painting on on the and presences presences that can be be observed observed in in many many works works of of art art other other than thanthese, these, and that can and in in completely completely different different cultural cultural spheres, spheres, it it isis because because these these themes themes and spontaneously depicted author or or the the painter painterseem seem to tobe berecurrent, recurrent, spontaneously depicted by by the the author in endless endless similar similar adventures. adventures. reiterated in typical. That That is is to to say say they they are are not not only only the theexpression expression of of fact typical. They are in fact work which which can can be be observed observed in in progress progress in in many many times times and and places, places, but but also also work of representation representation right right from from of aa common common structural the mark of structural organisation of its creation creation in in the the most most archaic archaic regions regions and and forms forms of ofexpression expression of of the the its psyche. Which why Jung lung calls calls them, them, from from the thelate late1910s 1 9 1 0sonwards, onwards, psyche. Which isis why archetypes. archetypes. H owever, in these texts texts on on the the psychoanalysis psychoanalysis of of art, art, Jung lungnever neverdwells dwells However, in these on the development development of of his his thoughts thoughts on on this thissubject, subject, neither neitherdoes doeshe hedevelop develop on the the other other major major articulations articulations of ofhis his psychology. psychology. Once Once again again itit isis the themost most the appropriate accompaniment of of the the works works he heisisconsidering considering which which presides presides appropriate accompaniment over the establishment establishment of any theory, theory, be be it it his his own. own. over the of any

From anxious accompaniment accompaniment to to acquiescence acquiescence From anxious In the spirit spirit of ofthis this not notindulgent indulgentbut butdeliberately deliberately open openaccompaniment, accompaniment, In the Jung remarks on Picasso's paintings paintings that that he he has has rarely rarely or orperhaps perhapsnever never Jung remarks on Picasso's seen not go go back back to to Neolithic Neolithic art art forms forms seen among among his his patients patients aa case case that that 'did 'did not or revc\ in in evocations evocations of of Dionysian Dionysian orgies' orgies' (par. ( par. 212). 2 1 2) . And And indeed indeed we Wl' or revel ohserve first black, black, but but also also propro­ observe in in Picasso's Picasso's paintings paintings aa jubilation, jubilation, at at first gressivc\y the Harlequin's Harleq uin's gressivelytranslated translatedby by the the colours colours already already contained contained in in the t he I:ost ume, that had led led to to the the edge edge of at the costume, that is is born born of of the the trial trial that that had of death, death, or or at very to the the doors doors of ofHades. Hades.Jung lunghimself himselfexperiences experiences this thisjubilation jubilatioll very least least to that he qualifies qualifies as in the the last last pages pages of of his his two two texts, texts, above above all all in in that he as Dionysian Dionysian in the that he he devoted devoted to to Joyce. loyce. (May ( May II point point out out here here that that jubilation, jubila tioll, the one one that enjoyment root of of the the writer's writer's name!). name!). ''0 0 UI)'.I'.I'£'.\ ' , hhe l' enjoyment and andjoy joy are are in in the the root Ulysses', . filially last page page of of the the essay, essay, finally writes writes in in the the last

ohiect-riddl'll you truly aa devotional devotional book book for forthe theobject-besotted, object-besotted, object-ridden you are are truly white arc aa spiritual spiritual exercise, exercise, an an ascetic ascetic discipline, disciplin � , an an agonago l l ­ white man! man! You You are a lemhics piled pi kd on Oil i/int-( t ual, an arcane procedure, proced ure, eighteen eighteen alchemical al c hem ical alembics izing riritual, an arcane top or one her, where mid acids, l i re and a lld top ()I' oneanot another, where aamid acids, poisonous poisonous I'umes, fumes, and and lire icc, homunculus of of ait new, new, universal universal consciousness consciousness isis distilled! dist illed ! ice, the the homunculus 1 2a : pa r. �( )) ) ((Jung .lung )I9.932a: 201) par.

The arts 347 The arts 347

A new universal consciousness? This is a new and and wide wide perspective, perhaps perhaps a promise, of which we could dream. But let us note promise, which we could dream. But let us note that the operation in in question question is far from from simple simple or or calm. calm. Trial, Trial, crisis crisis and and incertitude incertitude as as to to the the outcome rest at the the heart heart of ofthe the matter. matter.Jung's lung'sown ownwriting writingtestifies testifies to to that. that. What is is more, more, Jung lung may maywell well create create aatruly trulywide wideperspective perspective (Gaillard (Gaillard 2000b: 146), he is is nonetheless preoccupied by the 2000b: 1 46), he the experience experience and and suffering suffering of the artist who is is engaged in such a process. His concern concern for for Picasso's Picasso's fate fate is present present and insistent insistent throughout the the text text devoted devoted to to his his art. art.He Hewrites: writes: As to the future As future Picasso, Picasso, I would would rather not try try my my hand hand at at prophecy, prophecy, for this is aa hazardous affair and and can can lead for this inner inner adventure adventure is hazardous affair lead at any any moment to to a standstill moment standstill or to to aacatastrophic catastrophic bursting bursting asunder asunder of of the the conjoined opposites. opposites. (Jung 1932b: (lung 1 932b: par. 214) 2 14) Jung cannot cannot really lung really know what what could could be be the the fate fate of ofPablo Pablo Picasso. Picasso. But But let let us us note in passing note passing that time will will not prove him wrong for the painter's painter's work work will have have to to endure endure a time of crisis and and disturbing lack of will of productivity productivity after after until he he launches into his series 11932, 932, until launches himself himself into series of of etchings etchings centred on on the the fi gure of M inotaur. figure of the the blind Minotaur. course lung's Jung's attention Of course attention is is focused focused essentially essentially on on the the processes processes being being undertaken in in the the work work of art. But undertaken But the the price price the the artist artist has has to to pay, pay, meanmean­ while, isis also also the the object object of anxious attentions that while, that lead lead to to the theambivalence ambivalence that openly marks the the end that openly marks end of the the text text on on Picasso's Picasso's work. work. Jung lung does does not not himself with his interest in the process that that he he know whether he can content himself is observing and analysing, is observing and analysing, or whether whether he he should should be be more moreimmediately immediately concerned with with the difficult predicament of the concerned difficult predicament the artist. artist. for its its part, goes in a The goes much further. further. It concludes concludes in Ulysses, for The text text on on Ulysses, movement of of writing writing that becomes movement becomes increasingly increasingly more vivid vivid and dynamic, dynamic, that in turn ends yes that and testifies lung's ends Joyce's novel. novel. and that testifies Jung's adherence adherence to to the yes that Jung himself in his text, and which we we cannot resist A himself quotes fully fully in yes that A yes the citing here: here: the pleasure of citing O and the o the sea sea the the sea sea crimson crimson sometimes sometimes like like fire fire and the the glorious glorious sunsets and and the the fig fig trees trees in in the the Alameda Alameda gardens gardens yes yes and and all all the the queer sunsets little streets streets and and pink pink and blue and yellow little yellow houses and the the rose rose gardens gardens and the the jessamine jessamine and and geraniums geraniums and and cactuses cactusesand and Gibraltar Gibraltar as as aa girl and where where II was was aa Flower Flower of of the the mountain mountain yes yes when when II put put the the rose in my wear aa red red yes yes and and how how he he hair hair like like the the Andalusian Andalusian girls girls used used or or shall shall II wear kissedme meunder under the the Moorish Moorish wall wall and and II thought well as well him as as kissed well as well him another and and then I asked him with my eyes yes and then another eyes to ask again again yes he sked me flower and he aasked me would would II yes yes to to say say yes yes my my mountain mountain flower and first first II put my arms arms around around him yes and drew him down to Illy to me me so so he he could could feel feel my

348 C Christian G a i l lard h ristian Gaillard 348

breasts all perfume perfume yes yes and and his heart was going like mad and said yes II said and yes breasts yes I will Yes. yes (Jung 1932a: 200) 1 932a: par. 200) (lung This is is a woman's yes. It pro­ the proof the accompaniment of the accompaniment possible that the woman's yes. This It is possible the approval, the the approval, demands the follow, demands lung urges us to follow, cesses cesses of of creation creation that that Jung agreement, and and the the participation participation of the senses and rhythms rhythms of the body in senses and agreement, which M Moses mobile differently mobile who isis differently Ulysses, who But Ulysses, experienced. But oses is hardly experienced. which who knows knows how how to to create create his his own own route in order finally to order finally inventive, who and inventive, and encounters and his encounters in his pleasure in return home, takes pleasure notoriously takes who notoriously home, and who return associations with with women, women, can show way. the way. us the show us associations

THE SECTION E C T I O N TWO ARTS: S H E ARTS: T

Thus the attention by overawed by being overawed from being far from arts, far the arts, gives to the lung gives attention Jung Thus the promise towards turned towards is turned urges, is of urges, sublimation of the sublimation mastery and the promise of mastery the which undermine undermine the most sure and of reputable of and reputable distinctly disturbing events which criteria admitted criteria generally admitted most generally values, the most heritages, heritages, the most entrenched values, of meaning. of beauty and meaning. of the practice of His psychoanalysis His psychoanalysis of of art art is is situated situated within within a concept and practice positive possiblepositive thepossible forthe bidsfor constantlybids that constantly unconscious that the unconscious relationship to the and reversal, and denouncement and reversal, deconstruction, denouncement of deconstruction, dynamic of effects effects of of a dynamic destruction disorder, destruction crises, disorder, ofcrises, probabilityof the probability before the retreat before not retreat does not that does or even chaos. even chaos. fa r scale far ataascale placed at immediately placed is immediately creation is of creation his concept of What is more, his preoccu p ied bepreoccupied tobe himselfto show himself course show ofcourse can of lung can individual. Jung beyond beyond the individual. the but the Picasso, but to Picasso, regards to with regards saw with we saw as we artist, as t h e personal fate of an artist, by the by very thevery forthe arefor Theyare elsewhere.They happenelsewhere. arthappen inart undertakingsin i m po rtant undertakings most important advances theadvances to the linked to is linked art is ransgenerational, which kast ttransgenerational, least which is is to to say that art fm l l l transformations,from long-termtransformations, throughout a culture set ba cks ofof or setbacks a culture throughout itsitslong-term great ly aregreatly that are timescale that andtimescale rhythmand at aarhythm and at gene ra tion to another and one generation different life. individual life. an individual of an d i fferen t from those of One of o f the th e consequences conseq uences of this is that his his psychoanalysis psychoanalysis of One of art art is is hardly hardly ex posed to to the risk of of becoming becoming psychobiography. psychobiography. Rather than exposed than wanting wanting to ti l presen t eexplications x pl ica tions founded n the interpretation of works present foundedoon the interpretation works of of art art with with reference tto o tthe he ups ups and downs downs of of the the life life of of the the artist artist right reference r ig htfrom fromthe thecradle, cradic. .l u ng's approach approach means means he he receives receives and analyses analyses these t hese works of Jung's of art art ininthe the SlIllIe manner llIan ner as as dreams. d reams. According According to Jung, .lung, what what should same should he beconsidered considered in ill t ht' role of of the t he unconscious u nco n scio us in i n art art and and dreams d reamsisishow the howiti taffects a ffectsthe t hepresent. prest'llt

( hie of of the the major major effects effects isis that that the t heunconscious unconscious presents One presents itself itself as as an all invitation, or or aa provocation provoca t ion to to open open another a not herperspective, perspective, plural invitation, plu ral or oratatleast It' ast )lI'llSpt'l·t ivc, onto onto our oureveryday everyday existence. prospective, existenct'.

349 The The arts arts 349

resistance, defensive likely resistance, more likely surprise, more least surprise, at least This This invitation invitation provokes at or or even even offensive offensivereactions, reactions,in inthe theface faceof ofcontemporary contemporarycreation. creation.lung's Jung's own own this. to this. testifies to 1 930s testifies the1930s inthe Picasso in and Picasso loyce and of Joyce debate debate with with the work of appeasement by seek appeasement This This sometimes sometimes raw raw and and violent violent debate debate does does not seek be could be ready-made knowledge resorting resorting to to the ready-made knowledgeof of some some theory theory that that could which reactions, which defensive reactions, anddefensive irritated and up irritated weigh up to weigh seeks rather applied. applied. It It seeks rather to can we can Then we feeling. Then and feeling. we we call call countertransferential, countertransferential, in in terms terms of of thought thought and which presences which and presences figures and images, figures theimages, appreciatethe and appreciate become become attentive attentive to to and orientate, us orientate, help us can can emerge, emerge, sometimes sometimesfrom from our our most most archaic archaic depths, depths, to help disturbing. so disturbing. initially so event, initially the event, of the recognition of the recognition nurture the support support and and nurture paintings, Picasso's paintings, andPicasso's novel and loyce's novel with Joyce's debate with his debate fact, through his In In fact, thought. of imaging thought. lung Jung rediscovers, rediscovers, or or more exactly reinvents, reinvents, the virtues of psycho­ own psychohis own for his thought, for of thought, highly familiar be highly He He must must be familiar with with this this mode mode of logical logical elaborations, elaborations, even even the the most most theoretical, theoretical, proceed proceed in in this this fashion. fashion. And And emo­ access to emoopen access when trying to open usefulness when its usefulness knows its he knows as as aa therapist he over­ and overinsistent and especially insistent been especially have been that have intuitions that tions, tions, sensations sensations or or intuitions form. or form. face or without face absorbing absorbing because because they they are are without of But But here here he he discovers discoversthis thismode modeof of thought thought on on another another plane, plane, that that of intimate and intimate internal and the internal discovers the he discovers so he And so painting. And literature literature and and painting. ana­ and anapsychotherapist and psychologist, psychotherapist relation relation between between his his thinking thinking as aa psychologist, in questionings in central questionings the central that the finds that He finds arts. He the arts. lyst, lyst, and and the advances of of the art of works in recognise in works of art can recognise he can close that in psychoanalysis are so close art and in that he the experience of processes of creation his own experience and the processes of the the relationship relationship to to the unconscIous. unconscious.

another enc o u nter to another From one encounter

two have extracted we have which we positions, which these positions, how these Let Let us us now now explore explore how extracted from from two developed and formed, developed were formed, 1 930s, were the1930s, in the art in to art devoted to texts lung major major texts Jung devoted and con­ to concome to will come we will way we this way In this 1 930s. In the 1930s. after the transformed transformed before before and and after sider of sider more more widely widely his his successive successiveencounters encounterswith withthe the arts arts of of Antiquity, Antiquity, of Western ofWestern literature of the literature and the iconography and art, iconography Christian art, with Christian Orient, with the the Orient, creation. contemporary creation. and contemporary era and modern era the modern with the alchemy, alchemy, and and then then with

of Antiquity The arts of passionately two reads passionately 1 909 lung In In 1909 Jung comes comes across across and and reads two poems, poems,aa sort sort of of and state, hypnagogic a called was time the at what in composed drama drama composed in what at the time was called a hypnagogic state, and Miss 1 9-year-old Miss the 19-year-old by the written by commentaries written brief commentaries several several fantasies fantasies and and brief American. young cultivated and rich a Miller. Miller, a rich and cultivated young American. To Geneva. To in Geneva. Flournoy in Dr Flournoy of Dr patient of young woman This This young woman was was the the patient same the at and love, of feelings confused her explore and accompany accompany and explore her confused feelings of love, and at the same had she had childhood. she her childhood, and her mother and her mother e xpress her ime to ttime to express her attachment attachment to to her

3350 50 Christian C h ri stian Gaillard Gail lard



exposed for for her her doctor her most troubling and exposed and ambiguous ambiguous emotions emotions accomaccom­ references to to her her reading reading matter, matter, quotations quotations of panied by references ofByron, Byron, Longfellow Longfellow and Milton. JJung ung did not know her, and he did not seek seek to know any more about about her. her. At no point did At did he he attempt attempt to to found found an aninterpretation interpretation of ofher herwritings writings on on what the young woman in her childhood, what woman could could have have lived lived in childhood, as as aa faithful faithful disciple of of Freud Freud should should have have done. done. It is worth remembering that Jung disciple Jung had had discovered Freud's Freud's Traumdeutung at the moment of its publication, and had discovered immediatelybecome becomeitsitsdefendant defendantininthe the face face of of a more immediately more than than reticent reticent psychiatry; he he had had met met Freud enthusiastically psychiatry; enthusiastically at Vienna in 1907 1 907 and had had almost straight almost straight away away assumed assumed his his eminent eminent and privileged privileged place place in the the psychoanalyticmovement. movement.Most Most importantly, importantly, Freud's Freud's Three Essays Essays on the psychoanalytic Theory of of Sexuality 'J'll('ory Sexuality had been published published the previous previous year. year. But Jung, Hut Jung, rather than than pursuing pursuing this this direction, direction, limits limits his his view view of of Miss Miss Miller to that of Dr Flournoy's publications. From this starting M i ller to that of Dr Flournoy's publications. From this starting point, point, reading the the literary essays and and other writings reading literary essays writings of the the young young woman, woman, he he opens his mind and his page to an advancing advancing tide of of myths, rites rites and and stories stories with strange, with strange, distant, uncanny uncanny forms. forms. These These often often violent violent narratives narratives are are associated with the themes of Miss associated M iss Miller's M iller's writings writings and and collected collected together together into cultural ensemblesthat thatfor for the the most most part part were not aware into cultural ensembles were not aware of the the existence of of the the others, and so existence so he hecomposes composes finally finally in in 1911-1912 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 1 2 the the first first ed ition of Symbols Transformation. This first edition will will be be followed followed by by edition Symbols of of Transformation. a second, greatly reworked, in 1952, 1 952, which indicates indicates just questions just how the questions posed the young young American American woman woman and and the the wide wide investigation investigation that that posed by by the ensues his life life and and work. work . ensues will will follow follow Jung Jung almost almost throughout his Now we find of this this book book which which marks marks his his rupture rupture Now what what do we find at at the heart of with Freud Freud and and the the foundation foundationof ofhis hissubsequent subsequentworks? works?What Whatisisthe theguiding guiding research? A A sculpture, sculpture, frequently frequently reproduced in various forms axis for all his research? in Antiquity. n t iq uity. It It represents represents Mithra Mithrasacrificing sacrificing the the bull, bull, and and an anexample examplecan can he be in A seen today in the the Vatican Vatican Museum M useum in in Rome Rome (Gaillard (Gaillard1998: 1 998: 25). 25). seen .l ung uses uses this highly highly physical physical representation representation of ofthe thehero herostruggling strugglingwith with Jung tthe he sacrificial sacri ficial animal o oppose Freud's Freud's theory theory of ofsexuality. sexuality. He H epresents presents his his animal tto concept of of the the debate, l'OlH:ept debate, sometimes sometimes a full-blown full-blown combat, combat, each each person person is is l'n�aged with a libido libido that, that, over over and andabove aboveits itsspecificity specificity and and differentidiffere n t i ­ engaged in in with ated urges, urges. remains remains haunted haunted by by the the bodily bodilymemory memory of ofan aninclusion, inclusion.ideally ideally wit hout history, history. fundamentally fundamentally incestuous, n the archaic union union with with the t he without incestuous, iin the archaic mot her. and even even more more radically radically with with nature. nature. mother, h o w , in sacrificing .I u llg also a lso shows shows how, sacrificing the here Mithra Mit hra Jung the bull, bull, the the hero hero - here a lllh iv a lcntl y sacrifices o the t he extent extent that that the t he ambivalently sacrificesa alarge largepart part of of himself. himself, t to bruta lity and savagery savagery of his his act act can can he betransformed transformed into intoaaslightly s li gh tlysickly sickly brutality .�l·lltill1t·ll tality that read on the the face face of of the t he antique antiq ue sculpture, sculp t ure. and and sentimentality that can can be he read whidl aa certain certain Christianity, Ch rist ianity. R oman at fi rst. turned tUnled to to its its advantage. advantage. In I II which Roman at first,

such a way that the t he path pa t h to to he hetaken, taken.not Ilotwithout withoutobstacles, obstades.isisthat thatwhich which such will aallow l low the unconscious IIlll'OllscioliS identification idellti fica t ion with lIr other ot hL'r of ofthe t he positions plIsit illm will with olle one or

The 351 Thearts arts 351

oorr tendencies, o be b e disengaged, disengaged, so as a s to t o accept, accept, interinter­ tendencies, heroic heroic and and animal, animal, tto nally consciously as possible, possible, the tension tension between between opposites opposites and and nally and and as consciously their their intimate links. This Transformation, is punctuated throughout This book, book, Symbols Symbols of of Transformation, is punctuated throughout by references the referencesto toother other works works of ofart art from from Antiquity, Antiquity, often reproduced next to the text Marie-Louise von who offered offered lung use of her her text thanks thanks to to Marie-Louise von Franz, Franz, who Jung the the use classical evoke Sphinxes classicalknowledge. knowledge.For Forexample, example,lung Jungisis able able to to evoke Sphinxes and and Lamias 500 Be 1 998: Lamias whose whose representations representations go go back back further further than 500 BC (Gaillard (Gaillard 1998: 68, the fear fear we we can can feel feel when when 68, 70, 70, 72) 72) to to help help himself and his reader gauge the faced far outweighing outweighing faced with with the the power power of of the the mother, mother, in fact archetypal and far the the reality reality of of aa natural natural mother. Again, when he wants wants us us to to give give attention attention to to the the strange, strange, uncanny uncanny proximity proximity between betweenthe the 'divine' 'divine' and and the the most archaic animality, figure of Endiku animality, he he shows shows us us Egyptian Egyptian art art or the figure Endiku in in Gilgamesh's Gilgamesh's epic 1 998: 70, 1 ). And contradictory epic (Gaillard (Gaillard 1998: 70, 771). And concerning concerning the the double and contradictory tendency at once once forwards forwards and and backwards, backwards, he he lets lets us us tendency of of the the libido libido to to go at discover useum of discover or or re-examine the Priapus Priapus from from the the Verona Verona M Museum of Antiquities, Antiquities, whose serpent eating eating his his penis penis (Gaillard (Gaillard 1998: 1 998: 79). 79). whose finger finger points points to a serpent Types, published first edition In In Psychological Types, published nine nine years years after after the the first edition of the Symbols, establishes and types of attitude, attitude, Symbols, he he establishes and develops develops his his concept concept of of types extraverted different functions functions of orientation orientation of of extraverted and and introverted, introverted, and and the different consciousness he consciousness -—thinking, thinking,feeling, feeling,intuition intuitionand and sensation. sensation. Here Here again he has recourse to numerous works and literature literature from from Antiquity Antiquity to to has recourse to numerous works of of art art and help alongside his his perusal perusal and and discussion discussion of ofthe the help him him elaborate elaborate his thought alongside aesthetic and Nietzsche. Nietzsche. aesthetic theories theories of Schiller and In fact, this which is so important for for the the establishment establishment of of Jung's l ung's In fact, this book which analytical of analytical psychology psychology isis also also an an occasion occasion for for him him to establish the theory of the use of painting, painting, sculpture sculpture and dance. dance. He He had hadbeen been considering considering these these the use that media 1 9 1 6 with giving form writes gestalten) media since since 1916 with regards regards to to giving form (he writes gestalten) to to that which untimely which occupies occupies us us and and demands demands to be expressed, and avoiding the untimely verstehen) that dry up up the the intervention desire to understand ((verstehen) interventionof of aa desire to understand that can can dry relationship symbolic life. life . relationship to symbolic These are entirely entirely practical practical concerning concerning the the relationship relationship to to These considerations considerations are the unconscious. Their first outburst evidently evidently came came from Jung lung himself himself the unconscious. Their first sculpting child (Ma ( Ma vie), vie), then then from fromhis hisexperiences experiences of ofcalligraphy, calligraphy, sculpting as as aa child drawing, He returned returned to to sculpture sculptureagain againwhen, when, after after his his break break drawing, and and painting. He with to get get back back in in touch touch with with his his furthest furthest interior interior animaanima­ with Freud, Freud, he he had to tions, had not not yet yetfound foundthe thewords wordstotoexpress expresshimself. himself. tions, and had From his earliest earliest writings, writings, the review review of the the arts arts of ofAntiquity Antiquity provides provides From his lung with an an occasion occasion to to give give form form (gestalten) the discoveries discoveries he made Jung with (gestalten) to to the he made even in childhood. In lung's work we can follow the evolution of this truly even in childhood. In Jung's work we can follow the evolution of this truly imaging thought process that knows how to harness the power of image, imaging thought process that knows how to harness the power of image, and increasingly serves recognise and transform overly overly individual individual and increasingly serves to to better better recognise and transform experiences by putting them back into the context of experiences shared by by experiences by putting them back into the context of experiences shared many. w h i c h artists have often known best how to express. many, which artists have often known best how to express.



