The Flower World of Old Uto-Aztecan

The Flower World of Old Uto-Aztecan Author(s): Jane H. Hill Source: Journal of Anthropological Research, Vol. 48, No. 2 (Summer, 1992), pp. 117-144 Published by: University of New Mexico Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630407 . Accessed: 12/05/2011 20:58 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at . http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=unm. . Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

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THE FLOWERWORLDOF OLDUTO-AZTECAN JaneH. Hill of Arizona, of Anthropology, Tucson,AZ85721 University Department toflowersis reconstructed A ritualsystemof reference for an earlyphaseof development The is the Uto-Aztecan of speechcommunity. complex attestedalso in Tzotzil,a Mayan in contact languageof Chiapas,and limitedevidenceoccursfor otherspeechcommunities withUto-Aztecan. Thesystemincludestheassociationofflowerwithsongand theflower as a symbolof thespiritworld.Flowersstandfor spiritualpowerandfor its manifestation withfireandaredeployed in theheart,blood,andeyes.Flowersareassociated symbolically and distribution in genderdifferentiation. Alternativeexplanations of for thesignificance thiscomplexare evaluated.

IN THIS PAPERI proposethat a complexsystem of spiritualitycenteredon metaphorsof flowersis partof the culturalrepertoireof manyof the prehistoric andhistoricpeoplesof the SouthwestandMesoamerica,especiallyspeakers of Uto-Aztecanlanguages(Table1).1 Metaphorsof the FlowerWorldoccur with specialfrequencyin songs aboutbeautifullandscapes.The songs portray the SpiritLandwithsymbolsthatLevi-Strauss(1969)has called"chromatic." Whilechromaticismprobablyoccurs throughoutthe Americas,songs about landscapeandthe specializedchromaticmetaphorthatconstitutesthe Flower andthe Southwest.SpecificFlowerWorld WorldarefoundonlyinMesoamerica as far south Chiapasandas farnorthas Arizona.This metaphorsare foundas metaphoricsystem probablyoriginatedin Uto-Aztecanspeechcommunitiesat indicatesa wide zone but its distribution an early stage of theirramification, of contact. andthe evocationof the I willfirstreviewthe system of "chromaticism" SpiritLandin songs aboutthe beautyof landscape.I willthen enumeratethe majorFlowerWorldmetaphorsandconcludewith a briefassessmentof the distribution. historicalsignificanceof theirgeographical

CHROMATICISM Coloredflowersandotherbrightlycoloredandiridescentnaturalphenomena, butterfliesandothercolincludingdawnandsunset, rainbows,hummingbirds, colored orfulandiridescentinsects, shells, crystals,and lightsandflames,are chromaticsymbols.In AmazonianSouthAmerica,L6vi-Strauss(1969)found that chromaticismstandsfor a varietyof mediations,includingthe passage fromlife to death. Experiencesof the chromaticsystem are widelyused in the Americasto validatespiritualstates used in curingandotherritual.Chromaticvisions are soughtthroughthe use of hallucinogenic drugsthat cause vol.48, 1992) Research, (Journal ofAnthropological 117

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I. TheUto-Aztecan Family A. Northern Uto-Aztecan California) (South-Central Tiibatulabal Numic(GreatBasin) Takic(Southern California) Arizona) Hopi(Northeastern B. Southern Uto-Aztecan (Arizona, Sonora,Durango) Tepiman Sonora) (Chihuahua, Opatan Taracahitan Sinaloa) Chihuahua, (Sonora, Tubar(Sonora) Corachol(Nayarit,Jalisco) Aztecan(CentralMexico)

II. Neighboring Language GroupsintheSouthwest A. Yuman RiverBasin) Colorado (Southern California, B. Zuni(WesternNew Mexico)

C. Keresan(Western NewMexico,RioGrande) D. Tanoan (RioGrande) the user to experienceflashesof brightlight,halosaroundordinaryobjects, or enhancementof ordinarycolors.They canbe obtainedin dreams,but also throughwakingexperienceof the beautyof chromaticphenomenain nature. The use of chromaticism in the constructionof spirituality is so widespread that it must representa very ancientlevel of religiousthought.AmongUtoAztecangroupsin the SouthwestandMesoamerica,chromaticsymbolismappears with specialfrequencyin song, where the glitterof iridescencein the andin preciousstones and butterflies,anddragonflies wingsof hummingbirds, shells is a significanttheme. Special qualitiesof light, such as blue or crimson,

are also oftensung. Sapir(1910)publisheda SouthernPaiutesong thatopens recitativeswhen LizardWomanspeaksin myths: (1) Whilelyingin the sun, likegravel[lizard]changescoloras sunbeamswave over [her]. While lying in the sun, like gravel [lizard]changes color as sunbeams wave

over [her]. JohnWesley Powellcollecteda Shoshonesong in whichthe foamon the ColoradoRiveris said to be like driftingfeathers(FowlerandFowler1971). Chromaticism appearsclearlyin Hopiritualandsong, where the brillianceof flowers, butterflies,brightfeathers,andpreciousstones andshellsis an importanttheme.InPimaandTohonoO'odham,the sunsetis a favoredchromatic whichRuth symbol,especiallybecauseof its mostevocativecolor,wepegiomi, Underhill(1951)translatedas 'crimson'.The seyaania, the FlowerWorldof

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the Yaqui,is a worldof brilliantcolors, where "the lightglittersand shines throughthe water"(Evers and Molina1987:60),especiallyin the color tolo 'lightblue',the lightof the earlydawn.In Huichol,Wirikuta,the worldof the peyotejourney,is representedwithelaboratechromaticsymbolismandis said to be full of spirituallight. The Aztecs sang of chromaticafterworlds:Tamoanchan,where flower trees stand filledwith gloriousbirds;Tlalocan,a paradiseof gardens;andthe Sun'sHeaven,withpaintedwaters, waterslike quetzalfeathers,at the House of Dawn(Bierhorst1985). Manynon-Uto-Aztecan groupsseem to have sharedthe complex.Among the Zuni,BarbaraTedlock(1980, 1983)identifieda chromaticaestheticsystem calledco'ya,contrastedwithanaestheticof mudcolorsandblacksandwhites. Kroeber(1976[1925]:757)describedthe dreamsongs of the Mohaveas "a style of literature . .. as franklydecorative as a patterned textile, . . . [with] color and intricacy, . . . fineness or splendor, . . . gorgeously pleasing." Eva

Hunt(1977), startingwiththe symbolof the hummingbird, exploredthe chromaticsystem throughout Mesoamerica.In DennisTedlock'stranslation of the Quich6PopolVuh,a falsecreator,SevenMacaw,attemptsto elevatehis status throughchromaticrhetoric: I am theirsun andI am theirlight,andI amalso theirmonths.So be it: my lightis great. I am the walkwayandI am the footholdof the people, because my eyes are of metal. My teeth just glitterwithjewels, and turquoiseas well; they standout blue with stones like the face of the sky. Andthis nose of mineshineswhiteintothe distancelikethe moon. Since my nest is metal, it lightsup the face of the earth. (D. Tedlock 1985:86) SONG AND THE SPIRIT LAND Amongthe Uto-Aztecanpeoples, song is the domainpar excellenceof chromatic symbolism.In song, chromaticsymbolsare often deployedin detailed representationof landscape,bothof wakingexperiencesof beauty,whichpermit ordinarypeopleto glimpsethe SpiritLand,andof dreamsandvisionsof the beauty of the SpiritLand.Such landscaperepresentationsseem to be associatedwith the supremeplace of song in a hierarchyof "power"among the genres of verbalart. In an essay on verbalart amongPiman-speaking peoples, Bahr (1975) distinguishedsong, oratory,and narrative,with song beingthe most powerfulandspiritualof the three genres. These genres are distinguishednot only by theirspiritualforce, but also by formalcriteria,by the subjectmatterappropriate to each, by mechanismsof representation,and in the which by authorshipis acquired. ways I have examined published texts for many of the Uto-Aztecan languages, includingespecially the great creation stories and parts of the coyote cycle, also associated with creation. These great narrative texts (admittedly often

