The Fountain of Philosophy, A Translation of the Twelfth-Century Fons philosophiae of Godfrey of Saint Victor

THE FOUNTAIN OF PHILOSOPHY

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THE FOUNTAIN

OF PHILOSOPHY A Translation of the Twelfth-Century Fons philosophiae of Godfrey of Saint Victor

by

EDWARD A. SYNAN

THE PONTIFICAL INSTITUTE OF MEDIAEVAL STUDIES TORONTO,

1972

CANADA

Cover drawing adapted from the Codex Parisiensis, Mazarine, 1002, fol. 144r.

To

John J. Bracken, Carroll F. Miles, Thomas A. Stanley, Bachelors of Arts, Seton Hall College, 1938.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

I BIBLIOGRAPHY

9

II INTRODUCTION

17

III DEDICATORY LETTER

31

IV THE FOUNTAIN OF PHILOSOPHY

35

V NOTES

71

VI INDICES

83

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I BIBLIOGRAPHY

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A. GODFREY OF SAINT VICTOR

GODEFROY DE SAINT-VICTOR, Fons Philosophiae, Texte publie et annote par Pierre MlCHAUD-QUANTIN, in: Analecta mediaevalia Namurcensia 8 (Namur, Lou vain, and Lille 1956). "The Preconium Augustini of Godfrey of St. Victor," ed. Philip DAMON, in: Mediaeval Studies 22 (1960) 92-107. GODEFROY DE SAINT VICTOR, Microcosmos, Texte etabli et presente par Philippe DELHAYE, in: Memoires et travaux publics par les professeurs des facultes Catholiques de Lille 56 (Lille and Gembloux 1951).

B. ANCIENT AND MEDIAEVAL AUTHORS

ABELARD, Abelard's Letter of Consolation to a Friend (Historia Calamitatum), ed. of Latin text with an introduction by J.T. MUCKLE, in: Mediaeval Studies 12 (1950) 163-213; an English translation of this text by the editor: The Story of Abelard's Adversities, A translation with notes of the "Historia Calamitatum", preface by Etienne Gilson (Toronto 1954). ADAM OF THE LITTLE BRIDGE (Adam Balsamiensis, Parvipontanus), Ars disserendi, ed. L. MlNIO-PALUELLO, in: Twelfth Century Logic 1 (Rome 1956). ALCUIN, Epistolae, ed. E. DVEMMLER, in: Monument a Germaniae Historica, Epistolarum IV, Epistolae Karolini Aevi II (Berlin 1895). ANSELM, Sancti Anselmi Opera omnia, ed. F.S. SCHMITT, I-V (Seckau, Edinburgh, Rome, Edinburgh, and London 1938-1951). ARISTOTLE, Categoriae vel Praedicamenta, ed. L. MlNIO-PALUELLO, in: Aristateles latinus 11-5 (Bruges and Paris 1961). , De interpretatione vel Periermenias, ed. L. MlNIO-PALUELLO, in: Aristoteles latinus II 1-2 (Bruges and Paris 1965). , Analyticapriora, ed. L. MlNIO-PALUELLO, in: Aristoteles latinus III 1-4 (Bruges and Paris 1962). , Analytica posteriora, ed. L. MlNIO-PALUELLO, in: Aristoteles latinus IV 2-3 (Bruges and Paris 1953-1954). , The Student's Oxford Aristotle, ed. W.D. Ross (New York, London, and Toronto 1942).

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AUGUSTINE, De civitate dei, edd. B. DOMBART and A. KALB, (Leipzig 19281929); re-issued in: Corpus Christianorum, series latina 47 and 48 (Turnhout 1955); English translation: D.B. ZEMA and G.G. WALSH, in: Fathers of the Church 6-8 (New York 1950-1954). ,Confessionum libri XIII, ed. M. SKUTELLA (Leipzig 1934); English translation: F.J. SHEED (New York 1943). , De doctrina Christiana libri IV, ed. G.M. GREEN, in: Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum 80 (Vienna 1963); English translation: under title: "Christian Instruction," J.J. GAVIGAN, in: Fathers of'the Church 4 (New York 1947) 1-235. , De libero arbitrio libri III, ed. W.M. GREEN, in: Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum 74 (Vienna 1956); English translation under title: "The Free Choice of the Will," R.P. RUSSELL, in Fathers of the Church 59 New York 1968). , De vera religione liber I, ed. W.M. GREEN, in: Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum 77 (Vienna 1961); English translation: J.H.S. BURLEIGH, "Saint Augustine: Earlier Writings," in Library of Christian Classics 6 (Philadelphia and London 1953) 218-283. BOETHIUS, In Isagogen Porphyrii commenta, ed. S. BRANDT, in: Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum 48 (Vienna and Leipzig 1906)' English translation of second edition by Boethius, R. McKEON, in: Selections from Medieval Philosophers I (New York 1929) 70-99. , De trinitate, H.F. STEWART and E.K. RAND, in: The Loeb Classical Library, Boethius: The Theological Tractates and The Consolation of Philosophy (Cambridge, Mass, and London 1946). , De syllogismo hypothetico, PL 64. 831-876. , De arithmetica (a revision of work by Nicomachus of Gerasa?) PL 63.1079-1168. CASSIODORUS, Cassiodori Senatoris Variae, ed. T. MoMMSEN, in: Monvmenta Germanic Historica, Avctorum Antiqvissimorvm XII (Berlin 1894) 40. CICERO, De inventione, H.M. HUBBELL, in: The Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, Mass. 1949). , De oratore libri III and De partitione oratoria, H. RACKHAM, in: The Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, Mass, and London 1942). , De re publica (6.9 ff. is the Somnium Scipionis on which Macrobius commented), C.L. KEYES, in: The Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, Mass, and London 1948).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

13

DONATUS, De arts grammatica libri, ed. H. KEIL, in: Grammatici latini IV (Leipzig 1857-1880). GILBERT OF POITIERS (de la Porree), The Commentaries on Boethius by Gilbert of Poitiers, ed. N.M. HARING (Toronto 1966). GREGORY I, Morals on the Book of Job by Saint Gregory the Great, in: Library of Fathers of the Holy Catholic Church (Oxford 1844-1850). HOMER, I Iliad with an English translation, A.T. MURRAY, in: The Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, Mass, and London 1925-1963). HUGH OF SAINT VICTOR, Hugonis de Sancto Victore Didascalicon de studio legendi, a critical text, C.H. BuTTIMER (Washington B.C. 1939). , Didascalicon: a Mediaeval Guide to the Arts. Translated with an introduction and notes, J. TAYLOR, in: Records of Civilisation: Sources and Studies 64 (New York 1961). , Hvgonis de Sancto Victore opera propaedevtica, R. BARON, in: University of Notre Dame Publications in Mediaeval Studies 20 (Notre Dame, Indiana 1966). JEROME, Sancti Evsebii Hieronymi Epistvlae, ed. I. HlLBERG, in: Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum 54-55 (Vienna and Leipzig 1910, 1912). , Eusebii Pamphili Caesariensis episcopi Chronicorum liber secundus, sancto Hieronymo interprete et ampliatore, PL 27.223-508. JOHN OF SALISBURY, loannis Saresberiensis episcopi carnotensis Metalogicon libri IIII, ed. C.I. WEBB (Oxford 1929). , The Metalogicon of John of Salisbury; a Twelfth Century Defense of the Verbal and Logical Arts of the Trivium. Translated with an introduction and notes, D.D. McGARRY (Berkeley and Los Angeles 1955). MACROBIUS, Ambrosii Theodosii Macrobii Commentarii in Somnivm Scipionis, ed. I. WILLIS, in: Academia scientiarvm Germanica Berolinensis bibliotheca scriptorvm Graecorvm et Romanorvm Tevbneriana (Leipzig 1963); English translation: "Macrobius, Commentary on the Dream of Scipio." Translated with an introduction and notes by W.H. STAHL, in: Records of Civilisation: Sources and Studies 48 (New York 1952). PLATO, Timaeus a Calcidio translatus commentarioque instructus, edd. P.J. JENSEN, J.H. WASZINK, in: Corpus Platonicum Medii Aevi, Plato latinus IV (London and Ley den 1962). , Meno, interprete Henrico Aristippo, ed. V. KoRDEUTER, recognovit et praefatione instruxit C. LABOWSKY, in: Corpus Platonicum Medii Aevi, Plato latinus I (London 1960).

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, Phaedo, interprete Henrico Aristippo, ed. L. MlNlO-PALUELLO, adiuvante H.J. DROSS A ART LULOFS, in: Corpus Platonicum Medii Aevi, Plato latinus II (London 1950); English translation: The Dialogues of Plato, B. JOWETT (London and New York 1892 ff.). PORPHYRY, Isagoge et in Aristotelis Categoriae commentarium, ed. A. BUSSE, in: Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca IV 1 (Berlin 1887). PRISCIAN, Institvtionvm grammaticarvm libri, ed. H. KEIL, in: Grammatici latini II-III (Leipzig 1857-1880). QUINTILIAN, The Institutio oratoria of Quintilian with an English translation, BUTLER, in: The Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, Mass, and London 1921 ff.). SENECA, Ad Lucillium Epistulae Morales with an English translation, ed. R.M. GUMMERE, in: The Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, Mass, and London 1920 ff.). , (inauthentique) Seneque et Saint Paul. Etude sur les rapports supposes entre le philosophe et I'apotre (Paris 1869). WALTER OF SAINT VICTOR, Le Contra quattuor labyrinthos Franciae de Gauthier de Saint-Victor, ed. P. GLORIEUX, in: Archives d'histoire doctrinale et litteraire du moyen age 19 (1952) 187-335.

C. MODERN STUDIES

ALLERS, R., "Microcosmos: from Anaximandros to Paracelsus," in: Traditio 2 (1944) 319-407. BARRETT, H.M., Boethius: Some Aspects of His Times and Work (Cambridge 1940). CARRE, M.H., Realists and Nominalists (New York 1946). DELHAYE, PH., Le Microcosmos de Godefroy de Saint-Victor. Etude theologique (Lille and Gembloux 1951). GILSON, E., La philosophie au moyen age (Paris 2e ed. 1947). GLORIEUX, P., "Mauvaise action et mauvais travail. Le Contra quattuor labyrinthos Franciae," in: Recherches de theologie ancienne et medievale 21 (1954) 179-193. HARING, N.M., "The Case of Gilbert de la Porree, Bishop of Poitiers (1142-1154)," in: Mediaeval Studies 13 (1951) 1-40. MARROU, H.-I, A History of Education in Antiquity, tr. G. Lamb (New York 1956).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

15

PATCH, H.R., The Tradition of Boethius. A Study of His Importance in Medieval Culture (New York 1935). RAND, E.K., Founders of the Middle Ages (Cambridge, Mass 1928). VANN, G., The Wisdom of Boethius, Aquinas Paper 20 (Oxford 1952). VERHEIJEN, L., La regie de saint Augustin, I. Tradition manuscrite, II. Recherches historiques (Paris 1967).

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II

INTRODUCTION

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In his Fons philosophiae, Godfrey of Saint Victor has provided historians of mediaeval thought with four lines that they have been glad to quote. Those lines, 233-236, recount the hesitations Boethius felt in the presence of certain competing doctrines of Plato and Aristotle. E.K. Rand translated this stanza in a chapter devoted to Boethius (Founders of the Middle Ages, p. 146); E. Gilson cited it in Latin (La philosophie au moyen-age, p. 144); G. Vann (The Wisdom of Boethius, p. 5) and H.M. Barrett (Boethius, Some Aspects of His Times and Work,^. 43) both essayed its translation; H.R. Patch (The Tradition of Boethius, r3. 35) quoted the Rand version. This is excellent, but the Fons comprises 209 stanzas which give Godfrey's observations on many a sage besides Boethius. Indeed, without the stanza that follows the one so often cited, we should have but a truncated view of what Godfrey thought about the last Roman. Who was Godfrey? What is the Fons philosophiae?