3352 52 C h ristian Gaillard Gai l lard Christian

When Hellenist Karl Kerenyi Kerenyi on his his Essays When Jung worked worked with with the Hellenist Essays on on a of Mythology, he came of Antiquity, notably notably Greek Greek Science of came back back to the arts of and Roman, to to give give us us all all the thepossible possiblechances chances to torecognise recognise our oureveryday everyday dramas by re-examining re-examining and reliving reliving the relationship between between Demeter and has been been dramatised dramatised in in the theEleusinian Eleusinian Mysteries Mysteries his daughter his daughter Kore, Kore, as as it has and carved in stone stone in in archaic archaic Greek Greek sculpture. sculpture. Jung engages engages in with the arts arts of ofAntiquity Antiquitywidens widensand and Overall, the dialogue Jung nourishes psychology while lives in the the nourishes his psychology while inscribing inscribing each each of of our personal lives movement in historical historical continuity, continuity, aasubject subject movement of collective collective history, history, and and thus in that will will progressively progressively become major objects objects of ofhis his research. research. become one of the major Furthermore, this is a privileged opportunity to make his readers aware Furthermore, is a privileged opportunity to make his readers aware of the virtues virtues and and risks risks of ofregressions, regressions, often often necessary, necessary, which which can lead lead us hack to our our most most archaic archaic experiences experiences that that never never cease cease to to seduce, seduce, frighten frighten hack and haunt us. us. and

The the Orient The arts arts of the IIn n the t he spring of of 1938 1 938 Jung is returning from a journey to to Ceylon, Ceylon, which which he he visi ted from Kandy both both in in heavenly heavenly sunshine sunshine and and pouring pouring visited from Colombo Colombo to Kandy ruin. H i s boat stops in the port of of Bombay. Bombay. But But rather than than enter enter the the town, town, rain. His he stays on ship to to continue continue his his engrossed engrossed reading reading of ofaa collection collection of of he stays on board ship texts early-seventeenth-century writer author texts by by the early-seventeenth-century writer Gerardus Gerardus Dorneus, Dorneus, an author al most completely whose thought Jung wanted to almost completely unknown unknown at at the time and whose e x p lo re and analyse. analyse. explore In his autobiography he he wrote: wrote: In Toward beginning of spring spring I set set out out on onmy myhomeward homewardvoyage, voyagc, Toward the beginning with such a plethora plethora of impressions impressions that did not not have have any any desire desire to to with such that I did lcavc see Bombay. Bombay. Instead, Instead, I buried buried myself myself in in my my Latin La tin leave the the ship ship to see alchemical :] But alchemical texts. texts. [Jung [Jung added added:] But India India did did not pass me by without aa left tracks tracks which lead from from one one infinity infinity to to another anotherinfinity. infinity. ttrace; race; iitt left (Jung 1963: 1 963: 284) 2114 ) condensed version version of of the the double double movement movement that thatwill willconstantly constantly aa condensed arts and and ways ways of oflife. life. On On tthe ill' llIurk h is relationship re l a t io nship with Oriental traditions, arts mark his onc hand, JJung ung discovers discovers a whole whole world world of ofimpressions, impressions, sensations sensations and a nd one hand, iinterior n tcrior experiences e x per ie nc es and where he can almost almost feel feel at at home. home. Only Only and thoughts, where " I m o s t , however. however. For hand he he has has to to mark mark aacertain certain distance, d i s l a llL'l·. almost, For on on the other hand nd and point of ofview view in i n tthe he tt hc he space space necessary necessary for for him him to to fi find and recover his own point flll.:c h i s discoveries d i sc o ve rie s and the multiplicity multiplicity of of his his encounters. encou n ters. I lle i e isis aware a wa ll' face of his and the tThat hu t tthis h is poi nt o d i fferen t hi s to ry , and t h a t it it perhaps pc rha p � point off view view helongs belongs to to aa different history, and that T h i s is is This

opl' n s onto o n t o entirely e n t i re l y different d i ffere n t perspectives. perspec t i ves . opens .Jung 1 1 I 1 I � is o t rea l ly is nnot really

on l I n fa i l i a r territ ory ((Maillard M a i l l a rd 1996). 1 9% ) . Ile I l l' has h a s been bCl'n on unf am miliar territory

1'l'l Iding a nd st l l d y i n g lFasten' ' a s1l'rn literature l i t l'l'a l l l rc fo l o n g time, t i mc, and and c i t i n g passages passa gl'\ reading and studying forr a long citing

The 353 The arts arts 353

Upanishads, since 92 1 . H e iis s most Ching, some some of of the the Upanishads, since 11921. He most acquainted acquainted with the I Ching, And he he has has had many the thara- Veda and Athara-Veda Tibetan Book Book of of the the Dead. Dead. And the A and the the Tibetan occasions scholars before 1 93 8 , notably the Eranos Eranos occasions to to meet meet oriental oriental scholars before 1938, notably at at the Circle Circle in Ascona. Most 1 928, ten India, he he was was Most importantly, importantly, in in 1928, ten years yearsprior prior to to his his trip trip to India, given Golden Flower by given aa translation translation of of the the Taoist Taoist treaty treaty The The Secret Secret of of the Golden Flower by the sinologist of the text at this this time, time, when when sinologist Richard Wilhelm. The discovery of his psychology seemed his personal personal experience experience and and he he his psychology seemed too too dependent dependent on his was was having having difficulty difficulty envisaging envisaginghow howitit might might progress, progress, came came almost almost as as a revelation. H He wrote in his autobiography: 'That revelation. e wrote 'Thatwas was the the first first event event which which broke through my isolation. isolation. II became became aware of of an an affinity; affinity; I could establish ties someone' (Jung (Jung 1963: 1 963: 197). 1 97). ties with with something and someone' This event was all the more astonishing for Jung because because he had just just This event was all more astonishing painted a seemingly incomprehensible mandala that borrowed part of its painted seemingly incomprehensible mandala that borrowed of its architecture from the Vauban-style Vauban-style fortifications fortifications which which he he had had known knownsince since adolescence, nevertheless had Chinese air to it. it. adolescence,but but that that nevertheless had a distinctly Chinese Comforted by the discovery discovery of the the Taoist Taoist text, text, Jung J ungalmost almostimmediately immediately wrote of this this Chinese Chinese treaty, which which was wrote aa 'European commentary' of was the the start of long series series of of works works devoted devoted to the the Oriental Oriental traditions traditions and their their of a long expression 1 ). He man­ He was was to to study many different manCW 111). expression in in the the arts arts (Jung (Jung CW dalas, he drew drew and and painted painted himself himself from from 1916 1 9 1 6 onwards, dalas, starting with those he followed by his his patients, patients, finally finally and andespecially especially Oriental Oriental followed by by those those made by mandalas. mandalas. He pointed out that that these these Oriental Oriental mandalas, mandalas, mainly mainly tantric, tantric, are are very very He pointed different of different from from each each other. other. Some Some put put a cockerel, cockerel, snake snake or or pig pig at at the heart of the signify the the concentric concentric organisation organisation to signify the central central role role that can be played by sensuality, unconsciousness. But tertiary system system they they But the the tertiary sensuality,jealousy jealousy and and unconsciousness. observe accomplished in observe can can be be transformed transformed and accomplished in a quadratic organisation, in in which which case case the the centre centre isis emptied emptied and and makes makes space space for for aa diamond. diamond. In the Oriental traditions these quadratic quadratic mandalas mandalasare areheld heldto tobe bethe themost mostperfect, perfect, traditions these and the diamond at the the centre centre is is hailed hailed and celebrated celebrated as kingdom of of as 'the kingdom supreme supremejoy', joy', the the 'golden 'golden castle', castle', the the 'celestial 'celestial heart', heart', or or the the 'land without frontiers' frontiers'.. What a tempting tempting promise! promise! We We could could let let ourselves ourselves be be led, led, convinced, even. even . We only to believe believe it. it. Except, Except, Jung Jung writes writes with with obvious obvious regret, regret, we we We want want only must renounce it. it. Renounce Renounce this this colourful colourful metaphysical metaphysical language language of of the the must renounce Orient 1 950). And we must also more more radically radically renounce the desire desire Orient (Jung (Jung 1950). And we to make the paths of of meditation meditation and wisdom wisdom our own, own, for they they so tend tend to make towards thousand things', things', from from towards and and promise perfect perfect liberation liberation from from the the 'ten thousand the interior contradictions contradictions that they end up by by the course course of of history history and and all interior that they dissolving great One. One. dissolving the the individual individual in in the the eternal emptiness of the great ( 1 929) shows When of the Golden Flower, Jung Jung (1929) shows an an When he he discovers discovers the the Secret of almost promises translated translated by by Oriental Oriental arts. arts . almost fascinated fascinated interest interest in in the promises H European commentary' of of this treaty treaty already already puts puts the the accent accent owever, his his ''European H owcver,

G a i l lard C h ristian Gaillard 5 4 Christian 3354

let we let whenwe ourselveswhen encounterourselves toencounter failto cannotfail we cannot that we parts that on the shadow parts sculpt. orsculpt. paint or urselves be o ourselves be led led entirely entirelyby by the the hands hands that draw, paint Tibetan Book Book of of the the Dead', Dead', lung Jung In his 'Psychological 'Psychological commentary commentary on on the the Tibetan our recognise our we recognise 1 93 5/ 1 953) reinforces ((1935/1953) reinforcesthe the necessity necessityof of aa passage where we between correspondencebetween manifest correspondence the manifest emphasises the he emphasises and he urges, and most animal urges, analysis. an analysis. of an dimensions of Freudian dimensions most Freudian he Sidpa tthe Sidpa Bardo Bardo and the most the 'Psychological commentary his 'Psychological Finally Tibetan Book Book of the Finally in in his commentaryon onthe the Tibetan Zen Suzuki's Introduction ' Foreword to his 'Foreword Liberation' and Great and his to Suzuki's Introduction to to Zen Great Liberation' necessary the necessary interpretations isis the his interpretations of his the central focus of 1 939, the in 1939, Buddhism' Buddhism' in the expressions of the spontaneous expressions involvement of the spontaneous conflicting involvement o ften conflicting and often unconscious. define express,define betterexpress, tobetter l ung to helped Jung arts helped Oriental arts of Oriental So So his long perusal of ego the ego between the relationship between progressively readjust and progressively readjust his his concept of the relationship amazed , is amazed, he is site, he Sanchi site, self. When he discovers the stupus and the self. stupas on the Sanchi grasp to grasp him to enables him This enables harmony. This perfect harmony. overwhelmed by almost almost overwhelmed by its its perfect the comprehend the to comprehend especially to and especially before, and ever before, Buddhism Buddhism more more than than ever everywhere portrayedeverywhere who isisportrayed Buddha, who the Buddha, figure of the idealised figure historical historical and idealised cosmo­ andcosmocosmic and our cosmic that our observation that his observation repeats his in sculpture. But But he he repeats in sculpture. and near and most near gonic consciousness gonic consciousnessmust must always alwaysmake makeroom room for for our own most contradictions. intimate tensions and contradictions. intimate 1 950 to the Divan-I-Kaas of Fathepur in 1950 dream in in aa dream returns in ung returns JJung Fathepur Sikri that the represents the best represents perhaps best This journey perhaps 1 930s. This the 1930s. of the visited at he he visited at the end of the ofthe architectureof Thearchitecture arts. The Oriental arts. the Oriental to the analyst to relationship relationship as a Western analyst byhis his surrounded by high, surrounded on high, sits on who sits place place is is entirely entirely centred centred on on the sultan who dream lung'sdream inJung's But in 1 00- 1 0 1 ). But 1 998: 100-101). (Gaillard 1998: philosophers (Gaillard councillors and philosophers sulta ll. the sultan. even the above even resides above that resides presence that important presence i s a differently important thcre there is shamefully wasshamefully Biblewas theBible tothe according to whoaccording Uriah who General Uriah the General This This is the 01 rid of get rid to get sacrificed by rayed and sacrificed het betrayed by his his master, master, King David, who wanted to nothin� isI S Th us nothing Bathsheba. Thus wife, the beautiful Bathsheba. his wife, on his i m and lay his hands on hhim fi�lI ll" venerablefigure Thevenerable king.The admirableking. apparently admirable pcrICd, perfect, not even the most apparently IS And we know that iti t is soldier. And sacrificed soldier. andsacrificed destitute and be aadestitute to be ou t to u rn s out tturns Job'. ( 1 952) wrote Jung (1952) following following this this dream dream that that Jung wrote his 'Answer to Job'. IllS d u rin� his which during dreams which his dreams of his tells another of a utobiography Jung tells his autobiography II his IIn cu l t l l n· own culture his own research his to research back to called him back 1 937- 1 938 called ra v e l s in ttravels in India in 1937-1938 t hat reminded that and reminded India, and of India, world of the world of the out of taken out was taken hc r it agc : 'I'I was lind and heritage: sign i fica l l t admittedlya asignificant way--admittedly theway ofthe partof only aa part b u t only m y task, but nd ia was not my IIndia 282 ) . 1 96 3 : 282). ' (lung1963: goal (Jung m ygoal' closertot omy m ecloser carryme shouldcarry whichshould n c which o one

art Christian art hOIlIl· �oin�home was going hc was as he old, as years old, 12 years of 12 child of s t i l l aa child was still un� was II I1 887 IIn 887 whcn when JJung ruck st s wa hc ningcn li l l lcinK of college an i r tc y b cs r P hc t to lunch for for lunch to the Presbyterian college of Klein-I Iiiningen he was struck 1 1 \ I hl' ill the shinillg in werc shining t i lcs were coloured tiles whosc coloured ( 'a t hedra l whose Basel Cathedral of Basel hea u t y of he beauty tthe

hi lle: her sidl' I hl' ol 1 1 the sUlIshilll' Rhine: sunshine 0on other side of of the the R

rts 355 The The aarts 355

world 'The world y the II was was overwhelmed overwhelmed bby the beauty beauty of of the sight, sight, and thought: 'The sits and sits this and all this made all church is is is beautiful beautiful and and the church is beautiful, beautiful, and God made throne' . golden throne'. blue sky on aa golden above above it it far away in the blue 1 963 : 36) (lung (Jung 1963: enthralling equally enthralling the equally renews the recalls and renews bedazzlement recalls of bedazzlement This This moment of of beauty of experience experienceand andsensation sensationthat that he he had had from from a young age age of the beauty his explains his This explains 6-7). This 1 963: 6-7). (lung 1963: alive (Jung being alive ofbeing joy of the joy Nature Nature and and the decision shores of Lake decision to to build build his his house house at at Kusnacht, Kilsnacht, on the shores Lake Zurich, Zurich, and same Bollingen, in an isolated spot near the same to construct his own own 'tower' at Bollingen, permanent yet permanent changing yet the changing live the to live retreat to often retreat would often lake, lake, where where he he would to solitude to himself in solitude devote himself Swiss landscapes these Swiss harmony harmony of these landscapes and and to devote watercolour l ung's watercolour I ) Jung's 1 976: ch. 1) ( Hannah 1976: stone stone sculpture sculpture and wall-painting (Hannah 207). 1 998: 207). (Gaillard 1998: region (Gaillard this region of this landscapes landscapes also also testify testify to his enjoyment of the sunshine on the The The architecture architecture and and position of Basel Cathedral Cathedral in the sunshine exemplary an exemplary as an seen as be seen can be old can years old 1 2 years was 12 he was when he Rhine when bank bank of the Rhine notably express, notably to express, wants to condensed condensed version version of of the the ideal ideal that that Christian art wants of Ages, all of M iddle Ages, the Middle of the glass and the painting of through through sculpture, stained glass 7). 1 964: 7). al. 1964: et al. (Jung et ung was familiar with (Jung which which JJung However, Basel Cathedral seeing Basel bedazzlement on quasi-visionary bedazzlement However, this this quasi-visionary on seeing ung will was was not, not, as as readers readers of of lJung will know, know, to to be be prolonged prolonged but but rather rather cut short. preserve topreserve attempt to A A vision vision of of catastrophe catastrophe followed when, when, despite the the boy's attempt the from the happened: from unforeseeable thing happened: and unforeseeable terrifying and ignorance, a his his ignorance, a terrifying excrement that fell an enormous excrement divine divine throne, throne, far above the world, fell that landed crushed. was crushed. temple was The temple it. The destroyed it. and destroyed cathedral and the cathedral of the roof of on on the roof Christian with Christian debate with lung's debate of Jung's This This scene scene presents presents us us with with aa large large part part of live momentslive certainmoments atcertain andat world, and the world, in the being in ofbeing joy of the joy on the art. art. Founded on think uestion is experience experienceof ofthe the harmony harmony of of the the world, world, the the qquestion is to to know or think menacing so menacing is so what is accomplishment, what an accomplishment, such an from such excluded from is excluded what is about about what altogether. it destroy to as as altogether. Nietzsche, who by Nietzsche, lung Jung was was haunted haunted by who represented represented aa catastrophic catastrophic counter­ counterfigure of idealised figure the by marked was he research; own his to example example to his own research; he was marked by the idealised Christian the Christian equally, the ancestor; equally, putative ancestor; his putative call his to call liked to he liked Goethe Goethe whom whom he and mystic teenth-century f fi the was most the him marked that ure g fi figure that marked him the most was the fifteenth-century mystic and who man, this Because Why? Flue. de Nicolas Switzerland, of saint patron patron saint of Switzerland, Nicolas de Flue. Why? Because this man, who isolated live his left left his his wife wife and and children children to to live his meeting meeting with with God God alone in an isolated from returning On visionary. efficient an And visionary. a was hermitage, hermitage, was a visionary. And an efficient visionary. On returning from violently so violently were so who were compatriots who his compatriots reconcile his to reconcile his his retreat, retreat, he managed to inevitable. seemed inevitable. warseemed civil war that civil quarrels that divided divided by by their their internal quarrels contradictions tensions and experienced tensions himself experienced had himself saintly hermit had The The saintly and contradictions that reorganisation that the reorganisation experienced the hadexperienced hehad And he chaos. And to chaos. lead to can lead that that can had aa solitary retreat his solitary llows aa new aallows new harmony harmony to to be be created. created. In In his retreat he he had had had vision vision of of violence violenceso so terrifying terrifyingthat that he he was was thrown thrown to to the the ground ground and his violence thisviolence to this meaning to or meaning name or give name not give face face was was deformed. deformed. He He could could not



3 5 6 Christian C hristian Gaillard Gai l lard 356

remembering the until he finally recognised, recognised, perhaps perhaps through through his remembering the Christ of the Apocalypse, Apocalypse, the as explained explained in the the religious religious teaching teaching of of the Holy Trinity as paint his his vision, vision, or or commission commission its painting, his period. Then he was able to paint the wall wall of of the the village village church, church, but butcalmed, calmed, clarified clarified and andreorganised reorganisedlike like on the mandala centred centred on on the the celebration celebration of ofEternal EternalLove Love(Jung (Jung1934/ 1 9341 a Christian mandala 11954: 954: pars. 1 - 1 8) . pars. 1-18). that giving giving form (gestalten) through the arts arts All o off this shows once again that through the that which which we we cannot cannot grasp, grasp, or orwhich whichon onthe thecontrary contraryoverwhelms overwhelmsus, us, to that means we can face it, orient orient ourselves ourselves around around it, it, even even find find within within ititnew new means we strength. It also also demonstrates demonstrates how how Christian Christian art art has has been been determined determined to to strength. find the best possible balance between the message of love of the New find best possible balance between the message of love the New Testament and the the stories stories of of the the Old OldTestament Testamentwhich which recount recountthe theindisindis­ Testament criminate violence of Yahweh, and more radically between the desire for criminate violence Yahweh, more radically between the desire for goodness and the the evidence evidence of ofevil. evil. Jung then passionately passionately throws throws himself himself into into the the observation observationof ofrepresenrepresen­ Jung then tations the Trinity Trinity and andthe thetheological theologicalelaborations elaborations that thataccompany accompany tations of the them. Why this idealisation of Christ that that wants wants him him to tobe befree freefrom from all all sin, sin, when his story incarnation and when when the cross cross is to be be found found at at the the when his story is is of incarnation heart of of his his symbolism? symbolism? M oreover, he that the the Trinity Trinity of ofChristian Christian dogma dogmaremains remains Moreover, he points points out that obstinately masculine. despite the many medieval medieval mandalas that obstinately masculine. And And this this despite manifestly include the Virgin Virgin (Gaillard (Gaillard 1998: 1 998: 170). 1 70). Which is to to say say manifestly try try to to include that the arts arts try try to tocorrect correctand andcompensate compensatefor foraauniversal universalblindness blindness and and that the repression, vain. repression, but in vain. These thought. So So much much so so that thatJung Jungdevelops develops These works works of art are food for thought. aa tight tight critique critique of of this this Christianity Christianity that that refuses refuses to pass pass from from its its tertiary tertiary logic quadratic dynamics dynamics by by finally finally opening opening up up to tothe thepresence presenceof ofevil, evil. logic to a quadratic of the the feminine. feminine. He and of He also also elaborates elaborates and and clarifies clarifies soon soon afterwards afterwards his his own 'individuation process' process' and andtherefore thereforeaa'self-realisation' 'self-realisation' own concept of an 'individuation ((Selhsverwirklichung) S('/h.\'I'lTwirklichung) that well that for aa culture cul t u re that knows full well that transformation, transformation, for as an individual, individual,comes comes from fromrealities realitiesand andforces forces—- largely largely unconscious unconsciolls as for an previously or left left fallow. fallow. previously repressed, repressed, unknown, unknown, or

Iconography alchemy Iconography and andthe the literature literature of Western Western alchemy One night in in 1939 1 939 while while Jung J ung was was preoccupied preoccupied by his his seminar seminar on One night on Saint Saint IIgnatius gn a t i us of Loyola's Spiritual Exercises, and of Loyola's notably one Spiritual Exercises, one of ofthese these medimed i ­ and notably ttations a t ions centred n the e saw bottom of centred oon the soul soul ooff Christ, Christ, hhe saw at at the bottom of his h i s bed hcd aa gl'l'l'n -gold Christ, magnificently awesome frightening, and a n d lie hc became heca llll' green-gold Christ, magnificently awesome but frightening, aware h i s need need to to complete complete and and renew renew his his thought thought about aho u t Christianity Ch rist i a n i t \ aware of of his aand nd the t he figure figure o Ch rist by by referring referring to t o the the thoughts thoughts and and experiences e x per i e n ce s of o r the t i ll' off Christ

aalchemists. k hel1lists. This gl"l'CIl g o l d , which hlcs t the he na t ur a l aand nd orga n ic I'iritli I 1/.\' ((oi Ill This green gold, which rcscm resembles natural organic viriditas g rl'l'/lny ) so I l I i li" r tto o tthese bcsc visionary v i " jo/l" ry rese" rdlcrs, eexpresses x prcsses ttheir heir cOlIl'cpl greenery) so 1;l fiimiliar researchers, concept

The arts 357 357 T h e arts

of a saviour who is is not not purely purely spiritual, spiritual, but butactually actuallylives lives in in metal metal or orstone stone and in matter. matter. 1 939 Jung had had been been working working in in secret secret and andwith with some some difficulty difficulty for forfour four In 1939 five years years on on the illustrations and or five and texts texts of ofalchemical alchemical manuscripts. manuscripts. Some Some were sent sent to to him him by a specialist bookseller in in Munich, Munich, others others he he sought out were specialist bookseller himself in the the least visited reserves of of libraries libraries in in Zurich Zurich and and Saint visited reserves Saint Gall. Gall . himself in Jung works, which which are are now Jung worked in secret secret because because these these works, now published and were at at the time considered to be spell-books studied in various disciplines, disciplines, were spell-books of dubious interest, and and in in any anycase casehopelessly hopelessly pre-scientific. pre-scientific. Jung himself himself found them abstruse, grotesque found grotesque and manifestly manifestly incoherent. incoherent. And so so he he was was with the patience of an an iconographer and irritated by them. But But very slowly, slowly, with the fastidious the fastidious attention attention of of aa lexicographer, lexicographer, he started started to to recognise recognise in in the the recurrent figures figures and and the vocabulary of recurrent of the the alchemists alchemists that that which which he he himself himself had experienced in his had experienced in his relationship relationship to the the unconscious, unconscious, and and which which his his patients often showed him. him. Jung's relationship with with the the world world had had always always been been actively actively sensorial. He He liked tto pass from his library oorr consulting room ttoo the always liked o pass the garden garden had always where he he would would happily happily chop chop wood wood or or sculpt sculpt aa stone where stone on the shore shore of of the the lake, just just as the alchemists passed from from their their oratory oratory to their lake, alchemists passed their laboratory. laboratory. so clearly clearly dramatised dramatised that that And his mind, animated by by figures figures and presences so he manages manages to to talk with them, was not without he without connections connections with the most insistent themes themes of alchemic imagery (note on active insistent alchemic imagery active imagination). imagination). When Jung sees the terribly green Christ, Christ, he he doesn't think of When sees the terribly green of Christian Christian Crucifixion at Isenheim works - Grunewald's Isenheim for example, which he works of art — Grunewald's Crucifixion certainly knows knows -—but butof ofthat that counterpart counterpart of Christianity, often judged judged to certainly Christianity, often grossly heretical, heretical, Western Western alchemy. alchemy. Which Which means means that although be grossly although his his study study of the the strange strange enigmas enigmas of ofalchemical alchemical iconography iconography shows shows aa confusing confusing erudition, the quality quality of ofthe the documents, documents, its its greatest erudition, due notably to the greatest virtue virtue is is to lead him, 1 935- 1 936 until the the end end of ofhis his life, life, to aa reworking reworking of ofthe the him, from 1935-1936 principal psychology, both deepening deepening them them and andwidening widening principal concepts concepts of his psychology, their scope. is the the first first to be renewed when he discovers H is psychology His psychology of the shadow is (black phase) nigredo (black the of the nigredo the alchemists alchemists descriptions descriptions and and representations of which that they they often often which isis the the first first phase phase of of their their work, work, so so obscure obscure and hard that translatable as being put to talk to death death (Gaillard (Gaillard 1998: 1 998: 151). 1 51). mortificatio, translatable talk of mortificatio, The alchemists alchemists describe describe this this as as a seemingly seemingly endless endless period period iin The n aa dark night without landmarks, where where the researcher researcher is left as prey to wild animals that that tear him him apart, or has tear has to to withstand withstand the the fumes fumes of of the the blackest blackest lead and the the heaviest spell-books Jung understands understands better better heaviest mercury. mercury. By By reading reading their their spell-books the long (Zerstukelung), the the smashing (Zerstilkelung), the humiliation, humiliation, but but also also the defeat, defeat, the the smashing must live live and and suffer suffer in in order order to gauge and gauge its ego must and repeated repeated death death that that the the ego neurosis, caught and and withheld withheld even though it it neurosis, or or even even worse worse where where itit is is caught wants wants to to escape, escape, until until finally finally itit accepts accepts the the new new balance balance and and approach approach that will he mobilisation self will lead lead to to tthe mobilisation of of the the self.