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recordedin impoverishedversions)attendhardlyat all to landscapeor "scewas, in its indignery"in anyaspect. Sapir(1910)discoveredthat"narrative" enous contexts, a mixedgenre. In the winter,as the storytellersand their audiencesperformedthe creationof the world,figuresin the mythscouldsing or speakas orators,andthe narrativesequencewas elaboratedwith"recitative," songs suchas thatof LizardWomanin example(1). But in the narrative sentencesthemselves,the landvirtuallydisappears,andthe focusis onevents, the deeds of the creation-timebeings, not on the beautyof the landscapein whichthese occur.2 The situationis entirelydifferentwithsong. Not onlyare songs performed duringthe winterrecitationsof the creationstories, they are also parts of collectiveritual,shamanistic spiritualquest. Songsare practice,andindividual valuedfortheirbeauty;theyare"flowersforthe ears"(OfeliaZepeda,personal In all these contexts,rightacrossthe Uto-Aztecanfamilyof communication). languages,landscapebecomesvisibleinexquisitesungdescriptionsof flowers, grass in the wind,featherson the water,driftingsnowflakes,bluemist in the valley,butterfliesover the pond, or the youngdeer againstthe dawn.The worldthat is sung is not preciselythe worldbefore us, althoughit may be glimpsedin this world:it is the timelessSpiritLand. Becausethe voice of a singeris especiallypowerful,songcanaffectspiritual beings and landscapes.TohonoO'odhamcurers sing of the beautyof spirit animalsin orderto makethem contentedandwithdrawdisease fromhuman beings(Bahret al. 1974).FowlerandFowler(1971:124)cite a Shoshonesong collectedby Powellthatillustratesthis notion: (2) Oursong willenter that distantland thatgleamingland that gleamingland androllthe lakein waves. The singercan explorethe beautyof the SpiritLandfromevery possible perspective.In narrative,landscapeelements are deployedexclusivelyin a trope that I call "path,"i.e., the inventoryof usefullandscapeitems that lie on which alongthe waystravelledby beingsof the creationtime,andlandforms they left theirmark.But, in song, the tropeof the "view"appears:large-scale imagesof landscapecelebratedfortheirbeautyare madevisible.RobFranklin and Pam Bunte (1988) recordeda SanJuanPaiuteRoundDancesong from AnnaWhiskersthatincorporatessucha view, a visionnecessarilyconstituted froma distance: (3) Yahaiyaheyayaheyaheya Streams should begin running

Streamswillbeginrunning

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Downfromthe mountain Streamswillbeginrunning Yahaiyaheyayaheyaheya RoscindaNolasquez,a speakerof Cupefio,a Uto-Aztecanlanguageof the SouthernCalifornia Takicbranch,sang of a movingview on a hot day in the San Diego Mountains(HillandNolasquez1973): (4) Tewam,tewam3 Tanpenaypepuwaxinuk Na itewam tukvalpete Lameesa'qax Tewam,tewam Tanpenaypepuwaxinuk Na itewam

Look,look Howdancingthere the land'sface divides Now look UponTukvalPete fromLa Mesa Look,look How dancingthere the land'sface divides Now look.

inoratory,as inthe TohonoO'odham Imagesof landscapeappearoccasionally andPimaoratorydiscussedby Bahr(1975)andUnderhill et al. (1979).In such speeches the voice of the oratoris said to be powerful.One subgenreof orationsis called"Mockingbird Speeches,"in referenceto the powerof their voice: a mockingbird orates in a spiritRainHouse to release the rain. In shamanisticorationthe voice is ElderBrotherShaman,journeyingin the creation of the worldalongthe path of the sun, the "floweryroad,"a Flower Worldimageto whichI willreturn.The shaman'seyes andhairandface are often coveredwith tanhadag,the dust andleaves drivenon the windbefore the summerthunderstorm, so he speaksin a momentof imminentrainfall.The shamanis transformedby the beautyof the SpiritLand,as in an orationby the PimaoratorThinLeather,collectedby FrankRusselland publishedby Bahr(1975): mountainsthey reddenedandstoodup, (5) Ouropposite-standing thatwas the kindof thinghe wishedto see, andsoftlyinsidehimselfhe laughed Songs of landscapeare foundin some other Southwesterngroups. For instance,Navajosongs includea subgenreof songs that celebratethe first view of MountTayloras exiledNavajosreturnedto theirhomelandfromFort Sumner.LandscapesongsareextremelyrareamongYuman groups.InHinton's the texts thatcontainnature (1988)recentcollectionof Havasupai songs, only are from "circle dance" elsewhere she gives a single imagery songs, though "medicine song" about the red rocks at Supai (Hinton 1980). These are very recent borrowings, most of which originate with a single singer who went to

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learnedthe songs Utahto learnthe GhostDancereligionandwho apparently of the claimthat song is the most fromPaiutepeoplethere. In confirmation powerfulgenre for SouthwesternUto-Aztecanpeoples, this manconsidered the circledancesongs to be dangerousandthoughtthat they hadmadehim sick (Hinton1988:17). THE FLOWERWORLD Chromaticsymbolismis most developedamongspeakersof Uto-Aztecan languagesin songs aboutlandscape.The FlowerWorld,the centralconcern of this paper,is a system of metaphorsthat has emergedas a furtherspecializationof this genre. In this specializedrhetoricalsystem, the floweris a dominantsymbolin the sense of Turner(1967);evocationof the floweropens a multitudeof meanings,unitingbiologicalandethicalpoles. Fullydeveloped FlowerWorldrhetoricexhibitsall of the followingproperties: verbalgenreforinvokingthe symbolof the flower, 1. Songis the appropriate but oratoryoccasionallyrefers to aspectsof the FlowerWorld. 2. The flower standsfor the SpiritLandin generaland for the spiritual aspect of humanbeings. The SpiritLandis a floweryregionwith flowery houses, paths, and patios;these are the spiritualaspects of houses, paths, and patiosin this world.To sing or to speak of somethingas a "flower"or "flowery"evokes its spiritualaspect. 3. At the biologicalpole, the flowersstandfor literalflowers, for human hearts, and for other aspects of vital force, such as blood, and organs of perception.Rarely,the flowermay standfor the vagina.In this aspect, the andbiologicalpoles that flowersymbolexhibitsthat unityof spiritual-ethical Turner(1967)has called"condensation." 4. The flower is symbolicallyassociatedwith fire: fire "blossoms,"and flowers"burstintoflame." 5. The flower is associatedwith gender identity.Flowers can stand for femalebeautyandfecundity,but the flowersymbolis even more frequently associatedwithmalestrengthandspirituality. inthe southernUto-Aztecanlanguages, TheFlowerWorldis mostelaborated withcloselysimilarpoeticsystems involvedin its evocationin bothAztecand Yaqui.It is also foundin an elaboratedformamongPimangroupsandamong the Hopi(anorthernUto-Aztecangroup).It wasonlypartially developedamong Numic-speaking peoplessuchas the PaiuteandShoshone.Songsof landscape are foundamongTakic-speaking Uto-Aztecangroupsin SouthernCalifornia, where the associationbetweenburningandbloomingalso appears,together witha smallset of metaphoricflowernamesthatare also attestedin Tohono O'odham. Some aspects of the Flower Worldcomplex can be found among non-UtoAztecan Pueblo groups, such as Taos, and amongthe Navajo. Bunzel's (1932a, 1932b) work on Zuni ceremonialismincludes extensive texts of prayers and

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chants,althoughthese mightbetterbe comparedwithoratorythanwithsong. Flower Worldimageryis not attested in Bunzel'stranslations,althoughthe "chromatic" imageryreportedby B. Tedlock(1983)is clearlypresent, as is attentionto sacred landscapes.Songs of landscapesand metaphorsof the FlowerWorldareapparently absentamongYumanspeakers.TheFlowerWorld is very wellattestedamongthe Tzotzilof Chiapas,andthereis some evidence that it is ancientamongMayan-speaking peoples.This patternof distribution suggests some developmentof FlowerWorldelementsin a zone of contact between the SouthwestandMesoamericaduringthe prehistoricperiod.