The Poem and its Author Godfrey was a Canon Regular of Saint Augustine who received his religious training and made his profession as a Canon at Saint Victor, a famous Parisian house of his congregation. At a date after 1176 when Stephen, a future Bishop of Tournai, succeeded to the post of Abbot at Saint Genevieve, Godfrey dedicated to him a three-part literary gift. Godfrey styled his gift a mixtum, a melange, for it included the Fons philosophiae, the Anathomia corporis Christi, and a book De Spirituali cor pore Christi. Since the dedicatory letter addressed to Abbot Stephen counted as prologue to all three

0d

thee ffountainain of cphilososophyyyy

components, it too is translated below. The disheartening obscurity of this letter was noted by Godfrey himself, as was the cure for that obscurity, a reading of the whole work. Here, alas, we still lack two of the three parts: the obscurity remains. The Fons philosophiae is a didactic, autobiographical poem, preserved in three Victorine manuscripts now catalogued as: Bibliotheque Mazarine 1002 (12th century), Bibliotheque Nationale, fonds latin, 15154 (12th century), and Bibliotheque Nationale, fonds latin 14769 (17th-18th century). A critical edition based on these manuscripts was published in 1956 by Pierre Michaud-Quantin and it is this text that is here translated. It is a joy to acknowledge a debt to this editor, not only for the text he has provided, but also for his erudite Introduction and apparatus. As we owe the text of the Fons to Professor Michaud-Quantin, so we owe what is known of Godfrey's career to the volume of historical studies with which, in 1951, Philippe Delhaye accompanied his edition of Godfrey's major prose treatise, the Microcosmos. Godfrey, according to Professor Delhaye, seems to have been born between 1125 and 1130 ; he was a student of the liberal arts in Paris from about 1140 to about 1150. His praise in the Fons for a Parisian bridge and for the venerable masters associated with it assures us of his loyalty to the Englishman, Adam of Balsham, who was known, thanks to the location of his school, as 'Adam of the Little Bridge,' Adam parvipontanus or Adam de ponteparvo. During the period 1150 to 1155 or thereabouts, Godfrey studied the sacred sciences and, most likely between 1155 and 1160, entered Saint Victor, a house where William of Champeaux, Abelard's old Master and antagonist, had established the Canons Regular of Saint Augustine. Saint Victor had long been famous for its masters, Hugh and Richard above all others; as the editor of Godfrey's Microcosmos has suggested, (Etude, p. 13), his Fons may be considered a 'versified resume' of Hugh's Didascalicon. Near the year 1180, Godfrey fell afoul of the Prior of his own house, Walter of Saint Victor. Walter was an integrist theologian whose

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alarm at intellectual developments inspired him to write a tract Against the Four Labyrinths of France. Godfrey, to be sure, did not count as of quite Minotaurine stature, but he gave offense sufficient to earn him expulsion from Saint Victor. Still, he managed to publish his Microcosmos around 1185 and by 1194, it is pleasant to be able to record, the old Canon was back at Saint Victor fulfilling the office of sacristan. The criss-crossing doctrinal alliances and enmities of the Paris schools in those years make any witness welcome. Godfrey's testimony has peculiar warrants to recommend it. Not only did he know what was going on, the Canon had an eye for detail and a pungent way of expressing what he had noted. Dialectic, for instance, included 'topics,' 'rules,' (were these 'meta-logical'? 'semantic'?), and the 'sophisms' we should expect to find in an account of logic by a student of Adam whose Ars disserendi made sophisms one of its major concerns. Godfrey's off-handed allusion (lines 163, 164) to: '... swords for "opposition,"

All the rest "responding" with shields held in position' shows that the dialecticians of his day were accustomed to the stylized roles of the opponens, who pressed for the opposite of a thesis proposed for debate, and of the respondens, who did his best to counter such a move. Here, too, Godfrey is the disciple of his Master; the Ars disserendi makes explicit mention of the opponens and the respondens (ed. tit., p. 75, 1. 11). A marginal note found in one manuscript, Mazarine 1002, asserts: 'This book is the prelude of the whole subsequent work; in it, too, the life of the author is written down metaphorically.' In fact, the Canon has recounted his own educational history under the image so often used by biblical authors according to which wisdom is a complex of flowing streams. Students of Aquinas will remember that Brother Thomas was to open his lectures on the Books of the Sentences with the same biblical figure two long generations later. When Godfrey came to write the Microcosmos

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he explained how and why this image is appropriate (Chapter 65); his shade will forgive some remarks based upon the use he has made of it in the Fons philosophiae. Not all water is potable and, if Godfrey was right, not all that was taught in twelfth-century Paris was worth learning. Froginfested mudflats breed disease and so, for the Fons, do the 'mechanical arts'— Godfrey was to be less censorious in the Microcosmos. We have a natural thirst for clear, delicious water and also for knowledge; grace, far from negating our thirst for learning, raises it to new heights. The depths of a stream lie hidden, but divers or men on a bridge can see to the bottom and, having seen, can report the results of their investigation. Guided by the Holy Spirit, Godfrey prolonged his walkingtour in order to trace the streams of learning to their source, to the ultimate fountain, fans, from which they rise. Passing by mechanics without stopping to drink, he drank one by one from the liberal arts. Since those seven disciplines form an organic unity, an educational cycle, enkuklios paideia, Godfrey recognized that he must take them in their proper order, first the three arts of the trivium and then the four arts of the quadrivium. Grammar is the most elementary art. An omnipresent discipline, (for what can be learned or taught apart from correct speech?), it is a smoothly flowing, spreading, and therefore shallow flood— thus an image of the erudition suitable for beginners. Dialectic, on the contrary, is disputatious and difficult; it resembles rather a foaming, turbulent torrent that bounds over pathless rocks and through narrow gorges. For all that, Dialectic receives the lion's share of Godfrey's attention; he was, after all, a Parisian and Paris with her Dialectic was destined to triumph over Orleans and her belles-lettres. Nor was Godfrey blind to the beauties of Rhetoric, the third discipline of the trivium. Rhetoric evoked for him the picture of a wandering stream that waters flowery meadows, beginning easily and slowly, but increasing in velocity as it goes along, much as the orator moves with practice from the leisurely studies under a rhetor to the skill at 'getting up' a case quickly, at finding

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the right turn of phrase under pressure, that marks the accomplished speaker and man of affairs. Brooks flow over pebbles and smooth them, for the very motion of a current rolls small stones together, grinding and polishing them. Just such pebbles, calculi, are the means and the image of calculation: they make possible not only Arithmetic, the first of the 'quadrivial arts,' but the other three as well. Music, Geometry, and Astronomy all require the 'basin' full of 'pebbles' by which Godfrey represented Arithmetic. He admitted that he had given the first art of the quadrivium minimal attention and that his longer delay over Music might require some explanation. He defended himself by adverting to the conviction that our music is a counterpart of the music of the spheres and a key to the structure of the human soul. Geometry seemed to Godfrey an awesome accomplishment and what he has to say about it echoes theMeno—figures described in the sand allow us to hit upon the true figures we can think but not see with the eye of body. A Latin text of the Meno was available in his day thanks to the work of Henricus Aristippus. Astronomy, however, is the greatest of all the liberal arts in Godfrey's judgment. How he would have delighted in the space-age to come: 'Now through solar orbit walks ... Planetary promenades...' (lines 383, 384). Here too a classical text is just below the surface of his remarks; Godfrey, we may be sure, had been dreaming with Scipio. Before leaving the first part of the Fans, it must be conceded that much of its imagery as well as the rhyme and cadence might suggest that Godfrey was not serious about the liberal arts. Appolonius, Herodianus, and Priscian, for instance, are represented as concluding that they have more to gain by allying themselves with Donatus than by competing with him; Donatus is seen handing out milk shakes and canings to a crowd of squirming little boys. Aristotle is a fencing master who distributes weapons and armor along with instruction on how to use them. Since the logic of Aristotle had reached the middle ages in company with the Eisagoge of Porphyry, the standard Introduction to the Categories,

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Godfrey felt it right to warn the incautious that these works open upon a treacherous path: readers would find in them the 'problem of the universal' and many had come to grief in that encounter. The Philosopher receives credit for irrefragible syllogisms, but Plato earns even higher praise. In Godfrey's estimate, Plato's neglect of the sublunar world is more than compensated for by his familiarity with the greater cosmos of Nature and with the lesser cosmos, man himself. Godfrey's amicable way of meeting the competing claims of Plato and Aristotle was to propose a traditional reconciliation which he ascribed, and not without reason, to Boethius: in Logic, Aristotle is supreme; on Nature, the last word belongs to Plato. 'Modern philosophers' except, of course, Adam of the Little Bridge, 'realists' and 'nominalists' alike, failed to please this observer. As the editor of the Fons philosophiae has noted (p. 17), with only Godfrey's indications we should be hard pressed to say precisely what any one of them taught; John of Salisbury can go a long away toward supplementing those stanzas (Metalogicon 2.10; 2.17; 4.24). Like many another mediaeval writer, Godfrey had some rough and ready etymologies at his disposal. The derivation of realis, 'realist', as applied to logicians, might be the word reatus, 'guilt,' although, he hinted, this is questionable. Still, this must have been the sort of thing people said since Godfrey expected his readers to see the point, even though the point may have been no more than a joke. 'Nominalists' fared no better in Godfrey's etymological foray; they might claim kinship with the ancient masters of Dialectic 'in name,' nomine, but numine, 'in thought,' they remain afar. Those who belonged to the school of the distinguished Gilbert of Poitiers are represented as mixing spices into an irrational stew; Alberic was pilloried as senile and better off dead. The followers of Robert of Melun are characterized as a sub-set of 'nominalists' who cling to their barren mountain-top—Mount Saint Genevieve!—and shout absurdities as they block the flow of wisdom with dikes of pebbles, this last, perhaps, a suggestion that this school abused mathematics. As the

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editor noted, one manuscript was gone over by someone who cancelled the verses directed against the roberttne (MS Mazarine 1002, p. 17). No doubt this is the work of some nervous Victorine who feared that such raillery might give offense at the sister house on Mount Saint Genevieve. Godfrey himself, however, seems to have packed off his verses to the Abbot without a care and surely he was right to have done so. If, taken to the letter, his verses are vituperative, their air of intermural fun redeems them. Godfrey's own allegiance to Adam of the Little Bridge did not prevent him from drawing a picture of the old 'Bridgemen' casting as appreciative an eye on the swimmers in the Seine as they did on the mysterious depths of that stream of erudition. Cicero ruled Rhetoric, but had his debts to Aristotle: it was from Aristotle that Tully had 'learned the art of speaking' (line 306). Hermagoras, Godfrey knew, was not admired by Cicero and so he has been lampooned as an insufficiently attentive school-boy. This air of burlesque is absent from the second part of the Fans philosophiae in which Godfrey recounted his induction into theological learning, but it would be a mistake to think that his vivid, caricature-like imagery on the liberal arts springs from contempt for them. Cathedrals are not trivial buildings because they include gargoyles, evangelists riding pick-a-back upon the shoulders of the major prophets, and Salome dancing in a costume that exploits felicitously the resources of stained glass. In any case, between the liberal arts and the sacred page, Godfrey studied practical philosophy and felt no need to make any jokes about it. This he understood to be a tripartite examination of moral probity under the formalities of 'the useful' and 'the honest.' Practical wisdom offered ethical codes by which an individual might*order his own life, the domestic life of his household, and finally, those wider communities whose leaders, 'heads of Churches' or 'secular Princes,' ought to profit by traditions that stem from Socrates and Seneca. This humanist Canon counted no stage of his formation as useless or unworthy of a Christian believer. Not only his first inclination to learning, but each sub-

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sequent step as well, was in response to the guidance of the Paraclete, the Spirit of God. The best justification for the liberal arts and moral philosophy is that on their foundation a higher structure can be reared. This culmination is theology. To study 'theologically' was to study Sacred Scripture, the sacra pagina. Godfrey's Christian faith invited him to cultivate Christocentric doctrine and a Marian devotion to match what his contemporaries were doing in stone and glass in a hundred cathedrals. That he was ecclesial and even ecumenical is visible in his attitude toward the younger and the elder components of the City of God. As for the first, once-savage tribesmen had been tamed, civilized, by a patristic formation in the faith (line 673); as for the elder believers, the Jews, Godfrey, like other Victorine masters, and here Andrew of Saint Victor deserves the palm, was more open than was usual in mediaeval theologizing. He represented the heavenly Jerusalem as at once the Augustinian 'City of God' and the Psalmist's city, watered by a flowing river (line 497 and note). Jews sit on one bank and Christians on the other, much as the two communities lived in a mediaeval town, side by side, but without interpenetration. According to Godfrey, however, Jews and Christians in important ways form a single city: They have one language, they are one people, they hold one faith, they do battle for one King. This multifaceted unity was reinforced by the strenuous efforts of the Church Fathers who bridge the stream of Scripture by their writings and make it easy to pass and to repass between the two Covenants. Of course he knew there are differences. Jesus is not accepted by the Jews as Messiah; as Godfrey saw it, this is a joy they lack. The rites of the two communities differ, and this he seems to have thought a difference with exaggerated effects (see line 548). A more important instance of dissent is methodological. Like all Christian theologians in the middle ages, Godfrey ascribed to the rabbis a preference for the literal, 'historical,' sense of Scripture as against Christian openness to the three non-literal senses: 'allegorical,' 'moral,' and 'anagogic.' This makes it seem likely that Godfrey knew little of Midrash and Talmud.