Christian 3358 58 C h ristian Gaillard G a i l la rd



The rts 359 359 The aarts

He sees sees that that this this is is aa process process that that has He has to be undertaken in order order that the the next phase phase can emerge from disaster and this next emerge from this new new potential potential building building site. site. And this despite despite the uncertain outcome outcome of the process, And process, for the worst trials often come come right right at at the end of a journey, as if often if the the things things acquired acquired thus thus far far must be be once once again again lost, lost, broken, pulverised, must pulverised, returned to their their initial initial state state of of the alchemists alchemists talk of confusion, or even even deliberately deliberately attacked attacked — - the of separatio, putrefacio, calcinatio, incineratio. The reader will have noticed noticed the the similarity similarity fJutrefacio, between the the expression expression of of such such an an experience and of some of Jung's combetween experience and com­ ments on on Ulysses and Picasso's paintings, written three or or four four years years before before ments his his work on on alchemy. alchemy. His work on alchemy His alchemy also also gives gives more more objective objective and and historical historical weight weight to to his critical his critical analysis analysis of Christianity. Christianity. For Jung Jung the thealchemists alchemists opposed opposed Christianity's refusal to give thought and and life life to to the the terms terms excluded excluded from from its its evil,and and the the feminine. feminine. At At their own elaboration — - evil, own risk risk they they searched searched for for spirit often in solitude sp iri t in in matter, engaging engaging often solitude with the underside underside of of the the high high the Church reigned. They played played a compensatory role in our dogmas where where the reigned. They history and the history the structural structural dynamics dynamics of of our ourculture. culture. And Andpresent-day present-daypsypsy­ choanalysts can recognise in the experiments l:hoanalysts recognise in experiments they recount an an archaic archaic prepre­ exercise to to their own clinical work. exerl:ise work . Just as Jung Jung never never lost lost sight sight of ofyoung youngMiss M issMiller Millerwhile whilehe hecollected collected Just as wide-ranging testimonies testimonies of of myths myths and rites organised around wide-ranging around sacrifice sacrifice and and for his his book book Symbols Symbols of of Transformation, Transformation, he the iincest nl:est for he immersed himself in the il:onography of Western Western alchemy alchemy during the last last decades decades of iconography and and literature of hiss life in order to hi life in to better better conceive conceive and and lead lead his his clinical clinical practice. practice. So is not not by bychance chance that thateach each chapter chapter of ofthe thebook bookmost mostevidently evidently So it is Psychology of Tram/erencc, is ded kated to psychoanalytic psychoanalytic practice, dedicated practice, The The Psychology of Transference, iintroduced n t r od uced and and nourished nourished by byengravings engravingsfrom fromaasixteenth-century sixteenth-centuryalchemialchemi­ cal clIl treaty called called Rosarium Rosarium Philosophorum. Philosophorum. In his work on on the the iconography iconography lind l ite ra ture of of the the alchemists, alchemists, and notably notably in in their their representations representations of of the the and literature vas helll' bene clausum necessary to to their 1'11.\' clausum necessary their operations, operations, Jung Jung finds finds the the means means to support support and and clarify clarify his his experience experience of the rules rules to apply apply and and observe observe to to m;hieve right relation relation between between the analyst and his his analysand. analysand. In In their their achieve aa right the analyst representat ions of Jung finds finds material material to to further further his his representations of the the aim aim of their work Jung tthought hought on what what can can be be expected expected from from aa clinician, clinician, and and the theovertly overtly sexual sexual nat these representations representations provides provides yet occasion for for him him to to urc of of these nature yet another occasion dehate Freud's heud's positions positions on onsexuality. sexuality. debate

The modern modern era era and and contemporary contemporary creation creation The I "igll l'a t ion, personification personification and isation aare rc essential essential to to Jung's l u ng's Figuration, and dramat dramatisation t hought and his ps ychoa na lyt int l pract ice, so how will will he react react to to the tl1l' his psychoanalytical thought practice, so how t ransforma ra nsformation, deformat ion and abstraction ahst ral'l ion of of creation crea tion in in the t he modern Illodel'll and and lion, deformation nll1tclll pora ry era'! ung's work work replies rt'plil's to this t his question q ucst ion in in three t h rec steps, s t e p s or 01 contemporary era? .lJung's I'Ilt hl'r from frolll three thrt'c different di lTl'rl'nt angles. angles. rather ,

First all, from from 1911-1912 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 1 2 onwards, onwards, he he praises praises and andenthusiastically enthusiastically First of all, comments senses in the Renaissance, after comments on on the the revival revival of of nature nature and the senses centuries Christianity highly liberation from the centuriesof of aa Christianity highly occupied occupied by by its its liberation from the dangerous instincts and He notes notes dangerous attacks attacks of the instincts and any fascination for nature. He the tends to to denigrate denigrate attention attentiongiven given the foolish foolish rationalism rationalism that that from then on tends to soul, to the extent that that even even now now the the psychology psychology of of the the to the realities realities of the soul, unconscious c ulties getting unconscious has has great great diffi difficulties getting itself itselfheard. heard. But But at at least we have acquired prevents us acquired an an autonomy autonomy of of thought thought that that prevents us from from returning returning to to an unconsidered springs, trees trees and and unconsideredcelebration celebrationof of the the elementary elementary forces forces of of springs, the myths myths and rites rites of of Antiquity. Antiquity. At At the the mountains, mountains, as as was was the the case case in in the beginning beginning of of the the modern modern era we we were were able able to to rediscover rediscover the the path path to rejoicing in Christianity's in ourselves ourselves and and in in the the world world that that had long been forbidden by Christianity's desire desire to to banish banish nature. Jung Jung finds finds aa joyful joyful example example in in Titian's Titian's Country Country Concert Concert where where symbolic symbolic life finally be be represented represented and deployed outside outside the constraints constraints of of life can can finally and deployed being subjected subjected to immediate realism realism or the the direct direct dogma, dogma, but but without being to an immediate experience interior space space is is created, created, especially especially in in experience of of the the power power of nature. An interior painting, gives us experience painting, which gives us aa whole whole world world of new representations to experience with different order, and and which which now now demondemon­ with feelings feelings and and sensations sensations of of a different strates transformation (Gaillard (Gaillard1998: 1 998: strates a capacity for surprising, accelerated transformation 1180-181). 80- 1 8 1 ). This possible for understand how at the the beginning beginning of This makes makes itit possible for us us to to understand the 1 930s .lung became fascinated progress of Joyce Joyce as as he he the 1930s Jung became fascinated by by the the literary progress grappled the weighty weighty remnants remnants of the the Middle M iddle Ages Ages in intwentiethtwentieth­ grappled with with the century reland, or evolution of Picasso who, without danger danger to to century IIreland, or the evolution of Picasso who, not without himself, powerfully creative creative debate between between his his himself, engaged engaged his his painting painting in in a powerfully familiar classical arts of Antiquity Antiquity and and his his audacious audacious familiar joy joy over over the the most classical arts of formal perilous in in contemporary contemporary art. art. formal inventions, inventions, perhaps perhaps the the most most perilous In prior to tothese these essays essays on on Joyce Joyce and andPicasso, Picasso, during duringthe the1920s, 1 920s, In fact, just just prior Jung from the transformations of of the the Jung had had already taken a marked step back from arts to attempt attempt aamore moregeneral general reflection reflection on on artistic artistic creation creation that that he he arts so as to elaborated two works of particular particular interest interest for for our our subject. subject. He He wrote wrote elaborated in in two the the relation relation of of analytical analytical psychology psychology to in 1922, 1 922, the first first text, text, 'On the to poetry' in the second, 'Psychology ' Psychology and in 1930. 1 930. the second, and literature', in These explicitly turn any attempt attempt at at causal causal These two two texts texts both both explicitly turn their their back back on any explanation work of ofart, art,and andchoose chooseinstead insteada aphenomenological phenomenological explanation of of aa work which takes takes the the work work of of art art to to be be aa radically radically enigmatic enigmatic fact, fact, to to be be approach approach which observed which is is beyond beyond the the intention intention of of the the artist, artist, observed in in its its own own attire and which obeying activation of of structures structures and and processes processes of offormation formation largely largely obeying the the activation independent artist's decisions, decisions, and so highly highly autonomous. autonomous. independent of of the the artist's and so Jung therefore pens pens aa differentiation differentiation now now very very enlightening enlightening for for the the Jung therefore pSYl:hoanalysis between the specific objects objects and methods of of psychoanalysisofof art, art, between the specific and methods fJ. I'yc//()hiography, the the analysis of processes psychobiography, the analysis analysis of of works works of of art, art, and analysis of and the Gaillard 1984b). 1 984b). 0/ 01 ('I'm/ion creation ((Gaillard

360 h ri stian Gaillard Gaillard Christian 360 C



In order to to be be better better understood, understood, and and to to better better understand understand the the importimport­ In Jung evokes evokes and and cites cites in in both these ance of his ideas himself, himself, Jung these texts texts Dante's Dante's Goethe's second second Faust, works, Francesco Colonna's Hypnerotomachia, Goethe's works, Francesco Colonna's Hypnerotomachia, Wagner's Parsif Parsifal, the novels Nietzsche's al, the novels of Thus Spoke Spoke Zarathustra, Zarathustra, Wagner's Nietzsche's Thus Spitteler, Boehme, and the the Spitteler, William William Blake's Blake's paintings, paintings, the writings writings of Jacob Boehme, stories of E .T.A. Hoffmann. He calls these works visionary and opposes stories E.T.A. Hoffmann. He calls these works visionary and opposes them those that that he he calls calls psychological. psychological. A visionary visionary work work is is evidently evidently not them to those nourished by our our ordinary ordinary human humanexperience. experience. IfIfthe theeffect effect of ofsuch such aawork workisis striking to the extent extent that that itit seems seems opaque opaque and and resists resists all all comprehension comprehension itit is because through 'the 'the proliferation proliferation of ofmonstrous, monstrous,daemonic, daemonic,grotesque, grotesque, is because and perverse perverse fi gures' , the appears as aa 'frightening 'frightening revelation revelation of and figures', the work work appears 1 930: pars. 144, 1 44, 146). 1 46). ahysses' (lung 1930: abysses' (Jung JJung ung notes how our our modern modern and andespecially especially contemporary contemporary era era is is repelled repelled hy abysses. There defence against and chaos chaos by these abysses. There is is a vigorous defence against the anguish and of the night that that we we evidently evidently could not not control. control . This Thisdefence defenceis is not notwithout without cause, for evidence evidence would today'sworst worstdestroyers destroyers cause, would show that yesterday and today's and demons demons come come and and go go from from there, there, as ascurrent currentaffairs, affairs,including includingpolitical political events, ful l well. well. events, show full But an artist artist can cansometimes sometimes catch catch sight sight But it remains that an of the figures that people people the thenight-world night-world— - spirits, demons, and and gods; gods; he feels the suprahuman design; design; he feels the secret secret quickening quickening of of human human fate by aa suprahuman .. .. . he catches a glimpse of the psychic world that that terrifies terrifies the primitive primitiw and is is at at the the same same time time his his greatest greatest hope, hope,

1 49). and tries tries tentatively tentatively to give give it it form form (par. ( par. 149). and tI tere reactivated and and reworked reworked version version of ofthe thedisdis­ lere we we come come back back to to a reactivated ttinction i nc( io n established by Jung Jung in in 1916 1 9 1 6 between between the the double doublenecessity necessity in in which which and we risk of of becoming becoming abstract, and we find find ourselves ourselvesboth both to to understand, understand, at the risk tto o give g i ve form form to our our experiences, experiences, even unusual, so as as to to contain conta in even the the most most unusual, 1 9 1 6). I(hem hcm ((he he was verstehen and and gestalten gestalten in 1916). was already already using using the the terms terms verstehen Re adi ng .lung, that this this structural structuralunconscious. unconscious. Reading Jung, we particularly particularly understand understand that as well as being heing highly highly emotional, emotional, is not the the effect effect only only of ofan anindividual individllal as well repression, hut the artist's artist'splay playbetween between but is in fact largely impersonal: through through the immediate psychological worries and the creative passion that that inspires inspires him, h im , aa wh ol e era that are areobsessive obsess i ve whole era is is confronted confronted by by things things unwanted and unknown that and Illenacing, but but could could in in fact fact be be vivifying vivifying and and compensatory. compensat ory. and menacing, So the I he reader reader of o f Jung lung will will not not be be surprised surpri sedtotoLind find that that in in the thelate late1950s, 1 950s, at at ov e r 75 75 years years old, .lung revives revives his modern and and contemporary contempora rv over old, Jung his debate debate with modern aartistic rl islic creation in aa work work that that seemingly see mi ngl y has has nothing nothing whatsoever what soever to t o do do with wit h creation in tthe ill' subject, suhjec t . because heca use itit stems stems from from rumours, rumours, generally generally considered considered marginal ma rgi nal aand nd of of little l i l l ie interest, inlerest . of offlying Ilying saucers sa ucers appearing appea ringininthe t hcsky sky(Jung ( .lung19581. 1 95X). O course these I hese rumours rUlllours interest intcrcst Jung l ung precisely prccisl'ly because hccause they t hey are a 1\' Off course IInlwl il'vahk': who od a y would t t ribute these t hl' St' appearances appcarances or or epiphanies L'piphan ll's to ttl unbelievable: who ttoday would aattribute

The T h e aarts rts 361 361

gods purport the theexistence existence of of aliens. aliens. But But gods or or demons? We We can, can, and some do, purport their demons, so their existence existenceisisno nomore moresure surethan than that that of gods or demons, so who who today believe in in it? it? Nevertheless Nevertheless this this visionary visionary rumour rumour persists persists and spreads. ItIt can believe is attention. How How can can we we listen listen to to is reborn reborn from its own ashes, and demands attention. it? it? Jung Jung opens opens the the inquiry. inquiry. it? What What can we see see in in it? it? What What can we we do do about about it? Going history he he discovers discovers visions visions of this this type type in in sixteenthsixteenth­ Going back back in history century the collections collections of century engravings engravingsand andnarratives narrativesthat that he he found found in in the the Zurich central central library. library. He He even even finds finds aatwelfth-century twelfth-century example example in the Zurich Hildegarde de Bingen's Rupersberg Codex, which which had had just just been published in German. that all all of of these these documents documents relate relate to particularly particularly critical critical German. He notes that 1 998: 173). 1 73). moments of our our collective collective history history (Gaillard (Gaillard1998: moments of Scrutinising finds such such shapes shapes in in paintings, paintings, Scrutinisingour our contemporary contemporary arts, arts, he finds notably those of of the the surrealist surrealist Yves Yves Tanguy, Tanguy, where where we we also also see see organically organically organising such an an inchoate inchoate or ordecomposed decomposed organising forms forms emerge emerge or or disappear in such universe must be the beginning beginning or end of of time, time, in in regions regions so so universethat that itit must or the end foreign differentiation that that ititfrightens frightens human humanconsciousness. consciousness. We We foreign to to any differentiation happen painting by by this this artist artist happen to to know, from various photographs, that aa painting 1 989: 146-147). 1 46- 1 47). remained long time time in in Jung's Jung's library library(Jaffe (Jaffe1989: remained for for a long Returning once again to the visionary rumour rumour that that so so intrigues intrigues him, him, Jung Jung emphasises of principle, principle, take a stance as emphasisesand and repeats repeats that that he he could could not, not, out of to existence or not of of aa physical physical reality reality concerning concerning this this phenomenon, phenomenon, to the existence just as he cannot cannot pronounce pronounce on onthe thetranscendent transcendentexistence existence of of God God when when he he writes about religiou s experiences. His interest is for the highly emotionally writes religious experiences. His the highly emotionally charged typical elaborations elaborations that accompany accompany such such charged experiences experiencesand and the the typical rumours; these provoke his explorations and questionings. And the running rumours; these provoke explorations running theme of unbalance, unbalance, confusion, confusion, and and theme of of his his reflection reflection on on this this subject subject is is that of more radically, distress. last word word in his his book. book. An An ordinary ordinary more radically, distress. This This is is the the last distress, occasion open the event event and and the the most most unsuspected unsuspected distress, but but on this occasion open to the joys joys of the moment. From onwards his his attention is given given over the forms forms and and From this this point onwards over to to the fi gures described figures described by by the the documents documents he consults: consults: holes, holes, circles, circles, balls, balls, that that are composed and tantalising tantalising arrangements, arrangements, including including the the expresexpres­ composed into into abstract and sion 'fourth dimension', dimension', actually actually unthinkable, unthinkable,but butalive. alive. Here Hereemerge, emerge, sion of a 'fourth appear or disappear disappear nameless nameless beings beings or or things, things, formally formally incomplete, incomplete, unceruncer­ tain, even frankly frankly pathetic pathetic(`flying (,flying saucers'!). All All of of which which would would be be less less tain, and even incomprehensible incomprehensible if if we wewere wereto to accept accept them them as as the expressions expressions of of aa becom­ becoming, all this this is is but butmere merebeginnings, beginnings, still still ing, sketched sketched or or escaping, escaping, and and that that all informal, as yet yet unrealised. unrealised. informal, hardly started, as Jung rejoins, or or rather ratherprecedes, precedes, Anton Anton Ehrenzweig's Ehrenzweig's research research in in Jung thus rejoins, Great which is capital to the the psychoanalysis psychoanalysis of contemporary art. Great Britain which Ehrenzweig to Ehrenzweigwas was fascinated fascinated by by the the processes processes of of creation creation as as we can learn to p erce i ve them or aa series series of of works. works. He He also also considered considered the the perceive them in in aa work work of art, art, or most differentiated states which despite their apparent most unarticulated, least differentiated their apparent 1 967). disorder 'hidden order order of ofart' art'(Ehrenzweig (Ehrenzweig1967). disorder manifest manifest aa 'hidden

3362 6 2 Christian C h ristian Gaillard Gaillard



TThe h e arts 363 arts 363

approach is is also also similar to that JJung's ung's approach similar to that of of Didier Didier Anzieu Anzieu in in France, France, although expressed in aa completely although expressed in completely different different conceptual conceptual language. language. Both Both show how how creative creative work work is is intimately intimately close closeto to the the operation operation of destruction, show at least old forms forms must must be be rejected rejected so so as as to to arrive arrive at a new at least when when old new form of 1 98 1 ). expression (Anzieu 1981). Jung, as as we seen thus thus far, far, is aa practitioner Jung, we will will have have seen practitioner and and thinker thinker of of beginnings and and processes rather than accomplishments, heginnings processes rather accomplishments, despite what what some some would have have him him say. say. His would His approach to to modern modern and andcontemporary contemporarycreation, creation, and more generally his study study of the arts lind generally his arts which which preceded our our era, era, testify testify to to this. Indeed so does his vocabulary throughout this. throughouthis hiswork, work,as ashe heseeks seeksto tobest best express the the surprises surprises and and fluctuations fluctuations of a unity which express which is attempted within within itself, with with others, others, in the world, but itself, but which which always refuses to speak of of totality. totality. very term term Totalitiit TataNat — which which in German evokes a whole with nothing nothing left The very is almost completely out or or excluded excluded — - is completely absent. Meanwhile Meanwhile there is is aaconcon­ Ganzwerdung, or ganzwerden which stant, insistent insistent use of the terms Ganzheit, Ganzwerdung, in process, process, and and Vollstiindigkeit, aapply pply to a completeness completeness in Vollstandigkeit, which expresses an ensemble reaching reaching towards towards this this completeness, completeness,as as opposed opposed to to Vollkommcll­ ensemble Vollkommenhell, which hl'il, which promises perfection. This is the way Jung approaches, approaches, analyses analyses and and discusses discusses the the arts. arts. In Infact, fact, proceeds on this subject in the same he proceeds same way way that that he he proceeds proceeds in in the thecontext context of his his clinical clinical practice. practice. He is always always attentive to the the dynamics dynamics of ofcompencompen­ sHtion contradiction, which which can to be be more more than thansimply simply disdis­ sation and contradiction, can turn out to turbing, overwhelming, and even destructive, destructive, which this case, ca se , turbing, but overwhelming, and even which in this however, can can bring new however, new momentum. momentum. as He shows us and more more especially especially contemporary He shows us how how the arts, and contemporary art, do as much best they they can, can, often often taking taking our our most most archaic archaic and and primal primal much and and as best in clements as to oppose oppose our our certitudes certitudes of ofthe the moment moment in elements as their their starting starting point, to order to better better appeal appeal to to us. us. And And at atthe thesame sametime timethey theyprecede precede us. us. ConCon­ ce rni n g Ju ng himself and his work, encounters encounters with the the arts artsoften oftenallowed allowed cerning Jung him him to prove, on prove, and and particularly particularly to to renew, renew, deepen deepen and and revive revive his his thought thought on thee relationship to the th the unconscious. unconscious. ""Iced with creative work, so manifestly and necessarily connected Faced connected bot bothh to This is is and to tobecoming, becoming, we we can can be beanxious, anxious,even even overwhelmed. overwhelmed. This destruction and for th the better, for e het tel', for, Jung Jung writes, writes, `anguish 'anguish aspires aspires to to culture' culture'(Jung (Jung1931). 1 93 1 ). -

And A n d today? today?

A large la rge section sed ion of the the research research which w h ich isis currently currently being bei ng developed deve loped in in the t i ll' A po st J u n gi a n movement movement clearly clea r ly follows fol lows on from from the t hework work of 01 ./ u ngian and and post-Jungian Jungian t h e first first generation genera t ion of o f Jungians, those those who who were were Jung's l un g s initial i n i t i a l students, st lldents, as a� the t hey were were then t hen called. ca l led . they a rie-Lou ise vonvon h'aFranz, nz, A n icla .IaflC, .I ola ndeJacobi Jacobi and and The work The workof ofM Marie-Louise Aniela Jolande filet that that then I hl'l I .I osl·ph II Il'nderson t o name name only four, fo ur, is is characterised cha raderised by the t he fact Joseph lenderson,. to -

.

'

encounters special function encounters with with the the arts arts had the special function of supporting, supporting, nourishing and 'amplifying' what relationship to uncon­ and 'amplifying' what they they had had learnt learnt of the relationship to the unconscious, particular the processes processes of individuation, individuation, through their own own scious, in in particular through their experience which experienceof of analysis analysisand and their their clinical clinical practice. practice. The The major major work which represents represents this this relationship relationship to to the the arts is Man Man and his Symbols, Symbols, published published in in 11964, 964, four and widely widely circulated circulated in many lanlan­ four years years after after Jung's Jung's death, death, and in many guages. very close later guages. The The work work of of Erich Erich Neumann, who was very close to to Jung but later distanced continues to distanced himself himself especially especiallyafter aftermoving movingtoto Israel, Israel, has has and and continues mark Jungian researchers researchers who are are influenced influenced by his analysis of of works mark many Jungian of including those Vinci, and by the breadth of of his his of art, art, including those of Leonardo Leonardo da da Vinci, and by interpretation of our our collective collective history. history. interpretation of From this double double foundation, foundation, still still very very much much alive, alive, many many lines lines of of From this research and differentiated. differentiated. Sometimes Sometimes these lines lines of of research have have been been built built up and research subjects of of research are are in in ignorance ignorance of each each other, other, as is the case with other other subjects recent Jungian and and post-Jungian post-Jungian recent development developmentinin the the orientations orientations of of the Jungian 985). Often, inter­ movement movement (Samuels (Samuels 11985). Often, as as we we will will see, see, they they intersect intersect and and interconnect. that the the following following overview, overview, far far from from being being aa complete complete connect. It is evident that or systematic picture works published published to this this date, date, serves serves only only to to or systematic picture of of the the works highlight highlight some some of of the the particularly particularly typical typical current current progress progress on on the subject subject of the more readable readable and and flowing flowing the psychoanalysis psychoanalysisof of the the arts. arts. To To maintain aa more text, not included included the the references references within the body body of of the the text textitself. itself. text, II have not Instead, refer to to will will be found Instead, the the books books or or papers written by the authors II refer in bibliography. The bibliography should also allow allow for wider reading in the the bibliography. The bibliography and the discovery discovery of other authors. authors. and the of other

Writing and publishing publishing in the service service of beauty Writing and in the of beauty Among authors who who have have integrated integrated the the intimate intimate relationship relationship Among the the Jungian Jungian authors between artistic creation and analytical psychology into their way of oflife life between artistic creation and analytical psychology into their way and their work, Francesco Donfrancesco takes pride of place. In parallel to and their work, Francesco Donfrancesco takes pride of place. In parallel to his clinical practice he devotes a large part of his time and attention to his clinical practice he devotes a large part of his time and attention to artists whose work he follows closely, and who he likes to visit in their artists whose work he follows closely, and who he likes to visit in their studios. In fact, fact, he he wants wants to to examine examine artistic artistic experience experience with the eye eye of an studios. In with the of an analyst, and analytic experience with the eye of an artist. And always in analyst, and analytic experience with the eye of an artist. And always in close-up, in the manner of a truly remarkable and private encounter. close-up, in the manner of a truly remarkable and private encounter. This is where where writing writing gets gets involved, involved, understood understood and practised as as an an This is and practised operation, a process which, particularly through the use of image, seeks operation, a process which, particularly through the use of image, seeks to to merge and the the general, general, subjective subjective and and objective, objective, the the psychopsycho­ merge the the individual individual and logical For this this kind kind of of writing writing beauty beauty is is indeed indeed the aim of of logical and and the the spiritual. spiritual. For the aim all art. But not a beauty that obeys the canons of good taste. A beauty that all art. But not a beauty that obeys the canons of good taste. A beauty that mobilises the active active myth-defining myth-defining elements of art, art, mobilises Eros Eros through through the elements in in aa work work of including contemporary creation, and thus thus supports supportsthe theexchange exchange including the the most most contemporary creation, and of aesthetic emotion. emotion. of aesthetic

364 Christian C h ri stian Gaillard Gaillard 364

The The arts a rts 365 3 65

His work work as as aa writer writer is is also also the the work work of ofan aneditor. editor.We Wemust mustnote note the the His formal and and sensory sensory qualities qualities as well as contents of of the the journal journal Anima Anima formal as well as the the contents which he he edits, edits, and and his his active active participation participation in inthe thechoice choiceof ofworks workspublished published which by Moretti Moretti ee Vitali, Vitali, where where he he collaborates collaborates with with Carla Carla Stroppa, Stroppa, who who isis by herself aa clinician, clinician, aa writer an editor editor Her Her work work ininthese thesethree threefields fields herself writer and and an seeks to to accompany accompany and and express express the the tight tightintermingling interminglingin inimages imagesbetween between seeks memory and and evolution. evolution. She She emphasises emphasiseshow howthese theseimages imagescan canuse usetheir theirown own memory artistic language language to tell of of the the worst worst human human wounds, wounds, and and at atthe thesame sametime time artistic to tell permit emotional emotional expression expression and and offer offer an an occasion occasion to to heal. heal. permit Both these often refer refer to to Henry Henry Corbin Corbin and and James James Hillman. Hillman. The The Both these authors authors often latter initiated the international encounters which they organise together latter initiated the international encounters which they organise together in Italy, Italy, and and they they collaborate collaborate closely closely in in the theeditorial editorialchoices choices which which lead lead in them to publish authors whose works are related, even if their individual them to publish authors whose works are related, even if their individual approaches differ differ greatly: greatly: Peter or Ingrid Ingrid Riedel Riedel as as well well as as Arturo Arturo approaches Peter Amman Amman or Schwartz, Basileo Reale, Augusto Romano, Luigi Zoja or myself, William Schwartz, Basileo Reale, Augusto Romano, Luigi Zoja or myself, William Willeford, Paul and Donald Donald Kalsched. Kalsched. Willeford, Paul Kugler Kugler and

The analyst analyst in in the the service service of of artists artists Mary Dougherty is is equally equally convinced convinced that artIstIc creation creation and and psychopsycho­ Mary Dougherty that artistic analysis are related, for in both cases we are dealing with processes of analysis are related, for in both cases we are dealing with processes of symbolisation. She upholds that one of the functions of a work of art is to symbolisation. She upholds that one of the functions of a work of art is to move from a n individual debate t o a more shared meaning. B u t the m a in move from an individual debate to a more shared meaning. But the main a x i s of her work i s t o help artists in the fluctuations of their creation. For axis of her work is to help artists in the fluctuations of their creation. For he it is is very an artist artist cannot cannot deal dealonly only with withconscious consciousintentions intenti ons herr it very clear clear that that an or sole ly privilege the movements of the unconscious. This induces the risk risk or solely privilege the movements of the unconscious. This induces the of taking refuge in aesthetics to create a fanatical defence against under­ of taking refuge in aesthetics to create a fanatical defence against underunlimited identification identification with with the the unconu m :on ­ developed developed infantile infantile feelings feelingsor or an an unlimited scious processes. scious processes. She want to to believe believe in in the the therapeutic therape u t ic She is is therefore therefore critical critical of of those those who who want vvirtues i rt ues of the processes of creation left to their own will, and as thera pis l of the processes of creation left to their own will, and as aatherapist t he accent accent instead instead on on the theimportance importance of ofsufficiently sufficiently good good interinlL' l'­ she she puts puts the pe rso n al relationships, on the the elaboration elaboration of ofan an artistic artisticlanguage languagewhich which personal relationships, and and on to share share personal personal experience experience with with others. others. aallows l lows the the artist artist to She starting point, point, especially especially Symbols TrOI/.l She takes takes Jung's Jung's works works as as aa starting Symbols of' of Trans/ill"lllll(ion Kohu l . 'Orli:lion and and Psychological Psychological Types, Types, and and she she also also uses uses the the work work of of Kohut, M a rio n Milner, Milner, Kalsched Kalsched and Her most most notable notable predecessor p red ecessor was wa� Marion and Neumann. Neumann. Her JJoseph oseph II llenderson enderson who Pollock in the progress progress and a nd who accompanied accompanied Jackson Jackson Pollock in the ddifficulties i fficul t ies of s creation ofhihis creation over over half half aa century century ago. ago.