FLOWERANDSONG The first propertyof the flowercomplexis the associationof the flower symbolwith song, the most powerfulgenre of verbalart andthe one that is oflandscapeandforevokingandinfluencing forrepresentation mostappropriate the SpiritLand. Amongthe Aztec, song was a privilegedandpowerfulgenre. To be a poet, accordingto Le6n-Portilla(1982), was one of the three honoredways (the othersbeingthatof the calendrical expertor divinerandthatof the warrior). Aztec"poetry"wasalmostcertainlysung;manuscripts survivingfromthe early notationsthatset drumming Colonialperiodincludemarginal rhythms,andthe written lines includenot only ordinarywords, but vocables, sequences of meaninglesssyllablesthat must have filledout rhythmiclines in the sung performance.In the Nahuatllanguagethe associationof flowerandsong not onlycanbe deducedby the frequentmentionof flowersinsongandthe absence of such mentionin other genres, but also is madeexplicitin the well-known ceremonialcoupletin cuicatlin x6chitl'thesong, the flower',meaning"poetry, song."Poets were oftencalled"singersof flowers."Inexample(6) below,the use of xdchitl'flower'has at least a doublemeaning.It standsfor the song, of the poet, andfor the warriorswiththeirshortandglorious the "weavings" lives. The poet says thathe is merelya "humbleweaverof grass,"since all the flowersthathe mightsing are fallenin battle. Coyol(6) Cuicatlanyolque',"Youall livedas songs,"a song of Tochihuitzin 1978:130): chiuhqui(Le6n-Portilla As songs you lived, As flowersyou bloomed, Youprincesover the people, am a humbleweaverof grass, I, Tochihuitzin, For they have alreadyfallen, Flowergarlands. The associationof flowerandsong is also very clearfor Yaqui.Evers and Molina(1987)publishedan extensivetreatmentof the Yaquideer songs, and

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they note the similarityof these to Aztec poetry.Yaquideer songs represent the FlowerWorldat a level of detailthatcloselycorrespondsto thatfoundin Nahuatlpoetry.The YaquiFlowerWorld,the seyaania, is sungbydeer singers who animatea dancerwho becomesthe magicaldeer, the "flowerperson"of the FlowerWorld.(Seyaincludesthe root for "flower";ania refers to one of a system of parallel"worlds.") (7) Seata Valumai,"Washthe Flower,"a Yaquideer dancesong (Evers and Molina1987:93): Overthere, I, in the center Ayamanne seyewailo of the flower-coveredwilderness huyatanaisukuni machiaukuaktekai I turnedtowarddawn. Sea mochalaawaka Witha clusterof flowersin my antlers, I walk. weyekai Tane seata valumai But I am washedby the flower, sea mochalaawaka witha clusterof flowersin my antlers, I walk. weyekaiii. In TohonoO'odhamandPima,flowersare mentionedin alltypes of songs, includingsongs in narrative,songs in curing,andprivate"singingfor power." Russell(1975[1904])gives a curingsong in whichthe "spiritway"of Gopher is evokedby the mentionof flowers: (8) In the crimsonevening,I go followingna-a; This roadmadeof my manycrimsonflowersna-a Speaking,to my burrow,to my landI go na This song is sung to cure GopherSickness, one of the Piman"staying sicknesses."JuanGregorioexplainedto DonaldBahrandDavidLopezthat, hearingsongs whichare pronouncedtrulyandtell trulyof their spiritways, the spiritanimalsare pleasantlystimulatedandwithdrawthe sickness (Bahr et al. 1974). fromthe story of the creationof corn andis Example(9) is a "recitative" Man to make his sung by Corn gardenfertile. (9) Corn'sSongfromthe TohonoO'odhamstoryof "WherePeopleGotCorn" (SaxtonandSaxton1973): Overthere beneaththe sunrise, the cornerof the earthis my garden, In it flowersongs go forthin every direction... The evocationof the Flower Worldis also foundin a Pimaorationfirst

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hereis fromBahr(1975:41). publishedby Russell(1975[1904]);the translation The orator,who speaksas ElderBrotherShaman,followsthe flowerypath, the "sun'scenter-lyingroad": (10) Its south-lyingroad, all beaded, all earringed,wing featherbowstring sided, downfeatherbowstringsided, cut woodfloweredsided ... Its north-lyingroad, all beaded, all earringed,wing featherbowstring sided, downfeatherbowstringsided, cut woodfloweredsided.... The image of the floweryroad, with its prototypein the pathof the sun across the heavens, is one of the most widelydiffusedFlowerWorldmetaphors.Flowers,alongwithshells, preciousstones, birds,andotherchromaticelements,linethe waysof the HolyPeopleinNavajosong.No metaphors of the FlowerWorld,except thatassociatingflowersandfire, are attested for contemporaryCaliforniaUto-Aztecanverbal art. However, Wallace (1978:643)gives a dreamsong text fromthe Wintuof north-centralCalifornia,collectedby DorothyDemetracopoulou (Lee), whichmentionsthe road it with a mention of the flowery combining MilkyWay,a composite that is also attested Southern California Uto-Aztecans: image among (11) It is abovethatyou andI shallgo; Alongthe MilkyWayyou andI shallgo ... It is aboveyou andI shallgo; Alongthe flowertrailyou andI shallgo... Pickingflowerson our way you andI shallgo. The presenceof these imagesin Winturemindsus of Nichols'(1981)proposal that Uto-Aztecanlanguageswere partof a multilingual system in "OldCalifornia." The associationbetween flowerand song is also foundamongthe Hopi, where songs commonlyinvokeflowerimages,as in (12). (12) First verse of TwelfthSongfromthe OraibiHopiPowamuyuCeremony andtranslationby EmorySekaquaptewa): (Voth1901; orthography Hark!my mother Ha'o!ingu'u Hark!my mother Ha'o!ingu'u takuriingu'u sukwiningya Directlynorthwest,yellowcorn, my mother haahaatsiw siiutatkya Directlysoutheast, the Desert Lilyis blooming si'yta Our faces are of beautiful itamuyu'pitsangwatoya'a countenance Ourfaces, give us the moistureof itamuyu'sineevelatoya'a flowers

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put'avinur pitsangwa'ykyango put'avinor sineevela'ykyango tuuhiyongwani'yta, tuuhiyongwani'yta ha'o!ingu'u.

Withthatmayit be thatI, while havingthatbeautifulcountenance Withthatmayit be thatI while havingthatmoistureof the flower Willkeep everyone delighted,willkeep everyone delighted. Hark!my mother.

Numicpeopleslike the PaiuteandShoshonedo not appearto have the full FlowerWorldcomplex,butflowersareanappropriate subjectforRoundDance in in as the (13). songs, example 1986:648): (13) A NorthernShoshoneRoundDancesong (Liljeblad The largesunflower,the fullyyellowflower spreadingout Fromthe water-clearroot Heena! Amongthe Numicpeoples,thereis muchevidencethatsongsare a powerful genre. Nonetheless,there is a long-standing controversyaboutthe meaning of NumicRoundDance songs, a genre whichmost authoritiesagree is the oldestGreatBasinsonggenre, andone whichis confinedto the Basinpeoples (exceptfor diffusioninto the Plainswiththe 1889-1890GhostDance).Sapir, have held thatthese songs seem to be Steward,andmost recentlyLiljeblad ratherthan"sacred,"andthat"theRoundDanceandthe related "entertaining," songs remainedsecular"(Liljeblad1986:647)even duringthe GhostDance. Sapir (1910) felt that recitativesof the type illustratedin (1) above were of narratives.Liljeblad embellishments "meaningless" proposesthatthe mood of RoundDancesongs (suchas example13) is "intuitiveratherthancontemorpersonification" no conscioussymbolism 1986:647). plative,involving (Liljeblad A positioncontraryto thatof Sapir,Steward,andLiljebladis represented by Park(1941), who emphasizedthat RoundDanceswere heldwhenpeople was sacred.Crum(1980),a native needed to prayandthattheirsignificance for of has also Shoshone, speaker argued recognitionof the deepermeaning of RoundDance songs. In discussinga smallcollectionof four such songs chosento be accessibleto whitechildren,she observesthatthese songs are usually"composedin an elevatedand figurativeform of language... with several levels of meaning"(Crum1980:5). Vander(1988) foundthat Wind RiverShoshonesingersbelievedthe RoundDanceandrelatedgenres to be spirituallypowerful. The present demonstrationof the spiritualpurpose of the flower song complex supports the position taken by Park, Crum, and Vander.Thus the "meaningless" attention to the beautifuliridescence of the baskinglizardin (1) draws