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Godfrey acknowledges that there are many more than the four major Latin Church Fathers whom he names. Pope Gregory the Great has shown the Christian world how to read Job and manuscript diffusion bears out Godfrey's impression that this intervention had received the widest possible welcome: In mediaeval 'publishing,' codices of Gregory's Books of Morals on Job stand just after the Bible and just ahead of Augustine's City of God in number. As might have been expected, our Canon has devoted more space to Augustine than to the other three Latin Fathers taken together. The Bishop of Hippo has something for everyone—laymen, clergy, the erudite, the dull, the married, and the celibate. Augustine had joined example to word and this had played no small part in impelling Godfrey to enter Saint Victor and there to submit himself to the Rule of Saint Augustine. Once in, he found he still had work to do. His former drinking at the streams of liberal arts and practical philosophy had left him a little unsteady, a little drunk. In the Augustinian way, he began to return within himself, to collect the scattered powers of his soul. Finally, he could rise above himself in order to contemplate the mysteries with which Divinity deals. Godfrey could not praise too highly a discipline which, on his own showing, was quite beyond him in its higher reaches (lines 788-804). Trinitarian doctrine, including incarnational theology, confronted him with mysteries on which he thought it unwise to tax his limited intelligence. The better part of valor was to retreat, not to elementary studies, but to those in the middle range. Our Canon would be content to deal with the more accessible mysteries of the creation, the fall, and the redemption of man. If Augustine had accepted the role of Master for the whole of Latin Christendom, this disciple too felt a sense of mission. Having experienced the attraction of the more humanistic themes that theologians try to penetrate, Godfrey could not bear to maintain silence. It would have been wasteful to hide his devout wonder and gratitude within his own heart. Hence he ended the Fons philosophiae with a promise:

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'... if some way achieving, I shall publish these things to all who'll be believing.' The editor of the Fons has suggested (p. 7) that the Anathomia corporis Christi, which follows the Fons in all three manuscripts, is the fulfillment of this promise. Perhaps, but surely the great Microcosmos is a redemption on the grand scale of that pledge. The Translation If the information, the conceptual scheme, and a contemporary judgment on Parisian education in the twelfth century justify our reading the Latin text of the Fons philosophiae, does anything justify an attempt to render it in English that would maintain its pattern of stress and rhyme? A harsh critic could move behind this question to the Latin verses and urge that Godfrey's lines are sugary in two senses, both pejorative. It may be as hard to stop reading his jingling verse as it is to stop nibbling on candy, but the experience is a cloying one; second, neither a diet of candy nor of twelfth-century Latin verse offers very considerable aesthetic nourishment. The more austere Latin poetry of the ancients depended upon patterns of long and short syllables; it eschewed rhyme. Although this tradition perdured throughout the middle ages, another grew up beside it, a technique of rhyming, accented Latin. Who does not know instances of Goliardic buffoonery such as Volo mori in taberna, the liturgical Stabat mater dolorosa, the students' Gaudeamus, igitur, iuvenes dum sumus? It is in this second tradition that Godfrey wrote his poems and we may note that both the Fons philosophiae and his Preconium sancti Augustini follow an identical metre and rhyme scheme. This is a four-line stanza, each line of which contains thirteen syllables, arranged in trochees, a caesura after the seventh syllable, which syllable, of course, is stressed. All four lines of each stanza end in the same 'feminine' rhyme, that is, a foot composed of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed

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one, both of which carry the rhyme of the stanza. Latin inflection provided Godfrey with two-syllable rhymes in great abundance; on only one occasion was he obliged to contrive his own by combining two one-syllable words: lucis, crucis, duds, he had written; the sequence is rounded off by tu scis (lines 5-8). More than once, we must record, his pen did not boggle at writing the same word to end successive lines: spectari terminates lines 197 and 198, structura lines 505 and 506, potes lines 599 and 600; not quite so close, noui ends lines 817 and 819. In lines 89 and 266 the logicians' abbreviation Sortes met the demands of Godfrey's metre; in line 407 the three syllable Socrates was required and used. As is still the case with the 'Roman diction,' used by those members of the Latin clergy who may chance to pronounce Latin words, the diphthongs ae and oe were then pronounced simply as e, and that is the way scribes wrote them, unless they remembered the cedilla that stems from the ligatured diphthongs of the Carolingians. Hence, secte, recte, directe, and perfects (lines 257-260); robertine, adamantine, doctrine, and mine (lines 269-272). Solomon's son is Dauid and Dauit in the same line (581); the second form permits the name to rhyme with propinauit, ministrauit, and recreauit (lines 582-584). In poetry of whatever quality, the form is the heart of the matter. A prose rendering of the Fans might budget all its ideas; it could not carry over what Godfrey tried to do, could not carry over the pattern of sound, the mnemonic pulse and beat of his joyous memoir. Last, having provided a Bibliography that lists the editions of all works mentioned, it has been my concern to elucidate certain obscurities, to identify personalities, here and there to make explicit an implicit citation by Godfrey of the Bible or of a classical author. This material is to be found in the Notes; these are numbered according to the line or lines of verse on which they bear. Not quite 'last;' surely there will be readers to echo Henry Adams at his most Brahminic, confiding to us how badly he thought Sir Walter Scott had served another mediaeval master-

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piece, the Dies irae, by translating it into English verse. If this has been done in the green wood, what will be done in the dry? They will find me too free, my rhyming forced, my notes inadequate. Since they will be right, can any defense be offered? In this emergency, only a mediaeval ploy will serve, a sed contra, a text in the opposite sense, drawn from an author beyond cavil. G.K. Chesterton has written that 'what is worth doing at all is worth doing badly.' The fountain from which my whole fault flows is to have counted a translation of Godfrey's Fans philosophiae in isometric English worth doing, indeed, worth doing this badly.

Ill

DEDICATORY LETTER

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Epistle of Godfrey to the Abbot of Saint Genevieve of the Mount, Which is Also the Prologue of the Following Work To the Lord Stephen, Abbot of Mount Saint Genevieve, a man outstanding for every grace of virtue and of knowledge, Godfrey, a mere pauper of Christ, bespeaks the Highest Good! Father, I have directed that a brimming, mixed cup be submitted to your judgment, for indeed, whether it stand or fall is in your hands. Now it contains a mixture in two modes: by the variety, namely, both of matter and of craftsmanship. In fact, it is confected of diverse liquids and in a diversity of modes, for its first part is flowing, drop by drop, with water and wine together, whereas the second part, (flowing in like manner with blood and with the purest of the grape), serves up most pleasantly a feast of flesh-meat at the same time. Finally, the three remaining parts—for this chalice has five distinct sections—permeate the whole thing in double measure, one greater, one lesser. Even though these consist of inferior as well as of superior elements, they shine forth through a most subtle liquor; it gives an appearance of spirit rather than of body! What I am saying is rather obscure now, but later, from a diligent drinking of the chalice, this will be clearer. Perhaps, during that drinking, one may come upon something insipid to a delicate taste, even upon something bitter

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—not, of course, owing to the nature of the specific items, but owing to the inexperience of the craftsman. Still, I beg, let this lead no one to desist; no, let him drink and drink again—whatever your estimate of it may be—not in order that he might repair some lack (his own thirst), but that he might remove bitterness from the chalice itself and spice its insipidity, whether this be by pouring things that are sweeter into whatever bitter spots there may be, or by removing what is tasteless—or, if this seems rather what ought to be done, by over-turning the whole thing! If your choice should lean more to saving the whole thing, only the fact that in it I shall have discovered the spices of your correction will be for me proof of such great condescension.

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Introduction On the Source of Mechanical Art and Its Species

1-20 21-44

FIRST PART: ON THE SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS On On On On On On On On On On On On

the Source of Philosophy and Its Species . the Parts of Eloquence Those Who Study the Arts the Ancient Masters of the Grammatical Art the Ancient Masters of the Dialectical Art Plato the Megacosmos and the Microcosmos and the Archetypal World Modern Philosophers and First, On the Nominalists and the Realists the Masters of the Rhetorical Art Theoretical and Practical Arts the Quadrivium, or the Arts of Nature Practical Art and Its Masters

45-64 65-96 97-128 129-140 141-188 189-216 217-244 245-296 297-312 313-328 329-396 397-464

SECOND PART: ON THEOLOGICAL WISDOM ON THE SACRED PAGE IN GENERAL

465-496

On the City of God, or the Church On the Old Testament On the New Testament On the Doctors and Expositors of Sacred Scripture On Augustine, the Great Doctor On the Canons Regular How the Author Became a Canon Regular In What Regular Order of Life He Was Formed

497-548 549-612 613-664 665-700 701-740 741-752 753-768 769-836

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ON THE SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS

39

Introduction Night and my deep sleep as one reached their termination, Herald of the Day contrived shadows' extirpation; I leaped up without a clue, no anticipation: 4 What would come? I only had God's good inspiration. Out I go in dawning light at a new day-breaking; On myself the sacred sign of the Cross I'm making, For upon the Paraclete my whole weal I'm staking: 8 'Guide me, God, as you know best in each undertaking.' Therefore down a longish road I my way was wending, Guidance I had pleaded for Holy Spirit lending; Thirst began to grow in me, strength in labor spending 12 On the road, and by the heat of the sun ascending. Pain of thirst that grew still worse with each of my paces Lent enchantment to my view of some distant places Where the heights seemed marvelous— kind as friendly faces, 16 Lovely as is Paradise, burgeoning with graces. I was then on fire to see, and I ran more quickly, For signs promised ease from pain— thirst had made me sickly; Signs? Sweet sounds had struck my ears, hope had made them prickly, 20 Murmurs from a thousand streams (I'm not counting strictly).

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On the Source of Mechanical Art and Its Species Close I came through efforts dire, worthy of ascetics, But the plains at mountain-foot shattered all aesthetics For the font 'Mechanics' dubbed outraged dietetics: 24 It's filthy wrestling-school for frogs' crude athletics! From it many brimming streams their diverse ways wended For throughout the whole wide world their routes have extended; Though they're muddy, they seem sweet: to harm they're intended; 28 Bumpkins don't know that their stale poison can't be mended. Undiscriminating mob, for a drink applying, (None of them up to those heights capable of plying); Dread diseases from those streams rise, there's no denying, 32 Yet they all the sons of earth go right on supplying. Why had these all come to drink? They hope for salvation: Lips polluted gulp it down— too much, that potation! One is paralyzed and has no coordination, 36 Dropsy fells another whose skin reveals dilation. I was on my way to drink (this must be admitted), But my Guide, the Spirit, then any blame remitted: 'No, O no: elixir is from above emitted!' 40 Therefore, thirsty though I was, to drink I omitted. Still, I counted seven streams worthy of some mention; Of that font I noted this manifold extension; These names only I preserve— such was my intention— 44 For the rest, I paid their names not the least attention.

ON THE SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS

41

FIRST PART: ON THE SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS On the Source of Philosophy and Its Species Fountain clear from mountain peak, from the top is flowing, Nature made it in those days when things first were growing; Living, bubbling, gurgling spring, no lack ever showing, 48 Cascades down and through the plains from on high it's going. Though the water from this font sweet taste is displaying, It tastes not the same to all— here's something dismaying! He who faith cannot apply to the humblest saying, 52 Nectar now, then vinegar, seems to be assaying. Color too, this font has shown differentiated, This vein sprang from deepest depths, then was elevated; Red it shone, with golden glint— red, but aureated, 56 While the rest in silver-white brightly radiated. This font splits in double vein which, too, doubly surges, Reaches out like two great arms— thus its essence urges; Doubled, too, the natural effects that it merges: 60 'White' to voice gives much more point, 'red'to heart means purges. Note that both are equally from one font deriving, Yet through spaces disparate are their streams arriving; Currents just as varied too^— might suggest conniving! 64 This one quiet, that one loud— winds the waves are driving. On the Parts of Eloquence Two great bays unequally (one much less) are spreading; This broad bay, divided, through channels three is threading— Vulgar Latin gives a name: trivium that heading— 68 This access to eloquence all three ways is wedding.

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Of those three, the first a wide field is inundating, Flows straight to the level plain, gravity delating; This one, too, the tender shoots helps by irrigating, 72 This one's for the other veins richly fecundating. But the second goes through ground full of ambush-places; Through those rocks and stony groves no road has left traces, See: the channel of this branch— narrow, crooked spaces— 76 Makes the water rush with force: foaming on it races! Wantoning through pleasant leas, the third is less binding, Spring-like blooms not even one gardener is minding! Farther on, this river with scenic bends goes winding, 80 First they're slow, but then much more speed they will be finding. This, the noble trivium, widely celebrated, Far, yes, to the ends of earth has peregrinated; On its banks how many towns once were situated, 84 And the townsmen to high rank by it elevated. Righteous men the trivium made their destination, To the sky were borne on high by their reputation: Other cities gladly sought their good gubernation— 88 Now, poor devils, they're brought low, down to mendication! Socrates, your times were with great good fortune loaded! Sad the change that, in your day, never was foreboded— Gracious ruler of purged minds, lore that never goaded, 92 Eloquence lies prostate now: men think it's out-moded. Aristotle knew all this, solid was his learning; Now, unless he babbled Law, he would risk a spurning; 'Medical man,' 'theologue,' 'legal light bright-burning'— 96 Sophist fakery with me no high rank is earning!

ON THE SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS

43

On Those Who Study the Arts Many now sit down to drink, we see what's resulting: Adolescents with adults (age gets no indulting), Fools and wise men drink their meed (hope I'm not insulting), 100 Even though they do break ranks, order not consulting. No experience of things— how could order season Doings on the part of men who've no 'eye of Reason'? Truth, unseen, of course they miss— but, can this be treason 104 Unless tardy light should bring healing for their lesion? And, besides, they think all else to the taste is sweeter; 'First things first'? No, to the blind 'Second first' seems meeter! Clods! They really miss the point: semblance is a cheater— 108 Baseless structures soon fall down— this is hardly neater! From the diverse ends of earth (j us t to put it tersely), All have come to study—yes, but they're drawn diversely: By caprice, by water's love, learning draws conversely— 112 This one's parched, but that one's not— they react perversely. There's no call for wonder if order's in confusion Who would trust a sack that's rent with his goods' inclusion? Would he not deserve to face, in the end, delusion 116 If he thinks the trivium a useless illusion? Ruling over these is done by men zeal has driven; By the gracious cup each drinks of most faults he's shriven; 'Share the wealth in turn' is the goal for which they've striven120 Well they know they nothing hold except what was given. High on thrones they proffer cups, men of vigor vernal, But so old their memory's truly 'sempiternal'— With them, moderns too whose fame is not just diurnal; 124 Satiated they are with grace we call 'supernal.'

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Shut or open water-gates are not adventitious: That some boor should sully grace would be inauspicious! Whereas, to the worthy they give a cup delicious; 128 Records show these men are not at all avaricious. On the Ancient Masters of the Grammatical Art Here's Donatus on the first river bank presiding; Close-ranked boys against his side eagerly colliding, For he fills their gaping mouths, milky drinks providing; 132 From his cane faults frequently earn them a good hiding. Just across the way from him sits a man named Priscian; Appolonius joins up for an admonition With Herodianus who says: 'No opposition; 136 Clasp hands with Donatus, else— useless competition!' A long file of masters near, you might say 'assessors,' Many more disciples who• will be their successors; Some dive deep in learnings' depths, as befits professors— 140 Lips that merely skim will make minimal possessors.