The The arts arts In in the the service service of of therapy therapy These here aare rc Ill a n y JJungian u ng i a n aanalysts na lyst s aand nd JJungian-oriented u ng i a n - o r i e n l ed Itherapists hcra pl�h These days days tthere many who usc pa i n l i ng. sculpt urc. ddrawing, ra w i ng. da ncc aand nd Ill llsil", iin n aa more n l o rc who use painting, sculpture, dance music,

01 less Il'\\ or

elaborated elaborated and and exclusive exclusive fashion, to support support and and nourish nourishtheir theirclinical clinical pracprac­ tice, in the context therapy, or in a group. tice, either either in context of one-to-one one-to-one therapy, group. Numerous Numerous congresses and conferences are devoted devoted to this kind kind of of group group practice, practice, which which offer valuable occasions occasions for participating analysts and therapists therapists to to live live aa more emotional emotional relationship relationship to to themselves themselves and others, others, and and to to exchange exchange their their experience and thoughts. experience and Nise da Silveira Silveira in Brazil Brazil was a pioneer pioneer in in this this subject. subject. From From the the1940s 1 940s onwards onwards she she created created workshops workshops where where patients patients often often with withseriously seriouslypsypsy­ chotic tendencies could express themselves themselves very freely freely in all sorts of ofmedia, media, and without any any attempt attempt on on the the part partof ofthe thepeople peopleaccompanying accompanying them them to to propose an interpretation. Nise da Silveira, who did not like the term propose Silveira, who term 'art 'art Museu de therapy', or even art', created created the the Museu therapy', even worse worse 'psychopathological 'psychopathological art', de Janeiro at at the the beginning beginning of of the the 1950s 1 950s to Imagens do Inconsciente in Rio de conserve and and make make known known the works produced in her workshops, conserve workshops, notably expression through through painting, Casa das Palmeiras, a day clinic where expression at the the Casa drawing and sculpture were highly encouraged. encouraged. She She went went to to Zurich in the drawing were highly and met Jung there. She late 1950s 1 950s and She was also close to the work work of ofBachelard, Bachelard, and was and promoters promoters of of art brut, and was in contact contact with with the French French speakers speakers and brut, especiallywith with Jean Jean Dubuffet. Dubuffet. Her work especially work and and her hercollections collections are areincreasincreas­ ingly well well known known and admired. ingly admired. In England, who had analysed England, Irene Chapernowne, Chapernowne, who analysed with Jung and and was was In also his his friend, also friend, was the the pioneer pioneer of of the the therapeutic therapeutic community community approach approach with psychotic psychotic patients, patients, where wherethe the main main work work was was done done through through art art and with creative media; media; her her work, creative work, which which is recognised recognised in in Britain Britain as as groundground­ breaking, was based on breaking, on Jungian Jungianprinciples principles(Stevens (Stevens1991). 1 99 1 ). Among dance dance therapists, therapists, Joan Joan Chodorow has and interAmong has become become widely widely and inter­ nationally known known for for her own interventions nationally interventions as well well as those of of her her many many students of different different nationalities. nationalities. Her practice and teaching students teaching are fed fed by by the the classicalJungian Jungian practice practice of of active active imagination imagination and and by her attentive classical attentive study study of the the iconography of of of the the alchemists. alchemists. Joy Schaverien Schaverien has has acquired acquired attention attention through through her her publications Joy publications on the the use of painting use painting and drawing drawing in in therapy therapy and and through through her her university university teaching.Her Her books books and and articles teaching. articles mostly mostly refer refer to clinical clinical cases cases (of (of psychotic, anorexic, depressed or sexually abused patients), and psychotic, anorexic, depressed or sexually abused patients), and often often reproduce drawings drawings and and paintings reproduce paintings created during during therapy. therapy. Her Herreflection reflection makes her mobilise diverse theoretical approaches to let them makes her mobilise diverse theoretical approaches to let them confront each other; other; she she explores explores the the setting setting and and the the rhythm of each of sessions sessions of therapy where artistic expression is central, the importance of the gender where artistic expression is central, the importance of the gender of the the therapist and and his/her reactions,and and also also the therapist his/her countertransferential countertransferential reactions, the transgenerationalpermanence permanenceofofcertain certaintraumas, traumas,notably notablyin in the the case case of transgenerational ThePsychology Psychology post-Holocaust Jews. Jews. Joy Joy Schaverien Schaverien often often refers refersto to lung's Jung's The post-Holocaust to Winnicott Winnicott and and Bollas, Bollas, but but also consults consults Cassirer, Cassirer, Freud Freud of' erence, to of Tramf Transference, and Lacan, and her of postand Lacan, and her work work follows follows the the recent recent developments developments of post­ Feminism. Feminism.

G a i l lard C h ristian Gaillard 6 6 Christian 3366 From therapy therapy through through art art to to the interpretation of works of works From of art

Some therapists therapists who who use use art art in their clinical practice are are also also authors authors of clinical practice Some essays on on the the interpretation interpretation of works works of art. This is Riedel. Ingrid Riedel. ofIngrid true of is true essays She has has devoted many books books to the the especially the andespecially painting and ofpainting use of the use devoted many She meanings colours colours can can acquire acquire during therapy. She generally accent generally puts an accent meanings on series to highlight the transformations psy­ individual psytransformations of an individual highlight the images to series of images on chotherapy or the evolutions of a group. Parallel to this she has undertaken the analysis of works works of contemporary Chagall, of Chagall, those of example those for example contemporary art, for analysis of the Paull Klee Her writing writing is is widely widely read, read, as as is is that of of Bourgeois. Her Louise Bourgeois. Klee and Louise Pau Verena Kast, Kast, who also recounts the expression through drawing effects of expression the effects Verena by works by ofworks group of whole group fact, aa whole In fact, therapist. In or painting in her work as aa therapist. classical uses aa classical characteristically uses German characteristically in German writing in authors writing ungian authors JJungian archetypal approach to to explore contemporary orcontemporary modern or analyse modern and analyse explore and archetypal approach creation, from from Hans of works of the works contemplated the has contemplated who has Dieckmann, who Hans Dieckmann, creation, Gauguin, Chagall of work of the work explores the who explores Asper, who Kathrin Asper, Chagall and Rilke, to Kathrin Gauguin, Kahlo. Frida Kahlo. Indeed this this movement from an investigation off the painting, ofpainting, use of the use investigation o movement from Indeed drawing or sculpture in therapy therapy to the interpretation can art can works of art interpretation of works sculpture in drawing also be extended, so the an artist. also an Wyly is an James Wyly artist. James becomes an analyst becomes the analyst extended, so example of this; this; after having published essays Picasso and of Picasso works of essays on the works example practice to clinical practice his clinical himself from his Rembrandt, progressively detached himself he progressively brandt, he Rem devote to his his own own painting, painting, and and in particular to the playing ofplaying art of the art himself to devote himself that choice that take aachoice the To practise practise the the arts arts in this to take way is to this way harpsichord. To t he harpsichord. his tohis himself to devote himself to devote decided to he decided when he away from when shied away himself shied J u ng himself Jung arts thearts undertake the deliberately undertake moredeliberately tomore than to psychologist rather than work as aa psychologist of painting, or even, ad Sermones ad his Septem writing his after writing even, after sculpture, or painting, sculpture, Septem Sermones Mortuos, Mar/lias, literature. Such a radical in observe in can observe we can generally we More generally life choice remains rare. More radical life the Jungian psychoanalytic thepsychoanalytic traditionsofofthe othertraditions the other in the community, as in J u ngian community, movement, clinicians who who are especially attentive to the of expressions of the expressions especially attentive movement , clinicians symbolic life produced produced at intervals, theoretical or theoretical clinical or their clinical alongside their intervals, alongside symholic life particularly thatparticularly artistthat anartist oran art or of art work of writ i ng. an writing, an essay essay or or two two on on a work Rembrand t . on Rembrandt, worked on touches has worked Stein has M u rray Stein them. Thus Murray obsesses them. t o u che s or obsesses Rafael and Mary Wells Moniq uc and Monique Kiefer. and o n Kiefer, Barron on Wells Barron Lopez-Pedraza and Rafael Lopez-Pedraza Salzmann on Giacometti, t hc Beverley Zabriskie has concentrated on the while Beverley Giacometti. while analysis creation. of creation. processes of the processes anal y sis of the hy especially by cinema has that cinema note that also note We can We can also has inspired inspired some somework work especially remains m usicremains whereasmusic a u ke whereas ristopher H Agne!. John A i m!! Agnel, Aime John Beehe Beebeand and Ch Christopher Hauke OUI of our t h ose of in those essays as in post-J u ngian essays J u n gi a n and post-Jungian in Jungian u nderrepresented in as underrepresented Freudian Pa u l ( ·olman. Paul Agne!. Arthur Colman, A i mc Agnel, ofAim& work of t he work col leagues. with the I ,'n:udian colleagues, Newham, Joel R yee-Men Men ue Pardo, .Iiirp. R omano . Jiirp. ugustoo Romano, Pardo. AAugust Enrique n . uric' u h iin, R yceNewham . .Ioel Rasehe, isolatl'd . ra t hl'l'isolated. rema i n i n g rather Ward remaining K a dyn Ward 01' Karlyn Pa t ricia Skar or R lIschl" Patricia

3 67 The Thearts arts 367

Another Another timescale them serve to Analysing Analysingworks worksof ofart art in in the the Jungian Jungian manner manner can can also serve to put them into into the the perspective perspective of of our our collective collective history. history. This This entails entails not not only following observ­ also observbut also life, but artist's life, one artist's of one the the evolution evolution of of creation creation in in the the rhythm rhythm of several over several transformations over structural transformations and structural formal and analysing formal ing ing and analysing analysis of This analysis generations, generations, aa century, century, or or from from one one period period to to another. another. This of the the enough with enough approach with methodological approach of aa methodological elaboration of arts arts demands demands the the elaboration art of art works of the works internal internalcoherence coherencetotobe beable ableto to be be used used for for each each of of the or theme or typical theme focalised on considered. considered. Equally, Equally, the the research research must must be be focalised on aa typical other. an other. to an work to one work from one observed from be observed structure structure whose whose evolution evolution can can thus thus be Ecole the Ecole psychoanalysis of teaching the through teaching how, through This This is is how, the psychoanalysis ofart art at at the publications, II my publications, Nationale Nationale Superieure Superieure des des Beaux-Arts Beaux-Artsde deParis Paris and and in in my and thoughtful and more thoughtful in aa more then in rst and have have come come to to work, work, hesitantly hesitantly at at fi first and then inter­ the interfrom the works from paintings, works Roman paintings, certain Roman organised organised manner, manner, on on certain Durer, Caravaggio, Darer, by Caravaggio, works by Renaissance, works Italian Renaissance, the Italian and the national national Gothic Gothic and Rebecca recently Rebecca more recently and more K iefer, and Anselm Kiefer, Pollock, Anselm Courbet, Pollock, Cranach, Cranach, Courbet, proceed in not proceed did not Jenny Holzer Horn, Horn, Jenny Holzer and and Gerard Gerard Garouste. Garouste. II did in the the order order of of of follow the preferring to art, preferring history of their their appearance appearance in in our our history of art, to follow the path path of in aa encounters encounters apparently apparently without without any any connection connection between betweenthem, them, and and in be order be of order sort of progressively could Only progressively manifest manifest chronological chronological disorder. disorder. Only could aa sort slowly because itit slowly only because this only and this culture, and our culture, of our history of the history established established as as to to the them -of them selection of large selection least aa large - or works — these works that these became became apparent apparent that or at at least the of the representation of the representation theme, the one theme, transformations of showed showed the the transformations of one was feminine feminine through through the the ages, ages, with with aa common common structural structural organisation organisation that that was the French Jardin (in French conclusus (in Ages hortus Middle Ages called and the jardin clos dos and hortus conclusus called in in the the Middle garden'). 'enclosed translation English English translation 'enclosed garden'). transformation of transformation processes of on processes once on at once focused at been focused has been So So my my attention attention has practice this practice doubt No representation. of organisation structural the on and and on the structural organisation of representation. No doubt this work my of development the to unrelated not is arts the of analysis the of of the analysis of the arts is not unrelated to the development of my work internal the within Jung present and understand better to seeks that that seeks to better understand and present Jung within the internal in asin wellas aswell another,as to another, creation to its creation of its stage of one stage from one dynamics dynamics of of his his work work from differences and connections his and culture our of history the in place his his place in the history of our culture and his connections and differences psychoanalysis. inpsychoanalysis. developed in beendeveloped havebeen that have trends that other trends with other with own Jung's own than Jung's other than approach, this accompany can which books the Of Of the books which can accompany this approach, other lung Homans' Peter cite me let particular in onwards 5 93 1 from those — those from 1935 onwards in particular — let me cite Peter Homans' Jung direction the direction published under C. G. Context, and in Context, and C. under the G.lung Jung and and the the Humanities Humanities published in d'Acierno. Pellegrino and Barnaby Karin of of Karin Barnaby and Pellegrino d'Acierno.

concerns Postmodern concerns transformations great transformations the great to the as to questions as poses questions also poses Christopher Hauke Christopher Hauke also architecture, in architecture, particularly analysis, his focuses He culture. our affect that that affect our culture. He focuses his analysis, particularly in postmodernism. call can we what of 980s, 1 the since notably advent, the on on the advent, notably since the 1980s, of what we can call postmodernism.

The 369 Thearts arts 369

368 C Christian 368 h ristian Gaillard Gail lard

The designs The designs of Frank Frank Gehry, Gehry, which which apparently apparently live live off offaadevelopment development without a ready-established structure or or hierarchy, hierarchy, quite quite contrary to what without ready-established structure what we call call 'modern' constructions, we constructions, make Hauke Hauke renew renew the the discussion discussion about about with history, history, and with his cultural heritage. lJung's ung's relationship relationship with heritage. He reconrecon­ siders lung's Jung's complex complex relationship relationship with with loyce's Joyce's Ulysses Ulysses to to show show how, how, on siders this occasion occasion and and also also in the this the actual actual physical physical construction construction of his his tower tower at at Bollingen,lung Jung isis far far from from attempting attempting to find Bollingen, find refuge refuge in an outdated outdated past, past. in his writing or in but lives lives and realises in in stone stone aa dialogue dialoguewhere where the therevival revival his heritage heritage in in turn constantly revives the invention invention of the present. of his revives the present . In the same way, way, unlike unlike Freud, Freud, he does not construct same construct aa psychology, psychology, and and certainly certainly not a metapsychology, metapsychology, but produces animated animated concepts concepts to to deconstruct deconstruct the the rigidities of of the the conscious conscious and and accompany the diverse moments and aspects rigidities aspects of a live live relationship relationship with with the the unconscious. unconscious. For John For lohn Beebe Beebe also, also, one one of ofthe themajor majorchallenges challenges totocontemporary contemporary creation is to move from modern art, art, with with its its minimalist minimalist aesthetic that Jung lung certainly did did not not predict, certainly predict, to our our postmodernity postmodernity that often often manages manages to to offend public taste. He offend public taste. He proposes proposes that this this movement movement can can be be analysed analysed in in Jungian Ju ngian terms as a passage passage to to aa new new relationship relationship between between the the ego ego and and the the unconscious. For a long time this relationship had functioned unconscious. functioned at at the the level level of transpersonal objectivity; this is still the case in the work of Miro transpersonal objectivity; this is still the case in the work Miro for for example. The most recent works of Kiefer, in their intimate affinity of Kiefer, intimate affinity with with the verses Celan wrote wrote about the verses Celan the concentration concentration camps, camps, serve serve as asevidence evidence of ofaa certain new vulnerability or suffering experienced much more personally ce rta in new vulnerability or suffering experienced much more personally and in in the the body, body, to to the the point pointof offragmentation fragmentationand anddislocation. dislocation. Beebe develops this analysis by rereading the Septem Septem Sermones Beebe develops this analysis by rereading the Sermones ad {/{I Marinas, which Jung wrote in 1916, and insisting on the passage MorIllo.\", which .lung wrote 1 9 1 6, insisting the passage that that is is actually ac t ua lly taking taking place place from from an anidealised idealised Self Self — - the pleroma — to aa more more unique creatura. He also shows u n i q u e self self of of everyday everyday proportions proportions— - the creatura. shows how the the alchemists' alchemists' project project to animate animate Christianity's Christianity's exclusions exclusions can can be berecognised r ecognised and in the insistence a n d is is being being realised realised in insistence of today's arts on on working working with with the the most media, and on giving most elementary elementary media, giving attention to to the thefeminine feminine and andquesq ues­ tioning t ioni ng evil. evil. He He notes how the the work work of ofMax Max Ernst Ernstand andSchwitters Schwitters marks marks this t his rediscovery rediscovery and the actualisation actualisation of of the the alchemists' alchemists' preoccupations. preoccupations. Beebe suggeststhat that if Modern Beebe suggests M odern arts arts exposed exposed the the tension tension that thatNietzsche Nietzsche analysed between Apollo Apollo and Dionysus, well between Dionysus, the contemporary contemporary arts arts try t ry a n aly sed so well to let let those t hose of ofus uswho whoseek seek this thissensibility sensibility live live and and emotionally emotionally share share the the tension tension between between the facetious facetious and provocative provocative games games of of Hermes H ermes and and the t he calling This latter lattertension tensionalways alwaysbegs begs the t hequestion q u e st io nof ofwhether whetherwe we l'u l l i n g of Ilestia. lIestia. This find welll and and aatt case ease in in our ordinary l i n d ourselves ou rselves wel ordinary environment, environment, as as we we can can see Sl'l' in i n Gerhard ( lcrha rd Richter's R ichte r s landscapes landsca pes and a ndportraits por t ra i t s(personal ( personalcommunication, eom m u n ica t ioll, -

'

spring 2( )( U ) . spring 2003). Ile l ie has has notably notablyworked workedon onfilms filmsby byAlfred A l fredf litchcock, I l itehcock ,Steven StevenSpielberg �pil'lbl 'r)! and lind Spike Spike Lee, I .ee, on on Robert Robert Arneson's A rneson ' ssculpture, sculpture, and andmore l110regenerally genera lly on 0 1 1 the t ill' figure a rts. Ile I k was was the t h l' editor ed i tor of of the t l1l' San .\'1111 Francisco liglln: of the t he trickster Irid,sl('/' in in the t h l' arts. 1-/'111/1';.1'('(1

Jung over aa long long period, period, which which is is devoted devoted to to the Jung Institute Institute Library Library Journal Journal over critical other cultural cultural events. events. critical presentation presentation of of books, books, films films and and other who was was With Ulysses, who we are are brought brought back backto to Ulysses, trickster, we With Hermes Hermes and and the the trickster, our And with with the the provocations provocations our guide guide in in the the first first pages pages of of this this presentation. presentation. And and we come more evidence and progress progress of of postmodernity postmodernity we come back back with with more evidence than than ever ever to well as to the the disturbances disturbances as as well as the the fruitfu fruitfull discoveries discoveries and and encounters encounters of of our our relationship unconscious, all which we we have of relationship with with the the unconscious, all of of which have never never lost lost sight sight of during the analyses analyses and practices of the arts arts developed developed during these these pages. pages. For For the and practices of the by despite their their diversity diversity and and differences, differences, are are by present-day present-day Jungian Jungian authors, despite well psychoanalysis by he well inscribed inscribedinin the the direction direction opened opened to to psychoanalysis by Jung Jung as as he frequented had marked marked him. him. frequented the the works works of of art art that that had This This present present work work poses poses aa few few major major questions. questions. The The good good use use of of art art and plastic therapy is is different different from from the the relationship relationship between between plastic expression expression in in therapy beauty displeasure or important, however, however, is the beauty and and displeasure or evil. evil. One One of of the the most important, question timescale of unconscious unconscious processes processes as them­ question of of the timescale as they they manifest manifest themselves that come come to to punctuate punctuate the the history history selveson on the the occasion occasion of of works works of of art art that of culture. These of Jung's .lung's works works and and return return of aa culture. These questions questionsare are at at the the heart heart of insistently ungian and current post-Jungian post-Jungian works. work in in insistentlyinin JJungian and current works. This This is is work progress, be followed followed closely closely in the developments developments of our contemporary contemporary progress, to to be in the of our arts as well well as as in in the the evolution evolution of ofour ourdiverse diversequestionings. questionings. arts as

Ackn owl e d g e m e n ts Acknowledgements

II would like to to thank thank warmly warmly John John Beebe, Beebe, Francesco Francesco Donfrancesco, Donfrancesco, Mary M ary would like Dougherty, R iedel, Joy Joy Schaverien, Schaverien, Carla Carla Stroppa, Stroppa, Dougherty, Jorg JOrg Rasche, Rasche, Ingrid Ingrid Riedel, James Wyly, Beverley Beverley Zabriskie, especially Renos Papadopoulos, for for James Wyly, Zabriskie, and and especially Renos Papadopoulos, the information, thoughts thoughts and and advice advice they they have have offered offered me. me. the information,

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II .o n d o n : R o u l ledge. Routledge.

IIndex n d ex

Note: Note: page page numbers numbers in in bold bold refer refer to diagrams Abt, 273 Abt, Theodore 273 Achterberg, 234 Achterberg, Jeanne 234 active 1 5-43; and and active imagination imagination 69, 69, 2215-43; alchemy the alchemy 273, 273, 283, 283, 287·-8; 287-8; and the analyst the anima/animus anima/animus analyst 227-8; 227-8; and the 1114, 1 4, 1118; 1 8; criticisms criticismsof of235-6; 235-6; and and the cultural unconscious 230; 230; current cultural unconscious status status 236-7; dangers of 226-7; definitions 1 5- 1 6, 228-9; definitions 2215-16, development 1 1 4; and development 114; and directed thinking 1 9; and emotion 218, 2 1 8, thinking 2219; 220 - 1 , 222-3, 222-3, 233; 233; expression expression 225-6, 220-1, 237; 1 6 - 1 9, 221-7, 22 1 -7, 231, 23 1 , 237; and and fantasy fantasy 2216-19, 233, 237; future 233, 237; 237; forms forms of of 225-6, 237; developments developments regarding regarding 236-7; healing images 218, 2 1 8, healing function 223; and images 223, innovations 223, 226-7, 226-7, 233-4; innovations regarding post­ regarding 230-5; 230-5; lungians Jungians and postlungians lung's initial initial Jungians on on 229-36; Jung's views 1 7-20; and the the movermover­ views on on 2217-20; witness witness relationship relationship 234-5; 234-5; a priori nature 1 5; and nature 2215; and the re-creation of the personality 1 6; and Sandplay Sandplay 230, 230, personality 2216; 232-3; stages of starting 232-3; stages of 224-5; starting points 224; and symbolic symbolic points of 224; amplification 1 9-20, 227, 227, 237; 237; and and amplification 2219-20, the of affect affect and and archetype archetype the theory of 230, 1 ; and therapeutic 230, 23 231; and the therapeutic relationship 228; and transference transference relationship 228; 228, 1 -2, 236, 237; 237; and 228, 230, 230, 23 231-2, and understanding 2 1 9, 227 227 understanding 219, Adam 1 06 Adam 106 Adams, 1 66 Adams, M.V. 166 Adler, 29, 67, 67, 132, 1 32, 246-7 Adler, Alfred Alfred 29, Adler, 1 06-7, 229 229 Adler, Gerhard Gerhard 106-7, 1 09 Adkr Adler Group Group 109

adolescence: 1 99, 204; 204; adolescence: and and individuation 199, see see also also puberty puberty Adorisio, 234 Adorisio, A. 234 aesthetic 237 aesthetic imagination 237 aesthetic 227 aesthetic tendency 225, 227 affect archetype, theory of of 230, 230, affect and archetype, 23 2311 Age Pisces 304 Age of Pisces agonic agonic mode mode 83-4 A ion (lung) 1 1 7- 1 9, 160, 1 60, 264, 264, Aion (Jung) 98, 98, 99, 99, 117-19, 270, 307 270, 276, 276, 296, 306, 307 albedo albedo 27 2711 alchemy 1 07, 186, 1 86, 263-95, 307; and alchemy 34, 34, 107, 263-95, 307; analytical 288; and analytical psychology psychology 268-9, 268-9, 288; Christianity 277, 277, 290, 290, 358, 358, 368; 368; classical classical development development of of lung's Jung's ideas on 289-90; criticisms criticisms of the on 272-6, 289-90; concept concept 276-88; 276-88; current current status status of 288-9 1 ; of desire 288-91; desire 279-80; 279-80; duality duality of 1101; 0 1 ; Eastern Eastern 283-6, 283-6, 290; future trends regarding 1 ; images images of 271-2, 27 1 -2, regarding 288-9 288-91; 277-8, 280- 1 , 282, 282, 285, 285, 287-8, 357; 357; 277-8, 280-1, innovations innovations regarding regarding 276-88; 276-88; lung's Jung's discovery discovery of of 267-72; 267-72; language language of 278-9, 290; 290; literature of of Western Western 356-8; 356-8; as as metaphor metaphor for the therapeutic 1 85-8, 193; 1 93 ; myth therapeutic process process 185-8, of 274; 274; as as psychological psychological and and symbolic art 268-9, 270-3, 270-3, 282, 282, 290; 290; art 263-4, 268-9, and self 156; 1 56; of spirit and the self of soul 277; of spirit 277, 1 00- 1 , 280 280 277, 287; 287; symbolism symbolism of of 100-1, Alexander, 1 46 Alexander, I. 146 aliens 361 aliens 307, 361 Allan, 233 Allan, John 233 Amhix Amhix (journal) (journal) 266 American I ndian mythology mytho logy 107 107 American Indian