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andthus evokes the spiritualaspect attentionto the system of chromaticism of LizardWoman.In the Uto-Aztecanparallelworlds-the FlowerWorld,the landof the dead,the Sun'sheaven-frivolityanddance,beautifulloose women with their hair decoratedin flowers, dizzy spinningand flashingcolors, all of the RoundDancemaybe deeplyserious,and appear.Thus the "frivolity" the "concreteness"of RoundDancesongs mayconstitutea complexrealmof metaphorwhichis ultimatelyhighly"abstract."Indeed,RoundDance songs forthe visionof thenewworldportrayed mayhavebeenparticularly appropriate in the GhostDance. In a study of the song repertoiresof five WindRiverShoshonewomen, Vander(1988) publishedseventy-fiveShoshonesongs. These includesongs thatcameto the WindRiverShoshonewiththe GhostDancereligionandare clearlyrelatedto the WesternShoshoneRoundDancesongs. They are called narayasongs andare saidto cometo singersin dreams.Accordingto Vander these songs constitutea sort of relic;onlythe oldestShoshonesingthemand rememberperformancesof them. One consultantfelt that narayasongs had of themseemed to bringon sickbeen abandonedwhenwinterperformances ness. Youngersingersuse a genrethatthey callRoundDancesongsandthink of them as being very "Shoshone."However,like most of the songs in the WindRiverShoshonerepertoires,whichareclearlyderivedfromPlainsculture or fromthe modernPowwowcomplex,these are sungentirelyin vocables. Narayasongs are in Shoshone,not in vocables.They containrichimages ofnature,especiallywater-related imagessuchas fog, snow,andrunningwater, butalso lightsourcessuchas the sunandstars, andmanyreferencesto color. One song publishedby Vander(1986:45)developsa theme of a "pinetree butterfly,"flickeringin darknessunderneaththe shadeof pines, a chromatic imagestronglyreminiscentof Pimansongsaboutbutterflies(Bahr1983).Plants canalso be sungin narayasongs;one songincludesa referenceto a medicinal root, andanothercelebratesthe pinetree. The songsalsodescribethe release of the soul after death. Vanderdistinguishesthe "nature"complexand the com"soul"complex,but these two complexesmustbe related;the "nature" Land. Vander concludes evokes the almost (1986) Indeed, Spirit plex ce--tainly that narayasoigs are closely relatedto GhostDance songs, with theirpreoccupationwiththe SpiritWorld.However,noneof the narayasongspublished by Vanderincludereferencesto flowers.This maybe due to a splitin a pair of images, flowersandfeathers,that are bothpartof the chromaticsystem; the usualimageof the soul for the Shoshoneis a feather,a pointthatwillbe discussedin more detailbelow. THE FLOWERWORLDAS THE SPIRITLAND The Flower Worldis the place where the spiritualaspects of living things are found. This is a timeless world, parallelto our own. It is often called the

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" andis oftenthoughtof as a landof the dead.Among SpiritLand,or "paradise, the variousUto-Aztecanpeoples,the SpiritLandoftensplitsintoa numberof specializedsubworldswiththeirownuniqueproperties,as inthe severalAztec heavensor the severalYaquiworlds.But amonggroupswhichexhibitthe full developmentof the FlowerWorldcomplex,the spiritualaspect of anything that has vitalforce or spiritualimportancecan be capturedby referringto it as a flower or flowery.The Flower Worldis the realmof heroes in their creativeaspect,andthe spiritwaysalongwhichtheytravelare"floweryroads." the Amongthe Aztec, flowersembellishseveralparadises:e.g., Tamoanchan, andthe tree of flowersandlife, whichlies in the gardenworldof incarnation west, andTlalocan,the earthlyparadise,where those who die by drowning wanderamongflowers.Flowers, birds,andbutterfliesare also foundin the Sun'sheaven,where the spiritsof men who die in battleandof womenwho die in childbirthescort the sun on his flowerypath. In Huichol,the Flower Worldis the Wirikutaof the peyote hunt,the landof ultimatebeauty,where the spiritsof deer and corn are immanentand whichis entered by human beings througha peyotejourney.This pilgrimageinvolvesa languageof "reversals," in whichthe moonbecomesthe coldsun, duskbecomesdawn,sleep becomeswaking,andthe sacredpeyoteis called"flower" 1974:159). (Meyerhoff Amongthe Yaquithe seyaania is the landof the dead,andthe deer dancer associationsof flowersin Yaquiare helps spiritsto reachit. The metaphorical diverse. WhenChristwas crucified,his blood,strikingthe ground,turnedto flowers,andmanyotherobjectsinYaquicanbe giventhe spiritualaspectwhich is dominantin seya aniaby beingreferredto as "theflower."For instance, the red ribbonstied throughthe antlersof the deer dancer'sheaddressrepresent the spiritualvitalityof the deer andare called"flower"; the instruments used by musicianswho accompany the deer singeranddancerare referredto in theirspiritualaspectas "flowerrasper," "flowerdrum,"andthe like (Evers andMolina1987). northward,the FlowerWorldis foundamongthe Pimans.This Continuing is seen in songs (8) and (9) andthe orationfragment(10), above. In Piman, as in Yaqui,the mere mentionof flowerscan transformthe worldevokedby the singeror oratorintothe immanent realmof the spiritandof creation.Ofelia states thattodaya favoritesongof O'odham Zepeda(personalcommunication) women sings of 'auppaheosig'cottonwoodflowers'.This song evokes the the scene cottonydowndriftingdizzilyin the sunandbreezeand"transforms" from the mundaneto the spiritual.(In O'odham,spinning,drifting,shining of shamans,warriors,and objectsevoke the FlowerWorldandthe "dizziness" those whodrinkthe saguarowineto bringthe rain.The deadare saidto enjoy foreverthe pleasuresof spinningin the dance.)The "transformative" use of flower symbolsin orationcan be seen when the O'odhamwar leaderopens the path to war by speakingof the "flowerycigarettes"that he will smoke (Russell 1975 [1904]:337).The cigarettesin the house of a spiritwho will guide a war leaderburnin the cornersof piles of Apachehair,"smokingin

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manyflowercolors,whiteflowers,blackflowers,glitteringflowers,dirtyflowers, yellowflowers"(Russell1975[1904]:359). The FlowerWorldis alsofoundas a wayof speakingof anafterworld paradise amongthe Hopi. For the forthcoming Dictionaryof Hopi, KennethHilland havecollectedthe termsiitalpu'floweryland'.The root EmorySekaquaptewa sii- 'flower'and the root tal- 'shiningforth'are combined,with the element -pupermittingthe stemto acceptlocativesuffixes,as inthefollowingillustrative sentencein-thedictionary: Pas pa nu' mookye' suyansiitdlpumini,"Justthink, when I die, I willsurelygo to the floweryland."The FlowerWorldis clearly invokedin ritualssuch as the Powamuyuat Oraibi,reportedby Voth(1901). I have given a Powamuyusong at (12) above. The flower symbolis deployedvisuallyin several sand paintingsin the Powamuyuceremony.These depictsacredspaces, suchas the Sun'shouse, which is decoratedwith many symbolsfor blossoms, as can be seen in a Powamuyusandpaintingof Sun'shousereproducedby Voth(1901:76).These Hopi dry paintingsare reminiscentof representationsof the sun's flowery paradisein Aztec frescos. (Livingflowers can be used in dry paintingsin Nahuatl-speaking regionstoday,as in some of the largedrypaintingsmadeof flowerpetalsat Huamantla, Tlaxcala,forthe Augustfestivalof the Assumption of the Virgin.) Flowersare also used as decorativeelementsin dancecostumesamongthe Hopi,where the dancersare spiritbeings.In otherPuebloangroups,flowers are usuallyattachedto masks and are worn on the head, close to the face. They are also used as altardecorations.These uses of flowersymbolismare ancient.At SunflowerCaveinnorthernArizona,indepositssubsequently dated as PuebloIII(A.D.1250-1300),KidderandGuernsey(1919)founda cacheof carvedfromwood andtwo additional twenty-sixpainted"sunflowers" yellow flowers made of cut and paintedtannedskin.4Twenty-oneof the wooden flowerswere paintedyellow,andfivewerepaintedwhite.Theartificial flowers, conealongwitha carvedandpaintedwoodenbirdandtwenty-five"varnished shapedwoodenobjects,"werecarefullystoredina largeolla.Thecacheobjects were most likelymaterialsfor ritualcostumes.A similarcache, includingfive flowersmadeof agavewoodandcottonstring(twoof the flowers multipetalled were painted,one blueandone green), was foundin a cave at BonitaCreek, Arizona,slightlynortheastof Safford(Wasley1962). The cachealso included wooden cones, a simplebird carving,and tablas, terracedwooden shapes (perhapsrepresentingclouds)used in dancecostumesandaltardecorations. Wasleysuggests thatthe BonitaCreekcave site is associatedwitha groupof peoplewho migratedto the areain the last quarterof the thirteenthcentury. Pointingout the similaritybetween the SunflowerCave and BonitaCreek used in essentiallythe same materials,he arguesthat they were "probably way in virtuallyidentical ceremonies performed by closely related groups of people sharing the same ceremonialbeliefs" (Wasley 1962:393). Althoughflowers are part of sung representations of the Spirit Landamong