On the Ancient Masters of the Dialectical Art In the second art is great Aristotle knowing; He distributes and controls waves the wind is blowing— Who but he sounds river-depths, to the bottom going? 144 Gives to each the cup he earns, filled to over-flowing? Cocktails he knows how to mix, each a tricky potion: One sip gives a scholar young lore to fill an ocean! From one, too, a head of steam sets sharp brawls in motion; 148 Dialectic gives a fool any crazy notion.

ON THE SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS

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Like a sword that, in itself, precious must be rated, Wisely used, this art with fruit surely will be mated; But, suppose the man who draws is infuriated? 152 He and all around him bleed— why, the thing is fated. Marvelous the drinks he makes (we were just now saying), Does a bit of teaching while teaching tricks displaying; Here, a disputation where he both parts is playing, 156 There, a refutation of others he is slaying. For this fighter loves a foe worthy of his mettle, (Cups aside, a dolt will not even win a kettle!) But he does his fighting with foemen in fine fettle, 160 Tries his best to get recruits who for fighting settle. Training strong recruits for war he takes as his mission; Preparation for that fray? Skill, not intuition! Some he makes a present of swords for 'opposition,' 164 All the rest 'responding' with shields held in position. Now he gives out shirts of mail, chests well-clad are heaving, Reasons of the firmest kind: syllogisms weaving; Simple propositions three ? Truth they save from thieving— 168 Hypothetical ones too; no gap is he leaving. Adds, from raw material, to these arms defensive, Perihermeneias darts, good for the offensive, Analytic treatises, weapons for the pensive, 172 Topics, too, he makes from wood: armament extensive! Here you could see various sights for the war-lover: Shining, flashing, unsheathed swords, darts the ranks to smother; Give and take, hard blows they trade, hit out at each other— 176 Victors get come-uppance when victims soon recover!

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To the founts cleared Porphyry roads Preparatory, Aristotle helped, of course, with each Category; Still, unless you walk with care down a path so gory, 180 My fear is you'll wander off— butt of that old story. There one single sort can walk, people of election, Men marked by sure-footed gait, hearts that stand inspection; Out with all the other kinds! For them all: rejection! 184 Aristotle offers arms— they spurn that protection. Even if those weaklings should have slipped in for arming, Armor of Achilles? Well— Patroclus was 'charming'... Hopeless, truly, are the weak, really, it's alarming— 188 Matching what can never fit always ends by harming. On Plato Plato, who sits opposite, rightly venerated, Has a throne above the rest highly elevated; To his handsome countenance his heart is equated, 192 But his eye for earth is less strictly calibrated. No one could more closely scan Nature's lofty flowing; From high walls he gazes on what her clear light's showing, Holds, as in his hands, the sphere of the world that's going 196 Round her axis (to bent rods circle-shape is owing). Circles parallel are seen— the whole world is rounded, But by 'seen' you know we mean what's 'ideally' grounded; On those five conviction of equal spaces founded— 200 Thus by these as many zones custom counts as bounded. Colure signs now here appear, lines that are transverses: 'Equinoctial,' 'tropical'— where the sun reverses— Through the poles, which number two (theory rehearses), 204 Twice each subdividing goes and the rest traverses.

ON THE SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS

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Besides these the Zodiac, path, in lore official, For the planets, 'ideal' too, though not artificial; Well, it bends right to the ends, at both points solsticial 208 Of the equinoctial band— highroad beneficial. The Horizon always is vistas terminating; Should we stand on level plane, easy estimating; One in Nature? Yes, of course, but perambulating 212 Means you will need many more— Reason's postulating. Still one circle's undescribed— looks like dereliction! This the only one that's not just an 'ideal' fiction; Notable its lightsome white, milky its depiction, 216 Hence we call it 'Galaxy' (Greek, this learned diction).

On the Megacosmos and the Microcosmos and the Archetypal World Megacosmos, 'greater orb,' this man is inspecting, Microcosmos, too, he scans, the large world reflecting; Sees the common source of both: Archetype connecting, 220 Hence is he to things divine his clear sight directing. Sees Ideas in Mind divine, (not that he harasses), He seeks for eternal grounds— 'general' those classes; Under them, some 'special' ones order all things' masses, 224 Thus to the Exemplars he rationally passes. Sensibles, he holds, are not the true Forms' location, So he thinks that when these change Forms escape mutation; Planets slow the Firmament, slow it by gradation, 228 Sun rays to the moon, he proves, lend illumination. 'No! In things those classes fit!' (It's the other fighting), 'Things above all move as one'— If you grant his sighting; 'Moon begs not her shine from sun— she does her own lighting'— 232 Here's a lawsuit that still needs some judicious righting.

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Baffled sits Boethius at this competition; Hears what this and that one says, each with erudition, But, which one has scored the points still escapes his vision; 236 No presumptuous judge is he, so—no firm decision! Still, he did his best for both, neither one insulted; Aristotle stole his sleep— here is what resulted: He assigns all Logic's rights, to this he's indulted, 240 But on Nature Plato's the man to be consulted. With Macrobius must be Martianus reckoned, 'African' the first likes best, Mercury the second; Hands and eyes on high they raise— knowables are beckoned, 244 Right across the world it's clear that their move was fecund.

On Modern Philosophers And First, On the Nominalists and the Realists 'Nominalist' friends join these (they themselves admitting!) Friends 'in name,' but not 'in thought'— such the bonds they're knitting Others they call 'realists' closer yet are sitting; 248 What is real their name supplies— here is how it's fitting: If to 'guilts,' reatibus, (terms deriving lamely), We should trace realium, ('realists, of namely), We must all their slips remit, though they reason vainly— 252 Clash with Mind is normal for those who think insanely. He who some mere name a class general is deeming Gives by this sufficient proof that his brain is steaming; World with classes multiple obviously teeming, 256 How bare names could fill the bill goes beyond all dreaming! Many other sects from things take their inspiration; Derive 'real' from 'guilt' there too? Safe this derivation! They're the ones who from the true path show deviation, 260 Nor from gracious rivers seek thirst's alleviation.

ON THE SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS

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Some with spice from Poitiers make their preparations: Classes general they think self-subordinations! Categories ten? For them— triple predications! 264 Upside down they turn the old rational foundations. Otherwise, but equally, does Alberic blunder; If, like Socrates, he's poor, he's no mental wonder! Although Death is greedy to make man's life his plunder 268 Death's too slow this one from his crazy ways to sunder. Robert's ever docile crowds cling to stone-peak sprily; Hard as rock or steel are they— Guess what they prize highly: Rain or dew doctrinal? No! So they bleach there drily; 272 Dikes of pebbles block the stream: they think this is wily. 'Fight for false, let Truth go hang!' cry those crowds unruly, Even though, when all is done, they must go—yes, truly, From bare names they tried to make 'thousands' spring up newly; 276 Therefore, to count them as naught does not gripe unduly. Some a bridge with their own hands put in place on piling; Thanks to this, across the flood, all with ease are filing; And on it each one a house for himself is tiling— 280 'Bridge-men' is the name they get from this domiciling. Suitable both the design and the stuff they're hauling: Squared-off stones, a yard on edge, shaped by masons' mauling; Columns bronze, that stand on these, ruin are forestalling: 284 Tremors never make them shake, much less threaten falling. Shiny, smooth, well-polished work, pavement decorated, Signs with silver or with gold generously plated, By guard-rails projecting sides all are terminated: 288 Peril for the untaught crowd is not tolerated.

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Then, too, in its debates-rooms, views they're summarizing, River bottom's open to careful scrutinizing; Some take joy in ogling swimmers exercising, 292 Who, in turn, the hot sun's burn thus are exorcizing. Here sit venerated men (who, in fact, are older), Of full marks for life and thought each an honored holder; Crowds of simple people they teach—what could be bolder? 296 Happy is the populace with this type of molder! On the Masters of the Rhetorical Art At the River Rhetoric, in first place, sits Tully; No bare spots his flower-strewn meadow seem to sully, Easy access by his books— not one written dully— 300 He brings in all other lore, joining dutifully. Potent staff his sway has made very elongated: In five sections clearly marked, differentiated; Glittering all over with hues variegated; 304 Dead by it called back to life! Bad men castigated! Aristotle here is near (don't blame me for 'Greeking' Since this Latin from that Greek learned the art of speaking): In, too, creeps Hermagoras— from his work he's peeking!— 308 Tully thinks this stowaway true art is not seeking. Into 'rhetors,' 'orators,' all these bear partition; Though less prompt, still we must grant rhetors erudition; Vigorous and fond of war, all in top condition, 312 Minds mature, their lips are trimmed as by circumcision.

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On Theoretical and Practical Arts Of the two, the second arm (to be arithmetic— We've already set them off in a way hermetic), Upward strives to deal with all questions theoretic; 316 Down to practical the first— it's less esoteric. Quietly that higher one, where we're now arriving, Waters pure through secret beds silently is driving; Earth is spurned and from above energy deriving 320 It surpasses heaven's bounds, bountifully striving. Hence Theology on high her head rightly carries; She along her higher road to God never tarries; No one but a celibate all resistance parries: 324 Rare, indeed, is the man who lore with Wisdom marries! Her right to first dignity thus is consecrated; From the base curriculum she is separated; In line with capacity, justly are donated 328 All the rest, but to the best she is allocated.

On the Quadrivium, or the Arts of Nature What's left to the globe of earth their attention urging, High or low, no matter what, in one study merging, Now go down beneath the ground, profoundly submerging, 332 None of Nature can escape— - See: now they're emerging! All that Nature had concealed goes on exhibition; They dive down with watchful care, with no inhibition: Why does Phoebus throw out rays? . Phoebe—why attrition? 336 Why should Sea draw back in fear? Earth's firm—why fremition?

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Through their midst Mathematic's brook vagrantly goes streaming, Mixed with water from the rest, helpfully it's teeming; Mingled waters through broad fields playfully are gleaming, 340 Their course through a thousand shapes, twisting channels reaming. Might have guessed this river is twice two branches sending, Which the crowd quadrivium as a name is lending— (Latin term)—those disciplines in one group is blending 344 For they're fused right from start, just as in their ending. At their source a basin forms in which pebbles nestle: Murmurs rise as waters flow, twirl them, even wrestle, In such wise that if you try to fill up a vessel, 348 You'll draw pebbles with your drink— mortar set for pestle! Sitting on that bank there's a varied delegation: Computists play pebble-games based on computation; Algorists by sets, by twos, do multiplication; 352 Loan-chest men count interest rates' accumulation. More profound, the second art (still a calculator), Glides along with melody, but with one that's later: To the man who has good taste, a sweet stimulator, 356 Of the Cosmos' harmonies a true imitator! Disparate, but consonant, tones' eventuation: Half-tones bland cut deeper tones— sweet extenuation! Though these are proportional in their fluctuation, 360 Nothing matches Nature's way: living modulation. There 'fifths' in a three-two way, sequentially sounding, 'Fourths' in sevens (four to three) harmonies are rounding; Thanks to 'doubles,' down the scale rapidly you're bounding, 364 Mildness thence to savage hearts tunefully redounding!

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Harpists sit and sing to strings— for the beat they're caring; Those who hear and mind it are graceful in their bearing; Satyr chorus boys who dance, comics, too, are daring: 368 Graver the tragedians, who high boots are wearing. The third over hill and dale, never stopping, races— Measures anything you like: height, length, or flat places; It's investigating too all the cosmic spaces; 372 Human diligence ignores none of Nature's faces. Pictures in the sand you see? Not one like another; By those lines, just infinite, we can now recover Circles, triangles, and squares, distinct from each other; 376 By them men all measurements skilfully discover. Some look into limits of circles and the cases Of lines' ambits and of what with them interlaces; By frontiering flooded fields old Egyptian aces 380 Showed they knew the magnitudes of quite awkward places. The fourth a sweep circular tumbles through in scanning— Now it runs along with Earth (vantage-points it's manning); Now through solar orbit walks, observations planning; 384 Planetary promenades never thinks of banning! Of the streams quadrivial greatest is this rated; With the waters of the rest she is hardly sated; Glitters crystalline from sky's face variegated— 388 Shines as do fixed lights by which the sky is stellated. Many people sitting here, at this stream collected, Have with light that does not fail heaven's light inspected; While the light of their keen eyes on high is directed, 392 Heaven, wheeling, is the goal Reason has selected.

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Take one sip and secret things, future things, it's baring, (Closed to most, the choice of those who know has been sparing): Joy to souls who heaven watch with sufficient daring! 396 Even more to those who for a home there are caring!

On Practical Art and Its Masters Next the stream of Practice which Through three channels waters the Who would go drink deeply there 400 Find he walks the straight line of That Who Who 404 Who

that font has created, plain that's irrigated; will, with heart elated, morals elevated.

straight path of Probity a man is electing for his own life the best morals is selecting, his household on that same standard is correcting, walks first the Way he shows people he's subjecting.