IIndex n dex 379 379

3378 78 Index I n dex Amman, Peter Peter 232 232 amplification 30 1 ; individual amplification 301; individual 248-9, 250; 1 2; symbolic 1 9-20, 250; objective objective 3312; symbolic 2219-20, 227, 237 237 analyst-analysand the analyst-analysand relationship: relationship: and the shadow 1 02, 108-9; 1 08-9; see shadow 94-5, 94-5, 102, see also also therapeutic relationship; relationship; treatment alliance analysts: active imagination 227-8; 227-8; analysts: and active inferior of 146; 1 46; introverted/ inferior function of extraverted 146; 1 46; medial medial practitioners 232; in 364; as as 232; in the service of artists 364; wounded healers 146; 1 46; see see also also therapists analytical psychology: psychology: and alchemy alchemy 268 9, 288; Christianity 270; 270; 268 -9, 288; and and Christianity nature of of 95; 95; as new new religion religion 313-14; 3 1 3- 1 4; and quantum physics physics 88-9; and religion 3 1 5- 1 7; splits of of religion 270, 270, 296-7, 296-7, 315-17; 109 ancestors 182 1 82 ancient Egypt Egypt 56, 56, 245, 245, 251; 25 1 ; art art 351; 35 1 ; mythology 281 mythology 281 ancient Greece 97-8, 116 1 16 androgyne, archetypal archetypal 126 1 26 Allima 364 Anima (journal) 364 Anima M undi 120, 1 20, 127 1 27 Anima Mundi aanima/animus nima/animus 97, 97, 113-29, 1 1 3-29, 303, 303, 344; 344; and active imagination 114, 1 1 4, 118; 1 1 8; active urchetypal 1 1 6, 117, 1 1 7, 119-28; 1 1 9-28; archetypal nature 116, authority-anima/animus 124; 1 24; bringing tto o consciousness of 117, 1 1 7, 118-19; 1 1 8- 1 9; hrother/sister-anima/animus 1 24; and and brother/sister-anima/animus 124; the collective collective unconscious 117-18, 1 1 7- 1 8, 1125, 25, 1153 53 4; 4; and coniunctio coniunctio 119-20; 1 1 9-20; con te n t 115; 1 1 5; and and creativity creativity 116, 1 1 6, 117, 1 1 7, content 1119 1 9 20; 20; criticisms criticisms of of the the concept concept of fo; current cur re nt views views of of 126-7; 1 26-7; 1121 2 1 6; d e ve l op me nt of the idea 115-19; 1 1 5- 1 9; development differentiation ego differentiation from the ego ((masterpiece masterpiece of of analysis) analysis) 117; 1 1 7; d i sl'llvery of anima anima 113--14; 1 1 3 - 1 4; dynamicdynamic­ discovery l'I'ea t i ve a s pect 119; 1 1 9; and 1 1 7. creative aspect and the ego 117, 1119, 1 9, 1125, 25, 127; 1 27; and and functions functions of l'onsciousness 1 40. 141, 1 4 1 . 146; 1 4fo; future consciousness 140, developments rega rding 128; 1 2X ; and developments regarding and hom o se x u al i ty 118, I I X. 125 1 25 6; 6; and and homosexuality IIldivid u a l ion 117, 1 1 7. 121, 1 2 1 . 123, 1 21 . 211; 2 1 1 ; and and individuation 1the 1ll' inferior function fu nction 140; 1 40; innovations Il')(anlin)( 1 2 1 6; 6; as a s mediators lI1ed i a l ors regarding 121 hel wn'n unconscious u n c on sci o u s and and between l'OnSl'iOIiSIll'SS I I X 19; I I); mysterious 11Iyslcrioll' consciousness 118

stranger-anima/animus 1 24, 127; 1 27; stranger-anima/animus 124, negative effect effect of of 120; negative 1 20; and numinous numinous experience 1 1 7 , 119, 1 1 9, 127; 1 27; positive experience 117, effect of of 120, practice 120, effect 1 20, 121, 1 2 1 , 125; 1 25; in practice 1 20, 1128; 28; and 1 1 3, 116-21, 1 1 6-2 1 , and projection 113, 1127-8; 27-8; and relationships relationships 118, 1 1 8, 127; 1 27; resonance 1 28; syzygy 117, 1 1 7, 119-20, 1 1 9-20, resonance 128; 1122, 22, 1123; 23; unknown unknown girl/boy-anima/ animus 124 1 24 Anna 58 Anna 0. 58 'Answer (lung) 105-6, 1 05-6, 107, 1 07 , 160, 1 60. `Answer to to Job' Job' (Jung) 306-7, 354 354 anthropology 82 82 Antichrist 306 306 'Anticipated 19 `Anticipated Whole Whole Other' 19 Antiquity, of 349-52, 349- 52, 367 367 Antiquity, arts of Anzieu, 362 Anzieu, Didier 362 Apollo 368 Apollo 368 Apollonians Apollonians 97-8 applications applications of of Jungian Jungian theory 3-4, 26 1 -76; alchemy 263-95; arts 324-76; 324 76; 261-76; religion religion 296-323 Aquinas, 272 Aquinas, Thomas 272 archetypal archetypal actualization actualization 85-7 archetypal archetypal dreams dreams 248-9 archetypal events 84 84 archetypal figures 84 84 archetypal 84, 87 87 archetypal motifs 84, archetypal 1 -4, 248-9 archetypal parallels parallels 881-4, archetypal 98-9, 102, 1 02. archetypal shadow 96, 98-9, 1105-6 05-6 archetypal symbols 84 84 archetypal teleology, epistemology of of archetypal teleology, 26, 1 -8, 33-6 26, 331-8, 33-6 archetype-as-such 77, 84, 84, 87 87 archetypes 1 -8, 39, 39, 74-90, 74-90. 312, 3 1 2. 313, 3 1 .\ , archetypes 331-8, 346; 74 -5, 78, 78. 80; 8 0 ; and a nd nature 74-5, 346; aa priori priori nature alchemy 285. 288; 288; as as alchemy 280. 280, 282, 285, analogous the instincts instincts 67, 67. 77; 77; analogous to the and anima/animus 1 1 6, 117, 1 1 7, 119 1 1 9 28; 2X; and anima/animus 116, complexes 1 27; and the conscious co n sc io us complexes 127; and the mind 36 -7. 42, 42. 86, 86. 101; 1 0 1 ; as as content co nte n l of 01 mind 36-7, the collective collective unconscious 67; 67; cr i t ic ism s of 7X 9; 9; criticisms of the the concept concept of of 78 cry s t a llographic aanalogy n a logy of 8; crystallographic of 77 8; d e t r im en ta l effect effect on t he personality pe rson a l l l \' detrimental on the 42. he 76 76 9; I); 42, 86; 86; development development of of tthe d u a l i t y of 87; X7; and and epistemology epistelllolo)(y 90, 110. duality etym ology of I ; examples e x a lll ple� 84 �. etymology of XO 80 I; 84 s. aand n d the l he functions fun c t io n s 136, I V" 141 1 4 1 4,145, 4 , 1 4�, aand n d ( inostic i nos l ic knowledge k n ow b l )(l' 45: 4<;; healing/ lll'a i r n )1i rfacilitative a l' i l i l a l i w n a l u n' of o r 42; 4 � ; heredity hl'rl'd l l V nature

nature 76, 7 6 , 77, 7 7 , 79, 79, 86-7; 86-7; identification identification with the 226-7; with 226-7; importance/relevance importancelrelevance in Jungian Jungian thought 75-6; innovations in innovations regarding 81-4; 8 1 -4; and and the thelife life stages stages 85; 85; and mathematics 90; networks/ constellations 32, 33, constellations of 32, 33, 34-5, 36; and neurosis archetypes neurosis 86; 86; number archetypes 89-90; 77, 86; 86; 89-90; numinous nature 77, origins 1 ; and patterns 37-8; origins of of 79-8 79-81; and and philosophy 90; pleromatic pleromatic nature 42; 42; psychoid/non-psychic psychoid/non-psychic 87-90; 87-90; and psychological and psychological development development 85-7; 85-7; and the psychology of warfare and the psychology terrorism terrorism 90; 90; and religion 90; and science 1 69; and and sociology sociology 90; 90; science 89-90, 89-90, 169; structure 78; of structure in in the the brain 78; unconsciousness 0 1 ; and unus unconsciousness 1101; and the the unus mundus see also also affect affect and mundus 87-90; 87-90; see archetype, coniunctio; hero archetype, theory of; coniunctio; archetype art therapy 235, 235, 344, 344, 364-5 arts 227, 324-76; analysts analysts in in the the service service arts 227, of 364; 364; of Antiquity 349-52, 349-52, 367; 367; Christian 357; contemporary contemporary Christian 354-6, 357; work and dreams dreams 333, 333, 342; 342; work on 362-9; and and the ethical considerations of psychoanalysis 345; figures psychoanalysis 345; figures of of 343-5, 346; 346; iconography iconography 356-8; 356-8; and individuation 363; 363; modern 358-62; as as aa moment moment in a process process 345-6; of the the Orient Orient 352-4; postmodern 367-9; presences 346; processes processes presences of of 343-5, 343-5, 346; and structures 335-48; in in the the service service and structures of therapy the suffering suffering of therapy 364-5; and the the 347; therapeutic therapeutic value value 233, 233, the artist 347; 235; 235; Western Western alchemical alchemical literature 256-8 Aschaffenburg, 62 Aschaffenburg, Gustav 62 Assagioli, 234 Assagioli, Robert 234 assessments 1 97, 199 1 99 assessments 197, Association Psychological Type 147, 1 47, Association for Psychological 1148 48 Associationism 20 Atlantis 56 56 atman 160 1 60 attachment attachment 70 attitudes 1 30, 138-41; 1 38 -4 1 ; cultural cultural 230, 230, 231; 23 1 ; attitudes 130, see see also also function-attitudes function-attitudes audio-verbal types 218, 2 1 8, 225 225 audio-verbal types Augustine, 1 14 Augustine, St St 80, 114 authority figures 124 1 24 authority figures Aziz. 314 Aziz, Robert Robert 314

Babylonians 245 Bachelard, Gaston 365 Bachelard, 365 Baeck, 1 05 Baeck, Leo 105 Barron, Mary Wells Barron, Wells 366 Barz, 233 Barz, Helmut 233 Basel Basel Cathedral Cathedral 354-5 Bastian, Bastian, Adolf 82 Bateson, Bateson, Gregory Gregory 38-42 Bathsheba 354 354 beauty 363; 363; imagination of of 237 237 becoming-conscious becoming-conscious 334 334 48, 1163, 63, 368-9 Beebe, 44, 145, Beebe,John John 1144, 145, 1148, 368-9 belief, belief, replacement replacement by by understanding 300 belief systems, systems, closed 46 Bergson, Bergson, Henri 82 biogrammar 82 biology 82, 82, 89 Blake, Blake, William 360 Bleuler, 9, 201 , 58-9, 76, 76, 102 1 02 Bleuler, Eugen Eugen 119, 20-1, bodily bodily movement movement 234-5 body 305, 306, 306, 307 307 body-mind problem 87 87 Boehme, Boehme, Jacob 360 Booker, Booker, C. 83 borderline personality disorder disorder 103, 1 03, 144, 1 44. 208-9 Bosnak, Bosnak, Robert Robert 233-4 Boss, edard 247 247 Boss, M Medard Bowlby, 1 69 Bowlby, John John 69-70, 169 brain 78 78 Braun, 1 26 Braun, C. 126 Breuer, Breuer, Josef 57 Briggs, 1 46 Briggs, Katharine 146 Briggs 1 40- 1 , 146 1 46 Briggs Myers, Myers, Isabel Isabel 140-1, Brill, Brill, AA A.A. 20 British 44 British Medical Medical Journal Journal 44 Brownsword, 1 47 Brownsword, A A. 147 Buber, 3 1 2 , 313, 3 1 3, 314 314 Buber, Martin 312, Buddha 354 354 Buddhism 1 54, 170, 1 70, 354 354 Buddhism 154, Buehler, 1 46 Buehler, John John 146 Burckhardt, 76 Burckhardt, Jakob 76 Burgh61zli 1 4- 1 5, Burghiilzli hospital, hospital, Zurich Zurich 14-15, 119-26, 9-26, 58-9, 60, 60, 75, 75, 76, 76, 130 1 30 Buss, . M . 83 Buss, B B.M. Caligor, Caligor, Leopold 247 Cambray, 232 Cambray, Joe 232 Card, Card, Charles 89-90 career 1 47 career counsellors 147 Cartesian 290 Cartesian paradigm 290

380 Index I n dex 380



('artesian Theatre 1 70 Theatre 170 Cartesian 71 57, 71 55, 57, Carus, C.G. 55, case histories, epistemological 13 issues 13 epistemological issues casc Ann 103-4, 316 1 03-4, 316 'asement, Ann (Casement, 95 catharsis 95 304, 306, 306, 311-12 31 1 -12 1 07, 304, 'atholicism 107, (Catholicism causal instinct 17 17 musal causal-reductive method method 28, 28, 29-30, causal-reductive 4, 34 n -4, .32 30 30; final 30 efficient 30; 1 7; efficient a usality 17; l'causality 368 Paul 368 'clan, Paul (('elan, 275 Francisco 275 San Francisco I nstitute, San J ung Institute, ' . 0 , Jung (C.G. G. Jung Letters Letters 265 (C'. G. M.R.A. . R.A. 83-4 'hance, M (Chance, ' hapcrnowne, Irene 365 I rene 365 (('hapernowne, 218 57, 218 Jean-Martin 57, 'harcot, Jean-Martin (('harcot, children desire ttoo remain the desire h i ld ren 200-6; and the c ego complexes of 202-3; 206; ego-complexes a child 206; 1 66 individuals 166 as individuals 1 54 'hincsc philosophy 154 (Chinese 365 Jean 365 'hodorow, Jean (('hodorow, 82, 89-90 70, 82, N oam 70, 'homsky, Noam (('homsky, Christianity 100-1, 274, 272, 274, 1 05-7, 272, 1 00- I , 105-7, Christianity 328,, 350; 3 1 1 ; and 350; as ailing religion 311; .nx 277, 290, alchcmy alchemy 277, 290, 358, 358, 368; 368; art art of 3 1 5; Orthodox 315; Eastern Orthodox 3 5 7; Eastern 6, 357; �4 6, 3 354 358; and the 356, 358; 3 1 4, 356, lind and evil 305-7, 314, 358; 356, 358; 3 1 4, 356, 7, 314, 305 -7, fcminine feminine 274, 305 Latin 1 59-60; Latin o d image of 159-60; G God-image of 305; myth 3 1 5; Mass Amcrican American 315; Mass 305; myth of one­ 359; onenature 359; 30 1 ; and nature 274, 274, 275, 275, 301; 356; and 302, 306, 356; sidcdncss 268, sidedness 268, 302, rcdcmption redemption 277-8; 277-8; and the shadow of 302, of302, transformation of 6; transformation 1 05 6; iod 105 (God 105 77 .\05 -

church 202 202 dllll'ch 36X 366, 368 l'iIlCIIHI cinema 366,

'lark lUniversity i lli vcrsity 26 ( 'lark 26 Cleary. 2X4 55 Thomas 284 ( 'kll ry, Thomas ( 'ol 'mks. 1 04 ( i co lTrc y 104 ' k s, Geoffrey 70 scicnce 70 I'ollll i t i ve science cognitive Collected 265, 264, 265, l ung) 26, 84, 264, J"" /lrk" ((Jung) ( '"lIt't'lt'c! Works 296, 302 2 7 1 , 296, no, 271, 270, 302 55 4 1 5 .1 4 t i vc 153 l'olkl' collective ( CS M ) Meaning (CSM) ructurcs of Meaning 'ollcct i ve St (Collective Structures .'1 2 7 , 37 27, 54, 39, 54, 9, 39, lIl'o n sl'ious 28 l'ollcl'l ive u collective unconscious 28 9, a n ima/a n i m u s t hc anima/animus and the I)X; and I), 98; t.(, 9, 66 6, 5 6, a rchct y pes 7 t hc archetypes 1 2 \ alld I X , 125; 1 11 18, 117 and the 75 l'onccpt i o n 4 1 ; conception a n d41; Bateson and (,; liateson .� 6; N, Il 79, 85 S; 64 5; del i n i t ion 64 4 ; definition d 4; llO, (63 W NI. 59 evoi l l t i o l l a r y 7 0 ; evolutionary (II) 70; l'vldl'l Il'l' 101 evidence for 69

381 ndex 381 IIndex

nature 75; effect on the ego 75; harmful effect nature 1 ; and 69; neglect neglectof of 771; and projection projection 68-9; 68-9; 69; and as record record of humankind 67-8; and as self the self religion religion 303; 303; rise rise of of 54-5; 54-5; and the 96, 95, 96, shadow 95, 1 59; and 5 3-4, 159; 1153-4, and the shadow 98; transference and 181 and 181 98; 1 69 Colman, Colman, W W.. 169 360 Colonna, Colonna, Francesco 360 Combat (journal) 265 265 Combat the 'Commentary 'Commentary on on The The Secret Secret of of the Golden Golden Flower' Flower' (Jung) 223 compensatory dreams 254-5 compensatory wholeness 1 06; see also wholeness completeness completeness 106; and 1 27; and complexes: complexes: and and archetypes 127; experimental 220 - 1 ; experimental 2 1 8, 220-1; emotion emotion 218, 1 44, evidence evidence of of 60; 60; and functions 144, 145; as as main main content content of the 145; 21 mind 21 secondary mind 6 1 ; as secondary unconscious 61; confessionals 95 95 187, 1 86, 187, 1 1 9-20, 186, 1 0 1 - 2, 119-20, coniunctio coniunctio 101-2, 29 1 289, 291 1 , 283-5, 289, 27 271, 1 05 Conrad, Conrad, Joseph 105 active consciousness: and and the active consciousness: anima/animus 1 6; and anima/animus imagination imagination 2216; !OI; of 101; 1 8- 1 9; archetypes of 1 7, 1118-19; 1117, bringing bringing together with the collective 229; collective 227-8, 229; unconscious 227-8, unconscious object the object 53-4; detachment from the 1153-4; 259; 257, 259; 254- 5,257, 249, 254-5, 332; 332; and and dreams 249, new 2 1 8 - 1 9; new thinking 218-19; and fantasy thinking 1 53-4, self 153-4, the self universal 347-8; universal 347-8; and the the 62-3; and the 60- 1 , 1162-3; 57, 1160-1, 56, 1157, 1156, 1 02; 1 0 1 , 102; 1 00, 101, shadow 99, 100, 1 30; of130; types of 303-4; types transformation 303-4; see also also functions, of consciousness of consciousness see 29-30, constructive/synthetic constructive/synthetic approach approach 29-30, 254 2 5 3 , 254 dreams 253, 33; to dreams 32-5, 33; 1 67-9 constructivism constructivism 167-9 85 of 85 contiguity, contiguity, law of 1 26 1 2 1 -2, 126 contrasexuality contrasexuality 121-2, 364 28 1 , 364 Henry 281, Corbin, Henry 83 Cosmides, Cosmides, L. 83 1 7 5 94, 1 46, 175--94, countertransference countertransference 146, embodied 1 8 1 ; embodied archetypal 181; 40; archetypal 338 40; 338 1 2 ; 'as pi s te m o l ogi c a l nature 8 5 ; eepistemological 1185; nature 12; 1 2; and I XO; Frcud cvcrything' everything' 180; Freud on 12; 01 conccpt i o n of l un g s conception 1 92; Jung's 1 90, 192; l l ness 190, iillness h e rapy IISO; lace in l i mit ed pplace 5 ; limited 114 5; 1184 XII; in ttherapy 1 1l � ; reflcct i ve 185, .1 ; reflective 1 92 3; 1 90, 192 nd power a and power 190, I; I)( ) 1; I IlX, I190 m iscolldul'l 188, sex u a l misconduct n d sexual a and s u pl'rvision andsupervision 9\ and shadow 95; t hl' shadow nd the a and 1 1)11, aS I1l'1'1 190, ran spl'I'so n a l aspect II I 22;; ttranspersonal ')(), I191 I190, .

'

1 80- 1 ; 93 ; and 1193; andthe the treatment treatment alliance 180-1; 8 1 ; and usability usability 1181; and the wounded healer 88-90, 189 1188-90,

couple, syzygy couple, divine divine see see syzygy 1 48 couple couple counselling 148 284 Coward, Coward, Harold 284 216 creative creative imagination imagination 216 1 1 6, anima/animus 116, creativity: creativity: and and the anima/animus 66, unconscious 66, 1 9-20; of the unconscious 1 7, 1119-20; 1117, 7711 368 creatura creatura 39-42, 368 23 1 230, 231 cultural cultural attitudes 230, cultural cultural unconscious 230 365 Silveira, Nise 365 da da Silveira, 35 1 , 364-5 dance/dance dance/dance therapy therapy 234-5, 234-5, 351, 360 Dante, Dante, Aligeri 360 8 1 , 82, 84, 97 Darwin, Darwin, Charles 81, 354 325, 326, 354 David 325, 1 -2 Davidson, Davidson, Dorothy Dorothy 230, 230, 23 231-2 Nicolas 355-6 de de FlUe, Flue, Nicolas 248 1 23 , 248 death death 123, 364 360, 364 defences defences 360, 1 65-6 deintegration deintegration 165-6 237 Delphic Delphic Oracle 237 delusions delusions 42 59 2 1 , 59 dementia dementia praecox 21, 352 Demeter Demeter 202, 352 145 1 44, 145 Demonic Demonic Personality 144, 360- 1 demons demons 360-1 1 70 Daniel 170 Dennett, Dennett, Daniel 1 68 deoxyribonucleic deoxyribonucleic acid acid (DNA) 168 208 202, 208 dependency, dependency, mother-child mother-child 202, 1 87 1 84-5, 187 depression depression 184-5, 71 psychology 71 depth depth psychology 290 Derrida, Derrida, Jacques Jacques 279-80, 290 245 55, 245 39, 55, Descartes, Descartes, Rene Rene 39, 1 63 1 20, 163 destructiveness destructiveness 120, shadow 307; and 1 , 307; devil devil (Satan) (Satan) 27 271, and the shadow 05-8; see 00, 1105-8; 1100, see also also Lucifer Diagnostic Diagnostic and and Statistical Statistical Manual Manual of of 1 99, 1 97, 199, Disorders (DSM-IV) Mental (DSM-IV) 197, Mental Disorders 208 208 224 2 1 9, 224 1 8 1 , 219, dialectical dialectical relationships relationships 181, 69 Wales 69 of Wales Princess of Diana, Diana, Princess 366 Dieckmann, Dieckmann, Hans Hans 366 346 qualities 346 Dionysian Dionysian qualities 79 Areopagite 79 Dionysius Dionysius the the Areopagite 368 Dionysus Dionysus 97-8, 368 2 1 8- 1 9 directed directed thinking thinking 218-19 1 02 dissociation dissociation 102 36 1 i s t rcss 361 d distress

division division of of labour 206 dogma dogma 304 Donfrancesco, Donfrancesco, Francesco Francesco 363-4 233 Kate 233 Donohue, Donohue, Kate 283 273, 283 Dorn, Dorn, Gerhard 273, 352 Gerardus 352 Dorneus, Dorneus, Gerardus Dougherty, Dougherty, Mary Mary 233, 364 310 Dourley, Dourley, John John 310 235 drama drama therapy 235 drawing painting drawing 247; 247; see see also also painting 303, 298, 303, -2, 244-59, 298, dreams dreams 43, 43, 221 221-2, 1 24-5; anima/animus 124-5; 344-5; 344-5; and and anima/animus approaching approaching an an interpretation interpretation of of 1 ; archetypal 250250-1; archetypal 248-9; 248-9; and and the the arts arts 333, 333, 342, 342, 354; 354; big big 249; 249; common common characteristics characteristics of of 254-6; compensatory compensatory 254-5; 254-5; and and the 259; 5, 259; conscious conscious 249, 249, 254254-5, 253, of 253, constructive constructive interpretations interpretations of 254; 254; context context of of 249; drawing/painting 70; function 70; 247; 247; evolutionary evolutionary function existential-phenomenological existential-phenomenological extra-sensory to 247; and extra-sensory 247; and approach approach to 258; history 256; histories perception perception 256; histories 258; hypothesising 245-6; hypothesising of of interpretation interpretation 245-6; importance interpretations interpretations for for 256-7; importance incorrect 244-5; incorrect therapy 244-5; in in Jungian Jungian therapy individual interpretations interpretations of of 257-8; individual 250; amplifications amplifications regarding regarding 248-9, 248-9, 250; personal Jung's personal 246-7; Jung's on 246-7; Jung Jung on content latent content 1 55-6; latent dreams dreams 63-4, 63-4, 155-6; content 246, 246, 250; 250; lucid lucid 69; 69; manifest manifest content 1 -4; as 246, 246, 250; 250; meaning meaning of of 245, 245, 25 251-4; as aa nightmares 345; nightmares process 345; in aa process moment moment in 256; 256; non-compensatory non-compensatory 254, 254, 255-6; to 5 1 -3; as objective objective meaning meaning 2251-3; as path path to 255-6, 253, 254, 244, 245, psyche 244, the the psyche 245, 253, 254, 255-6, 259; 259; personal personal associations associations about about 1 55-6; dream 155-6; Life' dream of Life' 'Pool of 248-9; 248-9; 'Pool 256; 250, 256; ( prophetic) 250, precognitive precognitive (prophetic) 249; recurring 249; 256; recurring prospective prospective 256; 253-4; of 253-4; reductive reductive interpretations interpretations of 304, religion 304, and religion 247; and reflection reflection on on 247; the 305; 305; series series 249; 249; settings settings 248; 248; and and the in steps in 1 05; steps 96-7, 105; shadow shadow 96-7, subjective 259; subjective 258, 259; interpretation interpretation 258, 246, of 246, symbols of 257; symbols 1 -3, 257; meaning meaning 25 251-3, 3 1 4- 1 5; 1 ; synchronicity synchronicity 314-15; 250250-1; 253; therapist's 253; 256; therapist's telepathic telepathic 256; unconscious the unconscious and the 5 5 - 6 ; and traumatic traumatic 2255-6; non-dream using non-dream 348; using 258, 348; 254-5, 254-5, 258, verifying 259; verifying interpret259; to interpret information information to

382 Index 382 I ndex interpretations of of 257-8; 257-8; and and wishinterpretations wish­ fulfilment250; 250;working workingon on 247-50; 247-50; fulfilment writing down down 247 writing 247 drives 2218; see also also instincts instincts drives 1 8; see dualism 101 dualism 101 Dubuffet, Jean Jean 365 Dubuffet, 365 art 352-4 352-4 IEastern ': astern art Eastern religions 154, Eastern 1 54, 170, 1 70, 305, 3311, 1 1 , 3315, 1 5, 354 354 traditions 154-5, IEastern ':astern traditions 1 54-5, 159, 1 59, 160 1 60 Ecole Nationale Superieure des Beauxo le Nationale Superieure des Beaux­ h; Arts de Paris 367 Arts 367 Edinger, E d i n ger, Edward 163, 1 63, 265, 265, 269, 269, 272, 272, 274 ·-6, 278, 280, 289, 310 274 6 , 278, 310 efficient causality causality 30 cllicient 30 ego 58, 58, 130, 291, CllO 1 30, 29 1 , 3331, 3 1 , 333-4, 3357; 3357; and the anima/animus 117, thc 1 1 7, 119, 1 1 9, 125, 1 25, 127; 1 27; and art 335-7; as centre and centre of consciousness 66; and and the father co nsciou sness 66; father 204; 204; harmful ha rmful effect of of the the collective collective unconscious on on 69; and individuation unconscious 69; and 202 5, 5, 207-8, 210-12; 202 2 1 0- 1 2 ; inflated inflated 100; 1 00; as masculine principle principle of doing 164; masculine 1 64; psychological psych ological birth 203; 203; and psychological types 130, 1 30, 132, 1 32, 133; 1 33; remaining in in the mother 208; and the rcmaining the self s e lf 154, 1 54, 156, 1 56, 1157-8, 57-8, 160-6, 1 60-6, 354; 354; and the thc shadow 98, 100, 1 00, 102; 1 02; and the unconscious u nco nscious 269, 269, 335-7, 3 3 5 -7, 339; 339; weakness wcuk ness 100, 1 00, 130 1 30 ego l'II0 complex 115, 1 1 5, 125, 1 25, 127; 1 27; of of the the child child 202 202 33 ego-consciousness Clio-conscio usness 160 1 60 ego CliO sell se l f axis 162-4 1 62- 4 Elirenzweig, Jo:h l'cnl'.wcig, Anton Anton 361 361 Ekstrom, Jo:kst film, Soren S o re n 70 70 elementary l'I c mcn tu ry particles pa rti c le s 88 88 Eletisinian 1 ':lcus i n i a n Mysteries Mysteries 352 352 265 I ': li udc Mircea 265 Elijah Hj llh 114 1 14 elitism clit ism 46 46 Ellenberger, 1 l I cnhc rllc r II.F. I I . F. 96 96 emotion: l'mot i o n : and and active a ctiv e imagination imagination 218, 2 1 8, 220 220 I no 3, .1 , 233; :n.1; and and complexes complexes 218, 2 1 8 , 220 emotional l'm o t i o n l l l blocks hlocks 60 60 empirical clll pi ril u l approach a pproach 16, 1 6, 44 44 ,

'.

,

'

empirical l'm pi ril'lti psychology psychology 16 16 Enlightenment I ': n l i/oth tcnlllent 55 5 5 6, 6.137, 1 17,284 284 epiphenomenalisin cplphcnomena l islll 85 85 eristorte " 1'1,\'/,'/11" 9 l) 10 I (I epistemological tua \'plstl'molov,il'a lcontex l'O ntl' x t l i a!ism lisllI 18 18

I nIndex d ex 383 383

epistemologicalcrisis crisis441-2 epistemological 1 -2 epistemologyand and methodology methodology4, 4, 7-53; 7-53; epistemology and the the archetypes 90; Cartesian and archetypes 90; epistemology 39; 39; circular/systemic epistemology epistemology34-5, 34-5, 35; 35; and and the the epistemology collective dimension dimension of knowledge collective 26-9; and creatura 39-42; 26-9; 39-42; definitions definitions of 99-11; of 1 1 ; development development 14-47; 1 4-47; difficultiesregarding regarding 7-9; 7-9; embedded embedded difficulties nature 25-6; 25-6; epistemology of nature epistemology of archetypal teleology teleology 26, 26, 331-8, 33-6; archetypal 1 -8, 33-6: epistemology of of finality finality 34; 34; and and epistemology Gnostic knowledge knowledge 43, 43, 45-8; 45-8; Jung's Gnostic early writings writingsand and work work on on 14-26; early 1 4-26; Jung's later writings Jung's writings and work on 26-38; Jung's sensitivity to 11-14, 26-38; 1 1 - 1 4, 15, 1 5, 47; moral moral epistemology epistemology 17; 47; 1 7; and pleroma 39-42; 39-42; and Socratic pleroma Socratic ignorance 43-5, 43-5, 46, ignorance 46, 48; 48; and and teleology teleology 116-17, 6- 1 7, 18-19, 1 8- 1 9, 26, 29-31 29- 3 1 Eranos Circle, Ascona 353 353 Eranos Conferences 263, 265, 302, 302, 305 305 Ernst, Max 369 Ernst, 369 Eros (god) 119, 1 1 9, 363 363 eros (psychic ( psychic relatedness) 58, 58, 84, 84, 1118-19, 1 8- 1 9, 126, 1 26, 187-8 1 87-8 ethical consciousness 10, ethical 10, 345 345 ethnic minority minority groups 192-3 ethnic 1 92-3 ethology 82-3 ethology Eve 106 1 06 evil 96, 96, 98-9, 98-9, 106-7, evil 1 06-7, 160, 1 60, 368; 368; and and Christianity 305-7, 305-7, 314, 3 1 4, 356, 356, 358; 358; in in the self self 163 1 63 evolutionary psychiatry 79, evolutionary psychiatry 79, 82, 82, 83 83 44 evolutionary psychology 70, 8 .1 70, 79, 79, 82, 82. 83 extra-sensory perception (ESP) (ESP) 256 256 extraversion 97, 131, extraversion 97, 1 3 1 , 133-4, 1 33-4, 136 1 36 7, 7, 139-40, 1 39-40, 142-3, 142-3, 144, 1 44, 145, 145, 146 146 8, 8 351 .1 5 1 .