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some Numicpeoples, I have not foundany Numicexpressionequivalentto FlowerWorldor "floweryland,"norhaveI foundNumicsongs whereobjects No mentionof thatare not flowersare referredto as "flowers"or "flowery." flowersoccursin Takicsongsof the SpiritLand,andthese groupsseem largely to lackFlowerWorldsymbolism.Takiccommunities emphasizedritualpractice plantDaturameteloides. centeringaroundthe use of toloache,the hallucinogenic In relativelyrecenttimesthey adoptedthe cultof Chinigchinich. Chinigchinich cult practiceincludeswhirlingdancesanda fire danceandincorporatesfrom the toloachecult the searchfor sacredvisionsobtainedby drinkinginfusions made fromdaturaleaves andflowers. I have been unableto findany flower motifsin Chinigchinich ritual,exceptfordaturaitself(it has a very conspicuous likedaturato be partof the system flower);I considerthe use of hallucinogens but not to be necessarilypartof the Flower of spirituality chromaticism, through are floweringplants.Instead,in Worldsystem, even whenthe hallucinogens astronomical symbolismis the most importantsource thought, Chinigchinich of chromaticglitter.The wanawut,the anthropomorphized MilkyWay,stands and becamea star. he rose into the for the soul. WhenChinigchinich died, sky not into into turned "nobles" dead the flowers,birds, stars, Among Luisefio, andbutterflies,whileordinarypeoplewentto the paradiseof the dead,telmok 1978[1933]).The glitterof the starsmaybe a reflexof the system (Harrington ritualfailsto emphasizecolor.Kroeber(1976 of chromaticism, butChinigchinich [1925]:666)notes that the relativedrabnessof Luisefioritualcontrastswith the brightcolorsused in Kuksuritualin CentralCalifornia. FLOWERS,SOULS, AND HEARTS In additionto standingfor the "floweryworld,"a spiritualrealm,flowers representcertainbiologicalandspiritualaspectsof humanbeings.It is in this a aspect that the flowersymbolexhibitswhatTurnercalled"condensation," them which of dominant fundamental powerby uniting gives symbols property an ethicalwitha biologicalpole. Amongthe Aztec, the maledivinityof flowers was the "Lordof Souls," Xochipilli'FlowerPrince',who is personified(with Aztec excess) in the naked,flayedcaptivewarriorwho stands literal-minded fall for the freedsoul, releasedfromits earthlyskin(Sejournd1960).Warriors in battleas flowers,an imageseen in (6) above. The souls of warriorsmeet the new Sunin the dawnandescortit to the zenithas flowers,bright-feathered birds,andbutterflies.Aztecreligionhadas its goalto causethe "flowerof the body [the heart]to bloom"in a deathwhichyieldeda new lightin the world. 1960:144).Tey6ll6,that aspect of life that continuesin death, can (Sejournm be representedby a flowersymbol,andflowersstandfor bloodshed in war andsacrifice(Ortizde Montellano1989). The most famous discussion of the metaphorassociating humanhearts with the germinative power of plants is that of Whorf, for Hopi:

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The subjectiveor manifestingcomprisesall that we wouldcall future, BUTNOTMERELY THIS;it includes equally and indistinguishablyall that

we callmental--everythingthatappearsor exists in the mind,or, as the not onlythe heartof man,but Hopiwouldpreferto say, in the HEART, the heart of animals,plants,and things,and behindand withinall the formsand appearancesof naturein the heartof nature,andby an implicationand extensionwhichhas been felt by more thanone anthropologist,yet wouldhardlyever be spokenof bya Hopihimself,so charged is the ideawithreligiousandmagicalawesomeness,in the very heartof the Cosmos,itself. (Whorf1956:59-60;emphasisin original) WhileWhorfsstatementsuggeststhatthe Hopiassociatethe heartandthe germinativepowerof plants,andwhilethe Hopiclearlyassociateflowerswith the SpiritLandandwithsong, EmorySekaquaptewa (personalcommunication) states that for the Hopi,the "soul,"the spiritualelementof humanbeings,is like a feather.Featherscarrymessages in Hopiprayeras well. Images of feathersappearin the chromaticsystem in Nahuatlpoetry.Sometimesthese are closely associatedwith the flowerepithet,as in the CantaresMexicanos wherebothpreciousfeathersandbeautifulflowersstandforthe singer'scomposition(Bierhorst1985).5Andofcoursebothflowersandfeathershavefurther associations:flowers with the preciouswater, and featherswith lightness, motility,andthe highflightof birds,who cancarryprayersto divinities.(See also Laughlin1962 andHultenkrantz 1951.) FLOWERSAND FIRE The metaphoricassociationof flowersandflamesis verywidespreadin UtoAztecanlanguages.The metaphorof the bloomingfloweras "burstinginto flame"can be reconstructedas a lexicalitem meaning'blossom,bloom'for Uto-Aztecan.AttestationsincludeNahuatlxo-tla,Yaquisew-ta, proto-southern andO'odham hio-ta,wherethefirstelementis the rootmeaning'flower,bloom', and the second is the root for 'fire, flame'.The metaphoricassociationof flowersandflamesis very clearin Aztec. Karttunen(1983:331)notes thatnot only did the verb x6tlameanboth 'to catchfire'and 'to bloom',but that the verb cuep6ni'to bloom'couldalso mean 'to explode,give off a glow'. The heart, seat of tey6ll6,the eternal'soul-light',is associatedwith the flowerflameimageryamongthe Aztec.HeartsarerepresentedinAztecartas blooming or as in flames.The codicesare oftenambiguousin theirrepresentation; The associationof probablybothbloomandflameare impliedsimultaneously. in who the heartwithflameis seen the Aztecideathathumans were especially in the fieldsof divination, for theirbrilliance art, or imagination" "distinguished were said to have the same "divinefire"as burnedin the heartsof the gods (LopezAustin1980:256).

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The northernUto-Aztecanlanguagesdo not have the flower-flamelexical item for 'bloom'.Instead,they have a verb whichis derivedfromthe word for 'flower'(or, moreprobably,vice versa). However,whilethe flower-flame metaphoris not lexicalizedas in the southernUto-Aztecanlanguages,the associationis attestedfor the Takiclanguages,whichotherwisedo not have the FlowerWorldcomplex.This is seen in a singleexampleshownbelow, a Cupefiosong (14) where, in the secondandfourthlines, the heartof Mukat, "sewenina.The verbsewenina'bloomburningin cremation,is saidto "bloom, ing'(ina sungvariant)is the sameas the wordusedforthe bloomingof flowers andcontainsthe rootsewe-'flower'.The songtells of a momentin the Cupefio creationstory. Coyotehovers outsidethe circleof mourners,readyto steal the Creator'sheartfromhisfuneralpyre.ThusCupefiio clearlyassociatebloomin the the with fire, blazingheartof Mukat. burning prototypical spiritual ing Here we also see the associationof blooming,a flowermetaphor,with the freeingof vitalforce throughcremation. "DeathSong"(HillandNolasquez1973): (14) Cupefiio Fromthere, fire went on its journey ingaxkut hdisipeyax kut sewenina Fromthere, fire blooming. angax OldCoyotefromthere isilyaaiyxataingax listened penaqmacin OldCoyotefromthere isilyaaiyxatdingax it was blooming pesewenina Fromthere, fire went on its journey angaxkut hisipeyax Fromthere, fire blooming. ingaxkut sewenina OldCoyotein thatplace isilya iyxatpete listened peniqmacin In thatplaceit was blooming pesewenina lpte The metaphorof the "blooming" fireof Mukat'sheartin its cremationpyre seems to me to attest to the presenceof FlowerWorldrhetoricin Cupefio. This is highlysignificantbecauseit suggests that the flower-fire-heart-spiritualitymetaphormayhavebeen partof the repertoireof songlanguagein the proto-Uto-Aztecan speech community.However,the myth of the cremation of Mukatis nota FlowerWorldstory.Creationstorieswithanepisodeinwhich Coyotestealsthe creator'sheartfromhis cremationpyrearefoundonlyamong SouthernCalifornia Uto-Aztecansandamongthe ColoradoRiverYumangroups (Morris1977);the FlowerWorldis notpresentamongthe Yumans.Inallthese groupsthe mythof the cremationof the creatorlicensesfunerarypractices. FLOWERSAND GENDERDIFFERENCES Associationof flowersymbolismwithgenderdifferentiation is foundinseveral SarahWinnemucca groups.In her autobiography, Hopkinsreportsthatmany