Here's a group of ancient men life could never scatter; Moral probity's their strength (please don't think we flatter); Socrates, the best of all, on each moral matter 408 Others taught by life his words were not idle chatter. Nearer to these times we should make approximation? Seneca? What shall I say? His documentation To Lucilius has made such recommendation 412 As would hardly water down Gospel proclamation! Others who sit down here too, probity will render Heads of Churches, Guides of souls— (no immoral vender!) Territories secular Princes, too, engender; 416 Care of Nations to such men Virtue's glad to tender. Therefore, is that single font all streams energizing, As we said it's from one mount that they are arising; Going up, I reached a bridge, stood there, realizing 420 My Guide's leadership for me all grace was comprising.

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Wisdom's love gave birth to thirst (Wisdom's no elective!) Journeying just made it worse— and that's not invective! Then the Spirit cast on me a glance retrospective 424 And I found His cup of grace wondrously refective. No cup of that river did I think fit for spurning, Rather, for the font's full flow my desire was burning; 'First things first' meant I observed order true of learning, 428 (Thus my Guide had cautioned me when He made that turning.) From the trivium I learned— first ramification— Letters, syllables, discourse, got a sound formation, Proper speech, or tropical, (sorts of declamation), 432 And the faults to be eschewed in a good oration. By the second I was to Way of Truth alerted: 'Places,' 'rules,' and 'arguments,' 'questions' controverted; By what methods falsity ought to be averted, 436 From 'sophisms' garden paths we can be diverted! The third river has effects which are quite astounding: Thence to me a grown man's heart and speech were redounding; Former hayseed talk now with elegance abounding— 440 'Just' and 'useful,' 'honest,' too— all these I was sounding. Down to Wisdom's studies I from the first was sitting; Sipping the quadrivium, I was far from quitting! Even though from its first branch I was quickly flitting— 444 Still, I'd filled my basin with pebbles, as is fitting. If for tarrying at the second I'm delated, I admit that I was held by sounds modulated; There, experience has shown— let it be probated! 448 Souls in Music's melody surely were created.

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the fountain of philosophyphilosophyyy

When of the third river I was investigator, I learned Earth equals six Moons! (trust the estimator!) Whereas Sun wins eight to one, (said my educator); 452 Such the things they teach to each subtle calculator. As from river number four I was deeply drinking, Planets veered across the sky, rising and then sinking, Offering a mystery on which I kept thinking— 456 Tried my best myself with them to effect a linking. Man a microcosm then, a small world remaining, Like a planet, his flesh is vagrant paths maintaining; Spirit wars against the flesh, guardian's role sustaining, 460 For the ambit of the flesh calls for much restraining. Here, then, when of Physics I reached the waters spacious, Drank in hidden causes there, none of them mendacious, Still, I was not finished yet: art, however gracious, 464 And discovery are long— Life's short, tests fallacious !

SECOND PART: ON THEOLOGICAL WISDOM ON THE SACRED PAGE IN GENERAL Finally I reached the top 'philosophically,' Namely, turned to Wisdom then 'theologically;' Once I had foretaste divine, I said, (basically 468 Like a toper), 'To these cups— no end, practically! On this single draught shall I be inebriated, While I live, I'll never be thence eradicated! To this goal my thirst and life now are dedicated, 472 Till on heaven's height I'll be fully satiated.'

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Down to us from there on high, flowing bountifully, Lest wayfarers die too soon, walking sorrowfully, This viaticum fatigue eases mercifully; 476 Here I am refreshed by it— satisfied there fully. Very Now Now 480 Now

various this wave: four modes it's comprising; it's patent, now profound, varied its devising; more gracious to the taste, sweetness emphasizing; it flows back up the hill whence it is arising!

Easily of HISTORY we can be persuaded; ALLEGORY'S drowning tide— hard to be evaded! By MORALITY'S good taste and use we are aided; 484 ANAGOGY with this Earth scornfully is jaded. Here I marveled at how clear Practical Art's seeming: Liquids with all others mix, in true friendship streaming; Though in all the rest they boil, turbulently steaming, 488 Here they are more lucid than glass through which light's gleaming. That is, celibates who make virtue their ambition; They're the kind who any kind (note the repetition!) Of vice hold in horror and this brook for nutrition 492 Is quite safe, since they of mud wrought the abolition. ETHICS suffers no hint of sordid peculation— A good man has nothing of moral alienation; HOUSEHOLD RULE lets nothing harm human habitation; 496 Of a good Prince POLITICS gives a demonstration.

On the City of God, or the Church At this river-bed is a City situated, Blessed town, Jerusalem, widely celebrated; City built of living stones, City animated! 500 Girt with noble mound and walls strongly crenellated.

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With those walls and towered halls, truly beautifying, Open squares with marble and with gold now are vying; Spikes and pearls the glitter of her gates multiplying, 504 Well-shaped stones uncounted in even courses lying! Founded on a Corner-stone, structure safe from reeling, Marvelous the novelty that she is revealing: Wheel-like, a revolving square— square, yes, but still wheeling! 508 Neither art nor Nature's this paradox unsealing! Only Grace is up to it, and, of course, His power In Whom Good and Majesty over all things tower; Who has strength no force can break, in no want He'll cower, 512 Will no storms becloud as if sky before a shower! Just and pious, also strong, is this City's Rector; Of the merits of each one, provident inspector; Father of the citizens, of their faith, director; 516 Hostile raids dismayed will be by that strong protector. In her there are Princes, too, worthy of laudation; Well-born fathers, well-born sons— noble generation! Rich in things of spirit, they bear vituperation: 520 May a place beside them be my remuneration ! All the people of this town widely are selected: Races quite diversified into one collected; Morals high, life unalloyed, no fault uncorrected, 524 Thanks to all of Wisdom's store, they have been perfected. Through the City's midst a stream marks a separation; Makes no noise, no, its effect is vivification— No disease for which it's not the best medication— 528 Why, of Death itself this is total confutation!

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If, by chance, it happen that some one here is dying, Owing to a pestilence over the town lying, Any man who for a time this specific's trying, 532 Revives to a better life— all his ills go flying! Here no one completely dead to stay is availing, For, if dying he should be forth his soul exhaling, Either back his spirit comes, warmth of life prevailing, 536 Or his corpse a dinner for the crows is entailing. Riverside is the scene of even-handed sessions: Ancient people on one bank withdraw in secession, Opposite, the younger ones match that old recession; 540 Flowing water through their midst offers intercession. Fourfold is that flowing stream and, as we were saying, HISTORY the major role for the old rite's playing; To the other, on that score, victory is swaying, 544 For with us the threefold way heavier is weighing. Hence, and thence, one City is composed by elision: Tongue and people—they're the same, really no collision; For one King they both campaign, one faith, without fission, 548 Though their rites diverse have made long-standing division. On the Old Testament There, if you those ancient rites are far from disdaining, Feast of Booths and of New Moons you could see remaining; You will miss the Temple that victims was containing, 552 Blood of slaughtered animals altar-base there staining. Hiss and steam on iron grates inner parts of cattle, Altars reek of goatish guts, like the scent of battle, Dripping fat melts over fires, the utensils rattle, 556 Courts shine with the glints that of eating-houses tattle.

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Priest, an executioner, is no drover whipping-— No, he fells the ox with axe, knife in throats he's slipping; Much as in a butcher-shop, slitted bodies dripping— 560 From the tender new-born babe he's the foreskin snipping! 'Are there any more?' you ask (I'm interrogated), 'Yes, to them were many rites then appropriated So that, to external use well-habituated, 564 The by-ways of mystery might be cultivated.' This part has a numerous, a large population, With great men whose power reins their wild agitation: Patriarch, Judge, Prophet, King— what administration! 568 But the Lord is missing there— and so is elation. In the forefront of this part Moses is presiding; Water-jars that number five mountain-top's providing Beverage that from a font, down from there, is gliding; 572 He now proffers to those who freely take his guiding. Josue sits alongside, Judges, too, appointed To hold power over those to whom we have pointed; Close beside the Judges rule— watch, now, it's disjointed— 576 Not the whole, but just this part, Kings who've been anointed. Sitting with aristocrats, a bit elevated, Are two Kings, first of their rank, very celebrated; One the father, one the son, both vaticinated, 580 With high morals high estate both have decorated. David, son of Solomon, David first is sending River-water in a cup, to us he's extending, Than which none could sweeter be— (I am not pretending); 584 He refreshes all the race, as he was intending.

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Drink it, drink it yet again, have no hesitation; Never emptied is the cup, no regurgitation; Never tiresome, not the tenth, self-same iteration; 588 Repetition of this drink just means renovation. Wisdom in her very self, in three small jugs resting, Wise old Solomon provides, it survives all testing; Peoples, races, all can be refreshed by ingesting 592 This, because it's food and drink— mixture interesting! Judges were among the rest, and there were some others Who were Kings; one single cup readers' search discovers; By its one cup the Bench too parity recovers; 596 Each group for the man who asks its full cup uncovers. High priests sit mixed in with these, close association, Aaron along with his sons or some near relation Such as nephew, prophets too, who, for your potation, 600 Hold out cups and freely give you an invitation. Four of them, Isaias first, merit benediction: Jeremias, Daniel, experts at prediction, And Ezechiel before twelve who mix no fiction 604 With prophetic Ways of Truth— that's the Church conviction. Satan's tempting holy Job, Job's a patient sitter; Much afflicted, still he holds a cup that is bitter, Bears with joy hard blows from his diabolic hitter; 608 But the Lord gives help to him— see his halo glitter! Esdras, a wise scribe, the cup of each one re-filling Thus reverses a bad job, for they all were spilling! Renews all the Writings which perverse men were willing 612 To disperse most wickedly— yes, the Bible killing!

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On the New Testament This side of the river there's not a trace remaining Of a victim, bleeding still, undried blood still raining; Only beauty, she alone, here is fit for reigning— 616 Holiness befits the Lord to be with us deigning. Holy, stainless, innocent, (purity we're stressing), Altar-side a wedge of priests piously is pressing; Bread and wine they consecrate— such is heaven's blessing: 620 Order of Melchisedech God is still confessing! On the altar of the heart God is now placated: Some vice dies? It's better than a she-goat oblated; Innocence preserved from stain?— sheep are immolated; 624 A good work performed, perhaps?— with an ox equated. God so loves such celibates, the way they conducted Their lives, that in their midst He a king's hall constructed For himself and bodily, in this way, instructed 628 All of us: He's one with us— not to be abducted. Mother of the Son, a Queen, Father's daughter, standing At the King's right hand, from us reverence demanding, Face unique, aspect divine, Loyalty commanding; 632 Tender body, dove-like mind her one person banding. By a legion, very large, the King is protected: Soldiers at His agony 'Hands off!' were directed, But around her, like a crown, virgins have reflected 636 Queen's praise in a canticle that's newly confected. Some come closer to the stream (we-need never flatter Men who to the Truth a path studiously batter); They find nothing pleasant in any worldly matter— 640 Press of business their gaze would most surely scatter.

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First, the four evangelists, evidence supplying By their writings, to you Christ, gladly testifying; They bear vessels which this stream is now fructifying: 644 On them the militia-men for drinks are relying. Matthew first the origins of Christ is presenting; Through Mark we're to more than one mystery assenting; Rise with Luke above the earth, never once resenting 648 That we cannot follow John— seer unrelenting! Here he had the measure of one jar made donation, No less care he expends on a great augmentation, For to him the Spirit gave frequent Revelation, 652 Both of things now past and of future expectation. Yet a third he helps to fill: with his help it's brimming, A sweet draught, a pleasant cup, as we have been hymning; Peter, Jude, and James deserve of their fame no trimming— 656 Still, of him the study means

work till eyes are dimming!

Luke's another who two jars carrying now passes; You, Theophilus, with saints offering he classes; Acts of the Apostles gives to the world's great masses: 660 He shows Paul a friend of Christ, whom old Saul harasses. Paul, too, proffers a full jar, Stubbornness, disease, or pox His calm talk of mystic things 664 With the bridle of the Word

measure never waning; some poor man is paining? victory is gaining— all vice he's restraining.

On the Doctors and Expositors of Sacred Scripture Some men who are strenuous, earning veneration, By a bridge through the stream's midst (a worth-while creation) Took care that all men could cross— hence their operation: 668 Pontifex from pons and fac— 'pontiffs' derivation.

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All of them nearby have their private dwellings lying And their thrones, arranged by rank (merit this supplying); Now the people to their feet for their lore applying— 672 You will think there's but one rite: two in one it's tying! Through them a once savage race in fame was increasing, Through them from the river depths, on the table, ceasing To hide, and those murky clouds are not now displeasing— 676 By their labors and expense drain on us decreasing. Those bridge-builders need indeed much enumeration; Be hard pressed to find the men for that computation! Besides, it would mean delay— no procrastination!— 680 We'll just name the better ones in a brief notation. Gregory the bridge-head holds; Of the fact that Job seems near— And since with the ancients him 684 Here it often happens that from

let there be no blinking that's what all are thinking; we've a way of linking, his jar we're drinking.

He draws with his very hands (precious this infusion), Dew the holy Pontiff gives: Use without confusion! Since the jar is rather small for such an inclusion, 688 It's a marvel that a sea floods from its effusion. Ambrose has a throne that's marked by its elevation; He's a first rank Magistrate, held in veneration; Best in morals, eloquence, and signification: 692 All the river-depths must yield to his exploration. Jerome too a lofty throne certainly is rating And a jostling crowd of monks to him is relating; Pontiff? Though, judged by his rank, that name we're negating, 696 By worth in pontificate he's participating.

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Though to many matters he his great mind was turning, For one more than all the rest he was really yearning: In some other, tip a jar, soon as he was learning; 700 For this, like Eustochium, Paula too was burning.