Face to /0 Face Face (BBC ( BBC TV interview) interview) 45 45 faculties 132, 1 32, 133 1 33 fairy tales tales 121 121 Fall 106 1 06 family background, u nconscioll� background. shared shared unconscious structures 2 7 99 structurcs of 27 fantasy fantasy 114, 1 1 4. 298; 298; active act i ve 223 2 23 4; 4; and and active imagination 216 imaginat ion 2 1 6 19, 1 9, 221 22 1 7, 7, 231, 2 3 1 , 233, 2 33, 237: 2 37 ; identification ide n t i fica t ion with w i t h the t hl' images 226 7: 7; infantile i n fa n t ile 62: 62; as as images of 226 integrative 2 1 (, 17; 1 7 ;passive paS�I Vl' i n t egra t i ve function fll nc t i o n 216 223; 2 2 .\ relationships re l a t i o n s h i ps and and 123; 1 2 1; unconscious 62 I,I, 67 IIlll'o nsciolis 62 (,7

fantasy 1 8- 1 9, 224 fantasy thinking thinking 2218-19, 224 Fathepur Fathepur Sikri Sikri 354 354 father: father:and and individuation individuation 204-6, 204-6, 208-9; symbolic symbolic 208-9 208-9 father 1 5, 120, 1 20, 1123-4, 23-4, 127 1 27 father complex complex 1115, father-imago 30 1 father-imago 301 Fay, 233, 234 234 Fay, Carolyn Carolyn Grant Grant 233, feeling 3 1 -40, 146-7, 1 46-7, 339, 339, 340, 340, 351; 351; feeling99, 99, 1131-40, extraverted 36-7, 142-3, 145; extraverted 1136-7, 142-3, 145; introverted 34-6, 142-3, 145 introverted 1134-6, 142-3, 145 feminine: feminine:in in art art 367, 367, 368; 368; and and Christianity 305-7, 314, 3 14, 356, 356, 358 358 Christianity 274, 274, 305-7, feminine 1 87, 286 feminine principle principle 187, feminine 1 06 feminine wisdom wisdom 106 femininity, 1 22 femininity, deficit deficit model model of of 122 feminism 1 5- 1 6, 126, 1 26, 314 314 feminism 1115-16, J ermentatio 1186-7 86-7 fermentatio final final causality causality 30 finality 1 , 32, 34; epistemology of of 34 34 finality 331, 32, 34; First 330- 1 First World World War 330-1 Flood Flood 56 Flournoy, 97, 301, 30 1 , 349, 349, 350 350 Flournoy, Theodore 97, flying 361 flying saucers 307, 361 foetus 200 Fordham, Michael 162, 1 62, 165-6, 1 65-6, 167, 1 67, 169, 1 69, Fordham, Michael 1171, 7 1 , 1196, 96, 205, 266 205, 230, 230, 235-6, 235-6, 266 Fox, 82 Fox, Robin 82 Frazer, James 60 60 Frazer, James free 59, 248 248 free association association 58, 59, Freeman, 45 Freeman, John John 45 French, Thomas 247 247 French, Thomas Freud, Sigmund 12, 1 2, 26, 26, 28, 28, 94, 94, 96, 96, 132, 1 32, Freud, Sigmund 1185, 85, 206, 335, 339, 339, 341, 34 1 , 342, 342, 345, 345, 206, 327, 327, 335, 350, 350, 358, 358, 368; 368;break break with with Jung Jung 22-5, 22-5, 1102-3, 02-3, 113-14, 1 1 3- 1 4, 155, 1 55, 196, 1 96, 219-20, 2 1 9-20, 246, 246, 30 1 , 350, 350, 351; 3 5 1 ; on on countertransference countertransference 301, 1184; 84; divergence 1 4, 15, 1 5, divergence from from Jung Jung 14, 2 1 -2, 61-5, 6 1 -5, 75, 75, 300-1, 300- 1 , 325, 325, 331, 33 1 , 334, 334, 21-2, 337; on 246-7, 250, 303, 337; on dreams dreams 246-7, 250, 254, 254, 303, 333; on drives 218; 2 1 8; on the ego ego 333-4; 333-4; 333; on drives on the on eros eros 187; 1 87; fame fame 71; 7 1 ; on on free free on association 248; 248; on on instincts instincts 67, 67, 68; 68; association Jung as disciple disciple of of 22; 22; Jung's Jung's letters letters to to Jung as 1 4; Lamarckism 76; on on the the libido libido 14; Lamarckism of of 76; 2 1 9, 220; 220; on 'modesty' 179; 1 79; on on 219, on 'modesty' neurosis 34; 34; and and Nietzsche Nietzsche 60; 60; on on neurosis religion 299, 1 , 312; 3 1 2; on on the the religion 299, 300300-1, shadow 102-3; 1 02-3; on on transference transference 175-6, 1 75-6, shadow 1 9 1 ; on the unconscious unconscious 54, 54, 56, 56, 57-8, 57-8, 191; on the 60-5, 61-5, 6 1 -5, 70, 70, 75, 75, 337 337 60-5, Freudian psychoanalysis psychoanalysis 23, 23, 25, 25, 28, 28, 38, 38, Freudian 67, 324; 324; of ofart art341; 34 1 ;causal-reductive causal-reductive 67,

nature nature 29; 29;and and the the fame fame of of Jung Jung and and Freud 1 ; Jung's 61, Freud 771; Jung's expansion expansion of of 61, 62-3; 62-3; and and religion religion 299, 299, 300; 300; and and the the unconscious unconscious 58 58 Fromm, Fromm, Erich Erich 247 247 Fromm, Fromm, Erika Erika 247 247 Fry, 234 Fry, Ruth Ruth 234 fugue fugue 54 54 function-attitudes 38-44, 145, 48 function-attitudes 1138-44, 145, 1148 functional functional significance significance 36-7 36-7 functions, 30, 1131-49, 3 1 -49, functions, of of consciousness consciousness 1130, 339-40, 3 5 1 ; and archetypes 136, 1 36, 339-40, 351; and archetypes 1141-4, 4 1 -4, 145; 39-47; 145; auxiliary auxiliary 1139-47; differentiation 37-4 1 ; inferior inferior 99, 99, differentiation of of 1137-41; 1100, 00, 1140-1, 40- 1 , 1146-7, 46-7, 306; 306; irrational irrational 1131, 3 1 , 1133, 33, 1139, 39, 1146; 46; in 44-6, inpractice practice 1144-6, 1148; 48; rational 1 3 1 , 133, 1 33, 139, 1 39, 146; 1 46; rational 131, superior 1 39-44; tertiary tertiary 140, 1 40, 141, 141, superior 99, 99, 139-44; 1144, 44, 1147; 47; transcendent 141 transcendent 141 fundamentalism, religious 316 316 fundamentalism, religious Furst, Emma 26 26 Hirst, Emma Gad, Irene 267 267 Gad, Irene Galton, Sir Francis Francis 20, 20, 60 60 Galton, Sir Of Eden Eden 203, 203, 205, 205, 206, 206, 207 207 Garden Garden Of Gardner, R. 83 83 Gardner, R. gay men 126 1 26 gay men Gebser, Jean 281 28 1 Gebser, Jean Gerson, J. 234 234 Gerson, J. Gehry, Frank 368 368 Gehry, Frank gender: the division division of of labour labour 206; 206; gender: and and the stereotypes 1 1 6, 119, 1 1 9, 120, 1 20, 126 1 26 stereotypes 116, Gestalt therapy 251 251 Gestalt therapy ghosts 1 82 ghosts 182 Giannini, John 148 148 Giannini, John Giegerich, Wolfgang 1 22-3, 286-8, 286-8, 290, 290, Giegerich, Wolfgang 122-3, 29 1 291 Gilbert, P. P. 83 83 Gilbert, Gilgamesh 351 351 Gilgamesh Gnostic knowledge knowledge 4 3 , 45-8 45-8 Gnostic 43, Gnosticism 301, 30 1 , 312, 3 1 2, 314 314 Gnosticism God 45, 45, 54, 54, 88, 88, 101, 1 0 1 , 105-7, 1 05-7, 114, 1 1 4, 305, 305, God 355; as archetype 159, 1 59, 309-10, 309- 1 0 , 313; 3 13; 355; as archetype consciousness of o f307; 307; consciousness contradictoriness of of 307; 307; criticisms criticisms of contradictoriness of Jung's concept concept of of313, 3 1 3, 314; 3 14; defining defining Jung's 309 - 1 0; evil evil as as aspect of 306; 306; human's 309-10; aspect of human's inability to to understand understand 303; 303; and and the the inability image of of the the self self 302, 302, 310; 3 1 0; incarnation image incarnation as Christ Christ 106, 106, 307; 307; relationship relationship of of as humans to to 299; 299; and and the theself self100, 1 00, 107, 1 07, humans 3 1 0; and thc shadow shadow 105 1 05 6; 6; as as soul's soul's 310; and the

384 Index 384 I n d ex



deepest and and closest closest intimacy intimacy 309; deepest 309; as as transcendental Summum Bonum 3312; ,r., 'ummum Bonum 1 2; transcendental nature 107; as wholly wholly other 309 nature 1 07; as 309 'God '( iod the the Holy Ghost' Ghost' 306 306 'God '< iod the the Son' Son' 106, 1 06, 305-6, 305-6, 307 307 ((iod-image jod-image 301-2, 3 0 1 -2, 312; 3 1 2; as as archetype archetype 309 10, 109 1 0, 315; 3 1 5 ; criticisms of of the the concept of 314; of 3 1 4; and the feminine feminine 314; 3 1 4; as as of the the self symbolic representation representation of transformation of of 304-7 1153, 5 3 , 1159-60; 59-60; transformation goddesses !lollde s ses 202 gods 54, !lolls 54, 361; 36 1 ; encounter/dialogue with 227-8 tthe he 227 -8 (Goethe, joet he, Johann Wolfgang Wolfgang von von 81, 8 1 , 267, 267, 328, 345, 355, 360 .U H, 345, gold,, philosophical philosophical 263 !loki 263 good 160; of 306; !lood 1 60; evil as absence absence of 306; in the self 163 1 63 (Gordon, jordon, R. R. 122, 1 22, 125 1 25

Matthias 104 1 04 ((hiring, i il r ing , Matthias grammar 70 !lrlllnmar 70 (Grant, i ra n t , W.H. W.H. 147 1 47 (Gray, i ray , Horace Horace 146 1 46

<(fray-Wheelwrights iray-Wheelwrights Jungian Type Type Survey Su rvey (JTS) (JTS) 146, 1 46, 147 1 47 ( i;real rl'u t Goddess religions religions 202 202 (Greek i reek art art 352 352
(Grfinewitki, lrUncwald, Matthias M atthias 357 357 (Guatemalan i llutcmalan people people 54 54 ( iitiggenbilhl-Craig, ll!l!ll' n hii h l-Craig, Adolf Adolf108--9 1 08 --9

hallucinations hlll hll'inat ions 245 245 Iinimah, I l lI n n ll h , Barbara Barhara 229 229 !larding, I l lI n l i n !l ,Est Esther her 77, 77, 121 121 Harvest 11111'1'1 ',\" (journal) ( j o u rn a l ) 266 266 IHarvey l lIrwy2► 20 IMae, I l1l1kl"Christopher C h r is t o ph er 367 367 8R hedonic mode 83 l1l'dol1il' mode H 3 4 4 legcl, ( i.W. II Iclle!, , W , IF. ; , 290 IIleinke, l c i n kl' , Filen Ellen 125 1 25 II lleimenberg, Werner 88 r i �r l 1 he rg, Werner HH Ileisig, I h'iNill, Daniela Da niela 125 1 25 I I ciMill ' James J a mes 297, 297, 308 10H 9, 9, 312 312 I I l'1 l l11l1 n , Lillian Lillian 248 24H Hellman, 1 4 I . 230, 2 .1 0, 231, n I , 233, 2D, II lcIHil'rson, lenderson, Joseph 141, 2 \C!, 267, 2(,7, H,2 \ , 364 .\M 216, 362 3, 47 l' l I l 1 i l 1 llsl'n, M a ll t 'rl'd 47 II llenningsen, Manfred l' I' iI 123 12\ II l!era Hermes I kl'l1ll's 168 \C!I< 9 II

IIndex ndex 385 385 hero archetype archetype 141, 145, 350350-1; hero 1 4 1 , 144, 1 44, 145, 1; and individuation individuation 206-8 and hierosgamos 10 1011 hierosgamos Hildegarde de Bingen Hildegarde Bingen 361 361 Hill, G. Hill, G . 146 1 46 Hillman, D. Hillman, D, 121-2, 1 2 1 -2, 125 1 25 Hillman, James Hillman, James 146, 1 46, 166, 1 66, 167, 1 67, 196, 1 96, 235, 235, 276-8, 279-80, 283, 283, 287, 287, 290, 290, 291, 29 1 , 276-8, 279-80, 3313-14, 1 3- 1 4, 364

Hippocrates H ippocrates 132 1 32 Hitchcock, Alfred Alfred 135 1 35 Hitler, Adolf Adolf47, 47, 96, 96, 104 1 04 Hoffmann, E.T.A, E.T.A. 360 Hoffmann, 360 Hogenson, G,B, G.B. 169 Hogenson, 1 69 Hogenson, Hogenson, George George 86-7 Holt, David David 266, 266, 267 267 Holy Ghost Ghost 306 306 Homer 326, 326, 345 345 homo-eroticism 103 1 03 homosexuality 118, 1 1 8, 125-6 1 25-6 Hopcke, R. R, 126 1 26 hortus conclusus conclusus (enclosed 167 (enclosed garden) 367 Hubert, H. Hubert, H, 82 82 human genome genome 168 1 68 Humbert, Elie Elie 165, 1 65 , 230, 230, 236 236 humility 102 1 02 Huskinson, Lucy Lucy 98, 98, 165 1 65 Husserl, Edmund 281 28 1 Husserl, Edmund hypnagogic states states 349 349 hypnotism 175 1 75 hypostases 46 hypotheses 45, 46 hysteria 57-8, 57-8, 61, 6 1 , 65, 65, 131 131

ibn Umail, Umail, Muhammad Muhammad 273 273 iconography 356-8 id 58 58 ideal personality personality 18, 1 8, 19 19 idealised self self 163 1 63 idealising transference transference 179, 1 79, 212 212 ideas, inner 88 88 ideas, inner ident i fication: with the archetype a rc he t ype 226 2 2 6 7; 7' identification: with the with fantasy fa n tasy 226 226 7; 7; with with the the persona persona 1100; 00; with he shadow 100 1 00 with tthe Ignat ius, Saint 356 356 Ignatius, iillness l l ness 190, 1 90, 192 1 92

i l l usion 42 42 illusion images 2218, 1 X , 2223, 2 ,1 , 22(, 1\ 4; 4; of images 226 7, 7, 2233 a lc he m y 2271 7 1 2, 2 , 277 277 8, 1< , 280 21<0 I.I , 282, 2 1< .) , alchemy i n art a r t 140 q O 1,\ ,344; Q4;Ace .11 ' , ' 2 1< 5 , 2 1< 7 8, 1< , 157; .\ 5 7 ; in 285, 287 111.1'0 ( iod-ima!-!l also Iod-image' I IHagi nal psychology pswhl lillgy 166, 1 1111, 167 1 11 7 imaginal

imagination: 282, 283; imagination: and alchemy 282, 283; of of beauty/aesthetic 1 6; of beauty/aesthetic 237; 237; creative creative 2216; of 237; the the mysteries mysteries 237; 237; psychological psychological 237; religious religious 237; 237; scholarly scholarly 237; 237; social/of social/of 237; see relationship relationship 237; see also also active active imagination imagination imaginative imaginative activity activity 235-6 imago, parental 116, 1 1 6, 301 30 I imago, parental incest 206, 208, 350 incest wish wish 206, 208, 299-300, 299-300, 350 India 352-4 India individual 248-9, 250 250 individual amplification 248-9, individual differences 75, 75, 130 1 30 individual differences individualism 212 individualism 212 individuality, self as as 153-4, 1 5 3-4, 156, 1 56, 161 161 individuality, self individuals: as 166; 1 66; and the the individuals: children as collective 1 53-4 collective 153-4 individuation 45-6, 71, 7 1 , 196-214, 1 96-2 1 4, 269, 269, individuation 45-6, 303-4, 356; adapting/adjustment 303-4, 356; 99, 204-9, 1 2; and alchemy stage stage 1199, 204-9, 2 212; 275, 285, 288; 288; and the the 275, 278, 278, 28� 280, 283, 283, 285, 1 1 7, 121, 1 2 1 , 123; 1 23; and anima/animus 117, 85; and the archetypal archetypal actualisation 85; arts arts 363; 363; centrality centrality to to Jungian Jungian therapy 1113, 1 3 , 1117; 1 7; centring/integrating stage centring/integrating stage ((second second stage) 99, 2091 2; and the the stage) 1199, 209-12; Christian Mass Mass 305; 305; containment/ containment/ 1 99, 200-4, 206, 206, nurturance stage stage 199, 207 -8, 212; 2 1 2; crises of 1 99, 206-7, 206-7, 210; 2 1 0; 207-8, of 199, definition 156, 1 56, 197, 1 97, 1198-9; 98-9; and fairy tales 1 2 1 ; goal 2 1 2; markers of198; 1 98; tales 121; goal of of 212; markers of process 3 1 , 197-8; 1 97-8; as as the process of of 31, progressive of the the progressive differentiation differentiation of 1 38-9, functions of of consciousness consciousness 138-9, 305, 313; 3 1 3; and 1144, 44, 1149; 49; and and religion religion 305, 1 53-4, 156, 1 56, 158, 1 58 , 160, 1 60, 166, 1 66, 169; 1 69; the self 153-4, and the shadow 95, 95, 100-1; 1 00- 1 ; stages stages of of 1199-204; 99-204; transference and and 211, 2 1 1 , 212 212 infantile fantasies fantasies 62 infantile sexuality, sexuality, repression repression 334, 334, 337

infantile state 299-300 inferior function 99, 99, 100, 1 00, 140-1, 1 40- 1 , 146-7, 1 46-7, 306 inflation 42, 42, 194, 1 94, 226 226 inflation innate releasing releasing mechanisms mechanisms 69, 69, 82-3 inner voice 1 64 - 5 voice 164-5 instincts: archetypes as analogous to 67, 67, analogous to 77; of58; 58; sexual sexual 58, 58, 61, 6 1 , 63; 63; 77; repression of see see also also drives institutions, nurturing 202 202 institutions, IInternational nternational Expressive Therapy Expressive Arts Therapy 235 Association l ETA) 235 Association ((IETA)

International International Society Society of of Sandplay 233 Therapists ISST) 233 Therapists ((ISST) introversion 84, 9 7 , 1131, 3 1 , 1133-6, 33-6, 139-40, 1 39-40, introversion 84, 97, 142-3, 46-8, 351 351 142-3, 145, 145, 1146-8, intuition 99, 131-40, 1 3 1 -40, 339, 339, 340, 340, 351; 351; intuition 99, extraverted 37, 142-3, 44, 145; extraverted 1137, 142-3, 1144, 145; introverted 34, 1135-6, 35-6, 142-3, 145 introverted 1134, 142-3, 145 inward inward focus 224, 224, 227-8 227-8 IIrenaeus renaeus 80 irrational functions 131, 1 3 1 , 133, 1 3 3 , 139, 1 39, irrational functions 1146 46

irrational 55 irrational thinking 55 Isis Isis 202 Jacobi, -3 Jacobi, Jolande Jolande 362 362-3 Jacoby, 1 96, 267 267 Jacoby, Mario Mario 196, Jaffe, 3 1 0, 362-3 Jaffe, Aniela Aniela 266-7, 310, James, 1 08 James, Jocelyne 108 James, 97, 301 301 James, William William 97, Janet, 57 Janet, Pierre 57 jealousy 94, 94, 95 95 Jesus Christ 1 06, 107, 1 07, 221, 22 1 , 298, 299, 309, Christ 106, 270, 306, 306, 356; 356; alchemical alchemical images of of 270, archetype of of consciousness consciousness 356-7; 356-7; as archetype 1101; 0 1 ; as 306; as as image image of of the self 306; psychological figure 270; 270; reason reason for for 307; as as symbol symbol God's incarnation as as 307; God's incarnation of the the self 159-60; 1 59-60; as as symbol of of the unity between between conscious/unconscious 1159 59

Jews 1 04 - 5 Jews 104-5 Johnson, 70 Johnson, M, M. 70 Jonas, 47 Jonas, Hans 47 Joseph 245 245 Journal of Analytical Analytical Psychology Psychology 1109, 09, Journal of 1126, 26, 169 1 69

Jouvet, 70 Jouvet, Michel 70 Joyce, 1 - 1 2, 325-33, 335-6, 3 3 5 -6, Joyce, James James 111-12, 3 3 8 -49, 358, 358, 359, 35� 368, 368, 369 369 338-49,

Joyce, 3 3 1 -2 Joyce, Lucy Lucy 331-2 Jung, Gustav 1, I , 2; 2; on on the the active active Jung, Carl Gustav 2 1 5-29, 232, 232, 233, 233, 235, 235, imagination 215-29, 1 ; on on 237; 237; on on alchemy alchemy 263-78, 263-78, 280-9 280-91; the anima/animus 1 1 3-22, 125-7; 1 25-7; on on anima/animus 113-22, archetypes 1 , 83-9; archetypes 74-8 74-81, 83-9; on the arts 324-69; break 324-69; break with with Freud 22-5, 1102-3, 02-3, 113-14, 1 1 3 - 1 4, 155, 1 55 , 196, 1 96, 2 1 9-20, 246, 246, 219-20,

of96; 96; 30 1 , 350, 350, 3 5 1 ; 'creative 301, 351; 'creative illness' of as of Freud Freud22; 22; divergence divergence as disciple of 1 4, 15, 1 5, 21-2, 2 1 -2 , 61-5, 6 1 -5 , 75, 75, from Freud 14, 3001 , 325, 325, 331, 33 1 , 334, 334, 337; 337; on dreams 300-1, 244, 8, 250 250 1, I , 254; 254; 244, 246 246 8,

386 Index 386 I n dex epistemologicalcrisis crisisof of441-2; on epistemological 1 -2 ; on epistemology7,7,8,8, 9, 9, 110, on epistemology 0, 111-48; 1 -48; on eros 1187-8; on fame on eros 87-8; on fame 71; 7 1 ; on individuation 1196, 203, 205-6, 205-6, 96, 1198, 98, 203, individuation 209-11; and Nazism Nazism 103-5; 1 03 - 5 ; prepre­ 2091 1 ; and Freud 25; on psychological types 25; on psychological types Freud 1130-41, 30-4 1 , 1144, 44, 1146-9; 46-9; and religion religion 296-315; on the the self 153-61, 2963 1 5 ; on 1 53 -6 1 , 163-6, 1 63-6, and the the shadow shadow 9494-108; 1168-70; 68-70; and 1 08 ; on transference 1178-82, transference 78-82, 1184-90; 84-90; on the unconscious 54, 54, 56, 56, 5858-72 72 unconscious Jung, Emma Jung, Emma 121 121 Jung, Jun g , Franz Franz 222 222 Jung Institute, Zurich ,lung Zurich 232, 232, 273, 273, 276 276 Jung Society ,lung Society of of Los Los Angeles Angeles 276 276 Kagan, K aga n, J. J . 148 1 48 Kaahlo, Frida 366 K hl o , Frida 366 Kalif, K a I fT, Dora Dora 230, 230, 232-3 Kalsched, K it lsc hed , D. D. 163 1 63 Kant, Immanuel Immanuel 17, 1 7, 80, 80, 97 97

Kantian K it nt i an paradigm paradigm 290 290

Kast, Verena 124-5, Kitst, 1 24-5, 229, 229, 366 366 Kawai, K a wa i , Hayao 285-6 Kekulè, K e k ulc, Friedrich August 245 245 Keller, Kel ler, Tina 234 234 Kepler, Johannes 88 K epler, Johannes 88 Kerènyi, K c rc nyi , Karl Karl 352 352 Kiefer, K iefer, Anselm 368 368 Kirsch, K i rsch , James 104 1 04 Kirsch, K i rsch, Jean Jean 267 267 Kirsch, K i rsch, Thomas 104, 1 04, 109, 1 09, 146 1 46 Kittelson, K i l lclson, Mary Mary Lynn Lynn 234 234 Klein, K lein, Melanie Melanie 281 28 1 Kleinians K leinians 281 28 1 knowledge: k n owlcdgc: analyst's claim to to transcendental t l"llnsccndental 109; \09; co-construction of of 19; collective dimension dimension of of 26-9; in 1 9; l'ollcctive in the t ill' making m a k i n g 31; 3 1 ; origins of 55-6 55-6 KOhler, K ilhler, Wolfgang 82 82 K oore re 352 .152 K ruepclin, raepelin, E. Eo 20 20 Kugler, K IIllkr, I'. P. 278 278 9, 9, 290 290 Tabour, Illho l l l", division d i v ision of of 206 206 I1 .11I:l mean, l n , JJacques a cq ll es 186, 1 86, 282 282 Lacanian 1 .1Il: l I n i a n therapists t herapists 345 .145 II .akolf, lI k oll, G. ( i . 70 70 Lamarck, I ,II mil l'l'k , Jean-Baptiste kan-Bapt iste 76 7(, Lamarckism 1 , 11I1Ul rl' k islll 76 77 Lammers, I II II I I lIl'rs Ann t\ 1 1 1 1 Conrad ( '' 'mad106. IOh, 107 1 01 ,