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Paiutegirls bore the names of flowers. In the Spring"Festivalof Flowers" ceremonies,the girls who hadthese nameswouldshow theirmaleadmirers their namesakeflowers, speakingof "seeingthemselvesin bloom"(Hopkins 1883:46-47). In the actualceremony,flower-namedgirls wouldsing about theirnamesakeflowers;they wouldbe saidto be "nota girlanymore, she is a flowersinging"(Hopkins1883:47).Youngunmarried Hopiwomenworetheir hairtwistedintowhattodayareoftencalled"squash blossoms."'Voth(1901:139) notes of the haatsi,"Calochortus aureus,Desert Lily,"that youngHopigirls wouldcollectthese beautifulblossoms,andthe boys wouldtry to take them awayfromthem. Parsons(1936)lists a numberof "flowernames"appropriate for womenat Taos Pueblofor their"delicacy"; these includenamesglossed with meaningssuch as 'FlowerWaterCarry','Hummingbird Flower', 'Sun Flower',and 'FlowerDance'.At Taos the namesof men were dominatedby sky elements, such as star, sun, andeagle, andalso by elementsassociated withhuntingsuchas 'arrow'.Bothmaleandfemalenamescanincludeelements forwater.(Alist of personalnamescompiledby Parsons[1929]at IsletaPueblo includesno femaleflowernames,so suchnamesare apparentlynot universal amongthe Pueblos.) The associationof flowerswithwomenamongthe Paiute,Hopi,andat Taos may not be partof FlowerWorldsymbolismin the relativelynarrowsense I have developedhere; they have to do insteadwith a differentlinkbetween femininityandflowers(Friedrich1978). For instance,in NorthernCalifornia, amonggroupsfor whichFlowerWorldrhetoricis not attested, publicdances are heldin celebrationof a girl'spuberty;at suchdanceswomenwearflower crowns, andDriver(1941)reportsthat some tribespermitsexuallicenseon the last nightof the dance.Certainlythe associationof flowerswithwomenis not universally attestedamonggroupsthatuse FlowerWorldsymbolism. Among the Aztec, flowersstandfor the spiritualaspect of both genders.In Nahuatl of a warrioris poetry a particularly way to speakmetaphorically appropriate as a "flower,"with a short andgloriouslife. Whilein Aztec nameswith the stem x6chi-'flower'were oftenwomen'snames,as in the nameof the female 'FlowerQuetzalBird',male deities such as Mdcuilx6chitl deityX6chiquetzal 'FiveFlower'andX6chipilli'FlowerPrince'alsohadnameswiththis element. AmongothersouthernUto-Aztecangroupssuchas the Huichol,Yaqui,and or even dominantly male,being Pimans,the flowersymbolis alsoandrogynous associatedwithfemalefecundityandagriculture, butalsowiththe hunt,a male domain.Meyerhoff(1974)has suggestedthatfor Huicholthe ideaof Wirikuta, the flowery,light-filled SpiritWorld,is partof a syncretizingof the agricultural system (the spiritsof corn dwellin Wirikuta)with the ancientworldof the hunters(symbolizedin the deer), accomplished throughthe thirdpartof the triad,peyote. Huicholwomencanuse peyote, but the Yaquideer singingand a maledomain;women dancingthat evokes the FlowerWorldis emphatically do neither, and they should not touch the various instruments and costume elements. Male pascola dancers, not female dancers, wear a flower on their

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heads in Yaquifiestas. The Pimansong (9), in whichCornMansings of his "flowerygarden,"therebypromotingthe growthof the corn,exemplifiesthe associationwith agriculture.But the PimanFlower World,like that of the HuicholandYaqui,is also associatedwithhunt,andespeciallywiththe deer, the prototypicalgame animal.Huntersgain power by singingof blossoms; Underhill(1976[1938])gives a hunter'ssong: (15) The red ocotilloflowerThere I foundthe deer; They ran, They brokeit down. The yellowchamisoflowerThere I foundthe deer; They rushedforth, They brokeit down. Bahr,Giff,andHavier(1979)havepublisheda seriesof Pimanhuntingsongs whichcontainmanyreferencesto flowersandbutterfliesandto colors.They suggest thatthese chromaticreferencesmaycontextualizethe songsas "daytime"or "nighttime" huntingsongs, but it seems likelythat the songs also evoke the floweryworldof the spiritualdeer thatis seen more clearlyin the Yaquideer song complex. A serious problemin untanglingthe indigenousassociationbetween femininityand flowers, especiallyin Mesoamerica,is the heavy contemporary influenceof the cult of the VirginMary;the latter divinityprobablyinherits fromAphroditeher specialassociationwithroses andlilies, two of "thegreat trioof popularflowers"(Seaton1989;the thirdwas the violet)thatareattested in Europefromthe earliestperiod.Burkhart(1987, 1989)reportsthatearly Christianmissionariesin Mexico, especiallythe FranciscanSahaguin,wrote psalmsand hymnsin Nahuatl,using a metaphorical system borrowedfrom Nahuatlsongs of the FlowerWorldto locatethe Virginin a flowerygarden. Friedrich(personalcommunication) reportsa very activeset of flowermetaphorsforeroticlove in modernTarascansong, buthe admitsto the probability of Europeaninfluenceon this tradition. THE FLOWERWORLDIN CHIAPAS I have concentratedprimarilyon the extensiveattestationsof the Flower Worldfromthe SouthwestandnorthernMesoamerica, especiallyamongspeakers of Uto-Aztecanlanguages.However,an extremelyclear accountof the FlowerWorldfromsouthernMesoamerica,including every elementreviewed above, comes from Laughlin's(1962) account of flower symbolism among the Tzotzil Maya of Zinacantan,Chiapas.As elsewhere in Mesoamerica, for certain festivals the decorationof crosses, altars, and ritualobjects with flowers is an

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who must continually changethe flowers importanttask of the mayordomos, so thatthey willbe fresh. Seaton(1989:685)notes the use of flowerofferings where theirpaganhistorymadethem controversial,so in early Christianity, this practicemaybe partiallyChristiananddoes not by itselfdemonstratethe presenceof the FlowerWorldcomplex.However,the religiouscargoitself is called "the flower of service"in the Tzotzil communityof Chenalh6.This locutionis not attestedin Europeanrhetoric,as faras I know,andis strongly "flower"among reminiscentof the evocationof spirituality by the attribution the Uto-Aztecans.Flowersare frequentlymentionedin Tzotzilprayers,and the last lineof anyprayeris usually"Mayit pass underthe flowerabove,may it pass underthe floweryface" (Laughlin1962:135).Laughlinreports that is a featureof manyritual referencesto deitiesandsacredobjectsas "flowery" flowers with these genres the of and association orations,suggesting songs that I have notedabove. Flowersare used in curingin Zinacantan. Indeed,any plantused in curing is rituallyreferredto as nichim'flower'.Flowersandplantsare boiledin water to create a "holywater"thatis used to wash sick peopleandis also used in of cadaversforburialandfor "flowerybaths"forimagesof the the preparation saints.(AmongmodemNahuatl-speaking peoplesinTlaxcala,rubbinga person with flowersin frontof an altaris referredto as a lavada'washing'.) also standfor the soul; the bed of a sick personis Flowersin Zinacantan thatare said surrounded by thirteenbundlesof plants(rituallycalled"flowers") to standforthe thirteenpartsof the ch'ulel'soul'(Laughlin 1962:128).Flowers andthe heartare also associated;Laughlin reportsa metaphornichimal'o'one 'the holyflowerof the heart'.The associationof flowerswiththe SpiritWorld can be identifiedin theirassociationwith shamanicvision. The term for the visionin curerin Tzotzilis j'ilol 'see-er', referringto his gift of supernatural dreams;divinitiesare callednichimalsat 'floweryeyes'. Aguardiente,a powerfuland mind-altering substance,can be referredto as "flower"when it is a spark used ritually.Finally,flowersare associatedwith fire in Zinacantan: "flowerof the fire,"and a candleflamecan be can be calledmetaphorically called"flowerof the candle."Otherfamiliar imagesarefoundinTzotzil-speaking a for instance, findingthat amongthe Tzotzilof Largroups;Laughlincites, a "floweryroad." is to follow the sun said rainzar, considered that the complexin Zinacantan representeda pre-CoLaughlin the work of lumbiansurvivaland cites particularly J. Eric Thompson,who of flowersat the tipof blood-letting instruments suggestedthatrepresentations in a Mayavase paintingstood for blood(Thompson1961). Thompson(1932) observedthat the usualMayaglyphstandingfor the day or the sun was a flowerwithflourpetals,witha smallholein the center.Rands(1953)analyzed the symbolicassociationsin Mayaartof flowersthathe tookto be waterlilies; these were associatedwithdeathsymbols,withseveraldeities, withthe face andeyes (reminiscentof the Zinacantan "floweryeyes" and"floweryfaces"). It is possible,however,thatthese imagesare associated,not withthe Flower