On Augustine, the Great Doctor See Augustine on the arch of that bridge presiding, Holiness in name and fact truly coinciding; In his knowledge equally we are all confiding: 704 From this scout not even one river-bend is hiding. He possesses quantities of a draught delicious, Water jars that brim with it, varied and nutritious; More than neighbors from these banks are to drink ambitious 708 And he sends it far and wide, to all men auspicious. Thence, to those who need it most, flows forth education; Thence, to those completely dull, mental medication; Thence, to those whose spirits flag, he gives consolation; 712 Thence, to those who make the grade, fitting exhortation! Thence, no matter what you ask, answers are not 'pending;' Questions to be solved by him never were unending! Thence, with souls who merit well, virtue's garden tending, 716 He shares joys consummated, inner sweetness lending. Thence, he rails at rebel breed, calls back those perverted, Lifts up all whom heresy or schism has subverted; Makes secure the waverers, recently converted; 720 Everyone must watch his step: we have been alerted! Thence, examples—how to live— (words will help on knowing: Life won't hurt the man who gives his words what is owing); Yes, he will take care of us, leader as we're going, 724 Comrade as we ply that road, true life he is showing!

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To him flow the lot of us, clergy, lay, together: Everyone who wants to learn the 'why' and the 'whether' Of his state in life; and wealth? It weighs like a feather! 728 Common goods exactly list, yours with justice tether. Laymen learn that everyone yearning to be holy Must hold fast to continence: no one drops it wholly; Though the husband rules the roost, marriage is not solely 732 For the joy his wife can give— true, her rank is lowly. This the public road for us: 'What God has commanded,' 'Public' because common to all from doom remanded; Other men on counsels' road, stricter much, have landed, 736 Pathway of the generous, for perfection banded. Some, of course, that public road travel well-contented; Chary of the other path, from it they're absented, And they walk on one they think better documented; 740 Models they could never match, their pace so relented.

On the Canons Regular But, by great examples some, all on fire are burning; Faultless do they walk that path, never miss a turning, Never wander from the Rule of the norm they're yearning 744 To fulfill as faithful sons, from their Father learning. 'Canons Regular' they're called, holy life constructed; In that salutary Rule they have been instructed: Peers by habit, gestures, food, life by vows conducted, 748 All is common—nothing for private use deducted. Now they cleric's role fulfill by the recitation Of the Office, now their hands find much occupation, Now their Father's cups they seek, make their application 752 For a drink their spirits need, a desired potation.

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How the Author Became a Canon Regular To this place the Spirit me finally deflected, Brought me here as if I were specially elected; Here is where, with light of grace, brilliantly reflected, 756 And with ever better cups I have been refected. True, the Master's eloquence (are such motives shaming?) The assessors' probity, ministers' skilled aiming— None of which had any air of what is defaming— 760 Meant that by their bridle's noose I was ripe for taming! Here the very face of things compelled my attention Prone here at the Master's feet, learning my intention; Such, however, were the things of which he made mention 764 That they forced me to myself, to my own retention. When first raptured, then I'd been really alienated, For from those streams I had reeled well inebriated; This sip brought me to myself, anew, re-created, 768 The repair of my old state thus inaugurated.

In What Regular Order of Life He Was Formed First, the drinks of ETHICS flowed, they were my first potions; From my mind there slipped away all my childish motions; In my clothes and body too, by external lotions, 772 I was totally re-formed by wondrous new notions. Strident, restless, was my tongue, given to invective Not long since, but now it's stilled— this drink was effective! Strong the forces of my soul, although then defective, 776 Body that' was erring aimed at a goal selective.

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With devotion (quite enough), of these my potation, (Though they're worth repeated sips, drinks without cessation), Still, for other things my mind blazed in conflagration, 780 Reverently toasted my naturalization! Then was I nectar divine, in anticipation, Tasting, but, along with this came excruciation: Here, alas, I never can drink to satiation— 784 That remains the ultimate, very last collation. In DIVINITY this drink, all the rest preceding, Prompt in use, from intellect ever is receding, Nor within my mind's embrace this truth was I leading: 788 Namely, that 'One God is Three,' 'triune,' as we're reading. This into my gaping throat poured without remission And with my best efforts I essayed its glutition; Reason failed to do the job, despite erudition, 792 Till Faith came with all her train aligned in position. 'Father's Wisdom is the Son' with that truth is vying; Here, again, where Reason fails, Faith is ratifying; The Begotten gets His Sire? This we are denying, 796 Lest thus on that Being we should be falsifying. Still and all, the Spirit is love, One for Another, For of Both it's true to say that Each loves the Other; Through the Spirit, neither One (as we soon discover) 800 Is the Other, though love's the Essence we uncover! By these difficulties and by some others broken, To my measure small was I with no option woken: Back to studies median! Of which we have spoken, 804 Lest 'the beast that touched divine' be stoned as a token!

ON THEOLOGICAL WISDOM

Meanwhile, very human quests I was entertaining, Where what's true is not always beyond ascertaining, Although, on the proper road not all are remaining: 808 Inexpert, they wander off, caution not maintaining. Here of humans I then learned the mode of Creation, All about the Fall and the grace of Restoration, What goods 'to enjoy' might be man's orientation, 812 (Meanwhile he can 'use' the things that are God's donation). By a fault, the best of these— Paradise—we're losing; Hateful, wicked Enemy: his lies man was choosing! Exile never could reach home had not God been musing 816 How His mercy He might be with man's weakness fusing. Soon as I could grasp this grace by my cogitation, Much soul-searching led me to total dedication, For I was astonished by such an operation: 820 Shepherd vowed Himself to death for the sheep's salvation! Since the Form of God with this could not be acquainted, What a thing! Man He becomes— penalty is painted On the Innocent as if He with guilt were tainted! 824 He restored the hope we'd lost: now we can be sainted. Who has ever heard the like? Something with this vying? Maker dies lest what He made should itself be dying! The Destroyer's empire too, into pieces flying— 828 To Destroyer, perishing, ruin is replying! In humanity God willed (Deity, no fable!) That in Deity it would to do this be able; Only by the Will of God could we ever label 832 'Fitting' this, or 'in man's scope'— if He'd it enable.

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Much about this God-Man then (or, on God) receiving, I drank in, within my heart a deep thirst relieving; No good to lie hidden there: if some way achieving, 836 I shall publish these things to all who'll be believing.

V

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NOTES

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4 Godfrey's first expression of his confidence that in pursuing learning he was responding to a divine impulse: Sacris duct us monitis et instinetu Dei. 20 'I'm not counting strictly,' literally 'nearly a thousand,' Murmure dulcisono riui mi lie fere; cf. 275; for a more nuanced view of the mechanical arts, in which Godfrey distinguished between their use and abuse, see his Microcosmos, ch. 55-57, ed. cit. pp. 73, 74; there he listed seven mechanical arts: armament production, commerce, agriculture, building, wool production, hunting, and medicine. 29-32 First appearance of Godfrey's elitism, fully in the tradition of Greek philosophy and its disdain for the 'many,' possibly also an echo of Gen. 6:1-2; but Godfrey had another side, see 288, 295, 296. 41 The seven 'liberal arts' are those held by the ancients to have been suitable for the free man, liber, as opposed to the 'servile arts' suitable for slaves or serfs, servi; Godfrey presents the standard schematization of these in the 'threefold way,' trivium, of the arts of discourse, sermocinales, grammar, dialectic, and rhetoric, followed by the 'fourfold,' quadrivium, of the arts that bear on things, reales, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. The Middle Ages maintained this tradition from Classical times and found the term quadrivium in the pseudo-Boethian (Nicomachus of Gerasa?) De arithmetica, PL 63.1079 D; the universities were to institutionalize these disciplines, along with the 'three philosophies,' in a faculty of arts and would require 'inception in arts' before admission to the advanced faculties of theology, law, or medicine; on this tradition see H.I. MARROU, A History of Education in Antiquity, tr. George Lamb (New York 1956). 45-64 See Microcosmos, ch. 65, 66, 73, ed. cit. pp. 80-81, 85-87, where the editor has identified numerous terms and phrases from the Fans philosophiae embedded in the more extensive and less cryptic text of the later, prose work. 51-52 Godfrey was categoric in his assertion that humanistic studies must be permeated by faith: I mo dicto nequens adhibere fidem Nunc ace turn uisus est, ut nectar eidem. 53-60 Common mediaeval conviction that there is an intimate connection between intellectual and moral deficiencies and thus, a connection in their amelioration : the liberal arts were seen as contributing to moral as well as to intellectual excellence.

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65-80 The goal of the trivium, grammar 69-72, dialectic 73-76, rhetoric 77-80, was to produce the eloquent and moral man of affairs, the bonus orator; cf. Microcosmos, ch. 74, ed. cit. pp. 87-88. 89-92 Godfrey seems to have forgotten the Athenian sin against philosophy. 95 Godfrey did not admire self-styled 'experts' in theology, medicine, or law, who had skipped over the liberal arts; in this he saw Aristotle as an ally; cf. 305-306. 97-108

Standard complaint against immature students and their riotous life-style.

102-104 Platonic-Augustinian conception of the 'eye of the mind' (Republicl, 519 B, 533 D etc., De libero arbitrio 2.12.33-2.15.39 etc.) that 'sees' the 'really real,' invisible to the 'eye of flesh;' Godfrey's ironic, even scornful 'excuse' for those who neglect the trivium will be matched by the one he provides for the errors of 'realist' dialecticians, 251-252. 106 Godfrey more than once adverts to the importance of taking the fundamental disciplines in the correct order; cf. 427-428, 765-780. 109-116 trivium.

The mixed motives of scholars compounds their guilt in despising the

114 Godfrey's Latin, Quis in saccum proiicit aliquid pertusum, echoes Aggeus 1:6 in the Vulgate version, for which he will (697-700) praise Jerome: ...et qui mercedes congregavit, misit eas in sacculum pertusum. 120 Cf. 1 Corinthians 4:7 Quid autem babes quod non accepisti? This puts the trivium into correlation with the order of grace. 122 'Sempiternal,' that is, with a temporal beginning, but with no temporal ending, a species of duration assigned by theologians to created, but undying angels and human souls; Cicero had used the term for the course of the stars in the section of his De re publica that was known to the Middle Ages as the Somnium Scipionis, 'The Dream of Scipio,' 6.9.9-6.26.29; the citation at stake is 6.17.17: '...in which they are fixed, the sempiternal course of stars which wheel;' for a Christian use of the term, see Boethius, De trinitate 4. 129 Aelius Donatus, mid-fourth century A.D. Roman grammarian; Jerome named Donatus as his teacher in his translation of the second book of the Chronicles of Eusebius, ed. cit. 27.502. 133 Priscianus of Caesarea in Mauretania, sixth century A.D., author of 18 extant books on grammar which served as the textbook in that discipline throughout the Middle Ages; books 1-16 were called Priscianus maior and books 17-18 Pricianus minor or De constructionibus. 134 Appolonius, father of Aelius Herodianus (next line), second century A.D. grammarian; Appolonius was credited with having reduced grammar to a scientific system for the first time. 145-148 Ironic presentation of the effects of dialectic as mire, 'tricky;' like a sleight of hand artist, dialectic transforms ignoramuses into men of erudition, provokes quarrels, and persuades unripe scholars to accept insane solutions.

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149-152 Godfrey may have found the image of learning as a neutral weapon that might be used well or badly in QUINTILIAN, Institutio oratoria 2.15.32. 161-164 Godfrey's mention of opponens and respondent in scholasticism is reinforced by his remarks on those exercises in the Microcosmos, ch. 189, ed. fit. p. 210. 168 Puzzling reference to hypotheticas compositiones, presumably syllogisms; Boethius had remarked, De syllogismo hypothetic libri duo, PL 64.831 C, that these are a subject 'on which nothing has been written by Aristotle;' John of Salisbury, Metalogicon 4.21, was willing to concede that Aristotle had provided a 'seed-bed' that made later progress possible, but Godfrey seems ready to credit Aristotle with a fully developed doctrine in this area. 169-184 Godfrey has worked into his verses the Latin titles of all the logical treatises in the Aristotelian corpus except the Sophistic refutations, doctrinally associated with the Topics; since Porphyry's Introduction to the Categories, the Eisagoge, along with the two Commentaries by Boethius on the work of Porphyry, had raised the issue of the universal for the Middle Ages, Godfrey thought it right to warn the incautious that the path is a dangerous one to follow; see M.H. CARRE, Realists and Nominalists, on this durable philosophical problem. 186 See I Iliad 16.129ff. for the incident in which Patroclus dons the armor of Achilles and, after some initial successes, was struck by Apollo, 786ff; the armor fell off and the dazed Patroclus died at the hand of Hector, 818ff. 192 Like his own demiourgos, Timaeus 29 A, Plato has the Forms in sight; see the Dream of Scipio, 6.19.20. 193-216 See Microcosmos, ch. 72, ed. fit. pp. 84-85, for a more extensive presentation of Godfrey's astronomical conceptions given here and 381-396; Godfrey is even verbally dependent on Macrobius, see below, 241-242. 196-197

See Timaeus 33 B and 36 BC.

197-200 Godfrey's language here, taken to the letter, is imprecise: Paralleli circuli... Quinque sunt, et spatio distant a se pan Quibus %pne totidem solent terminari. Macrobius presents the five parallel circles but clearly does not adduce the equatorial circle as 'terminating' a zone; see his Commentary on the Dream of Scipio, ed. fit. p. 151. 200

See CICERO, Dream of Scipio 6.20.21.