I Index n d ex 387 387

language: of of alchemy alchemy 278-9, 278-9, 290; language: grammar 70; 70; innate innate acquisition 82; grammar 82; true meaning meaning of expressed true expressed 18, 1 8 , 19-20, 1 9-20, 58-9 58-9 latent content content 246, 246, 250 latent 250 Latin America 315 Latin 315 law of of contiguity 85 law law of of similarity 85 law Lee, Philip Philip JJ.. 47 Lee, Leonardo da Vinci 363 Leonardo lesbians 1125-6 lesbians 25-6 Levinas 165 Levinas 1 65 Levinas, E. E. 10 Levinas, 10 Levy-Bruhl, Lucien Lucien 82 Levy-Bruhl, Levy-Strauss, Claude Claude 82 Levy-Strauss, 82 libido 58, libido 58, 61, 6 1 , 219, 2 1 9, 220, 220, 337, 337, 350, 3 5 0 , 351; 35 1 ; Freud on 300; Freud 300; as as general general psychic psychic energy 661-2, 63; Jung Jung on 300; energy 1 -2, 63; 300; of neurotics 661-2; 1 -2 ; regression regression 300; 300; and and neurotics religion 299, 300-11 299, 300religion life stages 85 life light, metaphor of light, of 285 285 literature: Jungian analysis literature: analysis of of324, 324, 325-31, 335-6, 325-3 1, 3 3 5-6, 338-44, 345-9, 345- 9, 358-9, 368-9; 358-9, 368-9; of ofWestern Western alchemy alchemy

356 356

masculine 1 87 masculine principle principle 187 massa massacon/usa confusa 288, 288, 289 289 materialism 15 materialism 15 Mauss, Mauss, M M.. 82 May, May, Rollo 247 Mayr, Mayr, Ernst Ernst 82 meaning: 1 09; of meaning:abuse abuse of of the the search search for for 109; of 1 -4; of of expressed expressed dreams dreams 245, 245, 25 251-4; language 8, 119-20, 9-20, 58-9; language 118, 58-9; see see also also functional functional significance medial medial practitioners 232 meditation meditation 284 meditation 284 meditation complex 284 mediums 7- 1 9, 29, 29, 59, 59, 217-18, 2 1 7- 1 8 , 299 mediums 117-19, Meier, 1 4 1 , 146 1 46 Meier, C. C. 141, Memories, Dreams, Reflections Reflections (Jung) Memories, Dreams, (Jung) 59, 96, 105, 1 05 , 113-14, 1 1 3 - 1 4, 115, 1 1 5 , 155, 1 55 , 59, 63-4, 63-4, 96, 1161, 6 1 , 2263, 6 3 , 264, 6 5 , 267, 298, 264, 2265, 267, 268-9, 268-9, 298, 325 325

356-8

Locke, John 137 Locke, 1 37 logical/rational explanation explanation 35 35 77 logical/rational logos (differentiation) 9, 9, 11, 1 1 , 84, 84, 118 1 1 8 19, 1 '1 , logos (differentiation) 1126 26

Loomis, Mary 147 Loomis, 1 47 Lopez-Pedraza, Lopez-Pedraza, Rafael 366 366 Lorentz, Lorentz, E. E. 234 234 Lorenz, Konrad 82-3 Lorenz, Konrad 82-3 love, falling in 113, 1 1 3 , 116 1 16 love objects 177 1 77 Lowenfeld, Lowenfeld, Margaret 232 232 Lowinsky, Lowinsky, Naomi 233 233 Lucifer 306; see see also devil (Satan) ( Sat a n ) McCormick, Edith Edith 331 331 McGlashan, R. R. 164 1 64 McGoveran, McGoveran. Patrick Pa t ric k 267 267 Maclean, Paul Pa ul 70 70 McNiff, Shaun Shaun 233 233 McRae, Carol Carol 234 2.14 Madelung, M adelung, Wilfred W i l frcd 273 273 Maeder, M aeder , A. t\, 29 29 I� I , 5 , 353, .104 5, .10 1 , 304 mandalas 268, 3(11, .1 4, 268, mandalas 34, I h7 I .� 'I,167 I 5 8 ,159, and 1 5 5 7,7,158, s e l f 155 t he self a nd the mania mania 59 59 manifest 11111 I I i IC:st content wn t m t246, 24(" 25(1 250

Mann, 1 46 Mann, H. H. 146 Mann, Mann, Thomas Thomas 56 56 marriage, 1 23 , 307 307 marriage, sacred sacred 123, Marshall, 1 46 Marshall, I.I. 146 Marx, Marx, Karl Karl 47 47 Mary Virgin 69, 202, 245, 245, 274, 307, Mary the the Virgin

\ �( O .

mental illness: and the archetypes archetypes 86; 86; mental illness: and the organic organic basis basis of of 57-8 57-8 Mercurius 1 0 1 , 107 \ 07 Mercurius 101, Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 281 28 1 Merleau-Ponty, Maurice metaphors 285 285 metaphysics 283, 285, 285, 289; 289; metaphysics 277-8, 277-8, 283, Jung's rejection of 15-16 Jung's rejection of 15-16 metapsychology 3 36, 339, 339, 368 368 metapsychology 336, methodology and methodology see epistemology epistemology and methodology methodology methodos methodos I11I M ichelangelo 325; 325; Moses 328, 335, 335, Michelangelo Moses 327, 327, 328,

34 1 , 342 342 341, 'milieu' 25-6 `milieu' 25-6 Miller, Melvin Melvin 316-17 3 1 6- 1 7 Miller, Miller, Miss Miss 64, 64, 218, 2 1 8 , 219, 2 1 9 , 349-50, 349-50, 358 358 Miller, mind 38, 3 8 , 40-1 40- 1 ' M ind and Earth' Earth' (Jung) ( Jung) 85 85 `Mind mind-body problem problem 87 87 mind-body Mindell, Amy Amy 234 234 Mindell, minimalism 368 368 minimalism Mithra 350-1 350- 1 Mithra models 45 45 models 'modesty' 179 1 79 `modesty' molecular biology biology 89 89 molecular M onod, Jacques Jacques81 81 Monod,

Moore, Moore, Norah Norah 232 232 morality, 7 morality, privileging privileging of of 117 Moreno, Moreno, Jacob Jacob 234 234 mortificatio 87, 357 mortificatio 1187, 357 Moses 2 5 , 326, 2 8 , 340-2, 348 Moses 3325, 326, 3328, 340-2, 348 Moses Michelangelo) 327, 35, Moses ((Michelangelo) 327, 328, 328, 3335, 34 1 , 342 341, 342

mother: with 350; 350; mother: archaic archaic union union with archetypal 5 1 ; distinction archetypal 85-6, 85-6, 3351; distinction from from 22; and 01 -3, anima anima 1122; and individuation individuation 2201-3, 208; 204, 204, 206, 206, 208-9; 208-9; separation separation from from 208; symbolic symbolic 208-9 208-9 mother 1 1 5, 1120, 20, 1123-4, 23-4, mother complex complex 86, 86, 115, 1127 27

Mother Goddesses 202 202 Mother Goddesses mother-child relationship, dependency dependency mother-child relationship, of 208 of 202, 202, 208 mother-infant relationship: mother-infant relationship: deintegration 65-6; and the ego/self ego/self deintegration 1165-6; and the relationship 1 62 relationship 162 mourning 1 23 mourning 123 movement movement 234-5; 234-5; see see also also dance/dance dance/dance therapy therapy mover-witness relationship 234-5 mover-witness relationship 234-5 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus Amadeus. 137 1 37 Mozart, Wolfgang Murphy-Meisgeier Murphy-Meisgeier Type Type Indicator Indicator for for 1 47 Children ( M MTIC) 147 Children (MMTIC) music/music 226, 235, 364-5, music/music therapy therapy 226, 235, 364-5, 366 366

Myers-Brigg ( M BTI) Myers-Brigg Type Type Indicator Indicator (MBTI) 1140, 40, 146-8 1 46-8

Mysterium Coniunctionis (Jung) 1 1 8, Mysterium Coniunctionis (Jung) 118,

1156, 56, 158, 1 58, 160, 1 60, 271, 27 1 , 272, 272, 275, 275, 284, 284, 307 307

mystical experience 155, 1 55 , 157-8 1 57-8 mystical experience mythology 62-3, 67, 67, 82, 82, 83; 83; American American mythology 62-3, Indian 107; 1 07; ancient ancient Egyptian Egyptian 281; 28 1 ; and Indian and 1 23 the sacred marriage marriage 123 the sacred myths: alchemical 274; 274; Christian Christian 274, 274, myths: alchemical religious 300, 300, 304 304 275, 30 1 ; religious 275, 301; Naifeh, Sam Sam 229 229 Naifeh, narcissism 108-9, 1 08-9, 144 1 44 narcissism narcissistic personality personality disorder disorder 208 208 narcissistic 270, 285-6, 285-6, 355, 355, 359 359 nature 270, nature Nazis 68-9, 68-9, 96, 96, 103-5 1 03-5 Nazis neonates 200, 200, 201, 20 I, 203 203 neonates Nesse, R.M. R . M . 83 83 Nesse, Neumann, Erich Erich 104, 1 04, 161-5, 1 6 1 -5 , 167, 1 67, 196, 1 96, Neumann, 1 98, 363 363 198, Neumann, Micha Micha 104 1 04 Neumann, neurobiology 70 70 neurobiology neuroscience 70 70 neuroscience



388 I n dex 388 Index neurosis 30, 300; 300; and the the archetypes archetypes 86; 86; neurosis 30, Freud on 34; 34; and the libido 6 1 -2; and and 61-2; 1 00; splitting of of 100 1 00 the shadow 99, 100; New Age Movement M ovement 316 316 New New 356 New Testament 356 New Institute 274 274 New York Institute Newman, K . D . 267 267 Newman, K.D. Newton, Kathleen 109 1 09 Nietzsche, Wilhelm 56, 56, 59, 59, 60, 60, Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm 7 1 , 97-8, 328, 345, 345, 351, 3 5 1 , 355, 355, 360, 36� 368 368 71, 97-8, 328,

nightmares 221, 22 1 , 256 256 ni gredo (black phase) 100-1, 1 00- 1 , 187, 1 87, 271, 27 1 , nigredo 2R5, 357 285, 357

no-self 170 1 70 56 Noah 56 N oll, Richard 313 313 Noll, non-compensatory 254, 255-6 255-6 non-compensatory dreams 254, non-self 285 non-self 285 numinous experience experience 101; 1 0 1 ; and anima/ animal 1 1 7, 119, 1 1 9, 127; 1 27; in dreams dreams 249; 249; animus 117, religious 1 6; and religious 304, 304, 308, 308, 309, 309, 3316; and the 1 57, 158, 1 5 8, 168 1 68 self 157, ohjective amplification 312 312 objective ohjective 25 1 -3 objective meaning, meaning, ooff dreams 251-3 ohjectivity: case histories histories 13; 1 3; objectivity: and case privileging of of 71 71 ohjects: bad 180; 1 80; love love 177 1 77 objects: had ohservation, 19 observation, participant 19 Odajnyk, 290- 1 Odajnyk, Walter 284-5, 290-1 O edi pa l conflict/complex conflict/complex 63, 63, 68, 68, 95 95 Oedipal Old 245, 307, 307, 356 356 Old Testament 245, o ll l ni po t e nce 100 1 00 omnipotence ollln iscience 100 1 00 omniscience '( )n the t he nature nature of of the the psyche' psyche' (Jung) (lung) 65 65 'On t he psychology psychology and 'On the and pathology pathology of so-called (lung) so-called occult occult phenomena' (Jung) 114, 4, 17 17 19, 1 9, 217 2 1 7 18, I R , 299 299

one-person psychology psychology 185 1 85 oneness, 1 62 oneness, primary 162 opl'n programmes 82 X2 open programmes (Oppikofer, >ppi k o fer. Renate Renate 222 222 opposites 1 03 . 160 1 60 1; I ; and and alchemy alchemy opposites 103, 27 4. 278, 2 7 X . 285; 2X5; and the the arts arts345, 345. 351; 35 1 ; 273' 4, 302. 306 3 1 2; a n d the the lind re l i g ion 3(12, and religion 306 7. 7, 312; and Self 154, 1 54. 160, 1 60. 161, 1 6 1 . 169 1 69 onlt'r KK 9; 9; acausal aca usal 89 Xl) order 88 (Orient, )ril' n t . Iarts I r t s of the t ill' 352 352 4 4 I I . 146 1 46 (Osmond, )s n l l l i l d . II. (Other )t hl'r 165; I Il'i; in in alchemy a khclllY 186; I K6; Anticipated A n t ll'lpatnl Whoit' l l) ; prohkl l l a t ir of hl· .'4 'I ; Whole It); problematic of tthe 24 5; Iprogressive lIogn' s s i Vl' reformulations n·rorn l l l l a t l o l l S 01 o r 24 }.\

IIndex n d ex 389 389 Other-as-archetype 24 24 Otto, Rudolf Otto, Rudolf 77, 77, 309 309 paganism 107, 1 07, 277 painting 3 3 5 -7, 343-9, 343-9, 351, 351, painting 247, 247, 325-8, 325-8, 335-7, 358-9, 358-9, 363-6

Palmer, 3 1 2- 1 3 Palmer, Michael Michael 312-13 Paracelsica 269 (Jung) 269 Paracelsica (lung) parental complexes complexes 123-4, 1 23 -4, 127 1 27 parental imago imago 116, 1 1 6, 301 30 I parental psyche psyche 203 203 parents: 2 0 1 -6, parents: and and individuation 201-6, 208-9; 1 23-4; see see 208-9; separation separation from from 123-4; also also father; father; mother 19 participant observation 19 participation mystique mystique 203, 203, 211 21 1 patterns: of behaviour behaviour patterns: archetypal archetypal 37-8; of 83

Paul, Annie Murphy M urphy 148 1 48 Paul, Annie Paul, Benjamin Benjamin 54 54 Pauli, 89, 281-2 28 1 -2 Pauli, Wolfgang Wolfgang 87-8, 87-8, 89, Peat, Peat, David David 88-9 88-9 perfection 106 1 06 Peris, 247 Perls, Fritz 247 persona 1 46, 153-4; 1 53-4; and the the anima/ animal persona 146, animus 115, 1 1 5, 119; 1 1 9; identification identification with with 1100; 00; and 2 1 0 ·· 1 1 . 212; 2 1 2; and individuation 210-11, replacement the Self Self 210-11, 2 1 0- 1 1 . 212; 2 1 2; replacement by the and superior function function 140 1 40 and the superior personal personal associations 248-9 personal equation equation 131 131 personal experience 16, 1 6, 19 19 personal 33 personal history history 32-3, 32-3, 33 personality: ideal 18, 1 8, 19; 1 9; spine spine of of the the personality: ideal 1140, 40, 142-3 142-3

personality 20R-9 personality disorders disorders 208-9 personality 1 40 1, I , 142-3, 142-3. 148 1 4K personality types types 140 Pharaohs 245, 250 250 Pharaohs 245, phenomenology 16, 1 6. 44, 44. 46 46 Philemon 114 I 14 philosopher's stone stone 186, 1 86. 272, 2 7 2 . 289. 2KI). 291 21) I Philp, 314 Philp, Howard 314 phroncsis 10 phronesis 10 physics 90. 2 XI 2 2 physics 88 88 90, 281 Picasso. hlo 325, 325. 3 3 5 7, 7. 340, �40, 141 .'4 ' Picasso, Pa Pablo 335 35X. 359. 366 366 358, 359,

pic t u re method me t hod 228 22K picture Piet i k a i n e n . Pet t eri K6 Pietikainen, Petteri 86 77 4 .� 4, 4. 79 79 Pla to 9 1 0. 43 Plato 9 10, IPlant, 'l a u t . A. A. 183 I K.' IPlant, 'l a u t . F. I ' . 148 1 4K piIlY. w l l I hol tl' 217, .' 1 7 . 220 ' .'0 S'I play, symbolic .

'I

pleroma 368 pleroma 39-42, 368 plural animation 333-5 plural poetry/poetry therapy 235, 235, 359 359 Pollock, Jackson 364 Pollock, 364 'Pool 1 5 5-7 `Pool of of Life' Life' 155-7 positivism 46 postmodernism postmodernism 367-9 Powell, 232 Powell, Sheila 232 power: abuses abuses of 109; power: 1 09; and transference-countertransference 1 90, transference-countertransference 190, 1192-3 92-3

Practice Psychotherapy, The The (lung) Practice of of Psychotherapy, (Jung)

264 264 precognitive dreams 250, 250, precognitive (prophetic) dreams 256 256

Preiswerk, H elly') 17-19, 1 7- 1 9, 29, 59 Preiswerk, Helene C(`Helly') prima materia materia 289 prima 289 primary 1 79 primary process 179 primordial images 67, 67, 76-7, 79, 79, 81, 8 1 , 84, 84, primordial images 86, 1 I 5 , 136 1 36 86, 88, 88, 115,

privatio 06-7, 306, 312 312 privatio boni boni 1106-7, projection alchemy 280, 280, 281, 28 1 , projection 28; 28; and alchemy the anima/animus anima/animus 113, 1 1 3, 289-90; 289-90; and the 1116-21, 1 6-2 1 , 127-8; 1 27-8; of of the the collective collective living through unconscious unconscious 68-9; 68-9; living 98-9; religious 300; 300; of the shadow shadow 98-9; religious 94-5, 97, 98-9, 102-3 1 02-3 94-5, 97,

projective 1 2 1 , 281 28 1 projective identification 121, prospective 256 prospective dreams 256 prospective 219 prospective understanding 219 Protestantism 297-8, 304, 304, 308, 308, 311 31I Protestantism 297-8, psyche 1 9, 268, 282, 283, 283, 287, 287, psyche 2219, 268, 277-8, 277-8, 282, 3313; 1 3 ; anatomy of of the 275, 275, 276; 276; and the 1 1 5; collective collective 78; 78; and anima/animus 115; the 68, the collective collective unconscious 66, 67, 68, 2 1 , 24; 24; 7 1 , 75, 71, 75, 76; 76; dissociability dissociability of the 21, dreams path to to 244, 244, 245, 245, 253, 253, 254, 254, dreams as as path 255 -6, 259; 259; homeostatic homeostatic 164; 1 64; 255-6, individuation 2 1 1 , 303-4; individuation of the 211, intentionality 279; loss in the intentionality of 279; 65; orientation orientation 309; 309; unconscious unconscious 65; parental 203; plural/polytheistic plural/polytheistic 290, 290, parental 203; types 130, 1 30, 131; 131; 3314; 1 4; and psychological types religious 1 53, 270, 270, 297, 297, 300, 300, religious nature 153, 304; 1 54, 156-7, 1 56-7, 159, 1 59, 161, 161, 304; and and the the self 154, the 269, 269, 277, 277, 1170; 70; transformation transformation ooff the 28 1 , 305 281,

psychic psychic energy, energy, generalised/genetic 1 -2, 63 63 theory theory of 661-2, psychic 1 2- 1 3 psychic reality reality 288, 288, 303, 303, 3312-13 psychoanalysis: 340; see psychoanalysis: applied applied 339, 340; see a/so psychoanalysis also Freudian Freudian psychoanalysis

Psychoanalytic Congress 131 131 psychobiography 3331, psychobiography 3 1 , 343-4, 348 348 psychoid realm realm 65, 65, 283-4 283-4 psychoid psychoid/non-psychic archetype archetype 87-90 psychoid/non-psychic psychological 237 psychological imagination imagination 237 psychological psychological trauma trauma 207, 207, 208-9 208-9 psychological 1 30-52, 351; 35 1 ; psychological types types 130-52, criticisms 4 1 -8; current criticisms of of 1141-8; current status and trends 1 48-9; definitions definitions of trends regarding regarding 148-9; 1131-41; 3 1 -4 1 ; developments 1 4 1 -8; developments of of 141-8; differentiation 1 3 7-4 1 ; falsification falsification differentiation of 137-41; 1 39; Jung's 1 30- 1 ; as of 139; Jung's position position on on 130-1; types of consciousness 130 1 30 types of Psychological Types (lung) 1 3 1 -4, Psychological Types (Jung) 97, 97, 131-4, 1137-8, 37-8, 154, 1 54, 158, 1 58, 196, 1 96, 301, 30 1 , 339, 339, 351, 351 ,

364 364 Psychology A lchemy (lung) 1 57, Psychology and and Alchemy (Jung) 157, 264, 27 1 , 296, 306 264, 270, 270, 271,

Psychology Religion (Jung) Psychology and and Religion (Jung) 269 Psychology f the Unconscious. The The Psychology oof the Unconscious, (lung) (Jung) 64, 299, 300-1 300- 1 psychosis 119-20, 58-9, 69; psychosis 9-20, 441-2, 1 -2, 58-9, 69; scc see also also schizophrenia 7, 1751 75 - 259; 259; active ac t i v e psychotherapy psychotherapy 3-4, 7, imagination 1 5-43; and alchemy alchemy imagination 2215-43; 275; -59; individuation 275; dreams dreams 244 244-59; 1196-214; 96-2 1 4; as as nurturing/containing environment coun­ environment 208; 208; transference transference countertransference 1 75-94 tertransference 175-94 puberty puberty 200 puer (eternal puer aeternus/puella aeterna (eternal child) child) 207-8 207-8 purpose, sense of 1 , 34-5 purpose, sense of 331, 34-5 Quadrant Quadrant (journal) 274 quantum physics physics 88-9 88-9 quaternity symbols symbols 304-5 Radin, Paul 107 1 07 Raff, 290- 1 Raff, Jeffrey Jeffrey 282-4, 282-4, 290-1 rational functions functions 131, 1 3 1 , 133, 1 3 3, 139, 1 39, 146 1 46 rational rational thought thought 55-6 reality 207 reality 205 reality principle 205 redemption redemption 277-8 Redfearn, 1 65, 167 1 67 Redfearn, J. 165, reductive reductive interpretations interpretations 253-4; 253-4; see see also also causal-reductive causal-reductive method 247 reflection reflection 247 regression: 352; of regression: and and the the arts arts 352; of the libido libido 300 Reid, 1 32 Reid, Thomas Thomas 132

390 Index 390 I ndex



reintegration 166 1 66 the ego ego and the ''relations relations between between the the unconscious, The' (Jung) unconscious, (Jung) 153 153 relationship, analyst-analysand analyst-analysand 94-5, relationship, 1102, 02, 1108-9 08-9

relationships: anima/animus relationships: and and the anima/animus 1118, 1 8, 127; 1 27; dialectical 181, 1 8 1 , 219, 2 1 9, 224; 224; fantasies of of 123; mother-child 162, fantasies 1 23; mother-child 1 62, 1I65-6, 65 -6 , 202, 202, 208; 208; mover-witness 234 228 234 -5; -5; therapeutic 228 religion 44, 44, 54-5, 54-5, 100, 269-71, religion 1 00, 269-7 1 , 296-323; and an d the the collective collective unconscious unconscious 68; 68; criticisms of of Jung's Jung's conception conception of criticisms 3311 1 1 15; 1 5 ; current status of of Jungian Jungian 3 1 5 - 1 7; defining defining 308-9; 308-9; thought on 315-17; developments developments in in Jungian Jungian thought 1 0- 1 5; future trends in in regarding regarding 3310-15; 3 1 5- 1 7; Jung's Jung's Jungian Jungian thought on 315-17; empirical 303; Jung's empirical approach approach to 303; family fatnily background background of of 297-8; 297-8; Jung's position on 297-307; mystery position mystery of 298 9; 29!! 9; prospective prospective function 297; 297; and science 3315-16; 1 5 - 1 6; and the shadow shadow 101, 10I , science 105 105-7;7;transformation transformation of of 305-7 religious belief belief 304 304 religious 304 religious dogma 304 religious experience experience 153, 1 5 3, 156, 1 56, 304 304 religious 302, 303, 303, 308-9 308-9 religious function function 302, religious 316 religious fundamentalism 316 religious 237 religious imagination 237 religious myth 300, 300, 304 304 religious 1 , 303, 303, 304-5 religious symbols symbols 300300-1, Hemhrandt 366 Rembrandt 366 H e n i , Guido ( i u id o 325, 325, 326 326 Reni, 'l pre ssi on 58, 5!!, 61, 6 1 , 65; 65; experimental experimental lrepression evidence shadow 102; 1 02; evidence of of 60; 60; and the shadow lind the unconscious unconscious 334, 334, 337 337 and the 9, 330 330 I"l'sistllnce resistance 32X 328 9, ret I'Ospect ive understanding understanding 219 219 retrospective n:vcl a t ion 304, 304, 313 313 revelation I( idlter, Gerhard ( ierhard 368 36X Richter, iedd, Ingrid I ngrid 366 366 RI( iedel, I( i k l i n , IFrank ra n k 130 1 30 II Riklin, I( i l k l , Rainer Hainer Maria Maria 135 1 35 Rilke, I( i t sl' l l l , Albrecht A l h l'Cl: h l 299 299 Ritschl, I( ol' k l'l'cl ler, JJohn o h n 1). D, 3 31 331 Rockefeller, H o m l l n art I I rt 352, Yi2, 367 367 Roman H Ol l l l l l l t il'S 56 511 7, 7, 105 l OS Romantics n",I't/nlllll /'hilo,I'o/,h"/'//III XII 7, 8 7, 7, /187, Ro.vorium Philosophorum I186 1 , 275 6, 281, 2X I , 282, 2X2, 285, 2X:;, 190, 268, 27 271, 275 6, I {)I I, 211X, I .� K 158 I(OSl'I llTl' I l I / ,Christian ( ' h ri s l i a l1111 l 10 1 Rosencretitt, '

,'

'

IIndex ndex 391 391

Sabini, M M., 146 Sabini, 1 46 1 69-70 Salman, S, S. 169-70 Salman, Salome 114 1 14 Salzmann, Monique 366 Salzmann, 366 Samuels, 1 -2, 104-5, 1 04-5, 122, 1 22, Samuels, Andrew Andrew 771-2, 1166-7, 66-7, 196, 1 96, 229, 229, 232, 232, 266, 266, 282, 282, 290, 290, 3316 16 Sandplay Sandplay 230, 230, 232-3 232-3

Satan Satan see devil (Satan) see devil Schaverien, 233, 365 Schaverien, Joy Joy 233, Schiller, 351 Schiller, Friedrich Friedrich von 351 schizophrenia 5 , 19-21, 1 9-2 1 , 131; 1 3 1 ; and the the schizophrenia 115, 334, 343; 343; and the arts arts 329-30, 334, 75; doubledouble­ collective collective unconscious unconscious 75; bind of 42 42 bind theory of Schlamm, 309 Schlamm, Leon 309 Schmid-Guisan, H ans 131 131 Schmid-Guisan, Hans Schmitt 81 81 scholarly 237 scholarly imagination 237 schools 206 Schopenhauer, 55, 56, 56, 80, 80, Schopenhauer, Arthur 55, 1132 32

Schwartz-Sal ant, Nathan 232, 264, 264, 265, 265, Schwartz-Salant, Nathan 232, 2801 , 289-90 280-1,

Schwitters, urt 368 368 Schwitters, K Kurt science 1 69; and and science 289; 289; and and the archetypes 169; 1 5- 1 6 religion religion 3315-16 scientific 16 scientific method, method, inductive 16 'scientific 1 -2, 25-6 25-6 `scientificpremises' premises'221-2, scientific 225 scientific tendency 225 sculpture 351, 3 5 1 , 354, 354, 364-5 seances 7- 1 8, 217-18, 2 1 7- 1 8, 299 299 seances 117-18, Searles, 1 88 Searles, Harold 188 secular 299, 308, 308, 315 315 secular modernity 299, Sedgwick, 1 84 Sedgwick, D D., 184 Segal, 313 Segal, Robert 313 Self 79, 1 53-74, 227, 227, 268, 268, 270, 270, 283, 2X3, 344. 344, 79, 153-74, 357, 68; and 368; a and alchemy a priori priori 1168; 357, 368; 283, 288, 1 5 7 8, X, 283, 288, 289; 289; as as archetype archetype 157 1161, 6 1 , 1165-6, 65 6, 167-71, 1 67 - 7 1 , 303, 3 0 3 , 310; 3 1 0; and and

archetypes 1 70-- 1 ; as centre of of the t he archetypes 170-1; psyche 1 56- 7, 161, 1 6 1 , 162 1 62 3, 3, 303; 303; Christ Chl'l,1 psyche 156-7, as image of of the t he 306; and and the the collective co llectm' unc o nsci o us 153 1 5 3 4, 4, 159; 1 59; as as complexio compll' x l l I unconscious oppositorum 1 54; conceptual concep t u a l view view of ..I oppositorum 154;