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World,butwiththe moregeneralchromaticsystemandchromaticexperience Dobkinde Rios (1984) suggestedthat the throughthe use of hallucinogens. waterlily,whichcontainsknownpsychoactivealkaloids,mighthavebeen used to amongthe ancientMayato inducethe dreamy,languidstate appropriate shamanicvisionseeking;she notes that Randsfoundthat representationsof waterliliesoftenincludedreclininghumanfigures. THE HISTORICALPROBLEM I have establishedthat a complexmetaphorical system centeringon the symbolof the floweris very widespreadin religiouspracticein westernNorth America.7At least some elementsof it are foundin every Uto-Aztecangroup for whichwe haveinformation, althoughon the extremewesternandnorthern the complexseems to be weaklydeUto-Aztecan of the distribution, fringes best. at veloped Because of the very generaldistributionof the complexin Uto-Aztecan groups,and becauseof the possibilityof reconstructingquite specificmetafor a very early and "burning" phors, such as the associationof "blooming" I the Uto-Aztecan of in the ramification languagefamily, believethatthe stage "Old Uto-Aztecan" in an first Flower World speech communityappeared thatdate to itself, butcertainlycommunities perhapsnot the protocommunity some Takic a very earlyperiod,one in whichthe Hopi,andperhaps groups, Uto-Aztecancommunity. were stillassociatedin contactwitha proto-southern The fine-grainedsimilaritiesof languagebetween Aztec, Yaqui,and Piman poetry,the presenceof the FlowerWorldas a landof the deadin bothYaqui for protoandHopi,andthe lexicalizedbloom-burn metaphor,reconstructible as a nonlexicalmetaphor, southernUto-Aztecanandtracedamongthe Cupefiio stronglysuggest sucha history. Whileour reconstructionof the complexfor proto-southernUto-Aztecan arguesthatit diffusednorthandsouthfromthis community,the widerdistriaboutotherpossibilities. butionof FlowerWorldmetaphorsinvitesspeculation For instance,the complexmighthave originatedin southernMesoamerica, at anearly alongwithagriculture diffusingintothe OldUto-Aztecancommunity date. An intermediateexplanationis also possible:a foundational complex and the with of flowers the basic association fire, spiritual power, involving landof the deadmayhavedevelopedamongOldUto-Aztecans.Thiswas later elaboratedintothe fullFlowerWorldcomplexinMesoamerica,spreadingsouth as far as the Mayansandnorthin the elaboratedformas faras the Hopiand other Pueblopeople,perhapsin associationwiththe appearanceof otherapparentlyMesoamericanelements in Southwesternculturein the thirteenth century. It is even possible, althoughunlikely,that the Flower Worldcomplex was spread both north and south in extremely recent times by Christianmissionaries who used the Aztec version of the Flower Worldto advance their evangelical purposes.

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The mainevidenceforthe originof the FlowerWorldamongthe Uto-Aztecan level, peoplesat a very ancientperiod,possiblyeven at the proto-Uto-Aztecan is linguistic:at least some elements of it are foundin song texts for every However,the archaeological languagegroupfor whichwe have information. caches of at SunflowerCave and the artificial flowers evidence, principally BonitaCreek, attests only to a relativelylate date whichdoes not permitus to rule out a Mesoamerican origin.SunflowerCaveis a PuebloIII site, dated at aboutA.D. 1250-1300 (JeffreyDean, personalcommunication). This is at least one hundredyears afterevidencefor Mesoamerican influencebeginsto appearin the Southwest. The FlowerWorldcomplexis onlypartiallyattestedon the marginsof the Uto-Aztecanworldin TakicandNumiclanguages.Thisdistribution mightsugof these groupsto the contexts-perhaps those of Megest the marginality soamerican andspread.However, influence-inwhichthe FlowerWorldappeared sucha distribution mightbe duealso to loss of the complex,perhapsat a very late period,becauseof replacementof the celebrationof the FlowerWorldby new kindsof religiousobservance.In the case of the Takicpeoples, where we have the fortunateattestationof a burn-bloommetaphorin the Cupefio song in (14), the replacingcultmightbe the Chinigchinich religionor the cult of cremation.Cremation,althoughgeneralamongrecentYumanpeoples, appearedamongthe NorthernDieguefio(neighborsof Takicgroups)onlyin the sixteenthcentury(McGuire1982), associatedwith the spreadof a Patayan culture.Therelativelyrecentspreadof thispracticeandperhaps archaeological of its licensingmythssuggests thatcremationmightbe partof a new cultthat UtoreplacedFlowerWorldreligiouspracticeamongthe SouthernCalifornia Aztecans(if it was ever presentthere). Cremationwas the exclusivefunerarypracticeidentifiedfor the Hohokam, so its spreadin the regioncoulddateultimatelyto a periodof Patayan-Hohokam contact.A high-watermarkof the Yumanexpansionoccurredbetween A.D. 1200 and 1300. At this periodso-calledPatayanceramics,witha core distributionon the lower ColoradoRiver,are foundeastwardalongthe GilaRiver as fareast as the Phoenixbasin,in the areainhabited todayby Piman-speaking people, andwustwardaroundthe edges of whatis currentlythe SaltonSea, well into the rangeof the modernCahuilla(Waters1982). PaulFish(personal notes that ceramicsconsideredto be "Yuman" are foundin communication) Hohokamcontextsin the Phoenixarea.SinceMesoamerican influence,in the formof suchtraitsas ballcourtsandcopperbells, is obviousforthe Hohokam, Hohokammaterialsshouldbe examinedto determinewhetherthere is any evidence for the FlowerWorldcomplex.Such evidencewouldbear on the questionof a possibleMesoamerican provenanceforFlowerWorldsymbolism.8 It might be argued that the single word, "blooming,"in the Cupefio song in (14) is insufficientevidence for the presence of a Flower Worldcomplex anciently among speakers of languages of the Takic branch of Uto-Aztecan. However, there is an additionalfragment of linguisticevidence. This consists

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of three sets of namesfor conspicuousspringflowers(the springtimedisplay of annualsandof floweringtrees is especiallyassociatedwiththe FlowerWorld in the Southwest9)thatexhibitmetaphorical contentamongthe TohonoO'odham, a Pimangrouplocatedin south-centralArizonafor whichthe Flower andCupefio,Takic-speaking Worldcomplexis clearlyattested,andthe Cahuilla mountainsanddeserts.'0 The three groupslocatedin the SouthernCalifornia sets of names togethersuggest somethingmore thancoincidence,namelya sharedunderstanding of how to thinkaboutthe most conspicuousspringflowers.11 We must considerwhetherthe Flower Worldcomplexcouldhave been spread at a very late date by Christianmissionariesfamiliarwith Nahuatl symbolism.Burkhart(1987)has discussedthe extensiveuse of FlowerWorld hymnal,the PsalmodiaCristiana,composed metaphorsin a Nahuatl-language Bernardino the Franciscan soldiery missionary Sahagtin.Nahuatl-speaking by accompaniedmissionariesin the earlyperiodof expeditionsinto Sonoraand the RioGrandeandcouldalso havebeen sourcesof the systemamonggroups in those regions.The evidenceseems to weighagainstsuch a proposal.Not cacheat SunflowerCaveapparentlydate from only does the artificial-flower aboutA.D. 1250, but Evers andMolina(1987) considerthe Yaquideer song genre,wherethe imagesof the FlowerWorldappear,to be partof theaboriginal system of Yaquireligionandnot due to Christianinfluence.I am not awareof evidenceof FlowerWorldmaterialsin use by Jesuitmissionariesin Sonora, andSpicer(1967)has pointedout thatby the time Franciscanmissionswere establishedalongthe RioGrande,theywere enjoinedby the Inquisition against inhisPsalmusingheavilysyncreticmaterialslikethose developedby Sahaguin odia. Insummary,evidenceonthehistorical of the systemofmetaphors beginnings of the FlowerWorldstronglysuggests a zone of originin an OldUto-Aztecan Uto-Azspeech community,certainlypriorto the breakupof proto-southern tecan. Whilethe distribution of the complexis alsocompatiblewithan episode of secondaryelaboration in a zone of contactinvolvingMesoamericaandthe Southwestas far northas the GreatBasin and as far south as the Maya, does not sugperhapsin the twelfthandthirteenthcenturies,the distribution a but the influence out of Mesoamerica instead attests to gest one-wayspread of the northernpeoplesas significant to the repertoireof cultural contributors elements foundin this zone. The wide distribution of a detailedmetaphorical of this at least system type impliesmultilingualism, amongritualadepts,and intense and contact suggests relatively sympatheticinterestin one another's the who were involved. Researchintothe complexshould lives among peoples thus constitutea particularly favorablesite for deepeningourunderstanding of in intercultural western North America. relationships Researchon the Flower Worldis sharplyconstrainedby the paucityof information. Archaeologists studying ceramic decoration, paintings, petroglyphs, caches of ritualregalia, and other contexts where the complex might