201 'Colures' are two great circles of the celestial sphere; they intersect each other at right angles at the poles and so divide the sphere into four equal parts; one colure passes through the equinoctial point on the ecliptic, the other through the solstitial point. 202 The 'equinoctial' is the equator of the celestial sphere; when the sun is on it, day and night are of equal length; the most northerly and the most southerly of the points on the ecliptic are called 'tropical' because at those points the sun

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reaches its greatest distance from the equinoctial and then 'turns,' trope, toward the equinoctial once more. 205 The 'zodiac' is a belt of the celestial sphere within which the apparent motion of the sun, moon, and planets takes place; it is divided into twelve equal parts called 'signs;' the 'horizon' is primarily a great circle of the celestial sphere, the plane of which passes through the center of the earth and is parallel to that of the visible horizon of any given place; the visible horizon is the boundary line of the earth's visible surface as seen from a given point. 212-216 The 'Milky Way' is not, like the other circles, a merely mathematical entity, but a luminous band of real stars, so-called, as CICKRO noted, Dream of Scipio 6.16.16, from the Greek term for 'milk,' gala, galactos, 'the milky circle;' galaxias is a transliteration rather than a translation. 217-218 Greek philosophical view of man as a small analogue of the total cosmos; to the natural correlations possible, Godfrey added another in the order of grace, thanks to which man begins to resemble God; see Microcosmos, ch. 76, ed. cit. p. 89; for the background of this notion and its historical consequences to Renaissance times, see R. ALLERS, "Microcosmos: from Anaximandros to Paracelsus," Traditio 2 (1944) 319-407. 221-225 On the 'true' eternal Forms and the pseudo-forms found in the world of sensation, see Timaeus 51 D-52 D and Boethius De trinitate 2. 221 Thus CICERO, Dream of Scipio 6.18.18 where he accounts for the 'music of the spheres,' inaudible to our ears of flesh, by adducing the swifter motion of the outer spheres and the mathematically graduated slower motions of the inner ones; in the Microcosmos Godfrey noted points at which philosophical theories on the cosmos are in conflict with the Genesis account by Moses (Ch. 47, 48, ed. cit. pp 67-68), as well as others where Moses had not felt it necessary to comment and so had left the exegete maximum freedom (ch. 81, pp. 93-94); see also Timaeus 38 E-39 E; Godfrey's term for 'firmament' here is aplanem, that is, the 'nonerratic' first sphere that bears the stars. Doubtless he owed this common Platonic term (Timaeus 34 A, 47 C, Polit. 288 A, etc.) to Macrobius who had used it in his Commentary on the Dream of Scipio. 228 See Cratylus 409 A where an etymological difficulty is reported to have been urged against the 'recent discovery' by Anaxagoras that the moon derives light from the sun; this dialogue was not available to Godfrey in Latin but indirect transmission accounts for his use of the information. 230 Aristotle's pronouncement that the movement of heaven is 'regular' (On heaven, 288a 14-289a 10), presumably another instance of indirect transmission. 231 Godfrey found the reflected light of the moon an apt parallel to the relationship between Christ and the Church (Microcosmos ch. 87-96, ed. cit. pp. 93109); in his On the Generation of Animals, Aristotle called the moon a 'first principle' even though conceding that she 'participates' in the sun's light: 4.10; 777b 24-26. 233-236 Boethius had excused himself from deciding between Plato and Aristotle on universals, as Porphyry had already done, because the question belongs to a

NOTES

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'more profound philosophy' than is transmitted in an elementary logic manual; see BOETHIUS, In Isagogen Porphyrii commentorum, editio secunda, ed. cit. p. 167; for English translation of discussion, see R. McKEON, Selections from Medieval Philosophers I, pp. 91-99, also, note above on 169-184. 239-240 Cassiodorus, contemporary and associate of Boethius, in a letter to him (Variarum I, 45; MGH A A 12, p. 40) referred to Plato as 'theologian,' that is, as one who dealt with ultimate reality, which pagan philosophers had counted 'more divine,' whereas Aristotle is called the 'logician,' the expert on argument; this is the atmosphere within which Godfrey has ascribed to Boethius an eirenic attitude such as had been cultivated in the 'neo-Platonic school' with respect to the twoGreeks; as is usual in such reconciliations, Plato prevails, see GILSON, op. cit. p. 145. 241-244 Ambrosius Macrobius, fl. c. A.D. 400, author of the universally esteemed Commentary on the Dream of Scipio; the Scipio intended is Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Minor; Martianus Capella was the fourth-century A.D. author of the influential On the Marriage of Mercury and Philology; although an African also, Godfrey was safe in his distinguishing between Macrobius and Martianus by associating the first with an African and the second with Mercury. 245-268 This section is cancelled in one manuscript, presumably because it might have given offense on the barren mountaintop: see editor's remarks, Fans, pp. 17, 28. 245 'Nominalists' according to Saint Anselm, held that 'universal substances are nothing but emissions of the voice (flatus vocis) and the Saint counted them heretics (Epistola de incarnatione verbi, ed. cit. 2, p. 9); 'realist' dialecticians, on the other hand, held that universal terms must have referents in the real world and they too met severe opposition as, for instance, did William of Champeaux at the hands of Abelard (see Abelard's account, The Story of Abelard's Adversities, ed. cit. pp. 15-16). There were, of course, many versions of nominalism and many versions of realism; Godfrey seems to have accepted neither approach but, perhaps, simply rejected those of the teachers he names. 261-264 The target of this passage is the school of Gilbert of Poitiers, Gilbert de la Porree; what Godfrey seems to have objected to is the complexity of Gilbert's thought, above all, his insistence that a correctly formulated predication state explicity not only the object 'which' is predicated of a subject, but also the object 'by which' the first is so predicated. Hence, not merely 'Socrates is human,' but: 'Socrates is human by humanity' or: 'a body by corporeity' is required; this seems to be the force of the complaint that the ten categories are 'tripled:' Decem rerum triplicant hii predicamenta.

Not heresy, but infidelity to the dialectical tradition of the ancients, is the burden of Godfrey's criticism: Euertuntur ueterum per hoc fundamenta.

Friends of Gilbert will perhaps be consoled that Godfrey abstained from the charges of heresy that were so freely levelled against the Bishop of Poitiers; see N. HARiNG, "The Case of Gilbert de la Porree, Bishop of Poitiers," Mediaeval Studies 13 (1951) 1-40.

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THE FOUNTAIN OF PHILOSOPHY

265-268 Alberic, like Robert of Melun, taught John of Salisbury during that English scholar's two years on Mount Saint Genevieve; John had an unflattering estimate of Alberic: after a visit to the schools of Bologna, Alberic had been obliged to unlearn what he had been teaching (Metalogicon 2.10). 269-276 Robert of Melun, English theologian, b. c. 1100, taught at Melun from 1142; from 1163, Bishop of Hereford, d. 1167; in controversy on various issues with Abelard, Peter Lombard, and Gilbert of Poitiers; opposed the nominalism of Roscelin, but Godfrey's cryptic reference to Robert's followers seems to mean that he too was a nominalist in his fashion: Qui de solo nomine fingunt mi lie fere. 277-296 Adam of Balsham, English master who established his school near the 'Little Bridge' between the left bank and the Isle de Notre-Dame at Paris, c. 1132; his Ars disserendi presumably shows us Godfrey's conception of what dialectics ought to be; Adam became Bishop of Saint Asaph's, Wales, in 1175 and died as Ordinary of that see in 1181. 296 Godfrey's version of the Platonic commonplace—it is one of the major themes of the Republic—has parallels in other mediaeval writers: see BOETHIUS, The Consolation of Philosophy I, prosa 4, ed. cit. pp. 142-144 and ALCUIN, Epistola 299, ed. cit. vol. 4, p. 373: "...sicut in illo Platonico legitur proverbio dicente felicia esse regna, si philosophi, id est amatores sapientiae regnarent, vel reges philosophiae studerent." 301-304 CICERO, De partitione oratorio 1.5-7.26, noted five divisions in the role of the orator: inventio, collocatio, elocutio, actio, and memoria; although he makes explicit mention of four divisions in a speech, ibidem 8.27 and 1.4, a subdivision he gives of one permits them to be counted as five also: exordium, narratio, confirmatio, reprehensio, andperoratio; ibidem 8.27-17.60; either one would ground Godfrey's image of a staff divided into five sections. 305-306 Godfrey's reference to Cicero's dependence upon Aristotle is fully borne out by references in Cicero's De oratore, v.g. 1.10.43, 1.11.49, 1.13.55, 2.10.43, 2.14.58 etc. 307 Hermagoras, fl. c. 150 B.C., mentioned by CICERO, De inventione 1.6.8: 'Hermagoras, in fact, seems neither to be paying any attention to what he says, nor to give promise of understanding anything...' see also, ibidem 1.9.12 and 1.51.97. 312 Borrowing from Exodus 6:12 Ecce filii Israel non audiunt me; et quomodo audiet Pharao, praesertim cum incircumcisus sim labiis? Although Moses possessed all the lore of the Egyptians, which surely included geometry (see 379), this suggests that Godfrey might have thought him in need of training in the liberal arts. 313-328 See Microcosmos, ch. 66, ed. cit. p. 81. 356

See CICERO, Dream of Scipio 6.18.18; Godfrey is all but quoting verbatim.

369-372 Godfrey here repeats, with an insignificant addition, the three divisions of 'practical geometry' as listed by Hugh of Saint Victor (Opera propaedevtica, table of contents: De altimetria, De planimetria, De cosmometria):

NOTES

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Dimetitur quelibet, alt a, longa, plana; Inuestigat etiam spatia mundana. 373 'Recover' seems justifiable for adinueniunt, given that in line 376 Godfrey could easily have used simply inueniunt and adjusted the rest of the sentence, v.g. Sic illi inueniunt... or even: Quibus illi faciunt omnium mensuras; he was, after all, an admirer of Plato who almost certainly had read the Meno, and, as in the Meno, has the geometry done in sabulo only as a preliminary to geometrical insight. 387 'Crystalline' translates Godfrey's Yalina, a somewhat phonetic rendering of the Greek halinos, -e, -on. 388

See reference above, 122, to the star-bearing firmament.

410 Lucius Annaeus Seneca, 4 B.C.-A.D. 65, Spanish-born Roman Stoic philosopher, author of Ad Lucilium epistulae morales, a collection of 124 letters much admired by mediaeval Christians; his brother, Gallio, Governor of Achaea, dealt with Saint Paul (Acts 18:12-17) and a dossier of inauthentic letters, purportedly exchanged by our Seneca and the Apostle, circulated during the Middle Ages: see C. AUBERTIN, Seneque et Saint Paul, etude sur les rapports supposes entre le philosophe et Fapotre. 434-436 'Places,' topoi, that is, sources of arguments; 'rules,' logical formulae such as: 'if the consequent is true, the antecedent is necessarily true;' 'sophisms,' that is, difficult logical puzzles, v.g. the truth value of the sentence: 'I am lying.' 440

Three standard ethical themes on which an orator might expect to declaim.

445-448 Godfrey's admission of a weakness for music is authentically Augustinian; see Confessions 9.6.14; 9.7.15; 9.12.31; 10.33.49-50. 465-466 Far from positing a 'separated' philosophy and theology, Godfrey uses the term 'theology' (introduced for Christian studies in divinity by Peter Abelard against the protests of Saint Bernard—see PL 182.1055 A-1061 B), to designate the culmination of 'authentic philosophy' which, Augustine himself had claimed, is interchangeable with 'authentic religion;' see On True Religion 5.8. 467 Emphasis on our incapacity to reach the clarity of vision in this life, even though the reflective believer must aspire to approach as nearly as possible that ultimate transformation of faith into understanding is both Pauline (1 Corinthians 13:9-12) and Augustinian (De libero arbitrio 2.2.17; cf. 472, 476, 781-784). 477-484 The four modes of mediaeval Christian scriptural exegesis: the 'historic' sense is the literal meaning of the words, the 'allegorical,' 'moral,' and 'anagogic' non-literal, even mystical interpretations of the text; see below, 541-544 where the alleged commitment of Jewish readers to the 'historical' sense and the freedom of Christians in following the 'triparite' mode is adduced as a reason for Christian superiority over Judaism. The strange conviction that Jewish exegesis was exclusively 'historical' and literal arose, no doubt, from controversies in which Jewish scholars challenged Christian interpretations, v.g. Isaiah 7:14 on the ground that virgo is not the only possible meaning of almah, or, contrariwise, when they challenged Christian 'spiritualization' of prophecies on the eternal character of the promises to David's line.