1158; 5!!; and 1 5 3 4, 4, 156, I �Il, and consciousness consciousness 153 1157, 5 7, 1160 60 II,. 162 1 62 3; 3; and a nd const ruct i v ism 1167 117 9; '); as as continuous cO l l t i l l ll O I l ' constructivism proccss h e pSyl'lIC 1 70 I; I; process of of tthe psyche 170 n i t i l'isills of the t hl' concept l'onl'l'pt ()1'114; 01' 1 1 4 ; criticisms l'lI ITl'nt sstatus t a t l i S I169 I,l) 770; 0; d a r k side sidl' 01 dark of current I ll' 161, Ithe 1 117; dl'l i n i t lO l l 155, I ��, I156; �h. mid 0111.1 l id, 167; definition

the 1 5 3; and ego 154, 1 54, 156, 1 56, the divine divine 153; and the ego 1157-8, 57 -8, 160-6, 1 60-6, 354; 354; equation with maternal/feminine 1 63-4; maternal/feminine qualities qualities 163-4; experience 1 58; female female 122; 1 22; experience of the 158; Fordham 1 62, 165-6, 1 65-6, 167, 1 67, 169, 1 69, Fordham on 162, 1171; 7 1 ; future future developments developments regarding 1169-70; 69-70; and 1 00, 107, 1 07, 310; 3 1 0; and and God 100, 1 53, 159-60, 1 59-60, 302, 302, 310; 3 1 0; the the God-image 153, good evil of of the the 163; 1 63; idealised idealised good and evil 1163; 63 ; indefinable/incomprehensible indefinable/incomprehensible 1 64-5; as as individuality individuality nature nature of 164-5; 1153-4, 53-4, 156, 1 56, 161; 1 6 1 ; and individuation 1153-4, 53-4, 156, 1 56, 158, 1 58, 160, 1 60, 166, 1 66, 169, 1 69, 1 64-5, 169; 1 69; 2210-12, 1 0- 1 2, 213; 2 1 3 ; intentional 164-5, and 1 5 5-7,158, 1 5 8, 159, 1 59, 167; 1 67; as and mandalas mandalas 155-7,

mid-point consciousness/ mid-point between consciousness/ 1 5 3-4, 161, 1 6 1 , 163; 1 63; unconsciousness unconsciousness 153-4, Neumann 1 6 1 - 5 , 167; 1 67; and Neumann on 161-5, numinous experiences experiences 157, 1 57, 158, 1 58, 168; 1 68; and 1 54, 160, 1 60, 161, 1 6 1 , 169; 1 69; as and opposites 154, 1 59, 161; 161; organiser personality 159, organiser of the personality as principle of the as organising organising principle 1 59, 161, 1 6 1 , 170; 1 70; collective collective unconscious unconscious 159, paradox 1 57; and the the persona persona paradox of the 157; 2 1 0- 1 1 ; phenomenological phenomenological subjective subjective 210-11; 1 5 8; pluralism/multiplicity view view of of the 158; 1 66-7, 170; 1 70; and of Life' Life' of of 166-7, and the 'Pool of 1155-7; 55-7; post-Jungian developments post-Jungian developments regarding 1 6 1 -7 1 ; and and the the psyche psyche 154, 1 54, regarding 161-71; 1156-7, 56-7, 159, 1 59, 161, 1 6 1 , 170; 1 70; and shadow and the shadow 98, 1 00; as of the the psyche psyche 98, 100; as structure of 1170; 70; and 57-8, 159-60, 1 59-60, and symbolism symbolism 1157-8, the psyche psyche 1162, 62, 304; 304;as as totality totality of the 1156-7, 56-7, 161, 1 6 1 , 163, 1 63 , 165, 1 65 , 167-71, 1 67-7 1 , 301, 30 1 , 303; function 303; and and the the transcendent function 229; the unconscious unconscious 156, 1 56, 157, 1 57, 229; and and the and wholeness wholeness 154, 1 54, 1158, 58, 1160, 60, 1162-4; 62-4; and 1157, 57, 161 161 self-organising systems 169 1 69 self-organising dynamic systems Senoi 246 Senoi people 246 sensation 3 1 -5, 138-40, 1 3 8-40, 146-7, 1 46-7, sensation 99, 99, 1131-5, 339-40, 342, 351; 3 5 1 ; extraverted extraverted 137, 1 3 7, 339-40, 342, 142-3, 44, 145; 1 34-5, 142-3, 1144, 145; introverted introverted 134-5, 142-3, 44, 145 142-3, 1144, 145 sentimentality 1 , 350 350 sentimentality 330330-1, separation-individuation 1 23 -4 separation-individuation 123-4

Septem ad Mortuos/Seven Mortuos/Seven Septem Sermones Sermones ad 39, 4 1 -2, Sermons Sermons to to the the Dead Dead (Jung) (Jung) 39, 41-2,

1196, 96, 222, 368 222, 301 301,, 366, 368 sex-roles, 1 26 sex-roles, traditional traditional 126 sexual instinct 5 8 , 61, 6 1 , 63 63 sexual instinct 58, sexual misconduct 1 88, 190-1 1 90- 1 sexual misconduct 188,

shadow 94- 1 1 2, 167, 1 67 , 303, 303, 306, 306, 344; 344; shadow 66, 94-112, and alchemy alchemy 357; 357; archetypal archetypal 96, 96, 98-9, 98-9, 1102, 02, 1105-6; 05-6; charlatan 1 08-9; charlatan 108-9; collective 02, 1103-5, 03-5, 1107; 07; and collective96, 96, 1102, and the the 96, 101; 101; collective collective unconscious unconscious 95, 96, compensatory 94; compensatory nature nature ooff the 94; confrontation 1 0 1 -2; and and confrontation of of the the 101-2; 1 00, 101, 1 0 1 , 102; 1 02; consciousness consciousness 99, 99, 100, criticisms 1 06-8; criticisms of of the the concept concept 106-8; cultural influences on cultural influences on 96; 96; current 1 08-9; developments developments status status of the 108-9; regarding 1 06-8; and dreams 251; 25 1 ; and regarding 106-8; the 98, 100, 1 00, 102; 1 02; and family the ego 98, dynamics dynamics 95; 95;and and the the functions functions of of consciousness 4 1 -4, 145; consciousness 1141-4, 145; future future developments 08 -9; and developments regarding regarding 1108-9; gender issues 97; gender issues 97; identification identification with 1100; 00; and 211; and individuation 211; integration 1 02; Jung's integration with with the the ego ego 102; Jung's negative personal experience of personal experience of 96-7; negative 1102-3; 02-3; and neurosis 99, 100; 1 00; personal 94-6, 98, 98, 102-3; 1 02-3; and the the personal personal 02 3; 3; unconscious unconscious 98; 98;positive positive94-5, 94-5, 1102 projection 97, 98--9, projection of of the the 94-5, 94-5, 97, 98-9, 1102-3; 02-3; and race race issues issues 97; 97; realisation realisation 1100; 00; recognition 1 02; repression of the the recognition 102; repression of 1102; 02; and 1 00; splitting and the the self self 98, 98, 100; splitting of of 1 02-3 the the 102-3 Shakti 1 23 Shakti 123 Shaman 54 Shaman 54 Shamdasani, Sonu 313 313 Shamdasani, Sonu shame 1 40 shame 140 Shapiro, K , 146 1 46 Shapiro, K. Sherwood, Dyane 233, 233, 267 267 Sherwood, Dyane Shiva 1 23 Shiva 123 Shorter, Bani 316 316 Shorter, Bani Siegler, 146 Siegler, M M., 146 sign 83 sign stimuli 83 signs signs 246 similarity, of 85 85 similarity, law of Singer, 1 47 Singer, June June 147 Singer-Loomis Personality Singer-Loomis Inventory Inventory of of Personality 1 47 (SLIP) (SLIP) 147 Skar, Patricia 233 233 Skar, Patricia social 237 social imagination imagination 237 Society Analytical Psychology Psychology 109 1 09 Society of of Analytical socio-cultural and archetypes archetypes socio-cultural context, context, and 32, 32, 33, 33, 37 37

sociobiology 70 sociobiology 70 Socrates - 10 Socrates 99-10 Socratic 46, 48 48 Socratic ignorance ignorance 43-5, 43-5, 46, Sol Niger (Black ( Black Sun) Sun) 285 285 Sol Niger



IIndex n d ex 393 393

392 I n dex 392 Index Sophia 106, 1 06, 307 307 soror mystica mystica (mystical (mystical sister) sister) 186 1 86 soul 1 23, 166, 1 66, 278, 278, 279-80, 286-7, 290, 290, soul 123, 279-80, 286-7, 291; complexity of 279-80; 29 1 ; complexity 279-80; integration 271, 27 1 , 272; 272; and the spirit spirit 1114, 1 4, 116, 1 1 6, 118, 1 1 8, 120, 1 20, 122 1 22 Sp iegelman , Marvin 285 285 Spiegelman, Spiclrein, 96-7 Spielrein, Sabrina Sabrina 96-7 spi ri t , and the the soul soul 114, 1 l 4, 116, 1 1 6, 118, 1 1 8, 120, 1 20, spirit, 1122 22 ''spirit spi rit of of psychology, psychology, The' (Jung) (lung) 77 77 sspirit pi ri t world 54-5 54-5 sp iri t s 17-19 17-19 spirits spiritualism 298 298 sp iri t uality: implicit 1 6- 1 7; and spirituality: implicit 3316-17; 210 individuation 210 Sp i t t e le r , Carl 360 360 Spitteler, Spitzer. 234 Spitzer, S. 234 ''split sp li t personality' personality' 21 21 pl i t t ing 100, 1 00. 102-3 1 02-3 ssplitting Spoto. Angelo 148 148 Spoto, Angelo Sp ringe r. Anne 1 25-6 Springer, Anne 125-6 st ages of of life life 197, 1 97, 198 1 98 stages Standard Social Social Science Science Model Model 78 78 St l' i n . Murray Murray 229, 229, 266, 266, 270, 270, 302, 302, 311, 311, Stein, .1M 366 Stein. Richard 233 233 Stein, Richard stereotypes 329 329 -30; 30; gender 116, 1 1 6, 119, 1 1 9, I120, lO. 126 1 26 Stevens. Stevens, A. A. H4 84 55 Stevens. Adam 168-9 1 68-9 Stevens, Adam Stevens. Anthony 69, 69, 70, 70, 233 233 Stevens, Stevenson. Louis 245 245 Stevenson, Robert Louis Stewart. C ha rl es 231 231 Stewart, Charles Stl'warl, Louis 230, 230. 231 23 1 Stewart, Louis Storr, Anthony Ant hony 313 313 St l' l l c h e y . James .lames 183 I H3 Strachey, St l'lllllsted. 1'. T. 234 234 Stramsted, Stroppa. Carla 364 364 Stroppa, Carla �t lism 94 st l'lll:t r netura oralism 94 '�t rUl't urc of of the thc psyche, psych e . The' (lung) 65, 65. 'structure The' (Jung) 67 67 Nuhjcl'l ivc mea ning . of drcams 25 1 -3, dreams 251-3, subjective meaning, 2�7 257 �uhll'l,t ivists, radical 17 17 xubjectivists, �lIhjel·tivity 71 subjectivity 71 �lIhl illlat i()n 327, .1 27. 328, 32H. 331, 33 1 . 348 34H xublimation �lIl'king 62 rucking 62 �1If1i. · ri n g 147 147 suffering Sufism 283 lIn Sullivan, Barhara Stevens Stevens 267 '2(,7 Sullivan, Barbara �u q.to 'i58, ii . 1811 I HO super l ll'r -ego

superior 99, 139-44 1 39-44 superior function function 99, superstition 55 55 supervision 1 90, 191-2 1 9 1 -2 supervision 190, Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro 354 354 Suzuki, Daisetz Swiss 297-8, 308 308 Swiss Reformed Reformed Church Church 297-8, symbolic 2 1 9-20, 227, 227, 237 237 symbolic amplification 219-20, symbols: 00- 1 . 280; 280; dream symbols: alchemical alchemical 1100-1, 246, 1 ; religious 300-1, 300- 1 , 303, 303, 246, 250250-1; 304-5 304-5

Symbols Transformation (lung) 97, Symbols of of Transformation (Jung) 97, 220, 1 , 358, 358, 364 364 220, 299, 299, 350350-1,

synchronicity (meaningful (meaningful coincidence) coincidence) 89, 1 64, 2 1 0, 306, 306, 314-15 3 1 4- 1 5 89, 164, 210,

systems 42 systems 40. 40, 42 syzygy 1 7. 1119-20, 1 9-20, 122, 1 22. 123, 1 23, 307 307 syzygy 1117, Tacey, 297 Tacey, David 297 'talking cure' 58 58 Tanaka, Yasuhiro Yasuhiro 288, 288, 290 290 Tanguy, Yves 361 361 Tanguy, Yves Taoism 268, 268, 285, 2 8 5 , 353 353 Tavistock Clinic lectures lectures 1, I , 26, 2 6 . 228 228 techne 10 techne 99-10 teleology 6- 1 7, 18-19, 1 8- 1 9, 26, 26, 29-31; 29-3 1 ; teleology 116-17, definition 29; epistemology of definition 29; epistemology of 1 -8. 33-6; 33-6; human human 30; 30; archetypal archetypal 26. 26, 331-8, methodological 30; natural 30; 30; methodological 30; therapeutic 30 30 telepathic 256 telepathic dreams 256 telos telos 29 29 temperament 148 1 48 terminology 22 Terry Lectures on 'Psychology 'Psychology and and Terry Lectures 304 religion' 304 Thanatos 58 58 Theaetetus 44 44 theory 5- 1 74; anima/animus anima/animus theory 3-4, 3-4, 5-174; 1113-29; 1 3-29; archetypes 90; archetypes 74 74 90; epistemology 4, epistemology and and methodology 4, lung's suspicion suspicion of of 8; 8; 7-53; 7-53; Jung's psychological 1 30 52; 52; Self SciI' psychological types types 130 1153-74; 53 -74; shadow shadow 94-94 112; 1 1 2; unconscious u nconscious 5473 54-73

therapeutic 22H; .I'l'l' see also therapeutic relationship 228; aanalyst na ly s t analysand analysand relationship; relat ionship;

treatment alliance alliance

ttherapists: h e rap i s ts : as sessing pat ients 1197 1 '1'1. 8, Pm, 97 Ii, assessing patients

client t h 20H 9; dreams d reams or oj client fusion fusion wi with 208 9; 253; uhrislinl1at ion of of194; 1 ')4; illnesses ill nl'ssl" 253; hhubris/inflation I 92; and individ u a t ion 197 1 '/7 8, x. of 192; and individuation lOX 2 1 1 12; 1 2; power power of 192 1 '1 2 1; 1 : and a nd 208 9, 211 scx ual misconduct 188. l XX, 19► 1 ')0 1; I ; as a' sexual

symbolic symbolic symbolic father father 208-9; 208-9; as symbolic 208-9; as as wisdom wisdom figures figures mother 208-9; 2211-12; 1 1 - 1 2; as wounded healer 188-90, 1 88-90, 1189; 89; see see also also analysts thinking 3 1 -5, 138-40, 1 38-40, 146-7, 1 46-7, 339, 339, thinking 99, 99, 1131-5, 1 37, 142-3, 340, 1 ; extraverted 340, 35 351; extraverted 137, 1144; 44; introverted 1 34, 135, 1 35, 142-3, introverted 134, 1144 44

Thomas, 273 Thomas, Una 273 Tiepolo, Battista 328 328 Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista Tiger, 82 Tiger, Lionel 82 Tilly, 233 Tilly, Margaret 233 time 146 1 46 Tinbergen, Tinbergen, Niko Niko 69, 69, 82-3 82-3 Titian 359 359 Tooby, l. 83 83 Tooby, J. totalitarianism 307 307 trances 59 trances 59 transcendent 209 209 transcendent coherence 168 1 68 transcendent 1 63, 164, 1 64, 222, 222, transcendent function 163, 228-9, 283 228-9, 283

transference 1 46, 175-94; 1 75-94; and and active active transference 146, imagination 230, 23 1 -2, 236, 236, imagination 228, 228, 230, 231-2, 237; 1 85-8, 193; 1 93; 237; and and alchemy 185-8, archetypal 1 8 1 -2, 193; 1 93; as blind blind alley alley archetypal 181-2, 1182; 82; and relationship and the the child-parent child-parent relationship 1178-9; 78-9; and the the collective collective unconscious unconscious 1181; 8 1 ; as 1 78; demonising as danger 178; 1102-2; 02-2; 'as everything' everything' 180; 1 80; here-andhere-and­ now 1 83, 185; 1 85; idealising idealising 102-2, 1 02-2, 179, 1 79, now 183, 1 90, 192; 1 92; and 2212; 1 2; and and illness 190, individuation 211, 2 1 1 , 212; 2 1 2; as induced induced by by 1 82; of the the therapeutic relationship 182; intensive 1 82 ; lung's intensive therapy therapy 182; Jung's conception 1 84-5; limited limited place in conception of 184-5; 1 80; as phenomenon therapy therapy 180; as natural phenomenon 1182; 82; personal 1 8 1 -2, 193; 1 93; and power power personal 181-2, 1190, 90, 1192-3; 92-3; projections of of 179, 1 79, 183, 1 83, 1189, 89, 2212; 1 2; and 1 83; regressive/ regressive/ and reality 183; infantile 78-9; as infantile nature nature 1178-9; as road to 1 82; and sexual sexual integration 182; 88, 1190-1; 90- 1 ; and the misconduct misconduct 1188, shadow 1 80; and splitting 102-3; 1 02-3; shadow 95, 95, 180; and 1 90, 191-2; 1 9 1 -2; and supervision 190, therapist's of181; 181; therapist's evocation of transpersonal aspect 190, 1 90, 193; 1 93 ; and the transpersonal aspect and the treatment 80 - 1 ; and treatment alliance alliance 1180-1; and the wounded 1 88-90, 189 189 wounded healer healer 188-90, transformation 186, 1 86, 269-70, 269-70, 277, 277, 281, 28 1 , 356. 303-4; 356, 367; 367; of of consciousness consciousness 303-4; cultural of God-images God-images 304-5; 304-5; cultural 367-8; 367-8; of

of the libido 300; 300; of of religion religion 302, 302, 305-7 305-7

trauma, psychological 207, trauma, psychological 207, 208-9 208-9 traumatic traumatic dreams dreams 255-6 255-6 treatment alliance 189-90, 1 89-90, 189; 189; see treatment alliance see also analyst-analysand relationship; relationship; therapeutic therapeutic relationship Trickster 1 07, 144, 1 44, 145, 145, 163, 1 63, 368 368 Trickster 107, Trinity 270, 305-7, 356; expansion Trinity 270, 305-7, 356; expansion of 306, 310, 3 1 0, 314 314 the 306, Trismosin, 267 Trismosin, Solomon 267 Two Essays on nalytical Psychology Two Essays on AAnalytical (lung) 1 96 (Jung) 196 'Two (lung) 223 223 `Two Kinds Kinds of Thinking' (Jung) two-person psychology psychology 185 1 85 Ubermensch 98 Obermensch 98 Ulanov, 310 Ulanov, Ann 310 Ulysses 338-49. (Joyce) 325-33, 325-33, 335-6, 335-6, 338-49, Ulysses (Joyce) 358, 359, 368, 368, 369 369 358, 359,

' '' U lysses'' : aa monologue' 13 Ulysses": monologue' (Jung) (Jung) II I1 13 unconscious 54-73, 54-73, 98, 98, 267--8, 267 8, 269, 269, 272, 272. active 273, 289, 368; 368; and the active 273, 286-7, 286-7, 289, 1 6, 220-2, 224 5, 229, 229. imagination imagination 2216, 220-2, 224-5, 234-5; 357; approach 234-5; and alchemy 357; approach to 334; 0 1 ; and arts 334; archetypes archetypes of of 1101; and the the arts -

324, 340, 344, 344, 346, 346, 324, 327, 327, 330, 330, 333-4, 333-4, 340, 348-5 1 , 354, 354, 360, 369; and 348-51, 360, 362-4, 362-4, 369; bodily bodily movement movement 234-5; 234-5; bringing together conscious 227-8, together with with the the conscious 227-8, 229; 229; coming coming to to terms terms with with the the 224-5; 224-5; complexes 86; creativity of of66, 66, 71; 71; complexes and 86; cultural 230; 230; dangers of of identification identification with definition 64-6; with 226-7; 226-7; definition 64-6; and 254-5, 258, 258, 348; 348; early dreams dreams 254-5, thinking thinking on on 54-5; 54-5; and and the ego ego 335-7, 335-7, 339; 339; in in the the Enlightenment Enlightenment 55-6; 55-6; and 2 1 8- 1 9, 224; 224; fantasy fantasy thinking 218-19, fragmentation fragmentation of the the 66; 66; Freud Freud on the 28, 60-5, 70, 70, 75; 75; 28, 54, 54, 56, 56, 57-8, 57-8, 60-5, heredity inferior heredity nature nature 67; 67; and the inferior 140; 'letting function function 140; 'letting it it come come up' 224-5; of expression expression 334; 334; 224-5; means of neglect 1 ; parental influences influences on neglect of of 771; 204; significance 29; 204; purposive significance 29; and 1 56, 157, 1 57, religion religion 303; 303; and and the self 156, 1158, 58, 1160, 60, 1162-4; 62-4; shared shared28-9; 28-9; and and the the therapist-client 1 90, 190; 190; therapist-client connection connection 190, and transference 181-2; 1 8 1 -2; and and and transference transformation transformation 356; 356; and and the the Trinity Trinity 305-6; unknowableness of 1 57; see 305-6; unknowableness of 157; see

also collective unconscious unconscious also collective

394 Index 394 I n d ex 1 I ,

!

understanding35-6; 35-6; and understanding and the the active active imagination 2219, 227; prospective 219; 1 9, 227; prospective 2 1 9; imagination and the the replacement replacement of of belief belief 300; 300; and retrospective 2219 retrospective 19 United States States 26 26 United unus mundus mundus 87-90 87-90 unus Upanishads 1154-5 Upanishads 54-5 `upbringing' 25-6 25-6 'upbringing' Uriah 354 Uriah 354 uroboros 162 uroboros 1 62 van der der Hammen, van Hammen, L. L. 81 81 Van Gogh, Gogh, Vincent Van Vincent 328 328 van Loben LObenSels, Sels,Robin Robin 233-4 233-4 van vas 1186 vas 86 vas hermeticum hermeticum 289 289 vas visionary experience visionary experience 136 1 36 visionary works visionary works 360-1 360-1 Visions Seminar Seminar (Jung) (Jung) 115 Visions 1 15 visual types visual types 218, 2 1 8, 225 225 Vitali, Moretti Vitali, Moretti ee 364 364 vitalism 15, vitalism 1 5, 85, 85, 298 298 Voegelin, Eric Voegelin, Eric 47 47 von Franz, Franz, Marie-Louise von Marie-Louise 89, 89, 108, 1 08 , 121, 121,

233, 255, 255, 265, 265, 272-� 272-4, 275, 275, 27� 276, 1141, 4 1 , 233, 278, 28� 280, 282-3, 282-3, 289, 351, 362-3 278, 289, 310, 3 1 0, 35 1 , 362-3 von Hartmann, Hartmann, Eduard Eduard 55, 56-7 von 55, 56-7 von Schelling, 56 von Schelling, Friedrich Friedrich 55, 55, 56 von Wolff, von Wolff, Christian Christian 132 1 32 Waddington, C.H. Waddington, C . H . 169 1 69 Wagner, Wagner, Richard Richard 360 360 Wallace, Wallace, Edith Edith 233 233 Walter, Walter, Marie-Therese M arie-Therese 343 343 Wandlungen and Symbole der Wandlungen und der Libido Libido

(Jung) 1 30 (Jung) 130 Ward, Ward, Karlyn Karlyn 231, 23 1 , 233 233 Warming, Warming, Patricia Patricia 233 233 Watkins, Mary Mary 233-4 Watkins, 233-4 Weaver, Weaver, Rix Rix 229 229 Wehr, Wehr, Demaris Demaris 314 314 Weisstub, Weisstub, E. E. 163-4 1 63-4 Wenegrat, Wenegrat, B. B. 83 83 Whan, Whan, Michael M ichael 10 10 Wheelwright, Wheelwright, Jane Jane 146 1 46

Wheelwright, Jo Jo 140, Wheelwright, 1 40, 141, 1 4 1 , 146 1 46 White, Victor Victor 45, 45, 1106-7, 311-12, White, 06-7, 3 1 1 - 1 2, 313 313 Whitehouse, M Mary Starks 234 Whitehouse, ary Starks 234 Whitmont, E. E. 312 Whitmont, 312 wholeness(totality) (totality) 34, 34, 154, wholeness 1 54, 157, 1 57, 161, 161, 272-3, 284, 289, 302-3, 302-3, 307, see 272-3, 28� 289, 307, 310; 3 1 0; see completeness also completeness also Whyte 55 55 Whyte Wiedemann, F. F. 122 Wiedemann, 1 22 Wilhelm, Richard Richard 268, Wilhelm, 268, 285, 285, 353 353 Wilke, H H.-J. Wilke, .-J . 126 1 26 Will 56, Will 56, 132 1 32 Willeford, William William 146, Willeford, 1 46, 163, 1 63, 167 1 67 Winnicott, D. Winnicott, D. 186 1 86 wisdom: feminine feminine 1106; origins of of 55-6 55-6 wisdom: 06; origins wish fulfilment fulfilment 250, 250, 328, 328, 331 331 wish Witch 1144, 145 Witch 44, 145 Wolf, S. Wolf, S. 108 1 08 Wolff, Toni Wolff, Toni 131, 1 3 1 , 234 234 Wolfsohn, W olfsohn, Alfred 233 233 womb 200 womb 200 women, 'inferiority' 'inferiority' of women, of 122 1 22 Woodman, M Marion Woodman, arion 234 234 Word Association Test (WAT) 15, Word 1 5, 20-1, 201 , 26-8, 26-8, 60, 60, 130 1 30

`World Technique' Technique' 232 'World 232 wounded healer healer archetype archetype 94-5, 94-5, 146, wounded 1 46, 1188-90, 88-90, 189

Wundt, Wilhelm 20 Wundt, 20 Wyly, James Wyly, James 366 366 Wyman-McGinty, W. 234 Wyman-McGinty, 234 Yahweh 105-6, Yahweh 1 05-6, 307, 307, 356 356 Y Young-Eisendrath, 1 22, 164, 1 64, 165, 1 65. oung- Eisendrath, Polly 122, 1167-9, 67-9, 170, 1 70, 316-17 3 1 6- 1 7

Zabriskie, Beverley 266, 281-2, 266, 28 1 - 2. 366 366 Zentralblatt (Journal) 104 1 04 Zeus Zeus 123 1 23 Zinkin, Louis 167-8, 1 67-8, 170 1 70 Zofingia Zofingia lectures 15-17, 1 5 - 1 7, 29, 29. 298 298 Zosimos of of Panopolis Pan opolis 270 270 Zweig, C. 108 1 08 Zwingli, Ulrich 297-8 297-8