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be attested have not, as far as I know,noted it as a coherentsystem. The literatureon Southwesternlanguagesincludesonlythe most minimalattention to flowernamesor to song language;earlycollectionsof songs were usually made by people who did not know the pertinentlanguagesandincludeonly at all. More the most cursoryglosses wherethereis anylinguisticinformation researchis needed,especiallyon the precisecontentanddates ethnohistorical of use of materialemployedby earlymissionariesin Sonora,the Rio Grande side, investigationsof ritualpractice region,andChiapas.Onthe ethnographic are of course notoriouslydifficultin the Southwest,but it seems likelythat that will have new meaningin the lightof older sources containinformation the presentproposal.Evenat thispreliminary however, stageof investigation, of the history it is happilyclearthatimportantkeys to a deeperunderstanding of westernNorthAmericacanbe gainedfromresearchintoa realmof beauty and spiritualdepth,a realmof bothfrivolityandpower,that willdeepenour not only of specifichistoricalproblems,but more generallyof understanding the thoughtof the indigenouspeopleof the Americas. NOTES 1. This paperwas originallypreparedfor a session of the 86th AnnualMeetingof Association(Chicago,Ill.) in honorof ProfessorDavid the AmericanAnthropological Frenchuponthe occasionof his retirementfromReed College:"Language,Culture, A MilangeHonoringDavidFrench," organizedby RobertBrightandEthnosemantics: I man.Workon TohonoO'odhamwas supportedby the NationalScienceFoundation. wouldliketo thankDonBahr,EllenBasso, LouiseBurkhart,LarryEvers, DickFord, KayFowler,PaulFriedrich,KelleyHays,LeonLorentzen,WickMiller,JudithVander, andOfeliaZepedafor theircommentson earlierversionsof this manuscript. 2. This absenceof attentionto landscapeis foundalso in life-historynarrativeby evocationsof landscapein the work NativeAmericansin the Southwest.The brilliant authorsas N. ScottMomadayandLeslieSilkorepresenta major of suchcontemporary genre innovationin NativeAmericanliterature.Basso (1988) discusses the "potent in moraldiscoursesamongthe WesternApache; of mentioning shorthand" place-names my impressionis thatApacheplace-namesare moreelaboratelydescriptivethanare most Uto-Aztecanplace-names,but even in these stories we do not findrhetorical attentionto the descriptionof placebeyondthe mentionof the names. 3. Miss Nolasquezdidnot feel thatshe couldtranslatethis songproperly;she said that it was abouthow prettythe placewas when you lookedout on it. I hadalways assumedthattewamwas the pluralimperativeof tewa'see, look'.However,Margaret Langdon(1990) has recentlypresenteda Mesa GrandeDieguefiotext, "TheFlute Player," whichcontainsthe expressiontewamtewamtewamtewam'on andon andon contactbetweenMesaGrandeDieguefioandCupefio, andon'. Therewas considerable and other loanwordsoccur,so it is possiblethatMiss Nolasquez'ssong is partlyin for speakersof bothlanguages, meaningful Dieguefio,or that tewamis "multivocal," andespeciallyeffectivefor the manybilinguals. 4. I am indebtedto RichardFordfor drawingmy attentionto this referenceandto JeffDean, who also pointedout the BonitaCavereference,for the dating.

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5. Bierhorsthimselfbelievesthatflowersalwaysstandfor ghost warriors,"revenants,"andthatflowersymbolsinthissense arepartof the rhetoricof anearlycolonial revitalization movement.I concurwith Ortizde Montellano(1989)andmanyothers that this is a most unlikelyreadingof the symbolismof the songs that Bierhorsthas published.The songsmakemuchmoresense iftheirflowerimageryis readas suggested here andin Ortizde Montellano's rigorousreview. Whorl."LeonLorentzen(personal 6. I havealsoseen thishairstylecalleda "Butterfly a rockpaintingfromeasternArizona has identifiedandphotographed communication) whichshows a femalefigurewith sucha hairstyle;there is no evidenceof potteryin the rockshelterwherethe paintingappears,andthe malefiguresin the paintingwield notbows.Thissuggeststhatthe paintingmaydateto the Basketmaker spear-throwers, IIIperiod,beforeA.D.1000. However,the symbolismof the hairstyleat this remote date mighthavehadnothingat allto do withflowersor butterflies. 7. I havelargelyneglectedhere the literatureon flowersymbolisminthe OldWorld. Friedrich(1970, 1978) has discussedtree and flower symbolismamongthe IndoEuropeans.A valuablerecentreviewby BeverlySeaton(1989)permitsus to conclude that the floweris a dominantsymbolin Europeanthought,althoughSeatonproposes and "social"poles was often suppressedin any that at least one of the "biological" era. Seaton'sreviewsuggeststhatwhilea universalsemioticfoundation clearly particular motivatesa gooddealof sharedsymboliccontentin flowermetaphorsin the European andAmericancases, the FlowerWorldcomplexas I haveoutlinedit hereis inits details a distinctlyAmericanphenomenon. 8. Note thatthe Pimans,heldby someauthoritiesto be Hohokam descendants,lack cremationandhavethe FlowerWorldcomplex.Inthe case of theWindRiverShoshone, the new observancesincludethe PlainsSun Dance, also a very late manifestation. Vander(1988)observesthatthe GhostDancereligion,whichused songsof the Round in Dancetraditionthatincludedevocationsof the FlowerWorld,has been abandoned withinthe lifetimesof livingWindRiverShoshone favorof othertypes of ceremonialism singers. annualslikethe lupines,penstemons,andthe Desert Lily 9. Whilespring-flowering (Calochortus spp.) andfloweringtrees such as the Palo Verde(Cercidiumspp.) are especiallyassociatedwith the Flower Worldin the Southwest,Friedrich(personal has pointedout that in Mesoamericaparasiticflowersthat grow on communication) in trees may be of greatimportance;one parasitictree orchidis called'Soul-Flower' the most favoredfloweris the Tarascan.Laughlin(1962) reportsthat in Zinacantan Nahuatl(andall over Mexico),the marigold,flor de geranium.Amongcontemporary flower to the a native Americas,is especiallyassociatedwiththe feast of All muerto, Souls'Day; since the FlowerWorldis so oftenthe Landof the Dead, this suggests a centralplacefor this species. 10. The metaphorsare: (1) Lupinussp.: TohonoO'odhamtas ma:hag'Sun'sHand tamitmeh'a'SunRays';(2)Penstemon Cahuilla Outstretched'; parryii:TohonoO'odham hewele'es'Wind'sCrop';Cahuilla ya'ihe'ash'Wind'sPet' (forCirsiumsp., alsotalland pink);and (3) Escholtziaspp.: TohonoO'odhamho:hoie'es 'Dove's Crop',Cupefio maxdca'a'Dove'sPet'. 11. See Bean andSaubel(1972). The only sourcefor flowernamesin Yumanlanstudy of the Havasupai,does not give comguages, Whiting's(1985) ethnobotanical parablenames.Thus,it is likelythatthe namescomefroman OldUto-Aztecancultural horizonandpredatethe Yumanexpansion.However,the evidencedoes not preclude

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or Yuman anotherexplanation,that these flowernames are a residueof "Patayan" at the since of the but nowhere else in influence, margins Patayanrange, they appear Uto-Aztecan.

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