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493-496 Boethius held this threefold division of moral philosophy; see his commentary on the Isagoge, ed. cit. p. 9. 497 Here Godfrey must have been thinking of Psalm 45 (46): 5 (4): b'luminis impetus laetificat tivitatem dei; the splendor of the City of God owes something to Apocalypse 21:10 ff. 505 By 'Cornerstone' Godfrey meant Christ; see Luke 20:17-18 where Psalm 117 (118):22 is cited. 507 Godfrey's obscure lines on the paradoxical character of the New Jerusalem, with their juxtaposition of 'square' and 'wheel,' may stem from his reading of Ezechiel 10:1-12. 513-516 The 'Rector' of the City is the Pope; Godfrey wrote during the pontificate of Alexander III, A.D. 1159-1181, one of the most distinguished of the mediaeval popes. 517-520 The 'Princes' are the Cardinals. 525-528 The stream that flows through the heavenly Jerusalem is Sacred Scripture, see 540 ff., and, although it divides Jews from Christians, it also unites them, thanks especially to the strenuous efforts of the 'Bridge-builders,' pontifices, see 681-688. 533 Marginal note, three manuscripts: 'That no one in mortal sin is a member of the Church.' 536 Line evokes Psalm 78 (79):2. 537 Marginal note, three manuscripts: 'The rites of the Old and the New Testament are diverse, not adverse.' 570 Marginal note, three manuscripts: 'These are the authors of the books of the Old Testament. Five books of Moses.' 585-588 As a religious, Godfrey daily recited the Psalms in the Divine Office, see 749-750, but did not find the repetition boring. 589 Marginal note, three manuscripts: 'Parables, Ecclesiastes, Canticle of Canticles.' 611 Marginal note, three manuscripts: 'Esdras, who repaired the old, destroyed library;' reference is to events recorded Nehemiah 8:1 ff. 640 Platonic-Augustinian conception that wisdom is to be sought by concentrating the powers of the mind in the contemplation of the eternal, refusing to allow their dispersal among the multitudinous things of sense; see 764-768 for Godfrey's personal experience of this self-discipline. 681 Gregory I, 'the Great,' Pope 590-604; his Books on Morals on Job is the work of which Godfrey was thinking; it was so widely read as to give occasion to lines 682 ff. 689 Ambrose, c. 339-397, Bishop of Milan, whose sermons influenced the conversion of Augustine, whom he baptized in 387; Ambrose was the son of the Praetorian Prefect of Gaul and, before his baptism as an adult, Ambrose had been the

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governor of Aemilia-Liguria; he was a finished product of the late imperial school system. 693 Jerome, Eusebius Hieronymus, c. 342-420, a student of Donatus commissioned by Pope Damasus I, 366-384, to translate the Bible into Latin; Jerome's text was the 'Vulgate' Latin Bible, unchallenged in the Roman Catholic Church until our own day; his ascetic life in the Holy Land, where he had gone to perfect his command of Hebrew, made him a model for monks; alone of the four major Latin Church Fathers, Jerome was not a bishop, but was in priest's orders: see 695-696. 697 Marginal note, three manuscripts: 'on the translation of Sacred Scripture by Jerome;' the reference to tipping the contents of one jar into another is intended to convey Jerome's zeal in learning the biblical tongues and then in translating from them into Latin. 700 Julia Eustochium, 370-c. 419, a Roman girl who, with her mother, Paula, 347-404, followed Jerome to the Holy Land as a disciple. One of his letters, 22, is addressed to Saint Julia Eustochium and in another, 108, the virtues of Saint Paula are described. 701 Augustine, Aurelius, 354-430, Bishop of Hippo Regius in Roman north Africa, Numidia Cirtensis; the most influential of the Latin Church Fathers owing to his immense literary production and to the tradition of religious common life that stems from his episcopal household at Hippo; Godfrey, a'Canon Regular of Saint Augustine,' has devoted ten stanzas to this Father, emphasizing the breadth of his pastoral concern. 741 On the religious congregations that acknowledge Augustine as their founder, see the magistral study by L. VERHEIJEN, La regie de saint Augustin. 785 Marginal note, three manuscripts: 'Note that it is by faith rather than by reason, that God is apprehended to be Trinal, yet One.' 793 Marginal note, three manuscripts: 'Note the difficult transition to theology, namely, that for God, "to know" is the same as "to be," "to love" is the same as "to be." Therefore, "the Father knows" is denied of the Son, lest He "be" the Son, nor is His love predicated of the Spirit, lest one be forced to say that He is the Spirit—still, both alternatives, for equally valid reasons, seem to be what ought to be affirmed and what ought to be denied!' 804 Godfrey's decision is in conformity with advice he might have derived from Hugh of Saint Victor, Didascalicon 6.4—that difficulties in Trinitarian theology might be passed by; he has in mind the text of Hebrews 12:20 Et si bestia tetigerit montem, lapidabatur, itself a reference to Exodus 19:12-13 ...omnis qui tetigerit montem (Sinai), morte morietur ...lapidibus opprimetur ...sive jumentum fuerit, sive homo, non vivet. 805 Marginal note, three manuscripts: 'Approach to a knowledge of the incarnation of the Son.' 811 Augustine was fond of contrasting the verbs 'to use,' uti, and 'to enjoy,' frui, for any creature can be 'used' as a means to God who alone is the goal we ought to 'enjoy;' moral fault is to 'enjoy' what ought to have been 'used' merely; see De doctrina Christiana \ .4.4. 821 Marginal note, three manuscripts: 'Why God Became Man;' this is the title of an important theological treatise by Saint Anselm, Cur deus homo.

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VI

INDICES

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INDICES

85

(References to Introduction and to Dedicatory Letter by page number, to The Fountain of Philosophy by line number). A. Index of Names Aaron 598 Abelard p. 20 Achilles 186 Adam of Balsham, of the Little Bridge pp. 20, 24, 25 Adams, H. p. 29 'African' (Scipio) p. 23; 242 Alberic p. 24; 265-268 Ambrose, Saint 689-692 Andrew of Saint Victor p. 26 Appolonius p. 23; 134 Aristotle pp. 19, 23, 24, 25; 93, 94, 141-184, 229-231, 238, 239, 305, 306 Augustine, Saint p. 27; 701-740, 744, 757, 762-763 Barrett, H.M. p. 19 Boethius p. 24; 233-240 Bracken, J.J., (Dedication) p. 5 'Bridgemen' (followers of Adam of Balsham) 277-296 Cicero (Tully) p. 25; 297-308 Chesterton, G.K. p. 30 Christ (Jesus) p. 26; (Lord) 627, 628, 633, 634, 642, 645, 660, 820-835

Daniel, prophet 602 David, psalmist pp. 26, 29; 576-584 Delhaye, P. p. 20 Donatus p. 23; 129-133 Esdras 609-612 Eustochium, Saint Julia 700 Ezechiel, prophet 603 Gilbert of Poitiers (de la Porree) p. 24; followers 261-264 Gilson, E. p. 19 Goliardic (verse) p. 28 Gregory (the Great), Pope p. 27; 681-688 Henricus Aristippus p. 23 Hermagoras p. 25; 307 Herodianus p. 23; 135 Holy Spirit (Paraclete) pp. 22, 26; 7, 10, 38, 420, 423, 428, 753, 797, 799 Hugh of Saint Victor p. 20 Isaias, prophet 601 James, Saint 655

86

INDICES

Jeremias, prophet 602 Jerome, Saint 693-700 Jerusalem p. 26; 497-548 Job p. 27; 605-608, 682 John, Saint 648-656 John of Salisbury p. 24 Josue, judge 573 Jude, Saint 655 Lucilius 411 Luke, Saint 647, 657-660 Macrobius 241 Mark, Saint 646 Martianus (Capella) 241 Mary, Mother of Jesus 629-636 Matthew, Saint 645 Melchisedech, order of, Christian priesthood 620 Mercury 242 Michaud-Quantin, P., editor, Latin text of Fans pp. 20, 25 Miles, C.F., (Dedication) p. 5 Moses 569-572 Mount Saint Genevieve pp. 24, 25, 33

Phoebus (sun) 335 Plato p. 24; 189-196, 217-228, 240 Poitiers, men from, followers of Gilbert 261-264 Porphyry p. 23; 177 Priscian p. 23; 133 Rand, E.K. p. 19 Richard of Saint Victor p. 20 Robert of Melun and disciples pp. 24, 25; 269-276 Saint Victor, Abbey of pp. 19, 20, 21 Salome p. 25 Satan, (Enemy, Destroyer) 605-607, 814, 827, 828 Saul, (later Paul) 660 Scipio ('African') p. 23; 242 Scott, Sir Walter p. 29 Seneca p. 25; 410 Socrates (Sortes) pp. 25, 29; 89, 266, 407 Solomon p. 29; 577-581, 590 Stanley, T.A., (Dedication) p. 5 Stephen, Lord Abbot of Mount Saint Genevieve pp. 19, 25, 33

Orleans p. 22 Paris p. 22 Patch, H.R. p. 19 Patroclus 186 Paul, Saint 660-664 Paula, Saint 700 Peter, Saint 655 Phoebe (moon) 335

Theophilus 658 Thomas Aquinas p. 21 Tournai p. 19 Tully (Cicero) p. 25; 297-308

Walter of Saint Victor p. 20 William of Champeaux p. 20

INDICES

87

B. Index of Subjects Algorists 351 Allegory, sense of Scripture; see threefold way 482, implicit 477, 544 Anagogy, sense of Scripture; see threefold way 484, implicit 480, 544 Archetype, see Exemplars, Forms, Ideas 219 Arithmetic p. 23; 345-352, 443, 444 Arts, liberal p. 22; see trivium: grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, and quadrivium: arithmetic,music, geometry, astronomy

Disputation 155 Divinity 785 Earth 382, 450, 484 Eisagoge (Introductory treatise) p. 23; 177 Eloquence 57-64, 68, Ambrose eminent in 691 'Enjoy,' to, 'use,' to 811, 812 Equinoctial lines 202, 208 Ethics 401-404, 493-496, 769 Exemplars, see Archetype, Forms, Ideas 224

Bible, restoration of 609-612, books of 570-664, translation of 699, 700 Brain 254 Bridge 277-296, 419, 666, 701, builders of 677, bridge-head 681, bridge-men 280

Faith 792 Fakery (magus) 96 Firmament 227 Fool 148 Forms, see Archetype, Exemplars, Ideas 225, 226

Canons Regular of Saint Augustine pp. 19, 20, 21, 25, 27; 741-752 Categories 263, treatise on 178 Circles, cosmic 196-216, geometrical 375, 377 Circumcision 312, 560 Colures 201-204 Computists 350 Cosmic spaces 371

Galaxy 216 General class (genus) 222, 229, 253, 262 Geometry p. 23; 369-380, 449-452 God, see Index of Names: Holy Spirit, Christ 4, 8, 322, 509-512, 547, 608, 620, 621, 625, 788, 812, 821, 826, 829, 831, 833 Grammar p. 22; 69-72, 129-140, 429-432 Grace, gracious 16, 260, 424, 509, 755 Guide, Paraclete (see Index of Names, Holy Spirit) 420, 428

Deity, (see God) 829, 830 Dialectic, (see Logic) pp. 21, 22, 24; 73-76, 141-188, 245-296, 433436

88

INDICES

History, sense of Scripture 478, 481, 542 'Honest,' 'just,' 'useful' p. 25; 440 Horizon 209-212 Household ethics 403, 495 Hypothetical (syllogisms) 168 Ideas, see Archetype, Exemplars, Forms 221 Ideal 214 Ideally 198 Insanely (see fool) 252 Interest rates 352 Judges 567, 573, 575, 'Bench' 595 'Just,' 'honest,' 'useful' p. 25; 440 King(s) 547, 567, 578, 594, 626, 630, 633 Law 94 Legal light 95 Liberal arts pp. 22-25 Loan-chest men 352 Logic, see Dialectic, p. 24; 239

Mathematics p. 24; 337 Mechanics p. 22; 23 Medical man 95 Megacosmos 217 Meno p. 23 Microcosmos 218, 457 Midrash p. 26 Mind, divine 221, rationality 252, 312, 779 Morality, sense of Scripture, see threefold way 483

Music p. 23; 353-386, 445-448 Names (universal) 253, 256, 275 Nature 193, 240, 333, 508 Nominalists p. 24; 245 Nomine-numine p. 24; 246 Office, recited by clerics 750 Opponens p. 21 Opposition p. 21; 163 Orators p. 22; 309 Paraclete, Guide p. 26 (see Index of Names: Holy Spirit) Parallel 197 Philosophically 465 Physics 329 ff., 461-464 'Places' (topoi) p. 21; 434 Planets, planetary p. 23; 206, 384, 454, 458 Politics 496, see also 413-416 Poles 203 Pans (derivation of pontiff) 668 Pontiff 668, 695 Practice, practical art p. 27, 316, 397, 485 Proper (literal) speech 431 Prophets 567, 599, 601-604 Propositions 167 Quadrivial (arts) p. 23; 384 Quadrivium pp. 22, 23; 342, 442 Queen, Mary, mother of Jesus 629-636 Realists p. 24; 247, 257-260

INDICES Realium, 'realists, of derivation 250 Reason, eye of 102, arguments 166, 212, 392, 791, 794 Respondens p. 21 Responding p. 21, 164 Rhetoric p. 22; 77-80, 297 ff., 437-440 Rhetors 309 Rules p. 21; 433 Sacra pagina p. 26 Solsticial 207 Sophisms p. 21; 436 Sophist 96 Soul(s) 395, 414, 448, 534 Special class (species) 223 Sphere of world 195 Spice from Poitiers (teaching of Gilbert) 261 Sun (see Index of Names: Phoebus) 202, 228, 231, 451 Syllogism p. 24; 166, hypothetical 168

89

Talmud p. 26 Temple, Jerusalem 551 Tests (experimentum) 464 Theologue 95 Theology pp. 25-28; 321, 466, see Divinity Theoretic questions 315 Threefold way (exegesis of Scripture) 544 Triune (God) 788 Triviutn p. 22; 67, 81, 85, 116 Tropical lines 202; metaphorical speech 431 'Use,' to, 'to enjoy' 812, 811 'Useful,' 'just,' 'honest' p. 25; 440 Versification pp. 28, 29 Wisdom 324, 421, 441, 466, 524 World 195, 'greater orb, megacosmos' 217, 'microcosmos' 118, 244 'cosmic spaces' 371 Zodiac 205 Zones 200